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 San Francisco State Normal School 
 
 BULLETIN No. 2 
 
 The Essentials of Geography 
 
 IN THE=:^ 
 
 Primary and Grammar Grades 
 
 FRANK F. BUNKER : : : and : : : EFFIE B. McFADDEN 
 SUPERVISORS OF GEOGRAPHY 
 
 
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 Copyright, 1903 
 
 - - BY - - 
 FRANK F. BUNKER 
 
 Sacramento: 
 
 W. W. •MANNON, SUPT, STATC PRI N I INO 
 I «03
 
 h 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 This Bulletin is issued primarily for the use of the student- teachers in our 
 Training School as a general outline and plan of geography teaching. It 
 will also be of service to our graduates and to other teachers in the public 
 school work. 
 
 Its purpose is to serve as a practical escape from the prevalent method of 
 text-book memorizing which seems to have settled upon geography teaching 
 by virtue of the ease by which lessons may be assigned and courses of study 
 mechanically arranged, without serious regard to the educational results. 
 The attempt to encompass within the covers of a single text the immense 
 and varied materials of geography knowledge is manifestly impossible. 
 Necessarily this knowledge is so hopelessly condensed and the language so 
 general and vaguely abstract that mere memorizing can give nothing but 
 words and conveys little real intelligence to the mind of the average pupil. 
 
 The main points of divergence upon which the work outlined in this 
 Bulletin throws emphasis are : 
 
 1. The acquirement of visual images of the maps of the world instead of 
 mere memory of words concerning these maps. 
 
 2. The acquirement of a mass of concrete and interesting details and 
 reactionary feelings relative to the areas and countries of the earth. This 
 material may be acquired by the pupil either from books of travel, read by 
 the pupil himself, or told to him by the teacher. This material precedes 
 the definite learning of the few essentials and general facts which may be 
 deduced from these varied stories and descriptions. Once the details are 
 covered, the essential facts should be given with as much insistence upon 
 memory drill as now is put upon the texts without this preliminary culti- 
 vation. 
 
 3. The teaching of physical conditions by experimental means and in 
 connection with the special area studied. 
 
 This plan may be used in two ways: In schools provided with sufficient 
 library and supplementary books, the topical system of reading by the 
 pupils may be followed. In schools which are not thus equipped, or only 
 partially equipped, the teacher should do the reading and then tell the 
 stories to her pupils. The materials for the experimental work in physical 
 geography will be found simple and inexpensive. 
 
 The article in Chapter III, entitled "Pictured Relief," by Walter J. 
 Kenyon, was taken from the New York School .Journal by permission. 
 With this exception the first four chapters were written by Frank F. Bunker. 
 The last chapter is by Effie B. McFadden, supervisor of physical geography. 
 
 May, 1903. 
 
 (I)
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 THE ESSENTIALS OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 There is a very general movement among educational leaders ^.nd 
 thoughtful teachers looking toward the evaluation of the studies usually 
 included in our curricula. We are beginning to realize that under the 
 impulse given teaching by the so-called New Education the course of study 
 is overcrowded. We are dissipating our energies and the energies of our 
 children by virtue of too many subjects. The consequence is that some of 
 those studies, which time and experience have shown to be fundamental and 
 necessary in the training of children, have been neglected to a considerable 
 degree. The inevitable reaction has set in, and as a result, teachers and 
 supervisors are carefully examining the claims of these several studies with 
 a view to an intelligent and conservative pruning of the course. 
 
 This tendency toward the elimination of those studies which are not 
 most essential for the sake of more efficient work in the teaching of those 
 which are, has not stopped with the mere consideration of the relative value 
 of the several studies as wholes; but this critical examination has extended 
 to the details usually comprehended in the text-books of those subjects' 
 considered most essential. Thus, for example, it is universally agreed that 
 arithmetic deserves a place in the curriculum. But the notion is also becom- 
 ing quite general that the teaching of exchange, of stocks, of alligation, 
 of cube root, does not belong in the arithmetic of the grammar grades. 
 Further than this, it is pretty generally agreed that the subject of fractions 
 should be taught to children. But it is also becoming a prevalent notion 
 that it is a waste of valuable time to have children change mixed numbers 
 of large dimensions to improper fractions. So tliis process of evaluation 
 has not stopped with the subjects of the school curriculum as wholes, but 
 rightly extends to the most minute details of these subjects. 
 
 Geography is coming to be recognized as the study of Man, his home, 
 and his activities; and as such it deserves a much larger place in our school 
 work than it has ever been accorded. Along with this change in our esti- 
 mate of the value of Geography, there has come an epoch-making shift in 
 the matter of the details which should be presented and in the method of 
 their presentation. Instead of blindly following the older texts, instead of 
 sitting back in our chairs as teachers and idly running our fingers down the 
 dry and sterile wastes of map questions, as we solemnly ])ropound them to 
 our children, we call each fact in question and ask, " Is this fact important 
 enough to justify u-5 in having our children spend time in its mastery?" 
 We are asking ourselves, " Is it really essential for a child to be able to say 
 as a bit of verbal memorization tliat Nel)raska is bounded on the north by 
 
 (2)
 
 South Dakota, on the east by the Missouri River, on the south by Kansas 
 and Colorado, and on the west by Colorado and Wyoming?" We are 
 asking, "Is it essential after all that a child should be able to locate 
 Timbuctoo or to name the tributaries of the Amazon River?" While it is 
 true that these are facts, yet we ask, "Are they facts which children, or for 
 that matter adults, viost need to know?" 
 
 On the other hand, is it not much more significant for California chil- 
 dren, at any rate, to learn in a constructive way that Nebraska lies in a 
 region of sufficient rainfall for successful farming and stock-raising and that 
 it has excellent means for the cheap transportation of its products by virtue 
 of its rail and water way facilities ? Is it not much more vital and neces- 
 sary that the child have associated with the Sahara region of Africa a feeling 
 for its hot, dry climate; its sparse population and vegetation; its few oases; 
 and its caravans of camels? From the standpoint of culture and general 
 information, is it not essential that the child's picture of the Central region 
 be a picture of dense, tropical forests; of wild, uncivilized, primitive canni- 
 bals and pygmies? Should not this region be to him a region of the won- 
 derful explorations of Stanley and Livingston and a region producing the 
 world's supply of ivory? Is it not of greater value that a child build up a 
 feeling for the antiquity of Egypt and for the great and mighty place it has 
 occupied, and the noble part it has played in the history of the progress of 
 civilization? I ask, is it not better for the teacher to spend her time and 
 the time of her children in building up these associations with their geo- 
 graphical areas than to learn as an effort of the special memory that the 
 aforesaid Timbuctoo is a town of 5,0U0 negroes, ten miles north of the Niger 
 River, near the Sahara Desert? 
 
 Geography treats of the elements of many of the sciences. It draws its 
 data from astronomy, from anthropology, from ethnology, from ornithology, 
 from meteorology, and from geology, not to mention others. Among the 
 million and one interesting details which might be taken from these sciences 
 and legitimately included under the term Geography, it is not to be won- 
 dered at that many non-essentials have crept into our school treatment of 
 this most important subject. I presume it is in just this matter of th'^ 
 separation of the essential from the non-essential that teachers feel l^-ast 
 confidence in themselves; and being hazy, confused, and uncer+um in their 
 own minds, the natural tendency is to fall back upon the tr.'iditional and 
 authoritative treatment to be found in the several text-books of Geography. 
 
 It will help us in looking at this question of " What is essential in Geog- 
 raphy?" to consider geography in its twofold aspect: (1) its formal 
 elements; (2) its content or cultural elements. 
 
 In the advanced text of the California State Series Geography, there are 
 about two thousand geographical names; and included in tlie maps there 
 are approximately seven thousand more. Of this number the ordinarily 
 well-informed man could probably step to a series of ou-cline maps and 
 accurately locate no more than four or five hundred. As ?«. child in school 
 his list was very much larger, but upon leaving he straightway forgot the 
 most of it. As Mr. Redway says: "The average pupil c-n leaving the gram- 
 
 (3)
 
 mar school undoubtedly possesses a much larger stock than this — and 
 promptly proceeds to forget all but about one hundred, or possibly, half as 
 many more. He then adds to his stock the names that may be called the 
 'unexpected,' that is, the names that come into use through discovery, 
 political change, industrial movement, or change of environment." It 
 would seem to be a waste of time to require our children for the sake of the 
 " unexpected" to spend their time in the indiscriminate mastery of these 
 nine thousand names. 
 
 Of this body of geographical map facts, from the standpoint of general, 
 usable knowledge, the adult needs to know the location and situation of 
 London, but he has little use for Timbuctoo. He needs to know New York, 
 Chicago, St. Louis, San Francisco, but has little need for Milpitas or Dead- 
 wood City. He needs the Mississippi River, the Ohio, and in his own State, 
 the Sacramento and the San Joaquin, rather than the Red River of the 
 North or the Santa Marguerita of San Diego County. He needs these facts 
 because that body of information which passes current and which afi'ects the 
 world and its people in a large and vital way has to do with New York and 
 London, with the Mississippi and the St. Lawrence, with the Amazon and 
 the Nile. So from the standpoint of those map facts which are common to 
 people of general intelligence we could easily make a minimum list with 
 respect to each continent which children should know and know perfectly. 
 
 With this idea of the essential formal elements in mind let us turn to 
 South America. I presume that however much we disagree on minor points 
 there will be no disagreement with the conclusion that the child should have 
 the power of calling up before his mind's eye the picture of the contour of 
 South America enlivened with the following details: The principal water 
 partings, the Andes Mountains, the Brazilian Highlands, and the Guiana 
 Highlands, together with their corresponding drainage basins; the specific 
 names and location of the Amazon, the Orinoco, and the La Plata rivers; 
 the location of Para, Rio Janeiro, Buenos Ayres, Santiago, and Lima. He 
 should be able to point out and name at sight the several political subdi- 
 visions. Besides these formal facts to be gotten from the study of the map, 
 i-.'3 should be able to see South America in relation to the other continents 
 of tfio world, to the chief water masses, and to the several zones of light. 
 Whatever iits\r) information there is over and above this, and there is much 
 besides which I's required by your text, to my mind is special information, 
 the learning of which, if it ever becomes necessary, should be entrusted to the 
 initiative of tt-e child, which initiative will be operative if the teacher has 
 been careful to instill in him the necessity for constant reference to an atlas 
 when he is reaciing. 
 
 This is the :cninimum list of geographical map facts which I have already 
 suggested one heeds of South America in order that he may be in touch 
 with that body of knowledge of South America which to-day passes cur- 
 rent. Not only i'*or this reason are these facts needed, but for the further 
 and important pui-pose of affording a foundation for work on what may be 
 called the content side of geography teaching and study.
 
 At this point, for the sake of clearness, I wish to summarize in a sentence 
 or so what I have presented. 
 
 Our school curricula has become overcrowded, and in consequence the 
 work of some subjects which all recognize as having proven their right to 
 retention have suffered. This among other factors has set students to 
 re-evaluating studies. This process of evaluation with a view to separating 
 the essential from the non-essential is rightly being applied not only to 
 studies as wholes, but to the details as well. Geography, because it includes 
 the elements of many sciences, is peculiarly likely to contain much which 
 is of less than the greatest value. In this consideration of what is essential, 
 it is helpful to consider, first, its formal elements, by which I mean map 
 facts mainly; and second, its content or cultural elements, by which I mean 
 the associations one builds in and around the map facts. In connection 
 with the formal elements, I pointed out that the basis of selection was te be' V 
 found by putting and intelligently answering the following question: " What 
 map facts does one need to know in order that he may be in touch with that 
 body of current information which affects the world and its people in a 
 significant way ?" I answered this question in regard to South America. 
 
 I wish now to consider the more difficult, though no more important 
 part of this question of essentials, that pertaining to the content or cultural 
 elements. 
 
 To our minds our own State of California naturally breaks itself up into 
 certain geographical areas, the characteristics of which differ. It has, 
 speaking roughly, its valley region characterized by grain and fruit raising, 
 and its mountain region characterized by lumbering and mining. So with 
 South America, with Africa, or for that matter, with any of the other conti- 
 nents; each is naturally broken into certain characteristic areas. For our 
 purpose, I presume those of South America may be said to be: the Amazon 
 region; the Orinoco region; the La Plata region; the Andes region; and the 
 Patagonian region. With each of these areas the popular mind has 
 associated certain facts and certain feelings. 
 
 To illustrate this point, take the Amazon region. If I were to ask what 
 the Amazon region means to you, I presume among other things you would 
 tell me that to you it is a region of dense, tropical, luxuriant vegetation; 
 that it has a hot, humid climate; that its chief product is rubber; that its 
 forests are the homes of myriads of insects, of brilliant-plumaged birds, 
 and of tree-climbing animals; and that it is a region sparsely populated by 
 semi-civilized Indians and Negroes. 
 
 That the Amazon region has 50,000 miles of navigable waters draining 
 2,000,000 miles of area, and that the river itself inundates a region 1,000 
 miles long and 200 miles wide, are bits of special information readily accessi- 
 ble in any good encyclopedia, and therefore should not be required by the 
 teacher. 
 
 By contrast let us turn to the Andes region. Again I ask, " What does 
 the popular mind associate with the Andes region? " To most of us without 
 special information this is a region of great altitudes and of precipitous 
 slopes ;. a region whose climate ranges from the equatorial heat of the foot- 
 
 (5)
 
 hills to the arctic cold of its mountain peaks ; and a region characterized by 
 its silver mines worked by natives who employ crude and wasteful methods. 
 
 That Chimborazo is 20,478 feet high or that Quito is exactly on that 
 parallel of latitude which we call the equator are, again, bits of special 
 information which can be found in any reference book on the region, and 
 being special in their nature and application would better be eliminated 
 from class-room work. 
 
 In like manner we might take the Sahara region, the Nile region, Japan, 
 China, India, or the several characteristic areas of our own country. In the 
 case of each it is possible to write down specifically some half dozen or more 
 facts or feelings which fall outside the field of special knowledge and which 
 in themselves constitute the measure, which I am seeking, by which to esti- 
 mate the worth of the details of the recitation. 
 
 Then, since the facts and feelings which the popular mind has associated 
 with their respective geographical areas constitute the essentials of given 
 regions, and since a child, when he completes his school course, should have 
 at least these definitely associated with their proper area, then it follows that 
 we can judge each of the lesser details of the recitation in the light of its 
 efficacy in establishing in the child's mind some one or more of these 
 essential associations. Whether a teacher should spend time in having 
 children tell the time-worn but I fear untrue story of the monkeys in the 
 forests climbing cocoanut-trees and throwing the ripe fruit at the heads of 
 passing travelers depends on whether this story will give them the basis for 
 drawing some one or more of these characteristics as inferences. Whether 
 the teacher should spend time in giving one lesson or a series of lessons on 
 the boa-constrictor, on the blowgun of the natives, on the cow-tree of the 
 forest, or on the process of gathering rubber depends, not upon the amount 
 of interest which these details will command (they are all interesting if the 
 teacher is interesting), but upon the grasp, either direct or by inference, they 
 give the child on some one or more of the aforesaid essentials. If a given 
 lesson or a specific detail of that lesson affords the basis for an inference on 
 the part of the child in terms of one of these essentials, then that lesson or 
 that detail should take its proper and worthy place in that teacher's scheme 
 of lessons. 
 
 To summarize: From the standpoint of intelligently entering into that 
 part of current information which is of significance there are a minimum 
 number of formal map facts which children should know and know well. 
 On the content side general intelligence recognizes that each natural 
 geographical area has certain characteristics which differentiate it from 
 every other area. This minimum list of map facts on the formal side, and 
 these characteristics on the content side, constitute, to my mind, the essen- 
 tials of the geography of the grammar grades, and being the essentials 
 afford the teacher that basis for the selection of the details of her recitation 
 which we have been seeking. 
 
 (6)
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 GENERAL METHOD OF PRESENTING THE ESSENTIALS. 
 
 The classification of geography into its formal and content aspects, which 
 I have already suggested, will be helpful in our consideration of this question 
 of method. Observation of practice work shows that there is a method for 
 the presentation of the formal features and another method for the presen- 
 tation of the content elements. The one has to do with facts, and appeals 
 to the memory; the other has to do mainly with the feelings, and appeals 
 to the emotions. The method of handling the formal, whether in arithmetic, 
 in history, or in geography, is the direct method of repetition; that having 
 to do with the emotions is the indirect method of suggestion and inference. 
 One can not do the work of the other. The error of modern pedagogy is in 
 assuming that the latter method, the method of suggestion and inference, 
 will secure both facts and feelings. There must be drill on the multiplica- 
 tion tables, and much of it. Automatic results here can never be gotten by 
 inference, any more than can the paradigms of a foreign language. In each 
 case special memory has a task to perform, in the accomplishment of which, 
 repetition must of necessity be its chief ally. So with the essential formal 
 elements of geography, they are as necessary to the further work of building 
 up geography knowledge as are the tables to subsequent parts of arithmetic; 
 and their permanent mastery, as with the tables and paradigms, depends 
 directly on repetition with attention. 
 
 Mr. Redway, who discusses the teaching of geography with much com- 
 mon sense, says of this matter of memory work : "A certain amount of 
 memory work in geography is absolutely necessary — quite as essential, in 
 fact, as the learning of the various number combinations in arithmetic or 
 the paradigmatic work in Latin. Geography deals with places, nations, 
 terrestrial features, and processes ; and their names and character must be 
 learned before one can well discuss their mutual relations. A few well- 
 meaning but misguided writers on educational topics pronounce such a 
 proceeding (the giving of memory tasks) atrocious and cruel, but a moment's 
 thought W' ill suffice to show that memory tasks can be more easily accom- 
 plished between the ages of five and fourteen years than at any other time 
 of life — far more easily than during the adult period." 
 
 The error of the older pedagogues, from the standpoint of method, in 
 connection with this point of the acquisition of the essential formal ele- 
 ments, was not in the amount of repetition which they required, but in this 
 that repetition with them was altogether a verbal matter. The whole 
 emphasis of their, teaching was placed on words and definitions. It suthced 
 if a boy could repeat in a given sequence the names of the New England or 
 
 (7)
 
 Middle Atlantic states. For aught the teacher knew, he may have repeated 
 these names as one would repeat a counting-out rigmarole of nonsense syl- 
 lables. If one should ask such a boy to give the name of the state adjacent 
 to Connecticut on the south, he would find him helpless, because the boy 
 had never seen, except casually, a representation of the New England states 
 in their true spacial relation to one another. In his mind the only relation 
 they occupied was the wholly arbitrary, accidental, irrational order — the 
 order which the grocer employs in itemizing a bill of goods — demanded by 
 the teacher in verbal repetition. Children so taught are helpless in the 
 presence of questions which differ in the slightest degree from those they 
 have been accustomed to answering. 
 
 On the other hand, if a child carefully observes the map of the New 
 England group ; if he draws from memory an outline of these states, crude 
 though this outline may be ; if he writes into it from memory the names of 
 the several states, rivers, and cities ; in other words, if he builds for himself 
 an approximately correct mental image of this or any other group, then 
 that child can not only, if necessary, repeat their names in order, but he 
 has the power to answer intelligently a hundred questions which might be 
 put to him concerning the location and relation of these states, one to 
 another. Verbal description has its limitations very sharply defined even 
 in dealing with cultural material, but its limitations are very much more 
 narrow in the field of the formal where the teacher has to do mainly with 
 contour and spacial relation. 
 
 The chief purpose, then, of all this work in formal geography is to build 
 up in the child's mind a good visual picture of the important land and 
 water masses. The whole emphasis of the teacher in this connection should 
 be laid on the getting of good mental images of the continents. The child 
 should have the power of instantly calling up each continent before his 
 mind's eye. He should be able to see at a glance its general contour ; its 
 chief political and physical subdivisions in relation to one another ; its 
 chief cities; and in addition, with a shift of the attention, each continent 
 in this mental picture should take its proper place in relation to the other 
 continents and water masses of the world. Every special method or device 
 which does not lend itself to this end, should be discarded at once as inade- 
 quate, i( not positively harmful. 
 
 The geography of the grades is coming more and more to be the study of 
 Man, his home, and the forces and processes which affect him in some 
 significant way. A study pursued with this end in view must of necessity, 
 as Mr. Redway has pointed out in a passage already (juoted, deal with the 
 mutual action and interaction of places, of nations, and of physical features 
 and processes. Naturally, as he suggests, before these mutual relations 
 can be profitably discussed, their names, location, and character must be 
 learned. This suggests what I wish to emphasize, that in the proper 
 pedagogical sequence, work on the essentials having to do with the formal 
 elements should precede in point of time that having to do with the cultural. 
 
 Teachers generally seem to feel that this is a reversal of the proper order 
 of presentation. They hold that reality must precede any representation or 
 
 (8)
 
 symbol of reality, just as in arithmetic they maintain that whatever be the 
 topic under consideration, objective work, work with the concrete, must pre- 
 cede the formal. While the problem in geography is a different one, in 
 that formal geography deals wholly with objects of sense perception and 
 their relative positions in space, while arithmetic is an exact science based 
 upon the reflections of the mind operating upon the products of sense per- 
 ception and dealing with time relations, yet educators are just as incorrect 
 in thus arbitrarily fixing the sequence of reality and symbol. A moment's 
 reflection will convince one, I think, that after all the chief business of our 
 life is concerned with the interpretation of symbols. A baby of two or three 
 years will have picked up in some marvelous way literally hundreds of 
 words and phrases, the meaning of which he does not know. The process 
 of compassing the reality which they symbolize is a difficult and a lifelong 
 task. 
 
 The other day I held Millet's "Angelus" before my baby, who has just 
 seen her second summer. She looked at the picture for a moment, laughed, 
 said, "Huh, Nannie (Mama), Papa!" and went on contentedly tearing into 
 bits an unread copy of Scribner. She did not see in the sunken eye and 
 stooped posture of the figures the hell of poverty and the tragedy of life. 
 All she saw was a figure in a dress, which she called " Nannie," and another 
 figure leaning on a stick, without a dress, which she called " Papa." Only in 
 years to come, after she has tasted the sorrows as well as the joys of life, 
 will she come out into a full understanding of the reality symbolized in the 
 "Angelus." It is so with us all, whether we draw our illustrations from the 
 field of music, from art, from literature, or from life generally — symbols are the 
 concrete, the tangible, the accessible things ; reality is the will-o'-the-wisp 
 which dances on before. 
 
 Again, successful cultural work, as I shall point out in greater detail 
 later, depends to a very large degree upon the reading ability of the child, 
 which is not sufficiently developed to be of much service in this connection 
 before the fifth or six year of school life. There are a few, but only a few, 
 books of a geography nature which children of the third and fourth years 
 can read. On the other hand, these years of the intermediate grades are 
 those in which the child's memory for names and locations is most active. 
 On grounds of school-room economy, then, if for no other of the reasons I 
 have given, it is advantageous to begin with work in formal geography. It 
 is by no means necessary to completely master the formal course as I outline 
 it further on before beginning cultural work. The only point I am trying 
 to make is that before a given bit of cultural work is presented, the necessary 
 formal work which it requires shall have been gotten and gotten thoroughly. 
 Only by so doing will it be possible to establish and make definite and 
 useful those associations which I consider so essential. 
 
 The Arctic region to us is a region of ice, of snow, of Eskimo, of reindeer, 
 of musk oxen and polar bear, not because we learned from some text that 
 these were some of the characteristics of the region, but because of our 
 general reading since leaving school. We have read the terrible story of 
 the ill-fated expedition of Lieutenant Greeley. In imagination we have 
 
 (9)
 
 experienced his hopes and his fears, his anxieties and his sufferings. We 
 have seen him struggling on against almost insurmountable obstacles with 
 indomitable corn-age, only to sink down hungry and exhausted, without 
 hope, to die. We have followed with eager interest the Avork of his rescuers 
 as they searched each bay and cove of that desolate and forbidding region. 
 We have watched with bated breath their little steam launch as it worked 
 its way slowly round the last ice-encased promontory. Our souls have 
 thrilled as we have seen the look-out strain his eyes to the hills and eagerly 
 cry to the commander in charge that he sees, waving in the distance, the 
 stars and stripes. The scene of the meeting overcomes us. We can not 
 repress the tears as we see those great, rough, bearded men fall into each 
 other's arms and weep like children. In short, in imagination we travel 
 their steps and live over their lives. Though we may forget many of the 
 specific details of such a story, it is not possible ever to eradicate the feeling 
 we get for the tremendous difficulties Nature has thrown in the way of her 
 children in the Northern lands. It is in this manner that the popular mind, 
 operating naturally, lays hold on the characteristics of the world's geograph- 
 ical areas. It is by the indirect method of suggestion and inference and 
 not by the direct one of repetition, so necessary in the field of the formal, 
 that these associations are built up. These characteristics, then, may be 
 said to be the precipitate gotten from our reading of fiction, of traveler's 
 tales, and of stories of adventure. If this has been not only the natural 
 but the only effective way in which adults have built up these associations, 
 then much more must it be true of children. Absorbed in the interest of 
 the narrative, with their imaginations and emotions at full tide, is it to be 
 wondered at that the impressions, the feelings, the associations which come 
 indirectly and naturally are lifelong in their retention? Contrast with this 
 method for a moment, the lifeless one imposed by the teacher who relies 
 wholly on the text-book for her material, and no further plea for the placing 
 of supplementary geography reading in the hands of the children will be 
 needed. 
 
 The human mind does not stop with the mere description of man's 
 physical environment; it ever seeks to lay bare causes and consequences. 
 The thoughtless "Whys?" and "Hows?" of the child have been in the 
 hands of the scientist the means of letting in a flood of light on the opera- 
 tion of physical forces. In consequence, we no longer, as did our forefathers, 
 look upon the earth as an inert mass upon which life has been imposed by 
 the will of a superior being. No longer do we look upon Man as existing 
 separated from and uninfluenced by the same forces which raise up conti- 
 nents and tear down mountains. W^ith each advance in our knowledge 
 concerning the conditions which havo brought men to their present high 
 place, we get a clearer conception of the beauty and order of the system by 
 which the processes of Nature have made men what they are. The geogra- 
 phy which does not give a big place to the consideration of the manner in 
 which climate, land forms, temperature, altitude, winds, erosion, not to 
 mention other physical forces, have nursed and developed organic life, has 
 missed its great opportunity and is not worthy a place in our school course. 
 
 (10)
 
 It no longer suffices to learn that the Sahara is a region of desolate, sandy 
 wastes; the child must with this description get a conception of the mighty 
 forces which have caused its barrenness. It is not enough to learn that the 
 Amazon is a region of tremendous rainfall, of dense vegetation, and of a 
 tropical climate. Our children must get a glimpse of the beauty of the plan 
 by Avhich the winds and the mountains working together make it the region 
 it is. It will not do, then, merely to describe the earth's physical features; 
 their operations must be explained. It is this explanation which constitutes 
 the work of Physical Geography, or Physiography, as it is coming to be 
 called. 
 
 The order which we have suggested in the presentation of the formal and 
 the content elements of geography .is the order which should obtain in the 
 teaching of the descriptive and physical aspects. As we have already shown, 
 the formal naturally precedes the descriptive, so the descriptive rightly 
 precedes the physical. 
 
 Before a child seeks the causes which make deserts he should know 
 what a desert is, how it looks to the eye, its characteristics, and in what 
 part of the world the most important are located. Before he searches out 
 the causes of the fertility of certain valleys he should visit the Mississippi, 
 either actually or by pictures and word descriptions. A moment's thought 
 will convince one that a reversal of this order of presentation will result 
 in abstract speculation, which to the child is in nowise related to fact or 
 reality. 
 
 What we consider the essentials of geography, in its formal, descriptive, 
 and physical aspects, together with the special methods which we have found 
 of value in their treatment, will be found in succeeding chapters. 
 
 (11)
 
 CHAPTER II L 
 
 SPECIAL METHOD OF FORMAL GEOGRAPHY, 
 
 A COURSE m THE ESSENTIALS OF MAP GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 THE WORLD AS A WHOLE. (First Time Over.) 
 U Globe WorL 
 
 Put a globe in the hands of each child in your class. Have much work 
 in handling it by having the children point to places called for. Teach in 
 this connection the six continents and the five oceans. Teach North, East, 
 South, and West as applied to the location of these continents and oceans 
 relative to each other. Give many questions which will necessitate the 
 visualization of the above. Fix and apply all of the above points by hav- 
 ing the children fill in hectograph outline of the "globe" map. (For a 
 model of this outline map, see Frye's Elements of Geography, p. 24.) 
 
 2. Mercator Map of the World. 
 
 Hang this map of the world before your class and repeat the directions 
 given under the above head of " Globe Work." As before, fix and apply 
 by filling in an outline of this Mercator map. (For a model of this outline 
 map, see California S. S. Text, advanced, p. 26.) 
 
 Suggestions as to Method* 
 
 To test whether results have been gotten, take children on an imaginary 
 
 journey. (Map not visible.) For example: 
 
 I sailed west from San Francisco, on what water? and came to the continent of 
 
 I sailed south along the coast and entered the ocean. Sailing west on this ocean I 
 
 came to the continent of , etc., etc. 
 
 This will show if the children have formed a clear mental picture of the 
 land and water masses of the globe. It is not to be supposed that children 
 can do this imaginary work perfectly and readily so early in the course as 
 this, but a little of this kind of work along every few days will serve both 
 to introduce pleasing variety and at the same time tend to force the child 
 away from reference to the map before him. 
 
 In teaching direction it must be remembered that there are three distinct 
 field.s in which direction is applied: 1. Direction on the globe; 2. Direction 
 on the Mat map; 3. Direction in reality. Direction on the globe must be 
 seen in terms of curved lines; direction on the flat map is seen in terms of 
 the relation of the map to the page or sheet upon which it is printed, that 
 
 (12)
 
 is, north is toward the top, east toward the right-hand side, south toward 
 the bottom, and west toward the left-hand side. Direction in reality must 
 be learned empirically and outside the school-room. Reflexes for the deter- 
 mination of direction must be established along each of the three lines at 
 the proper time, that is, when the need for their use arises. It does no 
 good to arbitrarily associate them in the school-room. The customary 
 method is to hang the map in the school-room in such a position that its 
 right-hand side will be toward the east. With a little thought based upon 
 intelligent observation it will easily be seen that nothing is gained by this 
 procedure. 
 
 It is necessary that close attention on the part of the teacher be paid to 
 the matter of spelling on the part of the children. They must learn to spell 
 accurately the names of the places studied. Insist upon this from the 
 beginning of your work. See to it that a few minutes each day are spent 
 in the spelling of geography words. Each evening give out a list of words 
 of say six or eight for home study. At frequent intervals send the class to 
 the board to write upon dictation the list of words assigned for study. 
 
 It is best to have the children print their letters when filling in hectograph 
 outlines. Young children write a large hand. In consequence the name 
 of San Francisco usually will stretch across the Pacific Ocean. By printing 
 the letters the names will appear more compact. Again, in attempting to 
 crowd their script into smaller compass the child is likely to affect his 
 general style of penmanship unduly. 
 
 NORTH AMERICA. (First Time Over.) 
 U Sketching. 
 
 Spend a few minutes each day in having the children practice sketching 
 the outline of this continent. Draw the outline of North America with 
 crayon on a sheet of black paper large enough to be seen by your class. 
 Make it as simple as possible, commensurate with accuracy. Hold this up 
 before the class. After the children look intently at it for a moment, ask 
 them to draw it at the board. Allow only one minute in which the drawing 
 is to be done, later reduce to thirty seconds. (See suggestions.) 
 
 2. Relief Features* 
 
 ¥ 
 
 Mountains: Rocky, Appalachian. ^ 
 
 Rivers: Mississippi, Missouri, Colorado, Ohio, Rio Grande. ,1--^ 
 
 Seas: Atlantic, Pacific, Arctic. - 
 
 . Gulfs and Bays: Mexico, Hudson, San Francisco, Puget Sound. 
 Lakes: Great Lakes as a whole. 
 
 3. Political Features* 
 
 Cities: New York, Chicago, San Francisco, New Orleans, St. Louis, 
 
 Tacoma. 
 Countries: United States, Canada, Mexico. 
 
 (13)
 
 Suggestions Regarding Sketching, 
 
 There is no better method for clearing up a child'? vague, hazy notion of 
 the outline and shape of a given continent than by the method of rapidly 
 sketching it from memory. The chief purpose of all this work in formal 
 geography is to build up in the child's mind a good visual picture of the 
 important land and water masses. If a child can step to the board and in 
 a few seconds sketch-in a fairly accurate outline of a given continent, the 
 teacher may rest assured that that child has formed a good mental image 
 of the continent. His first attempt will be crude, which indicates that the 
 concept he has formed is not well defined. Rapid drawing is a means of 
 focusing the child's attention upon the outline, upon the proportion and 
 relation of its essential parts, which in turn renders definite his mental 
 image. Aside from this effect in helping the process of visualization, the 
 power of quickly sketching an outline is of value in that it gives the child 
 the abilit}^ to make his observations more intelligible to others. 
 
 At first the child should be allowed as much as a minute to draw-in one 
 of the simpler outlines. At a later time, after the child has had more prac- 
 tice, the time should be reduced. The tendency is for children to put in all 
 the minor details and irregularities of the coast line. In consequence, their 
 outlines are much more likely to be out of proportion. Their attention, on 
 the other hand, should be on the outline as a whole and on the proportion 
 and relation of its more significant details. This attention to the outline 
 as a whole will not be gotten unless the teacher forces it upon the children. 
 Limiting the child's time and insisting that the sketch be completed within 
 the time limit will go far toward overcoming this difficulty. 
 
 Comparison with the original, together with criticism and correction by 
 the teacher, must follow each exercise. The mere drawing of the outline is 
 of no value. Criticism shows the child where he is wrong and affords a 
 basis for an intelligent attempt on his part to improve. Mere repetition 
 without this criticism serves only to make inaccuracies more permanent. 
 It is better that children never make an attempt at sketching than that the 
 teacher fail in this matter of criticism. 
 
 In beginning this sketching it is well to call the attention of the class to 
 a few of the most salient features of the coast line. In the case of North 
 America, for instance, point out that the general shape of the continent is 
 triangular ; that the west and north sides are nearly equal in length ; and 
 that the Gulf of Mexico is due south of Hudson Bay. Too many of these 
 details, however, are worse than none at all, as they confuse the child. 
 
 Tracing the outlines or copying them free hand from a map are both to 
 be condemned as valueless in achieving our object. A child will never 
 memorize tlie outline as long as he depends upon some such aid. The teacher 
 must therefore insist that all such makeshifts be abandoned. The text-book 
 map is useful in this connection in that it can easily be referred to b}' the 
 child when criticising his own imperfect sketches. The text-book map has 
 no other legitimate use in sketching. It must be kept in mind by the teacher 
 that the sketch drawn Ity the child has in itself little or no intrinsic value.
 
 Its value lies wholly in this, that it serves to show the clearness of the 
 child's mental image. For this reason, therefore, the teacher must resist 
 the temptation to secure a finished product by any such means as tracing, 
 copying, or by the use of construction lines. 
 
 Miss Anna Gaffney, Third Grade, says of map sketching: 
 
 Among other methods for forming a mental image of the continents I used extensively 
 the one of map sketching. In preparation for this work I drew a simple chalk outline on a 
 piece of black paper two by three feet. This outline was drawn very heavy to enable the 
 children to see it readil3'. It did not include all of the indentations of the coast line, but 
 was, on the other hand, merely a bold relief outline of the country. 
 
 In order to make clear just how this map sketching was carried on, I will take for an 
 example the continent of South America. I had the children pass to their customary places 
 at the board. Having my outline in my hand, the children all facing me, I told them to look 
 intently at the outline. For a moment or two I had them trace the outline in the air as they 
 looked at it. After holding the outline before them for a few seconds I gave the word, " Draw." 
 At that signal the class at once turned to the board and sketched the outline. When their 
 outlines were finished, "Attention " was called. I had each child then look at the original 
 outline which I held in my hand. Through questioning, the children's attention was called 
 to some of the most striking features of the shape of the continent. Among other things 
 the children saw that the continent was nearly triangular in shape, that the northern part is 
 the widest, and that the coast of Chili is almost a straight line. After noticing these points 
 the class turned, erased their old maps and sketched again. Tliis time I timed the class, 
 giving them one minute. As they got more practice the time was shortened, until finally 
 they were expected to draw the outline in thirty seconds. When the minute had expired 
 "time " was called, and the children faced around. I then went up to each pupil, and with 
 quick, bold strokes showed them wherein their outline was incorrect. I thought that in this 
 method of procedure the children would learn from me through imitation. After each child 
 was shown how to correct his outline, all maps were erased. For the third time they faced 
 about and looked at my outline, then turned to the board and drew, limited, as before, to 
 one minute. It was remarkable how much their outlines improved at this third drawing. 
 Their sketches at the first attempt were perfectly ridictilous, discouragingly so, as a matter 
 of fact. I enjoyed very much seeing their steady improvement. The children themselves 
 liked this part of the work very much. I would frequently call the attention of the children 
 to the best sketches which were drawn, and if some one or more were very good I would 
 have the owner write his name and the time it took him to draw it, over the map. The 
 children liked very much to have their outline left on the board, and strove hard to have a 
 good outline. 
 
 This manner of sketching has some very good points. In the first place, the children 
 were thereby much more interested in the geography. Then, in the second place, the 
 children in this way get a very vivid impression of the shape and the proportion of the 
 several parts of a given continent. 
 
 Having this simple relief outline, and allowing no more than one minute in which to 
 draw it, the children had no opportunity to bring out every little detail of the outline. Along 
 this line lies my great objection to having the children copy their maps. Their attention is 
 centered on every little detail, and when they have completed their outline they have not 
 the least idea of the general shape of the country or continent which they have been studying. 
 
 Another line of this sketching work was that carried on at the seats on paper which I 
 distributea. However, I do not approve of having this work done until after the children 
 can do very well at the board. Even when they are well up in sketching at the board they 
 do not always do well at their seats. When they are at their seats you can not see each 
 outline and correct it, as you can when they are drawing at the board. 
 
 When the children could draw a fairly good outline at the board I had them fill in their 
 map. As, for example, in South America: I would tell the class to put in the Andes 
 Mountains. They would make the mountains, then they would write the name "Andes Mts." 
 across them. In putting in rivers, I had the children begin with a light line and make it 
 heavier toward the mouth. When they were required to put a city in I had them put a dot 
 or little cross just where the city was and then write the name out from the mark. 
 
 (lo)
 
 SOUTH AMERICA. (First Time Over.) 
 L Sketching, 
 
 A single chalk outline needed for sketching. (For directions, see "Sug- 
 gestions Regarding Sketching,") 
 
 2* Physical Features. 
 
 Mountains: Andes, Brazilian Highlands, Guiana Highlands. 
 Rivers: Amazon, Orinoco, La Plata. 
 Seas: Atlantic, Pacific, Antarctic. 
 Capes: Cape Horn. 
 
 3. Political Features* 
 
 Countries: Brazil, Argentine. 
 Cities: Rio Janeiro, Buenos A3n'es. 
 
 Suggestions as to Method* 
 
 Locate all of the above on both the globe and Mercator world maps. 
 Keep up a constant review of the points learned in North America and the 
 World. Continue the "story" work. Vary by having the children invent 
 the story. Fix by the use of the hectograph outlines. 
 
 When a child is asked to step to "the map on the wall and point out 
 Brazil, do not allow him to rest his pointer merely on one point in Brazil 
 while giving the name " Brazil." The danger here is that the child will fail 
 in getting a clear notion of the extent of the given country and confound 
 it with some city. See that when he refers in this way to Brazil he runs 
 his pointer about the boundary and thus indicates the area contained therein. 
 
 EUROPE. (First Time Over.) 
 
 1. Sketching. 
 
 A simple chalk outline for this as in the case of the other continents. 
 (For directions, see "Suggestions Regarding Sketching.") 
 
 2. Physical Features. 
 
 Mountains: Alps, Ural. 
 
 Rivers: Danube, Volga, Rhine. 
 
 Seas: Atlantic, Mediterranean, Black, Caspian. 
 
 3. Political Features. 
 
 Countries: Spain, France, Italy, Russia, British Isles. 
 
 Cities: Rome, Paris, London, Berlin, St. Petersburg, Constantinople. 
 
 Suggestions as to Method. 
 
 Jn the hectograph outlines of Europe which you print, indicate by dotted 
 lines the chief political divisions. Be careful, however, that these bounda- 
 ries are not confused with the rivers in the outline. 
 
 (Hi)
 
 Frequently in filling in these hectograph outlines the children write as 
 if a name extended over a great deal of territory. See that the precise 
 location of a given place is indicated by the use of a dot or a cross. 
 
 ASIA, (First Time Over.) 
 !♦ Physical Features* 
 
 Mountains : Himalaya, Caucasus, Plateau of Thibet. 
 Islands : Japan, Philippines. 
 Seas: Pacific, Japan, Red, Indian. 
 
 2* Political Features* 
 
 Countries: China, Siberia, India, Arabia, Japan. 
 Cities: Pekin, Calcutta. 
 
 Suggestions as to Method* / 
 
 No direction has been given for sketching the outline of Asia, as it is 
 too difficult for children to get much in the way of results. 
 
 Keep up a constant review of all the work taken up to this point by the 
 use of the globe and the world map. Apply direction and also test for 
 visualization by the frequent use of stories. Give also frequent formal 
 drills on spelling of the places taken up. 
 
 AFRICA* (First Time Over.) 
 I* Sketching* 
 
 A simple outline for sketching. 
 
 2* Physical Features* 
 
 Mountains: Atlas, Abyssinian Plateau. 
 
 Rivers: Nile, Niger. 
 
 Gulfs, Seas : Red Sea, Indian Ocean, Antarctic, Atlantic. 
 
 Capes : Good Hope, Blanco. 
 
 3* Political Features* 
 
 Countries: Sahara Desert, Egypt, Barbara States. 
 Cities: Cairo, Alexandria, Cape Town. 
 
 CALIFORNU. (First Time Over*) 
 I* Sketching* 
 
 A simple outline for sketching. 
 
 2* Physical Features* 
 
 Mountains: Coast Range, Sierra Nevada. 
 Rivers: Sacramento, San Joaquin. 
 Lakes, Bays: Tahoe, San Francisco, Tulare. 
 Ocean: Pacific. 
 Capes: Mendocino. 
 
 2 (17)
 
 3« Political Features, 
 
 Counties: Those bordering on San Francisco Bay. 
 
 Cities: San Francisco, Los Angeles, Oakland, Alameda, Berkeley, San 
 Diego, Santa Barbara. 
 
 UNITED STATES* (First Time Over.) 
 K Physical Features* 
 
 Mountains: Rocky, Appalachian, Sierra Nevada, Coast Range. 
 
 Rivers: Mississippi, Ohio, Missouri, Colorado, Columbia, Rio Grande, 
 
 St. Lawrence. 
 Lakes: Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, Ontario. 
 Gulfs, Bays: Mexico, San Francisco Bay, Puget Sound. 
 Oceans: Atlantic, Pacific. 
 Capes: Cod. 
 
 2* Political Features, 
 
 States: Pacific Coast Division, Gulf Division. 
 
 Cities: New York, Boston, Washington, San Francisco, New Orleans, 
 Seattle, Tacoma. 
 
 THE WORLD AS A WHOLE. (Second Time Over,) 
 L Globe Work, 
 
 Keep up a constant review of the globe. When a new continent is 
 taken up always go back to the globe and give a thorough review. Visual- 
 ize the world as a whole. Relate every step of the preceding outline to the 
 globe. 
 
 2, Mercator Map of the World, 
 
 Follow above directions. Have a constant use of the hectograph out- 
 lines. 
 
 NORTH AMERICA. (Second Time Over.) 
 
 1. Sketching, 
 
 Keep up the work outlined in " First Time Over." 
 
 2, Physical Features, 
 
 Mountains : Sierra Nevada, Coast Range, Mt. Whitney, Mt. Shasta. 
 Rivers: St. Lawrence, Columbia, Rio Grande. 
 Gulf>^, Bay.H: Gulf of California, Gulf of St. Lawrence. 
 Seas: Bering. 
 
 Lakes : Names and location of each of the Great Lakes. 
 Islands: Newfoundland, Cuba, Greenland. 
 
 (18)
 
 3« Political Features* 
 
 Cities: Boston, Washington, Mexico, Los Angeles, Quebec. 
 Countries: United States, Mexico, Canada, Central America. 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA. (Second Time Over.) 
 I, Sketching. 
 
 A continuation of previous outline. 
 
 2* Physical Features. 
 
 Rivers: San Francisco. 
 
 Lakes: Titicaca. 
 
 Islands : Tierra del Fuego, Trinidad. 
 
 Capes: St. Roque, Blanco. 
 
 Bays, Gulfs: Gulf of Darien, Gulf of Panama. 
 
 Strait : Magellan. 
 
 3* Political Features. 
 
 Countries: Venezuela, Peru, Chili, Brazil. 
 Cities: Lima, Santiago, Parii. 
 
 EUROPE. (Second Time Over.) 
 
 1. Sketching. 
 
 Continue this work. 
 
 2. Physical Features. 
 
 Mountains : Pyrenees, Apennines, Mt. Vesuvius. 
 
 Rivers: Po, Seine, Thames, Elbe. 
 
 Seas: Baltic, North, White, Adriatic. 
 
 Gulfs, Bays : Bay of Biscay. 
 
 Islands : Ireland, Sicily, Iceland. 
 
 Straits: Gibraltar, Dover. 
 
 3. Political Features. 
 
 Countries : Germany, Austria, Denmark, Turkey, Norway, Sweden. 
 Cities: Athens, Vienna, Lisbon, Madrid, Dublin, Edinburgh, Hamburg. 
 
 ASIA. (Second Time Over.) 
 I. Physical Features. 
 
 Mountains: Ural. 
 
 Rivers: Indus, Ganges, Euphrates, Tigris. 
 
 Islands: Sumatra, Borneo, Ceylon. 
 
 Seas: Bering, Yellow. 
 
 Gulfs: Persian, Gulf of Aden. 
 
 (19)
 
 2* Political Features* 
 
 Countries: Persia, Turkej', Hoh' Land. 
 
 Cities: Shanghai, Hong Kong, Tokyo, Bombay, Manila. 
 
 AFRICA. (Second Time Over.) 
 L Sketching, 
 
 Continue this work. 
 
 2« Physical Features, 
 
 Mountains: Kong. 
 
 Rivers: Orange, Kongo. 
 
 Lakes, Gulfs, Bays: Victoria Lake, Lake Tchad, Gnlf of Guinea, Suez 
 
 Canah 
 Seas: Mediterranean. 
 Capes: Verde. 
 Islands: Madagascar. 
 
 3, Political Features, 
 
 Countries: Morocco, Algiers, Tripoli, Cape Colony. 
 Cities: Tunis, Suez, Freetown. 
 
 CALIFORNU. ( Second Time Over. ) 
 
 1, Sketching, 
 
 Continue the work. 
 
 2, Physical Features, 
 
 Mountains: Mt. Whitney, Shasta, Diablo, Hamilton, 
 Rivers: Salinas, Feather, Russian. 
 Valleys: Yosemite, Santa Clara. 
 
 3, Political Features, 
 
 Countries: Those bordering on the ocean. 
 
 Cities: San Bernardino, San Luis Obispo, Ventura, Pasadena. 
 
 UNITED STATES. (Second Time Over.) 
 
 1. Physical Features. 
 
 Mountains: Shasta, Hood, Pikes Peak, Adirondack, Cascade. 
 
 Rivers: Potomac, Delaware, Hudson, Tennessee, Cumberland, Arkansas, 
 
 Sacramento, San .foaquin. 
 Lakes: Cliamplain, Great Salt Lake. 
 Gulfs, Bays: Chesapeake, Delaware. 
 
 2, Political Features. 
 
 States: Atlantic Division, division l^ordering on the (Jreat Lakes, New 
 
 England States, Alaska. 
 Cities: Salt Lake, Sacramento, St. Louis, Kansas City, Omaha, Galveston. 
 
 (20)
 
 THE WORLD AS A WHOLE. (Third Time Over.) 
 Review and clinch the work already outlined. 
 
 NORTH AMERICA. (Third Time Over.) 
 !♦ Sketching* 
 
 Continue the work already outlined. 
 
 2* Physical Features* 
 
 Mountains: Sierra Madre, St. Elias, Popocatapetl. 
 
 Fivers: Yukon, Hudson, Potomac. 
 
 Gulfs, Bays: Bay of Fundy, Chesapeake. 
 
 Lakes: Winnipeg, Great Salt Lake. 
 
 Islands: Newfoundland, Cuba, Hayti, Bermudas, Bahamas, West Indies. 
 
 Capes: Cod, Hatteras. 
 
 3« Political Features* 
 
 Countries: Alaska, Central America, Greenland. 
 Cities: Havana, Baltimore, Philadelphia. 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA. (Third Time Over.) 
 I* Sketching. 
 
 Continue as previously directed. 
 
 2» Physical Features* 
 
 Mountains: Volcano of Cotopaxi. 
 
 Rivers: Magdalena. 
 
 Islands: Falkland, Galapagos. 
 
 Bays, Gulfs: Gulf of Venezuela, Guayaquil. 
 
 3* Political Features* 
 
 Countries: Guiana, Colombia, Argentine, Bolivia, Ecuador. 
 Cities: Panama, Rio Janeiro, Buenos Ayres, Quito. 
 
 EUROPE. (Third Time Over.) 
 I* Physical Features* 
 
 Mountains: Carpathian, Scandinavian Alps. 
 
 Rivers: Ural. 
 
 Seas: Irish Sea. 
 
 Bays, Gulfs: English Channel, Gulf of Genoa. 
 
 Islands: Corsica, Crete, Sardinia. 
 
 2* Political Features* 
 
 Countries: Portugal, Switzerland, England, Scotland, Wales. 
 Cities: Moscow, Copenhagen, Constantinople, Liverpool, The Hague, 
 Stockholm, Naples, Venice, Brussels. 
 
 (21)
 
 ASIA. (Third Time Over.) 
 
 1. Physical Features. 
 
 Mountains: Altai, Pamir, Mt. Everest, Mt. Ararat. 
 Rivers: Yang-tse-Kiang, Amoor, Lena, Obi, Hoangho. 
 Islands: Formosa, Celebes, Java. 
 
 Seas: Okhotsk Sea, Arabian Sea, Indian Ocean, China Sea. 
 Bays, Gulfs: Gulf of Siam, Bay of Bengal. 
 
 2. Political Features, 
 
 Coimtries: Persia, Corea. 
 
 Cities: Singapore, Mecca, Jerusalem. 
 
 AFRICA. (Third Time Over,) 
 
 1. Sketching, 
 
 Continue the work previously outlined. 
 
 2. Physical Features, 
 
 Mountains: African Highlands. 
 
 Rivers: Zambesi. 
 
 Lakes: Nyassa, Tanganyika, Tchad. 
 
 Gulfs, SeaSj Bays: Gulf of Aden, Red Sea. 
 
 Capes: Guardafui. 
 
 Islands: Madeira, Canary, St. Helena. 
 
 3. Political Features, 
 
 Countries: Congo Free State, Abyssinia. 
 Cities: Mozambique, Pretoria. 
 
 AUSTRALIA. (Third Time Over.) 
 I, Physical Features, 
 
 Ilvjldanda: Locate the region. 
 
 Rivers: Murray, Barling. 
 
 Gulfa: Gulf of Carpentaria. 
 
 Islands: Tasmania, New Zealand, New Guinea, East Indies, Philippines. 
 
 3. Political Features, 
 
 Cities: Melbourne, Sydney, Wellington, Adelaide, Auckland. 
 
 CALIFORNIA. (Third Time Over.) 
 I, Sketching, 
 
 Continue the outline. 
 
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 2* Physical Features, 
 
 Mountains: Lyell. 
 
 Rivers: American, Merced, Kings, Eel, Klamath, Colorado. 
 
 Deserts: Colorado, Mohave. 
 
 Capes: Point Arenas, Point Loma, Point Reyes. 
 
 Lakes: Mono, Klamath, Goose, Clear. 
 
 Valleys: Death Valley. 
 
 Islands: Farallones, Santa Cruz, Catalina. 
 
 3* Political Features, 
 
 Counties: Of Southern California, Valley counties, Nevada Division, 
 
 Oregon Division. 
 Cities: Sacramento, Stockton, Bakersfield, Fresno, Yuma, Needles, Santa 
 
 Rosa, Ukiah, Marysville, Mohave, Vallejo. 
 
 UNITED STATES. (Third Time Over.) 
 !♦ Physical Features, 
 
 Mountains: Sierra Madre, Blue Ridge, Cumberland, Green. 
 
 Rivers: James, Merrimac, Connecticut. 
 
 Islands: Long Island, Bahama Islands, Cuba, Hayti, Jamaica. 
 
 2, Political Features. 
 
 States: Mississippi Valley Division, Rocky Mountain Division. 
 Cities: Vicksburg, Minneapolis, Baltimore, Philadelphia, Atlanta, Den- 
 ver, Sitka. 
 
 PICTURED RELIEF, 
 
 By WALTER J. KENYON. 
 
 Of the many devices in use for the visualizing of geographical forms, 
 pictured relief is, upon the whole, the most satisfactory. For about two 
 decades a heroic struggle has been made to bring the sand table into use. 
 I have yet to meet, however, the geography teacher who persists in its use 
 after a fair trial. The sand table offers a multitude of disadvantages that 
 more than offset its one service — this not by any means adequate — of 
 visualizing relief. Pictured relief, while free from the shortcomings of sand 
 naodeling, far exceeds the latter in its possibilities for suggesting natural 
 features. It is of such surpassing value in this direction that no text-books 
 in geography are now published without a series of pictured continental 
 reliefs. It must be said of these, however, that they lack the suggestion of 
 reality. A plaster cast lacks interest for the student because it carries the 
 least possible feeling of reality with it. And if such a plaster cast is photo- 
 
 (23)
 
 graphed for reproduction on the text-book page this shortcoming remains. 
 It should therefore be greatly encouraging to the teacher to reflect that her 
 own modest attempts at the blackboard are likely to carry her pupil closer 
 to a realization of structural relief than are the more pretentious representa- 
 tions on the text-book page. 
 
 The value of such use of the blackboard, in holding the children's atten- 
 tion and interesting them in their study, is very great. And the teacher 
 has only to make a beginning in this work to find it out. One student said 
 that, as she sat day by day with a pictured relief of North America on the 
 board before her, its valleys seemed to dilate and become populated with 
 forms of life. 
 
 The value of the drawn relief over the mechanically produced one lies in 
 precisely that touch that is manifest in any piece of handwork. It is the 
 difierence between a Greek vase and a cast bottle; or between the actual 
 marble as it leaves the sculptor's tool and the stamped metal replicas that 
 greet the modern eye at every turn. In any work performed directly by 
 the human hand there is that vibrant throb of life that alone can express 
 thought suffused with feeling. No other thought is of value, in an educa- 
 tional sense. And this high criterion of all art is no less applicable to the 
 humble device of geographic relief sketching. 
 
 The Board. — By long odds the best blackboard for our purpose is the 
 natural slate. And those teachers are to be envied who find themselves in 
 communities so progressive as to fit their schools with such conveniences. 
 In order, however, that less fortunate ones shall not be wholly discouraged, 
 I have purposely drawn some of the accompanying maps upon the poorest 
 possible type of blackboard, to wit: a painted plaster wall. The map of 
 California (Fig. 12) was drawn upon such a "blackboard." 
 
 A Substitute for Blackboards. — Frequently our students draw maps of too 
 much value to be summarily erased at the end of the day's work. And 
 often it is desirable to preserve such maps throughout a series of lessons; 
 and again it may be desirable to carry them from room to room for use 
 before various classes. The discovery of black pattern paper is therefore of 
 considerable value in the case. This is a jet black paper used by tailors in 
 cutting patterns. It comes in sheets two feet by three feet, and east of the 
 Rocky Mountains costs a cent a sheet at paper warehouses. 
 
 This black paper takes the chalk in a most satisfactory way and the 
 marks are readily erased with a cloth. Maps and pictures drawn on this 
 black paper can be carried from room to room or from school to school. Or 
 they may be rolled up or hung up and preserved indefinitely. When such 
 an extended preservation is desirable, the drawing may be blown with a 
 spray of fixatif, which preserves it against rublnng. 
 
 The Crayons. — The crayons to use are those ordinarily used in school- 
 rooms — the common soft "chalk," both white and colored. Most colored 
 blackboard work fails because of its gaudy crudeness. But tliis may be 
 happily remedied by toning down the harsh colors with charcoal as you 
 
 (24)
 
 work along. A ten-cent box of stick charcoal should be at hand, as it will 
 be called for in any work, whether in plain white or in colors. 
 
 A pyramid. 
 
 A lighted pyramid. 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 A mountain. 
 
 cerned, is the unit of structure. 
 
 Pictured Reliefs. — For our purpose we may think of a mountain as con- 
 ventionally a pyramid. It could be represented by three lines inclosing 
 the two visible slopes. If we now imagine our pyramid to be lighted on 
 one side, say the west, the other side, by comparison, will be dark. 
 
 If we redraw this figure, softening the lines a little, we have a mountain, 
 
 so far as our present need 
 requires. It helps the 
 effect to draw the strokes 
 out, with the bare fin- 
 gers, into the surround- 
 ing plain. 
 
 This mountain, so far 
 as map drawing is con- 
 A range of mountains is merely a row of 
 these units hung along a divide, like clothes on a line. The tyro will, how- 
 ever, make this resemblance too literal. Her divide, or water-parting, will 
 be a straight line instead of the jagged and sinuous meeting of slopes that 
 a divide invariably 
 is. Her mountains, 
 too, will be all of a 
 size and without any 
 passes between them , 
 as in Fig. 2. And 
 when she first tries 
 to show the passes 
 she will make them 
 at plain level, thus 
 breaking her range 
 up into unsatisfac- 
 tory, disconnected groups, as in Fig. 4. There is in this simple exercise, 
 therefore, room for some practice. The strokes should not be too uniformly 
 
 parallel. They should 
 mix and cross so as to 
 give a. general light and 
 shade effect. They 
 should also vary in 
 
 Fig. 2. Like clothes on a line. 
 
 Fig. 3. A range. 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 P 
 
 Jj^i^jj^ 
 
 ^^^H 
 
 
 k?'""-s- 
 
 
 Bh^^^^i 
 
 I^Hkk^^^ 
 
 WiprA 
 
 ^^■M 
 
 ^^^1 
 
 njpF/TJ 
 
 % -'V J 
 
 
 ^1 
 
 Fig. 4. " Unsatisfactory, disconnected 
 groups." 
 
 Fig. 5. An odd mis- 
 take. 
 
 i> 
 
 Fig. 6. "Not right ^ 
 
 3q s e 
 
 ■ Not right or left, but 
 upward." 
 
 length, that the mountains may be of different heights. On comparing 
 Fig. 3, point by point, with Figs. 2 and 4, these various criticisms are easily 
 apparent. 
 
 (25)
 
 An interesting objective in this exercise is to see if you can make the 
 range terminate gradually or dwindle down (Fig. 3), instead of stopping 
 with an abrupt jumping-off place, as in Fig. 2. 
 
 One odd mistake which nearly every beginner makes is to get the east 
 slope rising from the summit instead of falling. Thus in Fig. 5 the eastern 
 base, A, is actuall}^ higher than the crest, B. To avoid this we have only 
 
 FiG. 7. A valley. 
 
 Fig. 8. An elevated valley, or plateau. 
 
 to keep in mind our original figure, the pyramid, with its vertex pointing 
 not right or left, but upward. The eastern base will then keep on a level 
 with the western. 
 
 After your mountain range has a rugged and natural feeling, try a valley 
 by adding an opposing range. The effect of a valley is most readily pro- 
 duced by striking the crayon back and forth with a cradling motion, taking 
 care to have the maximum light in the right place. See Fig. 7. 
 
 Fig. 9. Value of charcoal. 
 
 Fig. 10. Shadows overdone. 
 
 We can make this an elevated valley or plateau by making the inner 
 slopes short and the outer ones long, as sliown in Fig. 8. 
 
 So far we have used only the white crayon. Let us now try the effect of 
 charcoal for the shadows. This may be easily overdone. A little charcoal 
 goes a long way. Only patient experiment is required, however, to make 
 it a valuable adjunct of the blackboard work. The proper and improper 
 results are seen in Figs. 9 and 10. 
 
 (2(1)
 
 Fig. 11. A part of North America. 
 
 Having now a plateau, somewhat conventional in its feeling, let us make 
 it "look natural." A real plateau is a rugged mountain land, usually 
 
 rimmed by higher moun- 
 tains. This broken sur- 
 face is easily pictured 
 by working in smaller 
 ranges, not too uniform 
 and parallel. Finally 
 choose a place that looks 
 likely and put in a lake 
 with your charcoal. 
 Down to this lake and 
 beyond it a river may 
 flow, breaking finally 
 through the coast moun- 
 tains and reaching the 
 sea. Be careful to make 
 the river taper, begin- 
 ning with a fine line at 
 the source and ending 
 toward the mouth with a 
 coarser one. The line should wriggle, to give the effect of meandering. The 
 river is put in with charcoal after the land surface has been finished. The 
 lake may be represented by the bare board, its contour being cut out by the 
 corner of a blackboard eraser. 
 
 If the work has been pains- 
 takingly carried to this point we 
 have a fair representation of south- 
 ern Mexico. It may be more readily 
 recognizable by adding the Yucatan 
 peninsula and Central America, 
 as in Fig. 11. 
 
 This exercise serves as a key to 
 all relief drawing. We have a plain 
 (Yucatan), a vallej^, a range, a 
 plateau between ranges; also river, 
 lake, coast. An extension of this 
 idea, based upon a careful scrutiny 
 of a text-book map, will yield a 
 satisfactory relief of any geograph- 
 ical area. 
 
 It should be said here that the 
 mere copying of a text-book map, 
 with however much fidelity, is not 
 really a strong method of study. 
 A student might produce a remark- 
 ably faithful facsimile of the pub- fig. 12. 
 
 (27)
 
 lished map- and yet be wholly ignorant of the area he has represented. 
 His map, therefore, to be of most value, should not be in a direct sense a 
 copy, but rather a record of what he knows of the area depicted, reinforced 
 and corrected by reference to the text-book map. 
 
 WHAT SHALL A MAP CONTAIN ? 
 
 There has been some discussion as to what a map for elementary school 
 use should contain. The diversity of belief in this regard becomes apparent 
 in a comparison of the maps in various leading text-books. In some of 
 these the continental reliefs have been divested of every feature that gives 
 them the feeling of land masses. 
 
 This elimination of detail may easily be carried too far. A good map is 
 not entirely symbolic. It is to some degree a portrait of the area dealt with. 
 If by our eliminations we obliterate the characteristics of the area, our map 
 wastes the paper it is printed upon. The lakes of the Hudson Bay region, 
 for example, are of a minor importance economically; and a very good 
 geography course might be given in which the pupil never so much as 
 repeated their respective names. These lakes should nevertheless appear 
 on the map, because they strongly characterize that area, and are full of 
 meaning to any eye, taught or untaught. It is one thing to omit mention 
 of natural features in the text. It is quite another to leave them out of 
 the map. 
 
 The same is true in the case of minor rivers where they occur in groups, 
 as in our Atlantic slope. To the eye they tell a silent story that we can not 
 afford to leave out. But the text may profitably leave many of them 
 unnamed. 
 
 Again, portraiture is dealt with in coast lines, where it is indeed most 
 often overlooked in the so-called simplified maps. A map that defines the 
 coast of Norway in the same smooth line that is adapted for the Baltic shore 
 loses a golden opportunity for telling a fundamental bit of geography in a 
 simple way. Nor can this sterilizing tendency be excused by any tenet of 
 pedagogy. No one would think of plucking out the hairs from Lucy's kitten 
 that the child might behold a simpler entity in her pet. Naturalism is 
 always a safe guide in the graphic presentation of thought material for 
 childhood. 
 
 SOME "DON'TS" IN PICTURED RELIEF. 
 
 (1) Accented Coast Lines. One's first impulse is to strengthen the coast 
 line so that it stands out as an object in itself, instead of just a place where 
 two surfaces come together. In a properly finished map the coast line 
 should not show. This error is shown along the Gulf coast, a, in Fig. 13. 
 Com|)are it with the corresponding coast in the correct map, Fig. 14. The 
 remedy is to use a soft, sketchy line in first mapping out the continent, and 
 to let it go at that. 
 
 (2) Meaningless Scollops. Amateur mappers in drawing a coast line are 
 apt to wiggle the crayon with a vague idea that coasts run that way. The 
 
 (28)
 
 result, h, is entirely without feeling. The best way of avoiding this mistake 
 is to think of the particular stretch of coast as you draw it: Is it a rocky, 
 deeply indented fiord coast as in Alaska or Norway, or a succession of softly 
 curving beaches, as on our southern Atlantic seaboard? Try to image the 
 region as you draw it. 
 
 (3) ^ Killed Coast Line. — Having just discussed this point there remains 
 only to illustrate it. In Fig. 13, c shows a killed coast line. To be consist- 
 ent the cartographer advocating such departures must kill his rivers also — 
 stiffen them into walking sticks instead of meandering streams. How can 
 
 Fig. 13. A Budget of " Don'ts." 
 
 he avoid it ! Singularly enough his maps adhere painstakingly to the truth 
 in the matter of length and breadth. Yet, as to the value of data, let us 
 contrast : 
 
 2. The fiords of Alaska are unlike 
 the sandbars of Carolina. 
 
 1. North America is 5,700 miles 
 long and 3,200 miles wide. 
 
 Now, why should a map for elementary school use be insistent about 
 fact 1 and carefully eliminate fact 2 ! 
 
 (4) Omission of Plateaus.— In a land mass the big thing is the plateau, not 
 the mountain. This is true whether we consider merely their respective 
 
 (29)
 
 bulks or their economic aspect as controls. Notice at d the mountains seem 
 to rise abruptly out of a lowland instead of a plateau or table-land. In 
 other words, the Utah plateau is made to look exactly like the Mississippi 
 
 Fid. M. North America, as it ought to look. 
 
 bottomlands. If this mistake were shown in profile it would appear as in 
 Fig. 15, while the correct idea (save of course for vertical exaggeration) 
 would be better served by Fig. 16. 
 
 (30)
 
 Think, therefore, of the plateau rather than the range. Look for the 
 plateau in your text-book map. If it is a good physical map, with a color 
 scheme, the coloring will show the plateau area. A good text-book map, 
 carefully studied, is the equivalent of many pages of print. 
 
 SEA LEVEL. 
 
 Fig. 15. Where is the plateau ? 
 
 Fig. 16. The plateau, not the mountain, is the big thing. 
 
 (5) Chopped-off Ranges.— ^o elevations save foothills ever abut directly 
 upon a lowland. Nor do we ever find sea-level plains breaking principal 
 ranges. The yawning blanks at e, Fig. 13, are a mistake in both idea and 
 expression. The great continental ranges are nowhere broken up into these 
 choppy masses. It is true there are passes. But these are not sea-level 
 gaps, they are thousands of feet in altitude. Keep in mind the continuous 
 
 plateau and there will 
 be no inclination to 
 leave these impossible 
 blanks. A good way 
 of beginning is to rub 
 in the plateaus in a flat 
 white tint, regardless of 
 mountains, as in Fig. 
 17 ; and build in the 
 mountains later. 
 
 (6) Rivers Cut Off— 
 A common fault in pic- 
 tured relief is to start a 
 river a thousand miles 
 or so short of its true 
 source, as at /. This 
 seems to arise from a 
 lack of understanding 
 of the relations of moun- 
 tains to rivers. No 
 Fig. 17. Rub in the plateaus, regardless of mountains. j • j • / „ „ 
 
 good-Sized river (save 
 
 the Volga) takes it rise in a lowland. On the contrary, the upper waters of 
 such streams are apt to flow for long distance between closely confining 
 ranges. Thus the mountains, if correctly placed, help us to place the 
 rivers, and vice versa. 
 
 (7) Streams Without Taper. — It requires but a glance at the text-book 
 map to see the rivers beginning at their sources as fine lines; and thence 
 
 (31)
 
 gradually augmenting until, in their lower courses, these lines have con- 
 siderably more body. Simple and expressive as is this device, the tyro will 
 often overlook it and make her river look like a bent poker, as at g. It is 
 sometimes worth while to practice drawing rivers, apart from the map, until 
 two things are accomplished: the said tapering from source to mouth and 
 a natural meandering, instead of the meaningless wiggle shown at h. 
 
 STRUCTURAL RELIEFS IN COLOR. 
 
 In the foregoing exercises we have used only white crayon, with charcoal 
 for the shadows and watercourses. The same method in colored crayon 
 yields results very gratifying. 
 
 The colored crayon, or 
 blackboard " chalk " costs but 
 a trifle more than the white 
 and is sold by all school sup- 
 plies people. The colors are 
 glaringly crude, and if used 
 pure, they give results fearful 
 to see, but, if toned down with 
 either charcoal or white cray- 
 on during the work, these 
 same colors yield effects satis- 
 fying to the most critical eye. 
 
 There is no special method 
 to be followed. Perhaps the 
 following is as good as any. 
 After outlining your conti- 
 nent, lay on the plateaus in 
 white and the lowlands in 
 green. Choose a bright, cheer- 
 ful green, not a bluish tone. 
 We now have the whole area 
 filled in with either white or 
 
 green vrig. lO). Fig.IS. "The whole area filled in with either white or green." 
 
 On the white, mark off the 
 divides of the principal mountain ranges. Then with white crayon crush 
 on the light side of the mountains. Get the most intensely light effect at 
 the crest. Make your strokes slightly concave and draw them out into the 
 valleys, horizontally. Do the dark side of each range similarly, using char- 
 coal. Use the charcoal moderately, and, if the effect is too black, relieve 
 with a few touches of white smudged in with the finger. 
 
 At this point our mountains will very probably appear disconnected 
 from the plateau underlying them. A little smudging at the base will 
 unite them with the plateau color so that they appear not stuck to the plateau, 
 but looming out of it. Finally, put in the rivers in charcoal. 
 
 Now, sit down at least six feet from your map and criticise it according 
 to the" Budget of Doii'ts'' in Fig. 13. (1) Does your coast-line show as a 
 
 (32)
 
 thing in itself? If so, smudge it landward until it loses itself completely in 
 the land coloring. (2) If your coast-line wriggles along in meaningless 
 scallops, go over it again with crayon and eraser and try to give it character. 
 (3) So, also, if you have put in a killed coast-line, doctor it up into life 
 and meaning. (4) If your mountains spring suddenly out of lowlands you 
 have omitted the most important part of the highlands — the plateau. Rub 
 this in, in white, about the base of the mountains, and knit the two thoroughly 
 together by smudging with the finger. (5) See if your ranges are chopped 
 off in abrupt sections like sausages. If so, fill the gaps, and, at the termina- 
 tion of each range, taper it down gradually into the lowland. (6) Is your 
 divide too straight and regular? If so, build on a high peak here and 
 
 there with white, and at 
 other places cut a lower 
 place with the charcoal. 
 (7) Have you held to the 
 tent shape (/\) for your 
 mountains, or have you in- 
 advertently tipped your tent 
 over, so (>)? (8) Now, 
 examine your rivers care- 
 fully. Are the sources in 
 the right locality, or have 
 you lopped off seven or eight 
 hundred miles from each 
 river, thus destroying its 
 reference to the highland 
 which feeds it? (9) See, 
 also, that your rivers taper 
 from source to mouth. 
 
 Remember that the maps 
 should show the plateaus 
 as quite different from the 
 lowlands. In North Amer- 
 ica (Fig. 14) compare the 
 Colorado plateau with the 
 Mississippi valley, or the 
 Mexican plateau with the Atlantic coastal plain. 
 
 This difference of effect is secured partly by direction of stroke. Moun- 
 tains inclosing a valley have their inner slopes as deep as their outer ones. 
 But the inner slopes of a plateau rim are shorter than its outer ones. (See 
 Figs. 7 and 8.) Then, again, a plateau is always a tumbled sea of lesser 
 mountains rising out of a table-land. The very act of putting in these minor 
 mountains gives to the plateau the solid, massy effect you seek, while, on the 
 other hand, the broad, horizontal strokes of the valley, put in with less 
 strength, give a contrasted flatness. 
 
 If it is desired to suggest climate, as well as topography, reserve all posi- 
 tive green effects for the well-watered areas. In the arid parts temper the 
 3 (33) 
 
 Fig. 19
 
 green with reds and terra cotta tones. This will give, in a striking manner, 
 the efiect of desert tracts. Do not overdo the reddish colors, however. 
 Remember that in a good color composition reds and yellows are sparingly 
 used. If you decide to use red and yellow in your map it is well to work 
 some deep blue into the mountain shadows. Blue may then be used, also, 
 instead of black, for rivers and lakes, and sometimes for the coastal waters. 
 Of course, the farther you depart into the complexity of color combinations 
 the greater the danger of unfortunate effects as to harmony. The simple 
 combination first mentioned of bright, cheerful green for the lowlands and 
 white for plateaus can hardly be exceeded for pleasing effect. The general 
 idea is given in Fig. 19, so far as black and white permit. 
 
 I 
 READING A MAP. 
 
 As was earlier remarked, the proper reading of a good text-book map is 
 the equivalent of many pages of text in the measure of information con- 
 veyed. There is the "legend " to begin with. Down in one corner of the 
 map is usually to be found a little printed explanation of the various colors 
 and symbols employed in that particular series of maps. It is a very good 
 tonic for the teacher herself, as well as her pupils, to go over this legend 
 occasionally, and thus renew a possibly lapsed acquaintance with the map 
 in its fullest value. 
 
 The oceans, for instance, are probably colored in two tones of blue. 
 What does each tone signify? The land areas are colored in several tints. 
 The green is used to represent lowland, but just what elevation ceases to be 
 lowland, according to convention? In the plateau colors, which represents 
 the lowest plateau areas and which the higher ones? 
 
 Estimate the altitude of some city on the map, as La Paz; or a lake, as 
 Titicaca. Verify by the encyclopedia or " Lippincott's Gazetteer." 
 
 Here are two tests that work well as blackboard exercises: 
 
 Draw an outline of South America and express your notion of its eleva- 
 tions by inserting cross-sections. Let these be at latitudes 5° N., equator, 
 20 ' S., and 40° S. ( See Fig. 20. ) 
 
 Draw another outline of South America. Now, suppose the continent 
 were to sin k 1,50Q feet into the sea, how would this subsidence modify the 
 coast line? Show it in the drawing (Fig. 21). Again, suppose a further 
 subsidence of 3,500 feet, making 5,000 feet in all. Show the new coast lines. 
 
 Now, as to rivers. Take, for example, the Amazon. In how many 
 ways does the map tell the direction of its flow ? Can you say, from any 
 marks on your map, how far up the various rivers are navigable ? If not, 
 it is not much of a map. 
 
 Infer the character of the coast of lower Chili. Compare it with that 
 about Buenos Ayres. 
 
 As to the cities — how can you tell whether any given one is important 
 or not ? 
 
 What do the lines mean that extend right and l<>ft across the map? 
 What is latitude ? 
 
 (34)
 
 On the basis of latitude and altitude make a judgment as to the climate 
 of some city — say Quito, in Ecuador ; also Para, in Brazil. 
 
 What do the lines signify that extend up and down across the map ? 
 What is longitude ? What is a degree ? 
 
 On the basis of latitude and longitude discover the antipodal point of 
 any place — say your own home. 
 
 Find the "scale of miles" on your map. Invent some use for it. 
 
 Using the scale of miles find out how far your home is from some definite 
 point, such as a city, mountain, or coast. 
 
 On the basis of latitude calculate how many miles you are from the 
 equator; also from the poles. 
 
 On the basis of longitude calculate the distance in miles between 
 Guayaquil and Para. 
 
 Fig. 21. 
 
 Verify your answer by measuring the distance with the scale of miles. 
 
 Other interesting exercises may be given^on the special maps of climate, 
 vegetation, commerce, etc. 
 
 Lest it be imagined that we have departed from the subject of chalk 
 talk it is well to reflect that an intimate acquaintance with the map is the 
 only basis for correct map drawing. Otherwise the exercise degenerates 
 into the mere tracing of lengths and breadths which are without meaning, 
 and hence without value. Surely no one cares to know merely that South 
 America is longer than it is wide. A continent is like a human being. 
 One can not draw a character sketch of John Doe by only setting down his 
 avoirdupois. And that is exactly what a blackboard map should be — a 
 character sketch. And it will answer wonderfully to this description if 
 your imagination rides, tourist-like, upon your crayon as it moves. 
 
 (35)
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 SPECIAL METHOD OF DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 THE METHOD OF SUPPLEMENTARY READING. 
 
 The best method of building up those associations which are selected as 
 being essential, is, as I have already suggested, by the wide and exhaustive 
 use of supplenaentary reading. The teacher should constantly be on the 
 alert for interesting stories of life or adventure, for biography, for fiction, 
 and for vivid descriptions which will be of interest to the children and 
 which at the same time have their atmosphere and setting true to geographic 
 fact. Much good material of this nature is to be found in the popular 
 magazines of the day. This sort of material will usually be found better 
 suited to our purpose than made-to-order children's books, which are usually 
 written either to sell or else to exploit some educational theory. The guiding 
 principle in the selection of books or magazine articles, for given grades, is, 
 first, their adaptability to the average pupil in the grade; and, second, their 
 usefulness in supplementing the topics which the teacher wishes to bring 
 out in her recitations. The teacher will find that whatever effort she makes 
 both in building up her school library along these lines and in gathering for 
 her private collection short stories, pictures, and curios, which serve to 
 illustrate geographic essentials, will be amply rewarded by the large 
 increase in school-room effectiveness which will immediately result. (For 
 the help of teachers who desire to know the best books in this connection, 
 we give a list of books which have all been tested in our practice and 
 represent the best of the kind which has thus far been written.) 
 
 In handling this supplementry reading we would suggest that the 
 teacher will get much better results by, taking up a given region and 
 dwelling on that before passing to another region, than by passing over each 
 in a desultory, haphazard way. She could work out to advantage a course 
 of reading and discussion arranged on the spiral plan. It would be better 
 to pass rapidl}' over the world's characteristic areas, fixing a few associations 
 in each, than to spend the year in doing exhaustively but a few regions. 
 The second term or year she could in a similar manner pass over the areas 
 a second time, reviewing and fixing new associations. Whatever the teacher 
 undertakes, however, should be done thoroughly and with purpose. 
 
 Each recitation, to be effective, must be a definite piece of work with 
 specific preparation on the part of both teacher and pupil. The teacher 
 should decide what points she wants brought out, then assign to the chil- 
 dren definite references bearing on these points. The children will then 
 
 (36)
 
 come to the recitation with an abundance of information and with different 
 points of view. The teacher by questions and by suggestions guides the 
 discussion in such a way as to bring out and emphasize the essentials 
 which she wishes established. 
 
 A list of the world's characteristic areas, together with those facts and 
 feelings which we feel the teacher should keep constantly before her as the 
 essentials on the descriptive side, follows. 
 
 THE METHOD OF THE CHALK TALK, 
 
 When for any reason a sufficient number of suitable books and refer- 
 ences on an essential topic are not at the command of the teacher, she should 
 prepare herself carefully on the details, then take her class or her school as 
 a whole and tell them the story in as interesting a manner as she can. The 
 story can be made much more vivid and interesting if she illustrates what 
 she has to say by drawing diagrams or pictures on the board. 
 
 After presenting her material in this manner she can send the younger 
 children, if in a school of many grades, to the blackboard to reproduce her 
 story in drawings, after which it can be made the basis of their language 
 work ; at the same time she can question the older children on the matter 
 presented in her talk, emphasizing, as she does, those essential facts which 
 she wishes them to remember. In this manner the few essentials of each 
 talk become part of a cumulative list, which she reviews from time to time, 
 thus insuring their permanent retention. 
 
 To illustrate concretely what we mean by such a talk, one on "The 
 Production of Rubber" follows. The illustrations, b}' Mr. Walter J. Kenyon, 
 are given for the purpose of showing teachers how they can illustrate their 
 own stories at the board as they tell them to their children. 
 
 ^^ Chalk Talk'' on the Production of Rubber, 
 
 Teacher^s Preparation: 
 
 1. She should read at least one, if possible, more, of the following references: 
 
 Kingston, "On the Banks of the Amazon," pp. 467-470. 
 
 Carpenter, " Geographical Reader, South America," pp. 312-320. 
 
 Morris, "Half Hours of Travel," Vol. I, pp. 428-432. 
 
 Xery, "Land of the Amazons," pp. 189-219. 
 
 Knox, "Boy Travelers in South America," pp. 299-303. 
 
 Markwick and Smith, "The South American Republics," pp. 208-213. 
 
 Carpenter, " South America, Social, Industrial, and Political," pp. 582-593. 
 
 Rupert, "Geographical Reader," pp. 142-146. 
 
 "The Amazon and Its Wonders," pp. 140-147. 
 
 2. She should collect all available pictures illustrating the several stages through which 
 the crude rubber passes. If possible, she should obtain specimens of the crude rubber and 
 also specimens' representing the various stages in the process of refining. Small boxes 
 containing these samples can be obtained by applying at the office of almost any rubber 
 company in San Francisco. 
 
 As one winds in an d out among the overhanging vines and Sleepers 
 
 along the narrow and^Jor tuous channels of the Amaz on Riverj^^now_and 
 
 then comes out upon a clearing near the river's bank ^occupied by ajow, 
 
 one-storiedTbuiIdliig, foofedTwith tiles and surrounded by a wide veranda. 
 
 (37y
 
 At one end of the house is a store room fill ed with g roceries and supplies. 
 On the veranda are piles of what appear to be smoked hams, but which are 
 really lumps of cr ude_ruhbfir-:vKaitiiig_,tQ he shipped down the river to Para, 
 the^aport of the Amazon region, where Indians and Negroes crate them in 
 big boxes for shipment to England and the United States, A rude wharf of 
 poles supporting crossbars of unhewn timbers projects insecurely into the 
 river's channel to make easier the loading and unloading of tiie river boats. 
 This is the house of a rubber planter, and all about, stretching back from 
 the river for miles, is his plantation. 
 
 Though this great stretch of country is called a plantation, it differs 
 very greatly from the common notion of a plantation. When w^speak of 
 a cotton plantation or of a sugar plantation, or again when we think of a 
 coffee plantation in the highlands of 
 Brazil, we think of the cotton _plaiits, 
 or the sugar canes, or the coffee busjies, 
 as the case may be, as being very close 
 to each other. The trees in a rubber 
 plantation, on the other hand, are widely 
 scattered. They do not grow together in 
 groves, as many seem to think. In fact, 
 the trees are so far apart that each man 
 is obliged to travel several miles in 
 collecting his sap for the day. Narrow 
 paths lead from the planter's home 
 through the dense tangle of underbrush 
 to each of these separate trees. The 
 number of these paths determines the 
 size and valuation of the plantation. 
 
 Each collector has charge^f but one 
 path, over which he travels once each 
 da\'. The number of trees on his path 
 varies from sixty to one hun-dred and 
 fifty, depending upon their distance 
 apart. He leaves his camp early in 
 the morning armed with a hatchet, the blade of which is about one inch 
 wide, and a number of small tin cups, or sometimes, pieces of bamboo 
 closed at one end. With his hatchet he makes a gash in a tree and fastens 
 one of the cups under the wound. As he pulls h'is hatchet from the 
 bark a milk-white fluid oozes out and drips slowly into the cup placed 
 under it. In the same manner he makes two or three more gashes in the 
 tree trunk, fitting them in each case as before with the cup. He thus 
 passes from tree to tree, tapping each until he haa visited all the trees on 
 his path. About noon he begins to retrace his steps, emptying the sap from 
 the cups, as he does so, into a large gourd, which he carries strapped to 
 his back. The amount of sap which ho collects varies according to the 
 richness of the trees, but usually two quarts each day is considered a satis- 
 factory amount. 
 
 (38) 
 
 FlQ. 2-_>.
 
 As soon as he reaches camp the collector sets about the first step in the 
 process of curing the sap and making it fit for commerce. When exposed to 
 the air the sap haxdfins^andjhe^ rubber becomes of an inferior quality. So 
 the collector cures his sap as soon after he collects it as he can. This is 
 done by smoking it with a smoke made by burning the nuts of a certain 
 palm tree. After the fire is built the native places an earthen jar over the 
 fire. This jar has a narrow neck, and as the nuts smolder and burn, a 
 a dense smoke pours out through this rude chimney. 
 
 The native takes a wooden paddle with a long handle and dips it into 
 the sap. He then holds it in the smoke, twirling it over and over as he 
 holds it there. The milk hardens and becomes grayish yellow in color. 
 
 Fig. 23. 
 
 He again thrusts the paddle into the milk bowl and again into the smoke. 
 Thus he adds layer to layer until there is a mass of rubber about the end 
 of the paddle as large as a six-pound ham. He cuts down one side, takes 
 it off the paddle and hangs it in the sun to dry, as there is always a little 
 water between the layers which should be allowed to evaporate. In color 
 it turns, during the process of smoking, from clear white to yellow and 
 finally to the dirty brown of commerce. After it has been thoroughly dried 
 the natives carry it to the planter's house and there pile it up, where it 
 awaits shipment down the river to Para. 
 
 Instead of the wooden paddle upon which to smoke the rubber the 
 native sometimes uses a mold of clay. Formerly, molds in the shape of the 
 
 (39)
 
 human foot were used, and in this manner the natives fashioned the rubber 
 shoes that were worn in America forty or fifty years ago. By soaking the 
 mass in water the mold came to pieces and could then be shaken out. 
 
 Swiss Family Ruhinson {adapted). — A number of years ago a family 
 consisting of a father, a mother, and their four boys sailed from England 
 for one of the islands near Australia. In the southern seas they were over- 
 taken by a fearful storm. For six long and terrible days they were driven 
 about by the gale. As the morning of the seventh dawned the storm 
 redoubled its fury, and they realized that they were lost. 
 
 In the cabin the boys clung tearfully to the skirts of their mother, while 
 the father tried to calm their terrors, though he himself could scarcely 
 restrain his sorrow at the thought that his family must soon be torn apart. 
 But above the fury of the storm the cry of "Land" rang out, and the next 
 
 Fig. 24. 
 
 instant, with a crash, the ship struck a rock. The captain and crew rushed 
 to their boats and left their helpless passengers to their miserable fate. 
 Instead of sinking, the ship was, by a fortunate chance, firmly and safely 
 wedged between two great rocks. The next day the storm subsided. The 
 father and the oldest boys lashed together a number of casks which they 
 found in the hold of the vessel, and ballasting their crude raft with all the 
 useful things they could take, they carefully placed the mother in one of the 
 casks and the little boys in another. Fritz, the eldest, took his place at the 
 front of the raft, while his father stood at the stern in order to better guide 
 the craft. In this manner, by careful rowing, they made their way without 
 accident to the mainland several miles distant. 
 
 They found the land which they reached a land of high trees, of pleasant, 
 grassy meadows, and of clear springs. They built themselves a home high 
 up among the branches of one of the trees. They made a rope ladder, by 
 
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 which they could reach their house and which could be easily pulled up 
 when danger threatened. 
 
 The boys with their father made frequent trips into the country round 
 about in search of game and fruits and in order to better learn the nature 
 of the country upon which a cruel storm had cast them. As they were one 
 day walking through an open space in the forest on one of these hunting 
 expeditions, Fritz, who was in the lead, suddenly stopped in alarm and 
 beckoned to his father to listen. In a moment they heard at a little distance 
 in the forest what sounded like the popping of firecrackers or the cracking 
 of a pistol. Never having seen anj?- human beings in the region, they were 
 at a loss to explain the peculiar though seemingly familiar sounds. With 
 cautious and slow step they entered the forest. They had proceeded but a 
 short distance when it seemed that the sounds came from above their heads. 
 Upon glancing upward they found to their surprise as well as relief that the 
 sounds were produced by the bursting of the nuts on one of the forest trees. 
 Under the influence of the hot, mid-day sun the nuts which had ripened 
 burst their shells with a loud report and scattered the seed which they 
 contained to a considerable distance around. 
 
 Fritz was much surprised to see his father take out his knife and make 
 an incision in the bark of the tree. He made a cup of leaves and placed 
 it under the incision to catch the sap which slowly oozed out. They took 
 great care to mark the tree in order that they would have no difficulty in 
 finding it upon their return. 
 
 The next day the boys eagerly gathered about their father as he took up 
 the cup containing the sap which he had collected the day before. He first 
 took an old pair of stockings and filled them with sand. Over the outside 
 he spread a thi"!! layer of clay and dried it in the sun. After the clay was 
 hard he took a brush and smeared a thin coat of the sticky sap over the 
 outside of the clay and hung it in the sun. After it had dried he repeated 
 the operation. In this way, layer after layer was added to the mold he had 
 prepared. After the last layer was thoroughly dry he poured out the sand 
 and soaked the remainder of the mass in water. After a little time the 
 clay softened and was shaken out. This left a dirty-looking mass the exact 
 shape of the foot, which the boys saw at once w'as a shoe. The father then 
 explained that the tree which they had discovered in the forest and whose 
 seeds were popping like firecrackers was an india-rubber tree, similar to 
 those which grow so abundantly in the flooded portions of the Amazon 
 valley. 
 
 This family lived in their tree home for several years until they were 
 discovered by a passing ship and taken back to civilization. They found a 
 great many useful products in their island home, but none proved more 
 serviceable to them than this discovery of the india-rubber tree. 
 
 The first rubber about which we know anything came from India, and 
 so it came to be called india-rubber. In England it was first used for 
 the purpose of rubbing out pencil marks. This gave it its name of rubber. 
 Toward the close of the eighteenth century artists valued it very highly for this 
 
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 purpose, and paid in consequence high prices in order to get it. It was not 
 until 1820 that people began using it for other things than for the erasure 
 of pencil marks. About this time Mr. Mackintosh invented the rubber 
 coat. Other inventions quickly followed. To-day we ride upon it in our 
 carriages and on our bic3'cles. We use it by the ton to protect us from 
 the rain. One New England factory alone makes 30,000 pairs of rubber 
 overshoes each day. At a recent auction in Boston 4,000,000 rubbers were 
 sold to one man. We bind our papers together with rubber bands. We 
 use rubber on the tips of our pencils and on the fruit jars in our pantry. 
 Combs, penholders, jewelry, and hundreds of other articles are made from 
 this product. In fact, there is scarcely an industry or an art which does 
 not utilize rubber in one way or another. 
 
 Story of Charles Goodyear. — Though most people have forgotten it, we 
 owe all these useful things to the wonderful patience and persistence of 
 just one man — a man who at one time was followed through the streets of 
 New York city by a crowd of hooting boys who pointed their fingers at him 
 and, in derision, called him the "india-rubber man." 
 
 He was a strange looking man, indeed. His cap was made of india- 
 rubber. So was his coat. He wore a rubber vest. Even his necktie was made 
 of india-rubber. He wore rubber shoes and a rubber rain coat even in dry 
 weather. He made paper out of rubber, and wrote a book on it. He made 
 a door plate of the same stuff. He even carried an india-rubber cane. A 
 gentleman once asked what sort of a looking person this man Goodyear was. 
 " If you meet a man," was the reply, " who wears an india-rubber coat, cap, 
 stock, vest and shoes, with an india-rubber money purse without a cent in 
 it, that is Charles Goodyear." 
 
 Goodyear suffered all that a man could suffer and still live and keep his 
 reason. He failed in business, his health broke do^vn, and throughout life 
 he suffered acute pain almost continuously. He was frequently imprisoned 
 because he could not pay his debts. He saw starvation repeatedly staring 
 him and his gentle wife and poor children in the face. One of his children 
 died, in the dead of winter, when his home was without fuel for a fire. His 
 friends sneered at him, deserted him, and called him crazy. 
 
 At this time the trouble with rubber was that it would freeze in winter 
 till it was as hard as a rock, while in summer it would melt into a sticky mass 
 when exposed to the hot rays of the sun. The first rubber coats which were 
 made were so stiff in winter that they would stand alone, and a man wear- 
 ing one found he could scarcely bend his body. 
 
 Through all these years of suffering and wretchedness Goodyear held 
 persistently to his experiments. Nothing could discourage him. When he 
 was thrown into prison he went on with his experiments. When he got out 
 he borrowed money of his friends to carry on his work. Once he pawned 
 the last one of his wife's silver spoons to get a little money to buy more 
 rubber. 
 
 Thus lie continued year after year with no results. His rain coats remained 
 
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 just as stiff as ever. His boots froze in winter and melted in summer just 
 as they had done years before he began his work. 
 
 He was talking one day with some friends who had called. He held in 
 his hand a bit of rubber into which he had mixed some sulphur. In his 
 conversation he became excited and while making a gesture he dropped a 
 small piece of this rubber on the hot stove near by. To his amazement 
 instead of melting, the rubber remained stiff like leather. He applied still 
 greater heat to the rubber and then, to test it, he nailed it up outside his door 
 where it was very cold. The next morning, instead of finding it frozen 
 stiff it was perfectly pliable. 
 
 And so, seemingly by accident, but in reality through his patience and 
 persistence, Goodyear discovered the process which came to be known as 
 " vulcanization," and without which rubber could never have become the 
 useful article it now is. 
 
 The production of rubber from the Amazon region, under the progress 
 given the industry through the discovery of Charles Goodyear, frequently 
 reaches 40,000 ,000 p ounds per year. 
 
 The business is so great that at the mouth of the Amazon River it has 
 built up a great city of 100,000 inhabitants — the city of Para. 
 
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 THE WORLD'S CHARACTERISTIC AREAS, 
 
 [Note of Explanation.— In the work which follows we have given what we consider to 
 be the world's characteristic geographical areas. In connection with each we have enumer- 
 ated what seems to us to be the essential facts and feelings which should be tamped down 
 after much supplementary reading has been done. We have also given in connection with 
 each region a brief list of the books which we have found best adapted to children's reading. 
 The detailed treatment of South America, both descriptively, and physiographically by Miss 
 McFadden in Chapter Y, is to illustrate the method of procedure which we would recommend 
 in connection with the study of the other continents. The space limitations of this Bulletin 
 forbid the same detailed treatment of the remaining regions.] 
 
 THE CONTINENT OF SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 1. Amazon Region. 
 
 2. Brazilian Highlands Region. 
 
 3. Orinoco Region. 
 
 4. La Plata Region. 
 
 5. Andes Region. 
 
 6. Patagonian Region. 
 
 Fig. 25. 
 
 The Amazon Region. 
 
 ESSENTIALS. 
 
 A region of dense, tropical, luxuriant vegetation, and of a hot, humid 
 climate. Its chief product is ruhber, and it is the home of myriads of 
 insects, of brilliant-plumaged birds, and of tree-climbing animals. It is a 
 region sparsely populated by semi-civilized Indians and Negroes. 
 
 BEST READING. 
 
 1. A region of dense, tropical, luxuriant vegetation, and of a hot and humid 
 climate. 
 
 Orton. The Andes and the Amazon, pp. 264-79. 
 A description of the river scenery. 
 
 Stephens. On the Amazons, pp. 82-6. 
 
 Describes the shores of the Amazon. 
 
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 Stockton. Tales out of school, pp. 287-97. 
 
 A storm on the Amazon. Pictures. 
 
 Youth's Companion Series. Strange lands near home. pp. 52-9. 
 Describes the luxuriant vegetation. 
 
 CoE. Our American neighbors, pp. 223-30. 
 The tropical forests. 
 
 Ballantyne. Martin Rattler, pp. 62-70; 144-7. 
 Forests and vegetation of the Amazon country. 
 
 The Amazon and its wonders. 
 
 Immensity of the river. The "bore." pp. 9-14. 
 Explorers' stories, pp. 14-37. 
 Climate and forest scenery, pp. 58-207. 
 Excellent pictures. 
 
 Ober. Crusoe's Island, pp. 131-41. 
 The forest vegetation. 
 
 Morris. Half hours of travel, pp. 424-35. 
 Forests and tropical vegetation. 
 Vivid description of climate and vegetation, Island of Trinidad, pp. 381-92. 
 
 Bates. Naturalist on the River Amazons. 
 Gloom and loneliness of the forests, pp. 28-35. 
 
 Butterworth. Over the Andes, pp. 116-24. 
 Vegetation and flowers. 
 Story of a young orchid hunter. 
 
 Rupert. Geographical reader, pp. 149-60. 
 A ride through the tropical forest. 
 
 Kingston. The wanderers, pp. 185-91. 
 The wonderful tropical vegetation. 
 
 Kingston. On the banks of the Amazon. 
 The forest wilderness, pp. 504-7. 
 Tangle of vegetation, pp. 299-301. 
 
 Carpenter. South America. [Geographical reader.] pp. 299-304. 
 The very wet climate. 
 
 Knox. Boy travelers of South America. 
 
 Appearance of the river and tributaries, pp. 322-6. 
 Map of the Amazon mouth, p. 335. 
 Vegetation. Illustrations, pp. 320-22. 
 
 HiELD. Glimpses of South America. 
 
 storm on the Amazon, pp. 92-5. 
 Vegetation and forests, pp. 102-6. 
 
 Hartwig. The tropical world. 
 
 Vastness of the Amazons, pp. 36-8 ; 40-1 ; 47-8. 
 Amazon jungle. Selvas. pp. 40-5 ; 48-9 ; 53-61 ; 183-5. 
 Discovery of the Amazon, pp. 50-2. 
 Story of Madame Godin. p. 52. 
 Valuable wood. pp. 183-95. 
 Floating islands, pp. 45-6. 
 
 Vincent. Around and about South America. 
 
 In and about Pard ; climate and forest, pp. 344-50. 
 Journeying on the Amazon, pp. 350-65. 
 
 Adams's Commercial Geography, p. 14; Tarr and McMurray, Bk. I, 
 p. 200. 
 
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 2. The home of myriads of insects, of hrilliant-plumaged birds, tree-climbing 
 animals, and water reptiles. 
 
 Paez. Wild scenes in South America. 
 
 The animals seen in their haunts, pp. 222-50. 
 Snakes, pp. 138-40. 
 Catching alligators, pp. 64-7. 
 Anecdotes of hunting, pp. 107-61. 
 
 Youth's Companion Series. Strange lands near home. pp. 52-9. 
 
 Description of wild animals. 
 
 HiELD. Glimpses of South America. 
 
 Wild animals in Brazil, with many pictures, pp. 128-39. 
 Turtle hunting, pp. 153-6. 
 
 CoE. Our American neighbors, pp. 227-8. 
 The swarms of insects. 
 
 Morris. Half hours of travel. America, Vol. I. 
 
 How they catch alligators, pp. 440-1. 
 
 Ant bears, pp. 451-2. 
 
 Jaguars and pumas, pp. 393-6. 
 
 Monkeys, pp. 400-2 ; 469-74. 
 
 Peccary fight, pp. 443-56. 
 
 Ants. pp. 464-9. 
 
 Fishes, pp. 397-400. 
 
 Markwick and Smith. South American republics. 
 Catching alligators, pp. 207-8. 
 Armadillos, pp. 219-20. 
 Turtles, pp. 205-6. 
 
 Waterton. Wanderings in South America. 
 
 How natives catch alligators, pp. 263-78. 
 
 Other animals, pp. 92-9 ; 215-28. 
 
 Turtles, pp. 266-7. 
 
 Armadillo, pp. 228-30. 
 
 Monkeys, pp. 322-4. 
 
 Birds, pp. 177-207. 
 
 Snake fight, pp. 248-55. 
 
 The Amazon and its wonders. 
 
 Natives catching alligators, pp. 89-96. 
 Vampire bats. pp. 43-4. 
 Monkeys, pp. 51-3. 
 Turtle fishing, pp. 79-120. 
 Toucans, pp. 187-94. 
 Boa-constrictor, pp. 56-8. 
 
 Bates. Naturalist on the Amazons. 
 
 Serpents, pp. 113-15; 214-19. 
 Alligators in their haunts, pp. 252-3. 
 Humming-birds, pp. 179-84. 
 Monkeys, pi.. 48-.'30 ; 128-30; 243-7. 
 Turtles, pp. 264-6. 
 Ants. pp. 23-33 ; 95-7. 
 
 Ktngsto.v. On the banks of the Amazon. 
 
 Snakes. ]>]>. .369-71 ; 415-22. 
 
 Where tlie alligators lay their eggs. pp. 432-3. 
 
 Aflvoiiturc with an alligator. i>i>. 155-6; 15H-63; 295-7. 
 
 Hunting turtles' nests, pp. 190-3; 463-4. 
 
 Toucans, pp. 156-8. 
 
 Monkeys, pp. 241-3. 
 
 (46) 
 
 1 
 
 ( 
 (
 
 Kingston. The wanderers. 
 
 Adventure with an alligator, pp. 301-14. 
 Monkeys, pp. 48-57 ; 198-9 ; 217-19. 
 Habits of turtles, pp. 363-8. 
 Anaconda, pp. 71-7; 179-83. 
 
 Ballantyne. Martin Rattler. (Fiction.) 
 Alligator stories, pp. 108-232. 
 Turtle stories, pp. 116-17; 153-5. 
 Snakes, pp. 150-3. 
 
 Ober. Knockabout Club on the Spanish main. 
 Native fights with alligators. Good picture, pp. 144-7 
 Serpents, pp. 143-4. 
 
 Bishop. A thousand miles walk. 
 
 Catching armadillos, pp. 146-51. 
 
 Knox. Boy travelers in South America. 
 
 About the jaguar, pp. 254-7. 
 Birds of Brazil, pp. 260-6. 
 Monkeys. Pictures, pp. 278-81. 
 About turtles, pp. 273-5. 
 Mosquitoes, pp. 281^. 
 Snakes, pp. 293-4. 
 
 Brett. Indian tribes of Guiana. 
 
 Adventure with a jaguar, pp. 210-22. 
 
 Stephens. On the Amazons. 
 
 The jaguar. Pictures, pp. 134-7. 
 Peccaries, exciting story, pp. 95-100. 
 
 Stockton. Tales out of school. 
 
 Monkey stories, pp. 278-81. 
 Turtle, pp. 265-8. 
 
 Greenleaf. Stories and faces from animal world. 
 A monkey story. Pictures, pp. 129-32 ; 195-8. 
 
 LocKwooD. Animal memoirs, Part I. 
 Monkey stories, pp. 4-21. 
 
 Youth's Companion Skries. By land and sea. 
 
 Monkeys of Brazil, pp. 92-7. 
 
 Monteith. Familiar animals and their wild kindred. 
 The ways of monkeys, pp. 192-8. 
 
 State Series. New Fourth Reader. 
 
 Monkeys in the front yard (Kipling), pp. 4-6. 
 
 Ober. Camps in the Caribees. 
 
 A monkey hunt. pp. 263-79. 
 
 Tenney. Pictures and stories of animals. 
 Kinds of monkeys. Pictures, pp. 19-24. 
 
 Ober. Crusoe's Island. 
 
 About peccaries, pp. 156-64. 
 Turtles, pp. 95-6. 
 Boa-constrictor, pp. 80^. 
 
 Carpenter. South America. [Geographical reader. ] 
 
 About turtles, pp. 310-12. 
 
 Orton. The Andes and the Amazon. 
 
 Turtles, pp. 215-16 ; 295-8. 
 Peccaries, pp. 221-2 ; 310 ; 477. 
 
 (47) 
 
 O
 
 Mery. The land of the Amazons. 
 Account of the turtles, pp. 164-6. 
 
 Agassiz. Journey in Brazil. 
 Birds of pluiuage. pp. 367-70. 
 Ant houses, pp. 104-6. 
 Insects, pp. 326-8. 
 Fishes, pp. 236^2. 
 
 BuTTERWORTH. Over the Andes. 
 
 Loro, the parrot, pp. 128-36. 
 
 Hartwig. The tropical world. 
 
 Fish and reptiles, pp. 45-7; 59-61; 65-6. 
 
 Birds of the seivas. pp. 46 ; 58-61 ; 344-58 ; 379-98. 
 
 Insects, pp. 40 ; 45-6 ; 61. 
 
 Animals of the seivas. pp. 47 ; 59-60 ; 477-85 ; 511-17. 
 
 Native fishing methods, pp. 65-6. 
 
 Native hunting, pp. 66-8. 
 
 Parrots, pp. 392-8. 
 
 A region sparsely populated by semi-civilized Indians and Negroes. 
 
 Shaw. Big people and little people of other lands. 
 The natives described, pp. 126-8. 
 
 Starr. Strange peoples. 
 
 The Amazon blowgun. pp. 29-30. 
 
 Bates. Naturalist on the Amazons. 
 The blowgun. Also pictures, pp. 280-1. 
 
 Kingston. The wanderers. 
 
 The native and his blowgun. pp. 218-20 ; 288-92. 
 
 Kingston. On the banks of the Amazon. 
 
 Blowgun and poisoned arrows, pp. 166-72; 470-71. 
 
 HiELD. Glimpses of South America. 
 Blowgun. pp. 157-60. 
 Indians, pp. 120-7. 
 
 Knox. Boy travelers in South America. 
 
 The blowgun. pp. 268-74. 
 
 Native huts. p. 266. 
 
 Villages of the Amazon, pp. 296-300. 
 
 Ballantyne. Martin Rattler. 
 
 Natives and their blowguns. pp. 144-6 ; 19:i-4 ; 195-7. 
 
 Ober. Knockabout Club on the Spanish main. 
 Natives. Use of blowgun. pp. 137-42. 
 
 The Amazon and its wonders. 
 The blowgun. pp. 44-8. 
 
 Mark WICK and Smith. South American republics. 
 
 Natives and blowgun. p. 220. 
 Native life. jjp. 205-7. 
 
 Waterton. Wanderings in Soutli America. 
 
 Natives use poison in hunting. i>p. 101-2; 126-36; 140-5; 151-2 ;;4S9-94. 
 The blowgun in hunting, pp. 1.33-9; 366-76. 
 
 Morris. Half hours of travel. Vol. I. 
 
 Blowgun and iioisoi). pj). 433-4 ; 458-60. 
 Life lit the natives, pp. 4.36-443. 
 
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 Rupert. Geographical reader. 
 Indians of Amazon, etc. pp. 192-6. 
 
 Agassiz. a journey in Brazil. 
 
 Natives of the Amazons, pp. 50-1; 82-5; 128-31; 161-3; 176-83; 191-3; 248-9; 
 
 261-3; 265-73; 279-83; 292-3; 372-4. 
 Native dances, pp. 48-9. 
 Native food. pp. 73; 176. 
 
 Hartwig. The tropical world. 
 
 Amazon Indians, pp. 43-4; 49; 62-78; 184-5. 
 Resources, pp. 48-9 ; 183-5. 
 
 4. Rubber, the chief product of the Amazons. 
 
 Carpenter. South America. 
 
 How rubber is gathered, pp. 165-6 ; 583-93. 
 
 Brown. The countries of the world. 
 
 Rubber gathering, pp. 136-9. 
 
 Waterton. Wanderings in South America. 
 Gathering rubber, pp. 331-3. 
 
 Ballou. Equatorial America. 
 Rubber, pp. 111-13. 
 
 Conway. Bolivian Andes. 
 
 Rubber of the upper rivers, pp. 203-18. 
 
 Fletcher. Brazil. 
 
 Rubber, pp. 552-4. 
 
 The Amazon and its wonders. 
 
 Rubber, pp. 140-7. 
 
 Morris. Half hours of travel. Vol. I, America. 
 Collecting rubber, pp. 428-31. 
 
 Bates. Naturalist on the Amazons. 
 
 Rubber, pp. 73-4. 
 
 Champney. Three Vassar girls in South America, 
 
 Rubber, pp. 62-5. 
 
 Kingston. On the banks of the Amazon. 
 
 Rubber gathering, pp. 466-9. 
 
 Stephens. On the Amazons. 
 Rubber, pp. 55-67. 
 
 Kingston. The wanderers. 
 Rubber gathering, pp. 322-6. 
 
 Hield. Glimpses of South America. 
 
 Rubber gathering, pp. 96-9. 
 
 Rupert. Geographical reader. 
 
 How the rubber is gathered, pp. 142-6. 
 
 CoE. Our American neighbors. 
 Rubber, pp. 230-7. 
 
 Nery. The land of the Amazons. 
 
 Exhaustive and technical account of rubber. Teachers' reading, pp. 189-219. 
 
 Knox. Boy travelers of South America. 
 
 Rubber, pp. 300-3; 312-14. 
 4 (49)
 
 Carpenter. South America. [Geographical reader.] 
 
 Collecting rubber, pp. 312-20. 
 Pant, the rubber port. pp. 305-12. 
 
 BuTTERwoRTH. Over the Andes. 
 
 Rubber, pp. 112-13. 
 
 Markwick and Smith. South American republics. 
 Rubber, pp. 208-11. 
 Charles Goodyear, p. 211. 
 
 Andrews. Brazil, its condition and prospects. 
 
 Rubber gathering, pp. 100-2. 
 Parti, the rubber port. pp. 262-72. 
 
 TowLE. Heroes and martyrs of invention. 
 Story of Charles Goodyear, pp 170-9. 
 
 Woods. Primer of political economy. 
 Story of rubber. Excellent, pp. 28-32. 
 
 Clifford. Information Reader, No. 2. 
 
 History and preparation of rubber, pp. 127-33. 
 
 Eggleston. Stories of great Americans. 
 Story of Charles Goodyear, pp. 128-31. 
 
 Hartwig. The tropical world. 
 India rubber, pp. 190-2. 
 
 Vincent. Around and about South America. 
 Manaos, a rubber town. pp. 360-2. 
 
 The Region of the Brazilian Higfhlands* 
 
 ESSENTIALS. 
 
 A region of a mild tropical climate because of its altitude. Its climate 
 and soil are particularly adapted to coffee-raising, in consequence of which 
 there are in the region immense plantations which produce more than half 
 the world's supply of coffee. This region is also famed for the richness of 
 its diamond mines. This industry, together with that of coffee production, 
 has built up the great seaport city of Rio Janerio. 
 
 BEST READING. 
 
 1. The world's greatest coffee country. 
 
 Brown. Countries of the world. 
 
 Brazilian coffee, pp. 139-42. 
 
 Carpenter. South America. 
 
 Coffee, pp. 493-507. 
 
 Ballou. Efjuatorial America. 
 
 Coffee, pp. 149-51. 
 
 Fletchku. iirazil. 
 
 Coffee, pp. 449-52. 
 Bk.\l. The Information Reader, No. 1. 
 Coffee. PI). 256-61. 
 
 Ober. Adventures on the Spanish main. 
 Coffee. i)p. 79-90. 
 rianter'8 home. pp. 211-12. 
 
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 Markwick and Smith. South American republics. 
 The coffee industry, pp. 186-8. 
 
 Andrews. Visit to a coffee plantation. 
 The coffee industry, pp. 137-71. 
 
 Knox. Boy travelers in South America. 
 
 Coffee plantations, pp. 392-3. 
 
 Agassiz, a journey in Brazil. 
 Coffee, pp. 112-15; 506-7. 
 
 CoE. Our American neighbors. 
 Native coffee drinking, pp. 246-7. 
 
 Carpenter. South America. [Geographical reader.] 
 Plantations in Brazil, pp. 257-67. 
 
 HiELD. Glimpses of South America. 
 Coffee, pp. 100-2. 
 
 Allen. Children of the palm lands. 
 Brazilian coffee, pp. 79-97. 
 
 2. This region is famous also for the richness of its diamond mines. 
 Carpenter. South America, pp. 543-7; 288-90. 
 Ruschenberger. Three years in the Pacific, pp. 70-1. 
 Ballou. Equatorial America, pp. 151-3. 
 Carpenter. South America, social, political, and industrial, pp. 
 
 543-4. 
 Bates. Central and South America, pp. 412-13. 
 Ballantyne. Martin Rattler, pp. 255-64. 
 Hield, Mary. Glimpses of South America, pp. 107-11. 
 
 The Orinoco Region. 
 
 ESSENTIALS. 
 
 The region of the llanos, or grassy plains. A region of countless herds 
 of cattle. A region wet in summer and very dry in winter. A region of 
 great natural resources, as yet undeveloped. A region sparsely populated 
 by a non-progressive, ease-loving people. 
 
 BEST READING. 
 
 1. The region of the llanos, or grassy plains. 
 
 Morris. Half hours of travel. Vol. I, America. 
 Physical description of the Orinoco country, pp. 410-13. 
 
 JoHONNOT. Geographical reader. 
 The llanos, pp. 229-33. 
 
 Markwick and Smith. South American republics. 
 Llanos of Colombia, pp. 48-56. 
 
 Carpenter. South America. [Geographical reader.] 
 
 Llanos, pp. 328-9. 
 
 Cattle of the llanos, p. 329. 
 
 The Orinoco, pp. 327-34. 
 
 HiELD. Glimpses of South America. 
 
 Llanos, pp. 141-2; 170. 
 
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 CoE. Our American neighbors. 
 Llanos, pp. 314-16. 
 
 Ober. Adventures on the Spanish main. 
 The Orinoco, pp. 177-8 ; 185-6. 
 
 Hartwig. The tropical world. 
 Yastness of the llanos, p. 11. 
 Fire on the llanos, pp. 14-15. 
 Sand storms on the llanos, pp. 12-13. 
 Lonely aspect of the llanos, p. 19. 
 
 Vincent. Around and about South America, 
 
 2. A region wet in summer and very dry in winter. 
 
 Ober. Adventures on the Spanish main. 
 Climate, La Guayra. pp. 94, 106. 
 
 CoE. Our American neighbors. 
 
 Seasons in the Orinoco country, pp. 314-15. 
 
 Morris. Half hours of travel. Vol. I, America. 
 Wet and dry seasons, pp. 405-8. 
 
 Adams. Commercial geography. 
 Seasons in Venezuela, pp. 343-4. 
 
 Hartwig. The tropical world. 
 
 Dry season on the llanos, pp. 11-15. 
 Return of the rain. pp. 15-18. 
 Fire and sand storms, pp. 12-15. 
 
 3. A region of countless herds of cattle. 
 
 Carpenter. South America. [Geographical reader.] 
 Cattle of the llanos, p. 329. 
 
 Adams. Commercial geography. 
 Cattle of the llanos, p. 345. 
 
 Morris. Half hours of travel. Vol. I, America. 
 The llaneros, or cowboys, pp. 414-24. 
 
 Markwick and Smith. The South American republics. 
 Industries of Venezuela, pp. 88-94. 
 
 4. A region of great natural resources, as yet undeveloped. 
 
 Davis. Three gringos in Venezuela. 
 Caracas, and thereabouts, pp. 221-82. 
 
 Coe. Our American neighbors. 
 Venezuelan cities, pp. 316-20. 
 The Magdalena and Bogota, pp. 309-11. 
 
 Carpe.nter. South America. [Geographical reader.] 
 The Orinoco River, pp. 327-34. 
 Caracas pp. .339-42. 
 
 Butterworth. Over the Andes. 
 La Guayra. ]>]>. 85-91. 
 Cocoa, pp. 92-7. 
 
 Youth's Companion Series. Strange lands near home. 
 
 A Venezuelan railway, pp. 44-51. 
 
 Ober. Adventures on the Spanish main. 
 Cocoanut trees, pp. 73-7 ; 111-12. 
 Caracas. ]>]>. 116-32. 
 La Guayra. pp. 91-105. 
 Things to eat. pp. 148-56. 
 
 (62)
 
 5. A region sparsely populated by a non-progressive, ease-loving people. 
 
 Morris. Half hours of travel. Vol. I, America. 
 The llaneros of Venezuela, pp. 414-24. 
 
 Markwick and Smith. The South American republics. 
 People of Venezuela, etc. pp. 31-94. 
 
 CoE. Our American neighbors. 
 
 Colombia, Venezuela, Guianas. pp. 308-24. 
 
 HiELD. Glimpses of South America. 
 
 The northern countries, pp. 140-80. 
 
 Carpenter. South America. [Geographical reader.] 
 
 The northern peoples, pp. 29-38; 327-50. 
 
 Ober. Adventures on the Spanish main. 
 People of Venezuela, pp. 72-137 ; 180-82 ; 221-39. 
 
 Davis. Three gringos in Venezuela. 
 The people of Caracas, pp. 221-82. 
 
 Youth's Companion Series. By land and sea. 
 A Venezuelan railway, pp. 77-81. 
 
 Youth's Companion Series. Strange lands near home. 
 A Venezuelan railway, pp. 44-51. 
 
 Butterworth. Over the Andes. 
 La Guayra. pp. 85-91. 
 
 Hartwig. The tropical world. 
 
 Tree dwellers on the Orinoco, pp. 18-19, 
 
 Fire on the llanos, pp. 14-15. 
 
 Vastness of the Amazon country, pp. 36-8; 40-1; 47-8. 
 
 Amazon Indians, pp. 43-4; 49; 62-78; 184-5. 
 
 Resources, pp. 48-9 ; 183-5. 
 
 Story of Madame Godin. p. 52. 
 
 Native customs, dwellings, etc. pp. 68-78. 
 
 Vincent. Around and about South America. 
 People and places in the Guianas. pp. 366-95. 
 Up the Orinoco, pp. 400-4. 
 The country about Caracas, pp. 405-14. 
 The Magdalena country, pp. 424-35. 
 
 The La Plata Re§fion. 
 
 ESSENTIALS. 
 
 A region of low, level, grassy plains — the pampas — famous for its 
 herding grounds for cattle and sheep. The great center of the frozen-meat 
 trade of the world. 
 
 BEST READING. 
 
 A region of low, level, grassy plains — the pampas— famous for its herding 
 grounds for cattle and sheep. 
 Markwick and Smith. The South American republics. 
 
 The pampas described, pp. 248-55. 
 
 La Plata region. Social life, etc., pp. 248-55; Products, pp. 265-72. 
 
 Uruguay, pp. 286-300. 
 
 Argentine history, pp. 221-31. 
 
 Description, pp. 231-8 ; 255-65. 
 
 CoE. Our American neighbors. 
 The pampas, pp. 257-63. 
 The Argentina cowboy, pp. 25&-63. 
 Buenos Ayres. pp. 264-5. 
 The Parana valley, pp. 249-56. 
 
 (53)
 
 HiELD. Glimpses of South America. 
 
 The pampas and their cowboys, pp. 194-208. 
 Patagonia, pp. 208-218. 
 
 Pratt. Geographical reader. 
 
 The pampas, pp. 105-7. 
 
 Brown. The countries of the world. 
 Appearance of plains, pp. 232-5. 
 Gauchos. pp. 242-8. 
 
 Adams. Commercial geography. 
 
 The wool, frozen meat, etc., of Argentina, pp. 361-2. 
 The wheat of Argentina, pp. 362-3. Map, p. 357. 
 Buenos Ayres as a rail center, jip. 364-5. 
 
 Carpenter. South America. 
 
 Sheep farming on the Plata, pp. 275-7. 
 The gauchos. pp. 333-5. 
 
 Carpenter. South America. [Geographical reader.] 
 The gauchos of Argentina, pp. 179-81. 
 
 Knox. Boy travelers in South America. 
 
 The gauchos. pp. 415-16; 420-23; 442-4. 
 
 JoHONNOT. Geographical reader. 
 The gauchos. pp. 226-9. 
 
 Morris. Half hours of travel. Vol. I, America. 
 The gauchos. pp. 495-503. 
 
 Spear. Gold diggings of Cape Horn. 
 
 The gauchos. pp. 228-49. 
 
 Paez. Wild scenes in South America. 
 The gauchos. pp. 44-51. 
 
 Chase and Clow. Stories of Industry, Vol. 2. 
 
 Hides, Argentina, pp. 79-81. 
 
 Wood. Primer of political economy. 
 Herding in Argentina, pp. 1-7. 
 
 Tarr and McMurry. Geography, Book III. 
 The La Plata countries, pp. 118-25. 
 
 Vincent. Around and about South America. 
 Good description of Patagonia, pp. 140-2. 
 La Plata River, p. 143. 
 Montevideo, and Uruguay, pp. 143-50. 
 Buenos Ayres. pp. 151-8. 
 The pampas, p. 158. 
 Parana River towns, pp. 158-66. 
 Scenes in Paraguay, pp. 167-85. 
 The Upper Parana, pp. 186-93. 
 A Paraguayan ranch, pp. 195-203. 
 The meat trade of Uruguay, pp. 204-11. 
 
 Bishop. A thousand miles walk. 
 
 Appearance of the Pampas, pp. 37-9; 78. 
 
 Buenos Ayres described. \>\>. 42-4. 
 
 The gauchos of U'rugiiay. i>p. 50-8; 61-6. 
 
 Along the Parana, pp. 72-5. 
 
 A ride witli a gaucho. pp. 76-100. 
 
 The "oBtriclies " of the pampas, pp. 86-9. 
 
 Life on the i)anipas. j)p. 101-64. 
 
 First HJgbt of tlie Andes, pp. 169-70. 
 
 In western Argentina, p. 182. 
 
 Smith. Temperate Chili. 
 
 The pampas of Argentina, jip. 379-80. 
 
 (54)
 
 The Andes Reg'ion. 
 
 ESSENTIALS. 
 
 The land of the llama and of the Inca. A region of volcanoes, of 
 great altitudes, and of precipitous slopes. A region whose climate ranges 
 from the equatorial heat of its foothills to the arctic cold of its mountain 
 peaks, and from the aridity of the desert to the excessive wetness of the 
 region on the south. A region famous for its mines of silver, which are 
 worked by the natives, who employ crude and wasteful methods. 
 
 BEST READING. 
 
 1. The land of the llama and the Inca. 
 
 Markwick and Smith. The South American republics. 
 Historical sketch of Peru. pp. 117-27. 
 Incas. pp. 148-50. 
 
 Historical sketch of Ecuador, pp. 94-101. 
 Historical sketch of Bolivia, pp. 154-60. 
 Scenes and people in Bolivia, pp. 161-9. 
 Chili, pp. 301-10 ; 312-27. 
 
 CoE. Our American neighbors. 
 In and about Quito, pp. 303-8. 
 Across the Andes, pp. 268-70. 
 Llamas, pp. 299-300. 
 Incas. pp. 287-9. . 
 
 Carpenter. South America. [Geographical reader,] 
 Land of the llama, pp. 74-7. 
 Descendants of the Incas. pp. 48-9 ; 55-8. 
 
 HiELD. Glimpses of South America. 
 
 Temples and ruins of Bolivia, pp. 74-81 ; 86-8. 
 Condors, pp. 202-3. 
 Llamas, pp. 70-3. 
 
 BuTTERwoRTH. Ovcr the Andes. 
 The Incas. pp. 312-16 ; 344-55. 
 
 Henty. The treasure of the Incas. 
 The Incas. pp. 71-87. 
 Relics of the Incas. pp. 87-105. 
 
 Brown. The countries of the world. 
 
 Llamas, pp. 188-90. 
 
 Orton. The Andes and Amazon. 
 The condor of the Andes, pp. 564-9. 
 
 Headley. Mountain adventures. 
 
 The condor, pp. 345-50. 
 
 Knox. Boy travelers in South America. 
 Llama, alpaca, vicuna, pp. 199-202. 
 Inca dwellings, etc. pp. 163-76 ; 206-11 ; 220-28. 
 
 RicKARD. Journey across the Andes. 
 Huanaco. pp. 147-61 ; 161-3. 
 
 Darwin. Journal of researches. Voyage of the Beagle. 
 
 Guanaco. pp. 175-8. 
 
 Morris. Half hours of travel. Vol. I, America. 
 
 Guanaco of Patagonia, p. 513. 
 The Incas. pp. 485-95. 
 
 (55)
 
 Spear. Gold diggings of Cape Horn. 
 Guanaco. (Good.) pp. 184-90. 
 
 Carpenter. South America, 
 
 Llamas, pp. 141-4 ; 175-6. 
 Incas. pp. 80-1. 
 
 Frost. Wild scenes of a hunter's life. 
 Hunting the llama, pp. llS-16. 
 
 Ballou. Tropical America. 
 Llamas, pp. 340-1. 
 
 Kingston. On the banks of the Amazon. 
 
 Llamas, pp. 118-20. 
 
 • Youth's Companion Series. Strange lands near home. 
 
 Llamas, pp. 8^92. 
 
 JoHONNOT. Geographical reader. 
 Koads of the Incas. pp. 306-9. 
 
 Starr. Strange peoples. [Ethno. Geog. Reader, No 1.] 
 The Incas. pp. 26-8. 
 
 Brown. Countries of the world. 
 The Incas. pp. 310-15. 
 
 Markham. Cuzco and Lima. 
 
 Detailed account of Incas. pp. 202-38. 
 
 Ballou. Equatorial America. 
 The Incas. pp. 368-71. 
 
 Hartwig. The tropical world. 
 Llama, alpaca, etc. pp. 23-7 ; 29. 
 
 2. A region of volcanoes, earthquakes, great altitudes, and of precipitous slopes. 
 
 Darwin. Journal of researches. Voyage of the Beagle. 
 Earthquakes of the Andes, pp. 322-33. 
 
 Markwick and Smith. The South American republics. 
 Scenery in Ecuador, pp. 110-17. 
 
 Carpenter. South America. [Geographical reader.] 
 Physical features of Ecuador, pp. 38-9. 
 Climbing the Chilian Andes, pp. 115-22. 
 Steamboating above the clouds, pp. 81-6. 
 On the roof of South America, pp. 44-6 ; 72-81. 
 Up the Peruvian Andes, pji. 67-72. 
 Mountains of Colombia. i)p. 29-38. 
 
 JoHONNOT. (Geographical reader. 
 Lake Titicaca. pp. 63-9. 
 
 Butterworth. Over the Andes. 
 
 Grandeur of tlie .Andes, pp. 222-6. 
 
 Climbing the Andes, pp. 240-52. 
 
 Lake Titicaca. pp. 309-12. 
 
 The highe.st railroad in the world, pp. 319-22. 
 
 The mountains of Ecuador, ji]). 3.35M4. 
 
 HiELD. Glimpses of South America. 
 
 The volcano of Cotopa.xi. pp. 180-4. 
 
 Frost. Modern explorers. 
 
 The mountains of Peru. pp. 164-89. 
 
 (56)
 
 Bishop. A thousand miles walk. 
 Pass in the Andes, pp. 277-304. 
 Condors, pp. 292-5. 
 Earthquake at Mendoza. p. 211. 
 Andes town of Mendoza. pp. 195-215. 
 Town of San Juan. pp. 216-29. 
 A notable gaucho. pp. 230-5. 
 
 Knox. Boy travelers in South America. 
 
 Condors of the Andes, pp. 469-70. 
 
 Kingston. On the banks of the Amazon. 
 
 The condors of the Andes, pp. 112-15 ; 124-6 ; 251-3. 
 
 Darwin. Journal of researches. Voyage of the Beagle. 
 
 Condors, pp. 192-7. 
 
 Smith, Temperate Chili. 
 
 Across the Andes, pp. 366-78. 
 
 Hartwig. The tropical world. 
 
 The cold, high valleys of the Andes, pp. 20-3. 
 Condors, pp. 28 ; 376-8. 
 
 3. A region whose climate ranges from the equatorial heat of its foothills to the 
 
 atretic cold of its mountain peaks; and from the aridity of the desert to the 
 excessive wetness of the south. 
 
 Darwin. Journal of researches. Voyage of the Beagle. 
 The wetness of Chili, pp. 291-319. 
 
 Carpenter, South America. [Geographical reader,] 
 
 The desert of Atacama. pp. 50-2 ; 100-107. 
 Climate of Chili, pp. 108-10 ; 150. 
 Straits of Magellan, pp. 151-67. 
 
 BuTTERWORTH, Ovcr the Andes, 
 The desert, pp. 308-9. 
 
 Hartwig. The tropical world. 
 
 The Atacama Desert, pp. 30-5. 
 Guano, p. 35. 
 
 4. A region famous for its silver mines, which are worked by natives in a crude 
 
 and wasteful manner. 
 
 Carpenter. South America, [Geographical reader.] 
 Mining in the Andes, pp. 95-100. 
 
 Knox. Boy travelers in South America. 
 
 Mining in the Andes, pp. 230-36 ; 238-40. 
 
 Markwick and Smith, South American republics. 
 Gold and silver of Peru. pp. 127-37. 
 
 HiELD. Glimpses of South America. 
 
 Silver in the Andes, pp. 50-60. 
 
 Carpenter, South America, 
 
 Silver mining in the Andes, pp. 177-83. 
 
 RiCKARD. Journey across the Andes. 
 Silver in the Andes, pp. 201-20. 
 
 (57)
 
 The Patagfonian Regfion. 
 
 ESSENTIALS. 
 
 A bleak, barren, inhospitable land. A land of ice, of cold, and of fierce 
 storms. A region inhabited by wandering tribes, who eke out a miserable 
 existence by hunting and fishing. 
 
 s 
 
 BEST READING. 
 
 Brown. The countries of the world. 
 
 Animals of Patagonia, pp. 218-19 ; 235-9. 
 People of Patagonia, pp. 229 ; 288-9. 
 Fuegians. pp. 248-54. 
 
 Spears. Gold diggings of Cape Horn. 
 
 The ostriches, pp. 201-6. 
 
 Birds and animals of Patagonia, pp. 201-14. 
 
 Native life. pp. 151-67. 
 
 Fuegians. pp. 47-78 ; 127-36. 
 
 CoE. Our American neighbors. 
 
 The "Southernmost town in the world." pp. 286-7. 
 Patagonia described, p. 266. 
 The ostriches, pp. 267-8. 
 
 Bates. Central and South America. 
 Patagonian Indians, pp. 284-6. 
 
 Rupert. Geographical reader. 
 Patagonian Indians, pp. 192-6. 
 
 Carpenter, South America. 
 Savages of Patagonia, pp. 281-3. 
 
 Morris. Half hours of travel. Vol. I, America. 
 Natives of Patagonia, pp. 512-22 
 
 Bishop. A thousand miles walk. 
 Patagonians. pp. 205-7. 
 Pampas cattle, pp. 78-80; 84-6. 
 Colts, pp. 89-92. 
 Ostrich, pp. 87-9. 
 
 Vincent. Around and about South America. 
 
 The Fuegians. pj). 122-7. 
 Catching ostriches, pp. 141-2. 
 
 Knox. Boy travelers in South America. 
 
 Natives of Patagonia, pp. 492-4 ; 499-506. 
 Native weapons, pp. 420-3. 
 Ostriches, pp. 495-7. 
 
 KiNG.STON. On the banks of the Amazon. 
 Patagonia; natives, pp. 69-76. 
 Ostriches, pp. 72-3. 
 
 Carpenter. South America. [Geographical reader.] 
 
 Life at I'unta Arenas. i)p. 1.5tM)7. 
 In the Straits of Magellan, pp. 151-9. 
 Ostriches, pp. 167-73. 
 
 BuTTERWoitTH. Ovct the Andes. 
 Giant natives of Patagonia, pp. 203-4. 
 Fuegians. pp. 201-6. 
 Ostricli hunt. pp. 206-7. 
 
 (58)
 
 Ballou. Equatorial America. 
 Natives of Patagonia, pp. 279-81. 
 Fuegians. pp. 287-90. 
 
 HiELD. Glimpses of South America. 
 
 The bolas. pp. 213-14. 
 Fuegians. pp. 217-18. 
 Patagonians. pp. 20S-17. 
 Ostrich hunt. pp. 210-11. 
 
 Markwick and Smith. South American republics. 
 Native giants of Patagonia, pp. 233-4. 
 
 Brown. Peoples of the world. 
 
 Patagonian natives, pp. 282-99. 
 
 Darwin. Journal of researches. Voyage of the Beagle. 
 The Fuegians. pp. 245-8. 
 Tierra del Fuego. pp. 215-67. 
 Ostriclies. pp. 93-6. 
 
 Shaw. Big people and little people of other lands. 
 Ostriches of Patagonia, pp. 94-7. 
 
 Cooper. Animal life. 
 
 Ostriches in Patagonia, pp. 277-81. 
 
 Dixie. Across Patagonia. 
 
 An ostrich hunt. pp. 102-15. 
 
 (59)
 
 THE CONTINENT OF NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 '""Dmiinl 
 
 1. Arctic Region. 
 
 2. Region of Canada. 
 
 3. Region of the United States. 
 
 (See separate treatment.) 
 
 4. Region of Mexico and Central 
 
 America. 
 
 5. Region of West Indies. 
 
 6. Region of the Hawaiian 
 
 Islands. 
 
 Fig. 26. 
 
 The Arctic Regfion. 
 
 ESSENTIALS. 
 
 The land of the " Northern lights " and of the long day and night. A 
 land of moss and lichens, of icebergs, of snow, and of cold. The home of 
 the seal, the walrus, the reindeer, and the polar bear. A land sparsely- 
 inhabited by a simple, rude, semi-civilized people — the Eskimo. A land 
 which marks man's vain struggle to reach the pole. 
 
 BEST BOOKS. 
 
 Ballantyne, R. M. Fast in the ice. Mershon. 50c. 
 
 A tale of adventure in the polar regions. Descriptive of the ice, walrus, bears, 
 Eskimos, and the dangers of Arctic voyaging. 
 
 Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 ScHWATKA, Frederick. The children of the cold. Ed. Pub. Co. $1.25. 
 Descriptions of the Eskimos. One of the best books of its kind ever written. 
 Illustrated. 
 
 Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 MuNROE, Kirk. Under the great bear. 1900. Doubleday. $1.25. 
 A tale of the Arctic region, for boys. 
 
 Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 Hall, Capt. CiiAs. W. Adrift in the ice fields. Lee. (Fiction.) $1.00. 
 A chronicle of the adventures of hunters in the vast ice pack around Hudson Bay. 
 A boy's book of adventure. 
 
 Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 (60)
 
 Ford, John D. An American cruiser in the east. 1898. Barnes. $2.50. 
 Descriptive of a cruise in Bering Sea. Interesting. Many illustrations. 
 
 Grades 7, 8, 
 
 Companion Series. The wide world. 1902. Ginn. 25c. 
 Interesting and readable account of people and places. 
 
 Grades 4, 5, 6. 
 
 George, Marian M. Little journeys to Alaska and Canada. 1901- 
 
 Flanagan. 50c. 
 
 The history of Alaska— climate — child life — Eskimos. 
 
 Grades 5, 6. 
 
 Nansen, Dr. Fridtjaf. Farthest north. 1897. Harper. 2 vols. -$3.00. 
 A record of the voyage of explorations of the " Fram," and of a fifteen months' 
 sleigh journey by Nansen and Johansen. A fascinating series of adventures. 
 Many beautiful pictures. 
 
 Grades 7, 8. 
 
 Munroe, Kirk. Snowshoes and sledges. 1901, Harper. (Fiction.) 
 
 $1.25. 
 
 A stirring boys' story of adventure in the Arctic regions. 
 
 Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 Munroe, Kirk. The fur-seal's tooth. 1902. Harper. $1.25. 
 A story of Alaskan adventure. Much valuable material. Illustrated. 
 
 Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 Companion Series. Our country: West. 1900. Perry Mason. 50c. 
 A number of short stories describing the Eskimo, reindeer, and seals of northern 
 and western Alaska. Interesting to children. 
 
 Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 King, Charles F. The land we live in. [Picturesque geographical 
 
 readers, Bk. V.] 1896. Lee. 56c. net. 
 
 Describes the glaciers, the seals, the fishing, and the Indians. 
 
 Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 The Regfion of Canada. 
 essentials. 
 
 Until recently a region of trappers and fur-traders. A region as large 
 as the United States with a population no greater than New York. A region 
 characterized on the north by the severity of the climate and by the abund- 
 ance of its fur-bearing animals; on the south by its broad belt of valuable 
 forest and by its extensive wheat areas; and on the coast by the most 
 extensive fisheries of the world. 
 
 best books. 
 
 Seton-Thompson, Grace G. A woman tenderfoot, [c. 1900.] Double- 
 day. $2.00. 
 
 Interestingepisodesof life spent in the wilds of Canada and the west. Illustrated. 
 
 Grades 7, 8. 
 Carpenter, F. G. North America. [Geographical reader.] [c. 1898.] 
 
 Am. Bk. Co. 70c. 
 
 Describes the cities of Canada, also the hunting region of Hudson Bay. 
 
 Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 (61)
 
 The Reg-ion of Mexico and Central America. 
 
 ESSENTIALS. 
 
 The land of the brown skin and of the adobe ; of the sombrero and the 
 spurs ; of the red pepper and tortillas. It is a tropical region, wet and 
 unhealthful in the lowlands ; drier and cooler in the highlands. The 
 lowlands produce coffee, rubber, tropical fruits, and ornamental woods ; its 
 highlands, cochineal and silver. 
 
 BEST BOOKS. 
 
 Blake, M. E., and Sullivan, M. F. Mexico. 1888. Lee. •tl.25. 
 
 Describes the City of Mexico. Stories of pilgrimages, of the religion, of the 
 government, and of the education are given. Is valuable reading for both 
 teacher and pupil. 
 
 Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 Baylor, F. C. Juan and Juanita. 1888. Houghton. $1.50. 
 
 The story of two Mexican children who were captured by the Indians. Their 
 escape four years later, and their journey of four hundred miles through the 
 wilderness to the Texas settlement is thrillingly told. 
 
 Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 Crawford, Cora H. Thelandof the Montezumas. 1889. Clarke. $1.00. 
 Describes a Mexican resort, mining methods, the City of Mexico, and gives also a 
 brief sketch of Mexican history. 
 
 Grade 8. 
 
 Stephens, C. A. The Knockabout Club in the tropics, [c. 1883.] 
 
 Estes. $1.25. 
 
 Mucli information in story form concerning customs and history of the country. 
 
 Grades 7, 8. 
 
 SwEEDiE, Mrs. Alec. Mexico as I saw it. 1901. Macmillan. 
 
 The cock fight; bull fight; ancient ruins. Amass of up-to-date information 
 written in a very interesting way. Fine pictures. 
 
 Grades 7, 8. 
 
 Baxter, Sylvester. The cruise of a land yacht. Little, Brown. $1.25. 
 Customs and scenes of Mexico. In story form. 
 
 Grades 7, 8. 
 
 Oder, Fred A. The Knockabout Club in search of treasure, [c. 1892.] 
 
 Lothrop. $1.25. 
 
 Interesting stories of life among mines, caves, strange places in Mexico in search 
 of buried treasure. 
 
 Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 George, Marian M. A little journey to Mexico, [c. 1901.] Flana- 
 gan. 50c. 
 
 A description of tlie country, its hi.story. City of Mexico, homes and home life, 
 food, amusements. Interesting fur children. 
 
 Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 Ballou, Matukin M. Footprints of travel. 1896. Ginn. 60c. 
 Climate, City of Mexico, products, and people. 
 
 Grades 7, 8. 
 
 Companion Series. The wide world. 1902. (iinii. 25c. 
 
 A chapter on the boys of Mexico, their amusements and character. 
 
 Grades 4, 5. 
 
 («2)
 
 Companion Series. Strange lands near home. 1902. Ginn. 25c. 
 
 Chapter on the grand plaza of Mexico by Joaquin Miller. Another chapter on a 
 Mexican city. 
 
 Grades 5, 6. 
 
 Hale, Rev. and Miss Susan. Family flight through Mexico. 1893. 
 Lothrop. $1.50. 
 
 Descriptions in story form for the grades. 
 
 Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 Le Plongeon, Alice D. Here and there in Yucatan, [c. 1889.] 
 
 Lovell. 
 
 Interesting description of pygmies and Caribs, their customs and superstitions- 
 
 Grades 7, 8. 
 
 Carpenter, Frank G. North America. [Geographical reader.] [c. 
 1898.] Am. Bk. Co. 70c. 
 
 Especially interesting to children. Three chapters on the customs and habits of 
 the people. 
 
 Grades 6, 7. 
 
 King, Charles F. This continent of ours. [The picturesque geography 
 
 readers.] 1890. Lee. 72c. net. 
 
 Several chapters on the climate, people, farming, and gathering cocoa. Well 
 illustrated. 
 
 Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 Knox, T. W. Boy travelers in Mexico, [c. 1889.] Harper. -$2.00. 
 
 The social and political history, resources, manners, and customs of the land of 
 the Aztecs are given in an interesting story form. 
 
 Grades 7, 8. 
 
 Ober, F. a. Montezuma's gold mines, [c. 1888.] Lothrop. $1.00. 
 Tells of the search for golden treasure in an interesting manner. 
 
 Grades 7, 8. 
 
 Flippin, J. R. Sketches from the mountains of Mexico. [1890.] Stand- 
 ard Pub. Co. 
 
 Much information suitable to the teacher. 
 
 Ballou, Mattirin M. Aztec land. 1890. Houghton. $1.50. 
 
 Contains many facts of interest regarding history, scenery, customs, modern and 
 ancient. No illustrations. 
 
 Grades 7, 8. 
 
 Wells, D. A. Study of Mexico. 1887. Appleton. $1.00. 
 A view of the industrial and social conditions of Mexico. 
 
 For teachers. 
 
 Reid, Christian. The land of the sun. 1894. Appleton. $1.75. 
 Fiction. Scene laid in Mexico. Mexican life portrayed. 
 
 ScHWATKA, Frederick. In the land of the cave and cliff dwellers. 
 
 [c. 1899.] Ed. Pub. Co. $1.25. 
 
 Popular account of the adventures and researches of two expeditions sent to 
 northern Mexico. Much information regarding the cave and cliff dwellers 
 still to be found in Mexico. 
 
 Grades 7, 8. 
 
 Smith, F. H. A white umbrella in Mexico. 1889. Houghton. $1.50. 
 An artist's experience in Mexico. Well written. 
 
 Grade 8. 
 
 (63)
 
 BuTTERWORTH, Hezekiah. Lost ill Nicaragua, [c. 1898.] Wilde. $1.00. 
 ■ Describes the land of coft'ee farms and banana plantations. Many interesting 
 stories. 
 
 Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 Bell, C. Napier. Tangweera. 1899. Arnold Sons. 16s. 
 
 The record of the experiences of a man who passed his youth among the gentle 
 savages of Central America. Describes the natives, customs, animals, and vegeta- 
 tion. Interesting. A few fine illustrations. 
 
 Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 Squier, E. George. Adventures on the mosquito shore. 1891. Hurst. 
 60c. 
 
 The Indians, cvistoms, animal life, fevers, scenery. Well written. Interesting to 
 children. 
 
 Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 The Region of the West Indies. 
 
 ESSENTIALS. 
 
 A region noted for its exportation of sugar, tobacco, sponges, and 
 tropical fruits. It has a wet, tropical climate and is covered for the most 
 part with forests. Cuba and Puerto Rico, embracing half the area of the 
 West Indies, have recently been freed from the tyrannical control of Spain. 
 In consequence of Spain's repressive rule their great natural wealth has 
 been but little developed. 
 
 BEST BOOKS. 
 
 Kellogg, Eva M. C. Australia and the islands of the sea. [The 
 
 world and its people, Bk. VIII.] 1898. Silver. 68c. 
 
 Several chapters describing the islands, their government, people, and customs. 
 Well illustrated. 
 
 Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 George, Marian M. Little journeys to Cuba and Puerto Rico. 
 
 [c. 1900.] Flanagan. 50c. 
 
 An interesting story of people, habits and customs, food, and productions. Illus- 
 trated. 
 
 Grades 4, 5, 6. 
 
 Carroll, Stella W., and Hart, E. M. Around the world. [Geo- 
 graphical series, Bk. III.] 1901. Morse. 60c. 
 Tells of the people and scenes in Cuba and Puerto Rico. 
 
 Grades 4, 5. 6. 
 
 Oder, F. A. A boy's adventures in the West Indies, [c. 1888.] 
 
 Caldwell. 
 
 A very interesting account of adventures in the region. Many illustrations and 
 much valuable material. 
 
 Grades T), 6, 7. 
 
 Allen, Alice E. Children of the palm lands, [c. 1901.] VA. Pub. 
 Co. 50c. 
 
 The scenes in '• banana land." I llustrated. 
 
 Grades 4, 5. 
 (64)
 
 The Region of the Hawaiian Islands* 
 
 ESSENTIALS. 
 
 A mild, pleasant, healthful climate. The vegetation is of a tropical 
 nature, dense and luxuriant. The islands produce and export great quan- 
 tities of sugar, bananas, pineapples, rice, and colTee. The natives are more 
 intelligent, progressive, and gentle-mannered than any other of the inhabi- 
 tants of the South Sea Islands. These islands are a famous resort for 
 travelers on account of the mild, even climate, the picturesqueness of the 
 scenery, and because of the interesting customs of the natives. They also 
 contain the leper settlements. Until their recent acquisition by the United 
 States, these islands had a monarchical government of their own. 
 
 BEST BOOKS. 
 
 Kellogg, Eva M. C. Australia and the islands of the sea. [The 
 
 world and its people, Bk. VIII.] 1898. Silver. 68c. 
 
 A chapter describing the people, their habits and customs, their food, and their 
 life. 
 
 Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 Carroll, Stella W., and Hart, E. M. Around the world. [Geo- 
 graphical series, Bk. III.] 1901. Morse. 60c. 
 The people, their food, clothing, houses described. 
 
 Grades 4, 5, 6. 
 
 Ballou, Maturin M. Footprints of travel. 1896. Ginn. 60c. 
 Description of the Hawaiian Islands. 
 
 Grades 7, 8. 
 
 TwoMBLY, A. S. Hawaii and its people. [The world and its people, 
 
 Bk. IX.] 1900. Silver. 68c. 
 
 Treats of ancient Hawaii and its folklore, the transition period, and the modern 
 period. Though much of the treatment is historical, there is much descriptive 
 matter included. Interesting. 
 
 Grades 7, 8. 
 
 Pratt, Mara L. Australasia. [People and places here and there. 
 
 Vol. I.] Ed. Pub. Co. Cloth, 60c. 
 
 Native customs ; eating poi ; the food ; the famous volcano ; the leper island. 
 Interesting. 
 
 Grades 4, 5, 6. 
 
 Meriwether, Lee. The tramp at home. 1889. Harper. $1.25. 
 Description of the volcanoes and of the island of lepers. 
 
 Grades 7, 8. 
 
 (65)
 
 THE COUNTRY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Fig. 27. 
 
 1. The Pacific Reg;ion. (See special treatment of California.) 
 
 2. The Plateau Region. 
 
 3. The Grazing or Prairie Region. 
 
 4. The Agricultural Region. 
 
 5. The Alleghany Region. 
 
 6. The Region of Manufactories. (New England.) 
 
 7. The Gulf Region. 
 
 8. The Lumbering Region. 
 
 The Pacific Reg-ion. 
 
 ESSENTIALS. 
 
 A region characterized by a mild climate, by the abundance of its rain- 
 fall, by the richness of its gold mines, b}^ the extent of its lumbering areas, 
 and by the variety of its occupations. It is a region whose resources are as 
 yet but little developed. 
 
 BEST BOOKS. 
 
 Champney, Eliz. W. Three Vassar girls at home. 1888. Estes. $1.25. 
 A trip through the West. Experiences in the high mountains. Pueblos of 
 Arizona and California described. 
 
 Graden 6, 7, 8. 
 
 Carroll, Stella W., and Hart, E. M. Around the world. [Geo- 
 graphical series, Bk. III.] 1901. Morse. 60c. 
 
 Describes gold mining in tlie West and the chief occupations and scenes in Cali- 
 fornia. Illustrated. 
 
 Grades 4, 5, 6. 
 
 Companion Series. Our country: West. 1900. Perry Mason. 50c. 
 Tells of the lumbermen of the Sierras; of the big trees of California, etc. 
 
 Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 (66)
 
 The Plateau Regfion. 
 
 ESSENTIALS. 
 
 A region famed for its wild, rugged scenery, for its gold and silver mines, 
 and for its extensive stock ranges. Much of its mineral wealth is yet 
 undeveloped because of the inaccessibility of the region. 
 
 BEST BOOKS. 
 
 Companion Series. Our country: West. 1900. Perry Mason. 50c. 
 
 A number of interesting short stories of adventure and life in the Rocky 
 Mountains. Illustrated. Valuable information. 
 
 Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 Seton-Thompson, Grace G. A woman tenderfoot, [c. 1900.] Double- 
 day. $2.00. 
 
 Many interesting details of life spent in the West. Illustrated. 
 
 Grades 7, 8. 
 
 Carpenter, F. G. North America. [Geographical reader.] [c. 1898.] 
 
 Am. Bk. Co. 70c. 
 
 The wonders and treasures of the Rocky Mountain region described. 
 
 Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 King, Charles F. The land we live in. [Picturesque geographical 
 
 readers, Bk. V.] 1896. Lee. 56c. net. 
 
 Description of the scenery and the mines of gold and silver. 
 
 Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 The Grazingf or Prairie Regfion. 
 
 essentials. 
 
 Once the home of the buffalo. A region of rolling prairie, the rainfall 
 of which is sufficient to furnish feed for countless herds of cattle and sheep. 
 
 BEST BOOKS. 
 
 Companion Series. Our country: West. 1900. Perry Mason. 50c. 
 
 Tells of pioneer life in Dakota; of the cowboys of the plains; of the cattle 
 trails ; and of wild horses. 
 
 Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 Smith, Minna C. Our own country. [The world and its people, Bk. 
 
 III.] Introduction price, 50c. 
 
 Several chapters descriptive of the prairie regions. 
 
 Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 Meriwether, Lee. The tramp at home. 1889. Harper. 11.25. 
 The rough life of Texas cowboys depicted. 
 
 Grades 7, 8. 
 
 LuMMis, Charles F. A New Mexico David. 1891. Scribner. $1.25. 
 stories and sketches of the Southwest. Tells of cowboy life in New Mexico. 
 Illustrated. 
 
 Grades 7, 8. 
 
 Hough, E. The story of the cowboy. 1898. Appleton. $L50. 
 
 A very interesting and instructive account of the life of the cowboy on the 
 cattle ranges. Many good pictures. 
 
 Grades 7, 8. 
 
 (67)
 
 The Agricultural Reg-ion. 
 
 ESSENTIALS. 
 
 A region of fertile soil and of sufficient rainfall to make it famous for its 
 production of grain and livestock. A region also famous for the extent of 
 its packing industries and for its excellent facilities for the transportation 
 of its products. 
 
 BEST BOOKS. 
 
 Carroll, Stella W., and Hart, E. M. Around the world. [Geo- 
 graphical series, Bk. III.] 1901. Morse. 60c. 
 
 Describes the wheat and stock-raising region of Mississippi Valley. 
 
 Grades 4, 5, 6. 
 Carpenter, F. G. North America. [Geographical reader.] [c. 1898.] 
 Am. Bk. Co. 70c. 
 
 A visit to a great wheat farm and a trip through the corn belt described. 
 
 Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 The Alleghany Regfion. 
 
 essentials. 
 
 A region noted for its oil wells, its coal mines, and its manufactories of 
 
 steel. The mines are worked for the most part by foreign laborers or by 
 
 those of foreign extraction. In consequence, the population consists largely 
 
 of these classes. 
 
 best books. 
 
 King, Charles F. The land we live in. [Picturesque geographical 
 
 readers, Bk. IV.] 1897. Lee. 56c. net. 
 
 An interesting description of process of making steel, of procuring oil, and of 
 digging out coal. Many illustrations. 
 
 Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 Carroll, Stella W., and Hart, Estelle M. Around the world. [Geo- 
 graphical series, Bk. III.] 1901. Morse. 60c. 
 
 Tells of the production of iron, coal, and oil. Illustrated. 
 
 Grades 4, 5, 6. 
 
 Carpenter, F. G. North America. [Geographical reader.] [c. 1898.] 
 
 Am. Bk. Co. 70c. 
 
 Chapters describing travels in the coal and oil region. 
 
 Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 The Regfion of the Manufactories. (New Engfland.) 
 
 ESSENTLVLS. 
 
 A region having a rugged coast line, well adapted for commercial activi- 
 ties and for fishing. Famous in American history as the home of the 
 Pilgrim fathers. A region of short, rapid rivers, furnishing water power 
 for many mills engaged in making cloth, leather goods, machinery, hard- 
 ware, watches, and firearms. 
 
 best books. 
 
 King, Charles F. The land we live in. [Picturesque geographical 
 
 readers, Bk. III.] 1893. Lee. 56c. net. 
 
 Tells of till- nights and scenes to be observed in a New England manufacturing 
 town. Describes the making of shoes, of thread, ijooks, watches, a suit of 
 clothes, etc. 
 
 Grades 4, 5, 6. 
 
 (68)
 
 Hale, Rev. E. E. and Miss Susan. A family flight around home. 
 
 [c. 1884.] Lothrop. $1.50. 
 
 Relates many stories connected with the historic places of New England. 
 Describes present-day scenes. 
 
 Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 Carpenter, F. G. North America. [Geographical reader.] [c. 1898.] 
 
 Am. Bk. Co. 70c. 
 
 Describes the commerce and manufacturing industry of this region. 
 
 Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 Meriwether, Lee. The tramp at home. 1889. Harper. $1.25. 
 Tells how factory operatives live and work. Interesting. 
 
 Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 Companion Series. Our country: East. 1901. Perry Mason. 50c. 
 Describes the maple sugar camps, cranberry farms, etc. 
 
 Grades 7, 8. 
 
 The Gulf Regfion. 
 
 ESSENTIALS. 
 
 The home of the negro population and once the seat of slavery. A region 
 characterized by its great cotton, rice, and tobacco plantations, and by its 
 moist, hot climate. 
 
 BEST BOOKS. 
 
 King, Charles F. The land we live in. [Picturesque geographi- 
 cal readers, Bk. IV.] 1897. Lee. 56c. net. 
 
 Describes the cotton field, how the cotton is ginned, and the various processes 
 through which it is passed. Interesting. Well illustrated. 
 
 Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 Champney, Elizabeth W. Three Vassar girls at home. 1888. Estes. 
 $1.25. 
 
 Scenes in the South. 
 
 Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 Carroll, Stella W., and Hart, E. M. Around the world. [Geo- 
 graphical series, Bk. III.] 1901. Morse. 60c. 
 A chapter on cotton production. 
 
 Grades 4, 5, 6. 
 
 Carpenter, F. G. North America. [Geographical reader.] [c. 1898.] 
 Am. Bk. Co. 70c. 
 
 Several chapters describing scenes on a trip through the cotton belt. 
 
 Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 Meriwether, Lee. The tramp at home. 1889. Harper. $1.25. 
 Life among Southern farmers depicted. 
 
 Grades 7, 8. 
 
 Companion Series. Our country: East. 1901. Perry Mason. 50c. 
 Describes farms, everglades, villages, and cities of the South. 
 
 Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 (69)
 
 The Lumberingf Regfion. 
 
 ESSENTIALS. 
 
 A region famed for its production and exportation of pine lumber. It is 
 a region having excellent facilities for transportation owing to its nearness 
 to the Great Lakes. This region is thinly populated by a people who in 
 the main are engaged in the occupation of lumbering. 
 
 BEST BOOKS. 
 
 Carpenter, F. G. North America. [Geographical reader.] [c. 1898.] 
 
 Am. Bk. Co. 70c. 
 
 Describes life in the forests around the Great Lakes. The method of converting 
 the tree in the forest to the lumber of the market told in an interesting fashion. 
 
 Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 Companion Series. Our country: East. 1901. Perry Mason. 50c. 
 Describes the various points of'interest to be seen about the Great Lakes. 
 
 Grades 7, 8. 
 
 The Regfion of California. 
 
 ESSENTIALS. 
 
 A land of fruit and flowers. A region characterized by the variety of its 
 climate, its resources, and its occupations. It is a region famous for its gold 
 mines, its redwood forests, its vast wheat areas, and for its vineyards, orange 
 groves, and orchards. 
 
 BEST BOOKS. 
 
 Carroll, Stella W., and Hart, E. M, Around the world. [Geo- 
 graphical series, Bk. III.] 1901. Morse. 60c. 
 
 Describes fruit-raising, the production of ostrich feathers, Indian baskets, 
 Yosemite, and other things and places of interest. 
 
 Grades 4, 5, 6. 
 
 Sexton, Ella M. Stories of California. 1902. Macmillan. $1.00. 
 
 Recounts in simple narrative the early conditions and subsequent development 
 of California. Mining stories. Days of the Missions. Stories of occupation, of 
 animals, and of the climate. Full of information. Well illustrated. 
 
 Grades 7, 8. 
 
 Companion Series. Our country: West. 1900. Perry Mason. 50c. 
 
 An account of the big trees of California, of raisin-making, of Death Valleji 
 etc. Valuable information. 
 
 Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 Carpenter, F. G. North America. [Geographical reader.] [c. 1898.] 
 Am. Bk. Co. 70c. 
 
 Describes scenes in and occupations of the people. 
 
 Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 Meriwether, Lee. The tramp at home. 1889. Harper. -+1.25. 
 Life in the mountains and among the mines described. 
 
 Grades 7, 8. 
 
 King, Charles F. The land we live in. [Picturesque geographical 
 
 readers, Bk. V.] 1896. Lee. 56c. net. 
 
 An extended description of ciiaracteristic scenes and occupations uf California. 
 
 G,rades 6, 7, 8. 
 (70)
 
 THE CONTINENT OF EUROPE. 
 
 Characteristic Regions: 
 
 1. Region of the British Isles. 
 
 2. Region of the Netherlands. 
 
 3. Region of France and Belgium. 
 
 4. Region of Germany and Austria. 
 
 5. Region of Scandinavia. 
 
 6. Region of Russia and Siberia. 
 
 7. Region of Turkey. (European and Asiatic.) 
 
 8. Region of Greece. 
 
 9. Region of Italy. 
 
 10. Region of Switzerland. 
 
 11. Region of Spain and Portugal. 
 
 The Regfion of the British Isles. 
 
 ESSENTIALS. 
 
 Generally recognized as the most powerful country of the world. A 
 country ranking first in the value of its manufactures and in the extent of 
 its commercial activity. A country whose advancement in commerce, in 
 manufactures, in forcefulness generally among nations has been wonderful. 
 It contains the metropolis of the world, which is noted, besides, for its ship- 
 ping, its castles, its churches, its libraries, its museums, and its picture 
 galleries. The British people have also won a worthy place in the world of 
 literature, of architecture, and of art. Some of the world's most celebrated 
 poets and dramatists were of English birth. 
 
 BEST BOOKS. 
 
 Companion Series. By land and sea. 1901. Perry Mason. 50c. 
 Two chapters on London and the Westminster Abbej'. 
 
 Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 King, Charles F. Northern Europe. 1897. Lee. 60c. net. 
 Scenes about the countries and cities of the British Isles. Interesting. 
 
 Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 Mateaux, C. L. Rambles around London tower. 1891. Cassell. $1.00. 
 Description of tower, abbey, parliament, and monuments. Illustrated. 
 
 Grade 8, and teacher. 
 
 Pratt, Mara L. England. [People and places here and there, Vol. VI. J 
 Ed. Pub. Co. Cloth. 60c. 
 
 Early history — appearance and customs of people. Interesting. Illustrated. 
 
 Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 CoE, Fanny E. Modern Europe. [World and its people, Vol. V.] 
 [c. 1892.] Silver. 60c. 
 
 Pictures of life on the islands. Interesting. 
 
 Grades 6, 7. 
 (71)
 
 Carpenter, F. G. Europe. [Geographical reader.] [c. 1902.] Am. 
 
 Bk. Co. 70c. 
 
 Several chapters on scenes in the various parts of the British Isles. Interesting, 
 Well illustrated. 
 
 Grades 6, 7. 
 
 Knox, T. W. Boy travelers in Great Britain and Ireland. 1898. Har- 
 per. .$2.00. 
 
 Excellent material. Well written. 
 
 Grades 7, 8. 
 
 Ballou, Maturin M. Footprints of travel. 1896. Ginn. 60c. 
 Description of London ; ancient history ; monuments. 
 
 Grades 7, 8. 
 
 Champney, Elizabeth W. ThreeVassar girls in England. 1884. Estes. 
 
 $1.25. 
 
 Information regarding history and customs of people. 
 
 Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 The Regfion of the Netherlands. 
 essentials. 
 
 The region of dikes, of windmills, and of canals. The most extensive 
 reclaimed region in the world. A region of small farms tilled by a thrifty, 
 prosperous, happy people — a people famous in history for their love of civil 
 and religious liberty and for the hardships they suffered in establishing 
 their independence. 
 
 BEST BOOKS. 
 
 Pratt, Mara L. Northern Europe. [People and places here and there, 
 
 Vol. v.] Cloth, 60c. 
 
 Telia of cities — Amsterdam, Hague, and others. Chapter on Dutch life. 
 
 Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 CoE, Fanny E.. Modern Europe. [World and its people. Vol. V.] 1892. 
 
 Silver. 60c. 
 
 Chapter describing windmills, sunsets, and scenes. Interesting. 
 
 Grades 6, 7. 
 
 Carpenter, F. G. Europe. [Geographical reader.] Am. Bk. Co. 70c. 
 
 A chapter on the street scenes, and life of several Dutch cities. Well illustrated. 
 Interesting. 
 
 Grades 6, 7. 
 
 Companion Series. The wide world. 1902. Ginn. 50c. 
 
 Interesting to children. 
 
 Grades 4, 5, 6. 
 
 Hough, P M. Dutch life in town and country. [Our European 
 
 neighbor series.] 1902. Putnam. $1.20 net. 
 
 DeHcription of villages; characteristics; jieiisauts' customs; amusoments; school 
 life; religion. Well illustrated. 
 
 For teachers. 
 
 George, M., and Dean, Ida. Little journeys to Holland, Belgium, and 
 
 Denmark, [c. 1902.] Flanagan. 50c. 
 
 Interesting account of country, people, :ind customs of Il(jliaiiil. Illustrated. 
 
 Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 (72)
 
 Rupert, Wm. W. A geographical reader. Leach. 65c. 
 
 Description of appearance of country and how it was reclaimed. Chapter on 
 skating and on the character of the people. 
 
 Grades 7, 8. 
 
 Companion Series. By land and sea. 1901. Perry Mason. 50c. 
 A chapter on scenes in Holland and another on work and play in Belgium. 
 
 Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 Stockton, Frank R. Personally conducted. 1890. Scribner. $2.00. 
 An excursion through Holland and Belgium. Customs, manners, and scenes. 
 
 Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 The Regfion of France. 
 
 ESSENTIALS. 
 
 The people of France form two distinctive classes: (1) The aristocracy 
 of Paris, who are gay and pleasure-loving; (2) The peasant classes, who 
 are thrifty, hard working, and live in the villages and country, following 
 agriculture and manufacturing as occupations. Paris, once the scene of the 
 bloody riots of the French Revolution, is now famous as an art and fashion 
 center. It is visited by tourists for its beautiful palaces, its parks, and for 
 its boulevards. The country produces and exports wines, champagnes, 
 porcelains, silk, and tapestries. 
 
 BEST BOOKS. 
 
 George, M., and Dean, Ida. Little journeys to Holland, Belgium, and 
 Denmark, [c. 1902.] Flanagan. 50c. 
 
 Sights and scenes in the land of the wooden shoe. Interesting. Illustrated. 
 
 Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 CoE, Fanny E. Modern Europe. [World and its people, Vol. V.] 
 
 1892. Silver. 60c. 
 
 Two chapters describing people of France. 
 
 Grades 6, 7. 
 
 Carpenter, F. G. Europe. [Geographical reader.] [c. 1902.] Am. 
 
 Bk. Co. 70c. 
 
 Several chapters on the life, customs, and sights in France and Belgium. Well 
 illustrated. 
 
 Grades 6, 7. 
 
 Ballou, Maturin M. Footprints of travel. 1896. Ginn. 60c. 
 The scenes in the streets of the important cities. 
 
 Grades 7, 8. 
 
 Lynch, Hannah. French life in town and country. [Our European 
 
 neighbor series.] Putnam. $1.20 net. 
 
 Descriptive of home and social life, amusements, education, and religion of the 
 French people. Well illustrated. 
 
 For teachers. 
 
 Champney, Elizabeth W. Three Vassar girls in France, [c. 1888.] 
 Estes. $1.25. 
 
 Much information regarding the people. 
 
 Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 (73)
 
 Pratt, Maka L. Northern Europe. [People and places here and there, 
 
 Vol. v.] Ed. Pub. Co. Cloth, 60c. 
 Tells of the battleground of Waterloo. 
 
 Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 Knox, T. W. Boy travelers in central Europe. 1893. Harper. $2.00. 
 Well written. Instructive. Interesting to children. 
 
 Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 The Reg-ion of Germany and Atjstria. 
 
 ESSENTIALS. 
 
 The land of castles, of quaint villages, and of picturesque cathedrals. A 
 land celebrated for the beauty of its Rhenish scenery. It is famous for its 
 educational system, for its industrial and commercial activity, and for its 
 military strength. Its people are progressive, thrifty, and economical. In 
 the fields of poetry, of diplomacy, and of music, Germany has furnished the 
 world's most illustrious names. 
 
 BEST BOOKS. 
 
 Browne, Maggie. Chats about Germany. Cassell. [The world in 
 
 picture series.] 75c. 
 
 Describes toy-making, Rhine, Black Forest, and several of the principal cities. 
 
 Grades 5, 6. 
 
 Coe, Fanny E. Modern Europe. [World and its people. Vol. V.] 1892. 
 
 Silver. 60c. 
 
 Scenes on Rhine and in German}'. Interesting. 
 
 Grades 6, 7. 
 
 Taylor, Bayard. Boys of other countries. 1899. Putnam. $1.25. 
 The story of two herdsboys on the borders of Saxony. Interesting. 
 
 Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 Dawson, Wm. H. German life in town and country. [Our European 
 
 neighbor series.] 1903. Putnam. $1.20 net. 
 
 Peasant life, military service, education, religious life, amusements, local govern- 
 ment. Well illustrated. 
 
 For teachers. 
 
 Carpenter, F. G. Europe. [Geographical reader.] 1902. Am. 
 Bk. Co. 70c. 
 
 Several chapters on manners and customs of Germans and the people of Austro- 
 Hungary. Brief sketch of government. Well illustrated. 
 
 Grades 6, 7. 
 
 The Regfion of Scandinavia. 
 essentials. 
 A region of rugged coasts, of deep indentations, and of precipitous bluffs. 
 A bleak, unpromising land, inhabited by a thrifty, hardy people, whose 
 chief occupations are fishing, farming, and lumbering. 
 
 REST BOOKS. 
 
 Ballou, Maturin M. Footprints of travel. 1896. Ginn. 60c. 
 
 Animals; apj)earance of tbe country, products and scenes. Aurora borealis. 
 
 Laplanders. Good. 
 
 Grades 7, 8. 
 
 (74)
 
 Taylor, Bayard. Boys of other countries. 1899. Putnam. $1.25. 
 
 Story of the writer's adventures with a little postboy in northern part of Sweden. 
 Interesting. 
 
 Grades 5, 6. 
 
 Du Chaillu, Paul. Land of the midnight sun. 1882. 2 vols. Har- 
 per. 15.00. 
 
 Interesting material, well written, on customs, habits, etc., of people of 
 Scandinavia. 
 
 Grades 7, 8, and for teachers. 
 
 Pratt, Mara L. Northern Europe. [People and places here and there, 
 
 Vol. v.] Ed. Pub. Co. Cloth, 60c. 
 
 Describes Lapps, Norway, Legend of Skadi. Interesting. 
 
 Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 Carpenter, F. G. Europe. [Geographical reader.] 1902. Am. Bk. 
 
 Co. 70c. 
 
 Two interesting chapters on travel in the Scandinavian peninsula. Well illus- 
 trated. 
 
 Grades 6, 7. 
 
 Companion Series. By land and sea. 1901. Perry Mason. 50c. 
 Describes life in Sweden and Norway. 
 
 Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 King, Charles F. Northern Europe. [Picturesque geographical read- 
 ers, Bk. VI.] Lee. 60c. net. 
 
 Account of people, places, and occupations. 
 
 Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 CoE, Fanny E. Modern Europe. [World and its people, Vol. V.] 1892. 
 
 Silver. 60c. 
 
 Chapters on Scandinavia and Denmark. Interesting. 
 
 Grades 6, 7. 
 
 Companion Series. The wide world. 1902. Ginn. 25c. 
 Interesting description of people, customs, sports, etc. 
 
 Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 Companion Series. By land and sea. 1901. Perry Mason. 50c. 
 The sports, climate, and people described. 
 
 Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 The Reg:ion of Russia and Siberia. 
 
 essentials. 
 The land of the political exile. A country having an autocratic govern- 
 ment, inhabited by a people the peasant classes of which are in ignorance 
 and poverty. A country of vast area and great natural resources as yet 
 largely undeveloped. It is a region characterized on the extreme north by 
 its frozen tundras, inhabited by scattered Laplanders; by its forests of pine, 
 oak, and beech in its productive central part, and by its dry and arid 
 
 steppes on the south. 
 
 best books. 
 
 Palmer, Francis H. E. Russian life in town and country. [Our 
 
 European neighbor series.] Putnam. $1.20 net. 
 
 Describes peasants, priests, government, Jewish life, education, military life, and 
 religion. Well illustrated. 
 
 For teachers. 
 
 (75)
 
 Pratt, Mara L. Northern Europe. [People and places here and 
 there, Vol. V.] Ed. Pub. Co. 60c. 
 
 Describes the tundras and steppes, and Crimean war 
 
 Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 CoE, Fanny E. Modern Europe. [World and its people, Vol. V.] 
 1892. Silver. 60c. 
 
 Customs and habits of Russian people, tlieir religion, palaces, etc. 
 
 Grades 6, 7. 
 
 Carpenter, F. G. Europe. [Geographical reader.] 1902. Am. Bk. 
 Co. 70c. 
 
 Good description of peoples, occupations, and sights to be seen. Well illustrated. 
 
 Grades 6, 7. 
 
 Companion Series. The wide world. 1902. Ginn. 25c. 
 
 Interesting description of children, people ; their habits and customs. 
 
 Grades 4, 5. 
 
 Ballou, Maturin M. Footprints of travel. 1896. Ginn. 60c. 
 
 Describes manners and customs of the people ; wolves ; methods of travel ; des- 
 potism of government. 
 
 Grades 7, 8. 
 
 Taylor, Bayard. Boys of other countries. 1899. Putnam. 11.25. 
 Story of serfs of Russia. Interesting to children. 
 
 Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 Stevens, Thomas. Through Russia on a mustang. Ed. Pub. Co. $1.00. 
 Story of a ride from Moscow to the Black Sea by a newspaper man, to report on 
 the conditions, manners, and customs of the people. Illustrated. Interesting. 
 
 Grades 7, 8. 
 
 Phillips, E. C. All the Russias. [The world in picture series.] 
 
 Cassell. 50c. 
 
 Story of life and travel. Includes an account of Crimean war. Illustrated. 
 
 Grades 6, 7. 
 
 Rupert, Wm. R. A geographical reader. Leach, Shewell. 65c. 
 
 Description of the country and fairs and nihilists. Interesting story of a 
 political exile. 
 
 Grades 7, 8. 
 
 Frost, Thomas. Modern explorers. 1890. Cassell. $1.00. 
 A very interesting account of adventures in Arctic regions. 
 
 Grades 7, 8. 
 
 Ford, John D. An American cruiser in the East. 1898. Barnes. $2.50. 
 Description of natives, their manners and customs, and modes of life. Interest- 
 ing. Many pictures. 
 
 Grades 7, 8. 
 
 Kennan, George. Siberia and the exile system. 2 vols. 1891. Cen- 
 tury. $6.00. 
 
 The series of brilliant articles wliich appeared in the Century Magazine a few 
 years ago and wiiich created a sensation. The facts have never been disproven. 
 Very interesting. 
 
 Grade 8, and for teachers. 
 
 Kennan, Gforge. Tent life in Siberia. 1902. Putnam. $1.25. 
 
 A personal narrative of life in Siijeria. Gives an idea of inhabitants, scenery, 
 customs, and general foaturcM of the country. Written in an interesting manner. 
 Cliildren enjoy it. 
 
 Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 (7<i)
 
 Hknty, G. a. Condemned as a nihilist. 1892. Scribner. (Fiction.) 
 
 $1.50. 
 
 A very interesting boy's book of banishment and final escape from Siberia. 
 Describes mines of Kara. Illustrated. 
 
 Grades 7, 8. 
 
 HiLLARD, A*^DRE\v. Under the black eagle. Scribner. (Fiction.) $1.00. 
 stirring story of a boy of Russian mother and English father. He was exiled to 
 Siberia for refusing to furnish information wanted by police. His sufferings and 
 ultimate escape are told in a realistic manner. Illustrated. 
 
 Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 Carpenter, Frank G. Asia. [Geographical reader.] Am.Bk.Co. 60c. 
 Chapter on Siberia and the Trans-Siberian Railroad. Illustrated. 
 
 Grades 6, 7. 
 
 Smith, Mary Gate. Life in Asia. [World and its people, Vol. VI.] 
 
 1900. Silver. 60c. 
 
 Many stories of the people, their manners and customs. Interesting, simple style 
 
 Grades 6, 7. 
 
 Wade, Mary Hazelton. Our little Russian cousin. 1901. Page. 50c. 
 One of the best stories of the kind. 
 
 Grades 4, 5, 6. 
 
 King, Charles F. Northern Europe. [Picturesque geographical 
 
 readers, Bk. VI.] Lee. 60c. net. 
 
 Customs of the people, their food, religion, etc. 
 
 Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 The Region of Turkey. (European and Asiatic.) 
 
 essentials. 
 
 This region is the chief seat of Mohammedanism. It is inhabited by a 
 non-progressive, fanatical race of people who are held in check by the 
 Sultan, who is vested with autocratic powers. The chief city of the empire 
 is Constantinople, which is noted for its temples, its mosques, and for its 
 peculiar street scenes. This city occupies a strategic point on the Darda- 
 nelles, and in consequence, serves to block, to a degree, the ambitions of 
 Russia. Turkey has played an important part in history. During the 
 Middle Ages it was the region of the struggles of the Crusaders; in modern 
 times, of the Crimean war. The country is largely one of pasturing rather 
 than of agriculture, although grain, tobacco, cotton, and tropical fruits 
 are grown to some extent. Manufactures are few, although carpets, cloth, 
 and jewelry are made by hand, 
 
 BEST BOOKS. 
 
 CoE, Fanny E. Modern Europe. [World and its people. Vol. V.] 1892. 
 
 Silver. 60c. 
 
 Description of Constantinople. 
 
 Grades 6, 7. 
 
 Crawford, F. Marion. Constantinople. 1895. Scribner. $1.50. 
 
 Description of appearance, types of people, street scenes, manners and customs. 
 Finely illustrated. 
 
 For teachers viainly. 
 
 (77)
 
 Thomson, H. C. The outgoing Turk. 1897. Appleton. $4.00. 
 A wealth of material for teachers. Fine pictures. 
 
 Carpenter, F. G. Europe. [Geographical reader.] 1902. Am. Bk. 
 
 Co. 70c. 
 
 Chapter descriptive of Constantinople, also one on nature of Turkish rule and 
 Mohammedan religion. Illustrated. 
 
 Grades 6, 7. 
 
 Companion Series. Under sunny skies. 1902. Ginn. 25c. 
 Description of the education of young Turks. 
 
 Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 Rupert, Wm. W. A geographical reader. Leach, Shewell. 65c. 
 A characterization of the Turks and a description of Constantinople. 
 
 Grades 7, 8. 
 
 Carpenter, F. G. Asia. [Geographical reader.] Am. Bk. Co. 60c. 
 Chapter on travels among the Turks. Illustrated. Interesting. 
 
 Grades 6, 7. 
 
 The Regfion of Greece. 
 
 essentials. 
 The birthplace of literature, liberty, and art. A region encircled with 
 a halo of antiquity. The country most famous in the world for the degree 
 of the development of its ancient civilization. 
 
 BEST BOOKS. 
 
 Companion Series. Under sunny skies. 1902. Ginn. 25c. 
 How Greek children live and amuse themselves. Illustrated. 
 
 Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 Coe, Fanny E. Modern Europe. [World and its people, Vol. V.] 
 1892. Silver. 60c. 
 
 Chapter on the "Land of the glorious past." 
 
 Grades 6, 7. 
 
 Carpenter, F. G. Europe. [Geographical reader.] 1902. Am. Bk. 
 Co. 70c. 
 
 Chapter describing modern Greece. Illustrated. 
 
 Grades 6, 7. 
 
 The Regfion of Italy. 
 
 essentials. 
 
 The Italian people are famous for their achievements in the fields of 
 music, painting, and sculpturing, in which departments they have furnished 
 the world's most renowned names. The country is visited yearly by many 
 tourists who are attracted by its picturesque and historic features, among 
 which the best known are the leaning tower of Pisa, the cathedral of St. 
 Peter's, the Coliseum, the catacombs, the gondolas of Venice, the Vatican, 
 and the ruins of Pompeii and Herculaneum. 
 
 Italy has a mild and equable climate, which is well adapted to grape- 
 growing and silk production, in which industries she is among the greatest 
 
 (78)
 
 in the world. A considerable portion of the people are engaged in spinning 
 and weaving silk, and in manufacturing macaroni, glass, and mosaics. 
 
 BEST BOOKS. 
 
 Ballou, Maturin M. Footprints of travel. 1896. Ginn. 60c. 
 
 Description of art treasures, manners, and customs of the important cities of 
 Italy. 
 
 Grades 7, 8. 
 
 ViLLARi, LuiGi. Italian life in town and country. [Our European 
 
 neighbor series.] Putnam. 1903. $1.20 net. 
 
 Description of the aristocracy and middle and peasant classes. Social and home 
 life, amusements, education, etc. 
 
 For teachers. 
 
 Companion Series. Under sunny skies. 1902. Ginn. 25c. 
 
 Treats of chestnut farms, Mount Vesuvius, and food of peasants. Interesting. 
 Illustrated. 
 
 Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 Meriwether, Lee. Afloat and ashore on the Mediterranean. 1892. 
 
 Scribner. 11.50. 
 
 Interesting material on countries of .Mediterranean. 
 
 Grade 8, and teachers. 
 
 Taine, H. Italy: Florence and Venice. Holt. $2.50. 
 Much valuable information for teacher. 
 
 CARPENffeR, F. G. Europe. [Geographical reader.] 1902. Am. Bk. 
 
 Co. 70c. 
 
 Several chapters describing Venice, Rome, Mount Vesuvius, etc. Illustrated. 
 
 Grades 6, 7. 
 
 Companion Series. The wide world. 1902. Ginn. 25c. 
 Interesting to children. 
 
 Grades 4, 5, 6. 
 
 Stoddard, John L. Florence, Naples, Rome. [c. 1898.] Vol. 8. $3.00. 
 Interesting descriptions, beautiful pictures. 
 
 Taine, H. Italy: Rome and Naples. Holt. $2.50. 
 
 Valuable and detailed information. Suitable to teacher only. 
 
 CoE, Fanny E. Modern Europe. [World and its people, Vol. V.] 1892. 
 
 Silver. 60c. 
 
 Description of the " treasure house " of Europe. Interesting. 
 
 Grades 6, 7. 
 
 Companion Series. By land and sea. 1901. Perry Mason. 50c. 
 Describes a climb up Vesuvius, and the Venetian gondola. 
 
 Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 Champney, Elizabeth W. Three Vassar girls in Italy, [c. 1885.] 
 
 Estes. $1.25. 
 
 Describes for children the sights to be seen in Italy. 
 
 Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 Stockton, Frank R. Personally conducted. 1890. Scribner. $2.00. 
 A tour of Italy. Interesting. 
 
 Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 (79)
 
 The Region of Switzerland. 
 
 ESSENTIALS. 
 
 The most noted summer resort of the world. A region of magnificent 
 scenery; of mountains, lakes, and glaciers. A region noted for the inde- 
 pendent, liberty-loving spirit of its people, and for the skill they show in 
 handwork of a mechanical nature. 
 
 BEST BOOKS. 
 
 Headley, J. T. Mountain adventures in various parts of the world. 
 1899. Scribner. .n.OO. 
 
 Thrilling adventures. Experience in climbing tlie famous peaks of the Alps. 
 
 Grades 7, 8. 
 
 Little Konrad; the Swiss boy. Ed. Pub. Co. 40c. 
 
 A pretty story of life in Switzerland. 
 
 Grades 4, 5, 6. 
 
 Bouvet, Marguerite. Bernardo and Laurette. 1901. McClurg. 75c. 
 
 net. 
 
 A pretty story of two little people of the Alps. Good for the geographical 
 setting. 
 
 Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 Champney, Elizabeth W. Three Vassar girls in Switzerland. Estes. 
 $1.25. 
 
 Description of mountains and scenery and lakes. Many stories of beliefs of 
 people. " 
 
 Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 Story, Alfred Thomas. Swiss life in town and country. [Our Euro- 
 pean neighbor series.] 1903. Putnam. $1.20 net. 
 
 The history, education, industries, homes, children, religious life, etc. Well 
 illustrated. 
 
 For teachers. 
 
 Carpenter, F. G. Europe. [Geographical reader.] 1902. Am. Bk. 
 Co. 70c. 
 
 Three chapters describing the beauties of the upper Rhine and the Alps. Well 
 illustrated. 
 
 Grades 6, 7. 
 
 Knox, T. \V. Boy travelers in central Europe. 1893. Harper. .t2.00. 
 
 Well written description of sights in the Alps. 
 
 Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 The Region of Spain and Portug-al. 
 
 essentials. 
 
 One of tiie picturesque features of this region is its old i)alaces and 
 churches of Moorish origin. Formerly the region was the center of Euro- 
 pean commerce and wealth and possessed more rich foreign colonies than 
 any other country. Now it has lost all of its principal colonies, and is an 
 impoverished country, because of the improvidence of its people and because 
 of its mediii'val method of governing. Along the coast its climate is mild 
 and equable; its interior is subject to great extremes of temperature. The 
 
 (80)
 
 people are for the most part engaged in agriculture, which they carry on by 
 crude methods. This region produces lead, quicksilver, wine, olives, cork, 
 raisins, and Castile soap. 
 
 BEST BOOKS. 
 
 HiGGiN, L. Spanish life in town and country. [Our European neighbor 
 
 series.] 1902. Putnam. $1.20 net. 
 
 Land and people; national character; amusements; government; education; 
 chapter on Portuguese life. Well illustrated. 
 
 For teachers. 
 
 Hale, Susan. A family flight through Spain, [c. 1883.] Lothrop. 
 
 $1.50. 
 
 Many interesting descriptions of life and people — ancient and modern. Illus- 
 trated. 
 
 Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 FiNCK, Henry T. Spain and Morocco. 1891. Scribner. $1.25. 
 
 A tourist's account— describes bullfights, wine industry, smugglers. Interest- 
 ing. No illustrations. 
 
 Grade 8, and for teachers. 
 
 Companion Seriks. Under sunny skies. 1902. Ginn. 25c. 
 
 Two chapters describing cities of Toledo, Cordova, and Granada. Interesting. 
 Illustrated. 
 
 Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 CoE, Fanny E. Modern Europe. [\Yorld and its people, Vol. V.] 
 1892. Silver. 60c. 
 
 Describes scenes on streets and the bullfights of Spain and Portugal. 
 
 Grades 6, 7. 
 
 Carpenter, F. G. Europe. [Geographical reader.] 1902. American 
 
 Book Co. 70c. 
 
 Describes cities of Spain and Portugal. Well illustrated. 
 
 Grades 6, 7. 
 
 Ballou, Maturix M. Footprints of travel. 1896. Ginn. 60c. 
 The Alhambra, art galleries, and remnants of Moorish occupation. 
 
 Grades 7, 8. 
 
 Companion Serii:s. By land and sea. 1901. Perry Mason. 50c. 
 
 A chapter describing Toledo and Cordova. 
 
 Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 Scott, S. P. Through Spain. 1886. Lippincott. $5.00. 
 
 Much interesting material regarding ancient and modern Spain. Well illus- 
 trated. 
 
 Grades 7, 8. 
 
 HiGGiN, L. Spanish life in town and country. [Our European neigh- 
 bor series.] 1902. Putnam. $1.20 net. 
 
 Land and people — national characteristics; amusements; government; educa- 
 tion ; with chapter on Portuguese life. Well illustrated. 
 
 For teachers. 
 
 (81)
 
 THE CONTINENT OF AFRICA. 
 
 1. Region of the Barbary 
 
 States. 
 
 2. Region of the Sahara 
 
 Desert. 
 
 3. Region of the Nile. 
 
 4. The Congo Region. 
 
 5. Region of South Africa. 
 
 Fig. 28. 
 
 The Regfion of the Barbary States. 
 
 ESSENTIALS. 
 
 The land of pirates and the stronghold of Mohammedanism. A land for 
 the most part barren and undeveloped, interspersed, however, with fertile 
 oases, which produce olives, dates, and grapes. Many of the inhabitants 
 of these countries are barbarous, cruel, treacherous, and unprogressive. 
 
 BEST BOOKS. 
 
 BoNSAL, Stephen. Morocco as it is. 1893. Harper. -12.00. 
 
 Much interesting information regarding manners and customs of Moorish 
 people. Well illustrated. 
 
 Grades 7, 8. 
 
 Bridgman, F. a. Winters in Algeria. 1890. Harper. $2.50. 
 
 The people — their customs, shrines, children, legends. Interesting to children. 
 Illustrated. 
 
 Grades 7, 8. 
 
 Thomson, Joseph. Travels in the Atlas and southern Morocco. 1889. 
 Longmans. $3.00. 
 
 A personal narrative of exi)loration. Excellent material. Well illustrated. 
 
 (}radei< 7, 8. 
 
 Obkr, FredA. The Knockabout Club in northern Africa. 1890. Fstes. 
 $1.25. 
 
 Written for children. Snake charmers; Arab dens; in a private city ; lion hunt, 
 etc. Interesting. Illustrated. 
 
 Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 (82)
 
 Companion Seriks. Under sunny skies. 1902. Ginn. 25c. 
 Description of a trip through Moorish country. 
 
 Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 Badlam, Anna B. Views in Africa. [World and its people series, 
 
 Bk. VII.] 1900. Silver. 72c. 
 
 Description of appearance of country; customs and habits of its people; the 
 gathering of dates. 
 
 Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 FiNCK, Henry I. Spain and Morocco. 1891. Scribner. $1.25. 
 
 An account of a tourist. Describes scenes, customs, etc. Interesting. No 
 illustrations. 
 
 Grades 7, 8, and for teachers. 
 
 Ballou, Maturin M. Footprints of travel. 1896. Ginn. 60c. 
 Describes slave markets and street scenes. 
 
 Grades 7, 8. 
 
 The Sahara Regfion* 
 
 ESSENTIALS. 
 
 A region of dates, ostriches, and camels. A region of rolling, sandy 
 wastes, broken only at great intervals by oases, and sparsely peopled by 
 wandering tribes of Arabs, 
 
 BEST BOOKS. 
 
 Badlam, Anna B. Views in Africa. 1900. [World and its people, 
 
 Bk. VII.] Silver. 72c. 
 
 Description of the desert — its sand storms, its oases, its animal life, and its 
 camels. Interesting. 
 
 Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 Kingston, W. H. G. Saved from the sea. (Fiction.) 1884. Nelson. 
 $1.25. 
 
 The crew of a shipwrecked vessel is cast on the shore of northern Africa. Their 
 adventures in the Sahara. Boy's book. Illustrated. 
 
 Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 Knox, T. W. In wild Africa, [c. 1895.] Harper. $2.00. 
 
 Adventures of two boys in a journey through the Sahara Desert. Describes salt 
 lakes, Arab horses, hunting ostriches, sand storms, caravan trade, etc. Good illus- 
 trations. 
 
 Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 Bridgman, F. a. Winters in Algeria. 1890. Harper. $2.50. 
 
 Describes sand storms and scenes on the desert, oases, etc. Interesting to children. 
 
 Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 Companion Series. Under sunny skies. 1902. Ginn. 25c. 
 
 Describes experiences in crossing the desert; sand storms; oases. 
 
 Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 Allen, Alice E. Children of the palm lands, [c. 1901.] Ed. Pub. 
 
 Co. 50c. 
 
 A visit to the land of dates. The camels and caravans described. 
 
 Grades 4, 5. 
 (83)
 
 The Nile Regfion. 
 
 ESSENTIALS. 
 
 A land of great antiquity, of mummies, of pyramids, and of the Sphinx. 
 It is a land which has plaj^ed a great and worthy part in the history of the 
 civilization of the world. Its modern inhabitants are dependent for their 
 crops and living, as were the inhabitants centuries ago, upon the annual 
 overflow of the Nile. 
 
 BEST BOOKS. 
 
 Chesney, J. Land of the pyramids. 1896. [The world in pictures.] 
 
 Cassell. 75c. 
 
 Gives a short sketch of Egyptian history, followed by descriptions of modern 
 Egypt, its life, physical features, art, etc. 
 
 Grades 6, 7. 
 
 Hale, Rev. E. E. Family flight over Egypt and Syria. 1882. 
 
 Lothrop. $1.50. 
 
 Account, written for children, of ancient and modern Egypt. Many illustra- 
 tions. 
 
 Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 Kxox, T. W. Boy travelers in Egypt and Holy Land. 1882. Harper. 
 
 $2.00. 
 
 Interesting and instructive information regarding relics of art, civilization, cus- 
 toms of people, etc. Well illustrated. 
 
 Grades 6, 7. 
 
 Optic, Oliver. Up and down the Nile. [c. 1894.] Lee. $1.25. 
 
 Much information interesting to children. Put in story form. 
 
 Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 Badlam, Anna B. Views in Africa. [World and its people series, 
 
 Bk. II.] Silver. 72c. 
 
 Description of the Nile, including its source, the use it is put to, etc. 
 
 Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 Wallace, S. E. The repose in Egypt. 1888. Hurst. 75c. 
 
 Interesting. Very good material for children. Rise of the Nile, pilgrimage to 
 Mecca, legends of the land. 
 
 Grades 7, 8. 
 
 Edwards, A. B. A thousand miles up the Nile. 1888. Burt. $1.00. 
 Mucli information regarding ancient Egypt, together with sights to be seen in 
 modern times. No illustrations. Good for teacher. 
 
 Grade 8. 
 Taylor, Bayard. Boys of other countries. 1899. Putnam. $1.25. 
 
 Interesting storj' of a vi.sit to the I'asha. Tells of the many pet animals of tlie 
 natives. 
 
 Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 Ballou, Matirin M. Footprints of travel. 1896. Ginn. 60c. 
 Description of tiie pyramids, the S])hin.\, desert, and ancient Egypt. 
 
 Gradei< 7, 8. 
 
 RupKR'i', William II. A geographical reader. Leach, Shewell. 65c. 
 Description of Sue/. (Janal, caves, and the pyramids. 
 
 Grades 7, 8. 
 
 (84)
 
 The Congfo Regfion. 
 
 ESSENTIALS. 
 
 The region famous for the explorations of Stanley and Livingston and for 
 furnishing the first slaves to the South. It is a region whose vegetation is 
 dense and luxuriant; whose climate is hot, moist, and unhealthfal; and 
 whose inhabitants are wild, savage tribes of pygmies and cannibals. It is 
 the home of gorillas and of elephants; and is the ivory-producing center of 
 the world. In general, it is a region unexplored, uncivilized, and unde- 
 veloped. 
 
 BEST BOOKS. 
 
 Stanley, Henry M. Through the dark continent. 1878. 2 vols. 
 
 Harper. .$7.50. 
 
 A mine of interesting material for both teachers and children. 
 
 Grade 8. 
 
 Kingston, W. H. G. In the wilds of Africa. 1884. (Fiction.) 
 
 Nelson. $1.25. 
 
 Adventures in Congo region. Much valuable information told in an interesting 
 way. A boy's tale. 
 
 Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 Badlam, Anna B. Views in Africa. [World and its people series, 
 
 Bk. VII.] Silver. 72c. 
 
 Description of the Congo region, its people, views and scenes of the tropical 
 forests. 
 
 Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 Frost, Thomas. Modern explorers. 1890. Cassell. $1.00. 
 
 An account of Sir Samuels Baker's exploration of the lake region of Africa. 
 Also Livingston's and Stanley's expeditions. 
 
 Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 Janks, Tudor. The boy's book of exploration. 1900. Doubleday. $2.00. 
 An interesting account of attempts made to explore Africa. Livingston's and 
 Stanley's expeditions in detail. Interesting. 
 
 Grades 7, 8. 
 
 Du Chaillu, Paul. King Mombo. 1902. Scribner. $1.50. 
 Interesting series of adventures, well illustrated. 
 
 Grades 7, 8. 
 
 Du Chaillu, Paul. My Apingi kingdom. Harper. $1.00. 
 Interesting to children. 
 
 Grades 7, 8. 
 
 Du Chaillu, Paul. Lost in the jungle. 1898. Harper. $1.00. 
 Interesting to children. 
 
 Grades 7, 8. 
 
 Du Chaillu, Paul. Adventures in the great forest of Africa. 1890. 
 
 Harper. $1.75. 
 
 Many stories of gorillas. 
 
 Grades 7, 8. 
 
 Knox, T. W. The boy travelers on the Congo. 1898. Harper. $2.00. 
 Adventures of two boys, with Henry M. Stanley. Interesting. Illustrated. 
 
 Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 Wauters, a. J. Stanley's Emin Pasha expedition. 1890. Lippincott. 
 $2.00. 
 
 Account of Stanley's memorable relief expedition to the interior of Africa. 
 Much information regarding the country and its inhabitants and appearance. 
 
 (85) Grades 7, 8.
 
 The Region of South Africa. 
 
 ESSENTIALS. 
 
 The land of the Boers. A region of agriculture and herding, and famous 
 for its mines of gold and diamonds. Its native population consists of fierce 
 tribes of Kaffirs and Zulus. 
 
 BEST BOOKS. 
 
 Cameron, V. L. Jack Hooper. 1887. Nelson. $1.25. 
 
 An account of a boy's adventure at sea and in South Africa. A boy's book. 
 
 Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 BuTTERWORTH, Hezekiah. Traveler tales of South Africa, [c. 1900.] 
 
 Estes. $1.50. 
 
 Many stories illustrative of life in South Africa. A description of Kruger; the 
 bushmen ; also of Cecil Rhodes. Interesting and illustrated. 
 
 Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 Reid, Capt. Mayne. The giraffe hunters. Hirst. 50c. 
 Tale of adventure in South Africa. 
 
 Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 LooMis, Eben J. An eclipse party in Africa. 1896. Little. $4.50. 
 
 An account of an expedition sent out by the United States government. 
 Describes St. Helena Island and gives legends of Napoleon current among the 
 inhabitants. Describes the mines of Kimberley. Very readable. Excellent 
 pictures. 
 
 Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 Knox, T. W. Hunters three. 1895. Dutton. $2.00. 
 
 Hunting and adventure in South Africa. Interesting, well written, and well 
 illustrated. 
 
 Grades 7, 8. 
 
 Badlam, Anna B. Views in Africa. [The world and its people series, 
 
 Bk. VII.] Silver. 72c. 
 
 Description of the diamond fields; the Kaffir traits and customs; also Hottentot 
 customs. The South African republics and the Boers. 
 
 Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 Martin, Annie. Home life on an ostrich farm. 1890. Appleton. 
 
 $1.25. 
 
 An interesting account of life in South Africa. Children like it. 
 
 Grades 7, 8. 
 
 (86)
 
 THE CONTINENT OF ASIA. 
 
 Characteristic Regions: 
 
 1. Region of China. 
 
 2. Region of Japan. 
 
 3. Region of India. 
 
 4. Region of Arabia. 
 
 5. Region of the Holy Land. 
 
 6. Region of the Malay Peninsula. 
 
 7. Region of Australia and New Zealand. 
 
 8. Region of the East Indies. 
 
 9. Region of the Philippines. 
 
 10. Region of the South Sea Islands. 
 
 The Region of China. 
 
 ESSENTIALS. 
 
 The oldest country in the world, with a literature and civilization long 
 antedating the time when European countries emerged from barbarism. It 
 is a country densely populated by a race characterized by conservatism, 
 stolidity, and non-progressiveness, due largely to their religion of ancestor 
 worship, which leads them to regard new customs as vicious. It is a region 
 famous for its production of rice, tea, and silk. 
 
 BEST BOOKS. 
 
 Companion Series. By land and sea. 1901. Perry Mason. 50c. 
 Several articles on scenes on the streets and in the homes of China. 
 
 Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 Smith, Mary Cate. Life in Asia. 1900. [ World and its people, Vol. 
 
 VI.] Silver. 60c. 
 
 Several chapters on China and its people. Treats of other regions of Asia- 
 Interesting, simple style. Should be in every library. 
 
 Grades 6, 7. 
 
 Pratt, Mara L. [People and places here and there. Vol. IV.] 
 
 [c. 1892.] Ed. Pub. Co. Cloth, 60c. 
 
 Chinese history ; Tae-Ping rebellion ; farming ; fishing ; customs ; schools ; great 
 wall. Interesting. 
 
 Grades 6, 6. 
 Carpenter, Frank G. Asia. [c. 1897.] Am. Bk. Co. 60c. 
 
 An imaginary trip through Japan, China, India, Thibet, and Turkey, describing 
 the life of the people, the government, and the educational systems of the coun- 
 tries. Illustrated. Should be in every library. 
 
 Grades 6, 7. 
 
 Lee, Yan Phou. When I was a boy in China, [c. 1887.] Lothrop. 60c. 
 Very good description of home life in China by a native. 
 
 Grades 7, 8. 
 
 Miller, Olive J. Little people of Asia. 1899. Dutton. $2.50. 
 
 Tells of queer ceremonies over baby— about his playthings, how his career is 
 chosen, about his schoolmaster, his fondness for kite-flying, the queer scenes one 
 sees in the streets. An interesting book easily read. 
 
 Grades 5, 6. 
 
 (87)
 
 Morse, Edward S. Glimpses of China and Chinese homes. 1902. 
 
 Little, Brown. $1.50. 
 
 Describes, in an interesting way, the Chinese home, dinner, theatre, prison, 
 temples, and mansions. 
 
 Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 Ford, John D. An American cruiser in the East. 1898. Barnes. $2.50. 
 Descriptive of the manners and customs of China. Treats, also, of Koreans- 
 Very good. Many pictures. 
 
 Grades 7, 8. 
 
 Rupert, Wm. R. A geographical reader. Leach, Shewell. 65c. 
 Some interesting facts about China and the Chinese. 
 
 Grades 7, 8. 
 
 Knox, T. W. The boy travelers: Japan and China. 1900. Harper. 
 
 $2.00. 
 
 Interesting description of manners and customs of Chinese people. Many 
 illustrations. 
 
 Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 French, H. W. Oar boys in China. 1899. Liternational Book and 
 Pub. Co. 
 
 Descriptions of sights and scenes in China. Much good material in it, but diffuse. 
 
 Grades 7, 8. 
 
 George, Marian M. Little journeys to China and Japan. 1901. 
 Flanagan. 50c. 
 
 Much interesting information regarding sights and customs of these countries. 
 Illustrated. 
 
 Grades 5, 6. 
 
 Companion Series. The wide world. 1902. Ginn. 25c. 
 
 Graphic picture of ways of living in different parts of the world, presented in a 
 brief and comprehensive way. Treats of China, Japan, Egypt, Italy, Russia, 
 Mexico, and Alaska. Should be in every library. 
 
 Grades 5, 6. 
 
 Smith, Arthur H. Chinese characteristics, [c. 1894.] Revell. $2.00. 
 A very carefully written account of the traits of the Chinese. Gives a great 
 many concrete details of their manners and customs, and their ideals— social and 
 political. A valuable book for the teacher. Can be read by 8th grade. 
 
 Geddie, John. Beyond the Himalayas. 1892. Nelson. $1.00. 
 
 A series of travels and adventures in the wilds of Thibet. Interesting. Illus- 
 trated. 
 
 Ker, David. O'er Tartar deserts. Lippincott. 
 
 The story of English and Russians in central Asia. Interesting 
 
 Grades 7, 8. 
 
 g- 
 
 Grades 7, 8. 
 
 The Region of Japan. 
 
 essentials. 
 
 The country of quaint gardens, of cherry blossoms, and of the jinrickisha. 
 It is a land characterized by its production of silk, rice, and bamboo; by 
 the artistic tcmperainont and gentle manners of its people; by the rapid 
 advance of itH civilization, and by the eagerness with which its people take 
 up with Western ideas. 
 
 (88)
 
 BEST BOOKS. 
 
 Bacon, Alice M. A Japanese interior, [c. 1893.] Houghton. 60c. 
 
 A clear account of the observation and experience of a teacher in a school in 
 Japan. Much information concerning the houses and private life of the people. 
 
 Ayrton, Mrs. M. C. Child life in Japan, and Japanese child stories. 
 
 1901. Heath. 20c. 
 
 stories and sketches of Japanese children at play, with illustrations by Japanese 
 artists. A charming book for children. 
 
 Grades 4, 5, 6. 
 
 Ford, John D. An American cruiser in the East. 1898. Barnes. 
 $2.50. 
 
 Scenes in and about the principal cities. A description of the government and 
 industries of Japan. Very good. Many fine illustrations. 
 
 Grades 7, 8. 
 
 Allen, Alice E. Children of the palm lands, [c. 1901.] Ed. Pub. 
 
 Co. 50c. 
 
 Tea making and drinking, as well as other customs. 
 
 Grades 4, 5. 
 
 Greey, Edward. Young Americans in Japan. 1899. International 
 
 Book and Pub. Co. $1.75. 
 
 An account of the adventures of the Jewett family in Japan. Many illustrations 
 and much valuable information. 
 
 Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 Greey, Edward. The wonderful city of Tokio. 1899. International 
 
 Book and Pub. Co. $1.75. 
 
 A sequel to "Young Americans in Japan." Well illustrated. Tells of lacquer 
 makers, of fan-makers, of a dry goods store, and of how rice is gathered. 
 
 Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 Carroll, Stella W. and Clarence F. Around the world. [Geograph- 
 ical reader, Bk. I.] 1901. Morse Co. 60c. 
 
 Simple sentences about the houses, customs, silkworms, and streets of Japan. 
 
 Grades 2, 3. 
 
 Bramhall, M. S. Wee ones of Japan. 1894. Harper. $1.00. 
 
 Describes family life, manners, dress, discipline, education, and sports of the 
 Japanese children. Interesting. 
 
 Grades 6, 7. 
 
 Rupert, Wm. R. A geographical reader. Leach, Shewell. 65c. 
 Describes the people and their amusements. 
 
 Grades 7, 8. 
 
 Knox, T. W. The boy travelers: Japan and China. 1900. Harper, 
 
 $2.00. 
 
 Interesting descriptions of manners and customs of Japanese people. Many 
 illustrations. 
 
 Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 Ballou, Maturin M. Footprints of travel. 1896. Ginn. 60c. 
 Islands are described, their productions and people. 
 
 Grades 7, 8. 
 
 Companion Series. By land and sea. 1901. Perry Mason. 50c. 
 Interesting description of habits and customs of the people. 
 
 Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 (89)
 
 Bacon, Alice M. Japanese girls and women, [c. 1891.] Houghton. 
 $1.25. 
 
 An account of the home life of Japanese women by a woman who was inti- 
 mately acquainted with the life of the people. 
 
 Best for teachers. 
 
 Angus, D. C. The Eastern wonderland; or pictures of Japanese lif6. 
 
 [The world in pictures] Cassell. 75c. 
 
 Descriptions of Japanese life and character told in story form and representing 
 a Japanese boy born under the old regime as growing up to witness and take part 
 in the transformation of Japan. Well illustrated. 
 
 Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 Arnold, Sir Edwin. Japonica. 1892. Scribner. $3.00. 
 
 Beautiful illustrations. Descriptive matter of value to the teacher, but beyond 
 the pupil. 
 
 Griffis, Wm. E. Honda the Samurai. A story of modern Japan. 
 
 [c. 1890.] Cong. S. S. & Pub. Soc. 11.50. 
 
 A story in guise of fiction to show how new Japan flowered out of the roots of 
 the old. Gives stories which illustrate ancient and medieval Japan, then the 
 scenes following Perry's arrival, and lastly the nation's recent growth. Some very 
 interesting chapters on the homes, baby's life, and the prisons. 
 
 Grades 7, 8. 
 
 Gardiner, R. S. Japan as we saw it. [c. 1892.] Rand- A very Supply 
 
 Co., Boston. 75c. 
 
 A brief account of a four months' trip by the writer and his wife. Contains 
 much authentic information regarding habits, social customs, and needs of the 
 traveler. Good for teacher, but not of especial interest to children. 
 
 Carpenter, F. G. Asia. [Geographical reader.] [c. 1897.] Am. Bk. 
 
 Co. 60c. 
 
 Several chapters descriptive of Japan and the customs of its people. 
 
 Grades 6, 7. 
 
 Wade, Mary Hazelton. Our little Japanese cousin. [Little cousin 
 
 series.] [c. 1901.] Page. 50c. 
 
 A story, very happily written, of the customs and life of Japanese children and 
 people. Children fond of it. One of the few geography books which can be read 
 by grades 4, 5. 6. 
 
 Oi'Tic, Oliver (Adams, "\Vm. T.). Pacific shores, [c. 1897.] Lee. 
 
 $1.25. 
 
 Tl)e story of Louis Belgrave and his companiuiis in Japan. Gives many facts 
 regarding interior of houses, the religion, festivals, temples, and tombs. Inter- 
 esting to boys. 
 
 Grades 7, 8. 
 
 Inouye, Jukichi. Sketches of Tokyo life. Open Court. 75c. 
 
 Text in English. Treats of many iiuaint aspects of .lapanuso life— the story- 
 teller's hail, the actor and the stage, the wrestler and the ring, fortune-telling, 
 fires and firemen, jinrikishas, dancing-girls. Contains many curious illustrations. 
 
 Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 (90)
 
 The Region of India. 
 
 ESSENTIALS. 
 
 The home of Brahminism and the seat of the system of caste. A hot, 
 unhealthful, densely populated region. A region of jungles, full of fierce 
 animals; of fertile valleys, teeming with people; and of plateaus, covered 
 with forests. A country which produces great quantities of wheat, rice, 
 opium, tea, and cotton. 
 
 BEST BOOKS. 
 
 Pratt, Mara L. People and places here and there. Vol. II. 1892. 
 
 Ed. Pub. Co. Cloth, 60c. 
 
 Description of Brahminism, fakirs, Mohammedanism. The Sepoy rebellion, 
 elephant-hunting, and the city of Benares are described. Interesting. 
 
 Grades 5, 6. 
 
 Optic, Oliver. Across India. [All over the world series.] 1895. 
 
 Lee. $1.25. 
 
 Much interesting material regarding animals, jugglers, Ganges, and many cities. 
 
 Grades 7, 8. 
 
 Knox, T. W. Adventures of two youths in a journey to Ceylon and 
 
 India, [c. 1881.] Harper. $2.00. 
 
 A great deal of interesting material. One of the best series of books written 
 for children on geography. Well illustrated. 
 
 Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 Ballou, Maturin M. The pearl of India. 1894. Houghton. $1.50. 
 Descriptive of the island of Ceylon, its people, its products, hunting, etc. Use- 
 ful to teachers, but not interesting to the children. 
 
 Gumming, W. G. Wild men and wild beasts. 1898. Scribner. $1.50. 
 Full of hunting stories and stories of adventure in India. Interesting to boys. 
 Illustrated. 
 
 Grades 7, 8. 
 
 Rupert, Wm. R. A geography reader. Leach, Shewell. 65c. 
 
 Description of the government and the social features of Hindoo life. Hindoo 
 worship and the holy city of Benares. 
 
 Grades 7, 8. 
 
 Carpenter, F. G. Asia. [Geographical reader.] Am. Bk. Co. 60c. 
 
 Chapters on farming classes, wild animals, the holy city of Benares, and the 
 Himalaya mountains. Very interesting and well illustrated. 
 
 Grades 6, 7. 
 
 Carus, Paul. Karma; a story of early Buddhism. Open Court. 75c. 
 Japanese edition. A collection of stories. Very interesting and quaintly illus- 
 trated. 
 
 Grades 7, 8. 
 
 Headley, J. T. Mountain adventures in various parts of the world. 
 
 1899. Scribner. $1.00. 
 
 a trip to the sacred source of the Ganges. 
 
 Grades 7, 8. 
 
 Ballou, Maturin M. Footprints of travel. 1896. Ginn. 60c. 
 
 Customs, scenes, and religion of the natives. Holy city of Benares. Very inter- 
 esting and instructive. 
 
 Grades 7, 8. 
 
 (91)
 
 Smith, Mary Gate. Life in Asia. [The world and its people, Bk. VI.] 
 Silver. 60c. 
 
 Much interesting information regarding life in India, customs of the people, 
 animal life, caste system, etc. Illustrated. 
 
 Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 Wade, Mary Hazelton. Our little brown cousin. 1901. Page. 50c. 
 One of the best stories of the kind. 
 
 Grades 4, 5, 6. 
 
 L, U, 
 
 The Regfion of Arabia. 
 
 essentials. 
 The cradle of Mohammedanism. A plateau region, barren, desolate, 
 unproductive, for the most part, and uninhabited except by wandering 
 Bedouin tribes. 
 
 BEST BOOKS. 
 
 Taylor, Bayard. Travels in Arabia. 1887. Scribner. $1.25. 
 
 A sketch of explorers, ancient cities, and various travels in Arabia. Good. 
 
 Grades 7, 8. 
 ZwEMEK, Rev. S. M. Arabia, the cradle of Islam, [c. 1900.] Revell. 
 
 $2.00. 
 
 studies in the geography, people, and politics of the peninsula, with an account 
 of Islam. One of the best books on Arabia I know. 
 
 Grades 7, 8, and for teachers. 
 
 Carpenter, F. G. Asia. [Geographical reader.] Am, Bk. Co. 60c. 
 Chapter on life in the Arabian desert. 
 
 Grades 6, 7. 
 
 Smith, Mary Gate. Life in Asia. [World and its people, Bk. VI.] 
 
 1900. Silver. 60c. 
 
 A chapter on the home of the Arab; its horses, camels, and life. 
 
 Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 The Regfion of the Holy Land. 
 
 essentials. 
 The "promised land" of the Israelites. At one time a land "flowing 
 with milk and honey," but now a region of ruins and the home of a decadent 
 
 people. 
 
 best books. 
 
 Headley, ,J. T. Mountain adventures in various parts of the world. 
 
 1899. Scribner. $1.00. 
 
 Describes climbing Mounts Lebanon, Sinai, and Ararat. 
 
 Grades 7, 8. 
 
 Companion Series. Under sunny skies. 1902. Ginn. 25c. 
 
 Describes fruit- raising in Asia Minor. 
 
 Grades 5, 6. 
 
 Smith, Mary Cate. Life in Asia. [World and its people, Bk. VI.] 
 
 1900. Silver. flOc. 
 
 A description of lands of the I'.iV;le. 
 
 Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 (92)
 
 Knox, T. W. Boy travelers in Egypt and Holy Land. 1882. Harper. 
 
 $2.00. 
 
 Interesting and instructive. Well illustrated. 
 
 Grades 6, 7. 
 
 Carpenter, F. G. Asia. [Geographical reader.] Am. Bk. Co. 60c. 
 Chapter on Palestine and people. Illustrated. 
 
 Grades 6, 7. 
 
 The Malay Region. 
 
 ESSENTIALS. 
 
 The spice-producing region of the world. A tropical country in which 
 the inhabitants are either Chinese or Malay, and who live along the rivers 
 and irrigating canals, where they are largely engaged in the production of 
 rice. 
 
 BEST BOOKS. 
 
 Kellogg, Eva M. C. Australia and the islands of the sea. [The 
 
 world and its people, Bk. VIII.] 1898. Silver. 68c. 
 Treats of the islands adjacent to the Malaj" peninsula. 
 
 Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 Knox, T. W. Boy travelers in Siam and Java. Harper. $2.00. 
 
 Very interesting account, for children, of habits and customs of the people. 
 
 Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 Carpenter, F. G. Asia. [Geographical reader.] Am. Bk. Co. 60c. 
 Chapters on Siam, the white elephants, the Malays, and the Burmese. Illustra- 
 tions. Interesting. 
 
 Grades 6, 7. 
 
 Henty, G. a. Among Malay pirates. Burt. $1.00. 
 Stirring story of life in the Indian Ocean. 
 
 Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 The Regfion of Australia and New Zealand. 
 essentl\ls. 
 A region peculiar in that its central region is practically a desert; the 
 only habitable part is along the coast. These islands are the home of 
 peculiar types of animal and vegetable life — types which are found nowhere 
 else in the world. This region is famous for its production of gold and 
 for its exportation of wool, frozen mutton, and coal. This present-day 
 progressive country of English tradesmen was first settled by exiled con- 
 victs. Its native population, the bushmen, are among the tribes lowest in 
 point of civilization in the world. 
 
 BEST BOOKS. 
 
 Ballou,Maturix M. Under the southern cross. 1888. Ticknor. $1.50. 
 Much valuable information, but rather too difficult reading for the grades. 
 
 Knox, Thomas W. The land of the kangaroo, [c. 1896.] Wilde. 
 
 Cloth, $1.50. 
 
 The adventures of two youths in a journey across the island. Much valuable 
 information presented in interesting form. 
 
 Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 Ballou, Maturin M. Footprints of travel. 1896. Ginn. 60c. 
 
 The production of gold ; animal and vegetable life ; sheep-raising ; chief cities. 
 
 (93) Grades 7, 8.
 
 Rupert, Wm. R. A geography reader. Leach, Shewell. 65c. 
 Life and industries in the island. 
 
 Grades 7, 8. 
 
 Kellogg, Eva M. C. Australia and the islands of the sea. [The 
 world and its people, Bk. VIII.] 1898. Silver. 68c. 
 
 An excellent and comprehensive account of Australia and the adjacent islands. 
 Illustrated. 
 
 Grades 7, 8. 
 
 Henty, G. a. a final reckoning. (Fiction.) Scribner. $1,50. 
 A tale of bush life in Australia. 
 
 Grades 7, 8. 
 
 Pratt, Mara L. Australasia. [People and places here and there, 
 
 Vol. I.] Ed. Pub. Co. Cloth, 60c. 
 
 The chief cities; bush life ; the aborigines ; birds and animals ; the gold rush. 
 
 Grades 4, 5, 6. 
 
 Henty, G. A. Maori and settler. (Fiction.) Scribner. $1.50. 
 A story of New Zealand war. Boy's book of adventure. 
 
 Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 Whitmarsh, Lieut. H. P. The young pearl-divers. Page. $1.00. 
 A stirring story of Australian adventure. A splendid book for boys. 
 
 Grades 7, 8. 
 
 The Regfion of the East Indies. 
 
 essentials. 
 
 A region of many active volcanoes and subject to violent earthquakes. 
 It is also subject to fierce hurricanes, which render navigation among the 
 islands exceedingly dangerous at certain times of the year. It is a 
 region having a typical tropical climate — hot, moist, and unhealthful for 
 whites. These islands have long been famed for the production of spices, 
 ornamental woods, and coffee. The inhabitants are mostly of the Malay 
 race. 
 
 BEST BOOKS. 
 
 Kellogg, Eva M. C. Australia and the islands of the sea. [The 
 
 world and its people, Bk. VIII.] 1898. Silver. 68c. 
 
 Excellent account of these islands, their productions and their inhabitants. 
 
 Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 Allen, Alice E. Children of the palm lands, [c. 1901. J Ed. Pub. 
 
 Co. 50c. 
 
 The production of pepper, cloves, and nutmeg; also the customs of the people 
 are described. 
 
 Grades 4, 5. 
 
 HiGGiNSON, S. J. .Java; the pearl of the East. [c. 1890.] Houghton. 
 75c. 
 
 A good account of the people, wealth, and resources of the island, together with 
 a brief outline of it.s history. No illustrations. 
 
 Grades 7, 8. 
 
 Jenks, Tudor. The boys' book of explorations. 1900. Doubleday. 
 $2.00. 
 
 A description of the strange animals and plants of Australia. Kxplorations of 
 interior of country related. Interesting. 
 
 (94) Grades 7, 8.
 
 Knox, T. W. Boy travelers in Siam and Java. Harper. 12.00. 
 
 Excellent description. Interesting to children. 
 
 Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 The Region of the Philippines* 
 
 ESSENTIALS. 
 
 A hot, unhealthful region, having luxuriant vegetation and heavy rain- 
 fall. It has a fertile soil, which produces sugar cane, rice, coffee, spices, and 
 tropical fruits. These islands, formerly among Spain's richest possessions, 
 are now governed by the United States and are being rapidly developed, 
 both educationally and industrially, 
 
 BEST BOOKS. 
 
 Kellogg, Eva M. C. Australia and the islands of the sea. [The world 
 and its people, Bk. VIIL] 1898. Silver. 68c. 
 
 A chapter describing the islands — their inhabitants, their habits and customs. 
 
 Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 Carroll, Stella W., and Hart, E. M. Around the world. [Geo- 
 graphical series, Bk. Ill,] 1901. Morse. 60c. 
 
 Interesting description of scenes on the islands. In the rice tields, spinning 
 hemp, and rolling cigars. 
 
 Grades 4, 5, 6. 
 
 The Regfion of the South Sea Islands. 
 
 essentials. 
 A region of coral reefs, having a mild climate and producing and export- 
 ing cocoanuts and other tropical fruits, besides sugar and cotton. These 
 islands are now in communication with the civilized world by means of 
 several oceanic steamship lines. In consequence, the natives are gradually 
 emerging from their former state of cannibalism. 
 
 BEST BOOKS. 
 
 Kellogg, Eva M. C. Australia and the islands of the sea. [The world 
 and its people, Bk. VIII.] 1898. Silver. 68c. 
 
 One of the best treatments for children of the South Sea Islands of which I 
 know. Illustrated. 
 
 Grades 7, 8. 
 
 Melville, Herman. Typee; or, Life in the south seas. Heath. 1902. 
 45c. 
 
 A narrative of personal experience. The most readable book of the kind I 
 know. Illustrated. 
 
 Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 Gumming, C. F. At home in Fiji. 1882. Armstrong. $1.25. 
 
 A series of personal observations. Contains much interesting information con- 
 cerning the natives of the islands. 
 
 Grade 8, and for teacher. 
 
 Pratt, Mara L, Australasia. [People and places here and there, 
 
 Vol. I.] Ed. Pub. Co. Cloth, 60c. 
 
 Good description of the natives. Illustrated. 
 
 Grades 4, 5, 6. 
 (95)
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 SPECIAL METHOD OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 By EFFIE B. McFADDEN. 
 
 No course in geography for grammar grades seems quite complete without 
 some attention to the relation of cause and effect. While it is well if a 
 seventh-grade pupil knows that it rains nearly every day in the Amazon 
 region, it is usually profitable for this same pupil to know why this is so. 
 In the same way if he has found rubber growing in the lower part of the 
 Amazon Valley, it is well he should think of the agencies at work far away 
 up in the Andes Mountains, tearing them down and bringing them as silt 
 to be deposited by the overflow of the river, and thus make a fertile soil. 
 
 In nearly all of our text-books in geography for the grammar grades a 
 few chapters in the beginning are devoted to some general statements about 
 erosions, winds, rainfall, ocean currents, temperature, etc., apart from any 
 country except as one may be mentioned in way of illustration — this, too, 
 before the child has in his mind any definite picture of the region in question. 
 
 With this in view, it has been the aim of the Physical Geography work 
 to follow closely the descriptive work; to ask why there are heavy rains in 
 a certain location after the fact that the heavy rains are the rule has been 
 established in some adequate way. 
 
 To illustrate: The child has first learned the location of the Amazon 
 Valley, the slopes that form the sides, the river that flows through its lowest 
 part; then he has to establish a certain feeling for its jungles, its animals, 
 and its rainfall. 
 
 It is now time to ask why this is all so. It has been the aim not to 
 answer this in any general statement, but by means of the child's expe- 
 riences and by simple experiments appeal to his understanding. It is not 
 necessary that the child be able in every case to make the application of the 
 experiment to the physical fact, but if he sees the experiment, better still if 
 he performs it himself, even if the teacher makes the application, the child 
 will have something concrete upon which to hang his reasons. 
 
 The child can not see the water in the ocean disappear; he can see the 
 clouds gather and the rain fall, l)Ut he can not feel the cold current of air 
 al>ove that perhaf)S has cnused the downpour. In the experiment he sees 
 the water in the flask gradually grow less; he feels the cold cloth, in fact as 
 it becomes warm he must cool it again; he sees the drops fall one by one. 
 Now it i8 not far in imagination from the alcohol lamp to the sun, from the 
 water in the flask to the ocean, from the cold cloth to a cold current of air 
 or a mountain range, and then from the drops of water to rain. The experi- 
 
 (96)
 
 ment need not be repeated every time the child is asked for the cause of 
 rainfall ; a simple sketch of the apparatus will nearly always recall the 
 necessary information. 
 
 All the apparatus used is very simple and costs only a few cents. It 
 seems much better to have it so, as complicated apparatus draws attention 
 to itself rather than to the results of the experiment; and costly apparatus 
 can not be afforded by the average grammar school. 
 
 Not all the topics to be treated of in Physical Geography can be taken, 
 nor should they be, in connection with South America. They are not men- 
 tioned in the descriptions of the different areas, so there can be no "why" 
 asked. Glaciers are best studied in Alaska or Switzerland; hot springs and 
 geysers, in the United States; the reasons for the different lengths of day 
 and night, in the Arctic regions, etc. 
 
 Certain topics, and as it happens the most difficult ones for the children, 
 will be repeated for nearly every new region; for instance, the causes for 
 rainfall and for ocean currents. But after one or two areas have been 
 studied, the children will have no difficulty in giving reasons, and very 
 little time will be required for this work. 
 
 In the eighth grade it has seemed well to sum up the work by repeating 
 it in topical form. Winds are studied this time as a general subject, their 
 causes given and application made to the whole world. Glaciers, volcanoes, 
 etc., may be treated in the same way. 
 
 The following outline is a compilation of the reports of lessons given in 
 the fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth grades. The essential points in all the 
 lessons were developed in almost as many ways as there were teachers. 
 Those methods that seemed most effective for a given class appear in the 
 following pages. The reports of Misses Ethel Banks, Doolan, Prout, Ruff, 
 and Tessie Savage, furnish the greater part of the material for the lessons; 
 the drawings were made by Mr. Walter J. Kenyon. 
 
 RAINFALL IN THE AMAZON REGION. 
 
 I began my lesson with the most interesting descriptive features of the 
 Amazon Valley. The class were able to recall a broad, densely wooded 
 valley, through which was flowing, swiftly at its source, sluggishly at its 
 mouth, a great sti-eam of water. I placed particular emphasis on the lux- 
 uriant vegetation; then asked, "What causes such a growth of forests here?" 
 This brought forth a discussion, the main points seeming to center about 
 the heavy rainfall, though heat and the fertility of the soil were also given 
 as causes. As nearly all had mentioned the rainfall, this was used as the 
 starting point. "Why does the Amazon Valley get so much rain?" This 
 was a hard question. Some thought that it was on account of the heat, 
 others that the forests had something to do with it. Some gave the moun- 
 tains as the cause, and others ventured no reply. The question of rainfall was 
 now uppermost in the children's minds, so I asked, "What makes it rain, 
 anyway?" " The sky gets filled with clouds," "The wind blows," were some 
 of the replies. " What must there be in the air before it rains?" Some said 
 water, some vapor, and some moisture. I brought it out plainly that it was 
 7 (97)
 
 water and that these other names are given for special reasons. "Is there 
 any water in the air outside? Any in this room? Could we ever get it 
 back again?" After the opinions of the class had been given on these points, 
 I took a tin can with a tight-fitting cover, and put in it a piece of ice, having 
 them admit in the beginning that the can did not leak and that neither ice 
 nor water could get out over the top or under the cover. 
 
 While waiting for this experiment, we tried breathing upon a pane of 
 glass and upon tin. Then I poured a few drops of benzine, a few of alcohol, 
 and a few of water upon a pane of glass. The children watched it dis- 
 appear. They admitted that it went into the air, and when it was there 
 we could not see it. I now gave the term, "vapor." 
 
 Miss Peugh repeated the same experiment, applying heat from an alco- 
 hol lamp. The children saw how much more quickly the liquids disap- 
 peared when more heat was used. 
 
 As the water had collected in large drops on the tin can, we turned our 
 attention to it. By this time nearly all the children were satisfied that the 
 water had been in the air as vapor and the cold can had brought it back to 
 water again. 
 
 The point about something cold being necessary to bring it back should 
 be emphasized. The word "condense " may be given here, as the children 
 will find it used in their geographies. 
 
 I asked for instances of water collecting under various conditions, and 
 the children spoke of the windows at night when it was cold outside and 
 warm inside, of dew upon the grass, of drops of water on the outside of a 
 water pitcher containing ice water, and of seeing their breath on a ver}' 
 cold day. 
 
 At recess time I had set up a piece of apparatus to represent rain forma- 
 tion. This consisted of an alcohol lamp over which was a flask half filled 
 with water. Leading from a flask through a rubber stopper was a bent 
 tube, as in Fig. 29. A cloth wet in ice 
 water was wrapped around the center of 
 the tube. 
 
 By this time the water drops were fall- 
 ing from the end of the tube, so I called 
 attention to it and asked them to tell what 
 made the vapor from the water come back 
 in drops. 
 
 The children had no difficulty in telling 
 how the heat from the lamp changed the 
 water into vapor, which was turned again 
 into water by the cold cloth. Wlien the 
 question was asked, "Where out of doors 
 have you seen the vapor coming back in 
 drops?" a perfect chorus of "rain" was the result. 
 
 "Now this table where the apparatus is, represents the Ama/.on X'alley. 
 What makes it rain here?" Several raised their hands immediately to 
 explain. All could see that the lamp was the sun, the water in the flask 
 
 (98) 
 
 Fwi. 29
 
 the Amazon River, or the ocean, but the cold cloth was a mystery. The 
 question naturally arose in the children's minds, " What is there cold 
 about so warm a place as the Amazon Valley?" I brought in the instance 
 of men going up in a balloon and their experiences with the cold, also of 
 climbing mountains, and then they saw what the cold cloth represented. 
 
 I then had several go to the board and draw the apparatus, naming, as 
 they went, the particular feature for which each part stood. 
 
 " But I should think it would rain only over the Amazon River," said 
 one boy. "Oh, no; the winds blow the clouds," some suggested. "But 
 which way do the winds blow? And what makes them blow in South 
 America?" 
 
 The discussion on winds that followed brought out from the majority of 
 the class the opinion that winds " come from the ocean and go into the 
 land." They agreed that this might be reversed, "the wind coming from 
 the mountains and going into the ocean." They also thought that the 
 wind is made of air and that it brings clouds. Some child volunteered that 
 out in the ocean near this part of South America there was no wind, but a 
 calm. The child had learned this from reading a story in his descriptive 
 geography of a sailboat that got into this belt of calms and had a hard 
 time getting to land. Here I told them that the belt of calms extended even 
 over the land, and that we would find out why. 
 
 "What did we find out about the temperature of the Amazon region? 
 What about the temperature of the air above such a place? Now let us see 
 what the air over this heated place is doing. We will let this stove be the 
 Amazon region. How shall we tell what is happening to the air?" "Hold 
 a piece of paper over the stove, or a feather," were the suggestions. Each 
 was tried, but nothing happened. So I produced a Chinese punk, lighted 
 it, and held it over the stove. " What is the air doing? How can you tell? 
 What is the air doing around the stove?" A child held the punk six inches 
 from the stove, and the class saw the smoke move toward the stove, then 
 upward. "If you were in a place where the air was moving up, could you 
 feel it?" The cla,ss argued this awhile, then thought not. I told them that 
 this was just what happened in the Amazon Valley. It is very warm there, 
 so the air is heated and moves upward The air around moves toward the 
 heated part and then upward. Where it is moving upward the wind can 
 not be felt, and we call it a calm. Where it is moving toward the heated 
 portion we can feel a wind. " Now let us see what happens in the Amazon 
 Valley to that air which is moving upward. Think again of the warm water 
 that is in the flask." The children told how it was condensed by the cold 
 cloth and fell down in drops. " When the warm, moist air gets up very 
 high over the valley, will it remain warm? What will cool it? Then what 
 would you expect in the Amazon region?" I told the children that the sun 
 often rises in a cloudless sky ; that as the sun grows warmer the damp air 
 rises; it reaches a colder region, then clouds appear, and soon there is rain. 
 When evening comes and it is cooler, evaporation takes place much more 
 slowly, the clouds disappear and the stars shine out bright. The next 
 morning is as clear as the first. 
 
 (99)
 
 OTHER REGIONS OF SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 Let us find out now what is happening to the air in the other parts of 
 the room. We held the punk first at the lower part of the open window, 
 then at the upper; then we did the same at the open door. In both cases 
 the smoke blew into the room below and went out above. I developed the 
 fact that the air out of doors and also in the hall was colder than that near 
 the stove. The class now decided that the cold air which came in from the 
 outside was warmed, then moved upward and out at the top of the window 
 or door. "Why is it that the heated air rises?" brought no response. "Try 
 an experiment," they said. So I took a five-gallon tin oil-can and tied a 
 rubber balloon from a whistle over the end. (A paper bag would answer 
 as well.) Then I put the can on the stove with the balloon up. The balloon 
 soon swelled out, and the children agreed that the air was spreading out in 
 the can and would do the same if the balloon were not there. They seemed 
 to appreciate the fact that the cold air coming in pushed up this expanded 
 lighter air. They were then ready to apply this to the circulation of the 
 air in the Andes region. The colder place from which the air came was 
 located near the poles. They saw that the air moves from two directions 
 toward the Amazon Valley, pushes up the warm air and returns toward the 
 poles, just as it had gone out at the upper part of the window and door. 
 "What direction would you expect the winds to blow?" All thought from 
 the north on one side of the Amazon Valley and from the south on the other 
 side. When told that the winds came from the northeast and the southeast, 
 they were quite puzzled and did not offer a reason for it. A circular board 
 
 Flu. oU. 
 
 Disc illustrating the eflFects of rotation on the direction of the wind. 
 
 with a nail driven through the center, so that the disc would rotate when 
 the nail was placed through a hole in a block, was now produced. 
 
 This was to represent the earth. The difficulty in imagining this flat 
 board to be the earth was overcome by comparing the apparatus to half of 
 a rubber ball flattened out. The curved edge represented the equatorial 
 region of South America; the center, the north pole. An inked marble 
 illustrated the wind. The disc being still, the inked marble was started to 
 the edge. It went in a straight line. "But the earth does not stand still, 
 it moves," said one. A discussion followed as to which way the disc should 
 rotate. This being settled, one child rotated the disc while I started the 
 wind. Several trials brought the same result; the marble rolled in a curved 
 line, reaching the outside edge in the opposite direction from that in which 
 the disc was moving. 
 
 " From what direction would you expect these winds to come if you were 
 in the Orinoco Valley? Why?" I had to repeat the experiment with the 
 
 (100)
 
 center representing the south pole, to show that the winds south of the belt 
 of calms came from the southeast. 
 
 "Now we have winds blowing from the northeast and the southeast. 
 What must they pass over before reaching South America? What did we 
 find happened when wind blew across the water? Will there be much or 
 little evaporated? How do you know?" Here I had to recall the experi- 
 ments on evaporation, comparing the effect of using heat from a lamp and 
 the heat of the sun. "Now we will think of these warm winds full of 
 moisture blowing from the ocean toward South America." I took the 
 northeast trade wind first. The children saw that it would strike the coast 
 and soon reach the mountains along the northern border. I then developed 
 the fact that the wind must ascend these mountains and in so doing would 
 come into a colder region, where some moisture would be condensed and fall 
 as rain. Now they traced it down the southern slope and across the 
 Orinoco plains. Would it bring rain or drouth? ''Drouth" they agreed, 
 for it was very warm there, with nothing cool to condense the moisture. 
 Finally it reached the Andes Mountains. " Now what will happen?" The 
 rain problem had become easy by this time and every hand was up. 
 
 I took up the southeast trade in the same way. This was much easier 
 for the children. I had one of the class take a pointer to represent the 
 wind, pass to the map, and show us what would happen. He started with 
 the pointer across the ocean, reached the Brazilian Highlands, where the 
 class helped him out. They explained how the air ascended, became cooler, 
 the moisture condensed and fell as rain on the eastern slope. Then the 
 pointer passed down on the western side. " Wet weather or dry weather?" 
 I asked. "Dry," came the answer. It took, even now, two or three trials 
 to tell why. Then he passed it on to the Andes Mountains and told by 
 himself of the heavy rainfall. 
 
 "Now what will happen on the western side of the Andes?" Some 
 thought that the wind could not get over the mountains. Others that if it 
 did, all the moisture would be gone. One bright boy said, " Well, it doesn't 
 matter, for there wouldn't be anything colder than the top of the Andes 
 Mountains to take the moisture out of the air." Though all were satisfied 
 that they knew why it did not rain on the western side, I pointed out that 
 on the west side the northeast or southeast trade would follow the line of 
 the mountains and would not need to ascend, so no rain would fall. 
 
 " Why do they have that wet season part of the year on the Orinoco 
 plains?" In my grade (fifth) I told them, without giving any reason, that 
 in summer time the winds all moved north, so that the belt of calms is very 
 nearly over the Orinoco Valley; while in winter they moved south, giving 
 the valley of the La Plata its season of rain. 
 
 In the southern part of South America there is a rainy western slope 
 and a desert on the eastern side. This puzzled my class at first. From 
 what they had learned they saw that the wind must come from the west. 
 " Why?" 
 
 I went back again to the warm stove and the punk. The children again 
 thought of the stove as the heat of the Amazon Valley. They saw the 
 
 (101)
 
 smoke rise, then followed it over to the upper part of the door, where the 
 air moved the smoke out into the next room, "What happens to it there?" 
 "It might drop down and then come back in again." Now I told them that 
 the same thing happened in South America. By the time the air they found 
 rising in the Amazon region had reached Patagonia, it had cooled and 
 descended to the surface. "But why did it come from the west?" The 
 rotation of the earth was given as a reason, but the children did not all 
 agree, as rotation caused the trade winds to go in the opposite direction 
 from the movement of the earth from the northeast and southeast. " Which 
 way," I asked, " were the trade winds going?" " Toward the equator," they 
 said. "Which way are these winds blowing?" "Toward the poles." 
 " Would that make any difference?" Many said, " Yes," others asked for 
 the circular board and the marble to try the experiment again. The bell 
 rang for recess. So I gave them the 
 apparatus, with instructions to roll the 
 ball toward the center and to report 
 next lesson. They were all satisfied 
 next day that the rotation of the 
 earth gave the winds their direction. 
 I gave the name " anti-trade " or 
 "westerly prevailing" to this wind, 
 and th'e children explained how it 
 ascended the Andes Mountains, cooled, 
 and the vapor was condensed, giving 
 rainfall to the western slopes; but 
 being robbed of its moisture as it 
 crossed mountains it descended as a 
 dry wind upon the plains of Patagonia. 
 The next step was making a rain 
 map. I drew on the board an outline 
 map of South America, and had the 
 children locate the different areas we 
 had been studying. " Point out the 
 places where there is excessive rain- 
 fall." 1 filled this in heavy with the 
 broadside of the crayon. "Where is it heavy?" This I filled in with 
 checks. " Where is there little or no rain?" I represented this simply by 
 inclosing it with a line, leaving the space without lines. Then I explained 
 that the other areas had moderate rainfall, and filled that in with standing 
 lines I I I I- The class looked at the map and gave causes for the 
 varying amounts of rainfall. Then I erased the map, and they passed to 
 the board, drawing from memory. The next day I gave each child an out- 
 line map, which he filled in as I had done the day before, writing out the 
 reasons for heavy, light, or no rainfall. 
 
 Excessive 
 rainfall. 
 
 Very heavy 
 rainfall. 
 
 Moderate 
 rainfall. 
 
 Little or no 
 rainfall. 
 
 Fig. 31. 
 Showing the average rainfall in South America. 
 
 (102)
 
 EROSION. 
 
 The class were having a lesson on rubber production in the Amazon 
 Valley. They found from their reading that for a season during the year 
 the men could not work, as the river overflowed, leaving the water deep on 
 the rubber plantation. I thought it a good place to introduce the subject 
 of erosion. "Does the land look the same when the water is gone?" I 
 asked. Some said it was very wet, others thought that besides it would be 
 covered with a layer of mud. (They had learned about the overflow of the 
 Nile.) ''Where did this mud come from?'' "From the mountains." "Are 
 the mountains made up of mud?" This led to a very lively discussion. 
 Some thought there was plenty of soil in the mountains ready to be washed 
 down by the rain. Another had been on Mount Tamalpais, and reasoning 
 from his observations said there was only a little soil on the top of mountains 
 and that in many places rocks came out. Then I had them think of places 
 where hills had been cut through; all the hands went up, for there is a place 
 near the school house where constant blasting and load after load of rock 
 testify to a little soil on the surface and much rock below. Then they 
 thought of other cuts in the city, where the rock had to be blasted out to 
 make roads; of one place where a new gas pipe is being laid in solid rock; 
 of a quarry where rock is obtained for the street, and many other cases 
 where, only a short distance below the surface, rock and not soil is to be 
 found. 
 
 I showed them some pictures from the Yosemite of a huge pile of rock, 
 as high as ten "Call" buildings one on top of the other; of the Colorado 
 River, with its perpendicular walls of rock; and then of the Andes. We 
 had only a few pictures that showed well; some pictures of goat-hunting 
 there and of pack trains going to the mines. They then added a little from 
 their reading, to show the rock\^ condition of the mountains. I tried to 
 bring out that under the soil there is a rocky foundation; that in the valleys 
 the soil is deep in many places; but that high up in the mountains there is 
 little soil and whole mountains of rock. 
 
 I came back to my first question, "Where does the soil that the river 
 brings down come from? " "Something must break up the rocks," said one. 
 " Not snow nor anything else could break up so much hard, hard rock," 
 said another positively. 
 
 Here I brought in a new brick. " Isn't this hard?" I asked. "Yes, but 
 not so hard as rock." "Will it ever crumble away?" "Yes, if you leave 
 it long enough." Here they told of old brick buildings that were decaying; 
 finally stone buildings were mentioned, and the children agreed that they 
 had heard of their crumbling away. " Now what makes them decay?" No 
 answer came. I took from an obscure part of my desk a piece of rusty 
 iron. I allowed the children to bend it, and to scratch ofi" pieces, and was 
 delighted when a piece broke off as one was handling it. I appeared sur- 
 prised and said, "You must have bent it very hard." "Oh, no, I did not. 
 It broke very easily." Then they saw how easily this piece broke in com- 
 parison with a new piece of similar size which they had tried. They talked 
 
 (103)
 
 of tin cans rusting, and of iron rusting; until one boy for whom this piece 
 of rusty iron had no charms said, "But what has that to do with moun- 
 tains being broken to pieces?" I told them now, that in the same way that 
 tin or iron, exposed to the air, rusted to pieces, so rock would also crumble, 
 but that it did so very slowly. 
 
 " But if rocks do break up, they don't make soil, just gravel," one boy 
 said. This was the hardest part for the children to see. I brought in a 
 great many kinds of rock to show them that some were very hard, some 
 very soft, and others between these two. We took some granite and saw that 
 this was made up of three different kinds of material. With a file they 
 found part to be very hard, and part soft. I had them pound up 
 some of each kind. After a very noisy ten minutes, we summed up 
 what we had learned. Most of the soft rock (it was feldspar that I obtained 
 from the Mining Bureau, Ferry Building, foot of Market street, San Fran- 
 cisco) when pounded up resembled the modeling clay they use, and was 
 recognized as such by the children; the particles of the hardest rock, quartz, 
 even when ground very fine with a mortar and pestle, had sharp angles, 
 and the children immediately pronounced it " sand." The granite made part 
 sand and part clay. They were just beginning to realize the significance of 
 the whole thing when a boy said, "Oh, yes; they drop pieces of that rock 
 across the street out of their wagons, then the other wagons run over it and 
 makes the street terribly dusty." "And what happens when it rains?" I 
 asked. " Mud,'" they said, all together. I asked them to bring in any kind 
 of rock they could and pound it up to see what kind of soil it would make. 
 I took a few minutes the next day to look at it with the children. 
 
 Our next problem was: " What besides weathering helps to tear the 
 mountains down?" Rain, and snow, and ice, were suggested. To show 
 them the force of ice in breaking apart the rocks, I took a bottle, filled it 
 full of water and drove a cork in firmly, being careful that the bottle was 
 full and that no bubbles of air were at the top. Then I sealed in the cork 
 with ordinary sealing wax and packed it away in ice and salt. Before the 
 hour was over, a big pop brought us to the can where our bottle was. We 
 found the bottle broken and a piece of ice the exact shape as a result. The 
 children were quite puzzled, for they had learned in some of their experi- 
 ments that cold contracts water and that heat expands it. Here cold had 
 expanded the water. I told them that down to a certain degree cold did 
 contract water, but after that it expanded it. I spoke of the great 
 crevices in the mountains, of the melting snow that filled these with water, 
 and of freezing at night. Then the children saw how great pieces might 
 be broken off. 
 
 Another agency that is at work is the alternate contracting and expand- 
 ing. To illuHtrate this I drove a nail through a piece of tin, and asked a 
 boy to hold the nail over the flame a few minutes, then put it through the 
 hole in the tin. The nail would not now go through the hole it had made. 
 Finally, another boy, who thought he could do almost anything, volun- 
 teered to try. I held the nail in the fiame, meantime, so it would not cool. 
 This boy failed, too; so the class decided that something had made the nail 
 
 (104)
 
 . grow larger. Then I put the nail in cold water, and it went through the 
 hole easily. Now I confronted them with, " What do you suppose this has 
 to do with the mountains?" Much to my surprise they told me that the 
 different parts that made up the rocks expanded by day and cooled by 
 night. " And what does this do? " They said that the particles would finally 
 work loose and thus help to break up the rock. 
 
 " What do you think might happen after a little soil was formed on the 
 mountain side?" This question didn't bring it, so I asked, "Are the Andes 
 mountain sides all bare rock?" Then they saw what I was after, and told 
 me how wind might carry seeds, and these sprout and grow. They spoke of 
 seeing trees growing from a crack in a rock. One child told of an experi- 
 ment of the year before in which they placed a board on top of some planted 
 seeds and weighted it down little by little until the sprouting seeds could 
 not move it. "What happened to the leaves on the trees after a time?" 
 "They fall." "And then what?" "They decay and make new soil." 
 
 We summed up 
 ^•■^SStSJ^^^iaM all that we had 
 
 learned, finding 
 
 that exposure to 
 
 air, to heat and 
 
 cold, freezing, and 
 
 sprouting seeds all 
 
 tended to break ofiF 
 
 great pieces of rock. 
 
 "Now let us see 
 
 what becomes of all 
 
 this rock that is 
 
 broken from the 
 
 mountains?" "It 
 
 falls into the rivers 
 
 and is carried 
 
 down." "Down 
 
 where ? To the ocean?" "No, some of it is in such large pieces that they 
 
 just roll down a little way." " And what becomes of the other pieces?" A few 
 
 questions, and a sketch of a river on the board brought out the real truth. 
 
 "The current, strong where the bed of the river is much inclined, rolls 
 
 the rocks over and over each other, dropping them when the bed becomes 
 
 level and the current consequently weak. So the river drops smaller and 
 
 smaller ones as it gets to leveler places." "How will these rocks look as 
 
 you go along the river bank? Like these I have?" I showed them a 
 
 jagged piece that I brought from the street. "Larger or smaller" was the 
 
 only answer; but now I showed them a rounded rock, worn perfectly smooth. 
 
 "What has happened to this?" I said, as I placed it beside the jagged one. 
 
 Now the children talked of the rocks rolling and tumbling over each other. 
 
 I recalled the heavy rains that come often and very suddenly in the Amazon 
 
 Valley, so the children might have a clear picture of the rocks rolling over 
 
 each other and being ground up, when the streams were suddenly filled 
 
 with water, (los) 
 
 Fig. 32.
 
 "What kind of material is the Amazon carrying when it reaches the 
 country near its mouth?" "Very fine," they said, "and soft." The reason 
 was quite clear. 
 
 To illustrate the assorting power of water, I brought in a glass tube 
 about two feet long, and one inch in diameter, with a cork for each end. 
 Into this I put the granite they had ground up, being careful that there 
 were some pieces as large as peas, and some as fine as clay. Then I filled 
 the tube with water and put in a cork. This the children turned up one 
 way and then the other. No matter how quickly or how slowly it was 
 turned, the largest pieces reached the bottom first, and the fine clay gradually 
 reached the top. The same thing can be illustrated by a bottle of ordinary 
 soil (not gravel, however, as the bottle is not deep enough to let the stones 
 get to the bottom first). Put in some water, and shake. When it settles, 
 the fine clay will be found in a layer on top. I told them that the amount 
 of detritus (a name given to the material brought down by the river) 
 deposited each year was very small, but that it covered many acres of 
 ground. "If this tearing down of the Andes Mountains and carrying of 
 them down into the Amazon Valley keeps up steadily for millions of years, 
 how would South America appear then?" The children saw that the steady 
 march of rock waste from the hills to the sea would some time lay the Andes 
 low and fill up the valley, tending to make the surface level. 
 
 The seventh grade were much interested iu this and asked many ques- 
 tions about the filling up of our own valley — how long it had been going 
 on, and how long it would take. 
 
 They seemed so much interested that I told them a little of the earth's 
 history; how once perhaps most of the earth's surface was covered with 
 water; how the rocks above were torn down and deposited in layers beneath 
 the water; how these layers were often changed to rocks again, and then by 
 some mighty force, which we would learn about in another lesson, were raised 
 far above the water as a mountain range or plateau. Then the rains, the 
 freezing, the expansion and contraction went to work and tore them down 
 once more, only to be raised again to the surface. This was one of the most 
 impressive lessons we had. Layers of rock or soil, called strata, meant 
 much more to them after a trip to the beach and to the Castro-street cut, 
 where these were pointed out. 
 
 In concluding this lesson, I asked if man could prevent in any way the 
 tearing down of the mountains or help it along? They all thought it was 
 beyond his power, until I asked, " How do they keep the sand out on the 
 blue car line from being washed down on the track?" The children told 
 immediately of the grass growing there whose roots held the soil in place. 
 They thought that the forests helped to keep the material from washing 
 down the mountains, and that if the forests were all cut down, the wearing 
 away process would go on faster. 
 
 MOUNTAIN BUILDING. 
 
 This lesson followed immediately after the one on erosion. " Do you 
 think that the Andes Mountains have always looked as they do to-day?" 
 " Thoy were higher. The streams have washed some of the rocks down into 
 
 (10(3)
 
 the valley," said the children. " Do you suppose there ever was a time 
 when the Andes Mountains were not there?" The children shook their 
 heads and looked expectant, so I began: A long time ago this earth was 
 not so cool as it is now. In fact, it was so very warm that had any one 
 lived here, his feet would have been badly burned standing on it. "What 
 makes people think so, seeing there was no one here to tell us about it?" 
 No answer. "Have any of you ever been up in Sonoma County to the 
 Springs?" "Yes." "What comes from them? " "Hot water." "Where 
 does the water come from? How did it get warm?" "Perhaps it is still 
 warm down in the earth," some one suggested. "There are the geysers in 
 Colorado They throw great streams of boiling hot water," said another. 
 "There are other things that throw out hot material from the inside of the 
 earth. Whatare they? " "I know, volcanoes." " There are volcanoes in the 
 Andes Mountains, too." " Yes, but tell me what the volcanoes throw out and 
 where they get it? " Here the children told of gas, steam, cinders, ashes, and 
 lava. They had all heard of the Martinique disaster and were ready with 
 information. "What does this show about the interior of the earth?" 
 "That it is still warm." "There is one other thing that shows that the 
 interior of the earth is warmer than the outside; it is mines." "Oh, yes; 
 miners do not wear much clothing," "They have to pump cool air down 
 to them," " Sometimes the men can work only a short time because it is so 
 warm." These were some of the answers. 
 
 I told the class that for the first one hundred feet the temperature was 
 just about the same, but after that it grew 80 degrees warmer for every mile 
 you descend. " Now who will tell what makes people think the earth was 
 once very warm? Where would it cool first? Let us see what will happen 
 if the outside crust is cold and the inside begins to cool. Here is a nail 
 that I will heat for you. It is hot like the inside of the earth. I will try 
 to put it through this hole. Will it go?" "No." " Now it is cold. Will 
 it go through?" "Yes. It got smaller." (They had had this experiment 
 once before.) "Just so the inside of the earth gets smaller as it cools. 
 What would there be between the cool outside and the smaller inside?'' 
 
 • "Nothing." "What would hold up 
 the heavy outside earth?" "It would 
 fall in and pile up in places," said 
 one. " Did you ever see an apple or 
 a potato that had dried up in the sun? 
 How did it look?" "All wrinkled." 
 
 Fig. 33. Diagram repre- "And that is the way the earth looked ^V^emin^^'XVrln' 
 sentine the contract- reseniing me wriu- 
 
 ing of the interior of after it had lost somc heat from the a^u^fi°/«u=tfA'i?Vhf 
 
 the earth as it cools. . . , ,, ^^ ^ , ,. ^'h.iMVi^.i wLinr 
 
 mside." Here I drew a diagram on shrinking mtenor. 
 the board. "What would you call one of those wrinkles in the earth?" 
 "A mountain chain," said one. " What do you suppose happens here, 
 when one of those folds was made?" "A terrible earthquake. I'd like 
 to have been here," "Cracks, too, I think," "A big noise," were some of 
 the answers. " I think so, too. But sometimes where one of these breaks 
 
 (107)
 
 came, one part slipped down on the other. This, too, may have made a 
 
 mountain range. 
 
 " Would a new mountain range appear rounded and smooth, or jagged 
 and rough? What would wear it down smooth?'- "We learned about the 
 work of water in our last lesson. This is one way we have to tell whether 
 mountains are old or young." 
 
 " There is another thing that helps sometimes to make mountains, 
 especiall}' mountain peaks. We spoke of it at the beginning of the lesson." 
 
 Fig. 35. 
 
 Diagram representing a break in the surface of the earth. One side has 
 slipped down past the other. A valley and mountain range result. 
 
 "Yes, a volcano." "How does it build up a mountain?" We did not go 
 into detail here about volcanoes, as there is no descriptive reading for the 
 children on volcanoes in South America. As there is much written about 
 Vesuvius and Mauna Loa, the details are much better studied in connection 
 with Italy or the Sandwich Islands. 
 
 REFERENCES. 
 
 There are almost no books on the subject of Physical Geography that can 
 be read with profit by the children. Illustrative experiments seldom illus- 
 trate if they are read about, rather than performed, and are at best dry 
 reading for children. The best books are not written about any special 
 region, but upon topics such as winds, glaciers, etc., and the application 
 made to various regions. Some of these books ma}' be read by an eighth 
 grade. 
 
 Upon the special topics outlined in this paper are the following books: 
 
 First Book in Geology, N. S. Shaler (Heath & Co., 70c.). A very good 
 brief description of the succession of physiographic events on the earth's 
 surface, and how we know these events took place. Besides these there are 
 articles on how mountains, valleys, and continents came to be; the work of 
 water; winds; soils. Though this is told without special reference to South 
 America, yet the application is easily made. It is a good book for every 
 teacher to have. 
 
 There are three more books written by N. S. Shaler (D. Appleton & Co.) 
 that treat each topic more in detail than any of the others on this list. The 
 style is interesting, making the books very enjoyable reading. 
 
 (108)
 
 Outlines of the Earth's History ($1.75) gives a good chapter on the causes 
 of winds, on causes of rainfall, erosion, how soil is made, volcanoes, etc. 
 
 Sea and Land ($2.50) treats only of the work of the ocean in tearing 
 down coast lines, building beaches, etc. The illustrations are excellent. 
 
 Aspects of the Earth ($2.50) covers a much larger field, taking up the 
 agencies that are changing the earth's surface. The illustrations are 
 excellent. 
 
 A very excellent book is A Complete Geography, Tarr and McMurry 
 (Macmillan Co., $1.00) — two-book series. This is the best general refer- 
 ence book for a statement of the facts regarding climate, etc., with applica- 
 tion to each continent. Rain maps are also given. Introductory Geography 
 (60c.), the first book of the series, gives in an elementary way much that 
 can be used in the physical geography class. These are also published in a 
 three-book series. 
 
 Fairy Land of Science, by Arabella Buckley. (A. S. Burt. The Home 
 Library edition. $1.00.) This book is written to children, telling them, in 
 a rather fanciful way, how rain is formed, of the air around them, of the 
 work of water and ice in building up and tearing down the earth's surface. 
 A number of simple and very interesting experiments are suggested. It 
 can be read by children of the eighth grade and has been enjoyed by many 
 of them. It is very suggestive to teachers. 
 
 Another book that the children can read is Stories of Our Mother Earth, 
 by Harold W. Fairbanks. (Whitaker & Ray Co. 60c.) These are excel- 
 lent descriptions of the processes which are and have been changing the 
 surface of the earth. The book is written in language simple enough to be 
 easily comprehended by the children. It also is very suggestive to 
 teachers. 
 
 There are some Physical Geographies, too, that are well worth while. 
 "W. M. Davis has one published by Ginn & Co., entitled Physical Geography 
 ($1.25). He has also a newer one. Elementary Physical Geography ($1.25), 
 that covers much the same ground in a simpler way. Another is Intro- 
 duction to Physical Geography, by G. K. Gilbert and A. P. Brigham. Redway 
 and Hinman's Natural Advanced Geography (Am. Bk. Co., $1.25) contains 
 excellent rain maps. 
 
 (109)
 
 SAN FRANCISCO 5TATL NORMAL SCHOOL 
 
 BULLETIN No. 4 (New Series) 
 
 A COUR5L OF STUDY 
 
 AND 
 
 TLACHLR5' MANUAL 
 
 IN 
 
 MAP GLOGRAPHY 
 
 By ALLI50N WARL 
 
 Supervisor of the Teaching of Geography. San Francisco State Normal School 
 
 5ACRAMLNTO 
 W. W SHANNON -...-.-.-.. Superintendent of State Printing 
 
 1908
 
 COPYEIGHT, 1908, 
 
 By 
 Allison Wabe.
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 This Bulletin is in no sense a guide for general work in descriptive and 
 physical geography. It merely proposes to help teachers to get definite 
 results in one phase of their geography work, the teaching of geographical 
 locations. It is based on three general propositions : first, that a knowledge 
 of the locations of a certain number of well-known features is of staple 
 value to its possessor and is a proper objective for school work ; second, that 
 such a knowledge to be real or useful must consist of lasting mental 
 pictures, visualizations of the features whose locations are to be known ; and, 
 third, that the creation of such mental \'isualization in lasting form can 
 come only through well-aimed, carefully organized method, strongly backed 
 by tested devices, and embodying the fundamental principle of systematic 
 review. 
 
 The methods and devices contained in the following pages have all arisen 
 from actual class-room needs, and have been tested in the Elementary 
 Department of the State Normal School at San Francisco. Comments, 
 suggestions, and questions concerning them or in reference to any other 
 aspect of the manual are earnestly invited from the teachers into whose 
 hands this may fall. Such co-operation will be a real aid in making this 
 work a help to the teacher and a means toward practical results, to which 
 ends it has been designed. 
 
 Helpful suggestions have been given by Mr. Frank Bunker, Assistant 
 Superintendent of Schools, Los Angeles; W. M. Greenwell, Deputy Super- 
 intendent of Schools, Oakland; and Miss Adelyn M. Bricklej', Assistant 
 Supervisor of Geography, San Francisco State Normal School. The general 
 ideas underhing the work were first set forth in Bulletin No. 10. Part 1, 
 written by Walter J. Kenyon, and issued in 1905 by this school. The plan 
 of the following works and many details of treatment have been adopted 
 from that Bulletin. Therefore, without at all incurring responsibility for 
 such defects as may be found herein, Mr. Kenyon should be given a large 
 share of whatever credit this manual may deserve.
 
 SUMMARY OF CONTENTS. 
 
 Pages. 
 
 THE NEED OF SYSTEMATIC WORK IN GEOGRAPHY 5-9 
 
 A PLAN FOR THE WORK 10-13 
 
 COURSE IN MAP GEOGRAPHY 14-4.5 
 
 ^ The Meaning of Maps and Map Symbols 14-l.j 
 
 The Earth as a Whole (first time over) 15-19 
 
 North America (first time over) 19-25 
 
 Outline Map Sketching 19-20 
 
 Pronunciation of Names 20 
 
 Visualizing Locations 20-21 
 
 Drill in Visualization of Locations 21-22 
 
 The Test. . .* 22-23 
 
 The Revievr 23-24 
 
 Exercises foe Seat Work 24-25 
 
 South America (first time over) 25-26 
 
 Africa (first time over) 26-27 
 
 Australia and Pacific Islands (first time over) 27-2S 
 
 Asia (first time over) 29-30 
 
 Europe (first time over) 30-31 
 
 United States (first time over) 31-33 
 
 California (first time over) 33-34 
 
 The Earth as a Whole (second time over) 34-36 
 
 North ^^'erica (second time over) 36-37 
 
 South America (second time over) 37-3S 
 
 Africa (second time over) 3S-39 
 
 Australia and Pacific Islands (second time over) 39 
 
 Asia (second time over) 39-40 
 
 Europe (second time over) 40-41 
 
 United States (second time over) 41-43 
 
 California (second time over) 43-45 
 
 RK\'Ii:\\ WORK FOR THE SIXTH, SEVENTH, AND EIGHTH GRADES 40-52 
 
 /
 
 A COURSE Of STUDY IN MAP GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 THE NEED fOR SYSTEMATIC WORK IN MAP GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Two sorts of results should flow from a well-taught course in geography : 
 First, the pupil should gain clear visual images of the location, relative 
 position, and shape of a considerable number of geographical features; 
 second, he should be given certain broad and intelligent appreciations of 
 certain regions of the earth, aspects of nature, and affairs of men. Under 
 the first subdivision would fall the map visualization, common to us all, 
 of the Sahara Desert in its proper location in northern Africa. Under the 
 second classification would fall that general idea of the Sahara which we 
 all have when the name is left to the freedom of our mental fancy : a vast 
 waste, parched, sandy, sometimes rugged, oftener a plain; visited by sand 
 storms ; here and there relieved by oases ; the Made home of swarthy and 
 warlike nomad tribes ; overpassed with difficulty by caravans of camels ; a 
 region of mystery and strange adventure and thrilling story. To ask which 
 of the conceptions of the Sahara, — the visual picture of it in its geograph- 
 ical locations, or the more broadly cultural conception of it with all its 
 typical a.ssociations, — is the more important, is a vain inquiry. Both of 
 them are fundamental to common intelligence on the subject. And the 
 fact that the cultural conception is the one more pleasing to the fancy, more 
 filled with thought-starting and picturesque details, and more stimulating 
 to our emotions does not prove by any means that it is the more commonly 
 employed by us in meeting the knowledge standards of ordinary intelligent 
 intercourse. The staid and drab-toned visualization that we have of the 
 Sahara as a somewhat definite area located just so in its relations to Africa 
 and the world at large may prove our most useful conception of the region. 
 
 Since both are necessary to sound educational adjustment to the demands 
 of intelligent living, there is little to be gained by asking whether the 
 knowledge of commonly known locations or the cultural grasp of such areas 
 and conditions as stand amid rich associations in the minds of educated 
 people is the more important end of geography teaching. One must know 
 definitely where the City of New York is located in order to pass the world 's 
 examination in elementary geography; and the same examination demands 
 that we should know that city as a great seaport metropolis, with its miles 
 of ship-lined docks, its hundreds of great vessels in the stream, its roaring 
 streets, cliff-like buildings, and enormous urban and suburban traffic. That 
 teaching is defective which fails to give the pupil a clear mental picture of 
 its location, or a rich, real conception of the city in its commonly known 
 aspects. 
 
 (5)
 
 There are about two hundred and fifty geographical locations which every 
 American must know in order to pass muster among people of good intelli- 
 gence. And to these must be added for us about fifty California locations 
 with which a Californian is expected to be familiar. At the present time 
 our grammar school graduates are seriously deficient in this knowledge. 
 They are left to scrape an awkward acquaintance with the location of 
 Manila and Brazil and Japan under the embarrassing and painful 
 instruction of the world. Some years ago a high school graduate presented 
 himself for examination before the authorities of a California university 
 for entrance credit in Greek history. He passed an excellent examination. 
 Dates, names, analysis of periods, discussion of trends of events were 
 vouchsafed by him without hesitation. Finally, at the end of the inquisi- 
 tion. — it was an oral test. — he was asked. "And where is Greece?" The 
 spell of his fluency was broken ; for. after considerable hesitation and 
 casting about, he admitted that he didn't know for sure, but thought that 
 it was in Africa ! There was a fatal weakness in this knowledge tliat was 
 so full on the subject of classic tradition and Hellenic culture, and the 
 names, dates, and details of military and political events. This weakness, 
 the absence of clear visualization of locations and map relations, is found 
 by observation and test to be a characteristic of most of our common school 
 work in geography-. 
 
 It does not behoove us. therefore, to worry about whether a visual 
 knowledge of locations is more or less important than a knowledge of 
 characteristics. One might as well join in the stirring old high school 
 debate on the subject, "AVhich is the more useful to man. plants or 
 animals?" or stop to discuss which is of more necessity to life, fresh air or 
 fre.<;h water. But it is of very vital interest for us to ask ourselves how 
 it comes about that the knowledge of map locations is so deficient in our 
 school graduates of the present day, and to la.y plans for remedying that 
 deficiency. 
 
 At the present time there are several obstacles in our school work to the 
 attainment of good results in map geography. The main difficulty seems 
 to be that we have been substituting word answers for visual impressions. 
 For years children have been saying something to the effect that "the 
 Amazon River rises in the Andes ^Mountains, flows east through the central 
 part of South America, and empties into the Atlantic Ocean." No proof 
 has been required of whether or not the pupil mentally saw the river in 
 its course, or saw the mountains, or even saw the continent. The naked 
 phrase has been taken for actual knowledge. The real knowledge behind it, 
 if haply there be any, lies in the mental picture of the outline of South 
 America, the Andes ^Mountains in their jiroper place, and tli(^ black line of 
 the river as it traces its \v;iy t(» the ocean. This mental picture of the 
 Amazon on the map, with a backirround of ideas in the light of which map 
 synilxds are to ])e interpretrd, is the vital part of any sound knowledge of 
 the lof-ation of Ihat river. And so it is with any other feature. It is ea.sy 
 for the reader to test this in his own case. Think for a moment of the 
 location of the Isthnuis of Suez. At once the memory recalls a visual map
 
 picture of the northeastern part of Africa and the southeastern part of 
 Asia, of the Red Sea and the ^Mediterranean ; and it is easy to revive at 
 Avill the general outline of the whole eastern hemisphere and to see the 
 istlunus in its wider relations. A similar \asualization is experienced if 
 the location of the Dardanelles, London. Greenland, Cape Horn, or any 
 other well-known feature is thought of. Such mental pictures are the 
 foundation of any real knowledge that one may have of locations. 
 
 To illustrate, suppose one tries to get a knowledge of location from the 
 following: The Pelter River rises in the highlands of Arding and flows 
 south through the east-central region of Saldacia into the Gulf of ]\latalay. 
 Or, Robinson Peak is in the Hercules range, and is located in the northeast 
 corner of Eutopia. In each case there is nothing more than a hollow shell 
 of meaningless words ; the vital content, a mental visualization of the thing 
 to be located and its map relations, is lacking. ]\Iap questions such as these 
 are as futile in trying to give real knowledge of locations, as it would be to 
 try to describe the diiference between red and blue to one born blind. 
 
 Some one will doubtless say, "No one nowadays thinks of teaching a 
 geography location in mere words. The pupil is always required to look 
 the feature up on the map, and thus receives a visual impression. Then 
 the expression of the location in words recalls the impression and is a means 
 of testing its accuracy." In this commonly used method lies most of the 
 responsibility for the lack of clear knowledge of locations now displayed by 
 the graduates of our grammar schools. Suppose the first impression of the 
 location of Chicago has been secured from the map ; is there an;\'thing in 
 that process that will stamp its relations to surrounding features in an 
 indelible outline in the pupil's mind? Under the stress of oral and written 
 questioning he falls into the word phrase of the text : ' ' Chicago is situated 
 on the southwestern end of Lake ^Michigan in Illinois." The first faint 
 visual impression made by his glancing at the map of the Middle States 
 (which, by the way, does not show the location of Chicago as it should by all 
 means be shown, in relation with the principal features of the whole United 
 States) is never renewed, and a verbal scrap soon becomes a substitute for 
 it. That is, it would become a substitute for it if it had a chance to live in 
 the pupil's mind. Nine times out of ten it is not re\Tiewed and barely 
 endures in memory over night or until the final examination is over. 
 
 This touches the bottom of the whole trouble. All our map locations, as 
 in the case of the location of Chicago, have become merely incidental to the 
 work of a busy lesson in descriptive geography. One or two pupils may 
 have been active in finding the place of some feature on the map, and by 
 some special good fortune its location may possibly be referred to once more 
 somewhere. But there is no hope in the absence of emphasis and drill and 
 test and review that such incidental, hit-or-miss map work will give either 
 a memory ^asualization or even a lasting word knowledge of location. ]Map 
 geography can not be taught incidentally and retained accidentally. It 
 requires, in order that it may be strong, lasting, and visual, not one, but 
 many glances at each feature in its map relations, and not one. but many 
 sj'stematic reviews of the mental picture already established. It requires, 
 
 (7)
 
 in short, what every other product of education demands for its attainment, 
 a conscious and deliberate effort to secure it through the use of an adequate 
 method. Upon these premises, which are simply the elementary facts of 
 the case, the course of study in map geography that follows has been based. 
 
 Some of the characteristics of this "course should be discussed. In the 
 first place it proposes that every pupil, — not merely the brighter and 
 quicker ones, — should be required to form a clear mental map picture of 
 ■ciH the large land and water masses of the earth. Later, the locations of 
 such specific features of both political and physical geography as intelligent 
 people are called upon to know are required to be similarly visualized. Each 
 visualization is to be made permanent by adequate drills, thorough test, and 
 regularly recurring reviews. 
 
 There are several reasons why this work should be taken up as a sj'stem- 
 atized and orderly branch of the general course in geography". In the first 
 place, it is the only way of making certain, in the long run, that the map 
 geography will be thoroughly taught. The theory at the present time is 
 that map locations are to be taught and fixed when the features are taken 
 up in the descriptive work, when the pupil's mind is active toward the 
 places to be located. It sounds weU as a theory ; but after mam- years of 
 its application in school practice no one will be found to say that the map 
 work has been or is productive of satisfactory^ results. And it is the fault 
 of the theory, not the teacher. To give the location of Vesuvius the drill 
 necessary to establish it as a clear, permanent visualization in its map 
 relations at the time the class is studying it as a volcano would demand an 
 interrupted treatment of the physical and descriptive geography of Italy, 
 and the expenditure of time and energy upon the location of Vesuvius 
 wholly out of proportion to the result to be obtained, — that single visualiza- 
 tion. The map geography of twenty features of Europe could be thoroughly 
 taught, if they are all taught at one time, in one quarter the time that 
 would be required to give a vivid, lasting visualization of the twenty if 
 each were taken up separately and at intervals. It is this time saving by 
 means of specially organized work in map geography that makes it possible 
 to teach it thoroughh' in the time available for it in the crowded school 
 course. 
 
 Moreover, the work in map locations, once done and well rememliered by 
 the class, gives the teacher a great advantage in presenting the descriptive 
 topics. Each area or place comes to the pupil as something definitely 
 .situated and with definite space relations to neighboring places. These space 
 relations must be known and appreciated as a necessary foundation for 
 understanding much of the physical geography, a very considerable part 
 of political geography, and practically all of commercial geography. To 
 stop and su])ply the necessary visualizations of ninp relations as each 
 feature comes up in d«.'scriptive geography would entail a serious loss of 
 time and an interruption in the sequence of the work in hand. It would 
 be as improvident as for a carpenter who is shingling the roof to climb 
 down from the ridgo-pole to get each nail as he needed it. 
 
 By grouping the map geograjjliy work into a clear-cut course it is possible
 
 to provide reviews that will be systematic enough to insure the permanence 
 of the mental pictures of locations gained by the class, and this without 
 waste of time. Repetition and recall are still the only ways under the 
 sun by which original impressions of isolated facts may be deepened and 
 their permanence assured ; and without drill and review all hope of lasting 
 good from the work done in map geography is vain. 
 
 Finally, it would seem to be evident that any end in geography worth 
 attaining is worth a serious systematic effort aimed toward its attainment. 
 Such an end is the building up of strong visual images of map locations. 
 If we set out in earnest to do this piece of work it can be done. But if, on 
 the other hand, we propose to continue to let map geography depend on 
 the crumbs that fall from the teaching of physical and descriptive 
 geography, then in simple fairness we had better admit without more ado 
 that we do not claim to give to children any real or permanent knowledge 
 of the location of those features whose space relations the world will demand 
 of them to know. 
 
 (0)
 
 A PLAN fOR THE WORK. 
 
 The regular work of the course in map geography as planned in the 
 following pages requires two periods per week throughout two years. In 
 city schools each period should be from thirty to forty minutes in length so 
 as to provide for silent section seat work and class recitation work, each of 
 fifteen or twenty minutes' duration. Opportunity for the division of large 
 classes into two sections is thus given, one section to be busy with seat work 
 while the other is engaged in class exercises. A plan for such division is pro- 
 posed on page 15, and seat work for the silent section is suggested through- 
 out the course and on pages 24-25. In ungraded schools, where periods 
 for recitation are necessarily much shorter than in city schools, class recita- 
 tion work in map geography may be well done during two fifteen-minute 
 periods per week. *Not less than two fifteen-minute periods of seat work in 
 map geography should .supplement this recitation work. (See pages 24-25 
 for suggestions as to seat work.) Under all circumstances the descriptive 
 geography work should make its own progress along its own lines as laid 
 down in the course of study, and can he cared for in the remaining time 
 allotted to the work in geograjohy. At the completion of the regular course 
 in map work (usually at the end of the fifth year) a system of cumulative 
 reviews is arranged to continue throughout the remaining years of tlie 
 grammar school course. 
 
 The two-year map geography course is planned to begin with the lowest 
 grade in which geography is taught. This means that in most of our schools 
 it should be commenced with the fourth grade. This early start is valuable 
 because of the importance of having map locations well visualized before 
 the features so treated are taken up in the descriptive geography. If the 
 class acquires clear impressions of locations during the first years of their 
 geography work, the teacher wall in the long run more than save the time 
 spent in developing them l)ecause of the increased grasp and intelligence 
 that they give the pupils in the descriptive and physical geography to 
 follow. Moreover, children as young as those of our fourth and fifth grades 
 quickh' acquire the visual images of map relations which are the object of 
 the course, and the game element so prominent in Ihe drill exercises of this 
 work makes a strong appeal to them. 
 
 The fii-st step in tlie work should be a clear interpretation to the class 
 of the meaniiiL! of iiia|is and inap symbols. The pupils must be brought 
 to see behind llic prinlcd hiilf and green, the black lines and dots, and to 
 
 *Thc ingenious toucher in a rural school will find no difficulty in arranjiing so that 
 sevcriil classes may ho comhinod in this map y;oOKrai>hy work. This will rorpiirc that the 
 onh-r of the topics iio recast to suit conditions. Caro must ho taken in such a comi)ination 
 of cla.ss<-9 lest some pupils miss or unduly repeat certain parts of the work. 
 
 (10)
 
 realize that mountains and valley's, rivers and cities are the realities 
 involved in their work. A slight modification of Chapter XI of the State 
 Series Introductory Geography will be found adequate for this purpose. 
 It should be remembered that anything like a full realization of the meaning 
 of map characters is not to be expected until the descriptive work is done. 
 Even then experience and travel and mature associations are necessary to 
 round out the conceptions. The purpose of the course in map geography 
 is to give a series of strong, correct, and lasting mental map pictures or 
 certain features in their principal relations, with a background of ideas 
 whereby the map symbols may be interpreted. But a full knowledge of 
 the realities symbolized in the map images must be largely a growth from 
 further school work and life experiences. 
 
 Ease in passing from the mercator to the polyconic projection is to be 
 specially dealt with in the first map work where the earth as a whole is 
 taken up. Here the pupil passes from the globe to the peeled surface of 
 the globe as shown on the maps of the two hemispheres, and then to the 
 mercator map of the world. The outline maps of the various continents 
 taken up in the course should all be based on the polyconic projection. 
 This is the standard projection for ordinary reference maps, and we are, 
 therefore, more familiar with the shape and position of areas as shown 
 upon it. The text maps of the continents, referred to in the following 
 pages, are of this type. 
 
 The outline map sketching prescribed when each new unit is taken up 
 is of the first value and deserves more than a passing mention. Its principal 
 result is that it gives the pupil a clear-cut mental picture of the outlines 
 of the various continents by forcing him to depend upon his memory of 
 what each outline is like rather than upon its representation on the text map, 
 or on the map hanging against the wall. In order to sketch a fair outline 
 of North America without recourse to any model the pupil must have 
 acquired a mental model. Besides, this sketching practice adds to the 
 visual image a motor image which is of substantial value in deepening and 
 making permanent the impressions received through the eyes. In this 
 work mechanical devices and outline frameM'orks are undesirable aids. It 
 is not a perfect map that is to be sought, but rather a clear mental impres- 
 sion of the general configuration of the outline. Such an impression to 
 be worth while must consist in a clear visualization of the area itself and 
 not in the remembrance of certain drawing rules and construction lines. 
 Such rules and lines render unnecessary the clear visualization of the 
 outline and in part usurp its place. A point later mentioned, but of such 
 importance as to merit emphasis here, is that the model outlines and the 
 outlines sketched by the pupils should not be crowded with a perplexing 
 host of minor sinuosities. The characteristic features alone are to be 
 included. On the other hand, the lines should never be stiff and rigid, 
 (save where properly following some parallel or meridian,) but should 
 have the yielding irregularity of any coast line or river. 
 
 All the drill and testing should be done on maps void of the names of 
 the features. Otherwise, in making locations the pupil will find it 
 
 (11)
 
 impossible to keep his eye from searching for the name printed on the map, 
 whereas he should be searching his mental picture of the map for the exact 
 position desired. It will be hard to get a pupil to depend on his mental 
 vision of St. Louis in its proper place on the map of the United States 
 while locating that city on a lettered map. Of course, when first learning 
 the location of a place the pupil may very properly have recourse to a map 
 with names upon it. This is provided for in the following first location 
 exercises in which the text-book maps are to be used. But after the first 
 visual impression is gained, the work proceeds to deepen and fix that 
 impression by requiring him to make correct location of the feature upon 
 a map without names. In no case should exercises systematically involving 
 the use of oral statements of location and unaccompanied by actual location 
 drill on maps be permitted to occupy the class. Such oral statements are 
 not of value in sharpening the visualizations, and if persisted in will result 
 in a gradual indifl'erence to and a final fading out of the picture image. 
 The word image will take its place, as it so often does in our map work at 
 the present time, and the whole purpose of the course will have been 
 defeated. It should be remembered that any one with a clear visual memory 
 of the location of any feature, — say of the Xile River, — will have no 
 difficulty in describing that location in words. But ability to describe a 
 location in words does not mean the ability to visualize it. 
 
 A natural ciuestion is, "How will children in the fourth and fifth grades 
 stand the constant formal drill involved in systematic work in map 
 geography? Will they not become tired of its monotony?" The answer is, 
 There is no reason for it to be monotonous ; and with an ordinary degree 
 of skill and care on the teacher's part the pupils will maintain a keen 
 interest in it. Every teacher knows that children like to do what they can 
 do well. Tliey have a zest for the piece of work that they can perform 
 smoothly and with credit to themselves, and all the work in map geography 
 is of this sort. If the course is faithfully taught, any child not positively 
 defective will soon be in possession of a considerable number of accurate 
 visual memories of many different features. — so many that he will be 
 pleased and surprised at the e^ftent and sureness of his knowledge. To go 
 smoothly and in a few secornfe'^er an unlettered map, pointing out and 
 naming a score of known features, becomes a pleasant reaction to the sense 
 of confidence and pride that the pupil has in his abilities. Besides, the 
 drills are not of a single sort. Manj' forms of map exercises are suggested 
 in tlic following course and others quite as good will doubtless suggest 
 themselves lo many teachers. Each of these exorcises has some of the 
 characteristics of a game, calling as it does for skill, readiness, certain 
 knowledge, and alert wits. Each, moreover, has as its central incentive the 
 spur of emulation, of competition in well-doing, the standard being perfec- 
 tion. The match may be introduced })etween sections as a stimulus to 
 interest, as often as it is needed. Joint matflies between cla.sses and tryouts 
 f(tr school exhibitions may be introduced. 
 
 The old objections to emulation, namely, that such an incentive stimulates 
 those who do not need it. depresses still further those who are already 
 
 (12)
 
 behind, and arouses harmful emotions in all, has little force when applied 
 to the method of these locative drills. The emulation is not so much between 
 pupils as between each pupil and perfection. Besides, there is no occasion 
 for poor pupils in this work. Any fourth or fifth grade child not abnor- 
 mally below standard can easily be perfect. Test has shown that where the 
 Avork has been well done a whole class will review the locations of the 
 features involved in a unit without a single error. If the test made at the 
 close of the work of each unit shows over one per cent of error, the faulty 
 work should be done over by those who need it.* 
 
 When it is apparent to the teacher that some of the pupils can go faster 
 than the remainder, she should divide the class into A and B groups. Each 
 group can then make progress according to its ability. 
 
 In classes of over twenty-five pupils division into sections should be madi'. 
 even if there is no material difference in the abilities of the children. This 
 will make it possible for the teacher to sustain a close interest and constant 
 activity on the part of every pupil in the work in hand. In classes so 
 di\aded. each section will spend half of the time devoted to each period 
 of map geography at some sort of seat exercise and half the time in class 
 recitation work. Thus, during the first twenty minutes the A section will 
 be engaged in class recitation while the B section has seat work, and during 
 the last twentj^ minutes B section will be reciting while A section is silent 
 at seat exercises. 
 
 The two days on which map geography is taught should fall together 
 and should not separate the three remaining days on which the descriptive 
 geography is taken up. Thus ]Monday and Tuesday, or Thursday and 
 Friday should be given to this course. 
 
 After the completion of the regular two-year course in map geography, 
 (normally at the end of the fifth year.) the work is not to be dropped. Once 
 dropped it will be forgotten. All of us are aware of masses of fact which 
 once seemed well within the possession of our memories, but which are now 
 dead to all recall. If such should be the result of the work in map 
 geography the course will have been a failure. It is not the purpose of the 
 work to give merely temporary visualizations, but, rather, to equip the pupil 
 with a permanent stock of mental map pictures. To this end orderly, 
 systematic reviews must be kept up. not depending on chance or inspiration, 
 but folloA\ang a regular scheme. One forty-minute period every two weeks 
 throughout the remaining years of the pupil's school work should be devoted 
 to review exercises in map geography. In rural or ungraded schools this 
 may be made one fifteen-minute period each week. This systematic review 
 work wifl provide for a complete recall of each of the locative visualizations 
 not less often than twice each school year. In no other way can their 
 permanency in the minds of the pupils be assured. 
 
 *e. g., Suppose the test contains thirty-four locations and is given to twenty-one 
 pupils. The total of possible errors is therefore 21 x 34. or 714. If a total of over seven 
 errors, (that is to say, over one per cent of 714.) is found throughout the whole class, 
 then the work has not been done in a satisfactory manner, and part or all of the class 
 should be required to go back and make up deficiencies. 
 
 (13)
 
 COURSE IN MAP GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 THE MEANING OF MAPS AND MAP SYMBOLS. 
 
 The first work should be to explain the meaning of maps and map 
 s^TTibols. Show a large wall map of California or the United States to the 
 class. Point out rivers, cities, mountains, lakes, and seas. Show how 
 similar representations are used for all of a certain class of features. If 
 the map used is a political map. explain why the different political divisions 
 have various colorings. If a physical map, explain the uniform use of one 
 color for highlands and another for lowlands. From this preliminary work 
 the class will get some inkling of what maps are, and what they are about 
 to learn will apply itself to the further interpretation of the map that they 
 have examined. 
 
 Xext. take up the text explanations. (State Series Introductory 
 Geography, pp. 102-107.) and go through the chapter with the class. It 
 will be well to omit the exercises involving the use of accurate and stated 
 scales. The main object is to develop the general notion that on a small 
 map the actual object is represented by a very small figure ; and that the 
 larger the area represented, the smaller relatively the representation 
 becomes. This may be shown by discussion of the fact and hy map-drawing 
 exercises based on home surroundings where the reduction in scale ^s 
 manifest, even if inaccurate. The use of scales involving an accurate ratio 
 of reduction should be po.stponed until later. It is too complex an operation 
 to be profitably performed in the fourth grade. 
 
 ]\raps of the desk top. school room, school yard, home neighborhood, and 
 other familiar areas should l)e drawn by the pupil. The relative size and 
 position of the map symbols used in these exercises should be discussed and 
 carefully checked by comparison with the real objects. Discuss and 
 compare Figs. 86 and 87 (State Int. Geog.. pp. 102-103), and Figs. 88 
 and 89 (Ibid, pp. 103-104; . 
 
 Actual directions and map directions should be explained. Perhaps the 
 pupils already know the four points of the compass of the locality where 
 they live. If not. the cardinal directions should be taught. A small 
 compass will be the readiest way of locating the north. But if no compass 
 is at hand the memory of the location of the Xortli Star will do. Expand 
 and make clear and interesting the paragraph on page 105. dealinu" witli the 
 location of the North Star. Illustrate l\v showing the relative positions of 
 the North Star and Great Dippei- on the blackboard. Then have the class 
 stand and face the north. Behind them is what direction? To their right 
 hand? To llicir left hand? Have individuals point to the north; the 
 
 (14)
 
 south; east, (where the sun rises) ; the west, (where the sun sets). Have 
 members of the class point to the north end of the room; the south end; 
 the east side; the west side. Have them do the same for the school yard 
 and town. Then ask such questions pertaining to well-known local objects, 
 as, "In which direction is Phillips' farm?" "The shoe factory?" "The 
 Ferry Building?" etc. This done, let the class mark the four cardinal 
 directions on the maps which they have made of desk top. school and neigh- 
 borhood. Here bring out the idea that the north side of a map is always 
 the farthest from the reader. Show that "up" and "down" on a wall 
 map mean simply north and south, and that the actual surface represented 
 in the map is not "up and down" (in the sense of being vertical), but is 
 practically level; that maps represent such fiat surfaces, but that they are 
 sometimes hung up so that people can the better see them. 
 
 A careful discussion of Fig. 91. p. 107. should occupy a full period. 
 Have the class turn to the figure in their texts. Then discuss with them 
 the various features shown in the pictures and compare each with its repre- 
 sentation on the map to the right. Next, let them turn to Fig. 123, 
 (opposite p. 140.) and find the peninsula of Nova Scotia on the large map. 
 Compare its appearance there with its appearance on the small map. Fig. 91. 
 Likewise have them locate New York City and its neighborhood on the map 
 marked Fig. 132, (opposite p. 149,) and compare its representation there 
 with its appearance on the small map in Fig. 91. 
 
 Finally, return to the wall map with which the work began and have 
 the pupils answer. "Ocean;" "Land;" "City;" "River;" "Lake;" 
 "Mountains;" etc.. as you point out one sort of feature after another. 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE. (First time over.) 
 The Globe. 
 
 Object: To give pupils a visualization of the shape of the earth: anrl of the shape and 
 relative i>ositions of the continental and ocean masses. 
 
 1. Divide the class, if it contains more than twenty-five pupils, into two 
 sections. This will insure close attention and more constant activity on the 
 part of all members of the reciting section. As half the time devoted by 
 each pupil to map geography will be spent in silent seat work, this division 
 will not reduce the amount of recitation work done bA' each, but will mean 
 that one section is to have silent seat work while the other is engaged in 
 class recitation. On the other hand, many positive advantages will be 
 found to come from the reduced size of the sections. Give the silent section 
 for its first seat work the task of drawing maps of the baseball grounds, 
 or the fair grounds, or their home yards or farms. Or they may be left to 
 vrrite lists of places and things to the north, east, south, and west of their 
 position. 
 
 2. Then take up the work with the section that is to be engaged in class 
 recitation. A word should be said concerning the shape of the earth, but 
 a full discussion of its sphericity should be left to the descriptive worlv. 
 
 (15)
 
 Hold a globe in your hand and have the pupils supplied with small globes. 
 A dozen such small globes (cost, $4.50.) will supply a section of twenty- 
 four pupils by seating two in a seat for this exercise. Be sure that the 
 pupils hold their globes north pole end up. Then have individuals point 
 out to the rest of the class bodies of land and water, rivers, mountains, etc. 
 
 3. Locations. Point to North America on your globe and run your 
 finger along its outline. Call its name and write it on the blackboard. 
 Have the children find it on their globes and run their fingers around its 
 outline. Have the' section call the name, softly in chorus, as you point to 
 North America. Have them point to North America on their globes as you 
 give the name. Treat South America, Africa, Europe, Asia, and Australia, 
 and the oceans, — the Arctic, Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, and Antarctic. — in 
 the same Avay. 
 
 4. Drill, {a) Have individuals stand in turn and point out on their 
 globes the various continents and oceans as you speak their names. 
 
 (&) Have individuals call the correct names as you point to the different 
 continents and oceans. In case of error made by any pupil, the one who 
 detects it is entitled to continue the recitation. Each pupil should be called 
 upon in this Avork, and each should have the whole list of locations to make 
 or names to answer while he is on his feet. It is a waste of time to call 
 upon a pupil to arise and utter a single word or point to a single location 
 and then sit down. 
 
 5. Test. Same as Sec. 4. 
 
 6. Globe Directions. In order to get a starting point for determining 
 direction, mark the spot where we live on your globe with a piece of chalk, 
 and have the pupils do the same on theirs. Then ask, "In what continent 
 do we live?" "Draw your finger eastward on your globe." Do so on 
 your own globe and see that the children follow the action on theirs. In 
 like manner, — 
 
 "Draw 5'our finger westward." 
 
 "Draw your finger northward and locate the North Pole." 
 
 "Draw your finger southward and locate the South Pole." 
 
 "What ocean is east of North America?" ""What ocean west?" 
 
 "What ocean east of South America?" "What ocean west?" 
 
 "What ocean north of North America?" 
 
 "What ocean south of South America?" 
 
 "What ocean is north of Europe?" "What ocean is west of Europe?" 
 
 "What continent is south of Europe?" 
 
 ' ' What ocean is west of Africa ? " " South ? " " East ? ' ' 
 
 "Wliat continent is east of Europe?" 
 
 "What ocean is north of Asia?" "East?" "Soiilh?" 
 
 7. Drill in Globe Directions. Repeat Sec. 0, reversing each question, 
 thus: "What, continents are west of the Athmtic Ocean?" "What conti-
 
 nents are east of the Pacific Ocean?" And so on for the rest of the 
 questions. 
 
 Drill on the exercises contained in Sees. 6 and 7 until the members of the 
 class can answer all the questions without looking at their globes. 
 
 8. Test. After sufficient drill, have the pupils during their next period 
 for map geography seat work, (while the other section is reciting.) copy 
 the following from the board, filling in the missing words : 
 
 1. and are west of the Atlantic Ocean. 
 
 2. and are east of the Atlantic Ocean. 
 
 3. and are east of the Pacific Ocean. 
 
 4. and are west of the Pacific Ocean. 
 
 5. The continents of , and are south of tlie Arctic Ocean. 
 
 6. The continents of , — — and are north of the Antarctic 
 
 Ocean. 
 
 7. The and Oceans are south of the Arctic Ocean. 
 
 8. The , and Oceans are north of the Antarctic Ocean. 
 
 9. is west of the Indian Ocean. 
 
 10. is north of the Indian Ocean. 
 
 11. Australia is between the and the — Oceans. 
 
 12. is east of the Indian Ocean. 
 
 In order that the names of the continents and oceans may be correctly 
 spelled it is necessarj^ for the teacher to have them plainly written on the 
 blackboard or on a black paper chart, and the class should be earnestly 
 cautioned to look up the spelling of each name before writing it. It will 
 be well to have the names arranged alphabetically so as to aid the pupils 
 in finding, without loss of time, the correct spelling of each word. Thus : 
 
 1. Africa. 7. Europe. 
 
 2. Antarctic Ocean. 8. Indian Ocean. 
 
 3. Arctic Ocean. 9. North America. 
 
 4. Asia. 10. Pacific Ocean. 
 
 5. Atlantic Ocean. 11. South America. 
 
 6. Australia. 
 
 If care is taken to see that the pupils do actually consult the correct 
 spelling thus displayed before them while they are writing, the habit will 
 soon be fixed and it will be easy to prevent mistakes. 
 
 The Hemisphere Maps. 
 
 Object: To secure visualization by the pupils of the flat hemisphere maps, and of the 
 continental masses and oceans in their general shape, relative positions, and direction 
 from one another. 
 
 9. Locations. Have the section turn to the maps of the hemispheres. 
 Fig. 119 in the State Introductory Geography. Ask the following questions, 
 calling on individuals to answer: — 
 
 1. "What continents are in the Western Hemisphere?" 
 
 2. "What continents are in the Eastern Hemisphere?" 
 2— BTTL. 4 (17)
 
 3. "What ocean is entireh' in the Eastern Hemisphere?" 
 
 4. "What oceans are partly in both hemispheres?" 
 
 5. "Point out the North Pole on the Eastern Hemisphere." 
 
 6. "On the Western Hemisphere." 
 
 7. "Point out the South Pole on the Eastern Hemisphere." 
 
 8. "On the Western Hemisphere." 
 
 10. Drills. Hang against the board an outline map of the hemispheres 
 drawn with chalk on black paper.* 
 
 (a) Then point out the continents and oceans in rapid succession and 
 have the class answer softly in chorus the name of each as it is pointed out. 
 
 (6) Call a pupil to the map. Have him point to each feature as you 
 briskly run over the names of the continents and oceans. In case of error, 
 the pupil detecting it takes up the recitation. Here, as in all other exercises 
 where pupils pass to the map, the most scrupulous care must be taken to 
 keep them out of the line of vision of the rest of the class. A few days of 
 system and insistence will give the members of the class sound habits as 
 to their posture and position when standing at the map, and will pay a big 
 dividend in all the work that follows. 
 
 (c) Call up two pupils and repeat (b). 
 
 (d) Call on a pupil to stand and name all the features in turn as you 
 point them out. In case of error, the pupil noting it gets the recitation. 
 
 (e) Repeat (d), letting a pupil take your place to do the i)ointing out. 
 Insist on rapidity and snap in the pupil-teacher's work. 
 
 (/') Have the alphabetical list of the features Avritten beside the map. 
 Then call on pupils to pass to the map. point to and pronounce the name 
 of each feature, and locate each in turn. This exercise is especially useful 
 in that it combines the pronunciation of the name and the location of the 
 feature. 
 
 (g) Line up the section along the blackboard. Then point on the outline 
 map to each continent, ocean and map direction, and let the pupils in 
 rotation give the name as each feature is pointed out. When a pupil makes 
 a correct answer, he turns and makes a score mark in his favor on the 
 board at his back. If he misses, do not send him to his seat ; simply pass 
 the question on. At the end of the exercise, those with perfect scores win. 
 If the previous reviews have been well done, all should win. 
 
 11. Test. Same as exercise (&), in Sec. 10 above. 
 
 ♦The black jMiper referred to is tailor's pattern paper. If possible, the teacher should 
 get the school to supply her with about ten yards of it. This amount will l)c sufficient 
 for the nine outline m!ii>s which the r-onrso in map jro();,'nii)li.v rtMiiiirt's. lint in the event 
 of the failure of thr' school to .sni)ply the j>ai)er it will pay the teacher to j^et it herself. 
 as it costs only li/. cents a yard and its use will save her much duplication of work. If 
 lijindlod ciirefnlly to prevent smudgintr these chalk outlines may be used for nil necessary 
 review work and for successive classes as well. When not in use they should be kept 
 rolled on sticks, or, better still, should be tacked on regular map sticks. If the outline 
 is put on in white or cream water color it will last indefinitely, jukI will prove a very 
 useful pari i)f the teacher's r>utfil all of the time. 
 
 (18JI
 
 The Mercator Map of the World. 
 
 Object: To give a visualization of the mercator projection of tlie world and an under- 
 standing of the relation of positions and sizes of masses upon it to their positions and 
 sizes on the hemisphere maps and the globe. 
 
 12. Characteristics of the Mercator Projection. Have the pupils 
 turn to the mercator map. Fig. 120, opposite page 137 in the Introductory 
 State Text. Explain that this is a sailor map. It was first made, by a man 
 who called himself Mercator, and was to help sea-captains find their 
 positions and trace their voyages. In it the northern lands are too large. 
 Compare Greenland with South America as shown on the mercator and on 
 the hemisphere maps. Compare the arctic lands as shown on the mercator 
 map with the same areas shown in their true proportion on the globe. 
 Bring out the fact, by reference to the globe, that the places shown at the 
 eastern and western edges of the mercator map of the world are really side 
 by side; that the map represents the earth's surface peeled off and then 
 stretched out at the north and south until it is flat and square cornered. 
 
 13. Locations. Have the class find and point to each continent and 
 ocean as it is called out. 
 
 14. Drill in Directions. "With the mercator map of the text-book 
 before them, ask the class the questions found in Sees. 6 and 7. Then have 
 them close their books and answer the same questions, depending on their 
 mental pictures of the map. 
 
 15. Test. Apply Sec. 8. 
 
 NORTH AMERICA. (First time over.) 
 
 16. Outline M.\p Sketching. The class is first stationed at the black- 
 board in easy sight of a model outline map of the continent of North 
 America. This outline should be in chalk on black paper or on the 
 blackboard. (See footnote, p. 18.) It should be drawn to the scale that 
 it is desired of the class 40 use. The outline should be heavily drawn and 
 should not attempt to include more than the general contour of the coast 
 line. ]Minor irregularities will serve to confuse and to take the attention 
 from the more important and more characteristic features. 
 
 The teacher should call the attention of the class to the various features 
 that are brought out and to the heavy white stroke used. Then the follow- 
 ing points should be offered the pupils as suggestive hints to aid them in 
 their sketching: — 
 
 1. That Hudson Bay is due north of the Gulf of ^Mexico. 
 
 2. That the mouth of the St. Lawrence Kiver is due east of Puget Sound. 
 
 3. That Alaska has four prominent peninsulas jutting out toward the 
 northwest ; and that a line passed through the extremities of these 
 peninsulas is almost straight and takes a northeasterly and southwesterly 
 direction. 
 
 4. That Chesapeake Bay is approximately east of San Francisco Bay. 
 
 5. That Lower California extends north and south of the latitude of 
 Florida. dO)
 
 6. That the general trend of the northern coast is in a northwesterly and 
 southeasterly^ direction. 
 
 These outline points will be very much clearer when explained in simple 
 terms with the map in the presence of the children. The object is not to 
 fill their minds with word wisdom concerning the outline, but to call 
 attention to some of the most significant characteristics of the outline in 
 such a way as to emphasize and deepen the visual impression received by 
 the class. 
 
 After the pupils have had a good look at the model, have them face the 
 board and draw in one minute as good an outline of the continent as they 
 can. During this part of the exercise they should not be permitted to look 
 at the outline, as such a practice will tend to place their dependence upon 
 the model rather than upon their mental image of it. The safest thing to 
 do is to cover or remove the model. During the minute in which the pupils 
 are busy drawing, pass from one to another, giving such hints as may be 
 needed. When the prescribed time is up, send the class to their seats and 
 go briskly from map to map pointing out the best features of the work 
 done and indicating the most serious errors. 
 
 This exercise should precede each map geography lesson until every 
 member of the class can sketch a fairly good outline within the minute. 
 
 17. Pronunciatiox. The following list of names, alphabetically 
 arranged so that the same list dislj be used in drilling and testing as to 
 locations in the later work, should be in view of the class : 
 
 1. Alaska. 11. Hudson Bay. 
 
 2. Appalachian ]\Its. 12. Mexico. 
 
 3. Arctic Ocean. 13. Mississippi River. 
 
 4. Atlantic Ocean. 14. New York City. 
 
 5. Boston. 15. Pacific Ocean. 
 
 6. Canada. 16. Rocky Mts. 
 
 7. Central America. 17. St. Lawrence River. 
 
 8. Chicago. 18. United States. 
 
 0. Great Lakes. 19. Washington City. 
 
 ] . Gulf of Mexico. 
 Point out each name, pronouncing it, and have the class pronounce each 
 in turn softly in chorus. Then call on individual pupils to pronounce each 
 name as it is pointed out, until every member of the class is able to go 
 through the whole list with ease. The names should be written in syllables 
 so as to aid the class in pronouncing them. 
 
 18. Locations. Have an unlettered wall ma]) of North America hang- 
 ing before the class. Then direct the pupils to turn to their text map of 
 North America opposite page 140 in the Introductory Geography. The 
 teacher then reads the names in the above list, and as each name is read 
 the pupils limit for it on the text maps before them. The- one whose hand 
 is first raised should be permitted to pass to the wall map and locate the 
 feature there. He .should i)ronounce its name clearly and correctly as he 
 
 (20)
 
 points to it. In case the class consume too much time in the effort to make 
 the initial location upon their book maps, the teacher should offer sugges- 
 tions that will help in the prompt location. 
 
 As the exercise progresses and more and more of the features in the list 
 have been successfully located, each pupil stepping to the wall map should 
 be required to locate not only the feature that he has just found in his book, 
 but also all the other features previously pointed out. This will save much 
 time, increase the scope and thoroughness of the drill, and serve as a 
 stimulus to close attention. 
 
 19. Drill, {a) Call up the pupils one by one and let each locate upon 
 the wall map the various features as their names are called out. Whenever 
 a pupil makes an error in this and similar drill exercises, the pupil first 
 detecting it is entitled to continue the recitation. (Note: While the alpha- 
 betical arrangement of the names is very useful in certain exercises, the 
 features should not be considered in that order in these oral location drills. 
 It will be better for the teacher to bring out map relations of the various 
 features by drilling on them in the order best adapted to emphasize those 
 relations. Thus, Canada, the United States, Mexico, and Central America 
 should be treated in order. So the large bodies of water should be grouped 
 ' as related parts of the boundaries of the continent. The rivers, lakes, 
 mountains, and cities should be brought out in the sequence adapted to 
 show their relative positions.) 
 
 (&) With the list of names beside the map, call on pupils one by one to 
 step to the map, point out the names, pronounce them correctly, and then 
 locate the features for which they stand. 
 
 ~. (c) Here the teacher points to each feature in turn, and as each is pointed 
 out the class repeats its name in chorus. This may be varied by having the 
 pupils write the names on slips of paper as the features are pointed out. 
 In this event the alphabetical list of names should be in plain sight and the 
 class should be cautioned from time to time to make sure of the spelling of 
 all w^ords by looking them up on the list. The features should not, of course, 
 be pointed out in the order in which their names are listed. If the teacher 
 desires, she may keep a record of the order in which she points out the 
 features, and then after having the pupils exchange papers may h^ve the 
 work corrected after the manner of correcting spelling papers. "*^ 
 
 (d) This exercise is a variation of the preceding one; it is especially 
 adapted to save time. Have the wall map and list of names as before, but 
 have each name on the list preceded by a number. Then as each feature is 
 pointed out on the map the pupils look up its name in the list, note the 
 number before it, and write the number on their slips of paper. Correction 
 may be made as in the last exercise, only instead of reading out the names 
 the numbers are read out in the order in which the pupils should have 
 written them upon their slips. In case this form of drill is frequently used 
 the numbers before the names should be changed from time to time. 
 Mexico, for instance, should not be numbered 12 constantly just because it 
 appears in the twelfth place on the list ; nor should it or any other name 
 
 (21)
 
 have the same number, whatever it may be, for three consecutive drills. 
 Otherwise the pupils will learn to think of the number instead of the name 
 when the feature is pointed out. 
 
 (e) Line up the class along the blackboard. Then point out each feature 
 on the map and let the pupils in rotation give the name of each feature as 
 it is located. When a pupil makes a correct answer he is entitled to make 
 a score mark in his favor on the board at his back. In case of error, do not 
 send the pupil who makes it to his seat ; pass the question on to the next in 
 line aftd then after it has been correctly answered have the one who made 
 the error repeat the correct answer. At the end of the exercise, those with 
 perfect scores win. If the previous reviews have been well done, all should 
 win. 
 
 {f) In this the teacher calls upon a pupil to stand and to name a number 
 of features as she points to their locations in turn. This device especially 
 adapted to save time, for it gets the maximum of work for the minimum of 
 time spent in calling on pupils to arise. It is good, also, because it will 
 result in a rapid-fire review of the whole list of features by each pupil in 
 the section. 
 
 {g) The "match" idea may be applied in a multitude of ways. Leaders 
 may choose their followers by alternating selections, a very interesting but 
 somewhat time-wasteful way of dividing the class ; or the A Section may be 
 matched against the B Section, the right side of the room against the left, 
 or the boys against the girls. Except for formal occasions, when something 
 of especial interest is desired, the pupils should not be ranged against the 
 board, as the time lost in this is considerable, nor should the choice of 
 followers by leaders be permitted save on such special occasions. No one 
 should be dropped from the match work because of failure, for those who 
 fail are just the ones who need the work mast. Score should be kept by the 
 teachers or the side leaders on the blackl)oard. When holding matches, 
 point to the features on the map and call on the pupils in rotation, alternat- 
 ing from one side to the other. 
 
 An excellent detail to the formal match work may be found in the 
 following: When a pupil has failed to make the correct answer to a match 
 question he is to go over to the opposite side until he does make a correct 
 answer. Then he may return to his own side. This is a special incentive 
 for inwpest and effort on the part of those who most need the drill. 
 
 (/?) Send one child to the wall map to locate all the political features 
 involved in the unit's work; another, to locate all the rivers; another, all 
 the lakes; another, all bodies of water; another, all land features; etc. 
 
 20. Test, (a) Have each pupil mak<' an (nilline tracing of North 
 America, using onion weave or other lliin papci- placed over the text-book 
 map of North America, (opposite page 140 in tlie Introductory Geography). 
 This work should be done ;is a scat work exercise for the silent section in 
 cla.sses divided into sections.* 
 
 *This use of oiitlirir insips for seat work, both in drill and in test, is strongly urged. 
 In iin^rrMflod rnrn! sHiodIs one dollnr's wortli of onion weave |>ni)er will sni)i)I.v the school 
 with trafinif sliet-ts for ii vt-ar. Tiiis i)ai)er can be imrciia.scd in San Francisco (and, 
 
 (22)
 
 The alphabetical list of names of the features whose location is to be 
 tested is then placed before the class as a guide to the correct spelling. 
 Next, the teacher points to and pronounces the names one by one, and as 
 each is indicated the pupils write the name in the proper place on their 
 traced outlines. This may be varied by having numbers written before the 
 names as in exercise (d) of Sec. 19. and by requiring the pupils to place 
 the numbers corresponding to the names in the proper locations on their 
 outlines. In case numbers are thus used for locating countries, mountains, 
 rivers, and large masses of land or water, each number should be written 
 three times at short intervals on the map. so as to give the general trend or 
 extent of the feature for which it stands. It is advisable that the numbers 
 should be substituted for the names when more than twenty features are 
 to be located on a single outline. Otherwise the written names will become 
 crowded and confused. A high standard of neatness and accuracy should 
 be set in this outline map test. 
 
 Mimeographed or printed outline maps may be used by the class in this 
 test, instead of maps traced for the purpose. If such maps are available 
 in sufficient quantities, or if sufficient time is found during the silent section 
 seat work to have the class make a number of traced maps, this method of 
 the location test may be effectively used as an exercise in location drills. 
 
 (&) Another form of test maj' be used by applying drill exercise (d), 
 Sec. 19. 
 
 After the test results have been checked up, those pupils who show an 
 imperfect knowledge and weak visualization of the features should be placed 
 in a section by themselves, the class being divided along the line separating 
 the good from the poor pupils, and should be given location drills (Sec. 19) 
 until the proper results are obtained. The rest of the class, of course, pass 
 on to the next unit. 
 
 21. Review. Drill and test the class in the location of the continents, 
 oceans, and poles by reviewing the work of Sees. 10-11. 
 
 The purpose of this and subsequent review work is to refresh and make 
 more permanent the visualizations already established in the minds of the 
 pupils. It is an essential part of the work. Without.it the original impres- 
 sions, however correct and vivid they may have been at the time the original 
 work was done, will fade out and finally disappear; and thus the whole 
 value of the course will be lost. 
 
 In the case of all review work the drilling should be continued and varied 
 by the different devices outlined in Sec. 19 until the teacher is sure that 
 every pupil has clear visualizations of the location of the features involved. 
 Then a test should be made. For the review tests the plan outlined in 
 Sec. 19. subdivision (d), is especially recommended. It saves time and 
 does not require the preparation of outline maps. After the class and 
 
 probably, elsewhere) at .S1.50 per 2.(X)0 sheets, size 8^^ x 11 inches. At this cost, 
 thirteen sheets for a cent, there is no reason why the largest citj* system should 
 be without it. 
 
 In case circumstances compel the teacher to do without such paper, the exercises sug- 
 gested in Sec. 19 (a), 19 (h) . 19 (rf^. and 19 (f) may be used as substitutes for it.
 
 teacher have become familiar with this method of conducting review tests, 
 it will be possible for the class to locate as many as forty features in ten 
 minutes. 
 
 EXERCISES FOR SEAT WORK. 
 
 The folloAving" exercises are useful forms of seat work for the employment 
 of the silent section : 
 
 1. Tracing Outline Maps. Supply each pupil in the section engaged in 
 seat work with a sheet of onion weave or other thin paper and set the section 
 to tracing the outline of the continent whose features they are considering. 
 These outline maps will prove of value as a means of deepening the pupil's 
 mental picture of the profile of the continent and will be useful as a basis 
 for the location tests. (See Sec. 20.) 
 
 2. Locating Xew Features. This exercise is to be used when the section 
 is about to take up or has just commenced the location of a group of new 
 features. Place the list of the features on the board and then direct the 
 members of the section to hunt up each on their text-book maps. After 
 each is located, its name is to be written on a slip of paper. 
 
 3. Locating New Features. This work, also, is to be done when a new 
 .group of features is being taken up. Have the pupils hunt up the location 
 of each feature as directed in (&), and then write the name in its proper 
 place on an outline map. 
 
 4. Location Drills. In this the pupils should write the names found in 
 the list on the blackboard in their proper places on outline maps. Reference 
 to books should not be allow^ed. 
 
 5. Location Drill. The teacher draws an outline of the continent under 
 consideration on the blackboard and places numbers upon the various 
 features in the location of which the section is to be drilled. The pupils 
 then arrange the numbers found on the outline in regular order down the 
 side of slips of paper and write after each number the name of the feature 
 to which it refers. A list of the names of the features should be in sight 
 so that the spelling may be correctly written by the class. 
 
 6. Answers to Map Questions. Certain kinds of map questions may be 
 used to sharpen the visual images formed in the minds of the children. 
 Care must be taken, however, to see that such questions as are used really 
 call lip and depend upon the visualizations held by the class. Otherwise 
 the word location will tend to displace the mental picture of the location, 
 and more harm than good will result. The following questions are sug- 
 gested as types of the sort to be used : • 
 
 (1) Name the countries of South America bordering on the Pacific Ocean. 
 
 (2) Name the countries of South America bordering on the Atlantic 
 Ocean. 
 
 (3) Name all the states in the Union, beginning with Maine and passing 
 from one to another in the order of contiguity. Thus, Maine; New Hamp- 
 shire; Vermont; Massachusetts; Rhode Island; Connecticut; New York; 
 
 (24)
 
 New Jersej' ; etc. ( The boundaries of each state must touch the one 
 preceding and following it in the list.) 
 
 (4) Apply (3) to the countries of Europe. 
 
 (5) Is the Mississippi River nearer the Atlantic or the Pacific coast line? 
 
 (6) Name in order, beginning with South America and going eastward, 
 the oceans and continents crossed by the equator. 
 
 (7) Apply (6) to the zones and zone boundary circles. 
 
 (8) Name the land and water features over which you would pass in 
 making a journey around the world. 
 
 (9) Name the land and water features over which you would pass in 
 going from here to London ; Switzerland ; Cairo ; St. Petersburg ; etc. 
 
 (10) In what direction is the Baltic Sea from the Adriatic Sea? 
 England from Holland? Africa from Europe? etc. (Be sure to limit these 
 questions to such directions as are due north, south, east, or west.) 
 
 Each of the above stimulates a mental picture of the map locations 
 involved in its answer, and is, therefore, a useful form of seat work. But 
 in no case should any question be so framed and used as to require 
 repeatedly the same verbal answer. If this should be allowed, the pupil 
 would fall into an habitual word answer that would soon drive out the 
 visual image, and thus do more harm than good. 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA. (First time over.) 
 
 22. Outline Map Sketching. Apply the method set forth in Sec. 16. 
 The following suggestive hints should be considered : 
 
 1. That the general shape of the continent is triangular. 
 
 2. That the mouth of the Amazon River is almost due east of the Gulf of 
 Guayaquil. 
 
 3. That the Isthmus of Panama is south of the northwestern extremity of 
 the continent. 
 
 4. That the easternmost and westernmost points of the continent are in 
 about the same latitude. 
 
 5. That the mouth of the Plata River is midway between Cape Frio and 
 the Strait of Magellan. 
 
 It is not expected that the class will memorize these or similar hints in 
 other outline map work. Their function is merely to make strong the 
 mental image of certain characteristic and critical portions of the outline. 
 
 23. Pronunciation. Apply the method set forth in Sec. 17. The 
 following features are included in the work of this unit : 
 
 1. Amazon River. 7. Buenos Aires. 
 
 2. Andes Mts. 8. Caribbean Sea. 
 
 3. Antarctic Ocean. 9. Chile. 
 
 4. Argentina. 10. Pacific Ocean. 
 
 5. Atlantic Ocean. 11. Rio de Janeiro. 
 
 6. Brazil. 12. Valparaiso. 
 
 (25)
 
 24. Locations. The above feature.s should he located by applying the 
 method used in See. 18. 
 
 25. Drill. Apply the exercises suggested in Sec. 19 to the above 
 features. 
 
 26. Test. Apply Sec. 20. 
 
 27. Review. Drill and test the class in the location of the following 
 features : 
 
 Xorth America : — 
 
 19. Alaska. 9. Hudson Bay. 
 
 18. Appalachian Mts. 8. Mexico. 
 
 17. Arctic Ocean. 7. ^Mississippi River. 
 
 16. Atlantic Ocean. 6. New York City. 
 
 15. Boston. 5. Pacific Ocean. 
 
 14. Canada. 4. Rocky Mts. 
 
 13. Central America. 3. St. Lawrence River. 
 
 12. Chicago. 2. United States. 
 
 11. Great Lakes. 1. Washington City. 
 
 10. Gulf of :\Iexico. 
 
 The list of features considered in the treatment of North America, first 
 time over, is here printed with a different arrangement of marginal numbers 
 than it has in Sec. 17. This is to emphasize the fact that in using the 
 numbers in location drills or tests the features should be variously numbered 
 from time to time. Otherwise the number will soon take the place of the 
 name in the pupil's mind. See Sec. 19, subdivision {d), for a discussion of 
 this point. See, also, Sec. 21, for suggestions as to method and purpose of 
 review work. 
 
 AFRICA. (First time over.) 
 
 28. Outline Map Sketching. Apply the method set forth in Sec. 16. 
 The following suggestive hints should be used : 
 
 1. That Africa is nearly as wide as it is long. 
 
 2. That there is a marked break in the contour of the northern coast line 
 at Tunis, about the center of the northern ])oundary. 
 
 3. Tlwit the bend in the coast line at the hciid of the Gulf of Guinea is 
 almost due south of tlie break in the uoftlifru liouudary alou'^' the coast 
 of Tunis. 
 
 4. Tluit the eastern and western extremities of the continent are in about 
 the same latitude. 
 
 ."). Tiiat then; are tliree indentions siniiiiii- in 1'onn t)ut decreasing in size 
 in tile coast line from the Gulf of .Vdm to Cape Colon> . 
 
 6. That it is about as far from the Strait of Gil)raltar to tbr Isthmus of 
 Suez, as from the isthmus to the easternmast point of the continent.
 
 29. Pronunciation. Apply the exercise set forth in Sec. 
 following features comprise the work of this unit : 
 
 17. The 
 
 1. 
 
 Alexandria. 
 
 9. 
 
 Egypt. 
 
 2. 
 
 Antarctic Ocean. 
 
 10. 
 
 Indian Ocean. 
 
 3. 
 
 Atlantic Ocean. 
 
 11. 
 
 Isthmus of Suez. 
 
 4. 
 
 Barbary States, (as a whole). 
 
 12. 
 
 Kongo River. 
 
 5. 
 
 Cairo. 
 
 13. 
 
 ^Mediterranean Sea. 
 
 6. 
 
 Cape Colony. 
 
 14. 
 
 Nile River. 
 
 7. 
 
 Cape of Good Hope. 
 
 15. 
 
 Red Sea. 
 
 8. 
 
 Cape Town. 
 
 16. 
 
 Strait of Gibraltar. 
 
 30. Locations. The above features should be located by applying the 
 methods used in Sec. 18. 
 
 31. Drill. Apply exercises suggested in Sec. 19 for drill in locating 
 the above features. 
 
 32. Test. Apply Sec. 20. 
 
 33. Review. Drill and test the class in the location of the following 
 features : 
 
 (a) The Earth as a Whole, first time over: 
 
 11. Africa. 
 
 5. 
 
 Europe. 
 
 10. Antarctic Ocean. 
 
 4. 
 
 Indian Ocean. 
 
 9. Arctic Ocean. 
 
 3. 
 
 North America. 
 
 8. Asia. 
 
 2. 
 
 Pacific Ocean. 
 
 7. Atlantic Ocean. 
 
 1. 
 
 South America. 
 
 6. Australia. 
 
 
 
 (&) South America, tirst time over: 
 
 
 
 12. Amazon River. 
 
 6. 
 
 Buenos Aires. 
 
 11. Andes Mts. 
 
 5. 
 
 Caribbean Sea. 
 
 10. Antarctic Ocean. 
 
 4. 
 
 Chile. 
 
 9. Argentina. 
 
 3. 
 
 Pacific Ocean. 
 
 8. Atlantic Ocean. 
 
 2. 
 
 Rio de Janeiro. 
 
 7. Brazil. 
 
 1. 
 
 Valparaiso. 
 
 See Sec. 21 for suggestions concerning review work. 
 
 AUSTRALIA AND PACIFIC ISLANDS. (First time over.) 
 
 ■ 34. Outline Map Sketching. Australia is the only feature to be 
 included in this exercise. Apply the method set forth in See. 16. The 
 following suggestive hints should be used: 
 
 1. The western coast line is about one half as long as the eastern coast 
 line. 
 
 2. The Great Australian Bight is the main feature of the southern coast 
 line, and is almost centrally located in it. 
 
 (27)
 
 3. Melbourne Bay is due south of Cape York. 
 
 4. The easternmost and westernmost points are in about the same 
 latitude. 
 
 5. The northernmost and southernmost points are in about the same 
 lonsritude. 
 
 o 
 
 35. Pronunciation. Apply the exercises set forth in Sec. 17. The 
 following features are included in this unit : 
 
 1. 
 
 Australia. 
 
 7. 
 
 Manila. 
 
 2. 
 
 East Indies. 
 
 8. 
 
 New Zealand. 
 
 3. 
 
 Hawaiian Islands. 
 
 9. 
 
 Pacific Ocean. 
 
 4. 
 
 Honolulu. 
 
 10. 
 
 Philippine Islands. 
 
 5. 
 
 Indian Ocean. 
 
 11. 
 
 Sj-dney. 
 
 6. 
 
 International Date Line. 
 
 
 
 36. Locations. Locate the above features by applying methods set 
 forth in Sec. 18. Honolulu is not named on the map opposite page 249 in 
 the Introductory Geography. The teacher should therefore show the pupils 
 approximately where it is, and thus save them a profitless search. In the 
 same way point out the fact that the International Date Line is the 180th 
 meridian. It should be explained briefly that this is the line where each 
 new date first begins. 
 
 ^o' 
 
 37. Drill. Apply exercises suggested in Sec. 19. 
 
 38. Test. Apply Sec. 20. 
 
 39. Review. 
 
 In this, and all the following reviews, the names of the features involved are arranged 
 alphabetically, but are not set forth in list form. The teacher should understand that 
 they are to be listed by her when used in class, as shown in Sees. 27 and 33. 
 
 Drill and test the class in the location of the following features : 
 
 (a) North America (first time over) ; Alaska, Appalachian Mts., Arctic 
 Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Boston, Canada, Central America, Chicago, Great 
 Lakes, Gulf of Mexico, Hudson Bay, Mexico, Mississippi River, New York 
 City, Pacific Ocean, Rocky Mts., St. Lawrence River, United States, Wash- 
 ington City. 
 
 (b) Africa (first time over) : Alexandria, Antarctic Ocean, Atlantic 
 Ocean, Barbary States (as a whole), Cairo, Cape Colony, Cape of Good 
 Hope, Cape Town, Egypt, Indian Ocean, Isthmus of Suez, Kongo River, 
 ^Mediterranean Sea, Nile River, Strait of Gibraltar. 
 
 In using number symbols for testing and drilling the cla.ss in the location 
 of the above, the teacher should employ a varying assortment of numbers 
 as sugge.sted in Sec. 19, subdivision {d). See Sec. 21 for directions con- 
 cerning reviews. 
 
 (2S)
 
 ASIA. (First time over.) 
 
 40. Outline Map Sketching. The outline of Asia "will be harder for 
 the class to sketch than that of any continent thus far treated. Nevertheless 
 it is important that this work should not be neglected. During the first two 
 or three days allow two minutes instead of one for the blackboard work. 
 Re-read Sec. 16 carefully and apply its methods. The following hints may 
 be used: 
 
 1. That East Cape is nearer the top of the map than any other point. 
 
 2. That India is due south of the Gulf of Ob. 
 
 3. That a line passing through the southernmost points of Arabia, India, 
 and the Malay Peninsula is nearly straight, and runs a little north of west 
 by a little south of east. 
 
 4. That the Malay Peninsula is the southernmost point of the continent. 
 
 5. That there are six prominent projections on the eastern coast. 
 
 6. That a line almost straight can be drawn northeast by southwest 
 through five of these points, namely, — Kamchatka, Korea. China, Indo- 
 China, and the Malay Peninsula. 
 
 41. Pronunciation. Applj^ the exercises set forth in Sec. 17. The 
 following features are to be taken up in this unit : 
 
 1. Arabia. 14. Japan. 
 
 2. Arctic Ocean. 15. Jerusalem. 
 
 3. Black Sea. 16. Jordan River. 
 
 4. Calcutta. 17. Mecca. 
 
 5. Caspian Sea. 18. Pacific Ocean. 
 
 6. Chinese Empire. 19. Peking. 
 
 7. Desert of Gobi. 20. Persia. 
 
 8. Euphrates River. 21. Red Sea. 
 
 9. Ganges River. 22. Siberia. 
 
 10. Himalaya Mts. 23. Steppes. 
 
 11. India. 24. Tibet. 
 
 12. Indian Ocean. 25. Tokio. 
 
 13. Indus River. 26. Turkey (Asiatic). 
 
 42. Locations. Apply exercises set forth in Sec. 18 in locating the 
 above features. 
 
 43. Drill. Apply the drill exercises suggested in Sec. 19. 
 
 44. Test. Apply Sec. 20. 
 
 45. Review. 
 
 (a) The Earth as a Whole (first time over) : Africa. Antarctic Ocean. 
 Arctic Ocean, Asia. Atlantic Ocean, Australia. Europe. Indian Ocean, 
 North America, Pacific Ocean, South America. 
 
 (&) South America (first time over) : Amazon River. Andes i\Its . 
 Antarctic Ocean, Argentina, Atlantic Ocean, Brazil. Buenos Aires, Carib- 
 bean Sea, Chile, Pacific Ocean, Rio de Janeiro, Valparaiso. 
 
 (29)
 
 (c) Australia and Pacific Islands (first time over) : Australia, East 
 Indies, HaAvaiian Islands. Honolulu, Indian Ocean, International Date 
 Line, Manila, New Zealand, Pacific Ocean, Philippines, Sydney. 
 
 See Sec. 21 for suggestions concerning reviews. 
 
 EUROPE. (First time over.) 
 
 46. Outline Map Sketching. Europe is the hardest continent of all 
 to sketch, for its coast line is the most irregular, and many of the relatively 
 minor irregularities are significant and must be included. As in the case 
 of Asia, it will be well to give the class two minutes for board drawing 
 during the first two days. Carefully apply the methods set forth in 
 Sec. 16. The following hints will be found useful : 
 
 1. That the coast line of Norway is very irregular. 
 
 2. That Denmark projects into the cleft in the southern end of Norway 
 and Sweden. 
 
 3. That the west coast of France is characterized by the peninsula that 
 projects into the Atlantic just south of England. 
 
 4. That the west coast of Spain and Portugal is roughly rectangular. 
 
 5. That Italy and Greece slant toward the southeast. 
 
 6. That Italy has the shape of a boot. 
 
 7. That Greece roughly resembles a hand cut almost in half. 
 
 8. That the Adriatic Sea is in approximately the same latitude as the 
 Black Sea. 
 
 9. That the Black Sea has the shape of a slipper, and is due south of 
 the White Sea. 
 
 47. Pronunciation. Apply the exercises set forth in Sec. 17. The 
 following features are to be taken up in this unit : 
 
 I 
 
 1. 
 
 Alps Mts. 
 
 20. 
 
 Holland. 
 
 2. 
 
 Arctic Ocean. 
 
 //.21. 
 
 Iceland. 
 
 3. 
 
 Atlantic Ocean. 
 
 /722. 
 
 Ireland. 
 
 4. 
 
 5. 
 
 Austria-Hungary. 
 Belgium. 
 
 ' 23. 
 1-1 24. 
 
 Italy. 
 London. 
 
 6. 
 
 Berlin. 
 
 ^ 25. 
 
 ]\Tediterranean Sea. 
 
 7. 
 
 8. 
 9. 
 
 Black Sea. 
 
 Bosporus. 
 
 Bulgaria. 
 
 2 ^26. 
 -'^'^27.' 
 •- ^^28. 
 
 Norway^ 
 ■ Paris. 
 Portugal. 
 
 10. 
 11. 
 12. 
 13. 
 
 Caspian Sea. 
 Constantinople. 
 Danube River. 
 Dardanelles. 
 
 CJ^'20. 
 
 30. 
 
 ^(.31. 
 
 /j732. 
 
 Rome. 
 Roiimania. 
 Russia. 
 Scotland. 
 
 14. 
 
 Denmark. 
 
 33. 
 
 Sicily. 
 
 15. 
 
 16. 
 
 England. 
 France. 
 
 -^•^34. 
 ^^ 35. 
 
 Spain. 
 
 St. Petersburg. 
 
 17. 
 
 18. 
 
 Germany. 
 Great Britain. 
 
 ■3 ■*?6. 
 ^>37. 
 
 Sweden. 
 Switzerland. 
 
 10. 
 
 Greece. 
 
 - 38. 
 
 Tiii-k<'y fEnropean) 
 
 (30)
 
 48. Locations. In dealing with so many new locations it will be 
 necessary' to take up half of them first and drill on them for a time before 
 introducing the class to the remainder. In this way mental congestion will 
 be avoided and clear visualizations secured. No part of the work is more 
 important than the clear visualization of these European features in their 
 proper map relations. Everyday experiences are constantly demanding 
 that we have vivid mental images of them. 
 
 Carefully apply exercises set forth in Sec. 18 in locating the above 
 features. 
 
 Point out the location of Holland so as to show the class its map position. 
 On the text map, Fig. 183, page 206. Holland is called Netherlands. 
 
 49. Drill. Apply the drill exercises suggested in Sec. 19. In drilling 
 on the content of this unit the exercises involving the use. of numbers in 
 marking locations on maps and in writing lists of answers to features 
 pointed out by the teacher on the wall map will be of especial value because 
 of the saving of time thus gained and because the numbers take up much 
 less space than the names. 
 
 50. Test. Apply Sec. 20. 
 
 51. Review. Drill and test the class in the location of the following : 
 
 (a) North America (first time over) : Alaska. Appalachian ]Mts.. Arctic 
 Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Boston, Canada, Central America, Chicago, Great 
 Lakes, Gulf of ]\Iexico, Hudson Bay, Mexico, INIississippi River, New York 
 City, Pacific Ocean, Rocky Mts., St. Lawrence River, United States, Wash- 
 ington City. 
 
 (&) Africa (first time over) : Alexandria, Antarctic Ocean, Atlantic 
 Ocean, Barbary States (as a whole), Cairo, Cape Colony, Cape of Good 
 Hope, Cape Town, Egypt, Indian Ocean, Isthmus of Suez, Kongo River, 
 Mediterranean Sea, Nile River, Red Sea, Strait of Gibraltar. 
 
 (c) Asia (first time over) : Arabia, Arctic Ocean, Black Sea, Calcutta, 
 Caspian Sea. Chinese Empire. Desert of Gobi, Euphrates River, Ganges 
 River, Himalaya ]\Its.. India, Indian Ocean, Indus River, Japan, Jerusalem, 
 Jordan River, Mecca, Pacific Ocean, Peking, Persia, Red Sea, Siberia, 
 Steppes, Tibet, Tokio. Turkey (Asiatic). 
 
 See Sec. 21 for suggestions concerning review work. 
 
 UNITED STATES. (First time over.) 
 
 52. Outline Map Sketching. Re-read and carefully apply Sec. 16. 
 The following hints will help to emphasize certain characteristics in the 
 visualization of the outline : 
 
 1. That Lake Ontario is due north of Florida, and Lake Superior is 
 north of the delta of the Mississippi River. 
 
 2. That Chesapeake Bay is due east of San Francisco Bay. 
 
 (31)
 
 3. That the southernmost point of Florida and the southern tip of Texas 
 are in a line almost parallel with the bottom of the map. 
 
 4. That the southern point of Lake Michigan is in the same latitude as 
 the southern border of Lake Erie. 
 
 5. That Cape Hatteras lies midway between the southern point of Florida 
 and the northeastern point of Maine. 
 
 6. That Cape Hatteras and Point Conception are in nearly the same 
 latitude. 
 
 53. Proxuxcl\tiox. Apply the 
 following features are to be taken up 
 Physical Feaiures, — Water: — 
 
 1. Atlantic Ocean. 
 
 2. Chesapeake Bay. 
 
 3. Colorado River. 
 
 4. Columbia Eiver. 
 
 5. Connecticut River. 
 
 6. Great Lakes. 
 
 7. Great Salt Lake. 
 
 8. Gulf of Mexico. 
 
 9. Hudson River. 
 
 10. Lake Champlain. 
 
 11. Lake Erie. 
 
 12. Lake Huron. 
 
 13. Lake IMichigan. 
 
 Physical Features, — Land: — 
 
 1. 
 2. 
 
 3. 
 4. 
 5. 
 6. 
 
 Adirondack Mts. 
 Appalachian ^Its. 
 Cape Cod. 
 Cape Hatteras. 
 Cascade I\Its. 
 Coast Range. 
 
 exercises set forth in Sec. 17. 
 in this unit : 
 
 14. Lake Ontario. 
 
 15. Lake Superior. 
 
 16. Massachusetts Bay. 
 
 17. Mississippi River. 
 
 18. Missouri River. 
 
 19. Niagara Falls. 
 
 20. Ohio River. 
 
 21. Pacific Ocean. 
 
 22. Potomac River. 
 
 23. Puget Sound. 
 
 24. Rio Grande. 
 
 25. San Francisco Bay. 
 
 26. St. Lawrence River. 
 
 7. Long Island. 
 
 8. Mississippi Valley. 
 
 9. Rocky 3Its. 
 
 10. Sierra Nevada ]Mts. 
 
 11. Yellowstone Park. 
 
 The 
 
 54. Locations. In fixing the locations of the above features the first 
 list should be taught and drilled thoroughly before the second is taken up. 
 This will avoid the difficulty of attempting to develop too many new 
 visualizations at the same time. 
 
 Carefully apply the method suggested in Sec. IS. 
 
 55. Drill. 
 in Sec. 49. 
 
 Apply the exercises suggested in Sec. 19. See suggestion 
 
 56. Test. Apply Sec. 20. 
 
 57. Review. Drill and test the class in the location of the following 
 features : 
 
 (a) South America (first time over) : Amazon River, Andes I\Its.. 
 Antarctic Ocean. Argentina, Atlantic Ocean. Brazil. Buenos Aires. Carib- 
 bean Sea, Chile, Pacific Ocean, Rio de Janeiro, Valparaiso. 
 
 (32)
 
 (&) Australia and Pacific Islands (first time over) : Australia, East 
 Indies. Hawaiian Islands. Honolulu, Indian Ocean, International Date 
 Line, Manila. New Zealand, Pacific Ocean, Philippines, Sydney. 
 
 (c) Europe (first time over) : Alps Mts.. Arctic Ocean. Atlantic Ocean, 
 Austria-Hungary, Belgium. Berlin. Black Sea, Bosporus. Bulgaria. 
 Caspian Sea. Constantinople, Danube River, Dardanelles, Denmark, 
 England. France. Germany. Great Britain, Greece, Holland, Iceland, Ire- 
 land. Italy. London. ^Mediterranean Sea. Norway, Paris, Portugal, Rome, 
 Roumania. Russia, Scotland, Sicily, Spain, St. Petersburg. Sweden, 
 Switzerland. Turkey (European). 
 
 See Sec. 21 for susgestions concerning reviews. 
 
 CALIFORNIA. (First time ovep.) 
 
 58. Outline Map Sketching. Apply with care the suggestions con- 
 tained in Sec. 16. The following points will help in giving correct 
 visualizatioiLs of the outline : 
 
 1. That the northern boundary of California is a parallel of latitude. 
 
 2. That the northeastern boundary runs along a meridian. 
 
 3. That the northern boundary is practically the same in length as the 
 northeast boundary. 
 
 4. That Cape Mendocino is the most westerly point. 
 
 5. That San Francisco Bay is somewhat south of the latitude of Lake 
 Tahoe. 
 
 6. That California is narrowest between San Francisco Bay and Lake 
 Tahoe. save at the extreme southern end. 
 
 7. That the greatest width of California is found between Point Concep- 
 tion and the Colorado River. 
 
 8. That the southern boundary slants upward somewhat north of due east. 
 It should be remembered that when these map hints are being used in 
 
 class no terms not understood by the class, such as latitude or meridian or 
 Lake Tahoe. are to be used. The teacher will have no difficulty in making 
 the. points in the above clear by loose and simple expressions when inter- 
 preted by constant reference to her model outline. 
 
 59. Pronunclition. Apply exercises set forth in Sec. 17. The follow- 
 ing features are to be taken up in this unit : 
 
 1. Arizona. 10. Nevada. 
 
 2. Cape ^lendocino. 11. Oregon. 
 
 3. Coast Range. 12. Pacific Ocean. 
 
 4. Colorado River. 13. Sacramento River. 
 
 5. Farallone Islands. 14. Salton Sea. 
 
 6. Golden Gate. 15. San Francisco Bay. 
 
 7. Mexico. 16. San Joaquin River. 
 
 8. Mohave Desert. 17. Santa Barbara Channel. 
 
 9. Monterey Bay. 18. Santa Cataliua Island. 
 
 (SS)
 
 19. Mt. Shasta. 22. Tehachapi Pass. 
 
 20. Sierra Nevada Mts. 23. Tulare Lake. 
 
 21. Tahoe Lake. 24. Yosemite Valley. 
 
 60. Locations. Apply the exercises suggested in Sec. 18. 
 
 61. Drill. Apply the exercises described in Sec. 19. See suggestion 
 in Sec. 49. 
 
 62. Test. Apply Sec. 20. 
 
 63. Review. Drill and test the class in the location of the following 
 features : 
 
 (a) North America (first time over) : Alaska, Appalachian Mts., Arctic 
 Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Boston, Canada, Central America, Chicago, Great 
 Lakes, Gulf of Mexico, Hudson Bay, Mexico, Mississippi River, New York 
 City, Pacific Ocean, Rocky IMts., St. Lawrence. United States, Washington 
 City. 
 
 (&) Africa (first time over) : Alexandria, Antarctic Ocean, Atlantic 
 Ocean, Barbary States, Cairo, Cape Colony. Cape of Good Hope, Cape 
 Town, Egypt, Indian Ocean, Isthmus of Suez, Kongo River, Mediterranean 
 Sea, Nile River, Red Sea, Strait of Gibraltar. 
 
 (c) Asia (first time over) : Arabia, Arctic Ocean, Black Sea, Calcutta, 
 Caspian Sea, Chinese Empire, Desert of Gobi, Euphrates River, Ganges 
 River, Himalaya ]\Its., India, Indian Ocean, Indus River, Japan, Jerusalem, 
 Jordan River, INIecca. Pacific Ocean, Peking, Persia, Red Sea, Siberia, 
 Steppes, Tibet, Tokio, Turkey (Asiatic). 
 
 {d) United States (first time over) : 
 
 Physical Features, Land: Adirondack Mts.. Appalachian Mts., Cape 
 Cod, Cape Hatteras, Cascade Mts., Coast Range, Long Island, Mississippi 
 Valley, Rocky Mts., Sierra Nevada Mts., Yellowstone Park. 
 
 Physical Features, Water: Atlantic Ocean, Chesapeake Bay, Colorado 
 River, Columbia River, Connecticut River, Great Lakes, Great Salt Lake, 
 Gulf of Mexico, Hudson River, Lake Champlain, Lake Erie. Lake Huron, 
 Lake Michigan, Lake Ontario, Lake Superior, ^Massachusetts 3ay, 
 Mississippi River, ]\Iissouri River, Niagara Falls, Ohio River, Pacific 
 Ocean, Potomac River. Puget Sound, Rio Grande, San Francisco Bay, St. 
 Lawrence River. 
 
 See Sec. 21 for suggestions concerning reviews. 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE. (Second time over.) 
 
 64. Class Work with Globes. Pass out the small glol)es used in the 
 work of Sees. 2-6. Point out, describe briefly, and have each member of 
 the class rise and locate on his glo])e the following: Arctic Circle, Tropic 
 of Cancer, Equator, Tropic of Capricorn, Antardic Circle, North Frigid 
 Zone, North Temperate Zone, Torrid Zone, South Temperate Zone, South 
 Frigid Zone. Explain in a few words that the Frigid Zones are cold and 
 
 (34)
 
 bleak; that they are lands of ice and snow. The Temperates Zones are 
 mild and pleasant regions. The Torrid Zone is very hot. 
 
 65. Locations on the Hemisphere Maps. Use the same outline map 
 of the hemispheres as was used in the work of Sec. 10. Draw on it the 
 Arctic and Antarctic Circles, the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, and 
 the Equator. Then apply the methods suggested in Sec. 10. Review in 
 connection with the new locations the location of the features taken up in 
 treating the Earth as a Whole, first time over. (See Sec. 3.) 
 
 66. Locations on the Mercator Map of the World. Have the pupils 
 turn to the mercator map, Fig. 120, opposite page 137 in the Introductory 
 Geography. Have different members find and point to the location of the 
 various zones and circles on this map. Also review the location of the 
 different continents and oceans. 
 
 67. Test, (a) Have each pupil stand, point to, and name the zones and 
 zone boundary circles as they appear upon his globe. 
 
 (6) Send each pupil in turn to the outline map of the hemispheres and 
 have him point out each zone and circle. 
 
 68. Written Work. At its first occasion for seat work in map 
 geography have the section that has just completed the above exercises 
 copy the following from the blackboard, filling in the missing words : — 
 
 1. The Equator runs through the middle of the Zone. 
 
 2.' The Tropic of is the northern boundary' of the Torrid Zone. 
 
 • 3. The, Tropic of is the southern boundary of the Torrid Zone. 
 
 4. The Circle is the northern boundary of the North Temperate 
 
 Zone. 
 
 5. The North Temperate Zone is north of the Zone. 
 
 6. The North Temperate Zone is south of the Zone. 
 
 7. The Arctic Circle is south of the Zone. 
 
 8. The Tropic of is north of the South Temperate Zone. 
 
 9. The Zone is south of the Torrid Zone. 
 
 10. The Zone is south of the South Temperate Zone. 
 
 69. Review. Drill and test the pupils in the location of the following 
 features : 
 
 (a) The Earth as a Whole (first time over) : Africa, Antarctic Ocean, 
 Arctic Ocean, Asia, Atlantic Ocean, Australia, Europe, Indian Ocean, 
 North America, Pacific Ocean, South America. 
 
 (&) Asia (first time over) : Arabia, Arctic Ocean, Black Sea, Calcutta, 
 Caspian Sea, Chinese Empire, Desert of Gobi, Euphrates River, Ganges 
 River, Himalaya River, India, Indian Ocean, Indus River, Japan, 
 Jerusalem, Jordan River, Mecca, Pacific Ocean, Peking, Persia, Red Sea, 
 Siberia, Steppes, Tibet, Tokio, Turkey (Asiatic). 
 
 (c) United States (first time over) : 
 
 (35)
 
 Physical Features, Water: Atlantic Ocean, Chesapeake Baj', Colorado 
 River, Columbia River, Connecticut River, Great Lakes, Great Salt Lake, 
 Gulf of jNIexico. Hudson River, Lake Champlain, Lake Erie, Lake Huron, 
 Lake ^lichigan. Lake Ontario, Lake Superior, ^Massachusetts Bay, Missis- 
 sippi River, Missouri River, Niagara Falls, Ohio River, Pacific Ocean, 
 Potomac River, Puget Sound, Rio Grande, San Francisco Bay, St. 
 Lawrence River. 
 
 Physical Features, Land: Adirondack Mts., Appalachian Mts., Cape 
 Cod. Cape Hatteras, Cascade Mts., Coast Range, Long Island. ^Mississippi 
 Valley, Rocky Mts., Sierra Nevada ]Mts., Yellowstone Park. 
 
 See Sec. 21 for sussestions concerning review. 
 
 NORTH AMERICA. (Second time over.) 
 
 70. Outline Map Sketching. Drill the class in sketching the outline 
 of North America in the manner suggested in Sec. 16. By this time the 
 pupils should have a clear visualization of the main features of this conti- 
 nent and a few days' work should be sufficient to secure good outlines. In 
 any event continue the drill until satisfactory results are attained. 
 
 71. Pronunciation. Apply the method set forth in Sec 17. The 
 following features are to be considered in this unit : 
 
 1. Bering Sea. 12. Mexico. 
 
 2. Bering Strait. 13. Montreal. 
 
 3. Caribbean Sea. 14. Newfoundland. 
 
 4. Cuba. 15. New Orleans. 
 
 5. Greenland. 16. Porto Rico. 
 
 6. Gulf of California. 17. Rio Grande. 
 
 7. Gulf of St. Lawrence. 18. San Francisco. 
 
 8. Havana. 19. Vancouver Island. 
 
 9. Hawaiian Islands. 20. West Indies. 
 
 10. Isthnuis of Panama. 21. Yukon River. 
 
 11. Lower California. 
 
 72. Locations. Locate the above features by applying the methods 
 suggested in See. 18. 
 
 73. Dim, I,. Ai)p]y tlio drill exercises suggested in Sec. 19. 
 
 74. Test. Apply the tests suggested in Sec. 20. 
 
 75. Review. Drill and test the class in the location of the following 
 features: 
 
 (a) Norlli Aiiirrica f first time over) : Ahi.ska. Aj)i>alachian Mis., Arctic 
 Ocean, Atlantic Ocean. Boston, Canada. Ccnti-al America. Chicngo. Great 
 r>akes. Gulf of Mexico, Hudson Bay, ^lexico, ^Mississippi River. New York 
 City, Pacific Ocean. Rocky Mts., St. Fjawrcnce River. I'liitcd States, Wash- 
 ington City. 
 
 (3G)
 
 (6) Europe (first time over) : Alps Mts., Arctic Ocean. Atlantic Ocean, 
 Austria-Hungary, Belgium, Berlin, Black Sea, Bosporus, Bulgaria, 
 Caspian Sea, Constantinople, Danube River, Dardanelles, Denmark, 
 England, France. Germany, Great Britain. Greece, Holland, Iceland, Ire- 
 land. Italy, London, Mediterranean Sea, Norway, Paris. Portugal, Rome, 
 Roumauia, Russia, Scotland, Sicily, Spain, St. Petersburg, Sweden, Switzer- 
 land, Turkey (European). 
 
 (c) California (first time over) : Arizona, Cape ^Mendocino, Coast 
 Range, Colorado River. Farallone Islands. Golden Gate, Mexico, Mohave 
 Desert, Monterey Bay. Nevada. Oregon. Pacific Ocean. Sacramento River, 
 Salton Sea, San Francisco Bay, San Joaquin River, Santa Barbara Channel, 
 Santa Catalina Island, Mt. Shasta, Sierra Nevada Mts.. Tahoe Lake, 
 Tehachapi Pass. Tulare Lake, Yosemite Valley. 
 
 See Sec. 21 for suggestions concerning review. 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA. (Second time over.) 
 
 76. Outline ]\Iap Sketching. Apply the method suggested in Sec. IG. 
 See Sec. 22 for hints in sketching the outline of South America. 
 
 77. Pronunciation. Apply the method set forth in See. 17. The 
 following features are to be taken up in this unit : 
 
 1. Bolivia. 6. Paraguay. 
 
 2. Cape Horn. 7. Peru. 
 
 3. Colombia. 8. Strait of Magellan. 
 4.'Eucador. 9. Uruguay. 
 
 5. Guiana. 10. Venezuela. 
 
 78. Locations. Locate the above features bj- the method set forth in 
 Sec. 18. 
 
 79. Drill. Use the drills suggested in Sec. 19. 
 
 80. Test. Apply the test methods suggested in Sec. 20. 
 
 81. Review. Drill and test the class in the location of the following 
 features : 
 
 (a) South America (first time over) : Amazon River. Andes Mts., 
 Antarctic Ocean. Argentina. Atlantic Ocean, Brazil. Buenos Aires, Carib- 
 bean Sea, Chile, Pacific Ocean, Rio de Janeiro, Valparaiso. 
 
 (6) United States (first time over) : 
 
 Physical Features, Water: Atlantic Ocean, Chesapeake Bay, Colorado 
 River, Columbia River. Connecticut River, Great Lakes, Great Salt Lake, 
 Gulf of Mexico, Hudson Bay, Lake Champlain, Lake Erie, Lake Huron, 
 Lake Michigan, Lake Ontario, Lake Superior, iMassachusetts Bay, Missis- 
 sippi River, Missouri River, Niagara Falls. Ohio River. Pacific Ocean, 
 
 (37)
 
 Potomac River, Puget Sound, Rio Grande, San Francisco Bay, St. Lawrence 
 River. 
 
 Physical Features, Land: Adirondack Mts., Appalachian "Sits.. Cape 
 Cod. Cape Hatteras, Cascade Mts., Coast Range, Long Island. Mississippi 
 Valley, Rocky Mts., Sierra Nevada Mts., Yellowstone Park. 
 
 (c) The Earth as a Whole (second time over) : Antarctic Circle, Arctic 
 Circle, Equator, North Frigid Zone, North Temperate Zone, South Frigid 
 Zone, South Temperate Zone, Torrid Zone, Tropic of Cancer, Tropic of 
 Capricorn. 
 
 See Sec. 21 for suggestions concerning review. 
 
 AFRICA. (Second time over.) 
 
 82. Outline Map Sketching. Apply the method described in Sec. 16. 
 See Sec. 28 for suggestive hints to aid in sketching the outline of Africa. 
 
 83. Pronunciation. Apply Sec. 17. The following features are to be 
 taken up in this unit : 
 
 1. Abj^ssinia. 9. Madagascar. 
 
 2. Algeria. 10. ^Morocco. 
 
 3. Atlas ]\Its. 11. Sahara Desert. 
 
 4. Azores Islands. 12. St. Helena Island. 
 
 5. Canary Islands. 13. Suez Canal. 
 
 6. Darkest Africa. 14. Tripoli. 
 
 7. Gulf of Guinea. 15. Tunis. 
 
 8. Kongo Free State. 
 
 84. Locations. Teach the location of the above features by the method 
 set forth in Sec. 18. 
 
 85. Drill. Use the drills suggested in Sec. 19. 
 
 86. Test. Apply the test methods suggested in^Sec. 20. 
 
 87. Review. Drill and test the class in the location of the following 
 features : 
 
 (a) Africa (first time over) : Alexandria, Antarctic Ocean, Atlantic 
 Ocean, Barbarj^ States, Cairo, Cape Colony, Cape of Good Hope, Cape 
 Town, Egypt, Indian Ocean, Isthmus of Suez, Kongo River, Mediterranean 
 Sea, Nile River, Red Sea, Strait of Gibraltar. 
 
 (6) California (first time over) : Arizona, Cape Mendocino, Coast Range, 
 Colorado River, Farallone Islands. Golden Gate, ]\Ie.\ico, ]\Iohave Desert, 
 Monterey Bay, Nevada, Oregon, Pacific Ocean, Sacramento River, Salton 
 Sea, San Francisco Bay. San Joaquin River, Santa Barbara Channel, Santa 
 Catalina Island. IMt. 8ha.sta, Sierra Nevada Mts., Tahoe Lake, Tehachapi 
 Pa.ss, Tulare Lake. Yosemite Valley. 
 
 (38)
 
 (c) North America (second time over) : Bering Sea, Bering Strait, 
 Caribbean Sea, Cuba, Greenland, Gulf of California, Gulf of St. Lawrence, 
 Havana, Hawaiian Islands, Isthmus of Panama, Lower California, Mexico, 
 Montreal, Newfoundland, New Orleans, Porto Rico, Rio Grande, San Fran- 
 cisco, Vancouver Island, West Indies, Yukon River. 
 
 See Sec. 21 for suggestions concerning review. 
 
 AUSTRALIA AND PACIFIC ISLANDS. (Second time over.) 
 
 88. Outline Map Sketching. Apply the method described in Sec. 16. 
 See Sec. 34 for suggestive hints. 
 
 89. Pronunclvtion. Apply the method set forth in Sec. 17. The 
 following features are to be taken up in this unit : 
 
 1. Borneo. 6. New Guinea. 
 
 2. Guam. 7. Samoan Islands. 
 
 3. Java. 8. Sumatra. 
 
 4. Luzon Island. 9. Tasmania. 
 
 5. ^Melbourne. 
 
 a 
 
 90. Locations. Teach the location of the above features by applying 
 the method set forth in Sec. 18. 
 
 91. Drill. Apply the drills suggested in Sec. 19. 
 
 92. Test. Apply Sec. 20. 
 
 93. Review^. Drill and test the class in the location of the folloTvdng 
 features : 
 
 (a) Australia and Pacific Islands (first time over) : Australia, East 
 Indies, Hawaiian Islands, Honolulu, Indian Ocean, International Date 
 Line, Manila, New Zealand, Pacific Ocean, Philippines, Sydney. 
 
 (&) The Earth as a Whole (second time over) : Antarctic Circle, Arctic 
 Circle, Equator, North Frigid Zone, North Temperate Zone, South Frigid 
 Zone, South Temperate Zone, Torrid Zone, Tropic of Cancer, Tropic of 
 Capricorn. 
 
 (c) South America (second time over) : Bolivia, Cape Horn, Colombia, 
 Ecuador, Guiana, Paraguay, Peru, Strait of Magellan, Uruguaj-, Venezuela. 
 
 See Sec. 21 for suggestions concerning review. 
 
 ASIA. (Second time over.) 
 
 94. Outline Map Sketching. Apply the method set forth in Sec. 16. 
 See Sec. 40 for suggestive hints. 
 
 95. PRONUNCM.TION. Apply Sec. 17. The following features are to be 
 taken up in this unit : 
 
 1. Afghanistan. 3. Bay of Bengal. 
 
 2. Arabian Sea. 4. Bombay. 
 
 (39)
 
 5. Ceylon. 14. Manelmria. 
 
 6. China Sea. 15. Mt. Everest. 
 
 7. Dead Sea. 16. Persian Gulf. 
 
 8. Formosa. 17. Siam. 
 
 9. Hoang-ho. 18. Ural Mts. 
 
 10. Hongkong. 19. Ural River. 
 
 11. Japan Sea. 20. Vladivostok. 
 
 12. Kamchatka. 21. Yangtse-kiang. 
 
 13. Korea. 22. Yokohama. 
 
 96. Locations. Teach the location of the above features by applying 
 the suggestions in Sec. 18. 
 
 97. Drill. Apply the drills outlined in See. 19. 
 
 98. Test. Apply Sec. 20. 
 
 99. Review. Drill and test the class in the location of the following 
 features : 
 
 (a) Asia (tirst time over) : Arabia. Arctic Ocean. Black Sea, Calcutta, 
 Caspian Sea. Chinese Empire, Desert df Gobi, Euphrates River, Ganges 
 River. Himalaya ]\Its.. India, Indian Ocean. Indus River, Japan. Jerusalem, 
 Jordan River. ]\lecca. Pacific Ocean, Peking, Persia. Red Sea, Siberia, 
 Steppes, Tibet, Tokio, Turkey (Asiatic). 
 
 (h) North America (second time over) : Bering Sea, Bering Strait, 
 Caribbean Sea. Cuba, Greenland. Gulf of California, Gulf of St. Lawrence, 
 Havana, Hawaiian Islands, Isthmus of Panama, Lower California, Mexico, 
 Montreal, Newfoundland. New Orleans, Porto Rico, Rio Grande, San Fran- 
 cisco, Vancouver Island, AVest Indies, Yukon River. 
 
 (c) Africa (second time over) : Abyssinia, Algeria, Atlas Mts., Azores 
 Islands, Canary Islands. Darkest Africa, Gulf of Guinea, Kongo Free State, 
 Madagascar, Morocco, Sahara Desert, St. Helena Island, Suez Canal, 
 Tripoli, Tunis. 
 
 See Sec. 21 for suggestions concerning review. 
 
 EUROPE. (Second time over.) 
 
 100. Outline .Mai* Sketching. Apply the method described in Sec. 16. 
 See Sec. 46 for liints. 
 
 101. I'ronunciation. Apply Sec. 17. The following features are to be 
 taken iiji in the treatment of this unit: 
 
 1. Adriatic Sea. 7. Brussels. 
 
 2. Aegean Sea. 8. Caucasus ]\Its. 
 :>. Appennines. 9. Ediubiirgli. 
 
 4. Athens. 10. iMiglish Channel. 
 
 5. lialtic Sea. 11. (lihraltar. 
 
 6. Bay of Biscay. 12. Lake (Jeneva. 
 
 (40)
 
 13. Liverpool. 20. Strait of Dover. 
 
 14. Madrid. 21. Strait of Gibraltar. 
 
 15. Naples. 22. Thames Eiver. 
 
 16. North Sea. 23. The Hague. 
 
 17. Pyrenees Mts. 24. Tiber River. 
 
 18. Rhine River. 25. Venice. 
 
 19. Seine River. 26. Vesuvius. 
 
 102. Locations. Teach the location of the above features by apphdng 
 the methods set forth in See. 18. 
 
 103. Drill. Use the drills suggested in See. 19. 
 
 104. Test. Apply Se«. 20. 
 
 105. Review. Drill and test the class in the location of the following 
 features : 
 
 (a) Europe (first time over) : Alps Mts., Arctic Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, 
 Austria-Hungary, Belgium. Berlin. Black Sea, Bosporus, Bulgaria, 
 Caspian Sea. Constantinople. Danube River. Dardanelles. Denmark, 
 England. France, Germany, Great Britain, Greece, Holland, Iceland, Ire- 
 land. Italy. London. Mediterranean Sea, Norway, Paris, Portugal, Rome, 
 Roumania. Russia. Scotland. Sicily, Spain. St. Petersburg, Sweden, Switzer- 
 land, Turkey (European). 
 
 (&) TJte Earth as a ^yJlole (second time over) : Antarctic Circle. Arctic 
 Circle. Equator. North Frigid Zone. North Temperate Zone. South Frigid 
 Zone. South Temperate Zone. Torrid Zone, Tropic of Cancer, Tropic of 
 Capricorn. 
 
 (c) South America (second time over) : Bolivia. Cape Horn, Colombia, 
 Ecuador, Guiana, Paraguay, Peru, Strait of JNIagellan, Uruguay, Venezuela. 
 
 (d) Aiistralia and Pacific Islands (second time over) : Borneo, Guam, 
 Java, Luzon Island, ^Melbourne, New Guinea, Samoan Islands, Sumatra, 
 Tasmania. . 
 
 See Sec. 21 for suggestions concerning the method of the review. 
 
 UNITED STATES. (Second time over.) 
 
 106. Outline Map Sketching. Apply the method set forth in Sec. 16. 
 See Sec. 52 for hints. 
 
 107. Prontjnciation. Apply Sec. 17. The following features are to be 
 taken up in the treatment of this unit : 
 
 (a-) States and Territories: 
 
 1. Alabama. 5. Colorado. 
 
 2. Arizona. 6. Connecticut. 
 .3. Arkansas. 7. Delaware. 
 
 4. California. 8. District of Columbia. 
 
 (41)
 
 9. Florida. 
 
 10. Georgia. 
 
 11. Idaho. 
 
 12. Illinois. 
 
 13. Indiana. 
 
 14. Indian Territory. 
 
 15. Iowa. 
 
 16. Kansas. 
 
 17. Kentucky. 
 
 18. Louisiana. 
 
 19. Maine. 
 
 20. Maryland. 
 
 21. Massachusetts. 
 
 22. Michigan. 
 
 23. Minnesota. 
 
 24. Mississippi. 
 
 25. Missouri. 
 
 26. Montana. 
 
 27. Nebraska. 
 
 28. Nevada. 
 
 29. New Hampshire. 
 
 (&) Cities: 
 
 1. Boston. 
 
 2. Chicago. 
 
 3. Denver. 
 
 4. New Orleans. 
 
 5. New York. 
 
 6. Omaha. 
 
 30. New Jersey. 
 
 31. New Mexico. 
 
 32. New York. 
 
 33. North Carolina. 
 
 34. North Dakota. 
 
 35. Ohio. 
 
 36. Oklahoma. 
 
 37. Oregon. 
 
 38. Pennsylvania. 
 
 39. Rhode Island. 
 
 40. South Carolina. 
 
 41. South Dakota. 
 
 42. Tennessee. 
 
 43. Texas. 
 
 44. Utah. 
 
 45. Vermont. 
 
 46. Virginia. 
 
 47. Washington. 
 
 48. West Virginia. 
 
 49. Wisconsin. 
 
 50. Wyoming. 
 
 7. Salt Lake City. 
 
 8. San Francisco. 
 
 9. Seattle. 
 
 10. St. Louis. 
 
 11. Washington. 
 
 108. Locations. Teach the location of the above features by applying 
 the method set forth in Sec. 18. In this unit there are so many new 
 locations to teach that the work must be done in installments. Take up the 
 states in the groups in which they have been treated in the Introductory 
 Geography text-book: New England States; ]\Tiddle Atlantic States; 
 Southern States; Central States; and Western States., Drill and test the 
 class in the location of the states of each group before passing on to the 
 next. In this way confusion will be avoided. 
 
 When the states have been thoroughly treated, take up the location of 
 the cities. 
 
 109. Drill. Use the drills set forth in Sec. 19. 
 
 110. Test. Each group should be tested when it has been sufficiently 
 drilled upon. The final test should involve the whole list of states and 
 cities. For this exercise have at hand outline maps of the United States 
 showing the outlines of all the states and territories. Then apply the 
 method suggested in Sec. 20, subdivision (a). Have the pupils write the 
 
 (42)
 
 numbers instead of the names. 
 Sec. 19, subdivision {d). 
 
 Test, also, with the method described in 
 
 111. Review. Drill and test the class in the location of the following 
 features : 
 
 (a) United States (first time over) : 
 
 Physical Features, Water : Atlantic Ocean, Chesapeake Bay, Colorado 
 Eiver, Columbia River, Connecticut River, Great Lakes, Great Salt Lake, 
 Gulf of Mexico, Hudson River. Lake Champlain, Lake Erie, Lake Huron, 
 Lake Michigan, Lake Ontario, Lake Superior, Massachusetts Bay, Missis- 
 sippi River, Missouri River, Niagara Falls, Ohio River, Pacific Ocean, 
 Potomac River, Puget Sound, Rio Grande, San Francisco Bay, St. Lawrence 
 River. 
 
 Physical Features, Land: Adirondack Mts., Appalachian Mts., Cape 
 Cod, Cape Hatteras, Cascade Mts., Coast Range, Long Island, ]\Iississippi 
 A^alley. Rocky Mts., Sierra Nevada Mts., Yellowstone Park. 
 
 (&) Xorih America (second time over) : Bering Sea. Bering Strait, 
 Caribbean Sea, Cuba, Gulf of California, Gulf of St. Lawrence, Havana, 
 Hawaiian Islands, Isthmus of Panama, Lower California, IMexico, Montreal, 
 Newfoundland, New Orleans, Porto Rico, Rio Grande, San Francisco, 
 Vancouver Island, "West Indies, Yukon River. 
 
 (c) Africa (second time over) : Abyssinia, Algeria, Atlas jMts., Azores 
 Islands, Canary Islands, Darkest Africa, Gulf of Guinea, Kongo Free State, 
 Madagascar, Morocco, Sahara Desert, St. Helena Island, Suez Canal, 
 Tripoli. Tunis. 
 
 {d) Asia (second time over) : Afghanistan, Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal, 
 Bombay, Ceylon, China Sea, Dead Sea, Formosa, Hoang-ho, Hongkong, 
 Japan Sea. Kamchatka, Korea, Manchuria, Mt. Everest, Persian Gulf, Siam, 
 Ural ]Mts.. Ural River, Vladivostok, Yangtse-kiang, Yokohama. 
 
 See Sec. 21 for suggestions concerning the inethod of the review. 
 
 CALIFORNIA. (Second time over.) 
 
 112. Outline Map Sketching. Apply the method set forth in Sec. 16. 
 See See. 58 for hints. 
 
 113. Pronunciation. Apply Sec. 17. The following political features 
 are to be taken up in this unit : 
 
 1. Alameda County. 
 
 2. Berkeley. 
 
 3. Contra Costa County. 
 
 4. Eureka. 
 
 5. Fresno. 
 
 6. Fresno County. 
 
 7. Kern County. 
 
 8. Los Angeles. 
 
 9. Los Angeles County. 
 
 10 
 11 
 12 
 13 
 11. 
 
 Mare Island Navj' Yard. 
 Marin County. 
 Monterey County. 
 Napa County. 
 Oakland. 
 
 15. Sacramento. 
 
 16. Sacramento County. 
 
 17. San Diego. 
 
 18. San Diego Countv. 
 
 (43)
 
 19. San Francisco. 24. Santa Clara County. 
 
 20. San Jose. 25. Solano Countv. 
 
 21. San Mateo County. 26. Sonoma Coimtj^ 
 
 22. Santa Barbara. 27. Stanford University. 
 
 23. Santa Barbara County. 
 
 Xote: A clear idea of the location of each of the above would seem to be 
 of value to any well-informed Californian. But in addition there should 
 be added to this list such local features as it may be necessary for the pupils 
 to hold in visual memory. Thus in the schools of Kings County there 
 should be added to the list the following : Kings River. Hanford. Kings 
 County, Tulare County, and San Luis Obispo County. And in like manner 
 in Sonoma County it would be well to include Petalnma, Santa Rosa, 
 Healdsburg. Sonoma. Lake County, and Mendocino County in the list. 
 Each teacher should add such local features as may be of sufficient 
 importance. , 
 
 114. Locations. Apply the methods set forth in Sec. 18 in teaching the 
 location of the above features. 
 
 It will be well to keep the counties in a group during the exercises in 
 locating, location drills, and testing, so that the class may see clearly their 
 relative size and position on the map. 
 
 115. Drill. Apply the drills described in Sec. 19. 
 
 116. Test. Apply Sec. 20. 
 
 117. Review. Drill and test the class in the location of the following 
 features: (See Sec. 21 for suggestions concerning review work.) 
 
 (a) California (first time over) : Arizona, Cape Mendocino. Coast 
 Range. Colorado River. Farallone Islands, Golden Gate, IMexico. ^lohave 
 Desert, ]\Ionterey Bay. Nevada, Oregon, Pacific Ocean, Sacramento River, 
 Salton Sea, San Francisco Bay, San Joaquin River, Santa Barbara Channel, 
 Santa Catalina Island, Mt. Shasta, Sierra Nevada Mts., Tahoe Lake, 
 Tehachapi Pass. Tulare Lake, Yosemite Valley. 
 
 (6) South Aiiurica (second time over) : B()li\i;i. (jape Horn, Colombia, 
 Ecuador, Guiana. Paragiia\ . I 'mi. Strait of Magellan, Uruguay, Venezuela. 
 
 (c) AuHtralid and I'arific Islands (sccdiid time over): Boi'iico, Guam, 
 Java, Luzon Island, Melbourne, New Guinea. Sjiuki.iii Ishinds. Smnatra, 
 Tasmania. 
 
 (d) Europe (second lime over) : Adriatic Sea, Aegean Sea, Appennines, 
 Athens, Baltic Sea. J^ay of Biscay, Brussels, Caucasus Mts., Edin- 
 burgh, Kiiglisli ("liaiiiii'l, ( lilii-;dtMi-. Lake Geneva, Liverpool, ^ladrid, 
 Naples, North Sea. I'yrcDees Mts., Rhine itiver, Seine Rivei-. Str-rdt of Dover, 
 Strait of r;il)ral1ar. I'hames River. The Ifaene. TIIht Kiver. Venice, 
 Vesuvius. 
 
 (e) Asia (second lime over) : Afghainslau, Arahiaii Sea. l>ay of l>engal, 
 Bombay, Ceylon, China Sea, Dead Sea, Formosa, lloang-ho, Hongkong, 
 
 (44)
 
 Japan Sea, Kamchatka. Korea, Manchuria, Mt. Everest, Persian Gulf, Siam, 
 Ural Mts., Ural River, Vladivostok, Yangtse-kiang. Yokohama. 
 
 (/■} United States (second time over) : 
 
 States and Territories : Alabama. Arizona. Arkansas. California, Colo- 
 rado. Connecticut. Delaware, District of Columbia. Florida. Georgia, Idaho, 
 Illinois. Indiana. Indian Territory, Iowa. Kansas. Kentucky, Louisiana, 
 Maine, ^Maryland. ^Massachusetts, Llichigan, Minnesota. Mississippi, 
 Missouri. ^Montana. Nebraska, Nevada, New Hampshire. New Jersey, New 
 Mexico. New York, North Carolina, North Dakota. Ohio. Oklahoma, Oregon. 
 Penns^dvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, South Dakota, Tennessee, 
 Texas. Utah, Vermont, Virginia. Washington. West Virginia. Wisconsin, 
 Wyoming. 
 
 Cities: Boston. Chicago, Denver, New Orleans, New York, Omaha, Salt 
 Lake City, San Francisco, Seattle, St. Louis, Washington. 
 
 [g) California (second time over) : Alameda County. Berkeley, Contra 
 Costa County, Eureka, Fresno, Fresno County. Kern County, Los Angeles, 
 Los Angeles County, Mare Island Navy Yard, ]\Iarin County, Monterey 
 County, Napa County, Oakland. Sacramento, Sacramento County, San 
 Diego. San Diego County. San Francisco. San Jose, San iNIateo County, 
 Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara County, Santa Clara County. Solano County, 
 Sonoma County. Stanford University. 
 
 See See. 21 for susaestions concerning revieAv work. 
 
 (45)
 
 REVIEW WORK FOR THE SIXTH, SEVENTH, AND 
 
 EIGHTH GRADES. 
 
 The foregoing course under ordinary conditions should be completed at 
 the. end of the fifth grade. If, however, due to special circumstances, the 
 teacher is unable to cover the work in these two years of the fourth and 
 fifth grades she should continue it on its accustomed schedule of two periods 
 per week until it has been completed. It may be possible, on the other 
 hand, under most favorable conditions to finish the course before the close 
 of the fifth year; and if this can be done, (thorough work being the standard 
 at all times,) so much the better. The point is that every part of the course 
 should be taught and each review dwelled upon until satisfactory results 
 have been attained. 
 
 This done, whether it be at the end of the fifth year or before or after 
 that time, the regular final review schedule should be taken up. This work 
 requires one forty-minute period every second week, or one fifteen-minute 
 period every week, and should be continued throughout the sixth, seventh, 
 and eighth grades. The class should follow the review course outlined 
 below, and in each review period should cover as many features as possible, 
 clear visualizations of map locations being the standard. In case weakness 
 is shown in recalling any of the mental map pictures, enough drill work 
 (see Sec. 19) should be given to remove the difficult^'. 
 
 This work should be systematic. If a review period is missed through 
 holiday or other interference, it should be made up. Unless order and 
 sequence mark review exercises the map visualizations that have been 
 secured will fade out and the results of the course will be largely lost. 
 Upon faithful review work depends the permanence of the impressions 
 gained in the first two years' work. 
 
 Besides these regular bi-weekly or weekly review exercises, the class 
 should go over the map geography of the different areas as each area comes 
 up for treatment in the descriptive geography course. Thus, when Europe 
 ■is taken up for descriptive work tliat work should be prefaced by a brisk 
 review of the map geography of Europe, l)oth first and second times over. 
 Such occa.sional review exercises should not he considered a part of the 
 systematic review work referred to above, but should be given when occasion 
 for them arises in time taken from the descriptive geography course./ 
 
 The drill methods outlined in Se*;. ID. subdivisions (d) and (/), are 
 especially reconiriicnded for this review work. They are thorough and 
 timo-saving. Each day's work should include as many features as may be 
 thoroughly treated, and the class should proceed systematically from the 
 bf'LnnninL' to the end of the course as outlined below. In Ihis way it will 
 
 (46)
 
 be found possible to complete the review of the map geographj^ of the world 
 at least once each school year. In smaller classes the proposed schedule 
 will make it possible to cover the whole ground two times each year. 
 
 The Earth as a Whole, first time over: 
 
 Africa. 
 
 Antarctic Ocean. 
 
 Arctic Ocean. 
 
 Asia. 
 
 Atlantic Ocean. 
 
 Australia. 
 
 Europe. 
 Indian Ocean. 
 North America. 
 Pacific Ocean. 
 South America. 
 
 The Earth as a Whole, second time over: 
 
 Antarctic Circle. South Frigid Zone. 
 
 Arctic Circle. South Temperate Zone. 
 
 Equator. Torrid Zone. 
 
 North Frigid Zone. Tropic of Cancer. 
 
 North Temperate Zone. Tropic of Capricorn. 
 
 3. North America, first time over: 
 
 Alaska. 
 
 Appalachian Mts. 
 Arctic Ocean. 
 Atlantic Ocean. 
 Boston. 
 Canada. 
 
 Central America. 
 Chicago. 
 Great Lakes. 
 Gulf of Mexico. 
 
 Hudson Bay. 
 Mexico. 
 
 Mississippi River, 
 New York City. 
 Pacific Ocean. 
 Rocky Mts. 
 St. Lawrence River. 
 United States. 
 Washington City. 
 
 North America, second time over. 
 
 Bering Sea. 
 
 Bering Strait. 
 
 Caribbean Sea. 
 
 Cuba. 
 
 Greenland. 
 
 Gulf of California. 
 
 Gulf of St. Lawrence. 
 
 Havana. 
 
 Hawaiian Islands. 
 
 Isthmus of Panama. 
 
 Lower California. 
 
 Mexico. 
 Montreal. 
 Newfoundland. 
 New Orleans. 
 Porto Rico. 
 Rio Grande. 
 San Francisco. 
 Vancouver Island. 
 West Indies. 
 Yukon River. 
 
 (47)
 
 5. South America, first time over: 
 
 Amazon River. 
 Andes ]\Its. 
 Antarctic Ocean. 
 Argentina. 
 Atlantic Ocean. 
 Brazil. 
 
 6. South America, second time over 
 
 Bolivia. 
 Cape Horn. 
 Colombia. 
 Ecuador. 
 Guiana. 
 
 7. Africa, first time over: 
 
 Alexandria. 
 Antarctic Ocean. 
 Atlantic Ocean. 
 Barbary States. 
 Cairo. 
 
 Cape Colony. 
 Cape of Good Hope. 
 Cape Town. 
 
 8. Africa, second time over: 
 
 Abyssinia. 
 Algeria. 
 Atlas :\[ts. 
 Azores Islands. 
 Canary Islands. 
 Darkest Africa. 
 Gulf of Guinea. 
 Kongo Free State. 
 
 Buenos Aires. 
 Caribbean Sea. 
 Chile. 
 
 Pacific Ocean. 
 Rio de Janeiro. 
 Valparaiso. 
 
 Paraguay. 
 
 Peru. 
 
 Strait of ^Magellan. 
 
 Uruguay. 
 
 Venezuela. 
 
 Egypt. 
 
 Indian Ocean. 
 Isthmus of Suez. 
 Kongo River. 
 Mediterranean Sea. 
 Nile River. 
 Red Sea. 
 Strait of Gibraltar. 
 
 INIadagascar. 
 
 ]Morocco. 
 
 Sahara Desert. 
 
 St. Helena Island. 
 
 Suez Canal. 
 
 Tripoli. 
 
 Tunis. 
 
 9. Australia and Pacific Islands, first time over: 
 
 Australia. Manila. 
 
 East Indies. New Zealand. 
 
 Hawaiian Islands. Pacific Ocean. 
 
 Honolulu. Philippines. 
 
 Indian Ocean. Sydney. 
 International Date Line. 
 
 Id. AiislraUa (iml I'acifir fsJands, second lime oiur: 
 
 iJorneo. New Guinea. 
 
 Guam. Sainoan Islands. 
 
 Java. Suiii;iti-a. 
 
 Luzon Island. Tasmania. 
 
 Melbourne. (48)
 
 11. Asia, first time over: 
 Arabia. 
 
 Arctic Ocean. 
 Black Sea. 
 Calcutta. 
 Caspian Sea. 
 Chinese Empire. 
 Desert of Gobi. 
 Euphrates River. 
 Ganges River. 
 Himalaya Mts. 
 India. 
 
 Indian Ocean. 
 Indus River. 
 
 12. Asia, second time over: 
 Afghanistan. 
 Arabian Sea. 
 
 Bay of Bengal. 
 Bombay. 
 Ceylon. 
 China Sea. 
 Dead Sea. 
 Formosa. 
 Hoang-ho. 
 Hongkong. 
 Japan Sea. 
 
 13. Europe, first time over 
 Alps Mts. 
 
 Arctic Ocean. 
 
 Atlantic Ocean. 
 
 Austria-Hungary. 
 
 Belgium. 
 
 Berlin. 
 
 Black Sea. 
 
 Bosporus. 
 
 Bulgaria. 
 
 Caspian Sea. 
 
 Constantinople. 
 
 Danube River. 
 
 Dardanelles. 
 
 Denmark. 
 
 England. 
 
 France. 
 
 Germany. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 Greece. 
 
 4 BUL. 4 
 
 (40) 
 
 Japan. 
 
 Jerusalem. 
 
 Jordan River. 
 
 Mecca. 
 
 Pacific Ocean. 
 
 Peking. 
 
 Persia. 
 
 Red Sea. 
 
 Siberia. 
 
 Steppes. 
 
 Tibet. 
 
 Tokio. 
 
 Turkey (Asiatic; 
 
 Kamchatka. 
 
 Korea. 
 
 Manchuria. 
 
 Mt. Everest. 
 
 Persian Gulf. 
 
 Siani. 
 
 Ural Mts. 
 
 Ural River. 
 
 Vladivostok. 
 
 Yangtse-kiang. 
 
 Yokohama. 
 
 Holland. 
 
 Iceland. 
 
 Ireland. 
 
 Italy. 
 
 London. 
 
 Mediterranean Sea. 
 
 Norway. 
 
 Paris. 
 
 Portugal. 
 
 Rome. 
 
 Roumania. 
 
 Russia. 
 
 Scotland. 
 
 Sicily. 
 
 Spain. 
 
 St. Petersburg. 
 
 Sweden. 
 
 Switzerland. 
 
 Turkey ( Europea 1 1 ) .
 
 14. Europe, second time over: 
 
 Adriatic Sea. 
 Aegean Sea. 
 Appeiinines. 
 Athens. 
 Baltic Sea. 
 Bay of Biscay. 
 Brussels. 
 Caucasus Mts. 
 Edinburg'h. 
 English Channel. 
 Gibraltar. 
 Lake Geneva. 
 Liverpool. 
 
 Madrid. 
 Naples. 
 North Sea. 
 Pyrenees ]\Its. 
 Rhine River. 
 Seine River. 
 Strait of Dover. 
 Strait of Gibraltar. 
 Thames River. 
 The Hague. 
 Tiber River. 
 Venice. 
 Vesuvius. 
 
 15. United States, first time over: 
 Physical Features, Water : — 
 Atlantic Ocean. 
 Chesapeake Bay. 
 Colorado River. 
 Columbia River. 
 Connecticut River. 
 Great Lakes. 
 Great Salt Lake. 
 Gulf of IMexico. 
 Hudson River. 
 Lake Champlain. 
 
 Lake Erie. 
 
 « 
 
 Lake Huron. 
 Lake Michigan. 
 
 Lake Ontario. 
 Lake Superior. 
 ^Massachusetts Bay. 
 Mississippi River. 
 Missouri River. 
 Niagara Falls. 
 Ohio River. 
 Pacific Ocean. 
 Potomac River. 
 Puget Sound. 
 Rio Grande. 
 San Francisco Bay. 
 St. Lawrence River. 
 
 Physical Features, Land 
 Adirondack Mts. 
 Appalachian ]\Tts. 
 Cape Cod. 
 Cape Hattcras. 
 Cascade Mts. 
 Coast Range. 
 
 Long Ishuid. 
 Mississippi Vall(\v. 
 Rocky xMts. 
 Sierra Nevada Mts. 
 Yellowstone Park. 
 
 16. United States, second lime over: 
 States and Territories: - 
 Alabama. 
 
 Ari/nii;i. 
 
 ;\i"kaiisas. 
 
 ('alifornia. 
 
 Coloj-ndo. 
 
 Connecticut. 
 Delaware. 
 
 Disi rict of ('iiliiii:!'iM. 
 
 Florida. 
 
 rir'oruia.
 
 Idaho. 
 Illinois. 
 Indiana. 
 
 Indian Territory 
 Iowa. 
 Kansas. 
 Kentucky. 
 Louisiana. 
 Maine. 
 ]\Iaryland. 
 INIassaehusetts. 
 Michigan. 
 Minnesota. 
 Mississippi. 
 Missouri. 
 Montana. 
 Nebraska. 
 ' Nevada. 
 New Hampshire. 
 New Jersey. 
 
 Cities : 
 Boston. 
 Chicago. 
 Denver. 
 New Orleans. 
 New York. 
 Omaha. 
 
 New Mexico. 
 
 New York. 
 
 North Carolina. 
 
 North Dakota. 
 
 Ohio. 
 
 Oklahoma. 
 
 Oregon. 
 
 Pennsylvania. 
 
 Rhode Island. 
 
 South Carolina. 
 
 South Dakota. 
 
 Tennessee. 
 
 Texas. 
 
 Utah. 
 
 Vermont. 
 
 Virginia. 
 
 Washington. 
 
 West Virginia. 
 
 Wisconsin. 
 
 Wvoming. 
 
 Salt Lake City 
 San Francisco. 
 Seattle. 
 St. Louis. 
 Washington. 
 
 17. California, first time over 
 
 Arizona. 
 
 Cape Mendocino. 
 Coast Range. 
 Colorado River. 
 Farallone Islands. 
 Golden Gate. 
 Mexico. 
 
 Mohave Desert. 
 iMonterey Bay. 
 Nevada. 
 Oregon. 
 Pacific Ocean. 
 
 Sacramento River. 
 Salton Sea. 
 San Francisco Bay. 
 San Joaquin River. 
 Santa Barbara Channel. 
 Santa Catalina Island. 
 ]\It. Shasta. 
 Sierra Nevada Mts. 
 Tahoe Lake. 
 Tehachapi Pass. 
 Tulare Lake. 
 Yosemite Vallev. 
 
 (•-.1)
 
 18. California, second time over: 
 
 Alameda County. Sacramento. 
 
 Berkeley. Sacramento County. 
 
 Contra Costa County. San Diego. 
 
 Eureka. San Diego County. 
 
 Fresno. San Francisco. 
 
 Fresno County. San Jose. 
 
 Kern County. San Mateo County. 
 
 Los Angeles. Santa Barbara. 
 
 Los Angeles County. Santa Barbara County. 
 
 Mare Island Navy Yard. Santa Clara County. 
 
 Marin County. Solano County. 
 
 Monterej^ County. Sonoma County. 
 
 Napa County. Stanford University. 
 
 Oakland. 
 
 C.i')
 
 Fig. I. 
 
 Chalk Relief of Scandinavia.
 
 SCANDINAVIA: 
 
 AN EXAMPLE OF THE 
 
 CHALK-TALK METHOD IN GEOGRAPHY 
 
 BY 
 
 WALTER J. KENYON 
 
 Supervisor of Geography, State Normal School 
 San Francisco 
 
 PUBLISHED BY THE GRADUATES OF THE 
 
 SAN FRANCISCO STATE NORMAL SCHOOL 
 
 January, 1904
 
 Copyright 1904 
 By Walter J. Kenyon
 
 ^lETHOD IN GEOGRAPHY TEACHING. 
 
 A text-book in geography can furnish maps and can serve as a statistical 
 reference book ; but by the. nature of the case, a text-book can never be an 
 important source of that body of general information which it is the essential 
 purpose of geography teaching to furnish. In order to give pupils prac- 
 ticable information concerning the conditions in foreign countries — modes of 
 living, agricultural, industrial, social, and climatic conditions, etc., it is neces- 
 sary that the child should receive it in concrete form, chiefly in mental pic- 
 tures which he may clearly visualize. It is not necessary, nor is it even desir- 
 able, that the pupil should remember these varied details ; but these concrete 
 pictures are the only material out of which generalizations can be constructed, 
 and the mass of such details will fade away into that perspective and general 
 feeling which all persons of general intelligence possess. But it is neces- 
 sary for the pupil to go through this mass of concrete detail in order to 
 comprehend a generalization he may find in the text. The fields of geo- 
 graphical information are so vast and so varied that a text-book which would 
 include this concrete material necessarily must be a library of books. No 
 two covers could possibly encompass this varied mass. The texts there- 
 fore are necessarily so condensed and the language into which the facts 
 must be compressed so general and abstract, that concrete picture-thinking 
 is impossible from them. The pupil cannot, therefore, read the texts under- 
 standingly ; and if he succeeds in making out the words, they do not create 
 concrete pictures for him. As a consequence, the best that the children 
 of the schools can do is to memorize the words of these condensed general 
 statements in order to recite or to pass the examinations necessary for pro- 
 motion. 
 
 What are we as teachers to do about it? If consciences are perfunctory, 
 the State Board of Education can prescribe texts, the State and County Super- 
 intendents can rigidly enforce their exclusive use, and teachers can teach 
 under this wretched pretense of real instruction ; but let us at least be 
 frankly aware that we are forcing indigestible mental food upon the chil- 
 dren. If our consciences are not perfunctory, we must recognize that sys- 
 tems of instruction have found only two alternative methods of escape from 
 the wretched system of geography and history teaching which formal ad- 
 ministration of the schools permits, and has forced, and is now forcing, upon 
 the schools : 
 
 1. The Method of Supplementary Reading. The schools may be supplied 
 by their libraries with a variety of supplementary books in travel, charac- 
 teristic descriptive stories of adventure and incidents suitable to children's 
 reading. 
 
 2. The Method of Oral Instruction by the Teacher. In this case, the 
 teacher becomes the source of this concrete knowledge and gives to the 
 
 ( iii )
 
 ( iv ) 
 
 pupils by oral talks, framed in matter and concrete form to call up mental 
 pictures of distant countries ; the teacher must further work up these 
 concrete pictures into the form of general information which the average 
 person of intelligence possesses concerning those distant lands. 
 
 The first alternative method has occasionally been tried in sporadic in- 
 stances, but owing to the lack, until the very recent past, of a reference 
 book to this supplementary material and to tendency in this method to drift 
 into wandering and foggy recitations, it has thus far not proved of very 
 general acceptance. Bulletin No. 2 of this series, prepared by Mr. Frank 
 Bunker, is really the first and only comprehensive effort to offer a method, 
 and furnish a reference book to supplementary geographical readings for 
 school use. In Bulletin No. 6 of this series, just issued, Mr. Bunker further 
 illustrates the method concretely in a special treatment of China. 
 
 In the present Bulletin, Mr. Kenyon offers concrete illustration of the other 
 alternative method — that of oral instruction combined with blackboard 
 illustration. The German schools have long made extensive use of an oral 
 method in teaching geography, and Mr. Kenyon as a supervisor of geogra- 
 phy teaching in the Training Schools of the Normal School has worked out 
 with the student-teachers a feasible method of oral instruction, especially 
 serviceable in the intermediate grades, where any reading by pupils is at- 
 tended with considerable difficulty. His method also has an advantage in 
 any grade where the administration of the school fails to supply sufficient 
 supplementary reading to make the first method practicable. The chief 
 features of the plan are that the teacher reads the supplementary material, 
 arranges it in the form of a chalk or blackboard lesson, by which the informa- 
 tion is given concretely and systematically ; and then follows class dis- 
 cussions and recitations, concluding with memory drills and examinations 
 upon those final generalizations which constitute the knowledge which 
 persons of average general culture and intelligence possess. 
 
 Neither of these alternative systems excludes the use of the text. But 
 they make use of it for its maps, and as a review after the concrete informa- 
 tion necessary for its comprehension has been acquired. 
 
 For the purpose of illustrating this method of teaching geography Mr. 
 Kenyon has selected Scandinavia because it serves very neatly as a type, 
 and permits brevity with some necessary degree of thoroughness. 
 
 Before entering upon the industrial, cultural, and descriptive material Mr. 
 Kenyon's method requires that an accurate and clear mental picture of the 
 map be established in the pupils' minds. The insistency he urges to secure 
 a mental picture rather than what ma\ be nurc pictureless word-statements 
 about the map, will be profitably noted. Far too large a majority of pupils 
 in the schools study their maps in this way ; the teacher assigns a number 
 of places to be found upon the map. Hic pupils write down the list, spend 
 much time in finding them, and thereupon write down in sentences upon 
 paper the location, as, for example, " St. Louis is on the eastern boundary of 
 Missouri upon the Mississippi River." This is what they memorize — the
 
 ( V ) 
 
 words, not the map. Such knowledge, while it too often deceives the teacher 
 in the subsequent recitation, is of little or no value as geographical knowl- 
 edge, and it can serve no purpose except that of word-examination. What is 
 necessary is a clear map-image indelibly impressed upon the visual memory, 
 so that the child sees Missouri, St. Louis, the Mississippi River, in their rela- 
 tive positions and as a part of the map-image of the United States. To secure 
 this map memory, our school drill must be upon maps, not upon zvords, and 
 the map >nust be constantly used in the study zvhile the child's mind is in 
 a state of active attention. 
 
 It is assumed that before taking up Scandinavia there has been a thorough 
 map drill of the whole world and also of Europe, as detailed in the formal 
 course in map geography as outlined in Bulletin No. 2 (pp. 12-23). It will 
 be noted that no exhaustive amount of map geography is required — 
 only the picture-memory of those places and physical conditions with 
 which the person of average intelligence is familiar, and which will be 
 used in the descriptive material the teacher later details. 
 
 TREATMENT OF THE LESSON UNITY. 
 
 The term " lesson unit " is borrowed from the '' Method of the 
 Recitation," by Charles and Frank McMurry, a book with which every 
 practical teacher should be familiar. The lesson unities are first stated. 
 Following each of these lesson unities, which are printed in italics, are a 
 number of references for the teacher's reading which bring out the thought 
 of the lesson unity. One chief danger threatens this point in method. The 
 teacher may be led away from her lesson unity by these mere incidents of 
 the reference cited, and consequently the class discussion becomes wandering. 
 The only purpose of the reference is to furnish concrete mental pictures 
 illustrative of the lesson unit, and it is essential that the teacher never allows 
 this thought of the lesson unit to wobble from the focus of her consciousness, 
 nor from that of her pupils. The story or mental-picture material must 
 be merely illustrative of this lesson point. For this reason, it wall be ob- 
 served that in Mr. Kenyon's treatment he devotes some space, following 
 the statement of the lesson unity to running discussion of what is to be 
 brought out of the reference cited to illustrate the lesson unit. In framing 
 chalk lessons upon this model the utmost care should be taken that no 
 matter be introduced which oversteps the lesson unit. 
 
 It will also be noted that the thought of the lesson unity is sometimes a 
 feeling and sometimes an industrial or physical fact. The first lesson unity 
 has for its purpose the association with Scandinavia, the poetic feeling for 
 the old Viking life. It is necessary that the lesson unit should be feelingly 
 presented as literature. If we analyze our geographical content we find 
 that these feeling elements make up a large part, and they should not be 
 neglected as they have been in mere text treatment. 
 
 If the work of instruction ended merely with the chalk-talk the pupil 
 would not carry much knowledge away with him. This stage is therefore
 
 ( vi ) 
 
 a second chief danger. It is necessary to work up the mental pictures which 
 the chalk lesson presents by class discussions, and recitations. Moreover, 
 out of each of these chalk lessons a few formal facts are valuable for life, 
 and therefore must be memorized, and it will be necessary to review them 
 frequently and test pupils by examination. But facts learned in this way 
 after a wealth of concrete pictures and incidents have been presented are 
 altogether different from words memorized from a text-book without any 
 such background. Such facts are the figures in the foreground, while the 
 chalk lesson is the perspective. It is at this point that the text-book may 
 profitably be introduced as one form of review. Condensed statement of 
 facts already presented in concrete form is now of service. 
 
 Another salient principle of method which Mr. Kenyon's treatment illus- 
 trates is the order of presentation of the chief elements of geographical 
 knowledge — map location, descriptive feelings and facts, causal relations 
 in physical, social, and industrial geography. Geography is spatial, and 
 these spatial relations are first visualized accurately and impressed indelibly 
 upon the visual memor}-. Then with the map pictures are associated the 
 descriptive material, feelings, incidents, etc., in concrete form, and from these 
 are worked out general statements of enduring value. Finally, after the chil- 
 dren know and feel certain conditions and facts, the causes of these are 
 undertaken. It is needless to defend this order, though it is rare in geo- 
 graphical treatment. It is folly to talk about geographical conditions before 
 they can be visualized accurately, and it is equal folly to force pupils to 
 explain the causes of conditions of which they know nothing as yet ; after 
 the conditions are known, then is the time, by virtue of logic as well as of 
 interest, to explain the cause. 
 
 For the assistance of teachers in framing chalk lessons in relation to other 
 geographical areas, upon the model of Scandinavia as presented by Mr. 
 Kenyon, the following schema is given. Corresponding with the Roman 
 numerals of this schema, there will be found in the Bulletin the same 
 numerals, so that the ])lan may be followed in exemplification. 
 
 GENERAL SCHEMA OF CHALK LESSONS. 
 
 I. Succinct statement, at the beginning of the treatment of each geo- 
 graphical area, of the goals or lesson unities of this area. (For form, see 
 Bulletins \os. 5 and 6.) 
 
 TI. Repetition of each of these goals or lesson unities separately. (A 
 lesson unity may, of course, include several lessons.) 
 
 III. Enlargement of this statement, in style to correspond to its inherent 
 quality, aiming not to become a source of information, but to give tasty 
 suggestions which will lead to thorough reading by the teacher of the 
 references cited ; and also to touch upon all essential fields of data obtainable 
 in these references necessary to develop the goal or lesson unity stated. 
 Specific references should be interlarded in the body of this section.
 
 ( vii ) 
 
 IV. Detailed references of children's and teachers' reading, annotated 
 to show the features which illustrate the stated goal or lesson unity. 
 
 V. (For lesson unities which have any informational character.) State- 
 ment in concise form of the information to be remembered or memorized. A 
 test of such information should be whether or not this knowledge is the 
 common posession of the average person of intelligence. 
 
 VI. Use text as final review. 
 
 VII. (a) (For those lesson unities stating physical, commercial, or indus- 
 trial features.) After the descriptive treatment including the feeling ele- 
 ments have thus been presented, in I, II, III, and I\', proceed to explain 
 each specific feature of essential importance in the given area, tracing its 
 development out of physical causes and conditions (the influence of erosion, 
 valley formation, winds, rainfall, ocean currents, etc., will here be intro- 
 duced, each treated with specific reference to the local conditions ; all im- 
 portant physical features will thus be covered, after the descriptive treatment 
 has aroused an interest in them, and each treatment will be specific and not 
 general, enabling pupils to think clearly in mental images. Physical experi- 
 ments, board drawings, apparatus, etc., are here introduced) ; also state 
 and illustrate specifically, each trade center of each industry in a given area, 
 tracing (when these are matters of common knowledge) the means of 
 transportation of products, the chief foreign markets, and the chief products, 
 not only of importation, but exportation as well. 
 
 (b) (For social, historical, scenic, or other lesson unities.) After the de- 
 scriptive treatment, including the feeling elements, have thus been presented 
 in I, II, III, and \W proceed to trace the character of the people or other 
 feature under consideration, to their physical, industrial, historical, or other 
 natural causes. 
 
 VIII. (For lesson unities in which either (a) or (b) of VII have any in- 
 formational character.) Statements in concise form of all knowledge, be- 
 longing to common currency, to be remembered by pupils. 
 
 General — For every paragraph or section of treatment throughout ; the 
 pedagogical purpose of the treatment or the method of presentation should 
 be distinctly stated, even at the risk of repetition. This will constitute a 
 body of practical pedagogy. 
 
 Frederic Burk.
 
 \^
 
 NOTE. 
 
 There is a so-called German method of instructing, whereby the teacher, 
 in a series of familiar talks with his pupils, imparts the knowledge content 
 of the subject being taught. Whereafter, the pupils being duly subjected to 
 oral and written tests, the teaching is complete. While to the live American 
 teacher such a plan may lack either foreign flavor or novelty, it must cer- 
 tainly appear to have a special value in those grades for which there is a 
 dearth of informational reading. In such a situation, the teacher, by the 
 word-of-mouth method, becomes the source of that information upon which 
 the lessons are based. It is needless to remark that this plan implies a free 
 perusal, on her part, of the books whose contents she is to assimilate and re- 
 present to the children, in such an adapted form as will reach their under- 
 standing and win their interest. Meanwhile it is presumed that such meager 
 reading as is available for the grade being taught will be placed in the chil- 
 dren's hands, as supplemental to the teacher's own descriptions. 
 
 The addition to these recitals by the teacher of suitable blackboard sketches, 
 done while she talks, constitutes the chalk-talk treatment of a subject. Artis- 
 tic merit has little to do with the application of this plan. The first requisite 
 is not graphic skill, but merely the hahit of making marks on the board as 
 one talks. Of course, a good drawing is always better than a bad one, but 
 the teacher who idly dreams of the things she will do " after she has learned 
 to draw " will never do any chalk-talk. Agreed, then, that technical excel- 
 lence in the drawing is not what we are after, there is, however, one positive 
 requirement. This is, that the diagram, map, or sketch shall be done in the 
 presence of the pupils, while you are talking to them, and in the most intimate 
 illustration of what you are saying. It is evident, then, that this device of 
 chalk-talk is not exclusively for those who draw well, but for every teacher 
 who has courage enough, or ambition enough, to make a chalk-mark on the 
 blackboard. No better illustration of this fact need be given than our ex- 
 perience with our normal students. Our "chalk-talkers " are not in any case 
 selected for their graphic skill. Every girl in the school uses the crayon in an 
 illustrative way, in giving her lessons. She does it as a matter of course, just 
 as she writes. We score our first success when the student " feels lost without 
 the crayon in her hand." After the chalk-talk hahit is thus fixed, of course 
 some degree of technical skill is readily imparted. Once the novelty wears 
 off, blackboard drawing is just as facile a device as blackboard writing, and 
 just as indispensable. It should be noted that, in the ensuing pages, not all 
 of the illustrations are pictorial in their nature. Some are maps, others are 
 diagrams. But all are equally exemplifications of the chalk-talk idea. 
 
 ■^ ^ ■^ 
 
 In the following chalk-talk treatment of Scandinavia the original intention 
 was to adapt it particularl}- to the fourth grade, with the belief that the 
 
 ( I )
 
 ) 
 
 ( 2 ) 
 
 bulk of it would be available also for the third. We determined later, however, 
 to amplify the treatment and the reference list so as to make the study easily 
 adaptable by the teacher to upper grades as well. It is taken for granted, 
 in any case, that the beginnings of formal geography (locating continents, 
 oceans, etc.) will have been taught preceding any such descriptive study. 
 The present treatment opens, therefore, with the formal geography of the 
 specific region, Scandinavia. There follows the descriptive and physical 
 geography, based upon the essential characteristics of the region, and 
 introducing the teacher to detailed references. These page-by -page refer- 
 ences, it is hoped, will be received with satisfaction, as a time-saving device. 
 The books cited are in ever}- case those which should appear upon the 
 shelves of a school library. 
 
 Each sub-topic is followed by a suitable exercise aiming to clinch and make 
 permanent to the pupil the essential points presented. A book list will be 
 found at the end of the bulletin. W. J. K. 
 
 San Francisco, January i, 1904.
 
 ( 3 ) 
 
 FORMAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE REGION. 
 
 Before taking- up the descriptive work which forms the body of this 
 treatment, the formal geography of the Scandinavian Peninsula should be 
 given, about as follows : 
 
 Tn the first place the teacher draws vipon her blackboard a good-sized 
 outline of Scandinavia. She shows the fiord coast of Norway with some 
 care, since this is one of the most important features of the map. The low- 
 lands are now filled in with green chalk and the highlands with white. 
 The principal lakes and rivers are put in with charcoal. A few touches of 
 charcoal are used also to shadow the highlands and so bring out the relief 
 efifect seen in Fig. i. 
 
 This map should be somewhat carefully drawn. It is to remain on the 
 board for constant reference until the topic of Scandinavia is finished. 
 
 There is a very serviceable reference map of the peninsula in Redway's 
 Advanced Geography, Appendix XVH. The pictured relief in this bulletin 
 (Fig. i) is intended for the teacher's copying. 
 
 1. Scandinavia in its relation to the rest of Europe. 
 
 Have the pupils find the peninsula on the text-book map of Europe. With 
 this map before them let them say what waters and land surround Scandi- 
 navia.* Let them say in what direction it lies from us and what ocean we 
 would cross to reach it.* 
 
 2. Natural features. 
 
 Elicit that the highlands are in the western part, chiefly in Norway ;. and 
 that the lowlands are in the eastern part, chiefly in Sweden.* 
 
 Have the pupils notice the deeply indented coast of Norway. Explain, 
 briefl}' at this time, that these ocean inlets are called " fiords." 
 
 Let them notice that Sweden, in particular, contains a great many lakes.* 
 Also that the longer rivers are in Sweden, showing that the divide of the 
 peninsula is near the Avestern side.* 
 
 * In each of these formal map exercises see that the pupil's statement is 
 based upon a map-image, and not a word-image. In the formula — " New 
 York lies at the mouth of the Hudson River." — the mental picture involved 
 may be any one of three : — 
 
 1. It may be the visual image of the printed statement, without reference 
 to the map. 
 
 2. It may be the auditory image of the spoken statement, without reference 
 to the map. 
 
 3. It may be the visual image of the map area, containing New York and 
 the Hudson River in their locations relative to each other and to the rest of 
 the region. 
 
 The teacher is ever in danger of accepting No. i or 2, and supposing it to 
 be No. 3.
 
 ) 
 
 C 4 ) 
 
 3. Political boundaries. 
 
 Let the pupils find the political boundaries between Norway and Sweden 
 and between these countries and Russia.* This having been done, mark these 
 boundaries in red chalk upon your blackboard map. 
 
 4. The cities of Scandinavia. 
 
 On the text-book map let the pupils find Stockholm and Christiania, and 
 have them state the location in each case.* Have them locate also Gothen- 
 berg, Bergen, Trondhjem and Hammerfest.* As fast as these cities are 
 found locate them in red chalk upon your blackboard map. 
 
 The above formal geography material need not take up more than one les- 
 son ; and if a few minutes remain, give the first step in fixing the map-image. 
 (See page 5.) 
 
 Test. 
 
 Let each pupil trace an outline of Scandinavia (as in the first step of 
 "Fixing the ]\Iap-lmage." p. 5). Let this outline include also the poUtical 
 boundaries. 
 
 Have the pupils then print the following names in place : Atlantic Ocean, 
 Arctic Ocean, Baltic Sea, Russia, Norway, Sweden, Stockholm, Christiania, 
 Gothenberg, Bergen, Trondhjem, Hammerfest. 
 
 In naming the cities the lettering is to be small and local, and a dot is to 
 be placed upon the proper spot. 
 
 Ask these questions in review : 
 Which country is nearly all highland ? 
 Which country has the longer rivers? 
 Where are the fiords ? 
 Where are most of the lakes?
 
 ( 5 ) 
 
 Fixing the Map-Image. 
 
 People who can draw maps or otiier forms from memory call into action 
 two separate memories. One of these is the visual, which remembers the 
 appearance of the original copy, as to proportion, contour, and color; the 
 other is the motor, in which the muscles and joints remember the motions re- 
 quired to produce any specified drawing. By duly practicing the four steps 
 described below, for two or three minutes during each lesson, the average 
 pupil can learn to draw any map, from memory. 
 
 First step. — Tracing through thin paper. 
 
 The pupil is given an outline map* and a sheet of transparent paper. The 
 teacher has fastened the two sheets together at the top. On this transparent 
 sheet the pupil traces the outline. 
 
 These tracings may be torn off and saved for later use, while the original 
 outline may be laid aside, to be used again. 
 
 Repeat this exercise for several days. 
 
 Second step. — Copying (preferably on the blackboard). 
 
 The teacher draws a large, strong outline on the board or on a large sheet 
 of paper. The pupil copies this, looking at it as frequently as he pleases. 
 The teacher passes rapidly about the room and criticises each drawing. Her 
 criticism should generally call attention to some unique feature oi the outline, 
 by which it is most readily memorized. Thus, in the map of California, the 
 north boundary is just as long as the adjacent line of the east boundar}'. Or, 
 in Eurasia, the southern point of India is about due south of the Gulf of Obi. 
 
 Repeat this exercise for several days. 
 
 Third step. — Copying, after one preliminary glance. 
 
 The pupil is allowed one good look at the teacher's map, after which it is 
 covered up and the pupil proceeds to draw from memory. Time, two min- 
 utes. Later reduce the time to one minute. 
 
 Each drawing is to be criticised by the teacher. 
 
 Repeat this exercise for several days. In cases of slow progress revert 
 to first step. 
 
 Fourth step. — Time sketch, without copy. 
 
 Pupil draws a one-minute map, from memory. In cases of slow progress 
 revert to third step, or if need be, to first. 
 Repeat this exercise for several days. 
 
 In the descriptive work that follows, begin each day's lesson with a 
 two-minute blackboard exercise on the second, third, or fourth step of 
 Fixing the Wap-Image. 
 
 *This outline should be strong and black, so as to show clearly through the transparent sheet. Our 
 student-teachers at the school make their own outline maps, using a hectograph for duplicating. The maps 
 are made on a stout manilla paper, cut about 8xii. 
 
 For the transparent sheet we are using a paper called "onion-skin," which takes ink. We buy a ream^ 
 17x22, for Si-soat a paper warehouse. We have the dealer cut it into fourths, thus getting four reams S'^xii 
 for $1.50, or something over twelve sheets for a cent.
 
 ( 6 ) 
 
 (The heavy numerals in the margin refer to corresponding numerals in " General Schema of Chalk 
 Lessons. ") 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY OF SCANDINAVIA. 
 
 Lesson Unities. 
 
 I. Scandinavia is the ancient home of a vanished race of sea-fighters — 
 the \"ikings. 2. It is a region of rugged mountain scenery whose particular 
 features are fiord and lake. 3. It is a region of long and snow-bound win- 
 ters and short but genial summers. 4. It is the " land of the long 
 I. night " and " the land of the midnight sun." 5. It is, save for a 
 
 few cities toward the south, thinly populated by an industrious, frugal 
 people, honest in their dealing, and kindly of heart. 6. The land is not 
 adapted to supporting a large population, so the Scandinavians are notably 
 a seafaring people. 7. In the world's markets this region is known for 
 its coast fisheries, its lumber, and its iron. 
 
 J I. Scandinavia is the ancient home of a vanished race of sea-fighters 
 
 — the Vikings. 
 
 (The following material naturally divides itself into two chalk-talks, one 
 associating Scandinavia with the old Mkings. the other devoted to "The 
 Skeleton in Armor." A simple map, copied from Fig. 3, will be required for 
 frequent reference.) 
 
 A thousand years ago there lived in Norway a race of sailor-men who 
 got their living by fighting. Nowadays we should call them pirates, and our 
 men-of-war would sink their boats and hang the crews. But in those times 
 fighting was considered a very decent way of making one's living, and be- 
 sides that, these Vikings, as they were called, met with none who could 
 withstand them. In their open boats they would sally forth from the nar- 
 row, winding bays of Norway (point them out on the map) and cross the 
 North Sea, sometimes to the British Isles, but oftener to the coast of France. 
 Wherever they landed their coming meant defeat and ruin to the people 
 living in that part. The \'iking ship was like an immense open rowboat, 
 with one large sail amidships. There were rows of oars along each 
 III. side to help the sail. In some of these ships the prow was carved in 
 the shape of a dragon's head and the stern was made in imitation of a 
 dragon's tail. Along the sides of the vessel tiic fighting men arranged their 
 round shields, overlapjjing, like great fish-scales. Altogether sucli a \'iking 
 ship must have looked like a terrible sea-monster, bearing down upon the 
 shore it was going to attack. 
 
 The \Tkings were sometimes called Norsemen, because they came from 
 the North. They robbed the people of Northern France so often and were
 
 ( 7 ) 
 
 such irresistible fighters that the king at last offered them a part of the 
 country if they would cease from piracy and come and live in peace. So 
 the robber chieftains settled down and their chieftains became nobles. The 
 country given them by France was called Normandy, because the Vikings 
 were called Norsemen. (Point out the various routes and regions as you go 
 
 on.) 
 
 Other bands of Norsemen sailed their open ships to the British Isles and 
 made conquests over the Britons. Others reached even the coast of Spain 
 and did some fighting there. 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 A Viking Ship. 
 
 Meanwhile some of the Norsemen had sailed west instead of south. These 
 reached Iceland and Greenland, and their descendants are there yet. And 
 greatest adventure of all, at least one ship is thought to have reached Amer- 
 ica, long before Columbus discovered the new land, and long before it had 
 a name. The story is well told for children in Chapter II, From the Old 
 World to the New ; also, in Chapter IV, Children's Stories of American 
 History. 
 
 So those old Vikings, whose ships were only overgrown rowboats with 
 one sail apiece, actually sailed across the ocean. They began by stealing 
 out of their home fiords, or bays, and robbing passing ships. And they 
 ended by conquering lands in countries far over the sea. The children will 
 enjoy Miss Hall's stories in Viking Tales. Of these Olaf's Farm and 
 The Sea Fight, in particular, sliould be read, for the flavor of Viking times 
 which thev hold.
 
 ( 8 ) 
 
 The map (Fig. i) shows the ragged and rocky coast of Norway where 
 these Vikings, or Norsemen, came from. And their descendants hve there 
 to this day. But they are no longer sea-robbers. They long ago settled down 
 
 Fig- 3- 
 Some of the Operations of the Vikings. 
 
 to hard work at home, and they are as honest and as kind of heart as any 
 other people in the world. 
 
 There is a ruinous old stone tower in Rhode Island. For a while no 
 one could find out who built it. Some people liked to fancy that those old 
 
 Fig. 4- 
 " There is an old slonc tower " — 
 
 Norsemen, who arc thought to have come a thousand years ago, were the 
 builders. Nor far away a skeleton was dug up, dressed in armor such as 
 fighting men used to wear hnndrcds Df years ago. When the poet Long- 
 fcllDw heard about this skeleton lie made up a fanciful story about it. He 
 said that the soldit-r in his rust\' armor was a Viking of the olden time, who
 
 ( 9 ) 
 
 had stolen a princess in Norway and had come over here to live. This Viking 
 and his men built the old stone tower. The story is put in the form of a 
 poem. It is called 
 
 The Skeleton in Armor. 
 
 The poem is to be found in any edition of Longfellow. We want it 
 in the present connection to re-enforce that austere, somber, remote atmos- 
 phere which permeates our feeling for the Norsemen and their times. There- 
 fore it is available for reading to the fourth, and, perhaps, even to the third 
 grades. They will not understand all of its allusions, but they will absorb 
 those elements of feeling that we are after at present. 
 
 There are several other stories of the Vikings available for use in the 
 lower grades, either as substitutes for the above material or as additions 
 to it. Such a one is "Wulf, the Saxon Boy," in Miss Andrews' Ten Boys. 
 Although its title implies nothing of Scandinavia, this story is essentially a 
 Norse tale, in its atmosphere, its ethics, and its phraseology. Here Thor, the 
 Thunderer, "lets fly his arrows at his foes" and, 
 
 "The Swan-road is ever the road to glory." 
 
 A good story of a Viking sea-fight is told in Du Chaillu's Land of the 
 Long Night, Chapter XXX. The style is so direct that fourth-year children 
 can read it. 
 
 There is a description of the Vikings, readable by third-year children, 
 in Carroll's Around the World, Second Book, pp. 83-87. See, also, the verses 
 in the same book, pp. 106-108. 
 
 For teachers' reading there are short accounts in Stoddard's Lectures, 
 Vol: I, pp. 79, 80, and in Norway Nights and Russian Days, pp. 45-52. The 
 chapter on Norsemen in any general history will also be useful. An ex- 
 ample is Chapter XII, Duruy's History of the Middle Ages, or, better still, 
 Fiske's Discovery of America, Chapter II. (See especially pp. 214-215, 
 about the " Northmen's" tower.) In Land of the Midnight Sun, \"ol. I, 
 pp. 377-383, is given a detailed account of the remains of old Viking boats. 
 There is a good description, also, in Footprints of Travel, pp. 239-240. This 
 book contains references to the Viking times, pp. 252-253. 
 
 It is well to note that these Vikings, known abroad as robbers and ma- 
 rauders, really had a better home government than did most of the countries 
 they overran. See Footprints of Travel, pp. 237, 238. 
 
 Written review. 
 
 Let the pupils write upon the following topics : 
 
 1. The home of the Vikings. 
 
 2. The doings of the Vikings. 
 
 3. Their visit to America.
 
 ( 10 ) 
 
 Thingfs to remember — 
 
 I. That the fiords of Norway were the home of the old Vikings. 
 
 2. That these Vikings became possessed of foreign lands, notably 
 V. Normandy, Iceland, and Greenland. 
 
 3. That they are believed to have landed on the continent of North 
 America. 
 
 Test. 
 
 On an outline map (adapted by the teacher from Fig. 3*) let each pupil 
 shade the original home of the Vikings, and also the principal foreign areas 
 in which they operated. 
 
 2. // is a region of rugged luounfaiii scenery zvhose particular 
 features are fiord and lake. 
 With the foregoing historical setting we may approach the wild Norseland 
 in its modern and more strictly geographical aspect. As a basis for the work 
 now to follow, the map. Fig. i, should be reviewed as to highlands, low- 
 lands, fiords, islands, and lakes. 
 III. Nearly all of Norway is a mountain land. But the greater part 
 
 of Sweden is a lowland, sloping gently from the plateaus of Norway 
 to the coast of the Baltic Sea. If we could cut a model of Scandinavia in two 
 from west to east the cut part w^ould look like Fig. 5. This profile is very 
 easy for grown people to understand, but to make its meaning clear to chil- 
 dren we must lead them, objectively, to see the nature of a cross-section. 
 This is easily done with a handful of putty or moist sand or clay. Lay it 
 on any flat surface, such as an old box-cover. Work it roughly into the 
 general form of Scandinavia. Make Norway high and work the Swedish 
 lowlands out low and flat. After the children have seen this and understand 
 clearly what it represents, cut the mass across the middle and push the south- 
 ern half away. There will then be 
 seen, at the cut place, a cross-section, 
 or i)rofik', of the countiy. somewhat 
 as in F^ig. 6. 
 
 Norway is said to have ten thou- 
 ^^ •'■ sand islands along its coast. They 
 
 are all steep, brown h.ummocks of 
 
 Profile of Scandinavia. 
 
 rock, green with mosses, and very beautiful. Some are large enough 
 for a few fishermen to live upon, with their sheep. Many others 
 are just islets of rock, hardly larger than a good-sized house. Wherever 
 there is a little flat place between the rocks, some farmer-fisherman 
 is sure to build his cottage and bring his cow. Sometimes one famil\- will 
 live all alone upon one of these little rocky islets. A pretty description of 
 
 • The teacher makes ihcse outline maps on her hectograph.
 
 ( II ) 
 
 this world of islands is given in Glimpses of Three Coasts, pp. 221-225. 
 Stoddard, pp. 89-90, gives another. The Lofoden Islands and their famous 
 "Maelstrom" are described in Footprints of Travel, pp. 257-259. There are 
 other short descriptions in Modern Europe, 107-111, and in Johonnot's 
 
 Geographical Reader, 173-174. For the old, fanciful 
 notion of the Alaelstrom and its terrors, of course noth- 
 ing can surpass Edgar Allen Poe's imaginative descrip- 
 tion. 
 
 After sailing for hours among these islands (Fig. 7 
 will do for a blackboard sketch), the steamer comes 
 at last to the mainland. It does not stop, even then, 
 but enters a fiord instead and keeps sailing among the 
 mountains quite out of sight of the sea. The coast of 
 Norway rises abruptly out of the water. But this sea- 
 front is broken by hundreds of deep and sinuous inlets, 
 called fiords. By these the deep sea pierces, sometimes 
 for a hundred miles, into the very heart of the moun- 
 tain land. So the odd sight is to be seen, in that coun- 
 try, of ocean steamers sailing among the mountains 
 many miles inland from the ocean. Stoddard speaks of 
 
 Cut the mass across these fiords as "ocean avenues," and devotes pages 
 
 the middle and push ,^ 4 ^\ • ^ • ,.• ,. ^.u -^u 11 4. 
 
 the lower half away. 49-59 ^o their description, together with excellent pic- 
 tures. See. also, pp. 11 -12 and 89-90. Another good 
 account of the fiords is given in Glimpses of Three Coasts, pp. 221-225 and 
 271-276. As pretty a descrption as any is found in the first four pages of 
 Feats on the Fiord. This whole story is exquisitely rich in local color and 
 the atmosphere of the fiords; and while it purports to be a love story _, there 
 is so little love in it. and so much of other matters, that it makes rarely good 
 children's reading. 
 
 In Land of the Alidnight Sun the author discusses the origin of the fiords 
 (Vol. I, Chapter 18). In Chapters 20, 23, and 24, he describes several 
 
 Fig. 6. 
 
 Fig- 7- 
 " Norway has ten thousand islands." 
 
 fiords as to scenery and travel. In Vol. II, pp. 154 and 160-161. a fiord 
 of the far north is described. Short descriptions of the fiords are given in
 
 ( 12 ) 
 
 Carpenter's Europe, pp. 164-166, and Norway Nights and Russian Days, pp. 
 107-109. Footprints of Travel gives a short but good description, pp. 
 260 and 265-266. See, also. Modern Europe, pp. 93-94. The Tarr and 
 j\Ic]\Iurry Geography, Book III, p. 257, describes Norway's coast. 
 
 Fig. 8 shows how a fiord may be sketched upon the blackboard. At the 
 same time refer to the fiords as seen in your map so that the pupils will asso- 
 ciate the one form of illustration with the other. Make reference at every op- 
 portunity to your map. Make a practice of locating, in every case, the new 
 places mentioned, such as Bergen, Hammerfest, etc. 
 
 We have thus given the children an intensive notion that the fiord is a 
 characteristic feature of Norway. It is due to the topic, however, to seek 
 out the essental features of Sweden, also. Here we have a countr}- of lake 
 and forest. "In making Swe- 
 den," the peasant says, "God for- 
 got to separate the land from the 
 water." About one tenth of all 
 the area of Sweden is covered by 
 beautiful lakes. In the pictur- 
 esque phrasing of Stoddard 
 (Sweden, p. 283), "The map of 
 Sweden is as thickly dotted with 
 lakes as the midnight sky with 
 stars." One of these, Lake 
 Wenern (Vanern), is so large 
 that steamers sailing on it are 
 often out of sight of land. In 
 other words, it is an inland sea. 
 Mr. Stoddard (Sweden, 292) 
 gives a little description of a 
 steamer-trip on this great lake. 
 See, also, Land of the Midnight 
 Sun, Vol. II, 351 ; and Na- 
 smyth's Autobiography. 304. 
 
 All of the lakes of Sweden are of clear, limpid water, which is fit to drink ; 
 and around them rise the great dark forests of aspen, birch, and mossy oak. 
 Elsewhere the well-kept farms are spread, where the thrifty Swede has his 
 fields of grain and garden truck. Read Modern Europe, p. 118. 
 
 In that beautiful land people travel about from town to town by boat, just 
 as we do by rail, although, of course, they have railroads, too. Read about 
 the Dalecarlians and their Lake Siljan, in Land of the Midnight Sun, Vol. 
 II, 225, 229-230. The same book gives further accounts of the lakes on 
 pp. 304 and 337. These chapters on Dalecarlia give an inclusive and alto- 
 gether delightful idea of that low-lying Sweden between the highlands and 
 the sea. Footprints of Travel, 235-236 and 343, gives some notes on these 
 lakes. Land of the Michiight Sun, Vol. 1, p. 13, describes Lake Malar, and 
 p. 253 a Norwegian lake. 
 
 Fig. 8. 
 A Fiord.
 
 ( 13 ) 
 
 As a summary of this topic a little special study of your blackboard map 
 is appropriate. Notice that all the long rivers cross Sweden and flow into 
 the Baltic. Their sources are quite near the other coast. This shows that 
 the axis, or high-line, of the peninsula is near the western side, thus dividing 
 Scandinavia into a long, gradual eastern slope, and a short, abrupt western 
 slope. Notice that nearly all of the real mountain land is in Norway, and 
 nearly all of the more level region, suitable for farming, in Sweden. The 
 interior of Norway, wildly beautiful as it is, is almost useless for making 
 
 Fig. 9. 
 In Dalecarlia. 
 
 one's living, so nearly the whole population live among the fiords along the 
 coast, and depend upon the sea for their living. Sweden, on the contrary, has 
 quite a large population living inland, where the nature of the country 
 encourages farming, mining, and manufacturing. 
 
 Written review. 
 
 1. Describe the coast of Norway. 
 
 2. Describe a fiord. 
 
 3. Describe the surface of Sweden. 
 
 Things to remember — 
 
 I. That Norway is a wild mountain land, with thousands of rocky islands 
 and deep ocean inlets along the coast. 
 V. 2. That Sweden is lower and less rugged and that her lakes are 
 
 " thick as stars in the midnight sky." 
 
 'fefc>^ 
 
 Test. 
 
 (Furnish each pupil with an outline map of Scandinavia.) 
 I. Shade the map so as to show highlands and lowlands.
 
 ( 14 ) 
 
 2. Put in enough of the rivers to show which country has the longer slope. 
 
 3. Put in the principal lakes. 
 
 4. Print these words in place : Highlands. Lowlands. Fiords. Islands. 
 
 Cross-section test. 
 
 Draw a cross-section of Scandinavia from the ocean to the Baltic Sea. 
 
 II 
 
 3. It is a region of long and snow-bound winters and short hut 
 genial summers. 
 
 These snow-bound conditions are found in their extreme in Lapland, 
 There is room for a couple of chalk talks on this region, but the children 
 should not leave the subject with the notion that Lapland conditions are typi- 
 cal of Scandinavia as a whole. An inclusive and fascinating account of 
 III. this overwhelming blanket of snow is given in Land of the Long 
 Night, chapters four and six to ten. This book has the rare value 
 of being readable by fourth-year children and yet maintaining an excellent 
 literary tone. Mr. Du Chaillu speaks with the authority of personal narrative, 
 and is therefore especially useful as teachers' reference. 
 
 Fig. 10. 
 
 Paulus and I lis Reindeer. 
 
 The same author, in Land of the Midnight Sun, Vol. 11, Chaps. 6 to 8, 
 deals very circumstantially with this long Lapland winter. The style is so 
 simple that the whole book may be read to children, {""or the teacher's 
 purposes it is over-full of minute detail. Land of Long Night is the more 
 available book of the two. Du Chaillu's account of Lapland is very service- 
 ably aljridgcd in Johonnot's Geograi)hical Reader, 401-407. In the same 
 book Bayard Taylor gives an amusing account of his attempts to drive a 
 reindeer in the Lapland snows.
 
 ( 15 ) 
 
 Mara Pratt's Northern Europe gives a short account of Lapland, pp. 73-77. 
 readable by children. An appropriate blackboard sketch is shown in Fig. 10. 
 For an idea of winter in Sweden itself, Chapters 2 and 3, Land of the Long 
 Night, are fine. The last half of Chapter i begins the account. 
 
 The winters of the Norwe- 
 gian side of the peninsula are 
 much milder. It is wonderful 
 to think that this far north- 
 ern country, much of it with- 
 in the Arctic Circle, enjoys 
 a winter more comfortable 
 than that in many parts of 
 our own land. The fiord re- 
 gions experience some ice and 
 snow, but the fiords them- 
 selves never freeze, save in the 
 south round about Christiania. 
 In other words, the fiord 
 towns, however Arctic their latitude, enjoy open harbors all winter. Even 
 Hammerfest, the most northern town in the world, has an open harbor 
 the year round. (Locate it, once more, upon your map.) Russia would give 
 a good slice of her vast realm for such a climatic privilege. A good ac- 
 count of this difference is to be found in Chapter Eleven, Vol I, Land of the 
 Midnight Sun ; also, in Vol. II, Chapter Ten. 
 
 Fig. II. 
 They climbed out of the chimney." 
 
 l^ 
 
 Fig. 12. 
 Norse Bovs at Plav. 
 
 A charming idea of Norway's short, genial summer is given in Footprints 
 of Travel, 241-242 and 262-263. Stoddard's Norway, 113-114, gives an 
 idea of the intensify of the summer life, when it does come. " The flowers 
 do not close in sleep. All vegetation rushes to maturity." Johonnot's 
 Reader, 193-197, gives a prose description, by Longfellow, of the novelty
 
 ( i6 ) 
 
 and charm of the Norse seasons. There is matetial on this point in Land 
 of the Midnight Sun, Vol. I, pp. 149-152. 
 
 A bright account of Norse boys' winter sports for children's reading is 
 given in The Wide World, pp. 88-95 ; and a revision of the same in By Land 
 and Sea. pp. 53-59. There is another in Chapter Eleven, Children of the 
 World. There are a few paragraphs, also, in Northern Europe (Ginn), pp. 
 15-17. This material is an excellent basis for chalk-talks, being full of action, 
 lending itself easily to blackboard sketching. Fig. 12 suggests some of these 
 sketches. 
 
 Written review. 
 
 1. Compare the climate of Norway with that of Sweden. 
 
 2. Write what you know of each. 
 
 Things to remember — 
 
 V. I. The comparatively mild climate of Norway. 
 2. The deep, deep snows of Sweden. 
 
 II 
 
 4. It is the "land of the long night" and "the land of the mid- 
 night sun." 
 
 Scandinavia is a quaint and curious land in many respects, and in others 
 a grand and noble and awe-inspiring land. But of all its odd features the 
 midnight sun sets it apart as the strangest of civilized countries. 
 
 We cannot tell primary-grade children the causes of the long summer 
 day and the long winter night, but we can describe vividly the phenomenon 
 itself. Even as far south as Gothenburg one can read the newspaper 
 III. out of doors at half-past ten of a summer evening; while in mid- 
 winter one is plunged from the bright Ught of morning to the gloom 
 of late afternoon within the space of a few hours. 
 
 In Glimpses of Three Coasts, pp. 225-226, the author tells of her remark- 
 able sensations in that curious land of day-by-night. Land of the Midnight 
 Sun, Vol. I, p. 2, describes the transition from the long summer day to the 
 long winter night. Also, in Vol. II, pp. 1-2, the author continues the subject. 
 Both of these accounts are reprinted in Northern luirope (Pratt), pp. 65-71. 
 Pages 85-86 of the same book tell of the long day and night at Hammerfest. 
 Carpenter's Reader, Europe, pp. 163-164 and T73-175, touches upon this 
 subject. 
 
 Of course, fartiicr north these unusual circumstances arc even more notice- 
 able. In the northward journey we come by and by to a latitude where 
 there is no actual darkness in summer; where the darkest part of the night 
 is a strong twilight, by which we can read. Under such conditions travelers 
 do not know when to go to bed. For sleeping purposes, an artificial darkness 
 has to be made by hanging coverings over the windows. Stoddard (Norway,
 
 ( 17 ) 
 
 pp. 36-39) says that the words "early" and "late" grow to have no meaning, 
 
 and he goes on to describe the curious sensations experienced by the traveler. 
 Yet farther north the summer night is even brighter. The sun sinks toward 
 
 the horizon, but does not set. Instead it begins to rise again, thus making a 
 
 complete circle in the sky. This 
 is the Land of the Midnight Sun. 
 The little sketch, Fig 13, can be 
 made very realistic by using col- 
 ored chalk. "From early in May 
 until August the stars take a va- 
 cation," say Ballou. See Foot- 
 prints of Travel, pp. 254, 256, 
 261, 268, 269. Of course, it does 
 not seem at all like night. There 
 are no stars to be seen, and the 
 moon, when it shows at all, is very 
 pale. Travelers from other coun- 
 tries have to tell by their watches 
 when it is time to "turn in." 
 Stoddard (Norway, pp. 11 7- 119) tells how he saw the midnight sun from 
 
 North Cape. The same experience is feelingly described in pages 163-168 of 
 
 Norway Nights and Russian Days. 
 
 Fig- 13- 
 " This is the Land of the Midnight Sun."' 
 
 Fig. 14. 
 
 " They fish by the weird light of the aurora." 
 
 The continuous dark of winter is just as strange as the long light of 
 summer. See, also, Modern Europe, pp. 109-1I1. The northern part of 
 Scandinavia has one long night continuing many weeks. During that time 
 the sun is always out of sight below the horizon. The stars and moon shine 
 brightly all through this time. The people sleep when the clock says it is
 
 ( i8 ) 
 
 sleeping-time, and rise in the darkness at the proper hour and continue their 
 work. Land of the Midnight Sun, Vol. I, pp. 6i and 63-64, gives a particu- 
 larly clear description. 
 
 The children will ask how the Scandinavians can see to do their work at 
 such times. Well, they have the stars and a brilliant moon. But, more 
 serviceable still, they have the northern lights, the aurora borealis, a great 
 flaring illumination of the polar sky, which throws a dull sort of twilight 
 over land and sea. Stoddard (Norway, pp. 106-107) tells how most of the 
 Lofoden codfishing is done by the light of the aurora. The phenomenon 
 itself is beautifully described by Du Chaillu in Land of the Midnight Sun. 
 Vol. n, pp. 46-47 and 38; also in Frost's Modern Explorers, 115-116. The 
 illustration. Fig. 14, is easy to draw, since the aurora may take almost any 
 form, and is constantly waving and shooting and changing its appearance. 
 
 In Land of the Long Night, pp. 73-76, Du Chaillu tells stirringly of the 
 departure of the sun and the coming of the long night. In pages 109-111 
 he describes the return of the sun. A vivid word-picture of the aurora is 
 given on page 76. Page 92 shows a fine picture of the aurora, together 
 with a Lapland landscape. Bayard Taylor, in Johonnot's Reader, pp. 105- 
 107, gives a splendid description of the aurora, for the teacher's reading. 
 
 In Feats on the Fiord, pp. 200-202, Erica, while tending her cows, wit- 
 nesses the phenomenon of the midnight sun. Chasing the Sun devotes 
 pages 77-78, 83-85, 87, 112-114 to references to the long light and dark 
 seasons of the Northland. 
 
 Written review. 
 
 1. Tell why Scandinavia is called " Land of the Midnight Sun." 
 
 2. Describe the summer season. 
 
 3. The winter season. 
 
 4. The aurora. 
 
 Things to remember — 
 
 I. A very long summer day — in the far north many weeks in length. 
 V. 2. A winter night correspondingly long. 
 
 3. The aurora borealis gives a useful winter light. 
 
 II 
 
 5. It is, save for a few cities toward the south, thinly populated by 
 an i)idustrious, frui^al people, honest i)i their dealiti^ and kindly of 
 heart. 
 In the northern region of the peninsula the long winter and lingering snow- 
 banks forbid any farming of imjiortance. Besides this, the northern part of 
 Norway is too rocky for farming. Such people as live in those parts have 
 little choice of pursuit. They must either live on reindeer, as the
 
 ( 19 ) 
 
 Lapps do, or they must take to the coaist fisheries for a living. But 
 
 VII5. in the south there is more good farming land in both countries, 
 
 particularly in Sweden. 
 
 The people of the extreme north are described in Land of the Midnight 
 
 Sun, Vol. II, pp. 143-146 and 152-164. The romantic lonesomeness of a 
 
 Norwegian farmer's life is 
 well brought out in Feats on 
 the Fiord, pp. 2-7. Also in 
 Glimpses of Three Coasts is 
 given an idea of the remote, 
 isolated life among the beau- 
 tiful Norse fiords, pp. 267- 
 276 and 305-308. Pages 222- 
 244 are full of short, chatty 
 anecdotes of the people and scenes of Norway ; 
 a little diffuse, but available for the teacher, 
 footprints of Travel, pp. 245-246, tells how 
 the Norwegian farmers have to utilize every 
 available rod of land to the utmost. An idea 
 of the scant northern population is given on 
 pages 255-256. "And yet in this awful soli- 
 tude a few human beings live and move and 
 preserve their being." — See Norway Nights 
 and Russian Days, pp. 107-110. Modern Eu- 
 rope, pp. 93-99, gives an interesting glimpse 
 
 Fig. 15- 
 
 " The romantic lonesomeness.' 
 
 of the Norwegian farmer's life. Carpenter's Europe, pp. 178-179, gives an 
 idea of the economical methods which nature forces upon the Norwegian 
 farmer. 
 
 At these lonely little 
 farms, perched like eagles' 
 nests high above the 
 fiords, the farmer some- 
 times has to "tether his 
 babies to the trees" to keep 
 them, from falling thou- 
 sands of feet below. Read 
 Modern Europe, pp. 93- 
 97. Also Stoddard's 
 Norway, pp. 70-73, and 
 Footprints of Travel, 245- 
 246. Land of the Mid- 
 night Sun, Vol. I, pp. Ill- 
 northern farms. 
 
 On the Swedish side of the peninsula the northern regions are scantily 
 peopled by wandering Lapps and Finns, who follow their reindeer over the 
 
 Fig. 16. 
 The Lapp and His House of Sod. 
 
 121, gives a substantial account of one of the
 
 ( 20 ) 
 
 snow from one feeding ground to another. For accounts of these people 
 there is no other book quite so useful as Land of the Long Night. Chapters 
 6 to 8 deal especially with the Finnish people as found in North Sweden. 
 From Chapter 9 onward all portions of the book are available for giving 
 the pupil clear ideas of the Lapps and their country. Chapter 18 is devoted 
 to Lapp sports, and Chapters 32 and 33 deal with the Sea Lapps, who take 
 part in Norway's fisheries. An abridged account of the Laplanders, by the 
 same author, is given in Johonnot's Geographical Reader, pp. 401-407, In the 
 same book Bayard Taylor gives an amusing story of his attempts to drive a 
 reindeer in the Lapland snows. 
 
 There is a short but very descriptive account of the Lapps in Footprints of 
 Travel, pp. 263-265, and a few paragraphs in Modern Europe, pp. 111-113. 
 Chasing the Sun devotes pages 103-111 to an interesting account. There are 
 short accounts in Carpenter's Europe, 166- 171 ; Northern Europe (Pratt), 
 73-77; Around the World (Second Book), 113-125, and Stoddard's Norway, 
 109-112. 
 
 Of course, ihe description of the Lapps is found in Land of the Midnight 
 Sun, Vol. I, pp. 122-148 and Vol. II, pp. 69-114 and 165-204. The teacher 
 who is dissatisfied with the scrappy treatments of the geographical readers 
 will take great comfort in these personal narratives of Mr. Du Chaillu. 
 
 We have now to establish the idea of a larger population in the south, and 
 a greater civilization. Added to the better chances for farming and for 
 living generally, there are great mines of iron and copper in the middle 
 and southern parts, and great forests to furnish lumber. All of these con- 
 ditions work together toward gathering the great bulk of the people into 
 the southern part of the peninsula. Here are all the larger cities, such as 
 Stockholm, Christiania, and Gothenburg. Short descriptions of the cities 
 are to be found as follows : 
 
 Stockholm — Footprints of Travel, 270-273; Modern Europe, 115-116; 
 Land of the Midnight Sun, Vol. I, 13-15; Nasmyth's Autobiography, 297- 
 298; Carpenter's Europe, 182-184; Norway Nights and Russian Days, 
 190-201. Stoddard gives a very complete account in Stoddard's Sweden, 
 294-320. 
 
 Christiania — Footprints of Travel, 236-241; Modern Europe, 101-102; 
 Land of the Midnight Sun, Vol. I, 297-302; Vol. II. 3; Carpenter's Geo- 
 graphical Reader, 180; Norway Nights and Russian Days, 28-52 (diffuse). 
 
 Bergen — Footprints of Travel, 247-250; Modern Europe, 104-105; Land 
 of the Midnight Sun, Vol. I, 203-210; Glimpses of Three Coasts, 221-240; 
 Stoddard. Norway, 82-88; Northern Europe f Pratt), 88-92. 
 
 Gothenburg — Footprints of Travel, 233-234; Modern Europe, 119; Car- 
 penter, 180-181 ; Land of the Midnight Sun. Vol. I, 5. 
 
 Hammerfest — Footprints of 'iVavcl, 266-267; Carpenter's Europe, 170- 
 171 ; Land of the Miflnight Sun. \'(j1. i, 97-99; Norway Nights and Russian 
 Days, 155-159.
 
 ( 21 ) 
 
 Trondhjem — Footprints of Travel, 251-253; Carpenter's Europe, 166-168; 
 Land of the Midnight Sun, Vol. I, 191-192; Norway Nights and Russian 
 Days, 121-128. 
 
 Tromso — Footprints of Travel, 261-263; Carpenter's Europe, 169-170; 
 Land of the Midnight Sun, Vol. II, 113-114; Davis, 143-154. 
 
 The personal traits of the Scandinavians and their social customs, so dif- 
 ferent from ours, should be brought out. The people of both countries are 
 noted for their hospitality toward each other and toward strangers. The 
 traveler is always impressed by the kindly welcome he receives. Good char- 
 acter is a public ideal, practically worked out. Read what Du Chaillu says 
 of his experiences, in Land of the Midnight Sun, Vol. I, pp. 114, 199-200, 
 245-246, 250, 289, 299-300, 401-402; Vol. II, pp. 17-18, 118, 228, 374-376, 
 394-398, 417. A pleasing idea of the pastoral repose of a Norwegian rural 
 home is given in Vol. I, pp. 247-249. See, also. Feats on the Fiord, pp. 10-14, 
 and Norway Nights and Russian Days, pp. 65-66 and 71. 
 
 A charming description, amounting to a tribute, of rural Sweden is to be 
 found in Johonnot's Reader, pp. 193-197. It is written by Longfellow. Read, 
 also, Footprints of Travel, pp. 240-241 and 250-251, and Norway Nights 
 and Russian Days, 120-121. Du Chaillu comments frequently on the con- 
 spicuous honesty and sobriety of the people. See Land of the Midnight Sun, 
 Vol. II, pp. 39, 48, 167, 169, 202-203, 306, 122, 127, 216-218; also Vol. 
 I, pp. 3, 41, 168 and 178, and Stoddard's Sweden, 289. James Nasmyth 
 
 (Autobiography, pp. 304-305) 
 pays a glowing tribute to these 
 sterling qualities of the Swedes ; 
 and they seem to be exhibited in 
 the northern peoples, the Lapps, as 
 well. Read Land of the Long 
 Night, 242-243. Carpenter's Eu- 
 rope. 179-180, gives an idea of the 
 industry of the Scandinavians. 
 Around the World (second book), 79-101, 
 describes, for third- and fourth-year chil- 
 dren, their various industries. 
 
 In the Swedish household every one is 
 cheerfully busy at some domestic task. 
 Read Land of the Midnight Sun, Vol. II, 
 p. 417; also. Feats on the Fiord, 42-44. 
 
 Another trait of these people is their 
 strong belief in equality among men. 
 In Norway they address even the 
 king as "du" (thou). Employers, 
 also, are very courteous to their working-people. Servants are treated on a 
 basis of equality. Read Land of the Midnight Sun, Vol. I, pp. 391-392; 
 
 Fig. 17. 
 " Do not forget to rest your horses."
 
 ( 22 ) 
 
 \'ol. II, pp. 216-217, 397-398, 451-452. Throughout Feats on the Fiord the 
 equahty of servant and householder is apparent. See page 7 of that story. 
 
 One other trait noticeable to the traveler from possibly less kindly lands 
 is the Scandinavian's habitual kindness to animals. Along the steep hill- 
 roads of Norway are frequent signs reading " Do not forget to rest your 
 horses.'' In both countries it is common to set out sheaves of grain for the 
 song-birds. In that pleasant land the animals and birds seem to expect 
 consideration. See Footprints of Travel, 244 ; ^lodern Europe, 103 ; The 
 Wide World, 88; Boy Travelers in North Europe. 474-480; Land of the 
 :Midnight Sun, \'ol. I, 58-59, and Vol. II, 6-7. 
 
 Around the World (second book) contains good reading for third and 
 fourth grades, descriptive of Norse customs generally, and useful in the 
 present topic. In Carpenter's Europe, 
 176-186, the author takes us upon a 
 pleasant "carriole" trip, in which we 
 meet the people and see their daily do- 
 ings. 
 
 The children will enjoy reading about 
 the Norse boys' games — skating, sail- 
 ing on skates, etc. Accounts are to be 
 found in The Wide World, 88-95 ! ^y Land and Sea, 
 53-59; Northern Europe (Ginn), 15-17, and Children 
 of the World, Chapter Eleven. The merry festivities 
 of the Christmas season are told about in Land of the 
 Midnight Sun, Vol. II, pp. 4-9, and in Children of the 
 World, pp. 154-155. ^Midsummer day is also a time of 
 fun and frolic. See Land of the Midnight Sun, Vol. 
 II, pp. 224-225. 
 
 A Swedisli dinner is a curiosity throughout, begin- 
 ning with a preliminary course of tid-bits, eaten at a 
 sideboard, standing. Read Land of the Midnight Sun, 
 Vol. I, pp. 6-8; also, Stoddard's Sweden, 289. Some of 
 the curious foods of Norway are described in Norway 
 Nights and Russian Days, 69-70, and in Stoddard's Norway, 30-34. 
 
 The Scandinavians used to be very superstitious. They still have a linger- 
 ing belief in water-sprites, trolls, and other mysterious beings. .These beliefs 
 are brought out in the anecdotes on pages 8-9, 24-41 and 194-^7 of Feats on 
 the Fiord. 
 
 In the curious land of Sweden steamships climb hills and travel overland 
 from one sea to the other. They climb upstairs some three hundred feet in 
 the locks of the famous Gota Canal. I'^ig. 19 becomes a realistic illustration 
 if you draw the boat first in one lock, iIkii in the next, changing the water- 
 level to permit the passage. This water-way is none of your American 
 coal-barge routes, but a delightful inland passage, along which the happy 
 tourist may dawdle for days on a comfortable passenger steamer and see the 
 
 Fig. 
 
 18. 
 
 Christmas for 
 the Birds.
 
 ( 23 ) 
 
 interior of Sweden in all its quaint beauty. Good accounts are found in 
 Stoddard's Sweden. 283-2^7, (plentifully illustrated); Nasmyth's x\uto- 
 biography, 300-308; Footprints of Travel, 234-235; Modern Europe, 117; 
 Norway Nights and Russian Days, 181-182; Land of the Midnight Sun, 
 Vol. II, 330-333 and 336-^^-/. The first two mentioned have the best 
 accounts. 
 
 In Norway the distinguishing features of travel are the stocky, willing 
 little ponies, the carriole, with its girl driver, and the curious system of 
 post-roads. Read Knox's Boy Travelers in Northern Europe, 474-480 ; North- 
 ern Europe (Ginn). 102-104; Stoddard's Norway, 26-28; Chasing the Sun, 
 58-64, 68-74, 99-100. 116, 1 19-120. 
 
 Fig. 19. 
 
 The Locks. (In the diagram the steamer is going "upstairs." The water in 
 lock a will be raised to a level with that in b; then the gates, x, will be 
 opened. The steamer will pass into b. The water in that lock will then be 
 raised to the level of c, and the vessel will pass as before.) 
 
 In mountainous countries having cold winters and w^arm summers the 
 farmers generally have two farms. One of these is the mountain pasture, 
 to which they drive their cattle in the spring. The other is the lowland farm, 
 to which the animals are driven back in the autumn. In Switzerland, Scandi- 
 navia, and the Sierra foothills of California the cattle and sheep perform this 
 migration up and down the mountain every year. In Scandinavia the moun- 
 tain dairy-farm is called the sactcr. It is usually conducted by the girls of 
 the family. They live up there alone all summer, making butter and cheese, 
 and lead a romantic but very lonesome life, until it is time to go below for 
 the season. Land of the Midnight Sun, \'"ol. I, 290-296, gives a good idea 
 of a saeter ; also pp. 280-281, 285-288 and 433 ; also in Vol. II, pp. 254, 256, 
 268 and 303-307. Alodern Europe, 97, contains a short reference. 
 
 Written review. 
 
 1. Why is the population of Scandinavia mainly in the south? 
 
 2. Describe the character of the Scandinavians. 
 
 3. Write a little story that shows their character.
 
 ( 24 ) 
 
 Things to remember — 
 „,yy I. That the north is a lonesome land and the south quite thickly 
 
 populated. 
 2. That the people are notably kind, honest, and industrious. 
 
 Outline map test,* 
 
 1. Shade the map to suggest density of population — the more people the 
 darker the shading. 
 
 2. Place dots locating the following places ; make the dot large or small, 
 according to the size of the place : Stockholm, Gothenburg, Christiania, 
 Bergen, Trondhjem, Hammerfest. 
 
 3. Print the names in place. 
 
 _- 6. The land is not adapted to supporting a large population, so the 
 
 Scandinavians are notably a sea-faring people. 
 
 Only one fiftieth of Norway is arable land, and in Sweden less than one 
 tenth. The rest is made up of steep mountain land, either bare or forested. 
 These conditions drive the bulk of the Scandinavians either to their coast 
 fisheries or to service on the high sea. Read Adams' Commercial Geography, 
 pp. 258-260 and 262. 
 
 The Scandinavian sailors are known in every part of the world. If we 
 should step aboard a ship in Bombay or any other distant port, we would 
 probably find that some of the crew had been born on the crags 
 Vila, over some Norwegian fiord, or perhaps in sight of some Swedish 
 lake. Ship captains are always glad to get these Norse sailors. They 
 are obedient and know how to do their work. Many of them get their 
 training for the sea in the great fisheries on the coast of Norway. See 
 remarks, p. 150 and top of p. 125, Vol. II, Land of the Midnight Sun; also 
 Footprints of Travel, 245, 
 
 The Norwegians are not only sailors ; they are captains and owners. Save 
 Great Britain and the United States, little Norway has more freight vessels 
 on the ocean than any other country in the world. Having little of her own 
 to carry, these ships do an ocean express business for the other nations, just 
 as an expressman in our own town will carry boxes and bales for other 
 people and then go home with his earnings. Adams' Commercial Geography, 
 pp. 262 and 158, gives an idea of the significance of this immense " carrying 
 trade." Tarr and McMurry (third book), ])]i. 255-256, remarks in the same 
 vein. 
 
 The Norway fisheries are described in detail in Land of the Midnight Sun, 
 Vol. IT. The famous Lnfodcn Island fislieries are dealt with in i)agcs 115-134 
 and 145-146. .Mr. 1 )n ( liaillu went with these Norse fishermen in their 
 boats, and lived their life f>n land and sea. He helped catch codfish, and 
 
 *The Icaclier will find \'\)i. i a ^oixl m.iii from wliii li to trace Irt lK'ctoKraplii.-(l outlines.
 
 ( 25 ) 
 
 tells just how it was done. He gives us an idea of the enormous number of 
 codfish caught, and of the simple, homely life of the fishermen. In his com- 
 pany, we see how the cod-liver oil is made which is sold at the corner drug- 
 store in our own town. Around the World (second book) has some pictures 
 and reading for children on this subject, pp. 99-101. 
 
 Besides the cod-fishing, the Norwegians do a big business in herring, 
 using great nets. Read pages 146-150, Land of the Midnight Sun, Vol. II. 
 There are references to fishing elsewhere in the book, but those cited will 
 be ample for the teacher's purpose. Of course the art of presenting the 
 subject is to minimize the technical details and bring out the landscape, the 
 picturesqueness of the fisher's life, and the fact that so large a part of the 
 people are fishermen and sailors. 
 
 Land of the Long Night deals with the Norway fisheries in a form avail- 
 able for children's reading. Pages 190-21 1 give a close acquaintance with 
 
 Fig. 20. 
 
 With the Norse Fishermen in Their Boats. 
 
 the serious, honest fiord folk, who look only upon the sea and figure only 
 upon fish. Even the cows and sheep eat fish! (p. 237). See, also, Feats on 
 the Fiord, p. 4. 
 
 Footprints of Travel, pp. 248-249, tells of the shark-fishing off the Nor- 
 wegian coast. There is a reference to the Lofoden fishermen on pages 
 258-259. From Tromso vessels start for the seal and walrus grounds. 
 See page 263. 
 
 A general account of cod-fishing, herring-fishing, etc., applicable to the 
 present study is to be found in Information Reader No. i, pp. 120-126 and 
 148-152. The Lofoden cod-fisheries are told about in Modern Europe, 
 108-109. Stoddard (Norway, p. 85) speaks of Bergen as the chief distribut- 
 ing-point for Norway's fish; and on pages 106-107 tells how most of the
 
 ( 26 ) 
 
 Lofoden cod-fishing is done by the Hght of the aurora. Glimpses of Three 
 Coasts gives a chatty description of Bergen as a fish-market, (p. 235-236). 
 
 The Tarr-AIcIMurry Geography. Book Third, pp. 254-257, gives a resume 
 of Norway's dependence upon the sea. 
 
 Written review. 
 
 1. Compare the occupations of the Norwegians with those of the Swedes. 
 
 2. Why do foreign vessels so often have Scandinavian sailors ? 
 
 Definite points to be made — 
 
 I. That Norway has few farmers and many sailors, and why. 
 VIII. 2. That Sweden has more farmers and a bigger population, and why. 
 3. That the merchant fleets of the world are manned largely by Scan- 
 dinavian sailors. 
 
 Test. 
 
 1. Shade an outline map of Scandinavia to show the great fishing region. 
 
 2. Shade, also, the principal farming area. 
 
 3. Print these words in place : Fisheries. Farming. 
 
 II. 
 
 7. In the zvorld's markets this region is knoivn for its coast fisheries, 
 its lumber, and its iron. 
 The preceding topic has given us a clear notion of the great fishing indus- 
 try of the Norwegians. It remains to remind the children that the codfish 
 
 are dried and the herrings smoked. In this 
 
 form they are shipped all over the world, so 
 
 that Boer soldiers in South Africa and 
 
 wheat farmers in Dakota are likely to sit 
 down to a breakfast of fish that 
 
 Vila, were caught off the Lofoden Isl- 
 ands, perhaps as nuich as a year 
 
 before, by a Norwegian fisherman. Give 
 
 the class an idea of this great preparation 
 
 of fish for export. See pages 1 18-119, Land 
 
 of the Midnight Sun, Vol. II ; also Glimpses 
 
 of Three Coasts, 240. Around the World 
 
 (second book), pp. 100-102, has a little 
 
 children's reading. 
 
 Next to Norway's codfish we think of her 
 
 lumber. How often we hear poetical allu- 
 sions to the staunch ship with her mast of 
 
 Norway pine. All through the fiord region, 
 
 where the rocks are not too steep, they are 
 
 covered with forests. And out of these the Scandinavian cuts the logs that go 
 
 to many countries. Carpenter's Europe, pp. 176-177, muses a little on the 
 
 I'ig. 21. 
 
 Tile masts of great ships 
 are here."
 
 ( 27 ) 
 
 wanderings of a Norway pine. , Modern Europe, pp. 99-100, tells about these 
 fiord lumbermen. " Wherever there is a platform beside the cataract where 
 the sawyer may plant his mill and make a path from it to join some great 
 road, there is a human habitation and the sounds that belong to it." — Feats on 
 the Fiord, p. 3. 
 
 Sweden is also a great lumber country. Indeed, lumber is her largest item 
 of export. See Adams" Commercial Geography, p. 260. jMcMurn,- (Book 
 Third, p. 258) says that nearly one half of Sweden is covered with forest. 
 
 We are in danger of giving the pupils the notion that all Scandinavians 
 are fishermen and none are farmers. As a matter of fact, the agricultural 
 population is the larger of the two. The Swedish farmers raise a great deal 
 of the food that is eaten in Sweden. But we think of a country not by what 
 it raises and eats, but by what it raises and sells ; and Scandinavia has no 
 food product to sell except fish. 
 
 The iron of Scandinavia is famous in other countries for its fine quality. 
 England and Germany buy a great deal of it. Much of the " Sheffield 
 steel " that we prize so highly in our knives and other tools is originally dug 
 out of the ground in Sweden, and sent to Sheffield, England, to be made up. 
 The "Norway iron." so famous among blacksmiths, is really Swedish iron. 
 
 Nasmyth's description of the Swedish iron mines at Dannemora (Auto- 
 biography, pp. 300-302) is worth the teacher's reading for her own sake. 
 The " unfathomable depths " of this vast hole in the ground are anything 
 but prosaic in the reading. There is also a full-page illustration worthy of 
 Dore. There are shorter references in Footprints of Travel, 236, and Modem 
 Europe, 114. 
 
 Lest the children have by this time the fixed notion that Scandinavia is 
 made up entirely of fiord and snowbank, a little reference to Swedish manu- 
 facturing may be made, as found in Land of the Midnight Sun, Vol. II, 
 pp. 372 et seq. The busy cities of workmen, such as Norrkoping, should be 
 pictured, and visited in imagination. An important preliminary is to locate 
 the place on the map always. 
 
 Written review. 
 
 1. Name the two principal exports of Norway. 
 
 2. Name the two principal exports of Sweden. 
 
 3. Tell how the codfish are prepared for export. 
 
 4. State some use to which the Norway pine is put. 
 
 5. Tell what you have learned about " Sheffield " steel. 
 
 Things to remember — 
 
 VIII. I. Norway exports chiefly codfish and the famous Norway pine. 
 2. Sweden exports chiefly lumber and a high grade of iron.
 
 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF SCANDINAVIA. 
 
 I. The fiords are thought to be " drowned " valleys, cut originally by 
 glaciers and rivers, and afterward sunk below sea-level. 2. The mild climate 
 of Norway is now ascribed to the prevailing sea winds, and not to the Gulf 
 Stream. 3. The long winter night, the long summer day, and the midnight 
 sun result from the earth's annual revolution and the inclination of its axis. 
 4. Scandinavia's long winter and short summer are due to the low altitudes 
 of the sun. 5. The aurora borealis is believed to be the light of a great mag- 
 netic disturbance over the magnetic pole. 
 
 I. The fiords are thought to be " drozvued" valleys, cut originally by 
 glaciers and rivers, and afterziwd sunk belozc sea-level. 
 
 In many coasts of the world there are long, deep bays, such as in Norway 
 are called fiords. Physiographers take these fiords as evidence that the land 
 in those parts has gradually sunk, allowing the sea to creep into the mouth- 
 ward parts of the river valleys. New York Bay is really a fiord in this sense, 
 and divers who explore its bottom find the old river channel reaching quite 
 out into the sea. Wherever the map shows a ragged, deeply cut coast, such 
 
 Fig. 22. 
 
 The Making of a Fiord, (a. The river valleys before the region has sunk. 
 b. The flooded valleys, or fiords, after the sinking.) 
 
 as that of Maine,Alaska, Chile, Scotland, or Norway, we may be fairly certain 
 that the long arms of ocean water arc fiords and that the land has sunk 
 and " drowned " its rivers in the sea. 
 
 In the case of Norway, the fiords are so very deep that nothing but glaciers 
 coulfl have cut them out. It is believed that the Scandinavian plateau was 
 once much higher than now, and covered by a tremendous ice-cap. Out of 
 this ice-mass the glaciers crept, grinding out deep valleys as they pushed 
 toward the sea. After the glaciers disai)i)eared these valleys were occupied 
 by rivers, which wore them down still further. Now the land sank slowly 
 
 ( 28 )
 
 ( 29 ) 
 
 into the sea. The sinking amounted to several thousand feet, and progressed 
 so slowly that it took many thousand years. As the sinking went on the 
 sea filled the sunken valleys and made fiords. The teacher looking the mat- 
 ter up for the first time will be perplexed to read that Norway is rising 
 instead of sinking. She has only to remember, however, that this is a later 
 movement. Throughout the earth's surface this slow upheaval and sub- 
 sidence is forever going on, sometimes the one, sometimes the other. 
 
 The explanation of the fiord, or drowned valley, is given in any geology 
 or physical geography, among them the following : 
 
 Davis's Physical Geography, pp. 196, 345, 358-359, 368-369. 
 
 Brigham's Text-Book of Geology, pp. 166-167. 2']']. 
 
 LeConte's Compend of Geology, pp. 38, 155-157. 
 
 Tarr and McMurry's Geography, Third Book, p. 257. 
 
 Dryer's Lessons in Physical Geography, pp. 133-134, 228-229. 
 
 Land of the Midnight Sun, Vol. I, devotes pages 219-226 and 316-317 to 
 a consideration of this sinking and rising of Scandinavia, and to the agency 
 of the glaciers in fiord cutting. 
 
 2. The mild climate of Norway is now ascribed to the prevailing sea winds, 
 and not to the Gulf Stream. 
 
 The explanation commonly given is that the Gulf Stream sweeps north- 
 ward from the tropics with its flood of warm water, and lends its mild tem- 
 peratures to the coasts of north Europe, particularly Norway, and including 
 Great Britain. While the climatic facts beautifully justify this theory, our 
 meteorologists lately are telling us that it is all just a pretty fancy of Maury's. 
 They say that the Gulf Stream disperses itself before it reaches such high 
 latitudes. They say, also, that it is the prevailing ocean winds that soften 
 Norway's climate. They remind us that any region whose prevailing winds 
 are from the sea will enjoy the mild climate, summer and winter, of the sea 
 itself. The scientists of to-day speak of " the Gulf Stream myth " (so far as 
 it applies to the climate of Europe), and charge it to the account of Maury, 
 who first advanced the theory. 
 
 One piece of evidence in favor of the Gulf Stream idea, as affecting Nor- 
 way, seems as yet to have been overlooked. It is that the harbor of Hammer- 
 fest remains open throughout the winter, while that of Christiania, a thousand 
 miles nearer the equator, is frozen for three months in the year. This fact 
 appears the more troublesome since the two places are of such geographical 
 location as to give full color to the Gulf Stream explanation ; while, if the 
 latter is to be superseded, the prevailing winds should bring to Christiania 
 practically the same soft winter that is enjoyed by Hammerfest. plus the 
 benefit of a more southerly location. This kink is doubtless easily explained, 
 however, by some local condition.
 
 ( 30 ) 
 
 As to what we geography teachers shall do in the matter, there seems to 
 be but one course open. That is to explain carefully the Gulf Stream idea, 
 because it has grown to be an item of universal belief, and therefore essential 
 to our teaching; but at the same time to see that the children regard it 
 as a brilliant notion of other days, disproven in our own. And, finally, we 
 must supplant it with the simple conception of a sea-wind bestowing the soft 
 climate of the sea upon the favored land over which it blows. 
 
 The Gulf Stream explanation of Norway's climate is to be found specifically 
 stated in Land of the Midnight Sun, Vol. II, chapter lo. Read, also. Bayard 
 Taylor, in Johonnot's Reader, pp. 330-331 ; Carpenter's Europe, p. 168; Land 
 of the Long Night, pp. 188-189 and 228; Footprints of Travel, pp. 238 and 
 266-267: Stoddard's Norway, pp. 11 and 112-113. Of course, the standard 
 
 « 
 
 Fig. 23. 
 
 The Gulf Stream Idea, so far as It Concerned Norway. 
 
 presentation of this theory is to be found in The Geography of the Sea, by 
 Maury, the father of the idea. 
 
 The refutation of the Gulf Stream theory, ascriljing these climatic cflfects 
 wholly to the agency of prevailing sea-winds, is convincingly given in " The 
 Gulf Stream Myth," Scribncr's, Vol. 31 ( 1902), pp. 689 et seq., and Bulletin 
 American Geographical Society (July, 1901), p. 259. "Certain Persistent 
 Errors \u (ieography."
 
 ( 31 ) 
 
 3- The long zi'intcr night, the long summer day, and the midnight sun 
 result from the earth's annual revolution and the inclination of its axis. 
 
 The present purpose is not to teach mathematical geography inclusively, 
 but to have recourse to so much of it as will explain Norway's midnight 
 sun and her curious day and night. 
 
 During summer in the northern hemisphere the earth's axis inclines toward 
 the sun. During the winter it inclines away. Look at the summer position, 
 Fig. 24. The axis leans toward the sun. The north pole is well out in the 
 hemisphere of daylight. Now let us imagine the earth rotating on its axis. 
 Each rotation will make a day, according to the calendar. Yet the pole will 
 remain out in the sunlit hemisphere. A person standing at the pole would 
 see the sun all the time. There would be no darkness. 
 
 Now notice that the same will be true on that day for the whole arctic 
 region. The sun's rays pass beyond the pole and strike as far as the Arctic 
 
 Fig. 24. 
 The Long Winter Night and the Long Summer Day. 
 
 Circle on the other side. In other words, when the earth is in that part of 
 its orbit, the whole region bounded by the Arctic Circle has the sun all night. 
 Seen from a town on the Arctic Circle on that day, the sun, instead of setting, 
 makes a complete circle in the sky. 
 
 Of course, the longest period of continuous sunshine is at the pole itself. 
 If any one were there to see, the sun would be in sight for six months and 
 below the horizon the other six. These periods shorten rapidly as we leave 
 the pole. At Hammerfest the sun is continuously in sight for two and a 
 half months ; but at the Arctic Circle the longest period of actual sunshine is 
 twenty-four hours. This happens on midsummer day and is the most south- 
 erly instance of Norway's midnight sun. In Volume I, Land of the Midnight 
 Sun, p. 107, there is a table giving the duration of the long day and the 
 long night at different arctic latitudes in Norway. - 
 
 Proceeding south from the Arctic Circle, day and night grow more nearly 
 of the same length. But even in our own latitude we have a long day and 
 short night in summer and the reverse in winter. At the equator day and 
 night are always equal. 
 
 We can estimate the day's length in any latitude by studying Fig. 25, which 
 shows the axis inclined toward the sun on midsummer day. Any parallel
 
 ( 32 ) 
 
 of latitude that is entirely within the lighted hemisphere will have the sun 
 for at least all of one rotation. If the parallel slightly enters the dark 
 hemisphere, that latitude will have a short night — a few minutes or hours, 
 according to the proportion of the parallel that lies in the dark. Notice that, 
 as we proceed southward, more and more of the parallel lies in the dark 
 half of the earth until at the equator just half the day's rotation lies in the 
 light and the other half in the dark. 
 
 The teacher will be greatly aided in the presentation of this topic by a 
 careful reading of Jackson's Astronomical Geography, pp. 32-64. She will 
 find the little book not as for- 
 midable as its name. The essen- 
 tial understanding of the earth- 
 and-sun relation is nowhere else 
 so easily gained. 
 
 The Tarr and McMurry Ge- 
 ography (third book), pp. 8-16, 
 gives a serviceable explanation 
 of the seasons, and the diagrams 
 are particularly valuable. , Du 
 Chaillu in Volume I, Land of the 
 ^Midnight Sun, pp. 61-63. ex- 
 plains the long day and night in 
 Norway. His table on page 107 
 is useful in connection. 
 
 Turning now to the winter 
 position (Fig. 24), we find 
 the earth's axis inclined away 
 from the sun. Everything 
 within the Arctic Circle is in the 
 hemisphere of darkness. A person living on the Arctic Circle will catch just 
 a glimpse of the sun at noonday, as the earth's rotation brings him to the 
 point nearest the sun. He will have only a few moments of day. and about 
 twenty-four hours of night. People farther north, or within the Arctic 
 Circle, will not see the sun even at noon. They will be in the dark during 
 the whole rotation. Journeying south from the polar regions, we shall find 
 the difference in length of day and night growing less, until at the equator 
 they become equal, as before. 
 
 Fig. 25. 
 The proportion of the parallel lying within 
 the lighted hemisphere determines the 
 length of day at that latitude. 
 
 4. Scandinavia's long winter and short sttinnicr arc due to the loi\.' latitudes 
 of the sun. 
 
 We know that in summer the sun is higli in the sky, and in winter it is 
 lower. If the children have never noticed this, they should be led to observe 
 how the noonday shadows shorten as the summer comes and how they
 
 ( 33 ) 
 
 lengthen as the winter draws on. Some schools use a shadow-stick for this 
 
 purpose, but fence-posts, trees, or the pupils themselves answer the purpose 
 
 just as well. The shadow-stick is made of a short and a longer piece of thin 
 
 wood (cigar-box wood will do) nailed together at right angles, as in Fig. 
 
 26. If this contrivance is placed with its " back " toward the sun, the shadow 
 
 of the upright will be thrown upon the horizontal piece ; and. of course, in a 
 
 series of trials through the season this shadow will be observed to lengthen 
 
 or shorten according to the altitude of the sun. If now a strip of paper 
 
 be pasted upon the base-piece, the shadow-lengths may be marked, and their 
 
 respective dates written against the marks ; and the year's record is easily 
 
 made the basis of a series of effective lessons upon mathematical geography. 
 
 We find, then, that in a general way our hot season is the period when the 
 
 noonday sun is high in the heavens, and our winter is the season when the 
 
 sun, even at noontime, is low toward the south. The hottest countries of 
 
 the earth have the sun directly over head, which we never do; but in arctic 
 
 latitudes even the midsummer 
 
 \v^ sun is very low in the southern 
 
 /"/lY-^ sky, while the winter sun is alto- 
 
 gether out of sight. It is plain, 
 
 then, that the tropics, over which 
 
 the sun stays all the time, will 
 
 have a perpetual summer; and 
 
 the polar regions, where the sun 
 
 merely hangs low for a while 
 
 in the far southern sky, will 
 
 -r^. ^ have a nearly continuous winter, 
 
 rig. 20. 
 
 And we must remember here 
 The Shadow-Stick. ,1 . ^- ,1 1 1 
 
 that Aorway thauKs her ocean 
 
 air. rather than direct sunshine, for her mild climate. Other lands in Nor- 
 way's latitude, which have not the benefit of the soft ocean airs, have a 
 much longer and colder winter. 
 
 A little further study of Fig. 24 will be of service here. Remember that 
 it is the vertical rays that count for the hottest and longest summers; and 
 the vertical rays are those only which strike toward the center of the earth. 
 Notice, in Fig. 24, the vertical ray strikes at Cancer on our midsummer day 
 and at Capricorn in our midwinter. No latitudes nearer the poles ever get 
 the vertical rays. Notice that in the polar latitudes the sun's rays strike the 
 earth in a very oblique direction, and therefore give little heat. The fact 
 that the arctic regions have any summer at all is largely due to the sun 
 shining day and night when summer does come. 
 
 In this connection pages 25-28 of Jackson's Astronomical Geography 
 should be carefully studied by the teacher.
 
 \>- 
 
 ( 34 ) 
 
 5. The aurora borcalis is believed to be the light of a great electric 
 VII. disturbance over the magnetic pole. 
 
 Du Chaillu's description (Land of the Midnight Sun, Vol. II, pp. 
 46-47) makes reference to the electrical cause of the aurora. The matter 
 is further explained in Mill's Realm of Nature, p. 116. 
 
 VI. Use the text-book as a final review. 
 
 Books Mentioned. 
 
 (The first group are children's books, well adapted to the fourth grade and 
 of some use in the third. Of course, the information contained is available 
 in upper grades as well. The second group are for teachers' reference.) 
 
 Group I. 
 
 The Wide World. Ginn & Co. 
 
 By Land and Sea. Youths' Companion Series. 
 
 Northern Europe. Ginn & Co. 
 
 Northern Europe. Mara Pratt. Educational Pub. Co. 
 
 Carpenter's Geographical Reader — Europe. American Book Co. 
 
 Feats on the Fiord. Martineau. Dent & Co. 
 
 Around the World. Carroll. The Morse Co. 
 
 Land of the Long Night. Du Chaillu. Scribners'. 
 
 Boy Travelers of Northern Europe. Knox. Harpers'. 
 
 Viking Tales. Jennie Hall. Rand McNally Co. 
 
 From the Old World to the New. Dickson. Macmillan. 
 
 Children of the World. Educational Pub. Co. 
 
 Children's Stories of American History. Wright. Scribners'. 
 
 Modern Explorers. Frost. Cassell & Co. 
 
 Group II. 
 
 Land of the Midnight Sun (2 vols). Du Chaillu. Harpers'. 
 
 Glimpses of Three Coasts. Jackson. Roberts Bros. 
 
 John L. Stoddard's Lectures, Vol. I (Norway, etc.). Vol. II (Sweden. 
 
 etc.). Balch Bros. 
 Autobiography. James Nasymtli. 1 larpers'. 
 Footprints of Travel. Hallou. (iinn & Co. 
 Modern Europe. Coe. Silver, Burdett & Co. 
 Geographical Reader. Johonnot. American Book Co. 
 Chasing the Sun. liallantyne. 
 Commercial Geography. Adams. Applcton.
 
 ( 35 ) 
 
 Norway Nights and Russian Days. Davis. Fords, Howard & Hulbert. 
 
 Ten Boys. Jane Andrews. Ginn & Co. 
 
 Geography of the Sea. Maury. 
 
 Discovery of America, Vol. I. Fiske. Houghton. ^Mifflin & Co. 
 
 Physical Geography. Davis. Ginn & Co. 
 
 Lessons in Physical Geography. Dryer. American Book Co. 
 
 Compend of Geology. Le Conte. American Book Co. 
 
 Text-Book in Geology. Brigham. Appleton. 
 
 Astronomical Geography. Jackson. Heath. 
 
 Tarr and McMurry Geography (third book). ]\Iacmillan. 
 
 Realm of Nature. Mill. Scribners'. 
 
 r
 
 SAN FRANCISCO STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. 
 
 BULLETIN NO. 6 
 
 The Method of Teaching Geography 
 
 BY TOPICAL READINGS 
 
 Illustrated in tbe Creattnetit of China 
 
 By FRANK F. BUNKER 
 
 Supervisor of Geography Teaching 
 
 PUBLISHED BY THE GRADUATE ASSOCIATION OF THE 
 SAN FRANCISCO STATE NORMAIv SCHOOL. 
 
 October 1903. 
 
 r
 
 ANNOUNCEMENT. 
 
 This Bulletin is published and distributed by the Graduates of the San 
 Francisco State Normal School among their fellow teachers of the State, free 
 of charge, upon receipt of postage for mailing (4 cents). To persons residing 
 outside the State, the price is 25 cents. 
 
 Other Bulletins which have been issued upon the same conditions, are 
 as follows : 
 
 Bulletin No. i : " The Teaching of Number in the Primary Grades," 
 by Frank F. Bunker; postage 2 cents. (First edition now exhausted). 
 
 Bulletin No. 2 : "The Essentials of Geography in the Primary Grades," 
 by Frank F, Bunker and Efl&e B. McFadden ; postage 6 cents. (First edition 
 now exhausted). 
 
 Bulletin No. 3 : "The Teaching of Language in the Primary Grades." 
 by Alma Patterson ; postage 2 cents. (First edition now exhausted). 
 
 Special notice regarding Bulletins Nos, i, 2 and 3 : We originally 
 printed 2000 copies of each of these Bulletins and in the case of No. 2, the 
 orders which we cannot fill, now amount to 1000 and over. We would 
 issue a second edition of Bulletin No. 2, but we have no funds with which 
 to do this. Our Alumni Association which has undertaken financially to 
 assist in the free publication and distribution of our Bulletin series is not 
 able to issue a second edition as all its available funds will be used 
 in the publication of two new Bulletins upon geography, the manuscripts of 
 which are now almost ready for the printer. It occurs to us that a sufficient 
 number of teachers and schools throughout the State want these Bulletins 
 seriously enough to pay the cost of printing a second edition. The cost of 
 republishing the Bulletins, upon a basis of an edition of 2000 each, will be 
 15 cents each for Bulletin 2, and 10 cents each for Bulletins i and 3. This, 
 of course, is exclusive of postage. The Graduate Association will receive 
 and file orders (it will not be necessary to send the money until we send 
 notification that the Bulletins are ready) for any of the exhausted Bulletins 
 at these cost prices, and when the number thus ordered amounts to enough 
 to justify publishing a new edition we will do so and fill the orders. 
 
 Bulletin No. 4 (to be issued October 15, 1903) contains the courses of 
 study and system for the Honorary Diploma in recognition of marked ef- 
 ficiency in teaching. For the present this course and diploma is reserved 
 exclusively for graduates of the San Francisco State Normal School. In 
 time, however, it will probably be thrown open to any earnest, efficient 
 teacher who desires self improvement and professional advancement. For 
 those who desire to be informed concerning this course and conditions. Bul- 
 letin 4 will be mailed upon receipt of mailing postage of 2 cents. 
 
 Bulletin No. 5 (ready November i, 1903). The Method of Teaching 
 Geography by the "Chalk Lesson ;" illustrated by the treatment of Scan- 
 dinavia ; by Walter J. Kenyon. (Postage 2 cents). 
 
 Bulletin No. 6 (ready November i, 1903). The Method of Teaching 
 Geography by Topical Readings ; illustrated in the treatment of China ; by 
 Frank F. Bunker. Other Bulletins in course of construction are as follows : 
 
 The Teaching of Arithmetic in the First and Second Grades, by David 
 R. Jones. 
 
 The Teaching of Composition and Nature Study ; Effie B. McFadden. 
 
 The Teaching of Reading in the First and Second Grades, by Alma 
 Patterson. 
 
 Methods of School Management and Discipline, by F. A. Wagner,
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 This Bulletin, the details of which, have grown out of the work of 
 our student teachers in the Training School, is issued as a supplement to 
 the San Francisco State Normal School Bulletin No. 2, "The Essentials of 
 Geography in the Primary and Grammar Grades." Bulletin No. 2 deals 
 with the problem of what is worth while in geography teaching. It points 
 out that the popular mind, as contrasted with the specialist in geography, 
 has certain facts and feelings associated with each of the several areas or 
 geographical units of the earth's surface, and that these facts and feelings 
 are the characteristics around which, and for the establishment of which, all 
 the work of geography instruction should center. It points out, in addition, 
 that the general method of presenting these characteristics lies in the organ- 
 ized reading and class discussion of traveler's tales, of stories of adventure, 
 of interesting descriptions, and of fiction whose setting and atmosphere are 
 true to geographic fact. The space limitations of Bulletin No. 2 forbade 
 anything further than a discussion of the problem ; the general method of 
 handling the various aspects, formal, descriptive, and physical ; and an 
 enumeration of what the writers consider the characteristics of the several 
 geographical areas. The purpose of this Bulletin is to take one of these areas, 
 the region of China, and show, by way of illustration, how the mass of good 
 supplementary reading, which the teacher can have for the taking, can be 
 organized into lesson units and so presented to children as to secure effect- 
 ively those facts and feelings which seem to us essential. 
 
 The method of supplementary reading upon which our course in geog- 
 raphy is built is by no means a new method. It has been tried by many 
 teachers in a more or less half-hearted and halting way. All too frequently 
 they have experienced diflSculty in checking up results and in determining 
 what their children have accomplished. In consequence of this difficulty 
 many have become discouraged with the whole idea, and have fallen back 
 more heavily than ever on the text for the material and method of presenta- 
 tion. The reason for these failures, I am positive, lies chiefly in the fact 
 that the reading which the teachers have required of their children has been 
 done in a haphazard and desultory fashion. The teacher makes the mistake 
 of following the lead of her material instead of making the material subser- 
 vient to her own plan and organized scheme of lessons. She is, therefore, 
 led hither and yon, back and forth, as chance and not intelligence dictates. 
 Today her children read an article on tea raising in China. Tomorrow one 
 on rice culture in North Carolina, and the third day, perhaps, an account of 
 an adventure with a polar bear in Alaska. A series of pictures pass rapidly 
 before the child' s mind, but too rapidly and in too disorganized a shape to 
 leave anything but the vaguest impressions. This kaleidoscopic method of 
 handling supplementary reading not only renders the teacher's attempt to
 
 check results ineffective, but it leads to mental distraction on the child's 
 part which ultimately works out into careless and irresponsible habits of 
 reading and study. 
 
 To secure effective results by this method, the teacher herself, must, 
 first of all, work over carefully all the material at her command which bears 
 directly on the region to be presented. She must then decide what details 
 in her material will best illustrate or develop the characteristics she wants 
 the children to know\ Lastly, these details — stories, pictures, descriptions, 
 anecdotes — must be organized into lesson units, each lesson unit having as 
 its purpose the presentation of some one essential characteristic. In the 
 class discussion of the references, which in accordance with her plan the 
 teacher gives to her children, the teacher should confine the class to the 
 points which bear directly on the characteristic to be established and thus 
 avoid the aimless, discursive, desultory conversation which too frequently 
 creeps into the recitations of even the best teachers. 
 
 In the course of the presentation of a given lesson unit the teacher will 
 find that there are certain facts which have value in themselves apart from 
 their bearing in developing the thing which is characteristic. In other 
 words, for one reason or another, in the judgment of the teacher, there are 
 certain facts which in themselves and of themselves are intrinsically valuable. 
 These facts should be gathered up at the close of the presentation of the 
 lesson unit and drilled upon from time to time in order to insure their per- 
 manent retention. 
 
 It should be said that neither Bulletin No. 2 nor this one on China at- 
 tempts to supplant a text book. While we have had much to say in con- 
 demnation of the slavish use of the text, yet we do not wish to be understood 
 as wishing to prohibit its use altogether. A text book in geography, by 
 reason of necessary space limitations, can never be but little more than a 
 compendium of facts and general notions which the writers consider essen- 
 tial. It is a mistake fatal to good teaching to permit it to determine the 
 matter and the method of presentation. Its true function lies, in supplying 
 on the one hand, the pupils' need for a handy reference book, and on the 
 other hand, the teacher's need for a succinct statement of essential facts and 
 general notions. The better the qualities, then, which fit it for such a com- 
 pendium, the more valuable it will be as a text. There is in our school work 
 a place for such a geography text, but it is, except in its aspect as a refer- 
 ence book, after there has been some such preparation through reading and 
 class discussion as we suggest in the pages which follow. 
 
 Messrs. Charles and Frank McMurry in "The Method of the Recita- 
 tation," a book which every teacher should not fail to study carefully, dis- 
 cusses this point very sensibly. They say in part : "We do not advocate 
 using the book (text) entirely or giving it up entirely ; on the contrary, the 
 text book and the developing method can be employed together and alter- 
 nate with each other as occasion demands. School instruction should cer- 
 tainly culminate in the ability to use books properly, but that does not 
 necessitate abundant use of text books, especially early in school life, or even 
 exclusively at any time."
 
 Bulletin No. 2 points out that the proper pedagogical order demands 
 that certain formal map features, employed in the descriptive work, should 
 be presented first in point of time ; that this work be followed up by descrip- 
 tions dealing with the chief characteristics ; and that last of all in this se- 
 quence comes the explanation of the phenomena which the children are 
 familiar with through their descriptive work. This is the sequence which 
 this Bulletin seeks to illustrate and which we deem essential to effective work 
 in the teaching of geography in the elementary grades. 
 
 Following this introduction will be found a general schema for prepar- 
 ing lessons, identical in form to this, to be given in presenting other 
 geographical areas. The references to the reading necessary to prepare 
 such lessons will be found in Bulletin No. 2. Each lesson should be written 
 by the teacher in a note book, following the same general plan of this Bulle- 
 tin. Then when she again teaches the lesson to another class, she can 
 refresh her memory by re-reading her notes. For teachers who are candi- 
 dates for the Honorary Diploma of Marked Efficiency described in Bulletin 
 No. 4, these note books constitute an essential feature of the course. It will 
 be of great assistance to teachers in working up lessons in accordance with 
 this method, to study carefully McMurry's " Method of the Recitation," 
 and to make themselves familiar with all he has to say about the preparation 
 of the apperceptive mass, the development method, lesson units, and the 
 method of types. 
 
 We would lay especial emphasis on the provision made for thorough 
 reviews and for drills on essential facts. This matter of drill we feel cannot 
 be slighted without a grave lessening of the effectiveness of the work. Suf- 
 ficient drill should be given and reviews so frequently made as to render the 
 facts of common information indellibly impressed on the child's memory. 
 
 Frank F. Bunker. 
 October, 1903.
 
 * General Schema for the Treatment of Lesson Units. 
 
 I. Succinct statement, at the beginning of the treatment of each geograph- 
 ical area, of the goals or lesson unities of this area. (For form see Bulletins 
 No. 5 and 6.) 
 
 II. Repetition of each of these goals or lesson unities separately. (A 
 "lesson unity" may, of course, include several lessons.) 
 
 III. Enlargement of this statement, in style to correspond to its inherent 
 quality, aiming not to become a source of information, but to give tasty sug- 
 gestions which will lead to thorough reading by the teacher of the references 
 cited ; and also to touch upon all essential fields of data obtainable in these 
 references necessary to develop the goal or lesson unity stated. Specific 
 references should be interlarded in the body of this section. 
 
 IV. Detailed references of children's and teacher's reading, annotated to 
 show the features which illustrate the stated goal or lesson unity. 
 
 V. (For lesson unities which have any informational character.) State- 
 ment in concise form of the information to be remembered or memorized. A 
 test of such information should be whether or not this knowledge is the 
 common possession of the average person of intelligence. 
 
 VI. Use text as final review. 
 
 VII. (a) (For those lesson unities stating commercial or industrial features.) 
 After the descriptive treatment including the feeling elements have thus been 
 presented, in I, II, III and IV, proceed to explain each specific feature of 
 essential importance in the given area, tracing its development out of 
 physical causes and conditions (the influence of erosion, valley formation, 
 winds, rainfall, ocean currents, etc., will here be introduced, each treated 
 with specific reference to the local conditions , all important physical features 
 will thus be covered, after the descriptive treatment has aroused an interest 
 in them, and each treatment will be specific and not general, enabling pupils 
 to think clearly in mental images. Physical experiments, board drawings, 
 apparatus, etc., are here introduced) ; also state and illustrate specifically, 
 each trade center of each industry in a given area, tracing (when these are 
 matters of common knowledge) the means of transportation of products, the 
 chief foreign markets and the chief products not only of importation but of 
 exportation as well. 
 
 (b) (For social, historical, scenic or other lesson unities). After the de- 
 scriptive treatment, including the feeling elements, have thus been presented 
 in I, II, III and IV, proceed to trace the character of the people, or other 
 feature under consideration, to their physical, industrial, historical or other 
 natural causes. 
 
 VIII. (For lesson unities in which either (a) or (b) of VII have any in- 
 formational character). Statements in concise form of all knowledge, be- 
 longing to common currency, to be remembered by pupils. 
 
 General — For every paragraph or section of treatment throughout ; the 
 pedagogical purpose of the treatment or the method of presentation should 
 be distinctly stated, even at the risk of repetition. This will constitute a 
 body of practical pedagogy. 
 
 * From San Francisco State Normal School Bulletin No. 4. 
 
 6
 
 Fig. I. Showing THE Chinese Empire. 
 
 I. China proper. 2. Manchuria. 3. Mongolia. 4. Chinese Turkestan. 5. Tibet. 
 
 A Study of China Proper in its Formal Aspect. 
 
 Before taking up the cultural work outlined further along, the children 
 should fix the following map features : 
 
 1. Those enumerated in Bulletin No. 2, p. 17, 19, 20, and 22, under 
 the head "Asia." 
 
 2. Gain the ability to sketch the continent of Eurasia from memory 
 fairly well in one minute of time. 
 
 3. Ability, (i) to block in, in an outline map of Eurasia, China proper, 
 Manchuria, Mongolia, Chinese Turkestan, and Tibet. (2) To locate in an 
 outline map the deserts of Gobi and Tibet ; the rivers Amur, Hoang-ho, 
 and Yangtse-kiang ; the great wall and the grand canal ; and the cities of 
 Canton, Shanghai, Hongkong, and Peking. 
 
 For methods useful in teaching the above map facts see the San Fran- 
 cisco State Normal School Bulletin No. 2, Chapter III.
 
 A Study of China Proper in its Descriptive Aspect. 
 
 Lesson Units : The oldest country in the world, with a literature and a 
 civilization long antedating the time when European countries emerged from 
 barbarism. It is a country densely populated along the seaboard and along 
 the main waterways of the interior, by a race characterized by conserv^atism, 
 stolidity, and non-progressiveness due largely to their religion of ancestor 
 worship which leads them to regard new customs as vicious. It is a region 
 famous for its production of rice, tea, and silk. 
 
 Lesson Unit I. The oldest country in the world, with a literattire and civil- 
 ization long antedathig the time when European countries emerged from, 
 barbarism,. 
 
 I. An interesting reference to the origin of Chines* civilization is given 
 in Mara Pratt's China, p. 23. This whole chapter on Chinese history, 
 p. 22-33, can be made the basis of the discussion of the above topic though 
 parts should be considerably amplified. The story of the wonderful things 
 which Emperor Fuh-he and his immediate successors did for the advance- 
 ment of their people, nearly 3000 years before Christ, should be related at 
 this point. (Pratt, China, p. 23-25). It should be pointed out that 
 these reforms were inaugurated fully 2000 years before the inhabitants of 
 Europe were anything more than primitive savages living in caves and in 
 the forests. It would be well, to further impress the children with the age 
 of China, to have them shade in those portions of an outline map of the 
 world which were civilized and had governments at the time of Christ, 3000 
 years after the above reforms were inaugurated. 
 
 p 
 
 1^ 
 
 n 
 % 
 
 I 
 
 2. The building of the great Chinese wall on the northern boundary, 200 
 years B. C, proves how well organized the government of China must have 
 been in ancient times. In order that the children may get the force of this 
 
 8
 
 illustration, they must realize what a tremendous undertaking it was to 
 build a wall, which in part still stands, 25 feet wide and 30 feet high for 
 1 500 miles over the roughest kind of country. The teacher will therefore 
 find it profitable to spend one or two recitations in discussing with the chil- 
 dren this remarkable structure. 
 
 Bring out in 3'our discussions that it was built to keep out the Tartar 
 hordes, that it took a million men ten years to build it, and that it was built 
 seventeen hundred years before America was discovered and two hundred 
 years before the time of Christ. Lay emphasis on the high degree of civil- 
 ization required to unite the people in an undertaking of such magnitude. 
 
 For children's reading on this topic see the following : 
 
 Carpenter, Frank G. Asia. p. 128-134. 
 
 The best reference for the children. Illustrated. 
 
 French, Harry W. Our boys in China, p. 76-85. 
 
 The author has tried hard to be interesting to children, but with in- 
 different success. Some good material, however. 
 
 Knox, T. W. Bo}^ travellers in Japan and China, p. 385-387. 
 An account of a journey to the great wall. 
 
 Phillips, E. C Peeps into China, p. 24-28. 
 
 An estimate of the amount of material in the wall. Grades 5, 6, 7, 
 
 Pratt, Mara. Stories of China, p. 75-77. 
 
 The cause, description, age, and amount of labor involved. 
 
 Scidmore, Eliza R. China: the long-lived Empire, p. 234-249. 
 
 Reasons for its construction, its present appearance, and the immen- 
 sity of the undertaking. Grades 7, 8. 
 
 Smith, Mary Cate. Life in Asia. p. 178-179. 
 
 A brief description of the purpose, appearance, and difl5culties in- 
 volved. 
 
 Stoddard, John L. Lectures. Vol. III. p. 332-335- 
 
 Beautiful pictures. Gives an estimate of the amount of work involved 
 and the amount of masonry required. 
 
 Tarr and McMurrj'. Complete geography, p. z]07. 
 A brief statement of facts with an illustration. 
 
 Van Bergen, R. The story of China, p. 11 2-1 25. 
 
 The Chinese version of the flood ; also a brief history of ancient 
 China. Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 Wilson, J. H. China, p. 205-310. 
 
 A visit to the great wall. Its origin, uses, and purpose described. 
 
 Grade 8 and teacher, 
 
 3. To show the children that China had a literature reaching back to 
 remote times, require them to spend some time in reading and discussing 
 references to the life and work of Confucius, the great sage of China, who 
 lived and v/rote more than 500 years before Christ. The best reference for 
 the children is the chapter, "Confucius and his Teachings," p. 166-213, in 
 Fielde, Adele M. , A Corner of Cathay. This describes in an interesting 
 manner the ancestry, the boyhood, and the work of Confucius. It also de-
 
 scribes the influence which Confucius exerted on his people and the esteem 
 in which he is now held by them. 
 
 For further references for children, see the following : 
 
 Butterworth, Hezekiah. Traveller tales of China, p. 55-57. 
 The maxims of Confucius. 
 
 Holcombe, Chester. The real Chinaman. 
 
 A good account of Confucius and his philosophy. Excellent for the 
 teacher. 
 
 Lee, Yan Phou. When I was a boy in China, p. 63-71. 
 
 A clear and simple account of the religions of China. Can be easily 
 read by Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 Library of the World's Best Literature. Vol. VI. p. 3629-3648., article, 
 " Literature of China." The founding of Chinese literature together 
 with copious extracts from the writings of Confucius and other 
 Chinese philosophers. Excellent for the teacher. 
 
 Martin, W. A. P. The lore of Cathay, p. 87-110. 
 
 The Confucian apocrj-pha and Confucius and Plato. Good for teach- 
 ers only. 
 
 Miln, L. J. Little folk of many lands, p. 216-218. 
 
 A brief statement of the teachings of Confucius. Grades 4, 5, 6. 
 
 Palmer, Bertha. Stories from the classic literature of many nations, 
 p. 10-16. Two stories taken from the "Five Classics" of China. 
 One is the ' 'Metal-bound Chest, ' ' the other ' 'The Peach-blossom Foun- 
 tain of Youth." Valuable in that these stories give the reader an 
 idea of the nature of one of the earliest Chinese volumes. Grades 7, 8. 
 
 Phillips, E. C. Peeps into China, p. 51-55. 
 
 Tells in a simple way what the Confucianists believe. 
 
 Pratt, Mara. Stories of China, p. 25-26 ; 30-33. 
 
 Tells of his life and his books. Gives a few quotations from his 
 writings and tells how his works are made the basis of the State exam- 
 inations. 
 
 Smith, A. H. Chinese characteristics, p. 307-313. 
 
 A discussion of the defects of Confucianism in comparison with 
 Christianity. For teachers, too heavy for children. 
 
 Smith, Mary Cate. Life in Asia. p. 163-165. 
 
 Brief account of Confucianism. Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 Van Bergen, R. The story of China, p. 126-133. 
 
 Excellent chapter on Confucius, his boyhood and his work. 
 
 Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 4. Another illustration of the age and development of China is to be 
 found in the several important inventions placed to her credit. Five cen- 
 turies before Caxton, in Loudon, had invented printing, the Chinese were 
 printing books from characters cut in wooden blocks. As early as 1700 
 years before Christ the Chinese were manufacturing a porcelain for domestic 
 uses which no European has yet been able to imitate. Nearly 5000 years 
 ago, it is said, the Chinese were rearing silk worms and making cloth from 
 the thread they gave. Besides these inventions and discoveries China has 
 
 10
 
 long been credited with having invented writing, paper, gunpowder, and the 
 mariner's compass, though this claim has been disputed by some. The 
 teacher should assign as many references to these inventions as she com- 
 mands. A few recitations devoted to a discussion of their importance in the 
 industrial world and to the degree of civilization they indicate should be given. 
 For children' s reading along these lines see the following : 
 
 Ball, J. Dyer. Things Chinese. 
 
 See articles "Silk," "Porcelain," "Potter>'," and "Printing." 
 
 Carpenter, Frank G, Asia. p. 141-143. 
 
 Describes the clay used in the manufacture of porcelain. Tells how 
 it is baked and decorated. Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 George, Marian. Little journeys to China and Japan, p. 7-8. 
 
 Tells of their inventions, age, and population. Grades 4, 5, 6. 
 
 Holcombe, Chester. The real Chinaman, p. 49-53. 
 
 Tells of the antiquity of the language, the difficulty it presents to the 
 foreigner, and the methods of writing and printing employed. Tells 
 about the discovery of printing and describes the method still used. 
 
 Martin, W. A. P. A cycle of Cathay, p. 307-309. 
 
 The invention of printing. Grade 8, 
 
 Martin, \V. A. P. The lore of Cathay, p. 23-32. 
 
 A detailed account of the inventions and discoveries of the Chinese 
 people. For the teacher. 
 
 Morse, Edward S. Glimpses of China and Chinese homes, p. 187-205. 
 
 Description of adventures on a trip 400 miles into the interior of 
 China to visit a potter's town. A very interesting account. Tells 
 how the potters' wheel is used and how the pots are baked. 
 
 Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 Pratt, Mara. Stories of China, p. 30. Brief account only. 
 
 Smith, Mary Cate. Life in Asia. p. 162-163. 
 
 Tells of the invention of printing and the little use made of it. 
 
 Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 Stoddard, John L. Lectures. Vol. III. p. 227-228. 
 
 Tells of the inventions which China has made. 
 
 Tarr and MoMurry. Complete geography, p. 407. 
 A brief statement of facts. 
 
 Van Bergen, R. A letter about China. St. Nicholas, XXVII, p. 1085-9. 
 
 An interesting account of the age, the inventions, and the wars of 
 China. Grades 4, 5, 6. 
 
 Wheeler, L. N. The Foreigner in China, p. 34-38. 
 
 Attempts to prove that China is not entitled to the credit for the above 
 inventions, but that she borrowed them from the West. 
 
 In the discussion of these and all preceding references the teacher must 
 not lose sight of the fact that she is seeking to establish in the minds of the 
 children o. feeling for the antiquity' of the Chinese nation. She has already 
 referred to the enlightened reforms introduced 3000 years before Christ 
 (sec. I.) ; she has discussed the details of the construction of one of the 
 world' s greatest wonders — the Chinese wall — to show the effectiveness of 
 
 II
 
 the Chinese government, two centuries before Christ (sec. 2.) ; she has 
 presented the life and work of Confucius, the founder of Chinese literature, 
 to establish the fact that ancient China possessed a high grade literature 
 (sec, 3.) ; and now she takes up the inventions credited to China (sec. 4.) — 
 all to show in a concrete way that at the time when Europe was but a battle- 
 field for barbarian hordes, China presented many of the aspects of a great 
 and enlightened nation pursuing the arts of peace, 
 
 Facts to be Remembered : 
 
 1. That 3000 years before Christ, China was ruled by enlightened em- 
 perors who coined money, made maps, drained marshes, constructed vessels, 
 and encouraged the building of villages and cities. 
 
 2. That the government of China in these early j-ears effectively pro- 
 tected its people from barbarian inroc.ds by planning and successfully com- 
 pleting one of the world's wonders — the great wall. 
 
 3. That the literature of China, founded by Confucius 500 j-ears before 
 Christ, indicates that China had reached a high degree of civilization. 
 
 4. That the invention of the compass, porcelain, paper, printing, waiting, 
 and the manufacture of silk in remote times show^s that very early in history 
 China emerged from barbarism and turned to those arts which make for 
 peace and enlightenment. 
 
 5. The children should be able to shade in an outline map of the world 
 and show the civilized areas at the time of Christ. In addition they should 
 be able to locate on an outline map of Eurasia all those places in China 
 which are mentioned in the " Course in the Essentials of Map Geography," 
 Chapter III, Bulletin No. 2. Besides this they should be expected to show 
 by shading, (i) the present empire of China, and (2) the ancient empire 
 whose northern boundary lay along the line of the great wall. 
 
 LeSvSON Unit II. // is a country densely populated along the seaboard and 
 the maiji waterways of the interior. 
 
 In at least two particulars China leads the world, /. e. in age and popula- 
 tion. It is .said that this region, with an area only twice that of the United 
 States, has a population equal to that of Europe and North and South 
 America together. If the whole population of the United States and 40,000,- 
 000 more were crowded into the State of Texas the density of population 
 would be about equal to that of the low plains of China proper, where a third 
 of the Chinese live. The towns, roads, and rivers in these regions fairly 
 swarm with human beings, and there are more towns and cities of hundreds 
 of thousands and millions of inhabitants than in any other country of the 
 world. The population is .so dense in parts that thousands of families have 
 been crowded off the land and live in houses built on rafts and boats, which 
 float on rivers and canals. In the attempt to find room for their habitations 
 in the most populous parts the people have terraced the hills and mountains, 
 in many sections, to a height of one thousand feet and covered the .space 
 with their hou.ses. 
 
 12
 
 The feeling we want the children to get for the hordes of people in the low 
 plains of China can never be secured by merely quoting the figures given by 
 statisticians. It can come only through class discussion based upon wide 
 reading. An anecdote such as Morse, Edward S., gives in Glimpses of 
 Chma and Chinese homes, p . 75-76, is w'orth more than pages of figures 
 which mean nothing to the child. He says, in Shanghai he once came upon 
 a backyard containing a mound of debris twenty-five feet high. He learned 
 that many years before there had been an extensive conflagration in the 
 neighborhood. This mass of broken tiling, brick, plastering, and ashes could 
 not be thrown into the shallow river as it would impede navigation, it could 
 not be carried out and dumped in the country for every inch of ground was 
 under cultivation. There was not a single place in the city or in the country 
 round where the debris could be dumped except in this one vacant backyard. 
 This tells the story of the density of the population better than sets of figures 
 could ever do. 
 
 We would suggest that the teacher would best direct the reading of her 
 children, in this connection, along the following lines: (i) Life on the 
 river boats. (2) Traveller tales of mobs, and crowded streets and paths. 
 (3) Extreme economy of the people in the field and in the home, rendered 
 necessary by the enormous population to be supported by the land. 
 
 A general view of China's population is given in the following references : 
 
 Ball, J. D. Things Chinese, p. 470-473, 
 Largely statistics for the teacher. 
 
 Ford, John D. An American cruiser in the East. p. 387. 
 Gives an estimate of the population. 
 
 George, Marian. Little journeys to China and Japan, p. 7-9. 
 
 Tells of the population. Grades 4, 5, 6. 
 
 Parsons, Wm. B. An American engineer in China, p. 291-303. 
 
 A careful discussion of the probable population of China, with the 
 conclusion that the general estimate is too large. For teacher. 
 
 Pratt, Mara. Stories of China, p. 42-47. 
 
 Smith, A. H. Village life in China, p. 17-19. 
 
 Describes an attempt to compute exactly the population of certain dis- 
 tricts and the conclusion drawn. For teacher. 
 
 Smith, Arthur H. Chinese characteristics, p. 144-151. 
 
 Tells of the remarkable physical vitality of the people and the effect 
 this has on the population. Grades 7, 8. 
 
 Wilson, J. H. China, p. 45-50. 
 
 A general survey of the population, together with a discussion of the 
 origin of the race. For teacher. 
 
 I. Life on ike river boats of China. 
 
 The following references will be found of value to the children in this 
 connection ; 
 
 Andrews, Jane. The seven little sisters, p. 57-70. 
 
 A pretty story of little Pen-se, who lived on a river boat in China. 
 
 Grades 4, 5, 6. 
 
 13
 
 Carpenter, Frank G. Asia. p. 134-141. 
 
 One of the best accounts for the children of the customs and habits of 
 the boat people. Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 Del Mar, Walter. Around the world through Japan, p. 59-90 ; 98-100. 
 Gives an idea of the dense mass of house boats in Canton. 
 
 Grade 7, 8. 
 
 George, Marian. Little journeys to China and Japan, p. 25-34. 
 
 Methods of transportation mentioned. Boats and how propelled. 
 
 Grades 4, 5, 6. 
 
 Krout, Mary H. Two girls in China, p. 52-61. 
 
 A journey on a house boat. An excellent description of the life of 
 the people on these boats. Grades 4, 5, 6. 
 
 Miller, Oliver T. Little people of Asia. p. 344-346. 
 
 Tells how the children and babies are cared for on the boats. 
 
 Grades 4, 5, 6. 
 
 Morse, Edward S. Glimpses of China and Chinese homes, p. 111-116. 
 Describes the throng of boats on the river at Canton. 
 
 Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 Phillips, E. C. Peeps into China, p. 134- 141 ; 161- 164. 
 
 Life on the river. Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 Pratt, Mara. Stories of China, p. 45-47 ; 85-89 ; 91-98. 
 
 An interesting description of boat life in various Chinese cities. 
 
 Grades 4, 5, 6, 
 
 Rupert, Wm. W. A geographical reader, p. 282-290. 
 
 A description of a scene on the river in Canton. Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 Smith, Mary Cate. Life in Asia. p. 158-160. 
 
 Customs of the people living on the boats. Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 Stoddard, John L. Lectures. Vol. III. p. 230-235 ; 246-249 ; 268-270 ; 
 295-296; 308-314. 
 
 An excellent description of the boat population of Hong Kong and 
 Canton. A story of the precautions which travellers must take when 
 entering these boats. Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 2. Traveller tales of mobs, and crowded streets and paths. 
 
 The children will find much valuable as well as interesting material 
 in the following references : 
 
 Carpenter, Frank G. Asia. p. 105-107; 111-120. 
 
 The sights and street scenes of Peking, the most populous city of 
 China. Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 Morse, Edward S. Glimpses of China and Chinese homes. p. 3-22 ; 
 111-129. 
 
 Interesting chapters describing a trip through Shanghai and Canton. 
 Gives one a good notion of the crowds, the labyrinth of narrow streets, 
 and the squalor and filth of Chinese cities. Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 Pratt, Mara. Stories of China, p. 67-74. 
 
 The sights to be seen by the traveller in the city of Peking. 
 
 Grades 4, 5, 6. 
 
 14
 
 3- Extreme economy of the people in the field and home, rendered necessary 
 by the enormous population to be supported by the land. 
 
 The children will find the following references among the most interesting 
 assigned on China. 
 
 Carpenter, Frank G. Asia. p. 143-145. 
 
 Recounts in simple language the thrift and economy of the farmers. 
 
 Fielde, Adele M. A corner of Cathay, p. 1-13 ; 14-23. 
 
 Two excellent chapters on the economy of the people practiced on the 
 farm and in the household. Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 Ford, John D. An American cruiser in the East. p. 387-391. 
 
 Details of how the farmers utilize every inch of space and the efforts 
 they make to fertilize the soil. Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 Holcombe, Chester.- The real Chinaman, p. 310-329. 
 
 A very interesting chapter on the poor in China. Gives concrete in- 
 stances of the extremity to which poverty has reduced the people. 
 
 Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 Scidmore, Eliza R. China : The long-lived empire, p. 14-15. 
 
 Tells what the wretched people resort to to keep from starving, in 
 times of floods. Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 Smith, A, H. Chinese characteristics, p. 19-26. 
 
 An excellent chapter on the economy practiced. Concrete instances 
 given. Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 Smith, Mary Cate. I^ife in Asia. p. 144-145. 
 
 The food of the Chinese and the extent to which agriculture is car- 
 ried. Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 Facts to be; Remembered. 
 
 1 . That one-third of the population of the world lives in China, whose 
 area is less than twice that of the United States. 
 
 2. That the population is so dense in the low plains along the coast that 
 millions of people have been crowded off the land and forced to live on boats 
 and rafts on the rivers and canals. 
 
 3. That every inch of land in the habitable part of China is under cul- 
 tivation. 
 
 4. That the Chinese have to practice an economy which we never have 
 experienced, to eke out a living from their over populated land. 
 
 Lesson Unit III. // is a country densely populated by a race characterized 
 by conservatism, stolidity, and non-progressiveness. 
 
 It is true of China, more than of any other nation in history, that cus- 
 toms once established are rarely changed. Proposed reforms in this field are 
 looked upon and resented by the Chinese as being a violation of sacred prac- 
 tices. Of the countless individuals who daily conform to the proprieties of 
 dress and the elaborate etiquette of home and public life, not one is con- 
 cerned in the least with the origin or the reason of his acts. Devotion to 
 precedent, carried further than mere habit, becomes almost a religion. 
 
 15
 
 Custom in the Empire has fixed the time when winter furs shall be re- 
 moved and straw hats put on. In sudden " cold snaps " travellers upon 
 requesting the landlord to heat their rooms are met with the reply, ' ' The 
 season for heating has not arrived." A foreigner in China once had occa- 
 sion to use a kind of square brick which was larger than those made in the 
 region. The Chinese foreman of the brick kiln, refused to permit any such 
 innovation declaring, as his reason, that "under the whole heavens there 
 was no such mould." A bride is not allowed to visit her mother for four 
 months after her marriage, and then only in the event that there has been 
 no death in the family or among the neighbors. A certain bride had waited 
 impatiently the time when she might see her mother who lived but two miles 
 away. Just before the time came, her mother's neighbor died and the 
 daughter's visit was delayed one hundred days on that account. Before this 
 period expired, the bride's mother-in-law died, and according to custom the 
 bride went into mourning for three years. Before putting off mourning she 
 bore a son which made it necessary to again delay her visit for several 
 months. When custom finally permitted her to see her mother, the daugh- 
 ter found her insane as a result of the delay. 
 
 This blind and obstinate adherence of the Chinese to the waj'S of the 
 past, accounts for the fact that China, once the superior of other nations in 
 enlightenment, is now very far from being their peer. 
 
 These characteristics of conservatism, stolidity, and non-progressive- 
 ness are the general notions which the children are to draw from many such 
 concrete incidents and illustrations. It is by no means possible to take up 
 all the customs which illustrate this spirit of conservatism. To avoid des- 
 ultory and hap-hazard work it will be well, therefore, to assign reading 
 along but a few of the many lines which are at the option of the teacher. 
 We would suggest the following topics which best illustrate the force of 
 Chinese custom. 
 
 ( 1 ) The practice of foot binding among the women and of wearing long 
 finger nails by both women and men as marks of high birth and breeding. 
 
 (2) The methods employed in manual labor. 
 
 (3) Chinese means of transportation and the attitude of the people 
 toward the introduction of the railroad. 
 
 (4) Ceremonial life. 
 
 (5) Educational practices. 
 
 I . The practice of foot binding among the ivomen and the 7vearing of long 
 finger nails by both men and women^ as marks of high birth ayid good breeding. 
 
 It seems to us astonishing that mothers have the heart to force their 
 children to undergo such continuous suffering for a period ranging from five 
 to eight years, as this practice of foot binding entails. Yet the custom has 
 prevailed in China for more than a thousand years. To understand the 
 practice we must remember that the Chinese aristocrat is as proud and jeal- 
 ous of the good name of his family as the bluest-blooded European noble. 
 He is very careful not to do anything that will in any way lower him and 
 
 16
 
 his family in the estimation of his neighbors. If his daughters were per- 
 mitted to grow up without conforming to this practice they would not be 
 recognized as ladies and would therefore disgrace their father's name. Such 
 is the force of the custom that numerous instances have been known of little 
 girls who, when their parents were persuaded by missionaries to refrain from 
 the practice, actually procured bandages and tried to do the binding them- 
 selves. (Pratt, Stories of China, '^. 189-192.) 
 
 It is this notion of the tremendous force of tradition which will cause 
 the people to undergo not only inconvenience but great physical suffering 
 which is the teacher's excuse for presenting the details of this disgusting 
 practice. While the children should read the details given in the following 
 references, it will be well for the teacher to confine class discussion to bring- 
 ing out the Chinese view of the custom. In this manner the teacher can 
 best develop the notion of how much more diflBcult it is for the Chinese to 
 break away from custom than it is for us. 
 
 For other references to children's reading see the following : 
 
 Andrews, Jane. Seven little sisters, p. 65-67. 
 How little Pen-se's feet are bound. 
 
 Bryson, Mrs. M, I. Home life in China, p. 99-103. 
 
 The details of the practice given and reasons advanced for its origin. 
 
 Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 Carpenter, F. G. Geographical reader, Asia. p. 156-157. 
 
 The practice described with illustrations. Grades 5, 6, 7, 
 
 Feudge, Fannie R. How I kept the Chinese New- Year. St. Nicholas, 
 vol. III. p. 225-227. 
 
 Description of a beautiful Chinese girl and her sufferings during the 
 practice. Grades 4, 5, 6. 
 
 Ford, John D. An American cruiser in the East. p. 340-341. 
 The practice described. 
 
 George, Marian. Little journeys to China and Japan, p. 51-53. 
 
 Suffering caused. Grades 4, 5, 6. 
 
 Holcombe, Chester. The real Chinaman, p. 102-103; I35- 
 
 The reasons why the nails are worn long and the pains taken to keep 
 them from being broken. An offer made to a Chinese beggar for his 
 finger nails and the result. Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 Krout, Mary H. Two girls in China, p. 75-76 ; 11 2-1 16. 
 The practices and why the people still follow them. 
 
 Grades 4, 5, 6. 
 
 Knox, T. W. Boy travellers in Japan and China, p. 417. 
 Custom described. 
 
 Lee, Yan Phou. When I was a boy in China, p. 46-49. 
 
 Tells of the family pride which compels the practice. Describes the 
 sufferings undergone during the operation. Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 Little, Mrs. Archibald. Intimate China, p. 91-111. 
 
 The reasons for the practice, the method of binding, the terrible re- 
 sults of the practice and the movement looking toward the abolish- 
 ment of this practice. Illustrations. Grades 7, 8. 
 
 17
 
 Little, Mrs. Archibald. The land of the blue gown. p. 305-370. 
 
 Progress of the anti-foot binding movement. For teacher. 
 
 Miller, Olive Thorne. Little people of Asia. p. 316-318; 340. 
 
 The force of custom portraj^ed. Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 Miln, Louise J. Little folk of many lands, p. 201-215. 
 
 An admirably written sketch of Li Loo, the favorite child of a wealthy 
 mandarin. Tells of many customs, among others that of foot bind- 
 ing, how it is done, wh}^ and the origin of the practice. 
 
 Grades 4, 5, 6. 
 
 Morse, Edward S. Glimpses of China and Chinese homes, p. 34-36; 
 
 129-131- 
 
 Describes the details of the operation and enumerates the theories 
 which have been advanced for its origin. Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 Phillips, E. C. Peeps into China, p. 86-88. 
 
 Simple story of the practice. Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 Scidmore, E. R. China: the long-lived empire, p. 188-189:452. 
 
 Gives reasons why this custom is still practiced. Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 Stoddard, J. L. Lectures, vol. III. p. 305-308. 
 
 A good description of the practice of growing long finger nails and of 
 foot binding. 
 
 Wilson, J. H. China, p. 50-52. 
 
 The age of the custom. The force of the tradition. 
 
 For teachers and 8th grade. 
 
 2. The meihods employed in manual labor. 
 
 A Chinese farmer can purchase a complete outfit, it is said, for forty 
 dollars. His plow will cost him $2. He will need a pair of harrows and 
 a fanning mill at a cost of $4. A pump worked by treadles to irrigate his 
 farm will cost him another $4. His water buffalo will cost him $20, and $10 
 will cover the cost of sickles, hoes, baskets and sundries. Total $40, for a 
 complete farming outfit in China. (See Fielde, A coriier of Cathay, p. 6.) 
 
 The plow is made of wood to which is fastened a bit of hammered iron, 
 which throws a furrow the width of one's hand. The harrow is a heavy stick 
 armed with a single row of stout wooden teeth and furnished with a frame- 
 work to guide it. No carts or wagons are ever used. Man is his own beast 
 of burden. All purposes of porterage are served by the carrying-pole which 
 is supported by his shoulder. At the first suggestion of Western methods 
 the Chinese laugh and tell you that their way is the best, for ' ' Did not our 
 fathers and our grandfathers farm in the same manner ?" 
 
 The Chinese coolie who is given a foreign sickle, bright and sharp, re- 
 ceives it with a smile, but is seen the next day cutting his grain with a bit 
 of old iron, four inches in length and fitted to a rude handle. The washer- 
 man is provided with a foreign washing machine, which saves time, labor, 
 soap, and the clothing to be wa.shed. He is given a patent wringer which 
 requires no strength, and does not damage the fabrics. The washing ma- 
 chine and the wringer are .soon set aside and the washerman continues to 
 .scrub and wrench the garments into holes and .shreds as in former days. 
 
 18
 
 "The old is better," each says, (See Smith, Chinese characteristics^ p. 75.) 
 It is this notion of the unwillingness of the Chinese to employ any of 
 the labor-saving devices used in Western nations which the teacher should 
 seek to establish through the children's reading and by means of class dis- 
 cussions. Bring out that only the simplest and rudest machinery either in 
 the arts or in agriculture is ever used, and that the time required for produc- 
 tion makes everything intrinsically costly. This is particularly apparent in 
 connection with the Chinese tea trade, which she is fast losing, because India 
 and Ceylon have introduced labor-saving machinery and therefore can pro- 
 duce the tea more cheaply. China suffers because she does not invent. 
 
 For references to reading for the children along the line of methods of 
 labor, see the following : 
 
 Carpenter, F. G. Asia. p. 143-154. 
 
 An interesting description of the methods employed in farming. Well 
 illustrated. Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 Fielde, Adele. A corner of Cathay, p. 1-13. 
 
 An interesting chapter on farm life. Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 Ford, John D. An American cruiser in the East. p. 388-390. 
 
 Holcombe, Chester, The real Chinaman, p. 80-83. 
 
 Tells of seeing a plow drawn by a cow, a donkey, and the farmer's 
 wife, the three harnessed and pulling together. Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 Knox, T. W. Boy travellers in Japan and China, p. 332-334. 
 Rural scenes. Methods of agriculture. 
 
 Krout, Mary H. Two girls in China, p. 59-60 ; 101-102. 
 
 Plowing with water-buffalo and the crude method of sawing lumber 
 by hand. Illustrated. Grades 4, 5, 6. 
 
 Parsons, Wm. B. An American engineer in China, p. 96-98 ; 219-220. 
 Describes some of the crude methods of farming and irrigation. 
 
 Grades 7, 8. 
 
 Pratt, Mara. Stories of China, p, 49-51. 
 
 Shows how crude are the methods employed in agriculture. 
 
 Grades 4, 5, 6. 
 
 Smith, A. H. Village life in China, p. 44-48. 
 
 Describes the village well and the crude method of digging it. 
 
 Grades 7, 8. 
 
 3. Methods of travel and the attitude of the people toward the introduction 
 of the railroad. 
 
 One can tell much regarding the civilization and progressiveness of any 
 country by an examination of its modes of travel. In China rapid transit is 
 not the issue of the hour. The demands of the millions of people in 
 Northern China are satisfied, just as they were thirty centuries ago, by the 
 two- wheeled carts made without seat or springs. In the South, because of 
 the wretched condition of the roads, the sedan chair supported on the 
 shoulders of coolies is the principal mode of conveyance. In other parts of 
 the empire immense wheelbarrows loaded with both passengers and goods 
 are familiar sights. 
 
 19
 
 The slowness of the people to adopt new ways is illustrated by their 
 attitude toward the first railway built in China. After patronizing it enthu- 
 siastically for a time, the Chinese bought it from its owners, tore up the 
 rails and threw them into the river, and sent the locomotives to Formosa 
 where they rusted on the beach. (Scidmore, Chma : the lo?ig-lived empire, 
 p. 220.) 
 
 The teacher must bear in mind constantly throughout the discussions of 
 this and of the other topics suggested that she is presenting details not so 
 much for their own sake as for the purpose of establishing the general notion 
 in the child's mind, that the Chinese people are conservative, and non- 
 progressive in the extreme. 
 
 For references to concrete material see the following : 
 
 Carpenter, Frank G. Asia. p. 107-111. 
 
 Description of the wheelbarrow in use. Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 Del Mar, Walter. Around the world through Japan, p. 112-113. 
 
 Describes a wheelbarrow ride in Shanghai. Grades 7, 8. 
 
 Ford, John D. An American cruiser in the East. p. 294; 392-393. 
 
 The prejudice against the railroad described. An anecdote given to 
 show their hostility. Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 George, Marian. Little journeys to China and Japan, p. 25-26. 
 
 The opposition of China to the railroads. Grades 4, 5, 6. 
 
 Krout, Mary H. Two girls in China, p. 49-51 ; 85-89. 
 
 Description of the sedan chairs and how they are used. Attitude of 
 people toward railroads. Grades 4, 5, 6. 
 
 Little, Mrs. Archibald. The land of the blue gown. p. 40-41. 
 Excellent picture of the wheelbarrow. 
 
 Miller, Olive T. Little people of Asia. p. 307-308. 
 
 Use of the wheelbarrow. Illustration. Grades 4, 5, 6. 
 
 Parsons, Wm. B. An American engineer in China, p. 221-224 ; 245-285. 
 An interesting chapter on methods of transportation on both land and 
 water. This is one of the best references for children on this topic I 
 know. The history of railroad building in China also given. The 
 attitude of the people portrayed. Grade 8 and teacher. 
 
 Phillips, E. C. Peeps into China, p. 38-41 ; 97-99. 
 
 Description of carts, wheelbarrows, and boats. Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 Pratt, Mara. Stories of China, p. 67-70. 
 
 Sedan chairs, carts, and wheelbarrows described. Grades 4, 5, 6. 
 
 Scidmore, Eliza R. China: the long-lived empire, p. 14-19; 180-281. 
 Much interesting material. 
 
 Smith, A. H. Chinese characteristics, p. 122-124. 
 
 Attitude toward the introduction of the railroad and the telegraph. 
 
 Grades 7, 8. 
 
 Smith, Mary Cate. Life in Asia. p. 142-144. 
 
 Methods of transportation described and hostility to the introduction 
 of railroads mentioned. Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 Smith, A. H. Village life in China, p. 35-43. 
 
 An interesting description of the condition of Chinese roads and of 
 the laborious methods employed in ferrying across streams. 
 
 Grades 7, 8. 
 
 20
 
 Stoddard, J. L. Lectures, vol. III. p. 253-258. 
 Reason for Chinese opposition to railroads. 
 
 Wilson, J. H. China, p. 82-84. 
 
 Tells of the difl&culties in the way of the introduction of railroads. 
 
 For teacher. 
 
 4. Ceremonial life. 
 
 In rigid adherence to outward forms China excels all other nations. 
 Much of her politeness, however, has degenerated into mere mannerism. 
 Still, the form survives, and makes up by the minuteness of detail and the 
 rigidity of exaction what it lacks in spirit. The system of etiquette in be- 
 coming fixed and crystalized has also become highly complicated and tedious 
 in its forms. It is impossible to overestimate the importance which the 
 Chinese, of all ranks and classes, attach to these trifling details of etiquette. 
 (See Holcombe, The real Chi7iaman.) 
 
 The teacher will find many interesting incidents and stories in the 
 following references, which will illustrate the above remarks. She can 
 profitably spend one or two lessons in discussing the utter lack of reason in 
 the mass of forms and how the rigid exaction of these customs tends to re- 
 tard the progress of the people. 
 
 For references see the following : 
 
 Fielde, Adele M. A corner of Cathay, p. 49-70. 
 
 A very interesting chapter on mortuary customs. Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 Holcombe, Chester. The real Chinaman, p. 171-179; 261-285. 
 
 The etiquette of the queue. The origin of the custom of wearing it 
 and the esteem in which it is now held. The serious matter made of 
 queue cutting. The story of the etiquette of a cup of tea and the re- 
 sult of its violation. A very interesting chapter. Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 Martin, W. A. P. A cycle of Cathay, p. 323-325. 
 
 Incidents of a rigid adherence to ceremony. Grade 8. 
 
 Miln, Louise J. Little folk of many lands, p. 193-200. 
 
 The story of " O Man," a Chinese foundling. Shows the ceremonial 
 life of a child. Interesting. Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 Parsons, Wm. B. An American engineer in China, p. 127-147. 
 
 An interesting chapter characterizing the qualities of the Chinese 
 people. Full of incidents and illustrations. Grades 7, 8, 
 
 Pratt, Mara. Stories of China, p. 129-131. 
 
 The flattering terms and phrases used in polite conversation. 
 
 Grades 5, 6, 7, 
 
 Price, Harrie. Our neighbor John. St. Nicholas, vol. XX. p. 64-66. 
 
 An interesting account of the customs of the Chinese which are the 
 direct opposite of our own. Speaks of the inventions which have 
 been made by the Chinese. Well illustrated. Grades 3, 4, 5. 
 
 Smith, A. H. Chinese characteristics, p. 33-40 ; 102-103 .' 300-302. 
 
 An interesting chapter on Chinese politeness. Many incidents of the 
 rigid ceremony required. A comparison given between the Chinese 
 and the Anglo-Saxons with respect to love of ceremony. 
 
 Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 21
 
 Smith, Mary Gate. Life in Asia. p. 166-170. 
 
 The ceremony over a cup of tea and the rigid rules regarding dress. 
 
 5. Educational practices. 
 
 The teacher should assign the references on the educational system of 
 China which follow. She should first have the children tell about the 
 quaint ceremonies performed when the child first enters school, about the 
 studies he pursues, and about the queer ways the children have of studying 
 aloud and reciting with their backs turned toward the teacher. After this 
 interesting material has been presented bring out in further discussions that 
 China has no system of public instruction, and hence all learning is acquired 
 in private classes ; that the course in instruction consists in a study of the 
 writings of Confucius and other ancient scholars ; that all applicants for 
 public oflSces must pass a series of examinations on these classics before they 
 are given an office ; that their studies everywhere admonish the student to 
 be good, and just, and honest, but no mention is ever made of telegraphy, 
 railroads, surgery, or anything pertaining to present day western civiliza- 
 tion ; and that in consequence the many years spent in study in no way fits 
 the student for the duties he is expected to perform in his official life. Con- 
 crete illustrations, to be found in abundance in the following references, 
 should be given by the children as the points are taken up in discussion. 
 
 For children's reading see the following references : 
 
 Bryson, Mrs. M. I. Home life in China, p. 56-74. 
 
 Excellent chapter on school life. Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 Fielde, Adele M. A corner of Cathay, p. 94-110. 
 
 Tells of teachers' salary, the ceremonies performed upon opening 
 school, punishments, methods of study and recitation, the course of 
 study, and examinations. Excellent. Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 George, Marian. Little journeys to China and Japan, p. 57-59. 
 
 A description of a Chinese school. Grades 4, 5, 6. 
 
 Krout, Mary H. Two girls in China, p. 154-163. 
 
 An account of a Chinese mission school. Grades 4, 5, 6. 
 
 Lee, Yan Phou. When I was a boy in China, p. 50-62. 
 
 Chapter on schools and school life. Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 Little, Mrs. Archibald. Intimate China, p. 67 ; 203-219. 
 
 Describes the babble of voices to be heard in the schools. Treats also 
 the courses of study, and the examinations which the students are re- 
 quired to take. Grades 7, 8. 
 
 Martin, W. A. P. The lore of Cathay, p. 281-383. 
 
 An exhaustive survey of the educational system and practice. 
 
 For teacher. 
 
 Miln, Louise J. Little folk of many lands, p. 190-191. 
 
 The ceremony when a boy enters school. Methods of study and 
 recitation. Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 Morse, Edward S. Glimpses of China and Chinese homes, p. 172-176. 
 
 Description of the examination hall in Canton, and the absurd nature 
 of the questions propounded in the examination. Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 22
 
 Pratt, Mara L. Stories of China, p. 179-194, 
 
 The child's clothing, the furniture of the schoolroom, the Chinese 
 language, and the methods of study. Grades 4, 5, 6. 
 
 Smith, A. H. Chinese characteristics, p. 28-29 I 251. 
 
 The defects of the educational system. The patience which aspirants 
 for honors in the examinations exercise. Methods of study and reci- 
 tation. Grade 8. 
 
 Stoddard, John I,. lectures, vol. III. p. 326-332. 
 
 Description of the competitive examinations which are given to de- 
 termine political rank. Grades 7, 8, 
 
 Van Bergen, R. The story of China, p. 44-51 ; 96-104. 
 
 Tells how public officers are appointed, and what the boys learn at 
 school. Illustrated. Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 Facts to be remembered : 
 
 1. That the practice of foot binding illustrates the tremendous force of 
 tradition in China. 
 
 2. That the methods employed in manual labor are extremely crude and 
 laborious. 
 
 3. That transportation is slow and is carried on now as it was centuries 
 ago by wheelbarrows, sedan chairs, carts, and by rude boats poled about 
 the rivers and canals. 
 
 4. That the accumulated etiquette of ages is trifling and senseless, but 
 that its demands are rigidly enforced, which results in the repression of any 
 tendency toward progress. 
 
 5. That the studies of those preparing for official life in noway deal with 
 present day practices, and hence in no way prepares for the duties of public 
 service. 
 
 6. That all of the above goes to prove that as a race the Chinese are con- 
 servative, stolid, and non-progressive. 
 
 Lesson Unit IV. The Chinese race is characterized by conservatism^ sto- 
 lidity , and Tion-progressiveness, due largely to their religion of ancestor worship, 
 which leads them to regard new customs as vicious. 
 
 I. China, at the dawn of history, had a national religion which recog- 
 nized the worship of the Supreme Ruler ; the worship of powers presumed to 
 preside over departments of nature ; and the worship of decea.sed ancestors. 
 In these later years, the Supreme Ruler is considered too august to be ap- 
 proached by ordinary mortals ; the priests and magistrates attend to the 
 worship of the other divinities ; but the worship of ancestors is obligatory on 
 all and therefore constitutes the very heart of the religion of China. Every 
 household has somewhere within its doors a small shrine, in which are de- 
 posited the tablets of ancestors, and of all deceased members of the family 
 who have passed the age of infancy. In these tablets, according to popular 
 belief, dwell the spirits of the dead. Since these spirits are powerful to work 
 good or ill to their descendants they must be propitiated by offerings. In 
 consequence, before these tablets there ascends the smoke of daily incense, 
 
 23
 
 and twice in the month offerings of fruit and flowers are presented, accom- 
 panied by the most solemn obeisances. (See Martin, The lore of Cathay, p. 
 264-278.) 
 
 This system not only underlies the religion of the Chinese people, but 
 most of their everyday acts as well. Social customs, judicial decisions, ap- 
 pointments to the office of prime minister, and even the succession to the 
 throne are influenced by it. It explains why there are no bachelors in 
 China, for every man must marry and rear sons to perform this rite, essen- 
 tial to his eternal happiness, at his grave. This service also explains why 
 such great stress is laid upon the return of a dead body from the greatest 
 distances for burial in the ancestral ground. If buried elsewhere the unfor- 
 tunate soul of the departed is doomed throughout eternity to wander up and 
 down the earth, unhoused, unfed, uncared for, unknown, forever an outcast. 
 
 Ancestral worship in its effect on the Chinese nation is a chain which 
 binds the present generation to the generations of the past. Through it the 
 millions of the living Chinese are under the most galling subjection to the 
 hundreds of millions who are dead. The Golden Age of the Chinese lies in 
 the past. The present and the things of the present are held to be inferior 
 and hence are to be depreciated. The highest ideal of the present is, there- 
 fore, imitation of the past. This, then, explains what seems at first but 
 blind and obstinate adherence to the ways and customs of the past and why 
 an invasion of these is regarded by the Chinese as an invasion of sacred 
 regions. 
 
 In topic III the children saw in foot-binding an illustration of the force 
 of custom and tradition ; in the crude methods employed in the various 
 forms of manual labor they saw how tenaciously the Chinese hold to the 
 past ; in the primitive methods of transportation they realized the strength 
 of the dislike to new ways ; and in their discussion of the rigid exactions of 
 ceremonial life, the children learned how the progress of the people is re- 
 tarded. All these points, the teacher will remember, were parts of a lesson 
 unit the aim of which was to present a mass of related details from which 
 the children were to draw the general notion that the Chinese people are 
 conservative, stolid, and non-progressive. 
 
 The general notion is presumed, therefore, to have been gotten, and in 
 presenting the details of the practice of ancestor worship it is the teacher's 
 purpose to give the children the means for explaining what they have al- 
 ready learned as a fact. She must not lose sight of the fact, in this connec- 
 tion, that her presentation is primarily not for the sake of the interest the 
 details give, but solely because of their significance in accounting for Chinese 
 antagonism to Western ways. 
 
 For children's reading see the following : 
 
 Ball, J. D. Things Chinese, p. 25-29. 
 
 A good discussion of the practice, together with the story of its origin. 
 
 For the teacher. 
 
 24
 
 Butterworth, Hezekiah. Traveler tales of China, p. 58-83 ; 84-88. 
 
 Ghost thanks — a story of Ginseng. A very interesting story which 
 shows the respect the Chinese pay to the bodies of their fellows. The 
 silent mystery of f ung shui — ancestor worship. An interesting de- 
 scription. Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 George, Marian. lyittle journeys to China and Japan, p. 41. 
 
 The room set apart for worship. Grades 4, 5, 6, 
 
 Holcombe, Chester. The real Chinaman, p. 123-125. 
 
 The theory and its application. Why the bodies of the Chinese dead 
 are returned to their native country. The ancestral tablet. 
 
 Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 Krout, Mary H. Two girls in China, p. 144-145. 
 
 The ancestral hall described. Grades 4, 5, 6, 
 
 Martin, W. A. P. The lore of Cathay, p. 264-278. 
 
 Ancestor worship in relation to other religions and to the social order 
 of China. For teacher. 
 
 Miln, Louise J. Little folk of many lands, p. 189-191, 
 
 A description of the custom. Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 Pratt, Mara. Stories of China, p. 126-128. 
 
 The Chinese theory of the custom. The ancestral tablet described. 
 
 Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 Smith, A. H. Chinese characteristics, p. 184-185. 
 
 A description of the system. Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 Smith, Mary Cate. Life in Asia. p. 163-165. 
 
 The use of the ancestral tablet. Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 2. The worship of ancestors is not all bad. Its good side lies in the re- 
 spect and care which the Chinese people exercise towards their parents. 
 One of the most pleasing features of the home life of these people is the def- 
 erence and respect which the younger members of the family show to their 
 elders. Such phrases as "the old man," " the governor," and " the old 
 woman," are not to be found in their language. Age is invariably respected 
 and honored. A ragged, dirty, foul-mouthed beggar woman upon the 
 streets is never addressed by any other term than "venerable lady." (See 
 Holcombe, The real Chinaman. ) Neither does obedience to parents cease 
 when the child is grown. Frequently a man after he is married and has a 
 family of his own will ask permission of his mother when he wishes to go on 
 the streets after dark. A traveller relates that a Chinese millionaire, forty 
 years of age, was asked to dinner by the American consul. He replied, " I 
 think I can come, but I must first ask my mama." It is said in the " Filial 
 piety classic" that : "There are three thousand crimes in which one or the 
 other of five kinds of punishment is attached as a penalty, and of these no 
 one is greater than disobedience to parents." 
 
 The Chinese have a proverb that, " of a hundred virtues, love for 
 parents is the most worthy." The worst crimes which a Chinese is capable 
 of committing are those against parents. Death is the penalty for striking a 
 parent, and if a son were to kill his father, his execution would be per- 
 formed after the most horrible method human ingenuity has yet devised — 
 
 25
 
 that of tying the culprit to a cross and slowly slicing him into pieces. (See 
 Carpenter, Asia.) 
 
 There are constantly arising extraordinary instances of how Chinese 
 sons and daughters deny and sacrifice themselves for their parents. A trav- 
 eller tells of an instance which came under his own observation. A prisoner 
 accused of robbery, was thought to have accomplices. In the effort to make 
 him implicate others he was most cruelly beaten and tortured. It was dis- 
 covered at a later time that he had never committed the robbery at all, but 
 had given himself up in the place of his father who was the real culprit. 
 (See Phillips, Peeps into China.) The Chinese believe that serious cases 
 of illness of parents can only be cured by having the parent unwittingly eat 
 a broth made from a piece of flesh cut from the arm or the leg of the son or 
 daughter. Mr. Smith, in his Chinese characteristics, says that he was per- 
 sonally acquainted with a young man who cut off a slice of his leg to cure 
 his mother, and who exhibited the scar with much pride. In Peking there 
 is a great, bronze bell whose deep, rich tones can be heard at great distances. 
 It is centuries old, and is larger than any other bell in the world. It is said 
 that when the Emperor ordered it cast, all the master molders of the empire 
 were summoned to Peking. The metal was collected — great quantities of 
 gold, silver, and brass — and the furnace fires were lighted. But the metals 
 refused to mix, and three times the bell was cast without success. At last 
 the Emperor warned the mandarin-in-charge that death awaited him if he 
 failed again. The mandarin had a beautiful daughter who upon learning of 
 her father's danger consulted a soothsayer who told her that in order to make 
 the metals unite, they must be mixed with human blood. On the day when 
 the bell was to be cast for the fourth time, Ko-N'gai, the daughter, begged 
 permission to go with her nurse to see the metal poured into the mold. They 
 stood on the platform looking down upon the seething mass of brass and 
 gold, boiling and bubbling, and when the final moment came, Ko-N'gai 
 cried: " For thy sake, O, my father ! " and leaped into the molten metal. 
 As she sprang her nurse tried to catch and hold her, but Ko-N'gai slipped 
 through her grasp and left only one tiny shoe in the nurse's hands. When 
 the bell is sounded and its tones die away, the Chinese say that they can 
 hear the voice of Ko-N'gai calling " Hi-ai " and then the Chinese mothers 
 say to their little ones : 
 
 "Listen! that is Ko-N'gai; that is Ko-N'gai crying for her shoe." 
 (Taken from Krout, Two girls in China, p. 137-140.) 
 
 Stories such as this are daily repeated to the children until they are 
 wrought into the very fibre of their nature, so that it is of little wonder that 
 filial piety becomes the greatest of all virtues in Chinese eyes. In fact 
 Chine.se children have a little book called, " Twenty-four examples of filial 
 piety" which they read and study as our children do the Mother Goose 
 rhymes. Each of these stories recounts the incidents of a child who has 
 gained great honor and reputation for the love and care which he has given 
 his parents under most difficult and trying circumstances. (Several of these 
 stories are given in Mara Pratt's, Stories 0/ China, p. 161-166.) It is safe 
 
 26
 
 to say that this book has been a large factor in shaping the ideals of the 
 masses of China along this line of filial piety. 
 
 The incidents given above are but an indication of the nature of the 
 material contained in the following references. The teacher could well 
 spend two or three recitations in discussing with the children this aspect of 
 ancestor worship. It might be well for them to contrast the attitude of 
 Chinese children toward their parents with that of American children toward 
 theirs. If this is handled tactfully by the teacher it cannot but have a very 
 healthful reaction on the children. 
 
 For references to the best children' s reading see the following : 
 
 Ball, J. D. Things Chinese, p. 236-238. 
 
 A description of what it means, with instances of extraordinary 
 self-denial related. 
 
 Bryson, Mrs. M. I. Home life in China, p. 66-74. 
 
 A collection of stories taken from the ' ' Twenty-four examples of 
 filial piety," the children's reading book of China, and which have 
 influenced the rising generations to a remarkable degree. Also the 
 story of Moh-lau, the daughter of a famous Chinese general, who, 
 upon the sickness of her father, bravely placed herself at the head of 
 his army. Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 Carpenter, Frank G. Asia. p. 123-125. 
 
 Some good illustrations of the relations of parents and children. 
 
 Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 Fielde, Adele M. A corner of Cathay, p. 82-86. 
 
 Instance related of the sacrifice a young man made for his father. 
 
 Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 Holcombe, Chester. The real Chinaman, p. 34-35 ; 43-45 ; 89-92. 
 
 Tells of the strict provisions of the Chinese code regarding the pun- 
 ishment of anyone using abusive language toward his parents. Por- 
 trays the deference and respect shown to parents by the younger 
 members of the family. Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 Krout, Mary H. Two girls in China, p. 118-119 ; 139-140. 
 
 The reasons for the regard in which the Empress Dowager is held. 
 Chinese legend of the devotion of a young man to his mother. Legend 
 of the great bell and how a beautiful daughter sacrificed herself to 
 save her father from death. Grades 4, 5, 6. 
 
 I^e, Yan Phou. When I was a boy in China, p. 18-21. 
 
 A simply written account of the condition of the mind of a Chinese 
 boy. Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 Lee, Yan Phou. The boys and girls of China. St. Nicholas, vol. XVII. 
 p. 362-363. 
 
 An account of the attitude of boys to their parents, also a description 
 of their games. Grades 4, 5, 6. 
 
 Little, Mrs. Archibald. Intimate China, p. 112-114. 
 
 An incident of a daughter's devotion. Grades 7, 8. 
 
 Martin, W. A. P. A cycle of Cathay, p. 11 5- 11 6. 
 
 Stories taken from the " Twenty-four examples of filial piety." An 
 account of how a young man evaded punishment for striking his 
 father. Grade 8. 
 
 27
 
 Martin, W. A. P. The lore of Cathay, p. 106-110. 
 
 The quibbles which arise over filial duty. Interesting material for 
 teacher to use for illustrative purposes. 
 
 Pratt, Mara. Stories of China, p. 128-131 ; 160-165. 
 
 Relation of parents to children. Five stories of filial piety which are 
 repeated to Chinese children until they have learned them as other 
 children learn the catechism. Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 Smith, A. H. Chinese characteristics, p. 1 71-185. 
 
 An excellent chapter on the relations between parents and children. 
 Many concrete instances are given. Teacher and grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 Stoddard, John L,. Lectures, vol. III. p. 302. 
 
 An account of the self-sacrifice undergone by a young girl to effect 
 her mother's cure. Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 Facts to be remembered : 
 
 1 . That ancestor worship underlies both the religion and the every day 
 acts of the Chinese people. 
 
 2. That its effect is to bind the Chinese people to the past and to the 
 ways of the past. 
 
 3. That it explains why China is conservative and non-progressive in 
 her ways. 
 
 4 . That its good side lies in the respect and the care which it causes the 
 Chinese people to exercise toward their parents. 
 
 Lesson Unit V. // is a region famous for its production of rice, tea, and 
 silk. 
 
 I . Rice : 
 
 Although the Chinese government forbids the exportation of rice, there 
 being not enough produced in some seasons for home consumption, still 
 China's total production is greater than that of any other region. For this 
 reason and for the further reason that the Chinese are known to the popular 
 mind as a nation of rice eaters we suggest that the study of this industry be 
 made in connection with the study of China. If the teacher follows this 
 with a survey of other rice regions, bringing out ])y comparison and contrast 
 with China the methods employed and the extent of the industry, this topic 
 will take its proper and correct shape in the child's mind. 
 
 The best accounts for the children of how rice is grown and prepared 
 for the market are to be found in Chamberlain, How we are fed, p. 70-76, 
 and in Kirby, Aiint Martha' s corner cupboard, p. 121- 134. These accounts 
 tell, in language which will interest the children, how the growing rice re- 
 quires a great deal of moisture and warmth ; how the ripened grain in China 
 is cut by hand ; how it is thrashed out and hulled by rude, laborious 
 methods ; how the rice grains are polished to make them more marketable ; 
 and finally what improvements have been introduced in its cultivation and 
 preparation for market in the rice regions of our own country. These two 
 articles can very well be made the ba.sis for the discussion of the topic. 
 
 28
 
 In the assignment of reading and in her class discussions the teacher 
 should now turn to rice cultivation and production in other regions. She 
 should require her children to locate the regions of the world which have 
 the combination of warmth and rainfall, which is essential to the profitable 
 pursuit of the industry. The children should locate those parts of the 
 above regions which produce rice in considerable quantities. (The accom- 
 panying map will show these areas to the teacher.) 
 
 Fig. 4, Showing the rice regions of the world. 
 
 The thought should be brought out that in the culture of rice, ma- 
 chinery can not be used to any great advantage on account of the muddy 
 condition of the fields. Consequently those countries, as China and Bur- 
 mah, where labor is cheap, will probably always lead the world in the quan- 
 tity of the grain produced. 
 
 For references to the children's reading see the following : 
 
 Andrews, C. C. Brazil : condition and prospects. 
 Rice in Brazil. 
 
 Andrews, Jane. Seven little sisters, p. 61-63. 
 
 I^ittle Pen-se eats her rice with chop sticks. 
 
 Ball, John D. Things Chinese, p. 514-515. 
 A short article on rice culture in China. 
 
 Grades 3, 4, 5. 
 
 For teacher. 
 
 Carroll and Carroll, Around the world. Book II. p. 224-226. 
 Hawaiian rice fields ; how planted, irrigated, and gathered. 
 
 Grades 4, 5, 6. 
 
 Carpenter, Frank G. Asia. p. 66-67 ; 200. 
 
 The cultivation of rice in Japan and Burmah. 
 
 Carpenter, Frank G. North America, p. 119-124. 
 Among the rice fields of the southern states. 
 
 Grades, 5, 6, 7. 
 Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 Eggleston, E. E. Stories of great Americans, p. 21-23. 
 
 The story of how rice culture was introduced into the United States. 
 
 Grades 4, 5, 6. 
 
 King, Charles F. The land we live in. Part II. p. 3-4. 
 
 The cultivation of rice in the United States. Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 29
 
 Kirby, Mary and Elizabeth. Aunt Martha's corner cupboard, p. 1 21-133. 
 Where and how grown. An excellent description. Grades 4, 5, 6. 
 
 Krout, Mary H. Two girls in China, p. 44-45. 
 
 Method of preparing rice for the table. Grades 4, 5, 6. 
 
 Facts to be remembered : 
 
 1. That rice requires a warm climate and moist soil. 
 
 2. That rice is eaten by more than half of the human race and is a staple 
 food for more than a third. 
 
 3. That China produces the greatest quantity, the whole of which, how- 
 ever, is consumed by her people. 
 
 4. That the industry in China is carried on by crude and laborious 
 methods but that on account of the cheapness of labor it is profitable. 
 
 5. That this grain is grown in China, Japan, India, Ceylon, Siam, 
 Philippines, Hawaii, Italy, Egypt, Mexico, Brazil, and in some of the 
 southern states in our own country. 
 
 2. Tea : 
 
 In beginning the discussion of this industry it would be well to have 
 the children read or hear some of the pretty legends which are told in the 
 tea countries of its origin. Mary Cate Smith in Li/e in Asia, p. 154, tells 
 the one of the Indian saint. The one of the pious Buddhist and the sacri- 
 fice he made is told in Butterworth, Traveller tales of Chi7ia, p. 206. These 
 and others are given in greater detail in Cornaby, A stri7ig of Chinese peach- 
 stones, p. 107-110. Aside from the interest these tales give they serve to 
 illustrate the remoteness of the origin of the Chinese custom of tea drinking. 
 
 References describing the tea-shrub, its method of cultivation, and how 
 the leaves are picked, prepared, and marketed should next be given. The 
 teacher in her class discussions of these readings should see that the children 
 are left with a clear notion that the tea-plant is really a cultivated wild shrub 
 and evergreen, some three to five feet high ; that it grows best in a warm, 
 moist climate ; that there are three or four gatherings of the leaves each 
 year ; that its flavor and superior qualities are due to the roasting which the 
 leaves receive immediately after they are picked, which accounts for the dif- 
 ference between the black and green tea of the markets ; and that the cured 
 leaves are either packed for shipment into boxes lined with a sort of sheet 
 lead to keep out the moisture, or else are pressed into ' ' bricks ' ' for the 
 Russian trade. In this last connection have the children read Butterworth' s 
 curious " Tale of caravan tea," in Traveller tales of China, p. 214-219. 
 
 It should be brought out in the discussions that tea raising in China is 
 a garden culture, the work being done by hand. In Ceylon and India, 
 on the other hand, there are plantations of hundreds of thousands of 
 acres where machinery of the mo.st modern kind is used. The 
 effect on the cost of production should be discussed and the question 
 asked: "How is China's aversion to modern methods affecting her 
 tea trade ? " As a matter of fact, in recent years her tea trade has been 
 
 30
 
 greatly reduced on account of the competition of these countries. (See 
 Adams, Comfuercial geography, p. 417.) 
 
 At this point it would be well to take a wider view and learn something 
 of the magnitude of the world's demand for tea and what countries are en- 
 gaged in its production. After discussing this point the children should 
 make an outline map of the world and shade in the tea producing regions. 
 These consist in the main of certain regions of China, Japan, India, Ceylon, 
 Java, and Natal in Africa. 
 
 Fig. 5. Showing the tea producing regions op the world. 
 
 Ball, John D. Things Chinese, p. 583-597. 
 An exhaustive account. 
 
 For the teacher. 
 
 Beal, E. A. Information reader. No. I., p. 252-255. 
 
 A short description of the production of tea and the history of its in- 
 troduction into Europe. Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 Butterworth, Hezekiah. Traveller tales of China, p. 204-219. 
 
 The legendary origin of tea. The description of the plant, how the 
 tea is gathered and cured, and the Chinese mode of making and 
 drinking the beverage. Also gives an interesting tale of "caravan 
 tea." 
 
 Carpenter, Frank G. Asia. p. 148-150. 
 
 The preparation of the tea for the market. Illustrated. 
 
 Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 Cornaby, W. A. A string of Chinese peach stones, p. 107-111. 
 
 Legends of the origin of tea and tea drinking. Grades 7, 8. 
 
 Eggleston, E. E. Stories of American life. p. 31-37. 
 Tea in colonial days in our own country. 
 
 Ford, John D. An American cruiser in the East. p. 354-355. 
 The industries of rice and tea. 
 
 George, Marian. Eittle journeys to China and Japan, p. 84-86. 
 
 Legend of the origin of tea. How grown and where. Grades 4, 5, 6. 
 
 Kirby, M. and E. Aunt Martha's corner cupboard, p. 45-60. 
 
 An unusually good story of tea. Grades 4, 5, 6. 
 
 Krout, Mary H. Two girls in China, p. 67-68 ; 198-203. 
 
 Chinese method of making tea. Tea tasting, the climate required for 
 tea raising, picking tea, curing it, and packing described. Illustrated. 
 
 Grades 4, 5, 6. 
 
 31
 
 Little, Mrs. Archibald. Intimate China, p. 298-301. 
 
 The decline of the industry. Grades 7, 8. 
 
 Morse, Edward S. Glimpses of China and Chinese homes, p. 16-18. 
 
 A description of a Chinese tea-house. Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 Phillips, E. C. Peeps into China, p. 89-97. 
 
 How it grows, how it is gathered and prepared for the market. 
 
 Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 Pratt, Mara. Stories of China, p. 51-60. 
 
 An excellent and detailed account of its cultivation and preparation 
 for market. Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 Scidmore, E. R. China : the long-lived empire, p. 365-376. 
 
 A detailed description. Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 Smith, Mary Cate. Life in Asia. p. 151 -154. 
 
 The shrub, the process of cultivating it, the sorting and packing. A 
 pretty legend of the origin of tea. Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 Facts to be remembered : 
 
 1. That China has been and is still the greatest tea producing country of 
 the world. 
 
 2. That the methods she employs in the production of tea are crude and 
 laborious and therefore costly. 
 
 3. That Ceylon and India are fast rivalling her in the trade because they 
 are raising it on a large enough scale to warrant the introduction of labor 
 saving machinery. 
 
 4. That the tea industry of China gives labor to millions of her people. 
 
 5. That her tea was one of the two great instrumentalities in opening the 
 doors of China to foreign trade. 
 
 6. That besides China, Ceylon, and India, tea is grown in Japan, Java, 
 and Natal in Africa. 
 
 3. Silk : 
 
 Sericulture is an industry which is common to many countries. But 
 since China was the home of the industry and since she produces almost as 
 much as all the other countries put together, the children in their study 
 should associate the industry particularly with China. 
 
 For the sake of interest and also to give the children an idea of the 
 great antiquity of this industry the teacher should either read or tell them 
 the story of the di.scovery of silk by an ancient Chinese empress who is to 
 this day gratefully .spoken of by the Chinese people as " The Goddess of the 
 silkworm." This story is given by Mary Cate Smith m. Life in Asia, 
 
 P- 154-155- 
 
 The life history of the silk worm should next be taken up. How the 
 eggs are laid ; how they are hatched ; how the young worms are fed ; how 
 they spin their cocoons and then are killed ; and then how the silk fibres are 
 reeled off into threads and the.se threads woven into cloth, are all points 
 
 32
 
 which are covered by the references accessible to both teacher and pupil and 
 should be discussed by both in class. 
 
 The spread of the industrj^ from China to Japan, India, Italy, France, 
 and the other countries will give the children an idea of the magnitude and 
 value of this industry. It will also give the teacher a further opportunity to 
 impress the children with the non-progressiveness of Chinese ways when 
 they compare her methods of producing silk with those employed in other 
 countries. In this connection the story of how China jealously guarded the 
 secret of silk production — death was the penalty for betrayal of the secret — 
 and how it was stolen by western Asia and Europe should be related. This 
 story is given by Mary Gate Smith in Life in Asia, p. 155-156, and by Chase 
 and Clow, Stories of indusby, Vol. II, p. 49-50. The silk producing re- 
 gions already mentioned should now be located on the map. 
 
 Fig. 6. Showing the silk regions of the world. 
 
 It should be pointed out that since so much hand labor in rearing and 
 feeding the worms and in reeling the silk is required, and since labor is so 
 cheap in China no nation can seriously compete with her in this industry. 
 It is on account of the high wages demanded by laborers in the United States 
 that raw silk will never be extensively produced here. Although the United 
 States produces very little raw silk it leads all other nations in its manufac- 
 ture of silk goods. In consequence it is the largest importer of the raw 
 article in the world. In 1900 it imported nearly $45,000,000 worth, two 
 thirds of which came from China and Japan. 
 
 For other references to children's reading see the following : 
 
 Andrews, Jane. Seven little sisters, p. 69-70, 
 
 About the mulberry trees, the cocoons, and the spinning. 
 
 Grades 3, 4, 5- 
 
 Andrews, Jane. Each and all. p. 91-95. 
 
 The story of silk. Grades 3, 4, 5. 
 
 Ball, John D. Things Chinese, p. 523-530. 
 
 The origin, care, and culture of the worms. The quantity produced. 
 
 For teacher. 
 
 33
 
 Carpenter, Frank G. Asia. p. 150-152. 
 
 The care of the worms, how they spin the silk, and the reeling and 
 weaving of the threads. Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 Chase and Clow. Stories of industry, p. 49-58. 
 
 An unusually good description of the production and manufacture of 
 silk. Illustrated. Grades 4, 5, 6. 
 
 Clifford, Warren, Information reader. No. II., p. 19-29. 
 
 Historj' . Treatment and value of the industry-. Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 Companion series. Talks about animals, p. 144-149. 
 The makers of silk. 
 
 Little, Mrs. Archibald. The land of the blue gown. p. 32-35 ; 63. 
 
 How the silk is spun. A picture of silk weaving. Grades 7, 8. 
 
 Smith, Mar>' Cate. Life in Asia. p. 154-156. 
 
 The story of the discovery of silk. The care given the worms. 
 The way in which other countries obtained the possession of the 
 Chinese secret of silk. Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 Facts to be remembered : 
 
 1. That silk was discovered in China many centuries before Christ. 
 
 2. That the industry spread from China to regions of Japan, India, Italy, 
 France, and the United States. 
 
 3. That silk and tea were the two great instrumentalities in opening the 
 ports of China to foreign trade. 
 
 4. That China leads the world in its production of raw silk. 
 
 5. That the United States is the greatest manufacturer of silk goods and 
 importer of raw silk in the world. 
 
 6. Children must be able to shade in an outline map of the world show- 
 ing the regions of raw silk. 
 
 34
 
 A Study of China Proper in its Physiographical Aspect. 
 
 As a basis for the stud}^ of the phj^siographical aspect of China, a basis 
 which should be established before this work of explanation is ever begun, 
 the teacher will recall that the children have a feeling for the density of the 
 population along the coast and the waterways of the interior, (See lesson 
 unit II) ; they have learned that the inhabitants of these regions are largely 
 engaged in agricultural pursuits, (See lesson unit II); they know in a con- 
 crete way that the soil of these plains and river valleys is fertile and very 
 productive, (See lesson unit III) ; they have gotten through their reading 
 many vivid mental pictures of the suffering and loss of life caused by floods 
 and famines, (See lesson unit II) ; and the}- know that certain regions are 
 best adapted to tea raising, that rice grows best in other regions, while the 
 spinning and weaving of silk employs the undivided labors of the population 
 in still other regions, (See lesson unit V). These facts and feelings which 
 constitute the essentials on the descriptive side have been so presented, 
 through the organized reading of traveller's tales, stories of adventure, and 
 descriptions, and clinched by class discussion under the purposeful direction 
 of the teacher, as to build up in the child's mind a wealth of pictures, and 
 associations ; of facts and feelings. We have now reached, in our presenta- 
 tion, the proper and natural place for the questions, " How ?" and "Why ?" 
 
 We have already pointed out in a previous discussion of this question that 
 it no longer suffices to learn that China has regions the most densely popu- 
 lated in the world ; nor is it enough to learn that the inhabitants are subject 
 to cataclysms by flood and famine. The children must with these descrip- 
 tions get a conception of the forces, industrial, physical, and social, which 
 make these regions the regions they are. It will not do merely to describe 
 the earth's physical features ; their operations must be explained. But this 
 explanation must, we emphasize, come after a thorough basis of pictures, of 
 feelings, of associations has been laid. After this apperceptive basis has 
 been built such questions as the following : Why is the population of China 
 congested along the coast and the rivers ? How can one account for the 
 fertility of the soil in these districts ? Why are certain areas subject to such 
 frequent floods and famines ? and others of a similar nature which the pop- 
 ular mind considers important should be asked and their answers worked 
 out. Any reversal of this order of presentation will result in abstract spec- 
 ulation which to the child is in no wise related to fact or reality for facts and 
 realities he will not have had. 
 
 With these questions in mind concerning the reasons for the various social 
 and physical phenomena which the children have observed by means of their 
 reading, let us turn to the physical map of Eurasia in Tarr and McMurry's 
 Complete geography. Fig. 407, or to any similar map. 
 
 On the map approximate the boundaries of China proper. (See formal 
 geography). Note that the surface of this region is divided into two nearly 
 
 35
 
 equal areas by the Yang-tse-kiang or Blue river ; that the southern area 
 consists of a complicated system of low mountains trending in the main east 
 and west ; that the northern area is also mountainous but that there is a 
 large region of low plains in the extreme northeast reaching to the coast. 
 
 Tracing the Yang-tse-kiang back to its sources the children will see that 
 it collects its waters from many tributaries draining a wide area which fact 
 lessens the violence of its floods. By examining its lower course several 
 lakes are observable into which the river spreads. This fringe of lakes still 
 further moderates the floods. In sharp contrast to these conditions are those 
 which prevail in the region of the Hoang-ho. 
 
 The children have already learned from their reading that the region 
 traversed by the Hoang-ho is a fertile, alluvial region ; that it is the most 
 densely populated region in the world ; and that thousands of lives are lost 
 every few years through its overflow. If on the map referred to above the 
 children compare the course of the Hoang-ho with that of the Yang-tse-kiang 
 they will see that the Hoang-ho has iew tributaries ; that it has no similar 
 fringe of lakes to conserve the waters, and that it plunges abruptly from a 
 high elevation to a very low plain. This explains in a simple way the 
 reasons for the statements the children have read that the Hoang-ho is a 
 shallow torrent ; that it frequently changes its mouth, sometimes 300 miles ; 
 and why the wretched people along its banks call it " China's sorrow." It 
 also explains the great fertility of the soil in this region, for as the waters 
 spread out over the broad delta and flood plain, it deposits rich sediment 
 which adds greatly to the productiveness of the soil. This in turn deter- 
 mines the nature of the occupation of the people who inhabit these plains. 
 When we contrast the drier, less fertile, and more rugged regions of the in- 
 terior with these fertile and well-watered plains, the children will have no 
 difficulty in understanding why the population is sparse in the uplands and 
 congested in the lowlands. 
 
 At this point the children should take a wider view for the purpose of 
 determining the place China takes in the larger physiographic features of 
 the continent. This view can be gotten by a further examination of the 
 same map. In discussing this point lead the children to see that the huge 
 ^y shaped plateau of Asia throws off rivers toward the northwest, toward 
 the south, and toward the east. By a closer examination of the map lead 
 the children to see that the drainage systems of Asia are either oceanic or 
 inland. Now have the children observe that the Chinese empire lies almost 
 wholly in the angle of the / ; that its slope is toward the east ; and 
 that it constitutes, together with Siam on the south and the Amur on the 
 north, the Pacific drainage belt of the continent of Asia. 
 
 We have now considered the slope of China, its drainage system, its 
 soil, and the place it occupies, structurally, in the continent of Asia to ex- 
 plain what the children have already learned through their reading and dis- 
 cussions and for the further purpose of giving them some insight into the 
 working of physical forces in a large way. Let us now consider the climate, 
 
 36
 
 the winds, and the rainfall of China and likewise China's place in the larger 
 meteorological movements of the continent as a whole. 
 
 Turn to the same physical relief map. Observe, first, that the continent 
 of Asia extends from the Arctic region on the north nearly to the equator 
 on the south, and that in consequence the climate must be one of extremes, 
 i. e. extremes of cold in the north and of heat in the south. Observing the 
 Siberian region the children will see that because of the absence of a range 
 of mountains trending east and west there is no obstacle to the passage of 
 icy winds southward. This causes the summer frosts of Siberia and the 
 very cold winters of Peking, which lies in the latitude of Rome, 
 
 Again, observe that the Himalaya mountains and the Central plateau, 
 extending east and west, is an effective obstacle in the way of the passage of 
 the warm rain winds from the Indian ocean. Hence, in the western part of 
 the Chinese Empire are to be found the deserts of Tibet and Gobi. Point 
 out, however, that this high plateau does not extend far enough east to 
 block the ocean winds from China proper. In reality China proper lies in 
 the monsoon area of Asia. Its humidity depends on the southeast monsoon 
 which blow inland from the ocean during the summer, and in the opposite 
 direction during the winter. This change in direction gives China her dry, 
 cold winters and her warm, moist summers. Besides maintaining the health 
 and energy of the people these cold winds from the nortwest blow in a fine, 
 rich dust which settles over great areas of China, in some regions to the 
 depth of hundreds of feet, forming the finest kind of soil for agricultural 
 purposes. This change from the summer to the winter monsoon is not alto- 
 gether good, for it gives rise to fierce and disastrous storms off the coast of 
 China called typhoons, which makes the navigation off the southeast coast 
 exceptionally dangerous. At this point the teacher, if working with the 
 upper grades, should take up the subject of the monsoon and see to it that 
 her children have a clear understanding of the forces involved in producing 
 this change in the direction of the prevailing winds. In Tarr and McMur- 
 ry's Complete geography, p. 229-231, or in any good physical geography, 
 the teacher will find a good explanation of this subject. 
 
 The points in the explanation which should be clearly presented are : 
 
 1. That the land gets warm and cools off quicker than the water. 
 Show this by a simple experiment. Take a pan of sand and one of water. 
 Take the temperature of each at a given time. Put both on a hot stove. 
 Record the temperature of each at intervals for fifteen minutes. Take both 
 pans off the stove and set together in a cool place. Continue recording the 
 temperature of each every few minutes until one has reached the starting 
 point. Examine the records and the conclusion will be obvious that the 
 land gets warm and cools off more quickly than the water. 
 
 2. That the land, when it becomes warm, warms the air above it, 
 which expands and grows light ; but the air over the water remains com- 
 paratively cool, thus the equilibrium of the air is disturbed and a flow of 
 cool air inland results. 
 
 37
 
 3- That the larger the continent the greater will be the difference in 
 temperature between itself and the surrounding water, hence the greater the 
 force of the air flow. 
 
 4. That in the monsoon regions of Asia, during the winter the heavy 
 air over the cold land presses outward beneath the warmer air of the ocean. 
 The consequence is, a prevailing dry, cold wind blows from the land toward 
 the sea. In the summer the land becomes heated, the cool air from the 
 water flows in bringing with it moisture, which being precipitated on the 
 slopes gives southeastern Asia her rainy season. 
 
 For further experiments to be given in connection with air movements, 
 and also for many helpful suggestions in the treatment of this physio- 
 graphical aspect see Miss Effle B. McFadden's article, " The special method 
 of physical geography," in Bulletin No. 2, chap. V, 
 
 Facts to be remembered : 
 
 1 . That the rich soil of the plains of China is due in part to the sediment 
 deposited by the overflow of the rivers and in part to the fertile ' ' loess, ' ' or 
 dust blown in by the winter winds. 
 
 2. That the Hoang-ho overflows its banks because, unlike the Yaug-tse- 
 kiang, it lacks (i) many tributaries, (2) a fringe of lakes to divert its 
 w^aters, (3) it has a more abrupt descent into its plain. 
 
 3. That the fact that China lies in the region of the monsoon explains 
 why she has (i) a warm, moist summer, (2) a dry, cold winter, (3) de- 
 structive typhoons off the southeastern coast. 
 
 4. That the population of China has crowded into the plains, ( i ) because 
 of the fertility of the soil, (2) because of the adequacy of the rainfall of the 
 region, (3) because of its temperate and healthful climate. 
 
 38
 
 Best Books for Supplementary Reading on China. 
 
 * Procure these first : 
 
 Adams, Cyrus C. An elementary commercial geography. 1902. Apple- 
 ton. $1.10. 
 
 The author has attempted to give a view of the world in its relation 
 to man as a producer and a trader. In my judgment the best book 
 of the kind published. Every teacher at least should have a copy. 
 
 Grade 8 and teacher. 
 
 Adams, Cyrus C. A text book of commercial geography. 1902. Apple- 
 ton. $1.30. 
 
 An excellent hand-book for teacher on the commercial aspect of the 
 several nations of the world. Best brief treatment of the kind pub- 
 lished. For teacher. 
 
 * Andrews, Jane. The seven little sisters. 1899. Ginn. 50 c. 
 
 A classic of its kind. Should be in every library. Grades 3, 4, 5, 
 
 * Andrews, Jane. Each and all. 1893. Ginn. 50 c. 
 
 Deserves a place in every school library. Grades 3, 4, 5. 
 
 Atherton, Edward. The adventures of Marco Polo. 1902. Appleton. 65c. 
 His journey to China, and his life in the empire. The sights and 
 scenes which he saw during his sojourn. Carefully edited. 
 
 Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 Ball, J. Dyer. Things Chinese. Scribner. $5.00. 
 
 Information regarding China arranged in encyclopaedic form. Au- 
 thentic. Good for reference purposes. 
 
 Ballou, Maturin M. Footprints of travel. 1896. Ginn. 60c.. 
 
 An interesting account of the customs, characteristics, and peculiari- 
 ties of the Chinese people. Grades 7, 8. 
 
 Beal, E. A. Information reader. Boston School Supply Co. 60 c. 
 
 Much valuable information in this series of four books, ' ' Foods and 
 beverages," "Everyday occupations," "Man and materials," and 
 "Modern industries and commerce." Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 Bryson, Mrs. M. I. Home life in China. Am. Tract Soc. $1.00. 
 
 Interesting description of customs and ways of the people. Writer 
 shows that she has an intimate acquaintance with the Chinese family. 
 
 Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 * Butter worth, Hezekiah. Traveller tales of China, [c. 1901.] Estes. $1.50. 
 
 A collection of interesting stories, well illustrated, which treat of 
 characteristic traits of the Chinese people. Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 * Carpenter, Frank G. Asia. [Geographical reader.] [c. 1897.] Am. Bk. 
 
 Co. 60 c. 
 
 A trip through Japan, China, India, and Turkey, describing the life 
 of the people, the government, and the educational systems of the 
 countries. The most satisfactory series of geography readers yet 
 published. Well illustrated. Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 39
 
 Chase, A., and Clow, E. Stories of industr}'. [c. 1891.] Ed. Pub. Co. 40c. 
 Stories of various industries written for children. Among them the 
 story of silk in vol. II. Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 * Chamberlain, J. F. How we are fed. 1903. Macmillan. 40 c. 
 
 Excellent description of the foods which we commonly eat. 
 
 Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 Clifford, H. W. The information reader, No. II. 1900. Boston School 
 Supply Co. 60 c. 
 
 Popular accounts of everyday occupations. Several chapters on silk. 
 
 Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 Colquohoun, Ethel. Two on their travels. 1902. Barnes. $2.50. 
 
 Entertaining sketches of people the writer met on a journey through 
 the Malay region, Java, Borneo, Philippines, Japan, Korea, and the 
 Amur. Much interesting material. Well illustrated. Grades 7, 8, 
 
 * Companion Series. By land and sea. 1901. Perry Mason. 50 c. 
 
 Several good articles describing scenes on the streets and in the homes 
 of China. Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 * Companion vSeries. The wide world. 1902. Ginn. 25 c. 
 
 Graphic pictures of ways of living in different parts of the world, 
 presented in a brief but pleasing way. Treats of China, Japan, 
 Egypt, Italy, Russia, Mexico, and Alaska. Grades 5, 6. 
 
 Cornaby, W. A. A string of Chinese peach-stones. 1895. Kelly, London. 
 A great deal of valuable and interesting material, but too diffuse to be 
 of value except to the teacher. 
 
 Del Mar, Walter. Around the world through Japan. 1902. Macmillan. 
 $3.00. 
 
 A very readable book, full of interesting information. Treats of 
 Ceylon, Java, Malay region, Japan, Hawaii, California, United States, 
 with six chapters on China. Grade 8 and teacher. 
 
 Eyster, Mrs. Nellie B. A Chinese Quaker. (Fiction.) Revell. |5i.5o. 
 
 All the principal characters and extraordinary events are real. The 
 scene is laid in or near San Francisco, but shifts back and forth be- 
 tween America and China. 
 
 * Fielde, Adele M. A corner of Cathay. 1894. Macmillan. $2.40. 
 
 An excellent account of the customs, habits, and traits of the Chi- 
 nese by a writer who lived among these people for many years. 
 
 Grades 7, 8. 
 
 Ford, John D. An American cruiser in the East. 1898. Barnes. $2.50. 
 Describes the manners and customs of the Chinese, Treats also of 
 Koreans. Very good. Many illustrations. Grades 7, 8. 
 
 French, H. W. Our boys in China. 1899. International book and pub- 
 li.shing Co. 
 
 Descriptions of sights and scenes in China. Contains some good ma- 
 terial, but very diffuse. Grades 7, 8. 
 
 '•^ George, Marian M. Eittle journeys to China and Japan, [c. 1901.] Flan- 
 agan. 50 c. 
 
 An excellent book for children of the 4, 5, and 6th grades. 
 
 * Headland, Isaac T. The Chinese boy and girl. [c. 1901.] Revell. $1.00. 
 
 The nursery and its rhymes ; children and child life ; games played 
 by boys and girls ; the toys they use ; children's entertainments ; and 
 the stories that are told the children. 
 
 40
 
 The teacher of the primary grades can charm the children and at 
 the same time give them valuable information about the ways of 
 those of their own age in China by drawing on the material given in 
 this book. For teacher. 
 
 * Headland, Isaac T. Chinese Mother Goose rhymes, [c. 1900.] Revell. 
 
 One never realizes how near akin our own babies are to the babies of 
 China until he has read these rhymes and jingles which Chinese 
 mothers chant to their children. Beautifully illustrated. Well worth 
 the getting. Grades i, 2, 3 and older people. 
 
 * Holcombe, Chester. The real Chinaman. 1895. Dodd. $2.00. 
 
 One of the best books for both children and teacher written on China. 
 Full of incidents which explain many of the characteristics of the 
 Chinese people. The writer was for many years secretary of the 
 American legation at Peking. 
 
 King, Chas. F. The land we live in. [Picturesque geographical readers, 
 Bk. IV.] 1894. Lee. 56 c. 
 
 Treats of rice raising in the United States. Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 Kirby, Mary and Elizabeth. Aunt Martha's corner cupboard, Ed. Pub. 
 Co. 30 c. 
 
 The story of tea, sugar, coffee, salt, currants, rice, and honey. 
 
 Grades, 5, 6, 7. 
 
 Knox, T. W. The boy travellers : Japan and China. 1902. Harper. $2.00. 
 Excellent descriptions of the manners, customs, and characteristics of 
 Chinese people. Illustrated. Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 * Krout,fMary H. Two girls in China, [c. 1903.] Am. Bk. Co. 45 c. 
 
 Excellent account of the sights and customs of China. Illustrated. 
 
 Grades 4, 5, 6. 
 
 * Lee, Yan Phou. When I was a boy in China, [c. 1887.] Lothrop. 60c. 
 
 Excellent description of the home life by a native of China. 
 
 Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 Little, Mrs. Archibald. Intimate China. 1901. Lippincott. $2.00. 
 
 An interesting account of China and the Chinese by a writer who 
 lived among the people many years. Well illu: trated. 
 
 Grades 7, 8, and teacher. 
 
 Little, Mrs. Archibald. The land of the blue gown. [1902.] T. Fisher 
 Unwin, London. 
 
 The picturesque features and the mediaeval usages of the Chinese 
 portrayed. A wealth of good material illustrated by beautiful pic- 
 tures. Grades 7, 8, and teacher. 
 
 Loti, Pierre. The last days of Peking. 1902. Little. $1.75. 
 
 A vivid picture of the writer's experience in China. Illustrated. 
 
 Grades 7, 8. 
 
 Lyde, L. W. A geography of Asia. 1900. Black, London, i shilling. 
 
 A succinct statement of the most important facts, industrial, physical, 
 and structural, of the continent of Asia. An excellent hand-book for 
 the teacher. 
 
 Martin, W. A. P. A cycle of Cathay, 1900. Revell. $2.00. 
 
 Political life and the course of Chinese diplomacy predominates. Not 
 as useful to the geography teacher as many less expensive. 
 
 41
 
 Martin, W. A. p. The lore of Catha3\ 1901. Revell. $2.50. 
 
 The author has set himself the task of picturing the intellectual life 
 of the Chinese people. It is a scholarly work, valuable to the teacher 
 as a reference book, but entirely beyond the comprehension of the 
 children. 
 
 * Miller, Olive T. Little people of Asia. 1899. Button. $2.50. 
 
 Tells of the games, customs, dresses, etc., of the babies of Turkey, 
 Syria, Persia, India, Siam, China, and Japan. Excellent book for 
 the geography teacher. Grades 5, 6. 
 
 * Miln, Louise J. Little folk of many lands. 1902, Scribner. $4.00. 
 
 A delightfully written book about the children of many countries. 
 A chapter on the children of China. Illustrated. Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 * Morris, Charles. Historical tales : Japan and China. 1898. Lippincott. 
 $1.00. 
 
 Some very interesting stories pertaining to the history of China. 
 Told for the children. Grades 7,8. 
 
 Morse, Edward S. Glimpses of China and Chinese homes. 1902. Little. 
 $1.50. 
 
 Describes in an interesting manner the Chinese home, dinner, theater, 
 prison, temples, and mansions. Illustrated. Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 * Miller, Mary. The story of Wretched Flea, a little Chinese boy. Flana- 
 gan. 35 c. 
 
 How Flea got his name — his games — the choosing of his wife — 
 stories told him by his mother — experiences at school — on the tea 
 farm — and the taking of his degrees, all told in a simple yet inter- 
 esting way. Grades 2, 3, 4. 
 
 Palmer, Bertha. Stories from the classic literature of many nations. 1898. 
 Macmillan. $1.25. 
 
 Some good stories from Chinese literature. 
 
 Parsons, Wm. B. An American engineer in China, [c. 1900.] McClure. 
 
 $1-50. 
 
 A valuable little book especially for the teacher, though children of 
 grades 7 and 8 can read several chapters with understanding. It 
 presents China and the Chinese from the standpoint of industrial de- 
 velopment. 
 
 Phillips, E. C. Peeps into China. [The world in pictures.] Cassell. 75 c. 
 Written for children. Describes the country and the customs of the 
 people. Illustrated. Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 ^ Pratt, Mara L. Stories of China. [Peoples and places here and there 
 vol. IV.] [c. 1892.] Ed. Pub. Co. Cloth 60 c. 
 
 Excellent for lower grade children. Chinese history ; Tae-Ping re- 
 bellion ; farming ; fishing ; customs ; schools ; great wall. 
 
 Grades, 4, 5, 6. 
 
 Richards. Laura E. Chop-Chin and the goldendragon. [c. 1899.] Little. 50c. 
 A pretty story for the little folks, of the little son of the court sweeper 
 who saved his father from the wrath of a cruel emperor. 
 
 Grades 2, 3, 4. 
 
 Rupert, Wm. R. A geographical reader, [c. 1894.] Leach. 65 c. 
 
 Some interesting facts about China and the Chinese. Grades 7, 8. 
 
 42
 
 Scidmore, Eliza R. China : the long-lived empire. Century. $2,50. 
 
 A collection of valuable and entertaining articles. Grades 7, 8. 
 
 Shaw, Edward R. Big people and little people of other lands, [c. 1900.] 
 Am. Bk. Co. 50c. 
 
 A chapter on China. Told in simple language. Illustrated. 
 
 Grades 2, 3, 4. 
 
 * Smith, A. H. Chinese characteristics, [c. 1894.] Revell. $2.00. 
 
 A verj' carefully written account of the traits of the Chinese. Gives 
 a great many concrete details of their manners and customs, and 
 their ideals — social and political. Generally recognized by writers 
 on China as the best character sketch of the Chinese yet written. 
 
 Can be read by 8th grade. 
 
 Smith, A. H. Village life in China, [c. 1899.] Revell. $2.00 
 
 A valuable and authoritative treatment. Of great interest because of 
 its many concrete incidents. Grades 7, 8, and teacher. 
 
 * Smith, Mary Cate. Life in Asia. [World and its people, Bk. VI.] 1900. 
 
 Silver. 60 c. 
 
 Several interesting chapters on China and its people. Treats of other 
 regions of Asia. Simple, readable style. Should be in every school 
 library. Grades 6, 7, 8, 
 
 Starr, Frederick. Strange peoples. [Ethno-geographic reader, No. i.] 
 1 90 1. Heath. 40 c. 
 
 Description of the habits, customs, and characteristics of the people 
 of many lands. Illustrated. Grades 5, 6, 7. 
 
 Stoddard, John L. Lectures, vol. III. [c. 1897.] Shuman. 
 
 Valuable for the fine pictures. The descriptive part is interesting and 
 instructive. The set of twelve volumes is well worth the price to any 
 well furnished library. Grades 7, 8. 
 
 Tarr, R. S. and McMurry, F. M. A complete geography. 1902. Mac- 
 millan. $1.00. 
 
 Principal facts given, but relatively not much reading. Good maps 
 and pictures. For teacher. 
 
 Trotter, Spencer. Geography of commerce. 1903. Macmillan. $1.10. 
 
 An excellent reference book for the teacher. Packed full of up to 
 date information of an industrial character. 
 
 * Van Bergen, R. The story of China, [c. 1901.] Am. Bk. Co. 60 c. 
 
 A book written for young people, but the information it contains is 
 interesting to older people as well. The only book I know which 
 gives a clear statement which children can understand of British and 
 Russian contentions in China. Grades 6, 7, 8. 
 
 Wilson, J. H. China ; or Travels and adventures in the "Middle Kingdom." 
 1901. Appleton. $1.75. 
 
 A study of its civilization and possibilities, together with an account 
 of the Boxer war, the relief of the legations, and the re-establishment 
 of peace. Valuable information for the teacher, but not interesting 
 to children. 
 
 43
 
 We-'t Coast Printing Company t^^^^^d 921 Broadway, Oakland, Cal.
 
 A TEACHERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 I N 
 
 GEOGRAPHY 
 
 PART I 
 
 NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA 
 
 BY 
 
 WALTER J. KENYON 
 
 SUPERVISOR Ol' GEOGRAPHY 
 STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, SAN FRANCISCO 
 
 SAN FRANCISCO 
 
 C. A. MURDOCK & CO., PRINTERS 
 1905
 
 Copyright, 1905 
 
 BY 
 
 Walter J. Kexyon
 
 CONTEXTS. 
 
 Mass Map of Xorth America Frontispiece 
 
 PAGE 
 
 The Text-Book and the Teacher 5 
 
 The World's Characteristic Areas 8 
 
 Course of Study by Regions 10 
 
 Course in Formal Geography: 
 
 first course 13 
 
 second course 24 
 
 third course 3 1 
 
 THE CO XT IX EXT OF SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 Books Cited in the Readings on South America 40 
 
 Mass ]\Iap of South America 42 
 
 Physical South America: 
 
 structure . 43 
 
 climate 45 
 
 Formal Geography of South America 50 
 
 The Peoples of South America 51 
 
 Descriptive South America : 
 
 note on method 53 
 
 AMAZON region 53 
 
 BRAZILIAN highlands 56 
 
 NORTHERN SOUTH AMERICA 57 
 
 LA PLATA REGION 59 
 
 PATAGONIA AND " THE LAND OF FIRE " 60 
 
 THE HIGH ANDES 61 
 
 THE \\EST SLOPE 62
 
 CONTEXTS. 
 
 THE CONTINENT OF NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Books Cited in the Readings ox Xorth America 64 
 
 Physical Xorth America : 
 
 structure 6/ 
 
 climate 72 
 
 Formal Geography of Xoktii America 78 
 
 The Peoples of Xorth America 78 
 
 Descriptive Xorth America : 
 
 the SPANISH south 8o 
 
 arctic AMERICA 84 
 
 the \vest indies 87 
 
 ALASKA 90 
 
 the canadian provinces 92 
 
 the united states 94 
 
 new england states 95 
 
 middle atlantic seaboard 99 
 
 the appalachian region loi 
 
 the cotton belt io4 
 
 the prairie region io7 
 
 the great lake region ho 
 
 the grazing region 112 
 
 the plateau region 1^4 
 
 the pacific region 1 18 
 
 General Text-P.ook Review of the United States 124
 
 THE TEXT-BOOK AND THE TEACHER. 
 
 THE real problem in our geography teaching is now, as it always has 
 been, how _lo_Jjicorporate the text-book in our scheme so that it 
 shall prove a helpful factor rather than a limitation and a handicap. The 
 liotion is happily obsolete that a teacher plus a text-book constitute the condi- 
 tions for a geography course. Every teacher nowadays appreciates, to her 
 sorrow, the abysmal hiatus between the text-book in geography and the 
 specific needs of the geography lesson. 
 
 The radical expedient of dispensing altogether with the text-book is 
 sometimes attempted, under especially favorable conditions such as obtain 
 in some normal schools and colleges. But none of these departures has 
 ever proved itself adequate, to the satisfaction of schoolmen at large, in the 
 matters of scope and continuity. We are learning to regard coldly the 
 sporadic schemes whose application calls for special conditions, among the 
 latter being an ideal teacher, an ideal pupil, and a made-to-order environ- 
 ment. Those whose vocation lies in the shaping of material for teaching 
 cannot realize too keenly that their real audience must for all time be the 
 average teacher, toiling in average surroundings. Laying theories aside and 
 addressing ourselves to the actual conditions, we find a vast herd of teachers 
 doing what little they can for a vaster herd of pupils, under circumstances 
 which, in the cities at least, could not readily be worse. And the future 
 holds forth no promise that this herding aspect will be materially modified. 
 In the light of these things the much abused text-book, be its failings what 
 they may, is an indispensable boon to the grade teacher, and might well 
 prove a safeguard in the experimentation higher up. 
 
 The limitations of the text-book are defined in its name — test: something 
 to be elaborated, developed, worked out. The material included is a geogra- 
 phy course in a potential sense only. Every text-book author is mindful of 
 this limitation of his work. And he devotes certain captions, chapters, or 
 appendices to the outlining of collateral material which he hopes will be 
 utilized by the user of the text. The author thus makes a definite requisi- 
 tion for a collaborator whose duty it shall be to develop the text into material 
 suitable for lesson-giving. 
 
 By general consent this task of collaboration has heretofore fallen to the 
 grade teacher. And it is at this point, I think, that we shall find the funda- 
 mental weak spot in our teaching of geography. This may be said without
 
 6 TEACHERS HANDBOOK OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 libel upon either the attainments, the industry, or the professional spirit 
 of the grade teacher. Ordinarily she is without the time, training-, or faciH- 
 ties for the elaboration, in any broad sense, of lesson material. We must 
 in the long- run give the grade teacher her due. In the economy of teaching 
 she is not logically a producer, but a distributer. And we must come to 
 regard the distributer as a special worker, open to all honor of calling 
 and entitled to every labor-saving- device and special help which her guild 
 can bring to her service. The day is past when any workman can profitably 
 shape his own tools. And having once accepted the grade teacher in this 
 obvious light, it is evident that the hiatus between the text-book and the 
 lesson must be bridged by a third party. It is in this conception that the 
 present scheme in geography finds its reason for being. 
 
 Formal, Descriptive, and Physical Geography. 
 
 As the appended scheme is meant as an aid to the teacher in the use of the 
 state text-books in geography, it aims to meet these texts in content, but not 
 necessarily in arrangement. And to remedy certdin changes in the sequence 
 of topics, each one is referred by page to the corresponding topic in each of 
 the text-books. 
 
 Formal geograpJiy. 
 
 To the usual heads of ph}-sical and descriptive geograph} , a third caption, 
 formal geograph}, has been added. As this is either an Innovation or a 
 retrogression, according to one's viewpoint, a word of explanation is needed. 
 The practice in the later text-books is to minimize, or even to omit, the 
 " map exercises " which formed a feature of the old-time text-books. In 
 their stead a few map questions are scattered here and there through the 
 descriptive text, in a purely incidental relation. And there appears to have 
 been no particular basis for the selection and arrangement of these ques- 
 tions. If they were segregated into a list by themselves, that list would be 
 seen to fall short of including the essentials of formal geography, and it 
 would, on the other hand, include some material which is distinctly unessen- 
 tial. The authors therefore have evidently aimed to l)e inspirational and 
 suggestive, rather than systematic and inchisive. These map questions which 
 they intersperse through the descriptive text are. furthermore, not purely 
 search questions, but thought, or inference, questions as well, tluis combining 
 formal and cultural qualities (lidc 'W i^ !\lc.M.. Home (leog.. p. 199; Red- 
 way & Ilinman, Aflv., p. 108). 
 
 All this is agreeable to the psychologic law of association, whereby new 
 facts are taught as the pui^il currently has need ai them. Sa\s Frye, for 
 example (p. 90, Adv. t jeog. ) : " 'J'he best time to fix in memory the location 
 of a place is 7vhen learning sonic inif^orluiit or iiiWrcsting fact about it. The 
 mind is then active toward the particular place, and can therefore memorizo
 
 THE TEXT-BOOK AND THE TEACHER. 7 
 
 with less effort. P'or this reason teachers should train pupils to the habit 
 of looking up the location of each city, state, country, or natural feature 
 as its name occurs in the text." It can be argued on the contrary, however, 
 that the pupil most economically acquires his formal facts through the 
 exercise of an undivided attention. And this idea certainly underlies all of 
 our drill work, wdiether in spelling, arithmetic, geography, or penmanship. 
 
 We may, however, evade this slippery psychological debate, since a segre- 
 gated formal geography course finds its justification in purely empirical 
 reasons. However seductive the correlationisc finds his theory, it does not 
 stand the test of actual teaching. The graduates of our public schools 
 notoriously and universally do not know their formal geography. If the 
 college or normal school desires that its freshman shall know the location 
 of Chicago or Paris on the map. the fact must be taught then and there, 
 as if planted in virgin soil. This particular deficiency can be referred directly 
 to the later methods of geography teaching, wherein the locative work has 
 been made incidental to the descriptive. In teaching, as elsewhere, the 
 incidental things are inevitably " lost in the shuffle." Every superintendent 
 knows that if a subject or a phase of a subject is to be taught in a test-proof 
 manner, it must be definitely prescribed, and given an inviolable place on the 
 program. The question is therefore not so much psychological as executive ; 
 and the segregated drill in formal geography is amply justified on this 
 ground. 
 
 In addition, however, to the separate course, it will be noted that the study 
 of each region is immediately prefaced by the special formal geography of 
 that region; and this special formal geography serves as a review of the 
 separate course. 
 
 Descriptive geography. 
 
 In the appended treatment of descriptive geography two points are worthy 
 of special remark. One is the complete abandonment of the " political " area 
 as a unit of study, and the substitution of the " characteristic " area for it. 
 Physiographers have employed this distinguishing term for the past twenty 
 years, and it is now proving useful in the field of descriptive geography. 
 
 The older texts divided the earth's surface into its political areas, and the 
 study proceeded upon this basis, regardless of whether the arbitrary political 
 boundaries carried with them any significance worth while. The later texts 
 disavow this method in theory, but utilize it in practice. For example, 
 Brazil is a political area ; but examined as a tmit for study it proves to be an 
 unwieldy group of regions which cannot with profit be studied together. 
 The Brazilian plateau and the Amazon selvas have nothing in common 
 except their political aspect, which is of a minor import. In topography, 
 climate, inhabitants, life forms, and products they differ so widely as to make 
 it impracticable to group them under one study head. On the other hand, 
 we find the selvas not included in Brazil alone, but in Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador,
 
 8 TEACHERS' HANDBOOK OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Colombia, and Venezuela as well. To study the selvas. then, by the method 
 of the political area, we should have to make six fragmentary approaches 
 to the subject, under the above captions. But now, if our unit of study is 
 the characteristic area, we treat the selvas as one great homogeneous region, 
 irrespective of political boundaries ; while the Brazilian highlands receive a 
 separate treatment as another such unit. 
 
 The value of this distinction can be tested in any part of the earth's surface. 
 British America, for example, is a political area. But as a unit of study it 
 proves hopelessly complex. The various regions of southern Canada merge 
 identically with the corresponding ones on our side of the border into a 
 wheat region, a Great Lake region, a Rocky Mountain region, and a mari- 
 time region, while farther north the Arctic provinces, with their Eskimos 
 and icebergs, call for a wholly separate study. 
 
 Similarly the political area, Egypt, divides itself inevitably into two diverse 
 regions, one of which is the desert, integrally a portion of the Sahara, while 
 the other is the Nile strip, an entity in itself, not logically to be merged in 
 any of its aspects with the other. 
 
 Only in Europe do the political areas appear to coincide in any degree 
 with the characteristic areas and thus become available as units of study. 
 And this is partly because in these countries their social and political aspects 
 are not only of dominating importance, but they group themselves, in the 
 main, with the topography. Thus Scandinavia is clearly a study unit, in any 
 and all of its phases separate and distinct from neighboring areas. And this 
 is seen to be equally true, so far as elementary study is concerned, of Holland, 
 the British Isles, the Iberian peninsula, Russia, and Switzerland. 
 
 The appended plan for the teaching of descriptive geography is based 
 upon this distinction. The old device of the political area is laid aside and 
 the division into characteristic areas is followed throughout. Curiously 
 enough the world's surface divides itself into just fifty of these areas, or 
 regions : 
 
 TJie WorhVs Characteristic Areas. 
 
 Arctic America. Spanish South, 
 
 Alaska, West Indies, 
 
 Southern Canada, Northern South America, 
 
 New England, Amazon Region, 
 
 Aliddle Atlantic Seaboard, La Plata Region, 
 
 Cotton Belt, Brazilian Highlands, 
 
 Appalachian Region, Patagonia, 
 
 Great Lake Region, West Coast (South Am.), 
 
 Prairie Region, High Andes. 
 
 Crazing Region, Nile Region, 
 
 Plateau Region, Barbary States, 
 
 Pacific Slope, Sahara,
 
 THE WORLD S CHARACTERISTIC AREAS. 9 
 
 Central Africa, Scandinavia (with Ice- 
 South Africa, ' land and Denmark), 
 
 Australasia, Russia (with Siberia), 
 
 South Sea Isles, France (and Belgium), 
 
 Hawaiian Islands, Holland, 
 
 Philippines, Germany, 
 
 East Indies, Austria-Hungary, 
 
 The Ocean, Balkan States, 
 
 China, Turkey, 
 
 Japan, • Greece, 
 
 India, Italy. 
 
 Moslem Asia, Spain (and Portugal), 
 
 Palestine, Switzerland. 
 British Isles, 
 
 It will be seen at once that some of these areas are well adapted for study 
 in the lower grades, while others are better reserved for the later ones. In 
 a general way we may say that the lower-grade work should present the 
 spectacular, the panoramic, the wonder aspect, including the human interest 
 where it is merely a matter of gaze and not a matter of reason. The third 
 and fourth grade geography is filled with elephants and crocodiles, and 
 slaves who carry ivory ; with monkeys and screaming parrots ; with dikes 
 and windmills, and storks on the chimney ; wath people boring deep in the 
 earth for treasure, and climbing snowpeaks for adventure's sake ; and of 
 lonely dog-teams, scudding over endless Arctic snows half-lighted by the 
 shaking aurora. In the later work this wonder aspect must yet retain a place, 
 but it gradually blends with the more significant phases of a human interest. 
 The "' Sunny South " is still sunny, and the darkies still sing on the planta- 
 tion ; but the relation of cotton to slavery, and to the war, suggests itself ; 
 and also on the old battle-fields a Xew South is rising, because she is build- 
 ing her own mills instead of paying high profits to those beyond her borders. 
 Unless the upper-grade work gave some sort of outlook upon these economic 
 aspects, it would be merely the beginnings over again ; merely an amplified 
 and highly colored Baedecker. 
 
 A'iewed in this light, some of the earth's areas seem especially adapted for 
 the beginning of the course in descriptive geography. The savage regions, 
 such as Central Africa, the Amazon country, and Eskimo land, appeal mainly 
 by their wonder aspect. But in France and Germany the other extreme is 
 reached, where the spectacular has disappeared and giv^n place to rather 
 more intimate social studies. And midway between these contrasts fall such 
 topics as Holland, Scandinavia, and China, rich in both sorts of material. 
 Thus, in a very general way, the earth's characteristic areas strew themselves 
 along the course of study, without, however, leaving any hard-and-fast lines, 
 since the upper-grade work is not a substitution for, but a development of, 
 the other. The suggested sequence of topics is as follows :
 
 lO 
 
 teachers' handbook of geography. 
 
 Course of Study by Regions. 
 
 THIRD YEAR. 
 
 Arctic America. 
 
 Spanish South. 
 
 Sahara Region, 
 
 Amazon Region, 
 
 Barbary States, 
 
 Xorthern South America. 
 
 China, 
 
 West Indies, 
 
 Holland, 
 
 Andes Region, 
 
 South Sea Isles. 
 
 Alaska, 
 
 Central Africa, 
 
 Patagonia, 
 
 Hawaiian Islands, 
 
 Japan. 
 
 FOURTH YEAR. 
 
 Pacific Region (U. S.), 
 
 East Indies, 
 
 Cotton Belt (U. S.), 
 
 Palestine, 
 
 La Plata Region, 
 
 Scandinavia, 
 
 Brazilian Highlands, 
 
 Xile Region, 
 
 Switzerland, 
 
 Grazing Region ( L\ S.). 
 
 Turkey (European), 
 
 West Coast (South Am. ), 
 
 Philippines, 
 
 Australasia, 
 
 Plateau Region (U. S.), 
 
 India. 
 
 The Lesson Units. 
 
 Having thus defined and approximately graded our areas for study, wo 
 set down for each a grouj) of terse but descrii)tive statements which, col- 
 lectively, seem to cover an ordinary cultural knowledge of the region. These 
 statements, borrowing and somewhat adapting Mc.Murry's term, are called 
 lesson units. If {hc^i- unit< are properly conceived nntl stated, they together 
 
 FIFTH YEAR. 
 
 ^losleni Asia, 
 
 Canada (Southern), 
 
 Spain (and Portugal), < x 
 
 South Africa, 
 
 Review third-year topics. 
 
 SIXTH year; • 
 
 Greece, 
 
 Appalachian Region (U. S.), 
 
 The Ocean, 
 
 Review fourth-year topics. 
 
 SEVENTH YEAR. , 
 
 Lake Region (U. S.), 
 
 Italy. 
 
 New England, 
 
 Russia (with Siberia), 
 
 Prairie Region (U. S.), 
 
 British Isles, 
 
 ^liddle Atlantic Seaboard (U. S.), 
 
 Review fifth and sixth-year topics. 
 
 i:i(;iiTii Yi:Ak. 
 Germany, 
 Balkan States, 
 France (and Belgium), 
 Austria-Hungary, 
 Review seventh-year topics. 
 Economic zones, 
 Race distribution.
 
 COURSE OF STUDY BY REGIONS. II 
 
 constitute an epitome, or brief, of the essential description of the region, 
 involving all the information which is universal to ordinary culture and 
 excluding all that is special. The lesson units of a region may thus be likened 
 collectively to a rosebud, which contains, potentially, all the features of a 
 matured flower, and is now to be unfolded to the fullness of its conteni. 
 For example, here are the lesson units for a descriptive treatment of New 
 England : 
 
 I. Here is the land of the Pilgrim fathers, and of literary fame. 2. New 
 England has important fisheries, and Gloucester is the great fishing port. 
 3. The thin-soiled, rocky country alt'ords poor farms but fine quarries, and 
 the New England lakes and sea cliffs make famous summer resorts. 4. The 
 lumber of Maine has built many ships. 5. The rivers have powerful falls, 
 and manufacturing cities have grown up. 6. The indented sea-front affords 
 good harbors, and Boston is upon one of them. 7. New England has crops 
 of cranberries, maple sugar, and ice. 
 
 The units of a region once determined, each is taken up in order and made 
 the basis of one or more lessons, according to its scope, and according to 
 the grade in which it is taught. To this end the teacher familiarizes herself 
 with all the available supplementary reading that pertains ; and is thus not 
 only ec^uipped in subject-matter herself, but is in a position to economically 
 direct a copious reading on the part of each pupil in the class. In the 
 primary grades this readmg, of course, is done almost entirely by the teacher, 
 who thus becomes a source of information, and imparts the substance to her 
 class in the form of conversational talks. In older grades, where the pupils 
 are able to read genuinely descriptive material, the aspect of the lesson 
 changes somewhat. The pupils contribute substantially to the discourse, the 
 teacher merely keeping the helm and filling the gaps. 
 
 Besides giving back, orally, the descriptive material acquired, the pupils 
 write little topical accounts, at the close of each unit. The teacher should 
 examine these writings and make their errors in content and language a 
 subject for correction in the next lesson. 
 
 The Selection of Supplementary Reading. 
 
 It would be quite without point to enlarge upon the usefulness of supple- 
 mentary reading and go no farther. For serv'ice in the present scheme a 
 fund of descriptive readings has been evolved which aims to exhaust the 
 entire field of available reading. Again, it would be futile to mention merely 
 the names of the books, for the tantalizing of busy grade teachers. Instead 
 of this the books have been dissected page by page, and their content 
 scattered in immediate juxtaposition to the topics of which they treat. The 
 labor-saving value of this feature is at once apparent. The teacher finds, 
 under each tmit of each region, an ample fund of readings for both the 
 pupils and herself. This enormous saving to her of labor and time makes 
 possible the practical application of the supplementary reading method as it 
 has never been possible before.
 
 12 TELACHERS HANDBOOK OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 In making up the lists, three kinds of books have received a most careful 
 consideration. The first of tliese includes all that class of books which may 
 be called geography readers, whatever their titles may happen to be. The 
 surpassing value of these books lies in the fact that they are readily divisible 
 into assigned readings ; they offer a minimum of unessential matter, and what 
 is there is easily eliminated. Finally, their style of presentation is, in nearly 
 every case, cleverly adapted to the abilities of young readers. Also the 
 price is in every case so low that these books may be had by schools of the 
 most limited means. 
 
 The second class listed are those books whicli. while closely pertinent to 
 the subject, are too mature in their style for pupils" reading ; man\- of them, 
 also, are not easily articulated into separate readings. Wherever possible, 
 however, they have been so articulated, in this treatment, for the teacher's 
 sake, and altogether they constitute a highly useful fund of teachers' ref- 
 erence. 
 
 It was the original intention to include a third list, composed of juvenile 
 books of adventure and travel. There is a soft spot in the adult heart for 
 these volumes of beloved memory, and we are prone to concede them an 
 atmosphere, local color, and action which would be highly enriching to the 
 study of descriptive geography, but which indeed these books rarely possess. 
 The characteristic movement of even the best of them is couched in an 
 inconsequent form of dialogue (between Lucy and the governess, or between 
 Bertie and the guide) which, on examination, has the consistency only of 
 foam and leaves no precipitate. Again, their local color is not often a 
 genuine local color, and their data are frequently independent of reality. 
 Finally, they are quite incapable of division into topical readings, and so are 
 debarred, on mechanical grounds, from any systematic use in the work of 
 teaching. Their strong point is the appeal they make to the juvenile interest. 
 These books may be said to afford a background for the work in descriptive 
 geography, of which the geography readers constitute tlie foreground. On 
 the whole it has been deemed best to omit a list of them, particularly as they 
 are comparatively costly, and it is desirable to make the lists not too 
 formidable in the vision of school treasurers. 
 
 In general, the books selected are low in price, recent in date, and easy 
 of access. They may be said, as a whole, to be those which every public 
 school should include in its working library.
 
 FIRST COURSE IN FORMAL GEOGRAPHY. 1 3 
 
 COURSE IN FORMAL GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 In our own school this formal course is begun in the third school year, 
 and it is ordinarily finished before the end of the fourth. Thereafter we 
 recur to it frequently as review material for the upper grades, sandwiching 
 sections of the formal course between the studies of the descriptive course. 
 
 The Globe (First Course). 
 
 1. Place a globe in the hands of each pupil.* Hold a globe in your hand, 
 and passing your finger over North America, pronounce the name, distinctly. 
 Also write it on the blackboard. Have the children (a) point to North 
 America as you give the name, and [b) give the name as you point to North 
 America. 
 
 Repeat this with each continent and ocean. 
 
 Oral Spelling. 
 
 2. Write a list of these names learned, on the board. Have the pupils, in 
 turn, stand, select a word, face the other way and spell it, smoothly and 
 without hesitation. 
 
 Written Spelling. 
 
 3. Send the pupils to the blackboard and have them write the names 
 learned, one at a time, at your dictation. 
 
 4. Furnish each pupil with a spelling slip. Point to each continent and 
 ocean, in order, and have pupils write the names on their slips. In correct- 
 ing these, afterward, carefully note the errors and make them the subject 
 of a special lesson and test. 
 
 Concert Location. 
 
 5. Point to the continents and oceans on your globe, rapidly and at ran- 
 dom, while the class, in concert, pronounce the respective names. 
 
 Test. 
 
 6. Name a continent or ocean and have a pupil come and point it out on 
 your globe. The rest of the class watch critically, and correct, if need be. 
 Repeat this with all the continents and oceans, until assured that each pupil 
 is certain of each name and location. 
 
 Make this a rapid, bright exercise. 
 
 *There is a cheap six-inch globe, sold as low as three dollars per dozen, and well adapted 
 for this part of the geography course. In our work here at the school we obliterate names and details 
 by painting over the oceans and continents with oil colors. We paint the continents maroon and the 
 oceans a whitish blue. — K.
 
 14 teachers' handbook of geography. 
 
 Outline Alap Test. 
 
 7. Using a list of the continents and oceans, proceed as in the foot-note.* 
 
 Direction on the Globe. 
 
 8. A\'e live on Xorth America. Mark the spot with a dot of chalk on 
 your globe. Have the pupils do so on theirs. 
 
 " Draw your finger castzvard on your globe."' Suit action to word and 
 have the children follow. Also — 
 
 " Draw your finger ivestzvard." 
 
 " Draw your finger iiortliicard and locate the North Pole." 
 
 •" Draw your finger soiiflntfard and locate the South Pole." 
 
 " What ocean is east of North America ? " 
 
 "What ocean west?" 
 
 " What ocean east of South America ? " 
 
 "What ocean west?" 
 
 " What ocean north of North America? " 
 
 " What ocean south of South America ? " 
 
 Use a corresponding formula for each continent, firmly establishing the 
 idea of cardinal points. 
 
 Review. 
 
 (). Review §8 by reversing llic (juestion, viz.: 
 " What continents west of the Atlantic Ocean ? " 
 " What continents east? " etc. 
 Use a similar formula with each ocean. 
 
 Oral Test.f 
 
 10. Pupils read these sentences from the blackboard, supplying the miss- 
 ing word. 
 
 1. The Pacific Ocean is of North America. 
 
 2. The Pacific Ocean is of South America. 
 
 3. The Atlantic Ocean is of Nortli .\mcrica. 
 
 4. The Atlantic Ocean is of South America. 
 
 5. The Arctic Ocean is of North America. 
 
 Ct. The Arctic Ocean is of Asia. 
 
 7. The Arctic Ocean is of F.u rope. 
 
 ^Outline Maf's — TlirouRlioul tliis cinirsc a frc<iiiont use is iiia<lc of outline maps. The pupil 
 may easily provide these for liimself by laying a sheet of transparent paper over the te.xt-hook 
 map and tracinR the coast-lines and other features as may he re(|uire<t at the time. We are using 
 for this purpose a paper calle<l "onion weave." It is transparent, yi-t takes ink. We buy a ream, 
 17x22, and have it cut twice. This giycs us four reams SV^xii, at a cost of $1.25, or about thirteen 
 sheets for a cent. 
 
 The |)Ui)ils having thus made their tracings, the teacher jirints on the blackboard a list of 
 the geographical names occurring in the lesson. 'I'he pupils copy these names into their appropriate 
 places on their outline maps. The teacher's jirinting must ;ilTord the pupil ;i model of neat lettering. 
 
 'J"he pujiil is to be taught to use at least two sizes of printing— .'i Irirge size for great areas, 
 such as oceans or continents, and a sm.illi r si/<- for cities. In m.irking .1 city he puts a dot, also, to 
 show the exact location. 
 
 tWhen the pui»il shows uncertainty, <Wr- not supply the it'onl to him. but refresh the idea 
 hy presenting the globe. Remntibcr that your whole pm i>ose now is the visualizing of the map, not 
 merely the aef|uiring of word formulas.
 
 FIRST COURSE IN FORMAL GEOGRAPHY. 1 5 
 
 8. The Antarctic Ocean is of South America. 
 
 9. The Antarctic Ocean is of Africa. 
 
 10. The Antarctic Ocean is ■ of AustraUa. 
 
 11. The Pacific Ocean is of Asia. 
 
 12. The Pacific Ocean is of Australia. 
 
 13. The Indian Ocean is • of Asia. 
 
 14. The Indian Ocean is of Africa. 
 
 15. The Indian Ocean is ■ of Australia. 
 
 16. The Pacific Ocean is • of the Arctic Ocean. 
 
 17. The Pacific Ocean is of the Antarctic Ocean. 
 
 18. The Atlantic Ocean is of the Arctic Ocean. 
 
 19. The Atlantic Ocean is of the Antarctic Ocean. 
 
 20. The Indian Ocean is • of the Antarctic Ocean. 
 
 21. The is the most northerly point of the earth. 
 
 22. The ■ • is the most southerly point of the earth. 
 
 Written Test. 
 
 11. Pupils write these sentences from the blackboard, supplying the miss- 
 ing words. 
 
 1. and • are west of the Atlantic Ocean. 
 
 2. — — ■ and are east of the Atlantic Ocean. 
 
 3. and are east of the Pacific Ocean. 
 
 4. and are west of the Pacific Ocean. 
 
 5. The continents of , and are south of the Arctic 
 
 Ocean. 
 
 6. The continents of , and are north of the Antarctic 
 
 Ocean. 
 
 7. The and Oceans are south of the Arctic Ocean. 
 
 8. The , and Oceans are north of the Antarctic Ocean. 
 
 9. ■ is west of the Indian Ocean. 
 
 10. is north of the Indian Ocean. 
 
 II. is southeast of the Indian Ocean. 
 
 12. is south of the Indian Ocean. 
 
 Outline JMap Review. 
 
 12. Repeat the map-filling test given in § 7. 
 
 Add, at the margins, the words North, South, East, and West in their 
 appropriate places. 
 
 The Hemispheres. 
 (Transition from globe to flat map.) 
 
 13. Have class open their text-books to the map of the hemispheres. 
 Distribute the globes also. 
 
 " Find the map of the Western Hemisphere. Turn your globe so that
 
 1 6 teachers' handbook of geography. 
 
 the Western Hemisphere is toward you. What continents are in the West- 
 ern Hemisphere?" 
 
 " Find the map of the Eastern Hemisphere. Turn your globe so that 
 the Eastern Hemisphere is toward you. \Miat continents are in the Eastern 
 Hemisphere? What ocean is entirely in the Eastern Hemisphere? Xame 
 the oceans that He partly in both hemispheres." 
 
 " Find the North Pole on the globe. Find it on the Western Hemisphere. 
 Find it on the Eastern Hemisphere." 
 
 " Find the South Pole on each." 
 
 Reviews. 
 
 14. Sketch the hemispheres, with their continents, in outline, on the 
 blackboard, but omit names. Use this map in the following group of games : 
 
 15. Point out the continents, oceans, and poles at random, and have class 
 give the respective names, in chorus. 
 
 16. Call on the pupils, one at a time, to come up and point out the conti- 
 nent, ocean, or pole that you may name. Conduct this exercise in a bright, 
 snappy way. 
 
 17. Allow one pupil to stand at the board and make all the locations; but 
 should he make an error, the pupil detecting it takes his place. 
 
 18. Write the names of continents, oceans, and poles beside the map. 
 Allow the pupils, one by one, to step to the board, point to a name, pronounce 
 it, and locate the feature on the map. Conduct this exercise in a rapid, 
 breezy manner. 
 
 19. Call on a single individual to name all the features as you point them 
 out on the map. 
 
 20. Sometimes allow a pupil to take your place as pointer. Insist, how- 
 ever, on a briskly moving exercise. 
 
 Oral Spelling Review. 
 
 21. Repeat § 2, l)Ul include the words East, West, North Pole, South Pole. 
 
 22. Have a spelling bee. Erase the words from the board. Line the 
 children up in two rows, facing each other. These " sides " may be chosen 
 by " captains," but do not let this game element sacrifice time. The teacher 
 now gives out the words alternately to one side and to the other. A pupil 
 misspelling his word goes to his seat and the word is given to the opposing 
 side. The pupil finally remaining wins out for his side. 
 
 23. The device in § 22 may be varied l)y lia\ ing the ])ui)il, on missing, 
 pass to the foot of the line instead of to his seat. In this game have one 
 line instead of two. The pu])il at the head of the line when the lesson closes 
 wins out.
 
 FIRST COURSE IX FORMAL GEOGRAPHY. 1 7 
 
 Written Spelling Review. 
 
 24. Using the material so far studied (continents, oceans, cardinal points), 
 apply § 4. 
 
 The jNIercatgr. 
 
 25. Have pupils turn to a mercator map in the text-book (Tarr and 
 McAIurry, Elementary, p. 137). Explain brietiy that this is a sailor map. 
 It was made originally by a man who called himself Alercator, with the 
 idea of giving sea-captains an easy map to trace their voyages on. Notice 
 that it makes the northern lands too large. Compare the exaggerated 
 arctic lands with those shown in their true proportion on the globe. 
 
 26. With this mercator map before the pupils, give a rapid oral review 
 of §§ 8 to 10. 
 
 Oral Review (using the mercator). 
 
 27. (Model.) I. To go from Xorth America to Europe, we sail 
 
 across the Ocean. 
 
 2. Xorth America to Asia. 
 
 3. Xorth America to Africa. 
 
 4. Xorth America to Australia. 
 
 5. Xorth America to South America. 
 6-10. South America similarly. 
 
 11-15. Africa. 
 
 16-20. Australia. 
 
 21-25. Asia. 
 
 26-30. Europe. 
 
 Written Review (without the map). 
 
 28. Exercise § 2", filled out from blackboard briefs, without the map. 
 
 Outline Map Test. 
 
 29. Using a list of continents, oceans, and cardinal points, proceed as in § 7. 
 
 X'oRTH America (First Course). 
 Map Sketching. 
 
 30. Open each day's lesson with a few minutes spent at the blackboard 
 by the pupils, in quickly outlining the continent. For this purpose let them 
 look intently, for a moment, at a correctly drazvii outline of your own. Then 
 cover your map and allow them one minute in wliich to draw. 
 
 X'ow display your outline again for reference and pass rapidly about the 
 room, giving each pupil a criticism on the most conspicuous error in his 
 sketch. Refer him to your own on the point you criticize. 
 
 This map-sketching must not be allowed to encroach too much on the rest 
 of the lesson. Do not let it take more than six minutes.
 
 1 8 teachers' handbook of geography. 
 
 In this work it is of great help to notice opposite points in the coastline. 
 For instance, Lower California extends both farther north and farther south 
 than Florida ; and Hudson Bay is directly over the Gulf of Mexico ; and 
 Vancouver Island is opposite the Gulf of St. Lawrence. 
 
 Watch this daily practice carefully, striving to fix the continental form 
 in the pupil's mind as clearly as are the letters of the alphabet. Let the 
 pupil look at your copy before he draws, but not while he is drawing. 
 
 31. Quicker and better results are had by the teacher drawing her model 
 outline while the children watch, instead of presenting one already drawn. 
 This watching while you draw helps the children very much. Of course, the 
 teacher must first practice until she can draw a good outline. 
 
 Locations. 
 
 For the following work the teacher is to provide herself with either a wall 
 map of the continent, or a blackboard mass map, for which Fig. i may be 
 used as a model. 
 
 32. Each pupil, having the text-book map of North America before him, 
 let him find the eight natural features given below, as you name them. The 
 pupil first locating the feature may pass to the wall map and locate it there. 
 These locative lessons must be conducted wdth vim and snap. Do not let 
 the searching of the map cost too much time. If needful, give a clue to the 
 whereabouts of the feature. 
 
 Natural Features. 
 
 33. Atlantic, Pacific, Arctic Oceans ; Gulf of ]\Texico ; Hudson Bay ; Rocky 
 Mts. ; Appalachian Mts. ; ]\Iissis.sippi River. 
 
 Political Features. 
 
 34. United States, Canada, Mexico, Central America. 
 
 Oral Spelling. 
 
 35. Using the material of §§ 33 and 34, apply § 2. 
 
 36. Using the material of §§ 33 and 34. apply either §§ 22 or 23. 
 
 Written Spelling. 
 
 37. Using the material of §§ 33 and 34. apply § 4. 
 
 Reviews. 
 
 38. Using a wall map of North America, or else a blackboard map con- 
 taining the features needed, adapt §§ 15 to 20, inclusive. 
 
 Outline Map Test. 
 
 39. Using an outline of North America, proceed as in ^ 7.
 
 FIRST COURSE IX FORMAL GEOGRAPHY. TC; 
 
 Oral Spelling Review. 
 
 40. A lesson on all features learned, as described in the spell-down, 
 §§ 22 or 23. 
 
 Written Spelling Review. 
 
 41. A written spelling lesson on all features so far learned, using § 4. 
 
 ,, ,-,, ,. South America (First Course). 
 
 Map Sketchmg. ' 
 
 42. Proceed as in §§ 30, 31. Try to give efifective criticisms and bring the 
 pupils rapidly to efficiency. 
 
 Locations. 
 
 43. Teach the following-named natural and political features according 
 to the suggestions of § 32. 
 
 Natural Features. 
 
 44. Atlantic, Pacific, Antarctic oceans ; Caribbean Sea. 
 Andes Mts. ; Brazilian Highlands ; Guiana Highlands. 
 Amazon. Orinoco. La Plata Rivers. 
 
 45. Brazil, Argentina, Chile. 
 
 Rio Janeiro^, Buenos Aires, Santiago. 
 
 Oral Spelling. 
 
 46. Using the material of §§ 44 and 45, apply § 2. 
 
 Written Spelling. 
 
 47. Using the material of §§ 44 and 45, apply § 4. 
 
 Reviews. 
 
 48. Using a wall map of South America, adapt §§ 15 to 20, inclusive. 
 
 Outline Map Test. 
 
 4Q. Use an outline of South America and proceed as in § 7. 
 
 Review of Xorth America. 
 
 50. Apply §§ 38, 39. 
 
 -., 01 . 1 • Europe (First Course). 
 
 Map Sketchmg. 
 
 51. Daily blackboard outlining of Europe, as in §§ 30, 31. Read these 
 directions carefully and carry out their spirit. 
 
 Locations. 
 
 52. Teach the following-named natural and political features according 
 to the suggestions of § 32.
 
 20 TEACHERS HANDBOOK OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Natural Features. 
 
 53. Atlantic and Arctic oceans; ^Mediterranean, Black, and Caspian seas. 
 
 N Alps. Pyrenees, Caucasus, and Ural moimtains. 
 \"'olga and Danube rivers. 
 Sicilv and Iceland. 
 
 Political Features. 
 
 54. Russia, France, Spain^ British Isles. 
 London, Paris, Berlin. 
 
 Oral Spelling. 
 
 55. Using the material of §§ 53 and 54, apply § 2. 
 
 Written Spelling. 
 
 56. Using the material of §§ 53 and 54, apply § 4. 
 
 Reviews. 
 
 57. Using a wall map of Europe, adapt §§ 15 to 20, inclusive. 
 
 Outline Map Test. 
 
 58. Use an outline (jf Europe and proceed as in § 7. 
 
 Review of South America. 
 
 59. Review §§ 47-49, inclusive. 
 
 ,, ... , . Asia (First Course). 
 
 Map Sketchmg. 
 
 60. Daily map sketching, as in §§ 30, 31. Re-read those paragraphs care- 
 fully. 
 
 Locations. 
 
 61. Teach the following-nauKd natural and political features according 
 to the method of § 32. 
 
 Natural Features. 
 
 62. Pacific, Arctic, Indian oceans; Red. Mediterranean. Caspian. Black 
 
 seas. 
 I'ering Straits; J.sthmus Suez. 
 Himalaya, Ural mountains; Ml. i-lverest. 
 Ganges, Indus, Yangtsc Kiang, Iloang I lo rivers. 
 
 Political Features. 
 
 (>T). Chinese Empire, India, Siberia. Ja])an. 
 Peking, Calcutta.
 
 FIRST COURSE IN FORMAL GEOGRAPHY. 2 1 
 
 Oral Spelling. 
 
 64. Using the material of §§ 62 and 6t„ apply § 2. 
 
 Written Spelling. 
 
 65. Using the material of §§ 62 and 63, apply § 4. 
 
 Reviews. 
 
 66. Using a wall map of Asia, adapt §§ 15 to 20, inclusive. 
 
 Outline ]\Iap Test. 
 
 67. Use an outline of Asia and proceed as in § 7. 
 
 Review of Europe. 
 
 68. Review §§ 56-58, inclusive. 
 
 Africa (First Course). 
 Map Sketching. 
 
 69. Daily quick sketching of Africa, as in §§ 30, 31. Aim to have the 
 pupils visualize these continental forms as clearly as they do the letters of 
 the alphabet. 
 
 Locations. 
 
 70. Teach the following-named features according to the method of § 32. 
 
 Natural Features. 
 
 71. Atlantic, Indian, Antarctic oceans; Alediterranean, Red seas. 
 Isthmus of Suez ; Straits of Gibraltar ; Cape of Good Hope. 
 Nile and Kongo rivers. 
 
 Political Features. 
 
 y2. Egypt, Barbary States, Cape Colony; Cairo, Alexandria, Cape Town, 
 Pretoria. 
 
 Oral Spelling. 
 
 y;^. Using the material of §§ 71 and 72, apply § 2. 
 
 Written Spelling. 
 
 74. Using the material of §§ 71 and 72, apply § 4. 
 
 Reviews. 
 
 75. Using a wall map of Africa, adapt §§ 15 to 20, inclusive.
 
 22 TEACHERS' HANDBOOK OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Outline Map Test. 
 
 jd. Use an outline of Africa and proceed as in § 7. 
 
 Review of Asia. 
 
 yy. Review §§ 65-67. 
 
 United States (First Course). 
 Map Sketching-. 
 
 78. Re-read §§ 30, 31 and apply to United States. 
 
 Locations. 
 
 79. Teach the following-named natural and political features according 
 to the method of § 32. 
 
 Boundaries and Natural Features. 
 
 80. Atlantic. Pacific oceans ; Gulf of Alexico ; Mexico ; Canada. 
 Atlantic Plain ; Appalachian Highland ; Mississippi V'alley ; Rocky Mt. 
 
 Highland ; Pacific Slope. 
 
 Political Features. 
 
 81. States bordering Pacific (3). 
 States bordering Mexico (3). 
 Plateau States (6). 
 
 Cities of San Francisco, Portland, Seattle, Galveston, Salt Lake City, 
 Denver. 
 
 Oral Spelling. 
 
 82. Using the material of §§ 80, 81, apply § 2. 
 
 Written Spelling. 
 
 83. Using the material of §§ 80, 8r, apply § 4. 
 
 Reviews. 
 
 84. Using a wall map of United States, apply §§ 15 to 20. inclusive. 
 
 Outline Maj) Test. 
 
 85. Use an outline of the U. S. and proceed as in g 7. It will be better 
 to divide the material (v<§8o, 81) into two successive exercises. The out- 
 line used for the states must show the political boundaries. 
 
 Review of Africa. 
 
 86. Review §§ 74-76.
 
 FIRST COURSE IN FORMAL GEOGRAPHY. 23 
 
 California (First Course). 
 Map Sketching-. 
 
 87. Proceed as in §§ 30. 31. 
 
 Locations. 
 
 88. Teach the following-named features according to the method of § 32. 
 
 Natural Features and Boundaries. 
 
 89. I'acific Ocean ; Oregon, Nevada, Arizona. Mexico. 
 
 Sierra Nevada, Coast Ranges ; Sacramento-San Joaquin Valley ; Sac- 
 ramento, San Joaquin rivers : San Francisco Bay ; Golden Gate. 
 
 Political Features. 
 
 90. San Francisco, Oakland, Los Angeles, Sacramento. 
 
 Oral Spelling. 
 
 91. Using the material of §§ 89, 90, apply § 2. 
 
 Written Spelling. 
 
 92. Losing the material of §§ 89, 90, apply § 4. 
 
 Reviews. 
 
 93. Losing a wall map of California, adapt §§ 15-20, inclusive. 
 
 Outline Alap Test. 
 
 94. Use an outline of California and proceed as in § 7. 
 
 Review of L'nited States. 
 
 95. Review §§ 83 to 85. 
 
 Review Spelling. 
 
 96. Selecting the more difficult words in §§ 33-34, 44-45. 53-54^ 62-63, 
 71-72, 80-81, and 89-90, apply the spelling bee, §§ 22 or 23. 
 
 Review of North America. 
 
 97. Review §§ 37-39. 
 
 Review of South America. 
 
 98. Review §§ 47-49. 
 
 Review of Europe. 
 
 99. Review §§ 56-58. 
 
 Review of Asia. 
 
 100. Review §§65, 66, 67.
 
 24 teachers' handbook of geography. 
 
 Review of Africa. 
 
 loi. Review §§ 74. 75, 76. 
 
 Review of United States. 
 
 102. Review §§83, 84, 85. 
 
 Review of California. 
 
 103. Review §§ 92, 93, 94. 
 
 The Globe (Second Course). 
 Globe Climate : Zones. 
 
 104. In preparation for this work paint the zones on one of the globes 
 previously used. Color the torrid zone orange, the temperate zones green, 
 and the frigid zones bluish white to white at the poles. Blend these various 
 colors at their lines of junction so that the transition will be somewhat grad- 
 ual instead of abrupt. Finally trace the continental outlines in place, with 
 black paint. 
 
 105. With this globe in hand teach that the frigid zones are cold, and are 
 regions of ice and snow\ Give the names Xorth Frigid Zone and South 
 Frigid Zone. Similarly teach the North and South Temperate zones as 
 regions of mild climate (such as ours), and the Torrid Zone as having a 
 verv warm climate. 
 
 Circles. 
 
 106. Show the Arctic Circle on your globe and give its name. Have 
 the pupils find it on the hemisphere map in their text-books. Notice where 
 it crosses the continents. Notice that it is the northern boundary of the 
 North Temperate Zone and the southern boundary of the North Frigid Zone. 
 
 Similarly teach the Antarctic Circle, the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, 
 and the Equator. 
 
 Locations. 
 
 107. Having drawn a blackboard map of the hemispheres showing the 
 circles and continents, adapt § 32 to the teaching of zones and circles. 
 
 Oral Spelling. 
 
 108. Using the names of zones and circles, proceed as in § 2. 
 
 Written Spelling. 
 
 109. Using the names of zones and circles. jMocecd as in v^ 4. 
 
 Reviews. 
 
 1 10. Let a pui)il, taking the globe in his hand, point out each zone and
 
 SECOND COURSE IX FORMAL GEOGRAPHY. 25 
 
 circle, describing the zones. Others keenly watch and correct. ^Manage this 
 game so that all of the more doubtful pupils have this handling of the globe. 
 
 111. Adapt § 15 to §20, inclusive, to zones, circles, and poles. 
 
 Outline Alap Tests. 
 
 112. Using outlines of the hemispheres, showing circles and continents, 
 proceed as in § 7. The word list will include zones, circles, and poles. 
 
 113. On a second outline of the hemispheres let the pupils color the very 
 warm region red or orange, the mild regions green, and the cold regions 
 blue to white. 
 
 Review of California. 
 
 114. Review §§92-94. 
 
 XoRTH America (Second Course). 
 Map Sketching. 
 
 115. Apply §§ 30, 31. Re-read these paragraphs carefully and give them 
 full force. 
 
 Locations. 
 
 116. Teach the following-named natural and political features according 
 to the method of § 32. 
 
 Natural Features. 
 
 117. Isthmus of Panama; Bering Straits; Great Lakes (as a whole). 
 St. Lawrence, Columbia, Colorado, and Rio Grande rivers. 
 
 Political Features. 
 
 118. West Indies, Greenland. Iceland, Newfoundland. 
 Cities of Washington, ^Montreal, ^Mexico. 
 
 Oral Spelling. 
 
 119. Using the material of §§ 117. 118. apply § 2. 
 
 Written Spelling. 
 
 120. Using the material of §§ 117, 118, apply § 4. 
 
 Reviews. 
 
 121. Using a wall map of North America, adapt § 15 to § 20, inclusive. 
 
 Outline ]\Iap Test. 
 
 122. Use an outline map of North America and proceed as in § 7.
 
 26 TEACHERS' HANDBOOK OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Review of Xorth America (First Course). 
 
 123. Review §§ 37, 38, 39. 
 
 Review of the Globe (Second Course). 
 
 124. Review §§109, iii, 112. 
 
 South America (Second Course). 
 Map Sketching. 
 
 125. Proceed as in §§ 30, 31. 
 
 Locations. 
 
 126. Teach the following-named natural and ])olitical features according 
 to the method of § 32. 
 
 Natural Features. 
 
 127. Isthmus of Panama, Straits of Magellan, Cape Horn, Plateau of 
 Bolivia, Lake Titicaca. 
 
 Political Features. 
 
 128. Bolivia, Peru, Colombia, \'enezuela. 
 Bogota, Caracas. 
 
 Oral Spelling. 
 
 129. Using the material of §§ 127, 128, apply § 2. 
 
 Written Spelling. 
 
 130. Using the material of §§ 127, 128, apply § 4. 
 
 Reviews. 
 
 131. Using a wall map of South America, adapt § 15 to § 20, inclusive. 
 
 Outline Map Test. 
 
 132. Use an outline of South America and proceed as in JJ 7. 
 
 Review of South America (First Course). 
 
 133. Review §§47, 48, 49. 
 
 Review of North America (Second Course). 
 
 134. Review §§120, 121, 122. 
 
 EuRori-: (Second Course), 
 ^lap Sketching. 
 
 135. Continue as in §§30. 31. Re-read these paragraphs carefull\- and 
 secure the end thcv have in view.
 
 SECOND COURSE IX FORMAL GEOGRAPHY. 27 
 
 Locations. 
 
 136. Teach the following-named natural and political features according 
 to the method of § 32. 
 
 Natural Features. 
 
 137. North, Baltic, Adriatic, ^gean seas. 
 Apennine, Scandinavian. Balkan mountains. 
 Elbe, Rhine, Seine rivers. 
 
 Political Features. 
 
 138. Norway, Sweden, Germany, Austria, Italy. Turkey, Greece. 
 
 St. Petersburg, Rome, Constantinople, Vienna, Amsterdam, Brussels, 
 Hamburg, ]\Ioscow. 
 
 Oral Spelling. 
 
 139. Using the material of §§ 137-8, apply § 2. 
 
 Written Spelling. 
 
 140. Using the material of §§ 137-8, apply § 4. 
 
 Reviews. 
 
 141. Using a wall map of Europe, adapt § 15 to § 20, inclusive. 
 
 Outline Map Test. 
 
 142. Use an outline map of Europe and proceed as in § 7. 
 
 Review of Europe (First Course). 
 143- Review of §§ 56-8. 
 
 Review of South America (Second Course). 
 
 144. Review §§ 130-2. 
 
 ., 01 . 1 • Asia (Second Course). 
 
 Map Sketchmg. ^ ^ 
 
 145. Daily work on Asia as described in §§ 30-31. 
 
 Locations. 
 
 146. Teach the following-named natural and political features according 
 to the method of § 32. 
 
 Natural Features. 
 
 147. Japan Sea. Yellow Sea, Bay of Bengal, Arabian Sea, Persian Gulf, 
 
 Bering Sea. 
 Pamir Plateau, Plateau of Tibet. 
 Obi. Yenesei. Lena rivers.
 
 28 teachers' handbook of geography. 
 
 148. Persia. Arabia. Turkey, Siam, China. 
 Bombay. 
 
 Oral Spelling. 
 
 149. Using the material of §§ 147-8, apply § 2. 
 
 Written Spelling. 
 
 150. Using the material of §§ 147-8, apply § 4. 
 
 Reviews. 
 
 151. Using a wall map of Asia, adapt §§ 15-20, inclusive. 
 
 Outline Map Test. 
 
 152. Use an outline map of Asia and proceed as in § 7. 
 
 Review of Asia (First Course). 
 
 153. Review §§65-7. 
 
 Review of Europe (Second Course). 
 
 154. Review §§ 140-2. 
 
 Africa (Second Course). 
 ]\lap Sketching. 
 
 155. Daily work on Africa as described in §§ 30-31. 
 
 Locations. 
 
 156. Teach «the following-named natural and political features according 
 to the method of § 2i^. 
 
 Xatural Features. 
 
 157. Atlas ^Mountains; Sahara Desert; Abyssinian Plateau. 
 Zambesi, Niger, Orange rivers. 
 
 Lakes Victoria, Tanganyika, Xyassa. Chad. 
 Azores, Madagascar; (julf of Guinea. 
 
 Political Features, Etc. 
 
 158. Abyssinia, Morocco, Suez Canal. 
 
 Oral Spelling. 
 
 159. Using the material of §§ 157-8, apply § 2. 
 
 Written Spelling. 
 
 160. Using the material of §§ 157-8, apply § 4.
 
 SECOND COURSE IX FORMAL GEOGRAPHY. 29 
 
 Reviews. 
 
 161. Using a wall map of Africa, adapt § 15 to § 20. inclusive. 
 
 Outline Map Test. 
 
 162. Use an outline of Africa and proceed as in § 7. 
 
 Review of Africa (First Course). 
 
 163. Review §§ 74-6. 
 
 Review of Asia (Second Course). 
 
 164. Review §§ 150-52. 
 
 United States (Second Course). 
 Map Sketching. 
 
 165. Continue as in §§ 30-31. 
 
 Locations. 
 
 166. Teach the following-named natural and political features according 
 to the method of § 32. 
 
 Natural Features. 
 
 167. Rocky, Appalachian, Sierra Nevada mountains. 
 Alississippi, Missouri, Ohio, St. Lawrence rivers. 
 Lakes Superior, Michigan, Huron. Erie, Ontario. 
 Capes Cod, Hatteras ; Puget Sound. 
 
 Political Features. 
 
 168. States on west bank ^Mississippi (5). 
 States, etc., due north of Texas (6). 
 
 Cities of New Orleans, St. Louis, ^Minneapolis^ Kansas City, Omaha. 
 
 Oral Spelling. 
 
 169. Using the material of §§ 167-8, apply § 2. 
 
 \\'ritten Spelling. 
 
 170. Using the material of §§ 167-8, apply §4. 
 
 Reviews. 
 
 171. Using a wall map of United States, adapt § 15 to § 20, inclusive. 
 
 Outline ]Map Test. 
 
 172. Use an outline of United States and proceed as in §7.
 
 30 TEACHERS HANDBOOK OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Review of United States (First Course). 
 
 173. Review §§ 83-5. 
 
 Review of Africa (Second Course). 
 
 174. Review §§ 160-2. 
 
 California (Second Course). 
 Map Sketching. 
 
 175. Daily work on the outhne of California, as in §§ 30-31. 
 
 Locations. 
 
 176. Teach the following-named natural and political features according 
 to the method of § 32. 
 
 Natural Features. 
 
 177. ^Its. Shasta, Whitney, Diahlo. 
 Salinas, Eel. and Klamath rivers. 
 Tulare, Tahoe, Clear lakes. 
 
 Yosemitc A'alley ; Mohave Desert; Monterey Bay; Santa Catalina 
 Island. 
 
 Political Features. 
 
 178. San Jose. Stockton, Fresno, San Diego. 
 
 Oral Spelling. 
 
 179. Using the material of §§ 177-8, apply § 2. 
 
 Written Spelling. 
 
 180. Using the material of §§ 177-8, appl\- § 4. 
 
 Reviews. 
 
 ]8i. Using a wall map of California, adapt §§ 15-20, inclusive. 
 
 Outline Map Test. 
 
 182. Use an outline map of C"alifornia and i^rocced as in >j 7. 
 
 Review of California (First Course). 
 
 183. Review §§ 96-8. 
 
 Review of United States (Second Course). 
 
 184. Review §§ 170-2. 
 
 Review Spelling. 
 
 185. Selecting the more difficult words in §§ 117-18, 127-8, 137-8, 147-8, 
 157-8,' 167-8, 177-8; a])i)ly the spelling bee, § 22 or § 23.
 
 THIRD COURSE IN FORMAL GEOGRAPHY. 3 1 
 
 Review of North America (Second Course). 
 
 186. Review §§ 120-2. 
 
 Review of South America (Second Course). 
 
 187. Review §§ 130-2. 
 
 Review of Europe (Second Course). 
 
 188. Review §§ 140-2. 
 
 Review of Asia (Second Course). 
 
 189. Review §§ 150-2. 
 
 Review of Africa (Second Course). 
 
 190. Review '§§ 160-2. 
 
 Review of United States (Second Course). 
 
 191. Review §§ 170-2. 
 
 Review of California (Second Course). 
 
 192. Review §§ 180-2. 
 
 The Globe (Third Course). 
 
 193. Give a quick, wide-awake review of §§ i, 5 and 6. 
 
 Review of Cardinal Points. 
 
 194. Repeat § 8 and § 9. 
 
 Written Test. , 
 
 195. Repeat § 11. 
 
 Map Filling Review. 
 
 196. Repeat §12. 
 
 Review of Hemispheres. 
 
 197. Repeat § 13, and also § 14 to § 20, as far as may prove needful. 
 
 Review of the Mercator. 
 
 198. Repeat § 25 and § 27. 
 
 Map Filling Review. 
 
 199. Repeat § 29. 
 
 Mercator Map (Third Course). 
 
 200. Draw a mercator map of the world on the board. Use this in con- 
 junction with the text-book map (Tarr and McMurry, Elementary, p. 137).
 
 32 teachers' handbook of geography. 
 
 Questions on the Text-Book Map. 
 
 201. What continents are crossed b}- the Arctic Circle? 
 
 The Antarctic? (!) 
 
 The Equator? 
 
 Tropic of Cancer? 
 
 Tropic of Capricorn ? 
 
 Find the North Pole in this map.''' 
 
 In what zones lies North America? 
 
 South America? 
 
 Europe? Africa? Asia? Australia? 
 
 Commercial Points. 
 
 202. Locate these points on the mercator (text-book), following the 
 method of § 32 : 
 
 London, New York, Chicago, San Francisco, Honolulu, Tokio, Hong- 
 Kong, Manila, Calcutta, Bombay, Suez Canal, Straits Gibraltar. 
 
 New Orleans, Rio Janeiro, Buenos Aires, Cape Horn, Magellan's Straits, 
 Santiago, Isthmus of Panama, Bering Straits. 
 
 Constantinople, Cairo, Cape Town, Cape of Good Hope, Melbourne, 
 Sydney. 
 
 West Indies, Hawaiian. Pliilippine islands. 
 • 
 Trade Routes. 
 
 203. Trace the shortest water route from London to Calcutta. 
 What was ihe route before the Suez Canal was cut ? 
 
 Trace the shortest water route from San Francisco to New York. 
 
 How will the proposed Panama Canal affect this route? 
 
 Trace three water routes from London to Australia, naming the bodies of 
 water traversed. 
 
 Trace three water routes from New York to Japan, naming the waters 
 traversed. 
 
 Review. 
 
 204. Csing the blackboard mercator, give a brisk review of §§ 201-3. 
 
 r)iitlint Map Test. 
 
 205. Provide a mercator outline, including continental outlines and the 
 circles. Pupils ])riiit in ])lace — 
 
 North, East, South, West, 
 
 The circles, 
 
 And the names in § 202. 
 
 *Hy clianging the cartli's surface from llit- siilKiiial In tin- chlniin llii- Xmlli WAi.- is strctcliii 
 out into a line.
 
 THIRD COURSE IX FORMAL GEOGRAPHY. . 33 
 
 North xAmerica (Third Course), 
 ^lap Sketching-. 
 
 206. Apply §§ 30-31 and secure good outlines in one minute. 
 
 Locations. 
 
 207. Teach the following natural and political features according to the 
 method of § 32. 
 
 Natural Features. 
 
 208. Bering, Caribbean seas. 
 Missouri, Ohio, Yukon rivers. 
 Pike's Peak. Mt. Shasta. 
 
 Great Salt Lake ; Hawaiian Islands. 
 
 Political Features. 
 
 209. Cities of New York, Chicago, San Francisco, New Orleans, Havana. 
 Cuba, Porto Rico, Haiti, Jamaica. 
 
 Oral Spelling. 
 
 210. Using the material of §§ 208-9, ^PPb' § -• 
 
 Written Spelling. 
 
 211. Using the material of §§ 208-9, ^PPb' § 4- 
 
 Reviews. 
 
 212. Using a wall map of North America, adapt § 15 to § 20, inclusive. 
 
 Outline ]Map Test. 
 
 213. Use an outline of North America and proceed as in § 7. 
 
 Review of North America (First and Second Courses). 
 
 214. Review §§ 37-9. 
 
 215. Review §§ 120-2. 
 
 South America (Third Course). 
 ]\Iap Sketching. 
 
 216. Apply §§ 30-31 and secure good outline in one minute. 
 
 Locations. 
 
 217. Teach the following-named natural and political features according 
 to the method of § 32. 
 
 Natural Features. 
 
 218. Cotopaxi, Chimborazo, Aconcagua. 
 Trinidad, Tierra del Fuego, Falkland Islands.
 
 34 teachers' handbook of geography. 
 
 Political Features. 
 
 219. Guiana. Ecuador, Paraguay, Uruguay, Panama (Republic). 
 IMontevideo. 
 
 Oral Spelling. 
 
 220. Using the material of §§ 218-19, apply § 2. 
 
 Written Spelling. 
 
 221. Using the material of §§218-19, 3P1% § 4- 
 
 Reviews. 
 
 2.22. Using a wall map of South America, adapt §§ 15-20, inclusive. 
 
 Outline Map Test. 
 
 223. Use an outline of South America and proceed as in § 7. 
 
 Review of South America (First and Second Course). 
 
 224. Review §§ 47-9. 
 
 225. Review §§ 130-32. 
 
 Review of North America (Third Course). 
 
 226. Review §§211-13. 
 
 Europe (Third Course). 
 Map Sketching. 
 
 22^. Apply §§ 30-31 and secure good outline in one minute. 
 
 Locations. 
 
 228. Teach the folhnving-named natural and political features according 
 to the method of § 32. 
 
 Natural Features. 
 
 229. Straits of Gibraltar, Dover, Bos])liorus, Dardanelles, English Channel. 
 Thames, Rhone, Po rivers. 
 
 Vesuvius, ]\Tt. Ijlanc. 
 
 Political Features. 
 
 230. Belgium, Ijnlland, Denmark, Switzerland, Portugal; England, Scot- 
 
 land, Ireland. Wales. 
 Madrid, Naples, Venice, vStockliolm, Cojxnhagcn, Uiver])()()l. 
 
 Oral Spelling. 
 
 231. Losing the material of §§ 229-30, ap])ly § 2. 
 
 Written .Spelling. 
 
 232. I 'sing the malcrird of §§ 229-30, a])])!)' § 4.
 
 THIRD COURSE IX FORMAL GEOGRAPHY. 35 
 
 Reviews. 
 
 233. Using- a wall map of Europe, adapt §§ 15-20, inclusive. 
 
 Outline Map Test. 
 
 234. Use an outline map of France and proceed as in § 7. 
 
 Review of Europe (First and Second Courses). 
 
 235. Review §§ 56-8. 
 
 236. Review §§ 140-2. 
 
 Review of South America (Third Course). 
 
 237. Review §§ 221-3. 
 
 Asia (Third Course). 
 Map Sketching. 
 
 238. Apply §§ 30-31 and secure good outline in one minute. 
 
 Locations. 
 
 239. Teach the following-named natural and political features according 
 to the method of § 32. 
 
 Natural Features. 
 
 240. Bering Straits ; Isthmus of Suez ; Desert of Gobi. 
 Tigris, Euphrates, Amur rivers. 
 
 Borneo, Sumatra. Java, Ceylon, Philippines, Formosa. 
 
 Political Features. 
 
 241. Hong Kong, Tokio, Manila, Jerusalem. 
 Corea. 
 
 Oral Spelling. 
 
 242. Using the material of §§ 240-41, apply § 2. 
 
 Written Spelling. 
 
 243. Using the material of §§ 240-41, apply § 4. 
 
 Reviews. 
 
 244. Using a wall map of Asia, adapt §§ 15-20, inclusive. 
 
 Outline Map Test. 
 
 245. Use an outline map of Asia and proceed as in § 7. 
 
 Review of Asia (First and Second Course). 
 
 246. Review §§ 65-7. 
 
 247. Review §§ 150-52. 
 
 Review of Europe (Third Course). 
 
 248. Review §§ 232-4.
 
 36 teachers' handbook of geography. 
 
 Africa (Third Course). 
 Map Sketching. 
 
 249. Apply §§ 30-31 and secure good outHne in one minute. 
 
 Review of Africa (First and Second Courses). 
 
 250. Review §§ 74-6. 
 
 251. Review §§ 160-2. 
 
 Review of Asia (Third Course). 
 
 252. Review §§ 243-5. 
 
 United States (Third Course). 
 Map Sketching. 
 
 253. Apply §§ 30-31 and secure good outline in one minute. 
 
 Locations. 
 
 254. Teach the following-named natural and political features according 
 to the method of § 32. 
 
 Natural Features. 
 
 255. Rio Grande, Colorado, Columbia, Hudson, Potomac rivers. 
 Pike's Peak ; Niagara Falls ; Cliesapeake Bay ; Great Salt Lake. 
 
 Political Features. 
 
 256. States on east bank of Mississippi (5). 
 New England States (6). 
 
 Other Atlantic States (9). 
 Gulf States (5). 
 Lake States (8). 
 West Virginia. 
 
 Oral .Spelling. 
 
 257. Using the material of §§ 255-6, apply § 2. 
 
 Written Spelling. 
 
 258. Using the material of §§ 255-6, apply § 4. 
 
 Reviews. 
 
 259. Using a wall map of United States, adapt §§ 15-20, inclusive. 
 
 Outline Map Test. 
 
 260. Use an outline map of l^ S. and ])r(icecd as in § 7.
 
 THIRD COURSE IN FORMAL GEOGRAPHY. 37 
 
 Review of United States (First and Second Courses). 
 
 261. Review §§ 83-5. 
 
 262. Review §§ 170-2. 
 
 Review of Africa (Third Course). 
 
 263. Strengthen any weak spots in the pupil's knowledge of §§ 74-6, 160-2. 
 
 California (Third Course). 
 Map Sketching. 
 
 264. Apply §§ 30-31 and secure good outline in less than one minute. 
 
 Locations. 
 
 265. Teach the following-named features according to the method of § 32. 
 
 Counties. 
 
 266. Bay counties (9). 
 Pacific Coast, north (5). 
 Pacific Coast, south (10). 
 Oregon line (3). 
 Nevada-Arizona line (12). 
 San Joaquin Valley (11). 
 Sacramento Valley (11). 
 Trinity, Lake, San Benito (3). 
 
 Oral Spelling. 
 
 267. Using the material of § 266, apply § 2. 
 
 Written Spelling. 
 
 268. Using the material of § 266, apply § 4. 
 
 Reviews. 
 
 269. Using a wall map of California, adapt gs^ 15-20, inclusive. Use the 
 material of § 266 in convenient sections, not all at once. 
 
 Outline Alap Test. 
 
 270. Use an outline map of California and proceed as in § 7. This exer- 
 cise will have to be given in sections. A separate and enlarged outline must 
 be provided for the Bay counties test. This need not show the whole 
 State. The remainder will need two maps. 
 
 Reviews of California (First and Second Courses). 
 
 271. Review §§92-4. 
 
 272. Review §§ 180-2. 
 
 Review of United States (Third Course). 
 
 273. Review §§ 258-60.
 
 38 teachers' handbook of geography. 
 
 Australasia (Only Course). 
 ;Map Sketching. 
 
 274. Give one-minute blackboard practice on tlie outline of Australia until 
 good results are secured. 
 
 Locations. 
 
 275. Teach the following-named natural and political features according 
 to the method of § 32. 
 
 Natural Features. 
 
 276. Pacific, Indian, Antarctic oceans. 
 
 Australia. Xew Zealand, Tasmania, Borneo, New Guinea, Java, 
 
 Sumatra, Fiji Islands, Samoa. 
 Main highland ; Australian Desert ; Barrier Reef, 
 ^lurray, Darling rivers. 
 
 Political Features. 
 
 2^^. ^Melbourne, Sydney. Wellington. 
 
 Oral Spelling. 
 
 278. Using the material of §§ 276-7, apply § 2. 
 
 Written Spelling. 
 
 279. Using the material of §§ 276-7, appl\' § 4. 
 
 Reviews. 
 
 280. Using a wall map of Australasia, adapt §§ 15-20, inclusive. 
 
 Outline ]\Iap Test. 
 
 281. Use an outline map of Australasia and proceed as in §7. 
 
 Review of California (Third Course). 
 
 282. Review of §§ 268-70. 
 
 Ri:\ji:\\ s di' TiiiKD Col'ksi:. 
 North America. 
 
 283. Review §§211-13. 
 
 South America. 
 
 284. Review §§ 221-3. 
 
 Europe. 
 
 285. Review §§ 232-4. 
 
 Asia. 
 
 286. Review §§ 243-5.
 
 THIRD COURSE IX FORMAL GEOGRAPHY. 39 
 
 Africa. 
 
 287. Review, in the measure needful, §§ 74-6 and §§ 160-2. 
 
 United States. 
 
 288. Review §§ 258-60. 
 
 California. 
 
 289. Review §§ 268-70. 
 
 Australasia. 
 
 290. Review §§279-81.
 
 40 teachers' handbook of geography. 
 
 books cited in the readings on south america. 
 
 List I. (Books especially adapted for supplementary reading.) 
 
 Allen, Children of the palm lands Ed. Pub. Co. 50c. 
 
 Beal, Information reader No. i Boston School Sup. Co. 60c. 
 
 Carpenter, North America (Geographical reader).. American Book Co. 60c. 
 
 Carpenter, South America (Geographical reader) . . American Book Co. 60c. 
 Carpenter, Australia and islands (Geographical 
 
 reader) American Book Co. 60c. 
 
 Coe, Our American neighbors Silver Burdett Co. 6oc. 
 
 Companion series, By land and sea Perry Mason & Co. 50c. 
 
 Chamberlain, How we are fed Macmillan. 40c. 
 
 Chamberlain, How we are clothed Macmillan. 40c. 
 
 Chase & Clow, Stories of industry, II Ed. Pub. Co. 40c. 
 
 Clifford, Information reader No. 2 Boston School Sup. Co. 60c. 
 
 Griffis, The romance of discovery W. A. Wilde Co. 
 
 Hicld, Glimpses of South America Cassell. 75c. 
 
 Hall, Our world reader No. i Ginn & Co. 50c. 
 
 Herbertson, Central and South America Black. 75c. 
 
 Ingersoll, Book of the ocean Century Co. $1.50. 
 
 Johonnot, Stories of other lands American Book Co. 40c. 
 
 Johonnot, Geographical reader American Book Co. $1.00. 
 
 Johonnot, Glimpses of the animate world Appleton. $1.00. 
 
 Kellogg, Australia and islands of the sea Silver Burdett Co. 60c. 
 
 Kirby, The world by the fireside Nelson & Sons. $1.75. 
 
 McMurry, Pioneers on land and sea Macmillan. 50c. 
 
 Markwick & Smith, South American republics.... Silver Burdett Co. 6oc. 
 
 Nelson (Pub.), The Amazon and its wonders Nelson & Sons. 
 
 Parker, Information reader No. 3 Boston School Sup. Co. 6oc. 
 
 Rupeit, Geographical reader Sibley. 6sc. 
 
 Shaw, Big people and little American Book Co. 30c. 
 
 Starr, Strange peoples Heath. 40c. 
 
 Stockton, Tales out of school Scribncr. $1.50. 
 
 Tarr & McMurry. Geography, third book (of the 
 
 three book series) Macmillan. 50c. 
 
 Wood, Primer of political economy Macmillan. 50c. 
 
 Youth's Companion scries, Strange lands near home. Ginn & Co. 25c. 
 
 List If. (Rooks useful for teachers' reading luil not easily broken up 
 into assigned readings ff)r i)upils.) 
 
 Adams, Commercial geography Appleton. $1.30. 
 
 Adams, Elementary commercial geography Api)lelon. $1.10. 
 
 Andrews, Brazil and its prospects Appleton. $1.50. 
 
 Agassiz, Journey in Brazil Houghton. $2.50. 
 
 Ballon, Footprints of travel (Jinn & Co. 80c. 
 
 Ballou, Equatorial America Houghton. $1.50. 
 
 Bishop, A thousand miles walk Lee. $1.50.
 
 BOOKS CITED IX READINGS OX SOUTH AMERICA. 4 1 
 
 Bates, A naturalist on the Amazon Appleton. $5.00. 
 
 Conway, Bolivian Andes Harper. $3.00. 
 
 Dryer, Lessons in physical geography American Book Co. $1.20. 
 
 Davis, Physical geography Ginn & Co. $1.25. 
 
 Davis, Three gringoes in Venezuela Harper. $1.50. 
 
 Ewbank, Life in Brazil Harper. $3.00. 
 
 Ford, Tropical America Scribner. $2.00. 
 
 Hartwig, The tropical world Longmans. $3.00. 
 
 Morris, Half hours of travel Lippincott. 4 vols. $6.00. 
 
 Nery, Land of the Amazons Dutton. $4.00. 
 
 Orton, The Andes and the Amazon Harper. 
 
 Redway, New basis of geography Macmillan. 
 
 Slocum, Sailing alone around the world Century Co. $2.00. 
 
 Spear, Gold diggings of Cape Horn Putnam. $1.75. 
 
 Smith, Brazil Scribner. $5.00. 
 
 Stephens, On the Amazon Coates. 75c. 
 
 Vincent, Around and about South America Appleton. $5.00. 
 
 Waterton. Wanderings in South America Nelson. $2.00. 
 
 Whymper, Travels amongst the great Andes of the 
 
 equator Scribner. $2.50.
 
 I'Ig. J. 
 
 Mass map nf South America.
 
 THE CONTINENT OF SOUTH /AMERICA. 
 
 PHYSICAL SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 Structure. 
 
 REFERENCE MATERIAL: 
 
 Redway's Advanced Geography, 103-5. 
 Tarr & McMurry, First Book, 199 and 50-51. 
 Tarr & McMurry, Third Book, 96-100. 
 Herbertson, Central and South America, xxi-xxiv. 
 Markwick & Smith, 16-24. 
 
 Lesson Units. 
 
 I. South America has four great parts; three of these are plateaus, and 
 the fourth is the great central lowland which separates them. If the continent 
 sank a thousand feet deeper into the sea these three plateaus would become 
 islands. 2. The western, or Andean, plateau is much the highest ; there is 
 only one plateau in the world which is higher. 3. The central lowland 
 reaches the sea in three arms, occupied by the Amazon, La Plata, and 
 Orinoco rivers ; and these allow navigation to the heart of the continent. 
 
 I. South America has four great parts: Tliree of these are plateaus; the 
 fourth is the great central lotdand zvhich separates them. If the continent 
 sank a thousand feet deeper into the sea these three plateaus li'ould become 
 islands. 
 
 Draw a good-sized mass map * on the blackboard and have your class 
 notice the three plateaus and the lowland. Give the names, Andes highlands, 
 Brazilian highlands, Guiana highlands, central plain. 
 
 S'N. 
 
 ZO'S. 
 
 Fig. 3. Profiles of South America. 
 Draw four diagrams on the board representing profiles of South America 
 
 at Lat. 5° N., 0°, 20° S., and 40° S. (Fig. 3). With these profiles as a 
 
 *To make a mass map draw a large outline of South America on the blackboard; then fill in all 
 the plateau areas with one color and all the lowlands with another. Thus every part of the map 
 will be filled in, leaving no vacant spaces. Now add the mountain ranges to the plateaus by using 
 heavy white strokes for one slope and charcoal or the eraser for the other. Finally add the rivers, 
 in charcoal. (See Fig. 2.)
 
 44 
 
 TEACHERS HANDBOOK OF GEOGRAPHY 
 
 basis, elicit several statements about tbe plateaus, as to comparative height, 
 width, and steepness of slope. Elicit the difference between a plateau and a 
 mountain, identifying each in the profiles. 
 
 Study the physical map (Redway Adv.. p. 102; Frye Adv., 137) in con- 
 junction with the profiles. Establish the fact that regions less than one 
 thousand feet in altitude are called lowlands ; and that above that level they 
 are called highlands, or plateaus. 
 
 Fig. 4. If South America sliould subside a thousand feet. 
 
 Have pupils identify the highlands and lowlands on the text-book map 
 and then indicate their extent on your mass map. Have them identify and 
 name the four features as they appear in your blackboard profiles. 
 
 Sketch a faint outline of South America on the board and ask various 
 pupils to trace within it the new coast-lines as they would appear if the 
 continent sank a thousand feet into the sea. (Fig. 4.) 
 
 2. The i^'estcrn, or Andca)i, plateau is niiicli the hii^hest ; there is only 
 one plateau in the ivorld which is higher. 
 
 Only the highlands of central Asia exceed the Andean plateau in altitude. 
 Tell the class of Lake Titicaca, nearly 13,000 feet above the sea (how nuich 
 higher than your nearest big mountain?), where steamboats ride "al)ovc the 
 clouds." Locate the plateau of Bolivia, and l^ake Titicaca in it. Locate 
 Lake Titicaca in the blackboard profile (big. 3). Some of the mountains 
 arounfl it are over 20,000 feet high. Locate Sorata, or have a pupil do it. 
 f>u your mass map. Locate the volcano Aconcagua (23.000 ft.), in middle 
 Chile — the highest mountain in the world outside of Asia. 'J'ell the class of 
 Quito, over 9.000 feet above the sea, a city almost f)n the equator, yet so
 
 THE COXTIXEXT OF SOUTH AMERICA. 45 
 
 high as to be ever cool. Have it located on the political map. Mention and 
 locate other high Andean cities— Bogota (8,800 ft.). La Paz (12.000 ft.), 
 Cuzco (11,000 ft.), Potosi (13.000 ft.). 
 
 3. The central lozvland reaches the sea in three arms, occupied by the 
 Ainacoji, La Plata, and Orinoco risers; and these allow }iavigation to the 
 heart of the continent. 
 
 Have the class locate the three rivers on the blackboard map and name 
 them; have each described (source, direction of flow, receiving body of 
 water) . Elicit statements as to what highlands supply each river with water. 
 Compare the rivers in size ; in the character of their mouths. Elicit a com- 
 parison between these rivers and those of the western slope. 
 
 Talk a little with the class about the usefulness of a great river as a ready- 
 made road. Point out that vessels may take cargoes from the ocean into the 
 heart of Peru and Bolivia, on the broad waterway of the Amazon, and bring 
 other cargoes out. \\'hat would be the difference if there were no Amazon? 
 
 Similarly the branches of the Parana admit vessels entirely through 
 Paraguay into Brazil ; and the Orinoco is navigated to the base of the Andes. 
 
 \\'ritten \\'ork. 
 
 1. Xame the four great structural features of South America. 
 
 2. Compare the plateaus, one with another. Draw profiles to illustrate. 
 
 3. Describe the effect on the continent of South America should it subside 
 
 1,000 feet into the sea. 
 
 4. Tell about Lake Titicaca and the plateau of Bolivia. 
 
 5. Tell about Aconcagua. 
 
 6. Tell about Quito. 
 
 7. X'^ame the three great rivers of the central plain. 
 
 8. Describe each (source, flow, and receiving body). 
 
 9. Compare these rivers with those of the western slope. 
 10. Tell how these rivers are useful in commerce. 
 
 Climate : Heat, 
 referenxe material: 
 
 Redway's Advanced geography, 23-5, 104. 
 
 Frye's Advanced geography, 25-9, 141. 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Third Book, 12-17, 100-105. 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, First Book, 74-80, 120-23, 200. 
 
 Herbertson, xxvi-xxvii. 
 
 Dryer, 293-300, 335-40- 
 
 Lesson L'nits. 
 
 I. The greater part of South America lies in the torrid zone, and has a 
 hot climate and a perpetual summer. The southern third lies in the south 
 temperate zone and has seasons more like ours. 2. The greater part of 
 South America lies south of the equator; the seasons are therefore reversed,
 
 46 teachers' handbook of geography. 
 
 and the people of those regions have summer during our winter months 
 and a mild winter during our summer. 3. The high plateaus are always 
 cool, even in the torrid zone ; and the peaks are covered with eternal snow. 
 
 1. Tlic greater part of South America lies in the torrid .zone, and has a 
 hot climate and a perpetual sununer. The southern third lies in the south 
 temperate zone, and has a climate more like ours. 
 
 Begin with a review lesson on zones, using the hemisphere map in the 
 text-book, and, if procurable, a globe also. Teach the names of the zones 
 and of the circles bounding them. 
 
 Elicit that climate is colder toward the poles and warmer toward the 
 equator. Have pupils describe each zone as to its climate. 
 
 Using the political map, elicit that about two-thirds of South America lie 
 in the torrid zone, and that the climate of these regions will be that of the 
 tropics. Elicit that most of Argentina and Chile lies in the south temperate 
 zone, and that their climate will more nearly resemble our own. 
 
 Let the pupils find a place in South America having a latitude about cor- 
 responding to their own, and infer as to its climate. 
 
 Have them find the town, river, or other feature which they judge to have 
 the hottest climate ; also that which they believe to have the coldest. 
 
 2. The greater portion of South America lies south of the equator; the 
 seasons are therefore reversed, and the people of those regions Iiave summer 
 during our winter months, and a mild zeinter during our summer. 
 
 Teach that summer travels with the sun. The hottest part of the day is 
 when the sun is high in the sky ; the hottest part of the year is when the sun 
 is (approximately) nearest the zenith. In winter-time the sun is low in 
 the southern sky, even at noonday. 
 
 Elicit that if we journeyed southward toward the sun it would rise higher 
 and higher in the sky and at last be directly overhead. Here would be the 
 hot lands of perpetual summer. Journeying still to the south, we should 
 leave the sun behind us. It would sink fartlur and farther in the northern 
 sky as we traversed colder and colder regions tcjward the south pole. 
 
 Having established the fact that a high noonday sun makes summer, 
 teach that when the sun comes north, giving us summer, it leaves the 
 southern hemisphere and makes winter there. In thcir3yiuliiiL_th£_.sun is 
 low in t he nor thern sky because it has risen high in our southern sky, and 
 vice ver.sa. Therefore, at IVu enos Aires, for example. December is the mid- 
 surrm ier month, and June is mid -uinter. 
 
 ]>ut even in the extreme south (Tierra del Iniego) tlie winters are not 
 very cold. It is a wild, storni\- region, bnl not bitterly cold, as in the corre- 
 sponding latitude of our own licniisplK'rc This is l)ecau.se there is so little 
 land and so nnu-Ii wairr ihcrr. The ocean tliniatr prcxails. And the ocean 
 is comparative!)- warm in winter and cool in suinmcr.
 
 THE COxNTINENT OF SOUTH AAI ERICA. 47 
 
 3. TIic high plateaus are ahvays cool, even in the torrid zone, and the 
 peaks are covered zvith eternal snozv. 
 
 IMiners who dig deep in the earth find it grow steadily warmer as they 
 go down. Balloonists who sail high in the air find it get steadily colder as 
 they rise. The upper regions of the air, away from the solid earth, are colder, 
 the farther we go. If the balloonist should begin his journey in the hot 
 palm lands at the equator, and rise 16,000 feet, he would reach the region 
 of eternal frost. 
 
 Teach, not that " the upper air is cold," but that the place — the altitude, 
 the distance from the great stove, is cold. Therefore, great mountain peaks 
 that push themselves far up into those altitudes are cold ; so cold that the 
 snows which fall upon them never wholly melt. In South America, even 
 in Ecuador, at the equator, peaks higher than 16,000 feet are covered with 
 eternal snow. 
 
 The high plateaus of the tropical Andes are always cool because they are 
 high, and never very cold because they are in the torrid zone. Here are 
 those mountain cities such as Quito, Bogota, and La Paz, whose climate is a 
 perpetual spring. " A gentleman in La Paz may send a servant in the morn- 
 ing to the heights above, to bring down a load of ice, and another to the 
 lower levels for pineapples and other tropical fruits ; both will return at noon 
 with their commodities." 
 
 Written Work. 
 
 1. Name the zones of the earth and the circles bounding them. 
 
 2. Tell about the climate of each zone. 
 
 3. In what zones does South America lie? 
 
 4. Where are the warm regions of South America, and where are the 
 
 cooler ones ? 
 
 5. How do the summer and winter of South America dififer from ours? 
 
 6. Tell what the miner and the balloonist find out about temperature. 
 
 7. Why do high mountains have snow-covered peaks ? 
 
 8. Tell about the climate of some Andean city. 
 
 9. If temperature decreases five degrees for every 1,000 feet of altitude, 
 
 and Quito is 9.000 feet above sea level, how much cooler is it there 
 than in the Amazon lowlands? 
 
 Climate: ^Moisture. 
 
 REFERENCE MATERIAL: 
 
 Redway's Advanced geography. 13-14, 25-7, 104. 
 
 Frye's Advanced geography, 29-31, 141. 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, First Book, 71-80. 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Third Book, 31-3, 100-103. 
 
 Redway. New basis of geography, 90. 
 
 Dryer, Lessons in physical geography, 280-86, 301 -11, 327-34, 335-40. 
 
 Davis, 29-33, 36-9. 45-7. 403-4- 
 
 Lesson Units. 
 
 I. The Amazon region lies in the equatorial rain belt and has heavy 
 thunder showers dailv. It is one of the rainiest regions in the world.
 
 48 
 
 TEACHERS HANDBOOK OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 2. Southern Chile opposes the Andes ^lountains to a prevaiUng sea-wind, 
 and is very rainy. Patagonia, on the other side of the mountains, is arid. 
 
 3. Farther north the prevaiHng wind is from the east ; therefore, the east 
 slopes are well watered, while the Pacific slop^ is a famous desert. 
 
 
 : / /. 
 
 
 . i/i 
 
 ''A 
 
 .y^ 
 
 1 '' ' 1 
 
 iV:',:-T 
 
 n\ 
 
 VA 
 
 Heavy rain. 
 
 Moderate rain. 
 
 Little or no rain. 
 
 Fiff. 
 
 o- 
 
 Rain map of South America. 
 
 I. The Amazon region lies in the equatorial rain belt, and has heaz'y 
 thunder showers daily. It is one of the rainiest regions in the ivorld. 
 
 Establish the Theory of Rain Making: — 
 
 (aj The sea is constantly evaporating into the air above it. Pour a few 
 drops of water on a pane of glass and expose to the sunshine. After its 
 disappearance discuss the matter. The pupils will say " the water dried up." 
 Give term ezvporafe and elicit that the water evaporated and is nozi' in the 
 air, in an invisiljlc form. Elicit other examples of evaporation ; clothes 
 hanging out " to dry " ; the sidewalk " dries up " after being sprinkled ; 
 ponds " (lr\- up " in summer; the teakettle boils dry; etc. 
 
 To show that heat aids evaporation get two saucers and pour into each 
 exactly a teaspoon ful of water. Put one in a cool, shady place and the other 
 in the hot sunshine, or else on the stove. Elicit a statement as to the effect 
 of heat on evaporation. Elicit that, in all these cases, the vanished water 
 is now in the air. Elicit the inference that all the air, at all times, has 
 invisible water in it.
 
 THE COXTIXEXT OF SOUTH AMERICA. 49 
 
 (b) Air that has moisture in it, if cooled, will reveal that moisture as 
 cloud, mist, rain, or snow. 
 
 Examine the inside of the lid of a boiling teakettle. It has drops of 
 water on it. How did they get there ? \Miat becomes of them as they con- 
 tinue to form? 
 
 Watch the steam issuing from the spout. It remains invisible for the 
 space of an inch, more or less, and then turns into a visible cloud. \\'hat 
 caused the change ? 
 
 Heat a pane of glass and then breathe on it. Xow breathe on a cold pane. 
 Explain the different results. 
 
 Here we have an instance each of rain, cloud, and mist. If the chilling 
 of moist air is carried to the freezing point, snow falls instead of rain. Tell 
 about snow falling in a Russian ball-room, when a blast of cold outer air 
 is let in upon the warm, moist air of the room. 
 
 Establish the idea of a_ ris ing air current at the heat equ ator : — 
 
 The air in the neighborhood of the equator becomesjvyarrn and light, and 
 is pushed up by the cooler, heavy air pressing in_from nor th_^nd south. 
 This colder air becomes heated and rises in its turn. Thus there is a belt 
 of air_ _^constantly uisiug (all around the earth) that has gathejxd moisture 
 on its way^_ A^t,rises_to^cooler altitude s it becomes chilled and gives d own 
 a heavy raineyer y afte rnoon. 
 
 This equatorial rain belt extends around the earth, over land and sea. 
 Turn to the rain map (Redway, p. 26; T. & McM., Third Bk., 32, 35) and 
 note that the Kongo country and the East Indies, as well as the Amazon 
 region, are in this equatorial rain belt. Of course, the rain falls on the 
 ocean also, but the maps do not shov/ it. 
 
 2. Sonthcni Chile opposes the Andes Mountains to a prevailing sea-zvind, 
 and is zrry rainy. Patagonia, on the other side of the mountains, is arid. 
 
 We have already learned that moist air, rising to higher altitudes, becomes 
 chilled and yields rain. The present lesson is to show that mountains, lying 
 in the path of a sea-wand, are rainmakers ; and also that the region beyond 
 such mountains will be arid. 
 
 In Chile, south of Lat. 30', the prevailing wind is from the sea. It strikes 
 the Andes, travels up their slope, and condensation takes place. This makes 
 southern Chile one of the rainy regions of the earth. This sea-wind, having 
 crossed the Andes, there is nothing to elevate it (chill it ) further. Patagonia 
 is therefore a dry region. The rivers which cross it bring their water from 
 the Andes. 
 
 3. Fartlier north the prevailing iv-ind is from the east; therefore the east , 
 slopes are zi'ell zcatered, zi'hile the PaciHc slope is a famous desert. 
 
 Xorth of (about) Lat. 35° the wind blows from the southeast (trade- 
 wind). The mountains of southern Brazil make the first demand upon it
 
 50 teachers' handbook of geography. 
 
 and their valleys have abundant rain. But after this there is no elevation to 
 cause further condensation until the high Andes are reached. Here addi- 
 tional moisture is deposited in the form of snow. Having crossed the 
 Andes, this air current gives up no more moisture, and the Pacific slope is 
 a desert northward to the region of equatorial rains. 
 
 In the same way the mountains of Guiana, opposing a sea-wind from 
 the northeast (trade-wind) have a wet seaward slope and a dry one on the 
 interior. 
 
 Written \\'ork. 
 
 1. How does the air get its moisture? 
 
 2. A\'hat must happen to the air to produce rain ? 
 
 3. Explain the equatorial rain belt. 
 
 4. How may mountains cause rain ? 
 
 5. Explain the rain of southern Chile. 
 
 6. Explain the climate of I'atagonia. 
 
 7. Explain the rains of southern Brazil. 
 
 8. Explain the desert on the western slope of South America. 
 
 9. Explain the rains of Guiana. 
 
 Text-book Review. 
 
 The pertaining material in the text-book is now to be used as a summary 
 and review. 
 
 Redway's Advanced Reography, 13-14, -'3-7, 103-4. 
 
 Frye's Advanced geosrrapny, 25-31, 141. 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Introtluctory geography, 71-80. 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Third ISook, 28-34, 96-103, i 12-13, ' '9- '36. 142-3. 
 
 Formal Geography of South America. 
 
 Use the blackboard map (or a wall map) in conjunction with the political 
 map in the text-book. By various interesting drills,* fix the following loca- 
 tions, together w ilh the spelling concerned : 
 
 * These drills in locative geography should li.ivc the emulative spirit r>f games. The cliildren 
 never tire of any kind of ilrill work that is founded upon emulation. Uelow are given ten drills, 
 or geography games, that have been found to wear well. They should in every case be conducted 
 with snap and vim. 
 
 r. The teacher stands at the «^11 man and i)oints out t he features to be named. The class 
 Tne tht i i n i n concert. " ~~~ 
 
 2. She calls upon indiv ^idual pupils to come up to the map and po 'nt ■■■■' single features as 
 she names them. 
 
 3. One pupil stands before the map and makes all the locations given in the lesson. Ilis 
 classmates watch critically; and if he makes a mistake he forfeits his place to the pupil dis- 
 coverirg it. 
 
 4. Write a list of the features on the board beside the m;ip- -Mlow each individual i)upil to 
 step to the board, point to a name, pronounce it, and locate the feature on the maji. 
 
 5. C"all on a jiupil to name all of the features as you point them out on the map. 
 
 6. .Sometimes allow a pupil to lake your plr.ce as pointer-oi*t. 
 
 7. The list of fe atures by u' ^^ \\riiiyn (in the board. 'allow_ each pupil, in turn, to stand, select 
 a woriLffltc-Jlliout and spell it. ' — — - ^ 
 
 8. TnTve an oblfashioned "spelling bee." Let the pupils line up in two rows, facing each 
 other. The teacher now gives out the words fof the geography lesson) alternately to one side 
 .'.nfl to the other, each pupil having his turn, in order. .\ pupil misspelling his word goes to his 
 seat and the wonl is given to the opposing side. The pupil fin.-dly remaining wins out for his side. 
 
 9. Have a locating "bee" on the same jiian, substituting locations for spelling. In this game 
 the teacher points out the feature on the map and the i)upil whose turn it is names it. A varia- 
 tion of this is to spell the name after giving it. This makes it both a spelling an<l a location test. 
 
 10. Another .spelling and location test: Provide each i)upil with a spelling slip. I'oint out th'- 
 features on the wall map wilhoul naming them. 'i'he pupils write the names, in order given, on 
 
 ir spelling slip5. The mistakes made in this exercise should be made the basis for a future 
 spelling lesson.
 
 THE COXTIXEXT OF SOUTH AMERICA. • 5 1 
 
 A tlantic and Pacific oceans ; Caribbean Sea,^ 
 
 Isth mus of Panama, ^Magellan Strait . Cape Horn. 
 
 A ndes Mts., Brazilian hig^hla nds, Guiana highlands ; Bob'vian plateau. 
 
 Amaz on. Or inoco , La Plata rivers. 
 
 Equato r, tropi c of Capric orn ; A ntarctic Cir cle ; torrid zone, so uth t em- 
 
 perate^ZQUA;. 
 
 Reg'ion and direction of trade-winds; region and direction of return trade- 
 winds. 
 
 Brazil. Argeiitina. Chile. Peril, Bolivia, Ecuador, Colo mbia, X' enezuela, 
 British. Dutch, and French Guiana, Paraguay, Uruguay. 
 
 Buenos Aires, Rio Janeiro. Santiago, Para. 
 
 Test. — The correct filling of an outline map. (See foot-note, p. 14.) 
 
 The Pi-:oples of South America. 
 Lesson Units. 
 
 I. C olumbus, on his third voyage, discovered South America . 2. In the 
 pQrliVciwIj^yJQmn nt 'sonfj] America Brazil fell to the share of Por tugal, a nd 
 al l the rest to Spai n. 3. FLverv\vhere _ the Spaniards found Indians— and 
 overcame them ; it was the cruel Pizarro who conquered the Incas. 4. All 
 the ^outlT~America n coimtries are republics, save the Guianas. 
 
 1. Coliiiiibiis, oil Jiis third I'oyagc, discovered South America. 
 
 REFERENXE MATERIAL: 
 
 !Mark\vick & Smith, lo-u. 
 
 McMurry, Pioneers on land and sea, 151-2. 
 
 Also any school history. 
 
 Review, briefly, the* discoveries of Columbus; ho w in his first two v m-ages 
 he di^cnverpd flip Wect Indie^s . but not the mainland ; and how in h is tliird 
 voya ge he came to the north coast of South Americ a. 
 
 2. //; tJie earliest division of South .-linerica Brazil fell to tlie share of 
 Portugal and all the rest to Spain. 
 
 REFERENCE MATERIAL: 
 
 Markwick & Smith, 13-14. 174. 
 Ingersoll. 55-6. 
 
 T'avis's I'hysical geography, 398. 
 Fiske's Washington and his country, 5-6. 
 Griffis, loo-ioi. 
 
 Tell the story of the dispute between Spain and Portuga l, over the undis- 
 cove red lands, of the earth ; and ofyPo pe Alexander's (jl ecree. which later 
 resulted in Brazil falling to the .share of Portugal and all the_ijt:st_»'f South 
 America t_a_S pain. So to thi'^ d^y Pnrtnonpc;p jc; tbp lanp-uage of Bra zil and 
 Spanish of the other republics.
 
 52 • teachers' handbook of geography. 
 
 3. Everyzi'herc tJic Spaiiiards found Indians, and oirrcame them; it'zvas 
 the cruel Pizarro xvho conquered the Ineas. 
 
 REFERENCE MATERIAL: 
 
 Markwick & Smith, 24-5, 32-4, 37-8, 37-60, 95-7, 117-^0, 145-50. 155-7. 169-70, 205-7, 
 
 233-4, 286-8, 302-4. 
 Tarr & McMurry, Third Book, 108-10. 
 McMurry, 166. 
 Coe, 287-8. 
 Griffis, 20-7. 
 
 Present the idea, to the children, not alone of a conquest of the Incas, but 
 of successive conquests, all over South America, of those aboriginal peoples 
 of whom we speak collectively as Indians. Specialize only the story of the 
 Incas. however, and let the children leave the topic with the Pizarro story 
 uppermost in mind. 
 
 4. All of the South American countries are republics, sair the Guianas. 
 
 REFERENXE MATERIAL: 
 
 Markwick & Smith, 25-31. 
 
 Tarr & McMurrj-, Third Book, 107-12. 
 
 Devote not more than one lesson to the story of how the various Spanish 
 colonies rebelled, one by one, against theTiarsh rule of Spain, and set up as 
 
 r epubli cs ; and how the PQrt^^g44e se colony of Brazil at length becam e first 
 an eni pire and_ t hen a republic . Note, briefly, the three Guianas as the only 
 colonies now remaining to Europe. 
 
 \\'ritten Work. 
 
 1. Who discovered South America? 
 
 2. Tell how South America was divided up. 
 
 3. Tell the story of Pizarro. 
 
 4. Describe the political divisions of South America. 
 
 Text-book Review. 
 
 The pertaining material in the text-book is now to be used as a summary 
 and review. 
 
 Redway's Advanced geography, 107-10. 
 
 I'rye's Advanced geography, 57. 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Introductory geography, 200. 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Third Book, 107-11.
 
 THE CONTIXENT OF SOUTH AMERICA. 53 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE SOUTH A^IERICA. 
 Note on ^Method. 
 
 In this descriptive geography work the aim is to bring out a few leading 
 and essential aspects of each region studied, and to avoid drowning these 
 essential things in a mass of valueless minutiae. To this end the device of 
 lesson u>iits is used.* It will be observed, below, that for each region a 
 group of lesson units is set forth ; and that, subsequently, each lesson unit 
 is repeated by itself, in italics, together with the readings which are closely 
 pertinent to it. These assembled units are, or should be, a potential descrip- 
 tion of the region, inclusive of all that is essential, for the purposes of ordi- 
 nary culture, and eliminative of all which is not. The preparation for the 
 lesson (or sometimes, lessons) upon the unit consists in the teacher doing 
 this reading herself, so far as the books are accessible, and then selecting 
 from it such readuigs for the pupils as seem adapted to their grade. The 
 pupils thereupon do this assigned reading in immediate preparation for the 
 lesson. It is not expected that either teacher or pupils will in every case 
 be able to do all of the reading cited. The idea is to do all that circumstances 
 will allow. In addition to the pupils' readings, others, more mature, are 
 cited under each unit, for the teacher's further study. She should avail 
 herself of this additional material as far as she is able, in order to become 
 steeped in the local color of the region she is about to take up. 
 
 Both teacher and pupil, having now read generously upon the topic, the 
 lessons open with the locating of the region on the continental map (the 
 blackboard map?) and a quick review of the appropriate formal geography. 
 Thenceforward the lessons become conversations, based chiefly on w'hat 
 the pupils have read, supplemented, as necessary, by what the teacher knows. 
 In these lessons the questioning should elicit that material which is pertinent 
 to the lesson unit in hand; and which is calculated to fortify the content of 
 that unit indelibly in the pupil's conception of the region. 
 
 Following the conversational lesson, or lessons, upon the unit, comes 
 a written lesson, the material of which aims to summarize and confirm the 
 essentials of that particular lesson unit in the pupil's mind. 
 
 After all the units for the region have been dealt with in this way, the 
 pertaining material in the text-book is utilized as a final summary and review. 
 By this step the whole study becomes an elaboration of the text-book rather 
 than a substitution for it. 
 
 Lesson Units. AMAZON REGION. 
 
 I. The Amazon is the might iest river in the world, an d the largest body 
 of fre sh water on the globed 27 H ere are the selvas, far-rea ching tropical 
 fo rests, low-lying, and wet with equatori al rain§ . 3. They are the haunt 
 
 * An adaptation of McMurry's device ot lesson unities.
 
 54 TELACHERS^ HANDBOOK OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 of wild beasts, and are populous with gailv feathe red birds and gaudy butter- 
 fljes^-the waters swar m with alliga tors and turtles! 4. hxcept at the river 
 stations there live no white men ; none but the lonely, half-clad I ndian threads 
 the dim forest. 5. From the selvas come many useful a rticles of_trade^ but 
 the chi ef of these is rubber; and Para is 'the gxeat rubbeiL^rt. 
 
 1. The Amazon is the iiii^hficsf river in the ■leorld, ami tlie lari^esf body 
 of fresh tvater on the glebe. 
 
 PUPILS' RE.ADIiXGS: 
 
 Carpenter, 299-304 (tlie king of rivers); 320-- (a tri|i on tlic Amazon). 
 
 Ilield, 92-5 (a storm on the Amazon). 
 
 Hall. 82-5 (the great river). 
 
 Hcrbertson, 92-7 (varied readings on the river itself). 
 
 Markwick & Smith, 20 (the Amazon). 
 
 Nelson, 9-14 (immensity of the river; the "bore"), 14-37 (exploring the river). 
 
 Stockton, 287-97 (storm on the Amazon). 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Third Book, 112-13 (the vast Amazon). 
 
 TLACIIiiR'S ADDITIONAL REFERENCE: 
 
 Andrews, Agassiz, Ballou, Bates, Morris, Nery, Orton, Smith, .Stephens, N'incent, Waterton, 
 Ewbank. 
 
 \\'ritten Work. 
 
 Tell all you can about the vastness of the .Amazon River. 
 
 2. Here are the sek'os, far-reaehiug tropical forests, low-lying, and i^'et 
 with equatorial rains. 
 
 PUPILS' READINGS: 
 
 Allen 7-20 (the hot belt). 
 
 Coe, 223-30 (the tropical forests). 
 
 Carpenter, 300-03 (a wet country). 
 
 Ilield, io2-o6 (vegetation and forests). 
 
 Herbertson, 97-g, 102-03, 1 73 (selvas as a place to live). 
 
 Kirby, 125-6 (the selvas). 
 
 Markwick & Smith, 181-4 (selvas). 
 
 Nelson, 58-207 (the forest scenery; the wetness). 
 
 Rupert, 139-41, 157-9 (the tropical forest). 
 
 Strange lands near home, 52-9 (luxuriant vegetation). 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, 113-14 (the dense forest). 
 
 TEACHER'S ADDITIONAL REFKRi:XCE: 
 
 Adams, Andrews, Agassiz, Ballou, Bates, I'.wbank. I'ovd, ll.nrtwig, Morris, Nery, Orton, 
 .Smith, Stephens, N'incent, Waterton. 
 
 Written Work. 
 
 1. 'J'ell about tlie scenery of the selvas. 
 
 2. Tell about the climate. 
 
 y^ 3. C,'om])are the selvas with your own home as a place to live. 
 
 3. I'hey are the haunts of wild beasts, and are populous u;/// gaily 
 feathered birds and gaudy butterflies. 
 
 I'l'l'ILS' RKAI)L\GS: 
 
 l|y land and Sea, 92-7 (monkeys). 
 
 ([oc, 227-8 (swarms of insects). 
 
 f':<rpcntcr, 239-49 (peccaries, monkeys, etc.). 
 
 Ilii'hI. 128-39, ^53-0 (wild animals and turtles). 
 
 Hcrbertson, 100-01 (beasts and fishes). 
 
 Johonnot, Glimpses, 131-2 (fire ants), 148-52 (capture of a cayman), 152-7 (catching big 
 
 snakes). 
 Kirhy, 96-0, 105-12, 114-20 (birds and beasts of (he selvas). 
 .Njarkwick & Smith, 205-20 (forests animals, turtles, alligators, etc.). 
 .Nelson, 89-96 (catching alligators), 79-120 (turtle fishing), 43-58 (bats, monkeys, boa 
 
 ciinstriclors). 18794 (toucans). 
 Strange lands near home, 52-9 (animals of selvas). 
 Stockton. 265-8 (turtles), "278-81 (monkeys). 
 Tarr Hi .McMurry, 105-7 (animal life of SiKith .\merica).
 
 THE COxXTINENT OF SOUTH AMERICA. S5 
 
 TEACHER'S ADDITIONAL REFERENCE: 
 
 Agassiz, Ballou, Bates, Ewbank, Ford, Hartwig, Morris, Xery, Orton, Smith, Stephens, Vin- 
 cent, W'aterton. 
 
 Written W'ork. 
 
 1. Tell about some of the wild beasts in the Amazon forest. 
 
 2. Tell about the birds and butterflies. 
 
 3. Tell about catching alligators and fishing for turtles. 
 
 4. Except at the river stations there live no zchite men; none bnt fhc 
 lonely, half-elad Ijuliaii threads the dim forest. 
 
 PUPILS' READINGS: 
 
 Carpenter, 305-12 (Para), 320-7 (people along the river). 
 
 Hield, IJ0-7, 157-60 (Amazon Indians). 
 
 Herbertson, 104-5 (Amazon Indians, 62 (the white men are -ilong the coast). 
 
 Kirby, 92-6, 103-4, I4S'6 (the Indians in the forest). 
 
 Markvvick & Smith, 201-3 (Para), 204 (Manaos), 205-7, 212-13 (Indians). 
 
 Nelson, 44-8 (the natives hunting). 
 
 Rupert, 192-6 (Indians), 149-56 (white men in the selvas). 
 
 Shaw, 123-8 (Amazon Indians). 
 
 Stockton, 42-53 (Amazon Indians). 
 
 Starr, 28-32 (Indians). 
 
 Tarr & IMc^Murry, Third Book, 107-8 (people of the Amazons). 
 
 TEACHER'S ADDITIONAL REFERENCE: 
 
 Adams, Andrews, Agassiz, Ballou, Bates, Ewbank, Ford, Hartwig, ^Morris, Nery, Orton, 
 Smith, Stephens, Vincent, W'aterton. 
 
 Written Work. 
 
 1. Tell about the distribution of white men and Indians in South America. 
 
 2. Try to state a reason for this distribution. 
 
 5. From the selvas come many useful articles of trade, but the chief of 
 these is rubber; and Para is tlie great rubber port. 
 
 PUPILS' READINGS: 
 Coe, 230-7 (rubber). 
 
 Carpenter, 305-20 (the rubber country), 305-12 (Para), 322-4 (brazil nuts, chocolate, etc.). 
 Cliiford, 127-33 (rubber, from tree to shoe). 
 Chamberlain, Fed, 120-30 (cocoa). 
 Chamberlain. Clothed, 107-28 (the rubber country). 
 Hield, 96-9 (rubber). 
 
 Herbertson, 105-10 (rubber), 108-10 (Para), 45-6 (a cocoa plantation). 
 Hall, 199-204 (quinine). 
 
 Kirby, Fireside, 88-92 (cocoa), 113-14 (rubber), 121-5 (Peruvian bark). 
 Markwick & Smith, 208-11 (rubber), 187-90 (varied selva products). 
 Nelson, 140-7 (rubber). 
 Rupert, 142-6 (rubber gatherers). 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Third Book, 115-16, 134-5 (rubber and other selva products). 
 Wood, 28-32 (story of rubber). 
 
 TEACHER'S ADDITIONAL REFERENCE: 
 
 Adams, Andrews, Agassiz. Ballou, Bates, EwbanK, Ford, Hartwig, Morris, Nery, Orton, 
 
 Smith, Stephens. \'incent, W'aterton. 
 
 Written Work. 
 
 I. What is rubber and w^here does most of our rubber come from? 
 
 j^ 2. Tell the story of how rubber is gathered. 
 
 3. Tell what you have learned about Para. 
 
 4. Name several other products of the Amazon region. 
 
 Text-book Review. 
 
 The pertaining material in the text-book is now to be used as a summary 
 and review. 
 
 Redway's .\dvanced geography, 30, 104-7. 
 
 Frye's Advanced geography, 140-2. 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Introductory geography, 201-2. 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Third Book, 52-5, 104-6, 113-16.
 
 56 teachers' handbook of geography. 
 
 BRAZILIAN HIGHLANDS. 
 
 ^^ . (Read " Note on [Method," page 53.) 
 
 Lesson Units. 
 
 I. This is th e white ma n's Brazil; good-sized trading c ities dot the coast. 
 
 Rio J aneiro is second in size among the cities of the southern hemisphere, 
 
 and has a magmficent harbor. 2. The region has varied products, but is 
 
 best known for its coffee ; over a half of the world's coffee crop is raised 
 
 in the region back of Rio. 
 
 I. T/iisJ s the zij hitc man's Brazil; good-sized trading cities dot the coast. 
 Rio Janeiro is second in size among the cities of the southern hemisphere, 
 and also has a magniticeiit harbor. 
 
 PUPILS' READINGS: 
 
 Carpenter, 249-57, 291-9 (the Brazilians), 267-82 (Rio and its harbor), 283-90 (Bahia). 
 Coe, 236-48 (cities of Brazil). 
 
 Herbertson, 62 (distribution of the white men), 111-13 (climate of Brazil), 1 13-16 (Bra- 
 zilian highlands), 1 16-21 (cities of Brazil), 122-4 (a coffee plantation). 
 Markwick & Smith, 190-99 (Rio and other cities). 
 
 Rupert, 139-41 (climate of Brazil), 141-2 (bay of Rio), 146-9 (life in Rio). 
 Tarr & McMurry, Third Book, 11 7-1 18 (cities). 
 
 TEACHER'S ADDITIONAL REFERENCE: 
 
 Adams, Andrews, Agassiz, Ballou, Ford, Morris, Slocum, Smith, \'incent. 
 
 Written Work. 
 
 1. In what part of Brazil i s most of the white population? Try to give a 
 
 reasoffTor thisT 
 
 2. Tell several things you know about Rio Janeiro. 
 
 2. The region has varied products, but is best knoicii for its coffee; over 
 one-half of the zvorld's coffee is raised in the region back of Rio. 
 
 PUPILS' READINGS: 
 
 Allen, 79-97 (coffee). 
 
 Beal, 256-61 (history of coffee). 
 
 Coe, 246-7 (coffee). 
 
 Chamberlain, Fed, 104-12 (coffee). 
 
 Carpenter, 257-67 (coffee), 289-90 (diamonds). 
 
 Clifford, 249-62 (diamonds). 
 
 Hall, 197-8 (coffee). 
 
 Ilicld, 100-02 (coffee), 107-1 11 (diamonds). 
 
 Herbertson, 118-24 (coffee). 
 
 Kirby, 120-1 (diamonds). 
 
 Markwick & Smith, 185-8 (coffee). 
 
 Tarr & Mc.Murry, Third Book, 116-17 (coffee). 
 
 TEACHER'S ADDITIONAL REFERENCE: 
 
 Adams, Andrews, Agassiz, Ballou, Ford, Morris, Slocum, Smith, \'incent. 
 
 Written Work. 
 
 1. Write a little account of Rio coffee. 
 
 2. Sketch a map showing in what part of Brazil the cofifce district lies. 
 
 3. Tell what you have learned about I'r azjl ian_( lianK)n ds. 
 
 Text-book Review. 
 
 The pertaining material in the text-book is now to be u.scd as a summary 
 and review. 
 
 K' •!v..Ty'» .\flvanccd RCORraphy, 108. 
 
 I I-, I's Advanced (jcoKraphy, 46. 
 
 Tarr Sf .Mc.Murry, Third Hook, i 16-17. 
 
 Tarr tt McMurry, introductory geography, 202.
 
 THE CONTINENT OF SOUTH AMERICA. 57 
 
 NORTHERN SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 , ,. . (Read "Note on Method,'' pas^e KX.) 
 
 Lesson Li nits. ^ > i f, do j 
 
 I. The Orinoco is one of the great rivers of the world. It flows through 
 a region of treeless plains called llanos. 2. The Guianas and Trinidad are 
 the only South American colonies left to Europe. 3. Colombia and Vene- 
 zuela are unprogressive. thinly settled countries, with their capitals remotely 
 placedjn the high mouritams. 4r'Panama is now a republic, independent of 
 Colombia. 5. The great Panama canal is now being dug across the Isthmus. 
 
 I. The Orinoco is one of the great rivers of the zcorlci. It iio-u's through 
 a region of treeless plains called llanos. 
 
 PUPILS' READINGS: 
 
 Coe, 314-16 (Orinoco and llanos). 
 
 Carpenter, 327-34 (the Orinoco and llanos). 
 
 Hield, 141-2, 170 (llanos). 
 
 Herbertson, 72-8 (the Orinoco). 
 
 Johonnot, Reader, 229-33 (the llanos). 
 
 Kirby, Fireside, 137-9 (llanos and alligators of Orinoco). 
 
 Markwick & Smith, 21-3, 48-56 (Orinoco and llanos). 
 
 TEACHER'S ADDITIONAL REFERENCE: 
 
 Adams, Ballon, Ford, Hartwig, Morris, \'incent. 
 
 Written Work. 
 
 1. Locate and describe the Orinoco River. 
 
 2. Tell what you have learned about the llanos. 
 
 2. The Guianas and Trinidad are the only South American colonies left 
 to Europe. 
 
 PUPILS' READING: 
 
 Coe. 321-4 (the Guianas). 
 
 Carpenter, South America, 342-50 (in the Guianas). 
 
 Carpenter, Australia and Islands, 321-9 (Trinidad). 
 
 Hall, 196-7 (monkeys of Guiana). 
 
 Hield, 143-64 (the colonies; people of Guiana). 
 
 Herbertson, 78-91 (short readings on British Guiana). 33-4 (pitch lake of Trinidad). 
 
 Johonnot, Glimpses, 39, 381-6, 401-6 (trees and animal life of Guiana). 
 
 Kellogg, Australia and islands, 226-33 (Trinidad). 
 
 Markwick & Smith. 327-32 (the Guianas), 332-4 (Trinidad). 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Third Book, 126-7 (the Guianas). 
 
 TEACHER'S ADDITIONAL REFERENCE: 
 
 Adams, Ballou, Ford, Hart\rig, ?iIorris, \'incent. 
 
 \\^ritten ^^'ork. 
 
 1. Name and locate the three Guianas. Tell what you have learned about 
 
 them. 
 
 2. Describe Trinidad. 
 
 3. Colombia and Venezuela are unprogressive, thinly settled countries, 
 zcith their capital cities remotely placed in the Iiigli mountains. 
 
 PUPILS' READINGS: 
 
 By land and sea, 77-81 fa Venezuelan railway). 
 Coe, 308-12 (Colombia and Bogota), 313-20 (Venezuelan cities). 
 (Zarpenter, 29-38 (Colombia and Bogota), 334-4- (^'enezuela and Caracas). 
 Hield, 165-78 (the northern countries).
 
 58 
 
 TEACHERS HANDBOOK OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Herbertson, 63-72 (short readings on Venezuela), 165-6 (Magdalena River), 167-9 (Bogota). 
 
 Tohonnot, Reader. 383-90 (wilds of \'enezuela). 
 
 Markwick & Smith. 31-56 (Colombia described), 63-73 (\'enezuelan cities), 73-94 (life in 
 
 Venezuela), 8S-94 (products of \'cnezuela). 
 Rupert, 164-9 (bad government in Colombia). 
 Starr, 28-32 (the natives). 
 
 Strange lands near home, 44-51 (a \'enezuelan railway). 
 Tarr & McMurry, Third Book, 127-9 (Venezuela). 
 
 TEACHER'S ADDITIONAL REFERENCE: 
 
 Adams, Ballou, Davis, Ford, Hartwig. Morris, \'incent. 
 
 Written Work. 
 
 1. Locate and describe Bogota. 
 
 2. Tell about the JMagdalena River. 
 
 3. Locate and describe Caracas. 
 
 4. Compare Colombia and A enczuela with cmr own republic. 
 
 4. Panama is nozu a republic, independent of Colombia. 
 
 MAGAZINE ARTICLES : 
 
 Current Literature, Jan. '04, 2-4 (the people of I'anama and tlieir revolution), 30-35 
 
 (youngest and weakest of nations). 
 World's Work, Jan. '04 (the revolution). 
 Review of Reviews, ^Iarch '04, 329-34 (the cities of Panama and Colon; the backward 
 
 Panamans and their country; action of the United States; the Panama railway). 
 Independent, Jan. 7, '04 (the primitive, unprogressive country). 
 
 Written Work. 
 
 1. Locate and describe the Republic of Panama. 
 
 2. Tell something about the revolution which freed ii from Colombia. 
 
 3. Compare the cities of Panama and Colon with cities in our own country. 
 
 5. The ^rcat Panama canal is lun^' being dug across the I si Inn us. 
 
 PUPILS' READINGS: 
 
 Coe, 312-13 (failure of the French company). 
 
 Carpenter, North America, 351-2 (the canal region). 
 
 Carpenter, South America, 9-16 (from New Vork to I'anama). 16-29 (tlie Panama 
 
 country). 
 Herbertson, 54-6 (across the Isthmus). 
 Johonnot, Reader, 89-90 (Panama, country). 
 Markwick & Smith, 49-50 (Panama canal). 
 Rupert, 133-S (the canal route described). 
 Tarr & McMurry, Third Book, 39::-o vi.ic canal route). 
 
 MAGAZINE ARTICLES: 
 
 St. Nicholas, March '04, 398-406 (story of the canal). 
 
 Scientific American, July 23 '04, 58-9 (relics of the I'Venchmen's failure). 
 World's Work, Feb. '04 (what the I'anama canal means to the world). 
 Review of Reviews, 329-34 (the canal route, etc.). 
 
 Written Work. 
 
 \\'hat will be the use of the Panama canal? Locate the canal. 
 
 Tell about the French comi)an}'s attemi:)t to build it. 
 
 Tell abtnit the trouble in getting workmen. 
 
 What is the " Canal Zone "? 
 
 What lias our g(n'ernmein to do with tlie can.il project? 
 
 Text-book Review. 
 
 The pertaining material in the text-book is now to be used as a sumniarv 
 and review. 
 
 K«<lway'» Advanced geography, rio-ti. 
 I'Vye's Aflvanced geo^r.-ipliv, r4o-i, 144. 
 Tarr St .Mc.Murry. I bird i'.ouk, 125-33. 
 Tarr & Mc.Murry, Introductory geography, 202-3.
 
 THE CONTINENT OF SOUTH AMERICA. 59 
 
 LA PLATA REGION. 
 
 ; T' • (Read "Note on Method," page ^t,.) 
 
 Lesson Lnits. ' f & 00 y 
 
 I. A succession of far-reaching grassy plains called pampas; the home of 
 vast herds of cattle and the South American cowboy. 2. A grreat com- 
 mercial region, with railroads and large cities ; Buenos Aires is the largest 
 city in the southern hemisphere. 3. The great exports are cattle products 
 and wheat. 
 
 I. A succession of far-rcac/iiiig grassy plains, called pampas; the home 
 of vast herds of cattle, and the South American conboy. 
 
 PUPILS' READINGS: 
 
 Coe, 257-9 (the pampas), 259-63 (life of the gaucho). 
 
 Carpenter, 174-7 (the pampas). 177-81 (ranches and gauchos), 1S2-7 (the provinces of 
 
 Argentina), 234-7 (mate). 
 Hield, 194-208 (the pampas and the gauchos). 
 Herbertson, 139 (mate), 142-5 (the provinces), 145-52 (the pampas), 152-4 (life of the 
 
 gaucho). 
 Johonnot, Reader, 226-9 (the gauchos). 
 Kirby, 140-2 (the pampas). 
 Markwick & Smith, 213-15 (the gauchos), 234-8, 256-65 (the provinces of Argentina), 248-55, 
 
 270-72 (home life in Argentina). 
 Rupert, 170-71 (mate, or tea). 
 
 Tarr ^- Mc^Iurrj'. Third Book, 120-21 (the vast cattle ranges), 125 (mate). 
 Wood, 1-7 (life of the gaucho). 
 
 TEACHER'S ADDITIONAL REFERENCE: 
 
 Adams, Bishop, Morris, Slocum, Spear, \'incent. 
 
 Written Work. 
 
 1. Describe the pampas. 
 
 2. Tell something of the gaucho and his life. 
 
 3. Tell about mate. 
 
 2. A great commercial region, i^'itli railroads and large cities; Buenos 
 Aires is the largest city in the sout/iern hemisphere. 
 
 PUPILS' READINGS: 
 
 Coe, 249-50 (the La Plata River), 263-5 (busy Buenos Aires), 254-7 (Uruguay and Mon- 
 tevideo), 250-4 (people of Paraguay). 
 
 Carpenter, 192-200 (Buenos Aires), 201-8 (Uruguay and Montevideo), 208-17 ("P the Pa- 
 rana). 218-41 (the fruitful land of Paraguay). 
 
 Herbertson, 126-7 (La Plata estuary), 127-30 (Montevideo and life in LTruguay), 133-6 (up 
 the Parana), 136-40 (Paraguay), 141-2 (Buenos Aires), 62 (the great population). 
 
 Markwick & Smith. 20, 256-7 (the La Plata River), 239-47 (Buenos Aires), 265-72 (in- 
 dustries of Argentina), 293-300 (Montevideo and the people of Uruguay), 276-86 
 (people of Paraguay). 
 
 Rupert, 188-91 (Argentina's transcontinental railroad). 
 
 TEACHER'S ADDITIONAL REFERENCE: 
 Adams, Bishop, Morris, Slocum, Vincent. 
 
 Written Work. 
 
 1. Locate and describe the La Plata River. 
 
 2. Locate and describe Buenos Aires. 
 
 3. Locate and describe Montevideo. 
 
 4. Compare this La Plata region with the rest of South America as to 
 
 population and commerce.
 
 ^ 1 
 
 60 TEACHERS HANDBOOK OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 3. I'/ic great exports are cattle products and z^licat. 
 
 PUPILS' READINGS: 
 
 Chase & Clow, 79-8i (hides from Argentina). 
 
 Carpenter, 188-92 (the wheat of Argentina). ' 
 
 lierbcrtson, 130-J (the great meat trade). 
 
 Mark wick & Smith, 265-9 (cattie of the La Plata countries). 
 
 TEACH ICR'S ADDITIONAL REFERENCE: 
 Adams, Bishop. N'incent, Ballou. 
 
 Written Work. 
 
 1. What are the great exports of the La Plata countries? 
 
 2. Tell about tiie frozen meat trade. 
 
 Text-book Review. 
 
 The pertaining material in the text-book is now to be used as a summary 
 and review. 
 
 Rcdway's Advanced geography, 109. 
 
 Frye's Advanced geography, 144. 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Third Book, 118-25. 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Introductory geography, 203-4. 
 
 PATAGONIA AND "THE LAND OF FIRE." 
 
 (Read " Note on Method," page 53.) 
 
 Lesson Units. 
 
 I. Patagonia is a dry. barren, and almost uninhabited land. 2. Tierra 
 
 del Fuego is an archipelago, cold, bleak, and lonely ; two of its features are 
 
 Cape Horn and the stormy strait of Magellan. 
 
 I. Patagonia is a dry, barren, and almost uninhabited land. 
 
 PUPILS' READINGS: 
 
 Coc, 266-8 (Indians and rheas). 
 
 Carpenter, 167-73 (Patagonia described; "ostriches," etc.). 
 
 Hicid, 208-18 (Patagonia, Indians, "ostriches," etc.). 
 
 Hall, 204 (Patagonia). 
 
 Hcrbcrtson, 154-7 (Patagonia). 
 
 Kirby, 132-7 (Patagonia). 
 
 .Markwick & Smith. 233-4 f<hc Patagonians). 
 
 Rupert, 192-6 (Indians of Patagonia). 
 
 Shaw, 92-7 (Patagonia, ostriches, etc.). 
 
 Starr. 28-32 (Indians of Patagonia). 
 
 TEACHER'S ADDITIONAL REFERENCE: 
 
 Adams, nallou, Bishop, Morris, Spear, Slocum, X'incent. 
 
 Written Work. 
 
 1. Locate Patagonia and describe the cuuntry. 
 
 2. Tell about the Indians of Patagonia. 
 
 3. Tell about the ostriches, and how they are caught. 
 
 2, Tierra del Fuego is an archipelago, cold, bleak, and lonely; tzvo of its 
 features arc Cape Horn and the stormy strait of Magellan. 
 
 Pl'PIL.V READING: 
 
 Cot, 2867 (the Strait. an<l Tierra del I tugfi). 
 
 Carpenter. South ,\mcriia. 151 9 (Strait <.t .Vlagillan). 159-62 (the southernmost town 
 
 on rnrth). 154 6 (the Fucgians), 162-7 (Tierra del Fucgo). 
 ( arprntcr, Atiitr.ilia and inland*, 3834 (the l-alklands).
 
 THE CONTINENT OF SOUTH AMERICA. 6l 
 
 Herbertson, 157-9 (Tierra del Fuego), 159-62 (Falkland Islands). 
 Ingersoll, 69-70 (story of Magellan). 
 Kellogg, 431-6 (Tierra and Falklands). 
 INlcMurry, 165-77 (Magellan's great voyage). 
 
 Markwick & Smith, 18-19 (Tierra del Fuego), 334 (the Falklands). 
 
 Sailing alone around the world, by Captain Joshua Slocum, contains unusually interesting 
 reading on Magellan's Strait, the Fuegians, Punta Arenas, etc. 
 
 TEACHER'S ADDITIONAL REFEREN'CE: 
 
 Adams, Ballou, Slocum, Spear, Vincent. 
 
 \^^ritten Work. 
 
 1. Locate and bound Tierra del Fuego. \\'hat does the name mean? 
 
 2. Tell how the strait was discovered. 
 
 3. Describe the strait, and the country about it. 
 
 4. Name and locate the southernmost town in the world. 
 
 5. Describe the location of Cape Horn. 
 
 6. Tell what vou have learned about the Falkland Islands. 
 
 THE HIGH ANDES. 
 
 (Read '" Note on Method," page 53.) 
 Lesson L^nits. 
 
 I. The highest mountain land in the world, outside of Asia; with crests 
 of eternal snow and plateaus that are cool and pleasant. 2. Here lived the 
 Incas of old, whom Pizarro overthrew. 3. There are rich mines of gold 
 and silver, and llamas are the beasts of burden. 
 
 I. The highest mountain land in the zvorld, outside of Asia; icith crests of 
 i eternal snozv and plateaus that are cool and pleasant. 
 
 PUPILS' READINGS: 
 
 Coe, 268-70 (the high Andes), 301-2 (Lake Titicaca), 303-8 (Quito, a mountain city). 
 Carpenter, 115-23 (the C^hilian Andes), 44-50 (Peruvian Andes), 67-81 (the nortliern 
 
 Andes), 29-39 (physical Ecuador and Colombia), 81-6 (Lake Titicaca), S7-94 Ctiolivian 
 
 Andes). 
 Hall, 65-8 (the Andes). 
 
 Hield, 180-4 (volcanoes), 202-3 (condors). 
 Herbertson, 166-72 (the Colombian Andes), 167-9 (Bogota, an Andean city), 172-9 (Andes 
 
 of Ecuador), 183-4 (Andes of Peru), 196-7, 211-24 (Chilian Andes), 94-6 (Bolivian 
 
 Andes), 190-6 (Bolivian plateau), 225-6 (condors). 
 Johonnot, Reader, 63-9 (Lake Titicaca). 
 Kirby, Fireside, 142-5 (climbing the Andes). 
 Markwick & Smith, 161-4 (Bolivian Andes), 129-44 (cities and mountains of Peru), 17-18 
 
 (the Andes in general), 101-5 (Quito), 110-17 (Andes of Ecuador). 
 Rupert, 171-7 (in and about Quito). 
 
 Stockton, 125-7 (the condor), 130-39 (snowstorm in the Andes), 269-72 (volcanoes), 
 'iarr & McAIurry, Third Book, 129-45 (the Andean countries). 
 
 TEACHER'S ADDITIONAL REFERENCE: 
 
 Adams, Ballou, Bishop, Conway, Davis, Morris, Vincent, \Miymper, Orton, Hartwig. 
 
 Written Work. 
 
 1. Where are the Andes? How do they rank in height? 
 
 2. Describe Quito and its climate. Explain the climate. 
 
 3. Tell about the Bolivian plateau and Lake Titicaca. 
 
 ij. Tell about the condors and the region they like to live in.
 
 62 TEACHERS' HANDBOOK OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 2. Here 'lived tin- Iiieas of old, ivhoiii Fizarro oveytJircw. 
 
 PUPILS' READINGS: 
 
 Coe, 287-9 (the Incas). 
 
 Carpenter, 80-86 (Inca relics at Lake Titicaca), 48-58, 78-81 (descendants of the Incas). 
 
 llieid, 74.-88 (ruins in Bolivia). 
 
 Johonnot, Reader, 63-9 (Lake Titicaca and the Indians), 306-9 (roads of the Incas). 
 
 Johonnot, Stories, 28-39 (Pizarro and the Incas). 
 
 Markwick & Smith, 95-7, 1 17-19. 148-57 (Pizzaro and the Incas). 
 
 Rupert, 26-8 (Incas of Peru). 
 
 Starr, 26-8 (the Incas). 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Third Book, 108-9 (the Incas). 
 
 Rocheleau, Minerals, 165-6 (I'izarro and the Incas). 
 
 TEACHER'S ADDITIONAL REFERENCE: 
 Ballon, Conway, Morris, \'incent, W'hymper. 
 
 Written A\'ork. 
 
 1. Tell the story oi I'izarro and the Incas. 
 
 2. What relics of the Incas are still to be seen ? 
 
 3. Tell about the descendants of the Incas. 
 
 3. There are rie/i mines of gold and silz'er, and llamas are the beasts of 
 burden. 
 
 PUPILS' READINGS: 
 
 Coe, 299-300 (llamas). 
 
 Carpenter, 74-7, 141-4, 175-6 (llamas), 95-100 (mines of the Andes). 
 
 Hield, 50-60 (gold and silver mines), 70-3 (llamas). 
 
 Ilerbertson, 184-7 (llamas). 
 
 Kirby, 146-50 (llamas). 
 
 Markwick & Smith, 127-37, 169-73 (the mines of the Andes), 131-2 (llamas). 
 
 Parker, 230-7 (silver of Potosi). 
 
 Strange lands near home, 89-92 (llamas). 
 
 Rocheleau, Minerals, 165-6 (the gold of the Incas). 
 
 TEACHERS ADDITIONAL REFERENCE: 
 
 Adams, ISallou, I'.islio]), Conway, Morris, Orton, Slocum, Spear, N'incent, \\'hyniper. 
 
 Written Work. ] 
 
 r. 'l\'ll what you have learned about llamas. 
 2. 'J'cli about the gold and silver of the Andes. 
 
 Text-book Review. 
 
 The pertaining material in the text-book is now to be used as a summary 
 and review. 
 
 Reuwav's Advanced geography, 103, iio-ii. 
 
 Fryc's Advanced geograi)liy, 137-8. 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Third J!ook, 96-100, 107-9, 129-42. 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Introductory geography, 204. 
 
 THE WEST SLOPE. 
 
 Lesson Units. ^^'^'^ " ^'^^e on Method." page 53-) 
 
 I. The west slope is wet in tlie nnrlli and soutli, and a desert between. 
 2. The Chileans arc the most progressixe jjcoijU' nf the west sl()i)e ; they 
 have wclldjuilt cities and a busy trade. 
 
 I. The icest stof-e Is leel in the north and sciith. and a desert heti^'een. 
 
 PUI'ILS' READINGS: 
 
 Carpenter, 50-3 (the desert of ,\tacania). 52-3, loo-in (iJu- Iwd climates of Chile), 137-44 
 
 (the wetness of southern Chile), 102-7 ''''<' "itiale desert). 
 HicId, 45-8 (the Kuano crjuntry).
 
 THE CONTINENT OF SOUTH AMERICA. 63 
 
 Herbertson, 182-3, -07-11 (the Atacama desert), 200-2 (the wet south), 202-4 (climate of 
 
 Chile). 
 Tarr & !McMurry, Third Book, 100-3 (causes of Chile's climate). 
 
 TEACHER'S ADDITIONAL REFEREN-CE: 
 
 Adams, Ballou, Bishop, Hartwig, Morris, Orton, \'incent. 
 
 Written Work. 
 
 1. Describe the west coast climate. 
 
 2. Tell about the two climates of Chile. 
 
 2. The Chileans arc the most progressive people of the zeest slope; they 
 have well-built cities and a busy trade. 
 
 PUPILS' READINGS: 
 
 Carpenter, 38-43 (Guayaquil), 54-8 (Peruvian farmers), 58-68 (Lima), 100-7 (the nitrate 
 
 desert of Chile), 108-15, 123-30 (two Chilean cities), 115-23 (a railroad in Chile), 130-7 
 
 (farmers of Chile), 144-50 (Chilean coal), 137-44 (southern Chile). 
 Coe, 274-85 (people of Chile), 289-99 (impoverished Peru). 
 Herbertson, 197-202 (Chile described), 205-6 (Chilean cities), 211-24 (passes across the 
 
 mountains). 
 Hield, 50-60 (people of Chile). 
 Markwick & Smith, S05-9 (Guayaquil), 129 (Callao), 137-44 (Lima), 318-27 (the Chileans 
 
 and their cities), 312-18 (the nitrate deposits). 
 Rupert, 185-8 (X'alparaiso), 188-91 (traveling in Chile). 
 Tarr & McMurry, Third Book, 144-S (progressive Chile), 143-4 (the nitrate beds). 
 
 TEACHER'S ADDITIONAL REFERENCE: 
 
 Adams, Ballou, Bishop, Conway, Hartwig, ]^Iorris, \ mcent. Redvvay, New Basis, p. 99. 
 
 Written W'ork. 
 
 1. Tell what you have learned about the people of Chile, and their cities. 
 
 2. Describe the nitrate industry. 
 
 Text-book Review. 
 
 The pertaining material in the text-book is now to be used as a summary 
 and review. 
 
 Red way's Advanced geography, 109-10. 
 
 F'rye's Advanced geography, 144- 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Third Book, 133^45- 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Introductory geography, 204-5.
 
 64 teachers' handbook of geography. 
 
 BOOKS CITED IN THE READINGS ON NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 List I. (Books especially adapted for supplementary reading.) 
 
 Allen, Children of the palm lands Ed. Pub. Co. 50c. 
 
 Andrews, Seven iittle sisters Ginn & Co. 50c. 
 
 Andrews, Each and all Ginn & Co. 50c. 
 
 Andrews, Stories Mother Nature told Ginn & Co. 50c. 
 
 Andrews, Ten boys on the road Ginn & Co. 50c. 
 
 Beal, Information reader No. i Boston School Sup. Co. 6oc 
 
 Bradish, Stories of country life American Book Co. 45c. 
 
 Brooks, Century book for young Americans Century Co. $1.50. 
 
 Blaisdell, Child life in many lands i\Iacmillan. 36c. 
 
 Companion series, Greater America Perr\', Mason Co. 50c. 
 
 Companion series. Our country west Perry, Mason Co. 50c. 
 
 Companion series. Our country east Perry, Mason Co. 50c. 
 
 Companion series, Talks about animals Perry, Mason Co. 50c. 
 
 Companion series, By land and sea Perry, Mason Co. 50c. 
 
 Carpenter, Geographical reader: North America... American Book Co. 60c. 
 
 Carpenter, Australia and islands of the sea American Book Co. 60c. 
 
 Chamberlain, How we are fed Macmillan. 40c. 
 
 Chamberlain, How we are clothed Macmillan. 40c. 
 
 Clifford, Information reader No. 2 Boston School Sup. Co. 60. 
 
 Chase & Clow, Stories of industry, Vol. I Ed. Pub. Co. 40c. 
 
 Chase & Clow, Stories of industry, Vol. II Ed. Pub. Co. 4GC. 
 
 Carver & Pratt, Our Fatherland Ed. Pub. Co. 50c. 
 
 Carroll, Around the world. Book II Morse Co. 50c. 
 
 Carroll, Around the world, Book III Alorse Co. 50c. 
 
 Coe, Our American neighbors Silver Burdett. 60c. 
 
 Dodge, A reader in physical geography Longmans. Green & Co. 
 
 DuChaillu, Land of the long night ■ Scribner. $2.00. 
 
 Eggleston, Stories of American life and adventure.. American Book Co. 50c. 
 
 Ed. Pub. Co., Children of the world Ed. Pub. Co. 
 
 Frost, Modern explorers Cassell. $1.00. 
 
 Fairbanks, Home geography Ed. Pub. Co. 60. 
 
 Fairbanks. Story of our Mother Earth Whitaker & Ray Co. 50c. 
 
 George, Little journeys: Mexico and Canada A. Flanagan, Chicago. 50c. 
 
 George, Little journeys: Cuba and Porto Rico A. Flanagan, Chicago. 50c. 
 
 Horton, The frozen north Heath. 40c. 
 
 Hall, Our world reader Ginn & Co. 50c. 
 
 Herbertson, North America Black. 75c. 
 
 Herbertson, Central and South America Black. 70c. 
 
 Ingersoll, The book of the ocean Century Co. $1.50. 
 
 Johonnot, Stories of other lands American Book Co. 40c. 
 
 Johonnot, Glimpses of the animate world American Book Co. $r.oo. 
 
 Johonnot, Geographical reader American Book Co. $r.oo. 
 
 Jordan, True talcs of birds and beasts Heath. 4CC. 
 
 Jordan, Matka and Kotik Whitaker & Ray Co. $[.50. 
 
 Kellogg, Australia and islands of the sea Silver Burdett. 68c. 
 
 King, Geographical reader. Book II Lee & Shepherd. 7.2c. 
 
 King, Geographical reader, Book HI Lee & Shepherd. 56c. 
 
 King, Geographical leader. Book 1\' Lee &• Shepherd. 56c.
 
 BOOKS CITED IX READINGS OX XORTH AMERICA. 65 
 
 King, Geographical reader, Book V Lee & Shepherd. 56c. 
 
 Kirby, Aunt Alartha's corner cupboard Flanagan, goc. 
 
 Kirb}', The world by the fireside Nelson. $1.75. 
 
 McMaster, Primary history of the United States... American Book Co. 60c. 
 
 McMurry (Charles), Pioneers on land and sea.... Macmillan. 40c. 
 
 Muller, Little people of the snow American Book Co. 35c. 
 
 Mowrj', American inventors and inventions Silver Burdett. 65c. 
 
 Miln, Little folks of many lands Scribner. $4.00. 
 
 Pratt, America's story for America's children Heath. 40c. 
 
 Pratt, Stories of Massachusetts Ed. Pub. Co. 60c. 
 
 Pratt, Northern Europe Ed. Pub. Co. 40c. 
 
 Pratt, Cortez and Montezuma Ed. Pub. Co. 30c. 
 
 Parker, Information reader No. 3 Boston School Sup. Co. 60c. 
 
 Rocheleau, Products of the soil A. Flanagan. 50c. 
 
 Rocheleau, Minerals A. Flanagan. 50c. 
 
 Rupert, Geographical reader Leach, Shewell & Son. 65c. 
 
 Starr, Strange peoples Heath. 40c. 
 
 Schwatka, Children of the cold Ed. Pub. Co. $1.25. 
 
 Schwatka, Land of cave and cliff-dwellers Ed. Pub. Co. $1.25. 
 
 Shaw, Big people and little people American Book Co. 30c. 
 
 Stockton, Tales out of school Scribner. $1.50. 
 
 Scandlin, Hans the Eskimo Silver Burdett. 42c. 
 
 Shaler, Story of our continent Ginn & Co. 75c. 
 
 Shaler, First book in geology Heath. 6oc. 
 
 Smith (Mary) , Eskimo stories Rand-McNally. 35c. 
 
 Smith (Minna), Our own country Silver Burdett. 5CC. 
 
 Sexton, Stories of California Macmillan. 60c. 
 
 Seabury, Porto Rico Silver Burdett Co. 50c. 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Geography : Second Book (North 
 
 America) Macmillan. 75c. 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Geography: Third Book (Europe 
 
 and other countries) Macmillan. 75c. 
 
 Tarr & IMcMurry. Geography: New England Sup- 
 plement ]\Iacmillan. 
 
 Tarr & McMurry. Geography: New York Supple- 
 ment Macmillan. 
 
 Tarr & Mc^NIurry, Geography: Virginia Supple- 
 ment Alacmillan. 
 
 Tarr & McMurry. Geography: Texas Supplement.. ]\Iacmillan. 
 
 Tarr & McIMurry, Geography: Pennsylvania Sup- 
 plement ^Macmillan. 
 
 Tarr & McMurry. Geography: Ohio Supplement... ]\Iacmillan. 
 
 Tarr & McMurry. Geography: Kansas Supplement.. Macmillan. 
 
 Tarr & McMurry. Geography: Utah Supplement... Ivracmillan. 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Geography: California Supple- ^ 
 
 ment Macmillan. 30c. 
 
 Wade, Our little Eskimo cousin L. C. Page & Co. 50c. 
 
 Wade, Our little Cuban cousin L. C. Page & Co. 50c. 
 
 Wade, Our little Porto Rican cousin L. C. Page & Co. 50c. 
 
 Wood, Primer of political economy ]\Iacmillan. 50c. 
 
 Winterburn. The Spanish in the southwest American Book Co. 55c. 
 
 Youth's Companion series, The wide world Ginn & Co. 25c. 
 
 Youth's Companion series, Strange lands near home. Ginn & Co. 25c. 
 
 Youth's Companion series, Industries of to-day.... Ginn &: Co. 25c.
 
 66 teachers' handbook of geography. 
 
 List II. (Books useful for teacher's readings, but not easily broken up 
 
 into assigned readings for pupils.) 
 
 Adams, Commercial geographj- Appleton. $1.30. 
 
 Brigham, Geographical influences in American his- 
 tory Ginn li Co. $1.25. 
 
 Ballou, Footprints of travel Ginn & Co. 8oc. 
 
 Ballou, Aztec land Houghton, Mittiin & Co. $1.50. 
 
 Ballou, The New El Dorado Hougliton. Mifflin & Co. $1.50. 
 
 Blake & Sullivan, Mexico Lee & Shepherd. $1.25. 
 
 Chisholm, Handbook of commercial geography Longmans, Green & Co. $4.00. 
 
 Davis, Physical geography Ginn & Co. $1.25. 
 
 Dryer, Lessons in physical gcograpliy American Book Co. $1.20. 
 
 DuChaillu, Land of the midnight sun, \'ols. 1, 11.. Harper. $5.00. 
 
 Eggleston, Montezuma Dodd, Mead & Co. $1.00. 
 
 Frye, Advanced geography (iinn & Co. $1.25. 
 
 Greene, Coal and the coal mines • Huugliton. Mifflin & Co. 
 
 Gilbert & Brigham, Introduction to physical geog- 
 raphy Appleton. 
 
 Hough, Story of the cowboy .Appleton. $1.50. 
 
 Lummis, Some strange corners of our country.... Century Co. $1.50. 
 
 Lummis, A New Mexico David Scribner. $1.25. 
 
 .Muir. Mountains of California Century Co. $1.50. 
 
 Oxley, Romance of commerce Crowell. $1.25. 
 
 Ralph, Dixie Harper. $2.50. 
 
 Redway, New basis geography Macmillan. $1.00. 
 
 Redway. Advanced geography -American Book Co. $1.40. 
 
 Smith (F. Hopkinson). A wliite um1)rella in Mex- 
 ico Houghton, Mifflin & Co. $1.50. 
 
 Stoddard, Lectures : Mexico Balch. $3.00. 
 
 Stoddard, Lectures : Canada Balch. $3.00. 
 
 Stoddard; Lectures: California; Grand Canon ; Yel- 
 lowstone Park Balch. $3.00. 
 
 Shaler, Aspects of the earth Scribner. $2.50. 
 
 Vincent, In and out of Central America .Appleton. $2.00.
 
 THE CONTINENT OF NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 PHYSICAL NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 For these physical studies there is no material suitable for use as supple- 
 mentary reading by the pupils. Therefore, while the device of lesson units 
 is made use of here, as in the descriptive work, the readings cited are all 
 intended for the teacher herself. 
 
 T^ TT • Strlxture. 
 
 Lesson Units. 
 
 I. North America has four great parts — three plateaus and a central low- 
 land. The central lowland projects an arm to the east and forms the iVtlantic 
 coastal plain. 2. North America has a broken coast-line, with many good 
 harbors ; and her rivers open navigation into the heart of the continent. 
 3. The northern half of North America was long ago invaded by a great 
 ice-sheet ; and most of the lakes are a product of this glacial period. 
 
 I. North America has four great parts — three plateaus and a central 
 loii'land. The central loi^'land projects an arm to the east and forms the 
 Atlantic coastal plain. 
 
 TEACHER'S READING: 
 
 Brigham, 70-87, 173-82. 
 
 Shaler, Story of our continent, 90-102. 
 
 Shaler, First book in geology, 107-12. 
 
 Davis, 117-26, 129-36, 161-74, 188-95, 292-5, 350-4. 
 
 Dryer, 68-80, 178-89, 229-38. 
 
 Gilbert & Brigham, 57-60, 151-4, 155-8, 160-7, 168-79, 179-85. 
 
 Redway. New basis, 96-7. 
 
 Redway's Advanced geography, 45-6, 49-53, 10. 
 
 Frye's Advanced geography, 8, 17-18, 64-71. 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Second Book, 5-10. 
 
 Tarr & McMtirry, Pennsylvania Supplement, 3-12. 
 
 Tarr & Mc]\Iurry, Texas Supplement, 3-13. 
 
 Herbertson, North America, xiv-xxi. 
 
 Dodge, 19-23, 76-80, 89-96, 137-53- 
 
 In preparation for the physical study of North America draw on the black- 
 board a mass map of the continent. This map is to be preserved for 
 .reference throughout the teaching of North America. (Fig. i.) Beside the 
 map draw three profiles on parallels, on parallels 60, 40, and 20 north. 
 (Fig. 6.)
 
 68 
 
 TEACHERS HANDBOOK OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 «0 ti 
 
 ao N. 
 
 Fi^. 6. Profiles of North America. 
 
 In this study the pupils will open their text-books to the physical map of 
 North America. The lessons will utilize this text-book map, the blackboard 
 map, and the profiles, in conjunction. 
 
 Have the pupils discover what the colors of the map mean, by reading 
 the explanation in the lower corner. Let them locate and name the four 
 great features — the Rocky Mountain highland, the Appalachian highland, the 
 Laurentian highland, and the central lowland (with its extension, the Atlantic 
 plain). 
 
 Let individual pupils now step to the blackboard map and locate the same 
 features, while the class w^atch critically. Repeat this with various pupils 
 until the text-book map and the blackboard map become mutually interpre- 
 tative. 
 
 Fip. 
 
 If Xorlli America sliould subside a thousand feet. 
 
 Explain the meaning of your blackboard profiles and have individuals 
 come up and point out in them the Rocky Mountain highland (or plateau:
 
 THE COXTINEXT OF NORTH AMERICA. 69 
 
 use the terms interchangeably), the Appalachian plateau, the central low- 
 land, and the Atlantic plain. 
 
 Regard the lowlands as being less than 1,000 feet in elevation and the 
 highlands, or plateaus, as being 1,000 feet or over. Elicit that if the conti- 
 nent should sink 1,000 feet into the sea the three plateaus would become 
 islands. On the blackboard draw a rough outline of North America and have 
 individual pupils come up and draw, within it^ the coast-lines of these three 
 islands as they would then appear. (Fig. 7). 
 
 Elicit the difference betw^een a plateau and a mountain and have each 
 form pointed out in the profiles. 
 
 Elicit that the Rocky ^Mountain plateau is greatly longer, broader, and 
 higher than either of the eastern plateaus. Denver is about a mile in elevation 
 (5,200 feet), and this may be taken roughly as the average for the plateau. 
 In ]\Iexico it is higher; the City of ^Mexico is in a plateau valley 7.500 feet 
 in elevation. The Appalachian and Laurentian plateaus are, roughly, only 
 2,000 feet in altitude. 
 
 Compare some of the high peaks of the Rockies with those of the Appa- 
 lachians (in round figures) : Pike's Peak, Colorado, 14,000 ft. ; Popocatepetl, 
 Mexico, 17,000; McKinley, Alaska, 20,000. Mt. Washington, New Hamp- 
 .shire. 6,300 ; ]Mitchell, North Carolina, 6,700. Note that the City of Mexico, 
 on the plateau floor, has a greater elevation that any peak of the Appa- 
 lachians. 
 
 How do the plateau and peak elevations of the Rockies compare with 
 those of the Andes? (See p. 44.) 
 
 On the text-book map let the pupils trace the central plain from the Gulf 
 to the Arctic coasts. Where is it narrowest? What four great rivers lie 
 in this plain? (Mississippi, St. Lawrence, Nelson, Mackenzie.) Locate 
 and describe each (source, direction of flow, and receiving body of water). 
 Trace the Atlantic plain and describe its location. Let individual pupils 
 indicate these features on the blackboard map. 
 
 Let the class trace the divide of the St. Lawrence basin, separating it 
 from other basins. Note that nearly everywhere this divide is less than 
 2,000 feet in elevation, remarkably low for a great river basin. Compare 
 with western divide of the Mississippi basin. 
 
 Written Work. 
 
 1. Name the four great features of North America. 
 
 2. If the continent sank a thousand feet into the sea how would its coast- 
 
 lines change ? 
 
 3. By means of a diagram show the difference between a plateau and a 
 
 mountain. 
 
 4. Compare the Rocky ]^Iountain plateau with the Appalachian plateau. 
 
 5. About how high is the Rocky jNIountain plateau ? ^Vhere is it highest ? 
 
 6. Compare the Rockies with the Andes in elevation.
 
 70 TEACHERS HANDBOOK OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 2. Xorth America has a broken eoast-line, zcith many good harbors; and 
 her rivers open navigation into the heart of the eontinent. 
 
 TEACHER'S READING: 
 
 Dryer, 95, 227-9. 
 
 Brighani, 53-6, 72-4, 105-6, 127-41. 
 
 Gilbert S: Brigham, 10-11, 302-16. 
 
 Davis. 95-7, 195-7. 296. 
 
 Shaler, Aspects, 7-9. 
 
 Shaler, Story of our continent, 84-8, 102-12, 247-9. 
 
 Chisholm, 382-3. 
 
 Adams, 17, 18, 19. 22-6, 38, 45, 149-53. 157-61. 
 
 Reaway, New basis, 96-7, 83-8. 
 
 Redway's Advanced geography, lo-ii, 21. 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Second Book, 19-21, 124-6. 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Texas Supplement, 3-5. 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, California Supplement, 10-14. 
 
 Frye's Advanced geography, 12-13, 59- 
 
 Herbertson, North America, xvii, xx-xxi. 
 
 Ralph, 1-43. 
 
 Channing (Students' history United States), 11-15. 
 
 Dodge, 11-13. 105-8, 89-96, 165-70. 
 
 Oxley, 190-96 (the possibilities of Hudson's Bay). 
 
 ^^'ith the blackboard map and the text-book poHtical map before the pupils, 
 teach that river steamers operate as far up as St. Paul, on the Mississippi ;* 
 Fort Benton, IVIontana, on the ^Missouri ; and Pittsburg on the Ohio ; and 
 that steamers of the largest type traverse every part of the Great Lakes. 
 The falls and rapids in the St. Lawrence are remedied by canals, and cargoes 
 are sent from the Great Lakes to the sea. Note Duluth and Chicago as the 
 heads of navigation in the Lake basin. The Atlantic and Gulf rivers are 
 navigable to the beginning of the highlands. 
 
 In teaching about the coast-line and harbors, use the detailed maps of 
 sections, in the text-book (N^w England section, Gulf section, etc.). Talk 
 a little with the class about the significance of good harbors. Specifically, 
 what is a harbor? A sheltered bay or inlet where vessels may load and 
 unload, or ride at anchor without fear of storms. Elicit that without suit- 
 able harbors a country cannot partake in ocean trade. 
 
 Show that the Atlantic coast of the United States has many fine harbors, 
 from Maine to Qiesapeake Bay ; while the Pacific Coast has only two harbors 
 of the finest type — San Francisco Bay and Puget Sound. The Columbia 
 estuary is of ample dimensions, but is fronted by a dangerous bar. Teach 
 about " drowned rivers," or fiords, of which most of these harbors are 
 types. 
 
 Show that our Southern States have no really good harbors south of 
 Norfolk ; the reason being that the Atlantic plain continues out under the 
 sea, making shallow coast waters, with sandbars across the river mouths. 
 Alljcmarle and Pamlico sounds look like great harbors on the map. hut they 
 are shallow inlets Ijehind sandbars, an<l useful only in the coasting trade, 
 where small vess^-ls are used. New Orleans has a good harlxir, but it is not. 
 strictly sjx'aking, a coast harbor, being a hundred miles up the river. 
 Galveston's busy harbnr is largely artificial, being a shallow lagoon liehind a 
 sandbar, which the Government has dredged deep enough to admit ocean- 
 going vessels. 
 
 • Its navigable waters extend to seventeen states.
 
 THE COXTIXEXT OF NORTH AMERICA. 71 
 
 \\'ritten \\'ork. 
 
 1. Tell how our rivers help our commerce. 
 
 2. Name three heads of navigation in the Mississippi \*alley. 
 
 3. Name two in the Great Lake system. 
 
 4. What is a harbor? 
 
 5. \Miere are the good harbors of the United States? 
 
 6. Why are the harbors of the Southern States comparatively poor? 
 
 3. Tlic northcni half of North Auicrica 'i^as lung ago covered by a great 
 ice sheet; and most of tlie lakes are a product of this glacial period. 
 
 TEACHER'S READINGS: 
 
 Davis, 330-46. 
 Dryer, 108-22, 122-48. 
 Gilbert & Brighani, 10, 119-32, 132-50. 
 Brigham, 41-5, 115-24, 151-2. 
 , Redway's Advanced geography, 19-20. 
 Frye's Advanced geography, 10, 88. 
 Tarr & McMurry, Second Book, 12-18. 
 Tarr & ]\IcMurry, New England Supplement, 7-12. 
 Tarr & IVIcMurry, Pennsylvania Supplement, 13-19. 
 Tarr & McMurry, Ohio Supplement, 2-7. 
 Tarr & McMurry, Utah .Supplement, 16-19. 
 Tarr & Mc^Murry, California Supplement, 49-50. 
 Herbertson, North America, xiv, 29. 
 Shaler, Aspects, 179-81. 
 Shaler, First Book geology, 125-g. 
 Shaler, Story of our continent, 65-75, 79-80, 84. 
 Dodge, 121-32, 132-6. 
 
 The map on page 48 of Redway's Advanced Geography shows the limits of 
 the glacial drift. Other maps of the glacial area are given in Tarr & ]\Ic- 
 Murry, second book, p. 14; Dryer, 125; Davis, 332; Gilbert & Brigham. 145. 
 Note that nearly all of the lakes of our continent are within this glaciated area. 
 
 Give the class an idea of the immensity of this ancient ice sheet. It is 
 estimated to have been over 5,000 feet thick (nearly a mile!). Tell how 
 the slow-moving glaciers ground out new valleys and filled old ones. It 
 utterly changed the face of the land over which it advanced and receded. 
 Now, owing to a change of climate, the ice sheet has retreated northward 
 until the great ice cap of Greenland is its only remnant. 
 
 Tell about the moraines deposited by the retreating glaciers, and how these 
 moraines form lake basins. 
 
 Written Work. 
 
 1. Tell what you have learned of the great ice sheet. 
 
 2. Describe the movement of a glacier. 
 
 3. What are moraines? 
 
 4. How did the glacier make our lakes? 
 
 5. ^^l^ere may glaciers be found to-day? 
 
 Text-book Review. 
 
 The pertaining material in the text-book is now to be used as a summary 
 and review. 
 
 Redway's Advanced geography, lo-ii, 19-20. 21, 45-6, 49-53, 88. 
 Frye's Advanced geography, 8, 17-18, 64-71, 12-13, 59. 88. 
 Tarr & McMurry, Introductory geography, 17-27. 28-38. 39-52. 62-7, 130. 
 Tarr & McMurry, Second Book, 5-10, 19-21, 124-6, 12-18.
 
 72 teachers' handbook of geography. 
 
 T-T . Climate: Heat. 
 
 Lesson Units. 
 
 I. North America lies in tliree zones. It has a torrid south, an arctic 
 north, and a temperate middle region. 2. East of the Rocky Mountains the 
 temperature is governed by cyclones. 3. The Pacific Coast has very mild 
 temperatures, because of the prevailing sea-winds. 
 
 I. North America lies in three zones. It has a torrid south, an arctic 
 north, and a temperate middle region. 
 
 TEACHER'S READING: 
 
 Redway's Advanced geography, 24-5. 
 
 Frye's Advanced geography, 27-9. 
 
 Tarr &: McMurry, Introductory geography. 120-3. 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Second Book, 37. 
 
 Adams' Commercial geography, 4-9. 
 
 Davis, 52-4. 
 
 Gilbert & lirigham, 25-6, 240-4. 
 
 Channing (Students' history United States), 3-7. 
 
 Dodge, 180-4. 
 
 Begin with a review lesson on zones, using the text-book hemispherical 
 map, and if procurable, a globe also. Review the names of the zones and 
 the circles bounding them. 
 
 Elicit that climate is warmest about tlie equator and colder toward the 
 poles. Have pupils describe each zone as to its climate. 
 
 Turn to the text-book map of North America and have the class determine 
 what zones traverse this continent, and in which zone the greatest portion 
 lies. Have individual pupils indicate, on the blackboard map, the area 
 traversed by each zone. 
 
 Elicit that the climate of North America is very warm in the south, very 
 cold in the north, and temperate in the middle regions. Using the political 
 map, let pupils say what countries lie in each of these climatic regions. Let 
 pupils determine, approximately, their own latitude, from the map. 
 
 Written Work. 
 
 1. Name the zones of the earth, and describe the climate of each. 
 
 2. Tell what zones traverse North America, and in which zone most of 
 
 this continent lies. 
 
 3. Tell which countries in Nortli America are warm, which arc cold, and 
 
 which are temperate. 
 
 4. Tell tlie latitude of your uwn home. 
 
 2. Hast of the Roclcies the temperalure is goz'erned by cyclones. 
 
 TEACMEUS READING: 
 
 Redway's Advanced RCDRraphy, 26. 54. 
 
 Frye's Aflvanccd ReoRraphy, 74. 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, 52-6. 
 
 Adams' Commercial geoRraijliy, 49-51. 
 
 Davis, 31-4, 48-52. 
 
 Dryer, 31226. SSS^.' 
 
 Gilbert & ISriKliam, 258-9, 270-2. 
 
 Shalcr. .\spects, 226-56.
 
 THE CONTINENT OF NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 73 
 
 For this lesson draw Fig. 8 on the board. Tell the class a little about 
 cyclones : Not necessarily violent storms, as generally thought ; great whirls 
 of air, sometimes a thousand miles across ; always whirl in the same direction 
 (in our hemisphere, a direction opposite to that taken by the hands of the 
 clock). 
 
 Fig. 8. A cyclonic storm in the East. 
 
 (The real cyclone is not circular in area, as here shown, but elliptical and irregu- 
 lar. This circular representation is -true in principle, however, and 
 is more easily comprehended by the pupil.) 
 
 We feel the cyclone in motion and call it wind. Since it is a great ivhirl 
 of air its different quarters will be blowing in different directions. Note 
 (in the diagram) that a town in one part of the cyclone may be having a 
 northwest wind while another in an opposite quarter will l^ave a southeast 
 wind; but both of these winds will be part of the same cyclone. The motion 
 is most violent near the center of the cyclone, and soft and zephyr-like toward 
 the outer limits. At the center there is no wind at all. 
 
 In the diagram, what kind of a wind is blowing in Chicago? (A north- 
 east wind.) In New York? (A southeast wind.) In Norfolk? (A south- 
 west wind.) In Chattanooga? (A northwest wind.) 
 
 Elicit that the wind will acquire the temperatures of the country through 
 which it passes. Therefore (in the diagram) Chattanooga is receiving a 
 cold wind because it is from the northwest. At the same moment New 
 York is receiving a warm wind : it is from the southeast, from the warm 
 ocean and the Gulf Stream. 
 
 Go one step further now, and describe how the cyclone, instead of remain- 
 ing in the same region, moves forward as it rotates. Thus the same city 
 will, on dift'erent days, find itself in different quarters of the storm, and 
 the winds will veer accordingly. The same cyclone which gives New York 
 a southeast wind, with warm, rainy weather, on a Tuesday, may by Thurs- 
 day give it a northwest wind and cool and clear weather.
 
 74 TEACHERS HANDBOOK OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 The cyclone always moves across the country in a general easterly direc- 
 tion. Sometimes it varies, and moves southeast or northeast, but it cannot 
 move west. This is because it is traveling in the great easterly progress of 
 the return trades, which blow across the United States forever from west 
 to east. Read about the return trades, or " westerlies " : Redway Adv., p. 
 26; Davis. 31-2; Tarr & McM., Sec. Bk., 50-1 ; Gilbert & P.righam. 58. 
 
 The " cold waves " and " warm waves " announced by the Weather 
 Bureau are different portions of the cyclone as it moves over the country. 
 
 Written Work. 
 
 1. Tell about " prevailing westerlies." 
 
 2. Tell about the two motions of a cyclone. 
 
 3. Can you tell why the eastern half of a cyclone is warm and the wcsiern 
 
 half cold? 
 
 3. Tlic Pacific Cuast has I'cry mild tciiipcrafiircs because of the prei'ailiiig 
 sea-zviiids. 
 
 TEACHER'S READING: 
 
 Redway's xVdvanced geography, 24-6, 46. 
 
 Frye's Advanced geography, 74. 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Second Book, 4.3-51. 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, California Supplement, 15-18. 
 
 California state introductory geography, 262-3. 
 
 Adams, 7-9. 
 
 Davis, 36-7. 
 
 Dryer, 306-7, 332-47. 
 
 Gilbert & JJrigham, 244-5. 
 
 Dodge, 185-8. 
 
 Scrihncrs', \'ol. 31 (1902), 689 et seq. ("The Gulf Stream myth"). 
 
 The prevailing wind on our Pacific Coast is from the west (the " prevailing 
 westerlies" or anti-trades). It comes forever from the Pacific Ocean and 
 passes east, or slightly northeast, over the I'nited States and southern 
 Canada. It brings with it the temperatures of the ocean, which are warmer 
 in winter and cooler in summer than those of the land. The water of the 
 ocean heats more slo\\l\' and cools more slowK than the soil and rock of 
 which the land is made. P^or example, if a fire be made in the stove and a 
 kettle of water ])lace(l ui^un it. tlie stove will l:)ecome (juite hot before the 
 water becomes even tepid. Later on, after the water has boiled and the fire 
 died out, the stove will grow .stone-cold while the water is yet warm. In 
 the same way, the ocean, kee])ing a more uniform temperature throughout 
 the year, becomes a source of warmth in winter and of coolness in summer 
 for those ftjrtunate lands, such as Noruru and mw dwii Pacific sliores, as 
 far north as southern .Alaska. 
 
 Illicit that, in San P>ancisco, the coldest weallui- -s measured by only 
 the lightest kind of frost, with no ice or snow; whik the same latitude east 
 f»f the mountains has skating and sleighing in winter. 
 
 Written Work. 
 
 1. Describe the ex]KTiment with the kettle and the stove. 
 
 2. T'.xplain the- mild climate ol' the Pacilic ( oa>t.
 
 THE CONTINENT OF NORTH AMERICA. 75 
 
 Text-book Review. 
 
 The pertaining material in the text-book is now to be used as a summary 
 and review. 
 
 Redway's Advanced geography, 24-6, 46, 54. 
 Frye's Advanced geography, 27-9, 74. 
 Tarr & McMurry, Second Book, 37, 42-56. 
 Tarr & McMurry, Introductory geography, 120-3. 
 
 Climate: Moisture. 
 Lesson Units. 
 
 I. East of the Rocky Mountains North America is watered by cyclonic 
 
 storms. 2. The Pacific Coast is wet in the north and dry in the south. 
 
 3. The great plateau is arid because of the mountains on the west and 
 
 because of the belt of calms in the south. 
 
 I. East of tlic Rocky Mountains Xorth America is watered by cyclonic 
 storms. 
 
 TEACHER'S READING: 
 
 Redway's Advanced geography, 24-7, 45, 54. 
 
 Frye's Advanced geography, 74-5. 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Second Book, 530. 
 
 Dryer, 306-11, 312-26, 327-34, 335-47. 
 
 Davis, 29-34, 48-52. 
 
 Gilbert & Brigham, 258-g, 270-2. 
 
 Shaler, Aspects, 226-56. 
 
 Shaler, First book in geology, 56-61. 
 
 Lhanning (Students' history United States), 7-1 1. 
 
 Dodge, 188-91. 
 
 Review the subject of rain-making (South America, p. 48). 
 
 Review Unit 2, in the topic just preceding. Use the diagram again (Fig. 
 8). Elicit again that the same city, New York, may, within the space of a 
 week, have winds from each (juarter in succession, as the same cyclone drifts 
 across the region. 
 
 Elicit now that the southeast wind (in New York), coming in from over 
 the ocean, will be (a) moist and (b) warm. Coming north into the cooler 
 latitudes it will become chilled, and its moisture will be precipitated as rain 
 or snow, according to the season. 
 
 In Southern States, similarly, the southeast quarter of the cyclone will pass 
 over either the Atlantic or the Gulf, with a like result. 
 
 Elicit that it is the southeast quarter of the cyclone that gathers the 
 moisture, and the northeast quarter that sheds it. Work this out from the 
 diagram. 
 
 Elicit now that, for reverse reasons, the west half of the cyclone brings 
 dry, clear weather. The wind is blowing southward and getting warmer 
 instead of cooler. Such moisture as it gathers is not condensed, therefore, 
 but remains invisible. 
 
 Elicit, as a summary, that each cyclone, as it drifts over the country from 
 west to east, delivers to every part of its route a succession of weathers. 
 The summer cyclone brings cloudy and rainy days followed by clear days. 
 The winter cyclone brings the blizzard, with snow and leaden skies; and fol- 
 lowing come cold, crisp days with clear skies.
 
 76 
 
 TEACHERS HANDBOOK OF GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Written Work. 
 
 1. Which side of the cyclone brings clouds and rain? Which side brings 
 
 the clear weather? 
 
 2. Can you explain why ? 
 
 2. The Pacific Coast is zcct in the nortli ami dry in the south. 
 
 TEACHER'S READING: 
 
 Redway's Advanced geography, 247, 54. 
 
 Frye's Advanced geography, 74. 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Second Book, 51-2, 286. 
 
 Tarr &McMurry, California Supplement, 15-18, 534, 77-9. 
 
 California state introductory geography, 262-3. 
 
 Dryer, 306-7, 327-34, 340-i- 
 
 Davis, 29-33. 
 
 Herbertson, North America, 196-200, 189-91, 163. 
 
 Shaler, Story of our continent, 182-3. 
 
 Channing (Students' history United States), 7-1 1. 
 
 Dodge, 188-91. 
 
 Refer back to Unit 3, of the preceding topic, and review the fact of a 
 prevailing sea-wind on the Pacific Coast (in our latitudes). 
 
 This return trade-wind brings rain to the northern Pacific region (northern 
 California, and thence northward as far as southern Alaska) for two reasons : 
 
 (a) The coast mountains in those regions are sufficiently high to lift 
 the in-drifting air enough to cause rain. In teaching this point review the 
 subject of mountains and rain, p. 49. 
 
 :/rf/ :, 
 
 
 Fig. 9. A cyclonic storm on the Pacific Coast. 
 
 (The real cyclone is not circular in .nrca, as here shown, hut elliptical and irregu- 
 lar. This circular representation is true in ))rinciple, however, ami 
 is more easily comprehended by the i)upil.) 
 
 (h) In those latitudes, also, cyclones are in ()])erati()n '■'•'■ similar to those 
 which distribute weather beyond the Rockies. 
 
 •The cyclone is a vast whirl of air in the return trade-wind, and travels with it.
 
 THE CONTIXENT OF NORTH AMERICA. ']'] 
 
 In illustration draw Fig. 9. Elicit that the southwesterly wind in this 
 cyclone brings in the moisture ; and that by the time it becomes a southeast 
 wind it is (a J in a more northerly latitude, and {h) moving up the slope 
 of the mountains, and therefore exhibiting its moisture as cloud and rain. 
 
 Central and southern California have a dry summer because neither of 
 these conditions is present. The cyclone whirl does not reach so far south 
 (in summer) and the coast mountains are not high enough to chill the sea- 
 winds to the point of precipitation. The higher mountains, in the interior, 
 have summer rains. 
 
 For the extreme south of California there is a third reason for the absence 
 of rain. During the summer season, when all the wind belts of the earth 
 shift somewhat to the northward (moving with the sun) the tropical belt 
 of calms enters southern California. This belt of calms is a region of down- 
 coming dry air which yields no rain. A belt of deserts all around the earth 
 roughly marks its latitude. There is a similar belt of calms and deserts 
 in the southern hemisphere. 
 
 In winter the return trades, including within their width the cyclone track, 
 shift somewhat to the south. This brings all of California within the action 
 of the cyclone^ and rains result. But even then the rains in the extreme south 
 are very scant. 
 
 Written Work. 
 
 1. Tell about the prevailing wind on our Pacific Coast. 
 
 2. Why has southern California a dry summer? 
 
 3. What brings the winter rains? 
 
 3. The great plateau is arid because of the inouufaiiis on the zcest, and 
 because of the belt of calms, in the south. 
 
 TEACHER'S READING: 
 
 Redway's Advanced geography, 26, 46. 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Second Book, 52, 286-8. 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Utah Supplement, 65-7. 
 
 Adams' Commercial geography, 15. 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, California Supplemerit, 17-18, 92-6. 
 
 Dodge, 190-2. 
 
 Review the facts that the return trades blow forever from the Pacific, 
 over the United States and southern Canada. They are rain-bearing winds, 
 but the high Sierras and Cascades lift them to cold altitudes and wring from 
 them the first installment of their moisture. After crossing these high 
 mountains they encounter no elevations on the plateau to lift them higher, 
 into colder realms. They reach no other rainmaking agent until the high 
 peaks of the Wahsatch and Rockies are reached. The great plateau is 
 therefore a succession of deserts. 
 
 Along our southern borderland (the extreme south of California, southern 
 Arizona, southern New Mexico, and northern Texas) there is a continua- 
 tion of these deserts, but they result from another cause. That band of 
 country lies in the belt of tropical calms, a region of down-coming dry air 
 that gives no rain.
 
 yS TEACHERS' HANDBOOK OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Still farther south the great plateau valley of Mexico is arid for the same 
 reason that afifects the Nevada plateau. The rain-bearing winds are inter- 
 cepted by a high wall of mountains. Here, however, the prevailing winds 
 come from the Atlantic side (the trades), and it is the eastern instead of the 
 western mountains that are chiefly responsible for the aridity of high Mexico. 
 
 Written Work. 
 
 1. Explain how mountains are rainmakers. 
 
 2. Which side of any range of mountains gets the rain ? 
 
 3. Explain the dryness of the Rocky Alountain plateau. 
 
 4. Explain why the region near the Mexican border is dry. 
 
 5. Explain the aridity of the Mexican plateau. 
 
 Text-book Review. 
 
 The pertaining material in the text-book is now to be used as a summar) 
 and review. 
 
 Redway's Advanced geography, 24-7, 46, 54. 
 
 Krye's Advanced geography, 74-5. 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Second Book, 51-6, 286-8. 
 
 Formal Geography of North America. 
 
 Use the blackboard map (Fig. i), in conjunction with the political map 
 in the text-book. By various drills fix the following locations, together with 
 the oral and written spelling concerned. (For some useful locative drills 
 see p. 50.) 
 
 Atlantic, Pacific, Arctic oceans. 
 
 Hudson Bay, Bering Sea, Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean Sea. 
 
 Bering Straits, Isthmus of Panama. 
 
 (ireenland. West Indies. Newfoundland. 
 
 Rocky Mountains, Appalachian Mountains. 
 
 Mississippi. St. Lawrence. Colorado, Columbia. Yukon, Rio Grande rivers ; 
 Great Lakes. 
 
 L'nited States, Canada, Alaska, Mexico, Central America. 
 
 Washington. Ottawa, Sitka, Mexico (city). 
 
 Boston, Xcw York. Chicago, San h'rancisco. New Orleans. 
 
 Equator. Tro])ic of Cancer, Arctic Circle. 
 
 Torrid Zone, North Temperate Zone, North Frigid Zone. 
 
 Test. 
 
 The correct filling of an outline map ( see foot-note, ]). 14). 
 
 , ... The Peoj'Les of Ncjkth .\.mkkka. 
 
 Lesson I nits. 
 
 I. When the white men came they found many tribes of Indians; and in 
 the far north, the Eskimos. 2. South of the L'nited States the people are 
 of Spanish bloocL north of the l'nited States they are of English, with some
 
 THE COXTIXEXT OF XORTH AMERICA. 79 
 
 French. The people of the United States are a mixture of all the races of 
 the earth, but they speak the English language. 
 
 I. JVhcii the z>.'Jiitc men eaiiie they found many tribes of Indians; and in 
 the far north, the Eskimos. 
 
 Assign enough pupils' reading to be able to elicit a general survey of the 
 aboriginal peoples of the continent. Make it clear that the entire continent 
 was thinly peopled by many and various tribes of red men, from the pure 
 savages of the forest and plains to the partly civilized Aztecs and Pueblos. 
 Teach that all of these peoples, while of various tribes, are considered, in a 
 large way, as one people — the Indians ; but that the Eskimos, of the Arctic 
 regions, are an entirely different race. 
 
 PUPILS' READINGS: 
 
 McMaster, 22-3 (the Pueblo Indians), 16-20 (the eastern Indians). 
 
 Carpenter, 295-7 (the Pueblo Indians), 302-6 (Indians of Alaska). 
 
 Carroll, Third Book, 119-21 (Cliff Dwellers). 
 
 Our country west, 167-73 (Cave Dwellers), 12-15 (canoe builders). 
 
 Miln, 87-111 (Indian customs). 
 
 Kirb}', Fireside, 5J-69 (Indian stories). 
 
 Dodge, 215-16 (Cliff Dwellers), 216-17 (pueblo builders). 
 
 Pratt, Stories of Massachusetts, 13-16 (Indians whom the Pilgrims found). 
 
 Pratt, Cortez and Montezuma, 3-1 1 (the Aztecs). 
 
 Pratt, America's story, 51-6 (Montezuma). 
 
 Carroll, Second Book, 9-46 (Indians of Alaska). 
 
 King, Fifth Book, 94-101 (Alaska Indians). 
 
 Johonnot, Stories, 20-28 (the Aztecs). 
 
 Charles ^IcMurry, 187-9, 199-204 (the Aztecs). 
 
 Winterburn, 46-54 (Montezuma and the Aztecs). 
 
 Seabury, 199-206 (aboriginals of Porto Rico). 
 
 (For Eskimo descriptions see readings 
 
 under Arctic America, Unit i, p. 84). 
 
 TEACHER'S ADDITIONAL READINGS. 
 
 Lummis, Strange corners, 58-65 (the Navajos), 75-89 (Indian magicians and medicine 
 men), 198-207 (Navajo blanket-makers), 208-18 (Indian hunters), 219-27 (the In- 
 dian idea of education), 228-61 (strange customs of the desert Indians). 
 
 Eggleston, Montezuma, 11-33 (Montezuma and the Aztecs). 
 
 Herbertson, 191-3 (Navajos), 23-4 (Alaska Indians). 
 
 Ballou, Footprints (Eskimos). 
 
 Shaler, Story of our continent, 153-65 (a good general survey of the aborigines). 
 
 Written Work. 
 
 1. Tell about the Aztecs. 
 
 2. Tell about the Indians whom the Pilgrims found. 
 
 3. Tell something about the western Indians. 
 
 4. Tell something about the Eskimos. 
 
 2. South of the United States the people are of Spanish blood; north of 
 tJie United States they are of Englisli, nith some French. The people of 
 the United States are a mixture of all the races of the earth, but they speak 
 the English language. 
 
 This topic may here be treated in a brief and general way, since its con- 
 tent will be covered more in detail in the later topics. The lessons should 
 leave a clear conception in the pupil's mind of a region south of us which is 
 characteristically Spanish, a region on the north which is just as character- 
 istically English ; and finally our own people, a motley of races, but bound 
 together by certain distinctive ideals and making common use of the 
 English tongue.
 
 8o teachers' handbook of geography. 
 
 PUPILS' READINGS: 
 
 King, Second Book, 263-9 (people of Mexico), 189-92 (the Canadian provinces), 198-206 
 (Canadian cities). 
 
 The wide world, 108-13 (boys of Mexico). 
 
 Starr, 17-23 (people of Mexico). 
 
 By land and sea, 102-7, 1 10-12 (people of Mexico). 
 
 Miln, 222-36 (Canadian outdoor life). 
 
 Children of the world, 202-6 (outdoor sports of Canada). 
 
 George, q-93 (cities of Canada). 
 
 Tarr & ilcMurry, Second Book, 381-92 (the Spanish republics), 351-6 (Canada, in gen- 
 eral), 366-71 (cities of Canada). 
 
 King, Third Book, 154-69 (New York City), 195-214 (Philadelphia). 
 
 Dodge, 23-6 (Greater New York), 30-2 (centers of life), 33-6 (commercial centers), 36-40 
 (agricultural centers). 
 
 Our country east, 200-4 (Provincetown). 
 
 Carpenter, 91-9 (historic Boston). 
 
 Carroll, Third Book, 203-11 (historic Boston). 
 
 Smith, 40-7 (in Boston), 96-101, 155-63 (people of Mississippi Valley). 
 
 King, Fourth Book, ,87-106 (historic Boston, etc.). 
 
 Our country west, 193-9 (the people of New Mexico), 203-7 (life in Dakota). 
 
 TEACHER'S ADDITIONAL REFERENCE: 
 
 Herbertson, 30-2 (Newfoundland fishermen), 55-7 (Canadian farmers), 57-9 (the French 
 
 Canadians), 134-6 (^Missouri towns and farms), 117-23 (American cities). 
 Chisholm, 370-9 (cities and people of Canada). 
 Adams, 36-8 (backward conditions in Spanish south). 
 
 Redway s Advanced geography, 34 (density of population). 41-3 (features of large cities). 
 Brigham, 66-9 (the literary side of New England). 
 
 Written Work. 
 
 1. Describe the people in the portion of North America south of the 
 
 United States. 
 
 2. Describe the people of the region north of the United States. 
 
 3. Show, in a general way, how the people of the United States differ from 
 
 those of other nations. 
 
 Text-book Review. 
 
 The pertaining material in the text-book is now to lie used as a summary 
 and review. 
 
 Redway .Vdvanced geography, 47-9, 57. 
 
 Frye's .Advanced geography, 61-4, 130-33 (the pertaining material;. 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Second Book, 97-107. 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Introductory geography, 140. 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE NORTH A.M ERICA. 
 
 THE SPANISH SOUTH. 
 
 ^lexico and Central America are here grouped as one characteristic area. 
 Read " Note on Method." p. 53. 
 
 Formal (jeography of the Region. 
 
 Use the blackboard map of North America (or preferably draw a separate 
 mass map of the region), in conjunction with the political map in the text- 
 book. Teach, by various interesting drills. '^ the following locations, together 
 with the oral and written spelling concerned. 
 
 Mexico, (Juatemala, Ihmduras, Nicaragua, Salvador, Costa Rica. 
 
 United States, Panama. 
 
 Pacific Ocean, (lulf of Mexico, Caribbean Sea. West Indies. Rio Grande 
 River. 
 
 *Scc note on drills, p. 50.
 
 THE COXTIXEXT OF NORTH AMERICA. 8 1 
 
 Test. 
 
 The correct filling of an outline map (see foot-note, p. 14). 
 
 Lesson Units. 
 
 I. Here lived ]\Iontezuma and the Aztecs. 2. Here came the gold-seeking 
 Cortez, and overthrew the Aztecs for all time. 3. This region is a high 
 plateau, flanked by torrid plains. It has three distinct climates, and is a 
 land of volcanoes and earthquakes. 4. The people are dark-skinned, cour- 
 teous, and easy-going ; they eat tortillas and red pepper, and live in adobe 
 houses. 5. This region produces many useful things, but is best known for 
 its silver, coffee, and bananas. 
 
 I. Here lizcd Montczuiiia and the Aztecs. 
 
 Do not spend any time here on the Toltecs, or pre-Aztec races. Aim 
 merely to implant a clear notion of the Aztecs themselves, as an aboriginal 
 race, occupying the region when the Spaniards came. 
 
 PUPILS' READINGS: 
 
 Pratt, Cortez and Montezuma, 3-11 (the Aztecs). 
 
 Charles ]McMurry, 187-9, 199--04 (the Aztecs). 
 
 Pratt, America's story, 51-6 ( ^lontezuma). 
 
 Winterburn^ 46-54 ( ^lontezuma and the Aztecs). 
 
 Johonnot, Stories of other lands, 20-28 (Montezuma and the Aztecs). 
 
 TEACHER'S ADDITIONAL REFERENCE: 
 
 Eggleston, ilontezuma, 11-33 (^lontezuma and the Aztecs). 
 
 Written Work. 
 
 1. Describe the country in which the Aztecs lived. 
 
 2. To what extent were the Aztecs civilized ? Tell why you think so. 
 
 3. Tell what you have learned about Alontezuma. 
 
 2. Here came the gold-seeking Cortes, and orert/irez^' the Aztecs for all 
 time. 
 
 One lesson will be sufficient. Keep in mind that it is, after all, geography 
 and not history that we are teaching. Bring out the tragic aspect of the 
 episode in which the Aztec regime perished from the earth and yielded 
 forever to a European ideal. 
 
 PUPILS' READINGS: 
 
 Pratt, Cortez and Montezuma, 13-95 (the conquest by Cortez). 
 
 Chas. McMurry, 187-216 (the conquest by Cortez). 
 
 Pratt, .America's story, 56-7 (the coming of Cortez). 
 
 Winterburn, 43-56 (Cortez and Montezuma). 
 
 Hall, 212-15 'the coming of Cortez). 
 
 Johonnot, Stories of other lands, 20-28 (Cortez and Montezuma). 
 
 TEACHER'S ADDITIONAL REFERENCE: 
 
 Eggleston, 49-385 (the detailed story: fascinating, but not easily broken up into sep- 
 arate readings). 
 
 Written \\'ork. 
 
 1. Tell about the coming of Cortez. 
 
 2. Tell how he gained control of the Aztecs.. 
 
 3. Tell about the death of Montezuma. 
 
 r
 
 82 teachers' handbook of geography. 
 
 3. Tills region is a high plateau, Hanked by torrid plains. It has three 
 distinct climates, and is a land of volcanoes and earthquakes. 
 
 Teach about the low coast lands^ with their fevered chmate, impossible 
 for the white man ; the interior plateau, so high as to have a cool and bracing 
 atmosphere; and the transitional climate, halfway up the slopes, where it is 
 always spring. " Nine tenths of the people live on the plateau." Associate 
 the notion of volcanoes and earthquakes with this region, and locate Popo- 
 catepetl. 
 
 Fig.io. Profile of Mexico (for teaching the three vertical climates). 
 
 Draw a profile of Mexico on the blackboard (Fig. 10), and, in the course 
 of the lesson, have the pupils point out, upon it, the tierra callcnte, tierra 
 tcmplada, and tierra fria. 
 
 PUPILS' READINGS: 
 
 Carpenter, 331-4 (the three climates). 
 
 Tarr & MciMurry, Second Book, 378-80 (the three climates), 384-6 (the dry plateau). 
 
 King, Second Book, 257-62 (the three zones). 
 
 Johonnot, Reader. 49-52 (earthquakes). 
 
 Rupert, 115-21 (climbing the plateau), 121-7 (climbing Popocatepetl). 
 
 Dodge, 154-7 (volcanoes and lava), 158-63 (earthquakes). 
 
 Herbcrtson, Central and South America, 35-7 (the plateau in Guatemala). 
 
 Herbertson, North America, 203-8 (mountains of Mexico), 208-g (the Sierra JNIadre), 210-11 
 
 (volcanoes), 211-14 (the three zones), 219-21 (climbing the plateau). 
 Shaler, Story of our continent, 259 (Central American earthquakes). 
 
 TEACHER'S ADDITIONAL REFERENCE: 
 
 Ballou, Aztec land. 
 
 Ballon, Footprints. 
 
 Stoddard. Lecture, Mexico. 
 
 Vincent, In and out of Central America. 
 
 .Shaler. As()ccts, 13-45 (earthquakes in general). 
 
 Chisholm, 398-400. 
 
 Written Work. 
 
 1. Tell about the highlands and lowlands of this region. 
 
 2. Tell about the three climates. 
 
 3. Tell about the volcanoes and earthquakes. 
 
 4. The people ore dark-skinned, courteous, and easy-going; they eat tor- 
 tillas and red pepper, and live in adobe houses. 
 
 Dwell upon the indolent, procrastinating life, the spirit of inanana: 
 " We'll (l(j it to-morrow." Associate it with the sultry, indulgent climate 
 which prevails throughout the lowlands. Note the suave courtesy of these 
 people, but note also that it is in some measure empty and formal. Bring 
 out their picturesquencss in dress and social customs, so unlike our own. 
 
 PUPILS' READINGS: 
 
 Starr, 17-23 (people of Mexico). 
 
 Coc, 197-215 (customs and houses). 
 
 King. Second Book, 253-6 (citv of ycra Cruz), 277-85 (city of .>icxico), 26976 (Mexican 
 
 farmers), 263-9 (people of Mexico). 
 The wide world, 108-13 (boys of Mexico). 
 Tarr & McMurry, Second Book, 381-2 (food and homes), 387-9 (cities and people). 38992 
 
 (the lilllc republics). 
 Schwatka, 23-4, 44-6, loo-i, 146-9, 157-69 (dress, food, customs, etc.). 
 By land antl sea, 102-7, 110-12 (people and customs, Mexico). 
 
 Rupert. ! I 1-17 (the effect of the railroad), 119-20 (odd customs), 131-3 (Guatemala). 
 Strange lands near home, 16-43 (odd Mexican customs).
 
 THE CONTINENT OF NORTH AMERICA. 83 
 
 Herbertson, Central and South America, 38-40, 49-52 (people and scenery, Central America). 
 Herbertson, North America, 217-19 (poverty of the peons), 221-2 (city of Mexico). 
 George, 9-30, 92-8 (people and cities of Mexico), 33-48, 74-9 (scenes in Mexico City), 48- 
 
 59 (the poor peons in their homes), 60-2 (tortillas), 62-9 (Mexican children), 69-74 
 
 (amusements), 79-82 (a hacienda), 83-106 (traveling in Mexico). 
 Miln, 348-67 (children of Mexico). 
 Carroll, Second Book, 47-76 (Mexican customs). 
 Carpenter, 327-30 (dress, customs, houses), 334 (farmers), 336-45 (odd customs), 34552 
 
 (scenes in Central America). 
 Our country west, 183-9 (the people of New Mexico), 189-92 (adobe houses), 249-51 
 
 (cactus). 
 
 TEACHER'S ADDITIONAL REFERENCE: 
 
 Vincent, In and out of Central America. 
 
 Stoddard, Lecture, Mexico. 
 
 Ballou, Aztec land. 
 
 Ballou, Footprints. 
 
 Smith, A white umbrella in Mexico. 
 
 Blake & Sullivan, Mexico. 
 
 Adams' Commercial geography. 
 
 Written Work. 
 
 1. Tell about the dress and houses of the people. 
 
 2. Tell about their industry and their manners. 
 
 3. Describe the queer foods. 
 
 4. Tell about the peons. 
 
 5. This region produces many useful things, but is best knoivn for its 
 silver, coffee, and bananas. 
 
 Mexico should be associated in the pupil's mind with vast deposits of 
 silver, crudely worked. The coffee needs less emphasis, since we shall want 
 to identify it more particularly with Brazil. The maguey should receive 
 special notice as a unique and characteristic Mexican plant. 
 
 PUPILS' READINGS: 
 
 Silver — 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Second Book, 386. 
 
 Schwatka, 75-6. 
 
 Herbertson, North America, 216-17. 
 
 Carpenter, 343. 
 Mahogany^ 
 
 Kirby, Fireside, 79-80. 
 
 Herbertson, Central and South America, 42 5. 
 Coffee — 
 
 Rupert, i28--i0. 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Second Book, 384-5. 
 
 Allen, 79-97. 
 
 Chamberlain, Fed, 104-12. 
 
 Carpenter, 332-4. 
 
 Beal, 256-61. 
 
 George, 58-60. 
 Bananas — 
 
 Chamberlain, Fed, 146-54. 
 
 Allen, 23-42. 
 Maguey — 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Second Book, 382-3. 
 
 George, 30-33- 
 
 Carroll. Second Book, 73-4. 
 
 Carpenter, 335-6. 
 
 King, Second Book, 271-2. 
 
 Coe, 181-5. 
 
 An especially good account of the maguey is given in Farmer: A story-book of science, 
 pp. 115-21. Lothrop & Co. 
 Cocoa — Kirby, Fireside, 88-92. 
 
 TEACHER'S ADDITIONAL REFERENCE: 
 
 Ballou, Aztec land. 
 
 Stoddard, Lecture, Mexico. 
 
 Vincent, In and out of Central America. 
 
 Written Work. ; 
 
 1. Name three Or four of the most important products of this region. 
 
 2. Tell about Mexican silver, and the methods of mining it.
 
 84 TEACHERS' HANDBOOK OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 3. Tell where the bananas come from and how they grow. 
 
 4. Describe the maguey plant and its uses. 
 
 Text-book Review. 
 
 The pertaining material in the text-book is now to be used as a summary 
 and review. 
 
 Red\vaj''s Advanced geography, 97-9. 
 
 Frye's Advanced geography, 132-4. 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Second i>ook, 378-91. 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Introductory geography, 195-8. 
 
 ARCTIC AMERICA. 
 (Read " Note on ^Method," p. 53.) 
 Formal Geography of the Region. 
 
 Use a blackboard map of the region, in conjunction with the political map 
 in the text-book. By various interesting drills * teach the following loca- 
 tions, together with the oral and written spelling concerned. 
 
 North Pole, Arctic Circle. 
 
 Arctic Ocean. Hudson r>ay. Bering Strait, Bering Sea. 
 
 Greenland, Labrador, Alaska. 
 
 A'ukon and ^Mackenzie rivers. 
 
 Test. 
 
 The correct filling of an outline map (see foot-note, p. 14). 
 
 Lesson L'nits. 
 
 I. This is the land of the fur-clad Eskimo. 2. It is the land of the long 
 day and night, of the aurora and the midnight sim. 3. Here are treeless, 
 snowbound wastes, and icebergs in the sea. 4. Here live the seal, the 
 walrus, and the polar bear. 5. Here men sought the northwest passage and 
 the pole. 
 
 I. This is flic laud of the fur-clad Eskiiuu. 
 
 Work out an intimate picture of a simple-minded, peaceable race, few in 
 numbers, very lonesome, ignorant and unwashed. Dwell on the lack of 
 su|jplies at hand, either for construction purposes or for variety in food. 
 
 I'UI'IL.S' READINGS: 
 
 Chamberlain. Clothed, 12-20 (Eskimo customs). 
 
 Schwatka, 11-43, '42-7, 202-5 't'le Eskimo, and how his igloo is made), 44-t>5 (Eskimo play- 
 things), 111-15 (Eskimo candy), 66-79. 93-100, 116-31 (coasting and other games), 132- 
 41 (Eskimo tools), 151-3, 194-9 (reindeer hunt), 154-9 (seal hunt), 160-70 (fishing), 
 34-9, 80-92, 147-51 (the Eskimo dogs), 171-4 (Eskimo clothes). 175--'"' 'daily life of 
 the Eskimo). 199-200 (catching ducks), 182-8 (adrift on the ice). 
 
 Shaw, 62-9 (Greenland Eskimos). 
 
 Miln, 41-53 (the Eskimos). • 
 
 Starr, 6-12 (the Ivskimos). 
 
 Carpenter, North .\merica, 301-2 (Eskimos). 
 
 Herhertsnn, 289 (hospital>lc Eskimos). 
 
 lohonnot. Reader, 101-5 (an igloo). 
 
 The wide world, 114-22 (Eskimo life). 
 
 King, First Hook, 177-85 (Eskimos). 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Second Book, 372-5 ( Eskimos). 
 
 Kellogg, 103-11 (Greenland Eskimos). 
 
 Stockton, 241-64 (Eskimo life). 
 
 C.iiprnlcr, Australia and islands, 375-80 ((ircenland Eskimos). 
 
 Aii'ln '.'.s. Seven little sisters, 9-22 (Agoonack). 
 
 'See note on drills, p. 50.
 
 THE COXTIXEXT OF NORTH AMERICA. 85 
 
 Andrews, Each and all, 9-25 (Agoonack). 
 
 Our countrj' west, 26-30 (the Alaskan Eskimos), 57-64 (their ways of hunting). 
 
 Scandlin, 13-15, 30-3, 66-7, 85-8, 110-25 (Eskimo stories). 
 
 Muller (whole book, for third and fourth giades). 
 
 Kirby, Fireside, 18-20 (dog sledge), 27-9 (Greenlanders), 22-4 (snow house). 
 
 Horton, 40-44 (Eskimo ways), 113-16 (meeting the Eskimos), 37-9 (sledging on the ice). 
 
 Wade, 9-17 (an Eskimo baby), 18-27 (Eskimo clothes), 28-37 (games), 38-48 (Eskimo 
 dogs), 49-62 (kyack and harpoon), 63-73, 81-90 (hunting seals), 74-9 (Eskimo feast), 
 81-90, 91-3 (Eskimo Christmas), 97-9 (building the igloo), 100-3 (when summer comes), 
 107-10 (moving time). 
 
 Mary Smith (the whole book, for primary children). 
 
 TEACHER'S ADDITIONAL REFERENCE: 
 
 Oxley, 173-90 (an intimate description of the Eskimos). 
 Ballou, Footprints. 
 
 Written Work. 
 
 1. Describe the Eskimo's dress and his appearance. 
 
 2. Describe liis liouse. 
 
 3. Tell about his food and his daily life. 
 
 4. Tell about his hunting and his way of traveling. 
 
 2. It is the land of fhc !ou^ day and night, of the aurora and the mid- 
 night sitn. 
 
 This subject should here be presented in its spectacular, or wonder aspect, 
 alone. The complicated explanation, based on the inclination of the earth's 
 axis and the annual revolution, is best left for a special course in an advanced 
 grade. 
 
 PUPILS' READINGS: 
 
 W^ade, 57-8 (the aurora). 
 
 Stockton, 247-9 (the jurora). 
 
 Andrews, Each and all, 12-13, i9 (the aurora, etc.). 
 
 Johonnot, Reader, 105-7 'the aurora). 
 
 Frost, 115-16, 121 (the aurora). 
 
 Children of the world, 236-7 (the aurora, etc.). 
 
 Kirby, Fireside, 14-18 (zones, aurora, etc.). 
 
 Schwatka, 9-1 1 (the Arctic land). 
 
 Scandlin, 60-1 (departure of the sun), 124-5 (return of the sun), 36-7 (the long, desolate 
 
 night). 
 Horton, 3-6 (long day and night). 
 Herbertson, Europe, 17 (the midnight sun). 
 
 Pratt, Northern Europe. 65-71. 85-6 (midnight sun, aurora, etc.). 
 Carpenter, Europe, 163-4, I73S (midnight sun). 
 Coe, Modern Europe, 109-10 (the midnight sun). 
 Mary Smith (the whole book, for primary grades). 
 DuChaillu. Land of long night, 73-6 (good-by to the sun), 76 (aurora), 109-12 (return 
 
 of the sun). 
 
 TEACHER'S ADDITIONAL REFERENCE: 
 
 DuChaillu, land of long night, 36-9 (the long night and its cause). 
 Redway's Advanced geography, 23 (long day and night explained). 
 DuChaillu, land of midnight sun, \'ol. I, 2, 61, 63-4; Vol, II, 1-2, 38, 46-7. 
 Ballou, Footprints. 
 
 Written \\'ork. 
 
 1. Describe the long Arctic night, and the long day. Tell about the mid- 
 
 night sun. 
 
 2. Describe the aurora, and tell about its usefulness to the people of the 
 
 far north. 
 
 3. Here are treeless, snoii'bound wastes, and icebergs in the sea. 
 
 Build up a vivid picture of the vast solitude of snow and ice, where the 
 green of vegetation is rarely seen ; a white earth and a gray sky, with nothing 
 vertical in the landscape except the icebergs ; a picture utterly drear\' and 
 forlorn to all save the Eskimo.
 
 86 teachers' handbook of geography. 
 
 PUPILS' READINGS: 
 
 Mary Smith (whole book, for primary grades). 
 
 Johonnot Reader, 107-12 (snowland). 
 
 Rupert, 100-2 (the intense cold). 
 
 Frost, 120-22 (snow and ice). 
 
 By land and sea, 195-9 (about icebergs). 
 
 Kellogg, 95-159 (the Arctic snows). 
 
 Tarr &: McMurry, Second Book, 375-6 (Arctic landscape), 13 (the Greenland glaciers). 
 
 King, Second Book. 6-12 (the frozen north). 
 
 Johonnot, Stories of other lands, 220-32 (story of Dr. Kane). 
 
 Kirby, Fireside, 34-8 (fast in the ice). 
 
 Horton, 1 10-13 (adrift in the ice). 
 
 Scandlin, 59, 62 (the white, silent plain), 22 (icebergs and floe ice). 
 
 Schwatka, 202-12 (the Arctic cold), 182-8 (adrift on the fioe ice), 19-20, 67, 182-8, 208-12 
 (the Arctic snow land). 
 
 Stockton, 250-5 (Eskimo seal-catching), 258-62 (adventure with a polar bear). 
 
 Carpenter, 299-300 (glaciers and icebergs). 
 
 Horton, 11-13 (icebergs), 27-9 (fast in the ice), 34-5 (icebergs), 72-7 (adrift in the 
 pack ice), 80-6 (bleak Grinnell land), 110-13 (adrift on the ice), 117-20 (sledging 
 over the ice), 128-38 (winter in the Arctic), 110-3 (when summer comes). 
 
 Dodge, 121-32 (glaciers and icebergs). 
 
 Shaler, Our continent, 79-80, 126-7 (the Greenland ice-cap, and icebergs). 
 
 Herbertson, 18-19 (the tundra), 29 (the Greenland ice-cap). 
 
 TEACHER'S ADDITIONAL REFERENCE: 
 Ballou, Footprints, 375-81. 
 Redway, New basis, 69. 
 
 Redway s Advanced geography, 28 (tundras explained). 
 Tarr & ^[cMurry, Utah Supplement, 16-19 (glaciers described). 
 Dryer, 108-21 (glaciers and ice-caps), 270-1 (life of an iceberg). 
 Davis, 65-7 (ice in the ocean), 324-30 (glaciers and ice-caps). 
 
 Gilbert & Brigham, 128-32 (the Greenland ice-cap, and icebergs), 119-28 (glaciers in 
 general). 
 
 Written Work. 
 
 1. Write a little account of the Arctic landscape. 
 
 2. Describe the birth of an iceberg. 
 
 3. What is the difference between icebergs and floe ice? 
 
 4. Describe a glacier. 
 
 4. Here live the seal, the walrus, and the polar bear. 
 
 Besides the mere wonder aspect of the polar beasts, bring out the absolute 
 dependence of the Eskimo upon them ; upon the dogs for transportation, and 
 the wild animals for food and clothing. 
 
 PUPILS' READINGS: 
 
 Chamberlain, Clothed, 147-53 (the I'ribilofI seals). 
 
 Carpenter, 303-6 (seals of Alaska). 
 
 Stockton, 250-5 (Eskimo seal-catching), 258-62 (adventure with a polar bear). 
 
 Our country west, 57-64 (the sea otter), 31-5 (reindeer in Alaska), 49-52 (the Pribiloff 
 
 seals), 53-6 (sea-lion hunt). 
 Schwatka, 90-1 (wolves), loo-iio (musk ox and polar bear), 151-3, 194-9 (reindeer hunt). 
 
 154-9 (seal hunt), 160-70 (Eskimo fishing), 199-200 (catching ducks), 34-9, 81-90, 147-8 
 
 (dogs). 
 Horton, 48-50 (seal, bear, walrus), 108-9 (killing seals), 124 (walrus hunt), 141-2 (Peary's 
 
 dogs). 
 W^adc, 38-48 (Eskimo dogs), 63-73 (seals), 81-90 (wolves and seals), 93-6 (polar bear), 
 
 103-7 (reindeer). 
 Scandlin, 46-8 (Nannook, the bear), 110-15 (a walrus hunt). 
 Starr, 10-12 (dogs). 
 
 Andrews, Each and all, 2-6, 7-8 (dogs, etc.). 
 Kirby, Fireside, 18-30 (various Arctic animals). 
 King, Second Book, 14-20 (whaling), 185-6 (seal killing). 
 Tarr & McMurry, Second Book, 361 (seals). 
 King, Fifth Book, 102-5 (Alaska seal-fisheries). 
 Carroll, 'J'hird Book, 131-2 (seals of Alaska). 
 Jordan, Matka and Kotik (a story of seals, for children). 
 Jordan, True Talcs, 55-78 (story of a baby seal), 80-2 (the little blue fox), 111-12 (Arctic 
 
 birds). 
 DuChaillu, Land of the long night, 155-69, 257-63 (Arctic animals). 
 Mary Smith (whole book, for primary grades). 
 
 TEACHER'S ADDITIONAL REFERENCE: 
 Adams, 88-90 (furs). 
 
 I'cary, Josephine, the snow baby. Frederick Stokes. (.\ delightful account of .Vrctic life, 
 as experienced by a little white girl).
 
 THE COXTIXEXT OF NORTH AMERICA. 87 
 
 Written Work. 
 
 1. Tell about the Eskimo's dogs. 
 
 2. Tell how the seals live. 
 
 3. Tell about the polar bears. 
 
 4. Name as many of the other Arctic animals as you remember. 
 
 5. Of what use are the Arctic animals to white men? 
 
 6. Of what use are they to the Eskimos? 
 
 5. Here men sought the nortlizvcst passage and the pole. 
 
 Bring out the fact that the northwest passage, having finally been found, 
 proved useless for commerce ; and that recent Arctic explorations have been 
 for purely scientific interests, in a search for the pole. 
 
 PUPILS' READINGS: 
 
 Johonnot, Stories of other lands, 220-32 (story of Dr. Kane). 
 
 Scandlin, 23-9, 34-83, 89-95, 100-125 (Hans with Dr. Kane). 
 
 Schwatka, 202-12 (wintering in the Arctic land). 
 
 Ingersoll, 77-100 (various attempts on the northern passage), 90-1 (search for the pole), 
 93-4 (the northeast passage found), 94-5 (sad story of the Teannette). 
 
 Horton, first frontispiece, a good polar map; second frontispiece, picture of the aurora, 
 9-13 (Franklin in the Arctic), 21-4 (Franklin's second journey), 25-31 (fate of the 
 Franklin expedition), 32-9 (winter in the Arctic), 51-8 (traveling on the ice), 59-71 
 (the Arctic coasts of Asia), 72-80 (loss of the .Teannette), 81-6 (Greeley among 
 the glaciers), 87-93 (rescue of Greeley), 1 10-13 (floating on the ice), 122-32 (Nan- 
 sen's search for the pole), 149-53 (Andre and his balloon). 
 
 Shaler, Story of our continent, 250-1 (search for the northwest passage). 
 
 TEACHER'S ADDITIONAL REFERENCE: 
 
 Oxley, 62-70 (search for the northwest passage). 
 
 Written W^ork. 
 
 1. Why was a northwest passage desired? Why did it prove useless, when 
 
 discovered ? 
 
 2. What are the present routes of commerce, for want of a northwest 
 
 passage? What far shorter route shall we have by and by? 
 
 3. Describe any one of the Arctic expeditions by Greely, Kane, De 
 
 Long or Nansen. 
 
 Text-book Review. 
 
 The pertaining material in the text-book is now to be used as a summary 
 and review. 
 
 Redway's Advanced geography, 27, 95-7. 
 
 Frye's Advanced geography, 28, 129. 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Second Book, 77-81, 13, 372-6. 
 
 Tarr & Mc^Iurry, Introductory geography, 193. 
 
 THE WEST INDIES. 
 
 (Read " Note on ^Method," p. 53.) 
 
 Formal Geography of the Region. 
 
 Use a blackboard map of these islands, in conjunction with the political 
 map in the text-book. The blackboard map should show the adjacent lands 
 of North America, in order to localize the region now being studied. By 
 various interesting drills * teach the following locations, together with the 
 oral and written spelling concerned : 
 
 *See note on drills, p. 50.
 
 88 teachers' handbook of geography. 
 
 Cuba. Haiti. Porto Rico, Jamaica. Bahama Islands, Antilles. 
 Atlantic Ocean, Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean Sea. 
 Florida, Yucatan. Havana. 
 
 Test. 
 
 The correct filling- of an outline map (see foot-note, p. 14). 
 
 Lesson Units. 
 
 I. Cuba, the land of sugar-cane and the volante ; impoverished bv her war 
 with Spain, and lately free. 2. Porto Rico, a ward of the United States. 
 
 3. In Haiti are the twin black republics, with their ceaseless civil wars. 
 
 4. Jamaica is a peaceful British colony, where bananas grow. 
 
 I. Cuba, the land of siti^ar-caiic and the volante; iinpoz'erished b\ her 
 zi'or li'ith Spain, and lately free. 
 
 Preface the lessons on Cuba with a little general description of the 
 archipelago. 
 
 Bring out the fact that the original Indian population oi Cuba has 
 entirely disappeared, and that the island is now thickly peopled by a race 
 of Spanish blood. Close the study with a short description of the Spanish 
 War, showing how sorely the Cubans were pressed, and how the United 
 States intervened in their behalf. 
 
 PUPI LS' K E.\l) 1 X G3 : 
 
 King, Second Book, 288-303 (tlie archipelago in general). 
 
 Carpenter, -\ustralia and islands, 319-20 (West Indies in general), 357-62 (Cuba in gen- 
 eral), 362-6 (Havana), 367-70 (on the plantations), 370-5 (the Bahamas and I5er- 
 mudas). 
 
 Allen, 7-22 (the hot belt), 23-42 (banaras), 79-97 (coffee). 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Second Book, 330-36 (Cuba described), 79-98, 384-5 (in coffee land), 
 393-400 (West Indies in general). 
 
 Miln, 259-66 (the Cubans). 
 
 Kirby, Fireside, 84-8 (sugar-cane). 
 
 Carroll, Second Book, 163-73 (nucer Havana), 175-86 (in Cuba). 
 
 Carroll, Third Book, 215-22 (in Cuba). 
 
 Chamberlain, Fed, 146-54 (bananas), 104-12 (coffee). 
 
 Rupert, 128-30 (coffee). 
 
 Carpenter, North .\merica, 332-4 (coffee). 
 
 Beal, 256-61 (coffee). 
 
 George, Little journeys, Central .\mcrica, 58-60 (coffee). 
 
 George, Little journeys, Porto Rico, 3-78 (numerous short readings on I'orto Rico). 
 
 George, Little Journeys, Cuba, 3-77 (many short readings on Cuba). 
 
 Kellogg. 187-90 (the archipelago descrilicti), 190-2 (Cuba in general), 193-200 (Havana), 
 195-6 (houses), 197-9 'the volante), 201-6 (on the plantations). 
 
 Wade, Cuban cousin, 9-16 (fear of the .Spaniards), 16-36 (hiding from the Spaniards), 
 37-44 (the volante, and adobe houses), 45-52 (how sugar is made). 53-71 (life on 
 the plantations), 72-80 (the people whom Columbus fovmd), 81-96 (how the Ameri- 
 cans fought for Cuba), 97-106 (in Havana). 
 
 Seabury, 84-98 (sugar, etc.). 
 
 TEACHER'S ADDITIONAL REFERENCE: 
 Redway's Advanced geography, iii, 99-100. 
 Adams, 177-81, 383-7- 
 Davis, Cuba in w-artime. 
 
 Herbcrtson. Central and South .\merica, xvii-xviii (Cuba summ.Trizcd ) , 2-8 (short read- 
 ings on Cuba). 
 Ford, Tropical America (West Indian waters). 
 \'inccnt, Around and :ibf>nt South .\mcricn (West Indian waters). 
 
 Written Work. 
 
 1. Xame the four main islands of the West Indies. 
 
 2. Tell about the climate, people and products of Cuba. 
 
 3. Tell what you have learned about Havana. 
 
 4. Tell about the Cuban War, and how our country helped.
 
 THE CONTINENT OF NORTH AMERICA. 89 
 
 2. Porto Rico, a zcard of the United States. 
 
 Point out that the Porto Ricans are identical in race with the Cubans; 
 that Porto Rico is one of .-the most densely populated areas of the earth ; 
 and that, while Cuba is now an independent republic, the governino- of 
 Porto Rico is yet in the hands of the United States. 
 
 PUPILS' READINGS: 
 
 Tarr & .McMurry, Second P>ook, 330-6, 393 (Porto Rico described). 
 
 Kellogg, 220-5 (people and places in Porto Rico). 
 
 Carpenter, Australia and islands, 329-44 (people and places in Porto Rico). 
 
 Wade, Porto Rico cousin (whole book, third to sixth grades). 
 
 Carroll, Second Book, 188-95 (the Porto Ricans). 
 
 Carroll, Third Book, 223-7 (in Porto Rico). 
 
 Greater America, 3-64 (si.x short readings on Porto Rico). 
 
 Seabury, 15-24 (island of Porto Rico), 25-37 (odd sights in San Juan), 37-46 (home life 
 of the peons), 46-54 (cock fighting and carnivals), 54-65 (mountains and caves), 66- 
 76 (rivers and soil), 76-84 (climate and hurricanes), 84-98 (sugar and other products), 
 99-109 (tropical fruits and flowers), 109-16 (forests and mines), 116-23 (animals), 124- 
 52 (towns of Porto Rico), 152-61 (roads), 161-7 (first American census), 167-77 (the 
 schools), 177-81 (the money), 18 1-9 (how the Americans took Porto Rico), 189-99 
 (setting up the new government), 199-215 (historical sketch). 
 
 TEACHER'S ADDITIONAL REFERENCE: 
 
 Redway's Advanced geography, iv. 
 Adams, 168-70. 
 
 Herbertson, Central and South America, xviii (I'orto Rico summarized), 19-20 (short read- 
 ings on Porto Rico). 
 
 Written \\'ork. 
 
 1. Locate and describe the Island of Porto Rico. 
 
 2. Tell who the people are, and about their condition. 
 
 3. Tell about the present government. 
 
 3. /;; //(;/// are the tieiii black republics, with their ceaseless civil z^'ors. 
 
 Even this crudely organized communit\- of blacks (Santo Domingo) was 
 able to throw off the Spanish rule and assert its independence. Here are 
 two negro republics, constantly wasting their substance in petty internal 
 strife. Their governments are upon such a verv unstable basis that foreign 
 powers find it difficult to maintain any regular diplomatic relations. 
 
 PUPILS' READINGS: 
 
 Tarr & ^NIcMurry, Second liook, 395-7 (the people of Haiti). 
 Carpenter, Australia and islands. 344-51 (the shabby black republics). 
 Kellogg, 207-13 (the black republics and their people). 
 
 TEACHER'S ADDITIONAL REFERENCE: 
 Redway's Advanced geography, 100. 
 Herbertson, Central and South America, xviii (Haiti summarized), 15-18 (short readings 
 
 on Haiti). 
 Ford, Tropical America. 
 Vincent, Around and about South America. 
 
 Written Work. 
 
 1. Locate and describe the island of Haiti. 
 
 2. Tell what you have learned about the people. 
 
 4. Jamaica is a peaceful British colony, zchcre bananas grozv. 
 
 It is worth while to contrast the unbroken day dream of existence in this 
 island with the insecurity and ceaseless trouble which have characterized its 
 neighbors. The pupil should remember Jamaica for its bananas and its 
 ginger.
 
 90 teachers' handbook of geography. 
 
 PUPILS' READINGS: 
 
 Carroll, Second Book, 173-5 (bananas). 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Second Book, 394-5 (Jamaica described). 
 Carpenter, Australia and islands, 352-6 (.spices of Jamaica). 
 Kellogg, 213-20 (people and products of Jamaica). ^ 
 Allen, 23-44 (banana land), 45-61 (Jamaica ginger). 
 Chamberlain, l-'ed, 146-54 (bananas). 
 
 TEACHER'S ADDITIONAL REFERENCE: 
 
 Herbertson, xix (Jamaica summarized), 8-15 (short readings on Jamaica). 
 
 Written Work. 
 
 1. Locate the island and describe life in Jamaica. 
 
 2. Name two of the chief products and say how they are grown. 
 
 Text-book Review. 
 
 The pertaining material in the text-book is now to be used as a summary 
 and review. 
 
 Redway's Advanced geography, iii-iv, 99-100. 
 Frye's Advanced geographj-, 160. 
 Tarr & McMurry, Second Book, 330-6, 393-400. 
 Tarr & McMurry, Introductory geography, 197-8. 
 
 ALASKA. 
 
 (Read " Xote on Method," p. 53.) 
 Formal Geography of the Region. 
 
 Draw a blackboard map of Alaska and use it in conjunction with the most 
 detailed map shown in the text-book. By various interesting drills "^^ teach 
 the following locations, together with the oral and written spelling : 
 
 Arctic Ocean, Pacific Ocean, Bering Strait, Bering Sea. 
 
 Alaska, Asia, Canada. 
 
 Yukon River, Muir (llacier. 'Sit. McKinley, ]\It. Logan. 
 
 Sitka, Dawson, Nome. 
 
 Test. 
 
 The correct filling of an outline map (see foot-note, p. 14 j. 
 
 Lesson Units. 
 
 I. Alaska is a land of totem-poles and salmon-fishers. 2. It is a region of 
 highest mountains and stupendous glaciers, with a mild coast climate. 
 3. In Alaska are rich deposits of placer gold. 
 
 I. Alaska is a land of totem-poles and salnioii-Hshers. 
 
 The Arctic side of Alaska, with its Eskimos, was studied under the head 
 of Arctic America. Tlu' region along the Pacific shores is difl'erent in every 
 respect. The natives are Indians, whose tribal lore is recorded in their 
 curious totem-poles. This rugged coast is one of the great salmon-fishing 
 regions of the world. 
 
 rdl'ILS' READINGS: 
 
 r.-irroll, Sccfind Book, 9-46 (totem-poles and Indians). 
 ' irpenter, 302-6 (totem -pules and Indians). 
 
 'ice note on drills, p. 50.
 
 THE CONTINENT OF NORTH AMERICA. 91 
 
 Our country west, 3-11 (stories about Sitka), 12-15 (Indian canoe building), 17-20 (the 
 salmon-fisheries), 45-S (hermits of western Alaska), 49-52 (seal-hunters), 21-; (the 
 Alaskan coast). •* 
 
 King, Fifth Book, 94-101 (Alaska Indians), 92-4 (Sitka). 
 
 Smith, 197-8 (salmon). 
 
 TEACHER'S ADDITIONAL REFERENCE: 
 
 Herbertson, 23-4 (Alaska Indians as fishermen), 28-9 (the more southern Eskimos), ^i-z 
 (forests of Alaska). •' 
 
 Written Work. 
 
 1. Describe the ways of living among the Alaskan IncJians. 
 
 2. Describe the totem-poles and tell what they mean. 
 
 3. Tell about the salmon-fisheries. 
 
 2. It is a region of highest iiioiiiitaiiis and stupendons glaciers, i^'ith a mild 
 coast climate. 
 
 Note Mts. IMcKinley and Logan, the highest two peaks on our continent 
 (respectively 20.500 and 19,500 feet). Take the Muir Glacier as a type of 
 those in Alaska, and review the birth of icebergs, as taught in the topic 
 Arctic America. But do not let this presence of the glaciers obscure the 
 fact that this region has a climate and landscape by no means Arctic. 
 
 PUPILS' READINGS: 
 
 Our country west, 40-3 (volcanoes of Alaska), 21-5 (the Alaskan coast), 31-5 (reindeer 
 
 in Alaska). 
 Carpenter, 298-301 (mountains and glaciers of Alaska). 
 Minna Smith, 195-9 (the vast country). 
 
 King, Fifth Book, 78-91 (mountains and glaciers of Alaska). 
 Carroll, Third Book, 124-9 (the passes over the mountains). 
 Dodge, 121-32 (glaciers and icebergs). 
 
 TEACHER'S ADDITIONAL REFERENCE: 
 
 Shaler, Story of our continent, 87-8 (origin of the islands of Alaska). 
 
 Herbertson, 150-3 (mountains of Alaska). 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Utah Supplement, i6-ig (glaciers described). 
 
 Dryer, 109-21 (Alaskan glaciers, and others). 
 
 Davis, 324-30 (glaciers in general). 
 
 Gilbert and Brigham, 119-32 (glaciers, in Alaska and elsewhere), 72-3 (Yukon River). 
 
 Written Work. 
 
 1. Tell about the mountains of Alaska and name two high peaks. 
 
 2. Tell about the Muir Glacier, and about icebergs. 
 
 3. What are some of the differences between this region and the Arctic 
 
 region ? 
 
 3. In Alaska are rich deposits of placer gold. 
 
 Locate two centers of activity in the Alaska placer mining: one at Cape 
 Nome, where the sands are washed for their gold, and the other in the Yukon 
 basin, centering around Dawson, where the metal is found in nuggets, buried 
 in gravel-beds under the reindeer moss. Bring out the difficulties besetting 
 those pioneers who joined in the first gold rush to the Yukon country; 
 the difficult snowclad passes, the dangerous rivers, etc. While we hear 
 principally of the placer mining of Alaska, there is, on one of the coast 
 islands, one of the richest quartz mines in tfie world — the Treadwell. 
 
 PUPILS' READINGS: 
 
 Carpenter, 307-9 (Yukon gold). 
 
 Our country west, 37-9 (Yukon gold-hunters). 
 
 Horton. 94-103 (the Yukon country).
 
 92 teachers' handbook of geography. 
 
 Carroll, Third Book, 122-31 (the gold fields of Alaska), 124-9 (the passes over the 
 
 mountains). 
 Tarr & McMurry, Second Book, 328-30 (Alaska mining). 
 See, also, the readings on placer mining under Unit 2, Pacific Region, p. 120. 
 
 TEACHER'S ADDITIONAL REFEREXCE: 
 Herbertson, 25-8 (the Yukon River country). 
 
 Written Work. 
 
 1. Describe the gold-niiiiing of Alaska, and locate the two principal 
 
 centers. 
 
 2. Tell about the gold rush to Alaska. 
 
 Text-book Review. 
 
 The pertaining material in the text-book is now to be used as a summary 
 and review. 
 
 Redway's Advanced geography, 91. 
 Erye's Advanced geography, 120-22. 
 Tarr & McMurry, Second Book, 323-30. 
 Tarr & McMurry, First Book, 188-9. 
 
 THE CANADIAN PROVINCES. 
 
 This region includes all of British America except the extreme north, 
 which has already been studied under the caption "Arctic America.'' 
 Read " Note on Method," p. 53. 
 
 Formal Geography of the Region. 
 
 Use a blackboard map of the region, in conjunction with the political map 
 in the text-book. Teach, by various interesting drills,* the following loca- 
 tions, together with the oral and written spelling concerned : 
 
 Provinces of Quebec, Ontario, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Manitoba, 
 British Columbia, Labrador; Newfoundland. 
 
 Cities of Montreal, Quebec, Ottawa, Toronto, Halifax, Winnipeg, Van- 
 couver, Victoria. 
 
 Great Lakes (as a whole j, St. Lawrence l-iivcr. Gulf of St. Lawrence, 
 Hudson Bay, Lake Winnipeg, Rocky Mountains, X'ancouver lskui<l. 
 
 Test. 
 
 The correct filling of an outline map (see foot-note, p. 14). 
 
 Lesson Units. 
 
 I. A southern belt, pcjpulous with progressive whites, who are very much 
 like (nirselves. 2. North of this, a lonesome sub-arctic region, aliandoned to 
 the fur liunter. 
 
 I. ./ southern hell, populous i^'illi progressive :c/iitcs, i^'lio arc I'cry imicli 
 like ourselves. 
 
 This unit should leave the ])iipil with four distinclK' localized ideas con- 
 cerning the region: Xewfcnindland is notably a eoinmnnilx of poor fish- 
 <-rmen. The tliickly ])o]niIated district extend> from (juebec westward to 
 
 *Scc note on drills, p. 50.
 
 THE CONTINENT OF NORTH AMERICA. 93 
 
 Lake Huron. Between the Great Lakes and the Rockies He the prairie 
 lands of Canada, including the famous wheat region of Manitoha. The 
 far west is the region of stupendous scenery, soft climate and rapidly increas- 
 ing population. 
 
 PUPILS' READINGS: 
 
 Carpenter, 315-16 (Newfoundland Banks), 316-27 (cities of Canada). 
 
 Shaler, Story of our continent, 178 (the St. Lawrence X'alley as a place to live). 
 
 King, Second Book, 146-58 (St. Lawrence and Niagara), 159-64 (climate of Canada), 165-9 
 
 (lumbering), 177-85 (Newfoundland fisheries), 189-92 (the provinces), 192-8 (the 
 
 prairies), 198-206 (Canadian cities), 207-21 (Newfoundland), 222-31 (Nova Scotia 
 
 and New Brunswick), 232-50 (the (Tanadian Rockies). 
 George, 9-93 (the cities of Canada). 
 Tarr & McMurry, Second Book, 351-6 (Canada in general), 356-8 (lumbering), 358-60 
 
 (fishing), 362-5 (farming), 366-71 (cities of Canada). 
 Eggleston, Stories of American life, 51-6 (the St. Lawrence). 
 
 Kellogg, 160-5 (Newfoundland), 165-72 (Cape Breton and Prince Edward Islands). 
 Miln, 222-36 (Canadian outdoor life). 
 Children of the w^orld, 202-6 (outdoor sports of Canada). 
 
 TEACHER'S ADDITIONAL REFERENCE: 
 
 Herbertson, xxiii-xxiv (the provinces summarized), 30-2 (Newfoundland fishermen), 32-7 
 (short readings on Nova Scotia and New Brunswick), 37-40 (climate of Canada), 
 40-8 (St. Lawrence and Ottawa rivers), 70-3 (the Red and Saskatchewan rivers), 42, 
 45-6, 49 (Quebec, Ottawa, Montreal), 50-5 (Canadian lumbering), 55-7 (Canadian 
 farmers), 57-9 (the French Canadians, or "Habitants"), 59-62 (forest fires in Can- 
 ada), 62-4 (fruit farms in Ontario), 65 (the Canadian "Soo"), 65-8 (Niagara Falls), 
 68-72 (the wheat prairies of the west), 74-7 (the Canadian Rockies), 77-81 (British 
 Columbia). 
 
 Stoddard, Lecture, Canada. 
 
 Adams' Commercial geography. 
 
 Chisholm, 370-9. 
 
 Oxley, 145-56 (building the Canadian Pacific Railway), 197-219 (lumber camps). 
 
 Written Work. 
 
 1. Tell about the people of Newfoundland. 
 
 2. What part of Canada is most thickly populated ? 
 
 3. Tell something about the Canadian cities. 
 
 4. Describe the region between the Great Lakes and the Rockies. 
 
 5. Describe the British Columbia region. 
 
 2. Noi'tJi of this, a lonesome sub-arctic region, abandoned to the fur 
 hunter. 
 
 Between the land of Eskimos and icebergs on the north and the populous 
 and civilized belt of the south, there is a vast middle region, including the 
 basin of Hudson Bay and the southern part of the ^Mackenzie basin. Here, 
 in this untamed wilderness, is one of the greatest game preserves yet remain- 
 ing on earth. In the olden time it was partly exploited by the Hudson 
 Bay Company, and to-day it is still one of the world's great fur countries. 
 Its scant population is made up of trappers and traders. 
 
 PUPILS' READINGS: 
 
 Chamberlain, Clothed, 129-46 (fur bearers of Hudson Bay district). 
 
 Carpenter, 310-14 (the wilds of the Hudson Bay region). 
 
 Horton, 14-20 (Franklin in the Hudson Bay country). 
 
 Rupert, 93-9 (animals of the fur country). 
 
 King, Second Book, 170-7 (fur-trappers of Hudson Bay region). 
 
 Kirby, Fireside, 77-9 (beaver). 
 
 Dodge, 53-5 (hunting centers). 
 
 TEACHER'S ADDITIONAL REFERENCE: 
 
 Herbertson, 5-10 (Labrador and the great lone land), :o-i2 (the fur-traders' country), 12- 
 18 (the forest Indian), 19-20 (the Peace River country). 
 
 Shaler, Story of our continent, 169-71 (the sub-Arctic lands), 81-2 (formation of Hudson 
 Bay), 99-100 (the Laurentian plateau), 102-3 (t'le Mackenzie River), 104-5 (rivers 
 and lakes of the Hudson Bay country), 1 15-16 (stunted trees of the north). 
 
 Adams' Commercial geography, 88-90 (furs), 188 (Hudson Bay fur trade). 
 
 Chisholm, 152-3 (the fur trade). 
 
 Oxley, 96-144 (story of the Hudson Bay Trading Company).
 
 94 TEACHERS HANDBOOK OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Written Work. 
 
 1. Locate the fur country and describe it. 
 
 2. Tell about the people who live there. 
 
 Text-book Review. 
 
 The pertaining material in the text-book is now to be used as a summary 
 and review. 
 
 Redway's Advanced geography, 93-6. 
 
 Frye's Advanced geography, 129-32. 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Second Book, 351-71- 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Introductory geography, 190-2. 
 
 THE UNITED STATES. 
 Structural Geography. 
 
 Give a review of structural Xorth America (see pp. 67-71) sufficient to 
 fi5c the following points: 
 
 I. A great western plateau, a lesser eastern plateau, and a central lowland 
 between. 2. An eastern extension of the central lowland, forming the 
 Atlantic Plain. 3. Two important Pacific lowlands— the California valley 
 and the Columbia River valley. 4. The Atlantic coast is rocky, with good 
 harbors, in its northern half; and sandy, with poor harbors, in the south. 
 The Pacific coast is a clitt broken by few harbors, but among these are 
 two of the first class. 
 
 Text-book Review. 
 
 The pertaining material in the texi-bcok is now to be used as a summary 
 and review. 
 
 Redway's Advanced geography, 49-53. 
 
 Frye's Advanced geography, 64-7. 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Second Book, 5-12, 19-21. 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Introductory geography, 139. 
 
 Formal Geography of the United States. 
 
 Use a blackboard map. in conjunction with the political map in the text- 
 book. J5y various drills * teach the following locations, together with the 
 oral and written spelling concerned. 
 
 .Atlantic and Pacific oceans ; Gulf of Mexico ; Great Lakes. 
 
 .Appalachian, Rocky, Sierra Nevada mountains. 
 
 Mississippi, St. Lawrence, Colorado, Columbia, Rio Grande, Missouri, 
 Oliio rivers. 
 
 New York, Chicago, San Francisco, New Orleans, Washington. 
 
 Memorize the States in Groups. 
 
 1. The states bordering the Pacific Ocean (3). 
 
 2. The states and territories bordering Mexico (4). 
 
 3. The i)lateau states and territories (8). 
 
 4. States on the west bank of the Mississippi (5). 
 
 5. States and territory due north of Texas (6). 
 
 •Sec note on drills, p. 50.
 
 THE CONTINENT OF NORTH AMERICA. 95 
 
 6. States on the east bank of the Mississippi (5). 
 
 7. Gulf states (5). 
 
 8. New England states (6). 
 
 9. Other Atlantic states (include West Va. and Penn.) (11). 
 10. Lake states (8). 
 
 Test. 
 
 The correct filling- of outline maps (see foot-note, p. 14). Two separate 
 outlines will be required, and the work may take two lessons, if necessary. 
 Let the first tracing include only the boundary and the rivers called for. In 
 the test this map is to be filled with the structural features and cities in the 
 above list. The second tracing need include nothing but state boundaries. 
 The test is to fill it with the names of the states and territories. 
 
 NEW ENGLAND STATES. 
 
 (Read " Note on ^Method," p. 53.) 
 
 Formal Geography of the Region. 
 
 Draw a mass map of these states on the board and use it in conjunction 
 with the text-book political map. By various drills * teach the following 
 locations, together with the oral and written spelling. 
 
 The boundaries of New England as a whole. 
 
 Memorize the states in order, from the map. 
 
 Cape Cod ; White Mountains, Alt. Washington ; Champlain and Moose- 
 head lakes ; Connecticut. Alerrimac, and Kennebec rivers. 
 
 Boston, Worcester, Lowell, Fall River, Providence, Hartford, New Haven. 
 
 Test. 
 
 The correct filling of an outline map (see foot-note, p. 14). 
 
 Lesson L'nits. 
 
 I. The land of the Pilgrim fathers, and of literary fame. 2. New Eng- 
 land has important fisheries, and Gloucester is the great fishing port. 3. The 
 thin-soiled, rocky country affords poor farms but fine quarries. 4. The 
 lumber of ]\Iaine has built many ships. 5. The rivers have powerful falls, 
 and manufacturing cities have grown up. 6. The indented sea-front affords 
 good harbors, and Boston is upon one of them. 7. New England has crops 
 of cranberries, maple sugar, and ice. 
 
 I. Tlic land of the Pilgrim fathers, and of literary fame. 
 Leave with the pupil a conception of New England as the cradle of our. 
 national patriotism and our culture. 
 
 PUPILS' READINGS: 
 
 Our country east, 195-9 (Plymouth Rock), 200-4 (old Provincetown). 
 
 Carpenter, 91-9 (historic Boston). 
 
 Carroll, Third Book, 203-11 (historic Boston). 
 
 *See note on drills, p. 50.
 
 96 
 
 TEACHERS HANDBOOK OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Carver & Pratt, 65-71 (first blood of the Revolution). 
 
 Mowry, 143-8 (Colonial conditions), 202-6 (Colonial ilays). 
 
 Rocheleau, Products of the soil, 141 (a "husking bee"). 
 
 Smith, 40-7 (in Boston). 
 
 King, Fourth Book, 87-106 (historic Boston, etc.). 
 
 Eggleston, 21-37 (Colonial stories). 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, N'ew England Supplement, 16-32 (history of New England). 
 
 Pratt, Stories of Massachusetts, 13-68 (Pilgrims, Indians, etc.), 69-131 (Revolutionary 
 
 tales), 153-63 (Salem witches), J33-76 (Concord and the great authors). 
 Blaisdell, 9-48 (Colonial stories). 
 
 Children of the world, 217-33 (child life in New England). 
 Andrews, Ten boys, 191-206 (Puritan days), 207-28 (Colonial days). 
 McMaster, 16-20 (the Indians), 56-64 (the coming of the Pilgrims), 64-72 (pioneer life 
 
 in New England). 
 
 TEACHER'S ADDITIONAL REFERENCE: 
 
 Brigham, 66-9 (the literary side of New England). 
 
 Written Work. 
 
 1. Tell the story of the Pilgrims, and of Plymouth Rock. 
 
 2. Give some facts to show that Xcw England has been the cradle of our 
 
 patriotism and culture. 
 
 2. A^cw England has iuiportaiii fisheries, and Ciloiiccsfc)' is the great 
 fishing-port. 
 
 Keep well to the picturesque, or wonder, side, but also present the fact 
 that here are communities looking almost wholly to the products of the sea 
 for a living. Compare with your home town in this respect. 
 
 PUPILS' READINGS: 
 
 Pratt, Stories of Massachusetts, 201-48 (Cape Cod and (Gloucester fishing). 
 
 ("arpentcr, 315-16 (the Newfoundland banks). 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Second Book, 136-9 (Xcw England fisheries). 
 
 Chase & Clow, \'ol. II, 114-29 (cod-fishing, etc.). 
 
 Our country east, 203-4 (Provincetown whalers), 229-32 (a fish-farm). 
 
 Chamberlain, Fed, 54-69 (cod-fisheries). 
 
 Beal, 120-61 (cod, herring, etc.). 
 
 Industries of today, i-ii (New England fisheries). 
 
 King, Second Book, 14-20 (whaling), 177-88 (cod, herring, etc.). 
 
 Carroll, Third Book, 170-87 (New England fisheries). 
 
 .*>mith, 51-5 (New England fisheries). 
 
 Eggleston, 66-76 (New England fisheries). 
 
 Talks about animals, 3-51 (short readings on coast fisheries). 
 
 Carver & Pratt, 133-4 (fisheries). 
 
 Wood. 8-14 (whaling). 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Xew England Supplement, 33-8 ( .\ew ICngland fisheries). 
 
 Dodge, 53-5 (fishing centers). 
 
 TEACHER'S ADDITIONAL REFERENCE: 
 
 .Shaler, Story of our continent, 274-5 (New England fisheries). 
 
 Brigham, 57-8. 
 
 Cliisholm, 159-64 (fisheries in general). 
 
 Redway's .\dvanced geograj>liy. 38-9. 
 
 .'\dams' Commercial geography, 82-8. 
 
 Kipling, Captains Courageous. 
 
 Written Work. 
 
 1. (jive a little account of Gloucester as a fishing-port. 
 
 2. Tell about the fishing grounds, and tlie life of the fisherman. 
 
 3. The thin-soiled, rocky country affords poor [arms hnl line quarries; 
 and the Neiv lingland lakes and sea cliff's make famous summer resorts. 
 
 Show how her rocks and lakes thus Ijecome a genuiiK' resource, in the 
 absence of those vast agricultural lands which are the chief wealth of the 
 western states.
 
 THE COXTIXEXT OF NORTH AMERICA. 97 
 
 PUPILS' READINGS: 
 
 Tarr & !McMurry, Second Book, 124-7 (the surface of Xew England), 133-6 (the quar- 
 ries), 139-4 (the small farms), 151-4 (the summer resorts). 
 Dodge, 55-7 (scenic centers), 1:3-16 (character of lakes), 127-32 (how the moraines were 
 
 made), 132-6 (work of the great ice sheet). 
 Clifford, 150-5 (the quarries). 
 
 Fairbanks, Home geography, 112-15 (quarries). 
 Carpenter, 88-9 (quarries), 76-7 (controls), 84-7 (scenery). 
 (Zhase & (Tlow, Vol. I, 134-41 (quarries). 
 Rocheleau, Minerals, 113-62 (quarries). 
 King, Third I!ook, 65-8 (quarries), 95-117 (scenery). 
 
 Carroll, Third Book, 189-97 (New England mountains), 28-38 (Maine woods). 
 King, Fourth Book, 106-39 (picturesque Xew England). 
 King, Second Book, 80-9 (White Mountains). 
 Smith, 48-51 (mountains). 
 
 TEACHER'S ADDITIONAL REFERENCE: 
 Herbertson, 88-90 (romantic scenery). 
 Tarr & McMurry, New England Supplement. 3-16 (physiography of New England), 43-6 
 
 (the small farms), 48-9 (granite quarries), 70-6 (the interior region of Massachusetts), 
 
 77-82 (Rhode Island), 82-90 (Connecticut), 91-9 (New Hampshire), 99-107 (Vermont), 
 
 107-15 (Maine). 
 Shaler, Story of our continent, 65-75 (the glacial drift), 83-4 (glacial results in New 
 
 England), 107-9 (New England rivers). 
 Redway, New basis, 114. 
 Brighani, Chap. II (the physical making of New England). 45-6 (the quarries), 478, 63-4 
 
 (why the farms are poor). 
 Gilbert & Brigham, 132-50 (the glaciation of New England), 181-2 (mountains of New 
 
 England). 
 
 Written Work. 
 
 1. Compare the natural resources of Xew England with those of the 
 
 prairie states. 
 
 2. Name the quarry products of Xew England and describe a quarry. 
 
 3. Tell about the summer resorts. 
 
 4. The luinhcy of Maine has built many sliips. 
 
 X'^ote the circumstances of eastern lumbering, so different from those of 
 California. There they depend upon the snow for hauling, and winter is 
 the season of activity. On the P^acilic Slope these seasons are reversed, the 
 rains of winter closing down the coast camps. The Sierras have winter 
 snows, but there, too, summer is the logging season. Xote that our greatest 
 timber source is now in the Lake Superior region. 
 
 PUPILS' READINGS: 
 
 Our country east, 233-7 (Maine lumbering). 
 
 Chase & Clow, Vol. I, 121-5 (lumber), 126-33 (ship-building). 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Second Book, 252-4 (lumber), 127-32 (New England lumbermg). 
 
 Bradish, 39-49 (a logging-camp). 
 
 Rocheleau, Products of the soil, 9-36, 46-50 (a iumber-camp) . 
 
 Industries of today, 59-67 (lumbering). 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, New England Supplement, 38-42 (lumber and pulp). 
 
 Carpenter, 184-9 (lumbering). 
 
 Carroll, Third Book. 80-81 (lumber). 
 
 Dodge. 43-6 (lumbering centers). 
 
 King, Second Book, 165-9 (lumber-camp). 1 
 
 Herbertson, 50-5 (a typical lumber-camp), 59-62 (a forest fire). 
 
 TEACHER'S ADDITIONAL REFERENCE: 
 O.xley, 197-219 ("From forest to floor"). 
 Brigham, 49-50 (New England forests). 
 Redway, New Basis. 103-4. 
 
 \\'ritten Work. 
 
 1. Describe a IMaine logging camp. 
 
 2. Whv has Elaine ship-building declined? 
 
 5. TJic rivers hair poi^rrfnl falls, and nianufaeturing cities have grown np. 
 Let the pupil leave this topic with a general notion of the distribution 
 
 of occupations. Here in Xew England are hundreds of thousands of people
 
 98 teachers' handbook of geography. 
 
 busied almost wholly in the factories themselves, or in close connection with 
 them, while in Texas, or the Dakotas, or the valleys of California, the 
 occupations are totally dififerent. What is the characteristic vocation in 
 your own locality? 
 
 Avoid, in this treatment, any detailed examination into the processes of 
 manufacture. 
 
 Note the " fall line," the eastern edge of the highlands at which each river 
 has its last rapids. Show how these falls, or rapids, at first determined 
 the locations of the manufacturing cities; and how, later on, the cheap 
 production of coal made it profitable to manufacture without regard to falls. 
 
 Bring out the fact that New England is at a disadvantage in her manu- 
 facturing, since she has to send to a distance for both her coal and her raw 
 materials, such as cotton and iron. 
 
 PUPILS' RE.ADINGS: 
 
 Chamberlain, Clothed, 72-9 (cloth weaving in Massachusetts), 99-104 (leather-making in 
 Massachusetts), 154-66 (pins, needles, thread, etc., — varied manufactures of Xew 
 England), 167-79 (the shoemakers of Xew England), 180-96 (hats and gloves), 197- 
 203 (buttons). 
 
 Clifford, 39-110 (various manufactures). 
 
 Cliase & Clow, Vol. II, 12-29, 75-8, 102-3 (factories of Xew England). 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Second Book, 141-7 (Xew England manufacturmg). 
 
 Carpenter, 76-80, 82-4 (factories). 
 
 Rocheleau, Products of the Soil, 114-16 (manufactures). 
 
 King, Third P.ook, 24-39, 47-6i (New England mills). 
 
 Smith, 37-8, 56-7 (Xew England manufacturing). 
 
 Carver & Pratt, 116-28 (cotton manufacturing). 
 
 Chase & Clow, Vol. I, 86-117 (varied metal manufacturing). 
 
 Parker, 125-69 (pins, needles, nails, etc.). 
 
 Wood, 33-41 (a shoe factory). 
 
 Pratt, Stories of Massachusetts, 275-311 (the manufacturing cities). 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Xew England Supplement, 21-3 (early manufacturing), 49-56 (textiles), 
 57-9 (shoemaking), 60-2 (metals and machinery). 
 
 Dodge, 47-9 (manufacturing centers). 
 
 TEACHER'S ADDITIOXAL REFERENCE: 
 
 Herbertson, 113 (the fall line), xxvii, 92-3 (New England as a manufacturing center). 
 
 Frye's Advanced geography, 93-4 (the fall line). 
 
 Brigham, 72 (the fall line), 50-3, 64 (New England industries). 
 
 Adams, 139-46, 165 (our enormous manufacturing), 54 (the fall line). 
 
 Davis, 127-9 (the fall line). 
 
 Gilbert & Brigham, 42, 65 (the fall line). 
 
 Redway, New basis, 105-6, 108. 
 
 Written Work. 
 
 1. Tell about the fall line, and how the river falls have built up Xew 
 England. 
 
 2. Under what disadvantages does the manufacturing in New England 
 rest? 
 
 C). The indented sea-front affords good harbors, and Boston is on one 
 of them. 
 
 Turn to the text-book maps of New England and of the Pacific Coast. 
 Note that tlie x\ew England coast from one end to the other is a succession 
 of protected inlets. Compare with the almost continuous cliff of the 
 Pacific margin of our country ; and, in the latter, note the two great excep- 
 tions, San I'Vancisco Bay and Puget Sound. 
 
 Discuss — just what is a harl)or? A bay, or inlet, sheltered from storms, 
 so that shii)ping may (iiid a (luiet anchorage. Elicit that a region without
 
 THE CONTIXEXT OF NORTH AMERICA. 99 
 
 harbors can liave no share in ocean commerce. Tell of breakwaters, such 
 as that at Chicago, or at Galveston, built to form artificial harbors. 
 
 PUPILS' READINGS: 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Second Book, 124-6 ( Xew England's harbors), 148-51 (coast cities of 
 
 New England). 
 Tarr & McMurry, New England Supplement, 19-21 (early commerce of New England), 
 
 63 (trade centers), 63-70 (Boston). 
 Industries of today, 119-26 (a Boston market). 
 Our country east, 219-24 (a Boston market). 
 
 Carpenter, 91-5 (Boston as a port), 80-2 (.Maine, the "state of a hundred Siarbors"). 
 Mowry. 241-2 (the Boston subway). 
 King, Third Book, 40-6 (New England ports). 
 Dodge, 11-13 (value of harbors), 105-8 (lagoons and bars: types of poor harbors, as a 
 
 contrast), 165-70 (drowned valley harbors). 
 
 TEACHER'S ADDITIONAL REFERENCE: 
 
 Herbertson. xxvii-xxviii (New England summarized). 
 Redway, New basis, 83-8 (controls). 
 Brigham, 53-9 (New England's harbors). 
 
 Drj'er, 95 (drowned valleys as harbors), 227-9 (rising and sinking coasts). 
 Davis, 95-7 (changing coastlines), 195-7,296 (drowned coast harbors). 
 Shaler, Aspects, 7-9 (rising and sinking coasts, instance of the Temple of Jupiter). 
 Gilbert S: Brigham, 10-11, 63-5, 314 (rising and sinking coasts), 302-4 (harbors of New 
 England). 
 
 Written \\'ork. 
 
 1. What is a harbor? 
 
 2. Tell about good harbors and poor harbors, and how they are made. 
 
 7. Xezu England Jws crops of cranberries, maple sugar, and ice. 
 Associate the cranberry industry particularly with the Cape Cod country. 
 
 PUPILS' READINGS: 
 
 Chamberlain, Fed, 87-90 (sugar), 131-8 (cranberries). 
 
 Our country cast, 205-10 (cranberries), 225-8 (sugar), 238-43 (ice). 
 
 Bradish, 5-8 (sugar). 
 
 Carpenter, 89-90 (sugar). 
 
 Rocheleau, Products of the soil, 68-76 (sugar). 
 
 Beal, 225-7 (sugar). 
 
 King, Third Book, 75-7 (sugar). 
 
 Carroll, Third Book, 198-201 (sugar), 212-14 (ice). 
 
 Industries of today, 27-36 (ice), 45-53 (cranberries), 54-8 (sugar). 
 
 Written Work. 
 
 1. Tell how maple sugar is made. 
 
 2. Tell about Cape Cod cranberries. 
 
 3. Tell about the ice crop. 
 
 Text-book Review. 
 
 The pertaining material in the text-book is now to be used as a summary 
 ,ind review. 
 
 Redway's Advanced geography, 38-9, 41, 63-5. 
 
 Frye's Advanced geography. 88-92. 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Second Book, 124-56. 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Introductory geography. 142-8. 
 
 MIDDLE ATLANTIC SEABOARD. 
 
 (Read " Note on ^Method," p. 53.) 
 
 Formal Geography of the Region, 
 
 Draw a blackboard map showing the coastal region from Xew York Bay 
 to Chesapeake Bay, inclusive. Use this in conjunction with the text-book
 
 100 TEACHERS HANDBOOK OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 map of the region and teach the following locations.* Teach also the oral and 
 written spelling concerned : 
 
 New York, Xew Jersey, Pennsylvania. Delaware, ^^larNland, A'irginia, 
 District of Columbia. 
 
 Cities of New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Washington, Norfolk. 
 
 Hudson, Delaware, Susquehanna, Potomac, James rivers ; Erie Canal. 
 
 New York, Delaware, and Chesapeake bays ; Long Island, Long Island 
 Sound. 
 
 Adirondack, Catskdl, and Alleghany mountains. 
 
 Test. 
 
 The correct filling of an outline map (see foot-note, p. 14). 
 
 Lesson Units. 
 
 I. Here is a rei^ioii of fine harbors, eiiormoiis eities, ami a world-zcide 
 merce. 2. Washington, on the Potomac, is the nation's capital. 
 
 I. Here is a region of fine harbors, eiionnoiis cities and a ivorld-zvidc 
 commerce. 
 
 Brincf out the fact that here, from New York to Washington, is the 
 most thickly populated region in the western hemisphere. Notice, in this 
 connection, the fine harbors of New York, Philadelphia, and Baltimore. 
 Associate the supremacy of New York with two factors : Its line harbor 
 and its easy way to the west via the Mohawk Valley. Show the early 
 importance of the Erie Canal, but leave the impression that it has long 
 since yielded first place to the railroads. 
 
 Give some special attention to New York harbor : The Bartholdi Light ; 
 the Brooklyn Bridge; Sandy Hook; the enormous marine movement. 
 
 PUPIL.S' READINGS: 
 
 Carpenter, 43-73 (the cities), i93-_>02 (Erie Canal and Niagara). 
 
 Our country east, 174-92 (cities). 
 
 Smith, 25-33, 73-9 (the cities). 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Second ]5ook, 19-20 (harbors), 180-95 (cities). 
 
 Mowry, 220-2 (the ICrie Canal). 
 
 Carroll, Third Hook, 4-13 (New York City), 23-7 (Niagara). 
 
 King, Third Hook, 154-69 (New York City), 171-80 (.New York coniincrce), 195-214 (Pliil- 
 
 adclphia). 
 Egglcston, 46-50 (Erie Canal). 
 Inncrsoll, 165-8 (ocean greyhounds). 
 
 King, ]-'ifth Hook, 61-77 (the military school at West I'oint). 
 Dodge, 11-13 (value of harbors), 23-6 (Cireater New York), 30-2 (centers of life), 33-6 
 
 (commercial centers), 105-8 (lagoons and bars), 165-70 (drowned valley harbors). 
 
 TE.ACIIER'S ADDITIONAL REFERENCE: 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, .New York Supplement, 31-46 (New York and vicinity), 54-8 (Hudson 
 and .Mohawk waterway). 
 
 Shalcr, Story of our continent, 107-10 (eastern rivers and harbors). 
 
 llcrbertson, xxvii-xx.\ (Cireater New York), 119-22 (New York), 122-3 (Philadelphia), 94-9 
 (Mohawk waterway). 
 
 Rcdway, .\ew basis, 83-8, 93-5. 
 
 lirighain. Chap. I (the Mohasvk \'alley and ICrie Canal), 25-36, 91-2 (wliy New ^'o^k 
 is there), 70-72 (the coastal plain), 72-6 (the harbors). 
 
 Dryer, 95 (drowned valleys as luirbors), 227-9 (rising and sinking coasts). 
 
 Rcdway's .Advanced geography, 34 (density of i)opulation), 41-2 (coninierce) , 42-3 (fea- 
 tures of large cities), 57 (distribution of people). 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Pennsylvania supplement, 62-5 (Philadelphia). 
 
 Adams. 17. 18, 19 (coasts and harbors), 22-6 (sites for cities), 36-8 (coninierce .1111! pnpu. 
 lation), 157-61 (ports and ocean traffic). 
 
 •Sec noli- i.n i1rill>i j. ;ri
 
 THE COXTINEXT OF NORTH AMERICA. lOI 
 
 Davis, 95-7 (changing coastlines), 1 13-16 (the eastern seaboard), 195-7, 296 (drowned coast 
 
 harbors). 
 Shaler, Aspects, 7-9 (rising and sinking coasts; celebrated instance of the Temple of 
 
 Jupiter). w 
 
 Gilbert & Hrigham, lo-ii, 63-5, 314-15 (rising and sinking), 3o_'-i6 (our harbors in the 
 
 making). 
 
 Written Work. 
 
 1. How did Xew York come to be the metropolis? 
 
 2. Describe Xew York harbor. 
 
 3. Compare the region from Boston to Washington with other parts of 
 
 the country as to population. 
 
 2. IP'ashingtoii^ on the Potomac, is f/ic nation's capital. 
 
 Develop, briefly, a cumulative idea beginning with a city hall and its pur- 
 poses, passing thence to the notion of a state capital, and finally to a capital 
 city for the whole country — a place where the President lives, where Congress 
 meets, where our national laws are made, and where the ambassadors from 
 other countries are stationed. Leave the impression that Washington is our 
 most beautiful American city. 
 
 PUPILS' READINGS: 
 
 Carpenter, 14-15. 
 
 Smith, 11-20. 
 
 Our country east, 131-43. 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Second Book, 195-6. 
 
 Carroll. Third Book, 47-52. 
 
 King, Third Book, 215-32. 
 
 Brooks, whole book (profuse and highly descriptive illustrations). 
 
 TEACHER'S ADDITIONAL REFERENCE: 
 Herbertson, 123-5. 
 Ralph, 337-72- 
 
 Written Work. 
 
 1. Write a little description of Washington, telling where it is. why it is 
 
 important, and something of the work done there. 
 
 2. Describe Washington as a city. 
 
 Text-book Review. 
 
 The pertaining material in the text-book is now to be used as a summary 
 and review. 
 
 Redway's Advanced geography, 34, 41-3, 57, 66-72. 
 
 Frye's Advanced geography, 92-8. 
 
 Tarr & McMurrv, Second Book, 180-96. 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Introductory geography, 149-58. 
 
 THE APPALACHIAN REGION. 
 
 (Read " Xote on Method. "" p. 53.) 
 
 Formal Geography of the Region. 
 
 Draw a blackboard map showing the Appalachian highland and the states 
 traversed bv it. Use this in conjunction with the text-book map of the 
 region and teach the following locations.* Teach also the oral and written 
 spelling : 
 
 *See note on drills, p. 50.
 
 102 TEACHERS' HANDBOOK OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Appalachian Highland, Alleghany Mountains. 
 Susquehanna, Delaware, and Hudson rivers. 
 Pittsburg, Buffalo, Rochester, Scranton, Niagara Falls. 
 
 Test. 
 
 The correct filling of an outline map (see foot-note, p. 14). 
 
 Lesson Units. 
 
 I. The Appalachian highland is a region of great coal and iron mines. 
 
 2. This region yields a large supply of petroleum and natural gas. 
 
 3. Because of these supplies, together with water power, a region ot 
 heavy manufactures. 
 
 I. The Appalachian higJUaud is a region of great coal and iron mines. 
 
 While coal is mined in many other parts of the world, this is character- 
 istically, and not incidentally, a coal-mining region. The subject should 
 therefore be studied at some length under this head, while elsewhere its 
 mention may possibly be omitted altogether, or at least until we come to 
 the study of the British Isles, where again it becomes of prime significance. 
 For the same reason iron and steel are to be studied somewhat fully here 
 because Ave want this topic identified, in the pupil's memory, especially with 
 this region. A review of the iron and steel topic will occur in the study of 
 the Great Lake Region and the British Isles. But elsewhere it will receive 
 only a passing mention. 
 
 PUPILS' READINGS: 
 
 Carpenter, 2ii-i8 (coal), 2:8-25 (iron: Pittsburg). 
 
 Bradish, g6-ioi (what coal is made of), 102-4 (first use of coal), 105-9 (opening a mine), 
 
 110-20 (down in the mine), 121-6 (danger in the mines), 127-30 (the coal breaker), 
 
 134-6 (about iron), 137-43 (iron ore, pig iron, ore docks), 144-6 (steel). 
 Tarr & McMurry, Second Book, 170-2 (coal), 174-9 (iron and steel; the manufacturing 
 
 region), 3-5 (the story of coal), 255-6 (coal of the Mississippi slope). 
 Parker, 11-4.1 (coal), 72-99 (iron), 109- 24 (steel). 
 Carroll, Third Book, 53-9 (iron and coal). 
 Rocheleau, Minerals, 7-44 (coal), 75-112 (iron and steel). 
 Shalcr, First Book in geology, 54-5 (the making of coal). 
 King, Fourth Book, 51-60 (iron and steel), 71-86 (coal). 
 Chase & Clow, Vol. I, 5-24 (coal), 67-89, 107-11 (iron and steel), 141-57 (bricks and 
 
 glass). 
 Fairbanks, Stories of Mother Farth, 185-90 (coal, graphite, diamond). ^ 
 
 .Andrews, Stories Mother .\ature told, 130-8 (coal). 
 Smith, 68-71 (coal). 
 
 Afowry, 44-50 (how coal came into use). 
 Dodge, 49-52 (mining centers). 
 
 TE.ACMKR'S ADDITIONAL REFERENCE: 
 
 Shalcr, Story of our continent, 38-45, 209-10 (the formation of coal), 03-8 (the Appa- 
 lachian Mountain system), 208, 224 (the varied products of mines), 215-19 (the vari- 
 ous Appalachian coal-fields), 222-3 (iron dcjiosits). 
 
 Greene, Coal and the coal mines (a simple and very readable story of coal, in all the 
 phases of the subject). 
 
 Rcdway's Advanced geography, 22 (peat and coal). 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Pennsylvania Supplement, 3243 (coal industry of Pennsylvania), 43-9 
 (iron and steel industry). 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Ohio .Supplement, 41-4 (coal of Ohio). 
 
 Adams, 116-27 (coal and iron). 
 
 Cbislitijin, 164-74, 389-90 (coal anrl iron in general). 
 
 Written Work. 
 
 1 . Tell how coal was formed. 
 
 2. Tell about the various kinds of coal.
 
 THE CONTINENT OF NORTH AMERICA. 103 
 
 3. Describe a coal mine. 
 
 4. Tell how iron is obtained, 
 
 5. What is the difference between iron and steel? 
 
 2. This region yields a large supply of peirolenm and natural gas. 
 In this study note also the by-products of petroleum, and, in a general 
 way, how they are obtained. 
 
 PUPILS' READINGS: 
 
 Shaler, First Book in geology, 54-5 (the source of petroleum;. 
 
 Carpenter, 203-10 (oil and gas). 
 
 Carroll, Third Book, 60-2 (oil). 
 
 Rocheleau, Minerals, 45-68 (oil), 69-74 (gas). 
 
 King, Fourth Book, 61-70 (oil). 
 
 Chase & Clow, Vol. 1, 25-30 (gas), 31-4 (oil). 
 
 Fairbanks, Stories of Mother Earth, 6975 (petroleum). 
 
 Our country east, 41-5 (gas). 
 
 Clifford, 194-9 (oil). 
 
 Industries of to-day, 90-7 (gas). 
 
 Tarr 6£ McMurry, Second Book, 255 (oil and gas of the Ohio region). 
 
 Dodge, 49-52 (mining centers). 
 
 TEACHER'S ADDITIONAL REFERENCE: 
 
 Shaler, Story of our continent, 210 (origin of oil and gas), 219-22 (petroleum and its 
 
 by-products). 
 Redway's Advanced geography, 22 (petroleum and gas). 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Pennsylvania Supplement, 54-60 (petroleum), 60-: (gas). 
 Adams, 11 9-21 (petroleum). ' 
 
 Chisholm, 174-8 (petroleum and its by-products). 
 
 Written Work. 
 
 1. Tell how petroleum is obtained. 
 
 2. Tell how it is marketed. 
 
 3. Name some of the by-products of petroleum, and tell h.ow they are 
 
 obtained. 
 
 4. Tell how natural gas is obtained, and mention some of its uses. 
 
 3. Because of these supplies, together zvith zvater poiver, a region of heavy 
 manufactures. 
 
 Bring out the fact that here, as in New England, the falls in the rivers 
 were the original factor in the rise of the manufacturing cities. Associate 
 the "fall line" with the head of navigation, in each of the rivers of the 
 Atlantic Slope, and note the series of manufacturing cities along that line. 
 
 Show that the manufacturing enterprises afterward outgrew the capacity 
 of this water power and came to their greater development through the 
 proximity of the great coal fields ; and later still petroleum and natural gas 
 were added as sources of power. Finally water power has come to play a 
 new part by its conversion into electric power, as at Niagara Falls. Trolley 
 cars and many great factories are now being run in western New York 
 by this converted Niagara power. 
 
 PUPILS' READINGS: 
 
 Dodge, 47-9 (manufacturing centers). 
 
 Our country east, 3-8 (harnessing Niagara). 
 
 Eggleston. 97-101 (a legend of Niagara). 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Second Book, 186 (Niagara power), 158-9 (the fall line). 
 
 Carroll, Third Book, 27 (Niagara power). 
 
 Frye's Advanced geography, 93-4 (the fall line). 
 
 TEACHER'S ADDITIONAL REFERENCE: 
 
 Shaler, Story of our continent, 136-8 (Niagara, and waterfalls generally), 252-3 (manu- 
 facturing advantages of the Appalachian district).
 
 104 teachers' handbook of geography. 
 
 Herbertson, xxix-xxx (tlie great manufacturing cities), :i3 (the fall line). 125-6 (Pitts- 
 burg), 85-8 (resources of the Appalachians). 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Xew York Supplement, 47-53 (Buffalo and Niagara), 58-98 (various 
 industries). 
 
 Redway, Xew Basis, 109. 
 
 Brigham. 50-3, 72 (the fall line), 90, 96 (why Pittsburg is there), 76-104 (an intimate 
 study of the Appalachian plateau). 
 
 Tarr & ^IcMurry. Pennsylvania Supplement, 43-54. 61 (varied industries of Pennsylvania), 
 65-72 ( I'ittsburg and other industrial cities). 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Ohio Supplement, 45-59 (varied industries of Ohio). 
 
 Adams, 125-6 (steel making), 139-46, 165 (our enormous manufacturing). 
 
 Chisholm, 390-1 (steel-making). 
 
 Davis, 127-9 <the fall line), 146-50 (the Appalachian plateau), 188-95 (t'le making of the 
 Appalachians). 
 
 Gilbert & Brigham, 42. 65 (the fall line), 179-85 (the making of the Appalachians). 
 
 Written \\'ork. 
 
 1. Describe the various sources of power in the Appalachian region. 
 
 2. Show the difference between the old-style water power and Niagara 
 
 power. 
 
 3. Tell why Pittsburg has become a great manufacturing city. 
 
 Text-book Review. 
 
 The pertaining material in the text-book is now to be used as a summary 
 and review. 
 
 Redway's Advanced geography, 40-41, 68-71. 
 Frye's Advanced geography, 92-4, 96-9, 83-4. 
 Tarr & McMurry, Second Book, 157-60, 169-80. 
 Tarr & McMurry, Introductory geography, 152-7. 
 
 THE COTTON BELT. 
 (Read " Note on Method," p. 53.) 
 
 Formal Geography of the Region. 
 
 Use a blackboard map of the Southern States in conjunction with the 
 text-book map and teach the following locations, together with the oral and 
 written spelling:* 
 
 North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia. Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, 
 Tennessee, Arkansas, Louisiana, Oklahoma, Indian Territory, Texas. 
 
 Appalachian, Ozark mountains ; Mississippi \'alley, Atlantic Plain. 
 
 Mississippi, Rio Grande rivers ; Gulf of Mexico. 
 
 Charleston. Savannah. Mobile. New Orleans. Galveston, Memphis, Chat- 
 tanooga. 
 
 Test. 
 
 The correct filling of an outline map (.see foot-note, p. 14). 
 
 Lesson Units. 
 
 I. Here is the " Sunny South," with balmy climate and a hospitable people. 
 2. This is the land of cotton, and has a large negro ])opulation. 3. The 
 coasts arc Hat and sandy; l)ut by the improvement of rivers and harbors 
 several large seaports have been built u]i. 4. ( )ul of the old, war-stricken 
 South a New South is rising. 
 
 "See note on drills, p. i;().
 
 THE COXTIXEXT OF NORTH AMERICA. 105 
 
 1. Here is the " SiDiiiy Soiifli," z<.'itJi a balmy climate and a hospitable 
 people. 
 
 The particular point to bring out here is the local color — the picturesque 
 and semi-poetic feeling we have for the traditional South, which sets it in 
 a pleasing relief against the workaday, commercial atmosphere of other 
 sections of the country. The pupil should here glimpse a life less strenuous 
 and more contemplative and dreamy than that surrounding him at home ; a 
 life lived consistently in a balmy air, amid a luxuriance of verdure and 
 flowers that carries suggestions of the sub-tropical. 
 
 PUPILS' READINGS: 
 
 Johonnot, Glimpses, 244-7 (flamingoes in Florida). 
 
 Carroll, Third Book, 159-65 (negroes and the good old times). 
 
 Our country east, 67-7J (the picturesque side of Xew Orleans), 73-7 (of Galveston), 77-83 
 (a Southern farm), 83-6 (a home on the gulf), 86-90 (the Florida reefs), 91-5 
 (Florida wreckers), 96-100 (the Everglades). 100-5 (mangrove trees), 106-10 (pine- 
 apples), 117-20 (a Southern "husking bee"), 121-j (a Southern village), 123-30 (St. 
 Augustine). 
 
 Carpenter, 119-23 (the rice fields), 125-30 (a turpentine farm), 130-5 (Florida oranges 
 and pineapples), 143-50 (a sugar plantation), 138-43 (Xew Orleans). 
 
 King, Fourth Book, 1-29 (a journey through the South), 17-29 (Xew Orleans), 31-42 (the 
 lower Mississippi). 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Second Book, 204-5 (the pleasant climate), 205-8 (the Southern for- 
 ests), 212-17 (rice, sugar, oranges). 
 
 Smith, 128-30 (rice), 121-30 (N'irginia and the Carolinas), 130-7 (Georgia and Florida), 
 135-9 'the gulf coast), 139-40 (vastness of Texas), 145-50 (Xew Orleans), 150-6 
 (the lower Mississippi). 
 
 Johonnot, Reader. 23-7 (the Dismal Swamp), 122-5 (the Natural Bridge). 
 
 "Rupert, 13-20 (climate of Florida), ' 20-2 (F"lorida oranges), 22-5 (St. Augustine). 
 
 Eggleston,' 101-4 (among the alligators), 104-8 (Sergeant Jasper), 147-52 (an adventure 
 at the Xatural Bridge). 
 
 Carroll, Third Book, 153-9 (Xorth Carolina mountains), 167-9 ('" Florida). 
 
 Miln, i-ii (the sunny South). 
 
 Kirby, Fireside, 80-4 (cotton-fields and darkies), 70-3 (Southern swamps), 93-102 (rice). 
 
 Industries of today, 18-26 (N'irginia peanuts). 
 
 Chamberlain, 70-6 (rice-fields). 
 
 TEACHER'S ADDITIOXAL REFEREXCE: 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Texas Supplement, 20-4 (climate of Texas), 2 (vastness of Texas), 5-20 
 (surface and rivers), 26-9 (Texas forests), 91-3 (the story of Texas). 
 
 Shaler, Story of our continent. 124-5, 129 (effect of gulf on climate), 150-2 (coral 
 origin of southern Florida), 179 (climate of Florida), 180-81 (generous rainfall of 
 the South), 1 17-21 (cabbage palms, live oaks, cypresses), 201 (alligators and croco- 
 diles). 
 
 Brigham, 173-6 (the Carolinas). i ;6-8o (Florida), 182-3 (Louisiana), 186-7 (Texas), 187- 
 92 (the old South), 200-27 (the rivers of the South, in the Civil War). 
 
 Herbertson, 100-3 ( mountains of the South), 107-9 (Xorth Carolina), 110-15 (South Caro- 
 lina), 115-17 (Everglades of Florida), 127 (Savannah), 147-9 (Texas), 139-40 (lower 
 Mississippi), 140-3 (Xew Orleans). 
 
 Ralph, 1-43 (down the Mississippi by boat), 44-78 (the picturesque in New Orleans), 91- 
 121 (along the Bayou Teche; typical life in the Sunny South), 121-59 (in Sunny 
 Mississippi), 160-205 (the pleasures of Florida), 248-98 (Charleston and the Caro- 
 linas in their picturesque side), 299-366 (the southern mountaineers), 373-S7 (the plan- 
 tation negro). 
 
 Written Work. 
 
 Write a little sketch of the Sunny South and its people, and compare the 
 life there with that which is lived in }0ur own part of the country. 
 
 2. This is the land of cotton and has a large negro population. 
 
 Cotton being far and away the leading product. of the South, it is given 
 a unit to itself, together with the aspect of negro labor which goes with it. 
 
 PUPILS' READINGS: 
 
 Chamberlain. Clothed, 39-56 (the cotton-plantations). 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Second Book, 209-12 (cotton and negroes). 
 
 Carroll, Third Book, 159-66 (cotton and negroes). 
 
 Clifford, 35-9 (cotton). 
 
 King, Fourth Book, 17-20, 33-5 (cotton-fields). 
 
 Carpenter. 109-18 (the land of cotton). 
 
 Smith, 131-3 (cotton). 
 
 Carver & Pratt, 112-16 (cotton).
 
 io6 teachers' handbook of geography. 
 
 Rocheleau, Soil, 89-94 (cotton). 
 
 Herbertson, 127 (cotton). 
 
 Kirby. Fireside, 80-4 (the cotton-fields), 
 
 McMaster, 174-7 (beginnings of the trouble about slavery). 
 
 TEACHER'S ADDITIONAL KEEEKEXCE: 
 
 Shaler, Story of our continent, 276-7 (origin of the slave trade). 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Texas Supplement, 31 (Texas ranks first as a cotton producer), 43-5 
 
 (cotton-seed oil). 
 Brigham, 70-2, 173-82 (the coastal plain in the cotton region), 173-6 (the Carolinas), 187- 
 
 90 (the slave times), 193-6 (the cotton industry). 
 Adams, 93-7 (cotton industry). 
 Chisholm, 103-10 (cotton culture). 
 Ralph, 373-87 (the plantation negro). 
 
 Written Work. 
 
 1. Write a description of raw cotton — how it grows and how it is picked 
 
 and prepared for shipping- 
 
 2. Tell about a cotton plantation, and the life of the negroes. 
 
 3. Tell the story of Eli Whitney. 
 
 3. The coasts are Hat and sandy, but by the itnprovemcnt of rivers and 
 harbors several large seaports have been built up. 
 
 This is a physiographic study corresponding to similar ones already given 
 under New England States and Middle Atlantic seaboard. Show the marked 
 difference in the character of the coast here in the South, and bring out 
 the relation of the coasts to commerce. Note the titanic efforts which have 
 converted the shallow lagoon at Galveston into an adequate harbor with an 
 enormous export. 
 
 PUPILS' READINGS: 
 
 Carpenter, 99-101 (Norfolk), 123-4 (Charleston), 125 (Savannah), 138-43 (New Orleans), 
 135-8 (the Mississippi jetties), 150-8 (the lower Mississippi). 
 
 King, Fourth Book, 17-29 (New Orleans), 31-42 (the lower Alississippi). 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Second Book, 203-4 (coasts of the South), 200-4 (the South, physical- 
 ly), 223-7 (New Orleans). 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Texas Supplement, 3-5 (the harbor at Galveston), 62-4 (Galveston). 
 
 Smith, 130-1 (Savannah), 139 (Galveston), 145-50 (New Orleans). 
 
 Dodge, 76-80 (dunes of the coastal plain), 89-92 (flood plain of the lower Mississippi), 
 94-6 (the Mississippi delta), 105-8 (lagoons and bars). 
 
 Our country east, 73-7 (Galveston), 67-72 (New Orleans). 
 
 TEACHER'S ADDITIONAL REFERENCE: 
 
 Shaler, First Book in geology, 18-19 (oxbows of the Mississippi). 
 
 Shaler, Story of our continent, 150-2 (coral origin of Southern Florida), 847 (the 
 coasts of the Southern States). 
 
 Brigham, 70-2, 173-82 (the coastal plain), 200-27 (rivers of the south), 184-6 (jetties of 
 the Mississippi). 
 
 Herbertson, 127 (Savannah), 139-40 (the lower Mississippi), 140-3 (New Orleans), xxxi 
 (the Southern cities summarized). 
 
 Dryer, 74-9 (the lower Mississippi, oxbows, delta, levees, etc.), 229-38 (tlic making of 
 beaches and bars, the coastal plain). 
 
 Davis, 129-32 (the shallow harbors explained), 117-26, 132-6 (coastal plains), 292-5 
 (the Mississippi delta), 350-4 (the making of sandbars and inlcis). 
 
 Shaler, Aspects, 150-6 (flood-plain and oxbows of the Mississippi). 
 
 Gilbert &• Brigham, 45-56 (flood-plain, delta, oxbows, floods), lo-ii, 63-5 (rising and sink- 
 ing coasts), 66-9 (the Mississippi system), 1091 7 (the movements of sand; sand- 
 dunes), 151-4 '^•hc coastal plain), 306-15 (forms of the Southern coastline). 
 
 Adams, 160 (New Orleans as a port). 
 
 Ralph, 79-89 (New Orleans as a port). 
 
 Written Work. 
 
 1. Compare the coasts of the South with those of the northern seaboard. 
 
 2. I'-xplain how poor harbors have been improved in the South. 
 
 3. Name the important .southern jiorts. Give a dcscri])tion of one of them 
 
 as to its commerce. 
 
 4. 'i'ell about the lower Mississippi ; what obstacles does it offer to com- 
 
 merce and a scltlemcnt of the vicinity, and how have these been 
 overcome?
 
 THE CONTINENT OF NORTH AMERICA. 1 07 
 
 4. Out of the old, zvar-strickcn South a Nnv South is rising. 
 
 In the old days the South sent all of her cotton north, either to England 
 or New England, where the mills converted it into cloth. Thus the major 
 part of the profits of the cotton industry were lost to her. More recently, 
 however, mills have been rapidly multiplying in the South, so that she is in 
 a fair way of working up her raw cotton into the finished product, in this 
 way taking her place in the world's markets as a self-dependent and self- 
 sustaining commonwealth. Also the iron and coal deposits of the southern 
 Appalachians are now being rapidly developed, accelerating the growth of 
 such cities as Roanoke, Birmingham, and Chattanooga. This robust spirit 
 of industrial and commercial activity is gradually displacing the dreamy 
 traditions dealt with in our first unit. 
 
 PUPILS' READINGS: 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Second Book, 218-19 (resources of_ the South), 219-jj (the growing 
 
 South), 158-9 (the fall line), 227-30 (inland cities). 
 Frye's Advanced geography, 93-4 (th^ lall line). 
 Rupert, 9-13 (Chattanooga and Birmingham). 
 King, Fourth Book, 47-9 (busy places in the South). 
 
 TEACHER'S ADT:>TTTr ,aL REFERENCE: 
 
 Herbertson, :> -xxxi (the region summarized), 103-4 (Chattanooga), 113 (the fall line), 
 
 1 14-15 <the New South). 
 Redwa}', New basis, 111-13. 
 Brigham, 64 (southern resources), 50-3, 72 (the fall line), 103-4 (conditions for the New 
 
 South), 192-9 (the New South). 
 Adams, 54 (the fall line), 97 (growing South). 
 
 Ralph, 79-89 (the business aspect of New Orleans), 206-47 (the industrial South). 
 Davis, 127-9 (the fall line), Gilbert & Brigham, 42, 65 (the fall line). 
 
 Written Work. 
 
 1. Tell of the old conditions in the South, before her era of progress began. 
 
 2. Show how these conditions have changed. 
 
 3. Sum up the resources of the South. 
 
 Text-book Review. 
 
 The pertaining material in the text-book is now to be used as a summary 
 and review. 
 
 Redway's Advanced geography, 78-83, 58. 
 
 Frye's Advanced geography, 76, 83, 98-106. 
 
 Tarr & McMurrj', Second Book, 200-231. 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Introductory geography, 159-66. 
 
 THE PRAIRIE REGION. 
 
 (Read " Note on Method," p. 53.) 
 
 Formal Geography of the Region. 
 
 Use a blackboard map of the states named below, together with the text- 
 book map of the region, and teach the following locations.* Teach also the 
 oral and written spelling : 
 
 Ohio, Indiana, Kentucky, Illinois. Wisconsin ; Alissouri, Iowa, Minnesota ; 
 Kansas, Nebraska, North and South Dakota. 
 
 Mississippi, Ohio, Missouri Rivers ; Mammoth Cave. 
 
 Cincinnati, St. Louis, Kansas City; Minneapolis, St. Paul, Omaha. 
 
 *See note on drills, p. 50.
 
 Io8 TEACHERS' HANDBOOK OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Test. 
 
 The correct filling- of an outline map (see foot-note, p. 14). 
 
 Lesson Units. 
 
 I. Here is a vast lowland, chiefly prairies, devoted to agriculture; the 
 great products are wheat and corn. 2. ]\Iost of the people live on farms, 
 or in towns ; but several great cities have grown up along the rivers. 3. The 
 ^lammoth Cave is a famous feature of Kentucky. 
 
 ''■^i-c is a z'ast lozclaiid, chiefly prairies, devoied to agriculture; the 
 ■'■' wheat and corn. 
 
 'ween this region, where the great business is 
 
 ^^(^ dense populations are concerned 
 
 ■"'iries are the granary, not 
 
 '■-^ world. We are 
 
 one 01 <... "^Hich of 
 
 the bread eaten ui _ 
 
 in our Mississippi \'alley. 
 
 Contrast these vast, flat farms, witn .. 
 with the small truck farms of the eastern seau^^. 
 an old-fashioned plow constitute a farm. 
 
 Keep to the front, in this unit, that here is the greatest wlieai c.. 
 area in the world, although other products should be noted. 
 
 PUPIL.S' RE.\DI.\GS: 
 
 Chamberlain, l-ed, 7-17 (the story of wheat), 18-31 (the story of meat), 32-43 (story of 
 the markets), 44-53 (butter and cheese). 
 
 Fairbanks, Home geography, 189-93 (farming), 194-8 (stock-raising). 
 
 Johonnot, Reader, 71-4 (tornado in Ohio). 
 
 Talks about animals, 177-85 (prairie dogs and gophers). 
 
 Beal, 11-30 (about farming), 30-6 (flour-milling), 36-9 (corn, maize), 39-53 (bread, crack- 
 ers, cakes), 56-8 (peas and beans), 59-66 (garden truck), 66-87 (the dairy: milk, 
 butter, cheese), 91-113 (mutton, pork, beef), 114-19 (i)oultry). 
 
 Rocheleau, 124-49 (Indian corn), 150-78 (wheat and flour). 
 
 Bradish, 72-7 (haying), 82-8 (harvesting), 26-7, 89-95 (corn), 147-70 (wheat and flour). 
 
 Carver & Pratt, 104-8 (corn), 108-12 (wheat). 
 
 (,'arroll. Third Book, 76-9 (wheat), 81-5 (the meat trade). 
 
 Smith, 115-17 (the blue-grass country), 159-70 (the upper valley), 128-9 (Minnesota), 
 170-8 (the western prairies), 109-14 (the eastern prairies). 
 
 Ruper.t, 26-9 (vastncss of the Mississippi N'alley), 45 (the blue-grass country), 45-52 (the 
 rolling jirairie), 39-45 (the great flour-mills), 59-69 (opening Oklahoma). 
 
 Tarr & Mc.Nlurry, Second Book, 234-6 (prairies), 238-42 (a prairie farm), 242 (bliie-grass 
 Kentucky), 243-5 (corn), 245-7 (the great wheat-farms), 265 (wheat-elevators), 271-3 
 (great flour-mills). 
 
 Carpenter, 159-64 (corn), 164-71 (wheat), 168-71 (grain-elevators and flour-mills). 
 
 I>oage, 36-40 (agricultural centers), 137-41 (plains), 201-5 (kinds of soil). 
 
 TE.VCHER'S .'\DDlTIO.\AL REFEREN'CE: 
 
 Shalcr, Story of our Continent, 121-3, 189-90 (the prairies), 131-2 (tornadoes), 201-2 
 
 (the former buffalo). 
 Ilerbcrtson, .xxxii (the region summarized), .x.xxiii (its products), 128-9 (Minnesota), 
 
 129-32 (.Mississippi X'alley), 134-0 (Missouri). 
 Rcdway, .\cw basis, i 13-16. 
 
 Brigham, 100-2 (blue-grass Kentucky), 142 (extent of the prairies), 143-6, 15562 (his- 
 torical sketch of the prairie region), 148-51 (the prairies described), 151-4 (the prairies 
 
 in their making), 154 (prairie climate), 155 (prairie coal). 
 Rcdway's .Advanced geography, 37-8 (agriculture and the cereals), 58 (wheat and corn 
 
 notes). 
 Fryc's .Advanced geography. 77-8 (wheat and corn notes). 
 Tarr & .Mc.Murry, Ohio Supplement, 37-41 (agriculture in Ohio). 
 .Adams, 17-18 (the prairies as homes for men), 57-73, 79-82 (cereals and other farm 
 
 products). 
 Chi»holm, 57-66 (wheat), 67-9 (corn), 70-5 (varied products). 
 Shalor, Asrtccts, 300-30 (origin and nature of soils), 
 fjilbrrt & Brigham, 94-6 (origin anil nature "f soils), 160-7. 323-4 (the making of the 
 
 prairies), 346-50 (foods).
 
 THE CONTINENT OF NORTH AMERICA. 1 09 
 
 Written ^^^ork. 
 
 1. Locate the prairie region and describe the prairies. 
 
 2. X^ame the chief products, and describe one of the great farms. 
 
 3. Compare the prairie farms with a typical eastern farm, say in New 
 
 England. 
 
 2. Most of the people liz'c on farms or in fozcns; bnf several great cities 
 have grown np along the rivers. 
 
 Contrast this western community, scattered in single farms and small 
 towns over vast, flat expanses, with that of the eastern seaboard, where 
 an enormous population is closely huddled in great cities, piled vertically, 
 sometimes for twenty stories, and where a wild-flower is a curiosity. Note, 
 however, the several large cities which have grown up on lake or river, 
 as the centers of commerce and transportation for this region. Consider 
 the riyer cities more particularly here, as the lake cities are dealt with in the 
 next region studied. Let the fact remain that the typical life of the region 
 is agricultural. 
 
 PUPILS' RE.\DINGS: 
 
 Carpenter. 156-8 (Mississippi as a waterway). 
 
 Smith. 96-101 (the Ohio River and its cities), 155-63 (cities and people along the upper 
 Mississippi and Missouri). 157-8 (St. Louis), 164-70 (Minnesota and Dalcota). 
 
 King, Fourth Book, 43-7 (St. Louis). 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Second Book, 269-76 (the cities along the great rivers), 238-41 (people 
 of the farms), 236-8 (Mississippi as a waterway). 
 
 Our country west, 195-6 (prairie schooners), 197-202 (prairie signs), 203-7 (life in Da- 
 kota), 209-11 (the coyote), 212-16 (boy life on the prairie). 
 
 Rocheleau, 154-8 (life on the great farms). 
 
 Rupert, 49-52 (life in Iowa), 59-69 (the opening of Oklahoma), 39-45 (Minneapolis and 
 her flour-mills). 
 
 Our country east, 28-30 (winter sport in ]Minnesota). 
 
 McMaster, 169-70 (the rivers as old-time waterways). 
 
 Dodge, 30-2 (centers of life). 
 
 TEACHER'S ADDITIONAL REFERENCE: 
 
 Shaler. Story of our continent, 111-12 (Mississippi as a waterway). 
 
 Herbertson, 136-9 (Louisville), 134-6 (Missouri towns and farms). 129-32 (Mississippi 
 
 as a waterway). 
 Brigham. 165-72 (the people and cities of the prairies). 
 Tarr & McMurry. Ohio Supplement, 73-85 f cities of Ohio). 
 Adams, 22-6 (the sites of cities), 151-2 (river cities). 
 Chisholm, 382-3 ("the Mississippi as a waterway), 395-6 (the cities). 
 Ralph, 388-412 (St. Louis intimately described). 
 Dryer, 68-74 (the Mississippi and its branches). 
 Shaler, Aspects, 186-8 (floods of the Mississippi). 
 Gilbert & Brigham, 66-9 (the Mississippi system). 
 
 Written Work. 
 
 1. Compare life on the prairies with life along the Atlantic seaboard. 
 
 2. What part do the rivers play in the commerce and industry of the 
 
 prairie region? 
 
 3. Name the important cities of this region and give a little description 
 
 of one of them. 
 
 3. TJic Manunoth Cave is a famous feature of Kentucky. 
 
 This great cave is only a larger example of the caverns occurring in all 
 limestone regions. It is worth while, therefore, besides exhibiting its pic- 
 turesque aspect, to show its relationship to caverns and natural bridges 
 generally. Readings have therefore been cited on the Natural Bridge of 
 \*irginia, although it lies in another region.
 
 no teachers' handbook of geography. 
 
 PUPILS' READINGS: 
 
 Our country east, 57-64 (the Mammoth Cave). 
 
 Tohonnot, Reader, 122-5 (Natural Bridge), 125-36 (Mammoth Cave). 
 
 farr & McMurry, Second Book, 242-3 (Alammoth Cave). 
 
 Smith, 118-20 (Mammoth Cave). 
 
 Eggleston, 147-52 (an adventure at the Natural Bridge). 
 
 Shaler, First Book in geology, 74-87 (the Mammoth Cave e.xplained). 
 
 TEACHER'S ADDITIONAL REFERENCE: 
 
 Shaler, Story of our continent, 140-5 (Mammoth Cave, and caverns generally). 
 Shaier, Aspects, 98-123 (the making of caverns). 
 Gilbert & Brigham, 98-100 (caverns and cavern life). 
 Dryer, 102-5 (how caverns are formed). 
 
 Redway's Advanced geography, 14-15 (caverns explained). 
 Herbertson, 104-7 (Mammoth Cave). 
 
 Written Work. 
 
 1. Describe the natural process by which most caves are formed. 
 
 2. Tell how natural bridges are formed. 
 
 3. Describe the Mammoth Cave. 
 
 Text-book Review. 
 
 The pertaining material in the text-book is now to be used as a summary 
 and review. 
 
 Redway's Advanced geography, 14, 37-8, 66-8, 72-7. 
 Frye's Advanced geography, 106-14, 8, 77-81. 
 Tarr & McMurry, Second Book, 234-80. 
 Tarr & McMurry, Introductory geography, 167-75. 
 
 THE GREAT LAKE REGION. 
 (Read " Xote on ^Method," p. 53.) 
 
 Formal Geography of the Region. 
 
 Draw a blackboard map of the Great Lakes and the country immediately 
 tributary. Use this in conjunction with the text-book map of this region and 
 teach the following locations, together with the oral and written spelling : * 
 
 Minnesota. Wisconsin, }^Iichigan, Indiana, Ohio, Pennsylvania, New York, 
 Province of Ontario. 
 
 Chicago, Cleveland. Bufifalo ; Duluth, ^lilwaukee, Detroit. 
 
 Lakes Superior, Alichigan, Huron, Erie, Ontario; St. Lawrence River; 
 "Soo" Canal, Erie Canal, Wclland Canal; Niagara Falls. 
 
 Test. 
 
 The correct filling of an outline map (see foot-note, p. 14). 
 
 Lesson Units. 
 
 1 . 'i"he Lakes are inland seas of fresh water, with great commercial ports ; 
 and their waters make Niagara Falls. 2. The Lake Superior region has our 
 main supply of white pine ; here, too. are the greatest known deposits of iron 
 and copper; and westward of the Lakes lies the great wheat region. 
 
 I. The Lakes are inland seas of fresh water, 7<'itli ij^reat eoiiiinercial ports; 
 and Iheir waters make Niagara Falls. 
 
 P.ring out the vastncss of the ( Ireat Lakes. Steamers travel their length. 
 with no land in sight fr«r many hours at a time. Note the enormous traffic 
 
 *.Sce note on drills, p. 50.
 
 THE CONTIXEXT OF NORTH AMERICA. I I I 
 
 on these lakes. The "Soo" Canal and the Detroit River each pass about 
 three times as much freight as is sent through the Suez Canal. More tons of 
 freight pass the " Soo "" than New York harbor receives from its combined 
 ocean traffic. Xote, however, that this freight of the Lakes is limited to a 
 few varieties of heavy raw products. The eastward bound boats carry wheat 
 (or flour), white pine lumber, iron, and copper. The cargoes traveling the 
 other way are of somewhat greater variety, but their chief bulk is coal. 
 
 PUPILS' READINGS: 
 
 Carpenter, 172-9, 190-5 (the Great Lakes as a waterway), 172 (Duluth), 172 (whaleback 
 
 steamers), 172-4 (the enormous traffic), 176-9 (ihe "Soo"), 190-5 (the lake cities), 
 
 195-202 (Niagara), 193-4 (Erie Canal). 
 Tarr & ]\IcMurry, Second Book, 267-8 (Chicago Drainage Canal), 261-9 (the lake ports). 
 Our country east, 16-19 (winter fishing on Lake Huron), 9-15 (St. Clair Tunnel), 3-8 
 
 harnessing Niagara), 31-4 (Lake Superior). 
 Smith, 80-96 (a cruise from port to port on the Great Lakes), 102-9 (Chicago), 83-7 
 
 (Niagara). 
 Eggleston. 97-101 (a legend of Niagara). 
 
 Rupert, 29-36 (Lake Superior and its ports), 36-9 (Chicago). 
 Carroll, Third Book, 63-74 (the Great Lakes as a waterway), 66-72 (the "Soo" Canal), 
 
 23-7 (Niagara). 
 Chamberlain, Fed, 24-31 (the Chicago stock yards). 
 Shaler, First Book in geology, 11 7-18 (Niagara in its making), 125-9 (the making of the 
 
 lakes). 
 Dodge, 30-2 (centers of life), 33-6 (commercial centers), 113-16 (the character of lakes), 
 
 127-32 (how moraines are made), 132-6 (work ot the great ice-sheet). 
 
 TEACHER'S ADDITIONAL REFERENCE: 
 
 Shaler, Story of our continent, 105-7 (oddities of the St. Lawrence basin). 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, New York Supplement, 47-53 (Buffalo and Niagara). 
 
 Herbertson, 65-8 (Niagara Falls), 65 (the "Soo" Canal), 95-9 (the Mohawk waterway 
 
 to New York), 118 (^illwaukee), 130-1 (the Great Lakes as a waterway), 117, 132-4 
 
 (Chicago), xxxi (the lake ports). 
 Brigham, 105-8 (the Great Lakes, historically), 108-11 (economic effect of Niagara), 11 1-26 
 
 (the lakes in their making), 27-41 (the Great Lakes as a waterway), 140-1 
 
 (the Chicago Drainage Canal). 
 Redway's Advanced geography, 42-3 (great cities). 
 
 Tarr & McMurry. Ohio Supplement, 12-14 (Lake Erie), 75-80 (Cleveland). 
 Adams, 38-45 (water transportation), 152-4 (the lakes as a waterway). 
 Chisholm, 372-3 (the Great Lakes and their canals). 
 
 Dryer, 92-5 (the making of the lakes), 95-101 (Niagara River and falls). 
 Davis, 339-44 (the making of the lakes). 
 Shaler, Aspects, 161-3 (the making of Niagara). 
 Gilbert & Brigham, 36 (the low divides of the St. Lawrence basin), 38-42 (Niagara 
 
 Falls), 60-2 (lakes), 69-70 (the Great Lakes as a waterway), 132-50 (the glacial 
 
 period, and the lakes), 155-8 (the Great Lakes basin). 
 
 Xote that the various canals were made necessary by rapids or falls; 
 devote a passing study to the working of locks. 
 
 Written Work. 
 
 1. Give some facts that show the size of the Great Lakes. 
 
 2. Make some comparisons to show the enormous amount of the freight 
 
 traffic. 
 
 3. Name the chief articles of freight carried east, and one that is carried 
 
 west. 
 
 4. Why are the canals necessary? 
 
 5. Why are locks necessary? 
 
 6. Tell how a vessel goes through the locks. 
 
 7. Locate and describe Niagara Falls. 
 
 8. X^'ame the principal lake ports and describe one of them. 
 
 2. The Lake Superior region has our main supply of zvhite pine; here, too, 
 are the greatest knozvn deposits of iron and copper; and westziwd of the 
 Lakes lies the great n'heat region.
 
 112 TEACHERS HANDBOOK OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 The wheat region has already been studied, and needs now to be merely 
 included as one of the contributory regions to the lake commerce. Localize 
 the four great product areas in your blackboard sketch. (See maps in 
 Adams' Com. Geog.) Associate Lake Superior, particularly, with the 
 country's supply of iron and steel. Show that the Alichigan-Superior country 
 has superseded Elaine and other regions as a source of white pine. Discuss 
 the possibility of exhausting our lumber supply. 
 
 PUPILS' READINGS: 
 
 Chase & Clow, Vol. I, 48-52 (copper, in general), 67-90 (iron and steel), 121-5 (lumber). 
 
 Parker, 253-63 (about copper). 
 
 Rupert, 30-31 (the iron country). 
 
 Carroll, Third Book. 75 (copper mines), 79-81 (lumber). 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Second Book, 254-5 (building stone), 256-8 (greatest iron region in 
 
 the world), 258-60 (Lake Superior copper), 260-1 (other minerals of the lake region), 
 
 127-32 (lumber), 252-4 (Great Lake lumber region). 
 Carpenter, 179-82 (Lake Superior iron), 182-4 (copper), 184-9 (lumber). 
 Hradish, 39-49 (a logging-camp). 
 Industries of today, 59-07 (lumbering). 
 Dodge, 43-6 (lumbering centers). 
 
 Our country east, 20-7 (dog sledging in the pineries), 233-7 (lumber). 
 Rocheleau, Products, 9-36, 46-50 (lumbering). 
 
 TEACHER'S ADDITIONAL REFERENCE: 
 
 Herbertson, 50-55 (a typical lumber-canip), 59-62 (a forest fire). 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, New England Supplement, 38-42 (lumber and pulp). 
 
 Redway, New basis, 109-10. 
 
 Adams, 107-12 (lumber trade of the United States). 
 
 Chisholm, 389-90 (Lake Superior iron). 
 
 Gilbert & Brigham, 319-23 (forests of North America). 
 
 Oxley, 197-219 (from forest to floor). 
 
 \\'ritten Work. 
 
 1. Describe a logging camp. 
 
 2. Tell how iron is obtained. 
 
 3. Tell how copper is obtained. 
 
 4. Explain the difference between iron and steel. 
 
 5. !Make a sketch map showing the iron, copper, lumber, and wheat regions 
 
 tributary to the Great Lakes. 
 
 Text-book Review. 
 
 The pertaining material in the text-book is now to be used as a summary 
 and review. 
 
 Redway's Advanced geography, 39, 42-3, 66-8, 73-7. 
 Erye's Advanced geography. 78, 83-4, 106-10. 
 Tarr & McMurry, Second Book, 252-69. 
 Tarr & McMurry, Introductory geography, 167-75. 
 
 THE GRAZING REGION. 
 (Read " Note on Method," p. 53.) 
 
 Formal Geography of the Region. 
 
 Draw a blackboard map of the states named below, and using it in con- 
 junction with the text-book map of the region, teach the following locations.* 
 
 Teach also the oral and written spelling: 
 
 Texas, r)kIahoma, Indian Territory, Kansas, Nebraska, New Mexico, 
 Colorado, Wyoming, Montana. 
 
 Omaha, Kansas City ; Missouri River ; Rocky Mountains. 
 
 •.Sec note on drills, p. 50.
 
 THE COXTLXEXT OF XORTH AMERICA. II3 
 
 Test. 
 
 The correct filling of an outline map (see foot-note, p. 14). 
 
 Lesson Units. ' 
 
 I. The east slope of the Rocky Mountain Plateau is too dry for farming-, 
 but vast herds of cattle are raised. 2. Here lives a special type of man, the 
 cowboy. 
 
 1. The east slope of the Rocky Moinifain Plateau is too dry for fanning, 
 but vast herds of cattle are raised. 
 
 Upward of twenty inches of rainfall is needed for any sort of agriculture. 
 The country between the looth meridian and the Rocky Mountains receives 
 less than this, and is thus debarred to the farmer. Enough rain falls, how- 
 ever, to furnish food for countless thousands of cattle and sheep ; and so this 
 great region is given over to herding. 
 
 PUPILS' READINGS: 
 
 Chamberlain, Clothed, 59-71 (on a Mqntana sheep-ranch). 
 
 Smith, 140-5 (a Texas cattle-ranch). 
 
 Rupert, 7-8 (the vast cattle country). 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Second Book, 217-1I8 (the Texas grazing region), 248-52 (the cattle 
 
 on the plains), 265-6 (stockyards at Chicago), 302-5 (Montana sheep-ranches), 297-8 
 
 (the arid country). 
 Fairbanks, Home geography, 194-7 (stock-raising). 
 
 Chamberlain, Fed, 18-24 (the cattle country), 25-31 (Chicago stockyards). 
 Carpenter, 258 (sheepherders and prairie-dogs). 
 King, Fifth Book, 1-12 (life on the cattle-ranches). 
 Our country west, 217-21 (ranch life), 228-32 (the great cattle trails), 233-5 (language 
 
 of cattle brands), 236-9 (breaking a broncho), 240-3 (wild horses), 195-7 (prairie 
 
 schooners), 197-203 (prairie signs), 203-9 (herding in Dakota), 209-12 (the hated 
 
 coyote), 212-16 (a boy on the prairie). 
 Industries of today, 12-18 (ranch life). 
 Carver & Pratt, 129-32 (the grazing lands). 
 Johonnot, Reader, 226-33 (the cattle lands of Argentina: descriptive also of similar 
 
 scenes in the United States). 
 Dodge, 40-3 (grazing centers). 
 
 TEACHER'S ADDITIONAL REFERENCE: 
 
 Shaler, Story of our continent, 171-3 (the arid region). 
 
 Herbertson. 143-4 (Nebraska cattle), 144-5 (the Platte River), 146-7 (the "Bad Lands"). 
 
 Tarr & McMurry. Texas Supplement, 34-6 (great Texas cattle-ranches). 
 
 Red way. New basis, 11 6- 17. 
 
 Brigham. 230-54 (the arid and semi-arid regions of the west), 238-9 (the Staked Plain 
 
 of Texas), 239-54 (irrigation). 
 Channing. Students' history United States, 8-11. 
 Adams, 76-81 (cattle industry). 
 Davis, 45-7. 
 Dryer, 332-4. 
 Gilbert & Brigham, 327-8 (the grazing region). 
 
 Written A\^ork. 
 
 Locate the grazing region and tell why it is located there. 
 
 2. Here lizrs a special type of man, the cowboy. 
 
 Show how the region makes the man. The New Yorker is a well-groomed 
 business man. The people of Newfoundland are fishermen. The men of 
 the mountains are miners. Here in the grazing lands the arid country and 
 its one great occupation has produced a type unlike any other — the American 
 cowboy. 
 
 PUPILS' READINGS: 
 
 Carroll, Third Book, 139-41 (cowboy life), 81-5 (stockyards), 150-2 (Indian cowboys). 
 Fairbanks, Home geography, 194-7 (stock-raising). 
 Rupert, 73-6 (cowboy life).
 
 114 TEACHERS' HANDBOOK OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Chamberlain, Fed, 18-24 (cowboys and cattle). 
 
 King, Fifth Book, 1-12 (cowboy life). 
 
 Our country west, 222-^2 (life of the cowboy), 232-5 (language of cattle brands), 236-9 
 
 (breaking a broncho), 240-3 (chasing wild horses). 
 Wood, y7 (cowboys of Argentina). 
 Johonnot, 226-33 (Argentina cowboys). 
 Carpenter, 258 (sheepherders). 
 Industries of today, 12-18 (ranch life). 
 Tarr & McMurry, Second Book, 217-18, 250-2 (life of the cowboy). 
 
 TEACHER'S ADDITIONAL REFERENCE: 
 
 Hough, Story of the cowboy (an intimate and readable description of the cowboy, his 
 
 work, and his ways of living). 
 Lummis, A New Mexico David (a good piece of local color). 
 Redway, New basis, 68. 
 
 Written Work. 
 
 1. Describe a round-up. 
 
 2. Tell about the language of cattle brands. 
 
 3. Tell how the cattle are sent to market. 
 
 4. Where are the great stockyards, and what part do they play in the cattle 
 
 industry ? 
 
 Text-book Review. 
 
 The pertaining material in the text-book is now to be used as a summary 
 and review. 
 
 Redway's Advanced geography, 38, 75-7, 83-6, 58. 
 Frye's Advanced geography, 80-1, 111-12. 
 Tarr & McMurry, Second Book, 248-52, 273-5. 
 Tarr & McMurry, Introductory geography, 167-75. 
 
 THE PLATEAU REGION. 
 (Read " Note on Method," p. 53.) 
 
 Formal Geography of the Region. 
 
 Using a blackboard map of the states named below, together with the text- 
 book map of the region, teach the following locative features.* Teach also 
 the oral and written spelling : 
 
 Rocky Mountains, Sierra Nevada Mountains, Pike's Peak. 
 
 Great Basin. Yellowstone Park, Great Salt Lake, Colorado River. 
 
 Montana, Idaho, Wyoming, Colorado, Utah, Nevada, New Mexico, 
 Arizona. 
 
 Denver, Salt Lake Cit}'. 
 
 Test. 
 
 The correct filling of an oudine map (see foot-note, p. 14). 
 
 Lesson Units. 
 
 I. H<re is a succession of elevated deserts, surrounded and traversed by 
 rugged mountain chains. 2. The region is thinly peopled by miners, cowboys, 
 and wandering Indian tribes; the cities are few and far apart. 3. This 
 plateau is one of tJie great gold and silver regions of the world. 
 
 *Sec note on drills, p. 50.
 
 THE CONTINENT OF NORTH AMERICA. 1 15 
 
 I. Here is a succession of elevated deserts, surrounded and traversed by 
 rugged mountain chains. 
 
 Draw again the middle profile in Fig. 6 and lead the pupil to conceive this 
 reffion as a continuous elevated mass between the Rockies and the Sierras. 
 Note the altitude, here and there, not for memorizing but for comparison. 
 Great Salt Lake is 4,200 feet above the sea; Denver is 5,200 (about a mile). 
 These may be regarded as indicating the average of the plateau altitudes. 
 ]\It. Whitney, in the Sierras, is the highest peak — nearly 15,000 feet. Pike's 
 Peak and Long's Peak, in Colorado, are over 14,000 feet. Compare these 
 altitudes with those in Mexico, p. 69, and in Alaska, p. 91. 
 
 Trace the confines of the Great Basin by its water partings. It extends 
 east and west from the Sierras to the Wahsatch, and north and south from 
 the Columbia divide to that of the Colorado. The Great Basin sends no 
 water to the sea. 
 
 Locate the Great American Desert, west of Salt Lake, and the Alojave and 
 Colorado Deserts, in southeastern California. Let the pupil feel that these 
 are merely local names for one vast arid region. 
 
 Teach why desert lakes are salt, and use Great Salt Lake as a type. For 
 a long period of time it has been "drying up." Tell about the old beach lines 
 halfway up the mountains surrounding the lake. 
 
 Go over the causes for this land of deserts: i. The Sierras intercept 
 the moisture-bearing winds ("prevailing westerlies" or return trades) and 
 California gets the benefit, while Nevada remains one of the most absolute 
 deserts in the world, (p. yy.) 2. That great rain distributer, the cyclone, 
 seems rarely to develop upon the plateau ; and if it did, the lay of land and 
 water is such that no rain could result (see cyclone rains, p. 75). Here 
 and there on the plateau the mountains rise high enough to be rain (or 
 snow) producers. The Colorado receives practically all of its waters from 
 a few of these high locations. Like other desert rivers, it loses, instead of 
 gains, as it flows toward the sea. 
 
 Devote much reading and discussion to the scenic aspect of the region, 
 for which many readings are cited below. 
 
 PUPILS' READINGS: 
 
 Johonnot, Reader, 155-8, 352-60 (gej'sers of the Yellowstone), 375-82 (Colorado scenery), 
 
 20-23 (the Great Basin). 
 Tarr & McMurry, Introductory geography, 17-27 (the Rocky Mountain plateau). 
 Eggleston, :58-7i (Rocky Mountain stories), 178-82 (Colorado Canyon). 
 King, Second Book, 232-50 (Canadian Rockies). 
 
 Dodge, 141-3 (plateaus), 144-53 (mountains), 154-7 (volcanoes and lava), 164 (geysers). 
 Kirby, Fireside, 264-96 (short readings about deserts). 
 Tarr & McMurry, Third Book, 57-9, 419-21 (deserts in general). 
 Hall, 178-80 (the deserts). 
 Stockton, 222-4 (mirage). 
 
 .Shaler, First Book in geology, 125-6 (salt lakes). 
 Tarr & McMurry, Second Book, 283-8 (the plateau), 297-8 (irrigation), 299 (the Utah 
 
 region), 286-7 (the Great Basin), 308-10 (Yellowstone Park), 310 (Colorado Canyon). 
 Our country west, 67-121 (various Rocky Mountain sketches), 139-43 (the Sierras), 161-7 
 
 (the Colorado Canyon), 149-53 (Death Valley), 153-61 (Nevada, the sagebrush state), 
 
 173-8 (irrigation), 249-51 (cactus). 
 Fairbanks, Stories of Mother Earth, 62-7 (Mohave Desert). 77-82 (the borax country), 83-8 
 
 (Salton Lake region), 89-95 (Mono Lake), 96-102 (Colorado River). 
 Fairbanks, Home geography, 97-107, 172-6 (mountains), 226-8 (the desert). 
 Tarr & McMurry, California Supplement, 92-6 (the Great Basin), 97-8 (borax and salt). 
 Jordan, 83-90 (the coyote of the desert). 
 Dodge, 191-2 (causes of the desert), 207-8 (irrigation).
 
 ri6 
 
 TEACHERS HANDBOOK OF GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Rupert, 52-3 (on Pike's Peak), 54-6 (Great Salt Lake), 76-9 (mountain-climbing). 
 
 King, Fifth Book, 14-32 (Colorado Rockies), 112-23 (hunting in the Rockies), 191-3 (irri- 
 gation), 236-42 (the southwestern deserts). 
 
 Carpenter, 235-41, 256-8 (the Colorado Rockies), 263-4 (Great Salt Lake), 262-3 (irriga- 
 tion), 284-9 (falls and geysers of the Yellowstone). 
 
 Smith, 183-7 (the Yellowstone geysers^. 188-92 (the deserts), 193-4 (Great Salt Lake). 
 
 Carroll, Third Book, 144-6 (Yellowstone Park), 147-9 (Great Salt Lake). 
 TEACHER'S ADDITIONAL REFERENXE: 
 
 Shaler, Story of our continent, 146-8 (Great Salt Lake), 172-3 (the arid country), 191-2 
 (the making of an alkali desert), 110, 138-40 ((Colorado Canyon, and canyons gen- 
 erally), 90-3 (the Rocky Mountain plateau). 
 
 Herbertson, 180-4 (the Great Basin), 189-91 (Mojave Desert), 1-2 (our scenery summa- 
 rized), 153-62 (the Rockies), 162-7 (the Cascades), 74-7 (the Canadian Rockies), 
 170-1 (the great divide), 171-80 (the Yellowstone geysers), 184-7 (the Colorado 
 plateau), 187-9 (Colorado Canyon), 180-2 (the Wahsatch Mountains). 
 
 Redway, New basis, 68, 70, 77-8, 89, 93. 
 
 Brigham, 230-54 (the arid western plateaus; irrigation discussed), 255-85 (the Rockies ae- 
 scribed), 245-8 (Great Salt Lake and the Great Basin). 
 
 Ballou, Footprints, 3-4. 
 
 Stoddard, California lecture, 7-20 (Mojave Desert). 
 
 Stoddard, (Canada lecture, 182-228 (the splendid Canadian Rockies). 
 
 Stoddard, Yellowstone Park lecture. 
 
 Stoddard, Colorado Canyon lecture. 
 
 Redway's Advanced geography, 15 (Salt Lake explained), 17 (Colorado Canyon explained). 
 
 Lummis, Strange corners, 28-42 (the southwestern deserts), 30-42 (the Great American 
 Desert), 183-97 (the lava-flows and arid vastnesses of the great plateau), 8-19 (Colo- 
 rado Canyon intimately described), 20-7 (petrified forest of Arizona), 142-60 (great 
 natural bridges of Arizona). 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Utah Supplement, 2-8 (the making of the Great Basin), 22-7 (the Great 
 Basin region), 56-63 (Great Salt Lake clearly described), 83-5 (irrigation), 68-78 
 (plant life of the desert), 80-2 (animals of the desert), 19-20 (snowslides), 32-4 (Utah 
 scenery), 65-7 (climate of the Great Basin), 27, 31, etc. (these summaries in italics 
 constitute a good description of the desert plateau). 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, California Supplement, 19-20 (plants of the desert), 81-2 (irrigation). 
 
 Adams, 7, 15-16. 
 
 Dryer, 332-4, 343-7 (plateau climate), 304-6, 318-19 (Great Basin and Salt Lake), 305-7 
 (salt lakes in general), 319-24 (plants and animals of the deserts), 89-91 (the 
 Colorado River and its canyon), 105-7 (the making of geysers), 178-89 (the making 
 of the Rocky Mountain plateau), 210-16, 221-2 (the "bad lands" and other curious 
 forms of the plateau, in their making). 
 
 Shaler, Aspects, 193-6 (irrigation). 
 
 Gilbert & Brigham, 158-60 (the basin of Great Salt Lake), 231-2 (rainfall of the arid 
 plateau), i:^-32 (gorges and canyons), 38-9 (falls), 70-1 (Colorado River), 89-93 
 (scenic forms in the arid plateau), 101-3 (hot springs and geysers of the Yellow- 
 stone), 119-28 (inland glaciers), 168-75 (the Colorado Rockies), 176-9 (the Rocky 
 Mountain highland in general), 189-92 (climate and life in the Rockies). 
 
 Davis, 141-6 (plateaus, and the development of canyons), 161-74 (how the mountains 
 were made), 175-6 (mountains as climate-makers), 178-9 (avalanches), 301-3 (desert 
 rivers), 303-4 (the Bad Lands). 
 
 \\'ritten Work. 
 
 There is too much work here for a sino^le lesson. The teacher will have 
 to divicie it up or else select. 
 
 1. Describe the surface of the Rocky Mountain hiohlands. 
 
 2. Describe the climate. 
 
 3. Tell what you can of the causes of this climate. 
 
 4. Describe Great Salt Lake, and tell why it is salt. 
 
 5. Describe the Colorado Canyon. 
 
 6. Describe the geysers of the Yellowstone. 
 
 7. Locate and describe the Great Rasin. 
 
 8. Describe Death Valley. 
 
 9. Write what you can about Rocky Mountain scenery. 
 
 2. The region is thinly peopled by miners, eozvboys, and icandering Indian 
 tribes; the cities are few and far apart. 
 
 Contrast these wild, lonely, and unstable aspects (if life with those of the 
 East, previously studied. 
 
 IMIMLS' RE.XDLXGS: 
 
 Johonnot, Ucader, 319-25 (the Cliff Dwellers). 
 I<ii(icrt, 703 (Denver). 90-2 (Lcadvillc). 
 Tarr & McMurry. .Second Book, 306-8 (Indians of the deserts), 312 (cities of the plateau).
 
 THE CONTINENT OF NORTH AMERICA. II7 
 
 McMaster, 22-3 (the Pueblo Indians), 188-9 (the coming of the Mormons), 220-7 (rise of 
 the new West). 
 
 Smith, 179-83 (people of the plateau). 
 
 Carroll, Third Book, 119-21 (the Cliff Dwellers). 
 
 Our country west, 167-73 (cave dwellers of Arizona), 178-83 (old Santa Fe), 183-9 (peo- 
 ple of New Mexico), 189-92 (adobe houses), 173-8 (irrigation). 
 
 Miln, 87-111 (Indian customs and Indian babies). 
 
 Kirby, Fireside, 51-69 (Indian stories), 264-96 (desert types). 
 
 Carpenter, 259-61 (Salt Lake City and the Mormons), 262-3 (irrigation), 290-7 (Indian 
 tribes of the plateau), 295-7 (pueblo builders). 
 
 King, Fifth Book, 191-3 (irrigation). 
 
 Dodge, 215-16 (cliff dwellers), 216-17 (pueblo builders), 207-8 (irrigation). 
 
 TEACHER'S ADDITIONAL REFERENCE: 
 
 Lummis, Strange corners), 43-121 (Indians of the desert), 43-57 (Moqui snake-dance), 
 58-65 (the Navajos), 66-74, 90-3 (the strange inhabitants of New Mexico), 75-89 
 (Indian magicians and medicine-men), 94-121, 134-41 (pueblos and cliff dwellings), 
 198-207 (the Navajo blanket-makers), 208-18 (Indian hunters), 219-27 (the Indian 
 idea of education), 228-61 (strange customs of the desert Indians), 262-70 (Spanish 
 ideals in New Mexico). 
 
 Dryer, 224-6 (influence of mountains upon life). 
 
 Tarr & !McMurry, Utah Supplement, 83-5 (irrigation). 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, California Supplement, 81-2 (irrigation). 
 
 Shaler, Aspects, 193-6 (irrigation). 
 
 Herbertson, 191-3 (Navajo Indians). 
 
 Brigham, 275-9 (historical sketch of the Rocky Mountain region). 
 
 Redway, 34 (sparse population). 
 
 Written Work. 
 
 1. \Miat various kinds of people make up the population of the Rocky 
 
 Mountain Plateau? 
 
 2. Describe the life of the In(Jians. 
 
 3. Tell about the pueblo builders. 
 
 4. Tell about the Cliff Dwellers. 
 
 5. What is the purpose of irrigation, and how is it carried on? 
 
 3. Here is one of the great gold and silver regions of the zvorld. 
 
 There are three general methods of mining gold. Placer mining consists 
 in merely washing the loose gravel of stream-beds, by means of sluices, 
 "cradles," or other devices, and securing the free gold, in various-sized 
 particles ranging from "colors," or tiny Hakes, to nuggets of great value. 
 Hydraulic mining is this placer work carried along on a gigantic scale. 
 Whole gravel hills — the deposit of ancient streams — are rapidly torn down 
 by directing resistless streams of water against them from powerful nozzles. 
 The gravel and water thus mixed are conducted through sluices in which 
 the free gold is collected by the aid of quicksilver. The third method is 
 quartz mining, in which gold-bearing rock is blasted out and passed through 
 a series of crushing machines. It finally becomes an impalpable mud, and 
 this is flowed over quicksilver-covered plates which gather the pulverized 
 gold and let the mud pass on. With some kinds of gold-bearing rock other 
 more intricate processes must be used. 
 
 Associate the plateau region with this third kind of mining. 
 
 PUPILS' READINGS: 
 
 Chase & Clow, 37-44 (gold), 45-7 (silver). 
 
 Fairbanks, Stories of Mother Earth, 161-8 (down a gold mine), 177-83 (story of a nugget). 
 
 King, Fifth Book, 38-50 (minnig in the plateau region), 38-41 (silver-mining). 
 
 Smith, 194-5 (silver of Nevada). 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Second Book, 285-6 (gold veins), 288-90 (placer and hydraulic mining), 
 
 290-3 (quartz-mining). 
 Wood, 15-21 (deep in a mine). 
 
 Fairbanks, Home geography, 116-19 (gold and silver rnining). 
 Parker, 207-26 (gold in general), 237-41 (a silver mine). 
 
 Rocheleau, Minerals, 163-8, 187-92 (gold and silver in general), 177-80 (placer-muiing) , 
 180-3 (hydraulic mining), 183-6 (quartz-mining).
 
 ii8 teachers' handbook of geography. 
 
 Carroll, Third Book, 133-9 (gold-mining). 
 
 Chamberlain, Clothed, 222-5 (gold). 
 
 Carpenter, 239-41 (Rocky Mountain gold), J41-8 (a Colorado gold mine), 248-55 (a Utah 
 
 silver mine). 
 Dodge, 49-52 (mining centers). 
 
 TE.ACIIER'S ADDITIONAL REFERE.VCE: 
 
 Shaler, Story of our continent, 208 (the varied products of mines), 231-2 (silver and 
 
 copper). 
 Tarr & McMurry, Utah Supplement, 42-4 (for:nation of veins), 45-54 (gold mining on 
 
 the plateau). 
 Adams, 130-3 (gold and silver). 
 Redway, New basis, 90-2, 117-18. 
 Redway's Advanced geography, 85 (gold of the plateau). 
 
 Written Work. 
 
 1. Describe three kinds of goM mining. 
 
 2. Describe a Colorado gold mine. 
 
 Text-book Review. 
 
 The pertaining material of the text-book is now to be used as a summary 
 and review. 
 
 Redway's Advanced geography, 15, 29, 34, 85-7. 
 
 Frye's Advanced geography, 154-7. 
 
 Tarr & Mc-Murry, Second Book, 283-99, 302-12. 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Introductory geography, 178-9, 1S7. 
 
 PACIFIC REGION. 
 
 (Read " Xote on Method," p. 53.) 
 Formal Geography of the Region. 
 
 Draw a blackboard map of the states named, and, using it in conjunction 
 with the text-book map of the region, teach the following locations.* Teach 
 also the oral and written spelling: 
 
 California, Oregon, Washington. 
 
 Pacific Ocean, San Francisco Bay, Puget Sound. 
 
 Sierra Nevada, Cascade, Coast Range mountains. 
 
 Sacramento, San Joaquin, Columbia rivers. 
 
 Mts. Shasta, Whitney, Hood, Rainier. 
 
 Yosemitc, Death Valley, Lake Tahoe. 
 
 San Francisco, Seattle, Portland, Los Angeles. 
 
 Test. 
 
 The correct filling of an outline map (see foot-note. p. 14). 
 
 Lesson Units. 
 
 I. This region is wet in lliu norih and ih-\ in llic south; its temperatures 
 are mild ihrougliout the year. 2. It is a country of grand mountain scenery 
 and peaks of eternal snow. 3. Continuously willi Uic ])lakan, it is a region 
 rich in gold. 4. TJie opulent valleys of Calit'innia are world-famous for 
 their varied fruits. 5. Here is a great timber region, where grow the largest 
 trees on earth. 6. San I'Tancisco is a great ])(jrl. with a world-wide com- 
 merce at its wharves. 7. Tlie salmon-fisheries are imixirtant in the nortli, 
 and Puget Sound is a famous Iiarbor. 
 
 *Sec note on drills, p. 50.
 
 THE CONTINENT OF NORTH AMERICA. II9 
 
 I. TJiis region is zi'ct in the north and dry in iJtc south; its temperatures 
 arc mild throughout the year. 
 
 Oregon and Washington receive so much rain that the Oregonians are 
 dubbed "Webfeet." On the other hand, the extreme south of Cahfornia 
 receives so httle moisture that large areas are beyond the possibihties even 
 of irrigation. These two extremes merge gradually until at San Francisco 
 about twenty-three inches of rain is expected annually. Some of the northern 
 portions of California receive over eighty inches ; and the extreme southeast, 
 opposite the Arizona line, receives only three, or thereabouts. The Sierras 
 receive a heavy annual fall of rain and snow, principally on their western 
 slope, and greater in amount toward the north. Throughout the lowlands 
 of the Pacific region the year divides itself into two seasons — the wet and 
 the dry, as in the tropics. Snow is practically unknown to California, except 
 in the mountains, and the extreme north, which is several thousand feet in 
 elevation. 
 
 For this region there are two sorts of rain-bearing wind. The regular 
 westerlies shed a portion of their moisture regardless of season, wherever 
 the mountains rise high enough to wring moisture from them. The seasonal 
 rains of California have a different cause. They are brought by the cyclone 
 of the north Pacific (Fig. 9). The track of this cyclone is so far north in 
 summer that California does not reach into its rainy quarter. In winter the 
 cyclone track moves south (in the general migration of wind belts). This 
 movement brings to California her chief rain supply, heaviest in the north 
 and regularly lessening toward the south. 
 
 In teaching this subject in an upper grade, review at some length the 
 relations of (a) mountains to rain, and (b) cyclones to rain. See readings 
 in climate of South America, p. 47, and of North America, p. 75. 
 
 Concerning the mild temperatures of the Coast region, we need not com- 
 plicate the question by any reference to the Japanese Current or others. 
 It is being flatly stated by meteorologists nowadays that the ocean currents 
 have little to do with modifying land temperatures. The broad fact is that 
 the sea itself — the ivhole sea — is warmer in winter and cooler in summer than 
 the lands. A wind passing over the sea will carry the sea temperatures to 
 the contiguous lands. Therefore all the lands of the earth having prevailing 
 sea-winds (as in California, Norway, etc.) will have oceanic climates, which 
 are cooler in summer and warmer in winter than those normal to the con- 
 tinents. (Read " The Gulf Stream Myth," Scribners', vol. 31, p. 689 et seq.) 
 
 The mild temperatures of the Pacific States, British Columbia, and south- 
 ern Alaska may be referred, therefore, not to any ocean currents, but to the 
 "prevailing westerlies." or" "return trades," which sweep forever landward 
 from the mild Pacific. 
 
 Review this subject in Unit 3, page 74, for which teacher's readings are 
 there cited.
 
 I20 TEACHERS HANDBOOK OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 PUPILS' READINGS: 
 
 Sexton, 191-8 (climate of California). 
 
 Dodge, 190-2 (Pacific Coast rainfall), 207-8 (irrigation). 
 
 Smith, 188-92 (Mojave Desert), 199-203 (Oregon and Washington, in general), 205-6 
 (climate of southern California). 
 
 Carpenter, 264-5 (climate of California), 279-80, 283 (climate in the north), 262-3 (irri- 
 gation). 
 
 King, Fifth Book. 184-93 (climate of the Pacific Coast), 188-90 (climate of southern 
 California), 191-3 (irrigation). 
 
 Carroll, Third Book, 89-94 (climate of southern California). 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Second Book, 299 (the dry, irrigated south), 297-8 (irrigation). 
 
 Rupert, 57-8 (climate of the north and south contrasted), 85-7 (climate of southern 
 California). 
 
 Fairbanks, Stories of Mother Earth, 43-8 (rivers which are "upside down"), 62-7 (Mojave 
 Desert), 77-82 (the borax country), 83-8 (salt region of Salton Sea). 
 
 Our country west, 149-53 (Death Valley), 173-8 (irrigation). 
 
 TEACHER'S ADDITIONAL REFERENCE: 
 
 Brigham, 302-10 (Oregon and Washington in general), 230-54 (irrigation discussed). 
 
 Shaler, .Story of our continent, 182-3 (rains of the Pacific Coast). 
 
 Herbertson, 167-70 (Oregon in general), 196-200 (climate of southern California), 189-91 
 
 (Mojave Desert), 163 (climate of the northwest). 
 Stoddard, California lectures, 7-20 (Mojave Desert). 
 
 Lummis, Strange corners, 28-42 (the desert), 37-42 (Death Valley and Salton Sea). 
 Tarr & McMurry. LUah Supplement, 83-5 (irrigation). 
 Tarr & McMurry, California Supplement, 10 (streams of southern California), 15-18, 
 
 53-4 (climate of California), 19-20 (plants of the dry south), 74-8 (geography of 
 
 southern California), 81-2 (irrigation), 92-8 (the Mojave country). 
 California state introductory geography, 263-4 (climate of California). 
 Dryer, 306-7 (trades and anti-trades), 332-41 (Pacific Coast climate). 
 Davis, 29-33 (wind belts). 
 Shaler, Aspects, 193-6 (irrigation). 
 Gilbert & Brigham, 270-2, 228-33, 244-5 (^raiii and climate, Pacific Coast), 258-9 (cyclones), 
 
 256-60 (trades and westerlies). 
 
 Written Work. 
 
 1. Describe the climate, as to moisture, of the Pacific region. 
 
 2. Describe the ch'mate as to temperatures. 
 
 3. Explain the mild temperatures. 
 
 4. Try to explain the unequal rain distribution. 
 
 2. It is a counlry of ^raiul moiiiifain scenery and peaks of eternal snon'. 
 
 Examining the structure of this region we find the great interior valley 
 of California completely inclosed by mountain ranges, save where the 
 Golden Gate breaks through, in the west. These mountains, called the Coast 
 Ranges, in the west, and the Sierras, in the east, unite in the plateau of the 
 Shasta region and continue north as the Cascades. They unite also in the 
 south, and. passing over the San Bernardino Range, finally constitute the 
 peninsula of Lower California. 
 
 In Oregon and Washington, also, there is a great interior valley which 
 compares in some respects with that of California. It lies between the 
 Coast Ranges of those states and the Cascades, and pushes a great arm 
 eastward, breaking the Cascade Range and forming the Columbia River 
 Valley. 
 
 Through this great mountain region the scenic features are so plentiful 
 that, in teaching the topic, it is best to focus the recitations upon a few of the 
 most famous scenic units, say Yosemitc \'alley,_ Lake Tahoe, Mt. Shasta, 
 and Mt. Rainier. The readings may freely include dilier features of interest, 
 but the precipitate of the lessons, elicited in the discussions and tested in the 
 written work, should not be inclusive bevond these four.
 
 THE CONTINENT OF NORTH AMERICA. 121 
 
 PUPILS' READINGS: 
 
 Our country west, 139-43 (the Sierras). 
 
 Johonnot, Reader, 151-5 (geysers of (California), 365-75 (Lake Tahoe), 158-64 (Yosemite) 
 
 Carpenter, 273-4 (Yosemite). 
 
 Fairbanks, Stories of Mother Earth, 136-54 (Shasta and other volcanoes). 
 
 Fairbanks, Home geography, 97-1 11, 172-6 (mountains of California). 
 
 King, Fifth Book, 172-82 (Yosemite). 
 
 Carroll, Third Book, 1 08-11 (Yosemite and Big Trees). 
 
 Jordan, True tales, 91-9 (bear story). 
 
 Sexton, 133-44 (wild beasts of the Sierras), 199-208 (the lakes and varied scenery of 
 
 California) . 
 Dodge, 144-53 (mountains), 154-7 (volcanoes and lava), 164 (geysers). 
 
 TEACHER'S ADDITIONAL REFERENCE: 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, California Supplement. 1-7 (relief of California), 7-10 (drainage of 
 California), 23-4 (animal life of California), 38-44 (the Sierras), 47-9 (Yosemite), 
 49-50 (glaciers and lakes), 58-60 (Coast Range), 87-92 (mountains of northern 
 California). 
 
 California introductory geography, 258-62 (mountains and rivers of California). 
 
 Herbertson, 193-4 (Sierras). 194-6 (Yosemite), 162-7 (Cascades). 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Utah Supplement, 19-20 (snowslides). 
 
 Brigham, 287-96 (the Sierras and Coast Ranges). 
 
 Gilbert & Brigham, 101-3 (hot springs and geysers), 189-91 (climate and life in the 
 Sierras), 216-17, 206-8 (Mt. Shasta and other dead cones). 
 
 Dryer, 105-7 (the making of geysers). 
 
 Muir, 1-18, 48-73 (scenery of the Sierras), 20-35 (glaciers of the Sierras and Rockies), 
 36-47 (snows in the Sierras), 74-96 (passes in the Sierras), 98-124 (lakes of the Sier- 
 ras), 125-38 (highland meadows), 244-57, 271-5 (a storm in the Sierras), 258-70 
 (flood-time in the Sierras), 276-99 (the water-ousel), 226-42 (the Douglass squirrel), 
 300-24 (wild sheep of the Sierras), 325.-37 (Sierra foothills), 333-7 (the cave at 
 Murphy's), 338-81 (bee pastures of the Sierras). 
 
 Written Work. 
 
 1. Describe the mountain arrangement of the Pacific region. 
 
 2. Tell what you can about Yosemite. 
 
 3. Locate and describe Mt. Shasta. 
 
 4. Locate and describe Lake Tahoe. 
 
 5. Locate Mt. Rainier. 
 
 3. Continuously icith the p'latcau, it is a region rich in gold. 
 
 Bring out the effect of the discovery of gold upon the settlement of the 
 Pacific Coast. Note, also, that the early period was devoted wholly to placer 
 mining. Hydraulic mining followed, and now the bulk of the gold output 
 is from the quartz mines, although both placer and hydraulic mining con- 
 tinue on a limited scale in some localities. Review the lesson on these three 
 methods of mining (see page 117). 
 
 PUPILS' READINGS: 
 
 Sexton, 37-41 (discovery of gold in California). 41-8 (placer mining in the days of '49), 
 49-56 (the days of easy gold), 57-66 (crossing the plains in the gold rush), 67-74 
 (building the overland railroad). 
 
 McMaster, 182-6 (the gold rush of '49). 
 
 Carpenter, 239-41 (California gold), 241-8 (a quartz mine). 
 
 Chamberlain. Clothed, 222-5 (California gold). 
 
 Fairbanks, Home geographv, 116-19 (gold and silver mines). 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Second Book, 281-2, 285-6 (the gold of California), 288-90 (placer 
 and hydraulic mining), 290-3 (quartz mining). 
 
 Chase & Clow, \'ol. I, 37-44 (gold), 45-7 (silver). 
 
 Fairbanks, Stories of Mother Earth, 161-8 (down a gold mine), 169-75 (California quick- 
 silver), 177-83 (story of a nugget). 
 
 Parker, 207-26 (gold in general), 237-41 (a silver mine). 
 
 Rocheleau, Minerals, 163-8, 187-92 (gold and silver in general), 168-86 (gold in Califor- 
 nia), 177-80 (placer mining), 180-3 (hydraulic mining), 183-6 (deep mines jfnd stamp- 
 mills). 
 
 Wood, 15-21 (deep in a mine). 
 
 Eggleston, 171-7 (discovery of gold in California). 
 
 Rupert, 87-00 (discovery in California). 
 
 Carroll. Third Book, 133-9 (gold-mining). 
 
 King, Fifth Book, 45-6 (placer mining), 47-9 (hydraulic mining). 
 
 Dodge, 49-52 (mining centers). 
 
 TEACHER'S ADDITIONAL REFERENCE: 
 
 Brigham. ^92-3 (placer and hvdraulic gold). 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, California Supplement, 32-5 (discovery in California), 40-3 (gold- 
 mining), 96-8 (borax and salt).
 
 122 TE.ACHERS' HANDBOOK OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Adams, 130-3 (gold and silver). 
 
 Shaler, Aspects, 181-3 (gold under lava caps). 
 
 Shaler, Story of our continent, 228-30 (placer mining), 230-1 (hydraulic mining). 
 
 4. The Opulent valleys of California are zvorld-fanioits for their I'aricd 
 fruits. 
 
 A passing treatment of the more important fruit cultures will suffice. 
 Avoid going too deep into the actual processes of cultivation. Xote the rich 
 output of southern California, secured by irrigation. Correct the prejudice 
 that northern California is cold California. Note the successful cultivation 
 of oranges as far north as Sonoma Count}'. 39° north latitude. Even further 
 north, it is altitude, rather than latitude, that determines the temperatures. 
 Refer these conditions to the oceanic climate brought by the westerlies. 
 
 PUPILS' READINGS: 
 
 Smith, 205-13 (California vallej's). 
 
 Carpenter, 266-71 (fruit-ranches of California), 274 (Los Angeles). 
 
 King, Fifth Book, 128-9 (a great California fruit-ranch), 194-205 (southern California), 
 206-15 (the fruitful valleys), 216-25 (schools of California), 226-35 (the old Spanish 
 Missions). 
 
 Carroll, Third Book, 105-7 (Monterey), 101-2 (ostriches of southern California), 98-101 
 (wine and grapes), 94-6 (fruit-raising), 89-94 (southern California). 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Second Book, 299-302 (fruits of California). 
 
 Chamberlain, Fed, 165-74 (orange-groves), 174-84 (visit to a vineyard), 187-92 (walnut- 
 farms). 
 
 Our country west, 143-9 (raisin-making). 
 
 Beal, 169-214 (talks on various fruits). 
 
 Rupert. 56-7 (the bigness of a Californian's ideas). 
 
 Industries of today, 37-44 (California raisins). 
 
 Chamberlain, Clothed, 212-21 (a California ostrich-farm). 
 
 Sexton, 8-28 (the old Spanish days, and the missions), 30-6 (the early American period), 
 75-82 (the wheat of California), 83-91 (orchard, farm, and vineyard), 92-101 (oranges 
 and lemons), 102-10 (California's wild-flowers), 121-32 (birds of California), 145-58 
 (the fishing along California coasts), 159-68 (the Indians and the i)a(lres). 
 
 Winterburn, 9-26 (Indians of California), 27-42 (Indian legends), 97-170 (the padres 
 and their missions), 171-222 (Spanish days in California). 
 
 TEACHER'S ADDITIONAL REFERENCE: 
 
 Stoddard, California lecture, 20-102. 
 
 Ballou, Footprints, 5-10. 
 
 Rcdway, New basis, 118-19. 
 
 Herbcrtson, 196-200 (fruitful valleys in southern California). 
 
 Muir, 338-81 (bee-pastures). 
 
 Chisholm, 75-8 (fruits in general). 
 
 Calif.)rnia state introductory geography, 265-71 (grain, fruits, and stock). 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, California Supplement, 26-37 (early days and Spanish missions), 45-6 
 (sheep and cattle in California), 51-8 (the great interior valley), 60-2. 71-4 (the coast 
 valleys), 79-81 (fruits of soutiiern California, 83-6 (cities of the south). 
 
 Written W'ork. 
 
 1. Write a list of the principal California farm products. 
 
 2. Tell about the climate needed for orange growing. 
 
 3. What arc prunes? What are raisins? Describe wine-making. 
 
 4. What arc the principal products of the great interior valley ? 
 
 5. Tell abr.ut the old Spanish ]Missions. 
 
 5. II(;re is a great timber region zvhere grow the largest trees on earth. 
 
 Teach about the great age of the Sequoia gigantea, or "big trees," and 
 the method of calculating il by their annular layers. Use familiar standards 
 of comparison, l-'or example, these trees must have been already enormous, 
 and centuries f>f age, when Columbus discovered America. Many of those 
 now standing had seen their sapling stage ere Christ was burn.
 
 THE COXTIXENT OF NORTH AMERICA. 123 
 
 Assign readings also on the giant pines and spruces of the Sierras and 
 of Oregon and \\'ashington. 
 
 Xote that, here in the West, the kimbering season is in the summer, while 
 in the East it is in the snow months. 
 
 PUPILS' READINGS: 
 
 Carroll, Third Book, loS-io (the big trees). 
 
 Carpenter, 271-3 (the big trees of California), 280 (the big trees of the northwest). 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Second Book, 294-6 (lumbering in \\'ashington). 
 
 Johonnot, Reader, 165-8 (the big trees of California). 
 
 Our country west, 131-5 (the big trees), 135-9 (lumbering in the Sierras). 
 
 Rocheleau, Soil, 42-6 (lumber of the Pacific Slope). 
 
 Fairbanks, Home geography, 199-205 (lumbering in the Sierras). 
 
 Sexton, II 1-20 (the sequoias, or big trees). 
 
 Dodge, 43-6 (lumbering centers). 
 
 King, Fifth Book (logging in the big-tree country), 165-70 (sequoia groves of California). 
 
 TEACHER'S ADDITIONAL REFERENCE: 
 Brigham, 279-85 (the Pacific forests). 
 
 Shaler, Story of our continent, 116 (the Pacific forests). 
 Herbertson, 163 (the forests of the northwest). 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, California Supplement, 20-2, 43-5 (forests of California), 69-70 (lum- 
 ber of the northern counties). 
 Adams, 107-12 (United States lumber trade). 
 
 Muir, 139-79, 200-25 (forests of the Sierras), 179-200 (the giant sequoias). 
 Gilbert & Brigham, 319-23 (forests of North America). 
 
 Written Work. 
 
 1. Tell where the big redwoods are found, and something about their age. 
 
 2. Tell about the trees of the Northwest. 
 
 3. Contrast the logging method of the West with that of the East. 
 
 6. San Francisco is a great port, icitJi a tuorld-wide commerce at its 
 wharves. 
 
 Show how nature has bestowed upon San Francisco's harbor a monopoly 
 of sea-going commerce for nearly our whole western seaboard. Only Puget 
 vSound can ever prove a competitor, in a large way. Review this subject as 
 treated in Unit 2, page 70. 
 
 PUPILS' READINGS: 
 
 Sexton, 169-79 (story of San Francisco). 
 
 Smith, 213-17 (San Francisco). 
 
 Carpenter, 274-8 (San Francisco and Chinatown). 
 
 King, Fifth Book, 130-40 (San Francisco), 141-64 (Union Iron ^^'orks, a battleship 
 
 factory). 
 Carroll, Third Book, 117-18 (Union Iron Works), 113-16 (San Francisco). 
 Fairbanks, Stories of Mother Earth, 49-57 (the making of San Francisco Bay). 
 Dodge, 11-13 (value of harbors), 105-3 (lagoons and bars: types of poor harbors, for 
 
 comparison), 165-70 (drowned valley harbors). 
 
 TEACHER'S ADDITIONAL REFERENCE: 
 
 Brigham, 286-302 (California as a state; the sphere of the Golden Gate). 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, California Supplement, 10-14 (coasts and harbors of California), 24-6, 
 
 50-1 (resources of California), 63-9 (.San Francisco and its harbors). 
 Herbertson, 200-2 (San Francisco and its bay). 
 California state introductory geography, 271-8 (resources of California), 278-83 (cities 
 
 of California). 
 Adams, 22-6 (the sites of cities), 160-1 (San Francisco as a port). 
 
 Dryer, 95 (San Francisco Bay as a drowned valley), 227-9 (rising and sinking coasts). 
 Shaler, Aspects, 7-9 (rising and sinking coasts: instance of the temple). 
 Gilbert & Brigham, 10-11, 63-5 (rising and sinking coasts), 307-8 (Pacific coastline). 
 
 ^^'ritten Work. 
 
 1. Tell of the advantages enjoyed by San Francisco, as a port. 
 
 2. What is the belief as to how San Francisco Bay was formed? 
 
 3. Write a little description of San Francisco.
 
 124 teachers' handbook of geography. 
 
 /. The salnwu-fishcrics arc important in t/ic north, and Piii^ct Sound is a 
 famous harbor. 
 
 Xote the curious habits of the sahiion. \\'hile the fish is characteristically 
 a salt-water creature, all the catching is done in rivers. 
 
 Note Puget Sound as one of the world's most magnificent harbors, with 
 a great future before it. 
 
 PUPILS' READINGS: 
 
 Our country west, 17-20 (a salmon-pool). 
 
 Smith, 197-8 (Alaska salmon). 
 
 Rupert, 79-81 (the Puget Sound country). 
 
 Carpenter, 281-3 (Columbia River salmon), 278-84, 289-90 (Washington and Oregon de- 
 scribed), 289-94 (Indians of Washington and Oregon). 
 
 King, Fifth Book, 78-106 (Seattle and Puget Sound), 107-9 (Columbia River region), 
 167-9 (sage plains of Oregon). 
 
 Carroll, Third Book, 142-3 (Columbia River salmon). 
 
 Tarr & IMcMurry, Second Book, 316-17 (Columbia River salmon), 317-18 (Puget Sound 
 country), 316 (Columbia River country). 
 
 Beal, 131-3 (salmon fisheries). 
 
 Jordan, True tales, 27-41 (story of a Columbia River salmon). 
 
 Dodge, 53-5 (fishing centers). 
 
 TEACHER'S ADDITIONAL REFERENCE: 
 Ballou, New El Dorado (Alaska salmon). 
 Herbertson, 169-70 (salmon-canning in Alaska). 
 
 Written Work. 
 
 1. Describe the salmon industry: (a) habits of the fish, (b) the fishing, 
 
 (c) the canning. 
 
 2. Tell about Puget Sound. 
 
 Text-book Review. 
 
 The pertaining material of the text-book is now to be used as a summary 
 and review. 
 
 Rcdway's .\dvanced geography, 89-91. 
 
 Frye's Advanced geography, 154-7. 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Second J>ook, 281-302, 311-18. 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Introductory geography, 176-87. 
 
 General Text-book Keview of the United States. 
 This review material is found in 
 
 Red way's Advanced geography, 49-61. 
 
 Frye's Advanced geography. 123-42. 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Second Book, 121-318. 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Introductory geography, 141-87. 
 
 Adams' Commercial geography, 49-56.
 
 A TEACHERS' HANDBOOK 
 
 I N 
 
 GEOGRAPHY 
 
 PART II 
 
 EURASIA, AFRICA, AUSTRALIA 
 
 AND THE 
 
 ISLANDS OF THE PACIFIC 
 
 BY 
 
 FRANK F. BUNKER 
 
 STATE NORMAL SCHOOL 
 AT SAN FRANCISCO 
 
 SAN FRANCISCO 
 
 C. A. MURDOCfC & CO., PRINTERS 
 1905.
 
 Copyright, 1905 
 
 B Y 
 
 Frank F. Bunker
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 Bulletin No. lo owes its inception to the appointment, by Dr. E. C. Moore, 
 President of the California Council of Education, of a committee, comprising 
 Frank F. Bunker, Deputy Superintendent Heaton (San Francisco), Pro- 
 fessor Hoi way ( State University), Superintendent James A. Barr (Stockton), 
 and Walter J. Kenyon (State Normal, San Francisco), to prepare a teachers' 
 handbook to accompany the California State Series geography texts (recent 
 adoption). The handbook as prepared by the committee was laid before both 
 the Council and the State Teachers' Association, adopted and ordered printed, 
 but through lack of funds available for the purpose the Council found itself 
 unable to proceed with its publication. The matter contained in Parts I and 
 II of this issue is the material contributed by Messrs. Kenyon and Bunker to 
 the handbook as prepared by the Geography Committee, and is published by 
 the State Normal School for the use of its student teachers and the teachers 
 of the State. 
 
 This handbook is not designed to supersede the text-book, but to supple- 
 ment it by indicating specifically what features of the text should be empha- 
 sized and elaborated and what omitted. Despite attempts to the contrary, the 
 text-book of geography can never be more than a reference-book containing 
 necessary maps, tables of statistics, and useful charts and^ diagrams. It can 
 never contain that wealth of interesting and vivid geographical detail which 
 is to be found in fiction, in travelers' tales, and in the many stories of life 
 and adventure which are accessible, and without which the study of geography 
 degenerates into the prevalent though perfunctory process of memorizing 
 meaningless words and phrases. The handbook takes up each natural area 
 of the world; selects one or more typical and characteristic features of 
 each; gives a list of the best references (children's and teacher's) to the 
 supplementary material at hand ; and then follows with comments on the 
 topic and its presentation with the thought that such a body of comment will 
 at least serve the purpose of rendering easier the work of the teacher in her 
 preparation. 
 
 It is not thought that any one teacher can present to her classes all of the 
 topics and material suggested. Some teachers have more time for the work, 
 some again have better facilities for carrying it out than have others. The 
 suggestions, therefore, which are given herein should not be followed blindly, 
 but adapted and shaped to suit the needs of particular situations. Again, it 
 is not desirable to attempt to treat all of the topics listed under any one region 
 in a given grade. Teachers of those grades below the Seventh and Eighth
 
 4 TEACHERS HANDBOOK OF GEOGR.APHY. 
 
 will find it profitable to pass over the world once, using the elementary text 
 as a basis, and selecting from the handbook those topics which have a pic- 
 turesque and biographical interest, and reserving those of a commercial, in- 
 dustrial, and political nature for a " second time over '" in the Seventh and 
 Eighth grades, and with the advanced text as the basis. Thus, for example, 
 in the " Study of the Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland," page 14, 
 lesson units II and IV could well be presented, in whole or in part, in the 
 lower grades, while units I and III would better be reserved for more mature 
 children. Again, in the " Study of the German Empire," page 18, lesson 
 units I and III can be easily shaped to the interest and comprehension of 
 lower grade children, where No. II would probably be beyond them. Simi- 
 larly with the other regions treated, those units dealing with the more abstract 
 commercial, economic, and political considerations should be reserved for the 
 work of the higher grades, while those topics treating of the ways of peoples 
 — their customs, life, ideals ; of the picturesque and historic buildings and 
 monuments of the world ; and of the great men of the past and the present — 
 can well be handled in the lower grades. 
 
 The reading-lists have been made rather full, not with the idea that any 
 school will find all the books cited accessible, nor, indeed, with the thought 
 that access to all is by any means a necessity, but rather for the reason that 
 out of the list given every teacher will find at least some available. Each year 
 the teacher should add as many books to her school library from those recom- 
 mended as her funds will warrant. The better her equipment in this respe'ct 
 the better will be her work. In purchasing books it will be best, before secur- 
 ing many of the single books listed, to get the sets which are listed under 
 the head " Series," on page 92. 
 
 In the preparation of this part of the handbook the writer wishes to ac- 
 knowledge his indebtedness to Mr. Heaton and to the other members of the 
 Geography Committee for helpful suggestions ; to the Librarians of the 
 Public Library and of the Mechanics' Institute for the many courtesies which 
 they have extended ; and to Miss Stella Huntington, Librarian of the State 
 Normal School, for her painstaking cooperation in securing the reading lists 
 given. It should be added that whatever merit there may be in the idea as 
 herein advanced and worked out is due in a large degree to the suggestions 
 and keen criticisms of Dr. Frederic lUirk, President of the school. 
 
 March, ,905. FRANK F. BUNKER.
 
 . CONTENTS. 
 
 THE CONTINENT OF EURASIA. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Its Structure 7 
 
 Life in the Tundras 9 
 
 Life in the Steppes 10 
 
 Life in the Deserts 11 
 
 The Rise of Peoples and Countries 12 
 
 A Study of the Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland 14 
 
 A Study of the German Empire 18 
 
 A Study of the Kingdom of the Netherlands 22 
 
 A Study of the Kingdom of Denmark 23 
 
 A Study of the Kingdom of Norway and Sweden 24 
 
 A Study of the Countries of the Danube 26 
 
 A Study of the Republic of Switzerland 27 
 
 A Study of the Kingdom of Belgium 30 
 
 A Study of the Republic of France 31 
 
 A Study of the Iberian Peninsula 36 
 
 A Study of the Kingdom of Italy 39 
 
 A Study of the Kingdom of Greece 42 
 
 A Study of European and Asiatic Turkey 43 
 
 A Study of European and Asiatic Russia 51 
 
 A Study of Arabia and the Plateau of Iran 55 
 
 A Study of India and Indo-China 57 
 
 A Study of the Chinese Empire 61 
 
 A Study of Korea 6y 
 
 A Study of the Japanese Empire 68
 
 6 COXTEXTS. 
 
 THE CONTINENT OF AFRICA. 
 
 Its Structure 71 
 
 A Study of the AIediterranean Coast Region .71 
 
 A Study of the Sahara Region j^) 
 
 A Study of the Region of the Xile 73 
 
 A Study of the Kongo Region 75 
 
 A Study of the Region of South Africa 76 
 
 AUSTRALIA AND THE ISLANDS OF THE PACIFIC. 
 
 The Structure of the Island Continent 78 
 
 A Study of Australia 79 
 
 A Study of X'ew Zealand 81 
 
 A Study of the East Indies .82 
 
 A Study of the Philippine Islands 83 
 
 A Study of the Hawaiian Islands 84 
 
 Book List 87
 
 THE CONTINENT OF EURASIA. 
 
 Map Locations (to be taught first) : Europe, Asia. Japanese Islands, 
 Philippine Islands, East Indies; Pyrenees, Alps, Apennines, Carpathians, 
 Caucasus, Himalayas; Ob, Yenisei, Lena, Amur, Hoang, Yangtse-Kiang, 
 Ganges, Indus, Ural, Volga, Rhine, Elbe, Dwina rivers. 
 
 The Structure of the Continent (to be given next) : Have the children 
 turn to the map (advanced text. pp. 112-113). Examine the highlands, and 
 observe that the backbone of the continent reaches from Bering Strait to the 
 extreme southwestern part of Europe ; in comparison, it is nearly as long as 
 the backbone of North and South America together; and that in Europe it 
 is much more narrow and broken, while in Asia it is much less broken and as 
 wide as the widest part of the United States. In this connection the children 
 should learn, if they have not already done so, the location and names of the 
 few important ranges of this axis : In Europe, they should know the Pyre- 
 nees, the Alps, the Apennines, and Carpathian jMountains ; in Asia, the 
 Caucasus and the Himalaya ranges. They should observe also that this 
 axis has very much the shape of the following figure : / 
 
 Tell the children to imagine this figure to be the ridge-pole lines of a roof, 
 as. one looks down upon it. Ask them to state in what direction the water 
 will flow when it falls on this roof. Apply this idea to the map of Eurasia 
 and draw the conclusion that if rain were to fall throughout the entire 
 length of this great water-parting, it would be thrown off toward the north, 
 toward the east, and toward the south, and that therefore we would expect 
 the rivers of Eurasia in the main to flow in these general directions. An 
 examination of the map (advanced text, p. 112) with respect to the course 
 of the rivers will show that in a general way this is correct. It is therefore 
 reasonable to conclude that the land-slope of the continent is in these three 
 general directions. 
 
 In regard to climatic conditions, observe, first, that the continent of 
 Eurasia extends from the Arctic Region, on the north, nearly to the equator, 
 on the south, and that in consequence the climate must be one of extremes. 
 — that is, extremes of cold in the north and of heat in the south. Observing 
 the northern region the children will see that because of the absence of a 
 range of mountains trending east and west there is no obstacle to the passage 
 of icy winds southward. This causes the summer frosts of Siberia, and very 
 cold winters in Peking, which is in the latitude of Rome. In Europe these
 
 8 teachers' handbook of GEOGR.APHY. 
 
 extremes of temperature are considerably modified by the prevailing winds 
 from the Atlantic. Again, observe that the Himalaya ^Mountains and the 
 Central Plateau of Eurasia, extending east and west, is an effective obstacle 
 in the way of the passage of the warm rain winds from the Indian Ocean. 
 Hence the deserts of Gobi and Tibet in the Chinese Empire, and the heavy 
 precipitation of rain to the south and east of the Himalaya Mountains. This 
 region, together with that along the southeastern coast, lies in the monsoon 
 area of the continent. The humidity of this region depends on the southeast 
 monsoon, which blows in from the ocean during summer and in the opposite 
 direction during the winter. This change of direction gives the region dry, 
 cold winters and warm, moist summers. This change from the summer to 
 the winter monsoon gives rise to fierce and disastrous storms ofif the coast, 
 called typhoons, which make navigation at this time exceedingly dangerous. 
 
 At this point the teacher could with advantage take up the subject of 
 "Alonsoons," with a view to bringing out clearly the chief forces involved 
 in producing these changes in the direction of the prevailing winds. In this 
 connection the teacher can refer to the discussion of "Winds" given in the 
 advanced text (pp. 25-26). In Tarr and AIc]Murry's Complete Geography 
 (pp. 229-231), or in any good physical geography, the teacher will find an 
 adequate explanation of this topic. 
 
 The points in the explanation which should be clearly presented are : 
 
 1. That the land gets warm and cools off quicker than the water. Show 
 this by a simple experiment. Take a pan of sand and one of water. Take 
 the temperature of each at a given time. Put both on a hot stove ; record the 
 temperature of each for fifteen minutes ; take both pans off the stove and set 
 together in a cool place. Continue recording the temperature of each every 
 few minutes until one has reached the starting-point. Examine the records, 
 and the conclusion will be obvious that the land gets warm and cools off more 
 quickly than the water. 
 
 2. That the land, when it becomes warm, warms the air above it, which 
 expands and grows light ; but the air over the water remains comparatively 
 cool. Thus the equilibrium of the air is disturbed and a flow of cool air 
 inland results. 
 
 3. That the larger the continent the greater will be the dift'erence in 
 temperature between itself and the surrounding water, — hence the greater 
 the force of the air-flow. 
 
 4. That in th& monsoon regions of Asia during the winter the heavy air 
 over the cold land presses outward beneath the warmer air of the ocean. Tlie 
 consequence is, that a prevailing dry, cold wind blows from the land toward 
 the sea. In the summer the land l:)ecomes heated ; the cool air from the water 
 flows in. bringing with it mr)isture, which being prccijiilatcd on the slopes 
 gives southeastern Asia her rainy season. 
 
 (For further experiments to be given in connection with air movements, 
 and alsr) for many helpful suggestions in the treatment of this physio- 
 graphical aspect, see Miss Effie B. McFadden's article, "The Special Method
 
 THE CONTINENT OF EURASIA. 9 
 
 cf Physical Geography," in San Francisco State Normal School Bulletin No. 
 2, Chapter V.) 
 
 Take up for brief consideration the effect of these conditions on the animal 
 and plant life of the continent with a view to showing how, in a large way, 
 these have in turn reacted on the life of the inhabitants of the region. (For 
 what follows on this point I am greatly indebted to a most suggestive little 
 book by Herbertson, "Man and his work," Macmillan.) 
 
 Broadly speaking, all land is either forest-land, grass-land, or desert, and 
 the geographical conditions which obtain in each determine the occupation 
 of the people, which in turn profoundly affects their manner of life, their 
 ideals of government, and their notions of trade. It will not be profitable 
 to go too deeply into this aspect of the question, or to attempt to work out in 
 detail how occupation, and die conditions which have determined occupation, 
 have reacted on the life of each separate country. It will be sufficient in this 
 connection to treat each of the following topics as they apply to the continent 
 under consideration, Life in the Tundras, Life in the Steppes, Life in the 
 Deserts. 
 
 Life in the Tundras: In presenting this region, the chief descriptive 
 characteristics should first be brought out. (See advanced text, pp. 22, 29, 
 31, 32, 115.) The children in this connection should know that "Tundra" 
 is the Russian name for the frozen region surrounding the Arctic Ocean, 
 the same region in fact which in Canada is called the "Barren Lands." They 
 should know that it is a belt of dwarfed and scattered vegetation, gradually 
 displaced toward the north by fields of unbroken ice and snow ; whereas to 
 the south, the stunted copses gradually shade into sparse woods, which pass 
 in turn into the forests of the north temperate lands. They should know 
 too that the Tundra is crossed by great rivers like the Ob, Yenisei, and Lena, 
 in Siberia, and the Mackenzie in North America ; that these rivers are ice- 
 bound for more than half the year; that the upper waters thaw first, which 
 causes great floods along the lower courses ; and that these rivers teem with 
 fish, which play an important part in the life of the inhabitants of the Tundra. 
 
 With this knowledge of the characteristics of the Tundra, the children are 
 ready to discuss its influence on the inhabitants. In this connection, it should 
 be shown that they depend very largely on fish for food, and on the rein- 
 deer for transportation and clothing. Fishing, the hunting of fur-animals, 
 and the tending of reindeer constitute, therefore, almost the only occupation 
 of the people. As reindeer cannot be kept in captivity, but must be allowed 
 to wander in search of food, and as hunting and fishing are occupations 
 necessitating frequent changes of habitation, the life of the people is in con- 
 sequence one of constant wandering, except in the depth of winter, when it 
 is impossible. This in turn determines the character of the dwellings, for 
 we find that their shelter during the summer months consists of tents which 
 can be set up and taken down quickly and easily. In winter, when they are
 
 10 TEACHERS HANDBOOK OF GEOGR.APHY. 
 
 forced by the severity of the weather to remain in one place, the tent gives 
 way among the Lapps to rude dwellings of turf supported on sticks, and 
 among the Eskimos of ice and snow. The possessions of a people leading 
 such a wandering and precarious life must of necessity, the children will 
 readily see, be very few, and limited strictly to the weapons, tools, and uten- 
 sils which are indispensably connected with transport and the chase. The 
 sledge is universally found, drawn either by dogs (among the Eskimos), or 
 by reindeer (among the Lapps). Bows and arrows are the customary 
 weapons, though firearms are spreading, owing to the occasional contact 
 of these tribes with the fur traders of civilization. 
 
 It will by no means be beyond the comprehension of the children of the 
 grades, nor without profit, to carry the discussion one step further with a 
 view to observing how the manner of life of these tribes reacts on the 
 family life of the peoples. Obviously, such a life is devoid of all those emo- 
 tional qualities which go with a fixed home and a reasonable security of 
 existence. Again, where subsistence is so precarious, and where a people is 
 forced to make frequent changes in habitation, there is little pity for those 
 unable to support themselves, and the aged, the sick, or the weakly children 
 are frequently left to perish. Finally, the scanty resources give no margin 
 for the accumulation of wealth or leisure for the improvement of the comforts 
 of life. 
 
 Either at this point or preceding this discussion the teacher should put as 
 many as possible of the following references into the hands of the children. 
 These references will re-enforce in a vivid way the points already made, or, 
 if read before, will afford an excellent basis for the above discussion. 
 
 Hcrbcrtson, Asia pp. 3-4. 
 
 Herbertson, Man and his work pp. 7-14. 
 
 Pratt, Northern Europe pp. 45-53 
 
 Shaw, Big people and little people of other lands pp. 52-69. 
 
 Handbook, part I, unit No. i, "Arctic America." 
 
 Starr, Strange peoples pp. 47-59. 
 
 The people of the reindeer ( Laplanders) Cent. — 58 : 582. 
 
 Life in the Steppes: As with the preceding topic, begin this treatment by 
 bringing out the characteristic descriptive features of the region. (See 
 advanced text, pp. 28, 29. 31, 32. 115.) Point out that in each continent 
 there are certain regions, usually at great distances from the sea, which 
 obtain insufficient rainfall to produce a forest growth, but get enough for 
 the smaller forms of vegetation. Such regions are the great grassy, treeless 
 plains of the several continents, and which are variously designated. Tn 
 North America they are called "prairies," in South America "pampas" or 
 "llanos," while in Eurasia the term "steppe" is used. Being a region oi 
 grasses, and having a temperate climate, it is perfectly suited to the domesti- 
 cation and breeding of animals, which, in point of fact, is the occupation of 
 the inhabitants of the region. As the flocks are continually eating up the 
 grass, the life of the Steppes must be. as with the inhabitants of the Tundras. 
 a wandering one. It will be interesting as well as profitable to contrast the 
 pastoral life of tlic Steppes with tlu' life of the Tundras ; though they are both
 
 THE CONTINENT OF EURASIA. II 
 
 nomadic, yet in all other important respects the reaction on ideals of life and 
 living are widely different. 
 
 In drawing this contrast, bring out that the environment is a much more 
 generous one, permitting the inhabitants to secure not only the necessities 
 of life, but some of its luxuries. Thus the people are able to care for their 
 aged and sick, and such inhuman practices as the killing of infants and 
 parents are unknown. The dwellings, while consisting of tents, are commo- 
 dious and comfortable^, and in many instances are furnished with rugs, 
 cushions, and carpets of great beauty and value. 
 
 As the flocks and herds grow to great sizes, many persons are needed in 
 their care ; the larger the household, the more numerous the sons and 
 daughters, the greater can be the size and number of the flocks cared for. 
 So from Bible times down we find the head of the family, the patriarch, 
 when sufficiently rich, taking more than one wife, and becoming the father 
 of many children and the master of many servants, many of whom are re- 
 lated to him by blood. For the same reason the sons when married remain 
 by the father, and thus a large and related group grows up. In some such 
 manner as this the teacher can show the children how the geographical con- 
 ditions under which a people live determine in a considerable degree their 
 occupation, and their mode of life. 
 
 It might be well to illustrate how even the thought and the form of ex- 
 pression of a people is influenced by these same geographical conditions. 
 Thus, for example, the expression in the Twenty-third Psalm : "He maketh 
 me to lie down in green pastures : He leadeth me beside the still waters," ex- 
 presses the ideal of comfort and good-living in a Steppe land, where water is 
 often so scarce that man and beast are parched with thirst, and the grass 
 withers in the scorching sun. The phrase 
 
 " As rivers of water in a dry place, as the shadow of a great 
 rock in a weary land." — Isaiah xxxii :2, — 
 
 the thought in a familiar hymn, "A shelter in the time of storm," expresses 
 the longing in a country monotonous in its absence of tree and rock. Again, 
 the familiar phrases, "The desert shall bloom as the rose," and "The grass 
 withereth and the flower fadeth," according to travelers, present an accurate 
 description of the Steppes during successive seasons. 
 
 The following references will be found of value in this connection : 
 
 Miller, Little people of Asia PP- 117--8. 
 
 Herbertson, Man and his work PP- 22-31. 
 
 Herbertson, Asia PP- 7-.ii- 
 
 Xorris, Nadya : a tale of the Steppes ( Fiction). 
 
 Herbertson, Europe PP- 48-54- 
 
 Carpenter, Europe PP- 168-71. 
 
 Life ill the Deserts: Usually the greatest rainfall of a continent, and in 
 consequence the densest growth of vegetation, is found along the coasts. As 
 one proceeds toward the interior of the great continent of Eurasia, or North 
 America, the rainfall diminishes, and grass becomes the characteristic vege- 
 tation. (The Steppe Region.) As the rainfall, diminishes still further, the
 
 12 teachers' handbook of geogfl^phy. 
 
 land becomes more and more arid, the grass less bountiful, until is passes at 
 last into the true desert. An examination of the maps on pages 113 and 114 
 of the advanced text will show that there is such a rainless belt stretching 
 across the continent from China to the Red Sea. After locating the desert 
 belt, not only in this continent, but around the world, the teacher should take 
 up the discussion of its distinctive characteristics, bringing out its peculiar 
 forms of vegetable growth, and how they are adapted to the climate ; its 
 landscapes made monotonous by the absence of a variety of vegetation, the 
 extraordinary clearness of its air, and the beauty of its coloring ; the charac- 
 teristic animals of the region and their wonderful adaptation to the life they 
 are forced to live ; and lastly the oases with their palms and fruit-trees and 
 their congested populations. 
 
 Point out that except on the fringe of the desert, where the conditions 
 are simple (the Steppe region), and where the population lives in rude vil- 
 lages and pastoral camps, and in the larger oases, where agricultural pursuits 
 are carried on, the life of the people is a truly nomadic one, the inhabitants 
 being chiefly engaged in camel and caravan driving. These people hold the 
 greatest contempt for a settled life, and use their opportunities to the best 
 advantage for plunder and treachery, which is encouraged by the extreme 
 poverty of the people, and because of the lack of any effective governmental 
 surveillance. 
 
 It will be well in this connection to compare life in the desert with that 
 already considered in the Tundra region. They are alike in the scarcity of 
 vegetation and in the lack of agricultural conditions, but from dift'erent 
 causes ; the desert has little beside the date-palm for food and the camel for 
 transportation ; the Tundra is well watered, is covered in many places with 
 reindeer-moss, and its streams are full of fish, yet in many respects, the in- 
 habitant of the desert is the more fortunate, for shelter and clothing are of 
 comparatively little importance, and then, besides, his country lies where he 
 can trade with rich countries adjacent, and this carrying trade becomes an 
 miportant source of income. In brief, bring out that though life in a desert 
 shows in a marked way the influence of geographical conditions, yet it is less 
 primitive and less isolated than that which is developed in the region of the 
 Tundras. 
 
 Such descriptions as have been suggested in the foregoing notes will be of 
 profit not only in showing how in a large way a people's occupation has in- 
 fluenced its customs and ideals of life, but it will also serve to show the 
 children clearly how it is possible that such diversities in language, in 
 customs, and in tastes as are exhibited in a striking way among the countries 
 of Europe as well as of Asia have come about. These discussions will afiford 
 a fitting basis for the consideration of the next topic mentioned in the ad- 
 vani-fd foxt. " Peoples and Countries of Europe," ])p. 1 17-120. 
 
 "Peoples and Countries" (advanced text, pp. i 17-120) : The emphasis in 
 the treatment of this topic should frill on the story of the founding of tlic
 
 THE CONTINENT OF EURASIA. 13 
 
 various nations of Europe, — the theories which have been advanced regard- 
 ing their origin and ultimate division into some twenty countries, and the 
 factors which account for their diversities in language, standards of living, 
 and governments. 
 
 It should be pointed out that there have been people in Europe for thou- 
 sands of years ; that it is a much-disputed question as to who the first people 
 were, where they came from, and wdiere they settled, and that scientific men 
 have evolved two theories to answer these questions. By excavating deep 
 into the earth, they have found skeletons of men, together with rude tools 
 made of stone. By comparing these evidences with others found in different 
 parts of the world, they have been led to believe that all the races of Europe 
 came originally from one tribe, and that the early home of this tribe was 
 somewhere in the highlands of Central Asia. They believe also that the 
 offspring from this tribe migrated east and south, and towards the west 
 into Europe. By comparmg languages, they find that certain words, 
 like father, mother, sister, brother, bear a very close resemblance in all the 
 languages. For this reason, also, they believe that all the races sprang from 
 one tribe, which they have called the "Aryan" tribe, or family. Other men, 
 using the very same evidence of tools, skeletons, and language, have come to a 
 very different conclusion regarding the early home of the race. They say 
 that the ^vlediterranean Sea was once dry land, and that Europe, Asia, and 
 Africa were once one great land-mass, and that what is now the sea was then 
 the home of these early people. They think that from this region the race 
 spread to Africa, to Asia, and to Europe. In talking about these notions the 
 teacher must make clear to the children that they are only more or less 
 plausible theories, and that in reality no one actually knows. While all this 
 is very uncertain, yet we do know that about five hundred years before Christ 
 Europe was fairly well peopled, with the main divisions distribvited in this 
 way : the Latin races in the southern region, along the Mediterranean ; the 
 Teutons in the north central part ; the Celts in the extreme western part ; 
 and the Slavs to the northeast. These regions should be clearly defined and 
 expressed by the children on outline maps of the continent. (Read to them, 
 also, pages 10 and 11 of Carpenter, Europe.) At this point it would be well 
 to recall the discussion in connection with the preceding topic, — of how 
 occupation, and the conditions which determine occupation, account in a large 
 measure for the differences among the Slavs, the Celts, the Teutons, and the 
 Latins — dift'erences wdiich as time passed became more and more accentuated 
 because of their greater isolation. Thus, for example, the Alps long sepa- 
 rated Italy from France. The Pyrenees isolated the Spanish peninsula from 
 the rest of Europe. The middle Rhine valley was the frontier of Roman 
 power, and was the boundary-line between the primitive Frank and German 
 tribes, which developed into the modern nations of France and Germany. 
 (See map XXII in the appendix, advanced text.) The Rhine delta isolated 
 and fostered the Netherlands ; Great Britain was insular, and Scandinavia 
 and Italv peninsular. Slavonic people occupied the central plain and de-
 
 14 teachers' handbook of GEOGR.APHY. 
 
 veloped into the Russian empire. The kingdom of Austro-Hungary, became 
 a poHtical unit in the Danube valley. (See Trotter, Geography of Commerce, 
 p. 242.) Discuss briefly how diversity of language grew out of this segre- 
 gation and the partial isolation of these peoples. 
 
 A STUDY OF THE KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 
 
 Map Locations (to be taught first) : England, Scotland, Wales, Ireland; 
 North Sea, English Channel, Irish Sea ; Thames River ; Cheviot Hills ; Lon- 
 don, Liverpool, Edinburgh, Glasgow, Dublin. 
 
 Lesson Unit I: The magnitude of British industrial enterprise and the 
 causes for her commercial supremacy. 
 
 READING LIST: 
 
 Carpenter, Europe Chaps. VI, VII, VIII. 
 
 Coe, Modern Europe Chaps. II, III (Parts). 
 
 Kno.x, Great Britain and Ireland Chaps. V, VII, XV, XVIII, XXII. 
 
 ••George, Little journeys (England and Wales) \\,^^\ jp.PP; ^3-i6, 18-24, 38-42. 
 
 **George, Little journeys (Scotland and Ireland) pP- 8-13. 
 
 Tarr and McMurry, Bk. Ill pp. 174-205. 
 
 •.•\dams, A commercial geography pp. 195-213. 
 
 *Red\vay, Commercial geography pp. 295-303. 
 
 *Trotter, Geography of commerce pp. 249-60, 377-79. 
 
 King, Northern Europe pp. 234-50. 
 
 Stoddard Lectures i^°'- ^^ PP- ''3 et seq. 
 
 atoaaara, l^ectures {supplementary vol. I (Parts). 
 
 'Webster, General history of commerce pp. 446-56. 
 
 Note of explanation: One asterisk designates those books adapted for teacher's use alone; two 
 asterisks, those which can be read by fourth-grade children and under: while the absence of any 
 asterisks signifies that the books so classed can be read by fifth- to eighth-grade children. 
 
 Suggestions: After having given the children, through the reading and 
 discussion of the above references, a conception of the variety and magnitude 
 of the commercial and industrial enterprises of Great Britain, it would be 
 well to consider some of the reasons why she has become the foremost nation 
 in the world in these respects. 
 
 In this connection bring out through the extended discussion of the maps 
 and of the children's reading that the chief factors in British supremacy are 
 the following: 
 
 1. Her fortunate location, being in close proximity to the great markets of 
 continental Europe. (See map, advanced text, p. 154.) 
 
 2. Her separation from the United States and Canada, the chief sources 
 of her food supply, as well as the best markets for her manufactures, by the 
 narrow part of the Atlantic Ocean. 
 
 3. By having an equable sea climate, which is favorable to all her in- 
 dustries. 
 
 4. By having vast and rich colonial possessions which exchange raw 
 products for the manufactured articles of the mother country. (For a map 
 of these colonies, see Tarr and McMurry, l)k. Ill, p. 202 ; also, advanced text, 
 I>. 154.) Through exchange with her colonies alone Great Britain has in- 
 creased her foreign trade to nearly double that of any other nation. This 
 means that many ships must be employed ; hence the greatness of Britain's
 
 THE CONTINENT OF EURASIA. 1 5 
 
 carrying trade. It is said that more than a thousand vessels enter British 
 ports daily. 
 
 5. The abundance of coal and iron ore in the island in close proximity has 
 made an enormous industrial development possible. Why? This expansion 
 has been mainly in three industries — the manufacture of cotton goods, of iron 
 and steel products, and of woolen goods. Why? (For a map showing the 
 coal-fields of the British Islands, see Tarr and McMurry, bk. Ill, p. 184.) 
 
 6. The superior shipping facilities of the islands render transportation 
 cheap and quick, thus facilitating commercial expansion. No manufacturing 
 center is more than fifty miles from a port. This nearness to seaports, to- 
 gether with an excellent system of railroads and canals, is a large factor in 
 bringing about Britain's commercial prosperity. 
 
 It must be made clear that the mere enumeration of the above statements 
 as to the causes which have led to British trade supremacy is of no value in 
 itself. There is no doubt that there are many other factors just as important 
 intrinsically as these. The value lies in the discussion provoked while work- 
 ing them out and then only if they come naturally on the child's part as a 
 conclusion which he has drawn after reflecting on the many significant details 
 which it is presumed the teacher will have first presented. 
 
 Lesson Unit II : The English people are a fused race, being a people of 
 mixed Latin and Teuton blood. 
 
 READING LIST: 
 (Caractacus and Boadicea). 
 
 Henty, Beric the Briton (Fiction). 
 
 biaisdell. Stories from English history I'P- i-i?- 
 
 Church, Stories from English history PP- 3-5 1- 
 
 Guerber, Story of the English pp. 24-26. 
 
 Pratt, Stories of England PP- 5-S2. 
 
 Strickland, Stories from ancient history pp. 237-46, 300-307. 
 
 Butterworth, British Isles l^p. 285-91. 
 
 (Alfred). 
 
 Butterworth, British Isles pp. 102-106. 
 
 Arnold, Stepping-stones to literature 3:171-74. 
 
 Baldwin, Fifty famous stories retold pp. 5-io. 
 
 Church, Stories from English history pp. 82-92. 
 
 Bosworth, Alfred the Great 
 
 Morris, Historical tales: English....^ pp. 30-44. 
 
 Haaren and Poland, Famous men of the Middle Ages. pp. 135-42. 
 
 Guerber, Stories of the English pp. 44-53- 
 
 Blaisdell, Stories from English history pp. 31-37- 
 
 Farmer, Boy's book of famous rulers pp. 169-94. 
 
 Gilman, Magna Charta stories PP- 183-92. 
 
 Strickland. Stories from history pp. 67-100. 
 
 Wright, Children's stories in English literature 1:57-/8. 
 
 *Besant, The story of King .Alfred 
 
 Brooks, Chivalric days PP- 98-123. 
 
 Church, Stories from English history pp. 67-92. 
 
 (\Villiam the Conqueror). 
 
 Blaisdell, Stories from English history pp. 47-66. 
 
 Brooks. Historic boys pp. 65-82. 
 
 Haaren and Poland. Famous men of the Middle Ages. pn. 167-72. 
 
 Tappan, In the days of William the Conqueror (Fiction). 
 
 Guerber, Stories of the English pp. 73-84. 
 
 Butterworth, Northern lands pp. 61-66. 
 
 Church, Stories from English history pp. 107-35. 
 
 (Beowulf). 
 
 Church, Heroes of chivalry and romance pp. 1-60. 
 
 Ragozin, Siegfried and Beowulf pp. 211-330. 
 
 Wright, Children's stories in English literature i":20-33. 
 
 (Druids). 
 
 Benedict, Stories of persons and places in Europe- ... pp- 107-10. 
 
 Bulfinch, Age of fable pp. 436-44. 
 
 Guerber, Story of the English pp. 13-17.
 
 1 6 teachers' handbook of geography. 
 
 Stiggcstio)is: The teacher can make her presentation of this lesson in- 
 teresting and effective by telling the story of Caractacus and Boadicea, to 
 illustrate the coming of the Romans ; the story of Beowulf and of King 
 Alfred, to bring out the facts of the coming of the Saxons ; and finally the 
 story of Harold and William the Conqueror, and the Battle of Hastings, for 
 the invasion by the Normans. 
 
 As a setting for the stories of Caractacus and Boadicea, the purpose of the 
 Roman invasion should be brought out, how these invaders were opposed by 
 the Druids ; the attempts on the part of the Romans to make roads and forts 
 and to establish their civilization; and lastly how quickly all results of Roman 
 occupation disappeared. 
 
 The story of Beowulf, if sympathetically told by the teacher, will give a 
 good notion of the wild, savage life of the Saxons, and of their ideals of 
 government and social relationships. Before telling the story the teacher 
 should read the first chapter (vol. I) of Taine's History of English literature; 
 also, the first sixteen pages of Green's Short Jiistory of the English people. 
 The story of King Alfred will serve to bring out the better and nobler side 
 of these rough people. 
 
 The story of the conquest of the Saxons by William the Conqueror will 
 give the opportunity to point out the origin of the Normans, their character, 
 ideals, and particularly how they differed in language and customs from the 
 Saxons, and how the fusion of Celts, Saxons, and Normans after a long 
 period of turbulence accounts in the main for the fact that the English race 
 is by no means a pure one, but originally made up of widely varied stock. 
 
 The effect of the Conquest in enriching the English language should be 
 noted. The Norman conquerors naturally came to comprise the aristoc- 
 racy, while upon the conquered Saxons devolved the work of tilling the 
 fields, tending the herds, and ministering as servants to their masters. In 
 consequence, it was natural that all words relating to architecture ; to dress, 
 and to the arts and trades which contributed to the easy life of the Norman 
 laflies ; to all matters having to do with war, with hunting, and with cooking; 
 to legal forms and to government; to the vices, luxuries, customs, and lives 
 of the upper classes, should be French in their origin. On the other hand, 
 those words having to do with manual occupations, with agriculture, with 
 stockraising, and with the duties usually performed by servants are of Ger- 
 manic origin. The teacher should select words illustrating these points. 
 (.See "l"'oreign words in English speech," Brandcr Matthews, in Harper, 
 107: 476-479. j For example, "hog" is Germanic, while "pork" is Norman- 
 Frencli. The Saxon servant tending the animal applied to it the former 
 term; wlien it appeared on the table before the Nornuin knights and ladies it 
 was no longer "hog," but "pork." So with "oxen" and "beef" and with many 
 other words. In numerous instances cither the Saxon or the Norman term 
 forced its rival from the language; so that many have not survived, l)ut yet, 
 in still other instances, both terms have come down to us. Tlic rtsull of this 
 fusion was greatly to increase the power of our language to express varying
 
 THE COXTIXEXT OF EURASIA. 1 7 
 
 shades of thought and feehng. It is said that next to the Greek language it 
 has made the English the most splendid poetic language of the world. 
 
 Lesson Unit III: The government of Great Britain. 
 
 READING LIST: 
 
 Carpenter, Europe pp. 76-84. 
 
 Stoddard, Lectures, vol. IX (Farts). 
 
 **George, Little journeys (Scotland and Ireland) pp. 2S-30. 
 
 King, Northern Europe pp. 114-18, 149-55. 
 
 Knox, Great Britain and Ireland Chaps. XXVIII, XXIX. 
 
 Coe, Modern Europe pp. 36-37. 
 
 Tarr and McMurry, Bk. Ill pp. 205-206. 
 
 Suggestions: Draw from the above references the characteristic features 
 cf a limited monarchy, — i. e. a government in which the ruler is hereditary, 
 and yet can rule only as the constitution and laws prescribe. Compare the 
 British Parliament with our Congress with respect to the manner of creating 
 membership, terms of office, qualifications required of members, duties and 
 privileges, and particularly with respect to the control exercised over their 
 respective executives. 
 
 Bring out the thought that historically the idea of a limited monarchy 
 grew out of the desire to place the king under restraint in order to check 
 any tendency to ill-considered and arbitrary action, and that much of the 
 history of England is but the story of the struggle between the king and his 
 people which such an ambitious design precipitated. The first step was taken 
 when the people quarreled with King John (13th century) over taxation, 
 and forced the Magna Charta from him as a concession to their strength. 
 (Relate to the children the details of this episode.) The growing desire for 
 a representative system did not receive legal recognition, however, for nearly 
 a century, when the so-called model Parliament was called by Edward I 
 ( 1295). Emphasize the thought that the present liberal and effective govern- 
 ment of England is the result of centuries of growth, and that the struggle to 
 secure it has made of the English people a race which is sturdy, independent, 
 and self-reliant even to aggressiveness in its thinking and acting. 
 
 Lesson Unit IV: The picturesque and historical features for which the 
 islands are famous. 
 
 READING LIST: 
 
 Carpenter, Europe Chaps. V, VIII. 
 
 **George, Little journeys (Scotland and Ireland) pp. 13-18. 
 
 King, JSforthern Europe (Parts). 
 
 Companion Series, By land and sea PP- G-ii. 
 
 Crosland, Stories of the City of London (Parts). 
 
 Coe, Modern Europe Chaps. II, III, IV (Parts). 
 
 Abbott, Rollo in London pp. 80-97. 
 
 Knox, Great Britain and Ireland pp. 448-55. 
 
 Irving, Sketch book (Parts). 
 
 **Pratt, Stories of England pp. 67-227 (Parts). 
 
 Shaw, Castle Blair (A story of Irish life). 
 
 Stoddard, Lectures \l°^- }^ ■ • •-• PP,ii3etseq. 
 
 1 Supnl 
 
 lementary vol. I (Parts) 
 
 ** Wade, Our little Irish cousin 
 
 Suggestions: If the children have read Scott's Lady of the lake or any of 
 the poems by Burns, give considerable time to the references to Scottish
 
 i8 teachers' handbook of geogilaphy. 
 
 scenery and to the homes of Burns and Scott. Besides this, read and talk 
 about such historical structures as St. Paul's Cathedral, London Tower, and 
 Westminster Abbey. Procure pictures wherever possible to illustrate your 
 lesson. Stoddard's Lectures (vol. IX) will be found very helpful in this con- 
 nection. 
 
 A STUDY OF THE GERMAN EMPIRE. 
 
 Map Locations (to be taught first) : Rhine, Elbe, Oder, Vistula, Danube; 
 Berlin, Hamburg, Dresden. 
 
 Lesson Unit I: Bismarck, and his great work in unifying Germany. 
 
 READING LIST: 
 
 Butterworth, Northern lands pp. 80-83. 
 
 Browne, Chats about Germany pp. 53-60. 
 
 Knox, Northern Europe pp. 252-54, 304-305. 
 
 *Bismarck and the founding of the German Empire. ... Atlantic — 82:411-24. 
 
 *Bismarck Century — 56 :823-35. 
 
 "Bismarck, the man and statesman Harper — 98:321-28. 
 
 *A visit to Bismarck Century — 67:664-70. 
 
 *Bismarck as a national type Atlantic — 82 :56o. 
 
 Stoddard, Lectures, vol. _VI pp. 7-1 12 (Parts). 
 
 Parmele, A short history of Germany (Parts). 
 
 Suggestions: In your discussion of this topic compare the German, states 
 prior to Bismarck's time with the American colonies under the Articles. of 
 Confederation, bringing out the thought that with both there were rivalries, 
 jealousies, and constant bickering. It was particularly marked at the time 
 William I became king of Prussia (1861). He chose Bismarck as his 
 chancellor. Bismarck's policy was twofold — to weld the German states into 
 a nation, and to place the Prussian king at its head. Show how he worked 
 out his problem, by ( i ) creating a great fighting-machine out of the Prussian 
 army, which he employed to break the power of Austria, Prussia's strongest 
 rival for supremacy; and (2) inaugurating a wave of national patriotism 
 through the triumph of his armies in the Franco-Prussian war (1870-1871). 
 I'oint fuit that at its termination (1871), amid unparalleled enthusiasm, 
 \\'illiam of Prussia was given the title of ( icrnian l{m])er()r. and the 
 unification was complete. 
 
 Discuss the interesting details of Bismarck's life, — how as a student he 
 was riotous and loved the fight ; how he was possessed of keen insight into 
 liuman nature; how he had an indomitable will, wliicli never weakened in the 
 face of opposition; limv indifl^creiit ln' was to popular opinion; and how 
 strong his love was for his country and for his king. Discuss his policy of 
 "blood and iron" and the tragic grandeur of his career. Collect stories from 
 the references given above to illustrate these characteristic traits of the man. 
 
 Lrsso)! Unit II: Germany's remarkable industrial expansion since she 
 became a nation.
 
 THE CONTINENT OF EURASIA. 1 9 
 
 READING LIST: 
 
 *Trotter, Geography of commerce pp. 280-87, 277-79- 
 
 Carpenter, Lurope pp. 186-215, 223-34. 
 
 Herbertson, Europe pp. 59-64. 
 
 Browne, Chats about Germany pp. 9-34. 
 
 Tarr and JNicMurry, Bk. Ill pp. 277-78, 281-97. 
 
 Knox, Northern Europe pp. 153-62. 
 
 Butterworth, Northern lands pp. 15-276 (Parts). 
 
 Butterworth, Around the world pp. 193-202. 
 
 *German manufactures Chaut. — 27:137-41. 
 
 btoddard. Lectures, vol. VI pp. 7-112 (Parts). 
 
 * Adams, Commercial geography pp. 214-27. 
 
 *Industrial advance of Germany No. Am. — 166:54-65. 
 
 *The economic power of Germany Chaut. — 26 : 1 58-62. 
 
 *Made in Germany Chaut. — 35:127-33. 
 
 The great gun king Cosmop.— 33 :358. 
 
 Visit to Herr Krupp Outlook — 70:222-27. 
 
 Pyle, Otto of the silver hand.^._^ (Fiction). 
 
 *Dawson, German life in town and country (Parts). 
 
 *Bigelow, The children of the nations j.p. 1 1 1-26. 
 
 ♦Webster, General history of commerce pp. 457-68. 
 
 Suggestions: Through the collateral reading cited above seek first to give 
 the children some notion of the extent of Germany's industrial activity. To 
 emphasize her commercial greatness discuss the following facts : 
 
 That Germany has mountains rich in silver, lead, zinc, copper and tin. 
 
 That it has more than a thousand mines of iron, and rich coal-fields near 
 them. (Discuss the value of this proximity of coal and iron.) 
 
 That it has more than seven hundred factories which make machinerv 
 alone. One of these covers more than a thousand acres (Krupp works) ; 
 another has built more than four thousand railroad locomotives ; and another 
 employs more than forty thousand men. 
 
 That it contains enormous beds of rock salt, one of which has been worked 
 for fifty years and is not yet exhausted. 
 
 That she produces through her beet industry one fourth of the world's 
 output of sugar. 
 
 That she has over four thousand ocean vessels engaged in the carrying 
 trade, with a net tonnage of more than two million tons. 
 
 That four million acres are sown to wheat, eight millions to potatoes, and 
 fourteen millions to rye, the latter being the staple breadstuff of the masses. 
 
 That Leipzig alone has five hundred booksellers, and one thousand printing- 
 offices, the latter making more than sixty million books every year. 
 
 The teacher should work out some of the most obvious causes which have 
 led to such great industrial expansion on the part of Germany. In working 
 out these causes she will not only pass in review most of the facts which the 
 authors have mentioned in the texts, but she will thereby avoid resorting to 
 what would otherwise be little more than a memory-cram of facts which are 
 largely unrelated and unorganized as therein given. 
 
 In discussing the causes for this rapid development of Germany the 
 teacher should have the class turn to maps XIV and XV (appendix, ad- 
 vanced text), and observe that no other country is in such close touch with 
 so many great commercial nations as Germany. Have them note that she 
 touches Russia to the east, Austria-Hungary and Switzerland to the south, 
 France, Belgium, and the Netherlands to the west, and Denmark to the north. 
 Ask them to measure the distance between the ports of Germany and those of
 
 20 teachers' handbook of geography. 
 
 the east coast of England, and estimate the time it will take to reach the 
 British markets (about a day's journey). Thus it will be seen that Germany's 
 central location is a most fortunate one. This matter of position is one of the 
 most important as well as one of the most obvious causes of Germany's pros- 
 perity. 
 
 Another important factor in this matter is Germany's system of internal 
 transportation. The maps already referred to can be made to answer, though 
 they do not show clearly some of the points which we wish to consider. Note 
 first that Germany has navigable rivers flowing into the North Sea and the 
 Baltic to the north, and into the Black Sea to the south. By a close inspection 
 of the maps it will be seen that the head-waters of these rivers and their 
 tributaries are tied together by an elaborate system of canals. (The map. 
 p. 127, advanced text, shows the canals more clearly.) Note further that 
 this waterway system of Germany is also connected with a similar system in 
 France, Belgium, and the Netherlands, making it possible, for example, for 
 freight on the Vistula to be carried by internal w^aterways to Paris, Antwerp, 
 and Rotterdam. Again, observe that the Danube River is connected by canal 
 (Ludwig Canal) with the Rhine River, thus afifording a direct water-route 
 passing through Germany between the Black, the Caspian, the East, and the 
 North Sea. (The benefit of a great body of transcontinental freight passing 
 through a country should be dwelt upon here.) Similarly Germany is in 
 direct contact with the Mediterranean Sea by a canal which connects 'the 
 Rhone River and the Rhine. The Kaiser Wilhelm ship canal, between the 
 North and the Baltic seas, cutting off two days' travel, and which has served 
 greatly to stimulate traffic between the northern ports, should also be noted 
 and discussed. In talking about the significance of this elaborate system of 
 internal waterways bring out the fact that transport by water is the cheapest 
 way to ship goods, as no roads have to be built. On the other hand, it is 
 much slower than by railroad, and cannot be used for freight of a perishable 
 nature. It is said that iron and steel is carried from the various foundries in 
 the Ruhr Valley to the sea, a distance of some two hundred miles, by this 
 means, for from eighty to ninety cents per ton. This is but little more than 
 the average rate per ton-mile in the United States. Point out how such a 
 system of cheap transportation will greatly stimulate industrial enterprises. 
 
 Besides the rivers, with their connecting canals, it should be noted that 
 Germany is covered with a network of railroads which in importance and 
 perfection of organization is excelled only in the United States. (See map 
 XV, appendix, advanced text.) These systems of land and water transporta- 
 tion are so admirably organized and controlled that the one supplements 
 instead of competes with the other, for the waterways arc utilized by slow and 
 heavy freights, while passengers and perishable freights are handled by the 
 r.'iilroafls. Ninety jxt cent of these systems arc owned 1)\ the German Gov- 
 ernment, which accounts in a large measure for llie cheapness of the rates. 
 Discuss how such excellent transportation facilities, together with low rates 
 of transportation, have served to stimulate industrial enterprises. Largely as
 
 THE CONTINENT OF EURASIA. 21 
 
 a result of such an excellent system of internal communication, the industrial 
 life has been so stimulated and unified as to make Germany, in the language 
 of Trotter, in his Geography of Commerce (p. 285), "One vast workshop." 
 
 Another factor in this industrial expansion which cannot be overlooked, for 
 in reality it conditions all the others, is the character of the people themselves. 
 As Carpenter, in his Geographical reader (Europe, p. 190), very aptly says, 
 "But something more than fertile soil, rich mines, and network of railroads, 
 good seaports, and navigable rivers is needed to make a country great in 
 manufacture and commerce ; it is necessary to have thrifty people with a 
 turn for trade." As a matter of fact, the Germans as a people combine all 
 those qualities of perseverance, frugality, thoroughness in detail, and shrewd- 
 ness in driving bargains which characterize the good trader. 
 
 At this point have the children read the references cited which bring out 
 forcibly these traits of the Germans, and also the part wdiich the nation plays 
 in the commerce of the world. 
 
 Their foresight and thrift as well as progressiveness is shown in the en- 
 couragement bestowed by the state on the higher commercial and technical 
 education of the people. In 1884 it is reported that the total attendance at 
 the German polytechnic schools was under two thousand. In 1896, in one of 
 ihe schools alone there were in attendance more than three thousand students. 
 The superior knowledge and technical skill thus gained have been no small 
 factors in putting Germany in the industrial position which she now occupies. 
 Under such trade stimulus Germany is fast becoming a nation of colonies. It 
 has colonies in Africa and China, and owns besides many islands in the 
 Pacific. Its merchants have established business houses in all parts of the 
 world, and in the colonies of other nations as w^ell as in their own. This 
 means that Germany is destined to play a constantly increasing part in the 
 domain of world commerce. 
 
 Point out in conclusion how remarkable all this is in view of the fact that 
 previous to 1871 Germany consisted of some twenty-six independent duchies 
 which were frequently at war with each other. 
 
 Lesson Unit III : The Rhine : As a trade route and in song and story. 
 
 READI.\G LIST: 
 
 *The Rhine country Chaut.— 26 :467-74. 
 
 *Down the Rhine Century— 61 :2o6-i 7, 682-85, 819-31. 
 
 *A trip down the Rhine Chaut.— 35 :254-7o. 
 
 The Rhine Stoddard Lectures, vol. \'IL 
 
 Carpenter, Europe PP- 234-48. 
 
 Youth's Companion series, Xorthern Kurope pp. 104-08. 
 
 Herbertson, Europe pp. 68-74 (Parts). 
 
 Butterworth, Northern lands pp. 133-34. 142-52, 154-57. 161 6|. 
 
 221-43. 
 
 Browne, Chats about Germany pp. 67-127. 
 
 Coe, Europe pp. 167-86. 
 
 Tarr & McMurry, Bk. Ill pp. 297-300. 
 
 **Andrews. Seven little sisters pp. 85-97- 
 
 Neally, To Nuremberg and back (Parts). 
 
 Knox, Northern Europe pn- 164-72, iSjgu. 
 
 Abbott, Rollo on the Rhine (Parts). 
 
 **Wade, Our little German cousin 
 
 Guerber, Legends of the Rhine (Parts). 
 
 Ragozin, Siegfried (The story). 
 
 Stoddard, Lectures, vol. VII pp. 5 et sec].
 
 22 TEACHERS HANDBOOK OF GEOGR.\PHY. 
 
 Sitggcstio)is: Germany is widely celebrated for the beauty of the scenery 
 of the River Rhine, for the castles, for the quaint villages, and for the pic- 
 turesque cathedrals which line its banks. It would be both interesting and 
 profitable to spend some time reading and talking about trips which travelers 
 have taken on it. First require the children to trace out the river on a map, 
 noting that it rises high up in the Alps, that it has cut its way through the 
 hills of the south German plateau, and that on its lower course it has deposited 
 a broad flood plain which constitutes one of the most fertile agricultural 
 regions in all Europe. Review what has already been presented regarding 
 the importance of the Rhine as a trade route. 
 
 Having done this, procure as many of the references cited as possible, or- 
 ganize the material which they contain, and either tell the children the story, 
 read to them, or permit them to read for themselves. The teacher should, 
 in addition to showing the children the pictures given in these references, 
 collect a scrap-book of magazine pictures illustrating in greater variety scenes 
 along the river. 
 
 In addition, if time permits, relate the interesting details of the famous 
 legends of the Rhine — legends which in some form have found their way 
 into the great operas and writings of the world. Among the most famous are 
 the following: The Lorelei, Siegfried and the Dragon, the legend of the 
 Maus Tower at Bingen, and the Bells of the Rhine. In this connection it 
 would be interesting and profitable to discuss the life and work of Richard 
 Wagner, and particularly the use which he made of some of these legends in 
 his great operas. 
 
 A STUDY OF THE KINGDOM OF THE NETHERLANDS. 
 
 Map Locations (to be taught first) : The Netherlands, Holland; Amster- 
 dam, The Hague, Baltic Sea, North Sea ; Rhine River, Zuyder Zee. 
 
 Lesson Unit I: The country: Its people and their occupations. 
 
 RE.ADING LIST: 
 
 *Adams, Commercial geography pp. 250-57. 
 
 "Trotter, Geography of commerce pp. 274-79. 
 
 Carpenter, Kurope pp. 133-56. 
 
 Youth's Companion series, Northern Europe l>p. 18-38. 
 
 Companion series, By land and sea pp. 12-15. 
 
 Knox, Northern Europe Chaps. ]-\"III (Parts). 
 
 **Shaw, Hig people and little people of other lands.... pp. 83-91. 
 
 Knox, Siam and Java pp. 326-29, 377-86, 425-28. 
 
 Coc, Modern Europe pp. 133-54. 
 
 •Hough, Dutch life in town and country Chaps. I-III, \'l, \'III, XXI. 
 
 Uencdict, Stories of persons and places in Europe pp. 183-206. 
 
 Johonnot, Ten great events in history pp. 145-65. 
 
 Oodge, llans lirinkcr (Fiction). 
 
 Dodge, Land of pluck (Stories). 
 
 "Chance, Little folks of many lands pp. .■;7-52. 
 
 •'ChamlK-rlain, How we are clothed pp. 21-24. 
 
 •Higclow, The children of the nations pp. 153-83. 
 
 •'George, Little journeys (Holland, Belgium and Den- 
 mark) ( Parts) . 
 
 Stoddard, Lectures, vol. VII l)p. 173 ct scq. 
 
 •Webster, General history of commerce pp. 475-77.
 
 THE COXTIXEXT OF EURASIA, 23 
 
 Suggestions: Turn to the map on page 127 of the advanced text. Observe 
 from the shading that much of the Netherlands is below the sea-level, while 
 only a small part of it, in the extreme east, reaches an elevation of one thou- 
 sand feet. With the references cited above as a basis, discuss the methods by 
 which the land has been reclaimed. In this connection talk about the latest 
 enterprise, which is to build a dike across the entrance to the Zuyder Zee, 
 pump out the water, and thus transform it into a fertile plain. (See McClure^ 
 21: 648-658; Pop. Sci. ]\Io.. 60: 551-555; Nature, 65: 275-277.) Estimate 
 how much the tillable country would be increased in area by this undertaking. 
 Observe that the Rhine is the chief river of the region. Point out that in 
 reality much of the area of the Netherlands is a delta composed of the soil 
 washed down and deposited by this river. As the Netherlands has an 
 abundant rainfall and a temperate climate, the conditions are suitable for 
 agricultural pursuits. Bring out in your discussion of the references that 
 dairying and agriculture are the chief occupations of the people ; that in fact 
 the Netherlands exports to England such quantities of the products of the 
 dairy that she has been frequently called "The Dairy Farm of Great Britain." 
 
 Bring out next the commercial importance of the Netherlands, her fortu- 
 nate situation, the extent and richness of her colonial possessions (see "Study 
 of the East Indies," p. 82), and that her chief revenue lies in the import and 
 export trade of these colonies. Bring otit the excellence of her system of 
 internal transportation, and the value of her forwarding trade with Germany, 
 Switzerland, and other interior countries of Europe, which arises from the 
 fact that the lower portions of the Rhine, the Meuse, and the Scheldt, flow 
 through Holland. Show how all these have been factors in giving Holland 
 her great commerce, which in point of value is out of all proportion to 
 her size. 
 
 A STUDY OF THE KINGDOM OF DENMARK. 
 
 Map Locations (to be taught first) : North Sea, Baltic, Wilhelm Ship 
 Canal ; Copenhagen ; Norway, Sweden, Germany. 
 
 Lesson Unit I : The people and industries of Denmark. 
 
 READING LIST: 
 **George, Little journeys (Denmark) (Parts). ^ 
 
 Carpenter, i:-urope pp. 1 56-63. 
 
 Coe, Modern Europe pp. 119-32. 
 
 Butterworth, Northern lands pp. 277-87. 
 
 Knox, Northern Europe '. pp. 399-448. 
 
 Benedict, Stories of persons and places in Europe. ... pp. 85-100. 
 *Brochner, Danish life in town and country (Parts). 
 
 Herbertson, Europe pp. 1-26 (Parts). 
 
 King, Northern Europe pp. 297-301. 
 
 *W'ebster, General history of commerce p. 484. 
 
 *Trotter, Geography of commerce pp. 307-308. 
 
 *Adams, Commercial geography pp. 264-67. 
 
 Suggestions: Point out that in many respects Denmark is similar to the 
 Netherlands. It is a low country, though not below the sea-level ; it is part of
 
 24 TEACHERS HANDBOOK OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 the great low plain of North Europe ; its principal industries are likewise 
 dairying' and agriculture, and its climate is very similar to that of the Nether- 
 lands. Work these points out by reference to maps. (See advanced text, 
 p. 127.) 
 
 Bring out. however, that in many other important particulars the country 
 dififers from the Netherlands. Its people are more closely allied to the Nor- 
 wegians than they are to the Dutch, for they speak virtually the same tongue. 
 Then, the land as a whole is not so fertile, for there are regions consisting 
 largely of bogs, sandy flats, and heather-covered plains. Hence it lacks the 
 natural advantages which the Netherlands enjoy. Neither is Denmark so 
 fortunately situated for participation in the forwarding trade of the world. 
 In this connection compare her colonial possessions with those of the Nether- 
 lands, noting that they are limited to Greenland. Iceland, and the small 
 islands of St. Croix, St. Thomas, and St. John, in the West Indies, which are 
 relatively unproductive and unimportant. In comparison with the depend- 
 encies of the Netherlands, they are of little commercial value. 
 
 A STUDY OF THE KINGDOM OF NORWAY AND SWEDEN. 
 
 Map Locations (to be taught first) : Baltic, North Sea, Atlantic, Arctic, 
 Skagerrack ; Kiolen Mountains ; Christiania, Stockholm ; Norway, Sweden. 
 
 Lcsso)i Unit I: Once the home of the \'ikings, a vanished race of sea 
 fighters. 
 
 READING LIST: 
 
 Lonsfellow, Skeleton in armor (Poem). 
 
 **.'\ndrews, Ten boys Wulf the Saxon hoy. 
 
 *Kenyon, Scandinavia Bulletin No. V, S. F. State Norm. Series. 
 
 Du Chaillu, Land of the long night Chap. XXX. 
 
 Davis, -Norway nights and Russian days pp. 45-52. 
 
 liall, Viking tales (Parts). 
 
 Ragozin, Frithjof, Viking of Norway (A story). 
 
 Griffis, Tlie romance of discovery pp. 28-44. 
 
 •*Georgc, Little journeys (Norway and Sweden) (Parts). 
 
 Stoddard, Lectures, vol. I pp. 9 et seq. 
 
 •Webster, General history of commerce pp. 483-84. 
 
 *Trotter, Geography of commerce pp. 305-307. 
 
 •Adams, Commercial geography ]H). 258-64. 
 
 Du Chailhi, Ivan the Viking (I'iction). 
 
 IJallantync, Krling the bold ( h'iction). 
 
 Suggestions: In your discussion of this topic try to give the children a 
 realization of the character and hardihood of the Vikings. Talk about their 
 rowboats and weapons, about how they coasted along the sliorcs of the 
 ]5altic and North Seas, how they forced a settkiiKiit in l"rance which came 
 to be called Normandy, and frniii uliich, at a later time, came the Normans 
 who under William the Conf|ueror defeated Ilamld at I Listings, thereby 
 establishing themselves in England ; how oihcr bands pushed oul to the west, 
 reaching Iceland, Greenland, and the main land of Norlli America before 
 the time of Columbus. Correlate this part of the discussion with the history 
 stories the children nf) doubt will have had at some |)rrvintis time.
 
 THE CONTINENT OF EURASIA. 25 
 
 Lesson Unit II : The climate and physical features of Scandinavia. 
 
 READING LIST: 
 
 Coe, Modern Europe pp. 92-94, 1 07-1 12, 118. 
 
 Johonnot, Ueographical reader pp. 175, igo-97, 401-407. 
 
 Carpenter, Europe pp. 164-66. 
 
 Ballou, Footprints of travel pp. 235-36, 260, 265-66, 342. 
 
 Tarr and McMurry, Bk. Ill p. 257. 
 
 **Pratt, Northern Europe pp. 73-77, 80-84. 
 
 Youth's Companion series, The wide world pp. 8S-95. 
 
 Companion series. By land and sea pp. 53-59. 
 
 Herbertson, Europe pp. 1-29. 
 
 *Kenyon, Scandinavia, Bulletin No. V, S.F. State Norm. Series. 
 
 Stoddard, Lectures, vol. I pp. 9 et seq. 
 
 Suggestions: The best way to bring out the characteristics of the Scan- 
 dinavian scenery will be through an examination of any good map of the 
 peninsula followed by a reading of the references which best bring out these 
 features. 
 
 In discussing the climate point out that the winters on the Norwegian 
 side of the peninsula are much milder ; the fiords, though in the most north- 
 erly parts, are open all winter. 
 
 Take up a discussion of the reasons for the relatively mild climate of this 
 legion, but do not make the mistake of explaining it on the basis of a branch 
 of the Gulf Stream sweeping up the coast. Meteorologists are now insisting' 
 that the popular conception of the Gulf Stream as it applies to Norway is 
 erroneous, and that in reality the Gulf Stream at this point is nothing more 
 than a great ocean drift, and that the mild temperature of Western Europe 
 is due rather to the prevailing ocean winds, and that in fact any region whose 
 winds are universally from the sea will have its climate perceptibly tempered. 
 (The teacher will find this discussed in the following: Scribner's, vol. XXI, 
 "The Gulf Stream"; Bulletin American Geographical Society, July, 1901, 
 "Certain Persistent Errors in Geography.") 
 
 Lesson Unit III: The character of the people: their life and occupations. 
 
 READING LIST: 
 
 Ingersoll. The book of the ocean. ..^ pp. 231-48 (I'arts). 
 
 **George, Little journeys (Norway and Sweden) (Parts). 
 
 Martineau, Feats on the fjord (Fiction). 
 
 Ballou, Footprints of travel pp. 240-41^. 245-46, 255-56, 27073. 
 
 *Kenyon, Scandinavia Bulletin No. V, S.F. State Norm. Series. 
 
 Coe, Modern Europe pp. 93-101, 115-16. 
 
 Carnenter, Europe pp. 178-80, 182-84. 
 
 Johonnot, Geographical reader pp. 193-97, 401-407. 
 
 Butterworth, Northern lands Chap. XVT (Parts). 
 
 Youth's Companion series. Northern Europe pp. 11-17. 
 
 **\V'ade, Dur little Norwegian cousin (Parts). 
 
 Benedict, Stories of persons and places in Europe. .. .pp. 61-84. 
 
 Du Chaillu, Land of the long night .(Parts). 
 
 King, Northern Europe pp. 269-96. 
 
 Knox, Northern Europe pp. 448-506. 
 
 Boyesen, Modern Vikings (Parts). 
 
 State series. Fourth reader pp. 53-63. 
 
 Stoddard. Lectures, vol. I pp. 9 et seq. 
 
 Boyesen, Norseland tales 
 
 Boyesen, Boyhood in Norway 
 
 Suggestions: In regard to the character of the people and their industries, 
 it should be pointed out that the long winters and the roughness of the 
 country preclude any farming of importance, so that the people of the north
 
 26 teachers' handbook of geography. 
 
 have no choice but to take to fishing and Hving- on reindeer, but that in the 
 south, particularly in Sweden, there is considerable good farming land, 
 though it is not great enough in area to give all the breadstuff which the 
 inhabitants need. It should be pointed out, too, that dairying is a very im- 
 portant industry in this region ; Sweden exports millions of pounds of butter 
 yearly to Great Britain ; timber, fishing, and the mining of iron ore. it should 
 be mentioned, ai-e very important industries, and give employment to many 
 thousands of men. In one fishing center alone — the Lofoden Islands — there 
 are forty thousand men and seven thousand vessels engaged, in the month 
 of March, in catching and curing cod and herring. 
 
 A STUDY OF THE COUNTRIES OF THE DANUBE. 
 (AUSTRIA-HUNGARY AND THE MINOR BALKANS.) 
 
 Map Locations (to be taught first) : Austria-Hungary, Roumania, Servia, 
 Tyrol. Montenegro, Bulgaria; Danube; A'ienna, Belgrade; Alps, Carpathian 
 Mountains. 
 
 Lesso-n Unit I : The great diversity of the inhabitants and the character- 
 istic products of the region. 
 
 READING LIST: 
 
 Carpenter, Europe pp. 171-72,273-80, 293-309. 
 
 Coe, Modern Europe pp. 357-59- 
 
 *Palmer, Austro-Hungarian life in town and country. . Chaps. I, IV^, \'II. XII. 
 
 Cole, The gipsy road (Parts). 
 
 Knox, Central Europe pp. 432-532. 
 
 Benedict, Stories of persons and places in Europe pp. 252-75. 
 
 Youth's Companion series. Under sunny skies '...pp. 123-31. 
 
 Herbertson, Europe pp. 112-42, 142-164. 
 
 Stoddard, Lectures, vol. VI pp. 115-224 (Parts). 
 
 •Webster, General history of commerce pp. 478-80. 
 
 *Trotter, Geography of commerce pp. 294-98. 
 
 * Adams, Commercial geography ^ pp. 277-87. 
 
 Suggestions: Review the history of these states treated in the "Study of 
 European and Asiatic Turkey," p. 43. 
 
 As these countries are almost entirely comprised in the Danube Valley, 
 and as they have many characteristics in common, they may as well be con- 
 sidercfl together. 
 
 Owing to the fact that the region of the Danube has been for centuries the 
 seat of invasion and counter-invasion by races from Asia as well as from 
 Europe, more languages are spoken to-day among the nations of the Balkan 
 Peninsula and the Danube Valley than in any other region of similar area in 
 the world. 
 
 All the races of Europe and some of Asia are represented here. There are 
 Jews, Turks, Greeks, Slavs, .Armenians, Germans, Latins, and peoples closely 
 related to the Mongolians in considerable numbers ; in only three provinces 
 of Austria is one language (C'.crman) generally spoken. In Hungary there 
 arc many villages where as many as three distinct languages arc in general
 
 THE CONTINENT OF EURASIA. 27 
 
 use. It is said that in Austria there are thousands of schools in which the 
 Czech tongue is taught, and other thousands where the language of the 
 Slavs is spoken. Point out also that there is as great a dissimilarity in re- 
 hgion, in ideals of government, in customs, in standards of living, as there 
 is in language, and that in consequence the people are jealous and suspicious 
 of each other, making it an exceedingly difficult matter to bring these people 
 under a common rule. The mountainous character of the country, and the 
 isolation which its valleys give, has so accentuated these racial differences 
 that it is a surprise that such people with little in common save political 
 antagonism can be held together under the same rule. The explanation of 
 the fact that Austria-Hungary, a great area, near in size to Russia, is 
 under one rule, however, lies in the fact that the basin of the Danube is a 
 great food-producing country, and also that it has long been the natural trade 
 route between Asia and the countries of the North Sea. These character- 
 istics have given the countries of Austria and Hungary a certain amount of 
 commercial unity which has served in a measure to overcome the antago- 
 nisms engendered through race hatred. 
 
 Amplifv somewhat the two thoughts suggested in the last paragraph, — 
 j. e. that the Danube basin is a great food-producing region, and that it is 
 the natural trade route between Asia and the North Sea countries. 
 
 In connection with the second point, that the Danube has been for centuries 
 the natural overland trade route between Asia and the North Sea, review the 
 discussion the class has already had regarding the canal connection between 
 the Danube and the waters flowing into the North Sea. (See "Study of the 
 German Empire," p. 18.) 
 
 Bring out in your discussion of the references cited the following facts : — 
 
 That no other region of Europe has such a mixture of races as the Danube 
 Valley. 
 
 That, by means of canals, freight can be carried entirely by water from the 
 Danube to the North Sea. 
 
 That it was the great trade route between Europe and Asia during the 
 Middle Ages. 
 
 That the rich valley of the Danube is largely a food-producing region, in 
 which wheat is the chief product. 
 
 That those portions of Austria-Hungary lying outside the Danube \"alley 
 contain large mineral deposits. 
 
 A STUDY OF THE REPUBLIC OF SWITZERLAND. 
 
 Map Locations (to be taught first): Alps; Bern, Zurich, Geneva; St. 
 Gotthard Pass. 
 
 Lesson Unit I : The scenerv of Switzerland.
 
 28 teachers' handbook of GEOGR.APHY. 
 
 READING LIST: 
 
 Carpenter, Europe pp. 249-60. 
 
 Herbertson, Europe pp. 94-109. 
 
 Coe, Modern Europe pp. 225-49. 
 
 Stockton, Personally conducted pp. 1 19-37. 
 
 Youth's Companion series. Northern Europe pp. 78-94 (Parts). 
 
 **Shaw, Big people and little people of other lands.... pp. 77-82. 
 
 Headley, ^lountain adventures pp. 1-145. (Parts). 
 
 **George, Little journeys (France and Switzerland) .... (Parts). 
 
 Stoddard, Lectures, vol. I pp. 121 et seq. 
 
 Suggestions: It will be impossible to give the children any adequate 
 notion of the grandeur of Alpine scenery, except through the generous use 
 of interesting and detailed description. Adventures which mountain-climbers 
 have experienced, and pictures which in any way show the magnificence of 
 the glaciers, the mountains, and the valleys of Switzerland should be em- 
 ploved. The effort which the teacher expends in collecting materials of this 
 sort will be amply repaid by the interest wdiich it will arouse. 
 
 Lesson Unit II : The history and chief characteristics of the Swiss people 
 together with their government. 
 
 READING LIST: 
 
 Carpenter, Elurope pp. 260-71 . 
 
 Knox, Central Europe pp. 276-82. 
 
 Coe, Modern Europe pp. 236-38. 
 
 Youth's Companion series, Northern Europe pp. 95-103. 
 
 Knox, Central Europe Chaps. XV, X\'I (Parts). 
 
 *Story, Swiss life in town and country Chaps. I. II, III, IV, X, XIII. 
 
 **Bouvet, Bernardo and Laurette (A story). 
 
 Morris, Historical tales: German pp. 145-57, 165-70. 
 
 •* , Konrad, the little Swiss boy (A story). 
 
 Stoddard, Lectures, vol. I pp. 121 et seq. 
 
 **Wade, Our little Swiss cousin 
 
 Haaren and Poland, Famous men of the Middle Ages.. pp. 226-32. 
 
 Suggestions: In your discussion of these references bring out the follow- 
 ing facts : — 
 
 That Switzerland is the oldest republic now in existence. 
 
 That the country consists of twenty-five cantons, or districts. 
 
 That each canton is a state with its own government and constitution, and 
 having a representation in a national congress. 
 
 That every citizen has a vote. 
 
 That two important and unusual rights exist, — the Referendum, by which 
 the people can have proposed laws submitted to a general vote of the country, 
 and the Right of Initiative, by which a group of citizens may at any time 
 propose new measures and submit them to a general vote. 
 
 Compare the Swiss form of government with our own in these respects. 
 Next bring out something of the history of the struggle which these people 
 have experienced in preserving their liberty and independence as a nation. 
 Relate in this connection the story of William Tell — not as a true story, but 
 one which will illustrate the character of the people. Tell also of the famous 
 battle of Morgartcn, wherein thirteen hundred mountaineers overwhelmed 
 ten times their number — the flower of th.e Austrian army — and established 
 their independence. Tell the story of the Lion of liucerne. This statue, 
 carved by the famous Icelander, Thorwaldscn, commemorates the great 
 bravery of the Swiss people.
 
 THE COXTIXENT OF EURASIA. 29 
 
 Lesson Unit III: The industries of Switzerland and her commercial 
 position. 
 
 READING LIST: 
 
 Carpenter, Europe pp. 260-71 (Parts). 
 
 Companion series, By land and sea pp. 42-46. 
 
 Knox, Central Europe Chaps. XVII, XVIII, XX. 
 
 *Story, Swiss life in town and country Chaps. II, VII, VIII, IX. 
 
 **George, Little journeys (Erance and Switzerland) .... (Parts). 
 
 Stoduard, Lectures, vol. I.. pp. 121 et seq. 
 
 Frith, The romance of engineering pp. 289 et seq. 
 
 *\Vebster, General history of commerce p. 483. 
 
 *Adams, Commercial geography pp. 268-76. 
 
 *Trotter, Geography of commerce pp. 288-89. 
 
 Suggestions: From the map on page 127 of the advanced text note that 
 Switzerland has on her borders the great trading nations of Germany, Aus- 
 tria, Italy, and France, with which she is in excellent communication by 
 good wagon-roads over the Alpine passes, and also by an unsurpassed system 
 of railroads. The railroad mileage in Switzerland, in proportion to area, is 
 greater than in any other country in Europe, Belgium excepted. The rates 
 are also very cheap. A ticket costing $10.50 entitles one to travel over the 
 railroads and lake steamers as much as he wishes to for thirty days. (Adams, 
 Commercial Geography, p. 273.) The cheapness of the rates, and the ex- 
 cellence of the railroads, together with the many scenic attractions which 
 Switzerland affords, have built up a very large and lucrative tourist trade. It 
 is said that more than a million travelers visit Switzerland annually, and that 
 in 1898 they left thirty-eight millions of dollars in the country. Indeed, the 
 foreign tourist has come to be one of the chief sources of income to the 
 people of Switzerland. However, because nearly all the supplies which the 
 country sells the tourist are imported, not all of the money which is received 
 is kept. 
 
 As regards the industries of the country, point out that on account of its 
 mountainous character Switzerland is not an agricultural country, although 
 the climate and rainfall are suitable. Most of its breadstuff is therefore im- 
 ported. Cattle-raising and dairying are the distinctive Alpine industries. 
 It will be interesting to bring out in this connection how cattle follow the 
 snow-line as it recedes in the summer. "As the snow melts in the spring, 
 tens of thousands of cows are driven to the highlands to feed there until the 
 frost compels them to return to their winter provender of hay ; the herder 
 milks the cows and makes cheese and butter, cheese being the principal out- 
 put. About once a fortnight supplies are taken to the herders, and the cheese 
 and butter are carried down to the markets while the farmers in the plain 
 are making hay for winter fodder." (Adams, Commercial Geography, 
 p. 270.) Bring out as a summary that, with the exception of dairy products, 
 Switzerland imports most of her food ; that over a third of the people are 
 engaged in manufacturing articles which require skillful handwork; and 
 that each industrial center has its special line of manufacture in which it 
 excels.
 
 30 teachers' handbook of geography. 
 
 A STUDY OF THE KINGDOM OF BELGIUM. 
 
 Map Locations (to be taught first): Netherlands, Germany, France; 
 English Channel. North Sea ; Brussels, Ghent. Antwerp. 
 
 Lesson Unit I: Belgium's occupations and place in foreign trade and com- 
 merce. 
 
 READING LIST: 
 
 Companion series. By land and sea pp. 16-21. 
 
 Carpenter, Europe PP. 125-33. 
 
 Youth's Companion series, Northern Europe pp. 39-45- 
 
 Coe, Northern Europe pp. 154-67. 
 
 *Boulger, JSelgian life in town and country Chaps. I, \'l, \'II. \'1II, XIX. XXI. 
 
 Butterworth, Around the world pp. 222-33. 
 
 Butterworth, In Europe ^ pp. 205-25. 
 
 Benedict, Stories of persons and places in Europe pp. 207-23. 
 
 **Eggleston, Strange stories from history pp. 88-98. 
 
 Johonnot, Stories of other lands PP. 87-95. 
 
 **George, Little journeys (Holland, Belgium and Den- 
 mark) (Parts). 
 
 Stoddard, Lectures, vol. VII pj). 113 et seq. 
 
 *Webster, General history of commerce pp. 477-78. 
 
 **La kame, The dog of Flanders 
 
 Suggestions: Have the children turn to the map on page 131 of the ad- 
 vanced text, locate Belgium, and estimate its area in square miles. Turn 
 to the table on page 157 and see how nearly correct the estimates are. Com- 
 pare its true area with the area of California (about i to 14) ; compare its 
 population with that of California (about four times as great) ; tell the chil- 
 dren that it is about the most thickly populated region of equal area in the 
 world, having an average density of five hundred and eighty-eight people to 
 the square mile. Have the children estimate a square mile in the neighbor- 
 hood of their school, and think how^ thickly settled it would be with nearly 
 six hundred people living on it. Read to them chapter XIV of Carpenter's 
 Europe (pp. 216-221). Discuss the reasons why Belgium with such a small 
 area can support such a large population. From the references just cited, 
 the children will see that it is partly because the land is so fertile, but largely 
 because the people are so thrifty, skillful, and industrious. Although the 
 references thus given emphasize Belgium's agricultural activity, bring out 
 the fact that the country is primarily a mining and manufacturing one, and 
 that in reality agriculture is a subordinate industry. Examine the map on 
 page 131 of the advanced text again; note that while much of its area is a 
 low plain, yet toward the south and east it is crossed by a belt of highlands 
 extending from Germany to France. This is a region of coal-fields and iron 
 deposits which have given rise to a great variety of manufactures. Firearms 
 arc manufactured in one of the cities, steel and machinery construction are 
 carried on in several others, and cutlery on a large scale in yet other places. 
 Further towards the coast there are great factories cniplnying vast numbers 
 of people, and manufacturing linen, woolen, and cotton goods, l)iau(iful laces, 
 and a great variety of pottery, porcelain, and glassware. So greal rue these 
 industries, that there arc more than one million of ])eoplc employing the best
 
 THE CONTINENT OF EURASIA. 3 1 
 
 machinery turning out manufactured products, which for the most part are 
 destined for export. (Adams, Commercial Geography, p. 245.) Discuss the 
 causes which have made the Belgians a manufacturing people, bringing out 
 such most obvious ones — that she occupies a most fortunate position in the 
 markets of the world ; that she has a great number of skilled laborers who 
 w^ork for low wages, and that she has rich mines of coal and iron ; and that, 
 besides, she has been a manufacturing people ever since the Middle Ages. 
 The excellence of her transportation system, canals, and railways has also 
 been an important factor in her commercial and industrial development. 
 
 It should be noted besides that Belgium for her size has taken an important 
 place in foreign trade and commerce. Several circumstances have favored 
 her growth in this regard. In the first place, while political feuds culminat- 
 ing in the Franco-Prussian war were undermining French influence in 
 Europe, Belgium was attracting much trade to Antwerp by liberal tariffs ; 
 great public works, such as deepening the Scheldt, building numerous canals, 
 and developing a splendid system of railroads, were inaugurated. Then, too, 
 the opening of the St. Gotthard railroad tunnel tended to give Belgium the 
 transportation of large quantities of freight of her own factories and from 
 foreign countries destined for the Orient by way of Italy. (Webster, History 
 of Commerce. ) Again, owing to her fortunate situation between great com- 
 mercial nations she has built up a big forwarding business. Thus in 1898 
 seventy-six million dollars' worth of merchandise passed through the country 
 on its w-ay to Germany, Switzerland, and other continental countries, and 
 sixty-five millions of dollars' worth passed out, going to Great Britain and 
 the United States. Point out also in this connection that the Belgian ruler 
 is the sovereign of the Kongo State in Africa, having been chosen as ruler 
 by the European powers, and that the development of this region will mate- 
 rially enhance the value and importance of Belgium's foreign trade. 
 
 A STUDY OF THE REPUBLIC OF FRANCE. 
 
 Ma[^ Locations (to be taught first) : Belgunn, Germany, Switzerland, 
 Italy, Spain ; English Channel, Bay of Biscay, North Sea, Mediterranean ; 
 Paris. Marseilles, Lyons ; Pyrenees Mountains, Alps ; Seine, Loire, Garonne, 
 Rhone. 
 
 Lesson Unit I : Occupations and life of the French people. 
 
 READING LIST: 
 
 *Adams, Commercial geography pp. 228-41 . 
 
 *Trotter, Geography of commerce FP- 261-68. 
 
 Carpenter, Europe pp. 85-106, 185, 186. 
 
 Companion series. By land and sea pp. 22-26. 
 
 **iMiIn, Little folks of many lands pp. 112-37. 
 
 Knox, Central Europe Chaps. I-XIV (Parts). 
 
 Coe, Modern Europe pp. 249-66, 266-78. 
 
 Butterworth, In Europe. . ; pp. 226-303. 
 
 Knox. Southern Europe pp. 443-92. 
 
 Brooks, Boy of the first empire (Fiction). 
 
 *Chamberlain, How we are clothed pp. ^s-g9- 
 
 **/
 
 32 TEACHERS HANDBOOK OF GEOGR.APHY. 
 
 *Lynch, French life in town and country (J^arts). 
 
 Laurie, Schoolboy days in France (^Fiction). 
 
 **George, Little journeys (France and Switzerland) (Parts). 
 
 Stoddard, Lectures, vol. V pp. s et seq., 127 et seq. 
 
 *\Vebster, General history of commerce pp. 469-72. 
 
 Suggestions: Bring out in discussion of these references that France is 
 both a farming and a manufacturing country, and that the people of the 
 country are pretty equally divided between the two lines of industry. Turn 
 to the map on page 131 of the advanced text and note that a line drawn diago- 
 nally across France from its extreme southwestern point in a northeasterly 
 direction to a point where Belgium intersects France divides the country 
 physiographically into two distinct areas. That to the west consists of roll- 
 ing plains less than six hundred feet above the sea-level. Tell the children 
 that this constitutes the great farming area of France. Point out that in this 
 region there are as many farms as there are in the whole United States, though 
 France is smaller than the single State of Texas, but that the farms are very 
 much smaller, averaging about fifteen acres each. ( Adams, Commercial 
 Geography, p. 201.) Mention that the farms in Great Britain are all in the 
 hands of some twenty thousand men, for the most part men belonging to the 
 nobility, while the farms in France, about twice the area of Great Britain 
 (see advanced text, p. 128), are owned by a million proprietors, many of 
 them belonging to the peasantry. (Carpenter, Europe, p. 88.) An interest- 
 ing contrast between methods of farming is also to be noted in connection 
 with the fact that the French farmer does not live on his farm, but in villages, 
 from which he goes out early in the morning, and to which he returns in the 
 evening after his day's work is done. Emphasize the fact that though these 
 farms produce a great variety and abundance of agricultural products, such 
 i,s sugar-beets, potatoes, and grain, wheat is the most important. Indeed, 
 France produces more of this grain than any other nation in the world, with 
 the exception of the United States and Russia. (Chisholm. Europe, p. 404.) 
 However, as the peasants eat wheat bread instead of rye bread, as do the 
 Germans. France is unable to i)roduce enough of the grain for home con- 
 sumption, and is forced, therefore, to import from the United States and 
 J^ussia some thirty-three million bushels yearly. 
 
 The region east of the diagonal line across the country is the highland 
 region of France. Bring out from the references already cited that this 
 region contains both coal and iron, though in less quantities than either Great 
 Britain or Germany ; that as a result of the proximity of the two, numerous 
 iron and steel works have been developed; that the foot-hills of the region 
 furnish i)asturage for thousands of cattle, .sheej), and horses; and that the 
 valleys and foothills of the central and southern jiart constitute one of the 
 greatest wine-producing regions in the world. Tlie Rhone Valley, lying to 
 the south and east of the diagonal line already suggested, is the seat of another 
 very important industry, — i. e. scriculturi'. I'oinl out that this industry is 
 limitefl to this rcgif)n, largely because the mulberry-tree, the leaves of which 
 constitute tlie food of the silkworm, grows best in this valley. In connection
 
 THE CONTINENT OF EURASIA. 33 
 
 with these last two industries, point out that about fifteen years ago French 
 vineyards were subjected to a very serious epidemic, phylloxera, which 
 greatly reduced her output, but by grafting upon stock imported from 
 America she has now overcome this terrible pest. Her production of wine 
 has again reached its normal level, in 1900 nearly two billion gallons being 
 produced. Point out also that while France once controlled the silk markets 
 of the world, in recent years, owing to the competition of the United States, 
 Great Britain, and Germany in its manufacture, and also to a destructive 
 disease of the silkworm, the industry in France has greatly declined. 
 (Adams, Commercial Geography, p. 228.) In discussing this last industry, 
 bring out the extent to which the French people are engaged in textile manu- 
 facture, among the most important manufactures after silk being the 
 manufacture of cotton, woolen, and linen goods. In these industries, which 
 require good taste, creative skill, and manual dexterity, France takes first 
 place among the nations of the world. In textile manufactures more than 
 one million people and upwards of one hundred thousand looms are em- 
 ployed. (Redway, Commercial Geography, p. 323.) 
 
 As a summary and review of what has already been presented and as a 
 preparation for what is to follow, have the children shade in an outline map 
 of France, showing the following regions : — 
 
 1. Highland region. 
 
 2. Agricultural region. 
 
 3. Wheat and grain region. 
 
 4. Region of coal and iron. 
 
 5. Grape-growing region. 
 
 6. Silk-producing region. 
 
 7. Region of textile manufactures (evenly 
 
 distributed over the entire country). 
 
 Lesson Unit II: France's place in international commerce. 
 
 READING LIST: 
 
 *Adams, Commercial geography pp. 228-41. 
 
 *Webster, General history of commerce pp. 469-72. 
 
 *Trotter, Geography of Commerce pp. 261-68. 
 
 Suggestions: On this point there is little or no reading which the teacher 
 can place in the hands of the children. The most she can do is to talk with 
 them on the topic. About the time of the Franco-Prussian war ( 1870-1871 — 
 Tell the children the result of the war as regards French territory) France 
 ranked second among the great nations of the world, but now she has ceased 
 to be a really great competitor in the world of trade, being surpassed by the 
 United States, by Germany, and by Great Britain. (Webster, History of 
 Commerce, p. 470.) This change from the second to the fourth place is due 
 partly to the fact that her competitors have developed commercially at a 
 much more rapid rate than has France, and, as has already been brought out.
 
 34 TEACHERS HANDBOOK OF GEOGR.APHY. 
 
 partly because she has in her inchistrios put her attention on quahty ratlier 
 than on quantity. 
 
 Having given the children in some such maimer a conception of what 
 France stands for in the commercial and industrial world, it will now be well 
 for the teacher to work out for the children a few of the most obvious causes 
 which have put her in the place she occupies in the race for commercial 
 supremacy : — 
 
 (a) Her admirable situation for commercial activity should first of all be 
 noted. Turn to map XV (appendix, advanced text) ; observe that the English 
 Channel lies along its northern border, across which British ports can be 
 reached in a few hours ; that her proximity to the North Sea gives her access 
 to all the ports of Northern Europe : that as the Atlantic Ocean washes her 
 shores to the west, her trade routes to South American and African ports 
 are shorter than those of England. Germany, or the Netherlands (map 
 p. 154) ; and that as more than one half of her southern country lies on the 
 Mediterranean, she has unexcelled facilities for trade with Northern Africa 
 and the East. (Map, p. 154, advanced text.) These points should be brought 
 to the attention of the children of the upper grades, and their bearing on 
 France's position among the leading nations of Europe discussed. 
 
 (b) The excellence of a country's means of internal transportation has 
 very much to do with that country's industrial development. The best map 
 from which to work out this point is the one on page 131 of the advanced text. 
 
 Compare France with Germany in this respect, noting that while France's 
 system of internal waterways is by no means the equal of Germany's, still it 
 is an excellent one, for she has one hundred rivers which arc more or less 
 navigable, and in connection with them a complete system of canals which 
 join those of Germany. Belgium, and the Netherlands. Note particularly 
 one of the most important of these canals, the one joining the Rhone and the 
 Rhine. In con.sequence of this connection, freight from the Mediterranean 
 can be floated through both France and Germany to the ports of the North 
 Sea ; canals also, it should be noted, connect the Rhine with the Loire and 
 the Seine. Another important canal is the one which connects the Mcdi- 
 teranean with the Tiaronne and the Bay of Biscay. This canal saves a voyage 
 of two thousand miles around the Spanish Peninsula. Besides these water- 
 ways, it can be seen from map XY (appendix, advanced text) that France has 
 an excellent railway system. Tn this connection discuss the value of the 
 railroad tunnel through the .\li)s, near ^,\t. Ccnis. which connects France 
 with the rich Italian valle\- of the Po. 
 
 (c) The climate and physical features of France have a great bearing in 
 determining the occu|)ation of the people. 
 
 Review the structural features of France already presented. Discuss the 
 effect on the climate and rainfall of the arrangement of momitains. The 
 point luTf i*;, that since the mountains are all on the eastern border of the
 
 THE CONTINENT OF EURASIA. 35 
 
 country, there is no obstacle which prevents the free passage across France 
 of the warm moisture-laden winds from the Atlantic, which prevail for the 
 most part. This arrangement insures an abundance of moisture for agri- 
 cultural purposes for those regions which are tillable. In regard to the 
 temperature of the country, turn to maps V, X, and XIV in the appendix of 
 the advanced text and, by an examination of the isothermal lines, note that 
 Paris is in about the same latitude as Newfoundland ; compare the tempera- 
 ture of the two places ; compare Paris with Boston, which is far to the south ; 
 note that the temperature of Paris is about that of San Francisco, which is 
 several degrees south. In a similar way compare the temperature of the 
 British Islands and of Germany with the points already mentioned. The con- 
 clusion is of course that the temperature of these regions of Western Europe 
 is much milder and more equable than that in the same latitudes in North 
 America. Discuss the effect on occupations. Also take up at this point 
 enough physical geography to explain the difference. 
 
 (d) The French policy of steadily expanding her colonial territory bids 
 fair to increase materially the importance of France's foreign trade. 
 
 Point out that France, particularly after the Franco-German w'ar, began 
 seeking to retrieve her territorial losses by adopting a policy of colonial ex- 
 pansion. Since that time she has steadily, through exploration and conquest 
 been adding to her foreign possessions. She has lost her influential position 
 in Egypt, but Algeria has been better developed and Tunis placed under her 
 protectorate. She has extended materially her rights in Indo-China and re- 
 established certain ancient claims in Madagascar. In a period of sixteen 
 years (1882-1898) she added in Asia and Africa alone over one million 
 square miles of territory and thirty-two millions of people. Her total colonial 
 possessions embrace about four and one-half million square miles and fifty- 
 six millions of people. (Webster, History of Commerce, p. 471.) In spite, 
 however, of the extent of this enormous domain. France has not yet profited 
 greatly by it. Though parts of the territory are rich in native resources, 
 much of the region has not yet been developed. In its possibilities, however, 
 it gives promise of future trade development which will prove of great value 
 to the mother country. From the map on page 154 of the advanced text, 
 work out the territory which belongs to France, and on an outline map of 
 the world have the children shade in those regions which comprise France's 
 colonial domain. 
 
 These factors of geographical situation, of means of internal transporta- 
 tion, of climate, rainfall and structure, and colonial expansion, together with 
 the native thrift of the people themselves, have been by no means the only 
 factors, but they are perhaps the most important, certainly the most obvious, 
 in explaining France's occupations, her prosperity, and her place as a com- 
 mercial nation among the great powers of the world. With careful work on 
 the part of the teacher, these points are not too difficult for the children of 
 the upper grades to comprehend.
 
 36 teachers' handbook of geogr.\phy. 
 
 A STUDY OF THE IBERIAN PENINSULA. 
 
 (SPAIN AND PORTUGAL.) 
 
 Map Locations (to be taught first) : Pyrenees Mountains ; Duoro, Tagus, 
 Guadalquivir, Ebro rivers; Madrid, Granada, Gibraltar, Lisbon. 
 
 Lesson Unit I: The commercial decadence of Spain and Portugal. 
 
 READING LIST: 
 
 •Adams, Commercial geography pp. 298-303. 
 
 •Trotter, Geography of commerce ,pp. 270-73. 
 
 Tarr and McMurry, Bk. Ill pp. 238-41. 
 
 O.xlev, Romance of commerce pp. 7I-83- 
 
 Ilalei Stories of the sea pp. 5^-78. 
 
 *Veats. The growth and vicissitudes of commerce pp. 186-201. 
 
 *Higgin, Spanish life in town and country Chap. ]. 
 
 *Bigelow, The children of the nations pp. 1-84, 126-53. 
 
 ••George, Little journeys (Italy, Spain and Portugal) .. (Parts). 
 
 Jenks, The boy's book of explorations pp. i-iS- 
 
 Stoudard, Lectures, vol. V pp. 251 et seq. 
 
 Ingersoll, The book of the ocean pp. 39-76 (Parts). 
 
 *\\'ebster, General history of commerce pp. 122-28, 206-209, 315 16, 48J. 
 
 Suggestions: The most striking thing about this region is. that from a 
 place of supreme wealth and importance it has fallen to a comparatively in- 
 significant place among the nations of the world. If the teacher can show 
 clearly and concretely what Spain was in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, 
 and indicate what she gave promise of becoming, then by contrast bring out 
 what she is now, and also discuss some of the features which have brought 
 about her commercial decadence, she will not only have brought out most of 
 the details which the text mentions, but will have related them in such a way 
 as to make them mean something to the children. The following suggestions 
 may be helpful in making such a study of Spain and Portugal: — 
 
 Turn to the map of Europe in the appendix of the advanced text and tell the 
 children that the maritime commerce of Europe during the Middle Ages was 
 divided into two principal regions, one comprehending the countries to the 
 north bordering on the Baltic, the North Sea, and the Atlantic ; and the 
 other consisting of the Mediterranean countries. Now have the children reatl 
 pages 9 to 1 1 m the Grammar Grade History (State Series), and in discus- 
 sion bring out that a large trade had grown up between the East and the 
 Mediterranean region, which up to the close of the fifteenth century was 
 largely controlled by certain cities in Italy. Note also I he routes of trade 
 between luirope aixl the l'',asi and tlic reasons wh\ a new one was wanted. 
 Review briefly at this ])oint tlic stories of the three great geographical dis- 
 coveries which (jccurred at the close of the fifteenth century and which revo- 
 lutionized commerce. — i. e. the discovery of America, the rounding of the 
 Cape of (jood Hope, and .Magellan's voyage circumnavigating the globe. In 
 c'iscussing the economic significance of these great discoveries bring out that 
 they brought a complete sliift of maritime power; that the commerce of the 
 world ceased to be .Mediterranean and became (Oceanic; that the distributing 
 point of Oriental goods moved from Italy to Spain and i'ortugal; that the
 
 THE CONTINENT OF EURASIA. 37 
 
 countries of the Mediterranean, as compared with those on the Atlantic, 
 became of secondary importance ; that new and extensive fields of commerce 
 were opened up both in the East and the West, and that soon Mexico and 
 Peru were pouring rich stores of their precious metals into the coffers of 
 Spain and Portugal. Bring out also that through the stimulus of these eariy 
 successes both Portugal and Spain entered upon an ambitious colonial policy. 
 Have the children review their information regarding Spanish and Portu- 
 guese colonies in the New World. Give them a vivid representation of the 
 power of Spain and Portugal by shading in an outline map of the world 
 showing the extent of the Spanish and Portuguese territories and trade 
 routes during the sixteenth century. Note in this connection that Portugal 
 established herself in the East, whereas Spain became the dominant power 
 for a time in the West. Turn to the map in the advanced text (p. 131) and 
 note that Lisbon, at the mouth of the Tagus, appears to have excellent harboi 
 facilities. Read to the children the description of this harbor in Carpenter's 
 Europe (pp. 447-450) ; also in Herbertson's Descriptive Geography (pp. 
 292-293). By turning to the map on page 154 of the advanced text it can 
 be readily seen that Lisbon was the natural center for European trade with 
 the East Indies after the discovery of the route around the Cape. The Portu- 
 guese did not, however, realize the value of keeping the carrying trade of the 
 East Indies in their own hands ; then they neglected developing agriculture 
 and manufactures, and, becoming indolent and careless through easily gotten 
 luxuries, neglected to provide proper military defense for their colonies, and 
 as a result the Dutch and English found them an easy prey. By the close of 
 the sixteenth century Portugal had lost nearly all of her colonial territory, 
 and she herself was united with Spain under one crown, remaining so united 
 until the middle of the eighteenth century, when she again became inde- 
 pendent ; however, she has never been strong enough to retrieve her early 
 losses. 
 
 Treat Spain similarly ; point out among the influences of her downfall that 
 her people in the New World were adventurers and gold-seekers rather 
 than colonizers and successful merchants ; that she concerned herself with 
 the products of her silver mines to the exclusion of agriculture and manu- 
 facturing industries ; that she mistreated and alienated her colonies ; and that 
 England and Holland found her unprepared to defend her possessions. In 
 consequence of these and other causes, the middle of the seventeenth century 
 found her colonial and foreign commerce almost completely destroyed, while, 
 as a result of her war with the United States, she is now a country with 
 only three small groups of islands in the Atlantic and Mediterranean and a 
 few African trading-stations — the remnant of an empire which at one time 
 extended around the world. 
 
 Lesson Unit II: The occupation of the people and the products of the 
 countrv.
 
 38 teachers' handbook of geogflaphy. 
 
 READING LIST: 
 
 Carpenter. Europe pp. 428-36, 445-52. 
 
 *Higgin, Spanish life in town and country Chap. X. 
 
 **George, Little journeys (Italy, Spain, and Portugal).. (Parts). 
 
 Herbertson, Europe pp. 259-93. 
 
 Stoddard, Lectures Vol. V pp. 25 1 et seq. 
 
 'Webster, General history of commerce pp. 315-16, 482. 
 
 *Trotter, Geography of commerce pp. 270-73. 
 
 *.\danis. Commercial geography pp. 298-303. 
 
 Suggestions: In presenting this topic the teacher should give the children 
 a notion of the physical features, and of the climate and rainfall of these 
 resfions, factors which in a wav determine the industries of the country. 
 
 The map on page 131 of the text shows that the peninsula consists in 
 the main of a broad plateau over two thousand feet in height, shut in between 
 the Pyrenees on the north and the lofty ranges of the Sierra Nevada on the 
 extreme south ; skirting the entire coast of the peninsula, there is a belt of low- 
 land of varying width, but generally comparatively narrow. Discuss the 
 effect of the close proximity of the highlands to the coast, bringing out that 
 they cause precipitation of moisture along the coast, little reaching the in- 
 terior, in consequence of which the highland region as a whole is arid and 
 unproductive, except where irrigation systems have been developed, as in the 
 region along the IMediterranean front. Bring 'out also that the proximity of 
 the highlands to the coast renders the rivers of the peninsula unnavigable ; 
 hence the means of internal transportation is very deficient, greatly repressing' 
 any tendency to industrial development. Again, the mountains make rail- 
 road-building difificult, and the Pyrenees, having few^ passes, stand as a 
 barrier between the peninsula and the remainder of Continental Europe. 
 It is true that there are railroads connecting Europe and Spain, but these 
 railroads are forced to make a long detour around the ends of the range, and 
 the interference is rendered greater by reason of the fact that in France the 
 tracks are of a different gauge than those in Spain, made so as a safeguard 
 against invasion. 
 
 Read Tarr and McMurry's Europe (pp. 241-250) ; also the advanced text's 
 treatment of this region. Discuss the chief agricultural and mining products, 
 after which have the children draw an outline map of the peninsula and by 
 -shading show^ the following regions : — 
 
 1. Highland region. 4. Region of wheat and cereals. 
 
 2. Lowland region. 5. Region of the cork oak forest. 
 
 3. Region of wine and fruits. 6. Wool-producing region. 
 
 Lesson Unit III: The Moors and their occu]iancv of Spain. 
 
 KE.ADINO LIST: 
 
 Morris, Spanish historical tales (Parts). 
 
 Lytton, Leila ( Fiction) Chap. V. 
 
 IrvinK, .Mhambra (Parts). 
 
 Car|)cntcr, Europe pp. 442-45. 
 
 Conipaniiin scries, I'y land and sea pp. 27-32. 
 
 Knox. Southern Europe Chaps. X.W. .\.\\ 1. .X.Wlll (Parts). 
 
 Cur, .Modern Europe pp. 278-80, 288<)3. 
 
 I'.;iirs, .Spanish hixhways and byways Chaps. II-\'II1. 
 
 Ixnt, .\cro»s ihc country of the little kinR pp. 51-88. 
 
 I'.onncr, (,'hild's hiittory of Spain l)p. 16-148. 
 
 Youth'!* C"ompanion scries. Under sunny skies up. 1-18. 
 
 "OcorKc, Litllc journeys ( Italy, .Spain, and Portugal )...( i'arts). 
 Hcrbrriv.,11 T'.uropc I>I>. 270-93.
 
 THE CONTINENT OF EURASLA. 39 
 
 Stoddard, Lectures, Vol. V pp. 251 et seq. 
 
 Stoddard, Lectures, Supplementary Vol. 11 pp. 243 et seq. (I'arts). 
 
 Everett, In fair Granada (l^iction). 
 
 Suggestions: Review the discussion of the Saracenic conquests referred 
 to in the " Study of European and Asiatic Turkey " (p. 43). Associate the 
 Moorish conquest of Spain with that period. Tell about the battle of Tours, 
 and how Charles Martel stopped the advance and forced the Saracens back 
 beyond the Pyrenees. Discuss the civilization of these peoples and their 
 industrial activity. Relate the story of the final overthrow of the Moors 
 under Boabdil by Ferdinand and Isabella and of their banishment to Africa. 
 Read and discuss the descriptions cited of the beautiful architectural relics 
 of these peoples, which are still to be seen in Spain. 
 
 A STUDY OF THE KINGDOM OF ITALY. 
 
 Map Locations (to be taught first): Mediterranean, Adriatic; Alps, 
 Apennines, Mt. A'esuvius, Mt. Cenis ; Rome, Naples, Florence, Genoa, Milan, 
 \'enice : Po, Tiber ; Corsica. Sardinia, Sicily. 
 
 Lesson Unit I : The Italian people are famous for their achievements in 
 the fields of painting, sculpture, and music. 
 
 READING LIST: 
 
 Hoji;, World's painters and their pictures (Parts). 
 
 Coe, Modern Europe pp. 304-308. 
 
 Villari, Italian life in town and country Chap. XVII. 
 
 **Eggleston, Strange stories from history pp. 206-11. 
 
 Benedict, Stories of persons and places in Europe pp. 378-80. 
 
 Knox, Southern Europe pp. 130-32. 194-97- 
 
 Johonnot, Stories of other lands pp. 130-50. 
 
 La Rame, Bimbi pp. i37-77- 
 
 *La Rame, The child of Urbino (Raphael) (Story). 
 
 Bolton, Famous European artists pp. 7-(>S, 105-54. 
 
 Dallin, Sketches of great painters pp. 46-79. 
 
 **George, Little journeys (Italy, Spain, and Portugal) .. (Parts). 
 
 Eliot, Romola (Fiction) (Parts). 
 
 Keysor. IMichael Angelo (Great artist series) (The Story). 
 
 Keysor, Antonio Correggio (Great artist series) (The Story). 
 
 Keysor, Raphael (Great artist series) (The Story). 
 
 Stoddard, Lectures, Vol. VIII pp. S et seq., 113 et seq.. 225 et seq. 
 
 Stoddard, Lectures, Vol. I pp. 280 et seq. 
 
 Hurll, Raphael (Riverside art series) 
 
 Emery, How to enjoy pictures 
 
 Home and Scobe, Stories of great artists (Parts). 
 
 Suggestions: This topic can best be handled by a study of the lives and 
 works of a few individuals who typify the progress which Italy has made in 
 tlie several artistic fields already mentioned. The following types will serve 
 as well as any others in this connection : — 
 
 Verdi as a type of great Italian composers. 
 Paganini as a type of great Italian performers. 
 Patti as a type of great Italian singers. 
 Raphael as a type of great Italian painters. 
 Alichael Angelo as a type of great Italian sculptors. 
 
 In treating these types put as much reading-matter in the hands of the 
 children as is accessible, and' which treats of characteristic incidents in their
 
 40 TEACHERS' HANDBOOK OF GEOGR.APHY. 
 
 lives as well as telling of their work and fame. Secure pictures of the 
 Italian masterpieces of painting and sculpture, tell the stories which they 
 suggest, and comment on the beauty and excellence of the work. Try to 
 present this part of the work sympathetically, to the end that the children 
 mav secure, so far as possible, an interest in and appreciation for art products. 
 In discussing the reading references, and in summarizing the work, empha- 
 size particularly the following points : That not only royalty but the common 
 people and the peasant classes were possessed of artistic temperaments, as 
 shown by the fact that they were quick to appreciate and applaud the 
 genius of these men ; that great talent was confined to no one class of society ; 
 that Italy now is full of priceless works of art, to which all classes have 
 access ; and that in point of fact in these respects Italy stands alone and 
 unrivaled. 
 
 Lesson Unit IF: The country is visited yearly by many tourists, who are 
 attracted by its picturesque and historical features, among which the best 
 known are the following : The Leaning Tower of Pisa, the Cathedral of St. 
 Peter, the Coliseum, the Catacombs of Rome, the gondolas of A'enice, the 
 Vatican, and the ruins of Pompeii and Herculaneum. 
 
 REAlJiXd LIST: 
 
 Carpenter, Europe PP- 395. 397-99. 408-10, 413, 415-17, 
 
 417-28. 
 
 Companion series, By land and sea pp. 32-41. 
 
 Youth's Companion series. Under sunny skies pp. 30-37, 55-66. 
 
 Strickland, True stories from ancient history pp. 246-51. 
 
 Coe, Modern Europe Chap. X\'II (Parts). 
 
 .\bbott, RoUo in Rome pp. 105-26. 
 
 IJutterworth, Classic lands pp. 271-75. 
 
 Kno.x, Southern liurope pp. 1-50, 275-87, 312-15, 363-74. 
 
 Stockton, Roundabout rambles pp. 226-27, 283-96. 
 
 Youth's Companion series, The wide world pp. 73-78. 
 
 Abbott, RoUo in Naples pp. 157-73. 
 
 IJenedict, Stories of persons and places in Europe. .. .pp. 356-58. 
 
 Herbertson, Europe pp. 173-209. 
 
 **(jeorge. Little journeys (Italy, Spain, and Portugal) ..( Parts). 
 •Wade, Our little Italian cousin 
 
 • •\ 
 
 Suggestions: As many of these historical and picturesque features should 
 be discussed as the teacher can find material which bears on the points men- 
 tioned. The location of each should be fixed on the map, and pictures should 
 be shown where possible. If there is any one in the community who has 
 traveled through Italy, invite him to tell the children of his trip. Personal 
 accounts by travelers are always interesting and instructive. 
 
 Lesson Unit III : The commerce and industries of Itah". 
 
 READLVG LIST: 
 
 Carpenter, Europe pp. 402-10, 417-22. 
 
 <^)nipanioii scries. Talks about animals pp. 145-49. 
 
 ('<i«-, .Modern Europe pp. 329-31. 
 
 \ ill.iri, Italian life in town and country Chaps. XI, XII. 
 
 < li.isc and Clow, .Stories of industry 2:49-53, S4-S8. 
 
 Month's Cr)ni)).inion scries, Under sunny skies pp. 19-29, 38-54. 
 
 Herbertson, Europe pp. 209-59. 
 
 *' -"iH, 'i he romance of discovery pp. 55-64, 79-89. 
 
 -ter, r.cncral history of commerce pp. 480-82. 
 
 I : '.tcr. Geography of commerce pp. 289-93. 
 
 *Adam». Commercial geography pp. 288-97.
 
 THE CONTINENT OF EURASIA. 4I 
 
 Suggestions: In connection with this topic turn to the maps on pages 131 
 and 155 of the advanced text. Bring out through a discussion of these maps 
 that Italy is singularly well placed for communication with the Eastern 
 Mediterranean and the Suez Canal. In connection with its Eastern trade, 
 it is also fortunate in having along its east coast a number of fine harbors, 
 among the best being \^enice, Brindisi, Taranto, Messina, and Syracuse. 
 Find these places on the map and discuss why harbors on the east coast are 
 more advantageous for this line of trade than would be those on the west 
 coast. Observe, also, that the ports of Italy are nearer those of Northern 
 Africa than are those of any other of the great powers. Measure the dis- 
 tance between the terminus of the southernmost Italian railway and Tunis. 
 Estimate the time it would take to bring a cargo of desert products from 
 Northern Africa to the nearest point on this Italian railway. Observe, also, 
 that the Alps are by no means an insurmountable barrier to railway connec- 
 tion between Italy and the countries of Central and Northern Europe. Point 
 out, by referring to map XV (appendix, advanced text) that a road from 
 Italy enters France through the Mt. Cenis tunnel ; another through the St. 
 Gotthard tunnel penetrates Germany after passing through the most populous 
 part of Switzerland ; a third also reaches Germany by passing through the 
 Tyrol ; while a fourth line puts Italy into direct communication with Vienna 
 and the rich valley of the Danube by way of the Brenner Pass. It should be 
 noted that upon the completion of the Simplon tunnel — a tunnel twelve and 
 one half miles long, and a stupendous engineering feat — there will be direct 
 railway connection between Milan and Paris. (This tunnel is not shown on 
 the map referred to.) In the discussion of these points bring out that as a 
 result of such close railway connection Italy stands as one of the main routes 
 of travel between Northern Europe, the Suez Canal, and the East. For 
 instance. London mails to India are sent by mail to Brindisi, a port in South- 
 eastern Italy, and there transferred to a steamer which reaches India by way 
 of the Suez Canal. Review in connection with this point of Italy's position 
 as a natural trade route what was brought out in the treatment of "Spain and 
 Portugal" (p. 36), regarding her commercial position in the Middle Ages. 
 At this point also read to the children Carpenter's Europe (pp. 400-401). 
 
 Turn now to the map on page 131 of the advanced text and compare the 
 Italian Peninsula with the Iberian, with respect to structure and climate. 
 Observe that the Italian Peninsula reaches further north than the Iberian, 
 that it is narrower, and that the surface is more irregularly mountainous. 
 Recall, in connection with the study of the rainfall in the Iberian Peninsula 
 (see p. 38), that the point was brought out that the edges of the tableland 
 served to cut ofif the rain from the interior to a large degree. In Italy the 
 lainfall of the interior is very much greater. Even the great plain of Lom- 
 bardy, lying directly north of the Apennines, is not deprived of rain through 
 the intervention of this range, for the loftier Alps force the rain-bearing winds 
 which have crossed the Apennines to rise still higher. Discuss the efifect 
 of this fact on the rainfall of the region. Again, Italy's supply of water is
 
 42 TEACHERS HANDBOOK OF GEOGR.APHY. 
 
 greatly increased b}- the presence of Alpine glaciers. As these melt the water 
 reaches the plains below through numerous streams which are utilized for 
 purposes of irrigation, which is carried out on a nuich more extensive scale 
 in Itah than in Spain, or, for that matter, than anywhere else in Europe. 
 Read to the children on this, point the article "Climate of Europe and Amer- 
 ica" (Johonnot, "Geographical reader," pp. 86-89). 
 
 What inferences do the children get from these references as to the climate 
 of Italy? Note the latitude of \'enice. Find the same parallel in our own 
 continent and contrast the two climates. Discuss the reasons for the mild- 
 ness of Italy's climate in contrast to the same latitude in Canada. Bring otit 
 here that the difference is due partly to the fact that the lofty Alps to the north 
 of Italy bar the cold continental winds, and partly to the fact that much of 
 Italy is washed by the waters of a great sea. Discuss here the effect of a 
 great body of water in conserving its heat and tempering the climate of adja- 
 cent countries. 
 
 Regarding the industries, bring out particularly the following points in the 
 discussion of the references cited : — 
 
 1. That Italy naturally is a remarkably productive region, as the climate 
 and soil support a great variety of growth, but, owing to primitive methods, 
 agriculture is in a backward state. 
 
 2. That the largest and richest farming area is the Lombardy plain lying 
 between the Alps and the Apennines. 
 
 3. That wheat and corn are the most important grain crops, though rice is 
 grown extensively in the irrigated regions. 
 
 4. That in grape growing and silk culture Italy ranks as one of the great- 
 est countries in Europe. 
 
 5. That a considerable portion of the people arc engaged in spinning and 
 weaving silk, and in manufacturing wine, macaroni, glass, and mosaics. 
 
 Draw a map locating the regions of these products. 
 
 A STUDY OF THE KINGDOM OF GREECE. 
 
 Map Locations (to be taught first) : Mediterranean Sea, .Aegean Sea, 
 Ionian Sea ; .Athens ; Pindus Mountains. 
 
 Lesson Unit I : The antiquities of Greece. 
 
 RP:ADI.\G LI.ST: 
 
 Coe, Modern Kuropc pp. 335-49. 
 
 fhiircli. F'irfiircs fnmi Ciri-ek life and story (Parts). 
 
 Carpenter, Kuropc pp. 381-9J. 
 
 Herl)crtson, Kuropc pp. 165-72. 
 
 Knt.x. Levant Clia|)s." NIN'NXI (Parts). 
 
 .Shaw, Story of the ancient (Irccks (Parts). 
 
 I'.alilwin, Old drcek stories (Parts). 
 
 Benedict, Stories of i)crsons an<l places in Kurope jip. 404-25. 
 
 I'.ultrr worth, Levant pp. 271-304. 
 
 (hierher, Story of the (ireeks (Parts). 
 
 • • AnrlrrwB. Ten hoys pp. 48-80. 
 
 fox, Tale* of ancient fiieece (Parts). 
 
 .Niclmhr, Greek hero stories (I'arts). 
 
 Firth, Stories of old Greece (I'arts). 
 
 .\Iorri«, llistoriral tales: (Jrcck ( l';irts)! 
 
 Stoddard. Lectiirrs, \'ol. [ p. 22g ct scq.
 
 THE CONTINENT OF EURASIA. 43 
 
 Suggcsticjis: The brevity and consequent inadequacy of the text's treat- 
 ment of the several topics which it discusses is particularly noticeable in its 
 treatment of this region at page 132 of the advanced book. To pass un- 
 noticed the rich fields of Grecian antiquity in order to give a few unrelated 
 facts about the mountains, rivers, and products of modern Greece is to place 
 emphasis on features which are relatively unimportant and uninteresting. 
 The teacher should not permit the opportunity to pass without giving the 
 children some clear notion of the illustrious part which Greece plaved in the 
 rise and development of European civilization. 
 
 * 
 
 Lesson Unit II : The occupations and industries of modern Greece. 
 
 READING LIST: 
 
 Knox, Levant Chaps. XiV-XXl (Parts). 
 
 Coe, Modern Europe.... Chap. XVIII (Parts). 
 
 Youth's Companion series, Under sunny skies pp. 67-74. 
 
 **Kirby, Aunt Martha's corner cupboard pp. x 10-20. 
 
 Stoddard, Lectures, Vol. I p. 229 et seq. 
 
 *Webster, General history of commerce pp. 319-20. 
 
 *Trotter, Geography of commerce pp. 302-304. 
 
 *Adams, Commeicial geography pp. 323-324. 
 
 Suggestions: From a study of the map bring out that the country has many 
 deep gulfs wdiich provide excellent harbors, and that therefore the people are 
 naturally a seafaring people. They have greatly profited by the rivalries 
 of the F"rench and English and English and Russian traders in the Eastern 
 Mediterranean (see advanced text's treatment) ; the result has been that a 
 large part of the carrying trade of the Black Sea and Eastern Mediterranean 
 is conducted under the Greek flag. The internal development of the country 
 has not, however, kept pace with the growth of her carrying trade ; for though 
 the climate is genial, the rain falls chiefly in the winter, thus preventing agri- 
 cultural pursuits on a large scale. Again, the country is sparsely populated ; 
 mule-tracks are the only roads, wdiile a glance at the map XV (appendix, ad- 
 vanced text) will show that there are few railroads which penetrate the 
 interior ; travel is therefore mainlv bv vessel and confined to the coast. 
 
 A STUDY OF EUROPEAN AND ASIATIC TURKEY. 
 
 Map Locations (to be taught first) : Constantinople; Bosphorus, Darda- 
 nelles ; Asia Minor, Armenia, Arabia, Syria, Palestine, Servia, Montenegro, 
 Bulgaria, Roumania, Macedonia. Greece ; Tigris, Euphrates ; Mecca, ^Medina, 
 Jerusalem, Damascus. 
 
 Lesson Unit I : Turkey's place in modern European history. 
 
 READING LIST: 
 
 Knox, Levant Chaps. XXV. XXVI (Parts). 
 
 Coe, Modern Europe pp. 349-51, 357-59. 
 
 Phillips, All the Russias pp. 45-67. 
 
 Stoddard. Lectures. Vol. II (Parts). 
 
 *The rivalry of nations Chaut. — },2: Chaps. H, IX, .\. XI.
 
 44 teachers' handbook of GEOGR.APHY. 
 
 Suggestions: The question which has troubled European diplomats for 
 more than a century, and which for the past twenty-five or thirty years has 
 been of commanding interest in European international politics, has been the 
 question of what should be done with the "sick man of Europe," a phrase 
 which Czar Nicholas once appHed to Turkey. Without an understanding of 
 the elements of this question at least, frequently referred to as the "Eastern 
 Question," the successive moves in the game the nations of Europe are play- 
 ing and which are being recorded daily in the newspapers would be often 
 entirely without significance or point. At first thought this may appear too 
 confused to the teacher and too difficult for presentation to the children ; but 
 the teacher will find after a careful reading of any good European modern 
 history that the chief points involved in this question will organize themselves 
 so well in her mind as to permit of clear and simple presentation to the chil- 
 dren of upper-grade development. The following suggestions may be of 
 service to the teacher in guiding her in her reading and in her subsequent 
 presentation of this topic : — 
 
 Turn to map XI\' in the appendix of the advanced text ; observe the area 
 in Europe which is now occupied by Turkey, and note that at one time, in 
 addition, she owned Greece, Montenegro, Servia, Roumania, and Bulgaria, 
 ^^•hich is still nominally subject to Turkey, though practically independent. 
 
 Now examine Russia's position in Europe, noting that her only seaports 
 are at present those on the Baltic and the Black seas. Those on the Baltic 
 are far from satisfactory, for they are ice-locked during a part of the year ; 
 those on the Black are also of little comparative value, as ingress or egress is 
 controlled by the straits of Bosphorus and the Dardanelles and commanded 
 by the great Turkish city of Constantinople. Read here the description of 
 this city and of the straits and their defenses (see Carpenter, Europe, pp. 
 361-65; Coe, Modern Europe, pp. 349-52) ; discuss with the class what pos- 
 session of this connection between the Black and the Mediterranean seas 
 would mean to Russia (i) in the way of the development of her internal re- 
 sources, and (2) in time of war. This is of special significance just now in 
 the war which Russia is carrying on with Japan. Much as Russia would 
 have liked to send her Black Sea fleet to the assistance of Port Arthur, she 
 was prevented, owing to the fact that war-ships of foreign countries are not 
 permitted by Turkey to pass through the Dardanelles. In this manner the 
 teacher can show to the children that Russia's absorbing ambition is to secure 
 control of the territory commanding these straits. Indeed, as far back in 
 Russia's history as Ivan the Terrible (sixteenth century) Russia was plan- 
 ning to secure this outlet. Upon Peter the Great's accession to the throne 
 two centuries ago, he found Russia without any seacoast whatever, for the 
 Baltic coast was in the hands of Sweden, while that of the Black Sea was in 
 the hands of the Turks. He saw clearly that Russia could never become a 
 great power without seaports, and at once set about inaugurating wars to 
 secure control of the Black Sea and the seacoast of the Baltic. 'Tt is not 
 land I want, but water," he said, as he reached out after seacoast. Upon his
 
 THE COXTIXENT OF EURASIA. 45 
 
 death his vigorous poHcy was allowed to drop until Catherine II (close of 
 the eighteenth century) came to the throne. She took up his plans for ex- 
 tending the boundaries of Russia to the west, absorbing almost all the terri- 
 tory of Poland, to the south, making war on the Turks and securing the right 
 to navigate the Black Sea, besides exercising a protectorate in the interest of 
 the Christians in the Tvirkish Empire. At this point in the growth of Russia 
 into a great power the Eastern Question is first heard of. Catherine thought 
 she would settle it in her own reign by helping herself to Turkish territory, 
 but when she attempted to carry out her plan she found that Austria, which 
 for centuries had been trying to extend her territory down the Danube, would 
 not admit of such a division as Catherine planned. Russia thereupon took 
 Austria into her confidence, and they proposed to divide up Turkey's Euro- 
 pean possessions between themselves (Partition Treaty of 1780). Before 
 this could be done other European nations became alarmed at this extension 
 of power on the part of Austria and Russia and objected. Russia and Austria 
 tried to bribe France with the promise of Egypt, but she remained faithful 
 ro her old ally, Turkey. In the struggle which ensued Catherine was forced 
 to consent to peace, but gained the right to maintain a fleet in the Black Sea. 
 Thus through the rivalry of European states, Turkey escaped dismemberment 
 in the eighteenth century, and it has been through the jealousies and sus- 
 picions of these great European powers that Turkey has still a foothold in 
 Europe, and that the Christian races within her borders are still exposed to 
 the most barbarous atrocities. 
 
 The next ruler of Russia to seriously undertake the solution of the Eastern 
 Question was Nicholas I. Catherine had hoped to hold the friendship of 
 Austria and wdn France to her cause through the ofifer of Egypt. Nicholas 
 tried a similar plan, but with England ; he recognized that the way of danger- 
 ous attack on India lay through Egypt. He proposed to give England Egypt 
 and Crete, while Russia was to take Constantinople and the most of European 
 Turkey, but England refused. He then demanded of the Sultan the pro- 
 tectorate of the Christians in Turkey, which had been conceded to Catherine 
 and subsequently refused. The Sultan also refused. The result was the 
 Crimean war (1854-1856). The allies were again too strong for Russia. 
 She was forced to terms and lost the right to maintain a fleet on the Black 
 Sea. The war also resulted in the policy of the formation of a barrier of 
 little independent states between Russia and Turkey. Thus it came about 
 that Roumania was granted her independence by the powers in order that 
 she might act as a block in the way of the ambitions of Russia. Thus a sec- 
 ond time Turkey was saved, though with a loss of some territory, through 
 the intervention of the powers. 
 
 A little later Russia's opportunity came again. The Christians in Bul- 
 garia rose against the Turkish Government, whereupon the Turks with great 
 cruelty suppressed the insurrection. The massacres which they incited, how- 
 ever, so horrified Europe, and especially England, that Russia under Alex- 
 ander II believed she could interfere with profit to herself. The Russians
 
 46 TEACHERS HANDBOOK OF GEOGR.APHY. 
 
 were again victorious, this time advancing their army to the outskirts of 
 Constantinople and forcing the Sultan to sue for peace. Alexander proposed 
 to establish a little state of all European Turkey but under Russian protection. 
 The Sultan agreed to this (Treaty of San Stefano), but just as Russia's ambi- 
 tious dream was about to be realized Austria and England again stepped in 
 and denied her the fruits of her victory. The result was, that several more 
 Balkan provinces became independent — Servia and Montenegro, besides 
 Roumania ; Bulgaria was made a principality dependent upon Turkey ; Mace- 
 donia went back to Turkey ; Austria was allowed to occupy Bosnia and 
 Herzegovina; while Russia was permitted to extend her boundary only to 
 the Danube, besides regaining the right which she formerly held to keep a 
 war-fleet on the Black Sea (Treaty of Berlin, 1873). Thus for a third time 
 Turkey, though still further reduced, was saved from entire effacement in 
 Europe through the action of nations who were concerned not with Turkey's 
 welfare but in blocking the ambition of Russia for an opening to the [Mediter- 
 ranean by way of Constantinople and the Dardanelles. 
 
 A fourth time also Turkey has been saved through European jealousies. 
 Very recently the fanaticism and religious intolerance of the Turks broke out 
 in fearful atrocities against the Christian Armenians in Asia. A wave of 
 horror swept over the civilized world as the facts became known, and popular 
 demand was made in the name of humanity that the powers employ radical 
 measures with respect to Turkey ; but once again the apparent jealousies of 
 the great powers prevented the adoption of any effective check on the in- 
 human actions of the Turks. 
 
 Bring out in conclusion that Turkey would long since have disappeared as 
 a nation in Europe but for the strategetic importance of her position which has 
 aroused the mutual suspicion of the great powers; and that on account of 
 their jealousies the Eastern Question is still one of the great unsettled prob- 
 lems of the future, and one which will undoubtedly lead ultimately to momen- 
 tous events. 
 
 Lesson Unit II: The Sultan and his people: the backward state of their 
 civilization and the indifferent condition of the commerce and industry of 
 their country. 
 
 READING LIST: 
 
 Carpenter, Europe pp. 371-74. 
 
 Carpenter, .-Nsia pp. 290-97. 
 
 Coe, Modern Europe pp. 349-59. 
 
 .■M)cn X- .S,ichtk-l)i-n, Across .^sia on a bicycle pp. 1-42. 
 
 Knox, I^yant (hap. XX\" (Parts). 
 
 Smitli, Life in Asia pp. -514-24. 
 
 .Starr, Stranf?e peoples pp. 60-69. 
 
 Youth's Coinp.-ininn series. The wide world pp. 52-56. 
 
 "Miller, Little people of Asia pp. 16-58. 
 
 "Wade, Our little 'i'urkisli cousin 
 
 fiarnctt, Turkish life in town and country (Parts). 
 
 ^■outh*s Comii.-mion scries, I'nder sunny skies pp. 75-87, 88-98, 132-34. 
 
 .Shoemaker. The heart of the Orient pp. 1-89. 
 
 .Stoddard. Lectures, Vol. II (I'arts). 
 
 •Webster, fJeneral history of commerce pn. 318-19, 486. 
 
 •Trotter, (Icography of commerce pp. 301-2, 338-39. 
 
 * Adams, Comnicrci.il KeoKraphy pp. 324-26.
 
 THE CONTINENT OF EURASIA. 47 
 
 Suggestions: Successive waves of invasion have swept over the Turkish 
 Empire, leaving many aliens who, though now hving side by side, yet differ 
 in language, in religion, and in ideals of life and living. Owing to the lack 
 ot modern means of intercommunication, together with non-progressive gov- 
 ernmental policies, these varied races have never become assimilated ; hence 
 the constant friction which exists, particularly in European Turkey. (See 
 the "Study of the Countries of the Danube." p. 26.) 
 
 The position of women in Turkey should receive attention. Point out here 
 that while polygamy is permitted by the Koran, yet in practice few Turkish 
 men other than the Sultan and the wealthiest of his subjects have more than 
 one wife. The Koran provides that each wife shall be maintained on terms 
 of exact equality. Whatever one has the others must have. In consequence 
 polygamy is the most expensive luxury the Turkish gentleman can indulge 
 himself in — so expensive in fact that few practice the custom. 
 
 The harem and the secluded and restricted life of its inmates should be 
 referred to. Every Turkish house has two separate apartments, the selamlik, 
 or men's apartment, and the harem, or that portion of the building occupied 
 alone by the women. Custom forbids any intermingling of the sexes ; hence 
 no man enters the harem except the head of the household, and even then 
 only in the event of his wife not having lady callers. The word "harem" 
 means "sacred inclosure," and is a term which is frequently applied to cer- 
 tain rooms of the sacred temple. As the term is used in Turkey, it refers 
 merely to the place of domestic seclusion. The life of the woman is not abso- 
 lutely limited to her own home, for she is permitted to appear on the streets, 
 to enter the bazaars, to carry on business transactions, to receive women call- 
 ers, to give entertainments, and in other ways to deport herself as w^ould 
 women in other countries ; but in doing this she must veil her face if she 
 appears where men are likely to see her. 
 
 Another feature of Turkish life which is closely related to life in the harem, 
 and which should receive attention at the hands of the teacher, is the system 
 of slavery which is common to all parts of the Turkish Empire. ]\Iany 
 Turkish women of high social rank purchase little girls of the ages of six to 
 twelve, place them in their homes, train them along the line of their aptitudes, 
 and later sell them to young Turks, who frequently prefer to marry an edu- 
 cated, well-trained, and beautiful slave girl to those women who are free 
 born. A young woman trained to speak several foreign languages, to play 
 the zither, to converse intelligently on the topics of the day, and to dance, if 
 she is beautiful, wall sell for from four thousand to six thousand dollars. 
 Until recently a public slave-mart was to be found in Constantinople, but 
 owing to the prejudices of the more enlightened powers this was abolished, 
 although the practice of buying and selling slaves is still carried on in the less 
 public places of this city. The extent of Turkey's demand for slaves has been 
 so great as to seriously interfere in the attempts which have been and are 
 being made now in Africa to stop the practice of enslaving the native popu- 
 lation.
 
 48 teachers' handbook of geogr^aphy. 
 
 Turkish laws protecting women were clearly defined as early as the twelfth 
 centurv, long before either England or America had made any progress in 
 these respects. Even now in some particulars the legal standing of women in 
 Turkey is in advance of these countries. A Mohammedan wife has absolute 
 control of all property she possessed at the time of her marriage, as well as 
 ever that which she subsequently obtains. She can dispose of it as she pleases. 
 She can sue or be sued independent of her husband, and can even sue him or 
 he sued by him. If a husband divorces his wife, he must return to her her 
 dowry. In protecting the rights of the slave women the laws are just as 
 rigid. After a servitude of seven years the female slave must be freed if she 
 desires it. Upon marriage she becomes a free woman, with all the legal rights 
 of freeborn women. If the slave bears her master a child, she must be main- 
 tained for life or else set free and married. Her children, whether bond or 
 fiee, have equal rights with the children of his legal wife or wives. 
 
 Regarding the Sultan, point out that he is absolute in authority and in- 
 violable in person, and that the entire mechanism of government, executive, 
 legislative, and judicial, is centered in him. He exercises his power through 
 a hierarchy of officials, at whose head and nearest to him in power and influ- 
 ence is the Grand Vizier. Point out that this scheme of administration is 
 peculiarly liable to corruption, and that it is particularly odious in this respect 
 in Turkey. It is so difficult to obtain justice on account of the prevalence of 
 corruption that the powers have demanded and obtained the right to have 
 their citizens resident in Turkey tried in courts presided over bv the consul 
 cf the country to whom the accused party owes allegiance. For the best 
 reading for the teacher on the preceding points suggested in the treatment of 
 this topic see the following : — 
 
 .\bdul the haunted R. of Rs. — 28:94-95. 
 
 The Turkish despot Ind. — 53 : 2838-39. 
 
 \yhat the Sultan fears Ind. — 55 : 2297-99. 
 
 The Sultan at home Harper — 98 : 276-87. 
 
 The new woman in Turkey Century — 66:925-33. 
 
 Women in Turkey: Their rights and wrongs Cosmop. — 29:288-96. 
 
 Among veiled women .Cosmop. — 23: 670-80. 
 
 Reform in Turkey R. of Rs. — 28:93-94. 
 
 The unspeakable Turk Outlook — 74: 929-30. 
 
 Why brifrands thrive in Turkey Chaut. — 35:573-81. 
 
 Seen in Turkey Outlook— 72 : 26576. 
 
 The impressions of a careless traveler Outlook— 73 : 154-58. 
 
 (jarnctt, Turkish life in town and country (Parts). 
 
 Regarding the commercial and industrial condition of Turkey, through a 
 discussion of the references cited bring out the thought that, while the soil 
 cfTurkey is naturally fertile, agricuhure, though the chief occupation, is in 
 a most backward state ; that the oppression of the Christians, rank taxation, 
 and lack of roads have .stifled development ; and that most of what little trade 
 there is with other nations is in the hands of foreigners. 
 
 Lesson Unit III: The story of the Holy Land; its people and resources, 
 and the part it has played in I'.iblical narrative.
 
 THE COXTIXEXT OF EURASIA. 49 
 
 READING LIST: 
 
 Guerber, The story of the chosen people (Parts). 
 
 Thomas, The early story of Israel (Parts). 
 
 Knox, Egypt and the Holy Land pp. 24-29. 
 
 Endicott, Stories of the Bible \ ol. I (Parts). 
 
 Arnold, Stories of ancient peoples pp. 152-71. 
 
 Strickland, True stories from ancient histo'-y pp. 220-30. 
 
 Knox, Levant...' Chap. XXVI (I'arls). 
 
 Smith, Life in Asia pp. 287-310. 
 
 Butterworth, Levant pp. 211-60. 
 
 Butterworth, Around the world pp. 173-83. 
 
 Carpenter, Asia pp. 282-90. 
 
 Terhune, Syria from the saddle (Parts). 
 
 **Grenell, The sandals (Fiction). 
 
 Johnston, Joel: A boy of Galilee (I^iction). 
 
 Wallace, Ben Hur (Fiction). 
 
 Bird, Joseph the dreamer (Fiction). 
 
 Ingraham, The pillar of fire (Fiction). 
 
 Yonge, The pilgrimage of the Ben Beriah (Fiction). 
 
 Christmas in Bethlehem St. Nicholas— 24: 92-98. 
 
 Herbertson, Asia pp. 52-64. 
 
 Church, Stories from the Bible (Parts). 
 
 Stoddard, Lectures, \'ol. II pp. 113-224 (Parts). 
 
 **Miller, Little people of Asia pp. 60-98. 
 
 *Ashton, Azalim (A romance of old Judea) 
 
 Price, Wandering heroes pp. 1-68. 
 
 Heermans, Stories from the Hebrew (Parts). 
 
 **\Vade, Our little Jewish cousin 
 
 Suggestions: Locate this region on the map. Draw it on the blackboard 
 on a larger scale. ( For such a map see Tarr and AIcMurry, bk. Ill, p. 370.) 
 Compare the latitude of the region with that of southern California. Point 
 out that its climate is more nearly tropical, though in the same latitude. Esti- 
 mate its area in square miles ; it is about one hundred and forty miles long 
 and forty miles wide. Compare with the area of California. Locate the 
 Dead Sea, the River Jordan, the Sea of Galilee. Jerusalem, Bethlehem, the 
 Alount of Olives, and Xazareth. Ask the children to look up stories in the 
 Old and X'^ew Testaments associated with each of these places. Also have 
 the children relate incidents in the career of Christ which occurred at each. 
 Require the children to examine as many of the four gospels of the X'^ew 
 Testament as time permits, with a view to determining what the occupations 
 and products of the Holy Land were during Bible times. At this point read 
 tc the children Herbertson's Asia (pp. 52-64). Contrast this description of 
 present conditions with conditions in Bible times, bringing out the conclusion 
 that while in early times this region was a land "flowing with milk and 
 honey/' it is now a region of ruins and the home of a decadent people. 
 
 Lesson Unit IV : The life of Mohammed, the nature of the Koran, and the 
 past and present limits of Mohammedanism. 
 
 READING LIST: 
 
 Haaren & Poland, Famous men of the ^Middle Ages., pp. 80-100. 
 
 Carpenter, Europe PP- 37S"8i- 
 
 Strickland, True stories from ancient history pp. 315-19- 
 
 Knox, Egvpt and the Holy Land pp. 17-20- 
 
 Knox, Levant Chaps. XXH, XXIII (Parts). 
 
 Adams, The warriors of the crescent ( Parts). _ ^ 
 
 *Garnett, Turkish life in town and countrv Chap. \'\\. 
 
 *Gibbon, Mahomet <A biography). 
 
 *Lord, Beacon lights of history 2:23-54. 
 
 Suggestions: In connection with this topic tell the children the story of 
 Mohammed's life ; how he was born of the highest Arabian aristocracy, but 
 was early left an orphan and in poverty; how he was reared by a merchant
 
 50 teachers' handbook of GEOGR.APHY. 
 
 uncle, but under all the intiuences of idolatry ; how as a boy he traveled in 
 manv foreign countries with his uncle, and how on these trips he probably 
 became acquainted with the Old Testament scriptures. Tell how in his 
 twenty-fifth year, as a humble camel-driver, he entered the service of a 
 wealthy and powerful widow whom he afterwards married, thereby gaining 
 intiuence and the leisure necessary for study and meditation. At this time he 
 began to reflect on the prevalence of idolatry among the people, upon its de- 
 grading influence, and upon the grossness of its forms of worship until he 
 became visionary and fancied himself the ambassador of God commissioned 
 to root out all idolatry. Tell about the vision which appeared to him in his 
 fortieth year, wherein an angel spake, saying: "U Mohammed! of a truth 
 thou art the Prophet of God and I am the Angel Gabriel." Show how in- 
 domitable his will was by relating that after three years of organized and 
 eloquent preaching against idolatry he had but thirteen converts, one being 
 his own servant, but in spite of which he exclaimed: "If the sun stood on 
 my right hand and the moon on my left ordering me to hold my peace, I 
 would still declare there is but one God." To add to his discouragement per- 
 secution set in, and he was forced to flee for his life from Mecca to Medina. 
 Bring out that this flight ( Hegira. 622 A. D.) marked a change in Moham- 
 med's policy, for after this, instead of appealing to the highest intellectual 
 and moral elements of man, he t»egan to hold out promises of Paradise and 
 sensual joys, and by way of contrast a frightful account of the tortures of hell 
 to those who died in defiance of his religion. "He painted heaven as a land 
 whose soil was the finest wheaten flour, whose air was fragrant with per- 
 fumes, whose streams were of crystal water or milk or wine or honey, flowing 
 over beds of camphor — a glorious garden of fruits and flowers, whose inhabi- 
 tants were clothed in garments of gold sparkling with rn])ies and diamonds, 
 who reclined in sumptuous palaces of silken pavilions and on couches of 
 vuluptuous ease, and who were served with viands which could be eaten 
 without satiety and liquors which could be drunk without inebriation ; yea. 
 where the blissful warrior for the faith could enjoy an unending youth, and 
 v.'here he would be attended by houris. with black and loving eyes, free from 
 all clefects, resplendent in beauty and grace, and rejoicing in ]icrpotual 
 charms." (From " Mohammed," by John Lord. ) 
 
 Point out, however, that the greatest and most momentous change which 
 resulted from the enforced flight from Mecca was the determination of ]\Io- 
 hammed to force men for their own good to accept the truth even against 
 their will. Thus began the Mohammedan policy of conversion by the sword, 
 which before Mohammed's death resulted in the conquest of the Arabian 
 I'eninsula. and in an incredibly .short time thereafter in the conquest of 
 Syria, of Egypt, of Persia, of Northern Africa, of Nortlurti India, and the 
 .serious invasion of Europe from both the ea.st and the west. Have tlu' chil- 
 dren work out on outline maps the greatest extent of the Mohammedan con- 
 quest : contrast with this the present shrunken limits of Mohammedanism. 
 
 Mention tlu- fact in this connection that at the preseiU time Mohammedan-
 
 THE CONTIXEXT OF EURASIA. 5 1 
 
 ism is growing more rapidly than any other reHgion, not excepting Christi- 
 anity ; that more than ten million converts to Mohammedanism have been 
 made during the past ten years ; and that this great growth is largely confined 
 to Africa and particularly to the region of the Soudan. State also that some 
 v.-riters of repute prophesy that the great war of the future will be a conflict 
 for religious supremacy between Mohammedanism and Christianity. 
 
 Regarding the Koran, bring out that it is the sacred book of the Moham- 
 medans; that in it are comprised the revelations which Mohammed professed 
 to have received from time to time, either directly from God or through the 
 Angel Gabriel, and which, after his death, had been collected from the palm- 
 leaves, bits of leather, stones, sheep-bones, and other materials on which the 
 several revelations had been written ; and that in consequence it is made up 
 of scraps thrown together irregularly without any attempt at arrangement or 
 system. Read parts of chapters II and XXIV of the Koran to the children. 
 Compare similar passages describing the nature of God in the Book of Job, 
 bringing out that in dignity of language and conception the Koran is greatly 
 its inferior. A comparison of the story of Joseph (chap. XII. Koran) with 
 the same incidents as related in Genesis will show a like inferiority in 
 narration. 
 
 A STUDY OF EUROPEAN AND ASIATIC RUSSIA. 
 
 Map Locations (to be taught first) : Russia. Siberia; Baltic. Black, Cas- 
 pian, Okhotsk, Bering seas ; Carpathian, Caucasus, Elburz. Hindu Kush, 
 Thian Shan. Yablonoi, Ural mountains; Dnieper, Volga, Ural, Amur, Lena. 
 Yenisei, Ob rivers ; St. Petersburg, Moscow, Vladivostok. 
 
 Lesson Unit I : The geographical extent of the Russian Empire, its physi- 
 cal features and characteristic products. 
 
 READING LIST: 
 
 Coe, Modern Europe pp. 359-60, 386-90. 
 
 Rupert, Geographical reader pp. 267-69. 
 
 Carpenter, Europe pp. 314-20. 
 
 Herbertson, Asia pp. 1-6. 
 
 **Pratt, Northern Europe pp. 45-53. 
 
 Herbertson, Europe pp. 29-31, 48-54. 
 
 .Smith, Life in Asia Chap. XXII. 
 
 Youth's Companion series, Northern Europe pp. 109-22. 
 
 Stevens. Through Russia on a mustang pp. 37-48, 62-65, Chap. X\"JL 
 
 Phillips, All the Russias pp. 198-224. 
 
 Hapgood, Russian rambles Chap. XIII (Parts). 
 
 Knox, Russian Empire Chaps. XI\', X\', XX. 
 
 Kennan, Tent life in Siberia (Parts). 
 
 Stoddard, Lectures, Vol. VI pp. 227-336 (l^arts). . 
 
 *VVebster, General history of commerce pp. 304-9. 47--75- 
 
 *Trotter, Geography of commerce pp. 309-18. 
 
 *Adams, Commercial geography pp. 305-1 /• 393-95- 
 
 Suggestions: To give the children some idea of the vastness of this region 
 have them turn to the map of Asia (p. 134, advanced text) and estimate the 
 area of European Russia, comparing it with Europe. Also compare the area 
 of Siberia with the area of Asia. Turn to the table of areas on page 157 of
 
 52 teachers' handbook of GEOGR.APHY. 
 
 the advanced text and verify your conclusions. From data given in this 
 table, compare the area of Siberia in square miles with that of South America ; 
 the area of the whole of Russia with that of the continent of North America. 
 From the same table estimate what portion of the entire land surface of the 
 earth belongs to Russia. At this point read to the children the statement 
 regarding Russia's size given in the references cited. 
 
 In regard to the physiographical characteristics of Russia have the children 
 turn to the map on page 112 of the advanced text. Compare this map with 
 the one on page 134. Observe that the Empire of Russia comprises all but a 
 very small part of the great northern lowlands of Eurasia. Note, too, that the 
 rivers of Siberia flow into the Arctic, and can be of little commercial value 
 except in their upper reaches. Observe that those of European Russia flow, 
 in the main, in two directions, toward the north, into the Baltic, and toward 
 the south, into the Black and Caspian seas. From these facts conclude which 
 region is likely to be the last in being populated and developed. 
 
 In climate and vegetation the vast area comprised in the Empire of Russia 
 is broken roughly into five fairly well defined zones: — 
 
 1. The Frozen or Tundra Region : 
 
 Bring out here that this is a belt of vast morasses and cold swamps in the 
 extreme north of Russia, and that it is sparsely populated by semicivilized 
 Laplanders, w'ho rely for subsistence on reindeer and on the fish of the 
 streams. Review^ also the general treatment of this subject given on page 9. 
 
 2. The Forest Region : 
 
 Bring out from the reading that this region constitutes a belt several hun- 
 dred miles wide, stretching almost entirely across the north central part of 
 both European and Asiatic Russia, and that in many places the timber growth 
 is so great as to render the forest impenetrable. It should be brought out, 
 too, that, roughly speaking, the north temperate forests of Eurasia are about 
 in the same latitude as the great forests of North America. Do not permit 
 the children, however, to form the erroneous notion that latitude alone deter- 
 mines the vegetation of the region, for the growth of timber forests depends 
 first of all on a fairly abundant and widely distributed rainfall, and second, 
 on a summer atmosphere which is above fifty degrees F., and that, in conse- 
 quence, the land supporting tundra and forest follows no one parallel of lati- 
 tude. Thus, for example, the forest region of North America extends three 
 liundrcd miles north of the Arctic Circle in Alaska and in the Mackenzie 
 I'asin, while in East Canada it does not reach the Arctic Circle by five hun- 
 dred miles, owing to the reduction of the summer temperature of this region 
 by reason of the ice masses of the Hudson Bay. It rises again in Norway and 
 I^apland. but falls again in the neighborhood of the White Sea. These facts 
 arc shown fairly well on the vegetation map in the advanced text (p. 28). 
 Bring out, therefore, the fact that many conditions besides latitude afifcct the 
 summer temperature of given regions.
 
 THE CONTIXEXT OF EURASIA. 53 
 
 In addition develop the fact that along the streams of Russia the timber 
 industry is becoming very active, the export value already reaching twenty- 
 live million dollars yearly. In Siberia lumber still gives place to the more 
 profitable occupation of fur hunting, an industry which reaches its greatest 
 proportions in the forests of this region. 
 
 ':. The Region of the Farm Lands : 
 
 Locate this region on the map. (The best map of this region in the ad- 
 vanced text is the one on page 28. ) From the references given bring out that 
 this region, the famous "Black Earth Region of Russia," consists of a thick 
 layer of black earth from three to twenty feet deep, and so rich that it has 
 yielded good crops of wheat for several generations without fertilizing. 
 
 In your further discussion of these references point out that agriculture is 
 the leading industry of Russia, though through lack of improved machinery 
 and through the ignorance of the peasantry an acre of farming land in Russia 
 is made to produce only about half as much as an acre of land in England and 
 the United States. In spite of this, however, the area under cultivation is so 
 great that Russia ranks next to the United States in her exportation of wheat ; 
 besides, she raises more flax and hemp, rye, barley, and oats than any other 
 country in the world ; she ranks fourth among the sugar-beet countries ; she is 
 one of Europe's largest growers of tobacco ; and she also produces large 
 quantities of potatoes, hay, cotton, and rice. She has ninety agricultural 
 schools and many experimental farms under governmental control ; hence 
 great progress toward scientific farming may be reasonably expected in the 
 future. 
 
 Trace out the route of the Trans-Siberian railway. (See advanced text, 
 p. 134.) Note that it passes through the agricultural region of Russia. Dis- 
 cuss its importance in developing the resources of the country, and particu- 
 larly those of Siberia. (Read Carpenter's Asia. pp. 93-101.) In this 
 connection refer to the policy of the Russian Government in encouraging im- 
 migration of the Russian peasants to Siberia. Since 1892 the government 
 has set aside nearly twenty-seven millions of dollars for colonization purposes ; 
 the committee having the work in charge is beginning by carefully surveying 
 the Siberian crown lands, with due regard to the forests, which are to be pre- 
 served. Roads are being built, wells drilled, swamps drained to render habit- 
 able and accessible large tracts of land heretofore regarded as uncultivable. 
 Thirty-seven and a half acres are assigned to each adult settler, besides which 
 he is loaned anywhere from thirty to eighty dollars, repayable in ten to twenty 
 years. Other inducements are also given to secure immigration. Special 
 rates are made on the railroad, and occasionally teams are furnished to carry 
 the new-comers to their destination, while timber from the state forests, and 
 farming implements, are furnished at small cost. By the year 1900 the gov- 
 ernment had erected in Siberia along the line of the road thirty stations con- 
 taining provisions and medical supplies for the colonists at a cost approxi- 
 mately of a quarter of a million of dollars. These favorable conditions have
 
 54 TEACHERS HANDBOOK OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 had the effect desired, and since 1893 the number of immigrants entering 
 Siberia have averaged one hundred and thirty-seven thousand yearl}-. (For 
 this and other facts see article "Russian immigration to Siberia," American 
 Review of Reviews, July, 1904.) 
 
 4. The Steppes, or Pastoral Region : 
 
 The agricultural belt to the south, in the neighborhood of the Black and 
 the Caspian seas, shades off into a region called the "Steppes," which is not 
 so rich nor in which rainfall is so abundant, but upon which wild grasses 
 grow in luxuriance and where vast herds of horses, cattle, and sheep are to be 
 seen. From the references to this region bring out the characteristics just 
 mentioned. Review also the points brought out in the general reading on the 
 Steppe region (p. lo ). Read to the children "The Steppe." and "The Steppe- 
 dwellers and their occupation," in Herbertson's Descriptive Geography 
 (Asia, pp. 7-1 1 ). 
 
 5. The Fruit Belt : 
 
 On the map of Eurasia note that the extreme southern part of European 
 Russia, that part in the neighborhood of the Black Sea. is in about the same 
 latitude as Italy, and that it has also about the same climate. Travelers state 
 this region produces a great variety of fruits, such as peaches, apricots, 
 cherries, grapes, etc., and that the fruit is of a most delicious flavor. 
 
 Lesson L'liif If: Commercial and manufacturing Russia. 
 
 RE.ADING LIST: 
 
 Carpenter, Europe pp. 340-61. 
 
 Stoddard, Lectures, Vol. VI pp. 227-336 (Parts). 
 
 Coe, Modern Europe Chap. XXI (Parts). 
 
 King, Northern Europe ;^P- 309-43 (Parts). 
 
 •Webster, General history of commerce ;)p. 304-g. 472-75. 
 
 •.Adams, Commercial geography pp. 312-14. 
 
 •Trotter, Geography of commerce pp. 309-18. 
 
 Suggestions: Although Russia is still, in the main, an agricultural country, 
 it should be noted that her mines and manufactures have greatly developed 
 during the last few years. She now ranks first in the world in the production 
 of petroleum, while the annual product of her factories alone is worth over a 
 billion and a half dollars. 
 
 Discuss our commercial relations with Russia, pointing out that while the 
 bulk of Russia's trade is with Germany and Great Britain the Ignited States 
 has a growing share, particularly in the line of machinery, tools, and railway 
 appliances and material. Bring out the advantages of position which the 
 United States has in regard to Siberia in connection wiili tlie possibilities of 
 trade with Russia. 
 
 Lesson lJ)iit 111: Russia's policy of territorial acquisition. 
 
 READING LIST: 
 
 Knox. RusHian Empire Ch. XIH. XXI, XXII. Will (I'.iits). 
 
 Mor'i"!, Ilintorical talcs: Russian pp. 300-18. 
 
 Stoddar<l, Lectures, Vol. VI lip. 227-336 (Parts).
 
 THE CONTINENT OF EURASIA. 55 
 
 Suggestions: Review that part of the treatment of "European and Asiatic 
 Turkey" (p. 43) which bears on Russia's pohcy of territorial acquisition. 
 Discuss the part this poHcy played in precipitating the struggle with Japan. 
 The value of the Trans-Siberian railway was discussed from the standpoint 
 of its effect on the agricultural development of the country ; discuss now its 
 bearing on and use in the Russo-Japanese war. 
 
 Lesson Unit IT : Russia's government : the condition of the peasant classes 
 viewed in the light 6f the present internal disorders (i\Iarch, 1905 ). 
 
 READING LIST: 
 
 Kennan, Tent life in Siberia (Parts). 
 
 Benedict, Stories of persons and places in Europe pp. 9-42. 
 
 Taylor, I'.oys of other countries pp. 125-64. 
 
 Henty, Condemned as a Nihilist (Fiction). 
 
 Cotin, Elizabeth (Fiction). 
 
 Coe, Modern Europe pp. 370-74. 
 
 Stevens, Through Russia on a mustang pp. 1-22,84-91, 96-ii.'5, Chaps. \'II, \'lll, 
 
 X, X1I-XI\', XXI. 
 
 Rupert, Geographical readpr pp. 269-72. 
 
 Phillips, All the Russias pp. 22-24, 68-101, 131-42, 195-97. 
 
 Palmer, Russian life in town and country Chaps. V, VIFI. IX, XXI (Parts). 
 
 Hapgood, Russian rambles Chaps. I, III 
 
 Laurie, Schoolboy days in Russia (Fiction). 
 
 Knox, Russian Empire Chaps. II. I\', \ II, IX. XIII. X\T 
 
 (Parts). 
 
 Milliard, Under the Black Eagle (Fiction). 
 
 Graydon. Exiled to Siberia (Fiction). 
 
 Barr, Michael and Theodora (Fiction). 
 
 Morris, Historical tales: Russian pp. 293-99. 319-28. 
 
 **Wade, Our little Russian cousin (Parts). 
 
 **George, Little journeys (Russia) (Farts). 
 
 **Miller, Little people of Asia pp. 262-So. 
 
 Suggestions: The points which should be emphasized in connection with 
 this topic are the following : The absolute power of the Czar, there being 
 nothing which corresponds to the English Parliament or to our Congress; 
 that to preserve his authority he has built up an elaborate system of police 
 inspection and surveillance ; that the peasant classes are densely ignorant, are 
 downtrodden by the bureaucracy, and for the most part live in a state of 
 abject poverty which breeds a spirit of discontent. 
 
 A STUDY OF ARABIA AND THE PLATEAU OF IRAN. 
 
 (PERSIA, AFGHANISTAN, AND BALUCHISTAN.) 
 
 ARABIA. 
 
 Map Locations (to be taught first) : Arabian Peninsula, Turkish Empire; 
 Syrian Desert, Palestine ; Persian Gulf. Red Sea, Indian Ocean ; Mecca, 
 Medina. 
 
 Lesson Unit I: The people: their occupations, customs, and life. 
 
 READING LIST: 
 
 *Z\vemer. Arabia: the cradle of Islam (Parts). ■ 
 
 *Allen, Children of the palm lands pp. 115-34. ' 
 
 Tarr and McAIurry, Bk. Ill pp. 372-74. \ 
 
 Carpenter, Asia pp. 273-S2. 
 
 Herbertson, Asia pp. 65-71. 
 
 Taylor, Travels in Arabia ( Parts) . ' 
 
 Headley, Mountain adventures pp. 240-47. 
 
 **
 
 56 teachers' haxdbook of geography. 
 
 Smith, Life in Asia pp. 273-86. 
 
 Starr, Strange peoples np. 11823. 
 
 French, Lance of Kanana (Fiction;. 
 
 **Andrews, Seven little sisters pp. 23-42. 
 
 **Andrews, Each and all pp. 57-Qo. 
 
 Kirby. World by the fireside pp. 274-96. 
 
 **Sha\v, Big people and little people of other lands pp. 25-36. 
 
 **Zwenier, Topsyturvy land (Parts). 
 
 **Chance, Little folks of many lands pp. 67-82. 
 
 Suggestions: The chief points to be brought out through a study of the 
 maps of the region and of the references cited above are the following : — 
 
 That the peninsula of Arabia is mainly a desert tableland surrounded by 
 a broken rim of mountain ranges and fringed by a strip of low-lying coast 
 land. 
 
 That the central ])art is a pasture region in which are raised cattle, horses, 
 sheep, and camels. 
 
 That the country has no rivers of importance, and that its water supply is 
 derived in the main from wells. 
 
 That the country is sparsely inhabited by wild nomadic tribes, who recog- 
 nize little governmental control. 
 
 That the chief products of the country are fruits, coffee, and dates. 
 
 That Turkey claims political control over the whole of the peninsula, with 
 the exception of the British settlement at Aden and the independent state of 
 Oman in the extreme southeast, but that she has made her pretensions good 
 only along the coast. 
 
 That historically this is the birthplace of Alohammedanism. (See "Study 
 of European and Asiatic Turkey," p. 49.) 
 
 PERSIA. 
 
 Mop Locations (to be taught first) : Teheran : Elburz ^Mountains ; Persian 
 Gulf, Caspian Sea ; Mount Ararat. 
 
 Lesson Unit I : The i)roducts of the country and the life of the people. 
 
 READING LIST: 
 
 Carpenter, .Asia pp. 265-73. 
 
 Rupert, deographical reader pp. .73-82. 
 
 Hcrbcrtson, .\sia pp. 82-92. 
 
 Vouth's Companion series. Toward the rising sun.... pp. 129-34. 
 
 .'Mien and .Sachtlebcn, Across Asia on a bicycle pp. 43-113. 
 
 .Smitli, Life in Asia pp. 253-69. 
 
 **.\ndrews, Ten hoys pp. 25-47. 
 
 Hulfinch, A(?c of fable pp. 390-94. 
 
 "Miller, Little people of .Asia pp. 98-116. 
 
 .Shocn-.aker, The heart of the Orient pp. 90-208. 
 
 Suggestions: Hring out the following facts: That Persia is an absolute 
 monarchy; that in area it is about twice the size of Texas; that, like Arabia, 
 il is an elevated tableland, with large tracts of desert and salt plains, but also 
 having many valleys watered from the mountains by irrigation systems, and 
 growing wheat, opium, raw silk, cotl(,>n, tobacco, and dates; that it is noted 
 for its manufacture of rugs and carpets; and that difliculties of transportation 
 and lack of capital dwarf the commerce of tlu' countr\.
 
 THE CONTINENT OF EURASIA. 57 
 
 AFGHANISTAN AND BALUCHISTAN. 
 
 Map Locations (to be taught first) : Observe the location of these coun- 
 tries, particularly with respect to India ; Kabul, Khelat ; Khaibar Pass. 
 
 Lesson Unit I : The strategic importance of these regions. 
 
 READING LIST: 
 
 Herbertson, Asia Parts IV, V. 
 
 Smith, Life in Asia pp. 270-73. 
 
 Tarr and McMurry, Bk. IJ] pp. 376-77, 390. 
 
 Henty, To Herat and Cabul (Fiction). 
 
 Suggestions: These countries, for centuries comprised within the Persian 
 monarchy and of the same geographical characteristics of Persia, are now 
 independent of that country. Baluchistan contains a number of chiefs who 
 are under the Khan, who in turn recognizes the protectorate of Great Britain, 
 having placed the whole of the country at the disposal of the British Govern- 
 ment for all military and strategic purposes. Afghanistan, on the other hand, 
 is independent, though its government is very primitive. Its importance is 
 due to its position as a "bufifer" state between Russia and India. It has been 
 the scene of tremendous conflicts, as it commands the Khaibar Pass, one of 
 the important passes through the mountains between India and the north. 
 In this connection discuss Russia's policy of territorial absorption to the 
 south, and how the interests of the two great nations, Russia and England, 
 have conflicted in this region of Central Asia. Also bring out in discussion 
 that the three countries, Persia, Afghanistan, and Baluchistan, comprise the 
 plateau of Iran and constitute an area about one third that of the United 
 States. 
 
 A STUDY OF INDIA AND INDOCHINA. 
 
 Map Locations (to be taught first) : Himalaya Mountains, the Dekkan 
 Plateau ; Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats, the Indus, Ganges, and Brahama- 
 putra rivers ; Calcutta, Bombay, Madras, Benares ; the Arabian Sea, Bay of 
 Bengal, Indian Ocean ; the peninsula of Hindustan, Burmah, Ceylon ; Balu- 
 chistan, Afghanistan, Persia. 
 
 Lesson Unit I: India comprises three physical areas: {a) the foothill 
 region of the Himalayas, characterized by its jungles of wild animals, its 
 tea-farms, and its forests of oak and cedar; {b) the region of the great 
 plains, the wheat and farming area of India, and the seat of her great popula- 
 tion ; and (c) the region of the Dekkan Plateau whose foothills of coflfee and 
 grains shade into stretches of unreclaimed forests.
 
 58 teachers' handbook of geography. 
 
 READIN'G LIST: 
 
 *Adams, Commercial geography pp. J96-405. 
 
 'Trotter, Geography of commerce pp. 33i-3^- 
 
 •Webster. General history of commerce ^p. 501-2. 
 
 Stoddard, Lectures, Vol. IV Pp. 7-31 • 
 
 Smith, Life in Asia pp. 18-32. 
 
 Carpenter, Asia pp. 209-17, 2^5-33, 249-5O 
 
 Herbertson, Asia pp. 135-37. ' 70-73- 
 
 Rupert, Geographical reader pp. 297-98. 
 
 Knox, Cevlon and India pp. 410-30. 
 
 Tarr and ' McMurry. Bk. Ill pp. 38r-8-. 
 
 Knox, Siam and Java pp. 143-48, 161-76. 
 
 "Oliver Optic,' Across India (Fiction). 
 
 Buttcrworth. India pp. 108-17, 13858. 
 
 Holcomb, Bits about India PP. 39-51. 74-114. 
 
 **Miller, Little people of Asia pp. 130-88, 223-61. 
 
 **Shaw, Big people and little people of other lands.... pp. 46-52. 
 
 Suggestions: These regions are fairl\- well shown on the map on page 112 
 of the advanced text. Spend most of your time in discussing the region of 
 the great plain. Talk about the character of the soil — how it is a rich deposit 
 washed down from the mountains by the rivers, and how on account of its 
 fertility and because of the climate of the region it is particularly well adapted 
 to agricultural pursuits. Point out that because of these conditions and be- 
 cause the region is protected from invasion by the nomadic hordes of the 
 north, very early in history it became the seat of a civilized people who 
 engaged in farming. Bring out that this region has become the chief source 
 of England's supply of wheat, and that the opening of the Suez Canal gave a 
 tremendous stimulus to wheat cultivation. Discuss the reason. The British 
 Government is doing much to foster and improve the agriculture of this 
 region. Public departments which collect and distribute agricultural infor- 
 mation have been established in each province. Agricultural schools and 
 experimental farms have been organized, and new methods of farming, new 
 implements, and new fertilizers have been successfully introduced in many 
 places. This has not only increased the total agricultural output, but has 
 cheapened the product as well. These improved methods have made India a 
 formidable rival of China in the world's trade in tea. In China the tea is 
 cured and marketed by hand processes, while in India and Ceylon there are 
 lea plantations of hundreds of thousands of acres where machinery of the 
 most improved kind is used. The result has been to greatly decrease China's 
 output. 
 
 In discussing the production of tea defer the details regarding the method 
 of its cultivation, curing, and marketing until you take up the study of China. 
 Point out here, however, the tea-producing regions not only of India but of 
 the world. 
 
 Rcf|uirc the children to shade in these regions on an outline inaj) of the 
 world. 
 
 Discuss the effect tm (lie roniniciTial wealth of the coinitry of the fact that 
 the religions beliefs confine ab< lUi tliree fourths of India's pupnlalion to a 
 vegetable diet. 
 
 In regard to the density of po])ulation. have the children turn to the sta- 
 tistics given on page 157 of the advanced text. Estimate the average density 
 of the population of India and compare with tliat of the United States. Note,
 
 THE CONTINENT OF EURASIA. 59 
 
 fuiiher, that in an area half as great as that of the United States it has a 
 population nearly as great as the combined populations of North America, 
 South America, and Africa. 
 
 Lesson Unit II : India is a hot, unhealthful region, and is dependent upon 
 the southwest monsoon for its rainfall. The failure of this monsoon has fre- 
 quently caused the most appalling famines, the bad results of which are now 
 greatly lessened through the extensive development of irrigation systems and 
 of railroads, which connect all the important productive districts and trade 
 centers. 
 
 CHILDREN'S READliXG: 
 
 Smith. Life in Asia p. 23. 
 
 Rupert, Geographical reader pp. 208-306. 
 
 Tarr and McMuriy, Bk. JIl 0.38(3. 
 
 Carpenter, Asia pp. 206-208. 
 
 Herbertson, Asia pp. 1S6-88. 
 
 Stoddard, Lectures, Vol. ]\' (Parts). 
 
 Butterw orth, India pp. 290-97. 
 
 -Scott, In famine land (Parts). 
 
 ("ompton, Indian life in town and country (Parts). 
 
 Suggestions: In the discussion of the monsoons of India for the points in 
 the explanation which should be clearly presented, refer to page 8. Point 
 out that the prevailing winds are the southwest monsoon ( from the south- 
 west) in the summer and the northeast monsoon in the winter. The direc- 
 tion of these winds is shown on map, page 26 of the advanced text. Note that 
 the southwest monsoon, blowing from the ocean, brings vast quantities of 
 moisture, a part of which is precipitated on the west slope of the Ghats Moun- 
 tains. The remainder of the moisture is carried across the plateau with no 
 great precipitation, as it does not meet a sufficient condensing medium until it 
 reaches the mountains of the north, where most of the water is precipitated on 
 the southern slopes of the Himalayas, where it feeds the Ganges and Indus 
 rivers. That region near the mouth of the Indus is called the Indian Desert. 
 Can the children tell why the region is arid ? The northeast monsoon, passing 
 as it does aross a smaller body of water, carries with it a much smaller amount 
 of water. This it deposits on the east coast, but not in sufficient quantity to 
 avoid recourse to irrigation. 
 
 Have the children turn to map XIX in the appendix of the advanced text 
 and observe the railroads of India. Note how the grain-producing districts 
 are tied together and also joined to the chief seaports of the country by a net- 
 work of railroads. Discuss the bearing of this on (i) the internal develop- 
 ment of the country, and (2) the seriousness of local famines. 
 
 Lesson Unit II: India is the home of Brahmanism and the seat of the 
 system of caste. 
 
 RE.\DI\G LIST: 
 
 *Wade, Our little Siamese cousin 
 
 Holcomb, Bits about India pp. 143-65, 228-48. 264-72 
 
 Stoddard. Lectures. Vol. I\' (Farts). 
 
 Compton, Indian life in town and country pp. 3-50. 
 
 *Pratt, Stories of India up. 12-50. 
 
 Youth's Companion series. Toward the rising sun.... pp. 9-15. 
 
 Knox, Siam and Java pp. 119-30. 
 
 "(Jliver Optic," Across India (Fiction) (Parts). 
 
 * *\ 
 
 **T
 
 6o teachers' handbook of GEOGR.APHY. 
 
 Butterworth, India pp. 3-46, 118-25, 180-232, 253-65, 304-20. 
 
 Headlejf, Mountain adventures pp. 257-65. 
 
 Starr, Strange peoples pp. 101-17. 
 
 Angus, The Eastern wonderland Chap. I\', pp. 107-16. 
 
 Smith, Lite in Asia pp. 39-42. 
 
 Rupert, Geographical reader pp. 307-17. 
 
 Tarr and McMurry, Bk. Ill p. 387- 
 
 Carpenter, Asia pp. 57-59, 234-40. 
 
 Herccrtson, Ai;a pp. 154-56. 
 
 Johonnot, Geographical reader l>p. 197-202, 210-12. 
 
 Suggestions: In discussing Brahmanism bring out the fact that it is the 
 ancient religion of India ; that it exists to-day only in India ; that it is em- 
 braced by three fourths of India's population ; and that very early it degen- 
 erated into a huge system of demonology. In connection with this last point 
 tell the children that according to this faith the woods, fields, trees, rivers, as 
 well as all animals, are inhabited by beneficent or malevolent spirits ; and 
 that the religion recognizes some three hundrd and thirty million deities, tho 
 images of which are to be found in great numbers throughout the entire 
 country. Have the children relate the stories which they have read in the 
 references already cited of the manner of worship of these peoples ; how it is 
 esteemed a religious rite to bathe in the River Ganges, of the pilgrimages to 
 the "holy city" of Benares, and of the caste system and its practices, — all to 
 be discussed in the light of their significance as seen by the Brahman. 
 
 Since India is likewise the home of Buddhism, and since this religion is 
 frequently confused with Brahmanism, see to it that the relation between the 
 two religions is brought into clear contrast. The chief points to note con- 
 cerning this are as follows : — 
 
 (a) Buddhism grew out of a revolt against the tyrannical and idolatrous 
 practices of the Brahmans, and was lead by Guatama Buddha, six centu- 
 ries B. C. 
 
 (b) It spread over India, but was driven out by the religion it attempted 
 to supplant ; that to-day the only Buddhists in India proper are comprised in 
 a small sect in Bombay ; that from India the faith passed northward to 
 Tibet and eastward to Burmah, Siam, Anam, and thence to China and 
 Japan ; and that it still flourishes is these countries, though in a modified 
 form. 
 
 ( c) It surpasses all religions except Christianity in the purity of its moral 
 teachings, as originally tauglit. 
 
 (d) In marked contrast to the Arabian method of propagating I^Ioham- 
 mcrlanism by the sword. Buddha relied only on preaching. 
 
 Lesson Unit II': India, together with the islands of the East Indies, was 
 the goal of all the early European expeditions to the East, and indirectly led 
 to the discovery of America. 
 
 READING LIST: 
 
 Smith. Life in Asia pp. 13-14. 
 
 Stoddard, lectures. Vol. IV pp. 9-10. 
 
 llrofjks, Marco Polo ('i"hc story). 
 
 Athcrton. Advcnlurcs of Marco I'olo (The story). 
 
 Johnson, Jhc world's dintoverprs pp. 3 119. 
 
 Giit'ii.t, The r<.mance of disccvcry (Parts). 
 
 Tc.«Ii M;ir,r, r,,I,, ('Ihc StOfy).
 
 THE COXTIXEXT OF EURASIA. 6 1 
 
 Towle, \"oyages and adventures of \'asco da Gama.. 
 
 Lawler, Tlie story of Cohimbus and Magellan 
 
 Plaaren snd Poland, Famous men of the Middle Ages. pp. 213-18. 
 
 Suggestions: This topic really draws on nothing- which the children have 
 not had in connection with their history. But it will be of interest and profit 
 in connection with geography to review the study which the children have 
 already given to the routes of trade of the fifteenth century between Europe 
 and the East ; the difficulties and dangers encountered ; the nature of the com- 
 modities interchanged ; the story of Marco Polo ; the desire for a water route ; 
 and the voyages of Vasco da Gama and Columbus. 
 
 Lesson l')iit ['.■ India is a dependency of Great Britain, and is ruled by a 
 Governor-General, who is appointed by the King. 
 
 READING LIST: 
 
 Smith, Life in Asia PP- 33-35. 82-86. 
 
 Rupert, Geogiaphical reader pD. 298-306. 
 
 Tarr and ^^IcMurry, Bk. Ill pp. 388-90. 
 
 Carpenter, Asia pp. 202-8. 
 
 Butterworth. India pp. 20-24. 
 
 **Pratt, Stories of Indi.i pp. 51-70. 
 
 Compton, Indian life in town and country Chap. 1. 
 
 Stoddard, Lectures, \'ol. I\' (Parts). 
 
 Suggesfio<ns: Bring out in discussion the following points : — 
 
 The King of England is the ultimate authority in British India. He ap- 
 points a Secretary of State for India, who is the practical head of affairs, and 
 who resides in England. He is assisted by a council of from ten to fifteen 
 members, appointed by himself from among distinguished persons who have 
 lived in India. These members live in England and constitute an advisory 
 committee without ultimate authority. To the Secretary and his council is 
 intrusted the conduct of all business transacted in the United Kingdom in 
 relation to the government of India. 
 
 In India the executive authoritv is vested in a Governor-General, who is 
 appointed by the King, but is under the direction of the Secretary of State for 
 India. The Governor-General, under the sanction of this Secretary, has 
 power to make laws for all British India. 
 
 Bring out also that British rule in India, though not free from grave mis- 
 takes, has been of incalculable blessing to the country. Religious freedom is 
 protected ; general education is promoted with energy ; the people, continually 
 engaged in internal wars before, are now gathered under a stable govern- 
 ment ; railway, telegraphs, electric power, and factories have been introduced 
 — all as a direct result of British sovereignty. 
 
 A STUDY OF THE CHINESE EMPIRE. 
 
 Map Locations (to be taught first) : China proper, Manchuria, Mongolia, 
 Chinese Turkestan, Tibet; Amur, Yalu, Hoang-ho, Yangtse-kiang rivers; 
 Canton, Shanghai, Hongkong, Peking ; Japan, Yellow, China seas ; the Great 
 Wall, Grand Canal.
 
 62 teachers' handbook of geography. 
 
 Rci'iezc (to be given last) : On an outline map of eastern Eurasia locate 
 all of the above places. Fix arrows to show the direction of the prevailing 
 rain-bearing winds of the eastern and southeastern coast. Shade in the region 
 known as the deserts of Gobi and Tibet. What are the physical conditions 
 which cause these regions to be arid ? Show by shading the five provinces of 
 the Empire : China proper, Manchuria, Mongolia, Chinese Turkestan. Tibet. 
 On an outline map of the world show by shading the following : ( i ) The tea- 
 producing regions of the world; (2) The rice-producing regions of the 
 world ; ( 3 ) The silk-producing regions of the world. 
 
 Lcsso}i i'liit I: China is the oldest country in the world. It had an ad- 
 vanced civilization long before Europe emerged from barbarism. 
 
 RK.VDIXG LIST: 
 
 Cunnynghani, Young people's history of the Chinese. . (Parts). 
 **Pratt, China VP- 22-25, 30, 75-77- 
 
 Carpenter, Asia pp. 128-34, i4i-43- 
 
 Knox, Japan and China pp. 385-87. 
 
 Smith, Life of Asia pp. 162-65. 178-79. 
 
 Stoddard, lectures. Voh III pp. 227-28, 3.32-35- 
 
 Van Bergen, btory of China pp. 112-33. 
 
 Kielde, Corner of Cathay pp. 166-213. 
 
 Butterworth, Traveler tales of China pp. 55-57. 
 
 **Lee, When I was a boy in China pp. 63-71. 
 
 **Miln, Little folks of many lands pp. 216-18. 
 
 Smith, Chinese characteristics pp. 307-13. 
 
 Holcombe, Real Chinaman pp. 49-53. 
 
 Youth's Companion series. Toward the rising sun.... pp. ;6-28. 
 
 Allen and Sachtlcben, Across Asia on a bicycle pp. 149-234. 
 
 Headland, The Chinese boy and girl (Stories). 
 
 Morris, Historical tales: Japan and China (Parts). 
 
 Suggestions: The references given above are to four points, each bearing 
 directly on the lesson unit : ( i ) To the enlightened emperors, 3000 B. C. ; 
 (2) to the building of the Great Wall, illustrating the strength of a govern- 
 ment which could successfully complete such a great undertaking ; ( 3 ) to 
 Confucius, as the founder of China's ancient literature; and (4) to the im- 
 portant inventions of the Chinese which illustrate the advancement of ancient 
 China in the mechanical arts. 
 
 In connection with the first point bring out the story of the wonderful things 
 which Emperor Euhhe and his immediate successors did for the advancemenr 
 of their people, nearly 3000 B. C. ; how they coined money, matlc maps. 
 drained mar.shes, constructed vessels, and encouraged the building of villages 
 and cities. I '.ring out strongly that these reforms were inaugurated fully two 
 thousand years before the inhabitants of Europe were anything more than 
 primitive savages living in caves and in ilic forests. 
 
 On the second ])oint, the Great Wall of China, after bringing out the details 
 of the magnitude of the undertaking, the purposes for which it was con- 
 structed, anrl that it took a million nun ten years to bnild it. discuss the high 
 degree oi civilization required to nnitc tlic ])c(iplc in an nndcrlakng of such 
 magnitude. 
 
 Regarding ( oiifucius and the literature of ancient China, discuss references 
 to his life and wjitings with a view to showing that 500 B. C. China had a 
 high-grade literature.
 
 THE CONTINENT OF EURASIA. 63 
 
 As another illustration of the age and the early development of China take 
 the important inventions placed to her credit, — the art of printing, the manu- 
 facture of porcelain and paper ; besides, the invention of writing, gunpowder, 
 and the mariner's compass were all known to the Chinese long before the 
 time of Christ. Discuss their importance in the industrial world and the 
 degree of civilization which they indicate. 
 
 In this work the teacher must not lose sight of the fact that she is seeking 
 to establish in the minds of the children a feeling for the antiquity of the 
 Chinese nation. She has already referred to the enlightened reforms intro- 
 duced 3000 years B. C. ; she has discussed the construction of one of the 
 world's greatest wonders — the Chinese wall — to show the effectiveness of the 
 government two centuries B. C. ; she has presented the life and work of Con- 
 fucius, the founder of Chinese literature, to establish the fact that ancient 
 China possessed a high-grade literature; and lastly she takes up the inven- 
 tions credited to China — all to show in a concrete way that at the time when 
 Europe was but a battle-field for barbarian hordes China presented many of 
 the aspects of a great and enlightened nation pursuing the arts of peace. 
 
 Lesson Unit II: China is a densely populated country along the seaboard 
 and the main waterways of the interior. 
 
 READING LIST. 
 **Pratt, China pp. 42-47, 67-74, 85-S9, 91-98. 
 
 Smith, Village life in China pp. 17-19- 
 
 Smith, Chinese characteristics pp. 19-26, 144-51. 
 
 **Andrews, Seven little sisters pp. 57-70. 
 
 Carpenter, Asia pp. 105-07, 111-20, 134-41. 143-45- 
 
 Krout, Two girls in China pp. 52-56. 
 
 **Miller, Little people of Asia pp. 344-46. 
 
 Rupert, Geographical reader pp. 282-90. 
 
 Smith, Life in Asia pp. 144-45. 158-60. 
 
 Stoddard, Lectures, Vol. Ill pp. 230-35, 246-49, 268-70, 295-96, 308-14. 
 
 Fielde, A corner of Cathay pp. 1-13. 14-23. 
 
 Holcombe, Real Chinaman pp. 3 1 029. 
 
 Scidmore, China: The long-lived empire pp. 14-15. 
 
 Youth's Companion series, Toward the rising sun.... pp. 29-35. 
 *Bunker, China pp. 12-15. 
 
 Suggestions : The references cited under this unit can be grouped around 
 three topics, each of which affords the basis for the drawing of an inference 
 as to the crowded condition of the Chinese people. These topics are: (i) 
 Life on the river boats; (2) Traveler tales of crowded streets and paths; 
 and (3) Instances of the extreme economy of the people in the field and in 
 the home, rendered necessary by the enormous population to be supported by 
 the land. 
 
 Concerning the first topic, bring out in discussion that thousands of families 
 have been crowded oft' the land and forced to live in houses built on rafts and 
 boats which float on the rivers and on the canals. A discussion of the cus- 
 toms and ways of these boat peoples and their methods of earning a liveli- 
 hood will serve to emphasize this thought. 
 
 The references to the economy which the people practice if discussed will 
 give the children a vivid picture of the crowded condition of the plains of 
 China. In concluding this unit draw a comparison between the population
 
 64 teachers' handbook of geogr.\phy. 
 
 of the United States and China, pointing out tb.at if the whole population of 
 the United States and forty millions more were crowded into the State of 
 Texas, the density of population would be about equal to that of the low 
 plains of China. 
 
 Lesson Unit III : The Chinese people, as a whole, are characterized by con- 
 servatism and nonprogressiveness. 
 
 READiA'G LIST: 
 **Andre\vs, Seven little sisters pp. 65-67. 
 
 Carpenter, Asia pp. 107-11, 143-54, 156-57. 
 
 Holcombe, The real Chinaman pp. 80-83, 102-103, 135. 171-79,216-85. 
 
 Krout, Two girls in China pp. 49-Si. 59-6o, 75-76, 85-89, 101-102, 
 
 112-16, 154-63- 
 
 Knox, Japan and China PP- 332-34. 417- 
 
 **Lee, When I was a boy in China pp. 46-49, 50-62. 
 
 **Miller, Little people in Asia pp. 307-308, 316-18, 340. 
 
 **Miln, Little folks of many lands pp. igo-91, 193-200, 201-15. 
 
 Scidmore. China: The long-lived empire pp. 14-19. 180-89, 452. 
 
 Stoddard, Lectures, \'ol. Ill pp. 253-58, 305-308, 326-32. 
 
 Fielde, A corner of Cathay pp. 1-13, 49-70, 94-110. 
 
 **Pratt, Stories of China pp. 49-51, 67-70, 129-31, 179-94- 
 
 Smith, X'illage life in China pp. 44-48, 35-43- 
 
 Smith, Chinese characteristics pp. 28-29,33-40, 102-T03, 122-24,300-302. 
 
 Smith. Life in Asia pp. 142-44, 166-70. 
 
 \'an Bergen, Stories of China pp. 44-51, 96-104. 
 
 Youth's Companion series. Toward the rising sun.... pp. 36-44. 
 
 Munroe, The Blue Dragon (Fiction). 
 
 Headland. Our little Chinese Cousin 
 
 *Bunker, China pp. 15-23. 
 
 Siiggestio)is: The teaciier can find in her supplementary reading a great 
 many concrete details which will bring out the idea of conservatism and non- 
 progressiveness as applied to the Chinese. Instead of having the reading- 
 done in a desultory manner, it is best to organize it along a few lines, to give 
 greater dcfiniteness and vividness to the child's impressions. The references 
 given above have been selected with this thought in mind. The teacher will 
 find that the material given above can be organized under the following heads, 
 which best illustrate Chinese love of tradition : ( i ) The practice of foot- 
 binding; (2) Methods employed in manual labor; (3) Chinese ways of 
 transportation and tlicir attitude toward the railroad: (4) Ceremonial life; 
 (5) Educational customs and practices. Discuss as many of these topics as 
 time and \our facilities will permit. 
 
 I 'ring out in connection with the first topic that according to Chinese tradi- 
 tion if a girl were to grow up without conforming to the custom of foot- 
 binding she would not l)c recognized as a lady, and would thereby disgrace 
 her father's name. Sucli a force has the custom become that women undergo 
 not only inconvenience but great physical suffering rather than break with 
 tradition. Empliasize the Chinese view of the custom in order to make it 
 clear to the children how difficult it is for the Chinese to break away from 
 the custom. 
 
 Regarding the second to])ic. bring out the thought that only the simplest 
 and rudest machinery cither in ihe arts or in agriculture is ever used, and that 
 \hv time required by hand processes makes everything intrinsically costly. 
 This is particularly apparent in coniieetiou willi lu r Ua IraiU', which she is 
 fast losing because India and Ceyl(;n have introduced lalxii -saving machinery. 
 and therefore can produce tea mnrv ciieaply.
 
 THE CONTINENT OF EURASIA. 65 
 
 In methods of travel China's conservatism is particularly noticeable. The 
 demands of the millions of people in Northern China are satisfied, just as 
 they were thirty centuries ago, by the two-wheeled carts made without seats 
 or springs. In the south the sedan-chair is the principal mode of conveyance, 
 while in other parts of the empire immense, wheelbarrows loaded with pas- 
 sengers and goods are familiar sights. Their hatred of innovation is particu- 
 larly well brought out in their attitude toward the introduction of the 
 railroad, related in Scidmore's China: the long-lived empire (p. 220), to the 
 efifect that after patronizing it for a time the Chinese finally bought it from 
 its ov/ners, tore up the rails and threw them into the river, and sent the loco- 
 motives to Formosa, where they rusted on the beach. However, it should be 
 brought out that foreign enterprise has finally succeeded in a measure in 
 overcoming this prejudice, and that several hundred miles of road are now in 
 use in China. 
 
 A lesson can be spent profitably in discussing Chinese ceremonial life, 
 bringing out the utter lack of reason in the mass of forms and ceremonies, 
 and how the rigid exaction of these customs tends to retard the progress of 
 the people. Have the children tell about the quaint ceremonies performed 
 when the child first enters school, about the studies he pursues, and about the 
 queer way the children have of studying aloud and reciting with their backs 
 turned toward the teacher. Bring out in discussion that the course of in- 
 struction consists of a study of the writings of Confucius, and that while their 
 studies everywhere admonish the student to be good and just and honest, no 
 mention is ever made of telegraphy, railroading, surgery, or of anything per- 
 taining to present-day Western civilization, and that in consequence the many 
 years spent in study in no way fits the student for the duties he is expected to 
 perform in official life. 
 
 Throughout the discussion of this and of all other topics the teacher must 
 remember that she is presenting details not so much for their own sake as for 
 the purpose of establishing the general notion in the child's mind that the 
 Chinese people are conservative and nonprogressive in the extreme. 
 
 Lesson Unit U': The conservatism of the Chinese race is largely due to 
 their religion of ancestor worship, which leads them to cherish the past and 
 the ways of the past. 
 
 READING LIST: 
 
 Butterworth, Traveler tales of China pp. 58-83. 84-88. 
 
 Holconibe, Real Chinaman pp. 123-25, 34-35. 43-45. 89-92. 
 
 Krout. Two girls in China pp. 118-19, 139-40, 144-45- 
 
 **Miln, Little folks of many lands pp. 189-91. 
 
 **Pratt, Stories of China pp. 126-31, 160-65. 
 
 Smith, Chinese characteristics pp. 171-85. 
 
 Smith, Life in Asia pp. 163-65. 
 
 Carpenter, Asia pp. 123-25. 
 
 Fielde, A corner of Cathay pp. 82-86. 
 
 **Lee, When L was a boy in China pp. t8-2I. 
 
 Stoddard, Lectures, \'ol. Ill p. 302. 
 
 *Bunker, China pp. 23-28. 
 
 Suggestions: Ancestor worship has its good and bad sides. In efifect, it 
 is a chain which binds the present generation to the generations of the past.
 
 66 teachers' handbook of geography. 
 
 The highest idea of the present is to imitate the past. This is the explanation 
 of what at first seems bHnd and obstinate adherence to tradition. In present- 
 ing the details given in the reading references the teacher's presentation is 
 primarily not for the interest which the details will give, but on account of 
 their significance in accounting for Chinese antagonism to \\'estern ways. 
 
 Bring out the good side of this custom of ancestor worship. This lies in 
 the respect and care which the Chinese people exercise toward their parents. 
 Have the children tell the stories to be found in the references cited which 
 illustrate the respect and care which the younger members of the family show 
 to their elders. Have the children draw a contrast between the relation of 
 parents and children as it exists in China and America. 
 
 Lesson Unit V : China is a region which is famous for its production of 
 rice, tea, and silk. 
 
 RE.ADIXG LIST: 
 
 Chamberlain, How we are fed pp. 70-76. 
 
 **ATidrews, Seven little sisters pp. 61-63, 69-70. 
 
 Carpenter, Asia pp. 66-67, 148-50, 150-52, 200. 
 
 Krout, Two girls in China pp. 44-45, 67-6S, 198-203. 
 
 Smith, Life in Asia pp. 151-56. 
 
 Butterworth, Traveler tales of China pp. 204-19. 
 
 Beal, Information reader, Vol. I PP- 252-55. 
 
 **Pratt. China pp. 51-60. 
 
 Scidmore, China: The long-lived empire pp. 365-76. 
 
 Chase and Clow, Information reader, \"ol. II pp. 49-58. 
 
 Companion series, Talks about animals pp. 144-49. 
 
 Chamberlain, How we are clothed pp. 25-30. 
 
 ■•"Andrews, Each and all pp. 91-95. 
 
 Clifford, Information reader. Vol. II pp. 19-29. 
 
 **Kirby, Aunt Martha's corner cupboard pp. 14-60, 121-34. 
 
 'Webster, General history of commerce pp. 491-94. 
 
 *Trotter, Geography of commerce pp. 319-24. 
 
 *Adams, Commercial geography pp. 414-26. 
 
 'Bunker, China pp. 28-34. 
 
 Suggestions: Bring out in the discussion of the references on rice culture 
 how the growing grain requires a great deal of moisture and warmth, how it 
 is cut by hand in China, how it is threshed out and hulled by crude and 
 laborious processes, how the rice grains are polished to make them more 
 marketable, and finally, by way of contrast, what improvements have 
 been introduced in its cultivation and preparation for market in our own 
 country. 
 
 In beginning the discussion of the tea industry have the children relate 
 some of the pretty legends which are told in the tea countries of its origin. 
 Several of the references given above will furnish the material for this. Dis- 
 cuss the tea-shrub, how it is cultivated and the soil and climate which it re 
 quires, and how its leaves are picked and prepared and marketed. Contrast 
 the methods employed in China with those in India, bringing out that while 
 China's methods are crude and laborious India has introduced the most mod- 
 em machinery. What is the effect on the cost of production? How will this 
 effect China's trade when l)rought into competition with India? In reality 
 China's aversion to modern methods has resulted in greatly reducing her tea 
 trade. At this point take a wider view and learn something of the world's
 
 THE CONTINENT OF EURASIA. 67 
 
 demand for tea and what countries are engaged in its production. These con- 
 sist in the main of China, Japan, Ceylon, Java, and Natal in Africa. 
 
 Sericulture should be treated similarly. First, details regarding the silk- 
 worm and the manufacture of the product, and, second, the regions of the 
 world producing the silk. It might be noted that since so much hand labor is 
 necessary in rearing and feeding the worms and in reeling the silk, and since 
 labor is so cheap in China, no nation can ever seriously compete with her in 
 this industry. For instance, it could never be extensively produced in the 
 United States on account of the high wages demanded by laborers, yet in its 
 manufacture of silk goods the United States leads the world. Hence it is a 
 very large importer of the raw material. 
 
 A STUDY OF KOREA. 
 
 Map Locations (to be taught first) : The peninsula; Yalu River; Seoul; 
 Japan ; Yellow Sea, China Sea, Japan Sea. 
 
 Lesson Unit I : The country and its people. 
 
 READING LIST: 
 
 Gifford, Everyday life in Korea (Parts). 
 
 Carpenter, Asia pp. 76-92. 
 
 Rupert, Geographical reader pp. 294-96. 
 
 Herbertson, Asia pp. 261-64. 
 
 Youth's Companion series. Toward the rising sun....ipp. 53-56. 
 
 Smith, Life in Asia pp. 232-41. 
 
 Starr, Strange peoples pp. 76-81. 
 
 Underwood, Fifteen years among the Top-knots (Parts). 
 
 Hamilton, Korea (Parts). 
 
 '*Shaw, Big people and little people of other lands.... pp. 37-45- 
 
 *Grifiis, Corea : The hermit nation ( Parts). 
 
 *Bishop, Korea and her neighbors (Parts). 
 
 Suggestions: Have the children relate how Korea has been closed to for- 
 eigners until recently, and how the United States forced the country to open 
 its doors to the West. Talk about the queer customs of the people. 
 
 Lesson Unit II: Korea's place in the present struggle between Russia and 
 Japan. 
 
 READING LIST: 
 
 Gale, Korean sketches (Parts). 
 
 Van Bergen, Story of Japan pp. 2^-28, 79-85. 
 
 Tarr and McMurry, Bk. Ill P- 405- 
 
 Youth's Companion series. Toward the rising sun.... pp. 45-52- 
 
 Smith, Life in Asia pp. 232-41- 
 
 Hamilton, Korea (Parts). 
 
 Suggestions: Point out that because of Korea's position geographically she 
 is of great value to Russia, China, and Japan. Discuss the w^ar between 
 China and Japan (1894) over the control of Korea, and how each of the two 
 countries claimed to be guarding the interests of Korea, but that the real 
 object of each was to prevent the other from seizing Korea. Similarly discuss 
 the present struggle between Japan and Russia. Review in this connection 
 the parts which have a bearing on this topic of the "Study of Turkey" (p. 
 43) ; also, "Study of Russia" (p. 51).
 
 68 teachers' handbook of geogilaphy. 
 
 A STUDY OF THE JAPANESE EMPIRE. 
 
 Map Locations (to be taught first) : The location of the islands ; Formosa, 
 Yesso, and Hondo; Tokyo, Yokohama, and Nagasaki; Japan, Yellow, and 
 China seas; Fujiyama. 
 
 Lesson Unit I : Tlie Japanese Empire comprises nearly four thousand vol- 
 canic islands, which stretch over a distance of two thousand miles. This 
 region is subject to frequent and violent earthquakes. 
 
 KE.ADING LIST: 
 
 Stoddard, Lectures, Vol. Ill pp. 7-^^4 (Parts). 
 
 Smith, Life in Asia p. 185. 
 
 Carpenter, Asia pp. 15-19. 
 
 Tarr and .\IcMurry, Bk. Ill :pp. 5-7. 
 
 Johonnot, Geographical reader Part 111. 
 
 Clement, Modern Japan Chap. I. 
 
 **George, Little journeys (China and Japan) (Parts). 
 
 Suggestions: Turn to the nia]) in Tarr and ^IcMurr}- ( bk. ill, p. 6) on 
 which is shown the distribution of the volcanoes of the world. Note that 
 while no part of the globe is entirely free from them, they are most numerous 
 in a belt on either side of the Pacific Ocean. Note also on this map that the 
 chain of islands comprising the Empire of Japan lies directly and wholly in 
 this belt. 
 
 Have the children relate incidents of the terrible results of earthquakes and 
 volcanic eruptions. The story of Vesuvius, of the earthquake of Lisbon in 
 1755, of Charleston in our own country in 1888, of the terrible earthquakes 
 which Japan experienced in 1855 and in 1894, and of the eruption of Pelee in 
 the Martinique Islands ver\- recently, may be related as illustrations of the 
 awful efl:'ects produced through these agencies. 
 
 Do not spend time on the causes of volcanoes and earthquakes, as they are 
 not yet well understood. 
 
 .\n interesting line of thought could l)c taken u]) at this j^oint by having 
 the children find for themselves how the natives of volcanic countries have 
 adapted the architecture of their habitations to avoid the danger from earth- 
 f[uakes. As an illustration, Japanor houses are all low, of one story, and 
 constructed of very light materials, on account of this ever-present danger. 
 
 Tiring out also that while Japan comprises only three islands of any con- 
 siderable size, yet the empire contains nearly four thousand smaller islands, 
 which e.xtcnd a distance of two thousand miles, and have a climate ranging 
 from tlv tropical in the south to one of ice and snow in the north. Have the 
 children turn to page 157 of the advanced te.xt and note the area and popula- 
 tion of the Japanese I'jnpire. Compare with California and the United 
 States. Draw the conclusion that a population of more than one half that of 
 the United States lives in an area no greater than that of the state of Cali- 
 fornia.
 
 
 THE CONTINENT OF EURASIA. 69 
 
 Lesson Unit II : Japan is noted for its production of sill-:, rice, and tea, 
 also for the skill of its manufacturers. 
 
 RE.^DING LIST: 
 
 *Trotler, Geography of commerce pp. 326-29. 
 
 Bramhall, The wee ones of Japan (Parts). 
 
 **Miller, Little people of Asia pp. 360-405. 
 
 *Webster, General history of commerce pp. 494-500. 
 
 **George, Little journeys (China and Japan) (Parts). 
 
 *Adams, Commercial geography pp. 406-13. 
 
 Carpenter, Asia pp. 59-75. 
 
 Herbertson, Asia pp. 264, 279-81. 
 
 Starr, Strange peoples pp. 88-100. 
 
 Angus, The Eastern wonderland pp. 30-34. 
 
 Clement, Modern Japan Chaps. II, III, IV'. 
 
 *Chance, Little folks of many lands pp. 95-112. 
 
 *Allen, Children of the palm lands pp. 63-78. 
 
 Stoddard, Lectures, Vol. Ill pp. 7-224 (Parts). 
 
 **Wade, Our little Japanese cousin 
 
 Suggestions: Bring out in discussion that while the surface of the islands 
 is mountainous and the entire group volcanic, yet the aboundant rains of the 
 region have washed great quantities of fertile soil into the river valleys. 
 While less than one fifth of the land is vmder cultivation on account of the 
 mountainous nature of the surface, yet that fifth is so carefully fertilized and 
 tilled that it produces more than enough to feed Japan's entire population. 
 Review the details regarding the production of silk, tea, and rice, which were 
 suggested in the study of China (p. 66). Bring out further the following 
 points : that rice is grown mainly in the coast lowlands on the west or rainy 
 side, and that the grain is of such a superior quality that it is exported while 
 an inferior and cheaper kind is imported from China for home consumption ; 
 that tea-gardens and plantations occupy the hillside areas in the southern 
 islands, the product of which is valued above that of China, one kind indeed 
 being worth from five to eight dollars per pound; and that the raw silk of 
 Japan is likewise of a superior quality. 
 
 Regarding the manufacturing industries of Japan, bring out that they have 
 advanced wonderfully in the last few years. The cotton mills employ seventy 
 thousand people, while more than a million are engaged in textile manu- 
 facturing. 
 
 In connection with this topic it might be interesting to discuss the rivalry 
 between the United States and England for the rich trade of Japan and the 
 East. Until very recently England dominated the trade with both Japan and 
 China. What advantage did the opening of the Suez Canal give her ? Discuss 
 also the advantage of her Trans-Canadian Railroad with its line of steamers 
 connecting Vancouver and Yokohama. America is, however, awakening to 
 the value of her port at San Francisco and its connecting railway and steam- 
 ship lines. In 1900 the United States nearly doubled England's trade with 
 Japan. What will be the efifect of the Isthmian canal in this trade rivalr}'? 
 The answer lies in the fact that Japan wants our cotton chiefly and that the 
 canal will bring the cotton States nearer Japan. Will the canal divert Amer- 
 ica's trade with the Orient from California, or will it increase her share in it ?
 
 70 teachers' handbook of geography. 
 
 Lesson Unit III: Japan's advancement, which has been extraordinarily 
 rapid, dates from the time the United States forced her to open her ports to 
 the people of the West. 
 
 READING LIST: 
 **George, Little journeys (China and Japan) (Parts). 
 
 Stoddard, Lectures, Vol. Ill pp. 7-224 (Parts). 
 
 Smith, Life in Asia pp. 181-83, 187. 
 
 Carpenter, Asia pp. 23-24, 31-33. 
 
 \'an Bergen, Story of Japan pp. 191-206, 207-34, 259-64, 280-84. 
 
 State series. Third reader (Recent adoption) pp. 74-79. 
 
 Tarr and McMurry, Bk. Ill pp. 408-10. 
 
 Youth's Companion series. Toward the rising sun.... pp. 57-76. 
 
 Angus, The Eastern wonderland Chaps. VH, VIII. 
 
 Clement, Modern Japan Chaps. VII, VIII, XIX, XX. 
 
 **Ayrton, Child life in Japan (Stories).— 
 
 *N itobe, Bushido : The soul of Japan ( Parts) . 
 
 Morris, Historical tales: Japan and China (Parts). 
 
 Suggestions: Discuss the details of Commodore Perry's expedition to 
 Japan, the reasons for it, and the immediate results. Talk about what Japan 
 was when the expedition was made, and, by way of contrast, what Japan is 
 now. In connection with this last point many illustrations will occur to the 
 teacher which will show Japan's progress. Among them may be mentioned 
 the following : She has recently built thirty-five hundred miles of railroads, 
 fourteen thousand miles of telegraphs, and over fifteen hundred miles of tele- 
 phones. Her merchant marine contains over eleven hundred steamers, 
 nineteen hundred sailing-vessels of European type, and about nineteen thou- 
 sand native craft. Many illustrations can be drawn also from Japan's prog- 
 ress in scientific agriculture, from her educational plans, and from her mili- 
 tary prowess, equipment, and skill. 
 
 Lesson Unit IV: Japan is ruled by an Emperor, who, though paramount 
 and unquestioned in all matters of government, is aided by a cabinet and by 
 two legislative bodies. 
 
 READING LIST: 
 
 Carpenter, Asia pp. 43-50. 
 
 Tarr and McMurry, Bk. Ill pp. 407-408. 
 
 Angus, The Eastern wonderland Chap. X (Parts). 
 
 •Clement, Modern Japan Chaps. IX, X. 
 
 Stoddard. Lectures, Vol. Ill pp. 7-224 (Parts). 
 
 •'George, Little journeys (China and Japan) (Parts). 
 
 Suggestions: Bring out that the upper house comprises members selected 
 from among the hereditary nobility and from those chosen by the Emperor 
 for conspicuous merit in civil and military life ; and that the members of the 
 other are elected by the people. The cabinet consists of nine ministers of 
 state, appointed by the Emperor, and to whom they are alone responsible. 
 Compare with the Congress of our own country.
 
 THE CONTINENT OF AFRICA. 
 
 Map Locations (to be taught first) : Atlas Mountains, African highlands. 
 Kong Mountains; NHe, Congo, Niger, Ora.nge, Zambesi (river^; Victoria, 
 Tanganyika, Nyassa (Takes); Sahara, Soudan, Barbary (state| (as a whole), 
 Egypt, Congo region, Abyssinia; Cairo, Alexandria, Pretoria, Cape Town, 
 Morocco. Algiers ; Madeira, Canary Islands, Island of St. Helena, Madagas- 
 car; Cape Verde, Cape of Good Hope; Red Sea, Indian Ocean, Antarctic, 
 Atlantic, Gulf of Guinea, Suez Canal, Mediterranean. 
 
 The structure of the continent (to be given next) : Have the children turn 
 to the physical map (advanced text, p. 144) and note that the south easte rn 
 half of Africa is a con tinuous plateau and that from this great plateau three 
 roughly parallel spurs extend far to the northwest — one along the Red Sea, 
 one through the center of the great lowland region, and one along the At- 
 lantic Coast. Next note the position of the continent wdth respect, to the 
 equator and the tropics. In consequence of its position, what will be the 
 temperature of the greater portion of the continent? Turn to the rainfall 
 map on page 26 of the advanced text. Note the direction of the prevailing 
 wini^s, and also the region of the greatest rainfall. Compare this map with 
 the map on page 144 of the advanced text, noting the drainage_systems, par- 
 ticularly those of the Nile, Co ngo. Nig er^^ambesi, and Orange. Have the 
 children model these structural features in sand. As a test, require^ Uiem 
 to draw outHnes of the continent on the board and locate the equator and the 
 tropics, and put in arrows showing the direction of the prevailing rain-bearing 
 winds. Show by shading the region of highlands with the three spurs to the 
 north, the regions of greatest rainfall, of no rainfall, and the five drainage 
 basins already mentioned. (This outline comprises all the essentials given 
 in the advanced text's treatment of structure, pp. 145. 146). 
 
 A STUDY OF THE MEDITERRANEAN COAST REGION. 
 
 (barbary states.) 
 
 Map Locations (to be taught first): Morocco, Algeria, Tunis, Tripoli, 
 Atlas Mountains; Sahara, Egypt; Mediterranean, Straits of Gibrahar; Ma- 
 deira, Canary Islands.
 
 -2 TEACHERS HANDBOOK OF GEOGR.APHY. 
 
 L esson UniL i: The inhabitants of this region are mostly ^^lohammedans. 
 On the whole they are treacherous and cruel. Until recently this region was 
 famed for its pirates, who exacted ransom from civilized nations. 
 
 READI-N'G LIST: 
 
 Herbertson, Africa 1>P- 5--i9- 
 
 Bruce, Round Africa PP- 4' -64- 
 
 Knox, Levant Chaps. I-IX, XI-X1\. 
 
 Tarr and Mc.Murry, Bk. Ill pp. 440-43. 
 
 Starr, Strange peoples l)p. 123-27. 
 
 Badlani, Views in Africa pp. 483-84, 488-90. 
 
 Rupert, Geographical reader pp. 34o-4i- 
 
 IngersoU, The book of the ocean pp. 171-85 (Parts). 
 
 Siiggcsticiis: Bring out in discussion the fact that until recently tlie ports 
 of these states were infested with pirates, who in their swift armed vessels 
 would lie in wait to capture and rob ships of the Christian nations, carrying 
 off their crews and passengers to be sold as slaves or to be held until ran- 
 somed by the payment of money. Have the details of the exj)loit of Lieu- 
 tenant Decatur in the port of Tripoli related, bringing out particularly the 
 intolerable conditions which prevailed~at that time and which brought about 
 decisive action by the United States. 
 
 Bring up the recent incident of the capture for ransom of Air. Perdicarus, 
 an American resident of ^Morocco, to illustrate the treacherous nature of the 
 natives and the unsettled condition of their government even in the present 
 day. ( For the details of tnis capture see the Outlook, Review of Reviews, 
 World's Work, and other magazines of a similar nature, for the months of 
 May. June, and July. 1904.) 
 
 Regarding ^Nloharnmedarnsm, see the "Study of European and Asiatic 
 Turkey" (p. 49). Review the details of the presentation therein suggested. 
 Point out that Mohammedanism is spreading very rapidly in Africa at the 
 present time. More than ten million converts have been added to Moham- 
 medan ranks during the past decade. The teaching of the Koran appears to 
 appeal very forcibly to the ignorant and superstitious natives of Africa be- 
 cause of its ritualistic form of worship. The most rapid jirogress in the 
 spread of the religion is being made in the Soudan region. 
 
 Lesson I 'nit If: The government and commercial importance of the region. 
 
 READING LIST: 
 
 Tarr and McMurry, Bk. Ill pp. 440-44. 
 
 Badlam, Views in Africa pp. 30-^6, 451-500. 
 
 Knox. Levant C ha|)s. " I - 1 X , X I-X I V. 
 
 * Trotter, Geography of commerce p. 348. 
 
 "Adams, Commercial geography pp. 455-60. 
 
 Suggestions: In summary bring out the thouglit that while all of these 
 countries at one time were tributary to Turkey she now retains only Tripoli; 
 that France is paramount in .Algeria and Tunis, while Morocco is independ- 
 ent, owing to the jealousies of the great powers. Point out that these coun- 
 tries arc only partially developed ; that excepting northern Algeria and Tunis 
 there arc no railroads and only caravan trails; and that industrial activity is 
 hmited to agriculture, carried on most primitively, and the liandling of desert 
 products.
 
 THE CONTINENT OF AFRICA. 73 
 
 A STUDY OF THE SAHARA REGION. 
 
 Map Locations (to be taught first) : Locate the region on the map. 
 
 Lesson Unit I : It is a region of rolling, sandy wastes, broken only at great 
 intervals bv oases. The desert is sparsely peopled by wandering tribes of 
 Arabs. 
 
 READING LIST: 
 
 Badlam, Views in Africa pp. 19-29, 366-8S, 496-500. 
 
 Johonnot, Geographical reader pp. 187-90. 
 
 Tarr and McMurry, Bk. Ill pp. 419-21, 427-30. 
 
 Knox, Levant Chap. X. 
 
 Sommerville, Sands of Sahara (Parts). 
 
 Youth's Companion series, Under sunny skies pp. 108-13. 
 
 Williams, The romance of modern e.xploration pp. 136-59, 205-13, 238-48. 
 
 *Trotter, Geography of commerce pp. 241, 346. 
 
 *Adams, Commercial geography p. 461. 
 
 Suggestions: The principal thing to be gotten from the study of this region 
 is the feeling for the vastness of the desert, for its hardships, and for the 
 characteristic products and modes of desert life. This can be gotten only 
 from a reading of descriptions and of adventures which have occurred 
 therein. 
 
 A STUDY OF THE REGION OF THE NILE. 
 
 Map Locations (to be taught first) : Alexandria. Cairo: Red Sea, Medi- 
 terranean, Suez Canal ; Nile River ; Sahara. 
 
 Lesson Unit U The ancient civilization of Egypt. 
 
 READING LIST: 
 
 Badlam, Views in Africa pp. 500-505, 516-44. 
 
 Knox, Egypt and the Holy Land PP- 97-132, 204-25. 
 
 Rupert, Geographical reader , pp. 335-38- 
 
 Johnston, The Nile quest (Parts). 
 
 Johonnot, Geographical reader pp. 28 7-99. 
 
 Tarr and McMurry, Bk. Ill pp. 434-36. 
 
 Steevens, Egypt in 1898 pp. 223-32, 243-52. 
 
 Arnold, Stories of ancient peoples pp. 7-79> 152-66. 
 
 Ballou, Footprints of travel PP- 129-35. 
 
 De Lanoye, Raineses the Great (Parts). 
 
 Ober, Knockabout club (North Africa) (Parts). 
 
 Stoddard, Lectures, \ ol. 11 pp. 227-334 (I'arts). 
 
 Brooks, Chivalric days op. i et seq. 
 
 Henty, The cat of Bubastes (Fiction). 
 
 *Adams, Commercial geography pp. 453-55- 
 
 Gautier, The romance of a mummy (Fiction). 
 
 Suggestions: This topic is worth considerable attention. It can best be 
 presented by discussing the visible remains of Eg}'ptian civilization — the 
 pyramids, sphinx, obelisks, tombs, etc. A description of these features, bring- 
 ing out the immense labor involved, the purposes of construction, the time 
 required to complete the several tasks, etc., will give something of an oppor- 
 tunity of touching in a concrete way the ancient civilization of Egypt. Point 
 out that the records of Egypt which have been preserved in monument and 
 temple go back to the very dawn of history ; that in fact Egypt was both the
 
 74 teachers' handbook of geography. 
 
 most ancient and the most durable nation the Avorld has ever seen. Discuss 
 the reasons why Egypt was able to maintain its continuity of government so 
 long. The explanation lies largely in its geographical situation ; the sea on 
 the one hand and the great desert on the other were barriers which protected 
 her from her enemies. 
 
 Associate with Egypt the familiar Bible stories of the region. (See "Study 
 of European and Asiatic Turkey," p. 48.) Tell, or have the children tell, the 
 story of Joseph, the story of the Israelites while in Egypt, and the story of 
 their escape from bondage under the guidance of the great leader, Moses. 
 
 Lesson Unit II: The overflow of the Nile and its significance in the agri- 
 cultural development of modern Egypt. 
 
 READING LIST: 
 
 Badlam, Views in Africa pp. 506-1O. 
 
 Johonnot, Geographical reader pp. 56-60. 
 
 Tarr and McMurry, Bk. Ill pp. 430-34- 
 
 Steevens, Eg}-pt in 1898 pp. 94-105. 
 
 Knox, Egypt and the Holy Land pp. 145-57- 
 
 Hale, Stories of discovery pp. 188-201. 
 
 *Fenn, The Khedive's country (Part.s;. 
 
 Herbertson, Africa pp. 3i-57- 
 
 Stoddard, Lectures, Vol. II pp. 280-90. 
 
 Williams, The romance of modern engineering (.Parts). 
 
 Suggestions: Bring out in discussion that the Xile not onh' gives water to 
 a rai nless i apd, but it makes the soil of t he regio n ag y\p-\\ ; that it flows a 
 thousand miles without a branch solely from the impetus it gets from th ejain- 
 fall of the Ab yssinian Highlan ds (see physical map, advanced text, p. 144) ; 
 thatlts flood plain, containing millions of inhabitants, is five hundred miles 
 l ong a nd from jive to fifteen miles wide, bro adening at the d eltato~o ne Irun- 
 dred miles, and that the resources of the country are d epen de nt wholl y on the 
 over flow of the river. Egypt's prosperity, however, is being greatly increa sed 
 through the construction of ex tensive systems o f irrigation. Th e coy ntry 
 has been divided 7n to hve~circles ofjrri gation — three in the del ta and two in 
 upper Egypt. A barrageTias beenbuilt^ across the N ile at Cairo, another at 
 Assiout, and a third, one and one quarter miles in length, at Assouan. By 
 
 rneans of jLhese da ms_tTie water nf the Nile i^ rntT^ervPfl and Higfrihnterl tO 
 
 parts of tJTe_des ert not reached by the ann ual overflow. These new dams (the 
 two latter) have added twenty-five hundred square miles to the cultivable 
 area of Egypt. If properly controlled, the se irrigatj on_sys.tems will make 
 Egypt one of the richest countries inTFieworld. The construction of these 
 dams is one of the grcatest^engineering feats of the worH, and will long be a 
 fitting monument to the^ritishLQCCupancy of Egypt. 
 
 Discuss the difficulties overcome in the building of these dams, also the 
 advantage to be gained through the enterprise. Bring out t liat the products 
 which the region grows in greatestabundance^re^ott^ 
 tobacco, an dthat irrigatio n will greatly increase the output of these products. 
 
 Lesson Unit III : The Suez Canal and is sicrnificance.
 
 THE COXTIxNENT OF AFRICA. 75 
 
 READING LIST: 
 
 Badlam, Views in Africa pp. 506-16. 
 
 Knox, Egypt and the Holy Land PP- 30-37. 
 
 Rupert, Geographical reader pp. 323-25. 
 
 Tarr and McMurry, Bk. Ill pp. 436-39. 
 
 Herbertson, Africa pp. 57-58. 
 
 Frith, The romance of engineering pp. 138 et seq. 
 
 * Webster, General history of commerce pp. 390-91, 481, 487, 497. 
 
 "Adams, Commercial geography pp. 42-44. 
 
 *Trotter, Geography of commerce pp. 376-77. 
 
 Suggestions: After the interesting details of the construction of the Suez 
 Canal have been related, discuss its value to the world's commerce. In this 
 connection turn to the map on page 154 of the advanced text. Compare this 
 route to India and the Far East with the Cape of Good Hope route with 
 respect to distance. It has shortened the distance from Liverpool to Bombay, 
 twenty-eight days ; from Hamburg, twenty-nine days ; from Marseilles, thirty 
 days ; from Genoa, thirty-two days ; from Trieste, thirty-seven days ; and 
 from Alexandria, forty-three days. In consequence of the open ing of this 
 route the Mediterra nean powers have recovered much o f the commercial 
 importance which they had_be fore the discovery of the Cap e route. The 
 navigation problem which the canal and the Red Sea presents has also aided 
 greatly in transforming the merchant ma rine of the nations using this route 
 from sailing-vessels into steamships. The Cape route, on the other hand, 
 was an impediment to steam navigation on account of the difficulties in coal- 
 ing for such a long trip. 
 
 A STUDY OF THE KONGO REGION. 
 
 Map Locations (to be taught first j : This region is that strip of the con- 
 tinent comprised between the Sahara and the Zambesi River. Locate Kongo 
 River ; Tanganyika, Victoria, and Xyassa lakes ; African Highland ; Kongo 
 State. 
 
 Lesson Unit I : The climate, vegetation, products, and inhabitants of the 
 region. 
 
 READING LIST: 
 
 Ward, Five years with the Congo cannibals (Parts). 
 
 Badlam, Views in Africa PP- 93-156, 388-451. 
 
 Rupert, Geographical reader pp. 345-48. 
 
 Tarr and McMurry, Bk. Ill pp. 451-58. 
 
 Stockton, Tales out of school PP- i -30. 
 
 Du Chaillu, Lost in the jungle (Parts). 
 
 Du Chaillu, Equatorial Africa (Parts). 
 
 Du Chaillu, In African forest and jungle (Parts). 
 
 Knox, Central Africa (Parts). 
 
 Knox, On the Congo (Parts). 
 
 Stanley, My dark companions (Parts). 
 
 Hale, Stories of discovery pp. 202-20. 
 
 Starr, Strange peoples pp. 128-34, I3S-4-- 
 
 * Wade, Our little African cousin ( Parts) . 
 
 Bruce, Round Africa Chap. III. 
 
 Burrows, The land of the pygmies (Parts). 
 
 *Chance, Little folks of many lands pp. 53-66. 
 
 Herbertson, Africa pp. 60-99, 135-60. 
 
 Williams, The romance of modern exploration pp. 160-204, 214-25. 
 
 *Muller, The story of Akiniakoo, an African boy.... (A story). 
 Ballantyne, Gorilla hunters 
 
 **\
 
 76 TEACHERS' HANDBOOK OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Du Chaillu, Stories of a gorilla country 
 
 Du Chaillu, My Apingi kingdom 
 
 Frost. Modern explorers PP- 7')-ioo- 
 
 Jenks, The boy's book of explorations Chaps. I\ -XXI. 
 
 Suggestions: The characteristics of this region can best be brought out 
 through reading and discussing accounts of some of the famous explorations 
 of this part of the world. The best book for this part of the work is Jenks's 
 Boy's book of explorations. Read and discuss the expeditions of Livngstone, 
 Burton and Speke, Baker, Schweinfurth, Cameron, Stanley, and Thomson, 
 pp. 84-333. Bring out in discussion particularly the nat ure of the climaJ :e, 
 vegetation, animal life, and the products which are largely forest products and 
 ivory/ As far as time will permit, discuss also the natives and their customs 
 and ideas, and the system of capturing and selling the natives into slavery 
 which lias long been practiced by agents of the Arabian slave-dealers. 
 
 A STUDY OF THE REGION OF SOUTH AFRICA. 
 
 Map Locatioji (to be taught first) : Locate the region on the map. The 
 term is applied to that part of the continent south of the Zambesi River; 
 Transvaal. Cape_Colony, Rhodesia ; Johannesburg, Pretoria, Cape Town. 
 
 Lesson Unit I : Stockraising, agriculture, and the mining of gold and dia- 
 monds are the chief occupations of the country. 
 
 READING LIST: 
 
 Chamberlain, How we arc fed pp. 226-29. 
 
 Badlam. \iews in Africa , pp. 166-80, 197-207. 
 
 Tarr and McMurry. 15k. Ill " pp. '146-51- 
 
 Kno.x, Central Africa PP- 404-17. 
 
 IJruce, Round Africa Chap. J\ . 
 
 Herbertson, Africa pp. 1 93-230- 
 
 *Trotter, Geography of ronimerce pp. 355-56. 
 
 *Adams, Commercial geography pp. 470-76. 
 
 Suggestions: Bring out in the discussion of these references that South 
 Africa offers an inviting field for future commercial enterprises. Trotter, 
 "Geography of commerce," p. 355, says: "Rich deposits of coa l have been 
 discovered in the Zambesi basin, iron and other metals undoubtedly exist in 
 great quantities, and the X'ictoria Falls of the Zambesi River are scarcely 
 second to the Xiagara as a .source of power. The temperate parts of Rho- 
 desia and the land further south (Cape Colony) are adapted to stoekraising 
 anrl grain-growing. The gold and diamond mining interests already form 
 leading industries in several sections of South Africa." 
 
 Turn to the map on page 144 of the advanced text and note the location 
 of Cape Towr. Bring out in discussion that by virtue of its position at th^ 
 southern end of the continent it is destined to ])lay much the same part in the 
 commercial development of the interior of South Africa that New York has 
 done in the United States. 
 
 Lesson Unit II: The government of South .Africa, togctlicr with the 
 natives — Boers and Kaffirs.
 
 THE CONTINENT OF AFRICA. -]-] 
 
 READING LIST: 
 
 Badlam, Views in Africa pp. 208-76. 
 
 Tarr and McMurry, Bk. 1 1 1 pp. 444-46. 
 
 Starr, Strange peoples pp. 134-38. 
 
 Statham, Blacks, Boers, and British (Parts). 
 
 Devereux. Side lights on South Africa (Parts). 
 
 *Bigelow, The children of the nations pp. 153-B3. 
 
 *Doyle, The great Boer war 
 
 Davis, With both armies in South Africa 
 
 Van der Hoogt, The story of the Boers 
 
 Suggestions: Refer to the recent war with the Boers. Jiring out that until 
 recently the Dutch were paramount in South Africa ; that they settled Cape 
 Town and spread over the neighboring regions ; that later Cape Colony fell 
 into British hands and many of the Dutch inhabitants "trekked" northward 
 to a w^ild and unclaimed land where they built their homes and established 
 two republics, the Transvaal and the Orange Free State ; that they would 
 have been left undisturbed but for the discovery of rich deposits of gold, 
 which attracted British capitalists ; that friction arose between the owners 
 and the Boers, and that out of it grew the war the chief result of which was 
 that the Transvaal and Orange Free State became in 1900 British colonies. 
 Discuss some of the important details of this war. Read and talk about the 
 picturesque figure of Oom Paul Kruger. Read parts of Olive Schreiner's 
 The story of an African farm for a picture of the life of the Boers and of 
 their relation to the Kaffirs.
 
 AUSTRALIA AND THE ISLANDS OF THE 
 
 PACIFIC. 
 
 Map Locations (to be taught first) : Australia, East Indies, New Zealand, 
 Hawaiian Islands, Philippines ; Indian Ocean, Pacific Ocean ; Continent of 
 Eurasia, Continent of North America. 
 
 The structure of the island continent (to be given next) : Turn to the map 
 in the advanced text (p. 150) or to the map in Tarr and McMurry (bk. Ill, 
 p. 462). Note the position of the island relative to the equator and the tropics. 
 What is the inference regarding the temperature of the region? It is said 
 that the desert interior sometimes reaches a temperature which is higher 
 than that recorded in any other part of the world and a height which if long 
 continued would destroy all life. "For three months Captain Sturt found 
 the mean temperature to be over one hundred and one degrees Fahrenheit in 
 the shade; and the drought during this period was such that every screw 
 came out of their boxes, the horn handles of the instruments and combs split 
 up into fine laminae, the lead dropped out of pencils, their hair and the wool 
 of the sheep ceased to grow, and their finger-nails became as brittle as glass." 
 (Wallace. Australasia.) 
 
 Note the unbroken character of the coast line. Discuss the bearing of this 
 feature on the commercial activity of the region. 
 
 Next note that the island is fringed by a rim of mountains which often 
 descend abruptly to the sea, thus rendering the island without extensive 
 coastal plains. Note also that the eastern half of the island is much more 
 mountainous than the western. Turn to the rainfall map (advanced text, p. 
 26). Observe that Australia lies within the belt of the southeast trade-winds. 
 What part of the island will receive the greatest rainfall? Verify by con- 
 sulting the ma]). Since the mountains of the interior are lower than those of 
 the coast, what will be true of the rainfall of the interior as compared with 
 the coast? Verify by examining the map. Note the desert region of the 
 island and explain the conditions which have made it rainless. Draw the con- 
 clusion from your study of the structure of the island that while the greater 
 portion of the region is deficient in rainfall, being either arid or actual desert, 
 there are portions of the cast coast which receive sufficient rainfall to support 
 a heavy forest growth as well as enough for agricultural and grazing pur- 
 poses.
 
 AUSTRALIA AND THE ISLANDS OF THE PACIFIC. 79 
 
 A STUDY OF AUSTRALIA. 
 
 Map Locations (to be taught first) : Location of the island with respect to 
 the continent, with respect to the East Indies. Locate Sumatra, Borneo, 
 PhiUppines, Celebes, New Guinea, Moluccas, New Zealand, Hawaiian Islands, 
 Tasmania; Auckland, Sydney, Melbourne, Adelaide; Gulf of Carpentaria; 
 Darling, Murray rivers. 
 
 Lesson Unit I: Peculiar types of animal and vegetable life. 
 
 READING LIST: 
 
 Williams, The romance of modern exploration pp. 365-84. 
 
 Stockton, Tales out of school pp. S4-6o, 238-40. 
 
 Ballou, Footprints of travel pp. 63-65. 
 
 Carpenter, Australasia pp. 44-52. 
 
 Jenks, Boy's book of exploration pp. 391-430- 
 
 **Pratt, Australasia PP. 23-31, 65-81. 
 
 Knox, Australasia pp. 36-56. 
 
 Herbertson, Australia and Oceania Part III (Parts). 
 
 Knox, The land of the kangaroo pp. 49-66, 83-99, 115-30. 146-57, 218-32, 
 
 233. 
 
 Kellogg, Australia PP- 1 3-74- 
 
 Tarr and McMurry, Bk. Ill pp. 461-85. 
 
 Suggestions: Bring out in discussion that in Australia both the vegetable 
 and animal life present features altogether different from that of other con- 
 tinents, and that in these respects AustraHa has comparatively little in com- 
 mon with the rest of the world. Point out that just as Asia has its tundras 
 and steppes, America its prairies, Africa its deserts, so Australia has one 
 feature of vegetation peculiar to itself, and that is its "scrubs." The refer- 
 ences cited above will bring out the character of this growth. Read to the 
 children the account of the terrible hardships experienced by two Australian 
 pioneers who were lost in the "bush." (See Wide World, April, 1899; also, 
 Jenks, citation above.) 
 
 The animal life of the region presents greater anomalies and peculiarities 
 than even the plants. One group of animals, those with pouches, are pecul- 
 iarly Australian, as the only representative in any other part of the world is 
 the opossum of America. This group is quite varied, consisting of pouched 
 bears, pouched kangaroos, which live in the trees like monkeys, and the larger 
 kind which are confined to earth. Besides, there are curious animals which 
 lay eggs like birds, as, for instance, the platybus and echidna. Discuss the 
 habits of these animals and bring out the characteristics which they have in 
 common, yet which isolate them from the remainder of the animal world. 
 
 Lesson Unit II : The aborigines of Australia — the Bushmen. 
 
 READING LIST: 
 
 Ballou, Footprints of travel pp. 71-80. 
 
 Carpenter, Australia pp. 60-65. 
 
 **Pratt, Australasia pp. 45-64. 
 
 Knox, Australasia pp. 81-1 00. 
 
 Herbertson, Australia and Oceania Part III (Parts). 
 
 Knox, The land of the kangaroo pp. 75-78, 100-14, i3i-45- 
 
 Rupert, Geographical reader pp. 358-64.
 
 8o teachers' handbook of geography. 
 
 Suggestions: liring out in connection with this topic that the aborigines of 
 Australia differ widely from the native races of other countries. Like the 
 plants and animals of this country, they are the remnants of an ancient and 
 unknown age. Xo theory concerning their origin has yet been satisfactorily 
 proven. The natives are without traditions, without monuments, and with- 
 out writings, and hence their origin is shrouded in complete mystery. Point 
 out that these peoples are held to be the most primitive people now existing, 
 and that they are living in a stage of culture corresponding to the old stone 
 age of primitive European man. Although inhabiting a land rich in ores, the 
 use of metals has remained unknown to them. They have no knowledge of 
 pottery, and have never made earthenware vessels in which to cook their 
 food. They have no taste for form or delicacy of fancy in the ornamentation 
 of their woven work. Only in one respect are they in advance of European 
 cavemen, — namely, in the possession of a domestic animal, the dingo. Bring 
 out that these people are nomads, and that they have neither cattle nor horses 
 nor any kind of draught or riding animals ; that they are so low down in the 
 scale of intelligence as not to be able to count more than five; and that they 
 are incapable of forming abstract ideas, and therefore have no words in their 
 language to express them. Yet they show remarkable skill in the chase. Dis- 
 cuss here the boomerang, — how it is constructed, how thrown, — and relate 
 incidents to show the children what skill they have acquired in using it. 
 
 The last point in this connection to be brought out is the fact that the 
 aboriginal population of Australia is becoming relatively very small, and that 
 in consequence Australia, unlike most other countries, is practically without 
 a "race problem." Point out that the adjustment of relation between white 
 man and black is one of the hard problems of the United States, of Africa. 
 and of India, whereas in Australia the aborigines are of such inferioritv and 
 relatively so few in point of numbers as to merely call for kindlv considera- 
 tion and to present no problem at all to the statesman. 
 
 Lesson L'nit 111: The characteristic j^roducts and occupations of the 
 country. 
 
 I<I:.\IJI.\G LlSl": 
 
 ISallou, I'Dotpnnts ot lia\el pp. 62-80. 
 
 Crirpc-ntLT, .\ustralia pp. J4-34, 39-44, 79-82. 
 
 llcrtKTtson, .Australia and Oceania rp- 98-99, 101-103, 1 14-18, J20 21, 131-33. 
 
 "I'ratt, Australasia pp. 95-102. 
 
 Knox, The land of the kangaroo ,j). 173-89, 298-318. 
 
 'IJiKclow, The children of the nations pp. 314-30. 
 
 Kuptrt. Geographical reader pp. 355-58. 
 
 Kellogg, .Australia.. pp. 52-74. 
 
 'Wehster, (icni-ral history of commerce pp. 500-501. 
 
 'Trotter, Geography of commerce pp. ■559-63. 
 
 *.\danis, Commercial geography pp. 435-44. 
 
 Suggestions: Point out that of the two great sheep-rearing centers of the 
 world, .'\ustralia and Argentina, both arc at abdut c(|ual distances .south of the 
 equator and have essentially the same climate. ( Vwc an idea of the magnitude 
 of the influstry (sec reference to Carpenter, Australia), bringing out that in
 
 AUSTRALIA Ax\D THE ISLANDS OF THE PACIFIC. 8 1 
 
 1901 the production of wool amounted to more than five hundred million 
 pounds, as against four hundred million pounds in Argentina. 
 
 Australia's trade in frozen mutton since cold-storage plants have been put 
 into the vessels of the steamship lines has developed to enormous proportions, 
 amounting now to more than $18,000,000 annually. Inasmuch as the trans- 
 portation is almost wholly by water, the cost is very slight. On this account 
 mutton is frequently sold in London at less than four cents per pound. Note 
 the other countries besides Argentina and Australia which are largely en- 
 gaged in sheep-raising. (See Tarr and McMurry, bk. Ill, p. 526.) Note 
 the rank of Australia in the world's production of wool. Compare with our 
 own. Have the children shade in on outline maps the wool-producing regions 
 of the world. 
 
 In connection with the production of gold take up the details of placer and 
 quartz mining. (See handbook, part I, unit No. 2, "Pacific Region.") Bring- 
 out that Australia is still a great gold-producing region, outranking the 
 United States, and standing next to South Africa in its output. Owang to 
 the lack of water, hydraulic mining has never been carried on in Australia as 
 in California. By way of summary discuss the gold-bearing regions of the 
 world, and have the children shade in an outline map showing these regions, 
 (See Tarr and McMurry, bk. Ill, p. 530.) 
 
 A STUDY OF NEW ZEALAND. 
 
 Map Locatio>i: (to be taught first): Auckland, Wellington; Tasmania, 
 Australia. 
 
 Lesson Unit I: The state experiments in government. 
 
 READING LIST: 
 
 Carpenter, Australia ■. pp. 73-90 (Parts). 
 
 Francis, The isles of the Pacific Chaps. IV, V, \T. 
 
 *Bigelow, The children of the nations pp. 314-29. 
 
 *Reeves, State experiments in Australia and New Zealand. 
 *Lloyd, A country without strikes. 
 
 Suggestions: New Zealand, and in a lesser degree Australia, is attracting 
 the attention of the world because of the experiments in state government 
 which are there being tried. Its people have passed a state compulsory arbi- 
 tration law which has done away entirely with strikes, which were very 
 frequent before the passage of the law. They have organized a state bureau 
 of labor which acts as an intermediary between employers of labor and the 
 unemployed. In seeking to provide labor for the unemployed this bureau, 
 when necessary, advances carfare to those who must travel a distance to 
 secure employment. In times of drought or calamity the government in- 
 augtirates a system of public work for the purpose of giving the men a chance 
 to earn a little. For more than ten years the right of suffrage has been ex-
 
 82 teachers' handbook of geography. 
 
 tended to every- woman citizen over the age of twenty-one. In 1898 the 
 country passed a law granting pensions to aged people who were poor and 
 unable to work. Discuss these points with the children of the upper grades. 
 Compare with our own government in these particulars and emphasize the 
 high ground which Xew Zealand has taken in all these matters. 
 
 A STUDY OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 Map Locations (to be taught first) : The Group; Borneo, Sumatra, Java, 
 Celebes, Moluccas, Philippines ; Singapore, Batavia, ^lanila ; China Sea, 
 Strait of Malacca. 
 
 Lesson Unit 1: The East Indies are volcanic in origin and are subject to 
 violent earthquakes. Politically, these islands, with the exception of the 
 Philippines and parts of Borneo and Timor, are the possession of Nether- 
 lands, and comprise what is called the Dutch East Indies. 
 
 READING LIST: 
 
 Tarr and Mc.Murry, Bk. Ill pp. 480-82. 
 
 Kellogg, Australia pp. 350-54. 
 
 Carpenter, Australia pp. 222-23, 22O-28. 
 
 Knox, Siam and Java pp. 374-86, 425-28. 
 
 *15igclo\v. The children of the nations pp. 153-68. 
 
 Higginson, Java: The pearl of the East pp. 28-30, 37-45. 
 
 Johonnot, Geographical reader pp. 336-37. 
 
 Suggestions: For the discussion of the volcanic nature of these islands see 
 suggestions under "J^pan" (p. 68). 
 
 Regarding the point that most of these islands are colonies of the Nether- 
 lands, bring up for discussion their commercial value to the home country. 
 As a matter of fact, these colonies afford the chief basis of Holland's exten- 
 sive foreign commerce. Four fifths of their products are sent to her for con- 
 sumption and reforwarding, while in exchange the islands receive large quan- 
 tities of cottons and other goods. The Dutch Government also receives an 
 import tax of six per cent and a small export tax on nearly all articles except 
 .sugar. (See "Study of the Kingdom of the Netherlands," p. 22.) 
 
 Lesson Unit II : The East Indies have long been famous for their produc- 
 tion of spices, though coffee, tea, rice, and tobacco are important products of 
 some of the islands. It was the desire for these valuable spices particularly 
 which led Europe during the Middle Ages to send many expeditions to 
 the East. 
 
 F<EADING LIST: 
 
 (.arpcntcr, Australia pp. 224-27, 238-48, 254-56. 
 
 (Ii.isc and Clow, Stories of industry, Vol. II pp. 149-55. 
 
 KclloKK. Australia pp. 366-68, 374-78. 
 
 Ilcrhcrtson, Australia pp. 7-1 i, 29-31, 32-35. 
 
 Youth's Companion scries, Toward the rising sun pp. 115-28. 
 
 Knox, Siam and Java pp. 387-93, 41 1-21. 
 
 "Allen, Children of tlic palm lands pp. 135-68. 
 
 Williams, The romance of modern exploration pp. 119-35. 
 
 "VS'adc, Our little brown cousm
 
 AUSTRALIA AND THE ISLANDS OF THE PACIFIC. 83 
 
 Suggestions: These references give in considerable detail the methods 
 which the inhabitants employ in producing and marketing nutmegs, indigo, 
 pepper, rice, tobacco, sago, cloves, etc. These references should be read and 
 discussed in the class. 
 
 For suggestions regarding early European voyages to this region, see the 
 treatment of India (p. 60). 
 
 A STUDY OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 
 
 Map Locations (to be taught first) : The situation of the group; Luzon, 
 Mindanao, Negros ; Manila ; China Sea ; East Indies. 
 
 Lesson Unit I: The Philippines, comprising nearly four thousand islands, 
 for four hundred years one of Spain's richest colonies, is now a dependency 
 of the United States. 
 
 READING LIST: 
 
 'Alexander, A brief history of the Philippines (Parts). 
 
 Carpenter, Australia pp. 153-6 1 . 
 
 Halstead, The Philippine Islands (Parts). 
 
 Carroll and Jerome, Philippines pp. 196-99. 
 
 ^George, Little journeys (Hawaii and the Philippines) .. Part II, pp. 1-88. 
 
 Knapp, Story of the Philippines pp. 13-40, 162-86. 
 
 Kellogg, Australia pp. 378-83. 
 
 Lawler, The story of Columbus and ^lagellan 
 
 'Lodge, The war with Spain 
 
 Towle, Magellan 
 
 MacCiintock, The Philippines pp. 69-75. 
 
 Youth's Companion, Greater America pp. 67-84, ioS-19. 
 
 Hale, Stories of discovery pp. 59-85. 
 
 Stevens, Yesterdays in the Philippines (Introduction). 
 
 Van Bergen, Tales of our new possessions (Parts). 
 
 Brooks, The story of our war with Spain (Parts). 
 
 Butterworth, Story of Magellan pp. 182-235. 
 
 Johnson, The world's discoverers pp. iig-77. 
 
 *Bigelo\v, The children of the nations pp. 45-73, 84-93. 
 
 Herbertson, Australia and Oceania pp. 22-23. 
 
 *Robinson, The Philippines (Parts). 
 
 *»r 
 
 Suggestions: Spain's claim to this group of islands dates from their dis- 
 covery by ^Magellan, who sailed in the interest of Spain. Have the children 
 recall the details of Magellan's expedition, and particularly the incidents 
 which occurred in these islands. Point out that this group of islands has re- 
 mained under the dominion of Spain continuously until the recent Spanish- 
 American war. 
 
 Have the children read and relate the well-known incidents which led up 
 to the outbreak of the war ; of the battle of Manila Bay ; of the conquest of 
 Cevera's fleet in the West Indies ; and the most important provisions of the 
 treaty of peace which terminated the war. On this last point bring out that 
 under this treaty Spain gave up all claim to Cuba ; that she ceded to the 
 United States Porto Rico and all other of her islands in the West Indies, the 
 island of Guam, and the Philippine group. On the other hand, because Spain 
 had incurred obligations on behalf of these islands, the peace commission 
 decided that the United States should pay Spain the sum of twenty million 
 dollars bv way of remuneration.
 
 84 teachers' handbook of geography. 
 
 Lesson Unit II : The present government of the islands. 
 
 READING LIST: 
 •*George, Little journej-s (Hawaii and the Philippines).. Part II, pp. 10-15. 
 
 Knapp, Story of the Philippines pp. 273-S6. 
 
 MacClintock, The Philippines pp. 97-103. 
 
 Youth's Companion, Greater America pp. 98-ioS. 
 
 Starr. Strange peoples pp. 156-63. 
 
 Stevens, Yesterdays in the Philippines (Parts). 
 
 \'an Bergen, Tales of our new possessions (Parts). 
 
 Carpenter, Australia pp. 153-70 (Paris). 
 
 "Roosevelt and Taft, The Philippines 
 
 *Robinson, The Philippines pp. 282-313. 
 
 Suggestions: From the above reading bring out that a governor, appointed 
 by the President of tlie United States, and a commission of seven members 
 are in direct control of the islands. Point out in the discussion that while at 
 present the commission makes all the laws not made by Congress, it is 
 expected that in a few years there will be a legislature, the lower house of 
 which will be elected by the people. There will also be two delegates selected 
 by this legislature to represent the islands in the Congress at Washington. 
 Further, it should be noted, there are provincial governments each having a 
 governor, a treasurer, a supervisor, a secretary, and a prosecuting attorney. 
 The duties of each are discussed in the references cited. 
 
 The government's scheme of educating the natives in order to make them 
 capable of self-government should be discussed. 
 
 Lesson Unit III: Rice, sugar, and hemp are the chief agricultural 
 products of the islands. 
 
 READING LIST: 
 
 Carroll and Jerome, Philippines pp. 196-207. 
 
 "Chance, Little folks of many lands pp. 83-94. 
 
 MacClintock. The Philippines pp. 42-45, 64-68. 
 
 Knapp, Story of the Philippines pp. 208-19, 240-50. 
 
 N'outh's Companion series. Toward the rising sun.... pp. 104-14. 
 
 "Wade, ("Jur little Philippine cousin (Parts). 
 
 Kno.N, Ceylon and India pp. 37-120. 
 
 Nliilcr, Philippine folklore stories (Parts). 
 
 "Kirhy, Aunt Martha's corner cupboard pp. 121-34. 
 
 Carpenter. Australia pp. 153-206 (Parts). 
 
 Ilerbertson, .Australia and Oceania jip. 2429. 
 
 •Robinson, The Philippines ( i'arts). 
 
 •.Adams, Commercial geography pp. 174-77. 
 
 'Trotter, Geography of commerce pp. 162-65. 
 
 Suggestions: Describe the methods employed by the natives in these in- 
 <lustries, and also give a notion of the importance of the output of each. 
 Refer to the discussion of rice culture in connection witii the treatment of 
 China ( p. 66). 
 
 A STUDY OF THE HAWAIIAN ISLANDS. 
 
 Map Locations (to be taught first) : Locate the group with respect to its 
 aflvantageous position commercially. Locate Oahu, Hawaii. Molokai. TTono- 
 luki, Hilo: Manna Tyia. 
 
 Lesson (.'nil I : TIk- climate, vegetation, and characteri.stic products of 
 this rcg^ion.
 
 **/■ 
 
 **r 
 
 **i 
 
 AUSTILALIA AND THE ISLANDS OF THE PACIFIC. 85 
 
 READING LIST: 
 
 • *Trotter, Geography of commerce pp. 166-69. 
 
 *Adams, Commercial geography pp. 170-73. 
 
 *Carpenter, America in Haiwaii pp. 120-32. 
 
 *Carroll, Philippines pp. 208-26. 
 
 Krout, Hawaiian Islands ( Parts) . 
 
 Twombly, Hawaii pp. 13-28. 
 
 Pratt, Australasia pp. 184-91, 192-202. 
 
 Youth's Companion, Greater America pp. 148-55- 
 
 Francis, Isles of the Pacific pp. 167-88. 
 
 *\Vade, Our little Hawaiian cousin (Parts). 
 
 *George, Little journeys (Hawaii and the Philippines)., pp. 1-87. 
 
 Musitk, Hawaii ( Parts) . , 
 
 *Kirby, Aunt Martha's corner cupboard pp. 61-75. 
 
 Carpenter, Australia pp. 134-48. 
 
 Herbertson, Australia and Oceania pp. 180-92. 
 
 Suggestions: Bring out here that the islands are conspicuous for high 
 volcanic mountains and for fertile plains and valleys ; that the climate, which 
 is healthful and agreeable, is about ten degrees cooler than any other land in 
 the same latitude, owing to the northeast trade winds ; that the rainfall is 
 copious ; and that raw sugar is the staple product, though rice and bananas 
 are the next most important crops. 
 
 The position of the Hawaiian Islands at the crossing-point of all the trade 
 routes of the central Pacific (see map, advanced text, p. 154) ptits them in 
 close touch with America. Asia, and Australia. Discuss the advantages of 
 this position. Discuss the probable effect of the opening of the Isthmian 
 canal on Hawaii's commercial future. 
 
 Lesson Unit II: The history of the islands and their acquisition by the 
 United States. 
 
 READING LIST: 
 
 Krout, Hawaiian Islands (Paris). 
 
 Twombly, Hawaii pp. 328-79. 
 
 Youth's (Companion, Greater America pp. 131-40. 
 
 **Pratt, Australasia (Parts). 
 
 Francis, Isles of the Pacific (Parts) . 
 
 **George, Little journeys (Hawaii and the Philippines)., pp. 11-18, 34-50. 
 
 *Alexander, Brief history of Hawaii (Parts). 
 
 Carpenter, Australia pp. 1 2 7-34. 
 
 *Carpenter, America in Hawaii ( Parts) . 
 
 Kellogg, Australia pp. 418-31. 
 
 Suggestions: Discuss the details of the revolution which resulted in the 
 resignation of Queen Liliuokalani, 1893 ; the formation of a provisional gov- 
 ernment : the attempt of President Cleveland to reinstate her and its failure, 
 the organization of a republic under President Dole ; the danger to the 
 republic from the Royalist party ; and the incidents leading up to the annexa- 
 lion by the United States, August, 1898. Then take up briefly a discussion ot 
 the form of the present government of the islands, bringing out the fact that 
 its government closely resembles that of existing territories in having n 
 governor and a corps of executive officers, a legislature of two branches, and 
 a judiciary consisting of a supreme court, circuit court, and inferior courts: 
 that Hawaii is entitled to a delegate in the House of Representatives, with 
 the right of debate, but not of voting ; and that the islands are under the tariff 
 laws of the United States, so they have the same free trade with the several 
 States that any State or Territory of the Union enjoys.
 
 BOOK LIST. 
 
 Note of Explanation: The following are the books which have been referred to in Part U 
 of the handbook. For convenience in ordering the list prices and publishers are given. In almost 
 every case a considerable discount is allowed. The series which the teacher should purchase first 
 and which is referred to in the preface is given ai the end of this list. 
 
 Adams, C. C. Textbook of commercial geography. $1.30. Appleton. 
 Adams, W. H. D. Warriors of the crescent. $1.50. Appleton. 
 
 Alexander, W. D. Brief history of the Hawaiian people; Brief history of the Philip- 
 pines, ea. $1.50. American Book Company. 
 Allen, A. E. Children of the palm lands. 50c. Educational. 
 Allen, T. G., and Sachtleben, W. L. Across Asia on a bicycle. $1.50. Century. 
 Andrews, Jane. Each and all ; Seven little sisters ; Ten boys. ea. 50c. Ginn. 
 Angus, D. C. Eastern wonderland. 75c. Cassell. 
 
 Arnold, E. J. Stories of ancient peoples. 50c. American Book Company. 
 Arnold, S. A., and Gilbert, C. B. Stepping stones to literature; a third reader. 60c. 
 
 Silver. 
 Ashton, Mark. Azalim: a romance of old Judea. $1.50. Page. 
 Atherton, Edward, ed. Adventures of Marco Polo. 65c. Appleton. 
 Ayrton, Mrs. M. C. Child life in Japan. 20c. Heath. 
 Badlam, A. B. Views in Africa. See World and its people series. 
 Baldwin, James. Fifty famous stories retold. 35c. American Book Companj\ 
 Baldwin, James. Old Greek stories. 45c. American Book Company. 
 Ballantyne, R. M. Erling the Bold. $1. Nelson. 
 Ballantyne, R. M. Gorilla hunters. $1. Burt. 
 Ballou, M. M. Footprints of travel. 8oc. Ginn. 
 Barr, Mrs. A. E. H. Michael and Theodora. 75c. Bradley. 
 Bates, K. L. Spanish highways and byways. $2.25. Macmillan. 
 Beal, E. A. Foods and beverages. (Information reader No. i.) 60c. Boston School 
 
 Supply Company. 
 Benedict, E. S. Stories of persons and places in Europe. $1.25. Macmillan. 
 Besant, Sir Walter. Story of King Alfred. 35c. Appleton. 
 Bigelow, Poultney. The children of the nations. $2. McClure. 
 Bird, Robert. Joseph, the dreamer. $1.50. Scribner. 
 Bishop, Mrs. I. L. B. Korea and her .neighbors. $2. Revell. 
 Blaisdell, A. F. Stories from English history. 40c. Ginn. 
 Bonner, John. Child's history of Spain. 2 vols. $2. Harper. 
 Bosworth, G. F. Alfred the Great. 40c. Macmillan. 
 Boulger, D. C. Belgian life in town and country. $1.20. Putnam. 
 Bouvet, Marguerite. Bernardo and Laurette. $1. McClurg. 
 Boyesen, H. H. Modern Vikings ; Norseland tales ; Boyhood in Norway, ea. $1.25. 
 
 Scribner. 
 Bramhall, M. S. Wee ones of Japan. $1.00. Harper. 
 Brochner, Jessie. Danish life in town and country. $1.20. Putnam. 
 Brooks, E. S. Boy of the first empire. $1.50. Century. 
 
 Chivalric days, $1.25; Historic boys, $1.20. Putnam. 
 
 Story of our war with Spain. $1.50. Lothrop.
 
 88 teachers' handbook of geography. 
 
 Brooks. Xoah. Marco Polo. $1.50. Century. 
 
 Browne, Maggie. Chats about Germany. 75c. CasscU. 
 
 Bruce. C. Round Africa. 60c. Cassell. 
 
 Bulfincli. Thomas. Age of fable. $1.50. Lee. 
 
 Bunker. Frank F". China. 20c. San Francisco State Normal School. 
 
 Burrows. Guy. The land of the pygmies. $3. Crowell. 
 
 Butterworth. Hezekiah. Story of Magellan, $1.50, Appleton ; Traveler tales of China, 
 
 $1.50, Estes; Zig-zag journeys, Estes : Around the world, $2; 
 British Isles. $1.50; In Europe, $1.50; Northern lands, $1.50: 
 Classic lands; India, ea. $1.50, Estes. 
 
 Bj' land and sea. See Companion series. , 
 
 Carpenter, E. J. America and Hawaii. $1.50. Small. 
 
 Carpenter, F. G. Asia, 60c. : Australia, 60c. ; Europe, 70c. American Book Company. 
 
 Carroll, S. W., and Jerome, JH. L. Boys and girls of the Philippines. 60c. Morse. 
 
 Chamberlain, J. F. How we are clothed ; How we are fed. ea. 40c. Macmillan. 
 
 Chance, L. M. Little folks of many lands. 45c. Ginn. 
 
 Chase, Annie, and Clow. E. Stories of industry. 2 vols. ea. 40c. Educational. 
 
 Church. A. J. Heroes of chivalry and romance, $1.75: Stories from English history, 
 $1.25; Stories from the Bible, 2 vols, ea., $1.25 ea. Macmillan. 
 Pictures from Greek life and story, $1.25. Putnam. 
 
 Clement. E. W. Handbook of Modern Japan. $1.40. McClurg. 
 
 Clifford. H. W. Evcry-day occupations. (Information reader No. 3.) 60c. Boston 
 School Supply Company. 
 
 Coe, F. E. Modern Europe. See World and its people series. 
 
 Cole, G. A. J. The Gipsy road. $1.75. Macmillan. 
 
 Compton. H. E. Indian life in town and country. $1.20. Putnam. 
 
 Cottin, Mme. S. R. Elizabeth; or. The e.xiles of Sil)eria. 25c. Hurst. 
 
 Cox, Sir G. W. Tales of ancient Greece. $1.25. McClurg. 
 
 Crosland, N. Stories of the city of London. Allen, London. 
 
 Cunnyngham, W. G. E. Young people's history of the Chinese. $1. Revell. 
 
 Dallin, C. M. Sketches of great painters. 90c. Silver. 
 
 Davis, R. H. With botli armies in South Africa. $1.50. Scribner. 
 
 Davis. S. M. H. Norway nights and Russian days. $1.25. Fords. 
 
 Dawson, W. H. German life in town and country. $1.20. Putnam. 
 
 Devereux, Roy. Side lights on South Africa. $1.75. Scribner. 
 
 Dodge, M. M. Hans Brinker, $1.50, Scribner; Land of pluck, $1.50, Century. 
 
 Doyle, A. C. The great Boer war. $1.50. McClure. 
 
 Du Chaillu, P. B. Lost in the jungle, $1; Equatorial Africa, $1.75; My Apingi King- 
 dom, $1 ; Stories of the gorilla country, $1, ea. Harper. Land of 
 the long night, $2; Ivan the Viking, $1.50; In African forest and 
 jungle. $1.50, ea. Scribner. 
 
 Eggleston, G. C. Strange stories from history. 60c. Harper. 
 
 Eliot, George. Romola. 7Sc. Burt. 
 
 Emery, M. S. How to enjoy pictures. $1.50. Prang. 
 
 Endicolt, Myles. Stories of the Bible. 3 vols. ea. 60c. Educational. 
 
 Everett, — . In fair Granada. 
 
 Farmer, L. H. Boys' book of famous rulers. $1.50. Crowell. 
 
 I'cnn, G. M. The Khedive's country. $2. Cassell. 
 
 Fielde, A. M. Corner of Cathay. $3. Macmillan. 
 
 Firth, E. M. Stories of old Greece. 30c. Heath. 
 
 Francis, B. The isles of the Pacific. 75c. Cassell. 
 
 F'rcnch. H. W. Lance of Kanana. $1. Lothrop. 
 
 Frith, Henry. The romance of engineering. $1.25. Ward. London.
 
 BOOK LIST. 89 
 
 Frost, Thomas. Modern explorers. $1. Cassell. 
 
 Gale, J. S. Korean sketches. $1. Revell. 
 
 Garnett, L. M. J. Turkish life in town and country. $1.20. Putnam. 
 
 Gautier, Theophile. Romance of a mummy. $1.25. Lippincott. 
 
 George, M. M. Little journeys. See Library of travel series. 
 
 Gibbon, Edward. Mahomet. 6oc. Houghton. 
 
 Gifford, D. L. Every-day life in Korea. $1.25. Revell. 
 
 Gilman, Arthur. Magna Charta stories. $1. Lothrop. 
 
 Graydon, W. M. Exiled to Siberia. $1.25. Putnam. 
 
 Greater America. See Companion series. 
 
 Grenell, Zelotes. The sandals. 40c. Funk. 
 
 Griffis, W. E. Corea : the hermit nation, $2.50, Scribner ; The romance of discovery, 
 
 $1.50, Wilde. 
 Guerber, H. A. Legends of the Rhine, $1.50, Barnes; Story of the chosen people, 60c., 
 
 Story of the English, 65c. ; Story of the Greeks, 60c. ; American 
 
 Book Company. 
 Haaren, J. H., and Poland, A. B. Famous men of the Middle Ages. 50c. University 
 
 Publishing Company. 
 Hale, E. E. Stories of discovery; Stories of the sea. ea. $1. Little. 
 Hall, Jennie. Viking tales. 35c. Rand. 
 Halstead, Murat. Story of the Philippines. $2. Dominion. 
 Hamilton, Angus. Korea. $1.25. Scribner. 
 Hapgood, L F. Russian rambles. $1.50. Houghton. 
 Headland, L T. Our little Chinese cousin. See Little cousin series. 
 Headland, L T. Chinese boy and girl. $1. Revell. 
 Headley, J. T. Mountain adventures. $2. Scribner. 
 Heermans, J. W. Stories from the Hebrew. 42c. Silver. 
 Henty, G. A. Beric the Briton, $1.50; The cat of Bubastes, $1.50; Condemned as a 
 
 Nihilist, $1.50; To Herat and Cabul, $1.25, Scribner. 
 Herbertson, A. J. Man and his work. 8oc. Black. 
 Herbertson, F. D. Europe ; Asia ; Africa ; Australia, and Oceania. See Descriptive 
 
 geographies from original sources. 
 Higgin, Louis. Spanish life in town and country. $1.20. Putnam. 
 Higginson, Mrs. S. J. Java: the pearl of the East. 75c. Houghton. 
 Hilliard, A. Under the Black Eagle. $1. Scribner. 
 Holcomb, H. H. Bits about India. $1. Presb. Bd. 
 Holcombe, Chester. Real Chinaman. $2. Dodd. 
 
 Home, O. B., and Scobey. K. L. Stories of great artists. 40c. American Book Co. 
 Hough, P. M. Dutch life in town and country. $r.20. Putnam. 
 Hoyt, D. L. World's painters and their pictures. $1.25. Ginn. 
 Hurll, E. M. Raphael. (Riverside art series.) 50c. Houghton. 
 Ingersoll, Ernest. Book of the ocean. $1.50. Century. 
 Ingraham, J. H. The pillar of fire. $1. Burt. 
 
 Irving, Washington. Alhambra ; ed. by Alice White. 45c., Ginn ; Sketchbook, 75c., Burt. 
 Jenks, Tudor. Boy's book of explorations. $2. Doubleday. 
 Johnson. W. H. The world's discoveries. $1.50. Little. 
 Johnston, A. F. Joel: a boy of Galilee. $1. Little. 
 Johnston, Sir H. H. The Nile quest. $1.35. Stokes. 
 Johonnot, James. Geographical reader, $1 ; Stories of other lands, 40c. ; Ten great 
 
 events in historj^ 54c., ea. American Book Company. 
 Kellogg, E. M. C. Australia. See World and its people series. 
 Kennan, George. Tent life in Siberia. $1.25. Putnam. 
 King. C. F. Northern Europe. See Picturesque geographical readers series. 
 
 J
 
 90 teachers' handbook of geography. 
 
 Kenj-on, W. J. Scandinavia. 20c. San Francisco State Normal School. 
 
 Keysor. J. E. Antonio Correggio; Michael Angelo; Raphael; (Great artist series.) 
 pa. ea. loc. Educational. 
 
 Kirby, Man,- and Elizabeth. World by the fireside, $1.75, Nelson; Aunt Martha's corner 
 
 cupboard, 40c., Flanagan. 
 
 Knapp, Adeline. Story of the Philippines. Sec World and its people series. 
 
 Knox, T. W. Boy travelers. See Boy travelers series. 
 
 Knox, T. W. Land of the kangaroo. $1.50. Wilde. 
 
 Konrad, the little Swiss boy. 40c. Educational. 
 
 Krout, M. H. Alice's visit to the Hawaiian islands, 45c. ; Two girls in China, 45c., 
 American Book Company. 
 
 La Rame, Louise de. Bimbi, 75c., Lippincott; A dog of Flanders, 45c., Educational; 
 
 Child of Urbino, 50c., Estes. 
 
 Laurie. Andre. Schoolboy days in France; Schoolboy days in Russia, ea. $1. Estes. 
 
 Lawler. T. B. The story of Columbus and Magellan. 40c. Ginn. 
 
 Lee, Van Phou. When I was a boy in China. 60c. Lothrop. 
 
 Lent, W. B. Across the country of the little king. $1.25. Bonnell. 
 
 Lodge, H. C. The war with Spain. $2.50. Harper. 
 
 Lloyd, H. D. A country without strikes. $1. Doubleday. 
 
 Lynch, Hannah. French life in town and country. $1.20. Putnam. 
 
 Lytton, E. G. Bulwer. Leila. $1. Rand. 
 
 MacClintock, Samuel. The Philippines. 40c. American Book Company. 
 
 Martineau, Harriet. Feats on the fjord. 8oc. Macmillan. 
 
 Miller, J. M. Philippine folklore stories. 60c. Ginn. 
 
 Miller, O. T. Little people of Asia. $2.50. Button. 
 
 Miln, L. J. Little folks of many lands. $4. Scribner. 
 
 Morris, Charles. Historical tales : English : German ; Greek ; Japan and Cliina ; Russian ; 
 Spanish, ea. 6oc. Lippincott. • 
 
 Muller, Mary, pseud. Akimakoo, story of an African boy. 35c. Flanagan. 
 
 Munroe, Kirk. The blue dragon. $1.25. Harper. 
 
 Musick, J. R. Hawaii : our new possessions. $2.75. Funk. 
 
 Niebuhr, B. G. Greek heroes. 25c. Cassell. 
 
 Nitobe, Inazo. Bushido, the soul of Japan. $1. Leeds. 
 
 Norris, O. M. Nadya: a tale of the steppes. $1.25. Revell. 
 
 Northern Europe. See Youth's Companion series. 
 
 Ober, F. A. Knockabout club in North Africa. $1.25. Estes. 
 
 Optic, Oliver. Across India. $1.25. Lee. 
 
 Oxley, J. M. Romance of commerce. $1.25. Crowell. 
 
 Palmer, F. H. E. Austro-Hungarian life in town and count ry : Russian life in town and 
 country, ea. $1.20. Putnam. 
 
 Parmele, M. P. A short history of Germany. 6oc. Scribner. 
 
 Philipps, E. C. All the Russias. 75c. Cassell. 
 
 Pratt, M. L. See People and places here and there series. 
 
 Price, L. L. Wandering heroes. 50c. Silver. 
 
 Pyle, Howard. Otto of the silver hand. $2. Scribner. 
 
 Ragozin, Z. A. Frithjof, the Viking of Norway, 6oc., Harison ; Siegfried and Beowulf, 
 $1.50. Putnam. 
 
 Red way, J. W. Commercial geography. $1.25. Scribner. 
 
 Reeves, W. P. State experiments in Australia and New Zealand. 2 vols. $6. Rich- 
 ards, London. 
 
 Robinson, A. G. The Philippines. $2. McClure. 
 
 Roosevelt, Theodore, and Taft, W. H. The Philippines. $1. Macmillan. 
 
 Rupert. W. W. Geographical reader. 65c. Sibley.
 
 BOOK LIST. 91 
 
 Schreiner, Olive. Story of an African farm. 50c. Burt. 
 
 Scidmore, E. R. China the long-lived empire. $2.50. Century. 
 
 Scott, J. E. In famine land. $2.50. Harper. 
 
 Seabury, J. B. Porto Rico. See World and its people series. 
 
 Shaw, C. D. Story of the ancient Greeks. 60c. Ginn. 
 
 Shaw, E. R. Big people and little people of other lands. 30c. American Book Co. 
 
 Shaw, F. L. Castle Blair. $1. Heath. 
 
 Shoemaker, M. M. The heart of the Orient. $2.50. Putnam. 
 
 Smith, A. H. Chinese characteristics ; Village life in China, ea. $2. Revell. 
 
 Smith, M. C. Life in Asia. See World and its people series. 
 
 Sommerville, Maxwell. Sands of Sahara. $2. Lippincott. 
 
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 Strange lands near home. See Youth's Companion series. 
 
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 Trotter, Spencer. Geography of commerce. $1.10. Macmillan. 
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 Under sunny skies. See Youth's Companion series. 
 
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 Van Bergen, Robert. Story of China, Story of Japan, ea. $1, American Book Com- 
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 92 TEACHERS' HANDBOOK OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 SERIES 
 
 BOY TRAYELERS SERIES. 15 vols. ea. $2. Harper. 
 
 Knox, T. W. Africa ; Australasia ; Central Europe ; Ceylon and India ; China and 
 Japan ; Eg>'pt and the Holy Land ; Great Britain and Ireland ; The Levant ; 
 Mexico ; Northern Europe ; Russia ; Siam and Java ; South America ; Southern 
 Europe; On the Congo. 
 
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 North America ; South America ; Asia. 
 
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 West ; Purpose and success ; Talks about animals. 
 
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 millan. 
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 mark ; Italy, Spain, and Portugal ; Norway and Sweden ; Russia ; Scotland and 
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 dian : Chinese; Cuban; English; Eskimo; French; German; Hawaiian; Indian; 
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 PEOPLE AND PLACES HERE AND THERE. .5 vols. ea. 40c. Educational 
 
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 PICTURESQUE GEOGRAPHICAL READERS. 6 vols. Lee. 
 
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 in, 3 vols., ea. 56c. ; Northern Europe, s6c. 
 
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 60c. ; North America, 75c. ; Europe and other continents, 7Sc. 
 
 WORLD .\.\ I) ITS PEOPLE. 12 vols. Silver. 
 
 First lessons, 36c.; Glimpses of the world, 36c.; Our own country, 50c.; Our Ameri- 
 can neighbors, 60c.; Modern Europe, 6oc. ; Life in Asia, 6oc. ; Views in Africa, 
 60c.; Australia and the islands of the sea, 68c.; Hawaii and its people, 68c.; 
 South American republics, 60c.; Story of the Philippines, 60c.; Porto Rico, 6oc. 
 
 YOUTH'S COMPANION SERIES. ,7 vols. ea. 25c. Ginn. 
 
 Industries of to-day; Northern Europe; Strange lands near home; Toward the 
 rising sun; Triumphs of science; Under sunny skies; Wide world.
 
 L
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY 
 
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