; THE INDIAN THEATRE THE INDIAN THEATRE <*A Brief Survey of the Sanscrit T)rama BY E. P. HORRWITZ \\ Sometime Lecturer in Sanskrit at Trinity College, Dublin ; Assistant Examiner to the Civil Service Commission ' * BLACKIE AND SON LIMITED 50 OLD BAILEY LONDON GLASGOW AND BOMBAY 1912 PKzm Preface The Indian Theatre forms a companion volume to the author's Short History of Indian Literature (London, 1907). Sup- plementary matter dealing- with Veda and Vedanta will be published separately, and is to complete the whole. The Short History has been well received by such eminent authorities as Drs. Deussen and Rhys- Davids. Other distinguished reviewers find fault with the lack of his- torical sequence. " Das Ganze ist nicht Geschichte, sondern eine gefallig arran- g-ierte Reihe bunter Bilder ", is Prof. Oldenberg's opinion. The author laid himself open to the criticism when he yielded to the publisher's wishes, and abandoned, though unwillingly, a more appropriate title. However, as long as the Short History conveys something of 285517 vi PREFACE the " spirit of Indian literature", love's labour is not lost. The following pages, in like manner, endeavour to touch the very soul of the old Sanskrit plays. This could not always be done without sacrificing technical details, and making free with the original texts. The dramatic plot is often paraphrased and presented in a modern garb, in order to attract the modern mind. I have to thank my learned friend, Dr. Louis C. Purser, Public Orator, Dublin University, for reading the proofs and offering valuable suggestions. Contents Chap. Page Pronunciation and Spelling ix i. In the Court Theatre of Ujain, 1400 years ago 13 2. The Origin of the Hindu Drama- - • 18 3. An Indian Love Story 31 4. The Fatal Ring 56 5. Has Greece influenced the Indian Theatre? 75 6. King Shudraka 78 7. KalidAsa Again 92 8. The Drama in King Harsha's Reign - - 102 9. The Buddhist Theatre 114 10. Bhavabhuti 127 11. The National Drama 137 12. Rajashekhar 147 13. Marionettes and Pantomimes - - - 154 14. Politics on the Stage 160 15. A Metaphysical Play ----- 164 16. Prahasans 171 17. Bhanas 174 18. Yatras 176 vii viii CONTENTS Chap. p age 19. A Bengal Revivalist 180 20. Chaitanya Chandroday 181 21. Universal Religion 182 {a) Two Great Mogul Emperors - - - 183 (b) The Sikhs 186 (c) Church Universal 190 Appendix : Aryan Roots .... 195 List of Dates 201 Words Explained - - - 203 Index 20s Pronunciation and Spelling One syllable only is intoned in English words (intelligent), whereas in French and Sanskrit the accent is evenly distributed (intelligent — Himalaya). The mark over &, i, u in Sanskrit words does not refer to the intonation at all, but indicates the length of the marked vowel in the following manner : — Sanskrit. English. a = mamma ] A a — market i — fit final i = any A 1 — feet U = pull final u — cuckoo U = pool e = day ai — die o = no au = now cr = go (not gem) y = yes (not lay) Example. karma r&ja shiva kali sita buddha manu sutra veda adwaita yoga bauddha 2 g-ita himdlaya th = ant-hill (not anthem) atharva 1 Intoning the first syllable as children do. 2 i.e. Buddhist. IX x PRONUNCIATION AND SPELLING In order to simplify the spelling, all accents have been omitted over the final a and i. Thus Sita and Kali are spelt Sita and Kali. 1 Nor have accents been provided for words sufficiently known in Europe, e.g. A Aryan and brahmin, Rajput and Kashmir. Sikh, likewise derived from the Sanskrit, sounds like seek. An English pronunciation should be given to Punjab and Ganges, also to anglicized terms such as pundit (scholar) and suttee (burning of widows). 2 There is a slight difference of sound between sh in the word nutshell and ch in kitchen. The latter is pitched a key higher, being uttered from the palate or roof of the mouth, while sh is formed in the hol- lowed tongue. Both sounds are represented in the Sanskrit alphabet, but since Kashmir, notwithstand- ing the palatal sibilant in the Indian script, is the accepted orthography in England, we have used sh in transcribing either sound. The reader will, there- fore, find Shiva by the side of Vishnu, although the god of the Shivaists really bears a palatal initial, and the name of the rival deity an ordinary sh. D, n, and t are Unguals or tongue sounds in English, but dentals in Italian. The countrymen of Dante pronounce the poet's name by pressing the tip of their tongue against the teeth. Sanskrit has two letters for each of the three consonants, but the phonetic distinction is hardly noticeable to an Eng- 1 Latin, too, sacrifices, for the sake of brevity, the vowel length shown in the final a and 1 of Indian feminines. Nova (new) is equal to San- skrit nava, and septima (7th) to saptami. 2 The Vedic priesthood energetically suppressed compulsory suttee, a remnant of primeval barbarism, but, like dying embers fanned into a flame, the hideous custom was subsequently re-established. PRONUNCIATION AND SPELLING xi lishman. For this reason we transliterate Indian Unguals (Vishnu) and dentals (Manu) alike. Final a and n are occasionally omitted in the modern use of Greek and Latin names, Helen taking the place of Helena, Plato of Platon, and so on. We have followed the classical precedent with regard to several Sanskrit words. Thus Arjun and Yudhishthir stand for Arjuna and Yudhishthira, raja (king) for rajan, karma (char- acter) for karman. Brahma (God) and atma (soul) are short for Brahman and atman ; brahmachari (religious student), sannyasi (saint), and yogi (devotee) for brahmacharin, sannyasin, and yogin. The Platonists of Alexandria looked upon Christ as an emanation of the Godhead, superior in degree, but equal in essence to the rest of mankind. This doctrine they called gnosis, or spiritual cognition, and themselves gnostics, i.e. knowers of the True. In order to call attention to the spiritual kinship which exists between Platonism and Vedanta, the spelling gnana (self-knowledge) and gnani (pursuing gnana) has been adopted in preference to the customary jnana and jnani. 1 1 The above remarks on spelling and pronunciation, together with the footnote on p. 35, as well as the Appendix, are mostly copied, with the publisher's permission, from the author's Short History of Indian Literature (T. Fisher Unwin, London). THE INDIAN THEATRE i. In the Court Theatre of Ujain, 1400 years ago A new play by Kalidasa is announced. The first performance is to take place at the Spring- Festival, and will be the event of the Ujain season. The citizens are proud of their great poet, and declare with enthusiasm that, in beauty of language and truth of sentiment, no other Indian drama can vie with Shakuntala. It is Kinof Vi- krama's gracious pleasure that the play shall be acted at the Royal Castle. The excellent company, the author's high re- pute, the patronage of the Court, the gladdening springtime, and the elaborate scenic preparations happily combine in a 13 i 4 THE INDIAN THEATRE promise of great success. The splendid music-room of the castle, generally used for Court concerts and recitals, has been made ready for the performance of Shak- untala. The heavy folding-doors, now replaced by a brocaded stage curtain, lead to the central court where a large audience can be accommodated. A circular range of stately marble columns round which fresh garlands spirally ascend gives the open court a classical appearance. Sculp- tured busts of gods and kings rest, in the interjacent niches, on massive stands of blue porphyry, behind splashing cascades ornamented with quaint shellwork. The royal tent is pitched in the middle of the court. Its rich cloth is of Syrian scarlet, bordered with gold, and lined with pale- green cashmere. The six posts which support it are overlaid with beaten silver. Around their base, and in front of the stage, is a profusion of choice flowers and tropical foliage, tastefully arranged in the national colours of Ujain. The Imperial standard is waving from a flagstaff erected by the side of the theatre. The curtain folds are held together by a handsome ruby and diamond clasp, — the letters U THE FESTIVAL OF SPRING 15 and V, initials of the city and the King, being daintily interlaced in the time- hallowed nagari or urban script. 1 The clasp is to be presented to the poet, for the Raja knows how to honour literary merit. At last the festive morning dawns. The orchestra plays behind the stage, and, amid the opening bars of the prelude, King Vi- krama enters, regally adorned with diadem and purple, and surrounded by his aides- de-camp and high State functionaries. The vassal kings are seated on his right, the Queen and her ladies on the left of the throne. One lady - in - waiting holds a golden lyre and a wreath of immortelles and evergreen, the Queen's souvenir for the laureate. The crimson liveries and peach-coloured waistbands of the black slaves who serve refreshments are plea- santly relieved by the cool-looking lawn 1 The early Christian communities that sprang - up in towns referred to pagan rustics whose huts lay scattered over moor and " heath " as heathens. Gospel truth was slow to permeate the rural districts. Analogously, the Indian peasantry knew neither urbane literature nor the complex Sanskrit type, but town-bred (nagara) gentlemen were familiar with the nagari alphabet. — Sanskrit texts which are printed in Western coun- tries dispense, more and more, with the awkward nagari characters in favour of the simpler Latin script. 16 THE INDIAN THEATRE dresses, pearl necklaces, and diamond tiaras of the Court beauties. The palace court swarms with distinguished guests. Ministers and savants, brahmins and kshatriyas, the cream and flower of Ujain society, are promenading or lounging, chatting and laughing. Here are some excited politicians, eagerly discussing the impending war with some rebellious hill tribe in Nepal, and there is a group of fine gentlemen tattling over the latest society scandal or to-morrow's cock fight. In a quiet corner the ringing voice of Varaha- Mihir may be heard; the astronomer-royal is speaking to a calm-looking, white- bearded Persian. On the opposite side, the sparkling eyes and the broad forehead of Amara Singh are conspicuous. That famous Court lexicographer, who stoops slightly, is just handing the final portion of his Sanskrit Dictionary to a Buddhist friend, who has come all the way from the South of China to undertake the transla- tion of the precious manuscript. But now the gay hum dies away into silence. An exquisite trio on flute, guitar, and harp is finished, and youthful choristers, pure- toned as silver bells, sing praise to the (C503) A FIRST PERFORMANCE 17 gods, and greeting to King and clergy. Then the stage manager comes forward, pronounces a short benediction, and begs the illustrious audience in humorous verse to lend a kindly ear to the entertainment. The King's chamberlain unclasps the costly gem, and two figurantes draw aside the folds of the curtain. Admiring interjec- tions and the clapping of hands testify that the beautiful woodland scene with which the play opens is highly appreciated. The gurgling of a swollen brook hurrying down the hillside and wild screams of waterfowl are heard in the distance. The golden rays of the morning sun fall through the branches of some fine old trees upon the noble features of King Dushyanta. Dressed in sombre russet, he alights from his hunting-car, bow in hand, and ad- dresses his charioteer in eloquent Sanskrit verse. The background of the stage is raised, and represents a sacred grove with Kanva's peaceful hermitage. Two nut- brown maids in rustic garb are watering the thirsty plants in the tidy garden. The stage herald, holding a long* staff of mi- mosa wood in his hand, so that he may conveniently point to the various objects (0 503) 2 18 THE INDIAN THEATRE which he means to explain, now announces Shakuntala, the heroine of the play. A thrill of excitement runs through the spell- bound audience. Will the actress satisfy or disappoint their high expectations? But there she comes, clad in a plain frock of matted bass which veils and yet reveals her lovely form. The rounded lines of the girlish face, her large soft eyes and long downy lashes, the graceful neck and deli- cate arms, the heaving of her but ill-im- prisoned bosom, the expressive attitudes and natural gestures, win every heart. She opens her lips, and her mouth speaks music. Vikrama's Court trembles with delight and deep emotion. Shakuntala, the latest play by Kalidasa, is henceforth enrolled among the immortal creations of the world's poetry. 2. The Origin of the Hindu Drama In the beginning was the Veda, and divine races peopled the earth. The Rig Veda is the oldest portion of Indian poetry, and the most ancient monument RIG HYMNS AND ATHARVA SPELLS 19 of Aryan literature. The Rig hymns 1 extol the grandeur of nature and her forces, especially Indra the Thunderer, and Agni, god of fire celestial and ter- restrial. The black-skinned aborigines of the Punjab were as ignorant of Vedic song and the polished Sanskrit in which it is embedded as the rude Anglo-Saxons were of the Chanson de Roland and the refined Norman tongue. But the churlish race that sprang from the enslaved Dasyus grew up in Aryan surroundings, and learned to speak Sanskrit. Still, they were excluded from the study of the Rig Veda, which remained a monopoly of the higher castes. The privileged classes alone received Vedic instruction, and, by virtue of that knowledge, were admitted to the sacrament of a new birth. None else was to have the benefit of spiritual regeneration. But light fell into the dark- ness, and among the despised shudras poets arose who composed out of the world-old nature lore, magic and exorcism, another Sanskrit hymnal for the use of the people. This is the Atharva Veda, which 1 I.e. hymns of praise, arranged in ten mandalas or cycles of song-. 20 THE INDIAN THEATRE had to struggle for centuries before the twice-born would reluctantly give it a place in their sacred canon. 1 While the Rig Veda consists of prayers to the bright elements of nature, the Atharva spells are pervaded by a dread of her dark aspects, and a hankering after occult powers. The Atharva collection, though based on immemorial tradition, is chronologically younger than either the Sama Veda, a book of chants compiled from Rig passages, or the Yajur Veda, which contains the Vedic liturgy ap- pointed to be read at sacrificial services. 2 1 The Laws of Manu do not count the Atharva among - the books of the Vedic canon, and the brahmins of the Dekhan reject it even now as apocryphal. The Buddhist Nikayas ignore the Atharva altogether. 2 The geographical area of the Rig Veda is confined to the Punjab, and does not yet extend to the Gangetic shores. The Atharva charms represent a stage of culture even older and more primitive, but incantations continued to be added long after the Rig lyrics were complete in that final form which we possess. This accounts for the absence of the king of beasts, most to be dreaded and most powerful, from the Rig fauna, whereas Atharva poetry is familiar with the flecked native of the jungle swamps of Bengal. Subsequently, the tiger's name served as a title of pre-eminence, and the animal's skin became symbolical of royal power. At the coronation ceremony the Raja, clad in a tiger's skin, was enthroned on the "lion-seat". Lion and tiger were looked upon as joint- rulers of the wild life in the forest. THE NATYA VEDA 21 After the creation of the world the golden age commenced. Peace and unity reigned on earth, and all men walked with God. Next came the age of silver, when mankind turned aside from the Divine Will, and everybody followed his own direction. Strife and bloodshed came into existence, but God was merciful, and separated the sexes, creating male and female, that love once more might bind the self-willed race. No sooner did the heart feel drawn to outward things than man lost his power of introspection. The five organs of sense were evolved in order that gods and mortals might quench their thirst for worldly pleasures. Indra, dele- gated by the other gods, approached the throne of the Godhead, and said: "O Brahma, we wish to feast our eyes and ears on a dramatic spectacle; deign to create the merry play for our enjoyment". And the Creator nodded graciously, and fell into a profound meditation. And out of the Divine Thought sprang the Natya Yjeda, that is, the Veda of the Theatre. 1 SucfPvvas the Will of the Lord who made 1 A corruption of natya (dancing - , acting - ) or some cognate word is nautch-girl — the name given to a professional dancer in India. 22 THE INDIAN THEATRE the fifth Veda, drawing the quintessence of the drama out of the four Vedas — dance from the Rig, song from Sama, mimicry from Yajur, and passion from Atharva. Brahma then summoned Vishwakarma. celestial architect, that he might build a stage in Indra's heaven. The sage Bharata was appointed as theatrical manager and as conductor of the heavenly performances. Such is the mythical account of the origin of the Indian theatre. In reality, it originated from the ancient custom of re- citing the national poetry at social and religious gatherings. The Gangetic tribes were renowned for their gifted bards. The very words bharata and magadha came to mean " minstrel, actor 'V Bana, who wrote his famous novel in the age of the Arabian Prophet, relates that the Hindu epics used to be read aloud in various places of worship throughout Kanouj, and that these public recitals were so excellent that royalty often attended. In the rainy season the lecturer's place was at the reading desk in the city temples, but during the fine months of the year the evening entertainment was 1 Even now actors are called bhats in India, but the name is not directly derived from bharata. EPIC AND DRAMA 23 given on the village green. A fellow-actor expounded the Sanskrit verses to the illi- terate villagers in their local patois. The reading of the Maha-Bharata would last several weeks, being continued night after night. So keen was the interest taken in the subject that the dire misfortunes of the Pandava brothers called forth many a sob and tear, whilst their happy return to Hastinapur was hailed with exclamations of joy and sighs of relief, the cottages within earshot being illuminated. When Sanskrit became too choice and high-flown for light street gossip and plain home talk, the prakrits or vulgar tongues of India pushed themselves more and more to the front. The bharatas and magadhas began to introduce vernacular versions of both epics, and gradually discarded bookish Sanskrit altogether. The interpreter, being needed no longer, henceforth took part in the recitation. Musical accompaniment and dramatic gestures added to the suc- cess of the two performers. The oldest Indian dramas, or rather col- loquies (sanvadas), were not composed in Sanskrit, but in Prakrit. The Maha- Bharata and Ramayana supplied no end 24 THE INDIAN THEATRE of subjects, even as the Bible was the in- exhaustible source of the mysteries and miracle plays in medieval Europe. In- deed, originally the Prakrit sanvadas were mysteries too, either Krishna or Shiva acting and dancing the principal part. Favourite episodes from the Govinda's eventful life were the " Slaying of Kansa the Tyrant" and the " Binding of the Heaven-storming Titan , \ 1 Large crowds came to witness these open-air spectacles. The grand finale, a merry roundelay of the bright-eyed Gopis, proved a special attrac- tion. Rival worshippers flocked in equal numbers to the wanton bacchanals held in honour of Shiva. The Vedic priest- hood endeavoured to expunge whatever was lascivious or farcical in the popular cult of the two primitive gods, but the sanvadas, with all their rippling laughter and gross licence, survived, and were even cultivated in Sanskrit literature. Some Vedic hymns have quite a dramatic char- acter. 2 The warfare of the elements is the ever-recurring theme of the sacred Rig i Bali. 2 " Les dialogues v^diques", says Prof. Sylvain LeVi, to whose sound scholarship this volume is indebted lor much valuable information, "ne sont ailleurs que des drames rudimentaires." VEDIC COLLOQUIES 25 lyrics, and after once hymning and glori- fying - the striking cosmic phenomena, what was more natural than to enact the " divine persons' with dance and song on high sacrificial feast days? Thundering Indra and his wild mountain host, the whistling- maruts or storm-gods; irate Agni leaping forth in the red flash of lightning; the glistening raindrops trembling with joy at their release from the burst cloud-castles; the blushing dawn announcing victorious Siirya (the rising sun), and the dancing sunbeams upholding his gleaming banner triumphantly — forces of nature, dread or jubilant, are the dramatis personam in the extant sanvada hymns. But the Vedic dialogues reflect the afterglow rather than the first morning flush of the rude repre- sentations, staged in the vulgar tongue, of Krishna's and Shiva's ancient mysteries. Again, the sublime converse between Krishna and Arjun, told with consum- mate art in the Bhagavad Gita, and the mystic colloquies held by Shiva and Kali, according to the Tantras, are but a late development of the old Prakrit sanvadas I which, even in the age of the Rig Veda, \ were no longer fully understood. 26 THE INDIAN THEATRE Every literary tongue is a stanch con- servative, but the people's speech constantly fluctuates and is ever reconstructed. Con- sequently, writings in dialect are soon anti- quated and void of interest save for the philologist, whereas a great national litera- ture outlives the nation. The cherished traditions of the vanished Prakrit theatre, of which we know nothing but that it must have existed, were silently absorbed by the nascent Sanskrit drama. The earliest San- skrit plays which are preserved suddenly flash upon our sight like lightning when it breaks through a dark thundercloud. They seem perfect and full-grown as Minerva when she leapt in complete armour from Jove's creative forehead. The country- men of Homer may well have doubted the miraculous conception of the goddess of wisdom, and questioned her fabled birth without ancestral lineage, but it is quite certain that Kalidasa, who generally opei the list of playwrights in native primers of Indian literature, was but the heir and successor of a long line of distinguished Sanskrit dramatists — Saumilla, Bhasa, and others whom the poet himself acknowledges. These, too, were undoubtedly preceded by KALIDASA'S FORERUNNERS 27 reputed writers of Prakrit plays. This view is corroborated by the existence of an old Sanskrit treatise on dramatic art. The essay, which is ascribed to the sage Bharata, abounds in technical Prakrit terms, most of them relating" to scenic details. Bharata enumerates, at great length, those prakrits or dialects which, in accordance with estab- lished custom, might be used for stage purposes. 1 The subsequent authors of Sanskrit dramas faithfully upheld the theories laid down by Bharata. Indeed, minor roles were never composed in Sanskrit; the stately tongue would have sounded ludi- crous on the homely lips of the vulgar who crowd and enliven the Indian stage. Eng- lish literature exhibits a similar feature. Guy Mannering, gentleman, does not use sailor slang like Dick Hatteraick, the smuggler, and the provincialisms and gram- matical blunders of Adam Bede's old mother widely differ from the cultured and urbane style of the Rev. Mr. Irwine. King Henry the Fifth does not speak broken English like his French lady-love, and Dickens's novels display every shade of metropolitan jargon. In the dramatic literature of India, the 1 The very word natya (stage acting) is a Prakrit term. 28 THE INDIAN THEATRE prakrits hold exactly the same position. They appear amidst the glossy Sanskrit dialog-lie like a shabby camel driver among the rich and eleo-ant court dresses of a native durbar. The part of the vidushaka or jester is written, as a rule, in a dialect of the eastern provinces. Scoundrels are made to talk Ujain slang, and intriguers a patois of the Dekhan. Shakari, another corrupt dialect, seems to be ultimately de- rived from the Shakas or steppe riders who invaded India at various times. Here they learned to speak Prakrit, but peculiarities of speech such as the sound given to sibi- lants showed their foreign nationality, just as the pronunciation of r or tk, if nothing else, betrays a French or German resident in England. Soldiers and salesmen, pub- licans and pastrycooks, and the many other trades and professions introduced in the Indian theatre, all speak a prakrit of their own, varying but slightly from one another. Gods and brahmins, kings and nobles, con- verse in faultless Sanskrit, but women speak Prakrit. In one play, a celestial congratu- lates Shiva and Uma on the occasion of their marriage; the bride is addressed in Prakrit, the bridegroom in Sanskrit. STAGE PRAKRITS 29 The Agra district is the holy land of Krishnaism. Shauraseni, the medieval speech of the Agra populace, is frequently met with in Sanskrit plays. The Krishna cult has been successfully revived in Bengal, and numerous yatras or melodramas have been composed in honour of the g'od. Yatras are very popular in the Presidency, and preserve the Shauraseni dialect, which has \ono' changed from a vulfifar to a sacred tono-ue. 1 Bharata, who has become the tutelary deity of the Indian theatre, is not a his- 1 The gentle art of poetry was cultivated at Magadha, ami after the rise of the Guptas, at the Courts of Kanouj and Berar. Magadhi and Shauraseni, the two leading- Prakrits, originated, the one in Ondh, and the other west of Kanouj. Queen Damayanti, who knew the magic of soul-stirring song, was a native of Vidarbha, as Berar was then called because of its "grassless" plains. At one time, the maha-rashtra or "great kingdom" of Berar extended from the Vindhya slopes to the river Krishna, and touched the western and the eastern seas. The diction of the Vidarbha poets became a standard of liter- ary grace and simplicity. Under their refining influence, the Magadha patois that prevailed at Berar was moulded into Maharashtri, which Dandin, a Kanouj romancer of the seventh century A.D., exalts above all other prakrits. Maharashtri, after giving - birth to Marathi, the language of the Mahrallas, shared the fate of Pali, and became a priestly tongue. The sacred writings of the Jains, a brother-sect of the Buddhists, with whom they hold many doctrines in common, are partly composed in Maharashtri. The relation of Prakrit and Pali to Sanskrit is fully discussed in the Short History of Indian Literature, chapter xix. 3 o THE INDIAN THEATRE torical person, but a symbolic name like Vyasa or Manu. The treatise which goes by his name is very prolix, and may be an amplification of the Bharata Sutras which are lost. It is to these sutras, or stage directions for the use of bharatas or actors, that Bharata owes his imaginary existence. They w T ere written in Sanskrit, but their ultimate source was obviously some Prakrit dramaturgy. The sutras must be very old, since they were studied at the Universities of Hindustan before the Macedonian regi- ments set foot on Indian soil. The Bha- rata Sutras are mentioned by Panini, the greatest of Indian grammarians, who is generally referred to the fourth century B.C. 1 The aphorisms were still extant at the time of Alfred, King of England, when Shivaswami, an Indian wit, rudely com- pared their obscure style to the dark waters of the Jumna. As Christian principle rests on the precepts of the Church, and as Eng-lish law is administered in agreement with precedent, so the Sanskrit theatre has conformed to the rules laid down in the 1 In the history of linguistic science, Panini's elaborate San- skrit Grammar is as epoch-making-as the masterpieces of Grimm, Zeuss, Diez in the cognate fields of Teutonic, Celtic, and Romance philology. THE BHARATA SUTRAS 31 Bharata Sutras. They were held almost sacred by Kalidasa and other dramatists. What wonder then that a myth arose de- claring that the sage Bharata had copied them from the fifth Veda, which was be- lieved to be a creation of Brahma him- self. 3. An Indian Love Story On the wings of song I carry my beloved to the fairy banks of the Ganges (Heine). 1 In the days gone by when celestial nymphs did not disdain to descend on earth, and bestow their affections on mortal kings and heroes, and when the gods made known their will through the mouths of seers and prophets, there lived in the north of India a royal sag-e, King Vishwa- mitra, who had renounced the glories of dominion and the pleasures of earth, to attain the more lasting joys of heaven. So austere were his devotions, and so rigid his penances, that nature could no longer withhold her secrets from him, and he was able to direct her occult forces. 1 Auf Flugeln des Gesanges, Herzliebchen, trag ich dich fort, Fort nach den Ufern des Ganges : Dort weisz ich den schonsten Ort. 32 THE INDIAN THEATRE The heavenly host became jealous of the saint's increasing power, and they called on Indra, the supreme god, and said: " Frus- trate, O mighty one, the full fruition of Vishwamitra's piety, otherwise he might endanger even your well-established posi- tion". And Indra gravely listened to the representations of the sub-gods, and feeling uneasy lest St. Vishwamitra should really overthrow him, and take his place in heaven, he bade Menaka, a beautiful fairy, go down to the shores of the river Gautami, where the yogi sat near the roots of venerable trees, his passions subdued, and his mind withdrawn from the world, and by her youthful charms disturb the profound medi- tation of the self-centred sage. Menaka, by the skill of her sex, succeeded only too well with Vishwamitra. Desire arose in him, and from his and the nymph's em- braces a baby-girl was born, destined to be the tribal mother of powerful nations in the time to come. After the birth of the child, Menaka, by the will of Indra, reascended to heaven, and left the babe embedded in soft green moss, the cloudless Indian skies smiling on her through the waving leafage over- THE SAGE AND THE NYMPH 33 head, and gentle breezes kissing her to sleep, while the running brook by her side murmured a sweet lullaby. But Vishwa- mitra felt humiliated that the gods had foiled his aspirations, and that he had allowed himself to yield to the allurements of a nymph. In his shame and resent- ment, he left the Gautami valley, and walked towards the setting sun into the wilds and solitude of the Punjab forests, vowing under no consideration to be drawn back to the household life, but to live alone in holy communion with his great soul, far away from the haunts of men, in congenial seclusion. And at last silence fell on his troubled breast, and he heard a voice saying: " Of your vow I approve, my son, but not of the disregard for your child." And lo! a flock of shakunta birds suddenly darkened the horizon, and flut- tered about the sage as if to remind him of his fatherly duties; and he, the illumined one, understood. Yet, unwilling to break his pledge, and be bound by family ties, Vishwamitra breathed a holy mantra, to the effect that the little one should be taken care of, and his thoug'hts took wing, and reached the devout heart of ( C 503 ) 3 34 THE INDIAN THEATRE St. Kanva, sweet singer of the Rig Veda. And Kanva, in eager response to the mas- ter's message, set out from his ashram, which lay in lonely woods on the southern slopes of snow-capped Himalay ; and while the rishi proceeded along the flower- tufted banks of the foaming mountain stream, large- feathered shakuntas flew before him, and guided his steps to the woodland glen where, in a mossy couch, the tender-limbed babe peacefully slum- bered. And St. Kanva took the child up in his arms, and christened her Shakun- tala, because kindly shakunta birds had watched over her, and protected her ag-ainst the dangers of the forest. And Shakun- tala grew up in St. Kanva's hermitage under her foster-father's loving care and attention. Now, the grove where the ashram or hermitage was situated formed part of a large kingdom which, in a later age, was peopled by the powerful Bharata tribe. But long before the Bharatas waged their fierce wars in the fertile vallev of the Upper Ganges, a renowned King, Dush- yanta by name, reigned over their grand- sires, and held his illustrious Court in the wealthy city of Hastinapur, not far from A HERMITAGE IN THE MOUNTAINS 35 the site of modern Delhi. 1 Dauntless in battle was Dushyanta, and prudent in council; a fine type of the Heroic Age which the Maha-Bharata epic like a gigantic painting unfolds, in gorgeous colours, before our wondering gaze. After attending to the endless petitions and grievances of his subjects, day after day, the conscientious Monarch would gladly relieve the pressure of public business by a week's sport in the richly-stocked woods of his northern provinces. There at least he could forget for a time all state affairs, and delight once more in chasing the foam-flecked buffalo and the black-eyed antelope. One day, when the royal hunts- man hotly pursued a swift- footed fawn 1 Vishwamitra himself had been the gallant leader of that martial clan. An exquisite folk-ballad, composed in the san- vada style (Rig - Veda III, 33) extols the heroic warrior-saint who led the proud Bharata host across the rapid currents of the Punjab streams forth into battle. The suffix in Hastina-pur recurs in metro-pol-is (mother-city). @reek pol and Sanskrit pxir signify the full or po-pul-ous "town" contrasted with the deserted jungle. Like a typical Aryan, the monosyllable has travelled extensively. It can be traced from Singapore to Sebastopol, and from Constantino/>/£ to Naples, and Greno6/ l6o > I 78, 187, 195-9- Aryan roots, 179, 197-200. Asajjati, 172-3. Ashoka, 93, 121. Ashwamedha, 130-1. Aspasia, 83. Atharva, ix, 19-20, 22, 135. Athenian, Attic, Macedonian, 30, 76-7, 92. See Greek Atreya, 126. Attitude towards animals, 36, 53, 120. Avali (Mrigankavali), 149-52. Avatar, 137-8, 143, 177, 181-2. Babar, 183-4. Bactria, 92-3. Bali, 24. Balkan and Bulgaria, 186, 197. Bana, 22, 76, 103. Bass and beast-skin, 18, to, 39, 115. J 3i. x 39- Bavaria, 179. Bede, Adam, 27. Bee, 99-101, in. Benares, 167, 169. 205 ao6 THE INDIAN THEATRE Bengal, 20, 29, 167, 176, 179-80, 186. Bengali, Marathi, Nepalese, 29, 141, 178. Berar, 29, 93-4, 96, 127. Betrothal and marriage, 28, 44-5, 54-5, 80, 82, 91, 97, no, 124-6, 128-9, 134-7. I5 1 " 2 . !75- Bhagavad Gita, 25, 133, 182. Bhakti, 164-5, 181-2. Bharata (king), 67-9, 72, 74. Bharata (sage), 22, 27, 29-31, 132, 147. Bharata (actor), 22-3, 30, 132, 154- Bharata (tribe), 34-5, 72, 74. Bhasa, 26. Bhat and nautch-girl, 21-2, 97. Bhatta Narayan, 139-40. Bhavabhuti, 127-9, x 34> J 4°> I ^i» 176. Bhima, 140. Bhoja, 139. Bible and other Scriptures, 20, 23, 43, 73, 122, 156, 184-5, 190- Bigamy and polytheism, 91, 97, no, 151-2, 184-5. Bird and fish, 33-4, 38, 47, 51, 53. 63, 65, 98-101, 103-4, 116-7, 123, 125, 138, 153, 156, 191. Blessing and curse, 17, 45-6, 71, 85, 171, 174. Blue-necked ; sweet-throated (nila- kantha; shrikantha), 38, 103, 118, 128. Boccaccio, 133. Bombay, 120, 155. Bow and bowman, 17, 36, 117, 142. Brahma, xi, 21-2, 31, 116, 129, 177, 199-200. Brahmin, x, 16, 20, 28, 43, 48, 56-7, 79-82, 87, 89, 120, 122, 126, 129, 137, 173, 184, 200. Brihat Katha, 133-4, 155, 202. Bristol, 190. Brunhild, 147. Buddha, ix, 137, 170, 179, 193. Buddhist (bauddha), ix, 16, 20, 29, 82, 85-6, 90-1, 94, 119-23, 125, 136, 168, 184, 191, 193, 201. Bulgaria, 186. Bunyan, 165. Burmese and Malay, 122-3, J 39> 154, 192. Burns, 115, 122. Calcutta, 178. Calderon, 91, 171. Calvary, 193. Canterbury, 117. Caravan and trading, 52, 76, 94, 117, 125, 174. Carlyle and other translators, 91, 101, 125, 157, 164. Carnatic, 181. Carthusian, 74. Caste and colour, 19, 44, 57, 59, 124-5, J 37> 174, 179. l8 8. Catholic, 156, 189, 193. Celt, 30, 189, 195-6. Ceres and Minerva, 26, 128. Ceylon, Singhala, Lanka, 75,103, 109-10, 121-2, 128, 138-9, 141, 144, 146, 153, 158, 162, 201. Chaitanya, 179-83, 191. Chanakya, 161-4. Chandala, 90, 125. Chandragupta, 93, 161-4, 20a. Character and conduct, .\i, 55, 61-2, 81, 85, 90, 120, 135, 140, *5 2 . 199- Chariot (rath) and other vehicles, 17, 36, 65, 84-5, 117, 175. Charioteer (suta), 17, 36-7, 44. Charity, 71-2, 86, 120, 169-70. Charles Edward, 189. Charudatta, 79-80, 82-84, 86-91. INDEX 207 Charvaka, 167-9. Chastity (bralhmacharya), xi, 129. Chess and riddles (chatrang and brahmodya), 116-7, 174. Chicago, 193. China, 16, 78, 123, 141. Chitrakuta, 66. Christ, 179, 190, 193. Christian and pagan, 15, 30, 63, 116-7, 125, 152, 159, 165, 177, 179, 182, 184, 188, 190-4. Christmas, Lent, and Easter, 158, 175. 179- Church, 30, 159, 179, 188. Cid, 141. Clan, 35, 116, 119, 188-9. Classical, xi, 14, 179, 195; 176, 182. Cloud, rain, and thunderstorm, 2 5-6, 3 8 - 5 6 ~7, 66, 72, 99, 125, J 59- J73-4. 200. Colombo, 147. Comparative folklore, language, and religion, 30, 63, 88, 99, 101, 116, 128, 179, 192, 197-8, 200, 202. Conscience, 35, 62, 64, 81, 86, 90, 108, 131. Conscious, subconscious, super- conscious, xi, 86, 132, 146, 164-5, 170-1, 182. Constantinople, 35. Co-ordinate forces (sound, light, and vibration), 198-200. Coronation (rajasuya), 20, 91, 130. Corsica, 92. Cosmos, 1 15-6, 169, 200. Court and society, 15-7, 29, 34, 56, 89, 95-6, 103, 1 10-8, 127, 133. !49. 157- Court fool (vidushaka), 28, 88, 94-5, 104-5, I07-9- TI 3-4. 144-5- Creation and emanation, xi, 20, 198, 200. Crown and sceptre, 73, 124, 166. Cruelty, 36, 68, 85, 186. Custom and rite, x, 20, 22, 37, 67, 72, 117-8, 130, 136, 142, I S I » 159-60, 179, 199. Dacca, 178. Damayanti, 29, 152. Damodar, 139. Dance and acting, 17-8, 23-5, 75, 95, 97, 112-3, 118-21, 132, 159- 60, 168, 174-5. J 7 8 -9. 191- Dandaka, 129, 141. Dandin, 29. Daniel, 171. Danube, 195. Darwin, 102. Dasyu and Dravidian, 19, 124, 141. Deer and fowl, 16-7, 35-40, 51-3, 61, 63-4, 75, 84-5, 98, 146. Dekhan, 20, 28, 139, 142, 154. Delhi, 35, 183. Desertion and exile, 62, 89, 129, 139. 152. Devotion, praise, and prayer, 19- 20, 31-2, 49-50, 54, 57, 73, 135, 165, 168, 182, 185, 191, 193, 200. Dharini, 94, 96-7. Dickens, 27, 148. Diez, 30. Disguise, 94, 106, 115, 121, 136, 143, 150, 159, 163. Divine Will and Wisdom, 21, 31-2, 71. 123. Doctor and Saint, x-xi, 16, 22, 24, 32, 34, 48, 54, 72,' 76, 103, 117, 121, 125, 128, 134, 142, 156, 161, 180-1, 191, 194. Drake, 157. Dramatic unities, 77. Dramaturgy, 27, 30, 77, 147. Draupadi, 140. 2o8 THE INDIAN THEATRE Dress and ornament, 14-8, 20, 37, 39. 5°. 8 5> 96, no, 115, 124, 126, 131, 139, 159. Duryodhan, 140. Dushyanta, 17, 34-46, 48-9, 56-7, 59-62, 64-73. East and West, 15, 74, 78-9, 92, 152, 156, 159, 165, 192, 194. Egmont, 91. Egypt, 63. Eliot, George, 27. Elizabeth, Queen, 157. Elsa of Brabant, 63. Empire, 72, 92, 96, 152, 161, 183-4, 188. Epic, 22-3, 7S< 77 > 88, 117. I2 °> 129, 133, 138, 140-1, 152, 154, 156. 195- Erin, 196. Essence and reality, xi, 171, 182, 200. Euripides, 76. Europe, x, 24, 115, 133, 154, 156, 179, 188, 196. Fable, legend, myth, 22, 31, 63, 76, 98-9, 117, 119, 123, 125, 129, 133, 138, 141, 159, 174. Fabulous birds, 63, 117, 123, 125. Fairy and mermaid (Apsaras), 3 1-3, 38, 50-1, 62-3, 71, 97-100, 117. Faith, 47, 164, 166, 168, 170, 177, 181, 185, 194. See Devotion. Fanatic and tolerant, 135, 169, 184, 186-8, 194. Farce and humour, 24, 82, 95, 105, 113-6, 126, 142, 144-5, IS 0-1 - 153, 156, 159-60, 171-5. Father Ocean, Father Sky, and Mother Earth, 138, 179, 181, 197. Faust, 62. Fearless, 73, 182, 185, 194. Festival and sacrifice, 13, 15, 20, 25, 37, 48, 65, 75, 114-5, 118-9, 121, 128, 130, 135, 142, 158-9, i73. 175' J79. !93- Florence and Naples, 35, 155, *73- Folklore and ballads, 35, 6^, 74, 98-9, 101, 119-20, 129, 133, 139, 160. Force of blood and love, 69, 101, 132. Foster-father, 34, 162. Frank and Dutchman, 130, 196-7. French, 9, 27, 129, 155, 157, 192. Fruit, flower, plant, tree, 14-5, 17. 3 2 - 34. 36-42, 44-5. 49-54. 56-9, 6i, 67-8, 70, 72, 75, 78-9, 98-101, 104-5, IXI < II 4 _ 6. 128, 139, 152, 159, 186, 200. Gaelic, Irish, Scotch, in, 117, 148, 189, 197. Galicia, 195. Gambling, 81-2, 85, 91, 140, 175. Ganges (Ganga), x, 20, 22, 31, 34, 118, 128, 132, 154, 181. Garden, grove, and field, 17, 34, 37- 8 . 43. 5 1 - 2 - 65-6, 78, 98-9, 101, 103-5, io 8« XI 9> 2 °°- Garuda, 123-5. See Fabulous Birds. Gautama (jester), 94-5. Gautama (sage), 142. Gautami (matron), 49, 57, 59-60, 62. Gautami (river), 32-3. German, 78, 88, 99, 125, 128, 141, 147, 157, 187, 195-7. Ghats, 138. Giant and demon (rakshasa), 24, 124, 128, 137-8, 144, 146, 153, 158-9, 162, 174. Gibbon, 202. Gnana, xi, 164, 182. INDEX 209 Go (cow) and compounds, 24, 32, 49, 94, 179-81, 199. God and gods, xi, 14, 17, 21, 26, 28, 31-2, 56-7, 62, 71, 73-4, 98, 100, 115, 118-9, I2 3~4» i3 2 . I 3 8 > 142, 152, 171, 174, 177-8, 181, 185, 191, 193-4, 199-200. Godavery, 181. Goethe, 76, 91, 127, 157. Goldsmith, 102, 147. Govinda, 24, 179, 181, 188. Greek, x, 63, 75-8, 83, 92-3, 141, 185, 192, 195-6, 158. Grenoble, 35. Grimm, Jacob, 30. Gujarat, 93. Gupta, 29, 201. Hamlet, 147. Hansa, shakunta, 33-4, 63, 98. Hanuman, 138-9, 158. Harsha, 102-3, IIX > 121-2, 129, 133. l8 4- Hastinapur, 23, 34-5, 37, 44, 47, 49» S 2 - 6 3- 72-4. «8. Heaven, 22, 31-2, 63, 65, 70, 73, 117, 139, 146. Heber, Bishop, 158. Hector, 152. Heine, 31. Hemakuta, 66. Henry V and VIII, 27, 153. Heretic and rationalist (charvaka), 63, 120, 122, 137, 167-9, I 9 I - Hermitage (ashram), 17, 34, 36-8, 4i. 44-5. 54-5. 73-4- I3 1 " 2 , 142. Heroic Age, 35, 74, 152. Highlands and Lowlands, 117, 122, 148, 189. [165. Himalaya, ix, 34, 38,66, 118, 152, Hinduism, 183, 187, 190-1, 201. History and chronicle, 93-4, 125, 127, 129, 134, 156, 160, 183, 187-90, 201-2. ( C 503 ) Hobby-horse, 159. Holy Grail, 63. Homer, 26. Horse (ashvva), 65-6, 117, 130-1. Human respect, 90, 129. Hunting and fishing, 17, 35-6, 63, 144. Husband chosen; widow burnt (swayamvara; suttee), x, 142. Iliad and Edda, 116, 141. Illumination (prabodha), 33, 74, 171. Image and idol, 58, 101, 124, 132, 156, 159, 171, 179, 184, 198. Incarnation (Christian and pagan), 137. *77. 181, i9 2 -3- Indo-European, 63, 155, 179, 196, 198, 201-2. Indo-Iranian (East Aryan), 114, i74. 195-7- Indra, 19, 21-2, 25, 32, 62, 65-6, 71, 99, 115, 124, 142, 146, 175. Indus, 35, 92. Intrigue and conspiracy, 92, 95, 105-6, 109, ii2, 143, 149-50, 162-3, 187. . Iphigenia, 76. Iran, 196. Islam, 117, 176, 183, 185, 190. Italian, x, 76, 134, 154-6, 173. I-Tsing, 123. Jacobite, 189. Jain, 29, 120, 168. Jaipur, 35. Janaka, 142. Jataka, 122. Java and Kavi, 123, 139, 141, 154, Jayadev, 179. Jealousy, 94, 105-6, 112-3, 171, 189. Jehovah, 185. Jerusalem, 191. 14 2IO THE INDIAN THEATRE Jew and Gentile, 15, 179, 184, 193- Jimuta, 123-5. Jodhpur, 35. Johnson, Dr., 103. Jonah, 156. Jourdain, Mons., 95. Judas, 155. Juggernaut, 178. Jumna, 30, 190. Jupiter, 26. Kali, ix, 25, 135. Kalidasa, 13, 18, 26, 31, 74-6, 92, 94, 97-8, 102, 127, 133, 137, 160, 176. Kama, 41. Kamandaki, 134-5. Kandy, 147. Kanouj, 22, 29, 76, 123, 127, 134, 176. Kansa, 24. Kanva, 17, 34, 36-7, 43, 45, 48, 50, 52-4, 56-7, 73. Karma, ix, xi, 198-9. Kama, 140. Karnapur, 180. Kashmir, x, 127. Kaushiki, 94, 97. Keshub Sen, 191-2. Know Thyself, xi, 21, 171. Koshala, 119, 128, 143. Krishna, 24-5, 29, 79, 137, 177-8, 181. Krishna (river), 29, 35. Krishna-Kamal, 178. Krishnaism, 24, 29, 165, 178-80, 191. Krishnamishra, 165. Kuru, Kaurava, Pandava, 23, 74, 119, 140. Kurukshetra, 74, 98, 118, 140. Kusha, 129, 132. Kuvalay(amala), 149-52. La Fontaine, 76. Lahore, 189-90. Lakshman, 142, 158. Laotse, 193. Latin, Roman, ix-x, 15, 129, 152, 156, 196-8. Laureate, 15, 139. Lava, 129, 131. Law, 20, 30, 35, 57, 62, 87-9, 91, 130, 152, 172, 199. Lear, King, 147. Lecky, 152. Leipzig, 78, L£vi, Sylvain, 24. Liege and vassal, 15, 72, 129-30, 152, 180. Limited and Infinite, 164, 166, 169, 177, 185, 192, 199. Lion, tiger, elephant, 20, 35, 66-8, 100, 115, 117, 131, 134, 188. Lohengrin, 63. London, 91, 97, 117, 154, 157. Love and love-making, 21, 31, 39, 41, 43, 50, 60, 63, 69-71, 94-5, 98-101, 103, 105-9, "1-3. 132, 134, 136, 144, 149, 151, 166, 169, 182, 185. Lucretia, 152. Macedonia, 30, 92. Machiavel, 173. Madhava (king), 93-4, 96, 137, Madhava (student), 134-6. Madras, 155. Magadha, 29, 93-4, 97, 161, 163, 201. Magadha (actor), 22-3, 154. Magadhi and Maharashtri, 29, 148. Magic, spell, and leechcraft, 19- 20, 29, 40, 47, 64, 92, 100-1, 115, 117, 125, 130, 135, 144-6, 169, 171-2, 175, 198. INDEX 211 Maha.-BhS.rata, 23, 63, 118-9, 124, 140-1, 153, 155. Maid -of- honour, 45, 94, 103-4, in, 150. Maitreya, 88-9. Makrand (Makaranda), 134,136-7. Malabar, 138. Malati, 134-6, 162. Malavika, 94-5, 97, 124, 160. Malini, 38. Malva, 139. Mandala, 19, 115, 173, 175. Mannering, Guy, 27. Manorama, 112, 114. Manu, ix-x, 20, 30, 132. Marut, 25. Mary, St., 117, 156, 159. Master (guru) and disciple, 19, 36, 42, 53, 57, 62, 134, 137, 179, 188, 193. Maya, 116, 169, 182. Maypole and Morris dance, 159, 179. Melbourne, 154. Menaka, 32, 62, 71-2. Mephistopheles, 62. Meru, 66. Metcalfe, 190. Middle Ages, 24, 78, 121, 129, 188. Migration of fables, chess, and marionettes, 117, 133, 154. Mimicry and gestures, 18, 22-3, 115, 156, 175. Minstrel and story-teller, 22-3, 74-5, 116, 1 18-9, 125, 154, 159, 176, 198. Mississippi, 78. Mithila, 141. Mohammed, 22, 176. Moliere, 95, 142. Monastery, monk, 58, 74, 82, 85-6, 94, 97, 121, 125, 135. Monkey (vanar), 115, 138-9, 158. Mont Blanc, 66. Moslem, Mogul, 89, 156, 161, 176, 183-4, 186-90, 193, 202. Mountain, jungle, wood, 17, 20, 25, 32-6, 38-9, 42, 50, 56, 61, 66-9, 73-5, 96, 98-9, 1 13-4, 116, 118-9, 124, 128-9, 131, 138-9, 141-2, 144, 174, 191, 200. Mftlanashaka, 172-3. Muni, rishi, sannyasi, xi, 34, 74, 142, 181, 194, 198. Music and musical instruments, 14-6, 23, 47, 51, 71, 74, 97, 99, 101, 115, 119-20, 123, 147, 155, 159. 174-5. 178. Mysteries, 24-5, 73, 75, 121, 179, 192. Nadia, 180. Naga tribes, 124. Nagpur, 93-4, 97, 124, 137. Naimisha, 119. Nala, 63, 124, 152. Names derived from flowers, 79, 152, 179. Nanak, 183-4, 187. Nanda (king), 161-2. Nanda (shepherd), 137, 162. Nandan, 134-7, 162. Napoleon, 92. Nataka, natya, 21, 27, 147-9. Nature worship and nature poetry, 19-20, 24-5, 37-9, 49-51, 65-6, 98-101, 116-9, 125, 138, 159-60, 174, 179, 198, 200. Nelson, 157-8. Nepal, 16, 141, 176. New York, 88, 91, 154. Nibelungs staged, 141, 147. Nikaya, 20. Nile, 157. Norman and Norseman, 19, 116, 196, 198. Northumberland, 198. 212 THE INDIAN THEATRE Novels quoted: {a) English, 27, 102, in, 128; (b) German, 157- Oberammergau, 179. Ocean, river, lake, 17, 20, 32-5, 37-8, 42, 59, 63, 65-6, 75, 85, 97-100, 116, 119, 128, 13-89, 181, 200. Opera, 97-9, 123, 147, 178. Original and imitator, 76, 102, 134- Orissa, 167, 178, 201. Oudh (Ayodhya), 29, 119, 129, 133, 137. 186. Pageant, 115, 159. Palaka, 79, 89-91. Pali, 29, 119, 122, 125, 201. Panchala, Panchali, 154-6. Panini, 30. Parashu-Rama, 137-8, 142-3. Parsifal, 63. Parting and reunion, 45, 53, 55, 69, 97, 101, 132. Patna, 93-4, 162-3. Patron, 13, 29, 78, 123, 132. Peace and passion, 20, 22, 45, 62, 70. 73. 8 5. 88, 98, 106, 109, 113, 140, 142, 144, 153, 170-1, 181. Peking, 78. Persian, 16, 92, 117, 183, 185, 196, 198. Personal and impersonal, 25, 152, 165, 170, 176-7, 182. See Limited. Personification, 19, 25, 41, 49-50, 52, 115, 125, 138, 159-60, 174-5, 179, 181, 197. Peru, 157. Philip Neri, 173. Philip of Macedon, 92. Philology, 26, 30, 35, 63, 79, 125, 195-200, 202. Pilgrimage and procession, 37, 48, 116-8, 136, 139, 178-9, 181. See Yatra. Pindar, 74. Plato, x-xi, 177, 194. Plays quoted: (a) English, 27, 76, 147, 153, 171; lb) Spanish, French, Italian, 91, 95, 142, *7*i x 73: i c ) German, 62, 76, 91, in, 128, 141, 147. Poetry and song, 16, 18-9, 22, 25, 2 9. 3*i 34- S 1 . 63, 95, 97. 101-2, 115-6, 119, i2i, 125, 128, 159, 175, 179, 183, 200. Poetry quoted : 31, 38, 40, 47, 63, 67. 73. 96, 98-101, in, 116, 139, 186, 188. Poland, 187, 195. Pontius Pilate, 155. Prakrit, 23-30, 75, 88, 122, 133, 148, 198. Prakriti, 198-9. Pratapa, 180, 182. Precious stones, 14-6, 37, 44, 50, 63-4. 73. 80-1, 83, 87, 89, 96, ioo, 103, 109-10, 124-5, 130. Priesthood, x, 17, 24, 57, 11 5-6, *35. x 37. 147. 188. Primitive culture, x, 20, 116-7, 124, 139, 159, 174, 178, 200. Priyadarshika, 111-2, 114, 134. Priyamvada, 40-1, 43-4, 51-2, 54-5- Pronunciation, ix-x, 28, 88, 133. Punjab, x, 19-20, 33, 35, 93, 124, 184, 187, 189-90. Purana and Tantra, 25, 115, 135, 179. *93- Puru, 60, 67. Pururavas, 97-8, 100-1. Pushpamitra, 93. Quarrel, 95, 104, 172, 189. INDEX 213 Rajashekhar, 147-8, 152. Rajput and Mahratta, x, 29, 35, 184, 187-8, 202. Rakshasa (demon). See Giant. Rakshasa (statesman), 160-4. Raleigh, 157. Rama, 66, 119, 128-9, 131-2, 137, 141-7, 152, 158, 165, 177. Ramabhadra, 142. Ramaism and Ram-Lila, 158, 165, 193- Ramakrishna, 179, 191. Ra.ma.yana, 23, 129, 132, 138-9, *#*. !53- Rammohun Roy, 190-1. Ranjit Singh, 190. Ratnavali, 103-11, 114, 134. Ravana, 129, 143, 145-6, 153, 158. Recital, 14, 22-3, 118-9, 159. Recluse, hermit, anchorite, 36, 42, 66, 68, 74, 139. See Muni. Religious gathering, 22, 119, 185, 187. Remorse and penance, 64-5, 73, 82, 101, 107-8, 133, 139. Renunciation, resignation, 31, 44, 73, 90, 169-70, 181. Retreat, 33, 62, 66, 73-4, 136, 139. See Hermitage. Rhine, 196. Rig Veda, 18-20, 22, 24-5, 34-5, 56, 98, 1 15-6, 124, 173, 175, 178, 185. Roland, 19. Romance and fiction, 22, 27, 29, 31, 63, 76, 97, 99, no, 119, 128, 133-4, 148, 159. Romance languages, 30, 152, 197. Rome, 173. RGpa-Goswami, 180, 182. Russia and Poland, 78, 187, 195, 197. Sachi, 181. Sachitlrtha, 60, 63. St. George, 160. Sama and Yajur, 20, 22. Samraj, Maha.-Ra.ja, 57, no, 117, 130- 1 . I 5 2 - Sankhya and Yoga, ix, xi, 32, 73, 102, 171, 191. Sansthanaka, 79, 84-8, 90. Sanvada, 23-5, 35, 75, 98, 175, 178. Saumilla, 26. Scandinavia, 196. Schiller, in, 127-8. Scotland, 117, 189. Scott, Walter, 27, no, 128, 148. Sculpture and painting, 14, 94, 104, 113, pi, 127, 137, 150. Sebastopol, 35. Secret societies, 187. Seer and prophet, 31, 72, 79, 91, 142, 149, 176, 185. Seleucus, 92, 201. Self-sacrifice, 65, 123-4, I 4°> I 93- Shakespeare, 27, 77, 101, 125, 134, 147, 153, 160, 171. Shakuntala, 13-4, 18, 34, 39-41, 43-65. 69-75, 77-8, 94, 98-9, 102, 133, 141, 152, 164. Sharngarava, 49, 53-4, 57-8, 62, 73- Sharvilaka, 80-2, 84, 91. Shauraseni and Shakari, 28-9, 148, 178. Shekhar, 125-6, 152. Sheridan, 171. Shikarpur, 35. Shiva (mahadev), ix-x, 24-5, 28, 56, 115, 118, 128. Shivaism, x, 24, 118, 135, 179. Shivaswami, 30. Shri, 128. Shrikantha, 128. Shudraka, 78, 91. Siam, 122. 214 THE INDIAN THEATRE Sigfrid, 147. Sikh and Singh, 10, 16, 184, 186, 188-90. Simla, 76. Singapore, 35. Slta, ix, 129, 131-3, 142-7, 152-3, 158. Slav, 196. Slavery, 15, 19, 80, 84, 94, 140. Sligo, 88. Snake (naga), 68, 118, 121, 123-5, . I7S ' Snowdon, 66. Solomon, 156. Soma, 1 14-5, 118, 173-4. Soul and salvation, xi, 63, 137, 165, 169-71, 182, 185, 193. Spanish, 141, 147-8, 157, 159, 171. Spring Festival, 13, 159, 179. Stage manager (sutra-dhara), 17, 22, 155. Stuarts and Georges, 103, no-i, 189. Substance and semblance (sat and asat), 171-2, 177, 185. Sun and fire (surya and agni), x, 17, 19, 25, 26, 33, 38-9, 44, 48- 51, 53, 56, 65-6, 70, 78, 99, 108, 115, 119, 125, 159-60, 174, 200. Surya, 25. Susangata, 104-5. Sutlej, 190. Sutta, sutra, ix, 30, 120, 155. Symbol, 20, 29, 56, 63, 115, 117, 123, 132, 159-60, 179, 182, 191. Syria, 14, 92. Tamil, 141. Tartuffe, 142. Tennyson, 186. Teuton, 30, 63, 152, 195-7. Thief and robber, 64, 80, 91, 94, 99. 173-4. Tibet, 121. Timur, 183. Tirhut, 176. [159, 179. Tradition, 20, 27, 74, 78, 147, 156, Trailokya, 191. Transformation and transmigra- tion, 63, 65, 98, 101, 143, 146. Turanian, 141. Turk, Hun, Shaka, 88, 156, 192. Turkestan, 92. Tulsi Das, 165. Twice-born, 19-20, 174. Tyrol, 179. Udaipur, 35. Uddandi, 134. Ujain, 13-4, 16, 28, 74, 76, 176. Ulysses, 152. Uma, 28, 97, 100. University, 30, 192. Upanishad, 133, 182, 185. Urvashi, 97-9, 101, 133. Valmiki, 120, 129, 131-2, 138. Vana (wood) and derivatives, 73, 114, 138-9, 191. Varada, 174. Varaha-Mihir, 16. Varma (Mrigankavarman), 149- 50. 152. Vasanta(sena), 79-91. Vasavadatta, 103, 105-14. Vatsa, 103-4, 106-12, 114, 134. Veda, v, ix-x, 18-21, 24-5, 31, 34-5, 42, 48, 56, 75, 98-9, 1 15-7. 120, 124-5, J 47- 168, I73-5- 177-8, 185, 187, 190, 197-8. Vedanta, v, xi, 164-6, 170, 177, 180, 182, 191, 194. Veiled and revealed, 167, 177, 180, 186, 191-2, 194, 197. Venice, 76. Vice and virtue, 36, 43, 55, 59, 61, 68, 71, 79, 85-6, 142, 146, 165, 171, 173. INDEX 2I 5 Vidarbha, 29, 63, 124. Vidyadhar(amalla), 149-50, 152. Vikrama, 13, 15, 18, Vindhya, 29. Virginia, 152 ; 157. Vishakhadatta, 160-1. Vishnu, x, 123, 137, 178. Vishwakarma, 22. [ I 4S» Vishwamitra, 31-3, 35, 43, 142, Volga, 78. Vow, 33, 82, 94. Vyasa, 30. Wagner, 147. Wakefield, 102. Wallenstein, 128. War, 16, 2i, 34-5, 44, 57, 74, 92-3, 96, 117-8, 124, 127, 137, 140, 143, 152, 156-7, 169, 183, 187-9. Warrior, burgher, serf (kshatriya, vaishya, shudra), 16, 19, 36, 91, 117, 137, 142-3, 188, 198. Weimar, 78. Welsh, 197. Wilhelm Meister, 157. Windsor, 147. Worship, places of, 22, 135, 176, 178-9, 185-6, 193, 201. Yatra, 29, 116, 178-80. Yudhishthir, xi, 140. Zalamea, 91. Zenana, seraglio, 94-5, 103, 112, 117. I5*« Zeuss, 30. Zoroaster, 193. 14 DAY USE RETURN TO DESK FROM WHICH BORROWED LOAN OEPT. MNIWAIS ONLY— Til. NO. 6M-3405 This book is due oo the last date stamped below, or This book is ou wh;<;h ren j Renewed books are subje« to imme*aterecall_ .OA ' 4 P cr,T 44gv-a-0-2flQi H0V_2J970^9 -M ' I r ! JUL 6 1S73 5 1 4 ^i"****" - ^ ** peb 20« 3 tec^^-E^ LD 2lA-40m-2,'69 (J6057sl0)476— A-32 P,6221sl0)476J3 General Library University of California Berkeley Berkeley U.C.BERKELEY LIBRARIES C0L47D;LD737