Printed Matter. If not delivered return to The COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION, Washington, D. C. Department of the Anterior, .BUREAU OF EDUCATION. BUSINESS. G S77 17738 b 100 m BENJAMIN FRANKLIN. 1706-1791. [ Jntolc Number 1SS BUREAU OF EDUCATION CIRCULAR OF INFORMATION NO. 2, 1892. BENJAMIN FRANKLIN AND THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. EDITED BY NEWTON THORPE, Ph. D., Professor of* -A.merici.n Constitutional History in tlie TJniversity of Pennsylvania. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1893. UNIVERSITY OF ( ALIFOJ SANTA BARBARA DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR, BUREAU OF EDUCATION, Washington, 7>. ('., April 31, 1893. SIR: I have the honor to present herewith for publication a circular of information entitled "Benjamin Franklin and the University of Pennsylvania." Some years since this Bureau offered a similar circu- lar on "Thomas Jefferson and the University of Virginia," which was printed in an edition of 20,000 copies, all of which have been distributed. The demand still continues for this circular and it is hoped that it may be reprinted at no distant date. The present circular of information, it is expected, will be of equal interest to the country. While Thomas Jefferson, with that breadth of statesmanship which characterized all of his labors, kept unceasingly before his view the importance of popu- lar education to reinforce and make effective the operations of the principle of local self-government, on the other hand Dr. Franklin, himself a noteworthy example of a self-educated man, kept in view the importance of education as the foundation of thrift and social develop- ment. These two men seem to have furnished more than any other two men the guiding principles which have prevailed in our civilization, political and social. The circular here mentioned on Thomas Jefferson and the Univer- sity of Virginia has made widely known the wonderful insight of the great Virginian into the best modes of organizing popular educa- tion. To him is due the organization of the University of Virginia, which is more and more copied or approached in the regulations and practical details of colleges and universities North and South. The author of that circular, Prof. H. B. Adams, has treated his theme in such a way as to throw great light upon the early history and growth of what we fondly style American ideas. Our local self-govtrnment jealously guards itself against the danger from centralized power. The assumption on the part of the General Government of any functions which can be better performed by the local authorities is regarded as mischievous by the vast majority of thinking people in our country. But whatever goes to the education and enlightenment of the citizens in their several localities goes for the increase of local directive power. The only kind of help which is always good and useful is that which helps an individual or a community to help itself. Jefferson saw this truth, and he saw its relation to popular education as a necessary con- comitant to local self-government. 1 2 LETTKK. Benjamin Franklin stands somewhat in contrast to Jefferson in the tact tliar he looks more- to the social wlt'aiv than to the political func- tion of the people. His most pronounced idea is that of thrift. He \vislies to have it impressed on each man or woman or child that indus- ti v and economy are prime sources of power. But he is in agreement with Thomas .Jefferson as to the importance of an elementary educa- tion to prepare the citi/eii tor intelligent application of the lessons of industry and thrift. The center from which Franklin's practical influence in education extends is Philadelphia. Connected, as he was, for many years with the management of what is now the ("Diversity of Pennsylvania, that institution is in some sense a development of his ideas as to higher education. But his benefactions and his counsel originated many .it her M reams of educational influence. These lines of educational influence have been carefully investigated by Prof. Francis Newton Thorpe, of the University of Pennsylvania, and fiis results are now offered for publication. I am confident in the belief that this treatise will be received with the same interest that was accorded to the former circular upon "Jefferson and the Uni- versity of Virginia." The two principles which have hitherto divided the attention of statesmen and public benefactors, each one contending for the mastery. Imt each compromising in turn to the other, are these two ide.is. represented respectively by Jefferson and Franklin, the idea of the political basis and the idea of the social basis of a free govern- ment. Very respectfully, your obedient servant, W. T. HARRIS, Commissioner. Hon. H.KI: SMITH, ' fin-i/ <>/ tit- lnh fior. TABLE OF CONTENTS. Page. Preface 5 Chapter I. Franklin's Self-Education. The editor (Fellow, 1885-87) 9 II. Franklin's Ideas of Education as seen in his Writings. The editor '. 133 III. The Scope of the University. William Pepper, M. D., LL. D., '62.. 205 IV. Historical Sketch of the University. John L. Stewart, PH. B., '89 215 V. The University in its Relations to the State of Pennsylvania. Hon. Samuel W. Pennypacker, LL. D 233 VI. The Relations of the University and tho City. J. G. Rosen- garten, A. M., '52 243 VII. The Department of Arts. William A. Lamberton, A. M., '67 255 VIII. The Medical Department. Horatio O. AVood, M. D., LL. D., '62 ... 273 IX. Tho Lasv Department. C. Stuart Patterson, A. M., LL. ., '60 283 X. The Towne Scientific School. George F. Barker, PH. D 289 XI. Tho Department of Dentistry. James Truman, D. D. 8 309 XII. The AAliarton School of Finance and Economy. The editor 320 XIII. The School of Biology. Joseph T. Rothrock, M. D., '68 327 XIV. The University Hospital. Richard AVood - 343 XA r . The Veterinary Department. AVilliam Hunt, M. D., '49 356 XVI. The Department of Physical Education. Randolph Faries, A. M., M.D.,'85 361 XVII. The Department of Philosophy. George S . Fullerton, B. D., PH. D . 364 XVIII. The School of American History ani Institutions. The editor. 370 XIX. The Laboratory of Hygiene. John S. Billings, M. D., LL. D 375 XX. The Department of Archaeology. Daniel G. Briuton, M. D 377 XXI. Tho Graduate Department for Women. Rev. Jesse Y. Burk, A. M. 384 XXII. The University Libraries. Morris Jastrow, jr., PH." v., '81 387 XXIII. Tho School of Architecture. AVarren P. Laird 396 XXIV. University Undergraduate Life, 1740-1791-1891. Joseph Siegmund Levin, '87 < 403 XXV. Organizations Within the University. Felix E. Schelling, A.M., '81 410 XXVI. The Alumni of the University. Persifor Frazer, '62, Henry Btidd, '68, and J. Sergeant Price 420 XXVII. The Bibliography of the University. Rev. Jesse Y. Burk, A. M., '62 438 Index 445 3 ILLUSTRATIONS. Benjamin Franklin, 1706-1791 Frontispii . The University Library 21 l-'acsiiuile of the Beginning of the Original Draft of the First Charter of the University of Pennsylvania, 1794 < 62 I':i< -imile of the Signatures l!2 William Smith, i>. D., the first Provost of the University of Pennsylvania, 1755-1779 144 Benjamin Franklin, 1790. (From the original in possession of the American Philosophical Society. ly permission) 184 William iVpper, M. D.. L. D., Provost of the University, 1881 to date 194 Tin- Main College Building. (From the southwest) 240 The College Chapel 256 Geological Museum College Hall. (From the west) 258 The Medical College. (From the west) 273 Pathologi al Histological Laboratory Medical Hall 276 Pathological Laboratory -Medical Hall 278 Chemical Lecture Room Medical Hall 280 Medical Museum Medical Hall 281 Lecture Room in Law School 286 Organic Laboratory College Hall. (From the south) 292 Private Km mi of I'roit^Mir of Civil Kneiital Operating liooui 312 Seminary Room Whurton School :?!'] The School of Biology 32X Privati- Koom of hit.- Prof. I. eidy Biological Hall 332 Museum Biological Hall...: 336 Biological Marine Laboratory H 10 Tin- l*im isity Hospital ;U',i i in a ry Hall ." ;;."iti ; in:iiy Ho>pit;l. with Aiiiliulain-c ' :;:.s :r- li '< MM Veterinary Hall ;;:,* ting Room Veterinary Mall 360 The Athleti'- I i rounds :;ti_' ' .!! ;;7ii Miisi-niii ;J77 The Library. I ria< k- Library 394 Plan the Department a- proposed for !X92-'93 402 4 PREFACE. Benjamin Franklin is the type of the self-educated man. His phil- osophy is utilitarian, and his educational notions are stamped by that system. He would define morality, politics, and natural philosophy by a series of experiments in which every member of the human race should participate. His scheme of education provides that all men should follow his example. The influence of Franklin on American education is felt to this day. I have attempted to outline this influence by trac- ing his own self-education; by presenting his ideas on education as shown in his works; by comparing them with the ideas of the eminent men of his time, Adam Smith, Hume", Priestly, Washington, John Adams, Jefferson, Hamilton, and some of the physiocrats; by describ- ing the educational institutions which he founded the Library Company of Philadelphia, the American Philosophical Society, and the University of Peunsylvania : and the principal educational institutions founded in Pennsylvania in conformity with his ideas Franklin and Marshall College, the" Franklin Institute, Girard College, and the Philadelphia Manual Training Schools. These institutions touch life at every point and represent every important phase of modern education. This volume is designed to show more particularly Franklin's relations to the University of Pennsylvania, and the history and growth of that institution for a century and a half. Lack of- space has prevented a more elaborate account of that relation and of that history. Perhaps no part of the volume is more suggestive than the tables showing the attendance at the University since 1740 S It has been attended by per- sons from one hundred and thirteen States and countries, and the number of annual courses given amount to 60,747. Its alumni are found all over the world. Particularly has the University been of interest to the people of the Southern States who have been, with a slight inter- ruption, its constant patrons. The tables show how in recent years the awakened interest in university life brings" matriculates from all parts of the world. The University has thus become^the permanent expo- sition of Franklin's ideas in education, and his name and that of the University are imperishably linked together. He was the first pres- ident of the Board of Trustees and was an active member of the Board for nearly half a century. The brief account of Franklin's influence on Adam Smith, on Priestly, aud on Hume, and of the educational 5 6 PREFACE. ideas held by Washington, Adams, Jefferson, and Hamilton, will sug- to others, I trust, interesting fields of exploration in American educational history. "The great aim and end of all learning" wrote Franklin in 1749, in lii> Proposals relating to the Education of Youth in Pennsylvania,'' 1 "is to serve mankind, one's country, friends and family." On thi broad conception Franklin and his associates founded the I n iversity of Pennsylvania. At the close of nearly a century and a half after that conception was formulated, the University of Pennsyl- vania-is organized and administered, its numerous courses of study ar- ranged and its academic life proceeds in substantial conformity with the great aim and end which Franklin proposed. The plan of the founder and his associates comprehended the significant educational movements of modern times and at the same time set forth the classic excellence of conservatism. Language, literature, science pure and ap- plied, ethics, history, government and constitutions, "sound politics," logic, the history of commerce, archaeology, law, anatomy, and medi- cine, the ever-increasing group of studies which "are useful to man- kind ''distinguish the University of Pennsylvania to-day and enhance the lame of its founder. That group of historical, economic and politi- cal studies which includes so large a portion of modern instruction was clearly outlined in the original plan for the University of Pennsylva- nia, and this institution was the first to organize several special schools whose instruction is particularly useful in such a country as ours. The uiittearied labors of unselfish men, provosts, trustees, and pro- >i 8, aided by generous friends, for a century and a half have cen- tered in the University of Pennsylvania; but it is during the last twenty years and more particularly during the last decade that the truly uni- versity plan of the founder, enlarged ly the experience of many at- tempts towards its realization, has taken concrete form. The recent growth ol 'the I'mversity has been phenomenal. It is doubtful if any other institution of learning in America shows such a vigorous gro\vtli of parts and such efficient unification of the whole. A magnificent estate of over JO acres has been secured on the high- lands of Philadelphia overlooking the \alley of the Schuylkill, t\\enty buildings for a great variety of purposes have been erected at a cost -I,."i00.00(, and the scope of the Cniversity hasbeen enlarged by t he foundation of numerous special or technical schools, such as Wharton School of finance and Kconomy, the School of Biology, the Veterinary School, the School of American History ;md Institutions, the School of Il\ "ienr. the School of A i eliitccture, the Graduate School for Women, and the Wistar I nst itute of Anatomy. The>e creations illustrate forcibly the living touch of the University with the world, and these schools arc administered to the advantage >< j>. T.8 et seq. PREFACE. 7 of an ever increasing body of students from all parts of the world. In 1881 there were 97ii students in attendance; there are 2,055 in 1892. The teaching force of the University has increased till it bears a greater ratio to the number of students receiving instruction than exists in any other university in America. The services of Benjamin Franklin to his countrymen are the ad mi- ration of the world; but no service done by this American statesman surpasses the service of the great University which he and his associ- ates founded. Thomas Jefferson, the founder of the University of Virginia, with intimate knowledge of the relative worth of American and European institutions of learning, in 1807, while President of the United States, wrote to Dr. Caspar Wistar, then professor of anatomy in the Univer- sity of Pennsylvania : I have a grandson, the son of Mr. Randolph, now ahout 15 years of ago, in whose education I take a lively interest ; * there are particular branches of science which are not so advantageously tanght anywhere else in the United States as in Philadelphia, * * your Medical School for anatomy, and the able professors * * * give advantages not to be found elsewhere. It is of great interest to be able to record that eighty-five yeais later the name of the distinguished anatomist and teacher, Dr. Wistar, is for- ever associated with the University ol Pennsylvania by the generosity of Gen. Isaac J. Wistar, in the foundation and endowment of the Wistar Institute of Anatomy. To-day, the Medical School with its learned faculties and its four years' course; the Towne Scientific School, with its admirably equipped laboratories; the Biological and Veterinary Schools ; and the School of Hygiene; the University Hospital and the Dental School, each ade- quately equipped with commodious buildings, suggest that were Presi- dent Jefferson living he might again speak of " advantages " at the Uni- versity of Pennsylvania, " not to be found elsewhere." Nor lias it been in science alone that the facilities of the University have increased; the entire group of political, historical and economic studies is emphasized in the clearest manner and the several schools on^uii/ed in that group, like the scientific schools in the University, give special strength to the whole educational unit of the University. It is the unification of the University and the enormous financial strengthening- which it has received during the last ten years that dis- tinguish the administration of the present Provost, Dr. William Pepper, whose wife and children are descendants of Benjamin Franklin and who by a happy destiny has been enabled to give concrete form and living power to the comprehensive plans of the University's great founder. Nor should history be silent concerning the wise generosity of the Board of Trustees, some of whose members have been the guaranty of the material success of many large undertakings in the University. 1'RKFACE. The editor acknowledges gratefully Iho /ealous cooperation of the various contributors to MM- volume. Kadi chapter has the authority" of ils author. Special acknowledgment arc due to the faithful Secre- tary of tin- Hoard of Trustees, Ucv. Jesse Y. Burk, to whose intimate knowledge of I'uiversity allairs a large portion of the value of the book is due. The elaborate statistical table on page 202, involving much research, was prepared by Mr. Clarence S. Mclutire, to whom acknowledgments are made. THE EDITOR. BENJAMIN FRANKLIN AND THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYL- VANIA. CHAPTER I. FRANKLIN'S SELF-EDUCATION. A man whose biographer can say of him that he never spoke a word too soon, nor a word too late, nor a word too much, nor failed to speak the right word at the right season, and who fdled high public offices and performed their duties with fidelity which has made his public service not only illustrious but of the highest type of its kind, who founded institutions of great public utility, and who also successfully managed his own private affairs, may be expected to have some ideas on education. Benjamin Franklin tells us that he "was born and bred in poverty and obscurity, from which he emerged to a state of affluence and some degree of reputation in the world, and that he went through life with a considerable share of felicity". He frequently reflected on his worldly prosperity and was happy to record that his family was of homely but goodly stock, of the middle class of ancient England, and that even so distinguished a divine as Cotton Mather made honorable mention of Peter Folger, Franklin's maternal grandfather, as " a godly, learned Englishman." Franklin was not sent to college, according to his account, because a college education was too expensive; " the mean living many so edu- cated were afterwards able to obtain" was a sufficient proof to Frank- lin's father that worldly success was not surely to be won after so great an expense. To understand Franklin's notions of education it is necessary to trace his own. He remembered iu hi.s old age how his father "at the table liked to have, as often as he could, some sensible friend or neigh- bor to converse with, and always took care to start some ingenious or useful topic for discourse, which might tend to improve the iniuds of his children. By this means he turned our attention to what was good, just, and prudent, in the conduct of life." This insight into Franklin's childhood shows how early, in life his mind was impressed 9 10 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. with the paramount importance of things ingenious or useful, and to tlu- end of his life he judged of the value of men's labors by their use- fulness to mankind. When it was to be decided at what employment Franklin should be put, his father sought a praetieal solution of the problem by taking him to walk with him, " and see joiners, bricklayers, turners, braxiers, etc., at their work, that he might observe my inclina- tion, and endeavor to fix. it on some trade or profession that would keep me on land. It has ever since been a pleasure to me to see good workmen handle their tools; and it has been often useful to me to have learnt so much by it as to be able to do some trifling jobs in the house, when a workman could not readily be got, and to construct little machines for my experiments, while the intention of making the ex- periment was fresh and warm in my mind." From a child he was fond of reading, and he tells us that he spent the little money that came into his hands for books. It is natural for :i man to insist that the education of the young should be like that which he received himself, and the books which Franklin read in his boyhood remained, in his opinion, the proper books for all children to read. "The Pilgrim's Progress," Burton's ''Historical Collections," De Foe's " Essay on Projects," and Dr. Mather's " Essays to do Good" had an influence on some of the principal events of Franklin's life. It may be said that two of these books, " Pilgrim's Progress" and De Fur's Fssay on Projects" are among the most fertile books ever written. In evidence, it may be said, that except the Bible, "Pilgrim's Progress"' is more freely read throughout- the world than any other book, and De Foe's "Essay on Projects" contains intimations and projections of nearly all t lie. most salutary reforms in morals, in law. and in practical ethics that have since blessed the world. It was Franklin's bookish inclinations that made him a printer, and to the end of his life lie illustrated, whenever he had occasion to speak or write on educational matters, how his training as a printer deter mined his ideas in education. His mind was universal, and he was, therefore, interested in all human affairs. As a boy, he took a peculiar interest in the drama, and to i he end of his life was fond of the theater. On this mimic si age lie saw the larger aetion of life epitomized, and he was doubtless able to draw ei.iirlusions from the conduct of the players on the stage which were of value to him in his large diplomatic action. Throughout his works ;n-e constant references to the plays of the day, and he is fond of illustrating a letter to a friend by a passing remark upon some popular play. His boyhood was cast in the age of ballad mongery, and to the end of his days he enji.yed thai kind of literature. The petty vender if -treet ballads is the potent illustration of the persistency of this kind of literature to our day. A bookish boy would make friends of bookish lads, and one John Collins, with whom Franklin early became acquainted, enabled him to FRANKLIN'S SELF-EDUCATION. 11 enter upon a new epoch in life the epoch of conversation. Between these boys there were long controversies on the passing questions of the day, and on the various theories in the projection of which youths are so fertile. Collins, we are told, denied the " propriety of educating the female sex in learning, and their abilities for study." Franklin took the opposite side, and it seems to have converted him in favor of woman's education. It was this controversy which, left unsettled in conversation, was carried on by correspondence, and Franklin thus to be a writer. He tells us th'at Three or four letters of a side had passed, -when my father happened to find my papers and read them. Without entering into the discussion, he took occasion to talk to mo about the manner of my writing ; observed that though I had the a*d vantage of my antagonist in correct spelling and pointing (which I owed to the printing house) I fell far short in elegance of expression, in method and perspicuity, of which he convinced me by several instances. 1 saw the justice of hie remarks, and tfience grew more" attentive to the manner in writing and determined to endeavor at im- provement. This proof of the ability of Franklin to compare himself with others is significant, for it illustrates one of the chief powers of his mind. He was quick to notice points of superiority or of inferiority, and being ambitious to excel lie proceeded in the most practical way to overcome the deficiencies. The method in which he overcame them became, in his opinion,- the right procedure for all other persons in a similar con- dition, and it was later formulated by him as a method in education; it was to take the best writings of the day and to imitate them. Hap- pily for him, Addison was giving the "Spectator" to the world', and an odd volume, a third, fell into Franklin's hands. He tells us that the reading of it produced a sensation new to him. He read it again and again and was delighted with it, and he afterwards laid down the prop- osition that all children could derive the same benefit from the "Spec- tator" which he had derived. His method was simple, yet original ; it was to read the " Spectator" and to rewrite it from memory; he compared his version with the original, and corrected and rewrote it until his own composition was as perfect as that of Addison himself. This taught him the limitations of his own vocabulary and led him, doubtless, afterwards to insert in his plan for the education of youth a provision for the study of the dic- tionary. In his " Sketch of an English School" he provides, for the first or lowest class to which children of his age when he began read- ing the " Spectator" would belong, that A vocabulary of the most usual difficult words might be formed for their use, with explanations; and they might daily get a few of those words and explanations by hf.iirt, which would a little exercise their memories; or at least they might write a number of them in a small book for the purpose, which would help to fix the mean- ing of those words in their minds, and at the same time furnish every one with a little dictionary for his future use. His own boyish experiences taught him the necessity for a vocabu- 1*2 Till: I'MYKKSHY (!' I'KNNSYLYAMA. lary. and not tor a vocabulary merely, but for a vocabulary always re- sponsive to the thought that the word used might bo the best word that could be used. This opinion, formulated by Franklin in his Sketch of an Knglish School for the Consideration of the Trustees of the Philadelphia Academy.'' to which I shall frequently refer, is plainly ihe result of Franklin's experience in self-education; and when he tells us iii his "Autobiography" that he made verses because their composi- tion laid him under the constant necessity of searching for variety of words and for words exactly, suited to the thought, and that he turned tales into verse, and after he had forgotten the prose turned them back again, and in this manner, by comparing his work afterwards with the original, discovered his faults and amended them, we catch a glimpse of the value of comparison in education, and not merely of compari- son, but of comparison made for practical purposes. So perfectly did this scheme work that he tells us in a delightful way how he sometimes had the pleasure of fancying that in certain parts of small import he had been lucky, enough to improve the method or the language, and this encouraged him to think he might possibly, in time, come to be a ''tolerable English writer," of which he was extremely ambitious; and to show how such a result was possible for any one who, like himself, was an indented apprentice, he adds that the time for making these exercises and for reading was at night after his work was done, or in the morning before it began, or even on Sundays when he was alone; and ;is he rather disliked to attend church, he eased his conscience by perfecting himself in English style. Certainly the judgment of pos- terity has awarded him a first rank in English composition; in other words. Franklin takes pains to tell us how his self-education was a succe>s, and how all other people, if they choose, may educate them- selves and become "tolerable English writers." lie soon discovered his ignorance in figures, and at 17 was old enough to be ashamed of it. He overcame his deficiency in figures as he had overcome his deficiency in composition, by taking "Cocker's Arithmetic" and going through the whole by himself " with great ease." Not only arithmetic, but booksof navigation, Seller's and Shermy's, were studied in the same manner, but, having no practical use for theliigher mathe- matics, he never pursued them. About this time he read Locke "On the Human Understanding," and the "Art of Thinking," by Messrs. Du I'ort Royal. Intent on improving his language, he found an English grammar, I'.reenwood's, at the end of which "there were two little sketches of the arts of rhetoric and logic, the latter finishing with a specimen of a dis- pute in the Socratic method," and he soon afterwards procured Xeno- phon's Memorable Things of Socrates." He had made a discovery: If Addison had charmed him, Xenophon captivated him, and from Xenophon he learned the greatest lesson of his life. " From that time," s he, " I was charmed by it, adopted it, dropped my abrupt contra- FKAXKLIN'S SKLF-EDUCATION 33 diction and positive argumentation, and put on tlic humble inquirer and doubter." Again and again in the ''Autobiography" and from other sources we learn how'Franklin through his long life avoided dogmatic disputation and won his cause quite as much by his practice in the art of doubting and Questioning as by his powers for confutation. He was a born dip- lomat, and his sense of the principles of diplomacy was early manifest. So important did the Socratic method become in his ideas of education that, in drawing up his "Proposals relating to the Education of Youth in Pennsylvania," out of which grew the University of Pennsylvania, he encouraged all those studies which involve conversation and writing. He would acquaint youth with the best models among the ancients, particularly pointing out their beauties. But his diplomatic experience made him familiar with the feebleness of mere talk, and he said: Modern political oratory being chiefly performed by the pen and press, its advan- tages over the ancients in some respects are to be shown ; as that its effects are more extensive and more lasting. He anticipated the age of books, newspapers, magazines, and the numerous productions of pen and press, and was fully conscious of the enormous and superior power of the printed page over the spoken word ; so, from his own experience, he advocated all those studies by which the human mind is most widely reached and most powerfully in- fluenced. His own writings are frequently in the Socratic method,, and in Iris " Sketch of an English School " he advocated the reading of short pieces by the master, not exceeding the length of a " Spectator," with the proper modulations of voice, due emphasis, and suitable action where action is required, and that the youth should imitate the manner of the original. The beauties of the piece were to be discussed by the in- structor, and from a variety of readings, by which good styles of all kinds were made known, children should learn to imitate such excel- lence and be able readily to put their thoughts into the form best adapted to accomplish the end. Having discovered the value of the Socratic method, he next dis- covered the value of expressing himself in terms of modest diffidence, and to the end of his life he was noted for the modesty with which he advanced his opinions. Perhaps no illustration of this quality is finer than his speech read to the convention of 1787 in its closing words. Franklin himself was too feeble to read his speech, and his colleague, Thomas Wilson, read it for him. Perhaps this speech gave us the Constitution of the United States. I confess [said Franklin] thai there an- several parts in this Constitution that 1 do not at present approve, but I am not sure that I shall never approve them, for, having lived long, I have experienced many instances of being obliged by better in- formation or fuller consideration to change opinions, even on important subjects, which I onco thought right, but found to be otherwise. It is. therefore, that the older I grow the more apt I am to doubt my own judgment and to pay more respect 14 THK rXIVKKSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. TO the judgment of others. Most mm, indeed, as well as most sects in religion, think themselves in possession of all truth, and that whenever others diller from them it is so far error. And then li<- characteristically points his speech by a telling illustra- tion: stcele. a protestant in education, tells Pope that the only difference between our churches in their opinions of the certainty of their doctrines is that the Church of Rome is infallible and the Church of England is never in the wrong. But though so many private persons think almost as highly of their own infallibity as they do of their sect, few express it so naturally as a certain French lady, who, in a dispute with her sister said : " I do not know how it happens, sister, but I meet with nobody but myself that is always in the right" "il n'y a personne que nioi qui a toujours raison." It is not often that the lessons of childhood regulate our lives, but the Socratic method of Franklin's boyhood determined his whole attitude toward public questions, and, probably more than any other character- istic of the man, made him the most successful diplomat that our country has ever had. Frequently in addressing his younger friends he laid down the lesson of modest diffidence as highly conducive to practical success in life. His defense for this training was that if we advance our sentiments too dogmatically we may not only provoke contradiction, but prevent a candid attention, so that he bases his philosophy of diffi- dence upon its utility. The facility with which Franklin had undertaken his self- education in literature and in mathematics characterized all his efforts in practi- cal affairs. Throughout his " Autobiography" he is fond of mentioning, whenever he can, the advantages of self-education. The principle which won success in rewriting a "Spectator" he applied in industry, and soon detected its virtues in practical affairs. Like all self-educated men. his experience crystalli/.ed in maxims, some 'of which he formulated himself, but nearly all of them were taken from the experience of man- kind al large. Like Daniel Webster, Franklin made great use of the labor of others, and it is interesting to note his account of the principles and morals which inlliienced the events of his life. M\ parents [lie writes] had early i^iven me religions impressions, ami brought me through my childhood piously in (he dissenting way. P>ut I was scarce 15, when, after doubting by turns several points, as I found (hem disputed in the dif- ferent books I read, I began to doubt of tin- KVvelation itself. Some books against, leisiTi fell into my hands; they were said to be the substance of the sermons which had been preached at J'.oyle's lectures. It happened that they wrought an effect on me .piite eontiarv to what was intended by them, for the arguments of the deists, which were ipioted to be refuted, appeared to me much stronger than the refuta- tion-: in short. I soon became a thorough deist. Hi- habit of doubting where he could not overcome by an adequate reply bred in him not only a love of experiment to test the explana- tions of phenomena, but led him wln-n he was unable to obtain a satis- factory explanation to remain in doubt. He was one of the greatest of experimentalists. As might be expected of one whose whole phi- losophy was utilitarian, his life is replete with apt illustrations of the KKANKLIN'S SF.LK-KIHJCATION. 15 utility of experiments, so that, his biographer is able to give several pages to the mere enumeration of his discoveries, all of which were of a useful kind, such as: The deliverance of mankind from smoky chim- neys: tlie practical means of ventilation; numerous discoveries in electricity; the determination of the temperature of the Gulf Stream; the consumption by a fire of its own smoke; the construction of water- tight compartments in ships; and others. So strong was his habit of observation that in his various journeys across the ocean, and in the colonies, in Great Britain and Ireland, and on the Continent, he \vas always alert to detect not only the wants of the people in whatsoever region he was traveling, and the means for supplying those wants, but he also gave minute attention to natural history, as when on his first voyage from Philadelphia to England in 172G, being then in his twen- tieth year, he records in his journal changes in the color of dolphins, and experiments with dolphins living and dead to determine the cause of the loss of their luster; and a few days later lie makes observations on a shellfish found upon a floating weed in the Gulf Stream, and records that in order to strengthen his conjecture whether his opinions with respect to the development of this creature were true he resolved to keep "the weed in salt water, renewing it every day, till we came on shore, by this experiment to see whether any more crabs will be produced or not in this manner." His own powers of observation and comparison being of the highest order, he naturally imputed to the effects of such powers when exercised by man many of the advantages which he himself derived from them. This doubtless led him in his "Plan for the Education of Youth in Pennsylvania" to encourage ex- perimentation, that by instruction in mechanics men might be informed "of the principles of that art by which weak men perform such won- ders, labor is saved, and manufactures expedited." And, again, touching on agriculture, a subject which received careful attention from his eminent contemporaries Washington, and Jefferson, having atlirmed that "natural history will also afford opportunities of introducing many observations relating to the preservation of health, which may be afterwards of great use," he adds: While they (the students) are reading natural history might not a little gardening, planting, grafting, and inoculating bo taught and practiced; and now and then ex- cursions to I he neighboring plantations of the best fanners, their methods observed and n-asoncd upon for the information of youth, the improvement of agriculture being useful to all, and skill in it no disparagement to any? We should not forget that modern life compels a curriculum in tech- nical instruction in our colleges and universities which could not possibly be called for in Franklin's time. lie lived before the manufac- turing epoch; before the age of rapid transportation and the applica- tion of electricity and steam to the wants of man; therefore we need not expect to find in his "Proposals for the Education of Youth" the equipment of a modern chemical, mechanical, or biological laboratory. 1<; Tin: r.M\ i;iisri'v or J-HNNSYLVAMA. Tin- chief occupation of Americans was fanning, and like Washington and -IrtVtTson. as we shall see later, he advocated all possible experi- ments which would improve the principal employment of the times in which he lived and greatly add to its productivity. But the principle by which lie was animated was the same as that which when applied has equipped the best laboratories of the modern educational world. The tirst step in science is to doubt, and Franklin at eighteen had taken that step. Ho began to formulate from his own reason and ob- > nation the principles or maxims of the moral world. An experi- menter by birth, and by his intellectual powers and by his training becoming usefully conventional in his manner both of acquiring and of giving knowledge, he adapted himself to the conditions about him and escaped eccentricity, so that he was enabled to influence the world by his principles of life when another man, equally intellectual, by neglect- ing to adapt himself to the conventions of society would have had no in- fluence over it whatever. Franklin's sociology was founded on his conception of the general welfare; this was to him the great problem of life. It is to him we are indebted for the established use of the phrase " the general welfare." His large conception of humanity made him. a citizen of the world and his conception of morality was founded upon his interpretation of the general welfare. He says: I grew couvinced that truth, sincerity, and integrity In dealings Between man and man wrn; of the utmost importance to the felicity of life, and I formed written ft Inlioiir., which still ri-main in my journal book, to practice them ever while I lived. Observation had taught him the utility of virtue, and it may be said that had there been no system of morality in the world when Franklin was born he would have produced one and would have, founded it upon crime ntation, and his experimentation would have been based solely upon the doctrine of utility. We are not surprised to learn from him that revelation had little weight with him; that he entertained the opinion that certain actions should lie forbidden because, they were not beneficial to man, not that they were to be considered injurious to man because they were forbid- den. In other \\ords, all that promotes the general welfare is good, all that hinders it is bad. Vet his childhood teaching had bred in him the belief in t he existence ofaGod, and with this primary conception of the Divine Providence controlling the destiny of the human race he joined the utilitarian doctrine that truth and sincerity and integ- rity arc virtues, because t hey are of t he utmost importance tothe felicity of life: then-fore, in |,j s '-Sketch ,f an F.n-lish School," he would have all the lemons chosen for reading ''contain some useful instruction whereby the underMa nding of youth may at the same time be im- proved." He would have I >r. .Johnson'.- " First I'i inciplesof .Morality" read by -chohirs in the iilth form, "and explained by the master to lay FKANKLlN'tS SELF-EDUCATION. 17 a solid to. 'idation of virtue and piety in their iriinds." And in his k Proposals for the Education of Youth in Pennsylvania" he remarks: As to their studies, it would bo well if they could lo taught everything that U useful and everything that is ornamental. But art is long, and their time is short. It is therefore proposed that they Icaru those things that are likely to bo most useful and most ornamental; regard being had to the several professions for which they are intended. And he would teach morality " by descanting and making continual observations on the causes of the rise and fall of any man's character, fortune, and power, mentioned in history; the advantages of temper- ance, order, frugality, industry, and perseverance." It is to be noticed that he valued temperance, order, and frugality and the other virtues as advantageous to the general welfare, and did not recommend the study of morality for its own sake. Because the virtues were so advantageous, he declared "the general natural tend ency of reading good history must be to fix in the minds of the youth deep impressions of the beauty and usefulness of virtue of all kinds, public spirit, and fortitude." I laving laid down the proposition that virtue was advantageous and that it might be taught by examples from history, he turned to the sub- ject of religion in the curriculum, and advocated its presence there for the same reason that he had received it into his own philosophy. History [ho says] will also afford frequent opportunities of showing the necessity of a public religion, from its usefulness to the public, the advantages of a religious character among private persons, the mischief of superstition, and the excellency of the Christian religion above all others, ancient or modern. In other words, Franklin found religion in the world and he conclu- ded that it was a necessary element in promoting and securing the general welfare, and because it is necessary, therefore it should be ob- served ; but Franklin, unlike Emerson, would not have produced a sys- tem of religion had there been none in the world in his time. Having admitted by the force of his own self-experimentation the necessity of religion in society, he deduces its usefulness to the public, and this giving occasion for another indulgence in comparison, he at once con- cluded that "the Christian religion above all others, ancient or modern, was the most excellent." Had Franklin been born in India he proba- bly would have advocated the religion of Buddha. The notion that history affords frequent opportunities of showing the necessity of a public religion from its usefulness to the public, which is laid down in his "Proposals for the Education of Youth in Pennsyl- vania,' 7 of 1749, was anticipated thirty years before, as he tells us in his "Autobiography." His observations before his twentieth year having taught him the advantages to be derived from ingenious ac- quaintance, he organized the famous club called the "Junto," which met on Friday evenings, and he drew up rules for its procedure. Three classes of subjects were to be discussed by the company morals, poli- 1180 li 18 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. tic-, .mil natural philosophy lor these three comprehended all the utili- ties, and the wise understanding of the principles of them "would contrib- ute to the general welfare. In making up the Junto, Franklin took men who were successfully engaged in the ordinary pursuits of life. There was a copier of deeds, a surveyor, a shoemaker, a mechanic, a mer- chant's clerk, several printers, and a "witty gentleman of fortune." Franklin would have us believe that one common interest held these men together the love of books. If I were to name the symbol of Franklin's philosophy of education, 1 should say a book. Dr. Frank- lin and Dr. Samuel Johnson were as little alike as any two men of that age in their ideas of politics and religion ; they were both self-educated men, and the means of their education was books. It was Dr. Johnson who said, "Read anything five hours a day and you will soon be learned." Franklin and Johnson were the two great men of that cen- tury who owed their power and place in life to their love of books. Franklin, like Carlyle. probably would have said, "The best university is the best collection of books." The Junto at Philadelphia was the first book-loving and book-mak- ing body of men of America, for out of their labors grew the Library Company of Philadelphia, which became the parent of all the circu- lating libraries of America. The place of books in Franklin's philoso- phy of education is almost paramount; he recognized the lasting power of the printed page, and therefore in his scheme for the instruc- tion of children he elaborates his theory of education in making pro vi>ion for their exhaustive practice of composition and the reading of books. We must not forget that at the time that the Junto was formed books were scarce in America, that the ability to read and write Mas not common in the colonies, that there were no American libraries, and that books were expensive. M of the six classes into which Franklin would divide his ideal Knjilish School was chietly engaged in composition and in reading. IIi> lirst. "Croxall's Fables,'' which \\ere to be read aloud to them by the master and the diflicult \\ord- explained. It was this class which \\as to exercise memory by daily getting new words and by making a "little dictionary for future, In the study of the - Fables" very great care was to be taken for the improvement in orthography by learning the English grammar niles. and every effort made to >ecure "good spellers very early." Franklin, like all printers, had a horror of bad spelling. "For," said he, "it is a shame for a man to be so ignorant of this little art in his own language as to be perpetually confounding \\ords of like sound and different significations." This was the child's lirst equipment to understand a l>ook. ^ The second (-lass was "to be taught reading with attention and with proper modulations of the voice, according to the sentiment and the subject." It i> a pity that so many teachers of our day are almost in FRANKLIN'S SELF-EDUCATION. 19 total ignorance of the inexpressible value to the child of understanding what he reads, and one of the saddest errors in primary education is the omission to teach "reading with attention and with proper modu- lations of the voice, according to the sentiment and the subject." The understanding of the lessons in the second class would require them to give an account first of the parts of speech and the construction of one or two sentences, which would oblige them to recur frequently to their grammar, and to fix its principal rules in their memories; "next, of the intention of the writer or the scope of the piece, the meaning of each sentence, and of every uncommon word. This would early acquaint them with the meaning and force of words, and give them that most necessary habit of reading with attention." It was to this class that the master was to point out all the beauties and lessons of the pieces. Variety of subject and style in prose and verse, stories, sermons, the speeches of generals to their soldiers, which comprised the most inter- esting portions of "Plutarch's Lives," with which Franklin had become familiar in his boyhood, speeches in tragedy and in comedy, the mimic world which Franklin loved, odes, satires, letters, and blank verse, all comprising the various equipment of the man who would express himself readily to his fellow-man, were to constitute the reading lessons. An examination of a modern series of readers will show at a glance the world's opinion of Franklin's plan for the instruction of classes by well chosen lessons for reading, and I venture to say that the one book in our public schools which conveys, or can be made to convey, the greatest amount of training is the reading book. In order that children might read with attention Franklin required : That they should first study and understand the lessons before they are put upon leading them properly, to which end each hoy should have an English dictionary to help him over difficulties. When our boys read English to us we are apt to imagine tht-y understand what they read, because we do, and because it is their mother tongue ; but they often read, as parrots speak, knowing little or nothing of the mean- ing; and it is impossible that a reader should give the due modulation to his voice and pronounce properly unless his understanding goes before his tongue and makes him master of the sentiment. Accustoming boys to read aloud what they do not first understand is the cause of those even, set tones, so common among readers, which when they had once got a habit of using they find so difficult to correct, by which means among fifty readers we scarcely find a good one. For want of good reading, pieces published with a view to influence the minds of men for their own or the public benefit lose half their force. Were there but one good reader in a neighborhood a public orator might be heard throughout a nation with the same advantages, and have the same effect upon his audience as if they stood within the reach of his voice. Here, as ever, Franklin bases his ideas of education upon the ad- vantages which were to be derived from them in promoting the general welfare. He would have bfys learn reading in order to understand the. sentiment, and not merely to understand, but that the sentiment might influence them as if it had been spoken to them, for a book in Franklin's opinion had no right to exist unless it contributed to the. JO Till: t'.MVEKSlTY OF PENNSYLVANIA. public benefit, and reading, the means by which tlie thought of the book was made public, should be taught to the advantage of the whole nation. There will be occasion frequently to refer to Franklin's plan for the education of children. The Junto was almost as advantageous to Franklin and his asso elates as any university of the times could have been. His conception of the methods and possibilities of self-education was large, and the active interest .which each member of the Junto showed in its pros- perity demonstrated to him the advantage in general education of the same methods which made the Junto prosperous. The controlling principle of the Junto was that of self-interest; its rules and usages an- evidently derived from Franklin's recollections of Cotton Mather's lieuelit Societies. Cotton Mather had greatly influenced Franklin in his youth and had originated a system of neighborhood guilds, or ben- efit societies, which were formed in the several Congregational churches directly under Mather's influence. These societies, to twenty of which Mather himself belonged, were organized for the purpose of promoting the general interests of religion in Massachusetts and Mather had drawn up "certain points for consideration" that is, rules or orders for the management and to indicate the scope of the societies. The rules for the government of Mather's societies are interesting as the -prece- dent for the rules of the Philadelphia Junto. The "Points of Consideration" were the following: 1. Is then- any remarkable disorder iu the place that requires our endeavor for the suppression of it; and in what fair. Hfcely way may we endeavor it f -. I* there any particular per., u whoso disorderly behavior may be so scandalous and so notorious that we may ii > ,\. .1 to send unto the .said person our charitable admonitions! Or are there any contending persons whom wo should admonish, to i|Heiieh their contentions. :;. Is there any special service to the interest of religion which we may conven- iently desire our minister to take notice of? 4. Is there anything wo may do well to mention unto the justices for the further promoting yood order! !">. Is there any sort of officers among us to such a degree unmindful of their duty that we may do well to mind them of it! ii any farther method* be devised, that ignorance and wickedness may be .hased from our people in general, and that household piety in particular i.:ay flourish amoni; them! 7. lh.es then- appear any instance of oppression or fraudnlence in the dealings I any sort of people that may call for our essays to get it rectified? then- any matter to ! humbly moved into the legislative power to be en- acted into a law for public, hem-lit! :. l)o we know of any person languishing under sore and sad affliction; and is there anything we may do for the succor of such an alllicted neighbor? 1<>. Has any person any proposal to make lor our own further advantage and assist .iiice. that we ourselves may be in a probable aiulregular capacity to pursue the in- tention before us? In Mather's liniefit Societies Franklin, as a boy, had heard discus >iniis of a practical character bearing upon the immediate concerns of life about him, and the impression on his mind was permanent. In- FRANKLIN'S SELF-EDUCATION. '21 strutted by this boyish experience, in 1730 he organized the Junto with ;i purpose similar to that of the societies the improvement of its UK-MI bersand their I'd low-citizens in virtue, knowledge, and practical wisdom. Franklin did not seek to teach religion, but to encourage the acquisition of useful knowledge in morals, politics, and natural history. The mem- bership in the Junto was limited; and a candidate declared his love for mankind in general, his belief in freedom of thought, a love of truth for truth's sake, and his desire to obtain knowledge without prejudice, and, perhaps f chiefest importance, to communicate to others all kinds of useful information within his power. The Junto met on Friday evenings, and its rules illustrate Franklin's theory as to " abrupt contradiction and positive argumentation," and the "modest diffidence" of "a humble inquirer and doubter." There- fore, instead of prescribing dogmatic rules, or, as we would say, adopt- ing a constitution and by-laws, the Junto, at the opening of its meetings, read twenty-four queries which, it will be noticed, may be grouped under the three headings of morals, politics, and natural philosophy. These queries were: Have you read over these queries this morning in order to consider what yon might have (o <>ii<>r the Junto touching any one of them? Viz: I. Have you met with anything in the author you last read, remarkable or suitable to lie communicated to the Junto, particularly in history, morality, poetry, physic, travels, mechanic arts, or other parts of knowledge? l'. What new story have you lately heard agreeable for telling in conversation! :>. Hath any citizen, in your knowledge, failed in his business lately, and what have yon heard of the cause? 4. Have you lately heard of any citizens thriving well, and by what means? 5. Have yon lately heard how any present rich man, here or elsewhere, got his estate f ti. Do you know of a fellow-citizen who has lately done a worthy action deserving praise and imitation, or who lias lately committed an error proper for us to be warned against and avoid? 7. What unhappy effects, of intemperance have you lately observed or heard, of imprudence, . Do yon know of any young beginner lately set np, whom it lies in the power of the Junto any way to encourage? 14. Have you lately observed any defect in the laws of your country, of which it would be proper to move the legislature for an amendment? Or do you know of any beneficial law that is wanting? 22 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 15. Have you lately observed any encroachment on the just liberties of the people? 16. Hath any body attacked your reputation lately ? And what can the Junto do towards securing it? 17. Is there any man whose friendship you want, and which the Junto, or any of them, can procure for you ? 18. Have you lately heard any member's character attacked, and how have you defended it! 19. Hath any man injured you, from whom it is in the power of the Junto to pro- cure redress ? 20. In what manner can the Junto, or any of them, assist you in any of your hon- orable designs ? 21. Have you any weighty affair on hand in which you think the advice of the Junto may be of service? 22. What benefits have you lately received from any man not present? 23. Is there any difficulty in matters of opinion, of justice and injustice, which you would gladly have discussed at this time? 24. Do you see any thing amiss in the present customs or proceedings of the Junto which migjit be amended? This practical means for a liberal education was effected by Franklin when be was but 21 years of age, and undoubtedly the advantages which he and his associates obtained from their discussions in the Junto largely contributed to Franklin's success in life, and tended to shape all his ideas in education. If anyone would understand Frank- lin's idea of a school, let him examine the history of the Junto. The times were productive of a different set of inquiries or questions for debate than would interest a modern debating society; we must not forget that the eighteenth century in America was the period of the determination of the theory of republican government, and the Junto discussed political questions, all of which tended to the defini- tion of government. The political thinkers of the eighteenth century gave us the definition of our theory of the nature of government, the nineteenth century is working out the theory of the administration of government. The political discussions in the Junto, as some of the subjects are recorded, were : Can any one particular form of government suit all mankind ? How may the possession of the Lakes be improved to our advantage ? Some of the moral questions were: Which is less criminal, a bad action joined with a good intention, or a good action with a bad intention? Should it* be the aim of philosophy to eradicate the passions? Can a man arrive at perfection in this life? Which is best, to make a friend of a wise or good man that is poor, or of a rich man that is neither wise nor good. Which of the two is the greatest loss to the country if they both die? Of questions touching on natural philosophy: Whence comes the dew that stands on the outside of a tankard that has cold water in it in the summer time? Why does the flame of a candle tend upward in a spiref FRANKLIN'S SELF-EDUCATION. 23 And of questions of a practical turn, one suggestive of Franklin himself: Would not an office of insurance for servants be of service, and what methods are proper for erecting such an office? This is of interest when we think of the numerous companies which now insure employers against loss by employe's, and in other forms, of the insurance of domestic service. The Junto was limited to a membership of twelve, and Franklin in- sisted on kindness of speech, good manners, and cheerfulness in debate, which were secured by common agreement, by the singing of songs, and by diversions of various kinds. The influence of the Junto on Ameri- can life is felt to this day. America was probably the first country in the world in which debating societies have prospered among all classes of men, and they have tended to educate the American people in all sorts of subjects which have contributed, as Dean Stanley would have said, to the "education of after life." A volume might be written on the influence of debating societies in the education of Americans. I do not understand that Franklin would make a school a debating society merely, but an examination of his plan for six classes in an English school shows how the methods and ends of the Junto were ever present in his mind. The third class in his English school was "to be taught speaking properly and gracfully, which is near akin to good reading, and naturally follows it in the studies of youth." The scholars were to "begin with learning the elements of rhetoric from some short system, so as to be able to give an account of the most use- ful tropes and figures." Let all their bad habits of speaking, all offenses against good grammar, all cor- rupt or foreign accents, and all improper phrases be pointed ont to them. Short speeches from the Roman, or other history, or from the parliamentary debates, might be got by heart, and delivered with the proper action^ etc. Speeches and scenes in our best tragedies and comedies (avoiding every thing that could injure the morals of youth) might likewise be got by rote, aud the boys exercised in delivering or act- ing them ; great care being taken to form their manner after the truest models. For their further improvement, and a little to vary their studies [he says] let them now begin to read history, after having got by heart a short table of the prin- cipal epochs in chronology. They may begin with Rollin's ancient and Roman his- tories, and proceed at proper hours, as they go through the subsequnt classes, with the best histories of our nation and colonies. Let emulation be excited among the the boys by giving, weekly, little prizes, or other small encouragements, to those who are able to give the best account of what they have read, as to time, places, names of persons, etc. This will make them read with attention, and imprint the history well in their memories. In remarking on the history the master will have fine op- portunities of instilling instruction of various kinds, and improving the morals as well as the understandings of youth. All this in the spirit of the Junto, the book, the moral instruction, the debate; but there is more of the Junto also: The natural and mechanic history contained in the "Spectacle de la Nature'' might also be begun in this class, and the subject should be continued through the I' 1 THi: UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. suli'i|uent y other books of the same kind; for, next to the knowledge of duty, this kind of knowledge is certainly the most useful as well as the most enter- taining. The merchant may thereby be enabled better to understand many commod- ities in trade; the handicraftsman to improve his business by new instruments, mixtures, and materials; and frequently hints are given for new manufactures, or new methods of improving laud, that may be set on foot greatly to the advantage of a country. It is not strange that Franklin should pronounce studies in natural history " the most useful as well as the most entertaining." He saw in them the possibilities of almost infinite improvement in manufactures and agriculture. His views of the value to manufactures of studies in natural history is remarkable, for at the time in which he wrote there were no manufactures in America, and his broad generalization of the value of mechanics and natural history anticipates our present manufacturing age. Throughout his life Franklin was a scientific man, but he seems to have made all his experiments in science for utilitarian purposes. He seems never to have pursued scientific investigations merely for specu- lation. The whole cast of his mind was of a practical kind, and he ad- vocated the study of "natural and mechanic history" in school because such studies would give hints " greatly to the advantage of the coun- try." The wisdom of Franklin's plan for including natural history in its broadest meaning in the course of study is significantly recognized in the foundation, endowment, increase, and practical value of the nu- merous technical schools in the country at the present time. He an- ticipated the chief educational departure of modern times. In the Junto were discussed many of the economic questions of the day, and one debate so interested Franklin that he elaborated the sub ject in a pamphlet entitled " The Nature and Necessity of a Paper Cur- rency," a pamphlet of great importance practically at the time and in the history of political economy, and of which more will be said. Tlic organization of the Junto made known more clearly one of the wants of the time, a library. The members had a few books as their personal property, but there were not enough books among them to meet the wants of the society. The meetings of the Junto were first held in a tavern, one of the alehouses common in Philadelphia at the time, where the members assembled informally and brought such books as illustrated the subjects for debate. This seems to have sug- ;je-ted to Franklin t he organization of a library for the use of the .Junto in debate. His suggestion was approved and a small room in Mr. shillings a year for the increase of the library. He had some dit'li- cnlty in securing a sufficient subscription. Hiding himself under the phrase of "a number of friends," and following the ruling principle of "humble diffidence" of which he was so fond, he was at last able to see the affair going on smoothly, and in five months fifty names were obtained. A list of books was made out and an order to the value of 45 pounds was sent to London. The books arrived in Philadelphia in October, 1732, and were placed in a room in the house of Mr. Grace which was set apart for the use of the Junto; a librarian was appointed, and the books were given out once a week. Franklin served as librarian for a time. The undertaking was a success and we are told of donations to it of books, money, and curiosities. It grew rapidly; the company obtained a charter, and increased its membership to a hundred, and, as Franklin says: This waa the mother of all the North American subscription libraries, now so numerous. It is become a great thing in itself, and continually goes on increasing: these libraries have improved the general conversation of the Americans, made the common tradesmen and farmers as intelligent as most gentlemen from other conn- trirs, and perhaps have contributed in some degree to the stand so generally made throughout the colonies in defense of their privileges. 1 When Franklin describes the library as "a great thing in itself," he is emphasizing the cardinal doctrine of his educational system, the use of the right book. His scheme of education embodies methodical in- struction in a few selected books which embody the best thoughts ot the best minds, which should be conveyed to youth in the best man ner; that is, in a natural manner. It is impossible to estimate the influence of Franklin's idea on America, If we measure it by the in- fluence of libraries in our country, we might safely affirm that Amer- icans are more indebted to Benjamin Franklin for their education than to any other man that ever lived. The large possibilities of Franklin's principles of education are to be valued by their adaptability to the ever-growing wants of the p.eople. It should not be forgotten that the principle of the circulating library anil the first principle of Franklin's scheme of education grew up in his mind from his own experience in self-education j in the reading of books when a child, in learning to write English correctly in the organ i/at ion of the Junto, in its debates on morals, politics, and natural philosophy, and in the necessary equip- ment for its debates a library. Franklin's practical mind seems to have viewed morality as it viewed polities and natural philosophy, that by thinking, by experiment, by observation, and by practice, a man might arrive at moral perfection. ' 2G ' TTIK UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. It would be a gross neglect of Franklin's philosophy of education were we to omit some account of his '-Art of Virtue." We must not forget that Franklin was born in New England; that his father and mother Mere members of the Old South church, and that he himself was bap- tized there; that his earliest impressions were religious impressions; that his New Kngland home was the home of an earnest and somewhat polemic Calvinism, with its rigid simplicity. The insistence of his parents upon a wholesome industry and practical morality, and a stern recogni- tion of the "chief end of man," made an impression upon Franklin's character that never was effaced. He says : I had been religiously educated as a Presbyterian; but, though some of the dog- mas of that persuasion, such as the eternal decrees of God, election, reprobation, etc., appeared to me unintelligible, and I early absented myself from the assemblies of the sect (Sunday being my studying day), I never was without some religious principles. 1 never doubted, for instance, the existence of a Deity, that He made the world, and governed it by His providence ; that the most acceptable service of God was the doing good toman; that our souls are immortal; and that all crimes will be punished, and virtue rewarded, either here or hereafter. 1 These I esteemed the essentials of every religion, and being to be found in all the religions we had in our country, I respected them all, though with different degrees of respect, as I found them more or less mixed with other articles, which, without any tendency to inspire, promote, or con- firm morality, served principally to divide us. and make us unfriendly to one another. He therefore seldom attended public worship, though he had an opinion of its propriety, and of its utility when rightly conducted." and he regularly paid his annual subscription for the support of the only Presbyterian meeting in Philadelphia. Viewing religion as " proper and useful," lie conceived of it, as he conceived of politics and natural philosophy, that it should be the subject of investigation, improvement, and adaptation to the wants of man. He could not think of religion as being incapable of improvement, and as he identified religion and morality, he says: It was about this time I conceived the bold and arduous project of arriving at moral perfection; 1 wished to live without committing any fault at anytime, and to conquer all that either natural inclination, custom, or company might lead me into. As I knew, or thought I knew, what was right and wrong, I do not see why I might not always do the one and avoid the other. But I soon found that I had mi dertaken a task of more dillieulty than I had imagined; while my attention was taken up and care employed in guarding against one fault. I was often surprised ly another; habit took the advantage of inattention; inclination was sometimes loo strong for reason. I concluded at length that the mere speculative conviction that it was our interest to be completely virtuous was not sullicient to prevent our slip- ping, and that, the contrary habits must be broken and good ones acquired and es- tablished before we can have any dependence on a steady, uniform rectitude of mind. In other words, Franklin proposed to educate himself in morality as he had educated himself in English composition and in arithmetic. He 'See the clause on a belief in a future state of rewards and punishments in the Constitution of the State of Pennsylvania of 177G, and of 1790, which Franklin was concerned in making. It is in the present State Constitution of 1873. Art. I, $ 4. The Constitution of 177*! and of 1790 are in "The Proceedings Relative to Calling the Conventions of 1776 and 1790,"etc. Harrisburg, 1825, p. 54, p. 129, etaeq., p. 296. FRANKLIN'S SKLF-KMH ,'ATK >x. 27 therefore contrived ;i method of self-education in morals. He drew up a catalogue of the virtues, and, for sake of clearness, used "rather mo it- names, with fewer ideas annexed to each, than a few names with more ideas." These virtues were thirteen in number: Temperance, silence, order, resolution, frugality, industry, sincerity, justice, moderation, cleanliness, trauquility, chastity, humility. The moral world to him was a region for experiment, and he was the moral world. He pro- ceeded to experiment with himself as he would experiment in electric- ity. Perhaps the originality and practical tendency of his mind was never better displayed than in his scheme for perfection in the "art of virtue." He says: I made a little book, in which I allotted a page for each of the virtues. I ruled each page with red ink so as to have seven columns, one for each day of the week, marking each column with a letter for the day. I crossed these columns with thirteen red lines, marking the beginning of each line with the first letter of one of the virtues, on which line, and in its proper column, I might mark by a little black spot every fault I found upon examination to have been committed respecting virtue upon that day. Form of the pages. TEMPERANCE. Eat not to dullness ; Drink not to elevation. S. M. T. W. T. F. S. T. S. * * * * o. ** * ' * * * K. * P. * * * I. * S. J. M. C. T. C. H. THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. This little book is dated July 1, 17.'!'!. when Franklin was a little past -7 years of age, and from the form of the pages, which is given, we can read I-'ranklin's progress in the "art of virtue" for one week. His scheme provided for a complete course in thirteen weeks, and four courses in a year, and taking a lesson from the gardener, who does not attempt "to eradicate all the bad herbs at once (which would exceed his reach and strength), but works on one of the beds at a time, and, having accomplished the first, proceeds to a second," so Franklin had hope that "by clearing successively my lines of their spots till in the end. by a number of courses, I should be happy in viewing a clean book after a thirteen week's daily examination." This self education in virtue is on the same principle as Mather's Societies" and Franklin's "Junto," for self-improvement. Being a practical man, Franklin strengthened his little book with maxims and quotations one from Addison's " Cato," which he had doubtless learned years before in the "Spectator;" another from "Cicero," and a third from the "Proverbs of Solomon:" Length of days is in her right hand, and in her left hand riches and honor. Her ways are ways of pleasantness, and all her paths are peace. But not satisfied with mere quotation, he prefixed to his tables of examination for daily use, a little prayer of his own composition, of itself a lesson in self-improvement in the "art of virtue": powerful Goodness! bountiful Father! merciful Guide! Increase me in that wis- dom which discovers my truest interest. Strengthen my resolutions to perform what that wisdom dictates. Accept my kind offices to thy other children as the only re- turn in 7iiy power for thy continual favors to me. His "Art of Virtue" was the art of promoting the general .welfare by .self improvement and self-education in morals. Franklin was a busy man and he found it troublesome to keep an ordinary book which must be renewed from time to time, and which, "by scraping out the marks on the paper of old faults to make room for new ones in a new course, became full of holes," he says : 1 transfei red my tables and precepts to the ivory loaves of a memorandum book, on whieh the lines were e isuch. That the different views of these different parties occasion all confusion. That while a p arty is carrying on a general design, each man has his piirtinilar private interest in view. That as soon as a party has gain'd its general point each member becomes intent upon his particular interest, which, thwarting others, breaks that party into divis- ions, and occasions much confusion. That few in public affairs act from a mere view of the good of their country, what- ever they may pretend; and, tho' their actings bring real good to their country, vet men primarily considered that their own and their country's interest was united, and did not act from a principle of benevolence. That fewer still, in public affairs, act with a view to the good of mankind. There seems to me at presentto be great occasion for raising a United Party fur Vir- tue, by forming the virtuous and good men of all nations into a regular body, tu lit- goycrn'd by suitable good and wise rules, which good and wise men may probably be more unanimous in their obedience to, than common people are to common laws. I at present think that whoever attempts this aright, and is well qualified, can not fail of pleasing God, and of meeting with success. If I understand these observations correctly, they signify that Frank lin conceived of a moral order, and proceeding on that principle lie made scientific deductions, which were that the moral order would ob- tain if men understood the principles of the moral world, and therefore, he would encourage all men to make self -improvement the basis for such moral investigation and from the mass of these moral experiments deduce the ruling principles of the moral world. In this mental process which is illustrated in Franklin again and again we see the man of science. When in 1757 Franklin had engaged passage to England in a Xew York packet ship, had embarked stores for himself and his son, and was waiting the tedious orders of Lord Louden, who delayed the sail- ing of the fleet more than three months, he had occasion to practice his "art of virtue" and illustrate all his capacity for patience and hap piness. It was upon this voyage that he remarked : How imperfect is the art of ship building, that it can never be known till she is fried whether a new ship will or will not be a good sailer, for that the model of a <;ood sailing ship has been exactly followed in a new one, which has proved on the 30 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. contrary, remarkably dull. I apprehend that this may partly be occasioned by the different opinions of seamen respecting the modes of lading, rigging, and sailing of a ship ; each lias its system, and the same vessel, laden by the judgment and orders of one captain, shall sail better or worse than when by the orders of another. Besides, it scarce ever happens that a ship is formed, fitted for the sea, and sailed by the same person. * * * Yet I think a set of experiments might be instituted, first, to de- termine the most proper form of the hull for swift sailing ; next, the best dimensions and properest place for the masts; then the form and quantity of sails, and their position, as the wind may be ; and, lastly, the disposition of the lading. This is an age of experiments, and I think a set accurately made and combined would be of great use. I am persuaded, therefore, that ere long some ingenious philosopher will undertake it, to whom I wish success. His observations on the sailing of ships illustrate his ideas in edu- cation : by frequent experiment rules for the conduct of life should be deduced and the dominant idea in all experimentation should be utility. The idea of experimentation and the deduction of principles from it is the chief idea in Franklin's philosophy of education; he would have natural and mechanic history taught because deductions might be made from such instruction .that would improve agriculture and mechanics. He would have composition taught to the fourth class in his English school because Writing one's own language well is the next necessary accomplishment after good speaking. It is the writing master's business to take care that the boys make lair characters, and place them straight and even in the line; but to form their style and even to take care that the stops and capitals are properly disposed is the part of the English master. The boys should, be put on writing letters to each other on any common occurrences, and on various subjects, imaginary business, etc., containing little stories, accounts of their late reading, what parts of authors please them, and why; letters of congratulation, of compliment, of request, of thanks, of recom- mendation, of admonition, of consolation, of expostulation, excuse, etc. In these they should lie taught to express themselves clearly, concisely, and naturally, with- out affected words or high-flown phrases; all their letters to pass through the mas- ter's hand, who is to point out the faults, advise the corrections, and commend what he finds right. Some of the best letters published in our own language, as Sir Wil- liam Temple's, those of l'ope and his friends, and some others, might be set before the youth as models, their beauties pointed out and explained by the master, the letters themselves transcribed by the scholar. Dr. Johnson's I'.thices Elementa, or First Principles of Morality, may now be read by the scholars, and explained by the master, to lay a solid foundation of virtue and piety in their minds. And as this class continues the reading of history, let them now, at proper hours, receive some further instruction in chronology, and in that pan of gengraphy (from the mathematical master) which is necessary to understand the maps and globes. They should also be acquainted with the modern names of the places they find mentioned in ancient writers. The exercises of good reading and proper speaking still continued at suitable times. His fifth class" for further improvement in composition, were to con- tinue writing letters, and in addition to begin writing Little essays in prose, and sometimes in verse; not to make them poets, but for this reason, that nothing acquaints a hid so speedily with variety of exercises as the necessity of finding such words and phrases as will suit the measure, sound, and FRANKLIN'S SELF-EDUCATION. 31 rhyme of verse, and at the same time will express the sentiment. These essays should all pass under the master's eye, who will point out their faults anl put the writer on correcting them. Where the judgment, is not ripe enough for forming new essays, let the sentiment of a Spectator be given, and required to be clothed in the scholar's own words; or the circumstances of some good story, the scholar to find expression. Letthem be put sometimes on abridging a paragraph of a diffuse author; sometimes on dilating or amplifying what is wrote more closely. And now let Dr. Johnson's Noetica, or First Principles of Human Knowledge, containing a logic, or art of reasoning, etc., be read by the youth, and the difficulties that may occur to them be explained by the master. The reading of history and the exercise of good reading and just speaking still continued. This formula is the epitome of Franklin's own experience ; he had written little essays in prose and sometimes in verse as a boy and had learned the art from his uncle who was a prodigious maker of verses. Franklin, while apprenticed to his brother in Boston, had written some doggerel verses and some street ballads which sold so well that he was persuaded of their value, but his passing inclination to become a poet was smothered by his father's sage remark, characteristic of the whole Franklin family, that "poets were usually very poor people and died beggars." 1 His plan for clothing the sentiments of the Spectator in the scholar's own words was based entirely on his own boyish acquaintance with the Spectator. In his 16th year he had experienced the exquisite pleasure, of which he spoke more than half a century later, of seeing his first piece in print in the Boston Courant, and though it was not signed Benjamin Franklin, it was his own, that is, as much his own as a paraphrase of a popular author could be. Under the signature of " Silence Dogood.'' he wrote a number of articles in which he criticises colleges and gradu- ates of colleges, discusses childhood, marriage, and widowhood, and in the language of "affected words and high-flown phrases delivered him- self of his thought." These articles in the old Boston Courant were doubtless in Franklin's mind when he prescribed the kind of composi- tion useful for the classes in the English school. He had educated himself in that way. His scientific mind recognized the value of correct deductions, and therefore logic took a primary place in his system of education. His first class should be taught the English grammar rules; his second class should construe the parts of speech and sentences, and recur to the rules of grammar; his third class should learn the elements of rhetoric, and his fifth class should study the art of reasoning in Dr. Johnson's First Principles of Human Knowledge, because without practice in the art of reasoning correct deductions in life could not be made. Franklin's introduction of logic into the studies of the English sch ool was due not only to the tendency of his own mind, but also to the results of his own experience. At 15, soon alter awakening to 'See a specimen of Franklin's verses, p. 118. TIIK r.MVKKSlTY leasin;v Mjl'.jeet I'm- historical investigation. FRANKLIN ,S SELF-EDUCATION. 33 in the evening without hearing psalms sung in different families in every street/' The. eloquence of Whitefield and the multitudinous < perpetually confounding words of like sound and different signi- fications, the consciousness of which defect makes some men, otherwise of good learning and understanding, averse to writing even a common letter. Let the pieces read by the scholars in this class be short, such as Croxall's Fables, and little stories. In giving the lesson let it be read to them ; let the meaning of the difficult words in it be explained to them, and let them con over by themselves be- fore they are called to read to the master or usher, who is to take particular care that they do not read too fast, and that they duly observe the stops and pauses. A vo- cabulary of the most usual difficult words might be formed for their use with expla- nations, and they might daily get a few of those words and explanations by heart, which would a little exercise their memories, or at least they might write a number of them in a small book for the purpose, which would help to fix the meaning of those words in their minds and at the sume time furnish every one with a little dictionary for his future use. 'An important and. in its influence, a far-reaching except ion is to be made for New England. See account of John Adams's plan for public education and the constitu- tion of Massachusetts, 1780, infra, p. 173. FRANKLIN'S SELF-EDUCATION. 37 THK SECOND CI.A-- To lie taught reading with attention, and with proper mod illations of the voice, according to the sentiment and the subject. Some short pieces, not exceeding the length of a Spectator, to be given this clans foi- lessons (and some of t In- easier Spectators would be very sui I able tor the pur- pose). These lessons might lie given every night as tasks, the scholars to study them against the morning. Let it then be required of them to give an account, i of the parts of speech and construction of one or two sentences. This will p. .tutor be given ancave ever speak or \\ritc; or. if upon occasion thi> ^hould happen, they should lie excuse! for the mistakes and faults they make in it. Would not a Chinese, who took notice tif tUis way of breeding, be apt to imagine that all our young genl leiuen wvre designed to he teachers and professors of tlwr dead languages of foreign countries, aud not to he men of business in their own!" The same author adds (p. l.'.V M , That if grammar ought to be taught at any time, it must be to one that ran speak the language already; how else van he lie taught tbe grammar of it? This at least is e\ ident from the practice of the wise and learned Cations among the ancients. They made it a part of education, to cultivate their o\\n, not foreign tongues. The Greeks counted all other nations barbarous, and had FRANKLIN'S SELF-EDUCATION. 41 the .contribution on this footing, that it was not to he immediate, mid tin- u hole paid at once, but in parts, :i fifth annually during live years. Tu put the machine in motion, twenty-four of the principal subscribers agreed to take upon themselves the trust ; and a set of constitutions for their government, and for the regulation of the schools, were drawn up by Mr. Francis and myself, which were signed by us all, and printed, that the public might know what was to be expected. I wrote also a paper entitled, Idea of an English School, which was printed and afterwards annexed to Mr. Peter's Sermon, preached at the opening of the Academy. This paper was said to be for the consideration of the trustees; and the expectation of the public, that the idea might in a great measure be carried into execution, contributed to render the subscriptions more liberal as well as more general. I mention my concern in these transactions, to show the opportunity 'I had of being well informed in the points I am relating. a contempt fo their languages. And though the Greek learning grew in credit among the Romans toward the end of their commonwealth, yet it was the Roman tongue that was made the study of their youth. Their own language they were to make use of, and therefore it was their own language they were instructed and exer- eised in." And (p. 281), "There can scarce be a greater defect," says he, "in a gen- tleman, than not express himself well either in writing or speaking. But yet I think I may ask the reader whether he doth not know a great many who live upon their estates, and so, with the name, should have the qualities of gentlemen, who can not so much as tell a story as they should, much less speak clearly and persuasively in any business. This I think not to be so much their fault aa the fault of their educa- tion." Thus far Locke. Monsieur Rollin reckons the .neglect of teaching their own tongue a great fault in the French universities. He spends a great part of his first volume of Belles Let- tres on that subject; and lays down some excellent rules or methods of teaching French to Frenchmen grammatically, and making them masters therein, which are very applicable to our language, but too long to be inserted here. He practiced them on the youth under his care with great success. Mr. Hutchinson (Dial.. p. 1297) says: "To perfect them in the knowledge of their mother tongue they should learn it in the grammatical way, that they not only speak it purely, but be aide both to correct their own idiom and afterwards enrich the language on the same foundation.' Dr. Turnbull, in his Observations on a Liberal Education, says (p. 262) : ''The Greeks, perhaps, made more early advances in the most useful sciences than any youth have done, since, chiefly on this account, that they studied no other language but their own. This, no doubt, saved them very much time; but they applied them- selves carefully to the study of their own language, and were early able to speak and write it in the greatest perfection. The Roman youth, though they learned the Greek, did not neglect their own language, but studied it more carefully tban we now do Greek and Latin, without giving ourselves any trouble about our o\\n tongue." Monsieur Simon, in an elegant discourse of his among the Memoirs of the Academy of Relies Lettres, at Paris, speaking of the stress the Romans laid on purity of lan- guage and graceful pronunciation, adds: ''May I here make a rcllection on the edu- cation \\b commonly give our children .' It is very remote from the precepts I have mentioned. Hath the child arrived to 6 or 7 years of age he mixes with a herd of ill-bred hoys at school, where, under the pretext of teaching him Latin, no regard is bad to his mother tongue. And \^hat happens f What we see every day. A \onng gentleman. of 18 who has had this education can not read. For to articulate the words and join them together I dp not call reading unless one can pronounce well, observe all proper stops, vary the Aoice. express the sentiment, and read with a deli- cate intelligence. Nor can he speak a jot better. A proof of this is that he can not write ten lines without committing gross faults, and because he did not learn his 42 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. These con.-titutions an- upon record in your minutes; and, although the Latin and Greek arc h\ tin-in to be taught, the original idea oi' a complete Knglish education was not forgotten, as will appear by the following extracts: Page 1. " The English tongue is to be taught grammatically, and as a language." Page 4. In reciting the qualification of the person to lie appointed rector, it is said, ' that great regard is to he had to his polite speaking, writing, and under- standing the English tongue.'' owii language well in his early years he will never know it well. I except a few, who being afterwards engaged by their profession or their natural taste, cultivate their iiiiiuls by study. And yet, even they, if they attempt to write, will find by the labor what composition costs them, what a loss it is not to have learned their lan- guage in proper season. Education among the Romans was upon a quite different footing. Masters of rhetoric taught them early the principles, the difficulties, the beauties, the subtilties, the depths, the riches of their own language. When they went from these schools they were perfect masters of it; they were never at a loss for proper expression, and I am much deceived'if it Avas not owing to this that tliey produced such excellent works with so marvelous facility." Pliny, in his letter to a lady on choosing a tutor for her sou, speaks of it as the most material thing in his education that he should have a good Latin master of rhetoric, and recommends Julius Genitor for his eloquent, open, and plain faculty of speaking. He does not advise her to a Greek master of rhetoric, though the Greeks were famous for that science, but to a Latin master because Latin was the boy's mother tongue. In the above quotation from Monsieur Simon we see what was the office and duty of the master of rhetoric. To form their style they should be put on writing letters to each other, making abstracts of what they read; or writing the same things in their own words; telling or writing stories lately read, in their own expressions. All to be revised and cor- rected by the tutor, who should give his reasons, explain the force and import of words, etc. This Mr. Locke recommends (Educ., p. 284), and says: " The writing of letters has so much to do in all the occurrences of human life that no gentleman can avoid show- ing himself in this kind of writing. Occasions will daily force him to make this use of his pen, which, besides the consequence that, in his affairs, the well or ill manag- ing it often draws after it. always Jays him open to a severer examination of his breeding, sense, and abilities than oral discourses, whose transient faults, dying for the most part with the sound that gives them life, and so not subject to a strict re- view, more easily escape observation and censure." He adds: "Had the methods of education been directed to their right end, one would have thought this so necessary a part could not have been neglected, whilst themes and verses in Latin, of no use at all, were so constantly everywhere pressed, to the racking of children's invention beyond their strength, and hindering their cheerful progress by unnatural dillu ulties. Hut custom has so ordained it, and who dares disobey? And would it not be very unreasonable to require of a learned country schoolmaster (who has all the tropes and figures in Famaby's Rhetoric at his fingers' ends i to teach his scholar to express himself handsomely in English, \\ hen ,'pears to be so little his business or thought that the boy's mother (despised, 'tis like, as illiterate for not having read a system of logic or rhetoric) outdoes him in it? "To speak and write correctly gives a grace and gains a favorable attention to what one has to say. And since 'tis English that an Englishman will have constant use of, that is the language he should chiefly cultivate and wherein most care should be taken to polish and perfect his style. To speak or write better Latin than English may make a man be talked of; but he Avill find it more to his purpose to express him- self well in his own tongue, that he uses every moment, than to have the vain com- mendations of others ior a very insignificant quality. This I find universally neglected, FRANKLIN'S SELF-EDUCATION. 43 "The rector was to have 200 pounds a year, for which be was to be obliged to teach 20 boys, without any assistance (and twenty-five more for every usher pro- vided for him), the Latin and Greek languages; and at the same time instructthemiu history, geography, chronology, logic, rhetoric, and the English tongue." "The rector was also, on all occasions consistent with his duty in the Latin school, to assist the English master in improving the youth'under his care. " Payeo. " The trustees shall, with all convenient speed, contract with any person nor no care taken anywhere to improve young men in their own language, that they may thoroughly understand and be masters of it. If anyone among us have a facility or purity more than ordinary in his mother tongue, it is owing to chance, or his genius, or anything, rather than to his education or any care of his teacher. To mind what English his pupil speaks or writes is below the dignity of one bred up among Greek and Latin, though he have but little of them himself. These are the learned languages, fit only for learned men to meddle with and teach; English is the language of the illiterate and vulgar. Though the great men among the Romans were daily exercising themselves in their own language, and we find yet upon the record the names of orators who taught some of their Emperors Latin, though it were their mother tongue, 'tis plain the Greeks were yet more nice in theirs. All other speech was barbarous to them but their own, and no foreign language appears to have been studied or valued amongst that learned and acute people, though it be past doubt that they borrowed their learning and philosophy from abroad.'' To the same purpose writes a person of eminent learning in a letter to Dr. Turn- bull. "Nothing, certainly," says he, "can be of more service to mankind than a right method of educating the youth, and I should be glad to hear to give an example of the great advantage it would be to the rising age and to our nation. When our public schools were first established the knowledge of Latin was thought learning; and he that had a tolerable skill in two or three languages, though his mind was not enlightened*by any real knowledge, was a profound scholar. But it is not so at present; and people confess that men may have obtained a perfection iu these and yet continue deeply ignorant. The Greek education was of another kind " (which he describes in several particulars, and adds) : "they studied to write their own tongue more accurately than we do Latin and Greek. But where is English taught at present? Who thinks it of use to study correctly that language which he is so used to every day in his life, be his station ever so high or ever so insignificant.. It is in this the nobility and gentry defend their country, and serve their prince iu Parliament; in this the lawyers plead, the divines instruct, and all ranks of people write their letters and transact all their affairs; and yet who thinks it worth while his learning to write this even accurately, not to say politely! Everyone is suffered to form his style by chance; to imitate the first wretched model which falls ia his way before he knows what is faulty or can relish the beauties of a just simplicity. Few think their children qualified for a trade till they have been whipped at a Latin school for five or six years to learn a little of that which they are obliged to forget, when in those years right education would have improved their minds and taught them to acquire habits of writing their own language easily under right direction; and this would have been useful to them as long as they lived." (Introd., pp. 3-5.) To form their pronunciation, they may be put on making declamations, repeating speeches, delivering orations, etc. ; the tutor assisting at the rehearsals, teaching, advising, correcting their accent, etc. By prouounciatiou is here meant the proper modulation of the voice to suit the subject, with due emphasis, action, etc. In delivering a discourse in public designed to persuade, the manner, perhaps, con- tributes more to success than either the matter or method. Yet the two latter seem to engross the attention of most preachers and other public speakers, and the former to be almost totally neglected. 44 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. tint' otVcrs. -whom they -shall judge most capable of teaching The English tongue iM'ammatically and as a language, history, geography, chronology, logic, and oratory; which person shall be styled the English master." The English master -was to have 100 pounds a year, for which he was to teach, without any assistance, forty scholars the English tongue grammatically; and at the same time instruct them iif history, geography, chronology, logic, and oratory; and sixty scholars more for every usher provided, for him. It is to he observed, in this place, that here are two distinct courses in the same study that is, of the same branches of science, viz., history, geography, chronology, logic, and oratory to be carried on at the same time, but not by the same tutor or master. The English master is to teach his scholars all those branches of science, and also the English tongue grammatically, as a language. The Latin master is to teach the same sciences to his boys, besides the Greek and Latin. He was also to -t the English master occasionally, without which, and his general care in the government of the schools, the giving him double salary seems not well accounted for. But here are plainly two distinct schools or courses of education provided for. The Latin master was not to teach the English scholars logic, rhetoric, etc. ; that was the duty of the English master; but he was to teach those sciences to the Latin scholars. We shall see, hereafter, how easily this original plan was defeated and departed from. When the constitutions were first drawn, blanks were left for the salaries and for the number of boys the Latin master was to teach. The first instance of partiality in favor of the Latin part of the institution was in giving the title of rector to the Latin master and no title to the English one. But the most striking instance was, when we met to sign, and the blanks were first to be filled up, the votes of a major- ity carried it to give twice as much salary to the Latin master as to the English, and yet require twice as much duty from the English master as from the Latin, viz, 1><>0 to the Latin master to teach 20 boys, 100 to the English master to teach 40! However, the trustees who voted these salaries, being tnemselves by far the greatest Hubscribers, though not the most numerous, it was thought they had a kind of right to predominate in money matters, and those who had wished an equal regard might have been shown to both schools, submitted, though not without regret, and at times some little complaining, which, with their not being able in nine months to find a proper person for English master who would undertake the office for so low a salary, induced the trustees at length, viz, in July, 1750, to offer 50 more. Another instance of (lie partiality above mentioned was in the March preceding, when 100 sterling was voted to buy Latin and Greek books, maps, drafts, and in- struments for the use of the Academy and nothing for the English books. The great part of the subscribers, who had the English education chiefly in view, were, however, soothed into a submission to these partialities, chiefly by Hie expec- tation given them by the constitution, viz, that the trustees would make it their pleasure, and in some degree their business, to visit the Academy often, to encourage and countenance the youth, look on the students as in some measure their own chil- dren, treat them \\itli familiarity and all'cctiou ; and, when they have behaved well, gone through their studies, and are to enter the world, the trustees shall zealously unite and make all the interest that can be made to promote and establish them, whether in Imsiness, offices, marriages, or any other thing for their advantage, prefer - aide, to all other persons whatsoever, even of equal merit. I h.-r >plcndid promisesdax/led the eyes of the public. The trustees were mostof them the principal ^entlrmcn of the province.. Children taught mother schools had no reason '" expect such powerful patronage. The subscribers had placed such en- tire confidence in them as to leave themselves no power of changing them if their conduct of the plan should bo disapproved; and so, in hopes of the best, all these partialities were submitted to. FRANKLIN'S SELF-EDUCATION. 45 Near a year passed before a proper person was found to take charge of the English school. At length Mr. Dove, who had been many years master of a school in Eng- land, and had come hither with an apparatus for giving lectures in experimental philosophy, was prevailed with by me, after his lectures were finished, toac pt that employment for the salary ottered, though he thought it too scanty. He had a good voice, read perfectly well, with proper accent and just pronunciation, and his method of communicating habits of the same kind to his pupils was this: When he gave a lesson to one of them, he always first read it to him aloud, with all the different modulations of voice that the subject and the sense required. These the scholars, in studying and repeating the lesson, naturally endeavored to imitate; and it was really surprising to see how soon they caught his manner, which con- vinced me and others who frequently attended his school, that, though bad t> and manners in reading are, when once acquired, rarely, with difficulty, if ever cured, yet, when none have been already formed, good ones are as easily learned as bad. In a few weeks after opening his school, the trustees were invited to hear the schol- ars read and recite. The parents and relations of the boys also attended. The per- formances were surprisingly good, and of course Avere admired and applauded; and the English school thereby acquired such reputation that the number of Mr. Dove's scholars soon amounted to upwards of ninety, which number did not diminish as long as he continued master, viz, upwards of two years ; but, he finding the salary insufficient, and having setup a school for girls in his own house to supply the defi- ciency, and quitting the boys' school somewhat before the hour to attend the girls, the trustees disapproved of his so doing, and he quitted their employment, contin- ued his girls' school, and opened one for boys on his own account. The trustees provided another English master ; but, though a good man, yet not possessing the talents of an English schoolmaster in the same perfection with Mr. Dove, the school diminished daily, and soon was found to have but about forty scholars left. The performance of the boys, in reading and speaking, were no longer so brilliant; the trustees of course had not the same pleasure in hearing them, and the monthly visi- tations, which had so long afforded a delightful entertainment to large audiences, became less and less attended, and at length discontinued; and the English school has never since recovered its original reputation. Thus, by our injudiciously starving the English part of our scheme of education, we only saved 50 a year, which was required as an additional salary to an ac- knowledged excellent English master, which, would have equaled his encourage- ment to that of the Latin master. I say, by saving the 50, we lost fifty scholars, which would have been 200 a year, and defeated, besides, one great, end of the in- stitution. In the meantime our favors were showered upon the Latin part. The number of teachers was increased and their salaries from time to time augmented till, if I mis- take not, they amounted in the whole to more than 600 a year, though the schol- ars hardly ever exceeded sixty; so that each scholar cost the funds 10 per annum, while he paid but 4, which was a loss of 6 on every one of them. The monthly visitations of the schools by the trustees having been long neglected, the omission was complained of by the parents as a breach of original promise; whereupon the trustees (July 11, 1755) made it a law that "they should meet on the second Tuesday in every mouth, at the Academy, to visit the schools, examine the scholars, hear their public exercises," etc. This good law, however, like many others, was not long observed ; for I find by a minute of December 14, 1756, that the examination of the schools by the trustees had been long neglected, and it was agreed that it should thereafter be done on the first Monday in every month; and yet, notwithstanding this new rule, the neglect returned, so that we are informed, by another minute of January 13, 1761, "that for five months past there had not been one meeting of the trustees.'' In the course of fourte"n years several of the original trustees, who had been disposed to favor the English school, deceased, and 46 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. others not so favorable were chosen to supply their places: however, it appears by the n inutes that the remainder had sometimes weight enough to recall the, atten- tion of their t olleagues to that school and obtain acknowledgments of the unjust neglect it had been treated with. <>f this the following extract from the minutes is authentic proof, viz (Minute Hook. Vol. 1. I'ehruary 8, 1763): "The state of the English school was taken into consideration, and it was ob- served that Mr. Kinnersley's time was entirely taken up in teaching little boys the elements of the English language (this is what it dwindled into a school similar to those kept by old women who teach children their letters); and that speaking and rehearsing in public -were totally disused, to the great prejudice of the other schol- ars and students, and contrary to the original design of the trustees in the forming of that school; and, as this was a matter of great importance, it was particularly recommended to be fully considered by their trustees at their next meeting." At their next meeting it was not considered, but this minute contains full proof of the fact that the English education had been neglected, and it contains an ac- knowledgment that the conduct of the English school was contrary to the original design of the trustees in forming it. Ill the same book of minutes \ve find the following of April 12, 1763 : " The state of the English school was again taken into consideration, audit was the opinion of the trustees that the original design should be prosecuted, of teaching the scholars (of that and other schools) the elegance of the English language, and giving them a proper pronunciation; and that the old method of hearing them read and repeat in public should be again used. And a committee was appointed to confer with Mr. Kiunersley how this might best be done, as well fis what assistance it would be nec- essary to give Mr. Kinuersley to enable him to attend this necessary service, which was indeed the proper business of his professorship." In this minute we have another acknowledgment of what was the original design of the English school ; hut here are some words thrown in to countenance an inno- vation, which had been for some time practiced. The words are, "and the other schools." Originally, by the constitutions, the rector was to teach the Latin schol- ars their English. The words of the constitution are: "The rector shall be obliged, without assistance of any usher, to teach twenty scholars the Latin and Greek lan- guages and the English tongue." To enable him to do this, we have seen that some of his qualifications, indispensably required, were, his polite speaking, writing, and understanding the English tongue. Having these, he was enjoined, on all oc- casions consistent with his other duties, to assist the English master in improving the boys under his care; hut there is not a word obliging the English master to teach the Latin boys English. However, the Latin masters, either unable to do it or unwilling to take the trouble, had got him up among them, and employed -o much of hi- time, that Ibis minute owns lie could not. without further assist a n< e. attend the necessary service of his own school, which, as the minute expressly - "was indeed the proper business of his professorship." Notwithstanding this good resolution of the trustees, it seems the execution of it v. ;i> neglected; and. the public not being satisfied, they were again haunted by the ft i' nds of the children with the old complaint, that the original constitutions were not compljfd with in regard to the English school. Theirsituation was unpleasant. DM the one hand, there \vere still remaining some of the h'rst trustees, who were fiii nds to the scheme of English education, and these would -now and then be re- marking that it was neglected, and would be moving for a reformation; the con- stitutions, at the same time, staring the trustees in the face, gave weight to these lemarks. < n the other hand, the Latinists were combined to decry the English -' Imol as us. |e->. It \\as without example, they h aid, as indeed they still say, that a .-< hool for teaching the vulgar tongue, and the sciences in that tongue was ever joined with a college, and the Latin musters were fully competent to teach the Eng- lish, FRANKLIN'S SELF-EDUCATION. 47 I will not say that the Latinists looked on every expense upon the English school as so far disabling the trustees from augmenting their salaries, and therefore regard- ing it with an evil eye; but, when I find the minutes constantly filled with their ap- plications for higher wages, I ran not but see their groat regard for money matt.-i-. and suspect a little their using their interest and influence to prevail with the trus- tees not to encourage that school. And, indeed, the following minute is so different in spirit and sentiment from that last recited, that one can not avoid concluding that some extraordinary pains must have been taken with the trustees between tin- two meetings of April 12 and June 13, to produce a resolution so very different, which here follows in this minute, viz: "June 13, 1763. Some of the parents ,,f the chil- dren in the Academy having complained that their children were not taught to spealf and read in public, and having requested that this useful part of education might be more attended to, Mr. Kinnersley was called in, and desired to give an account of what was done in this branch of his duty; and he declared that this was well tangnt, not only in the English school, which was more immediately under his care, but in the philosophy classes regularly every Monday afternoon, and as often at other times as his other business would permit. And it not appearing to the trus- tees that nny more could at present be done without partiality and great inconven- ience, and that this was all that was ever proposed to be done, they did not incline to make any alteration, or to lay any farther burthen on Mr. Kinnersley.'' Note here, that the English school had not for some years preceding been visited by the trustees. If it had, they would have known the state of it without making this in- quiry of the master. They might have judged whether the children more imme- diately umler his care were in truth well taught, without taking his word for it, as it appears they did. But it seems ho had a merit, which, when he pleaded it. ef- fectually excused him. He spent his time when out of the English school in in- structing the philosophy classes who were of the Latin part of the institution. Therefore they did not think proper to lay any further burden upon him. It is a little difficult to conceive how these trustees could bring themselves to de- clare that "no more could be done in the English school than was then done," when their preceding minute declares that "the original design was teaching scholars the elegance of the English language and giving them a proper pronunciation ; and that hearing them read and repeat in public was the old method, and should again be used." And, certainly, the method that had been used might bo again used, if the trustees had thought fit to order Mr. Kinnersley to attend his own school, and not spend his time in the philosophy classes, where his duty did not require his attend- ance. What the apprehended partiality was. which the minute mentions, does not appear, and can not easily be imagined ; and the great inconvenience of obliging him to attend his own school could only he depriving the Latinists of his assistance, to which they had no right. The trustees may possibly have supposed that by tliis resolution they had pre- cluded all future attempts to trouble them with respect to their conduct of the Kn.iilish school. Tin- parents indeed, despairing of any reformation, withdrew their children and placed them in private schools, of which several now appeared in the city, professing to teach what had been promised to be taught in the Academy ; and they have since flourished and increased by the scholars the Academy might have li.nl if it had performed its engagements. But the public was not satisfied; and we find, live years after, the Knglish school appearing again, after five years' silence, haunting the trustees like an evil conscience, and reminding them of their failure in duty. For, of their meetings January lit-L'ti, HoX we lin giveMr. Jon. E-ftston and Mr, Thomas Hall, at the rate of twenty-live pounds per annum each, for 48 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. -nng Mr. Kinnersley in the English school, and taking fare of the same when he shall he employed, iu teaching the students, in the philosophy classes and grammar school, the art of public speaking. A committee, Mr. Peters. Mr. ('oxe. and Mr. Puche, with the masters, was appointed to fix rules and times tor employing the youth in public speaking. Mr. Easton and Mr. Hall are to be paid out of a fund to be raised by some public performance for the benefit of the eollege." It appears from. these minutes (1) that the reputation of tin' Aeademy had suf- fered in the public esteem by the trustees' neglect of that school; (2) that Mr. Kin- nersley. whose sole business it was to attend it, had been called from his duty and employed in the philosophy classes and Latin grammar school, teaching the scholars there the art of public speaking, which the L.itiuist.s used to boast they could (each themselves; (3) that the neglect for so many years of the English scholars, by this substractiou of their master, was now acknowledged, and proposed to be remedied for the future by engaging two persons, Mr. Hall and Mr. Easton. at jC2"> per an- num, to take care of those scholars, while Mr. Kinuersley was employed among the Latiuists. Care was. however, taken by the trustees not to he at any expense for this assist- ance to Mr. Kinnersley. for Hall and Easton were only to b* paid out of the uncer- tain fund of money to be raised by some public performance for the benefit of the college. A committee was, however, now appointed to fix rules and times for employing the youth in public speaking. Whether anything was done in consequence of these minutes does not appear, no report of the committee respecting their doings being to be found on the records, and the probability is that they did, as heretofore, noth- ing to the purpose. For the English school continued to decline, and the first sub- sequent mention we find made of it is the minute of March 21. 17fiJ>. when the design began to be entertained of abolishing it altogether, whereby the Latiuists would get rid of an eyesore and the trustees of what occasioned them such frequent trouble... The minute is this: ''The state of the English school is to be taken into considera- tion at next meeting, and whether it be proper to continue it on its present footing or not.'' This consideration was, however, not taken at the next meeting, at least nothing was concluded M as to be minuted; nor do we find any further mention of the English school till the 18th of July, when the following minute was entered. viz: "A special meeting is appointed to be held on Monday next, and notice to be given that the. design of this meeting is to consider whether this English school is to be longer continued." Ibis special meeting was accordingly held on the 23d of .Inly, ITli'.i. of which date is the following minute and resolution, vi/: "The trustees at this meeting, as well as several former ones, having taken into their serious consideration the state of the English school, are unanimously of opinion that, as. the, said school is far from de- fraying the expense at which they now support it, and not thinking that they ought to lay out any great part of the funds intrusted to them on this branch of education, which can so easily be procured at other schools in this city, have resolved that. from and after the 17th of October next, Mr. Kinnersley > present salary do (case, and that from that time the said school, if he shall be inclined to keep it. shall be on the following footing, viz, that he shall have the free use of the room where he now teaches, and also the whole tuition money arising from the boys that may be taught by him, and that he continue professor of English and oratory and, as such, have the house he lives in rent free, in consideration of his giving two afternoons iu the week, as heretofore, for the instruction of the students belonging to the college in public speaking, agreeable to such rules as are or shall be made for that purpose by the trustee- and faculty. It is further ordered by this regulation that the boys be- longing to his school shall be still considered as part of the youth belonging to the college and under the same general government of the trustees and faculty, and such of his scholars as may attend the mathematical or other master having a salary from VRANKLIVS SELF-EDUCATION. 49 the college, for any part of their time, shall pay proportionately into the fund of the trustees, to be accounted for l>y Mr. Kinm-rslry. and deducted out of the twentv pounds per quarter now paid by the English scholars." Ili' trustees hope this regulation may be agreeable to Mr. Kinnersley, as it pro- cecds entirely from tho reasons set forth above, and not from any abatement of that esteem which they have always retained for him during the whole course of hisserv- ii ee in college. I 'pon this aud some of the preceding minutes maybe observed: (1) That the Eng- lish school having been long neglected, the scholars were so diminished in number us to be far from defraying the expense in supporting it; (2) that the instruction they received there, instead of a complete English education, which had been prom- ised to the subscribers by the original constitutions, were only such as might easilv be procured at other schools in this city; (3) that this unprofitableness of the En- glish school, owing to neglect of duty in the trustees, was now ottered as a reason for demolishing it altogether, for it was easy to see that, after depriving the master of his salary, he could not longer afford to continue it; (4) that if the insufficiency of the tuition money in the English school to pay the expense, and the ease with which the scholars might obtain equal instruction in other schools, were good reasons for depriving the master of his salary and destroying that school, they were equally good for dismissing the Latin masters and sending their scholars to other schools, since it is notorious" that the tuition money of the Latin school did not pay much above a fourth part of the salaries of the masters, and remained in full possession of all the college property, without any future expense ; (5) that by their refusing any longer to support, instead of reforming, as they ought to have done, the English school, they shamefully broke through and set at naught the original constitutions, for the due execution of which the faith of the original trustees had been solemnly pledged to the public, and diverted the revenues, proceeding from much of the first subscrip- tions, to other purposes than those which had been promised. Had the Assembly, when disposed to disfranchise the trustees, set their foot upon this ground, their proceeding to declare the forfeiture would have been more justifiable, and it maybe hoped care will now be taken not to give any future Assembly the same handle. It seems, however, that this unrighteous resolve did not pass the trustees without a qualm in some of them, for at the next meeting a reconsideration was moved, and we find the following minute under the date of August 1, 1769 : "The minute of last meeting relative to the English school was read, and after mature deliberation aud reconsidering the same, it was voted to stand as it is, provided it should not be found anyway repugnant to the first charter granted to the Academy, a copy of which was ordered to be procured out of the rolls office." One might have thought it natural for the trustees to have consulted this charter before they took the resolution, and not only the first charter, but the original con- stitution; but, as it seems, they had lost the instrument containing the charter, and. though it had been printed, not one of them was furnished with a copy to which he might refer, it is no wonder they had forgot the constitutions made twenty years before, to which they did not seeui to have in the least adverted. Probably, however, the trustees found, when they came to examine original pa- pers, that they could not easily get entirely rid of the English school, and so con- cluded to continue. For I find in a law for premiums, minuted under tho date of January 29, 1770, that the English and mathematical school is directed to be ex- amined the third Tuesday in July, and a premium book of the value of $1 was to lx given to him that reads best and understands best the English grammar, etc. Thi-* is very well; but to keep up the old partiality in favor of the Latin school, the pre- mium to its boys was to be of the value of $2. In tho premiums for best speaking, they were indeed put upon an equality. After reading this law for premiums, I looked forward to the third Tuesday in July with some pleasing expectation of their effect on the examination required for that day. But I met with only this further record of the inattention of the trustee* 1180 4 50 THE rXIVKKSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. to their o\vn resolutions and even laws, when they contain anything favorable to the English school. The minute is only this: ".Inly, August, September. October, no business done." On the 20th of November, however, 1 find there was an examination of the Latin school, and premiums, -with pompous inscriptions, afterwards adjudged to Latin scholars: but I find no mention of any to the English, or that they were even exam- ined. Perhaps there might have been none to examine, or the school discontinued; for it appears by a minute of July 21 following, that the provost was desired to ad- vertise for a master able to teach English grammatically, which it seems was all the English master was now required to teach, the other branches originally promised being dropped entirely. In October, 1772, Mr. Kinnersley resigned his professorship, when Dr. Peters and others were appointed to consider on what footing the English school shall be put for the future, and that a new master may be thought of, and Mr. Willing to take care of the school for the present at 50 per annum. It is observable here that there is no mention of putting it on its original footing, and the salary is shrunk amazingly ; but this resignation of Mr. Kinuersley gave occasion to one testimony of the utility of the English professor to the institution, notwithstanding all the partiality, neg- lect, slights, discouragements, and injustice that school had suffered. We find it in the minutes of a special meeting on the 2d of February, 1773, present, Dr. Peters. Mr. Chew, Mr. Lawrence, Mr. Willing, Mr. Trettel. and Mr. Inglis. and expressed in these strong terms : "The college suffers greatly since Mr. Kinnersley left it, for want of a person to teach public speaking, so that the present classes have not those opportunities of learning to declaim and speak which have been of so much use to their predecessors, and have contributed greatly to raise the credit of the institution." Here is another confession that the Latiuists were unequal to the task of teaching English eloquence, though on occasion the contrary is still asserted. 1 Hatter myself, gentlemen, that it appears by this time pretty clearly from our own minutes, that the original plan of the English school lias been departed from; that the subscribers to it have been disappointed and deceived, and the faith of the trus- tees not kept with them; that the public had been frequently dissatisfied with the conduct of the trustees, and complained of it; that, by the niggardly treatment of good masters, they have been driven out of the school, and the scholars have followed, while a great loss of revenue has been suffered by I he Academy ; so that the numerous schools now in the city owe their rise to our management, and that we might as well have had the best part of the tuition money paid into our treasury that m>\v goes into private pockets; that there has been a constant disposition to depress the English school in favor of the Latin; and that every means to procure a more equit- able treatment has I. ecu rendered ineffectual: so that no more hope remains while they continue to have any connection. It is, therefore, that wishing as much good to the Latinists as their system can honestly procure for them, we now demand a separation, and without desiring to injure them; but, claiming an equitable portion of our joint stork, we \\ish to execute the plan they have so long defeated, and afford the public the means of a complete English education. 1 am the only one of t lie original trust ei s now living, and 1 am just stepping into the grave myself. I am afraid that some part of the blame incurred l>\ the trustees may he laid on me for having too easily submitted to the deviations from the con- stitution, and not opposing them with sufficient /eal and earnestness; though indeed my absence in foreign comilries at different times for nearly thirty years tended much to weaken my influence. To make what amends an- yet in my power. [ M-i/e this opportunity, the last 1 may possibly have, of bearing testimony against those deviations. I seem here to be surrounded by the ghosts of my dear departed friends. beckoning and urging me to use the only tongue now left us in demanding that jus- tice to our grandchildren that to our children has been denied; and I hope they will Hot be sent away discontented. FRANKLIN'S SELF-EDUCATION. 51 The origin of Latin and Greek schools among the different nations of Europe is known to have been this: That until between throe and four hundred years pant iln-n- were no books in any other language; all the knowledge then contained iu books vix, the theology, the jurisprudence, the physic, the art military, the politics, the mathematics and mechanics, the natural and moral philosophy, tin- logic HI id rhet- oric, the chemistry, the pharmacy, the architecture, and every other branch of science, being in those languages it was, of course, necessary to learn them as the gates through which men must pass to get at that knowledge. The books then existing were manuscript, and these consequently so dear that only n few wealthy, inclined to learning, could afford to purchase them. The com- mon people were not even at the pains of learning to read, because, after taking that pains, they would have nothing to read that they could understand without learning the ancient languages, nor then, without money to purchase the manu- scripts; and so few were the learned readers sixty years after the invention of printing that it appears by letters still extant between the printers in 1499 tli.it they could not throughout Europe find purchasers for more than three hundred copies of any ancient authors. But printing beginning now to make books cheap, the readers increased so much as to make it worth while to write and print books in the vulgar tongue. At first these were chiefly books of devotion and little histories. Gradually several branches of science began to appear in the common languages, and at this day the whole body of science, consisting not only of trnnslatidns from all the valuable ancients, but of all the new modern discoveries, is to be met with in those languages, so that learning the ancient for the purpose of acquiring knowl- edge is become absolutely unnecessary. But there is in mankind an unaccountable prejudice in favor of ancient customs and habitudes, which inclines to a continuance of them after the circumstances which formerly made them useful cease to exist. A multitude of instances might be given, but it may suffice to mention one. Hats were once thought a useful part of dress; they kept the head warm and screened it from the violent impression of the sun's rays, and from the rain, snow, hail, etc., though, by the way, this was not the more ancient opinion or practice. From among all the remains of antiquity, the bustoes, statues, basso-rilie'vos, medals, etc., which are infinite, there is no represen- tation of the human figure with a hat or cap on, nor any covering for the head, un- less it be the head of a soldier, who has a helmet ; but that is evidently not a part of dress for health, but as a protection from the strokes of a weapon. At what time hats were first introduced we know not, but in the last century they were universally worn throughout Europe. Gradually, however, as the wear- ing of wigs and hair nicely dressed prevailed, the putting on of lints was disused by genteel people, lest the curious arrangements of the curls and powdering should be disordered, and umbrellas began to supply their place; yet still our considering the hat as a jiiirt of the dress continues so far to prevail that a man of fashion is not thought dressed without having one, or something like one, about him which he carried under his arm. So that there are a multitude of the v politer people in all the courts in capital cities of Europe who have never, nor their fathers before them, worn a hat otherwise than as a chapcnu, bras, though the utility of such a mode of wearing it is by no means apparent, and it is attended not only with some expense but with a degree of constant trouble. The still prevailing custom of having schools for teaching generally onr children in these days the Latin and Greek languages I consider therefore in no other light than as the chapeau bras of modern literature. Thus the time spent in that study might, it seems, be much better employed in the education for such a country as ours; and this was indeed the opinion of most the original trustees. 52 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. HINTS FOR CONSIDERATION RESPECTING THE ORPHAN SCHOOLHOUSES IX PHILADELPHIA. Charitable institutions, however originally well intended and well executed at first, for many years are subject to be in a course of time corrupted, mismanaged, and their funds misapplied or perverted to private purposes. Would it not bo well to guard against these by prudent regulations respecting the choice of managers and establishing the power of inspecting their conduct in some permanent body, as the monthly or quarterly meeting? Would it not be more respectable for the institution if the appearance of making a profit of the. labor of orphans were avoided and the dependence for funds to be wholly on charitable contributions? If this should be concluded, then it maybe proper to open an account with each orphan on admission, the orphans to have credit for any subsistence brought in with them, and for the profit made of it and of their labor, and made debtors for their maintenance and education ; and at their discharge on coming of age to be paid the balance, if any, in their favor, or remain debtors for the balance, if against them, which they may be exhorted to pay, if ever able, but not to be compelled. Such as receive a balance may be exhorted to give back a part in charity to the institution that has taken such kind care of them, or at least to remember it favorably, if hereafter God should bless them with ability, either in benefaction while living, or a legacy on decease. The orphans, when dis- charged, to receive, besides decent clothing and some money, a certificate of their good behavior, if such it has been, as a recommendation ; and the managers of the institution should still consider them as their children, so far as to counsel them in their affairs, encourage and promote them in their business, watch over and kindly admonish them when in danger of misconduct. At 33 Franklin is continuing his self education by his researches in natural history. In his Proposals for the Education of Youth, he ad- vises that " now and then excursions be made to the neighboring plan- tations of the best farmers, their methods observed and reasoned upon tor the information of youth;" " that natural history will also afford opportunities of introducing many observations," etc. Franklin himself was a great observer, and like all great men who have advanced science, he made his observations with the assistance of very simple and inexpensive instruments. There is in the possession of the University of Pennsylvania and of the Franklin Institute, some portions of his electrical apparatus, the simplicity of which surprises the student in the modern electrical laboratory and leads him almost to underrate the services of Franklin to science. Franklin's self-education taught him to make use of the phenomena in nature as he made use of the labors of other men, to swell the mass of his own knowledge. He illustrates this practical method of scientific investigation in his account of the ants, told by Prof. Kalm; how he put an earthen pot tilled with molasses into a closet, into which the ants soon found their way and began devouring the molasses. Franklin, observing this, removed the pot and suspended it by a string to a nail in the ceil ing of the room, leaving a single ant in the pot. When its hunger wa.s ;itisfied it tried to go home, and after many efforts it found its way up the string, across the ceiling to the wall, and to the ground, and by half an hour Franklin saw a swarm of ants issuing from the ground, FRANKLIN'S SELF-EDUCATION. 53 climbing the wall, crossing the ceiling, creeping down the string, and eating the molasses, one line coming and one line going, until the mo- lasses was all eaten up. This little story, which some of us remember in our schoolbooks, illustrates Franklin's methods of investigating the habits of insects, as simple as his experiment with the kite. In his scheme for education he makes no provision for elaborate physical ap- paratus, there is no reference to laboratories, and it seems as if his ideas were deficient in some of the essentials of education in modern times. This hasty conclusion is corrected when we reflect on the educa- tion which Franklin himself received and was making all through life; he knew nothing of elaborate physical apparatus; nature was his labo- ratory, observation and experience were his teachers, and he relied upon these as the best means for the education of others. -Ambition stimulated him to gain knowledge and he concluded that it would stim- ulate others. It has sometimes been asked whether the elaborate apparatus in modern education does not weigh heavily in the hands of youth, and whether many of them are able to see the principles on account of the apparatus. The utilitarian ends which Franklin proposed are generally traceable to his own experience. His loss from the bad bookkeeping of the Deputy Postmaster-General of the Colonies led him to "mention it as a lesson to those young men who may be employed in managing affairs for others that they should always render accounts and make remittances with great clearness and punctuality. The character of observing such a conduct is the most powerful of recommendations to new employments and increase of business." A word frequently used by Franklin is "business." It should be remembered that he viewed education from the vantage ground of the man of affairs who had never received the conventional training of the schools. He saw in industry and business the chief occupation of the mass of the people. His idea of schools was that they should contribute to the advantage of this industry and this business. 1 He would make the transitions from school life to the life of business easy and natural, and his chief defense for his plan for an English sehool was that there such a foundation of knowledge and ability would be laid as properly improved would qualify boys to "pass through and execute the several offices of civil life with advantage and reputation to themselves and country." 2 It is not to be understood that by the offices of civil life Franklin meant merely political offices. He uses the term "civil life" comprehensively, meaning the several occupations of the citizen. Had he meant political preferment, he would have used the phrase "public affairs." 'The Wharton School of Finance and Economy in the University of Pennsylvania was founded on this idea. (See the special chapter on that school, and also Mr. Wharton's plan infra. 2 The School of American History and Institutions in the University of Pennsyl- vania was founded with this idea as a basis. (See account of it, infra.) 54 THK UNIVERSITY Ol 1 PENNSYLVANIA. Franklin conceived of the school as a 1'onmlation for improvement in the pupil by the pupil himself. His own life \\as a continuous self- education; practical wisdom was his aim. We tind nowhere in hirt writing's that modern phrase "the completion of education;" he makes no provision for any sucli limitation or standstill. Franklin was a native of Boston, and he never forgot his native town. Once in ten years he revisited that beloved spot and refreshed himself with the renewal of ancient acquaintance. He frequently refers to his New England training, and it usually stood him in good stead. He says: I bad, on the whole, abundant Reason to be satisfied with my being established in Pennsylvania. There were, however, two things that I regretted, there being no provision for defense nor for the complete education of youth, no militia, nor any college. I therefore, iu 1743, drew vup a proposal for establishing an Academy, 1 and at that time thinking the Rev. Mr. Peters, who was at that time out of employ, a lit person to superintend such an institution, I communicated the project to him, but he having more profitable views iu the service of the proprietors, which succeeded, declined the undertaking, and not knowing another at that time suitable for such a trust, I let the scheme lie awhile dormant. I succceeded better the next year, 1744, in proposing and establishing a Philosophical Society.' 2 'See the proposals, p. 58 et <7 serf, was appointed, viz, one Church-of-England man, one l'i.-^l.\ i, riaii, one Baptist , one Moravian, etc. ; those in case of vacancy liy ilcatlt were to lill it by election fnnii among the contributors. The Moravian happened not to please hia colleagues, and on his death they resolved to have no other of that sect. The ililii cnlty then was how to avoid having two of some other sect by means of the new choice. Several persons were named, and for that reason not agreed to. At leugtb one mentioned me with the observation that, I was merely an honest man, and of no at all, which prevailed with them to choose me. The, enthusiasm which existed v> lien the house was built had long since abated, and its trustees had not been able to procure fresh contributions for paying the ground rent and discharging *ome other debts the building had occasioned, which embarrassed them greatly. Being now a member of both sets of trustees, that for the building and that for the academy, I had a good opportunity of negotiating with both, and brought them finally to an agreement, by which the trustees for the building were to cede it to those of the academy, the latter undertaking to discharge the debt, to keep forever open in the building a large hall for occasional preachers according to the original intention and maintain a free school for the instruction of poor children. Writings were ac- cordingly drawn and on paying the debts, the trustees of the academy were put into possession of the premises ; and by dividing the great and lofty hall into stories, ami different rooms above and below for the several schools, and purchasing some addi- tional ground the whole was soon made fit for our purpose, and the scholars re- moved into the building. * * The trustees of the academy after awhile were incorporated by a charter from the governor; their funds were increased by contri- butions in Britain and grants of land from the proprietaries, to which the Assembly has since made considerable addition; and thus we established the present Uuiver- versity of Philadelphia. 1 I have been continued one of its trustees from the begin- ning, now nearly forty years, and have had the very great pleasure of seeing a nnm- l)i i of thv, youth who have received their education in it distinguished by their im- proved abilities, serviceable in public stations, and ornaments to their country. - 1 This institution became the University of Pennsylvania in 1779. (See Act of Nov. 27, 1779, erecting the University of Pennsylvania, p. 83.) 2 The narrative is broken here in order to present the text of important documents, to several of which Franklin was a party, in the early history of the University; it is resumed on page 95. 58 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. I. PROPOSALS KKLATI.V; To TI1K EDUCATION OF TOITH |>, i'j;5,.Y- SYLVANIA. ADVKKTISKMKM TO Tin: KKADKI:.. It has long been regretted as a misfortune to the youth of Ifci's pjexriuee, thai we have no Academy, in \\hich they might receive the accomplishments of a regular education. The following paper of hints towards forming a plan t'ov that purpose. is so far approved by some public-spirited gentlemen, to whom it has l*-eu priv.itely commnnicated, that they Lave directed a number of copies to be made by the press, and properly distributed, in order to obtain the sentiments and advice of men of learning, understanding, and experience in these matters; and have determined to \ise their interest and best endeavors to have the scheme, when completed, carried gradually into execution; in which they have reason to believe they shall have the hearty concurrence and assistance of many, who are well-wishers to their country. TLose, who incline to favor the design \\ith their advice, either as to the part.- of learning to be taught, the order of study, the method of teaching, the economy of the school, or any other matter of importance to the success of the undertaking, are desired to communicate t heir sent iments as soon as may be, by letter, directed to B. Fraukliu, Printer, in Philadelphia. The good education of youth has been esteemed by wise men in all ages, as the surest foundation of the happiness both of private families and of commonwealths. Almost all governments have then-tore ma.le it a principal object of their attention, to establish and endow with proper revenues such seminaries of learning, as might supply the suc- ceeding age with men qualified to serve the public with honor to them- selves and to their country. Many of the, tirst settlers of these provinces were men who had re- ceived a good education in Europe; and to their wisdom and good man- inent we owe much of our present prosperity. But Their hands were full, and they could not do all things. The present race are not thought to be generally of equal ability; for, though the American youth are allowed not to want capacity, yet the best capacities require cultiva- tion; it Being truly with them, as \\ith the best ground, which, unless well tilled and sowed with profitable seed, produces only ranker weeds. That we may obtain the advantages arising from an increase of knowl- edge, and prevent, as much as may be, the mischievous consequences that would attend a general ignorance among us, the following hints are offered towards forming a plan for the education of the youth of Pennsylvania, viz : It is proposed, That some persons of leisure and public spirit apply for a charter, by IMPORTANT JM.X I MKNTS kKLATlXi; To 'I UK f'MVKIJSITV. 59 which they ma\ be incorporated, Avith power to erect ail Academy for the education oi' youth, to govern the same, provide musters. make rules, receive donations, purchase lands, and to add to their number, from time to time, such other persons as they shall judge suitable. That the members of the eorporation make it their pleasure, and in some degree their business, to visit the Academy often, encourage and countenance the youth, countenance and assist the masters, and by all means in their power advance the usefulness and reputation of the design; that they look on the students as in some sort their children, treat them with familiarity and affection, and when they have behaved well, and gone through their studies, and are to enter the world, zeal- ously unite, and make all the interest that can be made to establish them, whether in business, offices, marriages, or any other thing for their advantage, preferably to all other persons whatsoever, even of equal merit. And if men may, and frequently do, catch such a taste for cultivat- ing flowers, for planting, grafting, inoculating, and the like, as to despise all other amusements for their sake, why may not we expect they should acquire a relish for that more useful culture of young minds. Thomson says: Tis joy to see the human blossoms blow. When infant reason grows apace, and calls, For the kind haud of an assiduous care. Delightful task! to rear the tender thought, To teach the young idea how to shoot; To pour the fresh instruction o'er the mind, To breathe the enlivening spirit, and to tix The generous purpose in the glowing breast. That a house be provided for the Academy, if not m the town, not many miles from it; the situation high and dry. and. if it may be, not far from a river, having a garden, orchard, meadow, and a field or two. That the house be furnished with a library if in the country, (if in the town, the town libraries may serve), with maps of all countries, globes, some mathematical instruments, an apparatus for experiments in natural philosophy, and for mechanics; prints, of all kinds, pros- pects, buildings, and machines. That the Rector be a man of good understanding, good morals, dili- gent and patient, learned in the languages and sciences, and a correct, pure speaker and writer of the English tongue; to have such tutors under him as shall be necessary. That the boarding scholars diet together, plainly, temperately, and frugally. That to keep them in health, and to strengthen and i\ :.der active their bodies, they be frequently exercised in running, leaping, wrestling and swimming. That they have peculiar habits to distinguish them from other youth, 60 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. it tin- Academy be in or near the town; for this, among other reasons, that their behavior may be the better observed. As to their studies, it would be well if they could be taught every thing that is useful, and every thing that is ornamental. But art is long, and their time is short. It is therefore proposed, that they learn those things that are likely to be most useful and most ornamental; re- gard being had to the several professions for which they are intended. All should be taught to write a fair hand, and swift, as that is useful to all. And with it may be learned something of drawing, by imitation of prints, and some of the first principles of perspective. Arithmetic, accounts, and some of the first principles of geometry and astronomy. The English language might be taught by grammar; in which some of our best writers, as Tillotsou, Addison, Pope, Algernon, Sidney, Cato's Letters, &c., should be classics; the styles principally to be cul- tivated being the clear and the concise. Eeading should also be taught, and pronouncing properly, distinctly, emphatically; not with an even tone, which under-does, nor a theatrical, which over-does nature. To form their style, they should be put on writing letters to each other, making abstracts of what they read, or writing the same things in their own words; telling or writing stories lately read, in their own expres- sions. All to be revised and corrected by the tutor, who should give his reasons, and explain the force and import of words. To form their pronunciations, they may be put on making declama- tions, repeating speeches, and delivering orations; the tutor assisting at the rehearsals, teaching, advising, and correcting their accent. But if History be made a constant part of their reading, such as the translation of the Greek and Roman historians, and the modern histories of ancient Greece and Rome, may not almost all kinds of use- ful knowledge be that way introduced to advantage, and with pleasure to the student ? As Geography, by reading with maps, and being required to point out the places where the greatest actions were done, to give their old and new names, with the bounds, situation, and ex tent of the countries concerned. Chronology, by the help of Helvicus or some other writer of the kind, who shall enable them to tell when those events happened, what princes were contemporaries, and what states pr famous men nourished about that time. The several principal epochs to be first well fixed in their memories. Ancient Customs, religious and civil, being frequently mentioned in history, \\ ill give occasion for explaining them; in which the prints of medals, baeso-rilievos, ;md ancient monuments will greatly assist. Morality, by descanting and making continual observations on the causes of the rise and fall of any man's character, fortune, and power, mentioned in history; the advantages of temperance, order, frugality, industry, and perseverance. Indeed, the general natural tendency of IMPORTANT DOCUMENTS RELATING TO THE UNIVERSITY. 61 reading good history must be, to fix in the minds of the youth deep im- pressions of the beauty and usefulness of virtue of all kinds, public spirit, and fortitude. History will show the wonderful effects of oratory, in governing, turning, and leading great bodies of mankind, armies, cities, nations. When the minds of youth are struck with admiration at this, then is tin- time to give them the principles of that art, which they will study with taste and application. Then they may be made acquainted with tin- best . models amongthe ancients, their beauties beingparticularly pointed out to them. Modern political oratory being chiefly performed by tin- pen and press, its advantages over the ancients in some respects are to be shown; as that its effects are more extensive, and more lasting. History will also afford frequent opportunities of showing the neces- sity of a public religion, from its usefulness to the public ; the advantage of a religious character among private persons; the mischief of super- stition, and the excellency of the Christian religion above all others, ancient or modern. History will also giv.e occasion to expatiate on the advantage of civil orders and constitutions; how men and their properties are protected by joining in societies and establishing government; their industry encouraged and rewarded, arts invented, and life made more comfort- able; che advantages of liberty, mischiefs of licentiousness, benefits arising from good laws and a due execution of justice. Thus may the first principles of sound politics be fixed in the minds of youth. On historical occasions, questions of right and wrong, justice and injustice, will naturally arise, and may be put to youth, which they may dobate in conversation and in writing. When they ardently desire victory, for the sake of the praise attending it, they will begin to feel t}ie want, and be sensible of the use, of logic, or the art of reasoning to discover truth, and of arguing to defend it, and convince adversa- ries. This would be the time to acquaint them with the principles of that art. Grotius, PurTendorff, and some other writers of the >ame kind, may be used on these occasions to decide their disputes. Public disputes warm the imagination, whet the industry, and strengthen the natural abilities. When youth are told, that the great men, whose lives and actions they read in history, spoke two of the best languages that ever were, the most expressive, copious, beautiful; and that the finest writings, the most correct compositions, the most perfect productions of human wit and wisdom, are in those languages, which have endured for ages, and will endure while there are men; that no translation can do them justice, or give the pleasure found in reading the originals; that those languages contain all science; that one of them is become almost uni- versal, being the language of learned men in all countries; and that to understand them is a distinguishing ornament; they maybe thereby made desirous of learning those languages, and their industry sharp 62 THK UXIVKHSITY OF PENNSVL VAXTA. ened in the acquisition of them. All intended for divinity, should be taught the Latin and Greek; for physic, the Latin, Greek, and French ; for la\v, the Latin and French; merchants, the French, German, and Spanish; and, though all should not be compelled to learn Latin, f the invention of arts, rise of manufac- ture, progress of trade, change of its seats, with the reasons and causes, may also be made entertaining to youth, and will be useful to all. And this, with the accounts in other history of the prodigious force and effect of engines and machines used in war will naturally introduce a desire to be instructed in mechanics, and to be informed of the prin- ciples of that art by which weak men perform such wonders, labor is saved, and manufact ure> expedited. This will be the time To show ri; of ' *Jwis>rw&9nerld<-d alu-ays, That the said rule's, ordinances, laws, and statutes, be not repugnant to the laws and statutes then in force at tlie kingdom of Great Britain, or to the laws then in force in our said province of Pennsylvania. And lastly, We do, for us and our successors, grant, declare, and ordain, That these our letters patent and charter, and every clause, sentence, and article herein con- tained shall be in all things firm, valid, sufficient, and effectual in the law unto the said trustees, community, and corporation and their suc- cessors, according to the purport and tenor hereof, without any further grant or toleration from us, our heirs, or successors, to be procured or obtained. /// icitncxx whereof, we have caused these our letters, to be made patent; tcitiu-, James Hamilton, esq., lieutenant governor and commander in chief, in and over the said province of Pennsylvania, at the city of Philadelphia, the thirteenth day of July, in the twenty seventh year of the reign of our sovereign lord George the second, who now is king of Great P>ritain. !' ranee, and Ireland, &<., and in the year of our Lord, one thousand seven hundred and fifty three. .JAMES HAMILTON, [L. s.| Recorded Jfitli -lull/, 1753. IMPORTANT DOCUMENTS RELATING TO THK INIVERSITY. 71 IV. ADDITIONAL CHARTER OF THE COLLEGE, &(!. OF PHILADELPHIA, IN PENNSYLVANIA. THOMAS PENN, and Richard Pen n, true and absolute proprieta- ries of the province of Pennsylvania, and counties of New Castle, Kent, and Sussex, on Delaware; to all persons to whom these presents shall come, greeting: Whereas it was heretofore represented to us, by Thomas Lawrence, William Allen, John Inglis, Tench Francis, William Masters, Lloyd Zachary, Samuel M'Call, junior, Joseph Turner, Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Leech, William Shippen, Eobert Strettell, Philip Syng, Charles Willing, PhineasBond, Bichard Peters, Abraham Taylor, Thomas Bond, Joshua Maddox, William Plumsted, Thomas White, William Coleman, Isaac Norris, and Thomas Cadwalader, of our city of Philadelphia, gen- tlemen ; That they had, at their own expense, and by the donations of many well disposed persons, set up and maintained an academy within our said city, as well for instructing youth for reward, as poor children on charity, and praying us to incorporate them, and their successors for the more effectual carrying on and establishing the same: And whereas we, being desirous to encourage such pious, useful, and charitable designs, hoping that the said academy, through the blessing of Almighty God, would prove a nursery of wisdom and virtue, and be the means of raising up men, of dispositions and qualifications beneficial to the ptiblick, in the various occupations of life, and for other causes and considerations us thereto specially moving, did, for us, our heirs a\id successors, by our charter, under the great seal of our said province, grant, ordain, declare, constitute, and appoint, That the said Thomas Lawrence, William Allen, John Inglis, Tench Francis, William Masters, Lloyd Zachary, Samuel M'Call, junior, Joseph Turner, Benjamin Frank- lin, Thomas Leech, William Shippen, Robert Strettell, Philip Syng, Charles Willing, Phineas Bond, Bichard Peters, Abraham Taylor, Thomas Bond, Joshua Maddox, William Plumsted, Thomas White. William Coleman, Isaac Norris, and Thomas Cadwalader, and their suc- cessors, duly elected and nominated in their place and stead, should be one corporation and body politick, to have one continuance for ever, by the name of The Trustees of the Academy and Charitable School in the Province of Pennsylvania, capable to purchase and hold lands, to receive donations, to sue and be sued, to have and to use a common seal, to make rules and statutes, and to do everything needful for the good government and perfect establislmient of the said academy, or of any other kind of seminary of learning, which they should think fit to erect, maintain, and support, in anyplace within the said province of Pennsylvania, for the instruction of youth in any kind of literature, arts, 72 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. and sciences, as ly our said charter, enrolled in our recorder's olliee for said province, at the city of Philadelphia aforesaid, may more fully and at large appear. Noic knoic yc, That \ve do, for us, our heirs and successors, by these pres- ents, approve of. ratify and fully confirm, to the said trustees and their successors, all and singular, the premises, together with all and singular the matters, clauses, sentences, and articles, contained in our said let- ters patent and charter, excepting only one article, by these our pres- ent letters and charter altered and changed. W lie ffj '<<, l>y the atlrlcf and conwnt of the xaid tt'iixtevx, I'noir ye, That we do will and ordain, that the present trustees of the said academy, to wit: James Hamilton, William Allen, Jolm Inglis, Tench Francis, William Masters. Lloyd Zachary, Samuel M'Call, junior, Joseph Turner, Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Leech, William Shippen, Robert Strettell, Philip Syng, Phiueas Bond, Richard Peters, Abraham Taylor, Thomas Bond, Joshua Maddox, William Pluinsted, Thomas White, William Coleman, Thomas Cadwalader, Alexander Stedman, and John Mifflin, and such other persons as shall from time to time be nominated or chosen in their place and stead, according to the order and direction of our said recited letters and charter, shall be one community, corpora- tion, and body politick, to have continuance for ever, by the name of The Trustees of the College, Academy, and Charitable School of Phila- delphia, in the Province of Pennsylvania; and that, by the same name, they shall have perpetual succession. And ire do hereby, for M.S-, our heirs !' the College, .Academy and Charitable School in Philadelphia and of the College of the Province of New York.] AT THE COURT AT ST. JAMES THE 12'1'H. DAY OF AUGUST 1763. The King's most excellent Majesty in Council. Whereas there was this day read to his Majesty at this Board the joint Petition of William Smith, Doctor in Divinity, Agent for the Trus- tees of the College, Academy and Charitable School of Philadelphia in the Province of Pennsylvania, and Provost of that Seminary; and of James Jay Doctor in Physic, Agent for the Governors of the College of the Province of New York in the City of New York in America, setting forth That the great growth of these Provinces and the continual ac- cession of people to them from the different parts of the world, being some years ago observed by sundry of his Majesty s good subjects there, they became seriously impressed with a view of the inconveniences like to arise among so mixed a multitude, if left destitute of the necessary means of instruction, differing in Language and Manners unenlightened by Religion, uncemented by a Common Education, strangers to the hu- mane Arts, and to the just use of Eational Liberty. That these considerations were rendered the more alarming by sun- dry other circumstances, and particularly the amazing pains which Pop- ish Emissaries were everywhere perceived to take for the propagation of their peculiar tenets, and the many establishments which they were making for this purpose in all parts of America belonging to them; while his Majesty's numerous subjects there, and particularly in the two important and central Provinces aforesaid remained too liable to their corruptions by being spread abroad on a wide frontier, with scarce a possibility of finding a sufficient supply of Protestant Ministers and Teachers for them, so long as opportunities were wanting to educate them there, and but few men of proper qualifications here could be in- duced to exchange their hopes in these kingdoms for a laborious em- ployment in a remote wilderness where they were to expect but small secular advantage to reward their toil. That these inconveniences be gau to be greatly felt not only by the Society for Propagating the Gospel in foreign Parts, but also by the various denominations of other Protest- ants in his Majesty's Colonies, so that the good purposes which they severally had in view for the support and extension of the Reformed 78 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. Eeligion in these remote countries were like to be grevionsly affected by the want of fit persons to send forth as instructors and teachers. That from a deep sense of these growing evils the two Seminaries afore- said, distant about 100 miles from each other were begun in two of the most important and populous trading cities in his Majesty's American Dominions, nearly at the same time and with the same view, not so much to aim atany high improvements in knowledge as to guard against total ignorance; to instil in the minds of youth just principles of Ee- ligion, Loyalty and Love of our excellent Constitution; to instruct them in such branches of knowledge and useful arts as are necessary to trade, agriculture and a due improvement of his Majesty's valuable Colonies; and to assist in raising up a succession of faithful instructors and teach- ers to be sent forth not only among his Majesty's subjects there, but also among his Indian Allies, in order to instruct both in the way of truth, to save them from the corruptions of the enemy, and help to re- move the reproach of suffering the emissaries of a false religion to be more zealous and propagating their slavish and destructive tenets in that part of the world, than Britons and Protestants are in promoting the pure form of godliness and the glorious plan of public liberty and happiness committed to them. That for the better answering these great and important purposes the aforesaid Seminaries are under the direction of the chief officers of government sundry of the Clergy of different denominations, and other persons of distinction in the respective cities where they are placed, and their usefulness has been so generally felt and acknowledged, that amidst all the calamities of an expensive war near ten thousand pounds sterling have been contributed in each of the said Provinces to their support, and some hundreds of youth continually educated on charity and otherwise ; But as designs of so extensive a nature have seldom been completed in the most .wealthy kingdoms, unless by the united generosity of private benefactors and often by the particular bounty of soveriegn princes, the Petitioners are persuaded it will not be thought strange that all the resources in the power of individuals in young Colonies should be found inadequate to such a work, and that the Gov- ernors and Trustees of the said Seminaries should hare the j UN t appre- hension of xcciny all that they hare rti-im-d for their support speed H if exhausted mill tin end put to their usefulneNN. unless they can procure g#8i#tanee from distant ////* "// <>f the Committee (i}>/>oinfl In/ flu Assembly of the Commonwealth of Peunxylrania^ to inquire into the at ate, of the College of Philadel- phia. We the Committee appointed to inquire into the state of the College of Philadelphia beg leave to report, that having made inquiry into the Foundation and State of the said College, do find that the said College was instituted upon a broad and catholic Foundation having equal re- spect to all denominations of Christians, That the same was endowed by the charitable donations of well disposed people, public lotteries and general benevolence of all Societies. That the Charter of said College contains a special clause, providing that the Trustees thereof shall take an oath of allegiance to the King of Great Britain, before they can proceed to any official act, that divers of the late Trustees of the said College have during the present contest with Great Britain joined the British Army and now stand attainted as traitors that the said Corporation in its general manage- ment and conduct has shown an evident hostility to the present Gov- ernment and Constitution of this State, and in divers particulars, enmity to the common cause. That the funds thereof are now utterly inadequate to the purposes of Education, and will require some further support to give it that utility, credit and respect which a Seminary of Learning ought to have. That by an Act of Assembly of the 13th. of June 1777 entitled "An Act to oblige et*?." Divers of the Trustees be- came disqualified to act officially, and your Committee have been advised that the disqualifications have not been removed by any sub- sequent Act. That your Committee also have sufficient reason to be- lieve that the fair and original plan of equal privileges to all denomi- nations hath not been fully adhered to. From all these circumstances your Committee are of opinion that fin-re \\onM he sufficient ground to model the Charter and Goveru- inentof the said College so as to answer the original purpose of the said Institution. But when it is considered that Universities and Colleges have a powerful influence on the interest and government of every State and that the safety and happiness of the people are closely con- nected with and dependent upon the education of youth, your Commit- tee are of opinion that a ISill should be brought in effectually to pro- vide suitable funds for the said College to secure to every denomina- tion of Christians equal privileges and establish the said College on a liberal foundation in which the interests of American Liberty and In- dependence will be advanced and promoted and obedience and respect to the Constitution of the State preserved. Jo: GARDNER JOHN SMILIE WM, HOLLINGSHEAD, JOHN MORRIS Junior, Clerlt, IMPORTANT DOCUMENTS RELATING TO THE UNIVERSITY. 83 IX. [The art of Nov. 27, 1779, dispossessing th.- Trust, > of tli.- r,,]l,.^,. ,,f I'lula.l.-lplna of th,-ir .barter privileges and estates.] An Act to confirm the estates and interests of the colltye, <;ul t ,,,, , ni< i charitable school of the city of Philadelphia, and f<> >i,, nil thr ronxtitufinn and government of this commonwealth, and to erect the name into a uni- versity. SECTION 1. WHEREAS the education of youth has ever been found to be of the most essential consequence, as well to the good government of states, and the peace and welfare of society, as to the profit and or- nament of individuals, insomuch that from the experience of all apes, it appears that seminaries of learning, when properly conduct*-.!, have been publick blessings to mankind, and that on the contrary, when in the hands of dangerous and disaffected men, they have troubled the peace of society, shaken the government, and often caused tumult, se- dition, and bloodshed. SECTION 2. And whereas the college, academy, and charitable school of the city of Philadelphia, were at first founded on a plan of free and unlimited Catholicism; but it appears that the trustees thereof, by a vote or by-law of their board, bearing date the fourteenth day of June- in the year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred and sixty-four, have departed from the plan of the original Bounders, and narrowed the foun- dation of the said institution. SECTION 3. Be it therefore enacted, and it is hereby enacted, by the rep- resentatives of the freemen of the commonwealth of Pennsylvania, in aine council, the speaker of the general assembly, the chief just ice of the Mipreme court of judicature, the judge of admiralty, and the attorney-general for the time being, in virtue of their several offices, and the senior minister in standing of the episcopal churches and con- gregations, and the senior minister in standing of the presbyterian churches, and the senior minister in standing of the baptist churches, and the senior minister in standing of the Lutheran churches, and the senior minister in standing in the (lei man Calvinist churches, and the senior minister in standing in the Roman churches, whose churches or IMPORTANT DOCUMENTS RELATING To I II I. I'MVlhsiTY. 85 houses of publick worship are or shall be in the city ody politick and corporate, to have perpetual succession and continuance 88 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. for 'ever, by the name, style, and title as aforesaid, and that by the said name they shall be capable and able in law to sue and be sued, have and make a common seal, and the same at their pleasure to break and alter, to make rules and statutes, and to do everything necessary and needful for the good government and perfect establishment of the said university; and the provost, vice-provost and professors liereafer to be appointed and constituted by the trustees aforesaid, shall be named, styled, and intitled. The Provost, Vice-Provost, and Professors of the same University; and the name, style, and title of the body or faculty, composed of the said provost, vice provost, and professors, shall be, The Provost, Vice-Provost, and Professors of the University of the state of Pennsylvania. SECTION 18. And le it further enacted by the author it y aforesaid, That the said trustees shall at all times, when required, submit the books, accounts, and economy of the said corporation, to the free examination of 'visitors to be appointed from time to time by the representatives of the freemen of this commonwealth in general assembly met. SECTION 19. And le it further enacted by the authority aforesaid, That the trustees appointed by this act, or a majority of them, shall meet in the hall of the university aforesaid, in the forenoon on the first Wed- nesday in December next, and after being duly qualified as this act prescribes, proceed to the execution of their trust. JOHN BAYARD, speaker. Enacted into a ln>r, at Philadelphia, on Saturday, the '21th day of November, A. D. 1779. THOMAS PAINE, cleric of the general assembly. X. [Art of Assembly passed 6th of March, 1789, reinstating the trustees of the College, Academy, and Charitable School of Philadelphia.] An Act to repeal part of an act, intitled, "An Act to confirm the Estates and Interests of the College, Academy, and Charitable School of the city of Philadelphia, and to amend and alter the charters thereof, conform- ably to the revolution i/ tin- authority of the mnnc. That so much and all such parts of an act of general assembly of this commonwealth, passed on the said twenty-seventh day of November, in the year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred and seventy nine, intitled, ''An Act to confirm the estates and interests of the college, academy, and charita- ble school of the city of Philadelphia, and to amend and alter the char- ters thereof, conformably to the revolution and to the constitution and government of this commonwealth, and to erect the same into a uni- 90 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. versity,'' as touch, or in any wise concern, or relate to the said ancient corporation, A\ liich was styled and known by the said name and title of "The Trustees of the College, Academy, and Charitable School of Phil- adelphia, in the province of Pennsylvania," or the said charters thereof, or either of them, or as touch or in any wise concern or relate to the former rights, franchises, immunities, or estates, real, personal, or mixed thereof, or as tend to disqualify or disable the said trustees to act as a body politick, under the charters aforesaid, or to disqualify, deprive, or disable the body and faculty of the college and academy, known and distinguished in the charter, dated the fourteenth day of May, one thou- sand seven hundred and fifty-five, by the name, style, and title of "The Provost, Vice-Provost, and Professors of the College and Academy of Philadelphia, in the province of Pennsylvania," or any of them, from carrying on the design and purposes of the said college, academy, and charitable school, or to disfranchise or deprive them, or any of them, of any privileges, immunities, or estates, whatsoever, or of any part or par- cel thereof, or as vests the same or purports and intends to vest the same, or any part or parts thereof, in " The Trustees of the University of the state of Pennsylvania," shall be, and the same and every such part and parts thereof, is and hereby are repealed and made null and void, to all intents and purposes whatsoever. SECTION 3. And be it further enacted by the authority aforesaid. That the trustees of the college, academy, and charitable school aforesaid, who were deprived and disabled, or intended so to be, by, and in pur- suance of the said act, and the survivors of them and their successors, by the name, style, and title of "The Trustees of the College, Academy, and Charitable School of Philadelphia, in the commonwealth of Penn- sylvania," and the provost, vice provost, and professors, who as a faculty, were deprived and disabled, or intended so to be, by, and in pursuance of the said act, and the survivors of them and their successors, by the name and style of " The Provost, Yice-Provost, and Professors of the College and Academy of Philadelphia, in the commonwealth of Pennsylvania," shall be reinstated and restored, and they and each of them are hereby reinstated and restored to all and singular the rights, franchises, emoluments, offices, trusts, and estates, real, personal, and mixed, which they and each of them held and enjoyed, or ought or could of right have had, held, and enjoyed, or were iutitled unto, ac- cording to the said charters and the laws and constitution of this state, on the said twenty-seventh day of November, in the year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred and seventy-nine; and they and each of them and their successors, shall, and may ask, demand, sue for, recover and receive the same and each and every part and parcel thereof, and shall hold and enjoy, use, and exercise the same, and every part and parcel thereof, in the same manner and as fully and freely as if the said act had never been passed. Excepting dhrtn/s. so much of the rents, issues, and profits of the said real estate and estates, as were received IMPORTANT DOCUMENTS RELATING TO TI1K IMVKKSITY. 91 by the said trustees of tin- university before tin- second day of .March instant, which shall be considered. ;my the said hi part recited act, and also in and by any other act or acts of general assembly of this common wealth, to the trustees of the university there- in mentioned, or which they could thereby have or pursue for acquiring or possessing themselves of all or any part or parts of the estate or estates, real, personal, or mixed, rights, franchises, offices, trusts, or immunities, in and by the said in part recited act, transferred to or vested in them the said trustees of the university aforesaid, or of any books, papers, or writings, relating thereto; and all and every person and persons are hereby enjoined and required to govern and demean themselves accordingly, under the like pains and penalties as are in and by the said acts mentioned. Signed by order of the house, RICHARD PETEBS, speaker. Enacted into a laic, at Philadelphia, on Friday the sixth day of March, in the year of our Lord one thousand seren hundred and eighty-nine. PETER ZACHARY LLOYD, clerk of the general assembly. XI. Act of Assembly passed 30th of September, 1791, uniting the University of tin/ State of 1'ciiu.iylvaiiia, and the College, Academy and Charitable School of Philadelphia, uiidf-r the tith-of the " University of Pennsylvania. ' ' ] An Act to unite the nnirerxlty of the State of Pennsylvania^ and the col- lege, academy, and charitable school of Philadelphia, in the common- wealth of Pennsulran la. WHEREAS the trustees of the university of the state of Pennsyl- vania, and the trustees of the college, academy, and charitable school of Philadelphia, in the commonwealth of Pennsylvania, by their several petitions have set forth, that they have agreed to certain terms of union of the said two institutions, which are as follow: First. That the name of the institution be "The University of Penn- sylvania." and that it be stationed in the city of Philadelphia. St-rund. That each of the two boards shall elect, from among them- selves, twelve persons, who, with the governor for the time being, shall constitute the board of trustees of the university of Pennsylvania; and that the governor shall be president. Third. That the professors which shall be deemed necessary to con- stitute the faculty in the arts and medicine, respectively, shall be taken from each institution equally; and in case of an odd number, such one to betaken from cither by the choice of the trustees; and that the provost and vice-provost, or the principal officer or officers of the faculty, by whatexer name or names they may be called, shall be chosen from among the professors so appointed. IMPORTANT DOCUMENTS RELATING TO THE UNIVERSITY. !)3 Fourth. That charity schools shall In- Mippm-ted, one for boys, .UK I the other for girls. Fifth. That for the future every vacancy in the board, except that of governor, shall be filled up by election by ballot, by a majority of the members present, at any meeting of the new board, the members present to be at least thirteen; that due and timely notice of such election be at all times given, and that no person shall be elected to fill up such vacancy at the same meeting in which he shall be nominated. Hti-th. That the funds and property of the institutions shall be united, and vested in the new trustees. Seventh. That the professors and officers composing the faculty shall be elected by a majority of the members present at any meeting of the new board, the number present to be at least thirteen; that due and timely notice of such election shall at all times be given, and that no person or persons shall at any time be elected such professor or officer at the same meeting in which he shall be nominated. Eighth. That no professor or officer of the faculty shall be removed by a less number than two thirds of the members present at any meet- ing of the new board, the members present to be at least thirteen ; and that d*ue and timely notice of such intended removal shall at all times be given, and that no person or persons shall at any time be removed jvt the same meeting in which such removal shall be proposed. Ninth. That the board of trustees shall annually lay before such persons, as the legislature shall in the incorporating act direct, a state ment of the funds of the institution. And the said trustees by their several petitions have prayed, that a law may be passed to enable them to carry the said terms of union into effect, and to incorporate them in one body, according to the purpose and intention expressed in the said terms of union. SECTION 1. Be it therefore enacted by the senate and house of representa- tives of the comniomcealth of Pennsylvania in general assembly met, and it is hereby enacted by the authority of the same, That, in pursuance of the second article of the said terms of union, the trustees of the university shall elect twelve persons from among themselves to be trustees of the said university after the union, and shall certify the names of the said twelve persons, so elected, to the governor of this commonwealth, on or before the first day of December next; and that the trustees of the said college, academy, and charitable school, shall elect twelve persons from among themselves, to be trustees of the said university after the union, and shall certify the names of the said twelve persons, so elected, to the governor of this commonwealth, on or before the first day of December next. SECTION 2. And be it further enacted by the authority aforesaid, That from and after such certificates of the election being so made to the governor, as aforesaid, the said twenty -four persons so elected and cer- 94 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. tined, together with the governor for the time being, who shall always be president, and their successors, duly elected and appointed, as here- in and by the said terras of union is directed, be, and they are hereby made and constituted a corporation and body politick, in law and in fact, to have continuance for ever by the aforesaid name, style, and title of The Trustees of the University of Pennsylvania, and that the said university shall at all times be stationed in the city of Philadelphia. SECTION 3. And be it further enacted by the authority aforesaid, That the said trustees, and their successors, shall be able and capable in law to sue and be sued, by the name, style, and title aforesaid ; and to have and to make one publick and common seal, and also one private seal to use in their affairs, and the same, or either of them, to break and alter at their pleasure ; and to make rules and statutes not repugnant to the laws' and constitution of this state, or of the United States of America, and to do everything needful and necessary to the establishment of the said university, and for their own good government, and the good gov- ernment and education of the youth belonging to the same, and to con- stitute a faculty, or learned body, to consist of such head or heads, and such a number of professors in the arts and sciences, and in law, medi- cine, and divinity, as they shall judge necessary and proper, consistent with the aforesaid articles of union. SECTION 4. And be it further enacted by the authority aforesaid, That; all and every the estates, real, personal, and mixed, moneys, effects, debts, claims, and demands, either in law or equity, which at present are vested in, or belong to each of the two boards of trustees of the said university, and of the said college, academy, and charitable school, who are hereby united and incorporated together, shall be, and they hereby are, transferred to and vested in the said trustees herein directed to be appointed and incorporated, and their successors, with full power to take, receive, hold, use, recover, and enjoy the same, according to the pur- pose, true intent, and meaning of this act, and that in like manner, all claims, rights, and demands, of any person or persons^ bodies politick and corporate, against either of the said two boards, shall be, and remain valid and effectual against the trustees herein directed to be appointed and incorporated, and their successors, with power to demand, receive, and recover the same, as if they had been originally contracted by, or due, or recoverable from, the said trustees herein directed to be appointed and incorporated. SECTION 5. And be it further enacted by the authority aforesaid, Tbat, pursuant to the ninth article of the terms of union, the trustees shall ;innually lay a statement of the funds of the institution before the legis- lature of the commonwealth. WILLIAM BINGHAM, speaker of the house of representatives. EICHABD PETERS, speaker of the senate. Approved, September the 30th, 1791. THOMAS MIFFLIN, governor of the commonwealth of Pennsylvania. IMPORTANT DOCUMENTS RELATING TO THE UNIVERSITY. 95 In his plan for the education of youth in Pennsylvania Franklin out- lines his ideas of university training, but all the parts of the Proper- 1 1 - are not wholly after Franklin's ideas. Franklin discovered that lii> idea of an English school education was not sufficient to win the finan- cial support of all the subscribers. Many of them thought that pro- vision should be made for the study of the ancient languages, and it was in order to gain the advantage of the support of these gentlemen that Franklin, in his spirit of compromise, inserted this clause: When youth are told that the great men, whose lives and actions they read in history, spoke two of the best languages that ever were, the most expressive, copi- ous, beautiful ; and that the finest writings, the most correct compositions, the most perfect productions of human wit and wisdom, are in those languages, which have endured for ages, and will endure while there are men ; that no translation can do them justice, or give the pleasure found in reading the originals; that those lan- guages contain all science; that one of them is become almost universal, being the language of learned men in all countries; and that to understand them is a dis- tinguishing ornament; they may be thereby made desirous of learning those lan- guages and their industry sharpened in the acquisition of them. All intended for divinity should be taught Latin and Greek ; for physic, the Latin, Greek, and Frem-h ; for law, the Latin and French; for merchants, the French, German, and Spanish; and, though all should not be compelled to learn Latin, Greek, or the modern for- eign languages, yet none that have an ardent to learn them should be refused ; their English, arithmetic, and other studies absolutely necessary, being at the same time not neglected. To strengthen his defense of English studies he wrote at this time his Sketch of an English School 1 , which was printed in pamphlet form at his press but did not receive much attention. . At the opening of the Academy Mr. Peters preached a sermon which was favorably received and printed in pamphlet form at Franklin's press ; with characteristic sagacity Franklin sewed together his pamphlet. "A Sketch of an Eng- lish School," with Mr. Peters's sermon and so got his notions before the public. Forty years after the foundation of the Academy, Frank- lin wrote his Observations Relating to the Intentions' of the Original Founders of the Academy in Philadelphia, which are appended, and in which may be found an elaboration of his views with respect to ed- ucation. He anticipated the revolt against the classics which has come in our day and has resolved Latin and Greek into the region of the dead. It is not inexpedient to say that Franklin's idea of study- ing such languages as would be of utility to those who pursued them is the correct principle in that department of education. In conform- ity with Franklin's notion we have the modern elective course, which is the practical result of Franklin's challenge of the advantage and util- ity of compelling all persons who pursue higher education to pursn. the same subjects iu the same way for different ends. It will be no- ticed that there is a touch of humorous satire when Franklin writes in a spirit of compromise that "no translations can do the finest writings in Latin and Greek justice," or give the "pleasure found in reading See page 36, supra. 96 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. the originals," and that these languages contain all science." It should not be forgotten, however, that Franklin owed his fame to the publi- cation of his electrical investigations in the Latin tongue as well as in French, Spanish, and Italian. When he spoke for the study of modern languages and the resolution of Latin and Greek to a secondary place in modern education, he was confronting the entire educational opinion of his times. The first strug- gle between the old system and Franklin's ideas of the new education occurred in Philadelphia in the very institution which Franklin had been instrumental in founding, and the history of that struggle is told by Franklin himself two years before his death. l It will be noted that in Franklin's plan of a school there was a pro- vision for the education of poor children. He had clear ideas respecting the education of orphans, and the doctrines of equity regulated his ideas of charity. His Hints for Consideration Respecting the Orphan School- Houses in Philadelphia 2 formulate the large experience of his life in charitable matters. He laid down controlling principles for such an institution, as follows: (1) For the regular inspection of the institution; (2) That the labor of the orphans should not be made for the profit of the establishment; (3) That an account should be opened with each orphan, crediting him with his labor, and debiting him for the main- tenance of his education; (4) At his discharge on coming of age, his accounts should be balanced, and he should be urged and in 'honor bound to pay any indebtedness, and he should receive any credit due him; (5) Upon leaving the institution, he should receive decent cloth- ing, some money, and, if deserving, a certificate of good behavior; (6) The institution should aid him in entering upon a business or securing a position in life. Stephen Girard seems to have been influenced by these principles 3 in founding Girard College. ^A-t 53 Franklin had become, by the application of his own max- ims, a man of -independent fortune, and much respected by his neighbors, and of good reputation throughout the colonies. There had been along and bitter dispute in Pennsylvania, respecting the rights of the Proprietaries and of the Assembly, chiefly turning upon the ques- tion whether the estates of the Peuns should be taxed as other realty in the Province was taxed. Franklin had earnestly and efficiently ad- vocated the rights of the Assembly, and it was as their representative that he went to England in 1757. .His biographer remarks that It was Franklin who chiefly educated the colonies in the knowledge of their rights Hedid this in many way.s, by his Junto, by his newspaper, by his conversation, by the libraries founded through him, by the taste for science which he communicated, but especially by the ardor and ability with which he waged this lung warfare against arrogant stupidity embodied in tins degenerate offspring of William I'enii. 'See infra the Observations, etc. *See (Jirard College, p, 189_ 2 See the Hints, p. 5U, supra.. IMPORTANT DOCUMENTS RELATING TO THE UNIVERSITY. His experiments in electricity bad already been recogni/ed in laud and in France, and he was welcomed by the literary and !-;um d men of the time. Franklin's defects in education were never suspected by the academic world that sought his society. 1 He was a genius in his capacity for reading 1 , a good listener, and though easy in his manners, gay and witty, he never sought to indulge the company with " flashes of silence." No sooner had he settled in London than his instinct to effect improvements showed itself, and smoky street lamps and filthy streets were the object of his attention. It is not my purpose to write a biography of Franklin, nor even to catalogue his experiments, but by reference to some of them to suggest the utilitarian character of the man and the origin of his educational ideas. The inattention of the ministry afforded him an opportunity for tr;i ve] , and in 1757 he visited Scotland, where the University of St. Andrews conferred upon him the title of Doctor, by which he has ever since bteen known. Here he met Hume, Robertson, and Lord Kames, and it is thought by one of his biographers that Franklin's remark to Dr. Robert- son "suggested the well-known Macanlayan image of the New Zea- lander sitting upon the arch of London Bridge contemplating the ruin of St. Paul's. 1 ' 2 But Franklin was engaged in a larger service for his countrymen than the favorable acquaintance of eminent men ; he was almost con- tinually writing and printing pamphlets on the American Colonies for the enlightenment of the English public. The dark and dreary waste of English opinion on the Americans at that time seemed impervious to the beams of Franklin's genius, and he succeeded but feebly at first in piercing that darkness, but the rays of his intelligence at last fell upon fertile soil and there sprang up a liberal party in the kingdom, which, at last, laid hold of the Government and compelled the acknowl- edgment of American independence. The usefulness of Franklin at this time may be understood by any who choose to read his numerous pamphlets and his letters. Frank- lin's farsightedness is illustrated in one of his cherished opinions e\ pressed to Lord Kaines, "that the foundations of the future grandeur and stability of the British Empire lie in America," He opposed the restoration of Canada to the French, saying: If wo keep it, all the country from the St. Lawrence to the Mississippi will, in another century, be filled with British people; Britain itself will heroine vastly more popnlous/by the immense increase of its commerce, the Atlantir Si a will In- covered with your trading ships, and your naval power, thus continually increas- ing, will extend your influence round the whole globe and awe the world. He ever believed and labored to effect that Canada and the Thirteen Colonies should comprise a political unit, and it was only by a blunder 'Instance the honorary degr.-cs he received from William and Mary College, St. Andrew's, Oxford, and Cambridge. " -Parton. 1180 7 98 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. of his colleague in Paris, when the final treaty of peace was made in 1783, that England failed to include Canada with the United States. ' Franklin not only educated the colonies, but he educated England, and perhaps the most telling lesson that he imparted to the British public was in his examination before the House of Commons in 1765. For the first time England received true information of the state of the colonies, and the information was conveyed to the masters of England themselves. The examination of Franklin before the House of Com- mons was by no means an accidental or impromptu affair, but nearly all the questions and their answers were arranged beforehand by Franklin and his friends among the liberal members of Parliament. This attorney-like proceeding does not affect the value of the evidence, but by timely shaping the examination it concentrated, in the brief pe- riod when Franklin was before the House, all possible information that could be elicited from the best-informed man in the colonies. In this examination Franklin was at home, and he himself played the first part in the most Socratic dialogue in parliamentary history. The whole ex- amination was after Franklin's own heart, and singularly in keeping with his own self-education. Experience and observation equipped him for the task, and his triumph is the proof of the excellence of his method. 1 Franklin had a unique method of educating the British public, and he had learned it in his apprentice days in Boston and during the long struggle between the assembly and the proprietaries in Pennsylvania. The method is characteristic of all his political writings ; it was by briefly setting the whole question in dispute in a humorous light, by which the reader might see his way to the true conclusion, that is, the conclusion which Franklin wished drawn. This method of political en- lightenment is unquestionably good in journalism and in pamphleteer- ing, and has its uses in book-making and public speaking ; but this very tendency in Franklin, it is said, excluded him from being asked by his contemporaries to write any of the great state papers of colonial times. It would hardly do to put a joke into the Declaration of Inde- pendence. Franklin's English pamphlets are exquisite political hits, of which two are particularly famous: "Kules for reducing a Great Empire to a Small One, Presented to a Late Minister" (Lord Hillsboro, when he entered upon his ministry), and "An Edict of the King of Prussia." These two articles show one phase of Franklin at great advantage. He was the first American humorist. Franklin was aware that public opinion is won and controlled by the most delicate and yet by the broadest manipulation, and that if he could win the favorable opinion of the British public to American affairs, he would control the votes of the House of Commons. By this procedure he showed the practicality of his mind ; he appealed to the power in England which makes and unmakes ministries. r 1 See p. 161. 3 See the examiuatiou iu Bigelow, Vol. 3, p. 407. IMPORTANT DOCUMENTS RELATING TO THE UNIVERSITY. !! In appealing to this power lie did not proceed blindly by addressing humorous newspaper articles to the general reader; he wrote these masterly articles for the education of the public; and he did more, he became the companion of the first literary and scientific mm <>f Kng- land and won many of them to the support of his liberal ideas, not by formal discussions of the rights of the colonies, but by exemplifying in his own character and appointments the nature of American institu- tions which could produce such a man as he. It is not difficult for us to realize how Franklin thus became the typical American and won respect for America by winning respect for himself. Franklin's chief service to America was in the experimental proof that the human race does not degenerate in this country, but that it could equal, if not sur- pass, the old country in its productions. 1 We must not forget that Franklin appeared in the drawing rooms of London when it was a common doubt among English ladies whether Americans were white or black, whether they dressed in skins or wool, whether they spoke English or Indian, whether they lived in houses or wigwams, and whether Philadelphia did not comprise Pennsylvania. Among the friends of Franklin in England were Adam Smith, who, at the time Franklin met him, was writing his classical work, "The Nature and Cause of the Wealth of Nations," and David Hume, the well-known author of a history of England and essays on politics and philosophy. In Watson's Annals of Philadelphia 2 it is said that Dr. Franklin once told Dr. Logan that Adam Smith when writing his Wealth of Nations was in the habit of bringing chapter after chap- ter as he composed it to Franklin, Dr. Price, and others of the literati ; then patiently hear their observations and profit by their discussions and criticisms, sometimes re-writing whole chapters, after such con- ference, and even reversing some of his propositions. Hume is quoted as writing to Adam Smith in 1776, saying, "Your work is probably much improved by your last "abode in London." Parton has pointed out that Franklin's papers at this period "contain sets of problems and queries as though agitated at some meeting of philosophers for partic- ular consideration at home." All students of political economy have long known that Smith's "Wealth of Nations" is the first book that illustrates its propositions by allusions to the American colonies. Smith's ideas were new and he was working out a new system of economics; in seeking a field for the application of his ideas it was natural that he should refer to America, a new country, as the region where his ideas might have a practical test. It is known that the Wealth of Nations was favorably received ! The incident of the six tall Americans and the six short Frenchmen together at dinner is in point. : See specially, Franklin's idea of Labor as a measure of wealth, expanded l>y Smith in Book I ; and consult index to ' ' The Wealth of Nations " title ' ' America " for illus- trations of Franklin's influence on Smith. 100 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. and had great influence in centering the attention of Europe upon America. It is also known that the statesmen who cooperated in the formation ot the United States, Franklin, Washington, Jefferson, Madison, Hamilton, Jay, Morris, and others were brought up in the new school of Adam Smith. The Wealth of Nations had a most im- portant influence in the organization of government in America (1776 to 1789) ; the doctrines of Smith are traceable in the debates of the Con- stitutional Convention of 1787 sjnd references- to the influence of the Wraith of Nations are scattered through the works of the statesmen of the period. ' It is not too much to say that Franklin's influence on economic edu- cation is illustrative of his whole educational doctrine. He gave to Adam Smith apt illustrations of the utility of the ideas of the Wealth of Nations. So great had been the changes in America due to its devel- opment 'that the illustrations in the Wealth of Nations 2 which bear par- ticularly upon the American colonies are now hardly estimated at their original value; it should be remembered that this book, which Buckle calls "the most important book ever written," and "the most valuable contribution ever made by a single man toward establishing the prin- ciples on which governments should be based," was the first work by a European scholar which made use of the American colonies as apt illus trations of its doctrines and pointed to those colonies as the country where the new political economy should develop in all its strength. Had Franklin done nothing else in the world than contribute these illustrations to Adam Smith's book, he would have had a high place among the great educators of mankind. As the first book on the eco- nomic basis of modern government in America, the Wealth of Nations should be classed with the Federalist, De Tocqueville's Democracy in America, and Bryce's American Commonwealth. Franklin influenced English opinion by his association with the lead ing men of the times. A suggestion only can be made of the educa- tional influence of such association by mentioning some of Franklin's English friends. Particular examination of the diaries and journals of the public men of the time would illustrate the extent of Franklin's intlurnce; he was intimate with Burke, Hume, Lord Kanies, Sir John Pringle, Dr. Fothergill, Dr. Cannon, Dr. Eichard Price, Dr. Priestley, and the Bishop of St. Asaph's; Lord Shelbourne, the Marquis of Rock - ingham, Lord de Lespencer, Lord Bathurst, Lord North, the astrono- mer Maskyline, and Lord Morton, were among his acquaintances. But Mr. Joseph Wharton, founder of the Wharton School of Finance and Economy in the University of Pennsylvania, has in his possession AVashington's copy of Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations, the edition iu four volumes. Some errors in the proof are corrected in Washington's hand and there is other evidence that he had read the work carefully. 2 Prof. John Bach McMaster tells me that references to the Wealth of Nations are numerous in the newspapers and pamphlets of this period, 1777-17JO. [Editor.] IMPORTANT DOCUMENTS RELATING TO THE UNIVERSITY. 101 it was with Dr. Priestley, Dr. Shipley, the bishop of St. Asaph, and David Hume, that Franklin was most intimate. A conversation between Franklin and Priestley isj-ecorded when one evening, at the Boyal Society, the question arose as to what wtm the most desirable invention that remained to be made. To which Frank- lin replied, "the spinning of two threads at the same time.'' We are told that before Franklin left London, Hargraves and Arkwright had perfected machinery by which forty threads wen- spun by the same motion. 1 Franklin's reply is illustrative of his utilitarianism; he lived in the days of leather breeches and vests, and even of greatcoats, when the poor were not clad in comfort. So expensive was woolen cloth that a family was obliged to make full use of it when once in their possession, and, as is attested by the recorded wills of thousands of Americans of that time, the personal apparel of the parents was transmitted to t In- individual members of the family. 2 Franklin's services to his country by educating England to an un- derstanding of the conditions of the American colonies were tempora- rily suspended by his return to America in 1775, when it seemed to many that he had failed in securing the object of his mission. Subse- quent events, however, proved that his humorous contributions to th- newspapers, in which he discussed in a broad way the American situa- tion, had educated the public mind and his intimacy with men and women of eminence and learning had laid the foundations of a politi- cal party. Franklin's writings seem the spontaneous production of an easy mind; on the contrary, they are the result of painstaking effort, of re- peated interlineation, revision, and rewriting, and his best pieces were rewritten seven or eight times before he published them. Among the Franklin papers in Washington are many which are the successive copies of such pieces. It is surprising at first thought that a man so busy as Franklin could find time and would have the patience to give such detailed attention to the pieces which he wrote for the pleasure of his friends, but Franklin loved details and excelled in the exquisite practice of literary refinement until his anecdote or his scientific paper, freed from all useless words, illustrated the standard of the simple and concise style which he so frequently pronounced most perfect. His frequent defense of an English education was doubtless suggested by his own patience and experience in writing thoe perfect productions in his own tongue. He could not see any advantage in traveling along an Italian Eow, a Spanish Row, and a French Kow in the midst of this 1 " There are spinning mules in operation now in the city of Philadelphia whih will spin one thousand threads at a time." [Charles Heber Clarke to Editor.] 2 See Weeden's "Social and Economic History of New England," remarks on "cloth" and " textile fabrics." 102 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. literary Vanity Fair when the English way was so direct, so conven- ient, and so plain. 1 Franklin never outgrew the lessons of his own efforts in self-educa- tion. Perhaps no better illustration of the effects of education upon the mind when men are called to decide on important matters is found than in the curious judgment of the committee appointed by Congress July 4, 1776, consisting of Franklin, Jefferson,, and John Adams, to prepare a device for a seal for the General Government. 2 The various devices proposed by the members of the committee suggest the educa- tion which each had received in his boyhood. We learn from Adams that Dr. Franklin proposed as a device, " Moses lifting up his wand and dividing the Ked Sea, and Pharaoh in his chariot overwhelmed with the waters." The motto, " Rebellion to Tyrants is obedience to God." Probably Franklin's memory of his home training in Milk Street, where his childish ideas were colored by incidents in Jewish history, may explain the origin of this device. Jefferson proposed as a device, "The children of Israel in the wilderness; led by a cloud by day and a pillar of fire by night; and on the other side, Hengist and Horsa, the Saxon chiefs, from whom we claim the honor of being descended, and whose political principles and form of Government we have assumed." Evidently Jefferson's youthful training was not wholly biblical and the curious mixture of Hebraism and British mythology was characteristic of the constructive Jeffersonian politics. Adams forgot his Old Testament training and thought the choice should be of Hercules, " as engraved by Gribelin in some editions of Lord Shaftesbury's works. The hero resting on his club; Virtue point- ing to her rugged mountain on one hand and persuading him to ascend; Sloth, glancing at her flowery paths of pleasure, wantonly reclining on the ground, displaying the charms both of her eloquence and person, to seduce him into vice." John Adams had read Lord Shaftesbury at the turning point of his youthful education, and characteristically leaving the plain illustrations of Hebrew history, he preferred the abstractions of the founder of North Carolina. It might be thought that in suggesting a seal for the United States Franklin would have proposed a figure of a saw, or a hammer, or a print- ing press. We are told that after nearly six weeks' deliberation Moses and Pharaoh and Hengist and Horsa and Lord Shaftesbury were left behind, and the committee proposed an emblematic seal suggestive of the composite character of American institutions: "A rose for England, a thistle for Scotland, a harp for Ireland, a fleur-de-lis for France, a black eagle for Germany, a lion for the Low Countries." The United 'See his Observations Relative-.to the Intentions of the Original Founders of the Academy in Philadelphia, in which he vigorously defends an English education. "The Seal of the United States, how it was developed and adopted; Washington, Department of State, 1892. IMPORTANT DOCUMENTS RELATING TO THE UNIVERSITY. 103 * States was to appear upon the border by its initials, and the goddess of liberty in armor, with a spear, cap, and shield, was to support the em- blazonment; Justice, with her naked sword, was to guard all. All was to be under "the eye of Providence in a radiant triangle, whose g-lory extends over the shield and beyond the figures. Motto: Hi- practiced tliis precept. The tninslations of tin- American Con- stitutions served '"the cause of all mankind," and everybody knows how Franklin was ever mindful of his friends and his family whenever he could serve them, either in private or public; life; any of his rela- tives who were capable of filling office usually tilled one. His lit.- is full of applications of his system of prizes and rewards laid down in his scheme for an English school. If he would give gilt books to chil- dren, he would give to those who served their country the reward of public recognition. Thomas Wren was a dissenting clergyman at Portsmouth, England, who sympathizing with the American cause and pitying the distress of the American prisoners, devoted much of his time to the relief of the Americans in Fortou jail. He gave of his own small fortune, he obtained the assistance of his friends, he bought clothing and medicine and food, and in every way in his power con- tributed to the comfort of those unhappy men. Dr. Franklin was in correspondence with him throughout the war and as a slight proof of his sense of the indebtedness of the public to Wren, Franklin was in- strumental in securing him a vote of thanks from Congress in 1783 and the degree of Doctor of Divinity from Princeton College. Illustrations abound in Franklin's life of his constant practice of the principles laid down in his scheme for the eduction of youth. Utilita- rianism has its machinery of compensation and Franklin ever worked this machinery with success. His scheme of education made no provi- sion for the useless man, and on several occasions he makes an ancient college, as in the case of Princeton, the means of rewarding a useful act. He seems to have discovered a usefulness in the granting of col- lege degrees which at that time was so shamefully abused. It is in 1778, while in his seventy-second year, when Franklin and John Adams are associated in diplomatic work in Paris, that the dif- ference in their educational equipment is so apparent. Adams was a lawyer, regular in all his habits, clear in interpreting his own course in affairs, and one of the great company of human beings who worship order. The first point of difference between Franklin and Adams wa- relating to order. Of this Franklin had little and Adams had much. Everybody recalls Franklin's exquisite confession of his own failure to acquire orderly habits in his autobiography. It occurs in his account of his effort to apply his Art of Virtue. One of the virtues at which he aimed was order. 1 made so little progress in amendment [he says] and had such frequent relapses that I was almost ready to give np the attempt, and content myself with a faulty character in that respect, like the man, who, in buying an ax of a smith, my neighbor, desired to have the whole of the- surface as bright as the edge. The smith consented to grind it bright for him if he would turn the wheel ; he turned while the smith pressed the broad face of the ax hard and heavily on the stone whicli made the turn- ing of it very fatiguing. The man came every now and then from the wheel to see how the work went on and at length would take his ax as it was, without farther grinding. "No," said the smith, "turn on, turn on; we shall have it bright by and JOG THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. ly; as yet it is only speckled." "Yes," says the man, "but I think I like a specked ax best." Arid I believe this may have been the case with ntauy who, having for Avant of some such means as I employed, found the difficulty of obtaining good and breaking bad habits in other points of vice and virtue, have given up the struggle, and concluded "that a speckled ax was best ;" for something, that pretended to be reason, was every now and then suggesting to me that such extreme nicety as I ex- acted of myself might be a kind of foppery 'fn morals, which, if it were known, would make me ridiculous; that a perfect character might be attended with the in- convenience of being envied and hated, and that a benevolent man should allow a few faults in himself to keep his friends in countenance. In truth I found myself incorrigible with respect to order; and now I am grown older and my memory bad, I feel very sensibly the want of it. Had Franklin had a keener appetite for order lie might possibly have collected his various writings, or he might have completed his auto- biography, or he might have arranged more perfectly the details of many of his experiments, or he might have set forth somewhere the means by which he arrived at so many of his opinions. Though Frank- lin is always taking us into his confidence, there are many interesting matters about him on which we would like further information. Frank- lin, like Daniel Webster, was capable of taking his ease. His large soul had need to be stirred now and then by lesser men. He would never have undertaken his autobiography, that priceless fragment of litera- ture, had it not been pressed upon him by his friends. That Franklin was estimated a hundred years ago very much as he is estimated to-day is evident from a letter to him by Benjamin Vaughau, dated Paris, January 31, 1783, in which Franklin is urged to continue his autobiography and to write his "Art of Virtue." Your history is so remarkable that if you do not give it somebody else will certainly give it, and perhaps so as nearly to do as much harm as your own management of the thing might do good. It will moreover present a table of internal circumstances of your country which will very much tend to invite to it settlers of virtuous and manly minds. And con- sidering the eagerness with which such information is sought by them, and the ex- tent of your reputation, I do not know of amore efficacious advertisement than your biography would give. All that has happened to you is also connected with the detail of the manner and situation of a rising people ; and in this respect I do not think that the writings of Cffisar and Tacitus can be more interesting to a judge of human nature and society. But these, sir, are small reasons, in my opinion, compared with the chance which your life will give for the forming of future great men, and in conjunction with your "Art of Virtue " (which you design to publish) of improving the features of pri- vate character, and consequently of aiding all happiness, both public and domestic. The two works I allude to, sir, will in particular give a noble rule and example of self-education. School and other education constantly proceed upon false principles, and show a clumsy apparatus pointed at a false mark ; but your apparatus is simple find the mark a true one; and while parents and young persons are left destitute of other just means of estimating and becoming prepared for a reasonable course in life, your discovery that the thing is in many a man's private power will be invaluable. Influence upon the private character late 1 in life is not only an influence late in life, but a weak influence. It is in youth that we plant our chief habits and preju- dices; it is in youth that we take our parties as to profession, pursuits, and matri- IMPORTANT DOCUMENTS RELATING TO T1IK UNIVERSITY. 107 mouy. In youth therefore the turn is given ; in youth the education < v.-n of the next generation is given ; in youth the private and public character is l.-t. rniin. .1, and the term of life extending out from youth to age, life ought to begin well from youth, iind more especially before we take our party as to our principal objects. But your biography will not merely teach self-education, but the education of a wise man; and the wisest man will receive lights and improve his progress by see- ing detailed the conduct of another wise man. And why are weaker men to be deprived of such helps when we see our race has been blundering on in the dark, almost without a guide in this particular, from the farthest trace of time. Show, then, sir, how much is to be done, both to the sons and fathers, and invite all wise men to become like yourself, and other men to become wise. When we see how cruel statesmen and warriors can be to the human race, how absurd distinguished men can be to their acquaintances, it will be instructive to observe the instances multiply of pacific, acquieScing manners ; and to iind how com- patible it is to be great and domestic, enviable and yet good-humored. The little private incidents which you will also have to relate will have considerable use, as we want above all things rules of prudence in ordinary affairs ; and it will be curious to see how you have acted in these. It will be so far a sort of a key to life, and ex- plain many things that all men ought to have once explained to them, to give them a chance of becoming wise by foresight. The nearest thing to having experience of one's own is to have other people's affairs brought before us in a shape that is interesting. This is sure to happen from your pen. Your affairs and management will have an air of simplicity or importance that will not fail to strike ; and I am convinced you have conducted them with as much originality as if you had been conducting decisions in politics or philosophy; and what more worthy of experiments and system (its importance and its errors considered) than human life. Some men have been virtuous blindly, others have speculated fantastically, and others have been shrewd to bad purposes; but you-, sir, I am sure, will give under your hand nothing but what is at the same moment wise, practical, and good. Your account of yourself, for I suppose the parallel I am drawing for Dr. Franklin will hold not only in point of character, but of private history, will show that you are ashamed of no origin, a thing the more important as you prove how little neces- sary all origin is to happiness, virtue, or greatness. As no end likewise happens without a means, so we shall find, sir, that even yon your- self framed a plan by which you became considerable; but at the same time we may see that though the event is flattering, the means are as simple as wisdom could make them; that is, depending upon nature, virtue, thought, and habit. Another thing demonstrated will be the propriety of every man's waiting for his time for appearing upon the stage of the world. Our sensations being very much fixed to the moment, we are apt to forget that more moments are to follow the first, and consequently that man should arrange his conduct so as to suit the whole of a life. Your attribution appears to have been applied to your life, and the pa^iii- moments of it have been enlivened with content and enjoyment, instead of being tormented with foolish impatience or regrets. Such a conduct is easy for those who make virtue and themselves their standard, and who try to keep thcmselve- in countenance by examples of other truly great men, of whom patience is so often the characteristic. Your Quaker correspondent * * * praised your frugality, diligence, and tem- perance, which he considered as a pattern for all youth; but it is singular that he should have forgotten your modesty and your disinterestedness, without which you never could have waited for your advancement or found your situation in the meantime comfortable, which is a strong lesson to show the poverty of glory an .1 the importance of regulating our minds. If this correspondent had known the nature of your reputation as well as I do, he would have said your former writings and 108 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. measures would secure attention to your biography and Art of Virtue, and your bi- ography and Ait <>t Virtue in return would>secure attention to them. This is an ad- vantage attendant upon a various character and which brings all that belongs to it into greater play; and it is the more useful, as perhaps more persons are at a loss for the means of improving their minds and characters than they are for the time or the inclination to do it. * * If it encourages more writings of the same kind with your own, and induces more men to spend lives fit to be written, it will be worth all Plutarch's Lives put together. * * * Considering your great age. the caution of your character, and peculiar style of thinking, it is not likely that anyone besides your- self can be sufficiently master of the facts of your life or the intentions of your mind. Besides all this, the immense revolution of the present period will necessarily turn our attention toward the author of it; and when virtuous principles have been pre- tended in it, it will be highly important to show that such have really influenced; and, as your own character will b the principal one to see a scrutiny, it is proper even for its effects upon your vast and rising country, as well as upon England and upon Europe, that it should stand respectable and eternal. For the furtherance of human happiness I have always maintained that it is necessary to prove that a man is not even at present a vicious and detestable animal ; and, still more, to prove that good management may greatly amend him; and it is for much the same reason that I am anxious to see the opinion established that there are fair characters existing among the individuals of the race, for the moment that all men, without exception, shall be conceived abandoned, good people will cease efforts deemed to be hopeless, and perhaps think of taking their share in the scram- ble of life, or at least of making it comfortable principally for themselves. Extend your views even further; do not stop at those who speak the English tongue, but after having settled so many points in nature and politics, think of bet- tering the whole race of men. This appeal was turning the tables on Franklin, and was happily effectual in causing him to resume his autobiography at Passy, near Paris, in the following year. This letter is almost prophetic of the place that Franklin was to hold in American life. \Vh<> can estimate the number of readers of the autobiography, and who can tell how many lives have been made useful by that work? Fifty years ago the means for securing an education in America were so imperfect that the autobiography became the great text-book for active minds among the youn.t- throughout the country, and there^are few eminent men or women in America to-day, CO . years of age and native born, who will not place Franklin's Autobiography, not only among the few books that helped them, but as the first book that they read which opened up a possible career in life by self education, and which did for their genera- tion even more than Sartor Kesartus, or Emerson's Essays, forty years ago. Franklin's Autobiography was a book-making book, because his life was a book-making life. The old Congress of the Confederation seems to have realized the value of education in politics, for in 1780 it requested Franklin to make a school book of the record of British atrocities in the American war. Franklin describes this commission to his English friend Hartley. The book was to have "thirty-five prints, designed here by good artists, and engraved, each expressing one or more of the different horrid facts to be inserted in the book, in order to impress the minds of children IMPORTANT DOCUMENTS RELATING TO THE UNIVERSITY. 1! and posterity with a deep seuse of your bloody and insatiable malice and wickedness." But Franklin was not a Eugene Sue ; he resolved not to proceed in the work, hoping that a reconciliation might take place, but added "every fresh, instance of your devilism weakens that resolution and makes me abominate the thought of a reunion with such a people." Perhaps Benjamin Vaughan was wiser than Congress when he intimated that Franklin's Autobiography would make a great Amer- ican school book. The influence of Franklin on American education has been even greater through his Autobiography than through the institutions which he founded or which were founded by his followers. Franklin was a prince of democrats. The great feature of his whole public policy is well said by Parton to be "to enlighten public opinion and to bring enlightened public opinion to bear upon the councils of public men." In this lofty effort he was surpassed by none of his con- temporaries and has been equaled by few of his successors. In 1784 a town of Norfolk County, Massachusetts, in its sixth year, took upon itself the name of Franklin, and, sending notice of the honor, informed Franklin that they would build a suitable tower t<3 their church if he would present them with a bell. His famous reply asking them to accept a gift of books instead of a bell, "sense being prefera ble to sound," led to the founding of a public library in the town whose first books were selected by Dr. Price, at Franklin's request, limiting the choice to "such as are most proper to inculcate principles of sound religion and just government." Franklin was too busy, probably, to make out the list himself, and recommended, at the instance of his sis- ter, Stennet's Discourse on Personal Eeligion. The books selected by Dr. Price were presented to the town ; they suggest the ruling ideas of the period and most of them have been put upon the high shelves in the modern library. 1 'They were as follows: Clarke's Works; Hoadley's Works; Barrow's Works; Ridgelcy's Works ; Locke's Works; Sidney's Works ; Montesquieu's Spirit of Laws; Blackstone's Commentaries; Watson's Tracts; Newton oil the Prophecies; Law on Religion; Priestley's Institutes ; Priestley's Corruptions; Price and Priestley ; Lyn.l sey's Apology; Lyudsey's Sequel; Abernethy's Sermons; Duchal : s Sermons; Pi Morals; Price on Providence ; Price on Liberty ; Price's Sermons; Priceon the Chris- tian Scheme ; Needham's FreeJStatc ; West and Lyttleton on the Resurrection ; Steii- nct's Sermons; Addison's Evidences; Gordon's Tacitus; Backus's History; Lardner ontheLogas; Watts's Orthodoxy and Charity; Brainerd's Life; Bellamy's True Religion; Doddridge's Life; Bellamy's Permission of Sin ; Fordyce's Seruums ; H.-rn- inenway against Hopkins; Hopkins on Holiness; Life of Cromwell; Fulfilling "t tin- sn-iptures; Watts on the Passions ; Watts's Logic ; Edwards on Religion ; Dirk .insou on the Five Points; Christian History; Prideaux's Connections; Cooper n Predestination; Cambridge Platform ; Stoddard's Safety of Appearing : Hurk.-tt t the Commonwealth. His countrymen had come to recognize Franklin as the natural patron of every enterprise of a literary or philanthropic character, and it was during his presidency, in 1786, that a general plan of a college in the borough of Lancaster, Pa., was presented to the 112 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. assembly and approved. Thus, out of respect to the character "of His Excellency, the President of the State," the institution was called Franklin College. On the 6th of June, 1787, the college was formally opened. It had been founded in consideration of the wants of the German population in Pennsylvania, and was under the control of the Lutheran church. 1 Of the exercises 2 at the opening of the college the Revc J. H. uubbs, D. D., has given an interesting account in his article on the founding of Franklin College, in the Reform Quarterly Review for October, 1887. 3 The question whether Benjamin Franklin was personally present at this festival has recently received some attention. That he was in Lancaster at sonic time in tin- year 1787, on an occasion which has been denominated "the laying of the corner- stone." appears to be a fact which is beyond reasonable question. A French writer, Hector St. John Creveeomr, has preserved a record of the event in his book of travels, in which he says, as quoted by Duyckinck's Cyclopedia of American Literature: "In the year 1787 I accompanied the venerable Franklin, at that time governor of Pennsylvania, on a journey to Lancaster, ;vhere ho had been invited to lay the corner-stone of a college which he had founded there for the Germans. In the evening of the day of the ceremony we were talking of the different nation* which inhabit the continent." The writer then proceeds to give the substance of a conversation between Franklin and one of the principal residents of the town, con- cerning the origin of the American Indians. The above statement appears to be sufficiently clear and explicit ; but in order to make assurance doubly sure, the Rev. Dr. F. A. Muhlenberg has kindly examined the original author! ties. In a private letter of July 27, 1887, he says: "I found a copy of Duyckinck's ' Cyclopedia' in the Mercantile Library, and on page 175, as you mentioned, the exact words of your quotation. There was. however, no copy of the original work. I was not altogether satisfied. I went next to the Philadel- phia Library and found an edition of Hector St. John Crevecoeur, in French, into which it had been translated by the author. In the second chapter I found the same in substance with that given by Duyckiuck. and the conversation with one of the citizens of the ' ville ' on the subject of the Indians of this country. The conversa- tion is said to have taken place after the ceremonies. The words used by Mr. Crevecoenr for the corner-stone are ' la premiere pierre.' Such an explicit state- incut, with such details, could not be questioned. No man would, iu the po- sion of reason, attempt to deceive the world in such a fashion. Besides, in the other parts of liis work, consisting of three volumes, in this edition, lie gives f what he describes, and his truthful character. Still farther, all the books on bibliography represent him as a reliable author. Dr. Franklin was. therefore, in Lancaster, at what Mr. Crevecoeur calls fche laying of the 'premiere pierre,' in the year 1787." "In the exercises attending the opening of the college. Franklin, it is said, was especially pleased to see Kpiscopalians. 1'resbytcrians. Lutherans. ( 'atholics, Mora- vians, and (Quakers, all join harmoniously in the celebration. Of these exercises the Abbe Morellet wrote t< Franklin from Autenil, July 31, 1787: "In the dedication of your college in the county of Lam-aster and the fine procession and the religious ceremony where were met together Presbyterians, Epis- copalians, Lutherans, Catholics, Moravians, < httli '/imnti, there was toleration in practice." 3 See reprint, The Founding of Franklin College, 17^7, by Kev. .1. H. Dubbs, D. D., from the Reformed Quarterly Review, Philadelphia Reformed Church Publication Board, 907 Arch street. IMPORTANT DOCUMENTS RELATING TO THE UNIVERSITY. 113 It is not probable that the occasion to which reference is here made was literally the lading of the corner-stone, as the college had no building of its own until a later period. Of course, there might have been a minor festival of some sort, prior to the formal opening in June ; but if this wag the case it is strange that there is no reference to the fact in the correspondence of the times. It is, after all, most likely that Crevecoeur refers to the formal opening or so-called "dedication," and that this was the occasion on which Franklin was present. The fact, it in true, is no- where explicitly stated, but there are many circumstances which render it probable. Franklin's name was frequently mentioned throughout the services, in awaj- which appears to have presupposed his presence. In each of the three original hymns he is spoken of with the highest reverence, and in one of them the college is termed " his child." The prayer delivered on the occasion by the Rev. Mr. Herbst closes with an intercession for " the noble Protector of the college, his Excellency Benja- min Franklin." Dr. Muhlenberg says, "I think it can be fairly inferred from the connection in which it stands and the peculiar prominence given to it, that His Ex- cellency must have been present." It has, indeed, been asserted that it was impossible for Dr. Franklin to have been in Lancaster, on account of his engagements in the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia. On this subject Dr. Muhlenberg says, in the letter from which we have so freely quoted, "I have examined Madison's, Elliott's, and Yates's Reports, and one other, the author of which I do not now remember. I find that Dr. Frank- lin is reported by one and all of these authorities as present at the Constitutional Convention on Saturday anil Monday, the 2d and 4th of June, taking part also in the proceedings, but there is no mention of his name or allusion to him on Wednesday, Thursday, and Friday, the 6th, 7th, and 8th of June, but on Saturday, 9th, his name again appears. Here is a margin to render it probable that he was absent for cause." A hundred years after the founding of Franklin College, on the oc- casion of the centennial anniversary of the foundation of Franklin and Marshall College, an address on Franklin was delivered by William Pepper, M. D., LL. D., provost of the University of Pennsylvania. 1 There was a preeminent fitness in the choice of Dr. Pepper, the pro- vost of the University which Franklin founded, and who has been in- strumental in carrying out the essentials of Franklin's ideas as they apply to higher education. In the course of his address, Dr. Pepper said : Franklin was admirably equipped as a popular teacher. Long study of the best models of English prose, aided by his fine literary sense, gave him a style unsur- passed for clearness and directness; while his rich vein of humor, his command of satire, of anecdote, and of terse, sententious phrase, enabled him to convey large truths in such portable and attractive forms that his teachings soon spread far and wide and fixed themselves in the memory and speech of men. But here, aa in all cases, that which gave most weight to his teachings were the character and the life of the teacher. He made the newspaper press a power for good, as it had never been before ; and he set the example, and adhered to it throughout his editorial career, of preserving the columns of his paper free from all libeling and personal abuse, and all purvey- ing to the prurient taste of a section of the community. He was ever ready to recognize a public need, whether of school or library or hospital, and to devote his time, his energy, his money to supplying the deficiency. 'Dr. Pepper, on this occasion, in a happy imitation of Franklin in 1791, gv $1,000 to Franklin and Marshall College. 1180 8 114 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. ! No man can carry through such public movements who is not himself liberal, and who does not give his full share in every way to support the enterprise. While the author of "Poor Richard" taught all classes alike the value of money, the duty of economy, the pride of independence,-and the nobility of labor, and often by language or simile which may be misconstrued so as to advocate parsimony, the same self- taught, self-made man was incessant in all good and liberal deeds. He recognized early the advantages of cooperation, and his treatment of deserving workmen is a suggestive point in the history of the relations of capital and labor. Our greatest problem of to-day has to deal with these relations. . Our very prosperity forces it into greater prominence. The liberty and political rights of the individual give to it unprecedented urgency and importance. It may not be settled by force, nor by legislation, nor even by the church; but I believe it will be settled peace- fully and lawfully, and to the mutual advantage of all concerned, by a wide exten- sion of the principles of organized cooperation, based upon a humane yet shrewd calculation of the self-interest of both- parties to the bargain; and I am glad to be- lieve that as Franklin would have delighted to aid in consummating this his spirit and the influence of his teachings yet survive among us to assist in its realization and to remind us that toil, thrift, and temperance, with true humanity, are the key- notes of the successful solution of this great problem. Lord Brougham wrote : "One of the most remarkable men, certainly of our times, as a politician, or of any age as a philosopher, was Franklin, who also stands alone in combining together these two characters, the greatest that man can sustain, and in this, that having borne the first part in enlarging science by one of the greatest discoveries ever made, he bore the second part in founding one of the greatest empires in the world." A mere enumeration of the notable scientific publications of Franklin would be too large for my purpose. All that it behooves us to do is to strive to ap- preciate the quality of this work, and the fact that it was done without encourage- ment or assistance, with the simplest self-made apparatus, and in the midst of dis- tracting and absorbing business or political affairs. A keen observer by nature, he had trained himself to such incessant activity of mind and to the employment of so pure an inductive method that scarce anything escaped him, and every phenomenon observed started a train of philosophic reasoning so clear, so direct, and so well con- fined to the limits of the probable and demonstrable, that he was capable of securing astonishing scientific results with means apparently inadequate. The only period of his life when he gave himself up in any sense to scientific investigation, the only period during which he Avas not distinctively engaged in some other absorbing pur- suit, were the five years, 1747 to 1752, when he began to enjoy the leisure earned by hard but profitable work. All know the outcome of this investigation, and that the discoveries made by Franklin in electricity, from their entire originality, the breadth and boldness of the generalization upon which they were based, the accuracy and conclusive nature of the experiments by which the hypotheses were established, the important practical results indicated by him, and the still more important results which have followed the further prosecution of the same study, have conferred im- mortality upon him, and placed him in the front rank of the natural philosophers of all times. Our amazement can not be restrained when we reflect that this work was accom- plished before he was 47 years of age, and that never again did he, who was then incomparably the most eminent American, and whose rank among European celeb- rities speedily rose to the highest point, have an opportunity of applying himself continuously to scientific research, although from that time to his death, at the age of 84, ho continued to produce remarkable scientific papers containing original observations or striking generalizations, showing that the philosophic faculty was in vigorous action. It is idle to speculate upon what results might have followed a continuance of Franklin's scientific investigations. It has been granted to but few men to arrive at even a single discovery of .such importance as that on which liis IMPORTANT DOCUMENTS RELATING TO THE UNIVERSITY. 115 scientific fame chiefly rests; but in fertility of mind, originality nt .-.ugjr. -Mum. and prolonged intellectual and bodily vigor Franklin appear* to stand unrivaled. We may more reasonably dwell on the joy it would give him could In- n-turn to see the position attained by his favorite branch of science, and to note that it is growing to be more and more the useful and reliable servant of man, ministering to his daily.wants and rendering life more enjoyable and more healthy. Hut still more would he rejoice to see the laboratories erected in all parts of the land, equipped with every appliance for scientific investigation, and crowded with earneM. inge- nious students, for some of whom fame holds high honors. He would feel, and with just pride, that to him more than to any other man, is due the splendid development of the scientific spirit and of scientific education in America, and that the institu- tions, the societies, and the libraries he founded or whoso foundation he stimulated, are carrying forward and diffusing with ever-increasing force the precious light of scientific truth which he kindled here. Franklin hated war. He hated it as a Christian, a philanthropist, and an econo- mist. He hated unjust taxation scarcely less. To the familiar accusations against these he added one, possibly original with himself; and at least very characteristic of him. He charged them both with the crime of preventing the birth of children, the one by the downright murder of many men, the other by the interference with the normal ratio of marriages, whose possible services to the world are unknown and well nigh infinite. And this veneration for the possibilities of the young lay at the root of his ardent advocacy of education equally with his belief in the con- servatism and elevating influence of all sound knowledge. " What is the use of this new invention ? " some one asked Franklin. " What is the use of a new-born child f " was his reply. What, indeed, has not been the use of the loom or the steam engine what not the precious value of a Howard, a Newton, a Franklin ? I have alluded to Franklin's Avork as a moralist, a statesman, and a scientist; it would be strange, indeed, if I were not to speak here of him as an educator and as a philanthropist. He was essentially a self-educated man, and he has left us a charm- ing account of the methods he pursued in educating himself. Some may imagine that much of his characteristic strength and usefulness came from these lessons of early hardship. To me there certainly seems no ground for any such conclusion, in this or other cases, and he certainly did not hold that view. To assert that a great man who has educated himself is greater on that account involves improbable assumptions. The number of very great men is extremely small. They occur at irregular intervals of time and space. When one such occurs, who in addition to the other qualities of real greatness, has the added rare quality of determination to improve himself to the utmost, we have the condition produced of a lad with an elective course of studies secured under the most unfavorable surroundings. Frank- lin was preeminently such a lad. But while here and there lads of rare qualities, but lacking educational facilities, surmount all obstacles and achieve greatness, the world can never know how many fail to attain their legitimate development. It is true that under no system of education can we expect to produce many such men as Goethe, who graduated at Strasburg; or Voltaire, who studied at the celebrated Jesuit College of Louis le Grand; or Newton, who was an M. A. of Trinity College, CambrMge; or Franklin, who was strictly self-educated. But still l-ss ran we expect to produce under any one fixed, unvarying educational plan even as many as should appear. No system of education should be devised for the benefit of these rare and exceptional natures; but it is among the positive advantages of a well- arranged elective system of studies that, while it provides for the dull and lazy, it affords the freest facility for the development and expansion of the gifted and the industrious. It is not surprising, therefore, that Franklin, having found in his own case that excellent results were attained by the thorough mastery of English, followed by a study of other modern languages, before taking up the classics, should have been led to the conclusion that such is the natural and best course. 116 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. Probably all are familiar with the interesting history of the Immensity of Penn- sylvania. It had its origin in the Academy of Philadelphia, which was founded in 1749 through the exertions of Franklin. In the tract which lie published at that time, entitled "Proposals relating to the education of youth in Pennsylvania," he remarks: "The good education of youth has been esteemed by wise men in all ages as surest foundation of the happiness both of private families and of pommon- wealths," and then proceeds to describe with much detail the course of study pro- posed. It is noteworthy that he gives a foremost place to athletics, providing "that the scholars bo frequently exercised in running, leaping, wrestling, and swimming, to keep them in health, and to strengthen and render active their bodies." In this he anticipated the systematic instruction in athletics Avhich has been introduced into our academies and colleges only recently, and after much un- reasoning and ignorant opposition. Especial stress is laid on the fullness and thoroughness with which English is to be taught to all students, while in regard to other languages the following is provided: "All intended for divinity shall bo taught the Latin and Greek; for physics, the Latin, Greek, and French; for law, the Latin and French; merchants, the French, German, and Spanish; and though all should not be compelled to learn Latin, Greek, or the modern foreign languages, yet none that have an ardent desire to learn them should be refused, their English, arithmetic, and other studies absolutely necessary being at the same time not neg- lected." It is needless to point out Avith what clearness the fundamental principle of elective studies is here recognized, and how thoroughly in accord his conclusions as to the study of languages are with those Avhich are now at last coming gradually to be adopted generally. What followed in the history of the academy (later the university) may be mentioned briefly, because, if I mistake not, an analogous ex- perience was repeated here in the early days of Franklin College. So little heed was given to the proposals of the original founders, as to the preeminent position to be held by English studies, that the classicists gradually acquired control of the entire system of education in the institution, and in 1789, the year before Franklin's death, we find him publishing a spirited and forcible protest against a continuance of this perversion of the original trust. It is here that the familiar passage occurs, "at what time hats were first introduced we know not, but in the last century they were universally worn throughout Europe. Gradually, however, as the wearing of wigs and hair nicely dressed prevailed, the putting on of hats was disused by genteel people, lest the curious arrangement of curls and powdering should be dis- ordered, and umbrellas began to supply the place ; yet still, our considering the hat as a part of dress continues so far to prevail that a man of fashion is not thought dressed without having one, or something like one, about him, which he carries under his arm. So that there are a multitude of the politer people in all the courts and capital cities of Europe who have never, or their fathers before them, worn a hat otherwise than as a chapeau bras, though' the utility of such a mode of wearing it is by no means apparent, and it is attended not only with some expense, but with a little degree of constant trouble. The still prevailing custom of having schools for teaching generally our children in these days the Latin and Greek languages I consider, therefore, in no other light than as a chapeau bras of modern literature/' It is not impossible that the estrangement of many of the original patrons and trustees of the college, brought about by this departure from the proposed plan, may have aided, to some extent, in causing the house of assembly to arbitrarily with- draw the charter and estates of the college, thus causing a disastrous interference with its work during several years. And now, after the lapse of a century, we .see, as well in the University of Pennsylvania as in other prominent' colleges, success beginning to crown the efforts of those who would insist on a thorough and advanced study of English as one of the essentials for all English-speaking students, while arranging the other languages Latin, Greek, Hebrew, German, French, Italian in associated elective groups. IMPORTANT DOCUMENTS RELATING TO THE UNIVERSITY. 117 But Franklin's deep interest in education was not coniined to the great institution <>t which he had liceu the founder; nor was his zeal abated by an absence iu foreign countries at different times for nearly thirty years, nor even by the attainment of tin- full limit of fourscore years. For a long time he had taken great interest in the welfare of the Germans, who formed the bulk of the population in some partti of 1'enusylvania. He aided in the establishment of schools for them, and served as a . trustee of a society for the benefit of the poor among them; and in 1787, although iu his 81st year, he was active in the promotion of the long-cherished scheme of found- ing a college for the education of young Germans. On March 10 of that year, 1787, an act was passed by the assembly incorporating and endowing the "German Col- lege and Charity School, in the borough and county of Lancaster, " in which act it is recited that the college is established for the instruction of youth in the German, English, Latin, Greek, and other learned languages in theology, and in the useful arts, sciences, and literature. " The same act of incorporation states that, from a pro- found respect for the talents, virtues, and services to mankind in general, but more especially to this country, of his Excellency Benjamin Franklin, esq., president of the supreme executive council, the said college shall be and hereby is denominated ' Franklin College." Franklin was the largest contributor to its funds, giving of his moderate fortune the sum of $1,000, which may be considered large for those days ; and still more, when in the spring of 1787 the corner stone was to be laid in Lancaster, he underwent the pain and fatigue of a journey thither in order to per- form that ceremony. Iii the year 1787 Franklin became a member of the convention which framed the Constitution of the United States ; of his speeches and in- fluence in the convention we will make mention in considering his ideas as illustrated in his writings; he was somewhat of a physiocrat in the convention, and his ideas were in favor of a liberal government, not tending to monarchy, nor so big as to fall into anarchy. He was the diplomat in the convention, and typified the controlling idea of compro- mise, which at last gave us our Constitution. During the closing years of his life we have glimpses of the persist- ency of the ideas formulated by him many years before. The well known account of Dr. Manasseh Cutler's visit to him in July, 1787, re- cords the interest which Dr. Franklin still had in natural history: "of which," says Dr. Cutler, "he seemed extremely fond, while the other gentlemen were swallowed up with politics." When, on the 17th of September, the convention adjourned, Franklin .-xerted himself, to promote the adoption of the Constitution by the States. Its adoption by ten States occasioned a splendid celebration in Philadelphia in honor of the event, when all the interests of the city contributed to an industrial and civic parade. James Wilson, a dele- gate in the convention from Pennsylvania, eminent as a lawyer, whose services in the convention Washington considered as unsurpassed, and whom Bryce, in his American Commonwealth, has called 'the greatest lawyer in the convention," professor of law in the University of Penn- sylvania, and later justice of the Supreme Court of the United States, pronounced an oration. In the industrial parade there was drawn a car upon which was operated a printing press, and from this press was scattered among the people a song in honor of the trades, written by 118 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. Franklin, anil suggestive of his utilitarian notions. Some of the staii/;is as uiveu by Parton ' arc: Ye tailors! of ancient and noble renown, \\ ho clothe all the people in country and town, Remember that Adam, yonr father and head, Though Lord of the world, was a tailor by trade. Ye shoemakers ! noble from ages long past, MUM- defended your rights with your awl to the last] And cobblers so merry, not only stop holes, But work night and day for the good of our soles. Ye hatters ! who oft with hands not very fair, Fix hats on a block for a blockhead to wear; Though charity covers a sin now and then, Yonxjover the heads and the sins of all men. And carders, and spinner^, and weavers attend, And take the advice of Poor Richard, your friend, Stick close to your looms, your wheels, and your card, And you never need fear of the times being hard. Ye coopers! who rattle with drivers and adz, A lecture each day upon hoops and on heads, The famous old ballad of Love in a Tub, You may sing to the tune of your rub-a-dub-dub. Each tradesman turn out with his tools in his hand, To cherish the arts and keep peace iu the land ; Each 'prentice and journeyman may join iu my song, And let the brisk chorus go bounding along. The lilies suggest how Franklin viewed the world as an opportunity for an industrious and intelligent apprentice. Three times did the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania make Franklin its president, an honor which greatly gratified him. Old age had crept upon him but his mental powers were undimiu- i>hed, and his opinion of himself he expressed when he said, "I seem to have intruded myself into the company of posterity." 'There ia an interesting and perhaps curious illustration of changes in times and manners in a passage by Parton concerning the things which Franklin would par- ticularly notice had he returned to this world twenty-five years ago. "He some- time-, amused his friends with humorous predictions of inventions yet to be and ex pressed a wish to revisit the earth at the end of the century to see how man was getting on. Would that he could. How pleasant to show the shade of Franklin about the modem world. What would he say of the Great Eastern, the Erie < 'anal, the locomotive, the telegraph, the Hoe printing press, the steam typesetter, chloro- form, the sewing machine, the Continental Hotel, the Fairmount waterworks, the improved straw l.cn y. the omnibus, gas light, the sanitary commission, Dr. Buckle's History. Mill's Political Kconomy, Herbert Spencer's First Principles, Adam Bede, l>:\id CoppcMield. tb.- Philadelphia High School, Henry Ward Beecher's church, the Heart of th. And.-s! Surely he would admit that we have done pretty well in the seventy-live years that have passed since he left." EDITOR. IMPORTANT DOCUMENTS RELATING TO THE UNIVERSITY. 119 He approached his death with calmness, and if he had neglected to practice order in his life, he made an orderly preparation for his death. His will, an elaborate document, sought to perpetuate in its provisions of a public nature the utilitarian ideas of its author. He seemed to have remembered his scheme of prizes in his sketch of an English school, and gave 100 to the managers of the Boston free schools, the interest of which was to be devoted to the purchase of silver medals for the encouragement of scholarship in these schools. He sought to make his benevolence immortal; it is said that his scheme is derived from a French work by Mathon de la Cour, but the idea is probably his own, as he had suggested in his loan to Benjamin Webb: I send you herewith a hill for ten louis d'ors. I do not pretend to give such a sum; I only lend it to you. When you shall return to your country with a good character, you can not fail of getting into some business that will in time enable you to pay all your debts. In that case, when you meet with another honest man in similar dis- tress, you must pay me by lending this sum to him ; enjoining him to discharge the debt by a like operation, when he shall be able, and shall meet with such another opportunity. I hope it may thus go through many hands, before it meets with a knave that will stop its progress. This is a trick of mine for doing a deal of good with a little money. I am not rich enough to afford much in good works, and so ani obliged to be cunning and make the most of a little. Franklin's plan was for the benefit of artisan's and apprentices, and illustrates the utilitarian tendency of his life. It was as follows: I have considered that among artisans good apprentices are most likely to make good citizens, and having myself been bred to a manual art, printing, in my native town, and afterwards assisted to set up my business in Philadelphia by kind loans of money from two friends there, which was the foundation of my fortune, and of all the utility in life that may be ascribed to me, I wish to be useful even after my death, if possible, in forming and advancing other young men, that may be service- able to their country in both those towns. To this end I devote two thousand pounds sterling, of which I give one thousand thereof to the inhabitants of the town of Bos- ton, in Massachusetts, and the other thousand to the inhabitants of the city of Phil- adelphia, in trust, to and for the uses, intents, and purposes hereinafter mentioned and declared. The said sum of one thousand pounds sterling, if accepted by the inhabitants of the town of Boston, shall bo managed under the direction of the selectmen, united with the ministers of the oldest Episcopalian, Congregational, and Presbyterian churches in that town, who are to let out the same upon interest at five per cent per annum to such young married artificers, under the age of twenty-five years, as have served an apprenticeship in the said town, and faithfully fulfilled the duties required in their indentures, so as to obtain a good moral character from at least two respect- able citizens, who are willing to become their sureties, in a bond with the applicants, for the repayment of the moneys so lent, with interest, according to the terms here- inafter prescribed ; all of which bonds are to be taken for Spanish milled dollars, or the value thereof in current gold coin ; and the managers shall keep a bound book or books, wherein shall be entered the names of those who shall apply for and receive the benefits of this institution, and of their securities, together with the sums lent, the dates, and other necessary and proper records respecting the business and con- cerns of this institution. And as these loans are intended to assist young married artificers in setting up their business, they are to be proportioned, by the discretion of the managers, so as not to exceed sixty pounds sterling to one person, nor to be less than fifty pounds; and if the number of appliers so entitled should be so large as that the sum will not suffice to afford to each as much as might otherwise not be 12<) THE rxiVERSlTY OF PENNSYLVANIA. f improper, the proportion to each shall he diminished, so as to afford to every one some atuiistaure. These aids may, therefore, be small at first, but, as the capital in- creases by the accumulated interest, they will be more ample. And, in order to serve as many as possible in their turn, as well as to make the repayment of the prin- cipal borrowed more easy, each borrower shall be obliged to pay, with the yearly in- -t, one tenth part of the principal, which sums of the principal and interest, so paid in, shall be again let out to fresh borrowers. And, as it is presumed that there will always bo found in Boston virtuous and benevolent citizens, willing to bestow a part of their time in doing good to the ris- ing generation, by superintending and managing this institution gratis, it is hoped that no part of the money will, at any time be r"ead or be diverted to other purposes, but be continually augmenting by the interest; in which case there may, in time, be more than the occasion in Boston shall require, and then some may be spared to the neighboring or other towns in the said State of Massachusetts, who may desire to have it ; such towns engaging to pay punctually the interest and the portions of the principal annually to the inhabitants of the town of Boston. If this plan is executed, and succeeds as projected without interruption, for one hundred years, the sum will then be one hundred and thirty-one thousand pounds; of which I would have the managers of the donation to the town of Boston then lay out at their discretion one hundred thousand pounds in public works, which may be judged of the most general utility to the inhabitants; such as fortifications, bridges, aqueducts, public buildings, baths, pavements, or whatever may make living in the town more convenient to its people, and render it more agreeable to strangers resorting thither for health or a temporary residence. The remaining thirty-one thousand pounds I would have continued to be let out on interest, in the manner above directed for another hundred years, as I hope it will have been found that the institution has had a good effect on the conduct of youth, and been of service to many worthy characters and useful citizens. At the end of this second term, if no unfortunate accident has prevented the operation, the sum will be four millions and sixty-one thousand pounds sterling ; of which I leave one million sixty- one thousand pounds to the disposition of the inhabitants of the towh of Boston, and three millions to the disposition of the government of the State, not presuming to carry my views further. All the directions herein given respecting the disposition and management of the donation to the inhabitants of Boston, I would have observed respecting that to the inhabitants of Philadelphia only, as Philadelphia is incorporated, I request the corporation of that city to undertake the management, agreeably to the said direc- tions; and I do hereby vest them with fully and ample powers for that purpose." Such was the plan adopted by Franklin, for the benefit of a class he always loved skillful, honest mechanics. We shall have to state, by and by, what success has attended the benevolent project. In 1789 he was rarely free from pain and was confined to his bed much of the time; we learn of him by his letters, which though less frequent, were equal to any that have made his correspondence so valuable and interesting. Though suffering great agony he attempts in.-ntal relief in reading Johnson's Lives of the Poets, and a life of Watts, his favorite author. His opinion of Watts anticipated the judgment of thousands who have found that poet their comfort. It was at this time also that he wrote his protest against the study of Latin and Greek in preference to the study of English, 1 in which, as we have said, he anticipated the reforms in modern education. 'See observations relating to the intentions of the original founders of the Academy, in Philadelphia, June, 1789. Supra. IMPORTANT DOCUMENTS RELATING TO THE UNIVERSITY. 121 In August, 1787, the Library Company, l the outgrowth of the Junto of half a century before, laid the coruer-stoue of its new building in Philadelphia on Fifth street, opposite the State House.. Franklin, unable on account of his infirmities to attend the ceremony, wrote the inscription for the corner-stone, omitting any mention of him- self. The committee amended the inscription, which reads : Be it remembered In honor of the Philadelphia Youth, (then chiefly artificers) that in MDCCXXXL, they cheerfully, at the instance of Benjamin Franklin, one of their number, instituted the Philadelphia Library, which, though small at first, ia become highly valuable and extensively useful and which the walls of this edifice are now destined to contain and preserve, the first stone of whose foundation was here placed, the thirty-first day of August, 1789. 2 Perhaps no institution founded by Franklin illustrates his sagacity and usefulness better than the Philadelphia Library. We referred briefly to its origin in the Junto. In 1880 a new library building was erected at the corner of Juniper and Locust streets, and in 1878 the magnificent structure known as the Eidgeway Branch at Broad and Christian was erected. The report of the Library Company iu May, 1892, shows that during the year then ending there had been at the Locust street building 77,397 visitors on week days, 41,361 books had been taken out, and that there had been 6,074 visitors on Sundays who had asked at the desk for 5,387 books. At the Eidgeway Branch there had been on week days 3,325 visitors, 1,329 books had been given out, and 4,490 had been used in the Library, and on Sundays there had been 1,561 visitors, using 856 books. The volumes added to the Eidgeway Branch, to the Loganian Library, and to the Library Com- pany, for the Locust Street building was 4,296, making a total number of books in the Library of 166,714 volumes. The receipts of the Li- brary Company for 1891-'92 were $68,665.56 and the balance carried forward to the credit of the Company for the year in the treasury was $18,165.67. This magnificent showing illustrates the splendid out- growth of Franklin's idea in founding a circulating library which started in 1732 with a membership of 12 persons and a voluntary con- tribution of some fifty books. 1 By an order of the directors of the Library Company, August 31, 1774, the dele- gates to the first Continental Congress were allowed the use of such of the books of the library as they might have occasion for during the sitting. (Elliots Debates, Vol. i, 43). -The original stone was discovered a few years ago, and is now set in the north wall of the Library building, Locust and Juniper streets. 122 THK IMVI:Ri the United States, on slavery. It was addressed to the editor of the FfdtMal Gazette, and is in Franklin's happiest style. The essay pretended to be a speech delivered in the Divan of Algiers in 1687, against the petition of the sect called Erika or Purists who prayed for t he abolition of piracy and slavery as being unjust. All the arguments Advanced in favor of negro slavery were applied in this speech with equal force in the justification of the plundering and enslaving of Europeans. " Dr. Stuber, a distinguished Pbiladelpbiau of that day," says Parton, *' mentions that many persons searched the book stores and libraries of the town for 'Martin's Account of his Consulship, anno 1687,' from which the speech of Sidi Mehemet Ibrahim was said to have been taken." 1 This grand protest against slavery was a happy bequest of Franklin to mankind. From bis persuasion That equal liberty was originally the portion, and is still the birth-right, of all ineu, and influenced by the strong ties of humanity, and the principles of their insti- tution * * * to use all justifiable endeavors to loosen the bauds of slavery, and promote a general enjoyment of the blessings of freedom. A few days before his death, in reply to a request from his old friend Ezra Stiles, President of Yale College, asking him to give his portrait tor t lie college library, Franklin answered with respect to his own relig- ious opinions: Here is my creed. I believe in one God, the Creator of the Universe. That he governs it by his Providence. That he ought to be worshipped. The most aceept- ble service we render to him is doing good to his other children. The soul of man is immortal and will be treated with justice in another life respecting its conduct in this. These I take to be the fundamental points in all sound religion, and I regard them, an you do, in whatever sect I meet with them. AH to Jesus of Nazareth, my opinion of whom you particularly desire, I think his system of morals and his religion, as he left them to us, the best the world ever saw, or is like to see; but I apprehend it has received various corrupting changes, and I have, with most of the present Dissenters in England, some doubts as to his divinity ; though it is a question I do not dogmatize upon, having never studied it, and think it needless to busy myself with it now, when I expect soon an opportunity of know- ing the truth with less trouble. I see no harm, however, in its being believed, if that belief lias the good consequence, aa probably it has, of making his doctrines more rewpected and more observed ; especially as I do not perceive that the Supreme takes it amiss, by distinguishing the unbelievers in his government of the world with any peculiar mark of displeasure. I shall only add, respecting myself, that, having experienced the goodness of that H. ing in conducting me prosperously through a long life, I have no doubt of its runtinuaiice in the next, though without the smallest conceit of meriting such goodneM. >' "-I confide that you will not expose me to criticisms and censures by publish- ing any part of this communication to yon. I have ever let others enjoy their relig- ious sentiment* without reflecting on them for those that appeared to me unsupport- 'See the article in full Kigelow, Vol. X. IMPORTANT JM>fTMEXTS RELATING TO THE UNIVERSITY. 123 able or c\ . n absurd. All sects here, and we have a great variety, have experienced my good will iu assisting them with subscriptions for tin- building their new places of worship; and, as I have never opposed any of their doctrines, I hope to go out of the world iu peace with them all. As death approached and his strength failed, his breathing became oppressed and some one suggested a change of position that he might breathe easier; Franklin, conscious of the change through which he was passing, said, "A dying man can do nothing easy." Soon after he passed away. 1 The news of Franklin's death was received with sorrow throughout the civilized world. The city of his adoption gave him an honorable burial. Four days after his death his body was laid at rest by the side of his beloved wife in the burial ground of Christ Church on Arch street, near Fifth. 2 In the House of Eepresentatives, on the 22d of April, James Madison spoke of Franklin as u an illustrious character whose native genius has rendered distinguished service to the cause of science and of mankind in general, and whose patriotic exertions have contributed in a high degree to the independence and prosperity of this country." At Yale College its president, Dr. Stiles, preached a sermon on the character of Franklin, and at the request of the American Philosoph- ical Society, Dr. William Smith, one of its members, pronounced the well-known eulogy on the character and services of Franklin. On the llth of June Mirabeau spoke before the National Legislature of France in eulogy of Franklin. His speech has been long familiar to Americans in their reading books, although in late years it has not been so frequently printed. Franklin is dead ! The genius that freed America and poured a flood of light over Europe has returned to the bosom of the Divinity. The sage whom two worlds claim as their own, the man for whom the history of science and the history of empires contend with each other, held, without doubt, a high rank in the human race. Too long have political cabinets taken formal note of the death of those who were 'He died April J7, 1790, at 11 p. m., aged 84 years, 3 months, and 11 days. 2 The order of the procession was : All the clergy of the city before the corpse; the corpse, carried by citizens; the pall, supported by the president of the State, the chief-justice, the president of the bank, Samuel Powell, William Binghaiu, and David Ritteuhouse, esquires; mourners, consisting of the family of the deceased with a number of particular friends; the secretary and members of the supreme ex- ecutive council; the speaker and members of the general assembly; judges of the supreme court and other officers of the Government; the gentlemen of the bar; the mayor and corporation of the city of Philadelphia; the printers of the city with their journeymen and apprentices; the philosophical society, the college of physi- cians; the Cincinnati; the college of Philadelphia; sundry other societies, together with a numerous and respectable body of citizens. The conco urse of spectators was greater than ever was known on a like occasion. It is computed that not less than twenty thousand persons attended and witnessed the funeral, the order and silence which prevailed during the procession deeply evinced the heartfelt sense entertained by all classes of citizens, of the unparallelled virtues, talents, and services of the deceased. llM THK rXlVF.RSlTY or PENNSYLVANIA. .; only in \\iyir funeral panegyrics. Too long lias tin* etiquette of courts pr- i.cd hypocritical mourning. Nations should wear mourning only tor their beue- The representatives of nations should recommend to their homage none but the lu-roes nf humanity. Tlu- Congress has ordained, throughout the United States, a mouruiiig of one in. mill I'm -tin-death of Franklin, an does nut consist entirely in its fair and vigorous application, it is always regu- lated and controlled by it in its application and result. No individual, perhaps, sscd a jtister understanding, or was so seldom obstructed in the use of it :,d.,lcn.e. enthusiasm, ( . r authority. Dr. Franklin received ho regular educa- tion. ;md he -pent the greater part, of his life in a society where there was no relish and no encouragement for lit. -rat ure. On ;in ordinary mind, these circumstances would have produced their usual effects of repressing all sorts of intellectual ambi- tion or activity, and perpetuating a generation of incurious mechanics; but to an understanding like Franklin's, we can not help considering them as peculiarly pro- pitious, and imagine that w.- c;ui trace back to them .list inctly almost all the pecu- * of IUH intellectual character. Regular education, we think, is unfavorable 1,'or or originality of understanding. Like civilization, it makes society more iligcnt and auivc.-ihle. but it levels the distinctions of nature. It strengthens and asHists the feeble, but it deprives the strong of his triumph, and casts down the hop,-* of the aspiring. It accomplishes this, not only by training up the mind in a habitual veneration f (> r authorities, but by leading us to bestow a disproportionate ' attention upon studies that are only valuable as keys or instruments for the m.dci>t.imling: they come at last to be regarded as ultimate objects of pursuit, and the iiieaus of education :irc absurdly mistaken for its end. How many powerful IMPORTANT DOCUMENTS RELATING To Till: I'NIYKKsn V. 1 L'.'I understandings have been lost in the Dialectics of Aristotle ! And of how much good philosophy are we daily defrauded by the preposterous error of taking a knowledge of prosody for useful learning! The mind of a man who lias i-.-caped this training will at least have fair play. Whatever other errors he may fall into. he will be safe at least from these infatuations. If he thinks proper, after he grows up, to study Greek, it will be for some better purpose than to become acquainted with its dialects. His prejudices will be those of a man, and not of a school boy, and his speculations and conclusions will be independent of the maxims of tutors and the oracles of literary patrons. The consequences of living in a refined and literary community are nearly of the same kind with those of a regular education. There are so many critics to be satisfied, so many qualifications to be established, BO many rivals to encounter, and so much derision to be hazarded, that a young man is apt to be deterred from so perilous an enterprise, and led to seek for distinction in some safer line of exertion. He is discouraged by the fame and perfection of certain models and favorites, who are always in the mouths of his judges, and, "under them his genius is rebuked," and his originality repressed, till he sinks into a paltry copy- ist or aims at distinction by extravagance and affectation. In such a state of society he feels that mediocrity has no chance of distinction ; and what beginner can expect to rise at once into excellence? He imagines that mere good sense will attract no attention, and that the manner is of much more importance than the matter in a candidate for public admiration. In his attention to the manner the matter is apt to'be neglected, and in his solicitude to please those who require elegance of diction, brilliancy of wit, or harmony of periods, he is in some danger of forgetting that strength of reason and accuracy of observation by which he first proposed to recom- mend himself. His attention, when extended to so many collateral objects, is no longer vigorous or collected; the stream, divided into so many channels, ceases to flow either deep or strong ; he becomes an unsuccessful pretender to fine writing, and is satisfied with the frivolous praise of elegance or vivacity. We are disposed to ascribe so much power to these obstructions to intellectual originality, that we can not help fancying that if Franklin had been bred in a col- lege he would have contented himself with expounding the meters of Pinda, and mixing argument with his port in the common room ; and that if Boston had abounded with men of letters he would never have ventured to come forth from his printing house, or been driven back to it, at any rate, by the sneers of the critics, after ill-- first publication of his essays in the "Busybody." This will probably be thought exaggerated; but it can not be denied, we think, that the contrary circumstances in his history had a powerful effect in determining the character of his understanding, and in producing those peculiar habits of reasoning and investigation by which his writings are distinguished. He was encouraged to publish because there was scarcely any one around him whom he could not easily excel. He wrote with great brevity, because he had not leisure for more voluminous compositions, and because he knew that the readers to whom he addressed himself were, for the most part, as busy as himself. For the same reason he studied great perspicuity and simplicity of state- ment; his countrymen had no relish for fine writing, and could not easily be made to understand a deduction depending on a long or elaborate process of reasoning. He was forced, therefore, to concentrate what he had to say ; and since he had no chance of being admired for the beauty of his composition, it was natural for him to aim at making an impression by the force and the clearness of his statements. His conclusions were often rash and inaccurate, from the same circumstances which rendered his productions concise. Philosophy and speculation did not form the busi- ness of his life, nor did he dedicate himself to any particular study with a view to exhaust and complete the investigation of it in all its parts and under all its relations. He engaged in every interesting inquiry that suggested itself to him, rather as the necessary exercise of a powerful and active mind than as a task which he had bound himseL to perform He cast a quick and penetrating glance over the facts and the lL>li THK r.MVKRSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. data tli.it were presented to him. and drew his cunclusions with a rapidity and pre- n that have not often been equaled ; but ho did not stop to examine the com- pleteness of the data upon which lie proceeded, nor to consider the ultimate effect or application of the principles to which he had beoii conducted. In all questions, there- whcre the facts upon which he was to determine and the materials from which his judgment was to he for d were either few in number or of such a nature as not to l.e overlooked, his reasons are for the most part perfectly just and conclusive and his decisions unexceptionably sound, but where the elements of the calculation were more numerous and widely scattered it appears to us that he has often been precipi- and that he has either been misled by a partial apprehension of the conditions of the problem or Ins discovered only a portion of the truth which lay before him. In all physical inquiries, in iilmost all questions of particular andimmediatc policy, and in much of what relates to the practical wisdom and happiness of private life, his views will be found to be admirable, and the reasoning by which they are supported, most masterly and convincing. But upon subjects of general politics, of abstract morality and political economy, his notions appear to be more unsatisfactory and in- complete. He seems to have wanted leisure, and perhaps inclination also, to spread out before him the whole vast premises of these extensive sciences, and scarcely to have had patience to hunt for his conclusions through so wide and intricate a region as that upon which they invited him to enter. He has been satisfied, therefore, on every occasion with reasoning from a very limited view of the facts, and often from a particular instance. He hasdoneallthat sagacity andsound sensecoulddo withstfeh materials, but it can not excite wonder if he has sometimes overlooked an essential part of the argument, and often advanced a particular truth into the place of a gen- eral principle. He seldom reasoned upon these subjects at all, we believe, without having SOUK; practical application of them immediately in view, and as he began the i ii vestigat ion rather to determine a particular case than to establish a general maxim so he probably desisted as soon as he had relieved himself of the present difficulty. There are not many among the thoroughbred scholars and philosophers of Europe who can lay claim to distinction in more than one or two departments of science or literature. The uneducated tradesman of America has left writings that call for our attention in natural philosophy, in politics, in political economy, and in general literature and morality. * * * As a writer on morality and general literature, the merits of Dr. Franklin can not be estimated properly without taking into consideration the peculiarities that have D already alluded to in his early history and situation. He never had the benefit of any academical instruction, nor of the society of men of letters. His style was formed entirely by his ov. n judgment and occasional reading, and most of his moral Mtteii while he was a tradesman, addressing himself to the tradesmen of his native city. We can not. expect, therefore, that he should write with extraor- dinary eloquence or grace, or that he should treat of the accomplishments, follies, occupations .if polite life, lie hail no great occasion, as a moralist, to expose ,'iull and folly of gaming or seduction, or to point a poignant and playful ridi- til,- a-ainst the higher immoralities of fashionable life. To the. mechanicsand trad- ton and Philadelphia Mich warnings were altogether unnecessary, and he endeavored, therefore, with more appropriate eloquence, to impress upon them the ""! -obriety. and economy, and to direct their wise and humble ambition to the attainment of useful knowledge and honorable independence. That all. M . itainly the most valuable, which is adapted to the circum- of the great. T part of mankind, and that eloquence is the most meritorious that i calculated to convince and persuade the multitude to virtue. Nothing can '" ' "' 1'ca'itifnlly adapted to i t s object than most of Dr. Franklin's ttoitf of this sort. The tone of familiarity, of good will, and homely jocu- larity, the plain and pointed illustrations, the short sentences, made up of short IMPORTANT DOCUMENTS RELATING TO THE UNIVERSITY. 127 words, and the strong sense, clear information, and obvious conviction of the author himself, make most of his moral exhortations perfect models of pppular eloquent <. and afford the finest specimens of a style which has been but too little cultivated in a country which numbers perhaps more than 100,000 readers among ite tradesmen and artificers. In writings which possess such solid and unusual merit, it is of no great conse- quence that the fastidious eye of a critic can discover many blemishes. There is a good deal of vulgarity in the practical writings of Dr. Frankliu; and more vulgar- ity than was in any way necessary for the object he had in view. There is something childish, too, in some of his attempts at pleasantry ; his story of the whistle, and his Parisian letter, announcing the discovery that the sun gives light as soon as he rises, are instances of this. The Soliloquy of an Ephemeris, however, is much bet- ter; and both it, and the Dialogue with the Gout, are executed with the lightness and spirit of genuine French compositions. The Speech in the Divan of Algiers, composed as a parody on those of the defenders of the slave-trade, and the scriptu- ral parable against persecution, are inimitable; they have all the point and facility of the fine pleasantries of Swift and Arbuthuot, with something more of directness and apparent sincerity. The style of his letters, in general, is excellent. They are chiefly remarkable for great simplicity of language, admirable good sense and inge- nuity, and an amiable and inoffensive cheerfulness, that is never overclouded or eclipsed. *#**# Upon the whole, we look upon the life and writings of Dr. Franklin as affording a striking illustration of the incalculable value of a sound and well-directed under- standing, and of the comparative uselessness of learning and laborious accomplish- ments. Without the slightest pretensions to the character of a scholar or a man of science, he has extended the bounds of human knowledge on a variety of subjects, which scholars and men of science had previously investigated without success; and has only been found deficient in those studies which the learned have generally turned from in disdain. We would not be understood to say anything in disparage- ment of scholarship and science ; but 'the value of these instruments is apt to be overrated by their possessors, and it is a wholesale mortification to show them that the work may be done without them. We have long known that their employment does not insure success. In 1812, Sir James Mackintosh said: The cause of the Americans in France owed part of its success to the peculiar character, as well as extraordinary talents, of their agent at Paris, Benjamin Frank- lin. Bred a printer, at Boston, he had raised himself to a respectable station by the most ingenious industry and frugality ; and having acquired celebrity by his phi- losophical discourses, he had occupied a considerable office in the colonies at the commencement of the disturbance. This singular man long labored to avert a rup- ture, and, notwithstanding his cold' and cautions character, he shed tears at the prospect of separation ; but he was too wise to deliberate after decision. Having once made his determination, he adhered to it with a firmness which neither the advances of England nor the adversity of America could shake. He considered a return to the ancient friendship as impossible, and every conciliatory proposal as a snare to divide America and to betray her into absolute submission. At Paris he was preceded and aided by his philosophical fame. His steady and downright cb;ir- acter was a singularity which the accomplished diplomatists of France had not learned how to conquer. The simplicity of a Republican, a Presbyterian, and a printer, transported at the age of 70 to the most polished court of Europe, by amos- ing the frivolous and interesting the romantic, excited a disposition at Versailles favorable to his cause. Early accustomed to contemplate infant societies and uncultivated nature, his mind was original and independent. He derived neither aid nor incombrance from learn- 128 THK UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. which enslaves every mind not powerful to master and govern it. H3 -was, therefore, exempt from those prejudices of nation and :ige which every learned education fosters. Reared in the colonies struggling into existence, where necessity > often calls out ingenious contrivance, he adapted even philosophical experiment to the direct convenience of mankind. The same spirit is still more conspicuous in his moral and political writings. An independence of thought, a constant and direct reference to utility, a consequent abstinence from whatever is merely curious and ornamental or even remotely useful, a talent for ingeniously betraying vice and prejudice into an admission of reason, and for exhibiting their sophisms in that state of undisguised absurdity in which they are ludicrous, with a singular power of striking illustrations from homely objects, would justify us in calling Franklin the American Socrates. Jolm Foster, in 1818, said : The character displayed by Franklin's correspondence is an unusual combina- tion of elements. The main substance of the intellectual part of it is a superla- tive good sense, evinced and acting in all the modes of that high endowment, such as an intuitively prompt and perfect and steadily continuing apprehension; a sagacity which, with admirable ease, strikes through all superficial and delu- sive appearance of things to the essence and true relations ; a faculty of reasoning in a manner marvelously simple, direct, and decisive; a power of reducing a sub- ject or question to its plainest principles; an unaffected daring to meet what- ever is to be opposed in an explicit, direct manner, and in the point of its main "in-ngth; a facility of applying familiar truth and self-evident propositions for re- -lving the most uncommon difficulties, and a happy adroitness of illustration by parallel cases, supposed or real, the real ones being copiously supplied by a large and most observant acquaintance with the world. * * * His feelings do not seem to have been elevated above the pitch of calm satisfaction at having materially contributed to the success of a righteous cause, a success in which he was convinced he saw not simply the vindication of American rights, but the prospect of unlimited Id-ii. tit of mankind. And here it may be remarked that his predominant passion Appears to have been a love of the useful. The useful was to him the summnm bonum, the supreme fair, the sublime and the beautiful, which it may not perhaps be extravagant to believe he was in quest of every week for half a century, in what place, or study, or practical undertaking. No department was too plain or humble for him to occupy himself in for this purpose; and in affairs of the most ambitions order this was still systematically his object. Whether in directing the constructing of chimneys or of constitutions, lecturing on the saving of candles or i. n the economy of national revenues, he was still intent on the same end. the ques- tion always being how to obtain the most solid tangible advantage by the plainest and easiest means. There has rarely been a mortal of high intelligence and flatter- fame on whom the pomps of life were so powerless. On him were completely thrown away the oratorical and poetical heroics about glory, of which heroics it, was enough that he easily perceived the intention or effect to be to explode all sober truth and substantial good, and to impel men, at the very best of the, matter, through some career of vanity, but commonly through mischief, slaughter, and de- vastation, in mad pursuit in what amounts at least, if attained, to some certain quantity of noi and empty show, and intoxicated transient elation. He was so far an admirable jpirit for acting the mentor to a young republic. Lord Brougham said, in 1839: One of the most remarkable men. certainly, of our times, as a politician, or of any age, as a philosopher, was Franklin, who also stands alone in combining together two characters, the greatest that man can sustain, and in this, that having the first part in enlarging science by one of the greatest discoveries ever made, e bore the second part in founding one of the greatest empires in the world. IMPORTANT DOCr.MKMS RELATING fO Hill r.MVI.K-HT. 129 In this truly great man every tiling seem> to concur thai -.,.-> towards tin- c ..n-ij. totion of exalted merit. First, ho was the architect of his own f'firtiiin-. Horn in tin' humblest station, lie raised himself by his talents and his industry, lir.-t to tin- place in society which may be attained with the help only of ordinary abilit i.-s. great Application, and good luck; but next to the loftier heights which a daring and happy genius alone can scale; and the poor printer's boy, who, at one period of his life, had no covering to shelter his head from the dews of night, rent in twain the, proud dominion of England, and lived to be the ambassador of a Commonwealth which ho had formed at the court of the haughty monarchs of "France, who had been his allies. Then he had been tried by prosperity as well as adverse fortune, and had i unhurt through the perils of both. No ordinary apprentice, no common-place jour- neyman, overlaid the foundations of his independence in habits of industry and temperance more deep than he did, whose genius was afterward to rank him with the Galileos and Newtons of the Old World. No patrician, born to shine in courts, or assist at the councils of monarchs. ever bore his honors in a lofty station more easily, or was less spoiled by the enjoyment of them, than this common workman did when negotiating with royal representatives, or caressed by all the beauty and fashion of the most brilliant court in Europe. Again, he was self-taught in all he knew. His hours of study were stolen from those of sleep and of meals, or gained by some ingenious contrivance for reading while the work of daily calling went on. Assisted by none of the helps which atfiuenco tendefs to the studies of the rich, he had to supply the place of tutors by redoubled diligence, and of commentaries by repeated perusal. Nay, the possession of books was to be obtained by copying what the art, which he himself exercised, furnished easily to others. Next, the circumstances under which others succumb lie made to yield, and bend to his own purposes, a successful leader of a revolt that ended in complete triumph, after appearing desperate for years; a great discoverer in philosophy, without the ordinary helps to knowledge; a writer, famed for his chaste style, without a el cal education; a skillful negotiator, though never bred to politics; ending as a fa- vorite, nay a pattern, of fashion, when the gu st of frivolous courts, the life which he had begun in garrets and in workshops. Lastly, combinations of faculties, in others deemed impossible, appeared easy and natural to him. The philosopher, delighted in speculation, was also eminently a man of action. Ingenious reasoning, refined and subtle consultation, were in him combined Avith prompt resolution and inflexible firmness of purpose. To a lively fancy he joined a learned and deep reflection; his original and inventive genius stooped to the convenient alliance of the most ordinary prudence in e ^cry-day atVair- ; the mind that soared above the cloud* and was conversant with the loftiest of hu- man contemplations disdained not to make proverbs and feign parables for the guidance of apprenticed youths and servile maidens; and the hands that sketched a tree constitution for a whole continent or drew down the lightning from heaven easily and cheerfully lent themselves to simplify the apparatus by which truths were to be illustrated or discoveries pursued. His whole course, both in acting and in speculation, was simple and plain, ever preferring the easiest and the shortest road, nor ever having rccoursc.to any but the simplest means to compass his ends. His policy rejected all refinements, and aimed at accomplishing its purposes by the most rational and obvious expedients. His language was unadorned, and used as a medium of communicating his thoughts, not of raising admiration, but it was pure, expressive, racy. His manner of reasoning was manly and cogent, the address of a rational being to others of the same order, and so concise that, preferring decision to discussion, he never exceeded a quarter of an. hour in any public Address. His correspondence upon business, whether private or on state affairs, is a model of clearness and compendious shortness, nor can any 1180 9 130 THH UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. tola pfcpen surpass in dignit.\ an. I impression those of which he is believed to have been the author iii tlu- earlier part of the American Revolutionary war. His mode of philo>ophi/ing was lh- ].urest application of the inductive principle, so eminently adapted i<> his nature and so clearly dictated by common sense that we can have little doubt it would have been suggested by Franklin, if it had not been unfolded b\ I'.acon, though it is as clear that, in this case, it would have been expounded in far more simple terms. Hut of all this man's scientific excellencies, the most remark- able is the smallness, the simplicity, the apparent inadequacy of the means which he employed in his experimental researches. His discoveries were made with hardly any apparatus at all. and if, at any time, he had been led to employ instruments of a somewhat less ordinary description, he never rested satisfied until he had, as it \\. iv. afterward translated the process, by revolving the problem with such simple machinery that you might say he had done it wholly unaided by apparatus. The experiments by which the identity of lightning and electricity was demonstrated were made with a sheet of brown paper, a bit of twine, a silk thread, and an iron key. Upon the integrity of this great man. whether in public or in private life, there rests no stain. Strictly honest, and even scrupulously punctual in all his dealings, he preserved in the highest fortune that regularity which he had practiced as well as inculcated in the lowest. The phrase which he once used when interrupted in his proceedings upon the most arduous and important affairs, by a demand of some petty item in a long account "Thou shalt not muzzle the ox that treads out the corn" has been cited against him as proving the laxity of his dealings when intrust of public money; it plainly proves the reverse, for he well knew, in a country abounding in discussion, and full of bitter personal animosities, nothing could be gained of immunity by refusing to produce his vouchers at the fitting time; and his venturing to use such language demonstrates that he knew his conduct to be really above all suspicion. In domestic life he was faultless and in the intercourse of society delightful. There was a constant good humor and a playful wit, easy and of high relish ? with- out any ambition to shine, the natural fruit of his lively fancy, his solid, natural I sense, and his cheerful temper, that gave his conversation an unspeakable charm, and alike suited every circle, from the humblest to the most elevated. With all his strong opinions, so often solemnly declared, so imperishably recorded in his deeds, lie retained a tolerance for those who differed with him which could not be surpas-sed in men whose principles hang so loosely about them as to be taken up for a convenient cloak and laid down when found to impede their progress. In his family he was everything that worth, warm affections, and sound prudence could contribute to make a man both useful and amiable, respected and beloved. In re- ligion he would by many be reckoned a latitudinarian; yet it is certain that his mind was imbued with a deep sense of the Divine perfections, a constant impression of our accountable nature, and a lively hope of future enjoyment. Accordingly, his !i lied, the test of both faith and works, was easy and placid, resigned and do- rout, and indicated at once an unflinching retrospect of the past and a comfortable assurance of the future. If we turn from the truly great man whom we have been contemplating to his '.rated contemporary in the old world, Frederick II, who only affected the phil- :>hy that Franklin possessed, and employed his talents for civil and military affairs in -\tinj:uMii>ig that independence which Franklin's life was consecrated to establish, thr contrast is marvelous indeed between the monarch and the printer. In is'ii; Robert ('. Winthrop said: ; uly. if any man of his age, or of almost any other age, ever earned the rep- utation of a doer of jrood. and of having lived usefully, it was-Benjamin Franklin. N " ' r "" ir<1 initiently and practically a useful life than his. Capable of the greatest things, he condescended to the humblest. He never sat down to make IMPORTANT iMXJt'MKNTS RELATING TO THK I'XIVKRSITY. 131 himself famous. He never secluded himself from the common walks and duties of society in order to accomplish a great reputation, imi.'h less to accumulate :i great fortune. He wrote no elaborate histories, or learned treatises, or stately tomes. Short essays ortracts, thrown off at aheat to answer an immediate end. letters to liis associates in science or politics, letters to his family and friends; these make up tin- great hulk of his literary productions; and, under the admirable editorship of Mr. Sparks, nine noble volumes do they fill, abounding in evidences of a wisdom, sagacity, ingenuity, diligence, freshness of thought, fullness of information, com- prehensiveness of reach, and devotedness of purpose, such as are rarely to be found associated in any single man. Wherever he found anything to be done, he did it; anything to be investigated, he investigated it; anything to be invented or dis- covered, he forwith tried to invent or discover it, and almost always succeeded. He did everything as if his whole attention in life had "been given to that one thing. And thus, while he did enough in literature to be classed among the great writers of his day, enough in invention and science to secure him the reputation of a great philosopher, enough in domestic politics to w;n the title of a great statesman, enough in foreign negotiations to merit the designation of a great diplomatist, he found time enough, also, in works of, general utility, humanity, and benevolence, to insure him a perpetual memory as a great philanthropist. ******* No form of personal suffering or social evil escaped his attention, or appealed in vain for such relief or remedy as his prudence could suggest or his purse supply. From that day of his early youth, when, a wanderer from his home and friends in a strange place, he was seen sharing his rolls with a poor woman and child, to the last act of his public life, when he signed that well-known memorial to Congress, as president of the Anti-Slavery Society of Pennsylvania, a spirit of earnest and prac- tical benevolence runs like a golden thread along his whole career. Would to Heaven that he could have looked earlier at that great evil at which he looked at last, and that the practical resources and marvelous sagacity of his mighty intellect could have been brought seasonably to bear upon the solution of a problem now almost too intricate for any human faculties! Wguld to Heaven that he could have taken his invention for a mode of drawing the fire safely from that portentous cloud, in his day, indeed, hardly bigger than a man's hand, but which is now blackening the whole sky, and threatening to rend asunder that noble fabric of union, of which he himself proposed the earliest model! But no estimate of Franklin is probably more correct and at the same time expressive of the opinion which the people of the United States hold of Franklin than that pronounced by Horace Greeley in 1862. Horace Greeley was another Franklin, a man self-made, a utili- tarian, and a public character. He differed from Franklin in degree rather than in kind. Perhaps if Franklin could have returned to earth in 1862 he would have found no more congenial companion than Hor- ace Greeley. Of the men whom the world currently terms self-made that is, who severally fought their life-battles without the aid of inherited wealth, or family honors, or educational advantages, perhaps our American Franklin stands highest in the civil- ized world's regard. The salient feature of his career is its uniformity. In an age of wars, he never led an army, nor set a squadron in the field. He never performed any daz/ling achievement. Though an admired writer and one of the greatest scien- tific discoverers, he was not a" genius. His progress from the mean tallow chandler's shop of his Boston father, crammed full of hungry brothers and sisters, to the gilded salons of Versailles, where he stood the "observed of all observers "in fact, more " a king than the gentle Louis, was marked by no abrupt transition, no break, no THK UNIVERSITY OK 1'K.NN>1LVAMA. bound; he seems not -d much t> li.-ivi- risen as to have grown. You can not say when In- < <-:i-> -d in IM- jMinr. in- unknown, or powerless; be steps into each new and higher i ..siti.in a> if In- had been l>orn for just that; you know that his newspaper, his almanar, his elcctrieal researches, his parliamentary service, his diplomacy, were the lust uf their time, lint who ran say that ho. was more admirable in one field of us, I'M! effort than another? An ambassador, it has been smartly said, is oiie "sent abroad to lie for his country." yet you feel that this man could eminently servo his country in perfect truth; that his frank sincerity and heartfelt appreciation of the best points in the French character, in Parisian life, served her better than the most artful dissimulation, the most plausible hypocrisy. The French alliance was worth more to us than Saratoga, for it gave us Yorktown, and it was not Gates's victory, as is commonly asserted, but Franklin's power and popularity, alike in the salons and at court, that gained us the French alliance. We can not help asking, were poverty and obstacle among the causes, or only the incident of this man's greatness! Had he been cradled in affluence and dandled inthe lap of luxury; had he been crammed by tutors and learnedly bored by professors ; had Harvard or Yale conferred degrees upon him at twenty, as they both rather superfluously did when he was nearly fifty ; had his youth been devoted to Latin conjugations and Greek hexameters rather than to candle-dipping and typesetting, would he have been the usefully great man he indisputably was? Admit that these queries can never be conclusively answered, they may yet be profitably pondered. * * * * -..-". I think I adequately appreciate the greatness of Washington, yet I must place Franklin above him as the consummate type and flowering of human nature under the skies of colonial America. Not that Washington was born to competence and all needful facilities lor instruction, so that he began responsible life on vantage ground that Franklin toiled twenty arduous, precious years to reach; I can not feel that this fact has undue weight with me. I realize that there are- elements of dignity, of grandeur, in the character of Washington for which that of Franklin atlords no parallel. But when I contemplate the immense variety and versatility of Franklin's services to his country and to mankind ; when I think of him as a writer whose first etVnsions commanded attention in his early boyhood; as the monitor and teacher of his fellow journeymen in a London printing office ; as almost from the outset a pros- perous and influential editor when journalism had never before been a source of power: as taking his place naturally at the head of the postal service in America, and of the earliest attempts to form a practical confederation of the colonies: when I see him, never an enthusiast, and now nearly three-score-and-ten, renouncing otii> c. hazarding fame, fortune, everything, to struggle for the independence of his country, he having most to lose by failure of any American, his only son a bitter loyalist, he cheerfully and repeatedly braving the dangers of an ocean swarming with enemies, to render his country the service as ambassador which no other man could perform, and finally, when more than eighty years old, crowning a life of duty and honor by helping to frame that immortal ( '(institution which made us one nation i.I can not place Franklin second to any other American. He could not have done the work of Washington no other man could ; but then he did so many admira- ble things which Washington had too sound a judgment even to attempt. And, great .Vasliingt.in was. he was not -reat enough to \\rite and print after he had achieved P..U.I ; ,ml \sorld-wide fame, a frank, ingenuous confession of his youthful follies and sins for the instruction and admonition of others. Many a man can look calmly down the thro;, t^ .,f roaring cannon who lacks the courage and true philanthropy essential to those called to render this service to mankind. CHAPTER II. FRANKLIN'S IDEAS IN EDUCATION AS SEEN IN HIS WRITINGS. At 22 years of age Franklin wrote his "Articles of Belief and Acts of Religion," in which belaid down his so-called "first principles;" this was his tirst serious effort toward self-education in morality. The prin- ciples are a liturgy and a book of prayer, and if the spirit which aui- imated them be accepted as the motive of Franklin's life, it indicates the large purpose of his mind to " attain perfection in morals." The whole effort is of a piece with his notion of education ; that man by self-appli- cation could attain through the results of personal experiment perfec- tion in almost any art. Two years later, in his "Rules for a Club Established for Mutual Im- provement," (the celebrated Junto rules), he applied his principle of self education by cooperating with kindred spirits; took the first steps toward the characteristic acts of his life, the establishment of useful relations with his fellowmen. The use which he made of the Junto, of which we have already spoken, indicates the large value which he set upon such an enterprise. It would be untrue to say that Franklin was the founder of all the debating clubs in America, but it is not untrue that he was the founder of the most useful debating club which ever existed in this country, for the living influence of the Junto 1 exists to this day, and its usefulness to the country is suggested by the influence of the Library Company of Philadelphia at the present time. Franklin applied the famous maxim of Horace that use is the law of speech, and extended the maxim so that it became to him the law of education; he learned to write by writing, and his numerous coritribu- NOTK. The correspondence awl miscellaneous writings of Franklin at the hands of successive editors have accumulated to ten octavo volumes, and additional letters air discovered from time to time. Each new research intathe archives of the gov- ernments of France and England brings to light more Franklin letters. From the published correspondence and writings of Franklin, gathered by Sparks and Bigdow, I will venture to select passages in the writings of Franklin which record from time to time his ideas of education or which illustrate the application of those ideas. I am aware that such a selection is made at the risk of the omKsion of passages, which upon a larger view might appear to be pertinent, but the selection is made with the hope that others may be led to make a more thorough investigation of the subject. EDITOR. * 133 134 Tin: IMVKUSITY OP PENNSYLVANIA. tions t< the newspaper began t lie American maga/iue; his paraphrases of tin- Spectator in his brother's newspaper in Boston, under the pseudonym of ''Silence Dogood," are followed by innumerable papers, in vamng form, improving, we may say, until they attain perfection, to various newspapers throughout his life. The public was the subject of his story and all of his contributions are written for the pleasure and instinct ion of the public. The Busybody, a series of papers con- tributed to the Weekly Mercury, the first newspaper published in Phila- delphia, are indisputably the first of Franklin's writings, though his owu reference to the earlier Silence Dogood papers are evidence that they were his own. He says in the first number of the Busybody: I have lately entertained some thought of setting up for an author myself, not out of the leant vanity, I assure you, or desire of showing my parts, but purely for the good of my country. These early papers, written in his twenty-third year, show many of the author's characteristics, both in subject and in style, and have proved the truth of Franklin's favorite idea in English composition, that by much frequent and careful writing one may attain unto a simple and direct style. Franklin maybe said to be the first American newspaper- man, for he was the first American writer to use simple English in brief sentences addressed directly to the public, and it may be said that he was the founder of the brief, sententious, American style in writing. The importance which Franklin attached to composition in his scheme for an English education was the result of his own experience. In 1729 he published "A Modest Inquiry into the Nature and Neces- sity of a Paper Currency," and this little pamphlet marks an epoch in the history of political economy. With characteristic confession he begins his inquiry with these words: There it* no science the study of which is more useful and commendable than the knowledge of the true interest of one's country. It would be interesting to observe more particularly the frequency with which Franklin uses the phrase "the true interest of one's coun- try" or -the general welfare of one's country." In this "Modest In- quiry" he discusses the nature of a paper currency under several gen- eral considerations, such as the scarcity of money and a high rate of intercM. That tin- scarcity of money in a country discourages imiiii- ion was a point of great interest to Franklin, who is ever discuss ing the means for encouraging an increase of population, as his theory of the general welfare was based upon his interpretation of the inter- tttfl of an ever increasing and prosperous people; so he laid down the genera) doctrine that "a plentiful currency will encourage great num- of laboring and handicraftsmen to come and settle in the coun- try." II.- thought that "want of money in such a country as ours oc- casions a greater consumption of Knglish and European goods in pro- to the number of people than there would otherwise be. y * This FRANKLIN'S IDEAS IN EDUCATION. !;;:> notion is in keeping with one of Franklin's favorite ideas, expressed by him in 1771, that Every manufacture in our country makes an opportunity for a market for pro- ductions within ourselves and supplies so much money" to the country as must other- wise lie exported to pay for the manufacture of supplies here in England; it is w-ll known and understood that wherever a manufacture is established that employs a number of hands it raises the value of land in the neighboring country all around. It seems, therefore, the interest of our farmers and owners of laud to encourage our own manufactures in preference to foreign ones. In other words, Franklin's idea of a nation was his idea of the in- dividual, that the nation, like the individual, should be self-support- ing. This was the education in his New England home, and is char- acteristic of the New England idea in government. It is interesting to trace in Franklin's writings as early as 1729 this plain intimation of the means for the true prosperity of America, that traders, artificers, laborers, and manufacturers in America should pro- duce the goods in America and for America. It is in this paper on currency that Franklin lays down the fundamental notion in American economics that labor is the measure and creator of wealth : For many ages [he says] those parts of the world which are engaged in com- merce have fixed upon gold and silver as the chief and most proper materials for this medium (that is, money properly called a medium of exchange), they being in themselves valuable metals for their fineness, beauty, and scarcity. By these, par- ticularly by silver, it has been usual to value all things else. But as silver itself is of no certain permanent value, being worth more or less according to its scarcity or plenty, therefore it seerns requisite to fix upon something else more proper to be made a measure of value, and this I take to be labor. 1 By labor may the value of silver be measured as well as other things. As, suppose one man employed to raise corn while another is digging and refining silver. At the year's end, or at any other period of time, the complete produce of corn and that of silver are the natural price of each other ; and if one be 20 bushels and the other 20 ounces, then an ounce of that silver is worth the labor of raising a bushel of that corn. Thus the riches of a country are to be valued by the quantity of labor its inhabitant* are able to purchase, and not by the quantity of silver and gold they possess, which will purchase more or less labor, and therefore is more or less valuable, as is said before, according to its scarcity or plenty. This doctrine of labor stated in 1729 anticipated the Wealth of Na- ions forty- six years, and justly may lay claim to priority in the foun- dation of the industrial basis of modern political economy. He applied his doctrine as it affected the currency, by affirming that "monrv afl bullion or as land is valuable by so much labor as it costs to procure that bullion or land. Money as a currency has an additional value by so much time and labor as it saves in the exchange of commoditi. -. The effect of this paper in Pennsylvania was the issue of a paper cur- rency. Franklin, mindful of his rule for humility and modesty, con- cluded the essay by saying : As this essay is wrote and published in haste and the subject in itself intricate, 1 hope I shall be censured with candor if, for want of time carefully to revise what I 'This idea is elaborated in "The Wealth of Nations," Book I. See also J. 1 Mills's "Principles of Political Ecouony/' Book I. THK rMVl'.HsiTV OK PKNXSYLVANIA. writti-n. in some ]l:in-> I should appear to have expressed myself too obscurely and in others am liable to objections I did not foresee. I sincerely desire to be ac- quainted with tin- truth, and on that account shall think myself obliged to any one who will take the pains to show me ofr the public where I am mistaken in my con- clusions. His fondness for dialogues had led him to prescribe the composition of them in his scheme for an English school and is illustrated through- out his writings ly his own dialogues on a great variety of subjects. Franklin was fond of the theatre; action, expression, relieved the te- dium of mere writing, and it would not be a matter of surprise that, had Franklin possessed the leisure, he should have written a play. The dialogue as a style in composition is much out of fashion in our time, but it was much in vogue in the eighteenth century, and Franklin was a master of it. Many will remember the dialogues which formed selec- tions in the old readers in our schools; they will remember speaking day, when these dialogues were mouthed from the stage, and some wholesome lesson in politics or morality was given to the audience. Some of the most celebrated dialogues found in those readers were written by Franklin himself, as the celebrated dialogue between Frank- lin and the gout. His utilitarian ideas appeared throughout his writings; in the Penn- sylvania Gazette of October 30, 1735, he contributes a paper on the usefulness of mathematics. His own course in arithmetic and geometry will be remembered, and it will also be remembered that Franklin never made extensive studies in mathematics or extensive use of them ; so that his paper on the usefulness of mathematics was based upon their commercial value. It was because That no business, commerce, trade, or employment whatsoever, even from the mer- liant to the shopkeeper, etc., can be managed and carried on without the assistance of numbers; for by these the trader computes the value of all sorts of goods that lie ih-aleth in, does his business with ease and certanity, and informs himself how matters stand at any time with respect to men, money, or merchandise, to profit and los, whether he goes forward or backward, grows richer or poorer. W- should not forget that in 1735 there were no common schools or spoke to a people who were lacking the very facilities which In- showed were within reach of any enterprising person. Franklin Hi American educator before there were American schools. Throughout his paper on mathematics he makes no argument for the study of matheiiiaties as a science; it is for its utility in mechanics, in navigation, i,, surveying, in engineering, and in the computation of FRANKLIN'S IDKAS ix KDIVATION. 137 I time and its divisions; its utility as a method of strengthening the mind, of securing the capacity for exact reasoning, of discerning truth from falsehood, and he concludes his argument with a quotation from Plato, characteristic of his own notions of life: DKAU FRIEND: You see, then, that mathematics are necessary, because by the ex- actness of the method we get a habit of using our minds to the best advantage. At thirty years of age he writes his first paper on government. It is of interest because of his subsequent influence in international politics, and particularly in the formation of the constitutions of Pennsylvania of 1776 and 1789, and in the making of the national constitution in 1787. His paper on government, written forty years before the first constitu- tion of an American commonwealth was written, contains the germs of all American constitutions. Government is ''created by and for the good of the whole" and "should be made liable to the inspection and animadversion of the whole; " " the sovereignty is in the people ;" and he concludes with the maxim, " Vox Dei est populi vox." With this quali- fication that "this is universally true while they remain in their proper sphere, unbiassed by faction, undeluded by the tricks of designing men." We shall see later how this same idea occurs to him in his final speech to the Convention of 1787. It is in this paper on government that he anticipates a thought in the Declaration of Independence that "the civil privileges of the American people are not a gift bestowed upon us by other men, but a right that belongs to us by the laws of God and nature." 1 He based his idea of government upon his interpretation of the public good and asserts the foundation of government to be on the common rights of mankind. It is interesting as a suggestion of his subsequent course in politics. Perhaps no paper by Franklin has been so widely read as his Way to Wealth; 2 the great number of editions of this paper, written in 1736, indicates its widespread influence. One paper, addressed to the "Courteous Eeader," assumes to be taken from*the proverbs of an old almanac entitled "Poor Eichard Improved/' Probably this paper re- flects Franklin's mind in its every day economy more perfectly than any other he ever wrote. It is an epitome of homely experiences told in the style of which he was then master, and addressed to the public, whom he always had in mind. It is a series of maxims skilfully strung together illustrative of Franklin's favorite notion that industry. 'Compare the opening paragraph of the Declaration of Independence: "When in the course of human events it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve tin- politi- cal bauds which have connected them with another, and to assume among the powers of the earth the separate and equal station to which the laws of nature and of na- ture's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind iv.,nires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation. '-"The Sayings of Poor Richard ; " The Prefaces, Proverbs, and Poems of Benjamin Franklin. Collected and edited by Paul Leicester Ford, form one of the " Knicker- bocker Nuggett" series. G. P. Putnam's Sons. "The Way to Wealth' 1 is printed in McMaster's " Franklin." 138 Tin: TNIVKKSITY <>F I-KNNSYLVANIA. economy, and virtue were the means for attaining perfection in this life. Portions of the paper have been printed in the reading books so frequently that it has become one of the best known of American writ ings. It is perhaps safe to say that in this single article Franklin con- tributed to the education of his countrymen in economy as no other American has ever contributed. I let \\een 1 T-'UJ and 1 "."<> Franklin contributed voluminously to the newspaper, ever writing upon some useful project. It was in 1749 that he made application of his utilitarian doctrines in his conception of the identity of electricity and lightning, and began that train of thought which ended three years later in his famous experiment with the kiie. His conception of the identity of electricity and lightning led to his invention of the lightning rod. Franklin never covered his dis- coveries by patent, believing that, as he had received much from man- kind, he should contribute as freely as possible himself to the welfare of the world. It is during the next twelve years that Franklin won hi.s fame as an electrician, obtaining his knowledge by simple experi- mentation and deducing conclusions of Avide comprehension. He was a born scientist; his own experience as an experimenter led him to ein- phasi/e experiment in education, although in his Proposals for the Education of I'outh in Pennsylvania he does not emphasize laboratory work as at first thought one might have expected from him. We have already referred to this. Franklin made no effort, to defend his own scientific fame, but left his fame to the considerate judgment of mankind. This was character- i>tic of all his work. He judged himself as he judged others by the usefulness of his life to mankind. He strictly applied his utilitarian doctrines to himself. It is to be noticed in the numerous letters to ivtei Collinson and others concerning his electrical experiments that his ideas followed the experiment rather than anticipated it. He kepi ake. of experiment. Alf his experiments were for utilitarian purposes. In his "Advice to a Young Tradesman," written in 1748, he applies some of the notions already expressed in his " Way, to Wealth," and he >i;r,, s himself -A -i Old Tradesman." His frequent papers upon money -ett in- have misled some of his critics, who have thought that lii- uholc scheme was the penny-wise pound foolish policy, and that his -ole pinpnsr in life was to accumulate wealth. It seems to us, on the contrary, that Kniiiklin illustrates in his own life t he opposite policy, Having accumulated a fortune before he was fifty a very unusual thin-to do in the American ( 'ninnies he was enabled to utilize his time tin the beneiitof the public. It would seem rather that his scheme of life wax to win wealth i -der to obtain time for self-improvement. He \\oiild have all men accumulate sullicient wealth to enable them to make innumerable experiments in virtue and natural philosophy, by m.-. ins of which the general welfare may be promoted. FRANKLIN'S n>i<:\- i\ EDUCATE This is illustrated in his letter to . 17P.. in which he says: 1 am glad to hear that you have, frequent opportunities of pr. aching among the groat. If you can gain them to a good and exemplary life wonderful changes will follow iu the manner of the lower ranks, for ad cxcmplum rtgi*, etc. On this prin- < 'iple Confucius, the famous Eastern reformer, proceeded. When he saw his country sunk in vice, and wickedness of all kinds triumphant, he applied himself first to the grandees, and having hy his doctrine won them to the cause of virtue the conjin followed in multitudes. The mode has a wonderful influence on mankind, and there are numbers who perhaps fear less the being in hell than out of the fashion. Our most Avestern reformations began with the ignorant mob, and when numbers of them were gained interest and party views drew in the wise and groat. Where both methods can be used the reformations, are likely to he more speedy. O, that some method could be found to make them lasting! He who discovers that will, iu my opinion, deserve more, ten thousand times, than the inventor of the longitude. Franklin was a believer in the force of example, and his belief was based upon his own experience in self-education. Probably no Ameri- can has illustrated the ad exemplum rcgis like Franklin. His life has been the pattern for thousands, and in innumerable stories, essays, sermons, and speeches he has been held up as the example to American youth. In his own scheme for the education of children heemphasi/e< the value of the study of history and biographies because of the exam pies which would be set before the minds of youth. Posterity lias treated Franklin gently, and perhaps no better illustration of Franklin's influence can be cited than Auerbach's "Villa on the Khine," in which German story Franklin is the happy example for others to follow. In a letter to his mother in his forty-third year he says of himself: For my own part at present I pass my time agreeably enough. I enjoy through mercy a tolerable share of health, I read a great deal, write a little, do a little busi- ness for myself and now and then for others, retire when I can, and go into company when I please. So the years roll on, and the last will come, when I would rather have it said, "He lived usefully, " than "He died rich. " At the time of his services in founding the University of Pennsyl- vania he had occasion to write to Dr. Samuel Johnson, first president of King's College, now Columbia College, to whom the provostship of the new university had been offered. In his letter to Dr. Johnson, Franklin says: I think with you, that nothing is of more importance for the public weal than to form and train up youth in wisdom and virtue. Wise and good men are, in my opinion, the strength of the state, much more so than riches or armies, which, under the management of ignorance and wickedness often draw on destruction, instead of providing for the safety of the people. And though the culture bestowed ou many should be successful only with a few, yet the influence of those few and the service in their power may be very great. Even a single woman, that was wise, by her wisdom saved the city. I think, also, that general virtue is more probably to be expected and obtained from the education of youth than from the exhortation of adult persons, bad habits and vices of the mind being, like the diseases of the body, more easily prevented than cured. I think, moreover, that talents for the education of youth are the gift of God, and 1-10 Tin: I Nlvr.K'SlTY <>F PENNSYLVANIA. that he mi whom they an- In-stowed, whenever a way is open for the use of them, is a- -tn.nnly <-,illnl as if In- heard a voice 1'roin heaven, nothing more surely pointing out iluty in a public service than tlie ability and opportunity of performing it. Dr. .lolinson declined tin', provostship and Dr. William Smith was chosen. American education was begun by the churches, and the higher institutions of learn- ing nearly all originated with the ecclesiastical bodies, and most of them are, still under their control. Tin- I'niveisity of Pennsylvania was. through the influence of Frank- lin, perhaps tin- first to arise without formal connection with the churches. Thecol- and academies of the New England States and of districts supplied from New England \\ ere < liieiiy modeled alter Harvard, and nearly all drew their teachers from these mother iust i t ut ions and their daughters. Those of the Middle and many of the Western States may commonly be traced to the educational efforts of the Pres- byterian clergy from the north of Ireland and from Scotland. The Puritan and 1'ie-iliytcrian congregations have been the chief agencies in our higher educational system, and in both cases the interest and the mode Avas ecclesiastical. Religion, it would appear, was the only force at work in American society which at that time was strong enough to overcome the American passion for money making, to insist on the excellence of a liberal education, and thus to cherish a love of learning and of ;< until it grew strong enough to stand alone Only in our own days have institutions of the same character been endowed in a fewplaces by the State govern- ments. 1 Iii founding the university it was not associated with any particular church. hut it sought to be at peace with them all. Franklin had to contend \vitli the prejudices of his times. The history of the University of Pennsylvania during the eighteenth century and a great part of the nineteenth is characteri/ed by this separation of academic from ecclesi- astical interests. 2 The university never had a theological school. Its faculties, "aa strongly called as if they heard a voice from heaven," have been gathered from all sects, and the whole character of the insti- tution has been free from ecclesiastical bias. Without doubt, as Prof. Thompson intimates, this condition of the university for so many years explains the absence of that western influence so characteristic of Har- vard and of Vale. It is true that the university, having established the first medical x-liool in America, was the, parent of all the medical >chools of the West, but it was the young clergymen and schoobuas- fie>hl\- -ladnated from Harvard or Vale who fixed public opinion in the Northwest Territory, and Inwards the South, who laid the foun- dation- ut' schools, and who began newspapers in the Ohio valley and imparted to the States west of tlie original thirteen much of their original x.eal for education. P.ut Franklin was wise in his generation, and his farsightedness is now evident. Krclesiastinsm has given place to at least neutrality in 'at American universities, but we must not forget that during the half century that followed tlie American revolution, when the West incuts ,,| Political Kc, ,noin\ , 'See Mr. Stewart's paper on the history of the university, infra. I'KA\KLL\'S IDKAS IN EDUCATION. Ill was receiving its immigrants from tin- Kastern St.ito. the vast astical influence of New Kngland carried with it tin- influence of M;ir vard and of Yale. If Franklin had been a devout churchman and had identified the University of Pennsylvania with a powerful ecclesiastical body, without doubt the influence of the University of Pennsylvania throughout the West would have been greater during the first half of the present century. 1 Now, however, we have caught up with Frank- lin's idea and have seen great universities established in the last 30 years as free from ecclesiastical association as was the University of Pennsylvania in 1749 and as. it is now. It is an interesting subject, which we hape some one may be pleased to pursue, to trace the influ- ence of the church, upon the educational institutions of America and show the causes which have led at least to the foundation of institu- tions of learning upon a purely academic basis. It is interesting, in- deed, that the first institution so founded was Girard College, and this institution is in perfect keeping with Franklin's ideas on education. We shall have occasion to refer to this phase of Franklin's influence in our brief account of Girard College. The letter to Dr. Johnson is of particular interest to the teaching profession because it went far to correct the notion prevalent in the eighteenth century, and not wholly dead yet, that talents fipr the edu- cation of youth are not a gift of God. It was strange doctrine to Puri- tan ears that a teacher was as " strongly called as if he had heard a voice from Heaven." In Franklin's Observations Concerning the Increase of Mankind and the Peopling of Countries, written in 1751, he attempted to solve another problem in economics. lie was the first to point out that population increases more rapidly in America than in Europe, and that this was due to the ease and convenience of supporting a family in America incident to the demand for labor and the abundance and the cheapness of land. The population of America must "at least be doubled every twenty years," but notwithstanding this increase, he says: So vast is the territory of North America that it will require many ages it fully, and until it is fully settled labor will never bo cheap hero, wliero uo man continues long a laborer for others, but gets a plantation of his own, and no man continues a journey man to a trade, but goes among those new settlers and sets up for himself, etc. In proportion to the increase of the colonies there bad been a vast demand f>r British manufactures, making a '-glorious market wholly in the power of Britain; indeed, foreigners can not interfere. It will increase in a short time even beyond her power of supplying, though her whole trade should be to her colonies; therefore Britain should *iot too much restrain manufactures in her colonies The distribution of the matriculates in the University of Pennsylvania, 1740-1891, is shown in the tables of attendance infra, showing that the university is strength- ening its influence in all parts of the world. Till. t MVKKSITY OF PKXN.SVLVANIA. This pood advice was wholly lost, though it was given twenty-five years before the Declaration of Independence. It is in these Observa- tions that Franklin applied his ideas of labor to slavery: It i-~ :in ill-grounded opinion that%y tin- l;lor of slaves America may possibly vie in cheapness of manufactures with Britain. Labor of slaves can never be so cheap here as the labor of workingmen is in Britain. * * * Why, then, will Ameri- i-ans purchase slaves? Because slaves may be kept as long as a man pleases, or has occasion for their labor, while hired men are continually leaving their masters (even in the midst of business) and setting up for themselves. This was Franklin's first discussion of the slave question, to which he gave earnest attention to the close of his life, ever advocating the abolition of slavery. The principal idea of the paper was the future of the English race, and he thought that were earth " emptied of other inhabitants it might, in a few ages, be replenished from one nation only, as, for instance, with Englishmen;" and he then entered upon one of his favorite diversions, computing the population of I^orth America : Thus there ate supposed to be now upwards of 1,000,000 English souls in North America, though it is thought scarce 80,000 have been brought over sea, and yet per- haps there is not one the fewer in Britain, but rather many more, on account of the employment the colonies afford to the manufactures at home. This million doubling, suppose, but once in twenty-five years will, in another century, be more than the people of England, and the greatest number of Englishmen will be on this side the water. It has been pointed out that it is a curious fact that this tracl of Franklin's suggested the celebrated essay on population by Malthus. The sentence, "This million doubling, suppose, but once in twenty-five years will, in another century, be more than the people of England," seems to have suggested to Malthus that population was destined to outrun the means of subsistence, as an arithmetical ratio falls behind a geometrical. Malthus published his essay in 1820. William Godwin wrote a reply to Malthus, having first attempted to break down Frank- lin's statement. 1 Dr. Franklin ["fiodwin says] is in this case particularly tho object of our attention, be.-;in-e lie was the first man who started the idea of the people of America being multiplied by procreation BO M to double every twenty-five years. Dr. Franklin, bom in Boston, was eminently an American patriot, and the paper from which these extracts are taken was expressly written to exalt the importance and glory of his country. Franklin may thus be regarded as the first to call attention in the economic world to the ratio between the increase of population and the mean* of its subsistence, in the effort to determine which doctrine the politieal economists have ever since been engaged. That Franklin should have first formulated the doctrine that labor is the wealth producer, anticipating Adam Smith, and should have 1 See Bigelow, Vol. n, p. 232, note. FRANKLIN'S IDEAS i.\ EDUCATION. 143 first suggested the law of the increase of population, which anticipated Malthus, places him among the great economists of the world. A year after his letter to Dr. Johnson, in a letter to .lared Kliot on the 12th of September, Franklin refers to the academy in Philadelphia, later the University of Pennsylvania: Our academy flourishes beyond expectation. Wo have now above 100 scholar*, and the number is daily increasing. We have excellent masters at present, and as we give pretty good salaries, I hope we shall always bo able to procure such. U - pay The rector, who teaches Latin and Greek 200 The English master j50 The mathematical professor ' J25 Three assistant tutors (each 60) I#Q Total per annum 655 It will be noticed that in these -items the pay of the English master was as great as that of any of the instructors. Subsequent changes in the course of study in the academy led to Franklin's expostulation against lowering the plane of the English instruction. His Observa- tions Eelative to the Intentions of the Original Founders of the Academy in Philadelphia, written thirty-eight years later, are the history of these changes and Franklin's protest. 2 Two years later, on the 19th of April, Franklin wrote to the KVv. William Smith, appointed provost of the academy in 1754, and filling that office as head of the academy and of the college successfully for a period of thirty-seven years, until the University was created in its second charter of 1791. 2 Franklin's letter to Dr. Smith is as follows : PHILADELPHIA, April 19, 1753. SIR: I received your favor of the llth instant, with your new piere on education, 1 which I shall carefully peruse and give you my sentiments of it, as you desire, by next post. I believe the young gentlemen, yonr pupils, may be entertained and instructed here in mathematics and philosophy to satisfaction. Mr. Allison/ who was educated at Glasgow, has been long accustomed. to teach the latter, and Mr. Grew" the former, and I think that their pupils make great progress; Mr. Allison has the care of th- Latin and Greek school, but as he has now three good assistants." he can very well afford some hours every day for the instruction of those who an- engaged in higher studies. The mathematical school is pretty well furnished with instruments. The English library is a good one, and we have, belonging to it, a middling apparatus 1 See Observations Relative to the Intentions of the Original Founders, etc., supra. 2 For much valuable information concerning the academy, the old college, and the inception of the University, see Wood's History of the University in Vol. in of the Memoirs of the Historical Society of Pennsylvania. 3 A general idea of the College of Mirania. (Stuber. ) 4 The Rev. Francis Allison, afterwards Vice-Provost of the College in Philadelphia. (Stuber.) 5 Theophilus Grew, afterwards Professor of Mathematics in the college. (Stnber. ) 6 Those assistants were at that time Charles Thompson, afterwards Secretary of Congress; Paul Jackson, and Jacob Duche. (Stuber. Bigelow, Vol. n, p. 288.) 1 t I THK UMVKUS1TY OK I'KNNSYLVANIA. f..r experimental philosophy, and propose speedily 1 complete it. The Loganian Library, one of the l-t collections in America, is short ly to In- opened, so that neither bonks nor instruments will !< wanting; and as we arc determined always to give ,\c have reason to believe wo may have always an opportunity of hoiking good nia-tcrs; upon which, indeed, the success of the whole depends. We .idigcd to you for your kind offers in this respect, and when you are settled in England we may occasionally make use of your friendship and judgment. If it suits your convenience to visit Philadelphia before your return to Europe, I shall I'c extremely glad to see and converse with yon here, as well as to correspond with you after your settlement in England, for an acquaintance and communica- tion with men of learning, virtue, and public spirit is one of my greatest enjoyments. I do not know whether you ever happened to see the first proposals I made for electing tins academy. I send them inclosed. They had, however imperfect, the desired success, being followed by a subscription of four thousand pounds towards carrying them into execution. As we are fond of receiving advice and are daily improving by experience. I am in the hopes we shall, in a few years, see a perfect institution. I am, very respectfully, etc. B. FRANKLIN. Franklin was in sympathy with Dr. Smith's ideas in education. They were far in advance of the prevailing sentiment of the times and are substantially embodied in the four years' course prevailing- at the jin-sent time. Prof. Lamberton has shown at length the philosophical character of Dr. Smith's educational ideas, and that the University of Pennsylvania was the first American institution to adopt the curricu- lum common now throughout the country. 1 Much has been said of Franklin's relations to Dr. Smith, and there is a diversity of sentiment concerning them. It seems upon consideration of the evidence that Dr. Smith leaned to the classical studies, while Franklin preferred the Knglish branches. This may possibly be explained by the difference in the education of Franklin and Smith. Dr. Franklin would have all young men trained as he had trained himself; Dr. Smith, a fine clas- i! scholar, would place Latin and Greek above the English language, in the college. To these fundamental differences between them was added the disputes growing out of. the relations of the academy and the college to the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, and the contentions following the war of the Revolution. The college was likely to be 'I' M roved amidst the.-e >erions commotions. 2 In 17.~>J Franklin drew his jilan of union for the colonies, known as the All. any Plan. It illustrates his love of compromise, and the scheme HIM drawn by Franklin is, "Short Hints towards a Scheme for ! ioi. Lamberton's article on the Department of Arts in the University of Pennsylvania. a detailed account of the relations bet ween Franklin and Smith and between the coll,--,- .m,| the legi-lat.nc, sec. ,!,-<,, fi,,, Historical Sketch of the University, by John I.. M.u.irt. i-li. it.: The I im . -rsity in its Relations to the State of Pennsyl- vania, by the H.m. Samuel YV. iVnnypacker, i.r.. D. ; The RelatiomTof the University and the City, by .1. (J. Roscngartcn, A.M.; The 1'rovosts and Vice-Provost*, by Hon. Henry Reed, A. M. ; The Department of Arts, by Prof. William Lamberton, A.M. WILLIAM SMITH, D. D., THE FIRST PROVOST OF THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 1755-1779. FRANKLIN'S IDEAS IN EDUCATION. 145 uniting the Northern Colonies." While the rommission<>rs from th,. colonies, who assembled at Albany, met lor tin- ostensible purpose of discussing Indian affairs, the subject of a plan of union, the uppermost thought in Franklin's mind, received their attention. It is, as |,n, posed by Franklin, according to the representative idea of government, a governor general appointed by the King, having a salary from ihe Crown and a veto on the acts of the grand council, to be chosen by the assembly of one member from each of the smaller colonies and two or more from each of the larger. It was an effort to establish f,, r the colonies a government similar to that now existing in Canada. Franklin says of the Albany Plan : The assemblies all thought there was too much prerogative and in England it was thought to have too much of the democratic, and therefore the plan wan not adopted. Iii 1755 his experiments in killing fowls by electricity led him to record: "Too great a charge might indeed kill a man. * * * It would certainly, as you observe, be the easiest of all deaths,'' antici- pating modern electrocution. His utilitarian philosophy is illustrated in his letter to George White- field of July 2, 1756: Life, like a dramatic piece, should not only be conducted with regularity, but, methinks, it should finish handsomely. Being now iu the last act, I begin to cast about for something fit to end with ; or, if mine be more properly compared to an epigram, as some of its lines are but barely tolerable, I am very desirous of concluding with a bright point. In such an enterprise I could spend the remainder of life with pleasure, and I firmly believe God would bless us with success if we undertook it with a sincere regard to His honor, the service of our gracious King, and (which is the same thing) the public good. It is in this letter that he thanks Whitefield for his "generous bene- factions to the German schools. They go on pretty well, and will do better when Mr. Smith, 1 who has at present the principal charge of them, shall learn to mind party writing an^l party politics less and his proper business more, which, I hope, time will bring about." Franklin's love of a comfortable ancestry is illustrated in his letter to his wife from London the Oth of September, 1758, in which he gi\ an account of his visit to Huntingdonshire, the ancient home of his family. He is there pleased to record of his ancestors that the women were smart and sensible; that the men became wealthy, left off busim and lived comfortably; and, as was characteristic of himself, others were clever, "vastly content with their situation, and very cheerful, and another a leading man in all county affairs and much employed in public busines" all of which shows Franklin's ideal of men and women. 'The ill feeling between Smith and Franklin uln-ady referred to was intensified by the heat of local politics, but it seoms that the contention between them gradually ceased, and so completely that Dr. Smith accepted the invitation to pronounce the eulogy upon Franklin at the time of his death. 1180 10 146 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. In 1760, in his letter of May 3 to Lord Karaes, he acknowledges the receipt of the Principles of Equity, "which," says Franklin, "will be of more servite to the colony judges, as few of them have been bred to the law," and he therefore sent his copy to a particular friend in Phila- delphia, one of the judges of the Supreme Court in Pennsylvania, and to Rev. William Smith, afterwards Provost of the University. It is in this letter that he outlines " a little work for the benefit of youth," to be called the Art of Virtue : Most people have naturally some virtues, hut noue have naturally all the virtues. To acquire those that are wanting, and secure what we acquire as well as those we have naturally, is as properly au art as painting, navigation, or architecture. If a man would become a painter, navigator, or architect, it is not enough that he is ad- vised to be one; that he is convinced by the arguments of his adviser; that it would be for his advantage to be one, and that he resolves to be one, but he must also be taught the principles of the art, be shown all the methods ot working, and how to acquire the habits of using properly all the instruments; and thus regularly and gradually he arrives by practice at some perfection in the art. If he does not pro- ceed thus he is apt to meet with difficulties that discourage him and make him drop the pursuit. He would have youth become virtuous as he would have them be- come "tolerable English writers," by practice, and his theory occurs in his writings again and again. The limitations on this article prevent me from doing more than to refer to some of Franklin's ideas concerning the future of America, but one of great moment deserves passing attention; his firm belief that Canada should share the fate of the thirteen colonies and form with them a united America. This belief of his is outlined in his pamphlet entitled, "The Ipterest of Great Britain with regard to our Colonies and the Aquisition of Canada and Guadaloupe," written in 1760. It seems strange to us that some English statesmen should have consid- ered Guadaloupe as more valuable to the British Empire than Canada; Franklin, however, prevailed and Canada was retained. Had his views prevailed at the time of the treaty of peace in 1783, Canada would now be a part of the United States. In the same year, September 27, addressing David Hume from Cov- entry, he says, referring to a pamphlet on the Constitution and Gov- ernment of Pennsylvania, long attributed to Franklin, but probably brought out by his patronage though not written by him: I am not a little pleased to hear of your change of sentiment in some particulars re- lating to Ainerira, because I think it of importance toon r general wel fare that the) >eo- pie of this nation should have right notions of us, and I know no one that has it more in his power to rectify their notions than Mr. Hume. I have lately read witli great pleasure, as I do everything of yours, the excellent essay on the Jealousy of Com- merce. 1 I think it cau not hut have a good eft'ect in promoting a certain interest iyon"The Jealousy of Trade," No. XXVIII, in Hume's Collected Works; XXV, XXVI, XXVII. XXIX, XXX, :mil XXXI, on Money, Interest, Trade, Taxes, and Public Credit, are interesting in relation to Franklin's notions on those subjects. FRANKLIN AND LORD ROMEO: 147 lint little thought of by selfish inau aucl scarcely ever mentioned, so that we hardly have a name for it I mean the Interest of humanity, or common ,>m\ of mankind. But I hope, particularly from that essay, an aliatcment of the jealousy that reigns here of the markets of the colonies, at least so far as such al.atement may he i sonable. This is one of the earliest and perhaps tlie first use of the plna> "the general welfare," as relating- to America, a phrase destined to receive a constantly more extended meaning and to become fixed in the public mind by insertion in the Preamble of the Constitution of the United States. Probably no philosopher of the eighteenth century con tributed so much to the definition of the "general welfare" as David Hume. To his writings may be traced many of the causes of both the American and the French revolutions, and Franklin's relations to him, their correspondence, and the influence which each had on the other are of great interest. If Hume precipitated the French revolution, Franklin may be said to have hastened the independence of the United States. As has been already said, Franklin educated the colonies to become independent States. In November, 17G1, he thanks Lord Kames for a copy of his Intro- duction to the Art of Thinking, and inquires after the Elements of Criticism then in preparation. He adds : I promise myself no small satisfaction in perusing that work also. By the first you sow thick in the young mind the seeds of common sense concerning moral con- duct, which, as they grow and are transplanted into life, must greatly adorn the character and habits of the person. Permit me to say that I think I never saw more solid useful matter contained in so small a compass, and yet the method and expres- sion so clear that the brevity occasions no obscurity. In the other you will, by alluring youth to the practice of learning, strengthen their judgment, improve and enlarge their understanding, and increase their abilities of being useful. To produce the number of valuable men necessary iu a nation for its prosperity, there is much more hope through schemes of early institution than from reformation ; and as the power of a single man to do national service in particular situations of influence is often eminently great, a writer can hardly conceive the good he may be doiuj; when engaged in works of this kind. I can not therefore but wish you would publish it as soon as your other important employments will permit you to give it a lini-h iny hand. With these sentiments you will not doubt my being serious in the intention of finishing my Art of Virtue. It is not a mere ideal work. I planned it first in 1732. I have from time to time made, and caused to be made, experiments of the method with success. The materials have been growing ever since; the form only is now to be given it, in which I purpose employing my first leisure after my return to rny mother country. 1 Evidently Franklin considers his proposed Art of Virtue as the mag- num opus of his life. Whenever he receives a work from a distinguished author he is quite likely to refer to this proposed work of his as not an ideal or theoretical thing but one of great practical utility; somewhat conscious of his own infirmities, he thought he might atone for them by at least suggesting to others how they might improve in the Art of Virtue. 148 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. On the 10th of May, 1762. Hume, writing to Franklin from Edinburgh on a device for protecting houses from stroke by lightning, says: I thought it proper to convoy to yon these two ideas of so ingenious a man, that you might adopt them if they appear to you well founded. I am very sorry that you intend soon to leave us; I am sure America has sent us many good things, gold, silver, sugar, tobacco, indigo, etc., but you are the first philosopher, and indeed the first great man of letters for whom we are beholden to her. This letter is evidence of the sympathy between Hume and Franklin, 1 who in reply nine days later regretted leaving a country " in which I have received so much friendship, and friends whose conversation has been so agreeable and so improving to me." Public events soon withdrew Franklin from his scientific studies and he was concerned with the measures of Parliament. In his letter to Charles Thompson of July 11, 1765, he says: Depend upon it, my good neighbor, I took every step in my power to prevent the passing of the Stamp Act. Nobody could be more concerned and interested than myself to oppose it sincerely and heartily, but the tide w*as too strong against us. The nation vfas provoked by American claims to independence, i. e., independent of local taxation by Parliament, and all parties joined in resolving by this act to settle the point. That we could not do. But since it is down, my friend, and it may be long before it rises again, let us make as good a night of it as we can; we may still light candles; frugality and industry will go a great way towards indemnifying us. Idleness and pride tax with a heavier hand than kings; if we can get rid of the former, we may easily bear the latter. It was a favorite idea of Franklin's that many of the ills incident to bad government were less than the ills which people voluntarily suffer from idleness and pride, and he is constantly applying the formula ot his moral algebra to the solution of some practical question of the times. It was on the 3d of February, 1766, that Dr. Franklin was examined at the bar of the House of Commons; that long, severe, and exhaustive examination by friends and enemies is the clearest account which we have of the relations between England and the American colonies at that time. Franklin's practical knowledge of America, due to his ex- perience as deputy postmaster of the colonies, and his wise observations during his official journeys in the colonies, equipped him to be the ad vocate of the rights of the Americans. For the first time the British Parliament heard a truthful account of America. I can only refer to this examination as an illustration of all that we have said of Franklin's method of conveying knowledge. This examination was the most im- portant Socratic dialogue in which Franklin ever engaged. He care- fully distinguishes between the right of the colonial assemblies to levy local or internal taxes and the right of Parliament to levy an external 'Perhaps m, 1,. tt-r summary of Franklin can be made than Knight's remark about Hume,: " Kvi-n in tin- sentimental day- of Imyliood, hia estimates of men and things were, based, with scarcely an exception, upon utilih/. He was essentially matter-of- fact from the first, and he remained un ideal 1o the last. An acute observer, one of the keenest and cleverest of critics, he was never known to have been carried away by any fervor for what was above and beyond himself. Knight's Life of Hume, p. 8. FRANKLIN AND TUT. I'll YSI<>< li.VI >. 149 tax or a duty; lie contending that then- was not a single article imported into the northern colonies but wha! t hey roiiM cither do without .,i make themselves, that \vitli industry and good management they could very well supply themselves with all they wanted, it would not take , t long- time to establish manufactures among them, and it was his opinion that before their old clothes were worn out they would have new ones of their own making. The whole examination shows that in Franklin's opinion the Americans were prepared to be self-supporting, and it i- interesting as formulating the principal points which were afterwards used by Adam Smith in his Wealth of Nations as illustrations of his economic theories respecting new countries. Meanwhile the influence of Hume, Voltaire, Turgot, and Quesnay and of others who had worked out in their philosophy a scheme for the regeneration of mankind, was rapidly precipitating the revolutions of 1770 in America and of 1787 in France. It will always be a matter of speculation to what extent Hume and Adam Smith and Frankhn by their philosophy contributed to hastening these stupendous changes. I can only refer to them and leave to others the elaboration of this interesting subject. Among the brilliant thinkers of the eighteenth century were a num- ber of men now known as the physiocrats, from the general title given in 1768 to the first volume of Quesnay's collected works, published by his disciple, Dupout de Nemours. The physiocrats sought a universal exposition of the wants of man and how these wants should be met in the natural constitution and the natural order of human society. Gov- ernment should be according to the nature of things; the world is gov- erened by immutable physical and moral laws; it is for man, an intelli gent and free being, to discover them and to obey them or to violate them for his own good or evil; the end assigned to the exercise of his intellectual and physical powers is the appropriation of matter for the satisfaction of his wants and the improvement of his condition, and to the general accomplishment of this task conformably to the idea of the just, which is the correlative of the idea of the useful. Man forms an idea of justice and utility, both individual and social, through the no- tions of duty and right which his nature reveals to him and which teach him that it is contrary to his good and the general welfare to seek his own advantage in a damage done to others. This idea enter- ing the minds of individuals and peoples in proportion to the increase of enlightenment and the advance of civilization, they naturally pro- duce feelings of fraternity among men and peace among jn-oples. The chief manifestations of justice are liberty and prosperity; that is to say, the right of each one to do that which shall in no way concern the gen- eral welfare, and to use at his pleasure the things which he posses>< -. the acquirement of which is conformable to the nature of things and to the general utility, since without liberty and property there would have been no civilization and a very much smaller amount of good at the 150 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. disposition of man. Liberty and property spring, then, from the nature of man, and arc rights so essential that laws oragreements among men should be limited to recogni/ing them, to formulating them, to saving them. Governments have no mission but to protect 11 iese two rights which, with a correct understanding of things, embrace all the material and moral wants of society. To say that liberty and property are essential rights, is to say that they are in harmony with the general interest of the species; that is to say, that with them land is more fer- tile and the industry of man in its manifestations more productive, and the development of all his moral, intellectual, scientific, and artistic aptitudes swifter; they are in the field of the good and beautiful and just and the useful; that is to say, through them man best gathers the fruit of his own eiforts and that he is not at least the victim of the arbi- trary laws of his fellow men. As the physiocrats were utilitarians, 1 Franklin, whose visit to France occurred at the time when physiocraty was in fashion / became a disciple of Quesnay. Quesnay's notion that "the happiness of the majority de- pends much less upon the mechanism of governmental forms than on the development of human industry, and that it is impossible to discuss politics rationally without having previously acquired a knowledge of the economy of society" was exactly after Franklin's. Numerous ({no- tations from Franklin's works, both before and after 1708, would prove this. With Adam Smith the physiocrats combated the mercantile theory which made wealth to consist only in the precious metals, and which exaggerated the advantages of foreign commerce; they combated, also, the infatuation for the manufacturing system; Franklin's ideas of economy were founded upon an agricultural basis, for he knew America, and America was then agricultural. The theory of the phys- iocrats that agriculture was the true basis of all government doubtless appealed to Franklin. In his letter of July 28, 1768, to Dnpont de Nemours, he acknowledges The most acceptable gift of your " Physiocratie " (Origine fct Progres d'une science nouvelle), which I have read with great pleasure, :mcl received from it a great deal of instruction. There is so much freedom from local and national prejudices and partialities, HO much lienevolence to mankind in general, so much goodness mixed with the wisdom in the principles of your new philosophy, that I :im perfectly charmed \vith them and wish I could have stayed in France for some time to have studied in your school, that T might, liy conversing with its founders, have made myself quite a master of that philosophy. I had, before I went into your country, '-'.ii some letters of v ours to Dr. Templeman that gave me a high opinion of tin- doctrines you are engaged in cultivating, and of your personal talents and abili- tie-, which made me greatly desirous of seeing yon. Since I had not that good fortune, the next best thing is that which yon ave so crood ;I H to oiler me your cor- respondence which I shall ever highly value and endeavor to cultivate with all the diligence I am capable of. I am sorry to find that that wisdom which sees the welfare of the parts in the prosperity of the whole seems yet not to be known in this country (England). * It is from your philosophy only that the maxims 1 See Art. Physiocrats, by John Gamier Lalor, Vol. in. ' FRANKLIN'S IDEAS IN EDUCATION. i;,l of the contrary and more happy conduct arc to he ., United States Bureau of Education, Circular of Information No. 1, 1888, pp. 21-30, 49-51. Washington, Government Printing Office, 1888. 3 For the doctrines of the physiocrats see Quesuay's Tableau Econoinii|iir. 17;">8, L'Ami des Homines, 6 vols., 1755-1760; Turgot's Reflexions snr la formation . t la Destruction des Richesses. Adam Smith also has an instructive chapter on the physiocrats. 152 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. determination accordingly. And though the weight of reasons can not be taken with the. precision of algebraic quantities, yet "when each is thus considered sepa- rately and comparatively and the whole lies before me I think I can judge better and am less liable to make a rash step: and in fact I have found great advantage from this kind of equation in what may be called moral or prudential algebra. This method of arriving: at a conclusion could be suggested oiily by a man like Franklin, who based bis notions upon comparison of conflict- ing claims, and whose powers in forming such conclusions were so great that they equipped him for a large service of diplomacy. Through- out his schemes for the education of youth he emphasizes the value of comparison as an element in education, and perhaps no more curious or pertinent illustration can be found of his fondness for this exercise than in his prudential algebra. Franklin's sympathy with mankind and his love of books made him a prolific writer, and his numerous short articles, not wholly unlike his old models in the Spectator, accumulated rapidly after 1770, but it should not be imagined that these apparently easy contributions for the pleasure of his friends were not the result of great labor. The ex- istence of several revisions of the original copy attest the labor with which the final form was reached, and some of these copies are so freely interlined as to be almost illegible. The perfection of the style of many of these bagatelles led to their introduction into the readers in our schools, and by a singular destiny Franklin contributed to the educa- tion of youth many articles such as, in his Plan for an English School, he advises should be read by children. Many of these short stories have become English classics. One of the few references in Franklin's writings to civil service is found in his letter to Mr. Timothy, November 3, 1772, in which he says: I am sorry you talk of leaving off yonr business with the view of getting eome post (that is, public office); it is so difficult a matter to obtain anything of the kind that I think to leave a good trade in hopes of an office is quitting a certainty for an uncertainty and losing substance for shadow. I have known so many here (London) dangling and soliciting years for places until they were reduced to the lowest pov- erty and distress, that I can not but pity a man who begins to turn his thoughts that way. The proverb says, " He who has a trade has a feast of profit and honor because he does not hold it during another man's pleasure and it affords him honest subsist- ence with independence.'' I hope, therefore, you will alter your mind and go on with your business. This advice about office-seeking has been lost upon many Americans. Franklin's respect for the trades is well known; he never forgot that he had been an apprentice, and always found satisfaction in describing himself MS a printer. His utilitarian ideas found illustration in the im- provement of common utensils and instruments in daily use. For in- stance, in his letter of April 11, 177.'>, to William Dean, he knows of new worth communicating from London I'nless, perhaps, the new art of making carriage wheels; the felloes of one piece bent into a circle, and surrounded with a hoop of iron, the whole very light and strong, there being no erossgrain in tin- \s ..... 1; it is also a great saving of timber. FRANKLIN'S IDF.AS IN EIHVATION. i;,:; The wood is first steamed in the vapor Horn lioiling water and tln-n bent )v a forci- ble nnn-hine. I have seen pieces of wood so hcnt of I! in, lies wide and :il tin, k into a circle of I feet diameter. These for duration can only lie , \,,-, <],-, 1 by your own iron wheels; pray, have you completed that ingenious invention .' In this letter, also, lie says: I have completed my stove, in which the smoke of the coal is all turned into Came and operates as fuel in heating the room. I have used it all this winter and find it answers even beyond my expectations. I propose to print a little description of it* use aud construction and shall send you a copy. All of this he did soon after. He was the first to devise the smoke- consuming stove, the principle of which has been largely applied in the construction of railroad locomotives, in city factories, and should be much more widely applied. "The doctrines of life and death in general are yet but little under- stood," he writes to M. Dubourg, and proceeds to describe a toad that long contained in a stone came to life. The curious revival of the toad led Franklin to remark on an instance of common flies preserved in a manner somewhat similar: They had been drowned in Madeira wine apparently about the time it was bottlea in Virginia to be sent later to London. At the opening of one of the bottles at the house of a friend where I then was, three drowned flies fell into the first glass that was filled. Having heard it remarked that drowned flies were capable of being revived by being placed in the rays of the sun, I proposed making an experiment with these. They were, therefore, exposed to the sun upon a sieve, which had been employed to strain them out of the wine. In less than three hours two of them began by degrees to recover life. They commenced by some convulsive motions of the thighs, and at length they raised themselves upon their legs, wiped their eyes with their fore feet, beat aud brushed their wings with their hind feet, aud BOOU after began to fly, finding themselves in Old England, without knowing how they came thither. The third continued lifeless till sunset, then, losing all hopes of him, he was thrown away. This experiment was not lost on Franklin; lie adds: I wish it wre possible, from this instance, to invent a method of embalming drowned persons in such a manner that they may be recalled to life at any period however distant; for, having a very urgent desire to see and observe the state of America a hundred years hence, 1 should prefer to any ordinary death the being immersed in a cask of Madeira wine, Avith a few friends, until that time, to he then recalled to life by the solar warmth of my dear country. But since, in all proba- bility, we live in an age too early aud too near the infancy of science to hope to see such au art brought, in our time, to its perfection, I must for the present content myself with the treat, which you are so kind as to promise, of the resurrection of a fowl or a turkey cock. In 1773 appeared his rules for reducing a great empire to a small one, presented to a late minister, as is supposed, Lord Hillsboro. In this unique article Franklin illustrated his sagacity in addressing the public in order to reach the ministry. Though the paper has lost much of its point by the lapse of time, it holds its place in the first rank of American political satires. It eventually a< <-ally more frequently as more cheerfully attend divine service if they were not detained so long at any one time. Also many well-disposed trades- men, shopkeepers, artificers, and others, whose habitations are not remote from churches might come, and would more frequently, at least lind lime to attend divine ice on oth'-r th;in Sundays if tlie prayers were reduced to a much narrower com paas. The preface continues somewhat elaborately defending the changes which have, been made, but the abridgment attracted "little notice," and "the book became \\aste paper." The whole purpose of the abridg- ment was in keeping with Franklin's utilitarian ideas. On the 21st of July, 1775, Franklin brought forward a plan for the union of the Colonies, called " Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union proposed in General Congress." They were the first of the kind, FRANKLIN'S IDEAS IN EDUCATION. i:..~. but there is no evidence from the journals or from rcl'ci cnct-s to i In a committee or generally considered. It was not until nearly si\ \. had passed that similar articles 1 were adopted by the requisite number of States. The second article is of interest, as it contains the elements afterwards united in the Preamble to the National Constitution. Art. II. The said united colonies hereby severally enter into a firm league of friend- ship with each other, binding on themselves and their posterity, for their common defense against their enemies; for the security of their liberties and properties; the safety of their persons and families, and their mutual and general welfare. The articles are more like those adopted under the title of "Articles of Confederation of 1777" than the National Constitution of ten years later, but they suggest Franklin's ideas of government, the applica- tion of his iitilitarian philosophy and the general democratic basis on which he would found government. Franklin conceived that a nation is permanent; that it has the power of readjusting itself to new conditions; this is the national idea. Of this idea Franklin was the northern exponent. He anticipated Lincoln in that he would found all civil institutions upon the essential interests of the people; Franklin bore the same relation to the colonies in 177* , which Lincoln bore to the new Union in 1865; each opened a book iu American history. The faith which Franklin had in the power of Un- people to adjust themselves to new conditions is repeatedly illustrated in his writings. In a characteristic article, entitled "A Petition of the Left Hand to those who have the Superinteudency of Education," written in 1779, Franklin made a plea for the equal training of the hands. He thought that children should be taught to use either hand with facility, and that the customary preference given to the right hand limited not only the usefulness of the left, but impeded the skill of the individual in the many accomplishments of life. He anticipated Froebel in his idea of the free industrial training of the child and in the even development of all the functions and organs of the body. Had international law not existed prior to the time of Franklin, In- would have originated a system; his practical mind sought to amelior- ate the condition of mankind. In a letter from Passy, May 30, 1780, he says : All the internal states of Europe seem at present disposed to change what they have before deemed the law of nations, to wit: That an enemy's property may b taken wherever found, and to establish the rule that free ships make free goods. This nil -5 is itself so reasonable and of a nature to be so beneficial to mankind that I can not but wish it may become general, and I make no doubt but that the Con- gress will agree to it in as full an extent as France and Spain. This doctrine that free ships make free goods was a favorite one with Franklin, and is frequently mentioned by him. 1 See the text of the articles, Bigelow, Vol. V, p. 548. 156 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. On the oth of June following he writes to Charles NY. F. Dumas: I approve much of the principles of the confederacy of the neutral powers, and am not only for respecting the ships as the house of a friend, though containing the goods of an enemy, hut I even wish, for the sake of humanity, that the law of na- tions may be further improved hy determining that even in time of war all those kinds of people who are employed in procuring subsistence for the species, or in ex- changing the necessaries or conveniences of life, which are for the common benefit of mankind, such as husbandmen on their lands, fishermen in their barks, and traders in unarmed vessels, shall be permitted to prosecute their several innocent and useful employments without interruption or molestation, and nothing taken from them, even when wanted by the enemy, but on paying a fair price for the same. 1 Frauklin incorporated this idea in the last diplomatic act of his life the treaty with Prussia which was so highly commended- by Wash- ington. On the loth of May, 1781, in his letter to Samuel Cooper, expressing sentiments on the adoption of the new constitution of Massachusetts, 2 he again illustrates his faith in the power of the people to adjust them- selves to new conditions: It gives me great pleasure to learn that your new* constitution is at length settled with so great a degree of unanimity and general satisfaction. It seems to me upon the whole an excellent one, and that if there are some parts that one might have wished a little different they are such as cotild not in the present state of things have been well obtained otherwise than they are, and if by experience found inconvenient will probably be changed hereafter. He disapproved the provision in the constitution for public taxation to maintain the clergy; did not think it right to tax Quakers and others who do not approve of the New England ecclesiastical system, and advocated that abolition of religious qualifications which was enerted in Massachusetts in 1820, and before the close of the first quar- ter of the present century had disappeared from nearly all the State constitutions. Frauklin, like Jefferson, disapproved of both property ami religious qualifications for the exercise of the franchise. Franklin's utilitarian ideas appear on every page of his writings. The custom in America of planting rows of trees along our streets, which has added a touch of beauty to our towns, had the approval of Frauklin, who said in a letter to Francis Hopkiuson of Drjember 1*4, 1 7 si' : I own I now \vi*h we had two rows of them in every one of our streets. The com- fortable shelter they would afford us when walking, from our burning summer suns, and the greater coolness of our walls and pavements, would, I conceive, in the improved health of the inhabitants, amply compensate the loss of a house now and then by lire, if such should be the consequence; but a tree is soon felled, and as axes are at hand in every neighborhood, may be down before the engines arrive. It is noticeable that an argument now common for the planting of trees, the additional beauty of the street, is not suggested by Franklin. 'John Adams' criticism on this point, p. 171. 2 The constitution of 1780, the only one of the eighteenth-century State constitu- tions now in force was amended in 1820 to abolish religious qualifications. FRA\KU\V [DBAS i\ I DI CATION. i;,7 It probably did not occur to liiin. Seldom indeed does I,,- advocate the beautiful when tin- utilitarian is also ;in argument, lie was >ome\\|,.it of a Philistine, in his notions, and his constant repetition of the useful and the beneficial resolves his \vhole scheme of education into abroad system, which, though promoting the, general welfare, would be none the less strong if embellished with an element of the beautiful. To Frankliu the cool ing shade of the tree and the consequent improved health of the inhabitants was the chief reason for planting the ti along our streets, but we occasionally yearn in Franklin's writings for a few words that would intimate an occasional appreciation of a thing that was not merely an industrial improvement or an instrument for material comfort. Franklin was deficient in the sense of the beautiful and throughout his scheme for the education of children, and in what- soever intimations of his ideas of education there may be scattered through his works, we can gather little that encourages the study of art for art's sake. He was fond of music and was a discriminating listener. We should not forget that the American colonies were meagerly sup- plied with beautiful things, that their amusements were somewhat rude, and they had few notions of the artistic in education. Franklin, too, was born in New England, and theplain, substantial comforts of his Ne\y England home always satisfied his ideals of life. As he knew nothing of the artistic in his own training and education, he made no provision for it in the education of others. We may say, then, that in the whole effort of American education to teach the beautiful in art, music, paint- ing, and drawing we have an education which was not begun by Frank- lin. But in our industrial schools, our technical schools, our manual training schools, and our means for teaching and acquiring skill in the applied arts we have the consummation of Franklin's most cherished notions in education. From Bayne's journal we have a brief but interesting account of Franklin's conversation on a number of important matters. John Bayne, an intimate friend of Sir Samuel Kommilly, visited Franklin at Passy in August, 1783. It is of this visit that Eommily wrote in his journal : Of all the celebrated persons whom in my life I have chanced to see, Dr. Franklin, both from his appearance and his conversation, seemed to me the most rnnarkaMe, The conversation on American politics led Dr. Franklin to express his belief in universal suffrage. He said he thought that "the all of one man was as dear to him as the all of another;" though he excluded from participation in the franchise minors, servants, and others liable to undue influence. We should not forget that at this time religious and property qualifications obtained in nearly all the American State-;, and the abolition of these qualifications did not come until Franklin had been dead fifty years. Franklin's love of mankind led him to advo- cate manhood suffrage, and he stands with the Jeffersonian school, in this respect.. In this conversation Franklin advanced a favorite notion of his that 158 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. he inclined ''to doubt of the necessity of having teachers or ministers for the express purpose of instructing the people in their religious duties," and approved of the system among the Quakers, who have no preach- ers, their mode of instruction encouraging all to participate in the meeting who think themselves qualified to contribute to the welfare of their neighbors. . He thought that the general peace of Europe might be secured if the powers would " refer all disputes between each other to some third person or set of men or power. Other nations, seeing the advantage of tliis, would gradually accede, and perhaps in one hundred and fifty or two hundred years all Europe would be included." His mind was so universal in its consideration of the wants of mankind and he was so accustomed to consider matters of international concern that he arrived at the solution of international difficulties arbitration gen- erations before it was actually employed. The humane and peaceful method of arriving at a judgment in disputes between nations, such as has been witnessed in the settlement of the Alabama claims, conforms with Franklin's views expressed eighty-eight years before. This antici- pation of the condition of international affairs of the future suggests jRgain that Franklin would have contributed to the world a system of international law had none existed before his day. Amidst the cares of public office his mind turned to the scenes of his boyhood, and there is a delightful touch of nature in his expression of his feelings concerning his native place, expressed in a letter to Samuel Mather, written at Passy, May 12, 1784: I long much to see my native place and to lay my bones there. I left it in 1723; I visited it in 1733, 1743, 1753, 1763. In 1773 I was in England; in 1775 I had a sight of it, but could not enter it, being in the possession of the enemy. I had hoped to have been there in 1783, but could not obtain my dismission from this employment here, and now I fear I shall never have that happiness. My best wishes, however, attend my dear country: Elo perpetual It is now blessed with an excellent con- stitution. May it last forever. Few indeed of New England birth are there who do not feel with Franklin a strong desire at times to revisit their native place. The wish of Franklin that the constitution of his native place might be perpetual seems in process of fulfillment, for the constitution of 1780, which Franklin knew, remains the supreme law of Massachusetts. The estimate which we have placed upon the work of Franklin is quite like that which his contemporaries placed upon that work. On the 26th of July, 1784, the Count de Campomanes, writing from Madrid, acknowledged through Mr. Camichael, a letter from Franklin and a collection of his miscellaneous writings. All these writings [continued he] exhibit proofs of tlifir having proceeded from a statesman t-ndowed with Ton-sight and vigilant for the best interests of his country, according to the political combinations and systems of government under which they were composed; and they manifest, at the same time, founded on prin ciples and calculations carried to as high a degree of demonstration as the vicissi- FRANKLIN'S IDEAS IN EDUCATION. 159 ttule and inconsistency of the various systems adopted fur tin- -M\ r-i urn. nt ..f men will admit. Your views and reflections show the solidity and permanence of your principles, whether considered as applicable to tln< American colonies in their t<>r mer condition, or in that of independent States. In both cases your efforts 1 been directed to the general good, without running into tli<.- extremes which an- apt to lead astray weak minds in so long and arduous a contest, as we have seen in America, for the establishment of a new State, consisting of thirteen provinces undT different constitutions, and, at last, united in a bond of union for the mutual bene- fit of each other. Nature, which you so profoundly studied, is indebted to you for investigating and explaining phenomena which wise men had not before been able to understand; and the great American philosopher, at the same time he di*. . these phenomena, suggests useful methods for guarding men against their dangers. Franklin was fond of suggesting the future greatness of AIIKM-MM : its increasing population, its acquisition of territory, and the spread of the English language not only throughout America, but throughout the world. In a letter to William Strahan, Passy, August 19, 1784, he touches on this: By the way, the rapid growth and extension of the English language in America must become greatly advantageous to the booksellers and holders of copyright in England. A vast audience is assembling there for English authors, ancient, presen t . and future, our people doubling every twenty years ; and this will demand large and of course profitable impressions of your most valuable books. I would, therefore, if I possessed such rights, entail them, if such a thing bo practicable, upon my pos- terity; for their worth will be continually augmenting. This is a prophecy of the circulation of Macaulay, Thackeray, Dickens, Tennyson, and other writers who have found their largest audiences in America. The recent perfection of the international copyright tends to the realization of Franklin's suggestion of "entailing" such rights to the advantage of the posterity of English writers. In the same letter he says : The subject, however, leads me to another thought, which is that you do wrong to discourage the emigration of Englishmen to America. In my piece on population I have proved, I think, that emigration does not diminish, but multiplies a nation. You will not have fewer at home for those that go abroad, and as every man who comes among us and takes up a piece of land becomes a citizen, and by our Consti- tution has a voice in elections and a share in the Government of the country, why should you be against acquiring by this fair means a repossession of it, and leave it to be taken by foreigners of all nations and languages, who by their numbers may drown and stifle the English, which otherwise would probably become in the course of two centuries the most extensive language in the world, the Spanish only .-xcepted f It ia a fact that the Irish emigrants and their children are now in possession of the Government of Pennsylvania by their majority in the Assembly, as well us of a great part of the territory, and I remember well the first ship that brought any of them over. The present agitation of the question of immigration, based upon the danger to American institutions of stifling their Anglo-Saxon chai ter, suggests how true was Franklin's anticipation. It is also true that the occupation of Central and South America by Spain madi* t In- Spanish language one of the imperial languages of the world, and that Spanish and English, a century after Franklin wrote this letter, are the two 160 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. most extefnsive languages in the new world. These wise judgments of Franklin were based upon intuition, rather than upon rea son, for many of the elements which would enter into such a conclusion were beyond the view of Franklin. We should not forget that facilities for acquiring the almost innumerable data which lead to such conclusions were greatly limited in his time, and the comprehensive character of h(s mental opera- tions becomes the more remarkable when we reflect upon the limitations under which such operations proceeded. As a case in point, we might refer to Mr. Bryce's American Common wealth, a remarkable book, pro- duced by a scholarly and sympathizing Englishman, whose intuitions equipped him to describe American institutions, but whose reasons for t he character of our institutions are frequently defective. There must be in Franklin's philosophy a dependence upon the intuitions rather than a scheme for the enlargement of the reasoning powers; he ob- served, he felt, he knew; speculation attracted him but little, and he judged of the utilities almost wholly by intuition. After the war it was realized by thoughtful Americans that the Arti- cles of Confederation were defective, and that a National Constitution was necessary. I can not follow minutely the thoughts and the work of Franklin for the National Constitution, but there are several passages in his writings which illustrate his views. Writing to George Whate- ley, from Passy, May 23, 1785, he says : Our Constitution seems not to be well understood with you. If the Congress were a permanent body, there would be more reason in being jealous of giving it powers. But its members are chosen annually; nan not be chosen more than three years successively, nor more than three years in seven; and any of thorn maybe recalled at any time, whenever their constituents shall be dissatisfied with their conduct. They are of the people, and return again to mix with the people, having no more durable preeminence than the different grains of sand in an hourglass. Such an assembly can not easily become dangerous to liberty. They are the serv- ants of the people, sent together to do tho people's business, and promote the pub- lic welfare; their powers must be sufficient, or their duties can not be performed. He did not value highly the mere forms of government, and his keen recognition of the essential importance of administration, rather than elaborate statements of the theory of government, is repeatedly set forth from this time on. Destined himself to participate in the making of the National Constitution, it is interesting to follow the communica- tion of his own ideas, gained through his long and useful public life. I think I interpret him correctly when I say that he valued a useful administration of government more highly than a good form of govern- ment badly administered. 1 Perhaps Franklin displays the greatness of his practical judgment nowhere more instructively than in his ap- preciation of the importance of administration of government. The eighteenth century produced many eminent men who contributed to 'See his last speech in the convent ion of 17-S7, in which he says: "I think a gen- eral government necessary tor us, and there is no form of government but what may be a blessing to the people if well administered." P. 13, supra. FRANKLINS IDEAS IN KIM ( .VI ION. our knowledge of the theory of government, but it produced very E IIHMI who were able to set forth the principles by which government should be administered. In this respect Franklin stands almost alone, perhaps with the exception of Alexander Hamilton, quite alone. Each of these eminent men foresaw the great problem of our century, tin- problem of the administration of government. We no longer deb;i as did the Junto a hundred and fifty years ago, the theoretical abstrac- tions of government, but our practical affairs are administrative in their nature, and Franklin illustrates the perennial freshness of his mind and its modern character in his emphasis of the importance of the administration of affairs. He was as much a citizen of to-day as one of us. Perhaps in further illustration of the modern character of his mind I might refer again, in passing, to his opinions regarding the inclusion of Canada with the thirteen colonies in the treaty of 1783. For many years he had advocated the united interests of the thirteen colonies, and he continued this advocacy through life. Had he not been pros- trated by a sudden attack of the gout, and had his colleagues possessed his clear insight into the future, without doubt the United States would now include Canada. In 1785 he returned to America and was greeted by the Assembly of Pennsylvania as "a person who was so greatly instrumental informing its free constitution." 1 He was also welcomed in a formal address by the Provost, Vice-Provost, and Professors of the University.* The welcome of the University is evidence of the profound interest which Franklin took in education, and of the recognition of his serv- ices to education in Pennsylvania. As the weakness of the Confederation disclosed itself, suggestions for a " more perfect union " became frequent from the eminent men of the country. In writing to his beloved friend, Dr. Shipley, Bishop of St. Asaph, February 24, 1786, Franklin says: You seem desirous of knowing what progress we are making here iu improving our government. We are, I think, in the right road rif improvement, for we are making experiments. I do not oppose all that seem wrong, for the multitude are more effectually set right by experience than kept from going wrong ly reasoning with them. And I think we are daily more and more enlightened, so that I h;ve no doubt of our obtaining in a few years as much public felicity as good government is capable of affording. Yonr newspapers are filled with firfition* .1- , ..mitsof ananhy, confusion, distresses, and miseries we are. supposed to b involved in. as conse- quences of the Revolution; and the few remaining friends of the old government among us take, pains to magnify every little inconvenience a change in the course of commerce may have occasioned. Franklin's calm remark at a time when the Confederation \\ as greatly in danger by such commotions as Shay's Rebellion, that " we are mak- ing experiments, 1 ' recalls Jefferson's opinion of that insurrection : 1 See the address of the Assembly, Bigelow, Vol. IX, p. 248. * See p. 110. 118011 162 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. Commotions otter nothing threatening; they aro a proof that the people have lib- erty enough, and I could not wish them less than they have. It' the happiness of the mass iif the people can be secun d by the occasional expense of a little temper now and then, or even of a little blood, it will be a precious purchase. To punish these errors too severely would be to suppress the only safeguard of the public liberty. A little rebellion now and then is a good thing. ,* * * An observation of this truth should render honest republican governors so mild in their punishment of re- bellions as not to discourage them too much. It is a medicine necessary for the sound health of government. Thus I calculate an insurrection in one of the thirteen States in the course of eleven years * * * amounts to one in any particular State in one hundred and forty-seven years, say a century and a half. This would not be near as many as have happened in any prior government that has ever existed; so that we shall have the difference between a light and a heavy government as clear gain. Can history produce a history of a rebellion so honorably conducted * * God forbid that we should ever be twenty years without such a rebellion What signifies a few lives lost in a century or two? The tree of liberty must be refreshed from time to time with the blood of patriots and tyrants. It is its natural manure. Franklin wrote to Dr. Shipley before Shay's Rebellion; Jefferson writes after it. The different view which each takes of that most threat- ening uprising illustrates quite perfectly the difference between the two men in their opinions of government. It is in this letter to Dr. Shipley that Franklin, in acknowledging the receipt of Paley's Moral Philosophy, says: The new book you gave me * * * I think generally well written and likely to do good; though the reading time of most people is of late so taken up with news- papers and little, periodical pamphlets, that few nowadays venture to attempt read- ing a i|iiarto volume. I have admired to see that, in thelast century, a folio, Bur- ton on Melancholy," went through six editions in about twenty years. We have, I believe, more renders now. but not of such large books. 1 Franklin anticipated the days of the modern newspaper, and of little books, compendious, comprehensive, and entertaining. It will be re- membered that he advocated giving " little books with gilt edges and red covers " as prizes to the children in his English school. In the same letter he speaks of death: This I shall submit to with less regret, as, having seen during a long life a good deal of this world, I feel a growing curiosity to be acquainted with some other; and ran cheerfully, with filial confidence, resign my spirit to the conduct of that great and good I'arent of mankind who created it, and who has so graciously protected and prospered me from my birth to the present hour. Having largely exhausted the resources of this world he was desirous of experimenting in another, and without doubt he desired no other immortality than the continuation of the life which he had lived in this world, attaining moral perfection, observing phenomena, and registering his conclusions concerning them, and contributing as far as possible to the general welfare of the inhabitants of another world. 'For his letter at the time to the Duke de la Rochefoucauld, April 15, 1787, see Bigelow, Vol. IX, p. 368. FRANKLIN'S IDEAS IN LI >rr \TJON. While Franklin's mind turned to (lie mvMenes ,. v ,. r u j,i, nil|0> j tv | H . found congenial employment in some of tin- practical inter, .u ,,f t],j s world. On the 8th of the following April he acknowledges in a let in- to his sister the receipt of a box of soap The substance of which appears to be very good, but itn consistent h.id proh.ihly been affected by the frost, for unless very tenderly ;md cautiously handled, the cakes would crumble into little pieces bet ween one's tinkers. However, havin;: an opportunity of sending some to my friends in France, who much admired what I had of you formerly, I with much difficulty took out twenty-two cakes, which I wrapped separately in spongy paper, hoping that, as they dried, they might eonsoli- date, and the infinite number of little > cracks that appeared in tiicm be elo.-ed .md the parts again united, and so I sent them away in ft small box. The attention which lie gives to his sister's imperfect soap su-_ that he was still the son of the tallow chandler, and kindly regardful of the practical concerns of his beloved sister, for he concludes his letter : Draw upon me for the expense of the soap, and your hill shall lie paid on sight. It was in the year 1786 that the people who had crossed over the mountains and settled in the country now called Tennessee, gave in their new commonwealth the name of Franklin. The name of the new country for a few years was Franklin or Frankland, and it is an evi- dence of the affection in which Dr. Franklin was held by his country- men, who have given his name to many counties, towns, and public in- stitutions. 1 It was in 1780 that the celebrated letter to Thomas Paine was writ ten, in which Franklin advises him that should he publish his Age of Kea- son, whose reasons were subtle and might prevail with some readers but would not succeed in changing the general sentiments of mankind, and the consequence of printing the piece would be that a great deal of odium would be drawn upon its author and no one would be bene- fited: "He that spits against the wind, spits in his own face." 3 The correspondence of the closing years of Franklin's lite abounds in references to religious matters and illustrates the public interest that was taken in Franklin's own religious views. He was elected in 1787 a delegate to the convention which revised the old Confederation and proposed a better Constitution; but he said that though he was to be one in that business he doubted whether his mal- ady would permit him giving constant attention. There is evidence that he was present at the meetings of the convention except on the 'According to the census of 1890 there wore in the I'nited States TW.MM . f.-nr Franklin counties, thirty-three towns called Franklin, one Franklin City, one Frank- lin Corners, one Franklin Cross Roads, one Franklindale. one Franklin Depot, one Franklin Falls, two Franklin Furnaces, one Franklin Forks, on.- Franklin (Jrovc, ouo Franklin iron Works, two Franklin Mills. < ne Franklin's Mills, two Franklin Parks, one Franklin Square, two Franklin Matious, four Fraukliutons, one Frank- lintown, six Franklinvilles, and one Frankland. "See letter of June 15, 1786, Bigelow IX, p. 318. Also April 9, 1787, idem, p. 36L 164 THE UNIVERSITY OK I'KNNSYLVANIA. occasion of the opening of Franklin and Marshall College. His malady prevented him frequently from walking, but he struggled against the disease and took as much exercise as possible. He was afterwards able to say in a letter to his sister, September 20. 1787: The convention finished the 17th instant. I attended the business of it five hours in every day from the beginning, which is something more than four months. You may judge from thence that my health continues; some tell me I look better, and they suppose the daily exercise of going and returning from the Statehouse has done ine good. This reference to his health and of his going and returning from the Statehouse is the best evidjence we have of the place where the Con- stitution of the United States was made. 1 His work in the Convention was important, and his correspondence during the time is interesting. To Jefferson he wrote, April 19, 1787 : Our Federal Constitution is generally thought defective, and a convention, first proposed by Virginia, and since recommended by Congress, is to assemble here next month, to revise it and propose amendments. The delegates generally appointed, as far as I have heard of them, are men of character for prudence and ability, so that I hope good from their meeting. Indeed, if it does not do good it must do harm, as it will show that we have not wisdom enough among us to govern ourselves; and will strengthen the opinion of some political writers" that popular governments can not long support themselves. I can not speak in detail of Franklin's services in the Convention; th-y were not inferior in importance to any of his associates. The character of his suggestions might be anticipated from the experience of his life; he sought to harmonize the differences between the States, and he applied to the problem before the Convention the principles worked out in his diplomatic experience. His opinions were that each State should have equal suffrage, which should be in proportion to the sums actually contributed by the respective States to the National Treasury from taxes or internal excise in the States. Franklin's pre- dominant idea was equality of representation; his object was to pro- mote the general welfare by the maintenance of such equality, which was secured by the double system of representation in the Senate and the House of Representatives. The forming of it (the Constitution) so as to aeconmiodate all tin- ditVeivnt inter- ests and views was a difficult task; and, perhaps, after all, it may TM>( lie received with the same unanimity in the different Stairs 1 hat the ( 'onveni ion has ;;i veu an ex ample of in delivering it out for their consideration. We have done our best and it must take its chances. This sentiment illustrates Franklin's opinion that a union is perma- nent, as it has the power of readjusting itself to the conditions. This, as \ve have said, is the National idea, and Franklin is the chief north- ern type of the exposition of this idea in the eighteenth century. Franklin's influence in the Convention won the general signature to the Constitution at last: the speech which he delivered on that occa 'The old Statehouse on Chestnut street, below Sixth street, Philadelphia. FRANKLIN'S IDEAS i.\ KIM-CATION. 105 sion we have already quoted. 1 We know that tin- Convention frequently inharmonious, and there were, serious thivatenings ol tin- permanent interruption of its proceedings; it was in recognition of tin- danger of such a calamity that Franklin made liis celebrated mot ion That henceforth prayers, imploring the assistance of heaven and its Mussing on our deliberations, be held in this assembly every morning before we proceed to Ku-i ness; and that one or more of the clergy of this city be requested to .ili. iat- in that service. The Convention, however, except three or four persons, tlmii", lit prayer unnecessary. It was in offering this motion that Franklin said : In this situation of this assembly, groping, us it were, hi the. dark to find politieal truth, and scarce able to distinguish it when presented to us, how 1ms it happened, sir, that we have not hitherto once thought of liiimhh applying to the Father of Lights to illuminate our understandings? In the beginning of the contest with Britain, when we were sensible of danger, wo had daily prayers in this room for the Divine protection. Our prayers, sir, were heard, and they were graciously answered. All of us who were engaged in the struggle must have observed frequent instances of a superintending Providence in our favor. To that kind Providence we owe this happy opportunity of consulting in peace on the means of establishing our future national felicity. And have we now forgotten that powerful Friend, or do we im- agine we no longer need its assistance? I have lived, sir, a long time, and the longer I live the more convincing proofs I see of this truth, that (!o V LVANIA. '!.. M. Dii])ont de ^Nemours on the Hih of .lime lie wrote characteris- tically: "But we must not expect that a new government may be formed, as a game of elie.ss may be played by a skillful hand, without a limit:'' and he proceeded to illustrate his favorite idea that experi- em -e would determine the true course of the new government. As Franklin aged he became somewhat optimistical, an unusual thing with an aged person, and perhaps gave the fullest expression to his optimism in a letter to M. Le Veillard, June 8, 1788: Tliank God, tin- world is growing wiser and wiser; ;md as by degrees men are convinced of the folly of wars for religion, for dominion, or for commerce they will be happier and happier. Though over 80 years of age he continued to take interest in all the ali'airs of mankind, and the writings of his closing years manifest no decay of his mental powers. Some of his most perfect papers, in point of style and comprehension of treatment, were written in the last two years of his life. He saw improvement and encouragement everywhere. In his pamphlet on the Internal State of America, 1788, he says: It is true that in some of the States there are parties and discords, but let us look back and ask if we were ever without them. Such will exist wherever there is liberty, and perhaps they help to preserve it. By the collision of different senti- ments sparks of truth are struck out and political light is obtained. The different factions which at present divide us aim all at tin- public good; the differences arc only about the various modes of promoting it. * Parties are therefore the common lot of humanity, and ours are by no means more mischievous or less bene- ficial than those of other countries, nations, and ages enjoying in the same degree the great Messing of political liberty. This was written when the bitterness of party feeling was more in- tense than it has ever been since in our history. Whoever has traveled [he also remarks] through the various parts of Europe and observed how small is the proportion of people in affluence or easy circumstance.*, thcre compared with those in poverty and misery; the few rich and haughty laud- lords, the multitude of poor, abject, rack rented, tithe-paying tenants and half- paiil and half-starved, ragged laborers, and vfews here the happy mediocrity that so generally prevails throughout these States where the cultivator works for him- self and supports his family in decent plenty, will, methinks, see abundant reason to bless divine I'io\ iileiice for the evident and great difference in our favor and be convinced that no nation known to us enjoys a greater share of human felicity. This optimistic view of America is characteristic of the times and probably expresses the opinion which the American people have of their country at the present time. In his paper on the 1'rospect for Immigrants to America he says: No rewards are given to encourage new settlers to come among us, whatever de- gi.<- of property they may bring with them nor any exemption from common du- ll. -. Our country otj'ers to strangers nothing but a t;ood climate, fertilesoil, whole- some air, free governments, wise laws, lilierty, a good people to live among, and a hearty welcome. Those Europeans \\lio have these or greater advantages at home would do well to stay then-. This paragraph might be epitomi/ed in saying that a man's country is where he is best off; a saying to which Franklin would doubtless .give his approval. FRANKLIN'S IDEAS IN EDUCATION. Id 7 Franklin had long been in favor of the abolition of slavers and al.oiit his closing years gathers the halo of the light which shiws from his writings on behalf of the slave. His plan for the improvement of the African race is outlined in a letter to Washington soim-what in the form of a report. First. A Committee of Inspection should superintend the morals, general conduct, and ordinary situation of free negroes to furnish them advice and instruction, pro- tection from wrongs, and other friendly offices. Second. A Committee of Guardians should place out children aud young people with suitable persons that they might during a moderate term of apprenticeship or servitude learn some trade or other business for subsistence. In forming contracts on these occasions the Committee should secure to the Society, as far as practicable, the right of guardianship over persons so bound. Third. A Committee of Education should superintend the school instruction nf the children of the free blacks; they might either influence them to attend regu- larly the schools already established or form others with this view; they should in other cases provide that the pupils might receive such learning as is necessary for their future situation in life, and especially a deep impression of the most imp' a taut and generally acknowledged moral aud religious principles. Fourth. A Committee of Employ should ^endeavor to procure constant employ- ment for those free negroes who were . able to work, as the want of this would occasion poverty, idleness, and many vicious habits. And he incorporated in this part of his plan the same notions which he had already expressed in his plan for the management of the orphan schoolhouses. That the Committee in providing employment for those qualified to take it should prevail upon the apprentices to bind them- selves for such a term of years as might compensate their masters for the expense aud trouble of their instruction and maintenance. Useful and simple manufactures, such as require but little skill, should be en tered upon as a substantial means of assisting those who were qualified to commence business for themselves. The expense incident to the prosecution of this plan was to be defrayed by a fund formed by dona- tions or subscriptions for the particular purpose. Perhaps no more interesting letter is found in the correspondence of this part of Franklin's life, than his communication to Noah Webster, December L'O, 1789, acknowledging a copy of Webster's Dissertations on the English Language. Franklin pronounced it "an excellent work," one that u will be greatly useful in turning the thoughts of our countrymen to correct writing." After commenting upon some new words that had come into the language since 1723, he says: The Latin language, long the vehicle used in distributing knowledge among the different nations of Europe, is daily more and more neglected, and one of the modern tongues, namely, the French, seems in point of universality to have supplied its place. It is spoken in all the courts of Europe, find most of the litrniti, those -v-n who do not speak it, have acquired knowledge enough of it to enable them easily to read the books that are written in it. This gives a considerable advantage to that nation; it enables its authors to inculcate and spread throughout other nations snch sentiments and opinions on important points as are most conducive to its interests, or which may contribute to its reputation by promoting the common interests of mankind It is perhaps owing to its being written in French, that Voltaire's treatise on ToleratioL has had so sudden and so great an effect on the bigotry of Europe as 168 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. almost entirely to disarm it. The general use of the French language has likewise a very advantageous effect on the prolits of the bookselling branch of commerce, it being well known that the more copies can be sold that are struck off from one com- position of types, the profits increase in a much greater proportion than they do in making a great number of pieces in any other kind of manufacture. And at present there is no capital town in Europe without a French bookseller's shop corresponding with Paris. But Franklin not only discerns the universality of the French tongue, he anticipates again the growing universality of the English : Our English bids fair to obtain the second place. The great body of excellent printed sermons in our language, and the freedom of our writings on political sub- jects, have induced a number of divines of different sects and nations, as well as gentlemen concerned in public affairs, to study it; so far, at least, as to read it. And if we were to endeavor the facilitating its progress, the study of our tongue might become much more general. Those who have employed some parts of their time in learning a new language have frequently observed that, while their ac- quaintance with it was imperfect, difficulties small in themselves operated as great ones in obstructing their progress. A book, for example, ill printed or a pronunci- ation in speaking not well articulated would render a sentence unintelligible which from a clear print or a distinct speaker would have been immediately com- prehended. If, therefore, we would have the benefit of seeing our language more generally known among mankind we should endeavor to remove all the difficulties, however small, that discourage the learning it. He concluded his letter to Webster by remarking that the spelling book which Webster had sent him was miserably printed and on wretched paper. It is interesting to know that this spelling book, the most famous of its kind ever made, and which in our day is used annually, it is said, to the number of more than a million copies, was approved by Frank- lin. His appeal for the English language in his letter to Webster was his last word on education. He ended as he began, with encouraging the study of his native language and literature. The empire of that language and that literature which he foresaw is realized in our day. By his will he provided for the disposition of his books to the Philo- sophical Society of Philadelphia and to the American Philosophical Society. Faithful to his love of his native city, he wrote: I was born in Boston, New England, and <>\ve my first instructions in literature to the free grammar schools established there. I therefore give 100' sterling to my executors, to be by them, the survivors or survivor of them, paid over to the man- agers or directors of the free schools in my native town of Boston, to be by them, or by those person or persons who shall have the superintendence and management of the said schools, put out to interest, and so continued at interest forever, which interest annually shall be laid out in silver medals and given as honorary rewards annually by the directors of the said free schools belonging to the said town, in such manner as to the discretion of the selectmen of the said town shall seem meet. '"This 100," saysBigelow, "proved a singularly auspicious investment. With the addition of a little to the fund from the city treasury of Boston its medals have rewarded the diligence and exemplary conduct of over 4,000 boys who have been found to merit them, and have no doubt stimulated to extra exertion perhaps hun- dreds of thousands who were less fortunate. The amount of this fund has more than doubled since Franklin's death. FRANKLIN'S IDEAS IN EDUCATION. 169 By a codicil to the will Franklin made an efl'ort to provide tor the perpetual application ofliis own ideas regarding the encouragement of apprentices for the benefit of the inhabitants of Boston and Philadel- phia. The provision is as follows: I was born iu Boston, New England, and owe my first instructions in literature to the free grammar-schools established there. I have, therefore, already considt- n-per records respecting the business aud concerns of this institution. And as these loans are intended to assist young married artificers in setting up their business, they are to be proportioned by the discretion of the managers so as not to exceed sixty pounds sterling to one person, nor to be less than fifteen pounds; and if the number of appliers so entitled should be so large as that the sum will not suffice to afford to each as much as might other- wise not be improper, the proportion to each shall be diminished so as to afford to every one some assistance. These aids may, therefore, be small at first, but. as the capital increases by the accumulated interest, they will be more ample. And in order to serve as many as possible in their turn, as well as to make the repayment of the principal borrowed more easy, each borrower shall be obliged to pay, with the yearly interest, one-tenth part of the principal, which sums of principal and inter- est, so paid in, shall be again let out to fresh borrowers. And, us it is presumed that there will always be found in Boston virtuous and be- nevolent citizens willing to bestow a pa_rt of theif time in doing good to the rising generation by superintending and managing this institutioijcratis, it is hoped that no part of the money will at any time be dead, or be divertewto other purposes, but be continually augmenting by the interest; in which case there may, in time.be 170 THl. IMVKRSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. more than the occasions in Boston shall require, and then some may ne spared to the neighboring or other towns in the said State of Massachusetts who may desire to have it; such towns engaging to pay punctually the interest and the portions of the principal, annually, to the inhabitants of the town of Boston. If this plan is executed, and succeeds as projected without interruption for one hundred years, the sum will then be one hundred and thirty-one thousand pounds; of which I could have the managers of the donation to the town of Boston then lay out. at their discretion, one hundred thousand pounds in public works, which may be judgid of most general utility to the inhabitants, such as fortifications, bridges, aqueducts, public buildings, baths, pavements, or whatever may make living in the town more convenient to its people, and render it more agreeable to strangers re- sorting hither for health or a temporary residence. The remaining thirty-one thou- sand pounds I would have continued to be let out on interest, in the manner above directed, for another hundred years, as I hope it will have been found that the in- stitution has had a good effect on the conduct of youth, and been of service to many worthy characters and useful citi/ens. At the end of this second term, if no unfortu- nate accident has prevented the operation, the sum will be four millions and sixty- one thousand pounds sterling, of which I leave one million sixty-one thousand pounds to the disposition of the inhabitants of the town of Boston, and three mil- lions to the dispositiou of the government of the State, not presuming to carry my views farther. All the directions herein given respecting the disposition and management of the donation to the inhabitants of Boston, I would have observed respecting that to the inhabitants of Philadelphia, only, as Philadelphia is incorporated, I request the corporation of that city to undertake the management agreeably to the said direc- tions; and I do hereby vest them with full aud ample powers for that purpose. 1 1 KHA'NKMN Fl Ni>. This is a fund for the encouragement of young mechanics. Dr. Benjamin Franklin, iu his will, gave the inhabitants of Boston, iu 1791 , 1,000 sterling, which he directed to be loaned in sums of not more than 60 nor less than 15 to one applicant, at f per cent interest, to be repaid in annual installments of 10 per cent each. These loans are restricted to "young married artificers," under the age of 25, who have faith- fully served an apprenticeship in Boston, so as to obtain a certificate of good moral character from at least two respectable citizens, who are willing to become theii> sureties in a bond for their payment of the money. It was the estimate of Dr. Franklin that the 1,000 would increase in one hundred years to 131,000, and then the managers of the fund were to lay out in public works 100,000, and the balance to continue on interest for another hundred \ears, which he estimated would then amount to 4,600,000. Of this amount the sum of 1,610.000 was to be at the disposal of the inhabitants of the town of Boston, and the balance to be paid to the government of the State. The board of aldermen, 1882, after a report in the matter of the Franklin fund from a committee consisting of Aldermen St ebb ins and Hart, passed the following resolx es : L'I null-til. That in the opinion of this board, comprising a majority of the trustees of the Franklin fund, it is expedient and highly desirable that the proportion of said fund which will be available iu 1891-'92 for investment in "some public work" should be devoted to the extinguishment of the debt incurred for the purchase of the \\t-t Roxbury Park. Jt'iKiilrcil. That in the event of such disposition nf the said portion of the Franklin fund, the park just purchased should l>e called "Franklin Park," in honor of the testator, who has so gtmorously endowed his native town. Tin name " Fiankliji Park" was adopted by the board of park commissioners. The trustees underlie will are the selectmen (now board of aldermen), united FRANKLIN'S IDEAS IN EDUCATION. 171 Franklin's ideas on education differed from those of his cnntenipora- ries, and in order to show by comparison and contrast the educational notions which lie at the bottom of Franklin's philosophy, his ideas on education will be compared with those of John Adams and Thomas Jefferson. It may be premised that John Adams's ideas of education are typical of New England, and by comparing them and Franklin's it will be seen how the life of Franklin in Pennsylvania modified his early New England notions, and perhaps explain some of the variations between the general liberal plan of education characteristic of New England and the middle colonies. Franklin, we have seen, was a self-educated man. John Adams received the degree of Bachelor of Arts in Harvard College in 177f, and soon after became the teacher of the grammar school in the town of Worcester. As was the case so frequently in New England schools, teaching was but an expedient to supply for the time being the wants of life and afford sufficient leisure to read law. Adams was closely associated with Franklin in public life, both be- ing members of important committees in the old Congress, the most famous of which was the committee that drafted the Declaration of Independence, both having the independence of the colonies at heart while that independence seemed a great way off, and both serving their country in joint diplomatic relations in Paris. They were very with the ministers of the oldest Episcopalian, Congregational, and Presbyterian churches in the town of Boston. The first loan was made May, 1791. The treasurer of the fund, Samuel F. McCleary, in his annual report to the trus- tees, makes the statement of the condition February 1, 1892, viz: Amount of fund, February 1, 1891 $383, 496. 38 Interest accrued during the year 15, 345. 13 Amount of fund, February 1, 1892 398,841.51 This amount consists of Deposits in Massachusetts Hospital Life Insurance Company 395, 288. 82 Deposits in Suffolk Savings Bank 3, 282. 06 Cash 63.00 Balances of bonds for loans 270. 00 Total 398,K41..M Income to be loaned to young married artificers, under the ajr<' of 3f years, who have served an apprenticeship in Philadelphia, and faithfully fulfilled the du- ties required in their indentures, and who can furnish two satisfactory securities for the return of the money in ten annual installments, with interest at 5 per cent: Invested capital, December 31, 1891. Philadelphia City loans: 6 per cent, taxable $500. 00 6 per cent, free - - - *8, 200. ^ 4 per cent -'--*-- Pittsburg City 7 per cent loans 172 THE UNIVERSITY OP PENNSYLVANIA. much unlike iu character, Franklin being easy, generous, liberal in his views, full of tact, wise in his observations, and preeminently liappy iu his relations with men. John Adams was upright, active, suspicious, puritanical, and abrupt, ever viewing public affairs as a lawyer considers his case in hand, and filled with an enormous capac- ity for business. We have already seen how the various activities in which Franklin was engaged through life determined his educational notions; in a similar manner John Adams's activities, which were chiefly legal and political, gave character to his ideas on education. Franklin was ever suggesting education as a means for cultivating the applied arts, for improving agriculture, for extending the conquests of science, for promoting the general welfare. It must have been noticed in our outline of Franklin that he gave very little attention in his plan to political studies; he mentions them and urges the study of the prin- ciples of government, history, and politics, but he does not found his scheme of education upon a political basis; he rather founded his plans upon the scientific and industrial basis, for he was a man active in in- dustrial affairs, little given to speculation, and apt to view political events as mere changes on the sea of public affairs. Adams, on the other hand, was a born politician. The oldest letter of John Adams, United States 4 per cent loans $2, 000. 00 Bonds and mortgages 30, 200. 00 Loans to young married artificers 209. 56 82, 209. 56 Cash receipts and payments, January 1 to December 31, 1891. RECEIPTS. Interest: Philadelphia City loans $2, 996. 50 Pittsburg City loans 70.00 Pennsylvania State loans 187. 50 Knil.-il Stiit. -s loiius 80.00 Bonds and mortgages 1, 320. 36 Loans to artificers 24. 27 4,678.63 Investments collected : Philadelphia City loans $1,200.00 Pennsylvania Sfat.e loans 2,500.00 Hond.s and mortgages 2, 250. 00 Loans to artificers . . 120. 44 6,070.44 Cash balance... 3,603.95 Cash balance January 1, 1891 14,353.02 PAYMENTS. Miscellaneous expenses $162. 84 Investment, bond and mortgage 2, 000. 00 2,162.84 Cash balance December 31, 1891 12,190.18 FRANKLIN'S IDEAS IN EDUCATION. 173 written while yet a school-teacher in Worcester, October Ji', I ::>.,. is a political essay, in which he says: Be not surprised that I am turned politician; this whole town is immersed in pol- itics. The interests of nations and the dira of war make the subject of every i-nn- versation. I sit and hear, and after having been led through the maze, I sometime retire, and by laying together form some reflections pleasing to myself. He was always "immersed in politics," and politics was the basis of his educational ideas. 1 These first appear in his treatise on Govern- ment : Laws for the liberal education of youth, especially of the lower classes of the people, are so extremely wise that to a humane and generous man no expense for this purpose would be thought extravagant. He is the type of those men who wpuld prescribe the means and ends of the state and "by good laws regulate all the affairs of mankind." Nowhere does Franklin ever refer to a "law which should provide for the liberal education of youth;" Franklin never carried his scheme of education over into government. John Adams would embody a pro- vision for education in the fundamentals of government, and this he did in the constitution of Massachusetts of 1780, ot which instrument he was the chief author : SECTION II. The Encouragement of Literature, etc. Wisdom and knowledge, as well as virtue, diffused generally among the body of the people, being necessary for the preservation of their rights and liberties, and as these depend on spreading the opportunities and advantages of education in the various parts of the country and among the different orders of the people, it shall be the duty of legislators and magistrates, in all future periods of this Commonwealth, to cherish the interests of literature and the sciences and all seminaries of them, especially the university at Cambridge, public schools and grammar schools in the towns; to encourage private societies and public institutions, rewards and immu- nities for the promotion of agriculture, arts, sciences, commerce, trades, manufac- tures, and a natural history of the country; to countenance and inculcate the prin- ciples of humanity .and general benevolence, public and private charity, indnstry and frugality, honesty and punctuality in their dealings, sincerity, good humor, and all social attections and generous sentiments among the people. His grandson, Charles Francis Adams, gives this information on the origin of this celebrated clause: This feature of the constitution of Massachusetts is peculiar and, in one sense, original with Mr. Adams. The recognition of the obligation of a State to promote a higher and more extended policy than is embraced in the protection of the temporal interests and political rights of the individual, however understood among enlightened minds, had not at that time been formally made a part of the organic law. Those clauses, since inserted in other State constitutions, which, with more or less fullness, acknowledged the same principle, are all manifestly taken from this source. The following history of the origin of it is taken from an account given by the author in 1809: "In traveling from Boston to Philadelphia, in 1774, '75, '76, and '77, I had several times amused myself, atNorwalk, in Connecticut, with the very curious collection of birds and insects of American production, made by Mr. Arnold; a collection which he 1 Life and Works of John Adams, Vol. I, p. 24. 174 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. afterwards sold to Governor Tryon, who sold it to Sir Ashton Lever, in whose apart- ments in London I afterwards viewed it again. This collection was so singular a thins that it made a deep impression upon me, and I could not but consider it a reproach to niy country that so little was known, even to herself, of her natural history. \Yhen I was in Europe in the years 1778 and 1779, in the commission to the King of France, with l>r. Franklin and Mr. Arthur Lee, I had opportunities to see the King's collections and many others which increased my wishes thatnature might be examined and studied in my own country as it was in others. In France among the academicians and other men of science and letters I was fre- quently entertained with inquiries concerning the Philosophical Society of Phila- delphia and with eulogiuuis on the wisdom of that institution and encomiums on some publications in their transactions. These conversations suggested to me the idea of such an establishment at Boston where I knew there was as much love for science and as many gentlemen who were capable of pursuing it as in any other city of its si/.c. In 1770 I returned to Boston in the French frigate La Sensible with the Chevalier de la Luzerne and M. Marbois. The corporation of Harvard College gave a public dinner in honor of the French ambassador and his suite, and did me the honor of an invitation to dine with them. At table in the philosophy chamber I chanced to sit next to Dr. Cooper. I entertained him during the whole of the time we were together with an account of Arnold's collections, the collections I had seen in Europe, the compliments I had heard in France upon the Philosophical Society at Philadelphia, and concluded with proposing that the future legislature of Massa- chusetts should institute an academy of arts and sciences. The doctor at first hesitated, thought it would be difficult to find members who would attend to it; but his principal objection was that it would injure Harvard College by setting np a rival to it that might draw the attention and affections of the public in some degree from it. To this I answered, fiisst, that there were cer- tainly men of learning enough that might compose a society sufficiently numerous; and, secondly, that instead of being a rival to the university it would be an honor and advantage to it. That the president and principal professors would no doubt be always members of it; and the meetings might be ordered wholly or in part at the college and in that room. The doctor at length appeared better satisfied and I entreated him to propagate the idea and the plan as Car and as soon as his discretion would justify. The doctor accordingly did diffuse the project so judiciously and 9 and effectually that the first legislature under the new constitution adopted and established it by law. Afterwards, when attending the convention for forming the constitution, I men- tioned the subject to several members, and when I was appointed by the subcom- mittee to make a draft of a project of a constitution to be laid before the convention, my mind and heart were so full of this subject that I inserted the chapter fifth, section second. I wa somewhat apprehensive that criticism and objections would be made to the section, and particularly that the "natural history," and the "good humor" would be stricken out, but the whole was received very kindly, and passed the convention unanimously without amendment. It is a singularity, perhaps worthy of note in connection with these injunctions, that the individuals who have since been elevated by the popular voice to the chief offices of the State, with a single exception, have not been ;ioted among their fellow citizens for any superior acqui- sitions of learning or intellectual culture. A considerable number have not gone through the higher grades of education in Massachusetts at ' all. FRANKLIN'S IDEAS IN EDUCATION. 175 John Adams has the fame of being the first, American Matoman to incorporate in a State constitution a provision for public education. There were no public schools in Pennsylvania in Franklin's day and all his ideas ou education related chiefly to private enterprise and in- dividual effort. Thtre had been public schools in Massachusetts from the beginning of the colony and the inertia of educational ideas moving in the colony carried into the first State constitution this celebrated provision for the encouragement of learning. It will be noticed that Adams's plan provided for "the promotion of agriculture, arts, sciein commerce, trades, manufactures, and the natural history of the conn try," the original suggestion of which is explained by his grandson. It is a New England idea to make education a matter of laws. ( 'la gg distinctions in New England were marked in Franklin's day; the chil- dren of the tallow chandler were not classed as fit companions for the children of clergymen and lawyers. This will be remembered in inter- preting another passage in Adams's treatise on Government pertaining to education : The education here intended is not merely that of the children of the rich and noble, but of every rank and class of people down to the lowest and the poorest. It is not too much to say that schools for the education qf all should be placed at con- ^enient distances and maintained at the public expense ; the revenue of tho State would be applied infinitely better, more charitably, wisely, usefully, therefore politically, in this way than even in maintaining the poor. This would be the best way of preventing the existence of the poor. If nations should ever be wise, in- stead of erecting thousands of useless offices, or engaging in unmeaning wars, they should make a fundamental maxim of this, that no human being shall grow up in ignorance. In proportion as this is done tyranny will disappear, kings and nobles will be made to feel their equitable equality with commoners, and commoners should see their interest and advantage to respect the guardians of tho laws, for guardians they must have as long as human nature endures. There is no room to doubt that the schools, academies, and universities, the stage, the press, the bar, the pulpit, and Parliament, might all be improving to better purpose than they have been in any country for this great purpose. Again : The greater part of every people are still ignorant, and, although their leaders might artfully persuade them to a thousand idle expenses, they would not be able to persuade them to this. Education, then, must be supported by private munifi- cence, and such sources, although sufficient to maintain a few schools and a univer- sity in a great nation, can never be sufficient to maintain schools in sufficient num- bers to educate a whole people. Where a senate is preserved, it is always a maxim with them to respect learning and educate their own families. Their example is followed by all others who are in any way in easy circumstances. In a government of three branches, commoners as well as nobles are under the necessity of educating their children, because they hope to be called to public service, where it is neces- sary. In all the mixed governments of antiquity, education was necessary, and where the people had a share it was the most generally practiced, but in a simple government it never was general. In Sparta it was far from being general; it was confined to youth of family; so it was -in the aristocracy in Koine. But, although we have examples of simple democracy, to recur to that the majority must be igno- rant and poor, and sometimes an opposition made by members of the lowest clas*. who are often joined for sinister purpose by some men of consequence, but convinces 176 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. that the general public education never ran long exist in a .simple democracy. The stinginess, the envy, and malignity of the base and ignorant would be flattered by the artful and designing. If the education of every family be left to its own ex- pense, the rich only might have their children educated. Franklin would never have mentioned education in such a connec- tion. He did not view the state as merely a political concern. He frequently has occasion to remark on the different conditions of the rich and poor, and he was ever projecting schemes by which the poor might become rich. He would set everybody on the way to wealth. Indus try, frugality, and self-education were the basis of Franklin's concep- tion of state. Adams, on the other hand, viewed the state wholly as a lawyer, conceived it as an affair of laws which adjusted, or attempted to adjust the rights of the rich and the poor, the weak and the strong, the good and the bad, and therefore placing law as of chief importance in the state, he would regulate education by law. Nowhere does Ad ams intimate that the individual should educate himself. When in Holland in 1780 Adams wrote a number of letters upon in- teresting subjects respecting the Eevolution of America and in reply to the inquiry "whether the common people in America are not inclined, when they are able to find sufficient means, to frustrate by force the good intentions of the politicians," wrote : The difference in that country (America) is not so great as it is in some others be- tween the common people and the gentlemen ; for noblemen we have none. There is no country where the common people, I mean the tradesmen, the husbandmen, and the laboring people, have such advantages of education as in that (America), and it may be truly said that their education, their understanding, and their knowl- edge are as nearly equal as their birth, fortune, dignities, and titles. This might be expected from one whom his enemies sometimes called "the well-born" and it is eminently in keeping with the general tone of New England thought at the time. Nowhere in Franklin's writings is there found such a statement as Adams's, that knowledge among Americans is "as nearly equal as their birth, fortune, dignities, and titles." The counter statement is made by Franklin in his autobiog- raphy when speaking of the beneficial effect of founding the Philadel- phia Library. 1 In other words, Franklin was a democrat in his educational ideas; Adams, a New England aristocrat of the radical type, who would direct and guard the people's interest, discriminate as to their "birth, fortune, dignities, and titles" and by the artifice of hn\ attempt to equalize their condition as far as possible. The different effect on America of the ideas of these two men is apparent in our time. Franklin's plan of self-education, rising to the dignity of utilitarian philosophy, has profoundly influenced the Amer- ican people and stimulated thousands to improve themselves and acquire by frugality and industry advantages which were not theirs by birth. Adams, prescribing public education by the law of the FRANKLIN'S IDEAS IN EDUCATION. 177 State, was among the founders of our public school ystem, by which the State educates the young at public expense. The ideas of John Adams on education have eliminated largely and necessarily from the body of youth receiving instruction at the expense of the State that personal ambitious interest in self-education which is characteristic of those who follow Franklin's plan. Our public shools are characterized by a mechanism which produces a uniform training of an average quality and transforms ignorant childhood into book-taught youth, often without stirring that sense of personal concern in the acquisition of knowledge of which Franklin was always fondly speaking. If John Adams was instrumental in founding the public school sys- tem of the United States when he incorporated in the constitution of Massachusetts of 1780 that famous clause providing for the maintenance of public schools and higher institutions of learning, which has largely influenced the entire North, and which may be traced in these suc- cessive State constitutions that have been made from Massachusetts to Oregon, and if he was successful in incorporating education by law in the organization of the State, he yet failed, as all have failed, who would resolve education into a conformity to the requirements of a law however wise in its ultimate purposes, in founding a system of educa- tion which can compete in true .value with that system which, like Franklin's, transforms every individual into an ever-improving, self- educating soul. Doubtless it has occurred to the reader that it is by the Franklin model that such men are made as Horace Greeley, Abraham Lincoln, K'obert Fulton, and other original and creative minds, who are self- educated, yet who rank among the determinative forces in America. It is the old story of the college-made and self-made man, but we must admit that, as human nature is, it is better for our country to have the advantage of the results obtained by the application of John Adams' plan for education by prescribing it in the fundamental law of the State than to run the risk of securing an educated democracy by the appli- cation of Franklin's plan of self-education. The few will profit by Franklin's example, the many will be improved by the operation of the laws which John Adams favored. In fine, Franklin's ideas applies to individuals; Adams', to the welfare of the masses. John Adams writes in 1785: The whole people must take upon themselves the education of the whole people and must be willing to bear the expense of it. There should not be a district of inn- mile square without a school in it, not founded by a charitable individual, but maintained at the expense of the people themselves. Benjamin Kush had written to Adams .his opinions that The benefits of free schools should not be overlooked. Indeed, suffrage, in my opinion, should never be permitted to a man that could not write or read. To which Adams replied: Free schools and all schools, colleges, academies, and seminaries of learning I can recommend from my heart, but I dare not say that the suffrage should never be 1180 12 178 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. permitted to a man who can not read and write. What would become of the Re- public of France if the lives, fortunes, and character of the twenty-four million and a half men who can neither read nor write should be at the absolute disposal of five hundred thousand who can read? Adams's opinion on intelligent qualification for voting may be said to express the wish of thoughtful Americans of all times. In the closing years of his life Adams was in close and delightful correspondence with Thomas Jefferson at a time when Jefferson was engaged in establishing the University of Virginia. In a letter to Jefferson, written from Quincy, July 16, 1814, we obtain quite a glimpse of the character of Adams's education if not of his ideas on that subject : I am very glad [he writes] you have seriously read Plato, and still more rejoiced to find that your reflections upon him so perfectly harmonize with mine. Some thirty years ago, I took upon me the severe task of going through all his works. 1 With the help of two Latin translations and one English and one French transla- tion, and comparing some of the most remarkable passages with the Greek, I labored through the tedious toil. My disappointment was very great, my astonish- ment was greater, and my disgust was shocking. Two things only did I learn from him. First, that Franklin's ideas of exempting husbandmen and mariners, etc., from the depredations of war, were borrowed from him; and second, that sneezing is a cure for the hiccough. Accordingly, I have cured myself and all my friends of , that provoking disorder, for thirty years, with a pinch of snuff". Some parts of his dialogues are entertaining, like the writings of Rousseau ; but his Laws and his Republic, from which I expected most, disappointed me most. I conld scarcely exclude the suspicion that he intended the latter as a bitter satire upon all republican governments, as Xenophon undoubtedly designed by his essay on democracy to ridicule that species of republic. In a late letter to the learned ami ingenious Mr. Taylor, of Hazelwood, I suggested to him the project of writing a novel, in which the hero should be sent on his travels through Plato's republic, and all his adventures, with his observations on the principles and opinions, the arts and sciences, the manners, customs, and habits of the citizens, should be recorded. Nothing can be conceived more destructive of human happiness, more infallibly contrived to transform men and women into brutes, yahoos, or demons, than a community of wives and property. Yet, in what are the writings of Rousseau and Helvetius wiser than those of Plato? "The man who lirst fenced a tobacco yard and said, 'this is mine,' ought instantly to have been put to death," said Rousseau. "The man who first pronounced the barbarous word Dieu, ought to have been immediately destroyed," says Diderot. In short, philosophers, ancient and modern, appear to me as mad as Hindoos, Mahometans, and Christians. No doubt they would all think me mad, and for anything I know, this globe may be the Bedlem le IHceti e of the, universe. After all, as long as property exists, it will accumulate in individuals and families. As long as marriage exists, knowledge, properly, and influence will accumulate in families. Your and onr equal partition of intestate estates, instead of preventing, will in time augment the evil, if it is one. The French revolutionists saw this, and were BO far consistent. "When they burned pedigrees and genealogical trees they annihilated, as far as they conld, marriages, knowing that marriage, among a thou- sand other things, was an infallible source of aristocracy. I repeat it, so sure as the idea and the existence of property is .admitted and established in society, accumula- tions of it will be made; the snowball will grow as it rolls. Idem, Vol. ix, p. 540. FRANKLIN'S IDKAS i\ KIM-CATION. 179 Cicero was educated in the groves of Academus, whore tin- nan.,- :in d memory of Plato was idolized to such a, degree that if he hail wholly renounced the pn-j,,. of his education his reputation would have been lessened, if not injured ami mined. In his two volumes of Discourses on Government, wo may presume that he full , amined Plato's Laws and Republic, as well :is Aristotle's writings on government. But these have been carefully destroyed, not improbably with tin- general consent of philosophers, politicians, and priests. The loss is as much to be regretted as that of any production of antiquity. Nothing seizes the attention of the staring animal so surely as paradox, riddle, mystery, invention, discovery, wonder, temerity. Plato and his disciples from the fourth century Christians, to Rousseau and Tom Paine, have been full sensible of this weakness in mankind, and have too success- fully grounded upon it their pretensions to fame. I might, indeed, have mentioned Boliugbroke, Hume, Gibbon, Voltaire, Turgot, Helvetius, Diderot, Coudorcet, Buifou, Do la Lande, and fifty others, all a little cracked. Bo to their faults a little blind, To their virtues ever kind. Education ! oh education ! the greatest grief of my heart and the greatest affliction of my life! To my mortification I must confess that I have never closely thought or deliberately reflected upon the subject, which never occurs to rue now without pro- ducing a deep sigh, a heavy groan, and sometimes tears. My cruel destiny sepa rated me from my children almost continually from their birth to their manhood. I was compelled to leave them to the ordinary routine of reading, writing, and Latin school, academy, and college. John, alone, was much with me, and he but occa- sionally. If I venture to give you my thoughts at all, they must be very crude. I have turned over Locke, Milton, Condillac, Rousseau, and even Miss Edgeworth.as a bird flies through the air. The "Preceptor" I have thought a good book. Grammar, rhetoric, logic, ethics, mathematics, can not be neglected. Classics, in spite of our friend Rush, I must think indispensable. Natural history, mechanics, and experi- mental philosophy, chemistry, etc., at least their rudiments, can not be forgotten. Geography, astronomy, and even history and chronology, though I am myself afflicted with a kind of pyrrhonism in the two latter, I presume can not be omitted. The- ology 1 would leave to Ray, Durham, Nieuwentyt, and Pa ley, rather than to Lnther, Zi"zendorf, Swedenborg, Wesley, or Whiteneld, or Thomas Aquinas, or Wollebius. Metaphysics I would leave in the clouds with fhe materialists and spiritual with Leibnitz, Berkeley, Priestley, and Edwards, and, I might add, Hume and Kccd. Or, if permitted to be read, it should be with romances and novels. What shall I say of music, drawing, fencing, dancing, and gymnastic exercises? What of languages, oriental or occidental; of French, Italian, German, or Russian; of Sanscrit, or of Chinese? The task you have prescribed to me of grouping these sciences or arte under professors, within the views of an enlightened economy, is far beyond my forces. Loose indeed, and undigested, must be all the hints I can note. Might grammar, logic, and rhetoric be under one professor.' Might mathematics, mechanics, and natural philosophy be under another? Geography and a>tnnomy under a third? Laws and government, history, and chronology under a fourth f Classics might require a fifth. Condillac's course of study has excellent JKHI-; among many systems of mathematics English, French, and American there is none preferable to Bezout's course; La Harpe's course of literature is very valuable. 1 'Lack of space forbids a comparison of Franklin's ideas on education with those of Washington, Hamilton, and Madison. Washington and Hamilton corresponded freely about the establishing of a national university as a school for the political training of American youth for the public service. I can only refer to the subject here. 180 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. The correspondence between Adams and Jefferson brings to light the education which these eminent men had received, and our acquaint- ance with their public services and their private life suggests to us some comparisons between their views on education and enables us to understand how three men so efficiently equipped for their work in life as were Franklin, Adams, and Jefferson, contemporaries, colleagues, and associates in several of the most important public services of the century, advocated educational views in conformity with their own in- dividual experience and education in life. Franklin was self educated, and his plan of education is that all others should do likewise; Adams is college-bred, of ancient New England family, a born politician, a lawyer, a statesman, recognizing different classes in society with inter- ests somewhat discordant, and seeking to establish public education at public expense ; Jefferson's educational views resemble Adams's rather than Franklin's, for Jefferson, like Adams, viewed the subject in its legal aspect, though he differed greatly from Adams in his personal interest in agriculture, in mechanics, in invention, and in architecture. Jefferson's educational views may be gathered from his correspond- ence, and particularly from his letters written during the last twenty years of his life: I have long entertained the hope [he writes] that this, our native State, would take up the subject of education and make an establishment there, with or without incorporation into that of William and Mary College, where every branch of science deemed useful at this day should lie taught in its highest degree. With this view I have lost no* occasion of making myself acquainted with the organizations of the best seminaries in other countries and with the opinions of the most enlightened in- dividuals on the subject of the sciences worthy of a place in such an institution. In order to prepare what I had promised our trustees I have lately revised these several plans with attention, and I am struck with the diversity of arrangement observable in them, no two being alike. Yet I have no doubt that these several arrangements have been the subject of mature reflections by wise and learned men who, contem- plating local circumstances, have adapted them to the section of society for which they have been framed. I am strengthened in this conclusion by an examination of each separately, and the conviction that no one of them, if adopted without change, would be suited to the circumstances and pursuits of our country. The example they have set to them is authority for us to select from their different institutions the materials which are good for us, and with them to erect a structure whose ar- rangement shall correspond with our own social condition, and shall admit of en- largement in proportion to the encouragement it may merit and receive. 1 After this sensible introduction, which contains a wholesome warning against mere imitation in educational establishments and a proper recognition of peculiar local conditions in every individual foundation, Jefferson proceeds to survey the gen- eral field of education and to mark out that partieularportion to lie occupied by tin- proposed institution in his immediate neighborhood. He considers the subject under three heads: elementary schools, general schools, and professional schools. Under the first head he observes that it is the duty of a government to see that every citi- zen is educated according to his condition and pursuits in life. He divides the mass of citizens into the laboring and the learned classes, including under the former agri- cultural labor and handicrafts and under the latter certain skilled labor and teeh nical knowledge. Elementary schools will suth'cc for the laboring classes. Jef- 1 Adams's Thomas Jefferson and the University of Virginia, pp. 62-64, freely quoted. FUAXKLINS IDKAS IN EDUCATIOK. 181 ferson notes the fact that a ])lan was once propo.-cd to tin- h-Lcishiture of Virginia to divide every county into hundreds of wards, :> or <; miles s(|iiar.-, ca<-li ward to have its own schools, for the elementary education of the children in reading, writ- ing, arithmetic, and geography. He expresses the hope that this project, one.- m.-l fectually attempted, may he resumed " in a more promising form. " 1'assing to tin- second head, Jefferson remarks that pupils leaving the elementary school* will arate into two classes, for the pursuit of lahor and science, respectively. I'npiN destined for the latter will go to college, where higher education is afforded by .' n eral schools and is specialixcd in ]>rofessional schools. The learned class he divides into sections: first, those destined for professional life and, .second, the wealthy, \\lm "may aspire to share in conducting the affairs of the nation or live with usefulness and respect in the private ranks of life. " Both the learned and the wealthy will re- quire the higher education, but the former will need to specialize and pass from the general to the professional schools. Jefferson then attempts to classify the branches of useful science, which ouht to be taught in the general schools. He groups them under three department*: lan- guage, mathematics, and philosophy. In the first department he arranges languages, and history (ancient and modern), grammar, belles-lettres, rhetoric and oratory, and a school for the deaf, dumb, and blind. " History,'' he says, ''is here associated with languages, not as a kindred subject, but on a principle of economy, because both may be attained by the same course of reading, if books are selected w ith that view." This thought, originally advanced by Jefferson as the basis of elementary education, became in the person of George Long, the classical historian, one of the ideal cornerstones of the University of Virginia. Under the head of mathematics, Jefferson classified the following sciences: pure mathematics, physiio-mat hemat- ics, physics, chemistry, mineralogy, botany, zoology, anatomy, and the theory of medicine. Under philosophy he grouped ideology, ethics, the law of nature and of nations, government, and political economy. By the term ideology, Jefferson meant simply the science of the human understanding. He borrowed his novel term from a French writer, Count Destutt Tracy, member of the senate and of the Institute of France, whose treatise on the elements of ideology was first published in France in the yi-ar 1801, and is reported by Jefferson to have been condemned by Napoleon as ' the dark and metaphysical doctrine of ideology, which, diving into first causes. foumN on this basis a legislation of the puople."' This work, which the prescn* generation would probably condemn on other grounds, made a profound impression upon Jef- ferson, who wished to establish democracy upon a philosophical bams. I'KOI KSSIONAI. SCHOOLS. Let us observe what Jefferson said to I'cter Carr concerning professional schools, the third and last topic of the .discussion. To these schools \\oiild come those students who propose to make learning their profession and who wish to pursue particular science with more minuteness and detail than is possible in the college proper, which would give simply a liberal education. " In these professional schools each science is to be taught in the highest degree it has yet attained." Her. JetlVr- son discovers the real university idea and at the same time the idea of spe. iali/ation for a definite purpose. "To these professional schools will come." he sa\s. -'the lawyer to the school of law; the ecclesiastic to that of theology and ecclesiastical history; the physician to those of the practice of medicine, matei ia medic. i. phar- macy, and surgery; the military man to that of military and naval architecture and projectiles; the agricultor to that of rural economy ; the gentleman, the architect, the pleasure gardener, painter, and musician to the school of fine arts." 'Jefferson's letter to Colonel Duane, April 4, 1813, given in Adams's Thomasj Jeffer- Boii and the University of Pennsylvania. 182 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. TECHNICAL KDUCATK )X. Besides the university idea and the thought of these special schools Jefferson, in his letter to Carr, clearly anticipated thti modern idea, of technical education. He proposed what he called a "school of technical philosophy," where certain of the higher branches should bo taught in abridged form to meet practical wants. " In such a school," he said, " will come the mariner, carpenter, shipwright, pump-maker, clock-maker, machinist, optician, metallurgist, founder, cutler, druggist, brewer, vintner, distiller, dyer, painter, bleacher, soap-maker, tanner, powder-maker, salt- maker, glass-maker, t<> learn as much as shall be necessary to pursue their art under- standiugly, of the sciences of geometry, mechanics, statics, hydrostatics, hydraulics, hydrodynamics, navigation, astronomy, geography, optics, pneumatics, acoustics, physics, chemistry, natural history, botany, mineralogy, and pharmacy." In this school of technology Jefferson proposed to group the students in convenient (lasses for elementary and practical instruction by lectures to bo given in the evening, so as to afford an opportunity for labor in the day-time. Military exercises were to he required on certain days throughout the entire course for all grades of students. Thus the features of military schools, technological institutes and modern agricul- tural colleges were associated with the higher education in a people's university, as conceived by Thomas Jefferson. Of course Jefferson did not expect to realize all at once this educational scheme as proposed to Peter Carr. He urged, as a practical beginning, the establishment of a general school or college, with four professorships, grouping (1) language and history, belles-lettres, rhetoric and oratory; (2) mathematics, physics, etc.; (3) chemistry and other natural sciences; (4) philosophy, which, in his view, included political science. He said these professorships "must he subdivided from time to time as our means increase, until each professor shall have no more under his care than he can attend to with advantage to his pupils and ease to himself." \Yith further increase of reaources, professional schools were to be added. Such were the fundamental lines of thought which gave shape to the first project for a University of Virginia, in Jefferson's own neighborhood. Like the preliminary drawings of a great artist, these bold outlines have a permanent interest in the student." ' By comparison of the educational views of Franklin, Jefferson, and John Adams we conclude that the present public school system of the United States, which is established by the constitutions and la\vs of the several States, is in conformity with the educational views of John Adams. While it can not be affirmed that he was the soleorigiuatbr of the system of American public, schools, it may be said truly that he is the earliest eminent American statesman who incorporated a provision for such public education, not only in his writings on government but in his political service, and particularly in that clause which he wrote in the constitution of Massachusetts of 1780, providing for a system of education at public expense. Adams at least had the. philosophy of education on his side, for he set forth his ideas on the universal prin- ciple of the general welfare, approaching the subject from a considera- tion of the universal character of cducat ion ; while Franklin approached it from a consideration of the individual, and of the utilities which are resultant from education. Adams, therefore, identifying the inter- ests of education and the interests of the masses, stands among those who founded our educational system. Franklin outlined a method 'Adams, " Thomas Jefferson and the University of Virginia," pp. 62-64. FRANKLIN'S IDKAS IN KIM-CATION. 1*3 adapted to the wante of individuals, but at the sum.- time dependent upon those individuals for its successful operation. . He founded no trm of education; lie did not identify the oiteration of his educational plans with the necessity and growth of the State. Self-education may be said to be the natural method of education, this was Franklin's plan. Education at the expense of the State, according to law, so eai nestly advocated by John Adams may be called the conventional system, practicable and advantageous in a country like ours. Jefferson took a somewhat higher ground, recognizing that education must be dim-fed by those technically trained to perform its duties. He compared the ed ucatioual institutions of Europe before he attempted to found tin- I ni versity of Virginia, and sought to incorporate in that University tin- best of all that he saw abroad that was adapted to the wants of Amer ica. He would found au institution in which not only the young might pursue all studies, but also an institution which would provide techni- cal instruction for those who would pursue particular studies at ^reat length. If John Adams is the father of the common school and Benja- min Franklin the model of the self-educated man, Thomas Jefferson is the promoter of the university idea in America. The influence of the ideas that each of thefce men advocated is clearly discernible in the educational history of America. We have the public school system, the education of the masses by the masses, John Adams's idea; we have the technical school in the university, Jefferson's idea: and we have the means of self education, books, business, factor i< -. libraries, learned societies, nature, and the human soul, capable of making use of these opportunities, Franklin's idea. That it may appear more clearly what has been the influence of Franklin's ideas of educa- tion in this country, I may conclude my sketch by briefly outlining several institutions which he founded in Philadelphia, or which have developed accord ing to his ideas: The American Philosophical Society, the Library Company of Philadelphia, the Franklin Institute, (lirard College, the Philadelphia .Manual Training Schools, and the Uim ersiiy of Pennsylvania. The American Philosophical Society dates from the 25th of May, 1743, when Franklin published his famous prospectus for its estab- lishment. It was incorporated by act of the legislature of Pennsyl vania, March 15, 1780, as "The American Philosophical Society, held at Philadelphia, for Promoting Useful Knowledge." The language of the act of incorporation describes its functions: "The cultivation of useful knowledge and the advancement of the liberal arts and sciences;" "the prosecution and advancement of all useful branches of knowledge" for the benefit of mankind. The history of this venerable society, the oldest of its kind in the world, is the history of modern science. Franklin was its first president, elected January 2, 17, and serving uutil his death. He was succeeded by the eminent David Rittenhouse, 184 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. who served from 1791-1 79(i. The other presidents and ilieir. terms were as follows: Thomas Jefferson, 1797-1*1.-); Caspar \Vistar, 1815-1818; Robert Patterson, 1819-182-1; William Tilghman, 1825; Peter Stephen- sou Duponceau,1828; Eobert M. Patterson, 1845; Nathaniel Chapman, 1846; Robert N. Patterson, 1849; Franklin Bache, 1853; Alexander Dallas Bache, 1855; John Kay Kane, 1857; George B. Wood, 1859; Frederick Fraley, 1880. Franklin Bache and Alexander Dallas Bache were great grandsons of Benjamin Franklin. Franklin Bache was distinguished as a chemist, as professor of chemistry in the Jefferson Medical College, as one of the authors of the Dispensatory of the United States, and of many con- tributions on cognate subjects. Alexander Dallas Bache resembled his illustrious ancestor. He was a self-educated man, a graduate of West Point, professor of chemistry and natural philosophy in the University of Pennsylvania, an active member of the Franklin Institute, of which he was a zealous and suc- cessful promoter, and first president of Girard College. He laid the plans for the Philadelphia High School, and as its first principal organ- ized it, but won his chief fame as the head of the Coast Survey of the United States. His mind,J.ike Franklin's, was interested in all matters of public concern and he rendered efficient services in a multitude of matters by which his name is intimately associated with many of the most useful enterprises of a private and public nature in the educational affairs of the country. The American Philosophical Society has enrolled in its membership the most eminent men of the last century in all countries. The records of the Proceedings of the Society shows a multitude of useful subjects which it has from time to time considered. The record of the last meet- ing at which Franklin presided and of the two meetings that took notice of his death are as follows : 1789. Oct. 2. (6 present; Franklin presiding. ) The Royal Irish Academy sent their Transactions, Vol. i. Ordered, Tbat the sec- retaries send in acknowledgment Transactions American Philosophical Society, Vols., ii. Thos. Pole, of London, sent through his brother, Ed. Pole, of Philadelphia, a letter of thanks for election, and "a description and drawing of a remarkable liimor which lately occurred in his practice." Coal, white vitriol, slate, brick, burnt slate, alum, niter, freestone, ami Indian pottery lately found in a bank near Washington were presented through Franklin by David Reddick, esq. P. Young's Essay on the Powers and Mechanisms of Nature was presented through Franklin by Samuel Mather, of London. Specimens of the Papyrus of SM.M n-c \\< n- presented by Franklin. 1790. April 23. Special meeting. Hi) present.) To consider of some testimony t' resjiect to the memory of the late illustrious President. An eulogy voted, to "be prepared by one of their members, to be pronounced be- fore this body as soon as may be convenient." Dr. Win. Smith and Dr. Rittenhouse "were highest in votes." by ballot "and had each an equal number." BENJAMIN* FRANKLIN. 1790. JYom the original in possession of the American Philosophical Society, by |*r.nissioii. FRANKLIN'S IDEAS IN EDUCATION. 18f> These gentlemen consenting that the sal. I eiilogimn nhall certainly be prepared, it is left to themselves to determine which ,( tin-in Mhall de- liver it. ' 1790. April 21. Special meeting called by the vice-presidents at 3J p. m., in the hall; twenty three members present, who "went in procession to the funeral ,HI 1( ,r late illustrious president, Dr. Benjamin Franklin." A list of the papers published in the "Transactions of the SoH.-ty" is the record of modern science. Among- the writers of tin-si- ) M | are Dr. Joseph Priestley, Edw. 1). Cope, Robert Hare (the invent. .1 .,i the blowpipe), Benjamin Franklin, S. S. Haldemau (the eminent philolo- gist), Dr. Harrison Allen, Elias Loornis (the eminent mathematician), David Eittenhouse, Ferdinand V. Hayden, Franklin Bache, John L. Leconte, Dr. Benjamin Rush, Dr. George F. Burker, Dr. S. Weir Mitchell, Joseph Henry, Dr. Caspar Wistar, Henry Phillips, jr., Dr. 11. Otis Kendall, Dr. Daniel G. Brintou, Dr. Persifor Frazer, Dr. Edgar F. Smith, Dr. Joseph Leidy, Horatio C. Wood, Alexander Winchell, O. C. Marsh, Franklin Peale, Dr. William Pepper, Edwin J. Houston, -JohnHechewelder, Thomas Jefferson, Charles Lucien Bonapii it <-. Henry Draper, B. Henry Latrobe, John W. Draper, Dupont de Nemours, Pliny E. Chase. Dr. George Hays, Joseph T. Rothrock. Among the papers are Transmission of Acids in Vapor (Priestley), Experiments on Air (Priestley), Air Pump and a New Construction f Hare), Causes and Cure of Smoky Chimneys (Franklin), Encke's Comet (Loomis), Coral Reefs (A. D. Bache), Disease of the Thorax (Wistar), Trial by Jury (Price), Stone Implements in Asia and Africa (Henry Phillips, jr.), Precipitation of Copper with Sodium Carbonate (E. F. Smith), Oxygen in the Sun (John W. Draper), Observations on Jupiter and Satellites (Kendall), Extinct Vertebrae from Nebraska (Leidy), Galvanometer Lantern (Barker), Universal Hyperostacist (William Pepper), Electro Dynamic Induction (Joseph Henry), Geology of Wyoming and Colorado (Hay den), Cretaceous Fishes of the United States and other papers (Cope), Microscopic Destructions in Woods (Rothrock). 2 The hall of the American Philosophical Society, of which an illu>t ra- tion is given, was erected in 17S~>. The east meeting room overlooks the historic, Independence Square, south of the old Statehouse, with whose associations Franklin is identified. The Franklin Institute of the State of Pennsylvania, for the .promo- tion of mechanic arts, was founded in tin- year \*-\. Its membership numbers about 2,y the Franklin Institute, Philadelphia, 1890. The Journal of the Franklin Institute. July, 1*12. Bulletins of the Franklin Institute. lsf2. Franklin Institute Announcement and Programme of Lectures, 1892-'93. FRANKLIN'S IDEAS IN EDUCATION. stitute has recently been the subject of exhaustive examination by the Hon. W. T. Harris, United States Commissioner of Kducation, and is set forth by him in his Report. 1 When, in l.si'4. tin- < -liart.-r for the Franklin Institute was obtained, the name of Franklin naturally sug- gested itself as the fittest to describe the purpose of the founding of the institute. Of its founders, Prof. Keating, professor of chemistry in the University of Pennsylvania at that time, was perhaps foreni.>j. and demonstrated that the Franklin Institute owes its existence to the labors of men who, as professors in the University of Pennsylvania, were well qualified to lay the foundation of such a noble work. While the Franklin Institute is not an offshoot of the University of lVnn>\l vania, it was founded by University men, and has always enrolled in its professional staft' and among its most active members eminent scientists connected Avith the University of Pennsylvania. I might say that the Institute has always pursued the methods laid down by Frank lin in its scientific researches, methods which, however varying, may be called comparative. To-day the medal of the Franklin Institute, whose design is a bust of Benjamin Franklin, is given in recognition of the most valuable discoveries and inventions, and to receive it is to receive the highest authoritative recognition of merit that can be obtained in this country. It will be remembered that Franklin drew up a plan for improving the condition of the free blacks, and also for the instruction, and can- of orphan children. 2 These are to be found in the " Hints for Considera tiou Eespecting the Orphan School Houses in Philadelphia/' and in his letter to Washington concerning the education of the children of the free blacks. It was Stephen Girard, who by will, in the year 1H30, first made provision in Philadelphia for the education of orphans by providing that $2,000,000 should be applied and expended in erecting a permanent college, "sufficiently spacious for the residence and coramodation of at least .300 scholars and the requisite teachers and other persons necessary in such an institution." He provided t hat- As many poor white wale orphans between thu ages of 6 and 10 yean as the aid income shall be adequate to maintain shall bo introduced into the college as HOOD as possible; and from time to time, as tin-re may be vacancies, or as increased ability from income may warrant, others shall be introduced. On application for admission a correct statement should be taken in a book prepared for the purpose of the name, birthplace, age. health, condition as to relatives, and other particulars useful to be known of each orphan. No orphan can be admitted until the guardians or directors of the poor, or the proper guardian or other competent authority, shall be 1 Seo Report of the Commissioner of Education, 1890-'91. - Spark's Life and Writings of Franklin, Vol. n, p. 513. Idem, p. !:!. Mint- for Consideration Respecting the Orphan School Houses in Philadelphia. 190 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. given for the entire relinijuishmeiit .or otherwise adequate power to the mayor, aldermen, and citizens of Philadelphia, or to the directors, or to others by them appointed, to enforce in relation to each orphan every proper restraint, and to prevent relatives or others from interfering with or withdrawing such orphans from the institution. Preference must be given, "first, to orphans born in the city of Phil- adelphia ; secondly, to those born in any other part of Pennsylvania; thirdly, to those born in the State of New York, and, lastly, to those born in the city of New Orleans." The orphans admitted into the college shall be there fed with plain lint wholesome food, clothed with plain but decent apparel (no distinctive dress ever to be worn), and lodged in plain but safe manner. Due regard shall be paid to their health, and to this end their persons and clothes shall be kept clean, and they shall have suita- ble rational exercise and recreation. They shall be instructed in the various branches of a sound education, compre- hending reading, writing, grammar, arithmetic, geography, navigation, surveying, practical mathematics, astronomy, natural, chemical, and experimental philosophy, the French and Spanish languages (I do not forbid, but I do not recommend, the Greek and Latin languages), and such other learning and science as the. capacities of the several scholars may merit or warrant. I would have them taught facts and things rather than words and signs. And especially I desire that by every proper means a pure attachment to our republican institutions and to the sacred rights of conscience, as guaranteed by our happy con- stitutions, shall be formed and fostered in the minds of the scholars. My desire is that all the instructors and teachers in the college shall take pains to instill into the minds of the scholars the various principles of morality, so that on their entrance into active life they may, from inclination and habit, evince benevo- lence towards their fellow-creatures, and a love of truth, sobriety, and industry, adopting at the same time such religious tenets as their mature reason may enable them to pr-t'i . Under the terms of this will the college buildings were begun in 1834 and finished in 1847. The institution was opened for pupils the follow- ing year. The Girard estate is under the care of the Board of Directors of City Trusts of the city of Philadelphia, and on the 31st of December, 1891, it was reported that (lirard College, ground and buildings, had cost $3,250,000, and that the total expenditure for the college for the current year was $4r>3,247.20. Academic work at < lirard College is performed by instructors selected with the utmost care, and wherever possible, after competitive examina- tions. The boys are well clothed and fed, carefully looked after in sickness by skillful physicians and competent nurses, and are, with rare exceptions, happy and contented. At the close of the year 1891, there were in the college l,.",s(i boys, as many as can be accommodated or maintained with the present income. The total number of admissions from the opening of the college in 1848 to the 31st of December, 1891, was 4,720. They leave at the age of 18 years, or younger, and their record during the last forty- four years is highly creditable to the managers of the institution. FRANKLINS IDEAS IN EDUCATION. l!ll Pmsidmt Fetterolf, in his report for December 31, ivu. sayi: In tin) work of training the boys of (Hrard College, the opportunities are many and the difficulties not few. We have the on tins control of tin- Imy. We h.i\<- him tlm-ing his hours of play, as well as during his hours of work and study. He s|M-nds his Sundays with us as well as his week days, and in most rases the greater pait ->l liis vacations. lit- loses the benefit of the homo surroundings. The softening, refining, and !. vating influence of the family fireside can not exist except in tin- honn-. To make up for this, as far as possible, is our highest aim. The boy in tin-, institution misses HM- thoughtful commendations which, in the family, would conn- to him on his daily re- turn from school, as well as the thousand little words, tokens, and offices of affection which the members of the family are naturally accustomed to give. In the institn tion boys arc taught some lessons not always inculcated in the family, such as punctn ality, prompt obedience, habits of system and order. In so large a community of boys as wo have in Girard College, there is also taught self-reliance and independ- ence. . Living always among so many, and mingling with others of different age. size, and disposition, they are early taught many lessons in bearing and forbearing, such as the boy reared in the private family has to learn later in life. The president feels that his position is that of the head of a large family as well as principal of a great school, and as such he aims to make the government parental rather than military, on the principle that he governs best who appears to govern least. He desires that the teachers and officers, in the discharge of their daily duties, should mingle with the boys as elder members of the family, whose presence implies respect, confidence, and obedience. There should be mutual sympathy, each having in inind the best interests and welfare of the other, and the result would be order and general good discipline, without having the boy constantly feel that he is l.cin^ governed. So long as there are offenses, there must be penalties; but we look upon punishments of any kind as a temporary check, rather than as a means of reform. Reformation is brought about by personal appeal, by the power of corn et example. and by any other means by which there is implanted in the boy a desire for a better life. Moral delinquencies are generally the result of moral disorders, which, like physical disorders, require individual treatment. Much is said nowadays in criticism cf institution life, and with much of it we fully agree. Every intelligent person will admit that a good home is a lietter place for a child than the best institution. Neither does the institution aim to be the rival of, or to take the place of, the family. It is only when the family is broken up and the child deprived of its natural protectors li\ death or otherwise, and the state or charity must come to his relief, that theinstitiition becomes an expedient. It should be remembered, too, that life in the family, in the institution, and in the community depends very much upon the environment, upon the spirit which pervades, upon the companions and friends the child meets. If, in the family, the father and mother and adult members are harsh, cold, and unsympathi/.ing, there will be neither happy childhood nor healthy development of character. If, in the institution, the govern- ment and instruction are in the hands of men and women of intelligence, judgment, and force of character, and the children are protected from the corrupting influence of evil companions, they may be expected to grow up to be truthful, honorable, and pure-ininded. The most potent influences in the formation of character are example and association. The young can not live in the presence of sin for any length of time and remain untainted; they can not breathe an atmosphere of evil and remain pure. It is for reasons such as these that we should remove from (iiranl Coll the vicious, the incorrigible, and the immoral. Evil communications corrupt good manners. The politic, like the body corporate, can only be kept in a healthful con- dition by removing contagious evils. No institution, no school can afford to keep bad boys. They sow corrupting seed, which spreads rapidly like a noxious weed. 192 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. ... The incorrigible boy should not be neglected, but he should be separately provided for. To permit him to mingle with other boys, young arid innocent, is unwise and unjust. Fortunately, the will of the founder is clear and explicit in its provisions on this point. The course of study in the college covers eight years. It is divided into the instruction of the first, the second, the third, and the fourth schools, the department of English, the department of French, the de- partment of Spanish, the department of natural history, the depart- ment of general physics, the department of general mathematics, and the department of graphics. In 1891 the department of electrical me- chanics was opened, to which the older and more advanced pupils of the several classes attending the mechanical school are admitted. This new department is in reality a department of manual training; the course in manual instruction covers a period of five years and to the pupils who have spent three or four years in wood working, metal working, foundry and mechanical drawing, the electrical department opens a new and practical field. Of the manual training school in the college President Fetterolf says : Our manual training school is serving an important mission in teaching boys a proper conception of manual labor. The children of the laboring classes have born and bred in them a distaste for manual labor. Their fathers, and in some cases their mothers, have had to struggle hard to make a living in tUe sphere of common labor, and they have in their minds only the dark side of the workingrnan's lot. The sons of workingmen, as a class, have no love for mechanical pursuits. They prefer the so-called genteeler occupations of the countinghouse or salesroom. The principal of the Philadelphia Manual Training School states that, less than 10 per cent of the boys and young men attending that institution are the sons of artisans. To over- come this prejudice, and to teach boys to see in manual labor opportunities for the exercise of skill and intelligence, is no small part of the work of the teacher of man- ual training. The course of study reminds one of the sketch for an English school outlined by Franklin. Probably no school in existence conforms more closely to Franklin's idea of preparatory education than Girard College; it is not known that Stephen Girard was influenced particularly by Franklin's ideas in education. William Duane, who drew Girard's will ? was a grandson of Franklin, and it may be possible that the kind of education which Girard sought to foster in his college may have been made clear to him by his conversations with Duane. There is noth ing on record, so far as we know, that will enable us to trace any close connection between the ideas of Franklin and the ideas of Girard. There is, however, the influence of environment; and Girard, consciously or unconsciously, shows the effect of that influence in the great institu- tion which he founded. Ft will be noticed that Girard limited the benefits of his generous foundations to white male orphans; as yet no similar institution exists in which children of the African race can receive their education. We think, had Franklin been planning Girard College, he would not have FRANKLIN'S IDEAS IN EDUCATION. excluded any race from (In- benefit* <>| it > inst ruction. In M i . Seller's address, already referred to, he said : Our common-school education gives us traders. giv.-s us shopki-i-| M -is. Imt it gives us no artisans. I know not if this can be remedied. Imt I do know wn n.-.-d MHIH- other training for onr sons and our daughters. Since th is was spoken in 1874 the city of Philadelphia has established manual training schools; at present, three in number. The Central Manual Training School was organ i/ed in ls,Sf>, the North- Kast Manual Training School in October, 1890, and the James Fort en Elementery Manual Training School in October, 1891. These schools are part of the public school system of Philadelphia, and are maintained by public J&xatiou. The course of study in the Central Manual Train- ing School is distributed over three years, with an optional fourth. These schools are, perhaps, of chiefest historical interest in this place. when we consider the ideas of education suggested by Franklin and by John Adams. They are the first schools which combine Franklin's and Adams's ideas the instruction of the book and industrial training. In his order of studies Franklin provided a modern curriculum by which the scholar passed from one group of studies to another. In the manual training schools the student approaches literature,* history, and. g<>\ eminent, science and mathematics, alternately with drawing and shop work. It has been found by experience in these schools that the alter- nation from, the shops (laboratories) to the recitation rooms rests the students; they are enabled to develop harmoniously the various facul- ties which they possess. The habit of observation engendered by the work in the shops is of itself valuable training, and is after Franklin's plan. It will be remembered that he did not limit the scope of education to the preparation of artificers. In his plan for an lOnglish school he said: Thus instructed, youth will come out of this school fitted for learning any busi- ness, calling, or profession, except such win-rein languages are required; but un- acquainted with any ancient or foreign tongue, they will lie masters of their owu, which is of more immediate and general use, and withal will have attained many other valuable accomplishments; the time usually spent in acquiring those lan- guages, often without success, being here employed in laying such a foundation of knowledge and ability as, properly improved, may qualify them to pass through and execute the several offices of civil life with advantage and reputation to them- selves and country. Franklin's ideas of education, based upon utilitarian philosophy, are well illustrated in the public education now afforded in the Philadd phia manual training schools. I have no doubt that they are the out growth of Franklin's ideas. Heretofore [says the principal of the Central school] 1 men have cultivated their brains at the expense of their hands, while those who worked with their hands "Seventh Report of the Manual Training Schools, pp. 117. 118, in Report of the Board of Education, Philadelphia, 1892. Report of Principal W. L. Sayre. 1180 - 13 194 THE UNIVERSITY OF I VAN I A. Licked tin- opportunity of cultivating Their minds. The busy \voildto-daydemauds tin- combination of both, and it is the aim of the manual training school to meet this want. The records of Hit- graduates of tlir school, as \\cll as of those pupils who have been under iis iulliience a shorter time, fully warrant the claims of the advocates of manual training as to its practical value in gaining a livelihood. Of the 263 graduates, fully 70 per cent are engaged iu those industrial pnianits in which a high order of intelligence as well as skill of hand is required. They are variously engaged as electricians, architects, chemists, dentists, draftsmen, en- gineers, makers of optical and mathematical instruments, plumbers, machinists, carpenters, etc. Twenty-live per cent are iu higher institutions of learning, and the remaining 6 per cent arc in business for themselves or with their parents, or are engaged as clerks or bookkeepers. The boys who have completed its course of study are equipped as builders, engineers, founders, machinists, architects, designers, manu- facturers, electricians, draftsmen, road builders, contractors, chem ists, plumbers, lithographers, superintendents of manufacturing plants, stationers and engravers, etc. ; while many are engaged in the study of law and of medicine, and of civil and mining engineering. Manual training is iu its course of development, and doubtless will in time as- sume a definite place in the educational programme of the country. As has been said, it illustrates a happy combination of the ideas of Frank- lin which tended toward the material education of artificers and of men who would know facts and things rather than signs and words, and the education of the mere book man, whose knowledge of philo- sophical principles is, perhaps, less likely to supply him with bread and butter. The Philadelphia manual training schools are the most perfectly equipped of any in the country which are under the control of the directors of the public schools. Happily, there is no discrimination in them against persons of any race or color; they are free public schools. and are carrying out the educational ideas of Franklin; if we under- stand his ideas correctly, he would favor that expenditure of money in the education of the masses which will enable them to earn their living, to be industrious and practical, and who may. by such education.be qualified to ''pass through and execute the several offices of civil life with advantage and reputation to then selves and country." 1 Of the University of Pennsylvania the greater part of this book is the record, and the special papers describing the origin, growth, and char- acter of its various departments, carefully prepared by men eminently qualified, set forth the history of that institution clearly and adequately ; it, fulfills Franklin's idea of education. The Provost of the University, Dr. William Pepper, has briefly and comprehensively stated the scope of the I'niversity- and the history of the institution and of its several schools and departments is related by 'Conclusion of Franklin's paper on the intention of the original founders of the academy in Philadelphia June, 1789; supra. 'Chapter III. WILLIAM PEPPER. M. D.,LL. D.. PROVOST OF THE UNIVERSITY. 1881. FRANKLIN'S IDEAS IN KM ^ ION. eminent scholars identified with its work. In the>e papers m.iy be found the history of the first medical school iu America, 'of the tii -i law schools, 2 of the, origin of our now common four years' mi legate course, of the first school of finance and political economy. 'of tin- lii>t school founded to investigate the laws of health, 4 of the first school of American history and institutions, 5 established in the University in which Franklin stated the course of study should be one adapted " to such a country as our own " and of other, schools and departments equally important established and developed with ever increasing in- fluence throughout the country. Not only do these papers show I In- academic history of the University, but also its relations to Hie city t Philadelphia 6 and to the State of Pennsylvania. 7 The entire life history of this venerable institution is here faithfully told." The University during the last twelve years has bT-en developed in the various lines according to Franklin's original ideas and has more perfectly realized the large conceptions of its founder. It is interesting historically to observe the conformity of modern educational methods and plans to the plans and methods practiced or suggested by Franklin in the eighteenth century. He was generations ahead of his time. The University is conspicuously among the fruits of his labors, and I can not conclude this sketch of Franklin as an educator in a more fitting way than to give the history of the University of Pennsylvania, more particularly during the last decade, showing how the institution in its multitudinous development has conformed to the living wants of tin- times and has been, and is, the realization of the University idea. On the 22d of February, 1881, Dr. William Pepper was inaugurated Provost of the University. Dr. Pepper was born in Philadelphia. August 21, 1843, the sou of Dr. William Pepper, a distinguished physi- cian who held the chair of theory and practice of medicine iu the Uni- versity from 1860 to 1864. He graduated in the Department of Arts in 1862 and in medicine in 1864. He entered at once upon the practice of his profession, in which he has achieved the highest distinction lxth as a practitioner and a teacher. In 1868 he became lecturer on morbid anatomy, lecturer on clinical medicine in 1870, professor of clinical med- icine in 1876, and professor of the theory and practice of medicine iu 1887. The creation of the University Hospital in 1872 was largely due to his energetic advocacy, his untiring diligence, and his executive ability as chairman of the commission formed for that purpose, and during the successful accomplishment of this great work these, qualities became known to the men who were called upon to select a successor to 1'rovost Stille. Occupied as he was with a very large practice, with 1 Chapter VIII. -Chapter IX. 'Chapter XII. Chapter XIX. * Chapter XVIII. &ChapterVI. 'Chapter V. "The Historical Sketch of the University ly Mr. Stewart 1. rings the history of (he institution to the close of the administration of Provost Stillo in 1880. (See chapter IV.) 196 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. his duties as a clinical professor, and with contributions to medical lit- erature, his acceptance of the proypstehip was a serious matter: only after the trustees had given him assurance of the earnestness of their support by changes in the statutes which materially added to the dig- nity and efficiency of the office did he consent to assume its responsi- bilities. The grand scheme of a University proposed by Franklin a hundred and thirty years before wa only "a proposal for the education of youth in Pennsylvania,'' quite forgotten and feebly executed in some of its parts till the administration of Provost Pepper. Perhaps the phenomenal growth of the University since 1881 is attrib- utable mainly to Dr. Pepper himself, whose mind and methods are re- markably like the mind and methods of Franklin himself. A mind sci- entific in its prescience, accurate in its application, with reserved powers seemingly inexhaustible, serene in difficulties ; boldly original and prac- tical in action; with methods founded on a profound knowledge of hu- man nature ; possessing the confidence of the community and using that support as a powerful educational fulcrum ; himself foremost in gener- ous gifts to the University? and inspiring a life in the institution which it had never known before. Dr. Pepper since the moment of his suc- cession to the provostship has wrought a unification and an organiza- tion of the University which is the concrete expression and the academic proof of the profound sagacity of Benjamin Franklin's plans for a Uni- versity. This vast work of unification and organization has progressed system atically, quietly, and efficiently. It has known but one end and aim, the total efficiency of the University. Vast sums of money have been collected and expended in buildings, faculties have been orgaui/ed, special schools have been founded, and innumerable accessories, tribu- taries, and parts, related in various ways to the University organiza- tion now comprise a functional whole the University. IVIuch of the brilliant success of Provost Pepper's administration has been due to the unfailing and cordial support of the trustees and of the professors in all departments. Especial recognition should be given to the earnest and successful labors of the deans of the various depart- ments. The office of dean has been promoted, at Dr. Pepper's especial request, to one of much greater dignity and authority than formerly. When it was found, in 1881, that in spite of the great influence of t he late Mr. John Welsh, then Chairman of the Committee on Ways and Means, and of the activity of Provost Stille, the enlarged operations of the I" Diversity, during the date of 1871 to 1881, had resulted in an ac- cumulated floating debt of over $450,000, it required rare courage to decide upon the continuance of a progressive and liberal policy. The result has proved the wisdom of the decision. When, in 1886, Mr. Welsh died, Mr. Charles C. Harrison, who had been a member of the Board since 1876, was unanimously chosen to succeed him as Chairman FRANKLIN'S IDF.AS i\ EDUCATJ< of the Committee on Ways and Means. Mr. Harrison to a graduate of the college department (class of 1802), and from the time of hi> election as a trustee liad manifested the strongest interest in the work and pros perity of the University, and had rendered effective service in several ol\the standing committees. In the highly responsible ]>ositiou of Chairman of the Committee on Ways and Means he has been unspar- ing in time, thought, and labor, in guarding the financial interests of the institution, and in aiding to provide the resources lor each of its progressive movements. His active interest and large social inilucn. .- have also had a far wider range. In nearly every enterprise, whether of education or beneficence, which has marked these years of activity, he has been a participant and an influential adviser. The formal statement of millions collected and spent, of professors Delected, of buildings erected, of courses newly arranged, of departments strengthened, or organization conducing to the welfare of the University perfected, fails to present the living power of the University to-day which characterizes its work and its service ; since 1881 it has divided public attention with the three older colleges of the country. In 1884 the academic council was established, consisting of all the faculties, "which shall be convened by the Provost to consider quo tions relative to the general interests of the University." The Faculty in Philosophy, organized in 1882, conducts postgraduate studies, and is composed out of the various departmental faculties. In the same year the Central Committee of the Alumni was created, to which is granted the power of nomination of trustees on occasion of every third vacancy. The ceaseless activity of Provost Pepper is suggested by the found- ing and equipment since 1881 of the following departments or schools: (1) The Department of Finance and Economy 1 (The Wharton School i. 1881. (2) The Department of Philosophy, (Graduate), 2 1883. (3) The Department (School) of Veterinary Medicine, 3 L882i (4) The Department (School) of Biology, 4 1883. (5) The Department of Physical Kducation, 5 1>^-"-. (6) The Department of Archieology and Pal;eontoloo\ . 1889. (7) The Department (School) of Hygiene, 7 1801. (8) The Department for Women (Graduate School),' 1S!H. (9) The School of American History and Institutions.' is-.U. (10) The School of Architecture," 1 1SJM. (11) The School for Nurses in the University Hospital. 11 l-^-. (12) The Veterinary Hospital, 1 - 1883. (13) The Marine Laboratory at Sea Isle City, 1J 1891. i Chapter XII. * Chapter XVII. 'Chapter XV. Chapter XIII. 5 Chapter XV I. "Chapter XX. 'Chapter XIX. "dhapterXXI. 9 Chapter XVIII. I0 Chapter XX III. Chapter XIV. Chapter XV. '? Chapter XIII. 198 THI. rXIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. (14) The \Vistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology, 1892; and the University Library building, 1 and extensive collections in archaeology, and in special libraries. 1891. Of these departments, those numbered 3, 4, 7, 8, 12, 13, and 14 have buildings erected since 1881, and costing in the aggregate, with tlueir respective material equipments, above $850,000. In addition to this departmental enlargement of the University dur- ing this time new courses have been created : (1) 111 the College Department, Courses in Xatural History and in Architecture. 2 (2) In the Law School, courses in law, constituting a Postgraduate Department. 3 (3) The course of the Medical School has been extended to four years, to take effect in 1893 by action of the Board of Trustees, February i',^ isirj. 4 This important action was secured by the personal effort of Provost Pepper, who personally contributed $50,000 to the endowment fund needed for the sure establishment of the advanced curriculum. (4) The Dental courses have been extended to three years, by action of the Board of Trustees, January 7, 1890. 5 (5) The course in the Law School has been extended to three years. All these organic changes have increased the efficiency of the Uni- versity, but that efficiency has been still further in creased by the crea- tion of several cooperative associations composed partly of trustees and officers of the University and partly of other citizens. These associa- tions are: (1) The University Lecture Association, established in 1887, through which eminent lecturers are secured, often at large cost, and their lec- tures made accessible to the students, and. on payment of a small fee, to the general public. (2) The University Archaeological Association, established in 1889, whose membership is active in adding to the Museum of Archa-olo^y specimens in the American, Babylonian, and Egyptian departments, and in promoting research and publications ,,n the archa-ology of the si- several fields. (3) The Board of Managers of the Veterinary Hospital, whose tnnr tioiis are similar to those of the Board of the Medical Hospital. (4) The Board of Managers of the Graduate School for Women. Chapter JX. 'Chapter \ III s Chapter XI. FRANKLIN'S IDEAS IN EIMVATI chiefly supplied with lecturers from (he I'niver.sil y stall' for tin- \. extensive work in which it is engaged. (7) Cooperation with other colleges in the establishment in 1887 ot the College Association of the Middle States and of Maryland, an M elation which has had great influence in simplifying the work of higher education in these States. During the present administration the University has won distinc- tion through the work of members of its faculties and its as.M.ci:, .such as (1) .An extensive study of animal locomotion by means of instanta- neous photography, undertaken by a commission at an expense of .< '>."), 000, all<1 resulting in the publication of some 700 large plates made by Mr. Eadweard Muybridge. , (2) The work and report of the Seybert Commission on spiritualism, published in 1887. (3) The organization and conduct by another commission at an ex- pense of $45,000 of an expedition to Babylon, securing an invaluable collection of inscriptions for the Museum, the editing of which is now in progress, and awaited with keen interest by students of Assyriology. (4) The support and regular publication of University periodicals, issued from the University of Pennsylvania Press, namely: The Uni- versity Medical Magazine, The Annals of Surgery, The Annals of Hy- giene, The Annals of Gynecology and Pallia try, The Wharton School Annals, The University of Pennsylvania Philosophical Series, The Series in Philology, Literature, Archaeology, Botany and Zoology. (5) The organization of the American Academy of Political and Social Science by University professors, which issues its u Annals" bimonthly. It is, however, independent of the 1'ni \ersity. (6) The Provost's reports, the publication of which was instituted by Provost Pepper in 1883, which give details of administrative work, discussions of University policy, with treasurer's reports appended. (7) The introduction of seminaries in the Depart mentsof 1'liilosophy. Social Science, Economics, American History and Institutions, in Kng- lish Literature, Chemistry, etc. (8) The Institution of the University Chaplaincy, in 1891, by the ap- pointment, at the Provost's suggestion, of University chaplains, chosen from clergymen of various denominations. One of the chaplains, the Rev. George Dana Boardman, T,L. n.. gave two \\inter courses of Sun- day afternoon addresses in the Chapel of the I'niversity: One on tin- Ten Commandments (1889), the other on the Minor Prophets ( ISJX)). The results of this religions work are eminently satisfactory. (9) The organization of "the University of Pennsylvania Young Men's Christian Association" for the special advantage of college stu- dents. Since 1881 more than 25 acres of land, in addition to that previously 200 THE r.MVr.KSITV OF PENNSYLVANIA. purchased m West Philadelphia, liave been acquired by the University as follows : l (1) A plot bounded by Woodland avenue, Spruce street, Thirty- -sixth street, Guardian avenue, and Woodland Cemetery. (2) A plot bounded by Woodland avenue, Spruce street, Thirty-sixth street, and city police station. (3) A plot bounded by South street, the connecting railroad, Marston street, and Thirty-fourth street. (4) The ground Avith buildings thereon at the southeast corner of Thirty-fourth and South streets, as well as a plot of ground for the .Marine Biological Laboratory at Sea Isle City, N. J. The buildings erected during Dr. Pepper's administration are: 2 (I) The Gibson wing (of the University Hospital) for Chronic Dis- eases, 1883. (2) The Curses' Home, 1888. (3) The Veterinary College, 1883. (4) The Veterinary Hospital, 1884. (5) The Biological School building, 1884. (6) The University Library building, 1891. (7) Two pavilions for Maternity Hospitals, 1888 and 1890. (8) The Mortuary Chapel, 1890. (9) The Marine Laboratory at Sea Isle City, 1891. (10) The Laboratory (school) of Hygiene, 1892. (II) The Hospital for Dogs and other small animals on the veterinary grounds,' 1892. (12) The Central Heat and Light Station, 1892. (13) The Wistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology, 1892-'93. The ground bounded by Spruce street, Thirty-sixth street, Pine street, and Thirty-seventh street has been devoted to athletics, has been graded, laid out, and proper buildings erected; and a temporary restaurant building has been erected in the rear of College Hall. The increase in material equipment in the University during the last decade has effected the teaching force and the attendance of the Uni- versity; since 1881 both the number and professors and instructors and the number of students has doubled, reaching in 1893 the number of 247 professors and instructors, and of 2027 students. 3 "See accompanying plan of flic I 'niviTsit v ^rounds. : 8ee illustrations of these buildings. ;; A table is appended showing teaching force and number <>f sludi nt- by di-cadrs, beginning in 1831 and ending with 1892-'93. FRANKLIN'S IDF.AS IN 1.1.1. \n,,\ ProfeaHora and iiiHtruct> Decade ending College. Medicine. Law. Dentistry. .nary. Hyirftte. Total. 1831 7 10 13 16 a 81 '.' 7 11 10 14 47 106 16 It 20 33 VJ ' 1S11 1851 I 3 3 5 11 IStil 1871 l.^SI 23 36 IS'.I'J Jl 3 HI Illl I II In. 1831 125 410 ! 535 1841 116 410 -, ., 1851 95 466 25 M 186] 140 465 71 1871 ... 187 330 62 57V 1881 287 436 140 109 H ' 1892 614 845 1217 153 UJ 8 2,065 ! "Including 92 post-graduate students in residence. The aggregate value of the grounds and buildings used by f h<- University and belonging to it, exclusive of other realty, is about $2,500,000; and the approximate value of the material equipment of the various departments, including libraries, museums, apparatus, dr., is about $600,000, making a total of $3,100,000. The vested. funds ot the University amount to $1,600,000, making a grand total of $4,700,000. The benefactions since 1881 to the University and its hospitals have amounted to $2,500,000. The greater part of this total estate has been obtained since 1881. The whole history of the University now culminating in the record of one hundred and fifty years is the conservative but living response to the large plan of its founder. The lofty title of University was first used in this country when in 1779 it was conferred upon this institution by the legislature of Penn- sylvania. It may now be further claimed that the experit'iic.- of tin- University of Pennsylvania culminates in the establishment of tin- tact . of so much importance to our American civilization, that oilr great cit i-s afford peculiar advantages for the development of universities of tin- most comprehensive type. There is no doubt that the institutions are now, as never before, potent influences in eonilncing to wholesome mu nicipal life. They are centers of learning, of practical skill, and of an ever-broadening culture among tin 1 people, and the response to their wants is evident from the splendid progress they are making with the aid of private munificence, nor is there doubt that these institutions have scarcely more than passed the threshold of their shvngth and usefulness. 'Fur th.- :iltfiiF PKNNSTLVANIA. 1'nirt rxiti/ of J'< Hitxylniitiu : TttbJr slimi-lny uttciuluiive from 17 4n to JS'9:?, inclusive. [Nuiiilier of countries anil States, 113; totals, (JO. 747.] State or country. K O I - J a> i~ V g I T g 00 9 3 fO T - 2 s i o 00 oo 1 S ss m 00 I H Alabama and Mississippi - 4 6 61 2 230 14 363 41 326 49 20 24 ] 21 23 30 :;i 8 " 16 8 215 58 7.i n 76 120 132 260 573 ' 319 62 263 94 76 1 2 17 1 50 28 131 72 1 15 22 45 3 6 27 32 6 4 8 1.061 1*1 4 c: 1C 12 l.OUC 447 068 138 1.134 313 1.434 232 J 7>i2 1,029 3. 134 72J 44 J!t ;V>4 . 101 4 8 27 2 100 91 399 78 1 38 39 88 5 9 35 43 10 6 20 555 T2 District of Co)umbia( U.S. 2 IM Iowa. Kansas, and Ne- Kentncky and Tennessee . Louisiana, Texas, and In- dian Territoiy i:; 83 1 286 n:> 5 is:, B7 45 221 93 441 3 45 30 100 20 46 236 86 483 25 159 54 110 2 111 173 123 542 64 1 37 206 Michigan, Minnesota, and Wisconsin (6) 6 15 4 4 ia 90 10 81 38 106 29 176 New York North Carolina and South Ohio, Indiana, and Illi- Oregon and Wa8hinton . 171 158 3 443 216 510 367 1,279 1,084 1.669 1 156 1.451 968 2,:'.66 2,482 7:i:( 344 > Virginia and West Vir- ginia Argentine Kepublic and 1 > i Australia and Pacific is- lands (f) Belgium aud Holland Brazil 4 4 42 1 J'ritish Isles (g) ... ] 1 8 3 21 20 K :;:: :il 6 46 1 15 China 1 ! 4 2 12 4 ; 16 9 10 1 2 1 Germany and Austria (k) . 2 1 8 9 4 2 ad Den- 1 1 Turkey. Armenia, and Ss'ria 12 !l Vene/.iielaand < ,'loniliia \ <-ar'-> courses, ami not neeessaiily individuals In attendance. Owing to the varying lengths of coiii>c- \ study at times during' the history of the University, two, tin-re, tour, live years, it is difficult, if not impossible, to determine from the reeords tin- exact number of individuals who have attended the I'niversity from 1740 to 1892. As equipment had to be made during that time for the whole number of students in attendance, whether they remained tin entire or for partial courses, the number above, 00,747, represents p: tically the attendance upon the University. The charity schools, out ol' which the University grew, as shown in the chapters on Franklin by the editor, and by the papers by Judge Pennypacker and Mr. Stewart, were organized in 1740 and ceased in 1870. From I he catalogues extant, from scattering records, and from conservative estimates the attendance in them is stated to be 15,182. This at tendance was chiefly from Penn- sylvania. The catalogues of the'college department before 1806 are in- complete and the attendance in the college during that period is tin- number of the alumni for the period and is, therefore, about one-halt of the actual attendance. It is believed, therefore, that the final total above, 60,747, falls considerably below the real figure were the data accurately known. EDITOR. CHAPTER III. THE SCOPE OF THE UNIVERSITY. The organization of the University of Pennsylvania has proved it^-lf capable of assimilation and development. Its early form was deter- mined by controversies between the State and the college of 17f>."i, which are described fully elsewhere. From this struggle, which lasted from 1779 to 1791, the University emerged with a charter and organization bearing traces of political and religious concessions. The governor of the Commonwealth becomes by virtue of his office a member and Presi- dent of the Board of Trustees. This board consists of twenty-four members, in addition to the governor for the time being; they consti- tute "a corporation and body politick, in law and in fact," with power of continuance by filling vacancies in their number. The spoliative act of Assembly of 1779 sought to enforce religious equality in the board by providing that the senior ministers of the Episcopal, Presl>y- terian, Baptist, Lutheran, German Calvinist and Roman churches in the city of Philadelphia should be members. Although this provision is not explicitly embodied in the act of 1791, which is the final act of fundamental legislation affecting the grant of rights to the University, it maybe asserted that careful regard has always been had for its spirit and intention. At the present time, the board contains repre- sentatives of the following religious bodies, named in alphabetical order: Baptists, Episcopalians, Lutherans, Presbyterians, (Quakers, Roman Catholics, and Unitarians. It is needless to enlarge upon the further simple statement that denominational considerations have no influence in the policy of the University or in the selection of its officers of instruction. It is partly due to the location of the University in a large city with abounding opportunities for religious worship, and partly to the ab- sence of any predominant denominational influence, that the official religious activity of the University has hitherto been limited to an obligatory daily chapel service for the College Department only, and an annual baccalaureate sermon to its graduating classes. In 1888 it was provided that graduates of the University who should after gradua tion have pursued an approved course of study in a theological sem- inary might receive the degree of bachelor of divinity. At the com- mencement in 1891 this degree was conferred on three such candidates. 205 20f> THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. It is impossible to avoid an expression of the hope that ere long funds will bo available to realize the cherished plan of a Department of Theology organi/.ed upou the highest plane of scholarship and efficiency with a University church upon the grounds, and a corps of University chaplains serving in rotation. 1 The principle of government of the University is by committees whose reports and recommendations are submitted to the full Board of Trustees. As each successive department has been grafted on the central body, a standing committee has been created to exercise super- vision over, and to promote the development of the new work. At the present time the number of these standing committees is as follows : (1) On the School of Arts. (2) On the Towne Scientific School. (3) On the School of Biology. (4) On the Wharton School of Finance and Economy. (5) On the School of American Institutions and History. The above in connection with certain additional courses, such as that in architecture, constitute the College Department. These committees often meet in joint session. (6) On the Department of Medicine and on the Auxiliary Depart- ment of Medicine. (7) On the University Hospital. (8) On the Department of Law. (0) On the Department of Dentistry. (10) On the Department of Veterinary Medicine. (11) On the Department of Physical Education. (12) On the Graduate Department for Women. (13) On the Department of Hygiene. (14) On the Laboratory of Marine Zoology. ( 1">) On the Museum of Archaeology and Paleontology. (10) On the University Library, In addition to these, there are the two great business committees of the board. (17) On Buildings, Estates, and Property, and (18) On Ways and Means. All of these standing committees, with the exception of the last one, are appointed annually by the Provost at the January meeting of the loard. Tin- < 'onimittee on Ways and Means is elected by ballot at the same meeting. The large size of t lie board renders it po>sillc to >ccure the repre- sentation of each leading department by one or more men with special knowledge of and active interest in its affairs. This mode of govern- 'I am happy to be able, to :ninonnoe that on January 1, 1892, a staff of University Chaplains, five in number, nti-rcd upon their official duties, which consist in serv- ing in rotation in the rondiift of chapi-l service and in daily attendance at the Col- lege Department for consultation with the students. THE SCOPE OF THE UNIVERSITY. 'Jn7 ment seems eminently adapted to its purposes. The committ. > are "f convenient size. All questions referred can be considered deliberately and thoroughly; if necessary, repeated meetings may be held : tin vice or the presence of members of the faculties or of outbid.- expert - may be secured; so that the reports made to the Board of Tru> habitually represent the final and united judgment of competent an thorities, and such their consideration by the board, though frank and free, usually results in adoption, or at least, in recommittal tin- further study by unanimous consent. An acrimonious debate or the decision of any important question by a close vote is unknown. It would be accepted as proof that the subject needed further careful and impartial consideration in committee. The above list of the committees indicates the large ami ever widen- ing scope of the work undertaken by the University. It suggests also the large responsibilities assumed by the board. Doubtless there was a time when the position of trustee of the University was simply an honorable sinecure- but of late years the quickened intellectual life of the community, the increasingly numerous and varied demands upon our great institutions of learning and t In- closer competition between these latter, have been exacting more and more close attention to the educational and financial interests of tin- University. Not only frm this aspect is- it advantageous to have our'great educational institutions in large cities. The members of tin- governing body are able to bestow much more close and constant care than would otherwise be possible. Moreover, under such conditions the services of the highest talent can always be secured in the faculties of the various professional schools, since one can practice, his profession actively while holding a professorship. It is unnecessary to dwell upon the many conspicuous examples furnished by all of these schools in our University. Further, an opportunity is afforded to associate in various fields of university work many able men and women who are not members either of the board or of the faculties.' It is impossible to overestimate the value of the reinforcement that may thus be secured. The vigorous and elastic organization of the University presents many good illustrations of this principle. For example, the gratifying i perity of the University Hospital is chiefly due to the fact that from its inception the management has been entrusted to a separate board, con raining only a minority of trustees, while the majority comprise n-pre sentatives of the medical faculty, of the contributors, and of the Board -of Women Visitors. It seems clear that if the establishment and management of this important branch of the University work had devolved exclusively on the Board of Trustees it would have been an onerous addition to their large responsibilities. No less marked has been the success following a similar method of organization for the Museums of Archeology and Palaeontology. An association with numerous membership has been formed ; and the board 208 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. of managers, the council, and the executive committees in charge of tin- Assyrian, the Egyptian, the Oriental, and the American fields of research and collection, comprise representatives of the trustees, of the faculties, and of the association. No department has shownmore gratify- ing vigor and growth than this. These allusions indicate sufficiently the relations which the Uni- versity maintains with the community. The conception which has been formed is that it should be the center of the literary and scientific activity of the city and, as far as possible, of the State; that it should provide ample fireproof accommodation not only for extensive libraries, but for scientific and artistic collections ; that these should not only be available to the students of the University but to all scholars and investigators; and, finally, that endowments must be accumulated for the support of such scholars of distinction and for the publication of the original papers produced by them and by members of the faculties. From the first it was distinctly contemplated by Franklin and the sagacious men associated with him in the foundation of the University that its instruction should be specifically arranged in courses with a view to the subsequent avocations of the students. Unhappily lost sight of at various periods, this has been, on the whole, a leading principle in the development of the University of Pennsylvania. Not until recently, however, has it been possible to embody it upon an adequate scale. When the late John Henry Towne bequeathed a large sum the largest amount given in this country by any individual to an educational institution up to that date (1875) it was used as the basis of a Scientific School, to be developed in connection with the original Department of Arts. This opened elective courses, occupying the last two years of the college curriculum, in chemistry, mining, civil and mechanical engineering, etc. The interesting experiment was for some years tried of conducting scientific courses upon these branches from the university instead of from the technological standpoint, but expe- rience has demonstrated that this is a distinction with too serious a, difference, and that to be effective as academic curricula or as a prep a ration for professional careers it is better that these courses should be equipped and conducted in a strictly and completely technical sense. The recent changes in the Towne Scientific School have all been in this direction, and have been attended with obviously good results. Especial importance has attached to the work of the School of Biology, and of the Wharton School of Finance and Economy, which are two of the most original and successful amendments to the College course introduced at the University. At the present time the instruction in the College Department has reached an advanced stage of the elective group system. The student may pursue for four years a course upon the same lines as the old classical curriculum, although the introduction of : in proved methods has modified the spirit and results greatly for the better, or he may elect out of a great number of possible variations j THE SCOPE OF TIIK T.N !\ KK'-iTY. for Instance, special groups of studies in chemistry, in engineering civil, mechanical, mining-, or electrical, in natural history, in hygiene, in architecture, in history, in finance, administration, sociology, or law, or in branches preparatory to the study of medicine. Tin- combination of a fully developed system of undergraduate instruction present ir rich choice of parallel groups of studies, with a full series of professional schools offering themselves as a natural continuation of such lines of college work, has been the most familiar conception of a university in America. To this must be added the more recent school of noii]>m- fessional postgraduate studies which are appropriately enough classed under the faculty of philosophy. It is but an arbitrary line which divides these courses leading to the degree of Doctor of Philosophy from what are commonly regarded as professional courses, since in a majority of cases, the former are pursued as a preparation for the profession of teaching, or of letters, or of journalism. No good reason appears why, at least in the case of the first of these, the entrance should not be guarded by the exaction of a suitable professional degree. A glance at our faculty of philosophy and our list of professional schools will show how extensive, and yet how symmetrical has been the development of the University in this direction. The School of Medicine was opened in 1765 by Dr. John Morgan, that of Law in 1701 by Justice James Wilson, and each was the first upon that special subject in America. As each successive school has been added, that of Dentistry, of Veterinary Medicine, of Finance and Economy, of Biology, of Hygiene, of American Institutions and History, it has either been the first fully organized Department of the kind established in connection with an AmericanUniversity, or it has quickly taken the first place as regards equipment and organization. Keference is made with conscious and justifiable pride to the record of each of these schools as presented in the chapters devoted respect- ively to them. An undoubted danger exists in the case of universities seated in large cities from the very facility with which new and tempting sub- jects of advanced study are ingrafted, new fields of scientific explora- tion and collection entered upon, even new departments countenance. 1 or commenced, in dependence upon the enthusiasm, possibly tempora i y , of a few experts and in advance of the reception by the trustees of en- dowment funds adequate to permanent maintenance. There is a fasci- nation about new subjects which tempts to a diversion of attention and energy. So that in spite of the well deserved prominence now accorded to graduate courses whether strictly professional or not, it must be held strictly in view that in our American system the rank of a university will for a long time to come be determined largely by the quality and quantity of its undergraduate work. It is a source of constant gratification to the friends of the University of Pennsylvania that such extensive and thorough work is done in the 1180 U 210 THE UNIVEii^lTY OF PENNSYLVANIA. college despite the limited amount of endowment yet acquired for that department. This result is of course chiefly due to the faithful and devoted labors of the college faculty. No educational institution can thrive unless the standard set for the faculties is a very high one, not only as regards personal character and attainments, but as regards actual teaching power and active personal interest in the success of their respective departments and in the progress of the individual student. It has always been the policy of the University to entrust to each faculty, and to the college faculty fully a's much as to any other, a large share of authority and responsibility in dealing with all ques- tions pertaining to its department. Indeed, formerly the Medical and Law Schools were in large measure independent institutions. But of recent years important organic changes have been made which have resulted in unifying the entire University, the administration of which is now simple and uniform. Allusion has been made to the standing committees of the trustees upon each department. The connection between these committees and the faculties is effected by the deans and the provost. The dignity and influence of the office of dean have been enhanced. Formerly there were marked differences between the various faculties in this respect; but recently the office has been made one of trustee appointment, so that the deans are associated with the provost as official channels of communication between the trustees and the faculties. The advantage or this seems obvious. The most accurate and impartial man in the office of provost may well have his judgment warped or his information upon some point or other incomplete, and this danger is greatly lessened by having the benefit of the deans' presence at the committee meetings where professional appointments and important questions of policy or expenditure are under discussion. The general supervision of the buildings of each department, as well as the appointment and direction of all employe's, devolve upon the re- spective deiins. In the absence of the provost they preside at faculty meetings. They are expected to be thoroughly familiar with the effi- ciency of each professor's work, and to report thereupon to the provost as often as may be desirable. All questions of discipline come under the direct jurisdiction of the dean. He is aided by an executive com- mittee of the faculty, and in all grave cases the advice of the provost must be sought, and his decision is practically final. It speaks elo- quently for the good moral tone of the entire body of students that of -late years serious questions of discipline have been of extreme and steadily increasing rarity. It will be readily gathered from the previous description of the or- gani/ation of the University that the duties of the provost of the Uni versity of Pennsylvania differ widely from those which pertained to the traditional president of an American college. Originally he was in effect the dean of the College Department, with the added duty of pre- Tin; SCOPE OF THE UNIVERSITY. I'll siding at commencements and of conferring all degree-, lie did not even attend the meetings of the Board of Trustees nor of ite commit t . During Dr. S tillers tenure of office the provost became a regular ;it tendant at the board meetings and wasmade the president and presiding officer of all faculties. These important steps were followed by still more considerable modi- fications in 1880, when, on the election of the present incumbent to the position of provost, extensive changes were made in the statutes of tin- University. It has already been stated that the Governor of the Com mon wealth is ex officio the president of the Board of Trustees; but in fact the absorbing nature of his other official duties has for many years made it impossible for any governor even to take his seat at a inert ing of the trustees.- The provost was in 1880 made the president pro / of the board, with the duty of presiding at all of its meetings and of ap- pointing all committees with exception of that on Ways and Means, which is elected. The title of provost was after mature consideration retained on ac- count of its historical value and traditional significance. No other instance occurs to us of the use of this title in academic circles in America. This officer has thus become the chief executive of the institution. His relations with the trustees in the transaction of all business, his position in every one of the numerous faculties and in all of the organ- izations which owe their existence to- the trustees, make it manifestly impossible that he should act as an expert upon all the educational questions which arise, or should attend to the working details of all the departments. He must act as the representative of the entire I'ni- versity in its relations Avith the community, and must explain and ad- vocate the various educational movements initiated. Standing between the trustees and the faculties he must in a pe- culiar sense, and despite the vast importance of the committees of tin- board and of the newly developed deauships, possess the confidence nf the board, the faculties, and the alumni as a fair and impartial admin- istrator whose sole object is the welfare of the institution over which he is called to preside. The relations of the University to the State are highly interesting. A careful consideration of the chapter upon this subject in tin- present volume is especially recommended. It is to be hoped that the ancient historical basis for a cordial and intimate, connection between them, the series of liberal enactments by the legislature in behalf of the Uni- versity, the scrupulous good faith always shown by the latter in the discharge of every obligation connected with these benefactions, will lead to still more close relations, since such will surely be mutually advantageous. The cordial support of the aluinui is indeed an indispensable condi- tion, of complete success for the administration of any American uui- 21*2 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. versity. The Board of Trustees 1ms. ;is is already manifest, acted with great wisdom in voluntarily enacting the necessary statutes to create a central committee of the alumni of all departments and to give to this body the power to fill every third vacancy in the trustees by pre- senting nominations from which the board elects. The large share in the actual administration thus secured; the further right of the central committee of alumni to appoint special committees to examine and submit reports on the operation of each department, which reports are forwarded to the trustees, and finally the creation of the athletic asso- ciation, largely under the control of the alumni, which has charge of this important branch of the students' interests, have aroused a deep and active interest among the alumni in all parts which is already producing a happy influence upon the progress and prosperity of the University. Among the interesting questions which present themselves to every college, and especially to each one seated in a large city, is that of the educational facilities which it should extend to youqg women. The policy of the University of Pennsylvania in regard to this question is quite definite. It is held to be unwise at present to open the under- graduate classes to the admission of girls as full students and candi- dates for the B. A. degree. It is unnecessary to enter into a full discussion of the potent reasons which support this view. At the same time there have been for fifteen years certain classes and certain laboratory work open to girls as special students, and the income of a special trust fund has, in accordance with the terms of the gift, been expended to aid such female students as were preparing to be teach ers. In 1890 a highly important step was taken by the acceptance of a valuable property immediately adjoining the University grounds as a hall of residence for women students, and by the adoption of a report providing for a graduate department for women. In May, 1892, this department was opened formally with appropriate ceremonies. Eight fellowships were offered for the year lX9i'-'93. It is hoped that the establishment of this department which will open to women all the courses of advanced study in the faculty of philos- ophy with the opportunity of acquiring the highest academic degree (Doctor of Philosophy) will be found to solve the important problem of providing University teaching for women and thus to prove a most valuable advance in educational methods. The original design of the I'niversity of Pennsylvania was that it should be the center of the higher educational system of the State, with a series of colleges established at various points, all of which should maintain an organic connection with the University. Political dissen- sions and the lack of a vigorous policy on the part of the University soon rendered it liighly improbable that this would ever be fully real ized. But it remains true that, owing to the official position of the Governor as the president of the University, and owing to the numer- THE SCOPE OF THE UNIVERSITY. '2 \ '.', ons weighty obligations assumed and regularly discharged by the Uni- versity, this corporation should be regarded as in strict sense a State institution and should be entitled to corn-spun. ling treatment by suc- cessive legislatures. The relations of the University to the City of Philadelphia are pecu- liarly interesting, owing to the arrangement effected in is.s-j. by which in return for a tract of ground of but little value to the city, but absolutely essential to the future development of the University, 50 prize scholar ships were established in perpetuity to be awarded to students of the public schools of Philadelphia. This arrangement is working most happily. The award is made on the reasonably fair basis of the gradua tion averages of students from the Central High School and the Central Manual Training School, so that these valuable prizes actual!) >er\ .- powerful stimuli to the entire body of scholars in all grades of the pub- lic schools of the city. Important obligations to tin- city as \\. II as to the State have also been assumed at various times by the Uni vcr>n \ Hospital. The University has covenanted to maintain a free libi of reference open to the public. By far the larger portion of the 42 acres owned by the University is held under conditions which forbid its mortgage or sale. The new Department of Hygiene will be the natural center of all work connected with the sanitary interests of the city. It is true that in accordance with legislative enactments the edu- cational buildings of the University, and such of its grounds as are actually used for educational purposes, are exempt from taxation, li is probable, however, that in the future the value of the public services rendered by the University, and the heavy charges imposed by them upon funds which are wholly devoted to maintaining a high standard of education for the benefit of the community, will lead an appreciative city and State to make annual appropriations to the University as an equivalent. It is also not impossible that with the growth of the Uni- versity property and population in West Philadelphia then- will be elected to the city councils and the State legislature direct represent;! tivesof this important constituency. The future greatness of the University of Pennsylvania was deter mined when the additional extensive tracts of ground were secured in 1872 for the hospital, and in 1882, 18SS, and 1.S8U for the general pur- poses of the institution. The one barrier to its complete development was then removed. Let no university seated in a large city imagine it can succeed supremely without ample space. The acquisition of this territory has enabled us to develop such departments as the library, the museums, the School of Veterinary Medicine, the School of Biology, the Laboratory of Hygiene, the Wistar Institute of Anatomy, and to reserve ground for others whose development is now only a question of time. It will enable us to accept, and our ability to accept will often determine the direction of such gifts, important trusts which involve the erection of separate buildings, so that the foundation shall be largely 214 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. an independent one, bearing the memorial name designated by the do- nors. It will enable us to provide 'dormitory buildings which will se- cure absolutely good sanitary conditions and the proper amount of supervision for students in residence. It has permitted ,the erection of a great centra"! station to provide all the university buildings with heat and electric lighting and forced ven- tilation and to serve at the same time as a model school of mechanical and electrical engineering. It has permitted us to place at the disposal of the athletic associa- tion the use of a fine large field, and to assign a good site for a com- plete gymnasium. Finally, it affords the opportunity for the alunini to construct on the grounds of the University a splendid memorial hall where in all future time the ceremonial functions of the University may occur, and where the swelling ranks of the alunini will muster year after year to attest ^heir loving devotion to alma mater whose grand growth in power and prosperity ami influence so largely depends upon their loyal support. CHAPTER TV. A HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE UNIVERSITY.' 1740-1881. By the middle of the eighteenth century the Province of Pennsylva- nia had reached a point in its development where it was necessary to consider what was to be done to secure a pervading and sustained in- tellectual activity within its borders. The men of that day and age had the practical conviction that progress does not consist in material pros- perity but in spiritual advancement. Education had not been over- looked in the policy of Penu. In his Frame of Government we read: The governor and provincial council shall erect and order all public schools, and encourage and reward the authors of useful sciences and laudable in- ventions in the said province. * * * And * * * a committee of maum !. education and arts, that all wicked and scandalous living may be prevenii-il. :m for all, rather than a single school for a select few, an idea which the founders of the Charitable School, fifty years later, had also in mind an idea which was never carried out in the history ol'eitlier institution. The failure of Peun's scheme of government, and the turmoil dur- ing the early part of the eighteenth century arising from the con- flicts between different political parties, for a time influenced very de- cidedly educational zeal in the province. The government, which at the outset had taken such high ground on the subject, cea-rd to ex- ert itself in behalf of education, and the several religious denomina- tions and the people themselves in neighborhood organi/ations took up the burden and planted schools as best they could throughout the grow- ing colony. As a result of this movement we find that in Philadelphia, in 1740, a charity school was established by a number of public-spirited citizens for the instruction of poor children gratis in useful literature ' For history of 1881-1892 see pp. 195-203. 216 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. and the Christian religion. This may be said to be the beginning of the University of Pennsylvania; nine years later this foundation was used for the organization of the Academy. But so far no institution existed in the province for the promotion of higher education. Feeling the im- portance for some provision to supplement the education then given in the established schools, Benjamin Franklin as early as 1743 drew up a proposal for establishing an academy and endeavored to secure the assist ance of the Rev. Richard Peters and other prominent citizens for that purpose. But Mr. Peters was not then in a position to give the neces- sary cooperation, and, owing to the disturbed condition of affairs in the province and colonies generally, the matter was left in abeyance. In 1749, at the conclusion of peace, Franklin again turned his thoughts to the affair. He secured the assistance of a number of friends, 1 many of them members of the famous Junto,' and then published his pamphlet entitled ''Proposals Relating to the Education of Youth in Pennsyl- vania." The pamphlet aroused considerable interest, and the plan as outlined commended itself to a large number of practical men from the fact that Franklin subordinated classical to English studies. He thought "the time spent in that study (Latin and Greek) might be much better employed in the education for such a country as ours." The opinion of most of the original trustees. On all sides the paper met with great favor and generous support. The result was the organization of a board of trustees, consisting of 24 of those who had subscribed to the scheme of the Academy, with Franklin as president. This body immediately set about to realize the object of the pamphlet, and nourished' by subscriptions, lotteries, and gifts the Academy was placed in a flourishing condition. The members of the board raised among themselves 2,000, and this sum was after- wards considerably increased by other similar subscriptions. Applica- tion was made to the Common Council of the city of Philadelphia for aid, and the following, from a paper drawn up and presented to this body by Franklin, 1749, sets forth the broad and generous objects had in view, and the benefits expected from the institution : 1. That the youth of Pennsylvania may havi- an opportunity of receiving a good education at home, and be under no necessity of going abroad for it, whereby not only considerable expense may bo saved to the country, but a stricter eye may be had over their morals by their friends and relations. 2. That a number of our natives will hereby be qualified to bear magistracies, and execute other public offices of trust, with reputation to themselves and country, there being at present a great want of persons so qualified in the several counties of this province; aud this is the more necessary now to be provided for by the English here, as vast numbers of foreigners are yearly imported among us, totally ignorant of our laws, customs, and language. 3. That a number of the poorer sort will hereby be qualified to act as schoolmas- ters in the country, to teach children reading, writing, arithmetic, and the grammar of their mother tongue, and being of good morals and known character, may be rec- 1 Especially Tench Francis, Thomas Hopkinson, and Mr. Peters. A HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE UM\ T.KMTY.. ' 217 ommeiuled iVoin the Academy to country schools for that purpose the countr\ fering very much at present for want of good schoolmasters, and obliged frequently to employ in their schools vicious imported servants or con<-cal-il Papist*. \vl, their bad examples and instructions often deprave the morals or corrupt tin- princi- ples of the children under their care. 4. It is thought that a good Academy erected here in Philadelphia, a healthy place, where provisions are plenty, situated in the center of the colonies, may draw numbers of students from the neighboring provinces, who must spend . unsidenililc sums among us yearly in payment for their lodging, diet, apparel, etc., which will be an advantage to our traders, artisans, and owners of houses and lands. In answer to this petition the Commoii Council agreed to give 200 in cash, and 50 per annum for five years, and. 50 additional for the right of sending one scholar each year from the Charity School to the Academy. The Charity School occupied the old building \\ hirh stands in from Fourth street near Arch, known in those days as tin- New Building. This building had been erected as a place of worship for the celebrated Whiteneld, who had been excluded from tin- ehnrclie ,,i Philadelphia, and for the use of other ministers similarly excluded. Almost every religious denomination had been concerned in its erec- tion, and Franklin and Whiteneld were among its trustees, who were selected from different sects. When the enthusiasm for White- field subsided the trustees found themselves heavily in debt. The lot had been purchased on ground-rent and money had been borrowed to finish the building. The trustees of the newly established Academy made overtures to the trustees of the new building, and mainly through the efforts of Franklin, who was a member of both boards, they were able to make arrangements'for a conditional transfer. The negotiations closed with the conveyance of the building to the Acad- emy authorities in December, 1749, on condition that the. debt, amount ing to nearly 800, should be paid, a charity school maintained, and a large hall for occasional preachers, to be kept open, forever, accord- ing to the original intention. These conditions have been complied with; and until 1877 a charity school was maintained and a room kept in the old Academy building for the convenience of itinerant preachers and new congregations. Owing to alterations which had to be made the building was not ready for occupancy immediately, and it was not until January 7, 1751, that the Academy was formally opened in its new quarters by a sermon preached by the Kev. Kit-hard !Vter>. The Academy comprised three schools, the Latin, the English, ami the mathematical, over each of which was placed a master, one of whom was the rector of the institution. The first rector was David Martin, who died very shortly after his appointment. He was succeeded by Dr. Francis Allison as master of the Latin School and rector, a po-i tion which he held for nearly a quarter of a century. The English School was neglected. The other schools were favored, especially the Latin School. In the eyes of Franklin and many of the supporters of the Academy, the English School was the one of chief import- 2 IS THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. mice. What we would call a "starving out" process was begun by which the English School was kept in a weak condition, most of the funds going to the Latin School. Seeing that there was a persistent effort making to decry the English School as useless and that the orig- inal constitutions of the Academy had not been complied with, Frank- lin protested a few months before his death in a pamphlet entitled "Observations Relative to the Intentions of the Original Founders of the Academy in Philadelphia." But by 1790 the English School was dragging out a weary existence and Franklin's protest was of no avail. One thing is plain, and that is that Franklin and the friends of the English School had a clearer idea of the nature of the education which the conditions of America required than had those of the trustees who had done all in their power to increase the importance of the Latin School at the expense of the other schools of the Academy. The ob- servations put forward in Franklin's pamphlet do not far differ in tone and emphasis from the arguments which have been urged against the old scholastic system of education. The success of the Academy was so gratifying to all interested in it that it was determined to apply for a charter. This was granted to the trustees by Thomas and Richard Penn, the proprietors, on July 13, 17.13. Desirous at the same time of enlarging the course of instruction, the trustees elected Mr. William Smith teacher of logic, rhetoric, natural and moral philosophy. Mr. Smith accepted the position and entered upon his duties at the Academy in May, 1754. The history of the in- stitution from this date, whether known as the Academy or the College, to 1779 is the history of the life of William Smith. Nothing like jus- tice has been done to the work of that man during the quarter of a century he was connected with the College of Philadelphia. The change wrought in the Academy from the time he became connected with it was indeed very great. To the three schools another, the Philosoph ical, was added in which ethics, natural philosophy, and rhetoric were taught to advanced pupils by Mr. Smith. This form of organization was pre- served for many years, in fact until the College was merged into the University. In the Philosophy School there was for some years a senior and a junior class. Some years before the Revolution mention is made of a freshman class, into which pupils from the Latin School, after due examination, were admitted. The course of instruction at this time was equal in extent to, if, in some instances, not more advanced than that usually pursued in the highest seminaries, so that there was every reason for be"lieving that since the Academy had been placed upon a collegiate basis it should have all the honors and privileges which belong to a college corporation. Reali/ing the importance of such a step, Mr. Smith and Dr. Allison suggested to the Board of Trustees the propriety of applying to the provincial government for an additional charter, changing the title of the corporation to that of "The Trus- tees of the College, Academy,, and Charitable School of Philadelphia," A HISTORICAL SKETCH 1 ' I and --iviii-- il power ' to confer'' degrees in -,n\^. ( Mi May 11. I, Governor Morris grant >d ( , the corporation a new charter coiitiniiinf the same Board of Trustees. The College and the Academy were much !.-> distinct. The College had arisen out of the Philosophy School of tin- Academy; both were under the same Board of Trustees and both were managed by the same faculty, and the students belonging to the dif- ferent departments were often mingled together in the same classes. The only distinction was that those pupils who were candidates for decrees were considered members of the College; those who attended merely the English and Mathematical Schools, without pursuing clas- sical or philosophical studies, members of the Academy. After the reorganization in 1755, the Latin and Philosophy Schools were spoken of as the College, distinct from the other schools which formed the Academy. One other important change was the substitution of .Mr. Smith for Dr. Allison as the head of the institution, the former becom- ing the provost, the latter the vice-provost. This change was made in recognition of the great services which Mr. Smith had rendered the Academy in strengthening its work and placing it upon the high basis of a collegiate institution similar to that existing at Cambridge. The first commencement of the College was held on May 17, 1757, when degrees in arts were conferred on seven young men who had completed their education within its walls. 1 Thereafter the College rose rapidly in importance. The breadth of its plans, associated with the wisdom of its management, obtained for it the support of the neighboring population, and soon it acquired a fame which drew numerous students from distant colonies. From Maryland, Virginia, and the Carolinasit received much support; and even in the West Indies it was preferred to the English universities by many of the planters aud residents. The u Plan of Education " to be pursued in the College was prepared by Mr. Smith at the request of Board of Trustees, in May, 175C, and formed for years the basis of the American College system. The period of study extended over Jhree years aud comprised readings in Juvenal, Livy, Cicero, Horace's A >* Poet tea, Quintilian, and the Tuscu Ian Questions. The Iliad, Pindar, Thucydides. Hpictetus. and Plato's De Legibus formed the work in Greek. Mathematics occupied a promi- nent position in the course of study, and during the last two years con- siderable work was done in natural philosophy, chemistry, hydrostatics. pneumatics, optics, and astronomy. Ethics and politics, natural and civil law, and history formed a group of subjects to which more than 1 The names of these earliest graduates were Paul Jackson, Jacob Darin's Francis Hopkinson, Samuel Magaw, Hugh Williamson, James Latta, and John Morgan. 220 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. usual attention was given while Provost Smith had the administration of the College in his care. It is safe to say that at that day no institution of learning in America offered a course of study equal in extent and so liberalizing in its influence as did the College of Philadelphia. Both in the advantages it offered and the actual support which it received it was, perhaps, unrivaled, certainly not surpassed, by any of the col- leges at that time existing in the colonies. Only two years after the charter was granted the number of pupils in the institution amounted to about three hundred, one-third of whom were members of the College. In the year 1763, according to a statement made by the provost, nearly four hundred individuals were receiving their education in the various branches of the institution under his charge. Fully to appreciate this we must remember the condition of affairs in the colonies at that period. The population was sparse, the country was poor and had just emerged from a long and cruel war which tested to the utmost the endurance of the America people. Such a record as the College shows in that period of storm and stress can only deepen our sense of obligation to the men who were holding up high ideals of intellectual life and endeavor at that time. At this period of its activity the College took a step that marked the beginning of a new epoch in American educational history. Later in origin than some similar institutions in the older colonies, the College of Philadelphia may nevertheless boast the honor of having established the first medical school in America. Dr. William Shippen was much interested in some such scheme for medical instruction and succeeded in obtaining the cooperation of Dr. John Morgan, one of the first grad- uates of the College, interested in the institution of a medical school in this city. Dr. Morgan was prosecuting his medical studies in England at the time and succeeded in securing the favor of several influential gentlemen in that country. He returned to Philadelphia with letters to the trustees from Mr. James Hamilton, the Rev. Richard Peters, both former presidents of the board, and from Thomas Peiin, the proprietor, strongly advising the adoption of his plan and recommending the doctor himself to their choice as one of the professors. At a special meeting, May 3, 1765, the board approved the scheme and appointed Dr. Morgan to the professorship of the theory and practice of physic. The follow- ing September Dr. William Shippen was elected professor of anatomy and surgery; and the organization was afterwards completed by the addition of Dr. Adam Kuhnas professor of botany and materia medica, and Dr. Benj. Rush, professor of chemistry. The first medical com- mencement was held on June 21, 1768, when ten men were given the degree of bachelor of medicine. The extraordinary activity of Dr. Smith succeeded in many ways in making the College a prominent institution in the province. Outside of his duties as provost he was an earnest worker in the church, in the field of science, literature, and education, and at times he took an \ HISTORICAL SKETCH OK THE UM V UiMTY. active part in the discussion of the political and social <|ii->tit peace. and was never in sympathy with either the political principles or tin- party. A long and, at times, bitter controversy arose between the a- seinbly and Dr. Smith. Thrown into Walnut-street jail, in ITSS, by thi- Provincial Assembly for publishing an alleged libel derogatory to its privileges, he undauntedly continued in prison his lectures to his < -la- the students going to the jail to meet him. All this naturalh tended to bring the College very proiniaently before the public, and caused it in the end to suffer, along with Dr. Smith and his friends, at the hands of the popular party in the Assembly. In 1759 Dr. Smith went to England to secure redress at the hands of the Proprietors for the indignities which had been heaped upon him by the Assembly. There lie was received with great honor and was given the degree of doctor of divinity by Oxford, Aberdeen, and Dublin. On his return from England, where his mission had been a success in every way, Dr. Smith found that the resources of the College were by no means adequate to sustain the growth which the institution had ex- perienced during the five years which had seen him provost. Loral support had been strained to the utmost, and there seemed, no possibility of raising any more funds. Dr. Smith assured the trustees of the favorable disposition of influential persons in England towards the College, and it was determined to send him on another voyage acr><- the Atlantic. Furnished with the proper credentials, Dr. Smith sailed for England, where he arrived early in 1762. An appeal was made to the King, to the Proprietors, and to the people of England, setting forth the needs of the College. The response to this appeal by (leorge III, the Penus, and the English people was so liberal that Dr. Smith re- turned to America with a subscription amounting to over O',IMM. Ten years later the trustees set on foot another subscription in tin- colonies, from which considerable was obtained, mainly through the efforts of Dr. Smith, who added in all about L'0.000 to the funds of the College. The ready response of the English friends of the College was acknowl- edged in an unmistakable manner. In the answer of the !'><>. ud of Trustees to the letters of the Archbishop of < 'antcrbury and Dr. Samuel Chandler, an eminent Dissenter, paying a tribute to the work of the College, after expressing its thanks for the attention which the gentle- men devoted to the prosperity of the College, adopted on June 14, 1764, a fundamental rule or declaration, which is as follows: The Trustees being ever desirous to promote the Peace and Prosperity of thin Seminary and to give Satisfaction to all its worthy Benefactors, have taken the above Letter (the Archbishop's) into serious Consideration, and perfectly approving the Sentiments therein contained, do order the same to be inserted in tlieir Hooks, that it may remain perpetually declaratory of the present in'rfr and excellent Plan of this In- stitution, which hath not only met with the approbation of tbe -real ami worthy Persouages above mentioned, but even the Royal Sanction of his Majesty himself. 222 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. They further dt< lar< that, they will keep this Plan closely in their View, and use their utmost endeavor that the same in: xm XAHI:O\VKI>, iior the members of the Church of England or those disseutiug from them (in any future Election to tin principal ojjii-i* mentioned in the aforesaid Letter ') be put on any worse Footing in this Seminary than they are at the Time of obtaining the Royal Brief. They subscribe this with their names and ordain that the same be read and subscribed by every new Trustee that shall hereafter be elected before he takes his seat in the Board. Fifteen years later this minute of the trustees, binding' themselves to preserve inviolate the original broad and liberal plan of the College, was made a pretext for abrogating its charter and privileges. The political activity of the provost was the means of draAving doAvn upon the College the wrath of the Assembly. Although Dr. Smith \v;is able to sustain his position and Avas for a time victorious OA~er his enemies, the time came Avhen they Avere only too eager to overthrow him. The opportunity arrived Avith the opening of the Revolutionary struggle and the consequent overthrow of the Proprietary Government of Penn- sylvania. The provost was Avell aware of the animus of the Assembly, and that the first effort to crush him Avould be by an attack on the Col- lege. Aside from the unpopularity of Dr. Smith, many of the trustees were known to be unfavorable to the colonial cause: some of them had left with the British troops Avhen Howe evacuated the city. The fact also that the College had been fostered by English liberality, had been largely endowed by the Proprietors, and had even enjoyed t lie favor of George III, while from the Legislature of the Province it had nothing but neglect, strengthened the feeling that it was strongly attached to the Tory interest. Nevertheless every effort Avas made to conciliate the new authorities, and no public act Avas committed Avhich could afford ground for offense. Indeed it is hard al this day to see \vhat fault could be found Avith Dr. Smith. He threw himself with great energy into t he cause of the colonists, wrote pamphlets advocating independ- ence, and preached sermons on the war; these served to cany his name from one end of the country to the other as that of a sound patriot. Invitations were extended to members of the Congress and to the State officials to attend the commencement AA r hich succeeded the first meeting of the Continental Congress; the delegates proceeded in a body from the State House to the College. To guard still further against the effects of that political excitement Avhich there Avas reason to fear might be directed fatally against the College, an effort was made to secure a continuation of the charter and privileges of the institution by a con- stitutional guaranty. In the summer of 1776, while the convention of iVnnsylA'ania \vas engaged in framing a State constitution, as advised by the Congress, Dr. Smith, in company with others interested in cor- 1 This refers to a portion of the Archbishop's letter, where, speaking of the fact that nearly every religious denomination was represented in the faculty of the Col- lege, he remarks that care should be taken to prevent any sect in the future attempt- ing to put the rest on a worse footing than they were at the time of the appeal of the College for funds. A HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE UNIVKK>m porate concerns, proposed that an article should be in-nted in MM-. -on sritiition securing t!ie inviolability of chartered 1 1-1,1,. Tin- aiti< -I.- drawn up, introduced by Franklin in the convention, and adopted. This secured to all societies "incorporated for tin- advancement ,,i ligion and learning, or for other pious or charitable purpose*," the . -n joyment of those rights and privileges of which they wen- possessed under the former laws of the Commonwealth. The College was closed during the occupation of Philadelphia by the British, and had in the meantime begun to sutler from the general de structive influences of the war. Its property had depreciated, its funds had been reduced to a very small amount, and altogether the institution was in an impoverished condition. Opened almost immediately UJKMI the departure of the British army, it wavS not lon^ before a disposit ion on the part of the public authorities was manifested to interfere in theaflan > of the institution. This was shown by a vote of the General Assembly, February 23, 1779, appointing a committee to inquire into the " present state of the College and Academy of Philadelphia, its rise, funds, etc.," and giving the committee power "to send for persons and papers for that purpose." In answer to the questions of the investigating com- mittee, Dr. Smith prepared a long paper, which was inserted in the minutes of the Board of Trustees, giving an account of the origin of the College, the motives and principles of its establishment, the success which had attended its efforts, and the state of its affairs at the time of the investigation. No action was taken by the legislature upon the report of this committee, and it adjourned without making any decision as to the future of the College. But when the 5th of July came, the commencement to be held that day was postponed at the request of Gen. Beed, president of the Executive Council of the State, who informed the trustees that some reason had been advanced in the Council against proceeding at present with the College work. Three days after this the board adopted a resolution which showed very plainly what antici- pation they had of the tight in store for them. Upon motion it was agreed that As the President of the state has thought proper to inform thin Board, through some of its members, that there are certain 1eme mode will he speedily adopted on the Tart of the Government to draw Mich their Rights in Question, in a legal way, when this Board will take the proper Steps to defend their Charter according to Law. At the opening of the next session, in the month of September, the affairs of the College were again brought before the legislature in the message of President Eeed. In that document Gen. Eeed said, refer ring to the College, that it "appears by its charter to have allied itself * * * closely to the Government of Britain by making the allegiance of its governor to that State a prerequisite to any official act," and that he could not think " the good people of this State can or ought to rest THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. satisfied or Hie protection of the Government be extended to an insti- tution framed with such attachments to the British Government, and conducted with a general inattention to the authority of the State." Following upon this message of the President of the State came the appointment of a committee of five to make further inquiry into the state of the College. This committee made a report, from which two of the members dissented, recommending a bill which should '' secure to every denomination of Christians equal privileges, and establish said College on a liberal foundation, in which the interests of American liberty and independence will be advanced and promoted, and obedience and respect to the constitution of the State preserved." Accordingly an act of assembly was passed, November 27, 1779, making void the charters of 1753 and 1755, and providing for the creation of a new cor- poration to be known by the name of " The Trustees of the University of tWe State of Pennsylvania." The report of the September committee, after repeating the charges contained in the President's message, declared that several of the trustees, having joined the British army, stood attainted as traitors, and others had not, by taking the test, qualified themselves legally to fulfill the duties of their office; that the funds of the institution were utterly inadequate to the proper support of an institution of learning, and that the original and fundamental principle; of the College, by which it was bound to afford perfect equality of privileges to all religious denominations, had not been fully maintained. The weakness of the position of the opponents of the College was glaringly apparent in the last charge. In the report of the committee reference is there made to a vote or by-law adopted by the trustees June 14, 1764, where they "departed [sic] in the management of the institution from the free and unlimited Catholicism of its original founders." On referring to this by-law it is found to be the fundamental declaration adopted by the trustees in regard to the use of the money collected in England by Dr. Smith. The other charges were just as ill founded. All oaths acknowledg- ing the royal supremacy lost their obligation upon the establishment of the new Government. Furthermore, the oaths which had been exacted from the College authorities were precisely the same as those which had been required of any one called to fill any civil office in the Prov- ince prior to the Revolution, and the trustees were therefore in exactly the same position as any one who had ever held office under t lie Crown. The test oath, which the assembly had enacted, directed that on June 13, 1777, every white person above the age of 18 should take an oath of allegiance to the State; and by another vote on April 1, 1778, enacted that all trustees, provosts, professors, and masters should take the same oath before June 1 of that year or forfeit their oMices. As a matter of fact twelve of the trustees, the provost, and all the professors of the College had taken the oath required by law Defore A HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE UNIVERSITY. L'L'.'i June 1, 1778. And by November, 1779, when the charter was taken away, the Board of Trustees had the full quota required by law, twenty- one of whom had previously taken the oath, the three who had not done so being Richard Penn, William Allen, and Dr. I'.ond. ( 'uriou>ly enough, after all that had been said in support of the abrogation of tin- College charter, and notwithstanding his allegefl disqualification. Dr. Bond was named as a trustee of the new corporation created by the act of 1779, as were also three others, who had not only not taken the oath to the State, but had just Lefore taken it to tin- King, one of whom had- served as chaplain in the British army while it occupied Phila- delphia. In addition to all this it is evident that the act of the assem- bly was unconstitutional, violating the clause of the State constitution which especially forbade the spoliation of property held for the use of churches, colleges, and hospitals. Its illegality is still further seen in holding the corporation liable for the misconduct of a trustee, it being a well settled rule that such misconduct can work no forfeiture of trust. Nor are alleged infractions of a charter to be determined by legisla- tive but by judicial proceedings. All this illustrates only too well that blindness and perversion of judgment to which the best men are liable when under the influence of violent political excitement. After all is said in extenuation of tr- action of the assembly, that it was in line with the policy of the State and for such reasons had to be carried through, nothing is plainer than that the entire proceeding was an attempt to destroy the reputation of a set of men for no other reason than they had made themselves obnox ious to the party which at last had obtained control of the State guv ernment and was determined to make its new-gained power felt. The act of 1779 was the severest blow ever given the educational inter- ests of the Commonwealth. Up to that year the State had done nothing to advance the cause of higher education and but little for that of ele mentary education. The College never fully recovered from the blow which came at a very critical period of its history; it is only within our own day that it has shown any signs of taking the place in Ann-rican education which rightly belongs to it, and which it held before the close of the last century. The newly established University of the State of Pennsylvania seems to have been ill-favored from the start. Whatever interest then- WM in higher education in Philadelphia and throughout the province in 1779 was confined almost entirely to those who were attached to the fortunes of the College. Many more resented the treatment which the College had received at the hands of the assembly, as prompted by a spirit of spoliation rather than an effort to reorganize and strengthen the only institution for higher learning in the State. Nor was the t propitious for the establishment of another institution of high ^ Men's energies were absorbed in a great political struggle, fortunes been destroyed or were in imminent danger of destruction, an 1180 15 226 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. who desired to assist a new institution found that it was altogether beyond their power. The new University had indeed a struggle for ex- istence. Efforts were made to have the legislature reconsider its action of 1779, and at the session of 1784, in September, the trustees of the College and Dr. Smith, presented a petition asking that so ninch of the act of 1779 as took' a way their estates and franchises should be re- pealed. The petition was reported favorably by the committee in charge, but when the vote was called no quorum was present; the mi- nority left the house, thus dissolving the assembly. Nothing more was done for several years, when on March 6, 1789, a bill was passed repeal- ing " so much and all such parts of an act of general assembly of this Commonwealth passed on the * * * twenty-seventh day of Novem- ber, in the year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred and seventy- nine, entitled, etc.," and stating in the preamble that the act of 1779 was "repugnant to justice, a violation of the constitution of this Com- monwealth, and dangerous in its precedent to all incorporated bodies and to the rights and franchises thereof." The College was thus re- established in its old privileges and franchises with Dr. Smith as provost. But it was found that there was no room for two rival educational institutions in the city and that the cause of higher education would be advanced by a consolidation of the College with the University. The trustees of both institutions united in an application to the assembly asking that the charters of both might be surrendered and a new cor- poration created, to be governed by a Board of Trustees composed of an equal number taken from the College and the University. The petition was favorably received, and the assembly, on September 31, 1791, passed an act uniting the University of the State of Pennsylvania and the College, Academy, and Charitable School of Philadelphia, creating a new corporation, to be known as "The Trustees of the Uni- versity of Pennsylvania." Upon the consolidation of the legal interests of two old institutions it was found rather difficult to effect a satisfactory arrangement of the internal affairs of the new institution. It was clearly out of the ques- tion, owing to the financial condition, to attempt any such expansion as would embrace all the professors and teachers who had been con- nected with the old College and the short-lived State University; and yet there were reasons why some effort should be made that would include as many of them in the new scheme as far as its purpose would permit. Notwithstanding the difficulty of the plan a reorganization was finally secured which in a measure solved the problem. Excluding the Charitable School, there were to be three "departments" the Arts, Law, and Medicine. The Department of Arts included five separate schools under the care of six professors and necessary assistants. In the Philosophy School, the nucleus of the College, there were to be two professors, one of Natural Philosophy, the other of Moral Philosophy. The four remainihg schools were each to have a distinct professor; the A HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE UNIVERSITY. "2 '21 Grammar School, a professor of Latin and Greek: the Mathematical School, a professor of mathematics; the English School, a professor of English and belles-lettres; and the German School, a professor of Ger- man and oriental languages. To fill .these six professorships, three individuals were chosen out of each of the former faculties, in con formity with the provision of the act of union by which the trustees were bound to select the officers of the new University equally from the two seminaries. The result was that but two of the late professors were omitted Dr. Smith, of the College, and Dr. Magaw, of the Uni- versity; the former, owing to age and infirmities and probably the presence of a little of the old political animosity, quietly withdrew, while the latter, fearing that he might stand in the way of his friend Dr. Andrews, who was afterwards elected vice-provost, declined a nom- ination. To complete the organization, Dr. John Kwing. who filled the chair of natural philosophy and who had been the provost oT the State University, was elected provost of the new institution. The German School was the outcome of the efforts of the German Society and of the old University authorities to meet the wants of the German population of the State. German had been a prominent stndy in the College, and in 1785 a professorship was created to carry on instruction in the same tongue throughout the whole University course. The project, though promising success at first, did not succeed. The number of German students in 1785 was 60, being in excess of the number of English students, but the next year it had dwindled down to six. In 1788 the Department was closed, and the same year saw the opening of the German College in Lancaster County, now known as Franklin and Marshall College. The Law Department, like the Medical School, was the first institu tion of its kind in America. It was the result of the efforts of the College authorities, soon after the revival of that institution, to provide legal instruction for all those who were desirous of preparing them- selves for the profession. In 1790 the Trustees of the College elected the Hon. James Wilson, a member of the board and one of the Asso- ciate Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States, Profesfwr of Law. From this dates the birth of the present Law School of the University. During Dr. Swing's term as provost there were but few changes, one of the most important being the removal of the University from its old home on Fourth street to a site nearer the center of the city. In 1791 the Legislature of Pennsylvania appropriated money for the erection of a building to be used as the residence of the President of the United States. A lot of ground was bought, situated on the west side of Ninth street and extending from Market to Chestnut streets, upon which was erected what was then considered a very handsome mansion. Though the house had been built expressly for the use of "Washington, he never occupied it, as it was not finished until 1797, and 228 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. President Adams, declining to receive favors from the Legislature, would not accept it. There being no use for the buildings, they were sold at public auction in March, 1800, and bought by the University for $41,050, less than half their original cost. After some necessary alterations, the departments were finally transferred to their new quarters in the spring of 1802, where they remained nearly three- quarters of a century. TJie same year Dr. Ewing died, and it was not until 1807 that his successor was chosen in the person of Dr. John McDowell, who the year before had been elected professor of natural philosophy. Three years had scarcely elapsed before Dr. McDowell was forced to resign through ill health and the trustees were embar- rassed whom to choose for his successor. Dr. Andrews, who had been vice-provost for nearly twenty years in the College and in the Uni- versity, was elected provost in 1810. Owing to ill health, he too was compelled to resign and the Rev. Frederick Beaseley was elected suc- cessor in July, 1813. By the time of the election of Mr. Beasley the condition of the Uni- versity was far from being satisfactory. Though the Medical Depart- ment continued to grow, the College Department received fewer students every year. In 1791 there were but twelve students in the two highest classes of the College, the numbers qualified to be graduated were in sev- eral instances so few that it was deemed unnecessary and impolitic to hold commencements, and when the practice of conferring degrees pub- licly was resumed, it not unfreqnently happened that only five or six individuals appeared as candidates for the honors. The institution came to be regarded as a seminary of inferior grade, and undoubtedly had fallen behind many others of which it had enjoyed the unques- tioned precedence. In 1810 a reorganization of the College was car- ried through, doing away with the so-called " schools," and arranging the students into three classes: freshman, junior, and senior. 1 The cur riculum was modified and rearranged, and in general made to conform to the new conditions which had arisen since the opening of the cen- tury. But in one direction the reorganization seriously weakened the College in that it abolished the last remnant of Franklin's plan for a liberal English education. Up to 1810 the professorship of English and belles-lettres was nominally on a footing with the other profes- sorships, but was in fact regarded as something of so little importance to the University that it could be abolished, and with it went what was left of the English school. In 1817 Mr. Charles W. Hare at- tempted to revive the Department of Law, which had been neglected since the death of Justice Wilson. Although it was something of a success, the project was abandoned, to be attempted again some thirty years later. The year prcccdiui:. the Hoard of Trustees created a new department to be devoted to the study of natural science. This de- partment was organized with five professors, and annual courses of 1 Shortly after this ft fourth year was atfdecl to the college course, A HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE UNIVERSITY. lectures to be publicly delivered were required by the regulations. The course of instruction embraced natural philosophy, botany, natural history, mineralogy, chemistry applied to agriculture and tin- arts, and comparative anatomy. The support given by the public, however, \\ H not sufficient to compensate for the efforts put forth, tin- pi / were badly paid, and the department soon fell into neglect. It was abolished shortly after the establishment of the Franklin Institute, in 1S24, which rendered, it was said at the time, such a department in the University u unnecessary." Mr. Beasley resigned in 1828, and was succeeded by Dr. William H. De Laiicey. During the five years of Dr. De Lancey's provostship a spirit of progress pervaded the University. When he was elected, in 1828, there were but twenty-one students in the College Department, but by 1833 the number had increased to one hundred and twenty tiv-. Called to other work, he was succeeded by Dr. John Ludlow, who re- mained in office to 1853. Among the services which Dr. Ludlow ren- dered the University was the interest taken in the second revival of the Law Department this time successful under the influence of Judge Sharswood. Henry Vethake was elected to succeed Dr. Ludlow iii 1853, and he in turn was succeeded by Dr. Daniel K. Goodwin in 1860. Dr. Goodwin was instrumental in strengthening the spirit of instruction and bringing about an air of discipline, from the lack of which the University was suffering. A new department, that known as the Auxiliary Department of Medicine, was founded in 1865, through the liberality of Dr. George B. Wood, who provided for its maintenance during his lifetime and its endowment after his death. Owing to his interest in ecclesiastical affairs Dr. Goodwin was led to resign in 1868, when Dr. Charles J. Stille was elected his successor. With the resignation of Dr. Goodwin the old regime of University administration came to an end. From E wing's day down to the elec- tion of Dr. Stille over three-quarters of a cenfury the spirit of that administration had been that of the old traditional college. Now and then there had been a little burst of enthusiasm, as under Beasley and De Lancey, only to fall into the old methods, the old ideas, and the old purposes of what was then considered the scheme of higher education in America. Dr. StillS had been elected professor of English literature in 1866, and the spirit with which he entered upon his work soon brought him to be recognized as the man who could undertake the reorganization of the University, and make it in fact as well as in name what it pi vt.-ndrd to be. The condition of the University was discouraging when Dr. StillS was elected provost in 1868. The course of study in the College Department was substantially that which had been introduced by Dr. Smith into the old College of Philadelphia in 1755. Several efforts had been made, especially in 184l>-'43 through Bishop Potter, to rt-viM- the curriculum and give it more breadth, but they resulted in failure, 230 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. and were denounced as attempts to u Germanize" our American col- 9] On.- tact alone will illustrate the degree of public interest in the University. For more than eighty years before Dr. Stille became provost the University had received but one donation, that of Mi . Elliot Cresson of $5,000, the income of which was to be devoted to aid in the instruction of drawing, a subject which was not then in the University course of study. The first great change was the revision of the curriculum and the introduction of the elective system of studies. This was proposed in December, 1866, was adopted by the Board of Trustees, and went into operation September, 1867. The board at the same time began to look to the strengthening of the financial side of the University, and appointed a committee, with Mr. John Welsh as chairman, to procure an endow- ment fund of 500,000. Unfortunately for the University, Mr. Welsh was called to the Court of St. James and the community did not respond to the appeal for endowment. In the spring of 1868, Mr. Nathaniel B. Brown brought to the notice of the board a plan by which he thought the endowment fund could be completed. He proposed that the city should be asked to sell to the University for a nominal compensation twenty-five or thirty acres of the alms-house farm in West Philadelphia, a portion of which might be used as a site for the erection of buildings suitable for the proposed and enlarged system of instruction including a Scientific School, and that the rest might be sold as occasion should present and the proceeds be paid into the endowment fund. The Board acted immediately upon this suggestion, and at a meeting held in June, 1868, appointed a special committee to inquire into the expe- diency of procuring a new site for the University buildings. The results of the labors of this special committee were gratifying to all the friends of the University, although it had not been able to secure as much assistance from the city as had been hoped for. One immedi- ate result was the passage of an ordinance by the city councils grant- ing ten acres of land in West Philadelphia, at $8,000 per acre. Prepa i at ions were made immediately for the erection of the University build- ings. Plans for new buildings were prepared by Professor Richards of the University and, after modification to suit the circumstances and the financial condition of the University, were put into execution, and the corner stone of College Hall was laid in June, 1871. Following upon this, March 5, 1872, was the adoption by the Board of a plan to reorganize the Department of Arts and to establish a Department of Science known later as the "Towne Scientific School" in recognition of the gift from the estate of Mr. John H. Towne. In July of the 'same r, the property at Ninth and Chestnut streets was sold to the United ites Government, and additional funds were thus .secured for the erec- tion of the College building, which was finished and dedicated the fol- lowing September. In 1870 the legislature had appropriated * 100,000 upon the condition A HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE UNIVERSITY. 231 that $250,000 more should be raised and the entire sum be spent upon a general hospital which was to maintain iit least two hundred tree beds. In 1873 an additional appropriation of $100,000 was made for the same purpose upon the same condition. The grant of land which the city had made in 1870 was increased by 5 acres in 1872, for the erection of the hospital. Four years from the first appropriation by the legislature the hospital was completed, and for the first time in its history the Medical Department had the means of carrying on an im- portant part of its work which had previously suffered from lack of proper clinical facilities. Another addition to the University was the Department of Music, established in 1877, and intended as a school for advanced students who desired to add to the mere ability to read and perform music a scientific acquaintance with harmony and counterpoint. As a necessary outgrowth of the scientific work of the Medical De- partment came the organization, in 1878, of the Department of Den- tistry. This department is one which commands the estimation of pro- fessional men, and during the twenty-four years of its existence has succeeded in securing a reputation which is second to none in America. One other important change during the administration of Dr. Stille was the abolition of the remaining feature of the old corporation ot 1753 the Charitable School. All that remained of the old Academy had been abolished many years before, but owing to the conditions surrounding the Charitable School it still remained in existence, not doing by any means the work intended for it by its founders. On May 1, 1877, a committee of the Board of Trustees made a report to that body in which it advised that the school be discontinued on July 1, 1877. They further recommended that the gratuitous instruction to be provided for out of the trust funds held by the University for that purpose should hereafter be given in the College building in West Philadelphia; that until otherwise ordered by the trustees, male indi- gent students under twenty-one years of age should be admitted to the Department of Arts and the Towne Scientific School, under such regula- tions as might be framed by the provost for such admission, with the approval of the Committees of the Board of Trustees on the Arts Depart- ment and the Towne Scientific School, as admission to either of said departments might require ; that the Committee on Buildings, Estates, and Property be authorized and requested to rent the school building on the lot on Fourth street, near Arch street, for such use as they may deem proper, the rent received therefrom to be appropriated for gratui- tous instruction. This report was adopted and the Charitable School ceased to exist. The fourteen years during which Dr. Stille" wa's provost saw many important changes. No man since William Smith had brought into the office of provost such energy, such zeal for the promotion of the inter- ests of the University and the intellectual life of the community in THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. which it was situated. No man had a dearer idea of what a university should he. and no man ever labored more faithfully and earnestly to achieve his ideal. When he resigned in January, 1880, everyone who reali/ed what a change had been wrought in the organization of the I'niversity during his administration deplored the loss of his services to education. 1 'In the preparation of this article frequent use lias been made of the minutes of the Board of Trustees, Wood's "History of the University," Wickersham's "History of Education in Pennsylvania," Stille's "Memoirs of William Smith," MacMaster's "Franklin as a Man of Letters," Franklin's Autobiography, Stille's "Reminiscences of a Provost," Jesse V. linrk's account of the history of the University in Scharf & Y\ , M-ott's "History of Philadelphia," and contemporary newspapers. The history of the University from 1881 to 1892 is continued by the editor in Chapter II. See page 195. J. L. S. CHAPTER V. THE UNIVERSITY IN ITS RELATIONS TO THE STATE OF PENNSYLVANIA. 1 The settlement of Pennsylvania being due to the unrest of the mem- bers of a religious sect whose advanced thought brought them into con- flict with existing conditions in England, and the moral and mental breadth of its founder having led him to offer it as a home, not only for those of his own way of thinking, but for all in that island and upon the continent who had in vain wrestled against intolerance, it was but natural that his province should attract more men of learning than other colonies whose promoters were simply seeking for profit or were bent upon the enforcement of illiberal policies. Therefore it came about that among the early colonists of Pennsylvania there were an unusual number of men of scholarly attainments, some of whom had been doughty champions upon one side or the other in the polemical warfare then being everywhere waged, a struggle necessary for and preparatory to the establishment of the principle that humanity is capable of gov- erning itself. Penu, the founder of a successful state and a practical legislator whose work has stood the test of time, as well as the most conspicuous figure among the colonizers of America, was a student of Oxford University and a profuse writer of books of verse, travel, doc- trine, and controversy which made a strong impress upon the thought of his time. James Logan devoted the leisure left to him after attend- ing to the interests of the proprietor to the translation from the Latin of the Cato Major and the Moral Distichs, and he collected a library of rare books which was then unrivaled upon this side of the Atlantic and even now would be considered extraordinary. David Lloyd, a lawyer ready and pertinacious in the discussion of all questions affect- ing the polity of the province, was equally skillful in the drafting of acts of assembly and the compilation of the laws. George Keith, trained in the schools of Edinburgh, was the author of numerous treatises upon theology and, together with Penn and Robert Barclay of Ury, defended the Quaker doctrines against the assaults of the learned divines of the European churches. Francis Daniel Pastorius, lawyer, linguist, and phil- osopher, proud of his pedigree and fresh from the public discussion of ab- 'In the preparation of this paper I have used freely Dr. Stille"'s memoir of Wm. Smith and Wickersham's History of Education in Pennsylvania, and I am indebted to Mr. F. D. Stone for calling my attention to the interesting fact that the Consti- tution of 1T76 provided for university education. 233 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. Btraae questions of ethiosanj] government upon the university platforms ofthecontinent,sigmdi2ed his sirrival tit Germautown bythe preparation and ]iil)lication in 1690 of his Four Treatises, and left for future genera- tions a bibliography in manuscript of the volumes in his library. Lud- \vig. Count Zinzeudorff, of noble lineage and influential surroundings, came \virh the Moravians, whose leader he was, to the hills of theLehigh, but was not prevented by the practical duties of looking after the wel- fare of his Hock from writing numerous collections of hymns, sermons, and addresses. Christopher Taylor, familiar with the Latin, Greek, and Hebrew languages, of which he had prepared and published a text-book, had long been the head of a school at Edmonton in Essex. Not only were there many such individual instances of more than ordinary learn- ing, but the sects from which the early population of Pennsylvania was mainly drawn, though they regarded the amusements and adornments of life as frivolities by means of which Satan was enabled to lead souls astray, were nevertheless people of great intellectual activity, finding prolific expression abroad in a flood of publications, and it was not sur- prising that soon the printing houses of the Bradfords, Keimer, Sower, Ephrata, Franklin, and Bell, the most productive in the colonies, sprang up here to supply their mental needs. A community with such ex- amples before them and permeated with such influences could not long remain without an institution giving the opportunities for the higher education of youth. The frame of government announced by Penu as early as A] nil 25, 1682, provided that the "governor and provincial council shall erect and order all publick schools and encourage and reward the authors of useful sciences and laudable inventions," and directed the council to form a " committee of manners, education, and arts, that all wicked and scandalous living may be prevented and that youth may be successfully trained up in virtue and useful knowledge and arts." At the meeting of the council on the 17th of the eleventh month, 1683, a "school of arts and sciences" was proposed, and in 1689 the William Peun Charter School, still in existence and doing most valu- able work, was formally opened. Following the suggestion of the peti- tion of Anthony Morris, Samuel Carpenter, Edward Shippen, David Lloyd, and others, the assembly in its charter granted in 1711 provided for the instruction of "poor children" in "reading, work, languages, . and sciences." This school in its successful operation was the fore- runner of the University of Pennsylvania, and the later institution had, like its predecessor, its origin in that spirit of broad philanthropy, ndful of the welfare of the lowly, which has ever been character- istic of Philadelphia and has resulted in the establishment of so many of her public institutions. In 1740 a number of citizens of different religious denominations united in raising subscriptions for the purpose of erecting a large building, to be used as a charity school for the instruction of poor chil- dren gratis in useful literature and the Christian religion, and also as ITS RELATIONS TO THE STATE OF PENNSYLVANIA. 235 a place of public worship. In addition to the establishment of the school, they had in view the special object of providing a convenient house in which George Whitetield could preach wlienever he came to Philadelphia. The lot was purchased on the 15th of'September of that year and the building was erected. Subsequently the design was en- larged to include the idea of an academy, and on the 1st of February, 1749, the lot and buildings were conveyed to James Logan and twenty- three other trustees, upon the trust that they should keep a house or place of worship for the use of such .preacher as they should judge qualified, and particularly for the use of Whitefield, and a free school for the instructing, teaching, and education of poor children, and should have power to found an " academy, college, or other seminary of learn- ing for instructing youth in the languages, arts, and sciences." The same year Benjamin Franklin, ever quick to catch inspiration from the events occurring around him, published his "Proposals Relating to the Education of Youth in Pennsylvania." He alleges in his autobiog- raphy that the foundation of the Academy was due to the publication of this paper and his own subsequent personal efforts. He says: This I distributed among the principal inhabitants gratis, and as soon as I could suppose their minds prepared by the perusal of it I set on foot a subscription for opening aud supporting an academy, * * * avoiding as much as I could, according to my usual rule, the presenting myself to the publick as the author of any scheme for their benefit. The question may be raised whether this account written many years later is quite accurate. Dr. Caspar Wistar, a contemporary and him- self long identified with the work aud fame of the University, says in his eulogium on William Shippen (page 21) while speaking of the serv- ices of Phineas Bond : In conjunction with the much respected Thomas Hopkinsou he originated the scheme of the college now the University of Pennsylvania. The trustees, among whom Thomas Hopkinsou, Tench Francis, and Richard Peters, with Franklin, appear to have been particularly active and efficient, secured among themselves and their friends an endowment for the academy amounting to 800 a year for five years, and the city gave an additional sum of 100 a year for five years and 200 in cash. The institution thus established was incorporated by Thomas and Richard Penn, proprietors and governors of the province, on the 13th of July, 1753, under the name of "The Trustees of the Academy and Chari- table School in the Province of Pennsylvania." The charter sets forth that it had been represented by the trustees named that for estab- lishing an academy "as well to instruct youth for reward as poor chil- dren whose indigent and helpless circumstances demand the charity of the opulent," several benevolent persons had paid subscriptions ex- pended in the purchase of lands and a building commodious for main- taining an academy "as well for the instruction of poor children as others whose circumstances have enabled them to pay for their learning," aud that the proprietors, favoring such useful and charitable designs, 236 THE UNIVERSITY OP PENNSYLVANIA. the trustee* are given power to purchase hinds, to receive any sum of money or goods, -therewith to erect, set up, maintain, and support an academy or any other kind of seminary of learning in any place within the said province of Pennsylvania where they shall judge the same to be most necessary and convenient for the instruction, improvement, and education of youth in any kind of literature, erudition, arts, and sciences which they shall think proper to be taught," to sue and be sued, and to have a seal, and to make ordinances and statutes for their government. A confirmatory charter was granted by the same proprietors, dated June l(i, 175.'). which changed the name to that of "The Trustees of the College, Academy, and Charitable School of Philadelphia, in the Province of Pennsylvania," and limited the power to hold lauds to an amount not exceeding 5,000 sterling in yearly value, and gave power to confer degrees and to appoint a provost, vice-provost, and professors. It is thus seen that the plan of the charitable school which, originated in 1740 is not only maintained in the deed of 1749 and in both of the char- ters, but is made an essential and conspicuous feature of the design. It is of importance to call particular attention to this fact, because in all printed accounts of the University heretofore its origin has been assigned to the efforts of 1749, though the movement really began with the subscription, purchase of land and erection of a building for a charitable school nine years before, and the institution is entitled to claim 1740 as the date of its birth and philanthropy as its primary object. 1 By the confirmatory charter of 1755 the Rev. William Smith, M. A., was at the request of the trustees appointed the first provost. He was a native of Aberdeen, in Scotland, and was graduated from the Univer- sity there, became a clergyman of the Church of England, and coming first to New York and subsequently to Philadelphia, where an article written by him upon "The College of Mirania," had made a favorable impression, he was selected to take charge of the college and academy in \1~>1. To his intelligence, energy, and activity in its behalf, its im- mediate and great success was mainly due. He submitted a plan of education, adopted and carried into effect in 1756, more comprehensive, as Dr. Stille tells us, than any other then in existence in the American colonies. 2 When in England in 1759 he secured from Thomas Peuu a deed conveying for the benefit of the college one-fourth of the manor of IVrkasie. in Bucks County, consisting of about 2,500 acres of land, and finding it in debt he went abroad again in 1762, and in two years by indomitable exertion secured, notwithstanding the opposition of Dr. Franklin, who " took uncommon pains to misrepresent our academy," the 'Rev. Andrew Burnaby, I). I)., says in his "Travels Through North America in 1760," third edition, p. 60, "There is also an academy or college originally built for a tabernacle for Mr. Whitdi.-ld." * "This last institution is en-c-ted upon an admirable plan and is by far the best institution of learning throughout America." Bumaby, p. 66. ITS RELATIONS TO THE STATE OF PENNSYLVANIA. 237 very large sum of 6,021 7.s. Grf. Of this amount Thomas I Vim. tin- chief patron of the college, whose gifts for the purpose during his life equaled 4,500, contributed 500, the king 200, and there were over 11,000 other contributors. In those days the pursuits of men were not so much differentiated as they have since become, and, as might have been expected from one with the acquirements and mental activities of Dr. Smith, his voice was heard and his hand was felt in all the affairs of the province. As a clergyman, he preached fast-day sermons; as an orator, he delivered addresses upon public occasions; he made investigations in astronomy and other sciences; edited a magazine, and, moreover, he was a speculator in lands and an active politician. He was regarded as the exponent of the views of the col- lege and the. custodian of its interests, and, while it was benefited by his exertions, it also suffered through the antagonisms he aroused. A churchman and a friend of the proprietors, he cordially disliked and opposed the Quakers, who elected the assembly and controlled public affairs, and the German Menuonites, Bunkers, and Moravians, through whose support they were able to do it. In 1755 he published a political pamphlet in which he denounced the Quakers for being influenced by interest rather than conscience and accused the Germans of sympa- thizing with the French in their aggressions. He married the daughter of William Moore, president judge of the court of common pleas of Chester County, an aristocratic and influential personage living on his estate at Moore Hall, on the Pickering Creek, twenty-five miles from the city. On the 23d of November, 1755, Moore, who, besides holding his peace- ful judicial office, was a colonel in the militia, wrote a letter to the Assembly saying that he was coming down to Philadelphia with 2,000 men to compel them to pass a law providing means for military pro- tection. His letter marked the beginning of a struggle that shook the whole province, and was fraught with baleful consequences to both Smith and the College. During the succeediug.two years numerous petitions were presented to the Assembly charging Moore with tyranny, injustice, and even extortion, in the conduct of his office, and asking that he might be removed. The Assembly, after a hearing which was many times adjourned in order to give him an opportunity to be heard, but which he declined to attend, upon the ground that they had no authority to make the investigation, determined that he was guilty of the wrongs charged. Soon afterwards, October 19, 1757, he wrote and published a paper wherein he fiercely reviewed their action, calling it "virulent and scandalous" and a "continued string of the severest calumny and most venomous epithets conceived in all the terms of malice and party rage." Immediately after the meeting of the new Assembly, composed for the most part of the same members as the preceding, they sent the ser- geant- a t-arnis with a warrant for the arrest of Moore, and of Dr. Smith who was supposed to have aided in tUe preparation of the paper. Upon 238 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. .u brought before the Assembly they refused to make a defense, though Moore admitted lie had written t lie paper and declined to retract any of its statements, and it was ordered that he be confined until he 'should recant, and the address be burned by the hangman. They were given into the custody of the sheriff and were kept in jail in Philadel- phia tor about three months, "herding with common thieves and felons," but after the adjournment of the Assembly were released upon a writ of habeas corpus. Smith went to England to prosecute an appeal to the Crown, and on February 13,1700, " His Majesty's high displeasure" was announced to the Assembly at their unwarrantable behavior in assuming power that did not belong to them, and invading the royal prerogative and the liberties of the people. It was a personal triumph for Dr. Smith, but ere long came the Eevolutiouary war, when his opponents grasped the reins of power, and neither the royal govern- ment nor the King himself could render him any aid. Early in 1779 the Assembly appointed a committee, " To inquire into the present state of the College and Academy," and in July, Gen. Joseph Reed, President of the State, suggested to the trustees that since some of them were under legal disqualifications it would be wise not to hold a public commencement. When the new Assembly met, in September, the President in his message said, with reference to the College, that it " appears by its charter to have allied itself * * * closely to the Government of Britain by making the allegiance of its governors to that State a prerequisite to any official act," and that he could not think " the good people of this State can or ought to rest >alistied 01- the protection of the Government be extended to an institu- tion framed with such attachments to the British Government and con- ducted with a general inattention to the authority of the State." A committee appointed to consider the subject reported, recommending a bill which should u secure to every denomination of Christians equal privileges, and establish said College on a liberal foundation in which the interests of American liberty and independence will be advanced and promoted, and obedience and respect to the constitution of the State preserved." An act of Assembly was thereupon passed November 27, 1770. It set forth that the trustees had narrowed the foundations of the in- stitution awl it. declared the charters of 1753 and 1755 void. It pro- vided that the estate. re;d and personal, should be vested in a Board of Trustee^ consisting of the president and vice-president of the su- pieme executive council of the Commonwealth, the speaker of the assembly, the chief-justice of the supreme court, the judge of ad- miralty. and the at torne\ general, the senior ministers of the Epis- copal. Presbyterian. Baptist. Lutheran, Gmiian-Calvinist. and Roman churches in the city. Benjamin Franklin, William Shippen, Frederick A. Muhlenbeig. .lames Searle. William A. Atlee, John Evans, Timothy Matlack, David Kitteuhouse, Jonathan Bayard Smith, Samuel Morris, ITS RELATIONS TO THE STATE OF PENNSYLVANIA. 239 George liryan, Thomas Bond, and James Hutehinson, by tlie name of "The Trustees of the University of the State of Pennsylvania," and directed that confiscated estates of the yearly value of not over 1,500 should be reserved for the maintenance of the provost and assistants and to uphold "the charitable school of the said University." An oath of allegiance to the Commonwealth was substituted for the former one to the Crown, and means were provided to compel a transfer of the property by the trustees of the College to the trustees appointed by the act. This action of the Assembly has been ^characterized as a simple act of spoliation, and so much of it as took away the estates and fran- chises of the College was repealed in 1789, upon the ground that it was "repugnant to justice, a violation of the constitution of the Common- wealth, arid dangerous in its precedent to all incorporated bodies." Its supporters had succeeded in driving Dr. Smith away from the city, but they had not been able to infuse life into the new University, and though aided by a loan from the State of 2,000 it languished in debt. The effect of the repeal was to renew the College, and in consequence there were two institutions having in view substantially the same objects and seeking the same support. They were united by an act of assembly of September 30, 1791, which provided for the vesting of the estates of both in aboard of new trustees, consisting of twelve elected by each and the governor of the Commonwealth, under the name of "The Trus- tees of the University of Pennsylvania," who were given power "to do everything needful and necessary to the establishment of the said Uni- versity and the good government and education of the youth belonging to the same, and to constitute a faculty or learned body to consist of such head or heads and such a number of professors in tlie arts and sciences and in law, medicine, and divinity as they shall judge neces- sary and proper." The connection of the institution with the State was maintained by providing that the governor should be one of the trus- tees and that an annual statement of the funds should be laid before the legislature. This final act of fundamental legislation affecting the grant of rights to the University declared that " charity schools shall be supported, one for boys and the other for girls," thus preserv- ing the chief thought which was in the minds of its originators in 1740. The school, intended in its beginning to be a charity, had been enlarged into a college and academy to teach the arts and sciences in 1753, and had now grown into a University, including in its course instruction in law, medicine, and divinity. The school of medicine was opened in 1765 by Dr. John Morgan, that of law in 1791 by Justice James Wilson, and each was the first upon that special subject in America. Tlie reservation of confiscated estates in the act of 1779 was the first direct contribution made by the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania to the cause of higher education. The lands so reserved were estimated to be worth 35,000 and in 1785 their annual value was 1,381 5s. 240 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. By tin- act of March 19, 1807, the sum of $3,000 was granted out of the monies they owe the State" to the trustees for the purpose of en- abling them to establish a garden for the improvement of the science of botany and for instituting a series of experiments to ascertain the cheapest and best food for plants and their medicinal properties and virtues. 1 "By act of May 5, 1832, their real estate in the city of Phil- adelphia was exempted from i county, poor, and corporation taxes' for fifteen years. A general act which became a law April- 10, 1838, ex- empted ' all universities^ colleges, academies incorporated, erected, ordained, or established by virtue of any law of this Commonwealth with the grounds thereto annexed from all and every county, road, city, borough, poor, and school tax.' This act received judicial construction in the ease of City of Philadelphia vs. The Trustees (8 Wright. 300), where it was held that the Medical Hall of the University, occupied by the faculty whose compensation was derived from the proceeds of their re- spective chairs, was under it exempt from taxation . Section 1 of Article IX of the present constitution of the State provides that the assembly may by general law exempt from taxation i institutions of purely public eharity,' and the act of May 14, 1874, passed in pursuance of this arti- cle of the constitution, relieves from county, city, borough, bounty, road, school, and poor tax all ' universities, colleges, seminaries, and academies endowed and maintained by public or private charity.'" In 1838 the legislature made provision for an annual appropriation of $1,000 for ten years to each university maintaining 4 professors and in- structing 100 students. The University of Pennsylvania received the annual sum until 1843. In that year the appropriation was reduced one- half and tile following year it failed utterly. The act of May 11, 1871, e\ t ended the power of the trustees to acquire real and personal property and enabled them to hold an additional amount to the clear annual value of $30,000. In 1872 the State gave to the University the sum of $100,000 upon condition that it should raise an additional sum of 1250,000, '-' the entire appropriation to be expended in the erection of a general hospital in connection with said institution, in which at least L'oo beds free for persons injured shall be forever maintained," and the following year a further sum of $100,000 for the same purpose upon the condition that it should raise a like amount. By the act of May i".. iss.. tin- State made an appropriation of $12,500 to be paid to the trustees for the erection of a veterinary hospital, upon the condition that they should furnish free of cost "to deserving young men of this State, to the number of not less than twelve in attendance at one time, said young men to be nominated by the governor of the Commonwealth, and in perpetuity fi<-.- instruction in the art and science of veterinary .uedieine and surgery." It is interesting to note that this last act of legislation affecting the welfare of the University is one of generosity 'In Barton's Compendium Flora; Philadelphia; published ju 1818 there are nmnei' OMB references to planta in this botanical garden. ITS RELATIONS TO THE STATE OF PENNSYLVANIA. 241 upon the part of the State, looking toward enlarged usefulness in the conduct of the institution and the farther extension of its benefits among the people of Pennsylvania, and that the broad-minded and liberal policy adopted by Thomas Penii one hundred and forty years ago has been continued down to the present time. In the language of Gen. John F. Hartranft, lumself a distinguished soldier, governor of the State, and president of the board of trustees, in an address at the inauguration of the hospital thus established, this policy is " in keep- ing with the generosity of the great State which gave this institution its'corporate existence, and is to-day, and it is hoped always will be, proud of her offspring, the University of Pennsylvania." When the impartial historian conies to record the many events in which Pennsylvania has reason to take great pride, not the least of them will be the fact that in her first constitution, that of 1776, she made it a part of the fundamental law that " all useful learning shall be duly encouraged and promoted in one or more universities." 1180 16 CHAPTER VI. THE RELATIONS OF THE UNIVERSITY AND THE CITY. As early as 1743, Franklin, as he tells us in bis Autobiography, sketched a plan for a school designed by him to complete the series of those public institutions which he thought essential for promoting the prosperity of the Province. 1 After the plan .had been laid aside for a few years, in 1749, having obtained the cooperation of several of his friends, he printed a pamphlet entitled, Proposals Relative to the Edu- cation of Youth in Pennsylvania, and took care that it should be ex- tensively circulated. A meeting of the most influential citizens having been called, it was decided to organize an Academy, and 24 persons, among the most considerable of the Province, were associated together as a board of trustees to manage its concerns. This was on the 13th of November, 1749. These gentlemen raised among themselves and their friends toward the endowment of the Academy a subscription of 800 a year for five years. The corporation of the city, taking into consideration the numerous advantages the city would reap by such a seminary, voted 200 to be paid at once to the trustees, and 100 a year for five years. Such was the zeal of the trustees to begin their work, that they anticipated the payment of these subscriptions by bor- rowing for the use of the Academy on their joint bond, 800. They were fortunate in securing for the Academy the building which had been erected a few years before by the admirers of the Kev. George Whitefield. This building was erected for the charity school which was established in 1740, and mcidentall y to serve as a place of worship when that celebrated man should happen to be in Philadelphia, and need for his ministrations that convenient accommodation which had been refused him in the churches of the city. The enthusiasm excited by Whitefield considerably abated, the building had not been paid for, and an arrange- ment was made by which the property in Fourth street below Arch street was* conveyed to the trustees of the Academy on their undertaking to pay the debt on the building, and agreeing that a portion of it should always be set apart for the occasional use of itinerant ministers. The alterations required to render the building suitable to its new purpose were so expensive that it was not until the beginning of the year 1751 that it was occupied by the Academy. Here Latin was taught by Dr. Francis Allison, English by David James Dove, and mathematics by 1 See p. 215 ; also p. 234. 243 lM I THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. Theophilus drew. Among the ushers or tutors was Charles Thomson, later the Secretary to the Continental Congress. The building secured, in December, 174 ( ., it was announced that it would be opened by the trustees as " an Academy, wherein youth will be taught Latin, Greek, Kuglish, French, and German languages, together with history, geog- raphy, logic and rhetoric ; also writing, arithmetic, merchants' accounts, geometry, algebra, surveying, gauging, navigation, astronomy, drawing in perspective, and other mathematical sciences, with natural and me- chanical philosophy, etc., agreeable to the constitution heretofore pub- lished, at the rate of 4 per annum and 20 shillings entrance." On Jan- uary 8, 1750, the schools were opened by a formal visit from the gov- ernor and the trustees to hear a sermon from the Rev. Mr. Peters. The free school was opened in September. In August, Mr. Dove, one of the masters of the Academy, proposed to open a school for young ladies at 5 o'clock in the evening, to continue three hours, "in which," said the proposals, "will be carefully taught the English grammar, the true way of spelling and pronouncing properly, dis- tinctly, and emphatically,' together with fair writing, arithmetic and accounts. Price, 10 shillings entrance and 20 shillings per quarter." The institution thus begun continued to flourish, and July 13, 1753, the proprietors granted it a charter,' and from time to time contributed 3^000 in money and lands. On May 14, 1755, an additional charter created the College, Academy, and Charitable School of Philadelphia, with a faculty of the provost, vice-provost, and professors. From that time the College had to deal with the State rather than with the city, but at that time State and city had a much closer relation than at present. As it was not until 1870 that the city and the. Univer- sity were again brought into communication, it may be of interest to refer to the details of the first grant made by the city for the benefit of the institution which was later on to become a College and finally the University. The first charter was granted in July, 1753, and in May, 1 T.'i I, I )r. "William Smith entered on his duties as teacher of logic, rhetoric, and natural and moral philosophy. Under his leadership it advanced so rapidly that at his suggestion the Board of Trustees in December, 1754, applied for an additional charter, and in May, 1755, it became The College, Academy, and Charitable School of Philadelphia, with the privilege of conferring degrees. The services of Provost Smith have been admirably set forth in an exhaustive address by one of his snrrcssors. Provost Stille", whose own service in behalf of the Uni- versity mitiirally recalls the great work done by Dr. Smith. Philadel- phia may well point with pride to the succession of able men who have followed Provost Smith in the important and responsible post to which it* first occupant gave such dignity by his position among his fellow citi/.ens. In the "Minutes of the Common Council of Philadelphia, 1 701-1 77<;." Philadelphia, 1847, p. 524, under date of July 30, 1750, is the following record : THE RELATIONS OF THE UNIVERSITY AND THE CITY. 245 At a Common Council held at Philadelphia for the City of Philadelphia the 30th day of July, 1750. Present: Thomas Lawrence, Esqre., Mayor; William Allen, Esqre., Recorder ; Samuel Hassell, Edward Shippen, Benj'u Shoemaker, Joseph Turner, Rob- ert Strettal, Esquires, Aldermen. Septimus Robeson, John Stamper, Thos. Hopkin- son, Tench Francis, Samuel Rhoads, Wm. Coleman, John Mifflin, Benjamin Franklin, Phineas Bond, Thos. Lawrence, Junr., George Mifflin, Common Council Men. The Recorder acquainted the Board that there is a Design on Foot for the Erecting a Publick Academy and Charity School in this City, for instructing Youth in the several Branches of useful Learning, and that divers of the Inhabitants have sub- scribed liberally towards it ; But as this Undertaking is attended with a great Ex- pence in the Beginning, some further Assistance is necessary to carry it into Execution in the best Manner. And as this Corporation have a considerable Sum of Money in the Hands of their Treasurer, and have likewise an Income of about Three Hundred pounds p. annum, besides Fines and Forfeitures, the Recorder proposed that it might be considered, whether this Design for the Advancement of Learning be not worthy of some Encouragement from this Board, as their Circumstances may very well afford it. The Board having taken this Affair into Consideration, and it appearing to be a Matter of Consequence, and but a small Number of the Members now present, it was thought proper to referr the further Consideration thereof to the next Com- mon Council : It is therefore Ordered, that the Members of this Board have notice to meet Tomorrow at four a Clock in the Afternoon, to consider of a Proposal of con- tributing a Sum of Money for the Encouragement of the Academy & Charity School now erecting in this City. At a Common Council held at Philadelphia the 31st day of July, 1750. Present [in addition to those on the preceding day] Anthony Morris, William Plumsted, Esquires, Aldermen, Samuel McCall, junr., John Inglis, William Shippeu, Thomas Bo,nd, Nathl. Allen, Joseph Sims, John Wilcocks, Common Council Men. The Board resumed the Consideration of the Proposal made at the last Common Council, of contributing a Sum of Money for the Encouragement of the Academy & Charity School now erecting in this city, and a Paper containing an Account of what is already done by the Trustees of the Academy, and what Advantages are expected from that Undertaking being laid before the Board, was read, and follows in these Words : The Trustees of the Academy have already laid out near 800, in the Purchase of the Building, and will probably expend nearly as much more in fitting up Rooms for the Schools, & furnishing them with proper Books & Instruments for the In- struction of Youth. The greatest part of the Money paid & to be paid is subscribed by the Trustees themselves, and advanced by them; Many of whom have no children of their own to educate, but act from a View to the Publick Good, without Regard to sect or party. And they have engaged to open a Charity School within Two Years for the Instruction of Poor Children gratis, in Reading, writing and arithmetick, and the first Principles of Virtue and Piety. The Benefits expected from this Insti- tution are : 1. That the Youth of Pensilvania may have an opportunity of receiving a good Edu- cation at home, and be under no necessity of going abroad for it; Whereby not only considerable Expense may be saved to the Country, but a stricter Eye may be had over their morals by their Friends and Relations. 2. That a number of our Natives will be hereby qualified to bear Magistracies, and execute other public offices of Trust, with Reputation to themselves & Country; There being at present great Want of Persons so qualified in the several Counties of this Province. And this is the more necessary now to be provided for by the English here, as vast Numbers of Foreigners are yearly imported among us, totally ignorant of our Laws, Customs and Language. 3. That a number of the poorer Sort will be hereby qualified to act as Schoolmas- ters in the Country, to teach Children Reading, Writing, Arithmetic, and the Gram- 246 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. mar of their Mother Tongue, and being of good morals and known character, may be recommended from the Academy to Country Schools for that purpose; The Country Buffering at present very much for want of good Schoolmasters, and obliged fre- quently to employ in their Schools, vicious imported Servants, or concealed Papists, who by their bad Examples and Instructions often deprave the Morals or corrupt tin- Principles of the Children under their Care. J. It is thought that a good Academy erected in Philadelphia, a healthy place where Provisions are plenty, situated in the Center of the Colonies, may draw a num- ber of Students from the neighboring Provinces, who must spend Considerable Sums yearly among us, in Payment for their Lodging, Diet, Apparel, &c., which will be an Advantage to our Traders, Artisans, and Owners of Houses and Lands. This Advantage is so considerable, that it has been frequently - observed in Europe, that the fixing a good School or College in a little inland Village, has been the means of making it a great Town in a few Years;' and therefore the Magistrates of many Places have offerM and given great yearly salaries to draw learned Instructors from other Coun- tries to their respective Towns, meerly witli a View to the Interests of the In- habitants. Numbers of people have already generously contributed sums to cany on this Undertaking; but others, well disposed are somewhat discouraged from con- tributing, by an Apprehension, lest when the first Subscriptions are expended, the Design should drop. The great Expence of such a Work is in the Beginning. If the Academy be once well-open'd, good Masters provided, and good orders estab- lished, there is Reason to believe (from many former Examples in other Countries) that it will be able after a few years to support itself. Some Assistance from the Corporation is immediately wanted and hoped for; and it is thought that if this Board, which is a perpetual Body, take the Academy under their Patronage, and afford it some Encouragement, it will greatly strengthen the hands of art concerned, and be a means of Establishing this good Work & continuing the good Effects of it down to our late Posterity. The Board having weigh'd the great Useful- ness of this Design, after several Propositions heard & debated, agreed that a Sum of Money be given by this Board & paid down, towards compleating the Building which the Trustees have purchased, and are now fitting up for the Purpose, and likewise that a Sum or Sums be given yearly by this Board, for five years to come, towards the support & Maintenance of the Schools under the Direction of the said Trustees. Whereupon the following Questions were put and carried in tin- Affirmative. 1. Whether this Board will give the Sum of Two Hundred Pounds, to be paid im- mediately to the Trustees of the Academy, towards compleating the Building pur- chased by the said Trustees for an Academy & Charity School in this City ? Which was carried in the Affirmative by a great Majority. 2. Whether this Board will give Fifty pounds p. annum for five years next ensuing, to Tho Trustees of the Academy, towards supporting a Charity School for the Teach- ing of poor Children Reading, Writing and Arithmetic f Which was unanimously agreed to. 3. Whether this Board will give Fifty Pounds p. annum for the five years next eiiMiing, to the Trustees of the Academy, for the Benefit thereof, with Condition that this Board shall have a Right of nominating and sending one Scholar Yearly from tin- Charity School, to he instructed gratis in the Academy, in any or all of the Branches of Learning tin-re taught f Which was carried in the Affirmative by a great Majority. Thus deliberately tin- city of Philadelphia set its seal of commenda- tion on tin- work of the Academy. Long years elapsed before the Uni- versity again applied to the city for a further grant, and it is gratifying .nd that that appeal also was answered in a way that has enabled the University to take a fresh h-;i>e of life, while it ha* secured to 'the city a noble group of buildings where higher education is pursued for the THE RELATIONS OF THE UNIVERSITY AND THE CITY. 247 students of all sirts. Among the Penn Papers at the Historical Society are preserved the essay by Francis Hopkinson written for the exercises at the AcMilrmy in 1753, and the verses written by Jacob Duche" and recited by him before the lieutenant-governor, the governor, and the late governor, and sent to Thomas Penn as a proof of the progress of the Academy. As the Penus gave nearly 3,000 to it and to the Col- lege, they were naturally interested in its growth. In its Board were the governor, the_chief justice, members of the council, the attorney- general, judges of the supreme court and of the common pleas and the admiralty, members of the assembly, the mayor and several aldermen of the city, and representative clergymen, physicians, and merchants, thus showing that every local interest was concerned in the develop- ment of the College. In May, 1756, Dr. Smith prepared a plan of education which in- cluded, in Latin, Juvenal, Livy, Cicero, Horace, and in Greek, the Iliad, Pindar, Thucydides, Epictetus, and Plato, while mathematics, natural philosophy, chemistry, hydrostatics, pneumatics, optics, and astronomy, ethics, and natural and civil law and history were made part of the course. Within tAvo years the college had 300 pupils, drawn from Maryland, Virginia, the Carolinas, and the West Indies, as well as from the city and the neighborhood. Its commencements and other: public exercises were events of local and general importance and were attended by officials of city and province. To eke out its uncertain income recourse was had, in the fashion of the day, to lotteries, which were set on foot for the benefit of the College, but in November, 1761, the trustees reported that for several years it had cost about 700 above its income. Finally Dr. Smith was sent abroad to solicit help, and with the powerful support of the Penns, among the largest cou tributors, he secured over 6,000 from a long and varied list, including the king and other members of the royal family, the archbishops and bishops, many of the clergy, a long array of noblemen and statesmen (among them Pitt himself), Oxford and Cambridge, and the leading towns. A subsequent visit to Charleston produced nearly a thousand guineas, and a subscription in Philadelphia produced 1,200 and a much larger amount payable at a future time. Jamaica gave about 3,000 in answer to an appeal from Dr. Morgan of the medical faculty. In 1774 the College was very successfully at work, and the commence- ment in May, 1775, was attended by the Continental Congress in a body and by Washington, who had just been appointed Commander- in-Chief. The printed proceedings show that professors and students were in full sympathy with the American cause and Congress. In June, 1777, the College was closed, and so remained until Septem- ber, 1778. In the beginning of 1779 it reopened with more than 200 pupils, but on February 23 the assembly appointed a committee to in- vestigate the present state of the College and Academy of Philadel- phia. No report was made, although Provost Smith on March 16 made 248 THE UNIYKKSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. a lull and elaborate statement and vindication. Owing to an intima- tion from the President of the State no commencement was held in ITT'.i. and in July, at his request, another committee was appointed. In September, however. President Eeed called attention of the new mbly to the manifest attachment to the British Government of the (Hirers of the ( 'ollege. A committee again took the matter in hand and 1 >rfore the month was out reported that a bill should be brought in to provide funds for the College and to remodel it. Such a bill was passed November 27, 177!), declaring the charter of 1755 void, dissolving the trustees and faculty, and vesting the College estates in a new board, and reserving 1,500 a year from the proceeds of the confiscated estates for the use of the University of the State of Pennsylvania, as the new institution was called. The act of 1785 is a curious relic of the old method of dealing in land a hundred years ago. It gave the University, " to effectuate the pious and praiseworthy designs of the founders, benefactors, and contribu- tors," and to " create a certain fund for the maintenance of the provost, vice-provost, masters, and assistants of the University, and to uphold and preserve the charitable school thereof," so many of the confiscated estates then unsold and unappropriated as would provide an income not to exceed 1,500, computing wheat at the rate of 10 shillings per bushel. The long list includes a rent charge of 30 bushels of wheat out of a tract of 58 acres on German town road and Turner's lane in the Northern Liberties; a rent charge of 12^ bushels (the same to be di- vided into twenty parts) out of a tract of land in the manor of Morelaud, in the county of Philadelphia; a rent charge of 20 bushels of wheat to be paid annually out of a lot of ground on the northeast corner of Second street and Sassafras street; a rent charge of 22 bushels of wheat, pay- able, out of a lot on Front street, between Sassafras and Mulberry streets ; a rent charge of 135| bushels (the same to be divided into five parts) out of two tracts, one of 300 acres, the other of 78 acres, in Lower Meriou township; a rent charge of 2^ bushels out of a lot of 4 acres at Poplar lane and Third street in the Northern Liberties; and a rent charge of 74 bushels of wheat out of a lot in Blockley township; a rent charge of -I.] bushels of wheat out of a house and lot on Second street, between NYalniit and Spruce; in all, over sixty such ground rents were given, covering lands in Philadelphia, and among the former owners were the familiar names of Christopher Sower, whose ground rent in Roxborough thus came to the t'niversity, and Andrew Allen, and Joseph Galloway, and Jacob Dm he, the younger, who were pupils and graduates and trustees. ;md in other ways connected with the old College, the prede- C6680T of the Tuivrisity. Besides these ground rents, the State gave the rnivei>iiy a lot of -round and ferry wharf at the east end of Mul- berry street; a lot and house on Sassafras street, between Third and Fourth; and a lot and wharf on the east side of Water street, between High street and Mulberry street, late the estate of Matthias Aspden, THE RELATIONS OF THE UNIVERSITY AND THE CITY. 249 whose estate was a fruitful source of litigation later on in the nineteenth century. The act also recites that the trustees at the sales of confis- cated estates had bought fifteen houses or lots of land, and a number of rent charges on land in Philadelphia city or county, then furtlu-r stales that all this formidable list, at the prices at which they were sev- erally sold, do not, when considered and taken together, amount to more than the yearly value of 1,381 5*. 7ed enlarged system of instruction, including a scientific school, and that the rest might be sold, as occasion should present, at the value increased by the erection of handsome college buildings in the neigh- borhood, the proceeds of the sale to be paid into the endowment fund. At a meeting of the Board of Trustees held in June, 1868, it was n--ulved to appoint a committee to inquire into the expediency of pro- curing a new site for the University. In July, 1868, Charles J. Stille, LL. 1)., was elected provost, and his election was a pledge that the move- ment thus inaugurated would be carried forward vigorously. At his inauguration as provost in September, his address was an earnest plea for a scientific school with a liberal endowment. In October the com- mittee on a new site reported in favor of applying to the city for the purchase ;it a nominal rate of a portion of the almshouse farm from I'O to J.". acres in extent. The hoard adopted the conclusions.of the com- mittee, and a petition was accordingly presented in Select Council in h.eember. l.stfs, :i nd by that body referred to the joint committee of city councils on linance. The provost and some of the trustees ad vo- d it. and. after many months' delay, the committee agreed to report an ordinance agreeing to sell to the Tni versify a tract of land, portion of the almshoiise I'anu. containing rather more than 19 acres, for $8,000 l>ei acre, and the ordinance was reported to the Common Council on THE RELATIONS OF THE UNIVERSITY AND THE CITY. 251 May 13, 1809, and passed. Iii Select Council it was passed finally only on November 25, 18G9, with an amendment that the price should be $15,000 instead of $8,000 per acre and that the area should be 10 acres instead of 1 9. Common Council amended in turn by fixing the price at $8,000, and in this shape it finally passed councils on December 9, and was signed a few days after'by the mayor. In May, 1870, the deed was finally exe- cuted, and in June, 1871, the corner-stone of the new building was laid. In July, 1872, the property at Ninth and Chestnut streets, occupied by the University since 1800, was sold to the United States and the money was used to pay for the new building. In September, 1872, work was begun there. The number of students in the Undergraduate Depart- ment was nearly doubled, and money gifts amounting to $580,500 made to the Collegiate Department between 18G8 and 1880 have shown the new spirit with which the city and the citizens of Philadelphia were helping to strengthen the University. More than fifty years ago, and before the establishment of the Phila- delphia High School, it had been proposed to establish a large number of scholarships in the Collegiate Department of the University for boys of the grammar schools, and negotiations were carried on between the Board of Education and the Trustees of the University, but nothing came of the proposal at that time. In 1874 forty free scholarships were by resolution of the trustees established in the Towne Scientific School, of which ten should be filled each year by pupils from the public schools, who should be able to pass a satisfactory examination. This action was subject to revocation, and was not based upon any consideration given to the University by the city in return. In June, 1877, the Charity Schools, dating from 1749, were abolished, and the income of the fund hitherto devoted to their use was appropriated to provide iu the Towne School instruction for children in indigent circumstances. The proposal to open the University to pupils who had been trained at the public schools, mooted long before, was thus made one of the con- ditions of a reunion between the city and the University, and it marks the effort of the University under the management of the late John Welsh and of Frederick Fraley and their associates in the board of trustees, and especially of the provost, Dr. William Pepper, to keep touch with the great scholastic population of the city. By ordinance of January 24, 1883, the city conveyed to the University a large addi- tional tract of land, embracing almost 14 acres. This, acquisition was effected by the strenuous efforts of Provost Pepper, who succeeded in im- pressing the City Council so deeply with the necessity of ample space for the development of a great University and with the importance of the University to the city that not a single vote was cast in either branch against the_ ordinance which conveyed the fine territory for the valuable consideration of $10,000 and the establishment in perpetuity of fifty prize scholarships,. in lieu of the forty free scholarships which had previously existed solely by resolution of the Board of Trustees. The J .")_ THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. i nic connection thus created between the University and the public school >\ Mem of th- city, reali/.es the ideal so long cherished of having a continuous courseot'education open freely to ambitious students from the lowest class in the grammar school through the high school and the manual training school, to the highest honors of the University. These cii \ pri/e scholarships are regarded as great rewards' foryears of faithful effort, and the establishment lias served as a powerful incentive to the entire public school system of Philadelphia. Penns' original Frame of Government promised public schools, and uly as lis;{ a school was planned, and in 1C89 the William Penn < 'liarter School was organized. It is in active and successful operation to-day, and is one of the preparatory schools for the University. The proposal made in 1740 to establish a charity school was realized in 1749. The city, by its grant in 17.~>0, gave its first official recognition of the University, and, after a long lapse of years, the city and the Univer- sity have finally been brought into close and indissoluble relations. In 1888 the city made a further conveyance of more laud to the Uni- versity, on the condition that a free public library should be erected and maintained by the University as a free library of reference, open to the entire community. The formal opening of the splendid Library Building on February 7, 1890, testifies the success with which this pledge has been kept, by the help of citizens who have contributed the sum needed to erect this magnificent addition to the University and its work. This building is considered fireproof, has a capacity for 350,000 volumes, and cost $200,000, which was secured by subscriptions from friends of the University. A further gift of laud by the city had occurred in 1872, when city councils, chiefly through the earnest exertions of Dr. William Pepper, granted nearly 6 acres of land, contiguous to the other property of the University, upon the condition that a general hospital should be erected thereon in which 50 free beds for the poor of the city of Philadelphia should be forever maintained. Finally, in 1889, the remaining 10 acres of the Blakley property were sold by the city at public auction, and were secured by the University for the sum of $150,000. By these successive steps the property of the University has been increased to Hi acres in an unbroken stretch. The situation is one of admirable vantage. It requires but a glance at the numerous stately buildings already erected to carry conviction of the wisdom of the city's policy in aiding the University in her determination to secure ample terri- tory tor the largest expansion of her educational facilities and for the accommodation n f the swelling thousands of her students. It is confidently hoped that the cordial relations between the city and the I "Diversity, thus reestablished after an interval of one bun- died and thirty years, indicate that in all future time the city will be ready to n-spond to any proper demand from the University. I'l-dcr the inspiration given by Provost Stille! and by Provost Pep- per, and by the trustees, the list of individual benefactions to the Uui- THE RELATIONS OF THE UNIVERSITY AND TlIK CITY. 253 versity has been a rapidly growing one, and the citizens of Philadel- phia have kept far ahead of the city in the splendor of their gifts. As the result of the efforts of the alumni of the medical department of the University, culminating in 1871 in a formal appeal on behalf of its society to the trustees, not only were the funds- secured from the legislature to build the hospital in compliance with the pledge given to the city, but an endowment fund which now amounts to over $600,000 has been obtained. Individual benefactions have also supplied the Gibson Ward, the Home for Nurses, the Mortuary Building, and various specific funds for the noble work so well carried on by the hospital staff. The Towne Scientific School, the Wharton School, the Veterinary Department, the Biological Department, the Library, the Department of Hygiene, the Archaeological Museum, the Sommerville Collection of Glyptic Art all show the generous interest manifested by citizens of Philadelphia in the work of the University. Each of these departments is described in detail in this volume, but in speaking of the relations of the city and the University it is only right that reference should be made to the support given by individual citizens to the University. Not only was a large sum of money subscribed for the Library Building, but & number of smaller subscriptions have supplied some of the special collections now housed within its spacious quarters 5 noteworthy among these are the Allen, Library, the memorial of Prof. George Allen, one of the best scholars and teachers in the long roll of the University; the Pott Classical Library bought at the suggestion of Prof. John G. E. McElroy (what better monument could there be to that able and energetic student, graduate, and teacher, whose whole adult life was spent in and for the University); the Lent sch Classical Library, secured by the exertions of Prof. F. A. Jackson and serving to fittingly commemorate his long serv- ice in the chair of Latin; the Library of Semitic Languages, procured mainly through Prof. Jastrow; the Library of German literature, due to the efforts of Prof. Seideusticker, who felt the need of such a collection to supplement the work of his chair 'of German; theBiddleLaw Library, the gift of the family of the late George Biddle, esq., one of the brilliant juniors of the profession, cut off in his early prime, just as he was winning those honors which his great abilities and noble ambition promised him; the Evans Eogers Library of Mechanics; the Stephen Colwell Economical Library, and the special collections bearing- the names of Seybert, Mc- Cartee, Krauth, Crawford, Hayden, Alfred Stille, William Pepper, Wetherill, Henry C. Carey, Peinberton Morris. All of these are but part of the many gifts that show what the citizens of Philadelphia have done and are doing for the University, atoning thus for the neglect of the city during many years. The chairs endowed as memorials of indi- vidual citizens uiv significant, too, of this revived interest in the work of the University. These are the John Welsh Centennial Chair of His- tory and English Literature ; the Whitney Chair of Dynamical Engineer- ing; the Adam Seybert Chair of Intellectual and Moral Philosophy; the 25 1 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. Pepper Chair of Hygiene; the Thomas A. Scott Chair of Mathematics; the John Rhea Harton Professorship <>f Surgery: then there are the Jolin F. Frazer Memorial; the Hector Tyndale Fellowship, the gift of the great English physicist; the Thomas A. Scott Fellowship in Physics ; the Francis Sergeant Pepper Fellowship in the Graduate Department for Women; and a long and lengthening list of prizes; the Henry KYed, the Charles P. Krauth, the Sharswood, Meredith, and Pembertou Morris pri/es in the Law School; the Henry La Barre Jayne prize; the George W. Childs and Anthony J. Drexel prizes; the Tardley prize; the Van Nostrand prize; the Society of the Alumni prizes; the Phi Kappa Sigma prizes; the prizes given and awarded by the Faculties of the Medical School, the Law School, and the College Department. All of these emphasize the names of those whose work in and for the University is gratefully remembered. Special mention must be made of the pioneer gift in behalf of the higher education of women made by Mrs. Bloomfield Moore; and of the liberal benefactions, both in money and buildings, made by Joseph M. Bennett, esq., to the graduate department for women. Students, instructors, professors, trustees, and others whose interest and substantial sympathy in the work of the University, are thus borne on the honor roll of the Uni- versity, and it serves alike to attest what it has done in the past, and what it needs to carry on its work to-day, and what are its pos- sibilities of growth in the future, if only it is supplied liberally with the means of advancing its teaching in all directions. Each new branch of its work is supported by contributions from citizens. The dynamical laboratory owes its existence to the gifts of those whose names represent the great industrial establishments of Philadelphia, thus attesting their interest in the higher education which the Uni- versity now offers to the students of mechanical and industrial arts. The contributors to the laboratory of experimental psychology show by their gifts that the work of the University is thus by public support of individual citizens enabled to keep touch with the latest developments of purely scientific inquiry. The maternity hospital fund, the contributions to the hospital, to the Dr. William Pepper Medieal Library, for the physiological laboratory for plants, and for a chair of Christian ethics, all go to show that while the needs of the I'niversity are growing, so, too, is the recognition of its claims alike upon tin- city and its citizens. To them it must look for that impulse \\hich alone can keep it supplied with the means of carrying on its work. The latest plan calls for a liberal endowment of a school and library of American history, and the very fact that the teachers of that important subject are the authors of this appeal, gives it a strung foundation, for who Letter than they can know the needs of their own students and of the public for the means and opportunities of instruction on a subject of such vital importance? A successful answer will be the best test of the establishment of the right relation of the University and the city and citizens of Philadelphia. CHAPTER VII. THE DEPARTMENT OF ARTS. As the history of the University is the subject of a distinct paper in this volume, in which are rehearsed in proper detail all matters of fact and date, I do not propose here to set them forth again, but rather to determine, if possible, the purpose with which the. foundation of this department of the University system -was undertaken, the principles that guided its founders and first administrators in arranging and ad- justing its educational machinery., the influence of these principles in shaping the after course of the institution, and the new developments and wider scope given them in these later years. Naturally our chief interest fixes itself upon the opening and closing periods of the Univer- sity's history, because in the first of these there is the spectacle of a great and inevitable need making itself felt and calling forth the best efforts of earnest, thoughtful men to supply it; and of such men with only the traditions of the Old World to guide them, grappling with this problem, and endeavoring to work out a solution of it that should .take into account the new conditions and altered circumstances of the young and growing colony (and it seems hardly necessary to say that these new conditions and altered circumstances presented a more seri- ous difficulty in matters educational than in things material or eco- nomic), and because in the latter of these periods we have to trace the introduclion of new processes incident partly upon the large and sud- den development of physical science, and partly upon the closer study of proper educational methods. This latter I have called the closing period. It is so, of course, only in a chronological sense, because it has extended up to the moment of this writing. Strictly and historically it is only a beginning, the beginning of a new period in the course ot the University not to be defined by the present moment, but to extend beyond it until some new development gives us a new date. Nor must it be supposed that such division into periods marks any real break in the continuity of history. We shall find, I think, that every genuine educational theory and the practice of it bears within it two elements a permanent, based upon the unchanging facts of human nature, and a variable, the outcome of the circumstances of a particular period. Of these the permanent persists and forms the cord that binds the total his- tory into a unity, but the variable with its changes marks off the dates by which we reckon. It is only when this variable element has outlived the 255 256 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. days <>!' its usefulness, has fallen from the level of a rational system to that of a mechanical routine, and has thus, from lack of thought, come to be confounded with the essential and permanent, that any change, however accordant with previous history, seems to partake of the nature of a revolution, and to betoken a complete severance of historic sequence. It may be that the innovators have a like inadequate notion of their own work ; that they, too, mistake for permanent in their own scheme what is but temporary, and rate for temporary in the scheme what would reform something that is permanent, but time will take charge of this, and will surely rectify their mistakes. An educational institution is not a fabric to be taken up or pulled down or rebuilt, or fundamentally remodeled. It is a growth with its roots in the past, and the only way to break with that past is to kill the institution itself, and with it probably the innovations proposed. A feeling that the time had come in the growth of the colony when a determined effort was to be made to provide its citizens with the means of education at home, in order that a sufficient number of properly trained men might be at hand to supply the increasing need of intelli- gent magistrates, merchants, teachers, and citizens, and a sense that just then, and perhaps for some time to come, public provision was not likely to be made to meet this want, led a number of the public spirited citizens of Philadelphia, with Franklin among them, to lay their hands to the work of establishing an Academy. Having themselves liberally subscribed to the necessary funds and secured other private subscrip- tions, besides a sum of 200 and an annual contribution of 50 from the council of Philadelphia, and 100 more from merchants in London, the trustees felt able to announce for January, 1750, the opening of an academy, " Wherein youth will be taught Latin, Greek, English, French, and (Herman languages, logic and rhetoric, also writing, arithmetic, mer- chants' accounts, geometry, algebra, surveying, gauging, astronomy, drawing in perspective, and other mathematical sciences, with natural and mechanic philosophy, etc., agreeable to the constitution heretofore published, at the rate of 4 per annum and 20 shillings entrance." As the paper the trustees addressed to the common council of Philadelphia shows, ;md as Dr. Smith, the first provost, expressly testifies in his historic account of the foundation, an element of danger was felt at this time to be present in the rapid influx of non-English colonists, the (Her- mans, who have left so deep a mark upon the State of Pennsylvania. It \\as not only necessary to provide educated men for magistrates, etc., but it was imperative early to set in operation some influence that .-Imuld bring the colonists into unity and harmony; the Germans must he Anglicized, at least so far as to lead them to comprehend the insti- tutions and traditions of the people amongst whom they had come to live, and to habituate them to the thought that they and the English around them were to form one people in mind and heart as well as in habitation, and no means, it was seen, could be so effectual to this end THE DEPARTMENT OF ARTS. 257 as the institution of such an academy whence, a supply of properly- trained teachers, and it might be preachers as well, could be put forth among these dangerous, because foreign, elements. It is not a matter tor surprise, therefore, to find both Franklin and Dr. Smith actively interested a little later in the work of the society for educating the (lei mans in Pennsylvania. The work of this society was distinct from that of the College, but the relation of the College to it was, and was in- tended to be, more intimate than a merely personal one through its provost and most eminent trustee. The society was needed to meet the exigencies of the moment, but there can be but little doubt that both Franklin and Dr. Smith hoped and expected that the growth of the College would render the existence of a separate society unneces- sary, or at any rate would furnish them with the teachers that just then they were compelled to take where they could find them. The Univer- sity of Pennsylvania, it may be fairly said, had its birth in a scheme for what we have lately learned to call "university extension." This probably accounts for the instruction in the German language that was offered in the prospectus of the new Academy. It will account also for some other peculiar facts to be related farther on. I have anticipated chronological order in using the term " College ;" but according to Dr. Smith's explicit statement, the views of the trustees did not stop with the establishment of an Academy ; it was their idea to es- tablish this at least, and then to feel their way towards something higher; a College it was hoped, might be reared on the basis of the Academy, if it should succeed in demonstrating its usefulness and so win its way to favor and patronage. Three years after the opening of the academy, a pamphlet entitled "A General Idea of the College of Mi- rania," written by the Rev. William Smith and intended as a " sketch for a proposed college in New York," was sent by its author to Frank- lin, then President of the Board of Trustees of the newly founded Academy. This pamphlet produced a marked effect-on Franklin, and led to a correspondence between him and Mr. Smith, which culminated in the appointment of the latter as provost of the College. The Academy had prospered as well as its most sanguine friends could desire, and in July, 1753, had obtained from the proprietors of the colony a charter of incorporation together with a gift in lands and money amounting to 3,000. It is quite clear that the trustees were already bent on realiz- ing at an early moment the further development of the project they had undertaken. Evidently, too, they felt as wise men would, that the proper head for the College must be found before they took steps to give their Academy the more ambitious name. Their action in this matter might well be a lesson to us of the present day and to all generations to come. The College or University idea must first be secured in the mind"of a competent administrator before the venture is made of issuing any promissory note to the public; otherwise, when the public demands, as it is entitled to do, fulfillment of the promise given, the means may 1180 17 258 TFIE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. not be- at hand tor paying the debt. Unfortunately this lesson of their example was but too soon to be forgotten by their own successors. On May L'-l, 1754, the Rev. William Smith (afterwards Dr. Smith) was- inducted provost of the College and Academy of Philadelphia, and IM otessor of Natural Philosophy," and the very next day he " commenced teaching in the philosophy class, also ethics and rhetoric to the ad- vanced pupils." TheusebyDr.Smithin his diary of the word "college," in the title of the institution, shows what he was expected to do; for the addition of this word to the corporate title was- not authorized by charter until May 14, 1755, when authority to confer degrees was also granted. In an elaborate paper, Dr. Smith has himself set forth the history of the Academy up to the time when he took charge of it, the scheme of instruction which he had made out for the Academy and the College that was to stand upon it, and, more precious and interesting than these, valuable as they are, the principles that guided and determined his action in framing his system. As might be expected as, indeed, must always be the case in any wise scheme the principles are broader than their embodiment in the curriculum. There is much in the cur riculum that to-day would be changed, owing to altered circumstances, further development of special branches, a clearer insight into the na- ture of some; but the principles stand firm as ever, and, indeed, defy attack. It is hoped [he says] that the student may be led through a scale of very easy ascent, till finally rendered capable of thinking, writing, and acting well, which are tin- maud objects of a liberal education. Nothing can lie proposed by any scheme of collegiate education but to lay such a general foundation in all branches of literature as may enable the youth to perfect. themselves in those particular parts to which their business or genius may after- ward-* I'-ad them: and scarce anything lias more obstructed the advancement! of Hound learning than a vain imagination that a few years spent at college can render youth such absolute masters of science as to absolve them from all further study. And though wo flatter ourselves we shall enrich our country with many minds that an- liberally accomplished, and send out none that may justly be termed barren or unimproved, yet we hope that the youth committed to our care will, neither at college nor afterwards, rest satisfied with such a general knowledge as is to be ac- quired from the public lectures and exercises. We rather trust that those whoso taste in once formed for the acquisition of solid wisdom will think it their duty and most rational satisfaction to accomplish themselves still further by manly persever- ance in private study and meditation. The hope here expressed, the value of which as an aim constantly present to the mind <>f the teacher can not be overestimated, was not allowed to remain a hope, or even left to the chances of individual rtfort on the part of the professors. Distinct provision was made for its realization by supplementing the curriculum with a copious list "of choice, approved writers in the various branches of literature, which will be easily understood when once a foundation is laid in the books to be used as classics under the several lectures. This list is only THE DEPARTMENT OF ARTS. 259 meant as a private library, to be consulted occasionally in the lectures for the illustration of any particular part, and to be read afterwards for completing the whole." This, in its way, embodies the idea, and was at that time doubtless the only feasible substitute for post-graduate courses of study; and I can not refrain from saying here that many a student in later days would have been thankful for such an official list, or, in de- fault of that, for some clear indication that such a list could easily be furnished if desired. More questionable is this: They (the trustees) were very sensible that the knowledge of words, without making them subservient to the knowledge of things, could never be considered as the basis of education. To lay a foundation in the languages was very necessary as a first step, but without the superstructure of the sciences would be but of little use for the conduct of life. The idea that language is crystallized thought in words and word- forms, as welt as in the concatenations of words we call sentences; that literature is the expression of thought, meditation, and aspiration by means of this thought material, and that, as thought is of the innermost essence of humanity, these, its outward sensible manifestations, must be the most powerful instruments of human education, was perhaps hardly to be looked for in Dr. Smith's day ; it may indeed be said that to the loud claim made in the name of physical science that in it is to be found the be-all and end-all of human education, has been in these latter days due the clearer perception of the true foundation of literature and language in a human scheme for human education. And it is curious to note that the first serious departure from Dr. Smith's scheme, and the first nearer approach to the present system lay just in the more independent position that was given to the study of languages. A fact that strikes one.as curious and interesting in view of recent dis- cussions is that the College course as he laid it down embraces only a period of three years; with reference to this he says: "No doubt the term of three years" will appear "too scanty a period for the execution of everything here proposed, and it must be acknowledged that a longer period would be necessary. But circumstances must always be regarded in the execution of every plan." This same question of three versus four years in the arrangement of College work we shall find coming up again; and it is proof of the far- reaching influence of Dr. Smith in de- termining the after course of the College that we find him cited (as an evident authority) on one side of the question in a way that shows clearly he had been appealed to by the other likewise. An examination of the details of his curriculum is peculiarly interest- ing, and the more so as it evidently formed the basis of the College course down to 1828, and its influence can be distinctly felt as late as 1847. Particularly noteworthy is the fact that while several of the branches inserted by Dr. Smith disappeared in the various reorgani- zations of the course it was only (with one exception) to reappear later on, and to take upon themselves such enlarged and independent devel- 260 'I' Hi: I'NFVKKSITY OF 1'KXNSVLVAMA. opment as t<> pass fur innovations that savored no little of the revolu- tionary. Our colleagues of tin- N\ liarton School and of the School of P.iology had a legitimate predecessor in Dr. Smith. The scheme is laid in Hirer parallel columns, representing each one of the three daily lec- tures. Each one of these columns evidently embraces a distinct prov- ince in the scheme of education, though in the second year the subjects propei to the second column have perforce overflowed slightly into the first. In the tirst lecture, after a preliminary training in logic and metaphysics to develop his powers of thought, the student is to be brought to a knowledge and practical sense of his position as a man and a citizen: and this by a course embracing ethics, natural and civil law. an introduction to civil history, to laws and government, to trade and commerce. By the second he is led up through an extended course in mathematics (including conic sections and fluxions) to the study of external nature in the branches of mechanics, physics, astronomy, nat- ural history of vegetables and animals, chemistry, fossils, and agricul- ture. While he was thus gaining the necessary elements for a proper appreciation of his condition as a member of the human race, and as the inhabitant of a world, subject to physical laws, the studeni in the third lecture (or period) was getting a training that should prepare him for the active exertion by tongue and pen of whatever abilities he pos- ed, so that the, knowledge gained in the first two might be made available for the good of himself and his fellows through the skill ac- quired in the third, hi this period was given the course in ancient languages and composition (except that Latin and English exercises occupied also the first two terms of the first period in the freshman year); the fir>t year was devoted to reading the Iliad, Juvenal, Pindar, Cicero, Livy, Thucydides or Euripides, and Dionysius, with occasional declamations; the second to rhetoric and the critcal reading of ipseiido) Longinus, Horace's Ars Poetica. Aristotle's Poetics, selections from (.Miintilian. followed byr Hi years of age. It maybe inferred from this that the average age of students on entering the philosophy schools (we should say the course in arts) was from 13 to 14 years. In the distribution of the work the three years of the philosophy schools (or course in arts) were assigned to the provost and vice-pro- vost, professors of natural and moral philosophy respectively; the Latin and Greek schools to the professor of languages, with the aid of tutors. The professors of English and oratory and of mathematics taught only in the Academy. Such was the conception of the College that Dr. Smith endeavored toreali/.ein his administration. Fortunately, he was a man who pos- sessed not only a head to conceive, but administrative talent to carry into effect what his head had so well planned. The plan was thoroughly carried out in its details. Of this we have not only his own explicit statement, but independent evidence in the notebooks, still preserved, of the students in the branches of natural and moral philosophy. The prosperity promised by the excellence of the plan, and the vigor of the provost, and verified in the growing number of the students, was interrupted by the turbulent days of the Revolution, and worse yet, absolutely cut short by the unjust and injudicious action of the legislature of Pennsylvania. C'etait plus qu'un crime, detail une faute. On the most absurd grounds the charter of the College was taken away in 1779, the Board of Trustees and the faculty dissolved, and a new institution incorporated under the style of the " University of the State of Pennsylvania," with a new Board of Trustees and a new faculty. The difficult days of the Revolution might have been tided over, and the setback given by the British occupation of Phila- delphia retrieved by the tried vigor of the provost with the prestige already won, but it was quite another thing to win the confidence of the public for a new institution and an untried administration; and matters doubtless were not improved to people's minds when they thought over the process of the action and the causes that gave birth to the new University. In 1780 this action was reversed and the charter restored, but it was soon felt that there was not room in the small community for the restored College and the rival that had sup- planted it. In IT'.H a union of the two was effected under the name and t it le of the " University of Pennsylvania." One-half of the Board of Trustee- \\av i;, ken from the University of the State of Pennsyl- vania. A ne\v faculty was to be chosen by the new Board of Trustees. The eniir-e \\ :( s extended to fou i- years. Exactly how this was done is not Hear, but there is evidence to show that it was partly due to the incorporation into the course in arts of the last "stage or form" in Dr. Smith's Latin and (ireeU schools, for in 1810, when we first come upon a statement of the requirements for admission, we find them more than fulfilled (except as to arithmetic) by the studies in the third "stage or form " of these schools. There must, however, have been a slight shifting THE DEPARTMENT OF ARTS. 263 of position in some of tue studies of the course itself. In no other way does the course appear to have been modified ; the studies remained the same; the end in view was unchanged. There was, however, a redistribution of the work of teaching. The professors of natural and moral philosophy were henceforth to teach only the two upper classes; the professors of mathematics and of belles-lettres (a new title replacing that of English and oratory), the two lower classes. These four con- stituted the college faculty. The professor of mathematics had charge of all the pure mathematics; the professor of belles-lettres, of rhetoric and the reading of Latin and Greek authors, with a view to instruc- tion in polite letters; the professor of natural philosophy, of the applied mathematics and the natural sciences as mapped out by Dr. Smith; the professor of moral philosophy, besides his philosophic instruction, was to read such Latin and Greek classics as bore upon his proper field. The course is nowhere laid down so far as I have been able to find; but these facts warrant the statement already made that it was essentially Dr. Smith's. The principles are evidently his, and the changes are fully accounted for by the addition of a year to the course, and of the two professors to the faculty. The professor of languages, as before, was merely the "head of a grammar school." It may be worth mentioning Jiere as a proof that the University felt itself to have fallen heir to the works of the Society for Educating the Germans in Pennsylvania, .that the new trustees established a grammar school where youth could be taught Latin and Greek through the German tongue, and chose a pro fessor of German and Oriental languages to be the head of it. When it came to the election of professors, Dr. Smith's name was rejected by a small majority. Dr. Ewing, who had been provost of the late Univer- sity, was elected provost and professor of natural philosophy in the new. There are not wanting signs to show that this was predetermined. It was stipulated (before any name had been mentioned) that the professor of moral philosophy should take charge of such branches of natural philosophy as the incumbent of that chair "might not be able to manage." This could hardly apply to Dr. Smith, as his previous record shows, but it was not long before complaints arose as to the insufficiency of Dr. Ewing's instruction, particularly as to the performance of illus- trative experiments. From whatever cause their choice proceeded, they had ample occupa- tion in regretting its results, though it was long unfortunately before they reached a clear view of the mistake they had made. For the doubly difficult task of resuscitating a defunct college, there was more need than ever of one man of clear head and strong will, able to see the right end and the right way to it, and able as well to get both trustees and faculty to take that right way to that right end. It was of no avail to adopt a scheme, however wise, if that scheme was to be left to itself; no scheme is worth more than the mind and the will of him who is oetiind it; and most emphatically is this true of a scheme of education. 264 THF. rXIVKKSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. That tin- lirst duty of a Board of Trustees is to put such a man at the back of their plan, that he may put the life's blood of his own energy, and the rational methods of his own wisdom into it, the history of the course in arts proves. Trustees have proper functions of their own ; they can not lake his upon themselves with safety. Practically the course in arts was now without such ahead; and the natural results soon disclosed themselves. Everything seemed to go wrong. The faculty were not at one; the students murmured, their parents mur- mured; the trustees, without experience in education, what could they do* One thing at least and they did it. They appointed com- mittees of investigation. Before the century was out, we find one of these committees helplessly wondering whether the .board might not itself be responsible for the lack of success, because they had drawn up no definite scheme of instruction! What better could they have done than what they did; adopt the excellent schemes that lay before them ready made to their hands, if only they had not neglected to put at the head of the College the one man who could put meaning into every line of it. The very comparison they made with the success of the Medical Course might have taught them a lesson; that course was certainly not of their devising; and the success that attended it was due to the quali- ties to be found in the faculty, and to that intelligent unity of counsels and of efforts which were secured to it by the professional character of its instruct ion. It is curious to see how their minds kept going back to Dr. Smith's scheme: but it is ever the scheme, not the man, they think of. (Mi March 4, 1810, they framed new and detailed rules for the guidance of the professors and thus tried to lay the ghost that haunted them. They had departed from Dr. Smith's scheme by severing the pure mathematics from (he chair of Natural Philosophy, and as the pro- fessors who held these chairs had quarreled, there could be no reason- able doubt that a return to his scheme in this particular was necessary; these chairs at one, as they must now be, all would go well. lint the ghost would not down; all did not go well. A still further return must be made. It is true there is n<> mention of Dr. Smith, but at a later period, when this same matter came up again, his name is mentioned, and his author- ity appealed to. They had already done away with the professor of mathematics: but ueit her this nor the new rules they had framed had brought any increase of numbers or of reputation. Now they would 'in reduce the number of classes from four to three. There should now be three classes and three professors: a professor of natural phil- or of languages; the duties remained as before, the professor of languages taking the place of the professor of belles-lettres. They would require fm- admission Caesar, Virgil, Latin composition, the Gos- pels, and arithmetic. If this be compared with the forms and stages in Dr. Smith's Latin and Greek Schools it will at once be seen that, except THE DEPARTMENT OF ARTS. 265 as to arithmetic, his third-form hoys could now enter college. In so far, therefore, they had lowered the standard which he had set np and successfully maintained. The three years took their fancy, as it has taken many people's fancy since, and they saw in it a panacea for all the ills they were suffering from. This was in 1810. For a brief space t hey contemplated their work with satisfaction ; but within fifteen years the old round began again. Success would not come at their call, and something must be done; this time as we shall see, it was to be something desperate. Committees of investigation now report their belief that the reduction of the course to three years had been a mistake. Dr. Smith (they quote him by name), it is true, had laid down a three years' course, but he had expressly stated that this was but a concession to circumstances. Five years even he would have had, could he have managed it. Four years certainly is little enough for the work to be done; other colleges have four years and succeed; so may we. It would be well, too, to restore the chair of mathematics. Nor would they stop here; there should be a new model, a new course: Greek and Latin, indispensable foundations of all educa- tion, should be the chief studies of the first two years; mathematics (though not too exclusively) of the third ; mind and matter of the fourth. Let any one who will examine Dr. Smith's course, and he will see where this distribution of subjects came from. They then proceeded to till in the details ; but they never reached a vote on its adoption. For, after electing a professor of mathematics, as had been determined, they came to the conclusion that no tinkering with the course could do any possible good, unless they had first secured the right men. To this task they addressed themselves. There should be no half measure. A complete break must be made with the unfortunate traditions they had themselves been mainly responsible for creating; to this end they removed the whole faculty except the newly elected professor of math- ematics and Prof. Patterson, who resigned, and to the regret of the Board declined a reelection. Now for the first time is heard the expres- sion of the truth that a man, whose name, reputation, experience, and ability would command public confidence, must be chosen for the posi tion of Provost. Their choice fell upon one of their own number, the Rev. William A. De Lancey, D. D., who was elected professor of moral philosophy. But as the chair of moral philosophy involved many branches besides those which its name would now seem to imply, and as it was conceived necessary in order to clothe- the office of Pro- vost with proper dignity, that he should teach none but the senior class, an assistant professor of moral philosophy was appointed to teach the lower classes. The faculty, as now constituted, included a professor of moral philosophy, who was also Provost, a professor of mathematics, who was also vice-provost, a professor of languages, a professor of natural philosophy and chemistry (so the title was now worded), and an assistant professor of moral philosophy. 266 THE UNIVERSITY OF PKNNSYhVANIA. For the new faculty a new course was provided. The requirements for admission were set about to the standard Dr. Smith had prescribed, those in arithmetic being slightly raised. Mathematics and natural phi- losophy were differently distributed, the former being now, with mechan- ics, spread over the whole four years, and the latter over the last three. The department of Moral Philosophy still covered rhetoric and cognate subjects, as well as natural and political law, history and geography. But ft was in the department of Languages that the most striking changes appeared. A relic of its old subservience to rhetoric appears at first in the assignment of Cicero's Orations to the assistant professor of moral philosophy in the freshman year. That this, however, was more due to a tradition that he was the proper person to help the pro- fessor of languages than from a clear sense of the meaning of his services in this line, may be inferred from the fact that to him was given up also till 1831, the subject of Roman and Grecian antiquities. From 1831 on, the latter subject goes over to the professor of languages, and the ora- tions of Cicero disappear; written translations from ancient authors in the department of Rhetoric preserve a faint trace of the relation as late as 1847. Except in these particulars the languages have come to stand upon their own feet, as having a right in themselves to a place in the college courses, instead of being humble handmaidens to moral and nat- ural philosophy, and means for learning the rules of rhetoric. Such works as (pseudo) Longinus, Horace's Ars Poetica, Cicero de Officiis, Kpictetus, continued to be read, but at times that loosed them from all connection with other studies. Languages with rhetoric had furnished Dr. Smith with the means of gathering into one and knitting firmly together the strands of his course ; with the breaking looseof languages from this close union, ;md their starting into an independent career in the college course, the first step was made towards a like independ- ence of all departments, which should make each within its sphere an absolute law unto itself, instead of a unit in a general plan, to the laws of which one and all must humbly submit. The subjects of trade and commerce, of agriculture (apparently), of Government, disappeared entirely. The publication of annual catalogues appears to date from the year 1828; a promise to this effect is contained in an undated circu- lar (which a comparison with the records of the Board of Trustees proves to have been issued in 1828), signed by the president and secre- tary of the board. In 1831 appears the first recognition of a depart- ment .f English Literature, this being put in charge of the assistant professor of moral philosophy. Readings in prose and poetry comprised at first the whole of his activity in this direction. A steady develop- ment of this subject dates from 1835, when the Style of the chair was altered to rhetoric and English literature; along with this went a large progress in the historical instruction which was confided to the same professor. In 1841 lectures on English literature, delivered to the senior class, THE DEPARTMENT OF ARTS. 267 have taken the place of the readings inprose and poetry with the fresh- men, and by 1843 history has ceased to be a summary reading given in a single year, and we find in its place ancient history in the freshman year, modern history in the sophomore year, and Arnold's lectures on modern history in the junior year, while the senior year caps the whole w i t h lectures on Constitutional history and laws of the United States. In 1853 the style of the chair is again changed; now it reads Belles Lettres and the English Language and Literature, as the title shows, and an examination of the course confirms it; the English language, no longer a grammatical study, nor even as a vehicle for expression, but as a branch of philology had at last conquered a recognition it was never to lose. The enlargement of the chair in this direction necessitated a shifting of some subjects (International Law, Constitutional Law of the United States) back to their old place under the. chair of Moral Philosophy, Simultaneously Political Economy, (the modern correspondent of Dr. Smith's Trade and Commerce) made its first appearance. These are the most important signs of progress towards "the new times a coming." Little significance can be attached to the chair of geology and miner- alogy that existed from 1838 to 1845, but with no perceptible effect on the course. Science and philosophy remained stationary, or nearly so, but languages had made a decided advance in that one modern language with its literature, and that the one with the best right on its side, had obtained a place in the college course. It must not be forgotten, however, that the first break in the more modern direction had been made in 1828 by the department of Ancient Languages; nor had this remained altogether stationary since then. Till 1844-'45 no changes had occurred, except in minor points of detail, but in that year a second break was made in the old traditions with the advent of Prof. Allen. The last relics of the rhetorical character of the original course were swept away. Epictetus and the (pseudo) Longinns went out, and hence- forth the course in Greek was confined to the great literary movement of the classical period. No change was made, because there was no similar reason for it in the accompanying Latin course, but those who can remember Prof. Allen will not need to be told that under him the linguistic and literary side (but especially the latter) of the sfudy was more and more exclusively emphasized. Again, in 1854, by the addi- tion of an adjunct professor of Latin and Greek (to become in 1854 pro- fessor of Latin only) the instruction in the two languages was divided, so that greater thoroughness in teaching was made possible, while the independent value of each language as a specialty was recognized. From the point of view of education there is no essential difference be-, tweeii the fractiouing up of an old subject into several new specialties and the introduction of new subjects. Still less is there any difference between this and similar divisions in the department of Science. During the whole history of the University there had been provision made with varying degrees of completeness for such as desired to study THE UNIVKK'SITY <>F I'FAN^YLVANIA. French. German, Italian, or Spanish. Such study \vas not required for a degree; nor were the professors members of the faculty. How far the offers thus made were accepted.it would be luml to say. In 1SC.7 the first wave of what has been called the "new education" struck the I 'ni versify. The changes that were made in consequence looked to most people like a removing of the old land-marks, and the setting up of new. It can hardly be maintained now that such was the case: there had been distinct, it may have been slow, progress for some time back, chiefly in the matter of language and literature. There was now to be a sudden starting forward, but after all along the same lines; languages now. as before, were to lead, though science was to make its first halting step forward. English had now its place, but demanded a larger: other modern languages were to have official reception into the course for a degree; mathematics was to enlarge its borders; and Greek and Latin were not to be forgotten. A professor of German, and an assistant professor in the English department were added to the faculty. French, Spanish, and Italian were represented, each by an instructor; an instructor in mathematics was appointed. 'Two of these were to assist in the departments of Latin and Greek. This addition of new subjects to the regular course in arts necessitated the introduction of the much-discussed but inevitable, elective system. It now came into full-fledged existence; but from the first moment that the compact, closely knit unit of Dr. Smith's course was broken, it had appeared, though unrecognized, in principle: for from that moment, the College course ceased to be one and resolved itself into a certain number (and what was to prevent enlarging this number) of chronologically, but only chronologically, parallel courses. From that moment, too, let us hasten to acknowledge it. the danger began to threaten that education would disappear before the training of specialists. I'>nt to enter on a road that lead* to elective courses is one thing; to reach them and deal with them wisely is another. All the prominent colleges of the country have been wrestling with this problem now more than 'twenty years. Which will venture to say it has successfully solved it? As inmost colleges in the I'nited States, the elections here are confined to the junior and senior years. Of course, from the first Latin, Greek, and mathematics were the subjects affected by the introduction of elective courses ; Eng- lih (in what maybe called a minor course), philosophy, and certain ph\ >ie- liein- required in those years. The elect ion was made between definite subjects: for instance. German or Spanish might be substituted foi Greek; French or Italian for Latin, etc. This system, with changes in the application of it (Spanish and Italian were dropped from these alternative^ remained in vogiieiintil ISST.when the practice was adopted of dividing the elective studies into two groups: Group A, linguistic and literary in character: a ml group I >, mainly scientific. From group A each student is required to choose t \vo studies and from group B, one. There has been but little change in the details of the required subjects THE DEPARTMENT OF ARTS. 269 either in the first t \v<> or the last two years, except that a larger develop- ment of English and English literature has thrust both French and Ger- man out of the freshman and sophomore years, \vlicre they at first figured as required studies for the space of a year cadi. P>ut the number and variety of the elective subjects offered has of late years enormously increased, owing to the development of the original departments, chiefly the Scientific. By successive additions to the teaching force, the- de- partment of Mathematics has come to be represented by one professor and two assistant professors ; the department of Natural Philosophy by a professor, an assistant professor, and an instructor in physics, two pro- fessors with assistants in chemistry, professors of mineralogy, of geo- logy, of paleontology, of zoology, of vertebrate morphology, of biology, of embryology, and two professors of botany; the department of Eng- lish by a professor of history and English literature and a professor of rhetoric and the English language with an assistant; the department of German by a professor with an instructor (who takes charge also of Italian) ; the department of Ancient Languages by a professor of Latin, a professor and instructor in Greek, a professor of comparative philology, and a professor of Hebrew ; the department of Philosophy by a professor of intellectual and moral philosophy and by a professor of experimental psychology. A formidable list, and one that might more justly be regarded as an expansion of Dr. Smith's scheme, as originally proposed, than of the somewhat reduced form in which it appeared after the transformation of 1828; an expansion, it is true, rendered possible by the independence then first given to separate departments. The en- deavor is now, as it was then, to include all true knowledge within the scope of the College course; but the notion has been abandoned of try- ing to cram it all into one poor student's head. It is easily seen that with the present arrangement there will be no further necessity for reformation of the whole course in order to make room for new subjects that may establish in the future'a just claiiri to inclusion within it, or to provide for necessary extension of subjects already included, when special portions of them rise to the dignity of special departments. The system is now so elastic that such extensions will find room waiting for them without any dislocation of the existing order. The only thing that could cause serious difficulty in readjusting the course, would be a change in the point at which election is introduced. In the "course as at present constituted, the candidate for the degree of A. B. in the freshman and sophomore years gets * instruction in rhetoric and declamation (theoretically and practically); in English literature through lectures and themes upon topics connected with the lectures; in Greek and Latin, sufficient to give him a good hold upon those tongues for practical purposes or further study, with work in Greek, involving outside reading of standard manuals of antiquities and of history ; in universal history and the Government of the United States; in mathematics, including analytic grometry and astronomy j 270 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. in inorganic chemistry, through lectures and laboratory work ; in ele- mentary physics; in tin* junior and senior years in English composition; in English literature, through lectures and seminary work; in logic, el hies, history <>(' philosophy and psychology; in political economy. In the first two years there are also lectures on hygiene by the director of physical education. Besides these in the junior and senior years there are thro\vn open to the students an exceedingly wide and varied range of subjects for election: Greek, Latin, Hebrew, Sanskrit, Anglo-Saxon, Gothic, German, French, Italian, English philology, linguistics, ad- vanced Knglish composition, readings in English literature, history (industrial, social, political, and constitutional history of the United States, modern history since 1789, philosophy of history), advanced mathematics, analytic and organic chemistry, practical and mathemat- ical physics, experimental psychology, mineralogy, geology, and a num- ber of courses in biology. Nothing, perhaps, has attracted general attention in our colleges of late years in greater measure than the important place modern lan- guages have come to occupy in their curricula. Introduced at first as something that the public at large regarded as more " practically use- ful" than the ancient languages, and taught mainly with a view to lending, and as far as possible speaking, they have come to be treated as languages to be investigated philologically, and as possessing liter- atures to be studied historically and critically. An examination of the studies of the course, as given above, will show that the University of Pennsylvania has participated in this advance. By the professor of (ierman and the recently added professor of Komance languages both French and (ierman philology are taught, courses in Gothic and old French being offered to such as desire them; and in both languages (as well as in Italian) the, literature receives full attention. English, by the addition of courses in Anglo Saxon and English phi- lology, has followed in the same direction. Students may now not only obtain large practical drill in the use of their mother tongue, but may a No. if they will, learn something of its origin, its history, its growth, and of the linguistic laws that govern it. The large scope that within the l;ixi few years has been given to the study of English literature, and the method followed, which necessitates large and careful reading of standard classics, insure to our mother tongue that commanding place in a scheme of education which is unquestionably her due. San- skrit supplies the necessary stepping stone for the study of compara- tive philology, and flic course offered in linguistics gives as complete an introduction to that interesting and growing field of study and research as is possible in ?tn undergraduate course. Hebrew now paves the road for any who desire to enter upon the field of Semitic studies. In psychology, the latest methods, the experimental so late that there are doubtless many cultivated men who have hardly heard of them, and would regard them as paradoxical if not self-contradictory have THE DEPARTMENT OF ARTS. 271 been introduced under an able investigator with a fully equipped labor- atory. The mere list just given of separate titles is evidence enough of the very large development of the course in all branches of physical science. It is enough, perhaps, to add that within^ the last few years the latest group among the natural sciences, the biological, has been added in highly developed form. Pure mathematics, the first of the sciences to enlarge its borders, has in the last year largely increased its offers of higher work in its more special departments. But the advance the University has made, is not more marked in the wider scope of specific instruction than in the improved methods that have been introduced for the purposes of imparting that instruction. There were days whenjecture and text-book instruction were thought sufficient, but the world has gone beyond that now (one is sorely tempted to believe sometimes that the pendulum has swung too far and that a moderate return to former methods may be advisable), and we have progressed with it. With the growing equipment of the University in laboratories, museums, and library, it has become possible to put this method into efficient practice. By experimentation in laboratories and independent looking up of assigned topics in libraries, the students are brought into close personal contact with the subject-matter of their studies, are habituated to the use of works of reference, are exercised in the gathering and (for them) discovering of new knowledge, while by reports to be afterward made, either in ordinary class work or more formal seminaries, they are trained in the right ordering of what they have thus gathered, in the estimation of the relative value and bear- ing of facts and the interpretation of them, and in the careful formu- lation of their results for the information of others. They acquire thus a training of their powers and a preparation for after study that is en- tirely independent of the educational value of the studies themselves a training in methodical systematic work. If it be our desire, as it was Dr. Smith's, that our students should persevere after graduation and find most rational satisfaction in "private study and meditation," there could be no better way than by accustoming them before graduation to work of this sort under proper guidance. The day will come when they must be guides unto themselves, and they should be prepared for it. There is, too, this further advantage, that this will open their eyes to the fact that there are stores of wisdom and knowledge beyond what can be given by lectures and recitations, will show them some of the store-houses where that knowledge is to be found garnered, and will set them in the way, if so be that they desire it, of getting fuller infor- mation yet in this important matter. The personal contact with the subject that has already been mentioned has a force that is not half appreciated in educating the young; it is like getting one's feet upon solid ground. To have read carefully and thoughtfully a single play of Shakespeare, to have spelled out for one's self the details of plot and the development of the character ? and to have cast this into definite 272 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. form for others to hear and understand, even if there be nothing else done either towards investigating the sources of the story or examining tin 1 language of the piece, is worth more as an educational discipline than a whole course of lectures on (lie poet, though they should be accom- panied by private, fiut cursory reading of all his works. In the depart- ments of physical science this is better understood; the advantage that accrues to the student from making his own experiments and gathering his own experience of the workings and relations of forces and substances hardly needs mention; bub great as this is, it is small in comparison with the gain that comes from this method in the study of literature. Such is the present equipment and such the present method in the department of arts; in both it may claim to be abreast of the times. Not that there are no problems yet to be solved there are more, per- haps, than we are aware of, and it is well that there are, for without them there would be no progress. The most pressing at the present moment is this: How to reconcile election of knowledge with enforce- ment of education. CHAPTER VIII. THE MEDICAL DEPARTMENT. THE PAST. As near as can be determined from such old records as have come down to us, the first course of lectures ever given upon anatomy upon the Continent of America was delivered in 1751 by Dr. Thomas Cadwala- der, in a house, Second street, which faces Dock street, in Philadel- phia. Ten or eleven years elapsed before Dr. William Shippen, jr., ad- vertised in the Pennsylvania Gazette, November 25, 1762, that: Dr. Shippen's anatomical lectures will begin to-morrow evening at six o'clock, at his father's house in Fourth street. Tickets for the course to be had of the Doctor at five pistoles each, and any gentlemen who incline to see the subject prepared for the lectures, and learn the art of dissecting, injections, &., are to pay five pistoles more. Three years later Dr. John Morgan returned from a five years' study in Great Britain and upon the Continent of Europe, and laid before the Board of Trustees of the College of Philadelphia a plan for establishing n medical school under their auspices. The earnest appeals of Dr. Mor- gan, sustained as they were by the high testimonials which he had re- ceived in Europe, resulted in his election in May, 1765, to the first medical professorship in America, namely, the chair of the theory and practice of physio. The following September Dr. Shippen was elected professor of anatomy and surgery. Lectures were given by these professors, but it was not until 1767 that a curriculum was prepared, and the ''requisites for a bachelor's de- gree in physic," and the "qualifications for a doctor's degree in physic," .to be given by the College, publicly promulgated. The first regulations to be found in the minutes of the Board of Trus- tees in regard to fees is in May, 1768, when the price of tickets for the single course it was determined should not exceed " six pistoles" ($20), in addition to which there was a matriculation fee of 20 shillings, and each student on taking the degree of bachelor of physic was required to pay a fee of not less than a guinea to each professor, and " likewise the usual fees for the seal of his diploma and for the increase of the library." The clinical lectures at the Pennsylvania Hospital, delivered by Dr. Thomas Bond, appear to have been an integral portion of the course, although it is not known that Dr. Bond was ever formally elected 1180 18 273 274 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. In 1768 Dr. Adam Kulin was added to the faculty as the pro- fessor of mat eria medica and botany. In June, 1768, at the first com- mencement of the College of Philadelphia the degree of bachelor of medicine was conferred upon ten candidates, the first group of the 10,7~>3 physicians who up to 1S!)2 have been sent into practice by the Medical Department of the University of Pennsylvania, In 1769 the renow'ned Dr. Benjamin Hush became professor of chem- istry, and in the season of 1769-'70 the announcement of the Medical School was as follows: Theory and practice of medicine, John Morgan, M. D.; anatomy. surgery, and midwifery, William Shippen, jr., M. D.; rnateria medica and botany. Adam Kuhn, M. D. ; chemistry, Benjamin Kush, M. D.; clinical medicine, Thomas Bond, M. D. Young in years was this school and young in years were the pro- fes^ors, save Dr. Thomas Bond, who alone was over 50. Kush was 24, Kuhn was 28, Shippen was 33, and Morgan was 34. The medical lectures in the College of Philadelphia appear to have been steadily continued, with occasional interruptions of individual courses, caused by absence of professors, until the breaking out of the lie volution in 1776; especially the occupation of Philadelphia by the British in 1777, caused them to become very irregular. At the close of the war it was alleged that some of the members of the Board of Trustees were disa fleeted toward the new Government, and by an act of legislature in 1771) the charter of the College was abrogated, its officers removed, and its property transferred to a- new institution char- tered under the name of the University of the State of Pennsylvania. The trustees of this new institution at once attempted to organize a new Medical Department, and requested the late professors of the Col- lege of Philadelphia to take their respective chairs. Of these pro- fe^ors, only Dr. Shippen accepted, and so much difficulty was found in obtaining other professors that the medical instruction was exceed- ingly irregular and imperfect, although there was no further interrup- tion to graduation each year. After ten years -of agitation, and by the aid of Benjamin Franklin, on March 6, 1789, the friends of the College of Philadelphia succeeded in obtaining from the legislature a repeal of the act which had deprived the institution of its charter. One week after this the trustees rein- stated the medical faculty, appointing the old professors, Shippen. Kuhn. K'u>li. and Morgan. There were now in Philadelphia two rival, antagonistic medical schools; the result was so unsatisfactory that, in 1791, especially through the etforts of Dr. Caspar Wistar. an amicable adjustment was brought about between the two colleges, and as the result of a petition from the two schools, the legislature passed an act consolidating the College of Philadelphia and the University of the State of Pennsylvania in one institution, to be known as the " University of Pennsylvania," THE MEDICAL DEPARTMENT. 275 The degree of bachelor of medicine, which had been dropped by the College after its reorganization in 1789, was now abolished altogether, and ever since the University of Pennsylvania has given only one med- ical degree, that of Doctor of Medicine. The first faculty of the University of Pennsylvania was formally constituted as follows, attendance upon the course of botany and natural history, however, not being necessary for graduation: Ana- tomy, surgery, and midwifery, William Shippen, M. D., Caspar Wistar, M. D., adjunct; theory and practice of medicine, Adam Kuhn, M. D.; institutes of medicine and clinical medicine, Benjamin Rush, M. D.; chemistry, James Hutchinson, M. D. ; materia medica and pharmacy Samuel P. Griffitts, M. D. ; botany and- natural history, Benj. Smith Barton, M. D. The death of Dr. Hutchinson, in the latter part of 1793, was followed by the election of Dr. James Woodhouse, in 1795, to the chair of chemistry; and the resignation of Dr. Griffitts, in 1796, led to the elec- tion of Dr. Benj. Smith Barton to the professorship of materia medica. After the retirement of Dr. Kuhn, in 1797, Dr. Rush filled the duties of the two chairs theory and practice of medicine, and the institutes and clinical medicine until 1805, when the professorships were con- solidated. In the s;mie year the chair of surgery was created, and filled by the election' of Dr. Physick; and in 1809 Dr. John Redman Coxe was chosen to fill the professorship of chemistry, left vacant by the death of Dr. Woodhouse. It is worthy of note that in 1806 a petition from the medical faculty of the University was laid before the legislature requesting that a law be passed which should prevent the practice of medicine by ignorant persons who had not graduated from some university or college, a peti- tion whose object was first advanced in the present decade by a law regulating the practice of medicine in the State of Pennsylvania, For forty-five years after the foundation of the Medical School, the chairs of anatomy and obstetrics were united, but in 1810 obstetrics disenthralled itself from servitude, although it was distinctly stated in the. resolutions of the Board of Trustees creating the professorship of midwifery that it was not necessary for students to attend the lectures of such chair in order to obtain the degree of doctor of medicine, and it was not until 1813 that the professor of midwifery was made a pro- fessor of the medical faculty and attendance upon his lectures became compulsory. The first professor of midwifery was Dr. Thomas C. James, who was elected in 1810. In 1834 he was succeeded by Dr. William P. Dewees, who in 1825 had been elected adjunct professor of obstetrics. In 1835 Dr. Hugh L. Hodge took the chair, to be fol- lowed in 1863 by Dr. R. A. F. Penrose, whose resignation, in 1888, was followed by the appointment of two assistant professors, Drs. Howard A. Kelly and Barton Cooke Hirst, of whom Dr. Kelly resigned the following year and Dr, Hirst was raised to the full professorship. 276 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. The chair of practice of medicine was filled by Dr. Barton from 1813 to 1816, when Dr. Nathaniel Chapman took the position, which he held until 18.50, when Dr. George B. Wood was transferred to it, to be suc- ceeded in 1860 by Dr. William Pepper. In 1864 Dr. Pepper was forced by ill health to retire, and Dr. Alfred Stille" was elected, to be followed in 1884 by the present incumbent, the younger Dr. William Pepper. The chair of materia medica was filled from 1813 to 1816 by Dr. Na- thaniel Chapman; from 1816 to 1818 by Dr. John Syng Dorsey; from July, 181 s. to 1S35 by Dr. Coxe; from 1835 to 1850 by Dr. George B. \Yood; from 1850 to 1876 by Dr. Joseph Carson, who was followed by the present incumbent, Dr. Horatio C. Wood. In 1818 Dr. Coxe was succeeded in the chair of chemistry by Dr. Robert Hare, whose resignation in 1847 was followed by the election of Dr. James B. Rogers. After his death^ in 1852. his brother, Dr. Robert E. Rogers, was chosen. He filled the chair until 1877, in which year the present incumbent, Dr. Theodore G. Wormley, was elected. In 1818, at the death of Dr. Wistar, the chair of anatomy was filled by the election of Dr. John Syng Dorsey, who died suddenly the same year. After performing the duties temporarily, Dr. Physick was pre- vailed upon to accept the professorship in 1819. In 1831 Dr. Physick resigned his active connection with the school, and the chair was con- ferred on Dr. William Homer, who had been adjunct professor of anat- omy, and at whose death, in 1853, Dr. Joseph Leidy, was elected. Dr. Leidy died in 1891, and was succeeded by the present incumbent, Dr. George A. Piersol. After the vacation of the chair of surgery in 1819 by Dr. Physick, it was filled by Dr. William Gibson, who was succeeded in 1855 by Dr. Henry H. Smith, alter whose resignation in 1871 Dr. D. Hayes Agnew was elected, to be succeeded in 1889 by the present incumbent, Dr. John Ashhurst, Jr. In 1835 the chair of the institutes of medicine, which in 1805 had been united with the chair of practice, both to be filled by Dr. Rush, was separated from it, and the professorship was given to Dr. Samuel .Jaekson, who resigned in 1863, to be succeeded by Dr. Francis Gurney Smith. After the resignation of Dr. Smith, in 1877, the chair remained vacant until 1878, when Dr. Harrison Allen was elected to it. In 1885 Prof. Allen resigned, but the present incumbent, Dr. Edward T. Reichert, was not elected until 1886. He, however, delivered the course for 1885-'86 before his election to the chair. In 1873 the faculty of medicine was enlarged by the election of the chairs of clinical medicine, clinical surgery, gynaecology and pathology, and morbid anatomy. The chair of clinical medicine was filled until 1884 by Dr. William Pepper, and from 1884 to 1889 by Dr. William Osier, who was succeeded the same year by Dr. James Tyson. The first professor of clinical surgery was Dr. John Ashhurst, Jr., who was succeeded in 1889 by Dr. J. William White. The chair of pathology THE MEDICAL DEPARTMENT. 277 and morbid anatomy was filled from its foundation until 1889 by Dr. James Tyson, who was succeeded the same y-ar by Dr. John Guiteras. Dr. William Goodell, the first professor of gynaecology, is still in active service. The first lectures of Dr. Shippen on anatomy appear to have been given in the rear of his father's residence, on Fourth street, above Market, in apartments which he had himself evidently fitted up for the purpose, whilst the other medical lectures in the College of Philadel- phia were delivered in the old Academy building, on Fourth, near Arch. The first building especially arranged for the use of the medi- cal professors of -the College of Philadelphia was situated on Fifth street, below Library, and was known as the Surgeons' Hall, or as Ana- tomical Hall. It is probable that the University of the State of Penn- sylvania occupied this hall after the first suspension of the College of Philadelphia, but at the resumption of active life by the College in 1789, the University moved into the building of the Philosophical So- ciety, on Fifth, below Chestnut. The University of Pennsylvania, after the consolidation of the two original institutions, appears to have made use of the Anatomical Hall until 1800, when the trustees became pos- sessed, by purchase, of the edifice that had been built by the State of Pennsylvania for the accommodation of the President of the United States, at Ninth and Chestnut streets. In 1807 new apartments, in an addition to the original building, were provided for the medical faculty. These apartments were enlarged in 1817, and in 1829 were superseded by the Medical Hall, in which the medical teaching of the institution was given until July, 1873, after which time a building in Ninth street, below Walnut, was occupied until the completion in September, 1874, of the present medical buildings in West Philadelphia. THE PRESENT. BUILDINGS AND APPLIANCES.* The instruction of the Medical Department of the University of Pennsylvania is conducted in the Medical Hall, Laboratory Building, the Hospital of the University, the Laboratory of Hygiene, and the Wistar Institute of Biology and Anatomy. The Medical Hall con- tains three lecture rooms, the Wistar and Horner Museum, the His- tological, Osteo-Syndesmological, Physiological, Pathological, and Phar- iiiaceiiticanaboratories; besides an assembly room for the students and private rooms for the professors. The laboratory building has its lower floor occupied by the Clinic of Dentistry, and its upper three floors by the two Chemical Laboratories, and the Dissecting Room. All of the lecture rooms and laboratories are heated by steam, and are thoroughly ventilated by currents of air forced into the rooms in such a way as to avoid drafts. They are also brilliantly lighted by electricity. In all of the laboratories, whether contained in the Medical Hall or 278 THE UNIVERSITY OF PKN.NSYLVAMA. in the Laboratory Uuilding, especial encouragement and facilities are afforded tor original research, and for such purpose the laboratories are kept open during the whole year, except some of them which are closed during the months of July and August. The Wistar and Homer Museum, founded nearly one hundred years ago, is believed to be the largest and richest of the kind in the United States, containing not only a very large number and a great variety of specimens illustrating the normal and morbid anatomy of every part of the human body, but also a large number of preparations in comparative anatomy, and a very extensive collection of drawings and of models in wood, papier-mache, composition, glass, etc. At present the Wistar and Horner Museum occupies a large room in the Medical Hall, but through the generosity of Gen. Isaac J. Wistar, the Wistar Institute of Biology and Anatomy is being erected in immediately opposite to the Medical Hall; in it the Wistar and Horner Museum is to be kept and every facility is to be provided for original research. The noble building is rapidly approaching completion and an endowment fund yielding $6,000 per annum has also been provided by Gen. Wistar. The formal open- ing of this great museum will occur in October, 1893. The Histological Laboratory is furnished with numerous microscopes of good quality, and all apparatus necessary to enable the first-course, student to become practically familiar with the most approved methods of microscopical technique, as well as with the normal histology of all the tissues and. organs. During the spring months it is open for those who desire a course embracing those refinements and minutia' which of necessity are omitted in the regular winter's work. The Osteo-Syudesinological Laboratory is devoted to the practical study of the bones and their articulations. The Physiological Laboratory is furnished with a large variety of apparatus for use in practical physiology. It is in active operation during ten months of the year, so that every facility is afforded ad- vanced students and graduates who desire to make special studies and rcM-arches under the professor of physiology. The Pathological Laboratory is well supplied with microscopes ami all appliances required for practical study and original research. It has also a complete outfit for the study of bacteria and of infectious dis- BS. Kach student of the second year is provided \\ith a separate table and microscope, \\ith material and reagents, and receives personal instruction in pathological histology, in mycology, and iy the micro- scopy of urine. Kach student of the third year receives -advanced practical instruction in morbid anatomy and the making of autopsies. Weekly demonstrations of the gross appearance of specimens, embrac- ing all known morbid products, mostly in fresh condition, together with the microscopic sections, are features of this course. The practical work during the regular winter session is obligatory on students of both second "and third year. Snecial instruction and guid THE MEDICAL DEPARTMENT. 279 ance in original research are given by the demonstrators to advanced students. The Pharmaceutical Laboratory is used exclusively for the teaching of practical pharmacy, for which purpose it is furnished with all necessary apparatus. The Laboratory of Experimental Therapeutics is chiefly devoted to original research, but instruction is also given by the demonstrator to students who desire special courses. The chemical laboratories are two in number. Each room is 140 feet in length by 40 feet in width. The lower room, is given up to students of the first year, who devote in it three hours each week to the study of qualitative analysis. The course includes chemical manipulations and the detailed study of,the chemical reactions of the principal metals, acids, and their combinations, with the general principles of qualitative analysis, especially as they relate to the detection and separation ot metals and compounds of importance to the physician. Each .student is provided with a separate table and apparatus, and is required to ex- hibit by formula^ on paper, all reactions involved in his tests. In the upper laboratory, students of the second year spend three hours per week. The course embraces an introduction to the general principles of quantitative analysis and the principles of volumetric analysis, with the practical examination of urine and animal fluids, and the recogni- tion and recovery of poisons from the animal body, and complex mix- tures. The Anatomical Laboratory or dissecting room, upon the upper floor of the laboratory building, is 140 feet by 40 feet, and is perfectly lighted and ventilated. The tables have stone tops, the floor is made of as- phalt, and the washstands and water supply are abundant. Great care is given, not only to cleanliness, but also to the preservation of the cadaver, so that the room is practically without odor, and the danger to the health from dissecting wounds is reduced to a minimum. In the Laboratory of Hygiene practical instruction is given in the analysis of food-staffs, drinking-water, and milk, and the investigation of adulterations or deteriorations of the same; in the determination of the hygroscopic and thermo-absorbent properties of the various sub- stances used for clothing; in the examination of decorative materials for poisons; in the solution of problems in sanitary engineering, plumb- ing, ventilation, etc. ; and in practical and experimental bacteriology, disinfection, and prevention of disease. In the laboratory of Practical Surgery the application of bandages is taught to students in their first year; whilst the use of fracture dressings and surgical operations on the cadaver form the instruction to students in third year. The corps of teachers in the Medical Department consists of the Medical Faculty proper, and a large staff of other professors, lecturers, and demonstrators, besides various assistants in the Hospital. 280 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. For many years past the course of medicine in the University of Pennsylvania has extended over three years, at the end ot which period the decree has been conferred upon successful candidates. In 1893, the course is to be extended over four years, the whole period being occupied by a graded instruction, and four years of study being required of the students. Kach academic year consists of a session, beginning the 1st day of October and lasting until early in June. The first year is largely occupied with work in the various labora- tories of chemistry, pharmacy, osteology, histology, and in dissection. The lirst year student may also attend clinical lectures in general med- icine and general surgery. Jn the second year, in addition to didactic and clinical teaching, practical instruction is given in medical chem- istry, pathological histology, and physical diagnosis. Dissection is con- tinued. Throughout the third and fourth years the student is required to attend the general medical and surgical clinics at the University and Philadelphia hospitals and the clinics in special departments at the former. Special bedside instruction in clinical medicine, including physical diagnosis and laryngology, in surgery, and in gyuecology, is given in the third year, as are also opportunities for the practical study of diseases of the eye, ear, throat, and skin, and for acquiring profi- ciency with the various instruments employed. For this purpose the third and fourth year classes are divided into sections, each of which receives direct personal instruction. The course of instruction is so arranged as to permit mainly constant introduction of new material while retaining the repetition of essential subjects aimed at by the old methods. The laboratory instruction is so coordinated with the oral teaching as to illustrate the subjects of the lectures. Advanced students are encouraged to make original re- searches in the laboratories of pharmacy, chemistry, physiology, pa- thology. and experimental therapeutics. The general details of the plan of instruction of the four years' course are as follows: /V/-.s/ year. General Chemistry, Materia Medica and Pharmacy, His- tology, ( )steology. Anatomy, Physiology, Bacteriology, Medical History and Terminology, Physical Diagnosis, Bandaging, General Cliuics(Med- ical and Surgical). ,/ )/"". Medical Chemistry. Anatomy, Applied Anatomy, Phy-iology, Pathology, Physical Diagnosis, Therapeutics, Surgery, Obstetrics, (leneral .Medical and Surgical Clinics. Third year. Applied Anatomy, Pathology, Therapeutics, Surgery. Ward < la>ses in Surgery, Minor Surgery and Fracture Dressings, Obstetric-. I 'ract ice of Medicine. Ward Classes in Medicine, Gynecology, Ophthalmology, Dei ^natology, Otology, Laryngology (Throat and Nose), General Clinics. Medical and Surgical, including Philadelphia Hospital; Special Clinics: Ner\ou> Di> ( .;iscs. Dermatology, Ophthalmology, Otol- ogy i Gynecology, Geuito-Urinary Diseases. THE MEDICAL DEPARTMENT. 281 Fourth year. Hygiene, Practice of .Medicine, Operative Surgery, Orthopaedic Surgery, Operative Obstetrics. Gynaecology, Autopsies, General Medical and Surgical Clinics at University :ind Philadelphia Hospitals; Special Clinics: Ear, Eye, Diseases of Women, Nervous Diseases, Diseases of Children and Geuito- Urinary Diseases; Ward < 'lasses in Nervous Diseases, Diseases of the Eye, Ear and Skin ; Med- icine, Surgery, Gynaecology. GRADUATION. A t the close of the fourth year a student who has satisfactorily passed all the required examinations receives the degree of doctor of medicine on the following conditions: I. He must be 21 years of age and of good moral character. II. He must have passed a satisfactory examination in all the branches of the curriculum, must have attended the practical instruction in all departments, and his last course of instruction must have been at this school. (A thesis is no longer required, but students are recommended to prepare theses in competition for the various prizes.) III. He must have attended at least one case of obstetrics. IV. After notice of having successfully passed the final examination, lie must enter his name on the register of candidates for the degree. V. He must be present at the commencement, unless excused by the dean of the faculty. CHAPTER IX. THE LAW DEPARTMENT. In 1790 a professorship of law was established in the college depart- ment. Mr. Justice Wilson, of the Supreme Court of the United States, having been elected the professor, delivered his introductory lecture on December 15 of that year, "in the quaint old fashioned hall of the Academy," in the presencaof President Washington and his Cabinet, the Houses of Congress, the Executive and Legislative Departments of the government of the State of Pennsylvania and the city of Phila- delphia, the Judges of the Courts, the members of the Bar, and last, but not least, Mrs. Washington, Mrs. Hamilton, and many other ladies. But Mr. Justice Wilson's course of lectures, though commenced under such brilliant auspices, does not seem to have progressed beyond its first year. 1 No further effort seems to have been made before 1817 to give instruction in law to the students of the University. On March 20, of that year, Charles Willing Hare, esq., of the Philadelphia bar, was elected Professor of Law, and delivered his introductory lecture ill the following month. But he, like Mr. Justice Wilson, lectured for but one year. The subject of instruction in the law was again permitted to pass into oblivion, until, on April 2, 1850, the Hon. George Shars- wood, then president judge of the district court of Philadelphia, was elected professor of law ; and on September 30, of that year, he de- livered his introductory lecture. On May 4, 1852, the trustees of the University established a faculty of law, and appointed Judge Shars- wood professor of international, constitutional, commercial, and civil law; Peter McCall, esq., professor of practice, pleading, and evidence at law and in equity; and E. Spencer .Miller, esq., professor of the law of real estate, conveyancing, and equity jurisprudence. From that day down to the present time the law school has been in active opera- tion. Professor McCall having resigned on June 5, I860, P. Pembertou Morris, esq., was, in November, 18(52, chosen as his successor. In 1808, Fudge Sharswood, having been promoted to the bench of the supreme court of Pennsylvania, the Hon. J. I. Clark Hare, his successor as president judge of the district court of Philadelphia (now the Court of Common Pleas, No. 2), was also appointed his successor in the faculty 'Historical sketch of the Department of Law of the University of Pennsylvania, by Hampton L. Carson, esq. 283 284 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. of the law school. Professor Miller having resigned his professorship in 1872, E. Coppee Mitchell, esq., was, iu 1873, elected to the chair of real estate and equity jurisprudence. In February, 1874, James Par- sons, esq., was elected professor of the law of personal relations and personal property. Professor Morris having resigned in 1880, George Tucker Bispham, esq., was elected the professor of equity pleading and practice. Professor Mitchell having died iu 1887, C. Stuart Pat- terson, esq., was elected professor of real estate and conveyancing, and A. Sj'dney Biddle, esq., was elected professor of practice, pleading, and evidence at law and criminal \aw. To the great loss of the school, and to the great regret of his colleagues and of all who have ever had the benefit of his instruction in the law, Judge Hare in the spring of 1889 resigned his professorship, but, fortunately for the administration of justice, he remains upon the bench of the court of CQinmon pleas over which he has presided since 1868. In May, 1889, Samuel S. Hol- liugsworth, esq., was elected professor of the law .of contracts, corpo- rations, and pleading at law, and George S. Graham, esq., the district attorney of Philadelphia, was elected professor of criminal law. In April, 1891, Professor Biddle died. Hon. George M. Dallas, now a judge of the circuit court of the United States, was elected as his successor. In addition to the changes iu the personnel of the faculty, changes have been made from time to time in the division and arrangement of the subjects of instruction in the school; and at the present time the titles of the several chairs in the Faculty are as follows 1. A professorship of commercial law, contracts, and decedents' es- tates. 2. A professorship of equity jurisprudence, including the principles of and pleading in equity and orphans' court practice. 3. A professorship of constitutional law and the law of real property and conveyancing. 4. A professorship of the law of torts, evidence, and practice at law. 5. A professorship of the law of contracts, corporations, and pleading at law. 6. A professorship of criminal law. The present prosperity of the school is due to the intelligent and self- sai-rineing labors of those who have heretofore been its professors and those who were associated with them. It is fitting, therefore, that those who have succeeded them should gratefully record their appreciation of the virtues and abilities of their predecessors. (it-urge Sharswood, the first of the professors, was born in Philadel- phia on July 7, 1810. He was graduated from the University in 1828. Having studied law with Hon. Joseph K. Ingersoll, he was admitted to the bar on September 5, 1831. On April 18, 1845, he was raised to the bench of the district court of Philadelphia. In 1848 he became by senior- ity the presiding judge of that court. In 1868 he was elected an asso- ciate justice of the supreme court of Pennsylvania, and on January 1, THE LAW DEPARTMENT. 285 1880, he became the chief justice of the State. On January 1, 1883, he retired from the bench; and he died in May, 1883. It is unnecessary to remind students of the law or lawyers of his Lectures Introductory to the Study of Law, of his essay upon " Professional ethics," or of his annotations of Blackstone, of Starkie on Evidence, or of Byles on Bills. Peter McCall, the second of the professors in the order of seniority was born in New Jersey on August 31, 1809. Having been graduated at the College of New Jersey, he came to the Philadelphia bar on No- vember 1, 1830. He died on November 2,1880. He was for many years one of the leaders of the Philadelphia bar. Profoundly learned in the law, he was, in his intercourse with all who were brought into contact with him, a model ojf courtesy. E. Spencer Miller was born in 1818. He was graduated at the Col- lege of New Jersey. After some years of practice in Maryland and afterwards in New Jersey, he was admitted to the Philadelphia bar on May 6, 1843. From then until the day of his sudden death, March 6, 1879, he was engaged in active practice. He was a clear and ac- curate thinker, untiring in energy, and a very forcible speaker. Pro- fessor Mitchell characterized him as the most successful lecturer that the bar of Philadelphia has ever produced. P. Pemberton Morris was born in Bucks County, Pennsylvania, in 1816. He was graduated at Georgetown College. He studied the law in the office of the Hon. Job E. Tyson, and was admitted to the bar of Philadelphia on February 8, 1840. In 1849 he published a learned treatise on u The law of replevin," which has ever since been regarded as of high authority. In 1856, he annotated Mr. Smith's work on the Law of Landlord and Tenant. He was for many years engaged in active practice, mainly on the equity side of the courts, and those who were so fortunate as to be his clients always found in him a sound and judicious adviser. Edward Coppee Mitchell was born in Savannah, on the 24th of July, 1836. He was graduated from the University of Pennsylvania in 1855 and came to the bar in 1858. He died in 1887. He, upon whose weaker shoulders the University has laid the burden of succeeding Professor Mitchell in the Chair of Eeal Estate Law, may say that every day which he has spent in the performance of liis duty as a professor has caused him more and more to appreciate the high character of his predecessor's work, and to realize that Professor Mitch- ell's itn timely death has been an irreparable loss to the University and to the cause of legal education. Algernon Sydney Biddle, a son of George W. Biddle, one of the leaders of the Philadelphia bar, was born at Philadelphia llth of Oc- tober, 1847. He was graduated at Yale College in 1868 with high honor and admitted to the bar of Philadelphia on 27th of January, 1872. He rose rapidly in his profession. He died at Philadelphia on 286 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 8th of April, 1891. His learning in the law and his enthusiasm in teaching were remarkable, and in his too brief career he rendered great SIM vices to the University. It need not be said that a school which numbered among its teachers such men as Chief Justice Sharswood, Judge Hare, Mr. McCall, Mr. Miller. M r. Morris, Mr. Mitchell, and Mr. Biddle, and those who were as- s< >eia ted with them, gave thorough instruction in the law. But those pro 1'cssors, in the performance of their duties, labored under disadvantages which have happily been removed from the paths of their successors. The course was in. their time limited to two years, each year including two terms of four months each, with an aggregate of ten hours of instruc- tion each week. Now the course has been extended to three years, w i t li a minimum of twenty hours of instruction in each week. Formerly the lectures and examinations have been conducted at the University buildings in West Philadelphia, at a distance from the homes of the st utleiits and from the offices of their preceptors. Now, the Law School lias obtained commodious quarters in the building of the Girard Trust Company, at Broad and Chestnut streets, in the business center of the city and in convenient proximity to the homes of the students, the offices of their preceptors, and the courts. The sixth floor of that building is occupied by the lecture rooms, library, and the offices of the executive department of the school. Formerly the law school had not a library appropriated to the use of its students, but now, by the liberality of the family of the late George Biddle, esq., a library, con- t anting complete sets of the English Eeports, the Federal Reports, and the reports of the courts of last resort of the several States, has been presented to the University as a memorial of that distinguished law- yer, and this librai. is yearly receiving substantial additions. The curriculum of the school now includes thorough instruction in the fol- lowing topics of the law: Constitutional Law, Equity Jurisprudence, Contracts, Bailments, Corporations, Carriers, Real and Personal Prop- erty, and Conveyancing, Wills and Administration, Torts, Practice, Pleading and Evidence at Law and in Equity, and Criminal Law. It is to be hoped that before long arrangements will be completed for courses of lectures to be delivered by competent instructors in Inter- national Law, Admiralty, Patents and Copyrights, and Medical Juris- prudence. The requisites of admission to the school are 1. A satisfactory degree as Bachelor of Arts or Bachelor of Sciences; or. 2. A certificate of preliminary examination from the board of exam- iners of the bar of Philadelphia; or, 3. A certificate from two or more examiners appointed by the Fac- ulty of Law, setting forth that the student has passed a satisfactory examination in English and American history, the Latin language, and the first two books of Blacketone's Commentaries. THE LAW DEPARTMENT. 287 The course of instruction is strictly graded and the instruction is given by lectures and by frequent examinations. The studenfs are re- quired to read and discuss the leading cases illustrating the subjects of instruction. Moot courts are frequently held, at which questions prepared by the professors are argued. Under the statutes of the University a degree of bachelor of laws is granted to candidates who, having attended upon the full course of instruction in the Law Department and having prepared and submitted to the faculty an essay on some legal subject sufficient in merit to sat isfy the faculty of their fitness to receive the degree, shall have passed a satisfactory examination upon the subjects of instruction. The degree of bachelor of laws cum honore is granted to such candidates as may be certified by the faculty to have passed the final examination with dis tinction. Graduates of the school are admitted to practice in the su- preme court of Pennsylvania and in the court of Philadelphia County, upon compliance with the rules of the courts as to registration. -There is also a post-graduate course of study, covering two years and involv- ing a philosophical inquiry into the history and sources of the law. Graduates of this course receive the degree of master of laws. A system of fellowships has been created, under which the faculty may select from the graduating class a distinguished student and appoint him a resi- dent " Fellow " to serve for three years, at an annual salary of $300, and to give instruction in the Law School, under the direction of the dean of the faculty. The aim and end of the system of instruction of the Law School of the University of Pennsylvania is to tram students of law so thoroughly that when they shall have been graduated they will be competent to enter into practice at any bar in the United States. Since the establishment of the Law School in 1850, more than 700 students have been graduated, most of whom have engaged in active practice and by their professional success have reflected credit upon their Alma Mater. The roll of the school for the academic year 1892-'93 reports present for duty : Faculty. The provost, 1; the dean, 1 ; professors, 5. Staff. Fellows, 4; librarian, 1; assistant librarians, 3. Students. Third-class, 56; second-class, 50; first-class, 80; special, 16. Total, 202. CHAPTER X. THE TOWNE SCIENTIFIC SCHOOL. I. HISTORICAL. A. THE SCHOOL OF ARTS. The TWne Scientific School, substantially as it now exists, was created by a resolution of the Board of Trustees of the University of Pennsylvania, passed at its meeting on June 1,1875. Hvcn at this time, however, the educational importance of scientific and Technical training had, for twenty-five years or more, occupied the attention of the authorities of the University. At its meeting on the 5th >f March, 1850, upon recommendation of the committee on the government of the College, the Board of Trustees had adopted a resolution k *that it is expedient to provide for a School of Arts.'; In May, 1850. the board had resolved "that, for the purpose of establishing a School of Arts in connection with the University, a professor be elected to serve without charge to the University," the committee on the government of the College being requested to make a report on the title of the profes- sorship. In October this committee had recommended that the new chair 1%> called the "Professorship of Chemistry as applied to the Arts/' Whereupon the board accepted this report and at once elected .Tames C. Booth to this pcpfessorship. Professor Booth entered at once upon the duties of his chaiv, and in the issue, of the University catalogue for 1851-'52 the course of instruction in the" Department of Chemistry as ap- plied to the Arts," is announced as - the same as that of the experimen- tal laboratories now generally attached to European universities." The DJUnber of Students was limited to lO. each student being supplied with the requisite ;ip|aratus and chemicals to pursue his own experimental investigations, under the direction of the professor, with competent assistance." "The course of experiment is varied," says the prospectus, "according to the special object in view. Familiar lectures are given by the professor, to students exclusively, upon the following subjects; Mineralogy, Geology, Theoretic and Applied Chemistry." The new department was so successful that in 185."> the aid of three assistants was required in the laboratory, the number of students having increased to 13. Instruction in it was continued until the resignation of Professor Booth, in February, 1856. 1180 19 289 TIIK UMVF.KSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 11. .-rlKNIIKK INsTKl ( I Ii \ IN IHI ( ul.I.KGIATi: DKI'A ]{TMKNT. Meanwhile, on the (ith of JaniTary, 1852, th Board of Trustees re- ceived ;i communication from the Faculty of Arts relative to a reorgani- zation ot' tlu 1 course of instruction in that department. At the April meeting, the eoniinirtee on the government of the College, to whom this communication had heeii referred, made a report presenting a plan for the reorgani/iition of the Department of Arts. On the L'Oth of April, the special eonnnittee. to which this report had been referred, reported in favor of its adoption, and on May 4, 1852, after a full discussion, the plan was tinally adopted by the board. Most of its provisions relate solely to the Department of Arts, but section 3 is as follows: If any one shall have attended one course in Natural Theology and the Evidences of Christianity, all tin- courses in the Departments of Mathematics, .Natural Philos- ophy, and Chemistry, and two courses in Modern Languages, or two courses in Moral and Natural Philosophy, or two courses of Physiology and Natural History, he shall be entitled to receive the degree of Bachelor of Science. Section (! reads thus: Such students as shall have received the degree of Bachelor of Science (of three year-' standing) shall be entitled to the degree of Master of Science, on presenting to the Faculty a thesis which shall give satisfactory evidence that the author has continued to devote himself with success to science. This action of the I' Diversity authorities is doubtless to be regarded as a concession to the growing demand in the community for a course ot education more scientific and less classical in its character; a course preparing the student lor a wider range of life work than Avas to be found within the- three learned professions. This parallel and elective course within the Department of Arts went into operation at once, and is announced in the I 'Diversity catalogue for I S."iL'-'5,'}. Several indents arc enrolled in this and subsequent years as taking this course, and Henry Yethake Totten was graduated in J854 as the first Bachelor of Science of the University. / '. DKI'AKTMKM Ol' MINK-. AIMS. AM> M ANrKACTVKES. A more important movement, however, was in process of develop- ment. The special committee, which had reported favorably on April LMI, is.vj. reported not only a plan for the reorganization of the Depart ment of Arts, but also a plan for establishing a School of Mines, or. as it was amended at the meeting, a School of Mines, Arts, and Manufac- tures. On the 1st of .June, iS.jl*, the Board of Trustees considered very fully the proposed plan, and adopted the report of the committee as follows: Hi. i,,l n-il. that it i- expedient to establish a School of Mines. Arts and Manufac- tures as mie of the departments of the fm\ ,-rsity. and such department is hereby Idished upon the following plan : I. Tin- i-our-e of in-triictioii in the school to occupy three years. II. Pupils may lie admitted at the age of 16. THE TOWNE SCIENTIFIC SCHOOL. 291 III. The school to consist of the following departments, vix: (1) Natural Phil- osophy, including General chemistry; (2) Technical Chemistry, Chemical Analysis and Metallurgy; (3) Pure Mathematics; (4) Civil Engineering, General Mining, Surveying. Art of Mining, Mining Machinery; (5) Geology, Mineralogy and Pale- ontology; (6) Sketching and Plan Drawing; (7) Theoretical and Practical Mechanics, and its Application to Machinery; (8) The German and French Lan- guages. IV. Thg studies to be so conducted l>y the respective professors as to combine strict theory with the fullest practical instruction; and for this purpose, every oppor- tunity to be taken for visiting Avith the pupils the various workshops and manu- factories within reach, the use of instruments to be taught in the field, and the months of July and August to be devoted to geological excursions and visits to mines. V. Examinations of the pupils to be held once a year, by the respective professors, in the presence of a committee appointed by the Board of Trustees, of which com- mittee at least one member shall be of competent practical knowledge in the par- ticular department. VI. An appropriate degree to be given to graduating pupils. VII. Pupils may attend but one or more departments and shall, on completing their studies, receive a certificate of proficiency in such department or departments. Such certificates to be from the University, by authority of the Board of Trustees. It was further resolved at this meeting: That the. first, second, sixth and seventh departments shall be under the care and instruction of Professors Booth and Frazer ; and the third under the care of Professor Vet-hake, until otherwise arranged. And that professors shall bo chosen for the fourth and fifth departments. On the 5th of October following, the faculty of the School of Mines, Arts, and Manufactures was completed by the election of Charles B. Trego as professor of geology, mineralogy, and paleontology, and J. H. Alexander as professor of civil engineering and mining. Subse- quently on the 26th of October, 1855, upon the resignation of Professor Alexander, the Board of Trustees elected Fairman Rogers to the pro- fessorship of Civil Engineering and Mining. The existence of the two courses of scientific instruction already in operation in the University seems to have retarded the practical estab- lishment of the School of Mines, Arts, and Manufactures. On the 20th of March, 1855, however, a gpecial committee of seven, of which Bishop Alonzo Potter was chairman, which had been appointed in January of that year to consider the subject of a reorganization of the Collegiate Department, made a report in which incidentally a resolution was of- fered requesting the committee on the government of the College to Ascertain as early as may be whether the gentlemen elected to the several pro- fessorships in the Department of Mines, Arts, and Manufactures still hold such ap- pointments, and if they do whether they are prepared to enter upon their duties; and if so, to fix the time for opening the schools in the said Department, and announce it by suitable advertisements in the city of Philadelphia, the State of Pennsylvania, and elsewhere as they may deem most fit. % This resolution having been adopted by the board at its next meet- ing, the committee on the government of the College, at the October meeting, reported vacancies in the chair of pure mathematics and in 292 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. that of civil engineering. Tin- latter professorship was immediately filled liy the election of Fairman Rogers, as above stated. He entered at once upon its duties, and began on the 19th of November, 1855, a course of twenty-eight lectures upon civil engineering. These lec- tures were delivered to a class of five students and were concluded on the 28th of January, 185G. The announcement of the Department of Mines, Arts, and Manufactures appears for the first time in tfie cata- logue of the University for the year 1855-'5(!. As a proof of the general interest taken in this movement to estab- lish technical instruction in the University, the following communica- tions to the Board of Trustees may be cited. On the Gth of March, 1S55, the American Iron Association held its meeting in Philadelphia. One of the objects of the association, as set set forth in its constitution, being "to encourage the formation of such schools as are designed to give the young iron master a proper and thorough scientific training preparatory to his engaging in practical operations," the convention passed the following resolution: Whereas this convention is informed that it is proposed by the I'niversity of Penn- sylvania to establish a .School of Arts and Mines, and that one of its objects will be the proper instruction and training of pupils in such branches of knowledge and practice as arc required for the management of iron works: Therefore lifHitlred, That in the opinion of this convention the, establishment of such a school is eminently to the economical conduct of the iron manufacture and that we will give, to it our hearty support under the, care of tin- I'niversity. The second communication, dated April .">, 1855, is from the commit tee of ways and means and informs the board that by the Avill of the late Elliott Cresson, esq., the sum of $5,000 is bequeathed to his executors in trust, "to be applied toward founding a school of mines for develop- ing the mineral treasures of my native State/' On the 5th of February, 185G, the committee on the government of the College made a further report on the Department of Mines, Arts, and Manufactures, and recommended that thereafter it be composed of the following professorships: A professorship of natural philosophy; a professorship of technical (lM'iriistryan(lni('talbirgy,embra<-ingthciraf)plicati(ntothenianufacture of iron and other metals; a professorship of pure mat hematics; a profes- sorship of civil engineering and surveying; a professorship of mining; a professorship of geology, mineralogy and paleontology; a professor- ship of the line arts, embracing the, elements of drawing and sketch- ing from nature, and their application to practical art ; a professorship of architecture and practical building; a professorship of theoretical and practical mechanics. The report closed with the following resolution: I,'.. -oli-iil. That tin- Department of Mines, Arts, and Manufactures be constituted in the miiniier and with the professorships recommended by the committee on the government of the College; that nominations to fill the vacant professorships be made at the next stated meeting of the hoard; and that the same committee bi in- structed to consider and report such further measures as may be necessary for the organization of the department and the opening of the schools. Till: T()\VNK SCIKNTIFIC SCHOOL. 293 This resolution was adopted, and the committee was requested " to take such measures as may Tie neeessary tor the ellieient organization ol'the Department of Minos, Arts, and Manufactures, so that the same, may go into operation and instruction therein may be given at the Uni- versity during the collegiate term succeeding the next vacation." On the 2d of December, ]S.">(;, (lie committee reported that they had < succeeded in making arrangements for a course, <>!' instruction in said department, to be carried on during the ensuing winter months." The report goes on to say that The faculty of the department consists of Professors Frazer, Rogers, Trego, and Kendall, the three first-named gentlemen having been regularly elected to chairs in the school, and Professor Kendall -having cheerfully and promptly entered upon duty at the request of the committee, and under promise that his appointment should be Confirmed by the trustees. 1 The course of instruction will for the present term consist of lectures on natural* philosophy, mechanics, and chemistry, by Professor Frazer; civil engineering, surveying, etc., by Professor Rogers; geology and mineralogy, by Professor Trego, and mathematics, by Professor Kendall. The term commenced on the 1st instant, and the introductory lectures will all be delivered during the present week. Indeed, the course is intended to be so eminently practical and direct that introductions in the ordinary sense of the term will form but a small part of the instruction given by the professors. The lectures are to be delivered on Monday, Tuesday. Wednesday, Thursday, and Friday of each week, at from 4 to 6 o'clock in the afternoon. The committee congratulate the board on the opening of this important department of instruction, and they invite for it the cordial sympathy, publicity, and confidence of the trustees. It is believed by the committee that the large and important interests involved in the studies of such a department will, when it comes to be known, secure for it a liberal endowment. In order, however, to place it fairly before the public, and to show that it is properly estimated by the guardians of the University, some expenditures should be made; and these, as well as a plan for securing a permainent endowment, the committee recommend, shall be had under the following resolutions: Resolred, That the committee on expenditures and accounts be directed to .inquire into and report on the expediency of making an appropriation of the sum of $500 for the purpose of defraying any expenses that may be authorized by the committee on the government of the College for establishing, opening, and conducting the Depart- ment of Mines, Arts, and Manufactures for its present course of instruction. llt'solved, That the committee on the government of the College be requested to re- port a plan having for its object the procuring of a proper endowment for the said department. These resolutions were adopted by the board and the by-laws were amended so as to create, a standing committee on the Department of Mines, Arts, and Manufactures. Mr. John C. Cressou, Mr. Henry D. Gilpin, and Mr. Frederick Fraley were appointed such committee, to which Mr. Stephen Colwell and Mr. .James Bayard were subsequently added. The course of instruction thus provided for in the Department of 'Professor Kendall had been elected to 1 he chair of mathematics in the Department of Arts August 7, 1855, to succeed Professor Vethake, transferred to the chair of intel- lectual and moral philosophy. Professor Kendall was elected to the Department of Mines, Arts, and Manufactures January 8, 1857. J!l THK UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. Mint's, Aits. ;iml Manufactures began on the 1st day of December. l>"ii. and continued until the. '50th of March, IS.")?: Professor Fra/.er giv- ing thirty lectures on the Theory of Mechanics and its Application to the Construction of Machines, and on Chemistry, its theories and the properties of bodies and their compounds, with its applications in the arts; Professor Kendall giving thirty lectures on Pure Mathematics ami its connection with practical science; Professor Rogers fifty lectures on Civil Engineering and Surveying; on triangulation and compass. linear, mining, and hydrographic surveying: and on construction, strength of materials, beams, arches, and the special applications to rail- roads, canals, and water-works; and Professor Trego thirty lectures on Geology as applied to the origin, order, and geographical distribution of rock formations and its practical application to mining, manufac- tures, and agriculture, and on Mineralogy as applied to the constituent materials of rocks, the external and -chemical character of ores and mineral substances, their connection with the various rock formations, and their uses in Metallurgy and Manufactures. The number of stu- dents enrolled as in attendance upon this course of instruction is twenty- two. The same course of instruction substantially was continued dur- ing the winters of 1857-'58 and 1858-'59; the class numbering seven- teen students during the former period and thirteen during the latter }>eriod. On the 3d of May, 1859, Prof. J. P. Lesley was elected to the chair of mining, and his course on this subject was added to those of the other professors during the winter of 18f>9-'GO, the class numbering eighteen students. It. CiH.I.KtiK <>1 A<;l:l< ! I.I IKK., MINKS. AltTS. AM) THK MKCHAXKI ARTS. On the lid of February, 1804, the board appointed a special committee " to consider the subject of the endowment by the State from the public lands appropriated thereto, with power to request a portion of them for the I "Diversity." On the Kith this committee reported A ]l:in necessary fur the proper application liy the I'niversity fora portion of said grant, as follows: The Hoard of Trustee-, of the 1 'niversity of Pennsylvania tlo ordain : That the Department of Mines, Arts, and Manufactures is hereby established as "The College of Agriculture, Mines, Arts, and the Mechanic Arts" in the Uniser-,it y of Pennsylvania, and shall he governed hy .such rules and regulations as the Hoard of Trustees of this I'liiversity shall ordain. That without excluding other scientific and classical studies, there shall lie, besides the pH^ent prof. --MI rships. \ i/ : Natural phihophy anil chemistry. Technical chemistry and metallurgy (embracing their application to the manu- facture of ii. .11 nnd other metals). Matin-mat i. -. civil engineering and surveying. .Mining. ieolugy. mineralogy, and paleontology. Fine arts (embracing the elements of drawing and sketching from nature and their application to the practical art*). Architecture and praetic J ImiUling. I'm: Tcir.NTiric i ninnL. Theoretical and practical median! First. A professorship of agricultural chemistry and scientific agriculture. Second. An instructor in practical agriculture. Third. A professorship of military tactics and instruction in militaVy drill Fourth. A professorship of botany. That the said College is especially established in order to promote the liberal and practical education of the industrial classes in the several pursuits and protections of life. This report was accepted and its recommendations adopted by the" board. On the 4th of December, 18GG, Prof. 0. J. Stille, who had been elected to the chair of Belles-Lett res and English language and literature on May 1, 1866, sent a communication to the boakl contaraing suggestions on the reorganization of the collegiate department. The special com- mittee to which this conimuniration was referred made a report on January 1, 1867, in which, after considering the Department of Arts, they say: The consideration of these changes and the reasons for them directed the attention of the committee to the Department of Agriculture. Arts. Mines, ami Manufactures that was established some years ago, and was partially organi/ed and put into opera- tion. It is believed that such a department is much needed in our city for a thorough course of instruction in the arts mentioned in its title, but it has languished for want of a sufficient endowment. If the proposed changes in the Department of Arts shall bo adopted by the trustees there will bo a necessity for an appeal to the public for funds properly to endow the additional professorships, and such an appeal .should include one for the real Scientific and Technological Schools above named. The committee presented the following resolution, which was adopted by the board : Resolved, That application be made to the public for such an enlargement of the means of the University as will enable the trustees to establish in the Department of Arts professorships of history and general literature, of modern languages and physical science, and also a sufficient endowment for the Deportment of Agriculture, Arts. Mines, and Manufactures. On the 7th of July, 1868, Professor Stilte was elected provost of the University. The new Department of Science constituted one of the most prominent features in his plans for the development of the institu- tion. In his inaugural address, delivered in the Academy of Music on the 30th of September, he emphasi/ed strongly the importance of this subject, insisting "that a scientitic school ought to lie established as a distinct department of the I'niversity and should be liberally en- dowed/' Closely connected at this time with the question of a School of Science was the broader question of securing a more desirable location for the I'niversity as a whole. On the 2d of June, 186S. the Hoard of Trustees had taken action as follows: Resolred, That the committee on endowment be requested to inquire into the expediency of removing the t'niversity from its present site, and to ascertain wliere a desirable location can be obtained for the institution. . JIM; THI: VNIVI-.USITV OF PENNSYLVANIA. On the f October the committee reported resolutions declaring it expedient to change the location of the University, and appointing a special committee to negotiate with the city of Philadelphia lor the purchase of a portion of the city farm in West Philadelphia, This special committee reported on the 4th of January, 1870, that they had secured the passage of an ordinance by which about 10| acres of the land referred to had been secured to the University. The purchase was at once ratilied by the board and the transfer of the property was effected; and on the 1st of March, 1870, the subject of the improve- ment of this lot of land was referred to the committee on the Depart ment of Agriculture, Arts, Mines, and Mechanic Arts. This committee presented a preliminary report on the 3d of May, embodying "the gen- eral features of a plan for the new University building which would secure ample accommodations for both the Department of Arts and the Department of Science." On the 10th day of May the general features of the plans presented were approved by the board and referred back to the committee for completion. The final plan was laid before the board by the committee on the 28th of February, 1871, and was at once adopted. At the same meeting the contract for the. new building was awarded, and on the 15th of June, 1871, the corner stone of this building was laid with appropriate ceremonies. K. THK DKPAUTMKNT OK 8CIKXCK. On the 2d of January, 1872, the Board of Trustees of the University passed a resolution That the plan lor the organ i/.ut ion of the Scientific School, in connection with the Department of An.-, in- referred to the Committee on the Department of Agriculture, Mining. Arts, and Mechanic Aits, in connection with the Committee on the Depart- ment of Arts. This joint committee, on the 5th of March, reported a proposed plan of organi/ation, which was adopted and printed, and also a resolution 'That the Hoard of Trustees do hereby establish a new department and faculty of the University, to be called the Department of Science," the Department of Agriculture, Mines, Arts, and Mechanic Arts being thereby abolished and the title of the standing committee being altered to correspond. On the 14th of 'May resolutions were passed by the lo.ird constituting the faculty of the Department of Science, and re- questing this faculty to meet and decide upon a programme of studies, and in connection with the faculty of arts to prepare a roster, the pro- gramme and the roster to IM- submitted to and approved by the com- mittee on the Department of Science. The board also resolved- Thai the ]iro\ost .-hall prepare a special announcement of the organization and n>m>e of study in the 1 ). 'part ment of Science. \\ hieh. when approved by the said committee, -hull lie piinted and di-t i United. TIIK TOWNK SCIKNTIFK' SCHOOL. 297 In the spring of tin* year ISTl' this special announcement of the plan of organization and courses of study of the now Department of Science was issued. In this prospectus il is stated that The design of the instrnc -timi is in give ;i thorough technical and professional training to those who propose .engaging in the following, among other pursuits, viz: In chemistry, with i Is manifold a ppl icat ions to the industrial arts ; in mineralogy, geology, and mining; in metallurgy and assaying; in engineering, civil, mechanical, and mining, and in mechanical drawing and areliiteeture. In onler that this pro- fessional course shall he complete and systematic, and rest upon a broad oasis, no thai the student at its close may not l>e a mere x/><'ci(ilixt, lint a man of liberal educa- tion as well, it has been determined that the course shall be a comprehensive one, extending through four years. The first two years will In- devoted not merely to a thorough training in the preparatory and elementary mathematics, physics, chem- istry, and methods of physical research generally, hut a considerable portion of the time will he given to instruction in certain English studies history, logic, rhetoric, and oratory as well as to the modern languages and to mechanical drawing. At the close of these two years the student is presumed to be prepared for studies of a strictly professional or technical character, and he will then select one of four parallel courses in which instruction is given in this department, and during the last two years his work will he confined to the studies of one or other of these courses, in accordance with the plans he may have formed in regard to his future profession. The new university building was erected on the square bounded by Locust, Spruce, Thirty-fourth, and Thirty-sixth streets. It was opened for the reception of studeuts on the 16th of September, 1871* and was formally inaugurated on the llth of October following. It is 254 feet in length and 102 feet in depth. The western wing [said Mr. Sellers, the chairman of the building committee] has been arranged for the use of the Department of Arts, the eastern for that of the De- partment of Science; whilst certain portions of the center building are intended for the common use of both departments, such as the chapel, library, assembly room, etc. Besides these, the building contains 16 rooms devoted to instruction in chemis- try and its applications. 1 to physics, 6 to geology and mining, 4 to civil and mechan- ical engineering, 3 to drawing, tt to mathematics. 1 each to English literature, his- tory, intellectual and moral philosophy. Greek, Latin, French, German, rhetoric, and oratory. The laboratories have been fitted up with the most complete modern ap- paratus and models ; museums and other improved means of illustration have been abundantly provided. The facilities of the new Scientific School are still further stated in the prospectus: In the basement story there arc l' preparing chemical laboratories and '2 physical laboratories, a metallurgical laboratory, a fireproof furnace room, rooms for gold and silver assaying, and an apparatus and diagram room. In the first, second, and third stories are the chemical and physical lecture and apparatus rooms; labo- ratories for qualitative, quantitative, and organic analysis; professor's private labo- ratory and balance rooms; and also large recitation, lecture, and model rooms in the Departments of Civil and Mechanical Engineering. Mining, Mineralogy. Metallurgy, Architect urc. and Drawing. The faculty of the Department of Science, as organized in 1872, was as follows: Charles J. Stille, LL. D., provost of the University, profes- 298 THI: UMVKRSITV OF I-KNXSVLVAMA. sor of history and Knglish literature: .1. Peter Lesley, A. M., dean of the faculty, professor of geology and mining: Frederick A. Gcnth, A. M.. I'll. i).. professor of analytical and applied chemistry and mineral ogy: Leonard George Franck, C. E., professor of civil and ineclianical engineering: .John F. Fra/er, LL. D., professor of natural philosophy and chemistry: IVrsilbr Fra/er, jr., A. M., assistant professor of nat- ural philosophy and chemistry; E.Otis Kendall, LL. D., professor of mathematics; Rev. Robert E. Thompson, A. M., assistant professor of matin-ma tics, and Librarian; John. G. R. McElroy, A. 31., adjunct pro- fessor of Greek and history; Oswald Seidensticker, PH. D., professor of the German language and literature; F. Amedee Bregy, A. M., profes- sor of the French language and literature; Samnel M. Cleveland, A. M., professor of rhetoric and oratory: Thomas W. Richards, instructor in drawing; Lewis M. Haupt, instructor in mathematics and engineering. Candidates for admission to the Department of Science must have attained the age of 1C years, and were required to pass examinations in ancient and modern geography, in English grammar, in arithmetic, and in algebra as far as quadratic equations." During the first or freshman year and the second or sophomore year, the students in all the courses were instructed in common in mathe- matics, modern languages, drawing, and the elements of chemistry. geology and mineralogy. At the beginning of the third or junior year each student was required to make an election between the four paral- lel courses of study prescribed for the Scientific Department, namely: I. Analytical and applied chemistry and mineralogy. II. Geology and mining. 111. Civil engineering. IV. Mechanical engineering. In the first of these courses, the junior year was devoted to blowpipe and qualitative analysis and to the preparation of the rarer chemical substances, and the senior to quantitative analysis, gravimetric, volu- metric, and organic. Ill the second course the study of general and physical geology occupied the junior year, and that of mining the senior year. In the third course, the junior student continued his mathematics and drawing, and took up in addition applied mechanics and elementary engineering and geodesy; advanced engineering and geodesy being taught in the senior year. The student in the fourth course, in addition to mathematics and drawing, took up in the junior year applied mechanics and the principles of mechanism : these studies being continued through the senior year, with special reference to the designing of machinery. I'.t >ides the exclusively technical instruction, the students in all these courses \\eie to receive instruction in physics, in modern languages, in English literature, in history, and in social science. In the catalogue of the University of Pennsylvania for 1872-'73, BO students are enrolled as "scientific students in the Department of Arts." under the old elective system. Resides these, the students in the new Department of Science number 98, distributed as follows: THK TOW NT. SCIKNTIFK SCHOOL. 299 Seniors, S; juniors. !: sophomores, i_'l : ;m . for the advancement of whose highest interest the University is maintained. L't'xulred, That as a proper, just, and grateful tribute to Mr. Towue's memory, and as one means of perpetuating the same, the Department of Science, which he has so munificently endowed, shall be hereafter known as "The Towne Scientific School of the University of Pennsylvania." Iit'yolved, That the thanks of the Board are justly due to Mr. Towne'a family for their concurrence in his desire to establish here a system of scientific education on the largest, most liberal, and permanent basis. In consequence of this action of the board, the Department of Science has been known since 1875 as "The Towue Scientific School of the University of Pennsylvania." 300 THl. IM\K1MTV OF PKXXSYLVAXIA. 11. UKSCKII'I IVK. A. IT- I'KKSI NT- O|;<;AM/.AHOX. The Department of Science, under the name of " TheTowne Scientific School," while retaining substantially the same general organization as that on which it Mas origijially planned, has been from time to ti ne greatly broadened in its scope and materially modified in its details to meet the demands for a wider and more advanced technical education. In IsSii the course of instinct ion, which hitherto had been only four years in length, was increased to live; at first, by intercalating an ad- ditional year between the sophomore and junior years, called the sub- junior year, and, subsequently, in 1884, by placing this extra year at the close of the course and calling it a post-senior year. Candidates for admission must be prepared in English grammar and etymology, in ancient history and history of the United States, in mathematics through solid geometry and quadratics, in Latin through the lirst three books of Virgil, and in French or German. Instruction is provided for in four technical courses, as follows: (1) Pure and applied chemistry. (2) Metallurgy and mining. (3) Civil engineering. (4) Mechanical and electrical engineering. The instruction given in freshman and sophomore years is common to all these technical courses, consisting in the freshman year of Kn- glish, of history, of mathematics (including trigonometry), of drawing, and of German or French; and in the .sophomore year of these subjects continued, including analytical geometry, calculus, and descriptive ge- ometry, and inorganic chcmiMry, mass physics, and English literature. .Moreover, iii junior and senior years, certain studies are required of all stndriit> in the Towne Scientific School, whatever the particular course selected by them. These studies include, in the junior year, modern languages, philosophy, mathematics, history, and general physics, and, in the senior year, besides applied mat hematics and experimental phys- ics, the subjects of Kiiglish, of economics and social science, and of met allurgy. The post -senior year is devoted entirely to technical studies in the particular course which the student has elected to pursue. 1. Coin-xr in jmn- /ili<'tl cltcniiNtry. Instruction in the course in pure and applied chemistry is given by one professor and three instruct- as follows: Kdgar F. Smith, 1'h. D. (Gottingcn), professor of chemis- try; Lee K. l-Yankel, i-h, n., 15. s., P.O., instructor in analytical chemistry; Walter .1. Keith, rh. i>. (Gottingen), instructor in general chemistry; Julius Ohly, rh. D. (Gottingcn), instructor in general chemistry. The facilities for instruction in this technical course are very com- plete. Laboratories are provided iii general chemistry, in qualitative and |iiantitati\e analysis, in organic chemistry, and in industrial chemistry, in addition to the lecture and recitation rooms, also required. The equipment of the < 'hemical Department is also excellent. The col- TIM; TOWNE SCIENTIFIC SCHOOL. 301 lections of ;i|>l>;ir;itus and material needed to demonstrate the laws of chemistry and to determine the various chemical constants required, not only in laboratory work but artso in research, are considerable. Electrolytic chemical methods have been especially provided for, and extensive collections of chemicals and chemical products have been made to illustrate the applications of chemistry to the industrial arts. The instruction given in this course may be stated somewhat in de- tail as follows: In the preparatory year the sophomores receive instruc- tion by practical laboratory exercises covering the principal points in theoretical and general and in organic chemistry. The juniors attend courses in organic chemistry, mineralogy, and qualitative analysis. They also work in the laboratories, making the characteristic reac- tions of inorganic bases and acids, as well as qualitative separations of the most complex substances. Written reports on t he results of their work are required. The seniors receive instruction by lectures and recitations in an branches of quantitative analysis, applied chemistry, metallurgy, and organic and theoretical chemistry. Practical work, embracing all of the above-named branches, is continued. During the first term of post-senior year the Avork of senior year may be continued if deemed advisable. In the meanwhile the subject for thesis may be chosen in order to allow the student time to read up all accessible matter relating to it, so that the greater portion of the sec- ond term can be devoted to the necessary experimental researches. The seniors and post-seniors attend courses of lectures on the appli- cation of inorganic and organic chemistry in the industrial arts. These lectures for the most part are given by graduates of the school, who are now engaged in technical occupations in the time of these lectures. The classes also make excursions to chemical works, under the direc- tion of the instructors. The post-seniors attend lectures on theoretical chemistry and electrol- ysis applied to quantitative analysis. 2. Course in metallurgy and mining. The course in metallurgy and mining has been placed in charge of the professor of chemistry. Dr. Edgar F. Smith. The instruction is given mainly by Amos I'.- Mro\vn, B. s., E. M., instructor in metallurgy and mining. The Department of Mining and Metallurgy is provided with metal lurgical and assay laboratories and with drawing rooms for mining engineering, in addition to the usual lecture and recitation rooms. Its equipment includes large and complete cabinets of minerals and geo- logical specimens, besides the collections of materials, models, and 'drawings required to illustrate the course and to make the work of the student thoroughly practical. Students in metallurgy and mining are trained to take intelligent care of the ever-growing, important interests represented by these in- dustries. In recognition of the extent of knowledge embraced in this 302 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. field, they an- given the option of devoting themselves more particularly to cither branch. Those who incline to become managers of mines, or examining and reporting engineers, will take more studies in civil and mechanical engineering, and those who possess greater aptitude for chemical studies will devote themselves rather to experimental metal- lurgy, whilst the lectures provided for the course are participated in by all. A greater thoroughness is expected to result from this provi- sion. This instruction aims to develop the student's power of initiative. During the past year ne\v laboratories have been furnished for students in mining and metallurgy. They contain all that is needed for thorough instruction in the different branches of these subjects. 3. Course in civil engineering. The personnel 6f instruction of the course in civil engineering is as follows : Edgar Marburg, c. E., acting- professor of civil engineering; Walter Webb, c. E., instructor in civil engineering; Charles Worthiugton, c. E., instructor in civil engineer- ing. Besides the ordinary recitation and lecture rooms, the department of civil engineering is provided with drawing rooms and with modeling and construction rooms; these are equipped with the instruments, appa- ratus, and tools required not only for familiarizing the student with the principles taught, but also for enabling him to become practi- cally acquainted with the modes of construction and procedure in the processes of civil engineering in general, including surveying and geodesy. The students in civil engineering are instructed by recitations, lec- tures, and practical work. Afternoons and Saturdays are devoted to drawing and practical work in the shop, or to surveying or visiting public or private works, manufactories, etc. During the last year of the course the time is devoted largely to examinations and reports upon engineering works in process of construction, to making estimates and designs for new projects from data collected in the field, and to the preparation of theses. In visiting shops and manufactories students are required to collect all the practical information possible, and to embody it in a written report, noting particularly any new or special features for economizing time or materials, improved methods of assembling parts, etc., as well asthe general plant. apparatus, and facilities for receiving and shipping materials. The field practice embraces the various problems in chain surveying, the measurement of areas, and the computation of results; line sur- veys and location, cross sections and levels for estimating quantities, hydrography, topography, with the plane-table, and the solution of such' geodetic problems as relate to the orientation of maps. The course in drawing includes the projection of maps, various meth- ods of representing topography, conventional signs, problems in shades, shadows, and perspective, details of framing, composition, general THE TOWNE SCIENTIFIC SCHOOL. 303 drawing for constructions in wood, stone. ;mcci;il design-, working d i';i wind's for inodeling, platting, drawing of profiles ;md cross sections, and drawings for tlicses. 4. Course in mechanical engineering. The instruction in the course in mechanical engineering is given by the professor in charge of the department, aided by four instructors and assistant instructors. as follows: Henry W. Spangler, Whitney professor of dynamical engineer- ing; A. W. Schramm, B.s., M. E., and L. E. Picolet. instnictors in me- chanical engineering; H. W. Huffinton (U. S* IS". A.), instructor in elec- trical engineering; DavidK. Griffith, assistant instructor in mechanical engineering ; J. J. Morris, assistant instructor in mechanical engineering. This department has recently been provided with mechanical and .electrical laboratories andshops, and with recitation and drawing roon is. all well equipped with the necessary machinery, apparatus, and tools required for illustrating and investigating the principles of mechanical and electrical engineering, with reference to their practical applica- tions. These are located in a large building constructed for the purpose in connection with the Central Head and Light Station, from which all the buildings of. the University, over a space of forty acres, are supplied with, steam heat, forced ventilation, and electricity for power and light. A very large and practical working plant, containing various types of boilers, engines, and electrical machinery is thus made additionally useful in illustration of the teaching of the department. - The instruction for students in mechanical engineering is eminently practical, and is given fey recitations, lectures, and exercises in the laboratory. The recitations are principally from text-books, which thus form the basis for the work to be done in each subject. Whenever these ore not available the instruction takes the form of lectures, with use of the books of reference in the Itogers Engineering Library and in the private collections of the professors. To render the work of the student regular from day to day, and to assure self-reliance in study and cer- tainty that the principles of the subjects are thoroughly understood, whenever possible, practical problems are given to the class for solu- tion. The subject of applied mechanics is divided into a number of parts for facility of instruction, and is taught under the following heads: (i)-n)>hical statics, under which is taught the general theory of the graphical method of determining the strain in framed structures, and its practical application to numerous examples. static*, as applied to rigid bodies, the strength and elasticity of materials, and forms of uniform strength. As an accurate knowledge of this branch of the subject is indispensable to a well equipped en- gineer, the class-room instruction is made as exhaustive as possible, and each student is required to carry oat, on the testing machine in the 304 TJIK IMVKKSITY OF I'KNSSYLVANIA. laboratory, ;i scries of experiments in tension, compression, and cross- hreaking. Tin 1 work in tliis bninch is continued until the instnictor is satisticd that the subject is thoroughly understood. Hiltli-oxtatirx . He practiced in New York and Philadelphia but a short time, returning to England. From this date (1770) to near the close of the Revolutionary war there was but one dentist in this city, a Mr. Baker. In 178.3 two are mentioned in the directory, Mr. John Baker and Mr. John Gardette. Joseph Le Mayeur, a French dentist, came to this country with the French army and established himself in Philadelphia in 1784. He was probably the first in the United States to perform the operation of transplanting teeth (Watson's Annals). From these beginnings, here and elsewhere, 309 310 THE UNIVEKSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. the dental profession had its rise a century ago in this country, and from this humble and isolated origin lias grown the splendid array of colleges, instructors, and educated men, a result unparalleled in any epoch and in any profession in an equal period of time. The earlier training of dental students was necessarily confined to private instruction. The laboratory was the principal if not the only school, and whatever of surgery was required was picked up by ob- servation or was secured by taking the medical degree. The latter course was the one adopted by a limited number after a more or less thorough training in the mechanical laboratory. This gave a somewhat better position to the few; but their efforts were too isolated to effect any marked improvement in the status of the calling, and dentistry failed to receive much respect from the profession to which it was most closely allied, that of medicine. The efforts of such men as Harris, Haydeu, Bond, Arthur, Townseud, and Westcott led to the formation of dental associations, and from these grew the Dental College. As early as 1817 Dr. Hayden advocated the idea of a national convention of dentists, but the numbers were too few in the country at that time and lacked that intelligent appreciation of its importance to make the suggestion a success. He accomplished his desire, however, in 1840, and became the president of the first American Society of Dental Surgeons. Dr. Haydeu may, therefore, justly be regarded as the father of the Ameri- can educational methods in dentistry. The decade from 1830 to 1840 was a marked epoch in the history of dentistry, and from this period may be dated its formation as a scientific body. In 1839 the attempt was made to organize the first Dental ( 'ol- lege of the world under the title of the " Baltimore College of Dental Surgery." The faculty was originally composed as follows: Horace U. Hayden, M. D., president, principles of dental science; Chapin A. Harris, M. D., dean, theory and practice of dental surgery and theory and practice of dental mechanism; Thomas E. Bond, M. D., dental pathology and therapeutics; H. Willis Baxley, M. D., anatomy and physiology. This organization was followed in 1845 by the formation of the Ohio Dental CoDege, located in Cincinnati. This by the Transylvania School of 1 Jentistry in Kentucky, in 1850, and the New York College of Denial Surgery of Syracuse, N. Y., in 1852. Both of the two last named had but a short existence. In May, 1850, a charter was granted for the Philadelphia College of Dental Surgery. As this college was indirect ly the foundation upon \vhich\vaseventuallyreared the Dental Depart- ment of the University of Pennsylvania, it is of interest to know of what material the original faculty was composed. It was as follows: J. D. White, M. D., D. D. s., anatomy and physiology; Ely Parry, M. D., D. D. s., chemistry, mat eria medica, and special therapeutics; Kobert Arthur, D. D. s.. principles of dental surgery; Elisha Townsend, M. D., D. D. s., operative dentistry, and dean; T. L. Buckingham, M. D., TIIK DKPART.MKM ul-' Jj;\TISTRY. 311 mechanical dentistry ; I). 11. Whipple, M. D., demonstrator of surgical and mechanical dentist ry. But one of the members of tliis faculty is now living, Dr. J. I). White; but they were all men of marked ability in many directions, and exer- cised a power which contributed in no small degree to rousing attention to the superior character of American dentistry abroad and in widening its influence at home. This school had but a four years' lease of life. Difficulties arose be- tween the faculty and the Board of Trustees, resulting in separation and the procurement of a new charter in 1850 under the name of "The Pennsylvania College of Dental Surgery." The same Faculty continued to perform the duties. Since then, through various changes, the school has flourished and still remains one of the prominent educational insti- tutions of Philadelphia. In 1876 the resignation of Prof. James Truman and the death of Prof. E. Wildman resulted in the appointment of E. T. Darby, D. D. S., and Charles J. Essig, M. D., D. D. S., to fill the re- spective chairs. The dental colleges of this country in their earlier organization, adopted an almost fatal rule, that five years' actual practice would be regarded equivalent to one year's study at college. This was done with the view of inducing those in practice to take the degree, and thus, it was hoped, all, in time, would be enrolled into a compact and vigorous body. This proved to be an error. While it had the effect with a few, the larger number who took advantage of it were young men, some of whom re- sorted to false certificates to obtain the end desired. The practical re- sult was that men were being graduated in one session, with little or no previous training. This scandal became of world-wide notoriety, sink- ing all dental schools into contempt, in the opinion of good men here and abroad, and promised shortly to carry the name of American dentistry -to a lower depth than it occupied at its origin. This unpleasant condi- tion naturally led the better class of dental instructors to urge the adoption of some plan for improvement. Having this in view the faculty of the Baltimore College of Dental Surgery, in 1884, requested a con- ference with the executive officers of the three colleges in Philadelphia. At this conference it was proposed and adopted to call a meeting of delegates from all the colleges of dentistry in the United States to con- vene in New York August 4, 1884. At this meeting thirteen colleges were represented, eleven by delegates and two by letter. After par- tially effecting an organization the conference adjourned to Saratoga, X. Y v where the American Dental Association was in session. The final outcome was the formation of " The National Association of Dental Faculties." At this meeting it was ordered that all colleges connected with this association should adopt two regular courses of instruction in separate years, before a final examination. The influence of this meet- ing was so marked that the principal colleges, whether represented or not, adopted this rule, and at subsequent annual meetings other schools 312 mi: UNIVKKSITV OF PENNSYLVANIA. applied for admission and were enrolled in the membership of the association, until in May, 189<>, the membership consisted of twenty- live colleges, the entire number, with one or two exceptions, in the country. The work of this association would, probably, have failed to effect the desired end but for the fact that the various State legislatures were appealed to by the members of the profession to enact laws regu- lating the practice of dentistry. This was gradually accomplished, and now nearly all the States under this Government have laws regu- lating its practice. These vary in character, some requiring examina- tions of all persons, whether holding a diploma or not; others simply demand the registration of the diploma. The board of examiners of each State sends a delegate to the National Association of Dental Examiners that convenes yearly at the same time and place as the National Association of Dental Faculties and operates in harmony with it and gives legal force to its decisions. At the meeting of the Association of Dental Faculties held at Saratoga August, 1889, an important advance was made in dental education, the following resolution having been passed : Attendance upon three full regular courses of not less than five months each, in separate years, shall be required before examination for graduation. It was subsequently decided that this should go into effect at the be- ginning of the session of 1891-'92. This decision was subsequently in- dorsed by the National Association of Dental Examiners and became, by this action, obligatory upon all State boards. Thisrnleof the Associa- tion of Dental Faculties placed the dental schools in advance of the medical colleges of the country in point of time. It is to be hoped that this is but the beginning of a series of changes that will eventuate in basing dental education on a sure foundation and in effectually eradi- cating from its ranks the last element of charlatanry, which has been its opprobrium from the earliest period. The Hoard of Trustees of the University of Pennsylvania, upon the recommendation of the Faculty, adopted the three years' course pro- posed, and it was so stated in the announcement for 1890. IIISToKN OF TIIF, DEPARTMENT OF DENTISTRYf UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. The advances made in the standard of dental education and the large classes in all the dental schools naturally led the educators of the higher institutions to regard the dental profession and their efforts in a more favorable light, and to look upon them with more respect than tln-y had previously been willing to accord. It was clearly seen that eventually dentistry would either stand as an independent profession or it would become a specialty in medicine. This latter idea was the prevailing one, and in order to hasten the, result it was regarded as THE DEPARTMENT OF DENTISTRY. 313 vital that nil these schools should he absorbed and become part of med- ical colleges and universities. That this idea met with opposition from both sides, the. medical and dental, can readily be understood, but this has so far been out grown t hat a large number of the most influential den- tal colleges are now connected with medical colleges and universities as departments, or closely affiliated with them in other ways. The pres- ent outlook seems to be that it will be but a few years before their sepa- ration as distinct colleges will cease. The first school organized as a department of a university was that of Harvard, in 1867, under the title of The Harvard Dental School. This was followed in 1875 by The Dental College of the University of Michigan, and in 1878 the first move 1 ! was made to organize the Depart- ment of Dentistry of the University of Pennsylvania. This is shown in the following resolutions adopted by the Board of Trustees, and as a matter of historical interest they are appended. PHILADELPHIA, March 6, 1873. At a meeting of the Board of Trustees the following resolutions were adopted : Resolved, That there be a Dental Department of the University of Pennsylvania. Resolved, That this department he under the government of a Faculty of Den- tistry, subject to the general rules adopted by the Board of Trustees. Resolved, That the Faculty consist of the following professors: (A) Professor of Mechanical Dentistry and Metallurgy; (B) Professor of Operative Dentistry and Dental Histology; (C) Professor of Anatomy; (D) Professor of Physiology; (E) Professor of Chemistry; (F) Professor of Materia Medica; (G) Professor of General Pathology ; that the chairs of Anatomy, Chemistry, Physiology, Materia Medica, and General Pathology be filled ex-offi-cio by the corresponding professors of the Faculty of Medicine. Resolved, That the lectures be delivered in the Medical Hall and the practical in struction be given in the proposed laboratory building. The building alluded to in the foregoing resolution is described in the first announcement of 1878-'71): For the accommodation of the Operative Clinic, the Board of Trustees have ordered the erection of an additional building, at a cost of $55,000. The operating room alone, will be 1 10 feet in length by 40 feet in width, and as the building will not adjoin, though it be in close proximity to the main Medical Hall, it will be .lighted by windows on all sides, thus affording 360 feet of window frontage. The arrangement of the windows, so as to command the best light, has received careful consideration, and we may also safely say that it will be uncqiialed in America. The second and third floors will be devoted to practical laboratory work in chemis- try; their dimensions will be the same as the Dental Clinic Room, and will be used in common by the students of both the Dental and Medical departments. The resignation in 1876 of James Truman, D. D. s., and the death of B. Wildmau, M. D., D. D. s., of the Pennsylvania College of Dental Sur- gery, previously alluded to, was followed by the appointment of Edwin T. Darby, D. D. s., and Charles J. Essig, M. D., D. D. s., to the respective Chairs of Dental Histology and Operative Dentistry and Mechanical Dentistry and Metallurgy. Their duties were performed in this school until 1878, when propositions were made by the Trustees of the Uiii 314 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. versify of Pennsyh ania looking to the union of this College with the I'niversity as a se]ar;ite department. This proposition AVJIS not ac- cepted by the faculty as a unit, but was favorably considered by Pro- fessors Kssig and Darby, who tendered their resignations as professors in the Pennsylvania College of Dental Surgery, and entered upon 1 In- work of organizing the Department of Dentistry of the University of Pennsylvania, thus making three schools in Philadelphia: Pennsyl- vania College of Dental Surgery, the Philadelphia Dental College, and this Department. The prevailing sentiment at that time was that this new candidate for educational favors would prove a failure, as it was regarded that the field was already over cultivated in this direction. The results have, however, fully justified the wisdom of the originators and reflect great credit on the two gentlemen, Professors Hssig and Darby, upon whom the responsibility and labor fell. In the face of almost insurmountable difficulties they carried this school beyond the point of failure and organized it in harmony with the wishes of the governing power of the University, so that its standard of work has always been recognized as in the advance. Thus the formation of the Philadelphia College of Dental Surgery, through the efforts of White, Townsend, Arthur, etc., led up through a continuous chain of circum- stances to the formation of this department. This was further in- creased by the election in 1884 of James Truman, D. D. &., by the Board of Trustees, as professor of dental pathology, therapeutics, and den- tal materia medica. On March 15, 1878, the faculty of the department was organized as follows: Charles J. Stille, LL. D., provost of the University and ex officio president of the faculty; Charles J. Essig, M.D.,D. u.s., professor of mechanical dentistry and metallurgy; Edwin T. Darby, M.D., DU.s.; professor of operative dentistry, dental histology, and dental pa pathology; Joseph Leidy, M. D., LL. D., professor of anatomy; Hora- tio C. Wood. M. i)., professor of materia medica, pharmacy, and gen- eral therapeutics; James Tyson, M. D., professor of physiology, (l inti'i-iin; Theodore (J. Wormley, M. D., LL. D., professor of chemistry. Prof. Charles J. Essig was elected secretary, and the work of the department began October of (lie same year. The faculty at this session adopted the graded course, making the examinations of the first \ear students in chemistry and materia medica final at the, close of I lie, first year's session. This first year began with ."." matriculates, and, as a large number of thcM- had had a previous session in other schools, the degree of doctor of dental surgery was conferred at its close, March 1, 1870, upon IT) from the following States and countries: Minnesota, Michigan, Iowa, Scotland, Pennsylvania, Delaware, California, Massachusetts, Saxony, New Jersey, Ohio. Ireland, Connecticut, Illinois, Italy, Switzerland, Canada. As a matter of history, and also as showing that the then existing THE DEPARTMENT OF DENTISTRY. 315 prejudice made it necessary to issue an explanatory circular, giving the reasons tor this ste]> on the, part of the University, the following quota- tions are made t'roin the one signed by James Tyson, M. I)., secretary of tlie Faculty of Medicine: So many inquiries have been made and so much misunderstanding appears to exist with regard to the Dental Department of the I'niversity of Pennsylvania in its relations to the Medical Department, that it has been deemed advisable to pre- pare the following circular letter for those \vho ma.v desire further information. The Dnital Department was instituted on the principle, now admitted by nil th- better class of dentists and liberally disposed physicians, that dentistry should be a specialty of medicine, just as ophthalmology, otology, etc., have become. The University of Pennsylvania now proposes to establish a course, the, first ses- sion of which is identical for medical and dental students so far as anatomy, chem- istry, physiology, and materia medica are concerned. As a part of this course is included laboratory instruction in chemistry three hours per week, in which the student personally practices the required manipulations under the direction of demonstrators, precisely as he does practical work in mechanical and operative dentistry. In addition to this, the dental student has the regular instruction from the chairs of operative and mechanical dentistry, which the medical student does not, of course, receive. For the present the dental student is excused from the practical Avork in the histological laboratory (since then this has been added) two hours per \\cck and Avork in the pharmaceutical laboratory two hours per Aveek. A compari- son of these studies Avith those of the ordinary, or dental curricula, will show that the dental student of the UniA^ersity pursues in his first year a course wider and more thorough than the medical student of all but one or two medical colleges in the United States. It will be seen from this quotation tliat the faculty of medicine took the broad position that the dental student must, within certain lines, have a standard equal to that of the student of medicine. This view, so clearly stated by Professor Tyson, has been adhered to, and from time to time changes have been made in the curriculum to advance this stand- ard, and it is expected that this effort will be continued. In the eleven years of the existence of this department there have been some changes in the faculty. In 1883 James Truman, D.I), s., was elected to fill the new chair created by the Board of Trustees, that of dental pathology, therapeutics and materia medica, Prof. H. C. Wood resigning from the faculty as professor of materia medica. In this year Professor Essig resigned the position as secretary of the faculty, and Professor Truman was elected to that position. At the organization of the department the rule was adopted permit- ting ''the dental student to give notice at the commencement of his second year that he proposed to take a third year and graduate in medicine. This was to be accomplished by increasing the studies of the second year. This rule tailed to operate satisfactorily, and in 1887 \\us changed to one requiring the dental student to take two additional years in medicine after graduating in dentistry. The Board of Trustees, at the request of the faculty, in May, 1888, added the study of histology to the curriculum, and in 1890 elected George A. Piersol, M. D., professor of normal histology, and John Mar- 310 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. shall. M. P.. assistant professor of chemistry, and in the same year, 1890, gave to tin- chief executive officer the title of Dean, and elected Prof. James Truman, the secretary, to that position. BUILDINGS. The Dental Department occupies parts of two buildings, one known as Medical Hall and the other the Laboratory Building, alluded to in a previous quotation. The latter fronts on Spruce street. The first floor is devoted to the operating room, the second and third to chemical laboratories, and the fourth to the dissecting room used conjointly by the medical and dental students. The mechanical laboratory is at pres- ent on the lower floor of Medical Hall. The lectures of the dental faculty are delivered in the same lecture rooms used by the medical faculty. Those on chemistry, anatomy, and physiology are taken with the medical students. Dental materia medica and the practical branches are given separate hours. The plan of the operative department gives a room peculiarly well adapted for the purpose. The principal requirement is an ample supply of light. This is quite equal to all present needs. The great length of the rofmi, coupled with its width, permits the chairs to be arranged in rows without any marked diminution of the light required. The number of chairs at present is forty-six; these con- sist principally of the so-called " Morrison. Chair." This, though usually regarded as of insufficient strength and too expensive for college work, has been found to meet all our requirements and more economical than those ordinarily used in dental schools. This room is again subdivided ;it its eastern end for the purpose of extracting teeth, both with and without anesthetics. This is appropriately furnished with two operat- ing chairs, one for ordinary extracting and the other, a "Gould Chair," for extractions with anesthetic agents. Each student is furnished with a case (locker) in which to keep his instruments. The mechanical room is fitted with all the tools necessary in this branch lathes, vulcani/ers, soldering tables, continuous gum furnace, etc. No eifort has been spared to make this thoroughly complete, both for plate work and the manipulation of other bases. PLAN OF WORKING. One of the greatest difficulties in the teaching of professional work is t he pract ical work. The purely didactic has a value, but can not be com pared to object teaching and class demonstration. The idea originally entertained by the founders of the first dental college was to incorpo- rate what is now known as the manual-training idea. This was not only novel at that time, but was an innovation on established usages, and fell athwart the prejudices of centuries. The conception was a bold one, but the experience of fifty years has justified it as not only THE DEPARTMENT OF DENTISTRY. 317 being the best 1m! ilieonly mode applicable t.< t lie teaching of dentis- try. The success ;il(;iincra/,il, 15; P>uenos Ayres, 1; California, 7; Can- ada, 12; Connecticut, 21 ; Colorado, 1; Chile. 1 ; Costa Rica, 2; Cuba, 25; Delaware, 6; Denmark,!; District of Columbia, 4; Ecuador, 2; England, 11; Florida, 1; France, 3; Georgia, 3; Germany, 26; Guatemala,!; Haiti, 2; Holland, 1; Illinois, 27; Indiana, 5; Iowa, 11; Ireland, 1; Italy, 2; Kansas, 2; Kentucky, 4; Louisiana, 2; Massachusetts, 31; Maryland, 3; Mexico, 2; Michigan, 3; Minnesota, 5; Mississippi, 1; Missouri, 2; Nebraska, 2; New Hampshire, 0; New Jersey, 13; New York, 68; New Zealand,!; New Brunswick, 2; Nicaragua, 3; North Carolina, 3; Norway, 3; Nova Scotia, 5; Ohio, 16; Pennsylvania, 243; Puerto Kico, 2; Prince Edward Island, 3; Rhode Island, 4; Saxony, 1; Scotland, 8; South Carolina, 2; Sweden, 1; Switzerland, 12 ; Spain, 1; Tennessee, 1 ; Texas, 1; Turkey, 1; United States of Colombia, 5; Ver- mont, 3; Washington, 5; West Indies, 3; West Virginia, 2: Wisconsin, 18; Wyoming, 3. \Vork in OjH'rtttire Department. The recording of daily work in the department was not attempted prior to the session of 1884-'85. hence the statistics apply only to the period since that time. Tear. Gold fillings. Other operations. I'Mli.'iita. 1884-'85 4,380 6,652 4,898 1885-'86 4,010 8,519 >. 190 1886-'87 , 916 9,260 4, 825 1887- '88 4.392 10, 224 5. 062 1888-'89 5,162 11, 624 '<, 062 1889 '90 5,254 11,750 7,482 1890-'91 .">. 171' 14,645 7.996 1891-'92 5, 533 15,653 8,536 in tUli>i! DENTISTRY. 319 Special report on crotrn ttinl hrnlt/,' irork. Tliis work was first placed under thecareof a*special demonstrator, Fred. A. Peeso, D. D. s., during (ho session of 1889-'90. Wliolc number of teeth replaced, :i!)2; gold crowns, 145; Logan crowns, 9; bridges, 33 (138 teeth); amount of gold used in the above, $504.51'. Bridge work is made exclusively on gold, using roots or teeth as piers, and extending the gold across, depending exclusively for strength upon the piers and the stiffness of the piece. The first session of the three years' course decided upon opened 1891-'92 with a freshman class of 02. This was an increase over the estimated number and amply justified the wisdom of the change as far as members were concerned. The present session (1892-'93) exhibits a still further increase to 70, with a combined class in first and second year of 145. The completion of the organization of the third year (1893-'94) will doubtless increase the number to that secured under the rule of two years. The results thus far attained have been gratifying as evidencing the fact that the adoption of a higher standard of training, if judiciously arranged, can not fail to be of advantage in every direction, and must encourage the belief that a still further advance may be possible. Whatever the future may have in reserve the past is full of satisfaction that the University of Pennsylvania has fostered, in all its departments, a constant feeling that the. present is but one step onward, and that others must be taken asjbhe necessity seems to demand. CHAPTER XII. THE WHARTON SCHOOL OF FINANCE AND ECONOMY. In the inaugural address of Provost William Pepper, February 22, 1881, it was announced that n School of Finance and Economy in the I "nivcrsity of Pennsylvania had been projected by Mr. Joseph Whar- ton,of Philadelphia. At the meeting of the board of trustees, March 1, 1881, Mr. Wharton's plan for such a school was formally accepted, sub ject to conditions named by the founder of the school. He is a native Philadelphian of large wealth and general culture and an active, suc- cessful manufacturer, interested in public affairs. His views on subjects of importance in economic science are known by several monographs. Feeling dissatisfied with the results of the instruction in practical affairs given in American colleges, his first thought was to establish a chair of political economy. This idea was elaborated by him in the School of Finance and Economy. Mr. Whartou's project declares that the School of Finance and Economy should bear a family name honor- able since the foundation of the city of Philadelphia, and the purpose of the school is To provide for young men special means of training and of accurate instruction in the knowledge and in the arts of modern finance and economy, both public and private, in order that, being well-informed and free from delusions upon these im- portant subjects, tln-y may either serve the community skillfully as well as faithfully in offices later. Prof. McMaster was transferred from the Wharton school to that department. The election of IMof. James proved of the highest importance to the School and to the University. Prof. James is identified with the best educational movements in the country, and has been able to concentrate at the University of Pennsylvania the cooperative labors of many men and of many minds in the interests of sound learning. Largely through his efforts the Wharton School was transformed from a project on paper to a living educational power. As an instance of this it should be recorded that Prof. James as founder of the American Academy of Political and Social Science has created an THE WHARTOtf SCHOOL OF FINANCE AND ECONOMY. 325 academic body, with a membership throughout the Tinted States and in Kurope, interested in all subjects pertaining to finance and political economy; and although this Academy is wholly distinct from the Wharton School, yet the ideas which are sought to be examined in the Wharton School and by the Academy are the same. It may be said therefore that the American Academy of Political and Social Science is a product of the Wharton School at the hands of one of the eminent members of its faculty. It should also be said that the Wharton School faculty has been in sympathy and close touch with the American Society for the Extension of University Teaching, and that society has been able to reach the community in and about Philadelphia and at distant points by means of well organized courses of lectures in social science, American and European history, in literature, in the natural sciences, and in polit- ical economy. The lecturers in social and political science and in American and European history have been, with few exceptions, iden- tified with the work of the Wharton School; its faculty and fellows have provided instruction in these subjects for the University Exten- sion centers affiliated with the American Society for the Extension of University Training. The American Academy of Political and Social Science, with a membership of 3,000, publishes its Annals bimonthly and reaches probably 10,000 readers. The contributors to the Annals are eminent specialists in Europe and America, and the value of the Annals is fully appreciated by libraries, newspapers, specialists, and general readers. It is a means for a high order of instruction in political and social science. It is edited by Prof. James, with the assistance of two pro- fessors in the Wharton School, Eoland P. Falkner and-- James Harvey Robinson. By means of this Academy and its Annals, and through the instrumentality of the American Association for the Extension of Uni- versity Teaching, the Wharton School reaches hundreds of thousands of people, who are the recipients, in this manner and through this agency, of the best modern academic instruction on the principles and literature of finance, political economy, and social science. This is not the whole influence of the School; it has increased in membership and has attracted a class of students of a high order of intellect, in the University and from other coleges and .institutions and its graduates have met with uniform success upon their entrance into the world of business or upon professional life. Therefore the Wharton School means an education for such a country as ours. It conforms soundly with the best notions formulated by Franklin, and is in accord with the wants of our time. That the Wharton School was a creation in due time is suggested by the founding of two schools of political and social science contemporaneously with it. The Columbia School of Political and Social Science was opened October 4, 1880, and the School of Political and Social Science of the University of Michigan waj opened a year later. THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. ' As long a-o as 18G5 the legislature of South Carolina, in '/ing the college at Columbia under tlie name of the University oi South Carolina, provided for a school of history, political philosophy, and economy, which was probably the first provision for a school of this kind in this country. The causes which led later to the founding of the School of American History and Institutions led also to the founding of the Wharton School, namely, the specialization of educational interests. 1 Jefferson was the first American to plan technical schools in the University, and it is an interesting suggestion that with the wide advancement of the nation in population and wealth, and with the necessary cooperative agencies v;orking out the great social, political, and economic changes of the country, it is necessary that technical schools should be founded, not only in chemistry, biology, medicine, dentistry, mining engineering, law, and theology, but also in history, political science, language, and economics. The whole tendency in higher education in this country since the civil war is toward and in the foundation of such technical schools. The Wharton School of Finance and Economy is such a school. The School has the advantage of adequate library facilities and loca- tion in the chief manufacturing city of the country. It also has the advantage of nearness to the great cities of the Atlantic seaboard, whose libraries and economic conditions are easily accessible to study 01 to personal observation, and its location also makes possible fre (jiient lectures before the school by eminent public men, who, having interests in the city, in Washington, New York, or Baltimore, can. with slight inconvenience to themselves and great advantage to the Indents of the School, address the School upon financial- and economic -ubjects in which they arc specially informed. In this way the students of the School meet eminent officials in the service of the State, munii i pality. and of the nation, and are enabled to learn the present day conditions of public atiairn. The publications of the School comprise monographs on subjects for the investigation of which the School was founded. On several occa- HOIIS the American Bankers' Association and other similar associations in various parts of the country have seen fit to commend the purpose and organization of the Wharton School, and to suggest that other universities establish such schools. Tin- \VliartouSchoolofFiiiance and Economy is at once a center for the study of political economy, and a college of practical affairs, "i!cring courses suitable to those young men looking forward to a Im-inexs caieer (whether in merchandising, hanking;, insurance, or transportation), to journalism, the public service, teaching economics and politics in our schools and colleges, or to the study and practice of the law. and in all these departments it has now eminent repre- -entatives and illustrations of the value of its curriculum. . ' See chapter xvin, on the School of American History and Institutions. CHAPTER XIII. THE BIOLOGICAL SCHOOL. The growth or coming of the biological school represents the evolu- tion of an idea. Philadelphia, probably earlier than most of our American cities, evinced a pronounced tendency toward studies in the natural sciences. Botany especially received marked attention. Bartram's botanical garden was started as early as 172S. That of Marshall (a relative ol Bartram), in Chester County, was established in 1773. Dr. David Hosack was born in 1709. His botanical garden near Xew York was not started until 1.S01. His fondness for natural his- tory was very decided, and manifested itself early in life. He received his collegiate training in Princeton and his medical education in Philadelphia. It is, therefore, quite probable that he was influenced in his determination to start a botanical garden by the success of the one which, under the care of Bartram, had already become so celebrated. It is evident that this early predilection for botany in and around Philadelphia must be accounted for. Bartram and Marshall were merely the most distinguished of a considerable number who were in- clined to such studies. Kastei n Pennsylvania derived a large proportion of its early col- onists from the Society of Friends. Their power was great from the date of their arrival, and it was constantly exerted in the direction of education and humanizing influences. We can not wonder that minds of more than ordinary activity among them were drawn to studies of nature. The amusements of the u world's people'' were forbidden to the "Quaker" youth. Indeed, they were mildly discouraged from too close an association with others than the members of their own society. "The serenity of mind so desired by the " Friend " was cultivated by the calm contemplation of growing plants and living animals. The open field and the deep forest, rather than the haunts of men, were the natural outlet for pent vitality. Possibly even in the bright colored Mowers some compensation might have been found for the forbidden admiration of gaudy attire. Then, too, the influence of these early botanists and /.oologists among-those outside their own religious circle could not fail to be felt, and most so by the better representatives of the early citizens of Philadelphia. 328 THE UNIVERSITY or PENNSYLVANIA. rroinM-liatfollows.it will probably appear (hat (he rniversity of Pennsylvania lias been fortunate in having trustees who have I'roni the first been favorable to the natural sciences; and that the repeated at- tempts and failures to establish these studies have been due to no fault of theirs, but to a lack of pecuniary support, which appears to be com moil to all young colonies or nations. 1 So far as now appears, l)r, Adam Kuhn, a pupil of Linnanis, was the first botanical professor* in Philadelphia, or in the country, being appointed in the year 1788. There is, however^ no record of any im- portant work connected with his name. As early as the year 1800 Dr. Benjamin Smith Barton was teaching botany in Philadelphia, and numbered among his pupils in 1SO.V04 at the University of Pennsyl- vania, William Darlington, who subsequently became known as one of the most learned and exact botanists of his day in this or in any conn 1 ry. Dr. Darlington says of his preceptor, " that he did more than any of his contemporaries in diffusing a taste for the natural sciences among the young men who then resorted to that school." He also pub lished in 1803 "the first American elementary work on botany, at Phila- delphia." It is clear, then, that the influence of Professor Barton was very considerable. The minutes of a trustee meeting held April 7, 1812, show that u . a letter was received from Dr. Barton requesting the use of one of the rooms in the University to deliver his lectures on natural history and botany in." The request could not be granted. In July, 1S13, Dr. Barton resigned his professorship of materia medica, a position which does not appear to have been a bed of roses, lie was succeeded by Dr. Chapman. The following minute appears of a trustee meeting of November 7, 1815: 11'lierean, the legislature of Pennsylvania by their act passed the 19th March, 1805, granted to thr trust ccs of this institution out of t lie moneys due to flit; State the sum of three thousand dollars for the purpose of enabling them to establish a garden for Hie improvement, of the Science of Botany. Resolved, that Mr. Rawle, Mr. ('hew and Mr. Kurd be a committee to consider and report the best method of carrying the said intention of the legislature into Hfeet. February (', is Hi, at a trustee meeting Mr. S. C. Rafmesque and Dr. William P. <'. P.artou offered themselves as candidates for the professor- ship of natural history and botany in the University. At the same meeting, on the motion of Mr. Kawle, the following was submitted to the consideration of the, hoard : i;<:i<>lrl. That a faculty of physical science and rural economy bo instituted, to ci.nM-,1 .it present of Ilie following professorships: 1st, of Botany; l-'d. of /^oology : ltd, of Ceology anil MinenilogA ; Itli. Comparative Anatomy and the Veterinary Art. 'Desirable as it might be to have a full statement of all the events, chronologic- ally arranged, which prepared the way for the biological school, it is dearly impos- sible wit bin the. limits of this paper. Jt will, therefore, lie understood that only the more important onc> are. alluded, to^ THE BIOLOGICAL SCHOOL. 329 At the same time a committee was appointed to consider what accom- modations the university could afford such faculty. The trustees received March 19, 1810, "a letter from a Society of Gentlemen called the Cabinet of Sciences, relating to a botanical gar- den. It was referred to the committee on that subject. Mr. Binney and Mr. Gibson were added to the committee on botanical garden." On April 2, the committee was authorized to solicit subscriptions from the public toward the accomplishment of that end. Nothing having been accomplished by meeting with the Cabinet of Sciences, on April 16. the committee announced that they had published their application for aid in the public papers. The trustees at once resolved to create a faculty of natural sciences and rural economy. It is evident throughout that the governing board of the university was not only abreast of but ahead of the public. By order of the board the moneys available for the botanical garden were to be put at interest, subject to future call. October 4, 181 acres of ground had been purchased for the botani- cal garden. The record shows that it was located in Penn Township. near the "Canal Road," and it was ordered that enough for the pur- poses of the garden should be ''fenced off." Meanwhile the question of rooms for the faculty was concerning the trustees. That malady appears to have reached a chronic state. There can be no doubt, however, that the authorities were straitened by lack of funds and that they were doing their utmost to provide the needed accommodations. So far as appears, no salary was attached to these chairs, except possibly what came directly from the student to the teacher, as we gather from a hint dropped by Prof. Barton in a letter to the trustees. It is hardly to be wondered at, however, that the faculty was becoin- 330 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. ing impatient. Accordingly, we discover that in 1818 Professors Caldwell and Hewson were both asking that means be taken to enable them to do their work. Such inquiries were referred to the committee on finance. Stringent economy had apparently become a necessity, and in 1819, alter two years' ownership, the trustees were considering the propriety of selling the ground purchased for a botanical garden, and the pro- fessor of botany was -' allowed the use of the yard south of the univer- sity, as the same is now inclosed, for the cultivation of plants there, at his own expense, during the pleasure of the board." In 1820 Prof. Barton's suggestion that the- chair of botany be detached from the faculty of natural science and united to the medical faculty was reported against. Three months later Prof. Caldwell resigned his chair of natural history. The only signs of life in the department of science were now the ap- pointment of a committee to consider the propriety and the cost of erecting a greenhouse and the request from the janitor that he be allowed the use of Prof. Cooper's room for the winter, to preserve the plants "he had collected to adorn the grounds and to encourage the love of botany." The request was granted. The report of the com- mittee on the greenhouse was laid on the table. June .">, 1821, Prof. Cooper resigned the chair of mineralogy and chemistry in the faculty of natural science. On the first day of the ensuing year the question of filling the vacant chairs in this faculty appears to have become one of more than ordinary import a nee, lor the trustees ordered the report of the committee having that in hand to be printed. A fortnight later it was resolved that it was expedient that the vacancies should be filled, and receiving nominations was made part of the order of business for the next meeting. We may inter that instruction had been very irregular, as oji Feb- ruary 1, 1*22, Dr. Morton offered at a meeting of the trustees a resolu- tion which declared that the professors of the faculty of natural science must deliver a course of at least ten lectures in each year on subjects connected with their departments, and that failure to do so would be regarded as abdicating the chair in which it occurs. Whereupon Prof. Barton writes to the board that, whilst he is aware, the resolution was not intended for him, it is proper he should say he had lectured in the winters of l.sii;, 1817, 1818, 1819, 1820, 1S21, and, further, that he had refused to receive the fees from the students. The botanical instruc- tion in 1821 was discontinued because a class could not lie made up. Me was. however, resolved to continue in the line of his duty. March .", 1X22, William Myppolytus Keating was elected professor of mineralogy and chemistry, and Thomas Say professor of natural his- tory, including geology. A year later the trustees allowed Prof. Keat- ing to join Maj. Long's expedition, which was to explore the St. Peters River to its source. Pi of. Burton, in 1825, is still anxious for improve- ments to his lecture room. HIE BIOLOGICAL RCttOOL. 331 Prof. Keating's services seem to have been in demand, for the board in 182(> again excused him from lecturing and allowed him to visit tin- mines of Mexico. The excuse probably was readily granted in the ab- sence of .students to teach or money to pay a professor. In all this one may recognize an earnest desire on the part of both professors and trustees to do their respective duties. The probability is there was no fault on either side. It was simply a lamentable lack of funds, which brought failure where success was deserved. The crisis, however, was reached in March, 1827. It appears that no lectures had been given for several years by the professor of natural history, including geology, or by the professor of comparative anatomy, and that the professor of botany was then holding the professorship of materia medica in the newly started Jefferson Medical College. All this irregularity was to be inquired into by the trustees, and a commit- tee was appointed to attend to the matter. There A\as no common basis for any amicable settlement, and the minutes show that early in 1828 the faculty of natural science was unanimously abolished, on the motion of Mr. Binney. Now, however, it appears that the medical faculty, which would have no botany while Dr. Barton occupied the chair, had become suddenly solicitous about that science, and, as a result, the trustees reestab- lished the chair of botany in 1829, placing it on the same footing as it was before the institution of the faculty of natural science, and Mr. Solomon W. Conrad was speedily chosen to fill it. The appointment \\asprobablylhebestthat could have been made. Mr. Conrad was, as stated by one of his contemporaries, an "amiable man" and an ex- cellent botanist, and was probably the earliest to "attempt in the United States to group our plants in accordance with the natural method." Efforts were made in 1830 to restore the chair of comparative anat- omy, but, it appears, without success. For a brief period the name of the distinguished Henry C. Rogers appears on the college catalogue in connection with the chair of geol- ogy, and (George B. Wood, then one of the best known of American physicians and holding the chair of materia medica in the medical fac- ulty, announced for a single year that besides his cabinet there was a conservatory from which are exhibited, in the fresh and growing state, the native and exotic medicinal plants. In the catalogue for 1850-51, on the same page with the faculty of arts, is a list of five "professors not members of the faculty of arts." Among them Samuel S. Haldeinan, A. M., is professor of natural his- tory. Probably the country has produced few more learned men than he. Charles B. Trego, who sustained a long and honored relation to the university, first appears as a "professor not a member of the faculty of arts" in connection with mineralogy and geology. 332 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. .lo*eph I, riity of Pennsylvania Fifty Thousand Dollars, in trust, to be kept safely invested in ground rents, first mort^a^es. or in the loans of the City of Philadelphia, oi the State of Pennsylvania, or of the t'niied States. Dr. Wood recogni/ed that the salary was a meager one and specially specified that "such salaries will be in addition to any fees that may be paid by the pupils. 1 ' The work done and the spirit awakened by this faculty led to a hope tin still better things. It at least nurtured the belief that Philadelphia might some day have a properly equipped school of natural science. Lengthening the medical course caused conflict between it and the auxiliary course as to hours available for instruction. To obviate this and also to introduce the natural sciences into the work of the college a course preparatory to medicine was announced in the catalogue for 1882-83. Students contemplating medical study were allowed to enter THE BIOLOGICAL SCHOOL. 333 this course at the end of the sophomore year, and by omission of <-ci tain branches have time to give special attention to chemistry, physics, physiology, zoology, and botany without destroying their chance for a degree. There was but little hope for a course of this character at that time. The old question of conflicting hours alone presented insu- pevable difficulties with the limited teaching force available. About this time Dr. Horace Jayne, a graduate of both the literary and medical departments of the University of Pennsylvania, went abroad for study and devoted several years to examination of the most cele- brated laboratories of the old world. He had fully measured the need in Philadelphia of a well-equipped biological school, separate and dis- tinct from any other, and all other departments, or, if in association with any other, then on such terms that the independence of its instruc- tion would not be endangered. He gave himself to the task of develop- ing the school and largely aided it financially himself, and Provost Pepper joined heartily in the movement, subscribing himself $5,000. The contributions made by Dr. Jayne, personally, at that time and sub- sequently, have not been less than $50,000. Another factor- must be mentioned here. In the latter part of 1883 Prof. Harrison Allen called attention to our shortcomings in the matter of education of women by an admirable article in The American (then published in Philadelphia). It came upon the citizens with the force of a surprise. The Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences, in its long and admirable career, which happily still continues, was supposed to be all-sufficient for scientific in- struction. Its function the public appears to have misunderstood. Its services to science had been and are vast, but its legitimate work had. been original investigation or, at most, training the few specially en- dowed youth who were destined to become naturalists, even in lack ot systematic training. The general scientific instruction in classes and by supervised laboratory work remained for the biological school to do. Furthermore, under the inspiration of the occasion it was declared by the public and assented to by the trustees that this instruction should be for both sexes alike. It was to raise a perfected system of education, different from, but equal in value to, the ordinary college course; not in opposition to the latter, but in sympathy with and parallel to it. It was to allow youth of different predilections a choice between two equally valuable lines of mental training and so to educate by one method those who declined to be educated by another. The new school opened December 4, 1884, with an address by Prof. Harrison Allen, after Provost Pepper in his usual clear manner had de- fined the purpose of the meeting. Teaching began at once. The faculty and school as at first organized. William Pepper, M. D., LL, D., provost of the University and ex officio president of the faculty; Joseph Liedy, M. D., LL. D., professor of zoojogy and director of the school; Joseph T. Rothrock, M. D., B. s., professor of botany j Horace Jayiie, M. D., B. A., professor of vertebrate morph- 334 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. <>!<>uy: Benjamin Sharp, M. I)., m. n.. professor of invertebrate morph- ology; M. Archer Randolph, M. ]>.. instructor in physiology. Tin- building as originally constructed was of brick, two stories high, >_' tret long ly 17 wide. The. lower floor, besides two laboratories, eaeli 30 feet long by 22.."> wide, has a lecture room and museum of about the same size. A greenhouse is connected with one of the laboratories and furnishes abundant material for class work. On the second floor are the rooms of the professors, several special laboratories, the working library, and the herbarium, besides which the halls contain cases now used for the nucleus of a museum of economic botany. In the cellar are rooms lor storing and assorting materials and a well-lighted, comfort- able assembly room for the students, containing also closets for their working clothing, etc. It was soon discovered that more space was required, and in two or three years from the date of opening, a third story, imperatively de- manded, was added. This contained a laboratory, 80 feet long by 22.5 wide, and seven smaller rooms devoted to special purposes. Every at- tention was given to secure the best and most light. From the outset it was determined that each student should have a complete working outfit of his own, for which he should make a deposit in money, receipt, and be held responsible. This rule has been carried out, so that a compound and a simple microscope and a full assortment <.t chemicals, test tubes, etc., is in the private closet of every biological student. It may be added that then- was a double purpose in this: First, to secure the largest advantage to the student while at work, to encourage investigation out of college hours, and. .second, to teach him the care of instruments by making him responsible for them. It may be claimed that the plan has accomplished all that was intended. It is carried so far that nothing will be received from the student at the end of the term, until it is inspected and found to be clean and in satisfactory condition. If it is not, a sum sufficient to make good the consequences of neglect or rough usage is deducted from his deposit, in no case js a -bad compound microscope furnished. The powers range from ."H) to 1,000 diameters, and sharp definition of the optical parts of each micro scope is carefully considered.- The fact that the yearly damage to the instruments is small is good evidence of the care taken by the student and also of the skill acquired in using them. The botanical garden, so long anticipated, has been at length com- menced. A considerable area has been set apart for it. A limited fund, derived from the estate of the late Dr. (leorge 15. Wood, is avail- able for its support, and it already contains a considerable number of rare and desirable plants. It is confidently hoped that the coming year will produce noteworthy additions to the plants already growing there. The biological school \va< at lirst intended to furnish suitable prep- aration for those contemplating the study of medicine. This was simply a continuation of the idea which a few years earlier had fotiiid ex- THE BIOLOGICAL SCHOOL. 33.5 pressiou in a like course in the Towne scientific school of tin- I Diver- sity, which course had been abolished when the biological school was opened. It was also hoped that it might induce a considerable num- ber who did not desire a regular collegiate education to add something to their training before they commenced the avocations which they had selected. It is fair to say that these reasonable expectations have been fulfilled. Original investigations are now being made by eight advanced students which promise important economic and scientific results. There is abundant evidence that this class of students will incre,i-e year by year and that the biological school of the l. T niversity of Penn- sylvania will add its share to the knowledge of the world. Without endowment and \\ith no settled means of support, tin tm^' wholly upon the public demand for biological instruction to furnish the means of conducting the school, it was found at first impracticable to insist for entrance to the school on an examination as high even as that required for admission to the freshmen year of our ordinary American college. Neither could we hope to retain the majority of the students for more than two years. Hence Jio degree was or could be given under the circumstances. The student who passed his final ex- amination at the end of his two-year course was simply awarded a certificate. In 1892 a further advance was made when, on recommendation of the medical faculty, the board of trustees voted that students who have taken in their college course instruction in biology and kindred sub- jects equivalent to that given in the ten-year course preparatory to medicine, and have received the bachelor's degree, shall be admitted to the second year of the new required four-year course in medicine. MAMMALIAN' ANATOMY. I'KOF. HORACE .IAYXK. This course teaches the exact anatomy of one typical mammal and the modes of dissection. The skeleton is the first part studied, that of the cat being made the basis, though when typical structures are not well shown by it recourse is had to other species. Each student is supplied with a complete, disarticulated skeleton of the cat and has access to the large collection of articulated skeletons and special preparations illustrating osteology. From the skeleton of the cat the student turns to the muscles, dis- secting these and subsequently the viscera, arteries, veins, and nerves. Consideration of the central nervous system is left to the last. Ex- planatory lectures on preparation and preservation of anatomical ma- terial, precautions insuring cleanliness and accuracy, and the general details of dissection are given before work "is begun. Special explana- tion precedes all special study. Lectures, laboratory work, examinations, and frequent "quizzes" 336 THK UNIVERSITY <>F I'KN AsYLV \.M \. combine to impress these facts. The frequency ol' pract ic;il examina- tion- di>coiirages excessive reading and obliges tin- student t< tvu-t more to observation. Ti tliis course six hours each week arc given throughout the .V<'ai x ; though in the second term six hours additional may be elected. The course" in vertebrate morphology is open to students of the see- oud year \vh<> liave completed the work in general biology, invertebrate morphology, and mammalian anatomy. It embraces the, careful study of live or six types, beginning in each case with external character- istics and their importance as a means of classification. This is fol- lowed by exercises in classification with the use of keys and text, much as analytical botany is studied. When the student has a fair idea of the type's place in nature, the anatomical work proper begins. Par- ticular attention is of course paid to the comparative side of the sub- ject and to the influence of modes of life upon structure. In this way the tish, frog, terrapin, and bird are studied. Ample material is fur- nished and good diagrams and models are at hand. The course requires six hours each week throughout the second term. The course in comparative osteology is one of the. most satisfactory, because of the abundance of illustrative materials in the museum. The collection is rich in complete articulated skeletons, in parts mounted to show special characters, and in series of skulls mounted with the con- stituent bone separated, but in relative position. There is in addition a great accumulation of disarticulated skeletons and separate bones. As the student is supposed to be familiar with anatomy and /oology, the actual instruction is given by informal talks during the progress of the work. (Iraduate students may have advanced work in vertebrate morphol- ogy. This is adapted tt> the special needs of the individual and de- pends upon his own preparation and partly also on the line of study in which the professor may himself be engaged at the time. \\\I"MV AM> IMIY-iloI.oiiY OK ri.ANTS. I'Ki'l . \\II.I.IA.M IN >\V Kl.l . \\I[,S()\. The botany is wholly from plants and by experimental methods. I looks are only used for reference. The student handles and studies the thing itself. By the use of simple and compound microscopes pro- vided for each pupil, the lower as well as the higher forms of plant life are subjected to careful examination and study. The different parts of the plant are considered atone and the same time in the lirst year from three points of view : that of form i morphol- strnctiire (anatomy), and use (function). In the second year the student takes a practical course in plant anatomy. This opens with a most careful study of the living plant cell under varying conditions. The different substances and tissues are considered in detail. The systems of tissues in the root, stem, leaves, (lowers, and fruit (together with some attention to their func- tions) constitute the first half of this year's work, THE BIOLOGICAL SCHOOL. 337 If the student wishes to continue in botany during the third y-ar he may pursue a course of laboratory \vork in plant physiology. The method followed is by dividing the subject before the class into pan- and portioning these out, to the different members. In this way the subject of germination, which is now before the clasjs, has been sepa rated into (a) The biology of the seed, which invites a careful study of all the parts considered in relation to each other and also to all the different external conditions which may arise in its development. (b) The changes iu form of the parts of the seed during- germination, with reasons for the same. (c) The chemical changes in the seed during germination, with the transfer and appropriation of the food materials when and where growth is taking place. (d) The absorption of water by the seed. (<>) The absorption and excretion of gases by the seed, and measure- ment of the same. (/) The temperature of the seed during germination considered in relation to normal and intramoleculai respiration, etc. Each student considers one of these topics, making such experiments with living seeds as to demonstrate the points under consideration. After having worked the whole subject over he presents his conclusions, illustrated with his experiments, to the class. The professor in charge comments on both the results and the method of presenting them, ad- ding any new material which may have been neglected by the student. In this way much ground can be gone over with satisfaction to all concerned, The other subjects are studied in the same manner. SVSTKMATK AND I\IIC HOTAXY, I'KOK. .T, T. KOTIIKOCK. This begins in the latter half of the first year, and, as the work is con- fined to the flowering and the higher (so-called) flowerless plants, Gray's Manual of Botany is used in connection w r ith the abundant material furnished for analytical work. The student is made aware that naming a plant botanically is only a means to an end, the real object being, first, to enable him to avail himself of the literature connected with the plant and to designate it l>y such a name as will leave no doubt as to what plant he is speaking or writing of, and. in the second place, to lead him to a recognition of the plant's place in the vegetable kingdom, as a deduction from an ascertained structure. It is worthy of note here that there is a faulty tendency in many places to consider botany almost wholly from the de- velopment of the individual, leaving the evolution of species and their relation to cadi other in the background. This is to be deprecated, if for no other reason than because in our country the most important botanical work to be done is, first of all, to describe and name what plants we have, and to do this a generation at least of trained syste- II so 22 338 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. matists will yet be required. To inflect systematic botany at this junc- ture for the study of individual plants wholly would be like an at- tempt to study philology before the formation of a lexicon. The first work of the student in this department is to study the species, as an aggregate of individuals; second, to consider the genus as ;in aggregate of related species; third, to study genera as consti- tuting orders, etc. In this way an idea of the natural grouping of plants is obtained, together with some conception of the relative value of the different points of structure. Exact written descriptions of plants are also required, not only as a test of what the student actually has seen, but as an incentive to still closer observation. Six hours each week are given to the work in this department. In the latter half of the second year the student may decide between the (so-called) flowerless plants and economic botany. The methods of study of the flowerless plants are much the same as in the work of the first year, making allowance of course for differ- ences inherent in the subjects and, further, for the lack of suitable text- books in a large portion of the field covered. Economic botany admits of division according to the special object tin- student may have in view. If he contemplates medical study, it is of course obvious that the greater portion of his limited time should be devoted to our native remedial plants; if, on the other hand, he in- clines to a mechanical career, the structure of our different species of wood must more nearly concern him; or if he has a mercantile life in view, the fiber and the starch-producing plants would naturally in- terest him most. It is of course clear that no such course of botanical study as could be concluded in two years would be other than elementary in its char- acter. A third or even a fourth year could be taken with advantage in the biological school. Whilst the institution is amply equipped for advanced botanical teaching in most directions, it still lacks important facilities for the study of the lite history of theiower plants. This de-' mand of course will soon be met, for it is inconceivable that a field of such vast practical importance to the agriculturist, the fruit-grower, and the horticulturist should remain unnoticed. HISTOLOGY. PROF. JOHN KYDKK. It is sought in this branch to familiarize the undergraduate student with the great principles of the science of histology. The subject is tH-aieti, it is believed, in a manner different from that pursued in most schools. P>cj;-iniiing with the formal changes and the apparent cycle of causes at work in producing many of them in the simplest living forms, the student is in a measure prepared to understand the formal changes in the various types of animal cells. The work is thus rendered, it is thought, more interesting to the thoughtful student, since he is brought into contact with a much wider THE BIOLOGICAL SCHOOL. 339 I range of data than would otherwise be possible. If, for example, in addition to the morphological facts, he is given some general hints ami illustrations of the physical and physiological facts involved, lie is ulti- mately prepared to appreciate far more keenly the value of histologies] work and its transcendent importance in relation to physiology at large. I:MHKYOJ.Oi:oK. .JOHN M. MACKARLAXK. In this class the attention of the student is first directed to the con- struction and use of the microscope. Thereafter the action and value of staining agents and of reagents is practically studied, *md methods of examination and permanent preservation of objects are engaged in. By lectures and practical laboratory work a knowledge is gained of the comparative structure and functions of vegetable and mineral cells. The student is then in a position to trace the life cycle of selected vegetable and animal types that can be utilized later in illustrating the fundamental features of the organic world. In the lecture room and the laboratory each type is exhaustively treated, and careful drawings ,ue made by members of the class of the organs and tissues of each. While this work is in progress students engage individually in prepar- ing and embedding objects in frozen gum, in celloidin, and in paraffin, for future sectioning and examination. The concluding lectures of the course deal with organic evolution, as illustrated in the types studied, as well as related forms; the signifi- cance and effect of symbrosis, saprophytism, parasitism, and general environmental action alike in the vegetable and animal kingdoms. Fieqiient tutorial revisals are given, and sectional meetings are held for such special work as the measuring of microscopic objects, the photographing of these for accurate illustration purposes, etc. The Laboratory of Marine Biology at Sea Isle City, X. J., was founded in 1891. It gives opportunity for the study of living forms, and is open during the summer months. Its work is directed by the faculty of the Biological School. The laboratory is an application and illustration <>l Franklin's ideas of '< observation and reasoning in natural history," feferred to in his Proposals for the Education of Youth in Pennsylvania. The school is under the general direction of Milton J. Greenmau, M. r>. The establishment of the Laboratory of Marine Biology upon the New Jersey coast is the outcome of a careful consideration of the methods by which the University of Pennsylvania could best meet its own needs and the requirements of students of biology at large. Sinee the introduction of the study of Natural History into the pub- lic and private schools and eol leges, it is more necessary than ever be- lore that ample opportunities for the study of living things shall be offered to teachers at a time when they are not engaged in their profes- sional duties. It lias heei i recognized that to the winter work in the city laboratory there should he added courses of instruction given during the sum- mer, at a time when living forms are at their best, when not only their structure may be studied but also their modes of life and development may be followed from day to day. To meet these requirements the Laboratory of Marine Biology has been established. The selection of a suitable place for this work was made by the late Prof. Joseph Leidy. Sea Isle City, N. J., was selected on account of THE BIOLOGICAL SCHOOL 341 the richness of the surrounding fauna and flora, and the accessibility of the place to several important cities. The laboratory is thus phnrd within easy reach of a large number of students of Natural History, and affords investigators who desire to study the more southern types of life, a desirable place to carry oil their research work. The laboratory grounds comprising five acres and the laboratory building situated at Sea Isle City, N. J., on Ludlam Bay, were given to the university by Mr. Charles K. Landis, of Viueland, N. J., and the equipments were secured by generous subscriptions from him and other friends of education. The laboratory building is a large two-story structure, supplied with twenty-five aquaria and running sea water; with tables and other labo- ratory furniture. The laboratory accommodates sixteen investigators and twenty sin dents. Besides the laboratory building the station is furnished with suitable engines for pumping purposes; storage tanks for fresh and salt water; collecting apparatus, such as seines, weirs, dredges, and trails. Three sail-boats, one large barge, and six row-boats are owned by fhe laboratory and used for collecting in the bays and thoroughfares. A private dock has been built for the use of laboratory boats. The laboratory building was erected in May, 1891, and the entire summer season was spent in getting apparatus into place and perfect- ing the various appointments of the station. The scientific work was therefore necessarily limited. That which was done consisted of some experiments in practical oyster culture conducted by Prof. John A. Eyder, of the University of Pennsylvania; a collection of the fishes of the locality was made by Prof. E. 1). Cope, of the University of Penn- sylvania, and a large collection of invertebrates was made by Prof. Hall, of Haverford College. In .July, 1 SOU, the second season in the existence of the Marine Labo- tory, the summer school was opened with an attendance of fifteen stu- dents. 'Five investigators were also at work at the laboratory in August, ISIH'. The Laboratory of Marine Biology is a part of the School of Biology of the rniversity of Pennsylvania, and the teaching at the summer school is done by the faculty of biology of the University, aided by such persons as this faculty may select. The laboratory and aquarium are under the management of one of the members of the faculty who is chosen to take charge of the busi- ness of the summer school and the general management of the station. The present teaching corps consists of the following persons: Horace Jayne, M. D., Professor of Vertebrate Morphology, Dean of the Faculty; John A. Ryder. PH. D., Professor of Comparative Embryology; John M. Macfarlane, sc. D., F. R. s. E., lately Professor of Botany in the Eoyal Veterinary College of Edinburgh, Scotland; J. Percy Moore, Frank H. Moore, Philip Calvert, assistants in Zoology; Jesse M. Greenmau, 34'2 THE rxiVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA, assistant in Botany; Milton J. (ireenman, PH. ., :u, D., in charge of the .Marine Laboratory and Aquarium. This laboratory is the sixth in the hist on of America n marine laboratories to be established. The* Ander- son Laboratory, established by the elder Agassi/, at Penikese, was the lirst marine laboratory established in America. Following this came Prof. Baird's laboratory at Noank, Conn., afterwards at Woods Holl, Mass., then Prof. Alexander Agassiz's laboratory at Newport, 1.'. I. Later, the Chesapeake Laboratory was organized by Prof. W. K. Brooks, under the auspices of Johns Hopkins University. Prof. Brooks also established a branch laboratory temporarily at Beaufort and later at Nassau, N. P., West Indies. 1) was at Prof. Brooks' Nassau lab- oratory that the expedition sent out by the Biological School of the University of Pennsylvania made extensive collections of biological specimens during the summer of 1887. Following Prof. Brooks' most successful efforts in the South came the Boston Marine Laboratory, at Woods IIoll, Mass., under the direc- torship of Prof. C. O. Whitman. Probably no laboratory on the Ameri- ca'n coast has been so successful as the Boston Marine Laboratory. The natural advantages of the place and the enthusiastic support which it has received from the beginning have made it what it is. Next in the chronological order stands the Laboratory of .Marine Biol- ogy of the University of Pennsylvania, while during the past year the Hopkins Marine Laboratory of theLeland Stanford University has been established on the Pacific coast. At the laboratory during the first session (1892) classes in zoology and botany have been conducted and the lectures have been richly illustrated by supplies of animals and plants drawn from the surround- ing country. Frequent excursions into the fields and on the bays and rivers have been made by the students, who have thereby been brought into inti- mate contact with living objects in their natural haunts. Collections of laboratory materials have been made by a number of teachers who are working at the laboratory, and numerous lectures have been deliv- ered by members of the teaching corps. The experiments in practical oyster culture, which proved so successful last year, have been carried on this season by the, U. S. Fish Commission, under the direction of Prof. John A. Ryder. It is hopd that this work will be of practical benefit to the oystermen and aid in reestablishing the oyster beds of the New Jersey coast. CHAPTER XIV. THE UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL. As fur as appears, the first words touching this hospital were uttered upon the platform of the Academy of Music at the medical commence- ment of the University in the spring of 1871. On that occasion Dr. H. C. Wood, a talented and ambitious physician of the. class f isitt, fell into converse with a friend of like character istics, Dr. William F. Xorris, of the class of ISfil, and they, with a third kindred spirit, Dr. William Pepper, of the class of 18(54. That which they spoke of, when once it was spoken of, quickly became known and of interest to all the friends of the Medical School. The t'niversity was about to be removed from Ninth, near Chestnut street, l' miles westward, over the Schuylkill River. Its Medical School could not follow it, unless there were adjacent to it a hospital, and, save that of the Philadelphia Almshouse, there would be none. To leave the vicinity of the old Pennsylvania Hospital, the most ancient in America and for fifty years the best appointed in the world, by whose bedsides students of the University had been taught for so many years, was not to be thought of, unless a fitting substitute could be obtained. How to do this was the thought of the three young doctors on this commencement day of 1871. To do this became, their resolve. There was good reason for this resolution. The new position of the University was to be in a beautiful suburb of the growing city. Its site would be commanding, salubrious, and ample for future wants. Near it rows of houses were being built suit- able for students' dwellings. To keep all departments of the University near each other was more than a pleasing thought; it was likely to be an economical and useful measure. The first action taken under these views was the assembling of the medical alumni in a meeting on June 12, 1871, under the chairmanship of the Hon. Morton McMichael. This gentleman was editor of the oldest newspaper in America a leader of political thought, though not an office-holder an accomplished orator, with special facility for after-dinner speaking, a most genial and popular man, of whom the fondness of his fellows has preserved the remembrance by a bronze statue in Fairmouut Park. 343 344 nu: IMM-.USITY OF PEXXSYLVAXIA. His indorsement was a fortunate initiation of the movement. The meeting determined, that the importance ot creating the hospital should be pressed upon the medical faculty and presented to the Hoard of Trustees of the I'niversity. There then sat at this hoard two gentlemen who had been mayors of IMiiladelphia before the act had been passed which consolidated its various districts into one city, the venerable gentleman who was the father of that act and the foremost real estate lawyer of the city, the Secretary of the Navy of the Tinted States, a gentleman who came to occupy a seat in the Supreme Court of the United States, another who became minister of the United States at the Court of St. James, and other gentlemen of like prominence in their avocations and professions. The chairman of the medical committee was Dr. George B. Wood,, who, as student, professor,, and trustee, from youth to old age, had spent, as a physician, his life in the service of the University. Such a body, so advised as to its medical interests, could hardly fail to approve of the projected hospital. It promptly agreed to appropri- ate ground tor it. The faculty quickly caught the feeling of the hour and appointed a committee to cooperate with one from the alumni. The joint committee prepared an appeal to the public, which was signed by a number of influential citizens. A meeting of the signers of this appeal selected a hospital nuance committee, or commission, to direct subsequent-movements. William Pepper, M. 1)., was made chairman of the commission, Saun- ders Lewis was elected treasurer, and the project was thus fairly on foot. The committee placed before itself no less a task than the collection of $700,000. Without support from church influence, with no expecta- tion of great gifts under the promptings of religious zeal, sustained by no rich class or profession, relying simply on the statement of its needs and of its usefulness, trusting to I'niversity feeling, but trusting more to the disposition of the charitable, it ventured upon this large work. The epoch of the Avork favored its success. Hearts, stimulated by the efforts and softened by the sufferings of the war of the rebellion, wen; responsive to the calls of charity. The financial panic of 1873 had not yet come, following the war, and purses were yet heavy with its profits. The enormous increase, however, in the wealth of the United States during the past twenty years had not then been reflected in the great fortunes of the present time. (Ireat donations, in the modern sense, were therefore not to be expected from the charitable, and but one such was made, viz, *">< MMH), by Isaiah V. Williamson. This name recalls a remarkable man, one who then was by sagacious investments and severest ( I hough. not parsimonious) economy, amassing an enormous fortune based on the successes of early life. He was un- known as a givcrof money, famous as a saver of it. His wealth, how;- ever, invited attack in the interest of the hospital. It was determined THE UNIN Ki;.-irv HOSPITAL. (o attempt one ;it \\haie\er risk of repulse. Dr. Pepper and one other member of the hospital commission obtained an interview witli him in his olliec, one of the darkest little rooms in one of the narrow- est business streets of Philadelphia. For twenty minutes or more he listened in silence to t lie eloquence the occasion drew forth, briefly asked two pertinent questions. silentl.\ listened a .yam for a fe\\ nioinents to the replies, said he \\ onld think the matter over, and closed the interview. Without further solicitation he announced his decision in a few weeks, as the result of hisou n thinking. Whether something said to him in this short meeting at his office wrought a change in his nature, or whether it caught the moment his nature was of itself beginning to stir towards benevolence, or whether he had already become a generous giver without the knowledge of his friends, can not nou be known. Certain it is that soon thereafter he began a series of great public, benefactions, and- that henceforth his name was associated with constant liberality and his little office be- came the resort of those who sought aid for others. Before his death this modest gentleman, who moved about so unos- tentatiously as hardly to be observed, besto wed $.'$,000,000 to found a school for training mechanics, ami was supposed to liavc devoted more to charity than had been done by any other private man while in life. The rniversity received slOO.OOO from him by gift and slOO.OOO by will. Of these sums half fell to the hospital; and any history of it would be incomplete in which he was not remembered. The progress of the work was aided by making evident the need for another hospital in Philadelphia. 1 by accepting subscriptions payable in four yearly installments, and by agreeing that any donor might nomi- nate a patient to a bed for each .*.">, 000 given by him. As attention was increasingly fixed upon the enterprise, it became evident that there was a pressing want for such a hospital throughout Pennsylvania. And early in ISTl' it was determined to ask aid from the legislature, which was then in session. The application for this was based upon the reasons given in the original appeal, upon the need for the hospital, and the duty of the State to care for its indigent sick and wounded. Within thirty years preceding the appeal the population of the State had doubled, without a proportionate increase of hospitals, although the growth was chiefly of those engaged in the dangerous occupations; in the cities, of artisans and manufacturers, and in the coal andiron regions, of the mining classes. From 1840 to 1871, for example, the population of Philadelphia grew from 250,000 to 700,000, her manufacturing capital from 811,587,000 to SL'L'5.000,000, and her free-hospital beds from (MM) to only 1,100; while the tons of coal mined in the State increased from 700.000 to >.500,000, with but a trifling addition to hospital beds in the mining regions. 1 N \v York City, with 1,000,000 people, had fi.325 free beds, and Philadelphia, with nearly three-fourths of the population, only 1,100. 346 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. Ill the same period also almost the, entire railroad system of the State had been created, and a daily tribute of accidents was paid for public convenience and accommodation. The system, for the most part, was controlled in Philadelphia and centered there: and the position of the University at the focal point seemed the fitting location to care for the victims of these accidents. The I' Diversity was in the highest sense a State organization. From its infancy the governor of Pennsylvania had filled the office of presi- dent of Board of Trustees, and it has always been free from private, local, or sectarian bias. Convinced by these and like considerations, the legislature determined that good morals and public policy forbade the State to be benefited by taxes levied on mines, railways, and fac- tories, and to relegate the* cart* of their victims to private charity, alone and unaided. By an act approved April 3, 1872, the State granted to the Univer- sity of Pennsylvania the sum of $100,000 upon condition that it should raise the sum of $250,000 in addition thereto; the entire appropriation to be expended in the erection of a general hospital in connection with said institution, in which at least two hundred free beds for persons injured should be forever maintained. The acceptance of this ordinance bound the University to receive in- jured persons whenever presented to the hospital in number not exceed- ing two hundred. , It has so far fnl tilled this obligation as never to have turned away a reeent accident ease, and has constantly and strenuously striven that the intent of the legislature shall be fulfilled in the erection of a hospi- tal of two hundred free beds fully equipped and endowed. The sum of *250,000 having been raised, the State accepted this as fulfilling the statute and paid * 100,000 on November 16, 1872. llelleetion showed the immediate site of the University to be wanting in room to amply furnish with space, air, and sunshine a general State hospital of two hundred beds, having a capacity of growth to five hun- dred, as need might demand. So forcibly were the benefits of such a hospital to the city urged by the chairman of the Commission that the city of Phildelphia, by ordi- nance passed unanimously by both chambers of councils and approved May is, 1872, granted to the University 54 acres adjoining its site, in trust, to erect a hospital thereon in which there should be not less than fifty free beds for the indigent sick, a condition which the Uni- versity has been glad to undertake and to fulfill. This, then, had been accomplished a spacious site and $350,000 for building and endowment. This was much, but clearly not enough, for the building alone would absorb over $200,000. Manifestly, therefore, the effort ought to be carried further on towards perfection. To this end the judges of the supreme court and of the city courts, and leading citizens of the State and city, petitioned the legislature to grant a second $100,000 provisionally upon $100,000 being otherwise given. THE T'Mvi.j.-Miv HOSPITAL. 347 An act to tins effect was passed and approved April 0, 1873. It was now thought safe to begin construction. Jiy the authority of the trustees of the University, Dr. William Pepper, Dr. K. K. Rogers, ,1. Vaughaji Merrick, John Welsh, Saunders Lewis, and William Sel- lers were appointed a building committee. Dr. I'epper was made its chairman, and T. W. Hi chard a its architect, and ground was broken in May. The plan comprised a central building, 88 feet wide and 130 feet deep, holding a large and small clinical amphitheater, kitchen, offices, rooms for storage, for reception of patients, for servants, for officers, for direc- tors' meetings, for general administration, and twelve chambers for resident physicians and private paying patients. It was planned to connect this building by a spacious and handsome corridor with pavil- ions, each containing six wards, having* proper ward kitchens, nuiso chambers, linen and splint rooms, bathrooms, and closets. Three of these pavilions, on either side of the central building, the whole having a frontage of 680 feet and capacity for 720 beds, was the completed hos- pital as it had by this time formed itself in the idea of its projectors. The structure was designed to be three stories in height, in University gothic, harmonizing with the surrounding departments of the institu- tion. The means in hand permitted the construction of no more than the central building and west wing, thus providing for 140 beds. Subscriptions continued to be solicited while the building went up. Before it was finished enough had been raised to secure the second $100,000 from the State. The result achieved summed up thus: Donated by the city of Phila- delphia, a site of 5 acres; appropriated by the State of Pennsylvania, $L'00,000; private donations in sums of $5,000 or multiples thereof, $2GO,- 000; private donations in sums smaller than $5.000, $80,431; donations for a medical alumni ward, $11,500; a total of $55i',04i ) . When completed, the hospital was inaugurated by ceremonies in which the governor of the State took part. During his address two tablets were placed on the walls bearing the following inscriptions: Inaugurated June 4, 1874, by His Excellency John F. Hartranft, Governor of Pennsylvania. This Hospital was erected through the liberality of the State of Pennsylvania, the City of Philadelphia, and Many citizens. A prayer of dedication followed this address. 348 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. Hon. William A. \\allace, late United States Senator from IVim- syh.mia, then delivered the inaugural address, replete with informa- tion and beautiful thought. The hospital was opened for patients July 15, 1874. Nothing 1 about its history is quite so remarkable as the bold idea that conceived it, and the energy and skill which made the idea a reality. In a good cause enthusiasm avails much. In the cause of the hospital of the University of Pennsylvania, the enthusiasm of its young founders prevailed upon men of all parties and creeds, upon a famous institution of learning, upon a great municipality and a greater State, to place their meed of thought and wealth and wisdom into the hand of charity guided by kno\vledge and science toward the common weal. It detracts not from their accomplishment that personal aspirations lent force to their efforts. That places of profit and distinction have by them been won in the University and the world lessens not the good they have effected, diminishes naught of the comfort and happiness that is flowing to mankind through the channels they have formed. The organization of the government of the hospital was complex. The ownership of its property and funds rested in the trustees of the University, by whom the managers of the hospital were to be elected from their own number, and from nominees of subordinate bodies. The subordinate bodies were the board of contributors, chosen by donors of $25 or over, the medical faculty, and the medical alumni of the University.' This form of organization was decided upon as representing all in- terests, the ownership of the property, those whose money had formed it, and those whose knowledge was to render it useful. Tin- Board of Managers was composed of five trustees, seven of the medical faculty, and three each of the contributors and medical alumni. Its first meeting was held at the call of the Secretary of the Trustees of the University, on February 5, 1874. Dr. (reorge B. Wood was chosen President, Dr. Alfred Stille Secre- tary, and Saunders Lewis, Treasurer. The next meeting elected Eli K. Price Vice-President. The first of these gentlemen, at the age of CO, had resigned the chair of the theory and practice of medicine, and retired, from active life, having, by his writing and teaching, made- himself the leader of medi- cal art and science in America. The preparation of the Pharmacopoeia of the United States for many years rested chiefly upon him. His I ' n ited States Dispensatory (of which Dr. Bache was joint author, and of which over L'L'."). <)()() copies have been sold) was a work so highly valued that during the rebellion it was declared contraband of war, so bene- ficial did the United States deem its use to the armies of its enemies. Dr. Stille, in 1874. was tilling the chair of the theory and practice of medicine. Mr. Lewis was an influential and wealthy man of business, TIII: UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL. 349 -- whoso family had honored tin- old Pennsylvania Hospital by holding its treasurership since 1780. Mr. Price, with one exception, was the oldest member of the Philadelphia bar. was known as the author of the consolidation act, and of the Price act, by the latter of which chari- table legacies were rendered void in Pennsylvania if made within thirty days of death of testator. Yet upon the young men of the board rather than on the veterans was to fall the oversight of the administration of the hospital. For twelve years this was conducted by resident male superintendents in the method, the best then prevalent, of hiring nurses in numbers vary- ing with those of the patients; dismissing and taking them on as econ- omy or necessity required, always seeking the best, bnt not always lind ing the best in the market when wanted. By this method, coupled with moderate salaries to officers, the per diem expense was kept at a low average. In 1875, its first calendar year, its wards received 042 patients, and its 7 dispensaries treated 4,569 cases. The medical corps of the hospital was in three classes: Medical start". residents, and dispensary staff. The medical staff were 12 in number, 3 being professors of the med- ical faculty of the University, and 9 clinical professors and lecturers attached to the hospital, whose duties did not extend to the' medical school. The residents were 2, selected semiannually from the medical alumni of the University, in a competitive examination by the medical staff, for a service of six months. Each dispensary was under charge of a chief. Other doctors assisted in them. The entire corps worked without pay, valuing indirect advantages. The corps contained every grade of medical experience, the young alumnus with life before him, intent upon duty, so that life might be a success, a dispensary assistant and its chief, the clinical lecturer, the clinical professor, who devoted himself to the hospital freely for the benefit of the medical school, and the great names of the medical fac- ulty, who upheld the hospital that it might uphold the school. Dr. D. Hayes Agnew was the member of the corps then most widely known, perhaps, throughout the United States. He afterwards gained, as one of the surgeons attending the deathbed of President Garfield, a national reputation, not only in a professional but also in a popular sense. The building and operating of the hospital having been so far success- ful, an appeal was made to the legislature in 1874 to carry out the original design by appropriating $125,000 to buUd the east wing, con- ditionally upon $100,000 being raised to endow it. By this time, however, other hospitals were in the field with similar intent. One of these diverted the appropriation, and for seventeen years the University hospital asked no aid from the State. In 1875 it tried to create a ward for incurables. Its annual report 350 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. for that year contained an appeal for this purpose, which was repeated in 187<.>, 1S77, and 1878, meeting small response. But, bent upon so good a purpose, the board definitely resolved, on August 12, 1870, to open such a ward so soon as 8100,000 were subscribed for endowment, and that the sad sound of "incurable" might be removed from the ears of its inmates, the board thought the name to be given should be " The Ward for ( 'hronic Diseases." By the end of the year $42,000 had been contributed. That the Bromptoii Hospital for such diseases was one of the best endowed in England, and that in America 20 per cent u of the Mi tire adult population perishes from these affections," were thought strong reasons to hope the endowment would be quickly completed. The effort, however, did not ripen at once, but'bore good fruit later on. Early in 1875 the trustees authorized the Board of Managers to invite a committee of ladies to aid in the discharge of household duties, and to administer such comfort to the patients as their thoughtful care might suggest. Fifteen (than whom no others in Philadelphia were better qualified) were chosen among women given to good works, mis- tresses of large establishments, relatives of benefactors or of managers of the hospital. With the instinct of true women they declined to assume that, title officially, and denominated themselves the Board of Women Visitors. It was the duty of these women to visit the kitchen, laundry, storerooms, wards, library, etc., and to call attention of officers and managers to defects in order, in niceties, cleanliness, and in refinements of polish. It became their delight to provide the means to remedy deficiencies. They established a yearly Donation Day, on which, as well as through- out the year, they solicited gifts in kind and in money. Their efforts as a board yielded for several years an average of about $1,500, which in part was devoted to betterment of the fixtures and apartments under their care, to uniforming the female nurses, to paying the salary of a head nurse, and to other such like things as from time to time seemed to them most imperative. More than once or twice some large matter, to which the finances of the Hospital could not reach, has been provided by the private purse of one or other of them. This board increased until it numbered 24; by the addition per chance of some prominent woman, the wife of a Chief Justice, or of an ex-cabinet officer, or possibly of some serious woman, who would do religious service among the patients or nurses; and, in 1889, in order that its ideas might readily influence the government of the hospital without any semblance of a dual authority, it was given three representatives on the Hoard of .Managers. Thus equipped with men. women, and material, the hospital passed its five initial calendar years, caring annually for an average of (548.4 patients, treating .~>.t' the Hospital, Kli K. Price, died November I."), 1884, at the age of S7, full of years and honors. He was succeeded by the present incumbent the writer of this history. In the seven years from 1880 to 188(5 the average yearly figures of the hospital were .1,121) patients, 7,300 dispensary eases, a death rate of S.Oi'7 per cent, and a per diem of ><1. ().">. Although these figures seemed gratifying, the example of a neigh- boiing institution, which liad introduced the English system of hospital administration, inclined a large majority of the managers to believe the conditions of the hospital of the University would be improved by ceasing to hire and discharge nurses with the influx and efflux of patients, and by maintaining within itself a corps of women in train ing for nurses under a directress of nurses and a superintendent of the hospital, both of them being ladies skilled in nursing. As the demand for trained nurses was greater than the supply, and their wages large, it was believed that women capable of becoming thorough nurses would serve the hospital for two years for little or no pay beyond their education and maintenance. It was supposed also, t hat saving the salaries paid hired nurses would make this arrangement economical. A member of the board of women visitors, aided by a few near rela- tives, offering to erect in memory of their mother, on the hospital grounds a building especially adapted for the Nurses' Home, it was de- cided to accept the offer and to change the administration of the. hos- pital by placing it under the superintendency of a woman, and by found- ing a university training school of nurses under the instruction of a directress of nurses, and of lectures given by the medical staff. After wide advertising and prolonged correspondence, an Kiiglish lady was chose n superintendent and entered upon duty September, 188(5. The home and school are adapted to forty-five learners. These, after examination, are admitted on probation for three months, and, if satis- factory, serve for two years. The opening in October, 1888, of a small maternity ward was an event which promises to be of much importance to the teaching of the hospital. It is designed that it shall give to every student of the medical school a practical lesson in the art of delivery. The money for its erection and partial endowment was gathered from among his friends by a newly elected professor of obstetrics, a fact which illustrates how the forward steps of the hospital have been often made. In the following year a long ward was divided into fourteen rooms for private patients. The cost of this change was advanced by a mem- ber of the medical staff. This kind act increased the number of such rooms to twenty-five, and much benefited the revenue of the hospital. Isaiah V. Williamson died March 1 1. 18S1); Award has been dedi- cated to his memory, THE UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL. 353 Dr. I). Hayes Agnew, in April of tin- same year, resigned the chair of clinical surgery, and was made honorary professor of the same chair. A mortuary building was erected later in the year at a cost of over $11,000, procured by the exertions of a member of the board of lady visitors. It contains compartments for the preservation of twelve corpses in ice, a table constructed under special patents for post-mortems, a room for a pathological laboratory and museum, and a small mortuary chapel. The outcome of the change of administration inaugurated in 1886 was "a most marked, improvement in the conduct of the hospital." But the support of a training school, however more efficient it might be than former methods as a system of nursing, increased ex- penses and made a higher per diem. This was due in part to the im- proved nursing, which filled the private rooms with costly patients, in part to the increased number of nurses, and in part to maintenance of nurses being continuous, even when the sick in the hospital were but few. , When confiding the charge of the hospital to a woman, the board had appointed three of its number an advisory committee, to be con- sul ted by her, and had deprived her of the power to suspend residents from duty, a power which, though never exercised, had rested in male superintendents. It may therefore be said to have assented to the value of female gov- ernment in a slightly modified sense, i. e., when tempered by male in- fluence. The work o this hospital is very varied and complex. It comprises the care of sick in dispensaries, in wards, or as patients in private rooms with costly attendants. It embraces the daily teaching of stu- dents in great clinics, attended by 400 or 500, in small class rooms, and in little squads by the bedside. It is concerned with the instruction of nurses, the. records of registrars, the compounding of drugs, with au- topsies and much experimentation. It has respect to the coming and going of ambulances, of anxious or of sorrowing friends, of the Bible reader, the minister, the priest, and the coroner. All this complexity of the business of healing or of death is conducted in the midst of the affairs of a great housekeeping, amid the delivery of coal, of ice, or of food, amid the oversight of the cook, the scullion, the washerwoman, and the fireman. When, then, in its report for 1889, the board noted "a most marked improvement in the conduct of the hospital," it accorded great praise to the administration which had brought this about. That year was the most peopled with sick the hospital has ever seen, its in patients numbering 1,432, over 20 per cent more than before or since. 1180 23 354 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. Toward tin- close of the year the growth and development of the hospital, coupled with some strain that .growth was beginning to throw on its finances, showed the duties of its administration to be increas- ingly diflicult, and inclined the board to emphasize the value of the male .quality in the control of an organization so complicated and so active. Becoming aware that Dr. John S. Billings, of the U. S. Army, a gentleman of distinction, and especially qualified by ability and experience, both in military and civic hospitals, was available, they elected him on December 12, 1889, director of the hospital and c.r-offu-io member of its board. This appointment was not intended to abolish, but to strengthen the existing administration. The director's duties weretobexoordinate with others due by him to the University's Department of Hygiene. His residence was not to be in the hospital. He became, as it were, an advisory committee, with power. His first act was to adjust expenses to income, causing a smaller roll of patients and a higher per diem, pending the reorganization of finances. Upon his report as an expert that certain renovations and betterments were necessary to bring the physical condition of the hospital up to modern standards, the members of the board determined to solicit $50,000 from the charitable, $30,000 being for renovations, and *20,000 for arrears of debt. The major part was gathered in a few weeks. A legacy of $80,000 fell to the hospital by the death of (leorge S. Pepper, on May 2, 1890, and made it possible to dedicate a fourth ward to the memory of a great benefactor and to disembarrass finances from current debt. Believing the^tate would not again refuse its aid to the child which it had created, an application for an appropriation based on the approval of the Board of Public Charities was made to the legislature of 1890-'91. By an act signed by Governor Eobert E. Pattison, June 16, 1891, a grant of $20,000 was obtained for betterments, and of $15,000 for maintenance of indigent patients at $1 per day during 1891 and 1892. It is not probable that the State will ever refuse to repeat this giant. And conditions may therefore be now supposed to have arisen which will render normal the relation between the plant of the hospital and its income and reduce the per diem to the sum expected under natural conditions. Uriel' allusion must be made to the very interesting establishment of the children's ward in 1891, which was due to the zeal and efforts of Dr. and Mrs. De Forrest Willard and a number of their friends. A summary of the history of the hospital, and perhaps a reasonable forecast of its future, can be made in a few sentences. Since its inaugu- ration 15,000 patients (of whom 11,000 have been free) have been cared for in its beds, and 112,500 in its dispensaries. The average residence of its patients has been 29.2.~>!> days; its average death rate, 7.626 per cent of patients treated; its average per diem, $1.2 e>tab]i-,hed. the ineome < if the said bonds is to be disposed of according to the best judgment, of the trustees of the University, and always having in view the object of the contribution. Very respectfully, J. B. Lll'I'INCOTT. A special committee on organization was appointed, consisting of Messrs. Lippincott, Eli K. Price, and Fairman Rogers. This committee reported December 5, 1882, recommending further subscriptions and 356 THE VETERINARY DEPARTMENT. 357 giving outlines of plan, and requesting an appropriation of land. The subscriptions were authorized and the land dedicated. On February 1, 1883, Mr. J. E. Gillingham sent a check for $10,000, and March 6, 1883, the chair of veterinary anatomy and pathology was created. Dr. Huidekoper was nominated for the position, and on April 3, 1883, he was elected to fill the place. Pending the construction of the buildings and further organization, he visited Europe in order to observe and to profit from any improvements in the teachings of vet- erinary science in the old country. On May 1, 1883, the committee presented plans of buildings, which were approved and construction ordered ; and On June 5, 1883, a contract was approved for the construction of the main buildings, at a cost of $16,905. On December 3, 1883, the committee on the Department of Medicine reported a plan of organization, and recommended that the chairs be filled as follows: Chemistry and medical chemistry, Prof. Theodore A. Wormley; materia medica and therapeutics, Prof. Horatio C. Wood; physiology, Prof. Harrison Allen; comparative physiology, Prof. R. M. Smith; morbid anatomy and general pathology, Prof. James Tyson; botany, Prof. Jos. T. Rothrockj zoology and parasites, Prof. A. J. Par- ker; veterinary anatomy, internal pathology, contagious diseases, and sanitary police, Prof. E. S. Huidekoper. A permanent standing committee on the Veterinary Department was authorized, and Messrs. Lippincott, Price, Eogers, Dr. Mitchell, and Dr. Hutchinsou were appointed. In December Mr. Lippincott offered another $10,000, provided $15,000 should be raised by subscription. This sum Mr. Lippincott generously gave a few months later apart from the condition, thus making his entire contribution to the school $20,000. On October 2, 1884, the department was formally opened, 20 students having been enrolled, with an inaugural address by Dr. Hui- dekoper, from which quotations are made in the beginning of this article. A few weeks after, W. Horace Hoskins, V. S., was appointed demonstrator of veterinary anatomy, and Alexander Glass, V. s., demon- strator of veterinary pharmacy. In 1884 the erection of stables to be used as a hospital was undertaken. Plans were approved of structures to extend 210 feet on Pine street, 36 feet wide, with a 10-foot piazza, at a cost of $16,000. Dr. William L. Zuill was elected professor of surgical pathology, and Dr. William Hunt a member of the veterinary committee of the Board of Trustees. On January 5, 1886, Mr. J. B. Lippincott died, a loss to the school memoralized in fitting resolutions by the trustees. Since then his children have generously sustained the department, and have given an- nually at least $4,000 for its support. In 1887 the veterinary faculty was authorized to apply to the legisla- ture for an appropriation of $50,000 for its hospital, half of which was secured. 358 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. The appropriation by the State legislature of >=L'5,000 for the hospital of the veterinary department was conditioned upoii the establishing- of lL' tree scholarships, to be held by students nominated by the governor of the Commonwealth. There are also 3 city prize scholarships, to which appointments are made by the Board of Education of the city of Philadelphia. On June 8, 1887, the first veterinary class graduated, numbering 10. On June 6, 1888, the second veteri nary class graduated, numbering 14. June 5, 1889, third veterinary class graduated; number, 7. On September 24, 1889, a board of managers of the hospital was ap- pointed, consisting of five trustees, five citizens, and two members of the faculty; two more citizens were added in 1890. In October, 1889, Dr. Huidekoper resigned his professorship and sev- ered his connection with the school, which so largely owed its organiza- tion to his zeal and labors. The titles of several chairs were changed; that of Internal Pathology and /ooteclmics to the Theory and Practice of Veterinary Medicine; that of Veterinary Anatomy to Veterinarv Anatomy and Zootechnics. Dr. John Marshall, assistant professor of chemistry in the medical department, whose marked executive ability in the management of its chemical laboratories indicated his fitness for the position, was made dean of the faculty. In 1890 Charles Williams, v. M. D , was elected lecturer 071 practice of veterinary medicine. June 5, 1890, the fourth class graduated, numbering 24. This record of the progress of the Veterinary Department from its beginning up to the present time shows, we think, an interest and energy which assure its becoming a "great institution." The list of required studies in this department looks formidable, but a close inspection of it will show that there is not an ornamental* branch of knowledge mentioned in it, nor one that is not indispens- able to the education of one who aspires to become a thoroughly trained veterinarian both in theory and in pi-act ice. What a contrast it sug- > to former opportunities and to those who from want of education and training practiced only crude and purely empirical methods. The veterinarian in this country has not yet been granted the posi- tion to which he is entitled. He deserves rank in the army, for his otlice is of the first importance to t lie successful movement of battalions and squadrons. In civil life he should have to do not only with the treatment of individual cases but with the epidemics and their causes, and with the inspection of animals living and dead, and of all foods derived from them, lie should have summary power to stamp out con- tagious disease due to animal or vegetable parasites, or due to other causes, for in doing tiiis there is no estimate of the, saving of human life that may be accomplished. The writer has no doubt that most if not all of the outbreaks of mysterious human disease which suddenly invade parts of all countries with great fatality have their origiu in some form TlfK VETERINARY DEPARTMENT. 359 of organic poisoning, animal or vegetable, taken into the system as food or drink. Kduoate observers, and the remedies, heroic or simple, may lie applied. A great advance was made in the efficiency of the Veterinary Depart- ment when its hospital was placed under the direction of a board of managers, all gentlemen who have great interest in the work, who meetmonthly, and who take both great and small things under their notice. The gentlemen who constitute this board are: Joseph E. (iillingham, president; J. Bertram Lippincott, secretary and treasurer; S. Weir Mitchell, M. D., Richard Wood, William Hunt, M. D., John C. Sims, H. Pratt McKean, jr., John Marshall, M. D., Archibald Montgomery, Walter R. Furness, Charlemagne Tower, jr., William L. Zuill, M. D., D. v. S., Arthur V. Meigs, M. D. They second all reasonable efforts of the hospital staff and make the appropriations for it. The hospital of the Veterinary Department of the University of Penn- sylvania is supplied with every possible facility for the best handling and care of sick and injured animals of all kinds. An ambulance is provided for the conveyance of sick and lame horses. For this service the charges are made according to distance traveled. Animals are admitted into the hospital at any time, day or night. A free dispensary clinic is conducted by the members of the hos- pital staff daily, except Sunday, between 8 and 10 a. m. The animals are under the professional care of the hospital staff of veterinarians and of the house surgeon, who resides in the hospital. A competent farrier is attached to the hospital, who does a limited amount of ordinary shoeing in addition to shoeing for lameness; the latter only under the direction of the hospital staff. The importance of veterinary science, and its application for humane benefit in other countries are in contrast to our own > and the writer can not better conclude this notice than by quoting from an address of Dr. Iluidekoper, recently delivered in this city: In Berlin and Paris a largo force of veterinarians is constantly employed in the slaughterhouses. In Berlin all live animals shipped into the city innst be unloaded in ;i given quarter, where, by a force of sonic twenty-five veterinarians who have no other duties, they arc first inspected on landing. They are then removed to stables and reinspected- Watch is kept over them during slaughter and the removal of the viscera, and, after dressing of the carcass, the flesh is reexamined. In the case of hogs and some other animals, portions of each animal from different muscles arc sent to an office where they undergo an examination by means of a microscope, for tri- china and measles. The. duty of the veterinarian employed as meat inspector in the cities of Europe, includes the examination of animals in the cattle-market ; the examination of live animals in the slaughterhouses and abattoirs; examination after slaughter; exam- ination of meats brought into the city that have been slaughtered elsewhere; inspec- tion of the butcher shops ; inspection of the traveling butchers and huckster wagons, and inspection of the meats furnished to hospitals, prisons.and other public institutions. In the United States but little has b'eeu done toward regulating the inspection of 360 THK IMVKRSTTY OF PENNSYLVANIA. animal food. In our larger < ities, fVed by a quotation from President Elliott's own words. He says : "It is agreed on all hands that the increased attention given to physical exercise and athletic sports within the past twenty-five years has been, on the whole, of great advantage to the University, that the average physique of the mass of our students has been sensibly improved, the discipline of the college been made easier and more effective, the work of many zealous students been done with greater safety, and the ideal student been transformed from a stooping, weak, and sickly youth, into one well-formed, robust, and healthy." The same sentiment has also been expressed by one of the professors in Yale College. Such admis- sions and sentiments from colleges with the standing possessed by Harvard and Yale can not fail to impress any fair-minded person with the benefit derived from a rat ional course of physical culture. The leading educational institutions of America have recognized the importance of scientific care of the. body and our University was among the very lirst. As time went on, interest in this work increased, and the result is that our gymnasium which, at lirst, was able to meet the demands, is now unable to accommodate one third of the students who wish to avail themselves of t lie benefits derived by using it. The course hi physical education has never sought to cultivate a student's body at the expense of his brain j but its aim, already partially successful, PHYSICAL EDUCATION. has been to make the sick well; the idle, active; (lie nonstu. studious; and the weak, strong; these having been accomplished by slm\\iug- each student how to develop himself in a rational and synunet Heal way in mind as well as body, impressing him that the prime factor in the course was health and not strength. The department has always had three chief objects in view, first, to supply the demands and remedy the defects of every constitution; secondly, to improve the general health and strength, and, lastly, after having made the improvements, to retain them. As artist, sculptor, or architect seeks for a perfect model so should every student seek perfect health by striving to obtain a symmetrical development, both mentally and physically. The healt h of the niind primarily depends upon the health of the body; vigorous mental occupation or even refined enjoyment soon becomes distasteful if one's cerebral processes are not supported and reeiiforced by sound and robust physical health. In the majority of cases where our students have been naturally athletic and fond of sports, it has been found that these- students rank among the honor men of their class, and it is quite certain that our different athletic sports in no way interfere with the mental standing of the men who indulge in them. Moreover, it has also been found here and elsewhere that men who fail in their studies for want of systematic diligence also fail in athletic contests for the same reason. We need a larger gymnasium where we can accommodate at least from one hundred to one hundred and fifty students at a time ; a place where recreation can be mingled with bodily benefits, where students from all departments may be brought together and learn to know one another, where the tedious hours of the class room may be forgotten for a short time, thus giving the brain an opportunity to ob- tain the rest it so often needs. Brain overwork is much more exhaust- ing than body .overwork because the structure of the brain is much more delicate, hence the great need for proper cerebral rest, and a better means than the use of an attractive gymnasium is hard to find. Many students who have inherited weak lungs, irregular hearts, nerv- ous tendencies, and many other weaknesses, have been so improved since this department was first started, that their troubles have entirely disappeared, and they have thus been enabled to increase their mental work witli less danger of jeopardizing their health and have gone forth better prepared to compete with other men in the life of our great Re- public, and to aid in the solution of the many sociological and educa- tional problems which remain to test the mental and physical strength of workers of our generation. In conclusion, let me say that the depart- ment is indebted to the Board of Trustees for the support they so kindly gave it when it was-first founded, and it is to be hoped that with the results already obtained, they will recognize the necessity for adding to our University a gymnasium worthy of and fit for the great duty of physically preparing the thousands of our coming alumni for their life- work, both as individuals in the struggle for existence and as faithful sons of our alma mater. CHAPTER XVII. THE DEPARTMENT OF PHILOSOPHY. The Department of Philosophy may be said to have come into exist- ence at a meeting of a group of professors at the house of Provost Pepper on March 9, 1884. The meeting was called iu response to a growing feeling that the higher instruction in liberal studies should be organized and put upon an equal footing with other departments in the University. A plan of organization was drawn up, which, being sub- sequently approved by the honorable Board of Trustees, served as a working basis for the new department until the autumn of the year ixs.s, when a number of changes were made. As the earlier and later plans were essentially alike iu all that concerns the form of instruction, the choice of studies, and the requirements for the degree, differing chiefly in the functions exercised by the officers of the faculty, a detailed description of the plan first adopted is unnecessary. It is sufficient to state that it took as model, in a general way at least, the philosophical 1 acuity as it at present exists in the German universities, and it was i 1 1 1 ( -nded to cover about the same ground. A few students were entered and work was begun; but, the attention of the University being di- verted to other movements, it was not, for the time being, prosecuted with the earnestness and vigor which would warrant-au expectation of any large measure of success. At the beginning of the College year, 1888-1889, a committee was appointed to draw up a new plan of organization, retaining the essent ial features of the old one, but obvial ing some of its inconveniences. This plan, modified, and approved by the faculty, was accepted by the Board of Tnistees in November, 1888, and has 'beei i in operation since. The ollicers of the faculty are a dean, a secretary, and an executive com- mittee. The dean presides at meetings of the (acuity and executive committee and at all examinations of candidates for the degree. He receives applications lor admission to the departmenf, and all students report to him, at the beginning of the University year, the studies they intend pursuing, or come to him for advice in making their selections. The executive committee, consisting of live niemt>ers, represents the various groups of allied studies in which courses are offered, and is em- powered to accept or reject applications for admission, to arrange for courses of lectures, and to pnblisft the yearly announcements. It pre- sents to the faculty, through the dean, at the stated yearly faculty 364 THE DEPARTMENT OF PHILOSOPHY. 365 meeting on the third Saturday in May, a report of the work done dm ini; the year. Regular stud. Mils in the Department of Philosophy, candidates for the degree of doctor of philosophy, must be graduates in arts or science of an American college, whose degrees are accepted by the University as equivalent to its own, or they must satisfy the executive committee that they possess an equivalent preparation for advanced studies. The admission of students not holding the bachelor's degree has been very exceptional. Special students, not candidates for the degree, are ad- mitted to the instruction of the department on application to the dean, by consent of the professors whose courses they select. A candidate for the degree of doctor of philosophy must pursue, graduate studies for at least two years, present a thesis showing original research in his line of special study, and pass a satisfactory examination. Of the time required in graduate study, one year must be spent in residence at this University ; the remainder may have been spent at some other university. The candidate for the degree presents himself for examination in three studies, one of which he designates as his principal or major, and the other two as his subordinate or minor subjects. The list from which he may choose is determined by the faculty, and may be modified at its will. As approved at the adoption of the new rules in 1888, it included the following subjects: American archajology and languages, American history, botany, inorganic chemistry, organic chemistry, comparative philology and Sanscrit, English language and literature, experimental psychology, Germanic philology and literature, general history, Greek language and literature, history and development of legal institutions, mathematics, mineralogy and geology, philosophy, physics, political economy, political science, romance philology and literature, Semitic languages and literature, and zoology. A few changes have since been made, but the list is substantially what it was when first drawn up. It was not felt to be altogether satisfactory, and it contains, as will be observed, several serious gaps. ^ These were due to the fact that the professors representing certain lacking subjects were overburdened with undergraduate work and could not be asked to add to their labors by giving systematic graduate instruction. Examinations for degrees are conducted in the presence of the dean and three examiners, the professors in charge of the major and minor subjects. Notice of the time and place of the examination is sent to each member of the faculty, and any professor may attend and question the candidate if he see fit. After the examination, the dean and the examiners are constituted a committee to decide upon the success of the candidate. If they are not unanimous, or if any other professor attending object, there is a provision that the case shall be referred to the faculty. The successful candidate may, with the consent of the execu- tive committee, and under the direction of the professor in charge of 36fi THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. his major subject, print" his lln-sis as one accepted for th<' decree. Whether printed or not, a copy must be deposited with the Librarian of the University. As the object of the instruction in the Department of Philosophy is to train specialists in literature, and science, the student is left largely to the care of the professor in charge of his major subject. He follows his advice in methods of work and in direction of work. Where the number of students is small there is a possibility of much familiar intercourse between professor and student, than which nothing can be more stimulating or helpful. The younger scholar sees his teacher at work, catches his spirit, and absorbs his methods. The form which the instruction shall take is left very much to the judgment of the professor. In some cases it is given almost wholly in the labora- tory, in others informal lectures, and in still others through the medium of the seminary in free discussion and criticism of papers prepared by the student. In all eases its object is to teach the student to work for himself and to be independent. He is supposed to make himself thor- oughly familiar with some department of his major subject, and to have a fair knowledge of the two subjects chosen as minors. These last he may choose either because they are of importance from the point of view of his major, or merely for the sake of gaining a broader culture. As a matter of fact most students choose minors which serve as aids to their special subject of study. An idea of the scope of the graduate instruction given at the University may be gained from the announce- ment of courses for the year 1891-'92, the last one issued at the time of this writing. It comprises the following courses of lectures: By the professor of American archaeology and linguistics, lectures on the general philology of American languages; on the Algonquin, the Nahuatl, the Maya, and the Kechua groups; and on American archa- ology and methods of study in archaeology. By the professors of American history, lectures on the institutional and constitutional history of the United States from 17.S7 to 1$!L'; and on the development of the State governments. By the professors of botany, lectures on the classification of plants: on plant histology; and plant physiology. By the professors of chemistry, lectures on the methods of proxi mate analysis of organic compounds; on synthetic methods of organic chem- istry: on the, industrial applications of chemistry; on chemical theory; on electrolysis and electrolytic methods; on thermo chemistry and on special topics in pure inorganic and analytical chemistry. JJy the- professor of comparative philology and Sanskrit, lectures on Sanskrit grammar; on the ^akuntala and the Veda; on linguistics and comparative philology of the Indo-European languages, with special ref- er. -nee to phonetics; on phonetics and the principles of comparative gram- mar, with special reference to the forms of Greek and Latin"} on Old Iran- ian grammar and selections from the Avesta; and (for students of Assyriology) on the old Persian text of the Behistfm Inscription. THE DEPARTMENT OF PHILOSOPHY. 307 I'.y the lecturer on European history, lectures on France in -the eighteenth century. By I he professor of experimental psychology, lectures on experi- mental psychology; and on comparative, social, and abnormal psy- chology. By the professor of English, lectures on the Knglish drama: on the principles of dramatic construction; on the history and theory of poetics; on the evolution of literary types. By the professor of Germanic philology, lectures on Gothic phonol- ogy, grammar, and readings in Ultilas. P>y the professor of Greek, lectures on the Greek drama, and on the Greek orators; Greek syntax. By the professor of Latin, selections from the letters and orations of Cicero; studies in the poetry of Virgil and Horace. By the professor of law, a course on Koinan law and jurisprudence. By the professors of mathematics, lectures on modern higher algebra; on higher plane curves; on the theory of numbers; and on the theory of functions. By the professors of philosophy, lectures on the history of modern philosophy, on ethics, and on general psychology. By the professor of physics, lectures, and instruction in the physical laboratory. By the professors of political economy and political science, lectures on the history of the theories of the distribution of wealth; and on the history and theories of the state. By the professors of Semitic languages, the following courses: Ele- mente of Arabic grammar, with reading and exercises; selected Suras from the Koran ; prose-find poetical pieces from the Beirut Chrestom- athy ; lectures on Arabic poetry; elements of Syriac grammar, with read- ings; Biblical Aramaic grammar, with readings from the book of Daniel ; the Mishnaic Treatise of Sabbath; the Pirke Aboth; elementary, inter- mediate, and advanced courses in Hebrew; a course of readings from the Hebrew prophets; the Moabite stone, the Siloam inscription, and selected Phu'nieian inscriptions from the Corpus J>i*<-rii>ti(inm Nt-nriti- canuii: Assyrian grammar; selected Babylonian texts; cursive reading of Assyrian texts, and interpretation of Ethiopia texts. By the professors of /oology, courses on general biology; on inverte- brate morphology ; on comparative histology : comparative embryology ; the mechanism of locomotion, and mammalian neurology and craniology. These lectures are intended exclusively for graduates, but any courses delivered to undergraduates are open to matriculates in the Depatt- ment of Philosophy who may desire to make use of them. I have en- tered rather minutely into the details of the organization of this new department at the University, and of the instruction it offers, though I am quite conscious that my paper will be found rather tedious. It has seemed to me undesirable to omit anything, for the reason that or- THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. graduate instruction in liberal studies is only commencing to gain a foothold in our American universities, and its beginnings may, in the time to come, have no little historical interest. Until within a very lew years, t lie graduate, student in even our best equipped insti- tutions found himself an exception falling under no recognized rule, and unprovided with systematic and regular instruction. The amount and quality of his work for the degree were determined arbitrarily, and might vary within unreasonably wide limits. This condition of things is gradually changing, and there is slowly coming to be a consensus of opinion on the proper value of the doctor's degree, and an effort on the part of the larger universities, at least, to furnish suitable teaching. It is to this movement that we must look for more efficient teachers in all grades of our schools, both public and private. The growth of the department may be seen from the following state- ment of matriculates entered: Matriculated 1884-'S5, 1; withdrew 1884-'85, 1 ; matriculated 1885-'8G, 3; withdrew 1885-'8G, 2; continued from 1885-'86, .1; matriculated 1886-'S7, 4; withdrew 1886-'87, 2; con- tinued from 1886-'S7, 3; matriculated 1887-'88, 4; total at the close of 1887-'88, 7; matriculated 1888-'89, 8; withdrew 1888-'89, 2; received the degree 188S-'S9, 1; total at the close of 1888-'89, 12; matriculated 188!)-'90, 22; withdrew 18S9-'90, 1; total at the close of 1889-'90, 33; matriculated, 1S90-'91, 9; withdrew 1890-'91, 11; received the degree, 181M)-'91, 6; total at the close of 1890-'91, 25; matriculated l,S!l-'>2, 31; received the degree 1891-'92, C; withdrew 18; total at the close of 1891-^2,32. There are at the time of this writing (October, 1892) 03 matriculates in the department. There are also 24 special students who are not candidates for 'the degree. Twelve of the matriculates and five of the special students are women. It may be of interest to note the choice of major and minor subjects. Much matriculate, it will be remembered, chooses two minors. Some of those who have entered this year have not yet made a choice of minors, so the list is incomplete. Major subjects. American history, 2; botany, 5; chemistry, 10 ; Eng- lish language and literature, 3; European history, 1; experimental psychology, 2; Greek language and literature, 2; Latin language and literature, 1; geology,!; mathematics, 1; mineralogy, 1; philosophy, 13; political economy, 10; political science, 1; Semitic languages, 7; zoology, 3. Minor \?'/y/Vr/.s. Botany, 7; chemistry, 6; comparative philology,!; Knglish,4; European history, 7; experimental psychology, 10; geology, 3; Germanic philology, 1; Greek language and literature, 1; Latin language and litei at tire, 1; mathematics,!; mineralogy, 4; philosophy, 10; physics, G; political economy, 7; political science, 10; romance, lan- guages, and literature, 1 ; Semitic languages, 6; zoology, 5. Special students American history, G; English, 2; European history, THE DEPARTMENT OF PHILOSOPHY. 309 2; mathematics, 1; philosophy, 15; physics, 1; political cootimm political science, 2; romance languages, 1; Semitic languages, 7; zoology, 2. The degree of master of arts, heretofore conferred by the College lac ulty on i)resentation of a satisfactory thesis three years after the can didate has received his bachelor's degree, will, after the year l.">'.2. be conferred by the faculty of philosophy, and only after at least one year's graduate study. At the stated meeting of the faculty in Mav, 18!)0, it was decided that the candidate for the master's degree should not be bound by the rules which determine the choice of studies in the case of candidates for the doctor's degree, but should make his m\n selection, subject only to the approval of the executive committee. This action was taken from the feeling that the object of the two courses is somewhat different. Those who enter the shorter course usually doing so rather for the puipose of general liberal culture than for that of becoming specialists. 1 In closing this paper I may be permitted to point out certain reasons why in my opinion it is the peculiar duty of our University in common with the few others situated in large cities to encourage advanced work in liberal studies. The advanced student has need of a kind of instruc- tion, of collections of books, and of material for investigation, which are not necessary in undergraduate work. In a great city a university can readily obtain the services of eminent specialists, who could not be reached at all in a country town; it has open to it scientific and literary societies, public and in many cases private libraries, museums and scientific collections of all descriptions. Whatever be the resources, of the University itself, they can not but be materially strengthened by such additions. Moreover, in certain departments material for investigation can not readily be found away from a city. I may illustrate the value of such helps by taking the single instance of the courses in experimental psychology lately established at this University. A student of psychology has open to him the courses de- livered in the medical school on anatomy and physiology, he has oppor- tunities for dissection; he may attend clinics at which nervous patients are treated; he has courses to choose from on mental pathology, and an opportunity to familiarize himself with the types of mental diseases by actual inspection of cases ; he finds within easy reach asylums for the insane, and institutions for deaf-mutes and for the blind; he may study in the laboratory the reactions of various abnormal cases sent to the professor by physicians interested in the psychological aspects of their professi i. These opportunities for special investigation could 1-aot be open to him in a small town. V . , . . 1 For course in Department of Music, see page 442. ol 1180 24 CHAPTER XVIII. THE SCHOOL OF AMERICAN HISTORY AND INSTITUTIONS. It has been said that Franklin educated the people of the American colonies in the knowledge of their liberties. His utilitarian notions in education, formulated in his Plan for an English School, and in liis Proposals for the Education of Youth in Pennsylvania, and illustrated in his life and writings and in the institutions founded according to his ideas, culminating in the foundation of the University of Pennsylvania, are always illustrative of the education which he considered was best adapted to such a country as ours. America in his day was agricul- tural, and I have already referred to the interest which Jefterson, Washington, and Franklin took in agricultural affairs, and in the pro- vision for the study of chemistry, botany, fruit culture, viticulture, and the care of stock. Hamilton, whose life was in the city and among politicians, advocated a political education. In the correspondence between Hamilton and Washington much is said by each of them in support of the founding of a national university in which jurisprudence, 'politics, history, social science, and cognate subjects should be taught. .letlerson prescribed American history as one of the subjects indispen- sable in an American school. It may be concluded, then, from the pub- lic services and from the writings of these eminent men that they con sidered the principles of republican government and its history in this country as well worthy of a place in university study. Philadelphia is identified with several of the epoch-making events in American history. There the Declaration of Independence was made; there the Constitution of the United States was framed by a company of unequaled legislators, and Benjamin Franklin was a member of the committee, that drew the Declaration and of the convention that made the ('(institution. Philadelphia is an American city in America; its material prosperity is to be attributed to the character of its inhabit- ants. Whether or not they have incorporated into their systems the spirit of Franklin's Way to Wealth, they have exemplified the enormous efficiency of Franklin's maxims in the accumulative productivity of t wealth for which the city is famous. The city has always been national, in its sympathies, and at no time was this spirit more grandly display ec - than during the civil war. Among the effects of the civil war of a' educational character is the present interest in the history and iustitiy, 370 THE SCHOOL OF AMERICAN HISTORY AND INSTITUTIONS. 371 tions of the United States. Previous to the war American history was scarcely considered worthy of a place in a college course; it was studied in meager outline in some of the public schools of the States, and iu a few of the wealthier universities a brief course of lectures was delivered, usually by the president, on the Constitution of the United States. This course rarely covered more than twelve lectures. The civil war transformed America into a new nation, or, at least, awakened its peo- ple and the nations of the world to a clearer definition of the place of America in the modern world. The effect of this awakening was seen in the establishing of courses of study in American history (1870-1885) at Harvard, Yale, Columbia, Cornell, Princeton, Pennsylvania, Michi- gan, Syracuse, and Wisconsin. The subject was not made of sufficient importance to require the entire attention of a professor except in the University of Pennsylvania, where the historian, John Bach McMaster, was elected professor of American History iu 1883. The lectures in these schools, except in Pennsylvania, were usually jjiven by the pro- fessor of law, of history, of political science, or of English literature. These lectures were a brief summary of some important political events in the history of the country and a comment upon the text of the na- tional Constitution. The civil war was the most important economic event in modern American history. The nation, in the language of Lincoln, had a new birth of freedom, and this freedom was of the whole estate, political, constitutional, social, industrial, and literary. Thus it came to be seen that American history comprised a large group of essential interests: The history of the land, the method of its acquisition, its use, and the political geography of the public domain; the history of the people, the native races, emigration, and immigration; movements of population, transportation, labor and manufactures, inventions, social experiments; the people in politics, finance, education; the power of public opinion. A third element was that of the constitution of government in America, its origin, growth, and final definition; its relation to the governments of antiquity, of the middle ages, and of modern times; the nature of the colonial efforts in government; the causes leading to the independ- ence of the United States, and the formation of State constitutions and of the Constitution of the United States; the nature and jurisdic- tion of local government; the problems of municipal government; the history of the judiciary, and the interpretation of government in acts of Congress, acts of State legislatures, and in the decisions of courts. Another phase of that history is the history of American legislation in the State legislatures and in Congress upon an almost bewildering variety of subjects; the history of the treaties of the nation; the legis- lation of courts upon important subjects, municipal legislation, and not least in importance, the history of that obsolete legislation, by which costly experiment so much that is admirable in our present laws was obtained. 372 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. Another element of American history is the history of literature in America. Franklin Avas fond of prophesying on the future greatness of the English language; that it would become an imperial tongue spoken by untold millions in this country, and that its literature would contain the productions of chicl'est value to the human mind. But not. alone has the English tongue been spoken in America; there the Span- ish tongue divides with the English in importance, for the language of South America is chiefly Spanish. This large group of essential inter ests to the people, their history in full, is a subject of importance to those who would know what is best for such a country as ours. If American institutions are worth having they are worth understanding; if American history is worth making it is worth reading. x It is not strange, then, that a school founded for the special study of American history and institutions should be created in some American university at some time iiot long after the American civil war; that such a school should be founded in an institution fairly equipped to administer wisely the provisions of such a foundation, and in such a place as by its historical associations, its liberal facilities, and its near- ness to the national capital and to the great municipal centers of the country, would enable students to avail them selves of an adequate his- torical equipment. Under these controlling conditions the School of American History and Institutions was founded in the University of Pennsylvania in 1891. l 'The school was established in 1891 by the trustees of the university as the result of the cooperative labors of William Pepper, M.D., LL.D., provost of tin- university; Joseph ] ). I 'dt ts, John B. Gest, and Hon. 8. \V. Pcnnypaeker, of the board of trust res; Charles Elmer Bushnell, Ferdinand J. Dreer, Hon. Thomas Cochran, Joseph G. Rosen- garten, Richard L. Austin, John Bach McMaster, and Francis Newton Thorpe. The school was instituted by Prof. Thorpe, and the idea of such a school was formulated by him in 1886 Avhcn he was a fellow in history and political science in the university. Six years before, while at Oxford University, the idea of .such a school had occurred to him. While fellow in the university his special studies were with Prof. McMaster, at that time professor of American History in the Wharton School. During the years 1885-91 a library essential to the work of the school was collected. At present it comprises about 14,000 volumes, classified as follows : LIBRARY OF PUBLIC DOCUMENTS. (a) National documents: A practically complete legislative record of the Gnveni- ment of the United States, consisting of the American Archives; the Annals of Con- gress, 17W-1S21.'; the Congressional Debates, 1822-1837; the Congressional (Jlobe, : t he Congressional Record, 1873-1891 ; the Journal of Congress, 1789-18'Jl ; the American State Papers, 1789-1828; a practically complete set of the Reports of Committees, I '.xecntive Documents, Miscellaneous Documents of both Houses from the beginning of the National Government to the Fifty-second Congp (ft) State documents: Journals of the I IHMM- and Senate; debates and proceedings of the Stat legislatures; departmental reports (agriculture, education, railroads, labor, transportation, insurance, prisons, etc.J. (c) Canadian Public Documents, 1843-1890. (d) Municipal Documents (police, fire, water, charities, etc., hospitals). THE SCHOOL OP AMERICAN HISTORY AND INSTITUTIONS. 373 Philadelphia has such historical associations as make it the fit place tor the location of such a school. The historical material in the libraries of New York, Baltimore, Albany, Worcester, I lost on, Harris- burg, and Washington are readily accessible. The faculty of the \Vharton School of Finance and Economy made possible the study of economic and financial subjects comprised in the study of American history and institutions. The law school afforded opportunity for the study of jurisprudence. Finally, it was possible to gather a faculty for the teaching of American history, institutional and constitutional; the historian of "The People of the United States" was transferred from the Wharton school to the chair of American History in the newly established school; the chair of American Constitutional History was created and filled; courses of study were arranged and the school entered upon its work October 1, 1892. It is the first school of its kind. Its courses are taken by graduates and undergraduates. Its graduate classes have the use of an ample library equipment, selected with care. In order to make the oppor- tunities of the school as useful as possible there is a Saturday class in (n! the. his- tory of American people in all their interests : industrial, social, political, literary, financial, religions, military, economic, ami constitutional. Since 1XSO the wealthy universities have- founded chairs of American history, ami separated the subject from a discordant mass of mathematics, language, Knropean history, literature. political economy, ami law. The changes made during the, last few years may 1 t ier le understood by comparing the, study of American history at present with that study in 1885-86. At that time 1 made a l>rief comparative study of the work offered in the leading American universities, which was rejmlilished by the l.ureaii of Kdii- cation under the title of "The Study of History in American Colleges and t'niver- sitis." It was edited by Dr. II. 1'.. Adam-, and comprises the eighth chapter of the book. (The Study of History in American Colleges and Universities; Bureau of Education, Washington, 1887.) CHAPTER XIX. THE LABORATORY OF HYGIENE. Jn 1889 Mr. Henry C. Lea offered to provide the means for the con- st ruction of a building for a laboratory of hygiene for the University of Pennsylvania provided that the necessary funds should be raised to equip and endow it, that hygiene should be made a compulsory study in certain courses of the University, and that as soon as possible a four- year course in the Medical Department should be established. This offer having been accepted, and the necessary preliminary conditions complied with, the preparation of the plans for the new building was at once commenced under the direction of Dr. J. S. Billings, and these plans, with accompanying specifications, having been approved, building con- tracts were signed. The work of construction was begun in the spring of 1891, under the supervision of the architects, Messrs. Collins and Autenrieth, and was completed in January, 1892. The building was formally opened, with appropriate exercises, February 22, 1892. The laboratory is located on the southeast corner of Thirty-fourth and Locust streets, on a plot of ground set apart for that purpose meas- uring 147 by 182 feet. The main front is on Thirty fourth street facing to the west. The building is somewhat L-shaped, having an external front of 91 feet 9 inches on Thirty-fourth street, and of 113 feet 9 inches on Locust street, and is two stories high with a basement. It is con- structed of brick on a base of Conshohoeken stone, with sparing use of molded brick and terra cotta for ornamentation. On the main floor is a lecture room 45 feet 5 inches by 2<> feet, with a preparing room 15 feet 10 inches by 10 feet 10 inches, and a museum room 15 feet 10 inches by"18 feet adjacent, a chemical laboratory 14 by 20 feet with working space for 18 students, five special research rooms, each about 15 by 18 feet, a drafting room, janitor's office, and labora- tories. On the second floor is a bacteriological laboratory CO bj- 20 feet, giv- ing working space for 16 students, four research rooms, a photograph and photomicrograph set of rooms, a library lf> by 17 feet, a directors' room with small laboratory adjacent, a supplies room, lavatory, etc. In the basement are workshops, janitor's rooms, combustion room, storeroom, etc. On the southeast corner is a small animal house en- tirely separated from the main building. 375 376 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. x The bacteriological and chemical laboratories and the majority of the research rooms are on the north front, and are lighted by numerous and high windows. The building is heated by steam, and special arrangements have been made for ventilation, so as to secure not only an ample supply of pure air in every room, but to permit of experimental work and prac- tical demonstrations in this important branch of sanitation. The fit- lings of the laboratories and research rooms include hoods, sinks, work tables, etc., with ample water and gas supplies, live steam, etc. Every- thing about the building is plain but substantial; the object has been to construct and properly equip a thoroughly practical working labora- tory, and it is believed that this has been secured. The director of the laboratory is Dr. John S. Billings and the first assistant is Dr. A. C. Abbott, recently the assistant in bacteriology and hygiene in the Johns Hopkins Hospital at Baltimore. The assistant in bacteriology is Dr. Albert A. Ghriskey, and the assistant in chemistry is Dr. H. S. Warwick. The work of the laboratory and its staft' includes teaching of undergraduates, instruction of post-graduates, and original research. A course of lectures and demonstrations is given to the under- graduates in the arts and technological departments of the University and a more extended course to the students of the Medical Department. Special courses, including lectures and practical laboratory work, are provided in practical hygiene with reference to the giving a certifi- cate of qualification to perform the duties of a health officer; also in bacteriology, in food analysis, etc. Advanced original research in matters pertaining to the causation of disease and the preservation of health will be a special object of this institution. The Thomas A. Scott fellowship in the Institute of Hy- giene has been founded, and generously endowed by Mrs. Scott with the sum of $10,000, the income from which is to be used to pay the sal- ary of the fellowship. CHAPTER XX. THE DEPARTMENT OF ARCHAEOLOGY. The study of the natural sciences is essentially objective, and hence in teaching them it is indispensable that the instructor have at his command collections of objects to illustrate the facts and principles he brings forward. This has long been recognized by the University, and in its medical, biological, and chemical departments it has gathered ample stores of specimens for the use of instructors and students. It is only quite recently, however, that attention has been directed to secur- ing objects relating to ethnography, archaeology, and palaeontology. The nucleus of this museum was the Assyrian antiquities obtained by the Babylonian Exploring Expedition, which are fully described on another page. In the autumn of 1889 it was decided to give this feature of a museum of illustrative objects the prominence merited by its importance, and to organize branches including the whole subject of the past of the race, and also that of palaeontology. A large room was set apart for this purpose in the main building of the University, a portion of the valuable collection of Maxwell Soimnerville, esq., was installed in it, and the branch of American archaeology was provided for by the appointment of Dr. Charles C. Abbott as curator. The scope of the collections is intended to embrace not only the re- gions thus intimated, but to take in the whole field of ethnography and archaeology. For this reason its officers are in relation to the Univer- sity Archaeological Association and expect to obtain rich results from the Egyptian and Assyrian, as well as the American exploration funds. Indeed, already an abundant harvest of valuable specimens lias been sent in by these various bodies, as will be seen by a brief reference to the contents of the cases as they were in April, 1891, only sixteen months after the organization of the museum. AMERICAN SECTION. In the Department of American Archaeology the curator has aimed to obtain examples of the weapons, utensils, domestic implements, orna- ments, objects of worship, as idols, fetishes, amulets, etc., in use now or in other ages by the American Indians of any part of the continent. Appreciating how much more valuable are objects collected by officers of the museum or under their direction than those of which the history and exact locality are less clearly ascertained, efforts have been made to 377 "378 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. build up the museum as much as practicable by original explorations. These have been prosecuted in the valley of the Delaware and at vari- ous other points in the States of New Jersey and Pennsylvania with gratifying result s. From prehistoric ash-pits near Trenton, N. J., have been derived large numbers of bone implements, broken or worn out, that had been discarded, rude stone implements, fragments of pottery, and the bones of such animals as were used for food or other purposes. The deer bones are greatly in excess, but those of the bear, elk, raccoon, wolf, fox, skunk, beaver, and small rodents also occur. Also bones of the sturgeon, turtles, and various fishes. Uuio shells, too, proved of fre- quent occurrence. Near the ash-pits, in several instances burials were discovered and skeletons exhumed. The crania vary considerably in their character, but all are essentially " Indian." The shell-heaps along the seacoast of New Jersey have also been examined, and more par- ticularly in Atlantic County, and much valuable material obtained. From the celebrated Flint Kidge quarries in Licking County, Ohio, a superb series of stone hammers, from the largest to the most diminu- tive, masses of flint, cones, plates, refuse pieces, and finished imple- ments, as spearheads, arrow points, perforators, scrapers, and drills, have been "obtained, and, collectively, beautifully illustrate the flint- chipping industry at that locality. A number of additions have also been made, owing to the kindness of friends of the institution, who have either given or deposited collections of authentic remains from different points. In a few instances purchases have been effected through the liberality of intelligent citixens when objects of especial merit have been brought to the notice of the curator. Thus a remarkable collection of copper implements from a well-localized village site in Wisconsin was bought and added to the treasures of the museum. It is, in some respects, the most interesting set of copper specimens yet obtained within the area of the United States. In the arrangement of the American branch of the museum the plan adopted will combine as far as possible the advantages of both the technical and geographical systems. When a sufficient number of specimens permit, they will be so arranged as to illustrate in one series the developments of the arts of life, and in another to portray the gen eral condition of culture of the tribe from whom they are derived. Along with such objects of art, the effort has been steadily made to secure, antliropolouic specimens, such as crania, skeletons, photographs, and measurements, some typical skulls from graves in New Jersey, at- tributable to the Lenape Indians, are among objects collected by officers of the museum during the past winter. By the 1st of April, 1891, there were nearly ten thousand entries in the American department of the museum, representing about thirty thousand objects, besides material which was still on hand, but at that date not entered in the catalogue. In this list the United States was represented by objects, mostly in . THE DEPARTMENT OF ARCHAEOLOGY. 379 stone, from thirty-six States and six Territories; others were from Can- ada and the Wesff Indies, while the Pacific islands are fairly represented by specimens from New Zealand, the Fijian group, the Samoan Islands, the New Hebrides, the Solomon islands, Torres Strait, and Australia. From Italy and Great Britain small but useful prehistoric series hav- been presented by local friends of the institution. Several boxes of remains from the Swiss lake dwellings, and others illustrating the bronze age in central Europe, are waiting to be catalogued and dis- played on the shelves. EGYPTIAN SECTION. The Egyptian section, by cooperating with the Egypt Exploration Fund Association, thjough whose organized effort since the year lss;j many important sites in the Delta have been explored, has secured for the museum a number of objects of peculiar interest. Not less important is the collection procured through Mr. W. Flinders Petrie, which contains carefully selected series of representative speci- mens found by himself and accurately described in his works. The value of these collections is not only derived from the immense antiquity of the civilization which they represent, but is due principally to the light thrown by them upon the gradual development of human culture and upon the share which the civilizations of the remote past have had in preparing the evolution of our own. These are not mere relics of a bygone age; they form part of an eth- nological series in which each object has a well-defined place, and illus- trates some special stage in the development of human arts and indus- tries or suggests some historical vicissitude. The men intrusted with the excavations at Pi-turn, Zoan Tanis, Tell Dejenneh, Tel Nebesheh, Naukratis, Bubastis, Gurob, Kahun, Hawara, etc., all of which sites are represented in the collection, are well known men of science who have conducted the work in a thorough and schol- arly manner. Alive to the requirements of modern methods, they have noted every detail, leaving literally no stone unturned in their effort to establish the history of every object, however trifling, which has been recovered by them. It is evident that, for purposes of study, a small collection obtained under such conditions is immeasurably more useful than a more exten- sive one picked up in or out of Egypt by dealers or travelers and the origin of which is often unknown and generally doubtful. There is here no room for deceit of any kind. We not only know the precise locality from which each object was derived, but in many cases we can pick out on a plan of the ruined city the very house of its former owner, and even occasionally the la tier's name or profession are known to us. By singular good fortune Mr. Petrie has been able to identify certain 380 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. silos the historical horizon of which was confined within narrow limits, the cities whose ruins these mounds inclose having through some politi- cal or other accident, such as occur in the annals of every nation, sprung into importance at a given time, and then, after a century or more, the cause of their fictitious prosperity being removed, having sunk back once more into comparative obscurity. The objects obtained from such sites are invaluable as specimens of the state of culture reached at a given period, and materially help to define with accuracy the stages through which the arts and industries, indeed even the fashions, passed in the course of inilleuiums. A collection such as that now in the Egyptian Department of the mu- seum of the University of Pennsylvania may therefore be considered, as far as it goes, typical of what a museum should be if intended, as this is, for educational purposes, and to illustrate the studies of archaeology and ethnology. Among the more striking numbers of the collection are our granite slabs, once part of the wall of the great hall of festivals, which was added by King Osorkou II to the Temple of Bubastis, built by his pre- decessor, Osorkon I, in honor of the eponymous deity of the place, the cat-headed Bast (ab. 900 B. C). On these massive blocks of syenite are represented, carved in intaglio, sections of a great religious procession organized in celebration of a 50-years' festival of Amen, which fell in the twenty-second year of this reign. These and the companion blocks, now distributed in various museums of Europe and America, have become famous throughout the learned world, owing not only to the light thrown upon points of contemporary history by the inscriptions of the great temple of which they formed a part, but also by the presence in the procession of three dwarf chieftains walking in the line, each of whom holds a staff of command in his hand, and who are introduced by Egyptian interpreters as "chiefs." This interesting block is at the museum of the University of Pennsylvania, as well as one giving a portrait of King Osorkon himself, and another representing the gods Atum and Shu in bold, clear intaglio. From Illahun (twelfth dynasty, about 2500 B. C.) is a very fine statue of a scribe, and a number of fragments of painted limestone bas- reliefs of exquisite workmanship, from the shrine of the Princess Nofer- Atum, daughter of King Usertesen II. To students of history, however, the most interesting of the larger monuments are two limestone fragments from Gurob, which furnish a specimen of Kgyptian art towards the end of the eighteenth dynasty ; i. e., during the period \\hen Asiatic influence is shown, by the Tell el Amarna tablets to have been strongest in Egypt. This historical fact may easily be appreciated by a careful examination of these pieces: One is a tine head of a lioness, treated in bold, architectural style, and far more "alive" than is usual in pure Egyptian art. This head has Justly been thought worthy of particular mention by Mr. Petrie in some THE DEPARTMENT OF AKCII.-KOLOfSY. 381 of his published articles on the subject of liis work. The other iiiuini ment is a fragment of a limestone bus relief !' the time o!' Khunaten (Amen-hotep IV), about 1450 B. C., in which the sun disk is depicted in true Mesopotamian stylo as a rosette, IVom which rays depend. The whole treatment of this piece of sculpture differs from the convent ional artistic methods of other Egyptian epochs. The industrial arts are represented by small but absolutely authentic and classified series of objects covering a vast period of time. Among these a series of copper and bronze implements from the twelfth dy nasi y . about 2500 B. C., down to Ptolemaic times offers an opportunity for the accurate testing of ancient metals, of which it is hoped that advantage will be taken. Similar series of glass and porcelain-glaze beads cover the same period. A very handsome bowl of turquoise blue porcelain-glaze, char- acteristic of the eighteenth or nineteenth dynasty (1650-1200 B. C.), decorated with a border of lotus-buds traced in dark outline, and in the center with a free-drawn representation, of a girl poling a boat laden with fowls has been mentioned by Mr. Petrio in one of his articles as a fine specimen of industrial art. The series of pottery is very interesting. The potsherds from Tel- I )efenneh and Naukratis are more than usually instructive. These si t es were Greek settlements founded in the seventh century B. C., and Psammetichus I. established at Daphnae the camp of his Ionian and Carian mercenary troops. Political events narrated by Herodotus closed Daphnae to foreign trade about one century after the Greek camp had attracted Greek colonists, whilst oS'aukratis, on the contrary, became then the great emporium of Egypt, and indeed acquired the monoply of Egyptian commerce with the Mediterranean. The painted vases of Greek and mixed forms recovered by Mr. Petrie at Daphnae can therefore, be assigned an exact date B. C., 665-,")f>.~, and it is inter- esting to find the events of those troublous times reflected, as it were, upon these potsherds in the various decorative designs borrowed from widely different sources, and in the adaptation of which the Greek artists established upon Egyptian soil exercised their ingenuity. The contributions of Egypt and of Mesopotamia, treated singly orblended together and idealized by the Greeks, are plainly discernible, and the handsome pottery of Naukratis tells a similar story and completes that of Daphnae; it takes up the thread and carries it down to our era. The sepulchral series is also well represented by sepulchral amulets and scarabs, fine ushabtis of various periods mummy wrappings inscribed with chapters of the Book of the Dead, and mummy-cases and carton- nages of different epochs among these a fine portrait-panel of a woman of Koman times, painted in encaustic and found at Hawara. is still beautifully fresh, notwithstanding the 1700 years which have elapsed since it was buried. *A valuable collection has lately been presented to the Museum by Mrs. E. W. Lehman. It was gathered together in 1858 in the neighbor- 382 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. hood of Gnizeh, Sakkarah, and Karnak, and includes not only mum- 111 i tied human remains, but mummied ibises and. crocodiles. Several pieces of bread from food offerings made to the dead, a number of scar- abs, not only the engraved ones used by the, Kuyptians as amulets or seals, bul the real beetles which they revered as a symbol of immor- tality through transformation. A piece of the "petrified woods/' near Cairo, forms also an interest- ing feature of this collection, of which, however, the gem is a fragment of a fine limestone bas-relief from the Serapaeum of Memphis, fresh in color and of excellent workmanship, representing Egyptians in the act of poling a boat. Several good bronze statuettes of gods complete what is certainly a most valuable contribution to the Egyptian Department. ASSYRIAN SECTION. The Assyrian collection presents a large variety of objects collected in' the valley of the Euphrates, and illustrating the ancient civilization of the Babylonian and Assyrian dynasties. The number of cuneiform tablets is large, and the majority of them have not yet been read, thus offering fresh subjects of study to the specialist in this field. The greater number of them appear to be " contract tablets," but all deserve careful transcription, as even these examples of ordinary business doc- uments frequently offer new or corroborative forms which help to explain records of greater importance. The explorations of Niffir, which have been carried on by the Assyrian Exploration Commission attached to the University, are represented by a large relief of that ancient site, illustrating the character and ex- tent of the excavations and the appearance of the surrounding country. The extensive collections obtained by the labors of this commission as conducted under the efficient administration of the Eev. John P. Peters, will, it is expected, soon be added to this portion of the Museum, which will then rival any of its scope in the United States. GLYPTIC COLLECTION. The collection of Maxwell Sommerville, esq., to which reference has been made, merits especial attention both from the antiquary and the artist. It consists of a number of amulets drawn from all ages and all parts of the world and throwing a curious light on the religious or superstitious sentiments of many peoples. The field thus entered is a singularly extensive one, the belief in charms or "lucky stones" belonging to the earliest, as it also does to the latest, stadia of human culture. It is frequently seen in the social life of our own day and is quite familiar to students of contemporary folk lore; hence the peculiar value of this collection. His collection includes many engraved gems, and is unique from the fact that it has one peculiarly interesting feature not characterizing moSt known glyptic cabinets. The author and collector has arranged his speci- Till; HKl'AliTMENT OF ARCHEOLOGY. jiiciis in an order classifying all the epochs, representing the qualities of glyptic execution by what may be termed a geometrical progression commencing with the rudest and earliest known examples of the work of incisori; the sculptured scarabaei of the Egyptians, the seals and seal cylinders of the Babylonians and the Assyrians, the exquisite in- taglios and cameos of the first and purely Greek epoch, the Grreco- Roman, the Roman> the Abraxas and other Gnostic gems, the Chris- tian, the Byzantine, the decline in gem-engraving and its degeneracy in the Mediaeval epoch, the first Renaissance, the subsequent decline, and finally the wonderful class of gem artists who appeared and flour- ished in the close of the eighteenth century. Mr. Sommerville's collection is not one only of curious engraved stones, but, being thus methodically arranged, represents the glyptic branch of art industry throughout the entire history of the world, dis playing various grades of civilization always exemplified by art culture. It contains the most perfect specimens of the better epochs and the greater incisori, charming in their masterly execution, and interesting from their beauty and the sentiment portrayed. It also to a large ex- tent represents those gems rude in execution, coarse and curious in design, embodying the grossest superstition of ancient times, coupled with a mass of token stones representing scenes and incidents of the events of the Christian epoch, and thereon exhibiting the religious fervor of the centuries following the birth and acceptation of Christ, and the coeval mysticisms of those who really knew not in what they believed. It would not be possible in this connection to do justice to this admi- rable collection, all of which is admirably displayed and catalogued; but some idea of its riches may be formed from the fact that it num- bers over 1,500 specimens, many of them equally valuable for their material as lor the work which is upon them. Among these are 500 Greek and Roman, cameos, deftly incised on chalcedony, onyx, jasper, sardonyx, agate, alabaster, and other precious stones; there are more than 30 Assyrian and Babylonian cylinders, with inscriptions in the characteristic cuneiform writing; large numbers of Persian, Etruscan, Sassanian, and Byzantine gems, with mysterious figures; gold and silver rings, bearing hieratic; devices; gems of the Gnostics, with their occult and significant devices; Abraxas from the early centuries of Christianity, and relics of medneval superstition impressed upon objects of personal adornment. Added to these are many curious small idols, the household gods of various nations, especially of the Hindoos and Chinese. In order that the public might be profited as much as possible by these interesting collections, a system of afternoon conferences was .inaugurated during the winter, for which cards were distributed to a hose believed to be appreciative of such studies. An informal lecture p-as delivered by one or another officer of the museum and the meaning " the various objects pointed out in familiar language. CHAPTER XXI. THE GRADUATE DEPARTMENT FOR WOMEN. When the Academy and Charitable School, in the Province of Penn- sylvania, Mas founded in 1751 by Franklin and others, the Charitable School consisted of two departments, one for boys and the other for girls. While the academy grew into the College and this afterwards into the University, the continuous corporation steadily maintained the charitable schools until June 5, 1877, when a judicial opinion was given that under the modern public school system there was no longer a need for their maintenance and that the obligations of the trusts concerned would be fully met by the liberal policy of the trustees in the matter of free scholarships for deserving young men, and by the free admission of young women to certain lectures in the college de- partment. In 1879 Mrs. Bloomfield H. Moore presented to the Uni- versity as a memorial to her deceased husband $10,000, the income of which was to be used to enable women who were or desired to become teachers, not exceeding 'six at anyone time, to avail themselves of such courses as might be open to them in the University. At that time the course in music was the only one formally open to them, but without definite system a few were permitted to attend certain lectures and work in some of the laboratories without being matriculated as regular or special students. At various times within the last fifteen years vigorous efforts were made to secure the admission of women to the undergraduate courses on the same footing as men, and -the subject was brought before the college faculty and the trustees in such a man- ner as to demand careful consideration and decision. At one time the faculty by a bare majority favored the so-called coeducational movement, but the trustees, the ultimate authority, after the most careful consideration decided that the undergraduate courses could not be opened to women until endowments and equipments were pro- vided lor a separate college. Just at this time the question took a new form through the opportune generosity of Col. Joseph M. Bennett, Mho addressed the following letter to the provost: 1112 GIRARD STREET. To WILLIAM PEPPER, M. D., Proroxt of the Uniremity of I'cnnxyJrania: DKAR SIR: I li several further grants for the library were made by the trustees, and by the year 1774 the library had grown to sufficient dimensions to war- rant the faculty in making a request of the trustees for the appoint- ment of a librarian. It does not appear, however, that this was done until 1791. The income of the library during all this time and long afterwards was a very uncertain one. There was no special endow- ment fund, and outside of the special appropriations made from time to time as the urgent needs of the institution dictated, andgifts, there was only the bachelor's fee of 15*. and the master's fee of 1 (after- wards reduced to 15s.), to depend upon, which by resolution of the trus- tees, in 1757, was set aside for the benefit of the library. To this in 1768 there was added a tax of $1, levied on medical -students for the use of the library. Mention perhaps should also be made of a fine of 1. im- posed upon trustees absent from the meeting, to be used in the pur- chase of "books and paper" for scholars in the Charity School; but although there is an actual record on May 25, 1754, of such a fine having been paid, and which was duly expended in " paper, quills, and books," the law was presumably more honored in the breach than in the observance. In 1784 the library received a notable gift from " His most Christian Majesty" Louis XVI, who, at the instance of the Compte BeVergcnnes and the Marquis de Chastelux, forwarded to the Univer- sity 100 volumes of miscellaneous scientific and literary works, for the 'I wish to acknowledge my indebtedness to Mr. Gregory I?. Keen, librarian of the University, who kindly placed at my disposal most of the material for this article, which he had been at pains to gather from the records of the Board of Tin* 387 388 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. most part in French. By 1786 the library appeared to have grown suffi- ciently to warrant the preparation of a catalogue, of which two copies were ordered to be furnished, one for the faculty and students, and the other to be kept by the secretory of the board. If we add that in 1788 Francis Gladwin, esq., residing in the East Indies, presented to the library its first volumes on Oriental literature and philology, we shall have exhausted the account of the very humble beginnings of the University's collections. The second period in the history of the library begins with the year 1791 when the amalgamation of the College with the University (or- ganized in 1779) took place. The new institution soon took advantage of the State patronage under which it was placed to petition the legis- lature for an appropriation to enlarge the " library and the philosophical apparatus." In 1792 an address to that eifect was presented to the house of representatives who referred it to a " grand committee " with which action the measure is lost sight of, so far as. the University is concerned, and judging from the fact that in 1809 the trustees made an appropriation of $600 for the library, it would seem that the hope of receiving State aid was abandoned. In 1811, under the new rules and statutes, which are an indication of the University's steady growth, provision was made among the standing committees for a library committee of two, to whom was intrusted also the philosophical apparatus of the institution. The number w r as subsequently (in 1818) increased to three, but there is an almost constant vacillation between three and four members until in 1855, it was, by resolution, fixed at five. A few years later the Uni- versity received by bequest the books of Dr. McDowell (provost from 1807 to 1810), and an important step in advance was taken in 1822 when, in addition to the further appropriations for the purchase of books and apparatus, it was decided hereafter to grant such annual amounts as the funds of the University may warrant for enlarging the library. The library committee was also instructed to adopt such measures as they deemed expedient to invite and encourage donations of books, and at the same time initiatory action was taken looking to the publication of a catalogue. Several years, however, passed before the project was carried out, and it was not until 1829 that the catalogue, prepared under the direction of S. Peter Duponceau, a member of the library committee, with the aid of a "foreign gentleman," whose name does not appear on the records, at length appeared. Meanwhile, the number of books had increased steadily through purchases regularly made as well as through donations, though judging from the statement, which was apparently re- garded as somewhfvt extraordinary, that in 1824 105 volumes had been added to the shelves, the growth would be regarded as almost painfully slow at the present time. Notable among the donations at this period was a complete set of Waite's State Papers from the Department of State. THE UNIVERSITY LIBIt.VIMKs. 389 lu the beginning of 1832 tlie number of volumes reported to be in the library was 1,U70. During the following twenty years nothing of any note occurred. Donations of books, more, especially of official docu- ments, were received in larger numbers than before, and by tin- yenr 18.V> the need of appointing a special librarian made itself frit, l-'or some time past the books had been in the charge oftlie provost, but in the year mentioned the care of them was transferred to the professoi of belles-lettres and the English language and literature. On Ma\ I. 1855, Mr. Henry Coppe~e was elected to that chair, and accordingly became librarian of the University. In 1S59-'60, several appropriat ions larger than heretofore were made for the increase of the library and it is in the latter year that we find the first mention of the Department of Law in connection with the library. A special room was set aside for this department and the books belonging to it placed under the charge of an assistant librarian. The regular appointment of librarians we may conveniently indicate as a further dividing line which marks the close of the second and the beginning of the third period in the history of the library. In 186G, Professor Coppee resigned his connec- tion with the University and Dr. Charles J. Stille was elected to his chair and assumed the duties of librarian, in which he was aided and succeeded by Prof. Robert Ellis Thompson. On the removal of the University to West Philadelphia begins the series of special collections donated or purchased which now form the feature of the University's collections. The series is opened by the Wetherill Library, consisting of works on chemistry, collected by Prof. C. M. Wetherill and presented in 1871, after Prof. Wetherill's death, by his "widow. The same year the Evans Rogers Library con- sisting chiefly of works on engineering and architecture was founded by Mr. Fairmau Rogers, who donated the sum of .* 10,000 for the pur- chase. Since then, Mr. Rogers has steadily added to the collection, particularly scientific periodicals. In 1877 a catalogue of the Rogers Library was prepared and pub- lished by Dr. H. Haupt, jr., from which it appears that the library at that time numbered some 1,500 volumes, and to-day its extent is estimated at about 5,000 volumes. In 1873 the trustees added $2,000 to a sum of $3,000 contributed by friends of the University for the purchase of the classical library of the late Prof. George Allen, professor of Greek and Latin at the University from 1845 till his death, in 1876. The library contained about 5,000 volumes, and while the bulk bore on classical literature, there were also works in it on military science and English literature, more pai ticulai ly Shakespearean. In addition to this, $5,500 were appropriated by the trustees for the divisions of history and English literature in the library, and $200 was set aside for German and French books. In 1874 the library received its first endowment fund through RI ; Elizabeth Rhoads, who presented the sum of $10,000, the income of 390 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. which was to be expended and the fund to be known as the "Tobias Wagner Library Fund." The year was a most prosperous one in the an- nals of the library, for in addition to these it received two smaller gifts, one of 354 volumes on Roman, French, and Scotch civil law, from Dr. It. E. Peterson, from the library of his father-in-law, the late Judge Bouvier; the other, of 238 volumes on Italian, German, and French literature, from Dr. Alfred Stille ; and the latter in the same year announced his intention to present his extensive medical library to the University, and after suit- able provision had been made for the accommodation of the books in .Medical Hall, the gift was accepted. The library (now placed in the new library building) embraces about 12,000 works and pamphlets on medical subjects. It is particularly valuable for the numerous sets it contains of the proceedings of medical societies, as well as medical journals in this country, England, and France. As an item of in- terest it may be noted that, upon the close of the Centennial Expo- sition (in 187C), the University received some valuable books and arti- cles from foreign exhibitors. Germany was represented in this gift by the great publisher Tauchnitz, who presented editions of classical writers and other books. Chile gave a large collection of books used ,in the schools of the country, as well as various literary and scientific works published there, and among other countries participating we find Holland, Sweden, Switzerland, Spain, and Cuba. In 1870 the University received by gift from the family Mr. Stephen Colwell's library on social science, a collection that has been described as " unique in its range and completeness." Mr. Colwell, a resident of Philadelphia, had been engaged for many years in forming his collection and paid particular attention toward gathering the small pamphlets that tt few years after their appearance are generally so < 1 i Ilicultto obtain. In addition to English works Mr. Colwell also collected French and Italian publications in large numbers. In all, the library consisted of between 9,000 and 10,000 books and pamphlets, but large, as this number is, the value of the collection in the opinion of experts far outranks its numerical proportions. A supplement to the Colwell library is the valuable collection of books and pamphlets on Political Economy bequeathed by Henry C.Carey, and which came into the possession of the University in 1879. It con- sisted of 1,415 bound volumes, representing about 4,000 distinct works. A noteworthy feature of the collection is a series of English pamphlets on political economy to the number of 3,000, bound in chronological or- der and covering the period from the close of the seventeenth century to the present time. Since the receipt of the Colwell and Carey libraries extensive additions ly purchase and gift have been made to the library of economic science, more especially upon the establishment of the Wharton School of Finance and Political Economy in 1881, and in 1889 Mr. Joseph Wharton presented an endowment fund of $25,000 for the maintenance of the library of the school founded by him. THE IMVKKSITY LIBRARIES. 391 In 1883 the Henry Seybert Library of Spiritualism and cognate sub- jects was established, which since that time has been steadily im-reuM-d out of the fund specially bequeathed for the investigation of Spirit ualism. The collection now numbers about 1,000 volumes. In 1887, upon the death of Rev. Charles P. Krauth, D. n., vice-pi - and professor of intellectual and moral philosophy at the Universitv, the Society of the Alumni of the College Department presented a Kraut h memorial fund for the purchase of books on philosophy. The same year brought to the university a collection, presented 1 >y D. B. McCartee, M. D., of Chinese and Japanese literature to the num- ber of about 1,000 volumes, as well as several hundred European publications concerning the history and literature of China and Japan. Still another collection of a miscellaneous character was presented tin- same year by Maj. Gen. Samuel Wylie Crawford, who has since then made further additions to the library. In 1887 the philological library of the late Prof. F. A. Pott, of Halle, was secured through the efforts of the late Prof. J. G. K. McElroy. It contains about 4,000 works and is rich in works of general philology, the study and history of language, the alphabet, comparative gram mars and dictionaries, treatises on a large number of languages and dialects, as well as publications of the learned societies of Germany, France, Austria, and Russia. In the same year the collection of the Semitic library was begun by the purchase of an Assyriological collection, supplemented the following year by a large Arabic collection, and of a collection on Semitic epi- graphy, besides portions of a library on the Hebrew language and on Old Testament criticism. . In 1888 Mrs. Hayden presented the library of her husband, the lale Prof. F. V. Haydeu, M. D., consisting of works on geology, paleontol- ogy, zoology, and botany. The same year Mr. George W. Biddle and family founded, in memory of the late George Biddle, the Biddle Law Library. Its chief feature is the collection of the late Benjamin Harris Brewster, which, with its noted collection of American, English, Scoteh, and Irish reports, num- bers over 5,000 volumes. The foundation also provides for the per- manent increase of the library. In 1889 the classical library of the late Prof. Ernst von Leutsch, of Gottingen, consisting of about 20,000 volumes, was purchased. Among its features may be mentioned the 18 sets of the leading phi lological journals of Europe, and the more than 4,000 pamphlets, em bodying the graduating theses of German university students and I la- annual Prograinmschrifteu, published by the universities aud gym uasia of Germany during the past fifty years. These publications, which Prof. Lentsch received in his capacity as editor of the PkilologiK. have for the most part disappeared from the book market, and form a collection that is probably unique on this side of the Atlantic. Spe- 392 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. cial mention might also be made of the numerous works on the history of German universities, as well as the memorial publications issued by the latter on special occasions. During this year also was begun the collection of Congressional and State documents, as well ^ as general works and pamphlets for the newly-formed School of American History and Institutions at the University. The school, which is the first of the kind established in this country, already possesses, in consequence of energetic efforts on the part of its promoters, a library of more than 13,000 volumes. Among the features of the collection are a co*mplete set of Congres- sional documents, the only one of the kind outside of the British Museum, records of State legislatures, complete for many of the States, reports of State agricultural and other commissions, American state papers, collections of periodicals, besides general and special works on American history. At this time Provost William Pepper presented the medical library of the late Prof. William Pepper, very largely augmented by himself, to- gether with an endowment of $7,500 for its perpetual increase, as a memorial of his distinguished father whose name it bears. In 1890 Frederick Prime, jr., presented a valuable collection of works on mining engineering and electricity. The library also received by gift a considerable addition to its depart ment of German philology and literature; and the same year tin- i-vo- logical library of the late Dr. Charles A. Ashburner was presented by his widow. In 1891 was added the scientific library of the eminent Joseph Leidy ; also, besides gifts of smaller collections, a choice library of Chinese and Oriental literature collected by Eichard Ashhurst Howie, and presented by his son, Richard Henry Bayard Bowie; and, lastly, the Thomas H. Powers library of chemistry was endowed by his widow and daugh- ter, the J. B. Lippincott Library of English Literature was founded by Mrs. Lippincott, the George H. Harrison alcove endowed by members of his family, and the Isaac Norris Library by Mrs. Cochran, in memory of the citizens whose names they bear. During the year 1892 large additions were made to t lie library of psychology, and among other gifts received that of a valuable miscel- laneous collection from Joseph S. Harris. The choice library of the late Dr. IMiilip Syng Physick was presented by members of his family; besides the medieal library of the late Dr. Physick the collection in- cluded an interesting series of works on the institution and history of slavery collected by his grandson, Dr. Philip Physick Randolph. Such is a survey embodying the essential features of the special collections added to the library during the third period of its existence. Resuming the thread of its history, it but remains to mention before passing on to the fourth and latest period that in 1884 Prof. Thompson was succeeded by Mr. James G. Barnwell as librarian, who held the THE UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES. 393 office until his election as librarian of the Philadelphia Library in 1887, when his successor, the present librarian, Mr. Gregory B. Keen, was ^chosen. In 1888 Dr. Morris Jastrow, jr., was elected assistant librarian. In 1887 the prospect of erecting a suitable and special building for the library, which had long since outgrown its totally inadequate quar- ters, was seriously undertaken; so that with Mr. Keen's entrance upon his duties a new era in the history of the library may properly be reckoned. The following year saw the corner atone laid with the rites of the Masonic order, and on February 7, 1891, the building was formally dedicated in the presence of a large and distinguished assemblage, Dr. Horace Howard Furness, as chairman of the building committee, handing over the building to the provost, Dr. William Pep- per, who in receiving it on behalf of the University made the impor- tant announcement of the intention to open the library to the public in general. The library thus safely launched upon a career of widened usefulness may be taken as an index of the general plane reached by the University. As in the past its fortunes have ever been closely bound up with the growth of the various departments of the Univer- sity, so it may fairly be expected that in the future it will keep pace with the rapid unfolding of numerous projects that are tending to produce a new ideal of the University, commensurate with the changed conditions of intellectual life. It will be appropriate to close this sketch with a description of the new library building which in many of its features is unique and repre- sents in the adaptation of means to ends the accumulated experience of the past. The new library of the University of Pennsylvania, which was for- mally opened on February 7, is an imposing structure of red brick and stone, the effect of which is heightened by its advantageous position in the complex of university buildings at the intersection of Woodland avenue and Thirty fourth street. The architects are Messrs. Furuess, Evans & Co., of Philadelphia. 1 The building may be divided into two parts : the tower 95 feet high, with the extension in arnphitheatrical form, in all 140 by 80 feet on the one side ; and the glass-covered stack 32 by 110 feet, on the other. Pass- ing through the handsome entrance at the center we come into the spacious hall, to the right of which is the wardrobe, while to the left the space under the imposing staircase has been temporarily fitted up as a museum for Egyptian antiquities. Crossing the hall we enter the main reading room, again divided into two sections, the one 40 by 42 feet is an uninterrupted space to the roof, a height of about 60 feet; the other an extension in semicircular form, 40 by 54 feet, terminating in six alcoves 12 by 18 feet. In addition to these, there is a larger alcove at 'This description is reprinted (with slight modifications), through kind permission of Messrs. Harper & Bro., from an article prepared by the writer for Harper's Weekly of February 14, 1891. 394 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. the side lighted by windows. The walls of the reading room arc finished in brick, relieved by numerous terra-cotta pillars and arched windows. Two archways, supported by columns, separate the front of the reading room from the back, which is set aside more particularly for the students, while the alcoves are devoted to periodicals, seminary purposes, and private work. A feature of these alcoves is the strong light which is let in through a skylight. The smaller reading room receives its light from the semi circular row of windows at a height of about 20 feet, while in the larger room ample provision for light is made by a row of windows on one side and a large skylight in the center. At the one end, and immedi- ately adjoining the entrance to the reading room, is the receiving desk, from which there is the entrance to the book stacks immediately be hind, while further to the left is situated the librarian's office, a cosy little apartment that again communicates with the cataloguing room ; the latter, 16 by 60 feet, is inreality an extension beyond thereading room and, like the alcoves, it receives its light from the top. The separation between the cataloguing room and the reading room is formed by an elaborate series of drawers containing the catalogue cards of the library, one case being devoted to an arrangement of cards accord- ing to subjects, the other to a duplicate arrangement according to authors. A feature of the cases is that they may be pulled out in either direction, and can thus be consulted as conveniently by the clerks in the cataloguing room as by the readers in the reading room. The long wall of the cataloguing room has accommodations for 6,000 volumes, while in the basement beneath there is a storeroom with accommodations for 15,000. A delivery room in the basement with a separate entrance from the street communicates with the cataloguing room by means of an elevator. As rapidly as the books are catalog! KM! they are placed on trucks and rolled into the book stack. Passing from the receiving room into the latter, the visitor is struck by the novel features for the accommodation of books; you almost fancy yourself in a glass palace, for, wherever one looks, the ceiling, the flooring, and the upper part of the walls, one sees nothing but glass. Running the length of the building are the shelves, conveniently divided into rows, each accommodating about 5,400 volumes, besides shelves along the ends, which give a total capacity of 100,000 volumes lor the ground floor. The basement beneath, which is at present set aside for newspaper, pamphlet, and periodical collections, is equally spacious; \\ hile everything is in readiness to raise three stories of glass flooring, whenever required, above the ground floor, anil without materially affecting the light of the latter and of the basement. The total capacity would thus reach over 350,000 volumes, with a further possibility of extending the stack itself through the exterior \vall. The construc- tion, glass and iron, is entirely fireproof; and cut off as the stack is from the rest of the building by low walls of brick with an air space THE UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES. l between, ii will be seen that the protection for the books is as ample as can be contrived. A unique feature in the construction of the glass floor consists in the fitting of the glass aisles within rolled star t of iron supported on iron beams. The stacks resting ni>on the star bars, the tops are so constructed as to permit the same plan to be e,n ried out in the erection of a second story. Distributed in the stack space are a number of tables for the convenience of those who in special cases require to work in the immediate vicinity of the books; but it may be well to add in this connection that running along the ma in reading room are shelves on which are placed the reference works an<1 dictionaries constantly needed by readers and students'; and so also the alcoves are fitted up with a shelving capacity of 3,000 volumes each, and which are intended to be set aside for special collections that may be presented or loaned to the University. Over the extensions to the reading room, on either side, are large apartments accessible from the main stairway, which are at present devoted to the museums of the department of archeology, of which an account will be found in a preceding chapter. CHAPTER XXIII. THE SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE. The founding of a School of Architecture in Philadelphia was a natural result of the recent remarkable advance in the status of archi- tecture in this country. Within the period of a very few years the standard of good architecture had been placed immeasurably beyond the point it formerly occupied. The evidences of this were everywhere patent in the character of our architecture, in the importance of the architect as a professional man, and in the great and growing interest on the part of the public in all matters architectural. The most strik- ing effect of this advancement, within the confines of the profession, had been upon the education and the (raining of the architect himself. It had become imperatively necessary that he should be a many sided and a broadly educated man. The new order of things demonstrated beyond question that the time was past when the promoted draftsman, or the clever builder with a knack for drawing, could enter the pro- fession and secure recognition; it showed that the architect, to be really worthy the name, must base his professional training on a liberal education and a broad-minded culture; that he must add to this a knowledge of the science and the {esthetics of his profession, and must acquire a familiarity with the forms and traditions of archi- tecture to be gained only by travel and study abroad. It was pre- liminary training of this kind that enabled our best architects to pro- duce their best work and to advance as they have done the standing of architecture as a fine art. A new set of conditions, very different from that under which, in past generations, we have produced architects of eminence came about in recent years with the vast impetus felt in building throughout the country. Public opinion required that the structures, springing up like ;i mushroom growth through the length and breadth of the land, should be "architectural." What that term might mean the public did not properly understand, but it certainly meant that something higher than the constructive skill of the carpenter and mason should find ex- pression in building. This demand for k> architecture" was at once met by a supply of "architects," partially drawn from the building trades and almost entirely educated at the drafting table of the archi- tect. Thus the profession became tilled with an active, capable, and 396 THE SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE. 3f7 intelligent class of men working earnestly for the improvement ( our architecture, but, be it confess.'.!, making s!o\v progress toward that end. The conditions under which they, as a elass, qualified for the profession, made it practically impossible that architecture, an a fine art, should be either fully understood or developed by them. I '.ut during this period a leaven was working in the profession, the leaven of education. A feeling of dissatisfaction with the lesthetie state of the profession and a broadening conception of the greatness and nobility of architecture made themselves felt in various ways that have worked a high and rapid advancement in the status of the architect. This impulse began to operate toward higher education and showed itself in many ways. Our younger men turned toward Europe as the natural field for the highest architectural training and its great schools have ever since received numbers of them as pupils, while in our own country technical schools have been established, to become strong and efficient. A large contingent of our younger men have enjoyed exten- sive foreign travel, while numerous traveling scholarships have been founded to foster and encourage this invaluable means of education. Architectural organizations have become strong and influential and have won their way to high public esteem. But all these movements have been but the outward indications of the change. To one within the profession, who has studied its conditions and noted its growth, the transition it has undergone is known to be remarkable and pregnant with promise for the future. The American architect who stands at the head of his profession to-day is a man of highest attainments. He has received a general education that places him on an equality with his educated clients, he has had the best technical training afforded by the architectural schools of this country or Europe, and he has rounded off and completed his education by foreign travel. His professional ac- quirements have set the standard for his younger brothers, who know that without similar advantages they can not rise to his level. The movement that has brought about this state of things and has produced this type of architects has brought into prominence, as its chief factor, the architectural school. These schools provide their graduates with that education in the science, the aesthetics, and the history of the art of architecture, which, supplemented by foreign travel and study, gives them as architects the highest possible development. The advantages thus secured are indispensable to the complete train ing of the architect, and they can not be secured by the student in the architect's office. The history of these schools in this country shows a growth and prosperity that is the highest proof of these claims. Tl i have been established, in New York and Boston and at the Cornell University, schools which have grown steadily into high esteem and which, under able management, have attained a large attendance and possess a splendid material equipment. That such great architectural centers as New York and Boston should have schools of a high grade showed Philadelphia, herself a center of 398 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. immense activity in architectural practice, that the natural base for another school was within her own borders. All the conditions were favorable to the establishment of such an institution ; much more so, indeed, than at the founding of the older schools, because public and professional sense of the need of them was much keener. The need of such a school and the promise of its success became so obvious by 1890, that the project for its establishment was taken up in the early part of that year and seriously discussed in various' quarters. The home of the new school, however, must be decided in recognition of one funda- mental principle. A school of architecture must have a course of study broad and comprehensive enough to thoroughly educate the architect. As indicated above, he must be grounded in the science, the history, and the aesthetics of architecture and must add to this a complement of liberal studies before he can be said to have an architectural educa- tion. A school without these courses, though it may offer the best advantages in the way of drawing, is not a school of architecture ; it is a school of architectural drawing and its graduates will be, perhaps, clever draftsmen, but never educated architects. The proper location for the new school for Philadelphia was, therefore, as obvious as the need for it, and in recognition of the above principle the University of Pennsylvania promptly took the initiative and established the "School of Architecture" within its own jurisdiction. This was accomplished in 1890, with the active cooperation and valuable assist- ance of Theophilus P. Chandler, jr., by a reorganization of the " course in drawing and architecture" in existence under Prof. Thomas W. Kich- ards since 1874. This action by the university placed the new depart- ment on the broadest basis possible for an architectural school. Thus established, and provided with a faculty drawn from among Philadel- phia architects and artists and university officials, the new school was placed in charge of Mr. Chandler, as director, assistants were appointed, large and well-lighted quarters assigned for the drafting rooms, and the necessary equipment for the conduct of the department provided. The course of study was opened to students in October, 1890, and was at once entered by a class of such size as to prove beyond a doubt the wisdom of the action of the university. The close of the first year saw the school placed well beyond the experimental stage and with a most promising outlook for the future. The personnel of the corps of instruc- tion underwent at this point a- few changes and assumed the form as shown below in the faculty list. Mr. Chandler retired from the direc- torship, which office was thereupon discontinued, and Mr. Warren P. Laird, who had been called from a course of architectural study in Paris to assume charge of the instruction of the school during the year, was elected to the chair of architecture. Prof. Laird succeeded Prof. Thomas W. Richards, who after a long and honored incumbency of the chair of drawing and architecture, resigned at this time to enter again the active practice of his profession. The growth of the school, to the THE SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE. date of this writing, the close of its second year, lias been little less t lian i emarkable in point of attendance of students, while in efficiency and in public esteem it already compares favorably with the best schools in the country. Its present condition can be best judged by the following resume" : The course of study is thorough and comprehensive, comprising all the essentials to a complete architectural course. The various lines of instruction may be gathered under three heads, viz: Liberal, scientific, and aesthetic. The first are intended to give general culture, the second to ground the student well in the science of good building while developing and disciplining his mental powers, and the third, chief in importance, to give him a true conception of the nature of architecture as a fine art by teaching him its history and aesthetics and the great principles upon which it is based. The strength and value to the stu- dent, of this course, lie in the fact that all the studies are correlated in such a manner that every one has a direct bearing on the central theme, architecture, with reference to the future career of the student as an architect. The architectural studies, forming the purely professional part of the course, are taught by a large corps of instruction, giving their time to these duties to the exclusion of all other university work. These studies begin with the freshman year and are carried through the four years of the course, requiring from year to year an increasing amount of time in their relation to the other studies of the course. In this line of work the student is drilled, throughout four years, in free hand drawing in all its phases. This comprises drawing with pencil- pen, brush, and crayon, in black and white, in color, from the flat, the solid, photographs, the cast, and nature. Allied to this is the course in clay modeling. The student is drilled in mechanical drawing, learn- ing to use drawing instruments rapidly and well and pursuing his studies in the science of drawing through brush work, isometric shades and shadows, and perspective. Comprised, in a general sense, under freehand drawing, but set aside from it in the curriculum because of their special importance, are water-color and pen-and-ink drawing. Designing, as the most important single subject among the professional studies, is prepared for in the freshman year by exercises in drawing and rendering in line and India ink of architectural features, moldings, etc., called Elements of Architecture. This is followed in the sopho- more year by a thorough study of the Orders of Architecture, which forms an introduction to the study of design proper, to which, in an elementary form, the sophomores give the second half of the year. The junior class continue this subject, giving it an increased amount of time on a more serious line of problems, while the senior class are carried through the most advanced line of problems falling within the province of the school, completing their entire course by a thesis in design. These exercises are under criticism of the professor in charge 400 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. and are accompanied by lectures on the theory of design. It is aimed in giving this course in design to lay a basis of correct thought and habit in the solution of architectural problems, while guarding against servile copyisin of " style" on the one hand or a vagrant tendency to- ward eclecticism and picturesqueness on the other. It is attempted to ground the student in the principles that underlie good design; to familiarize him with that which is good and true in his art, and to in- culcate habits of earnest and conscientious study that shall make him capable, as an architect in the future, to take up the problems pfe- seuted in active practice and give them a direct, simple, and scholarly solution. The subject of architectural history is taken through Egyptian, Assyrian, etc., Greek and Roman, early Christian, Eonianesque and Byzantine, Gothic, Renaissance, and modern architecture by means of lectures supplemented by recitations. These lectures are illustrated by lantern slides. The history of ornament is treated in the same manner. In " measured drawing" (the measuring of buildings already erected and drawing them to scale) the students receive a drill which unites, in a measure, their practical studies in working drawings and their theoretical studies in design and rendering. The course has a practi- cal character, given it by the lectures on construction, the visits to technical establishments, and the making of architects' working draw ings, the last being part of the sophomore year's work, and the first two running through the sophomore and junior years. This phase of the course has a two-fold value (a) in giving a practical character to the course, and by so doing checking a too ready tendency on the part of the student to regard architecture as a thing of pure theory, and (6) by giving the student a certain amount of drill that enables him on entering an architect's office to make himself of immediate use. These studies are allied to the scientific branches described below. The purely professional part of the curriculum is completed by lectures and demonstrations on sanitary science, acoustics, professional practice, specification, estimates, etc. Mention must be made of the work re- quired during vacation. This insures a continuity of attention to the main subject throughout the four years of the course. The student is advised to spend the greater part of his vacation in an architect's office, Itut may substitute for this a certain amount of sketching, the require- ments being so framed that they need not deprive the student of any needed rest and relaxation, while still necessitating some form of activity in architectural work. The scientific studies are selected because of their close relationship to the main subject. In the earlier years they furnish an indispensable mental training while giving the student a basis of scientific knowl- edge for application in his later studies and in his after career as an architect. These studies are, in freshman and sophomore years, alge- THE SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE. 401 bra, trigonometry, geometry (solid, analytic, and descriptive), chemis- try, and physics. In junior and senior years the science studies are of direct application to architectural practice ifhd comprise graphical statics, mechanics of materials, surveying, and geology. The third division of the curriculum, giving the general culture studies, properly includes the above-mentioned science studies of the freshman and sophomore years. Added to these are rhetoric, English, composition and English literature, French and German, and general history. These studies have a great^ractical advantage for the student, both for the purposes of general education and for the future usefulness of the young architect. In English composition and literature he ob- tains a drill in writing and an acquaintance with the best models by which alone he can learn the correct use of his mother tongue, while a reading knowledge of French and German opens to him the wide field of the untranslated literature of architecture. Two new courses were opened in the department on this, the begin- ning of its third year; the two years' special course in architecture, and the two years' course in interior decoration. The latter, lying strictly within the province of the school's work, provides a thorough course of study and fits its graduates to practice "interior architecture." It is under the charge of Mr. Herbert E. Everett, of the Course in Decoration, Boston Museum of Fine Arts. The two years' special course offers to draftsmen from architect's offices, with limited time at their command for study, the advanced subjects from the professional part of the four years' course. The School of Architecture offers the following courses: The four years' course, leading to the degree of Bachelor of Science in Archi- tecture; the two years' special course, granting a certificate of pro ficiency, and the two years' course in Interior Decoration, granting a diploma. The school also provides all instruction in free hand and mechanical drawing for freshmen and sophomores in the Towne Scien- tific School, free hand drawing in the course in biology, and architec- tural history in the senior year of the Civil Engineering Department The school had outgrown the quarters given to it in 1891-'92, and tin- suite of rooms shown in the accompanying plan was assigned to its use in the present year 1892-'93. To these is added the modeling room, located in another part of the college building. The school, in its rapid growth and steady gain in efficiency, owes much to the generous help given it in instruction by busy professional men on its lecture corps and in its professorship in art. From the first these gentlemen have shown a most unselfish interest in the welfare of the school, strengthening the hands of the regular corps of instruction by ;issuiu ing instruction in subjects with which they were specialty conversant and giving time beyond this to the various engagements of faculty and committee meetings. 1080 26 402 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. THE CORPS OF INSTRUCTION IN ARCHITECTURE. The corps of instruction in those branches pertaining specially to architecture is made up as follows: Warren P. Laird, professor of architecture, in charge of the school of architecture, design, history of architecture, the orders, construction. Charles E. Dana, professor of art, water-color. Julian Millard, instructor in architecture, instrumental drawing, elements, shades, shadows, perspective, and elementary design. Edmund A. Stewardson, 1 instructor iiAnodeling, modeling in clay, junior class. Wilson Eyre, jr., instructor in pen and ink, pen-and-ink drawing, junior and senior classes. Herbert E. Everett, instructor in drawing, free-hand drawing,- all classes. LECTURER!} ON ARCHITECTURE. / * .. Theophilus P. Chandler, jr., 2 architect. Walter Cope, architect, history of Gothic architecture. Frank Miles Day, B. s., architect, history of Greek and Roman architecture, his- tory of Renaissance architecture. Wilson Eyre, jr., architect, theory of design. Barr Ferree, 2 New York, history of architecture. Frank Furness, architect. 3 Addison Hutton, architect, building construction. 3 John Stewardson, architect, history .of ornament. Joseph M. Wilson, architect and civil engineer, building construction. 3 / LECTURERS BY APPOINTMENT, 1891--92. George C. Mason, jr., architect, history of early Christian, Romanesque, and Byzan- tine architecture. Austin W. Lord, architect, rendering of architectural drawings. LECTURERS ON SANITARY SCIENCE. John S. Billings, M. D., LL. D., director of the university hospital and lecturer on sanitary engineering. A. C. Abbott, M. D/, first assistant lecturer on sanitary engineering. 1 Deceased. 2 Subjects unassigned at date. 3 Retired from faculty in 1893. CHAPTER XXIV. UNIVERSITY UNDERGRADUATE LIFE. 1740-1791-1891. College undergraduate life is largely molded by external Hmim- stanees; and as we trace the history of any -college we will find that the everyday life of its students has followed a course of development along with the institution itself. And now that the first hundred years of the corporate existence of our University have passed away, we may with interest compare the two pictures, University undergraduate life of the last century and University undergraduate life of o.nr own times. Somewhat different from the undergraduate life of the present was the undergraduate life of over a hundred years ago, in the days of cocked hats and knee breeches, when Philadelphia was but a small provincial town, when our country was the colonies of Great Uritain, and our forefathers were the loyal subjects of His Majesty, King George the Third. The University, at first known as the Academy and after- wards as the College, was then established on Fourth street, near Arch. Even at that early day the College was one of the principal institutions of learning in the colonies, and was known abroad almost as' well as at home. Its faculty consisted of five professors and a number of. instruc- tors, a large corps for that time, and its curriculum' comprised the studies which continued, until quite recent years, to comprise the course of our best American colleges. It numbered its students by the hundreds, and drew them from all the colonies, many coming also from the West Indies. Such of the students as came from abroad were lodged in dormitories within the College walls, and we may add, as a curious example of the morals of the age, that the funds for the erec- tion of these buildings were raised by a lottery. At this time the en- tire annual expense of a student, including tuition, board, and fin- wood, was only 30. An ancient statute book of the University gives us an insight into the college life of the last century; and as we gaze upon thr wrinkled yellow paper with its faded writing, there rises before us a shadowy picture of those olden times. The document is valuable, not only in- trinsically, but for the thoughts that it suggests. The code aimed at regulating the entire life of the student by exercising physical, moral, and intellectual supervision over him in all ways "found salutary and 403 404 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. good upon trial." To begin, fighting Avas a serious offense; that is, an often se punishable by corporal chastisement. This rule was, perhaps, rendered lie-pessary by an old college custom which compelled every student upon his admission to have at least one pugilistic battle with one of his classmates, in order to establish his claim to the honor of being called an "Academy boy." And as an indication of the tenacity with which the eighteenth century collegians clung to their ancient cus- toms, we may note that on the margin opposite this clause of the rules stand the melancholy words, "Needs amendment." Blasphemy, curs- ing, drunkenness, gaming, and kindred offenses Avere punished by a fine of 3 shillings or by chastisement; and if the transgressor persisted in his evil courses he was liable to suspension. Nor did the ruli's forget the religious education of the student. There was a special provision compelling church attendance on the Sabbath, and elaborate rules referring to chapel attendance and behavior; but it does not speak well for the morals of the time to find here the marginal note, " Not effect- ual." An absence from prayers in those days cost the culprit two English half-pence, and for " cuts" of all other kinds the price AA T as an even shilling. To restrain the too ardent spirits of our forefathers, and to preserve the scholastic quiet that ought to envelop an institu tion of learning, it was enacted: No student shall climb over the fences of the College yard, or coine in or go out through the windows, or play ball, or use any kind of diversion within the yard of the I'll i versify, nor shall in the presence of the trustees, professors, or tutors, play l>all, wrestle, make any indecent noise, or behave in any way rudely in the College yard or streets adjacent. It is evident from tliis that athletics had not yet come into fashion. Thus the rules run on until, as we read and ponder, it requires no great effort of the imagination to picture to ourselves the everyday undergraduate life of a hundred years ago. History gives us several amusing anecdotes of the early instructors in the College. Master John Beveridge, a Latin professor, was the butt of all the practical jokes of the students. They dared even to steal his wig off his head; and it is related that on one occasion, while he sat hearing a recitation, the shutters Avere suddenly closed, leaving the room in darkness, and the astounded instructor was driven from his room by a shower of books, amid the yells and jeers of the class. But David James Dove, the first teacher of the English school, was more than a match for the students. To borrow an eighteenth century pun, he was said to have been more of a falcon than a dove. When lie kept a private school, before his elevation to a college professorship, he invented a novel method of punishing lateness. When a boy was late in the morning he used to dispatch a deputation of six scholars with a bell and lighted lantern to escort the delinquent to school in state. And it is related that on one occasion Master Dove, being himself belated, was waited on by the committee. But he, nothing r.NIVKIJSITV rVDERGKAMATi: Lin-:, 1715-17H1-1MM. lH. r ) disconcerted, put himself behind the bell and lantern. ;md in:m-lied to .school, "to no small gratification of the boys and entei tainment of i Ill- spectators." Whether he introduced his mstom into the College tin- chronicle saith not. The one form of athletics cultivated in the College in pre-Revolu- tionary times was running. Over this sport they became even enthu- siastic. "Stripped to the shirt, head bound with a handkerchief, loos- ened knee-bands, and barefooted, the racers started from the Arch street corner and encompassed the College grounds; while the people stood in crowds, open-mouthed, eager to. catch the first view of the victor, their 'swift-footed Achilles.'" But the one event in the College year that aroused popular attention to the highest, that brought together all the gentry o/ Philadelphia and delegations from outside the colony, was the annual commencement. In those days a commencement was the affair of a whole day. The exercises began at 9 o'clock in the morning and continued till noon, when the audience dispersed for dinner, after which they reassembled until sundown. The program comprised a dialogue and ode, commemorat- ing some public event, a "charge" to the graduates, poems, orations, disputations in Latin and English, and the discussions of theses. The music, a prominent feature, was furnished by the Orpheus Club of the College, or by His Majesty's Marine Band. At the commencement of 1759 the Hon. James Hamilton, governor of the Colony, favored the citizens with a few words. In 1762 the program was in Latin, a huge broadside 2 feet long and a foot wide, printed in display type. The newspapers of the time tell us that the " Commencement was held at the College in the Presence of a learned, polite, and very brilliant Assem- bly," that " His Honour, the Governor, was [(leased to attend the whole day," that " many other Gentlemen of learning and the first Distinction from the neighbouring parts were likewise present," that the valedic- tory was spoken "with much Elegance and Tenderness," and that " Everything was conducted with the utmost Decency and order." The attraction of the commencement of 1771 was the singing of an ode to 1 organ accompaniment by Jacob Bankson, esq., A. M. The other mu- sical features of the entertainment were furnished by the bauds of the Eighteenth or Koyal Regiment of Ireland, and of the Twenty-first or Royal North British Fusileers. The exercises lasted the whole day and are said to have given " general satisfaction." In 1775 the Continental Congress attended the commencement, "the galleries and other parts of the house being filled with as many of the respectable inhabitants of the city as could find room." The eighteenth century commencement, in truth, was the one outlet for college feeling, suppressed for an entire year, and into that celebration the collegians Of the time threw them- selves heart and soul. Forever passed away are these scenes of ancient college life, and the vision of eighteenth century manners and customs gives place to the ^ 406 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. picture of our modern university undergraduate life. Yet the inter- vening years were not devoid of interest; they were years of earnest, hard work; years marked by the birth of many schemes which have come to maturity only in this our day. And the college life of this period was marked by many an important event. We could tell of the abrogation of the College charter in 1779, of its restoration ten years later, and of the organization of the University under its present charter in 1791. We could tell the story of our College during the Eevolution, when its buildings were seized as barracks by the Continental soldiers, and when, later, the iron heelflf the British trooper was planted in those halls consecrated to learning. We could tell how during the War of 1812 the University boys worked on the fortifications like common laborers, and pageg could be filled with the narration of the gallant conduct of Pennsylvania's sous during the Civil war. But these are matters of history, and all the world knows them. These years were the period of struggle; to-day, the period of success. The departure of the University in 1872 from Ninth and Chestnut streets, whither it had removed in 1802, marked the new era in Uni- versity affairs; and from this time the undergraduate life begins to present substantially the same aspect that it does to-day. The Uni- 'versity, since it has removed to its new home, taking advantage of the opportunity for growth thereby afforded, has advanced in all directions with gigantic strides; and student life, expanding along with the Col- lege itself, has become complex and many sided. But there is one con- sideration that must be borne in, mind in the study of life at the Uni- versity of Pennsylvania the absence of dormitories. This, together with the location of the University close to the heart of a great city, gives a distinctive feature to undergraduate life, since external relations vie with the College in claiming the interest of the student. And as a result of environment, many of the phases of life common to other great colleges are unknown in the University, while, at the same time, life there presents some unique features. V ie wed from the educational side, life at the University does not differ greatly from life at any other large college where an able corps of in- structors, well-arranged courses, and a complete equipment combine to afford a higher education. In educational matters the University lias kept fully abreast of the times. She was early to introduce the elective system, and besides, should a class of students desire to take up a special study, they have little trouble in finding an in- structor able and willing to assist them; and in addition to class instruction, both in course and voluntary, a great deal of work is done in the University through the seminar system. A number of students, interested in a particular study, meet their professor, often at his house, and spend an evening in informal discussion. The amount of good accomplished by the seminars is incalculable. Besides the knowledge acquired by a method of instruction in which the interest of all is espe- UNIVERSITY UNDERGRADUATE LIFE, 17i:,-17!U-1891. 407 cially aroused and the preceptor acquainted with the mental character- istics of his class, students and professor are brought into intimate per- sonal contact, the barrier that too often stands between them is broken down, and students and professor bound together in a closer union. The influence of these features above alluded to, the absence of dor mitories, and the location of the University in the city, is most noti< able when we turn to the social side of undergraduate life. There is no home life of the College, and no opportunity for the formation of those relations which usually lend a charm to college life. But the social in- stinct of the University men, curbed in this direction, seeks an outlet through the medium of societies, manifold in number and varied in character. There are societies literary, scientific, religious, and secret ; clubs artistic, musical, athletic, and social. In the first place, we have the Philomathean Society, the old established literary association, and her worthy sister the Scientific Society, and the Greek letter fraterni- ties. Then we may note the Christian Association, and the Church club, the orchestra, the banjo club, and the glee club, the mask and wig, the sketch club, the gun club, the chess club, and the bicycle club. The list might be indefinitely extended were we to attempt an enumeration of all the miscellaneous societies, with objects as di- verse as their names. Into these various associations the students are drawn, each one according to his tastes and endowments; and in the smaller circle of the association they try to find a substitute for the wider college life that is at present impossible. And in passing, \\ must notice, also, athletics, for they, too, exert a social influence. Yet ultimately, the societies react on the whole University. For the men in the various societies and on the various athletic teams are knit together more closely by the bond of their common interest, and thus is aroused a livelier interest in the College, of which the society is- but a part. Though hazing is a barbarism unknown in the University, we are not to imagine the University men devoid of class spirit. Indeed, nowhere does class spirit run higher, and nowhere are the sophomon -. the proverbial bullies of the college world, more jealous of their rights. By unwritten University law no freshman is j>ermitted to use a cloth bag, wear a high hat, or carry a cane, and woe to the freshman who, in his ignorance or insolence, dares to transgress these regula tions. After a brief tussle fragments of his hat or bag adorn the lapels of the victorious upper classmen, and the broken cane goes oil to the carpenter shop to be cut into rings suitable for the manufacture of sleeve buttons for the victorious " sophs." But these fights are u.-u ally prearranged affairs, where the freshmen, attired in canvas jackei * and short breeches, and some even naked to the waist, appear on the scene brandishing their cane of well-seasoned hickory 6 feet long and 3 inche^j thick, or intrench themselves in a convenient corner and dare the sophomores to oust them. Many are the escapades perpetrated 408 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. during these fights, yet they an- marked by the absence of anything like violence aiid are really nothing more than friendly trials of strength between the two classes. They are most frequent in the early part of the college year, and reach their climax about midwinter in the Bowl Fight. The sophomores are given a certain number of minutes to place in a great wooden bowl, which they have kindly prepared for his recep- tion, the lowest honor man of the freshman class. Should the fresh men succeed in holding their bowlman from the grasp of the sopho- mores until time is called, the freshmen then struggle to break tin- bowl. In the olden times, when the fight took place in the city streets and the police and " muckers," as the denizens of the West Philadel- phia streets are called by the collegians, took part in the fray, bowl fights were indeed wild scenes; but since under the new regime tin- contest is confined to University ground and governed by rules they have been stripped of their horrors, and, in fact, have been so refined away that they seem passing into the shade of the traditional. Truly is college life spiced with variety. The same man whom we see in the morning, in Canvas jacket, howling and tugging in the center of a cane rush, we may find a few hours later, attired in faultless even- ing dress, whispering honeyed trifles as he glides through the circling mazes of a waltz. In the course of the year there are three balls given by the University classes the sophomore dance, the junior ball, and the ivy ball of the senior class. And pleasant sights, in truth, are college balls; the room tastefully decorated with flowers and hung with college colors, the walls adorned with fraternity insignia and athletic trophies, and the gay whirling throng of handsome young fellows and pretty girls. And besides the balls, the concerts of glee club and orchestra, the dramatic performances of the mask and wig, and the athletic exhibitions and contests, may be considered society events. Yet all these affairs accomplish a better result than merely furnishing amusement, for they attract the attention of the community and stimu- late public interest in the University and its work. Of late years there has appeared a tendency to allow many of the events of the year to gravitate towards commencement week; and while in olden times a commencement was the affair of a whole day, nowa- days the celebrations attendant on the close of the College year are distributed over the course of a whole week. Baccalaureate sermon, cremation, junior exhibition, ivy planting, class day, and commence- ment, form a brilliant series 'of events, and for the time being the University becomes a center of general interest. The ceremony of ivy planting is a beautiful allegory. With suitable exercises, an ivy is planted beneath the College walls, and above is affixed a marble tablet bearing the name of the class and an appropriate device, as symbols of perpetual youth. Cremation, formerly as riotous a scene as an old- time.bowl fight, is transformed into a magnificent pageant. This is the awful night when, with solemn and mysterious rites, the exultant UNIVERSITY UNDERURADUATK 1,11 I., 17ir,-1791-1891. 409 sophomores place the torch to the funeral pyre of their vanquished enemy, the author of their most hateful text-hook. <'l;iss day, in tlie main like similar celebrations in other colleges, is marked by one par- ticularly pleasing incident, the presentation of a. wooden spoon to tin- man who has endeared himself most to his classmates. To elect him spoonman is the highest honor a University class can confer on ;i el.. mate, and it is an honor to be remembered for life. The week is a Is.. marked by the publication of The Kecord, the literary souvenir of the graduating class. First published about fifteen years ago as a thin paper-covered pamphlet, The Record has grown into a large handsomely bound book, profusely adorned with illustrations. It contains statist Eoi from all departments of the University and of all the organizations, the personal records of the members of the graduating class, the class-day exercises, and miscellaneous articles of a somewhat apocryphal nature; and within its pages is many a bit of real wit, and many an artistic gem. And finally comes commencement, when, attired in cap and go\\ n, the student advances to receive the coveted degree. Such is a sketch in outline of university life of a century ago and contemporary university life. It is these incidents of undergraduate days, many of them in themselves trivial, that indicate the moral and intellectual atmosphere in which the collegian lives for four years, just at the very period of life when a young man is most susceptible to ex- ternal influences. The real aim of a college is not only to train the in- tellect, but to fit men for a place in the world; and undergraduate lite. by the intimate association of man and man, and the contact of mind with mind, molds and strengthens the character. College life with its varied experiences is, hi fact, but a miniature of the larger life for which it is the preparation; and that college which most thoroughly equips its students for their battle with the world, fulfills its mission in the truest and highest sense. -Our alma mater has ever nurtured her child- ren in true nobility, has ever held before them the ideal of true manhood, and as the years roll by, still bearing aloft her glorious standard, " literas sine moribux vanw," may she ever send forth her sous worthy the name of "Good Old Pen 1 1." CHAPTER XXV. ORGANIZATIONS WITHIN THE UNIVERSITY. 1 The history of every institution such as the University of Pennsyl- vania exhibits an increasing differentiation into new channels and a widening influence due to the greater number of points in which it puts itself Til contact with the outer world. In the earlier period of its history there was little organization among the students of the University, except such as the college authorities imposed upon them by reason of equality of years or attainment. The various organizations within the University fall naturally into several well denned groups: (1) Alumni and class organizations; (li) organizations intended to supplement the ordinary curriculum of study ; (3) organizations for special literary or scientific pursuits, including students' publications; (4) musical and dramatic societies; (5) ath- letic societies; (G) associations for purely social purposes, including the Greek letter societies and other fraternities, and (7) societies not otherwise classified. In many instances it will be impossible to draw a rigid hue of classification, because many bodies, originally organ ized as purely ancillary to the regular curriculum of study, have long since become an integral and recognized part of the regular course, whilst even some of those, not strictly in the line of mere study, have be- come so completely a part of university life, that to judge them apart would be to do violence to the spirit, if not the letter, of their constitu- tions. We shall proceed to consider these groups in the order men tioned above. Class organizations have long been the established custom at the University of Pennsylvania. They extend to nearly all the depart- ments, and are usually continued after graduation, frequently for many years. The desire to continue the associations of undergraduate life has led to the formation of various alumni societies, of which the earliest is the Society of the Alumni of the University of Pennsylvania, as it is styled, which held its first annual meeting July 14, 18 :><>. The society, as now constituted, consists of graduates of the Col- lege Department of the University, and such other matriculates of that department as may have been elected to membership by the Board of Managers. Its object is to sustain and advance the interests 1 Want of space has prevented the printing of this chapter in the original form. 410 ORGANIZATIONS WITHIN THi: I'MVKIISITV. 411 of the College Department ;m< partment. The society awards a bronze medal annually to the member of the graduating class who receives the highest general average. The Society of the Alumni of the Law Department of the University of Pennsylvania was incorporated May 1, 1861; its object "to sustain and advance the interests of the department, and to cherish feelings of amity among its graduates." This society is also governed by a Boa id of Managers, holds an annual meeting, and has established the Sharswood and the Meredith prize, "to be competed for by mem- bers of the graduating class for the best and second best gradua- tion essay." The Dental and Veterinary Departments have each an Alumni Society of similar organization to those already mentioned. An especial feature of the latter consists in the appointment of a permanent historian, whose reports form a feature of the annual meeting. Although no combination of the various alumni societies of the Uni- versity exists at present, unity of action among the alumni of several of the departments is secured through the central committee of the alumni. This committee is composed of graduates of the College, the Law, and the Medical Departments, and as representative of the general alumni. it enjoys the privilege of nominating to every third vacancy in tin- Board of Trustees of the University. (2) .The majority of those organizations which are intended to sup- plement the ordinary curriculum of study are of comparatively recent growth, and due largely to the increasing breadth of the courses of in- struction, the introduction of the elective system into the College Department, and the improved methods of study in the professional schools. However, long before the introduction of the Seminar or Labo- ratory system, clubs of a more or less formal nature existed among 412 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. the students of all departments for the purpose of supplementing the ordinary courses by means of quizzes upon the lectures, or the prepara- tion of papers involving original work. The Department of Arts has always had its study clubs in literature and the classics, the Towue Scientific School, clubs such as the present Civil Engineers Club and the Chemical Society, devoted either to some special technical topic or to the discussion of subjects of general scientific interest. In the Law School, aside from the Moot Courts and regular clubs, there have always been several quizzes; in the Medical Department, in the words of its Dean, " there have been thirty clubs and quizzes of varying im- . portauce in the last fifty years ; " and the general statement is equally true of the Dental, the Veterinary, and the Biological Departments. Among the earliest is the Medical Institute, by some reported to have been in existence in 1817 and chartered somewhere in the forties. Another club of like character is the Demonstrator's Quiz, founded in 1880; it has given instruction to nearly 3,000 students since its organi- zation. Of late years the formation of small Medical Societies has done much to foster alike the studious and the social element among the students of that Department. There are at presejit four suety societies. At their regular meetings papers are read and discussions held on subjects " re- lating to the theory and practice of medicine," addresses are occasion- ally delivered by honorary and ex-members, and in at least one a circu- lating magazine library forms one of the most valuable features. The membership of these clubs varies from fifteen to thirty. The oldest is the Alfred Stille Medical Society; others are the Horatio C. Wood ^Medical Society; the William Pepper Medical Society, an extremely successful and popular organization, which aims at encouraging the scientific activity of its members, of which the writer has been unable to obtain any further data, and the D. Hayes Agnew Surgical Society. The efficiency of the Law Department of the University is greatly enhanced by the work of several legal clubs, formed at different times among the students. Six of these are now in active operation, the Shars wood, Miller, E. Coppee Mitchell, J. I. Clark Hare, George Whar- ton Pepper clubs and the Phi Delta Phi legal fraternity. The work of clubs consists in quizzes and the argument of cases in which the mem- bers argue or sit as judges in rotation. The membership varies from twenty to thirty and the meetings are held weekly. The aggregate membership of all the clubs includes a large majority of the students in the Department. The earliest of these clubs was the Sharswood, founded in 1881. The Biological Department supports two clubs of the utmost value in the prosecution of biological studies, the Journal Club, and the Nat- uralists' Field Club, devoted to field studies in natural history, espe- cially the study of the fauna, flora, and geological features of the re- gion surrounding Philadelphia. Both societies are extremely liberal in ORGANIZATIONS WITHIN THE INI V I.K'SITY. 413 the matter of membership, the latter especially aiming at making the University the center of the biological interests of the city, other clubs of this class are the James Truman Dental Society and the Vet- erinary Society. To these clubs the several seminars or seminaries of the variou> ! partments must be added, which although not strictly students' societies nor possessed of any formal organization, are all, to a greater or less degree, supplementary in their work to the requirements of the curriculum. The following seminaries are at present in active open tion: In the Department of Philosophy Graduate Seminaries in Phi losophy and in English Literature; in the Arts Department Professor Fullerton's Seminary with the Seniors in Philosophy, Professor Schel- ling's two Seminaries for Seniors and Juniors respectively in English Literature; in the Towue Scientific School, Dr. Smith's Seminary in General Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry. There are two semina- ries in the Wharton School, one amongst the earliest; they are Prof* - sor James's, in Political Science, and Professor Patten's, in Political Economy. There is also the Seminary in the Biological Department, in which in addition to the usual reading and discussion of original pap by members of the seminary, invited guests and members of the fac- ulty are frequently present to join in the discussion and add to its inter- est; also the two seminaries in the School of American History, Profes- sor McMaster's and Professor Thorpe's. Too much stress can not bo laid upon the importance of seminaries in the life of the University. It is undeniably true that in the class room the professor can not give individual attention to the many men of a large class, and so the efficacy of his work is lost. But in the seminary, the professor, whilst holding the position given him by virtue of his authority, modifies it with a kindly interest in each man. Moreover, the seminary, as a rule, contains no men who have not the inten-st ( th- subject discussed at heart. (3) Amongst associations for special literary and scientific pursuits none call for more careful consideration than the venerable Philomathean and Zelosophic Societies. The active roll of the Philoinathean society has included a majority of the prominent alumni of the t'nivrrsity. amongst whom may be men- tioned Hon. Eobert J. Walker, Secretary of the Treasury of the Tinted States; Henry H. Heed, vice-provost and professor in the University; Hon. George Sharswood, chief justice of the supreme court of Pennsyl- vania; the eminent physicist, Prof. John Fries Frazer. vice provost of the University; Hon.H. D Gflpin, Attorney-General of the United sta the eminent divines, Kev. James Lloyd Breck and Kcv. W. Hobart Hare; Mr. Joseph Wharton, founder of the Wharton School of Finance and Economy; Dr. William Pepper, the present provost of the I'niversity : many of the trustees, officers of the University, and other-. "Philo," as the society is affectionately called by the students, is com fortably housed in two large rooms on the top floor of the College Hall. and preserves on her walls many curious mementoes of her past. Chief 414 THE UNIVERSITY (>K PKN\SY LYAMA. among these is a model of the famous Kosetta stone, the publication of an account of which and its decipherment was one of the glories of the society's work. The model stands in a mural glass case, and is accom- panied by an autograph letter highly commending the work of the so- ciety in philological research from Baron Alexander von Huniboldt, dated Berlin, March 12, 1859. However much the scholarship of mod- ern specialists may look askance upon this ambitious undertaking, we can not but commend the zeal of these youthful investigators and the taste displayed in their sumptuous publication of the results of their labors. It is the custom of the society to hold an annual commencement in June, at which diplomas are awarded to members of the graduating class. Prize contests in debate and essay writing are held each March, and of late years the biennial celebration has become an entertaining feature in the life of the society. The Zelosophic Society had its origin in a spirit of praiseworthy emulation to rival and if possible surpass the Philomathean. It was founded October 29, 1829, mainly through the efforts of Alexander Dallas Bache, professor in the University from 1828 to 1844. The society en- joyed a long and honorable career, numbering among its active mem- bers the Eev. William H. Odenheimer, Bishop of New Jersey; Col. Washington C. Tevis, of the Turkish army; Mr. John B. Gest, presi- dent of the Society of the Alumni of the University; Prof. Francis A. Jackson; Charles Stille, and several prominent trustees, officers of the University, and others. It is interesting to note that this society has been vigorously revived within the last year. The foundation of literary and debating societies within the Univer- sity was no unusual matter; but they were generally class organiza- tions and of short continuance. The numerous temporary and informal associations for study among the students need call for no mention here. For an account of the various Archaeological Societies, the Lecture Association, the Society for the Extension of University Teaching, and others, which are all of them rather outgrowths than organizations strictly within the University, the reader must be referred to the various chapters of this work in which each finds special treatment. While the bibliography of the University Will be found elsewhere, there have been a number of publications, arising so peculiarly out of student life, or proceeding from the alumni, that we can not but feel that this is the proper place in which to mention them. As early as 1834 the Zelosophic Magazine appeared under the auspices of the society of that name, and continued from April of that year to August, 1835. It was published bimonthly, and while somewhat " solid" for our present conception of a student^s publication, is an exceedingly credit- able production. From the records of the two societies it appears it had long been the custom of both to publish or rather utter a weekly manuscript paper, which was read by the editor at the meetings of the ORGANIZATIONS WITHIN THK rM\|.K>HY. Jl .', societies. To this class of productions belonged tl,r Mummy .Monster, which continued from the year 1847 to 1850, and its opponent, tin- I'.oiil,- Dogue. Their contents may he described by the single word facetious, and in some shape they have continued in the practice of the Philoraa- thean Society at least ever since. According to the LVd :in Asino- ruin was published this time printed by the Philomathean Society in 1854. Its title sufficiently indicates its character. It never readied a second number. In March, 1869, a modest little magazine of a very different nature appeared, entitled, "The University, a literary monthly devoted to the interests of the University of Pennsylvania." There is really consid- erable merit in this publication, and its list of contributors included many prominent names connected with the college department of that date. Unfortunately before The University had succeeded in reaching the nativity of a second issue, a burlesque far .simile in style of print and color of cover, entitled, "The University, a subterranean monthly, devoted, like its mundane predecessor, to bringing its editors before the public," succeeded by the cleverness of its parody and satire in giv- ing the coup de grace to its unhappy victim. Although the Penn Monthly emanated chiefly from University men and was often, if erroneously, regarded as the organ of the University, a consideration of the long career of that highly successful magazine belongs not here, and a mention of it is only justified by tin- fact that it is likely that its existence for years precluded the m >^ity of a more purely University publication. At length, November 1, 1875 the University Maga/ine was founded by the Philomathean Society as an organ of the students and enjoyed - a continued and prosperous career, as a monthly, until 1H81, and as a bimonthly until its absorption into its successor, the Pennsylvania!!. All honor is due to the liberal policy oft lie I'liilomathean Society in thus sacrificing its individual interests to the needs of the students for a news- paper thoroughly representative of the entire I'niversity. Contempor- ary with the University Magazine appeared an illustrated college paper of facetious turn entitled Chaff, which ran successfully from September. 1883, to June, 1885, and was discontinued because no undergraduates could be found willing to continue its publication. The Pennsylvanian .had its inception in the desire for a paper more truly represents i\ the whole body of the students than was possible in any publication of a single society. The Pennsylvanian has appeared weekly since its establishment in December, 1885, and long ably fulfilled its purpose. In March, 1889, The Eed and Blue appeared, with the avowed pur pose of supplying the literary qualities which the Pennsylvanian had felt compelled to sacrifice largely to its purpose of becoming a pur- veyor of news. Both papers have since enjoyed a success consistent 416 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. with the prosperity of each. Lastly, an able rival to both has arisen in the University Courier. The University Record, although published by a committee of each senior class, serves the double purpose of an index and chronicle of the chief events of undergraduate life, and of a sort of literary Saturnalia, in which wits of each class may seek satisfaction for the long restraints of their college course. For the most part decorum has been preserved in these publications, and no policy could be more abhorrent alike to American and University traditions than any attempt on the part of the authorities to restrain them. The earliest Record was that of the class of 1872. For the bibliography of the professional schools, and the contributions of members of the various faculties to science, the reader must be referred to the special chapter of this work on the bib- liography of the University. (4) The Musical and Dramatic Societies of the University, which form so interesting a feature of college life, are for the most part of quite recent growth. We are not, however, without traditions of at least two very early performances. In 1757 a number of the students and scholars, with very just applause, performed the Masque of Alfred, by way of oratorical exercise, before the Earl of London,, and the govern- ors of the several colonies. And at the commencement of 1759, besides " a dialogue and an ode, poems, disputations in Latin and English, and the delivery of theses, music was furnished by the Orpheus Club of the College, and by his Majesty's Marine Baud." In short, from time to time throughout the earlier history of the University, the College Glee, and the College Drama, flourished with an intermittent existence. By the year 1876 the College Glee Club had become an established fact, and through many vicissitudes and reorganizations, has continued to the present writing. As early as 1877 a College Orchestra existed, but after a short time it was suffered to lapse into silence ; and it was not until January, 1887, that the University Orchestra, a far larger or- ganization, took its place. Few college entertainments are now consid- ered complete without the assistance of these or others of the minor musical bodies. Of the more recent, the University Dramatic Club deserves mention. This society was extremely successful between LS7S and 1880. Of late years, the Mask and Wig, organized on the model of the Hasty Pudding Club of Harvard, has met with unexampled success, and taken college theatricals quite out of the limits of amateur performance. , It is perhaps fitting to speak hereof the Aclianiians of Aristophanes so successfully performed by students of the University, although not within any special dramatic organization. One of the daily papers spoke thus of the first performance, May 14, 1886 : The vitality which attaches to ;i work of art of the first order has not often more vivid proof than was furnished by the genuine success of this revival, after a lapse of some twenty centuries, for the second recorded representation of the Attic com- edy. * * * The success of the representation was complete. Performed as it ORGANIZATIONS WITHIN TJIK IM \ i;i;>i | y. JIT was, with brilliant etlicieney in every respeet. lurrildy and intelligently aeted. n, hly mounted and handsomely costumed, tlu- (in-ek pl;iy dit tn all who wpro concerned in its performance, and through them to the University of whieh tin \ the representatives. It is interesting- to remember that the proceeds of the perforinam of the Acharnians in New York was devoted to the American Classical School at Athens. (5) The earliest recognition of the value of athletics in tin- history of the University comes from no less a person than its illustrious founder, Benjamin Franklin. In his " Proposals Relative to the Education of Youth in Pennsylvania," written in 1749, Dr. Franklin utters these memorable words concerning the future student: "To keep them in health and to strengthen and render active their bodies, let them be frequently exercised in running, leaping, wrestling, and swimming." This injunction, however, led to no organization of which we have any knowledge until far later. In the year 1873 an athletic association was formed among the under- graduates for the purpose of encouraging college athletics in general, but especially what are known as track athletics. This association was incorporated in 1883. Far earlier than this, however, great interest had been shown amongst the students in rowing, a mat- ter attested by the formation of a college boat club in 1854. This association was reorganized in 1872, and incorporated November 13, 1875, and soon after took possession of its present boathouse on the Schuylkill River. This gave a new impetus to rowing interests in the University, which has since continued one of the favorite athletic pas- times of the students. Other sports have nourished at the Univer- sity; football, played as far back as the sixties, and organized into a regular association - soon after 1870; cricket, which has flourished intermittently from a very early time; and others, all of which are carried on by means of fixed organizations among the students at large or those of a particular class, and have led to the formation of a multitude of clubs, interesting to the general reader alone from their indication of the prosperous condition of athletics among the students of the University. Under a new and recent constitution the active management of ath- letics is left, as much as possible, in the hands of undergraduates, while a permanent body of graduates is provided to act in an advisory capacity. All these athletic clubs work in perfect harmony with the Depart- ment of Physical Kducation. which while exercising a wise super vision, seeks not to interfere with the independence of the stu- dents in their pastimes. Many intercollegiate societies and exist moreover to which our various athletic associations are parties and by which the opportunity for contest is extended beyond the 1'iii- versity itself. (6) Lastly, we reach associations for purely social purposes, including 1180 27 418 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. the Greek-letter societies. In the life of a university, associations of this class are of course innumerable and of the greatest possible diver- sity of character, from the casual group of classmates or other asso- ciates to the formal club or fraternity with its completely appointed clubhouse. Opposition to fraternities has never formed part of the policy of the University of Pennsylvania ; and it can not be denied that the influence of these societies which has been constant for the last forty years, has done much to foster that esprit de corps so valuable to the fullness and profit of university life, and so often lost in colleges domiciled in our great cities. Upwards of a score of Greek-letter societies have at different times nourished at the University of Pennsylvania, of which four were founded during the period from 1849 to 1854: the rest after 1877. There are at present writing eleven general fraternities ; two medical fraternities; one legal fraternity; one dental fraternity; a "sorority," and the recently founded Phi Beta Kappa, to which members of the senior class in the college department are elected for scholarship each year. Several of these* societies have handsome clubhouses. Many have permanent organizations and all have well appointed rooms. It- is estimated that upwards of 1,700 students of the University have been members of- the various Greek-letter societies since 1849. Whilst the nature of fraternities causes any inquiry into their organ- ization to become an impertinence, it may be remarked that in gen- eral these organizations follow the usual details of establishment and management of the more widely known secret societies. In all the social element is the most prominent, but, as we have seen, professional fraternities exist and in not a few of the others is to be found a con- siderable infusion of the literary spirit. We have already mentioned the value of these societies in fostering that esprit de corps, which is the very heart of university life; and to this must be added the spirit of emulation among the fraternities to possess themselves of a mem bership representative of the scholarship as well as the social and athletic prominence of their members. In the University of Pennsyl- vania fraternity spirit has never exceeded University spirit. Noth- ing better indicates this more serious trend than the recent founda- tion of "the Phi Kappa Sigma Fraternity prize in honor of their founder, Samuel Brown Wylie Mitchell, M. D., of the class of 1852, for the best work in English composition, done during the year by a mem ber of the Sophomore class." There are besides the above groups a few organizations of very diverse nature, incapable of any classification. Among the number is the chess club, which has existed since very early times. The camera club is of course a comparatively recent organization. Nor has the subject of religion been neglected among the students; for there has always been some more or less formal association amongst them de- voted to such matters. A church club was founded in 1889, and in 1890 ORGANIZATIONS WITHIN THI' r.MVKKSITY. till a branch of tin- Intercollegiate Young Men's Cliri>ti:in A.ssnHaiion \\a> organized and is now in active usefulness. We have thus before us a brief view of many of the eliief organiza- tions in which the students and alumni of the Kniversity of PCHHM 1 vania have at different times been banded for those varied pursuits which arise out of the complex elements of the life of a -Teat univ. i sity. While the outer world hears more of college athletics than of any other college organizations, the most cursory examination of the facts stated above must show that at the University of Pennsylvania, at least, although athletics receive that ample attention which is their due, there is no neglect of the gentler and more scholarly pursuits which arise in hundreds of differing forms from the multiform curric- ulum of the college and the professional schools. Scholarships, ath- letics, and good fellowship, are the three elements which, in pro|>er proportion, go to make up the constitution of a healthily constituted academic body; the preponderance of any one is abnormal, and it is only in their perfect equipoise that we can look for the best results. It is to be hoped that an examination of the foregoing pages may have shown that there has long been a clear recognition among the students of the University of Pennsylvania of the proportionate claims of each. CHAPTER XXVI. THE ALUMNI OF THE UNIVERSITY. The subject of the Alumni of the University has been divided into the three heads of the bar, science, and a history of the central committee. But for the lamented death of Prof. J. G. E. McElroy there would have been added to this a history of those distinguished in the church, a rich field- for the historian, but one which no other member of the committee feels competent to treat. From the very nature of this work any ex- tended biography was impossible, and the greatest difficulty of the writ- ers has been to avoid doing injustice to the memories of distinguished aluumi either by too scant a notice or by omission. In spite of these honest efforts, however, there is a host of names worthy to command the respect and interest of the world, but which space was lacking to include. ALUMNI OF THE COLLEGE DEPARTMENT WHO WERE DISTINGUISHED AT THE BAR. 1 The, graduates of the University of Pennsylvania, including under that title the College of Philadelphia, by which name the institution was known before it was enlarged to a university, who have distin- guished themselves at the bar and on the bench are numerous. In this paper it is proposed to mention some of them whose achievements are worthy of more than a mere passing note. At the outset we wish to call attention to the fact that as we have b*een requested to write of alumni of the College (or, as it is now absurdly and clumsily called, the College Department) we have included its gradu- ates only, and have paid no attention whatever to the alumni of the Law School of the University. We wish further to state that it has not been t IK mght proper to enter upon any extended account of any living gradu- ate, not, be it distinctly understood, in obedience to Schiller's advice, Let the night come before we praise the day," but because to select from the great number of distinguished and reputable members of the bar who claim the College of the University of Pennsylvania as their alma mater any, while excluding others, would be a most invidious and distasteful task. It is certainly not saying too much, or giving undue credit, to say that no bar in the country has been more distinguished for the attain- 1 By Henry Budd, A. M. 420 THE ALUMNI OF TIIK rxiVF.KSH v. 421 inents and character of its nicinl.crs tlian the bar of tin- city of I'hila delpliia. , That bar nas been very largely supplied and recruited from :i \-i\ early date from the University of Pennsylvania, and many of the g) ones of the Philadelphia bench, Tilghman, Sharswoud. < adwalader. and others have come forth from her, while other of her graduates an- found on the bench and in the front ranks of the bar in places far from that in which she imbued them with a liberal education and made them tit to enter u^on the study of jurisprudence. In the very first class graduated by the College, that of 1757, we find one who, excellent lawyer though he was,is, perhaps, even better known as a distinguished ^patriot in the times when our right to liberty \\ as vindicated and as a charming writer of light and witty productions, Francis Hopkinson, signer of the Declaration of Independence, judge of the admiralty of Pennsylvania and of the United States district court, and author of "The battle of the kegs." Hopkinson was born in Philadelphia in 1737, and was admitted to the bar in 1765. Before the Revolution he was the royal collector for the port of New Castle and was a member of the council of the governor of New Jersey. He lost his appointments, naturally enough, through his devotion to the patriot cause. He was elected to the Continental Congress in 1776, and, as a member of that body, signed the Declaration of Independ- ence. In 1779 he became judge of the admiralty for Pennsylvania. Some of his judgments in admiralty were published in 1789 in a book, of which John William Wallace, in The Reporters, says: The first of these two volumes contains but six cases, which if they are enough to entitle the book to rank as a volume of reports, gives to it perhaps the rijcht of l-iiig regarded as the first volume of reports ever published in the Tinted St;u-*. On the organization of the federal judiciary, Judge Hopkinson was appointed by President Washington judge of the United States dis- trict court for Pennsylania. He did not, however, long till that office, as lie died May 9, 1791. In the next year, 1758, the College had no graduating class, but the class of the year 1759 contributed its full quota to the roll of le-al dis- tinction. In it was Andrew Allen, attorney -genrral of Pennsylvania from 1769 to 177 dis- trict court for Maryland; he died in 17'.M. 422 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. The next class, 1760, contained Robert Goldsborough, attorney-gen- eral of Maryland and member of tl\e Continental Congress. In 1761 we find Itichard Peters, who was born in 1743, entered the Revolutionary army and was a captain therein. He -was taken, how- ever, from the field and made secretary of the continental board of war. In 1782 he became a member of Congress, and after the conclusion of the war was a member of the assembly of Pennsylvania and its speaker from 1788 to 1790. In 1790 he became speaker of the State senate and in 1791 was appointed judge of the United States district court for Pennsylvania, which office he held until his death in 1828. In the same class was Jasper Yeates, who was a justice of the supreme court of Pennsylvania from ,1791 until his death in 1817, a learned and able judge, whose reports, in four volumes, are amongst the earliest in Penn- sylvania, and Abraham Ogden, attorney-general of New Jersey. In the graduating list .for 1763 we meet with the name of John Dick- inson Sergeant, attorney-general of Pennsylvania from 1777 to 1 780, and a member of the Continental Congress. In 1766, we find James Tilghman, attorney-general of Maryland in 1776 and a judge of the court of appeals of that State from 1804 to 1809. In 1767 was graduated one of the greatest lawyers of the early his- tory of the country, Edward Tilghman, perhaps the most profoundly learned lawyer, without being a mere scholar and theorist, who has appeared in Pennsylvania; he was born in Maryland in 1750 and died in Philadelphia in 1815; his life was devoted to the bar; the chief-jus- ticeship of the State w r as offered to and was declined by him, but it would be hard to say whether any office could have heightened the reverence with which his memory is regarded by the profession in Pennsylvania. Another Tilghman, the great chief justice, is also to be credited to the University. It seems well established that he entered the College, but there is no record of his graduation. Nevertheless, Horace Binney, who knew the chief justice, and who was on terms of intimacy with Edward Tilghman, says in his Leaders of the Old Bar that William Tilghman was graduated by the University of Pennsylvania, and in this he is followed by Mr. David Paul Brown in The Forum, and when it is remembered that the records of the University about the time at which Tilghman would naturally have been graduated, if at all, were not kept with that care which should distinguish such records, we think that great consideration is due to the statement of Mr. Binney. Tilghman Mas born in .Maryland in l~r>6; he was admitted to the bar and in 1783 became a member of the legislature of Maryland. In 1801 he was appointed justice of the United States circuit court for the third circuit, but that court, the only one of the circuit courts which came into being under President Adams whose decisions have been honored by preservation in reports, was swept away in a short time on the com- ing into power of the anti-Federal party. Tilghman then returned to the bar, but in 1X05 was made president judge of the common pleas for Philadelphia, from which office he was in 1806 promoted to the chief- TIN: Ar.rMxi OF Tin: r\i\ T.KMTY. 423 justiceship of the State, after it had been declined by his relative. Kd- ward Tilghman. In this office he mad.- a great reputation, MI n.-.l by liis learning, industry, and ability. In the first ten years of his ju>- ship he delivered opinions in all but four of thecases whirh were argued before the court. He remained chief justice until his death in I Speaking of him and referring to his appointment by President Adams. Mr. D. P. Brown says : He was one of the midnight judges, as they were called, but it in.-iy be trnl that no midday judge ever surpassed him in the luster of his official career or will survive him in the memory of all by whom ho. was known. The class of 1769 contained John 1). Coxe, who was president judge of the court of common pleas of Philadelphia from 1$00 to 1806; the class of 1772, Moses Levy, distinguished as a wit as well as a lawyer. who closed a brilliant career as president judge of the district court of Philadelphia from 1822 to 1826. In 1773 we find Joshua Seney, Avho was a member of the ( 'ontinental Congress, and also of the Congress of the United States after the adop- tion of the Constitution; in 1775, Henry Ridgely, chief justice of the fourth judicial district of Maryland from 1796 to 1806, and judge of the third district from 1806 until his death in 1811 ; in 1776, William Cocke, judge of a circuit court in Tennessee and United States Senator from that State from 1796 to 1805. In 1780 was graduated Samuel Sitgreaves, a member of Coi:_ from 1795 to 1798, and in 1793 a commissioner under the treaty with Great Britain. The class of 1782 contained Joseph Borden McKean, attorney-general of Pennsylvania from 1800 to 1808, and afterwards president judge ..t the district court of Philadelphia, and James Kelly and William Ken nedy, both members of Congress. In 1786 the name of Joseph Hopkinson, a son of Francis Hopkinson, who seems to have inherited both the legal and literary ability of his father, appears. He was born in Philadelphia in 177< and began the practice of law at Easton; he soon, however, returned to Philadelphia a nd rapidly acquired distinction at the bar. He wascounsel for I>r. Push in his libel suit against Cobbett, and for .Judge Chase when impeached before the Senate of the United States. In 1S15 he entered Congress and served until 1819. In 182S he was appointed judge of the United States district court for the eastern district of Pennsylvania, which office he held at the time of his death in 1842. He was a man of fine artistic and scientific tastes and of literary ability. He \\ a- president of the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Aits, a memberof the American Philosophical Society,and we owe to him the national anthem Hail ' lumbia. In the same class was Robert Porter, a president judge nt ' the common pleas in Pennsylvania, and Jonathan William Condy, who clerk of the House of Representatives from 1797 to 1800. In 1787 we find George Duffield. judge of the United States court for the Territory of Orleans in 1S05. In 1789 Cfesar Augustus Eodn 424 TITF. rXIVKIlsITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. Attorney ('.mend of the I'nited States from 1S07 to 1S11. member of Congress. Tnited States Senator, and United States minister to Buenos Ayres. in which place lie died: in 1791 .Joseph Hemphill, who was pres- ident judge of the district court of Philadelphia in 1811 and member of Congress for several terms. The class of 1792 contained Frederick Smith, attorney-general of Pennsylvania from 1823 to 1828, and justice of the supreme court of that State from 1828 until his death in 1830; David B. Ogdeu, of Xew York, and Bird Wilson, who, after rising to the bench, abandoned the law for the church, and was for many years professor in the General Theological Seminary in the city of New York. In 1795 we find the distinguished lawyer Zalegmau Phillips; in 1803 John Fox, president judge of the Bucks County circuit in Pennsylva- nia ; in 1805 Thomas Kittera, who became a member of Congress; in 1807 Thomas I. Whartou; in 1808 Charles Sydney Coxe, a judge of the dis- trict court of Philadelphia from 1826 to 1835, and Philemon Dickerson, member of Congress, chancellor and governor of New Jersey, and judge of the United States district court for Xew Jersey. In 1811 was graduated Richard Biddle, who, going from Philadelphia, found distinction at the Pittsburg bar, and who was a member of Con- gress from 1837 to 1840. The class of 1812 had upon its rolls one of the most accomplished law- yers that the United States have produced, William M. Meredith, who at the Philadelphia bar, was long a standing encouragement to those industrious and studious members of the profession whom success did not early reward. For many years after coming to the bar Mr. Mere- dith toiled early and late, studied hard, and was almost clientless, but his time came at last, his abilities were recognized as of superior order, and he became the-ieader of the bar of his city, Secretary of the Treas- ury of the United States, attorney-general ot Pennsylvania, and presi- dent of its constitutional convention of 1873. When the counsel were selected to represent the United States at the Geneva arbitration, Mr. Meredith was asked by President Grant to be one of them, but declined on account of his age and not very robust health. This declination was very much regretted, as there was perhaps no man in the United States better fitted, by his vast and ready knowledge and longcourse of training in both public and private law, to present and uphold the American cause before the memorable tribunal -\vhose, action dispensed with all neces>ity for a resort to arms to enforce our just claims. The reverence with which .Mr. Meredith was regarded by his brethren toward the close of his long professional career was very marked, and it was an impressive sight to see the court and bar hanging on his words as they proceeded from his lips in feeble tone, but bearing the stamp of mental force, \\hile profound silence reigned in the court room. Mr. Meredith died in 1ST.'), while president of the con- vention which framed the present constitution of Pennsylvania. In THE ALUMNI OF THK rxIVKIJ-1 TV. the same class with Mr. Meredith was John M. i;,-ad. wh,, hal a e, successful career both at the bar and on the beneh; In- I,,-, am.- ati.n general of Pennsylvania in IS-ii;, sl justice of the snpn-meroui t ..f I'.-nn- sylvaiiia in I860, and chief justice in 187.'J. He died in 1 In the class of 1815 were Thomas McKean Pettit. judge <>f tin- dis- trict court of Philadelphia from 1831 to 1X35, and president thereof from 1835 to 1845, and Edward Rawle, a judge of a rourt in New Or- leans. Tn 1817 we find John N. Conyngham, a president judge of the com- mon pleas in Pennsylvania, and in 1818 James Murray Mason. f Vu giufa, wlio was a Senator from that State, and afterwards so prominent a statesman upon the Confederate side during the Civil war. The class of 1819 bore upon its list two men of high distinction, Henry Dilworth Gilpin and Robert James Walker. The former came to the bar in 1822, and was in 1832 appointed United States district attorney for Pennsylvania, E. D.; in 1837 Solicitor of the Tn-a-ury. and in 1840 Attorney-General of the United States. At the close of President Van Buren's term Mr. Gilpin retired from public life and de- voted the rest of his days to his profession, history, art, and general literature, to all of which he made valuable contributions, and to travel. He died at the age of 59, leaving behind him a most enviable reputa tiou. Robert J. Walker, the author of the Walker Tariff, and one of the few great statesmen that our country has produced, was United States Senator from Mississippi, Secretary of the Treasury, and governor of Kansas Territory. The only professional appointment held by M i . Walker seems to have been the reportership of the supreme court of Mississippi, but he was in good practice and concerned in important cases, amongst others in the case of Orover r. Slaughter, in which he was of counsel for the Government, as the colleague of his classmate, M r. Gilpin. In 1820 were Joseph M. Doran, a judge of the common pleas of Phil- adelphia from 1840 to 1843, and Francis J. Troubat, one of the authors of the standard work on Pennsylvania practice known as Troubat and Haly's Practice. In the class of the next year we meet with a judge of most remark- able character, learning, courage, and ability, John Cadwalader, who was born in Philadelphia in 1805, came in due time to the bar. and speedily became a leader, being engaged in a great number of most important cases. While still a junior he was engaged in the great divorce case of Butler r. Butler as junior for the respondent, Col. Pierce Butler. In that case were counsel of the highest order ; amongst others George M. Dallas, Rufus Choate, and William M. Meredith, and the writer has been told by one of the judges who tried the cause that the great success of the case was that obtained by Mr. Cadwalad- cially in his cross-examination of Mrs. Butler (Fanny Kemble). In 1 ^ after a term in Congress, Mr. Cad \valader left the bar for the bench, 426 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. having been appointed by Mi 1 . Buchanan Uuited States district judge for Pennsylvania, E. D. The breaking out of the war threw before our courts topics with which they had not before had to deal and subjected them to a severe test, and in the opinion of competent au- thority it is not too much to say that although a judge of first in- stance, Cadwalader's was the leading mind in determining our judicial policy upon questions of prize during the rebellion. Judge ( 'ad \valader remained upon the bench until his death in 1870, and was regarded by many as a model judge, and all, even of those who mistakenly, it seeins to us, considered him arbitrary, venerated his great learning, his un- tiring industry, his uncompromising fairness, and his dauntless courage. To us Cadwalader seems to really nil the requirements of a truly great judge. In the same class were Anthony Laussat, a most promising young lawyer, the author of a work on equity in Pennsylvania, whose early death was greatly regretted, and in whose memory the Law Academy of Philadelphia founded a prize; Johu Eichter Jones, a judge of the court of common pleas of Philadelphia, who fell at Gum Swamp, N. C., fight- for the Union as colonel of a Pennsylvania regiment, and Isaac Norris, who lived to be the senior member of the Philadelphia bar and died in 1890. In 1822 we meet with Jonas Altainont Phillips, a very able lawyer. In 1823 were graduated Persifor Frazer Smith, reporter of the supreme court of Pennsylvania from 18C6 to 1880, and George Mifrlin Wharton, a lawyer of superlative abilities. The only office held by Mr. Wharton was the Tinted States district attorueyship for Pennsylvania, E. D., from 1857 to 1860. In the class of 1828 was George Sharsw" ood, one of the greatest judges who have adorned the Pennsylvania bench, and whose reputation is greater than that of any of her chief-justices, except Gibson and Tilgh- man (and it is questionable whether he ought not to be ranked higher than the latter) ; a man who combined the qualities of a profound jurist^ erudite scholar, original thinker, and great judge at nisi jnrius, where the strongest qualities of both man and judge are required to attain distinction, where, with profound learning, must go quickness of decision and power of applying properly that learning:, and where, with all. there most be a thorough knowledge of men and human nature, coupled with self-control and personal dignity. Sharswood was born in 1810, in due time came to the bar, and, after a short career in the legislature, was appointed a judge of the district court of Philadelphia, a court in which, at that time, all the common- law cases, except those of minor importance, and the Federal cases of that great community were tried. In 1848 he was promoted to the 1 (residency of the court, which soon became a model for the prompt dispatch of business and the satisfactory manner in which its cases were tried. In 18G7 Judge Sharswood was elected to the .supreme THE ALUMNI OF Till'. r.MVl.KMlY. 427 court, and in 1878 became chief justice of Pennsylvania. He retired in 1SS2, and shortly after, in 1883, died. Such is a brief snmmai \ of his judicial life, but it gives little idea of his work. P.e.-ides hi- lai> in law and in political science, he in 1850 reestablished the Law School of the University of Pennsylvania, in which legal education had been in abeyance since the death of Judge Wilson in 179s, and remained a professor in that school until 1868. His legal writings are numerous. The best known are perhaps his Legal E thics and his edition of Blackstoue; beside these he edited I hie- on Bills, Russell on Crimes, Starkie on Evidence, and many other books. The last work with which his name is associated is Sharswood and Budd's Leading Cases in the American Law of Real Property. By the plan of this work Judge Sharswood was to have reviewed the work of his colleague, and he did read the manuscript of the first volume, but before the second was fairly under way death deprived the junior editor of the invaluable aid of the great lawyer. lie died, and his death left a great gap in Philadelphia legal society as well as in the ranks of American jurists, for few men were so well loved at the same time that they were honored as was Chid '-.Justice Sharswood. In the class of 1831 we have George Augustus Bicknell, judge of the second judicial circuit of Indiana from 1852 to 1876, chief of the com- mission of the supreme court in 1881, professor of law in the Uni- versity of Indiana from 1861 to 1880, and member of Congress from 1 >7 7 to 1880, and Charles E. Lex, a highly honored member of the Philadel- phia bar. In 1832 was graduated St. George Tucker Campbell, a most distin- guished lawyer; in 1833, William Todd Otto, judge of the circuit court of Indiana, professor in the law school of the university of the same State, arbitrator on the part of the United States under the convention with Spain in 1871, and reporter of the Supreme Court of the I'nited States. In the same class was John William Wallace, Mr. Otto'- pied ecessor in the reportership, president of the Historical Society of Pennsylvania and author of several legal writings, including that de- lightful book, The Reporters. Mr. Wallace died in 1884. In 1834 we have J. I.Clark Hare, president judge of the district court and of the court of common pleas N.I. L'. of Philadelphia, and from 1S6S to 1889 professor in the Law School of the University of Pe-nsyl- vania. In 1837, Theodore Cuyler. in his day a leader of the Philadel- phia bar and perhaps the foremost railroad lawyer in the country. In 1839, John V. Eustace, judge of the circuit court for the thirteenth di- trictof Illinois, and in the nextyear, 1840, Martin Russell Thayer. member of Congress, a judge of the district court of Philadelphia and president judge of the court of common pleas No. 4 thereof ; in 1841, Benjamin Maikley Boyer, a member of Congress, a president judge of tin- mpi- mou pleas in Pennsylvania from 1883 until his death in 1887 j Frederick 428 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. Carroll Brewster, judge of the common pit-as of Philadelphia and attor- ney-general of Pennsylvania, and William Henry Ilawle, so well known for his learning, and whose Covenants for Title established for him a reputation at almost the very outset of his career. In 1843 we haye Thomas K. Finletter, president judge of the court of common pleas No. 3 of Philadelphia, and James II. Ludlow, long Judge Finletter's colleague on the bench and liis predecessor in the presidency of the court, who died in 1886 after a judicial service of thirty-one years. The class of 1844 contained Thomas W. Greenbank, a judge of the district court of Philadelphia ; 1849, Christopher Magee, a judge of the common pleas for Allegheny County, Pa.; 1850, Clement B. Penrose, judge of the orphans' court, of Philadelphia ; 1855, E. Coppee Mitchell, dean of Tin- Law School of the University of Pennsylvania and a well known writer and editor, especially of works on the law of real estate; 1858, George Tucker Bispham, professor in and, for a short time, dean of the same school; in I860, another professor and dean of the same school. C, Stuart Patterson; and 1865, Henry Reed, a judge of the court of com- mon pleas No. 3 of Philadelphia, and Thomas Mitchell, judge of the first judicial district of Colorado. ALUMNI OF THE UNIVERSITY WHO WERE DISTINGUISHED IX SCIENCE. 1 In considering the question of the contributions to science by the graduates of the University of Pennsylvania, it must be conceded that in its early years there was a greater incentive to scientific research in Philadeh)hia than elsewhere on the continent. It was here that Franklin had conducted experiments on electricity, assisted by the researches of Ebenezer Kiuuersley, which excited the attention of the whole civilized world. It was here that his famous speculations on a host of other subjects were made. Here Ttittenhouse had observed the transit of Venus, and given "the first approximately accurate results in the measurement of the spheres to the world." Benjamin Hush had made the city's name famous throughout the world as the seat of the highest medical culture. Here Oliver Evans constructed his "Oruktor Amphibolos," and first on this continent propelled a carriage on land by the use of steam. With such stimulus to activity in science and the application of science to the arts, with the American Philosophical Society, also founded by Franklin to encourage and publish the labors of scientific men, there ought in fact to appear a notable proportion of scientific men among the graduates and matriculates of the University of Penn- sylvania. ^his is the case, but owing to the absence of special courses at this date facilitating the study of natural history, physics, or chemistry, those 1 I'.y iVrsiJ'or Fra/er, Dr. es. Sc. Till-: ALI.MM OF THI. TMVKKHTV. 1'Jfl \vlio had aspirations to science were attracted i,, tin- siu(T\cd as Professor of Surgery, from 1821 to 1830. He afterwards filled the chair of surgery in a medical college in Ohio. George AVashin.uton Norris, M. D., was born in Philadelphia in 1808, and died there in 1S7.~>. He graduated in letters in 1827 and in medicine in 1830. He subsequently studied in Paris. In 1836 he was elected one THE AM'MM <>K TIIF, TNIVKKSITY. 433 of the surgeons of the Pennsylvania hospital, which post he tilled for twenty-seven years. In 1848 he was elected clinical pmfeor ofwr- gery of the University of Pennsylvania, resigning j,, ls.-,7,\\ 1,,-n he was elected a trustee. He was vice-president of the College of Physi.-i and president of the Historical Society of Pennsylvania. Ili> pa; and contributions to the current medical science of his day were numer- ous and important. Edward Miller, c. E., was born in .Philadelphia in 1811, and gradu- ated in the College in 1828, at the age of 17. He immediately entered the engineer corps of the Lehigh Canal, was chief engineer of the. Penn- sylvania Eailroad on the retirement of Mr. J. Edgar Thompson, and was active in engineering till his death in 1872. James Curtis Booth was born in Philadelphia, 1810, and graduated in the College in 1829. In 1832 he studied chemistry in Wohler*> pri- vate laboratory in Cassel. He afterward studied under Magnus at I lin and in Vienna. In 1836 he established at Philadelphia the first laboratory in the I ' nited States for instruction in chemistry. He was in this year appointed professor of applied chemistry in the Franklin Institute. In 1849 he was appointed nielter and refiner in the U. S. mint at Philadelphia. His works were the first annual report of the Delaware Geological Sur- vey (1839), Memoirs of the Geological Survey of the State of Delaware, (1841), Encyclopedia of Chemistry, etc. lie was president of the Amer- ican Chemical Society during 1884-'S5, and professor of chemistry of the Horticultural Society of Pennsylvania. John Fries Frazer, LL.D., was born in Philadelphia, 1812; shared tin- first honor with Kev. James Clark on graduation, in 1X30; was assistant to Prof. A. D. Bache and later to Prof. Robt. Hare. He studied law and medicine. In 1836 he became first assistant geologist to Prof. H. D. Eogers in the geological survey of Pennsylvania. In 1838, he was professor of natural philosophy and chemistry in the Philadelphia high school. In 1844, he took the chair in the Univei >ity of Pennsylvania. \' the same title, vacated by the resignation of Prof. Bache, which he held till his death, in 1872. Hewas vice-provost from 1s.V>to 1SU>: prof.- of chemistry and editor of Franklin Institute .Journal from ls.Vi to 1- was vice-president of the American Philosophical Society in \*-"> and one of the founders of the National Academy of Science. 1 1 i -i VM 1 the degree of LL. D. from Harvard in 1857. He wrote many treatises in pamphlet form for the use of the classes but t Pepper for the'purpose of considering the subject and seeing if it was not possible to have such powers conferred upon the alumni By J. Sergeant Price, A. M. THE ALUMNI OF THF. IMVF.KMl V. as would place them in a position to make their inHuenee felt tin-nigh- out all the different departments of the University. A spi-Hul committee of their number was appointed to present the matter to the trustees of the University, and after a number of conferences with them it was decided that the alumni should organize a representative body, to be called the Central Committee of the Alumni of the University of Penn sylvania. This body was granted the privilege of making a limited number of nominations for every third vacancy that should occur in the Board of Trustees, from which the board should make a selection. It was also intrusted with the special duty of attending from time to time upon the various examinations, recitations, and other exercises of the several departments, and of conferring with the members of the differ ent faculties in order to recommend to the trustees such changes ami improvements as should be deemed advisable. The following is the plan of organization of the central committee: (1) The Central Committee of the Alumni of the University of Penn- sylvania shall consist of thirty members, six to be elected annually, to serve for a term of five years, by the duly qualified electors voting by ballot, in person, on commencement day, in the city of Philadelphia. (2) Of the six so elected two shall be representatives and graduates of the Collegiate Departments of at least three years' standing, two shall be graduates and representatives of the Medical and Collateral Departments, and two graduates and representatives of the Law De- partment. (3) Any person who has received a degree, honorary or otherwise, from the University, shall be a duly qualified elector, except those who .are members of the Board of Trustees, or other officers of government or instruction in the University, none of whom shall be eligible as members of the central committee or entitled to vote at the election of said members. (4) The central committee shall annually appoint one principal and two or more assistant inspectors of polls, who shall, on commencement day, from 10 o'clock a. m. until 4 o'clock p. m., at some place in said city of Philadelphia fixed by said committee, receive the votes for mem- bers of the committee, and they shall sort and count such vote-, and make public declaration thereof after the closing of the polls; and said inspectors shall be provided with a complete list of the persons qualified to vote at such election, and no person shall vote until the insj.ei find and check his name upon such list. The names of the persons voted for, the number of votes received for each person, and the va- cancy or place in said committee for which he is proposed, shall be entered by said inspectors upon a record kept by them for that pur- pose, which shall, after such election, be forthwith made up, signed, and delivered by them to the central committee. In case any person not eligible to membership in the committee is voted for, liis name shall not be counted in making up the returns. The persons receiving the high- 43fi THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. est number of votes for the places or vacancies in each of the throe sections of the committee shall, to the number of members to be elected, be deemed and declared by said committee elected members thereof. (5) The central committee shall give notice of the place of the polls, the hours during which they are open, the number of members to be elected, and the terms for which they are to serve, together with a list of the twelve candidates, four in each section, who received the highest num- ber of votes at the last nomination, by publishing the same, at least ten days before commencement, in a newspaper or newspapers printed in the city of Philadelphia. (6) The terms of office of each class of members of the central com- mittee shall extend to the close of commencement day of the year in which such terms severally expire, and the members elected on any commencement day shall supply the places of the class of members that goes out of office at the close of that day, and the vacancies then exist- ing in the committee. Whenever there is a failure on commencement day to supply any places or vacancies in the committee, the same may be filled by vote of the remaining members of the committee. (7) In order to secure nominations for the ensuing election, the cen- tral committee shall annually select eighteen persons (six for each sec- tion) eligible to membership in the committee, and shall send on or be- fore April 15 to all the qualified electors that can be reached through the post-office, a printed list of the persons so chosen, together with a list of the vacancies to be filled. Earch elector receiving such lists shall nominate candidates to a number not exceeding the number of vacancies to be filled, either by striking out the names of all the other persons on the list, except those he desires to nominate, or by insert- ing new ones, and shall return such amended list to the central commit- tee before May 15. The persons receiving in this way the highest num- ber of nominations in each section, to the number of twice the number of vacancies to be filled, shall be considered the regular nominees of the alumni, and as such their names shall be published by the committee at the time of announcing the place and time of holding the election, as hereinbefore provided. At the election, however, the electors shall liave the privilege of voting either for these or for any other duly qualified persons they may select. (8) The central committee thus constituted shall have and enjoy the powers and privileges conferred upon it by the Board of Trustees of the University contained in the plan adopted by them December 6, LS.S1, and such other powers and privileges as may hereafter from time to time be conferred upon it by the board. (0) The officers of the committee shall be a president, a secretary, and a treasurer, to be elected annually at such time and in such manner as the committee may determine. The committee shall adopt such by- laws, rules and regulations for its own government and the transaction of business as it may deem expedient. Till: ALl'MM OF T1IK rNIVKKH 437 Tl ic above plan of or^ani/ation was duly approved l>y resolution of the Board of Trustees adopted at a meeting held March 7. 1 i..l- lo\vs: Itt-aolced, That the trustees of tlie University of Pennsylvania do approve of the articles of association of the central committee of the alumni of the t'nh submitted to the Board of Trustees this day, and do hereby invest said comin: with all the rights, privileges, and function* therein expressed, snbjc. 1 to all the provisions in the charter and statutes of the I'niver.sity now in force, and tin- - uti's of the said trustees which may be hereafter orduined. The first election of members of the central committee under t his plan of organization was held in June, ISSli, and since that time tin* com- mittee has been active in its work and awakened a lively interest among those connected with the institution. Several of the older members ut the Board of Trustees have passed away, and the committee has been called upon to nominate four of their successors, so that already the alumni are directly represented by several of the most active meml>ers of the board. Many of the recent changes that have taken place in the details of the curriculum and administrative affairs have been promoted by the efforts of the central committee to secure the adoption of tin- latest improvements in University work, and with the steady growth in interest on the part of the alumni in this method of making them- selves felt for the welfare of the University, the usefulness of this reseutative body will proportionately increase. CHAPTER XXVII. - THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE UNIVERSITY. A mere catalogue of the literary productions of the University staff during the one hundred and thirty-eight years since its beginning would occupy more than the space allotted to this volume, and the making of such a catalogue would be, of course, impracticable. All that can be done in a single chapter is to indicate by examples the character and range of the literary work which may be justly claimed to illustrate the intellectual life of the organization, and thus to show that the University has not only fulfilled its direct mission of instruction to its students, but has also been the fountain of a far more widely spreading influence through the publications of its teachers. Nor should we be restricted in our survey only to the teaching staff. The government of a university must be in the hands of men among whom shall be found those of such culture and learning that they may be competent to select professors, approve the curriculum, and judge the characterof the educa- tional work. From such men a measure of literary activity may be expected ; and in point of fact a very important part of the bibliography of the University consists of the writings of those whose relations to it were those of trustees. The founder himself is the first, and one of the best, examples. No one of his age was more industrious with the pen or wielded a larger influence upon the thought of his time, and when it is remembered that a complete edition of his works extends to ten volumes, and embraces no less than three hundred books and papers exclusive of correspondence, and that a good proportion of these were connected with or grew out of his associations with the College, his works may well be quoted as the beginning of our bibliography. The Hon. Francis Hopkinson was a trustee and an accomplished writer. His works were collected in 1792 in three volumes of essays and occasional writings, largely of the satirical sort. His Battle of the Kegs was a popular ballad, and his Kssayon Whitewashing was for some time attrib- uted to Franklin. Among his keenest satires is one entitled Modem Learning Exemplified by a Specimen of a Collegiate Examination. The venerable Bishop White \vas the author of TheCalvinistic and American Controversy (1817) and of Memoirs of the Protestant Episcopal Church, as well as of innumerable sermons and addresses. As the long succes- sion is unrolled there is a constant reminder of men who contributed to the political or professional literature of their day while active as trus- tees. The Notes on the Old and New Testaments (eleven volumes) by 438 THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF Till: fNIVKK'siTV 439 % the KY\. Albert Earned were of high reputation, liishop William I'.acon Stevens was the historian of Georgia (two volumes) and wrote Parables of the New Testament and many minor works. The Ke\ . Kidiaid New- ton, LL. D., was preeminently the religions teacher of children, whose Kills from the Fountain of Life have penetrated into every land and been translated into nearly every tongue. The Rev. Oiai-les W. Schaeilei. D.D., besides his translation of the Halle Reports, is an industrious theo- logical writer. The Rev. George Dana Boardman. u.. D., is a m.M prolific writer, whose University Lectures on the Ten Commandments (1889) were the direct outcome of his earnest care for the welfare of its students, and were enthusiastically received. J)r. S. Weir Mitchell, LL. D., has not only professional fame as a writer on medical topics, but ranges afield as novelist and poet of an equal repute. Horace Howard Furuess, LL. D., is as widely known in the literary world as the student of Shakespeare, and his variorum edition of the plays is the serious work of his later years, while diligently watching over the library and the English Department ot the College. The Hon. Samuel W. Penny- packer at one time edits supreme court reports, at another is the his- torical writer on the German side of Pennsylvania's history, or the dis- coverer and exploiter of rare treasures of her early literature. It is well that the governing and teaching bodies should have this bond of union in a literary fellowship which centers in the University. To go to the other extreme, it is a curious and noteworthy fact that the celebrated Lindley Murray, the author of the English Grammar (1797), English Exercises, and other educational works of supreme im- portance in their day, got his first acquaintance with grammar on the hard benches of the Academy here, somewhere about 1752. Of course it was through the medium of Latin, and it was his mission to make it popularly known that the science could be applied to the native tongue. But our bibliography must, of course, be chiefly occupied with the pro- ductions of the teaching staff, and these have been so numerous that only the merest outline can be given. The Rev. Dr. William Smith, first provost, began his literary career with A Philosophical .Meditation and Address to the Supreme Being, London, 1754, and the pen was thenceforward a constant weapon in his active and aggressive life; and while not the author of any extensive work, he published numerous articles, literary, political, and religious, a full account of which is x\\ en in his life by his grandson, Horace W. Smith ( Philadelphia, 1880). For some years there was only a faculty of arts, and the writings from that source are of course literary and philosophical. David .Tames Dove, a tutor of the Academy, was a leading poet of the day. Pm\,.>r .John Ewing, D. D., published Lectures on Natural Philosophy in 1809, and was a frequent contributor to the proceedings of the Philosophical So- ciety. David Rittenhouse, sometime vice-provost, published an < >ration on Astronomy in 1775, but wrought more than he wrote, and is famous chiefly for his achievements. Henry Reed, gentlest and most beloved 440 THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. of professors, was the author of Lectures on English Literature (1855), Led 11 res on English History, as illustrated by Shakespeare's plays, Lec- tures on Tragic Poetry, which were published after his death. Henry Vet hake, LL. D., published The Principles of Political Economy (1838), and edited McCulloch's Commercial Dictionary. Henry Coppe'e, LL. D., was the author of Elements of Logic (1857), Elements of Rhetoric (1857), English and American Poets (1858). Prof. John Bach McMas- ter is'vell known through his great work, The History of the People of the United States; and Prof. Albert S. Bolles through his Financial History of the United States. Prof. John G. R. McElroy's work, The Structure of English Prose (1885), has become a valued text-book in many institutions. Prof. Daniel G. Brinton's works on Archaeology, especially American, and on American Languages are unique and nu- merous. Prof. Hugh A. Clarke has published a successful grand ora- torio, Jerusalem (1890). Prof. George S. Fullerton's Conception of the Infinite and Plain Argument for God have been well received. Prof. Robert Ellis Thompson writes chiefly on Political Economy, but has recently completed The Latin Hymn Writers and their Hymns, begun 1 > v S. W. Duffield. Prof. Seidensticker has published several works on the early German settlers in Pennsylvania. Prof. Francis N. Thorpe is the author of the Government of the People of the United States (1889). and of many historical monographs. But these brief notices are unjust. There is scarcely a member of the faculty who is not an active pro- ducer, and, as will be shown by some later statistics, the titles of their annual work in monographs would be impossible of enumeration here. The advent of the professional schools greatly increased the flood of publications from the University. First of these was the Medical School, and its literature is simply enormous. We will quote a few of the larger contributions, taken almost at random: Jolm Morgan, M. D., first medical professor. De Puris Confectione, and several other tracts. Prof. Benjamin Rush, M. D. Medical Inquiries and Observations, 5 volumes. Prof. Benjamin Smith Barton, M. D. Elements of Botany (1805). Prof. William P. C. Barton. Medical Botany of the United States, ii volumes (1817); Flora of North America, 3 volumes (1821). Prof. James Woodhouse. Dissertation on the Chemical and Medical Properties of the Persimmon Tree ; Young Chemist's Pocket Companion. (1792). Prof. John Syng Dorsey. Elements of Surgery, 2 volumes (181.'>). Prof. William Potts Dewees. System of Midwifery; Practice of Med- icine.. Prof. William E. Horuer. Special Anatomy and Histology. United States Dissector. Prof. Nathaniel Chapman. Elements of Therapeutics and Materia Medica. Till: P.IBLIOGRAPHY <>F THK rNIVKKMTY. 141 Prof. George !' Wood. hispcnsitory of tin- I iiii.-d StaJ. in IS;;.T); Practice of Medicine, 2 vohunes IM: : I heiapeuti< - ami Pharmacology, l> volumes (1856). Prof. Henry IT. Smith. Minor Surgery (1843); Anatomical Atlas (1844); System of Operative Snrge&y (1862) j Prim-ipl. s ami Pia.-ii, -,- ,,f Surgery (18G3). Prof. Alfred Stille". Therapeutics and .Materia Medica. Prof. Henry Hartshorne. Essentials of the Principles ami Practice of Medicine. Prof. Joseph Leidy. Human Anatomy. Prof. Harrison Allen. A system of Human Anatomy. Prof. William Pepper. A System of Practical Medicine: Di-. a-.- ,,i Children. Prof. John Ashhurst, jr. Principles and Practice of Surgery. Prof. William F. Norris. A Text Book of Ophthalmology. Prof. Hugh L. Hodge. On Diseases Peculiar to Women. Prof. Horatio C. Wood. Therapeutics, its Principles and Practice. Prof. Edward T. Brueii. Physical Diagnosis of Heart and Lungs. Prof. James Tyson. Cell Doctrine, Examination of I' i inc. Prof. John J. Reese. Medical Jurisprudence and Toxicology. Prof. William Goodell. Lessons in ( rynrccology. Prof. Theodore Wormley. The Micro-Chemistry of Poisons. From the law faculty such contributions as these: Prof. George Sharswood. Professional Ethics; Popular Lecture- mi Common Law. Edition of Blackstone's Commentaries. Prof. J. I. Clark Hare. American Leading Cases in Law; Lectures on Law of Contracts. Lectures on Constitutional Law. Prof. James Parsons. An Exposition ot'the Principles of Partnei>hip. Prof. C. Stuart Patterson. The United States and the Stato under the Constitution. Prof. George Tucker Bispham. Treatise on t'n- Principle- .if Fruity. The School of Biology covers a most productive lielil. and \\hile no large works have been produced, the contributions to periodical litcu ture and proceedings of scientific societies by such writer- a- Prof. John A. Ryder, Joseph T. Rothrock. William P. Wilson, and Joseph Leidy amount to enough to make many large volumes. It \\ill suflice to say that the titles of Dr. Joseph Leidy's contributions of thi> kind during four years were found to number 7<>. many of them involving considerable research. Indeed, the only way in which the literary activity of the professional staff can be even approximately shown in such a chapter as this is to state that during four and a half years 116 authors were reported as having published b...,ks. monographs, or articles to the number of 1..V41' titles. It is know n that even this large showing is incomplete, several authors having failed to respond to a request for a report of their literary work, returns are sufficient to show what intense activity in locaich. in 442 THE r.MVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. study, and in writing prevails in ;i body of men, scarcely one of \vliom is not also engaged in direct teaching and otlici 1 professional work. Altogether apart from the productions referred to in the above sketch, and even more directly products of the University, are two re- markable works. One is the Preliminary Report of the Committee to Investigate Modern Spiritualism, edited by Horace Howard Furuess, chairman. \ The committee was appointed in compliance with the terms of the gift of large endowment by the late Henry Seybert, and its proceed- ings are of extreme interest. The other is the great work on Animal Lo- comotion, by Eadweard Muybridge, who prosecuted his investigations under the auspices and on the premises of the University, producing un- der conditions of the most scientific accuracy instantaneous photographs of men, women, and animals while in ordinary or rapid motion. The work consists of over 700 large plates, some of them with from twelve to to twenty-four simultaneous pictures of the same act from different points of view, others of consecutive pictures at indefinitely brief inter- vals. The work has excited much attention in this country and abroad, and reflects much credit on the University. "The Department of the Science of Music," writes Dr. H. A. Clarke, the director of the department, "was established by the trustees Feb- ruary 2, 1875. Although chairs of music have been in existence for many years in the English universities, this was the first to be estab- lished in the United States, an example which was followed shortly afterward by Harvard. The duties attached to this chair in the Uni- versity of Pennsylvania differ so widely from those of the corresponding chair in the English universities as to make it a new departure in col- legiate instruction. In the English university the duties of the pro- fessor are limited chiefly to the examination of candidates for degrees who have received their technical training elsewhere. In the Univer- sity of Pennsylvania this technical training is the main duty of the pro- fessor. Being largely of the nature of an experiment, the course, in music, was first established as an independent department, but the suc- cess which attended it was such that in 1882 the trustees attached it to the Department of Philosophy. The course of instruction, which at the inception of the department was confined to harmony and counterpoint, extending through two years, was in 1880 increased to three years and made to include form and orchestration. The difference between the duties of this chair and those of the English universities has caused some modifications in the granting of degrees. This change was made necessary by the fact that many students who master the course of in- struction thoroughly and are well qualified to teach do not possess enough of the inventive faculty to produce original compositions. To such students the university grants a certificate, reserving the bach elor's degree for those who, in addition to technical knowledge, are gifted with sufficient originality to compose the prescribed thesis. A change was also imide in the manner of granting the doctor's degree. BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE UNIVEl;-! I 443 In the English universities this degree is granted to hiichcloi > who mi dergo a further examination and write the prescribed tin-sis, ili- lii ference between the examinations for Mus. B. and .Mu>. D. U-; slight that the latter is deprived of much of its distinction. The Uni- versity of Pennsylvania adopted the rule that the degree of Mu-. \>. should be reserved for musicians who have distinguished them>el composers of important works, thus enhancing the value of the degree. Being attached to the Department of Philosophy, the course in music may be taken as one of the three studies required for the degree of Ph. D. In 1886 the undergraduates of the University brought out the Greek play, Aristophanes' Acharnians, for which Dr. Clarke wrote the music. This successful revival of a classic drama was one of the academic events of the day. INDEX. Academy of Philadelphia (# Sketch of an English School), 3>, ;V>-4)7, 24:t. Academy of Political and Social Science, 199. Act of assembly confirming tho estates of the college, etc., 83, 8S, !>2. Alumni of the University, The: Distinguished at tin 1 , bur, 42O-I2*; science, -128-431; The Central Committeef th Alumni. i:;i-i:>7: the University, Hopkinson, White, 43S; Harncs, SU-vens, Newton, Srhaetb'-r. Bordrnan, Mitchell, Furness, Penuypacker. Murray, Smith, Dove, Kwing, Hitti-n- house, Reed, 439; Eastlake, Coppee, McMaster, Holies, McKlroy, Hrinton, Clark. Fullertou, Thompson, Thorpe, Seidensti eke r. Morgan, Kn>li, Marten, Wood! Dorsey, Dewes, Homer, Chapman, 440; Wood, Smith, Stillc, Hartwhornc, I.cidy, Allen, Pepper, Ashhurst, Norris, Hodge, Henson, Tyson, KYcsc, (Joodcll. Wnnn- ley, Sharswood, Hare, Parsons, Paterson, J'.is]>ham, Kyder. Kothrock. Wilson, My bridge, 441-442. American History and Institutions (nee School of), 370. American Philosophical Society, 54, 55, 184. 1S.~>. Archeology, Department of, 377. Archbishop of Canterbury's Letter to the Trustees, 1764,79,221. Architecture School, 3%. Art of Virtue, 26, 28. Arts, Department of, Chapter vn. Attendance from 1740-1892, 202. B. Bibliography of the University (see under Alumni), 438-142. Biological SVhool,The: Bartramaml Marshall. 327: Barton and Darlington. "28-390; Joseph Leidy, H. C. Wood, Allen, Hayden. K mdcr of the Biological School), 333; intention of the founder, 3:51 ; nmr-.,- in mam- malian anatomy, 335; in anatomy and physiology of plant*. 336; in I and economic botany, 337; in histology, 338; in embryology and rhnnistry, 339; in general biology, 340; tie Sea Isle City marine laboratory, 3U. :U2. Buildings, 1881-1892, 200. C. Charitable School, The, 231. (N" under Franklin. ) Charters, of 1749, 63; 1753, 68; 1755, 71; 177!. {; 17, SS; 17!M, !*2. Chemistry. (See Towne Scientific, and Biological schools.) City of Philadelphia, Relation of University to. Chapter vi. College, Girard, 18!i-l!>2. Committee (standing) of the University, 206. Constitutions of the Public. Academy of Philadelphia, 63. Corporation of the University, 205. MS 446 INDEX. Courses of study, 208, 230, 25S, 259, 260, 261, 262. 263, 264, 265, 267, 269, 280, 286, 298, 300- 308, 316, 319, 320, 326, 335-342, 359, 366-368, 373, 374, 375, 399-402. Dentistry, Department of, Chapter xi. Department of Archa-ology: American section. 377: Kpyptian section, 379; Assyrian section, Glyptic, 382, 383. Department of Arts: Early efforts for education in Pennsylvania, 256; Franklin and Smith, 257; the old curriculum, 258,259; the course in 1760,260,261; origin of the four years' course, 262,263; the course in 1810,264; annual catalogue, 266; the course in 1845, 267, 268, 269. Department of Dentistry : Origin, 309, 310; dental schools, 311 ; faculty, 314; btiild- ings, 316: methods, 317. Department, Graduate, for women. (See 384.) Department of Law: Introductory lecture by Justice James Wilson, 283; organiza- tion, 284; eminent professors, 285; curriculum, 286.* Department of Medicine : Beginning, 273 ; Franklin's services, 274 ; law regulating the practice of medicine, 275; eminent professors, 276; buildings and appliances, 277 ; laboratories, 278, 279 ; the course of study, 280. Department of Music, The : 442. Department of Philosophy, The: Organization, 364; courses and degrees, 365-369. Departments of the University, 197, 198. Department, Veterinary. (.S'ee356.) E. Education, Chapter n, 133. English, 168. English (HC? study of, under Franklin) 48. Experimentation, Franklin's, 30, 33, 154. F. Fellowships, 254. Finance and Economy (gee Wharton School) 320. Franklin, Benjamin: Birth and anceslry, 9, 145; boyhood books, 10; learns composi- tion, 11 ; his first class, 11-16; studies mathematics, grammar, logic, 12; princi- ples and morals, 14; his discoveries, 15; plan for studying natural history, 15; his sociology. 1(>; plan of teaching morals, 17; his second class, 18; his symbol of e.lneation, 18; Franklin, Jonson, Carlyle, 18; the Junto, 18, 20, 21, 22, 23,21, 133; plan for study of reading, 19; Cotton Mather's benefit societies, 20; his third class, 23; founds Philadelphia Library, 25-121 ; Franklin's Presbyterian* ism, 26; Art of Virtue, 27, 28, 147; observations on his readings, 29; Franklin and Lord Louden, 29; observations on the sailing of ships, 30; his fourth class in English in the English school, 30; his verses, 31,118; Franklin and Whit- field, 32, 139,145'; experiment with Whitfie.ld's voice, 33; his sixth class, 33; sys- tem of prizes, 34, 119; on the study of Latin and modern languages, 35. 51, 167, HW; sketch of an English school, 36, 39, 95, 143; observations on the inten- tions of the original founders of the academy in Philadelphia. 39-51 ; the study f English, 40, 42, 43, 44, 45,46, 47, 49, 50, 60; on the orphan school houses in Philadelphia, 52,96; experiment with ants, 52; use of the word "busi- ness" (and note), 53; founds the American Philosophic Society, 54, 55, is:; |>C. : establishes the Academy of Philadelphia, 56; his proposals relating to the edu- cation of youth in Pennsylvania, 57-63; arithmetic, geography, history, moral- ity, language, natural history, economic history, Ibid; constitutions of the Pub- lic Academy in Philadelphia, 63-68; charter of the Academy and Charity School, 68-71; charter of the College of Philadelphia, 71-77: I > < laration of the Trustees of the College, SO, xi; first charter of the I'uiversity, 83-88; his spirit of com- promise, 95; made doctor of laws by the University of St.' Andrews, 97; Frank- INDEX. 447 lin and Hume, 97, 104, 146, 148; Franklin and Lord Kanes, 07. 1 Hi. 1 IT; hi* ideas about Canada and the United States, !7; educates tho British public, 98; exam- ination before the House of Commons, 98,148; Franklin and Adam Suiitl 104, 135,142,150; influence of "The Wealth of Nations. 1 ' 100; Washing of " The Wealth of Nations" 100 (note); FrankHn and Priestly, 101, 151 ; Frank- lin and the seal of the United States, 102; publishes the Aiin-riraii con-titi:- in France, 103 ; his comments on them to Dr. Cooper, lOi ; Franklin and John Adams, 105, 171; Adams's ideas upon education, 173-180; Franklin and \V- 106; asked to write his autobiography, 106; Congress requests him to make a school book, 108; gift of books to Franklin, Massas, 109; suggests water-tight compartments iu ships, 110; welcomed home by the University, 111; Franklin and Marshall College, 112; Dr. Pepper's address at Centennial anniversary. 1 13; Franklin in the Convention of 1787, 13, 117, 161; bequest to Boston, 119, 169; pro- test against slavery, and religious views, 122 ; death, 123 ; Mirabean's eulogy, 123; Lord Jeffrey's eulogy, 124 ; Sir James Mackintosh's eulogy. 127; John Fos- ter's eulogy, 128; Lord Brougham, 129; Robert C. Winthrop's, 13<>; II Greeley's, 131; his articles of belief and acts of religion, 133; the "Silence Do- Good Papers," "A Modest Inquiry into the Nature and Necessity of a Taper ( 'ur- rency," 134; he makes an epoch in political economy, 135; fondness for the theatre, 136; ideas on government, 137, 155, 156, 160, 161, 164, 165, 166; leaves his fame to others, 138 ;' letter to Dr. Sanil. Johnson, of King's College, offering the provostship of the university, 139; peculiar character of the university. 1 in; Franklin and Malthus, 141 ; on the future of tho English race, llu': draws tho Albany plan of government, 144, 145; Franklin and Provost Smith, 141. 115 (note). Franklin and Charles Thompson, the Stamp Act, 148; Franklin and the physiocrats, Turgot, Quesuay, Du Pont do Nemours, Voltaire, 149,150-151; advice to office- seekers, 152; secret of his style, 153; his sagacity in reaching the public, 153; the useful in education, 154 ; " free ships make free goods," 155 ; his conversations. 157; hi* love of Boston, 158; international copyright, 159; immigration, 1.V; his faith in America, 161; his views on Shay's Rebellion contrasted with Jeffer- son's, 162; Franklin and Thomas Paine, 163; Franklin's name on the map, 163 (note); Franklin and Jefferson, 164, 180-182; he formulates tho national idea, 164; his motion for prayers in the Convention, 165; comments on the Constitu- tion, 165; pamphlet on the Internal State of America, 166; letter to Washi' on the African race, 167; letter to Noah Webster, H',7; the Franklin, fund. 17i>: the educational ideas of Adams, Jefferson, and Franklin compared, 183; th- Franklin Institute, 185-189 ; Girard College, 189-193; the Philadelphia Manual Training School, 193; these institutions illustrate Franklin's ideas in education. 185-194 ; seen in the Wharton School, 320-326 ; in the School of American History and Institutions, 374; Franklin and the University of Pennsylvania. ! ' seq.; books that influenced Franklin, 10, 11, 12, 18, 19; his ideas utilitarian. 14. 17, 19 20 21 22, 26, 27, 29, 30, 34, 35, 36, 47, 48, 49, 50, 53. 54, 56, 95, 97, 98, 103, 105. 109, 110, 114, 116, 118, 119, 122, 124, 126. 127, 129, 131, 132, 134, 135, 136, 137, 141. 111'. 1 1 1. Mil. 147, 149, 153, 154, 156, 159, 163, 168, 170, 176, 177, 182, 183, 186, 189, 193. Franklin and Marshall College, 112. Funds, vested, 201. G. Girard College, 189-192. Government of the University. (See Chapter in. ) Graduate department for women, The, Chapter x\i. founded by Col. Joseph nett, 384 ; faculty and degrees, 385, 386. H. History and Institutions, School of American, 370. History, Study of (see under Franklin, Jefferson also), 61, 62. 448 INDEX. Hornet- Institute. (8& Institute, Wistar.) Hospital, University, Chapter xiv. Institute, Franklin, 186, 187, 188. Institute. Wist ar, 278. J. Jefferson, 180, 181, 182. Junto, 21, 22, 23. K. Keating, Prof., and Franklin Institute, 188. L. Laboratories, 278, 279, 375. Laboratory of Hygiene, The, 375, 376. Languages, Study of, 35, 47, 51, 120, 268, 270. Law, Department of, 227. Libraries, for Philadelphia (nee under Franklin), 24, 25, 121; of university. :J M. Manual training schools of Philadelphia. 193, 194. Medicine. Department of. 273, 220. Music, Department of. II-'. O. Oratory, Study of, (sec under Franklin), 50. Orders in council of 1703, 77. Organizations within the University: Social groups, 410; Alumni of the Departments, 411; Seminaries, 413; Philomathean, The, 413; Zelosophic, The, 414 ; The Uni- versity Record, 116; Greek letter societies, 418; Y. M. C. A., 41!i: Orphan schools, 52, 96. P. IVn.i. William. 215,252. Penn, Thomas and Richard, charter to the Academy, fix; t<> the College, 71, 218, 236. Pennsylvania, Relation of the University to State of. Chapter v. Pepper, William. M. i>.. 1.1.. P.. provost, lit."), 190. Philadelphia, Relation of the University to. Chapter VI. Philosophy, I lepartment of. 364. Philosophi< -al Society, American. 54,184,185. Physical education and athletics: Entrance examination. 361; care of the body. :;r.2. 363. Physiocrats, 149,151. Professors and instructors, 201. Proposals relating to the education of youth in Pennsylvania, Franklin, 58. Provost, duties of. 210. 211. Publications of the University, 199. INI) I R. Relations of the University and the city: The old Academy, 243; College, Academy and Charity School, ^0,84^ 848 j Provost Smitli. L'17; in.-oi.... ,n : ,', of the coll,--,- and the University, a t!); thn Crosson bequest, -.'.Vi; fonndat free scholarships, 251; university equipment. ITC', 2r>'.\, I'.'.l. Relations of tho University to the State of Pcnuyalvania, Chapter v. 8. Scholarships, 251. School of American History and Institntions, The: Causes leading to it* establish- ment, 370; effect of the civil war on the college curriculum. .".71 : library <.l tin- school, 372, 373; nature of the courses, ::7I. School of Architecture, The: Progress of architectural study in America, 396-396; organization and course, 39JM02. Schools in the University. (See Departments.) School programme, Franklin, 15. Scope of the University : The corporation, 205 ; standing committees, 206; organ i /a - tion, 207; elective courses, 208; rank, 209; duties of provost. -Jin. L'll; ntral committee of alumni, 212; admission of women, 212; relation to the city of Phil- adelphia, 213; acquisition of land, 213, 214. Sketch of an English school, Franklin's, 36. Sketch of the university, historical, Chapter iv. Smith, William, D. p., provost, 143, 218, 219, 222, 75, 236, 237, 244, 247, 257. T. Tables of attendance, 1740-1892, 202. Towne Scientific School: Founding of, 289; mines, arts, and manufactures, 290-296; organization, 297, 298; course in chemistry, 300; metallurgy and mining. 301; civil engineering, 302; mechanical engineering, 303; electrical engineering, 306; admission, 307. Trustees, Board of, 238, 239, 249. U. University Hospital: Founding of, 343-347; organization, 348-350; erection of tho Gibson wing for chronic diseases, 351 ; work of the hospital, 350-366. University, The, in its relations to the State of Pennsylvania: Francis Daniel Panto- rius, 233 ; William Penn Charter School, 234 ; the founders of the university, 236; grant from Thomas Penn, 236; Provost Smith, 236; board of trustee* created, 238, 239; acts of assembly 1832, 1&38, 240. University Libraries, The: Franklin committee, 387; the collections, Louis \\ i. Waite's 388; Evans Rogers, Allen, 389; Tobias Wagner, Stille". r.-ildwell. Henry Seyhert, Kranth, McCarteo, Pott, Hayden, Semitic. Middle. I. eut-rl, American History and Government, Pepper, Prime, Ashburner. Leidy. Harris. :IL'; library building, 393-395. University of Pennsylvania, origin, 236; tho scope of the University, 205-'J1 1 ; doc- uments and charters, 36, 52, 58-95 ; Provost Smith, 236. U47 ; The University and the general assembly, 233-241. Tho University and Philadelphia. Jl Department of Arts, 255-272; The Medical Department. 1'7:: >-': The Law De- partment, 283-288; The Towne Scientific School, 289-308; The Department of Dentistry, 309-319; The Wharton School of Finance and Keonomy. 320-.tV,: The Biological School, 327-342; The University Hospital, 343-Ii.V.: The Veterinary Department, 356-360; The Department of Physical Education. 361-363; The De- partment of Philosophy, 364-369,443; School of American History and Intitu- 1180 29 450 INDEX. tions, 370-374; The Laboratory of Hygiene, 375,376; The Department of Archae- ology, 377-383; The Graduate Department for Women, 384-386; The University Libraries, 387-395; The School of Architecture, 396-402; Undergraduate Life, 403-409; Organizations within the University, 410-419; The Alumni of the Uni- versity, 420-437; The Bibliography of the University, 438-442; The Department of Music, 442; The History of the University, (1)1740-1881,215-232; (n) 1881-1892, 195-203. University, of the State of Pennsylvania, 224-225 ; charter, 83. University Undergraduate Life, 403-409. Veterinary Department : Founding of, 356 ; organization, 357-360. Wharton School of Finance and Economy : Inauguration, 320; plan, 321-324 ; faculty, 324; relations to university extension, 325; American Academy of Political and Social Science, 325 ; publications, 326. Wistar and Horner, 278. Women, admission of, 212. (See Graduate School for, Chapter xxi.) LJb THE LIBRARY UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA Santa Barbara STACK COLLECTION THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE STAMPED BELOW. lOw-6,'62 (C97-J484 ) 476D 1 I'll III I Hill I Illl III A 001453192