GIFT OF Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2008 with funding from IVIicrosoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/effectiveenglishOOclaxrich By courtesy of the sadptor, Daniel C. Frenck LINCOLN. An American User of Effective English. EFFECTIVE ENGLISH BY PHILANDER P. CLAXTON AND JAMES McGINNlSS y>9ic ALLYN AND BACON BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO ATLANTA SAN FRANCISCO COPYRIGHT, 1917. BY PHILANDER P. CLAXTON AND JAMES McGINNISS Nottaiooti l^teBS J. 8. (Jushing Co. — Berwick *. Hiuith Co. Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. ADVERTISEMENT Effective English is a complete textbook in composition and rhetoric. The authors have produced a volume more practical and more attractive than others in this field. It is generally recognized that English is the most practical study in the schools, since it is constantly in use in every walk of life. The present volume goes further than other books in shaping the study of com- position and rhetoric so that they will be an asset to the pupil on leaving school. This utilitarian aim is revealed throughout. The best literary models are used, but the work is essentially practical. Training in newspaper writing finds a place. There is a chapter on English to Sell. Letter writing, punctuation, and grammar are subjects which receive much attention. Oral English has the important place it de- serves. The authors are not afraid of the Lerm Business English, but recognize it as existing and as having a right to exist. Effective English is as attractive as it is practical. Stim- ulating pictures help to develop the pupil's imagination. The subjects for compositions cover the whole field of youthful interest. The sense of the dramatic, so univer- sal in young persons, is utilized as the basis of exercises. The pupil does not have to wait to find how his compo- sition has been received. His classmates are made his critics, thus taking much of the labor of the correction off the shoulders of the teacher. The authors have given careful attention to what is - iii 459934 iv Advertisement demanded of teachers of English by those representative bodies which are foremost in voicing present-day require- ments. Numerous references will be found in the book to the recommendations of the Board of Regents of New York, the State Board of New Jersey, the Illinois Asso- ciation of Teachers of English, and the Joint Commission on the Reorganization of High School English, represent- ing the National Educational Association and the National Council of Teachers of English. No book has a better set of literary models than Effec- tive English or gives more attention to the canons of good rhetorical usage. In wealth of material, in attractiveness, in number of practical exercises, in literary quality, and, above all, in recognition of the practical advantage of good English . in daily life, Effective English sets a new standard for books in composition and rhetoric. The Publishers. August, 1917. CONTENTS Part One. Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Part Two. Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Part Three, Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Part Four. Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Elements of Effectiveness 1 . Effective Expression 2. The Principles of Effective English 3. English to Sell 4. Effective Paragraphing . 5. Effective Seeing 6. Getting Effective Material 7. The Effective Use of Material 8. Effective Speaking . 9. Effective Story-Telling . 10. Effective Revision . PA6B 1 18 26 45 59 65 81 93 111 120 Effective English in Social Use 11. Social and Business English . . . ,. .131 12. The Parts of an Effective Letter . . . . 144 13. Kinds of Letters 161 14. Social Motives in Effective English . . .176 The Four Forms of Effective English 15. Forms of Discourse 191 1 6. Effective Narration 198 17. Effective Description 210 18. Effective Exposition 232 19. Effective Argument 250 20. Effective Debate . . . . . . .265 The Component Parts of Effective English 21. Words . . . .' 285 22. Derivation of Words 300 23. The Sentence . 311 24. The Paragraph ....... 325 VI Contents Part Five. What Makes English Effective Chapter 25. Style Chapter 26. Requisites of Effective Style . Chapter 27. The Mechanics of Effective Style Chapter 28. Beauty, Taste, and Criticism . Chapter 29. Figures of Speech . Chapter 30. Poetry and Drama . Part Six. Grammar I. Parts of Speech II. Nouns III. Pronouns . IV. Adjectives . V. Verbs . VI. Adverbs VII. Prepositions, Conjunctions, VIII. The Right Word IX. Parsing X. Analysis of Sentences Appendix A. Punctuation and Capitalization Appendix B. Suggestions to the Teacher of English Appendix C Finding List Interjections PAOK 349 358 377 389 401 413 440 448 460 470 474 494 498 505 513 516 529 540 546 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Lincoln, an American User of Effective English . . Frontispiece PAGE Atalanta's Race. — Poynter 3 Reading from Homer. — Tadema 5 The Boyhood of Raleigh. — Millais " . • 6 Greek Girls Playing Ball. — Leighton 13 Into the Woods 15 Parting of Hector and Andromache. — Maignon .... 20 Freshmen versus Seniors 25 Entrance of Joan of Arc into Orleans. — Sherrer .... 30 They're Off! 31 "You're Too Slow" . . . . . . . . . .39 Indians 43 Rouget de Lisle 48 The Ipanee or Ancient Men 56 A Kentucky Horse Show 57 Tomb of the " Black Prince," Canterbury Cathedral .... 62 Dr. Johnson in the Anteroom of Lord Chesterfield. — Ward . . 66 Stairway. Boston Public Library . . . . . . .70 St. Louis of France in Palestine. — A. Cabanel 77 Crossing the Line in the 440 78 Palazzo Vecchio at Florence 83 Ready to Start 87 Fishing in Crater Lake 92 It is There I 96 President Wilson Reviewing West Point Cadets 104 The Pringle House 105 Trade Dressmaking, Pratt Institute 109 Charge of the Scotch Grays at Waterloo. — Thompson . . .112 Street Scene, Cairo . .118 Shakespeare at the Court of Elizabeth 124 Topping the Timbers 130 The Belfry Tower of Bruges 133 vii viii List of Illustrations PAOV Norman Stairway, Canterbury 1 38 Auld Brig o' Doon . . . . 142 Egyptians Plowing 147 Drawing-room, Pringle House 152 An Aqueduct 1 60 Paradise Road and Mt. Rainier 1 63 Gates of St. Augustine 1 73 Winners in Contest at the Reindeer Fair 175 The Great Conde at the Court of Louis XIV. — Gerome . . .183 Saluting the Flag . . . 190 The Dome of St. Peter's at Rome 192 Sky Scraping 197 Street Scene, 'Naples 208 La Jacquerie. — Rochegrosse 213 Colonial Entrance, Pringle House 219 Diego Garcia de Paredes. — Dore : Don Quixote .... 228 Independence Hall 234 Perfect Style in the High Jump . 240 Cascades, Columbia River, Oregon 248 Roman Chariot Race. — Alexander Wagner 254 Nathan Hale 258 Mischief Afoot ! 263 The Thin Red Line. — Gibb .271 Church of St. Anthony at Padua 275 Cumberland Gap 283 Bedouins of the Desert ......... 290 Waiting for the Signal ......... 295 One of the World's Beauty Spots 305 Winning with Daylight Between 310 Michigan Avenue and Grant Park, Chicago 316 Natural Bridge, Virginia . . . • 323 The Dream. — Detaille 330 Lincoln. — Linson 337 All Hands to the Pumps!— Tuke . . . . . . .345 Central Court of a House in Pompeii 347 List of Illustrations ix PAGE Manistique Creek, Michigan, in a Fine Fishing Country . . . 353 Football Strategy 360 Indian Camp on Two Medicine Lake, Glacier National Park . . 367 The Battle of Waterloo. — Francois Flameng 376 Woolworth Building, New York City . . . . . . . 382 Capitol at Washington 388 John Sinook and Family 395 On the Greenbrier River, West Virginia 403 Birthplace of Robert Burns 411 Moonlight on Grand Lake, Rocky Mountain National Park . .419 Multnomah Falls 429 Lake Como, Italy 430 A Blue Grass Home 438 Killarney 443 " Thought You Said Dinner Was Ready ! " . . . . .448 A Sea of Wild Flowers 452 The Finish of a Canoe Race 456 A Midday Plunge 460 A Japanese Holiday 463 The Fujiyama Bridge, Japan 468 A Nook in the Woods " . . .473 Columbia River, Oregon 478 One— Two— Three!. . 482 Same Against Same 485 'The Bear 492 A Broad Survey 496 Ohio River Steamers Caught in the Ice . . ^ . . . . 500 Bridal Veil Falls, Yosemite 504 Richelieu on the Dike at La Rochelle. — Motte 510 Blarney Castle 514 Wreck, United States Warship 51 & When Will Supper be Ready ? . .520 East Fork, Little Miami . . " 526 Castello Orsini . . . . ' 534 Looking Across Crater Lake • "*_ * ^^ EFFECTIVE ENGLISH PART ONE ELEMENTS OF EFFECTIVENESS CHAPTER I EFFECTIVE EXPRESSION True ease in writing comes by art, not chance. — Popk. Effective English. — The study of English deals with the expression of thought in words. To render Eng- lish effective., you must make the expression fit the thought. Note the connection between thought and expression. Thought is, and should be, first. But thought and expres- sion react the one upon the other. "I must feel the thing first," says Burroughs, "and then I can say it." On the other hand, if you strive to say a thing well, one of the results will be increased power to think effectively. Talking, Speaking, and Writing. — There are three things that you, as a student of effective English, should do. . You should talk clearly., speak persuasively^ and write forcibly. Even in conversation, you should use English in such a way as to make yourself easily understood. You 1 2 Effective Expression are sure to do some speaking, as distinguished from mere talking, in school societies and other organizations. Here you should make your words felt. And finally, you should know how to write so that you will say what you intend to say. You must make your writing forcible. Not to be able to do this, puts you at a disadvantage, without any good excuse on your part. The ability to speak or write is not so much a gift as it is the result of intelligent and painstaking practice, rightly directed. This practice and this direction are furnished by the study of Effective English. Effective English as Preparation for Life. — Important as this is to you now, it is still more so in later life, w^hen you come to make your way in the world. One who ex- pects to rise at all above his fellows must know how to talk, speak, and write acceptably. If you cannot do so, you will be seriously handicapped. Rhetoric and Composition. — You study rhetoric for two reasons : first, that you may be able to speak and write effectively ; and second, that you may be able to know literary beauty when you hear it or read it, and be able to enjoy it.^ The practical side of rhetoric is called composition. It teaches the art of arranging and expressing your thoughts with propriety and good taste, so that they may be under- stood without undue effort, and may produce the intended effect upon the mind of the hearer or reader. As you are to devote both thought and effort to this 1 The study of English as a training for efficient work should be distin- guished from the study of it as a preparation for the wholesome enjoyment of leisure. — From the Beport of the National Joint Committee on the Beorganization of High School English. Exercises Based on Pictures 3 study, it is well to note the following definition of rhetoric, as stated by Blair, a distinguished authority upon this sub- ject. Read it over until you have made it your own. It is so well said that it would be difficult to improve upon it. Rhetoric is the art of expressing thought effectively in words. The study implies an investigation of the principles that under- lie the accepted rules of cultured speaking and writing, to- gether with the application of those rules in practical discourse. In other words, it makes known the secrets of literary effect, and teaches us so to present our thoughts as to influence in any desired manner the intellects, the feelings, and the actions of our fellow men. — Lectures on Rhetoric, Hugh Blair. Atalanta's Race. — Poynter. EXERCISES BASED ON PICTURES i Atalanta's Race. — Study the picture, and tell the following story orally as if you had seen the race. Atalanta, a maiden of Arcadia, imposed upon her suitors a strange condition. To have her hand in marriage they must conquer her in a footrace; if they failed, they must forfeit their lives. Hippomenes won by throwing three golden apples, 1 The instructor is free to use or to omit this and the succeeding ex- ercises based on pictures; or he may pass them by now, and come back to them later. Their use is suggested rather than required, in order to afford abundant and varying material for composition work. 4 Effective Expression as he ran. Atalanta stooped to gather them one after another, and thus lost the race. Motivation or Incentive. — Expressing thought effec- tively in words is greatly aided by what is 'called motiva- tion ^ or incentive^ which includes three things, (1) the purpose you have in mind — for instance, to tell a good story. (2) your point of view — that is, the reason why you desire to tell it ; and (3) your audience — that is, those to whom you wish to tell it. Some high school girls are on their way to school. One of the number recalls a laughable incident which happened at church the day before. Her purpose is to tell how a well-dressed gen- tleman in the pew just in front of her accidentally sat down on his new silk hat. Her point of view is the pure fun of the thing, and her audience is the group of laughing girls who hear the story. Was her story told effectively ? - The only way to an- swer that would be to know how her schoolmates enjoyed her picture of the man's dismay. 1 Motivation. To be understood is the primary purpose of all writing ; to be interesting is a close second. Since either purpose presupposes something to convey and some one to receive, an adequate motive should be created or imagined for every assignment; for example, Our City Streets Purpose — to show why the streets should be improved. Point of view — that of a resident. Audience — the taxpayer. Without incentive, writing is strained and unnatural. A real incen- tive is best ; an imagined incentive is better than none. — From the new English Syllabus, Board of Regents, New York. Important Cautions Reading from Homer. — Tadema. EXERCISES BASED ON PICTURES Reading from Homer. — This might be called effective Greek ! With the open scroll before him, one of the group is reading a tale from Homer, while his listeners hang on every word of the story. Does he tell of the deeds of Grecian Achilles or Trojan Hector ? Or does he trace the wanderings of Ulysses ? Describe the picture and weave into your description some Homeric story. You may do this orally, or in writing. Important Cautions. — Before beginning work on the following exercises, let the class name three members, chosen for their fitness, as a permanent editorial committee, whose duty it shall be to enforce correctness as to the fol- lowing seven items. ^ The instructor in English will be a member, ex officio^ of the editorial committee, and will see to it that the members are not overcrowded by this extra work. Let the work he done a little at a time. I. See that there is a period at the end of each sentence, ex- cept in a direct question, where the question mark is to be used. II. See that there is a period after all abbreviations. III. See that each sentence begins with a capital. 1 From Bequirements in Form, Illinois Association of Teachers of English. 6 Effective Expression IV. See that all proper names begin with a capital. V. See that the names of the months, and of the days of the week, begin with a capital. VI. See that the names of the seasons, when personified, and the points of the compass, when referring to sections of the country, begin with a capital. VII. See that each paragraph is properly indented. Spelling List. — This editorial committee should keep a list of words misspelled hy pupils in their daily exercises. When the number of words reaches fifty., the list should be used in spelling drill. The Boyhood of Raleigh. — Millais. EXERCISES BASED ON PICTURES The Boyhood of Raleigh. — The picture above is a copy of a painting by the English painter, Millais. His two sons were models for the boys in the picture. It represents Sir Walter Exercises in Effective Expression 7 Raleigh and his half-brother, Sir Humphrey Gilbert, two of England's most famous navigators and explorers, in their boy- hood, listening to tales of the sea. The two young dreamers are far away on the wings of their fancy, as the sailor tells of deeds upon the Spanish Main. 1. What story is he telling? Put your imagination to work, and think out some tale. You may give it as if told by this seaman, or you may tell it as happening to yourself. 2. Raleigh and Queen Elizabeth. — Refer to Sir Walter Scott's iiTemV- worth, and relate the romantic deed by which Raleigh won the favor of his Queen. I EXERCISES IN EFFECTIVE EXPRESSION i Ida M. Tarbell gives the following account in Abraham Lincoln's own words, of how he earned his first dollar, and of the impression this made upon his boyish heart. In 1826 he was engaged as a ferry- man on the Ohio, and that put it into his head to go as a flatboatman to New Orleans, as the custom then was among the farmers along the Ohio River in order to dispose of products raised on their farms. It is told as he gave it to Mr. Seward. Lincoln's First Dollar " Seward," he said, " you never heard, did you, how I earned my first dollar ? " " No," said Mr. Seward. " Well," replied he, " I was about eighteen years of age. We had succeeded in raising, chiefly by my labor, sufflcient produce, as I thought, to justify me in taking it down the river to sell. After much persuasion I had got the consent of my mother to go, and had constructed a flatboat large enough to take the few" barrels of things we had gathered, down to New Orleans. A steamer was going down the river, and the custom was, if passengers were at any of the landings, they were to go out in 1 The abundance of exercises provided here and throughout the book is for the sake of variety of choice on the part of the pupils. Pupils should be encouraged to write or speak on what most appeals to each. No one student is expected to attempt all or even a large part of these exercises. 8 Efifective Expression a boat, the steamer stopping and taking them on board. I was contemplating my new boat, and wondering whether I could make it stronger or improve it in any part, when two men with trunks came down to the shore in carriages, and looking at the different boats, singled out mine and asked : ' Who owns this?' I answered modestly, 'I do.' *Will you,' said one of them, ' take us and our trunks out to the steamer ? ' ' Cer- tainly,' said I. I was very glad to have the chance of earning something, and supposed that each of them would give me a couple of bits. The trunks were put in my boat, the passengers seated them- selves on them, and I sculled them out to the steamer. They got on board, and I lifted the trunks and put them on the deck. The steamer was about to put on steam again, when I called out, 'You have forgotten to pay me.' Each of them took from his pocket a silver half-dollar, and threw it on the bottom of my boat. I could scarcely believe my eyes as I picked up the money. You may think it was a very little thing, and in these days it seems to me like a trifle, but it was a most important incident in my life. I could scarcely credit that I, the poor boy, had earned a dollar in less than a day ; that by honest work I had earned a dollar. The world seemed wider and fairer before me. I was a more hopeful and thoughtful boy from that time." — Slightly adapted from Ida M. Tarbell. (a) Unity, Coherence, and Emphasis. — For your first effort in ex- pressing thought effectively in words, you are to try the story told above, before you start to write this story, let us ask three questions about it. First. — Is everything else subordinated to the development of one leading idea, that of telling how Lincoln earned his first dollar ? Does Lincohi stick to his subject ? If so, the story has unity. Second. — Does he tell things in the right order, or does he get the cart before the horse ? Is there a proper sequence in his relation of this story ? Does his use of words, of sentences, Exercises in Effective Expression 9 and of paragraphs, all help to carry forward the story ? In the play of Julius Coesar, where Marc Antony's eloquence carries all before him he says of his own speaking, " I only speak right on." Does Lincoln do this ? If so, the story has coherence. Third. — Does Lincoln reach the point he is after ? Does he lay stress on the most important part of the story ? The way to tell in this case is to ask if Mr. Seward caught the point of Lincoln's narrative, and if the reader gets the point of Miss Tarbell's anecdote. If so, the story is told with emphasis. You will no doubt agree that both Lincoln and Miss Tarbell meet these tests in this case. Lincoln is considered one of the world's best story-tellers. And with her stories of men and events Miss Tarbell has caught the ear of the people who read. Continue to ask these three questions about whatever you hear or read. Put every conversation, speech, or piece of writing to this test. Watch carefully your own speaking and writing in this regard. (6) Testing Your Own Work for Unity ^ Coherence^ and Emphasis. — Let each student write the first item below, and take at least one of the remaining items, orally or in writing. Test it carefully. 1. Get Lincoln's story in mind by reading it over care- fully. Frame a slight outline, mental or written, omitting no important feature of the incident. Then write it as it comes to you, with your outline in mind. When it is written, test it as to its unity, coherence, and emphasis. If necessary, rewrite it. 2. Try to tell the substance of the story in about twenty- five words. Omit details. You thus get the gist of the story. 3. Drop the conversation from Miss Tarbell's story, and tell it in the third person. 4. Vocational. — Tell how you earned your first money. Or give a brief account of any transaction in which you made money. 5. Discuss this topic : How I could make my living if I had to leave school now. 10 Eflfective Expression 6. Answer this question : How can a girl make a living in my town? 7. Dramatization. — Let several students represent the members of an office force : employer, chief clerk, clerks, sten- ographers, the office boy. A boy or girl comes into the office to ask for work. Deal with it in a business way. Use good English. Time, five minutes. 8. Answering an Advertisement. — Let there be written on the blackboard an advertisement asking for students who will devote part of their time to work in an office. Several students will volunteer to write a reply, asking for the position. Let one competent student criticize these replies as to what to say, how to say it, and form. 9. Three-minute Talk. — Discuss in whole or in part the topic, How high school pupils may pay their own way. (c) Class Criticism on Unity ^ Coherence^ and Emphasis. — Out of the papers submitted, the teacher, without naming the writers, will read several papers or designate one or more pupils to read them. The class are to listen carefully for the following points, and express their views regarding them. 1. Would it have been better, in the case of any paper thus read, to omit any point ? If so, the paper lacks unity. 2. Did all parts of each paper hold together, and did the story go straight to the point ? Was everything in its right order? Did the paper read as if a good outline had been made at the outset, and as if the writer had referred to it in preparing his paper, as the builder refers to the architect's plans ? If not, it lacks coherence. 3. Did the story accomplish what it started out to do? Was the material out of which the writer made his story so expressed as to make a better effect than usual ? If not, it lacks the proper emphasis. If any pupil chooses to give his story orally, the teacher may select some pupil to criticize it, with regard to the questions given above. This criticism must be courteous. In all criticisms, personalities must be avoided. Exercises in Effective Expression 11 Note. — Where the high school possesses a reflectoscope, it may be used to advantage here. Throw upon the screen one of the papers written in class, and discuss such items as indention of paragraphs, punctuation, capitalization, and other points coming under the supervision ot the per- manent editorial committee. Let a member of this committee conduct this discussion. (d) Effective Narration. — The stories which follow are all easily told. They should be assigned to different members of the class, each student taking one. An outline should be prepared in each case. After writing your story for the first time, study what you have written to see if (1) you have told your story flowingly, that is, without interruption; (2) everything is in its proper order; (3) you make the things that are important seem important. Then rewrite the story to correct any faults or mistakes you have made. When some of the work is read to the class, listen to see how your classmates have succeeded in doing what you have been trying to do. Refer to John Harrington Cox's Knighthood in Germ and Flower, for several tales, simply told. Any of the following will do. 1. Christmas at Arthur's Court. 2. The Passing Year. 3. The Green Girdle. 4. The Adventure at the Green Chapel. Christmas at Arthur's Court. — This is a story of true chiv- alry. At a feast, the king had taken a pledge not to dine that day until some brave knight should lay in jeopardy life for life, and trust to Fortune for success. The first course is hardly served when into that hall there rides a terrible knight, the tallest on earth. In one hand he holds a holly branch, and in the other a battle-ax, forged of green steel and gold. He issues challenge. At first the king, and then in his stead good Gawain, takes up the challenge. " If he is so hardy as to give a stiff blow, and accept one in return, let him seize this battle-ax, and the Green Knight will bare his neck to the stroke. Within a year and a day, however, Gawain if he be not afraid, must se^ek out the Green Knight and take a blow in return." Gawain is not afraid, and the blow is delivered. That proud head rolls off, falling to the floor. The Green Knight stoops and catches up his severed head, filling the hall with terror. 12 EflFective Expression The rest of the story is worth the reading: how Gawain passed the year; how he left Camelot to ride to meet the knight ; how he met the lord of a certain castle, and the com- pact he made. The adventure of the Green Girdle tells how at the Green Chapel he took the blow he had bargained for ; and what then happened.^ (e) Effective Description. — Read the account of Nausicaa's (Nau- sic-a-a) Washing of the Garments, in The Odyssey^ book vi, lines 1 to 137, William CuUen Bryant's translation, or any good translation within the pupil's reach. Here is a beautiful bit of descriptive story, where a fair young princess of the olden times, attended by her maidens, goes to the river to wash her raiment. Describe the scene. (/) Narration and Description. — Read the account of Siegfried's Coming to Burgundy in The Story of the Nibelungs, Lettsom's trans- lation; or that of the Norroena Romances and Epics; or William Morris's Nihelung Stories. Tell the story, giving a description of Siegfried. Young Siegfried, king of the Nibelungs, the pride of Ger- man epic story, hearing of the beauty and loveliness of Kriem- hild, comes to Burgundy with but eleven companions. His flashing armor and glittering vestments, added to his knightly bearing, attract the attention of Gunther, king of Burgundy, and the king invites him to remain at his court. For love of Kriemhild he enters Gunther's service and abides there a year without seeing his lady love. She, in secret, speaks kindly of him, looking often upon him when he is unaware. He distinguishes himself in various adventures, and wins the admiration and then the love of Kriemhild. He overthrows Hagan in a friendly wrestling match. Hagan turns against Siegfried forever after. {g) Vocational Guidance. — With the underlying thought of Lin- coln's story in mind, that is, the joy he felt in money honestly earned, iThfs may be assigned to a group of students, to bring in the stories one a day, for four days. Or all may be assigned at once to dif- ferent pupils. Have the best one or two of each set read aloud, without mentioning who wrote it. If the instructor prefers, Exercises (d), (c), and (/) may he omitted at this time, and taken later in the course. Exercises Based on Pictures 13 let some one in the class who had quit school to go to work, but who found that he needed the preparation the high school affords, and has come back, discuss the first topic below, orally. An oral discussion of the second topic, summarized by some one of the class chosen beforehand, will bring out important points. The third topic may be assigned to two students for oral discus- sion, one boy telling what he thinks of the work of the traveling salesman, as an occupation ; and one girl discussing the profession of trained nurse as a means of livelihood. Let a committee of three criticize this exercise. 1. Why I quit school, and why I returned to school. 2. What should I consider besides pay in accepting a position ? 3. My chosen vocation. (a) the traveling salesman ; (h) the trained nurse. (Ji) Making an Outline. — Make an outline, covering the points so far brought out. Recite from your outline, if called upon, (i) Definition. — Learn Bla,ir's definition of rhetoric. Greek Girls Playing Ball. — Leighton. EXERCISES BASED ON PICTURES Nausicaa Playing Ball. — The artist's title for this picture is Greek Girls Playing Ball, but the beautiful little story of Nausicaa at play with her companions after completing her 14 Effective Expression task of washing the garments, as told by Homer in the Odyssey^ naturally presents itself to the mind. While thus playing, she discovers Ulysses asleep after his shipwreck on the shores of her father's kingdom of Phaeacia. The Finding of Moses. — Refer to Exodus^ chapter ii, and tell the story of the finding of the Hebrew babe, Moses, by the daughter of Pharaoh, as the child lay asleep on the bank of the Nile. Summary. — The high school student should know how to talk.) using English correctly and effectively in his ordi- nary conversation. He should be able to speak in such a way as to persuade, convince, and move his hearers to think and act as he would have them do. And he should be able to write so as to say what he intends to say, and impress his meaning upon his hearers. Skill in composition, whether spoken or written, is im- portant now, but it will be increasingly important in later life. The ability to talk, speak, and write effectively is not a gift, but the result of painstaking practice, rightly directed. You study rhetoric for two main reasons : in order (1) to be able to talk, speak, and write effectively ; and (2) to be able to discover and enjoy literary beauty in what you hear and read. One of the first essentials in making your English effec- tive is having the right motivation or incentive. This in- cludes (1) a purpose., or knowing what you want to say ; (2) a point of view., or knowing why you want to say it ; and (3) an audience., to hear what you have to say. As a means of success in dealing with other audiences, learn to consider your own sound common sense and your best critical judgment as an audience that you must win Exercises Based on Pictures 15 Photooraph by Elmer L. Foote. Into the Woods. 16 Effective Expression and please. Ask of your own judgment such questions as the following, concerning unity ^ coherence^ and emphasis : 1. Does what I say or write go straight to the mark ? 2. Do I say the right thing at the right time ? 3. Do I lay most stress on the most important things? EXERCISES BASED ON PICTURES Into the "Woods. — Who could resist the invitation offered in the picture on the preceding page? What a place for playing Indian, or for a picnic lunch ! No neighbors but the squirrels and the birds ! Imagination can easily people it with a crowd of high school boys and girls, scattering to explore its mysteries. (a) Botanizing. — On the invitation of the Botany class, the Freshmen go to the woods. Sketch 'the plan of arrangements for the trip. Where shall you meet, what car line shall you take, and at what hour ? And what flowers do you expect to get? (6) An Accurate List. — Make an accurate list of the flowers that are in bloom at the time you write this. Make such a list several times during the school year, and save the lists for future reference. (c) A Corner of Your City Park. — Describe a favorite spot in the park, if you live in the city. If you live near the woods, tell about some bit of woodland. Do you know where there is a wild grapevine swing ? {d) A Snapshot on an Automobile Trip. — You took your camera along on your trip. Have you a snapshot of some stopping place, or roadside view, perhaps a bit of mountain road, or a glimpse of some little lake? Attach it to your paper, and tell about it. (e) Bird Record. — Sit down for an hour or so in some such spot as this, and make a careful record of every bird you see or hear. Give an account of this, for the benefit of the class. (/) Who Owns the Mountains ? Henry Van Dyke, in Fish- erman^ s Luck J tells that his little son asked him, " Daddy, who Exercises Based on Pictures 17 owns the mountains ? " The father started to name some of the men he happened to know who owned the mountains round about them. The lad said, " Well, I don't see that it makes much difference. Everybody can look at them." Per- haps you own some mountain, or lake, or sunset that wajc Tell about it. CHAPTER II THE PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE ENGLISH The difficulty is not to write, but to write what you mean. — Robert Louis Stevenson. Unity. — Unity is that quality which requires that the leading idea have the right of way. You must subordi- nate everything else to the development of this chief thought. In arranging your notes for the article you are writing, or the speech you are preparing, there may be some item which you cannot fit in without distracting attention from the main thought running through your article or speech. There is but one thing to do, and that is to cut this item out altogether. This is perhaps what one writer ^ means when he says that genius consists not so much in knowing what to use, as in being certain what to leave out. Coherence. — Coherence is the principle by which you ar- range logically the items you have left after discarding all that hinder the expression of your main thought. It implies consecutiveness. It requires that all the parts follow in proper order. The use of a good outline tends to strengthen the coherence of a piece of composition of any kind. i"The artist," says Schiller, "may be known rather by what he omits" ; and in writing, too, the true artist may be best recognized by his tact of omission. — Style, by Walter Pater. 18 Emphasis 19 In some instances the time order^ in others the logical order^ or any 7iatural order of events or things, will give the proper sequence of items. Emphasis. — Emphasis is that mode of expression which tends to produce a clearer, livelier, or weightier meaning than would otherwise result from the words employed. Among the many methods of producing emphasis three are most often used, emphasis hy position^ emphasis hy pro- portion^ and emphasis hy repetition. When we emphasize hy position^ we call attention to the thought by an unusual order of words. A good example of this is shown where the lame man at the gate of the temple, as related in Acts iii, 6, asked alms of Peter and John. Peter said to him, " Silver and gold have I none, but such as I have give I thee." He emphasized his words by the unusual position he thus employed. When we say much about important points, and little about unimportant points, we emphasize hy proportion. Emphasis by proportion is often accomplished by a skillful massing of important details. In Patrick Henry's Speech before the Virginia Conven- tion, which is full of weighty emphasis, there is a sentence which is remarkably emphatic. And it is not hard to see how the orator builds up his emphasis. He has just stated that the colonists are not weak. He desires now to say that the American people are invincible. We may state it this way ; our people are invincible He takes the word people^ and adds to the thought several ideas: first, their number; second, the fact that 20 Principles of Effective English they are armed, and armed in a just cause ; and third, that the country in which they dwell is unusually well adapted for defense against an enemy. Here is what he says, and it would be hard to find a finer example of em- phasis hy proportion. three millions of people armed in the holy cause of liberty, and in such a country as that which we possess, are invincible by any force which our enemy can send against us. Repetition has much to do with emphasis. We are told that the Roman orator Cato, bent on the absolute destruc- tion of Carthage, closed every statement he made, and every speech he uttered, with the ominous words, Delenda est Carthago, "Carthage must be destroyed.'* Parting of Hector and Andromache. — Malgnon. Exercises 21 EXERCISES ON THE PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE ENGLISH (a) Testing for Effect. — Read how Hector lays aside his helmet, Homer's Iliad, book vi, line 505 to line 633, William CuUen Bryant's translation. 1 Hector, parting from Andromache, lays aside his helmet to take his little child. It would be hard to find anything in literature more beautiful, or more true to human nature than this. Eead it over until you get the story, then forget every- thing else. Put the book aside and ponder over it. Picture the scene, — the great warrior, the loving wife, and the tender child, " a babe too young to speak," afraid of his father's crested helmet. The hero lays it aside to play with his little child, and then passes out to battle. 1. Tell the story, making it as effective as you can. Do not attempt to tell it in Bryant's style ; he writes in poetry, and you are writing in prose. Catch something of the dignity and beauty of the story, then tell it as the words come to yon. 2.. Examine your story to see if you have secured the right effect. Try to anticipate and forestall the criticisms of your classmates. Test it with regard to the following points. Unity. — Is the current of your story hindt' ^at any point ? If so, cut out any detail that is in the way. Coherence. — Did you get ahead of your story anywhere, or is everything in its proper order ? Emphasis. — Did you do what you set out to do, and are the striking things put in an emphatic way ? If your story fails in any of these respects, rewrite it with more care. 1 If on account of difficulty in obtaining the books here referred to, or for any good cause, the instructor prefers to postpone this and similar exercises until later in the high school course, there is no reason why it should not he done. The aim of Effective English is to encourage free- dom of choice in composition material for both teacher and pupil. No exercises in this book are offered as required; they are suggested. The freer the teacher feels as to what to use, and what to omit, or when to use anything suggested, the better. 22 Principles o? Effective English (b) Drill in Unity. — Tell how to plan a vegetable garden. Con- sult any boys who have " made good " the past summer, working in gardens, orchards, or on farms, for themselves or for hire. Tell when, where, and what to plant, and why. Group your points about one central idea. Test your work for unity ; if it lacks unity, rewrite it. (c) Drill in Coherence. — Refer to the Odyssey, book viii, lines 120 to 291, Bryant's translation, and tell the story of Ulysses' prowess in the games of Antinous. Test your story for unity and coherence. Do not use any word, and especially any incident, that will not materially advance the story. Antinous, king of Phseacia, proposes a series of games in honor of Ulj^sses, his guest. During the progress of these games Ulysses is taunted by one of the Phaeacians, who pro- vokes him to throw the discus. Ulysses easily distances all competitors. (d) Drill in Emphasis. — Dogs play an important part in modern warfare. They ferret out the wounded, carry dispatches across shell- swept fields, accompany sentinels on lonesome outposts, serve as couriers and patrols, and drag heavy loads over snow-covered mountains. Think out a story, orally or in writing, of how such a dog, Airedale, Eskimo, or shepherd, helped a member of his regiment in time of need. Put emphasis into it. One minute, or one hundred words. (e) Class Criticism. — 1. When selected papers are read in class, let the pupils judge of but two things, — Was the story interesting ? Did it sound as if the speaker or writer had used an outline, so as to keep his story well in hand? 2. As several stories are told or read in class, based on " Ulysses Throwing the Discus," let some one student, chosen beforehand, watch the story part of this exercise and report on how it was handled, with a view to (1) unity, (2) coherence, and (3) emphasis. 3. In telling any story, let three students report on the para- graphing ; that is, how the pupils handled the different parts of the story, as based on the items of the outline by which they worked. (/) Vocational Guidance. — A High School Project.^ — Tell how to 1 The best results will flow from encouraging each pupil to form a specific project or point of view with regard to a limited subject to be presented to a particular audience, to observe how well hf* succeeds in Exercises 23 prepare, plant, and care for an old-fashioned garden. This should be in charge of (1) a committee of girls who have succeeded in a. project of this kind ; or (2) a group of girls who have decided to have such a garden as part of their school duties. The idea is to have a garden to which one may go at any time in the late spring, and dur- ing the summer and autumn, and be able to cut a generous supply of flowers. Interviews should be sought and reported as to views and suggestions of flower lovers in the community. The flowers may be utilized for decoration of the schoolrooms, or sent to the homes of those without gardens. (^) Business Letters.^ — 1. Reply to an actual business letter. A letter selected by the teacher is read to the class. Any points in doubt may be explained. The name and address of the firm is writ- ten on the blackboard. Each pupil will compose a letter in reply. These letters will then be submitted for suggestion and criticism to a committee of three, who will study them for a few minutes and make such comments as the committee think necessary. The letters will then be handed back to the writers, and a new letter written, keeping in mind all that has been said. One third of the class will be put in charge of corrections, each member of this committee receiving three letters, to be corrected by him and returned to the writer with his criticisms. All the pupils will rewrite the letter in the English notebook. 2. Business letter written by entire class. — Suppose that a piece of statuary, ordered by the high school, is found on its arrival to be badly cracked. The shipper must be informed of its receipt, its con- dition, and the supposed cause of the defect. A claim for damages from the railroad may have to be filed. -All these matters, as brought out by oral discussion, are to be noted on the blackboard. The pupils will then compose sentences dealing with each phase of the situation. These sentences are to be criticized by the entire class. Each pupil is his purpose, and to learn from the successes and failures of himself and his classmates what the most effective methods of communication are. — From the Beport of the National Joint Committee on the Beorganiza- tion of High School English. 1 Suggested by The Teaching of High School English, State of New Jersey, and quoted by the new English Syllabus, Board of Regents, State of New York. While this anticipates the definite study of business let- ters in Chapter XI, it may prove profitable here. Its use at this time, however, is optional. 24 Principles of EflFective English then to write for himself the proposed letter. A committee of three will correct these letters. After correction, these letters are to be copied into the English notebook. (h) Making an Outline. — Keeping in mind all the points that have been brought out in class in dealing with this chapter, make an out- line that shall omit no important point. Prepare to recite from it. Important Cautions. - The permanent editorial committee heretofore suggested, which is to watch all class or indi- vidual work with reference to the seven points already mentioned (page 5) should note the following important items ^ in addition. VIII. Do not write parts of sentences, such as clauses or phrases, with a period as though they were complete sentences. IX. Do not suffer gross disagreement between a verb and its subject. As, for instance, He donH {does iiot or doesnH) know any better. X. Do not misspell any of the following twenty words : to, tooy two, their, there, all right, already, until, develop, separate, lose, loose, chose, choose, which, dining, whether, together, quite, quiet. Spelling .List. — The editorial committee may by this time have a second list of fifty words misspelled by pupils in their daily exercise. If so, let it be used for a drill in spelling. Summary of the Principles of Effective English. — Get these points clearly in mind. 1. To attain unity, you must eliminate everything that is not subordinate to the main thought. 2. To get coherence, you must see that all the parts follow in proper order of time, thought, or logical arrangement. Coherence is best obtained by following an outline. 3. To secure emphasis, you must call attention to the em- phatic part by position, proportion, or repetition. 1 From Requirements in Form^ the Illinois Association of Teachers of English. Exercises Based on Pictures 25 Freshmen versus Seniors. EXERCISES BASED ON PICTURES Freshmen versus Seniors. — Did ever anybody have as hard a time as freshmen have ? At least that is the way it looks to a freshman. Sophomores, juniors and seniors tell it another way. In this picture, two seniors are evidently planning some mis- chief against the freshmen, and they have the freshmen puzzled. The battle, however, is not always to the strong. 1. Tell this story to suit yourself, according to your grade in school. 2. Surely as a freshman you can think of a good story where the freshmen beat the seniors at their own game. What the seniors write will be another story, as Kipling says. Juniors and sopho- mores may take whichever side they please ; there is room for a good high school story here. It is probably in a high school camp, on the seashore, or on the lakes, or by the riverside. Place it where you choose. Tell it in as few words as possible. CHAPTER III ENGLISH TO SELL Say what you have to say in the simplest, the most direct and exact manner. — Walter Pater. Writing a News Story. — In an article in The Saturday Evenhig Post^ Mr. James Keeley, formerly publisher of the Chicago Tribune^ now editor of the Chicago Herald^ tells how a great daily newspaper " covers " a wreck occurring during the night, so as to present the story to its readers the next morning. He quotes the startling headlines that announce the wreck and notes the fact that two columns of telegraphic news in the most prominent part of the first page gives the details of what proves to be the worst wreck that has occurred in the West for years. This wreck is supposed to occur at 6:30 p.m., although the Chicago newspaper does not hear of it until 8:30, when the boy who handles the Associated Press dispatches, as they come in through the pneumatic tube, comes across the following, dated from the point where the C, B. & Q. Ry. has its headquarters. A passenger train is reported wrecked at Smithville and twenty passengers killed. A special train has been sent out to the scene. The boy is quick to see the importance of the news item, and he calls out the contents of the telegram. Two men jump for the dispatch, the night editor and the telegraph Writing a News Story 27 editor. On the importance of this wreck as a news story depends the whole make-up of the next morning's paper. If important, it will have first place, and items that would otherwise be quite important will have to stand aside. With the map before him, the telegraph editor studies his list of correspondents and their locations, but no one is available. He now bombards the telegraph offices near the wreck with this message : Rush thousand words wreck C, B. & Q. Ry. Smithville. Query this office. Tribune. Miller. In requiring them to " query," he can choose the best man out of those who reply. In this case, however, there is no response and he now turns to the telephone and keeps the long-distance lines hot for a while, but as " Central " aptly expresses it, "Smithville is ten miles from nowhere," and unless some one should unexpectedly volunteer, there is but one thing left to do. Meanwhile the city editor has been talking over the telephone to the superintendent of the Road in the Chi- cago office. Of course, the latter claims to know nothing of any loss of life. He admits a little shaking up, with several injured, mostly trainmen, none severely. Part of a railroad man's training is to keep his mouth shut, es- pecially to newspaper men. All that is gained in this in- stance is the admission that there was a wreck. Correspondents at varying distances now begin to send in queries as to the disaster. The following are samples: Queries Headon collision on C, B. & Q. at Smithville. Thirty killed. How much ? ^ ^The question "How mucli ? " refers to the number of words the newspaper wants. The words head on are written as one word, headon^ to save telegraph expense. 28 English to Sell Frightful loss of life at Smithville. Headon collisioiL Forty killed. Hundred injured. How much? Collision Smithville. Both trains, burning. Heavy loss. How much? Headon at Smithville. Fifty killed. How much ? It has been an anxious time at the office and it is now evident that the story is a big one, and just as evident that there is only one thing to do and that is to send out a "special," who in this case happens to be Brown, an old hand, and one who knows his business. He takes with him a telegraph operator, who carries the necessary equip- ment for establishing a quick service station at the scene of the wreck. Brown is furnished the necessary transpor- tation and expense money, for which he will account later. Brown hurries to the train. He is to reach his point at 10:50. But his train happens to stop for water at a sta- tion twenty miles from the scene of the wreck, so he jumps off and begins to " dig " for news. He finds enough to show him that he is on the track of a good story, from the newspaper point of view, and wires a preliminary message as follows : Good yarn. Twelve to fifteen dead, twenty-five injured. Three cars burned. Headon collision between Pacific Coast flyer and East-bound freight. Brown. When that message reaches the Tribune office, the air is cleared. The two editors concerned now know what to do. The night editor arranges his other work, assigning two columns for Brown's report, while the telegraph editor puts in his time profitably on other work until Brown begins to wire in his story. Brown will start to write at 11:15, and has at the very latest until 12:15. He will write about fifteen hundred Writing a News Story 29 words, which may be expanded to seventeen hundred or two thousand, by the addition of matter gleaned at the office. The receiving telegrapher will "take" the mes- sage on the typewriter, and it will be put into shape by a sub-editor, who will arrange the sub-heads and make it readable. The headlines are the work of a special editor. Brown is now at Smithville. He goes at things with vim, interviewing officials, talking with train hands, getting a definite statement from the engineers and conductors, questioning survivors, listening to bystanders, cross-ques- tioning the section boss and the keeper of the little station, and sifting the truth little by little, getting in twenty minutes a clear statement of just what happened. While doing this, his mind is shaping the form the story will take, when he comes to write. His facts gathered, he gets down to his writing, moving along smoothly and rapidly. And the very men who have given him his in- formation will scan his account next morning and recognize the truth of what he has written. This ability to get at the facts is not merely a gift, although it appears so, but is the result of long training in news gathering. He starts his story with the statement that two trains met, head on, giving if possible the causes of the collision, stating how many were killed and injured, giving the list alphabetically, and arranged according to those killed, seriously wounded, and slightly injured, with special note of any celebrities killed or hurt. Then follows a care- fully detailed and circumstantial account of the disaster. While he is getting things into shape, his assistant has rigged his wires, ready for telegraphing. As fast as Brown writes a slip, it is wired to the office and is put into shape by the sub-editor. It is set up on the linotype as fast as it comes through. 30 English to Sell Entrance of Joan of Arc into Orleans. — Sherrer. EXERCISES BASED ON PICTURES Joan of Arc. — France possesses a wonderful legacy in the ro- mantic patriotism of the maid of Orleans. Tending her humble flocks at Domremy, in the darkest hour of her country's history, she seemed to hear voices that called on her to deliver her prince and her country from foreign oppression. This is a copy of the picture that hangs in the museum of Orleans. Take time to get the story of this national heroine, and tell it in a manner befitting the theme. It may be told in three parts : 1. The Maid of Domremy. Her country's enslavement; the voices that called to her as she watched her flocks. Difficulties in the way. 2. The Maid of Orleans. How she came to lead the forces of France ; how she entered Orleans ; her work as a military leader. 3. The Maid as Martyr. The circumstances of her martyrdom; her courage in trial and distress : her death as a martyr for God and country. Exercises on the News Story 31 Fhotograph by Frank C. Sage. They're Off! A fine start in the 440. They're Off 1 — You never saw a finer start on any track. Every nerve and muscle is strained to win. Wlio will come in first ? There is a companion picture on page 78 showing the winner crossing the line in this same run. What do they get out of it? Ask them later, when as American business, mechanical, or professional men, they strain every nerve to win. They will tell you that their train- ing here is invaluable. Write a short paper discussing the value of athletics in later life. EXERCISES ON THE NEWS STORY • (a) Retelling and Condensing. — 1. Retell Mr. Keeley's story of how a news story is written, in two hundred words. Omit nothing that is really important. 2. Take your statement just written and boil it down to twenty- five words. This will be a little hard to do at first, but it can be done, and it is well worth doing. 3. Retell Mr. Keeley's story in two hundred and fifty words. Tell it in your own way. If you so desire, tell it in as many words as come to you, and then put it in th9 number required. 32 English to Sell (b) Arranging and Sifting. — Arrange the following facts in an orderly way, combining and boiling down with special reference to unity, coherence, and emphasis. Write three hundred words. Suppose a wreck at Norris station, C. H. & D. R. R., a circus train. Just about daylight, say at 5 : 13 a.m., in a heavy fog. Tramps supposed to have built a fire, which spread to the leaves and set the woodwork of the bridge on fire, weakening the trestles. Train ran on to the bridge before danger was noticed. Engine fell into the river, killing fireman and severely injuring engineer. Cars overturned on the bank of the stream, killing several trainmen and three circus hands. Treasurer of the company, L. T. Byers, of the Cummings & Byers Co., owners of the show, badly injured, may die. Some of the finest animals also killed, and others injured so that they had to he shot. A lioness, with two half-grown cubs, at large. Fine performing bear missing, supposed to be in woods near by. Neighborhood terrorized, although circus men anticipate no difficulty in recapturing the animals. Armed bands organizing to hunt down wild beasts. Circus managers offering large rewards for return of wild animals, if uninjured. Three tramps arrested, suspected of having camped near the bridge ; they deny any connection with the matter. Relief train dispatched to scene of wreck, with corps of physicians on board. Later. — P. L. Brown, injured engineer, died at noon. Michael McCarty, track walker, reports having driven three tramps from camp last night. Thinks they may have returned later. Later. — Charley Williams, farmer's son, claims reward for capture of lioness. Found her in coal shed, and locked door, preventing her escape. (c) Getting the Vocabulary Ready. — Reporters and news writers, as well as others who have to write hurriedly, often make a list of usable words for convenience in reference, before beginning to write. This is especially the case where the subject or topic is new to them. In most cases, experienced newspaper men make this list mentally and almost unconsciously. From the moment they are assigned to certain Exercises on the News Story 33 work, the subconscious mind is at work formulating the outline, and preparing the vocabulary. To get at the items of information required below, the class may be divided into three or four groups, each group taking its share of the lists, getting the information or reporting on points in doubt. It may be necessary to interview railway employees on some of the points. 1. Make a list of ten words relating strictly to the railway train, selecting such words as may prove useful in writing up the wreck. 2. Make a list of the officers and employees of a train, pas- senger and freight. 3. Make a list of ten words, adjectives or nouns, relating in any way to the rails, ties, ballast, roadbed, right of way, and the fields near by. This is to be used in describing what occurred in the wreck. 4. Make a list of twenty words referring to or describing accidents of any nature, such as might befall passengers on a train caught in a wreck. 5. Select ten words descriptive of the engineer and fireman, or helper on an engine. This may include descriptions of their appearance, clothing, duties, characteristics, and especially their courage and devotion to duty. 6. Make a list of ten words useful in describing accidents to the locomotive or its tender. 7. Explain the precautions necessary to be taken by train- men and nearest railway telegraphers in case of a wreck, in order to guard against further accident. 8. What signals are given by the conductor for starting and stopping his train ? What answers are made, and by whom ? 9. If you discover a broken rail, a burning bridge, or some obstruction on the track, how would you stop the train in day- light or at night ? 10. Make a list of "first aid to the injured," for use in case of accident or wreck. 11. What kinds of cars make up the large passenger train oi " flyer " ? Name the kinds of cars found in a large freight train. 34 English to Sell (d) Vocational Guidance. — A glance at the list below, which in- dicates a few of the many vocations dependent upon the use of effec- tive English, will show how English to Sell concerns the making of your living.! Talking. — Clerks, salesmen, students, teachers, library workers, insurance and real estate men, land agents, contractors, purchasing agents, recruiting agents, promoters, stock and bond salesmen, information and employment bureau workers, book agents, representatives, and traveling salesmen. Speaking. — Officers and members of literary and social societies in high school and elsewhere, in the young people's societies of the various churches, Y. W. and Y. M. C. A., members of Greek Letter fraternities at college, workers in the federated and other women's clubs, politicians, actors, public speakers and lecturers, physicians, lawyers, teachers, and ministers. Writing. — Civil service employees, clerks, private secretaries, stenographers, stenotypists, employees in railroad and business offices, reporters, news writers, editors, advertising writers, short story and magazine writers, play writers, politicians, physicians, teachers, lawyers, and ministers. (e) Selling Your English. — In the following exercises, you are to show how you can make money by the use of effective English. 1. Talking. — 1. How a cartoonist makes money. Let some boy or girl who expects to take up cartooning answer, and illustrate by drawings on the blackboard. Explain the uses of cartoons for newspaper and magazine work ; for street car and window advertising, and for sign writing. Three minutes. 2. Let me show you some of the features of ournew reaper. Let two students who have looked up the facts, and have rehearsed the scene, represent an up-to-date farmer and the salesman of an agricultural implement house. One of the boys ought to 1 Composition teaching involves guidance in gathering, selecting, or- ganizing, and presenting ideas for the sake of informing, persuading, en- tertaining, or inspiring others. — From the Beport of the National Joint Committee on the Beorganization of High School English. Exercises on the News Story 35 know something about farming, and the other ought to be a salesman. If you have two girls who can do it better, let them try it. Four minutes. 3. Let me sell you a yearns subscription to The Literary Digest or The Saturday Evening Post. Let two girls represent a well-to-do housekeeper and a student who is paying her way through high school. Demonstrate by using this week's issue of the paper. Get the subscription by deserving it. Go through all the steps that a first class agent takes, including signing up the subscriber. 4. Let me sell you a set of O. Henry^s short stories. Get your facts from the publishers. Study the interesting career of this writer, and learn something about at least one of his stories. Make a telling talk, such as ought to win a sale. Five minutes. 5. Alloio me to show you the importance of being a subscriber to the telephone. Prepare yourself so well that it will be worth while for the telephone company to secure your services as a representative. Three minutes. 6. / wish to offer some good reasons why I think the high school should give a play for the benefit of the school treasury. Four minutes. 7. Let me sell you a five-acre farm. This may be either a piece of suburban property, subdivided in this manner as an attractive proposition for resident purposes, or it may be Florida land. Let arrangements be made with some company making such an offer, and make it an actual business proposition. After trying it on the class, go out and make actual sales. Five minutes. II. Speaking. — 1. Stand before the class and tell How to play basket ball, according to this yearns rules. Four minutes. Put this into an article of four hundred words. This is to be written after you have spoken.^ 1 Subjects for oral and written compositions should be drawn mainly from the pupil's own life and experience in tlie home, the school, and the community. The individual should be encouraged to draw upon his 36 English to Sell 2. I won a dollar from my father yesterday. He said 1 couldnH make old-fashioned gingerbread. — Offer the ginger- bread to prove your assertion. Tell the story, giving the rec- ipe, in three minutes. Spice your story, as well as your gingerbread. Write it in three hundred words. 3. A school-made fireless cooker. — Let either the manual training, or the domestic arts department make a fireless cooker out of materials within your reach. Demonstrate its success by opening it after . your speech, letting the class sample your cooking. Four minutes. Write it in four hun- dred words. Append a photograph. 4. Overcoming a handicap. — In a five minutes' speech show how this is done by citing such cases as you find in the life of Helen Keller, Mary Antin, Jacob Riis, Theodore Roosevelt, Abraham Lincoln, 0. Henry, and especially of those whom you know personally. Put it afterwards into a five hundred word article. 5. How my grandfather used his knowledge of skating to good advantage. — Tell this, or some such story, in three minutes. Was he pursued on the ice by wolves ; or did he seek aid against an Indian attack; or did he carry important news to the Americans in some campaign, using his skates for greater speed? After your talk, put your story into a three hun- dred word article. III. Writing. — 1. How to market short and well-written articles. — If you know some literary worker, seek an interview, and get your facts. Go to the library, state your topic, and get all the help that offers there. Ask for up-to-date magazine articles dealing with the subject. No matter how much material you have, boil it down to four hundred words brimful of interest and information. 2. Shall a girl study stenography, or prepare herself for teaching? — Get what facts you can that in your judgment peculiar resources and to exploit his dominant interests. — From the Report of the, National Joint Committee on the Beorganization of High School English. Exercises on the News Story 37 bear on the question relating to advantages, opportunities, salary, social status, and whatever else suggests itself to you. Treat both sides of the question fairly, and let your readers decide. Three hundred and fifty words. 3. The mothei-'s dub and school lunches. — If you have this plan, explain it. If not, visit some school where it is in suc- cessful operation, and get the facts. Include any suggestions of your own as to betterment of service. Four hundred words. 4. Paying their own way. — Look up the cases of one boy and one girl who pay their way through high school. Avoid giving offense by your statement. Write in a vein calculated to inspire others, and show how pupils with some initiative may get an education. Five hundred words. 5. Making the printing department of the high school self- supporting. — Let a committee of five of the most practical and energetic students of the English class endeavor to solve this problem, and bring in a report in a five hundred word article. Each of the five may make a five minute speech, but the report should reflect the views of a majority of the committee. (/) Important Suggestions on English to Sell. — Any manuscript written with the idea of offering it for sale should be in perfect shape, both as to its English and its appearance. To offer anything less than excellent material is an insult to the intelligence of those to whom it is offered. Remember that the topics here offered are suggestive. — Do a little thinking, and with these suggestions in mind, find some striking title or theme of your own on which to write. Get out of the beaten path if you have any ambition to sell your English. But do not go too far afield. The very first step out of the beaten path may discover to you something for which some editor is eagerly waiting. Watch a skilled workman as he turns out some finished product. Work as patiently and intelligently at your work as he does at his. Let the best workman you know teach you how to work. ^ 1. How I Came to Sell My English. — It will be well worth while for you to arrange to have some successful news or maga- zine writer address the English class and their invited guests on how he happened to choose his present line of work, that is, 38 English to Sell on how he came to sell the product of his pen. This same topic would be of interest in the case of a good advertising writer. Arrange the date far enough ahead to admit of sending out invitations to the parents and friends of the members of the class, to the faculty, and to the members of the high school. These invitations should be the work of the English class, and should be prepared in correct form. This will afford good practice for the class. 2. Putting English in Shape to Sell, — This can be made a practical talk of great value to the class, if you can secure some one who is doing newspaper work, for instance, some former member of your high school. What is wanted is the modern requirements of newspaper and magazine work so far as the preparation of manuscript for publication is concerned. 3. The Truth about an Author. — Let one or more pupils bring in a report on Arnold Bennett's book on this subject. He tells how he was led to adopt writing as a profession, and gives valuable hints as to his work. Of course, his experience was in England, and allowance must be made for this. Opportuni- ties for the young writer, however, are better here than in England. 4. Impersonation. — Let several pupils impersonate promi- nent and interesting characters in English literature, past and present. Say, for example, Shakespeare, Dr. Johnson, Gold- smith, Pope, Lord Byron, Sir Walter Scott, or Robert Burns, in the past; and Mark Twain, Bret Harte, O. Henry, Jack London, James Whitcomb Riley, or Poe, Longfellow, Emerson, Whittier, or others of our poets. It will be interesting to read the history of each, and see just how he came to write. Study the costume, and endeavor to make np so as to resemble the character chosen for impersona- tion. Let each character tell how he sold his English. To make this effective as a dramatization, let a committee prepare it as a school play, and let this committee drill for the presen- tation. Exercises Based on Pictures 39 "You're Too Slow!" EXERCISES BASED ON PICTURES "You're Too Slow I " — A jolly party of high school boys and girls, with their chaperones, are out for a canter over a moun- tain road in Old Virginia. Some one proposes a race, and away they scamper. This girl, a fine horsewoman with a speedy ani- mal, seems to have outdistanced the rest. As she will gleefully tell it when they get back home, " They also ran ! '^ Just now, she is waiting for them to catch up with her, and laughing at their discomfiture. 1. Tell this or some other story of a delightful morning ride. 2. If you care to do so, dramatize the story. Tell it in conversa- tional style, and as if it were a part of the school play. If you do this, do not forget how to arrange your paragraphs. Important Cautions. — The permanent editorial committee whose function is to watch for correctness in form will do well to note the following additional items ^ : XI. Do not forget that a margin is required at the left of the paper. There may be a margin at the right, if desired, but this is not imperative. 1 From Btquirements in Form, Illinois Association of Teachers of English. 40 English to Sell XII. Avoid leaving open spaces at the right. Write as near the end of the line as possible, without crowding. XIII. See that there is a proper division of words at the end of the line. Allow no words of one syllable to be divided. Division of Words. — Note the following suggestions with regard to the division of words. 1. Avoid the unnecessary division of a word. Never divide proper names, or words like ar-range. 2. Never carry over two letters only. That is, in cases like divided, correctly, fortify, do not carry over the last sylla- ble, -ed, -ly, -fy. 3. Do not divide Jlower, power, prayer, toward, and voyage. 4. In words compounded with prefixes, divide on the pre- fix. As, dis-content, dis-appear, sub-divide, contra-diet, un-usucU. 5. Note how these words are written : consider-able, fashion- able, reprehensible, diri-gible. This does not apply to Orme-na- ble and char-i-torble. 6. Remember these divisions : atmos-phere, hemisphere, knowl-edge, twiii-Jcling, chuc-kling. 7. Carry over the t in words like adven-ture, fea-ture, for- tune, pic-ture, presump-tuous. 8. In present participles, ordinarily, carry over the -ing; as teach-ing, forg-ing, mak-ing, driv-ing, charg-ing. 9. If a word already has a hyphen, do not use an additional hyphen ; as, selfinjlicted, longsufferiiig. Do not divide the word after the hyphen. 10. Note the following: preposition, conta-gion, derision, provision, reli-gion. Notes on Spelling. — It is time for the editorial committee to take stock of the class in the matter of spelling. In so doing, your instructor in English will act ex officio as a member of your committee. If the suggestions heretofore made have been carried out, you have three carefully prepared lists of words misspelled Important Cautions 41 by the class, or by members of the class. You have doubt- less noted that the members of the English class are divided into something like the following divisions. 1. One or more students who make practically no mistakes in spelling. 2. A fair proportion of students who average high in spell- ing, but who make a mistake now and then. 3. Several students who do fairly well, but who are never quite certain about their spelling. They may, perhaps, do pretty well in words recently used, or that have been lately acquired, but they make mistakes in the spelling of the little words that serve to bind the sentences together. It will not be hard, to bring the members of this class, or most of them, up to Class 2. 4. A number of students who are habitually poor in spelling. You will have accomplished much if you succeed in recognizing these four classes, and in giving your instruc- tor accurate information with regard thereto. Important Cautions. — In the care that the editorial com- mittee continues to exercise, pay special attention to the following points: XIY. The spelling of proper names occurring in the litera- ture read by the class in English ; XY. Words misspelled in compositions ; and XYI. In general, all words in the pupils' vocabulary. Outline and Summary. — Prepare an outline, and be pre- pared to recite from it if called upon. Let the outline cover the important points brought out in this chapter, EXERCISE ON SPELLING Conference on Spelling.^ — It may be well to hold a class conference on spelling, acquainting the class as a whole with the method of dividing 'the students into the respective classes. Do not name the 1 Suggested by the English Syllabus, Board of Regents, New York- 42 English to Sell students composing these divisions before the class, but deal with them individually, or in groups of two or three. Seek to impress upon all the importance of good spelling. (a) Call on the individual members of tlie English class to state what words now give them most trouble. As these troublesome words are indicated, let them be written neatly and correctly on the blackboard, say to the number of one hundred, and then copied carefully into the English notebooks for reference, practice, and review. (5) Call on each member of the class to indicate one or more words that formerly gave him trouble, but which no longer do so. Let him tell how he remembers the correct spelling of words of this kind. As for instance, separate = sep-a-rate ; singeing = singe-ing ; ascertain = as-cer-tain. Keep a careful list of these words, to be written in the English notebooks. See that every member of the class can spell the words of this list. (c) Let some pupil, or several pupils, state how to remember the correct spelling of words like believe, conceive, deceive, receive, and retrieve. There are several rules which may be used, one of them being that usually ei follows s or c, and that elsewhere the combination is ie. Siege, sieve, and leisure are exceptions. EXERCISES BASED ON PICTURES On the Lookout 1 — What are these red men watching ? Keen eyed, they evidently are studying something that interests them deeply. It may be a deer swimming across the lake, or a canoe full of Indians, or they may be watching a bear on the other side of the lake, as he comes down to drink. These are mem- bers of the Blackf eet tribe. 1. Think out a story that shall include these watchers, and tell it in your own way. You may be in camp near here, or see them as you pass. Make the story reasonably true to life, and prepare it " to sell." 2. An Indian Story. — Refer to one of Cooper's Leather Stocking Tales, or to some story in United States history, having to do with Indians, and tell it, orally or in writing. If there are Indian traditions con- nected with your own neighborhood, give a good account of them, watching your spelling especially. Exercises Based on Pictures 43 Indians. On Two Medicine Lake, Glacier National Park. Preparation of Manuscript for " English to Sell" It is impossible to overestimate the importance of effective manu- script, where your English is offered for sale. Note the following suggestions : 1. Use sermon note, or theme paper, usually cut eight inches wide and ten and a half inches long. Use black ink, but as soon as it is possible for you to do so, use the typewriter, with either a black or a clear blue ribbon. 2. Write on only one side of the sheet. You will waste time and postage if you neglect this imperative rule. 3. Leave a margin of one inch at the left of the paper for corrections. If the paper is not ruled for this margin, you may rule it lightly in pencil and erase it later, if you choose. Before long, however, it will not be necessary to depend on ruled lines. At the right of the paper, leave a margin of half an inch. 44 English to Sell 4. Begin each paragraph an inch from the margin, or five spaces on the typewriter. This is called indenting. Do not indent where no paragraph is intended. Write the title so as to occupy the center of the first line. Use capitals for the most important words of the title. The last word of the title is always capitalized. If more than one line is needed for the title, and there is not enough to fill the second line, arrange it so as to leave an equal space on each side. This is called centering. Begin the body of the theme on the second line below. 5. Except at the end of a paragraph, avoid leaving too much space at the end of a line. Do not divide a word in the middle of a syllable, and do not carry over less than three letters. 6. Count your words. At the end of each page, indicate in parenthesis the number of words. Show the entire number of words, in parenthesis, at the close of your article or story. Count a, an, and the, as words. 7. Keep the sheets flat. Never roll a manuscript. You may arrange the sheets carefully, and fold together once lengthwise, writing the title, your name, the date, and the number of .words, each upon one line, in the upper left-hand corner. In writing your name, include your post-office address. 8. Do not be afraid to rewrite yojir manuscript. Do not mail anything but perfect manuscript. 9. Inclose return postage. Do not fasten this to the sheet, but put it in a small envelope, and clip it to the sheet. With the postage^ include your name and post-office address. CHAPTER IV EFFECTIVE PARAGRAPHING There is some one order more effective than any other. — Herbert Spencbr. The Paragraph. — A paragraph is a sentence or group- of sentences developing a complete thought. In most writing and speaking the paragraph is the unit of thought. The topic sentence contains the main idea, and this is elaborated in various ways, as by repetition or by giving details. Suppose you liave decided upon the following outline for an account of the wreck mentioned on page 32. It will make three divisions, or paragraphs. The first will give a rapid sketch of the whole story to attract attention and interest. The next paragraph will deal with the points that are suggested in the second item of the out- line, carefully avoiding any points that are to be touched upon in the third item. Emphasis will be added by a skillful handling of the third paragraph. The whole secret of successful paragraphing is to be found in this one thing, that each paragraph deals with one full thought, EXERCISES ON PARAGRAPHING (a) Write a paragraph on each topic of the following outline. Test your paragraphs for unity, coherence, and emphasis. 45 46 Effective Paragraphing Outline 1. General statement, and . cause of wreck ; one hundred words. 2. Loss of life, property, and animals ; two hundred and fifty words. 3. Excitement caused by escape of wild animals; one hundred and fifty words. (&) Query in ten words the Chicago Tribune as to the wreck. That is, state in ten words enough about the wreck to let them know whether they want the full story. Refer, if necessary, to the sample queries given heretofore. (c) Wire one paragraph of one hundred words about the above story. Most newspapers will take an item of not more than one hundred words without querying, that is, without your asking permission to send it. In such case, however, the telegram must come from a regular corre- spondent. In most newspaper offices, any one may query in an im- portant happening, whether a correspondent or not. The editor will answer if he wants the story. If he does not answer, the story must not be wired. (c?) Wire the above story in two hundred words. Arrange it in two paragraphs. («) Prepare in brief memorandum form an outline, such as you think the reporter would prepare while gathering his facts, before waiting his story. This sketch, or memorandum, will tell briefly all that he will later expand into the full story, for the morning paper. (/) Study the outline in (e). Cut out anything that hinders the flow of the story. This will preserve its unity. Then arrange the items remaining, so as to have everything in its time order, after your introductory statement. This will maintain its coherence. The story itself, if well told, will furnish its own emphasis. In a news story, the emphasis often comes in the opening paragraph, so as to fix the attention at once. This reverses the usual order, which re- quires the most emphatic statement near the close. {g) Write the story of the wreck, as above given, from your out- line. Let it have at least three paragraphs, carefully arranged. Development of the Paragraph. — It frequently happens that the most readable story in the morning paper came Methods of Paragraph Development 47 to the telegraph editor the night before in the shape of a few words in a cablegram. His quick sense of what con- stitutes an interesting news item enabled him to use the fact thus given as the foundation for a story which was the pride of his own paper, and the envy of all his com- petitors. In thus working out his story he may have had to draw on many sources of information. He may have used en- cyclopedias, books of travel, or atlases with descriptive reading matter, telling about the city in which the event occurred. Newspaper offices maintain a file system of photographs of all kinds, both of men and places, and of steamships and war-ships. At the first suggestion of a great steamship disaster, for instance, everything that can possibly throw any light on the subject is brought within reach of the editor. The editor has to work quickly, when he does begin, after waiting until the last minute for fuller detail. He adapts it all so skillfully that when we come to read it, we cannot tell that any part of it differs from any other part. It all reads as if the whole story "came in over the wire," that is, as if it had all been received by telegraph or cable. Methods of Paragraph Development. — In elaborating the paragraphs the editor usually makes use of three methods : (1) repetition ; (2) comparison ; or (3) detail. In the first case he repeats the substance of the topic sentence in a variety of ways. In the second, he com- pares or contrasts the idea of the topic sentence with other ideas. In the third, he enumerates details. These details may be (a) particulars; (6) specific ex- amples ; or ((?) effects of which the topic sentence is the cause. Owing to his practical skill in writing, the editor does this work subconsciously. 48 Effective Paragraphing RouGET DE Lisle. Singing the " Marseillaise" for the first time. EXERCISES BASED ON PICTURES The " Marseillaise." — Here is pictured the birth of a national hymn, the terrible yet glorious cry of a people determined to be free. De Lisle, a young French officer, is singing the Marseillaise for the first time. Some of those who listen are struck by its beauty, some by the terror of it, while some spring to their feet aroused by its call to the French heart. Never since that day has it been heard in France without quick- ening the hearts of its hearers. 1. Tell the story of the picture, developing your paragraphs in any of the three ways suggested above. 2. The March of the Marseillaise. — Kefer to the dictionary or to some encyclopedia and tell how the Marseillaise got its name and became the national song of France at the outset of the French Revolution. 3. The Star Spangled Banner. — Look up the story of how Francis Scott Key, held as a prisoner by the British, wrote The Star Spangled Banner in the bombardment of Baltimore. Tell it. Develop your paragraphs carefully. Exercises in Paragraph Development 49 EXERCISES m PARAGRAPH DEVELOPMENT The Wreck of the " Titanic " The story of the loss of the Titanic, the greatest ship of modern times, is given here. She was launched May 31st, 1911, at Belfast. She was 175 feet in height, 882 feet long, and capable of carrying 5800 passengers and crew. She cost about $10,000,000. She was regarded as a triumph of modern naval architecture, and on account of automatic, self-closing bulkheads, was considered unsinkable. April 10, 1912, Noon. Starts on her maiden trip from South- ampton to New York, via Cherbourg. April 14. Sends a wireless warning of the pres- ence of icebergs off the 50.14 west. Eeceives wireless warning from other vessels of dangerous icebergs in her vicinity. Maintains unusually high rate of speed. April 14, Midnight. Titanic strikes iceberg. Jar of im- pact scarcely noticed by passengers, but whole side of ship ripped open. Engine room and dynamos flooded. Carpathia and other vessels hear the Titanic^ s call for help. * April 15, 12:27 a.m. Titanic' s wireless is put out of com- mission by the rising water, but flashes with its last flash that the ship is sinking by the head, and that the women and chil- dren are being put off in boats. " Then for hours, while the great world waited for a crumb of news as to the safety of the Titanic' s people, not one thing was known save that she was drifting, broken and helpless and alone in the midst of a waste of ice." Cablegram, Scripps-McEae League, Newspapers. April 15, 2:22 a.m. Titanic sinks. April 15, 3 A.M. Wireless from Cape Race station, directed to the Associated Press, gives the World its first infor- mation of serious disaster. April 15, 5 A.M. Survivors picked up by Steamer Car- pathia. She rescues 705 people, mostly women and children, 50 EflFective Paragraphing from lifeboats and several life rafts. Appalling loss of crew and passengers, including many of international prominence. The combined wealth of seven of these thus perishing totaled more than $450,000,000. April 18, 9:30 p.m. Rescue boat docks at New York. Death list totals 1635, making it the record maritime disaster to that date. Facts Gleaned from the Testimony op Survivors 1. There was the greatest heroism on the part of the men, both crew and passengers. The cry was " Women and Chil- dren First,'' and with but few exceptions, no man entered the boats until commanded so to do. The captain died at his post. 2. The lifeboat equipment was woefully insufficient. 3. The ship's musicians showed unusual bravery, playing from the time she struck until she went down, although the order, "Men, save yourselves," applied to them. The last thing they were heard to play was. Nearer, My God, to Thee. "The wireless operator on the Carpathia was just on the point of removing the receivers from his ears just after mid- night on Sunday night, when he decided to remain at his apparatus a moment or two longer to see if he could catch any ' Good night ' calls from his brother operators on other lines. As he expressed it, he took ^ one last listen.' " He took up his receiver and faintly at first, then stronger, he heard the click, click, zip, zip, of an appeal for aid. All thought of sleep was then instantly abandoned. He tuned his instrument again and heard the cry coming stronger. " This time he caught the name of the vessel, the Titanic, and then a moment afterward came her position. She was in 41.46 north latitude; 50.14 west longitude. She gave the * C. Q. D.,' generally read as ' Come quick. Danger,' and later, the ' S. 0. S.,' of the international call for help. Hastily flashing a reassuring message to the Titanic, he telephoned to Exercises in Paragraph Development 51 the bridge and at once electrified the whole complement of the Carpathian officers and crew, to instant action." — From the Cincinnati Enquirer j slightly adapted. " We drifted olf easily as the oars were got out, and headed directly away from the ship. The crew of the lifeboat seemed to me to be mostly cooks in white jackets, two to an oar, with a stoker at the tiller. The stoker was elected captain. We decided to keep close to the other boats. It was now about 1 A.M. ; a beautiful starlight night, with no moon, and so not very light. " The sea was calm. Just a gentle heave as the boat dipped up and down in the swell ; an ideal night, except for the bitter cold, for any one who had to be out in the middle of the Atlantic in an open boat. If ever such a night was needed it was now, with hundreds of people, mostly women and children, hundreds of miles from land. " As we rowed away from the Titanic we looked back from time to time to watch her, and a more striking spectacle could not well be imagined. In the distance, she looked an enor- mous length, her great bulk outlined in black against the starry sky, every porthole and saloon blazing with light. It was impossible to think that anything could be wrong with such a leviathan, were it not for that enormous tilt downward in the bows, where the water was by now up to the lowest row of portholes. " At about 2 o'clock, she settled rapidly, then slowly tilted, every light going out. Her machinery, thus loosened from its place, fell with a roar forward. Finally, with a slanting dive, she plunged to her grave in the Atlantic. Then fell on our ears the most awful cry that human ears ever listened to, the death wail of the many hundreds struggling in the water." — From the Cincinnati Enquirer, slightly adapted. (a) Preliminary Outline. — Put yourself in the place of the tele- graph editor on the night when the telegrams begin to come in, detailing the story of the loss of the Titanic, as given above. Prepare an outline describing the wreck and the scenes attendant upon it 52 Effective Paragraphing The story is full of interest, and you will find no difficulty in making your account interesting. (6) Testing. — Test your outline for unity, coherence, and em- phasis. Change it if necessary, or discard it entirely, making a new one. Do not make the mistake of attempting too many items in your outline. Three or four will be all you can handle to advantage. Eliminate anything that seems to hinder unity, or to mar the coherence. (c) Paragraphing. — 1. In deciding upon your outline, remember that each item stands for one paragraph, or should do so. Keep an eye upon your paragraphing. Do not be afraid to use space. The details of this shipwreck filled the front pages of the leading news- papers for ten days or more, and the interest was intense. 2. After having thus carefully decided upon your outline, which will indicate the paragraphs you are to use, write your account, devel- oping your paragraphs in any of the three ways described on page 47. Let five papers, selected for variety in treatment, be read aloud. (d) Class Criticism. — Let the class criticize these five papers with special reference to the suggestions below. 1. Listen carefully for any lack of unity. 2. Watch for any carelessness in arrangement. Such care- lessness, as you know, will mar the coherence of your story. 3. Listen for emphasis, and for interest in all that is read before the class. How did each story, read or spoken, deal with these important points ? 4. Bid any writer or speaker attempt too much? If so, it was a fault against which each student had been warned. 5. How about the paragraphing? Was each paragraph a unit in itself ? Were the paragraphs too long, or too short ? Were they logically developed ? 6. Which paper or oral effort was the best, so far as the use of imagination is concerned ? How about originality ? 7. Forgetting now -all imperfections or defects, what did you most admire in what has been offered on this story? Name some minor excellences that caught your attention. (e) Rival Newspaper Staffs. — Let the teacher of English name three students who shall act as managing editors of rival newspapers, say The News, The Journal, and The Times. At the same time let one Exercises in Paragraph Development 53 capable student be named as representative of the Associated Press, whose duty it shall be to gather information and put it into usable shape for all three papers. The managing editors shall choose, turn about, from the members of the class until all are chosen. The pupils thus chosen are to constitute the respective staffs of the rival papers, to be assigned to duty by the managing editors. Appoint an assistant editor ; a telegraph editor, to handle and put in shape everything in the way of news, including what comes from the Associated Press; a sporting editor, news writers, a headline editor, a proof reader, reporters, and a sub-editor who shall be responsible for correct paragraphing. Features. — Each paper is to feature two events, with three thousand words as the limit for each event, making six thou- sand words as the limit for the entire issue. For the first event, each paper is to deal with the sinking of the Titanic^ as though it had happened the night before, ^or the second event, each paper may choose for itself. Any important item of athletic news of interest to the school, the closing game of an exciting series of baseball, football, or basket ball; or an interscholastic field-day contest. Each managing editor shall decide for his own paper the number and kind of articles the issue shall contain. The list may include editorials. Associated Press dispatches, cablegrams, telegrams, wireless messages, statements of survivors, or of officers or passengers on other ships, in case of the wreck ; and accounts of the contest, the line-up, sketches of the winning team, estimates of the importance of the game, notes and com- ments, special plays, interviews, and whatever else is found on the sporting page of a good paper. There should be no objection if the writers on athletic events indulge in sprightly English. A certain breeziness of treatment is to be expected on the sporting page. Time for Preparation. — Ample time should be allowed for drill in writing headlines, and for all distinctively newspaper work. If the managing editors can inspire their respective staffs to work on the project outside of school hours, so much the better. 54 EflFective Paragraphing Publication. — Perhaps the best method of publication will be to have the three issues read aloud before the high school. — In such case, choose the best readers in the high school. Other Methods of Publication. — If you have a printing department, here is an opportunity for it to demonstrate its value to the school. If not, and you have a commercial depart- ment, it could use to advantage its skill in manifolding copies. Interesting the Press. — Except in large cities, the local press might, if the project is properly presented, lend its help. How this could be done would depend on circumstances in each case. For instance, the paper might give half a page, arranging your three " issues '' side by side. You could arrange to take a certain number of copies, or guarantee certain adver- tising, to pay for the space. The " issues '^ should be published just as they come from the respective staffs, without any retouching by professional newspaper writers. Judging the Work. — Let three practical newspaper men or women be chosen as judges. These should decide upon and announce the points on which they expect to base their decision, before the competing students begin to write. The Eequired Standard.^ — Expression in writing includes the ability to write a paragraph or article with special adap- tation to purpose and class of readers, such as a news account of some occurrence within the immediate experience of the class, in a form acceptable to the city editor of a daily news- paper of good standing. Paragraphing in Conversation. — In reporting conversa- tion, it is well to note that each speech, whether short or long, is to be paragraphed separately. The following is an example : I met him as I turned towards the door. " Hello, when did you get in ? " I asked. ^ From the English Syllabus^ Board of Regents, New York. Topical Outlines 55 " I am just in," lie answered. " Look here, Jennings, didn't you receive my wire from Boston ? " "I haven't heard a word from you," I replied. "Not a word." Suggestions for Topical Outlines.^ — As a powerful aid toward sticking to the point (unity) in an orderly manner (coherence) the use of the topical outline should be emphasized. By its use thought is organized and made effective. It should be employed from the be- ginning to the end of the high school course. In preparing an outline it is well to use a conventional form. The following is a convenient graphic repre- sentation : I ' . A 1 . a ' b 2 B 1 a II The Paper Dolls of My Childhood I. My first recollection of paper dolls A. In the nursery B. In the sewing room II. My later delight A. When I could make dresses for the dolls 1. To earn money 2. To please my sister. ^ The Teaching of High School English, State Board, New Jersey. 56 Effective Paragraphing The Ipanee or Ancient Men. EXERCISES BASED ON PICTURES Alaska. The Ipanee or Ancient Men. — Look through the reindeer pictures in thie book, and write a brief paper on the rein- deer industry in Alaska, paying special attention to the development of your paragraphs. The United States Government in 1892 inaugurated tlie im- portation of reindeer from Siberia into Alaska, bringing over in all 1200. These had increased to 82,151 reindeer in 1916. The reindeer are not given to the natives. These serve an apprenticeship of four years, receiving a substantial number at the end of each year. The apprentice is allowed to kill his surplus male deer, and use or sell the meat. He uses the skins in making clothing. He is encouraged to use his sled deer in carrying mails, freight, and passengers. At the end of his service, he assumes charge of his herd, and must then train other natives, rewarding his apprentices according to the regulations. Here is shown a group of original reindeer men, now leaders in the industry, which is under the charge of the United States Bureau of Education. Exercises Based on Pictures 57 Photograph by Elmer L. Foote. A Kentucky Horse Show. A Kentucky Horse Show. — One class of animals lias just been shown, and another is called. Two saddle horses stand near the judges, probably to receive the blue and red ribbons, the former denoting the finest animal of its class. Buyers come from all over the world to select animals from the pedigreed stock here shown. 1. A Thoroughbred. — What is the difference between a thorough- bred and another animal, so far as horses are concerned? Answer from your own knowledge, or read up on the subject in the encyclopedia. 2. Ancestry. — Tell how the Kentucky thoroughbred is related to the Arabian horses. This is an interesting story and is worth look- ing up. 3. Life Story of an Animal Purchased Here. — Trace the life of some fine animal bought for the personal use of some general, or of some one of royal blood. Intelligent beyond the ordinary, and loyal to the death, such a horse offers material for a romantic story. 4. Your Own Pet Animal. — Some of the students who are to 58 Effective Paragraphing write on this picture may have owned or may now possess a fine animal, whether pedigreed or not. Tell something of its intelligence and faithfulness. 5. Saddle Horses. — What are the special qualities a saddler should have ? Show why it is that their owners so often become at- tached to them. Relate several instances of this, whether historical or within your own knowledge. 6. Breaking a Colt. — Relate your own experience, or that of some one known to you. 7. Man's Best Friends. — Prepare a speech on the theme, Man's Two Best Friends, the Horse and the Dog. CHAPTER V EFFECTIVE SEEING Imagination is the eye of the soul. — Joubert. Imagination plays an important part in all effective speaking and writing. Many a dull passage may be brightened by the use of what Wordsworth terms the "inward eye." If the student will endeavor to bring before his mind^s eye the scenes which he wishes to tell about, he will readily learn to do what Coleridge describes in his Day Dreams where he says, " My eyes make pictures when they 're shut." The power of the mind to see things in fancy is called visualizing. The ability to visualize is a great help in se- curing a good imaginative effect, and in seeing clearly those things which the imagination is to enliven and develop. EXERCISES IN VISUALIZING (a) Visualize the continent of North America. Think of yourself at some high point where you can sweep the continent with the eye of your fancy, better than any human instrument yet devised. See it all stretching out under you. To the east, the Appalachian system. To the west, the Eocky Mountains and the Pacific, then the great plains of the Mississippi Valley. To the north, the hills that separate the rivers of the Hudson Bay country from the rivers of the United States. See the Great Lakes and valley of the St. Law- rence. Far to the south, view the wide alluvial plains and the 69 60 EflFective Seeing Gulf, encircling the southern border. Last of all, let youi glance sweep over Mexico. (6) Glance back over this same stretch of country, and view the people at their amusements. How do they enjoy themselves ? With the " inward eye " of your imagination, see and detail what you see on some great holiday. (c) Visualize a pretty church wedding. Put everything else out of your mind, and picture it as happening while you write. Hold your mind to it until you see it. Make your account consistent. Make it brief. Make it interesting. See it all as happening in some church with which you are familiar, and which is worth describing. Use the following outline if you wish. A Pretty Church Wedding (1) The time ; (2) the church decorations ; (3) the crowd waiting for the coming of the wedding party ; (4) " They 're coming ! " (5) the wedding march ; (6) the ceremony, includ- ing a description of the bride ; (7) the recessional. (rf) Using the selection below as suggestive, picture a rescue by the Life Saving Crew on the Atlantic Coast, during a storm in winter. Do not write until you have clearly in mind what you intend to say. Then write rapidly. The element of danger cuts little figure in the minds of the men. The excitement of the wreck, the launching of the boat, the tough, long pull to the vessel, the battle with the seas, the careful work in approaching the wreck, and all the incidents in connection, are life and action to them. The danger is part of the day's work. — With the Life-savers, Chas. T. Gwynne. (c) Visualize the voyage of the Titanic. — See her from the time she lay at the busy docks of Southampton, with eager crowds hurrying aboard. She has left the land, the finest ship afloat ; and is in mid- ocean, a thousand miles from shore. The air is touched with sudden chill. Icebergs are near. But still she steams ahead, for she is mak- ing a record. See her in the midst of floating mountains of ice. She has struck an iceberg. She is sinking by the head. Shut your eyes and see the wreck, the icy waters of the North At- Word Pictures 61 lantic covered with wreckage, and dotted with men struggling for life. Many men are still on board the Titanic. She is pointed head down just ready for the plunge. Boats and life rafts are pulling away from the ship, some of them already quite a distance away. Your imagination will suggest something in keeping with such a scene. See it for yourself, and describe it as you see it. (/) Visualize a glimpse of kingly hospitality. — In the Odyssey, book iv, Bryant's translation, lines 49-380, there occurs a bit of word painting detailing the visit of Telemachus, son of Ulysses, to the palace of King Menelaus and his wife Helen, once of Troy. Their conversation is a fine example of table talk. During this conversa- tion, the king tells Telemachus the story of the Wooden Horse, and his own part and that of Ulysses in that dire stratagem. The pas- sage affords as excellent a picture of ancient life and hospitality as exists in literature. Read the story over until you have it well in mind. Then picture it and tell it. Do not aUow anything to hinder the story. Word Pictures. — Word pictures are vivid bits of descrip- tion. The object or scene to t)e described should be visualized and its striking features noted. The effect of a word picture is greatly enhanced by judicious use of the imagination. EXERCISES ON WORD PICTURES (a) Select any two or more of the following. Picture the scene suggested, and when it is clear in your mind, tell about it, as you see it. Aim to make your hearer or reader see it as you do. 1. Sheep feeding on the hillside in the early morning, or at sunset. Picture it as in summer time. 2. Cattle standing in the pools at midday, under the trees. 3. A glimpse of a waterfall, showing through the forest. If you have seen a waterfall, recall it and describe it. If not, look up a picture of the Yosemite Falls. Study it, then tell it as you see it. 4. " On behind ! " The streets are covered with snow. Boys and girls are out with their sleds. They are catching on behind wagons and sleighs, and stealing rides. See the chil- dren in your mind's eye, then tell the story as you see it. 62 EfiFective Seeing (b) Try to paint a word picture of any two of the following scenea 1. Picture a roaxi, winding it8 way by the side of a river, seen now and then through the trees. 2. Picture the scene on Christmas eve, with the family gathered about the Christmas tree. Tell about it. 3. There has been an accident at a crowded comer of your city. The " Red Cross " ambulance comes at a gallop, and the police patrol auto swings around the corner. Picture it, then describe it. 4. You are passing the doors of an engine house of the city fire department, when the alarm rings. The doors fly open, and the firemen are off to the scene of the fire. See it mentally, then tell it. 5. You are out in a blinding snowstorm. You see a little newsboy on the corner, trying to shelter himself from the blizzard. Picture him. Tomb of the " Black Prince", Canterbury .Cathedral. Exercises Based on Pictures 63 EXERCISES BASED ON PICTURES The Black Prince. — Refer to Charles Dickens' Child* s History of England, chapter xviii, or any other history of England, and tell the story of this favorite hero of the English people. Edward, eldest son of Edward III of England, was called the Black Prince from the color of his armor. He led the most gallant division of the English forces in the battle of Crecy, 1346. Ten years later he won .fhe battle of Poitiers against overwhelming odds, and captured the French king, John II. His tomb in Canterbury Cathedral is shown at the right in the picture on page 62. Important Cautions. — The permanent editorial com- mittee should note the followmg items^ and add them to the lists on previous pages. XVII. Make careful inquiry into the use of the period at the end of sentences in continuous composition, on the part of all students of the English class in their daily written exercises. Make a list of such pupils as are careless in this regard. Watch their daily work with increasing care. Students who in speaking begin too many of their sentences with and, or still worse, with and-dh, are most likely to have no regard for sentence-forming. They multiply the use of tlve comma, using it even at the end of sentences. In speaking, this is called the running-on fault. In writing, it is referred to as the comma fault. In general, it is advisable that no pupil should be promoted to second year who still has the comma fault, that is, the so- called " running-on " fault. XVIII. Be careful to require the use of the comma in at least such cases as the following. (a) To set off words of address : Charles, where are you going? Mr. Chairman, I second the motion. 1 From the English Syllabus, Board of Regents, New York, and the Requirements in Form, Illinois Association of Teachers of English. 64 EflFective Seeing (6) To set off a geographical name explaining a preceding name : Ottawa, Canada; Washington, District of Columbia; Columbia, S. C. (c) To set off an appositive : Washington, the first president of the United States, was a native of Virginia. (d) To separate the words of a series : That fellow can not read, write, or figure. XIX. Let the editorial committee guard against the use of dangling participles. Where a participle is used without the noun which it should modify, it is called a dangling participle. Such use tends to produce confusion. Note the following instances. 1. Before using machinery, shoes were made by hand. (Can shoes use machinery ?) 2 After taking our seats, the secretary read the minutes of the previous meeting. (How could the secretary take our seats ?) 3. While standing on our front porch, the procession marched by. (Could the procession stand on the porch and march hy^ at one and the same time ?) Spelling List. — Let the editorial committee^ after con- sulting with the instructor in English, prepare a list of one hundred words that are habitually misspelled by the class, or by members of the class. This list is to he copied into the notebooks., and special drill is to be given on this list. It may include words already noted. CHAPTER VI GETTING EFFECTIVE MATERIAL Invention is the talent of youth, as judgment is of age. — Swift. Invention. — Invention is that part of the study of rhetoric and composition which tries to answer the ques- tion, " What shall I say ? " The International Dictionary defines invention as the exercise of the imagination in selecting a theme, or more commonly in contriving the arrangement of a piece, or the method of presenting the parts of a composition. While you may sometimes be able to express yourself in a satisfactory manner without effort and without much preparation, yet it is not wise to rely upon what is termed the spur of the moment. Nothing can take the place of preparation. Collecting Materials. — There is a right way and there is a wrong way of beginning to write. To sit pen in hand, cudgeling your brain for what to write next, is not the right way. What Sir Joshua Reynolds says of the art of painting applies with equal force to writing. He says : "A great part of every man's life must be employed in collecting materials. Invention is little more than a new com- bination of those images which have been previously gathered and deposited in the memory. Nothing can be made of noth- ing. He who has laid up no materials ca,n produce no combination.'' 65 66 EfiFective Material Dr. Johnson in the Anteroom of Lord Chesterfield. — Ward. EXERCISES BASED ON PICTURES Dr. Samuel Johnson. — Catch the spirit of this story as told by the picture, and tell it as you see it. A summary of your material is given below. Lord Chesterfield, a wealthy patron of literature, encouraged Samuel Johnson to expect his assistance when Johnson under- took the colossal task of writing a " Dictionary of the English Language." Johnson waited in vain for the expected aid. For seven years he struggled unassisted. Then when the work was about to appear, Chesterfield wrote a flattering notice of the Dictionary, willing enough now to be known as its patron. Johnson refused his patronage in what is rightly con- sidered one of the great letters of all literature. The picture by Ward shows the wrathful Doctor, staff in hand, just about reaching the limit of his patience. The Notebook. — A notebook is indispensable. Thoughts will come to you to-day which may never come to you again. These should be saved. The plan or scheme of a The Scrapbook 67 paragraph or theme, the plot or outline of a sketch or of a story, the suggestion of an interesting article, will flash upon your mind, and this, if not instantly seized and written down, may, and most probably will, flash away from you and be lost. Write it down. An apt expression in your own peculiar phrase, or a bright saying of some one else, if not written down at once, is often lost. Some sentence or quotation, some excellent paragraph, or some article that puts the case better than it may ever be put again, is either saved now or perhaps lost forever. Put such things down. The Scrapbook. — You should own a scrapbook. Not a large one of the old-fashioned kind, but one that you can carry with you. The same memorandum may serve both as notebook and scrapbook. Clip whatever impresses you at the time, but do not paste all your clippings into your scrapbook. Keep them awhile in an envelope or loose in your scrapbook, sort them over from time to time, and paste in only those which seem worth while. Use library paste, but not too much of it. Touch the top of the clipping with the paste. This facilitates the drying of the clipping and enables you to discard the clipping when you are through with it. Some of the clip- pings you may desire to keep permanently. Where space is important, five- or six-column articles may, by folding them back, be included on a single page of a small memorandum book. In case of shorter clippings, several may be pasted on a page, being folded back when not in use, to be unfolded as occasion may require. What to Keep. — In this way fugitive poems, good stories and anecdotes, bits of description, well written accounts of scenes and events, quotations from favorite authors, important speeches and addresses, and informa- 68 Effective Material tion of. interest may be saved. Your scrapbook will prove a treasure-house of suggestion and illustration. Preserve Your Own Work. — If you are writing on some topic, preserve every scrap of your writing bearing in any way upon it. A page of matter otherwise useless, may contain one excellent sentence, or one good usable paragraph. Until the article you are at work on is fin- ished, all you attempt on that theme should be kept. Your own thought is your best source of material. Ex- perience, observation, and imagination are your servants and may be trained to obey the call of your mind. As a general thing, those thoughts that come unbidden when the subject is first presented to you are valuable. Set such thoughts down, but not before the mind has had time to develop as fully as possible the manner in which you are to handle the theme. Be Resolute. — You must learn to acquire a certain resoluteness of thought, refusing to be dismayed if at first you may seem to have no ideas at all upon the pro- posed theme. Your mind will do what you compel it to do, and will suggest something ere long, if held to the task. When Thoughts Come. — As suggestions present them- selves, jot them down on paper. As soon as possible, make an outline by the card plan, as this admits of a greater flexibility in the arrangement of the items. The Public Library. — Learn to take advantage of what is offered by the public library. Use the dictionaries, encyclopedias, works of reference, and helps of all kinds. The trained attendants are at your service and glad to be of use. Yet the sooner you learn to find your own way the better. Important Note. — One caution is to be observed. Do not take the material found in the public library or The Card Catalogue 69 elsewhere, no matter how well it may be adapted to your needs, and use it bodily. This would effectually kill invention. W|iat you make your own is valuable. Noth- ing else is. The Card Catalogue. — First of all, learn to use the card catalogue. Each book in the library is listed at least *:hree times for convenience in finding, its chief listing being under the head of its author. Take for instance, Bryce's American Commonwealth. This is listed under "^" for Bryce, the author's name; then under "^" for American Commonwealth^ The., its title ; and finally, under '' CT" for Z7. aS'. Political History and Affairs, the general subject under which it falls. As you search through the librar}^ you read along until you find what J^ou seek, or what promises to be of help to you. Or else you come to the conclusion that the topic you are in search of is not discussed in any of the books of the library. Right here, the attendants may help you. They may suggest something you had not thought of in connection with your topic, and this may help you out. In thus requiring attention from the attendants of the library, do not forget to exercise unfailing courtesy towards them. This is their due. Magazine and Periodical Literature. — But suppose all efforts prove in vain. Card index and attendants fail to give what you want. There is still another field, that of periodical arid magazine literature. Ask the attendants for Poole's Index, or the Header s Guide, or any one of the many publications for finding material in periodicals. These indexes are arranged alphabetically, so that by turning to the heading sought, you find everything that has been written in the periodical press. 70 Effective Material Stairway, Boston Public Library. EXERCISES BASED ON PICTURES Boston Public Library. — This shows a stairway of the Boston Public Library. This library divides honors with the Library of Congress at Washington, D. C, for the beauty of its archi- tecture and its mural decorations, as well as for its books. 1. A Visit to the Boston Library. — If you live near enough, plan a v^isit to the library. Arrange for an opportunity to study its archi- tecture, its wall paintings, and its resources in literature and art. Exercises in Getting Material 71 2. If you are in easy reach of a good public library, let the English class visit this library, arranging to have a demonstration of how to use it. It should be part of your plan in making a visit to any city of im- portance, to visit and study the public library and its facilities. Beferences for an Article on the Boston Library. — The follow- ing books* and magazines may be consulted. Granger's "Life of Charles McKim,'' on its architecture ; King's " American Mural Paintings," on its mural paintings and decorations. " The Grand Doors of the Boston Library," in the Outlook, No. 78, pp. 586-7 ; Nov., 1904 ; same article, Scribnei'^s, No. 36, pp. 765-8, Dec, 1904 ; same, International Studio, No. 24, pp. 32-6, Dec, 1904. " Eecent Mural Decorations at Boston," International Studio, No. 17, pp. 79-81, July, 1902. " Sargent's Nevr Wall Paintings," Scribner's, No. 34, pp. 764-8, Dec, 1903. EXERCISES IN GETTING MATERIAL (a) Invention. ^ — Try one or more of the following. 1. Tell the story of some important event connected with the history of your home town. Make it short and interesting. If told orally, give it in four minutes. If written, use four hundred words. 2. Think out a little story of adventure whose setting shall be in the Arctic regions. Let it be in one scene and tell of but one happening. 3. Think out a detective story in which your hero, while taking a snapshot and later developing it, finds that he has " snapped " the secret of a notable crime, which is just then baffling the regular detective force. Give it a taking title. Make it interesting and short. If written, use eight hundred words. If oral, use eight minutes. Or you may make it shorter, if you so desire. 1 By invention is meant, so far as this exercise is concerned, the finding of usable material for peaking and writing. n Efifective Material 4. Choose a committee of three or four boys to ascertain and report the facts about the policeman's dog, if there is one in your city. Learn (a) what are his duties, self-appointed or assigned ; (6) how he came to attach himself to the police department ; and (c) something of his actual history. 5. Let three or four girls get at the facts, and take steps to provide for giving some one or more worthy families a sub- stantial Thanksgiving dinner. Here is an opportunity for effective speech. Let each girl make her appeal to some one or more classes of the high school. Be careful not to wound the feelings of those whom you seek to aid. (b) Getting Material. — Choose one or more of the following exer- cises, or substitute one of your own. 1. Read the story of Ali Cogia in the Arabian Nights, where the Caliph overhears the children playing in the moon- light and conducting a mimic trial, in which one of the boys pronounces a judgment which the Caliph sees is the only decision possible in the case he is to try the next day. Shape the story as you please. Make it modern, if you choose. 2. Eead the story of George Sand's Fanchon the Cricket, and put it into scenario form, for a photo-drama play. In this sense, a scenario is a sketch of the plot or main incidents of a moving-picture play. Each scene is described in twenty words or less ; and there may be any number of scenes. 3. Give orally the account of How they hunted the buffalo, as told in Parkman's Calif omia and the Oregon Trail. 4. Outline Robert Louis Stevenson's Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde in not more than one thousand words, or the equivalent, a ten-minute talk. 5. Let a group of the best story-tellers in the class study and reproduce in scenario form for a moving-picture play, de Maupassant's short-story. The Necklace. Refer to The Satur- day Evening Post for an exposition of the moving-picture scenario. The attendants at the library will have no difficulty in finding this for you. Use not more than from twenty-two to twenty-five scenes. Exercises in Getting Material 73 6. Make a scenario for the "movies" of Oliver Gold- smith's play, She Stoops to Conquer. 7. Tell orally Eudyard Kipling's story of An Unsavory Interlude, found in Stalky & Co. Omit the schoolboy slang, or use as little as possible. Give it in good colloquial English. 8. Tell the story of Tennyson's Enoch Arden in not more than twenty-five scenes, each told in not more than twenty words. You may give it as a scenario. Put it on the black- board for class criticism. Kewrite it. (c) Refer to Hawthorne's Tanglewood Tales and read carefully one of the following stories. Make a memorandum of the points that strike you in the story. Do not attempt to tell it until you have in mind a plan or simple outline of the story, so as to bring out clearly what you have in mind to tell. (1) The Minotaur. (2) The Dragon's Teeth. (3) The Pomegranate Seeds. (4) The Golden Fleece. Theseus and the Minotaur. — The hero, Theseus, son of a great king of Athens, goes to seek his father whom he had never known. After many an adventure, he takes his place at his father's side. On a day when seven youths and seven maidens mu-st be drawn by lot to be sent from Athens to Minos, king of Crete, to be devoured by the Minotaur, The- seus offers himself as one of these seven youths, proposing to seek and slay the Minotaur. Arrived at Crete, his noble bearing wins the interest and pity of Ariadne, daughter of Minos. Appealing to her father in vain, she goes with Theseus to the Labyrinth, where dwells the Minotaur. She opens a secret door and enters with The- seus. As he turns to seek the Minotaur, she warns him of the inscrutable Labyrinth, and puts into his hand one end of a silken thread, the other end of which she will hold until his return, thus guiding him through the maze. With the silken thread in his left hand and his gold-hilted sword in his right hand, he seeks the Minotaur, attacks, and after dire conflict, slays him. Guided by the clew, he retraces his steps to find Ariadne awaiting his coming. (208) 74 Effective Material (d) Refer to Mabie's Norse Stories and select one of the stories from the list below. Make your outline mentally or in writing, and tell your story in your own way. (1) Odin's Search for Wisdom. (2) The Making of Thor's Hammer. (3) The Apples of Idun. (4) Thor Goes Fishing. (5) How Thor Fought the Giant Hhrungner. Odin's Search for Wisdom. — In the old Norse days the giants were both older and wiser than the gods. After a time the gods became wiser than the giants, or they would have ceased to be gods. Odin in his thirst for wisdom came to a deep well whose keeper was Mimer, or Memory. For a draft of this clear water Odin paid the price, and gave one of his eyes. Even the gods could not be wise without struggle and sacrifice. Odin became wise, but ever yearned for greater wisdom. At last he journeys in disguise to Vaftthrudner, the wisest of the giants. On pain of death if he should fail, Odin answers all the questions the giant propounds. Then drawing from the giant all the secrets of the future, he finally vanquishes him with a question the answer to which none but Odin him- self could know. " I have brought my doom upon myself," said the giant, " for in my ignorance, I have contended with wisdom itself." (164) (e) Using the Library. — Consult the public library for a good adventure in aviation by a venturesome aviator. Tell it orally in your own words. After some record flight, you may find a good account in the newspapers. See also Lewis's Trail of the Hawk. (/) Vocational Guidance. — Try one or both of the following. 1. Special Exercise in English for Manual Training Stu- dents. — Let a subject connected with the practical work of the manual training department,* for instance. The Use of th£ Engine Lathe, be assigned a day or two beforehand. Let a group of students, one of them selected as spokesman, study 1 For an excellent discussion of this sort of English work, see in the English Journal, September, 1913, an article by Miss May McKitrick, East Technical High School, Cleveland, Ohio. Exercises in Getting Material 75 the lathe so as to explain its use, its construction, how it works, precautions to be taken, what to do in case of accident to the machine, etc. Let working drawings be put on the blackboard, unless enough blue prints have been provided for distribution among the class. The spokesman considers himself as foreman of the shop, and some three or four students from the manual training department as new workmen, who have never seen the lathe. His problem is so to present the subject as to give them a working knowledge of it. If he can illustrate his points by the actual use of the lathe, so much the better. The class is divided into sections, — one to watch for wn%, one for clearness, another for mechanical accuracy, and still another for paragraph structure. 2. Salesmanship. — One of the students who inclines to salesmanship may select some manual training student of ability to represent the possible buyer, and after rehearsing the scene, go through the steps of a successful presentation of the lathe, and sell it. (g) Oral Work, Impromptu. — Speak without previous preparation on one of the following subjects. 1. Discuss orally your favorite cartoonist, and describe one of his cartoons. Two minutes. 2. State orally how high school manuscript should be pre- pared. Two or three minutes. 3. Give orally a favorite recipe for making candy. 4. Give orally some reasons why you think that pupils in high school should speak and write good English. Two minutes. 5. Tell orally how you would direct a stranger standing at the railroad station to find the room you now recite in, at the high school. Two minutes. 6. Give a three-minute talk, using this as your topic sen- tence : I think that a proper courtesy on the part of the employees of a store is one of its strongest advertising features. (h) Dictating a Letter. — Try one of these exercises in dictation. 76 Eflfective Material 1. Let the student be handed a business letter dealing with but one point. After glancing at its contents let him dictate the reply thereto, one of the class writing on the black- board the letter thus dictated. Before the class criticizes this letter, the student dictating it is to have one minute to look it over, and make any changes in matter, punctuation, spelling, etc., that he may desire. 2. Dictate a reply to an advertisement for " Help Wanted." The advertisement which is to be answered is to be written neatly on the board. As the student dictates his reply, another member of the class will write it on the blackboard. 3. Dictate a letter, using this as your topic sentence : / herewith return at your expense the article yon sent me. (i) Oral Report. — Make a short oral report on one of the follow- ing subjects. 1. Look up your facts and report orally on the relative advantages of the Parcel Post or of some Express Company, in sending a package of twenty pounds from your city to a point (a) fifty miles, (b) three hundred miles, and (c) one thousand miles distant. 2. Read up on the topic and report orally on How and where a Ten Cent Store buys its goods. 3. Ascertain your facts and report orally on How some high school pupils use their spare time to advantage. (j) Outline Material. — Collect the material presented in this chapter, outline it, and be prepared to recite from this outline. EXERCISES BASED ON PICTURES St. Louis of France in Palestine. — Study the picture, put your own interpretation upon it, and tell some story of chivalric times which will be worthy of this scene. This picture by A. Cabanel is in the Pantheon at Paris. The artist has embodied the spirit of chivalry in the bearing of this true knight. He looks a king. The days of chivalry Important Cautions 77 St. Louis of France in Palestine. have gone, but the spirit of chivalry is a heritage left us from those days, and it will never die. High Chivalry in a Humble Soul. — Tell some deed of devotion in which some plain everyday man or woman does some really chivalric thing. Do not be in too great haste to write. Think interest and beauty into your tale, and tell it. Important Cautions. —It will be well for the editorial com- mittee, after careful consultation with the English instruc- tor, to note the following suggestions, relating to spelling. XX. Request from one of the large business houses of your city or community a list of commonly misspelled words,^ either 1 Suggested by the Department of Public Instraction, State of New Jersey, in The Teaching of High School English, 1914. 78 Effective Material from their own office experiences, or from the letters of corr^ spondents. Such words are to be added to the working vocabu- lary of the class, and should be listed in the English notebooks. XXI. Call attention to the following items,^ and lay careful stress on drill on such words as are referred to. 1. Doubling final consonants before a suffix beginning with a vowel, in words ending in a consonant preceded by a single vowel, if the word is a monosyllable or is accented on the last syllable. 2. Dropping unaccented e in such cases. 3. Plural of nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant. 4. Third singular indicative of words ending in y preceded by a consonant. Photograph by Frank C. Sage. Crossing the Line in the 4401 EXERCISES BASED ON PICTURES Crossing the Line. — Tell the story of an exciting race, or describe the one here shown. 1 From Requirements in Fornix Illinois Association of Teachers of English. Exercises Based on Pictures 79 Such a race quickens the pulse of every lover of athletics. Each fellow is putting his every ounce of muscle and sinew into the effort. How about the Loser? — Not every fellow can win. What does the l6ser get? He may get experience for another race. Write a story, showing how the fellow who lost so studied his losing as to snatch victory out of defeat the next time. EXERCISES IN SPELLING (a) Try a written spelling match. — Take certain lists from the notebook and give the class several days for study. Choose sides, and give out fifty to one hundred words to be written by all the pupils of the class. Let the captain of each side name one, these two to name a third student, and these three to check the results. The student named by one captain will check the papers of the other side, and vice versa. The third student selected will look over all papers, and place the final marks. Average the two sides, and declare the result. A series of three matches may thus be made, the best two out of three to win. (&) An old-fashioned spelling match. — Announce certain lists to be studied, as found in the English notebook. Choose sides. Let all pupils stand. Let some teacher, or some clear-voiced student from another class, give out the words to be spelled, first to one side, then to the other. When a word is missed by one side, pass it to the pupil next in order on the other side. Pupils who miss must sit down. Give out the whole set, but not necessarily in the order in which they come in the list. If the time is limited, for instance to a period of forty or forty-five minutes, stop two minutes before the last bell rings, but see that each side has had the same number of students called on to spell. Each pupil should have a time limit of ten seconds in which to spell his word. If he fails to do so within that time, let it count a miss for his side. When a contestant spells a word, let that spelling stand as right or wrong. After the word is spelled in full, allow no changes in spelling. The number of pupils left standing at the close of the match is to decide which side is winner. If it is a tie, do not give out any addi- tional words, but let it go as a tie. 80 EflFective Material Let a referee be chosen by the two captains. The decision of the referee is to be respected with regard to all disputes arising during the spelling match. For instance, if a contestant claims not to under- stand the word given out, the referee may pronounce it. The con- testant must then spell the word. (c) At the blackboard. — Send eight or ten pupils to the black- board. Give out ten words. Any pupil who spells the set of ten words correctly will take his seat. Pupils who fail in one or more words will remain at the board until one complete set has been cor- rectly spelled. Select the words from the lists in the notebook. Suggestion as to Conferences. — It is often worth while for the instructor in English to arrange individual confer- ences with pupils who have special difficulties : punctua- tion, with one ; spelling, with another ; how to take hold in writing or in preparing to speak, with a third. These conferences will prove helpful in promoting a better mutual understanding.! 1 Provision should be made for conference between the teacher and each individual pupil. — From the Report of the National Joint Committer on the Beorganization of High School English. CHAPTER VII THE EFFECTIVE USE OF MATERIAL Method, will teach you to win. — Goethb. An Effective Plan. — In attempting to speak or write on the exercises thus far given, you have perhaps found your- self perplexed to know just how to express what you have to say. Your mind may have suggested abundant ma- terial, but how are you to use it most effectively ? Barrett Wendell, a writer on rhetoric, makes a valuable suggestion. He says that any story must naturally fall into parts, and then asks, What shall those parts be ? In what order shall they be arranged ? The simplest way to answer these questions, says Wen- dell, is to take slips of paper, or blank cards if you can get them, and write down the separate headings that occur to you, in what appears to you the most natural order. Then when your little pack of cards is complete, — in other words, when you have a card for every heading that you think you can use, — study them and sort them almost as deliberately as a good player does a hand at cards. Advantages of the Card Plan. — Wendell states that it has rarely been his experience to find that a shift or change of arrangement will not decidedly improve the original order. He says that a few minutes' shuffling of these little cards has often revealed more to him than he would have learned by hours of unaided pondering over his story. The great advantage of the cards is that they 81 82 EflFective Use of Material enable the writer by this simple act of rearrangement to make any number of fresh plans. You will recognize that you yourself have been doing something like this. You have been testing your work, first, to see if there is anything you can leave out to ad- vantage. And then, after discarding any unnecessary point, or any hindering detail, you have sought to get the best order possible to bring out your meaning. And finally, you have been trying by proper arrangement to secure the * strongest emphasis of which your story is capable. This card plan will enable you to do all this a little better and a little more easily than before.^ EXERCISES BASED ON PICTURES Palazzo Vecchio. — This title means " The Old Palace." This was at first the seat of republican government at Florence, and later the official residence of the Medici, that famous family which gave eight dukes to Tuscany, two queens to France, and four popes to the Vatican. Here was also the prison of Savonarola, who was burned at the stake at a corner of the palace. The pavement of this court yard was for centuries covered once each year with vio- lets in memory of the good 'Savonarola had done, and in token of repentance for his cruel death. Write a description of the palace, or if you prefer, give a short account of its history. Other Plans. — The card plan has other advantages. It helps clear your mind and arrange your ideas on the topic of which you have to speak or write. Of course, this is not the only way to do this. (1) Some writers sit down 1 Good writing demands a large vocabulary, a clear and vigorous style, and firmness and flexibility in the construction of sentences and para- graphs ; also correctness as to details of form. — From the Report of the National Joint Committee on the Reorganization of High School English. The Card Plan 83 and think the thing out. (2) Others ask some one to listen to what they have written, to see if its meaning is clear. If it is not clear, they rewrite it until it is clear. (3) Others do best when walking in the open air. Palazzo Vecchio at Florence. 84 Effective Use of Material (4) Some writers and speakers state to themselves the questions ol- problems they wish to solve, so as to get them clearly in mind, and then trust to what they call "unconscious cerebration.'* That is, they rely on the unconscious processes of the mind to work it out, step by step. But of all schemes for securing unity, coherence, and emphasis, the card plan is the most effective. It is worth your while to master this plan of Wendell's, and to use it until you find a better one. Write out sug- gestive headings on each of a series of five or six cards or slips. These you can arrange and rearrange, discarding any that need to be set aside, until the order of arrange- ment suits you. You can then write your story rapidly. Planning for Paragraphs. — The card plan has another advantage, for it will always afford a satisfactory basis for paragraphing. If the outline is properly framed, each item of the list will represent a separate paragraph. Edward Everett, a distinguished American writer and orator, in preparing an address on the Uses of Astronomy^ used the following outline, or something like it. Just what he discarded from his original outline in order to bring it to this shape, we do not know. Outline The appearance of the sky, as I entered the train ; as we proceeded ; as the day broke. Conclusion. A careful reading of this illustration, quoted below, will show that there is not a word too much, and not an item of any kind that hinders the flow of thought. Everett evidently tells it all in the very order in which it occurred. There is, if you will note it, a fine emphasis at the close. Planning for Paragraphs 85 A Glorious Spectacle I had occasion a few weeks since to take tlie early train from Providence to Boston ; and for this purpose rose at two o'clock in the morning. Every thing around was wrapped in darkness and hushed in silence, broken ^^^^ ^^ ^■^^ only by what seemed at that hour the unearthly sky, as I en- clank and rush of the train. It was a mild, serene ^^^^^ ^^^ midsummer's night ; the sky was without a cloud, the winds were whist. The moon, then in her last quarter, had just risen and the stars shone with a spectral luster but little affected by her presence. Jupiter, two hours high, was the herald of the day ; the Pleiades, just above the horizon, shed their sweet influence in the east ; Lyra sparkled near the zenith ; Andromeda veiled her newly discovered glories from the naked eye in the south ; the steady Pointers, far beneath the pole, looked meekly up from the depths of the north to their sovereign. Such was the glorious spectacle as I entered the train. As we proceeded, the timid approach of the twilight became more perceptible ; the intense blue of the sky began to soften ; the smaller stars, like little children, went ^eded!*^^ first to rest ; the sister-beams of the Pleiades soon melted together ; but the bright constellations of the north and west remained unchanged. Steadily the wondrous transfigura- tion went on. Hands of angels, hidden from mortal eyes, shifted the scenery of the heavens ; the glories of night dis- solved into the glories of the dawn. The blue sky now turned more softly gray ; the great watch- stars shut up their holy eyes ; the east began to kindle. Faint streaks of purple soon blushed along the sky ; the as the day whole celestial concave was filled with the inflow- broke ing tides of the morning light, which came pouring down from above in one great ocean of radiance ; till at length, as we reached the Blue Hills, a flash of purple fire blazed out from above the horizon and turned the dewy teardrops of flower and leaf into rubies and diamonds. In a few seconds the everlast- 86 EflFective Use of Material ing gates of the morning were thrown wide open and the lord of day, arrayed in glories too severe for the gaze of man, began his course. I do not wonder at the superstition of the ancient Magians, who in the morning of the world went up to the hilltops of Central Asia, and, ignorant of the true God, adored the most glorious work of his hand. But I am filled with amazement, when I am told that in this enlightened age, and in the heart of the Christian world, there are persons who can witness this daily manifestation of the power and wisdom of the Creator and yet say in their hearts, " There is no God." — Edward Everett, in the Uses of Astronomy, first delivered at the inauguration of the Dftdley Ob- servatory, at Albany, N. Y. Each of the four paragraphs of which this extract is composed has one main topic, which is indicated by the insets at the side of the page. You will note that each paragraph is distinct and clear, and that when Everett has completed one item of his outline, he does not go back to it, but goes on to discuss some point not yet touched upon. The Independent Paragraph. — When what is to be stated is expressed in a single paragraph, as is often the case, it is called an independent paragraph. The Lord's prayer is given in an independent para- graph. Another striking example is afforded in Lincoln's Gettysburg address. Almost all brief editorial comment in newspaper and magazine work is in the form of the independent paragraph. Related Paragraphs. — If the thought is expressed in two paragraphs, the first paragraph is usually introduc- tory, while the second paragraph is more fully explana- tory. Where several paragraphs are used, the transitional para- graph is found. Its purpose is twofold. It is used either The Topic Statement 87 to do away with monotony by introducing another and newer method of handling the subject, or to introduce an argument or an illustration not before hinted at. Where the whole subject is briefly restated, the para- graph is called a summarizing paragraph. This generally occurs at the end of the article or story, but in newspaper work, in order to call attention at the very outset to the value of the article following, it is often found at the beginning. The Topic Statement. — A clear, concise statement of the main thought contained in a paragraph is called the topic statement. This does not often occur in continuous statements and narratives, but is frequent in writings which follow a careful outline, and in arguments. Ready to Start. Reindeer and Sled, and Eskimo Dog. EXERCISES BASED ON PICTURES Alaska. Ready to Start. — Tell the story of this start as if you were the driver. Make it an independent paragraph with a definite topic statement. 88 Effective Use of Material The reindeer is a wonderful gift to the Eskimos. He is hardy, strong, and docile, and fully capable of taking care of himself. He feeds chiefly upon an Arctic moss, growing plentifully in Alaska. While the Eskimos gather and store quantities of this for winter use, the reindeer can find it for himself even under heavy snows. Formerly, when the natives depended upon dogs for their sleds, the immense packs of dogs ate a large proportion of the supply of dried fish put up for winter use, often reducing their masters to the verge of starva- tion. Now, the reindeer herds increase rapidly, affording skins for clothing and harness, and ample supplies of fresh meat for food and for sale. Here is shown a driver ready to start for the Igloo Fair, over a hundred miles away. The sled is carefully packed and carries everything for the journey, including snowshoes, rifles, and food for both man and deer. A companion reindeer is bellowing farewell, and to the right is seen an Eskimo dog. The forest in the background is highly valued for the sake of fuel, and logs for building. Collecting and Organizing Material. — In preparing to speak or write, the first thing to do is to collect material. Next to this in the order of preparation, but equally im- portant so far as effectiveness is concerned, is the proper arrangement or organization of your material. " Expres- sion in speech (and of course in writing) includes ability to collect and organize material for oral discourse on sub- jects of common interest." ^ EXERCISE IN THE EFFECTIVE USE OF MATERIAL (a) Outline Work. Arranging Your Material. — Collect your ma- terial, and then proceed to arrange or organize it. Take one or more of the exercises given on the following pages. They are designed for practice in arranging an outline to the best advantage. 1 From the Report of the Committee on English^ N. E. A. Commission on Reorganization of High Schools. Organizing Material 89 Take a number of slips of paper, or blank cards. As you read the story from Homer, or that of Roland, or of Siegfried, given in thi^ exercise, jot down suggestive headings for them. Be careful not to put down any heading unless it represents a complete thought not previously noted. After you have thus made your headings, look them over to see if there is anything you can get along without. If there is, it will spoil the unity, and must be cut out. Then arrange the remaining items or headings so as to bring out the story more clearly, if possible. This will give it proper coher- ence. Then if it admits of emphasis, try to secure this by the arrangement of your concluding paragraph. What naturally falls under an item or heading will constitute a sepa- rate paragraph. — Look over each paragraph carefully, testing it for unity, coherence, and emphasis, just as you did your outline. While you are to exercise care in preparing your notes, and in writing from them, it is still more important that you throw off all restraint. Write unreservedly, and tell in a straightforward way what you have to say. Let corrections come later. (6) Paragraphing. — 1. Refer to the Iliad, book x, Bryant's translation, lines 262 to the end of the book ; or read Butcher and Lang's translation of the passage. Get the story well in mind before you start to write, then write it as the story comes to you, paying special attention to paragraphing. Make a memorandum of impor- tant names. Diomed and Ulysses, while the contending hosts lie sleeping, go forth together from the Grecian camp. They come upon Dolon, a Trojan sent out by Hector to spy upon the Grecian camps. Dolon, trusting to save his miserable neck, basely directs them where to find such of the Trojan leaders and their allies as lie most exposed ; and especially some Thracians newly arrived, with their King Ehesus. Diomed fitly rewards his treachery by slaying Dolon. Then coming upon the un- guarded camp of Ehesus, Diomed slays twelve of the Thra- cians, and Ehesus for the thirteenth. Ulysses meanwhile drives the famous horses of Rhesus out of the encampment, and the two return in triumph to the camp of the Greeks. 2. This is a special test in easy-flowing story. Refer to The Death of Roland, by Gautier, cantos clxx to clxxviii. QO Effective Use of Material Roland is left by Charlemagne in charge of a little valley in the Pyrenees, still bearing the name of Eoncesvalles, where he is treacherously attacked and slain by the Gascons. His brave defense and knightly death are well told. Get the story in mind ; arrange your topics on slips of paper or cards; put them in the order which you finally decide upon, and let each topic thus used be the basis of one paragraph. Make at least three paragraphs. 3. Refer to the Norroena Romances and Epics; or to William Morris's translation. Read and tell the story of Siegfried's youth. At first, as he began to feel his marvelous strength, it seemed that he would be headstrong and unmanageable; but later, repenting at sight of his mother's grief over his misdeeds, Siegfried was ever after true and dutiful. He slew the dragon, and bathed himself in the dragon's blood, thereby becoming invulnerable, but one spot remained untouched, and therefore vulnerable. He found a wonderful " hiding cap," which made him invisible. Relate such of Siegfried's adventures as will bring out his char- acter, making him as Queen Brunhild later says of him, " a hero to whom the world belongs." Tell how he became king of the Nibe- lungs. This story should be told in four or five paragraphs. (c) Vocational Guidance. — Some of the best work in English may be done where the students, often on their own initiative, go through some kind of work, and tell about it as they do it. This kind of exercise is termed dramatization. It is generally oral, but if written, what each student says will constitute a separate paragraph. Take one or other of the following. 1. A practical poultt-y problem. — To build an open-front laying house for one hundred hens. This problem should be submitted to a committee chosen for its ability in handling real questions. The committee should have ample, but definite, time for reading up on the problem, and interviewing poultry- men and others capable of advising what to do. After inform- ing itself, it should think out a plan, and furnish working drawings, true to scale. The committee may select a spokes- Exercises Based on Pictures 91 man, familiar with all details and thoroughly up on the project. This spokesman may consider himself the contractor, explaining the design adopted to the rest of the committee, who may consider themselves as the builders. These latter may ask such questions as will bring out the idea of the plan more fully. At the conclusion, any member of the class may ask practical questions, to be answered by any of the committee. 2. An hour in a millinery shop. — This is an example of dramatization in English work, taken from the domestic science department. Let the front of the room be arranged as a millinery shop. Two girls are to act as milliners. Five or six girls from the class, selected so as to afford a variety of complexion, style, and type, take the part of customers. While this may be impromptu, it would be well to have it rehearsed once or twice. One of the milliners explains the making of a hat, talking as she works, suiting the trimming to what she considers the best taste for the customer for whom she is making the hat. The other tries one hat after another on a customer, explaining the principles that guide her in her selection of the hat best suited to the customer. This she does with each customer. She tries this, that, and the other effect, showing what hats are becoming and what are not becoming to each. The cus- tomers give their own views too. EXERCISES BASED ON PICTURES Fishing. — Tell about a day when you went fishing. When, and where, and how? What luck? Hungry? Oh, no! Describe the contents of your lunch basket in such a way as to make your hearer's mouth water. Fishing for Bass. — Shall we not envy the sportsman in the picture on the next page ? He is " up to the minute " in his outfit and equipment. Is that rod steel or bamboo? It is evidently a fine casting rod. And then as to his luck ! He has a fine fish there, and by the way he plays him, will doubt- 92 EflFective Use of Material Fishing in Crater Lake. less land a four or five pounder. But think of his fishing- ground ! Search the world over, you will not find a finer fishing place. No wonder fishing has such a hold on the men and women who love the open air, and the beauty of land and water that spreads out so temptingly before them. Have you ever had a taste of this alluring sport? CHAPTER VIII EFFECTIVE SPEAKING Speak the speech, I pray you, trippingly on the tongue. — Shakespeare. The Floor Talk. — When you report orally on some as- signed topic, this report is called a floor talk. Stand squarely on both feet and speak clearly, bearing in mind the principles of unity, coherence, and emphasis which you have learned. Determine to Learn to Speak. — Make up your mind to learn to speak effectively. Say to yourself, as Abraham Lincoln said to himself, '' I will study and prepare myself, and then some day my chance will come." The floor talk will be most effective if a mental outline is followed. This outline should be so simple that you can recall it readily and the class can follow it with ease. After you are through, the class may criticize the talk, making note of the good points rather than of the errors or weak points in the delivery. At first, it may be found advantageous to have the class write this criticism, which the instructor may hand to the speaker ; or at least such of these criticisms as may be deemed helpful. The floor talk may take almost any shape or form. It may be a recital of facts, a statement of current events, a scientific discussion, or a book review. It may in- 03 94 Eflfective Speaking elude the telling of a story, one side of a discussion, or debate. 1 Rules for the Floor Talk. — No one set of rules or sug- gestions will fit all cases, but the student may note with profit the utterances of the distinguished speakers quoted below. Professor Brander Matthews, in an excellent article in the Cosmopolitan^ July, 1898, on " Four Ways of Making an Address," says : — » " When a man has something to say and when he has an opportunity to say it, there are four methods of making a speech for him to select from. 1. He may write out his address and read it from a manu- script boldly held in his hand. 2. He may write out his remarks and commit them to memory, 3. He may write out his opening words, his closing sen- tences and such other salient passages as he wishes to make sure of, while extemporizing the rest. 4. He may extemporize the whole, appearing before the audience with no visible manuscript and apparently talking out of the fullness of his heart." In the latter case, where he seemingly extemporizes his address, Matthews says that there must be a firm skeleton or outline holding closely together all that he says. The sequence of points to be made, illustrated, and enforced, should be so obvious in his mind that they will float on the surface of his memory, to be seized without effort, one after another, in regular order. 1 Good speech demands a sense for established idiom, distinct and natural articulation, correct pronunciation, and the use of an agreeable and well-managed voice. — From the Beport of the National Joint Committee on the Beorgani' zation of High School English. Rules for the Floor Talk 95 One statement of this writer is especially worth noting. He says that the proper sequence or outline is so important to the speaker that a man who has no gift for oratory, no enthusiasm, no fervor, no magnetism, as it is called, can make a presentable figure on the platform if he rises know- ing exactly what he wants to say, if he says that and no more, and if he sits down as soon as he has said it. Among other authorities, Professor Matthews quotes from a noted French lecturer, M. Francisque Sarcey, who says that the way to insure the success of a speech in public is to have made that speech many times in private. You must be full of your subject, full to overflowing. And having planned what you want to say, you must say it to yourself again and again, trying it this way and that, getting yourself familiar and intimate with it. But you must make no effort to polish your periods, and must resolutely refrain from all attempts to memorize what you have arranged. This leaves the mind energized and keenly alert, free to use the best of which it is capable, under the spur of the moment. In connection with extemporaneous work, Thomas Wentworth Higginson in " Hints on Writing and Speech Making," thus gives his rules for making an address* The student may modify them to suit his own preferences. 1. Have something definite in mind on which you are to speak. Or better still, have something that you desire very much to say. 2. Always speak in a natural key, and in a conversational manner. 3. Never carry a scrap of paper before an audience. 4. Plan out a series of a few points, as simple and as orderly as possible. 5. Plan beforehand for one good point and one good illus- tration under each head of your speech. 96 Effective Speaking 6. Do not trouble yourself about your speech, but give your mind a rest after you have thought out your points, before you speak. Of course, the third rule above cannot apply if you decide to use notes. It is there! Columbus before Ferdinand and Isabella. EXERCISES BASED ON PICTURES It is There! — Catch the spirit of the picture. Acquaint your- self with the historical facts, and prepare a talk, using the story of the picture as the climax or closing point in your address. Columbus before Ferdinand and Isabella, — Some one has said that there are single moments in history which, like rudders, steer us into new seas of discovery. Is there not here pictured a moment like that ? The great navigator is pleading for the idea that has taken hold of his soul. All the splendid culture and intelligence of the courts of Castile and Leon is there. But who could expect men to believe a theory that would Attitude and Gesture 97 upset every view they had ever held? And men did not believe. If they forbore to scoff, they slowly shook their heads in doubt. It is a critical time. In the picture, Co- lumbus seems to speak to but one, and that one his queen. Isabella bends eagerly forward, listening to the man who ere long will lay at her feet a new world. She pledged her crown jewels for the undertaking, and next to Columbus, Isabella must be remembered in connection with this great discovery. Attitude and Gesture. — The following points regarding attitude and gesture are worth noting. 1. Stand erect and firm, in a posture which allows the chest to expand, and gives full play to the organs of respiration and utterance. "2. Let your attitude he such that it may be shifted easily and gracefully. Let your hands hang naturally at your side. 3. Avoid much gesture. As to embarrassment arising from natural timidity or self-consciousness, a thorough preparation upon your theme, and a reliance upon that preparation, will best help you here. You may count upon the friendliness of your audience as a general rule. 4. Keep your eye upon your audience. Do not look up at the ceiling, or let your eye rove over the heads of your hearers. Pick out some one whose face shows interest, and address much of what you have to say to him or her. But do not make the mistake of talking altogether to this one person. Let your glance fall on one side, and then direct it to the other side of the room, and so on. EXERCISES IN THE FLOOR TALK (a) The Monroe Doctrine. — This topic is well worth while. The extracts here given comprise the original statement of the Monroe Doctrine, and its later restatement on the part of those who have been called upon by virtue of their official position to formulate the attitude of America on this question. Make any additional notes you 98 Effective Speaking please, and use as much or as little as you think best of what is here presented. Your public library will afford much excellent material in the way of books written on the subject, and especially of its dis- cussion in the leading magazines. Use an Outline. — In order to make what you write or speak effec- tive, it will be well to prepare a topical outline. This will insure your sticking to your subject, and do away with aimlessness and inco- herence in what you say. Test your work carefully for unity, coher- ence, and emphasis. The Monroe Doctrine, Originally Stated We owe it, therefore, to candor and to the amicable rela- tions existing between the United States and those powers (any European powers) to declare that we should consider any attempt on their part to extend their system to any portion of this hemisphere as dangerous to our peace and safety. With the existing colonies or dependencies of any European power we have not interfered and shall not interfere. But with the governments which have declared their independence and maintained it, and whose independence we have, on great consideration and on just principles acknowledged, we could not view any interception for the purpose of oppressing them, or controlling in any other manner their destiny, by any Euro- pean power in any other light than as the manifestation of an unfriendly disposition toward the United States. (130) — From the Message to Congress of President James Monroe, on December 2, 1824. The Doctrine Reaffirmed It may not be amiss to suggest that the doctrine upon which we stand is strong and sound because its enforcement is im- portant to our peace and safety as a nation, and is essential to the integrity of our free institutions and the tranquil main- tenance of our distinctive form of government. It was in- tended to apply to every stage of our national life, and cannot become obsolete while the Republic endures. If the balance Exercises in the Floor Talk 99 of power is justly a cause for jealous anxiety among the gov- ernments of the old world, and a subject for our absolute non- interference, none the less is an observance of the Monroe Doctrine of vital concern to our people and their Government. (120) — From the Message to Congress of President Grover Cleveland, on December 17, 1895. Its Purpose and Object That America is in no part open to colonization, though the proposition was not universally admitted at the time of its first enunciation, has long been universally conceded. We are now concerned, therefore, only with that other practical appli- cation of the Monroe Doctrine, the disregard of which by any European power is to be deemed an act of unfriendliness toward the United States. The precise scope and limitations of this rule cannot be too clearly apprehended. It does not establish any general protectorate by the United States over other American states. It does not relieve any American state from its obligations as fixed by international law, nor prevent any Europeau power directly interested from enforc- ing such obligations, or from inflicting merited punishment for the breach of them. It does not contemplate any inter- ference in the internal affairs of any American state, or in the relations between it and other American states. It does not justify any attempt on our part to change the established form of government of any American state, or to prevent the people of such state from altering that form according to their own will- and pleasure. The rule in question has but one single object and purpose. It is that no European powers or combination of European powers shall forcibly deprive an American state of the right and power of self-government, and of shaping for itself its own political fortune and destinies. (237) — From the Letter of Secretary Richard Olney to Mr. Bayard at London on July 20, 1895. 100 Eflfective Speaking America not Colonizing Ground for European Powers The Monroe Doctrine is simply a statement of our very firm belief that the nations now existing on this continent must be left to work out their own destinies among themselves, and that this continent is no longer to be regarded as the colonizing ground of any European Power. The one power on the continent that can make the Doctrine effective is, of course, ourselves ; for in the world as it now is, a nation which ad- vances a given doctrine, likely to interfere in any way with the nations, must possess the power to back it up if it wishes the doctrine to be respected. We stand firmly by the Monroe Doctrine. (112) — President Theodore Roosevelt, in a speech reported in The London Times, August 28, 1902. The United States Will Never Again Seek One Additional Foot of Ground by Conquest I want to take this occasion to say that the United States will never again seek one additional foot of territory by con- quest. She will devote herself to showing that she knows how to make honorable and fruitful use of the territory she has, and she must regard it as one of the duties of friendship to see that from no possible quarter are material interests made superior to human liberty and national opportunity. (74) — President Woodrow Wilson, in an Address at the Southern Commercial Congress, Mobile, Alabama, October 27, 1913. What; the Monroe Doctrine Does The Monroe Doctrine halts conquest, not commerce ; it stops seizure, not trade ; it prevents war and insures peace. (18) — Editorial, The Cincinnati Enquirer, November 11, 1909. (b) Additional Exercises on the Monroe Doctrine. — Try one of the following orally. Exercises in the Floor Talk IQl 1. Restate the Monroe Doctrine in fifty words. Write it, and then speak it. 2. Discuss the Monroe Doctrine in a carefully prepared speech of from two to three minutes. Write this out and learn it. Short Themes for Oral Work. — Endeavor to put life and vigor into the exercises suggested below. Gret the story well in mind. Tell it over and over, mentally, until you catch the spirit of it. When this is done, let the story tell itself. Four to five minutes. (c) Five Stories About Girls, from the Bible. — All of these stories are worth knowing, and especially worth telling. 1. Pharaoh's Daughter. Exodus ii, 4 to 19. 2. Jepthah's Daughter. Judges xi, 29 to 40. 3. The Story of Ruth. Ruth ii ; or the entire book. 4. lN"aaman's Maidservant. 2 Kings v, 1 to 14. 5. Rebecca at the Well. Genesis xxiv. (d) Five Stories About Boys, from the Bible. — These stories are well worth while as a matter of general information. They lend them- selves to story-telling unusually well. 1. Joseph and His Brethren. Genesis xxxvii, 1 to 36. 2. Joseph as a Prince of Egypt. Genesis xli, 37 to end ; and also chapters xlii to end of xliv. 3. David and Goliatti. 1 Samuel xvii. 4. Little Samuel. 1 Samuel iii. 5. Jacob and Esau. Genesis xxvii, 1 to 40. (e) Story of an Unusual Experience. Oral. — If you have had some such experience as here suggested, tell about it. Put force into your telling of it. If you have not had such an experience, think one out and tell it as if it had occurred. Five minutes. 1. My experience on a burning ship. 2. How I felt in an automobile collision. 3. What happened to me in a hotel fire. 4. What I know about a railroad wreck. 5. Landing from a wrecked aeroplane. IQ^,. EflFective Speaking (/) Getting the Gist or Substance of the Story. — Take any one of the stories above referred to, and get the gist or substance of it. This will take careful practice, but it is well worth while. Tell any one of the above stories in not noore than one hundred words. Oral, one minute. (7) Applying the Rules. — In preparing to speak on one of the fol- lowing stories, revieio carefully the rules suggested on pages 94, 95 by Matthews, Sarcey, and Higginson. 1. Refer to the Odyssey^ book xxi, entire, Bryant's translation. Or refer to the translation of Butcher and Lang, or that of William Morris. This story is full of breathless interest. Ulysses Bends the Bow. — Telemachus has brought his father Ulysses, disguised as an aged beggar, to his home. Ulysses' wife, Penelope, driven to desperation by the persistency of the shameless suitors, who think Ulysses dead, goes up to the treasure room of the palace and taking down a certain famous bow that had once belonged to Ulysses, she weeps over it. Then coming down to the banquet hall, she proposes a contest. Whoever shall bend this bow and send an arrow through each of the twelve rings she shows them, shall have Penelope to wife. Some oppose the contest, but it is finally agreed to. Cer- tain of the suitors try their strength and fail. It is then suggested to postpone the trial to another day. Telemachus bids his mother and the women depart, Pene- lope being still unaware of the presence of Ulysses. At the bidding of Telemachus, some of the faithful servants of the palace lock and bar the outer doors, with all the shameless band still within, and suspecting nothing. The strange beggar, who is Ulysses, now manages to get the bow in his own hands. \ Trying it to see if it holds its ancient strength, he easily bends the mighty bow, and sends with unerring aim the arrows through the rings. Then he nods to his son Telemachus who, girding on his sword and taking his spear in his hand, comes and stands by the side of Ulysses. 2. Refer to the Fifth Adventure, Lettsom's translation, or that of William Morris ; also to the Norroena Romances and Epics. Exercises in the Floor Talk 103 How Siegfried First Saw Kriemhild. — The young king of the Nibelungs has performed a number of feats of knightly courage in the service of Gunther, and a high tourney is to be held in his honor. To this tournament come five thousand knights or more, and all the ladies of the court attend, many of them sighing for Siegfried, for, as they deemed, eye had not seen a pattern of such manliness. But as the full moon dims the stars, so Kriemhild dimmed every beauty there. Their glances meet by stealth, and bind the knight and maid to- gether. Siegfried openly pays court to Kriemhild. 3. Refer to Earle's translation of The Deeds of Beowulf, sec- tions vi and xi. They tell of the coming of Beowulf to the Hall, and of his promise to remove the scourge. Grendel's last meal is described. The battle between Grendel and Beowulf begins. Write the story of it inr about three hundred words, or give it orally, in not more than three minutes. (A) Longer Themes. — It is well now and then to prepare longer themes. In order to do this, you may have to do some outside work, at home or at the library, but you will find it interesting.^ If you take hold of this as a class project, and arrange a program for a class meeting, including readings and recitations prepared for the occasion, with a good speech or two by your most capable boys or girls, it will be found thoroughly enjoyable. Your instructor in English is always to be consulted, of course. Use five hundred or one thou- sand words for your theme. 1 With regard to an occasional composition or speech of more than ordinary length, the following recommendation is worth noting. "This production should be the final measure of the pupils' ability to write. For the purpose of leading pupils to write for recreation, publica- tion days may be regularly announced as a part of the English classroom procedure. Programs for these days may often be arranged by the pupils themselves for presentation on these publication days. Many pupils will thus be led to feel pleasure in using recreation time in advance of the class meeting for the purpose of making an enjoyable program for their classmates. The pupils should have perfect freedom in the choice of literary forms and should be expected to express themselves correctly and forcibly in clear, idiomatic English." — From the English Syllabus, Board of Regents, New York. 104 EflFective Speaking Get used to appearing in public. It is 'not as hard as it may at first appear. But whether hard or not, it is worth while. You will regret nothing more in later life than that you failed to avail yourself of advantages that might have been yours at high school. You are not limited to this plan. If you prefer something else, go to work on whatever you like best. But let every student prepare a longer theme at suitable intervals throughout the year. President Wilson Reviewing West Point Cadets. EXERCISES BASED ON PICTURES West Point Cadets. — Here is shovm President Wilson re- viewing the West Point cadets, soon to become officers in the United States Army. Nowhere in the world are there military or naval colleges ranking higher than West Point and Annapolis. 1. Look up the facts and prepare a paper on America's training of her future officers in army and navy. 2. How to enter West Point or Annapolis. — Get the facts and make a statement of how to obtain an appointment at one or the other of these schools. 3. Federal Reserve Training Camps. — Show how the United States Government trains officers in training camps in case of emergency. If you have no information on this topic, look it up. The public library will afford the necessary material. Exercises Based on Pictures 105 PiMograph by Elmer L. Foote. The Pringle House, A Colonial Home, Charleston, S. C The Pringle House, Charleston, S C. — This is one of the historical houses of America. Built before the Revolution, it was a home of culture and refinement in Colonial days. It served as headquarters for Cornwallis, and was a rallying place for the younger members of the English nobility who were with him. Later, it was Washington's headquarters, and Lafayette's, and the young men of the French aristocracy were welcome guests, meeting and mingling here with the American ofiicers and their friends. On Lafayette's return to America in 1825, when a grateful people received him so heartily, he was a guest at this house. Aaron Burr was a frequent visitor here. During the Civil War, U. S. Grant at one time, and Robert E. Lee at another made this their headquarters. Donald Gr. Mitchell (Ik Marvel) was a connection of the Pringle family, and wrote his Reveries of a Bachelor here. Owen Wister, also a relative, wrote The Virginian here. 106 Effective Speaking 1. A Picture in Words. — Study the Pringle House until you can see it, as distinct from any other house. Then picture it in words, so that others may see it. 2. Some Other Historical House. — Tell the story of some historical house or public building known to you. Be accurate and interesting. 3. A Problem. — Select some building in your vicinity. It need not be an imposing sti-ucture. An old mill, some picturesque cottage, an old mansion back among the trees, or the old church by the wayside. Do not mention it by name. So picture it in words that your class- mates will be able to identify it. If you can attach a good snapshot to your paper, to be shown to the class later, so much the better. 4. Neighborhood Tradition. — Tell the story of some house in your neighborhood with which some tradition is connected. Make it a story worth telling. Write it, then give it orally, if called upon so to do. Effective Appeal. — You have already been called uyon to speak on certain topics, for the most part in simple, easy-flowing narrative. This is as it should be, for the narrative style is the basis of all other styles in speech or writing. But you are now called upon to use everything within your reach anywhere, as materials for persuasion and appeal. Oratory is the art of speaking in public eloquently or effectively. Oratory uses every faculty of the human mind in order to secure entrance to the human heart. Persuasion is defined by Webster's International Diction- ary as the art or act of influencing the mind hy arguments or reasons offered^ or hy anything that moves the mind or passions., or inclines the will to a determination. In a case recently reported in the newspapers, argument had failed to free a man charged with an offense against the postal laws. The federal judge in sentencing him said: " I feel that this man is not actually a criminal, although he has committed a criminal act. I shall not sentence him to Effective Appeal 107 the penitentiary. The sentence of this court shall be that you shall serve three months in the M County Jail." Then came the plea that saved the accused. Stepping up close to the rail and bending forward toward the bench, his voice trembling with emotion, the little attor- ney in a low voice began : " Your Honor, I realize that you have been exceedingly leni- ent. I know that the Court has just pronounced a sentence that is very light considering the offense charged, but, Your Honor, what about that little girl who is about to graduate ? Shall she appear before her friends upon this occasion, dis- graced because her father is occupying a prison cell ? Shall she? Suspend that sentence. Your Honor, and have her eternal gratitude. I say suspend it ! " With tears in his eyes, his face working with emotion, the Judge held up his hand. " Enough. Let that be the order." Here the attorney for the prisoner spoke eloquently and effectively. The force of persuasion, appealing to the fatherly heart of the stern judge, did what no power of argument, and no influence of friendship could have done in behalf of the condemned man. It found its way to the heart, and won freedom for the father for the sake of the girl. One of the best examples of oratory and persuasion is in Julius Ccesar^ where Marc Antony moves the hearts of the Romans against Brutus. Refer to it. Act iii, scene ii, and have it read aloud in class by some good reader. For further examples of the best in oratory, refer to Lincoln's Address at G-ettyshurg ; Robert Emmett's Speech in reply to the judge who sentenced him to death ; Patrick Henry's Speech Before the Virginia Convention ; St. Paul's Speecji 108 Effective Speaking on Mars' Hill at Athens ; as well as more modern ex- amples, chosen from some collection of great orations. President Woodrow Wilson's peace speech before the Senate, January 22, 1917, is an illustration of the presenta- tion of the very highest theme in the simplest form. Let some of these be read in the hearing of the class, and let criticisms be made, bringing out the points that appeal to the students as possessing the power of real ora- tory, with their reasons for so thinking. Prepare a topical outline covering all the important points in this chapter, and be prepared to recite from it. EXERCISES IN EFFECTIVE APPEAL (a) Woman Suffrage. — Write a paragraph of from one hundred and fifty to two hundred and fifty words, that shall contain an appeal for the rights of women. After putting it in proper form, commit it to memory for a speech before the class. (6) High School Athletics. — Take some subject in connection with athletics in your high school. Get at the facts, and make a good talk, in which you appeal for the support of the class. Make it a three-minute speech. (c) The North American Indian. — If you feel that the North American Indian has not been fairly treated, espouse his cause. Try to make your audience feel the points you thus make in his behalf. (rf) The Mountaineers. — Acquaint yourself with the facts, and make an appeal for better educational facilities in the mountainous sections of our country. Try to make a telling speech. (e) Appeal for Good English in the High School. — Without limiting yourself as to the number of words, think out a defense of Good Eng- lish in Everyday Speech in the High School. After putting it into proper form, learn it, and give it before the class. (/) The Immigrant. — Get your facts well in hand, and make an appeal for those who come to our shores, calling your appeal What America Owes to Those Who Come to Our Shores. (g) Don't Kill the Birds. — Read up on the value of birds to the farmer, and to us all. Make an appeal which shall put the facts before your hearers. (h) Domestic Science. — Acquaint yourself with the facts which Exercises Based on Pictures 109 demonstrate the importance of the teaching of domestic science in the high school, and make an appeal for the teaching of domestic science. (i) A High School Printing Department. — Study carefully the argu- ments for the establishment and maintenance of a well-equipped printing department for your high school. Make it a good speech. (j) Vox Populi, Vox Dei. — Make a strong appeal for our system of government. Show that the people are capable of deciding the great questions of our times, and that they will, in spite of occasional error, come to right conclusions. Write it and learn it. Give it as a speech before your class. Tirade Dressmaking — Pratt Institute. EXERCISES BASED ON PICTURES Trade Dressmaking. — Here is a class at work on practical dressmaking at the Pratt Institute. A study of the picture shows each student at work with some definite task before her, with apparently not a moment wasted. Well directed skill is the secret of successful effort. This is an example of the right kind of vocational training. 110 Effective Speaking 1. Describe the scene. Detail the making of a simple dress from beginning to end. 2. Vocational Training in Your School. — Tell what kind of voca- tional work is attempted in your high school, either in domestic science or in manual training. Has your school a printing outfit? CHAPTER IX EFFECTIVE STORY-TELLING Lear. Mend your speed a little. — Shakespeare, Swift-flowing Story. — The movement of a story should harmonize with its spirit. Sadness and slow movement go together, while joy and eagerness quicken the pace of the narrative. Milton well illustrates this in his com- panion poems " L' Allegro " and " II Penseroso," Mirth and Sadness. The current of the one flows trippingly, while the movement of the other is grave and slow. Where the story quickens into action, it will be noted that verbs, which represent the very soul of action, pre- dominate. ^ For example, in the parable of "The Prodi- gal Son," Luke xv, you may count over eighty verbs in a total of about five hundred words. This story is remark- able for its vividness and swift-moving narrative, and this number of verbs is far above the average. In the play of Samlet^ unusually rapid in its movement, this eagerness of narrative is well shown in the opening scene of the first act. The play is in full movement from the opening sentence. Everything is eliminated but the stirring essentials of the drama. 1 In vivid description, not only do verbs predominate, but other parts of speech change to verbs. " On with the dance I " is a familiar example from Byron's Waterloo. Ill 112 Effective Story-telling Charge of the Scotch Grays at Waterloo. EXERCISES BASED ON PICTURES Charge of the Scotch Grays at Waterloo. — This noted paint- ing by Thompson shows the Scotch Grays in a mad charge at Waterloo. Hurled forward like a mighty projectile, men and horses obey the word of command. 1. Study this picture until you catch some of the eagerness that characterizes it. Painting and writing are both forms of expression. You can see how much force is shown in the picture. Put some of the same force into your account of the charge, which you may write as if you were a member of the Scotch Grays. 2. Think out some one incident in the charge until you not only see it clearly, but feel the onrush. If you wish to make your hearer feel some emotion, you must first of all feel it yourself. Feel it, then, and make your hearers feel it. Make it a swift-flowing story. Vigorous Action. — Where the action is roused to storm and tempest, or battle, the swiftness of the story imparts velocity to the telling of it. This is well illustrated in Byron's "Storm on Mt. Jura," and in his "Battle of Waterloo ; " in Ruskin's " Birth of a Storm Cloud," in his Truth of Clouds ; and in Victor Hugo's " Escape of the Carronade," in his Ninety -three. This impetuosity of description shows all through Car- Vigorous Action 113 lyle's French Revolution^ but especially in his account of the storming of the Bastille. In A Tale of Two Cities^ when Dickens describes the taking of the Bastille, and in Victor Hugo's Les Miserables, as he tells the story of the battle of Waterloo, the movement quickens with the story. Refer also to the "Conflict between Christian and ApoUyon," in Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress, and to R. D. Blackmore's description of the fight between John Ridd and Carver Doone in Lorna Boone, for a study of this per- ceptible quickening of the current as the action of the story increases. Study some or all of these examples just quoted. You will also find the following account of the defeat of the Turkish army at Lule Burgas by the Bulgarians, well worth your study. It is a cabled account by Martin H. Donahoe, war correspondent of the London Chronicle^ under date of November 4, 1912. The Turkish Defeat at Lule Burgas Irrevocable disaster has befallen the Turkish army. It has suffered an appalling defeat. This has been followed by con- fusion and a rout for which there is scarcely a parallel in history, — a rout which in its later stages degenerated into a wild panic, a stampede, which communicated itself into the whole fighting force. As I am writing this dispatch the army corps forming Abdullah Pasha's splendid army lie battered and decimated, and the defensive lines have fled pell-mell" before the advanc- ing Bulgarians. It has been the most complete military disaster since Muk- den, the greatest debacle since Sedan. Forty thousand men, the flower of the Turkish troops, have fallen, while Abdullah Pasha himself narrowly escaped their fate. Seventy-five per cent of his artillery was captured. His men seemed to melt away like snow before the summer. The 114 EflFective Story-telling disintegration once begun soon became general. Brigades dis- solved into regiments, regiments into companies, and companies became small groups until all cohesion disappeared and the demoralization became complete. By handfuls the remnants of the army have found their way back to Chortu, the Bul- garian artillery cruelly harassing them, mowing them down in thousands. For a like disaster one is compelled to turn to Napoleon's memorable retreat from Moscow. In addition to the swift current of this newspaper story, the student will note the writer's discriminating and effec- tive use of a fine working vocabulary. He uses words nearly synonymous in such ft way as to bring out a cumu- lative emphasis. EXERCISES m EFFECTIVE STORY-TELLING i (a) The Elements of Effectiveness. — To get at the secret of Dona- hoe's effectiveness in *' The Turkish Defeat," try these four exercises. 1. Count the words used by this correspondent to denote roiUj disaster^ and defeat. 2. Without repeating himself, in how many ways does this writer say that the Turkish army was defeated ? 3. Make a special study, in your own way, of the methods employed to bring out the story of this great disaster. 4. Note how short his sentences are. Study his para- graphs, noting how brief and pointed they are. He was, he states, caught in the wild stampede of the fleeing army, for two days without food or drink, and yet he had not lost sight for a moment of his work as a war correspondent. He was seeing for all Europe and for the whole world, what was going on about him. He had been in other wars ; so while he fled for his life, the sentences and paragraphs were forming in his 1 Do not require or allow any one pupil to take all of these Exercises. They are given for the sake of variety, and to suit varying tastes. What one pupil will reject, another may delight in. The teacher may feel free to omit any exercise, or to postpone it until later in the course. Exercises in Effective Story -telling 115 brain. He does not use an unnecessary word. This report was written off with lightning-like rapidity at the telegraph office, though composed, as we have said, with the shot and shell of the pursuing army falling everywhere about him, in his two days of wild retreat. (b) Swift-Jlomng Story. — Try two or more of the following, being careful to make your story flow swiftly. 1. Kead Kipling's The Drums of the Fore and Aft and tell orally how the two little drummer-boys shamed a regiment into bravery. 2. Get into the spirit of Victor Hugo's account of the charge of the Cuirassiers across the hollow road of Ohain, at Waterloo, as given in Les Miserables. Tell it orally in your own words. 3. Count the number of words in Tennyson's "Charge of the Light Brigade," at Balaklava. Get the story well in mind, and write an account of that charge. 4. If you have seen a great fire down town in a large city, think it over until you see it again, and describe a great con- flagration. 5. Write or give orally an account of how they crossed the line in an exciting boat race ; or describe an exciting finish in a half-mile run. 6. Refer to the Odyssey, book vii, lines 285-357, where Ulysses relates the story of his sufferings. This is sometimes said to be the one best piece of narrative in all the world of literature. It is an example of the best condensed, terse style of story-telling. You will do well to note the qualities that distinguish it. First of all, in dealing with anything that is worth telling, you must have the story thoroughly in mind before telling it. Mark the characteristic words that Ulysses uses, and see if you can use them to advantage. It would be worth while to count the number of words in Ulysses' account, and seek to keep within that number, in your telling of the story. More than anything else, in this 116 Effective Story-telling narrative, study how swiftly the story goes. In telling the story, catch something of this eagerness of recital, if you can. 7. Refer to Earle's translation of The Deeds of Beowulf, sections xii and xix. After the combat Grendel flees, but his arm remains behind with Beowulf. It is hung up as a trophy in the Hall. In the night, the old Water-hag comes, seizes one of the sleepers and fetches away GrendePs arm. Tell the story in your own words, and go straight to the point. As Earle has translated Beowulf, so you will have to translate Earle. Do this, rendering the story in pure, simple, and everyday English. (c) Vigorous Action. — Read the Odyssey^ book xxii, entire, trans- lation of William Cullen Bryant. Or you may use the translation of William Morris, or that of Butcher and Lang. Get the story well in mind, and write it rapidly. Go over it as many times as may be necessary, to remove any hindering word, phrase, sentence, or paragraph. The vigorous action is here, if you can but put it into your story. Ulysses Casts Aside His Bags. This is the story of the slay- ing of the shameless suitors by Ulysses. There is not a dull line from the moment that the hero throws off his disguise, and with Telemachus and a few faithful servants standing by him, turns his death-dealing arrows upon first one and then another of the suitor train. Recovering from their first surprise, the survivors turn to the wall where their weapons had hung, only to find them all removed. The arrows giving out, Ulysses sends Telemachus to the armor room for swords and spears, but he in his haste leaves the door of the armory ajar, and Melanthius, a traitor goatherd, brings down weapons for the suitors, who, fighting for their lives, make a desperate stand against Ulysses. Pallas Athene, disguised, urges on the slaughter. All but two are slain. Let the story end at line 636, Bryant's- translation. (d) A High School Project. — How to Build a Shower-bath for the Gymnasium. Given, water from the city waterworks system, piped to the gymnasium room. Problem, how to heat it ; and to provide Exercises in EflFective Story-telling 117 warm and cold showers, and proper drainage. Plan must be practical, and within reach of the high school, financially. Work to be done by manual training department. Spokesman of committee in charge to have necessary plans, blue prints, etc., and is to present the project in good, straightforward, business-like English. (e) Some Effective Stories. — All the stories here suggested are strong in possibilities at the hands of an efEective story-teller. They may be written or oral. If you attempt any of the stories, do it justice. Do not slight it. 1. A New-crowned Queen of the Air. — Literary Digest, Dec. 2, 1916, page 1485. Give it in five to seven hundred words. 2. The Story of the Deutschland, the first transatlantic sub- marine. Five hundred words or more. 3. The Death of Absalom. 2 Samuel xviii. 4. The Handwriting on the Wall. Daniel v. 5. Elijah on Mt. Carmel. 1 Kings xviii, 17 to 40. 6. Tlie Crossing of the Red Sea. Exodus xiv. 7. Joseph Makes Himself Known. Genesis xlv. Tell this in five hundred words or more. 8. Noah Sends Out the Dove. Genesis viii, 1 to 12. Tell the entire story, in from one hundred and fifty to two hundred words. 9. A Stranger in New York City. Tell the story as if you had visited this city. You may have done so, or you may live in New York, or vicinity. Tell as much or as little as you please of the city itself, or of any of the following. (a) Grant's tomb ; (6) Ellis Island ; (c) Liberty Enlighten- ing the World; (d) the Skyscraper District; {e) The Zoo; (/) Cleopatra's Needle ; {g) The Metropolitan Museum. (/) Class Letter. — Let the pupils composing the English class pre- pare a letter from their own high school to the English class of some high school to be selected. Request a reply. In this letter, deal with the prominent points of Interest in your own city. Place on the blackboard the points you desire to touch upon. Let a committee of from one to three write the letter, to be submitted to the class for correction and adoption. Mail it to the instructor in English, nam- ing the high school, and city. 118 EfiFective Story-telling Street Scene, Cairo. One of the Great Capitals of Islam. f Exercises Based on Pictures 119 EXERCISES BASED ON PICTURES Street Scene, Cairo. — Cairo, the capital of Egypt, is the larg- est city of Africa. Its Arab quarters retain their Oriental character. The streets are narrow and crooked, and very few of them are paved. Its mosques are among the best specimens of Arabic architecture, and it is one of the great capitals of Islam. Life within these walls represents a blend of buoyant European civilization with the dreamy mysticism of the Ori- ental world. Study the scene. Consider yourself a young American traveler, boy or girl, and think out a story of original adventure suited to the scene. Let all that happens in your tale occur on the street here shown, and let it be such as could easily happen. Here is a good test for your ingenuity. Tell your story as effectively as you can. CHAPTER X EFFECTIVE REVISION The young writer can solidly pack his meaning within manage' able compass and get an audience for it, or he can spread it thinly over a vast area and let it go unread. — Editorial, July 19, 1913, The Saturday Evening Post. What to Omit. — So far you have studied effective ex- pression ; you are now to take up effective suppression* You secure effectiveness fully as often by what you omit as by what you say. Walter Pater sums up this fact in a few words when he says that all art consists simply in the removal of surplusage^ and that the writer dreads sur- plusage in his work as the runner dreads it in his muscles.^ You have seen throughout your English work that you should omit everything that interferes with unity or coherence. But emphasis especially is best secured by the judicious suppression of unimportant matter. Revising. — There is no practical English work more constantly applied in the business world than restating or reshaping material. Nearly all successful writers of English have perfected their style by constant revision. Many of them have told how they went to work, and you will find their statements in the following pages. Read them carefully ; they con- tain rules of rhetoric written by men who know. 1 Compare this with the statement of Schiller, p. 18. 120 Revising 121 William Cowper To touch and retouch is the secret of almost all good writing. I never suffer a line to pass until I have made it as good as I can. (29) Robert Louis Stevenson All through my boyhood and youth, I was known and pointed out for a pattern of an idler; and yet I vras always busy on my own private end, which was to learn to write. I kept always two books in my pocket, one to read, one to write in. As I walked, my mind was busy fitting what I saw with appropriate words. When I sat by the roadside, I would either read, or a pencil and book would be in hand to note down the features of the scene. Thus I lived with words. And what I wrote was for no ulterior use. It was written consciously for practice. (Ill) Guy de Maupassant Flaubert, a great French writer, conceived a friendship for me. I ventured to submit to him some of my attempts. The master criticized them and enforced upon me, little by little, two or three principles which were the pith of his long and perfect teaching. " If one has not originality," he said, " it is necessary to acquire it. Talent is long patience. Work." It is a question of regarding whatever one desires to express long enough and with attention close enough to discover a side which no one has seen and which has been expressed by nobody. In everything there is something of the unexplored. The smallest thing has in it a grain of the unknown. Discover it. In order to describe a fire that flames or a tree in the plain, we must remain face to face with that fire or that tree until for us they no longer resemble any other tree or any other fire. That is the way to become original. (165) Benjamin Franklin About this time I met with the third volume of the Spec- tator. I bought it, read it over, and was much delighted 122 EflFective Revision with it. I thought the writing excellent and wished if possi- ble to imitate it. With this view I took some of the papers, and making shoi c hints of the sentiments,^ laid them by for a few days and then, without looking at the book, tried to com- plete the papers again, by expressing each hinted sentiment at length, and as fully as it had been expressed before, in any suitable words that should come to hand. Then I compared my "Spectator" with the original, discovered some of my faults, and corrected them. I also sometimes jumbled my col- lection of hints into confusion, and after some weeks en- deavored to reduce them into the best order, before I began to form the full sentences and complete the paper. This was to teach me method in the arrangement of my thoughts. By comparing my work afterwards with the original, I discovered many faults and amended them. (207) F. Hopkinson Smith The only inspiration I know of in writing is days and nights of the labor called thought. I wrote the first chapter of Colonel Carter of Cartersville nine times and corrected the proofs until the printer refused to send any more. I am conscious that I cannot do very much, but the little I do is done the very best I know how. I write very large and heavy, and when the words necessary to make the proper swing or rhythm will not come, I make dashes representing the length of the missing words, and fill them in when revis- ing. And I never rise from my chair until the work I have laid out is done. (116) Elbert Hubbard Now in reference to writing, it may not be amiss to explain that no one ever said, " Now then, I'll write a story ! " and sitting down at table took up pen and dipping it in ink 1 Compare this excellent plan with that of Barrett Wendell, detailed in chapter viii of this book, '* How to Use Material." Revising 123 wrote. Stories don't come that way. Stories take possession of one, incident after incident, and you write in order to get rid of them, with a few other reasons mixed in. Whether the story is good or not depends upon what you leave out. The sculptor produces the beautiful statue by chipping away such parts of the marble block as are not needed. To present a situation, an emotion, so that it will catch and hold the attention of others, is largely a knack. You practise on the thing until you do it well. Even Kipling's art is a knack practised to a point that gives facility. (143) Arlo Bates I have had well educated and cultivated men come into my office when I was an editor, and spend an hour in trying satisfactorily to phrase some simple announcement which they wished printed. All that there was to do was to say that such a charity needed funds, that a subscription had been opened, or some learned society was to meet at such a time or place. Yet the amateur would struggle with the paragraph in an agony of ineptitude which was alike pathetic and farcical. When at last the conflict between mind and matter ended from the sheer exhaustion of the mind, there would be handed to me a scrawled sheet, recrossed and rewritten, and in the end a miracle of obscurity and awkwardness, — the art of how not to say it illustrated to perfection. Then after the writer had taken himself off, in a condition not far from nervous exhaus- tion, it was only necessary to say to a reporter, " Make a para- graph of these facts." In a couple of minutes the slip would be ready to send to the printer, written in English not elegant but easy and above all clear. The reporter had very likely not the hundredth part of the information or the experience of life of the amateur, but he had had a continued business-like drill. He had written as a matter of steady work, with the improving consciousness of an editorial blue pencil ever before his mind. (240) 1^4 EflFective Revision Thomas Carlyle Shakespeare, we may fancy, wrote with rapidity ; but not till he had thought with intensity : long and sore had this man thought, as the seeing eye may well discern, and had dwelt and wrestled amid dark pains and throes, — though his great soul is silent about all that. It was for him to write rapidly at fit intervals, being ready to do it. And herein truly lies the secret of the matter: such swiftness of mere writing, after due energy of preparation, is doubtless the right method ; the hot furnace having long worked and simmered, let the pure gold flow out at one gush. It was Shakespeare's plan; no easy writer he, or he had never been a Shakespeare. (119) Shakespeare at the Court of Elizabeth. — Ender. EXERCISES BASED ON PICTURES Shakespeare at the Court of Elizabeth. — Tell the story of this picture in your own way. You may give it as if it were your own experience as a courtier, or a lady at court that day. You may make believe that you have come upon some letters of the olden time, Important Cautions 125 among which is one describing this scene. Or you may tell the story as having been told by some one then present to some one else, who in turn passes it along till it is handed down in the family as a sort of household story. Choose whatever form of telling it appeals to you. When you have finished, revise it according to one of the methods just quoted from successful authors. Important Cautions. — It may be well for the permanent editorial committee^ upon consultation with the instructor in English, to inquire carefully as to the following addi- tional points ^ with regard to the punctuation of the daily exercises of the pupils. These should be added to the lists on previous pages. XXII. Use of quotation marks. — (a) lN"ote that these are used to inclose a direct quotation. He said : " James, I regret to see you depart." Quotation marks are unnecessary in the case of an indirect quotation ; as, He said to James that he regretted to see him depart. (b) Quotation marks are not used to inclose each separate sentence unless each sentence is a separate remark. For example : He replied : " I cannot go now. Much as I desire to respect your wishes in everything, it is impossible for me to leave to-day. But I shall go at my earliest opportunity." Here are three sentences included between the one pair of quotation marks, because they make up one remark. (c) Note that in the use of quotation marks the second mark is as im'portant as the first. Quotation marks go in pairs, and mean nothing unless thus coupled together. Note also that two sets of marks are needed where the quotation is broken. " Come," he said, " tell me now." Prepare a topical outline bringing out the salient points as you see them in this chapter. Prepare to recite from it. 1 From Hequirements in Form, Illinois Association of Teachers of English. 126 EflFective Revision EXERCISES IN EFFECTIVE REVISION (a) Reshaping. — Read the preceding selections over once for theil own sake. Then read them again with a view to their restatement in your own words. You are to tell what each writer says, orally or in writing, but to say it in your own way. Sift it out. Study what he says, and express it in your way of saying things, except that you are to use no slang. If any writer uses some unusual word or phrase, decide how you would say the same thing, putting it in some other way. See if you can improve on any word, phrase, sentence, or paragraph. It may be that you can. Try it, modestly but courageously. In this sort of work, you are doing what others are required to do everywhere about you. The telegraph editor of a great newspaper uses a ten-word " wireless " message and makes it into a two-column news item on the first page. The sales manager of a strong corpora- tion takes a sentence from the report of a field worker and restates it in a full-page letter, to be sent out to every representative employed by his company. A sentence or a paragraph from the President's message is restated in the editorials of a thousand news journals and magazines, all over the world. (b) Condensing. — In the following restatements, see if you can make what you write more effective than the original. 1. Give Cowper's statement in ten words. 2. Repeat in twenty-five words what Stevenson says ; then in fifty words. 3. Tell in one hundred words how Maupassant was trained. 4. Detail in two hundred words, how Franklin discovered his faults as a writer, and how he set to work to improve his work. 6. Say what Smith says in seventy-five words. (c) What a Good Story Depends Upon. — Give in one paragraph the requirements of a good story. (rf) The Value of Omission. — What does a good story depend upon? Answer in twenty-five words, or less, quoting Hubbard. (e) The Value of Training. — Tell in two hundred words, or more, why a good reporter may do better than a man intellectually his superior, when it comes to writing. Include in this what Arlo Bates says about "the blue pencil." Exercises in Effective Revision 127 (/) A Social Project for the English Class. — Plan a day's outing in camp, arranging for a camp dinner and a gypsy supper, as a high school project in English. The appointment of committees, and the written statement to each member of the duties expected of him or her, will require much speaking and writing on the part of the secre- tarial committee, whose title indicates its duties. The following additional committees are suggested. (1) An executive committee, whose chairman shall be in charge of the entire project ; (2) a committee on preliminaries, whose mem- bers are to inform themselves and the class on what has been done by this and other schools on gypsying projects ; (3) a com- mittee on location and transportation, which is to select the site for the camp ; (4) a committee on publicity and invitation ; (5) a committee on chaperons ; (6) a committee on " safety first," to provide pure drinking water, ice, etc., to insure camp hygiene, to guard against accidents, and to provide first aid to the injured, should this be necessary ; (7) a committee on program and camp-fire entertainment ; (8) a commissary committee, to provide for suitable things to eat ; and as a sub- committee of this latter, the camp cooks. Do not forget the camp stew, the clam bake, or roasting-ear bake, the marshmallow toast, the sausage roast, the fish fry, or the chance to barbecue the meat. Letters, notes, lists, bulletins, suggestions, etc., will provide work in English for a week. (g) Effective Revision. — Let one boy and one girl, selected for their keenness and judgment in correcting written work, deal with the letters and communications that go out from each committee with reference to the above project. Let nothing go from either committee or individual that has not received an " O.K." from this revision com- mittee. (h} Let the editorial committee take the following set of exercises in hand, for the purpose of making effective revision of the work done by the pupils under their direction, of course under the super- vision of the instructor in English. After such revision, which should be keen but kindly, let the papers be rewritten, or the speeches revised. 128 Effective Revision 1. Daniel and the Lion's Den. — Tell the story, as found in Daniel vi. 2. TJie Story of Samson. Judges xvi, 4 to 31. — Or tell the entire story. If you please, you may refer to Milton's Sam- son Agonistes. Give it orally. Seven to ten minutes. 3. Cinderella. — Tell the story of Cinderella. 4. Dramatization. Robin Hood. — Take the stories con- cerning Kobin Hood and his Merry Men, and write a play to be presented before the English class. Do not introduce too many characters. 5. A Visit to Washington, D. C. — Tell what you can about the City of Washington. Include what you please about the Capitol, the White House, the Washington Monument, the Corcoran Art Gallery, the Smithsonian Institution, the Penn- sylvania Station, and anything else you like. Give it in the form of a talk, or of a letter. It would be well for an English class in any of the Washington high schools to make it a class letter to the English class of some other city. 6. A Rescue. — Two girls are rowing in high glee, all un- conscious of the fact that a stiff wind is blowing them out to sea. Tell the story of two boys, members of the same class in high school, as they row out to warn them, and help them back to safety. 7. Travel Letters. Some boy or girl of the class may have been abroad, or have just come to your school from some foreign country. Ask for a letter describing some such city as the. following : (a) Quito, Ecuador ; (6) Shanghai, China ; (c) Cape Town, South Africa; {d) Calcutta, India; (e) Con- stantinople, Turkey; (/) Tokio, Japan; {g) Rome, Italy; Qi) Nome, Alaska. Let every student who has lived in a foreign city, describe that city. (t) The Skeleton in Armor. — Have Longfellow's poem of this title read aloud in class by one or two of the best readers in the class. Let the story be written in class. Each student will then revise his first draft, with the vie^ of telling the story in his own way. He may discard such details as in his judgment hinder the story, or introduce Exercises in Effective Revision 129 any features he chooses. What is wanted is a swift-flowing story, told in each student's best manner, and revised by himself in such a way as to leave little room for the most careful revision on the part of any one else. The story as told by the student is not to be limited at all by the incidents of Longfellow's story. {j) Getting the Gist of an Address. — Listen to some speaker in school or outside. Aim to get the gist or substance of what he says. Then expand this in not more than five hundred words. (k) Drill in Coherence. — Refer to the Finnish epic, Kalevala, trans- lated by Crawford, its English title being The Land of Heroes, and tell the story of Rune 2d, The Birth of the Forests. Get away from the quaiut style in which it is written, and tell the story in pure and simple English, in your own way of saying things. If your story does not hang together revise it carefully with special reference to coherence. The Birth of the Forests. — Wainamoinen, the Hiawatha of the Finns, sows the forests upon the island of his choice. He plants vines upon the hills, and bushes in the valleys ; birches in wet places, and oaks upon the borders of the streams. Fir- trees he plants and pine-trees, alders and lindens and willows, hawthorns, and junipers, and mountain ash. The oak-tree is slow to grow ; but when it grows, it is tall and stately. Far It stretches out its branches, Stops the white-clouds in their courses. With its branches hides the sunlight. — It overshadows the land, and the barley cannot grow. Then the hero asks for help from his mother to rid the land of the oak-tree, that the barley may grow. Help is sent. The forest, all but the silver birch, is cut down. And then he prays that the barley fields may rustle. Finding barley seeds and seeds of rye washed ashore, he plants them, and they grow. (I) Drill in Emphasis. — Read the story of Kriemhild's dream, in Lettsom's translation of the Nihelungenlied, 1st Adventure, or as given by William Morris; or by Wagner; or in the Norroena Romances and Epics. Write the story, emphasizing the fate of the falcon. Test your tale to see if this episode is made striking enough. If not, rewrite it. 130 Effective Revision This adventure tells how Kriemhild, sister of Gunther, ruler of Burgundy, and niece of Hagan, dreamed of the coming of her hero. In her first youth, she had no thought of marriage. She dwells with her mother, Queen Ute, at Worms, past which flows the fair Rhine. She has a dream which she relates to her mother, that she had trained a wild young falcon for many a day, until two fierce eagles tore it. Her mother interprets this to mean that a knight will soon devote himself to her, but that some of her own kinsmen will seek to do him deadly harm. Photographed by Frank C. Sage. Topping the Timbers. Close work in a hurdle race. EXERCISES BASED ON PICTURES Topping the Timbers. — Here are two fellows sailing over the hurdles. Any high school might be proud of either. Describe a hurdle race, putting as much life into your writing aa these youngsters do into their work. When you have finished, try to revise your work as effectively as you can. What special qualities does the hurdler need f There are some elements of skill required. Interview some expert hurdler, and write an article for your high school paper that will be worth reading. PART TWO EFFECTIVE ENGLISH IN SOCIAL USE CHAPTER XI SOCIAL AND BUSINESS ENGLISH WTiat appears to be art in letters, may he habit which has beeomt second nature. — Macaulay. Letter- writing. — There is no art in everyday life so important as letter- writing. No one can claim to have an ordinary English education who cannot write a good letter promptly and unhesitatingly, at least so far as form is concerned. A home letter should be neat, correct, and legible. So carelessly, oftentimes, are home letters written that it takes longer to decipher them than it took the writer to scribble them. This is manifestly unfair. Business Correspondence. — Business, in this age of busi- ness, depends increasingly upon correspondence. The manager writes to his agents and they in turn write to their representatives or subordinates. Traveling sales- men write to the home office every night, or should do so, while letters and telegrams go to them, even where the long distance telephone has been called into requisition several times during business hours. It is important to have everything down in black and white. Essential Elements. — There are a few essential elements 131 132 Letter-writing which are easy of acquirement. The writing must be neat and legible, free from shading or any peculiarities. Poor spelling on the part of any young man or woman who writes, is not only objectionable but unpardonable. Many an application has been rejected, many a request refused, many a proposition turned down, simply because the writer was a poor speller. To send a letter full of errors in spelling is little less than an insult. The business letter shows forth the firm. Many a valu- able contract has been lost, to say nothing of the larger busi- ness that might have followed, because a stenographer was incompetent and the office stationery cheap and unattractive. Next to advertising, the business correspondence of a firm is the largest factor in business getting, and in keeping the business when once secured. The Typewriter. — The introduction and widespread use of the typewriting machine has made much difference in mod- ern letter-writing. Letters are simpler and more direct now than before. The better class of firms send out only type- written letters, although of course personal letters continue to be written, and not typewritten ; as do also letters out of business hours, where the stenographer is not available. One reason for the use of the typewriter is the con- venience of carbon copies of typewritten letters. In these days of filing systems^ all the correspondence of a firm is filed. For convenience in finding, these copies are some- times filed under four or five headings, in a system of cross filing, and the stenographer makes four or five carbon copies of each letter she writes. Busy men sometimes refuse to spend their valuable time in deciphering a letter written with a pen. The stenographer makes a copy of such letters on the type- writer, and sends it to the one who is to "handle" it, that is, read it and dispose of it. The Typewriter 133 A letter of instruction, or of business, as well as of ordinary friendship, is all the more agreeable and useful if it can be read at a glance, and its meaning immedi- ately gathered by the reader. Formal notes between friends and acquaintances, and letters or notes required by the usages of polite society, are not, however, to be written on the typewriter. The Belfry Tower of Bruges. This has one of the finest chimes in Europe. 134 Letter-writing EXERCISES BASED ON PICTURES The Belfry Tower of Bruges. — This tower, besides possessmg a distinctively picturesque beauty, has a chime of forty-eight bells, re- puted to be among the finest chimes in Europe. Look up its history, if within reach, and write one of your classmates a letter about it. The Belfry of Bruges. — Two poems of H. W. Longfellow refer to this belfry tower. Let some pupil of the English class who is a good reader give " The Belfry of Bruges " as a reading or recitation. Let another read " Carillon." Tlie Bells of Shandon. — Let some good reader recite or read "The Bells of Shandon." Francis Mahony, who wrote under the " pen name " of Father Prout, is the author. The Bells, by Edgar Allan Poe. — Let some capable reader give Poe's poem of this title. Suggestions for Letter-writing. — 1. Unruled paper is now. generally used for all forms of letters. 2. A postscript may be added if necessary, but it is better omitted. 3. In writing to a comparative stranger, I am is better than I remain, at the conclusion. 4. Date all notes, as well as all letters. The date may later prove an important factor. 5. In addressing a letter or note to a married woman, omit her husband's title. 6. In addressing a firm composed entirely of ladies, you may use either form given below. The Woman's Exchange, 227 East 9th Street, Toledo, Ohio. Ladies : The Cooperative Poultry Co., Ninth & Elm Streets, Cincinnati, Ohio. Mesdames : We have your note, etc. We beg to inquire, etc. 7. In writing from the larger cities, the name of the state may be omitted. In addressing envelopes, always give the name of the state. Suggestions for Letter-writing 135 8. For convenience of delivery on the part of the post office it is well to note the following method of writing the superscription upon the envelope. Illegible writing and all deviations from the regular order of addressing the en- velopes tend to hinder and delay the delivery of letters so addressed. Return to WILLIAM S. BROWNING, Jr., 231 TENTH STREET, CLEVELAND, O. Dk. chaeles warren, 15 East 129th Street, Chicago, Illinois 9. In sending a note to be delivered by a friend, it is J T-oper to leave it unsealed. It is equally proper for the i 'lend to seal it as soon as it comes to his hand. 10. Postal cards are not intended for anything like intimate correspondence, or for • important business com- munications. If they are used, both the salutation and the conclusion may be omitted. They may be signed with the initials only. 11. Picture postals, illustrating the neighborhood you are visiting, or expressing holiday greetings, are accept- able reminders of your interest in friends at a distance. They require but a few words, just enough to identify the sender. 12. Cards of greeting for birthday and similar oc- casions, if appropriately selected, are in good taste, and re- quire only a few words. 136 Letter-writing 13. Sign your name clearly. A showy signature is in poor taste. 14. Do not use abbreviations in correspondence. 15. Be courteous. Boorishness is nowhere so unpar- donable as in a letter. 16. A business letter should be concise and definite. If questions have been asked, they should be answered con- secutively. Where several items are to be dealt with, some firms require that each item be handled in a separate letter, for convenience in filing. 17. Do not write in anger. Cool off. Do not send a letter about which there is any question in your mind. When in doubt, tear it up. Never say " Burn this letter." It is equivalent to confessing that you know it is not a proper letter to send. 18. Do not tell your troubles. Keep them to yourself. By the time your letter reaches its destination you will have forgotten them. 19. Be careful not to say more than you intend. Be even more reserved in writing than in conversing. 20. Keep a copy of important letters. 21. Take time to read your letters over, and in case of important letters, read them more than once. Prepare a topical outline. Cover the important sugges- tions about letters. Be prepared to recite from your outline. EXAMPLES OF LETTERS Abraham Lincoln's Letter to Mrs. Bixby of Boston Dear Madam : — I have been shown in the files of the War De- partment a statement of the adjutant general of Massachusetts, that you are the mother of five sons who have died gloriously on the field of battle. I feel how weak and fruitless must be any words of mine which should attempt to beguile you from the grief of a loss so overwhelming. But I cannot refrain Examples of Letters 137 from tendering to you the consolation that may be found in the thanks of the republic they died to save. I pray that our Heavenly Father may assuage the anguish of your bereave- ment, and leave you only the cherished memory of the loved and lost, and the solemn pride that must be yours to have laid so costly a sacrifice upon the altar of freedom. Very respectfully yours, Abraham Lincoln. A Letter of Friendship from Charles Lamb East India House, May 21, 1819. Dear Rickman, The gentleman who will present this letter holds a situation of considerable importance in the East India House, and is my very good friend. He is desirous of knowing whether it is too late to amend a mere error in figures which he has just dis- covered in an account made out by him and laid before the House yesterday. He will best explain to you what he means, and I am sure you will help him to the best of your power. Why did we not see you last night ? Yours truly, Charles Lamb. A Letter From an Experienced Man Charles P. Swing,i 133 West Eighth St., Cincinnati, Ohio. Feb. 2, 1917. X. Y. Z., Care of The Enquirer, Cincinnati, Ohio. Dear Sir : Answering your advertisement in Sunday's Enquirer, I beg to make application for a position with you. I have been 1 The writer gives his address, on the letter-head of the L. & N. R.R. 138 Letter-writing employed by the L. & N. E. E., as file, trace, and reconsigning clerk, and also as assistant tariff compiler. I beg to refer you to the officials named on this letterhead, which I use by per- mission of this office. Respectfully yours, Charles P. Swing. Norman Stairway. In close of Canterbury Cathedral. EXERCISES BASED ON PICTURES Norman Stairway, Canterbury Cathedral. — -Among the in- teresting examples of various styles of architecture shown in this book, the splendid staircase here pictured ranks high. It is a perfect piece of Norman style and is quite unrivaled in England. It is among the glories of Canterbury. Write a friend a letter describing it as it appears to you. Norman Architecture. — Prepare a study of Norman archi- tecture. Illustrate by postcard pictures of churches, cathe- Exercises in Letter-writing 139 drals, and Norman castles or ruins of castles. If your school possesses a reflectoscope, use it to show these pictures. Many high schools own or have access to lantern slides. These will make a tine basis for an illustrated talk or lecture on Norman architecture. If so desired, a committee of the English class may arrange to have a number of pictures shown, each to be explained by some member of the class. When this exercise is well prepared, such talks are interesting. EXERCISES IN LETTER- WRITING (a) Preparing Letters from Outline. — Suppose that a neighbor asks you to write a letter for her. She is unable to write, owing to some injury to her hand. Put the letter into perfect shape, ready for her signature. She details an annoying circumstance happening to her and her little child, just recovering from sickness. Boys threw stones at her and the child, frightening it so that it has not yet fully re- covered. She discovers the name of one of the boys, and addresses his father. She gives the name of the father, and his address. Seventy-five words. (h) Preparing the Reply. — Suppose that the father to whom the above lettet- is addressed is out of town. The mother brings the letter to you, not knowing that you had written it. She asks you to write a reply. In the absence of her husband, she has punished the boy, and is sending him to the writer of the letter to make due apology, which she trusts will be acceptable. She regrets the illness of the little child, and asks if she car be of any service. Prepare the letter, ready for the mother to sign. Fifty words. (c) Class Correspondence. — Let the class prepare a careful lettet to the English class in a high school in some foreign country. For in- stance, write to Montreal, asking for a letter in return which shall de- scribe the winter sports in that city. Decide on what there is in your own neighborhood that is characteristic or novel in the way of summer or winter sport, and write a good description of it. Before sending your class letter, ask the class in the other school if they are willing to accept your plan. Then write your first descriptive letter, to which they will reply. (d) Letters Describing Unusual Methods of Locomotion. — If you have had experience in any of the methods here named, or suggested by 140 Letter-writing them, write a letter detailing your experience. You may use your imagination in describing some unusual mode of travel, but only on condition that you read up in some book or lecture to make your account true to conditions. Two hundred and fifty words. 1. A ride on an Eskimo sledge, drawn by Eskimo dogs. 2. A passenger on an aeroplane or dirigible. 3. Towed out to sea by a whale. 4. Afloat on an iceberg. 5. A ride in a submarine. 6. A trip in a rickshaw, in Japan ; or in a palanquin, in China. 7 A caravan trip through the Sahara; or a trip over the Andes, as a driver of llamas. (e) Letters Describing Unusual Occupations. — Write a letter to a friend of your own age, describing some one of the following occupa- tions. Be sure of your facts. Two hundred words or more. 1. On a sugar plantation in Cuba. 2. On a raisin farm in California. 3. In a coal mine in West Virginia. 4. On a cattle ranch in Texas. 5. On a stock farm in the Blue Grass region of Kentucky. 6. As member of a fishing fleet off the coast of New- foundland. 7. In a maple sugar orchard in Vermont. 8. As camp cook on a hunting trip to Arkansas ; or in the lumber camps of the Northwest. PROBLEMS IN LETTER -WRITING Problems * for Letters. — Prepare letters to meet the following conditions. Say all that you want to say, but use as few words as possible. Criticize your own work, so as to leave but little for others to criticize. 1 The English Syllabus, Board of Regents, New York, strongly urges definite problems in letter writing. It suirgests a full and detailed statement of the circumstances under which the letter is supposed to be written. Problems in Letter-writing 141 (a) Asking for a Job. — Your neighbor has a large pile of old lumber, evidently to be cut up for kindling. Write, asking for the job, to be done out of school hours. Also, give her reply, stating what she is willing to pay. She asks that after cutting it up, you store it neatly in her cellar. Reply, accepting her terms. (&) A Request. — You have an opportunity to go to the theater to see a play which your English class is about to read. Write to your teacher, stating that your only opportunity to see it will be at the Wednesday matinee, and requesting permission to be absent at that time. Write her reply. (c) Excuse for Tardiness. — A neighbor's child fell from a swing, breaking an arm. You had to go for a physician, and to assist him on his arrival. You were tardy in consequence. Write the excuse as as if your mother wrote it, and have it ready for her signature. (d) You had to go to court to testify about an automobile accident. This accounts for two days* absence. Your father is to sign the note, but asks you to have it ready to sign. Fifty words. (e) You have a test in algebra to-morrow, and by mistake brought home the wrong book. Your friend happens to have two copies. Write a note stating the circumstances, and that the, messenger will wait for a reply. Your friend sends the book, and a note. Write her answer. (/) On coming home at noon, you find your mother ill. Your little sister has mislaid her geography, and has been sent home for it. Write a note for your mother to sign, stating that she is too ill to look for it now, but will do so to-night. She asks that the child be allowed to remain at school, and promises to have the book by to- morrow morning. {g) Telephone Trouble. — Your telephone is not working. Prepare a note stating the dif&culty, so that a friend in the same building may notify the telephone company over the 'phone. Write a brief note to tjiis friend, asking her to call up and report. (Ji) Advertising Your School. — Quite a number of high schools arrange with their local newspaper to run a special news column, using five hundred words or more, indicating whatever happens at school of n)ore than passing interest. These items are put into good shape, following the style of the newspaper in question, and are prepared by students appointed by the class for the work. Prepare a letter to your newspaper, asking that such a plan be arranged by them. Write it in one hundred and fifty words. 142 Letter-writing (i) Making a Suggestion. — Write a letter for publication in your local newspaper. Call attention to the fact that in many communi- ties public-spirited citizens make gifts to the high schools for various needs of the schools. State that your school needs a printing depart- ment, and ask that some one supply this need. Use one hundred words. 0) Writing to a Public Official. — As a committee of one, write to the mayor or commissioner of your city for permission to visit the city ofl&ces in search of information regarding the community plan. Use one hundred words. Write his reply, granting your request, in thirty words. {k) Getting Permission to Skate. — The pond on the neighboring farm is just the place for skating, if you can get permission to use it. Write for permi&sion to Mr. William Bowen, who lives on the Willow Run farm. Seventy-five words. {I) Making Arrangements. — Your high school desires to make an excursion to some place of interest in your vicinity. Write to the agent of the railroad that runs through the place, asking him to give you rates, and to suggest the best time for such a trip. Use fifty words. (rn) An Invitation. — The literary^ society of which you are a mem- ber desires to invite the literary society of a neighboring high school to visit you on the occasion of a " publication day," at which time a number of papers, speeches, and a debate, are to be given. Write the letter in seventy-five words or less. AuLD Brig o' Doon. Across which Tam O'Shanter rode. Exercises Based on Pictures 14S EXERCISES BASED ON PICTURES Auld Brig o' Doon. — Here is that old bridge over the Doon, across which Tam O'Shanter's mare " Maggie " thundered with a pack of witches in full cry at her heels. 1. Tam O'Shanter's Ride. — With this scene in your mind's eye, tell the story of this eventful ride, and the mad effort of faithful Meg to make the keystone of the bridge and bring her master off hale. Eobert Burns often said that he counted this his best effort. If so, isn't it worth your telling ? 2. John Oilpin's Ride. — Eefer to Cowper's poem of this title for a humorous account of a notable ride. Tell it in one hundred words. 3. Paul Revere' s Ride. — This is told in " The Landlord's Tale," in Tales of a Wayside Inn, by Longfellow. Give it in your own way. 4. Balaklava. — William Howard Russell, in the London Times, describes the charge of the Scotch Grays and the Ennis- killens at Balaklava. You will find it in Classic Tales by Famous Authors, Volume I. Kead it and retell it. 5. The Light Brigade. — Read Tennyson's " Charge of the Light Brigade," and tell the story in one hundred words. CHAPTER XII THE PARTS OF AN EFFECTIVE LETTER Order, and distribution, and singling out of parts, is the life of dispatch. — Bacon. Divisions of a Letter. — No other kind of composition is so rigidly governed by usage as letters. The manner of address and subscription, the position of the address, dates, and so on, and the punctuation of letters, are all regulated by custom. It is therefore important for you to observe these forms, and not deviate from them. The parts of a letter are, 1. the heading ; 2. the address ; 3. the salutation ; 4. the body of the letter ; 6. the complimentary close ; 6. the signature. In the letter given below, each of these parts is indi- cated by the corresponding number in a parenthesis. (1) Cleveland, May 29th, 1916. (2) Mr. Charles A. Maynard, 3295 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland. (3) Dear Sir: (4) I have your favor of the 28th inst., applying for a posi- tion in this office during the summer montlis. The character of our work is such that all our employees 144 Divisions of a Letter 145 are hired with the idea of remaining with us permanently. If we were to employ you for the summer months you would leave us just at the time you were becoming familiar with the work, and we should then be obliged to break in another new man. I regret that, under the circumstances, we shall not be able to avail ourselves of your services. (5) Yours truly, (6) Wm. R. Arrowsmith. In the following letter, the arrangement differs slightly from the first example, while the general form of the letter is about the same. The Thompson, Ellington Company General Farm Supplies St. Louis, Mo. (1) St. Louis, Sept. 26, 1916. (2) Messrs. Browning Sons & Co. Hardware and Farm Supplies Galveston, Texas. (3) Gentlemen : (4) We notice on our books that you have not bought any- thing from us since last May. Is there any reason for this ? If so, and you think that the fault is on our side, will you not kindly so indicate at your early convenience ? When our representative last called on you, you told him that you would send an order down to his hotel. Later, by telephone, you stated that you would mail an order to the house. We should appreciate it if you can see your way clear to send us an order. We value our old customers and their good will too much to let anything stand in the way that can be remedied by any concession in reason. (5) Thanking you in advance for your continued favor, we are Very truly yours, (6) The Thompson, Ellington Co. Charles Thompson, President 146 Parts of a Letter The Heading. — 1. The heading includes the address of the writer and the date on which the letter is written. 2. It should occupy the upper right-hand corner of the first page, about an inch from the top of the page. 3. The heading may include one, two, or three lines. Where it is printed or engraved on the paper, it will prob- ably be in the middle of the page, and about an inch from the top. In that case, the date line should be in the right- hand corner, about an inch below the printed or engraved heading. If the writer prefers, instead of a heading, his address may be written at the lower left-hand corner of the letter, about an inch below the line on which the signature is written. 4. While a comma may be used at the end of each item or line of the heading, its use is not necessary. In case of abbreviation in the heading, a period should be used. 3353 Peachtree Ave. Atlanta, Georgia February 2, 1917. Washington, D. C, April 1, 17 3644 Baltimore Ave., Kansas City, Mo., Jan. 9, 1917. Seattle, Wash., June 1, 1917 American Association for International Conciliation. Sub-station 84, New York, N. Y. March 9, 1912 EXERCISES BASED ON PICTURES Egyptians Plowing. — Here is shown a primitive method of tilling the soil. Egypt's soil is so fertile from the annual Nile overflow that it was once the granary of the world, and it is even now wonderfully productive. As has been said, the farmers there have but to tickle the soil with the plow, and it laughs into abundant harvest. This plowing scene looks like a page from ancient history. Patient, plodding, and strong, these oxen do their work well. Tell the story of such a day's plowing, as if you were a spectator. The Address 147 Egyptians Plowing. Here was once the world's granary. The River Nile. — Refer to the cyclopedia, and prepare an account of the Nile iu its influence upon the fertility of the Egyptiau valley lands. The Address. — 1. The address is written at the upper left-hand corner of the letter, one inch below the date line. It should begin one inch from the left side of the page. 2. The address may include one, two, or more lines. It is a matter of taste as to indenting the second and third lines, or writing these directly under the first line. 3. In letters of friendship, the address is often omitted. It is better to give it, however. 4. In addressing a woman, use Miss or Mrs. In the case of a married woman, her husband's usual address is used, unless it is known that she prefers otherwise. In this case her own name is used. But she should never be addressed with her husband's title. If she holds an offi- cial position, or has any professional title, her own name should invariably be used. 148 Parts of a Letter 5. The President of the United States may be addressed thus, The President of the United States, Executive Mansion, ^ Washington, D. C. 6. A man should be addressed as Jfr., and a firm by its firm name. The use of Messrs. with a firm name is a matter of taste. It is proper to use the titles i>r., Reverend^ and so forth, but Esq, is now seldom used. Ordinarily, the full title should be used in military, offi- cial, and professional titles. Mrs. Charles J. Warren, 325 Indiana Ave., Atlantic City, N. J. Mr. r. P. Keppel, Sub-station 84, Kew York City The Salutation. — 1. The salutation is placed at the left, below the address, and about one inch from the left side of the paper. If the address is omitted, as in friendly letters, the salutation is written one inch below the date line. The following are proper in business letters : Dear Sir, Sir, or Sirs, Mesdames, My dear Sir, Dear Madam, Dear Miss Mary, Dear Sirs, My dear Madam, My dear Miss Sue, Gentlemen, Madam, It will be noted that the adjectives after the first word of the salutation are used without a capital. The salutation for the president is Sir^ or Mr. President. For the governor of the State, Your Excellency is used. For the mayor of a city. Your Honor may be used. In offi- cial communications, use Sir., Sirs, or Gentlemen. For either a married or an unmarried woman. Madam may be used. Hon. James M. Cox, Governor, Columbus, Ohio, Your Excellency : The Body of the Letter 149 Hon. George Puchta, Mayor, Cincinnati, Ohio Your Honor : Miss Catherine Hardcastle, 1214 Seventh Avenue, Louisville, Kentucky, My dear Madam : 2. In letters of friendship, where the correspondents are acquainted with each other, it»is proper to use the forms Dear Miss Harrison^ My dear Mrs. Wilson^ Dear Mr, Johnson^ My dear Doctor Edwards. No familiarity is implied in such terms of address. While Doctor may be abbreviated QDr.) in the address, it should be spelled out in full in the salutation. Professor should never be abbreviated in a letter. In letters of friendship, where the writers are of the same family, or on very friendly terms, such phrases as My dear Elizabeth^ Dear Frances, My dear Friend, My dear little Niece, are permissible. But it is a caution worth keeping in mind that undue familiarity in writing, as in speech, is not in good taste. 3. At the close of the salutation, a comma may be used, or a colon. In business letters, it is common to use the colon, followed sometimes by a dush. The Body of the Letter. — 1. The body of the letter should be carefully paragraphed, each paragraph being properly indented and punctuated. Each paragraph should deal with a single point, clearly expressed. 2. The body of the letter may begin on the same line as the salutation, and half an inch or an inch from it, to the right. But it is better to begin on the second or third line below. Some careful writers prefer to begin the first paragraph of the body of the letter at the same distance 150 Parts of a Letter from the left side of the letter as the other paragraphs. In this case, it should begin on the first line below the salutation. Business houses have a set form for their letters, and the student should follow these forms im- plicitly, on first taking hold in a new position. The Complimentary Close. — 1. The complimentary close of the letter is placed one line below the last line of the body of the letter, and toward the right side of the page. 2. As in the saluta^on, so here, the relationship exist- ing between the correspondents will govern the style of the close of the letter. Except in cases where the writei is closely associated with the correspondent, the words Yours respectfully^ are used perhaps as frequently as any other form, and will be proper anywhere. Yours truly ^ Very truly yourSy Sincerely yours^ Yours most sincerely^ or Yours most respectfully^ are all in good form. Do not omit the word Yours. 3. It is not proper to abbreviate any word in the complimentary close. Abbreviations convey the idea of undue haste, and this is not consistent with the courtesy that should characterize the close of a careful letter. 4. In the complimentary close, only the first word should be capitalized. A comma is used at the end of the line. The Signature. — 1. The signature of the writer should be placed one line below the complimentary close, and to the right of the page. 2. It is important that the signature be legible. Often the whole purpose of the letter is defeated by the fact that the signature cannot be made out. One cannot tell from whom his letter comes. Even where money is in- closed, in the form of money order or draft, it is often impossible to tell to what account it is to be credited, The Envelope 151 because of the difficulty in reading the signature. Showy signatures, or those hard to decipher, are in poor taste. 3. Where the writer is a woman, she should indicate whether her title is Mrs. or Miss. This is done by sign- ing her name thus : (^Mrs.^ Mary L, Hay den. Or, she may sign her given name, and then at the left, a little below the body of the letter, give her husband's name and address in full, as Mrs. G-eorge W. Sayden. Never use Mrs. or Miss before your signature without a parenthesis. . 4. As a general rule, no matter what the communica- tion, sign the name in full, and always sign it the same way. In deciding upon a signature, it will be safer to write one given name in full, instead of two initials, as Charles E. Bowen^ instead of O. E. Bow en ; or E. Will Howard^ instead of E. W. Howard. The Envelope. — 1. The direction on the envelope, ordinarily termed the superscription^ consists of the name and address of the person or firm to whom the letter is to be forwarded. This should be written carefully. 2. The superscription should be arranged in three lines, or in four lines, where the street and number are given. The name should occupy the upper line, and may be written with the same space at both the right and left margin, and about midway between its upper and lower edges. Thus, Mr. William H. Everett, 1745 Ninth Street, Dayton, Ohio. 3. All punctuation may be omitted on the envelope; or a comma may be used at the end of each line, '^ith a period at the end of the last line. Do not abbreviate in writing any part of the address upon the envelope. 152 Parts of a Letter Special care should be taken to write the name of the state in full where confusion may arise from abbreviating names like Cah and Col.^ Mo. and ilffe., N, Y. and N. J. Prepare a topical outline covering the various kinds of letters, and how to write them. Be ready to recite from it. Photograph by Elmer L. Foote. Drawing-room, Pringle House. A home of culture in colonial times. EXERCISES BASED ON PICTURES Drawing-room, Pringle House. — Study the furnishings of this room. The paintings, even to the miniatures, are the work of great artists. The full-length portrait of the young woman standing, is by Romney, the famous English painter. There is an interesting story connected with the subject of this ;Picture. It is a portrait of one of the daughters, Miss Pringle, at the time when General Cornwallis occupied the house. He notified her that he expected to use whatever grain Exercises Based on Pictures 153 and stores the Pringle plantation afforded, as food for his men and fodder for his horses, but that he would pay for what he used. That night, under her instructions, everything that would burn was destroyed. Note also the chandelier, one of the most beautiful in America. There is but one other like it, the two having be- longed originally in the palace of an East Indian Rajah. 1. Feature Writing. — Put yourself in the place of a feature writer for a newspaper, sent to interview some member of the Pringle family as to. the legends of the house. Write your account in two hundred words, in good newspaper style. 2. Table Talk. — One of your schoolmates, a member of the fam- ily, has invited you to spend a few days there. The story of the house comes up one morning at breakfast. Tell it. 3. Drama. — Give the interview between Lord Cornwallis and Miss Pringle in two scenes. First, where he makes known his wishes about supplies for the British army ; and second, where the patriotic young woman announces what has happened. 4. Drama. — Write in simple dramatic ^ form a scene where the young Marquis de Lafayette, with becoming courtesy, begs the young heroine to repeat, this story to General Washington and himself. When in proper shape, superintend the acting of the scene by stu- dents of your selection. Get the costumes as they should be. 5. A Bit of Pageantry. — Let a committee write out the preceding scene and present it in a high school pageant. Study the costumes of the French and American officers, and of the young ladies of that time. 6. The Rajah's Chandelier. — Plan and write an account of how the Rajah's chandelier came to America. Make a pirate story of it, ij you choose to do so. 1 Simple dramatization, in the experience of many excellent teachers, promotes efficiency in both written and oral expression. Using the exer- cises given here and throughout the book as suggestive, the ingenuity of the teacher will doubtless provide many opportunities for this unusually attractive form of expression in English. In their new English Syllabus, the Board of Regents of New York strongly favor "the construction of simple plays, based on school or local life, the portrayal of historic events for festival occasions, the adapting of the scenes of a novel to the dia- logue form for a school or class play," as profitable exercises in com' position. 154 Parts of a Letter 7. The Boyhood of Raleigh. — Millais has a famous painting undel this title. It represents two boys listening to an old sailor, as he tells marvelous tales of adventure. Look it up on page 6 of this book. Tell some pirate story such as they may have heard. If you can outline a simple class play, do so. Plays and Stories 1. Story Told Orally. — B.eier to O. Henry's story of The Cha- parral Prince, and tell it orally in a simple and straightforward way. This will readily lend itself to a class play. Try it. 2. Another Oral Story. — Refer to Cotton Mather's account of Captain Phips and His Search for Buried Treasure. Give it orally. 3. Simple Play. — Let several students look up the story of AH Baba and the Forty Thieves. Dramatize it, and superintend its pres- entation before the class. If successful, try a school play. 4. A Good Story. — Refer to Bret Harte's story of Tennessee's Partner, and tell it in as few words as possible. 5. Treasure Trove. — Refer to Jules Verne's Twenty Thousand Leagues under the Sea, where they find vast treasures under sea. Either tell it orally, or make a simple play of it. Q. An Impromptu Play. — Prepare a simple play and let several pupils play it before the class. Use Stevenson's Treasure Island^ where they dig for the buried gold and find it gone. 7. Oliver Twist. — Refer to Dickens' story of Oliver Twist, chap- ter xxii, where Oliver is shot as a burglar. Tell the story, but do not attempt to reproduce the thieves' jargon or slang. Use good collo- quial English. Give it orally. Dramatize it, if you wish. EXERCISES IN LETTER-WRITING (a) Business English. — In the following letters, be sure to apply not only the rules of letter-writing, but the principles of rhetoric. 1. Write a letter of application for a position you think you would like. 2. Write a brief business letter, asking the Adams Express Company to trace a package sent you recently, which has not arrived. 3. Write a letter of recommendation for a friend, indicating his ability and experience. Exercises in Letter-writing 155 4. Answer an advertisement in the Ladies' Home Journal^ requesting the advertisers to send you their catalogue. (h) Students Dictating Letters. — This is to be an oral exercise. Several letters are to be handed to each of a group of students, who are to read the letters submitted to them, and glancing through them to catch the gist of the letters, they are to dictate rapidly hut clearly the proper reply in each case. Enough material should be provided to give each student a different set of letters. (c) Advertisements. — Try your hand at the following advertise- ments. 1. One of your friends lives in the country and wir.hes to hire a young girl to act as domestic. He will pay good wages. The girl will have the opportunity to get back to town for one afternoon each week. He asks you to prepare the advertise- ment. Do so in fifteen words. 2. Your father commissions you to ivrite an advertisement for a cottage at Northport Point, Michigan. Prepare it for the proper column in your city newspaper. Give, in twenty- five words, as good a description as you can of the sort of house your father wishes to purchase. (c?) Notes of Courtesy. — Your class is to give a reception to which the faculty are to be invited. Study the latest forms of tliis style of note, and write the invitation in about fifty words. . (e) Letters of Inquiry. — Write either or both of the following letters. 1. You wish to do your part in paying for the education of a boy or girl in a " Mountain School '' in Kentucky, Tennessee, Virginia, or North Carolina. Write a note to the principal of such a school, asking the probable expense. Use one hundred words. 2. Your class decides to give a ride in the Interurban " Sjjecial," on a coming Friday. Prepare a note to the super- intendent of the traction line, asking terms, indicating date, stating how many will be in the party, and asking for all neces- sary information. Use sixty words. (/) " Lost " Notices. — Prepare carefully the following notes : 156 Parts of a Letter 1. Your motor boat, moored to the shore, has got loose awd floated off. Write a night letter or telegram of fifty words, ad dressed to the chief of police of the next town down the river, describing your boat, and asking him to be on the lookout for it, and indicating the reward you will pay for its return. 2. You left a package on the street car. Write a note in not more than fifty words, addressed to the superintendent of the car-barn at the end of the line on which you were riding. Give a description of the article, stating the time of day, the date, the line on which you rode, and where you got off the car. Ask him to look it up. Indicate your telephone number, requesting him to notify you in case he finds the article you have mislaid. (g) School Notes. — Try one or more of the following notes about school affairs. 1. A girl has just entered your high school, and has been assigned to your class. Your teacher has requested you to explain the workings of a program just announced. As you have to leave early, prepare a written statement in about one hundred words, trying to make it clear just how your class is to recite, and what is done in the study room. 2. Write a note of explanation to your teacher, indicating that you misunderstood a request made of you, — or that a friend states was made of you, — which you apparently refused to comply with. Use thirty words or less. 3. Open a correspondence with the pupils of another high school. As class secretary, write the first letter to the princi- pal of the school in question, asking him to give it to the proper one in his school. Request a reply. Use about fifty words. (h) Applications. — Apply for the following positions, being careful to observe the directions given in this chapter. • 1. You learn that you will either have to find something to do outside of school hours to enable you to get through, or quit high school. Write a letter to^ the secretai-y of the Exercises in Letter-writing 157 T. M. C. A., or in case of the girls, to the Y. W. C. A., asking to be informed of any opening for part of the day, or evening. Use seventy-five words. 2. Write a note to a friend of your father, stating who you are, and asking his advice as to the sort of work you should try to find, to help you pay your way through school. Use from fifty to seventy-five words. 3. Wi'ite an application for a position. You have half the day to spare, and can give all day Saturday, and Saturday night. Address your letter to one or more stores that you think could make room for you. Give your telephone number and home address. Call attention to the fact that you have inclosed a self-addressed envelope, stamped, for reply. (i) Vocational Guidance. — A group of boys is to prepare a list of one hundred words or terms, relating to automobiles. The pro- nunciation of these words is to be given ; and their meaning and derivation explained. Let a spokesman be appointed to bring in the report. Boys who run their own machines, or the family "auto," or who act as chauffeurs during off hours, or in vacation, are to be placed on this committee. (j) Social Motives. — As this exercise is intended as a review of the principles so far brought out, let a committee of three be selected by the class, to report at the close of the recitation. They are to criti- cize whatever needs correction, stating why; and to indicate what is commendable, stating why. This committee may send to the board such pupils as they may indicate, to give a rapid review of the forms used in social correspondence, both formal and informal in style. 1. One of the class, injured in basket ball, or disabled in some way, is at the hospital, or sick at home. Discuss a list of topics most likely to be of interest to him or her. Prepare a class letter, touching on the points thus chosen. 2. The member of the class selected to 'carry this letter, pre- pares a letter at the dictation of the pupil who receives it, express- ing his pleasure at being thus remembered. Write the letter. (k) Project in Business English. — Let two members of the English class be appointed as manager? for the week that it will take to work 158 Parts of a Letter out this plan. For instance, let one boy be chosen as chief clerk, to have charge of all correspondence between the business, on one side, and the customers, on the other side. Let one girl be chosen as sales manager, to be in charge of everything connected with the pushing of sales, including the management of the salesmen and saleswomen; all branch houses ; all agents ; and all business houses handling the products or goods of the business. Divide the class into two sections; one to represent the business force, the other to represent the customers. The two managers will decide upon what kind of business to engage in. The following lines are suggested : a wholesale grocery ; a wholesale hardware company ; a department store ; a manufacturing concern; a mail-order business. The managers are also to indicate to the rest of the class the nature of the letters required. They may go into details about the business, but not in such a way as to break in on the initiative of the writers. In no case are they to dictate the letters. They may appoint one student to advise the customers what sort of orders to make, letters to write, payments to make, credits to ask for, and anything else that may concern the customers in their dealing with the business. All suggestions to the customers should go from the managers through this student. But he is also to use his own judgment, without waiting for suggestions. All letters for that day are to be submitted to the managers in proper form, neatly written, and acceptable in all details. All letters received the day before, or the first thing in the morning, are to be answered promptly, and submitted at the close of the day, if not be- fore that time. Note the following suggestive list of letters. The managers, however, are to decide what to do. (1) General correspond- ence ; (2) sales letter-writing ; (3) advertisement writing ; (4) report writing ; (5) specifications ; (6) inventories and price lists ; (7) collections ; (8) sales letters to agents ; (9) circular letters ; (10) replying to business inquiries, com- plaints, etc., and the preparation of follow-up letters. (/) Advertisement Writing. — Refer to some fivp or six magazines, "best sellers," and study the full-page advertisements found there. Let five boys choose one article to be advertised by them, and let five girls choose another. Each group is to prepare an "ad" for the Exercises in Letter-writing 159 selected article. As nearly as possible, the copy of the advertisement prepared by the students of each group is to look as it will in the magazine. In order to do this, they may clip both illustrations and type from any available sources, pasting in this matter. This can be made effective, if pains are taken. (m) Class Letter. — Let each member of the class write a letter containing the description of a hard-fought snowball battle. These letters are to be submitted to a committee of three who are to select the three letters that in their judgment bring out the most interesting points. Let these be read aloud, and let the class compose a descrip- tive letter to some English class in a city where they are unused to snow. Ask a letter in return, describing something familiar to them, but which would seem new to you. Make the letter as nearly perfect as you can before mailing it. Address it to the instructor in English, care of the high school in the city decided upon. (n) Business Letters. Opening Sentences. — In the opening sentence of a letter replying to a business letter, he careful to refer definitely to the date and contents of the letter to which you are replying. For this purpose, let several brief business letters be read aloud, or written upon the blackboard. Let the class write letters in reply, and give in the opening sentence the substance of the letter to be answered. (o) Long Themes in Form of Letters. — Let the class prepare a long theme on some selected topic. Put it in the form of a letter, and inclose it in an envelope properly addressed to the residence of your instructor in English. Use official envelopes, and fold correctly. (jo) Both Sides of a Correspondence. — Take both attitudes, that of a customer and of the representative of some large business house advertising a staple article. Clip the advertisement from one of the leading magazines. Write a letter of inquiry, as from a prospec- tive purchaser, in response to the advertisement. Write in reply, stating terms, description, arguments for the purchase, and whatever else may seem advisable. Make both strictly business letters. (q) Talk on Letters. — Prepare a five-minute talk on letter-writing, and proper form in letters and notes. Discuss appropriate headings, salutations, conclusions, signatures, and superscriptions. Speak also of good taste in the choice of stationery and ink. Use the black- board. If possible, submit sample letters, correctly written. (r) Address by a Trained Writer. — Let a competent business ste- nographer or private secretary address the class on " Up-to-date Re* quirements of Forra m Letter Writing.'* 160 Parts of a Letter An Aqueduct A Mexican water carrier. EXERCISES BASED ON PICTURES Mexican Water Carrier. — Imagine having to depend upon this sort of service for your water supply in these days of water works, of artesian wells, and of irrigation. Under what condi- tions do people live who are satisfied with a supply system like this ? Think a little, look up information, and write an article on " Un- usual Sources of Water Supply." Aqueducts in Old Mexico. — When the Spaniards came to Mexico, they found an elaborate system of aqueducts, some of which are still in use. Look this up, and write a paper on it, if it interests you. CHAPTER XIII KINDS OF LETTERS Let your letter he written as accurately as possible. — Chesterfield. I. Business Lettkrs Business Requirements. — The first requisite of a busi- ness letter is accuracy. The writer should be sure of his facts, and he must say what he means. The second item of importance is that of neatness and legibility. The let- ter should be clear, clean, and well written. Then the letter should be concise. The writer should express him- self in as few words as possible, consistent with a clear- ness that will render his meaning unmistakable. The recipient of the letter is supposed to be able to act promptly on the information this letter contains. If for a full understanding of the letter it is necessary to refer to certain previous letters, the letter should cite them. Lastly, the letter should be courteous in tone. Clear Statement. — In making your statement of facts, you should endeavor to make each fact stand out by itself so as to catch the reader's attention at a glance. If any explanation is necessary, make it item by item. Clear up one point before touching upon the next. Postscripts are out of place in business letters. In urging any special consideration designed to influ- ence your reader's mind, try to put yourself in his place, and when you have finished your letter, read it over to 161 16^ Kinds of Letters see whether you have clearly stated your points. If not, do not hesitate to recast your letter. In important letters, it may often be advisable to make a first draft of your letter and then to recast it, asking yourself the question whether your letter says just what you mean or not. It is best to avoid undue brevity. The so-called tele- graphic style, where the pronouns and the less important particles and connectives are omitted, is not permissible in business correspondence. This applies even to what are termed " day or night letters," that is, telegrams of fifty words or less, which are wired at reduced rates, and which are now much in use. A good business writer should.be able to make almost any transaction clear in fifty words. If not, he should not hesitate to use words enough for his purpose. Business Answers. — In answering a business letter, first acknowledge the receipt of your correspondent's letter, giving its date, and, in case of a large business house or corporation, its file number. At the same time, acknowledge the check, receipt, bill of lading, or other inclosure or inclosures, by saying, "with inclosure as stated," or by naming the inclosures. It may be wise to restate briefly the letter to which you are replying, after which you may deal with it point by point. This will facilitate matters, especially if your letters should be referred to some one who has not seen the previous correspondence- If questions have been asked in the letter to which you are replying, these should be answered definitely and clearly. Business letters should be answered at once, if possible. Otherwise, a brief letter of acknowledgment promising an immediate reply should be sent. Business "Don*ts." — Never seal a business letter with- out rereading it. Exercises Based on Pictures 163 Never hesitate to rewrite a letter, if after reading it over you think that it fails to say exactly and unmistakably what you intended it to say. Never let a letter leave your desk that is lacking in courtesy, or that savors of disrespect. Paradise Road and Mt. Rainier. Mt. Rainier National Park. EXERCISES BASED ON PICTURES Paradise Road and Mt. Rainier. — There is a certain joy of living felt in the open air, especially in the mountains, and on horseback. The writer, Mary Eoberts Rinehart, is shown at 164 Kinds of Letters the right of the picture. Two mountain peaks appear, the snow-covered one being Mt. Eainier, which is worth crossing a continent to see. Describe this party, as if you were a member of it. Mt. Rainier National Park. — If your high school library possesses a copy of the Portfolio of National Parks, issued by the Department of the Interior, from which this picture is taken, refer to it and write a description of this or some other Park belonging to the nation. Put it in letter form. II. Social Letters Invitations and Replies. — Invitations and replies are either formal or informal. For ordinary events, informal invitations are given, and in such cases the style does not differ from that of any friendly letter. Formal invita- tions are proper where the entertainment is a little out of the ordinary. The reply should follow the style of the invitation. That is, a formal reply should he returned to a formal invitation. In every case where an invitation in writing is received, there should be a written reply, promptly mailed or sent. The host or hostess cannot make final and satisfactory arrangements for the proposed entertainment, no matter what its nature may be, until the invited guests are heard from. It is not only impolite, but unkind, to delay writing either an acceptance or a note of regret. Formal Invitations. — When a formal invitation is writ- ten, it is in the third person, and this style should be maintained throughout. It has no heading, no date line, and no complimentary conclusion or signature. The date and the name of the person addressed as well as the name of the writer, are given in the body of the note. The day of the week, and of the month, are written out in full. Formal invitations, whether written or engraved, may be and generally are, arranged in lines, or displayed., as it Written Invitations 165 is called. That is, the lines are not necessarily of equal length, but the margins at the right and left of each line are equal. Reference to the example given below will ex- plain what is meant by displaying the lines. Formal replies do not follow this arrangement. Written Invitations. — The following is a written invita- tion in formal style. It will be noted that the lines are displayed. Mr. and Mrs. Ellison request the pleasure of Mr. Dalray's company at diimer on Thursday, February thirteenth, at seven o'clock. 145 Highland Avenue. In accepting this invitation, the following reply would be in good form. Mr. Dalray takes pleasure in accepting Mr. and Mrs. Elli- son's kind invitation to dinner on Thursday, February thir- teenth, at seven o'clock. To Mrs. W. H. Ellison, 145 Highland Avenue. The address of the hostess may be omitted in this formal reply. Engraved Invitations. — When the invitation is engraved, it is always formal in style, and is in the second person. That is, instead of the third line in the above formal invi- tation reading Mr. Dalrays^ it would read your, Mr. and Mrs. Ellison request the pleasure of your company, etc., etc. 166 Kinds of Letters To this invitation, a correct reply may be given in the form indicated below. Mr. Dalray takes pleasure in accepting your invitation to be present at dinner on the occasion of your fifth anniversary, Wednesday, September ninth, at seven o'clock. To Mrs. W. H. Ellison, 145 Highland Avenue. In case of a letter of regret, the only change would be in the first line, which would begin thus, Mr, Dalray regrets that a previous engagement prevents his acceptance of your invitation, etc. Invitations issued by societies and classes should indi- cate to whom the reply, accepting or declining the invita- tion, is to be sent. The Junior Class takes pleasure in inviting the Senior Class and the Members of the Faculty to a reception and dance at the Auditorium of the High School, Wednesday Night, June third, from 8 to IL Address reply to Anna E. Singleton, Secretary, Lincoln High School. The following replies, one of acceptance, the other con- veying regrets, would be suitable answers to the above. The Senior Class appreciates the courtesy shown by the Junior Class, and accepts its invitation to a reception and dance for Wednesday Night, June third. George K. Pohlman, Secretary, Senior Class, L. H. S. To Miss Anna E. Singleton, Secretary. Informal Invitations 167 Miss Anna B. Singleton, Secretary, Junior Class, L. H. S. Owing to the fact that the Senior Trolley Bide is set for the date named for the reception and dance, the Senior Class is obliged to decline your kind invitation for Wednesday Night, June third. George K. Pohlman, Secretary, Senior Class, L. H. S. Informal Invitations and Replies. — Individual taste dictates the form of these notes and replies. This will be seen in the examples given below. 615 Kosedale Place Saturday Morning. Dear Charles : — If you are free to accept an invitation for this after- noon, Mrs. Wagner and I would be very glad to have you with us in a little auto party out to the Fort. We shall take luncheon with us, and I know you will enjoy the trip. Be ready at two. Very cordially yours, William S. Wagner. My dear Wagner : I. shall be more than glad to be one of your delight- ful party for this afternoon, and shall be ready at the hour named. Sincerely yours, Charles Adams Yates. Dear Will, Mighty sorry to miss the pleasant party I am sure you will have at the Fort, but as I leave for Chicago at six this evening, and have some important work in hand, I shall not be able to be with you. Very truly yours, Charles Adams Yates. 168 Kinds of Letters My dear Mrs. Sanders : How about Thursday afternoon for a little theater party in honor of your guest, Miss Smith ? If you and she are at liberty, I shall take pleasure in making the necessary arrangements, and for a luncheon at Huyler's later. Sincerely yours, Marie Bronte. 909 Fountain Place, June the sixth. My dear Miss Bronte : I thank you very much for your kind thought- fulness for my guest. Miss Smith and I are delighted to set ,aside Thursday afternoon as you suggest. Sincerely yours, Julia Sanders. My dear Miss Bronte : I regret very much that Miss Smith and I cannot be your guests for Thursday afternoon. We have already accepted an invitation for that time. Thanking you for your invitation, I am, Sincerely yours, Julia Sanders. 313 Riverview Eoad, June sixth. My dear Miss Bronte : I regret that a previous engagement on the part of Miss Smith makes it impossible for us to accept your kind in- vitation for next Thursday afternoon. Sincerely yours, Julia Sanders. 313 Riverview Road, June sixth. Review Exercises in Letter-writing 169 REVIEW EXERCISES IN LETTER-WRITING In writing the following exercises, keep in mind the instruc- tions heretofore given as to the form and details of letters. (a) Writing addresses, salutations, and the complimentary close. Give the address, salutation, and the complimentary close for a letter to each of the following. If possible, use the real name and address. 1. The mayor of your city. Your congressman. The superintendent of schools in your city, or The county superintendent of schools. Your instructor in English, giving home address. The minister of your church. 2. A captain in the U. S. army, stationed at San Francisco. A confectionery firm, composed of two women. The clerk of the county court. The judge of your circuit court, or of your probate court. (&) Write an order for one or more of the following : 1. A complete outfit and uniforms for your high school football eleven. The athletic association of your high school is to pay the bills. You are authorized as secretary to make the purchase. 2. An itemized list of supplies for your "class night" entertainment. You act as chairman of the committee on arrangements. 3. An outfit for the public playground on your high school grounds. You act as member of the committee on playground, of the high school Mothers and Teachers Clubj which includes some members of the high school. ^(c) Write the postmaster a letter of less than one hundred words, asking him to trace a package sent by parcel post on the 21st of December, indicating your own address and the name and address of the person to whom it was sent. (d) Write the agent of the railroad passing through your city, asking him to trace a carload shipment of furniture over his road. It was sent thirty days ago, and nothing has since been heard of it, although 170 Kinds of Letters inquiry has been made at his office. Give name and address of con- signee, or person to whom sent, also place from which it was sent, date of shipment, and address of shipper. Shipment consisted of household goods. Family unable to go to housekeeping, although house has been rented. Give your own name and address, and telephone number. (e) Letter of Complaint. In thfe following, be sure to write courteously. 1. Tour dass ordered a bill of chemicals for use in the laboratory. It has not arrived. Address your letter to dealer in laboratory supplies in New York or Chicago. Get exact address from teacher of physics or chemistry. 2. Tour telephone, which was to be installed at your father's residence two weeks ago, has not yet been put in. Give exact address. (/) Replies to Complaints. — Make the following as polite as possible. 1. Write the letter from the laboratory supply house in reply to your complaint. They have been waiting for part of supplies, but will forward what they have been able to secure. Trust this will be satisfactory. 2. Write reply from the telephone company. Their repre- sentative has called twice, giving dates, and found no one at home. Ask you to indicate when some one will be at residence, and at what hour of the morning or afternoon. (g) Reserving a Pullman Berth. 1. Your mother is to go from your city to New York, or to Montreal. Write to the Pullman Co., for reservation of lower berth, on train leaving at 8 p. m., to-morrow. Name railroad. 2. Wire the Pullman Co., countermanding your reservaticm. (A) Ordering from a Mail-order House. 1. Write a letter from Mrs. W. H. Jones, to some firm in Chicago, ordering five or more items in large amounts. She incloses check, made out from catalogue quotations, and gives her address in full. Review Exercises in Letter-writing 171 2. Write, cancelling one item of the order just given. 3. Write, representing the mail-order department of the above firm, acknowledging receipt of order from Mrs. W. H. Jones, and check in payment for the order. Also, acknowledge can- cellation of one item. Ask what disposition to make of the balance of the check sent, on account of cancellation. Say- that you will return this balance, unless word to the contrary is received within five days. (/) Interscholastic Letter-ivriting Contest. 1. Let some four or five high schools be asked to participate in a letter-writing contest. As class secretary, write a letter to each high school, inviting it to take part. 2. Points of the contest. Five letters in all : one, at dictor Hon, to be written exactly as given out. One, to be written by the students after taking down the substance of the letter, and then putting it in their own words. A third, to be the answer to a business letter which is to be written on the board. A fourth, a sales letter, setting forth the advantages of any article the pupil may choose. The fifth letter may be a form letter, in the follow-up style, to a prospective customer who has written to the house in answer to an advertisement. (/) Answering a Letter Written in Class. — Take any letter written by a member of your class, and answer it. {k) Confirming a Telephone Conversation. 1. You are chief clerk of a wholesale coal company. A customer has called up over the long distance telephone, giving an order for a carload of coal each week for the next two months, at rate quoted in your letter of the 1st of this month. Write a letter confirming the conversation, and promising to fill the order satisfactorily. 2. Write a letter of one hundred words ; a night letter of fifty words ; and a telegram ofteii to fifteen words, to three different addresses, confirming some such conversation as the above. Let these three messages all convey about the same meaning. 172 Kinds of Letters (/) Write an informal letter, asking a friend to join a fishing party; and telling him what to bring for lunch. (m) Acknowledge a birthday present from a relative at a distance. (n) Miscellaneous. — In the following exercises try to apply all you have learned in regard to letter-writing. 1. Your brother broke a window by accident. Write a brief note explaining the circumstances, and inclosing check for one dollar to cover cost of replacing. 2. Write a letter urging the purchase of one of the following articles : A vacuum cleaner ; a fireless cooker ; an electric iron ; a stationary gas engine for a farm. 3. Prepare ten-word telegrams for five different purposes. 4. Write forty to sixty words each covering the same circum- stances or purposes. 5. Write out an application for the installation of a telephone. 6. Clip a ^^ help-wanted^^ advertisement. Answer it, apply- ing for the position. 7. Write out a notice for your class bulletin board. 8. You need a letter of recommendation. Write the principal of your high school for it. Testing for Some One Point. — The permanent editorial committee may desire to test the English class on some one point in composition work. Let it be clearness of expres- sion, care in preparation of manuscripts, spelling, the structure of sentences, or whatever may be deemed best to consider at any special time. In such case, it is wise to put everything else aside for the time, and counseling with the instructor in English, to make due and careful inquiry of the entire class on whatever point it is thus decided to investigate. Make such an inquiry, without announcement of your purpose, and with no effort to mark it as a test. What is wanted is the judgment of the editorial committee, and based on this judgment, the decision of the instructor in Exercises Based on Pictures 173 English on the status of the class in some important phase of its work. The question is, What weakness, or what special strength, has this class with reference to spelling, sentence structure, or the preparation of manuscripts ? Gates of St. Augustine. In the oldest city of the United States. EXERCISES BASED ON PICTURES The Gates of St. Augustine. — The gateway here shown is part of the old wall that once surrounded St. Augustine, Florida. In the pic- ture, three civilizations show. The gates themselves represent the old Spanish rule in Florida. The stooping figure of the old colored man at the right is a relic of slavery days; while above the gateway the telephone and telegraph wires and the electric light tell of the present. The frown of the cannon, let us hope, is but a tradition of the past. 174 Kinds of Letters 1. Study the picture, and describe it. 2. St. Augustine.— Refresh your memory, if necessary, and tell the story of the establishment of the first permanent settle- ment in the United States at St. Augustine, Florida, in 1565. How did this Spanish settlement fare ? Write a short letter, telling a friend about it. 3. St. Augustine To-day. — Do you live in Florida, or have you visited St. Augustine ? If so, write the class a letter about it. Talk with some one who knows The Gates, and let the class hear what he says. 4. Where Have You Visited ? — Have you inspected some old Mound Builders ruins ? Have you seen the Pueblas in the West ? Have you made an automoble trip to one of the many Indian battle iields in Ohio or Indiana ? Have you gone to Big Bone Springs, the grave of the mammoths, in Boone County, Kentucky, or to Mammoth Cave ? or Manitou Springs, Colorado? Have you not visited somewhere? Write one of your classmates a letter about it. Or describe your own town, as if visiting it. 5. Santa F4, and the Missions. — Have you seen Santa Fe, founded seventeen years later than St. Augustine? Perhaps you were one of a party visiting the Missions. Write your chum a letter about it. Any experiences in New Mexico or California are worth telling. 6. The Old Stone Mill at Newport. — Longfellow celebrates this old ruin in his Skeleton in Armor. Have you se'en the tower ? If so, write your brother a letter about it. 7. Fort Pitt, Pittsburg. — It is there to be seen, if you search for it. If you have looked it up, write your history teacher a letter about it. 8. In your own neighborhood. — There is some spot in every neighborhood to which interest attaches. Tell about it. 9. An Imaginary Visit. — Look through the pictures in this book. Think out a visit to some place or building, and tell about it. 10. Where Would You Like to Visit f — Have you often thought of visiting some place ? Tell why you would like it Exercises Based on Pictures 175 Winners in Contest at the Reindeer Fair Alaska. "Winners of Contests. — In this picture a group of successful contestants all seem very proud of their new hunting- knives, which were the prizes awarded in one of the contests. They are seated on a reindeer sled. Tell the story of a contest occurring at the Igloo Fair, as if overheard from the lips of one of this group. The contests at the reindeer fairs include everything that affects in any way the reindeer industry. The packing of sleds for long journeys ; the best styles of sleds and harness ; races of all kinds ; the lassoing of the wild reindeer from the herd for the purposes of slaughtering, or of breaking the sled rein- deer. In the wild deer races, the contestants may drag their deer all the way, if they will not go otherwise, and all sorts of comical happenings occur. The Eskimos have a quick sense of humor, and appreciate any ludicrous situation. CHAPTER XIV SOCIAL MOTIVES IN EFFECTIVE ENGLISH Let such pageantry he to the people shown. — Dryden. Pageantry as a High School Project. — A high school project that is rich in motives for composition, and will quicken the pulse of the school in every department, is to be found in the presentation of a pageant.^ In undertaking this, the high school may decide on the pageant proper, — what is called the community drama; or it may confine its effort to some form of pageantry belonging peculiarly to the high school. What is Pageantry? — Pageantry is history come to life again upon its native soil. To quote the definition given by William C. Langdon in the English Journal, it is the drama of a community in which the place is the hero, and its history is the plot. Famous Pageants. — In this sense the Durbar in India, celebrating the enthroning of King George V of England as Emperor of India, was not a pageant. On the other 1 The English Syllabus, Board of Regents, New York, calls attention to "the portrayal of historic events for festival occasions" as among what it considers profitable exercises in English. The State Board of New Jersey, in The Teaching of High School English, speaking of "re- vivals of historic scenes, reproductions of celebrated events, pageants, tableau representations of crucial instances in national and literary his- tory, or contrasts in ancient and modern conditions," says, "Let the teachers cooperate with the pupils ; let the music, art, and manual train- ing departments lend a hand. ... It takes work, but it is worth it." 176 Famous Pageants 177 hand, the Pageant of the Army^ held in 1910 at Fulham Palace, London, for the benefit of the nation's invalided soldiers, and commemorating the deeds of the British army from the earliest history of Great Britain down to the present time, was a fine example of modern pageantry. The Tercentenary Pageant of Quebec, in 1908, celebrat- ing the three hundredth anniversary of the founding of that city, was a true pageant. The Oxford Historical Pageant^ held in 1907 at Oxford, England, and the Pageant of London^ in 1911, both arranged by Frank Lascelles, who had charge of the Quebec Tercentenary^ are noteworthy ex- amples of pageantry abroad. The Saint Louis Pageant arid Masque^ 1914, the Cham- plain Celebration^ on Lake Champlain, the Boston Pageant^ the Pageant of Philadelphia^ the Pageant of the MeltiTig Pot^ 1914, in New York City, given by the Drama League of America, the Pageant of Portola^ and the Golden Legend of California^ the one at San Francisco and the other at Los Angeles, are all worth studying. Percy Mackaye's Caliban^ with five thousand people in the cast, was given in the Harvard Stadium in 1917. As examples of what universities are doing in pageantry, the Joan of Arc Pageant at Cambridge, produced by Har- vard students, and the Pageant of the North WesU pre- sented by students of the North Dakota University, at Grand Forks, North Dakota, are notable. . The State Normal School at Clarion, Pa., has given a series of annual pageants, among which were In ye Olden Times^ portraying the Colonial era ; a Plantation Holiday^ showing life in Dixie ; A Roman Holiday^ and Ivanhoe^ based on Sir Walter Scott's novel of that name, and intro- ducing terds and ladies, yeomen and villagers, Knight- Templars, and Robin Hood and his Merry Men. Look up also the Lexington^ Massachusetts^ Pageant^ given in 1915. 178 Pageantry Different from all so far named was the Pageant of the Odyssey^ given in 1913, at Millbury, Massachusetts. In the way of musical pageants may be named the Pageant of Hiawatha^ at Trenton, New Jersey, and the MacDowell Pageant^ at Peterborough, New Hampshire. School Pageants. — An excellent example of a public school pageant by a small school in a rural community is afforded by the Historical Pageant at New Harmony, Indiana, 1914. Charity Dye, writer of The Booh of the Pageant of New Harmony^ gives many excellent sugges- tions. She says that the project gave every child some active part in preparing the great historical event of the founding of the town. Testimony to the same effect is given by E. H. K. McComb, head of the English department of the Manual Training High School, Indianapolis, Indiana, reported in The English Journal^ September, 1914. He states that a Pageant of Chivalry quickened the life of the school and drew all departments closer together, while provid- ing a world of material in English composition. Pageantry Material. — There is no lack of pageantry material. The bulletins and supplements of the Ameri- can Pageant Association are well prepared, and are on file in many public libraries. It would not be difficult to obtain them for your school library, or for your public library. These bulletins give a list of all important pag- eants so far held abroad or in America, and of those in preparation, so far as announced. Refer also to the Drama League Monthly. It would be well to prepare a list for the use of your high school and community, based on all obtainable in- formation. There are a number of magazine articles on pageantry, readily listed by Poole's Index and by the Organizing for the Pageant 179 Header's Guide, and similar books. The files of the English Journal^ the Outlook, and the Survey contain re- ports and papers on pageantry. What is termed the Book of the Pageant, issued by the best pageants, will be found profitable. Perhaps the most thorough of these is The Book of the Army Pageant, by F. R. Benson and A. T. Craig. It describes in sugges- tive and accurate detail everything relating to this pageant. Its costume studies are fine. The Handbook of American Pageantry, profusely illustrated, will afford valuable assistance. It is written by Ralph Davol. Pageants and Pageantry, by E. W. Bates, is also valuable. The Book of the Pageant and Masque of Saint Louis, by T. W. Stevens and Percy Mackaye, the Book of the Pag- eant of New Harmony, by Charity Dye, and the Book of the Pageant of North Dakota are excellent. Organizing for the Pageant. — To make the project a success, there should be appointed a committee of five, to be known as the pageant committee. This committee should combine with patience, enthusiasm, courage, and common sense, a wide vision, strong initiative, some dra- matic ability, and the best executive talent the high school affords. The committee of the pageant should acquaint itself with the literature of the pageant. It will be the business of the English department to furnish the bulletins and cir- culars of the American Pageant Association, and several f. the best books on pageantry. Working in conjunction with the English department, the pageant committee should decide upon the pageant best suited to local conditions. From the first step to the last, this committee must furnish force and direction to the project. 180 Pageantry Master and Manager. — After deciding what pageant to give, and the approximate date of its presentation, the first important duty of the pageant committee is the choice of the pageant master. This selection should not be hastily made, the pageant master being the chief executive of the project. In the smaller schools, the pageant master may perform the duties of coach, but in almost any school it may be found advisable to keep these two offices separate. It will frequently happen that one of the faculty of the high school will make the best possible coach. Altogether distinct from the work of the pageant master and the coach is that of the business manager. He should be from the ranks of the high school, and should command the respect and confidence of the student body. The writer of the book of the pageant should be either one of the faculty, or one of the ablest students in the English department. The Committees. — There should be at least five com- mittees of not less than three each, the finance, editorial, historical, publicity/, and cast committees. In addition to the three members above suggested, each committee should have as an ex officio member one of the pageant committee. The finance committee has two funds to provide for. It must arrange for a guarantee fund, with which to back the entire project. Then it has to provide for the cash fund, out of which are to be paid the expenses of the production. It may realize much from the sale of tickets, boxes, adver. tising space on the official program, and the sale of the book of the pageant. The edito7'ial committee is responsible, in the first place, for good and effective English. It should see that every- thing that goes out from any department of the pageant organization meets the requirements of what is termed The Committees 181 hunness English. For instance, the letters from the finance committee with regard to the guarantee fund should, in current phrase, be letters that pull. In the next place, this committee should provide for the up-to-date reproduction of whatever letters, circulars, and bulletins may be thought necessary. It may make use of the typewriter, the hectograph, the mimeograph, and the multigraph, or other duplicating machines. If the school possesses a printing department, it should materially assist this committee. The historical committee is to look up and send out to the respective committees, officials, and performers, all necessary information. It is also to see that historical accuracy is preserved all the way through. It should prepare and submit to the editorial committee all current magazine literature bearing on the subject ; the dates and nature of the most important pageants that have been pre- sented, as well as those in preparation. With the director of art, the costumer, and the pageant master, the historical committee should see to it that the pageant is true to life, and to the period or periods repre- sented. The work of the historical committee is to make sure that nothing incongruous creeps into the presentation at any point. The publicity/ committee has charge of the advertising of the project. In the preparation of all advertising matter of whatever nature, the editorial committee should be freely consulted. This publicity committee has charge of the distribution of the advertising matter, and in this work it should have the assistance of the business manager. If a poster is to be used, this committee should see to its preparation and distribution. The publicity committee should see that all the adver- tising forces of the high school are put to work, and it 182 Pageantry should cooperate with the editorial committee in arousing interest. To this end, the best speakers in the high school should be enlisted. The school paper will prove a valu- able auxiliary, and its editorial force should be kept busy. The publicity committee should do all in its power to interest the local press, which will be quick to respond, if the project is properly presented. The cast committee has to do with the selection of the performers, working in conjunction with the ditferent directors. Other Assistants. — The duties of the art director^ the director of music^ the drill master^ the dance director^ the property man^ and the leaders of the episodes or move- ments constituting the pageant, are indicated by their titles. The respective heads of the manual training and domestic science departments will afford valuable assistance to the pageant master, the designer of costumes, and the prop- erty man. The commercial department can aid in the reproduction of the necessary letters, bulletins, and circulars sent out by the various committees. The English Department. — Most of the work in pre- paring for the pageant will fall upon the English depart- ment. Hundreds of actual business letters will pass and repass in organizing the project, thus affording valuable exercise for the English class. Visit from a Business Man. — A visit from some business man noted for his ability in business correspondence would prove of lasting benefit. Let the class be given over to him for his criticism and advice. Prepare a topical outline which shall include the salient points on pageantry. Exercises Based on Pictures 183 The Great Conde at the Court of Louis XIV. Gerome. EXERCISES BASED ON PICTURES. The Great Cond^ at the Court of Louis XIV. — Get into the spirit of the scene. It is a painting by Gerome, a famous French artist. Tell the story of the picture. A great monarch of France stands at the head of the stair- way in the palace of Versailles to receive his great general after a famous victory. What a fine piece of pageantry is shown in the captured banners that line the staircase on either side ! This is in 1674. The Great Conde ascends the stairs alone, as if his arm had won all these trophies, as in a sense it had. Louis XIV. This is that French king who said, " I am the State ! " He is the typical " divine right " king. Study his life, and that of Charles I of England, who held to the same theory, that of the right of kings to rule as they please. Con- trast that phrase uttered by Abraham Lincoln, " the govern- ment of the people, by the people, and for the people." Prepare a talk on this subject, giving it whatever title you choose. 184 Pageantry EXERCISES m PAGEANTRY (a) Preliminary Work. — The scenario of a pageant is a sketch of the plot or main incidents to be brought out in the pageant. 1. Write in from four hundred to seven hundred -words, the scenario of an episode or movement of a pageant based on one of the following stories suited to pageantry : Aladdin's Lamp, Ali Baba, The Sleeping Beauty, Waverley, Robin Hood, Cinderella, The Pied Piper, Treasure Island, Robinson Crusoe. 2. Select from the same list. Write the scenario entire, in three or four movements or episodes, using from twelve hun- dred, to twenty-five hundred words. (b) Letters. — In preparing the following letters, bear in mind the principles learned in the chapters on Letter-writing. 1. Write letters to the members of the committee of the pageant, announcing their appointment, and requesting them to serve. 2. Compose letters from the pageant committee to the members of the important committees, announcing their ap- pointment, and outlining their respective duties. Include a list of the members of that committee on which the person addressed is expected to serve. 3. Send letters from the chairmen of the various com- mittees to the officials of the pageant, announcing their respec- tive appointments, and detailing the duties devolving upon them. 4. Write letters from the cast committee to each performer, indicating what is expected of each performer, his costume, and such other information as may be necessary. 5. Prepare first draft of letters from the finance com- mittee to those to whom appeal is to be made for the guaran- tee fund. Prepare also acknowledgments for satisfactory response, and so on. (c) Lists. — In making these lists, see that they are neatly arranged and follow either logical or alphabetical order. Exercises in Pageantry 185 1. Prepare a reference list in bulletin form of the bulletins of the American Pageant Association, so far issued, indicating the nature of each bulletin. This description should be brief but comprehensive. 2. Some of the bulletins above referred to, may be more fully summarized, or if necessary, reproduced in full, for the use of committees. 3. Make a list of books treating of the pageant, or related subjects. Find these in your public library, and other libraries to which the high school has access. 4. Compile a list of current magazine articles bearing on pageantry. This list should clearly indicate the following items with regard to each article, (a) Title of the magazine, written in full ; (6) the number of the volume and page ; (c) the title of the article referred to, in full ; (d) the name of the writer ; (e) the name of the pageant referred to. 5. Get a list of "The Book of the Pageant" for the more important pageants. 6. Prepare a list of the leading educational publications dealing with the pageant. Important articles should be noted. 7. Make a list of important pageants, giving the necessary information in each case. (d) Bulletins. — Five or more students are to be put to work to prepare each bulletin. Each is to write the bulletin as he thinks it should appear. It will then be put into final shape in class. Bulletin No. 1. WJiat is Pageantry ? — This should be in from five hundred to one thousand words. The students should be familiar with the bulletin of this title issued by the American Pageant Asso- ciation. Your bulletin, however, should be original in form, at least. Bulletin No. 2. WTio's Who in Pageantry f — This is to be a list of pageant masters, and the pageants they have presented. 186 Pageantry BuUetin No. 3. A Bibliography of Pageantry. — This should include impor- tant magazine literature on the subject. BuUetin No. 4. Noted Pageants, Past and to Come. — Enough should be said to give an adequate idea of what each pageant attempted. Bulletin No. 6. The Book of the Pageant. — An outline of some excellent " book," showing method of treatment. Bulletin No. 6. Our Own Pageant. — A brief statement of what is proposed. It is to be complete enough to furnish an intelligible descrip- tion of the entire project. Bulletin No. 7. Who^s Who in Our Pageant ? — This should indicate the en- tire organization of the projected pageant, and should be complete. (e) Suggested Subjects for High School Pageantry. — Manifestly, if interest is aroused, and a pageant is to be undertaken, local pride and patriotism will suggest subjects. It may not be inadvisable, however, to suggest the following subjects for high school pageantry. 1. A Pageant of the State, or of the City. 2. The Return of Lafayette. 3. Folk Lore Stories, such as Cinderella, Puss in Boots, etc. 4. A Pageant of America. 5. A Pageant of Early Exploration and Discovery. 6. A Pageant of Old Colo- nial Days. 7. The Pageant of the Pilgrims. 8. Joan of Arc Pageant. 9. A Pageant of the Odyssey. 10. An Eliza- bethan Pageant. 11. A Pageant of the Old Testament. 12. A Pageant of the Melting Pot. 13. A Pageant of Old Glory. 14. A Pageant of the Arabian Nights. 15. The Pageant of Lorna Doone. 16. A Robert Louis Stevenson Making-up a Newspaper 187 Pageant. 17. A Charles Dickens Pageant. 18. A Shake- speare Pageant. 19. A Pageant of the Round Table. 20. A Pageant of Chivalry. 21. A Pageant of the North West. 22. A Pageant of the North American Indian. 23. A Pageant of the Army, or of the Navy. 24. Pioneer Days. 25. Away Down South in Dixie. 26. Ivanhoe. 27. Hiawatha. (/) A Contest in Making-up a Newspaper. — Let a number of first- class newspapers be provided, say a week's issue of some one paper, or copies of a dozen or so papers from different cities. Let the Eng- lish class be divided into three sections. These sections are to com- pete with each other as to the make-up of a newspaper. Each member of each section may prepare a specimen newspaper, the best of these to be entered in the contest ; or the division may together produce a specimen newspaper, to be entered in the contest. Each section is to decide for itself how it shall prepare for the contest. 1. Let there be a round table conference of the entire class as to what items enter into the make-up of a good newspaper. The first page, made up of telegraph or wireless messages, from near and far. The general telegraph news. The editorials. The advertisements. The local news. Let examples of each of these items be shown, and their good points demonstrated. Study the headlines. Look into the press work, and the gen- eral appearance of the paper. What departments are there in a good newspaper ? What kinds of employment offers, so far as the mechanical part of the paper is concerned? What managers are there, and what are their duties ? What editors are there, and what are their duties ? What news writers and reporters are there, and how are they trained for their work ? How about the distribution of the paper, by mail, by newsboys and news dealers, and by carriers ? 2. A Loose-leaf Newspaper. — Follow the example of the makers of newspapers, and use scissors and paste. Clip what strikes you from the newspapers, and uae it. Use loose-leaf manuscript paper, and prepare the following parts of a news- paper : 3. Parts of the Newspaper. — (a) Prepare a first page^ made 188 Pageantry up of one or two good "stories." You may clip a cable account of some important happening, and an additional account, telegraphed from outside somewhere. Study head' lining, and prepare suitable headlines, arranged in the most effective way. (6) Prepare a second page, made up of general news. This may include from two to four items, and from a half-dozen to a dozen briefer news items, of not more than one hundred words, (c) Prepare a page of advertising matter, two- thirds of display matter, and one-third of classified advertis- ing. You may include here the best cartoon you can clip anyivhere. (d) Prepare a local page. As this is not designed as a school paper, you will omit any jokes, or hits at members of the class. What is wanted is such items as should make up the local page of a good newspaper. As all items in this com- plete issue are to be clipped from representative newspapers and pasted in place on the pages of your specimen newspaper, the importance of a good selection is evident. It will, of course, be impossible under the terms of this con- test, to have your specimen newspaper look altogether like a newspaper as actually printed. You may use anywhere from six to ten pages of your loose-leaf manuscript paper for a page of your specimen paper. If you desire to make this larger, it will be proper to agree upon the maximum and minimum limit. 4. Judging the Specimen Newspaper's. ^It would be wise to secure three newspaper men to act as judges. Mark on a scale of ten for each page, and ten for general excellence, aside from other considerations. The judges will mark from the news- paper point of view, putting all other considerations aside. At the close of the contest, an address on the make-vp of a newspaper by some competent speaker, for instance, one of the judges, will be timely, and will prove interesting. Let the members of the English class take notes, and let a copy of the best set of notes thus taken be mailed to the speaker by the instructor in English. 5. Visit to a Newspaper Office. — If it can be arranged, it Exercises in Pageantry 189 may be well to visit a good newspaper office. Let the visit be by appointment. Be on hand promptly, and when the inter- view is over, and the proper courtesies have been extended for the privilege of seeing Effective English at work, depart promptly. Carry away with you a definite idea of the aim, methods, and accomplishments of a modern newspaper. 6. A High School Paper} — Many high schools conduct a high school paper. If your school does not have this feature, let the permanent editorial committee take steps to organize and put into successful operation a high school paper. To begin with, this organization should include the selection by election or appointment of at least an editor and a business manager. These, with the editorial committee, should get in touch with several schools of hig*h rank issuing school papers, and should ask for suggestions. Let enthusiasm and diligence characterize this project from the start. 7. An Editorial on Pageantry. — In an editorial for your school paper, urge the presentation of some striking piece of pageantry. Do your best to interest your class in the project. Embody in this article the reasons that appeal to you for giving a pageant. 8. The Drama Club. — If you think it will further the proj- ect, organize a drama club in your high school with a view to preparing for a pageant. 9. Address on Pageantry. — Let some one who has taken part in a pageant give an address showing how to make a success of pageantry. 1 School Journalism. — The school paper may be made a vital force in English work, and so deserves the support of the teacher of composition. If well conducted, its influence on the editors and on the school may be very helpful in maintaining worthy standards of expression. — From the English Syllabus, Board of Regents, New York. This is also urged in the Beport of the National Joint Committee on the Beorganization of High School English, which says that "the con- ducting of a school paper and the organization of literary and dramatic clubs should be encouraged and directed because of the opportunity they afford for free play of the mind and practice in expression.'* 190 Pageantry Saluting the Flag. EXERCISES BASED ON PICTURES. Saluting the Flag 1 — • Here is shown a group out of Kew York's 800,000 school children, saluting the American Flag. A proper study of this picture may indicate something of "what America means. Give it your own interpretation. 1. Describe the scene, and what it typifies. 2. Visit of Joffre and Balfour. — When these representatives of France and England visited the United States in 1917, one of the characteristic parades in their honor was that of the public school children, a most inspiring sight. Describe some such event. 3. The Flag Goes By ! — Let a good reader recite or read H. H. Bennett's- spirited poem, " The Flag Goes By I " 4. The American Flag. — Read or recite Joseph Rodman Drake's poem beginning, "When Freedom from her mountain height," and unfurl the flag in the classroom. Salute the flag. 5. Old Glory. — Read James Whitcomb Riley's patriotic poem, «« The Name of Old Glory." PART THREE THE FOUR FORMS OF EFFECTIVE ENGLISH CHAPTER XV FORMS OF DISCOURSE He who classifies clears the way for future work. — Arlo Bates. Four Forms of Speech. — Listen to a group of students in interested conversation about a high school reception that took place last night. One of the boys was unable to be present, and his friend is telling him what happened. A girl is trying to make her chum see something as she saw it^ something which her chum missed seeing. A second girl, with several schoolmates clustered about her, is "doing up" the tresses of the girl in front of her, and explaining how a certain girl wore her hair. Over in a corner of the room two boys are trying to convince a third of the importance of what they urge upon him. The first boy is making use of narration. The first girl is employing description. The second girl is giving an exposition^ while the two boys in the corner are using argument. Almost everything that is said or written comes under one of these four ways of saying things. Definitions. — The four forms of discourse are simply defined as follows. Narration is the telling of a story, or the relating of the particulars of an event. 191 192 Forms of Discourse Description is an effort to convey a picture in words. Exposition is an explanation of something, generally to one who does not understand it. Argument is an effort to prove or disprove the truth of an assertion to one who is disposed to doubt, or whose faith needs to be strengthened. Its aim is to produce conviction. It is sometimes difficult to distinguish between narra- tion and description, since the best narrative abounds in bits of description, or may itself become descriptive nar- rative. The difference lies in the purpose which the writer has in mind, whether to tell a story or to paint a picture. The Dome of St. Peter's at Rome. Exercises Based on Pictures 193 EXERCISES BASED ON PICTURES Dome of St. Peter's at Rome. — Give your impressions of this dome, as if your eye had caught sight of it through the trees, as shown in the picture. St. Peter's is called the noblest temple of Christianity, and is the largest Christian place of worship. Its dome, designed by Michelangelo, rises nobly to the sky, in its outlines one of the finest conceptions of modern times. It is well shown in the picture. To see the contrast in different styles of architecture, refer to the following pictures in this book : Bedouins of the Desert, page 290, where are shown Mohammedan minarets ; Church of St. Antony at Padua, page 275, in the Byzantine style ; the Norman Stairway, page 138, in the Norman style. If this study interests you, ask your librarian for some good elementary book on architecture, and study it in order to prepare a paper on Archi- tecture. You can make it interesting. EXAMPLES OF THE FOUR FORMS OF DISCOURSE Narration. — In the following narrative, notice in what a straightforward way the story is told. It tells what happened and concerns itself with nothing else. Wherefore at last, lighting under a little shelter, they sat down there till the daybreak; but being weary, they fell asleep. Now there was not far from the place where they lay, a castle called Doubting Castle, the owner whereof was Giant Despair, and it was in his grounds they were now sleep- ing. Wherefore he, getting up in the morning early, and walking up and down in his fields, caught Christian and Hope- ful asleep in his grounds. Then with a grim and surly voice he bid them awake, and asked them whence they were? and what they did in his grounds ? They told him they were Pilgrims, and that they had lost their way. Then said the Giant, You have this nigh': trespassed on me, by trampling in and lying on my 194 Forms of Discourse grounds, and therefore you must go along with me. So they were forced to go, because he was stronger than they. They also had but little to say, for they knew themselves in a fault. — From The Pilgrim'' s Progress^ by John Bunyan. Description. — Below is an example of pure description. Stevenson has drawn a picture of Ben Gann, who was marooned on a lonely island for three years. Jim Haw- kins is telling how Gunn looked when he came upon him unexpectedly. I could now see that he was a white man like myself, and that his features were even pleasing. His skin, wherever it was exposed, was burned by the sun ; even his lips were black, and his fair eyes looked quite startling in so dark a face. Of all the beggar-men that I had seen or fancied, he was the chief for raggedness. He was clothed with tatters of old ship's canvas and old sea-cloth ; and his extraordinary patchwork was all held together by a system of the most various and in- congruous fastenings, brass buttons, bits of stick, and loops of tarry gaskin. About his waist he wore an old brass-buckled leather belt, which was the one thing solid in his whole ac- coutrement. — From Treasure Island^ by E. L. Stevenson. Exposition. — The following is a brief exposition or ex- planation of the relation of the queen bee to the bees in the swarm. The notion has always very generally prevailed that the queen of the bees is an absolute ruler, and issues her royal orders to willing subjects. But the fact is a swarm of bees is an absolute democracy, and kings and despots can find no war- rant in their example. The power and authority are entirely invested in the great mass, the workers. They furnish all the brains and foresight of the colony, and administer its affairs. Their word is law, and both king and queen must obey. They Argument 195 regulate tlie swarming, and give the signal for the swarm to issue from the hive ; they select and make ready the tree in the woods and conduct the queen to it. — From Birds and Bees, by John Burroughs. Argument. — In Huxley's argument given below, he names three reasons for thinking that the chalk cliffs of England were once at the bottom of the sea. When we consider (1) that the remains of more than three thousand distinct species of aquatic animals have been discov- ered among the fossils of the chalk ; (2) that the great majority of them are of such forms as are now met with only in the sea ; and (3) that there is no reason to believe that any one of them inhabited fresh water, — the evidence that the chalk represents an ancient sea-bottom acquires great force. — From Address on a Piece of Chalk, by Thomas Huxley. Prepare an outline covering the points brought out in this chapter. EXERCISES IN THE FOUR FORMS OF EFFECTIVE ENGLISH (a) Bring to class an example chosen by yourself, illustrating each of the four forms of effective English, narration, description, exposition and argument, choosing from any of these sources : 1. From the Bible ; 2. From English literature, as studied so far in the high school ; 3. From the daily newspapers ; 4. From the current magazines. (b) Friendly Letters. — Friendly letters may contain description and narration, for the sake of interest, while for the sake of clearness they may include exposition. Many such letters also admit of argu- ment. Write the three letters following. 1. Letter Containing Description and Narration. — Prepare a letter to a friend who is a member of a high school in another 196 Forms of Discourse city, where it happens that they have no basket ball te&,m, and do not care for the game. Describe an interesting game played on your floor. 2. Letter Containing Exposition. — Write a second letter in answer to one from your friend, asking how to play basket ball. Do this in the form of an exposition^ using the following outline. Outline for Exposition. Basket Ball I. General definition of basket ball. II. Equipment. a. The field or floor. 1. Shape. 2. Dimensions. 3. Divisions. h. The baskets. 1. Number. 2. Size. 8. Position. C. The ball. 1. Size. 2. Shape. 3. MateriaL III. Players. a. Number. h. Position, c. Duties. IV. Team work. a. Importance. h. How attained. 3. Letter Containing Argument. — Write a letter urging your friend to organize a basket ball team. Give the argu- ments for it. (c) A Contest. — Choose five on a side. Select a judge. The two sides are to give, turn about, as called upon, a narrative, a bit of description, an exposition, or an argument, original or selected. The judge will mark each contestant, keep score, and announce the result. Exercises Based on Pictures 197 Pfiotograph bu Front C. Sage. Sky Scraping. With the crossbar set at 1 1 feet 9 inches. EXERCISES BASED ON PICTURES Sky Scraping. — There is something of the spectacular in the pole vault. This performer is coming over in fine style, with the crossbar set at 11 feet 9 inches. It would be worth going miles to see. 1 . Description of a Contest, — Write a description of such an event, with three entrants representing three high schools, yours among the number. 2. Points in Vaulting. — If you are unable to answer from your own information, read up on this subject in some magazine devoted to athletics, and prepare a paper on the topic. Or go to a gymnasium, and interview some performer about it. Make it interesting. CHAPTER XVI EFFECTIVE NARRATION Othello. I will a round unvarnished tale deliver. — Shakespeare, Narrative. — Narrative makes up the great body of what we hear or read. Perhaps four fifths of all that is written nowadays is for the newspapers, and much the greater part of newspaper work is narrative. Narrative includes also short stories, biographies, histories, novels, and plays. Most magazine articles, too, are narrative. Narration deals with action, generally in a succession of happenings which are bound together either by time order^ in short and simple stories, or by the natural sequence of cause and effect^ in larger and complex stories. And what is called the plot of the story has much to do with holding it together. The Plot. — ^\iQplot is the connected plan or scheme of a story. It means that the writer or story-teller has thought out the whole story, step by step, until he knows just what he intends to tell, and just what he proposes to accomplish by the telling. This plan or plot underlies all he tells, and is a strong controlling force at every point in the narrative. The Point of View. — The point of view determines in what manner the story is to be told. There is great variety in the point of view, but it will be well for the student, until he has acquired considerable facility as a story-teller, to confine himself to one of two methods. He 198 Essential Steps in Narration 199 may tell the story in the first person^ as though he were the hero of the tale, or he may tell it in the third person^ as one knowing all the facts in the case. One who writes in the first person has the advantage of a certain naturalness which gives great charm and fresh- ness, and makes him more at home in handling his story. However, he only knows what is going on near him, and must rely upon others to tell him what is done elsewhere. By writing in the third person, the narrator can lay claim to what might be termed the author^s omniscience. He not only knows what his hero does, but is able to ana- lyze the purpose not yet ripened in the brain of his char- acters. Nothing is hidden from him, and all the elements of dramatic interest are at his command. Essential Steps in Narration. — Suppose that the writer has decided upon the plot of his story, and has thoroughly matured it. His story has been well conceived, and he is now ready to tell it. He will find the following steps essential in the proper and effective narration of it. 1. He must give the setting of his stoi-y ; that is, he must introduce the essential characters and outline the time, place, and circumstances. The more rapidly this is done, the better. 2. He must grip the interest at the earliest possible moment. 3. He must keep up the .suspense. 4. He must bring about a climax, towards which everything must move from the very first. 5. He must bring his story to a conclusion as soon as possible after his climax has been reached. The Introduction. — The introduction should be brief and to the point. One caution is worth noting, applicable with more force to the speaker than to the writer, but true everywhere. Do not say anything before you begin. Know what you are going to say, and say it, and you will 200 Effective Narration not fail to command attention. Our modern short-story writers have learned this art, and their example is well worth following. Opening the story. — The story may open in three ways, or in some combination of the three. It may open by description^ as in the Tale of Two Cities ; or by what may be termed plot opening^ where the story begins at once, as in John Halifax^ Gentleman; or by characterization^ as in most stories by Rudyard Kipling, for instance, his Bread upon the Waters. The Intensive Moment. — There comes a time in every well-written story when interest perceptibly deepens and the story seems to take a closer grip upon the reader. This is called the intensive moment^ and should occur at the earliest opportunity, following the introduction. The Suspense. — The interest once secured, it must be the writer's endeavor to maintain the suspense until the climax is reached. An English novelist once laughingly said that the rule for making a successful novel could be expressed in a sentence. " Make 'em laugh ; make 'em cry; make 'em wait." It will test the skill of the student to do this in his own work. The Climax. — The natural desire of all who see a play, or read a good novel, or hear a story, is to see how it turns out. There is a point where the interest culminates, or comes to a climax. In short stories the narrative hurries to this climax, when one side or the other wins. The Conclusion. — - The conclusion should not be delayed after the climax has been reached. The less said after that, the better, A paragraph too much will spoil the best story ever told. Let your story tell itself. This is the real secret of successful narrative. Think over it, until it has complete right of way in your own mind and heart, and then when Example of Narration 201 opportunity comes, let it tell itself unhindered and un- restrained, 'and you will have found the secret of the successful story-teller. The sacred Scriptures abound in fine narrative. The story of Ruth^ remarkable for its simplicity and straight- forwardness, is one of the best in all literature. For dramatic narrative, study the BqoTc of Esther, For an example of powerful narrative, refer to the account of the creation in the first chapter of Grenesis, including also the first three verses of the second chapter. There is prob- ably nothing anywhere quite equal to it in power and simplicity. Prepare a topical outline that shall include all the im- portant points that have been brought out in this chapter. EXAMPLE OF NARRATION The example of narration given below is by Henry Watterson, describing John Paul Jones's battle off Flam- boro Head. The following headings will give the story in outline. The Battle off Flamboro Head Paragraph I. 1. The date, and where it was fought. 2. The two ships and their armament contrasted. 3. How the two ships were manned. 4. The traitor Landais. 5. The crucial point. Paragraph II. 6. The explosion of the gun-room battery : " I have only just begun to fight ! " " This duel between the Bonhomme Richard and the Serapis was fought the evening of Thursday, September 23, 1779, between the hours of 7 : 15 and 11 : 30 o'clock, off Flamboro Head, a promontory which juts out from the English coast into the North Sea very nearly opposite the Texel, an island port of the Netherlands. The Serapis was the finest of Eng- 202 Effective Narration lish frigates, and but newly off the stocks. The Richard was an old East India tub, done over. The Serapis carried guns that threw three hundred and fifteen pounds of metal to the broadside. The Bichard's guns would not throw more than two hundred and fifty-eight. The Serapis was manned by three hundred and seventeen of the best men in the British naval service, commanded by one of the bravest and most skillful English naval ofB.fcers, Captain, later Sir Eichard Pear- son. The Richard was manned by a mixed crew of Frenchmen, Americans, and other foreigners picked up at random, embrac- ing, all told, three hundred and ten fighting men. In the midst of the action Jones had to displace his master gunner on account of incapacity, if not of insubordination. Twice during the action the Richard was raked by her consort, the Alliance, commanded by the traitor Landais, and was other- wise so riddled as to become nearly unmanageable. After all was over she sank to the bottom. At no time was she a match for the Serapis. The crucial point was that Jones suc- ceeded in locking his wretched hulk with the English frigate hard and fast, and in keeping her so, and then, reducing the battle to a man-to-man affair, in ending with the complete ascendency of his motley tatterdemalions, inspired by his dauntless spirit and deployed by his incomparable skill. At 10 o'clock, after nearly three hours of fighting, Jones's gun-room battery exploded. His ship disabled and afire, his flag almost shot from its ensign gaff and trailing in the water astern, amid a momentary lull in the action the American was hailed by the Englishman and asked if he had struck his colors. " No ! " cried Jones, " I have only just begun to fight." — John Paul Jones, An Address by Henry Watterson at the United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, March 7, 1902. EXERCISES IN NARRATION (a) Tell in three hundred words the story of John Paul Jones and the battle off Flamboro Head. (b) Refer to The Arabian Nights and tell the story of Ali Baha. and, the Forty Thieves. Exercises in Narration 203 (c) Point of View. — Relate the following in the Jirst person, and then in the third person. 1. Trace the course of a drop of water from the time it is drawn up from the ocean into the clouds and carried across the country, until it falls as rain or snow. This may be written in plain narration, or as a story. Use three hundred words. 2. Tell in your own way a story that has been handed down in your family and told you by your grandfather or grandmother, or repeated by some other member of the family, as having been so told. Use three hundred words. (d) Plot. — Make a careful, interesting outline of the following plots. 1. Write the plot or outline of that part of Silas Mamer, where his gold is stolen, and Silas discovers his loss. 2. Eead Poe's story of The Purloined Letter, and write the plot of that story. 3. Eead that part of Treasure Island telling how the buc- caneers dig where the treasure had been buried, and find that some one has been there before them. Make a plot of the story. 4. Kead As Ton Like It, and prepare a plot of that part of it which describes the wrestling match. 5. Read the Tale of Two Cities, and write the plot of that part of the story where Sidney Carton gives up his life to save the life of his rival in love. Make the story include the death of Sidney Carton. (c) Climax. — In the following, pay special attention to the climax. 1. Report or invent a story in three hundred words, that illustrates some lesson in manly or womanly courtesy. 2. If you have ever had a narrow escape, tell about it in seventy-five words. Do not use the word / more than two or three times. (/) Suspense. — In writing the following, pay special attention to keepinpuup the suspense. 204 Effective Narration 1. Detail the laughable experiences of two brothers, or a brother and a sister, left alone in an old farmhouse during a heavy snowstorm, and their efforts to provide supper for a party of young friends who are expected to arrive in a sleigh at nightfall. 2. Tell from memory in the reporter's style, as if it had happened recently, the story of "Horatius at the Bridge," or of "The Pied Piper of Hamelin," using two hun- dred words. {g) Conclusion. — Make a good story of each of the following. Pay special attention to effective conclusions. 1. Tell the story of a boy who loses his way in the woods just before nightfall. Think out some pleasant and probable solution of his difficulty, and write it in three hundred words. 2. Eead Tommy and Grizel, — Do you like the ending? If not, think out a better way, and outline it in five hundred words. Qi) Story -telling. — 1. Consult the Odyssey, book xii, lines 1 to 240, Bryant's translation, and tell in plain and easy-flowing narrative how Circe warns Ulysses of his danger and that of his crew, in pass- ing the island of the Sirens. Tell how he followed her instructions to the letter, and escaped. Try to use the instructions so far given as to effective story-telling. 2. Read The Fall of the Nibelungs, Lettsom*s translation, 15th Adventure. Or read the account given by Wagner, or that of the Norroena Romances and Epics. Tell the story with special thought for the principles of narration given in this chapter. This tells how Siegfried was unintentionally betrayed. Kriemhild tells her uncle, Hagan, where the linden leaf fell when Siegfried bathed in the dragon's blood, so that that one spot, between his shoulders, was vulnerable. At Hagan's suggestion, she sews a crosslet upon his vesture to mark the spot. (0 Applying the Principles of Effective Story-telling. Exercises in Narration 205 1. Eead Hamlet, and tell the story of the appearance of Hamlet's father to the young Prince of Denmark. 2. Read IvanJioe, and tell the story of the archery contest in which Locksley displays his skill with the bow. 3. Eead JSilas Marner, and tell the story of Silas finding little Eppie. 4. Referring to Treasure Island, sift out the story of Long John Silver, and tell it. 5. Look up Tarn O'Shanter, and give the story briefly, omitting no important detail. 6. Refer to Eobinson Crusoe, and tell briefly the story of Crusoe finding the footprints in the sand. (/) Special Test in Narration. Priam Visit. i' -I u i>9 ■■■■■■( -^^^^^M Bl ■■■II >^^^^^| hflh. HH ■ K »^.^*^ Michigan Avenue and Grant Park, Chicago. EXERCISES BASED ON PICTURES Michigan Avenue and Grant Park, Chicago. — This is a scene characteristic of America. The resistless, driving energy, the numerous automobiles, the majestic buildings, represent mighty wealth and power. To the right, though not showing in this picture, are Lake Michigan and Chicago's famous lake front. TJie Skyscraper District. — You may wish to recognize some of these buildings. First is the Blackstone Hotel, the large dark, building being the International Harvester Building. Then comes the Congress Hotel, the Auditorium Hotel, the Fine Arts Building. The tall black building far to the rear is the McCormick Building. The white building beyond is the Eailway Exchange, and alongside is the People's Gas Building. The tower is on the Montgomery Ward mail-order house. The last building showing, which looks so low compared to the others, is the Art Institute, holding a great art collection. If you live in Chicago, or visit Chicago, view this scene and describe it orally, or in writing. , Unity in the Sentence. — Since a sentence is defined as the expression of a single thought, that one thought or Use of Connectives 317 idea should have the right of way. Test your sentences for unity, and do not rest satisfied until you have made them meet the tests that are indicated below. Four Tests for Unity in Sentences. — 1. Have you changed the scene in a sentence ? That is, did you begin by consider- ing one thing, and end by considering another ? If so, rewrite the sentence. 2. Have you crowded things into one sentence that have so little connection that they could have been divided into two or three sentences? If so, put your thought into as many sentences as may be necessary. 3. Have you used a parenthesis in a sentence ? If so, think your sentence over. Decide whether the parenthetical thought can be dispensed with. If you feel that it is essential, make another sentence of it. 4. Have you added a word or phrase to your sentence, after you had completed the thought ? If so, change it. In writ- ing sentences, learn to quit when you are through. Use of Connectives. — Pay special attention to the use of connectives. Words like and^ hut^ which^ whose, that, where, while, since, therefore, when, then, etc., which are either connective or transitional, are frequently the most important words in the sentence. They are, as has been said, "the joints and hinges on w^hich all sentences turn." Uses of the Word "And." — As illustrations of how the use of the word and defies rules, and requires a power of discrimination which can come only from careful practice, note the following sentences: 1. By the unskillful use of and, the members of a sentence are piled up into a mere jumble of words, as where Flora speaks in Dickens' story of Little Dorritt : " Flora was so sorry to have kept her waiting, and good gracious why did she sit out there in the cold when she had expected to find her by the fire reading the paper, and hadn't 318 The Sentence that heedless girl given her the message then, and had she really been in her bonnet all this time, and pray for goodness' sake let Flora take it off ! " 2. But in the sentence from Bolingbroke, "Such a man might fall a victim to power ; but truth, and reason, and liberty, would fall with him," note how, by the repetition of the same word and, the mind rests for a moment on each added thought, thus greatly strengthening the effect. 3. Yet .when Caesar would convey in a sentence all the swiftness of his conquest, he drops the word and altogether and says, " I came ; I saw ; I conquered." Clearness in the Sentence. — Clearness of thought is the first essential. If you know what you want to say, you will find a way to say it. Therefore the thing to do is to think your way out, instead of trying to write your way out. Careful Use of Pronouns. — Errors in the use of personal pronouns are not sp common as mistakes in the use of relatives, but it is important to keep an eye upon them. The fewer personal pronouns in a sentence the better. Writers who value clearness have to be careful not to misplace the relative pronoun. A writer of ability tells us that " It is folly to pretend to arm ourselves against the accidents of life, by heaping up treasures, which nothing can protect us against, but the good providence of our heavenly Eathep." He would have us believe, by the construction of his sentence, and his use of the word which J that the providence of God is the only thing that can protect us against heaped-up treasures. What he means is, that " It is folly to pretend, by heaping up treasures, to arm ourselves against accidents, which nothing can protect us against but the good providence of our heavenly Father." The Effective Sentence. — To make a sentence effective, divest it of all unnecessary words. Quintilian's rule still Exercises on Sentences 319 holds, — "Whatever does not help, hinders." . For example, the sentence, " Being content with deserving a triumph, he refused the honor of it," is much more effec- tive when written, " Content with deserving a triumph, he refused the honor of it." The effective sentence should be tested not only for unity, but for clearness. Apply the following tests to every sentence you write. Five Tests for Clearness. — 1. Is your thought clear? If not, think it out. 2. Have you in every instance used the right word in the right place ? If not, wrestle with your sentence until it says what you want it to say. 3. Have you misplaced a relative pronoun ? If so, put it where it belongs. 4. Have you too many personal pronouns in your sentence ? If so, write your sentence again. If necessary, make two or three sentences of it, rather than have too many personal pronouns in a single sentence. 5. Read your sentence for the final revision. Is there a word too much? If so, omit it. Your sentence will be clearer without it. EXERCISES ON SENTENCES (a) Short and Long Sentences. — In the following exercises, try to • secure variety and smoothness by the appropriate use of long and short sentences. 1. Refer to Stevenson's Treasure Island^ chapter xv, where young Jim Hawkins finds the marooned sailor, Ben Gunn, on the island. Read it over, and then tell the story in short sentences of not more than eight or ten words each. Boil the story down, omitting all conversation, and do not use more than ten sentences. 2. Read chapter xi, " What I heard in the Apple Barrel," in Treasure Island^ and tell the story in longer sentences, say 320 The Sentence of from fifteen to twenty-five words each, using about ten sentences. 3. Refer to Hawthorne's story of " The Golden Touch " in his Wonder Bookj where King Midas has his wish granted that Little Marygold should have the power of turning every- thing she touches *to gold. Tell it in ten or twelve sentences, long or short. 4. Tell some story you have in mind, using long or short sentences. (&) Loose Construction. — In the exercises below, do not let your loose sentences become ragged. Loose does not mean careless. Loose sentences should be as carefully written as periodic sentences. 1. Refer to the history of Joan of Arc. Tell it in hot more than one hundred and fifty words, putting your sentences into the loose style of construction. 2. If you ever had a chase after an escaped canary, or a pet squirrel, recall the incident, and tell it in one hundred words. Use the loose construction. 3. Did you ever go seining for minnows ? If so, tell your experiences. Use seventy-five to one hundred words, in the loose construction. 4. Did you ever visit a home where they owned a parrot ? Tell something about it, using the loose construction. Make it interesting, and short. 5. Refer to the article on "Indian Arrowheads," in The Saturday Evening Post of September 23, 1916. Read it over, and retell it in your own words. Use the loose construction. (c) Periodic Construction. — Before trying the following, review the treatment of periodic sentences. 1. Contrast the ordinary go-as-you-please farming with what is known as modern scientific farming. Use at least three periodic sentences. 2. Contrast the life of the sailor of to-day on a man-of-war, with life on shipboard as detailed in Dana's Two Tears Before the Mast. Use at least two periodic sentences. Important Cautions 321 3. Tell what you mean by a "live wire." Do not define the term, but draw a contrast between two students, one of whom is, and the other is not, a " live wire." Be careful not to give offense. Mention no names. Use at least one good periodic sentence. (d) Connectives. — Remember how much depends upon the proper use of connectives. Try to use them effectively. 1. Use the following connectives properly in sentences : who, which, that, what, lahatever, whose, ichen, ivhile, as, since. The sentences may refer to any of the material used in this set of exercises. 2. Tell about something that happened so long ago that it will make no difference now, but which you promised at the time never to tell. See if you can get along without using the word and, but use five conjunctive adverbs. 3. Make a list of three coordinate and three subordinate connectives, and use them in telling the story oijive minutes in the life of a student, who, having gone to a party the night before, has not been able to prepare for recitations to-day. Important Cautions. — It may be well for the permanent editorial committee^ in conjunction with the instructor in English, to call attention to the following requirements as to The Use of the Comma ^ XXIII. The first rule for the comma is : Do not use it at all if it is possible to avoid it. Its use is necessary, however, 1. To set off absolute phrases. — Where a phrase contains an absolute nominative, you are to use a comma. As, They had some difficulty in passing the ferry at the river- side, the ferryman being afraid of them. 2. To set off parenthetic expressions. — Except in rare in- 1 From Bequirements in Form, Illinois Association of Teachers of English. 322 The Sentence stances, the parenthesis marks are not used, the comma taking their place. As, The time had come, or at least I thought it had, for me to take my departure. 3. To set off non-restrictive clauses. — By a non-restrictive clause is meant one that is explanatory, or that gives an addi- tional thought. Such a clause must be set off by a comma. As, George Washington, who had received his training in the French and Indian ivar, was chosen as the leader of the Americans. The thought in the italicized clause is additional to the main thought. It gives an explanation of the statement made in the principal clause. The relative clause is said to be restrictive when it limits or restricts the meaning of the antecedent. For instance, in the sentence. That is the best rabbit dog that I ever owned, the clause that I ever owned, restricts or limits the meaning of the ante- cedent dog. In this case no comma is required. 4. To set off participial phrases. — As, Armed with the consciousness of his innocence, he faced his accusers courageously. XXiy. These additional uses of the comma may be noted : 1. To take the place of omitted words ; as, The first man was an American ; the second, an Irishman. 2. To set apart a short quotatio7i or similar expression; as. The stranger said, " What are you waiting for ? " What I cannot understand is, where does he get the money? " Come quickly," he said, " if you wish your coming to be of any avail." Note : The comma is not used with an exclamation point, or with an interrogation point ; as, " Who goes there ! " the sentinel cried. " Why are you so hasty ? " said his mother. Exercises Based on Pictures 323 Natural Bridge, Virginia. EXERCISES BASED ON PICTURES Natural Bridge, Virginia. — This fine picture of one of Nature's efforts at practical architecture was taken by a stu- dent on vacation, and borrowed from his scrapbook. 324 The Sentence Do you use the camera? Select a good snapshot, and tell two things about it: (a) what it represents; and (b) under what circum- stances it was taken. Suppose you put this exercise in letter form, as if addressed to a friend, with the snapshot attached. A Little Story of Adventure. — Write a short story of adventure, using this scene as the place. Make it worthy of the scene, or do not complete your story. Suppose you give an account of how a friend rescues you, as you attempt to climb down from the top of the Natural Bridge. CHAPTER XXIV THE PARAGRAPH Deliberately plan your paragraphs . — Barrett Wendell. Paragraph Defined. — A paragraph is a sentence or a group of sentences so arranged as to develop a complete thought. In the paragraph quoted below from Mark Twain, he sets out to do a certain thing and accomplishes it. As you read, one idea is clearly developed. You discover what was the ambition of every boy in the village where Mark Twain spent his boyhood. When I was a boy, there was but one permanent ambition among my comrades in our village on the west bank of the Mississippi River. That was, to be a steamboatman. We had transient ambitions of other sorts, but they were only tran- sient. When a circus came and went, it left us all burning to become clowns ; the first negro minstrel show that ever came to our section left us all suffering to try that kind of life ; now and then we had a hope that, if we lived and were good, God would permit us to be pirates. These ambitions faded out, each in its turn ; but the ambition to be a steamboatman always remained. — Life on the Mississippij Mark Twain. The paragraph bears the same relation to sentences that sentences bear to words, phrases, and clauses. It is the arrangement of the parts of the sentence that brings out the complete thought in the sentence ; and it is the 326 326 The Paragraph arrangement of the sentences composing the paragraph that brings out the complete thought of the paragraph. Long and Short Paragraphs. — Paragraphs may be long or short. They are considered long if they contain more than one hundred words, short if they contain fewer than one hundred. Effect Secured by Short and Long Paragraphs. — Each style of paragraph is marked by a characteristic effect upon the mind of the reader. Short paragraphs are easier to read and understand ; they have what may be said to be a light effect ; they give quicker movement to the thought. Where events move rapidly, the paragraphs get shorter, until sometimes one sentence becomes a paragraph, and that one sentence may become a single word. On the other hand, long paragraphs take longer to read, and they are correspondingly harder to master ; they are said to produce a heavy effect; they give slower move- ment and more dignity to the thought. Short paragraphs would ill become portrayals of majestic events. Argu- ments addressed to thinking bodies of men would fail in their intended effect if they did not clothe themselves in sentences and paragraphs of befitting length and dignity. Two Reasons for Paragraphing. — There are two reasons for the use of pa^lfgraphs. The first is for the sake of the reader. He cannot readily take in the meaning of a full, unbroken page of printed matter, and so the writer sim- plifies things for him by breaking up the page into smaller sections, or paragraphs. Secondly, the paragraph is important for the sake of the writer himself The paragraph is the unit of prose. In order to make the whole composition effective, the writer must begin with the paragraph, and make it effective. The way to accomplish this is to plan your paragraphs. Planning Your Paragraphs. — You have already, in. Testing Your Paragraphs 327 Chapters IV and VII, studied how to plan your para- graphs. The niethbd there suggested is still to be kept in mind. As you begin to think about the theme upon which you are to write or speak, first set 'down brief notes of your thoughts in whatever order they come to your mind. Then arrange each of these topics in a sen- tence, to be known as the topic sentence. If you plan to use several paragraphs, write each of these topic sentences upon a separate slip, and arrange these slips in the order in which you desire them to come, until you have found the best possible order. Then re- write these topic sentences in that order. In no other way can you obtain so effectively a logical order. Your paragraphs will hold together, and your outline, made up of the topic sentences in proper order, will give you a brief of your entire composition. Testing Your Paragraphs. — Not only does your topic sentence help you in writing your paragraph, but it is the best test of your paragraph after it is written. If all that your paragraph says can he summed up in one clear sentence^ your paragraph is well written. How to Arrange Your Paragraphs. — There can be no fixed rule how to arrange your paragraphs. Your own judgment in each case must decide. This judgment, carefully exercised, will after some practice bring a cer- tain skill in paragraph arrangement. The following suggestions, however, may prove helpful : 1. In recalling an incident within your own knowledge, the order of events, or time order, may be most effective. 2. In reproducing a story, your paragraphs may be related by keeping in mind the thread of the story. 3. In description, the logical order may help ; in an experiment, for instance, the steps oftheexperiment; in dealing with the make- up of the human body, the arrangement of the parts, and so on. 328 The Paragraph 4. If you have unusual skill as a writer or speaker, it may show itself in an aHistic ari'angement, or in- some strong dra- matic effect. Example' from Burke. — The selection from Burke, given below, shows how clearly each paragraph is out- lined in a topic sentence, which in this case proves to be the opening sentence of each paragraph. On the Use of Force First J Sirj permit me to observe that the use of force alone is but temporary. It may subdue for a moment, but it does not remove the necessity of subduing again ; and a nation is not governed which is perpetually to be conquered. My next objection is its uncertainty. Terror is not always the effect of force, and an armament is not a victory. If you do not succeed, you are without resource ; for, conciliation failing, force remains ; but, force failing, no further hope of conciliation is left. Power and authority are sometimes bought by kindness ; but they can never be begged as alms by an impoverished and defeated violence. A further objection to force is that you impair the object by your very endeavors to preserve it. The thing you fought for is not the thing which you recover; but depreciated, sunk, wasted, and consumed in the contest. Nothing less will con- tent me than whole America. I do not choose to consume its strength along with our own, because in all parts it is the British strength that I consume. I do not choose to be caught by a foreign enemy at the end of this exhausting con- flict ; and still less in the midst of it. I may escape ; but I can make no insurance against such an event. Let me add, that I do not choose wholly to break the American spirit; because it is the spirit that has made the country. Lastly, we have no sort of experience in favor of force as an instrument in the rule of our Colonies. Their growth and their utility has been owing to methods altogether different. Our ancient indulgence has besn said to be pursued to a fault Developing the Paragraph 329 It may be so. But we know if feeling is evidence, that our fault was more tolerable than our attempt to mend it; and our sin far more salutary than our penitence. — On Conciliation with the Colonies, Burke Developing the Paragraph. — After you have decided upon your topic sentences, and their arrangement, the next thing is to develop them into paragraphs. How to do this rests with you, provided that your paragraph deals with one topic, and with that alone, and discusses that topic effectively. But while you are free to choose how to develop your paragraphs, it will be well to note the following methods. Methods of Developing Paragraphs. — Paragraphs may be developed by any of the following methods : 1. Developing the topic sentence hy repetition. 2. Developing the topic sentence by comparison or contrast. 3. Developing the topic sentence by the use of details. 4. Developing the topic sentence by the use of examples or specific instances. 5. Developing the topic sentence by the use of cause and effect. Suggestions to the Writer. — The following suggestions are worth keeping in mind at all times. 1. Kemember to indent your paragraph. 2. Keep within one hundred words. 3. Watch your use of subordinate and coordinate con- nectives. 4. Test your paragraph to see if your topic sentence tells the story of your paragraph ; and also, if it tells of anything not suggested m your topic sentence. . Developing the Paragraph by Repetition. — Many excel- lent writers bring out the thought they wish to express in a paragraph by simply repeating the thought in various ways, as in the following example from Dickens. 330 The Paragraph The mill which had worked, them down, was the mill that" grinds young people old ; the children had ancient faces and grave voices ; and upon them, and upon the grown faces, ajid ploughed into every furrow of age and coming up afresh^ was the sign. Hunger. It was prevalent everywhere. Hunger was pushed out of the tall houses, in the wretched clothing that hung upon poles and lines ; Hunger was patched into them with straw and rag and wood and paper ; Hunger was repeated in every fragment of the small modicum of firewood that the man sawed off ; Hunger stared down from the smokeless chimneys. Hunger was the inscription on the baker's shelves, written in every small loaf of his scanty stock of bad bread. Hunger rattled its dry bones among the roasting chestnuts in the turned cylinder ; hunger was shred into atomies in every farthing por- ringer of husky chips of potato, fried with some reluctant drops of oil. — Tale of Two Cities^ Dickens. The Dream. — Detaille. Exercises Based on Pictures 331 EXERCISES BASED ON PICTURES The Soldier's Dream. — The vast army sleeps, while those charged with the duty of sentry keep watch. As they sleep, they dream, — some of home and friends, some of the scenes of their childhood. Detaille, the artist, pictures the dream of a soldier. Up in the clouds marches the Grand Army, on to vic- tory ! While the flag of his own regiment is shown in the foreground, furled for the night, notice how the standards of the army he beholds in dreams show the path to victory. Interpret this picture as you please, and describe it. Jacob's Dream. — Tell the story of that night at Bethel, when the young adventurer, fleeing from home, has a vision of the ladder let down from heaven, with angels ascending and descending. You will find it in Genesis, xxviii, 10-22. A Love Dream. — Let a good reader recite " The Romance of the Swan's Nest," by Elizabeth Barrett Browning. It tells the dream of a little girl, as she sits by the brookside. Or, if you choose, tell the story orally, in your own words. EXERCISES m DEVELOPMENT BY REPETITION Development by Repetition. — In the following paragraphs, do not let the repetition become monotonous. 1. Kefer to Longfellow's Hiawatha, xx, "The Famine," and master the story. Then, getting away from the strange rhythm, translate it into plain prose. Endeavor by repeiiYton to develop a paragraph of seventy-five words, describing the famine. 2. Take this sentence as a seed-thought, and developing it> make a paragraph of one hundred words. "Who does not admire the patience with which the men of the Revolution met the sufferings they had to endure ? " 3. Prepare an argument for athletics in the high school. Bo this by developing this sentence into a paragraph, using repetition. "High school athletics deserves the support of every right minded and loyal student in this school." 332 The Paragraph Developing a Paragraph by Comparison or Contrast. — One of the commonest methods of explaining things in ordi- nary conversation is by telling what a thing is like; or how it differs from something else. We compare or contrast things at every turn. This method is quite effective in building up a paragraph. The paragraph quoted below is a good example : Tact and Talent Take them to the bar, and let them shake their learned curls at each other in legal rivalry ; talent sees its way clearly, but tact is first at its journey's end. Talent has many a compli- ment from the bench, but tact touches fees. Talent makes the world wonder that it gets on no faster, tact arouses astonish- ment that it gets on so fast. And the secret is, that it has no weight to carry ; it makes no false steps ; it hits the right nail on the head ; it loses no time ; it takes all hints ; and, by keeping its eye on the weather-cock, is ready to take advantage of every wind that blows. — The London Atlas. EXERCISES m DEVELOPMENT BY COMPARISON OR CONTRAST Development by Comparison and Contrast. — In the following exer- cises, try to use both comparison and contrast in each paragraph. 1. Contrast the sports of summer and winter, and in so doing, develop a paragraph of about one hundred words. 2. Try to think how an Indian boy spends his time, and receives his education. Refer to Hiawatha; or better still, look up Indian Boyhood, by Charles Alexander Eastman ; or The Story of the Indian, by George Bird Grinnell. Compare the life of the ordinary white child with that of the son of the red man. Develop into a paragraph of more than seventy-five words. 3. Contrast these two fish : the bass and the pickerel. Read up, if necessary. Make a paragraph of not more than one hun« dred and twenty-five words. Developing a Paragraph 333 Developing a Paragraph by the Use of Details. — If some one comes to a group of students with a piece of interesting news, he makes a general statement, only to be greeted by a request to tell them all about it. This telling all about it will be accomplished by what is called " going into details." You develop a paragraph in about the same way. You bring out the facts you desire to im- press upon reader or hearer by the use of details. The paragraph given below is developed by this method. The years during which Bacon held the great seal were amon^ the darkest and most shameful in English history. Everything at home and abroad was mismanaged. First came the execu- tion of Kaleigh, an act which, if done in a proper manner might have been defensible, but which under all the circum- stances, must be considered as a dastardly murder. Worse was behind — the war of Bohemia, the successes of Tilly and Spinola, the Palatinate conquered, the king's son-in-law an exile, the house of Austria dominant on the continent, and the liberties of the Germanic body trodden under foot. In the mean time, the wavering and cowardly policy of England fur- nished matter of ridicule to all the nations of Europe. The love of peace which James professed would, even when in- dulged to an impolitic excess, have been respectable if it had proceeded from tenderness for his people. But the truth is, that, while he had nothing to spare for the defence of the natural allies of England, he resorted without scruple to the most illegal and oppressive devices for the purpose of enabling Buckingham and Buckingham's relations to outshine the ancient aristocracy of the realm. — Essay on Lord Bacon, Macaulay. EXERCISE IN DEVELOPMENT BY THE USE OF DETAILS Development by the Use of Details. — In developing the following paragraphs, be careful to choose the most interesting details, and to observe the rules of unity, coherence, and emphasis. S34 The Paragraph 1. " I caught the idea of Jly casting in fishing yesterday. I believe I can tell you how to do it." Read up, if necessary, in some magazine devoted to outdoor life ; or talk with some expert in fishing, until you think you understand something of what Isaak Walton calls " the gentle art," and develop a para- graph of one hundred words from the sentences above. 2. " I learned how to bake ' beaten biscuit ' last Saturday. Do you want to hear how it is done ? " Kead up, or talk it over with some one who knows, and develop it into a paragraph of suitable lengtl\. 3. " I want some plants for my window this winter. What plants thrive best in. the house, and what care do they require ? " Answer this question by giving details, developing a paragraph of about one hundred words. Developing Paragraphs by the Use of Examples. — Noth- ing clears up a statement that is hard to understand like citing a good example^ or giving specific instance^. This method of building up, a paragraph may easily be made effective. The following paragraph illustrates this method : But he, willing to justify himself, said imto Jesus, And who is my neighbor? And Jesus answering said, A certain man went down from Jerusalem to Jericho, and fell among thieves, which stripped him of his raiment, a,nd wounded him, and de- parted, leaving him half dead. And by chance there came down a certain priest that way; and when he saw him, he passed by on the other side. And likewise a Levite, when he was at the place, came and looked on him, and passed by on the other side. But a certain Samaritan, as he journeyed, came where he was : and when he saw him, he had compassion on him, and went to him, and bound up his wounds, pouring in oil and wine, and set him on his own beast, and brought him to an inn, and took care of him. And on the morrow when he departed, he took out two pence, and gave them to the host, and said unto him. Take care of him; and whatsoever thou spendest more, when I come again, I will repay thee. Which Exercises in Developing 335 now of these three, thinkest thou, was neighbor unto him that fell among thieves ? And he said, He that showed mercy on him. Then said Jesus unto him. Go, and do thou likewise. — LuJcex,29-S7, The question, And who is my neighbor? is the topic sen- tence. The paragraph is developed by giving a specific example of great beauty. EXERCISES IN DEVELOPING BY THE USE OF EXAMPLES Developing by Use of Examples. — In the following exercises make your examples and illustrations as apt and interesting as possible. 1. You can hardly ever ask an Irishman a question, and not get a witty answer. Illustrate this by a good story. 2. A woman's work is never done. Use some specific in- stance to illustrate this, and make a readable paragraph. Think out or recall some laughable circumstance, and make a striking story of it. 3. The life of a bee is certainly interesting. Refer to a good biology or to Maeterlinck on The Bee, and name one or two good examples to prove what you say. Develop your paragraph by the use of these specific instances. Developing by the Use of Cause and Effect. — In many cases the topic sentence states some eaiose. Naturally, then, the development of the paragraph will consist in stating the effects of that cause. If, on the other hand, the topic sentence calls attention to some effect, the devel- opment must deal with its causes. This method is often used with good effect. The following is a good illustra- tion: It happened one day, about noon, going towards my boat, 1 was exceedingly surprised ivith the print of a man's naked foot on the shore, which ivas very plain to be seen in the sand. I Stood like one thunderstruck, or as if I had seen an apparition. 336 The Paragraph I listened, I looked round me, I could hear nothing, nor see anything. I went up to a rising ground, to look farther. I went up the shore, and down the shore, but it was all one ; I could see no other impression but that one. I went to it again to see if tnere were any more, and to observe if it might not be my fancy. But there was no room for that, for there was exactly the very print of a foot, — toes, heel, and every part of a foot. How it came thither I knew not, nor could in the least imagine. But after innumerable fluttering thoughts, like a man perfectly confused and out of myself, I got home to my fortification, not feeling, as we say, the ground I went on, but terrified to the last degree, looking behind me at every two or three steps, mistaking every bush or tree, and fancying every stump at a distance to be a man. — Robinson Crusoe^ Defoe. Here, the topic sentence, in italics, is the cause. His agitation at the discovery of the footprint in the sand^ is the result produced in his mind by this cause. EXERCISE IN DEVELOPING BY THE USE OF CAUSE AND EFFECT Developing by the Use of Cause and Effect. — In the following para- graphs, give the most probable causes or effects in an interesting way. (1) Expand this topic sentence by naming the effects pro- duced by the cause it suggests. There is not much use going fishing just after the creeh has run out on account of a very heavy rain. If you cannot think why, ask some good fisher- man. (2) I doubt if farmer boys are as good shots with the rifle nmo as they ivere in the old days. This is a result, but what are the causes ? Develop your paragraph by stating them. (3) It is said that bees introduced into tropical countries have disappointed those who brought them there, because after the first season^ they quit storing honey to any great extent. If this state- ment is true, what would account for this ? Exercises Based on Pictures 337 EXERCISES BASED ON PICTURES Abraham Lincoln. — Tell the story of Abraham Lin- coln, including a paragraph on each of the following points. Develop each para- graph by one of the methods just treated. 1. His early opportuni- ties, or seeming lack of oppor- tunity. 2. His struggle to pre- pare himself for usefulness. 3. His public career. 4. His kindly spirit, as the outstanding character- istic. Independent Para- graphs. — Single para- graphs are termed inde- pendent. Editorial comments are frequently in this form, even when written upon important topics. What is known as " The Lord's Prayer," when properly written, is in this form. So is the Twenty-third Psalm. Lincoln' 8 Gettysburg Address. — Abraham Lincoln de- livered a speech at the dedix^ation of the National Ceme^ tery at Gettysburg which instantaneously affected the whole country. This address has won favor with think- ing minds everywhere, as a perfect example of English speech. It consists of one paragraph, made up of ten sentences, two hundred and sixty-seven words. The address em- bodies within this seemingly limited space, the intro- duction, careful discussion, and wise conclusion, of an important and fully rounded thought. Lincoln. — Linson. 338 The Paragraph The Gettysburg Address Fourscore and seven years ago our fathers brought forth upon this continent a new nation, conceived in liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal. Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that nation, or any nation so conceived and so dedicated, can long en- dure. We are met on a great battle-field of that war. We have come to dedicate a portion of that field as a final resting-place for those who here gave their lives that that nation might live. It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do this ; but in a larger sense we cannot dedicate, we cannot consecrate, we can- not hallow this ground. The brave men, living and dead, who struggled here, have consecrated it far above our power to add or detract. The world will little note, nor long remember, what we say here, but it can never forget what they did here. It is for us — the living — rather to be dedicated here to the unfinished work which they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us, that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion ; that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain ; that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom, and that government of the people, by the people, and for the people, shall not perish from the earth. — Abraham Lincoln, November 19, 1863. EXERCISES ON THE INDEPENDENT PARAGRAPH The Independent Paragraph — Develop the following paragraphs by any of the methods already suggested. 1. Give a pen picture of the leader of a gang of boys. 2. Describe the electric flash-light signs on the public square of a large city. Let it be in a single paragraph. 3. Write a note of condolence in one paragraph of about one hundred words. Tell in a simple way how you and your Paragraph Uses 339 classmates have felt the shock of the death of a friend. Com- ment briefly on his or her good qualities. 4. Write a single paragraph on any topic of your own choosing. Use less than one hundred words. Paragraph Uses. — Paragraphs are named according to the parts they play in the make-up of the composition. They are said to be introductory^ concluding^ connecting^ transitional^ and summarizing. Introductory paragraphs are designed to forecast the sub- ject about which you are to speak or write ; to catch the attention and hold it to that subject ; and to do this in a straightforward way. Introductory paragraphs should not be too long, and you should endeavor to put your own individuality into them. The following is an example: As I walked through the wilderness of this world, I lighted on a certain place where was a den, and I laid me down in that place to sleep ; and as I slept, I dreamed a Dream. I dreamed, and behold I saw a man clothed with Rags, standing in a certain place, with his face from his own house, a Book in his hand, and a great Burden upon his back. I looked, and saw him open the book, and read therein ; and as he read, he wept and trembled; and not being able longer to contain, he brake out with a lamentable cry, saying What shall I do? — The Pilgrim^ s Progress^ Bunyan. Concluding Paragraphs. — Concluding paragraphs have for their purpose to leave a good impression upon the mind of the reader or hearer, and to clinch the points already made. The following is an example : When King Midas had grown quite an old man, and used to trot Marygold's children on his knee, he was fond of telling them this marvelous story, pretty much as I have told it to you. And then he would stroke their glossy ringlets, and tell 340 The Paragraph them that their hair, likewise, had a rich shade of gold, which they had inherited from their mother. " And to tell you the truth, my precious little folks," quoth King Midas, diligently trotting the children all the while, " ever since that morning, I have hated the very sight of all other gold, save this ! " — The Golden Touch, Hawthorne. Connecting Paragraphs. — In the careful discussion of a question, it is often necessary to use a paragraph as a connecting link between what has gone before, and some new phase of the thought. This rests the mind, and pre- pares it for the new line of thought. The following is an example : Nevertheless, the court has not always had smooth seas to navigate. It has more than once been shaken by blasts of un- popularity. It has not infrequently found itself in conflict with other authorities. — The American Commonwealth, chap, xxiv, Bryce. Transitional Paragraphs. — Where the line of thought veers from one part of a discussion or story to another, the change is often indicated by the use of the transitional paragraph. The following is an example : Let us pass on to consider the circumstances which work for uniformity among the States, and work more powerfully as time goes on. — The American Commonwealth, chap, xxxvi, Bryce. Summarizing Paragraphs. — It is often necessary, espe- cially in important discussions, to restate in one paragraph the substance of what has gone before, in order to obtain a clear view of the subject, and be able to grasp the thought that is to follow. This is called the summarizing paragraph. The following is an example : The Summarizing Paragraph 341 Let us hear the conclusion of the whole matter. Fear God, and keep his commandments, for this is the whole duty of man. For God shall bring every work into judgment, with every secret thing, whether it be good, or whether it be evil. — Ecclesiastes, xii, 13, 14. The Summarizing Paragraph in Newspaper Usage. — As previously stated, newspaper usage reverses the position of the summarizing paragraph. News writers place it first, instead of last. By this means it catches attention, and gives the reader the news at a glance. If he wishes further detail, he reads on. If not, he already has the substance of the news. Bring to the class some good examples of the newspaper use of the summarizing paragraph. You will find it where some item of striking interest is given, as for instance in the account of a railroad wreck, or the sinking of a ship, or the description of a game of baseball in the World's Series, or of some big football event. Means of Connection in Paragraphs. — There are various means of showing the relation between paragraphs, among which the following are most important : 1. The best possible means of connection in paragraphs is the logical connection, which supplies a bond of union in the article that holds it well together. 2. The use of connecting and transitional paragraphs is an excellent means of connection. 3. Transitional sentences, clauses, and phrases also offer means of paragraph connection. 4. What is called the echo, that is, a definite reference in one paragraph to what has been said in a preceding paragraph, serves to bind paragraphs together. 5. 'The use of connecting words serves to indicate the relation between paragraphs. 342 The Paragraph EXERCISES ON MEANS OF CONNECTION IN PARAGRAPHS (a) Study the article from The Outlook given below, using the italicized words as your theme. Look up additional instances of how seemingly, " the God that presides over the destinies of nations" intervenes in the history of our country. Take for instance the reported changing of the course of his ship toward the south, which led Columbus to South America instead of to North America. Military history is full of illustrations of the fact quaintly expressed by the ancient Hebrew historian in the saying, " The stars in their courses fought against Sisera.'' It was J;he in- coming of the sea which cooperated with William of Orange to save the Netherlands from Alva's army. The Spanish Armada was bravely and wisely fought by Drake and Hawkins ; but says the historian Green, " The work of destruction was reserved for a mightier foe than Drake." The storm com- pleted what he had begun but could not have completed with- out its aid. After the battle of Long Island the capture of General Washington and his entire army was imminent. An " unex- ampled fog" came out of the sea to hide the American army and prevent the advance of the British fleet, and lay between the two until the last detachment of the retreating army had made its escape. . . . W"e do not undertake to interpret the will or the purpose of the Almighty. But we believe, with Hegel, that God has a plan and that history is nothing but the working out of his plan in human affairs. — The Outlook. (b) Prepare an outline consisting of several paragraphs, using the card plan for its arrangement, with any title you choose. Let the general statement you are trying to illustrate be the basis of your in- troductory paragraph. Use two or more instances, each as the sug- gestion for a separate paragraph. Let at least one of the paragraphs take the form of a transitional paragraph. Make your last paragraph a definite example of the concluding paragraph. Write the paper. (c) Prepare an independent paragraph, using the suggestions above given as to the matter of the paragraph. Give attention to the laeans of connection within the paragraph. Exercises on Paragraphs 343 (d) The Use of Connectives. — In the following exercises study carefully the use of connectives. 1. Refer to Tennyson's " Home They Brought Her Warrior Dead," and tell the story simply in one or two paragraphs, using your own words and your own style. Use as many con- nectives as may be necessary. 2. Kefer to Three Men in a Boat, by Jerome, chapter ix, beginning with the paragraph, " Of all experiences in connec- tion with towing, the most exciting is being towed by girls." Read it, get the story, and tell it. Use as many conjunctive adverbs as may be necessary. (e) Refer to 7%e Cotter's Saturday Night and describe the scene where the father reads the Scriptures. Put it into three paragraphs. Let the introductory paragraph say something about the poem. In your second and third paragraphs, tell the story. Watch your use of con- nectives. Use as many relative pronouns and as few other connec- tives as possible. Prepare an outline and work by it. {f) Review of the Paragraph. — Let a committee of three be ap- pointed to conduct a careful review of all the points brought out in the study of the paragraph. Let one member be named by the teacher; one by the class ; and the third be selected by the two members al- ready chosen. The committee is to divide the work as follows : 1. One member is to question the dass, taking care to insist on the essentials of the paragraph,^ requiring both definition and example. It might be well to have three or four good books on hand, out of whicb the members of the class are to select examples of the different kinds and uses of the para- graphs. One of Stevenson's essays, one of Carlyle's, Dana's Two Years Before the Mast, a copy of Bryce's Amencan Com- monwealth, one of Shakespeare's plays, and Burke's Speech on Conciliation would all be useful for the purpose named. 2. A second member is to act as judge in all disputed points. 1 In general, it is advisable that no pupil who shows inability to con- struct a fairly good para^jraph should be promoted from the second to the third year. — From the English Syllabus, Board of Regents, New York. 344 The Paragraph He shall have the right to consult with the instructor. The decision of the judge is to be final. However, any member of the class may appeal, without debate, to the class. In such case, the chairman is to present the appeal which is to be handed in in writing by the student desiring to appeal. It might be well to insist on a two thirds majority to sustain the appeal. 3. The chairman of the committee is to be elected by the committee. In addition to presiding over the work of the re- view, it is suggested that he make a summary of the revietOy in a ten minutes' talk. EXERCISES BASED ON PICTURES All Hands to the Pumps I — Henry Scott Tuke, the artist, shows a ship in distress. Amidst the fury of the elements, safety lies in obedience to command, and this shows here. Let us hope they will weather the storm. Study the picture, and tell its story as you see it, and as if you were a member of the crew. Every Man a Hero. — No nobler deed happens than where, after all is done that can be done, it becomes apparent that all must go down with the ship. The seamen line up in perfect order, and await the plunge. Refer again to the account of the sinking of the Titanic for a scene of courage and manliness in the face of death, EXERCISE IN BRINGING IN A REPORT Bringing in a Report. — Master one or more items suggested here- with, and make a report on it. 1. The Paragraph. — Take time to master the important matter of paragraphing. Think it out, and make an outline that shall cover the entire subject. Then ivrite out a report on paragraphing J embodying everything that you think belongs in it. Use your own ideas, as well as getting whatever sugges- tions the public library affords. Do not limit yourself too narrowly, but write at some length. 2. Modem Warfare. — Read, think, and write a report upon the topic, Modern Warfare. Note the changes in the method Exercise in Bringing in a Report 345 All Hands to the Pumps! of fighting, and the probable effect of this new method of fight- ing upon (a) the belligerents ; (6) the people at home ; (c) the world at large ; (d) the coming generation ; (e) the danger of future wars. Take time in looking up your facts, and give 346 The Paragraph yourself a sufficient number of words to enable you to do your subject justice. 3. Your Own Interests} — Give a report on whatever interests you most. Your vocational interests ; your hobby ; your in- vestments, if you have begun to invest ; your plans for an ex- tended vacation trip ; if you are a fisherman, a report on fishing conditions within your knowledge. ,^ 4. Report on Trapping, and Selling JF^^rs. — Quite a number of high school boys trap fur-bearing animals and add to their income by preparing and selling furs. If you are interested, prepare a report on this subject. 5. Report on Hovo Girls May Be Self-supporting. — If you are interested in this subject, study up on it, and report. Make it worth reading. Make it clear, and make it logical. Use as many words as you need. EXERCISES BASED ON PICTURES The picture on the opposite page shows the central court of one of the houses in Pompeii. In the distance may be seen the volcano Vesuvius, which was responsible for the ruin of this ancient city. As the ashes from the eruption sifted down upon the town, they preserved houses, utensils, jewelry, and even paintings, so that to-day we can tell with no small degree of accuracy of the life and tastes of the ancient Pompeians. 1. Look up in your Ancient History or in the encyclopedia some interesting facts about Pompeii and bring in a report to be read to the class. 2. If you have read Bulwer's Last Days of Pompeii, retell what ap- pealed to you as the most interesting incident in the book. 1 The English Syllabus, Board of Regents, New York, quotes with approval this statement from the Beport of the Committee on English, N. E. A. Commission on Reorganization of High Schools. ''Expression in writing includes ability, with due time for study and preparation, to plan and work out a clear, well-ordered and interesting report of some length upon one''s fecial interests — literary, scientific, commercial or what not.'* Exercise in Paragraph Survey 347 The Central Court of a House in Pompeii. EXERCISE IN PARAGRAPH SURVEY Round Table Survey.^ — What is the status of the English class at this time as to its habits in speaking and writing? Let a survey or inquiry with this question in mind be now made. How to Conduct the Round Table. — The instructor in English will appoint a chairman and name the closing speaker, unless he chooses to sum up the findings himself. He will name ten speakers, one for each item given below. These are to have two minutes each in which to report. Let a week elapse, in order to afford time for investigation. Points in the Inquiry. — Each of the ten speakers will report on one of the items here suggested. 1. Do the manuscripts presented by this class in their daily exercises come up to a high standard? What faults are ob- served ? 2. Are the habits in speech and recitation in this class what they should be ? Does each student speak clearly, and answer definitely ? 1 Suggested by the English Syllabus, Board of Regents, New Tork 348 The Paragraph 3. Do we get accurate information before we attempt ex- pression ? 4. Does the ipaking of effective topical outlines, and recita- tions from them, characterize the majority of our recitations ? 5. Is each paragraph the result of the effective develop- ment of one topic, and but one ? 6. What is our status as to the proper use of topic sen- tences, summaries, and transitions ? 7. As a rule, do we use short, unified sentences ? 8. How about careful connection between matter and form ? Do we clothe our thoughts, spoken or written, in appropriate form ? Do our business, friendly, and social letters meet up- to-date requirements as to form and appropriateness ? 9. Do we, in class and out of class, habitually use good English ? 10. Do we look up the principles of writing in our text-book and books of reference when those principles become hazy or require new applications ? PART FIVE WHAT MAKES ENGLISH EFFECTIVE CHAPTER XXV STYLE I love a plain and natural style, 'written or spoken ; a strong, expressive style, curt and compact; not so much nice and faultless, as animated and direct. — Montaigne. Style Defined. — Sti/le is the manner in which thought is expressed. The word takes its meaning from the in- strument used by the ancients in writing upon tablets covered with wax. A writer of ability soon comes to pos- sess what we call his style. He gains an individuality in expression through which he may be known by those familiar with his work, even in fragments of his writing. His style is an essential part of him and of his work. George Henry Lewes in his Life of Goethe says : " There is not the slightest difference in meaning expressed when I say, ' The dews of night began to fall,' or ' The nightl}' dews commenced to fall.' Meaning and metre are the same; but one is poetry, the other prose. Wordsworth paints a landscape in this line, The river wanders at its own sweet wiU. Let us translate it into other words, ' The river runneth free from all restraint.' We preserve the meaning, but 349 350 Style where is the landscape ? " Yes, and we may add, where is Wordsworth? In the change of expression, Wordsworth vanishes with the landscape. Wordsworth's style is as much a part of Wordsworth as is the well-remembered smile of a friend a part and an essential part of that friend. Note the following example. The truth it sets forth is so well put that it will probably never be better stated. It is the author's style that distinguishes it. Precept is instruction written in the sand. The tide flows over it, and the record is gone. Example is engraved upon the rock. — William Ellery Channing. Style in Prose. — The examples which follow, all from masters of English, illustrate the marked differences in English prose. As you read you feel that it would be hard to give the thought more fitting expression. No two are alike, while all indicate excellence of style. A tart temper never mellows with age, and a sharp tongue is the only edged tool that grows keener with constant use. — Washington Irving. When bad men combine, the good must associate ; else they will fall, one by one, an unpitied sacrifice in a contemptible struggle. — Edmund Burke. What I mainly dislike in the New Philosophy is the cool impertinence with which an old idea folded in a new garment looks you in the face and pretends not to know you, though you have been familiar friends from childhood. — Henry Wadsworth Longfellow. It is strange what humble offices may be performed in a beautiful scene without destroying its poetry. Our fire, red gleaming among tHe trees, and we beside it, busied with culi- Style in Prose 351 nary rites and spreading out our meal on a mossgrown log, all seemed in unison with the river gliding by and the foliage rustling over us. — Nathaniel Hawthorne. When the mariner has been tossed for many days, in thick weather, and on an unknown sea, he naturally avails himself of the first pause in the storm, the earliest glance of the sun, to take his latitude, and ascertain how far the elements have driven him from his true course. Let us imitate this prudence, and before we float further on the waves of this debate, refer to the point from which we departed^ that we may at least bfe able to conjecture where we now are. I ask for the reading of the resolution before the Senate. — Daniel Webster. All this while, Alan had not said a word, and had run and climbed with such a savage, silent frenzy of hurry, that I knew he was in mortal fear of some miscarriage. Even now we were on the rock he said nothing, nor so much as relaxed the frown- ing look upon his face ; but clapped flat down, and keeping only one eye above the edge of our place of shelter, scouted all round the compass. The dawn had come quite clear ; we could see the stony sides of the valley, and its bottom, which was bestrewed with rocks, and the river, which went from one side to another, and made white falls ; but nowhere the smoke of a house, nor any living creature but some eagles screaming round a cliff. Then at last Alan smiled. " Ay," said he, " now we have a chance." — Robert Louis Stevenson. The twenty-third Psalm is the nightingale of psalms. It is small, of homely feather, singing shyly out of obscurity ; but 0, it has filled the air of the whole world with melodious joy greater than the heart can conceive. Blessed be the day on which that Psalm was born. What 352 Style would you say of a pilgrim commissioned by God to travel up and down the earth, singing a strange melody which, when one had heard, caused him to forget whatever sorrow he had ? Behold such a one ; this pilgrim God has sent to speak in every language on the globe. It has charmed more grief to rest than all the philosophy of the world ; it has remanded to their dun- geon more felon thoughts, more black doubts, more thieving sorrows than there are sands on the seashore ; it has comforted the noble host of the poor ; it has sung courage to the army of the disappointed ; it has poured balm and consolation into the hearts of the sick, of captives in dungeons, of widows in their pinching griefs, of orphans in their loneliness. Nor is its work done. It will go on singing to your children and my children through all the generations of time. — Henry Ward Beecher. The Puritans were men whose minds had derived a peculiar character from the daily contemplation of superior beings and eternal interests. Not content with acknowledging, in general terms, an overruling Providence, they habitually ascribed every event to the will of the Great Being, for whose power nothing was too vast, for whose inspection nothing was too minute. To know him, to serve him, to enjoy him, was with them the great end of existence. They rejected with contempt the cere- monious homage which other sects substituted for the pure worship of the squl. Instead of catching occasional glimpses of the Deity through an obscuring veil, they aspired to gaze full on his intolerable brightness, and to commune with him face to face. Hence originated their contempt for terrestrial distinctions. The difference between the greatest and the meanest of mankind seemed to vanish, when compared with the boundless interval which separated the whole race from him on whom their own eyes were constantly fixed. They recognized no title to superiority but his favor ; and, confident of that favor, they despised all the accomplishments and all the dignities of the world. — Thomas Babington Macaulay Exercises Based on Pictures 353 Manistique Creek, Michigan, in a Fine Fishing Country. EXERCISES BASED ON PICTURES Manistique Creek. — This view of a little fishing stream in Michigan is taken from the scrapbook of a student who spent two weeks in camp there. It is in the heart of the fishing country. Imagine yourself out in a motorboat, exploring for a site for your fishing camp, and tell about it. Planning Your Camp. — Plan a fishing camp for a group of high school girls and two or three teachers ; or for a party of boys, with one of their teachers along. Get accurate information as to how a camp should be conducted, and prepare a talk on the topic. Include tents, cooking equipment, dining tent, boats, fishing outfits for the individual and for the party, proper clothing, raincoats, or ponchos. Also study the larder, providing a reasonable outfit including gro- ceries, ice, fruits, and items of staple food. Study the water supply, camp hygiene, and everything necessary for the camp. Do not for- get to study what offers in the way of amusements for the camp. Write your plan, trying to put individuality into it. 354 Style Marked Differences in Style. — From the examples cited it is plain that there are marked differences in style. The practical question for the beginner in writing is, wherein do styles differ? What is the best style; and what, espe- cially, is the best style for me? Is it in my power, grant- ing that I am eager for it, to acquire an excellent style? And how shall I go to work with this end in view?' From one point of view, and in an important sense. Dean Swift's statement that proper words in proper places make the true definition of style, is true. But the study of style includes also the study of sentences, and of para- graphs, and of what are called figures. Note the following definitions of style. Hill emphasizes important elements in style, while Spencer gives a more complete statement of what style includes. Differ as good writers may in other respects, they are all distinguished by the judicious choice and skilful placing of words. They all aim to use no word that is not established as a part of the language in, the sense in which they use it, and no word that does not say what they wish it to say so clearly as to be understood at once, and either so strongly as to com- mand attention or so agreeably as to win attention; to put every word in the place fixed for it by the idiom of the language, and by the principles which 'govern communication between man and man, — the place which gives the word its exact value in itself and in its relation with other words ; and to use no more words than are necessary to effect the purpose in hand. — A. S.Hill. The right choice and collocation of words ; the best arrange- ment of clauses in a sentence ; the proper order of its principal and subordinate propositions j the judicious use of simile, metaphor, and other figures of speech; and the euphonious sequence of syllables. — Herbert Spencer. Mannerisms 355 A remarkable example of the difference that style makes, where two writers say substantially the same thing, one simple and matter-of-fact, the other on fire with genius, is found in the following extract from a letter written by the sister of the poet, William Wordsworth, whose poem on " The Daffodils " is quoted on page 391 of this book. Let the student compare them. When we were in the woods, we saw a few daffodils close by the water-side. As we went along there were more and yet more ; and at last, mider the boughs of the trees, we saw there a long belt of them along the shore. I never saw daffodils so beautiful. They grew among the mossy stones about them. Some rested their heads on the stones as on a pillow ; the rest tossed, and reeled, and danced, and seemed as if they verily laughed with the wind, they looked so gay and glancing. Mannerisms. — The young writer must guard against what are called mannerisms. In his anxiety to preserve and cultivate originality, he is apt to fall into peculiar ways of expressing himself. A safe rule, although not an easy one to follow, is rigorously to cut out the passages that he has fallen in love with. If a sentence or a para- graph pleases him unduly, the chances are that it contains some mannerisms which would be better omitted. There is little hope for a young writer who thinks he has a style, and clings to it in spite of sound criticism on the part of an experienced writer. This does not mean that individuality of style is not to be sought, but rather that there is danger of the student's becoming satisfied with his own crude and faulty style, because it seems to be his own. If he persists in it, it may spoil his success as a writer. Here is where young newspaper writers have an advan- tage. The editor's blue pencil is inexorable, and cuts out 356 Style what they may think is their best work. But if they have anything in them, they will thank him for it later. Suggestions for Acquiring a Style. — If you are in ear- nest as to acquiring a style, note these suggestions. 1. Never lose sight of your style until it becomes part of yourself. 2. Study the masters of style. 3. Do not be self-conscious, but hold yourself well in hand. 4. Avoid mannerisms. To give the phrase, the sentence, the structural member, the entire composition, a similar unity with its subject and with itself, — style is in the right way when it tends towards that. — On Style, Walter Pater. EXERCISES ON STYLE (a) Having Regard to Style. — In preparing these exercises, have regard to style. Write the papers first, the best you can, and then go over them, endeavoring to improve the style. 1. Write a two-hundred-word paper on the style of Silas Marner, stating how you think this style differs from that of Carlyle in his Life of Burns; or from that of Dickens in his Tale of Two Cities. Or, you may use any other book you have studied in class, for this comparison with Silas Marner. 2. Write a one-hundred-word paper on the style of some favorite book or poem ; or of some author. (&) Studying Your Own Style. — It is well worth while to keep an eye on your own style, both in speech and writing. There is a distinctive style of speech that belongs to you, if you value it enough to strive after it. In making this effort, do two things : 1. Do your best in every paper you write, and in every talk or speech you attempt. 2. In writing, read your work over, after you have done the best that is in you, in order to detect errors, and to make your work as good as your sober second thought may suggest. Exercises on Style 357 Read for one thing at a time.^ Study your sentence structure at one reading. Examine your paragraphing at another reading. Watch for errors in grammar at another time. As you do all this, however, study the matter of your own style. Take the best paper you have written recently^ and rewrite itf endeavor- ing to put into practice the suggestions just made. 1 This method of close inquiry into the merits of your own work is strongly urged by the English Syllabus, Board of Regents, New York. It states that in so doing, the student soon becomes the best critic of his own written and oral work, and acquires a habit that will be useful to him all his later life. CHAPTER XXVI REQUISITES OF EFFECTIVE STYLE We are pleased with an author who frees us from all fatigue in searching for his meaning. — Blair. Essential Properties of Effective Style. — Effective prose must have some special properties of style. The most important of these are clearness, force, and elegance. Clearness. — Clearness requires that what is written shall be so expressed that it must be understood by the reader or hearer. Referring to this quality of clearness, Quintilian says : " It is not enough to use language that mat/ be understood ; the writer should use language that must be understood." Clearness of Thought. — There are many elements that enter into clearness of expression, but the first essential is clearness of thought. To be clear, we must think a thing out until the words we use mean just what we intend them to mean. To write with clearness we must make ourselves as certain as possible of what we wish to say. —-Wendell. Clearness of Expression. — The writer must take pains with what is written. If he undertakes to write so that no one can possibly misunderstand him, it soon comes to be a sort of second nature with him. No man better understood the value of clear English 368 Clearness of Expression 359 speech than did Abraham Lincoln. " His simple, lumi- nous sentences, which go straight as bullets," says an editorial in the Saturday Evening Post, " are models that cannot be improved upon. To follow Lincoln's mind through his great controversies is an education in reason- ing." On one occasion he was interviewed by a representa- tive of the New York Independent as to the secret of his style. Calling Mr. Lincoln's attention to the fact that some of the great teachers of rhetoric were using his speeches as models, the reporter asked him where he got his unusual power of putting things. This is his reply : I have been putting the question you ask me to myself while you have been talking. I say this, that among my earliest recollections, I remember how when a mere child, I used to get irritated when anybody talked to me in a way I could not understand. I don't think I ever got angry at anything else in my life. But that always disturbed my temper, and has ever since. I can remember going to my little bedroom, after hearing the neighbors talk of an evening with my father, and spending no small part of the night walking up and down, and trying to make out what was the meaning of their, to me, dark say- ings. I could not sleep, though I often tried to, when I got on such a hunt after an idea, until I had caught it ; and when I thought I had got it, I was not satisfied until I had repeated it over and over, until I had put it in language plain enough, as I thought, for any boy I knew to comprehend. This was a kind of passion with me, and it has stuck by me, for I am never easy now, when I am handling a thought, till I have bounded it north and bounded it south and bounded it east and bounded it west. Perhaps that accounts for the char- acteristic you observe in my speeches, though I never put the two things together before. 860 EflFective Style ■■^■ikJVLL liOiiwanBBF L> T 1. r. •,V..V,.i'!a»'«^"- m ^ s yiBg> 1 Photograph by Frank C. Sage. Football Strategy. Using the head in battle. EXERCISES BASED ON PICTURES Football Strategy. — Football is not always won by steer weight. Often strategy plays a part and wins against odds. Here is shown a piece of football strategy. 1. Daring Strategy. Read ''The Three Strangers" in Wessex Tales by Thomas Hardy, for the daring stratagem of the man who sat next the wall. Tell the story clearly. 2. Brer Rabbit Too Sharp for Air. Fox. Joel Chandler Harris tells this in "The Tar Baby." Retell it, paying special attention to clearness. 3. Paul at Mars' Hill. Refer to Paul's Speech at Mars' Hill, Acts xvii, 18 to 34. Study it as an example of clearness. Note especially 22-23. 4. Jacob and Esau. Tell how Jacob gains his father's blessing by artifice. Genesis xxvii, 1-35. Be as clear as possible. 5. Washington at Princeton. Cornwallis had Washington hemmed in. " We'll bag the fox in the morning," said the British general. Washington kept his camp-fires burning all night and a few men busily engaged in throwing up embankments within hear- ing of the British sentinels, while he led his army past the left wing Unity 361 of his enemy. By daylight he was marching in full force toward Princeton, where he won a brilliant victory. Tell the story with special reference to clearness. Unity. — TJnity^ one of the strongest elements of clear- ness, requires that the phrase, the sentence, the paragraph, and. the entire composition, each and all, should tend towards one and the same thing. Everything else is to be subordinated^ and where that is not possible, to be eliminated. The central thought must have the right of way. If you know what you want to say, and say it, you will have no trouble with unity. But if you jot down your thoughts as they come to you, without any definite plan, you will very likely fail in securing this desirable quality. Before beginning to write, prepare an outline, and when you come to write, make everything bend to your scheme or outline. It will guide you as nothing else can. It helps you stick to your subject. EXERCISE IN UNITY (a) Let each student prepare a brief theme on some topic of his own choosing. Apply the tests heretofore given. (h) Refer these papers to a committee of three for criticism. This committee will select five to ten papers from the list, and refer them without comment to some critic chosen by them, but who is not a member of the committee. (c) The student thus chosen will select three papers from this list, and without indicating names, will make a verbal report on the excel- lences and shortcomings of these papers, basing his suggestions on the items heretofore given for securing unity. His comments need not be confined to unity, but this must first be considered, before referring to other points. Force. — Force or energy is that quality of style which so expresses the thought as to hold the attention of the reader or hearer. Professor Wendell says that the secret of clearness lies 362 EfiFective Style in denotation^ the secret of force in connotation; that is, the secret of clearness is in what is said^ while the secret of force is in what is left unsaid.^ But he means that it is so left unsaid as to suggest even more than could be said. He relates a good story of the younger Dumas. When the first successful play of the young French writer was produced, some old Parisian man of letters complimented him on the firmness of his style. To this Dumas is said to have replied, " There is no end of it out of sight." He meant, says Wendell, that he had produced the notable firmness of his style by the very simple process of courageously striking out needless words and phrases, making each word do full work. Illustrations of Force. — Testing force by the fact that it holds attention, Wendell quotes a passage from Dante's Inferno^ which he states he has never forgotten since the first day he read it. It tells how Dante and Virgil, hav- ing emerged from a wood, find themselves on a great dike that skirts the edge of a sandy plain. Already, we were so far from the wood that I could not have seen where it was, even though I had turned about, when we met a troop of spirits, that came close to the dike. And each of them peered at us, as of an evening one peers at another be- neath the new moon, and they knit their brows at us, as an old tailor does at the eye of a needle. "I have yet to find a passage in literature," Wendell goes on to say, " that in so few words gives a more marvel- ously suggestive notion of what that dim and ghostly twi- light is like, when one cannot quite tell what one sees, when every mystery is doubly mysterious, and the crescent moon hangs low in the west." 1 In denotation^ you say just what you mean. In connotation^ you mean more than you say. Force Everywhere Effective 363 Edmund Burke in his Destruction of the Oarnatio, dis- plays wonderful energy of style in describing how Hyder Ali wreaks his vengeance on his foes. When at length Hyder Ali found that he had to do with men who either would sign no convention, or whom no treaty and no signature could bind, and who were the determined enemies of human intercourse itself, he decreed to make the country possessed by these incorrigible and predestinated criminals a memorable example to mankind. He resolved, in the gloomy recesses of a mind capacious of such things, to leave the whole Carnatic an everlasting monument of ven- geance, and to put perpetual desolation as a barrier between him and those against whom the faith which holds the moral elements of the world together was no protection. ... He drew from every quarter whatever a savage ferocity could add to his new rudiments in the art of destruction ; and compound- ing all his materials of fury, havoc, and desolation into one black cloud, he hung for awhile on the declivities of the mountains. Whilst the authors of all these evils were idly and stupidly gazing on this menacing meteor which blackened their horizon, it suddenly burst, and poured down the whole of its contents upon the plains of the Carnatic. — Edmund Burke. Force Everywhere Effective. — Force or energy in style is not limited to descriptions of battle or warfare. Refer to the account of the " Death of Little Nell " in the Old Curiosity Shop, by Charles Dickens, or the story of " The Prodigal Son," Luke xv, or to such poetry as Poe's " Annabel Lee," or Cowper's " Ode to His Mother's Pic- ture," for fine energy. ' The introduction of but one word too much tends to weaken your writing, and a profusion of adjectives is an almost unfailing sign of crudeness. You should early 364 Effective Style recognize this, and in recasting your productions, should not hesitate to use the blue pencil^ cutting out modifying words wherever they fail to add force. " Fine Writing." — Nothing is more destructive of energy in literature than what has been termed fine writing. Arlo Bates well illustrates this in contrasting the Scriptural narrative of a certain scene with that of Marie Corelli, as found in her novel, Barahbas. Bates says, It is part of the description of the appearance of Christ be- fore Pontius Pilate. Water having been brought, Pilate, according to Miss Corelli, thus proceeded : Slowly lowering his hands, he dipped them in the shining bowl, rinsing them over and over again in the clear, cold ele- ment, which sparkled in its polished receptacle like an opal against the fire. The Bible finds it possible to say all of this that is necessary in the words : Pilate took water, and washed his hands. EXERCISE ON FORCE OR ENERGY Organize a newspaper staff ivom the class. Select a managing editor, who shall from the time of his selection have a voice in the selection of his assistants. 1. Select two members, a boy and a girl, who are to act as the Associated Press, or some similar organization which makes systematic newsgathering a business. This committee is to be responsible for the news contained in the forthcoming issue, pro- viding two-line or three-line items of important news, which are to be expanded by the newspaper staff. 2. A similar committee is to have charge of the private tele- graph system conducted by the newspaper. They are to supply one or two interesting telegraphic accounts. They may supple- ment the news items furnished by the Associated Press. The telegraph editor will put these items into final shape. Emphasis 365 3. Two students are to act as editors. These are to com- ment on the news items. In addition, each editor may present two four-line oi five-line editorials, making three editorials for each editor. These must be read by the managing editor, who shall have control of the editorial policy of the paper. It might be well for him to indicate what he desires as the leading editorial to be written by each editor. 4. Three students are to act as reporters, providing local news items of interest. These may get their suggestions from the managing editor; or they may suggest ideas of their own to him. But he shall have control over all news items and local paragraphs. Let him see that energy characterizes every- thing that appeal's in his paper. The managing editor will indicate the number of words to be used by any and all members of his staff. An assistant to the managing editor is to read everything presented for the issue, criticizing for form and manner only. All work should be original. No item of any kind not relating to the day of issue is to be accepted. Lei the paper he read to the class. Emphasis. — Closely allied to clearness and energy, and one of their best helps, is emphasis. Emphasis seems to appeal especially to the ear. It describes to the ear the progress of the thought; and as one writer says, "its several strokes are, as it were, the audible footsteps of the mind's march.'^ The ear of the reader seems in a way to be on the watch, when we are reading to ourselves, to catch the varying shades of emphatic expression. Means of Producing Emphasis. — Among the means of producing emphasis may be named the following : (1) by position ; (2) by proportion ; (3) by repetition ; (4) by the use of figures of speech ; (5) by punctuation. Emphasis by Position. — To make any noticeable change in the position of word, phrase, clause, sentence, or para- graph, where this is skilfully done, is to make it emphatic. Probably this method of securing emphasis hi/ position is 366 Effective Style more carefully studied and better understood by successful advertising writers than by any other class of writers. Study some of the advertising matter found in the lead- ing magazines, and notice how they display the material they use. They employ .few words, but they make every word count, and study the advantage given a word or phrase by its unusual position. They are after emphasis all the time, and you will note that emphasis hy position is one of their chief devices in securing attention. Emphasis by Proportion. — By saying more about impor- tant things, we heap up the meaning, and emphasize hy proportion. In the following illustration from Phillips^ notice how he piles up emphasis on the^ thought of Napoleon's devotion to self-interest. He knew no motive but interest ; acknowledged no criterion but success ; and, with an eastern devotion, he knelt at the shrine of his idolatry. Subsidiary to this, there was no creed that he did not profess, there was no opinion that he did not promulgate : in the hope of a dynasty, he upheld the crescent ; for the sake of a divorce, he bowed before the cross ; the orphan of St. Louis, he became the adopted child of the Eepublic ; and, with a parricidal ingratitude, on the ruins both of the throne and the tribune, he reared the throne of his despotism. — Charles Phillips. Charles Sprague^ calling to mind that not long ago the Indians had lived where his cultured hearers now sit, emphasizes hy proportion : Beneath the same sun that rolls over your head, the Indian hunter pursued the panting deer ; gazing on the same moon that smiles for you, the Indian lover wooed his dusky mate. Here the wigwam blaze beamed on the tender and helpless, and the council-fires glared on the wise and daring. — The American Inaian, Boston, July 4, 1825, Charles Sprague. Exercises Based on Pictures 367 Indian Camp on Two Medicine Lake, Glacier National Park. EXERCISES BASED ON PICTURES Blackfeet Indian Camp. — It will strike the most casual ob- server that this wigwam of a savage tribe comports wonder- fully with the picturesqueness of its surroundings. Study a little into the influence of environment, and give a talk on this subject. 368 Effective Style Environment Versus Heredity. Let the class hold a round table discussion on this topic. Go round the class, and let each member give his views in a two or three minute talk on the question, " Which influences human life and character more, environment or heredity?" Let one student on each side, chosen beforehand, sura up in a five minute talk. The North American Indian. Prepare a paper on this subject, in- cluding as many of the following items as appeal to you: (a) the origin of the Red men; (5) races preceding the Indians in North America; (c) the character of the Indian; (c?) what the Indians had accomplished in the arts of civilization before the coming of Colum- bus; (e) the struggle between the Indians and the white race; (/) the future of the race. Emphasis by Repetition. — To discover how emphatic mere repetition is, you have but to note the difference be- tween the ordinary ringing of a bell, and the sound of that same bell, when rung as an alarm-bell. The sound- ing of the tocsin sends a thrill to the heart of every hearer. It is the noticeable repetition that thus emphasizes what- ever may be the message of the alarm-bell. Repetition gives a notable emphasis in speaking and writing. This is another device that is relied upon by advertising writers. They choose some phrase that seems appropriate, and they ring the changes on that phrase until the entire public knows its meaning. They rely much upon repeti- tion for emphasis in all their advertising matter. Read aloud in class the speech of Marc Antony, in Julius Ocesar^ Act iii, scene ii, lines 64 to 262. Watch for the repetition of the word honorable, and note how he varies the shades of meaning from an apologetic and apparently friendly attitude to an attitude of undying hatred and opposition, until his hearers are roused against Brutus and his fellow-conspirators who slew Caesar. Another striking example of the force of repetition as producing emphasis is found in / Corinthians xiii, entire, Figures of Speech 369 where St. Paul lays heavy stress on the word charity. Let this passage be read aloud in class, to study the force of the emphasis thus expressed. Emphasis by the Use of Figures of Speech. — Nothing adds more to emphasis than a proper use of figures of speech. Of all these figures of speech, perhaps the most striking is that of personification. It speaks of things without life as though they were alive, and capable of everything that man can do. There is a fine example of emphasis hy personification in the following paragraph : With no friend but his sword, and no fortune but his talents, he rushed into the lists where rank, and wealth, and genius had arrayed themselves, and competition fled from him, as from the glance of destiny. — Charles Phillips. Emphasis by Punctuation. — Emphasis is indicated to the eye by punctuation. The most emphatic mark of punctuation is the exclamation point. The period is often emphatic, as is very frequently the interrogation mark. The colon is sometimes emphatic, and emphasis is often indicated by the dash. The use of the exclamation point is not to be en- couraged. The rule for its use may be thus stated. Use the exclamation point where the emphasis really demands it, but do not try to make your writing emphatic by its use. • The following is an example of the correct use of the exclamation point. Huntsman, rest ! thy chase is done ; While our slumb'rous spells assail ye, Dream not, with the rising sun, Bugles here shall sound reveille. Sleep ! the deer is in his den ; Sleep ! thy hounds are by thee lying ; 370 Effective Style Sleep ! nor dream in yonder glen, How thy gallant steed lay dying. Huntsman, rest ; thy chase is done, Think not of the rising sun, For at dawning to assail ye. Here no bugle sounds reveille. — From The Lady of the Lake, Sir Walter Scott The cheaper class of newspapers endeavor to create emphasis by the use of all the devices known to the printer's art. The only result of this, however, is to multiply a spurious sort of emphasis, which defeats its own purpose, making the lack of real emphasis painful to the judicious reader. Emphasis by Italicizing. — The use of italics is another method of indicating emphasis to the eye. » While it is often necessary, yet the rule holds that real emphasis should be in the matter and not in the manner of its presentation. The use of italics in your writing should be rare. EXERCISE m EMPHASIS Laying Hold of Opportunity. — Show how opportunity should be seized. Shape your writing in any way you please. Let it be a theme, or a short story, or put it in editorial form. If you prefer the story form, take an ordinary, everyday man or woman, boy cr girl, under circumstances that might confront any one of the thousands living in a large city, and make a hero or heroine of on^ who lays hold of opportunity. Think the emphasis into your story. Crowd force into it by hard thinking. 1. Use an outline. Do not adopt this framework hastily. Test it for emphasis. 2. Cut it down. Use not more than half the number of words you feel that you would like to use. 3. Rewrite it. First drafts are valuable, but seldom thor- oughly satisfactory. Use what the first draft offers as the Elegance 371 basis of what your final draft is to be, but challenge the right of every word, phrase, clause, sentence, and paragraph to its place in your writing. Elegance. — Elegance in style implies three things : (1) ease of execution : (2) sustained power in speaking and writing ; and (3) a mastery of all that is best in literary work. Elegance is that subtle something in a work of literary art which makes us feel delight in the workmanship. — Wendell. When a piece of literary work is justly characterized as elegant, it is because all that enters into it has been well chosen. The derivation of the word elegance shows the secret of its attainment. It comes from the two Latin words ex and lego^ meaning to choose from. Trying this, that, and the other method of expressing what you have in mind to say begets an instinct which not only tells you when you are right, but before long enables you to get it right at first. You do with ease and apparently without thinking^ what it has taken much thinking to learn to do. Elegance often shows in the judicious use of what is termed prose rhythm. Prose Rhythm. — Prose rhythm gives to the periods a certain measured flow, the result sometimes of a natural, but more often of a cultivated ear, imparting an " exqui- site but unobtrusive melody," and constituting an attrac- tive feature of the style. Though this is to be sought after by the young writer, yet a too frequent or injudicious use of it is to be avoided. Nothing tires the hearer or reader so much as an apparent or pretentious striving after this effect. The King James Version of the Scriptures owes much of its charm to the wonderful beauty of its matchless 372 Effective Style rhythm, and if the new translation has in any way failed to lay hold of the English-speaking world, it may be largely because of its neglect of this important element of style. Speakers and writers who win the heart of the people owe much to this quality. Study the selection from Dickens for its beauty of rhythm. You will find in the passage from Burke that the rhythm-beat lends force and dignity to the thought. When Death strikes down the innocent and young, for every fragile form from which he lets the panting spirit free, a hundred virtues rise, in shapes of mercy, charity, and love, to walk the world and bless it. Of every tear that sorrowing mortals shed on such green graves, some good is born, some gentler nature comes. — The Old Curiosity Shop, Dickens. It is gone, that sensibility of principle, that chastity of honor, which felt a stain like a wound, which inspired courage, whilst it mitigated ferocity, which ennobled whatever it touched, and under which vice itself lost half its evil, by losing all its grossness. — Edmund Burke. ORAL EXERCISES IN EFFECTIVE STYLE Oral Work for Special Occasions.^ — When it is considered how much more frequently we are called upon to speak than we are to write, under ordinary circumstances, the importance of practice in speaking on various occasions may be readily seen. Try some of the following exercises in oral work. Try to work in something you have learned in this chapter. (a) Announcing the Purpose of a Meeting. Suppose that a meeting has been called for some definite purpose, for in- stance, to consider ways and means for financing the athletic 1 Suggested by the English Syllabus, Board of Regents, New York. Oral Exercises in Effective Style 373 association ; or to raise a fund for the purchase of reference books for the class ; or to provide money for buying a piece of statuary as the class gift to the school ; or to take up a collec- tion for sufferers of some kind ; or to make a request of the faculty, or of the Board of Education. You are put forward as temporary chairman. Tell in twenty-five words, the object of the meeting. (b) Introducing the Speaker of the Evening. — It devolves upon you to introduce the speaker. Do not make the mistake of thinking that you are the entertainer. Modesty in such cases is a great virtue. Say what you have to say in a very few words. Not over twenty or twenty-five at the most. Do not flatter the speaker unduly. This is in poor taste. (c) Rising to Ask a Question. — Some doubt exists as to what to do, even after due explanations have been made. Rise, and ask a definite question, courteously and briefly. (d) Soliciting Cooperation. — You are the representative of one English class, sent to solicit the cooperation of the other classes of your school, or of other high schools, in some matter of com- mon interest. Get permission from the instructor, and make an address of not more than five minutes. Unfailing courtesy is a necessary element of this sort of work. Go straight to your purpose, wasting no time in preliminaries. (e) Gift Presentation. — Some gift is to be presented ; a medal, or the school letters, won in athletics ; the prize in a spelling match ; some remembrance to one or another. Make a speech suited to the occasion. Use brevity of speech, but try to make at least one good point. Your school has won the loving cup, two out of three times, in the interscholastic field day, and it now belongs to you. Make the presentation speech. Take ten minutes, and touch on the good qualities of each of your lead- ing athletes. (/) Sales Talks.*— Make a talk on each of the following points concerning sales. 1. Managing a Team of Salesmen. — It devolves on you to instruct three boys or girls who are to spend a week during the holidays in a neighboring city, on a campaign 374 Effective Style for subscriptions to the Saturday Evening Post. Outline a good plan for the week, and include instructions as to how to sell your paper. Ten minutes. 2. Individual Sales. — You are now to do what you have just told others to do, get subscriptions for your paper. Give a three-minute talk, showing what the paper is, and why your prospective customer ought to subscribe. 3. Selling a Vacuum Sweeper. — Give the talk that brings a purchase. Three minutes. 4. Miscellaneous. — Try any of the following : selling real estate ; selling a farm ; selling Florida or Texas lands ; selling a used automobile ; acting as agent for an athletic goods house, and selling a basket-ball outfit to a neighboring high school ; selling stock in a mine in which you own some stock. (g) Explaining a Business Proposition. — You have been em- ployed to visit a certain list of citizens, to ask their cooperation in establishing a factory that will greatly benefit your neigh- borhood. A subscription of twenty-five dollars is required of each subscriber. Make a five-minute talk. Prepare a second talk, in case your first talk fails of its purpose. Be courteous, but do not be easily discouraged. Meet the objections, and come back with new arguments. Use the fact that others are taking hold. {h) Farewell Speech. — You are going away. Your literary society has shown its appreciation of your services in some ofiice. Bid the society farewell, briefly but pleasantly. Ex- press your good will toward the society and the school. Note. — Two things are to be avoided in all of the above, especially where sentiment enters into the occasion. (1) Do not be extravagant. (2) Do not be silly. Be as humorous as you please ; but in being hu- morous, do not skate on ice that is too thin. (i) An Imaginary Banquet. — Let four or five students be chosen as after-dinner speakers at a banquet. If deemed ad- visable, several groups of four or five speakers may be assigned, each group to celebrate a different occasion. Let one group celebrate St. Patrick's Day by a suitable program. Another Oral Exercises in EfiFective Style 375 may celebrate Lincoln's birthday. Still another may honot Columbus, or George Washington, or Robert E. Lee, or the founder of your school ; or impersonate the people at a banquet of the Sons or Daughters of the Revolution, or some pioneers' organization. It will not be difficult to decide upon a suitable occasion for celebration. If the celebration can be made to fit the date, so much the better. Let the toastmaster be chosen for his skill and wit. He should be brief, but able to make every word count, and keep the table in a roar. Courtesy should characterize his every effort. Let him summarize the. topic of each speaker in a sen- tence of not more than ten words for each. The individual speakers are to have their subjects or " toasts " carefully phrased, so as to give them the opportunity of saying much in little. They should be able to tell one story well, and should above all things, know when to quit. Brevity is said to be the soul of wit. Let the speakers be brief. Let one thing be noted, however; in making his speech, the after-dinner speaker is not limited by anything except time. He can make it in any way he pleases, always keeping courtesy and the eternal fitness of things well in mind. (J) Dramatic Impersonation. — Imagine yourselves members of a committee of the Continental Congress, holding a meeting on some important question. Dress to suit the characters, and act out some impressive scene, the details of which have been prepared by one of the class whose ambition it is to become a writer. This may be made quite effective. (k) The High School Gridiron Club. — Look up in the files of any good newspaper an account of the doings of the Gridiron Club, of Washington, D. C. Carry out a similar program. Deal with notable athletic and literary society happenings. Avoid giving cause for offense. (Z) The American Red Cross. — Nothing affords a better opportunity for an effective speech than the Red Cross. In both war and peace, it is first with its aid for suffering humanity. Make an appeal for its support. 876 EfTective Style The Battle of Waterloo. EXERCISES BASED ON PICTURES Waterloo. — This is a scene in the battle of Waterloo. The painter is Frangois Flameng. This battle sealed the doom of Napoleon. It is so famous that its name is often used to suggest utter failure. Study about the battle, and give a talk on it. Take the side of Napoleon, or of the English, and state what you believe to be the facts concerning one of the great figures of history, and the battle that shattered all his hopes. Napoleon. — Prepare an address on Napoleon. Give your subject careful study, if you attempt it at all, and use as many words as you deem best, but not more than one thousand. Unless you write it out and learn it, you can say well all you have to say in about two hundred words. Feel free, however, to express your own view of Napoleon. Take care not to ofEend those in your class who hold op- posing views. CHAPTER XXVri THE MECHANICS OF EFFECTIVE STYLE Exercise is the chief source of improvement in all our faculties. — Blair. Measurement. — In order to write effectively you must know how much you are writing. You ought to be able to write ten words, or fifty words, or one hundred words, and know when you have done so. That is, you should be able to gauge your writing^ as to the number of words. You should know how many words in your ordinary hand will fill a page of manuscript. In counting words, all words, including a, aw, and the^ are to be counted. You will find that you average 'so many words to the page. Your own page will thus become your unit of measurement^ and you will be enabled to tell the number of words in any given article, theme, or paper you have written. In this book special attention has been given from the first to accurate measurement of the number of words. You are to continue to measure all that you are called upon to write. Professional writers count the number of words in everything they produce, indicating the number of words of every article. In preparing any matter that is to be* spoken, or to be read aloud, the safe average. to allow is from one hundred words per minute to perhaps one hundred and twenty-five words per minute, for the allotted time, and this only in 377 378 Mechanics of Style the case of the practiced speaker. Beginners should not allow more than eighty or ninety words to the minute. You can say as much in five hundred words as you can in six hundred, or seven hundred, or in a thousand words. It will be harder work, and it will take time to boil down your material and pack your sentences full of force and emphasis. But your speech will then have all the more force. Another reason why fewer words to the' minute are more effective is that it gives the impression of an unused fund of power on your part. You seem to have yourself well in hand. You have bo counted your words as to make every word count. Count the words in the speech or writing of some master, and try to say the same thing in as few words. Take some excellent work of your own, and try to make it better in fewer words. If you work at it intelligently, you will be surprised at the improvement in your English. It will mean much more than it says., and this is a fine test of speech or writing. EXERCISES IN MEASUREMENT (a) Ten-word Exercises, Set 1. — Limit the following telegrams to ten words each. 1. Ask why your friend did not arrive on the noon train, as agreed, and inquire when to expect him or her. Note. — In writing telegrams, the address and signature are not charged for. Each figure counts as one word. Write out your numbers, and do not use figures. In cable messages, charge is made for each word. In order to reduce expense, ingenious "codes" are devised, in which a single word stands for a complete sentence. 2. Send a telegram of congratulation to a friend on his securing a desirable public office. 3. Give your parents an account of an accident to the Exercises in Measurement 379 train on whicli you are going east. Give particulars, including statement of your own escape from injury. 4. You are on your way to the wedding of a friend, and are unexpectedly delayed by the falling of a bridge. Indi- cate the cause of 'the delay, and when you will probably arrive. (b) Ten-word Exercises, Set 2. — Write the following exercises, limiting the number of words to ten. 1. Your father left at daybreak by train to open an im- portant legal case. He discovers that he has left papers of value at home. He wires description and requests you to forward them. You find the papers and comply with his request. Write out his telegram and your reply, each in ten words. 2. A teachers' agency offers you a school at Danville, Kentucky, at seventy-five dollars a month, for ten months of school. Write the telegram and your reply. 3. Wire the postmaster at Charlottesville, Virginia, asking him to forward your mail to Washington, D. C, care of general delivery. 4. You are manager of your high school nine. Wire the manager of the nine at Terre Haute, Indiana, challenging him to a game on your grounds for the second Friday in June. You ask half the gate money. (c) Twenty-jive-word Exercises. — In each of the following, use twenty-five words. 1. Write a note of congratulation to a friend on his nine- teenth birthday. 2. Write a letter of condolence to your friend on the death of a relative. 3. Write a note to accompany some small gift or remem- brance. 4. Write a note home from the train, and drop it in the mail-box at the station, to let your family know that you are en route. 380 Mechanics of Style 5. Write a letter to the editor of a magazine, offering some photographs taken while at the seashore. (d) Night or Day Letters. Fifty words. — Telegrams containing fifty words may be sent at night for the same charge as for ten-word telegrams. Thousands of such letters are sent. 1. Write a telegram of one hundred words, and condense it to fifty words. 2. Your sister has lost her valise in the Grand Central Station, Kew York City. Telegraph her on board Train No. 34, N. Y. Central R. R., care conductor, stating that you have found the valise and will forward same to her address at Buffalo. 3. You were to have met a party at Detroit, going north for a summer vacation trip. You have unexpectedly been called upon to make a report that will take two or three days in preparing. Wire your party, care the Station, indicating when and where you will join them. They are going out on the Pere Marquette road. 4. You have been invited to a house party at Louisville, to spend a week there, and then go to Memphis. You find that you are unable to get there until the end of the week. Wire your regrets for the delay, asking whether you shall come then, or wait to join them at Memphis. That will give them a chance to invite some one in your place for the Louisville party, if they so choose. Express wishes for a pleasant time. (e) Hundred-word Exercises. — Write each of the following exer- cises in one hundred words. 1. Tell in one hundred words the story of Arnold's treason. The best way to do this, probably, will be to write your account without special reference to the number of words, and then cut it down, discarding all unnecessary words. Then rewrite it, aiming to make it just one hundred words in length. Exercises in Measurement 381 2. Tell in the same number of words how " messengers " are sent up on a kite-string. Explain the philosophy of this, that is, tell why these bits of paper rise the whole length of the string. 3. If any recent archaeological find has been made ; that is, if any discovery of ancient statues has been announced, tell about it in one hundred words. Eefer to the newspaper account, if you have it ; or ask the librarian to help you find any facts within reach. 4. Give a pen picture of any one of the following, in one hundred words : (a) An old-fashioned, but lovely lady ; (6) A description of the theaters in Shakespeare's time ; (c) A newly landed immigrant family ; {d) The statue of Venu^ de Milo; (e) A cloud-capped mountain peak, as for instance, Pikes Peak, seen from any point in the vicinity of Denver ; (/) A glimpse of the Hudson river, or the Greenbrier ; of the Ohio, or the Susquehanna, the Missouri, the Rio Grande, or the Mississippi. Or describe any stream near you. (/) Write upon these topics in one hundred and fifty words. Discuss any one of the following topics regarding the de- portment of girls under the circumstances indicated, suggesting what is proper and what not proper to do ; what are the latest requirements, socially or otherwise, and what are the dictates of authorities on dress and such matters on differ- ent occasions, and any other items that may suggest them- selves. (1) The Girl at School. (6) The Girl as a Hostess. (2) The Girl in the Gym- (7) The Girl at a Recep- nasium. tion. (3) The Girl on the Play- (8) The Girl in First Aid to ground. the Injured. (4) The Girl Travelmg (9) The Girl as an Autoist. Alone. (10) The Girl as a Journal- (5) The Girl in the Office. ist. 382 Mechanics of Style EXERCISES BASED ON PICTURES WooLWORTH Building, New York City. Seen through an arch of the City Hall. A Glimpse of New York City. — But what a glimpse ! A style of ar- chitecture born in Amer- ica, majestic in its beauty, — the Wool worth Build- ing, seen through an arch of the City Hall. 1. Study the picture, and describe it. 2. Study of a Building. — If you live near enough to visit this building, do so, and report to the class on what you saw. 3. If you live in an impor- tant city, decide in class on what building is most worth your study. Make a study of this building, and report it to the class. 4. If you live in a remoter neighborhood, think carefully over all the buildings in your neighborhood, and make a study of the one that seems most interesting from an architectural point of view. Write a description of it. Arrangement. — By arrangement in composition you are enabled to make the most of your material. It is not separate and distinct from the qualities of style, but it combines all there is in literary style to best advantage. Arrangement is said by one critic to be the heart of the theory of style. If it were possible to give to two writers the same words, thoughts, illustrations, purpose, and the Rearranging 383 same occasion, one might so arrange the material as to make his effort a work of genius, while the work of the other might be a mere jumble of words. You should early cultivate the habit of knowing at the outset what you intend to say. This is not easy at first as it takes real determination to accomplish ; but resolute effort in this direction will have its reward in a settled habit of mind. In any kind of building worth the name, the architect's plans must precede the actual construction work. This is what Walter Pater has in mind when he says that for a writer to succeed, he must have " an architectural con- ception" of the writing he has in mind, which foresees the end from the beginning, and never loses sight of the object. The most simple direction that can be given for this is, that words he arranged in the order which most clearly brings out the thought. In order that you may get at this, try the effect of words, and of all the elements of composition, shaping and reshaping, writing and rewriting your work. This gives you a style of your own that you could acquire in no other way. Rearranging. — In rewriting your sentences to get at the best possible arrangement, the question for you to ask is. Have I succeeded in making this thought plain ? Have 1 really said what I started out to say? Never be satisfied with anything short of this. EXERCISES IN ARRANGEMENT (a) Arranging a Newspaper Story. — Read carefully the Ode on a Grecian Urn by John Keats so as to catch the fine description there given. Either mentally, or with a written list, note from twenty to fifty words occurring in the poem, to be woven into your description, as required below. 1. Write an article in newspaper style in three hundred words, disguising the fact that you are getting your description 384 Mechanics of Style from Keats. Test it later on to see whether or not you ha^e succeeded in making your work appear original. 2. Write a cabled account, dating it at Naples, Italy, show- ing how an Italian laborer engaged in exploring some ruins comes upon a vase, which experts declare to be a valuable " find " and a piece of work of rare and exquisite beauty. Ad- dress it as if to a leading newspaper in one of our largest cities. Make it in two paragra^phs, the first a summarizing para- graph, in seventy-five words, detailing the finding of the vase ; and the other descriptive of the vase, in two hundred or more words. • Note. — Cabled accounts (so headed) are often forwarded by mail, or written in the editorial ofl&ce. Frequently, a telegraphic or cabled item is enlarged upon. Material taken from the encyclopedia or reference library, and photographs long held for just such occasions are used with ex- cellent effect.* (b) A rranging Description of Picture Work. — Take one or more of the following exercises on picture work. 1. Suppose you are working on a newspaper. The editor hands you a picture of Raeburn's William Ferguson of Kilrie, You are to write two hundred words. 2. Go to the art room of the public library ; or to the li- brary of the art museum, if open to the public or to you ; or procure an illustrated art catalogue, or a book descriptive of artists and their work. Select one from the list of famous portraits given below, and write a careful description of it in two hundred words. Work by outline. Crowd your article with information. {a) Van Dyck's William II, Prince of Nassau ; (h) Gains- borough's The Blue Boy; (c) Countess Potocka, by an unknown artist; (d) Whistler's Carlyle; (e) Lely or Cooper's Oliver Cromwell; (/) Stuart's Washington; (g) Franz Hals' Laugh- ing Cavalier. (c) Arranging Editorials. — Prepare a first draft, and on the basis of that, arrange your material for a careful editorial. Exercises 385 1. Suppose there is a campaign and you are anxious for your party to win. The registration is close. You are editor of a city paper, and to-morrow is election day. Arrange an editorial for to-morrow's issue, in three hundred words, urging every man to go to the polls. 2. Arrange an editorial on " Hopefulness for the Future," reading, marking, and inwardly digesting the thought contained in Whittier's poem. The Old and the New. Prepare the story carefully. In your plan, show that there is a steady climb in everything that pertains to human life. Write two hundred and fifty words. 3. Prepare an, editorial suitable for a school paper, discuss- ing any one of the following topics relating to boys. Arrange it carefully. (a) The Boy on the Farm, (b) The Boy as a Gentleman: (c) The Boy and the Savings Bank, (d) The Boy as an In- ventor, (e) The Boy as a Hero. (/) The Boy as a Law- breaker, (g) A Plea for the Public Playground, (h) The Boy as an Athlete, (i) The Peculiar Code of Morals of Young Boys, (j) What Boys Have Done as Soldiers, (k) Chances for Boys. — How do They Compare with Those of Yesterday? EXERCISES IN CLEAR THINKING, AND ACCURATE, FLUENT, AND VARIED EXPRESSION Public Occasions.^- — The exercises named below are intended as suggestive. It would hardly be possible to have all, or even many of them on the same program. There is material here, or suggested by what is here, for many opportunities of appearing in public. (a) Graceful Speeches. — Nothing adds more to the pleasure as well as profit of a convention or gathering of any kind than a graceful speech of welcome, or one outlining the plan of the program, or of compliment to the delegates to the convention, or of sympathy with the purposes of the gathering at which the speech is made. This 1 Public occasions should be arranged so that pupils, after careful preparation, may have the opportunity of speaking in public. Emphasis should be laid increasingly upon clear thinking and accurate, fluent, varied expression. — From the English Syllabus, Board of Regents, New York. 386 Mechanics of Style matter of graceful speech is well within the ability of the high school student, and it should be studied as a definite part of his school work. Try one or more of the following. 1. Address Before a Convention of Teachers. — "Pestalozzi as the Father of Vocational Training." Use about five hun- 'dred words, shaping it into a five-minute address. Say some- thing complimentary concerning the profession of teaching. Use any other title that may interest you. 2. Address of Welcome to a Teachers' Institute. — " Some of the Rewards of Teaching." In the course of your remarks, take occasion to speak of the debt the student owes to the faithful teacher, 3. " Welcome to Our City.'' — Prepare a five-minute talk in which you take occasion to welcome some visiting organization in convention assembled. 4. A Presentation Speech. — You are made the spokesman of your class in making some presentation. Do it gracefully. (6) Conversation. — You should be. able to converse easily and in- telligently upon some topic of the day. Choose an interesting topic. (c) Explanation of the reasons for a bond issue for the building of a new high school. Prepare to speak for this issue, giving the reasons for the step. (rf) Book Reviews. — Give a careful book review of five hundred words, equivalent to a five-minute speech. Say a few words about the author. Tell the story of the book, and take one minute to char- acterize the book, that is, to tell what you think about it. Select some book worth while, whether a novel, a book of biography, an autobiography, a book of travels, or a book on some scientific subject. (e) Reports on Processes. — Describe some process. Take any of the following. (1) The making of Bessemer steel ; (2) the making of sugar from sugar cane .; (3) the making of sugar from beet roots ; (4) the making of maple sugar ; (5) how flour is made ; (6) the process of welding by the oxyacetylene flame. (/) Moot Court. — Let a committee of students who look forward to the study of law, arrange a moot court. If they can enlist the help Exercises 387 of some former students of the high school now at law school, ot engaged in the practice of the law, let this be done. (g) Mock Trial. — Grst the help of former members of the school who know how to proceed, and arrange a mock trial. This is in no sense to be a burlesque trial. Let the students engaged in it use their best endeavor to carry on a trial. Study the functions of the judge on the bench ; of the court clerk ; of the sheriff and his deputies ; of the attorneys for both sides ; of the witnesses for both sides; and of the parties to the case. Introduce as many as possible of the features named below. (1) The preliminaries to the trial of the case ; (2) a lawyer's plea; (3) the examination of witnesses by an attorney, and a ci'oss examination by the attorney on the other side ; (4) the jury within the jury room, discussing the testimony ; (5) the rendering of the verdict by the jury. (K) Reports. — Make yourself master of the facts, and report on one oj the following topics of interest. 1. The progress of submarine construction. 2. The progress of aviation as an aid to military organization. 3. Obtaining power, electrical or otherwise, from running streams. (J) Command of Language. — The Report of the National Joint Committee on Enalish urges exercises for command of language. Prepare beforehand enough good short stories from current magazines to go round the class. Take an idea from the hospital service of many women's clubs, where short stories thus clipped are bound, each story by itself, inclosed in a strong manila envelope, and sent to the convalescent wards. Select only such stories as may be read in twenty minutes or less. Each pupil will tell his story to a student designated by the instructor, and listen in his turn to this student's story. For the next day let each bring to class the story thus heard, carefully written. 388 Mechanics of Style Photograph by Elmer L. Facte. Capitol at Washington. The first elm at the right was planted by George Washington. EXERCISES BASED ON PICTURES The Capitol at Washington. — The national Capitol fitly rep- resents the majesty of the American people. It is considered one of the finest examples of governmental arcMtecture. The tree showing in the picture just to the right of the Capitol was planted by George Washington. 1. The History of the Capitol. — Look up the history of the Capitol and tell it. 2. Your State Capitol. — Get what information you can about your own Capitol building. If possible, attach a photograph. 3. County or City Building. — Give a description of your county or city building. If you prefer to describe a church, a fine residence, or some office building, you may do so. 4. A Famous Tree. — Is there any tree in your vicinity that is his- torical ? If so, tell its story. Or describe a tree notable for its beauty. CHAPTER XXVITT BEAUTY, TASTE, AND CRITICISM A thing of beauty is a joy forever ; Its loveliness increases ; it will never Pass into nothingness. — John Keats. Beauty. — There are many kinds of beauty. Perhaps that which is most generally recognized is that of the landscape, and of those things we call the picturesque. Next, perhaps, come beauty in architecture, in painting, in sculpture, and in music. Beauty of rhythm, poetic beauty, beauty of eloquence, and literary beauty, are the objects of our present study. Xaate. — Taste is that faculty by which we discern and enjoy beauty. It should govern all constructive work in writing. Taste is capable of cultivation. At first, the student may be able to tell only what pleases or displeases him in what he hears or reads, but by degrees he becomes able to judge as to beauties or defects. Exercise in discrimination soon brings about a growing and enlightened, or as we say, a cultivated taste. It has been well said by Goethe that " Taste should be educated by contemplation not of the tolerably good, but of the truly excellent. When you have fully apprehended the best, you will have a standard, and will know how to value inferior performances without overrating them." The best critics agree in this. Arnold Bennett, in his 389 390 Beauty, Taste, and Criticism Literary Taste and How to Form It^ says that the student must begin with works that are classic, and of acknowl- edged merit, and that he must exercise some degree of faith in the judgment of others as to what is beautiful, until ere long he comes to value for himself what is of true worth, and to judge of his own work by an intelligent and impartial estimate. Examples of Literary Beauty. — The selections given be- low will be found to contain much that is beautiful, and a variety of beauty. Let the student read them over, de- ciding which he considers most beautiful, and giving the reasons for his choice. In addition to this, let each pupil bring to class one passage of his own choosing that appears beautiful to him, indicating why he thinks it so. Let some member of the class who is a good reader, read these selections aloud in class, so as to bring out their beauty. The best way to appreciate a fine selection is to hear it read aloud. One of the ancients well says that "the ear trieth words, as the tongue taste th meat."^ SELECTIONS NOTED FOR THEIR BEAUTY On First Looking Into Chapman's Homer Much have I travelled in the realms of gold, And many goodly states and kingdoms seen ; Eound many western islands have I been Which bards in fealty to Apollo hold. Oft of one wide expanse had I been told That deep-brow'd Homer ruled as his demesne j Yet did I never breathe the pure serene . Till I heard Chapman speak out loud and bold : Then felt I like some watcher of the skies When a new planet swims into his ken ; 1 Job xxxiv, 3. Examples of Literary Beauty 391 Or like stout Cortez when with eagle eyes ■ He star'd at the Pacific — and all his men Looked at each other with a wild surmise — Silent, upon a peak in Darien. — John Keats. Beauty Perhaps the most complete assemblage of beautiful objects that can anywhere be found, is presented by a rich natural landscape, where there is a sufficient variety of objects ; fields in verdure, scattered trees and flowers, running water and ani- mals grazing. If to these be joined some of the productions of art which suit such a scene ; as a bridge which arches over a river, smoke rising from cottages in the midst of trees, and the distant view of a fine building seen by the rising sun ; we then enjoy, in the highest perfection, that gay, cheerful and placid sensation which characterizes beauty. — Hugh Blair. The Daffodils I wandered lonely as a cloud That floats on high o'er Vales and Hills, When all at once I saw a crowd, A host of golden daffodils ; Beside the Lake, beneath the trees, Pluttering and dancing in the breeze. Continuous as the stars that shine And twinkle in the milky way, They stretched in never-ending line Along the margin of the bay ; Ten thousand saw I at a glance, Tossing their heads in sprightly dance. The waves beside them danced, but they Out-did the sparkling waves in glee ; — A poet could not but be gay, In such a jocund company: 392 Beauty, Taste, and Criticism I gazed — and gazed — but little thought What wealth the show to me had brought For oft, when on my couch I lie In vacant or in pensive mood, They flash upon that inward eye Which is the bliss of solitude, And then my heart with pleasure fills, And dances with the Daffodils. — William Wordsworth. Sunrise But yonder comes the powerful king of day. Rejoicing in the east. The lessening cloud. The kindling azure, and the mountain's brow Illumed with liquid gold, his near approach Betoken glad. Lo ! now apparent all, Aslant the dew-bright earth and colored air He looks in boundless majesty abroad, And sheds the shining day, that, burnished, plays On rocks, and hills, and towers, and wandering streams, High gleaming from afar. — James Thomson, in The Seasons. Wit, Humor, and Pathos. — Beauty is closely related to three other qualities purely mental. These are mt^ humor, and pathos. It is frequently hard to say whether a passage is the more beautiful or witty, and beauty and pathos are often hard to distinguish. Wit. — Wit is the discovery of such an unexpected relation between ideas as to create surprise and laughter. It always implies a sort of acumen or mental superiority on the part of the listener or reader, and this is perhaps the secret of the pleasure it conveys. Wit may shade into beauty or humor. There is always a lightning-flash in wit as shown in the following examples. Puns 393 Hypocrisy is a sort of homage that vice pays to yirtue. — La Rochefoucauld. William M. Evarts' wit was certainly mother wit. His mother was the daughter of one of the first governors of Con- necticut, who at one time entertained General, Washington. She was a child of six or seven years, and as the great general was about to leave her father's house, she ran to the front door and opened it wide for him. He bent his stately form and said, " Thank you, my little maid. I wish you a better office." Instantly she responded, " Yes, sir, — to let you in, not to pass you out." — St. Louis Globe-Democrat Memory is that feeling which steals over you when you listen to your friend's original stories. — Lord Rosebery. Puns. — When the unexpected and witty relation is . not so much between ideas as between words, we call it a pun. Some of the most treasured witticisms of our language are puns. When the Declaration of Independence was signing, John Hancock said, "We must all hang together." "You are right," said Ben Franklin, " or we'll all hang separately." Sidney Smith, when advised by his physician to take a walk every morning upon- an empty stomach, said, " Whose, Doctor?" Home Tooke, one of the great wits of England, when asked why writers were commonly referred to as " the Republic of Letters," replied, " We poor writers may well be called a republic, for there is not a sovereign ^ amongst us." William M. Evarts was showing Lord Coleridge about the grounds of Mcfunt Vernon on one occasion. Talking of Wash- ^ Sovereign : a gold coin of Great Britain, worth one pound sterling ($ 4.86) ; 80 called from tb© likeness of the monarch on one side. 304 Beauty, Taste, and Criticism ington's great physical strength, the Englishman ventured to doubt the story told of Washington's throwing a silver dollar froi^ bank to bank across the Potomac river. Mr. Evarts said, "I can rfeadily see why you doubt ii, my lord, but you must remember that a dollar went much farther in those days." On one occasion, Lord Erskine was overtaken on the street by a friend who introduced to him a gentleman with whom the friend was walking. This latter expressed a desire to witness an example of Erskine's wit. " Well, then, what is to be the subject?" queried Erskine. "Oh, the King." "I beg your pardon, sir, the King is not a subject," was the in- stantaneous reply. — The New York Evening Post. Humor. — When wit is characterized by tenderness and good nature it becomes humor. Thackeray says that humor is a compound of wit and love. Wit flashes, while humor lingers. Shakespeare, Hood, Lamb, Thackeray, Dickens, Blackmore, Kipling, De Morgan, Irving, Mark Twain, Stevenson, Bret Harte, Van Dyke, O. Henry, and Whitcomb Riley are humorists. E. P. Whipple thus aptly distinguishes between wit and humor. He says, "Wit laughs at things. Humor laughs with them. Wit lashes external appearances, or cunningly exaggerates single foibles into character. Humor glides into the heart of its object, looks lovingly on the infirmities it detects, and represents the whole man. Wit is daring, darting, scornful, and tosses its analogies in your face. Humor is slow and shy, insinuat- ing its fun into your heart." Read the scene from Much Ado About Nothing, where Dogberry figures ; or " the Barmecide's Feast," in the Arabian Nights Entertainments ; or the story of " Sancho Panza on the Island," in Don Quixote ; or "Mr. Pickwick Exercises Based on Pictures 395 on the Ice," in Pickwick Papers ; or "The Leaping Frog of Calaveras County," from Mark Twain's Sketches; or " The Jury Scene in Vanity Fair," from John Banyan's Pilgrims Progress^ for examples of humor. EXERCISES BASED ON PICTURES Alaska. John Sinook and Family. — Here is a dele- gate to the Igloo Fair, near the Arctic Circle. He is a prominent reindeer man, owner of a line herd, won by faithful apprenticeship to the reindeer industry. He looks, and is, pros- perous. He is clad in a complete suit of reindeer skin. His family look comfortable and happy. The United States Gov- ernment, through the Bu- reau of Education, is doing all in its power to help this simple and honest people, in helping them to help themselves. John Sinook and Family. Study the Eskimo pictures to catch something of how the Eskimo live, and think out a story of the journey made by this family on two sleds, drawn by reindeer. The driver takes care of both sleds, tiie second deer being attached to the first sled by its halter. If you prefer, tell the story of one of the pet animals belonging to the children, — an Eskimo dog, or a reindeer fawn or baby deer. Pathos. — When beauty or humor are combined with sadness and tenderness, Vv 3 call the quality pathos. Laughter and tears do not lie far apart, and there is a 396 Beauty, Taste, and Criticism very easy transition from the humorous to the pathetic. Almost all humorists are masters of pathos. A fine example of pathos is found in a Christmas Carol by Charles Dickens. Probably no better example of pathos is found in literature. To a Field Mouse,, and To a Mountain Daisy ^ both by Robert Burns, are fine examples of pathos. The Harp That Once Through TarcHs Halls^ by Thomas Moore, and / Remember^ I Remember^ by Thomas Hood, are excellent illustrations of this quality. EXERCISES (a) Taste. — Refer to an excellent and interesting book by Arnold Bennett, the novelist and critic, entitled Literary Taste and How to Form It, in which he discusses a number of points covered in this chapter. In the chapter How to Read a Classic, he suggests that you begin with Charles Lamb's Dream Children, and he makes a study of that beautiful short story. (b) Beauty. — Try to appreciate the beauty in the following : (1) Refer to a volume of sketches by E. V. Lucas, Some Friends of Mine, in which occurs one of the most beautiful little things that have appeared in recent years. He tells that ^n inmate of the Cook County Asylum, near Chicago, wrote his will, which Lucas quotes with the humorous comment that if such are the bequests of the insane, let us have less sanity. It appears in the volume referred to, under the head of Charles Lounsbury. (2) Refer to W. B. Yeats' introduction to Rabindranath Tagore's book of poems, Gitanjalij and also to the sixtieth number of that set of poems, for a study of real beauty. Tagore is a Hindu writer. Note. — It would be worthwhile to have these selections read in class and an oral discussion in connection with this reading. (c) Two Beautiful Passages. — Try to put some of the beauty of the following passages into what you write of them. 1. The Famous Palace and Gardens of Alcinous. — Refer to the Odyssey, book vii, lines 97-160, Bryant's translation. This Criticism 397 is a fine bit of description, and a beautiful picture of the early Greek civilization. Describe this palace and garden, after mastering the description. Prepare an outline, and endeavor to catch something of the beauty. Write it in one hundred and twenty-five words. 2. Nausicaa and Her Handmaidens Play at Ball. — Odyssey ^ book vi, lines 138-268, Bryant's translation. Nausicaa and her young attendants, having finished washing their clothes in the river, amuse themselves in a game of ball, playing noisily as girls do. They wake Ulysses, who was sleeping exhausted after his shipwreck. The gracious young princess becomes his friend and protector. Write the story in one hundred words. Criticism. — Criticism is the application of taste and judgment to literary work, in order to decide what is ex- cellent and what is faulty in construction. Criticism is the estimation of work by defined standards. In its application to literature it is the trying of whatever is written. — Arlo Bates. Appreciation. — The first idea in literary criticism is appreciation, the exercise of good taste in discovering beauty in literary composition. If faults are to be looked for, it is that they may be removed as hindrances to the expression of what is beautiful. What is known sls fault- finding has no place in real criticism. When it comes to rules of criticism, however, it is easier to say what not to do, than what to do. Taste must de- cide as to the latter, and taste is founded on a sense of beauty. Fortunately this sense of beauty is common in a greater or less degree to all of us. Critical rules are in- tended chiefly to show the faults that are to be avoided. Criticizing Your Own Work. — The following items are suggested as helps in forming a critical judgment concern- ing your own speaking and writing. 398 Beauty, Taste, and Criticism 1. Count your words. Do not use too many. 2. Do not use the same word in the same sense too often on a page. 3. Recast every sentence that does not please you. 4. Be on your guard against favorite passages in your own writing. 5. Avoid the use of the first person in speaking or writing. 6. Avoid mannerisms. They are objectionable. 7. Let the main thought have right of way. 8. When the fever of writing is upon yqu, write as fast as thoughts come. 9. Make your memory the servant of your will. 10. Do not dream over your work. Put life into it. EXERCISE IN BEAUTY, TASTE, AND CRITICISM Criticize carefully your work in the following exercises : 1. Think of some view on land or water that has always appealed to you since you first saw it. Describe it in less than one hundred words. Aim at beauty in your description of beauty. 2. Tell something that has happened to you ; or something that has been told in your home. Tell it so as to make it a humorous story. 3. Make a good pun. Let it be original. Do not use over' twenty-five words. EXERCISE IN CRITICIZING DRAMATIZATION Oral or Written Dramatization. — You may take any one of the following exercises, orally or in writing. Criticize it carefully. (a) Two students may give a brief impromptu play or sketch, using one of the scenes given or suggested below. (h) You may write out a brief play in one scene, based on what is here given. Suggested Scenes. — 1. Two boys plan to. go fishing to- morrow. Give the conversation necessary in making the arrangements. Exercises in Criticizing Dramatization 399 2. A brother does his best to waken Dick, who said last night he wished to go on a walking trip to the country. 3. Two girls find it hard to decide where to spend the afternoon. One wishes to go to the Zoo, the other thinks she would like to visit the Art Museum. 4. Two girls are on the beach at Atlantic City. They dis- cover a turtle, and endeavor to capture it. 5. Dramatize Sohrab and Rustum. 6. Take any narrative and put it into dramatic form. 7. Write an original scene for two or three characters. Put it in shape for presentation, including proper and definite stage directions, instructions for costumes, and all instructions for playing it. (c) Longer Play. — Under the direction of the editorial committee^ let three or more students, selected for their skill in dramatization, design a play for presentation in public, either as a class play, or for the benefit of the school. Name one of the editorial committee as edi- tor-in-chief, with the other members as close assistants and advisers. Let this draft be in scenario form, outlining each scene, but with no dialogue. 1. Prepare the first draft in scenario form. Criticize this with the utmost care. 2. On the acceptance of the first draft, carefully rewritten, the editorial committee may direct the dramatic writers to put in the dialogue. Subject this to most careful criticism. Note. — As a special reward for the work the editorial committee has done, the members of this committee may prepare this play themselves. Articles of Magazine Length. ^ — Pupils of advanced grade who have displayed marked ability in English are now to attempt work which is more definitely the product of investigation and study. You iThis kind of work will require " ability to gather valuable information on the scale of the magazine article and make it pleasantly available to others, employing a working knowledge of the more commonly recognized principles of effectiveness, and of the rules of correctness." — From the Report of the National Joint Committee on the Beorganization of High School English. 400 Beauty, Taste, and Criticism have so far resolutely kept within small space. Now venture on ar- ticles of one to two thousand words ; and, after meeting the require- ments of the editorial committee, on longer articles. These may include expository outlines or themes ; debate, parlia- mentary usage ; related letters, short articles on popular topics, and if these are acceptable, gradually increasing their length ; editorials, scientific descriptions, and short stories. But in each case, prune your work vigorously. CHAPTER XXIX FIGURES OF SPEECH In figures, we see one thing in another. — Aristotle. Figurative Language. — Language may be either literal or figurative. If it is addressed to the understanding alone, it is usually said to be literal. If it seeks to appeal to the taste or to the imagination^ as well as to the under- standing, it is often figurative. Figurative language seeks not alone to convey a mean- ing, but to make that meaning agreeable or forcible. Speaking literally, we may say that a soldier fought fear- lessly. Or we may say that he fought like a lion. Ex- pressing it still more vividly we may say that he was a, lion in the fight. The latter two expressions are figurative. Important Figures. — Of the many kinds of figures, the thrfee most important are personification^ simile^ and metaphor. Personification. — In personification^ we speak of inani- mate objects or of ideas as having life, and of these and the lower animals as possessing the feelings, sympathies, and intelligence of humanity. In Gray's Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard^ one of the most perfect poems in the language, the poet says, Can storied urn or animated bust Back to its mansion call the fleeting breath ? Can Honour's voice provoke the silent dust, Or Flattery soothe the dull, cold ear of death ? 401 402 Figures of Speech The storied urn^ the animated bust^ are spoken of as calling, and the fleeting breath as unheeding, and as having deserted its mansion. Honour is personified, flxittery is personified, so is dust^ while the most beautiful figure is found in the concluding words of the fourth line of the quotation. Milton, in his twin odes L^ Allegro and II Penseroso^ uses much personification. A study of these matchless poems is valuable for the great amount of personification in them. In Sir William Jones' beautiful poem. What Constitutes a State P (page 238) the last three lines present a notable personification of law, as the empress of the state. In Ingalls' sonnet on Opportunity/, he personifies his subject. Refer also to Coilins's Ode to the Passions, and to Sidney Lanier's Ballad of Trees and the Master for beautiful ex- amples of personification. English prose abounds in this figure. Simile. — Simile consists in formally likening one thing to another. It contains an expressed comparison. In simile, comparison is usually indicated by like, as, such as, and words or phrases of similar meaning. A passage of " Tam O'Shanter," by Robert Burns, has been much admired as furnishing a series of beautiful similes. But pleasures are like poppies spread, You touch the flpwer, its bloom is fled ; Or like the snow-fall in the river, One moment white, then lost forever ; Or like the rainbow's tinted form, Evanishing amidst the storm ; Or like the Borealis race, That flits ere one can point the place ! Sir Walter Scott's " Coronach" is well known, and beautiful. Exercises Based on Pictures 403 He is gone on the mountain, he is lost to the forest, Like a summer-dried fountain, when our need was the sorest. Refer to Matthew Arnold's Sohrah and Rustum for a fine simile beginning, " As when some hunter," etc. Refer also to Coleridge's Ancient Mariner for beautifu?. similes quaintly expressed. Caution as to Simile. — Similes should not be drawn from objects too near, or where the resemblance is too obvious ; nor, on the other hand, from objects whose likeness is too remote. Far-fetched similes annoy rather than gratify the taste. Nor should similes be drawn from objects with which the ordinary reader or hearer is not acquainted. A too- frequent use of simile, especially in conversation, is tiresome. =.w^ On the Greenbrier River, West Virginia. EXERCISES BASED ON PICTURES Greenbrier River, "West Virginia. — Happy the lover of the "gentle art" of fishing who has had at least one trial of 404 Figures of Speech " Greenbrier." It will be something to boast of, and dream over, for years to come. There are bass and trout, and every other fish that a mountain stream might hold. If you have fished in this, or any similar stream, tell about it. Were you with a fishing party? How did it happen that you went along? Tell about the camp, if you camped out ; or about the hotel, if you were at a hotel. What luck did you have ? What incident impressed itself most clearly upon your mind ? The Fish I Didn't Catch. — Tell a story of the sort of luck that most of us have. How did the fish get away ? Metaphor. — Metaphor is a figure nearly allied to simile. It implies a comparison^ without definitely stating it, and therefore has greater force than simile. One of the most admired metaphors is that of Lord Byron, " Man, thou pendulum 'twixt a smile and a tear ! " Here the word indicating comparison is omitted, mak- ing it much more vivid than if Bj^ron had said that man is like a pendulum betwixt a smile and a tear. EXERCISES ON IMPORTANT FIGURES OF SPEECH (a) Personification. — Point out the use of personification in the following selections: (1) Heav'n from all creatures hides the book of fate. — Pope. (2) To him who in the love of Nature holds Communion with her visible forms, she speaks A various language. — Bryant (3) See what a rent the envious Casca made : Through this, the well beloved Brutus stabbed ; And, as he plucked his cursed steel away, Mark how the blood of Caesar followed it, As rushing out of doors, to be resolved, If Brutus so unkindly knocked, or no. — Shakespeare. Metonymy and Synecdoche 405 (h) Simile. — Point out the similes in the following passages. Indi- cate the sign of comparison used in each case. (1) Along the crowded path they bore her now, pure as the newly fallen snow, whose day on earth had been as fleeting. — Charles Dickens. (2) As we proceeded, the timid approach of twilight became more perceptible ; the intense blue of the sky began to soften ; the smaller stars, like little children, went first to rest. — Edward Everett. (3) This quiet sail is as a noiseless wing To waft me from distraction. — Lord Byron. (c) Metaphor. — Point out the metaphors in the examples given 'jelow : (1) He (Hamilton) smote the rock of the national resources and abundant streams of revenue gushed forth. — Daniel Webster. (2) Bread is the staff of life. — Old Proverb. (3) All experience is an arch wherethro' Gleams that untravell'd world. — Tennyson (4) In arms the Austrian phalanx stood, A living wall, a human wood. — Montgomery. Metonymy and Synecdoche. — These two figures are varieties of metaphor. They occur frequently both in common conversation and in literature of all kinds, where figurative language is employed. Metonymy. — In metonymy the image used to represent the object is closely connected with it in some such rela- tion as cause and effect^ the container and the thing contained^ or the sign and the thing signified, ' 406 Figures of Speech Who steals my purse, steals trash ; 't is something, nothing ; 'T was mine, 'tis his, and has been slave to thousands. — Shakespeare. Here the purse^ the container^ stands for the money which the purse is supposed to contain. And Jacob said. My son shall not go down with you ; for his brother is dead, and he is left alone : if mischief befalLhim by the way in the which ye go, then shall ye bring down my gray hairs with sorrow to the grave. — Genesis xlii. 38. Here, the words my gray hairs represent his old age^ and of course, himself. The sign is thus used for the thing signified. Synecdoche. — In synecdoche the whole is put for the part, or a part for the whole ; a genus for the species, or a species for the genus ; the singular for the plural, or the plural for the singular number ; that is, when anything more or less is put for the precise object meant, it is an in- stance of synecdoche. In the following selection, Tennyson uses the word blue, instead of sky, the quality of the sky being used by synec- doche for the sky itself. I came and sat Below the chestnuts when their buds Were glistening in the breezy blue. — Tennyson. Synecdoche uses such words as sail, waves, youth and beauty, the bench, and the bar, to signify the ships, the ocean, the young and beautiful, the Judge on the bench, and the lawyers who sit within the bar. Allusion. — Allusion, although a distinct figure, is closely relatted to metaphor. Reference is made to a noteworthy Classical Story 407 incident in history or in classical story, in the Bible or in some well-known piece of literature. When well used, it adds real and striking beauty to speech or writing. The allusion in the following sentence is from Farrar's Thoughts on America. The nation waved her hand, and her army of more than a million sank back instantly into peaceful civil life, as the sol- diers of Roderic Dhu sank back into the heather. — Farrar. EXERCISE ON METONYMY, SYNECDOCHE, AND ALLUSION Study the following selections and endeavor to decide what each figure is, and why. Explain each ; and in the case of the allusions, tell to what the reference is, in each case. (1) The fabled birth of Minerva from the brain of Jove was hardly more sudden or more perfect than the financial system of the United States, as it burst forth from the conceptions of Alexander Hamilton. — Daniel Webster. (2) The scepter, learning y physic must All follow this, and come to dust. — Dirge in Cymbeline, Shakespeare. (3) His mate feels the eggs beneath her wings, And the heart in her dumb breast flutters and sings. He sings to the wide world and she to her nest, — In the nice ear of Nature, which song is the best ? — Lowell. (4) In the sweat of thy face shalt thou eat bread, till thou return unto the ground. — Genesis Hi. 19. Apostrophe. — This figure is closely related to personi- fication. In apostrophe., the speaker or writer addresses some one not present as if he were present ; or some great 408 Figures of Speech man of the past, as though he were now living. Even abstract qualities, and things without life are addressed as though possessing life. It is a figure in frequent use to address our native land as one would address a living person. The following are examples of apostrophe : Hast thou a charm to stay the morning star In his steep course? So long he seems to pause On thy bald, awful head, sovran Blanc ! The Arve and Arveiron at thy base Rave ceaselessly"; but thou, most awful Form, Kisest from forth thy silent sea of pines. How silently ! — Ode to Mi. Blanc, Samuel T. Coleridge. And the king (David) was much moved, and went up to the chamber over the gate, and wept ; and as he went, thus he said, O my son Absalom ! my son, my son Absalom ! would God I had died for thee, Absalom, my son, my son ! — 2 Samuel xviii. 33. Interrogation. — This figure questions the absent as if they were present. This is true, even where the writer questions the reader. Its use promotes vividness, if it is sparingly used. The following is an example : death, where is thy sting ? grave, where is thy victory ? — 1 Corinthians xv. 55. Antithesis. — Antithesis is a figure based upon the un- likeness between things. It is, therefore, the opposite of metaphor. It is a striking figure, where the objects thus contrasted are diametrically opposed to each other. The following is a good example of antithesis : Hamlet. Look here, upon this picture, and on this, The coimterfeit presentment of two brothers. See, what a grace was seated on this brow : Hyperion's curls, the front of Jove himself ; Climax 409 An eye like Mars, to threaten and command ; A station like the herald Mercury New-lighted on a heaven-kissing hill ; A combination and a form indeed Where every god did seem to set his seal, To give the world assurance of a man. This was your husband. Look you now, what follows ? Here is your husband, like a mildew'd ear, Blasting his wholesome brother. — Shakespeare. For a powerful example of antithesis, refer to Moulton's Modern Reader's Bible ^ Oration III, pp. 97-98. Climax. — When a series of words, phrases, clauses, or sentences is so arranged that each surpasses the preced- ing one in intensity or importance, this arrangement is called a climax. The following is an example of climax: Grand, gloomy, and peculiar, he sat upon the throne a scep- tered hermit, wrapt in the solitude of his own originality. A mind, bold, independent, and decisive ; a will, despotic in its dictates ; an energy that distanced expedition ; and a con- science, pliable to every touch of interest, marked the outlines of this extraordinary character, — the most extraordinary, per- haps, that in the annals of this world ever rose, or reigned, or fell. — Phillips. For fine examples of climax, refer to Victor Hugo's de- scription of the battle of Waterloo, in Les Miserahles; to Moses' farewell orations, the Deuteronomy volume of Moul- ton's Modern Reader's Bible, pp. 21-25, and pp. 107 -108 , Oration I. Irony. — Irony i^ a figure of speech which says one thing and means another. Lowell says that it is a sort of verbal boomerang, which while apparently thrown in one 410 Figures of Speech direction, strikes in another. There is a difference be* tween gentle irony ^ and what is termed hitter irony. The quotation below from Addison is in the gentler form. There is another way of reasoning which seldom fails, though it be of a quite different nature from that I have last mentioned. I mean convincing a man by ready money, or, as it is ordinarily called, bribing a man to an opinion. A man who is furnished with arguments from the mint will convince the antagonist much sooner than one who draws them from reason and philosophy. Gold is a wonderful clearer of the understanding ; it dissipates every doubt and scruple in an in- stant ; accommodajbes itself to the meanest capacities ; silences the loud and clamorous, and brings over the most obstinate and inflexible. — Addison. For an example of bitter irony, refer to Elijah's mockery of the prophets of Baal, 1 Kings xviii. 22-27, Hyperbole. — Hyperbole resembles metaphor, but the object which is represented is greatly exaggerated in size or importance, for the sake of emphasis. It is very com- monly used in conversation. The following is a good ex- ample of hyperbole., referring to Helen of Troy ; Was this the face that launched a thousand ships, And burnt the topless towers of Ilium ? — Marlowe. EXERCISES ON FIGURES OF SPEECH In the following exercises try to let your use of figures be natural. Do not strain for effect or drag in anything far-fetched. 1. Think out the plot of a little story of simple adventure. Let there be two or three characters. You may tell it in the first person, if you choose. In telling your story, manage to use two or three distinct figures of speech. Exercises on Figures of Speech 411 2. Describe a visit to the Zoo. Tell it so as to bring in the use of at least four different kinds of figures of speech. 3. Look up ten examples of figures of speech used in the College Entrance literature that you have studied in English. Choose none but the best examples of whatever figures of speech you may desire to bring to class. Name each kind. 4. Listen to the talk of your classmates, and bring to class three figures of speech, correctly used, occurring in their con- versation. Name each figure there used. Avoid personalities, and be careful to give offense to no one. 5. Longer Theme. Write a«n article for your school paper, or for publication in some good newspaper, on The Use of Figurative Language. The purpose for which your article is pre- pared will govern its length. Do not make the mistake of using too many words, if you expect to dispose of your work. The practical way would be to examine the material already accepted by your paper or magazine, and govern yourself accordingly. Show how figurative language is employed, by illustrations from current and standard literature. Do not multiply examples. Birthplace of Robert Burns. The home of the Scottish poet. 412 Figures of Speech EXERCISES BASED ON PICTURES Birthplace of Robert Burns, Ayr, Scotland. — A certain charm surrounds the spot where any great man was born. When we remember that Burns made his way against obstacles, and rose to an eminence which few have reached, with no aid but that which his own modest genius afforded, it is no wonder that we approach the birthplace of the honest and manly Scotch poet with deep interest. (a) A Visit to the Home of a Poet. — Let the class make a visit to the home of some poet, or noted writer, if possible. If not, and some individual member of the class can do so, let him make the visit and report. Describe the dwelling and give something of interest con- nected with the life of the poet or writer. (b) An Imaginary Visit. — If you cannot go in person, what is to hinder a visit made in imagination ? You can go anywhere on the wings of your fancy. Study the picture, so as to be accurate in your story, and tell it as faithfully as you can. • Let your story be in keep- ing with the simplicity which characterizes the life and works of Robert Burns. (c) A Little Pilgrimage. — An excellent model for a little pilgrim- age to a home, is found in Elbert Hubbard's Little Journeys to the Homes of Famous Men and Women. He uses the visit thus made for the purpose of saying what he wants to say about the one whose home he describes. Visit the former home of James Whitcomb Riley, at Indianapolis, or of Jack London, near Santa Rosa, Cali- fornia, in reality, or in imagination, and tell about it. (d) Little Visits. — In this same spirit, that of telling something about the home of some one whom you delight to honor, describe a visit to the home of George Washington, at Mount Vernon. Or choose some one else, and make a little visit to his home. Tell the class about your visit. (e) Robert Bwns. — Prepare a speech, ten minutes in length, on Robert Burns. Do not work hastily. Seek an opportunity to make your speech before some society interested in this poet. Hand the finished manuscript to your instructor for criticism, but only after you have done your best. CHAPTER XXX POETRY AND DRAMA Poetry is the record of the best and happiest jnoments of the hap- piest and best minds. — Percy Bysshe Shelley. Poetry. — So far in your study of effective English your attention has been directed mainly to prose, although it has been impossible to refrain from some mention of poetry, especially in dealing with figurative language. You are now to give some definite thought to foetry. Difference Between Poetry and Prose. — Poetry differs from prose mainly in three respects : (1) in its purpose ; (2) in its style , (3) in its form. Purpose of Poetry. — The purpose of poetry is the com- munication of pleasure to the imagination. Blair defines poetry as the language of passion^ or of enlivened imagina- tion^ formed most commonly into regular numbers. He says that the historian, the orator, and the philosopher address themselves to the understanding ; but that the primary aim of the poet is to please and to move ; and therefore it is to the imagination and to the passions that he speaks. It is true that the poet may mean to instruct and to reform, but this is not his first aim. It is by pleasing the imagination and by moving the heart that he accomplishes this end. Plato, however, says that poetry comes nearer to vital truth than history. The word poet means maker or creator. To see how appropriate this title is, we have only to recall the char- 413 414 Poetry and Drama acter of HamleU out of the myriad creations of Shake- speare ; or of the little maid, in Wordsworth's poem, We Are Seven. These are more alive to most of us than are the historical characters of scarcely a generation ago. Style in Poetry. — Style in poetry will be treated under these lieads : (1) arrangement ; (2) diction; and (3) imagery. Arrangement. — Poetry is rhythmical, and is arranged in lines or verses, which are of fixed lengths, composed of accented and unaccented syllables, recurring regularly. This is shown in the following passage, written with the accented syllable italicized. "PevhapSy in this neglected .spot is laid Some heart, once pregnsmt with ceZestial Jire ; Hands, that the rod of e?/ipire might have swayed. Or waked to ecstas?/ the living lyre. — Gray's Elegy. Diction. — In its diction^ poetry often employs words not usual in prose. Quaint, old-fashioned, obsolete words occur; picturesque expressions, and epithets of kinds which would be altogether out of place in prose, are frequent. Imagery. — Poetry abounds in figurative language. The poet can use without limit imagery that is denied to the prose writer. The Form of Poetry. — In discussing the form of poetry, it will be considered under three headings : (1) rhythm ; (2) meter; and (3) rhyme. Rhythm. — The measured motion of the verse which marks the time by the regular recurrence of the accented syllables is called rhythm. Notice how the rhythm shows in the examples following. Meter 415 The horse bit his master ; how came it to pass ? He heard the good pastor say, " All flesh is grass ! " — Anon. His house was known to all the vagrant train, He chid their wanderings, but relieved their pain j The broken soldier, kindly bade to stay. Sat by his fire, and talk'd the night away ; Wept o'er his wounds, or tales of sorrow done. Shouldered his crutch, and show'd how fields were won. The Deserted Village, Oliver Goldsmith. Rhythm in poetry is as noticeable, when it is read aloud by a good reader, as is the time in music or dancing. The rhythmic accent should coincide with the accent given to the word when properly pronounced. By this means, you may often decide as to the proper pronuncia- tion of a word, where it is used by a reputable modern poet. Meter. — Meter is the measure of the rhythm. A group of unaccented and accented syllables forming a metrical unit of verse, is called a foot. Where the rhythm is strongly accented, it may frequently be marked off by the beat of the foot. It is probable that the terms foot^ measure^ stanza^ and verse came from the fact that the rhythm originally ac- companied the dance in religious worship. The worshiper chanted his lines, dancing toward the altar or the sacri- fice and marking the accent with his feet naturally. The distance passed over in the dance indicated the measure of his ch^nt. When he had arrived near the altar or the sacrifice he turned back, hence the term verse. After each movement or series of movements to or from the altar he stood, hence the term stanza. Feet in English Poetry. — There are four principal feet 416 Poetry and Drama in English poetry. Two of these are two-syllabled, the iambus and the trochee; and two are three-syllabled, the dactyl and the anapest. These are thus defined. 1. The iambus consists of an unaccented, followed by an accented syllable, as denote'. This is the favorite foot in English. 2. The trochee consists of an accented, followed by an unaccented syllable, as com'ing. 3. The dactyl has an accented syllable, followed by two unaccented syllables, as mod' if y. 4. The anapest consists of two unaccented syllables, followed by one accented, as contradict' . Scanning in English Poetry. — The measuring off of the feet in poetry is called scanning. You should do enough scanning to make yourself familiar with the meter, and scan both orally and in writing. Meter Names. — Meter is doubly named^ first from the kind of foot ; and secondly, from the number of feet in the line. A line of one iambic foot is called iambic mo- nometer ; of two, iambic dimeter ; of three, iambic trim- eter; of four, iambic tetrameter; of five, iambic pen- tameter; and a line of six iambic feet is called iambic hexametei*. Examples of Iambic Verse. — The following are exam- ples of the use of iambic feet. I know a maiden fair to see, Take care ! She can both false and friendly be, Beware I Beware ! — Longfellow. The first and third lines of this selection are in iambic tetrameter ; the second line is iambic monometer ; while the fourth line is iambic dimeter. [Examples of Trochaic Verse 417 In the following selection from As You Like It^ the meter is the usual Shakespearean line, iambic pentameter, Duke. Are not these woods More free from peril than the envious court ? Here feel we but the penalty of Adam, — The seasons' difference, — as, the icy fang And churlish chiding of the Winter's wind — Which when it bites, and blows upon my body, Even till I shrink with cold, I smile, and say. This is no flattery — these are the counsellors That feelingly persuade me what I am. — Shakespeare. Examples of Trochaic Verse. — The following selection from The Psalm of Life shows the first syllable accented, and the second syllable unaccented. Lives of great men all remind us We can make our lives sublime, And, departing, leave behind us i^oo^prints in the sands of tiine. — Longfellow. In the second and fourth lines, the final foot lacks the unaccented syllable, giving a little heavier stroke to that foot. The verse is trochaic tetrameter. The next selec- tion is from The Witches' Song in Macbeth. Double, double. Toil and trouble ; Fire burn And ca^ddTon bubble ! — Shakespeare. Examples of Dactylic Verse. — The four lines quoted on the next page are from The Charge of the Light Brigade, and are in dactylic dimeter. The first syllable is accented, and the next two unaccented. 418 Poetry and Drama Cannon to right of them, Cannon to left of them, Caraion in front of them, FoHeyed and i^i^ndered. — Tennyson. The next selection is from the introduction to Evange- line^ and is in the same meter. Its prevailing verse is dactylic hexameter. This is the /orest primeval. The m^^rmuring pines and the hemlocks, Searched with moss, and in gfarments green, indis^mci in the ^w?light, Stand like Druids of eld, with voices sad and prop/iedc, Stand like harpers hoar, with beards that rest on their bosoms. Loud from its rocky caverns, the deep-voiced neighboring ocean Speaks, and in accents disconsolate answers the wail of the forest. — Longfellow. Variations. — Instead of one accented and two unac- cented syllables, dactylic poetry often uses a foot contain- ing two accented syllables. This is known as a spondee. It has the effect of slowing up the rhythm, as you will notice in some of the lines of the above example. Example of Anapestic Meter. — This example taken from Alexander Selkirk, by Cowper, illustrates the use of the anapest in verse. Two unaccented syllables are followed b}^ an accented syllable. In the story of this poem, Sel- kirk was cast ashore on a desert island. I am monarch of all I survey. My right there is no7ie to dispiUe; From the center all round to the sea I am lord of the fowl and the brute. O iS^oZitude ! ivhere are the charms That sages have seen in thy face f Exercises Based on Pictures 419 Better dicell in the midst of alarms Than reign in this horrible place. — William Cowper. EXERCISES BASED ON PICTURES Moonlight on Grand Lake — What is the charm of moonlight upon the water? The unromantic and the practical feel it in spite of themselves. Did it ever fall more quietly than in this scene ? 1. Tell some story suited to this scene. AVere you alone, in your boat, or stand- ing by the shore ? Or had you stolen away from camp, while your companions slept? 2. What was that f Was it the splash of a great fish, leaping after its prey ? Was it the dip of the paddle, as some Indian guides his light canoe ? That takes you back to pioneer days, or even earlier than that. Or was it the echo of some deed done in the dark, which its perpetrator seeks to hide by throwing the evidence of his guilt into the still waters of the lake? What was it? Tell your story your own way. Three Irregular Feet. — There are three irregular feet, vvliich may be regarded as substitutes for regular feet. They do not occur except as occasional lines, and they are Moonlight on Grand Lake, Rocky Moun- tain National Park. 420 Poetry and Drama used for variety. They are the spondee^ the pyrrhic^ and the amphibrach. The spondee consists of two accented syllables; the pyrrhic, of two unaccented syllables; and the amphibrach of an unaccented, an accented, and an unaccented syllable, as in the word vedeemeT. The following lines are examples of each. 1. Spondaic. And ten low words oft creep in one dull line. — Pope. Low words, is a spondee ; and dull line, is a spondee. The name spondee is taken from the songs sung while pouring forth a libation in the old heathen worship, the libation being poured slowly to give dignity to the effect. The use of the spondee gives a slower movement to the line. 2. Pyrrhic. Life is so full of misery. The scheme of this line is accented, unaccented, for the first foot ; unaccented, accented, for the second and third feet; and two unaccented syllables, making it pyrrhic, for the last foot. 3. Amphibrachic. The waters Sive flashing, The white hail is dashing, etc. This is amphibrachic dimeter, the foot being unaccented, accented, unaccented. Our Maker, Defender, Redeemer, and Friend. — Grant. This is amphibrachic for the first three feet, the last foot being iambic. Eflfect of Rhythm 421 Effect of Rhythm. — The effect of many long syllables is to produce slow and stately measures, or sad and mournful effects. Where the shorter syllables are used they give alacrity and liveliness to the rhythm and to the poetry. To illustrate this, Professon Wendell quotes the lines by Wordsworth on The Skylark^ in contrast with Shelley's lines on The Skylark^ to show the effects of the slower rhythm in Wordsworth, and the livelier movement in Shelley. Ethereal minstrel ! pilgrim of the sky ! .Dost thou despise the earth, whete cares abound ! Or while the wings aspire, are heart and eye Both with thy nest upon the dewy ground — Thy nest, which thou canst drop into at will, Those quivering wings composed, that music still ! — Wordsworth. Hail to thee, blithe spirit ! Bird thou never wert. That from heaven, or near it, Pourest thy full heart In profuse strains of unpremeditated art ! — Shelley. In the long words and the slow measure of Words- worth's first line — Ethereal minstrel ! pilgrim of the sky ! there is something that keeps the mind where the con- templative poet would have it, — down on earth. In the short, ecstatic words of Shelley's first line — Hail to thee, blithe spirit ! there is something that lifts the mind straight away from all things earthly. Change a word in either of these, 422 Poetry and Drama says Wendell, change even a syllable or letter, and some* thing is lost. Rests. — In longer lines, and occasionally in shorter lines, there occurs a pause or rest^ usually corresponding with the thought. This is called the ccesura. It occurs at the end of a word, and in verses of six feet, usually be- tween the syllables of the third foot. Note the csesural pause in the following lines, one from Tennyson, the other from Longfellow. You must wake and call me early, call me early, mother dear, This is the forest primeval; the murmuring pines and the hemlocks. In the first instance, the caesural pause falls after early ; and in the other, it is found after 'primeval. In the following verses of five feet, the caesura falls respectively after the words serve., thyself., and mankind. They also serve who only stand and wait. — Milton's Sonnet on his Blindness. Know then thyself, presume not God to scan, The proper study of mankind is man. — Pope's Essay on Man. When the caesura is well managed it produces a fine effect, and is considered an element of great beauty. Rhyme. — Rhyme is the regular recurrence of similar sounds, generally at the end of certain lines, but often found in the middle of the lines. The interval between the rhymes varies in length in different poems, but that interval having been established in a poem, it is expected that it will be followed throughout that poem. The rhymes should be real rhymes, that is, real to the ear and not merely to the eye. Thus, breath and beneath look alike, but they do not sound alike, and hence do not Blank Verse 423 rhyme. But breath and death are good rhymes. Study the rliymes in the poetical selections already given, as well as in the following : The night has a thousand eyes, And the day but one ; Yet the light of the bright world dies With the dying sun. The mind has a thousand eyes, And the heart but one ; Yet the light of a whole life dies When love is done. — F. W. Bourdillon. Take her up tenderly, Lift her with care : Fashioned so -slenderly, ^ Young, and so fair ! Look at her garments Clinging like cerements. Whilst the wave constantly Drips from her clothing ; Take her up instantly. Loving, not loathing, — — The Bridge of Sighs, Thomas Hood. The little irregularities of rhyme of this latter selection, in the second stanza, are studied and not accidental, and produce an impression of remarkable beauty. Blank Verse. — Continuous verse without rhyme, written in heroic measure, that is iambic pentameter, is called blank verse. It is the most dignified measure in English and is found in epic and dramatic poetry. There are a few instances of poetry without rhyme in other meas- ures than iambic pentameter, e.g. Longfellow's Evangeline. The following is an example of blank verse. 424 Poetry and Drama Portia. The quality of mercy is not strained ; It droppeth as the gentle rain from heaven Upon the place beneath. It is twice blest ; It blesseth him that gives and him that takes. 'Tis mightiest in the mightiest ; it becomes The throned monarch better than his crown. — The Merchant of Venice^ Shakespeare. Kinds of Poetry. — There are three main divisions of poetry : (1) the epic; (2) the lyric; and (3) the dra- matic. To these may be added three more, (4) didactic; (5) satirical ; and (6) pastoral. Epic Poetry. — Epic poetry is extended narrative in noble and stately verse, dealing with the deeds of the heroes, gods, and demi-gods who took part in the great events of the age before history begins, the age of fable. It is universally agreed that these original epics came down from the songs of the bards and minstrels of the olden time, being put into their present form by some great poet. This seems to be true of (1) the Iliad and (2) the Odyssey of Homer ; and of (3) the Nihelungenlied and (4) the Beowulf. Virgil founded his (5) Mneid upon Homer's poem. Homer gives the Grecian side of the fall of Troy, tell- ing of Achilles and of Ulysses ; Virgil traces the story of -^neas, describing him as the founder of the Roman race. The .Mneid follows the traditions and meter of Homer, but has a refinement and beauty of its own. Dante, in his (6) Divine Comedy^ and Milton, in his (7) Paradise Lost, both follow Virgil, as he followed his great master and teacher. Homer. These seven epics consti- tute the great epic poems of all literature. While not of highest rank, the Kalevala., a Finnish poem, translated by Crawford ; the Death of Roland, translated Metrical Romances 425 by Gautier; Macpherson's Ossian; and Longfellow's Hiaivatha^ are worthy of mention as possessing some of the qualities demanded of the epic poem. Metrical Romances. — Metrical Romances are short epics. They are narrative poems of great beauty, but of less dig- nity than the epic. Scott's Lady of the Lake and Mar- mion; Moore's Lalla Rookh; and lyongfellow's Evangeline^ are good examples. Spenser's Faerie Queene is also an example of this form of poetic story. Metrical Tales. — Still simpler and shorter than the Metrical Romances are the Metrical Tales^ which corre- spond to the short story in prose. Some of the best of them are Chaucer's Canterbury Tales, Longfellow's Tales of a Wayside Inn, Tennyson's Enoch Arden, and Lowell's Vision of Sir Launfal. To this list may be added Tarn O'Shanter, by Robert Burns, the Corsair, by Lord Byron, the Pied Piper of Hamelin, by Browning, John Gilpin's Ride, by Cowper, High Tide on the Coast of Lincolnshire, by Jean Ingelow, and Poe's Raven. Idylls. — Idylls are narrative poems presenting chivalric life, and appealing to the highest emotions. Tennyson's Idylls. of the King furnish a good example. The Ballad. — This form of poetic narrative tells its story briefly but strikingly. The old ballads have come down to us from the old singers, as did the epic poems. They are noted for their strong idiomatic English. The ballads of Chevy Chase, Lord Lovell, the Robin Hood Ballads, and the Battle of Maiden, are all noted. Following this form, which is very effective for story- telling, the modern ballad is a distinct feature of modern English. Among the best of these modern ballads are Macaulay's Lays of Ancient Rome, Campbell's The Battle of the Baltic, Coleridge's Rime of the Ancient Mariner^ Whittier's Maud Muller, Gilbert's Ballads, and Kipling's 426 Poetry and Drama Barrack Room Ballads. To this list may be added Long- fellow's Wreck of the Hesperus^ and Browning's HervS RieL Lyric Poetry. — This kind of poetry owes its name to the fact that it was originally sung to the accompaniment of the lyre, as the epic was to that of the harp. It deals primarily with the feelings and emotions. Songs^ o§,e%^ elegies., and sonnets are forms of lyric poetry. Songs. — Songs are short poems intended to be sung. They are religious or secular. Jesus., Lover of My Soul., and Lead., Kindly Lights are sacred songs or hymns. Annie Laurie and The Last Rose of Summer are songs of sentiment. Odes. — Odes express exalted emotion. They are higher in form than songs. Wordsworth's Intimations of Immortality., Dryden's A Song for Saint Cecilia's Day^ Keats' Ode on a Grecian Urn., Shelley's To a Skylark., are all of high rank as odes. Elegies. — When lyrics are characterized by deep grief or melancholy, they are called elegies. Gray's Elegy in a Country Churchyard., Tennyson's In Memoriam^ and Milton's LycidaSy all rank high as elegies. Sonnets. — A sonnet is a complete lyric poem of four- teen lines. Some of the most beautiful things in our language are sonnets. The most notable example is prob- ably Milton's Sonnet on His Blindness. Shakespeare's sonnets are all beautiful. Note especially Sonnet XXIX, Look up, also, Wordsworth's sonnet in praise of the son- net, " Scorn not the sonnet," etc. Didactic Poetry. — When the aim of poetry, or of writ- ing in poetic form, is to teach, rather than to please, it is said to be didactic poetry. This is not the highest order of poetry. An instance of this form of poetry or writing is Pope's Essay on Man. Wordsworth's Excursion^ while somewhat more poetic in its nature, is didactic. Spenser's Faerie Queene is poetic, and at the same time didactic. Tragedy 427 Satirical Poetry. — When the poet seeks to attack men, or to belittle events ; or to expose vice or folly; or to effect social or political reforms by satire, the poetry is called satirical. It is not so much in use now as formerly, on account of the opportunities for prose writers in news- papers and magazines. Johnson's London^ and Byron's English Bards and Scotch Reviewers^ are examples of satirical poetry. Pastoral Poetry. — Pastoral poetry deals more especially with nature. Some writers follow the style of the classi- cal writers, as is the case with Allan Ramsay's The Gentle Shepherd ; but others choose their own style, and pastoral poetry is found in great variety and beauty. Burns's The Cotter s Saturday Night is a fine example of pastoral poetry. Dramatic Poetry. — Differing from all the forms of poetry thus far named, dramatic poetry has a style and manner of its own. It is designed to be acted upon the stage, and it is written to be spoken. Dramatic poetry is characterized by great variety, depicting all the passions of humanity. The divisions of the drama are: (1) tragedy ; (2) comedy ; and (3) history. Tragedy. — Tragedy deals with the deep passions of the human heart. The end of tragedy is calamity and death in some form or other. In order to relieve the mind, and prepare it for the greatest issues and climaxes of the play, comedy is frequently introduced into the noblest tragedies. This is the case in Hamlet^ where the grave diggers' scene is brought in to afford a breathing-space, and relieve the over-wrought feelings of the spectators of the play. Some of the greatest plays of Shakespeare are trag- edies : Hamlet^ Macbeth^ King Lear^ Romeo and Juliet^ An- tony and Cleopatra. Comedy. — Comedy is light and humorous, its purpose being to amuse. Comedies study human life, often with 428 Poetry and Drama the finest lessons as their concealed purpose, but always with amusement as their most important feature. Shake- speare's As You Like It^ Twelfth Nighty The Midsummer Night's Dream^ Goldsmith's She Stoops to Conquer^ and Sheridan's Bivals, are excellent comedies. Farces. — Farces are short comedies whose aim is to produce laughter. They employ ridiculous situations and the characters are generally exaggerated. Melodramas. — Where a drama abounds in romantic senti- ment and agonizing situations, it is said to be melodramatic. Such dramas sometimes include a musical accompaniment in those parts which are especially thrilling or pathetic. EXERCISES BASED ON PICTURES Multnomah Falls. — What a fearful leap the waters take at Multnomah Falls on the Columbia! This picture is from a snapshot taken by one of the members of an automobile party, touring in that vicinity. Note the branches of some mighty tree, outlined against the falls. What a picture for your vacation album ! 1. Tell the story of the taking of the picture ; or if you prefer, tell the story of the picture itself. Imagine yourself within hearing of thfe cataract, the fall of whose waters jars the mountain walls. 2. Description of Some Waterfall. — It may be you know some waterfall. Describe it. 3. A Visit to Niagara. — If you have visited Niagara Falls, give an account orally of your visit. Tell some of the legends connected with the Falls. Masks. — Originally masks were represented by masked characters who sang and danced. At first, shepherds and shepherdesses, with some supernatural characters, were introduced. Milton's Oomus is the best example in English. Operas. — Dramas in which music predominates, the speakers singing most of their parts, are called operas. Exercises Based on Pictures 429 Multnomah Falls. Columbia River, Oregon. 430 Poetry and Drama In grand opera^ music of the highest grade, and themes taken from heroic legends or romances, are used. History. — The dramatist frequently portrays historical characters, and in many instances the personages thus described in a historical play are more clearly understood by one who sees the play, than if he were reading history. This is true of Shakespeare's Julius Ccesar and Henry F. In comedies and histories, this dramatist often mingles prose with poetry, but in times of a great crisis in the play, he almost always resorts to poetry. In the strictly modern plays, prose is more frequently used than poetry. In most instances now, poetry does not enter at all into the speeches of the play. But in the higher types of the play, poetry is used, perhaps because of the fact that in poetry so much can be said in so few words. Lake Como, Italy. Spenserian Stanza 431 EXERCISES BASED ON PICTURES Lake Como, Italy. — This region has been a favorite resort of pleasure seekers since old Koman times. Its shores are bor- dered by splendid villas, with gardens, terraces, and vineyards. 1. Tell a little story of a visit made by you to this villa. Make it a story that could easily happen in such a beautiful place as this. 2. A Travel Letter. — You are away from home. It occurs to you that your friends at home might be glad to read something of what you see, and of your experiences as a traveler. Write such a letter. The Stanza. — Where the verse is not continuous, as in Shakespeare's plays, and in Milton's Paradise Lost, it is divided into groups, corresponding to paragraphs in prose, and called stanzas. Kinds of Stanzas. — Couplets and triplets contain two and three lines, respectively. Quatrains. — Stanzas of four lines are called quatrains. The lines may rhyme two and two ; that is, the first and second, and the third and fourth ; or alternately, the first and third, and the second and fourth ; or the first and third may/ not rhyme, while the second and fourth rhyme. A quatrain consisting of iambic pentameter, the alternate lines rhyming, is called elegiac stanza^ Gray's Elegy being in that form. Tennysonian stanza consists of a quatrain of iambic tet- rameter, the first line rhyming with the fourth, and the second and third rhyming. Five- and six-line stanzas are frequently found, generally rhyming alternately. Spenserian Stanza. — Spenserian stanza consists of nine lines, the first eight being iambic pentameter, and the ninth being iambic hexameter ; the first and third rhyme together ; so do the sixth, eighth, and ninth ; and the second, fourth, fifth, and seventh. It derives its name from its use by Spenser in The Faerie Queene, 432 Poetry and Drama Koll on, thou deep and dark blue ocean — roll ! Ten thousand fleets sweep over thee in vain ; Man marks the earth with ruin — his control Stops with the shore ; — upon the watery plain The wrecks are all thy deed, nor doth remain A shadow of man's ravage, save his own, When, for a moment, like a drop of rain, He sinks into thy depths with bubbling groan, Without a grave, unknell'd, uncoffin'd, and unknown. — CJiilde Harold, Byron. EXERCISES IN POETRY AND THE DRAMA (a) Selections for Study. — Scanning, Determination of Meters, Style, and Form. Determine the meter, the style of poetry in which each is written ; and indicate in each instance what you consider to be notable lines in the selections given below. (1) Let us with a gladsome mind, • Praise the Lord, for he is kind ; For his mercies aye endure, Ever faithful, ever sure. — Psalm cxxxvi, John Milton. (2) Here lies our sovereign lord the king. Whose word no man relies on : Who never said a foolish thing Nor ever did a wise one. — Epigram ^ on Charles II, Rochester. (3) Till said to Tweed : Though ye rin wi' speed, And I rin slaw, Whar ye droon ae man, I droon twa. — Lines quoted by Ruskin. 1 To this epigram of Rochester's, the witty King Charles is said to have replied that it was quite true, as his sayings were all his own, while his acts were those of his ministers I Exercises in Poetry and the Drama 433 (4) A knight there was, and that a worthy man, That from the tyme that he first began To ryden out, he lovede chyvalrie, Trouthe and honour, fredom and curteisie. Ful worthi was he in his lordes werre, And thereto hadde he riden, noman ferre, As wel in Cristendom as in heathenesse. And evere honoured for his worthinesse. — Geoffrey Chaucer. (6) Thus said Hiawatha, walking In the solitary forest, Pondering, musing in the forest, On the welfare of his people. From his pouch he took his colors, Took his paints of different colors. On the smooth bark of a birch-tree Painted many shapes and figures. Wonderful and mystic figures, And each figure had a meaning, Each some word or thought suggested. — Picture-Writing, Hiawatha, xiv, Longfellow. (6) the days gone by ! the days gone by ! The music of the laughing lip, the luster of the eye ; The childish faith in fairies, and Aladdin's magic ring — • The simple, soul-reposing, glad belief in everything, — When life was like a story, holding neither sob nor sigh, In the golden olden glory of the days gone by. — James Whitcomb Riley. (6) Exercises in Poetic Forms. — Try one or more of the following : 1. Advertising writers depend much on the pleasing jingles of Mother Goose in preparing attractive advertisements. Do not parody either here or in any exercises you are called upon to write, but study carefully some one of these rhymes until the rhythm "sings itself" into your mind. Then write a 434 Poetry and Drama humorous little piece of rhyme in that style, in eight or ten lines. 2. Venture on a school song. Select some song that is a high school favorite, and study its measure until, so to speak, it takes possession of your mind and fancy for the time. Then write a song of two or three stanzas in that meter. Scan it carefully. 3. Prepare several Jingles in whatever form appeals most to you, for the amusement of some little child. Model it on some approved child verses. Study, for instance, The Child's Garden of Verse, by Stevenson. Or look up the excellent books of child verse by James Whitcomb Riley and Eugene Field. Test your work severely as to the points to be in- sisted upon in judging verse. 4. Select one or two good limericks. Read them over and over until they fasten their rhythm in your mind. Then write a limerick. Make it worth while. 5. Try advertising writing in rhyme. Take a good maga- zine, select the best piece of advertising work there. Study its good points. Limit yourself to twenty-five words, and write a " catchy " advertisement for some standard article. 6. Of the poems quoted in this book, which appeals most to you in its measure ? Try to master this measure, and write a stanza in that rhythm, using any theme that strikes your fancy. 7. Catch the quaint style and rhythm of Hiawatha. Think out the story of the everyday life of an Indian boy or girl. Write an episode or happening in the life of such a child, using the style of Hiawatha. Use about twenty or twenty- five lines of continuous verse. 8. Prepare an eight-line stanza in the style of Bourdillon's lines beginning. The 7iight has a thousand eyes. Study its con- struction and catch its rhythm. 9. Refer to the ballad, Lord Ullin^s Daughter. Write three or four stanzas in that style. 10. Study the mechanism of the sonnet. Write a sonnet, Exercises in Poetry and the Drama 435 observing carefully all the points to be noted in its construe' tion. Eefer to the public library for some book or magazine article on the sonnet. Do not attempt to write your sonnet without giving it the necessary study. Eefer it when com- pleted to the editorial committee for its criticism before handing it to the instructor in English. (c) Exercises in Dramatic Forms. — Try one or more of the following : 1. Dramatize the story of Rohin Hood. Refer to some book telling the story of the bold outlaw, and put one episode into a one-act drama, using two or more scenes. Try to make it worth reproducing either by little children or by older pupils. Study accuracy in your directions as to costume and stage properties. 2. Put the story of Cinderella into good dramatic form. You may have three acts : (a) the events leading up to the ball ; (6) what happened at the ball ; and (c) the fitting of the slipper to the foot of Cinderella. Use what scenes you may find necessary. Do not put pen to paper to write your play until you have decided practically everything that you pro- pose to do. Write with the view of having your play acted by pupils of the high school. 3. Dramatize the story of Treasure Island. Use enough of it to make one scene. Do not attempt more than one or two chapters. . * 4. Dramatize the story of " Joseph and His Brethren," as told in the book of Genesis. Exercise your own judgment as to how much to use. Do not crowd your incidents. 6. Think out a story that is suitable for dramatization. Study accuracy in dramatic form, in preparing your manu- script. 6. Prepare an outline or synopsis of a dramatized version of Silas Mamer. Use the incidents of the loss of his gold, and the finding of the golden-haired baby who revolutionized his life. Let your outline indicate the drama, but do not write out the dialogue. 436 Poetry and Drama 7. If the editorial committee approve of the outline thus submitted, all whose papers are thus approved may constitute a dramatic committee, to prepare the story for dramatizing, and later, for reproduction as a class play. (d) Longer Theme. — Make a careful study of at least one of the following. Report on it in any form you please. Alcott Little Women Darwin Voyage of the Aldrich Story of a Bad Beagle Boy Davis Van Bibber's Bur- Allen Flute and Violin glar Andkrsbn Fairy Tales Defoe Robinson Crusoe Arabian Nights DeMorgan Alice-for-Short Barrie Sentimental Dickens Our Mutual Friend Tommie Dodge Hans Brinker Bennett Master Skylark Dumas Count of Monte Black Judith Shake- Cristo speare Earle Diary, Anna Green Blackmorb Lorna Doone Winslow Brown Rab and His Eggleston Hoosier School- Friends master Bryant The Odyssey (Tr.) Eliot Adam Bede Bulwer Last Days of Fox Little Shepherd of Pompeii Kingdom Come Butcher and Lang The Odyssey (Tr.) Franklin Autobiography BUNNER A Sisterly Scheme Freeman The Revolt of BUNYAN Pilgrim's Progress Mother Burnett Sara Crewe Froissart Ballads Carlyle Frederick the Garland Boy Life on the Great Prairie Carroll • '.Alice in Wonder- Goldsmith She Stoops to Con- land quer Cervantes Don Quixote Grant Memoirs Du Chaillu Lost in the Jungle Grimm Fairy Tales Chaucer Prologue Hakluyt Principal English Cobb A Card to the Voyages Public Hardy Wessex Tales COOPEK Last of the Mohi- Harris Uncle Remus cans Harte Tales of the Argo- Ceaddock The Mystery of nauts Witch Face Hawthorne Tanglewood, Won- Mountain der Book Dana Two Years Before Hemstreet Nooks and Corners the Mast of Old New Dantb The Inferno York Exercises in Poetry and the Drama 437 0. Henry A Chapparal Prince Palmer The Odyssey (Tr.) The Gifts of the Parkman California and the Magi Oregon Trail The Cop and the Percy Reliques Anthem Phillips Ulysses HiGGINSON Young Folks Hist. Pope The Iliad (Tr.) U. S. Pyle The Merry Adven- Hughes Tom Brown at tures of Robin Rugby Hood Hugo Les Miserables Reade Cloister and the Ingelow High Tide Hearth Irving Sketch Book ROLFE Shakespeare the Jackson Glimpses of Cali- Boy fornia Roosevelt Winning of the Jewett Tales of New Eng- West land Ruskin King of the Golden Johnson Life of Addison River Kelly Little Citizens Sand Fanchon the Lang Animal Story Book Cricket Lahcom A New England Scott Ivanhoe, Lady of Girlhood the Lake Locke A Christmas Mys- Sewell Black Beauty tery Shakespeare As You Like It, Lodge American Hero Hamlet Tales Sienkiewicz Quo Vadis ? London The Call of the Stevenson Treasure Island, Wild Child's Garden Longfellow Hiawatha, Evan- of Verse geline Stewart Partners of Provi- Mabie Norse Tales dence Macaulay Lays of Ancient Tarbell Life of Lincoln Rome Thackeray Vanity Fair Milton Paradise Lost, I and Twain Huckleberry Finn, II Tom Sawyer Mitchell Adventures of Vernb Twenty Thousand Fran9ois Leagues Under Montgomery Anne of Green the Sea Gables Washington Up From Slavery MULOCK John Halifax, Gen- WlGGIN Rebecca of Sunny- tleman brook Farm Ollivant Bob, Son of Battle Wilson George Washing- OUIDA A Dog of Flanders ton Page Two Little Confed- Wirt Patrick Henry erates Wister The Virginian 438 Poetry and Drama Photograph by Elmer L. Foote. A Blue Grass Home. A Center of Hospitality. A Blue Grass Home. — This suggests hospitality. If you have ever visited such a home, you will remember it with pleasure. In the Kentucky mountains, even where the people are poor, the welcome you receive is always hearty. 1. A House Party. — Think of yourself as one of a half-dozen boya and as many girls, home from school for the summer holidays and in- vited for the week-end. Not an idle moment from dawn to dark ! A canter over the hills on horseback ; a swim at Old Lonesome Pool in Gunpowder Creek ; lawn tennis. Lunch at noon, and an automobile run for the afternoon. Dinner at six, and such a dinner I Then a dance until eleven. If you cannot go to a party like that any other way, go in imagination. Write a letter telling about it. 2. Chaperons. — Who were your chaperons? Perhaps the wife of the governor of the State, with other gracious ladies, all only too well pleased to see the youngsters enjoy themselves, and by their very presence making courtesy and thoughtfulness for others a natural thing. Give your impressions of this feature of a house party. Write a letter about it. Exercises Based on Pictures 439 3. The Proper Courtesies. — When the time comes to break up, note the courtesies that mark the scene. Describe the leave-taking on the part of the members of the party. Write it in form of a letter. 4. Deference. — In some homes when a lady, young or old, enters the room, you will note that every gentleman, even to the young boys, rises with marked deference and stands at the back of his chair until the lady chooses where she desires to sit, when all silently resume their seats. Is a little thing like that worth while ? Discuss it orally, in a three-minute talk. 5. Hats Off. — How about taking off your hats when you speak to a lady or to an old gentleman, on the street? Is it the custom in your school to raise your hat as you meet or pass your teacher ojf your principal ? Oral, two minutes. 6. Politeness on the Street Cars. — Should a boy rise and yield his seat to a woman, young or old? Discuss this topic. You may write it in one hundred and fifty words, or give it in a two-minute talk. PART SIX GRAMMAR I. PARTS OF SPEECH The whole fabric of grammar rests upon the classifying of words according to their functions in the sentence. — Bain. Definition of Grammar. — Grammar is the study of the forms of words, and their relation one to another in sentences.^ An easy way to make clear this relation is to analyze the sentence. This consists of pointing out the subject and the predicate and their modifiers.^ 1 Emphasis should be placed upon training in the recognition of the relationships of the various parts of the sentence to one another. . . . Comparatively little study of grammatical theory from a text-book is necessary, but a brief outline of the more common uses of parts of speech, phrases, and clauses, may be placed in the pupils' hands as the basis of occasional lessons, and for reference. — From the English Syllabus^ Board of Regents, New York. 2 The Joint Committee on the Beorganization of High School English states definitely what has been agreed upon as the work of the two grades preceding the high school, under the old arrangement ; or the first two grades of the junior high school, under the proposed arrangement. This will be found invaluable for reference by the instructor in English. Orade VII. — Grammar, including subject and predicate, object, predicate noun or adjective ; recognition of the parts of speech by chief function of each ; inflection of nouns and personal pronouns for number and case ; the idea of tense ; clauses and phrases as groups with func- tions of single words ; spelling of words used ; necessary punctuation. 440 Definition of the Subject 441 Definition of the Subject. — The subject of a sentence is that word of which something is affirmed or denied. In the sentence, Wild flowers bloom in the spring^ the word flx)wers is the subject. Definition of the Predicate. — The predicate of a sentence is the word which expresses what is affirmed or denied of the subject. In the sentence, Aladdin commanded the Genius to build him at once the most beautiful palace ever seen, the word commanded is the predicate. Note. — Sometimes the subject and all its modifiers are called the subject, and all the rest of the sentence, the predicate. Thus in the sentence above, all the words except Aladdin would be called the predicate. Analysis of a Sentence. — Take this sentence from Van Dyke's Fisherman's Luck : A black eagle swings silently around his circle^ far up in the cloudless sky. This sentence tells about two things : an eagle ; and what it does. The iirst three words tell about the eagle, while the rest of the sentence tells what the eagle does. It swings. The sen- tence may be said to be built up from the two words, eagle and swings, of which eagle is the subject, and swings is the predi- cate. Two words of the sentence, a and black, belong to the sub- ject, while everything in the sentence from swings to the end, belongs to the predicate. The sentence may be written thus : a black eagle swings silently around his circle, far up in the cloudless sky Grade VIII. — Grammar, including essential elements of the sentence (subject, predicate, modifiers, connectives), clauses as parts of compound and complex sentences ; common and proper nouns ; classes of pronouns ; person, number, and voice of verbs ; comparison and classification of adjectives and adverbs ; choice of prepositions ; conjunctions as coordi- nating and subordinating ; planning of themes ; manipulation of sentences ; spelling, punetuation. 442 Grammar Or it may be written thus : a black eagle silently around his circle swings - ° far up in the cloudless sky Written in a still different form, to show how the sentence is built up, that is, to analyze it, it may take this form : ^^Sle black silently around circle his swings up far in sky the cloudless Take another sentence from Fisherman'' 8 Luck. Certain poor fishermen^ coming in weary after a night of toil^ found their Master standing on the hank of the lake^ waiting for them. In this sentence, ^s/iermen is the subject, and found is the predicate. The sentence is built upon these two words. Cer- tain words seem naturally to belong to each of these two words. Such words are said to be modifiers of the words to which they belong. For instance, the first half of this sentence happens to belong to the subject, up to the word toil ; the rest of the sentence, from the word found to the end, just as clearly belongs to the predicate. Simplifying it, it may be written thus : certain ■fi Qll ATTn PT ^ poor a USlld I4i.ci coming in after night of toil weary their found Master standing on bank waiting for them the of lake the Exercises Based on Pictures 448 KiLLARNEY. EXERCISES BASED ON PICTURES Killaraey. — The Lakes of Killarney are exquisitely beauti- ful. I^Tor are they merely beautiful. The charm of romantic history clings to them. One island in the Killarney Lakes holds Ross Castle, and on another is " Sweet Innisfallen," celebrated by Thomas Moore. On still another is found an old Franciscan ruin, Muckross Abbey. 1. Write a description of the picture, or tell a story, the scene of which is laid in Ross Castle or Muckross Abbey. 2. " Killarney." — There is a song with this title. Let a good reader recite it ; or better, let a good singer sing it. 444 Grammar Exercises in Analyzing Sentences. — Take the sentences given below, and show how they are built up. That is, find the subject and the predicate^ and tell what words belong to or modify each. You are not, however, re- quired to diagram the sentences. 1. Scarlet berries of the mountain-ash hang around the lake. 2. Tiny waves dance all along the shore. 3. The world teems with joyful life. 4. The gray light glimmers through the canvas of the tent. 5. The rising wind shakes the tent-flaps. 6. You see the white tents gleaming from the pine-groves around the little lakes. 7. A pair of kingfishers dart across the bay, in flashes of living blue. 8. A spotted sandpiper teetered along before me, followed by three young-ones. — From Fisherman's Luck, Henry Van Dyke. If you study the sentences so far used, you will find that the subject is a noun^ or something that is used as a noun ; and that the predicate is a verh^ or some word or group of words used as a verb. Definition of the Noun. — A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, existing in fact or thought. In the sentence below from Gray's Elegy^ curfew^ knell, day^ herd, lea, plowman, way, worlds and darkness, are nouns. The curfew tolls the knell of parting day, The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea. The plowman homeward plods his weary way. And leaves the world to darkness and to me. Definition of the Verb. — A verb is a word which asserts action, being, or state ; or which affirms or denies some- thing of some person, place, or thing. In the above sen- tence, tolls, winds, plods, and leaves, are verbs. Note. — Remember that it is the function of a word, its use in the sen- tence, that determines its nature. You cannot tell whether leaves and tolls are nouns or verbs till you see what are their functions in the sentence. Parts of Speech 445 The noun and the verb together form the basis of every sentence. If you will study the sentences taken from Van Dyke's Fisherman 8 Luch^ you will note that certain words group about the subject^ and certain others group about the predicate. All these words belong to certain definite groups called parts of speech. Parts of Speech. — There are eight parts of speech, — •the noun, and the verb ; the pronoun ; the adjective and the adverb ; the preposition, the conjunction, and the in- terjection. Functions of the Subordinate Parts of Speech. — The office of the pronoun is two-fold. It represents the noun, and takes its place, so as to avoid unnecessary and tire- some repetition of the noun. And in some of its forms, it limits or modifies the noun. In such cases, it is called an adjective pronoun. In the sentence from Gray's Elegy., the pronoun his represents the nou;i plowman., and at the same time modi- fies the noun way. In the fourth line, me represents the speaker, but does not modify any noun. Adjectives limit or modify the meaning of nouns or pro- nouns, while adverbs limit or modify the meaning of verbs, and sometimes of adjectives and other adverbs. In the above sentence from Gray's Elegy, parting is an adjective, modifying the noun day ; louring is an adjective, modify- ing the noun herd ; weary is an adjective, modifying the noun way. In the same sentence, slowly is an adverb, modifying the verb winds, and homeward is an adverb, modifying the verb plods. The preposition is placed before some noun or pronoun called its object, and joins this to some other word. It shows the relation between its object and that word. The conjunction is used to connect other words, phrases, or clauses. 446 Grammar The interjection has no grammatical connection with the other words of the sentence. It is thrown into the sentence for the sake of emphasis. What Decides the Part of Speech of a Word. — The use of a word in a sentence decides what part of speech that word is. For instance, iron is ordinarily a noun, as in the sentence, Iron is a useful metal. But when you say, The fireman jammed the iron hook through the unndow^ iron is used as an adjective. If you say, Mary^ did you get time to iron my clothes ? you are using iron as a verb. If you say. The current is swift near the piers., or He is a swift runner., you are using swift as an adjective. But if you say. The race is not always to the swift., you are using swift as a noun. EXERCISES IN DISTINGUISHING THE PARTS OF SPEECH (a) Go through all the sentences so far given in this chapter, and indicate what part of speech each word is. If it is used as the sub- ject or the predicate, say so. If it modifies any word, tell what word it modifies. In the case of a preposition, tell between what words it shows the relation ; and if it is a conjunction, show what words or groups of words it connects. Let this work be oral. (h) Refer to the Selections given at the end of the chapter on Poetry and Drama, and arranging the eight parts of speech in columns, make a list of twenty words under each heading, except interjections, of which not so many are used. (c) Tell to what part of speech each italicized word in the follow- ing sentences belongs. (1) That book is mine. (2) The mine owners refused to comply with the demands of the workmen. (3) Who operates that minef (4) She takes good care of her school books. (6) Is Elizabeth at school to-day? (6) School yourself, my dear boy, to endure a little hardship. (7) Taste this water. It seems to me to have an unusual taste. (d) Make sentences, using the words of the following list (1) as verbs ; and (2) as nouns. Nouns 447 Breakfast, paint, stamp, catch, defeat, light, pick, plow, slip, fish. (e) Make sentences, using these words (1) as nouns, and (2) as adjectives. Eleven, forest, nine, cold, silver, cunning, all, table, pink, white. (/) Make sentences, using these words (1) as adverbs, and (2) as prepositions. You may set this down as a rule, that a preposition which drops its object becomes an adverb. Over, aboard, behind, up, on, in, along, since, above, below. II. NOUNS Kinds of Nouns. — Nouns are considered under two classes. Proper nouns are used for particular persons, places, or things. In the line quoted below, Shakespeare^ a person ; Macbeth, a play, that is, a thing ; and StraU ford-on- Avon, a place, are all proper nouns. Common nouns are names which may be applied to any of a class or kind of objects. In the same sentence, play and home are common nouns. Shakespeare is supposed to have written his play of Macbeth at his home in Stratford-on-Avon. Common nouns may be (1) concrete ; (2) abstract ; (3) collective ; and (4) verbal. 1. A concrete noun is the name of a person, a place, or a thing that actually exists in space. Men, street, bam, house, and tree, are concrete nouns. 2. An abstract nounM the name of a quality or condi- tion that does not exist in space, but of which you can think. Goodness, childhood, imagination, pleasure, and obscurity, are abstract nouns. 3. A collective noun is the name of a group of persons 448 Grammar or things, considered as one. Army, jury, committee, eon- gre88, family, and nation, are collective nouns. 4. A verbal noun is the name of an action. In the sentence, Seeing is believing, both seeing and believing are verbal nouns. Thought you said dinner was ready I" EXERCISES BASED ON PICTURES Dinner. — This crowd of freshmen boys seem all to be of one mind. " Thought you said dinner was ready," is the ex- pression of their attitude. They all look as if they subsisted largely upon what they ate. In fact, if you want to get hungry, there is no place better than a high school camp. Wouldn't you, as a freshman, like to be a member of this particular camp ? It doesn't take much imagination to see how good a time tlv y'll have, after dinner, and all the time. Fishing, and swimming, and playing Indian, and baseball, and a military drill. Then, too, they must attend the school of " camp in- struction." There they will learn to put up and take dgwn Inflection or Declension of Nouns 449 tents ; to build and take care of camp fires ; to cook ; and to sew a little, so as to repair all clothing torn, and all such work. Write or talk of a datfs work in a high school camp. If your plan was difEerent, or if you can think of a better plan than is here sug- gested, tell about it. Inflection or Declension of Nouns. — Nouns are inflected to show differences in number and case. Such inflection is called declension. For instance : Singular Plural Singular Plural Nominative sailor sailors lady- ladies Possessive sailor's sailors' lady's ladies' Objective sailor sailors lady ladies Number. — Nouns show a change in form to indicate one or more than one. There are a few nouns, however, whose form does not indicate whether they mean one or more than one. You must depend upon their use in the sentence to decide as to their number. For example, the word deer indicates only one if you say that you shot a fine deer, but if you say that you missed three deer, you indicate more than one. There are two numbers, singular and plural. The sin- gular number denotes hut one. The plural number denotes more than one. Formation of the Plural. — There are three ways of forming the plural : (1) The plural of most nouns is formed by adding s or es to the singular. (2) The plural of a few nouns is formed by adding en to the singular. (3) The plural of some nouns is formed by changing the- vowel sounds. Examples of each of these three kinds are given below. Examples. (1) Horse, horses; chair, chairs; linen, linens; elephant, elephants ; soldier, soldiers ; box, boxes ; fox, foxes. 450 Grammar (2) Ox, oxen ; child, children. (3) Foot, feet ; man, mm ; woman, women; mouse, mice; tooth, teeth; goose, geese. (a) The fundamental part of a compound word takes the plural ending; as brothers-in-law; men-of-war; but knight- templar takes either form, knights-templar, or knight-templars. Man-servant changes both forms, men-servants. (b) Some nouns have no singular, but are always plural : bellows, dregs, eaves, pincers, scissors, and tidings. (c) Some words take a plural form, and yet are singular ; as news, athletics, alms, politics, and mathematics. That news is good. (d) The plural of letters and figures is formed by adding 's ; As, There are a great many M^s in the telephone list. You do not form your S^s correctly. But when the number is written out, it forms its plural regul3;rly. They marched by Jives. (e) In forming the plural of proper names, we say Messrs. Brown, and the Misses Walker. Mesdames Walker and Brown, meaning Mrs. Walker and Mrs. Brown. The plural of proper nouns of more than one syllable is formed by adding an apostrophe, if the noun ends in s. Otherwise s or es is added. The Joneses and Wallaces just called on the Rosses and Atkins'. (/) Some nouns have the same form in both the singular and plural. As, sheep, deer; That sheep is a fine merino. Those sheep are all merinos. {g) In words compounded with ful, the s is added to the last syllable : cupfuls, handfuls, spoonfuls. If more than one cup, hand, or spoon is filled, then it may be written two cupa full, etc. (h) Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant change y to i and add es: lady, ladies; city, cities; duty, duties. Nouns ending in y preceded by a vowel form the plural regularly, adding s to the singular ; as, valley, valleys; money, moneys. (i) Several nouns in o preceded by a consonant form theii plural by adding es to the singular. As, echo, echoes; veto, Exercises on the Number of Nouns 451 vetoes; cargo, cargoes; potato, potatoes; motto, mottoes. Most nouns of this class form their plurals regularly. Where the final is preceded by a vowel, the noun takes its plural regularly; as, cameo, cameos; oratorio, oratorios. (j) Most nouns in / or /e change / to u and add s ot es; as elf, elves; wife, loives; calf, calves; knife, knives; thief, thieves. But roof cliff, chief fief brief and some other words simply add s to the singular ; as, roofs, cliffs, etc. (k) Many words introduced from foreign languages retain the foreign plurals ; as, alumna, alumnce; alumnus, alumni; analysis, analyses; datum, data; erratum, errata; bacterium, bacteria; crisis, crises; hypothesis, hypotheses ; parenthesis, par- entheses; thesis, theses; focus, foci; criterion, criteria; cheinib, cherubim; seraph, seraphim. (l) Several foreign words have two plurals, one the regu- lar English plural, and the other, derived from the foreign language from which they were introduced. Thus appendix, appendices or appendixes; cJierub, cherubim or cherubs; genus, genera or genuses; memorandum, memoranda or memoran- dums; formula, formulae ov formulas; focus, foci oi focuses. EXERCISE ON THE NUMBER OF NOUNS (a) Write the plurals of the following: Belief, canoe, artery, eulogium, curio, appendix, 13, nine, congress, obscurity, ashes, tooth, field mouse, Mrs. Stone, ban- dit, hatful, staff, assembly. (b) Make sentences orally, containing the following words used in both singular and plural : Army, man-servant, man-of-war, dregs, volcano, mathe- matics, bass, calico, mother-in-law, rhinoceros. (c) Write the plurals of the following in sentences : Series, portfolio, parenthesis, athletics, mongoose. (d) Think of some game you like to play. Select ten nouns that are used in this game. Use these nouns in sentences, at first in the singular ; then change them to the plural. 452 Grammar A Sea of Wild Flowers. Glaciers and mountains of snow in the background. EXERCISES BASED ON PICTURES A SeA of Wild Flowers. — This is a scene from Glacier National Park. You may see the glaciers and ice-covered mountains in the background. Just on the verge of this world of ice, think of untold millions of wild flowers ! A high school class is visiting this paradise of flowers, and while the rest of the Freshmen girls are not far away, just one girl shows in the picture. 1. Put yourself in the girl's place, and tell how she came to be taken alone, out of all her class, in the forefront of this picture. Give the story as if you were the girl. 2. The hoys of the class may describe a climb on the glacier. — Let them, however, be sure of their facts. 3. Name five nouns, five verbs, and ten adjectives that have to do with glaciers. Case. — Construction is the grammatical relation that a noun or pronoun has to the other words of the sentence. The Nominative Case 453 The case of a noun or pronoun is determined by its con- struction. There are three cases in English, the nominative, the possessive, and the objective. Nouns, however, show only two forms for each number, as the nominative and objective cases have the same form. Pronouns show all three forms. The Nominative Case. — The subject of a sentence is in the nominative case. In the sentence, Tom came home with a two-pound bass, Tom is the subject, and is said to be in the nominative case. There are six constructions of the nominative case. 1. Tlie subject of a sentence is in the nominative case, as just shown 2. The predicate of a sentence, if a noun or pronoun, is said to be in the nominative. The predicate nominative is often called the subjective complement. It "fills up" or completes the idea of the subject. One man seemed to be the leader of the party. Edith is a trained musician. Dick has been elected captain. In the above sentences, the italicized words are all used in the nominative case, as the predicate of the sentence, that is, as subjective complernents. 3. A noun or pronoun used in apjjosition with another noun or pronoun in the nominative is also in the nominative. Shakespeare the writer is famous ; but Shakespeare the man is little known. •Here tvriter and man are in apposition with Shakespeare, which being in the nominative case, puts writer and maji also in the nominative, by apposition. 4. A noun or pronoun used in direct address, is in the nominative case. Charles, where did you put the minnow-pail ? Father, what shall we give Esther for her birthday ? 454 Grammar Charles and Father^ used in direct address, are said to be in the nominative case. This is sometimes called the vocative case. 6. A noun used with a participle, either expressed or under- stood, without grammatical relation to the rest of the sentence, is said to be in the nominative absolute. As, Breakfast being ready, we hungry fellows needed no secondr invitation. 6. A noun used in exclamation without a verb is said to be in the nominative case by exclamation. As, A horse 1 a horse ! My kingdom for a horse ! The Possessive Case. — The possessive case denotes pos- session or ownership. The children s hour ; Milton's poems. Formation of the Possessive. — Nouns in the singular form their possessives regularly by adding '« ; as, man's, world's, God's. A few singular nouns add only the apostrophe^ where the addition of the « would produce an unpleasant combination of sounds ; as, Moses^ life. (a) Where two names indicating joint ownership are in the possessive, the sign of possession is joined to the second word ; as. Smith and Brown's store. (6) The plural forms the possessive regularly by adding '5 to the nominative. But if the plural already ends in s, it adds the ' only. Children's games ; horses' trappings. (c) In case of the personal pronouns, his, hers, its, ours, yours, and theirs, the apostrophe is omitted. {d) Sometimes it is smoother and better to denote posses- sion by of, rather than by the use of the possessive case. That was the attitude of the governor of Pennsylvania. (e) You may say, Anybody else^s patience would have worn out under that strain. Or you may say, The patience of anybody else, etc. The Objective Case. — There are some constructions in which the noun is said to be in the objective case. The Objective Case 455 1. The direct object of a transitive verb in the active voice is said to be in the objective case. He shut the door of the room. Here, door is the direct object of the transitive verb shut, and is in the objective case. 2. The indirect object of a verb is said to be in the objective case. He gave the dog a bone. Many "writers consider dog in this sentence as the object of the preposition to understood, making it read, He gave (to) the dog a bone, considering that to is to be supplied. 3. The object of a preposition is said to be in the objective case. He sent a telegram of congratulation to his father and mother on their wedding anniversary. Here, congratulation is said to be in the objective after of, or as the object of of ; father and mother are in the objective after to ; and anni- versary is in the objective after on. 4. When a noun is used adverbially, it is said to be in the objective case. This includes nouns denoting time, distance, measure, or value. I have fished many an hour in that delightful stream. He walked a mile with his old friends. That skyscraper is five hundred feet high. Those bonds are not worth a dollar. The nouns hour and mile, feet and dollar, are said to be in the objective case without a governing word ; that is, they are considered adverbial objectives. 5. When a noun is used as the objective complement of a verb, it is said to be in the objective case. They chose him president. Some writers consider that the verb chose has two objects, both in the objective case. 6. When a noun is in apposition with a noun in the objective case, it is said to be in the objective case by apposition. He saw the caves, the refuge of the unhappy fugitives. I happen to be a friend of Dr. Jones, your next door neighbor. Here refuge is in apposition with caves, the direct object of saw, and because caves is in the objective case, refuge is in the objective case by apposition. For the same reason, neighbor, being in apposition 456 Grammar with Dr. Jones, is in the same case. Dr. Jones, being in the objective, as the object of the preposition o/, neighbor is in the objective case by apposition. 7. When a noun or pronoun is used as the subject of an in- finitivey it is said to be in the objective case. / had always thought him to be an honest man. Here, him is the subject of the infinitive to be. Him is therefore in the objective case, as the subject of an iniinitive. 8. A noun or pronoun used as the complement of an infln- itive, is said to be in the objective case. In the sentence just used, man is said to be in the objective case, as the comple- ment of the infinitive to be. Or it may be considered as agree- ing with him, and as him is in the objective case, man is in the same case, by agreement. EXERCISE ON THE CASE OF NOUNS Write how you have made, or would make, soine such article as a trellis for a honeysuckle vine, or a bookrack ; or, how you would cut out and make a working apron. Indicate the nouns and pronouns in your account, and tell in what case each is, and the reason for each case. The Finish of a Canoe Race. Exercises Based on Pictures 457 EXERCISES BASED ON PICTURES Finish of a Canoe Race. — An exciting race, and a fine finish ! Of course these fellows belong to your high school, and the other high schools will have to swallow their defeat the best they can. It was a State Meet, and five other high schools entered. 1. Think it out, and tell all about it. 2. What other events did your high school win ? — And who won the other events? Which pupil got the gold medal for the highest in- dividual score, counting all events ? Describe this, as though it had oc- curred, and just about as it would happen, if your high school should enter such a State Meet. Or give it as an Interscholastic Meet, includ- ing six or eight high schools in your vicinity. 3. What kind of athletics do you favor, and why? — In what form of athletics does your high school excel, and why ? Or does your high school take much interest in athletics? If not, why not? Write or talk on one of these topics. 4. What form of athletics do the girls of your high school favor f — Give a fair statement of your work in athletics in the high school, so far as the girls are concerned. Gender. — G-ender is the grammatical distinction of nouns with regard to sex. The gender of a noun or pronoun de- noting a male being is masculine; that of a noun or pro- noun denoting a female being is feminine ; the gender of a noun or pronoun denoting an inanimate being is neuter^ that is, it is of neither sex. 1. John, Charles, man, scout, soldier, sailor, bull, are mas- culine. 2. Mary, Caroline, woman, seamstress, suffragette, lady, tnaid, are feminine. 3. Tree, house, mountain, mind, matter, grammar, helpless- ness, are neuter. Nouns are said to have common gender when they may be either masculine or feminine. Thus, cousin, friend, author, teacher, instructor, relative, child, infant, companion, 458 Grammar chum^ hird^ cattle^ may be either masculine or feminine, and are therefore said to be in the common gender. Gender may be indicated in three ways : 1. By the use of different words; as, sow, daughter; master , mistress; gentleman, lady ; hart, roe; sir, madam; Mr., Mrs. or Miss; brother, sister; king, queen; boy, girl; man, woman; husband, wife. 2. By the use of prefixes ; as, man-servant, maid-servant; fore-man, fore^woman ; he-goat, she-goat. 3. By the use of suffixes ; as, host, hostess ; hero, heroine; czar, czarina ; god, goddess; priest, priestess ; prince, princess. Gender of Personified Nouns. — Where names of inani- mate objects are personified, gender is assigned them according to the usage of the language ; in English, those personified as having vigorous, masculine qualities are made masculine, as, the sun ; while those possessing beauty or what might be considered more feminine qualities, are more likely to be made feminine ; as, the moon. This distinction may be studied in Collins' Ode to the Passions. Person. — Person is the quality possessed by nouns or pronouns by which it is indicated whether it is the person speaking., spoken to, or spoken of. These persons are called the first, second, and third. Nouns do not show person by any change or inflection, but by the meaning of the context, that is, of the rest of the sentence ; or the use of what are termed personal pronouns sufiiciently indicates the person of nouns. In the sentences. We are not the creatures of circumstances. Nathan said unto David, Thou art the man. They are not out friends; they are our enemies. the words creatures^ in the first person, man, in the second person, and friends and enemies, in the third person, have their person indicated by the pronouns we, thou, and thet/. Pronouns 459 Equivalents for Nouns. — Any word or group of words that performs the functions of a noun in a sentence, is dealt with as a noun. These may be, 1. K pronoun ; as, Things are not what they seem. 2. An adjective; as, I^one but the brave deserve the fair. 3. An adverb; as, I cannot explain the ins and outs of it. 4. A verbal noun ; as, Seeing is believing. 5. Any part of si^eech, in such sentences as, And is a con- junction. 6. An infinitive phrase; as, To be or wo^ to be, that is the question. 7. A prepositional phrase ; as. Over i/ie /e?ice is out ! 8. A clause, or a complete sentence; as. What he means, I do not know. What are you doing there, are exactly the words he used. EXERCISES ON NOUNS (a) Name five common nouns ; also, five nouns in the common gender. (h) When do^s a proper noun become common? Illustrate by the following nouns : china, ware ; port, wine; morocco and levant, leathers; macadam, roads ; the guillotine. (c) Give the feminine corresponding to the following words: earl, enchanter, enemy, executor, administrator, cousin, brother, testator, protec- tor, marquis, lion, monk. (d) Make a list of ten verbal nouns. (e) Prepare sentences in which five other parts of speech are used as nouns. (/) Refer to Gray's Elegy, and select ten nouns that are personified, (g) Make a sentence containing all the parts of speech. EXERCISES BASED ON PICTURES A Midday Plunge. — The first call to dinner has sounded, and not a fellow lags behind. But before they go, in they go ! This is the sort of fun high school boys have in Michigan, when they go into camp. In the picture on the next page, the teachers and the seniors show at this end, while the. freshmen and the younger boys are at the upper end of the picture. Tell how the boys of your school enjoy themselves. 460 Grammar A Midday Plunge. Tawas Beach, Michigan. III. PRONOUNS Classification of Pronouns. — According to .use, pronouns are divided into five classes. (1) Personal^ (2) relative^ (3) interrogative^ (4) demonstrative^ and (5) indefinite. Personal Pronouns. — A personal pronoun is one that in- dicates by its form whether it represents the speaker, the person spoken to, or the person spoken of. (1) The pro- nouns denoting the speaker are JT, singular ; and we^ plural. They are called the first personal pronouns, (2) The pronouns denoting the person spoken to, are you^ or thou^ in the singular, and you^ or ye^ in the plural. They are called the second personal pronouns. (3) The person spoken of is represented by the pronouns, Ae, she^ and it^ in the singular; and they^ in the plural. They are called the third personal pronouns. Singular Plural (1) Nominative I we Possessive my or mine our or ours Objective me us The Antecedent 461 Singular Plural (2) Nominative you thou you Possessive your or yours thy or thine your or yours Objective you thee you Maisculine Feminine Neuter Common (3) Nominative he she it they Possessive his her or hers its their or theirs Objective him her it them The Antecedent. — The noun or substantive for which the pronoun stands is called its antecedent. The pronoun is said to agree with this antecedent in person, gender, and number, but its case depends on its use in the sentence in which it is found. In the sentence, Arthur hardly thought of his friends outside until the school-bell rang, the antecedent of his is Arthur. His is third person, masculine gender, singular number, to agree with its an- tecedent Arthur. The word it is often used jn an indefinite way at the beginning of a sentence, as It rains ; it snows ; it follows; it happens ; it seems. In such case, it has no antecedent, but it is said to be used impersonally. The pronoun it is often used as the subject of a sentence in which the logical subject is found after the predicate verb, as. It is impossible for me to comply with your request. By arranging the sentence in the following way, this use may be better understood. it for me to comply with your request is impossible This is equivalent to for me to comply with your request is impossible 462 Grammar When it is thus used, it is said to be an expletive. The antecedent of it in this sentence is for me to comply with your request. The Wrong Antecedent. — Errors are frequently caused by the use of the wrong antecedent. The rule is that the pronoun refers for its antecedent to the nearest noun which has been previously mentioned. If you use too many pro- nouns, it will be hard to keep track of them, and of their antecedents, with the result that you will make some awkward mistakes, and will say what you never in- tended to say. Barrett Wendell quotes an instance of this kind in a telegram which appeared in a Boston newspaper. Atlanta, Ga., Dec. 23, 1889. H. W. Grady died this morning. He was born at Athens, Ga., in 1851. His father was a wealthy business man of Athens, and although a Union man, went with his State when she seceded. He was killed while fighting before Petersburg, where he commanded a North Carolina regiment. The funeral has not yet been definitely arranged, but he will be buried in Atlanta, probably on Thursday. In this last statement, as the sentence stands, the pro- noun he can have but one antecedent, the father who died in 1864, instead of the son who died in 1889. Repetition of Pronouns. — A striking example of how a careful writer avoids confusion from the repetition of pro- nouns is found in the following sentence. The lad cannot leave his father : for if he should leave his father, his father would die. — Genesis xliv. ^2. Study also this sentence from Longfellow, where similar care is shown. Pronouns 463 If the mind, that rules the body, ever so far forgets itself as to trample on its slave, the slave is never generous enough to forgive the injury, but will rise and smite the oppressor. — Longfellow. A Japanese Holiday. EXERCISES BASED ON PICTURES A Japanese Holiday. — Were you on this little junket? Let your fancy play, and think out some little story. Write it or tell it. Make it a girl's story. How did you come to be in the party ? What was the day's program ? How do Japanese young folks enjoy them- selves? A Day's Outing. — Suppose you had a visitor from Japan, a school- mate, perhaps ; how would you plan for a day in the open air, by rail, or on the water, or an automobile ride in your own neighborhood ? or a day in the city parks ? or a trip to the country ? or a hay ride ? or a watermelon party, if you live in the South? Write your account, or give it orally. Cautions with Regard to the Use of Pronouns. — 1. Note the use of the nominative form in expressions like It is I, It is they. The subject of the verb to be in all forms except the in- finitive, takes the nominative. 464 Grammar 2. Make the pronoun agree with its antecedent. Avoid the use of their in sentences like the following : Every hoy and girl must pay his own way. Or holding up a book before the class, Who has lost his book ? It is allowable to say, Every boy and girl must pay his or her own way, and Who has lost his or her book ? But this is a roundabout phrase, and the use of the masculine for both genders is correct and shorter. 3. Do not use too many personal pronouns in a sentence, and arrange them so as to avoid confusion. 4. Do not use the^n for those or these, as in the sentence, Those books are Tom's. 5. Make the attribute complement agree in case with the subject of the verb. I knew it (objective) to be him. I thought it (nominative) was she. 6. Watch your cases in interrogative sentences. Especially avoid the us6 of who for tvhom in questions like the following : Whom are you going to invite ? Invite is transitive, and whom is its direct object, in the objective case. 7. Sometimes a clause or sentence is used as the object. In such case, avoid changing the nominative or predicate pronoun of the subordinate clause int» the objective. Tliere arose a question as to who should pay the expenses of the trip. The ob- ject of the compound preposition as to is the clause who should pay the expenses of the trip. Who is therefore in the nomina- tive and not in the objective. In the sentence, / could 7iot distinguish who it was, the object of the transitive verb coidd distinguish is the clause who it was. Who is the predicate of this clause, and hence in the nominative. Who shall I tell her called f is correct, not whom. 8. Do not mistake as and than for prepositions, and make the pronoun objective when it should be nominative. As and than are conjunctions, uniting similar constructions. He is taller than /. Mary is as old as she. 9. Note the use of the possessive in expressions like, / had not heard of his coming. Do not use the objective. Pronouns 465 10. Make the pronoun agree with its antecedent in number. The ear often deceives us as to which word is the antecedent of the pronoun. This is shown in the sentence, If any one oj our friends makes a mistalcej we hate to tell him so. There is a disposition on the part of careless students to use them in- stead of himj because friends is plural. But friends is not the antecedent of him.. Its antecedent is one, which is singular, hence him is singular. So, in the sentence, Let everybody come to the office and get his tickets. Everybody is singular. 11. Avoid the use of myself, except for emphasis. In the sentence. An invitation came in the mail for you and me, do not use myself for me. Relative Pronouns. — The relative pronoun has two func- tions in the sentence. It represents its antecedent^ and at the same time acts as a connective. The relative pronouns are who^ which, that, and what, and as when used after the word such. In the sentences, There is the man that I saw. Where is the family that once lived here ? It expresses exactly what I mean. the italicized words are relative pronouns. In the first sentence, that is in the objective case, the direct object of saw. The second that is the subject of lived, and is in the nominative. In the third sentence, what is equivalent to that which, the sentence then reading. It expresses that which I mean. That is the object of the transitive verb expresses. Which is the object of mean, in the objective case. Who is used for persons ; which is used for things, and that is used for both persons and things. A relative pronoun may he used as the subject of a clause ; as the object of a transitive verb ; or as the object of a preposition ; and as the possessive modifier of a noun. These uses are thus shown : 466 Grammar This is the gentleman that called yesterday. This is the gentleman that you wished to see. This is the man of whom I spoke to you. There is the lady whose fan you found. Compound Relative Pronouns. — These are formed by adding ever and soever to the relative pronouns. They have the same constructions as relative pronouns. Interrogative Pronouns. — Who^ which., and what., when used in asking questions, are called interrogative pronouns. Who refers to persons, what to things, and which to both persons and things. If the interrogatives are joined to nouns, they are termed interrogative adjective pronouns. Who are going ? Whose book is that ? In the first sentence, who is an interrogative pronoun ; and in the second sentence, whose is an interrogative adjective pronoun. Inflection of Relatives and Interrogatives. — Who^ as a relative and as an interrogative, is thus declined : Singular and Plural Nominative who Possessive whose Objective whom Demonstrative Pronouns. — This^ with its plural these ; and that., with its plural those., are called demonstrative pro- nouns. They point out in a definite manner the persons, places, or things to which attention is intended to be called. This is the place, the center of the grove. Here, this is used as a demonstrative. Indefinite Pronouns. — Some pronouns, as either., neither^ each., any., some., such., many., many a, etc., are indefinite in character. They are often used adjectively. Exercise in the Use of Pronouns 467 Full many a flower is born to blush unseen. Each in his narrow cell forever laid, The rude forefathers of the hamlet sleep. The italicized words are indefinite pronouns. Many a is an indefinite adjective pronoun. One, none, other, several, few, and all may be considered as indefinite pronouns. One may be used in both singu- lar and plural. One never knows what to do in such a case. One's own condition is to be considered. I do not care for the big ones. Any and some are plural, except when used with one. Did you see any (one) of the family ? I saw some (plural). I saw some one (singular). EXERCISE IN THE USE OP PRONOUNS Exercise judgment as to the proper word to use in the following sentences. If more than one use is correct, state this to be the case. Give your reason in eacli case. 1. He knew it to be (her or she) by her walk. 2. I knew that it was (she or her) as soon as I saw her. 3. Who can beat to the schoolhouse door, you or (me or I)? 4. Every one of your cousins sent (their, his) regards. 5. Marie is no taller than (he or him). 6. I like to hear (him or his) playing on the violin. 7. I admire (him or his) playing on the violin. 8. Every one of the class contributed something except (she, her). 9. Some friends and (myself, me or I) were invited. 10. What would you do if you were (me or I) ? 11. No one should allow (himself, themselves) to be im- posed on. 468 Grammar 12. (Who (yr whom) did you say was invited ? 13. (Who or whom) do men say that he is ? 14. Nobody in (his, their) right mind would believe that. 15. Between you and (me, I) I am much in doubt about it. 16. It depends on how you and (I, myself, me) decide. The Fujiyama Bridge, Japan. Made of twisted wistaria vine. EXERCISES BASED ON PICTURES Pujiyama Bridge, Japan. — It would be something to tell, if you had crossed this bridge, made of twisted wistaria vine. Visit this scene, in iraagin-ation, and tell a little travel story, weaving in what you see in this picture, and what you can add, that you do not see. 1. Or tell what you do see in the picture. There are enough elements in the picture to make quite an interesting story. Write a story, using the characters shown in the picture. 2. Mount Fujiyama. — This is one of the most beautiful mountains in the world, travelers tell us. Look up an account of a visit to this mountain; or to some other famous mountain, or volcano. Or tell of a trip that you have made, or heard about. Give the story orally. Adjectives 469 IV. ADJECTIVES Adjectives. — Words that limit or modify the meaning of a noun, pronoun, or word used as an equivalent of a noun, are called adjectives. In the sentence, / Tmve bought five yoke of oxen, Jive limits the "word yoke. In the sentence, That is a beautiful scene, the adjective beautiful modifies the word scene. Limiting Adjectives. — Limiting adjectives either point out the object that is named ; or indicate the number or quantity. Limiting adjectives may be (1) pronominal adjectives ; (2) numeral adjectives ; or (3) articles. Pronominal Adjectives. — When pronouns are joined to a noun, as Whose book is that ? What plan do you recom- mend ? Which road shall I take ? they are called adjec- tive pronouns., or pronominal adjectives. Numerals. — Words denoting number are numeral adjectives. They are cardinal, as one, two, three, four, five, one thousand, two millions ; and ordinal, as first, second, third, fourth, fifth, thousandth, two-millionth. Articles. — A, an, and the are known as articles. A is used before consonants, as, a man; an is used before vowels, as, an egg ; the is used before either vowels or con- sonants. Descriptive Adjectives. — Adjectives that modify the meaning of tlie words to which they belong are called descriptive adjectives. Bright, cool, clear, green, white, intelligent, etc., are descriptive adjectives. Comparison of Adjectives. — The modification of an adjec- tive by inflection or otherwise, to indicate degrees of the quality expressed, is called comparison. There are three degrees of comparison, the positive, the comparative, and the superlative. 470 Grammar Positive Degree. — The positive degree is the simple form of the adjective ; as, small., fine^ sweety happy ^ discreet., picturesque. Comparative Degree. — The comparative degree indicates a higher or lower degree of the quality expressed in the positive degree ; as, smaller^ finer ^ sweeter^ happier^ less picturesque. The comparative degree considers but two objects. Superlative Degree. — The superlative degree denotes the highest or lowest degree of the quality expressed by the positive degree. The superlative degree considers three or more objects. Methods of Comparison. — Adjectives are compared in three ways. 1. Adjectives of one syllable, and some adjectives of two syllables, are compared by adding r or er to the positive, for the comparative ; and st or est for the superlative. As, Positive Comparative Superlative tall taller tallest discreet discreeter discreetest 2. Some adjectives of two syllables and all adjectives of three syllables are compared by prefixing more or less to the positive for the comparative ; and most or least for the super- lative. As, Positive Comparative Superlative discreet more discreet most discreet careful less careful least careful 3. Some adjectives are compared irregularly ; as. Positive Comparative Superlative bad, ill, or evil worse worst far farther, further farthest, furthest good better best fore former first or foremost Adjectives 471 Positive Comparative Superlative late later last little less least ny or much more most near nearer next, nearest old older or elder oldest or eldest 4. Some adjectives lack the positive degree ; as, further^ outer J inner J upper. Some Adjectives Not Compared. — On account of their meaning, some adjectives do not admit of comparison. Numbers, of course, come under this head. Some writers do not consider that adjectives denoting color can be com- pared. Pronominal and indefinite adjectives, and the articles a, aw, and the^ cannot be compared. Cautions Concerning the Use of Adjectives. — 1. Do not use too many adjectives. Anything like the excessive use of adjec- tives tends to weaken the style. 2. Do not say "different than.^^ This expression is in- correct. 3. Be careful in your use of this and that, these and those, with the words kind and sort. If the noun modified is singu- lar, the word modifying it must also be singular. / do riot like this kind of flower. Can you tell the names of these khids of apples f 4. Do not use a after kind of and sort of. What kind of man is he 9 Not, what kind of a man. 5. Watch your use of than after the comparative. I like this house better than any other house ; not than any house, which would imply that this was not a house. Equivalents for Adjectives. — 1. A noun used in apposition with another noun ; as, Oeorge Eliot, the novelist, was a writer of marked ability. Here novelist, a noun, has the function of an adjective, as has also a noun in the possessive case, as, Eliofs novels. , 472 Grammar 2. A noun used as an adjective ; as, They decided to build a brick sidewalk. TJiere is a good example of a macadam road. They sang an old college song. Tliat is for campaign purposes. 3. A prepositional phrase ; Who could ever forget her labor of love? 4. Participles ; as, A penny saved is a penny earned. Com- ing events cast their shadows before. They fled in time from the burning building. 5. Participial phrases ; as. Soldiers like the Hessians, hired to serve a foreign country, are seldom respected. 6. Kelative clauses ; The man that hath no music in his soul is fit for treasons. 7. Pronouns with an adjective use (pronominal adjectives); as, Whose book is that ? Their home is pleasant. Constructions of Adjectives. — Adjectives that describe or limit are said to be attributive in construction. When the adjective describes or limits, and at the same time adds to the predicate, it is called a predicate adjective. Predicate adjectives may be attributive or objective cample- mentSy as in The ground is white tvith snow., where white is an attributive complement. I think I shall paint my boat white this year. Here, white is used as an objective (fac- titive) complement. The object boat receives the action of the transitive verb shall paint in such a way as to pro- duce a change in the object. It becomes white. This use is Gdlled. factitive. EXERCISE IN DESCRIPTIVE ADJECTIVES Weaving in Words. — Let one pupil tell orally the story of Little Red Ridimj Hood. Make in class a list of descriptive adjectives such as might well apply to the little girl, the pathway through the forest, her grandmother, the cottage in which she dwelt, the wolf, its appearance, and its voice. Then write the story, weaving in words of the list. Transitive Verbs 473 EXERCISES BASED ON PICTURES A Nook in the Woods. — When and where did you come upon such a spot as this ? Were you out with your dog and gun, after rabbits ; or hunting with the camera; or gathering ferns ; or out with your school fellows for field daisies or marguerites ; or just out for a stroll, alone or with a chum ? or is it a nook on the old farm where you used to live not so long ago ? Is it north, east, south, or west ? 1. Tell the class about it. PTuaograph by Elmer L. Foole. A Nook in the Woods. There is a pleasure in the pathless woods. — Lord Byron. 2. A Picnic. — Write or give orally an account of a day's outing, spent in some such spot as this. 3. In Camp. — The brook doesn't show here. But the scene re- minds you of the camp you occupied one summer. Tell about it. V. VERBS Verbs. — Of the parts of speech, the most important are the verbs. Verbs assert being, action, or state. They are transitive or intransitive. Transitive Verbs. — A verb is said to be transitive if the action represented by it is not completed in the verb itself, but passes over from the subject to the object. 7^e heavens declare the glory of G-od, and the firmament showeth his handiwork. Here, the action is said to pass over from 474 Grammar heavens, the subject, to glori/, the object ; and from firma- menU the subject, to handiwork, the object. The verbs declare and showeth are transitive. In this sentence, glory and handiwork are said to be the direct objects of the verbs declare and showeth. Where the action of the verb passes over from the sub- ject to the object in such a way as to produce a change in the object, this object is said to be the factitive object. As, ffe made the water wine. Wine is said to be the factitive object. Intransitive Verbs. — Intransitive verbs are verbs in which the action is completed in the verb itself. For men must laugh, while women weep, so runs the world away. Here, the action in the verbs laugh, weep, and runs, does not pass over to any object, but is completed in the verbs themselves. They are, therefore, said to be intransitive. A few verbs, ordinarily intransitive, take what is called a cognate object; as. He died a noble death. He lived a life oj honor. In such case, you may consider them as transitive verbs. Misuse of Transitive and Intransitive Verbs. — Errors in the use of the verbs lie and lay, rise and raise, sit and set are all too common. Lie, rise, and sit are intransitive ; while lay, raise, and set are transitive. Seat, allied to set in meaning, is transitive. Note the following sentences. Intransitive : I sit at my writing desk. The hen is sitting. You lie awake in the morning. You rise at the sound of the rising bell. Transitive : You set the chair aside. The maid sets the house in order. The cook sets the bread the night before she bakes. Copulative Verbs 475 Transitive : Your mother sets the table. The farmer's wife sets i the hen. You lay the paper down, after reading it. You lay your work aside. The hen lays an egg. You lay the blame on some one. You raise the window, an alarm, a subscrip- tion. Copulative Verbs. — Some intransitive verbs are copula- tive. That is, they act as the copula or bond between the subject and the predicate. The verbs in the following sentences are copulative. He is honest He seems industrious. She looks sweet. He became indignant. They waxed eloquent Be sure to use adjectives, not adverbs, after copulative verbs. It tastes bitter {not bitterly). She looked beautiful {not beautifully). I feel bad {not badly). It smells sweet {not sweetly). He looked fierce {not fiercely). In the sentence, He looked fiercely at me, looked is not a copulative verb. Attribute Complement. — Some writers, in the sentence. That rose is sweet, instead of regarding is as the copula, and sweet as the predicate, consider is as the predicate and sweet as the attribute complement of the predicate. This complement may be a noun or an adjective. He is our strong supporter. Thai rose is unusually fragrant. Auxiliary Vecrbs. — Auxiliary verbs are those which help to form the modes and tenses of other verbs. They are : be Qam^ ^«, are., was., were., etc.), have (has^ had}, do (^does., did}., shall., will., can., may., must., might, could, would, and should. 1 The verb set is sometimes intransitive, as : The sun sets ; concrete sets slovily. The incorrect form, The hen is setting, is heard so con- stantly that it has almost become " sanctioned by usage." 476 Grammar Principal Parts. — The principal parts of the verb are the parts which determine its conjugation ; for example, a?w, was^ been; happen^ happened^ happened. These are the principal parts of to he and of to happen. The principal parts are, 1 the present indicative, first person, singular; as, come; 2. the past indicative, first person, singular; as, came; 3. the past participle ; as, come. The principal parts may be remembered by this formula : I write, to-day ; I wrote, yesterday ; I have written, some time in the past. Regular and Irregular Verbs. — Verbs are distinguished by the manner in which they form their principal parts as regular and irregular. Regular Verbs. — Regular verbs form their past indica- tive and past participle by adding <, d^ or ed to the present indicative. Reward^ rewarded., rewarded; provide^ pro- vided., provided ; builds built, built. Irregular Verbs. — Irregular verbs form their past indic- ative and past participle by some vowel change from the present indicative ; as, swim., swam., swum; eat, ate., eaten; strike, struck, struck. Guarding Against Confusion of Tenses. — Care should be taken to guard against confusion in the tenses of such verbs as see, do, come, ring, and go.^ Note the principal parts of these verbs : see see, saw, seen do do, did, done come come, came, come ring ring, rang, rung go go, went, gone. 1 The English Syllabus, Board of Regents, New York, insists on con- stant and careful drill on the tenses of these verbs. Confusion of Tenses 477 Also, note how these words are correctly used in sentences : I see the birds now. I saw the parade yesterday. I have seen the Board Walk at Atlantic City. I do the best I can, now. I did the best I could, then. I have done the best I could, at every opportunity. I come to pay you what I owe you. il came to the conclusion yesterday that I would call on you. I have come to look at matters differently, since I saw you. Charles, ring for the janitor, please. I rang for him a few minutes ago, sir. I have rung for him quite a number of times. I go home to-day. I went to the country yesterday. I have gone to see him quite frequently. Voice. — Voice is that property of transitive verbs which denotes whether the subject is acting or acted upon. Intransitive verbs have no voice. Active Voice. — Verbs are in the active voice when their subjects denote the person or thing acting^ as, James found a fine swimming-hole this morning. Passive Voicoi — A verb is in the passive voice when its subject is represented as the receiver of the action, as, William was struck % a passing automobile last Wednesday. Mode. — The mode of verbs denotes the manner in which action, being, or state is represented. There are six modes : indicative, subjunctive, potential, imperative, infinitive,^ and participial. The indicative mode is used to state a fact, or to ask a question about a fact. 1 Many writers do not class the infinitive as a mode. 478 Grammar God will raise up friends to fight our battles for us. Shall we acquire strength by irresolution or inaction ? The indicative mode is used in the great mass of conversa- tion, and of writing. Progremve and Emphatic Forms, — Such forms as, He is playing hall ; He was performing the duties of his office^ are cdUed progressive forms. And such forms as, / do en- joy swimming in the lake ; He does behave as well as ought to he expected., are said to be in the emphatic form. Columbia River, Oregon. Looking towards the State of Washington. EXERCISES BASED ON PICTURES Columbia River, Oregon. — Describe this scene as if you were stand- ing on the bank, and taking in the view. If you had to plan a holiday for your class, and this was. where it was meant to be spent, how would you go about it? What amuse- ments would you offer? What arrangements would be necessary? Subjunctive Mode. — The subjunctive mode denotes a doubt or a contingency. I do not know whether I can go. Mode 479 If he apply himself, he may pass his examinations. If you go, I shall remain. In the subjunctive mode we suppose something that may happen, or express a wish that a certain thing would hap- pen, or a fear lest something might happen. We doubt if a certain statement be true, or are alarmed lest it may not prove true. There is a strong tendency among writers and speakers to do away with the distinctive forms of the subjunctive and in expressing doubt or condition, to use the indicative . with some conjunction denoting that doubt or condi- tion. For instance, instead of saying, I doubt if that asser- tion be true., the tendency is to say, I doubt if that assertion is true. Uses of the Subjunctive. — The subjunctive may be used, 1. To express a wish, a prayer, or a desire. Halloived be thy name ; thy kingdom come ; thy will be done on earth as it is in heaven. 2. To express a contingency. If I receive a letter in the meantime, it will not he necessary for me to return. 3. To indicate a condition regarded as doubtful. If the rain stops, we mxiy visit you to-morrow. 4. To express a condition or conclusion contrary to fact. If thou hadst been here, my brother had not died. 5. To express purpose. Judge not, that ye be not judged. 6. To indicate a concession. Though he slay me, yet will I trust him. 7. After words of command. See to it that there be no fur- ther disorder. 8. After words of fearing. / fear lest he may be sick. 9. In indirect questions. The direct question would be, Is this tale true ? Using this question indirectly, you might say, / do not know whether this tale be true or not. What shall I do? is the direct question. What I may do, remains to be seen, contains an indirect question, in the subjunctive. 480 Grammar Potential Mode. — The potential mode denotes power oi possibility, /may have an opportunity to visit you in Decern- her, I might pay you a small amount to-morrow. I should like to help you. /must do the best /can. /would, ^/' /could. What has been said of the subjunctive, applies with equal force to the potential mode. It is fast giving way to the indicative, so much so that many writers do not recognize it as a mode at all. Imperative Mode. — The imperative mode is used to ex- press command, exhortation, entreaty, or permission. Shut the door. Let us have peace ! Do not continue in this way of doing. The subject of the imperative is usually omitted. When I say, Mien, shut the door, Ellen is not the subject, but is in the vocative nominative. You, understood, is the subject. Infinitive Mode. — As the word implies, the infinitive is not limited by person or number. It does not, like the finite verb, make any assertion, but the assertion is assumed. The infinitive combines the nature of a verb with that of a noun. It has the modifiers of a verb, both adverbial and ob- jective, while at the same time it has all the uses of a noun. It may be called a verbal noun. To have health is a blessing. Another form of verbal noun is the participle in -mgr, which is by some writers termed the gerund. Having health is a bless- ing. We heard of his coming before we saw him. Might living brings its own reward. There are two forms of the infinitive, other than the gerund. They are the present infinitivey and the perfect infinitive. ACTIVK Passivb Present: to gain to be gained Perfect : to have gained to have been gained The present infinitive is called the root infinitive. Uses of the Infinitive. — 1. The infinitive may be used as the subject of a verb. To be happy is not the chief aim in life. Verbals 481 2. It may be the predicate of a sentence ; as is the case with believing in the sentence just used. He seemed to relish his breakfast. 3. It may be used adverbially. / came not here to talk. 4. It may be used as the direct object. He desires to pur- chase it. 5. It may be used as the object of a preposition. What is the object of to go in that sentence? 6. The root infinitive, together with its subject in the ob- jective case, may be used as the object of verbs of saying, thinking, believing, knowing, telling, etc. / know him to be a designing villain. Caution as to Infinitives. — Be careful to let the tense of a statement containing an infinitive show in the principal verb, and not in the infinitive. / intend to go; I intended to go; I had intended to go. The verb ought is an exception to this rule, being the same in the present and the past. I ought to go; I ought to have gone. Verbals. — There are two forms of the verb that are called verbals. They are the gerund and the participle. The Gerund. — The gerund is a verbal noun; that is, it is derived from the verb, but is used as a noun. It is formed by adding -ing to the simple form of the verb, or the root infinitive. It is very similar to the infinitive in meaning. The gerund has some of the functions bo^h of the noun and the verb. (a) As a noun it may be : (1) the subject of a verb ; . (2) the object of a verb ; (3) the object of a preposition, (p) As a verb it may be : (4) modified by an adverb, or by an adverbial phrase ; (5) or, when transitive, it may govern a noun or pro- noun in the objective case. 482 Grammar Examples of Oerund Use. — The following are examples oi its use : 1. As the subject or complement of a sentence. Seeing is believing. Walking is a fine form of exercise. 2. As the object of a transitive verb. / like reading and writing. I favor rowing as an exercise. I admire her acting. 3. As the object of a preposition. I expect to go in for long distance running. He is an expert at quoit throwing. What chance is there now for swimming in Gunpowder Creek ? 4. As modilied by an adverb, or by an adverbial phrase. Are you going to ti-y swimming across ? Do not attempt jumping across that brook. 5. As a transitive verbal, modified by a noun or pronoun in the objective case. Fishing is one thing; catching fish is another. He hunted for gold in Calif orniaj hut I never heard of his finding it. EXERCISES BASED ON PICTURES One — Tw^o — Three ! — It took a pretty good camera to snap this picture. Write an account, as if you took the snapshot. Or tell about it, orally, as if you were one of the divers. Where is it, what were the circumstances, and what else can you think of that is interesting? How to Dive. — If you know, tell the class. If you do not know, read up on it, or talk with an expert diver, and acquaint yourself and the class with the points in div- ing. The Participle. — The participle is a verbal adjective ; that is, it is derived from the verb, but is used One — Two — Three ! Tense 483 as an adjective. The word participle is derived from the Latin word particeps^ a partaker of. It is so called because the participle partakes of the nature of the verb and of the adjective. This is a gift from loving friends. And children, coming home from school, Look in at the open door. — Longfellow. Both loving and coming denote action^ and are therefore verbal words ; in the first sentence, loving modifies friends, while in the second sentence, coming modifies children; they are therefore adjectives. In the sentence. Firing his gun, the guide called the other members of the party to the camp. Firing is a participle. As an adjective, it modifies the noun guide. As a transitive verb, it governs gun, in the objective case. Gret the distinction clear. A verbal in -ing is a gerund, if it performs the part of a noun. It is a participle, if it performs the part of an adjective. Forms of the Participle. — The participle has three forms : 1. The Present Participle. — This is the participle in -ing, and expresses the action or state as now in progress or existence. Now Morn, her rosy steps in the eastern clime Advancing, strewed the earth with orient pearl. — Milton. 2. Tlie Past Participle. — This expresses action or state as completed. Something attempted, something done, Has earned a night's repose. — Longfellow. 484 Grammar 3. The Perfect Participle. — This expresses action as just completed ; as, Having Jini shed breakfast, he departed. Active Passive Present examining Past Perfect having examined being examined examined having been examined Tense. — Tense denotes the time of an action, being, or state. I appreciate your kindness, Ihave appreciated it^ and shall ever appreciate it. Here, time present, past, and future is indicated hy the form of the verb ; that is, by its tenses. Tenses of the Indicative. — There are six tenses in the indicative, as shown below. Present I examine ; I am examining ; I do examine. Past I examined ; I was examining ; I did examine. Future I shall examine ; I shall be examining. Perfect I have examined. Past Perfect I had examined. Future Perfect I shall have examined. Definition of the Tenses. — The present tense marks present time, or time now passing or existing. The past tense marks past time, indefinitely. It is sometimes called the imperfect. The future tense marks time to come, in- definitely. These three tenses are called the primary tenses. The perfect tense, or preserit perfect, as it is sometimes termed, marks past time, completed at the present. The past perfect, or pluperfect, as it is often termed, marks past time, completed before some other past time referred to. The future perfect tense marks future time, completed be- fore some other future time referred to. These three perfect tenses are called secondary tenses. Tenses of the Potential. — There is no future tense in the potential mode. The tenses are indicated by the use of auxiliary verbs. Exercises Based on Pictures 485 Present Past Perfect I can. may, or must examine. I might, could, would, or should examine. I can, may, or must have examined. Past Perfect I might, could, would, or should have examined. Tenses of the Subjunctive. — Note the four following tenses of the subjunctive mode. Present If I be, or If I am. Past If I were, or If I was. Perfect If I have been. Past Perfect If I had been. ' 7}..; . '":-,r::^r- ' .„:# .m ■ 'isW'^y ^M- qii' l^^-^'-^^"^ -..v . t^,: 1 "^^^^"^^.v^'^ Sf "i ^^^^^R ' "**" l£| . Mm Hrj^^S Same Against Same. EXERCISES BASED ON PICTURES Samfc Against Same. — This is a remarkable picture. The man at the right of the saw is also the man at the left of the saw. Every man in the picture shows twice in the picture, once on the right side, and once on the left. See if you can study it out, and find each man on the left. How was it done ? 486 Grammar If you have ever taken a picture like that on the preceding page , show the class how it was doue, and exhibit your picture. How was this pic- ture posed, and how was the clever deception disguised ? Person and Number. — Verbs are said to have person and number^ agreeing with their subjects. Thus, Thei/ bought their tickets last night. Bought is said to be in the third person^ plural number^ agreeing with thet/^ its subject. Infinitives, gerunds, and participles do not have person or number. Agreement of Verbs. — The following suggestions with regard to the agreement of verbs with their subjects in person and number, are worth keeping in mind. 1. A verb in the imperative mode is used generally in the second person. Little Boy Blue, come, blow your horn ! 2. A subject in the singular takes its verb in the singular ; a plural subject takes a plural verb. He is the freeman whom the truth makes free, and all are slaves beside. 3. A collective noun, when singular in form, may take a plural verb if the speaker is thinking of the individuals mak- ing up the collective noun ; as, A herd of deer were grazing i7i the park, scattered here and there. But where you have reference to the collective noun as one thing, it takes the singular verb. The herd was frightened at my approach. So, too, with the collectives like committee and jury. The committee reports, when it is unanimous. But the committee report, when there is a division of opinion. The jury brings in its verdict, when unanimous. They bring in their verdict when they fail to agree. 4. When the subject contains two or more nouns or pro- nouns in the singular, joined by and, the verb is put in the plural. As, And the evening and the miming were the first day. — Genesis i Holland and Belgium are in the lowlands. Agreement of Verbs 487 6. If the nouns thus joined by and are names of things which may be considered as one thing, the verb takes the singular ; as, Tliat wheel and axle you sold me is broken. Here wheel and axle is the name of a single machine. 6. If the nouns joined together by and are but names for the same person or thing, they take a singular verb. For a laggard in love and a, dastard in war, Was to wed the fair Ellen of brave Lochinvar. — Scott. 7. When a noun in the plural denotes the title of a book, or a single sum of money, it takes a singular verb. Dr. John- son's ^^ Lives oft^ie Poets ^' does iiot come up to the standard of his best works. Three million dollars was expended by the company for betterments. 8. When the nouns or pronouns in the subject thus joined by and are limited by the adjective pronouns each, every, no, etc., a singular verb is used. Each man, each woman, and each child receives a portion. Evei-y book and every paper is accounted for. No countenance and no assistance is ever with my consent to be extended to that cause. 9. None is generally used in the singular ; as. There is none that doeth good ; no, not one. — Psalm xiv. Few, many, most, some, several, etc., take a plural verb. Many are called, but few are chosen, 10. When a verb separates its subjects, it agrees with the first. Each man contributes his share, and the officers, theirs. 11. When the subject is made up of several nouns or pro- nouns in the singular joined by or or nor, the verb is in the singular. Neither Charles nor John is invited. 12. When the subjects of a verb thus connected by or or nor are in different persons, the verb agrees with the subject next to it. Either you or he is to go. 13. When there are two subjects connected by the con- junction as well as, the verb takes the person and number of the first. Johnson, as well as the other writers named, takes this stand. 14. In a long sentence, one is liable to mistake the noun 488 Grammar in a modifying phrase for the subject, and thus put the verb in the wrong number. Tlie use of too many modifying words weakens the force of a sentence. Use, and not words, is the subj ect of the verb, which is therefore singular. This mistake is more likely to occur in speaking than in writing, as the ear catches the plural of words, and unconsciously puts the verb in the plural. 15. When the subject is a relative pronoun, the verb really agrees with the antecedent of the pronoun. We say. There is only one of the men that is an Englishman, because one and not men is the antecedent of that. But in the sentence. That is one of the weakest arguments that have been advanced, arguments and not one is the antecedent of that. Sequence of Tenses. — As a rule, the tense of the verb in the subordinate clause changes when the tense of the verb in the principal clause changes. Jdo mt think he will go. I did not think he would go. The usage winch governs this relation is called the sequence of tenses, or harmony of tenses. A present fact, or a general rule, should be stated in the present tense. Where did you say my pencil is? (Not was.) Of what State did Charles say Columbus is the capital f (Not tvas.) In a complex sentence, see to it that both principal and subordinate clauses are in the tenses that serve to bring out the facts you desire to express. Note these illustra- tive sentences. I think he is here. I think he was here. I think he will he here. I thought he was here. I thought he had been here. I thought he would be here. I shall come, if you wish it. I should come, if you wished it. I should have come, if you had wished it. If I can buy that property, I shall do so. If I could buy that property, I should do so. If I could have bought that property, I should have done so. If I have a fishing rod I will lend it to you. If I had a rod I would lend it to you. If I had had a rod I would have lent it to you. Uses of Shall and Will 489 Careful Use of Verbs. — Keep the following suggestions in mind. (1) Distinguish between Can If and May If Can If asks about your ability to do a certain thing. A correct answer would be, I do not know whether you can or not. Try it. May J, asks permission. The answer would be, Tes or No. (2) Do not use had before ought. I ought to have done it. (Not I had ought.) (3) When two or more auxiliaries are used with refer- ence to one principal verb, care should be exercised that the proper auxiliaries be used. This guidebook will answer for any route that has been or shall be suggested. Careless speakers are in danger of saying, that has., or shall be sug- gested. Uses of Shall and Will. — Care should be taken to dis- tinguish between shall and will. The following suggestions should constantly be kept in in mind : (a) Will. — 1. In declarative sentences will in the first per- son expresses a resolution or a promise ; as, Fourth Citizen. We7/ hear the will ! Kead it, Mark Antony ! All. The will ! the will ! We will hear Caesar's will ! — Julius Ccesar, Act. iii, Sc. ii, Shakespeare. 2. In the second and third persons will expresses the idea of simple futurity ; as, Tou will be pleased with my purchase. Mary states that John will be back to-day. 3. In interrogative sentences, however, will asks concern- ing an intention or wish on the part of the one spoken to. This is shown in Mark Antony's reply to the demand of the people to hear Caesar's will. He says, Antony. Will you be patient ? Will you stay awhile ? I have o'ershot myself to tell you of it. 490 Grammar Antony is not urging them to be patient. He is asking them as to their will or intention, as a reading of the passage will indicate. 4. In interrogative sentences, therefore, where you use the first person, singular or plural, it would be foolish to say. Will we go to the picture show to-night ? This would imply that you did not know your own mind. What you should say is, Shall we go to the picture show ? ip) Shall. — 1. In declarative sentences shall in the first person is used merely to foretell ; as, I shall take a walk uptown. I shall he happy to come. 2. In interrogative sentences, shall when used with the first personal pronoun, singular or plural, simply asks a question about a future fact. Shall 1 see him ? Or it asks the desire of the person addressed. Shall we me^t you at the station f Shall / read to you awhile 9 3. In declarative sentences, shall in the second and third persons carries with it the idea of (a) a command ; {h) a threat ; or (c) a promise. (a) Fourth Citizen. Read the will ! We'll hear it, Antony ! You shall read us the will ! Caesar's will ! (6) He shall be made to suffer for this crime, (c) You shall have your turn. Just be patient. 4. In interrogative sentences shall denotes simple futurity in the second person ; in the third person, it asks the desire of the person addressed. Shall you be there to-night ? ShaM they do this ? For a careful study of the uses of shall and wiU, the student is referred to the entire passage in Julius Ccesar, Act iii, Scene ii, lines 100-259. Summai-y. Briefly summarized, the rules are as follows : (a) In declarative sentences, 1. To denote futurity. Use shall in the first person. Use will in the second and third persons. The Wrong Verb 491 I shall be there. You will be there. They will be there. 2. To denote promise or determination on the speaker's part^ Use will in the first person. Use shall in the second and third persons, I will do it. You shall do it. He shall do it. (6) In interrogative sentences the rule is not so simple. Shall I do it ? means Do you wish me to ? ( Will If is used ironically.) Shall you do it ? means Are you going to ? Will you do it ? means A^^e you willing to ? Shall he do it f means Do you ivish him to ? Will he do it ? means Is he going to ? Should and would are used much like shall and will. Caution Against Using the Wrong Verb. — In addition to cautions already given against the use of can for mai/^ and of will for shall, it is important to distinguish between the verbs learn and teach, and also to be careful in your use of the verbs bring, take, and fetch.^ Learn and teach. To learn is to receive and profit by in- struction ; to teach is to give instruction. You teach some one else, or he teaches you. It is sometimes proper to say, I taught myself. Bring, take, and fetch. To bring a thing is to convey it to the place where the speaker is, or is to be ; or to bear it from a more distant place to a place nearer the speaker. To take a thing, in this sense, is to carry it away. To fetch has the two- fold idea of going and bringing. 1 The English Syllabus, Board of Regents, New York, urges that special attention be paid to guarding against the use of the wrong verb, as can for may, set for sit, lay for lie, learn for teach, shall for will, bring for take, etxi. 492 Grammar For the use oi fetch and bring, refer to the story in 1 Kings xvii. 10, 11. If the speaker is going along with the one he addresses, he may say, ^^ Bring that along with you." If he is not going with him he will say, " Take that along with you." If the two are together, and the object is at some distance away, he should say to the one at his side, " Fetch that to me," which is the same as saying, " Go and get that, and bring it to me." If the speaker stands at one point, and the one addressed at another, to fetch a thing he must go to some other point and get it, and then convey it to the speaker. To take it, he must convey it in some direction other than toward the speaker. If he conveys it toward the speaker, he is bringing it. EXERCISES BASED ON PICTURES Alaska. The Bear. — This is the United States Alaskan supply ship. The Bear. This ship provides means of intercommunica- tion between the United States and Alaska. She carries the mails, brings the teachers and officials out to their work ; and takes them back when their work is over, or when on vacation. She brings out supplies, and carries back anything and every- thing there is to offer from the various settlements. The land that shows on the left of the picture is Siberia. As the picture is taken in Bering Straits, Alaska is on the right hand, but does not show in the picture. Describe a trip on The Bear, as if you had just taken it. Or write it in the form of a letter, composed while on the trip. The Bear. United States Alaskan Supply Ship. Adverbs 493 VI. ADVERBS Adverbs. — An adverb is a word that is used to limit or modify the meaning of a verb, an adjective, a participle, or another adverb. He spoke rapidly. That girl is strikingly handsome. Com- ing over to me, he spoke a few words in a quiet tone. Jle left the city very hastily just before we arrived. Simple and Conjunctive Adverbs. — According to their M86J, adverbs are simple or conjunctive. Simple Adverbs. — Adverbs whose function is to modify some other word are simple adverbs. All the adverbs ex- cept before in the above sentences are simple adverbs, as are the great majority of adverbs. Conjunctive Adverbs. — Adverbs which modify some other word in such a way as to connect subordinate clauses with the main proposition are conjunctive adverbs. List of Conjunctive Adverbs. — The following are conjunctive adverbs: as, before, how, until, ivhen, where, while, why, whence, whether, wherefore, whereupon, whereby, wherein, wherever, when- ever. In the sentence, He calls on me whenever he is in the city, the conjunctive adverb whenever modifies is in the subordinate clause, and at the same time modifies calls in the principial clause, and joins the subordinate clause to the principal prop- osition. Adverbs Divided According to Their Meaning. — When con- sidered with reference to their meaning, adverbs are divided as follows : 1. Adverbs of time; always, before, never, now, then, lately, yet, etc. 2. Adverbs of cause; why, wherefore, whence., etc. 3. Adverbs of assertion and denial; yes, yea, aye, nay, nOy not, etc. 494 Grammar 4. Adverbs of number; first, secondly, etc. 5. Adverbs of place; as, here, there, hence, everywhere, yon- der, etc. 6. Adverbs of manner; as, well, ill, better, worse, rapidly, sideways, etc. 7. Adverbs of degree ; as, so, little, enough, partly, wholly, almost, etc. 8. Miscellaneous adverbs; as, indeed, nevertheless, however, etc. Prepositions Without Their Objects Become Adverbs. — In a number of instances, where the preposition drops its object, it is then considered as an adverb. In the sentence, He rowed down the stream, down is a preposition with stream as its object. In the sentence, He rowed up awhile and then rowed down, down is an adverb, having lost its object. Distinguishing Between Adjectives and Adverbs. — Sev- eral adjectives and adverbs have the same form ; as,/a«^, well, little, much, more, etc. Adjectives Adverbs That is ^fast little boat. That boat goes fast. He will get little sympathy. Some men sleep little. Of course, the test in distinguishing between adjectives and adverbs is, as to what each modifies. If it modifies a noun or pronoun, the word in question is an adjective. But if it modi- fies a verb, adjective, participle, or adverb, it is an adverb. In sentences like He is considered poor in spelling, poor does not modify is considered. This is a copulative verb, and poor is the predicate, as some grammarians say, or it is the predicate complement. Thus poor is an adjective, modifying he, the subject. Although he was rich, yet for our sokes he became poor. Here, was and became are copulative verbs, and rich and poor are adjectives modifying he, the subject of the sentence. Adverbs 495 Comparison of Adverbs. — Adverbs are compared in much the same manner as adjectives. Some adverbs, how- ever, are not compared. Many adverbs are compared regularly ; as, fa%t^ faster^ fastest ; rapidly^ more rapidly^ most rapidly. The following are irregular : Positive Comparative Superlative badly, ill worse worst far, forth farther, further fai;thest, furthest late later latest, last little less least much more most near, nigh nearer, nigher nearest, next, nighest well better best Adverbs Formed From Adjectives. — Many adverbs are formed from adjectives by adding -ly. From the adjec- tives happy ^ kind, gracious^ forcible^ dismal^ etc., are forhied the adverbs happily., kindly., graciously., forcibly., dismally, etc. All such adverbs are Compared regularly. Nouns Used Adverbially. — Nouns denoting time., dis' tance, measure, or value, are used adverbially, and may be parsed as adverbs ; as, He is six feet high. When are you coming home f He ran seven miles. That house cost six thousand dollars. He will be home Tuesday, Introductory Adverbs. — Some adverbs are used as in- troductory words ; as, there, indeed, now, etc. There was a man named John. Indeed, there seems to be some doubt about that. Now Barabbas was a robber. Such words are sometimes called expletives. Compound Adverbs. — Some adverbs, such as hand-in- hand, in-and-out, round-about, arm in arm, nowadays, man by man, dollar for dollar, piece by piece, word for word, sentence by sentence, etc., are parsed as compound adverbs. Some writers call such expressions phrasal adverbs. 496 Grammar Idiomatic Uses of Adverbs. — English has certain expres- sions which have all the authority of established usage, but which are hard to explain by the ordinary rules of grammar. These expressions are termed idioms^ and their use is called idiomatic English, In the sentence, He is stone deaf, stone modifies deaf, an adjective, and it is there- fore an adverb. Yet stone is or should be a noun. All you can do is to say that stone is an adverb, used idiomati- cally. Again, in the sentence. She does not care a copper for anyhodys opinion, copper is an adverb, although it is generally considered a noun. Its use is idiomatic. Yes and No. — Yes and no^ when standing alone as the answer to a question, are to be parsed as adverbs. Do you in- tend to go 9 Yes. A Broad Survey. EXERCISES BASED ON PICTURES Photograph by Elmer L. Foote. A Broad Survey. — Standing at the top of a mountain, there is a fine opportunity for a broad survey. You can see here Prepositions 497 what you could not see from some lower level. This traveler is probably taking time to consider what is the best course to take. Vocational Guidance. — The purpose of this guidance is to give you a fuller and a broader view of the years that lie ahead of you. There is danger of a student's drifting into some call- ing for which he is poorly fitted, and of his being kept out of something for which he is or might be prepared. The high school is the place for you to decide on what to do in later life, and to prepare for that work. Let a committee named in class take up the vocations that are or may be open to the members of the class, and discuss them. VII. PREPOSITIONS, CONJUNCTIONS, INTER- JECTIONS Prepositions. — Prepositions are words used with a noun or pronoun to make a phrase limiting some other word. The noun or pronoun is called the object of the preposition. They are said to show the relation of their object and the word to which that object is joined. Do you remember the story of Hood's Bridge of Sighs? Here, sighs is the object of the preposition of ; and of is said to show the relation between sighs and bridge. The phrase of sighs is an adjective element, modifying bridge. You will note that the use of the preposition binds the sentence closer together. It is not, however, a connective in the sense that conjunctions, relative pronouns, and conjunctive adverbs are connectives. In the sentence. He comes from England, the prepositional phrase from England is used adverbially, modifying the verb comes. Adverbial and Adjective Prepositional Phrases. — By a study of the following sentences, you will be able to note 498 Grammar the difference between prepositional phrases used adverbi- ally and those used as adjectives Adverbial Adjeotivk Fish are used for food. He is a man of iron. He is moving to the country. Avoid the excessive use of He escaped by running. adjectives. They went in a hurry from Thomas Jefferson of Virginia house to house. ' was elected president. The Right Preposition. — It is important to use the right preposition with certain adjectives and verbs. A list is given on page 292. Preposition and Object. — The preposition is said to govern its object. Thus it puts its object in the objective case. The noun thus governed is said to be in the objec- tive case, as the object of the preposition. Preposition Preceding or Following Its Object. — Usually the prepositio7i precedes its object; as, He went to toivn. Here the preposition to precedes its object town. But in poetry, and in interrogative sentences, or sentences using interrogative pronouns, the preposition frequently follows its object. The following sentences will illustrate this use. stream descending to the sea, thy mossy banks between ! Where do you hail from ? What are you throwing at ? Whom are you speaking to? What are you talking about? Preposition in Composition with Verbs. — Prepositions are frequently used in composition with verbs; as, Thei/ carried off all the prizes. I will laugh at their calamity. Here, to carri/ off, and laugh at, ate verbs compounded with prepo- sitions. Prizes is the object of carried off, a transitive verb ; and calamity is the object of will laugh at, a transi- tive verb. The verb and preposition are sometimes writ- ten together, as undergo, overtake. Prepositions 499 Like as a Preposition. — Some writers count like as a preposition. She looks like her sister. Others count like as an adjective, and supply to^ making the sentence, She looks like (to} her sister. They count sister the object of to^ understood, and not the object of like^ as a preposition. It is simpler, and therefore better, to count like as a preposition. Adverbs and Prepositions. — Some words, according to their use in sentences, are used both as prepositions and adverbs; as, since^ aboife, below, down. I have not seen him since, adverb. / have not seen him since yesterday, preposition. T7ie roses twined above, adverb. TJie skyscraper towers above the church steeples, preposition. They went below, adverb. / shot below the mark, preposition. Get down before you get hurt, adverb. He went down the street, preposition. Verbals in -ing Used as Prepositions. — Many words originally verbals in -ing are now used as prepositions; as, calling, regarding, considering, respecting, touching, etc. 2 called regarding that offer of yours. Considering his diffi- culties, he did well. What did you decide upon, respecting the matter of church repairs ? What May Be Objects of Prepositions. — Any equivalent of a noun may be used as the object of a preposition. 1. A pronoun. He who comes up to his own standard of greatness, must have had a very low standard of it. — Ruskin, 2. An adjective. He went from good to better. 3. An adverb. Let the great world spin for ever down the ringing grooves of change. — Tennyson. 4. A gerund. One must be poor to know the luxury of giving. — George Eliot 500 Grammar 6. A noun phrase. None knew thee but to love thee. None named thee but to praise. — Halleck. 6. A noun clause. From what he told me, I do not think he will go. Prepositions in Composition. — Prepositions used in com- position^ change an intransitive verb to a transitive verb. Laugh and look are" intransitive verbs, but in the sentences, He laughed at "my plight ; and, HeJooked at the house, the verbs laughed at and looked at are transitive compound verbs* Ohio River Steamers Caught in the Ice. EXERCISES BASED ON PICTURES Caught in the Ice. — This is not an Arctic scene. It is a snap- shot of Ohio liiver steamers caught in the ice, when the Ohio froze over. It was taken at Cincinnati. One of the many bridges that cross the river at this point is shown faintly in the back- ground. The high school to which you belong, let us say, has given a half-holiday, to enable you to view a scene you may never again witness. Coordinate Conjunctions 501 Tell the story of this visit. The steamboats may not look like steamboats with which you are familiar. The one with steam up is called a side-wheeler, while the one to the left of it is called a stern- wheeler. The colored bands showing on the smoke stacks indicate to what line of steamers each belongs. Conjunctions. — Conjunctions are words used to join words, phrases, clauses, and sentences. Classes of Conjunctions. — There are two main classes of conjunctions, coordinate and subordinate. Coordinate Conjunctions. — Coordinate conjunctions join (a) two words ; (5) two phrases ; (c) two dependent clauses ; (i?) two independent clauses, or sentences. (a) Hand and foot are needed in mountain climbing. (h) We grow ourselves Divine by overcoming with mere hope And (with) most prosaic patience. — Mrs. Browning. (c) Flowers are the sweetest things God ever made and for- got to put a soul into. — Henry Ward Beecher. (d) None preaches better than the ant, and she says nothing. — Franklin. Coordinate conjunctions are divided as follows : , 1. Copulative, denoting addition ; as, and, both, also, more- over, further, etc. 2. Disjunctive, denoting separation between ideas not quite alike; as, either, neither, 7ior, else, otherioise, etc. 3. Adversative, suggesting opposition of meaning ; as, buty still, yet, notwithstanding, however, etc. 4. Illative, denoting effect or consequence ; as, hence, con- sequently, therefore, wherefore, whence, accordingly, thus, so, so that, etc. 5. Alternative, indicating choice between words or ideas ; as, either — or, or, etc. 502 Grammar 6. Correlative^ which serve to connect ideas in pairs; as, as — so, as — as, so — as, if — then, though — yet, etc. 7. Concessive, which serve to grant or yield a point; as, yet, nevertheless, still, although, etc. Subordinate Conjunctions. — Subordinate conjunctions are used to introduce subordinate clauses. Subordinate conjunctions are divided into the following classes, according to their use. 1. Time ; as, as, while, until, before, ere, since, after, as soon as, as long as, when, etc. 2. Cause or reason ; as, because, for, since, as, ichereas, inas- much as, etc. 3. Condition or supposition; as, if, provided, supposing, unless, except, otherwise, though, notwithstanding, albeit, whether, etc. 4. Purpose; as, that, in order that, lest, etc. 5. Comparison ; as, than, etc. 6. Expletive; as that, used in introducing a sentence. That little children should not be put to work, seems evident. It is important to distinguish between the use of coordinate and subordinate connectives, in order to tell compound and complex sentences apart. Coordinate conjunctions join com- plete, independent clauses or sentences, to make compound sentences; while subordinate connectives, including conjunc- tions, conjunctive adverbs, and relative pronouns, join depend- ent clauses to main clauses, thus making complex sentences. In the example, A fool may talk, but a wise man speaks (Ben Jonson), two independent sentences are joined by the coordi- nate conjunction but, thus forming a compound sentence. In the three examples following, the words as, when, and which are respectively (1) a subordinate conjunction; (2) a conjiinctive adverb ; and (3) a relative pronoun. They join the dependent clauses, as I knoiv more of mankind; when a true genius appears in the world ; which calls its burial ground * God's acre,' to the principal clause in each case. Interjections 503 1. As I know more of mankind, I am ready to call a man a good man upon easier terms than I was formerly. — Dr. Johnson. 2. When a true genius appears in the world, you may know him by this sign, that the dunces are all in confederacy against him. — Swift. 3. I like that ancient Saxon phrase which calls its burial ground ' God's acre.' — Longfellow. Interjections. — Interjections are words used to give ex- pression to emotion. The interjection has no grammatical connection with the other parts of the sentence. Al- most any part of speech may be used as an interjection. When this is the case, it is generally indicated by the use of the exclamation point. The cry of Fire I went quickly everywhere. « The following are interjections : oh, ah, lo, fie, alas, hello, huzza, hurrah, hark, ahem, hist, hey, indeed, good-hy, farewell, etc. Words in this list, as well as many others, are frequently used as interjections. How, why, see, come, stop, help, fire, hack, hang, well, hush, he- hold, there, shame, hegone, get out, leave, look, " stop, look, listen,^' look out, ivelcome, nonsense, dear me, heware, safety first, etc. EXERCISES IN THE USE OF PREPOSITIONS, CONJUNCTIONS, AND INTERJECTIONS Pick out the prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections in the following selections. If thou wouldst have me sing and play As once I played and sung, First take this time-worn lute away And bring one freshly strung. — Moore. " Charge, Chested, charge ! on, Stanley, on ! " Were the last words of Marmion. — Scott. 504 Grammar EXERCISES BASED ON PICTURES Bridal Veil Falls, Yosemite, you? If so, describe them, city, tell about it. Bridal Veil Palls. — What is the right word to describe this scene? Before you begin to write, select ten words that would properly belong to a description of this picture, or that would not be out of place in a care- ful word picture of the Falls. Weave these words, or as many of them as you can, into your account. When through, look over your statement or description, and cut out any word or phrase that you do not like, or that you feel does not really belong there. Is there a waterfall in your vicinity? If not, are there cascades, or what is called " the ripples," anywhere near If there is a notable fountain in your VIII. THE RIGHT WORD Using the Right Word. — Some words are nearly alike in meaning; other words are very nearly if not altogether opposite in meaning ; while in the case of still other words, they may look or sound alike and yet vary, in meaning. Words of these three classes are termed, respectively, synonyms^ antonyms^ and homonyms. Synonyms. — Synonyms are Ti^ords that are to some ex- tent alike in meaning, but differ in some important respect as to what they imply. For a full discussion of synonyms refer to pages 300-309. Homonyms 505 Antonyms. — Antony m% are words which are as nearly as possible opposite in meaning. This bread is stale^ while that is fresh. Here, stale and fresh are antonyms. Some men delight to call evil good. Here evil and good are antonyms. We have clothing for the outer man^ hut what we seem to lack is refreshment for the inner man. Here, outer and inner are antonyms. Homonyms. — Words which at first glance seem alike, but which have entirely different meanings, are homonyms. In the sentence, John Wright, the millwright, cannot write rite right, the words wright^ write^ rite., and right are homo- nyms. They sound alike, but differ in meaning. EXERCISE IN USING THE RIGHT WORD (a) Distinguish carefully between the following antonyms, using them in sentences. diffident, forward obtuse, keen bright, dull upright, mean strong, feeble rural, metropolitan pure, coarse happy, wretched loyal, treacherous esteem, reproach lively, morose wealthy, indigent lenient, severe refined, crude reserved, outspoken (h) Fill the blanks with the proper homonyms, as indicated in parentheses at the end of each sentence. 1. He said. Give me , and the little fellow handed him a (leaf, lief). 2. The girl began to , and smilingly said, As ye , — — shall ye reap (so, sow, sew). 3. I am glad to you, he said. But we are short of , and we shall have to it out carefully (mete, meat, meet). 4. My little girl, said he, feed this to that herd of (deer, dear). 5. That is a fire in that (grate, great). 6. Sailing now upon the , one the enemy their ships (sees, seize, seas). 7. the , where did you that new automobile (bye, by, buy)? 8. To live and not , said the tradesman, I daily. The longer I live, the better I , 506 Grammar and the more I , the better I live (die, dye). 9. My young friend, are you going to the ? That's not ■ said the girl, as she paid her (fare, fair). 10. Seeing the old pastor in the congregation, they asked to select the closing (hymn, him). (c) Use these homonyms in sentences. Hoes, hose; bin, been; two, too, to; marshall, martial; hoard, horde ; mean, mien ; grocer, grosser ; knead, need ; al- lowed, aloud ; herd, heard ; core, corps ; alter, altar ; bass, base. Ellipsis. — Ellipsis is the omission from the sentence of some word or words necessary to the grammatical con- struction. Its use is permissible only where the mind of the hearer or reader easily supplies the missing word or words. The following are examples of ellipsis. 1. The subject of a verb in the imperative mode. Lay {you) up for yourselves treasures in heaven. 2. The relative pronoun used as the subject of a verb. ^Tis distance {tha£) lends enchantment to the view. 3. The relative pronoun used as the object of a verb. TJiis is the place (that) I meant. 4. A preposition governing a relative pronoun, both omitted. He arrived the day (on which) the note matured. 5. A personal or demonstrative pronoun used as the ante- cedent of a relative pronoun. (He) Who steals my purse , steals trash. 6. A subject noun or pronoun, in polite reply. (I) thank you, 7. Both subject and predicate in questions, where several questions are asked. Whose is this book ? And (whose book is) this f Where are you going f And you ? Meaning, And where are you going 1 8. A verb in the infinitive mode. Will you go with U8 to-day f I shall do my best (to go). Common Errors 507 9. That, introducing a clause. He declares {that) he is innocent. 10. The principal verb, following an auxiliary. Who knows this lad ? I do (know him). Who can solve this problem 9 I can (solve it). 11. A conditional clause, / shall be pleased to help you, (if you desire me to do so). 12. The entire sentence except one important word, in answering a direct question. Did Dick run in or out ? (He ran) in. Will you choose this or that f (I will choose) that. 13. A noun whose meaning is modified by a noun in the possessive case. What church did you attend ? ^S'^. John's (church). Common Errors. — It is not possible to list all the errors of speech. It is well for the class to make its own lists. The following, however, are worth noting. (a) Misuse of Verbs. — Frequent errors in the use of verbs are made in written and spoken language. You are to note the errors as your attention is called to them, and apply the rules of grammar which are applicable in each case. 1. Do not say. Can I borrow a pencil ? May is the word to use here. Can refers to ability ; may, to permission. 2. Hadn't you better lay down for a while? Lie is the word to use here. Hens lay, but you lie down. You can lay down a rule. 3. I was raised in Ohio. You mean, I was reared in Ohio. Children are reared ; hogs are raised. 4. I guess I'll have to go now. You mean, I think I'll have to go now. 5. Fix those books on the shelf. You mean, Arrange those books. (b) Fill the blanks, using the proper word. 1. Abandon, desert, forsake. Several sailors the ship ; then ajl the passengers it ; and finally, the captain it 508 Grammar 2. Learn, teach. There is the young fellow who me how to skate. I myself to sew. 3. Sit, set, seat. Mary, down awhile. yourself at the piano, and I will the table. (c) Misuse of Nouns. — 1. I've got a raise in salary. You mean an increase. 2. I have a long icays to go. You mean, I have a long way to go. While he was yet a great way off, his father saw him. It's a long way to Tipperary. 3. I met a party down town who says he knows you. You mean, I met a man, or a hoy, or a person, or somebody, who knows you. You might meet a fishing party, or a party of friends. One person does not constitute a party. 4. He has a custom of taking off his hat when he stops to speak to a lady. You mean that he has the habit of taking off his hat when he stops to speak to a lady. A number of people have a custom. One of them, conforming to that custom, has the habit established by the custom. (d) Misuse of Adjectives. — 1. It's a nice day. You mean, It's a pleasant day. When the jeweler fits a mainspring in its place, it takes a nice adjustment. We may also speak of a nice discrimination. 2. We have had an elegant time. You mean, a pleasant time. The word elegant might apply to an unusually beauti- ful watch, as an elegant timepiece. 3. That little child has a grand voice. You mean, perhaps, that it has a good voice. Grand cannot apply to the voice of a child. 4. Well, anyhow, she has a real good voice. You mean a really good voice. Good is an adjective, and the word that modifies it must be an adverb. 5. Are bananas healthy ? You do not mean that. You mean, Are they wholesome, or good to eat? (e) Misuse of Pronouns. — 1. I know who you mean. That is wrong. What you should say is, I know whom you mean^ Mean is a transitive verb, and whom is its object, in the objective case. Exercises in Promoting Good English 509 2. Between you and /, that man is unreliable. You mean, between you and me. Between is a preposition, governing both you and me, in the objective case. 3. Everybody should manage their own affairs. You mean, should manage his own affairs. Everybody is singular, and so is his. They both have the same antecedent. 4. I know it is him. It should be, I know it is he. 5. I know it to be he. It should be, I know it to be him. It is in the objective, and him agrees with it, to &e being an inlinitive. 6. Who is there ? It is me. You should say, It is /. 7. Are you sure that is our party ? Yes, it is them. You mean. It is they, (/) Misuse of Adverbs. — 1. I feel badly. You mean, I feel bad. 2. I feel some better now. What you mean to say is, I feel somewhat better now. 3. When I go to the country, the sounds at night make me feel kind o' lonesome. You mean, rather lonesome. Or you can say, make me feel lonesome. 4. I never remember a hotter day than yesterday. You should say, I do not remember a hotter day. 5. It is noble to bravely die. Say, It is noble to die bravely. Do not place the adverb between the parts of the infinitive. (g) Misuse of Prepositions arid Conjunctions. — 1. John is home now. Say, is at home now. 2. This thing is no use now. Say, It is of no use now. 3. William fell off of the roof. Say, He fell off the roof. " 4. I do not know if he will go. You mean, I do not know whether he will go or not. EXERCISES IN PROMOTING GOOD ENGLISH Class List of Errors. — Let a committee of three watch the every- day speech of the English class for a week, and report on the errors that occur in the ordinary speech of the class. Quote the exact language used, indicate the error, but do not mention names. 510 Grammar Richelieu on the Dike at La Rochelle. — Motte. EXERCISES BASED ON PICTURES Richelieu. — This is a scene from French history. Cardinal Richelieu was the prime minister of Louis XIII. He had two aims ; one, to make the French king absolute in France ; and the other, to make France supreme in Europe. He broke the power of the Huguenots in France, and captured La Rochelle, which they had planned to make their capital. The picture shows him in the hour of triumph, on the dike of the city just taken. This was in 1628. 1. Tell the story of Richelieu. — Look up your authority in the school or public library ; or in some good high school history. 2. Tell the story of the French Huguenots. — In what American colonies did the Huguenots form an important element of the popu- lation ? EXERCISE IN DISCRIMINATION Using the Right Word. — Fill in the blanks with the right word, and indicate the reason for your choice. (a) The Right Verb. — 1. I hope our teacher will let us (try or make) that experiment to-day. 2. What do you (guess, suppose or think) we shall have to- day in laboratory work ? Exercise in Discrimination 511 3. She (do n't or does nH) skate very well on ice. 4. I (had or would) rather not go to the theater to-night. 5. I shall try (and or to) go with you this afternoon. 6. I (expect or suspect) he will not visit here again. 7. He told me to do it, and I (done or did) it. 8. I shall attend to the matter, I (promise or assure) you. (b) The Right Noun or Pronoun. — 1. Let's go to the (depot or station) to meet the noon train. 2. That is the (person or party) that asked for you. 3. If you look any one straight in the face, the chances are that (he or they) will flinch. 4. Our country expects every man to do (his or their) duty. 5. I prefer (this or these) kind of apples. (c) The Eight Adjective. — 1. I feel pretty (badly or bad) to-night. 2. He is fairly well (posted or informed) in history. (d) The Right Adverb. — 1. Does this hat look (good or well) enough to wear to-night ? 2. I would just as. (soort or lief) not go to the matinee. 3. I am (kinda, kind o\ kind of or somewhat) interested in that subject. 4. This book is not (so or as) interesting as that. 5. My mother is feeling (nicely or well) to-day. 6. I shall be ready (right away or immediately). 7. Is your father expected home to-day ? Not (as or thaJt) I know. 8. I have not studied (any or at all). 9. He left here (some or about) ten days ago. 10. Try some of this candy. It is (real or really) good. (e) The Right Preposition or Conjunction. — 1. I seldom (or or if) ever see a play nowadays. Seldom or never, is also correct. 2. Here, boys, take this bag of peanuts, and divide it (be' tween or among) the three of you. 3. Put on your skates and do (as or like) I do. 512 Grammar Formation of Words. — The stem of a word is the basis of that word. It contains the root meaning of the word ; as in ex-tend, tend = to stretch. A prefix is an element occurring at the beginning of a word and used to modify the idea expressed by the prin- cipal part of the word. This is seen in the use of ex- in ea;-tend. A suffix is an element joined at the end of the base, to express a modifying idea. As, hate-ful. Both the prefix and the suffix to a word are used as subordinate elements of that word. 77ie base of a word may be a word, or a stem ; as, street- car, retrograde. In some cases, the base adds both a pre- fix and a suffix ; as, composition. Here, to the base posit is added the prefix com, and the suffix ion. IX. PARSING Parsing. — Parsing consists in stating the part of speech to which a word belongs, its properties, and its construction in the sentence. ^ Construction. — By the construction of a word is meant its syntax; that is, its relation to the other parts of the sentence. Order of Parsing. — The following is the order of parsing of each of the parts of speech. I. The Noun. — State (1) its class, (2) its gender, number, and person, (3) its case, and construction, giving the reason, as follows : If nominative, state of what finite verb it is the subject or predicate complement ; or tell if it is nominative by address, or ^ Neither the use of diagrams, except infrequently as an aid to the analysis of difficult sentences, nor routine parsing, is to be recommended. — From the English Syllabus, Board of Regents, New York. Order of Parsing 513 « nominative absolute, or nominative by apposition with some noun. In the latter case state with what noun it is in apposition. If objective J state of what transitive verb or preposition it is the object ; or of what infinitive it is the subject ; or if it is used adverbially, as a noun denoting time, distance, measure, or value, state what verb, adjective, participle, or adverb it modifies. If possessive, state what noun it modifies. II. TJie Pronoun. — Parse in the same manner as the noun, except that its properties of gender, number, and person, depend upon its antecedent, which should be named. III. The Adjective. — State (1) its class, (2) degree of com- parison, and how it is compared, (3) its construction, that is, what it modifies. IV. The Verb. — State (1) whether regular or irregular, and give its principal parts, (2). whether transitive, intransitive, or copulative, and if transitive, its voice, and the reason therefor, (3) its mode and tense, and the reason in each case, (4) its per- son and number, and agreement. V. The Participle. — State (1) from what verb derived, (2) tense, (3) transitive or intransitive, and if transitive, its voice and the reason for it, (4) its construction, or what it modifies. VI. Tlie Gerund. — State (1) from what verb derived, (2) tense, (3) transitive or intransitive, and if transitive, its voice, and why, (4) if in active voice, what object, if any, it has, (5) case, and reason for case. VII. The Adverb. — State (1) class, (2) degree of compari- son, and how compared, (3) construction, that is, what word it modifies. VIII. The Preposition. — State (1) what word it governs, (2) what word the preposition and its object modify, (3) what kind of phrase, whether noun phrase, adjective phrase, or ad- verbial phrase, the preposition and its object form. IX. The Conjunction. — State (1) whether it is coordinate or subordinate ; (2) its construction ; that is, what words, phrases, or clauses are connected by it. 514 Grammar X. The Interjection. — State its class, that is, whether it is a real interjection, or some word used as such. EXERCISES BASED ON PICTURES Blarney Castle. — Not far from Cork, Ireland, stands Blarney Castle, visited annually by thou- sands of tourists. In the north-east corner of the tower there is a stone which is said to possess a wonderful power. Any- one, so runs the legend, may obtain the gift of a persuasive tongue who will climb up to the stone and kiss it. Irish folk are in the habit of saying of one who can interest and persuade others easily, " Sure, he must have kissed the blarney stone." And when they think some one is trying to flatter them, they laugh and say, " Go on, you can't work your blarney on me ! " Describe a visit to Blarney Castle. Or tell some story of one who has the gift of blarneying. EXERCISES FOR PARSING Parse all the words in the following sentences. Be as brief as possible, but aim to give all the important facts concerning each word. In case of an ellipsis, supply the omitted word or words. 1. How very beautiful those gems are ! they look like frag- ments of heaven. — George Eliot. 2. The future is always a fairy land to the young. — G. A. Sala. Blarney Castle. Analysis of Sentences 515 3. The heart of a wise man should resemble a mirror, which reflects every object without being sullied by any. — Confucius. 4. The square described on the hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle is equivalent to the sum of the squares described on the other two sides. — Euclid, 4'^th Proposition, Book i. 5. The night is far spent, the day is at hand : let us there- fore cast off the works of darkness, and let us put on the armor of light. — Romans xiii. 12. 6. And Ahab said to Elijah, Hast thou found me, O mine enemy ? — 1 Kings xxi. 20 7. When the wind is in the north, The skillful fisher goes not forth ; When the wind is in the east, 'T is neither good for man nor beast ; When the wind is in the south. It blows the bait in the fishes' mouth ; When the wind is in the west. Then 't is at its very best. — Mother Goose. 8. But the young girl at the garret window stood there with gleaming eyes, with the rosy hue of. health on her cheeks, and folded her thin hands over the pea blossom and thanked heaven for it. — Hans Christian Andersen. 9. If it be a sin to covet honor, I am the most offending soul alive. — Shakespeare. 10. The truest wisdom, in general, is a resolute determina- tion. — Napoleon. X. ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES Analysis. — Analysis'^ in grammar is the process of separating a sentence into parts, according to their use. 1 To help the pupil develop the " sentence sense " and to grasp the thought of difficult sentences, much of the time given to the study of grammar should be spent in the analysis of sentences just within the limit of his mental ability, such analysis consisting of rapid drill in syntax of words, phrases, and clauses. — From the English Syllabus, Board of Regents, New York. 516 Grammar Elements. — The elements with which analysis deals are words^ phrases, and clauses. A word is an element of the Jirst class. In the sentence, Why are you so late ? all the elements are of the first class, being single words. A phrase, consisting either (1) of a preposition and its object ; or (2) of an infinitive, is an element of the second dass. In the sentence, / have decided to remain until Saturday, there are two phrases, to remain, which is an infinitive phrase ; and until Saturday, a prepositional phrase. Both are elements of the second class. A clause, which is an element containing a subject and predi- cate of its. own, is an element of the third class. In the sen- tence. Breathes there the man with soul so dead, Who never to himself hath said, This is my own, my native land ! the second line is a clause, modifying ma7i, and the third line is a clause, modifying the transitive verb hath said, as its direct object. These two clauses, who never to himself hath said, and this is my own, my native land, are both elements of the third class. Simple, Complex, or Compound Elements. — Elements of all three classes may be either simple, complex., or compound. A simple element of any class is one that is not modified by any other element. In the sentence, / think I shall buy me a panama hat, the word panama is a simple element, because not modified by any other word. But the word ^o^ is not simple, because it is modified by a and panama. A complex element is one which is modified by some other word, phrase, or clause. Did you notice that little bird, which sings so sweetly ? Here, that little bird, which sings so sweetly is a complex element, in which the word bird is modified by three elements^ that and little, elements of the first class j and Exercises Based on Pictures 517 which sings so sweetly, an element of the third class. These modifying elements make the element complex. A compound element consists of two or more elements, joined together by coordinate connectives. Man and beast are suffering for water. Here, man and beast is a compound ele- ment, the subject of the sentence. Tliis rem.edy is good for man and beast. Here man and beast is a compound element of the first class, the object of the preposition for. The expression for man and beast forms a compound adverbial element of the second class, modifying good, an adjective. In the sentence, / do not care what he offered me, or lohy he offered it, the expression what he offered me or why he offered it, is a compound adverbial element of the third class, being two clauses joined by the coordinate conjunction or. Principal and Subordinate Elements. — Elements are either principal or subordinate. Principal Elements. — Principal elements are elements used as the subject, predicate, or subjective complement of a sentence. Subordinate Elements. — Elements which are used to limit or modify either principal or subordinate elements are called subordinate elements. Subordinate elements may be adjective, objective, and adverbial. These terms have already been defined. Kinds of Sentences. — So far as use is concerned, sen- tences may be declarative, interrogative, imperative, and exclamatory. Declarative Sentences are used to make a statement ; as, Catiline fied from Rome. Interrogative sentences ask a question ; as, Where did you go last night? Imperative sentences contain a command, an exliortation, entreaty, or give permission ; as, ^o, where glory waits thee. Let us go home soon'. Do not kill that bird- ' You may go now* 518 Grammar Exclamatory sentences are used to express sudden or strong emotion ; as, Alas^ that I should see this day ! ^1-/^1-^--'- '>:^^^| Wreck of a United States Warship. EXERCISES BASED ON PICTURES Wreck of a United States Warship at Samoa. — In the famous tidal wave at Samoa, one of our ships was caught by the tornado and hurled to destruction. What was left of it is shown in the picture. 1. Describe the wreck, as if you had just visited it. 2. Refer to Robinson Crusoe, and give an account of his visit to the wreck of his ship, after he was cast upon a desert island. 3. Imagine yourself one of the crew, or one of the passengers on board a ship torpedoed by the enemy. Tell how you got to land. Structure of Sentences. — With reference to their structure, sentences are divided into simple, complex, and compound. Simple Sentences. — A simple sentence contains but one clause. Its subject, predicate, and modifiers may be words or phrases ; and they may be simple, complex, or compound. But as long as none of these elements is an additional clause, the sentence remains simple. Complex Sentences 519 Children play. Little children play on the sands. The happy little children of the sailor folk play here and there in great numbers all over the beautiful sands of the seaside. 1 Complex Sentences. — Complex sentences are sentences, some part of which, either principal or subordinate element, is modified by one or more additional clauses. I do not know when I have enjoyed an evening more than this. The principal clause is I do not know. The subordinate or modifying clause is when I have enjoyed an evening more than this. The subordinate connective when.^ a conjunc- tive adverb, joins on the modifying clause to the verb know, A complex sentence contains one principal clause, and one or more subordinate clauses. Uses of the Subordinate Clause. — The subordinate clause may be any of the following. 1. A subordinate clause may, as an adjective, modify the meaning of a noun or pronoun ; as, This is the house that Jack built. Here, the clause, that Jack hidlty modifies houscj as an adjective. 2. A subordinate clause may, as an adverb, modify a verb ; as, Tlie robins returned when spring came. Here, the clause, when spring came, modifies the verb returned. 3. A subordinate clause may be used as the object of a tran- sitive verb ; as. Can you tell where you put that knife ? Please explain what you mean. Here, the clause, where you put that knife, is the object of the transitive verb can tell. And the clause, what you mean, is the object of the transitive verb explain. 4. A subordinate clause may be used as the object of a preposition ; as, I shall be governed in my course by what 1 discover. Here, the clause, what I discover, is the object of the preposition by. 520 Grammar 6. A subordinate clause may be used as the subject of the sentence ; as, That you have wronged me, doth appear in this. Compound Sentences. — Compound sentences contain two or more principal or independent clauses. 7^e rains de- hcended^ the floods came^ and the winds blew. Here, three principal clauses, The rains descended^ (and) the floods came^ and the winds blew, are connected by the word and. A tart temper never mellows with age ; and a sharp tongue is the only edged tool that grows keener with constant use. — Irving. This is a compound sentence, made up of a simple sentence A tart temper never mellows with age ; to which is joined by the word and a complex sentence. And a sharp tongue is the only edged tool that grows keener with constant use. This is complex because it contains one principal clause, Aiid a sharp tongue is the only edged tool, to which is joined a limiting or modifying clause, that grows keener with constant use. fei* '^ /lit ??'*•.■-■■; #1^ 4 W^^mi- ■i'-i it'i^i- WB - am -1 ?wp Going A-Gypsying. Diagraming Sentences 521 EXERCISES BASED ON PICTURES Going a-Gypsying. — Such a jaunt as this is within almost anybody's reach. It may be on the outer edge of your city park ; or near some good fishing stream, a few miles out from town ; or on the mountain-side near you ; or on the lakeside, or at the sea-shore. Put it where you please, and tell about it. Your mother is a famous cook, and she is making pies. Make your classmates' mouths water, by telling about the pies. And after telling about this scene, get your folks to go a-gypsying again some day soon. Diagraming Sentences. — Diagraming sentences is arrang- ing them to show to the eye the different parts in such a way as to render the analysis clear. For instance, take this sentence from Shakespeare : Imperious Caesar, dead and turned to clay, Might stop a hole, to keep the wind away. — Hamlet. Ccesar is the subject, and might stop is the predicate. And it so happens that the first line belongs entirely to the subject Ccesar, while the second line belongs entirely to the predicate might stop. The sentence may thus be arranged : imperious Caesar dead and turned to clay hole a might stop wind to keep the away This is a simple declarative sentence. Ccesar is the simple, subject, and might stop is the simple predicate. The complex or logical subject is the Jlrst line ; and the complex or logical predicate is the second line. 522 Grammar The simple subject Ccesar is modified by imperious, a simple adjective element of the first class. It is also modified by dead and turned to day, a complex adjective element of the first class, of which dead and turned is the basis. Dead and turned is a compound adjective element of the first class, made up of two simple elements of the first class, joined by and, a coordinate conjunction. Turned is modified by to clay, simple, adverbial, second class. The simple predicate might stop is modified by a hole, a com- plex objective element of the first class, of which hole is the basis. It is also modified by to keep the wind away, a complex adverbial element of the second class, of which to keep is the basis. To keep is modified by the wind, a complex objective element of the first class, of which wind is the basis. To keep is also modified by away, a simple adverbial element of the first class. Again, take this sentence from Tennyson: Here on this beach a hundred years ago, Three children of three houses, Annie Lee, The prettiest little damsel of the port. And Philip Eay, the miller's only son. And Enoch Arden, a rough sailor's lad, Made orphan by a winter shipwreck, played Among the waste and lumber of the shore. — Enoch Arden, Tennyson. This is a simple declarative sentence, with children as the simple subject, and played as the simple predicate; and three children . . . shipwreck, as the complex or logical subject ; and Here on this beach a hundred years ago, played among the waste and lumber of the shore, as the complex or logical predicate. Children, the subject, is modified by three, a simple adjective element of the first class ; by of three houses, a complex adjec- tive element of the second class, of which of houses is the basis. Houses is modified by three , a simple adjective element of the first class. Children is also modified by Annie LeCy the Diagraming Sentences 523 prettiest little damsel . . . shipwreck, a complex adjective ele- ment of the first class, of which Annie Lee and Philip Bay and Enoch Arden is the basis, this element being a compound adjective element, its three proper names being joined together by the coordinate connective and. Annie Lee is modified by the prettiest little damsel of the port, a complex adjective element of the first class, its basis being damsel. Damsel is modified by the, jyrettiest, and little, simple adjective elements of the first class ; and by of the port, a complex adjective element of the second class, of which of port is the basis. Philip Bay is modified by the miller's only son, a complex adjective element of the first class, of which son is the basis. Son is modified by the, miller's, and 07ily, all simple adjective elements of the first class. Enoch Arden is modified by a rough sailor's lad, made orphan by a winter shipwreck, a complex adjective element of the first class, of which lad is the basis. Lad is modified by a, rough, and sailoi^s, all simple adjective elements of the first class, and made orphan by a winter shipwreck, which is a complex adjective element of the first class, of which made orphan is the basis. Made orphan is modified by by a winter shipwreck, a complex adverbial element of the second class, of which by shipwreck is the basis. Played, the predicate, is modified by here, a simple adverbial element of the first class, by on this beach, a complex adverbial element of the second class, of which on beach is the basis. Beach is modified by this, a simple adjective element of the first class. Played is also modified by a hundred years ago, a complex adverbial element of the first class, of which years is the basis. Years is modified by a hundred, a simple adjective element of the first class ; and ago (equivalent to past), a simple adjective element of the first class. Played is also modified by among the waste and lumber of the shore, a complex adverbial element of the second class, of which the basis is among waste and among lumber, a compound adverbial element of the second class. Waste is modified by the, a simple adjective element of 524 Grammar the first class ; and by of the shore ^ a complex adjective ele- ment of the second class, of which of shore is the basis, and which is an adjective element of the second class. Lumber is modified by the, a simple adjective element of the first class. You will notice that in an element like among the waste and lumber of the shore, which is both complex and compound, the model analysis speaks of its being complex, rather than of the fact that it is compoimd. The fact that among waste and among lumber is a compound element of the second class comes out when it is mentioned as the basis. Always try to avoid undue complexity in the analysis.^ three of houses three the prettiest Annie Lee damsel little and of port the the children Philip Eay son miller's and only a rough Enoch Arden lad sailor's a made orphan by shipwreck winter here on beach this a-hundred years played ago among waste of shore the and (among) lumber the 1 The problem in the study of grammar in the high school is not to im- part knowledge of forms, of definitions, and of classifications. It is rather to aeoure drill in those phases of grammatical study that actually affect Exercises in Analysis 5'25 EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS AND PARSING Analyze as briefly as possible, the following sentences. Give the essential facts in parsing concerning any words in italics. That is, give the case, and reason for case, of the nouns, and the mode and tense, and reason for mode and tense, of the verbs. Be prepared to name the part of speech of each word in the entire exercise. 1. Let no one till his death be called unhappy. — Mrs. E. B. Browning. 2. Some must follow, and some command, though all he made of clay. — Longfellow. 3. Be not merely good; be good for something. — Thoreau. 4. A man must govern himself ere he is lit to govern his family. — Sir Walter Raleigh. 5. There is no such way to attain to greater measure of grace as /or a man to live up to the little grace he has. — Phillips Brooks. 6. And the Lord turned the captivity of Job, when he prayed for his friends : and the Lord gave Job twice as much as he had before. — Job. 7. I pity the man who can travel from Dan to Beersheba, and cry it is all barren. — Sterne. 8. The way to the heart is through the sense ; please the eyes and the ears, and the work is half done. — Chesterfield. 9. There are glances that stab, and raise no cry of murder. — George Eliot. 10. Refuse to be ill ; never tell people you are ill ; never own it to yourself. — Bulwer. 11. Do all the good you can, in all the ways you can, to all the souls you can, in every place you can, at all the times you the ordinary speech and writing of the pupil and, in a lesser degree, to develop the power of thought. It is subordinate to the study of literature and of composition. The application of analysis and syntax to the study of literature should be employed only for the purpose of elucidating diflB- cult constructions or involved sentences. It is not expected that any school will deal with unusual idioms or grammatical puzzles. — From the English Syllabus, Board of Regents, New York. 526 Grammar can, with all the zeal you can, as long as ever you can. — John Wesley. 12. A peasant and a philosopher may be equally satisfied, but not equally happy. A small drinking-glass and a large one may be equally fullf but a large one holds more than the smaM. — Dr. Johnson. 13. Bad habits are as infectious by example as the plague is by contact. — Fielding. 14. Take several brief ivhole compositions, as Aboti ben Adheniy for analysis and parsing. East Fork, Little Miami. EXERCISES BASED ON PICTURES Inviting. — See that canoe hauled up on the shore, on the East Fork of the Little Miami River? It is waiting for you to enter in imagination, and paddle away. There is no one to say you nay; you may paddle anywhere you please. Turn back the hands of the clock of Time but just a little, and fancy it an Indian canoe. Exercises Based on Pictures 527 1. If a girl, imagine yourself an Indian maiden, Pocahontas-like, and tiptoe down from the Miami village and get into the canoe. You will know how to manage it. 2. If a boy, count yourself a young pioneer Kentuckian, watching for the return of the owner of the canoe, a young Miami warrior. Tell the rest of the story as you please. APPENDIX A PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION Punctuation Defined. — Punctuation is the pointing off or separation of one part of a piece of writing from another, by means of what are called punctuation marks. Punctuation is used for the purpose of rendering the meaning clear and unmistakable. The chief punctuation marks are the period and the comma. The colon and semicolon are next in impor- tance. In case of direct questions, the interrogation mark is used. Our punctuation marks came into use gradually after the invention of printing. The early printers used a perpendicular line for comma, colon, and period. In the Boke of Magna Carta^ printed in 1534, this perpendicular line does service for every point except the period, which is diamond-shaped. In Tyndale's Testamente^ printed in 1526, a slanted line does service for the comma. The forms now in use owe their origin to the founders of the Aldine Press in the sixteenth century. The semicolon was not a recognized stop in England until 1643, hence we may conclude that Shakespeare must have written his plays without its aid. The period marks a full thought. The colon marks a division of a thought. The comma marks any part which has been struck off from the main body of thought. Simplicity in Punctuation. — It is worth noting that the tendency to-day in punctuation is towards simplicity. 529 530 Appendix Books on rhetoric dominated the old style of punctuation, while the magazines and especially the newspapers are responsible in large measure for the simpler punctuation that now prevails. The readers of newspapers have neither time nor inclination to study into hidden mean- ings. Everything must be clear. The articles are written as they are read, on the run. Anything not easily intelligible is passed over by the general reader, and what there is no demand for soon drops out of place in the columns of a newspaper. The news writer who cannot say what he means so that his readers can understand him, soon finds himself out of em- ployment. The rule is, write clearly or quit. Thus newspaper men have come to have a style of their own, and if they have lost at other points, they have gained in clearness, and the reading public shares in this gain. The old compositors and proof readers prided themselves upon what was termed close punctuation^ but now almost all progressive newspapers employ some kind of type- setting machine, and as it requires a longer reach of the operator's arm, with a consequent loss of time, to strike the unusual punctuation marks in newspaper composition, editorial writers and proof readers have learned to bow to the inevitable and simplify their punctuation. Business Punctuation. — Another factor in molding the style of to-day is that business correspondence insists on simplicity. Letters should be written so as to be read at a glance. In business letters of all kinds, straightfor- wardness in both writing and punctuation is all-important. Clearness and brevity are requisites. The rule in business letters is, (1) to write the para- graph so clearly as to make it impossible to mean anything else than what you intend it to mean, and (2) to punc- tuate it so as to bring out that meaning, if possible, still Rules of Punctuation 531 more clearly. Not a word, and not a punctuation mark more than absolutely necessary, is to be used. Besides, business correspondence is now written on the typewriter. From the fact that the use of punctuation marks on the typewriter tends to cut into the paper and to disfigure the letter, experienced operators in large business houses discourage the use of all punctuation marks that can be omitted. Rules of Punctuation. — A practical rule for punctua- tion may be thus stated : write so as to express exactly what you mean^ and punctuate so as to bring out this . meaning-, avoiding the use of unnecessary punctuation marks. The use of quotation marks is reduced to a minimum, and hyphens, except at the end of a line, are fast disappearing. Semicolon. — There is a marked disposition to do away with the semicolon where it can be done with safety. Of course, there are times when this point is indispensable, but its use should be limited to cases where no other mark will do. It usually separates two or more equally im- portant divisions of a sentence. Period. — If there were but two marks used, and only two, they would be the period and the comma^ the latter indicating a partial pause in the thought and the former the completion of a sentence. In case of a direct question, the interrogation point is to be used instead of a period. Colon. — The comma may almost always take the place of the colon. Probably the only instance where the colon is actually necessary is where the complimentary address of a letter requires it, or after an expression like as follows. Of course this remark applies to recent writings. The old punctuation is an essential part of the older literature. Comma, — Do not use the comma except where it is needed to make your meaning clear. Aim to write so that you must be understood, and punctuate so as to 532 Appendix render your meaning clearer. Never use an unnecessary point, but never avoid the use of a necessary point. It is a mistaken idea that rhetorical pauses and em- phatic pjirases are to control punctuation. These belong rather to the reader's art than to that of the writer. The King James version of the Sacred Scriptures as ordinarily punctuated is an admirable example of judicious punctua- tion of the older type. In simplicity and in the avoid- ance of unnecessary punctuation marks it approaches the modern style. "Open punctuation, characterized by the avoidance of all pointing not clearly required by the construction, now prevails in the best English usage." — The Century Dictionary. Capitals and Abbreviations. — (1) The first word of a sentence, or of a line of poetry, and the first word of a direct quotation making complete sense, begin with a capital. (2) The pronoun J and the interjection are capitalized. (3) All proper nouns, including the names and titles of God, with adjectives derived from proper names, are written with a capital. Pronouns relating to Deity are not usually capitalized. When an adjective derived from a proper noun is in constant use, it comes to be regarded as common and no longer takes a capital. The word voltaic is an instance of this. A capital may begin phrases and clauses used as separate headings, although this is not imperative. The following may be noted : New York City or New York city, Kansas City, Atlantic ocean. Fifth Avenue, Adiron- dack Mountains, High Street, Mississippi Kiver, Jefferson County, Woodrow Wilson, President of the United States, President Taft, the state of Ohio, our nation, the Government, My dear sir. To whom this may come, Yours very respectfully, The Winning of the West. Capitals and Abbreviations 533 Do not abbreviate, if you can avoid it. At the same time it is sometimes necessary to abbreviate, and the following directions may be noted. Most abbreviations begin with a capital and require a period at the end. For example, A. B., bachelor of arts ; B. C, before Christ ; A. p., anno Domini, in the year of our Lord ; A. M., master of arts ; P. M:, postmaster ; D.D., doctor of divinity ; Ph. D., doctor of philosophy ; M. D., doctor of medicine ; D. D. S., doctor of dental surgery ; N. B., nota bene, take notice ; MS., manuscript, MSS., manuscripts, also Ms. and Mss. ; Co., com- pany ; R. E. D., rural free delivery. Where many envelopes are to be addressed upon the typewriter there is a disposition, in large business houses, to write the following with a capital, but without the final period : St, saint ; Mt, mount or mountain ; Dr, doctor ; Mr, mister ; Mrs, mistress ; or as ordinarily pro- nounced missis. In ordinary use, however, they follow the general rule. Dr. Charles Taylor, Mrs. Elizabeth Browning, Mt. St. Marys, Ohio. Mt. Clemens, Michigan. The following are written without the capital, but with the final period : a.m., ante meridiem^ before noon ; p.m., post meridiem, afternoon; etc., et cetera, and others, and so forth; i.e., id est, that is ; p., page ; pp., pages ; st., street ; ave., avenue ; co., county ; pro tern., pro tempore, for the time being ; ult., of the last month ; inst., of the present month ; .prox., of the next or coming month. The names of the months may be abbreviated uniformly by using the first letters of each month, with the period, as Jan., Feb., Mar., Apr., Aug., Sept., Oct., Nov., Dec. This applies especially where the letters are written upon the typewriter. Little is saved by trying to abbreviate May, June, and July. 584 Appendix Do not multiply the use of the quotation mark. In closing a quotation with a comma, question mark, or period, if quotation marks are used, the latter follow and include the punctuation mark. Summary. — Use few exclamation marks. Avoid the use of the colon and semicolon. Eliminate the hyphen, except at the end of a line. Use the dash sparingly. In short sentences it is almost a safe rule to eliminate every punctuation mark except the mark at the end. A capital does not follow an interrogation mark unless the latter has the full force of a period. When in doubt do not use either capital or punctuation mark. Underline only very important words. The foregoing is the statement of the general rule. Of course there are exceptions, as for instance in under- lining emphatic words. The student may decide to use italics, but it is regarded as a confession of weakness. Castello Orsini. Exercises Based on Pictures 535 EXERCISES BASED ON PICTURES A Frowning Castle. — This castle is referred to in Marion Crawford's novel, Saracinesca. Turret-crowned, it seems to cry Halt ! to whatever enemy may approach. 1. Study it. Enter it, in imagination, and tell what you find within. 2. Think out a little story of adventure, using the Castle of the Orsini family as the place. You may make it modern or medieval. 3. Doubting Castle. — Refer to Pilgrim's Progress, by John Bunyan, and tell the story of the capture of Christian and Faithful by Giant Despair, and their imprisonment in, and escape from. Doubting Castle. It may well have looked like the Castello Orsini. KuLEs FOR Government Printing Punctuation. — Where the teacher prefers rules definitely stated, reference may be made to the following which are a little closer than the foregoing suggestions, but which are nevertheless in the open style of punctua- tion. They are taken from the Style Book issued by the Government Printing Office, Washington, DcC. Commas and Semicolons. — When a sentence is divided into two clauses the second of which requires a comma, a semicolon should be used after the first clause, as the following : " The gentleman will probably be here to- day ; but if he should not be, you will excuse him.'* When a sentence is divided and ths second clause is complete, with subject and predicate, use a comma, although connected by a conjunction (or disjunctive, "or," "but," etc)., as in the following : " He listened to the statement, and he then agreed to the proposition. " Otherwise omit comma, as " He listened to the statement and agreed," etc. In sentences divided by commas, use commas before conjunctions ; if divided by semicolons, use semicolons before conjunctions. Commas before and after phrases separating conjunc- 536 Appendix tions from verbs should usually be omitted. " He listened to the statement and, without further consideration, agreed to the proposition," should be punctuated as fol- lows : " He listened to the statement and without further consideration agreed to the proposition." Since last month there has been a continuance each week. To stop, the brakes were applied to the front wheels. To release the brakes, the attendant was summoned. After all, what need we care for such failures ? Answer this question: How can the work be accom- plished ? Have you any interest in this case ? If so, what ? Have you any interest in this case ; and if so, what ? How can you explain this ? — " Fee paid, $5." In indexes, etc., observe this form: Brown, A. H., jr.; Brown, A. H. & Sons. John Smith, of New York ; President Hadley, of Yale University ; Carroll of Carrollton ; Henry of Navarre (no comma in cases where the place named has become closely identified with the person). Respectfully yours. Yours, respectfully. In latitude 40° 19' 12'' N., longitude 31° 08' 14" W. If nothing more can be done, why continue the hearing ? In order to accomplish the work, lose no time now. Since the work was accomplished without delay, there is no cause for quibbling. Quotation Marks. — Quote anything preceded by the terms " entitled," " the word," " termed," and " marked," but do not quote after the terms "known as" and "so- called " unless the words following are misnomers or slang expressions. Exclamation and interrogation points, colons, and semi- colons should be placed inside the quotation marks when Exclamation Point 537 part of the quotation ; otherwise outside. For example : He asked, "Who are they?" Did you go on the « Pennsy " ? Looking across Crater Lake. EXERCISES BASED ON PICTURES Looking across Crater Lake. — Tell the story of this picture. Is the athletic looking young fellow a sportsman, a soldier, or a civil engineer ? By his dress, he might be any one of the three. For whom is he watching, or for what ? A grizzly bear which has come down to the water's edge to drink ? a canoe-load of his friends or com- panions who are a little late ? Or is he watching the movements of an enemy? The story is as you make it. Tell it as you please. The picture shows a spot of wild and romantic beauty. Include a description of it in what you tell about the picture. Exclamation Point. — In direct address to a person or personified object use " O " (without exclamation point). 538 Appendix Use " Oh " in exclamations where no direct appeal ot address is made. Examples : " O my friend, let us' con- sider this item." "Oh, but the gentleman is wrong." When strong feeling is expressed, use exclamation point, which is generally carried to the end of the expression, as " O Lord, save thy people I " When a city or town and state are used adjectively, put the state in parenthesis, as Baltimore (Md.) Sun, Boston (Mass.) City Council, etc. Capitalization. — Capitalize proper names, or words used as such, singular or plural ; also when used as adjectives, unless the adjective form is a different word, derived from a common noun in specific cases ; for example, President (presidential), Senate (senatorial), Congress (congres- sional), Province (provincial). Exceptions : Democratic, Territorial, as relating to the Democratic Party or a Territory of the United States. Capitalize street, avenue, road, lane, etc., singular or plural, when with the name. Lower case (that is, do not capitalize) the following words of common usage which were originally proper names, but whose significance as such has become ob- scured, or when used before nouns in common use to specify merchandise : china ware, manila rope, gothic (type), merino sheep, harveyized steel, morocco (leather), India ink, roman (type), india rubber, russia (leather), macadamized road, wedgewood ware. Government. — Capitalize when referring to the United States Government or to foreign Governments. Lower case in the abstract sense, as this Government is a govern- Capitalization 539 ment, the reins of government, the seat of government, etc. ; referring to a State of the United States, the State government. President. — Capitalize ; also any synonymous title re- ferring to the President of the United States, as Chief Magistrate, Commander-in-Chief, Executive, His Ex- cellency, etc. Lower case presidential. State, — Capitalize the same as government. Capitalize State's attorney. State's evidence, but lower case such ex- pressions as affairs of state, secretary of state of Indiana ; also the words " statehood," " statehouse." Lower case sections of States, as east Illinois, western Kansas, east Tennessee, etc. APPENDIX B SUGGESTIONS TO THE TEACHER OF ENGLISH i Encouraging Pupils. — More than anything else, it is important that the pupil write something every day. Nothing can take the place of unremitting practice. Many a pupil of more than ordinary ability as a writer, but with that ability undemonstrated, hesitates to make the effort to write. He distrusts his own powers. He is sensitive to criticism. He lacks initiative, and rather than venture into untried paths of expression, he prefers to lurk in what one writer calls "the safe obscurity of mediocre effort." And yet this same pupil, if properly encouraged to begin and to continue, always doing the best he can, may a little later be found rejoicing in his new-found power of expression, and valuing it above all else he calls his own. The secret of success is to get him to write along lines of known interest, unhampered by the fear of criticism until he discovers that he can write. The criticisms may come later, and they will be all the more effective when they do come, because they find the pupil able to stand them. Let us take a lesson from the landscape gardener. He has a hedge which he desires to trim to some pattern. 1 It is not intended or desired to urge any teacher to adopt these sug- gestions. Many teachers have developed successful metliods of their own, by which they secure the best of results. But to those seeking sugges- tion or assistance it seems only fair to offer such help as may be drawn from the experience of others. 640 Marking Papers 541 What he does first is to encourage a vigorous growth. He will have no trouble cutting his hedge to shape when the time comes. Marking Papers. — In many cases, the teaching of English has become a burden on account of the supposed necessity of marking criticisms in red ink on a multitude Df papers. If these Suggestions are heeded, this work will in the main be eliminated. What is needed is the criticism of the class, rather than that of the teacher ; and an im- mediate judgment as to the merits and demerits of the paper, instead of the teacher's long-delayed and but little noted criticism. Let selected papers be read to the class, taking care to distribute fairly the papers read. It will not always be necessary to indicate whose papers are thus chosen. The papers of some will hardly be worth the reading, while on the other hand the work of certain pupils may prove uniformly interesting to the class. Interest must to some extent govern here. But the pupil who writes well, and who prides himself on it, must not be allowed to monopolize attention, nor should the too ready critic have undue sway, although both may lend zest to the work in hand. In addition to the papers thus read for criticism one good paper a day reproduced on the mimeograph or otherwise, may be handed round for definite and prompt criticism as to form. The reflectoscope will help here. Suggestion Better than Criticism. — A word of commen- dation fitly spoken by the teacher, — sometimes out of class, — and the little touches of suggestion that the skill- ful instructor knows when, where, and how to give, will do much towards putting the young writer at ease and giving him confidence in himself. Let the teacher's work as critic be kept in abeyance. The criticism of the 542 Appendix student's classmates, properly guided and kept within bounds, is far more eifective in spurring him to effort. If the student's paper is interesting, his classmates will let him know ; and if his work is tedious or exhibits any- very glaring faults, he will not be kept in ignorance very long. The teacher should supply stimulus and guidance, and afford a certain enrichment or reenforcement of the student's thought and ability. It will be found that in- stead of one, or perhaps two papers a week, there will be no difficulty in obtaining one paper a day from each member of the class. One Thing at a Time. — In guiding the criticisms, do not require or allow everything to be corrected at once. You may have to wink at some blemishes, and have the class do so, while trying to remedy others. What at times might be just criticism may well be set aside for the moment, in order to give attention to what is impor- tant now. Let the pupils feel that what they are doing is worth while ; that they can do it ; and that they are going to be fairly and considerately dealt with while learning to do it ; and they will soon develop considerable pride in their work. Lists of Errors. — With reference to manifest impro- prieties of sfJeech or writing, let such be dealt with as they occur, always bearing in mind the warning given above, not to attempt to criticize everything at once. The appointment of a permanent editorial committee from the class to report on inaccuracies or improprieties of speech will be found worth while. Let a list be kept of errors corrected in class. It is sometimes found effective to take off extra credits for errors that have been previously corrected in class. Subjects for Composition 543 Subjects for Composition. — It is important to be pro- vided with topics of fresh and varying interest for both boys and girls. All boys do not find interest in the same subjects, and girls have their own interests. And what was of real interest last year may not be so to-day. It is wise to have a store of good material, not hitherto drawn upon, for use in emergency, or when interest flags. This is the reason for the unusual number and variety of exer- cises in this book. Flexibility. — In this abundance of exercises, it is neither required nor expected that any one pupil shall write on all the topics, or even on any great part of them. The topics are given in groups or sets with the idea of meeting the requirements of varying tastes on the part of the students. All may write with interest and profit upon some of the topics or themes, while there may be but one pupil in a class who would care to attempt some of the themes suggested. Tlie freer the teacher feels with regard to this, the better. Sometimes a word from the instructor rjuggesting a theme and showing how to go to work upon it, will make what before was uninviting seem wonderfully attractive. Care should be taken, however, not to break in on the student's initiative. In writing, perhaps more than any- where else, self-help is the best help. Fundamental Literature. — The exercises based on what may be termed fundamental literature^ that is, the epic and folklore material of Greece, and of Germany and the North, will be found especially helpful. The beginner has to learn to write, and he must have something to write about. This fundamental literature, dealing with the things that appeal to the deep feelings of the human heart, furnishes the student with food for thought, while it affords an easy- 544 Appendix flowing, straightforward, and luminous style for his model in simple narrative. Of the Iliad and the Odyssey be it said, borrowing a figure from the placer miners of early California, that the student who washes over and sifts out these golden sands will surely have some gold for his own. And concerning the Beowulf and the Nibelungenlied, and the other legends of the first gray dawning of our race, let us quote William Morris, who .says that " we have here the very heart of the North bloomed into song." Vocational Guidance and Social Motives. — The value of exercises based upon what is termed vocational guidance^ is acknowledged by teachers of English. Some students of the high school are already self-supporting, at least in part, while practically all of them look forward to employment of some kind as both desirable and necessary. Get the students interested in lines of work that look to them like avenues leading to success, and they will talk about them. Out of the abundance of the heart the mouth speaketh. Closely allied to work of this kind is the employment of the social motives of the school for composition. The many exercises here given of themes relating to social motives and to vocational guidance, and of kindred themes such as pageantry and dramatization^ have been found profitable and interesting. Exercises Based on Pictures. — The exercises based on pictures afford variety and promote interest. They are scattered through the book with the idea of relieving the pupil from the routine of his regular work. In them pupils may apply unconsciously the principles previously learned, but the idea back of most of them is merely to furnish attractive material for the free play of the pupil's Acknowledgment 545 fancy, without imposing the task of illustrating some specific rule. Acknowledgment. — The National Council of Teachers of English is at the forefront of progressive work in English, and its work is well represented in The English Journal. Acknowledgment is made of the value to Effective English of both these excellent sources of suggestive material. This book has also drawn freely upon the Report of the National Joint Committee on the Reorganization of High School English; on The Teaching of High School English^ State Board of New' Jersey ; on Requirements in Form^ Illinois Association of Teachers of English ; and on the English Syllabus, Board of Regents, New York. Basis of the Course. — This Report of the National Joint Committee ^ states in a brief paragraph the attitude of all these authorities. It says, . " The course in composition must be laid out primarily with reference to the expres- sional activities of the pupils of the school, not with ref- erence to the logic of rhetorical theory. The gauge is the pupil's own range of observation, power of abstraction, and capacity for practical application." A careful study of Effective English will indicate that this theory has dominated every page of the book. 1 Bulletin, 1917, No. 2, Department of the Interior, Bureau of Educa- tion, Washington, D. C. , Beorganization of English in Secondary Schools, is of great importance to the teacher of English in the high school. This is a report compiled by James Fleming Hosic, chairman of the National Joint Committee representing the Commission on the Beorganization of Secondary Education, of the National Educational Association, and the National Council of Teachers of English. APPENDIX C FINDING LIST Stories Easily Told Aaron Burr 220 Adding a chapter Silas Marner 225 Tale of Two Cities . . .225 Adventure, little story of . . 324 Aladdin 184 AUBaba 154,184 All hands to the pumps . . 344 Ancient Mariner 403 Ancient mischief makers (Esther) 264 Beauty, the Sleeping . . .184 Bedouins of the desert . . . 291 Bells of Shandon 134 Ben Gunn (Stevenson) . . 194 Birth of the forests . . . .129 Black Prince ...... 63 Boyhood of Raleigh . . . 154 Boys, five stories about . . 101 Bread upon the Waters (Kip- ling) 200 Brer Rabbit and Mr. Fox . 360 Broad survey, a 496 Captain Phips, buried treas- Chaparral Prince (O. Henry) Charge of the Cuirassiers (Hugo) 154 154 115 646 Christian and ApoUyon (Bun- yan) 113 Christmas at King Arthur's Court 11 Church wedding 60 Climbing the glacier . . . 452 Columbus 96 Cond^, the Great 183 Contest at Alaska fair . . . 175 Crossing the line ..... 78 Day's outing 463 Death of Little Nell (Dickens) 363 Death of Roland (Gautier) . 89 Death of Sidney Carton (Dickens) 203 Discovery of the Pacific (Keats) 390 Dogs in war 22 Dogs of St. Bernard . . .291 Dr. Johnson and Lord Ches- terfield 66 Dream Children (Lamb) . . 396 Drop of water 203 Drums of the Fore and Aft (Kipling) 115 Effective appeal, story of an . 107 Esther, story of 201 Every man a hero . . .50, 345 Stories Easily Told 547 Family tradition 203 Finding of Moses .... 14 Finish, canoe race .... 456 Fish I didn't catch .... 404 Fishing 91 FootbaU strategy . . . . 360 Forty thieves .... 154, 184 Freshmen versus seniors . . 25 Fujiyama bridge . . . .468 Getting even 263 Giant Despair (Bunyan) . . 193 Girls, five stories about . . 101 Girl's adventure 264 Golden Touch (Hawthorne) . 320 Good Samaritan 334 Grandfather's skating adven- ture . 36 Hiawatha, " The Famine " (Longfellow) .... 331 Holiday on the Columbia . . 478 Home they brought her warrior dead (Tennyson) 343 Horatius at the Bridge (Ma- caulay) 204 House party, in Blue Grass home 438 How he won 310 How I came to sell my English 37 I am the State ! . . . . . 183 Imaginary visit . . . 174, 412 Indian attack 284 Indian boyhood 332 Indian camp 367 Indians 42 Ivanhoe, archery contest . . 205 Ivanhoe (Scott), pageant . 177 Ivanhoe, Rebecca at the win- dow 220 Jack London's success . . . 230 Jacob and Esau 360 Jacob's dream ...... 331 Japanese holiday 463 Jim Hawkins finds Ben Gunn (Stevenson) 319 Joan of Arc 30, 177 John Paul Jones (Watterson) 301 John Ridd sees Lorna Doone 218 John Ridd in the " slide " in the Bagworthy river . . 224 La Jacquerie 213 Leaping Frog (Mark Twain) 395 Life on the Mississippi (Twain) .224 Life savers 60 Lincoln's boyhood ... 7, 359 Little pilgrimages .... 412 Live wire ....... 321 Long John Silver .... 205 Master and Man (Tolstoi) . 224 Midday plunge 459 Minotaur (Hawthorne) . . 73 Mischief afoot ! 263 Mother wit 393 Napoleon 376 Narrow escape 203 Nathan Hale 258 Neighborhood tradition . . 106 Odin's Search for Wisdom (Mabie) 74 Oliver Twist (Dickens) . . 154 One — two — three! . . .482 Pageant, description of , 178 Pageant of Joan of Arc , . 177 Paredes, Don Quixote . » . 228 548 Appendix Patriotism of Miss Pringle . 152 Paul at Mar's Hill, strategy . 360 Paul Revere 143 Pickwick on the ice . . . . 394 Pied Piper of Ilamelin . 184, 204 Pioneer story 284 Playing Robinson Crusoe . . 263 Pringle house 105 Prodigal son Ill Purloined Letter (Poe) . . 203 Rajah's chandelier .... 153 Raleigh and Queen Elizabeth 7 Raleigh's boyhood .... 6 Ready to start 87 Real mischief afoot (Esther) 264 Rebecca at the window (Scott) 220 Rescue 214 Reunion on the Pringle stairs, Lafayette 219 Ridd (John) and Carver Doone 113 Ride with Mary Roberts Rinehart 163 Robin Hood 128 Robinson Crusoe 184 Robinson Crusoe, footsteps in the sand 205 Romance of the Swan's Nest (Mrs. Browning) . . . 331 Rouget de Lisle, Marseillaise . 48 Ruth, story of 201 Same against same .... 485 Savonarola .82 Scotch Grays, charge of . .112 Sea of wild flowers .... 452 Shakespeare at court of Queen Elizabeth . . . 124 Signing of Declaration of In- dependence 234 Silas finds little Eppie . . . 205 Silas Marner loses his gold . 203 Skeleton in Armor (Longfel- low) 174 " Snapping," a detective story 71 Start in the 440 31 Stories to be read aloud . . 227 Story of a railroad wreck . . 32 Story of wreck, U. S. warship 518 Street scene, Cairo . . . .118 Street scene, Naples .... 209 Strike, a fine 221 Tarn O'Shanter (Bums) . . 143 Theseus and the Minotaur . 73 Thin Red Line 271 Three Men in a Boat (Je- rome) 343 Three Strangers (Hardy) . . 360 Titanic 49, 60 Tommy and Grizel .... 204 Topping the timbers . . . 130 Towed by girls on the canal . 343 Trail of the Hawk, Sinclair Lewis, aviation story . . 74 Treasure Island, impromptu play 154 Treasure Island, loss of the buried gold 203 Trip on The Bear 492 Twenty Thousand Leagues under the Sea (Jules Verne) 154 Unsavory Interlude, Stalky & Co. (Kipling) .... 73 Unusual experiences . . . 101 Unusual methods of locomo- tion 139 Unusual occupations . . . 14(? Exercises Based on Vocational Training 549 Waiting for the signal . . 295 Waterloo ....... 376 Waterloo (Byron) .... 112 Wee Willie Winkie (Kipling) 214 What I heard in the apple barrel (Stevenson) . . 319 Who owns the mountains? . 16 Winning with daylight be- tween 310 Wrestling match (As You Like ItJ 203 Exercises Based on Answering an " ad " ... 10 Application, letter of . . .156 Asking for a job 141 Automobiles 157 Building a shower bath, high school project .... 116 Business English 131 Business English, letters . . 154 Business letter, a 23 Domestic science 108 Editorial writing . 47, 247, 384 English to sell, talking, speak- ing, writing 26 Feature writing, newspaper . 153 Federal training camps, mili- tary, vocational .... 104 Getting a job 10 Girl in the office, the . . . 381 Girls, how they may be self- supporting 346 High school paper . . . .189 High school printing depart- ment 109 Hour in a millinery shop, an. 91 "Make-up" of a newspaper . 187 Moot court 386 Vocational Training Nurse, the trained . 13 Planning for an old-fashioned garden 23 Practical poultry problem, a . 90 Project in business English . 157 Reindeer industry, vocational training for Eskimos. See Alaskan pictures . . 56, 87, 175, 295, 395 Replying to business com- plaints 170 Reporter's training .... 126 Salesman, the traveling . . 13 Salesmanship 75 Scenarios .... 72, 73, 399 Trade dressmaking, Pratt In- stitute .109 Trapping and selling furs . 346 Vocational training 497 Writing 497 advertisements . 158, 247, 433 editorials .... 47, 247, 384 plays . . . 154, 231, 399, 435 scenarios .... 72, 73, 399 short stories . . . 205, 230 550 Appendix Examples, References, and Stories from the Bible Absalom, death of ... . Ancient mischief makers . . Antithesis, example of . . . Apostrophe, David to Absa- lom 117 264 409 408 364 351 Barabbas (Marie Corelli) . . Beecher, II. W., on Psalm xxiii Bitter irony, Elijah on Mt. Carmel ....... 410 Boys, five stories about . . 101 Climax, example of ... . 409 Crossing the Red Sea . . . 117 Daniel and the lions . . . 128 David and Goliath .... 101 Ear trieth words as the tongue tasteth meat . . 390 Elijah on Mt. Carmel . . .117 Emphasis by position, Peter . 19 by repetition, Paul . . . 368 Esau, stratagem of ... . 101 Esther, dramatic narra- tive 264, 201 Force, example of, Pilate . . 364 Girls, five stories about . . 101 Good Samaritan 334 Handwriting on the wall . .117 Independent paragraph, the Lord's prayer, also 23d Psalm 337 Interrogation, Paul . . example of, 408 Jacob and Esau 101 Jacob's dream. Bethel . . . 331 Jephthah's daughter . . . 101 Joseph and his brethren 101, 435 Joseph makes himself known 117 Joseph, prince of Egypt Joseph sold into Egypt Moses in the bulrushes Naaman's maidservant . Narrative dramatic, Esther . . powerful. Genesis i . straightforward, Ruth Noah sends out his dove 101 264 14 101 201 201 201 117 Pageant of the Old Testa- ment 186 Paul on Mar's hill, persua- sion . 107 Peter and the lame man . . 19 Pharaoh's daughter .... 101 Prodigal son .... Ill, 363 Pronouns, careful use of . . 462 Prose rhythm of King James version 371 Rebecca at the well . . . .101 Ruth, story of 201 Samson, story of 1-^ Samuel, little 1^1 Stars in their courses fought against Si sera .... 34- Summarizing paragraph, Ec- clesiastes xii. 13 . . . .341 Fundamental Literature 551 Fundamental Literature Beowulf Beowulf comes to the Hall 103 Grendel flees 116 Grendel's last meal . . . 103 The Iliad Diomed and Ulysses, book x Hector lays aside his hel- met, book vi .... Helen and the old men on the walls, book iii . .. . Priam and Helen look down from the walls, book iii . Priam begs the body of Hec- tor, book xxiv .... The Nibelungenlied Crosslet on the vesture . . Kriemhild's dream . . . Meeting of Siegfried and Kriemhild Siegfried's coming to Bur- giindy Siegfried's youth .... 21 215 220 205 204 129 103 12 90 The Odyssey Circe warns Ulysses, book 204 61 . 397 13 Kingly hospitality, book iv Nausicaa and her hand- maidens, book vi . Nausicaa playing ball, after the washing, book vi . . Nausicaa's washing of the garments, book vi . . . Palace and gardens of Alci- nous, book vii . . . . Scylla and Charybdis, book xii Ulysses bends the bow, book xxi Ulysses casts aside his rags, book xxii ...... 116 Ulysses relates the story of his sufferings, book vii . 115 Ulysses throws the discus, book viii 22 13 396 . 224 102 Important Cautions on Requirements in Form The permanent editorial committee is to watch the work of the Eng- lish class in the following subjects : Cautions Sxtbjeots Page I to Vn. Punctuation, capitalization, paragraphing . . 5 VIII to X. Writing sentences, agreements of verbs, spell- ing of twenty important words 24 XI to XIII. Preparation of theme papers ; division of words ; carrying over syllables at end of line 39 XIV to XVI. Points in spelling 41 XVn to XIX. The comma fault ; use of the comma ; dan- " gling participles 63 55^ Appendix Cautions Subjects Pagb XX, XXI. List from business houses of words commonly misspelled. Points in spelling 77 XXII. Use of quotation marks 125 XXIII, XXIV. Use of the comma 321 Punctuation is dealt with on page 529. Rules from the Govern- ment Style Book are on page 535. Reference to Acknowledged Authorities on the Teaching of High School English 1. Report of the National Joint Committee on the Reorganization of English in Secondary Schools., Item Page Purposes in Study of English 2 Forming a specific project or point of view 22 Gathering, selecting, organizing, and presenting ideas .... 34 Drawing on pupil's resources, exploiting his dominant interests 36 Individual conferences 80 Flexibility and correctness 82 Arrangement and organization of material 88 What good speech demands 94 High school paper ; literary and dramatic clubs 189 Essays 225 Short story ; dramatic presentation 230 Round table discussion 261 Planning and working out a report 344 Command of language 387 Articles of magazine length 399 Work in English of grades vii and viii 440 2. Report on Requirements in Fomiy Illinois Association of Teachers of English, see Important Cautions, or Permanent Editorial Committee. 3. New English Syllabus, Board of Regents, New York. Motivation or incentive 4 Reply to actual business letter 23 Conference on spelling 41 Authorities on Teaching High School English 553 Item Paob Preparation in form acceptable to city editor 54 Comma fault or running-on habit should bar promotion to' second year 63 Publication days 103 Definite problems in letter-writing 140 Portrayal of historic events for public occasions 153 Pageantry recommended 176 High school paper worth while 189 Writing short stories and dramatic work 230 Making topical outlines and working by them 238 Round table discussion 261 Public discussion league of Indiana 279 Knowledge of parliamentary forms necessary . 281 Not to promote to third year pupils unable to construct fairly good paragraph 343 Must be able to work out a report 346 Survey of work of English class suggested 347 Reading for one thing at a time 357 Speaking in public 372 Arranging public occasions ! . . . . 385 Drill in tenses of see, do, come, ring and go 476 Guarding against use of the wrong verb : can, may ; set, sit; lie, lay ; teach, learn; shall, will 491 Use of diagrams not to be stressed 512 How analysis is to be studied 515 Problems in study of grammar in high school 524 4. Report on The Teaching of High School English, State Board, New Jersey. Framing reply to actual business letter 10 Form for topical outlines . 55 List from business house, of words commonly misspelled ... 77 Pageantry commended 176 Oral exercises suggested 249 Synonyms for house brought out in class 307 INDEX References are to pages. Abbreviations ...... 532 important cautions .... 5 improper use of 150 uniform, for names of months . 533 witti capital and period . . . 533 witli capital, without period . 533 without capital, with period . 533 Ability to speak or write, not a gift 2 result of practice . ... 14 Action, vigorous .... Ill, 116 Address (written) of a letter 146 on the envelope 151 Address (spoken) four ways of making an, Brander Matthews .... 94 on the " make-up " of a news- paper 188 Adjectives 469 articles 469 cautions in use of 471 comparison of 469 methods of 470 constructions of 472 definition of 469, 445 definitive (limiting) .... 469 descriptive 469 distinguishing between adverbs and 494 equivalents for 471 limiting 469 numerals 4()9 cardinals 469 ordinals 469 pronominal 469 some not compared .... 471 Adverbs 493 adjective and adverbial use of prepositional phrases . . . 497 comparison of 495 Adverbs — Continued compound 495 conjunctive 493 definition of 493 distinguishing between adjec- tives and 494 expletive (see introductory) . 495 formed from adjectives . . . 495 idiomatic use of 496 introductory ....... 495 kinds of 493 nouns used as 495 prepositions without objects become 494 simple 493 Advertising writing . 158, 247, 433 Affirmative, see Debate Agreement pronoun with antecedent . . 461 verb with subject 486 Allusion 406 Ambiguity (opposed to clear- ness) 318 Analysis 515 And, uses of the word .... 317 Antithesis 408 Apostrophe 407 Appeal (called oratory or per- suasion) 106 examples of effective ap- peal 106, 107, 108 Appearance in public . . . 104 Appreciation, in criticism . . 52, 108, 397 Architectural conception, Walter Pater 383 Architectural plans, using outlines as 383, 10 Argument answering objections .... 260 in salesmanship 259 Index References are to pages. Argrument — Continued arrangement, strongest factor in 250 assertion and proof .... 256 brief 250 parts of the 251 example of the 251 in reverse order 254 circumstantial evidence . . . 257 defending or attacking a propo- sition 259 driving home the truth . . . 250 evidence 256 impeaching evidence .... 256 outline, importance of . . . 250 other forms entering into . . 257 reshaping an argument . . . 261 round table discussion . . . 261 two kinds of reasoning deductive 255 inductive 255 Arrang-ement heart of style 382 importance in argument . . . 250 items or headings 89 of notes or outlines 18 or organization of material . 88 rule for 383 value of 382 Arrangring and sifting facts . 32 Art, rhetoric as an 3 Article, how the editor prepares an 46 Articles, of magazine length . 399 how to market 36 Attitude and gesture ... 97 Audience, deal with your own judgment as an 14 Gladstone on the 272 having regard to your ... 97 in debate 273 Balanced sentences .... 313 Balfour, visit to America . . 190 Ballad 426 Beauty 389 examples of literary .... 390 related qualities 392 Blank verse 423 Blue pencil, editorial 123, 126, 355 Book review 247 Borrowed material .... 68 Brevity, avoid undue (tele- graphic style) 162 Brief, example of 251 parts of ■ . . . . 251 in reverse order .. ". . ... 254 Business advertising .... 158, 433, 247 answers to letters . . . . . 162 characteristics of .... . 136 clear statement necessary . . 161 correspondence . . . . 131, 530 "don'ts" 162 forms . 531 getting and holding .... 132 project in business English . . 157 punctuation .530 requirements in letters . . . 161 simplicity and straightforward- ness of 530 Capitalization . . . 5, 6, 532, 538 Carbon copies 132 Card catalog 69 Card plan, Wendell's . . . 81, 84 Carrying over syllables . . 40 Case 452 Caution, as to infinitives . . . 481 against using wrong verb , . 491 concerning use of adjectives . 471 Centering 44 Chapter in continued story, what each contains .... 206 Characterization, opening the story by 200 Characters {dramatis personse) 206 Choice, elegance depends on . 371 Circumstantial evidence . . 257 Class criticism 10, 22, 52 letter 23, 117, 139, 159, 166, 170, 187 project ... 22, 127, 157, 364 testing for some one point . . 172 Classic, how to read a, Arnold Bennett 396 Classification 191 Clauses 312, 516, 517 Clearness, in the sentence . . 318 five tests for .319 Index 3 References are to pages. Clearness — Continued Lincoln on 359 news writing must be clear 123, 530 newspaper rule for .... 530 of thought 358 Clear seeing- 211 Climax .... 199, 200, 207, 409 Coach in debate . . . 267, 271 Coherence 8, 10, 18, 21, 22, 24, 55, 274 Collecting material . . . 65, 88 Comedy 427 Comma 63, 64, 321, 322, 531, 534, 535 Comma fatdt 63 Command of language . . . 387 Committee pageantry 180 permanent editorial (note ref- erences to Important Cau- tions) permanent editorial . . 225, 226, 227, 230, 399, 435, 436 Common errors 5*^)7 Comparison, description by . 216 adjectives 469 regular 470 irregular 470 some not compared .... 471 adverbs 495 regular 495 irregular 495 some not compared .... 495 Complement 472, 475 Composition, preposition in composition with verbs . . 498 Compound adverbs 495 elements 517 prepositions compounded with verbs 500 relative pronouns 466 sentences 520 Conclusion . . 200, 204, 251, 339 Condensed novels, Bret Harte 207 Condensed style .... 207, 378 Conference, individual ... 80 round table 206 Confusion, guarding against in pronouns 318 in tenses 476 Conjunctions ....... 501 Conjunctions — Continued coordinate 501 subordinate ....... 502 Conjunctive adverb . . 493, 502 use of relative pronouns . . 465 Connecting paragraphs , . 340 Connection, means of in paragraphs 341 in sentences 317 Connectives, relative pronouns as 465 conjunctions as 502 conjunctive adverbs as . . . 493 Connotation 3(i2 Consecutiveness, coherence implies 18 Construction, grammatical . 512 Continued short story . . . 205 chapters in 206 Conventions, in debate . 265, 267 in epic poetry 423 in pastoral poetry . . • . . 427 Conviction, in argument . . 192 driving it home, in debate . . 268 function of closing speaker, in debate 269 Coordinate conjunctions . . 501 Copula 475 Copulative verbs 475 Courtesy, towards attendants in library ....... 69 " Covering a wreck," re- porter's 26 Criticism 397 Criticizing your own work 397-8 Cumulative = heaping up . . 366 Dactyl 416 Dash 369 Debate 265 Gladstone's rules for speaking 272 individuality in debate . . . 272 order of speakers . . . . • 265 preparation 267 proposition 265 suggestions for debaters . . . 273 work of each speaker . . 268 Declension nouns 449 pronouns ...... 461, 466 Index References are to pages. Definition, exposition by . . 232 Deerree, positive 470 comparative 470 superlative 470 Demonstration, exposition by 235 must be clear 235 Denotation 362 Derivation of words .... 300 Description .... 192, 194, 210 clear seeing 211 point of view 213 actual 213 mental 213 vivid memory and imagination 212 word nainting 210 Descr^tion developed by effective detail 214 by artistic touch 215 by comparison 216 by enumeration 217 Descriptive adjectives, num- ber of 604 Detective story 71 Development of paragraph . 46 by cause an^ effect .... 336 by comparison or contrast . . 332 by repetition 329 by use of details 333 by use of examples .... 334 Diagraming, examples . . . 521 Dictionaries, use of . 289, 304, 303 good editions .... 280, ."03, 306 Didactic poetry 426 Direct address, vocative case . 453 Discrimination 510 Discussion, league, public . . 279 club, high school 278 Dogs and horses, man's best friends 58 in war 22 of St. Bernard 291 policeman's , . .... 72 Double negative, not allow- al)le 294 Drama 413, 427 Drama League Monthly . . 178 Dramatic poetry 427 Dramatis persona 206 Dramatization ... 10, 128, 153, 2M, 375, 3()8, 399, 436. 436 Ease in writing i result of care 371 Easy-flowing narrative . . 106 Echo 341 Editorial blue pencil . . . 123 Editorials, arranging . . 384, 385 Effectiveness, testing for . . 247 Elegance 371 Elegy 426 Elements of the sentence . 616 Ellipsis -506 Emphasis 9, 19, 21 by figures of speech .... 369 by italics 370 by position ...... 19, 365 by proportion 19, 366 by punctuation 369 by repetition 20, 368 in argument .... 269, 270, 274 in description . .' . . 218, 224 in narration 9, 10 spurious 370 Encouraging pupils .... 540 Energy (force) 361 everywhere effective .... 363 " fine writing " destructive of 364 Engine lathe 74 English to sell acquiring a vocabulary . . . 223 arranging and sifting a story . 32 articles of magazine length . 399 contest in newspaper "make- up" 187 continued short stories . . . 205 directions for acquiring vocab- ulary 288 editorial blue pencil .... 123 editorials 384 elements of effectiveness . . 114 essentials of the short story . 207 feature writing 153 getting the gist of lectures, etc. 227 getting the vocabulary ready . 32 how the editor works on an im- portant story 47 how English to sell concerns the making of a living : talk- ing, speaking, writing . . 34 how the ' * special " goes to work 29 Index 5 References are to pages. Bngrlish to sell — Continued how he writes his story ... 29 how I came to sell my English 37 how to market short stories . 36 how to prepare Ms. for publi- cation . 262 how to write story for publica- tion 230 how to write for publication . 411 important suggestions on Eng- lish to sell 37 longer themes 225 newspaper training, Arlo Bates on .123 newspaper (vocational) train- ing 229 "nose for news" 47 preparation of Ms. for sale . . 43 preparing reporter's outline . 46 putting English in shape to sell 38 querying 27, 46 rival newspaper staffs in class 52 selling your English .... 34 sending out a " special " . . 28 shaping a newspaper story . 29, 383 short story work, how to do it 230 special forms of exposition . . 247 telegraph editor 51 training in newspaper work . 364 truth about an author ... 38 trying advertising writing . . 433 trying to get telegraph corre- spondents 27 visit to newspaper ofl&ce . . . 188 where the editor gets his material 47 where emphasis comes in a news story 46 work of a war correspondent . 113 writing advertisements . . . 158 writing an article for publica- tion 294 writing a long query, one hun- dred words 46 writing a news story .... 26 writing a play 399 English, effective 1 Envelope ........ 135 Epic ...-,...,. 424 Epigram , . 432 Epitome = summary .... 31 Errors, list of 509, 542 Essays, study of 225 Etymology 300 Evidence 256 circumstantial 257 Exclamation, nominative by . 454 Exclamation point . . 503, 536 use of, not to be encouraged . 369 Exhortation 480 Expletive 495, 502 Exposition .... 192, 194, 232 comparison or contrast . . . 236 defined 192, 232 demonstration 235 details, use of 2S7 essentials of outline for . . . 239 example of outline for . . . 240 from outline 244 general exposition 246 illustration 234 oral 249 preparing outline 239 reports 245 testing for efifect in .... 247 theme outline for 238 Expression, effective .... 1 Extemporaneous speaking . 212 Fable 257 Farce 428 Feet, in poetry 415 regular iambus {denote) 416 trochee {coming) .... 416 dactyl {modify) 416 anapest {contradict) . . . 416 irregular spondee {dull line) .... 420 pyrrhic {-ery in misery) . . 420 amphibrach {redeemer) . . 420 Figurative language . . . 401 Figures of speech 401 allusion 406 antithesis 408 apostrophe 407 climax 409 hyperbole 410 interrogation .,...., 408 6 Index References Fisrures of speech —Continued irony 4(M) bitter 410 gentle 410 metaphor 404 metonymy ....... 405 personification 401 simile 402 synecdoche 40(5 Piling' systems 132 Finding mag-azine and peri- odical literature .... 69 " Fine writing " 364 Flexibility 543 Floor talk 93 mental outline necessary for . 93 Monroe Doctrine as subject for 97 rules for the 94 sequence of points to be kept in mind 94 Force (energy) 361 everywhere effective . • . 3(>3 *' fine writing " kills force . 364 profusion of adjectives weak- ens 363, 471 secret of, is in what is left un- said 362 story of younger Dumas . . . 362 Wendell's illustration of, from Dante 362 Wendell on denotation and connotation 362 Formation of words .... 512 Forms of discourse .... 191 argument 195 description 194 effective argument .... 250 effective description .... 210 effective exposition .... 232 effective narration .... 198 exposition • . 11>4 narration 1<)3 Fundamental literature . . 54.? Gathering- facts 47 Gender 4.">7 pensonified nouns 4r)S Gerunds, use 481 examples of 482 are to pages. Gerunds — Continued distinction between, and par- ticiples 483 and infinitives 481 Gesture 9T Gist, getting the . % 9, 102, 129, 227 Grammar ......*.. 440 Grouping, subordinate parts of speech about nouns and verbs 441, 442 Halcyon, derivation of ... 306 Headings, card plan, of out- lines 82, 84, 89 Headliner, art of the .... 207 Headlines 26,29 Hexameter .... 416, 418, 431 High School English, reorgan- ization of 545 History, of English language . 300 in dramatic writing .... 430 of words 300 Homonyms 505 House, synonyms for (footnote) 307 Humor 392, 394 distinction between wit and, E. P. Whipple 3{)4 Hyperbole 410 Hyphen .40,531 Iambic 416 Ideas, when they come . . 66, 68 Idioms 496 Idylls 425 Ignoring a point, may be ad- visable 270 not the best way 270 Illustration, preparing an . . 310 exposition by 234 Imagery, in poetry 414 Imagination, use of ... . 59 vivid, in oral work .... 212 word pictures 61 Imperative mode 480 sentences 517 Impersonation .'^ Impromptu oral work ... 75 Incentive (motivation ) . . . 4 necessary (footnote) .... 4 Incoherence, opposed to cohe- rence .114 Index References are to pages. Indenting" 6, 44 Independent paragraph . . 86 Indicative mode 477 Indirect question 479 Inductive reasoning- .... 255 Infinitives, how distiuguishcd from gerunds 481 Infinitive mode 480 Informal, round table discus- sion should be .... 261 Intensive moment .... 200 Interjection . . . . . 503, 446 other words as 503 Interrogative use of s'mll and will .... 481), 490, 491 pronouns 46(> Intransitive verbs .... 474 Introduction 1<)9 Invention 65, 71 Irony . . . . • 409 bitter 409 gentle 409 Irregular comparison, adjec- tives 470 of adverbs 495 Irregular verbs 476 Joffre, visit to America . . . 190 Judges in debate 265 courtesy towards .... 267 decision to be respected . . 266 Judging your own work 356, 357 Judgment, dealing with your own as with an audience . 14 Kinds of writing advertising writing . 158, 247, book reviews business letters cable messages day letters dramatic writing 154, 231, 3W, editorial writing . . 47, 247, feature writing " follow up " letters .... for the "movies," moving pic- tures 72, 73, 433 247 161 378 380 435 384 225 153 158 Kinds of writing — Continued home letters 131 illustrations 310 letter writing 131 local news 52, 188 magazine articles 399 news stories .... 36, 37, 383 night letters 162, 380 play writing . . 154, 231, 399, 435 querying, telegraph news . 27, 46 reporting 29, 46, 123 reports, making . 76, 245, 345, 386 sales letters 158 scenarios 72, 73, 399 short story writing ... 36, 37, 205, 207, 230, 399 sporting page 53 telegrams 378 telegraph correspondence . . 27 travel letters .... 128, 431 war correspondent .... 113 Lafayette, visit to America . 219 Language, law of ...".. 286 Letters advertising 155 answer to advertisement . . 155 answer to business .... 171 application 154, 156 asking for a job 141 both sides of a correspondence 159 cancelling an item in an order 171 class correspondence . . . 139 class letter 159 complaint 170 confirming a telephone conver- sation 171 countermanding a Pullman res- ervation 170 courtesy, notes of 155 dictation 171 displayed, formal invitations . 165 engraved invitations .... 165 essential elements of letters . 131 excuse for tardiness .... 137 formal letter 171 forms of invitation .... 165 friendly letters 194 home letters 131 informal invitations .... 167 8 Index References are to pages. Letters — Continued interscholastic letter-writing contest invitation issued by class . . invitations and replies . . . Lamb Lincoln to Mrs. Bixby . . . miscellaneous opening sentence, business letter order, writing an ordering from mail order house problems in letter writing . . project in business English travel letters .... 128, recommendation reply to informal formal request requirements in business letters reserving a Pullman .... review exercises in .... rewrite, if necessary .... sales letters school notes social motives social notes students dictating letters . . suggestions for letter writing . taking down substance of let- ters talk on letters telegraph style not admissible tracing carload shipment . . tracing express package . . tracing parcel post package . Library card catalog courtesies due attendants . . finding magazine and periodi- cal literature using the ......... Like, as a preposition .... Lines, in poetry Longrer themes . 103, 225, 411, 171 166 164 136 136 172 157 170 140 157 431 154 167 164 141 161 170 169 162 171 164 157 156 155 134 154 159 162 169 154 169 69 69 74 499 414 436 Magrazines, references to Everybody's 270 Outlook 342 27 230 411 Magrazine lengrth, articles of . Make-up of newspaper . . Manuscript mechanical side of literary work preparation for longer themes preparation of, for "English to Sell" 43 Margin, leaving sufficient . . 39 Market, for short, well written articles . . " 36 Masks 428 Material collecting 65 effective use of 81 in notebook 66 in scrapbook 67 organizing 88, 89 your own thought best source of .... 68 Measure, swift moving or slow 421 Measurement 377 Meeting" announcing the purpose of a . 372 calling to order ...... 281 of oral club 298 Melodrama 429 Melody, prose rhythm gives un- obtrusive 371 Memory, vivid, in extempora- neous speaking 212 Metaphor 404 Metonymy 405 Millinery shop, hour in a . . 91 Misuse of Verbs 507 of adverbs, prepositions, conjunc- tions 609 of nouns, adjectives, pronouns 508 Mock trial 387 Mode 477 Moment, intensive 200 Monotony = opposite of variety 420 Monroe Doctrine America not colonizing ground, Roosevelt 100 originally stated, Monroe . . 98 purpose and object, Olney . . ' 99 reaffirmed, Cleveland .... 98 United States will never seek territory by conquest, Wilson 100 Index d References are to pages. Monroe Doctrine — Continued wliat tlie Doctrine does, Cin- cinnati Enquirer 100 Mood influencing movement 111 Moot court 386 Motivation (incentive) ... 4 Movement examples of vigorous action . 112 harmonizes with mood ... Ill impetuosity of description . . 113 long syllables in poetry, slower 421 of water 223 swift flowing story .... 115 use of spondee, makes rhythm slower 420 when it quickens, verbs pre- dominate Ill Moving" pictures . . . . 72, 73 scenarios for 72 *' Muddling throufirh "... 297 Narration 191, 198 essential steps in 199 Narrative • continued short story .... 205 essentials of the short story . 207 special test in narrative . . 205 essential steps in 199 introduction 199 opening the story .... 200 the climax 200 the conclusion 200 the intensive moment . . . 200 the suspense 200 examples of fine narrative . . 201 Ruth, Esther, Genesis i . . 201 plot, controlling force in . . 198 point of view 198 what narrative deals with . . 198 Negative double, not allowable .... 294 in debate 266 News 26 Newspaper contest in " making up " . . 187 high school paper 189 judging the specimen new% paper 188 loose-leaf newspaper .... 187 newspaper staff 364 Newspaper — Continued parts of the 187 first page, telegraph and cable 188 local page 188 page of advertising .... 188 second page, general news . 188 rival newspaper staffs ... 52 features 53 feature writing 153 interesting the press ... 54 managing, assistant, tele- graph, sporting, headline editors, sub-editor ... 52 news writers, reporters, proof readers, headliners . 53 publication 54 required standard .... 54 shaping a newspaper story 29, 383 school journpUsm, may be made a vital force . . . 189 editorial on pageantry . . 189 visit to newspaper office . . . 188 Newspaper articles Cincinnati Enquirer, "Monroe Doctrine" 100 Independent, " Interview with A. Lincoln " 359 New York Evening Post, "Said" 308 Outlook, "God's Plan in History" 342 Saturday Evening Post, "Ar- rowheads" 320 Newspaper office, visit to . . 188 Newspaper stories Chicago Tribune, "A Wreck" 26 Cincinnati Enquirer, "The Ti- tanic" 51 effective appeal 105 London Chronicle, " Defeat at Lule Burgas" 113 London Times, "Balaklava" . 143 Scripps-McRae League, "The Titanic" 49 News writers, how trained . . 123 write clearly 529 Night letters 162, 380 Nominative 453 Non-restrictive clauses . . 322 10 Index References are to pages. Notebook 66 Noun 447 case 452 common 447 abstract 447 collective 447 concrete 447 verbal 448 declension 449 equivalents for nouns .... 459 gender 457 number . 449 proper 447 Number 449 Object direct and indirect 455 of a preposition 455 of a verb 455 Objective adverbial 455 complement 455 Obsolete 286 Occasions, arranging for public 385 Ode 426 Omission author known by what he omits, Schiller 18 good story depends on what you leave out, Elbert Hub- bard 123 influence of "blue pencil," Arlo Bates ........ 123 removal of surplusage, Walter Pater 120 secret of force in what is left unsaid, Barrett Wendell . . 362 striking out needless words, Dumas ;J62 Opera 429 grand 430 Oral work applying the rules for speaking 102 effective appeal 10() effective debate 265 effective speaking 273 four ways of making an ad- dress, Brander Matthews. . 94 Gladstone's rules for speaking 272 high school gridiron club . . 375 Oral work — Continued hints on speech making,Thomas Wentworth Higginson . . . how to organize a club . . . imaginary banquet .... knowledge of parliamentary rules or forms meeting of the oral club . . . oral work for special occasions public discussion club . . . public discussion league . . . round table discussion , . . Sarcey, M. Francisque, on pub- lic speaking ...... short themes for oral work . . speaking in public suggestions for debaters . . vivid memory and imagination in extemporaneous speech Oratory Order of parsing, all parts of speech Organizing" material newspaper staff oral club public discussion club . . . Origin of poetic terms, foot, etc Outline coherence obtained by follow- ing an Edward Everett's illustration . essentials of a theme .... example of a brief exposition from how the woodpecker is adapted to its mode of life .... importance of arrangement mental or written, important to speaker or brief, in argument . . organizing material . . parts of the theme outluie theme outline in exposition time should be given to making theme outlines, (footnote) to bring out points you have in mind topical 95 279 374 281 298 372 278 279 261 95 101 385 273 212 106 512 88 364 298 279 415 24 84 239 251 244 240 382 95 250 89 239 238 238 73 56 Index 11 References are to pages. Outline — Continued using, as builder refers to ar- chitect's plans Watterson's Wendell's card plan for . . . 45, 325, 81, 84 Pageantry . . . Paragraphs . . arranging . . . card plan for . . concluding connecting conversational, how written . defined development by comparison or contrast . . repetition use of cause and effect . . use of details use of examples effect secured by long and short effective indenting independent 86, introductory 86, long and short means of connection in . . . planning for 84, related relation to sentences .... secret of paragraphing . . . suggestions to the writer on . summarizing 87, summarizing, newspaper usage of ... 87, survey of testing your topic statement of . . . .87, transitional unity in Parliamentary forms . . . Parsing Participles, how distinguished from gerunds Parts of speech distinguishing between . . . right use of what decides the part of speech Passive voice 10 201 81 176 345 327 337 339 340 54 325 332 329 335 333 334 326 45 44 337 339 326 341 326 86 325 45 329 340 341 346 327 327 340 52 281 513 483 445 446 505 446 477 Pastorals Pathos Pauses, rhetorical . . Pentameter .... Perfecting style . . Period 5, 5:)0 Personification . . . Perspicuity (clearness) Persuasion .... Photo drama, scenario . . 7: Phrases 312, elements of second class . . used adverbially and as ad- jectives Pirate stories Pleonasm Plot 198; Plural . . Poetry differ*»nce between, and prose drama comedy history tragedy ........ kinds of didactic dramatic epic lyric pastoral satirical forms of purpose of style in . • Point of view, actual .... mental Possessive Postal cards Practice, rightly directed . . Precision ........ Predicate Preposition Projects JK) Pronouns careful use of Proportion, emphasis by . . . Propriety how to attain propriety of speech improprieties 116, 427 395 532 417 121 ,532 401 358 106 2,73 472 516 497 154 294 203 449 413 413 427 430 427 424 426 428 424 426 427 427 414 413 414 213 214 454 135 2 295 441 498 127 459 318 366 291 293 291 12 Index References are to pages. Propriety — Continued proper use of prepositions . . 292 Publication, methods of . . . 54 days 103 Public occasions 385 Punctuation 629 close 530 in business letters 630 open 532' rules from the Style Book, United States printing office 635 tendency towards simplicity . 529 Puns 393 Query 27 Question in debate, called proposition . 265 Lincoln's reply to question about his style 359 shall and will in questions 490, 491 Quintilian's two rules whatever does not help, hinders 319 writer rmist be understood . . 358 Quotation marks . . . 534, 536 Beading your papers for one thing at a time . . 357 Reasoning- inductive 255 deductive 255 Rebuttal 273 Recitation by topical outline, see sum- maries at end of each chapter 14 preparation for ... . 55, 252 Reflectoscope 11,541 Refutation 269, 270, 273 Removal of surplusage . . 120 Reports, expository 245 of a committee, or round table 262, Mi on paragraphing 347 on processes 386 on your own interests (see also footnote) 346 secretary's 280 Reshaping 126, 38? Restating 297 Restrictive clause .... 322 Review book review 247 by topical outline 65 Revising Bates on 123 "boiling down" . . 239,297,378 Carlyle on 124 condensing 126 Cowper on 121 Franklin on 121 Hubbard on 122 Maupassant on 121 reshaping 120, 126 Smith on 122 Stevenson on 121 Revision 120, 127 Rhetoric 2, 3 Rhyme .422 Rhythm in poetry 414, 421 in prose 371 Romances, metrical .... 425 Round table directions for holding .... 261 importance of (footnote) . . 261 on " make-up " of newspaper . 187 on slang 290 suggested exercises for . 262, 368 survey on status of the English class 347 vocational inquiry in ... . 262 Salesmanship ... 13, 75, 373 Satire 427 Saying and feeling. Burroughs 1 Scanning 416 Scenario writing . . .72, 73, 399 Scrapbook 67 Selection, an element of ele- gance 371 Selling your English, se^ Eng- lish to sell 26 Semicolon 634 Sentences balance in 313 cadence, prose rhythm . . . 371 clearness 318 five tests for clearness . . . 319 coherence 18 connectives 317 Index 13 References are to pages. Sentences — Continued dignity 311 ease 314, 371 effective 318 elegance 371 empliasis 19 force 361 kinds of declarative . 517 exclamatory 518 imperative 517 interrogative 517 long 311 loose 313 periodic 314 short 311 structure of simple 518 complex 519 compound ....... 520 topic sentence, best test of the paragraph 327 unity 310 four tests for unity . . . . 317 variety . . • 312 Sequence (or outline) for speaking 94, 9."» Shakespeare, no easy writer . 12 J Simile 402 Simplicity, in punctuation . . 52t) business requires this .... 530 Skeleton = sequence or outline, for speaking .... 94, 1)5 Slang adds certain sprightliness . . 288 Autocrat on 2G1 avoid objectionable .... 288 definition of 287 its origin 287 round table discussion on . . 290 why objectionable 288 Social motives .... I7fi, 543 Songs 426, 4.34 Sonnet 434, 426 Speaking attitude and gesture in . . . 97 four ways of making an ad- dress, Matthews 94 Higginson's hints on speech making 95 Speaking— Continued high school gridiron club . . 375 imaginary banquet .... 374 make your words felt ... 2 oral work for special occasions 372 public occasions 385 rules for, Gladstone .... 272 Sarcey's suggestions on . . . 95 Sporting page, style of . . . 53 Stanza 430 Story continued short story . . . 205 short story 27, 36, 205, 207, 399, 230 telling (narration) . . . 191, 198 Structure of sentence shown in analysis 441, 442 sentences divided according to 518 Style defined 349 effective, defined by Swift, Hill, Spencer 354 in prose 350 mannerisms, to be avoided . . 355 marked differences in ... 354 properties of clearness 358 interview with Abraham Lincoln on 359 of expression 358 of thought 358 elegance 371 prose rhythm an aid to . . 371 emphasis 365 by figures of speech . . . 369 by italicizing 370 by position 365 by proportion 366 by punctuation .... 369 by repetition 368 force or energy 361 everywhere effective . . 363 "fine writing" destructive of 364 unity 361 suggestions for acquiring a . 356 Subject of the sentence . . 441 Subjects for compositions . . 543 for debate (the proposition) . 265 Subjunctive 478 Subordinate, clause .... 619 14 Index References are to pages. -Subordinate — Coiitimmd conjunctions elements Sugg-estion, better than crit 502 518 cisni Suggestions, for acquiring style to teachers of English . . Suppression, effective . . Surplusage, removal of . . Survey, vocational . . . . Suspense Swift-flowing story . . . Synecdoche Synonyms . 641 a . 356 . 540 . 120 . 120 . 497 200, 207 . Ill 405, 406 300,504 Talk at home of Menelaus .... floor talk persuasive rules for table talk what speech demands . . . Talking how " English to Sell " concerns Talks on letters Taste a cultivated . Arnold Bennett on how educated, Goethe . . . how to form it literary Tautology Teams in debate team work Telegrams day or night letters .... what items are charged for Telegraphic style, not allow- able Telephone conversation, con firming a Tense . . Testimony circumstantial evidence . . . direct Testa five for clearness for unity, (coherence, and em- phasis in descriptive narrative 61 <>3 514 94 153 95 1 34 159 389 389 396 389 3^)0 229 294 267 267 171 380 378 162 171 484 257 256 319 224 Tests — Continued four for unity . . . . . .317 special test in narration . . . 205 testing for effective exposition 247 testing for some one point . . 172 testing your own work ... 9 Themes, longer . 411, 225, 238, 436 short, for oral work . . 249, 101 Thoughts, arranghig .... 81 best source of material ... 68 save your first thoughts . 66, 68 Time order 19 Titanic, wreck of the ... . 49 Title, where to write it ... 44 Toastmaster 375 Toasts 375 Topical outlines 55 Topic sentence, test for the paragraph 327 Topics, for one hundred and fifty words 381 Training, value of, to writer . 126 manual training, use of engine lathe 74 See Vocational Training . . 549 Transitional paragraphs . . 340 Travel letters .... 128, 431 Trochee 416 Tropes (figures) 401 Truth about an author . . 38 Typewriter influence on letter writing . . 132 on punctuation 531 when not to be used .... 133 Unit paragraph, the unit of . . . 326 your written page, the unit of measurement 377 Unity ... 8 16, 18, 21, 218, 224, 239, 274, 361 Unusual experiences ... 101 Usage, good or established . . 286 Using the library 2(>8 Variety, in poetry . . . 418, 420 Verbals 481 Verbosity (pleonasm) . . . 294 Verbs 473-492 careful use of 489 Index 15 References are to pages Verbs — Continued predominate in vigorous writing Ill Verse blank verse 423 "jingles" 434 limericks 434 measure 415 origin of term 415 Vigorous action 111, 112, 115, 116 Visualizing 59, 60, 61 Vivacity (-uprightly Englisli) . 53 Vocabulary .... 32, 223, 288 Vocational guidance . . . 544 Vocational training .... 541) Voice 477 Weaving in words .... 383 Wit defined • . 392 distinguished from humor . . 391 from pathos 395 Word painting 210 fine example of, Thackeray . 210 Word pictures 61 Words 285 Anglo-Saxon 300 antonyms 505 colloquial 286 counting your words . , . . 44 Words — Continued derivation of 300 division of, in syllables ... 41 etymology 306 exact 295 fitly spoken (propriety) . . . 291 forcible 362 foreign 286 French 302 homonyms 505 Latin " 302 new 287 Norman-French 302* obsolete 286 overworked 288 pleonasm 294 redundancy 294 remembering troublesome . . 42 slang 287 synonyms 3l0 little study in synonyms, "Said" 308 tautology 294 ■ too few (telegraphic style) . . 162 transposition of, for emphasis 18 troublesome 42 usage, established 28(5 verbosity (akin to pleonasm) . 2V)4 vocabulary, acquiring a . . . 288 Writing, forcible 2 INDEX OF AUTHORS References are to pages. Addison, Joseph . . . . . 410 Arabian Nights .... 154, 394 kristotle 311,401 Arnold, Matthew 403 Bacon, Francis .... 144, 265 Bates, Arlo 123, 191, 232, 364, 397 Bates, E. W 179 Beecher, H. W 352 Bennett, Arnold . . . 389, 396 Bennett, H. H 190 Benson, F. R 179 Black, Frank S. . ' 237 Blackmore, R. D. . . 113, 218, 224 Blair, Hugh 3, 210, 295, 311, 377, 391 Bolingbroke, Lord 318 Boone, Daniel 284 Bourdillon, F. W 423 Browning-, Elizabeth Barrett 331 Browning, Robert . . 425, 426 Bryant, W. C 404 See Translations, Homer Bryce, James .... 340, 343 Burke, Edmund 2:38 328, 343, 350, 363, 372 Bums, Robert .143 343, 3{)6, 402, 412, 427 Burrougrhs, John 1 Byron, Lord . . Ill, 112, 285, 404 Caesar, Julius Campbell, Thomas Carlyle, Thomas Cato Cervantes, Miguel de Channing, William E Charles II ... . Chaucer. Geoffrey Chesterfield, Lord Cleveland, Grover . 318 . 434 112, 124 . 20 228, 394 . 350 . 432 425, 43;{ . 161 . 99 Coleridge, Lord 393 Coleridge, Samuel T. . 403, 408 CoUins, William . . . 402, 458 Cooper, James Fennimore . 42 Corelli, Marie .364 Cowper, William 121, 143, 363, 418 Cox, John Harrington ... 11 Craig, A. T 179 Crawford 129, 424 Crawford, F. Marion. . . . 534 Dana, R. H 343 Dante Alighieri .... 362, 424 Davol, Ralph 179 Defoe, Daniel ... 184, 205, 3.'36 Dickens, Charles (53 113, 154, 317, :m, 363, 372, 394, 405 Donahoe, Martin H 113 Drake, Joseph Rodman . . 190 Dryden, John 176 Dumas, Alexandre, younger . 3(52 Dye, Charity 178 Earle ... 116 Eastman, Charles Alexander 332 Eliot, George (Mrs. Lewes) 216, 435 Emmet, Robert 107 Erskine, Lord 394 Evarts, William M 393 Everett, Edward 85 Farrar, F. W. . . Finch, Francis Miles Franklin, Benjamin 407 258 121 Gautier, Th^ophile .... 425 Gladstone, William E. . . . 272 Goethe, Wolfgang von ... 389 Goldsmith, Oliver . . . 415, 428 Grant 420 10 Index of Authors 17 References are to pages. Gray, Thomas . . .401, 414, 431 Grinnell, George Bird . , . ;«2 Gwynne, Charles T 60 Hambridg-e, Jay 246 Harris, Joel Chandler . . . 360 Hardy, Thomas 360 Harte, Bret 154, 207 Hawthorne, Nathaniel ... 73 320, 339, 350 Henry, 154, 216 Henry, Patrick 19, 312 Hig-g-inson. Thomas Went- worth 95 Hill, A. S. 354 Holmes, Oliver Wendell . . 261 Homer 424 See Fundamental Literature . 551 Hood, Thomas .... 39(3, 423 Hosic, James Fleming- . . . 545 Hubbard, Elbert . . . 122, 412 Hugo, Victor .... 112, 113, 409 Huxley, Thomas 195 Ingelow, Jean 425 Irving, Washington .... 217 Isaiah 250 Jefferson, Thomas .... 312 Jerome, Jerome K 343 Johnson, Dr. Samuel . . 66, 427 Jones, Sir William .... 238 Joubert, Joseph 59 Keats, John .... 383, 389, 390 Keeley, James 26 Kingery, H. M 308 Kipling, Rudyard . . 115, 214, 271 Lamb, Charles .... 137, 396 Langdon, W. C 176 Lanier, Sidney .... 224, 402 Lettsom, William Nanson . 129 Lewes, G. H v 349 Lewis, Sinclair 74 Lincoln, Abraham 7, 93, 136, 338, 359 London, Jack 230 Longfellow, H. W. . 331, 350, 416, 417, 418, 422, 425, 426, 433, 434 Lowell, James Russell 407, 409, 425 Lucas, E. V. Luke . . . 396 3;i4 Mabie, H, W 74 Macaulay, Thomas Babing- ton . . . 131, 236, 315, 333, 352 McComb, E. H. K 178 Mackaye, Percy 179 McKitrick, May 74 MacPherson, James .... 425 Mahony, F. (Father Prout) . 134 March, P. A 303 Marlowe. Christopher . . . 410 Mather, Cotton 154 Matthews, Brander .... 94 Maupassant, Guy de . . . .121 Milton, John . . 111,422,426,428 Mitchell, Donald G 105 Monroe, James 98 Montaigne, Michel de . . . 349 Montgomery, James. ... 405 Moore, Thomas .... 396, 443 Morris, William ... 12, 102, 116 Moses 409 Mother Goose 433 Moulton, R. G 409 Mulock, Dinah M 200 Newman, John Henry, Car- dinal 232 Olney, Richard 99 ' Parkman, Francis K. ... 72 Pater, Walter . . 18, 26, 356, 383 Paul 368, 408 Phillips, Charles . . 366, 369, 409 Plato 413 Poe, Edgar Allan . . . 134, 425 Pope, Alexander 1 287, 313, 404, 420, 422, 426 Quintilian 319, 358 Ramsay, Allan 427 Read, Thomas Buchanan . . 209 Reynolds, Sir Joshua ... 65 Riley, James Whitcomb 190, 433 Rochester, Earl of .... 432 Roosevelt, Theodore ... 100 18 Index of Authors References are to pages. Rosebery. Lord 393 Ruskin. John . . . 112, 224, 432 Russell, William Howard . 143 Sand, Georgre 72 Sarcey, M. Francisque , . 95 Schiller. Johann von ... 18 Scott, Sir Walter . . 220, 301, 370 Shakespeare, William ... 9 111, 198, '2m, 368, 404, 406, 407, 408, 414, 417, 424, 4W, 521 Shelley, Percy Bysshe . 413, 421 Sheridan, Richard Brinsley . 428 Smith, F. Hopkinson ... 122 Smith, Sidney 393 Southey. Robert 224 Special lists . . 225, 226, 227, 436 Spencer, Herbert .... 45, 354 Spenser, Edmund . . 425, 426, 431 Sprague, Charles 366 Stevens. T. W 179 Stevenson. Robert Louis . . 18 154, 216, 314, 351 Stoddard 209 Swift, Jonathan, Dean . . . 2.'i5 314, 354 Tagore, Rabindranath . . . 39fi Tarbell, Ida M 7 Temple, Sir William .... 315 Tennyson, Alfred 115 143, 212, 217, 224, 405, 406, 418 422, 426, 522 Thackeray, William Make- peace 210 Thomson, James 392 Thoreau, H. D 305 Tolstoi, Count Leo .... 224 Tooke, Home 393 Trench, Richard C 303 Twain, Mark .... 224, 325, 395 Van Dyke, Henry . . 16, 2.35, 444 Verne, Jules 154 Virgil 424 Wallace, Lew 254 Watterson, Henry .... 201 Webster, Daniel . . 351, 405, 407 Wendell, Barrett ..... 81 325, 358, 361, 371, 421 Whipple, B. P 394 Whittier, John G ;^ Wilson 300 Wilson, Woodrow . . 100, 108 Wister, Owen 106 Wordsworth, Miss .... 355 Wordsworth, William . 59, 349, 355,391,414,421,426 Yeats, W. B. GC UNIVERSITY OF CAUFORNIA LIBRARY