w I mi. presented to the UNIVERSITY LIBRARY UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SAN DIEGO by Douglas Warren UNIVERSITY OF CAUF RNIA SAN DIEGO MANILA BAY. The harbdr within the breakwater, looking towards the city. Beyond the shipping the cathedral may be seen rising above the walls of Old Manila. The moutli of the Pasig is to the left. From Stereograph Copyright, by Underwood & Underwood, New York. AMERICA'S INSULAR POSSESSIONS BY C. H. FORBES-LINDSAY AUTHOR OF "The Philippines, Under Spanish and American Rules", "Panama, the Isthmus and the Canal", "India, Past and Present", etc. IN TWO VOLUMES VOL. II ILLUSTRATED PHILADELPHIA THE JOHN C. WINSTON CO. 1906 COPYRIGHT, 1906 BY THE JOHN C. WINSTON COMPANY HONORABLE WILLIAM HOWARD TAFT Defcicatefc BY PERMISSION TO THB HONORABLE WILLIAM H. TAFT First Civil Governor of the Philippines THAN WHOM NONE HAS LABORED MORE ASSIDUOUSLY IN THE CAUSE OF THE FILIPINO PREFACE. Prior to 1898, when America knocked rudely at her doors, the Philippine Archipelago was one of the most secluded portions of the earth. Only within the present generation have its ports been open to the commerce of the world. When the Archipelago passed into the possession of the United States there was not an American firm in Manila. The Islands have never been brought within the ever-extending bounds of tourist travel and are not yet upon a main steamship route, but are reached by a branch line from Hong Kong. Before the Spanish- American War brought us into intimate relations with the Philippine Islands, little had been published relating to them in this country or, indeed, in the English language. It is not strange, then, that the average American knew almost nothing about this country which is destined to play an im- portant part in the history of the United States, until his newspapers and magazines began to educate him. By this time we are well awake to the fact that the Filipinos are not naked savages and that their country is something more than the place from which we get Manila hemp. It is beginning to dawn upon us that the Filipinos and the Philippines represent great pos- sibilities, but few of us have an adequate conception of how great they are, or of the vast field for Amer- ican endeavor and enterprise afforded by them. In the past few years the Philippines have evoked a constantly growing interest which most often takes the form of the concrete query : "Are the people good for anything and what are the islands worth?" I have made an effort to answer this question with some degree of definiteness. v VI THE PHILIPPINES For my statements regarding industries, resources, etc., I have depended, in the main, upon the ample sources of information afforded by the U. S. War Department, having been taught by experience to regard them as the most reliable. I have avoided polemic discussion, because there are others much better qualified than myself to pass opinion on the controversial questions connected with the Philippines ; but that the reader, who will natu- rally look for some such expressions in a book of this kind, may be satisfied, I have fully remedied the deficiency on my part by inserting a chapter of ex- tracts from public addresses delivered by the Honor- able William H. Taft, who is recognized as the fore- most authority on our insular possessions in the Pacific. These addresses are the most direct, logical, and consistent statements of the conditions and pros- pects in the Philippine Islands, as well as the most clear and unequivocal expression of the policy of the American Government towards those islands. I much regret that the quotations are, necessarily, limited to a few brief extracts and strongly recommend the reading of the addresses in extenso to all who would have a clear idea of our relations to the Philippines and the problems involved in their administration. I take this opportunity to acknowledge my obliga- tions to Colonel Clarence R. Edwards, Chief of the Bureau of Insular Affairs, and the Assistant Chief, Captain Frank Mclntyre, who have rendered me val- uable assistance in the preparation of this volume. Philadelphia, April, 1906. CONTENTS THE PHILIPPINES CHAP. PAGE. I. GENEKAL DESCRIPTION 17 II. THE INHABITANTS 75 III. EABLY HISTORY 119 IV. THE PASSING OF SPANISH DOMINION 1G1 V. AMERICAN ADMINISTRATION 203 VI. COMMERCE 241 VII. AGRICULTURE 285 VIII. AGRICULTURE (Continued) 323 IX. PUBLIC LANDS, TIMBER, MINERALS, ETC 357 X. MANILA, OLD AND NEW 393 XI. LUZON 431 XII. THE VISAYAS 463 XIII. MINDANAO AND SULU 491 XIV. VITAL ISSUES 517 INDEX 561 ILLUSTRATIONS THE PHILIPPINES PAGE. MANILA BAY Frontispiece. HON. WILLIAM H. TAFT Facing Dedication. THE HIGHLANDS OF BENGUET 22 A VISAYAN FAMILY 54 MANILA CATHEDBAL 78 A HEAD HUNTEB 110 CHINESE MESTIZOS 126 LOMA CHUBCH 150 FILIPINA WOMEN 174 THE YOUNG IDEA 190 OFFICE OF A JUSTICE 214 MANILA HEMP 230 THE BUSY PASIG 254 CLEANING ABACA 270 A ROPE WALK 294 FARMING IN THE PHILIPPINES 310 THRESHING RICE 350 A STREET SCENE 382 TAAL VOLCANO 390 PRIMITIVE TRANSPORTATION 422 A HUMBLE HOME 430 ANTIQUE DEFENSES 454 A MESTIZA 462 A WEAVES 486 A VILLAGE SCENE 510 NATIVE POLICE . 522 GENERAL DESCRIPTION THE PHILIPPINES. GENERAL DESCRIPTION. Physical Features Luzon Taal Lake and Volcano The Story of an Eruption Mayon Volcano Rivers of Luzon Cagayan and Isabela Abra, Lepanto-Bontoc, and Nueva Vizcaya I locos Norte, I locos Sur and La Union Benguet Pangasinan Zambales Bataan Tarlac Pampanga Nueva Ecija Bulacau Rizal Laguna Cavite Batan- gas Tayabas Arubos Camarines Albay Sorsogon Railroad Extension Marinduque The Island of Mindoro The Visayan Group Masbate Samar Leyte Bohol Cebu Negros Panay Paragua Mindanao Sulu Tawi Tawi Fauna Flora Vegetable Products of Commercial Value Minerals Climate. The Philippine Archipelago extends from 4 40' to 21 10' north latitude and lies between the meridi- ans of 116 40' and 126 34' east longitude. The chain of islands commences in the north at a point within one hundred miles of Formosa and terminates with the Sulu Group, lying close to the northeast coast of Borneo. The nearest land on the east is one of the Pelew Islands, in the possession of Ger- many, five hundred and ten miles distant, and on the west, Cochin China, distant five hundred and fifteen miles. 2 (17) 18 THE PHILIPPINES. The most recent official enumeration gives a total of 3,141 islands to the Archipelago. Three-fourths of that number have areas of less than a square mile each ; one-half are unnamed ; and by far the majority are uninhabited. The aggregate area of the islands is 115,000 square miles; that is, greater than the combined areas of the States of New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania and Delaware. In the broadest territorial division, the principal islands are thus classified : Island. Area in Sq. Miles. Population. 1. Luzon 40,969 3,798,507 2. Marinduque 352 50,601 3. Mindoro 3,851 28,361 4. Paragua, or Palawan 4,027 10,918 5. Visayan Islands. Masbate 1,236 29,451 Samar 5,031 222,690 Leyte 2,722 357,641 Bohol 1,141 243,148 Cebu 1,762 592,247 Negros 4,881 460,776 Panay 4,611 743,646 6. Mindanao 36,292 499,634 7. Sulu Archipelago. Sulu, or Jolo 326 44,718 Tawi Tawi . 232 1,179 PHYSICAL FEATURES. The prevailing physical features of the Philippines are mountain and forest. There are several broad valleys intersected by numerous streams, but ex- GENERAL DESCRIPTION. 19 tensive plains and large rivers comparable with con- tinental standards are not to be found in the islands. The Philippines have no deserts, nor even barren lava beds. Everywhere vegetation flourishes in ex- uberant variety. Very little of the scenery can be fairly termed grand, but almost everywhere it is made beautiful by the diversity and abundance of vegeta- tion which covers the hills and the lower slopes of the mountains. About seventy per cent, of the entire surface of the islands is covered with forest, including some of the most valuable species of trees in the world. The Archipelago is of volcanic origin, evidences of which are everywhere to be found in extinct or dormant volcanoes, at least ten having records of activity. To such an extent are the shores of the islands indented that, although their area is but one twenty- sixth that of the mainland of the United States, the coast line of the latter is less than half that of the Philippine Islands. Such a formation would gen- erally indicate the presence of a great number of har- bors, but as a matter of fact there are comparatively few of present commercial utility. Shoals and reefs ; the absence of lights and channel buoys ; and the lack of reliable charts render many deep water anchor- ages impracticable for vessels of heavy burthen. Most of the anchorages are only available during a portion of the year owing to the alternating character of the winds. From June to October the wind set8 20 THE PHILIPPINES. in from the southwest, and during the remainder of the year the northwest monsoons prevail. There are, however, some exceptionally good harbors, that of Manila, upon which extensive improvements are rap- idly progressing toward completion, being one of the very best in the Orient. With the exception of Bohol, each of the principal islands has at least one harbor capable of accommodating vessels of the great- est draft. There are but three rivers attaining a length of two hundred miles, namely, the Rio Grande de Cagayan, of Luzon, and the Rio Grande and Agusan, of Min- danao. Aside from these, and the Pampanga, the Agno and the Abra, all of Luzon, there are no rivers in the islands exceeding a length of one hundred miles. However, economic importance cannot al- ways be gauged by figures. The Pasig, one of the shortest rivers in the country, carries the greatest commerce. It may be mentioned here as a curious fact, that the Lanao, of J^egros, although only nine miles in total length, has a width of one thousand feet and is twenty feet deep. LUZON. Luzon is the chief island of the Archipelago, and has contained the seat of government since the time of Legaspi. It is paramount in the matters of area, population and development. Its greatest length from northwest to southeast is four hundred and LUZON. 21 eighty-nine miles, and its utmost breadth one hun- dred and thirty-eight miles. Its principal mountain range is the Sierra Madre, which, commencing in the extreme northeast corner of the island, follows an unbroken course of three hundred and fifty miles along the eastern coast to the Laguna de Bay. The general elevation of the Sierra Madre is from 3,500 to 4,500 feet, the latter figures being exceeded by a few summits. This range forms the eastern bound- ary of the great valley of the Cagayan, one of the two large and fertile stretches of comparative level on the island. Its length is one hundred and sixty miles and its breadth fifty miles. On the west the valley is bounded by the conglomeration of elevations and short mountain ranges styled the Caraballos Oc- cidentales, covering an area two hundred miles in length by seventy miles in breadth. This complex system embraces several peaks exceeding 6,000 feet in altitude. At the south, as at the north, a sub- sidiary range effects a junction between the Cara- ballos Occidentales and the Sierra Madre, so that these two mountain systems convert the northern part of Luzon into a basin of which they form the sides. The Zambales range extends the length of the prov- ince of that name, closely following the coast. It in- cludes many summits higher than 5,000 feet, and for a considerable distance maintains an average elevation of 4,000 feet. Extending fifty miles eastward from this range and southward to the distance of one hun- 22 THE PHILIPPINES. dred and fifty miles from Lingayen Gulf, is a great, flat depression traversed by the rivers Pampanga, Agno and Pasig, and by innumerable small streams. A great deal of the land is alluvial soil. The valley is extremely fertile, and supports 1,750,000 souls, being about two-fifths of the population of the entire island. At the southern end of this valley is Laguna de Bay, a large, shallow body of water at no point more than twenty feet in depth. It is the source of the Pasig, at the mouth of which stands Manila. The shores of Laguna de Bay are thickly settled. A very large traffic is carried on amongst the towns and vil- lages along its littoral and between them and Manila. Southern Luzon has no defined mountain system, but grouped summits and isolated volcanic peaks are scattered over its surface. TAAL LAKE AND VOLCANO. Laguna de Bombon, or Lake Taal, is one of the most curious natural formations in the world. It is an immense crater, seventeen miles long by twelve miles in breadth, surrounded, except upon the south- ern end, by a clearly defined rim several hundred feet in height, towards which the neighboring coun- try gradually slopes. Upon the edge of the lake are several elevations of volcanic character, and from an island in the center rises, to a height of one thou- sand feet, an active volcano, several eruptions of which have been recorded. Different theories have THE FTiciTLAXDs OF BEXOFKT. These beautiful mountains boast scenery equal to that of the Tyrol, a climate temperate and bracing, rich mineral deposits, and vegetable products ranjniur from coffee to apples. TAAL LAKE AND VOLCANO. 23 been advanced by scientific observers to account for the phenomenon of Lake Bombon. Father Zuniga expressed the opinion that the lake originated from the collapse of a volcanic cone. Doctor Becker at- tributes the present formation to the combined action of eruptions and cataclysms, and concludes that the peak "Taal itself is the small inner cone of a great crater of explosion." Mr. H. D. Caskey, B. S., says : "My own notes and observations in these prov- inces tend to the belief that Taal was unquestionably, at a prehistoric period, very high and of tremendous activity; that it stood partly surrounded, if not wholly, by a stretch of the sea extending from the Gulf of Batangas to the Lingayen Gulf; that during its activity large quantities of volcanic ejecta fell into this island sea, forming the more or less stratified de- posits of tuff now furnishing much of the rich soil of the provinces of Batangas, La Laguna, Cavite, Rizal, and Bulacan ; that an explosion, or a series of them, blew out the entire upper cone, leaving the rim of the present boundaries of the Lake Taal ; and that subsequently minor cones were formed and this region was gradually raised to its present level." During historic times this volcano has undergone the most remarkable changes and new craters have been formed on three or four occasions. _Of the several recorded eruptions of Taal, that of 1754 is the most notable. The following is from the account of Father Buenuchillo, the parish priest of Taal at the time : 24 THE PHILIPPINES. THE STORY OF AX ERUPTION. "It began on May 13th and did not end till the 1st of December. During this time the intensity and aspect of the eruption were constantly changing. It was two hundred days of devastation and ruin for the inhabitants, to whom the time must have ap- peared an eternity. During this time the principal towns of the Laguna of Bombon disappeared, viz., Sala, Lipa, Tanuan, and Taal, with the numerous villages around them. Other towns of the same prov- ince at a distance, as well as towns of the neighbor- ing provinces of Balayan, Batangas, and Bauan, also suffered great damage. Rosario, Santo Tomas, and San Pablo also felt the effect of the rain of ashes and scoriae, as also did almost all the provinces below the center of Luzon. The quantity of ashes and sco- riae which was sent up by the volcano was so great that a large quantity of pumice stone appeared on the surface of the Laguna ; and several villages around Tanuan and others around Taal, being near the volcano, and because the wind was east, were totally destroyed by this rain." The eruption continued, with greater or less in- tensity, but continuously, till the 10th of July, when the nature of the volcanic rain changed, as may be gathered from the following words : " There was not a single night throughout the whole of this month of June till July 10th in which flames THE STORY OF AN ERUPTION. 25 were wanting on the volcano, or in which there were not rumbling noises. This went on till July 10th, when it rained mud over the town of Taal, and the mud was of so black a character that ink would not have stained so blackly, and when the wind changed the mud covered a village called Balele, which is near Sala, which village was the most fertile of the whole district. The volcano continued to throw out, with more or less intensity, flames and black smoke during July and August and part of September, till, on the 25th of this last month, it appeared as if the .volcano wished to parade all its forces against us, because on that date, to the horrible rumblings and the tremendous flames, was joined a tempest which originated in the cloud of smoke. The lightnings which accompanied the storm continued without in- terruption till December 4th. It is truly marvelous that the cloud lasted for more than two months. Over and above this, there was from the same 25th of September till the morning of the 26th such a copious rain of pumice stones that we were obliged to abandon our homes for fear the stones would break through the roof, as indeed happened in some houses. We were thus compelled to flee through this hail of stones, and some were wounded by the stones falling on their heads. During that one night the ground was cov- ered with scoriae and ashes to the depth of a foot and a half, thus destroying and drying up the trees and plants as if a fire had passed over them. 26 THE PHILIPPINES. "The activity of the volcano continued with short intervals of quiet during the months of October and November. On the evening of the feast of All Saints the volcano again began to vomit forth fire, stones, sand, mud, and ashes in a greater quantity than ever. This went on till November 15th, on which date, after vespers, there commenced a succession of rumblings so loud as to deafen one, and the volcano began to vomit forth smoke so dense and black as to darken the atmosphere, and at the same time such a quan- tity of large stones fell into the lake as to cause big waves ; the earth trembled, the houses shook, and yet this was but the preparation for a fresh rain of scoriae and ashes which lasted the whole of the after- noon and part of the night. "Notwithstanding the disaster that had overtaken us, I still remained in the said town, together with the chief justice of the province, till on the night of the 27th (November) the volcano began once again to vomit such a quantity of flames that it seemed as if all that had been erupted during the preceding months to- gether did not equal that which was thrown forth during that hour. "Every moment the violence of the volcano in- creased so that the whole of the island (that is, the island in the lake) was covered with fire. This in- creasing volcanic activity, accompanied, as it was, by frightful subterranean rumblings and earthquakes, THE STORY OF AN ERUPTION. 27 caused the unfortunate inhabitants to abandon their town and at any risk to gain the heights which rise between it and Santuario de Caysasay. "Thus passed the 28th, but on the morning of the 29th smoke was observed rising in various points of the island from Calauit to the crater in a straight line, just as if a fissure had been opened all along the line. Between 4 and 6 o'clock of the same even- ing the horizon darkened, leaving us in complete darkness, and at the same time it began to rain mud, ashes, and sand, and although not in such quantities as before, yet it kept on without interruption the whole of that night and the morning of the 30th. "The rain of mud ceased somewhat at 4 o'clock in the afternoon. It then measured a meter in depth in Santuario de Caysasay, which is distant about four leagues from the volcano. In some places near the island the depth of the mud, etc., reached more than three yards. The rain of ashes completely ceased on the 1st of December, and then a hurricane, which lasted two days, came to put the finishing touches to so many disasters by tearing up the little that had been left standing." The simple and pathetic narrative of this priest is one of several similar stories extant of the eruptions of this and other volcanoes; indeed this was by no means the only experience of the kind that Father Buenuchillo survived. 28 THE PHILIPPINES. MAYON VOLCANO. With the exception of Taal, Mayon, on the east coast of the province of Albay, is the most notable volcano for its activity in the Archipelago. It rises to a height of 7,916 feet in an almost perfect cone with a slightly truncated apex, from which it con- stantly emits smoke and steam. Doctor Becker says : "It is possibly the most symmetrically beautiful vol- canic cone in the world, and at times its crater is al- most infinitesimal, so that the meridional curve of the cone is continuous almost to the axis." May on has been in eruption on countless occasions since the discovery of the islands. Father Coronas records nearly thirty eruptions between the years 1616 and 1897. Some of these were very serious in their con- sequences. In 1814 about twelve hundred lives were lost, and in many instances the towns at the base of the volcano have suffered severely. This has not de- terred the natives from repopulating the same spots. At the present time sites on the southern base of Mayon are occupied by Legaspi, Albay, and Daraga. At the time of the Spanish conquest one of the most numerous communities was settled in the vicinity of Taal, and the district has always been notably popu- lous. Earthquakes are frequent, and have often been very destructive, notably that of December, 1645, which laid Manila in ruins. One of the most re- RIVERS OF LUZON. 29 markable seismic disturbances of record began in Nueva Vizeaya on the 3d day of January, 1881. During that month, May, July, August, and Septem- ber the shocks were almost incessant, some of the waves extending over the entire island of Luzon. Father Maso, the Assistant Director of the Philippine Weather Bureau, remarks, with the satisfaction of the scientist, that "Manila is most advantageously situated for experiencing almost all the shocks radiat- ing from the different centers of Luzon." In a long course of years the average of seismic disturbances at Manila has been one a month. In the great ma- jority of instances they have been hardly noticeable shocks. Since the sixteenth century the capital has been visited by thirty-two violent earthquakes. The last destructive shock was in July, 1880, when the city was considerably damaged. The northern islands of the Archipelago are sub- ject to violent cyclones which do immense injury to standing crops and buildings. The destructive ef- fects of these natural visitations are decreasing as the people learn to adopt measures for minimizing them, and, as in our western States, Mature compen- sates for occasional turbulence by her serenity and bounteousness at other times. EIVEKS OF LUZON. Luzon has three rivers which greatly surpass all others of the island in drainage basin, length, and 30 THE PHILIPPINES. navigability ; these are the Cagayan, the Agno, and the Pampanga. The Cagayan, popularly called El Tajo (the in- cision), drains one-fourth of the entire island. Ris- ing in Caraballos Sur, at the southern boundary of Isabela Province, it follows a northward course to its mouth at Aparri, distant upwards of two hundred miles from its source. It is navigable for native boats as far as one hundred and sixty miles from the sea, and rafts may travel to within twenty miles of its headwaters. Like most of the rivers of the Phil- ippines, it forms a bar at its mouth which is a serious obstruction to traffic. Vessels which are excluded by these impediments would often find beyond them ample water to carry them far up stream. The Ca- gayan carries the entire produce, consisting largely of tobacco, of the provinces of Isabela and Cagayan to the port of Aparri. This very extensive and im- portant traffic is fed by the contributions of the two principal tributaries of the river, which are navigable, one for twenty miles and the other for forty miles from the points of juncture. The Agno rises in the mountains of Benguet Prov- ince. It flows through the northern portion of the great central valley of Luzon and reaches the Gulf of Lingayen through several mouths at important com- mercial points, carrying a considerable burden of produce. The Pampanga, which is second in size to the RIVERS OF LUZON. 31 Cagayan, has its source in the same mountain range as the latter, and pursuing an opposite course, along which it is joined by many branches, discharges into Manila Bay through several channels, forming an extensive delta. The Pasig runs from Laguna de Bay to the Bay of Manila, a distance of about eighteen miles. The city of Manila is situated at the mouth of the river. The Pasig has a considerable depth and width, and is at all times navigable by the cascos, large native cargo boats which carry on enormous traffic between the city and the lake. Hitherto the rivers of the Archipelago have been the principal inland channels of trade, owing to the almost total absence of railroad and the impassa- bility of most highways during the rains. Whilst these waterways will always afford convenient and economical means for the movement of native pro- duce, with the development of the islands and the completion of projected transportation facilities much of the traffic must be diverted to the railway ; indeed, the path of the locomotive will necessarily conform to the general direction of the principal rivers. There is hardly a province of Luzon but has a wealth of resources of varied descriptions ; many, per- haps most, of them quite undeveloped. One may hazard the prediction that under a liberal policy of government and with the aid of American capital and enterprise, this island is destined to become one of 32 THE PHILIPPINES the most productive and prosperous regions of its size in the world. At present we will take only a cursory view of the several provinces, with special regard to their eco- nomic condition and possibilities, leaving more par- ticular consideration of the principal resources and industries for another portion of the volume. CAGAYAN AND ISABELA. These provinces are the main field of tobacco cul- tivation. The entire district is extremely fertile. Hon. William H. Taft, writing in 1901, said: "The enormous capacity for development of this valley, which includes the provinces of Cagayan and Isa- bela, can hardly be exaggerated. It is a common thing for the natives to use their land seven or eight months in the year for tobacco and then to derive two successful crops of corn in the four or five re- maining months of the year. There are some very large haciendas owned by tobacco companies, but after Spain ceased to conduct her monopoly of the tobacco business, she divided up much of the tobacco land among the tenants, and there are now in both provinces a great number of small holders working their own land, and the great business of the valley is tobacco buying." The district is traversed by a wagon road, with an extensive system of branches connecting the most important towns in the provinces. This highway is ILOCOS NORTE. 33 an integral portion of the trunk road which extends from Aparri to Manila, taking a route which will be followed by one of the proposed new railroads. Al- most all the main roads of the island are paralleled by telegraph lines. ABRA, LEPANTO-BONTOC, AND NUEVA VIZCAYA. These provincial divisions comprise a region which is in a somewhat backward condition, due largely to physical conditions unfavorable to the successful pur- suit of agriculture. Despite the extremely rugged character of its surface, Abra has a considerable area of rich alluvial soil in the valleys which yields its scant population bountiful returns for their tillage. The province is enclosed on every side by a barrier of impassable mountains, and the only outlet is along the bed of the river. The other two provinces in this group are even less promising from an agricul- tural outlook, but they may in the future achieve a considerable degree of prosperity by reason of their mineral resources. Lepanto-Bontoc is extremely rich in copper of a high grade. At one time the mines of Mancayan produced about five hundred tons of metal annually. ILOCOS NOKTE, ILOCOS SUE AND LA UNION. A narrow strip along the northern portion of the west coast encloses the above named provinces. It is a fertile region, in which extensive crops are raised, 3 34 THE PHILIPPINES. including wheat and other products of the temperate zone. The inhabitants are amongst the most pro- gressive and industrious in the Philippines. Whilst the men are engaged in agriculture, fishing, and rais- ing live stock, which is one of the chief industries of the section, the women are occupied in spinning and weaving various fabrics that find an export market. There is a highway commencing in the extreme north and following the coast through the entire length of these provinces. It forms a connection with the Manila-Dagupan Railway and is the pro- posed route of the extension of that line to Laoag, the capital of Ilocos Norte. The progress of this, one of the most productive districts of Luzon, was prevented by internecine Avar- fare until the Spaniards brought it under subjection in the first half of the nineteenth century. In the past fifty years its population has increased several fold. BENGTJET. Benguet is to the Americans in Manila what "the hills" are to the English in India. The entire area has an exceptional altitude which gives it a climate similar to that of the northern part of the Temperate Zone. The maximum temperature is 75 2' F. and the minimum 46 4' F., giving a mean of 62 6' F. The scenery is beautiful and the water excellent and abundant. The qualifications of the dis- PANGASINAN. 35 trict for a health resort were long since appreciated by the Commission, and it was determined to establish a sanatarium at Baguio. An extension of the railroad from Dagiipan will afford ready access to the place. The crops of the Temperate Zone are successfully cultivated here, and it is believed that the physical conditions are especially favorable to the growth of tea and coffee. The province is rich in minerals. Copper mines have been profitably worked by natives at Baguio, Tavas, and Sudab. Gold, iron, and coal are also found in different localites. Oak, narra, molave, and other valuable trees are numerous, besides extensive areas of pine. PANGASINAN. This is a well-watered province capable of great development in several directions. The chief prod- ucts are rice, sugar and wine. The building of boats is an important industry, for which the favorable coast and abundance of suitable wood afford excep- tional facilities. Superior physical conditions exist for the cultivation of indigo, chocolate, and coffee, but little attention is paid to these profitable products at present. The Chinese enjoy a practical monopoly of the trade of this province. The Chinese element has been prominent in Pangasinan, Pampanga and Bulacan for two hundred years. Pangasiuan is rich in minerals. Its name is de- 36 THfe PHILIPPINES rived from the extensive salt deposits. The Igorrotes of the mountains extract gold and copper by their crude methods. Rich lodes of iron and magnetite in a pure state are known to exist. The only railroad at present operating in the islands has one of its termini at Dagupan on the Gulf of Lingayen. The road runs through the prov- ince of Pangasinan and continues nearly due south to its terminal at Manila, the total length being about 125 miles. ZAMBAL.ES. A somewhat backward race with turbulent tenden- cies inhabits Zambales. Although the industrial con- dition of the province is not promising, it offers great opportunities for development under more favorable circumstances. The soil is capable of yielding the most desirable crops of the Archipelago. Copper and coal mines are in operation at Agno and near San Isidro. There are indications of iron in the moun- tains of the north and in those of the south. The forests are unusually rich in valuable woods and gums. Amber is found in large quantities along the coast. This is a commodity which, owing to increas- ing scarcity, is constantly enhancing in value. The development of this promising province was for a long time retarded by the periodical inroads of the Moro pirates. During the last century emi- gration has combined with immunity from disturb- PAMPANGA. 37 ance to produce a multiplication of more than six- teen in the population. BATAAN. The province is a peninsula forming the eastern boundary of Manila Bay. It is almost entirely cov- ered by mountains. The chief product is rice. Build- ing-wood and ships' timbers are exported to Manila. There are quarries of valuable marbles in the moun- tains and probably rich mineral deposits. TAKLAC. Tarlac has good road and river communication be- tween its own towns and those of the neighboring provinces. Rice and sugar-cane are the principal products. There are no mechanical industries with the object of trade. The forests should be a source of great future wealth to the province. They contain large stands of the most valuable trees, including narra, ipil, and molave, and the facilities for lum- bering are exceptionally good. The province offers no opportunities for mining, and in this respect it resembles its neighbor, Pampanga. PAMPANGA. Pampanga province is in a highly prosperous con- dition owing to the industry of its people, the fer- tility of its soil, and the extent of its transportation facilities. It has good road and river communica- 38 THE PHILIPPINES. tion and, which is of the greatest importance, it is intersected by the railroad. The delta of the Pampanga River affords a rich area for the cultivation of rice, with the necessary facilities for irrigation. Rice is the main crop, and it is exported in great quantities. The forests are disappearing as tillage extends, and the grazing grounds, which formerly afforded occupation to a considerable proportion of the popu- lation, are giving out. On the other hand, the fish- eries and mechanical industries show a marked de- velopment in recent years. There are several hun- dred stone mills in the province and more than six hundred sugar factories, about one-third of them be- ing worked by steam and hydraulic power. NUEVA ECIJA. Nueva Ecija is, thanks to the great productiveness of its soil, a highly prosperous province. Seventy- five miles of the Pampanga run within its boundaries, which also embrace more than forty distinct tribu- taries of that river. The Pampanga and its branches support a great traffic in the products of this district. There is a network of good roads in the province. The soil is to a considerable extent alluvial and every- where fertile. It is capable of producing any of the staple crops of the island. In the centre of the prov- ince is an extensive depression, subject to inundation. This makes the best possible paddy-land, and is de- BULACAN. 39 voted chiefly to the raising of rice, which constitutes the principal product of the district. Of this grain over 30,000,000 of quarts are exported annually. Corn is raised in large quantities, and the cultivation of tobacco and sugar receives considerable attention. The central portion of the province contains excellent pasture where the greater part of the cattle for the Manila market is fed. BTTLACAW. Bulacan embraces the greater part of the delta of the Painpanga. It is a highly productive and densely populated district. The entire province, which, with the exception of a small portion on the east, is flat and well-watered, produces rich crops under the care- ful cultivation of the Tagalog inhabitants. Coal, iron, and copper exist in abundance and amongst other minerals, gold and silver are found. The mountains are covered with trees of commercial value, including some of the species most prized by the cabinet-maker. The great vegetable and mineral wealth of Bula- can is supplemented by ample transportation facili- ties. It has communication with Manila by road, rail, and steamer. Most of the rivers are navigable by the native cargo boats, and good wagon roads con- nect it with the adjacent provinces. Bulacan has an extensive industry in the manufac- ture of fabrics. Its p'ma cloth has a world-wide 40 THE PHILIPPINES. reputation. The fibre from which it is produced is extracted from the leaf of the pineapple. It is woven into a very beautiful silk-like textile which commands a high price in the Philippines and is finding favor in Europe. Bulacan and Pampanga have been prosperous prov- inces since early times. Father Zuniga, one hundred years ago, found their rivers laden with the produce of the countryside which reached Manila by way of the bay. EIZAL. A consolidation of the former province of Manila, excluding the capital city, and the district of Morong, has formed the new province of Bizal. The princi- pal products of the land are rice, sugar-cane, corn, and tobacco. The chief industries are the manufac- ture of lime, rush mats, and native clothing, and sugar-making, and quarrying. The province has, of course, exceptional facilities for the distribution of its output. LACUNA. The province extends along the east and south shores of Laguna de Bay, from which it derives its name. It has an extensive river system which thor- oughly irrigates the whole of its area. The highways of the province are good and it has convenient and economical communication with Manila from vari- ous points on the lake via the Pasig River. CAVITE. 41 Laguna is a populous and prosperous province. Its soil and climate favor the growth of all the tropical plants of the Archipelago. An exceptionally large proportion probably as much as one-fourth of its land area is under cultivation. The staple products are sugar-cane, rice, corn, cotton, cocoanuts, tobacco, indigo, and various vegetables. Fruits in great variety and quantity are raised and their shipment to Manila constitutes an important element of the trade of La- guna. The raising of live-stock is also an industry of consequence. There are several hundred factories en- gaged in the extraction of oil and the distillation of wine from the cocoanut. Amongst other industries, the manufacture of bolo's and of furniture deserve mention. Laguna has no considerable endowment of mineral or forest resources, but its busy population will al- ways find ample scope for their industry in agricul- tural pursuits. CAVITE. Cavite gains a great deal of importance from the fact that its capital, the town of the same name, is the naval headquarters of the Philippines. The inlet upon which it stands affords the best anchorage in the Bay of Manila and is the refuge of ships during severe storms. The province has a frontage of thirty miles along the bay. The inhabitants of the littoral are engaged 42 THE PHILIPPINES. in the extensive cultivation of rice, in fisheries, and in the manufacture of salt. The output of all these industries is exported to Manila. Rice and sugar are extensively grown in the interior, where pastoral pursuits also engage a large number of the people. BATANGAS. Batangas has three or four excellent harbors and a good system of roads, many of which, however, are, owing to the preponderance of clay in the soil, im- passable for wagons in the rainy season. The prov- ince contains more towns of a considerable population than any other province in the islands. This district is one of the most fertile and well-developed in Luzon. The output of coffee and sugar is very large. Rice, hemp, chocolate, and other products of agricul- ture help to swell an important export trade. Live stock is also raised extensively, the Batangas breed of horses being widely celebrated. At various points in the province are mineral springs whose waters have remarkable curative properties and are found to be efficacious in a great variety of diseases. Abundance of commercial timber stands in the mountainous districts, and the facilities for market- ing it are unusually good. This is but one of several fields which Batangas offers for the profitable invest- ment of capital. The population almost entirely Tagalog is civ- ilized, progressive, and industrious. Every hut con- TAYABAS. 43 tains one or two looms, from which the women turn off a variety of fabrics of the finest texture and the brightest hues. TAYABAS. By act of the Philippine Commission, 1902, the long and narrow strip along the east coast compos- ing the districts of Principe and Infanta, and in- cluding the island of Polillo, was annexed to, and incorporated with, the province of Tayabas. The attached region is in great part mountainous wilder- ness, extensive portions, particularly in Principe, be- ing impenetrable. Its meagre population ave^ag- ing about one to the square mile consisting of wild or semi-civilized tribes, subsist mainly by fishing and hunting. In the vicinity of the five or six small towns agriculture of a primitive sort occupies a few of the inhabitants. The people of this region have made no increase in numbers and hardly any progress toward civilization in the centuries which have elapsed since the Spaniards first landed upon Luzon. The earliest accounts of this Pacific coast and its inhabitants might almost serve for a description of to-day. Coal is found in the Island of Polillo, but owing to the difficulties of transportation it is not mined. The forests abound in a variety of timber of economic value, and there is good ground for the belief that the mountains are rich in mineral deposits, but the difficulty of marketing any products will 44 THE PHILIPPINES. prove a hindrance to the development of the district for many years to come. Tayabas proper has a very mountainous surface. Its coast-line affords good anchorage at several points, and the province is in water communication with all the ports of the Archipelago. Tayabas is traversed by the great highway and telegraph line which, commencing at Sorsogon in the southeast of Luzon, passes through the provincial capitals, Albay, Nueva Caceres, Lucena, Santa Cruz, and so to Manila. Notwithstanding the rugged character of its area, Tayabas affords its inhabitants ample opportunity for the pursuit of agriculture. The mountain ranges slope to the coast in well-watered terraces, whose fer- tile soil yields large crops of rice, sugar cane, and coffee. Lumbang is a specialty of the district. It is a seed from which a peculiarly oleaginous sub- stance is obtained. The forests contain a great variety of useful hard- woods as well as -wax, gums, and resinous substances, in which there is an important export trade to foreign countries. Indications of coal have been marked in various parts of the province. The island of Alabat, off the north coast, contains veins of excellent coal in the vicinity of Sanguinin on its northwest side. The facilities for shipping should make mining at this spot an attractive proposition. AMBOS CAMARINES. 45 The people manufacture a great variety of useful articles for export and several kinds of native fabrics. The towns along the shore of Tayabas Bay have boat-building yards from which cascos, paraos, and other kinds of native craft are turned out. AMBOS CAMARINES. Ambos Camarines has several fine roads connecting the principal towns and marts of commerce. The pro- jected new railroad system of the Philippines in- cludes a line to run from Nueva Caceres, the capital of the province, to the town of Albay, with a branch from each point to the coast. Within a radius of ten miles from the capital are eleven towns of im- portance, between which communication is main- tained by means of excellent highways. The Bicol River, by reason of its superior navigability, is one of the most important inland waterways of Luzon. Steamers drawing eleven feet may go up to Nueva Caceres, twenty-five miles from the ocean. Steam vessels of the lightest draft may go as far as the head of Lake Bato, seventy miles from the mouth, whilst, at certain seasons, native boats can penetrate to Polangui, in the province of Albay. Ambos Camarines contains extensive areas of fer- tle land, from which are produced an excellent quality of rice, chocolate superior to that of the Moluccas, and sugar cane. The peninsula south of and includ- ing this province is one of the principal hemp dis- 46 THE PHILIPPINES. tricts of the Archipelago. Large quantities of the fibre are exported from Ambos Camarines, whilst a considerable amount is consumed by the local looms, which convert it into sinamay and guimaras. A variety of mechanical industries afford employ- ment to a large proportion of the inhabitants. There are numerous sugar mills, hemp presses, refineries, and distilleries, besides the factories of metal workers and tool makers. The forests are particularly rich in woods of great utility, and the by-products, such as resin, pitch, and wax, are numerous and abundant. Ambos Camarines is regarded as one of the most important auriferous regions in the Philippines. Gold, silver, iron, lead, and copper are worked on the north coast. Mr. Drasche, a well-known German geologist, has reported rich quartz veins at Mambulao, which, at the time of his inspection, in 1875, were being worked by seven hundred natives. At Para- cale there are parallel quartz veins in granite, one twenty feet in width, the ore from which assays thirty- eight ounces to the ton. Quicksilver is found at Isa- rog and coal near Caramuan. In the vicinity of Daet, on the northern coast, are several gold mines. Near Sogod is an extensive layer of coal similar to the Australian product. In the southern part of the province there are mines of pit coal and quarries of marble and gypsum. ALBAY. 47 The continuation of the peninsula to the south forms the province of Albay. In general the dis- trict is rugged and volcanic. Near its east coast Mayon rises in solitary beauty from an extensive plain. Albay has numerous waterways and good roads forming connections between all the important towns and villages. Legaspi and Tabaco are ports of entry from which the immense hemp output of the province is shipped to Manila. An idea of the ex- tent of this trade may be conveyed by the statement that at Legaspi alone $1,000,000 changes hands every thirty days. The surface of Albay is admirably adapted to the cultivation of hemp, or abaca, as it is called in the islands. The plant thrives on mountain- ous slopes where it may get plenty of moisture with good drainage, ample shade, and a fertile soil. Albay contributes about one-fourth of the total hemp export of the Philippines, the value of which in the last twelve years has averaged upwards of $18,000,000. In addition, a considerable quantity of the product is devoted to home consumption in the manufacture of fabrics, cordage, etc. PROSPERITY OF ALBAY. The production of oil from the cocoanut is an im- portant industry. As an index to the prosperity of Albay and the two contiguous provinces it may be stated that their population has increased more than seventeenfold in 48 THE PHILIPPINES. the past two hundred and fifty years. The hemp trade has been a predominating factor in this increase. Native boats, including sails, rigging, etc., are made in the coast towns. A great number of the craft are engaged in the coastwise trade, carrying hemp from the numerous villages along the shore to the sea- ports, where it is baled and shipped. Coal mining is carried on to a considerable extent, and there are indications of gold, silver, and iron in commercial quantities amongst the summits of the eastern coast-range. The forests contain great stands of valuable trees, but they may be only sparingly felled, since extensive shade is essential to the successful cultivation of the hemp plant. SORSOGON. Sorsogon, the southernmost district of Luzon, is particularly favored in the matter of good harbors. That in which the port of Sorsogon stands is one of the best in the Archipelago. The shores of this gulf are well cultivated and populous, and a large traffic is carried on by water between its towns. The population of the province is largely engaged in the hemp industry, and in the production of copra, the dried meat of the cocoanut, from which the oil is expressed. Both of these commodities are shipped in great quantities. The presence of abandoned mines of gold, silver, RAILROAD EXTENSION. 49 iron, and coal, indicate extensive workings in former times, and it is believed that the operations might be resumed with profit. RAILROAD EXTENSION. The commercial development of the Archipelago and the general welfare of its people will be greatly advanced by the extensive railroad system, for the construction and operation of which contracts were made by the Philippine Commission in 1905. The immediate effect will be to double, and treble, the commerce of certain sections where almost limitless products need only transportation facilities to find ready markets. In Luzon it is proposed to extend the Manila-Dagu- pan line northward along the coast to Laoag. A branch will run from San Fabian, near Dagupan, to Baguio, the capital of Benguet province, and the site of the government sanatorium. Southward from Manila the line will be prolonged to the town of Ba- tangas. This extension will skirt the west shore of Laguna de Bay, and a branch will continue round the southern end of the lake to Santa Cruz. Another branch will connect Lipa, Batangas province, with Lucena, on Tayabas Bay. The portion of the system destined to traverse the hemp belt of the southeastern peninsula has already been mentioned. 50 THE PHILIPPINES. MARINDUQUE. Marinduque, although less than seven hundred square miles in extent, is an island of considerable commercial importance. It is almost circular in shape and has the prevailing mountainous character- istics. The greater part of its population of about 50,000 Tagalogs is found in the towns, of which Boac, the capital, is the largest and most important in every respect. The island has a large export trade, es- pecially in rice, copra, and hemp. Marinduque has excellent facilities for stock raising, and that indus- try is pursued to a moderate extent. The island is distant only ten miles from the mainland of Luzon. THE ISLAND OF MINDOKO. Mindoro lies immediately south of the province of Batangas. It is one hundred miles long by sixty at its broadest part, and has an area of about 3,500 square miles. Its mountain range runs through the middle of the island and traverses its entire length. In Mt. Halcon the range attains an elevation of 8,800 feet. The island is, for the most part, covered with forests of useful trees. The valleys, copiously watered by exceptionally great rainfall and numerous streams, contain extensive stretches of the best kind of graz- ing land. The central portion of the island is a large plain of this description. There are a few civilized settlements on the coast, but the inland districts are MASBATE. 51 inhabited by the wild tribe of Manguianes, or "savage mountaineers." Mindoro has extensive stretches of highly fertile coast land that are unoccupied save for a little ham- let here and there. This is due to the fact that dur- ing many generations the island was ravaged by the Moro pirates, who at the beginning of the nine- teenth century had almost depopulated it. THE VISAYAN GKOUP MASBATE. Masbate, with its dependent islands, form the north- ernmost province of the Visayas. The island occupies a position in the latitudinal center of the Archipelago, and about eighty miles east of the axis of longitude. The surface of Masbate is very broken and moun- tainous, but in the west and southeast portions there are extensive and well-watered grazing grounds. There are several good harbors and a number of streams of considerable size. The staple products are cotton, chocolate, sugar- cane and hemp. The island has long been famous for its herds of cattle and for its horses and hogs. The grazing industry has increased largely since the American occupation, but Masbate, like almost every other island of the Archipelago, suffered se- verely from the recent visitation of rinderpest. Nor- mally the island will ship in the course of a year from twelve to fifteen thousand head of cattle to Manila, be- sides supplying other parts of Luzon and Negros with 52 THE PHILIPPINES. numerous carabao. An important industry is the manufacture of sugar sacks and palm mats for export. X umbers of the inhabitants are engaged in collecting the by-products of the forests, in fishing, hunting, and weaving. A fine quality of lignite is found upon the island, and gold is washed from the sands of the rivers. SAMAE. Samar, the chief of the Visayan Group, is the third in size of the islands of the Archipelago, having an area of 5,000 square miles. It lies about ten miles off Sorsogon, from which it is separated by the Strait of San Bernardino. The island has a very irregular surface, but there are no great elevations. The coast line is extremely broken and is fringed with islets and reefs, making approach difficult, especially upon the eastern side. Samar has several rivers of considerable length, but they are all very shallow and beset with rocky obstructions, so that navigation is limited to native boats. In connection with the present railway improvements, a line will be constructed to cross the island from Paranas, about midway of the west coast, to San Julian, almost directly opposite, upon the east coast. Physical and climatic conditions in Samar are favorable to the production of all the staple crops of the Archipelago. The output of- hemp, sugar, rice, and copra is very large. The island is said to be rich in coal and other minerals, but the BOHOL. 53 hostility of the natives in the interior has hitherto been a bar to satisfactory exploration. LEYTE. Leyte belongs to the Visayas and is situated to the southwest of Samar, from which it is separated by less than half a mile of water. Its length is one hun- dred and twenty miles and its utmost breadth fifty miles. The greater part of the island is broken up by groups of mountains and volcanic cones. One continuous range of hills traverses its entire length. Leyte has several fine bays and harbors, and three or four rivers of commercial consequence, including the Binahaan, which permits of cascos going up to Da- gami, an important town, fifteen miles from the coast. The railroad is planned to extend from Tacloban, on the northeast coast, to Casigara, upon the bay of that name ; in a southerly direction the line will run from Tacloban to the town of Abuyog. The population of about 300,000 consists of Yisay- ans almost exclusively, and their language is the cur- rent dialect. Leyte is one of the most highly culti- vated of the Philippine Islands. The chief product is hemp, of which the quality is excellent. Sugar and live stock are important exports from the island. BOHOL. Bohol, of the Visayas, lies between Leyte and Cebu. It has a length from east to west of about sixty miles 54 THE PHILIPPINES. and a breadth of about forty miles. Nowhere are there any great elevations. The southern half of the island is hilly, but in the north the land is level, or undulating, seldom reaching a height of one thousand feet. The outline of Bohol is unusually simple, but the northern and eastern coasts are rendered diffi- cult of approach by reefs. The island is without a harbor of consequence. There are four or five rivers in Bohol that are navigable by large native cargo boats. The population is notable for its industry. The soil is not particularly favorable to agriculture, but a large quantity of vegetable produce is raised by careful tillage. The chief mechanical industries are the weaving of textiles from cotton and pineapple fibre. CEBIT. Cebu occupies a central position amongst the south- ern members of the Visayan Islands. It is a narrow strip of land, one hundred and forty miles in length, lying between Bohol and Negros. The Cordillera Central range of mountains runs the entire length of the island and bisects it in almost equal parts. Whilst this range nowhere attains an altitude much in excess of two thousand feet, it is difficult of passage and forms a serious obstacle to communication be- tween the coasts. Its entire length only affords about half a dozen easy cross routes. Cebu has no navigable rivers. Its appropriation This is the family of an educated and wealthy Visayo. The type differs very little from the Tagal of the same class. The picture affords excellent illus- trations of the native costume. From Stereograph Copyright, by Underwood & Underwood, New York. NEGROS. 55 in the new railroad system contemplates a line run- ning north from the city of Cebu to Danao on the east coast, and south from Cebu to Argao on the same coast. In addition there may be constructed a line across the island from Carcar, or Sibonga, to the west coast, and thence along the coast between Dumanjug and Barili. The province, which embraces a few small adjacent islands, is the most populous in the Archipelago, having 600,000 inhabitants : that is, 337 to the square mile, a density unapproached by any other of the Philippine Islands, which have an average of sixty- seven to the square mile. The city and port of Cebu has an excellent harbor. It is, next to Manila and Iloilo, the largest municipality in the islands. Cebu exports hemp, sugar, and copra in large quanti- ties and raises a great deal of rice, mainly for local consumption. The principal manufactures are sugar, salt, pottery, sacks, and various fibre fabrics. NEGEOS. Negros, one of the Visayas, is situated between Cebu and Panay. It is nearly as large as Samar and in form somewhat resembles Leyte. A con- tinuous mountain range, embracing several peaks exceeding six thousand feet in height, traverses the island from end to end. Negros is almost entirely encircled by a broad belt of coast land, which is par- ticularly well adapted to sugar raising. This is the 56 THE PHILIPPINES. principal seat of that industry in the Philippines. It has been carried on here for forty years. Steam and hydraulic machinery is used in the process of extrac- tion. The fisheries are an important element in the industries of the island. Negros is deficient of good harbors, and most of its rivers are navigable only by lorclias, but the Pasig and Danao admit vessels drawing ten feet of water to a distance of ten miles from their mouths. The railroad will run from the harbor of Escalante, on the northeast coast, westerly, following the coast line to Himamailan. PANAY. Panay, the westernmost island of the Visayan group, has the shape of a rough isosceles triangle with its apex pointing in a southwesterly direction. Its equilateral lengths are one hundred miles and its base seventy-five miles. In area it is not far short of Negros and Samar. A range of mountains runs along the entire west coast and, from a point about midway, throws out a spur which traverses the island, terminating in the northeast corner. The eastern half of Panay contains large reaches of level and fer- tile land, intersected by numerous streams, l^one of the rivers of the island will accommodate any but the lightest craft. There are, however, many fine roads running coastwise between important trade cen- ters, but, owing to the difficulty of crossing the moun- PANAY. 57 tains in the interior, communication between the provinces is carried on solely by sea. Pan ay is one of the most populous of all the islands, its inhabitants numbering in the neighborhood of 800,000. It has several large towns and three important cities, namely, Antique, Capiz and Iloilo. The last ranks next to Manila amongst the commercial centers of the Philippines. It has a good harbor, and vessels draw- ing fifteen feet of water may safely approach the city at all seasons. The staple products are sugar-cane, rice, and copra. In 1892 the shipments of sugar from this island aggregated, the enormous amount of 354,934,482 pounds. In recent years the production has fallen off more than fifty per- cent., owing mainly to a decreased foreign demand. A large portion of Panay is exceptionally fine grass-land, on which live stock, chiefly carabao, is raised in large numbers. The horses of Iloilo are famed throughout the islands and are in constant demand. The mechanical industries are important. The ex- ports include the best quality of pina cloth, silk, cot- ton, hemp and other fabrics. The province of An- tique in particular is celebrated for the quality and quantity of its textile manufactures, which give em- ployment at the looms to upwards of twelve thousand women. Panay was noted for its beautiful homespun fabrics one hundred years and more ago. The projected railway will consist of a line running 58 THE PHILIPPINES. in a northeasterly direction from Iloilo and forking to the towns of Capiz and Bataan. The island has exceptionally great mineral re- sources, but they have not been scientifically worked. Deposits of quicksilver, gold, iron, and copper, are known to exist. There are indications of coal in sev- eral localities. Fine marbles, and a beautiful variety of tonalite, are quarried. Veins of gypsum and marl have been located, and petroleum and natural gas are reported. PAKAOUA. Paragua, or Palawan, stretches 275 miles north- west and southwest with a maximum width of twenty- five miles. It is inhabited almost entirely by wild tribes. It has no trade of consequence and hardly a town worthy of the name. The industries consist mainly of stock-raising and weaving of cloth for local use. The island contains a fair proportion of fertile land and some good grazing grounds. The forests abound in very valuable woods, and the physical con- ditions would be favorable to lumber operations by improved methods. MINDANAO. Mindanao approximates to Luzon in size, but with a greatly differing shape. The surface formation of the island is very irregular and diversified. A range of mountains skirts the whole of the east coast. Min- MINDANAO. 59 danao, like Luzon, contains two large valleys. That of the Agusan lies to the west of the eastern mountain range, from which the great Agusan river receives its supplies as it flows northward over a course of 240 miles to its mouth in Butuan Bay. Vessels with a six-foot draft may navigate the Agusan to a distance of twenty miles from its outlet, and light native craft go much farther. The river has several strong tributaries, some of which are of great utility to the natives as channels of traffic. The Agusan in its upper course drains Lake Lanao, the surface of which is 2,200 feet above sea level. On the south its shore rises abruptly to a plateau nearly one thou- sand feet above the lake. Several detached extinct volcanoes rise to heights varying from one to two thou- sand feet above the plateau. The lake is almost sur- rounded by mountains. The valley of the Agusan has a breadth of from forty to fifty miles, and is bounded on the west by a succession of ranges traversing the entire length of the island through its center and dividing its two great plains. These ranges are fre- quently broken, presenting many low and easy passes. The Rio Grande de Mindanao is the first river in length of the Archipelago. It rises in the northern part of the island, and after passing through the valley, to which it gives its name, discharges into the Bay of Illana, distant three hundred miles from its headwaters. It is navigable for small steamers as far as Lake Liguasan, a distance of about thirty 60 THE PHILIPPINES miles, and for boats drawing three and a half feet of water for fifteen miles higher. By blasting the rocks with which its bed is beset, a much more exten- sive channel would be freed to commerce. With the development of the island such an undertaking may prove of economic advantage, for the course of the stream is through a region rich in forest products, including rubber and gutta percha. The coast of Mindanao is not intricately indented like those of most of the Philippine Islands. Al- though it has several large bays, penetrating far inland, there are few good harbors. A range of mountains hugs the southern shores of the Zamboanga peninsula, and is continued in de- tached spurs along the coast to the Gulf of Davao. About thirty miles to the west of the port of Davao stands Apo volcano, the highest peak in the Archi- pelago. Its summit rises 10,311 feet above the level of the sea. "Looking at the volcano from Davao, or Samal, on a cloudless morning, there may be seen distinctly a wide space with small cones of sulphur, from which burst forth intermittent eruptions of white sulphurous vapors. This is a magnificent spec- tacle when, at sunrise, the sulphur mantle and cones are shining, and there then appears a sudden jet of vapors sometimes growing and growing until the white, fine cloud covers the whole spot, and even the summit of the volcano. Though Apo is well known to be active, there is no record of its eruptions. MINDANAO. 61 The Apo volcano-seismic center is one of the most active of the Archipelago; small seismic shocks are felt weekly if not daily ; very often a rumbling sound precedes the stronger shocks." With the exception of Mindoro and Paragua, Min- danao is the most sparsely settled of all the principal islands. It has a population of about half a million, which gives only about fourteen to the square mile. The towns are mainly situated upon the coast, and the banks of the larger rivers and great inland lakes. A considerable portion of Mindanao is terra incognita, and it is believed that extensive areas are practically uninhabited. Development might transform Mindanao into one of the wealthiest islands of the Archipelago. There is reason to believe that it contains rich deposits of gold and other valuable minerals. Its forests abound in the most desirable hardwoods, and its vegetable products only need exploitation to exceed those of any other island in the Philippines. Mindanao has the peculiar advantage of producing spices of several varieties and in great quantities. Live stock is raised extensively, but the production of chief commercial value is hemp, in the output of which the island ranks fifth amongst the various hemp sections of the Archi- pelago. Except in a limited way, for local purposes, the mechanical industries are not prosecuted in Min- danao. 62 THE PHILIPPINES. SULU. Sulu, or Jolo, is the chief island of the group of that name. It lies to the southwest of Mindanao. Sulu has a commercial and political importance quite incommensurate with its insignificant area. The scenery of the island is extremely beautiful, and it has a splendid climate. The soil is highly fertile and the greater proportion of the inhabitants are en- gaged in agriculture. There is a large extent of vir- gin forest composed mainly of trees of commercial value. There is some trade in the shipment of choice cabinet woods, but the chief exports are oyster pearls and mother-of-pearl shell. TAWI TAWI. This group of more than one hundred and fifty islands has an aggregate area of only 358 square miles. The principal island, Tawi Tawi, is 232 square miles in extent. The group forms part of the Sulu Archipelago. After the treaty of cession of the Philippine Islands had been made it was discovered that these islands lay six miles beyond the boundary limits. They were acquired by special convention and the payment of an extra gratuity to Spain. The inhabitants number less than twelve hundred. They are Moros, with no industries other than those of the simplest domestic character. During many centuries these islands have been a favorite resort of Malayan pirates. FAUNA. 63 The fauna of the Philippines, whilst in general re- sembling that of the neighboring Malayan islands, shows some marked differences from them. Borneo and Java have many more species than are to be found in the Philippines, which have but three repre- sentatives of the carnivora, but six species of deer, and only two of the monkey tribe. Rodents are scarce, but there are at least thirty varieties of bats. ANIMAL, LIFE. The carabao, few of which remain in a wild state, and the timarau, or antelope buffalo, are the only large mammals. The distribution of the fauna of the Archipelago is very remarkable. There are numerous species of animals which are found only in restricted localities. The timarau is peculiar to Mindoro. Porcupines are known only in Paragua and the Calamianes Islands. These two divisions also possess a number of birds which are not to be found elsewhere in the Philippines, although they are similar to Borneon species. The island of Balabac is the habitat of a curious animal little larger than a cat, but which in form is exactly like a doe.* Luzon contains 286 species of birds, 51 of which are not known in any other island. In Cebu, despite its proximity to Bohol on one side and to Negros on the * The TrayuJus RancMl. It is also found in Malacca and in Cochin China. Vide. Lucon et PalaouaJi, par Alfred Marche, Paris, 1887. 64 THE PHILIPPINES. other, there are nine species of birds not found else- where. Upwards of three hundred species of land birds exist in the Philippines. These include such game birds as duck, geese, snipe, plover, and quail. Crocodiles, snakes, and lizards are numerous and widely distributed. There is a small, chirping lizard which makes its home in the walls of houses and is regarded with a sort of superstitious favor by the natives. Pythons are to be found in many localities and are said to attain a length of forty feet. Whilst there are a great variety of insects, some of them exceedingly beautiful, insect life is not abundant numerically. There are comparatively few house flies, and, except about the marshy coast lands, mos- quitoes are nothing like the pest they become in most East Indian countries. The waters of the Archipelago harbor abundance of fish of various species, which form an important factor in the domestic economy of the natives. FLORA. In general the flora resemble those of Borneo, Su- matra, and Java. The principal features of the flora in their commercial aspects will be described else- where in connection with commerce and agriculture. The forests of the Archipelago are of enormous ex- tent and their product of incalculable value. Under conservative regulations, if these are not made so stringent as to discourage the investment of capital VEGETABLE PRODUCTS. 65 in lumber operations, the products of the forests should prove to be one of the chief factors in the pros- perity of the country. The Philippine Forestry Bureau reports 750 different kinds of wood brought to market during the year 1902, but this is probably far from representing the number of species avail- able for industrial purposes and domestic use under favorable conditions of operation. Under the Span- iards no scientific exploration of the forests was at- tempted. For some time past the Insular Forestry Bureau, under Captain G. P. Ahern, has been en- gaged in a systematic survey of the forest lands and a careful examination of species by experts. Climatic and other considerations are such that but for the interference of man these islands would be practically covered with trees, even up to the higher slopes of the mountains. As it is, two-thirds of the area of the Archipelago is occupied by almost virgin forest, the cleared regions being in the main centers of popula- tion, such as the coast districts and the great valleys of Luzon and Mindanao. VEGETABLE PRODUCTS OF COMMERCIAL VALUE. The principal vegetable products, in the order of their commercial importance, are abaca (hemp), to- bacco, sugar, copra, coffee, and rice. The chief hemp districts are the southeastern prov- inces of Luzon, the islands of Catanduanes, Samar, and Leyte. Abaca is practically a monopoly of the Philip- 66 THE PHILIPPINES. pines, for despite several efforts in different regions, this plant has not been successfully grown elsewhere. The main tobacco district is the valley of the Cagayan, in which an excellent variety of leaf is raised. It is believed by connoisseurs, familiar with the Cuban product, that with improved methods of cultivation, curing, etc., the Philippine leaf would compare favorably with any in the world, excepting, perhaps, the output of the Vuelta Abajo district of Cuba. Upwards of 20,000,000 pounds of leaf are shipped annually, most of it to Spain, and over 100,- 000,000 cigars. These go chiefly to China, Japan, and the East Indies. Sugar is produced in many provinces, but particu- larly in Pampanga, of Luzon, and the island of Ne- gros. The cane is raised in a very haphazard fash- ion, and the greater part of the product is extracted by the crudest methods. Nevertheless, the export averages about 200,000,000 pounds a year. The pos- sibilities for an extension of this trade under more favorable conditions are very great. Copra, the dried kernel of the cocoanut, is shipped in large quantities to France and other countries, where oil is expressed from it. Probably there is no vegetable product in the island the cultivation of which might be developed with greater profit. It is one of the few products which enjoy a commercial demand constantly equal to the entire supply. At present the industry is carried on in the most waste- VEGETABLE PRODUCTS. 67 ful and unintelligent manner and profits are allowed to accrue to the foreign manufacturer which should be retained by the cultivator. Coffee is grown in the provinces of Batangas, La- guna, Tayabas, and Cavite, of Luzon, and in parts of Mindanao. The Philippine article compares favor- ably with the products of Mocha and Java. At one time the annual crop amounted to about 14,000,000 pounds, but in recent years it has greatly diminished, owing to the destruction of the plants by a parasitic insect. Palay, or rice, of a good quality may be raised in most of the provinces of the islands. It is the chief food of the natives, who annually consume a quan- tity greatly in excess of what is produced in the islands. The fact has not necessarily an unfavorable economic significance. In many districts, as for instance in the hemp provinces, the inhabitants can devote their land and energies to the production of a more valuable crop. Still, it cannot be denied that the Philippines should import less and raise more of this staple. There was a time when rice was a great article of export from Manila. The other vegetable products of note are chocolate, corn, wheat, indigo, sesame, peanuts, and many varie- ties of garden vegetables. In Mindanao and Paragua cinnamon, nutmegs, cloves, mace and other spices grow, and there is a large field for the extension of their cultivation. 68 THE PHILIPPINES. The tea plant thrives in certain localities, and it is believed that the camphor tree might be introduced with success. MINERALS. There can be no doubt about the mineral wealth of the Philippines. It is probable that each island, and indeed almost every province, has rich deposits of one kind or another. Mining operations have never been sufficiently extensive to afford a satisfactory cri- terion of the profitability of that industry. There is sound ground, however, for the belief that with the increased working and transportation facilities that will soon be available the development of the mineral resources of the islands will yield large returns to investors. Coal in varying quality, from excellent to worthless, underlies a great part of the islands, deposits having been discovered in many provinces. Gold is distrib- uted over a large area and in some sections it has been worked from prehistoric times. It was doubtless ex- changed with the earliest traders, for the Chinese had a tradition that a mountain of the precious metal ex- isted in Luzon. Rich veins of copper have been dis- covered and worked to a very limited extent and in a primitive fashion. Iron is abundant on several of the islands, and natives have worked it in a crude man- ner into ploughshares and other implements. Lead, silver and other valuable metals are known to exist in CLIMATE. 69 various widely-distributed localities, but the scientific exploration of the mineral resources is only just beginning under the direction of the United States Geological Survey and that of the Mining Bureau of the Philippine government. CLIMATE. The entire Philippine Archipelago lies within the Torrid Zone. Its climate therefore is in general tropical, but there are portions of the island to which the statement cannot be strictly applied. Not only are there great climatic differences amongst the vari- ous islands, but in those of the larger class the cli- matological conditions of the eastern coasts are dis- tinctly different from those in the interior and on the western coasts of the same islands. Such is the case in Luzon, Samar, Leyte, Mindanao, Panay, and Mindoro more particularly in the last three and other islands whose greatest length similarly extends from east to west. The year is popularly divided into three seasons: (1) November, December, January, and February, when it is dry and temperate, the monthly mean tem- perature oscillating between 25 C. and 26.5 C. ; (2) March, April, May, and June, the hottest period of the year, the monthly mean ranging from 27.5 C. to 28.5 C. ; (3) July, August, September, and Octo- ber, which is an intermediate period, the mean fluc- tuating between 26.5 C. and 27.5 C. 70 THE PHILIPPINES. The climate is a perpetual summer, with a tempera- ture varying but little. There is a great deal of humidity, stimulating to vegetable life, but enervat- ing to human beings. It rains on an average two hundred days in the year. The mean heat in Luzon is about 81 Fahrenheit. The rainy season lasts for about six months, beginning the middle of April in the greater part of the islands, but on the coasts washed by the Pacific, the order of the wet and dry seasons is reversed. In general the hottest period is during the months of March, April, and May, except on the Pacific littoral, where the greatest heat is experienced during June, July, and August. The thermal map of the Archipelago supports the following classification, omitting notice of localities which are necessarily affected by unusual altitude : First. Regions of high temperature. The great valley of the Cagayan ; the west coast as far south as the Bay of Manila ; the plains of Pangasinan ; the eastern portion of Tarlac and the western part of Nueva Ecija ; the lowlands of Pampanga and Bulacan; the northern coast of Tayabas and Am- bos Camarines; the entire southeastern peninsula, with the exception of Sorsogon ; the northern part of the Island of Panay. Second. Regions of intermediate temperature. That portion of the province of Pampanga that bor- ders upon Zambales, and Bataan ; the uplands of Bula- can ; the province of Rizal ; the northern and eastern CLIMATE. 71 sections of Bataan ; Manila, and its eastern vicinage ; the west coasts of Samar, Negros, Panay, and Bohol ; the island of Cebu, and the peninsula of Zamboanga. Third. Regions of mild temperature. The east coast of the province of Sorsogon ; the greater part of the eastern Visayas (Samar, Leyte and the ad- jacent islands) ; the peninsula of Surigao; the east coast of Mindanao; the entire Sulu Archipelago. THE INHABITANTS. II. THE INHABITANTS. Negrito Characteristics The Malays at Home Malay Inva- sion of the Philippines Early Malay Occupation Le- gaspi's Opinion of the Natives Modern Estimates of the Filipino An Effort to Reconcile Differences of Opinion The Non-Christian Malays The Moros The Growth of Population. The aborigines of these islands are the Negritos, or Aetas, of the mountains, who, under various local designations, are found widely scattered over the Archipelago to the number of about 30,000. Doctor Barrows says: "The origin of these little people is unsolved, but even in historic times we know that they were more widely distributed, if not more numer- ous, than now, and the occurrence of the same little type in the Malay Peninsula and on the Andaman Islands in the Indian Ocean leads to the inference that they were once in perhaps even continuous oc- cupation of the Malay Archipelago and the adjacent mainland from the Andaman Islands to the Philip- pines." Their resemblance to the Papuans has sug- gested the theory that New Guinea was their original habitat, but there is no substantial data to support the surmise. The Negritos are completely savage, and almost as isolated to-day as they were centuries ago. (75) 76 THE PHILIPPINES. They are much darker than the natives of Malayan descent, and many of them are quite black. They do not exhibit the Negroid cranial formation, but have the same cast of features, with "kinky" hair. They are pygmies the average height of their men being about fifty-six inches ill-formed and unmuscular, but supple and agile. Their intelligence is low. NEGRITO CHARACTERISTICS. They are deficient in courage and apparently have few attractive characteristics. All attempts at civil- izing them, collectively or individually, have failed, although in a few instances they have been domesti- cated. They live in small communities, subsisting on fish, roots, and such vegetables as may be raised with the least effort. Their utmost agricultural achievement consists in scratching the earth and casting seed, without taking the trouble to clear the ground. Their manner of life is characterized by makeshift methods consistent with their nomadic ten- dencies. They do not build houses, but for shelter use a kind of lean-to, made of cane and luatted leaves. Not infrequently they make raids into the plains and carry off the cattle of their more civilized neighbors. The costume of the men is restricted to an irreducible minimum of covering; that of the women consists, at most, of a string of beads and a loose cloth tied round the waist and reaching to the knees. The weapons of the Negritos are a bamboo spear, a club, NEGRITO CHARACTERISTICS. 77 and a bow, with sometimes poisoned arrows. Their religion, like that of all primitive people who live in forests and mountains, includes a belief in spirits, who take an active interest in the affairs of men, and the adoration of such natural phenomena as excite their wonder or apprehension. The moon is their principal deity. They have a great respect for old age and an awesome reverence for death. The Xegrito is not originally, nor by natural inclination, a hill- man. The advance of civilization has forced him into the fastnesses of the mountains. The earliest Malay immigrants found him in undivided posses- sion of the land. The newcomers, until their num- bers became great enough for resistance, lived in vassalage to the Xegritos and, at as late a period as that of the arrival of the Spaniards, there were com- munities of Tagalogs in Luzon paying tribute to the aboriginal inhabitants. Pure-blooded Xegritos still exist in different sec- tions, but their number is believed to be decreasing. Their mixture with the Malayan natives has generally resulted in an advance in mental and physical devel- opment. There are several hybrid races sprung from union of Malays and Xegritos. The most notable of these in Luzon are the Dumagas. They occupy the coun- try lying east of the Sierra Madre. The Dumagas who live in the vicinity of Christian villages are slightly removed from the savage state. 78 THE PHILIPPINES. The Mangyans, a Negrito-Visayan race, occupy nearly the entire interior of Mindoro Island and parts of Paragua. They engage in a primitive form of agriculture and collect forest produce, which is bar- tered with the Christians. These people have made a considerable advance from the state of the aborig- ines. Worcester, who appears to have been much im- pressed by the morality of the Mangyans, devotes a considerable portion of his book to a description of their customs, etc.* Doctor David P. Barrows, Chief of the Philippines Bureau of non-Christian Tribes, believes that, with the exception of the Negritos, all the tribes of the islands, whether Christian, Muhammadan, or pagan, are derived from the Malayan race. "We probably have," he says, "in these tribes, two types, which rep- resent an earlier and a later wave of immigration, but all came from the south, all speak languages belong- ing to one common stock, and all are closely related in physical type and qualities of mind. As represen- tative of the first migratory movement may be named the Igorot, the mountain head-hunters of Northern Luzon, and of the latter almost any of the present Christian, or Muhammadan tribes. The migratory period of this latter type is almost covered by the his- torical accounts of the exploration and settlement of the Far East." *The Philippine Islands. Dean C. Worcester. New York f 1899. Doctor I * Bureau sf i MANILA CATHEDRAL. This stately cruciform building is the most beautiful structure in Manila. In the foreground is a caromata, with Philippine " poney " and native hackman. From Stereograph Copyright, by Underwood & Underwood, New York. THE MALAYS AT HOME. 79 The Portuguese adventurers, who were first, of all white men, to reach Asia by sea, found the territory we call the Malay Peninsula and Archipelago inhab- ited by a people of Mongolian origin, who styled them- selves Malayu. They were short of stature, of a brown color, with black hair and prominent facial bones. They engaged in agriculture, had some trade, and displayed a tendency to seafaring. THE MALAYS AT HOME. A thousand years before the arrival of the Portu- guese the Archipelago had been invaded by the Hin- dus, who subjugated some of the islands and estab- lished in them the Brahmin religion. Traces of this Hindu occupation are to be found at the present day in the ruins of temples upon the island of Java. Later, the Arabs began to trade in this region and, following their invariable custom of proselyting wherever they went, converted large numbers of the inhabitants, and particularly the dwellers along the seaboard, to Islam. Before the advent of the Euro- peans, Muhammadanism had completely supplanted Brahmanism, but the influence of the Hindu occu- pation upon the language of the people is traceable to-day in the great proportion of w r ords of Sanskrit origin, and there is every reason to believe that the Malays owe a considerable advance toward civiliza- tion to the Hindu invasion. Sometime about the end of the thirteenth, or the 80 THE PHILIPPINES beginning of the fourteenth, century these Muhamma- dan "Sea Folk," as the inhabitants of the Malay Archipelago were called, made a settlement in the northwest section of Borneo, which was already peo- pled by tribes of .Malayan origin in a low state of development. From Borneo the Orang Salat (Sea Folk) advanced to the Sulu Archipelago and thence to Mindanao, to Mindoro, and the shore around Manila Bay. MALAY INVASION OF THE PHILIPPINES. The Muhammadan invaders found upon the islands, besides the Xegrito aborigines, another race of the same physical type as themselves and speaking a language which had the same root as their own. These were the descendants of an earlier, or per- haps of more than one, tide of Malay immigration. They occupied a much lower grade in the scale of cul- ture than did their Muhammadan kinsmen. They painted and tattooed their bodies and lived in nest- like houses in the trees. They were pagans and ate dog meat. At the beginning of the sixteenth century the. Ne- gritos were still a very numerous element in the popu- lation of the Philippines. The wild tribes of Malayan origin probably predominated over them in the Visayas and some of the southern islands. The Mu- hammadans were as yet numerically weak, but the tide of their immigration had fairly set in and they MALAY INVASION. 81 began from this time to come into the country in constantly increasing numbers, A boatload of these newcomers were the first natives with whom Magel- lan's expedition came in contact when they landed in the neighborhood of Samar. One Pigafetta kept a diary of this "first voyage around the world," from which we get the earliest description of the inhabi- tants of the island.* The vessels of Magellan visited several of the islands in the Archipelago south of Luzon, but did not touch there. Everywhere they found a very sparse population, and despite their offers of merchandise in exchange for provisions they were with difficulty able to secure enough food to stave off starvation. Cebu seems to have been one of the most populous and important centers. Ves- sels from far foreign parts came there for gold and slaves. The voyagers heard that a junk had departed thence to Siam just before their arrival and were told that the Chinese had been trading with the islands for centuries. "To the northeast," says Pigafetta, "is the island of Lozon, which is very great, to which go every year for the sake of traffic six or eight junks from the country of the Lechios," by which he probably meant one of the provinces of China, f At * Primer Viaje alrededor del Munda Spanish translation^ Madrid, 1899. f Some of the writers of the sixteenth century entertained a belief, for which there does not appear to have been any good ground, that the Philippines at one time constituted a colony of the Chinese Empire. Mendoza in his History of 6 82 THE PHILIPPINES. the island of Sulu the pearl fisheries, for which the locality is celebrated to-day, excited the interest of the Spaniards. On the coast of Mindanao they fell in with the curious "sea gypsies," -the Samal Laut, who frequent the same region at the present time and now, as then, form communities of boat-dwellers, moving from place to place with the changing seasons and conditions. They passed an island "whose in- habitants," says the chronicler, "are negroes like those of Ethiopia." This is the only mention he makes of the ISTegritos, who must, however, have been numerous inland of several of the islands touched at. EAKLY MALAY OCCUPATION. The three expeditions succeeding that of Magellan made no settlement in the islands and added hardly anything to the information we have regarding them. In 1565 Legaspi landed on the island of Cebu and, despite resistance, maintained his footing, with per- haps one hundred and fifty men, until reinforce- ments reached him three years later from Mexico. Legaspi then proceeded to the conquest of Panay, China (158(i) states that "these islands were formerly sub- ject to the King of China until he relinquished them volun- tarily." In "The Philippine Islands" (1609), De Morga said: "The Dutch Memorable Embassies states that the Spaniards subjected these islands almost without striking a blow, the inhabitants having forgotten the art of war, and almost renounced civil life since they shook off the Chinese Yoke. Since the Chinese had lost their dominion over these islands they had not ceased to trade with them," etc. EARLY MALAY OCCUPATION. 83 which was made the base from which the occupation of Mindoro and Luzon was effected. The most popu- lous portions of the Archipelago at this time were Cebu, Panay in the vicinity of Iloilo, the country about Manila Bay, and around Laguna de Bay, the valleys of the Pampanga and Bicol rivers, and the coast of Ilocos. Even in these sections, however, the inhabitants were very scanty, and the largest centers consisted of communities of only a few thousand souls under their independent chieftains, who still retained the Hindu title of raja. Tavera says, "these small groups were in many places known by the name of barangay, which is also the exact word used to de- scribe a small craft used by the indigines, and would therefore appear to indicate that the people forming each of these town groups were descendants of the crews of particular crafts since the time of their original immigration to these islands. The popula- tion of the various barangayes was in some cases not over fifty inhabitants and in others, as was ob- served by Selcedo in Ilocos, the number reached as high as seven thousand."* Slavery was universally maintained amongst these natives of Malay blood. * "The term baiangay, or boat, still applied to the villages, recalls the time when these mariners, encamping on the beach, continued to lead much the same life as when scour- ing the high seas in their praus. As was the case with the sampans, or junks, of the more recent Chinese settlers every baiangay became the cradle of a Malay colony." The Earth and its Inhabitants. Elisee Reclus. New York, 1892. 84 THE PHILIPPINES. There were different degrees of the condition, and it was created in a variety of ways. Prisoners of war, or persons secured by purchase, were absolute chattels. Others were held in perpetual service who might not be disposed of by their masters. A man sometimes entered into bondage as security for a loan, and in this case the creditor might transfer the debt and the security. One forfeited his freedom by trespassing upon the lands or dwelling of the chief, or by looking at the chief's wife. Slavery was some- times the penalty, by commutation from capital pun- ishment, for certain crimes, such as the seduction of the wife, or daughter, of a leading member of the community. Each resident, or perhaps family unit, of the barangay had a definite allotment of land. No mem- ber of the community might violate his neighbor's landrights, nor might the members of one barangay encroach upon the boundaries of another. Land might pass by purchase, gift, or inheritance, and in some instances the chief had acquired all the land of the barangay. Occasionally independent barangayes would form a confederation for mutual defense, or for co-opera- tion in some enterprise. They would then create a common chief by popular election, usually from one of the families in which that office was hereditary. The chief, who was called raja, or dato, acted as judge in all criminal trials and civil disputes. There EARLY MALAY OCCUPATION. 85 were certain recognized offenses and penalties, but nothing approaching to a code of laws. It was al- most always possible for the criminal to secure exemp- tion from other punishment by the payment of a compensatory fine to the injured person, or to the chief. A constant state of petty warfare existed. In addition to fights among themselves, the various com- munities, or federations, had to repel the attacks of ladrones and pirates and to hold in check the Negritos. As a rule only free men were engaged as warriors, but slaves were commonly employed as rowers in the sea fights. The arms used were lances, bows and arrows, and the famous Malay kris. For protection, helmets, and shields of wood and copper, were em- ployed, and breastplates of horn. In various locali- ties the Spaniards were opposed by natives using can- non. There was a foundry in Manila under the supervision of a Portuguese, or Hindu, where the cannon were cast. It is probable, however, that the art was learned from the Chinese. Legaspi, writing to the King of Spain (1570), regarding the Moros of Panay, says: "The latter have artillery, which they themselves cast and finish, and likewise powder and other ammunition. ... I send you two bronze culverins made by the Moros of this land, so that your Majesty may see what dexterity they possess in making and casting artillery." Money was unknown and crude gold was used as a substitute, but their trade was for the most part 86 THE PHILIPPINES. conducted on a system of barter in kind, that was, perhaps, better adapted to the economic condition of the bulk of the people. They had standard weights and measures derived from the Chinese, some of which are still in use. They held periodical fairs (an old-time institution of the Malays) at different points, to which the natives of neighboring districts resorted in their light draft boats, bringing the prod- uct of the field and the loom, as well as articles of ornament fashioned from gold, silver, copper, and mother-of-pearl. Some of the Malayan tribes had a primitive liter- ature. Their alphabet consisted of seventeen letters, three of which were vowels. Like the early Singalese, they employed the palm leaf in making their books. These, which doubtless contained valuable records of their history and customs, were unfortunately burned by the first missionaries, who deemed them an impedi- ment to the furtherance of the conversion of the islanders. The religion of the Malayan pagans seems to have been an idolatrous polytheism. They recognized three supreme deities, by whom all the affairs of life were ordered. There were a number of minor gods, or spirits of malevolent intent, who might, however, be propitiated on occasion. Each family worshipped the spirits of its ancestors, termed anitos, who were be- lieved to be capable of exerting a beneficial influence over the lives of their descendants. Anito idols, fash- EARLY MALAY OCCUPATION. 87 ioned from various materials, were part of the furni- ture of every home. A certain number of slaves were slain and buried with a man of consequence in order that he might have a proper retinue in the next world. The Visayans interred the slaves alive on these occasions in the belief that living attendants would be more pleasing to the deceased noble. Some- times slaves were killed and their spirits despatched to the master's ancestors for the purpose of pleading with them to remove from him some illness or calamity. The funeral ceremonies were feasts at which it was customary to dissipate in food and drink a consid- erable portion of the property left by the deceased. At these ceremonies, animals, and sometimes slaves, were sacrificed, and the priests performed war dances of the wildest character. The costume of men and women was similar, ex- cept that the latter wore cloth of a finer texture. It consisted of a loose shirt-like garment not unlike that worn by the up-country Filipino at the present time, reaching to below the loins, supplemented by a cloth hanging from the waist. It was their custom to go without head-covering. The apparel of the well-to-do was decorated with laces and embroidery, which the natives made with great skill. Men and women wore combs in their hair and adorned their bodies with ear and finger rings, bangles, necklaces, and anklets. The majority of the people went barefoot, but the upper class wore shoes, or slippers. It was consid- 88 THE PHILIPPINES. ered a mark of distinction to perforate the teeth and fill the holes with gold, and to file the incisors to a point. The latter practice still prevails among cer- tain wild tribes. Their houses, of bamboo and palm leaf thatch, were erected at a considerable height upon timber supports. A village was frequently built several hundred feet out in the water of a lake, or river, or upon the shore of the sea. It is from these people that the great body of Chris- tian and domesticated natives of the Philippines are descended. They are from the same Malayan stock as the Moro, but owing to differences of religion, en- vironment, manner of life and political condition, have developed diversified physical and mental char- acteristics. They are the "representative" people of the Archipelago, and to them the name "Filipino" is applied in a distinctive sense. LEGASPl's OPINION OF THE NATIVES. In 1565, after four years' residence in the islands, Legaspi wrote thus of the Malay natives of Cebu: "These people wear clothes, but they go barefooted. Their dress is made of cotton, or of a kind of grass resembling raw silk. . . . They are a crafty and treacherous race, and understand every- thing. . . . They are naturally of a cowardly disposition and distrustful, and if one has treated them ill, they never came back. . . . They are a LEGASPI'S OPINION OF THE NATIVES. 89 people extremely vicious, fickle, untruthful, and full of superstitions. 'No law binds relative to relative, parents to children, or brother to brother. No person favors another unless it is for his own interest. On the other hand, if a man, in some time of need, shelters a relative, or a brother, in his house, supports him and provides him with food for a few days, he will consider that relative as his slave from that time on and is served by him. . . . When these people give or lend anything to one another the favor must be repaid double, even if between parents and children, or between brothers. At times they sell their own children when there is little need or neces- sity for doing so. "Privateering and robbery have a natural attraction for them. Whenever the occasion presents itself they rob one another, even if they be neighbors, or rela- tives, and when they see, or meet, one another in the open fields at nightfall they rob and seize one another. . . Any native who possesses a basketful of rice will not seek for more, or do any further work until it is finished. Thus does their idleness surpass their covetousness. ... I believe that these natives could be easily subdued by good treatment and the display of kindness, . . . but if we undertake to subdue them by force of arms and make war on them they will perish and we will lose both friends and foes, for they readily abandon their houses and towns for other places, or precipitately disperse among 90 THE PHILIPPINES. the mountains and uplands, and neglect to plant their fields. . . . One can see a proof of this in the length of time it takes them to settle down again in a town which has been plundered, even if no one of them has been killed, or captured. . . . They easily believe what is told and presented forcibly to them. They hold some superstitions, such as the casting of lots before doing anything, and other wretched practices, all of which will be easily eradi- cated if we have some priests who know their lan- guage and will preach to them." The early descriptions of native character must be taken with a great deal of reserve. Indeed, nothing in the least approaching a general agreement upon the subject has ever been arrived at. When several witnesses in later times, who have enjoyed the ad- vantage of intimate contact with the native over a long term of years, reach materially differing, and often contradictory, conclusions, it is easy to believe that the earlier Spanish residents, whose opportuni- ties for close observation were much inferior, should have erred in their estimates. Furthermore, the point of view of the Spanish conquerors was entirely unfavorable to a right understanding. They had a fanatical belief in a divine mission and considered the islands a possession of their King by right of Papal gift. That the natives did not fall in with this idea was incomprehensible to them and created in their minds an adverse prejudice. LEGASPI'S OPINION OF THE NATIVES. 91 During the past four centuries of European in- fluence the character of the Filipino has doubtless improved in many respects, but the more recent writ- ers have depicted it in anything but a flattering light. The character of a people is always, to a considerable extent, a reflection of its government, and the history of the colony under Spanish dominion will afford many a key to the present traits and disposition of the Filipinos. Tomas de Comyn expresses this idea in his "State of the Philippine Islands" (1820). Referring to the Christian tribes, whom we now have under consideration, he says : "They are credulous and superstitious, cunning, yet of weak capacities, but possibly a great number of their defects may be attributed to their ignorance, want of civilization, and the bad administration of justice. They are, nevertheless, hospitable to stran- gers and, excepting in their robberies, piracies, and acts of public, and private, revenge, harmless in their manners. "Besides distance from the mother country and, as will be seen by their history, the dreadful misfor- tunes to which they have been so often exposed, the wavering and uncertain nature of the regulations in- tended for their government, the hostility of the European rivals (to one another), and the litigious spirit of the inhabitants themselves, as well as the unceasing lawsuits and dissensions to which this has 92 THE PHILIPPINES. given rise have been of most material injury to the colony." MODEEN ESTIMATES OF THE FILIPINO. Although the differences of opinion prevail at all periods among writers dealing with the Filipinos, it is noticeable that their strictures decrease with the advancing years and that their condemnation is more frequently tempered by the mention of redeeming features. Dean C. Worcester, at present a member of the Philippine Commission, writes as follows: "The native is a philosopher. He works when obliged to and rests whenever he can get an oppor- tunity. . . . From the very outset our servants stole from us. ... The Philippine native seems ever ready to kill his last fowl for a stranger or share with him his last pot of rice. . .. . On the whole I believe that they are fairly intelligent, and they are often most anxious for an opportunity to get some education. . . . They frequently lie with- out any excuse whatever, unless it be the aesthetic satisfaction derived from the exercise of their remark- able talent in this direction. When one of them is detected in a falsehood he is simply chagrined that his performance was not more creditably carried out. He feels no sense of moral guilt and cannot under- stand being punished for what is not to his mind an offense. . . . The Filipino certainly has many MODERN ESTIMATES OF THE FILIPINO. 93 good qualities to offset his bad traits. The traveler cannot fail to be impressed by his open-handed and cheerful hospitality. ... If cleanliness be next to godliness, he certainly has much to recommend him. Every village has its bath if there is any chance for one, and men, women, and children patronize it liberally. . . . Hardly less noticeable than the almost universal hospitality are the well-regulated homes and the happy family life that one finds to be the rule. Children are orderly, respectful, and obedi- ent to their parents. Wives are allowed an amount of liberty hardly equaled in any other Eastern coun- try, and they seldom abuse it. "The native is self-respecting and self -restrained to a remarkable degree. He is patient under misfortune, and forbearing under provocation. While it is stretching the truth to say that he never reveals anger, he certainly succeeds much better in controlling him- self than does the average European. . . . He is a kind father and a dutiful son. His aged relatives are never left in want, but are brought to his home and are welcome to share the best that it affords to the end of their days.* Among his fellows he is genial and sociable. He loves to sing, dance, and make merry. He is a born musician. . . . He * The testimony to the Filipino's hospitality and his re- gard for the welfare of his family and relatives is indisput- able, although in strong contrast to the statements of Legaspi and other early writers. 94 THE PHILIPPINES. is naturally fearless and admires nothing so much as bravery in others." AN EFFORT TO RECONCILE DIFFERENCES OF OPINION. Perhaps the differences of conclusion regarding the Filipino character, to which we have referred, are due in some measure to failure to allow for artificial, or acquired, characteristics in the cases of the Fili- pinos of the cities and large centers of civilization, who exhibit effects of long-continued and close con- tact with their European over-lords. A subject race which is doomed to occupy a position of hopeless in- feriority is more apt to acquire the vices than the virtues of its conquerors and is often forced in self- protection to adopt the natural safeguards of the weak prevarication, deception, treachery and the rest. Other characteristics of the native may be attribut- able, in degree at least, to the conditions of domina- tion under which they have lain for centuries. Perhaps the most universal characteristic of the native is his disregard for truth. This is a confirmed habit due to mental perversion, rather than to vicious impulse, or sinister calculation. The Filipino lies spontaneously, often without purpose, and always without any sense of wrong. This peculiarity is shared by the Chinese and other Orientals. In some cases, where falsehood is contrary to the religious doc- trine, justification is found for it, and, perhaps, priestly excuse extended, when it is used to confound THE TRUE FILIPINO. 95 the foreigner, or the oppressor. After all, this is only human nature in the raw. Until it is thoroughly understood, and allowance is made for inherent peculiarities, the character of an Oriental people cannot be fairly measured by Western standards, nor, since their reasoning is based upon conflicting principles, can one race judge the other with impartiality. The European verdict that "all Asiatics are liars" is true only from the view- point of the former. The underdog will generally lie for the sake of saving his hide, and Europeans under such conditions have frequently lied, indi- vidually and collectively. The early conquests of the white men have invariably been marked by bad faith toward the conquered, and the story of Spanish col- onization is certainly not less marred in this manner than that of any other nation. The Oriental is above all things exuberantly imag- inative ; he thinks in hyperbole and speaks in hyper- bole. The consequence is that the slow-blooded European, with his precise mental processes and lit- eral expression, is very apt to conceive deliberate deception where no such design is entertained. Even when the Oriental lies with forethought the animus behind the act is frequently harmless. It is often merely a resistless ebullition of his innate love of sub- tle processes or a desire to please his hearer. Such a mental condition is difficult of comprehension to the Anglo-Saxon with his inborn habit of directness in thought and speech. 96 THE PHILIPPINES. Laziness is another defect with which the native is justly charged, but here again it is not difficult to find extenuating circumstances. The energy of any people is measurable by the stimulus to exertion to which it is subject. The indolence natural to all in- habitants of the tropics has been encouraged in the Filipino by the knowledge that increased effort would entail an increase in his taxation, rental, and con- tribution to the Church, without commensurate ad- vantage to himself ; thus his ambition has been reason- ably limited to the accomplishment of a slight im- provement in his material comfort. Hitherto the Filipino has not had a sufficient incentive to exer- tion. With worthy objects for which to work; with the possibilities of social advancement and material betterment ; with opportunity for mental culture, and with the spread of education, may come, or rather surely will come, awakening of ambition and quick- ening of energy. It is not, however fortunately for the Western nations possible that a tropical peo- ple should exhibit the activity characteristic of the dwellers in temperate climes. The Filipino is not practical. He has no concern beyond to-day, and is apparently incapable of a sus- tained purpose, but when one surveys the environ- ment, and political and economic condition, of these people during the past centuries it is difficult to see how it could be otherwise Avith them. On the other hand the native is very susceptible to guidance THE TRUE FILIPINO 97 and is always willing, and frequently eager, to learn. Unlike the Chinaman, he has a humble estimate of his own mental powers, and never thinks to pit his own ideas against those of his European mentor. In- deed, the Filipino is a docile and a faithful pupil, and probably much of the condemnation of him as a la- borer is due to the fact that, in the hands of a Euro- pean master, he is prone to refrain from all initiative in action, and even thought, and to do precisely as he is told. It is more than likely that, if intelligent ad- vantage is taken of this tendency, the native appren- tice may be converted into a highly capable and satis- factory workman. He lacks originality, it is true, but he has the imitative faculty in an extreme degree, and "only needs to be shown," as one who has em- ployed native labor extensively declares, in order to do a thing as well as the demonstrator. It must be borne in mind that the restricted place opened to the Filipino in the Spanish civilization afforded little scope for the cultivation of responsibility, initiative, or endeavor. Under the encouraging conditions of the new regime, with its ample opportunities, he may develop unsuspected qualities of a high order. Under guidance, or control, the average native will live in a useful and rational manner, but he is very thoughtless, and, lacking good influence, is likely to act unwisely, and may even commit grave offenses on impulse, or for want of serious consideration. Sel- dom, however, will he be guilty of a crime on his own 98 THE PHILIPPINES. initiative. There is comparatively little vice in his composition, but he is easily led toward good, or evil. In fact his faults and shortcomings are largely those of an infant stage of mental development. There is much of the child in his makeup, and of a child whose training has not been of the best. He is deferent, almost to the extent of servility, to superiority of intellect, station, or wealth. Although he exhibits ingenuity and resourcefulness in the everyday affairs of life, he lacks self-reliance and moral courage. He is not deficient in physical bravery, but the quality is of the spontaneous and evanescent order. He is read- ily depressed by a check, or by a sense of inferiority to his antagonist. Unlike the Moro, he accepts de- feat with placid resignation, and as a victor he is cruel and ungenerous. Like the Sipahi, the Filipino makes an excellent fighting man under European leadership, but his worth in this capacity is entirely dependent upon such leadership. His dislike of dis- cipline is a bar to his becoming a good soldier at pres- ent. He displays the common Oriental trait of en- durance under hardship and suffering and the equally common Oriental tendency to supine submission to the buffets of Fate. The Filipino is extremely sober, and scrupulously clean in his person and surroundings, traits that may have been derived from early Hindu influences, and which were certainly never enhanced by contact with the aboriginal tribes. He has the domestic qualities THE TRUE FILIPINO. 99 well developed. He is a good father and husband, and displays great regard and respect for aged pa- rents. Indeed, the ties of relationship are acknowl- edged to a remarkable extent. A household com- monly includes two, or three, poor kinsmen, whose connection with the heads of the family is almost too remote to be traced. His hospitality is proverbial. A well-to-do Filipino will house a traveler as long as he may choose to stay. Everything that his host possesses horses, carriages, guns, servants, and the rest is cheerfully placed at the command of the vis- itor. N"o remuneration whatever would be accepted, nor is any kind of return expected, or desired. The Filipino is grave and dignified in bearing, and rarely displays emotion of any kind, although he is capable of strong passion. He has little, or no, sense of humor, never makes a jocular remark and seldom appreciates one. He is genial and extremely sociable. Gambling is a mania with him, and he is very fond of show. He is improvident to the extent of reck- lessness, and will spend his last peso on a cock-fight, for a feast, or in the purchase of cheap trinkets for his wife. Whilst the Filipino is honest in the main, his con- ception of moral obligations is not of the keenest. He rarely steals, but he may borrow without any thought of return, unless demand is made upon him. He will secure money as a loan, or in consideration of future service, and, although he never repudiates the in- 100 THE PHILIPPINES. debtedness, it is frequently difficult to enforce re- payment, or the performance of the promised work. His sense of gratitude is rather dull. He is apt to suspect an ulterior motive behind a concession, or a gift, and this may be a logical outcome of his experi- ence with the white man. The Filipino compares favorably with the China- man, or the Hindu, and gives greater promise of future development than either. He is more tracta- ble than the former, and has none of his innate aver- sion to Western civilization ; he is more intelligent than the latter, and is not hampered by religious preju- dices, nor caste restrictions. Indeed, there is no East- ern people that presents more favorable material for conversion to Western civilization than do the Chris- tian tribes of the Philippine Islands. Whilst the foregoing applies in general to the Christian natives, some of the tribes furnish marked exceptions in certain particulars and the small upper class, the genie ilustrada, have developed many quali- ties that are at variance with the typical Filipino character. ' THE NON-CHKISTIAN MALAYS. Of the non-Christian Malays, excepting Moros, the Igorots are by far the most numerous. The cen- sus enumeration places them in excess of 183,000. They are distributed over eleven of the northern provinces of Luzon in various stages of development, THE NON-CHRISTIAN MALAYS. 101 ranging from the wild head-lmnters of Bontoc to the semi-civilized Tinguian of Ahra. They are most numerous in Lepanto-Bontoc, Nueva Yizcaya, and Benguet, where they constitute the bulk of the popu- lations. They inhabit the higher valleys and moun- tain ranges. In general they are physically superior to the Filipinos of the lowlands. They are an in- telligent, happy people, of good morals and indus- trious habits, with a strong vein of independence in their composition. The Malays never effected large political organiza- tions. The point is illustrated in the barangay system of the early Tagalogs. The political unit of the Igo- rots is the barrio, or hamlet, several of which may go to make up a township. I T nder normal conditions the town across the valley is an enemy and seeks the heads of its neighbors. "I have stood," says Doctor Barrows, "in a single Igorot town and looked across the steep hillsides and river valleys where in every direction within a radius of six miles a man's life of that town would have been unsafe. His head would unfailingly have been taken had he ventured unprotected so far from home." This applies par- ticularly to the eastern portion of the Igorot coun- try. Toward the west coast the people are much more nearly civilized and have abandoned their old- time practice of head-hunting. Here the central gov- ernment is recognized and respected and, although in many districts the ancient petty courts are still 102 THE PHILIPPINES. maintained, appeals from their decisions are fre- quently made to the American authorities. Every Igorot barrio has its judicial body of old men, who dispose of all cases from petty theft to murder. If the matter is one affecting the entire town a composite court is formed of members of the various barrios interested. Most penalties take the form of a fine payable in cattle, or other property. Trial by ordeal is commonly practiced. The podung, or bloody test, consists in boring holes in the scalps of the suspect and his accuser. The verdict goes to the one who bleeds the least. When one of a num- ber of persons is believed to be a criminal, each of them is given a mouthful of dry rice to chew. After mastication this is spat out upon the hands of the judges and he whose mass exhibits the least saliva is deemed convicted, in accordance with their proverb, which says, "A guilty man has a dry mouth." The Sun is the great god of the Igorots, and the Moon is his brother. They believe in a number of evil spirits. An Igorot maintains that personally he is sinless and can do no wrong unless at the instiga- tion of one of these spirits, which enters into him and subdues his will. One who has had intimate rela- tions with them says, "the conception of right and wrong is a quality fully developed in the Igorot mind throughout all conditions of life ! and fully in accord with the present civilized conception of right and wrong. They believe in virtue in both male and THE NON-CHRISTIAN MALAYS. 103 female; they believe in honesty and faithfulness in the performance of any task, no matter how arduous it is made for them by those in authority, and perform these tasks cheerfully." The canao is a ceremonial dance and feast. It is the occasion for the consumption of a great deal of meat and drink. Horse, carabao, hog, and deer are eaten, and dog is an especial delicacy. It is a point of etiquette with the Igorot to continue eating as long as a fragment of the viands remains. Bassi is an intoxicant produced from rice and sugar-cane. It is freely consumed by the Igorots, who are by no means so abstemious as the Filipino. Amongst the Igorots, as with almost all wild, or savage, races, the women perform the greater share of labor, but the men are very far from being idle, and it is possible that the arrangement had its origin as a defensive measure. Even at this day, amongst the worst head-hunters, the women work in the paddy fields whilst the men mount guard with their arms against their neighbors. Unlike the Negritos they are a stationary people. A village will move only for serious reasons, and then never more than a few miles from its old site. For the Igorot the whole world is peopled with evil spirits, and human beings eager to decapitate him, and there- fore he dreads to cross his communal boundaries. This of course does not apply to the western com- munities which are in touch with the civilization of 104 THE PHILIPPINES. the seacoast provinces, but even these retain their sedentary tendencies. They live poorly and not under the most sanitary conditions, but their wants are few, and they are perfectly contented. There is no such thing as pau- perism amongst them. The aged, indigent, and crippled are cheerfully supported by the comrmmity. The case is reported of a man in one of their barrios who has been dangerously insane for nine years. He has been confined in a hut all this time and two men of the community have been detailed each week to feed him and keep his habitation. clean. When any person dies one-half of his edible possessions and of his herds and flocks is eaten up by the community to which he belonged. During the feast the body of the deceased is tied in a chair in his house that he may see that no personal enemy partakes of his bounty. The burial of a rich man may thus be deferred for months. THE MOROS. The word "Moro," or Moor, in its original sig- nification simply meant Muhammadan. It is not an ethnologic term, but is generally used at present as a comprehensive designation for the several Malayan tribes of the southern islands, who adhere to Islam. We have already mentioned the Samal Laut, those curious gypsies of the sea, who wandered long ago from their old haunts in Johore and the Straits of THE MOROS. 105 Malacca to the Sulu Archipelago. Great numbers of their descendants, named Bajaus, are found about those islands to-day and along the southern coast of Mindanao. They maintain the manner of life of their roving ancestors. Each family inhabits a boat and a fleet of half a dozen or so comprises a com- munity. They have no political organization, but recognize temporarily the authority of the dato off whose shore they may happen to be lying and pay tribute to him during their stay. They move about as inclination, or the monsoon, may dictate, and absolutely make their home upon the waters. They traffic in the products of the sea and find their main subsistence in them. They barter trepang, edible seaweed, and sharks' fins with the Chinese traders, for tapioca and cloth. Slavery is general among the Bajaus, and every man of a community is required to work one or two days of each week for his chief, or capitan Bajau. Despite their wandering lives upon the water, the Bajaus never consign their dead to the sea, but bury them upon some particular island which has been selected as the family, or community, cemetery. No matter how far away they may be, or how engaged, when one of their number dies they will carry his body to the customary burying ground. Absolutely everything that the Bajau possessed is interred with him. Even his boat is broken up and the pieces placed in his grave. 106 THE PHILIPPINES. The Samal Moros are descended from the same stock as the Bajaus, but have abandoned the life upon the water, though they still live over it, their villages being built over the sea, facing broad, sandy beaches. The Samals affect to despise their boat-dwelling broth- ers, who are degenerates in the matter of religion. Large villages of Samals are found in different parts of the Sulu Archipelago. They are the dominant peo- ple of Zamboanga peninsula, and form the bulk of the population of the Tawi Tawi group. Their chief oc- cupation everywhere is fishing, with which, in some localities, they combine a little agriculture. The Samals were the dreaded Malay pirates whose depredations the Spaniards were powerless to check until gunboats were brought to bear against them. Up till within sixty years ago they made annual raids upon the Yisayan Islands, looting to\vns and carry- ing away captives to slavery. It is said that the last such expedition dates from less than tw r enty-five years ago. For the most part the Moros live upon the coasts, but there is a great tribe, the Malanao, numbering upwards of 95,000, in the interior of Mindanao. Their towns are thickly clustered about the district around' Lake Lanao. Another numerous tribe is the Maguindanao, settled chiefly in the district of Cot- tabato, whence they have extended to the Gulf of Davao, on the opposite coast. The Moros are prosperous and happy. All their THE MOROS. 107 needs, or possible wants, are easily supplied. The sea and the soil yield subsistence with very little effort and beyond a full stomach and a few simple luxuries the desires of the Moro do not extend ; nor does his environment afford any scope for ambition, or energy. Since the exercise of his fighting proclivities has been curtailed there does not appear to be any outlet for his activity. Almost all Moro industries are of the domestic order. Agriculture, supplemented by fishing, is the mainstay of the people. They raise rice, corn, ca- motes, or sweet potatoes, and other vegetables by a very simple, but apparently satisfactory, method. The ground is broken with pointed sticks and, aside from sowing and weeding, nothing more is done to it. Boat building is a hereditary occupation with the Moros and an important industry, where every family owns one boat at least and often several. Every man can repair a boat, and most of them are able to make some kind of craft. Even the inland Moro passes a great part of his time upon the waters of the lakes and rivers. Another industry of consequence and repute is that of the manufacture of weapons. From Chinese traders are obtained the iron and steel which are forged into Jcrisses, bolos, spears, daggers, and knives. As with all war-like people, the smith is an honored member of the community. Aside from construct- ing craft and fashioning weapons, the Moros show 108 THE PHILIPPINES. little aptitude, or inclination, for mechanical pur- suits. There are among them a few artisans who work metal into articles of ornament, and a rude form of pottery is produced without the use of a firing kiln. The women weave a serviceable quality of cloth, but they know little about spinning and are dependent upon the Chinese for their thread. The Moros live in the ordinary Malayan type of dwelling, elevated upon piles and often erected near, or over, the water. The timbers are fastened with rattan, and the roofs and walls covered with palm leaves. These houses answer their purpose very well. They are cool and waterproof and withstand the frequent earthquake shocks. The Moros are not clean in their surroundings as are the Filipinos, nor do they seem to consider domestic comfort to the same extent. They are polygamists, in accordance with Kuranic license. Wives are purchased, the suitor paying to the family of the bride an amount commensurate with his position, or means. Divorce may be effected by mutual agreement, or a man, find- ing himself unable to support all his wives, may send one, or more, back to their families. A woman thus returning to her home takes all her personal belong- ings and whatever she may have received from her husband during her wedded life. The family rela- tions are closely drawn. Wives receive kindly treat- ment and are consulted in family matters. Both parents display affection toward their offspring. The THE MOROS. 109 Muhammadan law of abstinence from the use of in- toxicants and the flesh of swine is observed, but in other respects the Moros are far from being faithful disciples of Islam. The habit of chewing betel-nut is confirmed amongst men, women, and children. This is a favorite indulgence with the Hindus, and other Asiatics, and doubtless the Malay immigrants to the Philippines brought the custom with them. It does not appear to be injurious, but on the contrary is said to act as a tonic-digestant and a preservative of the teeth. The social organization of the Moros is simple. There are two main political divisions of the people freemen and slaves. Slavery existed as an institu- tion among them prior to their advent to the Philip- pines. The communal unit, ranging from perhaps a dozen in the case of the Bajaus, to possibly ten thou- sand with the larger tribes, is ruled by a chief, vari- ously termed sultan, raja, and dato. There is no code of laws, but custom and precedent are zealously adhered to. The office of dato is generally heredi- tary and the authority pertaining to it is always recog- nized by the clan. The chief usually associates with himself a number of men of noble blood, or wealth, who form a sort of court and take an active part in the regulation of the community. All datos maintain a retinue of fighting-men, who accompany them every- where, display being considered quite as important as protection. The dato is absolute in authority, 110 THE PHILIPPINES. but not often despotic. All land of the community is vested in him, but he rarely disturbs established oc- cupation. He declares war and makes peace, and presides at the administration of justice. A difficulty involving two or more villages is usually adjusted by their respective headmen, but the decision is sub- ject to the vetoes of the chieftains concerned. Crimes are generally punished by fine, or sub- jection to slavery. An adulterous woman is mulcted in a heavy fine, which is paid by herself, or her fam- ily, to the injured husband, and is shared by him with the dato and headmen composing the court. In default of payment the woman is adjudged a slave and her husband has the right to sell her. A man convicted of adultery is sentenced to a fine twice as great as that imposed upon a woman and it is dis- posed of in the same manner, whilst the culprit is subject to the same alternative in case of failure to pay. A husband discovering his wife in the act of adultery is justified by custom in killing her and her paramour. Incest and carnal assault upon a young girl are punishable by death. A convicted thief must pay to the victim twice the amount of the theft in addition to a fine, which goes to the headmen. The alternative penalty is enslave- ment, but the culprit may substitute one of his off- spring, who is thus consigned to bondage for life, a striking illustration of visiting the sins of the fathers upon their children. Murder is generally punish- f i A HEAD-HUNTER. The portrait is that of Ifugao, an Igorot chieftain of Xueva Vizcaya, one of the few district? in which head-hunting is still practised when favorable oppor- tunity offers. THE MOROS. Ill able by a heavy fine, subject to the usual division with the court. Confinement is hardly ever resorted to as a penalty, the Moro considering it an incon- venient and uneconomical method of punishment. Slavery with the Moros takes a mild form. The slave may be a captive from a neighboring tribe, or a wild man of the woods, but more often than the lat- ter he is of pure Malay blood. Such slaves, and those condemned to the condition by the court, as well as those held as security for debt, may be bought and sold. Very often slavery is merely a temporary service in consideration of some benefit received. Slaves usually live in the same house with their master and practically under the same conditions, eat- ing at his table and, with the exception of liberty, far- ing in all respects as well as himself. They are not compelled to onerous labor in a country where no hard work is done, and the female slave, in particular, is often treated with the greatest consideration. Under such circumstances the condition of the bondsman is often a great improvement over the life he has been accustomed to. In general, the Moros are illiterate, superstitious, and non-progressive. Some few have learned to read and write fronj their priests, or panditas, but learning is not esteemed nor encouraged amongst them. They use the Arabic alphabet in the expression of a Malay dialect. The Kuran is an object of abstract venera- tion. They know very little of its doctrine and are 112 THE PHILIPPINES. only slightly submissive to the influence of the priests. Nevertheless, their religion, such as it is, and their jealous regard for their customs will prove a serious bar to civilizing them. The Reverend Pio Pi, supe- rior of the Jesuit Order in the Philippines, writing in 1901, expressed the opinion that the Moros were influenced in their opposition to reduction and cul- ture by (1) their character; (2) their history, or tra- dition ; (3) their fanaticism; (4) their interests. (Certainly a substantial basis of opposition to sub- vert.) The reverend father characterizes them as haughty, independent, and domineering, accustomed to look upon all other natives with disdain. All of which is unquestionably true, but when it comes to the rest of the arraignment, which is as severe as language can make it, some allowance must be had for a would-be proselyter dealing with a people equally fanatical with his own, and equally convinced of the righteousness of their religious belief. THE GROWTH OF POPULATION. The peoples of the Philippines have multiplied rapidly during the past hundred years or so. Accord- ing to the recent census, the total population of the Philippine Archipelago on March 2, 1903, was 7,635,- 426. Of this number 6,987,686 enjoyed a consider- able degree of civilization, while the remainder, 647,740, consisted of wild people. The civilized peo- ple, with the exception of those of foreign birth, THE GROWTH OF POPULATION. 113 were practically all adherents of the (Roman) Catho- lic Church, while of the peoples here classified as wild a large proportion, probably more than two-fifths, were Muhammadans in religion and were well known in the islands as Moros. The remaining three-fifths belonged to various tribes, differing from one another in degrees of barbarism. At the close of the six- teenth century the subjection of the islands by the Spaniards was almost as complete as at any later time. As the conquest extended, the population was par- celled out amongst soldiers, and others under a sys- tem of encomiendas, which prevailed from the time of Legaspi, the first governor, until the beginning of the seventeenth century. The system, as practiced in the American possessions of Spain, practically em- braced slavery, but its extension to the Philippines was accompanied by several conditions and restric- tions in the interests of the natives, which, however, were more or less disregarded. The encomienda was a royal grant of a certain portion of the land with its native population, and included the right to collect from these the tribute and to enjoy the fruit of their labor. Soldiers, as they retired from service, had appropriated to them certain communities for their special benefit and other villages were reserved for the King. Officials and favored civilians became grantees in the same manner. The system naturally had the effect of extending the settlement of the country; indeed, it became the chief factor in that 114 THE PHILIPPINES. movement and eventually the whole population, aside from the wild Negritos and Igorots, and the uncon- querable Moros, was included in encomiendas. Each family represented one tributo and the Spaniards reckoned four souls to a family. The Relacion de Encomiendas, submitted to the King in 1591, reported a total of 166,903 tributes, which would give, in approximate figures, a popula- tion of 667,612 for the territory under military con- trol. In all probability the total population of the islands at that time, including the country of the Muhammadan Malays, did not much exceed 800,000 During the first two hundred and fifty years of their occupation, the Spaniards, actuated by a policy of pro- tection toward their other colonies and the merchants at home trading with them, prohibited all trade of the Philippines with foreign countries. Thus not only was commercial development checked, but actual ret- rogression was effected by the discontinuance of the trade which had existed before the Spanish conquest. Under such conditions large increase of population was not to be expected, and we learn from the account of Father San Antonio, the Franciscan historian, that in 1735 the islands contained but 837,182 souls. In 1800 Zuniga estimates the population at 1,561,251. In the nineteenth century greatly improved eco- nomic conditions, due to the opening of the country to the commerce of the world, had a marked effect in the multiplication of the people. In 1845 Fray THE GROWTH OF POPULATION. 115 Manuel Buzeta published a notable work entitled a "Geographical, Statistical, and Historical Dictionary of the Philippines," from which the following is ex- tracted : "We have already seen how, in the last years of the past century and the first of this century, the political conditions of the Philippines presented in twenty-five provinces, 1,522,221 souls and 312,251 tributes, and according to the state of the population published by order of his excellency, the ayuntamiento of Manila, this population was increasing, so that in 1808 the number of souls was 1,741,034; in 1812 to 1,933,331; in 1815 to 2,052,992; in 1817 to 2,062,805 ; in 1818 to 2,106,836. "\ r arious data which we have, and for whose exact- ness we cannot vouch, give in 1829 2,593,287, and in 1833 a population of 3,153,290. The Guia de Manila of the year 1840 presents the population as 3,209,077 and compared with the population that we have seen was reported in 1735, it would appear that the 837,- 182 souls of the earlier epoch were to those of 1840 as 1 to 3, a proportion which represents a gain of 283 per cent, in one hundred and five years. In the five years since, the population of the Philippines had been increasing at the rate of 1.7 per cent, per year, so that in 1845 the number of souls was 3,488,258." In the fifty-eight years that have elapsed since Buzeta's enumeration the population of the islands has more than doubled. No doubt, had as complete 116 THE PHILIPPINES. a census as that of 1903 been taken in 1897, the figures would have shown a larger population than at present. Since the latter year the people have been subject to the effects of war, destruction of industry, loss of cattle and homes, and, perhaps most serious of all influences, dreadful visitations of smallpox and cholera. Doctor Barrows says that "the con- clusion to be arived at is that the Christian Philippine population shows a power of multiplying scarcely exceeded by any race of people. The hope of building up here in the course of a few generations a people equal in numbers and national resources to the Japan- ese at the present time, does not seem illusory. Given a prolific stock, expanding prosperity and commerce, and favorable political conditions, population, as proved by a hundred historical instances, can go up by leaps and bounds. I believe that all these con- ditions together may be realized here in the Philip- pines. A great deal depends also upon the mental attitude of the people. If it be hopeful, aspiring, cheered by increasing gains and opportunities then is there added a factor of the utmost consideration. Population has no deadlier enemy than despondency and melancholia. There is a deep wisdom in the in- tentions of the American Government to meet more than half way the eager ambitions of this race." EARLY HISTORY. III. EARLY HISTORY. The Discovery of the Philippines The Inception of Spanish Dominion The Chinese Invasion Internal Dissensions Growth of the Ecclesiastical Power Conflict of Church and State The Important Services of the Friars At- tempts to Christianize Japan Dutch Attacks Upon the Colony Influx of Chinese Traders The Spaniards Come into Contact With the Moros The British Take Manila Uprisings of the Natives. At the beginning of the sixteenth century the two great maritime powers, Spain and Portugal, were at the height of their rivalry and in the midst of their extensive discoveries. In the hope of settling the frequent disputes as to their respective trading rights Pope Alexander the Sixth had issued a papal bull, in 1494, dividing the world into two hemispheres, prac- tically the same as those recognized to-day, and giving to the Spaniards all heathen lands in the western half and to the Portuguese all those in the eastern. The path of Portuguese exploration had been east- ward, and they had reached Asia by way of the Cape of Good Hope and the Indian Ocean. Following the discovery of America the eyes of all the world's geographers and navigators were turned toward the west. When Balboa sighted the Pacific a fresh in- centive was given to adventure, and ardent spirits of (119) 120 THE PHILIPPINES. both nations became eager to follow the course of the setting sun until they should reach the vast ocean which lay beyond th6 American continent. Chance favored the Spaniards, and strangely enough they owed their success in this instance to a Portuguese as they had formerly owed it to a native of Genoa. In truth, the Spanish discoveries were mainly due to religious zeal and greed for gold. Their native sailors were seldom actuated by sheer love of ad- venture, as were many of the English sea captains of the same age, or by a desire for scientific investiga- tion, such as moved Magellan and Columbus. THE DISCOVEEY OF THE PHILIPPINES. Hernando de Maghallanes was a Portuguese noble, a practical mathematician and navigator, and a man of extraordinary parts. As a soldier and a sailor he had distinguished himself in a wide field. He served under the famous Albuquerque in his expedition to Asia, and took part in the siege of Malacca. Later he accompanied the expedition to the Moluccas, which discovered Ternate and other islands. On this oc- casion he gained information which confirmed his belief that a passage existed between the two great oceans of the globe, and he returned to Europe pos- sessed with a determination to seek it. Whilst pur- suing investigations tending toward the execution of his project, Magellan, to give him the familiar form of his name, was ordered to the wars in Africa, DISCOVERY OF THE PHILIPPINES. 121 where he received a wound which rendered him lame for life. Upon his return he fell a victim to one of the court intrigues so common at the time. Jeal- ous of his achievements and favor with the King, certain nobles made false accusations against him, which gained the credence of King Emmanuel. Dis- gusted at the perfidy of his companions in arms and the ingratitude of his royal master, Magellan re- nounced his nationality and offered his services to the Spanish monarch. He was graciously received by King Charles the First and immediately became a naturalized Spaniard. Magellan was eager to essay the discovery of a western passage to the Orient, and the King of Spain readily granted the necessary per- mission, notwithstanding numerous attempts in the same direction had failed. An agreement was signed, by the terms of which the King undertook to defray the expense of fitting out five ships with their comple- ment of men-at-arms and sailors. Magellan on his part agreed to devote his energies to the discovery of spice islands within the limits of the papal grant. On the 10th of August, 1519, the fleet sailed out of the harbor of San Lucar de Barrameda. On the 13th of December they reached Rio Janeiro and continued their voyage along the coast in search of the passage to the Pacific. Soon the hardships incident to such an undertaking began to breed discontent among the men and dissensions arose between the captains. Two of the latter broke into open mutiny. They were put 122 THE PHILIPPINES. to death by the orders of the commander, and dis- cipline was restored. On the 26th of November, 1520, the expedition had rounded Cape Horn and found itself in the Pacific Ocean. The fleet, now reduced to three sails, shipwreck and desertion ac- counting for the others, cheerfully headed across the broad expanse of ocean and, on the 16th of March, 1521, arrived at the island of Limasagua, just off the south end of Leyte. Magellan continued to Cebu, where he made a treaty with the Chief, and ratified it by the ancient Blood Compact of the Ma- lays. A few days afterwards Magellan accompanied a war expedition of his new ally to the Island of Mac- tan and in the affray that followed he was wounded, probably by a poisoned arrow, and died on the 27th of April, 1521. Thus ended, in a petty skirmish with savages, one of the most brilliant lives of the age. On the 6th of September, 1522, Juan Sebastian Elcano, in command of the "Victoria," representing all that remained of Magellan's expedition, cast anchor in the port from which he had started three years before. In returning from the Philippines, El- cano had reached Spain by way of the Cape of Good Hope, thus circumnavigating the earth for the first time. In token of the achievement his family arms, created by royal patent, consist of a globe with the motto: Primus circundedit me. Two more expedi- tions went to the East in search of spice islands dur- INCEPTION OF SPANISH DOMINION. 123 ing the reign of King Charles, but they accomplished little beyond increasing the rancour of the Portu- guese, who complained, not without cause, that the Spaniards were encroaching upon their territory. King Philip of Spain was a man of strong religious convictions and proselyting tendencies. He became possessed of an ambition to subdue and Christianize the Philippines and ordered an expedition to be pre- pared in Mexico with that object. In accordance with the royal instructions the Governor of Mexico fitted up five ships and manned them with four hundred soldiers and sailors. The command of the expedition was given to Miguel Lopez de Legaspi, a Spaniard of noble birth and a man of wide experience, and to him was delegated the task of representing the King in such territory as might be occupied by the force. Under Legaspi, but with a certain degree of inde- pendence in his particular field, was Andres de Ur- daneta, an Austin priest, and five friars of his order. To these missionaries was committed the spiritual care of all heathens who might be brought into sub- jection by the expedition. This division of authority foreshadowed the never-ending conflict between the civil and clerical functionaries in the Philippines dur- ing the Spanish regime. THE INCEPTION OF SPANISH DOMINION. The expedition left Navidad in Mexico on the 21st of November, 1564, and in the following year, on the 124 THE PHILIPPINES. 27th of April, the anniversary of Magellan's death, landed at Cebu. This, and some of the neighboring islands, were subdued and pacified with comparative ease by the handful of Spaniards. In 1570, Legaspi, having received reinforcements, despatched his grandson, Juan Salcedo, to the Island of Luzon, which had not up to this time been invaded by the Spaniards. Salcedo probably landed at some point in the Bay of Manila without opposition. He was well received by the local chiefs, Raja Lakan Dola of Tondo, and his nephew, the Raja Soliman of Maynila, as it was then called. These chieftains appear to have surrendered their independence with- out resistance and a treaty was entered into with them. Salcedo then proceeded to the district of Lake Bombon, one of the most populous in the island, reducing the tribes in his path. He subdued the province of Batangas and returned to Manila. The ease with which a few hundred Spaniards were able to conquer these islands may excite surprise, but a sufficient explanation is to be found in the fact that the natives had no political organization more extensive than that of the ancient clans of Scot- land and no confederation at all resembling, for in- stance, that of the Maharatas in Hindustan, or that of the North American Indians. The greatest num- ber of fighting men any one chief could oppose to the invaders was probably less than one thousand, and the idea of combining for mutual defense does not seem INCEPTION OF SPANISH DOMINION. 125 to have been entertained. Indeed, the Spaniards never experienced any serious opposition, or hard fighting, in their acquisition, or possession, of the Philippines, unless it was in contests with foreign enemies, until the Tagalog Kebellion of 1896. Learn- ing of the success of his forces in Luzon, Legaspi repaired to the island and declared Manila the capital of the Colony. A fort commanding the Pasig was constructed, a church was built, and houses erected for the Spaniards. In August, 1571, Legaspi, the first Governor-Gen- eral of the Philippines, died and was succeeded by Guido de Lavezares. Legaspi's life had been a very useful one to his country, and the speedy pacification of the Philippines was doubtless due in great measure to his wisdom and humanity. The process of subjugating Luzon proceeded rap- idly under Salcedo and Martin de Goiti, the Maestre de Campo. On more than one occasion they were ac- companied in their expeditions by the Rajas of Tondo and Manila with their armed followers. As a rule, conquered territory was left in the hands of the native caciques to govern in the name of the King of Spain. The Negritos invariably refused submission, simply retiring into the mountain fastnesses before the in- vaders and retaining the independence which they have to-day. Shortly after Legaspi's occupation of Cebu the Por- tuguese made a weak effort to wrest the possession 126 THE PHILIPPINES. from him, but from that time the Spaniards were not disturbed by foreign interference until 1574, when a formidable invasion by Chinese occurred. THE CHINESE INVASION. Li Ma Hung was the commander of a powerful band of corsairs who had for years infested the China Sea and plundered the coast towns of the Empire. From Chinese traders he learned of the easy conquest of Luzon by a few hundred white men and conceived the idea of displacing them himself. In November, 1574, Li Ma Hung appeared in the Bay of Manila with a fleet of sixty well-equipped war junks, having on board four thousand fighting men and sailors. A portion of this force was landed after several of the vessels had been destroyed by a gale. The Spaniards appear to have been surprised, and it was not until the Chinese were within the confines of the city that any resistance was offered to them. The defenders took refuge in the fort, which would probably have been carried by assault but for the opportune arrival of a small body of fresh troops before whom the Chi- nese fled under the impression that they were the van- guard of an army. Two days later the Chinese re- newed the attack, but in the meanwhile Salcedo had arrived at Manila with reinforcements and the charge of the defense was committed to him. The Chinese landed fifteen hundred picked men, who proceeded to burn the city before storming the MESTIZOS. The Chinese quarter in Binondo, showing the manner in which bamboo is floated to market on the canal. From Stereograph Copyright, by Underwood & Underwood, New York. THE CHINESE INVASION. 127 fort. The latter was no more than a stockade strengthened with a few culverins. The Chinese as- saulted furiously under cover of a shower of hand grenades and at length broke into the enclosure. Here the most desperate hand-to-hand fighting oc- curred with the result in the balance for a time. Eventually the Chinese were repulsed with great slaughter. Salcedo followed them up in their retreat and inflicted heavy loss upon them. Li Ma Hung now abandoned the attempt to take Manila, but determined to make a settlement else- where. He sailed northward along the coast till he arrived at the mouth of the Agno, up which for a short distance he took his vessel and debarked. The natives offered no opposition, and the Chinese, ex- pecting to be left in peace by the Spaniards, erected houses and a pagoda. For some months the invaders were undisturbed, but at length Salcedo, having collected a force of two hundred and fifty Spanish men-at-arms and six- teen hundred well-armed natives, with artillery, came upon the Chinese settlement and laid siege to it. For some time Li Ma Hung held out, but realizing the hopelessness of his situation, took advantage of an op- portunity to slip out of the river with his fleet. This manoeuvre necessitated his leaving the major part of his troops behind, and these, having no further in- centive for fight, fled to the mountains. It is gener- ally believed that from these refugees are descended 128 THE PHILIPPINES. in large part the numerous Chino-Igorots of the prov- ince of Pangasinan. INTERNAL DISSENSIONS. Almost with the inception of the orderly adminis- tration of the colony began the internal dissensions which have always characterized the Spanish rule of the Philippines. The Governor-General, the Supreme Court, and the religious Orders, perpetually con- tended with one another and the last among them- selves. Questions of respective authority were con- stantly in dispute between the civil and ecclesiastical officers, often culminating in disgraceful scenes and acts. The jealous antagonism of the friars of one Order toward those of another retarded the work of all and, what was worse, not infrequently destroyed their influence with the natives. Add to this the vacillat- ing and ill-advised policy of the Spanish Government with regard to the Philippines and it would be diffi- cult to imagine a condition of affairs less conducive to the generation and growth of political and com- mercial prosperity in a newly-acquired country. The Spanish colony of Mexico was governed by an excellent code of laws, termed the Leyes de Indias. These were applied to the Philippine Islands, and had they been observed, conditions must have been very different. The entire system of justice was cumber- some and ill-adapted to the conditions, and, indeed, it remained so to the last. Corruption entered into ECCLESIASTICAL POWER. 129 every branch of the government from an early date, and, although the home authorities devised measures to prevent the exploitation of the islands by adven- turers, they were frequently avoided and little check was placed upon the dishonesty of officials. These were not the shortcomings and failures of a govern- ment contending with the difficulties of an experi- mental problem, but the natural results of the system which obtained during the entire tenure of the islands by Spain. Civilians and missionaries consulted their own in- terests regardless of the rights of the natives, or of the prohibitions of law and royal writs. The Spanish alcaldes and encomenderos maltreated the natives at their pleasure and extorted from them the fruits of their labor. Slavery was practiced by all classes of Spaniards, and a royal decree prohibiting it was opposed by the governor. These and other abuses led to frequent uprisings, so that twenty years after the death of Legaspi the islands were in a less pacific state than that in which he left them. GROWTH OF THE ECCLESIASTICAL POWER. Perhaps the chief weakness in the Spanish rule of the Philippines lay in the undue deference and consideration paid to the friars and their interests by the Spanish Government. \ r aluable concessions w r ere constantly made to them ; their power in the islands 9 130 THE PHILIPPINES. was ever on the increase and always had the support of the national government; they were permitted to interfere with increasing influence in state affairs until the tenure of office of Governors-General and other officials depended upon their good-will ; their grievances met with ready redress at Madrid, and complaints against them seldom received considera- tion. Members of the Augustin Order, who came with Legaspi's expedition, were the first friars in the Philippines, and they strove hard to prevent the in- coming of other Orders. However, the Franciscans, Jesuits, Dominicans, and, last of all, the Recoletos succeeded, with more or less difficulty, in entering the country, each Order in turn being opposed by the members of others which already had representation in the islands. It was sought to minimize their dis- sensions by dividing the territory between them, but quarrels were nevertheless frequent. The friars were vowed to poverty and to monastic life. From the latter condition the Pope exempted them of necessity, but only temporarily, and until secular clergy could be provided to take their places in the native communities. They invariably arrived poor, and the allowance for their maintenance was no more than sufficient to keep them in ordinary com- fort, but the Orders became the recipients of dona- tions from devotees and received large bequests, so that in a short while they had become rich landed ECCLESIASTICAL POWER. 131 proprietors. In 1601, the wealth of the friars hav- ing become notorious, the King commissioned the Auditor to make a report on their property. The friars, however, refused to give the Auditor any in- formation, and the Archbishop threatened to excom- municate him unless he ceased the investigation. As usual with all movements that had the disapproval of the ecclesiastics, the matter was dropped. In 1653 the friars successfully combatted the order of the Pope to subject them to the authority of the bishops. They maintained that they were amenable to no control except by the superiors of their respec- tive Orders. The point was never settled, and was the cause of numerous disputes and much litigation. The differences between the various Orders seldom prevented them from opposing a solid front to any- thing looking like an invasion of their general inter- ests. Royal decrees were heeded as little as the mandates of the local authorities. In response to repeated complaints the King ordered the friars to cease from persuading dying men to will their property to the clergy ; from obliging women to enter domestic ser- vice in their houses under the pretext of learning Christian doctrine ; from charging the natives fees for the administration of the sacrament ; and from other well-known abuses. Neither then nor at any later time was there a perceptible decrease in these practices. 132 THE PHILIPPINES. The constant conflicts between the representatives of Church and State were a perpetual impediment to the administration of government, and, indeed, at times plunged it into a condition bordering upon an- archy. It was impossible for a viceroy to perform his duties fearlessly and impartially. He might never depend upon loyalty and obedience in the people, or subordinate officials, when the clerical influence was liable to be exerted against him at any time. So jealous were the ecclesiastics of what they considered to be their prerogatives that differences between them and the civil power often arose from the most trivial circumstances and sometimes involved the most seri- ous consequences. CONFLICT OF CHUECH AND STATE. Toward the middle of the seventeenth century a Spaniard in Manila murdered a female slave and afterwards sought sanctuary in a convent. The Gov- ernor, Hurtado de Corcuera, caused him to be dragged from his asylum arid publicly executed. This was the occasion for a violent dispute between the Gov- ernor and Archbishop. The latter closed all the churches of the city, doubtless with a view to enlisting the sympathy of the populace upon his side. In this instance the Jesuits upheld the Governor and were forbidden by the Archbishop to preach in any public place under pain of fine arid excommunication. Finally a strong coalition of clerics was formed CONFLICT OF CHURCH AND STATE. 133 against the prelate. He was excommunicated; his property was seized, and his office suspended. He appealed to the Supreme Court, but the answer of that body was to impose an additional fine upon him. Eventually he made total submission and issued an official decree admitting his guilt and expressing re- pentance. Soon afterwards the Archbishop, smarting under his recent humiliation, seized another opportunity to oppose the civil authority. The Supreme Court, in- stigated by the Governor, resolved to oust him from his See and banish him from the city. In pursuit of this determination a body of soldiers was sent to arrest him. The Archbishop awaited the troops in the Cathedral, holding the Host aloft in his hands. The soldiers doggedly remained until the prelate was forced by fatigue to replace the sacred object upon the altar, when they seized him and carried him to the uninhabited island of Corregidor, in Manila Bay. Again the Archbishop made an unconditional sur- render and was permitted to resume his office. On account of his part in these events Governor Corcuera was imprisoned for five years by his succes- sor, but upon his release and return to Spain the King rewarded his services with the appointment of Gov- ernor of the Canaries. Such uncertainty as to the consequences of his proceedings was sufficient to paralyze the actions of any executive officer. Governor-General Diego Salcedo, during his entire 134 THE PHILIPPINES. term of office (1003-1068), contested the interference of the then Archbishop (Poblete) in civil affairs. The persistent refusal of the Archbishop to comply with certain royal decrees relating to Church appointments led the Governor to expel him from Manila. He was allowed to return upon promise of good be- havior, but the friction between the functionaries continued until the death of Poblete. The Governor exhibited his joy at this event by ordering a festival in celebration of it. This indiscretion brought the full power of the Church, with the approval of the King, against the ill-fated Governor. He was seized by order of the Inquisition and cast into a dungeon, where he suffered extreme privation for years. He died on board ship a prisoner consigned to the tender mercies of the San Oficio in Mexico. The successor, like the predecessor, of Salcedo contrived to preserve peace with the representatives of the Church by the simple, if unsatisfactory, method of allowing them to have their own way in all matters, whether or not they came properly within the province of the Church. With the assumption of office by Juan de Nargas in 1678 the old troubles broke out afresh, and culminated in the banishment of the Archbishop. Upon the ex- piration of the Governor's term the cleric sought to inflict a public penance upon the former in expiation of his offense, but Nargas was protected by his suc- cessor in office, Fernando de Bustamente, from the vengeance of the Archbishop. CONFLICT OF CHURCH AND STATE. 135 Governor-General Bustamente, having discovered serious irregularities in the management of the royal treasury, determined to institute reforms in the col- lection and disposition of public moneys. It was a righteous, but extremely daring, step to take when every branch of the government was seamed with cor- ruption. A conspiracy was set on foot which in- cluded high civilian officials and of course was sup- ported by the ecclesiastics, who had other grievances against the Executive. The Archbishop attempted the arrest of a judge of the Supreme Court, who in turn issued warrants against the Prelate and his follow- ers and the former was imprisoned. A riot ensued, in which it is said the friars sought to enlist the Chinese residents. Priests of each of the Orders, except that of Jesus, led the mob in an attack upon the palace of the Governor. The guards lowered their arms before the upraised crucifixes of the friars, who headed the rioters. The Governor boldly faced the mob with a gun, but it missed fire and he was cut down. Dying and in agony he was dragged to jail, where nothing in alleviation of his suffering was permitted, even water being denied him. He died in the evening of the same day. Meanwhile Bustamente's son, who had come to his father's assistance, was shot and thrown into the stable of the palace, where he lay for hours without any kind of relief until he expired. No one was ever punished for the murders and other crimes com- 136 THE PHILIPPINES. mitted on this occasion. Indeed, the chief instigator of the affair, the Archbishop, assumed the head of the Government upon the death of Fernando de Bus- tamente and was permitted to retain the position for nine years, after which he was promoted to a See in Mexico. The strife between Church and State continued, with only brief intervals of peace, during the terms of succeeding Governors, three of whom are said to have died in consequence of the grief and shame brought upon them in these conflicts. UNWISE MEASURES RESPONSIBLE. As between the civil and ecclesiastical authorities it is extremely difficult to apportion blame fairly. The data at the command of the student of Philippine history is never wholly reliable nor impartial, but the records and chronicles of the time clearly estab- lish the fact that Spaniards of all classes, laymen and clergy, fell woefully short of the performance of their complete duty. But the chief and fundamental fac- tor in the maladministration of the colony was the system of government that was applied to it. There can be no doubt about the good intentions and hu- manitarian motives of the legislators in Madrid, but the measures adopted for the execution of their de- signs were frequently characterized by the utmost unwisdom. SERVICES OF THE FRIARS. 137 The condemnation of the friars should be tempered by a recognition of their inestimable services. THE IMPORTANT SERVICES OF THE FRIARS. What noticeable degree of progress has been at- tained in the islands is mainly due to them, and with- out them would not have been achieved. That they labored hard and effectively for the conversion and civilization of the natives is indisputable ; that they were moved by a sincere, if sometimes misapplied, zeal for the promotion of religion must be admitted ; and that they displayed wonderful devotion and cour- age in the pursuit of what they considered their re- ligious duties cannot be questioned. The story of the padre of Taal is touching testimony to the bravery and self-abnegation which was characteristic of most of his fellows. When we turn with natural disgust from the picture of priests leading a mob of howling rioters in Manila, it were well to cast back a century in the history of Philippine evangelization and look upon the fervent friar penetrating the wilderness upon his solitary mission with crucifix and missal in hand; braving a thousand unfamiliar dangers, reckless of his life, cheerfully inhabiting a shack amongst savages, with no thought but for their wel- fare. We can forgive the pampered priest of later days much for the sake of the memory of his pioneer prototype. It must not be supposed that, although the priests 138 THE PHILIPPINES. in the capital and the richer parishes lived luxuri- ously, the lot of the average friar was one of ease. On the contrary, the life of the majority was devoid of pleasure, or even comforts. For years, more or less, according to the ability he displayed, the mis- sionary, after coming into the field, was obliged to live under conditions scarcely differing from those of the natives under his charge. His allowance was barely sufficient to supply the demands of decency. He was cut off from civilization, often not seeing a white man for weeks and months at a stretch. The climate and diet were not the greatest of his trials in an entirely strange environment, and it is greatly to the credit of the class that there was never a lack of ready and eager volunteers with a full understand- ing of what was before them. The friars never deserted their flocks in time of danger: on the contrary, they have always been fore- most in relief and encouragement. More than one priest has fallen to the fire of an invading enemy, and in time of stress the friar's frock has ever been found to the front. Volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, and epidemics have always found them steadfast at their posts. Numerous charitable and educational institutions owe their being to the Orders, and cer- tain of their members have made notable contributions to the cause of science. The friars frequently protected the natives against the severities of the encomenderos and the civil power. SERVICES OF THE FRIARS. 139 In the earlier days they were generally on the most amicable terms with their parishioners, and their in- fluence with the natives was the chief factor in en- abling the Spaniards to hold the country without the aid of a commanding force. Some writers expatiate unnecessarily upon the im- morality of the priests, which they pretend to have been almost universal. There is no doubt that the charge is justified in the cases of several, but the sweeping indictment of the class is neither supported by evidence nor probability. Those who, like Fore- man and Younghusband, are familiar with life in the tropics, might be expected to make allowance for the frailties of a comparatively small number of the only body of voluntary celibates east of Suez. The power of the friars for good was rapidly wan- ing before the Spanish-American War put an end to their control. With the growing enlightenment of the natives and the spread of education among them, the influence of the priests, which had always owed much of its force to superstitious ignorance, began to fail. Political and religious unity had formed a basis for a national spirit, such as had never existed before, and which now began to exhibit itself in sundry mani- festations of a desire for independence. There was no place for the old-time friar in the new order of things. He had become an anachronism. Even though he had been willing, he was quite unable to adapt himself to the changed conditions. The very 140 THE PHILIPPINES. forces that operated against him were of his own cre- ation. The fanaticism of the friars often led them into serious errors of judgment, but no matter how severely we may condemn the resultant acts, we must admire the splendid courage displayed in the prosecution of their convictions, which finds a striking illustration in the story of the attempted conversion of Japan. ATTEMPTS TO CHRISTIANIZE JAPAN. At the close of the sixteenth century the Emperor of Japan, whose people had for long maintained trade relations with Luzon, sent an ambassador to Manila. He w r as well received and the Governor- General in turn despatched an embassy to Japan, where a commercial treaty was effected and the Spanish representatives set sail for the Philippines, accompanied by a party of Japanese nobles and mer- chants, but the ship with all hands went down upon the way. A second expedition was despatched, and on this occasion the purpose of proselyting was dis- tinctly provided for. Fray Pedro Bautista was ap- pointed ambassador, and his suite included three other priests. A new treaty of .commerce was entered into and Bautista secured permission for himself and his fellow priests to remain indefinitely in Japan and to build a church near Osaka. A Portuguese settlement of traders had been es- tablished for many years at Nagasaki, where they had ATTEMFfS TO CHRISTIANIZE JAPAN. 141 a Jesuit Mission, whose priests had apparently con- ducted their affairs and effected their conversions with the tactful diplomacy characteristic of the members of the Order of Jesus, for they seem to have had no friction with the J apanese authorities. Bautista and his companions did not observe the same prudence in their actions, and soon incurred the displeasure of the Emperor on account of their too open and zealous proselyting. An order of expulsion was issued against them, but, although their leader set sail for Manila, the other three Franciscans remained. One of them was thrown into prison and his colleagues be- came refugees. Fray Bautista's return to the Philip- pines did not betoken abandonment of the project by any means. In fact, his purpose was solely to secure reinforcements, and he soon landed in Japan again with a number of friars. This proceeding, in the face of his prohibition, seriously angered the Em- peror, who ordered the arrest of all the Franciscan priests and their native followers. Twenty-six of these, including Pedro Bautista, were put to an ignominious death. After their ears and noses had been cut off they \vere paraded about the country and finally crucified at Nagasaki. Meanwhile no restric- tions were put upon the priests of the Portuguese settlement. The horrible end of the Franciscan missionaries, far from deterring their brethren from similar ef- forts, seems to have created a zealous enthusiasm. 142 THE PHILIPPINES. Xumbers of priests in the guise of traders succeeded in landing in Japan, and for twenty years or more the influx continued, despite that they were killed whenever discovered. At length the Emperor was forced to issue an edict imposing the penalty of death upon all who might carry priests to the country and the forfeiture of any ship in which a priest had come. This led the owners of vessels to decline to convey missionaries to Japan, and the Archbishop and Governor added their prohibition. j^ot deterred by these difficulties the heads of the Orders bought a vessel and paid a large premium to the crew to carry a number of friars and smuggle them into Japan. Ten priests were thus landed and shortly afterwards met death at the stake. Following this disaster $10,000 was subscribed in Manila for the purpose of shipping another party of would-be martyrs to Japan. On this occasion thirty-six priests, a greater number than had ever sailed at one time before, embarked, but the vessel was wrecked upon the coast of Ilocos. A large junk was next prepared at a distance from Manila for the same purpose, but before it could sail the Governor interfered and from that time strictly interposed his power and authority against further missionary enterprise in the same direction. Thus after forty years' endeavor the Philippine friars aban- doned the project of Christianizing Japan only when it was physically impossible to proceed with it. DUTCH ATTACKS UPON THE COLONY. 143 DUTCH ATTACKS UPON THE COLONY. During the sixteenth and the first half of the fol- lowing century Spain and Holland were bitter ene- mies, and their fleets were constantly in collision. Dutch privateers infested the waters about the eastern possessions of Spain. They lay in wait for the Span- ish treasure galleons from Mexico, and occasionally secured a rich prize. On the other hand, the Span- iards in the Philippines from time to time fitted out expeditions to attack the Dutch settlements in the Moluccas. During the Governorship of Juan de Silva (1609- -1616) a Dutch squadron anchored off the entrance to Manila Bay. It happened that owing to recent losses by shipwreck and the absence of several vessels the naval forces of the Philippines were unusually weak and in no condition to withstand the enemy. The Dutchmen lay in the path of Chinese and Japanese traders and secured an immense booty. In this oc- cupation several months passed and meanwhile the Spaniards were enabled to prepare an armament. The Governor took advantage of the superstitious fail- ings of the age to pretend a dream in which Saint Mark had appeared to him and promised aid against the enemy. For several days previous to the battle holy images and relics were exposed to public view and carried in procession through the city. The clergy exhorted the populace and did much to dispel the prevailing dread. 144 THE PHILIPPINES De Silva had determined to risk everything upon the impending fight, and in the event of a decisive victory by the Dutch, Manila must have fallen into their hands. The Governor took the command in person and embarked all the available Spaniards, to the number of one thousand, together with a large force of natives, upon the eight ships which formed the line of battle. The Battle of Playa Hondo was fought on Saint Mark's day. After a fierce fight, that lasted for six hours, the Dutch were completely defeated, three of their ships were destroyed, and merchandise to the value of $300,000 was captured. In 1626 the Spaniards from the Philippines made a settlement upon the island of Formosa, but it was neglected, and in 1642 fell into the hands of the Dutch, who held it until they were driven out by the Chinese about twenty years later. INFLUX OF CHINESE TRADERS. With a view to the development of the commerce of the islands Legaspi encouraged the Chinese traders and passed protective measures for their benefit. Pre- vious to this the dealings of Chinese traders had been conducted on board their junks, and even that precaution did not save them from being occasionally boarded and pillaged by the natives. In time the Chinese gained sufficient confidence to come ashore with their wares, and before the close of the sixteenth INFLUX OF CHINESE TRADERS. 145 century they were paying rent for the land they oc- cupied. As the numbers of Chinese merchants in Manila grew, the Government provided thorn with a large building, which was called the Alcayceria. This was a large square of shops with a dwelling room above each. It was opened in 1580 in the section of Bi- nondo. Later on, when the Chinese had outgrown the Alcayceria, another and much larger center was provided for them. This was the celebrated Parian, or market place, which was demolished by order of the Government in 1860. In the middle of the sixteenth century the Span- iards were alarmed by the threatened invasion of the Chinese who had wrested Formosa from the Dutch settlers. The apprehension of the residents of Manila was increased by the presence in their midst of a large body of Mongols with whom no ties had been formed. With a view to disposing of this internal danger be- fore the arrival of the expected enemy, the Chinese traders of the Parian were incited to an act of vio- lence. This was made the pretext for turning artil- lery upon the quarter. A great number, probably thousands, of the Mongols \vere killed in the assault that followed. In the opinion of Juan de la Con- cepcion it had been the original intention of the Spaniards to slaughter all the Chinese, who numbered about ten thousand, but they were restrained by the thought of the loss to themselves that would inevitably 10 146 THE PHILIPPINES. ensue, for, as the historian says, "without the trade and commerce of the Chinese these dominions could not have subsisted."* In addition to the foreign trade which was conducted by them, almost all the mechan- ical industries of Manila were in the hands of the Chinese. In 1603 a serious uprising of the Chinese oc- curred. It seems impossible to learn the true cause that led to this appalling affair, but it would appear that the rapid growth of the Mongol colony had ex- cited the apprehensions of the Spaniards with whom the fear of a Chinese invasion was a periodical night- mare from the time of Li Ma Hung's incursion. On this occasion a crisis was reached when two mandarins arrived in the Philippines as ambassadors from the Emperor of China. After their departure prepara- tions for defense were pushed with feverish haste. Troops were drilled, arms and artillery were over- hauled, and the natives were ordered to carry their weapons constantly. The Chinese in Manila looked upon these preparations as a menace to themselves, as no doubt they were, and proceeded to raise for- tifications outside the city. Finally the frightened Chinese began hostilities by burning houses in the suburbs and threatening the city. Of a picked body of one hundred Spanish troops led by an ex-governor- *Historia General de Philipinas. Juan de la Concepcion. 14 Vols. Manila, 1788. Dela Concepcion estimates the number of Chinese in the Philippines in 1638 at 33,000. INFLUX OF CHINESE TRADERS. 147 general, which was sent against them, hardly one escaped with his life. Elated by this victory, the Chinese proceeded to lay siege to the city, and a long struggle ensued, in which they were finally repulsed and fled. They were pursued for miles, and utterly scattered. It is said that upwards of eighteen thou- sand Chinese were slain in this uprising. In 1639, and again in 1660, similar outbreaks occurred, and were only quelled after thousands of the Orientals had lost their lives. In 1755 it was resolved to expel and to ex- clude all non-Christian Chinese. Before the date of its execution this decree was evaded by a large number, who became baptized, or signified their inten- tion to do so. The order of expulsion was enforced against upwards of two thousand residents, and for a time newcomers were rigidly excluded. In 1763 the Chinese joined the British invaders, and as a consequence great numbers of them were killed in the provinces where the Spaniards retained control of the country. Foreman* says: "Except a few Europeans and a score of Western Asiatics, the Chinese who remained were the only merchants in the Archipelago. The natives had neither knowledge, tact, energy, nor de- sire to compete with them. They cannot at this day do so successfully, and the Chinese may be considered *The Philippine Islands. John Foreman, F. R. G. S New York, 1899. 148 THE PHILIPPINES. a boon to the colony, for without them, living would be much dearer, commodities and labor of all kinds more scarce, and the export and import trade much em- barrassed. The Chinese are really the people who gave to the natives their first notions of trade, indus- try, and fruitful work. They taught them, amongst many other useful things, the extraction of saccharine juice from sugar-cane and the working of wrought iron. They introduced into the colony the first sugar-mills with vertical stone crushers and iron boiling-pans." The history of the last hundred and fifty years shows that the Chinese, although tolerated, were al- ways regarded by the Spanish colonists as an unwel- come race, and the natives have learned from example to despise them. From time to time, especially since the year 1763, the feeling against them has run very high. During the nineteenth century the status of the Chinese was much improved. Many of them have adopted Christianity and have married native women. Important Government contracts have at times been made with Chinamen, and some few have received public recognition in the form of decorations and titles. Their numbers have steadily increased since the enactment of the exclusion law in the eighteenth cen- tury, many ways of evading which have been devised by the wily Oriental. That the influx has continued SPANIARDS' CONTACT WITH THK MOHOS. 149 during recent years is shown by the Census return of over forty thousand Chinese of foreign birth. THE SPANIARDS COME INTO CONTACT WITH THE MOROS. During the early years of the Spanish occupation no attention was paid to Mindanao and the Sulu Archipelago, and the Moros on their part seemed to have refrained from encroaching upon the islands under Spanish control. In 1596 a Portuguese* adventurer obtained the royal sanction to attempt the conquest of Mindanao. The expedition, which consisted of one vessel carrying men-at-arms and the invariable complement of priests, ended disastrously. The commander and several of the soldiers were killed and the ship returned to Manila, having accomplished nothing more than arousing the resentment of the Muhammadans. From this time commenced the troubles with the southern natives, which continued over a period of two hundred and fifty years. Hitherto the piracy, which w^as the chief occupation of those people, had been confined to the waters adjacent to their own ter- ritory, but they now began to extend their depreda- tions to the northern islands. The sultans of Min- danao and Sulu entered into an offensive and de- fensive alliance against the Spaniards and co-operated *From 1581 to 1640, Portugal was an appanage of the Spanish Crown. 150 THE PHILIPPINES. in the organization of piratical expeditions. They never lacked for men to man their ships from a popu- lation of sea-faring freebooters by heredity, and they were well armed. No portion of the Archipelago was free from the incursions of the Muhammadans, who swooped, in their war junks, upon coast towns, plun- dered and burned, and were at sea again before any punitive force could reach the spot. The principal part of their booty consisted of captives who were carried into slavery. Among these were sometimes white men, and priests were regarded as particularly desirable prizes. These depredations seriously impeded the devel- opment of coast towns and inter-island traffic. The effects were especially severe in the Visayas, some of the islands of which were almost depopulated in con- sequence, and all of their inhabitants were reduced to a condition of abject poverty, so that the Govern- ment was more than once constrained to remit all taxes. Each succeeding governor essayed the task of suppressing these marauders. Countless expedi- tions were despatched against them. They were at- tacked on land and at sea. A garrison was main- tained in Mindanao at great expense. All these meas- ures proved ineffectual to suppress the scourge, and it was not until the introduction of gunboats that the Spaniards succeeded in getting the upper hand. The Moros were never, however, subdued by the Span- iards. Some of the chiefs made nominal submission LO.MA CHURCH. This is oue of the churches that were originally built with an eye to defense, as may be seen from the high port-like windows and thick walls. It was the seem 1 of hard fighting in the Tagalog Eebellion. From Stereograph Copyright, by Underwood & Underwood, New York. THE BRITISH TAKE MANILA. 151 while retaining actual independence, and several cam- paigns were conducted in Mindanao during the last twenty years of Spanish occupancy of the Philip- pines. THE BRITISH TAKE MANILA. In 1762 England declared war against France and Spain, and a British fleet was despatched to the Philippines. It arrived in September of that year under Admiral Cornish, with General Draper in command of the troops. The British squadron anchored in Manila Bay and two officers were sent ashore to demand the surrender of the city, which was refused. The entire garrison of Manila at the time consisted of six hundred soldiers with eighty pieces of artillery, whilst the British force numbered three thousand seamen, fifteen hundred European soldiers, and about a thousand Sipahis. Troops were landed from the British vessels and a siege and bombardment of the city commenced. Dur- ing the first week of the attack the defenders were re- inforced by five thousand native troops, with whom an assault in three columns upon the British posi- tions was made. They were beaten back with loss and the natives dispersed through the province. On the 5th of October the British troops entered the walls of the city and upon the following day Manila was given up by the Archbishop, who was acting-Governor at this time. By the terms of this capitulation the 152 THE PHILIPPINES. entire Archipelago was surrendered and an indemnity of four millions of dollars was agreed upon. The day before the capitulation a judge of the Supreme Court, named Simon de Anda y Salazar, escaped in a native boat and fled to the Province of Bulacan, where he proclaimed himself Governor-General, and affected to ignore the action of the Archbishop. Simon de Anda raised troops among the natives and carried on a guerilla war until the British evacuated the islands, which they did early in 1764. During the period of something more than a year of British occupancy, Luzon was in a condition of extreme disturbance. In the provinces lawless- ness was rampant and necessarily unchecked. It was some years before the effects of this violent dis- turbance of the administration of government had subsided. The most notable of these affairs was the rising in Ilocos Sur under the leadership of one Diego de Silan, a native Christian. The city of Vigan was taken and sacked ; the friars were held for ransom and the surrounding neighborhood was pillaged. Silan made his headquarters at \ 7 igan and issued a manifesto in which he declared that Jesus of Nazareth was Captain-General of the district and that himself was His Alcalde. Silan sent a messenger to Manila conveying his acknowledgment of the sovereignty of the King of England, and the British Governor seems to have appointed him Alcalde Mayor. THE BRITISH TAKE MANILA. 153 This rebellion was only suppressed with the assas- sination of Silan in May, 1763. The Island of Luzon was not pacified until 1765, after the Spaniards had lost, according to Zuniga,* seventy of their countrymen and one hundred and forty native soldiers. The rebels are said, by the same authority, to have lost ten thousand lives in these uprisings. The conduct of Simon de Anda during this crisis in the affairs of the Colony met with the approval of the King, and a few years afterwards he was ap- pointed Governor-General. His first act was to wreak vengeance upon all who had opposed him in his self- constituted authority and upon others with whom his uncontrollable temper and imperious disposition had brought him in conflict. He imprisoned several mili- tary officers and officials, and others he sent back to Spain. He quarreled with the clergy, and in fact created enemies on all sides. The consequent spirit of unrest and hostility to the Executive spread from Manila to the provinces, and the term of Anda, whicli expired with his death in 1776, was marked by a num- * "Estadismo de las Islas Filipinas o mis viajes por este pais, por el Padre Fr. Joaquin Martinez de Zuniga, Augustino calzado. Publica esta obra por primera vez extensaniente anotada, W. E. Retana. Two Vols., 1893. Although written in 1803 and drawn upon by later writers, notably Buzeta, this valuable book remained in manuscript form for ninety years. 154 THE PHILIPPINES. her of riots and rebellions in different parts of the island. UPRISINGS OF THE NATIVES. The entire period of Spanish occupation of the Archipelago was marked by revolutionary movements and uprisings of more or less gravity in different parts of the islands. There were numerous causes for the spirit of discontent that led to these dis- turbances. Amongst the most important may be mentioned the system of encomiendas; conscrip- tion for military service ; enforced labor for the Gov- ernment without remuneration ; taxation and com- pulsory contributions to the Church ; the conduct of the friars and their exactions ; and the maladminis- tration of Spanish minor officials in the provinces. These causes led through many minor movements of a similar character in a gradually rising tide of rebellion to the Tagalog outbreak in 1896. In 1622 the natives of the island of Bohol broke into resistance to the missionaries. They burned sev- eral churches and otherwise inflicted damage upon the towns before they were subdued. A more serious rising in 1744 in the same island is said to have been occasioned by the tyranny of a priest who ab- rogated to himself the powers of a magistrate and caused natives to be confined at his pleasure. It seems that the priest had ordered the body of a native to lie unburied until it decomposed. The UPRISINGS OF THE NATIVES. 155 brother of the latter, a man named Dagohoy, killed the priest in revenge and raised the standard of revolt. A large number of disaffected natives joined the rebel, and the band maintained its independence for thirty-five years, during which time the Government frequently found it necessary to send troops against them. Finally Dagohoy and his followers surren- dered on condition of receiving a full pardon. Leyte was the scene of an insurrection in 1622, when it became necessary for the Governor of Cebu to reinforce the local Governor with forty vessels and troops before peace could be restored. In 1649 the Governor-General decided to press natives of Samar into service at the Cavite Arsenal. The result was a serious uprising under a native named Sumoroy. The rebels killed a priest and burned several churches before they took to the hills. This outbreak was only crushed with difficulty and not until the leader had been betrayed by some of his own people. The riots of 1649 extended to other provinces for the same reason. In Albay the natives rose ; in Mas- bate Island they killed a Spanish officer ; a priest was murdered in Zamboanga ; a Spaniard was assassinated in Cebu ; and several Europeans lost their lives in Caraga and Butuan. In 1660 the natives of Pam- panga and Pangasinan broke into revolt as the result of an order to cut timber for the Government. The insurgents formed three bodies aggregating upwards 156 THE PHILIPPINES. of ten thousand armed men under the leadership of "King" Malong. Ilocos province declared for the rebel chief and furnished him with a body of recruits. Reinforcements came in from every hand until Ma- long was enabled to take the field with forty thousand followers. Against this formidable uprising the Spaniards sent several detachments of troops and a flotilla of armed vessels. The insurgents were routed at all points and their leaders hanged. In 1823 a body of native troops, headed by a Creole officer named oSTovales, attempted to seize the capital and subvert the Government. In 1827 Cebu and several other towns of the island were the scenes of violent outbreaks, and in 1844 the Governor of Xegros Island was killed in a rising due, it is said, to the forced employment of State prisoners on the Gov- ernor's private account. What is known as the Cavite Insurrection occurred in 1872. A portion of the native troops was im- plicated in this affair. They, took possession of the Arsenal expecting to be supported by their accom- plices in Manila, but through some misunderstanding as to the signal for the uprising the plan for co- operation failed. The mutinous soldiers were soon suppressed. For alleged complicity in this affair Doctor Joseph Burgos and three other native priests were executed and several native clergy and laymen were banished from the country. The victims had made themselves UPRISINGS OF THE NATIVES. 157 odious to the Spanish clergy by demanding the en- forcement of the enactments of the Council of Trent, which would have required the friars to retire from their incumbencies to monastic life. There appears to be evidence that the friars insti- gated the Cavite outbreak with a view to inculpating the native priests. THE PASSING OF SPANISH DOMINION, IV. THE PASSING OF SPANISH DOMINION. Birth of the Katipunan The Patriot of the Philippines The Tagal Rebellion War with the United States The Treaty of Paris The Form of Spanish Administration The Encomenderos The Alcaldes The Provincial Gov- ernors Municipal Officials The Audencia Inadequate Reforms The Judicial System The Tardiness of Legal Processes. si > The severity of the Government in meting out pun- ishment to those suspected of implication in the Ca- vite disturbance had a deep and lasting effect upon the natives. They knew that it was due to the insistence of the friars, who had by this time established so complete an influence over the civil authorities that the former were justly held responsible for most of the abuses under which the people suffered. The eccle- siastics were the open opponents of reform, and from the inception of the Colony had thwarted most move- ments in that direction, whether emanating from the local, or the national, government. Toward the close of the Spanish regime in the islands, the friars had become fully aware of the widespread hatred for them- selves, which existed among all classes of the natives. The knowledge seems to have goaded them to a greater display of arrogance and to wholesale repris- als against all whom they knew or suspected to be inimical. 11 ( 161 ) 162 THE PHILIPPINES. Freemasonry had been introduced to the Philip- pines about ten years before the Cavite outbreak. The Roman Catholic Church is everywhere opposed to secret societies, and to the Freemasons most of all. BIRTH OF THE KATIPUNAN. The Insular lodges soon turned into political or- ganizations, and thus incurred the extra antagonism of the priests. The majority of those executed, and those exiled, on account of the Cavite insurrection were members of the Masonic body. Out of the Free- masons grew a number of independent societies, each more radical than its predecessors, culminating in the Katipunan. The members of this order were Tagals, mostly in the ranks of the working people; deter- mined, desperate men, who had nothing but their lives to lose. Their purpose was "to redeem the Philip- pines from its tyrants, the friars, and to found a communistic republic." In 1896 the Katipunan prob- ably numbered about fifty thousand members. It was the inciting factor in the Tagal Rebellion and the backbone of the movement. In 1895 and 1896 the authorities adopted the most severe measures to suppress the Katipunan, with pre- cisely the reverse effect to that intended. The friars, who often acted in the capacity of detectives for the civil power, caused the deportation of great numbers of suspects. Without entertaining the sentiment of patriotism THE PATRIOT OF THE PHILIPPINES. 163 in the broader sense, the Tagal has always evinced strong attachment to the soil and no penalty, short of death, could be more severe than exile from his native village. Sawyer* says : "The greatest and the best-founded complaint of the natives against the priests was that whoever displeased them, either in personal or money matters, was liable to be denounced to the authorities as a filibuster, and to be torn from home and family and deported to some distant and probably unhealthy spot, there to reside at his own cost for an indefinite time by arbitrary authority, without process of law. Such a punishment, euphoniously termed 'forced resi- dence,' sometimes involved the death of the exile and always caused heavy expense, as a pardon could not be obtained without bribing some one." THE PATRIOT OF THE PHILIPPINES. The most notable victim of this system of lawless persecution was Bizal, the hero patriot of the Philip- pines, who suffered deportation, and ultimately death, as a result of the machinations of the friars. Jose Rizal y Mercado was born about the year 1865, at Calamba, in Laguna Province. His father, a Filipino of some means, was able and anxious to afford him all possible facilities for acquiring a lib- eral education, especially after the boy had displayed *The Inhabitants of the Philippines. F. N. Sawyer. New York, 1900. 164 THE PHILIPPINES. unusual talent and application under the instruction of the Jesuits at Manila. He was sent to the Uni- versity of Madrid, from which he secured the degree of Doctor of Medicine and Philosophy. Later he prosecuted his studies in Paris and at various Ger- man universities, not without imbibing something of the socialistic ideas that pervaded those institutions at the time. The unhappy condition of his native land was the subject of Bizal's constant concern, and he pondered deeply upon the problem of its deliver- ance from the thraldom of the friars. Xeither then, nor at any later time, does Rizal appear to have har- bored any treasonable thoughts against the Spanish Government. Indeed, his last voluntary act was an exhibition of loyalty. But in his early years he be- came firmly convinced that the future prosperity of the Philippines depended upon its freedom from the domination of the friars, and he was ready to support any movement having that object in view. During Doctor Rizal's stay in Germany he pub- lished a romance entitled "Noli me tangere," in which the priests of the Philippines were depicted in an unattractive light and their worst practices ex- posed. This was followed by another political novel on somewhat similar lines. The books were written in Spanish and were doubtless widely read amongst the class which was held up to odium in them. Upon his return to the islands, shortly after the publication of these works, Rizal further excited the THE PATRIOT OF THE PHILIPPINES. 165 enmity of the ecclesiastical body by disputing the title of the Dominican Order to certain lands which they occupied in his native town. He also allied him- self with other patriots of similar disposition and founded the "Liga Filipino," a secret society, most of the members of which were Freemasons. The prin- cipal article of their program was the "expulsion of the friars, and confiscation of their estates." At length it became patent to Rizal that his safety depended upon leaving the country. He returned to Europe, and during his absence his relatives and the chief families of Calamba were evicted without notice or compensation from the holdings they rented from the religious order. In 1893 Rizal took up his residence in Hong Kong with the intention of following his profession. He appears to have received the assurance of the Governor-General, through the Spanish Consul, that he might return to the Philippines with confidence as to his personal safety. It is hardly probable that without some such guarantee he would have ven- tured to land openly at the capital and less probable that he would have included in his luggage revolu- tionary literature. However, he was immediately arrested upon the charge that the Custom House of- ficers had discovered seditious proclamations amongst his effects. Rizal was tried and sentenced to an indefinite term of "enforced residence" at Dapitan, on the north 1G6 THE PHILIPPINES. shore of Mindanao Island. In July, 1896, he peti- tioned the Governor-General to be permitted to go to Cuba and serve the Government as an army doc- tor. His request was granted, and he proceeded to Manila, arriving, by unfortunate chance, just as the Rebellion broke out. Ere this the name of Rizal had become a power with his countrymen, and his exile had strenghtened, rather than relaxed, his hold upon their memories and affections. Emilio Aguinaldo had not yet come into the public view, and there was at this time no Filipino whose influence over the masses could have been as great as that of Rizal. His presence in the capital at this juncture excited the apprehension of the authorities and he was shipped to Spain at the earliest possible opportunity. In view of succeeding events it is well to note that Rizal carried commendatory letters from Governor- General Blanco to the Minister of War and to the Minister of the Colonies. They were similar in strain and recited that: "I recommend to you with real in- terest Dr. Jose Rizal, who leaves for the Peninsula to place himself at the disposal of the Government as volunteer army doctor in Cuba. His conduct during the four years he has been in exile in Dapitan has been exemplary, and he is, in my opinion, the more worthy of pardon and benevolence, because he is in no way associated with the extravagant attempts which we are now deploring, neither in conspiracy nor in the secret societies which have been formed." THE PATRIOT OF THE PHILIPPINES. 167 Had he wished, Blzal might have left the steamer at Singapore as his companion and fellow-patriot Rojas did. Upon his arrival at Barcelona, Rizal was arrested and confined in the fortress of Montjuich. Charges had been formulated against him by his relentless enemies, the friars, and cabled to the authorities in Spain. At the close of the year 1896 Rizal, a closely guarded state prisoner, was handed over to the Insular jurisdiction. By this time Blanco, whose humanity and sense of justice would at least have prevented the judicial murder of Rizal, had been recalled at the behest of the ecclesiastical party. Polavieja was at the head of the Insular Government and the country was under martial law. Rizal was hastily brought before a court-martial on the charges of sedition and rebellion. The testi- mony adduced by the prosecution was of the flimsiest character, and was amply refuted by Rizal, who con- ducted his own defense with ability and eloquence. Considering the fact that he had been virtually a state prisoner for close upon five years and that it was physically impossible for him to have taken any active part in the rebellion, it is difficult to see how the charges could have been substantiated. Neverthe- less, Rizal was convicted and sentenced to be shot. The execution was carried out on the last day of the year 1896. The death of Rizal was one of several similar acts 168 THE PHILIPPINES. in which the priests allowed their hatred to get the better of their judgment, and brought upon themselves a copious harvest of vengeance. The affair created a more profound impression upon the Filipinos than even the execution of Doctor Burgos. THE TAGAL REBELLION. In August, 1896, the smouldering fire of discon- tent burst into flame. At the time of the outbreak of the Tagal Rebellion, General Blanco, the Governor- General, had but fifteen hundred European troops and six thousand native auxiliaries at his command. Of the former only seven hundred were in Manila and the loyalty of the latter was doubtful. Under these circumstances the General was forced to confine his operations to the defense of the city, around which several skirmishes took place during the first few months following the inception of the rebellion. Meanwhile the rebels were making good use of the respite. They established their headquarters in Imus, of the province of Cavite, which became the most important center of the rebellion. In November Blanco had received from Spain ad- ditions to his force, which brought the European con- tingent up to ten thousand, and he began to extend his operations, but he was recalled before any con- siderable headway had been made against the insur- rection. In the meantime the prisons of Manila were THE TAGAL REBELLION 169 crowded with natives suspected of sympathy with the insurgents. All process of law was disregarded in their arrests, and their disposition by court-martial was equally summary. This military tribunal is strongly suspected of extortion in collusion with some of the civil authorities. Hundreds of the wealthi- est natives and mestizos of Manila were brought be- fore it and many of them are known to have pur- chased their release, in some instances only to go through the process again in a few weeks' time. Ship- loads of prisoners were consigned to the Caroline Islands, Fernando Po, Ceuta, and other penal colo- nies. The Manila volunteers were allowed to make domiciliary searches without warrant and to perpe- trate the worst kind of outrages upon native resi- dents of both sexes. Numbers of suspects were exe- cuted without trial and not a few were tortured so that they became cripples for life. In fact, the acts of officials during this reign of terror equaled the deeds of the Inquisition at its worst. In December, Blanco was succeeded by General Polavieja, who brought with him two thousand fresh troops and who was rapidly reinforced until the num- ber of European soldiers under his command amounted to twenty-eight thousand. Several engagements were fought with the result that the insurgent forces in Cavite were dispersed after fifty-two days of hard and continuous fighting. The scene of the insurrection now shifted to the north 170 THE PHILIPPINES. of Manila. During the operations in Cavite a half- caste named Llaneras had raised a body of a few thousand in the provinces of Pampanga and Bulacan and had contrived to withstand the Spanish force sent against him. He was now joined by Aguinaldo with the remnant of the rebel army from the south. Immediately following the junction of the two chiefs the area of rebellion spread over the provinces of Pangasinan, Zambales, Nueva Ecija, Tarlac, and Ilocos. Meanwhile General Polavieja had retired on account of failing health and his place was taken by General Primo de Rivera. In July, 1897, the rebels circulated a proclamation in which was set forth their demands as follows : 1. Expulsion of the friars and restitution to the townships of the lands which the friars have ap- propriated, dividing incumbencies held by them, as well as the episcopal sees, equally between Peninsular and Insular secular priests. 2. Spain must concede to us, as she has to Cuba, Parliamentary representation, freedom of the press, toleration of all religious sects, laws common with hers, and administrative economic autonomy. 3. Equality in treatment and pay between Peninsu- lar and Insular civil servants. 4. Restitution of all lands appropriated by the friars to the townships, or to the original owners, or, in default of finding such owners, the State is to put them up to public auction in small lots of a value THE TAGAL REBELLION. 171 within the reach of all and payable within four years, the same as the present State lands. 5. Abolition of the Government authorities' powers to banish citizens, as well as all unjust measures against Filipinos; legal equality for all persons, whether Peninsular or Insular under the civic as well as the Penal Code. The conflict dragged on without prospect of ter- mination. Each day made it more clear to the Gov- ernor that, even if the rebels failed to make any headway, they could at least hold out indefinitely. In this dilemma General Rivera decided to resort to diplomacy. He employed a Filipino, named Pedro Paterno, to open negotiations with the insurgent chiefs. After pourparlers extending over three or four months the Pacto de Biac-na-bato was signed, December 14, 1897, between Emilio Aguinaldo and other chiefs, representing the rebels, and Pedro A. Paterno, as attorney for the Captain-General. The terms of this agreement remain in dispute. The insurgents, whilst charging the Spaniards with bad faith in the matter, never published anything pur- porting to be a literal copy of, or extract from, the compact. The Spaniards have always claimed that the monetary consideration was the only one conceded. The insurgents have persistently main- tained that reforms and a general amnesty were con- ditions of their surrender, and it seems highly proba- ble that the latter at least must have been promised 172 THE PHILIPPINES. to them. It is a singular fact that the originals of this treaty have never seen the light. The most likely hypothesis appears to be that the Governor-General cunningly inserted a clause to the advantage of the rebel leaders which they dared not divulge to their followers, and that the Spaniards, having broken their part of the compact, were equally concerned in keep- ing the details of it secret. The insurgents gave up their arms and on the 27th of December, 1897, Aguinaldo and thirty-four other leaders embarked for Hongkong. One instalment, representing about one-fifth of the total amount of money promised, was all that the insurgent leaders ever received. A wholesale persecution of those who had taken part in the rebellion followed the surrender and many executions took place. WAR WITH THE UNITED STATES. War was declared between Spain and the United States on the 23d of April, 1898. In Manila prepara- tions were made in feverish haste to withstand the American fleet which was known to be at Hongkong. The defenses of the city were in a lamentably deficient state. The land batteries were short of their comple- ment of guns and such as were mounted were out- of-date and encrusted with rust. Material for con- structing mines was lacking and the torpedoes on hand proved to be defective and useless. Augusti, who had succeeded Rivera as Governor-General, issued a bom- WAR WITH THE UNITED STATES. 173 bastic proclamation in which he characterized the Americans as a composition of "all the social excres- cences/' and declared their squadron to be "manned by foreigners possessing neither instruction nor dis- cipline." He sought to lull the apprehensions of the citizens with this assuring declaration: "The ag- gressors shall not profane the tombs of your fathers, they shall not gratify their lustful passions at the cost of your wives' and daughters' honor, or appropriate the property that your industry has accumulated as a provision for your old age. No! they shall not per- petrate any of the crimes inspired by their wickedness and covetousness because your valor and patriotism will suffice to punish and abase the people who ex- terminated the natives of North America instead of bringing to them the life of civilization and progress." The American fleet entered Manila Bay at three o'clock on the morning of May the first, and found the Spanish squadron ranged round the point of the peninsula of Cavite. The Spaniards, under Admiral Montojo, displayed the utmost bravery, but they were completely outmatched, and by eleven o'clock every one of their vessels was either destroyed or disabled. Admiral Dewey's demand for the surrender of Manila met with a refusal, but Cavite was evacuated and the Americans took possession of the arsenal and forts. There is no doubt that the Spaniards might easily have been shelled out of Manila, but in that case they would most assuredly have been massacred by 174 THE PHILIPPINES the insurgents, large bodies of whom hemmed the city in on all sides, for Admiral Dewey had neither troops to hold the capital nor to overpower the rebels in case of a conflict with them. Throughout the succeeding operations not the least difficult task of the American commanders lay in preventing the Spaniards from falling into the hands of their enemies. Believing that Aguinaldo might be usefully em- ployed in controlling the insurgents, Admiral Dewey had brought him from Hongkong and he, with other leaders, was now landed and supplied with arms and ammunition. With thirty thousand rebel troops Aguinaldo laid siege to Manila, whilst the American squadron blockaded the port. For three months, and until the : arrival of the American generals with rein- forcements, Aguinaldo's force contrived to repel all sorties from Manila and to cut the city off from out- side communication. In the provinces the Spaniards were almost everywhere defeated and large numbers were taken prisoner. By the middle of June two- thirds of Luzon was in the possession of the rebels, and on the 18th of that month Aguinaldo summoned deputies to a congress and formed what was called the Revolutionary Government. This body admin- istered a large portion of the island, maintained order, and collected taxes. Upon the 12th of August, 1898, the Protocol providing for the appointment of com- missioners to conclude a treaty of peace was signed in Washington. Upon the night of the same date the FJI.TH.YA \Yo.\n Those arc typical full-bloodo/l Tagals in tlic nnivi-rsal nine of the bettor class. The portraits are those of two school-teacher-. From Stereograph Copyright. \>y Underwood & t'mlerwood. Xew York. WAR WITH THE UNITED STATES. 175 Spaniards made an attack in force upon the American lines without the city and some hours of fierce fight- ing ensued. On the following day the combined land and sea forces of the Americans, with the co-operation of the insurgent army, made a vigorous attack upon the city. About mid-day Manila surrendered and terms of capitulation were negotiated between Gen- eral Greene and General Jaudenes, the rhetorical August! having fled aboard a German cruiser before the cessation of fighting. The articles of capitula- tion included the surrender of the Philippine Archi- pelago. Previous to the attack upon the capital the Amer- ican commander instructed Aguinaldo that his troops would not be permitted to enter the city, and the prohibition was continued in force after Manila fell. A few days later a provisional agreement was entered into, by the terms of which the Americans retained jurisdiction over Manila and the surrounding dis- tricts whilst the rest of the island remained under the control of the Revolutionary Government. Aguinaldo selected Malolos for the temporary cap- ital of the insurgent government, and a Congress convened there on the 15th of September. Pedro A. Paterno was elected President and Deputies Legardo and Ocampo were elected Vice-President and Secre- tary respectively. One of the first decrees of this Congress imposed compulsory military service upon every able-bodied Filipino over the age of eighteen. 176 THE PHILIPPINES. Aguinaldo was retained in the position of Generalis- simo with a salary of $25,000 and an allowance of $50,000 for expenses. The proceedings of this Con- gress indicate that its members confidently expected that the independence of the Philippines would be a provision of the pending treaty of peace, or follow their cession to the United States. THE TREATY OF PARIS. The treaty of peace between the United States and Spain was signed at Paris by the respective commissioners on the 10th day of December, 1898, and ratified by their governments a few months later. Spain agreed to cede to the United States the Philip- pine Archipelago in consideration of receiving $20,- 000,000. Article 8 of the Treaty declares that "the abandonment and cession stipulated shall in no way affect the property and rights accorded by custom or law to the peaceful holders of goods of any sort in the provinces, cities, public or private establish- ments, civil or ecclesiastical corporations, or any other collectively which has any legal right to acquire goods, or rights in the ceded or abandoned territories, and the same applies to the rights and properties of indi- viduals of every nationality whatsoever." Article 9 recites that "Spanish subjects born in the Peninsula and resident in the territories, the sover- eignty of which Spain abandons, or cedes, may remain in, or go away from, those territories and still hold, THE TREATY OF PARIS. 177 in either case, their property rights as well as the right to sell, or dispose of, the real estate, or its produce. They shall also have the right to follow their trades, or professions, subject to the laws affect- ing all other foreigners." It is easy to comprehend the grief and anger with which the Filipinos learned the terms of the Treaty of Paris. Apparently the friars were as firmly entrenched as ever. The Americans had given them a title to the lands which the natives protested had been stolen from their rightful owners. Their arch- enemy w r ith whom they had struggled for many years appeared to have the support of the powerful Gov- ernment of the United States, for no intimation of the ultimate action of the American authorities in the disposition of the friars' lands had as yet been given. The insurgent leaders were thoroughly disgusted with the turn of events, and it must be confessed that they had no little ground for their discontent. The money which they had received from the Spanish Government ($400,000) as a condition of surrender in 1897, had been carefully husbanded for the future struggle that they anticipated and had been expended in their operations supporting the American invasion. There is no doubt that someone, who they had reason to suppose was authorized to speak for the American Government, had assured the Junta Patriotica in Hongkong that they might look for the independence 178 THE PHILIPPINES. of the Philippines to follow American success in wresting the islands from Spain. The expectations of the Filipinos were strengthened by Admiral Dewey's action in bringing Aguinaldo and his lieu- tenants to Manila in an American war vessel; in supplying them with arms; and in employing them" in the ensuing campaign. The services rendered by the insurgents during the three months that the Amer- ican fleet lay in Manila Bay, quite unable for lack of troops to take advantage of the naval victory, should not be lightly estimated. Even after the ar- rival of reinforcements from America, the revolution- ary forces afforded valuable assistance in the reduc- tion of the city and afterwards in holding the island and maintaining order. To have granted independence to the Philippines at that time would have been to visit the people with a greater misfortune than a continuance of the rule of the friars, and it is well that the American Gov- ernment did not entertain either idea. But it can hardly be questioned that both policy and justice de- manded prompt and substantial recognition of the services of the leaders in the Filipino rebellion. Had this been done it is probable that Aguinaldo and his companions could have been induced to lay down their arms and to submit to the authority of the American Government. That they continued the contest for the possession of their country a contest in which they had already sacrificed fifty thousand lives is THE TREATY OF PARIS. 179 not to their discredit. Senator Hoar, addressing Congress on the subject, said : "Mr. President, there is one mode by which the people of the Philippine Islands could establish the truth of the charges as to their degradation and incapacity for self-government which have been made by the advocates of Imperalism in this debate, and that mode is by submitting tamely and without resistance to the United States." There had been serious f rictio.n, bordering at times upon open rupture, between the American and in- surgent troops from the time of the arrival of the former, but it was not until February, 1899, that the ill-advised and hopeless armed opposition of the Filipinos to the United States Government began. It is impossible to determine the responsibility for the immediate outbreak. Each side accused the other of undue precipitancy and aggravation, but the ques- tion is of little consequence. The subjugation of the insurrectos was accom- plished under extreme difficulties. The native troops maintained a guerilla war for years, retreating to the mountains, or the jungle, when pressed, and only attacking in overwhelming numbers. The capture of Aguinaldo broke the back of the resistance, and al- though a few armed bodies remained at large in dif- ferent parts of the Archipelago, the Philippine Com- mission was able to certify on September the llth, 1902, that "The recently existing insurrection of the Philippine Islands has ceased and a condition of 180 THE PHILIPPINES. general and complete peace has been established therein." At this point it may be well to sketch in outline the system of administration under the Span- iards. We shall thereby gain some idea of the task which was presented to the American Government upon taking over the islands, the extent of its achieve- ment up to the present, and the difficulties yet to be overcome. THE FORM OF 'SPANISH ADMINISTRATION. The supreme head of the Spanish administration of the Philippines was the governor-general. The commission of Legaspi authorized him to exercise judicial functions, to "hear, examine, and decide any civil, or criminal suit, and to administer over civil and criminal justice, in company with the officers of justice who may be appointed." For many years the judiciary formed a part of the executive govern- ment and always exercised considerable influence upon its actions. The governor-general was invested with despotic powers. He might remove any official at will, and expel any person from the islands. On the other hand, unless these powers were exercised in accord- ance with the will of the priests, the governor-gen- eral's tenure of office was likely to be cut short, and so if he endeavored to suppress the dishonesty and malfeasance of the civil officials. The term of office of the governor-general was three years, with a salary THE ENCOMENDEROS. 181 of $40,000 per annum, and liberal allowances. This, like all other appointments in the Philippines, was subject to wire-pulling and bribery in Madrid. Dur- ing later years all the civil posts in the islands were systematically farmed by the members of the Cortes and other influential persons at the Spanish capital. THE ENCOMENDEROS. As the country yielded to the Spaniards it was divided into provinces and military districts and these in their turn into encomiendas, patterned after the repartimentos of Spanish America. The holders of these sections of territory collected the Govern- ment tribute and as much else as they could exact from the natives on their own account. They prac- tically held the tributes in slavery and subjected them to the grossest cruelties. Bishop Salazar wrote to the King in 1583 regarding the encomenderos, "They collect tribute from children, old men, and slaves, and many remain unmarried because of the tribute, while others kill their children. . . . But the end is not here, but in the manner of collecting, for, if the chief does not give them as much gold as they demand, or does not pay for as many Indians as they say there are, they crucify the unfortunate chief, or put his head in the stocks. . . . What the encomendero does after having collected his tribute in the manner stated is to return home and for an- other year he neither sees nor hears of them. He 182 THE PHILIPPINES. takes no more account of them than if they were deer until the next year, when the same thing occurs." There is some satisfaction in the knowledge that sev- eral of the encomenderos fell victims to the wrath of the miserable tributes. THE ALCALDES. The encomenderos were succeeded by alcaldes, whose rule was less inhuman only because greater restraint was placed upon them. They had not, like their predecessors, the right to the fruits of the na- tives' toil, but they enjoyed the "indulto de comercio" or privilege of trading. This indulgence was never intended to act as a restriction upon the operations of the natives, but the alcaldes made it the medium for exercising a virtual monopoly and forced the na- tives to conduct all their transactions with them. The office of alcalde carried with it a salary of $300 a year and upwards. From this sum, however, taxes were deducted and the annual fee for the in- dulto, which usually amounted to nearly as much as the entire salary. Nevertheless the office of alcalde was much sought after and high prices were paid for the appointment. Mazorca stated, in 1840, that: "There are candidates up to the grade of Brigadier who relinquish a $3,000 salary to pursue their hopes and projects in Governorship." The alcaldes often found an additional source of profit in the collection of the Royal tribute. Silver being scarce in the in- THE ALCALDES. 183 terior the natives were frequently obliged to make payment in grain, or other produce. This the alcalde accepted at an arbitrary appraisement very much be- low the actual value and in accounting to the central authority made a personal profit of the difference. These men, to whose hands the functions of gov- ernment and the administration of justice were en- trusted, were generally ignorant, often brutal, and never honest. In 1810 Tomas de Comyn had the following to say of the alcaldes: "In order to be a Chief of a Province in these islands no training, or knowledge, or special services are necessary ; all per- sons are fit and admissible. . . . It is quite a common thing to see a barber, or a Governor's lackey, a sailor, or a deserter, suddenly transformed into an alcalde, Administrator, and Captain of the forces of a populous province, without any counsellor but his rude understanding, or any guide but his pas- sions." In 1844 a Royal Decree prohibited future trading on the part of any Government officials but the ad- ministration of the civil rule of provinces remained in the hands of Alcaldes-May ores, who exercised ex- ecutive and judicial functions. The situations some- times arising out of this anomalous condition might have furnished material for the libretto of a comic opera. The Alcalde-Mayor issued an order in his capacity of Governor. A protest was made to himself in the capacity of Judge. The Judge supported the 184 THE PHILIPPINES. Governor, and an appeal was taken to the central authority in Manila. The central authority referred the matter back to the Alcalde-Mayor for a report upon the actions of the Governor and the Judge. The only result of this circtimlocutionary proceeding was to put the composite official in possession of a list of complainants upon whom he could visit his dis- pleasure. In 1886, a much-needed reform was effected by the appointment of Civil Governors and the restric- tion of Alcaldes to judicial duties. Each Governor was provided with an assistant, who was styled Secre- tary, and whose most important duty was to act as a check upon his superior. THE PEOVINCIAL GOVERNORS. The Provincial Governor was the representative of the Governor-General; whose edicts he was expected to publish and enforce. He was charged with the maintenance of order and the control and direction of the Civil Guard and local constabulary. He was responsible for the proper performance of the duties of the petty municipal authorities, and he could re- move them at discretion. As chief of the police force, it was his duty to cause the arrest of suspicious persons and law-breakers, but he was bound to bring the suspect, or offender, before the judicial authority within three days of his seizure. The Governor had the powers of a police magistrate. He could dispose THE PROVINCIAL GOVERNORS. 185 of minor cases and might impose a fine not to exceed $60, and in default of payment he might order the offender to undergo imprisonment not to exceed thirty days. The Governor was responsible for the postal serv- ice and telegraph ; public lands, woods, forests and mines ; education, health, charities, and prisons ; pub- lic works, and the collection of taxes ; agriculture and industry. The Governor was not permitted to have any hand in the disposition of public funds. His provincial and municipal accounts were required to be coun- tersigned by his Secretary, who prefixed the word "Intervine" to his signature. The Governor was not allowed any of the percentages which the Alcaldes- Mayores formerly enjoyed, nor any emoluments be- yond his stipulated salary. Under these conditions the Provincial Governor was a great improvement over the Alcalde-Mayor, but it was mainly on account of negative qualities. Few Governors took an active interest in the betterment of their provinces, and, indeed, their scope of action was greatly restricted by circumstances. In the first place, the Governor found that peaceful administra- tion, and perhaps the retention of his office, de- pended upon the goodwill of the friars and conformity with their wishes. Loss of office might follow a change of ministry, the death or downfall of a patron, or the desire of some influential personage to make a 186 THE PHILIPPINES. place for a favorite. With such uncertainty as to the term of his official life it could hardly be expected that a Governor would devote himself very earnestly to schemes for the improvement of his province. He would seldom have the satisfaction of witnessing the fruition of his efforts, or even the assurance that his interrupted work would be carried on by his suc- cessor. As has been said, he had no control of the disposition of public revenues raised in his prov- ince, and which should, in large part at least, have been expended upon public works within the dis- tricts from which they were derived. All such moneys were, however, remitted to Manila, and by the central government diverted to other purposes, whilst the plans and estimates of provincial officials for roads and bridges were pigeon-holed. If a bridge broke down, so it remained, and the Government even made money out of the misfortune of the community by selling the right to establish a ferry. There was in each municipality a local tax termed "Caja de Com- munidad," a sinking fund, contributed by the peo- ple against a time of stress and need, but this found its way to Manila and was misappropriated. Foreman says that in 1887 the parish priest of Banan, Batangas Province, told him that although there must have been $300,000 paid into this fund up to the year 1882 by his parish alone, yet financial aid was refused by the Government during the cholera epidemic of that year. THE PROVINCIAL GOVERNORS. 187 To quote further from Foreman : "The 'Tribunal/ which served the double purpose of Town Hall and Dak Bungalow for wayfarers, was often a hut of bamboo and palm leaves, whilst others, which had been decent buildings generations gone by, lapsed into a wretched state of dilapidation. In some villages there was no Tribunal at all, and the official business had to be transacted in the municipal Governor's house. I first visited Calamba (on the Laguna de Bay shore) in 1880, and for fourteen years to my knowledge the headmen had to meet in a sugar-store in lieu of a Tribunal. In San Jose de Buenavista, the capital of Antique Province, the Tow r n Hall was commenced in good style and left half finished during fifteen years. Either some one for pity's sake, or the headmen for their own convenience, went to the expense of thatch- ing over half the unfinished structure. This half was therefore saved from utter ruin while all but the stone walls of the remainder rotted away. So it continued until 1887, when the Government authorized a por- tion of this building to be restored. "As to the roads connecting the villages, quite twenty per cent, of them serve only for travelers on foot, on horseback, or on buffalo back at any time, and in the wet season certainly sixty per cent, of all the Philippine highways are in too bad a state for any kind of passenger conveyance to pass with safety. In the wet season many times I have made a sea journey in a prahu simply because the highroad near 188 THE PHILIPPINES. the coast had become a mud track for want of mac- adamized stone and drainage, and only serviceable for transport by buffalo. In the dry season the sun mended the roads and the traffic over the baked clods reduced them more or less to dust so that vehicles could pass. Private property owners expended much time and money in the preservation of public roads, although a curious law existed prohibiting repairs to highways by non-official persons. "Every male adult, or resident (with certain ex- ceptions) had to give the State fifteen days' labor per annum or redeem the labor by payment. Of course thousands of the most needy class preferred to give their fifteen days. This labor and the cash paid by those who redeemed the obligation were theo- retically supposed to be employed in local improve- ments. "The Budget for 1888 showed only the sum of $120,000 to be used in road-making and mending in the whole Archipelago. "It provided for a Chief Inspector of Public Works with a salary of $6,500, aided by a staff of forty-eight technical and eighty-two non-technical subordinates. "As a matter of fact the Provincial and District Governors were often urged by their Manila chiefs not to encourage the employment of labor for local improvements, but to press the laboring classes to pay the redemption tax to swell the central coffers, re- gardless of the corresponding misery and discomfort MUNICIPAL OFFICIALS. 189 and loss of trade in the interior. But labor at the disposal of the Governor was not alone sufficient. There was no fund from which to defray the cost of materials ; or, if these could be found without pay- ment, some one must pay for the transportation by buffaloes and carts, and find the implements for the laborers' use. How could laborers' hands alone re- pair a bridge which had rotted away ? To cut a log of wood for the public service would have necessitated communications with the Inspection of Woods and Forests and other centres and many months' delay." MUNICIPAL OFFICIALS. Each township had its principales, or headmen, of whom there \vere twelve, elected by popular vote. From this body the petty local officials were chosen ; namely, the Gobernadorcillo, or "Petty Governor," and his lieutenants, the alguaciles, or constables, and other minor officers. For the maintenance of order, and for the protection of the town, chiefly against la- drones, there was a body of local police called cuadril- leros, who were generally armed with bolos and lances, but in the more important centers carried firearms. The Gobemadorcillos were responsible to the Pro- vincial Governor for the condition of affairs in their respective towns and for the due payment of taxes. The immediate collection of taxes was effected by the headman of each barangay, or hamlet, which was the municipal unit. The barangay consisted of 190 THE PHILIPPINES. from forty to fifty families, who were termed sdcopes. For the payment of the proper taxes of his sdcopes the headman was held responsible and a great deal of latitude was permitted in the methods of collection. The son of the Barangay Chief was recognized as his assistant, and both were exempt from taxation as remuneration for the performance of their duties. The office was hereditary, and on account of the unpleasant nature of its duties and the penalties at- tendant upon failure, was seldom desired, but it could not be avoided. Xo excuse was admitted for delin- quency on the part of the headsman. His goods were liable to be sold to make up a shortage in his returns, and that recourse failing, he would be cast into prison. The Gobernadorcillo disposed of petty disputes arising in his town, but when these assumed a legal aspect they were referred to the local Justice of the Peace, who was directly responsible to the Provincial Judge. The salary of a Gobernadorcillo was $2 per month, which, of course, fell very short of the actual ex- penses which he incurred in the performance of his duties, so that he was often forced to recoup himself by illegal exactions from the townspeople. The office carried with it the title of "Captain," and on that account was frequently sought by wealthy natives without regard to any profit that might be de- rived from it. Under this svstem of administration five or six Tin-; Yoi x<. IDJ:A. One of the municipal primary schools of Manila, with the scholars and native tcai-hcrs who arc 1 insl meting in English. I'rom Stereograpli Copyright, by Underwood & Underwood. Ni-w York. J MUNICIPAL OFFICIALS. 191 Spaniards would furnish the entire complement of European civil servants of a province. The salaries attached to all offices were very small. The system was therefore economical in the extreme, but the taxpayers derived no benefit from that circumstance. Every official, the native no less than the Spaniard, looked upon his position as a field for plunder. The reform of 1886 did not effect any improvement in this respect. In fact, one of its immediate results was to increase the number of the parasites who fas- tened upon the country and pilfered the funds that should have been applied to public works. Fre- quently officials retired to Spain with accumulations far in excess of the aggregate of their salaries for the term of office, and this despite the fact that in most cases they paid a large premium for the appointment, or remitted a considerable proportion of its emolu- ments to the patron annually. So universal was the corruption pervading the administration that it came to be regarded as a matter of course. Foreman re- lates that he "met at table a provincial chief judge, the nephew of a General, and other persons, who openly discussed the value of the different Provincial Governments (before 1884) in Luzon Island on the basis of so much for salary and so much for fees and 'caidas/ "* * Caidas, literally "droppings." This was the expressive term employed by the Spanish officials to denote what we would call "rake-offs." i92 THE PHILIPPINES. The office of Governor-General was not free from the taint. Sawyer, referring to what is practically a proven fact, says : "Weyler was said to have pur- chased the appointment from the wife of a great min- ister too honest to accept bribes himself, and the price was commonly reported to have been $30,000 paid down and an undertaking to pay the lady an equal sum every year of his term of office." Fore- man undoubtedly refers to the same individual when he writes: U A General who has quite recently made for himself a world-wide notoriety for alleged cruelty in another Spanish colony enriched himself by pecu- lation to such an extent that he was at his wit's ends how to remit his ill-gotten gains clandestinely. Finally he resolved to send an army Captain over to Hongkong with $35,000, with which to purchase a draft on Europe. The Captain left, but he never re- turned." If the story lacks anything of truth let us hope that it is only in an understatement of the sum involved. Worse, however, than the corruption that character- ized the civil departments of the administration was the shameful venality of the judicial branch from the supreme court to the provincial justice of the peace. THE AUDENCIA. The Audencia was established in 1584. It con- sisted of a president, that office being filled by the Governor-General ; three auditors, or associate jus- THE AUDENCIA. 193 tices; a fiscal, or prosecuting attorney, and minor auxiliary officials. The Audencia had jurisdiction in all cases that might be appealed from the provincial authorities. It acted as a court of first instances only in "cases which, on account of their importance, the amount involved, and the dignity of the parties, might be tried in a superior court, and criminal cases arising in the place where the court might meet." There was no appeal from the findings of the Audencia, except in civil cases of sufficient magni- tude to justify an appeal to the King. In the event of the inability of the governor to con- tinue his duties, the Audencia was empowered to as- sume the government. The Audencia had authority to summon citizens of the islands either in peace or war. The Audencia also had a certain degree of jurisdiction in matters ecclesiastical. The duties and functions of this body were multiplex and various, being judicial, legislative, and administrative in character. The Audencia soon incurred the displeasure of the priests, and their representations to the King resulted in the abolition of the body in 1589. It was, how- ever, re-established in 1598, and in 1776 its personnel was enlarged by the addition of several members. Previous to 1840 the Audencia had discretionary power over the retention and removal of judges and justices, thus subjecting them to an altogether unde- 13 194 THE PHILIPPINES. sirable influence. In that year a royal decree consid- erably curtailed that power. From time to time there have been changes in the composition and functions of the Audencia which it is not necessary to consider. INADEQUATE REFORMS. We have already noticed the alcaldes-may ores, the governor-judges of provinces. A royal decree of 1844 instituted a reform in the qualification and status of these officials. From that time the alcaldes were divided into three classes. Three years' service in each category was required for promotion to the next, and members of the highest grade were eligible for appointment to the post of justice. It was pro- vided that no person might be made alcalde unless he had practiced law for ten years, or had held an office for which a similar qualification was required. By the royal decree of 1860 the composite func- tions which had been performed by the alcaldes- mayores were separated, and thereafter their author- ity was restricted to judicial matters. All the ordi- nary jurisdiction and functions of a judge of first instance devolved upon an alcalde. Some governors continued to exercise similar functions. Courts of first instance, and governors exercising the functions of such, took cognizance of all criminal and civil cases arising Avithin their territories, except such as came under the jurisdiction of the ecclesiastical au- THE JUDICIAL SYSTEM. 195 thorities, or other special courts, and the audencias. They gave judgment in all civil cases in which the interest involved exceeded 1,000 pesetas. THE JUDICIAL SYSTEM. A royal decree of 1870 divided the provinces for the purpose of the administration of justice into judicial and municipal districts. Each district was given an audencia, each judicial district a court of first instance, and each municipal district a justice of the peace. The positions of judges were given to lawyers, or persons who had some professional, or academic title, or to those "whose position and circum- stances warranted" the appointment. As a rule, down to the end of the Spanish sover- eignty, the judges of the courts were Spaniards, and the entire judicial system, including the codes of civil and criminal law, followed closely, if not literally, the forms observed in Spain. These were charac- terized by many proceedings calculated to prolong litigation indefinitely, to add greatly to the expense of lawsuits, to keep prisoners in confinement for long periods, and to prevent the impartial and speedy administration of justice. Among other causes which were calculated to aug- ment the troubles and expenses of all litigants was the ignorance of the alcaldes-may ores, and of many of the judges of first instance, of the law and the proper mode of procedure, as these officials were ap- 196 THE PHILIPPINES. pointed as a rule for political reasons, or for almost any reason but proficiency, until after the separation of judicial and executive functions as already set forth. Again, the judges of first instance and fiscalcs had very small salaries, and municipal judges, and the clerks, and secretaries, of the courts had none at all, being dependent for remuneration upon official fees and such additional compensation as the liti- gants were willing and able to pay. The result was a great deal of corruption and extortion, and, taken in connection with the many legal obstructions always at hand and always resorted to by the dishonest and unscrupulous, made an appeal for redress to the courts so expensive as to be entirely beyond the reach of the average Filipino. Sawyer, whose opportuni- ties for experience were exceptional, compares the alcaldes' courts to those of the Chinese Yamens, and goes on to say that "bad as the alcaldes' courts were, T think that the culminating point of corruption was the Audencia of Manila. Escrllbano, dbogado, jucz, auditor, fiscal, vied with each other in showing that to them honor and dignity were but empty words. The records of these courts from the earliest times is one of long-continued infamy." The venality of the courts and their tortuous methods of procedure were only equaled by their tardiness of action. Saw- yer and Foreman each cite instances of deferred jus- tice which came under their personal observation and which it is safe to assert could not have occurred under any other civilized government in the world. TARDINESS OF LEGAL PROCESSES. 197 THE TARDINESS OF LEGAL PROCESSES. In 1888, Juan de la Cruz, a Filipino, was arrested upon a charge of murder and lodged in Cavite jail. Direct evidence against him was not forthcoming, although circumstances pointed strongly to his guilt. Witnesses were examined and their depositions taken, but the prisoner was not brought before the court. So months and years passed away and still Juan con- tinued in prison. "Judges came and judges went, but the trial came no nearer. Year after year a judge of the Audencia came in state to inspect the prisoners and year after year Juan was set down as await- ing his trial." Meanwhile some of the witnesses had left the islands and one, at least, was dead. In 1896 a Scotch engineer, who had not been in the Philippines at the time the crime was com- mitted, was cited by a judge and asked if he could identify the prisoner, ten years after his arrest. Juan de la Cruz was never tried. He may have died like many another prisoner awaiting judgment, or he may have been released when the rebels occupied Cavite. In 1884, a band of pirates raided the plantation of an Englishman in the province of Tayabas and committed several murders. Twenty-six of their number were captured and lodged in jail. To quote from Sawyer, "Year after year passed, still they re- mained in prison ; judges came, stayed their term, 198 THE PHILIPPINES. were promoted, and went, but still these men were never sentenced. In 1889 I visited Laguimanoc, . . this was five years after the date of the mur- ders; some of the prisoners had died in prison, the others were awaiting their sentence. ... A year later I again visited Laguimanoc, but the trial of the prisoners was no further advanced. No less than nine of them died in prison ; still no sentence was pronounced. ... A few years ago . . . the surviving prisoners were pardoned by the Queen Re- gent, on the occasion of the young King's birthday." Foreman says : " . Whoever might be the legal adviser retained, a criminal, or civil, suit in the Philippines was one of the worst calamities that could befall a man. Between notaries, procurators, so- licitors, barristers, and the sluggish process of the courts, a litigant was fleeced of his money, often wor- ried into a bad state of health, and kept in horrible suspense and doubt for years. When judgment was given it was as hard to get it executed as it was to win the case. Even then, when the question at issue was supposed to be settled, a defect in the sentence could always be concocted to reopen the whole affair. If a case had been tried and judgment given under the Civil Code a way was often found to convert it into a criminal case, and when apparently settled under the Criminal Code a flaw could be discovered, under the Laws of the Indies, or the Siete Partidas, or the Roman Law, or the Novisima Recopilacion, or TARDINESS OF LEGAL PROCESSES. 199 the Antiguos fueros, Decrees, Royal Orders, Orde- nanzas de buen Gobierno, and so forth, by which the case could be reopened." Foreman mentions the celebrated case of Jurado and Company versus the Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation, as an illustration of the delays and uncertainties attendant upon litigation in the civil courts. Suit was entered in the year 1884. "The Bank had agreed to make advances on goods to be imported by the firm in exchange for the firm's acceptance. ... In due course the Bank had reason to doubt the genuineness of certain documents. Mr. Jurado was imprisoned, but shortly released on bail. He was dismissed from his official post of sec- ond Chief of Telegraphs, worth $4,000 a year. Goods as they arrived for his firm, were seized and stored pending litigation, and deteriorated to only a fraction of their original worth. His firm was forced by these circumstances into liquidation and Jurado sued the Bank for damages. The case was open for sev- eral years, during which time the Bank coffers were once sealed by judicial w r arrant, a sum of cash was actually transported from the Bank premises, the Bank manager was nominally arrested, but really a prisoner on parole at his house. Several sentences of the court were given in favor of each party. Years after this they were all quashed on appeal to Madrid. Mr. Jurado went to Spain to fight his case. In 1891 I accidentally met him and his brother (a lawyer) in 200 THE PHILIPPINES. the street in Madrid. The brother told me the claim against the Bank then amounted to $935,000, and judgment for that sum would be given in a fortnight thence. Still years after that, when I was again in Manila, the case was yet pending and another on- slaught was made on the Bank. The Court called on the manager to deliver up the funds of the Bank. On his refusal to do so a mechanic was sent there to open the safes. This man labored in vain for a week. . . . At one stage of the proceedings the Bank especially retained a reputed Spanish lawyer, who went to Madrid to push the case. Later on a British Q. C. was sent over to Manila from Hongkong to ad- vise the Bank. The Prime Minister was appealed to ; the good offices of our Ambassador in Madrid were solicited. For a long time the Bank was placed in a most awkward legal dilemma. The other side con- tended that the Bank could not be heard, or appear by itself, or by proxy, on the ground that under its own charter it had no right to be established in Manila at all, etc. Half a dozen times over the case was supposed to be finally settled, but reopened again. Happily it may now (1899) be regarded as closed for- ever." It appears that after all the futile litigation this .case was finally settled out of court. AMERICAN ADMINISTRATION. V. AMERICAN ADMINISTRATION. The Central Government and Legislative Authority Pro- vincial and Municipal Governments Administration of Justice Civil Service System The Education of the Filipinos Means of Communication Foreign Commerce Sources of Revenue Navigation, Health, etc. Manila Bonded Indebtedness The Census of the Philippine Islands A Model Proclamation American Census Meth- ods Followed Novel Experiences of Census Agents Great Scope of the Census. "The Philippines are ours, not to exploit, but to develop, to civilize, to educate, to train in the science of self-government. This is the path of duty which we must follow, or be recreant to a mighty trust com- mitted to us. u The question is not will it pay, but rather will we do what is right." In these noble sentiments President McKinley gave expression to the policy of the American Gov- ernment toward the Philippines and their people. The high standard of conduct set by this platform has continued to characterize our rule in the Archi- pelago, and it is to be hoped that it will ever do so. Even at the best period of Spanish sovereignty the political and economic condition of the islands af- forded but a poor basis for the acquirement of ( 203) 204 THE PHILIPPINES. enlightened ideas upon government. There is every reason to believe that had the Filipinos secured their independence they would not, in the course of a long time, if ever, have brought their country to the state of reformation and advancement which has already been bestowed upon it under American administra- tion. Furthermore, it is unquestionable that the Fili- pinos would have been content with a much less de- gree of liberty and beneficent action than that which they have experienced. The most severe indictment of the American Gov- ernment by foreign observers rests upon the asser- tion that they have granted to the Filipinos more extensive freedom than they are capable of exercis- ing with good effect; that the policy of the Philip- pines for the Filipinos is founded upon an ''impossible and quixotic theory" ; and that the scheme of placing the "brown brother" upon a political equality with the white man is ill-advised and bound to result disastrously. Whether these are errors time alone can tell, but at worst they will prove to have been the outcome of benevolent misjudgment. Better a thousand times that we should be convicted of over-indulgence in our dealings with the natives than that an accusation of oppression, or unfairness, should be established against us. One thing is beyond dispute, and that is, that if the Filipinos should display ineptness under the present conditions of American guidance and con- INSULAR ADMINISTRATION. 205 trol their incapacity for self-government will be abso- lutely proved. By the terms of the Treaty of Paris, Avhich went into effect March 7, 1899, the Philippine Islands be- came a possession of the United Sta'tes. The Taft Commission was appointed by President McKinley, in March, 1900, from which time the civil adminis- tration of the territory dates. Let us see what has been done for the islands and their inhabitants in these five years of American rule :* "Peace has been restored to the islands, and in a greater degree and over a larger area than at any period during the centuries the Archipelago was subject to the sovereignty of Spain." THE CENTRAL GOVERNMENT AND LEGISLATIVE AUTHORITY. During the term of military administration not a little was accomplished in preparation for organizing and establishing civil government. The first efforts of the Taft Commission were directed toward perfect- ing and extending this work under instructions from the President contained in a document dated April 7, 1900. This state paper, which was prepared by Hon. Elihu Root, as Secretary of War, has been character- * The following statements are a resume of a Senate Doc- ument (No. 304, Fifty-eighth Congress), printed from a report of the Bureau of Insular Affairs, dated 1904. 206 THE PHILIPPINES. ized by eminent authorities as "the most nearly per- fect example of organic law, jurisprudence, guarding of rights, distribution of powers, administrative pro- visions, checks and balances, civilization ever beheld in a single document." It was a constitution, a code judicial, a system of laws ready made, statutes ad- ministrative, covering all the activities of a nation and meeting wants and solving problems innumerable. It was a masterly summing up of the governing ex- perience of the self-governing people of the world, adapted to, and especially for, effective work in a given field. This "Magna Charta" of the Philippines has furnished the groundwork for a civic machinery which, after an amazingly brief constructive period, is moving so smoothly and effectively as to excite the wonder and admiration of all who are acquainted with it. The first step in the process was the separa- tion of the various functions of government, pre- viously centred in the military authority. To the latter was continued, for the time being, the executive powers; the legislative powers were conferred upon the Commission, and the judicial powers were trans- ferred to courts created by the action of the Commis- sion. The scope of the legislative authority conferred upon the Commission was defined in the instructions as follows: "Exercise of this legislative authority will include the making of rules and orders, having the effect of law, for the raising of revenue by taxes, INSULAR ADMINISTRATION. 207 customs, and duties, and imposts ; the appropriation and expenditure of public funds of the islands ; the establishment of an educational system throughout the islands; the establishment of a system to secure an efficient civil service ; the organization and estab- lishment of courts; the organization and establish- ment of municipal and departmental governments, and all other matters of a civil nature for which the military governor is now competent to provide by rules or orders of a legislative character." From the outset the legislative sessions of the Com- mission have been public, and their enactments have been printed in the form of bills. Matters of general public interest have been discussed by committees before which natives have been called to express their views. Ordinary legislative opportunities for amendment have been afforded and bills and amend- ments have been publicly debated and voted upon, and when passed have had the force and effect of statutes. During the year following its inception, the Com- mission enacted 263 statutes, every one of which re- ceived the approval of Congress. In 1901 a further extension of civil government was effected by the transfer to the Commission of the executive authority over all the pacified prov- inces of the islands. The Hon. William H. Taft was appointed Governor, and separate executive de- partments were created and assigned to members of the Commission as follows: Department of the In- 208 THE PHILIPPINES. terior, Dean C. Worcester ; Department of Commerce and Police, Luke E. Wright ; Department of Finance and Justice, Henry C. Ide ; Department of Public In- struction, Bernard Moses. At the same time, by appointment of the President, three distinguished Filipinos were added to the mem- bership of the Commission, namely, T. H. Pardo de Tavera, Benito Legarda and Jose Luzuriaga. The administrative duties of the government are distributed in the following apportionment : The Department of the Interior controls bureaus of health, forestry, mining, agriculture, fisheries, weather, public lands, ethnology, patents and copy- rights, quarantine service, government laboratories, and the marine-hospital corps. The Department of Commerce and Police embraces bureaus of inland and inter-island transportation, post-offices, telegraphs, coast and geodetic survey, en- gineering and construction of public works, other than public buildings, insular constabulary, prisons, light-houses, and all corporations, except banking. The Department of Finance and Justice directs the bureaus of the insular treasury, the insular audi- tor, customs and immigration, internal revenue, cold- storage and ice-plant, banks, banking, coinage and currency, and the bureau of justice. The Department of Public Instruction includes the bureaus of public instruction, public charities, public libraries and museums, statistics, public rec- INSULAR ADMINISTRATION. 209 ords, government printing, architecture, and construc- tion of public buildings. The powers of the judicial branch of the govern- ment are exercised by the Supreme Court, composed of seven members, appointed by the President, three of whom are Filipinos. All other judicial positions are filled by appointees of the Commission. At pres- ent fifteen Americans and six natives are judges of the courts of first instance. Practically all the judges of the minor courts are natives. Congress has vested in the government of the Phil- ippine Islands authority to exercise certain powers of sovereignty never before conferred upon any portion of the territory of the United States for the exclusive use and benefit of that territory. The Philippine government is authorized to impose duties upon goods coming to the islands from ports of the United States ; to issue its own distinctive currency and assume direc- tion and control of its postal service. Furthermore, Congress has conveyed to the government of the Philippine Islands all the public property, and the rights pertaining thereto, which passed from the crown of Spain to the United States of America. Following an election to be held April, 1906, the legislative power will become vested in a legislature consisting of two houses, to wit : The Philippine Com- mission and the Philippine Assembly, the members of the latter to be elected by the inhabitants of the islands. u 210 THE PHILIPPINES. Pursuing the policy laid down in the instructions of the President, the Commission passed a general act for the organization of provincial governments. The municipality was made the political unit, and the entire territory of the islands is divided into munici- palities very similar to the townships in America. Up to the present the system has been applied to the thirty-four Christian provinces, except that the city cf Manila is incorporated under a special charter. The provincial and municipal officials are elected by popular vote, exercised under liberal suffrage regula- tions. PROVINCIAL AND MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENTS. The administration of each municipality is com- posed of a president, vice-president and a municipal council, chosen by the qualified electors of the munici- pality, to serve for two years. The franchise is ex- tended to those who (a) prior to August 13, 1898, held certain offices under the Spanish Crown; those who (&) own real property to the value of 500 pesos (a peso is now equivalent to fifty cents American money), or who pay annual taxes of thirty or more pesos; and those who (c) speak, read, and write Eng- lish or Spanish. The municipal government of the city of Manila closely resembles that of the city of Washington, but whilst the Federal Government pays one-half of the expenses in the latter case, in the former the con- PROVINCIAL GOVERNMENTS. 211 tribution of the General Government is no more than three-tenths. The Municipal Board consists of three members (one of whom must be a Fili- pino) appointed by the Governor, with the approval of the Commission. There is also an Advisory Board, consisting of one member (appointed by the Governor, with the consent of the Commission) for each of the eleven districts of the city. The Advisory Board is charged with the duty of investigating the special needs of the municipality and its citizens, and of making such suggestions to the Municipal Board as it may deem necessary. All important matters of municipal legislation must be submitted to the former body before being acted upon. Under the general provincial law providing for the aggregation of several municipalities in larger admin- istrative divisions, the thirty-four Christian provinces were organized. The provincial government consists of five officers for each province (except that in some cases the offices of treasurer and supervisor are com- bined), namely, governor, treasurer, supervisor, secre- tary and fiscal, or prosecuting-attorney ; of these, the first three form the governing board. The functions of the provincial government include the collection of taxes, the construction of roads, bridges, and public buildings, and the supervision of municipal officers. It is the duty of the provincial governor to make visits twice a year to each of the towns in his province. He is responsible for the proper conduct of the municipal administrations, and he may remove any municipal 212 THE PHILIPPINES. officer for cause. The provincial treasurer collects all the taxes, remits those due to the town to the municipal treasurer, and audits the accounts of that official. The supervisor, who must be a civil en- gineer, is charged with the execution of all public works and the supervision of them. The fiscal acts as counsel for the governing board and for each of the municipalities in the province. The provincial governor is elected biennially by a convention com- posed of the counsellors of the municipalities in the province. The positions of treasurer and supervisor (usually filled by Americans) are subject to the civil service law and the positions of secretary and fiscal are filled by appointment of the Philippine Commis- sion. At this time all the provincial governors of the Christian provinces are duly elected Filipinos. The remaining provincial offices are filled by 86 Americans and 238 natives. It will be noticed that the provincial and municipal governments conform very much in structure to the similar administrative branches under the Spaniards. It was wisdom on the part of the Commission to retain as nearly as possible the form of local govern- ment to which the natives were accustomed, whilst giving them a greater share in the administration and a promise of honest and capable officials. The system is working to the satisfaction of the people and of the Commission. Amongst upwards of twelve thousand Filipino municipal officials there ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE. 213 have been remarkably few instances of misconduct and no case of a violation of the oath of office has been established against a president. The administration of the Moro province is especially designed to preserve as far as possible, consistently with the general policy applied to the Philippine Islands, the "customs of the Moros, the authority of the Datos, and a system of justice in which the Moros shall take part," and to these ends a very large measure of discretion is allowed to the legislative council. That body consists of a governor, who is an officer of the F. S. Army, a secretary, at- torney, engineer, superintendent of schools, and treas- urer. The five remaining provinces, namely, Ben- guet, Lepanto-Bontoc, Mindoro, ^Uieva Vizcaya, and Paragua, are inhabited for the most part by well-dis- posed though deeply ignorant tribes, to whom it would be impracticable, for the present, to extend any meas- ure of self-government. Consequently all the pro- vincial and municipal positions in these provinces are filled by appointment. The system under which they are governed, approximates, however, as closely as possible to that which obtains in the Christian prov- inces, and will be assimilated to it as rapidly as con- ditions justify. ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE. A complete judicial system has been established by legislative enactment throughout the Archipelago. 214 THE PHILIPPINES. Xew codes of criminal law and procedure will shortly be enacted, with the effect of "simplifying procedure and eliminating those provisions of the existing codes which pertain to the sovereignty of Spain, the union of church and state, the rigid restrictions on the ex- ercise of discretion by the judges, the giving to private individuals the right to control and compromise crim- inal prosecution, or to use such prosecutions for the purpose of blackmail and extortion, and the authority of the executive branch to control the courts." The judicial powers of the government are dis- tributed as follows : The territory of the Archipelago is divided into fifteen judicial districts, in each of which there is a court of first instance. A judge is assigned to each of these districts and four to the district -of Manila. There are three additional judges to fill vacancies. The appellate jurisdiction is vested in the Supreme Court, which consists of seven members, three of whom are Filipinos. Provision is made for appeal from the supreme court of the islands to that of the United States. There is a justice of the peace and an auxiliary justice of the peace in each municipality. There are a court of customs appeals, a court of land registration, and registrars of deeds for each of the provinces. The attorney-general is an American, the solicitor- general a Filipino, and their assistants about equally divided between the two nationalities. OFFICE OF A .1 1 STICK. A hearing before a justice of the peace in a country district, the prisoner guarded by native constabulary. From Stereograph Copyright, by Underwood & Underwood, New York. CIVIL SERVICE SYSTEM. 215 The civil service bill provides for the selection and promotion of civilians to government positions solely on the basis of merit. The chief preference is given to natives of the islands, and next, to honorably discharged soldiers, sailors, and marines of the United States. Examinations are made in the Philippines and also throughout the United States by the United States Civil Service Commission. From the first it has been found practicable to employ Filipinos ex- tensively in the provincial and municipal services where a knowledge of English was not essential, and with the progress made by them in acquiring that knowledge large numbers have been appointed to positions in the central government at Manila. With the exception of a few requiring special technical and professional knowledge, and the elective offices of the provinces, all government positions come within the scope of the civil-service act. It was the purpose of the Commission in passing the civil-service bill to provide a system which would secure the selection and promotion of civilian officials solely on the ground of merit, and would permit any one, by a successful competitive examination, to enter the service and by the efficient discharge of his duties reach the head of any important department of the government. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, May, 1902, contained the fol- lowing comment: 216 THE PHILIPPINES, ''It is hard to see how our government of the Philip- pines could be started upon its path in any better way than by the excellent provisions established by the Philippine Commission. The reflex action upon our Government at home of the establishment of a com- plete merit system in the Philippines is sure to beget good results when contrasted with the inefficiency and corruption that flow from the remnants of the spoil system here at home. It will be remembered that England first tried competitive methods in her Indian possessions before she established the civil service system at home, and it was the successful working of this commission in India which led to its adoption in England. It may not be improper to repeat here the opinion expressed on a former occasion that inas- much as the beginnings of this reform came from Cal- cutta to London, it is not impossible nor unreasonable to expect that its perfect consummation may come from Manila to Washington." In support of the foregoing prediction it may be affirmed that there is no department of the United States Government more free from the corrupt prac- tices common to most administrations than those branches of it that pertain to the Philippine Islands. Whilst this is true to-day it might have been stated ten years ago with equal truth that in no part of the civil- ized world were such practices more prevalent than in the Philippine Islands. The following table shows the distribution of CIVIL SERVICE SYSTEM. 217 government positions. It does not, however, include the Philippine Scouts, which body is on the establish- ment of the United States, nor the numerous unskilled employees of the various departments : Americans. Filipinos. Members of the Philippine Commission ... 5 3 Justices of the Supreme Court 4 3 Judges of the Courts of First Instance ... 16 7 Judges of the Court of Customs Appeals.. 1 1 Judges of the Court of Land Registration. 1 1 Justices of the Peace and Auxiliary Jus- tices 1,708 Civil Service of the General Government.. 1,777 2,697 Governors of Provinces 8 32 Other Provincial Officials 86 238 Municipal Presidents (Mayors) 982 Municipal Counselors . . 8,159 Municipal Secretaries-Treasurers 2,906 Total 1,898 16,737 Municipal School Teachers 3,500 Teachers of English 1,000 Total 1,000 3,500 Municipal Police 10,000 Philippines Constabulary 345 7,000 Total 345 17,000 218 THE PHILIPPINES. The duty and expense of providing educational facilities for the Filipinos is assumed by the general government (augmented in some instances by munici- palities), and the work is carried on by a department of public instruction. About 3,500 natives and 1,000 Americans are engaged as teachers, the latter in im- parting a knowledge of English to the former and in instructing classes of children. At present the de- partment maintains about 2,000 primary schools and 38 secondary schools. In addition, the government conducts a number of technological institutions, in- cluding a trade school and an agricultural school. There is also a well-equipped nautical school, pri- marily for the purpose of educating officers for the inter-island merchant marine. Night schools in Ma- nila and other centers afford facilities to adults and the average attendance is recorded as 10,000 daily. FILIPINOS IN THE UNITED STATES. An enactment of the Commission made continuous provision for the education of a certain number of Filipinos in the United States. In accordance with its terms not fewer than 100 Filipinos are to be sent to America each year, to remain for a period of four years, during which time they will receive advanced instruction in various schools and colleges and will be afforded the widest facilities for acquiring any knowledge which may be useful to themselves and their people upon their return. This privilege is EDUCATION OF THE FILIPINOS. 219 extended upon the condition that those who enjoy it will upon the completion of the educational term of four years submit to the competitive examination for the civil service, and upon appointment serve under the government for at least the length of time spent at its expense in the United States, but otherwise the benefaction is free of conditions or obligations. It is expected "that the return of these people to the islands and the dissemination of information by them will have a most beneficial and far-reaching effect." It is impossible to subscribe to this sanguine con- clusion without qualification. The experience of all colonial governments has been that the most trouble- some element of a native population is the compara- tively small number who have received education, and particularly those who have been educated abroad. However, that is only one of the risks necessarily involved in the liberal policy the American Govern- ment has determined to pursue in the Philippines. In the last fiscal year the Bureau of Education expended 2,438,185 pesos in addition to the sums con- tributed by different municipalities and provinces for educational purposes. The amount of the Spanish expenditures on the same account in 1894 was 404,731 pesos. A complete system of currency has been estab- lished, which, by maintaining a fixed medium of ex- change, avoids the fluctuations which were such a 220 THE PHILIPPINES. grave detriment to trade in former days. The silver coinage is based upon the decimal system and ranges in value from the ten-centavo piece to the one-peso piece. There is also a nickel coin of five-centavos and bronze coins of one and one-half centavo. These coins have a fixed convertible value to the United States currency in the ratio of 2 to 1. A gold re- serve is maintained for the purpose of preserving this parity. The islands have a distinctive paper currency consisting of silver certificates in the de- nomination of two, five and ten pesos, bearing the vignettes respectively of Jose Rizal, McKinley. and Washington. During the Spanish regime the cur- rency of the Philippines was subject to the fluctu- ations of the silver bullion market, and the trade of the islands was effected by the varying influences of an ever-changing currency as well as an ever-changing rate of exchange. MEANS OF COMMUNICATION. The Postal System has been extended to every part of the Archipelago, and mail is carried between the several offices with promptness and regularity. The issuance of money orders has proved a great boon to the outlying districts which entirely lack banking facilities. There are more than 200 post-offices in the islands. The rate of postage is the same as in the United States. The extensive telegraph and telephone systems MEANS OF COMMUNICATION. 221 operated during the military occupation have been enlarged and improved, so that at present 8,000 miles of land and sea telegraph lines exist, connecting al- most every municipality with the seat of the central government. The new Pacific Cable connecting the United States with the islands will materially reduce the cost of messages and should prove of the utmost importance to commercial interests. Much labor and millions of money have been ex- pended upon the construction and improvement of highways under the direction of army engineers. Although the work has been carried on under many adverse conditions, highly satisfactory progress has been made. The extensive system of railroads whose construction is in immediate prospect must prove a factor of the greatest importance in the development of economic and social conditions. The Archipelago has not as yet been completely surveyed, but the official estimate of 74,000,000 acres doubtless expresses very closely its extent. About 5,000,000 acres of this area are owned by pri- vate individuals, the balance being public lands. The purchase of the friar lands by which 410,000 acres passed to the government at a cost of $7,239,000, was an important measure from the politic as well as the economic point of view. The native occupants, who entertained the most bitter feelings toward their landlords, held their leases under conditions which precluded the possibility of development and pros- 222 THE PHILIPPINES. perity. In the hands of the Commission these lancb promise to be a source of profit to both the tenant and the State. Referring to this important matter, Governor Taft, in his report for the year 1903, says: "It is thought that the results of these negotiations and the purchase of the lands form a most important step in the rehabilitation of the people of the islands and that the readjustment of their relations to the Roman Catholic Church, which cannot but be of ma- terial benefit in a political way to the insular and provincial governments. . . . We cannot prophesy that the adjustment will rid us entirely of the agra- rian questions. There will be, doubtless, litigation and local centres of disturbance growing out of gov- ernment landlordism ; but the elimination of the friars from the question cannot but tend to greatly facilitate satisfactory adjustment. . . . The number of friars in the islands is rapidly diminishing from year to year, and with the adjustment of the land question and the division of the proceeds between the Orders and the Church and the use of the part belonging to the Roman Church for improvement of the Philippine church, we may reasonably hope that in a decade the agrarian and political question of the friars in the Philippines will have been completely removed from among the obstacles to good government with which the Americans, in coming to the islands and assum- ing control thereof, were confronted." INVESTIGATION OF RESOURCES. 223 Extensive investigation of the resources of the islands has been conducted by the appropriate bureaus, and a mass of extremely valuable information has been published in the form of government reports. The forests prove to contain an enormous wealth of valuable timber and vegetable growth. The mineral and coal fields have been surveyed and laws favorable to their development have been enacted. In the de- partment of agriculture, which is the chief resource of the inhabitants, the most striking utilitarian results have been produced by a competent corps of scientific assistants. Experimental stations and model farms have been established, and steps taken, by means of quarantine establishments and serum laboratories, to stamp out rinderpest and other cattle diseases. A stock farm is in operation for the purpose of carry- ing on experiments in breeding with a view to pro- ducing farm animals especially adapted to the condi- tions of the Philippines. In order to alleviate the heavy losses from disease during the earlier years of American occupation, the government imported a great number of draft animals, chiefly cardbao, which were sold to the farmers at less than cost. A move- ment to rehabilitate the coffee industry, which some ten years ago collapsed under insect blight, bids fair to restore to the islands what was formerly a very important and profitable commercial enterprise. The agricultural college on the island of Negros is doing a notable work in the education of native farmers to scientific agriculture 224 THE PHILIPPINES. The tariff regulations were adopted only after the submission of the draft of the proposed legislation to the importers and exporters of Manila and of the United States. FOREIGN COMMERCE. With a view to the rapid development of the islands import duties (except upon luxuries) have been placed at low figures, lower, in fact, than those which prevailed during the Spanish regime, or those in force in the United States. An act of Congress allows for a reduction of 25 per cent, of the Dingley tariff on imports into the United States from the Philippines, and further provides that all duties collected in the United States on arti- cles coming from the Philippines and also tonnage dues shall be remitted to the Philippine treasury for the benefit of the islands; also that the Philippine government shall refund the export duties upon hemp and other products of the islands in the event they were exported to the United States. During the first five years of American adminis- tration the commerce of the Philippines increased 150 per cent, from $25,000,000 in 1899 to $66,000,000 in 1903. Despite agricultural depression the ex- ports have advanced during that period from $12,- 000,000 to $33,000,000, leaving a balance of trade in favor of the islands. The passage of the act of Con- gress relating to customs, etc., enabled the United States immediately to displace the United Kingdom as the chief customer of the Philippine Islands. NAVIGATION, HEALTH, ETC. 225 SOURCES OF REVENUE. The chief sources of revenue are customs receipts, from which approximately 80 per cent, of the whole is derived; internal revenue, including an industrial tax on all trades, professions, and arts ; a land tax ; registration taxes; etc. It may be stated that the postal service is nearly self-supporting. The total revenue for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1903, amounted to $15,326,125, and the ex- penditures to $14,262,503. During the first five years of American occupation the revenue aggregated $49,915,944, and the expenditures $37,516,076. NAVIGATION, HEALTH, ETC. Harhor improvements have been carried out at Manila, Cebu, Iloilo, and other points, and extensive surveys of the more important harbors and gulfs have been completed under officers of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey. An appropriation of $6,000,000 for the harbor of Manila is designed to increase greatly the accommodation of that port, and to enable vessels, from the shelter of a breakwater, to discharge cargoes at all seasons upon the docks, without the medium of lighterage, whereas formerly, during the monsoons, ships frequently lay for several days in the bay, incurring heavy demurrage, whilst awaiting a favorable opportunity to unload. An efficient coast-guard service has been estab- 15 220 THE PHILIPPINES. lished, with seventeen vessels, fifteen of which are new ones purchased by the Philippine government. In the matter of health and sanitation, the government encountered one of the most serious and difficult of the many problems presented by the condition of the islands when transferred to the United States. In spite, however, of indifference and in many cases active opposition, upon the part of the natives, meas- ures for the improvement of the health of Manila and the different provinces have been applied with vigor and the most remarkable results. Owing to compulsory vaccination, smallpox, formerly the great scourge of the islands, has ceased to be an important factor in the death rate. The ability of the board of health to cope with serious emergencies w r as severely tested by the cholera epidemic, which broke out over a wide area in 1902. Many of the towns affected were without medical aid, or any knowledge of means of checking the plague. Nevertheless, by prompt and energetic action the attack was eradicated in less than a year. The magnitude of the operations of the board of health on this occasion may be judged from the fact that its expenditures were considerably in excess of 1,000,000 pesos. Hospitals, dispensaries, detention wards, and their appropriate auxiliaries, have been established and an efficient quarantine serv- ice is maintained. At Benguet, in the highlands, a sanatarium has been established by the government for the recuperation of civilians and soldiers. As a so- MANILA. 227 journ at Benguet produces results equally good with those following transfer to the United States, great saving in time and money, it is believed, will be effected by the institution. MANILA. Manila is the seat of central government and the commercial centre of the islands. Its system of municipal administration is based upon that of the city of Washington. The streets, which formerly were frequently submerged during heavy rains, have been elevated, graded, widened and paved. The bridges across the Pasig have been improved and an addition made to them by a fine double bridge of the latest pat- tern. The water supply has been increased and im- proved. Under Spanish rule Manila was entirely destitute of sewage accommodation. The deficiency has been remedied by the installation of an adequate system, in course of extension. Modern market build- ings have displaced the aggregations of native huts, which represented the trading marts of Spanish days. An electric road of forty-five miles has solved the problem of transportation in the widely-straggling city. The corporation which operates this railroad will supply electric light and power to the munici- pality. The antiquated and wholly inadequate fire department maintained by the Spaniards has been transformed into a first-class fire department, with an ample supply of up-to-date apparatus. The city is 228 THE PHILIPPINES. excellently policed by natives under the supervision of Americans. The public parks have been improved and enlarged, and a plot of land set aside for a botanical garden. BONDED INDEBTEDNESS. The finances of the islands have been managed with the utmost skill and economy. The funded debt has, paradoxical as the statement may appear, been so far a source of profit. Under the Spanish Crown the debt of the islands was $40,000,000. This was disposed of by the purchase and the payment by the United States of $20,000,000. The present obliga- tions of the Philippine islands, the rates of interest paid upon them and the premiums received are shown in the following table: Character of Loan. Interest. Premium. First issue one-year certificates, $3,000,000. $120,000 $75,390 Second issue one-year certificates, $3,000,- 000 120,000 67,200 Bonds for the purchase of friar lands, $7,000,000 280,000 530,370 Distributing the premium of the friar lands bonds over the redemption period of ten years, the net an- nual interest charge is reduced to 3.1 per cent. The net interest charge upon the government for its funded debt is $224,410, a rate of about 2.25 per cent, of the customs receipts, the principal revenue of the islands. No other country in the world can BONDED INDEBTEDNESS. 229 boast that the interest on its public debt is offset by such a small percentage of its revenue. In France, 30 per cent, of the gross revenue is required to meet the interest on the national debt; in Great Britain, 19 per cent. ; in the United States, 5 per cent, without taking into account State indebtedness. In the Phil- ippines the funded debt amounts to $1.62 per capita, and the annual interest charge to four cents per capita; in the United States the first item is in ex- cess of $12, the second of 30 cents; in Great Britain the figures are $90 and $3 ; in France, $150 and $6. "There are few, if any, civilized States, moreover, which have so much to show as the Philippines for the debt which they have incurred. A part represents a substantial asset in gold in the custody of banks and trust companies in New York. The other part repre- sents the acquisition of the best lands in the Philip- pine Islands, which the Government has acquired from the friars, in order to give them back to their natural cultivators, the people of the islands. Both of these debts will be subject to reduction in the course of events without levying taxes or providing a sinking fund. In the case of the $6,000,000, which has been appropriated temporarily to meet the expenses of inaugurating the new coinage system, half of the amount will be no longer necessary when the system is completed. The money was made available simply for the purpose of covering capital tied up in bullion in transit from the mines to the completed coin." 230 THE PHILIPPINES. The taking of the Philippine Census of 1903 was an act of the greatest importance and in more than one respect an extraordinary achievement. The work was undertaken in accordance with an act of Con- gress approved July 1, 1902, which provided "that whenever the existing insurrection shall have ceased and a condition of general and complete peace shall have been established therein .... the Presi- dent, upon being satisfied thereof, shall order a cen- sus of the Philippine Islands to be taken by said Philippine Commission ; such census in its enquiries relating to the population shall take and make, so far as practicable, full report of all the inhabitants, of name, age, sex, race, or tribe, whether native or for- eign born, literacy in Spanish, native dialect or lan- guage, or in English; school attendance, ownership of homes, industrial and social statistics, and such other information, separately for each island, each province and municipality, or other civil division, as the President and such commission may deem neces- sary." POLITICAL OBJECT OF CENSUS. The chief political object of the census was set forth in the following words: "That two years after the completion and publica- tion of the census, in case such condition of general and complete peace with recognition of the authority of the United States shall have continued in the terri- tid I 'his picture depicts the preparation of Manila I .i.--J'(Jr ^lipnient .--at, tJebu. In the l)ju-k.irrnunv Underwood & 1'nderwo.ni. Now York. COPRA AND COCOANUT OIL. 311 about nine meters apart, allowing about one hundred and twenty-five trees to the hectare. The trees will begin to bear fruit in the seventh year, and will reach maturity in the fifteenth year. The earlier crops are gathered with extension cutters, or from ladders. When the tree has become hard, shoulders may be cut in it for climbing. COPRA AND COCOANUT OIL. In the chapter on Commerce mention is made of the infant trade in copra and its rapid expansion. Copra is the dried meat of the nut, from which is derived the oil. It is now extensively used in the preparation of such dietetic compounds as "vegeta- line," "cocoline," and other "butters," which are free from the objections attaching to animal margarin, and have a much higher fusion point than dairy but- ter, a very desirable quality in the tropics. The manufacture of these vegetable compounds is extend- ing rapidly, creating a constantly increasing demand for the raw material. One of four, or five, large factories in Marseilles had an average output of twenty-five tons a month in 1900, and is now turn- ing out upwards of seventy thousand tons a year. Cocoanut oil is not at present an article of export from the Philippines, but the local consumption is very large. At least one light is kept burning all night in every Filipino house in the country, and cocoanut oil is used for the purpose. It is made in 312 THE PHILIPPINES. thousands of homes by a rude process which answers the requirements. Cocoanut oil is also the street luminant in out-of-the-way barrios. It enters largely into the culinary processes of the natives, and is used for medicinal purposes and by the women as a hair dressing. Students of the industrial economy of the Philippines have frequently urged that the oil should be exported instead of the copra. Under pres- ent conditions the larger part of the profit in the trade accrues to the manufacturer at the expense of the grower. There are several difficulties in the way of adopting the suggested reform, which would only be feasible in the case of a corporation carrying on the industry upon a fairly large scale. The copra buyers, of course, raise every obstacle to endeavors to ship oil, and are said to have contrived to influence discriminatory freight rates against it. The most important factor in the question, however, is pre- sented by the problem of finding a market for the press-cake, which is a valuable by-product of the manufacture. This cake, which is the residue of the copra after the oil has been expressed, is used in Europe as a cattle food, and brings such good prices that the copra buyer can afford to pay the full value of the copra, on the basis of its yield of oil, with confidence that the resultant press-cake will pay incidental costs and leave a generous profit to the manufacturer. There is no demand for the press- cake in the islands. POSSIBILITIES OF THE INDUSTRY. 313 In this, as in other Philippine industries, the process followed is crude and behind that of other Oriental countries, where machinery is employed with economical results. Taking a nut in his hands, the operator sharply strikes it upon a spearhead which is fixed in the ground, and thus removes the husk. An average man will husk one thousand nuts in a day in this manner, but twice as many, and even more, are sometimes handled by particularly dexterous work- men. Another man splits the nuts in half with a stroke of a bolo. The fragments are then laid in the sun for a few hours, when the flesh is easily removed. Sun drying for a day follows, after which the meat is exposed upon a bamboo griddle to the heat of a slow fire, composed of the shells and husks. After being broken into smaller pieces the product is ready to be shipped as marketable copra. POSSIBILITIES OF THE INDUSTRY UNDEK IMPROVED METHODS. Modern plants, as operated in India and other coun- tries, employ machinery to husk the nut, crush the shell, to remove and winnow the fiber; to rasp and macerate the meat and to compress the residue. In the Philippines no account is taken of the husks, shell, or fiber, although they are valuable by-products, the last in particular being extensively used for coir matting, ship's cables, the covering of electric cables, etc. 314 THE PHILIPPINES. \V. S. Lyon, of the Philippine Bureau of Agri- culture, has expressed the opinion that "notwithstand- ing the cheapness of labor, it is only by employing a mill well equipped with decorticating, rasping, hy- draulic-crushing, and steam-boiling machinery, and with facilities to convert the residue to feeding or other uses, that one may hopefully enter the field of oil manufacture in these islands in competition with copra-buyers." He goes on to show the saving in the fiber item alone under such conditions. Esti- mating sixteen quintals of spinning fiber and five quintals of bristle fiber from every ten thousand husks, rating the cost of manufacture at half the selling price, and adding 20 per cent, to cover freight and commission, we have at $80 gold per ton, selling price, a balance of $55.63 per hectare. Deduct $7, the cost of fertilizers to compensate for the removal of ten thousand husks from the soil, and we have a net profit of about $50 per hectare. With the outlay of about $2,000 in machinery and power, the output of a grove of four thousand trees could be scientifically handled and the enhanced profit might be expected to pay for the plant in one year. Mr. Lyon thinks that the "present conditions pre- sent especially flattering attractions to cocoanut grow- ers capable of undertaking the cultivation upon a scale of some magnitude. The present production of copra (estimated at 278,000 piculs in 1902) is IM PROVED METHODS. 315 assurance of a supply sufficient to warrant the erec- tion of a high-class modern plant for the manufacture of the ultimate (the 'butter') products of the nut." The prospects of such an enterprise would be in- creased by the certainty of a local market in the Phil- ippines for most of the output. The average value of the best grades of copra in the Marseilles market is $54 gold per English ton. The jobbing prices January 3, 1903, of the refined products were, for each ton of copra : Butter fats $90.00 Residual soap oils 21.00 Press cake 5.20 $116.20 The difference represents the profit per ton, less the cost of manufacture. The profitable operation of such a plant would call for a plantation at least 300 acres in extent. There is no agricultural enterprise afforded by the Philippines in which the returns are greater or more assured than the cultivation of the cocoanut. The process is simple and the crop is practically guaran- teed. The tree is subject to comparatively few dis- eases or accidents, its enemies are neither numerous nor difficult to circumvent. The demand for the product is continually enlarging, and such changes as are likely to occur in the trade features of the industry will probably be in favor of the planter. 310 THE PHILIPPINES. ESTIMATED EXPENSE AND PROFIT IN COCOANUT PLANTATION. The following estimate of outlay and profit is based upon the conditions in the district of La Lagnna and Tayabas, where the nearest approach to systematic culture prevails. It may be accepted as a guide to prospective planters, although the figures for different districts vary and sometimes those for the different localities in the same district. The calculation, like all others in these chapters, is on the basis of United States currency. The cocoanut lands of the provinces in question are of three grades, valued at about $25, $12.50 and $5 per unimproved hectare for the first, second and third class, respectively. Formerly it was the practice to plant trees about five thousand to the hectare, whereas, at present, it is customary to place three thousand five hundred at the most in that area. It is, however, more conven- ient to use the former units of computation. Plantations of twenty hectares, or larger, are gen- erally laid out and worked upon the tenant, or "bene- ficiary," system. The planter apportions the estate between five tenants, each of whom plants the trees upon the section assigned to him. The title to half the trees thus planted remains in the tenant until he has been paid for them at the rate of twenty -five cents apiece at the end of a stipulated period, generally seven years. After that time the full ownership of COCOANTJT PLANTATION. 317 the plantation is vested in the proprietor of the land. The owner of the land furnishes the seed, implements, and animals, necessary for the work ; the tenant pre- pares the land, plants the seed and tends the grove until the trees come into bearing. In the meanwhile, the latter may grow crops in the spaces between plant- rows, using the landowner's animals without charge. With the beginning of the fruitful stage of the enter- prise a new agreement is made. If the nuts are to be sold in a fresh state one-fifth of the crop goes to the tenant as remuneration for harvesting it. If copra is produced, the tenant receives one-third of the output. In both cases transportation is effected at the expense of the proprietor. The plan of operating a plantation with hired labor is quite unknown to the industry, but, with plenty of draft animals and labor-saving farm implements, it could be operated profitably. Under such conditions one man could look after eight lie dares and do it more efficiently than he now tends half that area. Omitting labor, then the outlay upon twenty hec- tares of first-class land planted with five thousand trees will be as follows: 20 hectares of land at $25 $500 T> carabao at $50 250 5.000 seeds at $10 per thousand 50 Interest at 10 per cent, on investment for seven years. 5(K) Taxes at three-eighths of 1 per cent 15 Purchase of 2,500 trees at 25 cents (525 Total investment $2,000 318 THE PHILIPPINES. The first crop will be harvested in the seventh year, after which the production will increase slowly, but steadily, for seven more years, when the full maturity of the plants is reached. The average yield of the elev- enth year, which is fifty nuts per tree, may be taken as a fair basis for the calculation of annual income during the eight years preceding full growth. Thus, a grove of five thousand trees will afford a crop of two hundred and fifty thousand nuts. If these are sold at the current local price of $10 per thousand, and deducting the one-fifth shares of the tenants, the pro- prietor will derive from his plantation an annual income of $2,000 on an investment of an equal amount. In the fifteenth year and thereafter each tree will give six harvests a year of fifteen nuts, or an annual total of ninety, thus bringing the yearly output of the plantation up to four hundred and fifty thousand nuts, having a gross value of $4,500. These returns are only enjoyed from the best lands. Trees in lands of the second class will give an aver- age of sixty nuts per annum, whilst uplands of the third grade will not yield more than half that quantity. It is not possible to make so close a calculation upon the results of copra production, because the yield of meat per one thousand nuts varies greatly with the locality and conditions of growth and the methods employed in the manufacture. In the provinces under consideration, however, four piculs COCOANUT PLANTATION. 319 (a picul is equivalent to 1371/2 pounds) per one thou- sand nuts is a conservative estimate. Upon this basis twenty hectares of first class land will yield one thousand eight hundred piculs, having a present local value of $4 per picul. Deduct the tenants' one-third shares from the total receipts of $7,200, and we have a gross income of $4,800 for the planter. The cost of transportation must come out of these returns before net profit can be determined. At present all copra is brought down to the coast on pack animals, and in some instances the expense of car- riage amounts to as much as one-fourth the price of the manufactured article. However, this is an item that will be reduced with the extension of the system of roads and minimized shortly for the districts that may be fortunate enough to be tapped by the railroad. AGRICULTURE. (CONTINUED.) 21 VIII. AGRICULTURE. ( CONTINUED. ) Method of Coffee Culture The Promise of Benguet Coffee Rice Cacao Cultivation and its Possibilities Detailed Statement of a Cacao Plantation Estimate of Expenses and Income of Sixteen Hectares of Cacao Minor Prod- ucts, Indigo, Maize, Zacate, Teosinte Bamboo and Nipa Palm The Primitive Methods of Philippine Agriculture The Filipino Considered as a Laborer The Field for Americans in the Islands. Coffee appears to have been introduced to the Archi- pelago by the Spanish missionaries. Its systematic cultivation was commenced in the early part of the last century. In the eighties it had attained a promi- nent place in the exports of the Philippines, but since 1889 the output has gradually fallen off until at present it is merely nominal. The greater part of the production was in the provinces of Batangas, Cavite, and Tayabas, whilst a considerable quantity of an inferior grade came from Mindanao. In the hoped- for revival of the industry it is more than possible that Benguet will be the center of production, both as regards quality and quantity. The most prominent planter in Batangas was Don Jose Luz, whose influence and example gave a great impetus to the growing of the berry. We are in- debted to the account of his son, Hon. Simeon Luz, (323) 324 THE PHILIPPINES. the present Governor of Batangas, for most of the following details of coffee culture in the Lipa district. METHOD OF COFFEE CULTURE. As a preparation to the establishment of a planta- tion the seed of the madre de cacao is sown at regu- lar intervals. After a year the young trees have reached a sufficient height to afford the requisite shade for the coffee plants, which are set out in the inter- vening spaces. From time to time the protecting trees are pruned and some of them removed in order to regulate the shade. Many careless cultivators shirk this precaution with a consequent deterioration of the product. The neglect has two questionable advan- tages ; the trouble of checking the trees is avoided and the growth of weeds in the dense shade is less than it otherwise would be. Six years usually elapse before the profits from a plantation offset the cost of caring for it for one year, but Mr. Luz expresses the opinion that "by adopting modern methods the time of fruition may be advanced one or two years." According to the methods in vogue, a plantation of average fertility will, with good care, yield from twelve to twenty piculs per hectare. The cost of laying out one hec- tare in madre de cacao and coffee, including material and labor, will amount to about $30. The plant gives three crops between August and September, in October, and in November, but per- METHOD OF COFFEE CULTURE. 325 haps this should be considered as one continuous har- vest. The berry is picked by hand, but, as the high- est branches of the tree cannot be reached, the har- vester draws them down with a hook and so holds them with his foot whilst gathering the fruit. Of course this method, unless followed with the utmost care, works injury to the plantation. Unfortunately the coffee-picker receives his remuneration in the form of one-fifth of the produce he handles, and the inducement is to secure as great a weight of berries as possible without regard to the damage inflicted in the process. The usual method of drying is to pile the berries for twenty-four hours whilst they ferment, and then to spread them in a cement enclosure, called a bilaran, until they have become hard enough to resist the ac- tion of the pestle which is used in cleaning. This is one of the features of the industry that need reform- ing. It is both tedious and wasteful. The berries sometimes lie for thirty to fifty days before they become hard enough and are apt to rot in the mean- while. The cost of airing, sifting, and sorting one picul of coffee is about fifty cents. The cost of weeding and caring for a plantation varies with the degree of culture devoted to it. A fair average is perhaps $5 a year per hectare. The crop should run from twelve to twenty piculs of berries per hectare, but, as a matter of fact, the actual figures are more generally 326 THE PHILIPPINES. from six to ten. This is due to shiftlessness, as ex- hibited in failure to reduce the shade, inefficient weed- ing, etc. The prices secured in the Manila market for Batan- gas coffee in 1899 ranged from $12.50 to $17.50 per picuL It is significant of the unscientific and haphazard methods that characterize all the industries of the Philippines that the worms which destroyed the coffee trees in 1889 had been known to the planters since the inception of coffee culture and had done more or less damage every year. To quote Mr. Luz, "this damage was so small, however, that no one bothered about seeking a remedy for an evil that he did not believe could cause a complete destruction of all cof- fee plantations. But in 1889, to the great surprise and fear of all, it was observed that all the planta- tions of the province were attacked. That year saw the total loss of the crop and the death of almost all the coffee plants throughout the territory which Lipa comprises." After this achievement the worms disappeared and two years later new branches sprang from the denuded trunks. The budding hopes of the planters were quickly shattered, however, for simultaneously with the revivification of their trees the blight appeared upon the leaves. Thoroughly discouraged and de- spairing of a revival of the industry, the owners of coffee lands put them under the plough and planted THE PROMISE OF BENGUET COFFEE. 327 sugar, rice, and corn. Hardly one hectare in a thou- sand of the former plantations remains in coffee. THE PROMISE OF BENGUET COFFEE. The natural conditions in Benguet are admirably adapted to the successful growth of the plant ; the product is of an exceptional quality, comparing favor- ably with Mocha and Java in the opinion of experts ; the blight has never appeared in the province; the demand for the Benguet berry, at highly profitable figures, is greatly in excess of the supply, and is likely to remain so for many years ; and the climate is a delightful one for Europeans and Americans. In the words of Governor Pack, "the only obstacle in the way of making coffee cultivation a most profit- able industry is the difficulty of obtaining suitable labor. The question of labor will depend entirely upon the individual. The cost of labor for hacienda, or ranch, purposes will average from five to ten cents gold a day, depending upon the kind of labor required and the age and sex of the laborer. As these coffee plantations now in the province have been planted and cared for mostly by the women, and at odd moments when they were not otherwise occupied, it is impossible to estimate the cost of making or caring for a coffee plantation, but it is usually esti- mated by growers who are so far civilized as to figure on profit and loss, that the coffee trees after an average of five years should net the owner twenty- 328 THE PHILIPPINES. five cents gold each year. These trees may be planted six feet apart. This coffee sells in the market at Benguet to-day at from $6 to $7.50 gold a cavan* which should weigh about sixty-seven pounds." It would appear that, with coffee at $12 per picul in Manila, the grower under present methods would make a profit of about sixteen per cent, on the capital invested. Allowance must, however, be made for bad years and twenty per cent, is probably a fair deduction to cover that contingency. But it is gen- erally conceded that under an improved system of pro- duction the crop might be augmented at least one- fifth without material increase of outlay. The price of labor does not affect the calculation greatly, since a large part of the work is done on the share plan. In any case the recent enhancement in wages should be more than offset by the reduction in transporta- tion cost which will follow the opening of the railroad. The Insular Bureau of Agriculture is conducting ex- periments with a special kind of coffee in Lipa, and it is confidently believed that .the result will be to re- instate the industry which was formerly the chief source of wealth of this once prosperous district. Planters are also looking to this Bureau for the dis- covery of preventive measures against the inroads of v/orms and blight. Meanwhile Benguet seems to offer the likeliest field for the production of the berry. * This would give approximately from $12 to $15 a picul of 137 1 /2 pounds. THE PROMISE OF BENGUET COFFEE. 329 Coffee was introduced to the Province of Benguet in 1875, and, after experiments, was found to thrive on the plateaus at an altitude of four or five thousand feet. In 1881 the Spanish governor ordered all the natives of the province to engage in the cultivation of the plant. This met with the active opposition of the Igorots, who destroyed the plantations in Daklan and undid the work of years. It happened about this time that the natives of Kabayan were under an Igo- rot chief of enlightened ideas and great influence over his people. This young chief visited Manila and other places in an investigation of the coffee indus- try, and, reaching the conclusion that it would afford a profitable field for the labor of his subjects, induced them to plant extensively. In a few years this tribe excited the envy of its neighbors by its comparative wealth, derived from the new enterprise. The Igorots of Daklan have endeavored to retrieve their former opportunity by planting coffee trees, and in a few years the district should produce large crops. Governor W. F. Pack, of Benguet, estimates the yield of a plant six years old at "three pounds of good coffee" per year, but this is surely an over- sanguine expectation. In Peru, where coffee is grown at the same elevation as at Benguet and under some- what similar climatic conditions, the average annual crop is one pound per tree, whilst in the Philippines ten ounces is a high average. If we assume that the Governor's figures were intended to refer to the green 330 THE PHILIPPINES. berry and allow for the fifty per cent, difference in weight between it and the dried bean, we have an esti- mate too high to accept without explanation. The product of the Benguet highlands is of excel- lent quality and has always found a ready market. The entire output has heretofore been taken by the Tabacalera Company and shipped to Spain, where it always has commanded fancy prices. These have doubtless in a measure been due to the limited supply and will probably decline somewhat with increased production. The Insular Government is doing all in its power to foster and encourage the industry amongst the natives of the province. The price paid by the Tabacalera Company for Benguet coffee on the plantation, is equivalent to $12 to $15 per picul, but $1 per picul should be added for cost of carriage to Manila, when we have figures which compare well with the high quo- tations for Batangas coffee in Manila during 1899. It is almost certain that a company, or individual, operating upon a fairly large scale and selling in the open market would secure much higher values for its product, which would presumably be of a superior grade. These greater returns, and the practice of certain economies possible in the production, would permit of the payment of higher wages, and since Ben- guet will be connected by rail with Manila and the intervening provinces before these lines are in print, the solution of the labor problem should not be dif- ficult to find in the importation of field-hands. RICE. 331 Rice, the staple article of food of the natives of the Philippines, as it is of most Oriental people, is grown more or less in every province of the Archi- pelago. It was the earliest agricultural industry of the Islands, and rice culture is to-day the occupation in which the Filipino finds the greatest pleasure and that in which he acquits himself most creditably. For many years rice was an important article of export, but since 1876 it has been imported in large quantities, and particularly so in the period of Amer- ican occupation. The large increase in purchases of foreign rice during recent years has been due mainly to the rinderpest, which carried off thousands of carabao, upon which the cultivators depended for the preparation of their fields. In many provinces probably in most the abandonment of rice has re- sulted in positive gain, for the natives have gen- erally turned their ground to better account by put- ting it into higher-priced produce. There are several species of the grain raised in the Philippines, but they come under two general heads, namely, macan, or lowland rice, and paga, or upland rice. The former is a much finer quality in which the white grain predominates, whilst paga always contains a large proportion of red grain. Macan returns on an average eighty cavans in the crop for one of seed, and will sometimes run as high as one hundred to one, but paga seed seldom produces more than forty grains. On the other hand, more than one crop is 332 THE PHILIPPINES. rarely harvested from the lowlands, whilst upland fields generally give three. The seed beds for low- land rice are thoroughly mashed with the plough under four or five inches of water and thickly sown broadcast. When the shoots have reached a height of from ten to fifteen inches they are pulled up by the roots and transplanted. The paddy-field is treated in the same manner as the seed bed, and the soil is worked up with a har- row under water until it forms a muddy mass. In order to accomplish this result artificial irrigation must sometimes be resorted to. The land is kept flooded until inflorescence develops ; it is then allowed to dry. The upland field is prepared by several ploughings and harrowings during the early rains. The seed is then sown directly upon it. In some localities sow- ing is effected by dropping three or four grains into each of a number of small holes which are made with a bamboo instrument. About one picul of unhulled rice is needed to sow a hectare of land of either character. Lowland rice is sown in May at the commencement of the rainy season, and harvested about four months later. It is cut with sickles, bundled, and allowed to lie in the field until dry. The .process of separating the grain from the straw is carried out in various ways. Some small culti- vators use flails ; others resort to their feet. The grain RICE. 333 is then pounded in a wooden mortar and finally sifted through shallow baskets. There are, however, a num- ber of threshing mills in Luzon which charge from twelve to fourteen cents per cavan for cleaning rice. The principal rice producing sections in the Archi- pelago are Pangasinan, ISTueva Ecija, Pampanga, Tarlac (northern portion), Zambales (southern part), Bulacan, Cavite, La Laguna, Batangas, Camarines Sur (the chief district of southern Luzon), the Visayan Islands, Capiz (Island of Panay), and !N"e- gros. Pangasinan contains the best rice lands in the north. The macan of this province returns eighty cavans of grain for one of seed; in the uplands the return is from forty to sixty grains. The finest rice farm in the Archipelago is at Imus, famous as the headquarters of the insurgents in Cavite during 1896. It contains eighteen thousand hectares, of which upwards of thirteen thousand are under rice cultivation. One third of this area is choice land that yields one hundred cavans of rice to one of seed; another third yields seventy-five, and the remainder fifty to one. The balance of the estate is upland, which could be made to produce in the ratio of perhaps forty to one. In the same province there are notable plantations at San Francisco de Malabon and at Santa Cruz de Malabon. In some provinces the land is prepared under con- tract at the rate of $1.50 per hectare, and for harvest- ing $3 and one cavan of seed per hectare are allowed. 334 THE PHILIPPINES. Or, the cutting may be contracted for at the rate of from 25cents to 371/2 cents per thousand bundles, of which the former yield two, and the latter,four cliupas. The cost and returns of rice culture vary greatly with differing conditions. The Cavite farms to which reference has been made net about thirty per cent, per annum on the capital engaged. They are, how- ever, worked under exceptionally favorable condi- tions. Nevertheless, it is quite probable that with ample capital, modern machinery, and railroad facil- ities, such as will soon be available, a large operation might produce as good, or even better, results. CACAO CULTIVATION AND ITS POSSIBILITIES. Cacao is found widespread throughout the Archi- pelago but only in a few localities is it raised at all extensively. The intelligent cultivation of the plant is a highly profitable occupation where the yield is of excellent quality and the demand for it at present considerably in excess of the supply. All the choco- late produced from the Philippine cacao seed is con- sumed in the islands and falls short of the domestic requirements. Should the industry expand, as it ought to, until there is a surplus for exportation, the product will find a ready market in the United States and elsewhere, for it is admitted by manufacturers to be first class, if not quite equal to the very best. Many sections of the Archipelago are perfectly adapted to the cultivation of the plant, and with im- CACAO CULTIVATION. 335 proved methods the present large profits and superior quality of the product may both be enhanced. The prime essential to the successful growth of the cacao plant is a suitable climate; physical environ- ment is of next importance, and character of soil the least consideration. Cacao thrives in the atmosphere of a Turkish bath, and it should be planted in small valleys free from draught and sheltered from the prevailing wind by high hills or mountains. Planta- tions set in forest clearings enjoy the best possible con- ditions, it being understood, of course, that the heavy forest remains standing around the field. The land is cleared of everything but necessary shade trees, and worked to as great a depth as possible. Drainage ditches are dug before planting takes place. It is the general custom to set the fruiting banana for temporary shelter, but in districts where abaca will grow it may be substituted with profit. The tem- porary shade is maintained until the fourth or fifth year, when it is grubbed out, the stalks and roots being left upon the ground, to which they furnish a useful fertilizer, rich in nitrogen. There are two varieties of cacao in general cultivation in the Archi- pelago the criollo and the forastero. The former has the better flavor, is less bitter, and is more easily cured ; qualities which combine to give it a higher commercial value. On the other hand, forastero has the advantage in point of yield, vigor, freedom from disease, and compatibility to environment. In gen- 336 THE PHILIPPINES. eral, then, the preference should be given to the latter, but in certain districts of Mindanao, where conditions perfectly favorable to its cultivation prevail, criollo may be raised with greater profit. Planting is done "at stake," or from the nursery. The former method, which consists in depositing seed directly in the field, is very hazardous on account of the presence of numerous predatory insects and ver- min. A careful planter will always resort to seed- lings, which may be kept under close care and control until ready for transplanting. The seeds are planted singly in small pots, or bamboo tubes, the receptacles being set in a free, light soil. The shoots are care- fully watered and shaded for from three to six months, when they will be ready for setting out. The cacao plant grows to a height of from ten to twelve feet, and bears its crop of heavy pods directly from the trunk and main branches. Its five-inch fruit depends from stems none too strong and is easily torn off by a high wind. The wood of the tree is of a very soft and spongy character, and offers only the slightest resistance to borers, so that it is neces- sary to be extremely careful to avoid injury to the bark. This makes pruning a delicate operation. The most abundant crop is generally secured at the com- mencement of the dry season, and the fruit continues to ripen during two months. The pods should be gathered by hand, or with the aid of extension cut- ters. Never should a laborer be allowed to climb a A CACAO PLANTATION. 337 tree. The fniit is thrown upon the ground in heaps and opened within twenty -four hours. Two jars of water are provided for the cleaners, who sort and grade the seeds as they are removed from the pulp. Large, ripe, and unimpaired seeds go into one jar; small, imperfect and immature seeds into the other. Thus they are allowed to stand for a day, after which they are washed in fresh water, dried in the sun for two or three days, and they are ready for the manufacturer. Simple as the process is, it results in an excellent quality of product which finds a ready market at unusually high prices. Under these circumstances it is doubtful whether the attempt to improve the grade by fermentation with its at- tendant risk is advisable. Few crops make so little drain upon the soil as cacao does. Trees commonly bear continuously for twenty years and more without the aid of any fer- tilizer, but the use of it would, no doubt, be advan- tageous both as to quantity and quality of yield. DETAILED STATEMENT OF A CACAO PLANTATION. The following estimate of the expenses and profit involved in cacao cultivation, carefully compiled by Mr. W. S. Lyon, of the Insular Bureau of Agri- culture, might, perhaps, need some revision to con- form to the present conditions of the labor market and other economic changes of the past two or three years. 22 333 THE PHILIPPINES. It is, however, substantially correct, and may be ac- cepted as a reliable guide by prospective planters. The size of farm, sixteen hectares, is based upon the amount of land prescribed by Act of Congress as the limit of a single public land entry. The cost of procuring such a tract cannot be determined, but it would undoubtedly be low. The price of the product is calculated at forty-eight cents per kilo; which is the current figure for the best grade of cacao in the open market. The yield per tree is fixed at two catties, a conservative estimate for a tree with little or no cultivation. The prices for unskilled labor are given at one-fourth advance over the wages of farm hands in the Visayas, but probably a further increase of twenty-five per cent, would be necessary in order to ar- rive at the present cost of labor in many localities. Xo allowance is made for management, on the as- sumption that the owner would supervise the prop- erty. EXPENSES AND INCOME. Charges to capital account are given for the sec- ond, third and fourth years, but no current expenses p.re given, for the proposition contemplates sufficient receipts from side crops to defray the expenses of the operation until the cacao trees begin to bear. EXPENSES AND INCOME OF CACAO. 339 ESTIMATE OF EXPENSES AND INCOME OF SIXTEEN HECTARES OF CACAO. FIRST YEAR. Capital account : Clearing average brush and timber land, at $15 per hectare $340.00 Four Curasao, plows, barrows, cultivators, carts, etc 550.00 Breaking and preparing land, at $5 per hectare 80.00 Opening main drainage canals, at $6 per hectare 96.00 Tool bouse and store-room 200.00 Purchase and planting 10,000 abaca shoots, at 2 cents each 200.00 Seed purchase, rearing, and planting 12,000 cacao trees, at 3 cents each 300.00 Contingent and incidental 174.00 -$2,000.00 SECOND YEAR. Interest on investment $200.00 Depreciation on tools, buildings, and ani- mals (20 per cent, of cost) 150.00 $350.00 THIRD YEAR. Interest on investment $200.00 Depreciation as above 150.00 $350.00 FOURTH YEAR. Interest on investment $200.00 Depreciation as above 150.00 Building of drying bouse and sweat boxes, capacity 20,000 kilos 450.00 $800.00 Total capital invested $3,500.00 340 THE PHILIPPINES. FIFTH YEAR. Income account: From 11,680 cacao trees, 300 grams cacao each, 3,500 kilos at 48 cents $1,680.00 Expense account : Fixed interest and depreciation charges on investment of $3,500 $350.00 Taxes I 1 /*, per cent, on a one-third valua- tion basis of $250 per hectare 60.00 Cultivating, pruning, etc., at $5.50 per hectare 88.00 Fertilizing, at $G per hectare 96.00 Harvesting, curing, packing, 3,500 kilos cacao, at 10 cents per kilo 350.00 Contingent 86.00 $1,030.00 Credit balance $650.00 SIXTH YEAR. Income account : From 11,680 cacao trees, at 500 grams cacao each, equals 5,840 kilos at 48 cents $2,808.20 Expense account : Fixed interest and depreciation charges as above $350.00 Taxes as above 60.00 Cultivating, etc., as above 88.00 Fertilizing, at $8 per hectare 128.00 Harvesting, etc., 5,840 kilos cacao, at 10 cents per kilo 584.00 Contingent 93.20 $1,303.20 Credit balance $1,500.00 EXPENSES AND INCOME OF CACAO. 341 SEVENTH YEAR. Income account: From 11,680 cacao trees, at 750 grams cacao each, equals 8,7(iO kilos, at 48 cents $4,204.80 Expense account : Fixed interest charges as above $350.00 Taxes as above GO.OO Cultivating, etc., as above 88.00 Fertilizing, at $10 per hectare 1GO.OO Harvest, etc., of 8,7GO kilos, at 10 cents per kilo 876.00 Contingent 170.80 $1,704.80 Credit balance $2,500.00 EIGHTH YEAR. Income account: From 11,680 trees, at 1 kilo each, at 48 cents $5,606.00 Expense account : Fixed interest charges as above $350.00 Taxes as above 60.00 Cultivation, etc., as above 88.00 Fertilizing, at $12.50 per hectare 200.00 Harvest, etc., 11,680 kilos, at 10 cents per kilo 1.168.00 Contingent 240.00 $2,106.00 Credit balance $3,500.00 NINTH YEAR. Income account: From 11,680 trees, at 2 catties (1.25 kilo), equals 14,600 kilos each, at 48 cents . . . $7,008.00 342 THE PHILIPPINES. Expense account: Fixed interest and depreciation charges as above $350.00 Taxes, at 1^-per cent, on a one-third valu- tion of $500 per hectare 120.00 Cultivation, etc.. as ahove 88.00 Fertilizing, at $15 per hectare 240.00 Harvesting, etc., 14.(HX) kilos, at 10 cents per kilo 1,400.00 Contingent 250.00 $2.508.00 Credit balance $4,500.00 In the tenth year there should be no increase in taxes, or fertilizers, and a slight increase in yield, sufficient to bring the net profits of the estate to the approximate amount of $5,000. This would equal a dividend of rather more than $312 per hectare, or about $126 per acre. These tables further show original capitalization account cost of nearly $90 per acre, and from the ninth year annual operating expenses of somewhat more than $60 per acre. It should be stated, how- ever, that the operating expenses are based upon a systematic and scientific management of the estate, while the returns, or income, are based upon the revenue from trees that are at the disadvantage of being without any culture whatever, and whilst it is improbable that either the original cost per acre, or the cost of operation, can be materially reduced, it is tolerably certain that the yield may be increased EXPENSES AND INCOME OF CACAO. 343 considerably beyond two catties per tree. In the Cameroons, and in French Congo, trees are stated on indisputable authority to yield in excess of four pounds, or over three catties. In the Carolines the trees are said to give five and six pounds, and it is claimed that single plants in Mindanao have borne as much as ten pounds of seed. As Mr. Lyon remarks, "the difference between good returns and enormous profits arising from cacao grow- ing in the Philippines will be determined by the amount of knowledge, experience, and energy that the planter is capable of bringing to bear upon the culture in question." Whilst the foregoing estimate has taken no account of manager's salary, it would be indispensable to suc- cess that an individual or corporation investing money in the industry without knowledge of its details should secure the most experienced management possible without sparing expense. The cultivation of cacao is a very harzardous enterprise, and although recent in- vestigations have revealed much that will facilitate the culture in the future and reduce the dangers, it would be no more than prudent to calculate upon, say, one bad year in five, or, in other words, to dis- count the calculated profits twenty per cent. The enemies of cacao are numerous, and include worms, bugs, monkeys, and parrots. Drought may destroy young plants, or at least prevent a crop, and a hurricane, when the trees are laden, will strip 344 THE PHILIPPINES. them of fruit. For these reasons some persons rec- ommend cacao only as a side crop and not as a dependence, and it would be a sheer gamble for any one to put all his capital into a cacao plantation. The prospective returns, however, are so extremely large in this industry and the eventual profits so certain, jhat it offers a splendid investment for capital sup- ported by an ample reserve. For instance, $5,000 put into cacao, with another $5,000 to reinforce it if necessary, would insure the success of the venture: If $750, or $1,500 local currency, were paid to a good manager there would be a small deficit during the first three or four years perhaps, although the pres- ence of such a man might be expected to enhance the receipts from the shade abaca; but in any case such an outlay would be in the nature of ultimate economy. MINOR PRODUCTS, INDIGO, MAIZE, ZACATE, TEOSINTE. Indigo was at one time exported in considerable quantities (in 1892 to the value of over $150,000) from the Ilocos provinces and is still produced in that section, but now only for the home consumption. The loss of the market for indigo is attributed to the extended use of dyes derived from coal tar, that is to say aniline dyes, and to the gross adulterations to which the Philippine product was subjected by the Chinese jobbers, who, by-the-way, have created a bad name for Philippine gutta percha in the same manner. Twenty-five years ago the product of Ilocos MINOR PRODUCTS 345 Sur fetched as much as 120 pesos per quintal in the open market; to-day 30 pesos is a fair price for it. This great falling off is due mainly to the manipula- tion referred to above. There is still an extensive market for vegetable indigo, and it is believed that with proper cultivation and honest treatment the Phil- ippine product would command very much higher figures. Indigo can be subjected to a high grade of cultivation at a cost of $40 to $50 per hectare of land which, under such conditions, should yield at least four quintals of good quality dye stuff. This at, say $25 per quintal, would yield a fair profit. Indian corn is quite generally cultivated through the Archipelago, and in a few districts is the staple food of the natives, but they invariably prefer rice when they can get it. Maize is chiefly used as a cat- tle food, and for this purpose the entire plant stalk, leaves and grain is utilized. In good land maize seed will yield two-hundred fold and give three crops in a year. Zacate, which is forage grass of several varieties, is profitably grown in the vicinity of likely markets. Farmers are enabled to gather five, and even six, crops in the year, for which, especially in Manila, good prices are obtained. The grass is not cured, but made up into small bundles and sold for consumption in the green state. Teosinte is a very valuable annual grass which has recently been introduced to the Philippines, where its 346 THE PHILIPPINES. adaptability has been satisfactorily demonstrated. It grows as high as twelve feet and from sixty to seventy stems are produced from a single seed. In the south- ern portion of the United States it has been found to yield crops of from twenty to fifty tons per acre. BAMBOO AND NIPA PALM. Several species of bamboo grow luxuriantly through- out the Archipelago. This plant is an important fac- tor in the domestic economy of all Oriental people. The Filipinos put it to many useful purposes, the principal being the construction of houses, the frame- works of which are as a rule made of this material. The entire edifice is strongly constructed of vegetable products and without the employment of a nail. The bamboos are firmly bound together with bejuco, or rattan, and the roof is formed of a cogon or nipa thatch. The floors are usually of bamboo and the same material is used for doors, window, shutters, and the rest. Bamboo is converted to the greatest number and variety of purposes; indeed, there appears to be no species of domestic utility or industrial occupation, in which it does not play an important part. The variety called Cauayang totoo sometimes at- tains a height of more that twelve meters and a diameter of more than twenty centimeters. Nipa, or sasa, is a very useful palm of fern-like ap- pearance, that grows in marshy localities. It reaches PRIMITIVE METHODS OF AGRICULTURE. 347 a height of four meters and throws off clusters of long leaves which are used, wherever they are obtainable, for the roofs of buildings. From the sap, nipa wine, or vino, is distilled, and large quantities of it are con- sumed by the natives as a beverage. Extensive groves of nipa are cultivated for the purpose of securing the liquor, for which there is an unlimited demand. THE PRIMITIVE METHODS OF PHILIPPINE AGRICULTURE. In general, the methods of agriculture followed in the Philippine Islands are antiquated, and oftetti haphazard. The implements used are of the rudest description, and no more than a moderate degree of energy and intelligence is brought to bear upon the work. Perhaps the Filipino obtains better compara- tive results from his paddy-field than from any other branch of agricultural industry, but even in that, his favorite and oldest occupation, he falls far short of the maximum possibilities. It may be said of all the agricultural pursuits of the islands that with modern methods and appliances much greater areas could be cultivated with improvement in the grade of crops at no more expenditure of labor than is now applied to restricted operations. The ancient wooden plough that was introduced from China centuries ago is still in general, in fact almost universal, use. It is drawn by a leisurely carabao, and does little more than scratch the ground. 348 THE PHILIPPINES A wooden harrow, also attached to the inevitable carabao, may supplement the superficial action of the plough. The subsequent cultivation of the grow- ing crop is very meagre and often hardly enough to insure a harvest. Fortunately Mature in these islands needs little wooing to bestow her favors bounteously. Since thvi American occupation, attempts have been made to induce the native farmers to adopt the use of modern implements and machinery, but up to the present the result has not been encouraging. Of course the difficulty lies in breaking away from old- established custom and is a perfectly natural one. Most modern field machinery is made to be drawn by horses. The native cultivator is apt to think that anything which is beyond the capacity of his ponder- ous carabao must need steam for a motive power. The pony there are no horses of the Archipelago is a husky little beast that should make an excellent draft animal, and, if the demand for it in that capacity arose, no doubt it would easily be met. A place must always be found for the carabao in the agricultural economy of an Oriental country, but it would be well if the Filipino farmer could be pur- suaded that the useful quadruped is not all in all. The Guia Oficial de Filipinas gives a true and concise description of this remarkable animal. "The carabao, or water buffalo, is the most notable quad- ruped found by the Spaniards when they came to occupy these islands. There are few animals which THE FILIPINO AS A LABORER. 349 are as ugly, and there are also few which are more useful in agricultural labors, and which can better resist the enervating climate of the Philippines. Its color is black or brown, the hair is very scarce, the horns large, arched, and rough, and the head is com- paratively small. Its strength is enormous. It easily swims the wildest rivers and can haul very heavy loads, although its progress is slow and its movements awkward. It likes humidity and to roll in the mud. The hide and horns of the carabao are of great com- mercial value. The carabao begins to work after it is five or six years old. It lives to about thirty years." THE FILIPINO CONSIDERED AS A LABORER. In considering the Filipino as an agriculturist we are prone to judge him by American standards which is altogether unfair. As a matter of fact he does more work than a casual observer is likely to sus- pect. Like the ryot of India, the Filipino is in his field at early dawn and puts in three or four hours before the heat becomes intense. When the shadows begin to lengthen with the decline of day he returns to his crops and toils for three or four other hours. When one considers the heat and humidity of the Philippine climate it must be admitted that six or eight hours a day is a considerable tax on a rice-fed man of indifferent physique. At any rate, it com- pares creditably with the practice of the peasantry of India and China, who are not subject to a similarly 350 THE PHILIPPINES. enervating climate. In fact, there would not be room to cavil at the daily effort of the Filipino if it were sustained for six days a week throughout the year, but, as in most Roman Catholic countries, fiestas and holy days heavily discount the work days of a year. The impression that the Filipino has no backbone should have been removed by the agricultural achieve- ments of recent years in the face of a succession of heart-breaking calamities. The Insular Government did all that was possible to mitigate conditions, but the brunt of the struggle had necessarily to be borne by the peasant. When one considers that in 1902 nearly half the carabao, upon which the farmers de- pend, died, it is really difficult to understand how the crops of the succeeding year were produced. It is quite probable that under similar circumstances the Hindu ryot would have lain down in despair and sur- rendered his country to famine for a succession of years. The wholesale condemnation of the Filipino day laborer is equally unjust. Under the superintendence of those who understand him he renders good service, and American contractors and Government officials who have had extensive opportunities for observation, express themselves as well satisfied with the native laborer. The average Filipino earns his wage, but it is too much to expect him to rival the American day laborer. The sistima inquilino, in its several forms which TlIKKsmxt; Where threshing mills are not within convenient distance the grain is trampled out by carabao or ponies. This picture was taken at tin- (lovernment llice Farm, Murcia, a pueblo of Xi'^ros Occidental. FIELD FOR AMERICANS IN THE ISLANDS. 351 are variously termed "tenant," "share," or "bene- ficiary" system, may be an outgrowth of the early system of encomiendas. It prevails in one form or another in almost all the agricultural indus- tries, and the fact of its long continuance under the Spaniards, who knew the natives perfectly, would indicate that it is best adapted to the labor conditions of the Archipelago. It has serious drawbacks which, however, it may be possible to minimize without radi- cal change. As a question of public policy the sistima inquilino, which encourages the attachment of the peasant to the soil, is more desirable than agri- cultural day labor, which tends to create a shifting population. THE FIELD FOK AMERICANS IN THE ISLANDS. There has been no intention in the foregoing ac- count of Philippine agricultural opportunities to create the impression that the country is an El Dorado, offer- ing wealth for the asking without risk or effort. It is true, however, that few portions of the world have such extensive undeveloped resources as the Philip- pine Archipelago, and perhaps none affords a more promising field for the investment of capital in mod- erate sums. In the countries of South America and Asia a large outlay is generally necessary to the suc- cess of industrial operations, and the question is often complicated by uncertain political conditions and un- stable laws. In the Philippines there are innumer- 352 THE PHILIPPINES. able channels in which ten or twenty thousand dol- lars may be safely invested with large profits. Most of the openings in question demand skilled direction. This may be readily hired, or the needful experience may be acquired in the majority of cases without great difficulty by the investor during a preliminary resi- dence. There are in the islands many planters whose properties could be doubled and trebled in value by the introduction of modern methods and machin- ery, and amongst these, profitable investments on a partnership basis should not be difficult to find. It cannot be too emphatically stated that there is no place in the Philippines for the man without capital, unless he has some useful trade for the exer- cise of which there is an unquestionable scope. In either case the prospective colonist should have a definite idea as to the future direction of his efforts before leaving America. In this connection it may be well to state that the Bureau of Insular Affairs, Washington, D. C., has published a mass of useful information on the subject which is available to the public. Furthermore, Colonel Edwards and his sub- ordinates are ever ready to afford every assistance possible to enquirers. There can be no doubt that the islands afford ex- cellent fields for corporate enterprise upon a large scale. There are several branches of mechanical, mining, and agricultural industry that are well worth investigation by some of our large concerns. The FIELD FOR AMERICANS IN THE ISLANDS. 353 Insular Government is constantly engaged in exten- sive public works which involve profitable contracts. American firms should not be deterred by the presence of established foreign houses and their representa- tives. The Philippines are in a process of trans- formation. New conditions and fresh opportunities are constantly arising. Peace and order prevail, and a rapid recovery from the adverse circumstances of recent years may be expected. There is every indication that the recent visit of Secretary Taf t and the Congressmen who accompanied him to the islands, will bear immediate fruit in legis- lation designed to expedite agricultural and mineral development. Duties will be removed from Philip- pine imports to the United States. The restrictions that have militated against the investment of capital by individuals and corporations will be abated. What President Roosevelt in a recent public speech char- acterized as "the unfortunate measures which have seriously, in some respects vitally, hampered the de- velopment of the Philippine Islands" will undoubt- edly be repealed. With the expected action of Con- gress and the inception of the railroad system the islands should enter, in 1906, upon an era of great prosperity. 23 PUBLIC LANDS, TIMBER, MINERALS, ETC. IX. PUBLIC LANDS, TIMBER, MINERALS, ETC. Area Under Cultivation Forest Lands of the Archipelago Some Varieties of Commercial Timber Official and Pri- vate Tests of Philippine Timber Scientific Survey by the Insular Forestry Bureau Wasteful Methods of Native Lumbering Cost of Lumber Operation Under the Present System Possibilities of the Lumber Industry Forestry Regulations Gutta Percha The Future of the Gutta Percha Trade Rubber May be a Latent Source of Wealth Cattle-Raising an Inviting Field for Capital- Luzon Has the Finest Grass Country in the World Ready Markets for Philippine Cattle Mineral Wealth Gold has Been Mined for Centuries Iron and Coal Exist in Abundance. Pending the completion of the Government survey of the Archipelago, figures applying to the larger areas must necessarily be based upon estimates, which, however, have generally been made carefully and doubtless are approximately correct. The Spaniards had no exact knowledge of the area of the islands, nor even of their number. The Schurman Commis- sion in an endeavor to ascertain the extent of the public domain had recourse to Spanish documents and "general information gathered from various sources, particularly from natives acquainted with the provinces." The conclusion arrived at was that the public lands equaled half the area of the Archi- pelago. (357) 358 THE PHILIPPINES. The Taft Commission, after more extensive re- search, reported (1900) as follows : "The total amount of land in the Philippine Islands is approximately 29,694,500 hectares, or 73,345,415 acres. Of this amount it is estimated that about 2,000,000 hectares, or about 4,940,000 acres, are owned by individuals, leaving in public lands 27,694,500 hectares, or 68,- 405,415 acres. The land has not been surveyed, and this is mere estimate. Of the public lands there is about twice or three times as much forest land as there is waste land." The Chief of the Bureau of Public Lands in his report (1903) states: "Assuming the correctness of my estimates of 73,000,000 acres for the total area of the islands, that would leave 61,000,000 acres of land belonging to the public domain. "The Chief of the Bureau of Public Lands estimates the forest lands on the public domain at about 40,000,- 000 acres. This would leave an area of 21,000,000 acres of land not forested, the most of which is agri- cultural in character and which will be subject to disposal under the law permitting leasing, selling and homesteading." The latest estimates are those of the Census, cal- culated by Mr. George R. Putnam, of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey. These give the total area at 73,615,374, and the public domain at 66,628,118. AREA UNDER CULTIVATION. 359 Of the total area of the Archipelago only about 5,000,000 acres, or 9.5 per cent., of the whole is arable land, distributed very irregularly through the prov- inces. La Laguna has the largest proportion with 53.1 per cent. ; Pampanga and Sorsogon each have in excess of 45 per cent; Ilocos Sur, Batangas, Iloilo, Bulacan, La Union, Cebu, Cavite, Tarlac, Albay, Capiz and Negros Occidental follow in the order named with agricultural lands aggregating from 21 to 38 per cent, of their total extent. In no other province is the proportion as great as 20 per cent., and in several, including Lepanto-Bontoc and Benguet of Luzon, it is less than 1 per cent. Of the total area of agricultural land 45.9 is under cultivation. In the matter of ratio of cultivated to total farm land the provinces and comandancias do not preserve the above order by any means. Ilocos Sur is first with 84.2 per cent, of its available soil in tilth. Jolo, which in the former classification is last of forty-eight territorial divisions with less than one- tenth of one per cent, of its land arable, is second in the percentage of it under cultivation ; Antique, Mas- bate, Albay, Ilocos Norte, La Union, Pangasinan, Rizal, Bulacan, Zainboanga, Manila City, Nueva Viz- caya, Sorsogon and Pampanga follow, all with more than 60 per cent. All Oriental people are gregarious as a result of temperament and the exigencies of life in the East. In the Philippines this tendency to congregate has 360 THE PHILIPPINES. been encouraged from the earliest times by the need of mutual protection against such common enemies as the aborigines, and other wild tribes, the Moro pirates, and ladrones. Consequently we find the in- habitants everywhere settled in small communities with no inclination to extend beyond the limits of actual necessity. Generally the holdings are very small. Nearly one-half of them are less than one hectare in size, whilst twenty per cent, are less than one acre. One of these little patches which would hardly support a cow in the United States will in the Philippines, with its prolific soil, contribute the main subsistence of a family. They will live upon it, and from it derive three or four different crops in the course of the year. The average size of all farms in the Archipelago, including the small holdings referred to above, is only 8.57 acres, whilst in the United States it is accord- ing to the last census 146.6, a ratio of seventeen to one. There are upwards of 800,000 persons engaged more or less extensively in agriculture in the islands. Of this number 99.8 are full-blooded Filipinos of the Christian tribes. Of the remainder 778 are "whites," that is, Americans and Europeans; 308 are half-castes of Spanish or Chinese origin, and 959 are pure Chinese. By far the largest proportion of farmers own the land they cultivate ; some pay rent in cash and others in kind or with labor. There FOREST LANDS OF THE ARCHIPELAGO. 361 has always been a great deal of uncertainty about titles in the Philippines, but the difficulties on this score have been comparatively few owing to the great amount of surplus land. In 1894 the Spanish Min- ister, for the Colonies reported to the Queen of Spain that there were about 200,000 squatters on the pub- lic lands subject to eviction by the State, but it is believed by officials of the Insular Government that at present there are at least double that number. FOREST LANDS OF THE ARCHIPELAGO. Captain George P. Ahern, U. S. A., reported (1902) that "in the total of forty odd million acres of woodland we find at the very least twenty million acres of virgin forest. We find virgin forests in the provinces of Cagayan, Isabela, Nueva Vizcaya, and in that part of Tayabas formerly known as Principe and Infanta ; in fact, the entire coast of Luzon south of Antimonan is a virgin forest. The above-men- tioned forests in Luzon will aggregate an area of at least 3,000,000 acres. The foregoing is a conserva- tive estimate, and any change made later will doubt- less be to increase the estimate instead of reducing it. There is much merchantable timber left in the prov- inces of Tayabas, Camarines, parts of Bulacan and Bataan. "The islands of Mindoro and Paragua, each con- taining an area of more than 2,000,000 acres, are covered with a dense stand of virgin timber. 362 THE PHILIPPINES. "Mindanao, with an area of 23,000,000 acres, con- tains more than 10,000,000 acres of virgin forest. Samar and Leyte both large islands are heavily timbered." In these areas average stands are found to run to seven thousand cubic feet per acre in trees with a diameter of over twenty inches, and some acres reach ten thousand cubic feet. It is character- istic of the Philippine forest that the species grow scatteringly ; few pure stands of a single species are found anywhere. Many of the varieties of native timber are of the highest value and are in great demand, whilst among the many other kinds which are little known some may discover unsuspected utilities upon investigation and test. SOME VARIETIES OF COMMERCIAL, TIMBER. Tindalo, a dark red wood, is found in many of the islands. It is suitable to all kinds of construction, and on account of its durability and susceptibility to a high polish is widely used in the East for fine cabinet work. Ipil is abundant in the Archipelago. With age it assumes a purple-black color resembling ebony. It is practically impervious to decay, pieces which have been in use a century showing no signs "of deteriora- tion. It has a reputation for durability in the ground and where it is in contact with cement and mortar and is well adapted to use for railway sleepers. There is a large demand for it in China. COMMERCIAL TIMBER. 363 Narra is called "the mahogany of the Philippines." It seasons well and admits of a high degree of polteh. It is used in cabinet work, being the material from which nearly all the furniture of Manila is made, but is a first class wood for general purposes. It is classed in the London market with Padouk or Burmese rose- wood, and is similar timber to the redwood of the Andaman Islands. Being impervious to the attacks of white ants, it is especially valuable in the East. There is a white species of narra which has all the qualities of the red variety. Molave is found in most of the islands. The wood is white. It has many excellent qualities. The tree produces timber from 11 to 22 feet long and from 12 to 24 inches square. It resists sea-worm, white ants and other borers and is therefore valuable for many kinds of works where an extra durable material is required. It can not be surpassed for railroad sleep- ers, being practically everlasting. This wood has been identified with what, as "New Zealand teak," has long been known commercially and highly prized for its endurance under water. Apitong is a greyish wood which grows abundantly in various parts of the Archipelago. Large quantities of the timber have been shipped to China, where it is in constant demand for the framework of houses and for ship's planking. Yacal is found in Luzon, Mindoro, and Panay. It grows to a height of from 12 to 20 meters. The wood 364 THE PHILIPPINES. is used in the construction of buildings and in cabinet work. It is of a darkish yellow color, has a fine and solid texture, breaks with long splinters, and is proof against the onslaughts of white ants. Guijo is widely distributed throughout the Archi- pelago. It is a light red wood with undulating fiber, strong and flexible and with well-defined pores. It is used in ordinary and in naval construction, and largely for carriage wheels and shafts in Manila. In Hongkong it is the material for wharves, for decks, for flooring, and for other purposes where a tough and elastic wood is required. Lauan is found all over the islands. It is a reddish white wood of loose and filaceous texture with dis- tinctly marked pores. It is extensively used in naval construction, and the natives often employ it as a covering or sheathing for hardwood floors. It can be turned to the same general uses as our pine, poplar, and other soft woods, and has the advantage over them of resisting white ants. The foregoing are only a few of many woods of commercial importance which are to be found in the vast forests of the Philippines. OFFICIAL, AND PRIVATE TESTS OF PHILIPPINE TIMBER. Captain Ahern says, "several hundred varieties of native woods are received in the Manila market during the year. Spanish engineers tested and de- scribed only some seventy varieties, so that we have TESTS OF PHILIPPINE TIMBER. 365 many species in the market to-day that are not popular owing to the lack of reliable information concerning their strength, durability and suitability for construc- tion purposes. Where strength and durability are especially desired there are no finer construction woods in the world to-day than molave, ipil, and yacal." Two of the bridges over the Pasig were laid with molave blocks ten years ago, and although it has been subjected to the heaviest traffic of the city, the pave- ment is practically as sound as ever. The Pullman Palace Car Company imported forty- eight logs of various Philippine hardwoods by way of experiment, and their superintendent declared that they were the best woods that ever entered their works, but the cost, due to heavy freight rates and crude methods of lumbering, prohibited their use at present. However, the islands have no need to look to the United States for a market; the demand at home and in the Orient for Philippine lumber is cer- tain to exceed the supply for years to come. Several varieties of ebony for which there is a con- stant demand in Europe and America are found in the Archipelago. A lumberman who has been in the Philippines for twenty-five years gave the following testimony before the Peace Commission in 1899 : "They have in the Philippines a wood that is better than ebony; it is called alintatao. It is best fitted for furniture, but may be used for anything you have 366 THE PHILIPPINES. a mind to turn it to. It is a lasting wood. . . . I would recommend alintatao and narra as the finest woods for furniture." From careful tests made by the Insular Forestry Bureau and comparison with re- sults obtained by the United States Agricultural De- partment, the following table has been compiled. Some of the Philippine group show remarkable strength. Apulag-amo subjected to the "compression endwise" strain exhibited a resistance of 15,110 pounds per square inch ; the stress of elastic limit equaled 17,620 pounds per square inch, and the strength at rupture equaled 19,700 pounds per square inch. PHILIPPINE WOODS AMERICAN WOODS Apulag-amo 15,110 Pignut hickory 10,900 Betis 11,270 Mockernut hickory . . 10,100 Dungon 10,370 Butternut hickory . . . 9,600 Molave 10,400 Pecan hickory 9,100 Calamansapay 10,370 Cuban pine 9,080 Dilang butiqui 9,780 White oak 8,500 Bitanhol 9,670 Texan oak 8,100 Ibil 9,000 Green ash 8,000 Tindalo 8,800 Water oak 7,800 Supa 7,230 White ash 7,200 Tucan calao 7,170 Long leaf pine 7,930 SCIENTIFIC SURVEY BY THE INSULAR FORESTRY BUREAU. The Insular Bureau of Forestry is pushing the work of examining and surveying the public forest lands as rapidly as is consistent with thoroughness and the force at its disposal. The surveys afford SCIENTIFIC SURVEY. 367 much useful information regarding the stands and varieties of timber, their peculiarities of growth, character of the soil and rock formation. In addi- tion there will be notes on logging, methods and cost of logging, labor, means of transportation, character of roads and streams, as well as a topographical map on which will be shown the location of the valuation surveys, thus enabling anyone to see at a glance the amount and value of timber available and the possi- bilities of bringing it to market. The investigation will extend all over the islands as trained men capa- ble of managing such work are secured from the United States. This system of detailed survey has been in operation for four years, and a considerable extent of territory has been covered. It may be well to state that no exploration of the Philippine forests has ever been attempted before upon a similar scale, and that no scientific examina- tion of the stand of timber has ever been made. The only reliable information available on the subject is that which has been secured by the Insular Forestry Bureau and the experts employed by the Philippine Commission at various times to make special reports. The statements of casual observers are apt to be misleading. Foreman sums up the difficulties of lumbering in the islands very fairly, and concludes that "with sufficient capital, a handsome profit is to be realized in this line of business." Sawyer, in his delightfully breezy but somewhat dogmatic style, 3P>8 THE PHILIPPINES. disposes of the Philippine forests in a few para- graphs designed to demonstrate that they are not worth the working. He tells us that "the greatest nonsense is talked about the value of the Philippine forests, but in fact it is only in the fever-stricken island of Mindoro and in certain parts of Palawan and Mindanao that any large and valuable trees can be found. ... In Luzon all the large trees of valuable timber have long ago been cut."* These and most of the other similar assertions contained in Sawyer's chapter on "Forestal" are contradicted by established fact. The following matter relating to the Philippine forests is, in the main, derived from the official re- port of the Chief of the Bureau of Forestry, and where quotation marks appear they indicate literal extracts from that document. For the most part, the forest territory is well sup- plied with streams sufficiently large for driving logs. In some cases they may require a little clearing. The native operations are conducted upon the simplest and easiest lines without regard to ultimate results. * For refutation of these statements see the report of the Chief of the Forestry Bureau; the preliminary report on working plan of Bataan Province by Forester R. C. Bryant ; and the report of Mr. John Orr, manager of the Philippine Lumber and Development Company. All of the foregoing are contained in the Report of the Philippine Commission, Part I, 1902. NATIVE LUMBERING. 369 The water courses and the caral>ao are the only mean? of transportation from the stand. In the former case bamboo rafts are often needed to give buoyancy to the dense hardwoods and in the latter the haul must be adjusted to the limited capacity of the beast. As a consequence the native seldom gets out the largest trees, and if he touches them, usually cuts at a waste- ful height, sometimes twelve or fourteen feet from the ground. Such a thing as a cross-cut saw is un- known in the Philippine forest. All the felling and other work is done with a long, narrow, single- bitted axe, and in order to minimize the labor the chopper often burns the tree partially through. The enormous waste involved in such crude methods may easily be imagined. It is estimated that of the amount of marketable timber cut, no more than thirty-five per cent, is got out. WASTEFUL METHODS OF NATIVE LUMBERING. A fact mentioned by Captain Ahern strikingly illustrates the haphazard nature of the industry as carried on at present. It appears that there is in the vicinity of Manila a fine tract of timber land which has been protected up to the present by the presence of a slight obstruction in a stream that an American company would have removed in a few days and at a nominal expense. The average haul to tidewater is short, and "a com- bination of a short line of railway with the wire cable 24 370 THE PHILIPPINES. system of logging would be ideal for a country with the topography that these islands present." In some localities skidding for short distances with carabao might be necessary in combination with the plant in question. Under the present system the licensee usually con- tracts with the loggers to deliver on the beach certain species of hewn timber. The loggers pick out the likeliest trees for their purpose, chop and burn them down, cut off such logs as their carabao can draw and leave a remainder of from forty to sixty per cent, to decay upon the ground. As a consequence of this method of logging the forests on many of the islands have been culled to a distance of two or three miles from the coast and in the vicinity of the larger towns. The Philippine Lumber and Development Company have found that three miles on a straight line or five miles following the winding of a valley are the ex- treme limits of profitable lumbering with the carabao. Successful operations on any scale of magnitude will depend to a great extent upon the employment of this animal in only an auxiliary capacity. Carabao are now scarce and cost from seventy-five to one hundred dollars. Although strong, they are not hardy beasts. They need to be watered several times a day, which, aside from the inconvenience and waste of time often entailed, renders their employment upon high moun- tain slopes, where much of the best timber is to be had, practically impossible. COST OF LUMBER OPERATIONS. 371 Nearly all the timber that is shipped to Manila is squared in the forest, and is usually from 12 to 24 inches wide at the top and as long as the carabao will haul. This limitation leads to a great deal of the clear length being left in the woods to rot. Spe- cial efforts are, however, made to get out extra lengths for use in shipbuilding. The logs of dungon, betis, and guijo will sometimes measure from 50 to 60 feet ; those of batitinan, mangachapuy, and palo-maria from 19 to 32 feet. Lanan, the tree from which bancas are chiefly fashioned, is occasionally cut the entire clear length, and gives a boat from 32 to 65 feet long and from 24 to 48 inches wide. Lauan, and more especially apitong, furnish boards with a top diameter of 12 inches and from 82 to 98 feet long. Molave timbers are seldom over 16 to 32 feet long and 16 to 32 inches square. However, there is a demand for the crooked, tough and durable branches of molave and dancalan for purposes of ship construction. Calantas is used mainly for cigar boxes, but also to a limited extent for interior finishing. It yields logs of 65 feet and occasionally as long as 98 feet. COST OF LUMBER OPERATION UNDER THE PRESENT SYSTEM. The Philippine Lumber and Development Com- pany pays the following scale of wages: Choppers and hewers, 35 cents per day, without board; trail- builders, skidders, and drivers, 25 cents per day, 372 THE PHILIPPINES. without board; hire of carabao, 50 cents and 75 cents per day. For sawing the hewed timber into boards by hand they pay the following prices per square foot : Cuartos.* Dungon and betis 4 Molave, dancalan and acle 3 Guijo and niangachapuy 2 Apitong and lauan 1 The cost of logs laid down on the beach varies from 3 to 15 cents per cubic foot; the average for logs of superior woods is less than 10 cents. Modern facili- ties would greatly reduce these figures. The trans- portation charges per cubic foot for logs delivered in Manila are : From Masbate, 20 cents ; from Tayabas, 15 to 17V2 cents; from Subig (by raft), 2^/2 cents. Lumber companies using their own vessels would reduce the cost of transportation to about one-third of these rates. The following table of quotations for logs and boards in Manila is a fair criterion of average prices, but the tendency is constantly upward as the demand increases without any appreciable expansion of the local supply : Molave, in log, per c. f., S? 1 /^ cents; sawed, per c. f., 80 cents ; M. B. M., $75.00. Narra, in log, per c. f., 41 1 /^> cents ; sawed, per c. f., 831/2 cents; M. B. M., $82.50. * Cuarto equals about one-third of a cent. LUMBER INDUSTRY. 373 Ipil, in log, per c. f., 34 cents; sawed, per c. f., 74 cents; M. B. M., $62.50. Guijo, in log, per c. f., 22 cents; sawed, per c. f., 65 cents; M. B. M., $40.00. Supa, in log, per c. f., 21 cents; sawed, per c. f., 64 cents; M. B. M., $45.00. Lauan, in log, per c. f., 13 cents; sawed, per c. f., 27 cents ; M. B. M., $19.00. Tanguile, in log, per c. f., 16 cents ; sawed, per c. f., 50 cents ; TJ. S. C. M., $25.00. Apitong, in log, per c. f., 161/2 cents; sawed, per c. f., 31 cents; U. S. C. M., $25.00. POSSIBILITIES OF THE LUMBER INDUSTRY. The Chief of the Forestry Bureau states that "there is a demand in Manila, in fact all through the Orient, for construction timber ; the demand will continue as many important public works are in contemplation in the Philippines, many private enterprises will make demands, thousands of houses must be built, and when the present condition of these islands and the vast amount of work to be done are considered it would be difficult to foretell when the present high prices of lumber will materially lessen. . . . The United States market is not considered in this proposition. The Philippines market will be strong for many years. The Chinese market is always strong and always will be, for all of lowland China is without timber. The Philippine construction timber 374 THE PHILIPPINES. is considered by many engineers in China the best tim- ber to be had in the Orient. Strong as has been the Chinese market for timber in the past, the future promises even better, as there are indications that foreign enterprise and capital are securing conces- sions which will waken that vast Empire. "There are very few lumber companies here prop- erly equipped to handle large logs ; it will take com- panies contemplating such work many months to estab- lish themselves, to secure labor, and transportation to deliver their first cargo; and if such companies are not prepared to furnish master mechanics, expert gang bosses, in fact all the skilled labor required, with a full stock of the best supply material, it would be hazardous to attempt to remove the large logs which must be cut and brought to market if these forest tracts are exploited properly." At this time the Philippines are not exporting one- fiftieth of the lumber for which a profitable market could be found under scientific and economical meth- ods of production, whilst each year large quantities of pine and redwood enter the country from Ore- gon and California. A corporation with, say, $2,000,- 000 capital operating logging roads, saw-mills and a fleet of sailing vessels, including barges for inter- island transportation, would surely return handsome dividends to its stockholders. The profits would per- mit such vessels to return in ballast, but as a matter of fact cargoes from Hongkong are always obtain- FORESTRY REGULATIONS. 375 able, and schooners delivering at the Pacific ports of the United States might carry back American soft woods. The need of the trade for specially-built lumber vessels is pronounced. It is often necessary to cut up logs at the port of clearance in order to load them upon ships of limited hold capacity. Under present conditions the establishment of a market in the United States for the valuable hardwoods of the Philippines is impossible, but a company running vessels direct to Seattle or San Francisco could, with- out doubt, open up such a market, and create an active demand amongst manufacturers of high-grade fur- niture and finishings. By jobbing its product in this country the company would save all the profits from the forest to the factory. Considering the facility with which operations might be instituted, the known superiority of the product, the certainty of markets, and the high prices obtainable, lumbering offers the best field for the heavy investment of capital in the Philippines. FORESTRY REGULATIONS. Corporations giving evidence of their ability and intention to operate upon a scale of considerable mag- nitude may secure from the Forestry Bureau licenses for a period not to exceed twenty years. The area within which the company may work will be specif- ically defined and the trees to be cut will be indicated by a government forester. This official will measure 376 THE PHILIPPINES. the timber felled and assess the charges. Market- able timber is classified in four groups, and the ter- ritories in two divisions. The tariff is regulated primarily by the character of the timber, modified, however, by the locality in which the operation is conducted. For instance, the tax upon a tree of the first group felled in Mindanao would not be as great as that upon a similar tree cut in a locality, say Bataan, more accessible to the Manila market. It is easy to conceive that a company operating its own vessels might derive an enhanced advantage from this arrangement. The government charge will prob- ably average about six per cent, of the selling price. Several companies are now negotiating to secure tracts of land large enough to justify the installation of modern plants, and it is likely that within the next few years the output of Philippine lumber w r ill be very much increased. During 1903 upwards of five million cubic feet of lumber was marketed, of which 4,740,738 cubic feet, valued at about $175,000, came from the public for- ests. In the same year 87,000 board feet of native lumber were exported. On the other hand there were imported 113,483 cubic feet of lumber on commercial liners, as well as 6,841,207 board feet and 4,746 foot tons for the use of the Government. The imported lumber was laid down in Manila at from $37.50 to $48.50 for Oregon pine and at from $45 to $55 for redwood per thousand board feet. GUTTA PERCHA. 377 Gutta Percha is one of the important products of the Philippine forests. Elsewhere the tree is found only in the Malay Peninsula, Borneo, Sumatra, and the small islands lying between them. Tawi Tawi and Southern Mindanao are the sources of the Philip' pine product. The gum is secured by a ruinous method which, unless it is checked, must ultimately result in extinguishing the already inadequate sup- ply. The practice of the native gatherers in all gutta percha regions is much the same. The tree is cut down and the bark ringed so that the milk flows from it at several points. The outflow is caught in cocoanut shells, and a tree yields at the utmost two pounds, which is about ten per cent, of its capacity. The output of the Philippine forests is handled ex- clusively by Chinese traders, who make enormous profits in the business. The prices paid to the Moros range from ten to fifteen pesos per picul, and pay- ment is frequently made in cloth and other commodi- ties. The Chinaman's standard picul in buying, a fic- titious measure created by himself, is 1621/2 pounds, whilst he markets the product at the Chinese picul of 1331/2 pounds. Singapore is the central depot for gut- ta percha. Practically all of the production is shipped there, and thence distributed. In the past fifty years upwards of 300,000,000 pounds of the material have been received at Singapore. A writer in "Opportuni- ties in the Philippines" suggests that these figures afford some clue to the number of trees which have 378 THE PHILIPPINES. been destroyed in that time, calculating on a basis of two pounds to the tree, and allowing ten per cent, for wastage. The result of such a computation, however, would fall very short of indicating the actual extent of the destruction. The Insular Government has under consideration several plans for putting a stop to present methods in the industry, and it is likely that the production of gutta percha in the Philippines will become a semi- monopoly of the Government. Unless something of this sort is done the trees will disappear from the Archipelago in the course of twenty years, if we may judge by the number which have been removed during the ten or less years that the industry has been in existence. THE GUTTA PERCHA TRADE. The chief, almost the sole, use to which gutta percha is put is in covering electric submarine and land cables. It is practically impervious to the action of water and so admirably adapted to these purposes for which no satisfactory substitute has been found. During the past decade the price and demand for the material have greatly increased with very little re- sponse in the supply, however. The quotation for the different varieties have trebled in that time. In recent years extensive scientific experiments have been made in the direction of the cultivation of the tree and the extraction of the latex. It is FUTURE OF TITE OFTTA PERCHA TRADE. 379 found that the leaf yields a good grade of gutta percha which on test has proved to provide a satisfactory insulating material. The future of the industry in the Philippines must depend upon planting and strict Government regula- tion. It would seem that a gutta percha monopoly conducted somewhat upon the lines of the opium monopoly of the Indian Government would produce the best results with the greatest benefit to all con- cerned. It would probably provide a congenial and certainly a profitable occupation for a large portion of the population of southern Mindanao and the Sulu Archipelago and could hardly fail to be a powerful factor in reducing them to orderly industry. Such an arrangement would also work toward a solution of the dato problem. The dato might be usefully em- ployed as a sort of supervisor in his district as the zamindar is in the Indian opium village. The Ben- gal system includes advances to the cultivator, which are deducted from the payment for his produce when he brings it in. And this would necessarily be a feature of a governmental system of cultivating gutta percha in the Philippines. The Indian ryot may cul- tivate opium or not, as he chooses, but if he does so the Government undertakes to buy his produce at stated figures, whilst it places certain restrictions upon the methods of growth and extraction. In short, the Indian opium system appears to afford an admirable model for the Insular Government in the establishment of a state monopoly in gutta percha. 880 THE PHILIPPINES. Rubber trees and vines are found in almost all tropical countries, but marketing the product gen- erally presents so many difficulties that the industry is profitably pursued in few parts of the world. The demand for rubber is permanent at good prices and the supply in recent years has never satisfied the market. The uses of the material are constantly extending and nothing can be found to take its place. KUBBER MAY BE A LATENT SOURCE OF WEALTH. The Philippines do not at present afford a field for the rubber industry, although the plant grows luxuriantly in the southern islands. The Forestry Bureau, fully alive to the importance of gutta percha and rubber, is making experiments and investigations which should lead to the scientific and profitable cul- tivation of both. Expert opinion favors the belief that rubber plan- tations in the Philippines under skilled direction, em- ploying the best methods of extraction, should give rich returns to investors. This is not, however, an enterprise to be entered upon without ample knowl- edge and experience. A considerable amount of cap- ital is also necessary to success, for although it is authoritatively stated that the returns would be from $150 to $200 per acre, the first crop could not be ex- pected short of six years after planting, and it would be subject to some danger of destruction or damage. It would seem that in several of its features rubber cultivation resembles that of cacao. CATTLE-RAISING. 381 As a result of the ravages of war and the inroads of rinderpest, the cattle-raising industry of the Philip- pines has become extinct during the past few years. Ten years ago large herds of cattle and horses were to be seen everywhere, and especially in northern Luzon. In 1902 Mr. Elmer Merrill reported to the Insular Bureau of Agriculture: "From enquiries made along the route I learned that the cattle indus- try was at one time quite prominent in Kueva Viz- caya, and especially so in Isabela, but due to the insurrection and recent ravages of rinderpest the herds have been much depleted or entirely exter- minated. In Nueva Vizcaya I saw only about twelve head of cattle, but they were in magnificent condition. In Isabela I saw but two herds one of about twelve head and one of about twenty-five and like those in Nueva Vizcaya, they were in excellent condition." To-day there is not a herd of considerable size in the Archipelago. In a less degree, but very seriously, the number of horses has been reduced by surra and glanders. In order to relieve the consequent distress as much as possible the Insular Government imported large numbers of draft animals from India and China, but at the best this could only be a tem- porary measure. It is questionable if a native even amongst those who have the money could be induced to re-enter the indiistry, so fearful have they become of the dread rinderpest. But the investigations of the Bureau of 382 . THE PHILIPPINES. Agriculture lead to the belief that immunity from both rinderpest, and surra may be secured by inocula- tion. However that may be, there are methods by which cattle raising can be carried on in the islands with practically no risk of disease and the returns for years to come would be extremely large. LUZON HAS THE FINEST GRASS COUNTRY IN THE WORLD. Mr. Merrill states, and he is corroborated by sev- eral observers, that "most magnificent grazing grounds exist in eastern Pangasinan, northern Nueva Ecija, Xueva Vizcaya, Isabela, and Cagayan, prob- ably also in the other provinces, mostly rolling up- lands in the three former provinces and broad level prairie lands in the two latter, although so far as abundance and quality of the grasses are concerned there is apparently no difference, the same species growing on the prairies as on the hills. These grasses consist of ... fine-stemmed, fine-leaved grasses which in the United States would be popularly known as bunch grasses, as they mostly grow in small tufts, not being true turf-forming grasses, yet there is suf- ficient abundance of turf-forming or partially turf- forming grasses so that, notwithstanding the heavy tropical rains to which this region is subject during several months of the year, so close is the turf that absolutely no signs of gullying or washing were ob- served even on the very steep hillsides, . . A STISKKT Srj-:xi-:. Ijovver-class natives of the City of Oebu. The ) it-no- tice of carrying children upon the hip as shown in thf illustration is common to many Oriental peopi- From Stereograph Copyright, by Underwood & l/mlerwoo.l. X C w York, PHILIPPINE CATTLE. 383 which shows what may be expected if cattle are ever introduced here in abundance. . . . The grazing lands in eastern Pangasinan, northern Nueva Ecija, and throughout Nueva Vizcaya are character- ized by their rolling, hilly character, the ravines, and small valleys, tops of the higher hills, and surround- ing mountains, being densely forested, while in every small valley one finds streams of pure, clear water, it being impossible to travel three or four miles in any direction without finding good water. Hence it will be observed that there is an abundance of feed, water, and shelter, the requisites for an ideal cattle country; and especially to be noted here are the topographical features of the country which in cases of epidemic of rinderpest are of especial value, as in these valleys whole herds of cattle can be isolated, and with a little care and watchfulness, guarded for months against infection by contact or through the water supply." EEADTc MARKETS FOE PHILIPPINE CATTLE. There are no better grazing grounds than these in the United States, probably not in the world, and under the conditions described, cattle might be raised with little or no risk and of the finest quality. The districts in question have the advantage of proximity to the Manila market, whither the herds might easily be driven upon the hoof. Before long, however, the railroad will run through a great part of these graz- ing grounds in Nueva Vizcaya and Nueva Ecija and 384 THE PHILIPPINES. the Manila-Dagupan line is already sufficiently near to those of Pangasinan. At present all the meat consumed in Manila is shipped in on the hoof from Singapore or as refrig- erated meat from Australia and the United States. The prevailing prices are high, and would yield a handsome profit to local cattle raisers. It is an in- dustry that would require comparatively little capital for its prosecution in the Philippines. The stock would be mainly the native cattle of India and China, which thrive in the Archipelago. The trotting bul- lock of India would appear to be a likely beast for introduction to the Philippines, and, indeed, he is employed to a slight extent in Pangasinan. Another source of profit in this connection is hay. The districts under consideration would give a heavy yield per acre of the finest quality, and the character of the ground is such as to permit of cutting and har- vesting being done by machinery. At present thou- ands of tons of hay are imported from the United States yearly at figures that would give good returns to the home grower. A corporation that should raise sufficient cattle to supply the local demand and run a plant for the utilization of the by-product would without doubt realize large returns on its capital. MINERAL WEALTH. It is impossible to say anything very definite about the mineral resources of the Philippines. They have MINERAL WEALTH. 385 never been thoroughly investigated, and what little mining has been done was of a desultory and not over- scientific character. It is an established fact that rich deposits of various valuable metals and of coal exist, but with few exceptions the precise extent and nature of them have not been ascertained. However, the investigations of the Insular Bureau of Mining and the discoveries of more than a thousand practical American miners who are prospecting in the Archi- pelago will throw a great deal of light upon the sub- ject in the near future. From present knowledge it would appear that tL" most promising fields are in Benguet and Lepanto- Bontoc. The Reports of the Philippine Commis- sion (1902-1903) state that "in the province of Le- panto at Mancayan and Suyoc there are immense deposits of gray copper and copper sulphide, and running through the ore are veins of gold-bearing quartz which is more or less disintegrated and in places is extremely rich. This copper ore has been assayed and the claim is made that it runs on an aver- age eight per cent, copper, while gold is often present in considerable quantities. The deposits are so exten- sive as to seem almost inexhaustible. . . . As early as 1856-57 two concessions were granted to the Cantabro Philippine Mining Company, and an at- tempt was made to exploit them and market their product. Rude methods of mining, ruder methods of extracting the metal, and still more rude and 25 386 THE PHILIPPINES. primitive methods of transportation, combined with lack of sufficient capital and suitable labor, led to the abandonment of this attempt, and for more than twenty years the property, which in itself is a small claim upon the immense ledge above referred to, has been occupied only to the limited extent re- quired by the Spanish mining laws to prevent the can- cellation of the concession. The officer at present in charge of the Mining Bureau characterizes this deposit as an 'undoubted bonanza.' The main thing neces- sary to its exploitation is the opening up of a short line of communication with the coast." And it may be added, this is probably the chief requi- site to successful mining in several parts of the Archipelago. GOLD HAS BEEN MINED FOR CENTURIES. Gold is known to exist in various states on several of the islands, but to what extent it may be worked with profit is yet to be definitely determined. The Igorots have carried on placer mining for centuries and with apparently good returns. They never at- tempt extraction from rock that fails to exhibit a considerable quantity of free gold. Modern mining machinery has never been used in the country, and its introduction may reveal altogether unsuspected possibilities. In some localities the conditions are favorable to hydraulic mining. Prospectors in the Lepanto-Benguet-Bontoc district, according to the re- IRON AND COAL. 387 port of the Commission, have located very extensive deposits of low-grade free-milling ore which will yield large and certain returns under scientific treatment. Unless the statements of those who have been work- ing in this region are utterly false very valuable de- posits have been located. These men, who are for the most part experienced miners from our Western States, have had sufficient faith in their claims to camp upon them for many weary months whilst wait- ing for the passage of mining regulations that would establish their rights and permit them to operate. These desiderata were effected by an act of Congress dated October 7, 1903, since when several mining enterprises of importance have been set on foot with good prospects of success. IKON AND COAL EXIST IN ABUNDANCE. There are undoubtedly deposits of high-grade iron ore in different parts of the Archipelago, but until the coal measures have been more extensively opened up iron cannot be profitably worked. Coal* is one of the pressing requirements of the Philippines. At present it is imported in large quantities from Aus- tralia and Japan and costs wholesale in Manila from $5 to $7 per ton. The production of local coal, * "The Coal Measures of the Philippines," C. H. Burritt, Bureau of Insular Affairs, Washington, D. C. This publica- tion is recommended to those who are interested in the sub- ject 388 THE PHILIPPINES which could be put upon the market at about half the price with profit to the miner, would give a great impetus to all kinds of manufacturing enterprises in the islands. Lignites are known to exist in Luzon, the Island of Batan, Mindoro, Masbate, Negros, Cebu, Mindanao, and other islands. The island of Batan, which is a dependency of the Province of Albay, has been described as "a solid mass of coal." It is now in a process of rapid development. Several private corporations as well as the United States Government are engaged in mining upon the island. A company has opened rich deposits upon the east coast and has constructed an electric railway connecting the mines with a deep water harbor on Calanaga Bay. The Chief of the Mining Bureau is of the opinion that the most important of the mineral resources of the Philippines is the best grade of lignite of which there are two varieties black and brown. The best coal is free from sulphur, relatively low in ash, and is found in the Island of Batan, in Bulalacao and Semarara, southern Mindanao, in Danac and Com- postela, Cebu; on the Gulf of Sibuguey, in southern Mindanao ; at Colatrava, Xegros ; and at Bislig, in eastern Mindanao. It is of the Tertiary age and similar in most important respects to the products of Wyoming, Washington, and Japan. Some of the coal of Abra, Rizal, and eastern Negros is also be- lieved to be suitable for use in steamships and sta- tionary furnaces, but there is some difference of opin- IRON AND COAL. ' 389 ion on this score among experts. One of the most promising fields is that near Bulalacao. There is a good harbor, which affords anchorage throughout the year, within four or five miles of the deposits. Some of the Cebu coal fields enjoy similar advantages. The black coals can in most cases be mined free from pyrites ; they are firm enough for transportation ; can be taken out at reasonable cost, and should therefore be able to entirely take the place of the imported article in the home market and supply all the local demands of steamships. The Commission reports that "testimony is unani- mous to the fact that the Philippine coals do not clinker, nor do they soil the boiler tubes to any such extent as do the Japanese and Australian coals. Some of them have been given practical tests in steam- ers engaged in the coasting trade of the Archipelago with very satisfactory results as regards their steam- making properties."* Taal Volcano. This is in sever;)! res poets the inost ext raonlmarv volcano in tin- world. It is still active, and in the past has heen oxtremelv destructive. MANILA OLD AND NEW. X. MANILA OLD AND NEW. The Philippines Twenty Years Hence The Legend of Mariveles Cavite The Pasig Manila Intrainuros The Cathedral The Old Palace of the Governor-General The Fortress of Santiago Santiago's Illustrious Prison- ers Old Manila Unsanitary, like most Spanish Cities Bonondo the Business Quarter Costumes of the Citi- zens Various Races in the Metropolis The Suburban Residential Sections Cock-Fighting the National Sport The Reformation of Manila The Commercial Destiny of Manila Other Ports will share the Fortunes of the Capital. In the olden days the Spaniard went to the Phil- ippines by way of Mexico, and sailed from Acapulco for Manila in the State Nao. The cumbersome, broad-beamed vessel, with its four-storied deck-house abaft, its polished brass carronada, and its sails set to the single mast, left port upon its perilous voyage with great eclat. Perhaps it carried to the insular col- ony a governor-general in blissful ignorance of the many troubles in store for him. Without doubt there were on board more than one frocked member of the class that was at once the blessing and the bane of the Spanish Indies. Neither friar, nor governor, could eclipse the splendor of the ship's commander, who wore a gorgeous uniform, drew a princely salary, [393] 394 THE PHILIPPINES. and carried the title of "General" with stately dig- nity. Fortunate the galleon if the blessed Virgin of Antipole guarded it with her presence, for nine times had she crossed the Pacific and never once failed to bring her charge safely into port. The nao was freighted with stuffs of Spanish manu- facture, and its commander's cabin contained a chest of Mexican dollars amounting to, perhaps, three mil- lions with which to pay the Real Situado and re- imburse the Philippine merchants for their ship- ments. As the voyage neared its end, a sharp lookout would be maintained for the British sea-hawks to whom many a fat galleon had fallen prey, and eager eyes would scan the promontories of the Philippine coast for beacon warnings of the presence of the dreaded enemy. And when at length the nao sailed into the Bay with Spanish sedateness, there was great rejoic- ing in the Capital. It was a jubilee occasion, and all Manila gave itself up to festivity. Bells rang from their towers, bands of music paraded the streets, buildings were bedecked in bunting, officials came forth in full uniform, and the people donned holiday dress. In all the churches a solemn Te Deum was chanted in thankfulness for the glad event. THE PHILIPPINES TWENTY YEARS HENCE. Twenty years hence the American traveler bound for the Philippines will voyage upon a turbine-driven THE PHILIPPINES TWENTY YEARS HENCE. 395 ship, one of many vessels converging from all points of the compass upon the Island of Luzon. He will land at some bustling port on the Pacific coast, per- haps in the Gulf of Lagonoy, thereby saving seven or eight hundred miles in the journey from San Fran- cisco. The railroad will carry him up to Manila through a country abounding in the fruits of the field, past busy towns and flourishing plantations. Everywhere he will perceive the evidences of a peo- ple awakening to their opportunities and happy in the beginnings of a vast prosperity. American capi- tal and American enterprise will ere then have made their vivifying effects felt in the land ; iron and coal will have begun their magic work; the steel plough and the harvester will have largely displaced the carabao and the bolo; the are which now returns a picul will then yield three. Manila, the future "Hub of the Orient," will, before twenty years have passed, be one of the most fre- quented ports in the East. The City will be the best lighted, the best paved, the best drained, and the best governed municipality east of Suez and Panama and the promise of all these things is already in evidence. To-day one must go to Manila via Yokohama and Hongkong. The six hundred and thirty miles from the latter port, across the ever-restless China Sea, are covered in a small steamer of the coaster type. At the entrance to the Bay, which might more correctly 396 THE PHILIPPINES. be termed a gulf, the vessel is still thirty miles from the City. Upon the left is Mariveles. A signal sta- tion will soon be established at this point, and here in- coming ships will be boarded by the customs officers, so enabling passengers to avoid what has been in the past a vexatious delay. THE LEGEND OF MARIVELES. A romantic legend attaches to Mariveles. Some- time in the seventeenth century, so the story runs, there was in one of the convents of Manila a young Spanish girl whose name, before she assumed the veil, had been Maria Velez. The lovely recluse formed a liaison with a monk and they decided upon a des- perate plan to leave the islands. Together, the girl disguised in a friar's frock and cowl, they fled and reached the village which is now called Mariveles, in a canoe. Here they designed to lie hidden until the galleon bound for Mexico passed. In the meantime the affair had created great excitement in Manila, where a hue and cry was raised, but without avail, until a native brought news of the whereabouts of the fugitives. They were found upon the open shore in a pitiable condition. The priest, who had been compelled to battle with the natives for the possession of his companion, was at the point of extreme ex- haustion, whilst the girl bordered upon insanity from fright and exposure. They were carried back to the City and effectually separated for all time. The THE PENINSULA OF CAV1TE. 307 friar was assigned to a remote parish among wild tribes and the nun was despatched to a convent in Mexico. Passing Corregidor, with its lighthouse and pic- turesque but harmless fort, the vessel is clear of the islets that beset the entrance to the Bay of Manila, which is sufficiently capacious to accommodate all the navies of the world. The roadstead has been sub- ject to almost the full force of the monsoons, but amongst the many improvements in progress is the construction of an ample breakwater. Four millions are to be expended upon Manila harbor, which will have a mean depth of thirty-five feet at low tide. The system of docks and warehouses when completed will surpass anything of the kind in Asia or America. These combined facilities must make the capital of the Philippines, which, according to La Perouse, oc- cupies "the finest commercial site of any city in the world," the safest and most convenient port in the Orient. THE PENINSULA OF CAVITE. Cavite, on its little "fish-hook" peninsula, comes into view before Manila is clearly discernible. The projecting land upon which Cavite stands forms a fine harbor that probably decided the selection of the place for a naval depot. It was off this point that Montojo's ships went down, or out of action, under the fire of Dewey's guns. 398 THE PHILIPPINES. Cavite contains the arsenal, shipyards, dry-docks, and repair shops of the Government. There are forts on the peninsula commanding every approach which, with proper armament, will be an important part of the defenses of the Capital. Manila lies low, hardly anywhere more than three or four feet above high water mark, and it has no lofty buildings, so that it breaks upon the view of the passenger on shipboard with the suddenness of a Dutch port. The present accommodation will not permit of large vessels approaching much nearer than two miles from shore, and there used to be a great deal of tiresome delay and difficulty about landing. Conditions are much mitigated since our people have had control, and it will not be long before ships tie up at docks and land their passengers from gang- planks. The traveler's immediate destination will doubtless be Binondo, or one of the residence suburbs, which he may reach in a launch, or boat, but before pro- ceeding to a description of modern Manila we will take a cursory view of the Walled City, symbolical of an order of things which is fast passing away. THE PASIG KIVEE. The river is fairly crowded with boats of all de- scriptions, light draft steamers and launches, out- rigged bancas and dugout canoes. More conspicu- ous than these, and most useful of all, is the cargo MANILA INTRAMUROS. 399 casco j with its cylindrical bamboo top. The casco is at once a freight conveyance and a dwelling. Despite the utter dissimilarity of appearance, one is reminded of the old-time canal barges of England. There are the same signs of permanent occupation. Children hanging over the gunwale, mothers preparing food in the bow and clothing stretched to dry. These cumbersome, but highly useful craft, are propelled by poling from a framework footway ex- tending along each side. As the management of a casco and the handling of its cargo require the services of at least two men, the boat generally houses more than one family. Thousands of these river-folk, in different parts of the islands are born, live and die afloat. It is a quite congenial condition, for the Malay is by heredity a navigator and lover of water, which predilection extends to its personal application and seems to be unfailingly innate with these people. MANILA INTKAMUROS. Manila is remarkably subject to seismic dis- turbances, most of which seem to have their center in the Taal volcano, barely thirty miles distant. On an average, shocks are felt in the City once a month, but they are usually very slight, and do no damage. There have been, however, thirty-three destructive earthquakes since the Walled City was founded. The greater proportion (fourteen) of these occurred in the nineteenth century. June the 3d, 1863, at 3.20 400 THE PHILIPPINES. p. m., a violent shock threw down the Cathedral, bury- ing a number of worshipers and demolished twenty- five other public buildings, besides injuring a much greater number. In many places the ruins still lie untouched, save for the vegetation which has over- grown them. Portions of others afford quarters for vagrant natives, who share them with bats and monkeys. The Spaniards built heavily, and this applies to their residences as well as public structures. Thirty- inch walls are common in houses, whilst from ten to twenty feet of solid masonry are to be found in churches and fortifications about old Manila. It is not at all certain that heavy masonry affords the best protection against earthquakes : at all events, the largest buildings appear to have suffered most in these visitations. Good brick and mortar seem to withstand the shock very well, judging from the fact that the tall smokestack of the Insular Cold Storage and Ice Plant passed through an earthquake a few years ago without showing any mark of injury. As to residences, light structures, such as prevail in Japan, should be the least liable to destruction by these convulsions of the earth, but the Manila builder is between Scylla and Charybdis: a solid building will fall to the shock of earthquake, whilst a typhoon will rip a light one to pieces. It is seldom that the terranean disturbances overturn the native huts, but a cyclone will scatter them like chaff. [401] 402 THE PHILIPPINES. Nothing in Manila is built over two stories in height, so that public edifices have not generally an imposing aspect. Nevertheless, as each story is ex- tremely high, the buildings, though almost invariably flat or low-roofed, are far from presenting a squat appearance. The Cathedral, without towers or up- per structures, except a stunted dome, gains a certain beauty from the simplicity of its straight lines and something of stateliness from its extensive propor- tions. It is the finest and most ample place of wor- ship in Manila, but it was erected since 1880, when an earthquake destroyed the former building, the ruins of which, including a partially-demolished bel- fry tower, with some of the bells still intact in their original positions, may be seen adjoining the present Cathedral. The edifice stands upon the site which has been thus occupied since the Archiepiscopate was created in 1595, with Domingo Salazar as the first appointee. Salazar, a grand old man, whose zeal for the welfare of the Colony was unbounded, made the long and arduous journey to Spain and back when he was verging upon his eightieth year for the purpose of laying the needs of his bishopric before the King. He died in Manila whilst the Papal Bull authorizing his investiture as the first Archbishop \vas crossing the seas. The eighteenth century map of Manila gives the Cathedral first place, and, indeed, it represented politically and socially the first power of the Colony. THE CATHEDRAL. 403 * At the time of the most direful peril to the Philip- pines, when Li Ma Hung, the Chinese corsair, came near to possessing himself of the islands, the aid of Saint Andrew was particularly invoked, and when the danger had safely passed he was declared to be henceforth the patron saint of Manila. In commem- oration of the happy deliverance the Funcion votive de San Andres was thereafter celebrated on the 30th of November of every year, when all Manila attended High Mass at the Cathedral. The ecclesiastical au- thorities made this the occasion of a ceremony de- signed to indicate the supremacy of the Church. The Standard of Spain was spread upon the pavement of the nave and the Metropolitan walked over it. In recent years the protests of the Governor-General led to the abandonment of this practice and instead of it the flag was thrice lowered before the altar. The Cathedral was the point from which all pro- cessions started and at which they all ended. Manila delighted in her numerous holidays 'and the proces- sions with which they wound up at night. Along each side of the street would walk, in single file, men, women, and children, each bearing a lighted candle, whilst down the centre would come bands of music preceding groups of priests, who escorted images of the Saviour, the Virgin Mary, and the Saints, borne upon the shoulders of perhaps as many as thirty men. Some of these images were ablaze with gems said to be real, and, if so, of enormous value. Such 404 THE PHILIPPINES. * images had an additional guard of soldiers with fixed bayonets. The course of the parade was marked by the explosion of bombs and rockets at intervals. THE OLD PALACE OF THE GOVERNOR-GENERAL. Upon the western side of the Cathedral square, which was in some sort the public square of the City, stands what was the Palace of the Governor-General. The present Palace, which, like the Cathedral, occu- pies a site that has been devoted to the same purpose from the beginning of the City, dates since the earth- quake of 1863, but the residence of the chief executive was in the modern portion of Manila for several years before the Spanish evacuation. The Palace is a large building, with spacious apartments. It conforms to the general rule of two stories, with all the reception and living rooms on the upper floor. A broad stair- case, flanked on either side by a carved presentment of the Lion of Castile, gives ascent to a landing, upon which stands a life-size marble statue of Magel- lan. Upon the right and left hand of the statue are lofty entrances to a splendid hall one hundred feet long and half as wide. With its polished parquetry floor a more delightful dance-room could not be imagined, and doubtless it has often been given over to that favorite amusement of the Spaniards. The walls are hung with full-size paintings of Spanish celebrities, recalling many a dark deed and many a bright achievement. Eeturning to the landing, a PALACE OF THE GOVERNOR-GENERAL. 405 stairway upon each side affords ascent to the main floor. The principal apartment is the Council Cham- ber, furnished with a large carved table and heavy chairs bearing the Royal Arms. Many a strange and stormy scene was enacted around this table during the incessant conflict of Church and State. The win- dows give upon the square, and it may have been from a similar vantage point in a former building that stout old Bustamente watched the approach of the mob that did him to death. There are no entire buildings in Manila that can boast of very great antiquity, the Church of San Augustine being probably the oldest. The City has been so often subjected to destructive forces that what structures escaped one, fell to another. The general aspect is one of old age due to the common practice of preserving old styles and employing old material in reconstruction. In many cases surviving portions of a former structure have been included in its suc- cessor. One constantly comes across quaint corners and curious nooks that have all the appearance of being many hundred years old, and, of course, there are bits of architecture here and there that date back to the sixteenth century. Several of the ecclesiastical buildings are of the type of mission architecture char- acteristic of similar Spanish edifices in Mexico and California. The church of San Juan del Monte, which antedates most of those in Manila is a striking example of this type. 406 THE PHILIPPINES. In the acute angle of the walls, just at the point where the River merges into the Bay, is the Fortress of Santiago, which for many years acted as an efficient watchdog over the sleepy City lying behind it. More than once it has been the last refuge of the Spaniards, when enemies have gained within the walls. In 1574 but this was before the Walled City was built the gallant Salcedo at this point made his final stand against Li Ma Hung's barbarian band. Many a victim of injustice and revenge has pined within the dark, damp, and noisome dungeons of San- tiago. Its walls have often echoed to the shrieks of tortured prisoners. Some have found relief in death, others at the garrote or from the bullets of Spanish soldiers. In times of disturbance the capacity of the place has been taxed to the utmost, and men have been crowded into the cells, literally as cattle are massed in a freight car, with the result that the weak- est saved the courts all further consideration of their cases by dying there and then. During the Tagalog Rebellion, the dungeons were always packed full. Into some of them the river trickled at high tide so that twice a day the unfor- tunate prisoners stood in water up to their waists. A fearful tragedy was caused by an officer who, through inadvertence or design, caused the sole source of ventilation to be closed. The next day eighty corpses were removed from the place, but life was cheap and prison room scarce, and the affair does not appear to SANTIAGO'S ILLUSTRIOUS PRISONERS. 407 have disturbed the equanimity of the authorities in the slightest degree. SANTIAGO'S ILLUSTRIOUS PRISONERS. The long roll of prisoners in the Fortress of San- tiago includes both sexes and the representatives of all classes and of every rank from the humble fisher- man to the proud archbishop. ISTot the least sad of the stories connected with it relate to men of high de- gree, for, in the kaleidoscopic changes of political affairs in the Philippines no man knew where the morrow might find him. Jose Torralba, who had served as acting-Governor for a term of two years, was confined in the Fortress on a charge of embezzling the public funds. The investigation and trial moved with the customary Spanish tardiness, and seventeen years elapsed before sentence was finally pronounced. It included ban- ishment, but, as the old man was then verging upon the grave, he was permitted to remain and beg his bread in the City over which he had ruled. Torralba died in 1736 in the Hospitals of San Juan de Dios, over against the eastern ramparts. Hurtado de Corcuera, who governed from 1635 to 1644, suffered five years' confinement at the insti- gation of the ecclesiastics. In the end, however, he was fortunate enough to regain the royal favor and to receive the governorship of the Canaries. Not so happily did the quarrel of another governor 408 THE PHILIPPINES with the Church terminate. Diego Salcedo was seized by the agents of the Inquisition in the Palace and thrown into a dungeon in the Fortress, where for many years he suffered cruel treatment. Death came as a welcome release on board a galleon which was bearing him a prisoner to Mexico. In 1751 Sultan Muhammad Ali Mudin of Sulu, his brother, sister, and four daughters, together with about two hundred retainers, who had mistakenly con- fided in the honor of the Spanish authorities, were imprisoned in Santiago, and there Prince Asin, the Sultan's brother, died. The citadel is the oldest portion of Manila. It is said that parts of it date from the foundation of the City. Its walls are enormously thick and, until recent years, were able to defy the heaviest artillery that could be brought against them. The old Fort has seen the City swept by cyclones, shaken by earth- quakes, devoured by fire, sacked by invaders, in the grip of pestilence, and, finally, in the possession of a foreign people. Strangest fortune of all, its subter- ranean dungeons have been condemned to desuetude. OLD MANILA UNSANITARY, LIKE MOST SPANISH CITIES. Manila Intramuros is occupied mainly by the old government buildings and those belonging to the monastic orders. In the shadows of these, huddle miserable native hovels in dense disorder. The streets, laid out at right angles, are wide enough for OLD MANILA. 409 the requirements of the moderate traffic, but the sidewalks, overhung by the upper stories of the houses, are inconveniently narrow. Old Manila has always been a fearfully unsanitary place. It has never had any kind of sewerage system. A description of the private arrangements of resi- dences is not fit to print. The drainage of houses passed into the river, the streets, and the moat. The moat long since became such a sink of fetid refuse that it was rightfully decided that to disturb it would be to court an outbreak of pestilence. The American administration is disposing of this long-standing menace to health by filling it up and converting it into flower beds. The walls of the City, which were erected in the time of Governor Dasmarinas, are more than two miles in extent. Along the ramparts are mediaeval cannon, that long since ceased to be of any value, save as curiosities. There are eight gates with draw- bridges and portcullises. Until 1854 the gates were closed at eleven o'clock every night, when the clumsy drawbridges were raised. Manila Intramuros presents the most perfect type extant of the old-time Walled City. The walls long ago ceased to serve any useful purpose, whilst they have deprived the inhabitants of much-needed fresh air. However, perhaps antiquarian motives should be sufficiently strong to preserve these old relics of Spanish sovereignty, which were constructed in 1590 410 THE PHILIPPINES upon the site selected by Lopez de Legaspi. There is the most striking contrast between old and new Manila. The former suggests a drowsy and decrepit grandsire persisting in the garb and habits of his youth. It has no business, aside from a few retail shops ; no places of amusement, comparatively few residences, and nothing of the life and bustle of the modern City. BINONDO, THE BUSINESS QUARTER. Binondo, which lies on the right bank of the Pasig, exactly opposite the Walled City, is the business quar- ter. Here the streets are alive with hurrying vehicles and more leisurely humanity. The chief business street is the Escolta, whose shops compare favorably with those of other Eastern cities. The majority of owners are Europeans, Americans, or mestizos. The Chinese shops, which are rarely patronized by the white population, are in the Rosario. They are small, insignificant-looking places, but many of the proprietors are said to be extremely wealthy. During the old regime what signs of enterprise could be seen in Manila were limited to this side of the river. The Spanish official, whose stay was uncer- tain, and seldom extended over more than a few years, displayed no interest in improvements, and hardly an ordinary regard for his own comfort. Hia sole idea was to accumulate as much money as possi- ble and to return to the "peninsula." The foreign BINONDO, THE BUSINESS QUARTER. 411 merchants, on the other hand, many of whom have been in the country for from ten to twenty years, encourage measures for public benefit and the im- provement of the City, build for themselves handsome houses and beautify their surroundings. Cigar-making is the principal manufacturing in- dustry of the City. Some of the factories are very large and employ two thousand and more workers. There are in Manila twenty thousand cigarmakers, ninety per cent, of whom are women and girls, and a large proportion of these mestizas of Chinese extraction. The public vehicles are of three classes. The con- veyance patronized by the whites, and the well-to-do mestizos is the carruage, on the "Victoria pattern and drawn by two ponies. The quells is a small, square box-like vehicle on two wheels with seats inside for four passengers. It does not require much room, and has a commendable facility for dodging through crowded thoroughfares. The caromata is the native conveyance. It is merely a frame with a low rail round it and board seats along the sides, but its car- rying capacity is only limited by its superficial area. The driver sits upon the forward edge, or squats inside, with his fares. Before the American occupation a one-horse tram- way, with cars of the "bobtail" variety, was the sole means of "rapid" transportation through the most frequented sections. An up-to-date electric street 412 THE PHILIPPINES. railway has taken its place and bids fair to put most of the hack-drivers out of business. COSTUMES OF THE CITIZENS. The whites wear the usual costume of the tropics, consisting of a suit of white duck, or linen, with jacket buttoning to the throat and a pith helmet or Terai hat. Some natives, and many mestizos, dress in a sim- ilar manner, but their garb in general is limited to a pair of trousers, often rolled up to the knees, and a shirt tout expose. A derby hat is a common addition. The mestizo,, and better class of native women, affect a rather stiff, but not altogether unbecoming, at- tire. Over a chemise is worn a thin and transparent camisa, open at the neck and with voluminous sleeves, flowing loose from the shoulders. Over this a stiff kerchief is fastened. The skirt is usually colored and patterned, with a long train. On the street the tapis, a piece of dark glossy cloth, is wrapped around the limbs from the waist to the knees. The materials are more or less expensive, pina being used by those who can afford it. Upon the feet slippers are worn. The hair is drawn back from the forehead and knotted Japanese fashion, or allowed to fall loose. It is always well kept and generally very long and beau- tiful. The native children are almost invariably bare- [413] 414 THE PHILIPPINES. legged and bareheaded, with the occasional exception of some enterprising urchin who has managed to acquire the cast-off headgear of a European and wears it with uncomfortable pride. The boys wear short white cotton breeches and a shirt of the same material. The tails of the Filipino shirt are always left free to the breeze. The girls have long skirts, knot their hair, and look like their mothers in miniature. The Chinaman adheres to the costume of his native land, but his women and he may have one or more native concubines in addition to a wife of his race usually adopt the Filipino dress. The Chinaman is almost invariably a good father to his half-breed children. They are well taken care of, are initiated into the father's business, or taught some other, and both girls and boys, with few exceptions, get along comfortably in after life. VARIOUS RACES IN THE METROPOLIS. By far the majority of Chinese in Manila are coolies, and it is safe to say that they are the most hard-working class in the community. The mechan- ical industries are mainly in the hands of these remarkably adaptable people, who can apply them- selves to any work, however unaccustomed, and do it remarkably well. It is questionable whether any people in the world can compete with the Mongol in manual labor, and the Filipino is certainly no VARIOUS RACES IN THE METROPOLIS. 415 match for him. The Chinaman is capable of working sixteen hours in the day continuously, and his intelli- gence is of a higher order than is generally suspected. But for the repressive measures that have always been in force in the Philippines the Chinese would have practically owned the country years ago. The Spanish half-breeds are a numerous and influ- ential class. They are the intellectual superiors of the full-blooded natives, and have the advantage of them in the matter of education. Many of these mestizos are well-to-do and some of them wealthy. When their circumstances will permit they are accus- tomed to send their sons to college in Europe, where they almost invariably prove apt pupils. The mestizos act as middlemen bet\veen the plant- ers and the European representatives of the export houses, and in this capacity accumulate a great deal of money. Upon them the larger cultivators depend for the capital with which to carry on their operations. The planter always pays an exorbitant rate for his loans, sometimes as much as fifty per cent. These half-breeds, like all Eurasians, occupy an equivocal position in the community. They are con- stantly striving to disassociate themselves from their native connections and to secure the consideration enjoyed by the superior race. Everywhere in the East the Eurasian displays the same petty traits of sycophancy, querulous discontent, disingenuousness, and inordinate conceit. If this element does not 416 THE PHILIPPINES. prove troublesome to the American administration it will only be because the recognition accorded to them is flattering to their self-esteem and because of a realization that under a native government their lot would be a less happy one. THE SUBURBAN RESIDENTIAL SECTIONS. The white population live for the most part in the attractive sections of Ermita and Malate, along the sea-front, south of the Walled City, and in San Miguel on the northern bank of the River. The last-named suburb, which is reached by the Ayala Bridge, contains several very handsome houses stand- ing in attractive gardens. The lower of the two stories of residences is much more solidly constructed than the upper. All the living rooms are above, the ground floor being given over to servants' quarters, store-rooms, and similar purposes. The outer walls of the second story are fitted with sliding frames, in which are set small squares of translucent oyster shell, the common substitute for glass in Manila. This arrangement permits of the interior of the house being thrown wide open to the air in the evening. Plaster is dispensed with for the same reason that prohibits the use of glass. The walls are white- washed and the ceiling is of canvas. Hardwood is employed for beams, posts, floors, and the rest, and carpets and upholstery are conspicuous by their absence. SUBURBAN RESIDENTIAL SECTIONS. 417 Life in Manila is very much like that in an East Indian city, Calcutta, for instance. The business of the day over, the entire white population repairs to the Luneta, which is to Manila what the Esplanade is to Calcutta, or the Marina to Madras. Upon an oval grass promenade the band plays every evening, whilst carriages circle round in one direction, the Governor-General and Archbishop only, having been allowed to drive in the other. Everyone owns a pri- vate Victoria or barouche, to which two of the country horses are driven. Many of the turnouts with their liveried cocheros are quite smart. There are few public amusements, and those not of a very high order. There is plenty of good music. The Filipino has his full share of the universal Malay taste in this direction, but his talent rarely rises above mediocre. However, native bands and orchestras give excellent renderings of marches and dance music, which generally answer all the demands of their audiences. Bull-fights and combats between various "wild" beasts used to be given, but they were generally fiascos on account of the lack of combative qualities displayed by the brutes engaged in them. There is a jockey club in the City, which holds meetings twice a year, members only being permitted to ride. The Philippine "pony" is in reality an undersized horse, for in no respect, but its height, does it resem- ble the pony breed. These animals are said to be 27 418 THE PHILIPPINES. derived from Mexican horses, introduced by the Spaniards in the sixteenth century. They are good- looking beasts, remarkably strong, and, with training, capable of developing great speed. It is claimed that the mile has been done in two minutes and ten sec- onds on the Santa Mesa race-course by a native pony carrying one hundred and fifty pounds. COCK-FIGHTING THE NATIONAL SPORT. The national sport of the Filipinos is cock-fighting. There are in and about Manila upwards of one hun- dred buildings containing cockpits, some of them capable of holding more than five thousand people, and every barrio in the provinces has its arena. Aside from the sport, cock-fighting affords a con- venient medium for gratifying the Filipino passion for gambling. Every native owns a bird, which he carries about with him tucked under his arm or perched upon his shoulder. It is no uncommon thing for two men meeting, thus provided for a fight, to squat in the roadway and set their champions at each other. This pastime was under government regulation. Sundays and feast days, and in Manila Thursdays besides, were the legalized occasions for gallinacean combats. At these times every native who can com- mand the price of admission betakes him to the near- est cockpit, and if he has the wherewithal to make a wager he is a happy man. The licenses for conduct- COCK-FIGHTING THE NATIONAL SPORT. 419 ing cock-fights produced a considerable revenue to the Spanish Government, which derived income from various other forms of gambling. The privilege for a certain section was put up to the highest bidder, who had the right to prevent any one else from engag- ing in the business within the limits of the district assigned to him. The building containing the pit is surrounded by a high wall or fence, forming a courtyard in which the birds are kept awaiting their turns to fight. Within, the arena is surrounded by circular tiers of seats. The owners of the contending cocks bring them into the ring and display them, each armed with a single long steel spur sharpened to a razor-edge. Whilst the birds are thus being subjected to the inspection and criticism of the spectators bookmakers are circulating about taking bets. Although the in- dividual wagers seldom exceed a few dollars, large sums in the aggregate frequently change hands on the results of these flukey fights. The contest is usually over in two or three min- utes, for one or other of the birds is likely to be quickly killed or disabled, or to turn tail, which is recognized as the most ignominious defeat. During the set-to the spectators maintain the utmost silence save for muttered exclamations at some critical mo- ment. Their craned necks and tense expression pro- claim the keen excitement, to which they give vent in shouts when a decision is announced. As bets 420 THE PHILIPPINES. are settled immediately after each event and all the currency is coin, the hubbub at the termination of a bout is pleasingly toned down by the musical jingle of money. Chance seems to be by far the most important factor in these cock-fights, although that opinion is not generally entertained by the natives. The first blow, if it happens to fall on the head or neck, is calculated to place the recipient hors de combat. Of course a quick and plucky game fowl is likely to beat an opponent that lacks these qualities, but luck on the other side may easily bring about a contrary result. There is no denying that the Filipino loves his game- cock, but perhaps it is exaggeration to assert, as has often been done, that it holds the first place in his affections, and that in case of his dwelling taking fire he will convey his prized bird to a place of safety be- fore looking after his wife and children. THE REFORMATION OF MANILA. Manila is rapidly undergoing transformation. In- tramuros defies any great changes in its condition, and, beyond relieving its unsanitary state, perhaps lit- tle can be done to it, but the modern City is in course of complete reformation. The traveler experiences it before he has cleared the custom house, and evi- dences of it present themselves at every turn in the streets. During 1904 nearly four millions were expended THE REFORMATION OF MANILA. 421 in local improvements by the Government, not to mention the large sums invested by corporations in enterprises of public utility. Twenty-five miles of streets have been widened and paved, macadamized roads have been laid to all the suburbs. Thirty-five miles of electric railroad are in operation, and ten more will shortly be added. Many handsome public buildings have been erected, and others are in process of construction. Amongst these are a number of model school-houses, the first of the kind to be erected in the East. A special commission of American architects visited the Philippines in the Spring of 1905 for the purpose of planning a system of parks, boulevards, and government edifices which, when completed, will make Manila one of the most beautiful cities in the world.* An extensive system of sewerage, sufficient for double the present population of two hundred and twenty thousand, is now being laid at an expense of over three million dollars. The accumulated filth of centuries has been removed, and the streets are * The Commission, which was composed of Messrs. D. H. Burnham and Peirce Anderson, also planned the proposed city of Baguio, in the mountains of Beuguet. It is very much regretted that the drawings of these plans, for which the writer is indebted to the courtesy of Mr. Burnham, could not be reproduced without a loss of detail, which would have marred the effect. The portion of the plan of Manila showing the improvements on the water front has been redrawn. 422 THE PHILIPPINES. now cleaned with daily regularity. The result of these measures of sanitation is already seen in the recorded bill of health of Manila which compares favorably with that of large cities the world over, and is better than that of large centres on the con- tinent of Asia. Crematories for the destruction of garbage are in operation, and the water supply is being enlarged and improved. Manila's fire department is the wonder of the Orient. Even the Japanese, who have for years con- sidered that they had nothing to learn in their own quarter of the globe, send their fire officials over to Manila to study the system. Formerly the City was at the mercy of a few antiquated hand engines, manned by natives and captained by an officer without any experience. The Insular Government secured the services of Chief Bonner, of New York, and fur- nished him liberally with the most modern equip- ment. Now the alarm of a fire in Manila is responded to with the snap and vim customary in an American city. Manila presents the unique spectacle of white men working with unimpaired energy in the tropics to convert a sloth-ridden city into a model for all the governments of the East. THE COMMERCIAL DESTINY OF MANILA. These efforts, tending to promote the health, edu- cation and material betterment of the people, are not 1'uiMiTivr: The now order of things and the old exist side by side. In sight of telephone wires, electric light*, and street-railway tracks the native rides his carabao on one of the principal streets of Manila. I-'rom Stercogra[>li Copyright, by Underwood & Underwood, New York. COMMERCIAL DESTINY OF MANILA. 423 inconsistent with the view that in its commercial pos- sibilities lies the chief importance of the Archipelago. Indeed, no factor is more surely calculated to further the humanitarian projects of the administration than the development of internal industries and the expan- sion of the trade of the islands. Manila occupies a commanding position with reference to the traffic of the mainland of Asia, the Malay Peninsula, and the islands of Indonesia. With the opening of the Panama Canal, the trade route between the Atlantic ports of America and Oriental points will be entirely changed and much of the freight which is now borne from Europe by way of the Suez Canal and the Cape to the same destinations may be expected to take the Pacific course, not solely from motives of econ- omy, but also because the present route through the Indian Ocean, the Strait of Malacca, and the China Sea, entails great difficulties and dangers of naviga- tion at certain seasons of the year. Under such con- ditions much, if not most, of the collecting and dis- tributing trade of Hongkong would naturally accrue to Manila, which would then lie in the main route of Eurasian traffic. Within easy reach of the Philippines is more than half of the people of the globe. China has a popula- tion of 400,000,000; the East Indies, including the possessions of Great Britain, France, and Holland, approximate 350,000,000; Japan has 42,000,000; Australasia, 5,000,000; Siam, 5,000,000, and the 424 THE PHILIPPINES. Straits Settlements, 600,000, a total in excess of 800,000,000. A great number of these people are not at present within the zones of the world's traffic, but large areas, formerly remote, are being constantly brought into trade relations with other countries by the open- ing up of systems of transportation. This applies with force to China, whose vast inland territory has been tapped in various directions by new railroads during recent years, whilst projects for extensions, involving several thousand miles, are either on foot, or under consideration. China is in process of com- mercial regeneration and her closer relations with Japan will surely give a great impetus to the devel- opment of the country. China was the first customer of the Philippines, and has always been one of the best. She can already use more of the products of the Archipelago than she is receiving, and, with the increase of her necessities, she will find no more convenient or economical market in which to buy many of her staple commodities. Her capacity for the consumption of Philippine lum- ber will doubtless continue to exceed the ability to meet it. Her increasing demand for sugar will find a response from the islands. She will need coal and Manila hemp as her industries develop and, in a few years, it is probable that the Philippines will be in a position to supply her with considerable quantities of dress-stuffs and yarns. On the other hand, the [425] 426 THE PHILIPPINES. population of the Philippine Islands, as they convert ever-increasing areas of paddy-land to more profit- able uses, will look to China for greater quantities of rice. The commerce, export and import, exclusive of bullion, of the countries neighboring the Philippines, exceeds two thousand million dollars a year, about equally divided between outsend and intake. Next to Great Britain, the United States already has the largest part of this commerce. OTHER PORTS WILL SHARE THE FORTUNES OF THE CAPITAL. The problem confronting the islands is how to de- velop their resources so as to be able to secure a great share of this trade. There are ready markets near at hand, and a constant demand in these markets for many million dollars worth of raw and manufac- tured goods that might be produced in the Archi- pelago under conditions that would enable its shippers successfully to meet any competition. There will never be lack of customers for the produce when it is put upon the market. The economic principles in- volved in the situation are so pronouncedly in favor of the growth of the Philippines into one of the richest industrial territories in the East that such a consummation is only a matter of time. The development of other ports will be coincident with the commercial expansion of Manila. Iloilo FORTUNES OF THE CAPITAL. 427 is rapidly rising to the rank of a shipping centre of the first importance. With the adequate exploita- tion of the rich Cagayan Valley, Aparri will become a flourishing port. Before many years have passed some point on the Pacific coast of Luzon will receive a considerable proportion of the freight from the eastward and will tranship it to Manila by rail. LUZON. A HUMBLE HOMI;. These nipa huts are exceeding cool and comfortable. Not a nail is used in their construction and the nearby forest supplies all the necessary material. From Stereograph Copyright, by Underwood & L'nderwood, New York. XL LUZON. Travel by Water in the Philippines Filipino Hospitality is Inexhaustible Home Life of the Tagals A Filipino Wedding The Religious Bond Not Very Strong The Simple Life in the Philippines Tho Inevitable Carabao Some of the Characteristics of the Filipino Peasant They Have Their Superstitions Like All People A Typical Village Fiesta A Planter's Home A Never- Failing Source of Entertainment The Principal Feature of the Feast Native Pantomime Dances The Moro- Moro Play. Travel in the Philippines is quite haphazard as to its methods, but it has all the charm of variety and novelty to the native of a western clime. There is no occasion for time-tables nor for making prearrange- ments except of the most general character. At each point the manner of proceeding to the next will be determined by the conditions of the moment. But, despite the lack of regular lines of communication between any but the centres, the difficulty in travel to even remote parts is not so great as to deter any healthy man, and the mishaps and adventures that must always attend journeys in an undeveloped country are such as to lend zest to the undertaking. TRAVEL BY WATER IN THE PHILIPPINES. The physical character of Luzon makes transporta- tion by water one of the most convenient and ready (431) 432 THE PHILIPPINES. means of getting from place to place, and the absence of roads, or the badness of them, in some sections compels the traveler to make a detour by sea, or to take to the river. In a few instances a coasting steamer will be available, but more often the native sailing craft must be resorted to, and the experience is one that should not be missed. Worcester* recites the incidents of such a voyage, which afforded him unusual opportunity of learning something of the vagaries of wind and water in these seas and of observing the remarkable seamanship of the Malay navigators. "At half-past two we got off, with a fresh breeze blowing from the north. When we were about five miles out it suddenly veered toward the east, at the same time increasing in strength until things began to look ugly. The sky darkened and to the south of us we could see a mighty waterspout marching grandly along. "We had a good, staunch boat, with strong bamboo outriggers, but the wind was dead abeam and the sea rising rapidly. Our men handled their craft with wonderful skill. When she began to keel over dangerously, instead of reefing sails or changing the course, they sent one of their number to windward to sit on the outrigger. As the wind increased in violence, a second, then a third, and, finally, a * The Philippine Islands, Dean C. Worcester, New York, 1899. LUZON. 433 fourth man walked out on the centre crosspiece, hold- ing to the stays of the mainmast. Two of the crew sat astride the outrigger while the others stood close to it, keeping the boat on a fairly even keel. We should have done very well had the wind held steady, but it began to come in sudden puffs and squalls. The men watched it closely, running further out as a squall bore down on us and hurrying in when the wind slackened; but with all their remarkable skill they made an occasional miscalculation, bringing the outrigger down just in time to cut the top off a wave and send it flying inboard. The position of the men who were balancing the boat soon became precarious. One moment they were six feet above the water and the next up to their necks in it. We feared they might be washed away, but they hung on grimly with their teeth chattering. "Our sail was old and rotten, and the strain finally proved too much for it. There came a sharp report and it burst through the middle. In five minutes it was blown to ribbons, and we were drifting at the mercy of the waves. For some time all hands bailed for dear life, but the water gained on us steadily, and it looked as if we were bound to fill and lie disabled until the outriggers were carried away, when we should inevitably go to the bottom. "Two of the men suddenly stopped bailing and began to overhaul the cargo. To our amazement they unearthed a new sail which by chance they had 28 434 THE PHILIPPINES. undertaken to carry over to a friend. Ho\v they man- aged to rig it I could never see. The boat was pitch- ing and tossing like a mad thing, and I thought the man who climbed the mast would be thrown over- board, if indeed the mast itself did not go with him. I was too busy to pay much attention to anything but the bailing, however, for the fuller the boat got the faster she filled. It was touch-and-go business, and for a time it seemed as if we should be awash before they could get the sail up ; but they won out at the finish. We all drew a long breath when at last the boat began to draw ahead again." FILIPINO HOSPITALITY IS INEXHAUSTIBLE. Inland, a river boat will sometimes be the most expeditious mode of conveyance, but most often the traveler finds the native pony, or cart, best adapted to his requirements. In the rains many roads are im- passable except by carabao, and in order to cover them one may be put to riding that ungainly quad- ruped, as the natives commonly do. The tribunal, or town hall, is designed to accommo- date the wayfarer, but every Filipino who has a roof over his head and a measure of rice is a prospective host. The hospitality of the Tagal is unsurpass- able and inexhaustible. The white man will find a ready welcome at the house of the capiian, or some well-to-do planter. In an out-of-the-way hamlet, where the people are all in modest circumstances, his HOME LIFE OF THE TAGALS. 435 quarters may be less pretentious and his fare sim- ple, but the one will be clean and comfortable and the other the best his peasant entertainer can afford. He comes without warning and leaves when he pleases. All that his host has, or can procure for his comfort or pleasure, are eagerly offered. The head of the establishment will cheerfully neglect his own affairs to attend to those of his guest, at whose service he places all the men, animals and material on the estate. HOME LIFE OF THE TAGALS. The family life of the Tagals, who predominate in Luzon, is exemplary. The man treats his wife with respect and kindness, and brings his children up in a manner that might afford a pattern to many an American father. They are obedient and civil to their elders, obliging to strangers, without anticipation of reward, and willing to do their share of any work that may be going forward. The women are indus- trious and perform a great deal of the labor in the fields and about the house. They prepare the meals, hull the rice, and work the looms. It may chance that the household has a helper in the form of a caiipado, that is a young man without means, who, aspiring to the hand of one of the daughters of the family, is required, in lieu of dower, to serve his prospective father-in-law for a period, which may be as long as two or three years. Thus, courtship among 436 THE PHILIPPINES. the Tagals is not the light and airy matter it ia with us. On the other hand, the arrangement is not viewed by the youth in the light of a hardship, for he is constantly in the company of the young girl, and is permitted to assist her in the domestic tasks. During the term of probation the swain is very care- ful to give satisfaction to the father and to avoid incurring the displeasure of any member of the family, for he is liable to be dismissed otherwise, and to see another suitor take his place. The prac- tice gives easy opportunity to a calculating and un- scrupulous parent to trade on his daughter's charms, but it appears that such abuse of confidence is not frequent. The young couple sometimes force a re- luctant father's hand by anticipating the privilege of matrimony, but in such case the favored youth never seeks to avoid a permanent alliance with his inamorata. In the tropics puberty is reached at a period which we consider childhood, and natives of the Philippines marry early, the bride often being no more than twelve years old. The marriage ceremony is the occasion of great display and outlay, the ex- pense frequently leaving the interested parties in debt for a year or two. The priest sets the day and exacts a generous fee, according to his idea of the means of the contracting families. As evening approaches a procession of relatives and friends leaves the house of the bride's father for A FILIPINO WEDDING. 437 the church, where the usual service is performed. On leaving the building a plate of coins is presented to the groom, who takes a handful and gives them to his wife, thus signifying his bestowal upon her of his worldly wealth, whatever it may be. This endow- ment is not, however, reciprocal, for a wife's goods remain her individual possession, and her husband cannot in any case inherit them. They accrue to the children upon the mother's death or, failing issue, revert to her parents. The ceremony at the church is followed by a feast at the residence of the groom's father. This feast, called the catapusan, or assembly of friends, is always a sumptuous affair. The relatives of both the young people are present, and all the notables of the village are invited. Of course this includes the cura, who is the guest of honor, no matter who else may be there. Roast pig is an invariable feature of these ban- quets, but the table is loaded with everything obtain- able in the form of viands, including many delicacies which the good folks can only afford to indulge in upon such extraordinary occasions. The beverages are wines and chocolate, sometimes reinforced with imported beer and European spirits. It goes with- out saying that cigars and cigarettes are supplied in abundance, and betel-nut, or buyo, is also provided. After the feast the padre, who is usually a man of tact, goes home or takes a nap in some secluded 438 'THE PHILIPPINES. corner, whilst the young people dance and give free vent to their high spirits. The newly-married couple live with the parents of one or the other for some time, and perhaps permanently. If the contracting families are in easy circum- stances the preliminaries to a marriage include a great deal of dickering between the respective fathers on the subject of dowry before the matter can bo satisfactorily arranged. THE RELIGIOUS BOND NOT VEKY STRONG. These "children of the country" are as happy and contented as any people in the world. They take life lightly and accept its vicissitudes with admirable philosophy. They are a nation of Mark Tapleys. Nothing can disturb their equanimity seriously or for long. Even their religion, which appeals to their natural love of show and superstition, has no deep hold upon them. As Reclus says, "the Roman Cath- olic religion is for them little more than a succes- sion of festive amusements. Troubling themselves little about dogma, they display extraordinary zeal in the celebration of the pompous rites of the Roman liturgy, and a great part of their existence is thus passed in the observance of practices not greatly dif- fering from those of their primitive cult. "A domestic altar, with the images of the Madonna and saints, successors of the ancient anitos, occupies THE RELIGIOUS BOND NOT VERY STRONG. 439 the place of honor in every household, and the hum- blest hamlet has its special feast, during which these sacred images, draped in embroidered silks and crowned with chaplets of flowers, are borne at the head of brilliant processions. The churches, built in the Spanish 'Jesuit' style, are similarly decorated with rich hangings, bannerols, and floral festoons, while every village has its band of musicians, who accompany the religious ceremonies with a flourish of trombones and cymbals. Actors also are frequently engaged to perform the 'mysteries' and to play come- dies, in which the sacred and profane are strangely intermingled, the feast days kept in honor of the saints usually winding up with a grand display of fireworks." INFLUENCE OF THE CUBA. The cura, especially if a Spaniard, is the most influential person in the district, and to him the "Capitan" applies for advice on all serious occasions. On him, more than upon troops, or any other medium, the Government depended for the submission of the converted natives. But the increasing relations with the outer world, the spread of education, the diffusion, of secular literature, the dissemination of the Spanish language, all tended to bring about a new order of things, under which the Filipinos, with increased ten- dency to rise to European standards, were bound to gain in independence and moral freedom. 440 THE PHILIPPINES. The wants of the Filipino are few and easily supplied. That he is satisfied to toil only to the extent sufficient to meet the requirements of his simple life is to us, victims of a turgescent material civilization, a crime. At least the Filipino has the ethic philosophy of the Stoics on his side. We are prone to prate about the virtue of labor, but we do not toil for the pleasure we find in it. Motive is the impelling power, and it is in the result, or its antici- pation, that the pleasure lies. Love of labor is not a natural characteristic of the human, or any other species of animal, else the author of Genesis was sadly astray in his picture of the ideal condition of man and his conclusion that the greatest curse that could be inflicted upon him was the condemnation to gain his bread by the sweat of his brow. THE SIMPLE LIFE IN THE PHILIPPINES. The Filipino is much nearer to Nature in his mental and physical condition than ourselves, and it is absurd to judge him by our standards. Give him an adequate incentive and he will probably prove that he can work with the best of us. As a matter of fact he is very far from being the shiftless loiterer that has been depicted to us by uncultivated observ- ers. The discerning visitor to the Philippines, who has heard so much of the slothful helplessness of the natives, will be surprised by the evidences of voluntary industry upon every hand. He will see THE INEVITABLE CARABAO. 441 men, women, and children working hard and in- telligently, and with the cheeriness which is never present in the sluggard. In order to follow the course of a day's labor he will have to rise with the sun, and, although he retires from the mid-day heat, he must follow the villagers into their fields again with the comparative cool of the evening. THE INEVITABLE CARABAO. The carabao is an ever-prominent object in these scenes. He is indispensable to the peasant farmer, and even with the introduction of modern methods would still remain one of the most important factors in the agricultural economy of the country. He draws the plough, and drags the cart, and renders himself useful in many other ways. The carabao, or water-buffalo, is an amphibious animal. In his wild state he spends at least half his time in the water, and in domesticity the inclina- tion to do so remains, although the opportunity is curtailed. However, a considerable amount of in- dulgence in this direction is necessary to his health. A carabao will stand motionless in the water for hours, if undisturbed, with just the tip of his nose protruding. This placid enjoyment is varied by nuz- zling in the soft bottom for certain tender roots and grass that appeal to his appetite. In this sub- aqueous search he can keep his head below the sur- face for two or three minutes. A mud-bath he must 442 _ THE PHILIPPINES. have once a day, and he will take one as often as chance favors. He will lie down in the sticky sub- stance and roll about ponderously until his body is entirely covered with it. There is a distinct method in this apparent madness, for Nature furnishes the adult carabao with little more hair than she gives to the new-born human baby, and the quadruped would be the easiest of prey to stinging insects but for the coat of clay with which he makes up for his natural deficiency. The carabao is a nondescript beast. He has a head nearly as slim as that of an antelope, with horns that lie back along his neck. His trunk is almost as bulky as that of a hippopotamus and is supported by disproportionately-slender legs. His appearance is absurdly stupid, as he solemnly wags his head from side to side and looks upon the world with the in- different and inane expression of a Chinese idol. The carabao is the family pet, and so docile are these creatures in a domestic state that they learn the voices of their masters and other members of the household and come to. their call or act in answer to their command. The children ride upon their broad backs, often two or three at a time, and guide them with the string attached to the nose. The never-absent companion of the carabao in the field is a small black bird of the martin species, which perches upon the beast's head and picks from its ears vermin that gather there. The writer has noticed CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PEASANT. 443 this bird-and-beast combination everywhere in the East that the water-buffalo is found. Following the animal in his progress through the tilth is usually a procession of four or five white herons which find an easily-provided meal in the insects that are turned up with the soil. It may readily be understood what a terrible af- fliction was the rinderpest that overtook these useful animals all over the country and in 1902 killed forty per cent, of them. In many cases the peasant was deprived at once of his chief possession and of a creature for which he entertained a warm affection. SOME OF THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE FILIPINO PEASANT. The Filipino is naturally humane. He almost in- variably treats lower animals well. The hack-drivers of Manila would seem to form an exception to this rule, but it is highly probable that their occasional harshness toward their horses is mainly due to ignor- ance of their nature and the consequent lack of understanding between the two. The native knows the carabao as the priest knows the written page, but a similar intimacy between the Filipino and the horse has never been established, because there has been no opportunity for it. There is little real vice in the composition of the uncontaminated native, and his faults are of an easily condonable nature. 444 THE PHILIPPINES. The Filipino displays in a marked degree that cardinal virtue, cleanliness, the lack of which is BO often the chief barrier between the Oriental and the white man. Every barrio has facilities for bathing, and on feast days, when labor is forbidden by the Church, the entire community men, women and children disport themselves in the water. There is no separation of the sexes, but the adults are be- comingly clad. No characteristic of the Tagal is more prominently evinced than the love of music, which is universal. Every parish has its brass band, and sometimes, in addition, an orchestra of stringed instruments. They furnish the music for church services and give per- formances which are an endless source of entertain- ment to the villagers. It is safe to say that a people who have this taste so strikingly developed must pos- sess better than average dispositions. In the most out-of-the-way and unlikely places are heard the strains of a flute, a violin, or a piano, and the labors of the field-workers are often lightened by musical accompaniment. It is a remarkable thing that amongst so many creditable performers so few attain to a high degree of ability, but perhaps that is entirely due to the limited opportunities for education, and with increased facilities for cultivating their musical talent the Filipinos may give the world some virtuosi of renown and produce their Paderewskis and their Paganinis. THEY HAVE THEIR SUPERSTITIONS. 445 The Tagal has the Lepcha's love of Kature in all her manifestations, and, like the hillman of the Himalayas, he has a vast knowledge of the habits and conditions of birds, beasts, and reptiles. THEY HAVE THEIK SUPERSTITIONS LIKE ALL PEOPLE. The Tagalogs entertain a number of strange super- stitions, from which the better educated of their num- ber are by no means free. Belief in the amulet called antin-antin is widespread, but the more enlight- ened find a satisfactory substitute in the scapulary. A native bent on gambling, or upon his way to the cock-pit with his bird, will turn back should he happen to encounter a funeral party. The "nono" are the spirits of old persons. When a tree is to be felled, or a piece of virgin ground broken, and on many other occasions, permission is asked of the nono. Should this precaution be neglected misfor- tune will surely ensue. The "tigbolan" is a ghost which assumes a variety of forms, and sometimes con- fers a similar gift upon certain favored individuals, in much the same way as the devil was wont to grant extraordinary powers to a few of our adventuresome forefathers. The "asuan" is particularly dreaded by women, for its practice is to haunt the dwellings of the pregnant \vith sinister intent. The "patianac" is the restless soul of a child that died unbaptized. It frequents the woods and chirps like a bird. The "manqcuculan" is a person possessing the power of 446 THE PHILIPPINES. causing sickness, or death, to one with whom he or she is displeased. An individual enjoying the repu- tation of being a mangcuculan is not pursued with social attentions, but is treated with the utmost defer- ence by everyone. The "iqui" is a man who has the power of flying through the air at night, leaving the lower half of his body at home. He is believed to live upon a diet of human livers. In his nocturnal journeys in search of food he alights upon the roofs of houses and, with an endless thread-like tongue, penetrates the bowels of his victim and causes his death. There are many superstitions connected with the erection of a house. No holes may be dug for posts unless they be inserted before vespers of the same day, for the hole is typical of the grave, and if it were to be left unfilled there would be serious danger of some member of the family dying before morning. However, the danger may be averted by inserting some temporary substitute for the post in the hole. The first post set has at its base a silver coin, which will insure the owner of the house always having money, and so on throughout the details of the work. Of course there are many curious beliefs connected with the different agricultural processes. The harvest of rice must not be gathered unless the moon is in its first or last stage, and many a native will conform to this prohibition at the risk of losing his crop. In order to secure immunity from the ravages of birds THEY HAVE THEIR SUPERSTITIONS. 447 and insects, the farmer goes into the field at midnight, preceding the day of planting, and carefully buries a handful of seed at the foot of a cross which is placed in the centre of the land. After the rice has been reaped the owner of the land takes the smallest basket he possesses and deposits in it a small sheaf of the grain. This act tends to the success of the final pro- cesses, but to be efficacious it must be performed when the tide is at its highest. Patriotism in the broadest sense cannot be expected of a man who is utterly ignorant of the world beyond a radius of a few miles from his native village, and who has, perhaps, but the vaguest idea of what the "Philippines" signifies, but the Tagal is strongly at- tached to the soil and the barrio in which he was born. Nowhere are community bonds happier or closer. The inhabitants of a village have the same church and the same fatherly guide and adviser; they share their pleasures and their labors ; the misfortunes of one are those of the others; a discordant element rarely disturbs the peaceful round of their lives. They are seen at their best on the occasion of a fiesta, and no more true and vivid picture of village life in the Philippines can be found than the following quotation from the pen of Ramon Lala, himself a native :* *The Philippine Islands. Ramon Reyes Lala, New York, 1899. 448 THE PHILIPPINES. Nothing in the life of the people of the Philippines is more interesting to the foreigner than the village feasts ; nothing is more indicative of the character of the people, who are exceedingly fond of ornament and display. Every village has its own feasts, to which all the natives in the surrounding district contribute in which all alike take part. A TYPICAL VILLAGE FIESTA. These feasts are always of a religious character, and are encouraged by the clergy, who find them not only lucrative but also conducive to religious feeling. Come with me and visit the busy morning scene of a fiesta in a populous village near the capital. As wo enter the broad roadway, winding with serpentine folds, among the gleaming bungalows we see every- where signs of unusual activity ; groups of smiling natives, dressed in their Sunday best, hurry by chat- tering gaily. Here comes a long line of carromatas drawn by wiry ponies, driven by well-to-do planters ; with the lofty consciousness of worldly prosperity they sit erect in imperturbable dignity. We join a passing group and follow them past the low, airy houses, all decorated now with gorgeous bunting and gay festoons. Flags and streamers flut- ter on every housetop ; the whole village presents a scene of picturesque animation ; for the tropical lux- uriance of the trees and the myriad flowers of gorge- ous hue form a brilliant background. A TYPICAL VILLAGE FIESTA. 449 We arrive at the village green and here stands a motley assemblage constantly reinforced by the throngs that come in by every path and roadway. An expression of eager anticipation is on the faces of all as .they gaze in the direction of the little church that fronts the crowded court. The church is a low, mas- sive, white building, with large pillars in front that give it a semi-classic appearance ; it forms a curious, but not uninteresting, contrast to the many-gabled bungalows. The bells in the campanile begin to toll slowly and from the midst of the crowd instantly comes a burst of glorious music. The village band stationed there renders effectively an operatic air as the natives slowly enter the church. After all are seated the priest preaches a short sermon, full of pith and pertinent suggestion about the saint whom the day commemorates. The audience is then dismissed with a benediction ; and to the lively music of some composer it files leisurely out. The natives see noth- ing incongruous in the introduction of operatic music into divine worship. They are moved in devotion no less by the stirring strains of one of Sousa's inarches, or a languorous waltz of Strauss, than by the solemn Te Deum of the Catholic ritual. To them all music is divine. We stop a few minutes to watch the cura the parish priest as he dispenses blessings to his devout parishioners, who now crowd round him with every appearance of reverential affection. Our friend, the 29 450 THE PHILIPPINES. cum, is a veritable father to his people. As he lis- tens to the ingenuous confidences of his flock his face beams with that rare benevolence born of goodness; there is a whisper of domestic sorrow that he needs must hear; a story of happiness, or a tale of wrong. For each and all he has a word of kindly affection, and as he sees us waiting near the entrance he ap- proaches with outstretched hand and invites us to the grand procession in the evening. The people have dispersed and have returned to their homes. Already the sun is high in the sky, pouring a deluge of heat upon the landscape. From the horizon mountain after mountain springs airily into the heavens, their blue peaks suggesting a place of perpetual coolness, upon which the eye loves to linger amid the oppressive blaze of the tropic sun. A PLANTER'S HOME. Surrounding the village are forests of majestic trees of indescribable grandeur and of unparalleled magnificence. Among these the white houses of the planters nestle peacefully. Each house has its own tiny garden, fenced in with reeds, and forms a miniature paradise, where are flowers of splendid hue, creepers with purple blos- soms, red-coral blooms, and trees of palm, mango, orange, lanzon, santol, and giant bananas whose rich fruits in great clusters tempt the eye of the beholder. Here the native is a petty king ; for his own little do- A PLANTER'S HOME. 451 main for nine months in the year yields sufficient for his wants. Nature indeed gives him a golden harvest for only the reaping. We have been invited to spend the day with a well-to-do planter who, at the conclusion of the service, has sought us out. He lives on the outskirts of the village, and we are soon with him in his carromata speeding over the highway. We approach his home a typical native dwelling ; the body of the house is raised about six feet from the ground, and is mounted on thick pieces of stone. This allows the air to circulate freely beneath and prevents the entrance of snakes and insects, and is in every way conducive to health and comfort. We mount the wide stairway that connects the house with the ground and enter upon a broad open piazza fac- ing the street, called a cdhida. The sides of this are formed of sliding windows composed of small square panes of mother-of-pearl, opaque to the heat, but admitting the rays of light. Here we are intro- duced to the various members of the family, who re- ceive us kindly and offer sugared dainties and a cigar- ette. Beyond is a large room with walls of window and with sliding doors. Here are some chairs and a table covered with a handsome embroidered cloth. Upon the walls, which are covered with cloth instead of plaster, are various bric-a-brac artistically arranged upon scrolls, while several engravings of religious sub- jects and one or two family portraits hang between. 452 THE PHILIPPINES. From the centre of the ceiling hangs a crystal chandelier with globes of colored glass; a small oratory, supporting the brazen image of some saint, stands in the corner. The broad floor-planks, daily scrubbed and polished with plantain leaves, are as smooth and clean as a mirror. Opening from this main room are several smaller rooms, used as bedrooms. A narrow passageway leads to the bathroom and to the kitchen in a separate building. The design of the whole domicile seems to aim at cleanliness and coolness both essentials of comfort in this hot, moist climate. The roof is thatched with nipa palm and the out- side walls of bamboo painted white and striped with green and blue are covered with grotesque carvings. This, with the broad eaves and the wide balconies, gives the house a most picturesque appearance. We note with gratification the many signs of family affection around us. The father, kind and consider- ate ; the mother, sweet and sympathetic ; the children, quiet, obedient, and well-behaved a picture of do- mestic happiness that is representative rather than exceptional. After tiffin, each retires to his own room to enjoy the siesta; and thus we sleep soundly through the heavy afternoon hours. The siesta over, we venture into the village. Through the streets are hurrying scores of men, nearly every one with a cock under his arm ; they are going to the cock-pit. We follow and soon we come to our destination. SOURCE OF ENTERTAINMENT. 453 Imagine a large bamboo building with a thatched roof wherein hundreds of natives have gathered for what is to them the supreme enjoyment of life. Around the door are one or two guards in Spanish uniform ; but everything appears so decorous and or- derly that is is indeed difficult to realize that we are in a gigantic gambling den. Xearly every native has with him his fighting-cock, which he loves as devot- edly as one of his own children and upon which he has spent much care and attention. The "farmer," often a Chinaman, who has secured a license from the Government to run a cock-pit, stands in the middle of the ring, around him a group of natives, excited and eager. Two fighting-cocks, each armed with a spur three or four inches long, are in the hands of their respective owners. Every eye is riveted upon the respective con- testants. The farmer, or proprietor, announces that the contest is about to begin, and from every hand dollars rain into the ring, each person staking a cer- tain amount upon his favorite. This done, all is breathless expectation, and at the word "Casada!" meaning matched, and at "Largo!" Let go! the fowls are let loose. The fight waxes hot and furious ; the two cocks are as pugnacious as bull-pups. But it is soon over ; for at a well-directed thrust from the steel spur one of the contestants lies dead. The crier now announces the name of the victor, 454 THE PHILIPPINES. and all the winners come down into the middle of the ring and pick np their own stakes as well as the amount won by the wager. Strangers often remark how unusual it is that amidst so much confusion and where is apparently boundless opportunity for cheating there should be so much honesty and good faith. However, every man is to be trusted. I have never known but one excep- tion he was instantly hacked to pieces with knives. It is night. Against the sombre gloom of the heavens gleam millions of stars ; they, too, are a part of the grand illumination that is to be the climax of the whole fiesta. Again the village green in front of the church. It is alive with the happy villagers decked in all their finery the men and boys in airy colored shirts and white trousers, the women and girls in splendid skirts and brilliant chemisettes. THE PRINCIPAL FEATURE OF THE FEAST. All are standing bareheaded ; the band is discours- ing sweet music, and the people stand entranced. Not a sound is heard till the tune is ended ; then on every hand arises a decorous murmur of delight. Here comes the cura. He at once proceeds to ar- range the procession which is the event of the feast and to which the villagers have been looking forward with joyous anticipation for many months. Mysteri- ous groups are issuing from the church; these are assigned to their respective positions by the father, ANTIQUE DEFENSES A. corner of the ramparts of Old Manila with the Luneta in the background. It was with these cumber- some old muzzle-loaders that August! proposed to knock Dewey's ships to pieces. From Stereotype Copyright, by Underwood & Underwood, New York PRINCIPAL 'FEATURE OF THE FEAST. 455 who in this, as in all else, is the master of cere- monies. Let us, however, leave the crowd and move a little way up the street, where before long the pro- cession is to pass. Over the roadway, from airy arches gaily-decorated with bunting are suspended Chinese lanterns. On the gateways to the houses, on all the fences that line the street, hang little fat pots whose pale flicker, multiplied a thousand-fold, produces a romantic effect to which the lights on the arches and the many-colored illuminated lamps in the windows add a subdued splendor. We have not long to wait, for the procession has been speedily arranged and is already making its way up the street, the band at the head playing an operatic air. Behind come the happy participants, two by two ; men and women alternating. All carry torches whose glow throws over their grave faces a gleam of soft light that harmonizes well with the nature of the occasion. And now comes the spangled image of some old saint borne aloft on a litter; while a murmur of ap- plause bursts from the admiring onlookers. From every house rockets are shot into the heavens, shower- ing on the dusky night constellations of colored stars. Thus saint after saint, martyr after martyr, ia majestically borne along till, near the end of the pro- cession, appears the image of the "Virgin herself, "decked with jewels bright and with glory crowned." 456 THE PHILIPPINES. !Xow the inunuur rises to a shout of devout acclaim; the Queen of the festive night, Our Lady, passes on. Thus through every street winds the brilliant pro- cession under the lighted arches returning finally to the village court whence it started. Here the priest pronounces a benediction and with a clash of trium- phant music the participants are dimissed. Again we accompany our host back to his hospitable mansion, where a generous meal has been prepared for us. We partake heartily of the good things, roast pig, chicken, many kinds of native fruits, and rice. At the close cigarettes are passed round both men and women smoking and we soon enter into conversation while the new arrivals are being served. NATIVE PANTOMIME DANCES. It is our host's grand reception night. A hun- dred guosts have partaken of his bounty and the verandah and the sitting-room are crowded with friends and neighbors invited and uninvited; all are equally welcome. Cigars and cigarettes are passed around, and now the fun begins. A girl a wonderfully sweet and pretty creature, with glow- ing black eyes and long, loose black hair advances to the centre of the room and croons a low, plaintive air, reminiscent of unrequited love. She accom- panies her music with a wierd dance, impressive through its very simplicity. Gradually her tones NATIVE PANTOMIME DANCES. 457 grow louder, and her movements quicker, signifying all the varying degrees of advance and refusal. Her supple body glides in a thousand graceful curves, each eloquent of beauty. Her pale, olive face be- comes mantled with a rich crimsontide as she lashes herself into a fury of passion. She feigns anger, and stamping her pretty feet, now in petulant disdain, now in a paroxysm of wrath, stands the incarnation of beautiful rage. It is a picture full of tragic power, of deep significance. She is approaching the climax of her passion. Her voice is sharp and shrill as it trembles with scorn and defiance. Forward and backward her body sways with a rhythmic swing that compels the attention of every beholder. Many in fact accompany her every motion with the sympa- thetic movement of unconscious imitation ; their faces mirror the feelings of the dancer. And now a note of triumph rings out, and the singer's face glows with an expression of ecstacy; while bounding forward, her splendid hair trailing in waves of ebony, she seems transformed the apothe- osis of joy. Then, slowly decreasing in volume, her voice sinks to a low whisper of serene content, and blushing modestly at the applause, she retires to give place to others. Two young men and a girl now come forward and a scene of desperate rivalry on the part of the men and of tantalizing coquetry on the part of the maiden is enacted. This is by means of a series of intricate 458 THE PHILIPPINES. dance movements, no less striking than original. A pretty tableau truly, and one not lacking in sentiment and in spontaneous expression. A foreigner would believe that these young natives were in terrible earnest and that they were rehearsing a passion of the heart. Such, indeed, is often the case, and many a girl has, through the license of this dance, shown her preference. Many a youth, too, has seen his hopes blasted and his rival exalted by a dainty pirouette. THE MORO-MORO PLAY. Dance after dance follows, and it is getting late. But another entertainment is in store for us, and so once more we venture forth into the night en route to the village green. Here has been erected a large booth, around which hundreds of natives are standing, in attitudes of pro- found attention. A moro-moro play is going on. This is a sort of Philippine miracle-play, in which kings, and queens, and soldiers, and various per- sonages with Biblical names, contend together. There is rivalry, ruin, and despair ; there is death, murder, and awful retribution. It is a tumultuous tragedy, in which, too, are some subtle and refined elements and a kind of gross humor, represented by the stage fool and the lads that take the female parts. There is, however, no coarseness not a suggestion of it. Love and religious persuasion and devotion mark the greatest number of moro-moro performances, and THE MORO-MORO PLAY. <1E9 while some of the plays are fairly good not judg- ing from too lofty a standpoint yet, on the other hand, it is indeed amusing to note how little in this line, how thin a texture, pleases the people; bombast and fury, honeyed accents and unnecessary vicarious suffering, false and flagrant violations of dramatic art all alike are viewed with breathless interest and applauded or stoically witnessed as the occasion demands. The entire play is given in the Tagal language. The native spectators, indeed, enter into the action of the play with, as it were, a grim earnest, as if all their mental faculties were judging complex emo- tions and nice situations. Nothing, indeed, in the native character is more remarkable than its unvary- ing decorum. Here the happy crowd has been stand- ing for three hours agape with delight, drinking in the rude splendors of tinsel potentates. Here, too, they would be willing to stand for several hours longer, but it is nearly midnight and a sudden illumi- nation on the other side of the square announces that the time for departure is nearly at hand. It is seen that the villagers have constructed a miniature castle now ablaze with fireworks. Vari- ous designs are traced by the spreading glow, and scores of rockets shoot into the sky, dropping a shower of brilliant stars. Ever and anon, at some unusual display, a murmur of applause rises from the admir- ing throng. Entranced, they stay until the last 460 THE PHILIPPINES. rocket has been drowned in the vast ocean of night. Then all leave as silently as they came, and the vil- lage square is soon deserted, while the lamps and lanterns are allowed to burn till their glow is quenched in the brightness of the morrow's sun. THE VISAYAS. A MK.-TIZA. The offspring of Spanish fathers and native mothers* are the most intellectual and well-to-do class among the population. Their women are not behind their Cuban sisters in the qualities of grace, refinement and beauty. l-'rom Stereograph Copyright, by Underwood & Underwood, New York. XII. THE VISAYAS. Characteristics of the Visayans Iloilo, the Capital of Panay Island of Guiuiaras Iloilo Province and Its Indus- tries The Relapse of Mindoro into Wilderness The Sugar Fields of Negros The Natural Beauties of Samar Catbalogan The Remontados, a Reversion to a Wild Type Masbate. a Vast Grassing Ground Historic Cebu The Holy Child of Cebu Cebu as a Shipping Cen- tre Old Landmarks and Historic Sites The Hardy Islanders of Bohol The Island of Siquijor The Fate of Delinquent Taxpayers Under Spain Leyte. The Visayan Islands are a very important com- mercial division of the Philippines. Practically all the sugar exported from the Archipelago and a large proportion of the hemp is produced in this group. There are many points of dissimilarity between the Visayans and the Tagals, and they do not consider themselves the same people, nor have they any love for each other. The Visayan is less intelligent than the Tagal and has fewer attractive qualities, but the charge of excessive indolence that is frequently brought against him appears to have less foundation than the equally serious one that he is a little too prone to indulge to excess in strong drink. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE VISAYANS. Foreman says: "The Visaya native's cold hospi- tality is much tempered with avarice or the prospects (463) 464 THE PHILIPPINES. of personal gain quite a contrast to the Tagalog. On the first visit he might admit you to his house out of mere curiosity to know all about you whence you came, why you travel, how much you possess, and where you are going. The basis of his estimation of a visitor is his worldly means, or if the visitor be engaged in trade his power to facilitate his host's schemes would bring him a certain measure of civil- ity and complaisance. He is fond of and seeks the patronage of Europeans of position. In manners the Visayo is uncouth and brusque and more conceited, arrogant, self-reliant, ostentatious, and unpolished, than his northern neighbor. If remonstrated with for any fault he is quite disposed to an impertinent retort or sullen defiance. "The women, too, are less compliant in the South than in the North, and evince an almost incredible avarice. They are excessively fond of ornament, and at feasts they appear adorned with an amount of gaudy French jewelry which, compared with their means, has cost them a lot of money to purchase from the swarm of Jew peddlers who invade the villages. "If an European calls on a well-to-do Visayo, the women of the family saunter off in one direction and another to hide themselves in other rooms, unless the visitor be well known to the family. If met by chance, perhaps they will return a salutation, perhaps not. They seldom indulge in a smile before stran- gers; have no conversation; no tuition beyond music THE VISAYAS. 465 and the lives of the Saints; and altogether impress the traveler with their insipidity of character, which chimes badly with the air of disdain which they exhibit "I stayed for some months in an important Visaya town, in the house of a European who was married to a native woman, and was much edified by observ- ing the visitors from the locality. The Senora, who was somewhat pretentious in her social aspirations amongst her own class, occasionally came to the tible to join us at our meals, but more often preferred to eat on the floor in her own bedroom, where she could follow her native custom, at her ease, of eating with her fingers." In the main, however, the Visayans are much like other Filipinos. There is no great difference in their customs, manner of living, superstitions and mental habits. The interior districts of many of the Visayas are inhabited by monteses, mountain tribes living in vary- ing conditions of barbarism. As a general thing they are peaceable and harmless, but they retain a few ancient customs that are apt to prove a trifle embar- rassing to a stranger. It is their belief that the spirit of a person who has died amongst them will not be happy if allowed to depart in solitude to the un- known. Consequently, and in order to avoid the ill- will of the deceased, they set out immediately after he has breathed his last to find a companion for him. ao 466 THE PHILIPPINES. This practice is, as may easily be imagined, a great check on sociability, and these people, instead of forming communities, live in isolated families, each on the qui vive to prevent another snatching from it an unwilling traveling companion for some deceased member. ILOLLO, THE CAPITAL OF PANAY. Iloilo, on the Island of Panay, is the second city in importance of the Philippines, and is rapidly grow- ing as a trade centre and a shipping point. Despite its great commerce, the city was miserably neglected under the Spanish rule. The streets, subjected to much heavy traffic, became worse than country roads and were allowed to remain in that condition. The sanitary arrangements were abominable and the light- ing inadequate. The port transacted its enormous business under almost incredible difficulties. Ocean vessels could not" enter the river and so were obliged to transfer their freights by means of lighters. .Coast- ing steamers, drawing not more than thirteen feet of water, could navigate the muddy creek, but when they reached the city they found not even the most ordinary accommodations for loading and discharg- ing cargo. There were no wharves, no cranes, not even any regular moorings. \ f essels tied up where they pleased and got their stuff on or off-board as best they could. Iloilo is entering upon an era of reform as regards this and other matters. ISLAND OF GUIMARAS. 467 The port has no light, although the erection of a lighthouse was commenced twenty years ago and the money for its completion has been collected by the officials three or four times over. Ever since the first stone of the structure was laid the authorities have mulcted every ship that entered the harbor for light- house dues. ISLAND OF GUIMAKAS. Guimaras, an island about twelve miles square and distant but one mile from Iloilo, is a very healthy and picturesque place, enjoying a situation involving com- mercial possibilities that will be exploited some day. A few of the European merchants of Iloilo have resi- dences upon the island. The fishing industry of Guimaras is quite im- portant, Iloilo affording a ready and convenient mar- ket for the take. Very little of the soil of the island is fertile, and on that hemp, rice, corn, and tobacco are raised. The cocoanut, however, which will flour- ish where nothing else may grow, is plentiful, and therein lies the future wealth of this little spot of land. The natives do not make a commercial use of the nut, but extract tuba from the tree which, in the absence of capital, is perhaps the most profitable pur- pose to which they could put it. Worcester thus de- scribes the process of collecting the fluid : "Few nuts were allowed to ripen on the trees near our house. Many large groves produce no fruit at all. The 468 THE PHILIPPINES. branches of the blossom-stalk are tied together into a compact bundle, their ends are cut off and thrust into a hollow joint of bamboo, called a bombon. The sap which flows abundantly from the wounds thus made is known as tuba and is gathered morning and night. Notches are cut in the bark of the trees as they grow taller and the tuba-gatherer, who is not encumbered with much clothing, puts his toes in them and climbs the stem of a lofty palm as if it were a ladder. All the palms in a grove are usually planted at one time and remain of fairly uniform height. In many in- stances bamboo bridges are built from tree to tree, so that it is not necessary to climb each one. "The &a-gatherer carries on his back a large joint of bamboo in which to put the fresh sap, a swab to clean the bombon, in which the tuba is caught as it flows, and a package of bitter red bark reduced to powder. This powder is thought to improve the flavor of the drink, often recommended for those who are recovering from severe illness on account of its flesh-producing properties. The fermented product is a mild intoxicant." Guimaras would seem to be an ideal spot for the commercial cultivation of the cocoanut and the pro- duction of copra or oil. It has a pleasant climate, is in close proximity to a labor market and a port, and almost the entire coast of the island is paralleled by a fine highway, connecting a number of considerable towns. ILOILO PROVINCE AND ITS INDUSTRIES. 469 To return to Iloilo ; it is far from being an attrac- tive place. As has been said, the streets are in the worst possible condition, especially after rain, but the visitor, unless he is fortunate enough to enjoy the use of a private vehicle, must walk, for there are no hacks. The greatest number of vehicles are bullock- carts engaged in carrying sugar between the ware- houses and the river front. The public buildings were once handsome, and the public square sightly, but they have been neglected, and no interest seems to be displayed in anything that is unconnected with sugar. There are a few tolerably good shops, but the quarters of the lower class of natives have been allowed to invade every part of the town. ILOILO PROVINCE AND ITS INDUSTRIES. The province of Iloilo, consisting of the southern half of Panay, is the most populous in the Archi- pelago. In former days it exported enormous quan- tities of sugar, including a large portion of the Negros output, besides a considerable amount of hemp and other produce. In fact, the shipments of the port ex- ceeded those of Manila. With the decline of the sugar industry there has been a falling off of the busi- ness, but greater attention has been paid to the culti- vation of tobacco and the output has increased in quantity and quality for some years past. Visayan tobacco has such a bad name that it can find a retail market outside the group only under an alias, and the 470 THE PHILIPPINES. shipments from Iloilo to the Capital are made up into the cheaper brands of ''Manila" cigars, which sell at the rate of three for a cent, local currency. There is no good reason why large areas in the Visayas should not grow first-class tobacco under improved methods of cultivation. In and about Iloilo weaving is a prominent indus- try and a large trade in textiles of various kinds is carried on with other islands. The commoner fabrics are made from cotton and hemp fiber, although some very fine cloths are often woven from them. How- ever, it is in the production of the gauzy materials of pina and silk that the Visayan women excel. The work is all done upon hand looms, and it is an ex- tremely slow and tedious process, some of the material having almost the delicate texture of spider's web. The finished product in bright, well-harmonized colors is strikingly beautiful. Pina and jusi fabrics are admirably adapted for summer wear in the eastern States of America, and they should come into use with our ladies. Priced by the yard, the best of these pro- ductions are rather costly, but judged as one does a Kashmir shawl, by the amount of time and labor ex- pended upon it, they are dirt cheap. The almost squalid aspect of the low-lying city upon its swamp-site, is somewhat relieved by the en- vironment. The surrounding country is beautiful in the extreme. On every side the heavily-wooded land rises in gradually increasing eminences until it cul- ILOILO PROVINCE AND ITS INDUSTRIES. 471 minates in lofty mountains in the background- Nearby are Jaro and Molo, picturesque little towns where some of the Hoilo merchants have bungalows. LOOKOUTS FOB PIRATES. At Jaro, the Bishop of the diocese has a summer palace and the village contains a very small, but hand- some, cathedral. In the vicinity of Iloilo one may see an old-time watch-tower, such as is commonly found in or near the Visayan coast towns. These circular stone buildings, in the form of huge pepper castors, are reminders of the days when the islands were the constant scenes of Moro outrages. At such seasons as were favorable to navigation, a lookout was main- tained day and night from these vantage points for the dreaded pirates, and at the first appearance of their approach the inhabitants of the town or village were warned to take to the hills. Cattle were driven off, if possible, and as much portable property as could be carried was taken along, so that if sufficient time had been allowed, there would be little left for the Moros but to fire the houses and set sail again. But if, as quite often happened, the inhabitants were taken unawares, then was their fate unhappy in the ex- treme, for the southern pirates knew no pity on these expeditions. The village would be sacked and the pick of the men and women would be carried into slavery, whilst the remainder would be put to the sword in sheer wanton cruelty. 472 THE PHILIPPINES. * In years gone by Mindoro was one of the most pros- perous of the islands of the Archipelago. Large areas were cultivated by the Tagal inhabitants, who not only raised enough to furnish bountifully their own needs, but helped to supply the wants of their neigh- bors. Their extraordinary prosperity and success were, however, the undoing of the Mindoro islanders, whose inviting condition aroused the cupidity of the Moro pirates. Time and again the island was raided, its towns laid waste, and its able-bodied men and young women carried into captivity. At last it be- gan to be shunned as a place accursed and its fields of grain reverted to wilderness. THE RELAPSE OF MINDOEO INTO WILDERNESS. Mindoro is now the chief refuge of criminals from the neighboring islands who, once they gain the moun- tains of the interior, are able to defy pursuit. These outlaws, called tulisanes, were more or less trouble- some in most of the northern provinces, where they formed organized bands under recognized leaders and terrorized large districts. Although these men were criminals of the worst type, many of them with mur- ders to answer for, the Spaniards made no serious efforts to wipe them out. In fact, if the Civil Guard caught one of these banditti and lodged him in jail he invariably contrived to bribe his way to liberty again. So well was this known that some officers of the provincial constabulary made a practice of THE SUGAR FIELDS OF NEGROS. 473 disposing of such prisoners before the municipal head- quarters were reached. This was contrived by giv- ing the tulisan what appeared to be a good chance to escape and shooting him in his tracks before he had a fair start. THE SUGAR FIELDS OF NEGROS. The soil of Negros is mainly devoted to sugar cane, but a good quality of Visayan tobacco is also raised and cacao of an excellent quality. The sugar crop of the island is the only one in the Archipelago that is produced on anything approaching a scientific sys- tem. This is due to the introduction of foreign capi- tal. The estates are not large, very few of them hav- ing a capacity in excess of one thousand tons a year. Steam and hydraulic machinery is employed on sev- eral of them, but it is not of the latest pattern, and the entire process, far in advance as it is of the agri- cultural methods customary in other parts of the Archipelago, is capable of considerable improvement. The great difficulty under which the planter labors is that of securing sufficient help. High rates of wages are paid ; nevertheless, it frequently happens that the proprietor of a sugar estate sees his crop deteriorate because he cannot secure the hands neces- sary to harvest it. In many districts it is requisite to import laborers, and in all cases they demand con- siderable advances before they will enter upon their work. The best men are apt to leave after they have saved the trifle which is a competency to them. 474 THE PHILIPPINES. Worcester relates an incident which strikingly illus- trates the situation. A planter had a field hand who, after several years of service, had become almost in- dispensable to his master. One day he unexpectedly announced his intention of ceasing to work. To the planter's expostulations the man replied : "Senor, if you were back at your home in Andalusia living in a house as fine as any in the province ; if your food and clothing were not only as good as any of your neighbors could boast, but were all that you yourself desired ; if you had money enough for all present and future needs would you turn your back up to a sun as hot as this and work?" It is needless to add that the master was at a loss for a rejoinder. The native has no incentive to work hard and long, and in the absence of it there is no reasonable ground for expecting him to do so. Whether his happiness will be increased by arousing his ambition is an open ques- tion, but it is certain that until he aspires to higher things we must not expect to see him exert himself beyond the bounds of necessity.. It may be that when he learns that increase in his worldly possessions will not bring upon him burdensome taxation and heavy contribution to the Church, he may appreciate some of the at present unknown advantages of money. It is a strange economic condition, in which a planter finds his most desirable laborers amongst men who drink and gamble, because they will w r ork harder than moral and sober natives in order to earn money to satisfy their vicious inclinations. THE NATURAL BEAUTIES OF SAMAR. 475 As a rule, the sugar planters, many of whom are Europeans, live comfortably, and some of them lux- uriously. There are many handsome houses upon the plantations. They have good furniture, car- riages, and horses, and are generally within easy reach of congenial neighbors. In the halcyon days of sugar, the lot of the sugar planter was the most en- viable in the islands. He kept open house, stinted himself and his family in nothing, ran up to Manila once or twice a year, and sometimes returned to Spain with a sufficient fortune to enable him to live in ease for the rest of his life. It is a pleasure to think that there is hope of something like the old times re- turning to the planter of Negros. THE NATURAL BEAUTIES OF SAMAR. Samar has an area about twice as large as that of Delaware and a population nearly equal to that of the American State. The island boasts some of the finest scenery in the Archipelago, but owing to the difficulties of travel it has not been photographed to anything like the extent of less attractive sections. So close does Samar approach to Leyte that at one point the Strait of San Juanico narrows down to five hundred yards. Despite the proximity of the main- lands the passage from one shore to the other is an extremely difficult one. The Strait is beset with numerous tiny islets, around which the rapid current eddies with dangerous effect, precluding the employ- 476 THE PHILIPPINES. ment of a sailboat and taxing the skill of the canoist to the utmost. The environment is unspeakably pic- turesque. The bluffs along the Samar coast are pitted with low-lying caves in which have been found skeletons of human beings who were much taller and larger than any of the present inhabitants of the Archipelago. These finds have created an ethnologi- cal puzzle, for there is nothing even in the traditions of the islanders hinting at any other than the races with which we are familiar, and the aborigines were dwarfs. Had there been a temporary settlement of foreigners here, some additional traces of it should exist, and if we look for an explanation in ship- wrecked adventurers it is difficult to account for their having made sepulchres of these caves. It is an inter- esting question. The Basey River empties at this point, passing un- der a natural arch formed by two limestone rocks some forty feet in height. In front opens a portal thirty-five feet high, through which the river may be seen. In the wall on the left of an oval court thirty- seven feet above the water is the entrance to a cave which penetrates about one hundred feet inwards. Formerly this was a spacious stalactite cavern, but it is now partially destroyed by the falling in of the rocks which formed the roof. The place is named the "Cuevas de Sojoton" Another beautiful spot is within five miles of the town of Canaguaion, where the Molo River issues by CATBALOGAN. 477 a mouth about one hundred yards wide between two high black rocks, and continues through a series of falls for a distance of one-third of a mile. A considerable portion of Samar is cultivated in hemp, sugar, and other produce, but the greater part is forest containing the most valuable woods of the Archipelago. There are few roads, and travel and traffic are carried on by means of the streams. Every village, not immediately upon the coast, is situated upon a waterway navigable by native boats ; and almost all the large amount of produce shipped from the island finds its way to the ports by boat. CATBALOGAN. Catbalogan, the capital, is a little town of not much more than five thousand inhabitants, and very much smaller than several other centres. It has, however, a large trade with Manila in hemp, sugar, and cocoa- nut. As in every commercial centre, Chinamen are prominently engaged in business and get the best of the natives at every turn. In the vicinity of the town is raised the "isigud," or fruit of San Ignacio, which is known to commerce as the "Catbalogan seed." It is claimed that this vegetable is a specific in cholera and that it never fails to cure that disease. The Chinese have the great- est faith in its properties and take the entire output, which is shipped to China. Whether the efficacy of the seed has ever been put to scientific test the writer 478 THE PHILIPPINES. is unable to say, but if half its alleged virtue can be established it should prove a boon to the inhabitants of Eastern countries. THE REMONTADOS, A REVERSION TO A WILD TYPE. The interior of Samar contains many remontados. These are natives, who having found the "call of the wild" irresistible, have forsaken civilization and re- verted to the primitive condition of their fathers. They are not, like the tulisanes, criminals, but usually peaceable, fairly industrious people, who form small communities and engage in agricultural pursuits. When Christianized natives return to the mountains they generally retrograde rapidly, frequently marry- ing with wild tribes and lapsing into the latter's con- dition. MASBATE, A VAST GRAZING GROUND. Masbate is noted for its herds of cattle, horses, and hogs. Grazing is the chief industry, and up- wards of one thousand head of cattle are shipped from the island monthly, the greater number going to Manila. The trade has thriven since the American occupation, and is capable of great extension. The system of communication is much the same as in Samar, but, if anything, more restricted. There are no roads worth mentioning, and very few trails. The animals are brought to port on the hoof and shipped alive, the refrigerator not yet being a feature of Philippine traffic. HISTORIC CEBU. 479 The natives manufacture palm mats that are justly celebrated for their workmanship and the durability of their colors. They are superior to the Japanese article and deserve to find a market in America. HISTORIC CEBU. Cebu is, from the historical point of view, one of the most interesting places in the Archipelago. It was here that the Spaniards made their first settle- ment. Magellan landed on the 7th of April, 1521, at the capital of the island, occupying the site upon which the present town stands. A hut was im- mediately constructed and consecrated. Mass was performed in it, and the royal family, with easy in- difference, submitted to baptism. It is said that Le- gaspi's expedition erected a church upon the exact spot where this event took place, and that the building still stands in its original form, but this is probably a fanciful claim, although rendered less unlikely by the fact that Cebu does not appear to be subject to the severe earthquake shocks that have devastated the centres of Luzon. Less than a month after landing, Magellan met death on the little mangrove-covered coral island of Mactan, which lies a scant mile and a half off Cebu. After the loss of its leader the expedition fared badly. King Hamadar of the island treacherously murdered a number of their party at a banquet and the re- mainder shortly afterwards set sail on their long jour- ney back to Spain. 480 THE PHILIPPINES. In 1565 Legaspi arrived at Cebu and despite opposition contrived to pacify the inhabitants and hold his ground. A fort and other buildings were constructed, and in 1670 the place was declared a city. THE HOLY CHILD OF CEBU. It is recorded that a few months after Legaspi landed one of his soldiers found a wooden image of the Christ Child on the seashore. The appearance of the image was deemed miraculous, and the Austin Friars cherished it as a sacred possession. When the Spaniards took possession of the city they erected a large bamboo cross. Some years after, a fire swept through the quarter where the cross stood, but it ap- peared to be impervious to the flames, and in some peculiar way its preservation was attributed to the image referred to above. The cross is now exhibited in an Oratory adjacent to the Church of the Holy Child of Cebu. The first church dedicated to the mystic image was destroyed by fire, but the deity escaped injury. It is a black, unlovely-looking thing, some- what more than a foot high, covered with silver orna- ments that have been donated by the devout from time to time. It is exposed to public view at intervals, when the occasion is one of extreme pomp. Its feast is held on the 20th of January, when pilgrims from distant parts of the Archipelago come to worship at its shrine and obtain absolution for their sins. CEBU AS A SHIPPING CENTRE. 481 Cebu is a port of considerable importance, with a population of about eighteen thousand. For many years it ranked next to Manila in commercial stand- ing, brt it has in recent times been overtaken and passed by Hoilo. Cebu still ships large quantities of the hemp and sugar produced by the Visayan group of islands, but its own share in the production is not commensurate. It is said that its inhabitants, whilst docile and well-disposed, are neither energetic nor enterprising. The streets of the city are wide and straight, and it has some handsome buildings, although during the Rebellion it was bombarded by a Government vessel with dire effect. The Episcopal Palace is a fine structure noted for its interior decorations and some unusually good paintings. The Bishop's See, which was created in the sixteenth century, included the whole of the Visayan Islands. The city was also the headquar- ters of a Governor, and a General, and, in the old days, the social life of the place was very different from what it now is. Here, as elsewhere in the Visayas, the wholesale business is in the hands of Europeans, the largest export houses being British. The retail stores are conducted almost exclusively by Chinamen, the few exceptions being mestizos. The full-blooded native has absolutely no chance in com- petition with these, and indeed, he seldom displays any ambition for competition. The Chinese shops 31 482 THE PHILIPPINES. along the Lutao at one time did a good business, and the mesiizo-Chiuo section of the Parian was a flourish- ing trading quarter until after the bombardment of 1897. OLD LANDMARKS AND HISTORIC SITES. The picturesque fort named after San Vidal, the patron of the city, commanded the harbor in the days gone by and is one of the landmarks of the Archi- pelago best deserving preservation. There are a Cathe- dral and several churches, of which that of Santo Nino the Holy Child is the most noted and, per- haps, the most attractive. Cebu shares the general healthfulness of the island, and its surroundings add to its attraction as a place of residence. Round about is very pretty country, and a range of hills backs the town. The island has been denuded of most of its timber, but the soil is extremely fertile and capable of much more extensive cultivation than it is at pres- ent put to. The sugar raised here will compare favor- ably with the best production of Negros, and the Cebu corn is superior to that raised in any other part of the Archipelago. The natives substitute it for rice extensively, and this is one of the few places in the Philippines where they have learned to prefer the former. Along the coast of the island is found the famous Regardera de Cebu, or Venus flower-basket, the only one of its genus. The shores are renowned for their THE HARDY ISLANDERS OF BOHOL. 483 rare shells, which include the much-prized Gloria Marls. A few years ago many a splendid bargain was to be made in the villages along the littoral, but the natives are beginning to understand something of the values of their finds. Still, Cebu offers a fine hunting ground for the conchologist. THE HARDY ISLANDERS OF BOHOL. The native of Bohol displays a degree of energy and initiative which is rare amongst the inhabitants of the Philippines. The first uprising of consequence occurred in this island in 1622, when the people tired of the exactions of the State and the tyranny of the Church. It was put down by troops from Cebu, but in 1744 similar causes led to another revolt, which was followed by a condition of practical independence on the part of the Bohol islanders for a period of thirty-five years. The people of Bohol are famous for their courage and the expert use of their favorite weapon, the lance. The Moros learned to respect their skill and prowess, and although the island was near at hand to the Mindanao strongholds of the pirates, it was visited by them much less frequently than more distant points. No doubt the inhabitants of Bohol owe much to the disadvantage of their situation. Frequent encounters with the Moros and the necessity for constant pre- paredness developed and fostered military qualities. 484 THE PHILIPPINES. The soil of the island lacks the responsive character general in the Philippines, and the Bohol cultivator was early forced to greater activity than, for instance, his neighbor on the other side of the Sea of Cebu. However, with careful tillage a very creditable quan- tity of various vegetable products is raised, sufficient, in fact, to leave a respectable surplus for export. A great deal of weaving of a good sort is done in the towns, a specialty being a peculiar kind of blanket and a rush mat called u ticay" In fact, they are a very busy people, and fully deserving of the good for- tune which is likely to overtake them in the near future, for Bohol has some excellent timber lands, which, though limited in extent, contain valuable material, and the conditions are favorable to working them. These lands, with the coal fields and iron deposits, are bound to attract enterprise and capital before long. THE ISLAND OF SIQUIJOR. Bohol has a notable dependency in the Island of Siquijor, which lies to the south. The people tell a story of its origin that is probably not far from the truth. They say that one day a dense cloud appeared over the spot where the island now stands. Out of the cloud issued thunder and lightning for several hours, and the next morning there was Siquijor, which they proceeded to occupy as soon as it had cooled off. This was, of course, long ago, but the event has lived in tradition. DELINQUENT TAXPAYERS. 485 Siquijor enjoys the remarkable distinction of being the most populous section of its size in the Archi- pelago; remarkable because there is absolutely noth- ing in the condition of the island to explain the fact. The soil is almost barren, and the inhabitants find it difficult to gain a subsistence from it. The only thing that appears to grow readily is a fair quality of tobacco, perhaps the best produced in the Visayas, where it is all more or less poor. There is not much of a market for it, however, and it generally passes into the hands of Chinese traders in exchange for cotton cloth. The entire island is a coral structure with a very thin and reluctant layer of soil upon it. Nevertheless, its area of one hundred and twenty-six square miles contains a population of upwards of forty thousand. Some of these souls make a precari- ous living by collecting beche de mer and edible birds' nests, and a considerable number are engaged in the production of sinamay, a rough hemp fabric which is used for clothing by the poorer classes. THE FATE OF DELINQUENT TAXPAYERS UNDER SPAIN. Worcester spent some time on the island hunting bird specimens. He says that plenty of men were willing to work for him at the rate of five cents a day, and not a few asked only for food in compensa- tion for their services. Before he left he was wit- ness of the harsh measures which the Spanish Gov- ernment habitually dealt out to delinquent com- munities. 486 THE PHILIPPINES. "The taxes due from that poverty-stricken town (Siquijor, the capital of the island) amounted to some $5,000 per annum. Cholera had recently devas- tated the island ; the crops had failed, and for several years it had been utterly impossible for the cabezas 10 get any such sum out of the half -starved inhabitants. There was a shortage of $7,000, and a commission had come down from Bohol to try to raise the money. Failing in this, they had seized the cabezas, confis- cated their lands, houses, and cattle, and were about to deport them because they were guilty of the crime of not being rich enough to pay other people's debts ! Forty-four men were torn from their homes and dragged away into exile, while those dependent upon them were left to shift for themselves as best they could. "The officer in charge of the cabezas informed me that they would have the privilege of working out the debts of their constituents at the munificent salary of six cents per day, from which the expense of their food and clothing would be deducted." LEYTE. Leyte is one of the most extensively cultivated sec- tions in the Archipelago. One-half of its area, equal to two hundred and fifty thousand hectares, is under cultivation, mostly in hemp, the remainder of the island being mountains or grazing land. A consid- erable amount of sugar cane is raised, but Leyte is A WEAVKI;. The cloth workers are almost all women am) in some districts, such as Iloilo. their product is an important item in the commerce. No little skill and infinite patience is required in the manufacture of the finer fab- rics piiia and jusi. From Stereograph Copyright, hj Underwood & L'mlerwood, New York. . LEYTE. 487 essentially a hemp district. In 1899 the exports of the fibre approximated one million piculs. The peo- ple convert a great deal of the product into fabrics of native wear and make from it the cabo negro, or black boat cable. Boat-building is quite an industry with them. They turn out all kinds of craft from the dugout to the hundred-ton schooner. The larger vessels are constructed at the shipyards of Tacloban, which employ hundreds of workmen constantly. These Leyte shipbuilders display no mean degree of skill, and their product is in demand amongst the islands of the group. MINDANAO AND SULU. XIII. MINDANAO AND SULU. The Muhauimadau Invasion The Social Organization of the Muhamuiadan Malays The Present Moro Tribes Dress and Manners of the Moros The Moro Warrior Presents a Bizarre Appearance The Juramentados Cruelties of the Datos The Moro is Not a Model Muhammadan The Moro Version of the Story of the Flood Christ and Muhammad in Moro Legend Basilan and the Yakan Moros The Strange Sway of a Foreigner Over a Moro Community The Masterful Rule of Arolas Modern Sulu The Moro is a Man of the Sea The Origin of the Pearl The Mother-of-Pearl Industry of Sulu. Opinions differ as to the time and manner of the occupancy of the southern islands by the Muhamma- dan Malays. According to Foreman, a former chief of Borneo, named Tindig, with his followers, took possession of Sulu Island about the time of the Span- ish conquest of the Philippines. He appears to have been a famous warrior, from whom the later Sultans of Sulu were proud to claim descent. Tindig had been accompanied by his cousin, Adasa- olan, who made his first settlement upon the island of Basilan and later formed an alliance with King Dimasangcay, of Mindanao, whose daughter he mar- ried. Dimasangcay, and doubtless his entire fam- ily, embraced the Muhammadan faith. (491) 492 THE PHILIPPINES. Adasaolan's ambition grew with his increasing good fortune, and he conceived the idea of annexing the kingdom of his cousin. In this project he had the support of the Mindanao monarch, and their com- bined forces made an attack upon Sulu. The expedi- tion failed, and after the retirement of the invaders Tindig prepared to retaliate in similar manner. Some years previously he had established an entente with the Spaniards, and now he repaired to Manila to seek their aid against his kinsman, and secured a promise of assistance. Relying upon the expected re- inforcement, but lacking experience of Spanish tardi- ness, Tindig put his enterprise on foot. In the battle that ensued the Sulu chieftain was defeated and slain. After the event the armed boats from Manila arrived and, finding the issue settled, returned, doubt- less with a sense of duty done. THE MUHAMMADAN INVASION. Sulu remained independent, but Adasaolan made alliances with the chieftains of Borneo, and there was soon an influx of Muhammadans to Mindanao and the Sulu Archipelago. It has been stated how, at the close of the sixteenth century, Estevan Rodriguez, under a grant from the Spanish Government, attempted the conquest of Min- danao, and how the consequence was like to the dis- turbance of a hornet's nest. By that time the king- doms of Mindanao and Sulu were on the most friendly MUHAMMADAN MALAYS. 493 terms, and their future piratical ventures were fre- quently conducted in co-operation. For two hundred and fifty years every coast of the Colony, was ravaged by the marauders, who even extended their incur- sions to the Bay of Manila. During this period per- haps nothing militated more seriously against the de- velopment of the islands than this incessant scourge, which the authorities were utterly unable to repress until after they brought gunboats into play. The Moors, or Moros, comprise a number of orig- inally distinct tribes which have since intermingled and which have always been allied by the common bond of religion. Traces of Bornean Dyaks, Bayos of Celebes, and Arabs, are frequently seen. There are also evidences of crossings with Spaniards and Chi- nese. In fact, the practice of carrying off women from the scenes of their widespread depredations and of cohabiting with them has made the Moros of the Philippines one of the most mixed of all Eastern races. THE SOCIAL ORGANIZATION OF THE MUHAMMADAN MALAYS. "Their essentially feudal institutions," says Reclus, "caused the whole social organization to rest on piracy. By the side of the sultans were the almost equally powerful vassals, the datu, each of whom, with the reservation of homage due to his suzerain, became proprietor of the land conquered and the 494 THE PHILIPPINES. wealth plundered by his retainers. The too maraliay, or good men, that is the free warriors, accompanied them on their predatory expeditions, while the sacope, or lack-land class, were reduced to a state of serfdom." There can be little question that but for the Spanish occupation, this condition would have ultimately ob- tained throughout the Philippines with a universal acknowledgment of the Muhammadan religion. The old feudal tenure is fast relaxing its hold upon the people, and the Moro nation presents the problem of a number of petty chiefs who are breaking away from allegiance to their over-lords, but at the same time display no disposition to accept a new mas- ter kindly. Referring to the decline of the sultanates, Dr. Barrow says: "To-day the Sultan of Mindanao is an exile from the Rio Grande, with his home at Dumanquilas Bay. His prestige is gone, he is poor to the point of destitution, and he will never regain the position occupied by his predecessors. Such seems to be the fate of the sultanate among these tribes when- ever the native power meets formidable opposition and falls, as it invariably must, into the hands of a weak and dissipated prince. The present sultanate of Sulu is rapidly approaching the state of weakness and decay represented by the sultanate of Mindanao, and, unless supported by the United States Govern- ment, will not be able much longer to command the obedience of the Moros of the Sulu Archipelago. The days of the Moro power are past. For three centuries THE PRESENT MORO TRIBES. 495 they defied the European and carried war with im- punity into his territory. For generation after gen- eration the Spaniard stood purely on the defensive and sought by treaty and subsidy to win where he could not conquer. "There must have been some barbaric splendor about these old pirate states when at the height of their power and daring. To see how they could im- press Europeans one should read the notable volume of Captain Forrest, 'A Voyage to New Guinea.' Cap- tain Forrest visited and formed an alliance with the Sultan of Maguindanao (Mindanao) in 1776. There is something almost melancholy about their decadence. Theirs were the only political achieve- ments of any consequence ever made by the people of the Philippines, but their passing, none the less, marks a gain for civilization." THE PRESENT MORO TRIBES. At the present time the Malanao Moros, or Moros of the Lake, are the most numerous tribe in Min- danao. Their stronghold is the district of Lake Lanao, around which their villages are thickly clus- tered. They are believed to number not far short of one hundred thousand. The Maguindanao Moros, whose name has prac- tically the same signification as that of the first named tribe, number about fifty thousand, and are to be found mainly in the vicinity of Cottabato. This name 496 THE PHILIPPINES. has long been used to designate the warlike Muham- madan tribes of the valley of the Rio Grande. They were almost the first Moros with whom the Spaniards came in contact and their name passed to the island itself. Emigrants from this tribe peopled the dis- tricts of Zamboango and Davao. In the interior of Zamboango are the Kalibuganes, who are derived from a mixture with the Subanos. The Sulu Moros are found mainly in the group of islands of that name, where they form the dominant element in the population. Where they have emi- grated, even in small numbers, their strong person- ality and aggressiveness have had a marked influence. The Yakan tribe is practically restricted to the in- terior of the island of Basilan, the coasts being occu- pied by the Samals. The Samals are rarely located elsewhere than on the seashore. They predominate in the Tawi Tawi group, which was the most inaccessible stronghold of the pirates of whom this tribe was the most active and furnished by far the greater number. They are scat- tered throughout the Sulu Archipelago, and there are numbers of them in the Zamboango district. The Samals, who represent the latest Moro immigration, are superior to the other tribes in force and intelli- gence. What differences exist between the various tribes seem to be mainly the marks of varying stages of removal from savagery, the highest degree being DRESS AND MANNERS OF THE MORO. 497 represented by the Samals, and the lowest by the boat-dwelling Bajaus. DRESS AND MANNERS OF THE MOROS. Physically the Moros are the superiors of the Fili- pinos, being taller and more robust ; in fact, the Moro is often stocky and muscular. A peculiarity is the development of the feet and toes, due to the use to which they are put in many daily occupations. The Moro uses his toes as freely and effectively as we do our fingers, and finds it much more convenient to pick an object from the ground with them than to stoop down and raise it with his hand. When he climbs a tree the rope is grasped by the feet, and when sailing a boat he will take a couple of turns with the halyard round the big toe. The Moro dress will distinguish him at once from the native of the north. The former wears no shirt in or out of his breeches. Sometimes the dress consists of nothing more than the sarong, a voluminous cloth tied around the waist and falling to the calves of the legs. What may be termed the national costume consists of a close-fitting, short jacket, and trousers loose in the seat and very tight on the legs, reaching to the ankles. These gar- ments are often as bright and vari-colored as Joseph's coat, and are ornamented with a great number of brass buttons. Sometimes straw hats of extraordi- nary shapes are worn, but the common headgear is the turban. 82 498 THE PHILIPPINES. A Moro chief in the full panoply of war is rather a grotesque object to the unaccustomed eye. Upon his head is a brass helmet, into which is stuck the largest and stiffest feather procurable. In order to secure the headpiece a cloth, perhaps the turban, is lapped around it and tied under the chin, giving the warrior the appearance of suffering from a severe attack of neuralgia. The virile effect of a steel cuirass is somewhat mitigated by the gaudy feminine skirt which depends from the waists to the knees. THE MORO WARRIOR PRESENTS A BIZARRE APPEARANCE. Most Moro men carry a short dagger stuck in the sarong, or at the breeches belt, but if the individual is a noble the kris takes the place of the former weapon. The dress of the women is made up of a bodice fitting close to the skin and a baggy bifurcated skirt. The jabul is a long scarf which is thrown over the head and draped about the body. It may be a modi- fied survival of the veil worn by Muhammadan women in Arabia and other countries. Neither sex wears shoes as a rule. The women tie their hair up in all manner of fantastic knots, while the men leave it loose. Children generally go naked at home, but wear the sarong in public. Like the Filipino, the Moro bathes frequently; in fact, he spends a large proportion of his time in the water when conditions are favorable, but it would THE JURAMENTADOS. 499 seem to be from love of aquatic exercise rather than from any desire for cleanliness, for their dwellings and surroundings are filthy. The Moro never goes abroad without a weapon of some sort. The Icris, or barong, the arms of warfare, are the most commonly carried, but sometimes a spear, or a club not unlike a boomerang, is the sub- stitute. The barong is a sword with an oval double- edged blade, from twelve to eighteen inches long, graduating to a point. To decapitate a man with one clean stroke is no great feat for a Moro warrior. The kris is straight, or wavy, the former being used for cutting and the latter for thrusting. A weapon is prized for the number of persons it has killed, and one that has an established record of a great many deaths to its credit will bring a high price. Rifles are very highly prize by the Moros, but, fortunately, they have always had great difficulty in obtaining them. The Moro loves to close with his enemy, and his weapons are all adapted to hand-to-hand fighting. It follows that he is a very dangerous opponent if he gets within arm's length, but against troops furnished with firearms he has little chance in the open. THE JTTKAMENTADOS. The juramentado occasionally furnishes an exam- ple of the Moro's capacity for doing execution in a crowd. The juramentado is a Muhammadan who 500 THE PHILIPPINES. has taken a religious vow to devote his life to the extinction of as many Christians as possible. The pandita works the devotee up to the requisite pitch of emotional excitement and, perhaps, an extra large dose of opium puts the finishing touch to his fanatical frenzy. Assured that if he dies in the act of taking the life of a Christian all the joys of Paradise will be his, the juramentado sets out to find as many victims as opportunity may afford. Sometimes a band of these devoted murderers act together, and in that case they are likely to choose some gathering of a village, such as the celebration of a feast day, for the occasion of their onslaught. When half a dozen of them contrive to get into a throng of this kind, which is very seldom, of course, for they are not permitted in the Christian towns with their arms, the number they will slay in a few minutes is almost incredible. Soldiers cannot put them out of action before they h?,e done great damage to their ranks. It is told how five juramentados charged a company of Spanish troops armed with rifles and killed, or badly wounded, nineteen of their number before they themselves were slain. The Moro believes that he is a very superior being, and looks upon all other natives with the utmost disdain. Religious difference may have a great deal to do with this feeling, but the foundation of it proba- bly lies in the superior courage of the Muhammadan tribes. They are densely ignorant, very few of them CRUELTIES OF THE DATOS. 501 being able to read or write. The knowledge of their panditas, or priests, is of a rudimentary character and generally limited to a smattering of the "Kitab," as they term the Kuran. It is doubtful if one of them can read it in the original Arabic. CRUELTIES OF THE DATOS. The datos, and warrior class, refrained entirely from anything like labor. The slaves and women did all the work and supplied all the wants of the master of the establishment. As a general thing their slaves do not appear to have fared badly, although the datos were capable of the worst barbarities on occasion and treated attempts to escape with the utmost severity. Dato Uto, a representative of the latter-day Moros, was notorious for the refinement of the cruelties he practiced upon his slaves. Those who were caught in an attempt to escape had the tendons of their legs cut below the knees so that they could never after walk except with great difficulty. Others he caused to be bound naked to trees, where they would be exposed to the burning rays of the sun by day and the stings of mosquitoes and other insects at night. Death within forty-eight hours was the frequent result of this treatment. Moros of all classes, from the sultan to the sacope, are born thieves. They rob whenever opportunity presents itself and from neighbors or kinsmen as readily as from strangers, as much apparently for 502 THE PHILIPPINES. the pleasure derived from the act as from desire for the object stolen. THE MOEO IS NOT A MODEL MUHAMMADAN. The Moro is far from being an orthodox Muham- madan ; indeed the Moslem of civilization would hardly recognize him as a co-religionist. The Moro falls very short of living up to the dictates of the Kuran and frequently violates its stern prohibi- tion against indulgence in strong drink. Toward strangers the Mussalmin of the Philippines have al- ways displayed the greatest reticence regarding the particulars of their religious belief, and investigators generally meet with a flat refusal to impart informa- tion, or else are put off with a recital of a fanciful nature. Worcester appears to have been unusually fortunate in this respect. lie contrived to gain the confidence of the Minister of Justice of the sultanate of Mindanao, "a very intelligent man, who looked as if he had white blood in his veins." During a suc- cession of visits, in which the chief attraction was "a microscope and sundry copies of illustrated papers," this person stated that the Moros believe that there is but one universe and one God. He is om- nipresent, omnipotent, and omniscient, and his form is that of our thoughts. The air above us and the space beneath the earth are inhabited by spirits. Ani- mals have spirits, but they expire with the death of the creature, whilst the soul of man lives on forever. THE MORO RELIGIOUS BELIEF. 503 It enters the body through a hole in the top of the skull, contrived for that purpose, and leaves it through the same aperture. During life the soul permeates the entire body, as is proved by the fact that the whole structure is sensitive. Some panditas maintain that after death the soul immediately re- pairs to the presence of God; others that it goes be- neath the earth to rest in oblivion until the judgment day. The soul of a bad man is eventually consigned to hell, where he suffers torment regulated according to the character of his misdeeds. The offending mem- ber of the body is the seat of pain. There is no fire in hell. "Where would the fuel come from ?" In the course of time the wicked expiate their sins and are taken into heaven. According to some priests evil brings its own punishment in mental and physical suffering upon the earth, and atonement comes before death. The purged soul will have the same form as the body, but will be like "gold and diamonds," that is, glorified. Certain Moro theologists teach that the souls of the good wait in the air, and those of the bad in the earth, until the final reckoning at the end of the world. At that time, all souls will be carried up by a great wind to the Mount of Calvary, where they will be confronted by Gabriel, Michael, and the Weigher, who will place each one in the scales. Souls heavy with sin will be sent to hell. 504 Till'] PHILIPPINES. The Moros know all the prominent characters of the Old Testament, "Ibrahim," "No," "Mosa," "Baud," "Yakub," "Sulaiman," and the rest, and have woven around some of them marvelous tales of fabulous adventure. Like all people, even the most primitive, they have their story of the flood. THE MORO VERSION OF THE STORY OF THE FLOOD. When the forty days and nights of rain set in, Noah and his family went into a box, taking with them one pair of each sort of bird and beast. People who neglected the opportunity to join the patriarch were overtaken by the flood and providentially changed to forms that had some chance to survive. Those who took to the hills became monkeys ; those who made for the water became fish. The Chinaman was changed to a hornbill. A woman who was eating the fruit of a seaweed was turned into a fish called dugong, and her limbs may be seen under its skin to this day. Worcester had made several unsuccessful attempts, in different parts of the Moro country, to get an ex- planation of the strong aversion of the people to pork. One day his friend, the Minister, called in a state of inebriation and, taken off his guard, made the follow- ing interesting statement: CHRIST AND MUHAMMAD IN MORO LEGEND. "Jesus Christ, called by the Moros Isa, was a man like ourselves, but great, and good, and very power- A MORO LEGEND. 505 ful. He was not a son of God. The Moros hate and kill the Christians because they teach that men could slay a son of God. "Mohamoud had a grandson and a granddaughter of whom he was very fond. As he was king of the world, Christ came to his house to visit him. Mo- hamoud, jealous of him, told him to prove his power by 'divining' what he had in a certain room, where, in fact, were his grandchildren. Christ replied that he had no wish to prove his power and would not 'divine' (divinar). Mohamoud then vowed that if he did not answer correctly he would pay for it with his life. Christ responded : 'You have two animals in there different from anything else in the world.' Mohamoud replied : 'You are wrong, and I will now kill you.' Christ said : 'Look first and see for your- self.' Mohamoud opened the door and out rushed two hogs into which Christ had changed his grand- children." Worcester goes on to say : "Moros are forbidden to tell this story to infidels because it shows that Christ outwitted their great prophet. When my informant sobered up and realized what he had done, he hung around, day after day, beseeching me not to let any one know what he had told me, from which fact I inferred that he thought he had told me the truth and not a fable invented for the occasion." In their futile attempts to subdue the Moros the Spaniards established garrisons in the south, but 506 THE PHILIPPINES. beyond the immediate neighborhood of these posts the authority of the white man was merely nominal. The Moros were never compelled to pay taxes, and in recent years an effort to collect tribute resulted in the annihilation of the entire garrison at Sulu. The earliest Spanish post among the Moros was at Zamboanga, where the old fort is still a feature of the town. It proved to be, more on account of the negligence of the authorities than from the natural unhealthiness of the climate, a veritable death-trap. For many years the casualties, due to disease, repre- sented eighty per cent, of the force. Nevertheless, as the service was invested with the character of a crusade, soldiers embraced it willingly. BASILAN AND THE YAKAN MOROS. At the village of Isabel, the capital of Basilan, the Spaniards had another post, with a military depot on the neighboring islet called Malamaui. The Yakan Moros of Basilan had acquired an un- enviable reputation for disregard of the laws of man, or God, but towards the close of the Spanish regime they were held in check under very curious circum- stances. Their dato was, and probably is yet, a Visayan, or Tagal, criminal who had been sent down to the penal settlement at San Ramon, near Zamboanga, which is at present the site of a model farm. The convict, whose name was Pedro Cuevas, planned escape with STRANGE SWAY OF A FOREIGNER. 507 two of his fellow prisoners. Whilst at work in the fields one day they overcame their guard, killed the Spanish officer in charge, and got away, taking a carbine with them. They immediately followed the coast to Ayala, which they reached on the night following the day of their coup. Here they murdered a Chinese shop- keeper, plundered his store of what they needed, and, securing a boat, crossed over to Basilan. On landing, they proceeded at once to the nearest village and to the house of the daio, upon whom Pedro called to come out and fight. Such an invitation was never declined by a Moro, and the chieftain rolled out of bed with alacrity and soon emerged from his hut with lance and shield. The combat was a very unequal one, for before the Yakan could use his weapon Pedro shot him dead. The convict then turned his carbine upon the assembling villagers with such effect that before daybreak they were glad to install him in the place of the fallen dato. THE STRANGE SWAY OF A FOREIGNER OVER A MORO COMMUNITY. Dato Pedro subdued the neighboring villages one after another and rapidly established a reputation for bravery and, which was of equal influence with the Moros, for having a charmed life. In a short time he had practical control of the entire island. He maintained his rule with an iron hand and hundreds 508 THE PHILIPPINES. of stories are told of his despotic practices. The slightest opposition to his wishes met with immedi- ate death. One of many similar stories is that a visitor from Zamboanga happened to admire a horse, upon which a Moro from a nearby village had just ridden up to Dato Pedro's house. The chieftain asked his friend if he would like to have it, and being answered in the affirmative, without more ado shot the rider as he sat in the saddle and presented his mount to the visitor. Pedro contrived to ingratiate himself with the Spanish authorities at Isabel, who realized the ad- vantage of having the unruly inhabitants of the island held in leash by a man on friendly terms with them- selves. His crimes against the State were pardoned and he lived on excellent terms with the resident governor. The domination of this remarkable man over an island full of turbulent Moros was due in a measure to the fact that he only among them possessed fire- arms, but probably in a much greater degree to their belief that he was impervious to harm. The natives of the Philippines everywhere believe that certain in- dividuals have charmed lives. Almost all the leaders of the bands of titlisanes enjoy this distinction. To attempt to injure such a one is not only useless, but highly dangerous and foolhardy. The administration of General Arolas, though free from acts of barbarity, was characterized by the un- THE MASTERFUL RULE OF AROLAS. 5C9 flinching severity of Pedro, and, as the former was the only Spaniard who ever succeeded in maintaining order among the Moros, the methods of these two men in their respective spheres may afford some hint as to the most effective means of dealing with the unruly people of the southern islands. The Moros called Arolas ''papa," the term denot- ing, however, not affection, but respect. These people can understand justice, but they have no appreciation of kindness, which they invariably construe as a sign of weakness. They soon learned that Arolas never indulged in idle talk, or feeble threats. His promise, whether it entailed good or ill, was sure of fulfillment. His order disobeyed was inevitably fol- lowed by punishment. He made little distinction be- tween white men and brown, dato or slave. In Arolas' day, Sulu was the cleanest town in the Colony, and probably the cleanest under Spanish administration anywhere. The streets were covered with white sand and regularly swept twice a day, not that they needed it, but, as the Governor was wont to declare, "if it were not done twice a day soon it would not be done once a week." A story was cur- rent that he had issued an order forbidding the trees to shed their leaves upon his streets. A white man who threw a cigar stub or a scrap of paper upon the street was promptly fined and a native thrashed. 510 THE PHILIPPINES. The wide thoroughfares and ample sidewalks, bor- dered by cement gutters and lined with shade trees, are laid out with exact uniformity and at right angles. Scarcely a trace of the ancient town was left when the Spaniards, in 1878, took it and cleared the site preparatory to building the present town, with its defensive walls of brick, and redoubts and block- houses. MODERN SULU. Sulu was the ancient capital of the Sultans and the centre of Morodom. After its capture the native capital was transferred to Maibun on the south coast, and here the Sultan has his residence to-day. The houses have an unfamiliar appearance to the visitor from the northern islands. They are painted white, or treated with calsomine, and the nipa roof of the Filipino dwelling is entirely absent. There are several substantial buildings of stone used for public purposes and to quarter the troops. For the accommodation of the Moros who come in on certain days with produce and merchandise, a large market has been recently constructed. Sulu is only a good sized military post with a popu- lation of a few hundred, only four of whom are Moros, but it is a beautiful little place, enjoying good water and a salubrious climate. The anchorage is good ano 1 a stone pier runs more than one hundred yards into the sea, with a light- A VILLAGE S Ai-'-r i Like most Oriental women those of the Philippines can carry heavy burdens upon their heads, and the practice gives them an upright and graceful carriage. From Stereograph Copyright, by Underwood & Unden- York. THE MORO IS A MAN OF THE SEA. 511 house at the end of it, for Sulu is a port of consid- erable consequence, having direct communication with Singapore and Manila, and doing a large interisland trade. The export business is almost entirely in the hands of Chinese. THE MORO IS A MAN OF THE SEA. The Moro is almost an amphibian and the only kind of work to which he takes at all kindly is connected with the water. Children are at home in it as soon as they can walk, and swim and dive with remarkable ease and confidence. The men are the most expert divers in the world, and can remain under the surface for several minutes at a time. They frequently encounter sharks, but are absolutely fearless and will often plunge in and attack the creatures with a knife. The principal industry of the Sulu Archipelago is the collection of sea-produce, and competent judges have declared that it is capable of great extension. Pearls and mother-of-pearl are secured in large quantities in these waters, where the most perfect con- ditions exist for the development of the mollusks. It is said that the area suited to the growth of the pearl-oyster approximates fifteen thousand square miles, an extent of bed more than sufficient to supply the present large demand of the whole world for mother-of-pearl. The search for pearls is a very precarious occupa- 512 THE PHILIPPINES. tion, and the Moro divers consider it merely inci- dental to the collection of the more certain product. A tally was kept of five thousand bivalves, and it was found that they did not yield a single pearl worth twenty-five dollars. On the other hand, it is said that an Englishman, a few years since, discovered a shell devoid of the oyster but holding sixty-five pearls. THE ORIGIN OF THE PEARL. " There have been all sorts of theories advanced as to the origin of the pearl. One ancient author states that the oyster rises to receive the raindrops which are afterwards converted into pearls, and this theory obtained amongst the natives of the new world at the time of Columbus, as they thought they were formed from petrified dewdrops in connection with sunbeams. . . . The prevailing idea, however, amongst scientists is that the formation is caused by an effort on the part of the oyster in which the pearl is found to rid itself of an irritation caused by the presence of some foreign body which excites the secre- tion of nacreous matter, in concentric layers, until the foreign substance is encysted, much in the same manner as the human body encysts foreign bodies em- bedded therein, and renders them comparatively harm- less. The experience of pearl-fishers lends weight to thn theory, because they find that shells irregular in shape, stunted in growth, bearing excrescences, or MOTHER-OF-PEARL INDUSTRY. 613 having shell honeycombed by parasites, are the most likely to yield pearls." The Sultan of Sulu has always been the owner of some of the finest pearls in the world, secured from the waters of his own territory. From time to time, as funds ran low with the potentate, rare specimens from his treasury have found their way to London and Paris. The Sultan, who died in 1879, was known to pos- sess a box full of pearls of extraordinary value, but after his death they disappeared. Subsequently his son and successor recovered a portion of the stolen gems, and in 1882 sold a few in order to defray the expenses of his pilgrimage to Mecca. He must be at present the possessor of a very fine collection. THE MOTHER-OF-PEARL INDUSTRY OF SULU. The hard, silvery, iridescent coat, which adds greatly to the commercial value, is especially charac- teristic of the Sulu pearl. The mother-of-pearl, too, from this region ranks the highest in the market, bringing as great a price as nine hundred dollars a ton. The chief sources of the world's supply of this ornamental material are Torres Strait, Western Aus- tralia, and the Sulu Archipelago. Until 1886 Manila was the chief centre of this trade in the Orient, but the short-sighted policy of the Colonial Government forced its transfer to the British port of Singapore. 514 THE PHILIPPINES. The present trade of the United States in this product is in an abnormal condition. The raw ma- terial is derived from American territory, but passes through Singapore into the hands of British im- porters in London, whence it is shipped to the United States and worked up in American factories. The business is one of no small consideration, as is proved by the fact that the United States has for several years past consumed more than one million dollars' worth of the material annually. VITAL ISSUES. XIV. VITAL ISSUES.* The Inception of American Rule Police Education Ju- diciary Personal Rights The Friar Lands The Ques- tion of Iudei>endeuce "The Philippines for the Filipinos" The Popular Assembly An Unselfish Administration Taxpaying Capacity Natural Resources Trade Rela- tions with the United States The Local Business Situa- tion The Projected Railroad System The Labor Question Climatic Conditions The Broader Policy. President McKinley conceived that the war might be brought to an end if with the rigor of a military campaign he mingled, as an object lesson, the peaceful methods of organizing civil government, and so he sent a civil commission, which, following in the wake of the army wherever it deemed conditions favorable, organized municipal and provincial governments on bases so liberal in the matter of autonomy as to sur- prise the inhabitants of the islands. The municipal code gave COMPLETE AUTONOMY TO THE PEOPLE that * The following chapter is composed of literal extracts from public addresses delivered by the Hon. William H. Taft during the year 1904, discussing the most important issues connected with the Philippines. (517) 518 THE PHILIPPINES. is, to those eligible to vote, who constitute hardly 15 per cent, of the total population. The organization of governments began after the second election of McKinley. Then, too, was formed the Federal party, a party the main plank of which was peace under the sovereignty of the United States ; and the second plank of which expressed hope that, as the people de- veloped in the course of self-government, the Archi- pelago might be received, first, as a Territory and then as a State. The leading members of the Federal party had been Americanistas and always sympathized with America in its desire to establish just and well- ordered government there. They now were able to unite with them in every town in the islands a great majority of the respectable people the educated, wealthy people who, overcoming their fear of as- sassination and intimidation by the guerrillas, came together in such force as to protect themselves, and joined in making up municipal and provincial gov- ernments under the American sovereignty, which are the foundation of the present general government in the islands. The provincial government was not en- tirely autonomous. It was left to the people to elect the governor. The other provincial officers were ap- pointed. Certain of them were SELECTED UNDER THE CIVIL-SERVICE LAW. In the central government the commission of five Americans was increased by three Filipinos, and a civil governor was subsequently ap- ORDER AND EDUCATION. 519 pointed, who was a member of the commission, but did not have the veto power. That power resided in the Secretary of War. All this was done under President McKinley as Commander-in-Chief, and was a quasi military government until, by an act passed in July, 1902, the government which had been formed was confirmed by Congressional action and its powers considerably enlarged and extended. By that act a popular assembly will be elected in 1906, and will form one branch of the law-making power of the islands. The next thing which was done was the suppression of ladronism. In order to do this it became neces- sary to create a force of native constabulary in each province under American officers. Numbering 6,500, with the assistance of 3,500 Philippine scouts, the constabulary in two years after the close of the insur- rection HAS REDUCED LADROxiSM to less of a nuisance than it ever has been in the history of the islands. The constabulary has had its defects and its abuses, but on the whole it has done remarkable work in policing so many islands occupied by so many mil- lions of people. The army has been called on only in three or four instances. The task of suppressing the ladrones has been done almost wholly by Filipinos. The next thing which was done was to establish an educational system, and a thousand American teach- ers were imported and sent over the islands to teach the children, and to exercise the beneficent influence 520 THE PHILIPPINES. that teachers, as almoners of that which is most val- uable from the government, are able to exercise among people who hold in high esteem, education. There has been considerable criticism of the edu- cational system in the Philippines, and I do not say that the system is perfect, but I do say we are accom- plishing very substantial results. We are teaching the people English, and the people desire to learn English. Certain persons who have not been in the islands, or who were there so short a time as to learn but little, are quite contemptuous of the attempt on the part of the Government to teach English. There is NO JUSTIFICATION FOR THEIR SNEERS or contempt. We are now teaching only about 10 per cent, of the youth of the islands of school age, but we are preparing a very large number of Filipino teachers in English at normal schools. We send 100 Filipino students a year to study in America. From these sources we expect to fill the ranks of the Filipino teachers with English-speaking Filipinos, so that in less than a decade we shall be able to offer to every Filipino child who will study, the means of learning English and of getting an elementary education, and of studying in training schools when he is adapted to learn the trades. The eagerness with which English is studied by the Filipino finds its cause in the badge of equality PUBLIC IMPROVEMENTS. 521 which the opportunity offered constitutes. Under the Spanish regime the study of Spanish by the masses was not favored. I fear that the contempt felt for our efforts to educate the Filipinos finds its reason in a desire to get rid of the islands. I agree that such a system of education as that which we are preparing is probably inconsistent with a short stay of the United States in the islands. We cannot teach Fili- pinos English in a year. We can hardly teach them English in a generation. We can only teach them English thoroughly through the children, but we MUST WAIT UNTIL, THE CHILDREN GROW UP and be- come men before the adults shall speak English. !NTow, it is absolutely essential to the preparation of the people of the Philippine Islands for any kind of permanent self-government in which there shall be the safety brake of a popular, intelligent public opin- ion, that the 90 per cent, of ignorant people in the islands should be given a chance to receive an ele- mentary education, and it is upon this fact that I found the judgment that if we are in the islands and expect to discharge our duty to the people of the islands and prepare them for self-government, we can- not hope to do so short of a generation or longer. Next in order, we have attempted to construct pub- lic improvements in the islands. Indeed, it comes first in order, for the first act which was passed was the appropriation of $1,000,000 from the treasury for the construction of roads, under the control of the 522 THE PHILIPPINES. military government. This money was expended as economically as possible by the military governor, and I doubt not has done considerable good in the country. But the effect of the torrential rains upon the macadamized roads in the tropics is so destructive that it requires nearly as much to keep a road in re- pair as it does for its original construction; and the dreadful agricultural depression, due to the death of nearly all the cattle from rinderpest, and the conse- quent failure of local taxes due to this depression, have caused local authorities necessarily to neglect the repairs. The Commission has expended two millions and has contracted to spend two millions more in THE CON- STRUCTION OF POET WORKS AT MANILA, and about half a million at Cebu and Iloilo. Mr. Colquhoun complains that the money for Cebu and Iloilo has been appropriated but has not yet been expended. This is true. We have advertised for bids, but when I left the islands we had not succeeded in inducing anybody to undertake the work. Since leaving the islands I understand that a contractor has taken the work at Cebu. It must be understood, even by an active, enterprising Englishman, that in a country like the Philippines, where there are not many con- tractors, there is very little capital, and the former unsettled conditions do not attract many contractors from abroad. It is difficult to secure the doing of work even if you have the money and will. Millions NATIVE POLICL:. A squad of native policemen armed with bolos, and one of their guardhouses at Cebu. These men are Visayans. From Stereograph Copyright, by Underwood & Underwood, J?ew York. THE JUDICIARY. 623 arc now being spent in the islands on roads, and if we can secure the requisite legislation I am sure that millions more will be spent in the construction of rail- roads. The truth is, it is much more economical to construct railroads than it is to construct wagon roads, and railroads will revolutionize business and society in the islands. The third thing which we have done is to establish a judiciary system. It was proposed that we have what is called United States Court, in which foreign- ers and Americans could be heard against the natives, and that the other courts should be courts for natives only. We declined to take this view, and created courts in which both native and American judges sit. The SUPREME COURT OF THREE FlLIPINO JUDGES and four American judges will compare favorably with any supreme court of the States, and the courts of first instance, numbering now fifteen, in which part of the judges are native and part American, covering the entire Archipelago, are doing their work well, and are bringing to the people an understanding of what the administration of justice should be. I think there is no one part of the government in which we may justly take more pride than in the judiciary, and while its organization has been surrounded with great difficulty because of the necessity of interpreting from the Spanish language into the English, and from English into the Spanish, and because of the necessary ignorance of the Filipino judges of American pro- 524 THE PHILIPPINES. cedure, and the necessary ignorance of the American judges of the civil substantive law, nevertheless the obstacles seem to have been overcome, and the system works much more smoothly than could have reason- ably been expected. We have not disturbed in the slightest the sub- stantive law of the islands, which is embraced in civil codes, the chief of which were the civil, the mortgage, and the commercial codes. We have adopted a civil code of procedure to take the place of the Spanish code of procedure, which was so tech- nical as to enable an acute lawyer to keep his op- ponent stamping forever in the vestibule of justice. The criminal code of procedure, adopted by general order of General Otis, follows the California code. It is simple, and seems to be effective. The criminal code itself of Spain, eliminating political offenses and religious offenses, is quite well adapted to the people, and no substantial change has been made therein. A few crimes have been added to meet the exigencies of ladronism, and to prevent the press from an abuse of their privileges. But all these provisions were WITHIN THE CONSTITUTIONAL, LIMITATIONS, which, by virtue of the instructions of Mr. McKinley to Mr. Root, and their confirmation by the Congress of the United States, extended to the people of the islands all the civil rights included in the Bill of Rights, ex- cept the right to bear arms and the right to trial by jury. Now, I have been frequently asked in let- PERSONAL RIGHTS. 525 ters from suspicious individuals, resident in and about Boston, whether it is true that all the civil rights are secured to the inhabitants of the Philippine Islands. Are they not still subject to the surveillance and an- noyances which they encountered under the Spanish rule ? With respect to this I should like to say first that any inhabitant of the Philippine Islands is entitled to apply to court for the preservation of every right mentioned in the Bill of Rights, save the right of trial by jury and the right to bear arms, and that if he will assert his right it will be secured to him. It may be that in the province of Cavite, where ladronism is so ingrained that it has been necessary at times to declare martial law and to suspend the writ of habeas corpus, this is not true. Everywhere else it is the fact. Now, the question is asked, Are not people arrested for exhibiting seditious plays? My answer to that is that they have been. In Manila the exhibition of a play in which the AMERICAN FLAG is STAMPED UPON and spit upon, and American sol- diers are represented as being killed, and the Amer- ican nation as overwhelmed by violence, is an invita- tion to force and violence against the government by the ignorant people, and its suppression by arrest of the instigators is no violation of the Bill of Rights. The question is asked whether a man may advocate the independence of the islands by peaceable means and be free from prosecution and persecution by the 526 THE PHILIPPINES. Government. My answer is that he may. There is a party the Nationalist party a plank in whose platform is the obtaining of independence by peace- able means. I do not mean to say that where a sus- pected insurrecto, one suspected of membership in the physical-force party, is loud in his advocacy of inde- pendence, that he may not, by the secret service bu- reau of the police, be subjected to surveillance, but that is an incident from which even CITIZENSHIP IN THIS COUNTRY is NOT FREE. It suffices that he can- not be prosecuted or convicted for advocating inde- pendence by peaceable means. Next we have attempted, as far as we could, to relieve the political situation in the islands from cer- tain disturbing factors growing out of their religious history. Spain took over the islands in 1564, when she sent Legaspi as military commander of a fleet of five ships, and five Augustinian friars, including Urdaneta, to take possession of the islands. With very little friction she assumed sovereignty over the whole Archipelago, and it is not too much to say that the islands were brought under Spain's control and influence not by force, but by the peaceful exertions of the Spanish friars of the five orders the Domini- cans, Augustinians, Recoletos, Franciscans, and Jesuits. The men of these religious orders labored for three centuries to make Christians of the Fili- pino people. They taught them the arts of agricul- ture and gave them other instruction. Until the nine- TIIK FRIAR LANDS. 527 tcenth century they exercised great control over the natives by reason of their sincere protection of the natives' rights. Before 1800 they received natives into their orders and permitted the hierarchy to be partly filled by natives. During the last century, however, there grew up a feeling of jealousy between the native clergy and the friars, growing out of their rivalry for rectorships in parishes throughout the islands. Added to this, when the Suez Canal was opened HORDES OF SPAN- IARDS CAME to the islands, offices were greatly in- creased, taxes became heavier, and the hospitality of the Filipinos, so freely offered, was abused. The young and educated Filipino began to have concep- tions of liberty and a better administration of govern- ment. The Spanish authorities were glad to use the friars, who were reactionary in their opinion, as civil instruments in the detection and prosecution of such sentiments. Hence it was that the government and the friars were brought together in opposition to the Philippine people and a hostility was engendered which knew no limit against those priests whose pre- decessors with utmost self-sacrifice and loving devo- tion to duty had Christianized the islands and pre- pared their people for a higher civilization. The spirit of vengeance against the friars was sufficiently shown in the revolution of 1898, when 40 of their number were killed by the people and the insurgents and 300 were imprisoned and subjected to all sorts 528 THE PHILIPPINES. of indignities and suffering until released by the American troops. In this state of public feeling it is not surprising that the ownership of 400,000 of the BEST ACEES IN THE ISLANDS by the religious orders caused an agrarian revolt among their tenants, and the question of the collection of their rents, their title to the land being clear, became a very serious one. They did not collect any rents from 1896 to 1903. Courts were then opened and the friars had the right to resort to them for collection, not only of the rents just accruing but also for the rents from 1898. A general attempt to collect such rents must have re- sulted in judgments. There would have followed the eviction of some 60,000 people at the instance of the unpopular religious orders. The situation was criti- cal. A visit to Rome for consultation upon this ques- tion seemed wise, and it was undertaken. A general basis of agreement was reached with the Vatican, and after a year of negotiation in the islands a price was fixed upon the lands and the con- tract of purchase made last December ; the money for the purchase price has been borrowed and is in the banks awaiting perfecting of the titles and the sur- veys necessary for the description of the land.* As an accompaniment of the purchase of the lands and a re- sult much to be desired, the number of friars in the islands has been reduced from something over 1,000 * The "friar lands" have since been transferred to the United States. AUTHOR. THE QUESTION OF INDEPENDENCE. 529 in 1898 to about 246 on the 1st of January, 1904, and of these 246, 83 are Dominicans who have renounced any right to go into the parishes, 50 are infirm and unable to do any work, so that only about 100 are available, and many of these are engaged in educa- tional work. The intervention of the Spanish friars, therefore, CEASES TO BECOME IMPORTANT, becaiise there are not enough of them in the 900 parishes to cause any considerable disturbance. This certainly removes a great cause of contention and contributes to the tranquility of the islands. And now, gentlemen, what of 'the future? It has been strongly urged by a large number of citizens of high standing that we ought now to promise ultimate independence to the Filipinos. I beg, respectfully, to differ from this view. The promise which it is pro- posed to give is a promise which must be conditioned on THE FITNESS OF THE FILIPINOS for self-govern- ment. The promise holds up to the people of the islands for constant discussion as a present issue the question, "Are we now fitted for self-government?" There may be some people in Manila and the islands who know and are ready to say that the people are unfitted, but, on the other hand, the Filipinos are not different from other people, and the great majority of them would say with emphasis, "We are entirely fitted for self-government." The moment therefore that formal promise is made that the Filipinos shall 34 530 THE PHILIPPINES. have independence when they are fitted for it, it willl be accepted by them as a promise of independence in the immediate future. Dealing with the Filipinos, we must speak with exact truth. The truth may be unpalatable, but they will accept it. But we must not mislead them. Now, if we are right in our plan that we have begun, of trying to do this people good, of extending to them civil liberty, of giving them an opportunity for educa- tion, and of learning the art of self-government and political control by exercising a part of it, then it is essential that they should assist, as far as possible, in the government, and should help it along. The move- ment, in order to be a success, must needs have the support of the intelligent and conservative, but if the issue as to their fitness for self-government is thrust into politics, and the construction of the promise as one of the immediate future follows as it certainly will, then the interest in the present government, even on the part of the most conservative, must wane, and the plans for a gradual education of the Filipinos in self-government must fail. I agree that if all one wishes to do is to set a government going, to fill its offices with intelligent Filipinos, and then to abandon the islands, one may readily fix a time for the purpose, but that is not my idea of THE DUTY OF THE UNITED STATES, now that we are in the islands. If it is, our plan of education is wholly at fault. The moment that we move out of the islands, if we leave in the IESTION OF INDEPENDENCE. 631 few years proposed, the American teachers will go, and the study of English, which has received such an impetus from their presence, will cease to be regarded as a benefit, education will fall by the way- side, and a return will rapidly be made to the condi- tion which existed under Aguinaldo. Now, in such a condition of things, when the pres- ence of the United States in the islands is necessary to maintain order and sustain a well-ordered govern- ment, to secure civil rights to the people, and to aliens with vested interests, it seems to me most unwise to introduce an issue by a promise of conditional independence which will wean the people away from the importance of the present government and invite them to a discussion of the wisdom of an absolute change. If the people are fit for self-government, then I agree that the declaration ought to be made, and that we ought to turn the islands over. It is a dif- ference on this point that is the real difference between the signers of the petition to the conventions for a promise of independence and those who oppose the signers. I have heard it said by people who have not thought much on the subject that they did not see any great difference between the view of the sign- ers of the petition for independence and mine. THE DIFFERENCE is FUNDAMENTAL. They are really in favor of an Aguinaldo government with a gloss of declarations in favor of liberty and constitutional 532 THE PHILIPPINES. freedom and the bill of rights, which, I verily believe, will never have any force whatever. I am in favor of teaching the people how to govern themselves, and I cannot assume that such a lesson, so difficult to learn, can be taught to a people 90 per cent, of whom are grossly ignorant to-day, without any political experi- ence whatever, in five years, as some of our opponents say, or in twenty years, as others suggest. I regard the learning of English as one of the im- portant steps in the education of these people, im- portant in creating a solidarity among the people and in enabling the people to understand each other, important in bringing them into touch with the Anglo- Saxon world where they shall drink in the principles of civil liberty. My standpoint is the benefit of the Filipino people. To state the matter succinctly, we have secured to the Filipinos, by what we have done, civil liberty, and we are gradually extending to them political control. What the opponents of our policy in effect and result are contending for is that we should turn the islands over to a small minority, who will establish a government in which CIVIL LIBERTY WILL BE LOST and political control reside with a few. The standpoint of the signers of the petition and others who stand with them seems to be that of de- cently getting rid of a nasty job. I differ with them first, in thinking that the discharge of the duty which is imposed upon us is a bad job or that it is going to involve any such disaster as is prophesied. It is THE LOGIC OF THE SITUATION. 533 Raid that it will implant the spirit of tyranny and absolutism in this country. As long as those who exercise authority in the Philippine Islands are responsible to the eighty mil- lions of people in this country the spirit of absolutism is sure to be kept well in abeyance. What it will develop, on the contrary, is the spirit of altruism, of a desire to help a poor people who need our help, of a desire to lift them up and to do it at the expense of great national effort and sacrifice. Xow, this is said to be, by those who speak for the petitioners, so altruistic as to be what they would call "sentimental" or "lunar politics." I do not agree. Those who urge the delivery over of the islands in a few years evi- dently think it sufficient if we frame a government, set it working, and let it go. In their anxiety to get rid of the islands, they put themselves unconsciously in the attitude of the United States Senator who, in expressing his earnest desire to get rid of the Philip- pines, CONSIGNED THEM TO HELL. Their anxiety finds its reason in the fear that the American people, deriv- ing advantage from association with the Philippine Islands of a commercial and financial character, will never be willing to give up their control over the islands, however fit the Filipinos may become for self- government. It is their distrust of the American people that leads such men into anxiety to get rid of the Filipino people before the association shall be- come profitable. 534 THE PHILIPPINES. Now, I do not think that this feeling is justified, because I feel sure that after the Filipino people become well educated, and we have a decent gov- ernment there in which the Filipino people take part, and the Filipino people request independence, the American people will grant it to them. Why should we be impatient to leave the islands ? If we may properly stay five ^ears or twenty years to prepare the people, what objection on principle can there be to our staying until our work is thoroughly done ? If it will take forty or fifty years thoroughly to pre- pare the people for popular government, is it not wiser and better for the Filipinos to maintain the present relation for that time than to allow the people to go at the end of five years and fall into the habits of certain so-called republics of revolution, anarchy, and all sorts of misgovernments ? I do not dwell upon a danger which will arise if we set going a government that cannot maintain order and protect vested rights, but foreign intervention in such a case is most proba- ble. In such event the amount of self-government allowed to the Filipinos by an intervening European government is NOT LIKELY TO STRAIN THEIR CAPAC- ITY, however limited. But it is said that the influ- ence of governing the Philippines for a long time upon our Government will be bad. I do not think that thus far it has had an evil influence. If it were a spoils government there, I agree that it might become a stench in the nostrils of everyone, DEVELOPMENT OF THE ISLANDS. 535 but as a matter of fact the government has been en- tirely nonpartisan. Without knowing the politics of all the judges, and the other appointees of the islands, I think it only fair to say that there are about as many Democrats in the government as there are Re- publicans. A civil-service law, much more stringent than the national civil-service law, is enforced with fidelity, and while there is much difficulty in obtain- ing a suitable personnel for the whole government in the islands, I think we have been fairly successful in getting competent agents. While the criticism of the anti-imperialists and their attacks upon the policy of the Government worked great injury in misleading the Filipinos into a continuance of the war, their criticism has perhaps unwittingly been of some value in upholding THE STANDARD OF THE GOVERNMENT in the islands, because it has put that government on trial from the beginning, and has made every mem- ber of it strain himself to make it worthy of approval. What the Filipino people need now, first of all, is material development in the islands, and that the people of the United States can secure them if the Philippine government is given the requisite powers. It is a development that under an independent govern- ment would come much more slowly (if indeed it came at all) than it will under the auspices of the Government of the United States. Capital will feel greatly more secure under a government which has the guiding hand and brake of the United States 536 THE PHILIPPINES. than it would under Aguinaldo and his followers. The cost to the people of getting capital into the coun- try will be vastly reduced. The permanence of the improvements and their character will be much bet- ter for the country under present conditions than where the uncertainty of a changing government will treble or quadruple the risk. 4 Our policy in the Philippines must be "The Phil- ippines for the Filipinos." This duty we have as- sumed and it is the duty which we shall doubtless dis- charge. It is fortunate that this policy is also the best policy from a selfish standpoint, for thus we have additional assurance of its being maintained. The more we develop the islands, the more we teach the Filipinos the methods of maintaining well-ordered government, the more tranquility succeeds in the islands, the better the business, the greater the products, and the more profitable the association with those islands in a business way. If we ultimately take the Philippines in behind the tariff wall, as I hope and pray we may, and give them the benefit for their peculiar products of the markets of the United States, it will have a tendency to DEVELOP THAT WHOLE COUNTRY, of inviting the capital of the United States into the islands, and of creating a trade be- tween the islands and this country which cannot but be beneficial to both. Now, under these circum- stances, is it impracticable, is it wild to suppose that THE POPULAR ASSEMBLY. 537 the people of the islands will understand the benefit that they derive from such association with the United States and will prefer to maintain some sort of bond so that they may be within the tariff wall and enjoy the markets, rather than separate themselves and become independent and lose the valuable business which our guardianship of them and our obligation to look after them has brought to them ? Have we not given an earnest of our real desire to teach them the science of self-government by provid- ing that in two years after the census shall be pub- lished a popiilar assembly, which shall exercise equal authority with the Commission in a legislative way in the islands, shall be elected by popular vote ? I do not look for very encouraging results from the first or second session of this assembly. I have no doubt that in the beginning there will be in the assembly ex- treme and violent partisans of immediate indepen- dence and of autonomy and a protectorate and of a great many other impracticable schemes, some of which will include attempts to obstruct the govern- ment. By proposed legislation of various kinds, mem- bers will seek to accomplish purposes that are incapa- ble of accomplishment by legislation, but I shall not be discouraged at this, for that is to be expected of a people who have had no legislative experience. Ultimately they will reach the SAFE AND SANE CON- CLUSION that laws which are to be passed are those which their experience justifies, and that discussion 538 THE PHILIPPINES. and analysis and calm consideration and self-restraint are all necessary for successful legislative measures. It is said that we are giving them this legislature too soon. I think my friend, Mr. Colquhoun, thinks so. For my part I think not. The people desire it. It will be an imperfect but useful medium of communi- cating their wishes, and it will offer the most valuable school to the intelligent part of the population in the science of government. It must be borne in mind that it is not only the 90 per cent, of ignorant Filipinos who need to be tutored in the art of self- government, but the remaining 10 per cent., even in- cluding the 1 per cent, of the cultured and educated, are sadly in need of political education, and they may find it in the popular assembly and may learn the difference between theory and practice in carrying on a just government. Does it not seem rather unreasonable now to insist upon promising independence in advance even of the trial of the test of political capacity in the control of one legislative chamber ? But I am asked how capable of self-government must the people become before we give them an OPPORTUNITY TO BE INDEPENDENT, if they will. Is it to be a perfect government like Plato's Republic ? If so, it will never come. The government by the people of the Philippine Islands, like the government by the people of other countries, will always have defects. The only standard which can be laid down THE DUTY OF THE UNITED STATES. 539 is that the common people shall be educated by ele- mentary education to understand simple principles of government, and to be capable of forming an intelli- gent opinion, which shall control their officers while in office. People among whom there is an intelligent public opinion are capable of self-government. That is the goal toward which we ought to move in the Philippine Islands. If we follow out the programme, which I hope we may, and it wins supporters as it progresses, we may reasonably count on obtaining the gratitude of the people of the Philippine Islands, which President McKinley spoke of in his instruc- tions to Secretary Root, when he said : "A HIGH AND SACRED OBLIGATION rests Upon tllC Government of the United States to give protection for property and life, civil and religious freedom, and wise, firm and unselfish guidance in the paths of peace and prosperity to all the people of the Philip- pine Islands. I charge this Commission to labor for the full performance of this obligation, which con- cerns the honor and conscience of - their country, in the firm hope that through their labors all the inhabi- tants of the Philippine Islands may come to look back with gratitude to the day when God gave vic- tory to American arms at Manila and set their land under the sovereignty and protection of the people of the United States." 540 THE PHILIPPINES. Concerning the objection that this is a new busi- ness for the United States, which will have a demoral- izing effect upon the nation, I think no one is able to point out any injury which has thus far resulted to the people of the United States except the expense attendant upon the maintenance of law and order in the islands during the insurrection, and the regret- table loss of life which occurred. Certainly no one thus far can show the baleful effects of that dreadful spirit of greed which the opponents of the policy are so prone to see in everything done with respect to the Philippines. I challenge them to point out anything which has been done to the Philippine Islands, either immediately under the government there es- tablished, or by the United States, which savors in the least of A SELFISH USE OF THOSE ISLANDS for the benefit, either of the individuals in the United States or of the Government itself. The only thing which can be seriously made the basis of such a charge was the attempt during the present session of Congress to put in force the coastwise trading laws for the benefit of the shipping of the United States in respect to the trans-oceanic trade between the islands and the United States, and that by Act of Congress has now been postponed for two years longer. There has been a rebate provided of the export duty on hemp imported directly from the islands to the United States. This has not affected injuriously the trade of the islands, because the demand for hemp is so great TAXPAYING CAPACITY. 541 that the islands have a monopoly in respect to it. There has unexpectedly been caused by the rebate a reduction of the income in the islands of about $250,- 000, because the equivalent which was provided as a counter benefit, to wit, the duties to be collected on imports from the islands into the United States, has not equaled the aggregate rebate on the hemp. This, however, was a miscalculation by the legislators that was pardonable and can easily be rectified. In every other respect the legislation which has been enacted has been in favor of the islands, including a gift of three millions of dollars for the purpose of re- lieving distress there. The attitude of those who sup- port the Government in its policy is altruistic. It is of one who out of a FEELING FRIENDLY TO THE FILI- PINOS would sacrifice much to accomplish the pur- poses of the Administration there. It is a feeling which does the nation credit, and a feeling that a nation of the wealth and power that this nation has may well afford to encourage. The islands themselves give every indication of fur- nishing revenue sufficient to carry out the plans which the United States may properly carry out in the ma- terial and intellectual development of the country and its people. The taxpaying capacity of the country is, of course, determined by that which it produces for domestic and foreign use. For the last two or three years the wealth produced in the islands has 542 THE PHILIPPINES. been seriously impaired and reduced, not only by the war and the cholera, but also and chiefly by the loss of draft animals, ninety per cent, of which have succumbed to the rinderpest. Agriculture has been dependent upon such animals and the recovery from this blow must necessarily be slow. Congress appro- priated three millions of dollars to assist the islands in restocking plantations, but the enormous difficulties attending the importation from other countries of cattle which are able to live in the Philippines are only known to those who have attempted it. I am glad to say, however, that our scientists in the islands have discovered a method of preventing a recurrence and spread of the disease, so that when the plantations are restocked rinderpest will have NO TERRORS FOR THE FARMERS. With normal conditions in agricul- ture, when the cattle shall have been restored by breeding and otherwise to their usual number, the islands will always be self-supporting, and will, doubt- less, furnish a surplus of revenue with which to meet the demands for improvements which present them- selves in every part of the islands. The Philippine Archipelago is the only country in which can be produced what is known as Manila hemp, or what is called in the Spanish language "abaca" ... Of the forty-one provinces of the Philippine Islands, at least fifteen now produce commercial quantities of hemp. To-day, owing to the insufficient means of communication and trans- NATURAL RESOURCES. M3 portation, many fields of hemp are allowed to rot and are not stripped or used. In many of the provinces there is wild hemp which is not so good in texture and which it would be necessary to replace by cultivated plants were the opportunity offered to put it on the market. From experiments by our Agricultural Bu- reau, I have no doubt that the number of provinces in which hemp could be raised might be doubled. THE DEMAND FOR HEMP is so GREAT that while an increase in its prodviction might reduce the price, the total product would far exceed in value that which the sta- tistics now show. Many parts of the islands arc very rich in cocoa- nuts. ... In the province of Laguna within the last two years, since the war was over, there have been planted more than five times tiie number of trees w r hich were there before. There is a constant market for copra, which is the dried meat of the cocoanut, and the price is rising. Since the demand for hemp and cocoanuts has increased so largely planters have abandoned the raising of rice, preferring to buy their food out of the profit of the hemp or cocoanut indus- try. Therefore, for ten or fifteen years it has been the habit of the islands to import rice, although there are no islands where rice will grow to better advantage than in the Philippines. The amount of importation, however, was comparatively small until the destruc- tion of the draft cattle, three years ago, which re- duced the actual amount of rice production in the 544 THE PHILIPPINES. islands far below what was necessary to feed the peo- ple, and during the last year about $12,000,000, gold, had to be expended in importing rice from French China. The sugar and tobacco industries in the islands are CAPABLE OF A CONSIDERABLE INCREASE. The Island of Xegros contains sugar land as rich as any in the world, and the provinces of Cagayan, Isabela and Union, contain tobacco lands which, next to Cuba, produce the best tobacco in the world, but the trouble is that the markets for such sugar and tobacco have been, by tariffs imposed in various countries,* very much reduced. Should the markets of the United States be opened to the Philippines, it is certain that both the sugar and the tobacco industry would become thriving, and although the total amount of the product in each would probably not affect the American mar- ket at all, so extensive is the demand here for both tobacco and sugar it would mean the difference be- tween poverty and prosperity in the islands. I know that the reduction of the tariff for this purpose is much opposed by the interests which represent beet sugar and tobacco, but I believe that a great majority of the people of the United States are in favor of opening the markets to the Philippine Islands, con- scious that it will not destroy either the beet sugar or the tobacco industry of this country, and feeling that as long as we maintain the association which we now have with the Philippine Islands, IT is OUR DUTY TO TRADE RELATIONS. 645 GIVE THEM THE BENEFIT of the markets of the United States and bring them as close to our people and our trade as possible. Nothing else will justify the appli- cation of the coastwise trading laws to the trans- oceanic trade between the United States and the Phil- ippine Islands, but if they are invited to partake of the benefits of the protection theory, they may well be subjected to the rule that as between the United States and themselves the products are to be transferred in American bottoms. Another immense source of wealth in the islands is the ALMOST INEXHAUSTIBLE SUPPLY of the most beautiful woods, of rubber, and of the most valuable gums. These sources of wealth are hardly developed. And now what as to the existing trade between the United States and the Philippines. It is still quite small, not exceeding five millions in any one year of merchandise transferred from the United States to the Philippines, but increasing largely in the products transferred from the Philippines to the United States. The latter increase, however, is not a natural one. It is brought about by Congressional legislation already mentioned, which confers the bene- fit of $7.40 a ton rebate from export tax upon all hemp transported directly from the Philippines to the United States. The total business done between the United States and the Philippines is something like seventeen millions. With the restoration of normal conditions in the islands, with the construction of If 546 THE PHILIPPINES. railways and other material development, then I have no doubt that this trade between the United States and the islands would be trebled in the course of five years. The conditions with respect to the business of the United States merchants in the islands to-day are un- fortunate, and their cause can easily be traced. The Government of the United States went into the islands under a distinct promise that it would gov- ern the Philippines for the benefit of the Filipinos ; that it would EXTEND SELF-GOVERNMENT TO THE FILI- PINOS as rapidly as they showed themselves fit for it, and that as many Filipinos as possible would be used in the personnel of the Government. This has always been the attitude of the Government, and never, so far as I know, has there been a single step of de- parture from it. It was the attitude declared before the war of insurrection began, while it was pending, and at its close, and no resistance on the part of the natives has varied our position in that regard. This policy did not meet, as was natural, the ready assent of all the army or of those persons who were in sym- pathy with the army. The adventuresome spirits who followed the army for the purpose of establishing a business in its wake found that they had all that they could do to supply the demand made by the army for American goods, and as American capital came in driblets or in larger sums it was turned into the busi- ness of supplying the army with those things which THE LOCAL BUSINESS. 547 the Government did not supply. Four or five trading companies were thus organized, embracing substan- tially all the American enterprise that has appeared in the islands during the first three or four years of American occupation. American merchants thus situated easily CAUGHT THE FEELING OF HOSTILITY and contempt felt by many of the soldiers for the Filipinos, and were most emphatic in condemning the policy of the Government in attempting to attract the Filipinos and make them so far as might be a part of the new civil order. The American newspapers which were established readily took the tone of their advertisers and their subscribers, and hence it is that the American community in the Philippines to-day is largely an anti-Filipino community. The 75,000 sol- diers whose demands for supplies made their busi- ness so profitable, have now been reduced to 15,000, and the market which made the American merchants for a time independent of the Filipinos has now almost entirely disappeared. The condemnation by such merchants of the Civil Government continues, and they do not hesitate to make the Government the scapegoat for the failure of business to improve. The fact is that their customers have gone back to the United States and that their attitude towards the Fili- pinos is such that the Filipinos are not disposed to patronize them. This is unfortunate, and there must come into the islands a new set of merchants who shall view the situation from an entirely different stand- 548 THE PHILIPPINES. point. There are 7,600,000 Filipinos. Of these, the 7,000,000 Christian Filipinos are imitative, anxious for new ideas, willing to accept them, willing to fol- low American styles, American sports, American dress and American customs. A large amount of cot- ton goods is imported into the islands each year, but this is nearly all from England and Germany. There is no reason why these cotton goods should not come from America, except the fact that there are no American houses in the islands that have devoted their ATTENTION TO WINNING FlLIPINO TRADE. I am not a business man, but I know enough to assert that it is not the best way to attract custom from an alien people to call them names, to make fun of them, and to decry every effort towards their advancement and development. In other words, the American mer- chants in the Philippines have gotten off on the wrong foot. There should be a radical change. There are a few projected railroad lines in the Philippines which it would be possible to induce capi- tal to build without a guaranty of income, but it is wiser, it seems to the Commission, to attempt to in- troduce a general system of railways than to have a link built here and a link built there and to await the process of time before trunk lines shall be es- tablished. For instance, it is quite probable that a short line of forty or fifty miles would be constructed without a guaranty in the province of Legaspi, where is the rich hemp business and where it has been cus- THE t PROJECTED RAILROADS. 519 ternary during the last two or three hemp seasons to pay forty dollars Mexican a day for a carabao cart; so, perhaps, it would be possible to secure the con- struction of a line without a guaranty from Manila south to Batangas, though of this I am not certain. With the hope, however, of bringing capital in con- siderable amount to the islands, a bill has been pre- pared, which has passed the House, authorizing the Philippine Government to grant FRANCHISES FOB THE CONSTRUCTION OF RAILWAYS with a guaranty of in- come of not more than five per cent, on the amount actually invested for not exceeding thirty years. In most cases a guaranty of a less percentage would be sufficient, but my impression is that with respect to the main trunk line from Aparri to Manila, the diffi- culties of construction and the delay in securing a profitable business would probably require an as- surance of five per cent, dividends. The opposition of those who oppose the investment of any American capital in the islands which shall furnish a motive for a longer association between the two countries than is absolutely necessary may postpone the passage of the bill until the next session of Congress.* I shall deeply regret the delay, but I am not discouraged, for as long as I continue in my present position I expect * The Commission has been granted authority to make the contracts in question and construction will be com- menced upon the contemplated railroad system early in 1900. AUTHOR. 550 THE PHILIPPINES. . to press the legitimate claims of the Philippine Islands upon a just and generous Government for such authority in the local government as will permit a proper development of the material resources of the islands; and the delay in legislation, which is inci- dent, not to the opposition of a majority but to the opposition of a small minority, while it is apt to try one's patience, ought nevertheless not to discourage. I come now to THE QUESTION OF LABOR, which has been made the basis for the most discouraging ac- counts of conditions in the Philippine Islands. The Filipino is a tropical laborer. In times past a large amount of rice has been raised in the islands, a large amount of tobacco, a large amount of sugar, and a large amount of hemp, and they all involve, as a ma- terial part of the cost of their production, the labor of the natives. The Chinamen, who have been said by mistaken persons to number a million or a million and a half in the islands, in fact do not number 100,- 000, and none of them do any agricultural work of any kind in the Philippine Islands. The Filipino is naturally an agriculturist. When you go through his village in the middle of the day you will probably see him lounging about the window or on the seat in front of his house, and you will ascribe to him the laziest habits, because you do not know that he has been up at four o'clock in the morning and has worked from that time until nine or ten in the fields, and that he will begin work again at four o'clock and work THE LABOR QUESTION. 651 for two or three hours until sundown or later. The American merchant is loud in his denunciation of the insufficiency of the Filipino laborer. This is because the PRICE OF LABOR HAS PROBABLY DOUBLED since the Americans went there, and he has heard the tale of how cheap labor was before the Spanish regime ended. He also compared the cost of labor in the Philippine Islands with that in Hong Kong, and he finds that is very considerably less all over China. I am not contending that the labor in the Philippines is as good as Chinese labor, for that labor is the best in the world, probably, when economy in wages and effi- ciency in product are considered, but what I wish to dispute is that the labor conditions in the Philippines are hopeless. The city of Manila has under its con- trol, and in its employment, about 3,000 laborers, and they are paid all the way from fifty cents Mexican to $1.25 Mexican, and there is no complaint whatever on the part of the authorities that their work is not properly and well done. The Quartermaster's De- partment of the army has about the same number, and their reports of the efficiency of Filipino labor are exceedingly encouraging. We have now employed really as coolies on the Benguet Hoad in the most difficult drilling and construction work about 3,000 natives, and while their efficiency is nothing like that of the American, in the accomplishment of work in proportion to the pay, they probably get through about as much. The men who are constructing the harbor 552 THE PHILIPPINES. works at Manila The Atlantic, Pacific and Gulf Company have employed upwards of 800 to 1,000 Filipinos in their quarries. At first they found it very difficult to secure workmen, but now they HAVE MORE LABOR THAN THEY NEED. They US6 about eight per cent, of white foremen and the rest natives. They give to the natives houses, furnish a church, a band, a cock pit and a school. On their fiesta days they give them vacation. They have less desertions, less absen- teeism, than with Americans. These experiments only show that the solution of the labor problem in the Philippines is teaching the Filipinos how to work. Sir William Van Home reports that he found much difficulty originally in the construction of the Cuban railways because the natives were not acquainted with how the work should be done, but that by means of white foremen they were easily taught, and that then they made good laborers. I feel sure that the same thing will prove to be true of the Filipinos. There is doubtless a great deal of mineral wealth in the islands, but it will only be available after trans- portation shall have been introduced. It is not an island with a bonanza mine in it, though at some dis- tant day such a vein may be discovered there. There is CERTAINLY COAL IN THE ISLANDS in considerable quantities. There is now between the islands a con- siderable inter-island trade, and there are quite a large number of ships engaged therein. Without it the islands could not live ; it is their arterial circulation. CLIMATIC CONDITIONS. 553 The present system might be much improved by in- troducing American generous methods of dealing with the public. About two and a half millions of capital has been invested in a street railway in Manila, which will be completed next Thanksgiving Day.* This will certainly change one of the annoying and expensive features of Manila life, and will give to the residents of the city opportunity to cut down their present expense of living at least twenty-five per cent. There is no city in the world where there is so much traveling done in carriages, due to the fact that people may not walk about safely under the tropical sun. The presence of a street railway will do away with the necessity for many of these conveyances, and the streets will be less used and their condition much improved. There is a sufficient CONTINUOUS FALL OF WATEK IN STREAMS within practicable distance of Manila to fur- nish electrical power exceeding fifteen thousand horse power. With the high price of coal this is an im- portant aid to manufacturers. The English houses and the Spanish houses who have dealt in the export trade in the islands have earned large profits during the occupancy of the United States. It is said that the health of the islands is such as to preclude Americans from going there. This is not * It is now operating about thirty-flve miles of line in a highly satisfactory manner. AUTHOB. 554 THE PHILIPPINES. true. The climate does prevent one from going out into the sun in the middle of the day, and so prevents his working in the fields as a laboring man, but it is entirely possible for one to live in the islands for years, and if he does not neglect the ordinary rules of hygiene, to be free from bad health. The province of Benguet, which is 150 miles from Manila, and which will soon be reached by a railroad and an elec- tric road in twelve hours, offers a climate quite like the summer climate of the Adirondacks or of Canada. Under the land regulations, which go into force at the time of the adjournment of Congress, A SUMMER CAPITAL is TO BE ESTABLISHED at Baguio, and town lots in the same place will be offered at public auc- tion. Americans engaged in business may, at small cost, buy lots and erect houses and live there as many months of the year as they choose, except the months of August and September, which are usually so wet as to make it unprofitable. During remaining months of the year the climate is beautiful, the temperature going down as low as 35 degrees Fahrenheit, and rarely, if ever, reaching 80 degrees. It is estimated that not more than five millions of acres of land are owned by natives in the islands, and that the remainder, sixty-five millions, is owned by the Government. This remainder will, under the land regulations, be opened for settlement and purchase at the adjournment of the present session of Con- gress. There is every prospect that the land will be THE REQUISITE OF PROSPERITY. 555 taken up by both Filipinos and Americans. The maximum limitation for purchase by a company is 2,500 acres. This limitation is much too low for the cultivation of sugar, but is sufficiently extensive for the cultivation of other products. There is a pro- vision in the law by which irrigation companies may own stock in land companies, so that probably the lim- itation may be evaded if private profit requires. THE FUTURE OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS of COUrSC it would be dangerous to prophesy with certainty, but with a change in the hygienic conditions that surround life, due to an effective board of health, with a sup- ply of pure water from the sinking of driven wells all over the country, which the pending bill in Congress will encourage, I feel sure that the population will rapidly increase. We hold the Philippines for the benefit of Fili- pinos and we are not entitled to pass a single act or approve a single measure that has not that as its chief purpose. But it so happens, and it fortunately so happens, that generally everything we do for the benefit of the Filipinos and the Philippines will only make their association with the United States more profitable to the United States. I do not base my prayer for a continuance of the present policy toward the Philippine Islands on selfish grounds, but as this is the Chamber of Commerce, and as it is naturally interested in the possibilities of commerce in these dis- tant islands, I have felt justified in referring more 556 THE PHILIPPINES. than heretofore to the industrial conditions existing there and the possibility of improvement and the in- crease of trade between the United States and the Philippines. THE FIRST REQUISITE OF PROSPERITY in the Philip- pine Islands is tranquility, and this should be evi- denced by a well-ordered government. The Filipinos must be taught the advantages of such a government, and they should learn from the government which is given them the disadvantages that arise to everybody in the country from political agitation for a change in the form of government in the immediate future. Hence it is that I have ventured to oppose with all the argument that I could bring to bar the petition to the political conventions asking that independence be promised to the Filipinos. It is not that I am opposed to independence in the islands, should the people of the Philippines desire independence when they are fitted for it, but it is that the great present need in the islands is tranquility, the great present need in the islands is the building up of a permanent, well-ordered government, the great present need in the islands is the increase of the saving remnant of conservative Filipinos whose aid in uplifting and maintaining the present government on a partly popu- lar and strictly civil liberty basis, shall be secured. A promise such as that which is petitioned for cannot but introduce at once into the politics of the islands the issue of independence, of present fitness for self- THE BROADER POLICY. 557 government, and will frighten away from the sup- port of the present government the conservative ele- ment which is essential to its success, and yet which is always timid lest by a change bringing the violent and the irreconcilable to the front, they shall suffer by reason of their prominence in aid of the present government. The promise to give independence helps no one. THERE is NO NEED OF THAT PROMISE to secure tranquility because we have tranquility in the islands. It is certain to be misunderstood as a prom- ise to be complied with in the present generation, and if, as is probable, the people shall not be fitted for self- government in the present or the next generation, then the failure to give it will be regarded as a breach. Why not let the politics of the islands take care of themselves ? Why should the good people who signed the petition intermeddle with something the effect of which they are very little able to understand. Why not take the broader policy, which is that of doing everything beneficial to the Philippine Islands, of giving them a full market, of offering them an op- portunity to have railroads built extensively through the islands, and of having a tranquility which is essen- tial to the development of their business and their prosperity ; why not insist on the spread of the educa- tional system, of an improvement in the health laws, and subject everything that is done in the islands to an examination as to whether it is beneficial to the Filipino people, and then when all has been done 658 THE PHILIPPINES. for the Philippines that a government can do, and they have been elevated and taught the dignity of labor, the wisdom of civil liberty and self-restraint in the political control indispensable to the enjoyment of civil liberty, when they have learned the principles of successful popular self-government from a gradually enlarged experience therein, we can discuss the ques- tion whether independence is what they desire and grant it, or whether they prefer the retention of a closer association with the country which, by its guid- ance, has unselfishly led them on to better conditions. INDEX. INDEX Abaca, 47, 65. conditions of culture, 287- 89. e.\i tenses and profits of cultivation, 292-95, 542, 543, exj>ort trade, 259-62. habitat, 2X6. hemp districts. 286, 287. method of extraction, 289- 92. Aborigines*, ride Negritos. Abra. Province of, 33. Agno River, 30. Agriculture, 285-345. abaca. 286-95. cacao, 334-44. coffee, 323-30. copra and cocoanut oil, 311- 19. cotton. 297. 298. field for Americans, 351-53. Filipino laborers. 349-51. maguey, 296, 297. minor products. 344-47. primitive methods, 347-49. rice. 331-34. sugar, 298-301. tobacco, 301-10. Agusan River, 59. Albay, Province of, 47, 48, 388. Alcaldes. 182, 183. Ambos Camarines, Province of, 45, 46. American administration, 205- 29. administration of justice, 213. 214. autonomy. 517, 518. bonded indebtedness, 228, 229. American admin. Continued. census, 230-38. central government and leg- islative authority, 205-09. civil service, 215, 216. currency, 219, 220. education, 218, 219, 519-21. friars, 526-29. government of Manila, 227, 228. government positions, 217. health, 231. judiciary system, 523, 524. means of communication, 220, 221. navigation, 230. 231. popular assembly, 537. provincial and municipal governments, 210-13. public works, 521-23. review of, by Secretary Taft, 517-57. sources of revenue, 230. suppression of ladronism, 519. Apo Volcano, 60, 61. Audencia, 192-94. Bajaus, 105. Bamboo, 246. Banditti, 472. 473, 519. 525. Bataan. Province of, 37. Batangas. Province of, 42. 43. Bataan, Province of. 42. 43. Benguet. Province of, 34, 35, 278, 385, 387. Binondo. 410-12. Bohol. Island of characteristics of natives, 483, 484. physical features, resources, etc., 53, 54. 561 562 INDEX. Bohol, Island of Continued. population and area, 18. Siquijor, 484-8(5. uprising in, 154, 155. Bonded indebtedness, 228, 229. British invasion, 151, 152. Bulaean, Province of, 39, 40. Cacao, 334-44. cultivation, 335-37. expense and profits, 337-44. Cagayan, Province of, 32, 33. Kiver, 30. Carabno, 348, 349. 441-43. Cathedral, 402-04. Cattle-raising, 381-85, 478. Cavite, 397, 398. insurrection, 156, 157. Province of, 412. Cehu City, 479-82, 522. Cebu, Island of capital, 479-82. physical features, resources, etc., 54, 55. population and area. 18. proposed railroad, 57. uprisings in, 483. Census, 230-38. Chinese conflicts with, 145-47. costume and manner of life, 414, 415. expulsion of, 147. immigration, 144. influence on trade, 147, 148. invasion, 90, 97. Churches. 405. Civil service system, 115-17. Climate. 69-71. Coal. 44, 48, 387-89, Cock-fighting. 418-20. 453, 454. Cocoanut oil. 311-13, 468. Coffee, 67, 274, 275. culture, 323-26. in Benguet, 327-30, Commerce, 224, 241-81, balance of trade, 253-57. export trade, 257-75. internal, 466. .Manila's future, 423-26. Manila opened to foreign, 247. map, 42.1. Real Compafiia Filipinas, 244-47. trade with Mexico, 241-44. transportation, 276-81. Copper, 68, 385, 386. Copra, (56, 273, 274, 313-19, 468, Costumes, 412, 414. Cotton fiber, 297, 298. Cultivation, area of, 358, 359: vide various products. Currency system, 219, 220. Datos, rifle Moros. Dutch attack the Colony, 143, 144. Early inhabitants, 82-90. Earthquakes, 28, 29, 399, 400. Education of the Filipinos, 218, 219, 519-21. Elcano, Juan Sebastian, the first circumnavigator of the world, 122. Encomenderos, 113, 114, 181, 182. Export trade, 257-75, Fauna of the Philippines, 63, 64. Filipinos as laborers. 349-51, 550-52. character of, 90-100. education, 218, 219. fitness for self-government. 529-34. INDKX. 503 Filipinos Continued. home life, 435-41. pastimes. 448--70. Forestry regulations, 375-70. Friars, The attempts to Christianize Ja- pan, 140-42, 14!), 150. conflicts with civil authori- ties, 132-30, r.'JT. important services of, 137- 39. loss of influence. 130. 140. purchase of their lands, 221. 222. 528, 529. rise in power of, 129-32, 520. Gold. 40, 380. 387. Governors-general, 180, 181. (Juimaras. Island of. 407-r,. Lepanto-Bontoc, Province of, 33, 385, 387. Leyte. Island of industries. 480, 487. physical features, resources, etc., 53. population arid area. 18. proposed railroad, 53. uprising in, 155. Li Ma Hung invades the Phil- ippines. 120. 127. Lumber ride woods, commer- cial. Lumber industry, 309-70. Luzon. Island of descripive. 431-00. mountains. 21. physical features. 20-2. population and area, 18. provincial division of re- sources, 32-48. railroad extension, 49. rivers. 29-31. Magellan, early career of. 120. discovers the Philippines, 122 Maguey fiber. 296, 297. Maize. 345. Malayan migrations, 79-82, 491-93. 561 INDEX. Manila captured by British, 151. city improvements, 227. commercial future, 423-27. description of old and new, 391-422. harbor improvements. 225. map of, 401. map of proposed improve- ments, 413. municipal government, 210, 211. opened to foreign trade, 247. port improvements, 280, 281. suburbs, 41(5-18. Manila hemp, ride abaca. Marinduque, Island of physical features, resources, etc., 50. population and area, 18. Mariveles, 390, 397. Masbate, Island of cattle industry. 478. physical features, resources, etc., 51. population and area. 18. Mayon volcano. 28, 29. Mestizos, 414-16. Mindanao, Island of Basilan, 506-08. inhabitants, 493-506. Malay invasion, 491-93. physical features, resources, etc., 58-61, 491-508. population and area, 18. Mindoro, Island of physical features, resources, etc., 50. population and area, 18. refuge of criminals. 472. 473. Minerals, 46. 48. 58. 68. 69, 278, 385-89. Monteses. 465, 466. Moros characteristics and manner of living, 106-12. clash with Spaniards, 149. costumes and customs, 497- 99. datos, 501. depredations, 471, 472. government, 113. invasion of southern arch- ipelago, 491-93. juramentados, 499, 500. origin, 104. present tribes, 495-97. religion and superstitions, 502-05. social organization, 493-9.1. various tribes, 104-06. Municipal government, 189-92, 210, 211. Native uprisings, 152-57, 168- 72, 179. Negritos. 75-8. Negros, Island of physical features, resources, etc., 55, 56. population and area. 18. proposed railroad. 56. sugar industry. 473-75. Nipa, 346, 347. Nneva Ecija, Province of, 38. 39, 381-84. Nueva Vizcaya, Province of, 33, 381-84. Pacto de Biac-na-bate, 170, 171. Palace, 404. 405. Palawan, ride Paragua. Pampanga, Province of, 37, 38. Pampanga River, 30, 3-1. Panay. Island of capital, 466-71. INDEX. 565 Panay, Island of Continued. physical features, resources, etc., 50-8.. population and area, 18. proposed railroad, 57. Pangasinan, Province of, 35, 36. Paragua, Island of physical features, etc., 58. population and area, 18. Pasij: Kiver. 31, 308, 399. Pearl industry. 511-14. Philippine Archipelago agriculture. 285-345. climate, <)-71. conmierce, 241-281. cultivated area. 359, 360. early history, 119-57. fauna and flora, 63-5. forest lands, 361, 362. geographical i>osition of, 17. inhabitants, 75-116. islands contained In, 18. minerals, 68. physical features, 18-20. political, social and eco- nomic conditions reviewed in addresses of Wm. H. population, 112-16. public lands, 358, 359. rivers, 20. Taft (q. v.). 515-59. vegetable products. 65, Population, past and present, 112-16. Ports. 280, 281. 466, 479, 481, 511, 522. Postal system. 220. Provincial government, 184- 86. 211. 212. Public lands. 357. 358. 554, 555. Railroads. 30. 49. 52, 53 55 56, 57. 276-78, 248-50.' Revenue, 225, 541. Rice, 67, 255, 256. varieties, 331, 332. yield, 332-34, 543, 544, Rio Grande de Mindanao, 59, 60. Rizal, Jos