IT i I.TI rrTTTi SJL-JI"TTZI 
 
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 RADFORD' 
 
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 Complete Guide 
 
 of Architect's Office 
 
 e-Tracing 
 
 Detailing Lettering 
 Rendering- Designing' I 
 
 Classic Orders of Architecture r 
 
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 Radford's 
 
 Architectural Drawing 
 
 Complete Guide to Work o Architect's Office 
 
 Drawing to Scale Tracing Detailing 
 
 Lettering Rendering Designing 
 
 Classic Orders of Architecture 
 
 A COMPLETE AND THOEOUGH COUESE, CLEAELY WEITTEN 
 
 AND BEAUTIFULLY ILLUSTBATED; SUITED ALIKE 
 
 TO INDIVIDUAL STUDY AND CLASS 
 
 INSTEUCTION 
 
 Prepared under the Supervision of 
 
 WILLIAM A. RADPORD 
 
 President of the Radford Architectural Company, Editor-in-Chief of "Rad- 
 ford's Cyclopedia of Construction," "American Carpenter and Build- 
 er," "Radford's Details of Building Construction," etc. 
 
 Assisted by 
 
 LOEING H. PEOVINE, B. S. 
 
 Instructor in Architectural Engineering, Department of Architecture, 
 University of Illinois 
 
 and 
 
 ALFEED S. JOHNSON, A.M., Ph.D. 
 Editor in Charge Cyclopedia Department Radford Architectural Company 
 
 A Companion Volume to 
 BRADFORD'S MECHANICAL DRAWING" 
 
 THE RADFORD ARCHITECTURAL COMPANY 
 
 Chicago, 111.
 
 COPYRIGHT, 1912 
 
 BY 
 THE EADFORD ARCHITECTURAL COMPANY
 
 IV/V 
 
 Preface 
 
 CUFOft*iA 
 
 All that stands between thousands of practical 
 
 and builders in this country and a greater success is the 
 lack of facility in architectural drafting. Ambitious men, 
 both young and old, are turning to architecture the draw- 
 ing of plans as their big opportunity for advancement. 
 
 "Radford's Architectural Drafting" has been specially 
 written and illustrated to help these men to reach this goal. 
 It is practical, clear, direct. It goes straight to the point, 
 telling the learner what he wants and needs to know with- 
 out fuss, flurry, or theoretical nonsense. It is complete. 
 It is arranged in logical order for satisfactory individual 
 study. 
 
 The importance of neat drafting and lettering on plans 
 can not be overestimated. Architects rate their draftsmen 
 according to the way they do their work ; and the architects 
 are themselves judged by the way their drawings go out. 
 Careless drafting and amateurish lettering have more than 
 once lost for an otherwise good man a desirable job or a 
 nice commission. 
 
 This book, together with its companion volume, "Rad- 
 f ord 's Mechanical Drawing, ' ' has been prepared to furnish 
 ambitious men whether apprentices or experienced build- 
 ers, students in school or young draftsmen in offices a 
 practical, thorough, and satisfactory course in draftsman- 
 ship, drawing, sketching, rendering, and designing. One 
 who is already in the work can well begin with this Volume 
 2, the more advanced drafting and designing work as done 
 in the best architects' offices. Others should start with 
 
 
 
 Volume 1 and master the foundation principles of mechani- 
 cal drafting, the use of the drafting instruments, etc., 
 before proceeding with the architectural course. 
 
 o
 
 Table of Contents Volume I 
 
 MECHANICAL DRAFTING PAGE 1 
 
 The Draftsman's Outfit Instruments and Materials Testing 
 Instruments Use of Instruments Drawing to Scale Pencil- 
 ing and Inking Geometrical Constructions Approximations 
 Projection (Orthographic, Oblique, Isometric, etc.) Planes of 
 Projection Ground Line Quadrants Plans and Elevations 
 Direction of Oblique Lines ; Slope Profile Plane Auxiliary 
 Planes of Projection Intersection and Development Non- 
 Developable Figures Intersection of Planes Of Plane and 
 Curved Surface Of Plane and Cylinder Of Solids Visibility 
 of Lines of Intersection Development of Prism, Pyramid, 
 etc. Intersection of Cylinder and Prism Of Curved Surfaces 
 Approximate Developments Problems in Drafting for Con- 
 struction (Finding Miters, Developing Mouldings, etc.) Picto- 
 rial Drawing Perspective Projection Isometric Drawing 
 Non-Isometric Lines Isometrics of Cylinders, Cones, etc. 
 Oblique Projection. 
 
 WORKING DRAWINGS PAGE 145 
 
 Qualifications of the Draftsman Detail Drawings Assembly 
 Drawings Preliminary Sketches Requirements of Good Draw- 
 ings Explanatory Notes Conventional Lines Shade Lines 
 Blue-Prints Tracing Dimensioning Extension Lines Over- 
 All Dimensions Finished Surfaces Sections Cross-Hatching 
 Conventional Representations of Materials Lettering of 
 Drawings Spacing Drawings for Building Construction 
 Working Plans (Basement, First Floor, etc.) Structural 
 Drafting Solid and Built-Up Members Rivets and Bolts 
 Reading Drawings. 
 
 INDEX PAGE 186A 
 
 Table of Contents Volume II 
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING .... PAGE 187 
 
 General Requirements Negotiating with Owner Scale of 
 Drawings Changes in Plans Preliminary Sketches Per- 
 spective Sketches Competition Drawings Working Drawings 
 (General and Detail) Scale and Full-Sized Drawings The 
 Plan Layout of Rooms, etc. The Elevation Use of the 
 Orders Characteristics of Types of Buildings (Residence, 
 Library, Schoolhouse, Office Building, Warehouse, etc.) 
 Colonial Architecture General Composition Treatment of 
 Elevations Location of Openings Scale Details The Section 
 Full-Sizing Reproducing Drawings (Blue-Printing, White- 
 Printing, Hectograph Process, etc.) Tracing Cloth Architec- 
 tural Forms Conventional Symbols (Drain and Sewer Pipe, 
 Lighting, Heating, etc.) Sizes of Furniture Materials of 
 Construction Shades and Shadows Direction of Light 
 Shadows of Points, Lines, etc. Details of Construction 
 Cornice Floors Lath and Plaster Flashing and Counter- 
 Flashing Doors Porches Fireplaces Stairs Windows, etc. 
 
 SKETCHING; PEN AND INK RENDERING; WASH 
 
 DRAWING PAGE 298 
 
 Principles of Sketching Pencils and Paper Method Laying 
 Out a Drawing Rendering (in Pencil, in Ink, in Water-Color) 
 Wash Drawings. 
 
 ORDERS OF ARCHITECTURE; ARCHITECTURAL 
 
 LETTERING . . .... PAGE 317 
 
 Tuscan, Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, and Composite Orders 
 Entablature, Column, Pedestal Architrave, Frieze, Cornice 
 Column Details Units of Measurement Classic Mouldings 
 Forms and Proportions of Letters Spacing Titles and 
 Inscriptions Types of Letters for Various Uses. 
 
 INDEX . . PAGE 343
 
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 Architectural Drafting 
 
 It would be a commonplace to insist on the 
 advantage to all property owners and to all 
 classes of workers engaged in building construc- 
 tion, of a knowledge of the principles of archi- 
 tectural design. It is equally important that 
 they should know how to read and interpret 
 intelligently the working drawings that are the 
 guides to the details of actual construction, and, 
 if need be, to make these drawings themselves. 
 
 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS 
 
 The first impression given by a set of draw- 
 ings applies as well in Architecture as in any 
 other line of work. So often we hear it said, 
 "It certainly makes a good impression." Apply- 
 ing this same principle to architecture, let us 
 consider a few general requirements in order 
 to finish a set of plans in fhe best manner, and 
 also have them appeal to a person not familiar 
 with architectural work. 
 
 The drawings should be complete in every 
 respect. They should be fully dimensioned 
 with plain figures; all material plainly marked 
 by arrows; each room named, for the sake of 
 reference; and the various parts of the work 
 
 187
 
 188 ARCHITECTUKAL DRAFTING 
 
 carefully explained by explanatory notes. Make 
 these notes clear, concise, and with no mistaking 
 the part to which they refer. While the title 
 of each page may be lettered in a more elaborate 
 letter, make all explanatory notes plainly let- 
 tered. Drawings in general have but few notes 
 of explanation. Make it a rule to explain fully 
 all the questionable portions of a building. 
 This applies to the plans, as well as the eleva- 
 tions, sections, and details. In the arrange- 
 ment of notes, if there are those that do not 
 refer to any particular portion of the drawing, 
 place these notes over the sheet, to make it 
 well balanced. Do not try to crowd them into 
 one corner of the sheet or along one edge. Place 
 them where they will make the drawing as a 
 whole look the best. 
 
 Architectural drawings should have some 
 character to them; the lines should be firm and 
 straight, making them a full, even thickness. 
 Very often good drawings are spoiled by the 
 lines being very poor and also too faint. Use 
 a good, heavy line, and make it look as if it 
 was there for a purpose. 
 
 One way in which a drawing can be made 
 attractive and "snappy," as you will hear archi- 
 tects say, is to overrun all corners and inter- 
 sections of lines, slightly. In mechanical draft- 
 ing other than the work of the architects, it is 
 always required to stop the lines at the corners, 
 making the drawing exact and very mechan- 
 ical in appearance. The architect, however, is
 
 ARCHITECTUKAL DRAFTING 189 
 
 Tig. 1. Part Plan, Showing Method of Overrunning Corners.
 
 190 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 
 
 allowed some liberties in his work. He will 
 resort to methods, to improve the looks of his 
 drawings, which would not be permissible in 
 other work. 
 
 Referring to Fig. 1, it will be seen that the 
 corners and intersections are emphasized by the 
 overrunning of the lines. This does not mean 
 long lines past the corners, but just enough to 
 show a sharp intersection. A little practice will 
 soon enable a draftsman to do this work skil- 
 fully, and once this method is adopted it will 
 be used on all future work, as there is no com- 
 parison in the general attractive appearance of 
 two drawings, in one of which this method is 
 used, and in the other the strict mechanical 
 method is adhered to. The actual time con- 
 sumed in getting out a drawing is less with the 
 method described than with the true mechan- 
 ical drawing, in which it is necessary to start 
 and stop at exactly a certain point. In mechan- 
 ical drawing, it is frequently necessary, after 
 two lines at an angle have been drawn, to go 
 over the first line in order to continue it a short 
 distance to the exact corner. 
 
 Very often, a few minutes spent on careful 
 lettering, indicating materials, and an additional 
 explanatory note, will be the winning feature 
 of a set of drawings. 
 
 Too much emphasis cannot be placed upon 
 always being on time, whether in office work 
 or in getting out drawings. When a time is 
 set for the completion of any drawing, or a time
 
 ARCHITECTUKAL DKAFTING 191 
 
 of meeting arranged, have your work ready at 
 that time, and keep your appointment exactly 
 as arranged. Before setting a time of comple- 
 tion, be sure you are giving yourself time to 
 do the work completely, and then see to it that 
 your work is ready at that time. 
 
 The architect's services usually consist in 
 preparing the necessary studies or preliminary 
 sketches, working drawings, specifications, and 
 large-scale and full-size details, together with 
 a general supervision of the work. For this 
 service, there is usually a price based upon a 
 minimum percentage of the completed work. 
 This percentage varies in different States and 
 localities, from S 1 /^ to 7 per cent. As the work 
 progresses, or different sets of drawings are 
 completed, payments are made. If we consider 
 the architect receiving five per cent commission, 
 one-fifth the entire fee is due upon the com- 
 pletion of the preliminary sketches, two-fifths 
 upon the completion of the working drawings 
 and specifications, the balance being paid as the 
 work progresses. This percentage is based on 
 the total cost of the buildings. These prices are 
 those adopted by the Chicago Architects' Busi- 
 ness Association. Should work on the drawings 
 be abandoned, a charge should be made for 
 services for the amount of work done. 
 
 This will give an idea as to the general 
 prices charged, and the usual times of payment. 
 It does not pay to do work at a small percent- 
 age, for the work on the drawings and specifi-
 
 192 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 
 
 cations will necessarily have to be inferior and 
 incomplete. 
 
 The scales at which drawings are usually 
 made are % in., % in., y 2 in., % in., % in., 1% 
 in., and 3 in., to the foot. These are convenient 
 for all parties concerned. We see that by using 
 the first three scales we can use the regular 
 divisions on a rule, without having an architect's 
 scale. The last scales are also convenient for 
 the same reason. Take, for instance, a detail 
 drawn at 3-inch scale; then we see that 14 i^h 
 equals one inch, and an ordinary rule can be 
 used to advantage. On the actual construction 
 work, the foreman always uses his two-foot rule 
 for scaling the drawings; and if the above scales 
 are used, they are easily read from an ordinary 
 rule. 
 
 A complete set of drawings should include a 
 survey, or City Engineer's plan, of the lot, on 
 which the outline of the building is marked; a 
 foundation plan; a plan for each floor; a roof 
 plan; an elevation of each side of the house; 
 all necessary %-inch scale detail sections; all 
 necessary elevations of interior finish; large- 
 scale details of the window-frames and sash and 
 interior trim; and any other details of unusual 
 construction. After the contract is let, then 
 get out full-sized details. 
 
 Should any changes be necessary after the 
 drawings are completed, secure the owner's 
 written order for such changes. If everything
 
 AKCHITECTUKAL DEAFTING 193 
 
 is in writing, there can be no cause for dispute, 
 especially in the matter of changes. 
 
 METHOD OF GETTING OUT DRAWINGS 
 
 The prospective client, by appointment or 
 otherwise, meets the architect in his office. The 
 general scheme is talked over, and the various 
 subjects are discussed, such as the lot, location, 
 size, etc.; the amount to be put into the build- 
 ing, or the cost; the time of beginning and 
 completion; the owner's general idea of the 
 requirements; and the architect's fee. A time 
 is set for the getting-out of the preliminary 
 sketches. All of this information is arranged, 
 and entered in a book for future reference. 
 
 At the appointed time, the client appears 
 again, and the preliminary sketches are talked 
 over, changed, and revised, and any new infor- 
 mation is noted. After another visit or two 
 by the client, the sketches are accepted. The 
 working drawings are begun, usually made at 
 %-inch or 14-inch scale. These drawings are 
 carefully inspected by the head draftsman, num- 
 bered, dated, and signed. 
 
 These drawings are then reproduced by some 
 method usually blue-printed bound, and sent 
 to the contractors for bids or proposals on the 
 work. After the contract has been let, the full- 
 sized drawings are made.
 
 194 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAWINGS 
 
 Architectural drawings may be classified as 
 follows : 
 
 -p ,. f Sketches 
 
 J Perspective Sketches 
 Drawings [competition Drawings 
 
 Working 
 
 Drawings 
 
 fScaleDetails 
 
 Detail 
 
 [Full-Size Details 
 Preliminary Drawings 
 
 Preliminary drawings are small studies of 
 the proposed new work, freehand or otherwise, 
 at a small scale, finished in an attractive man- 
 ner. There are three classes of preliminary 
 drawings namely, Sketches, Perspectives, and 
 Competitive Sketches. 
 
 Preliminary Sketches. In architectural work, 
 no matter whether you are an architect dealing 
 with an owner or client, or a draftsman getting 
 out working drawings, it is always better to 
 make a preliminary sketch of the arrangement, 
 detail, etc., as it saves time and much erasing 
 and changing on the scale drawings. By pre- 
 liminary sketches we mean the sketching free- 
 hand on paper to show exactly just how you 
 will draw it with the T-square and triangles. 
 
 Let us consider the architect dealing with a 
 client. The first thing is an arrangement of the
 

 
 195 
 
 rooms, or the plan is first studied. For this 
 work, tracing paper will be found very easy to 
 work with and very convenient. The use of a 
 sheet of co-ordinate paper under the tracing 
 paper will be found very convenient. The 
 squares on the co-ordinate paper will serve as a 
 guide in drawing straight lines; and also the 
 squares as ruled on this paper can be used as 
 a scale one square representing one unit, as a 
 foot or an inch. 
 
 Very often the owner of the proposed new 
 building will have some scheme or arrangement 
 of rooms that he would like; therefore, try to 
 have him give you a rough sketch of such 
 arrangement; even a drawing with single lines 
 for walls, and cross-lines indicating windows, 
 will be very helpful. A drawing as shown in 
 Fig. 2 is just what you want from your client. 
 
 Having received either this sketch or a list 
 of the requirements, you are ready to start your 
 preliminary sketches. Spread down the co-ordi- 
 nate paper, and over this lay a sheet of tracing 
 paper. These may be held down with thumb- 
 tacks or weights of some sort placed on opposite 
 ends. Assume each square of the paper to 
 represent some unit, as one inch, or one foot, or 
 ten feet; and lay out first the property lines. 
 Then commence on the building proper. Make 
 no attempt at trying to make exact lines; let 
 these sketches be more of freehand drawing. 
 Mark off the approximate sizes of rooms by 
 rectangles, and try the various arrangements,
 
 196 AECHITECTUEAL DRAFTING 
 
 Fig. 2. A Single-Line Sketch Submitted, from which the Archi- 
 tect Gets an Idea of the Arrangement.
 
 AECHITECTUEAL DEAFPING 197 
 
 endeavoring to secure an ideal arrangement. 
 Make no attempt at trying to show double lines 
 for wall lines; let it be a free and easy sketch 
 of single lines. 
 
 Don't be satisfied with one arrangement of 
 the given requirements. Over this first sketch 
 lay another sheet of tracing paper. Perhaps 
 you can use some parts of the first sketch, and 
 revise other parts. Study your problem, and 
 be fully acquainted with the requirements. 
 After completing this second arrangement, try 
 to imagine difficulties that this arrangement 
 would present, and how they might be remedied. 
 Make another sketch; don't be satisfied until you 
 have made half a dozen different sketches. 
 After having considered all the possible arrange- 
 ments of the requirements, then take the 
 sketches, spread them all out before you, and 
 see if you have solved the problem. 
 
 Now commence with a clean sheet of tracing 
 paper over the co-ordinate paper, and make fin- 
 ished sketches; that is, lay out the wall lines 
 carefully, put in the windows and doors, letter 
 the rooms, and get these drawings into shape to 
 submit them to the client. Make them so that 
 he will understand clearly the arrangement you 
 have sketched. 
 
 For filling in the walls to indicate the walls 
 and the windows, it will help the appearance 
 to color the walls on the back side of the paper 
 with the pencil. This gives a subdued color to
 
 198 AECHITECTUEAL DRAFTING 
 
 the walls, and increases the clearness of the plan 
 or drawing. 
 
 Prepare small sketches of possible treatment 
 of the elevations, and submit these also with 
 the plan. These will now do for you to submit 
 to your client (see Fig. 3). Be very sure that 
 you have studied the problem thoroughly, and 
 be prepared to answer all questions your client 
 will probably ask. The client will very soon 
 form an opinion of your ability by the way 
 you handle his work. 
 
 When these first preliminary sketches are 
 ready, notify your client, unless you have had a 
 previous time of meeting set. If this be the 
 case, then be sure to have your work ready for 
 him at the appointed time. Remember, your 
 client is a busy business man, a man who is 
 always used to keeping his appointments, and 
 expects everyone to keep theirs. 
 
 After these first sketches have been sub- 
 mitted, and carefully gone over, make an ap- 
 pointment for the next meeting, at which time 
 you will have the final preliminary sketches 
 ready. There will always be changes and addi- 
 tions on these sketches; and the fewer times 
 the client has to be consulted, the better im- 
 pression you will make. Therefore, after this 
 first meeting, understand thoroughly your 
 client's objections and changes, ask questions 
 to make sure you do understand, and go back 
 to your office determined to make the revisions
 
 .^V;
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 
 
 199 
 
 Pig. 3. First Sketch Beady to Submit to Owner. 
 
 Original drawn at scale of %" = I'-O", all freehand and drawn on 
 
 co-ordinate paper.
 
 200 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 
 
 and that the next sketches submitted will be 
 approved. 
 
 For the next sketches, it is very often more 
 satisfactory to use the T-square and triangles, 
 and a scale, and make small, sketchy drawings. 
 Tack down your tracing paper, and lay out to 
 a small scale the general arrangement (Fig. 4). 
 Every little detail need not be attempted on 
 these sketches; but make them straight-line 
 drawings, using more care in the finishing of 
 such drawings. Make all plans necessary, show- 
 ing the arrangement on all floors; also an eleva- 
 tion. Make them attractive, and letter com- 
 pletely. 
 
 The next meeting with your client should be 
 the last one so far as the sketches are concerned. 
 Have him look over all your sketches closely; 
 go over them with him, pointing out the changes, 
 telling him the advantages to be gained by this 
 or that arrangement, and convince him that you 
 know your business. He will finally see things 
 your way, and he will tell you to go ahead with 
 the work. If you see he is satisfied with the 
 arrangement as shown him on the sketches, 
 secure if possible his initials of approval (in 
 ink) on each sheet. Don't ask him to "sign 
 these sketches," as if you were an owner and 
 he a lease-holder. If there is anything a busi- 
 ness man hesitates to do, it is to sign his name 
 to a paper of any kind. Use a little tact, tell 
 him that you want him to be perfectly satisfied; 
 and in order for him to be sure he is going to
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 
 
 201 
 
 tf/TCHZN 
 12.' 
 
 DINING QOOM 
 
 17'* 15' 
 
 n~oop PLAN 
 
 Fig. 4. Final Preliminary Drawing. 
 Drawn with T-square and triangles to scale.
 
 202 AECHITECTURAL DRAFTING 
 
 get the arrangement that suited him, he can 
 O. K. the sketches that he approves, and thereby 
 have a check on the working drawings so that 
 they will be sure to be what he wants. On the 
 other hand, you are protecting yourself by this 
 signature. Very often your client may forget 
 that he ordered this or that change in your 
 sketches; he might in some cases refuse to pay 
 you your agreed commission, because you did 
 not do this or that thing which he ordered. If 
 you have his signature on the sketches, and 
 you have followed these sketches exactly, you 
 will not fear the outcome should the case go to 
 law for settlement. 
 
 The same general method of procedure will 
 apply if you are a draftsman getting out scale 
 details. Get out freehand sketches on tracing 
 paper, several of them; decide which is the best 
 method before making the regular scale details. 
 If you are a new man in an office, submit your 
 best sketch for the construction to the head 
 draftsman, and let him see that you are studying 
 your work, endeavoring to get the best method. 
 Learn to make your sketches clear and well 
 executed. This comes only by practice in 
 sketching. 
 
 Much time and money can be saved on the 
 cost of getting out the drawings if only you 
 learn to make these sketches well and complete, 
 so that when you are ready to make the final 
 drawings, you can start and know definitely just 
 what they will include.
 
 AECHITECTURAL DRAFTING 303 
 
 It will be found very convenient to use a 
 soft pencil. Never use a hard pencil on your 
 drawings, no matter whether they are the 
 sketches or scale drawings. 
 
 It is very necessary for a draftsman to know 
 how to make preliminary sketches. Very often 
 a new draftsman's ability along architectural 
 lines is tested by these preliminary sketches, 
 their make-up, the method of getting them out, 
 and the time taken to get them ready. If a firm 
 finds out that you can make attractive and yet 
 practical preliminary sketches, you will soon 
 find out that you will not be required to serve 
 your time at tracing drawings or details, as most 
 draftsmen have to do upon entering a new office. 
 
 Perspective Sketches. A perspective is a 
 representation of a building or object as it ap- 
 pears from a fixed point. These sketches are usu- 
 ally drawn at a small scale, either freehand or 
 mechanically. The lines should be lightly drawn 
 or sketched, as strong lines will be objection- 
 able in the rendering or coloring of the drawing. 
 The rendering may be in pencil, ink, water- 
 color, or sometimes in crayon, and prepared 
 upon almost any kind of paper (see Fig. 5). 
 
 Competition Drawings. These are more or 
 less preliminary sketches. As a general thing 
 it is only occasionally that a firm enters a com- 
 petition; but if it should, let the draftsman show 
 that he knows how to prepare such drawings. 
 By competition drawings, we mean drawings 
 that are submitted in a competition. The firms
 
 204 
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 
 
 may be invited to submit competition designs, 
 in which case it is called a closed competition; 
 or the requirements may be published in some 
 
 Fig. 5. A Freehand Perspective Sketch. 
 
 architectural paper, and anyone may submit 
 drawings, in which case it is called an open 
 competition. The drawings submitted for the 
 open competition are more of the nature of 
 sketches than in the closed competition. Usu- 
 ally, in the closed competition, each firm invited 
 to submit drawings will be paid for their work 
 even though unsuccessful in being the winner. 
 There is generally a sum paid for such drawings. 
 Thus, in a closed competition, an architect is 
 paid for his time and can afford to get out a 
 better class of drawings. These are usually 
 drawn on regular drawing paper, carefully laid 
 out to scale, and all inked in. The sheet is then 
 water-colored and made as attractive as possible
 
 AECHITECTUEAL DRAFTING 205 
 
 in this manner. In other words, these drawings 
 are laid out as carefully, except at a much 
 smaller scale, as working drawings; only the 
 important dimensions are put on. 
 
 In the open competition, the work is usually 
 done on tracing paper. The plans are laid out 
 at a small scale, made very sketchy, and the 
 pencil is allowed much freedom in the lines. 
 With this sort of drawing, it is necessary to 
 study the requirements, make sketches, and 
 decide for yourself which answers the require- 
 ments the best. There will be no client to criti- 
 cise your work, but you will have to do this for 
 yourself and submit your sketches as final 
 sketches to the client. The first-floor plan is 
 laid out, and the surrounding premises are also 
 laid out. Trees and shrubbery also are put on; 
 and walks, drives, and gardens are shown. Since 
 this is on tracing paper, very little water-color 
 is used. Use the pencil to show everything, 
 and upon your ability to use your pencil and 
 a soft one, too will depend much of the success 
 of your drawings. After these sketches have 
 been made, they are lettered and titled attrac- 
 tively, and then mounted on cardboard. This 
 mounting is usually done by pasting the corners 
 only, and not attempting to paste the whole 
 drawing. Ordinarily, a border of some sort is 
 placed around the card, and any other finishing 
 touches that will make the drawing attract 
 attention are added. Thus we see that competi-
 
 206 AECHITECTURAL DRAFTING 
 
 tion drawings are only preliminary sketches 
 finished a little better than for the ordinary class 
 of work. 
 
 Should you be successful in the competition, 
 the method of getting out the working drawings, 
 scale details, and other drawings, is the same 
 as for any other work. 
 
 The chances are that you will rarely have a 
 chance to get out competition drawings; but 
 should the opportunity come, grasp it, and do 
 your best. 
 
 Working Drawings 
 
 By working drawings we mean drawings 
 complete in every respect, with dimensions, 
 sizes of rooms, etc. In other words, they are 
 the drawings giving all the necessary informa- 
 tion to completely build the structure as drawn. 
 This division of drawings may be divided into 
 general and detail drawings, the latter being 
 subdivided into scale and full-size. 
 
 The architect who is mindful of his client's 
 welfare will furnish a complete set of drawings, 
 The clearest, simplest, and most exact working 
 drawing is the best. Some architects feel that 
 working drawings do not require the best work. 
 The making of good, clear, complete drawings 
 cannot be emphasized too strongly. 
 
 The Plan. In the plan we see an arrange- 
 ment of the rooms for the different floors that 
 approaches the ideal as nearly as possible. The 
 plan should present the conveniences of arrange-
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 207 
 
 ment. In the following description we shall- 
 consider the plan of a residence, as it will clearly 
 set forth the logical arrangement of parts. The 
 description, as noted, will be limited to residence 
 work, since this class of building is likely to 
 afford a student his first opportunity for inde- 
 pendent, original work. 
 
 The same reasoning could be extended and 
 applied to any class of building. Usually the 
 first-floor plan is worked out first, as it is the 
 most important, since the greater part of the 
 day is spent in this portion of the house. The 
 upper floors, being used almost entirely for bed- 
 rooms or minor rooms, can be worked out to 
 conform to the outline of the first-floor plan. 
 The basement usually is devoted to the heating 
 apparatus and its accessories, the laundry, store- 
 rooms, and such. Therefore, the first-floor plan 
 will govern the outline of the basement walls; 
 and the basement rooms will be arranged inside 
 the basement walls, as determined by the first- 
 floor plan. 
 
 In residence work we see two classifica- 
 tions the city house and the country house. 
 The city house gets its sunlight from the front 
 and rear, being usually built in between adjacent 
 houses where there is no chance of sunlight from 
 the sides. A country house gets its light from 
 all four sides; that is, it is built in a part of 
 town where the lots are of sufficient width to 
 give plenty of light and air. The city house
 
 208 ARCHITECTUBAL DEAFTING 
 
 usually has a lot 20 to 30 feet wide, and it is 
 a question of the best arrangement for light as 
 well as comfort. The country house usually 
 has a lot 50 to 60 feet wide; and it is not un- 
 common to see a house built on two lots, giving 
 all the more room. 
 
 Let us, therefore, consider the first-floor plan. 
 Upon entering a residence, we usually step into 
 a vestibule. This room, while small and inferior, 
 yet is one of the most important rooms in the 
 house. The vestibule should be well lighted, 
 which can be done by means of glass in the 
 front door, by side lights along the sides of the 
 door, by a transom, and by glass in the door 
 leading into the living room. The vestibule 
 should be provided if possible with a closet (it 
 need not be large), in which a person's every- 
 day hats and wraps may be kept, also all rub- 
 bers and umbrellas. It is very evident that 
 this will be the first need upon entering a home 
 a place to dispose of one 's coat, hat, etc., before 
 entering the home proper. It is all the more 
 urgent in a mild, rainy climate. In case a closet 
 cannot be provided, there should be a seat with 
 a hiriged cover, and a stand for umbrellas, with 
 the usual furniture for holding the coats and 
 hats. This room, as already said, need not be 
 large, as usually not more than two people are 
 ever in the room at the same time. In some 
 residences there is no vestibule, but it is almost 
 a necessity in the best class of work.
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 209 
 
 From the vestibule, we now come to the 
 reception room. This room is usually large, with 
 but little furniture. The main stairway leads 
 up from one side of this room and is made quite 
 ornamental. The other side is usually open, 
 or separated by columns or grill-work from the 
 living room. At one end of the reception room, 
 one frequently sees a fireplace, more or less 
 elaborate. 
 
 Turning now to the living room, let us. study 
 the requirements of this room. Here is the 
 room the family will spend most of the time in. 
 Often one end is set apart for a nook or library. 
 There should be a large open room with a fire- 
 place of brick or stone or tile or other suitable 
 material, ornamental or plain, or the mantel may 
 be of wood. 
 
 Provide plenty of windows, especially on the 
 sunny side of the house. Nothing will dispel 
 gloomy feelings or worry quicker than plenty 
 of sunlight and fresh air. For the nook, if there 
 is one, build in shelves for books, put in a seat 
 with a hinged cover, also a fireplace. In this 
 room, the quiet hours of the day are spent; 
 therefore make it comfortable and convenient. 
 A very convenient arrangement is to place a 
 seat on one side, with bookshelves on the other; 
 also a few shelves at one end or above the seat, 
 for current books or periodicals. Provide a 
 plate-rail around this nook, for the placing of 
 china, ornaments, or bric-a-brac. 
 
 Opening from the living room we usually
 
 210 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 
 
 find the dining room, separated by sliding doors. 
 This room should be more or less private, but 
 by means of double doors it may be thrown 
 open when desired. In the dining room, build 
 in a sideboard, and provide a small shelf or two 
 for pretty china, vases, or ornaments. Back of 
 these shelves a mirror is usually set. A French 
 beveled-plate mirror is used in the best work. 
 There should be the " counter," or the main 
 shelf, projecting from two to six inches beyond 
 the shelves and drawers below. Below the 
 counter, provide a long drawer that will take 
 a table-cloth as folded when laundered. A 
 drawer for silver is also directly under the 
 counter. Below this, there may be either 
 drawers for other table linen, or shelves enclosed 
 by glass doors for displaying china or cut glass. 
 This sideboard should be made an attractive 
 feature of the room. There might also be an- 
 other case of shelves and drawers for additional 
 table linen and dishes. There should be a plate- 
 rail around the room, on which to hang cups or 
 to place china or ornaments. This room should 
 have, if possible, an east exposure, since the 
 first meal of the day should be served in a bright, 
 cheery atmosphere. 
 
 It will be necessary to have a serving pantry 
 between the dining room and kitchen. There 
 should be double-acting doors. This greatly 
 facilitates the carrying of dishes from one room 
 to another. In this pantry should be a wide 
 shelf or counter which will be used in the prep-
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 211 
 
 aration of the meal. Above are shelves with 
 sliding doors, and below are drawers for differ- 
 ent articles of food. Provide always plenty of 
 drawers and shelf room. In a small room, 
 sliding doors will be found much more con- 
 venient than swing doors, as they are much more 
 easily handled and take up much less room in 
 opening and closing. If possible, there should 
 be built in this room a refrigerator. If not here, 
 place it in the kitchen. This refrigerator should 
 be provided with an outside door through which 
 the ice may be replenished from the outside, 
 thereby doing away with the ice man coming in 
 at all hours and in bad weather tracking mud 
 into the house. 
 
 The kitchen, while in the rear of the house, 
 requires careful thought. The housekeeper 
 usually spends the greater part of the morning 
 here; therefore give this room, if possible, an 
 east exposure. Make the windows low enough 
 so that a person sitting can see out. For the 
 kitchen table and sink, have a window near. 
 This will not only be an aid to better light, but 
 will give the housekeeper a chance to see out 
 through the window. Place a sink as near the 
 pantry and dining room as possible; also, as 
 mentioned above, so as to be near outside light. 
 In the kitchen will be found a cooking range or 
 gas stove, or both. Place these, if possible, 
 where they will get a cross-draft; in other 
 words, place them between a door and a window, 
 or between windows, so that the odor during
 
 212 AKCHITECTUKAL DRAFTING 
 
 the preparation of a meal will be carried away. 
 Of course there is necessary a flue for the range, 
 and there should also be one for the gas stove 
 to carry off the odors of the gas and the ovens. 
 The kitchen table should be convenient to the 
 stoves. There should be built-in shelves and 
 cupboards for the kitchen-ware and the pots and 
 kettles. Either in the serving pantry or some- 
 where in the kitchen, provide a tilting bin for 
 the flour. This can be very easily done by 
 making the bin pivoted at the outside corners, to 
 allow the bin to tilt out. Hooks or pivots for 
 swinging a barrel of sugar would also be a great 
 convenience. Do not make the kitchen large; 
 make it small, compact, and convenient, to save 
 the housekeeper all unnecessary steps. There 
 will also be necessary rear stairs, one to the 
 basement and one to the attic. These stairs 
 should be about 3 feet 6 inches wide, as boxes, 
 furniture, etc., are all taken up or down these 
 stairs ; so do not make them too small. 
 
 Having decided upon a satisfactory arrange- 
 ment of the lower floor, we now consider the 
 upper floors. These are devoted to the bed- 
 rooms and other rooms where more privacy is 
 desired, such as the sewing room, the study, or 
 the nursery. As has been said, the first-floor 
 plan determines the outline of the second-floor 
 plan. The number of bedrooms is determined by 
 the size of the family. There will be required 
 also a guest room and a servant's room. 
 
 As to the requirements of a bedroom, make
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 213 
 
 ample-sized rooms. The usual articles of furni- 
 ture will be the bed, a dresser, a chiffonier, a 
 small table, and sometimes a writing desk or 
 an additional table of some sort. Provide plenty 
 of closet room, with a window, if possible, in it. 
 In the closet should be a number of shelves, a 
 hook strip around the three sides. The closet 
 should be finished, so far as plaster and inside 
 finish are concerned, as well as the other rooms. 
 The question of closets is important; therefore, 
 consider them an essential part of every house. 
 On the second floor provide a bathroom con- 
 venient to all rooms, yet far enough away from 
 the main hall to be private. The bathroom is 
 usually crowded into any remaining space that 
 may be left after bedrooms have been consid- 
 
 c 
 
 o 
 
 Fig. 6. Layout of a Very Small Bathroom. 
 
 ered. This, however, is not a satisfactory way 
 of doing, since the bathroom should be as con- 
 venient in arrangement as any other room. In 
 the bathroom the usual necessary fixtures are 
 a bathtub, a lavatory or wash-bowl, and a water- 
 closet. In more expensive homes a foot-bath 
 and a sitz bath are provided; sometimes a 
 shower bath also. There should be ample room 
 for the placing of these fixtures, with plenty of
 
 214 
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 
 
 room around them. In Fig. 6 is shown the 
 smallest room that can accommodate the neces- 
 sary fixtures. While this will serve in the 
 cheapest houses, yet the arrangements shown in 
 Figs. 7 and 8 are much better. 
 
 Should more fixtures be added, the room 
 
 Fig. 7. Fig. 8. 
 
 Two Plans of Commodious Bathrooms. 
 
 should also be made larger to accommodate 
 them. There will also be required a medicine 
 chest, usually built into the wall directly above 
 the lavatory, or these can be bought at furniture 
 stores, ready to hang on the wall. There should 
 always be a mirror in the door of this chest. 
 Provide a built-in closet with swing doors for 
 the upper half and drawers for the lower half. 
 The finish of this room, as well as the shape of 
 the mouldings, should be such that the dust will 
 not easily settle on them, and that they may be 
 frequently washed to remove any accumulation 
 of dust. 
 
 In most homes, the two main floors are all 
 that are required for living rooms. The attic 
 is usually low, and can be fitted up with store-
 
 n\ \ 
 
 $: 
 
 u
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 215 
 
 rooms. The construction of the roof should be 
 such that soot and dirt cannot come through. 
 This is ordinarily accomplished by using build- 
 ing paper under the shingles or roof covering. 
 There should be an attic stairs, convenient and 
 easy of ascent. 
 
 For the basement, the furnace will require a 
 part of the space, together with a coal room. 
 This coal room should be built dust-tight, and 
 have a window convenient to a driveway for 
 the unloading of coal. The size of coal room for 
 different classes of coal, is indicated below under 
 the heading "Dimensions." There should be a 
 laundry with laundry tubs, or a room where the 
 family washing may be done. The remaining 
 space in the basement may be divided to suit 
 the owner's wishes; sometimes a work-room, a 
 store-room, a drying room, a shop, may be placed 
 here. 
 
 It is very essential to have a concrete floor 
 over the entire basement. This will do away 
 with a great deal of dirt and dust that otherwise 
 would be carried from the basement all over the 
 house. There should be an outside entrance, 
 as well as an entrance from the kitchen or 
 serving room. 
 
 Thus we see the usual requirements for the 
 different rooms of the house. The essential 
 rooms have been considered. In addition to 
 these, if the price will warrant it, there may be 
 other rooms and conveniences, such as a den 
 or study, additional store-rooms, an extra guest
 
 216 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 
 
 room, a nursery, a pantry off the kitchen for 
 storing the supplies of the kitchen. A clothes- 
 chute would be very convenient also. This chute 
 is a vertical shaft connecting the bathroom with 
 the laundry in the basement. There is a door 
 into this chute at the bathroom, and one on the 
 first floor. It should be lined with wood, with 
 the pieces placed vertically to offer no obstruc- 
 tions to the passage of clothes. The purpose is 
 evident, being a means of conveying the soiled 
 linen from the second and first floors to the base- 
 ment, and thereby saving carrying them from 
 all over the house in a basket to the basement. 
 
 In summing up this portion of the work, let 
 the draftsman put in all conveniences in the way 
 of cupboards, shelves, and drawers wherever 
 there is a space, corner, or portion of a wall. In 
 this way you make a favorable impression upon 
 the housekeeper, and if this is done, the " battle 
 is more than half won." 
 
 Fig. 9 is a first-floor plan, showing the 
 arrangement, the dimensions, and all necessary 
 information to give the builder a complete 
 understanding of the work. 
 
 The Elevation. Having considered briefly 
 the general methods used in the drawing of 
 architectural plans, we shall now consider the 
 elevations. By elevations we mean the different 
 " views" of the building. These should show 
 exactly the appearance of the building wheD 
 completed. 
 
 Use of the Orders. It will be assumed that
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 217 
 
 the reader is familiar with the Orders of Archi- 
 tecture (see below under heading " Orders of 
 Architecture"), and that he knows the names 
 of the various parts of an Order. 
 
 From a study of the Orders, we see that each 
 one has three main divisions, the entablature, 
 the column, and the pedestal. These are in turn 
 divided into parts, the entablature consisting of 
 the cornice, the frieze, and the architrave; the 
 column has a capital, a shaft, and a base or 
 plinth; and the pedestal, a cap, a die, and a base. 
 Generally speaking, an elevation especially the 
 principal one shows these component parts of 
 an Order. They may not be classically correct in 
 proportions, but the parts are more or less 
 prominent, and should be used as a basis for 
 design of all classes of work. 
 
 Let us take a residence for an example. 
 Study an elevation of a good type of this class 
 of building. We see that the basement wall up 
 to the first-floor line corresponds to the pedestal 
 of the column, a strong, massive part to support 
 the building above. This pedestal is usually 
 capped by a projecting course we call a water- 
 table that is, a board or strip projecting from 
 the face of a wall to turn the water from the 
 side of the building away from the foundation. 
 This corresponds to the base or plinth of the 
 column. Above the water-table, the part of the 
 house extending to above the top story windows 
 corresponds to the shaft of the column. Very 
 often this column effect is emphasized by means
 
 218 
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 
 
 f FINIM<; Moon 
 *1 
 
 Tig. 9. First-Floor Plan of a Residence at Champaign, 111. 
 The scale reproduced is valid only as referring to the original-sized 
 
 drawing.
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 219 
 
 of corner boards at the corners of the building. 
 At the head of the top windows, or in that vicin- 
 ity, we see a horizontal board or moulding, mark- 
 ing the division between the column and the en- 
 tablature. Sometimes this entablature is divided 
 by another moulded course, indicating the 
 frieze and the architrave. There is always a cor- 
 nice of some sort, very often corresponding to 
 the cornice of the Order; this may vary from the 
 true profile to a small projection, such as a few 
 projecting courses of brick. 
 
 In the modern office building we see the lower 
 stories marked by a projecting stone course; 
 below this, the walls are of stone, and usually 
 present a solid, substantial base upon which rests 
 the upper part of the building. The column is in- 
 dicated either by pilasters or column-like projec- 
 tions from the main face of the building, or by a 
 three-quarter column fastened to the building. 
 The upper stories, depending upon the height of 
 the building, are placed in the entablature. 
 
 It is worth while to study this feature in all 
 classes of building, in order to design intelli- 
 gently. 
 
 Thus we see that the Orders of Architecture 
 are really the basis for all our designs. This same 
 applies to any type of building, being more 
 marked in some classes of buildings than others. 
 The Colonial residence or Colonial Architecture 
 adheres strictly to this basis of ornament. If de- 
 tached or free columns are used for porch con- 
 struction, then we see the component parts of
 
 220 AKCHITECTUKAL DKAPTHSTG 
 
 the Order carried out exactly. Therefore, in any 
 building, use the Order to start the general ele- 
 vations, and elaborate or suit the elevation to the 
 class of building. 
 
 Characteristics of Types of Buildings 
 
 Let us now consider the general types of 
 buildings for different purposes. The residence, 
 for instance, usually has the appearance of a 
 quiet, restful place. The types of doors, win- 
 dows, and roof lines are in general similar, there 
 being large windows and plenty of them. Resi- 
 dences thus constitute a class marked by well- 
 known and easily distinguishable general char- 
 acteristics. 
 
 Consider a library. We see here a closer ad- 
 herence to the Orders than in many other types 
 of structure. Usually there is a pillared entrance 
 of some form or other; the windows are all large 
 and dignified. The roof is covered with tile or 
 some other more expensive covering. In general, 
 libraries are a dignified class of buildings, easily 
 distinguished as such, and usually quite costly. 
 
 In schoolhouses we see a class of buildings 
 with large areas devoted to windows, not usually 
 of very great height, and with a tower of some 
 outline. There may be large, blank walls, w r hich 
 make this class of buildings all the more distinct. 
 
 The office building generally has numerous 
 windows, not usually grouped but placed one 
 above the other, and is rather plain in treatment 
 except at the cornice.
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 
 
 231 
 
 The warehouse forms another excellent ex- 
 ample of the exterior indicating the purpose of 
 the building. In this type, we see small windows, 
 some barred, with heavy doors, showing it to be 
 a building of great strength and fire-resistance. 
 
 Thus endeavor, in designing any building, to 
 make it indicative of the purpose for which it is 
 designed. Study carefully from examples or 
 from pictures these characteristics, and apply 
 these principles to designs you may submit. 
 
 General Composition of a Building or Treat- 
 ment of Elevations. A few words about the gen- 
 eral composition or elevation of a building might 
 be said. There are a few principles involved 
 that will be an aid in deciding upon the charac- 
 ter of the elevation. 
 
 Fig. 10. Illustrating Method of Treating Elevations. 
 
 In A, vertical lines are emphasized, adding to the appearance of 
 
 height; in B, emphasis is laid on the horizontal lines, 
 
 adding to breadth and length of structure. 
 
 The adjoining buildings will sometimes have 
 a certain influence upon the treatment of the 
 elevation. Should the new building be placed 
 between two buildings taller and larger in every 
 way, then some means to increase the general 
 height must be used. Should there be plenty of 
 room and the buildings on either side be far
 
 222 
 
 AKCHITECTUKAL DRAFTING 
 
 enough away so that they will not be seen or in- 
 cluded in the general view of the new building, 
 then the design may be anything in keeping with 
 good design. If the present buildings are large 
 and massive, covering a good deal of ground, 
 then we shall treat the new elevation correspond- 
 ingly. In Fig. 10 are shown the results, on the 
 same building, of different treatments of eleva- 
 tion. In A we see vertical lines emphasized, as 
 they tend to increase the height. Such a treat- 
 ment of the elevation should be used if the loca- 
 tion were between two taller buildings. In B on 
 the other hand, the horizontal lines are empha- 
 sized. There is the sill course or water-table at 
 
 I 
 
 A B 
 
 Pig. 11. Two Typical Methods of Treating Windows. 
 
 the first-floor line; then a belt course about the 
 second-floor line, and a course at the attic line. 
 These tend to lengthen the general appearance, 
 and would be in keeping as mentioned above for 
 the third condition. In A, we see that the cor- 
 nice is made smaller; while in B, the eaves are
 
 AECHITECTUEAL DEAFTING 223 
 
 given a greater projection, thereby giving an- 
 other horizontal line. A and B are exactly the 
 same size in plan and also in height to the eave 
 line ; yet there is no mistaking which appears the 
 taller. 
 
 This is the fundamental principle in the de- 
 sign of an elevation. Having then this start for 
 the elevation, carry out the same principle in the 
 windows, either grouping them and keeping 
 them low, for the design B; or else use single 
 windows with a pier or wall space between. Very 
 often, if the ceilings are high enough, windows 
 may have a transom bar and transom, thereby 
 increasing the height. In the treatment around 
 the windows, for B, we shall use merely a cap of 
 some kind with no vertical lines ; while for A we 
 shall make use of an outside trim with a cap. 
 See Fig. 11. 
 
 In all our designs, it has been attempted to 
 emphasize either the vertical lines or the hori- 
 zontal lines. This is but one the most impor- 
 tant one, however of the points to consider as 
 to the general character of the elevation. The 
 purpose of the elevation is to give an effect that 
 will be pleasing to the eye, and at the same time 
 fulfil the requirements of the plan as to the ar- 
 rangement of windows and story heights; and 
 very often it will make the property more valu- 
 able. For, consider two residences offered for 
 sale at the same price, with the same surround- 
 ings. One has been built with no idea as to design 
 or relation to the surrounding buildings; the
 
 224: AECHITECTUEAL DRAFTING 
 
 other has been treated to correspond with the 
 existing conditions, has been made attractive by 
 the arrangement and style of windows, and the 
 cornice has been designed to give a certain ef- 
 fect to the other parts of the design. There is no 
 question which would be the best investment. 
 Work, then, with this end in view, as if it were 
 your own builidng, and you wanted it to be the 
 very best for the money. 
 
 In drawing the elevations, usually each side 
 of the house is shown on the drawings. The front 
 elevation is made the most complete. The owner 
 wants to see how his building will look when 
 completed; therefore show the materials. If the 
 walls are shingled, indicate by lines that there 
 are to be shingles not by covering the entire 
 front with perfectly regular, mechanical lines 
 representing the shingles, but with patches here 
 and there over the entire front. Indicate by ar- 
 rows and lines, similar to dimension lines, where 
 the shingles are to be used. Indicate the brick 
 of the foundation above grade the same way. 
 Show the type of windows you expect to use; 
 show the correct profile or outline of the cornice; 
 the general design of the front door and the 
 porch and steps; indicate the glass in the door, 
 whether double strength, plate, or beveled-plate 
 glass. In short, make this front elevation com- 
 plete, so that an owner can see just the materials 
 used, where used, and just how the building will 
 look from the front. Very often the stairs are 
 dotted on this elevation to show just how they go
 
 AKCHITECTUEAL DEAFTING 
 
 225 
 
 up to the next floor above; but this is not to be 
 recommended, as it detracts from the general ap- 
 pearance of the elevation, and there are other 
 and better methods of indicating stairs, as ex- 
 plained later. 
 
 Very often there will be a small section of the 
 house on the same sheet with the front elevation. 
 
 ! iii U_AJ 
 
 ' ' ' 
 
 Fig. 12. 
 
 I}. *rd ( =^=ri-.---_-=!| 
 
 .4 
 
 Front Elevation of a Residence at Champaign, 111. 
 Outline emphasized. 
 
 This is used to give the heights of the floor-lines, 
 the window lines, and the cornice lines, and not 
 for showing of details. This is not objectionable, 
 as the section is a separate drawing entirely from 
 the elevation, and will give a means of showing
 
 226 
 
 the above data without marking them directly on 
 the elevation. 
 
 Too much emphasis cannot be laid upon the 
 method of finishing the front elevation. A little 
 time and careful work spent on this drawing will 
 very often confirm a favorable impression on the 
 owner. The style of letter used and the arrange- 
 ment on the sheet should all tend to make the 
 drawing attractive. 
 
 As a final touch, it will be found very desir- 
 able, after the elevation is complete, to outline 
 the building with a heavy line, thus emphasizing 
 the general outline of the building, while the 
 other lines are all uniform but lighter (see Fig. 
 12). 
 
 The side and rear elevations should also be 
 complete in that they should show the exact ma- 
 terials used and the exact size and spacing of the 
 openings; but they need not be so carefully 
 drawn nor so carefully lettered as the front ele- 
 vation, since they are more or less a secondary 
 consideration. 
 
 The location of openings should be studied 
 with the idea of the general effect on the eleva- 
 tion, as well as on the necessary arrangement for 
 the rooms. In other words, do not locate all open- 
 ings on the plans definitely without studying the 
 elevations also. Be sure that the openings are 
 correctly located on the elevations so that the 
 plans and elevations will agree, and not merely 
 put on the elevations where they look the best 
 without any reference to the plans.
 
 AECHITECTUEAL DRAFTING 227 
 
 To sum up, make the elevations true pictures 
 of the building when completed; indicate the ex- 
 tent of all materials ; study the design, making it 
 typical of the class of building in hand, and make 
 it complete in every respect. 
 
 Scale Details 
 
 The Section. Having completed the plans 
 and elevations, it will be necessary to make large- 
 scale sections through different parts of the 
 building. A section should be shown through 
 every portion of the building that is of different 
 construction from others. These sections are 
 usually of a larger scale than the plans and ele- 
 vations. 
 
 In Fig. 13 we see the method of drawing and 
 finishing these details. A scale very convenient 
 for use is three-quarters of an inch equals one 
 foot (or, as it is often called, a "three-quarter- 
 inch" scale). The purpose of these sections is to 
 show exactly how the building is to be put up 
 the method of supporting the cornice on the 
 plate; the roof sheathing and covering; the con- 
 struction of the gutter, with all materials named; 
 the ceiling joists and method of support on the 
 outside wall; the lath and plaster; the wall 
 sheathing and siding or shingles; the picture 
 mould; the detail of the inside window trim; the 
 base around the room; the second-floor construc- 
 tion, showing size of joists and method of sup- 
 port on the wall; the composition of the floor, 
 whether double or single, or any paper between
 
 o 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 P 
 
 a
 
 230 
 
 the floors; the lath and plaster of the ceiling be- 
 low; the details of the window construction, trim 
 and stool or inside sill; the base around the room; 
 the method of supporting the frame wall upon 
 the basement wall; the water-table; the thick- 
 ness of the basement wall; the level of the ground 
 on the outside; the basement floor inside; and 
 the footing. 
 
 Use plenty of dimension lines and explana- 
 tory notes. In dimensioning story heights, al- 
 ways give from finished floor-line to finished 
 floor-line, or from floor to ceiling; never dimen- 
 sion the thickness of the floor construction. In 
 other words, referring to Fig. 13, we shall get 
 into trouble by trying to specify exactly the 
 thickness over all. This should be left without 
 a dimension, by showing the plaster, noting the 
 size of joists, and showing the floor, whether one 
 or two thicknesses, let it come what it will. The 
 thickness of the plaster will vary slightly; a 2- 
 inch by 10-inch joist is not 10 inches deep; 
 neither is a floor of two thicknesses 2 inches 
 thick. Thus we see it is rather an uncertain di- 
 mension. 
 
 A sheet is usually devoted to these details. 
 Sometimes as many as half a dozen different sec- 
 tions are drawn for a residence, each showing 
 differences in construction. 
 
 Be very careful to note on the plans just 
 where each section is taken, and put correspond- 
 ing letters on the title for the section. The use 
 of notes and plenty of them cannot be urged too
 
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 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 231 
 
 strongly. The small working drawings are very 
 unreliable as to details; and consequently the 
 more details, the better the contractor will un- 
 derstand just exactly what he is to furnish, and 
 will therefore be able to figure the more closely. 
 These details, well executed, will prevent many 
 disputes between contractor and architect, and 
 between architect and owner, as well as save the 
 "extra" bills from the contractor which are sure 
 to arise from incomplete drawings. 
 
 Cross-hatch or cross-section all sections or 
 materials that are cut in two, using some stand- 
 ard symbol, as elsewhere indicated, on the draw- 
 ings. This makes a much better looking draw- 
 ing, and makes it much easier to interpret. 
 
 To indicate further the general treatment of 
 the interior finish, the rooms having anything in 
 the way of a paneled wainscot, beamed ceiling, 
 or finish around a fireplace, also the sideboard, 
 cupboards, and pantry fittings, should all be 
 shown. The best and perhaps the most com- 
 mon method is to draw at one-quarter-inch scale 
 the different elevations of the rooms, showing 
 exactly the height, width, and any features of 
 unusual arrangement. Should opposite sides 
 of a room or any sides be similar, "after putting 
 the title on one drawing, note under it: "Oppo- 
 site, north, south, etc., sides similar." There 
 is usually one sheet of just such drawings as 
 this to accompany the regular set of drawings. 
 Since plans are usually submitted to competitive 
 contractors, there is not the chance of one pro-
 
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 Fig. 
 
 234
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 235 
 
 posal or bid being lower than another because 
 certain things were overlooked or purposely 
 omitted. 
 
 In Pig. 14 we see drawings of elevations and 
 sections of various portions of a living room and 
 dining room, giving all necessary information. 
 
 Pig. 15 illustrates completely the drawings 
 necessary to show a pantry and butler's pantry. 
 
 Full-Sizing. After the contract has been 
 awarded, the general working drawings will 
 have to be supplemented by drawings of differ- 
 ent portions of the work at a large scale. Usu- 
 ally these are drawn at actual or full size. In 
 order to have your profiles and outlines made 
 just as you intended, this method of drawing 
 all parts of construction at the actual size is 
 imperative. 
 
 Take an example. You wish the plate-rail 
 in the dining room made just so. Then you will 
 have to draw this part of the work the actual 
 size. If you do not do this, the contractor will 
 put in a plate-rail of a stock pattern; that is> 
 he will select some pattern that he can buy from 
 a planing mill, and will use this. It is the 
 cheapest way to do, for him; therefore you can- 
 not blame him for saving anything he can, if 
 the exact style is not definitely shown. 
 
 In full-sizing, it will be well for the drafts- 
 man to be familiar with the usual method of 
 doing things, making his details practical as well 
 as indicating the profile. The cornice should be 
 shown; the interior finish; the method of mak-
 
 236 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 
 
 ing the window-frames; all unusual woodwork; 
 the construction of the beams for a beamed ceil- 
 ing; all sheet-metal work, such as gutters, 
 cornices, etc.; all stonework, such as water-, 
 tables, window-sills, and door-step; all plaster 
 work, such as ornamental cornices, and method 
 of supporting under unusual conditions. You 
 will hear it asked: "Why is it necessary to spend 
 all this time detailing, when the contractor or 
 the planing mill have their own way of doing 
 these things!" There is just the point. They 
 certainly have a way of doing things; but nat- 
 urally their way is the cheapest way; therefore, 
 give them details of how you want this work 
 done, and see that it is done your way. Dimen- 
 sions on full-size details are unnecessary. 
 
 Fig. 16 is a reproduction of a sheet of full- 
 size details. 
 
 A word might be said as to the method of 
 getting out these details. The drawing is first 
 made on detail paper, a heavy yellow paper. A 
 soft pencil should be used, as it makes the lines 
 more distinct and is easily changed or erased. 
 After the drawing is completed on this paper, 
 then use a cheap, thin paper, and trace through, 
 using a broad, heavy line and colored crayon for 
 cross-sectioning the sections of the work. Yel- 
 low is generally used for wood, red for brick, 
 green for stone, blue for iron or steel, and brown 
 for terra-cotta. A second tracing is also made. 
 Thus we have three copies of each detail one 
 for filing in the office for future reference, and
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 
 
 237 
 
 CEILIMC BEAM 
 
 Fig. 16. A Sheet of Full-Sized Details
 
 238 AKCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 
 
 two for the contractor. One of the copies made 
 on tracing paper is usually kept in the office, 
 since it can be folded up to a convenient size and 
 filed, the original and one copy on thin paper 
 going to the contractor. 
 
 REPRODUCING DRAWINGS 
 
 The question of the method of reproducing 
 drawings is an important one as to cost and 
 time consumed. New methods are being adver- 
 tised on the market every day. 
 
 Blue-Printing. The blue-print process is the 
 commonest, and generally speaking the cheap- 
 est. There is a chemically prepared paper which 
 is sensitive to the light. The paper is treated 
 with a solution of citrate of iron, ammonia, and 
 red prussiate of potash, and is placed in a dark 
 room to dry. The drawing has previously been 
 prepared on tracing cloth or paper. When the 
 blue-print paper is dry, place the drawing, face 
 down, on a sheet of glass, usually held in a 
 wooden frame; over this, lay the blue-print 
 paper, with the sensitive side down; over this, 
 place a layer or two of soft cloth similar to 
 Canton flannel, and over this place a board 
 backing. 
 
 Turn the frame over now, and expose to the 
 sunlight for a few minutes, depending upon the 
 intensity of the sunlight. After exposure, 
 remove the blue-print paper, which has turned 
 to a dark bronze color, and place it in a tank of 
 water. Gradually the print comes out in white
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 239 
 
 lines, leaving the background blue. These white 
 lines were directly under the ink lines of your 
 drawing, and the sun therefore could not attack 
 that portion of the paper. Hence the water 
 washed off the blue-print solution, leaving the 
 white paper. 
 
 A little experience will soon teach how long 
 to expose in different kinds of weather. Prints 
 may be made on cloudy days, and have some- 
 times been made even during a mist. The expos- 
 ure, of course, must be much longer on such 
 days. The prints from such exposures are not 
 so clear, distinct, and "sharp-cut" as those made 
 on bright days. When possible, avoid making 
 blue-prints on dark days, if you expect the best 
 results. 
 
 Paper for blue-printing can be procured 
 ready to use, from dealers all over the country, 
 at a nominal cost. This is machine-prepared, 
 and is more satisfactory than home-made. 
 
 Blue-prints are hard on the eyes, and, having 
 a blue background, cannot be dimensioned, 
 noted, or to any great extent changed. Should 
 small alterations be necessary on the blue-print, 
 use a solution of common soda and water with 
 a pen. This is not very satisfactory, but in cases 
 where changes are necessary it will do. 
 
 White-Printing. From working drawings, 
 white prints can be made. This kind of print 
 is just the reverse of the blue-print. Here we 
 have blue lines on a white background. In order 
 to make white prints, a negative first has to be
 
 240 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 
 
 made from the drawing. The paper used for the 
 negatives is specially prepared and exposed and 
 washed in the same way as blue-prints. When 
 washed and dry, it is a real negative, on which 
 all pencil lines are white and the background is 
 black so as to exclude the sun all the reverse 
 of the drawing. This negative is then used by 
 placing it over regular blue-print paper. The 
 sun passes through the white lines, and is 
 excluded from the rest by the black background. 
 Upon washing the blue-print paper, the lines 
 having been exposed to the sun are changed to 
 blue ; and the background, not having the sun on 
 it, is washed off, leaving the white paper. 
 
 This process makes a much better looking 
 drawing than a blue-print, and is not so hard on 
 the eyes. The cost is a little higher, on account 
 of the negative ; but after the negative is made, 
 the cost is the same as for blue-prints. 
 
 Aligraphy. Another process, known as 
 Aligraphy, has been patented. By it, drawings 
 can be reproduced on linen or paper, and the 
 lines are practically as black as the original. 
 They closely resemble etchings. For very fine 
 work, this process makes splendid reproduc- 
 tions; but it is more expensive than any of the 
 processes above mentioned. 
 
 Hectograph Process. Another common 
 method of reproducing drawings is the hecto- 
 graph process. This consists in making the 
 drawings with suitable aniline inks, and then 
 placing them face-down on a gelatine pad. After
 
 AKCHITECTUEAL DKAFTING 241 
 
 being in contact for about two minutes, they are 
 removed, and blank paper is brought in contact 
 with the pad, being in turn removed. It will be 
 found to give a complete drawing similar to the 
 original in scale, color, etc. Upwards of thirty- 
 five copies may be taken off, depending upon 
 the intensity of the original. 
 
 The pad may be made as follows : 1 part of 
 white glue to 5 parts by weight of glycerine. 
 Soak the glue over night, in just enough water 
 to cover it. Bring to the boiling point slowly, 
 without burning; then add the glycerine, and 
 thoroughly mix. Pour into a shallow pan; 
 remove all air-bubbles from the surface with a 
 stiff card; and allow to cool. Before using each 
 time, wash thoroughly with a sponge and allow 
 to dry partially before applying the drawing; 
 also wash well immediately after using, to 
 remove all traces of ink. 
 
 The proportions may be varied slightly for 
 different climates. A cold climate will require 
 more glycerine, and a warm climate more glue. 
 The pad should be stiff enough to resist pressure 
 from the fingers when firmly pressed upon it. 
 
 Other additional ingredients are sometimes 
 used. Perhaps they have their advantages ; but 
 the mixture as described has been used very suc- 
 cessfully. Often, in very hot weather, after a 
 pad is made, it may seem too soft to work well. 
 In such a case, placing the pan on a cake of ice 
 will harden the mixture and make it satisfac- 
 tory.
 
 242 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 
 
 A cheaper pad may be made by using a mix- 
 ture of a special clay and glycerine. While not 
 giving so many prints as the glue pad, it can 
 be used more economically for large drawings. 
 Hectograph pencils may be had in many colors, 
 which are used for making full-size details. 
 These drawings are copied in the same way as 
 the regular pen-and-ink drawings. 
 
 The hectograph process is gradually gaining 
 in favor, and in some localities it is used exten- 
 sively. It has several features to commend it : 
 
 (1) All materials can be represented in appropriate 
 colors. 
 
 (2) Copies are very cheap, and can be made on paper 
 or prepared cloth. 
 
 (3) The draftsman finds it convenient when making 
 revisions, as parts of the drawing can be cut out and a 
 correct portion inserted. No matter how badly the 
 drawing is cut and patched, the prints are perfect. 
 
 (4) In assembling different drawings on a sheet, they 
 may be shifted at will, and a better arrangement secured. 
 
 (5) When a sheet is composed of small drawings, the 
 draftsman may work over the small drawings more com- 
 fortably than if compelled to work on a large sheet. 
 
 The hectograph process, however, has some 
 drawbacks, which may be indicated as follows: 
 
 (1) Small details cannot be shown so clearly, as the 
 lines must be quite heavy if a number of prints are 
 required. 
 
 (2) The drawings fade mor* or less if exposed to a 
 bright light, but they are permanent enough for most 
 work. 
 
 (3) Some draftsmen do not like to use the inks, as
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 243 
 
 they are sticky and soil the fingers. This, however, should 
 apply only to the inexperienced. 
 
 Hectograph inks may be purchased of dealers 
 everywhere, in all colors. Below are suggested 
 colors for various sections of materials : 
 
 Purple For lines in general, outlines, profiles, etc.; 
 also for sections of plaster, and concrete. 
 
 Red For dimension lines, and for sections of brick- 
 work. 
 
 Blue For iron, steel, flashing, etc., in section. 
 
 Brown For sections of terra-cotta. 
 
 Green For sections of stone or marble. 
 
 Yellow For wood. 
 
 For the blue-print process, the drawing to be 
 reproduced is preferably done on tracing cloth, 
 on the rough side, in black ink. Erasures may 
 be made on this, and the work corrected; but 
 the finished drawing has to be complete in every 
 respect, as every line is reproduced just as 
 drawn. 
 
 For the hectograph process, we shall need to 
 make the lines much heavier, and may use 
 colored inks. Mistakes cannot be erased, but 
 are cut out, and a new piece of paper placed over 
 the hole, and the drawing continued. 
 
 Tracing cloth makes the most satisfactory 
 material all around for the original drawing. It 
 is translucent or semi-transparent, will make 
 good prints by almost any process, and is much 
 more desirable than paper for filing away and 
 for constant use in the drafting room. 
 
 The use of colored inks is not to be recom-
 
 244 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 
 
 mended. They make the tracing look very 
 pretty, but they print very poorly, some shades 
 of green being hardly visible on the blue-print. 
 Red reproduces very faintly, and when this color 
 is used for dimension lines they should be heavy. 
 Black is the most serviceable color to use. In 
 steel detailing, the entire drawing is done in 
 black even dimension lines. 
 
 ARCHITECTURAL FORMS 
 
 Having considered the general method in the 
 drawing of architectural plans, we shall now 
 consider some of the general forms employed to 
 represent different parts of the work. 
 
 Conventional Forms and Symbols. First 
 there must be some adopted form for represent- 
 ing materials. It will be found throughout the 
 country, that each architectural firm has its own 
 architectural forms and symbols. This is rather 
 confusing, since it requires a draftsman chang- 
 ing offices, or Building Departments checking 
 plans, to become familiar with the symbols as 
 used by each office. 
 
 In Plate A are given some general forms for 
 representing materials. 
 
 Fig. 1 represents brick. A section of a brick 
 wall should be sectioned as shown, by parallel 
 lines at 45 degrees, slanting down to the left. It 
 might be well to repeat here what has been said 
 about the use of colored inks for drawing. 
 Except for dimension lines, avoid the use of 
 colors. The materials may be indicated as shown
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 
 
 245 
 
 BPICK 
 
 BUBBLE STONE 
 
 CUT STONE. 
 
 TQf2A COTTA 
 
 F/G.s 
 
 FtG. 6. 
 
 WOODEM PARTITION - 
 LATHED AND PLA,STRED 
 
 nnlnnlnn 
 
 JU UU UU 
 
 . 7- 
 
 B&ICK WALL- FUQ&ED, 
 L.ATHED AND 
 
 F/G. 8. 
 
 3. 9. 
 
 SOL.ID PL-ASTCK PART- 
 ITION - lLASTEfZ.D. 
 
 Plate A. Conventional Symbols for Representing Materials on Ar- 
 chitectural Drawings.
 
 246 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 
 
 by varying the texture of the line and also by 
 different forms of dotting. 
 
 Fig. 2 We use alternating lines solid and 
 dashes at 45 degrees to represent rubble stone 
 such as is found in most basements. 
 
 Fig. 3 We use solid lines running at 45 
 degrees to each other and in opposite directions, 
 to represent cut-stone work such as sills for 
 windows and doors, chimney caps, and any kind 
 of finished or dressed stone. 
 
 Fig. 4 represents concrete. This symbol is 
 composed of small, wavy lines, with occasional 
 triangular shapes to represent the stone. This 
 symbol may be used to represent the concrete 
 such as would be used in a solid wall or 
 reinforced concrete for floors and other similar 
 constructions. 
 
 Fig. 5 illustrates the method of showing 
 terra-cotta. This is the same as for brick, with 
 the lines running in the opposite direction. 
 
 For representing an interior partition of a 
 frame building, the method shown in Fig. 6 is 
 perhaps the most satisfactory. Plaster is repre- 
 sented by parallel lines to opposite sides of the 
 wall. 
 
 Very often, in fireproof buildings, partitions 
 are built of hollow tile and plastered on both 
 sides. Fig. 7 illustrates the method of indicating 
 such a partition. 
 
 Where a brick wall is furred on the inside and 
 then plastered, we use the ordinary symbol for
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 247 
 
 the brick wall, and show the plaster away from 
 the wall, as in Fig. 8. 
 
 Very often, instead of using the partition as 
 shown in Fig. 7, it will be built up solid of plaster 
 2 inches thick with a layer of expanded metal 
 imbedded. This partition is shown in Fig. 9. 
 It will be found a very satisfactory partition, 
 requiring less floor space, and equal in every way 
 to any other fireproof partition. 
 
 On the basement plan, various lines of pipe 
 should be shown. There should be a porous tile 
 drain, in damp soils, all around the outside of 
 the basement walls, at the footing line. Such 
 drains are constructed of porous farm tile, laid 
 with butt joints and no cementing of any kind. 
 The tile being porous, the water in the soil perco- 
 lates through the walls of the tile, and is carried 
 away. These drains are indicated as shown in 
 Plate B. 
 
 For the sewer connections inside the build- 
 ing, and extending at least six feet outside the 
 basement wall, the pipe should be cast-iron and 
 have calked joints. Such pipes are shown on 
 the basement plan as in Plate B. Connected to 
 this cast-iron pipe outside the basement wall, a 
 vitrified tile drain should be used, with cemented 
 joints. Such pipe is also shown in Plate B. All 
 these pipe lines should be shown in black on the 
 drawing. 
 
 There are certain lines used in a drawing for 
 reference, such as axis lines that is, when a 
 room or building is symmetrically arranged
 
 248 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 
 
 POQOUS TILE. DQA/NS. 
 
 /GO/V PIPE DQA/NS. 
 
 P/PE. 
 
 THE. ABOVE. SHOULD BE SHOWN WITH &LACK L/NES. 
 
 AXIS LIN ES (BED). 
 
 BUILDING LINES (QD). 
 
 DOTTED L./NES FOG GENE.QAL 
 
 /&-0" 
 
 < 
 
 D/MENS/OM L/NES (USUALLY RED WITH 
 
 BLACK AQ&O 
 
 Plate B. Conventional Methods of Representing Drain and Sewer 
 Pipe, Axis Lines, Building Lines, Dimension Lines, etc.
 
 AECHITECTURAL DRAFTING _ 
 
 around a center line. In order to make such 
 axis lines distinct from general lines, they are 
 usually made as shown in Plate B. 
 
 When there are offsets or projections on a 
 wall, such work is measured from certain lines 
 established as building lines (see Plate B). 
 Usually the outside wall line of the first story is 
 taken as this reference line; and the basement 
 wall line, the second-story line, the eave line, 
 etc., are all measured as projecting from this 
 line. 
 
 All dimension lines are to be noted as shown 
 on this same plate, in which the arrow-heads 
 are black, the connecting line is red, and the 
 figures are in black, always above this line. This 
 is the best practice, though sometimes dimen- 
 sions are placed in the center of the line, the line 
 being stopped to allow the figures to be inserted. 
 This method takes more time and is not so 
 practical, since the dimension line is broken and 
 in some cases there might be a dispute as to just 
 how much the dimension is intended to include. 
 
 For lighting, there are standard symbols 
 adopted by the National Electrical Contractors' 
 Association of the United States. These are 
 published on a card convenient for reference, and 
 copies may be had by applying to the Secretary. 
 Another form of symbols has been adopted by 
 the Boston Society of Architects, copies of which 
 may also be had on application. The latter sym- 
 bols are shown on Plate C. These are given for 
 convenience in laying out plans, and are not
 
 250 
 
 AECHITECTUEAL DEAFTING 
 
 This Specification is based upon the. </a* of the. following symbol* 
 
 and of such others as may 6e usdd and explained an the Plant. 
 
 
 LEGTGIC 
 
 QAS 
 
 COMBINATION 
 
 CEILING OUTLET 
 
 yfv^ 
 \1/ 
 
 +r 
 
 & 
 
 WALL OUTLET 
 
 i /fy 
 | \u 
 
 1^,2. 
 
 1 Op . 
 
 FLOOR OUTLET 
 1 Ligh+: 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 BASE OUTLET 
 
 ga 
 
 '-*- 
 
 -H- 
 
 SWITCH 
 
 -C-- - n 
 
 otted Lino. jAo*vt S**it*,t 
 
 
 PUSH BUTTON @ BANK OF BUTTON 5 E3 
 
 BELL ANNUNCIATOR r^\ 
 
 CABINET f*^ 5PE.AKING TUBE \-$ 
 
 HOUSE TELEPHONE, r^l PUBLIC TLEPHONE jft. 
 
 HEIGHTS OF 5TOBIES - TOP TO TOP 
 
 I*T FT IN. 2."- . FT IN- 3" FT IN. 4- 
 5 r " FT. IN > FT IH 7 T " T. I* 8 
 9 FT. IN. tO r " FT IN. /I" F X T ,N. \2 
 
 ITT FT //v. 
 * FT. IN. 
 r " FT IN. 
 r FT. //V. 
 
 HEIGHTS OF CNTCR OF WALL OUTLETS. 
 
 i/n/djf of-harn'/je Jptci/ScJ. 
 
 L/V//VG GOO"MS- S-&" OFF/CES- S'- O" 
 CHAMBE.f3S- 5-O" COfZRIDOQS- 6'~3" 
 HEIGHT OF 5W/TCHES~t//ess otherwise. spe.cifi*,</ - 4-'-O' 
 
 Plate C. Standard Symbols for Representing Fixtures, Electric 
 Outlets, etc. 
 
 Adopted by the Boston Society of Architects.
 
 ARCHITECTUBAL DEAFTING 
 
 251 
 
 intended to be complete in every respect. It is 
 essential to show the location of the light outlets 
 in all rooms; also whether they are to be gas, 
 or electric, or a combination of both. Push- 
 buttons, bells, and telephones are also indicated. 
 If these locations are not shown, the contractor 
 for this work will naturally place them in a posi- 
 
 I 75 * jo 
 
 Fig. 17. Conventional Symbols for Heating Apparatus. 
 A Steam or Hot-Water Radiator; B Hot- Air Register. 
 
 tion requiring the least amount of pipe, wire, 
 etc. Therefore show all of these fixtures, and 
 there can then be no dispute as to the true intent 
 of the plans and specifications. 
 
 For the heating, about all that is necessary is 
 to show the location of the registers or radiators, 
 marking the number of square feet of radiation 
 on each radiator. The usual method is shown in 
 Fig. 17 (A) for steam or hot water, and in Fig. 
 17 (B) for hot air. The specifications should 
 
 Fig. 18. 
 
 Conventional Representation of Flues for Air Supply 
 and Ventilation.
 
 252 
 
 AECHITECTUEAL DEAFTING 
 
 describe the kind of heat, and go into detail 
 about pipe, fittings, etc. 
 
 In hospitals, public buildings, and school- 
 houses, where there are a number of occupants 
 in each room, it will be necessary to furnish a 
 fresh-air supply, also a vent flue. These are all 
 figured, and should be located conveniently. 
 
 Fig. 19. Sketch Plan Showing Arrangement of Furniture. 
 
 The method of figuring the correct location for 
 such work will be considered under "Heating 
 and Ventilating." The conventional method of 
 showing flues for air supply and ventilation is 
 show r n in Fig. 18. 
 
 For furniture, certain conventional forms are 
 used, and shown on all plans. The furniture of 
 the bedrooms and bathrooms is usually laid out 
 on the plans, since these are usually made as
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 253 
 
 small as practicable; therefore the furniture 
 and fittings are laid out to make sure that there 
 will be room to get them all in. This applies to 
 the cheaper classes of houses, for in the larger 
 and more expensive residences the rooms are 
 always amply large to accommodate all the fur- 
 niture and fittings desirable. In Fig. 19, a bath- 
 room and bedrooms are laid out, the furniture 
 being indicated by numbers, (1) representing 
 the lavatory or wash-bowl, (2) the closet, 
 (3) the bathtub, (4) the bed, (5) the chiffonier, 
 (6) the dresser, and (7) a table or writing desk. 
 See also Fig. 20. 
 
 Sometimes a client has furniture he wishes 
 to put into a new home. It will be found very 
 convenient to get the dimensions of such furni- 
 ture, and cut out pieces of cardboard the exact 
 sizes of this furniture according to the scale of 
 the plan. Then lay them on the plan as drawn, 
 and see how they will fit wall spaces, nooks, etc. 
 By this method, pieces can be arranged, and it 
 will very soon be shown whether or not the 
 rooms will accommodate the furniture. This 
 will be found very convenient in all classes of 
 work (see Fig. 20). 
 
 Below are given the dimensions of some of 
 the common pieces of furniture. These sizes 
 will vary somewhat, but in general they will 
 be accurate enough in laying out work. 
 
 Dining Tables 3 ft. 6 in. to 4 ft. wide, and to extend 
 to 10 ft. to 12 ft. by extra leaves, and 2 ft. 5 in. high. 
 Writing Tables 2 ft. 6 in. high.
 
 254 
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 
 
 Fig. 20. Plan Showing Method of Laying Out Furniture and 
 
 Bugs. 
 
 Carving Tables 3 ft. high. 
 
 Ordinary Tables 2 ft. 6 in. high. 
 
 Beds, Single 3 ft. 6 in. wide ; 
 
 Beds, Three-quarter 4 ft. to 4 ft. 6 in. wide ; 
 
 Beds, Double 4 ft. 6 in. to 5 ft. wide. 
 
 All beds should be 6 ft. 8 in. long inside. 
 Dressers 1 ft. 6 in. to 2 ft. by 3 ft. 5 in. 
 Couches 2 ft. 6 in. by 6 ft. 8 in.
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 255 
 
 Chiffoniers 2 ft. by 3 ft., and 4 ft. 6 in. high. 
 
 Sideboards vary according to design, 4 ft. to 6 ft. long, 
 and from 2 ft. to 2 ft. 2 in. deep. 
 
 Pianos, Upright, vary, being usually 3 ft. 3 in. by 6 ft. 
 6 in. long, and 4 ft. to 4 ft. 9 in. high. 
 
 Bookcases 10 in. to 16 in. deep, any length and height. 
 
 Chairs and Seats Usually 17 in. high at front, 16 in. at 
 back, and the seat is usually 17 in. high by 16 in. inside ; the 
 back, from 1 ft. 6 in. to 1 ft. 8 in. high, slightly inclined 
 at the top. 
 
 For plumbing fixtures, consult any plumbing cata- 
 logue. The washstand varies, 18 in. deep by 2 ft. long 
 being about the minimum. The bathtub varies from 3 ft. 
 6 in. to 4 ft. 6 in. long, about 1 ft. 11 in. high above the 
 floor, and 2 ft. wide across the rim. Closets are about 
 1 ft. 4 in. wide, and about 2 ft. from the wall. 
 
 Kanges 26 in. to 30 in. by 36 in. by 42 in. 
 
 Ranges, Gas 26 in. by 34 in. 
 
 Lunch Counters Height, 3 ft. 3 in. 
 Stool, 2 ft. 2 in. 
 Counter projects 9 in. and is 2 ft. 
 
 2 in. wide. 
 
 Foot-rest, 7 in. high and 9 in. from 
 counter. 
 
 Urinals 26 in. to 30 in., center to center. 
 
 Rugs 4 ft. 6 in. by 7 ft. 6 in. up to 11 ft. 3 in. by 15 ft. 
 
 The above dimensions are only general, but 
 will be of assistance in laying out the furniture 
 of a house. 
 
 MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION 
 
 There will be found a great variety of materi- 
 als for the construction of buildings, nowadays. 
 In some localities, one material will be used 
 more than others; for instance, in the vicinity
 
 256 
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 
 
 L-v 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 - ~~ 
 
 CONCfttTE.. 
 
 Fig. 21. Elevation of a Porch. 
 See also Figs. 22 and 23.
 
 AKCHITECTUKAL DEAFTING 
 
 257 
 
 -14= 
 
 'i>ALLJ 
 <--S-\ 
 
 '-- s ;.- .-'. i )-".-:-.v ' 
 
 ^ '.' oo Nc'ac-jc. Ll^'''C.<f- i 
 
 '" i' - ' 
 
 Fig. 22. Porch of Fig. 21 Fig. 23. Porch of Fig. 21 
 
 Detailed for Stone Construction. Detailed for Wood Construction.
 
 258 ARCHITECTUEAL DEAFTING 
 
 of a stone quarry, stone will usually be cheaper 
 than anything else even in some cases cheaper 
 than wood. Should your client be interested in 
 a brick concern, brick would undoubtedly be 
 used. In a locality where timber is cheap, that 
 material would be largely employed. 
 
 For the cheaper class of work, we find wood 
 to be the cheapest material, although, within the 
 past ten years or so, wood has advanced in price 
 at a great rate. The kind of wood used will 
 vary with each locality. In some sections espe- 
 cially the South yellow pine will be used; in 
 our Western States, fir and local varieties will 
 be selected. An architect in a new locality, 
 therefore, should become familiar with the local 
 woods used, and should govern his work, such 
 as spans of beams, interior finish, etc., by these 
 conditions. The use of terra-cotta for the facing 
 of masonry walls, for ornamental courses, cor- 
 nices, and window-sills, is quite common. Since 
 this is a product made of clay, properly mixed, 
 moulded, and burned, it can be treated as plainly 
 or as elaborately as the design of the building 
 warrants. Terra-cotta, of course, is used only 
 with masonry, such as brick, stone, or concrete. 
 
 Fig. 21 shows the elevation of a porch, and 
 Fig. 22 shows this porch detailed for stone con- 
 struction; while Fig. 23 shows the same porch 
 detailed for wood.
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 
 
 259 
 
 SHADES AND SHADOWS 
 
 In order to prepare sketches and make them 
 attractive, a brief treatment of Shades and 
 Shadows will be taken up, the main general rules 
 and principles being explained, which may be 
 applied to ordinary architectural drawing. 
 
 By the use of shades and shadows, very im- 
 portant effects are produced. The general pro- 
 portions of the cornice, for example, are empha- 
 sized by using shadows. The relative amount 
 of window area to wall area is clearly shown by 
 the use of shadows. 
 
 The light is always assumed as coming over 
 the left shoulder of the person looking at the 
 drawing, and at an angle as explained later. 
 This assumption is always made, being merely a 
 conventional or customary way of considering 
 
 Fig. 24. Fig. 25. 
 
 Illustrating Conventional Method of Considering Bays of Light in 
 Architectural Drafting. 
 
 the light. The idea intended is to produce the 
 same effect on a drawing that the sun in this 
 one position would produce on the building. 
 While the sun would actually produce a shadow 
 -On one side of the building at one time, and on 
 another side at another time, in architectural
 
 260 
 
 drawing this variation is not shown. No matter 
 what elevation or side of the building is being 
 considered, the light is always from the same 
 direction. 
 
 Thus we see that in Figs. 24 and 25 the sun 
 really would make one side always in shadow, 
 but we do not so consider it. In Fig. 24 we 
 see the side A is in sunlight, and the side B is 
 in shade. Looking now at Fig. 25, we see side 
 B in sunlight, and C, which was the rear end, 
 now in shade. This is the conventional method 
 of considering the rays of light for architectural 
 drawings. No matter what elevations or draw- 
 ings are considered, or how many of the same 
 building on the same sheet, the direction of the 
 rays of light is fixed. 
 
 Perhaps it will make the understanding of 
 this subject clearer if we define the terms shade 
 and shadow. That portion of a building or 
 drawing is said to be in "shade" which is turned 
 away from the assumed rays of light; or, it 
 receives no rays of light, in contrast to the sides 
 which are in light or upon which the light falls. 
 
 If a body is placed between the light and a 
 plane upon which the rays might fall, such a 
 body will prevent a portion of the rays from 
 striking the plane, thereby causing a shadow 
 upon the plane. 
 
 All rays of light are assumed as parallel and 
 considered as straight lines. 
 
 The rays of light are assumed as coming over 
 the left shoulder, or sloping downward and
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 
 
 261 
 
 backward. This is the diagonal of a cube. The 
 projections of this diagonal in the vertical plane 
 and in a horizontal plane are at 45 degrees, while 
 the true angle of the diagonal with the plane is 
 slightly less than 35 degrees 16 minutes. If we 
 assume the side of the cube as 1, then the true 
 length of this diagonal is nearly one and three- 
 quarters. In Fig. 26, we see the cube and the 
 diagonal drawn as a heavy line with an arrow- 
 
 TT* 
 
 I-i- 
 
 1*- 
 
 5 
 
 'oint in Space 
 
 \ 
 
 __::y 5 'i do * 
 
 X * 
 
 of 
 
 ig. 26. Drawing Showing As- 
 sumed Direction of Light. 
 
 Pom-t- 
 
 Fig. 28. Elevation of Point 
 and Shadow. 
 
 of 
 Shadow 
 
 Point-* 
 
 ,T 
 il 
 
 Plan of Point in Space 
 and Plane. 
 
 Fig. 29. 
 Shadow of a Point in Space. 
 
 Fig. 27. Elevation and Plan of 
 Cube of Fig. 26.
 
 262 
 
 head indicating the direction of the light. Fig. 
 27 shows the elevation and plan of the same 
 cube. 
 
 The shadow of a point is where the ray of 
 light surrounding the point intersects the plane 
 upon which the shadow falls. In Fig. 28, we 
 see the light surrounding the point, and inter- 
 secting the plane, giving the shadow of the point 
 upon the plane. The shadow is located as far 
 down and as far to the right of the point in 
 space as the point is from the surface or plane 
 upon which its shadow falls. Fig. 29 shows the 
 plan of the point, its distance from the plane, 
 and the plane. 
 
 x-Lin 
 
 o.V) 
 
 Line in | 
 
 II 
 
 Fig. 30. Elevation of Line and Fig. 31. Flan of Line in Space 
 Shadow. and Plane. 
 
 Shadow of a Line Parallel to Plane of Shadow. 
 
 The shadow of a straight line in space is the 
 intersection of the light surrounding this line 
 with the plane of shadow. By casting the shad- 
 ows of the extremities of the line and connecting 
 these points of shadows, we have the shadow of 
 the line. All points of the line in space will 
 cast shadows upon the plane as far down and as 
 far to the right as the point is from the plane.
 
 AECHITECTUEAL DRAFTING 
 
 263 
 
 If the line is parallel to the plane, the shadow 
 will be equal in length and parallel to the line 
 itself. See Fig. 30 for an elevation, and Fig. 31 
 for the plan of the line and plane. 
 
 If the line in space is not a straight line, then 
 the shadow of the line may be found by casting 
 the shadows of any number of points on the 
 line, and connecting these. The greater the 
 number of points of shadows cast, the greater 
 will be the accuracy of the work. In Fig. 32 
 
 ^PUne 
 
 ^v 
 
 Plan of Angle' 
 
 C. L. t VAT i ON PUAN 
 
 Fig. 32. Fig. 33. 
 
 Shadow of an Irregular Shape which is Parallel to Plane of 
 
 Shadow. 
 
 we see the shadow of an angle or L-shape cast 
 on the plane of projection; Fig. 33 shows the 
 plan of the angle. 
 
 The shadow of a straight line perpendicular 
 to the plane upon which the shadow falls, is a 
 straight line at 45 degrees, no matter what the 
 outline of the surface is upon which the shadow 
 falls (see Figs. 34, 35, and 36). 
 
 The shadow of a straight line parallel to the 
 plane upon which the shadow falls, is an irregu-
 
 264 
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 
 
 lar line giving the true outline of the surface 
 (see Fig. 37). 
 
 The shadow of a perpendicular line on a roof 
 is therefore a line which gives the true slope of 
 the roof, since the line is parallel to the plane, 
 and therefore casts a shadow the true shape of 
 the surface upon which it falls. 
 
 P/an 
 
 Si DC. 
 
 Fig. 34. Fig. 35. 
 
 Shadow of a Line which is Perpendicular to lane of Shadow. 
 
 Fig. 36. Showing Shadow of 
 
 a Line Perpendicular to 
 
 Plane of Shadow. 
 
 Fig. 37. Showing Shadow of a 
 Line Parallel to Plane of 
 Shadow on a Moulded 
 Surface. 
 
 The shadow of a straight line inclined to the 
 plane upon which the shadow falls, is a straight
 
 AKCHITECTUKAL DRAFTING 
 
 265 
 
 Fig. 38 Shadow of a Line Inclined to Plane of Shadow. 
 
 PLAN 
 
 Fig. 39. Shadows of a Square and a Circle Parallel to Plane of 
 
 Shadow.
 
 266 
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 
 
 line connecting the shadows of the ends of the 
 line (see Fig. 38). 
 
 As in the case of a line parallel to the plane 
 upon which the shadow falls, the shadow is equal 
 in length and parallel to the line, so it is with 
 surfaces the square, rectangle, octagon, etc. 
 If parallel to the plane of shadows, the shadow 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 :d 
 
 \ 
 
 '-i 
 
 \ 
 
 ' \ 
 x v \ 
 
 Fig. 40. Shadows of a Square and Circle Perpendicular to Plane of 
 
 Shadow. 
 
 will be equal in size and shape to the figure (see 
 Fig. 39). 
 
 A square perpendicular to the plane of 
 shadow will cast a diamond-shaped shadow, for 
 two of the lines are parallel to the plane, and 
 two are perpendicular to the plane (see Fig. 40).
 
 AECHITECTUKAL DEAFTING 
 
 267 
 
 Having stated a few principles of casting 
 shadows, these will be applied to a few common 
 examples. 
 
 Take an example of a brick projecting from 
 a wall (Fig. 41). We apply the principles as 
 
 Fig. 41. Shadows of Projections from Plane of Shadow. 
 
 PLAN 
 Fig. 42. Illustrating Principles of Shadows. 
 
 stated, to each edge of the brick. The top, bot- 
 tom, and side faces of the brick are perpendicu-
 
 268 
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 
 
 lar to the plane, therefore the shadows will be 
 rectangular in shape. 
 
 Figs. 42 and 43 show a further application 
 of the foregoing principles. 
 
 SECTION 
 
 Fig. 43. Illustrating Principles of Shadows. 
 
 Plate D shows the shadows as cast upon an 
 Order of architecture, illustrating also how 
 much clearer the drawing is when it has the 
 shadows worked out on it. 
 
 The above principles will give a general 
 understanding of the subject. 
 
 DETAILS OP CONSTRUCTION 
 
 It is essential to know the usual method of 
 detailing different portions of the building. For 
 the clear understanding of some of the impor- 
 tant parts of a building, there have been pre- 
 pared some typical details. The reader, having 
 become familiar with the details shown, can 
 adapt them to any sort of building. 
 
 Cornice. The cornice is the projection at the 
 top of the building, made more or less elaborate. 
 There are several kinds of cornices the box 
 cornice, as shown in Fig. 44, and the open cor- 
 nice, as shown in Fig. 45 (a and b). Referring
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 
 
 269 
 
 to Fig. 44, there is the crown-mould A, the fascia 
 B; the planceer or soffit C; the lookout D; the 
 
 /l1?C BS-ACft 3 
 
 Fig. 44. Box Cornice. 
 
 brackets E ; the dentil course F. Not all cornices 
 have all these parts. The plainer ones may be 
 without the brackets E and the dentils F; or
 
 270 AKCHITECTUKAL DRAFTING 
 
 more elaborate cornices may have more mem- 
 bers. The closed cornice always has the gutter 
 built into the upper members ; the open cornice 
 
 Fig. 45a. Open Cornice. 
 
 has a hanging gutter, as shown in Fig. 45 (a 
 orb). 
 
 The gutter, in the best work, is made of cop- 
 per; in ordinary work, of galvanized iron; and 
 in the cheapest class of work, tin is used. The 
 durability of these materials is in the order 
 named, the copper wearing usually the life of 
 the building. Galvanized and tin gutters have 
 to be kept well painted; but even with good 
 care, the life of these two materials is limited. 
 
 One important feature of a good gutter is
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 
 
 271 
 
 to have the metal run well up under the roofing 
 material, and out over the crown-mould. This 
 keeps any water from overflowing up under the 
 roof if the gutter becomes choked with ice or 
 leaves. The gutter should be well pitched or 
 graded to the outlets. The gutter outlets are 
 in turn connected to leaders or down-spouts. 
 These down-spouts are made, usually, of the 
 
 CALV 
 
 Pig. 45b. Type of Open Cornice Known as Close-Eave Cornice. 
 
 same material as the gutter. The shape of the 
 down-spouts may be either round or rectangu- 
 lar; a very common form is made of corrugated 
 iron, either round or rectangular. The gutter, 
 especially if a hanging gutter, must be securely 
 fastened to the roof at intervals of two or three 
 feet, by means of some sort of hanger. The 
 down-spouts must be securely fastened to the 
 wall by some approved method. 
 
 Floor Construction. The floor construction 
 does not vary much (see Fig. .46). In this figure
 
 272 
 
 ARCHITECTUEAL DRAFTING 
 
 we have the usual construction and method of 
 support at the second or upper floor line. The 
 joists must be of ample size, not only to carry 
 
 Fig. 46. Common Floor Construction at Second-Floor Line. 
 
 the load safely, but to be stiff enough not to sag 
 or vibrate under a load, since this would crack 
 the plastering or the ceiling below. On the 
 joists is laid an under-floor, usually of boards 
 y 8 inch thick, laid diagonally at 45 degrees with 
 the joists, and spiked with two nails on every
 
 AECHITECTUEAL DKAFTING 
 
 273 
 
 joist. The flooring laid in this manner braces 
 the building, and resists any tendency to twist. 
 In the best construction, we use some sort 
 of deafening material between the upper and 
 under floor, to deaden sound. The upper floor 
 is of maple, oak, or yellow pine of matched or 
 tongued-and-grooved boards, with the boards 
 parallel to one side of the room. This floor is 
 blind-nailed; that is, the nails are driven in at 
 the intersection of the tongue and the vertical 
 edge, as shown in Fig. 47. This keeps all nail- 
 
 Fig. 47. Section Showing Blind-Nailing. 
 
 heads hidden from view. The upper floor should 
 be thoroughly kiln-dried that is, dried arti- 
 ficially to drive out the greater part of the 
 moisture, so that when it is finally laid, it will 
 not dry out in the building and open up ugly 
 cracks. For this reason the finished floor should 
 not be laid until the plastering is thoroughly 
 dry. The under side of the joists is lathed and 
 plastered. 
 
 Around openings, chimneys, or stair-wells, 
 the joists are supported at the ends by means 
 of a header, or a joist running at right 
 angles to them, to which they are securely
 
 274 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 
 
 spiked; or they may rest on top of a ribbon or 
 %-inch board let into the studding, the con- 
 struction being similar to the support for the 
 ceiling joists as shown in Fig. 44. 
 
 At the first-floor line, we have to build a sill 
 upon the basement wall; this sill forms a sup- 
 port for the joist, and also gives a nailing for 
 the studding. The method is clearly shown in 
 Fig. 48. 
 
 Lath and Plaster. The interior finish of 
 almost all residence work is lath and plaster. 
 The walls, if of wood, and the ceiling, are lathed 
 with good, sound lath, free from blue sap or 
 bark, and of white pine or spruce. They should 
 be spaced at least 14 inch apart, and the plaster 
 pressed firmly onto them so as to make sure 
 that there will be a good key for holding the 
 plaster. All lath on vertical walls should be 
 put on horizontally, and there should not be a 
 vertical joint of more than 18 inches between 
 any series of laths. Under no consideration 
 should lath be put on a vertical wall other than 
 horizontally. In hot weather, it will be well 
 to wet the lath before applying the plaster, as 
 then they will not absorb so much water from 
 the plaster. 
 
 Plaster is usually put on in three coats for 
 woodwork, and in two coats for brickwork. The 
 first coat consists of slaked lime, sand, and long, 
 clean cattle hair or fiber, this hair or fiber being 
 used to make the plaster hold together better. 
 
 The first or scratch coat is applied and
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 
 
 275 
 
 Fig. 48. Floor Construction at First-Floor Line. 
 
 pressed well into the spaces between the lath. 
 It is this plaster getting in between the lath and 
 falling over onto the lath, which forms the key 
 or clinch for the plaster. This coat is then 
 scratched with the trowel all over, in all direc- 
 tions. This scratching roughens up the surface, 
 and makes a better surface for the second coat 
 to adhere to. 
 
 The second or brown coat is a mixture of lime
 
 276 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 
 
 putty, sand, and a little hair or fiber, and is 
 applied after the scratch coat has partially 
 dried. This brown coat is brought out to a true 
 line for all walls and ceilings, and corners are 
 made true and sharp. There are placed around 
 all openings and back of all chair rails, base- 
 boards, etc., small strips % inch thick for three- 
 coat work, and % inch thick for two-coat work, 
 by 11/2 inches wide. These are called grounds, 
 and serve as a guide for the plaster (see Figs. 
 71 and 72). The third coat, sometimes called 
 the white or skim coat, is a mixture of lime putty 
 and white sand, with a little plaster of Paris. 
 This is a thin, white coat, put on and rubbed 
 down until hard, giving a hard white surface. 
 Sometimes marble dust is added, which makes 
 it harder and gives a little more polish to the 
 surface. If a sand finish is desired, instead of 
 the white coat as above described, the third coat 
 is mixed with lime putty and coarse sand. 
 
 Flashing and Counter- Flashing. By flashing 
 and counter-flashing is meant metal protection 
 for the intersection of surfaces, to keep out the 
 weather. Take an example of a chimney going 
 through a roof. Some means must be provided 
 to prevent snow and water from coming in 
 through the space between the vertical side of 
 the chimney and the roof. This is accomplished 
 by using sheet metal either copper, galvanized 
 iron, or tin and fastening it under the roof 
 covering, turning it up against the chimney, as 
 shown in Figs. 49 and 50, the piece marked A.
 
 ARCHITECTUEAL DRAFTING 
 
 277 
 
 To prevent the water running down the side of 
 the chimney, a cover-piece, called the counter- 
 flashing, is fastened into a mortar joint of the 
 brickwork, and turned down over the flashing. 
 The counter-flashing should extend to within 
 two inches of the bottom of the flashing. This 
 same method of protection applies to joining a 
 roof to a vertical wall, the protection at the 
 outside of a window-frame, or any other place 
 needing similar protection. 
 
 B- COUNTER FLASHING 
 
 *\ - rt-Aswi 
 ^SHINGLES 
 
 Fig. 49. Section Showing Flashing and Counter-Flashing. 
 
 Shrinkage. A word might be said about 
 shrinkage. All lumber, when exposed to heat, 
 will shrink, owing to the moisture drying out. 
 In all wooden construction, all parts should be 
 carefully framed together to reduce the shrink- 
 age to a minimum. One common error in 
 framing is shown in Fig. 51. The girder rests 
 upon the post below, and the post from above 
 rests upon the girder. We can see at a glance
 
 278 
 
 ARCHITECTUEAL DRAFTING 
 
 Fig. 50. Flashing and Counter-Flashing around a Chimney. 
 
 what happens when the girder commences to 
 dry out. It will shrink, causing the post above 
 to settle, which will affect the part of the build- 
 ing carried in this way. Fig. 52 shows a much 
 better way of framing these posts. The post 
 above rests directly on the post below; and the 
 
 Fig. 51. Erroneous Method. Fig. 52. Correct Method. 
 Framing cf Posts and Girders to Counteract Effects of Shrinkage.
 
 I 
 
 E-i 
 
 w 
 
 QQ 
 
 O 
 
 M 
 M 
 
 O 
 <{ 
 
 M 
 O 
 
 PH 
 
 I ^K 
 
 O 
 
 ^ S 
 s w 
 
 ^ 
 
 I 
 
 ? 
 
 i' 
 
 ^
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 
 
 279 
 
 girder is carried by the steel plate as shown, or 
 by means of a cast-iron post-cap. By this means 
 the shrinkage in the girder does not affect the 
 
 Fig. 53. Section of Solid Door. 
 
 construction above. Carry out this same idea 
 in all framing. When one partition comes over 
 another, carry it on the cap of the partition 
 below, and not on top of the floor construction. 
 Doors. Doors are of two kinds the stock 
 door and the built-up door. The stock door is 
 made solid, with a simple bevel called an 0. Q-. 
 (or Ogee). The stock doors are usually 1*4 
 inches, 1% inches, and 1% inches thick (see Fig. 
 53). The built-up door has a core of %~i ncn 
 pieces of pine glued together; this is covered 
 with thin sheets of wood % inch thick, called 
 
 Fig. 54. Typical Section of a Built-Up Door. 
 
 veneer, which is firmly glued to the core. The 
 veneer is made of wood to match the interior 
 finish of a residence. 
 
 Fig. 54 shows a typical section of a built-up 
 door; and Fig. 55 shows elevations of different
 
 280 
 
 AKCHITECTUEAL DRAFTING 
 
 doors, with the names of the various parts of a 
 door. 
 
 All openings, either door or window, should 
 have the rough framing doubled around them. 
 
 At the bottom of the door we have the 
 threshold, which is a raised piece, usually of oak 
 or some other hard wood. This gives a chance 
 for the door to swing clear of the carpet or 
 rugs. For different details of door trim, etc., 
 see Fig. 56. 
 
 T 
 
 OP 
 
 -i 
 
 P5 
 
 Al 
 
 ==s 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 
 J 
 111 
 
 2 
 
 
 111 
 
 J 
 
 h 
 
 
 111 
 J 
 
 f 
 
 <0 
 
 E 
 
 Ul 
 
 J 
 
 (0 
 
 Ml 
 
 5DL 
 
 a 
 
 UJ 
 2 
 
 E. 
 
 RAIL 
 
 
 
 ec 
 
 SBSS 
 
 >TT 
 
 o^ 
 
 ss^ss 
 1 R> 
 
 *IL 
 
 Tig. 55. Types of Paneled Doors. 
 
 The door is hung in a wooden frame which 
 is securely fastened to the framing of the house. 
 The inside and outside casing covers the space 
 between the door frame and the rough framing. 
 See Fig. 56 for a section through a door. 
 
 Porch Construction. In Fig. 57 (also Fig.
 
 28] 
 
 Fig. 56. Sections of Front Door and Side Lights.
 
 282 
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 
 
 Fig. 57. Fart Elevation and Section Showing Method of Porch 
 Construction.
 
 ARCHITECTUEAL DRAFTING 
 
 283 
 
 rerr) CONCRETE. 
 
 CS331 COMMON 
 
 BRICK 
 
 FIR.E BRICK 
 PLAN 
 
 Fig. 58. A Typical Fireplace Construction.
 
 284 AKCHITECTURAL DEAFTING 
 
 23), we see a part elevation and a section show- 
 ing the method of porch construction. The floor 
 construction will be the same as for ordinary 
 floor construction, except that only one thick- 
 ness of flooring is used, and the boards must run 
 at right angles to the house, and have a slight 
 pitch away from the building. This allows the 
 water to drain away from the building. In the 
 best construction, the flooring is put together 
 with white lead, thus insuring a perfectly tight 
 joint to keep the water from soaking in at the 
 joints, and thus causing the floor to rot. 
 
 Fireplaces. Fig. 58 shows a typical fireplace 
 construction. The flues are all dotted on the 
 
 rot* 9-s 
 
 fOR S'-O 
 
 STRAIGHT 
 STAIE FOB 
 
 FOB s'-a- oooo. 
 
 \-EHOOfyTAI* 
 WELL OVEQ. 
 
 Fig. 59. A Simple, Straight Stair. 
 
 elevation. There should be an ash-chute from 
 each fireplace connected to an ash-pit in the 
 basement. There should be a damper in the 
 throat of the fireplace to regulate the draft. All 
 fireplaces should be lined with firebrick. 
 
 Stairs. For stair construction, see Figs. 59 
 to 65 inclusive. The simplest stairway is the 
 one that has no turns in it, or the one shown in 
 Fig. 59. As laid out, this stair is for an 8 ft. 6
 
 ABCHITECTUKAL DKAFTING 
 
 285 
 
 in. ceiling. Should the ceiling be higher, other 
 risers may be added. 
 
 In Fig. 65 are shown the customary details. 
 The riser is known as the vertical portion, and 
 the tread as the horizontal portion. The main 
 supports are usually 2 by 10-inch or 2 by 1 2-inch, 
 notched to fit the treads and risers, and are 
 
 LANDING 
 CK) 
 
 /ONE LANDING. 
 DRAWN POa 
 IO-O" CEILING. 
 
 THIS STAIft WILL ClVft 
 MEAD ROOM FOR PASS- 
 AGE UNDER LANDING. 
 
 Fig. 60. Fig. 61. 
 
 Types of Stairs with One Landing. 
 
 
 1) 1 
 
 Q 
 
 R 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 OPEN 
 
 
 FLOOR PL/AN 
 Fig. 62. Fig. 63. 
 
 Combination Front and Back Stairs. 
 
 called carriages. The balusters are the upright 
 spindles or ornamental pieces supporting the 
 hand-rail. 
 
 Various heights of riser to tread have been 
 tried, but the one found most satisfactory is to 
 make the riser from 7 inches to 7% inches. The 
 usual rule for figuring the treads and risers is
 
 286 
 
 ARCHITECTUKAL DEAFTING 
 
 Fig. 64. Elevation of Stairway, Giving Necessary Information.
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 
 
 287 
 
 to make the sum of a tread and riser equal to 
 17 inches or 17% inches. From this we see that 
 the higher the riser, the narrower will be the 
 tread. If we make the riser 7% inches, then the 
 tread should not exceed 10 inches. The width 
 of tread is exclusive of the nosing, which is 
 usually 1% inches. 
 
 Fig. 65. Section through Stairs, Showing Customary Details. 
 
 Stone stairs, or stairs without a nosing, will 
 have to be wider. 
 
 For figuring the number of risers, divide the 
 height from floor line to floor line (in inches), 
 by the height of one riser; the result will be the 
 number of risers. 
 
 Fig. 60 shows a stairway with a landing 
 Fig. 61 is another form of stair with a landing. 
 
 Fig. 62 is a combination front and baclf
 
 288 
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 
 
 stairs. There are separate stairs up to the land- 
 ing; then the back stair joins the main stair. 
 Pig. 62 is the first-floor plan, and Fig. 63 
 second-floor plan, of the same stairs. 
 
 the 
 
 Fig. 66. Single-Light Window. Fig. 67. Two-Light Window. 
 
 Where possible, put a coat closet under the 
 stairs. This space cannot be utilized for any- 
 thing but a basement stair or a closet. Usually 
 there is a basement stair in the rear of the house. 
 
 Fig. 64 shows an elevation of the stairway, 
 giving all necessary information. 
 
 Fig. 68. Fig. 69. 
 
 Types of Window Construction. 
 
 Windows. There are various types of win- 
 dows used in the construction of buildings. The 
 plainest is the single-light window shown in Fig. 
 66. This is either pivoted, hinged, or fixed to 
 slide.
 
 ABCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 289 
 
 The windows are usually designated accord- 
 ing to the number of panes of glass they contain, 
 Fig. 67, for example, being a two-light window. 
 Very often a large glass space is divided into 
 smaller areas by means of horizontal and verti- 
 cal strips called muntins, as shown in Fig. 68. 
 The lower sash slides up, while the upper one 
 is usually fixed in place; this upper sash is 
 called a transom. 
 
 When windows are grouped in twos or 
 threes, they are separated by means of vertical 
 divisions. These divisions are called mullions. 
 The weights of the sash usually travel in these 
 (see Fig. 69). 
 
 The sash is usually the movable frame that 
 contains the glass. A double-hung window is 
 one in which the sash are counterbalanced by 
 iron weights so that the sash will slide easily 
 up and down in grooves in the frame. The sash 
 of a window may be hinged to open like doors, 
 in which case the window is called a casement 
 window. If the sash are hung on pivots, either 
 vertically or horizontally, we speak of the win- 
 dow as a pivoted window. 
 
 Referring to Fig. 68, A is the lower rail of 
 the sash, usually from 2y 2 to 3 inches wide; B 
 is the meeting rail, from 1 to 2 inches wide; 
 C is the stile, usually 2 inches wide; D is the 
 upper rail, of the same width as the stile; E 
 indicates the muntins, which divide the sash 
 into small areas; F is the transom bar, or the
 
 290 
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 
 
 Tig. 70. Typical Detail of Plank-Framed Basement Window. 
 
 fixed bar between the transom G and the double- 
 hung sash below. 
 
 The usual thicknesses of sash are iy 8 inches 
 for small windows, to 1%, 1%, and sometimes 
 2% inches, depending upon the size of sash. 
 The larger the window, the heavier the sash 
 must necessarily be. 
 
 In Fig. 70 we have a plank-framed window. 
 This is the same kind of frame required for the
 
 AECHITECTUEAL DKA1TING 
 
 casement window as shown in Fig. 76. Fig. 70 
 is the typical detail for cellar window construc- 
 tion. The windows usually have a single sash 
 which may be divided by muntins into smaller 
 
 CfctttNT FLAiTtR 
 MtTAL LATH ! 
 
 -3Hfc.ATHW<; ^77 
 
 Fig. 71. Double-Hung Window, Outside of Building Plastered. 
 
 lights. Notice the projection on the bottom 
 rail, which serves as a drip for all water coming 
 from the glass. Such windows are usually hung 
 at the side or top. Fig. 70 is detailed for a
 
 292 
 
 ARCHITECTUKAL DRAFTING 
 
 ME.ETINC RAIL 
 
 n 
 
 L 
 
 
 I I 
 
 ^CtNTtfeLiNt-^$ 
 
 CM_ktB?v 
 
 EX 
 
 P- 
 
 m'-*%?^ 
 
 ^ x .>/ n 7* D\ 
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 Tig. 72. Double-Hung Window for a, Brick Wall.
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 
 
 293 
 
 .5OUTH tLtVATtON 
 
 .SOUTH ELEVATION 
 
 Fig. 73. Part Section Showing Details of Bay Window Con- 
 struction. 
 
 HALF ELRVATION 
 
 Fig. 74. Details for a Dormer or Roof Window.
 
 294 
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 
 
 295 
 
 Fig. 76. Details of Casement Window.
 
 296 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 
 
 brick wall, although the same detail will apply 
 to a frame wall. 
 
 In Fig. 71 we have the details and dimen- 
 sions for a double-hung window in a frame wall, 
 the exterior of the wall being plastered. In Fig. 
 72 we have the details for a double-hung win- 
 dow in a brick wall. Notice that there is very 
 little difference in construction. The parts of 
 the construction are named for the sake of 
 clearness, A being the sash, B the inside stop, 
 C the pulley stile, D the parting strip, E the 
 outside casing, F the brick mould or staff -head, 
 G the back lining, H the sub- jamb, J the inside 
 casing, K the stool, L the apron, M the ground, 
 and N the sill. 
 
 In Fig. 73 we have the construction for a 
 bay window, showing the boxes, sash, etc. 
 
 Fig. 74 shows the details for a dormer or 
 roof window. 
 
 Fig. 75 shows the construction for a pro- 
 jecting bay window, the sash being hung to 
 swing out. We have shown a half exterior 
 view, a half interior view, and a section. 
 
 Fig. 76 shows the details of a casement win- 
 dow in which the head, mullion, and sill, with 
 all adjoining construction, are shown. Notice 
 the grounds or guide for the plaster work, as 
 spoken of under "Lath and Plaster." 
 
 Fig. 77 shows the interior elevation of the 
 door and window trim, with a large-scale draw- 
 ing of the exact profiles of this trim. The trim, 
 and in fact all interior woodwork, are fastened
 
 ARCHITECTUEAL DEAFTING 
 
 397 
 
 *-WiNfow 
 
 WINPOW 
 
 DD 
 DD 
 
 TYPICAL Pooi? 
 
 Tig. 77. Details of Window and Door Trim.
 
 298 AECHITECTURAL DRAFTING 
 
 to the grounds, which are set to serve as guides 
 for the plasterer, and which should be placed 
 back of all interior finish. The base shown is 
 the finish at the floor-line. The base is nailed 
 to grounds; and the quarter-round mould at the 
 floor is nailed to the floor, to cover the crack at 
 the joining of the base and floor-line. 
 
 SKETCHING 
 
 In all architectural work, the art of sketch- 
 ing is important. To be able to show one's ideas 
 clearly and artistically, or to reproduce some 
 form or object in a pleasing manner, is indeed 
 an essential qualification for the draftsman as 
 well as the architect. Some have a natural 
 ability to sketch, which lacks but the pencil and 
 paper to give a true expression of the idea of 
 the mind; while others acquire the art of 
 sketching only by diligent study and persistent 
 practice. Many instances have proven the fact 
 that one may have ability, but that it needs 
 developing, just as in the case of the mathema- 
 tician, who becomes an expert in the higher 
 mathematics by a gradual training from the 
 simpler problems on up through more complex 
 ones. Because one has not ability that is appar- 
 ent at the outset, is no criterion whereby we 
 may judge of his ability along any particular 
 line. Learn to sketch, as it is a valuable asset 
 for the architect. 
 
 Fundamental Principle. To the beginner.
 
 \
 
 AECHITECTUKAL DEAFIING 299 
 
 the object usually presents itself as made up 
 of small portions, and ordinarily he will make 
 an attempt to show all the small details, over- 
 looking the main mass or body of the object. 
 The first thing is to be able to see the object 
 as it really is, as it would really appear to the 
 best advantage when sketched roughly and 
 quickly. Learn to look at the general grouping 
 of the different portions, and their relation to 
 one another. The beginner attempts to draw 
 the object as he sees it at close range, while the 
 experienced person draws it as it appears at 
 a distance. The tendency of the beginner is to 
 represent everything with hard, sharp, and 
 exact lines which are known from actual knowl- 
 edge of the object to exist, although they do 
 not really appear so. Learn to study the gen- 
 eral proportions as expressed by the shadows, 
 rather than by the exact outlines bounding each 
 surface. Studying an object for sketching is 
 really a study of the shadows. In all sketching, 
 the proportion is the fundamental principle. 
 Having correctly represented the proportions, 
 then represent the object by means of the shad- 
 ows as cast upon the object, and let the details 
 be merely an after consideration. Learn to see 
 the object correctly, and the representation by 
 lines will come by practice. 
 
 Pencils and Paper. The pencil is present on 
 all occasions; therefore it is used a great deal 
 in sketching. Pencils may be obtained in all 
 degrees of hardness and softness. Drawing
 
 300 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 
 
 pencils are usually denoted by H, HH, etc., for 
 hard pencils, up to 8H, which is a very hard 
 lead; the soft pencils are denoted by B, BB, 
 etc., up to 4B for very soft pencils. An inter- 
 mediate grade known as an HB is between the 
 hard leads commencing with H and the soft 
 leads commencing with B. This is a very con- 
 venient grade to use for all kinds of work. A 
 good drawing pencil should contain no grit. 
 
 As a general rule, the larger the drawing, 
 the softer the pencil, since the lead in the soft 
 pencils is larger than that in the hard pencils. 
 Therefore, it is rather difficult to make a small 
 drawing with a really soft pencil. As stated 
 above, the most satisfactory pencil for all- 
 around work is the medium grade or the HB 
 pencil. 
 
 The pencil should never be sharpened to a 
 point. Cut away the wood, leaving the lead its 
 full size; and by a few strokes on a piece of 
 scratch paper, wear off the sharp edge, until 
 you have a line the full thickness of the lead. 
 
 Hold the pencil comfortably between the 
 fingers, not in a cramped position, but free and 
 easy. The length of line, the position on the 
 paper, and the width and intensity of the lines 
 will determine just which movements of the 
 fingers, wrist, or arm are the best suited to the 
 work. In all work, avoid bending over the 
 drawing; sit upright so that the drawing may 
 be all seen at a glance. The paper should
 
 AECHITECTUEAL DBAFTING 301 
 
 always be at right angles to the line of sight, 
 to insure the best work. 
 
 The paper should have a somewhat rough 
 texture for the best work, although some very 
 pleasing sketches have been made upon smooth 
 paper. Never use a glazed paper. The smooth 
 paper requires greater care in its use, it being 
 harder to erase anything successfully. A good 
 grade of tracing paper makes a very good paper 
 for sketches with a medium-soft pencil. 
 
 Method. Begin sketching by drawing paral- 
 lel lines horizontally; then make them vertical; 
 then slanting lines endeavoring all the time 
 to make them all of the same width and 
 intensity. After exercises in the drawing of 
 straight lines, try circles and ellipses. Then 
 sketch familiar household articles. From these, 
 let the student take up more difficult work, 
 learning to see objects as they actually appear 
 to the eye, and not as they are really known to 
 exist. 
 
 Referring to Plates E and F, notice the 
 method used for indicating surfaces. Instead 
 of covering the side of the building with long, 
 mechanical, parallel lines, the lines are made 
 short, and broad, and break joint so as to give 
 an uneven surface. The eaves are all repre- 
 sented by the shadow they produce, there being 
 no definite line for the edge of the roof. For 
 the corners of the building, there is not a hard, 
 sharp line, but a broken, irregular line. The
 
 302 
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 
 
 doors and windows are all represented by the 
 shadows they cast. 
 
 It will be noticed that the shadow is the 
 thing to reproduce. If the shadows are shown 
 in their true relative proportions, in intensity 
 and size, we are reasonably sure of a satisfac- 
 tory sketch. For such work, the object is 
 
 Fig. 78. A Quickly-Made Preliminary Sketch. 
 
 usually outlined with a light line, to get the 
 proper lines and proportions; in other words, 
 just enough lines are given to show the proper 
 relation of dimensions. 
 
 Having outlined the object, then commence 
 with the soft, broad pencil, and indicate the 
 texture and shadows by varying intensities of 
 lines.
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 303 
 
 Practice will give you the best training for 
 developing the art of sketching. It is not 
 enough to study work already done, analyzing 
 lines and surfaces. Actual work and practice 
 in drawing and sketching will do more for you 
 than any mere study of sketches. 
 
 Learn to make preliminary sketches quickly, 
 and yet indicate general proportions and out- 
 lines (see Fig. 78). This sketch was made in 
 about five minutes' time, while the architect 
 was talking to his client. Some of the finer 
 points of the original pencil sketch are neces- 
 sarily lost in the pen-and-ink reproduction from 
 which the cut was engraved. The figure repre- 
 sents a possible treatment for a boiler house. 
 This is a good example of a preliminary sketch, 
 there being no particular time spent in the 
 drawing and very few straight lines used, yet, 
 when the sketch is studied, we can see the gen- 
 eral effect that such a building would produce 
 in sunlight. 
 
 Make your sketches have some "snap" to 
 them. Let each line be firm, starting and stop- 
 ping in a way that shows it to be there for a 
 definite purpose. Use plenty of free and easy 
 lines, and also black lines. Do away with sharp 
 lines, and never use hard pencils for this work. 
 
 For the purpose of laying out drawing, either 
 for pencil, pen and ink, or pen-and-ink render- 
 ing, a sketch will be shown to illustrate clearly 
 the quickest and most satisfactory method. 
 See Fig. 79, where the sketches are all rather
 
 304 
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 
 
 (41101 
 
 fc* I 
 
 n 
 
 Pig. 79. Sheet of Drawings Laid Out with a Sense of Proportion.
 
 AECHITECTUEAL DKAFTING 305 
 
 rough or uneven, but the general drawing shows 
 the effect of proportions. The lines, instead of 
 being long and continuous, are made up of 
 short lines almost joining. 
 
 PEN-AND-INK RENDERING 
 
 Finished drawings may be colored or ren- 
 dered in a number of ways. The method of 
 pen-and-ink rendering is very often used. It 
 is indeed an accomplishment to be able to render 
 in pen and ink successfully. This usually comes 
 only from long and patient work in practicing. 
 A drawing may also be rendered in pencil, or 
 colored by means of water-colors. 
 
 For pen-and-ink rendering, any black ink 
 will do. A good grade of India ink is very 
 satisfactory and convenient. There was a time 
 when all drawing inks were made by grinding 
 a stick of India ink in water on a stone bed; 
 but now prepared inks are used almost entirely. 
 The pens should be fairly large, and have a 
 medium point; the tendency of beginners is to 
 use too fine a point. Any good-quality tracing 
 paper may be used. 
 
 The outline of the work may be made upon 
 scratch paper; and, by placing the tracing 
 paper over it, the ink rendering can be made 
 directly over the outline. Papers with soft sur- 
 faces should be avoided, since the ink will have 
 a tendency to spread, the points of the pen will 
 often catch and spatter ink, and erasing is
 
 306 
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING
 
 SHADOWS CAST UPON AN OEDEE OF AECHITECTUEE. 
 PLATE 1 D ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING.
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 307 
 
 almost impossible. Good bristol board makes 
 a satisfactory surface to work upon. 
 
 All lines should be firm and uniform, and 
 series of parallel lines should give an even 
 texture or appearance to a surface. Avoid the 
 stiff, hair lines, which are too fine to give any 
 character to the work. In making ink lines, 
 while the general direction of the line may be 
 straight, yet a line slightly wavy, or a line such 
 as would be made by the trembling of the hand, 
 is not objectionable. 
 
 Use care in drawing lines to make them as 
 uniform as possible, and exercise care in the 
 starting and stopping of lines. Lines should 
 naturally be a little heavier at the ending than 
 at the beginning. 
 
 Referring to Fig. 80, we see in this draw- 
 ing, the general method of rendering a building 
 in pen and ink. The window-panes, instead 
 of being hard, sharp lines, are made by a series 
 of parallel lines representing the shadow. 
 Notice the treatment of the roof, the shadow 
 of the cornice, and the general lines of the 
 building. 
 
 Fig. 81 shows the use of parallel lines en- 
 tirely for the texture of the wall, and also for 
 the shadows. 
 
 Fig. 82 shows a very attractive drawing. 
 Study the foliage around the house; see how 
 it has been represented by lines, sometimes 
 straight and sometimes curved. The distance 
 to the background is obtained by the quality
 
 If 
 
 "5 
 
 <B 
 
 I 
 
 OS 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 H 
 
 I 
 
 bo 
 
 309
 
 310 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 
 
 of the line; the further away the background, 
 the lighter the line. Study the lines represent- 
 ing the wall and roof surfaces. Notice that 
 the lines in general are not straight, but are 
 more or less irregular. The shadows in Figs. 
 81 and 82 are composed of entirely different 
 kinds of lines. Probably the best and easiest 
 method is by the use of vertical lines. Notice, 
 generally speaking, that there are no long lines. 
 If it is necessary to make such a line, let it 
 be represented by a series of short lines, with 
 their ends almost touching. The tendency of 
 the beginner is to make the rendering all too 
 light. Put in some black, somewhere, as it 
 makes the drawing more in contrast, and 
 emphasizes other portions of the work. 
 
 Plate G is a good example of a sketch ren- 
 dered in pen and ink. 
 
 WASH DRAWINGS 
 
 Water- colors or India ink for coloring draw- 
 ings, are used for the best work, almost entirely. 
 By means of color or by the use of India ink 
 for a monotone, the shades and shadows can 
 be emphasized and the drawing made much 
 more attractive. The usual method of proce- 
 dure is to have the paper upon which the draw- 
 ing is to be made, stretched tight upon a board; 
 then cast the shadows, marking the outlines 
 faintly with a hard pencil; then clean the 
 drawing with a soft eraser; finally, have all
 
 O 
 
 4
 
 ARCHITECTUEAL DRAFTING 311 
 
 materials ready for applying the washes, and 
 then start the color work. 
 
 Materials. The usual materials for wash 
 drawings are: the colors or the India ink; a 
 number of brushes (one a bristle brush and the 
 others soft camel-hair or Japanese brushes) ; 
 plenty of receptacles for holding the color in its 
 various shades, also one large receptacle for 
 clean water. Porcelain or china dishes made 
 especially for this work may be purchased from 
 any dealer in artists' materials. In addition to 
 the above, a soft sponge and a number of blotters 
 will be necessary. The paper should have a 
 rough finish, as this takes the color or wash much 
 better than paper with a smooth or glazed sur- 
 face. Hot-pressed and cold-pressed papers of 
 good quality are largely used for this work. The 
 cold-pressed is a little rougher than the hot- 
 pressed and is perhaps more frequently used. A 
 good tracing paper may be used if the color is 
 applied thick and in spots, or where no attempt 
 at a true wash drawing is made. Care will have 
 to be exercised in the use of tracing paper, as 
 too much water will spoil the work. 
 
 As mentioned above, the paper upon which 
 the drawing is made has to be stretched tight on 
 the drawing board. This may be done after the 
 drawing has been made, although it will be 
 found much more convenient to stretch the 
 paper first, and then make the drawing. To 
 stretch the paper, it should be thoroughly 
 wetted all over, and kept wet until it is firmly
 
 312 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 
 
 fastened in place ; this wetting causes the paper 
 to expand. On the four edges of the paper, for 
 about an inch back from the edge all around, 
 place glue or drawing-board paste. The paper, 
 being expanded by the water, should now be 
 fastened or pressed down onto the board, work- 
 ing opposite edges at the same time. Do not 
 attempt to stretch the paper perfectly tight. 
 Be careful to see that the edges of the paper are 
 in contact with the board, and run the back edge 
 of a pocket-knife all around, to insure the glue 
 or paste on the edge of the paper coming into 
 contact with the board. 
 
 After the paper is thus stretched, take all sur- 
 plus water off by means of a sponge, and dry the 
 paper as much as possible with the sponge. 
 Allow the paper to stand until thoroughly dry, 
 when it will be found that the paper has 
 shrunken tight and smooth, giving a good sur- 
 face for the drawing, and the rendering will be 
 much easier because the paper is held firmly in 
 place. Be very careful to see that the paper is 
 stuck to the board all along each of the four 
 edges, before allowing the paper to dry. 
 
 After the drawing has been made, the 
 shadows are east with light pencil lines. Clean 
 the drawing with a soft eraser, either of 
 kneaded rubber or of "sponge" rubber. These 
 erasers remove the general surface dirt without 
 affecting the lines materially. 
 
 The use of an India ink wash will be 
 described, although the same treatment will be
 
 AKCHITECTUKAL DKAFTING 313 
 
 true of colors. The drawing should, of course, 
 be inked very carefully before any tinting is 
 started. The erasing of lines should be done 
 very carefully as the surface of the paper, if 
 rubbed too hard, will be abraded so that when 
 colors are applied they will soak in instead of 
 remaining on the surface. The drawing may be 
 very carefully washed after the inking is com- 
 pleted, with a soft sponge; this removes surplus 
 ink and leaves the lines more subdued. 
 
 Method of Applying Wash. Having the 
 drawing all ready to render, a few principles 
 must be followed to insure the best results. 
 Have your water, color, brushes, blotters, and 
 sponge, all handy; have plenty of clean water 
 convenient; for heavy or dark shades, apply sev- 
 eral washes of a lighter value, instead of putting 
 the heavy color on all at once. 
 
 Having once started the wash, carry it on 
 continuously, without allowing it to dry; any 
 mistakes can be remedied after the wash is com- 
 pleted, but the wash should never be interrupted 
 to rectify mistakes. Lighten the wash by the 
 gradual addition of clean water; be careful to 
 take the color from the top of the dish, to avoid 
 getting the sediment. Always take about the 
 same amount on the brush, and do not allow the 
 brush to become too dry before adding more, as 
 this will dry much quicker on the paper, and the 
 addition of more will cause a streaked or 
 mottled effect. 
 
 Having reached the bottom of the drawing,
 
 314 
 
 take up any standing water or color with a 
 blotter, as it will make a bad appearance if this 
 is all allowed to stand and dry. The board 
 should be tilted slightly, so that the wash will 
 have a tendency to move downward; and it 
 should be left in this position until the color is 
 dry. Do not attempt to patch or add color to 
 any portion of the drawing that has commenced 
 to dry. 
 
 Having put into a saucer enough of the ink 
 for the drawing, apply the brush to the surface 
 of the ink, soaking up a brushful. If the draw- 
 ing is of any considerable size, a wide, flat brush 
 of camel's hair can be used to better advantage 
 than a pointed brush. The pointed brush, how- 
 ever, will be the one most used on ordinary-sized 
 drawings. 
 
 With the brush filled with the ink, apply to 
 the upper edge of the drawing, carrying it 
 across the top and gradually working it down- 
 ward, adding more ink as the brush becomes 
 drier. Since all work is darker at the top and 
 gradually shades lighter, as the wash is carried 
 down the sheet, add a little clean water each 
 time, until, at the bottom or last application of 
 the brush, it should contain almost clear water. 
 This shading from darker at the top to lighter 
 at the bottom is a conventional way of rendering 
 plans. 
 
 Plate H (lower figure), shows a plan 
 rendered in this way, the darker effect being
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 315 
 
 obtained by a series of light washes and not by 
 a single wash. 
 
 The brush is held in much the same way as 
 a pencil, the hand being entirely free from the 
 paper, or perhaps at times resting on the little 
 finger. 
 
 In case of any blotches or other objection- 
 able portions, these can be remedied with a little 
 care. Take the sponge and dip it into clear 
 water. Sop the portion thoroughly, allowing 
 enough time for the water to soak into the color; 
 then apply a clean blotter, and soak up the 
 water. Be very careful not to rub the blotter 
 over the surface. If very carefully done, the 
 trouble can be remedied, and the drawing will 
 scarcely show the spot. 
 
 Be careful, in all work, not to allow dust or 
 hairs from the brushes to remain on the draw- 
 ing. These may be removed with a toothpick, 
 by slightly moistening the end of the toothpick 
 in the mouth and carefully lifting the objects off 
 the drawing. For lines that have overrun after 
 the wash has become dry, take the bristle brush, 
 moisten it in clean water, and rub gently over 
 the color outside the line. When the water has 
 soaked into the color, use the blotter. The 
 trouble can be remedied by one or two such 
 treatments. 
 
 The methods of procedure described above 
 concern the application of flat washes. 
 
 It will take considerable practice to render 
 well. The beginner is advised to make several
 
 316 ARCHITECTUEAL DRAFTING 
 
 sheets of such work as described above, before 
 attempting a plan or elevation. Use the washes 
 on the elevations to show shadows, or the por- 
 tions in shade. See Plate H (upper figure), 
 which shows an elevation rendered in the 
 conventional way. 
 
 Water-colors are applied or "floated on" in 
 the same manner as the India ink washes. Re- 
 member that in the use of colors you will have 
 to be very careful to have a dish and a brush 
 for each color, as the least particle of color in the 
 clear water will sometimes change the color of 
 some other dish if the two are used. Clean color 
 boxes, brushes, and water are the first requisites 
 of good rendering in color. 
 
 Colors may be obtained either in tubes, sim- 
 ilar to oil paints, or in pans, which are small 
 dishes of color. These should all be kept in a 
 water-color box. There are usually two palettes 
 or lids to this box, on which the colors may be 
 mixed. If there is to be any quantity of color 
 used, these palettes will not be large enough, 
 and the dishes should be used. 
 
 In the use of either color or India ink, apply 
 enough color to give the drawing some char- 
 acter; make it "snap;" do not commit the oft- 
 repeated offense of having your drawing look 
 "sickly" or have a washed-out appearance. 
 Attack the problem of rendering, with determi- 
 nation; put on the colors as colors, and not as if 
 you were afraid of spoiling something. 
 
 Red, blue, and yellow are commonly called
 
 ABCHITECTUEAL DKAFTING 317 
 
 the three primary colors, and in combination 
 will give the intervening tints or colors of the 
 prism. Thus blue and yellow will give green; 
 red and yellow will give orange, and red and 
 blue will give violet or purple, the tints varying 
 according as one or the other color predominates 
 in the combination. 
 
 ORDERS OF ARCHITECTURE 
 
 In the study of architectural history, we turn 
 to the Greeks and Romans for a great many 
 fundamental principles of design. We see that 
 they had proportions for everything. Adopting 
 some unit, the building was designed and 
 erected with this as a unit. They had certain 
 arrangements of a cornice, a column, and a 
 base which have been handed down for ages. 
 All of the parts had certain relations to one an- 
 other in size. This combination we have called 
 an Order. 
 
 We have four Orders which are used in archi- 
 tecture the Tuscan, Doric, Ionic, and Cor- 
 inthian. (See Figs. 83 to 86.) A fifth Order 
 the so-called Composite Order combines fea- 
 tures of the others. 
 
 It will be noticed that all the ornamentation 
 on the mouldings has been omitted for the sake 
 of clearness in revealing the important propor- 
 tions. Each Order has the three main divisions 
 the entablature, column, and pedestal. In our 
 architectural design, the base or pedestal is
 
 318 
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 
 
 
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 Fig. 83. The Tuscan Order.
 
 AKCHITECTUKAL DRAFTING 319 
 
 usually omitted. As will be seen from the 
 drawings, the entablature has three divisions 
 the cornice, frieze, and architrave; the column 
 is divided into the cap, shaft, and base; the 
 pedestal, into the cap, die, and base. 
 
 The entablature varies from 1% to 2% times 
 the diameter of the column. The cornice pro- 
 jects from the face of the column a distance 
 equal to the height of the cornice in all cases 
 except in the Doric Order. The frieze is a flat 
 band or surface, sometimes ornamented. The 
 architrave may be made of a single band, or it 
 may be divided into a number of bands. 
 
 The column has a capital or top, varying 
 from a plain cushion to the elaborate cap of the 
 Corinthian and Composite Orders. The shaft, 
 in some Orders, is perfectly plain, while in 
 others it is fluted. All columns have a taper at 
 the top. The shaft is carried up straight for 
 one-third the height; and from this point it 
 tapers. This tapering is called entasis. The 
 shaft rests on a base which consists of a torus 
 and a plinth, or a series of toruses called an 
 Attic base. 
 
 The diameter of the column at the straight 
 portion is used as the unit of measurement for 
 all other parts. 
 
 Fig. 83 shows the Tuscan Order, with the 
 principal proportions. This is the simplest 
 Order, being perfectly plain. It is used a great 
 deal for porches, or for lower stories where there 
 are a series of Orders above.
 
 320 
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 
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 Fig. 84. The Doric Order.
 
 AECHITECTUEAL DKAFTING 
 
 321 
 
 Fig. 85. The Ionic Order.
 
 322 AKCEITECTUKAL DKAFTING 
 
 Fig. 84 shows the Doric Order. This has 
 a great deal of ornament, both on the soffit of 
 the corona (the projecting, crowning member of 
 the cornice), and on the mouldings. In most 
 modern designs, we see this Order modified 
 more or less. 
 
 There are two types of cornices used with 
 the Doric Order one with the mutules (project- 
 ing flat blocks ornamented on the under sur- 
 face) ; and the other with the dentils (a course of 
 small cubes in the bed-moulding). The general 
 profile of the cornice is different in the two 
 types. The shaft is very often fluted. 
 
 Fig. 85 shows the Ionic Order, with the prin- 
 cipal proportions. The cornice may have 
 brackets called modillions, or it may have the 
 dentils. The capital for the column varies, the 
 left-hand half showing the cushion capital, and 
 the right half shows the volute turned at 45 
 degrees, thus giving all faces alike. The shaft 
 is fluted, and the mouldings are usually 
 ornamented. 
 
 Fig. 86 shows the Corinthian Order. The 
 main difference from the other Orders is the 
 capital, which is highly ornamented by means 
 of acanthus leaves. This Order is probably the 
 most dignified, and is also the most expensive. 
 Sometimes the shaft is fluted. The mouldings 
 are all greatly ornamented. 
 
 There is a variation of the Corinthian 
 Order, called the Composite Order, already re- 
 ferred to. The chief difference is in the volutes
 
 AKCHITECTUEAL DRAFTING 
 
 323 
 
 Fig. 86. The Corinthian Order.
 
 OVOLO OB BOWTCL 'ELLIPTICAL OVOLO CAVCTTO 
 
 TORUS oo BEAD FILLET OR UISTE.L CONCC 
 
 ROUND BtAK MOULDING }t>LAY-FAC,t. DEVIL OB CMAMO 
 
 THUMB MOULDING 
 
 CYMA EECTA CYMA REVCOSA QOIRKKD CYMA 
 
 Fig. 87. Common Forms of Classic Mouldings. 
 324
 
 AKCHITECTUKAL DEAFTING 325 
 
 of the capital, they being much larger and 
 turned out the same way as in the true 
 Corinthian. 
 
 All of these Orders are modified to a greater 
 or less degree in all applications of them, each 
 architect making changes to conform to general 
 styles he is using on the building. The propor- 
 tions, however, cannot be varied much without 
 spoiling the general effect of the Order. 
 
 Pig. 87 gives some of the common forms of 
 mouldings, with the corresponding names. 
 
 ARCHITECTURAL LETTERING 
 
 Good lettering is an essential requisite of a 
 good set of plans. A drawing poorly executed 
 but lettered attractively and well, will look a 
 great deal better than one which is well drawn 
 but which is poorly lettered. Therefore, at the 
 start, let it be said that a draftsman needs to be 
 a good letterer as well as a good draftsman. 
 
 We find lettering used with the earliest art 
 of the Egyptians. These ancient people ex- 
 pressed their thoughts by means of symbols, 
 more or less geometrical in outline. These in- 
 scriptions we find in the oldest of our Biblical 
 writings; they were worked in stone and written 
 on their papyrus. The forms used are called 
 hieroglyphics, and students of ancient languages 
 have been able to translate these strange 
 characters. 
 
 The Greeks and Romans had characters very
 
 326 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 
 
 similar to ours. We have copied their forms, 
 and use them to-day for our letters. Some of 
 the inscriptions 'on the ancient Greek and 
 Roman temples are splendid examples of letter- 
 ing, as to both form and spacing. 
 
 The first principle to remember is that good 
 lettering comes from freehand work, and not a 
 mechanical product. The tendency of the begin- 
 ner, especially, is to make all letters by means 
 of straight edges and drawing instruments. 
 The difference in the two methods is evident 
 when we compare work of the two kinds. The 
 printed letter such as is used for newspaper 
 headlines, and the title as executed on a set of 
 drawings, show very clearly that the former is 
 too mechanical and stiff, while the latter, if well 
 executed, is much the more attractive. Then 
 again, freehand lettering can be adjusted to the 
 general type of the drawing. 
 
 After the graceful ease and ready adapta- 
 bility of freehand work, the next requisite in 
 good achitectural lettering is simplicity. The 
 simpler the letter, the easier made, and the 
 better the general effect. Examples illustrating 
 this can be seen in the effect of highly orna- 
 mental letters in newspaper advertising. 
 
 Learn to make the titles the same as a free- 
 hand sketch. Make plenty of strokes of the 
 pencil; get the general shape of the letters, and 
 the spacing. Do not attempt to make each letter 
 with one stroke of the pencil. 
 
 After having made the title with several out-
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 
 
 lines, then go over this, and the final lettering 
 can be done from this sketch of the letters. Get 
 the general proportions and shapes first, to- 
 gether with the spacing, before trying to get a 
 finished title. Develop the title as a whole, and 
 let the small details of each letter be the last 
 thing attempted. 
 
 The effect of the spacing of letters upon the 
 general appearance of the title, will be seen 
 from the accompanying illustrations of ex- 
 amples. Study the available space for the title; 
 
 Fig. 88. Forms and Proportions of Letters. 
 
 and make the size, style, and spacing of the 
 letters to suit the conditions. The guide lines, 
 with perhaps a few lines limiting the edges of 
 the letters, are the only mechanical lines that 
 should be used. 
 
 It will be well to consider some of the letter 
 forms, in order to understand just how they are 
 made to look the best. See Fig. 88. The A is 
 made wide enough at the bottom to give the 
 appearance of stability. The cross-line should 
 always be below the center, for, if exactly on 
 the center, the upper portion appears too small 
 for the base. The B should have the upper half
 
 328 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 
 
 smaller than the lower, both as to the width and 
 the cross-line. It appears over-balanced if the 
 upper half is made exactly like the lower half. 
 The C should have the upper projection of the 
 curve a little less than the lower. E should be 
 smaller above the center line than below. The 
 cross-line of F, H, and B should be the same. 
 G should be similar to C in the greater projec- 
 tion of the lower part of the curve. P, because 
 it has no lower portion, should be made a little 
 larger than one-half the height. S should have 
 the upper half the smaller. X and Y usually 
 have their intersection on the center line. 
 
 By keeping these facts in mind, the appear- 
 ance of the letters will be much improved. 
 
 For different styles of titles, where certain 
 types of letters are used, the above rules will 
 be modified; but for general work they should 
 be followed. 
 
 Single-line letters are used almost entirely in 
 lettering plans and drawings. 
 
 Spacing of Letters. As to the spacing, there 
 is no set rule for standard dimensions; but a few 
 rules may be given as a guide. Letters which 
 have vertical and parallel sides coming together, 
 are spaced the greatest distance apart. Take H 
 and B, for example; these require the largest 
 space. In case of a curve, as an or a C, with 
 an N or an H, the spacing will be about two- 
 thirds of that for the H and the N. This same 
 rule will hold for the curve of a D with an N or 
 M or any letter with a vertical line.
 
 AECHITECTURAL DRAFTING 329 
 
 If two curves come together as, for ex- 
 ample, a C and a G, or a B and a C the space 
 is slightly less than for N and 0. 
 
 If A and V come together, make the lower 
 point of the A come directly under the upper 
 point of the V; there should be no vertical space 
 between these letters. A or V, with or B, 
 will have about the same spacing as two curves, 
 such as B and C or C and 0. 
 
 While the above rules are only general, yet 
 they will serve as a guide. 
 
 When marks of punctuation are used, the 
 spacing will have to be increased over that of 
 the regular arrangement. The spacing between 
 words depends upon the style of letter used and 
 the available space. Increasing the spacing will 
 make the words more prominent. 
 
 In doing all letter work, it should first be 
 penciled completely, before any inking is done. 
 It is much easier to erase and make changes 
 while the title is still in pencil than after it is 
 inked. The ink will emphasize all irregularities. 
 
 The tendency of the beginner is to use too 
 fine a pen. A new pen is always hard to work 
 with, since it makes a thin hair line. Sometimes 
 a new pen can be made to work more easily, by 
 heating the point with a match. This will 
 render it more flexible, although the pen will 
 not last so long. Be very careful to make the 
 same thickness of line for all parts of the letters, 
 and for all letters of the title. It will require 
 practice to be able to use the pen satisfactorily.
 
 330 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 
 
 The inks can be any of the ready-mixed 
 India inks. These are very satisfactory, and are 
 much more convenient than grinding the ink 
 from an India ink stick. Since the prepared 
 inks evaporate and therefore thicken when ex- 
 posed to the air, the cork of the bottle should 
 always be at once replaced after filling the pen. 
 Some grades of black writing ink may be 
 used, although the India ink is much more 
 satisfactory. 
 
 Almost all of the drawing papers will take 
 ink. Tracing paper and tracing cloth are used 
 a great deal. Bristol board is used where letter- 
 ing is employed, as for an inscription, or 
 where it is not a part of a drawing. 
 
 In lettering, first rule the guide-lines in 
 pencil; then pencil the letters, and then ink. 
 There is no rule for holding the pen; be sure to 
 learn to have a free and easy stroke. By 
 practice, learn to have a uniform line ; and have 
 confidence in your ability before you start. 
 Usually the beginner is a little backward when 
 starting the lettering on a sheet. By practicing 
 vertical lines, inclined lines, and curves, one 
 gradually learns the use of the pen. It should be 
 noted that the strokes are all downward; and 
 a curve, as for O, is made up of a series of 
 strokes. There will be difficulty in getting 
 straight lines and curves of the same size. 
 
 In penciling, always use a soft pencil, one 
 free from grit. Make the lines as light as pos- 
 sible, so that they can be erased with as little
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 381 
 
 pressure as possible. Keep the paper as free 
 from erased lines as possible, as the erasing 
 tends to destroy the general surface of the 
 paper, and makes it much more difficult to ink 
 properly upon it. Should a mistake be made, 
 after the ink has become thoroughly dry, use 
 an ordinary pencil eraser, and rub gently in all 
 directions. Stop at short intervals to allow the 
 eraser to cool, as it will smear the ink if it 
 becomes too hot from rubbing. After the eras- 
 ing, take some smooth, hard surface be sure it 
 is clean and rub gently over the erased surface 
 to give a smooth finish to the paper. Some 
 think that a regular ink eraser is necessary to 
 remove the ink; but the pencil eraser will do the 
 work better and leave the surface of the paper 
 in much better condition. The work of erasing 
 will be slow and tedious, but it should be care- 
 fully done. 
 
 The size of letter will depend upon the space, 
 if the space is limited. Otherwise the letter 
 should be made to correspond to the size of the 
 drawing, a large, full-size drawing "requiring a 
 large letter, while a quarter-inch scale drawing 
 will require a small letter. By a careful study of 
 proportions, one can make a drawing look the 
 best. Poor judgment in this respect will often 
 spoil a well-drawn plan. 
 
 Titles are put on every sheet of a set of draw- 
 ings. Each drawing on the sheet must have a 
 single-line title ; and each sheet must have a title 
 complete, giving the name of the work, the
 
 332 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 
 
 client's name, the location, the scale, and some- 
 times the date. For the convenience of the 
 architect, he usually places in one corner his 
 name, the number of the sheet, the job number, 
 the initials of the different men who made the 
 drawing, and the date. This gives him his 
 record for filing the set of drawings. 
 
 Choose a style of letter that will be clear and 
 simple. While the architect has more liberty in 
 the choice and spacing of letters than the 
 engineer, yet the fundamental principle is clear- 
 ness. Capitals are used almost entirely for 
 titles, and small letters for notes of all kinds. 
 
 THET^ADFOKD A t^jm ITECTURAL. Co- 
 
 I 2 3 4- S 6 7 8 9 IO II 12 13 V* <3 I* 17 l 19 2O ' *2 ?3 C 25 Z* C7 2 
 
 CHICAGO [ILLINOIS 
 
 i 2 A s & v m s to ii n. ra i* f '* 
 
 l i z 3 + a * T >o >* is 1i 
 
 T JCHITCCTURALUP' 
 
 [1 LLINOI5' 
 
 15 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 ! 
 
 T DFORD ARCHITECTURAL Co- 
 
 o ! ILLINOIS- 
 
 Fig. 89. Method of Centering a Title. 
 
 In laying out a title, there is usually a cer- 
 tain space it will have to occupy; therefore the 
 title must be centered about a vertical center 
 line through this space. The method of center- 
 ing a title is shown in Fig. 89. Decide upon the 
 wording, and write out each line as it is to be 
 copied. Upon a piece of scratch-paper, spell out
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 333 
 
 the letters in each line, numbering each letter in 
 order, and also the spaces between the letters. 
 The center of each line is then evident. 
 
 Lay out the center line of the space to be 
 occupied on the drawing, and, after drawing the 
 guide-lines, start at the center line, and com- 
 mence sketching in the letters, first to the right, 
 as shown in the third line* Fig. 89. Thus the 
 right half of the title is sketched first. Now 
 take a piece of paper, and lay off to the left the 
 same distance as the right half extends to the 
 right. This gives us a starting point for the 
 left half. This part may be worked either from 
 the left to the right, or, as shown in the fifth 
 line, the letters may be placed in the order as 
 
 INTERIOR DETAILS- 
 
 RE.51DE.NCC.- FOE. HOM- A- 
 
 - AUDANV - - - A(E.W YOEK- 
 
 V/KBANA - 
 
 Fig. 90. Arrangement of a Title Showing Symmetry but not 
 Mechanical Stiffness. 
 
 numbered. A little experience will enable one 
 to lay out a title quickly and accurately in this 
 manner. 
 
 Having the general arrangement in pencil, 
 go over it carefully, and make the letters, 
 properly spaced and in good outline. The title 
 is then ready for inking. In all titles, let the 
 composition or spacing be such that while the 
 title as a whole shall be symmetrical, its general
 
 AHCHITECTUBAL DEAFTING 
 
 ASCHITHCTUEAL 
 
 abcdefahij k 
 
 LC.T5' 
 
 ron 
 
 Convenient for all nofes 
 
 ADCDnrGMIJ 
 KLMNOPQ12OT 
 
 
 T inc^^ I foof 
 
 T" 
 
 Fig. 91. Easily-Made Letters for General Drawings.
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 335 
 
 AfcCHITtCTUllAL 
 LLTTLRJ 
 
 abcde^hijklnnn 
 opqn/tuvwxyz. 
 
 A good letter for 
 Inscription.? <and 
 General notej-'A 
 Di^mfie-4 le-ttcr- 
 
 AftOLFGHUK 
 
 LMNOPQWTV 
 
 WXYZ 
 
 -rR.ONTLLLVAT10N- 
 
 Fig. 92. A Dignified Type of Letter for Inscriptions, General 
 
 Notes, etc.
 
 336 
 
 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 
 
 TECTORAL 
 
 LETTERS 
 
 ABCDE.F6H 
 
 ABCDEFGHIJKL 
 MNOPQR5TW 
 WXYZ - 
 
 Fig. 93. Showing Double-Line Letters Used Largely for General 
 
 Titles.
 
 ARCHITECTUKAL DRAFTING 337 
 
 ARCH 1 TtCTURAL 
 
 V/XYZ - 
 
 LCTTELR 
 
 ALL 
 P R EL/W1D 
 12^)4567600- 
 
 Fig. 94. Letters Suitable for Large-Scale and Full-Sized Details.
 
 cr 
 r 
 
 < 
 
 & o 
 
 01 
 
 IL 
 
 U 
 
 2 
 
 dJ 
 h 
 
 U 
 
 -J 
 
 IL 
 
 
 il 
 N 
 
 
 | 
 
 
 
 lU 
 
 Dl 
 
 U 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 n 
 
 iL 
 
 J 
 
 f 
 
 d 
 
 
 <0 
 
 tO 
 
 o 
 
 i" 
 
 Li 
 
 <0 
 h 
 U 
 
 (0 
 
 o g 
 5 d 
 
 V 
 
 .0 
 
 v$ 
 
 9 
 
 
 Q' 
 
 338
 
 DESIGN OF A OOUET HOUSE FOR A SMALL CITY. 
 
 Courtesy of Armour Institute of Technology. 
 ELEVATION AND PLAN RENDERED IN WASH. 
 PLATE H ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING.
 
 ABCHITECTUBAL DEAFTING 389 
 
 LLTTCRJ 
 ACrOODJTYLLor 
 
 DLTAILS- 
 
 uv wxyz. - fZ 3 45 C, 73 9O - 
 
 DLTAIL* r >OOK 
 CASL - NOTE- 
 
 ll doors /o *>f/J<z =-* 
 
 Fig. 96. A Good Form of Slanting Letter for Large Work and 
 Full-Sized Details.
 
 340 ARCHITECTURAL DRAFTING 
 
 outline shall not be inclosed by straight lines. 
 A line, for example, connecting the ends of the 
 different lines of a title should not be straight, 
 but irregular, as shown in Fig. 90. Try to avoid 
 making the lines exactly the same length. 
 Where the same general title is to be used on a 
 number of drawings of a set, it is very con- 
 venient to make the title in pencil on a piece of 
 paper, and trace it through the tracing cloth 
 for the finished drawing. This saves a great 
 deal of time, and gives a uniform title for every 
 sheet. 
 
 The styles of letters mostly in use by archi- 
 tects are shown in Figs. 91 to 96. 
 
 Fig. 91 presents an easy substantial title, 
 quickly made, and very clear. This form of 
 letter will be found very satisfactory for general 
 drawings. 
 
 Fig. 92 shows a type of letter largely used. 
 It has a dignified appearance, is suitable espe- 
 cially for inscriptions on tablets or buildings, 
 and is quickly and easily made. 
 
 Fig. 93 shows a form of double-line letter, 
 very quickly made ; this letter is used largely for 
 general titles. 
 
 Fig. 94 shows a good style of letter to use on 
 full-sized details and large-scale details. It is 
 made by several strokes of the pen. Long lines 
 are hard to make; therefore the long lines are 
 made up of a series of short lines. When well 
 done, it makes a very attractive form of letter 
 to use. The figure is small, and the true values
 
 AECHITECTURAL DRAFTING 341 
 
 of the broken lines do not show up as they do 
 on large work. 
 
 Fig. 95 is a sheet showing the relative sizes 
 of letters to use on a drawing. The small letters 
 may be made either slanting or vertical. 
 
 It is much easier to make a slanting line than 
 a vertical line. Irregularities show less in slant- 
 ing letters than in vertical letters, and for 
 this reason some architects use a slanting letter 
 entirely. The vertical letter, however, is much 
 more dignified, and, when well done, is more 
 satisfactory. 
 
 Fig. 96 is a good form of slanting letter for 
 full-size detailing and large work. 
 
 It is as true of drafting as it is of every other 
 branch of worthy human endeavor. Experience 
 is the one great and indispensable teacher. Just 
 as we learn to sing by singing, and to build 
 houses by building them, so we learn to draw 
 by drawing; and it is only by persistent 
 practice on the part of the draftsman that the 
 highest proficiency can be acquired.
 
 INDEX 
 
 Architectural Drafting 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Aligraphy 240 
 
 Apron 296 
 
 Architecture, Colonial 2i9 
 
 Architectural Drafting 187 
 
 Architectural Drawings 194 
 
 Architectural Forms . % 244 
 
 Architectural Lettering 325 
 
 Architrave 217 
 
 Back-Lining 296 
 
 Balusters 285 
 
 Base 217 
 
 Bay Window 296 
 
 Blue-Printing 238 
 
 Box Cornice 268 
 
 Brackets 269 
 
 Brick Moulds 296 
 
 Buildings, Types of 220 
 
 Building Lines 249 
 
 Built-Up Doors 279 
 
 Cap 
 
 Capital 
 
 Carriages 
 
 Casing 
 
 Inside 
 
 Outside 
 
 Casement Windows 
 
 Colonial Architecture 
 
 Colors, Primary 
 
 Column 
 
 Competition Drawings 
 
 Composite Order 
 
 Composition of a Building 
 Construction 
 
 Details of 
 
 Floor 
 
 Materials of 
 
 Corinthian Order 
 
 Cornice 217, 
 
 Box 
 
 Open 
 
 296 
 296 
 289 
 
 317 
 217 
 203 
 317 
 
 268 
 271 
 25* 
 317 
 268 
 268 
 268 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Counter-Flashing 276 
 
 Crown-Mould . . 269 
 
 Deadening Material 273 
 
 Dentil Course 269 
 
 Details of Construction 268 
 
 Die 217 
 
 Dimension Lines 249 
 
 Doric Order 317 
 
 Dormer Windows 296 
 
 Doors 279 
 
 Built-Up 279 
 
 Stock 279 
 
 Double-Hung Windows 289 
 
 Drawings 
 
 Architectural 194 
 
 Competition 203 
 
 Reproducing 238 
 
 Wash 310 
 
 Working 206 
 
 E 
 
 Elevation, The 216 
 
 217 Elevations, Treatment of... 221 
 
 217 Entablature 217 
 
 285 
 
 Fascia 269 
 
 Fireplaces 284 
 
 219 Flashing and Counter- 
 
 Flashing 276 
 
 Floor Construction 271 
 
 Deadening Material 273 
 
 Under-Floor 272 
 
 Flue, Vent 252 
 
 Forms, Architectural 244 
 
 Fresh- Air Supply 252 
 
 Frieze 217 
 
 Ground, The 296 
 
 Gutter 270 
 
 342
 
 INDEX 
 
 343 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Header 273 
 
 Hectograph Process 240 
 
 India-Ink 310 
 
 Ionic Order 317 
 
 Joists 
 
 Lath and Plaster 274 
 
 Lettering 
 
 Architectural 325 
 
 Spacing 328 
 
 Library 220 
 
 Lines 
 
 Building 249 
 
 Dimension 249 
 
 Lining, Back 296 
 
 Lookout 269 
 
 M 
 
 Materials of Construction . . . 255 
 Muntins .. .289 
 
 Office Building 220 
 
 Open Cornice 268 
 
 Openings, Location of 226 
 
 Orders, Use of the 216 
 
 Orders of Architecture. . . 317 
 
 Parting Strip 296 
 
 Pedestal 217 
 
 Pen and Ink Eendering 305 
 
 Perspective Sketches 203 
 
 Pivoted Windows 289 
 
 Plan, The 206 
 
 Planceer 269 
 
 Plank-Framed Windows 290 
 
 Plaster 274 
 
 Plinth 217 
 
 Porch Construction. 280 
 
 Preliminary Sketches 194 
 
 Primary Colors. . . 317 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Pulley Stile 296 
 
 Eendering, Pen and Ink. . . . 305 
 
 Eeproducing Drawings 238 
 
 Eiser 285 
 
 Eoof Windows 296 
 
 S 
 
 Sash 289 
 
 Scale Details 227 
 
 Schoolhouse 220 
 
 Section, The 22V 
 
 Shades and Shadows 259 
 
 Shadows, Shades and 259 
 
 Shaft 217 
 
 Shrinkage 277 
 
 Sill 296 
 
 Single-Light Windows 288 
 
 Sketches 
 
 Perspective 203 
 
 Preliminary 194 
 
 Sketching 298 
 
 Fundamental Principles. . . 298 
 
 Method 301 
 
 Soffit 269 
 
 Staff-Head 296 
 
 Stairs 284 
 
 Stile, Pulley 296 
 
 Stock Doors 279 
 
 Stool 296 
 
 Strip, Parting 296 
 
 Sub-Jamb 296 
 
 Symbols, Architectural 244 
 
 Threshold 280 
 
 Tracing Cloth 243 
 
 Transom 289 
 
 Tread 285 
 
 Treatment of Elevations. . . . 221 
 
 Tuscan Order 317 
 
 Types of Buildings 220 
 
 U 
 
 Under-Floor 272 
 
 Use of the Orders . . .216 
 
 Veneer 279
 
 344 INDEX 
 
 W PAGE 
 
 PAGE Bay 296 
 
 Warehouse 221 Casement 289 
 
 Wash Drawings 310 Double-Hung 289 
 
 Method 310 Pivoted 289 
 
 Water-Table 217 ' Plank-Framed 290 
 
 Water-Colors 305, 310 Eoof 296 
 
 White-Printing 239 Single-Light 288 
 
 Windows 288, 296 Working Drawings 206
 
 MODEL HOUSE DESIGNS 
 
 SUPPLEMENT PART II 
 
 A Collection of Forty-one Well-planned, Modern, and Distinc- 
 tive Residence Designs Prepared by a Corps of 
 Skilled Licensed Architects 
 
 Any one of these designs may be adopted with the certainty 
 that it is in the best architectural style, and will make 
 an attractive, convenient, successful dwelling 
 
 Model House Designs Supplement Part I, Containing Forty-two 
 
 Well-planned Residences, will be found in 
 
 "Radford's Drafting," Vol. I 
 
 THE RADFORD ARCHITECTURAL COMPANY 
 
 178 W. Jackson Boulevard, Chicago
 
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 Index to House Plan Supplement Part II 
 
 
 
 Estimated 
 
 Cost- 
 
 Price of Plans 
 
 Design. 
 
 Page. 
 
 From About 
 
 To About 
 
 and Specifications, 
 
 2005-D 
 
 66 
 
 $2,500 
 
 $2,800 
 
 $12.00 
 
 2544-D 
 
 68 
 
 3,500 
 
 4,000 
 
 15.00 
 
 5127 
 
 64 
 
 2,275 
 
 2,425 
 
 10.00 
 
 6501 
 
 18 
 
 2,825 
 
 3,225 
 
 18.00 
 
 6502 
 
 48 
 
 3,800 
 
 4,200 
 
 24.00 
 
 6503 
 
 54 
 
 6,500 
 
 6,900 
 
 30.00 
 
 6504 
 
 2 
 
 3,000 
 
 3,400 
 
 22.00 
 
 6505 
 
 60 
 
 4,900 
 
 5,200 
 
 26.00 
 
 6506 
 
 46 
 
 2,800 
 
 3,200 
 
 20.00 
 
 6507 
 
 16 
 
 6,000 
 
 6,200 
 
 28.00 
 
 6508 
 
 72 
 
 3,125 
 
 3,325 
 
 22.00 
 
 6509 
 
 10 
 
 2,800 
 
 3,200 
 
 16.00 
 
 6510 
 
 4 
 
 3,800 
 
 4,200 
 
 18.00 
 
 6511 
 
 44 
 
 5,200 
 
 5,600 
 
 26.00 
 
 6512 
 
 32 
 
 3,150 
 
 3,550 
 
 16.00 
 
 6513 
 
 22 
 
 2,200 
 
 2,400 
 
 16.00 
 
 6514 
 
 34 
 
 5,600 
 
 5,800 
 
 28.00 
 
 6515 
 
 6 
 
 4,675 
 
 4,975 
 
 18.00 
 
 6516 
 
 3G 
 
 2,875 
 
 3,275 
 
 20.00 
 
 6517 
 
 8 
 
 4,800 
 
 5,200 
 
 26.00 
 
 6518 
 
 56 
 
 3,800 
 
 4,200 
 
 22.00 
 
 6519 
 
 28 
 
 2,625 
 
 3,025 
 
 16.00 
 
 6520 
 
 30 
 
 4,100 
 
 4,500 
 
 24.00 
 
 6521 
 
 20 
 
 4,400 
 
 4,800 
 
 24.00 
 
 6522 
 
 58 
 
 6,000 
 
 6,200 
 
 28.00 
 
 6523 
 
 38 
 
 2,700 
 
 3,100 
 
 16.00 
 
 6524 
 
 26 
 
 6,000 
 
 6,400 
 
 28.00 
 
 6525 
 
 40 
 
 6,400 
 
 6,800 
 
 30.00 
 
 6526 
 
 14 
 
 2,475 
 
 2,875 
 
 18.00 
 
 6527 
 
 74 
 
 7,500 
 
 8,000 
 
 24.00 
 
 6528 
 
 50 
 
 4,200 
 
 4,600 
 
 24.00 
 
 6529 
 
 24 
 
 4,250 
 
 4,650 
 
 26.00 
 
 6530 
 
 42 
 
 5,000 
 
 5,500 
 
 20.00 
 
 6531 
 
 62 
 
 6,600 
 
 7,000 
 
 30.00 
 
 6532 
 
 52 
 
 3,200 
 
 3,600 
 
 20.00 
 
 6533 
 
 76 
 
 3,200 
 
 3,475 
 
 22.00 
 
 6534 
 
 12 
 
 6,200 
 
 6,600 
 
 30.00 
 
 0507 
 
 80 
 
 3,200 
 
 3,800 
 
 18.00 
 
 9509 
 
 82 
 
 3,200 
 
 3,800 
 
 18.00 
 
 9510 
 
 78 
 
 2,800 
 
 3,400 
 
 18.00 
 
 9520 
 
 70 
 
 3,075 
 
 3,475 
 
 22.00 
 
 
 
 84 
 

 
 Plans and Specifications at Low Cost 
 
 WE ILLUSTRATE IN THIS BOOK the 
 
 perspective view and floor plans of 41 Mod- 
 ern Residences. In drawing these plans 
 special effort has been made to provide for 
 the most economical construction, thereby 
 giving the home builder and contractor the 
 benefit of the saving of many dollars. 
 
 $200.00 PLANS FOE ONLY $20.00 This 
 department has for its foundation the best 
 equipped architectural establishment ever 
 maintained for the purpose of furnishing the 
 public with complete working plans and 
 specifications at the remarkable low price of 
 only $10.00 to $30.00 per set. Every plan we 
 illustrate has been designed by a licensed 
 architect, who stands at the head of his pro- 
 fession in this particular class of work. 
 
 WHAT WE GIVE YOU The first ques- 
 tion you will ask is, "What do we get in 
 these complete working plans and specifica- 
 tions? Of what do they consist? Are they 
 the cheap printed plans on tissue paper with- 
 out details or specifications?" We do not 
 blame you for wishing to know what you 
 will get for your money. 
 
 BLUE FEINTED WOEKING PLANS 
 The plans we send out are the regular blue 
 printed plans, drawn one-quarter inch scale 
 to the foot, showing all the elevations, floor 
 plans and necessary interior details. We use 
 the very best grade of blue-printing paper; 
 every line and figure showing perfect and 
 distinct. 
 
 FOUNDATION AND CELLAE PLANS 
 This sheet shows the shape and size of all 
 the walls, piers, footings, posts, etc., and of 
 what materials they are constructed; shows 
 the location of all windows, doors, chimneys, 
 ash-pits, partitions, and the like. The differ- 
 ent wall sections are given, showing their 
 construction and measurements from all the 
 different points. 
 
 FLOOE PLANS These plans show the 
 shape and size of all rooms, halls and closets; 
 the location and size of all doors and win- 
 
 dows; the position of all plumbing fixtures, 
 gas lights, registers, pantry work, etc., and 
 all the measurements that are necessary are 
 given. 
 
 ELEVATIONS A front, right, left and 
 rear elevation are furnished with all the 
 plans. These drawings are complete and ac- 
 curate in every respect. They show the 
 shape, size and location of all doors, windows, 
 porches, cornices, towers, bays, and the like; 
 in fact, give you an exact scale picture of 
 the house as it should be at completion. Full 
 wall sections are given, showing the construc- 
 tion from foundation to roof, the height of 
 stories between the joists, height of plates, 
 pitch of roof, etc. 
 
 EOOF PLAN This plan is furnished 
 where the roof construction is at all in- 
 tricate. It shows the location of all hips, 
 valleys, ridges, decks, etc. All the above 
 drawings are made to scale one-quarter inch 
 to the foot. 
 
 DETAILS All necessary details of the 
 interior work, such as door and window cas- 
 ings and trim, base, stools, picture moulding, 
 doors, newel posts, balusters, rails, etc., ac- 
 company each set of plans. Part is shown 
 in full size, while some of the larger work, 
 such as stair construction, is drawn to a 
 scale of one and one-half inch to the foot. 
 
 SPECIFICATIONS The specifications are 
 typewritten on Lakeside Bond Linen paper. 
 They consist of twenty-two pages of closely 
 typewritten matter, giving full instructions 
 for carrying out the work. All necessary di- 
 rections are given in the clearest and most 
 explicit manner, so that there can be no 
 possibility of a misunderstanding. 
 
 BASIS OF CONTEACT The working 
 plans and specifications we furnish can be 
 made the basis of contract between the home 
 builder and the contractor. This will pre- 
 vent mistakes, which cost money, and they 
 will prevent disputes which are unforeseen 
 and never settled satisfactorily to both par- 
 
 85
 
 ties. When no plans are used the contractor 
 is often obliged to do some work he did not 
 figure on, and the home builder does not get 
 as much for his money as he expected, simply 
 because there was no basis on which to work 
 and upon which to base the contract. 
 
 NO MISUNDERSTANDING CAN ARISE 
 when a set of our plans and specifications is 
 before the contractor and the home builder, 
 showing the interior and exterior construc- 
 tion of the house as agreed upon in the con- 
 tract. Many advantages may be claimed for 
 the complete plans and specifications. They 
 are time savers, and, therefore, money savers. 
 Workmen will not have to wait for instruc- 
 tions when a set of plans is left on the job. 
 They will prevent mistakes in cutting lum- 
 ber, in placing door and window frames, and 
 in many other places where the contractor is 
 not on the work and the men have received 
 only partial or indefinite instructions. They 
 also give instructions for the working of all 
 material to the best advantage. 
 
 OUR LIBERAL PRICES Many have 
 marveled at our ability to furnish such ex- 
 cellent and complete working plans and 
 specifications at such low prices. We do not 
 wonder at this, because we charge but $10.00 
 to $30.00 for a more complete set of work- 
 ing plans and specifications than you would 
 receive if ordered in the ordinary manner, 
 and when drawn especially for you, at a cost 
 of from $75.00 to $200.00. On account of 
 our large business and unusual equipment, 
 and owing to the fact that we divide the 
 cost of these plans among so many, it is pos- 
 sible for us to sell them at these low prices. 
 The -margin of profit is very small, but it 
 enables us to sell thousands of sets of plans, 
 which save many times their cost to both 
 the owner and the contractor in erecting 
 even the smallest dwelling. 
 
 OUR GUARANTEE Perhaps there are 
 many who feel that they are running some 
 
 risk in ordering plans at a distance. We 
 wish to assure our customers that there is no 
 risk whatever. If, upon receipt of these 
 plans, you do not find them exactly as rep- 
 resented, if you do not find them complete 
 and accurate in every respect, if you do not 
 find them as well prepared as those furnished 
 by any architect in the country, or any that 
 you have ever seen, we will refund your 
 money upon the return of the plans from 
 you in perfect condition. All of our plans 
 are prepared by architects standing at the 
 head of their profession, and the standard 
 of their work is the very highest. We could 
 not afford to make this guarantee if we were 
 not positive that we were furnishing the 
 best plans put out in this country, even 
 though our price is not more than one-sev- 
 enth to one-tenth of the price usually 
 charged. 
 
 ESTIMATED COST It is impossible for 
 anyone to estimate the cost of a building 
 and have the figures hold good in all sec- 
 tions of the country. We do not claim to 
 be able to do it. The estimated cost of the 
 houses we illustrate is based on the most 
 favorable conditions in all respects, and in- 
 cludes everything but the plumbing and 
 heating. We are not familiar with your 
 local conditions, and, should we claim to 
 know the exact cost of a building in your 
 locality, a child would know that our state- 
 ment was false. We leave this matter in the 
 hands of the reliable contractors, for they, 
 and they alone, know your local conditions. 
 
 IMMEDIATE DELIVERY GUARAN- 
 TEED Our equipment and facilities are 
 such that we can send out the same day we 
 receive order the complete plans and speci- 
 fications for any house we illustrate. De- 
 livery is made by express whenever possi- 
 ble, otherwise plans and specifications are 
 forwarded by mail. 
 
 THE RADFORD ARCHITECTURAL CO. 
 
 178 W. JACKSON BOUL. 
 CHICAGO, ILL. 
 
 86
 
 IT SHOWS YOU HOW 
 
 To Accomplish More How to Make More How to Save 
 Money, Time and Labor How You Can Equip Yourself For 
 
 Better Building and Bigger Contracts 
 
 A year's subscription to the AMERICAN CARPENTER AND BUILDER, 
 "the World's Greatest Building Paper," is a wise investment for any Contractor, 
 Builder, Carpenter or Woodworker an investment that will return remarkable 
 dividends of reliable, practical information that will give full value in every number. 
 
 American Carpenter and Builder 
 
 Endorsed Af\ f\f\f\ Well-pleased 
 By Nearly ^V S VUU Subscribers 
 
 The AMERICAN CARPENTER AND BUILDER covers the building industry 
 thoroughly, its many departments being complete in descriptions and illustrations. 
 Not only are the time-tried and approved methods of construction shown, but also 
 all other features that enter into building, such as heating, plumbing, ventilating, art 
 glass, painting, builders' hardware, water supply, lighting, decoration, etc. 
 
 Original and Up-to-Date Plans for Builders 
 
 Every issue of the AMERICAN CARPENTER AND BUILDER contains per- 
 spective views, floor plans and details of modern and moderate-cost residences, 
 schoolhouses, farm buildings, bungalows, cement houses, flats and other public and 
 private structures. These house plans are all original, complete and absolutely correct. 
 They are reproduced so clearly that they can be used to work from "on the job" if 
 desired. 
 
 Largest Best Illustrated Leads in Every Way 
 
 The AMERICAN CARPENTER AND BUILDER contains more pages of read- 
 ing matter each month than any other building publication. Its contents are better 
 and more practical, and intended for men who make their living by building. Its 
 departments cover a wider range of subjects, it has a greater number, better and 
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 contributors. Its contents are copyrighted and exclusive. It has the largest and most 
 interesting correspondence department. 
 
 There are from 148 to 172 pages in every number of the AMERICAN CARPEN- 
 TER AND BUILDER. There are from 250 to 300 advertisers using its columns every 
 month (50% more than any other building publication) to tell its readers of new 
 materials, machinery, tools, equipment and supplies for their work. In addition to 
 the vast amount of reliable and practical information in its reading columns the 
 AMERICAN CARPENTER AND BUILDER is a valuable, indispensable, correct 
 
 Up-to-Date Trade Directory 
 
 That every contractor, buildei, carpenter, woodworker, architect and draftsman needs 
 in order to keep posted on new developments, new methods, new ways, new machinery, 
 new tools. Nowhere else can such a vast variety of useful knowledge relating to the 
 building industry be bought at so low a price. 
 
 Subscriptions, $2.00 a year. Sample Copy Sent on Request 
 
 AMERICAN CARPENTER AND BUILDER 
 
 178 W. Jackson Boul., Chicago
 
 DETAILS 
 
 of Building Construction 
 
 Radford's Portfolio of "Details of Build- 
 ing Construction" is a complete manual of 
 building practice, as applied to carpentry, 
 construction and the use of millwork. It 
 is a remarkable collection of full-page 
 plates, accurately drawn and reproduced 
 to exact scale, showing clearly every detail 
 of modern building construction and finish. 
 These plates make plain the framing and 
 construction of residences of every type. 
 The drawings show both the arrangement 
 of the room and all the interior trim, includ- 
 ing built-in features, fully detailed. 
 
 General Synopsis of Contents 
 
 PART I. Details of Construction and Finish 
 
 38 Full Page Plates, showing complete detai!s 
 of interior trim with special "built-in" features 
 for every room and part of a modern residence. 
 
 PART II. 
 
 Details of Frame and Masonry 
 Construction 
 
 44 Full Page Plates, presenting a graded series 
 of 197 figures detailing completely every point in 
 frame, brick and stone construction. 
 
 PART III. Details of Miscellaneous Building 
 
 57 Full Page Plates A veritable Treasure 
 House of practical and reliable information 
 for carpenters and builders especially those 
 working in the country working drawings and 
 details which solve completely every building 
 problem. 
 
 200 Pages 9x12 inches 
 
 PART IV. "The Handy Man's Friend" 
 
 How to Make a Thousand and One Useful 
 
 Things 
 
 61 Pages, packed full of practical helps for 
 doing all the various pieces of work that the 
 carpenter and the "handy-man-about-the- 
 house" is called upon to do. Details and work- 
 ing drawings with brief explanatory text. 
 
 A Big, Brand-New Up-to-the-Minute Book 
 
 Every part eft a building^ and every kind of a building is shown in Radford's 
 Portfolio of "Details of Building Construction." All dimensions, angles, curves, 
 measurements and joints are made so plain and are so well illustrated that the "man 
 on the job" will have no trouble or difficulty in doing the work. It has all been 
 figured out for him by men who have made a lifelong study and success of architecture 
 and building. This is the day of "built in" space- and labor-saving features in the home. 
 Carpenters are called upon to plan and build buffets and sideboards for the dining 
 room, kitchen cabinets, cases and cupboards for the kitchen and pantry, bookcases 
 for the living room and library, wardrobes and linen closets for the chambers, fire- 
 places with wood mantels, window seats, etc. Radford's Portfolio of "Details of Build- 
 ing Construction" is a regular gold mine of new and attractive designs and practical 
 ideas from which the carpenter or the architect or the builder can draw for all or 
 any of these. In every case complete details are presented all accurately drawn to 
 scale so that the work can be gotten out directly from the Portfolio, if need be, 
 without redrawing. 
 
 Two Hundred Pages of Illustrations 
 
 Each plate and drawing is accompanied by descriptive text, pointing out the special 
 features and making every part perfectly clear and easily understood. 
 
 Bound in cloth with handsome illuminated cover. Price, postpaid, $1.00. 
 
 THE RADFORD ARCHITECTURAL CO. 
 
 178 West Jackson Boul., Chicago 178 Fulton St., New York
 
 BUNGALOW 
 
 208 Brand-New Designs 
 
 RADfORES 
 
 This handsomely bound book, 
 size 8x11 inches, 224 pages, con- 
 tains perspective views and floor 
 plans of 208 Bungalows suitable for 
 any climate and for every material. 
 The illustrations show the Bunga- 
 lows exactly as they will appear 
 when built and the floor plans show 
 the size and arrangement of the 
 rooms, windows, closets, plumbing 
 and interior details. The estimated 
 cost of construction of the Bunga- 
 lows shown ranges from $500.00 to 
 $5,000.00 each. 
 
 Best Ideas in Bungalow Archi- 
 tecture 
 
 In this big book is condensed the 
 best thought on Bungalow construc- 
 tion. The home builder and con- 
 tractor will find here every style of 
 Bungalow that has proved itself 
 worthy of being classed with that 
 form of architecture. Freak ideas 
 that serve no good purpose, but are 
 an item of large expense, have been carefully excluded from this collection. 
 
 Largest Bungalow Book Ever Published 
 
 "Artistic Bungalows" is the largest and most complete work of its kind 
 ever published. In its 208 Bungalow designs are many that will appeal to 
 every taste. Economy of construction, as well as beauty and harmony of 
 design, has been carefully kept in mind. Convenience of interior arrange- 
 ment, light, and closet room have all been considered. 
 
 Plans Are Guaranteed to Be Correct 
 
 The plans for every Bungalow shown in this book were drawn by 
 licensed architects, men who have made a life study of home construction 
 and who know the economy of planning buildings that allow of the use of 
 the standard sizes of lumber and material. 
 
 Wide Range of Style and Materials 
 
 Every floor plan shown in this large collection is guaranteed to be abso- 
 lutely correct from an architectural standpoint. "Pet ideas" that involve 
 needless expense, waste, or possibility of mistake have not been considered. 
 
 Bound in cloth, with handsome illuminated cover. Price, postpaid, $1.00. 
 
 THE RADFORD ARCHITECTURAL CO. 
 
 178 West Jackson Boul., Chicago 178 Fulton St., New York
 
 FRAMING 
 
 House Framing, Barn 
 Framing, Roof Framing 
 
 "Framing" is the largest book of 
 its kind ever published. It consists 
 of. 356 pages, size 6x9 inches, and 
 printed from large, clear type on a 
 high-grade book paper. More than 
 100 pages of illustrated details make 
 it most valuable. 
 
 This large new book, "Framing," 
 is written so that any reader can 
 understand every page, every term 
 used and every detail shown. It is 
 entirely free from technicalities, and 
 yet its pages are meaty with instruc- 
 tions to all classes of builders, from 
 the youngest apprentice to the 
 journeyman, as well as the practical 
 builder _and the largest contractor. 
 
 Practical information is the key- 
 note of "Framing." By practical, we 
 mean information that can be suc- 
 cessfully applied to the everyday 
 work of the average carpenter, 
 builder and contractor, as well as the 
 more intricate forms of framing that 
 come less often, but about which it 
 is necessary to be fully posted. The 
 book presents problems as they have 
 been worked out by well-known 
 architects and the man on the job. 
 
 General Synopsis of Contents 
 
 Part I. Framing for all Types of Houses 
 
 Chapter 1. Ordinary Frame Houses Fram- 
 ing complete, from foundation to roof 
 Chapter 2. Roof Framing Simplified 
 Chapter 3. Stair Building Simplified 
 Chapter 4. Cement Plastered and English 
 
 Half-Timber Houses 
 Chapter 5. Wood Framing for brick veneer 
 
 houses 
 Chapter 6. Wood Framing for stone and 
 
 brick houses 
 Part II. Barn Framing Complete 
 
 Chapter 1. Heavy Timber Barns 
 Chapter 2. Plank Framing 
 Chapter 3. Balloon or Self-Supporting Con- 
 struction 
 
 and 
 
 in 
 
 Part III. Framing of Factories, Stores 
 
 Public Buildings 
 Chapter 1. Mill Construction 
 Chapter 2. Wood Trusses of all kinds 
 Chapter 3. Architectural Framing as 
 
 churches, gymnasiums, halls, etc. 
 Part IV. Miscellaneous Framing 
 
 Chapter 1. Scaffolding and Shoring 
 Chapter 2. Wooden Bridges 
 Chapter 3. False Work for Concrete 
 Part V. Useful Tables and Data 
 Part VI. Dictionary of Terms and Index 
 
 All terms used in framing, building con- 
 struction and architecture defined and 
 explained, with cross reference to full 
 discussion in body of book 
 
 A Big, Practical, Up-to-the-Minute Book for the Architect, Drafts- 
 man, Construction Man, Contractor, Builder and Carpenter 
 
 Bound in cloth, with handsome illuminated cover. Price, postpaid, $1.00. 
 
 THE RADFORD ARCHITECTURAL CO. 
 
 178 West Jackson Boul., Chicago 178 Fulton St., New York
 
 BRICK HOUSES 
 
 And How to Build Them 
 
 This book is a complete and 
 clear manual of brick construction, 
 designs and details. It tells what 
 every builder should know of the 
 classification and measurements of 
 brickwork, together with archi- 
 tects' drawings of framing for brick 
 houses and the use of brick veneer. 
 
 Up-to-Date and Approved 
 Methods 
 
 This book also tells of the mis- 
 cellaneous uses of brick, including 
 ornamental brick and tile work, 
 chimney and flue construction, 
 brick fireplaces, brick sewers, cis- 
 terns and flush tanks, etc. It tells 
 the carpenter and builder every- 
 thing he should know to undertake 
 brickwork and how to make a suc- 
 cess of every job in which brick is 
 used. It is so clearly illustrated 
 by details that there can be no un- 
 certainty in any builder's mind as 
 to each successive step to be taken. 
 
 Money-Maker and Business-Getter for Builders 
 
 This book will be a money-maker and business-getter for builders. Brick houses 
 are in demand. Many thousands of dollars are being spent by brick manufacturers 
 in advertising so as to create a demand for their product. This has stimulated a 
 desire on the part of those intending to build to insist upon brick instead of other 
 materials. Every builder should learn all he can about the many varieties of brick 
 and the multitude of ways it can bemused in order to meet this demand. In addition 
 to designs of many beautiful, ^attractive, medium priced houses this book also contains 
 fully worked-out detail drawings, as well as prices and estimating data. 
 
 Beautiful Designs Shown 
 
 Over sixty designs of the very best modern architectural work are presented in 
 this book. These designs are of attractive, substantial, homelike brick houses of 
 many types designs that will appeal to home lovers and the man or woman who is 
 investing the savings of a lifetime in a home. This book will give any builder all 
 the information he needs to figure on a job and then carry it out in the most ap- 
 proved manner. In all sections of the country the demand for brick houses is grow- 
 ing. Builders are finding out they must post up on brick construction. They are 
 being asked its cost, durability, economy and hundreds of similar questions. They 
 can find the answers by studying the pages of this book. 
 
 Size 8 xir inches, 236 pages. Bound in cloth with handsome art cover. Price, 
 postpaid, $1.00. 
 
 THE RADFORD ARCHITECTURAL CO. 
 
 178 West Jackson Boul., Chicago 178 Fulton St., New York 
 
 AND HOW TO BUILD THEM
 
 STEEL SQUARE And its Uses 
 
 "Steel Square and Its Uses," 
 by Wm. A. Radford, consists 
 of two volumes and are brand 
 new books. They are written 
 in plain, everyday language 
 and the text and illustrations 
 can be easily understood and 
 followed. Information of value 
 that has appeared in former 
 works appears in these books, 
 together with a vast amount of 
 absolutely new, practical, every- 
 day information, such as is nec- 
 essary for every progressive 
 and successful carpenter to 
 know. 
 
 Vast Amount of Prac- 
 tical Information 
 
 This up-to-date and practical 
 work on the application of the 
 steel square treats of the laying 
 of the rafters, finding the 
 length of jacks, securing bevels, 
 laying out hopper bevels, show- 
 ing how to use the steel square 
 as a calculating machine, and 
 how to measure solids, surfaces 
 and distances. While the text 
 and descriptive matter are so 
 accurate and easy of compre- 
 hension that they could be 
 understood without even the assistance of the illustrations, nevertheless the book has 
 been thoroughly and profusely illustrated with diagrams and drawings. 
 
 Over 300 Illustrations 
 
 Practical and instructive illustrations to the number of more than 300 are shown 
 in these books. The illustrations are not technical, mathematical designs nor 
 geometrical problems, but are the thoroughly practical illustrations of a thoroughly 
 practical text. 
 
 Special Chapters on Stair Building 
 
 Special chapters are devoted to that part of stair building to which the steel 
 square can be applied. Other chapters discuss the adjustable fence, roof framing, 
 hip roof framing, hoppers and hopper bevels, combination squares, key to the steel 
 square, possibilities of the steel square, polygons and miters, pitches and roof framing 
 aiid miscellaneous rules and examples. 
 
 A Department of Questions and Answers 
 
 easily understood answers. These questions 
 come up in every carpenter's work frequently 
 and the solutions of the problems given will 
 prove a valuable aid to the readers of "Steel 
 Square and Its Uses." 
 
 Incorporated in "Volume 2 is one of the most 
 useful, interesting and instructive departments 
 ever presented in a work of this character. It 
 consists of numerous questions which have 
 been sent the editors by practical carpenters 
 all over the country, together with clear and 
 
 Books Are Absolutely Up-to-Date 
 
 These books are absolutely new and up-to- 
 date. Each volume measures 6x9 inches and 
 contains over 300 pages, being the largest 
 
 books on the steel square ever published. 
 They are bound in cloth, with attractive cover 
 designs, handsomely stamped. 
 
 Price per volume, postage prepaid, $1.00. 
 
 THE RADFORD ARCHITECTURAL CO. 
 
 178 West Jackson Boul., Chicago 178 Fulton St., New York
 
 CEMENT HOUSES 
 
 And How to Build Them 
 
 RADFORD'S 
 
 CEMENT 
 HOUSES 
 
 In "Cement Houses and How to 
 Build Them," a book of 160 pages, 
 all types and designs of houses are 
 shown, ranging in price from $750 
 to $4,000. The plans were all drawn 
 by licensed architects and are guar- 
 anteed to be absolutely correct in 
 every detail. 
 
 This Large Book Contains 
 
 Illustrated Details of Cement Construc- 
 tion; Standard Specifications for Ce- 
 ment; Standard Specifications for Con- 
 crete Blocks; Valuable Information Con- 
 cerning Waterproofing, Coloring, Ag- 
 gregates, Proportioning, Mixing, Paving, 
 Reinforcing and Monolithic Work, 
 Foundations, Walls, Partitions, Steps, 
 Stairs, Floors, Sidewalks, Sewer Pipe, 
 Tile, Cement Shingles, Chimneys, 
 Porches, Tanks and Cisterns, Expanded 
 Metal Meshing, Metal Lath, Establish- 
 ing a Concrete Block Business, Cement, 
 Plaster and Stucco Work; Concrete on 
 the Farm; Cement Brick; How to Over- 
 come Concrete Troubles; Causes of 
 Cement Failures; Freezing; How to 
 
 Select Proper Aggregates; Applying Stucco to Old Walls; Examples of Strength; 
 Tension and Compression; Placing Reinforcing Rods; Adhesion; Dimensions for 
 Beams; Vibrations; Miscellaneous Information of Every Kind. 
 
 176 pages, size 8x11. Over 200 illustrations, with perspective views and floor 
 
 plans of eighty-seven cement plaster and concrete block houses, 
 
 finest ever designed 
 
 All houses illustrated with fine half-tone cuts, printed on enameled paper. The 
 illustrations show the houses exactly as they will look when built, and give a very 
 clear idea of their appearance. All the floor plans are shown, giving the location and 
 dimensions of all rooms, closets, porches, etc., with detailed information as to both 
 interior and exterior. The houses illustrated range from the small to the medium 
 large in size, such as will appeal to the average man or woman who intends to build 
 a home. 
 
 Keep Posted on New Developments 
 
 In these days of timber and cement houses, brick and cement houses, and other 
 combinations of materials, the builder and contractor who wants to be ready to do 
 work on all kinds of residence construction should study the latest methods and most 
 practical and economical ways of doing his work. He should be prepared to accept 
 contracts on any type of construction, be able to estimate accurately and understand 
 all details. New and odd ways of combining frame, stucco, concrete blocks and 
 veneered brick are constantly being employed, and the builder who does not have 
 the advantage of practical experience on this unusual work is under a serious handicap. 
 
 Bound in cloth, with handsome illuminated cover. Price, postpaid, $1.00. 
 
 THE RADFORD ARCHITECTURAL CO. 
 
 178 West Jackson Boul., Chicago 178 Fulton St., New York
 
 Stores and Flat Buildings 
 
 RADFORD'S 
 STORES CHAT 
 BUILDINGS 
 
 This book is entirely different from 
 any book of Architectural Plans ever 
 published, as it is composed of perspec- 
 tive views and plans designed both for 
 city and country buildings. Nothing like 
 it has ever before been within the reach 
 of any one desiring to build for himself 
 or others. 
 
 Only Book of Its Kind 
 "Stores and Flat Buildings" is actually 
 the first and only book of its kind ever 
 published. In other plan books designs 
 are shown for single residences to be 
 constructed on separate lots, but in this 
 book are given ideas for the man who 
 wants to have his store on the first floor 
 and live above it. or rent the upper floor 
 or floors. These designs combine busi- 
 ness and residence structures, and also 
 give the 
 
 Latest Ideas and Designs 
 in Flat Buildings of two, four, six and 
 mne apartments. In nearly all good 
 sized towns and villages small flat build- 
 ings, combined with stores or entirely 
 for residence purposes, are becoming 
 more and more popular, and are prov- 
 ing very popular. In the suburbs of 
 large cities small flats or apartments 
 are being built more than any other tyoe 
 of construction, 
 apartments and rents the others, thus , 
 
 The owner usually lives in one of the 
 helping him to take care of his investment. 
 
 For Country and City 
 
 In addition to the designs for stores, combined stores and flat buildings and 
 separate flat buildings, this book also illustrates small bank buildings, lodge halls 
 and double houses suitable for the small towns and villages as well as the larger 
 cities. In many small towns there is a demand for suitable places of gathering for 
 societies and lodges, and in numerous cases the contractor and builder, having had 
 no experience in this line of work, believes it necessary to apply to an architect in a 
 larger place to get correct plans drawn especially to order. The contractor and 
 builder, with this book on hand, can take care of this work himself and secure 
 correct and guaranteed plans at a trifling cost, plans that have been built from and 
 found satisfactory in every particular. The same is true of bank buildings, of which 
 a good selection is shown. 
 
 An Up-to-Date Book for Builders 
 
 This book shows many popular designs of the kind of building shown by its 
 title, suitable for different building materials, such as frame, brick, stone, cement, 
 plaster and stucco, and cement block. An estimate of cost, based on favorable con- 
 ditions, is shown under each design. An expert knowledge of the material that goes 
 into buildings of this character is back of every design shown. 
 
 "Radford's Stores and Flat Buildings" is printed on high-grade super-calendered 
 paper from artistic half-tones and etchings. It is bound in silk cloth, with an illumi- 
 nated cover. Price, postpaid, $1.00 per copy. 
 
 THE RADFORD ARCHITECTURAL CO. 
 
 178 West Jackson Boul., Chicago 178 Fulton St., New York
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY 
 
 Los Angeles 
 This book is DUE on the last date stamped below. 
 
 AUG 9 1993 
 RECEIVED 
 
 OCT 1 2 1993 
 EMS LIBRARY 
 
 315
 
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 A 000 650 358 5 
 
 
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