■j,'-
 
 
 
 ^«!/0JllV3JO^ '^<tfOJIlVOJO>^ <rii30NVS0V^ 
 
 o 
 
 I 
 
 so 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 ^OFCAllFO% ^OFCAllF0/?;j^ 
 
 <^fUNIVERS//, 
 
 v>;lOSANCElfj> 
 o 
 
 ^/7JiHVHfinA\'^ ■^'^AJivHniH^ "^-QliDNYSOV^ 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 AWtUNIVtRi/A 
 
 
 vKclOSANGElfj-^ 
 o 
 
 ^^^l•llBRARYQ^^ 
 
 
 %a3AINn]UV^ ^«!/0JI]V3JO'^ ^<i/0JnVDJO'^ 
 
 AWEllNIVER5"//i 
 
 v>;lOSANCELfj> 
 
 <rii33Nvsoi^ "^/saaAiNnivw 
 
 ^OFCAIIFO% 
 
 ><.OFCA1IFO/?^ 
 
 
 ^GAHvaan-^^"^ 
 
 :l 
 
 ^5^l•llBRARYQc 
 
 ^'^IIIBRARYQ^ 
 
 '^<i/0jnV3JO'»^ 
 
 ^<!/0JnV3JO>^ 
 
 AMElNIVERS-Z/i 
 
 v^lOSANCElfj> 
 
 o 
 
 <rii3DNVsm^'^ 
 
 ^AaaAiNn-iWV** 
 
 > 
 SO 
 
 'I 
 
 ^OFCALIFOff^ 
 
 ^OFCAIIFOR)^ 
 
 ^I^AHVHJinAV^ ^/^AHVHPIIAN'^ 
 
 ^WE•UNIVERS•/A 
 
 o 
 
 ^lOSAHCElfj> 
 
 o 
 
 
 N^ 
 
 AWtUNIVER^/A 
 
 ^lOSANGEl^J^ 
 o 
 
 -j^tLIBRARYQ^ 
 
 ^^^t•LIBRARYi?/ 
 
 ^J^1]3NVS01^ %a]AIN(13WV^ '^^J/OJITVDJO^ \oi\mi^^ 
 
 aweuniver% 
 
 o 
 
 ^lOSANCElfj> 
 
 o ^ 
 
 ■^/^aaAiNii-jwv 
 
 ^OFCAIIFO/?^ ^OFCAIIFO;?^ 
 
 ^(?AaYnaniv^ 
 
 '^^^AavHaiii'^
 
 '^ 
 
 =o bJ 
 
 ^<!/ojnvjjo>' <rii30Nvsoi^ %a3AiNn-3v\v 
 
 ^<i/0JllV3-JC>'^ 
 
 o 
 
 ^^OFCAllfO;?^ 
 
 XWEUNIVERi-ZA 
 
 ^(?AHVHam'^ <r^i^iNv^m^ 
 
 ^lOSANCEl^f^ 
 o 
 
 3> 
 
 >j,OFCAllF0/?^^ 
 
 ^<?Aavaan 
 
 C3 
 
 o^lOSANCElfj> 
 
 ^>J^VUBRARYac 
 
 >v;^UIBRARV(9/\ 
 
 
 AWtUNIVER^//; 
 
 <s — 
 
 >- 
 
 %13DNVS01^ 
 
 'Or 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 "^AaaAiNnawv 
 
 ^OFCAlIFOff^;. ^OFCAIIFO% 
 
 ^^WE•UNIVERV^ 
 
 ^£>Aavaani^ ^<?Aiivaan-^^ ^rjiiONvsoi^ 
 
 RARYQc -.^IIIBRARY^/ 
 
 ^JIIVJJO^ 
 
 \\^EUNIVER% vvlOSANCElf, 
 
 <ril30NVS01^ 
 
 "^/^ajAINH-JWV 
 
 ^jMllBRARYQ( 
 
 ^<JOjnvDjo> 
 
 UlfO/?^ ^OFCAIIFO/?^^ 
 
 MEUNIVERi/A 
 
 
 '^J^iiw'^m^^i^ 
 
 ^VOSANCElfx>, 
 
 
 ^OFCAllFOff^ 
 
 > 
 
 >t?AHVHflIH^ 
 
 o 
 
 vvlOSANCElfXx 
 
 ■^Aa3AINn-3WV^ 
 
 ^^^ILIBRARY^?/. 4^t-UBRARY6>/r. 
 
 .^WE•UNIVERS// 
 
 <s, — 
 
 "^llDKVSOl^ 
 
 'Or 
 
 i 
 
 o 
 
 v^lOSANCElfx^ 
 
 "^/jaaAiNn-awv 
 
 ^OFCAIIFOM^ ^OFCAIIFO/?^ ^ME UNIVERJ/^ 
 
 Ji. c^ 
 
 ^<?Aava8n-^>^ >&Aavaan-i^ 
 
 <f5U0NVsr
 
 CHINA IN DECAY
 
 THE EMl'EROR KWANOSU. 
 {^Draii'ii JroiJi life by a'^Chiiicsc ar/ist.)
 
 CHINA IN DECAY 
 
 A HANDBOOK TO THE 
 
 FAR EASTERN QUESTION 
 
 BY 
 
 ALEXIS KRAUSSE 
 
 WITH 
 
 Six Maps and Twenty-one Illustrations 
 
 LONDON: CHAPMAN & HALL, Limited 
 
 1898
 
 /<~i 
 
 
 X"^^ 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 The object of the present volume is to serve as a 
 handbook to the Far Eastern Question, which has of 
 late come so prominently to the front. It does not 
 aim at competing with the numerous and more com- 
 prehensive works which deal with the physical, ethno- 
 graphical, and political aspects of the Celestial Empire, 
 but has been written with a view to supplying, in 
 narrative form, a complete record of the various causes 
 which have led up to the existing position in the Far 
 East, It has occurred to me that a book explaining 
 the aims of the different Powers interested in China, 
 and detailing sufficient of the history of that country 
 to enable the reader to appreciate the true significance 
 of the tangled diplomatic relations now attracting so 
 much attention, may serve a useful purpose in bring- 
 ing certain facts, not usually apj:)reciated. within the 
 public ken. 
 
 The first three chapters, dealing with the country, 
 the people, and the government, are mainly introduc- 
 tory. They have been included with a view to enable 
 
 861GS-
 
 viii PREFACE. 
 
 the reader who has not had occasion to make him- 
 self acquainted with things Chinese, to appreciate the 
 bearing of the political situations dealt with in the 
 body of the book. 
 
 Throughout the chapters devoted to the History of 
 Political China, I have refrained as far as possible from 
 comment, preferring to let facts speak for themselves. 
 In the two concluding chapters I have approached my 
 subject from the standpoint of the Englishman who 
 believes that British influence carries with it a benefit 
 quite apart from a mere increase of trade or accession 
 of prestige. I hold that the existence of relations 
 between strange and misgoverned countries and our 
 own, tends to educate the people and to instil into 
 them a desire for knowledge, a craving for progress, 
 and an appreciation of morality, which they could not 
 obtain in any other way, and that in China, more than 
 elsewhere, we have a mission to perform, due, as much 
 to the claim of duty as to that of self-interest. 
 
 The absence of an alphabet in the Chinese language, 
 and the consequent lack of any system of spelled sound, 
 renders the writing of place-names a matter of indi- 
 vidual opinion. As no two authorities are agreed on 
 this important subject, I do not offer any apology for 
 having spelled the names which figure in the book in 
 accordance with the nearest approach to their true 
 pronunciation of which an Englishman is capable.
 
 PREFACE. ix 
 
 I have to thank Messrs F. M. Wood and T. \V. 
 Goodall of the China Inland Mission, and the Rev. 
 J. D. Mullins of the Church Missionary Society, for 
 the loan of several of the photographs which illustrate 
 the following pages. 
 
 The detailed account of the Yang-tse Valley which 
 7 forms a part of Chapter XI., has appeared in the Pall 
 Mall Gazette. The portion of Chapter XII. describing 
 the first railway in China, was originally published in 
 Black and White ; and some of the concluding passages 
 of Chapter VI. dealing with the British Record, are 
 extracted from an article contributed by me to the 
 Fortnightly Review. I am under an obligation to the 
 editors of these for permission to reproduce them here. 
 The rest of this volume is new, and has been specially 
 written at the request of the publishers. 
 
 ALEXIS KRAUSSE. 
 
 October 1S98.
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Preface ........ vii 
 
 Chapter I. The Country ..... 3 
 
 II. The People ...... 22 
 
 III. The Government ..... 55 
 
 IV. Foreign Relations ..... 75 
 
 V. The British Record (to the Treaty of 
 
 Tientsin) ...... 107 
 
 VI. The British Record (from the Treaty of 
 
 Tientsin) . . . . . -139 
 
 VII. The Russian Record . . . -177 
 
 VIII. The French Record .... 203 
 
 IX. The German Record . .' . . 223 
 
 X. Trade in China ..... 233 
 
 XI. The British Sphere .... 267 
 
 XII. Railways ...... 290 
 
 XIII. Chinese Politics . . . . -313 
 
 XIV. The Situ.\tion ..... ^33 
 XV. The Future . . . . . .366 
 
 Appendix A. Landmarks in Chinese History . . 375 
 
 „ B. Bibliography of .Authorities . . . 382 
 
 Index . 
 
 591
 
 I LLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 The Emperor Kwangsu .... Frontispiece. 
 
 Some Chinese Types 
 
 Native Junks at Fuchow . 
 
 A Chinese Family .... 
 
 Tower used as a Repository for Infants 
 
 Prisoners wearing the Cangue, with their Gaoler 
 
 Lepers at Dinner, Pakhoi Leper Asylum 
 
 Street Scene in Peking . 
 
 Ningpo .... 
 
 The River Front, Shanghai 
 
 Bridge at Yuyiao, near Shanghai 
 
 Wei Hai Wei from the Anchorage 
 
 Scene of the Massacre at Whasang, 1895 
 
 Gateway at Peking 
 
 Scene on the Yang-tse Kiang 
 
 View at Hankow 
 
 House-boat on Yang-tse Kiang 
 
 West Gate, Ningpo 
 
 Vill.\ge near Dalensin 
 
 Street in Hanghow 
 
 Li Hung Chang 
 
 7 
 23 
 39 
 
 54 
 61 
 
 74 
 81 
 106 
 117 
 138 
 151 
 
 241 
 278 
 312 
 332 
 341 
 367 
 
 Map of the Chinese Empire 
 Map of the Russian Sphere 
 Map of the French Sphere 
 Map of the Yang-tse Kiang 
 Railway Map of China 
 Map of China 
 
 MAPS. 
 
 at commencement of Volume. 
 
 . 176 
 
 202 
 
 . 266 
 
 to face page 290 
 
 at end of Voluvic.
 
 CHINA IN DECAY. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE COUNTRY. 
 
 China, the oldest country in the world, boasting, as it 
 does, a civilisation which dates from before the Abra- 
 hamic era, stands to-day an anomaly among nations, an 
 entity built up of contradictions. Resulting from the 
 systematic evolution of a series of ideas which are 
 foreign to the appreciation of the Western mind, the 
 rationalism of the Chinese intelligence runs counter to 
 all the known systems of modern philosophy. As a 
 human entity the Celestial stands alone : a creature 
 without a fellow. His abilities are above the average, 
 and his intelligence is acute, but his individuality 
 belongs to an order of its own, and his aims are un- 
 directed by any train of thought to which we are 
 accustomed. The Chinaman unites in his attributes 
 a marked ability, a respect for the law and a love of 
 peace, with an utter lack of honesty, truth, or affection ; 
 while his regard for learning and his appreciation of the 
 Arts are accompanied by a fatalism without religion,
 
 4 CHINA IN DEC A Y. 
 
 and an exclusiveness tempered only by the love of 
 gain. 
 
 As with individuals, so with the nation at large. 
 China, the fourth largest country in the world, is an 
 Empire only in name. The numerous provinces and 
 dependencies which go to build up the region nominally 
 beneath the rule of the " Son of Heaven " are but a 
 series of federated kingdoms ruled with despotic sway 
 by viceroys or governors, and, despite the fact that 
 many portions of the country are more densely popu- 
 lated than any other part of the world, and that China 
 proper is teeming with agricultural and with mineral 
 wealth, the " Empire " is in a constant state of poverty, 
 and its people often in a condition of absolute starvation. 
 It is nearly four hundred years since Europe first came 
 into contact with Cathay. And yet the knowledge 
 which has been obtained as to the rationale of its 
 inhabitants is infinitesimal. The country has been 
 tentatively explored, yet remains unknown ; and to-day, 
 while China has emerged by force of circumstances 
 from its retirement in the farthest east, and has become 
 the cynosure of all countries as the area of future 
 exploitations and the coming market of the world, we 
 remain in ignorance of the land and the people, and 
 vainly conjecture as to the circumstances of each. Our 
 knowledge of China, such as it is, is due to the efforts 
 of a few missionaries and daring enthusiasts. The 
 country has never been satisfactorily surveyed, nor have 
 its resources been explored. The interior is to-day a 
 sealed book, except in the case of a few chosen places, 
 wherethe foreigner, unasked and unwanted, is tolerated
 
 THE COUNTRY. S 
 
 — and that with every mark of disapproval — under the 
 sanction of a series of treaties obtained at the cannon's 
 mouth. 
 
 And while we remain in ignorance of the realities of 
 this remarkable land, we find ourselves imperceptible- 
 drawn into fierce competition with other nations over 
 the allotment of rights which do not exist, and the 
 partition of territory which is unknown. After being 
 kept waiting on the fringe of China for three hundred 
 years, we find ourselves confronted by the action of rival 
 powers, which promptly take measures for achieving 
 in as many days that in which we have failed, and 
 fearinof to be bereft of the little we have secured, 
 the British Government is driven to join in the 
 scramble, in the hope of securing a share of the good 
 things going. And so the eyes of Englishmen have 
 been turned towards the Celestial Empire, which 
 has become the focus of the political question of the 
 hour, and one is, at the very outset, struck by the fact 
 that our knowledge of the subject involved is so slight 
 as to render an intelligent appreciation of the merits of 
 the position no easy matter. 
 
 China, with its dependencies, occupies nearly a third 
 of the Asiatic Continent. Nominally one vast king- 
 dom, the territories comprised have the cohesion of 
 neither race, nor constitution, nor religion. The people 
 of Manchuria are the opposites of those of Tibet, nor 
 is there aught in common between the men of Hunan 
 and those of Kansu. In accordance with the para- 
 doxical principle which underlies most things Chinese, 
 the Empire is itself a dependency of a subject state, since
 
 6 CHINA IN DEC A V. 
 
 the Emperor is a descendant of the Manchu insurgents 
 who conquered the eighteen provinces of China proper 
 in 1644.* To give a general idea, the land may be 
 spoken of as a vast slope stretching from the table-lands 
 of Tibet and the Koko Nor to the Pacific Ocean. In 
 the territory comprised in this far-reaching expanse, 
 which covers an area of 4,218,401 square miles, there 
 is to be found every description of physical feature and 
 climate, from the snow-clad mountains of Yunnan to 
 the alluvial plains of the maritime provinces, and from 
 the tropical region of Kwangtung to the temperate 
 margin of the Gulf of Pechili. 
 
 The most noteworthy characteristic of China proper 
 is the remarkable system of rivers, which provides a 
 ready means of communication in nearly every direc- 
 tion ; and it is a curious instance of the want of loo^ic 
 inherent in the Chinese mind, that these natural high- 
 ways are so rarely utilised as boundaries of the different 
 districts into which the country is divided. 
 
 The eighteen provinces comprised in the kingdom of 
 China, known also as the " Flowery Land " and the 
 " Middle State," may be conveniently divided into four 
 divisions. On the north are Kansu, Shensi, Shansi, and 
 Chili. Inland, forming central China, are Sechuan, 
 Hupeh, Honan, Anwei, Kweichau, Hunan, and Kiangsi. 
 On the southern border are Yunnan and Kwangsi, 
 and on the east are the maritime provinces Shan- 
 tung, Kiangsu, Chekiang, Fukien, and Kwangtung. 
 The smallest of these, Fukien, is rather bigger than 
 
 * The Chinese Empire comprises (i) China proper, consisting of eighteen pro- 
 vinces, (2) Manchuria, (3) Mongolia, (4) Tibet, (5) Turkistan, (6) Jungaria.
 
 THE COUNTRY. 7 
 
 Ireland ; and the most extensive, Sechuan, is nearly- 
 half as large again as the British Isles. In its physical 
 aspect, China proper may be divided into two spheres. 
 On the north and east sides the land is generally level 
 and productive. On the west and south it is much 
 cut up by mountain ranges, some of them of great 
 
 NATIVK JUNKS AT FUCIIOW. 
 
 height, bare, and precipitous. The mountainous 
 districts are rich in mineral deposits, and teem with 
 natural produce, while the low-lying lands comprise 
 a soil so fertile as to produce in many districts three 
 crops in the year. 
 
 The rivers of China arc of the utmost importance to 
 the Empire, inasmuch as they afford what is practically 
 the only means of communication between the different
 
 8 CHINA IN DEC A Y. 
 
 territories. Roads are few and bad, the highway 
 consisting, in most instances, of the merest track, and 
 in the alluvial lands and those districts in which the 
 loess beds* are situated, the paths are often knee-deep 
 in mud. The great rivers, however, with their numerous 
 tributaries and canals, traverse the Empire in every 
 direction, and afford a cheap and ready means of 
 transport, which has rendered the vast trade of the 
 country possible. The rivers of China are known by 
 a variety of names, each one receiving various appella- 
 tions in different portions of its course. The word 
 river is represented by two distinct terms : those in the 
 north being called Ho, and those in the south Kiang 
 or Chiang. Thus Hoang Ho signifies Hoang River, 
 and the Yang-tse Kiang, Yang-tse River, facts which 
 serve to exhibit the ignorance of persons who refer to 
 the Yang-tse Kiang River, and thus show that they are 
 unaware of the signification of the words they use. 
 
 The most important of the rivers of China are 
 the Yang-tse, the Hoang, the Si, the Pei, and the 
 Min. The Yang-tse Kiang ranks third in size 
 among; the rivers of the world. It rises in the table- 
 land of Tibet, and, after a tortuous course, enters China 
 near Batang, whence it traverses the provinces of 
 Sechuan, Yunnan, Hupeh, Anwei, and Kiangsu. Its 
 total course covers more than 4000 miles, and it is 
 navigable by large vessels for more than 1000 miles 
 from its estuary. The Yang-tse Kiang receives a 
 
 * The loess is a form of tertiary deposit, in appearance a brown, porous earth, 
 easily pulverised, which covers the ground to an immense depth in the north-west 
 of China. This earth possesses a fertility which is practically inexhaustible.
 
 THE COUNTRY. 9 
 
 number of tributaries, of which the Kia-ling and Han 
 are the most important. It also affords communication 
 with two lakes of considerable extent. The most re- 
 markable feature in connection with the Yang-tse is the 
 extraordinary variation in its level, which alternates 
 as much as lOO feet in the higher reaches, where the 
 banks narrow, and confine the stream within a series of 
 remarkable gorges, and 50 feet at Hankow, where the 
 river is more than a mile wide. These phenomena are 
 due to the summer meltinor of the snows on the Tibetan 
 plateau, where the river takes its rise at a height of 
 more than 15,000 feet, and the water rushes down in a 
 flood, which at times submerges the country over a 
 breadth of 20 miles. The same extremes are to be 
 noted in the other rivers which rise on the great table- 
 land, known as the " roof of the world," especially in the 
 case of the Hoano- Ho or Yellow River, which has lono- 
 since earned for itself the title of "China's Sorrow." This 
 river, rising in close proximity to the Yang-tse, takes a 
 more northerly course, and after skirting the Mongolian 
 plateau, passes through the great plain of China and 
 enters the sea in the Gulf of Pechili. It has a course of 
 nearly y::>oo miles, and is quite unnavigable, except over 
 a portion of its lower reaches, and, even here, vessels 
 are hindered from ascending the stream by shoals and 
 other difficulties. This river is peculiarly subject to 
 floods, which submerge whole provinces, and it has more 
 than once entirely changed its course, which is to-day 
 some 300 miles north of the bed it occupied in 1S54. 
 The last occasion in which the Hoang Ho escaped its 
 banks was in 1887, when, owing to an embankment
 
 lo CHINA IN DEC A V. 
 
 giving way, whole towns and villages were destroyed, 
 hundreds of thousands of people were drowned, and 
 several millions rendered destitute. A great plain, half 
 as large as Scotland, and densely populated, was sud- 
 denly, without warning, turned into a raging sea. 
 The Governor of Honan, the province most affected, 
 stated, in his official announcement of the visita- 
 tion : — " Nearly all the people have been drowned 
 in the districts reached by the water,"* and the 
 Peking correspondent of T/ie Times placed the number 
 drowned at not less than a million. The final estimate 
 issued, with official sanction, and generally accepted, 
 gives 1,600,000 as the number of people swept away ; 
 5,000,000 as being rendered destitute. 
 
 The Si Kiang or West River, which rises in Yunnan, 
 is navigable for big steamers over a course of 350 miles 
 above Canton, and is rapidly becoming one of the most 
 important trade routes in South China. The Pei Ho, 
 known also as the Peking River, is navig-able as far as 
 Tung Chow, 140 miles from the sea, and is the main 
 route between the northern capital and the rest of the 
 Empire. The Min Kiang is a much smaller river than 
 the above-named, but ranks high as a trade route, being 
 the approach to the important city of Fuchow, and the 
 centre of the southern tea trade of China. In addition 
 to these waterways, there are two others, which, like the 
 Hoang and the Yang-tse, rise in Tibet, and flow through 
 a portion of South- Western China. They are the Sal- 
 ween and the Mekawng. Neither is navigable within 
 the Chinese frontier. The former, after crossino- the 
 
 * Peking Gazette, 28th October 1SS7.
 
 THE COUNTRY. ii 
 
 Chinese frontier at Kunlon, flows through Burma, until 
 it empties itself into the Bay of Bengal, while the latter 
 passes by Kiang Hung into Siam, and serves as the 
 boundary between that country and French Indo China, 
 until it reaches Cambodia, and loses itself in the China 
 Sea. 
 
 The most important adjunct to the rivers named was 
 the Grand Canal, an undertaking completed more than 
 six hundred years ago by the Emperor Chitsou, and 
 intended to place Peking in communication with Hang- 
 chau and Canton. This undertakinof, which, in darinof, 
 ranks second only to the Great Wall, runs its course 
 from Tientsin to Chinkiang, and thence to Hangchau, 
 crossing on its way both the Hoang Ho and the Yang- 
 tse Kiang. The total distance traversed is rather over 
 600 miles. This wonderful engineering feat has, of 
 late years, been suffered to fall into a very bad state 
 of repair, and, partly owing to the change in the course 
 of the Yellow River, partly on account of the improve- 
 ment effected in steam communication by sea, the canal 
 is used only by small junks, which are, with infinite 
 labour, and in the face of many difficulties, propelled or 
 hauled alono- its course. 
 
 Closely allied to the question of internal waterways 
 is that of seaports, and in this respect the coasts of 
 China are exceptionally well equipped. The whole 
 seaboard from north to south is indented by a suc- 
 cession of deep bays and land-locked harbours, unsur- 
 passed in the security they afford to shipping, and the 
 facilities they provide for the loading and unloading of 
 merchandise. Commencing in the Liao-tong peninsula.
 
 12 CHINA IN DEC A V. 
 
 the southernmost province of Manchuria, we have the 
 remarkable harbours of Talienwan and Port Arthur. 
 Just round the southernmost point of this promontory, 
 known from its shape as the " Regent's Sword," is the 
 sheker afforded by Port Adams and Society Bay. 
 Across the gulf, one hundred miles away, is the road- 
 stead of Chifu and the bay of Wei Hai Wei, while 
 beyond the projecting cape of Shantung are the in- 
 closed harbours of Ting-tse and Kiao Chou. Passing 
 the estuary of the Yang-tse, and the Woosung River, 
 with its port of Shanghai, we reach Nimrod Sound, 
 the approach to Ningpo hard by Sanmoon Bay, which 
 is in itself a harbour capable of sheltering the navies of 
 the world. P^rom this point to the southern border of 
 the Empire the coast line teems with creeks and bays of 
 the first class. »Bullock Harbour, Namkuan Harbour, 
 the Samsah inlet, and the entrance to the Min River 
 are all especially favoured; and the harbours of Hing- 
 hua, Amoy, Tung San, Swatow, Mirs-bay, Bocca Tigris, 
 Sui-tung, and Pakhoi are among the finest shelters for 
 shipping in the world. 
 
 The roads of China are, as already stated, the worst 
 in existence. When paved, they consist of blocks of 
 stone imbedded loosely in the surface of the ground. 
 The stones are frequently abstracted by the people 
 for their own use, and in the hilly districts the 
 tracks are utterly neglected, and never, under any 
 circumstances, repaired. There are in different direc- 
 tions certain well-known caravan routes, which are 
 largely patronised by traders, and, in a sense, may be 
 regarded as public highways. Among the most im-
 
 THE COUNTRY. 13 
 
 portant of these is the great caravan route from 
 Peking, across the Gobi Desert to Urga and Kiakhta. 
 There are also tracks from Peking to Shan Hai Kuan 
 on the Manchurian frontier ; to Paoting and the rich 
 Shansi province ; and the central Asiatic caravan route 
 via Sigan in the great loess country. Apart from 
 these, the trade of China is, with few exceptions, con- 
 ducted by means of the waterways. 
 
 The most important of the dependencies of the 
 Chinese Empire is Manchuria, a country about three 
 times the size of Great Britain, and containing a popu- 
 lation estimated at twenty-two millions. The people 
 are mostly Chinese, the Manchus, who entered China 
 in the 17th century, having become absorbed in 
 the race they conquered, while the country they 
 formerly owned has become repopulated by Chinese 
 immigrants, with a sprinkling of Mongols and Koreans. 
 The country is extremely mountainous, except on the 
 north-west, where the ranges of hills give way to 
 a series of plains which merge into the Mongolian 
 desert. It is covered in many parts with dense forests, 
 and cut up by a large number of fine rivers, mostly 
 connected with the Amur, which separates the northern 
 provinces of Manchuria from Siberia. 
 
 Mongolia, a vast territory, which comprises one and a 
 quarter million square miles of territory, mostly desert, 
 on the northern borders of China proper, is an unpro- 
 ductive region, peopled by about two million nomads, 
 of indolent habits and low intelligence. 
 
 Tibet, the most mountainous country in the world, 
 with an average altitude of fifteen thousand feet, com-
 
 14 CHINA IN DECA V. 
 
 prises nearly a million square miles of hill and valley, 
 interspersed with table-lands, which are mostly covered 
 with snow. Its population is estimated at six millions, 
 among whom are nearly one hundred thousand lamas 
 or priests, who are supported by the Government. 
 Tibet is the head centre of Buddhism, and the Dalai- 
 lama, who resides at Lhassa, is the high priest of the 
 cult. Besides the mountains, the most notable feature 
 of Tibet is the large number of important rivers which 
 rise within its borders. Amonor the more notable of 
 these are the Indus, Sutlej, and Brahmapootra on the 
 west, and the Yang-tse, Sal ween, and Mekawng on 
 the east. Though the country is nominally ruled by 
 the Emperor of China, it is questionable whether the 
 Peking Government exercises more than a nominal 
 sway over Tibet, which has only admitted the suzer- 
 ainty of the Chinese since 1648. Intercourse with the 
 eighteen provinces is maintained by caravans, the route 
 between Lhassa and Peking being by Sigan, Lanchau, 
 and Sining, and the journey occupies four months. 
 Tibet is probably the least known country in the world. 
 The interior is rigorously closed to foreigners, and 
 the information available respecting the capital is of 
 the vaguest. 
 
 Chinese Turkestan, a large and little-known territory, 
 situated on the extreme west of the Chinese Empire, 
 and wedged between Mongolia and Tibet, consists 
 largely of desert. Owing to the great distance which 
 separates the dependency from Peking, communica- 
 tion is slow, and the governmental influence weak. 
 
 Jungaria, the last and smallest of the outlying Chinese
 
 THE COUNTRY. 15 
 
 provinces, is practically an appanage of Turkestan, 
 which it closely resembles. It comprises the district of 
 Hi or Kuldja, so long a bone of contention with Russia, 
 and was the scene of the Mahommedan rising of 187 1. 
 It covers an area of less than 150,000 square miles, 
 with a population of approximately half a million,'* 
 
 The bonds by which these dependencies are united to 
 China proper are of the slightest. They are the last of 
 a number of States which at one time acknowledged 
 the suzerainty of the Chinese throne, but to-day have 
 become the vassals of other powers. The modern history 
 of China is indeed but a record of the loss of empire. 
 On every side the Celestial Kingdom has been mulcted 
 in territory ; and in addition to being bereft of regions 
 which were once her own, and which rendered tribute 
 to her treasury, she finds herself surrounded by 
 Western powers exerting an unwelcome but increas- 
 ino- influence over the a-overnment of what remains. 
 
 o o 
 
 I shall have a good deal more to say on this subject 
 further on. For the present, I revert to my initial 
 subject-matter, with a view to placing the reader in 
 possession of a sufficiently comprehensive account of 
 the main landmarks in the China of to-day. 
 
 * The following recapitulation of the area and popu 
 
 lat 
 
 on of the Chinese Empire 
 
 may be of utility to the reader. 
 
 
 
 Eng. sq. miles. 
 
 
 Population. 
 
 China proper, . . . 1,336,800 
 
 
 386,000,000 
 
 Manchuria, .... 362,300 
 
 
 7,500,000 
 
 Mongolia, .... 1,288,000 
 
 
 2,000,000 
 
 Tibet, 651,500 
 
 
 6,000,000 
 
 Turkestan, .... 431,800 
 
 
 600,000 
 
 Jungaria, .... 147,900 
 
 
 600,000 
 
 4,218,300 
 
 402,700,000
 
 1 6 CHINA IN DEC A V. 
 
 As mlj^ht be expected in the case of a country so ill 
 provided with roads as is China, the places at which 
 foreigners have come into communication with the 
 natives are for the most part situated either on the 
 coast line or on the banks of the great rivers. In 
 order that the reader may the better appreciate the 
 events to be dealt with further on, I append a few 
 brief references to the more important of the cities, 
 which play a part in the political evolution of China. 
 
 At different periods in her history, China has known 
 three capitals in different portions of her Empire. For 
 upwards of a thousand years, the seat of Government 
 was at Sigan, in the fertile Wei valley, which crosses 
 the province of Shensi. In the year 420 a.d., the 
 imperial residence was transferred to Kienkang on the 
 Yang-tse, which thenceforth became known as Nanking, 
 the southern capital, and there, within one of the 
 largest cities of the Empire, surrounded by strong walls, 
 the court was held for more than eight centuries. In 
 1260, the Mongol Emperor Chitsou, better known as 
 Kublai Khan, removed from the southern capital, and 
 chose as his resting-place the city of Cambaluc, which 
 came to be re-named Peking or northern capital. The 
 city stands in the middle of an extensive plain, 12 
 miles north-west of Tung Chow on the Pei Ho, 
 and 160 miles from the Gulf of Pechili. It is 
 reached by a road from Tung Chow, the town which 
 marks the limit of the navigation on the Pei Ho. It 
 is surrounded by walls 50 feet high and 60 wide, and 
 entered through stronor o-ates, all of which are closed 
 at night. The city consists of three divisions : the
 
 THE COUNTRY. 17 
 
 Chinese city, the Tartar city, and the " Purple Forbidden 
 city " sacred to the Emperor and his immediate retinue. 
 The latter is strictly guarded, and is rarely entered by 
 any under the rank of first mandarin or viceroy. The 
 Chinese and Tartar cities are very large, and, like 
 all the other towns in the Empire, very dirty. The 
 population is estimated at about a million. The streets 
 are fairly typical, being gaily decorated but filthy to a 
 degree, and the condition of the streets, owing to an 
 utter lack of either drains or supervision, is such as to 
 disgust the visitor, and prevent his going out except 
 in a closed chair. The most striking- feature of Pekincr 
 is the dust which permeates every quarter, and finds 
 its way through every interstice. Despite the un- 
 pleasantness of this nuisance, it is said to serve a 
 useful purpose in acting as a disinfectant, an impor- 
 tant desideratum mid such surroundings as those to be 
 found in the Chinese capital. 
 
 The most important cities in the north of China, 
 after Peking, are Tientsin, Paoting, Tai Yuen, Sigan, 
 Tsinan, and Chifu. In central China, inland, are Cheng- 
 tu, Nanchang, Changsha, and Talifu ; and on the Yang- 
 tse Kiang, Chungking, Ichang, Shaszi, Hankow with 
 Wuchang, Nanking, Chinkiang, Shanghai, Hang- 
 chau, Ningpo, and Fuchow. In the south are Yunnan, 
 Nanning, Wuchau, Canton, Amoy, and Swatow. 
 Of these, Peking and Nanking, the two capitals, pos- 
 sess an interest which is mainly historical. Of the 
 commercial centres the chief are Shanghai, Hankow, 
 and Tientsin, being the main trade centres of south, 
 central, and north China, respectively. Hongkong,
 
 1 8 CHINA IN DEC A V. 
 
 which is British territory, and totally free from Chinese 
 interference, is in reality the great forwarding centre 
 for the foreign trade of China, and it is from Victoria, 
 the capital, that the markets throughout the length 
 and breadth of the land are supplied. 
 
 It remains to speak of the produce of the country. 
 As will have been gathered from the foregoing, China 
 is well supplied both with agricultural and with mineral 
 wealth. Foremost among the articles for which the 
 Empire has long been famous, are tea, silk, wax, cotton, 
 and rice, and these are produced in various parts of 
 the empire. The production of tea, though declining 
 alike in quantity and quality, is yet considerable, and 
 the culture of the plant and its preparation find occu- 
 pation for the people in half-a-dozen provinces. The 
 best growths are produced in the western and southern 
 provinces, bordering on the Yang-tse. The finest black 
 tea comes from Hupeh and Hunan, a second quality 
 hailing from Fukien, while the choicest green tea is 
 grown in Chekiang and Anwei. Both kinds of plant 
 prove prolific in the climate of Sechuan and Kwangtung. 
 A considerable proportion of the leaf produced is 
 utilised in the preparation of brick tea, which is largely 
 exported to Mongolia and Tibet, where it is highly 
 appreciated on account of its portability and keeping 
 qualities. Within the limits of the Empire, tea is 
 practically the national drink. It is not taken, as with 
 us, at special meals, but is used as a beverage, and kept 
 available and ready for use at all times and in every 
 household, excepting only the very poorest. 
 
 Next in importance to tea is the production of silk,
 
 THE COUNTRY. 19 
 
 which owes its origin to Chinese ingenuity. It is on 
 record that the care of the silkworm and the art of 
 spinning and weaving were known to the Chinese as 
 early as two thousand years B.C. The spinning of the 
 silk has always been regarded as women's work, and 
 the occupation has been followed by the wives and 
 daughters of the people, from the earliest times. The 
 mulberry is cultivated throughout the breadth and 
 length of the land, and every one of the eighteen pro- 
 vinces produces its quota of cocoons. The silk which 
 comes from Sechuan is, however, regarded as being 
 the finest in texture and quality, and this commands 
 the highest price in the market. In recent years, the 
 old time methods of spinning and weaving by hand 
 have been improved on by the introduction oi fdatMres, 
 which have been established at several of the treaty 
 ports, and which will be referred to at length in a 
 future chapter. The ease with which cotton and hemp 
 can be grown in the alluvial lands has always en- 
 couraged the manufacture of fabrics suited to the 
 peculiarities of the native cotton. The Chinese 
 cloths are, however, inferior to the machine-made 
 article, which is gradually beating them out of the 
 field. The culture of the opium poppy has, notwith- 
 standing the denunciation of the traffic by the govern- 
 ment, long been largely indulged in, and the production 
 of the drug has, during recent years, considerably 
 increased. Tobacco, at first grown in Manchuria, has 
 gradually found its way into China proper, and is now 
 cultivated in many districts. Sugar is grown with con- 
 siderable success in the south-east.
 
 20 CHINA IN DEC A V. 
 
 The mineral deposits of the country have not yet been 
 thoroughly prospected ; but, judged by the reports of ex- 
 perts who have had opportunities of surveying the 
 surface, the land is the most richly mineralised in the 
 world. The absence of suitable communications, and 
 the objection of the people to having the interior of 
 the country visited by foreigners, have hitherto stood 
 in the way of any satisfactory opening up of the subter- 
 ranean wealth which undoubtedly exists, and the first 
 promise of a change in the condition of things is to be 
 noted in the granting of the Shansi and Honan conces- 
 sions, which have been so recently notified. Coal- 
 fields abound in Chili, Shansi, Honan, Shantung, 
 Hunan, and Yunnan. These fields cover a large ex- 
 tent of country, and the quality of the coal dis- 
 covered is excellent. The deposits in Shansi are 
 declared by the greatest living expert to be the 
 most extensive in existence, covering many thousand 
 square miles, and containing sufficient fuel to supply 
 the world with all the coal it needs for thousands of 
 years.* 
 
 Nor is coal the only, or indeed the principal, mineral 
 deposit in China. Iron is found as freely as is coal, 
 the two being frequently found in juxtaposition. Lead, 
 tin, and mercury are produced in paying quantities, and 
 copper abounds in Hupeh, Hunan, and Shantung. 
 Gold is worked in Manchuria, and it is known to 
 exist in the southern provinces, while traces of silver 
 have also been noted. Salt workings are numerous 
 
 * Ferdinand von Richthofen : China Ergebnisse eigener Reisen und darauf 
 gegn'indeter studien.
 
 THE COUNTRY. 21 
 
 throughout the loess beds, and supply a valuable con- 
 tribution to the revenue. 
 
 It will thus be seen that China, despite the short- 
 comings of its people, is an extremely rich country, 
 and one well worth the trouble of exploitation. 
 Unfortunately, its record has, so far at least, been 
 very far below its possibilities, and it remains to-day 
 an oyster closed against the efforts of the foreigner.
 
 CHAPTER 11. 
 
 THE PEOPLE. 
 
 The Chinese are descended from the Tartars, who, 
 thousands of years ago, peopled the great wastes of 
 Siberia, and, by migration and intermarriage, became 
 merged in the people of China, Mongolia, Manchuria^ 
 Korea, and Japan. The parent stock was a hardy 
 one, and besides becoming responsible for the peopling 
 of northern and central Asia, they found their way to 
 the south, where they implanted certain characteristics 
 to be found to-day in the peoples of Burma, of Siam, 
 and of Tibet. The first Chinese are said to have 
 settled in the province of Shensi, where, according 
 to the records of the semi-mythical period of Celestial 
 history, they appointed one Fohi to be their first ruler 
 about three thousand years before the Christian era, 
 and to this reputed first monarch of future millions 
 is credited the devising of the leading outlines of 
 the Chinese system of moral and political economy. 
 Though little more than his name has endured, he 
 is supposed to have originated the Chinese calendar, 
 to have introduced the cycle of sixty years, and to 
 have inaugurated that love of exclusiveness and that ex-
 
 A CHINKSE FAMILY.
 
 THE PEOPLE. 25 
 
 travagant conceit, which form to-day such strongly 
 marked characteristics in the Celestial character. 
 
 The original Tartar stock consisted mostly ot 
 Nomad tribes. These spread and became dispersed, 
 and, as always happens, the individuality of each set 
 of immigrants to fresh pastures became affected by 
 their geographical surroundings. Thus it came about 
 that the Mongols proper, who had settled in the 
 north-west of Asia, and the Tunjusian or Turanian 
 tribes, who pitched their tents in the north-east, 
 became a rude and semi-barbarous people, shy of 
 intercourse, and given to strife among themselves. Of 
 these, the lowest in civilisation were the Arinians, who 
 peopled the districts of the Yenisei and the Amur 
 Rivers, races who did not cultivate the land, and who 
 ate their meat raw. It is from these that the Manchus 
 are descended, and it is remarkable that such savage 
 and illiterate tribes should have proved the fore- 
 runners of so fine and stalwart a race as the people 
 of Modern Manchuria.* 
 
 The early history of the Chinese people is a record 
 of civil war, rapine, and robbery, and it is doubtless to 
 the constant struggles which were indulged in that the 
 race owes its power of organisation and its adminis- 
 trative ability. The Chinese and their fellow Asiatics 
 vary in physique and attributes in different parts of 
 the Empire, but in certain characteristics they closely 
 resemble one another. The inhabitants of China 
 proper are the most cultivated and highly civilised 
 of all the subjects of the " King of Heaven." They 
 
 * The Manchus, by Rev. J. Ross.
 
 26 CHINA IN DEC A Y. 
 
 possess a literature essentially refined, a love of 
 learning non - existent elsewhere, and a regard for 
 law and order admirable in its consistency. The 
 Mongols, on the other hand, lack all these attributes, 
 the only strong point of which they can boast being 
 a simplicity of taste and love of peace. The Tibetans, 
 like the Mongolians, to whom they are nearly akin, 
 resemble the Burmese rather than the Celestials. 
 They are an indolent race, given to pleasure and 
 practising polyandry. The Siamese, Annamese, and 
 Shans, all of Chinese descent, possess the civilisation 
 of their ancestors without their strong character. 
 They are vain, weak, and effeminate, and in Tonkin 
 and the adjoining French territories, which have 
 been brought under an injudicious governmental 
 system, they are becoming treacherous, mean, and 
 dangerous to those with whom they are brought 
 into contact. 
 
 The characteristics of the population of the eighteen 
 provinces vary greatly. The people of northern China 
 are a more staUvart and hardy tribe than those of 
 the south, while the race which is located along the 
 coast line between Shanghai and Canton differs alike in 
 language and in customs from the rest. The inhabitants 
 of Chili and Shansi are strongly opposed to foreign 
 intercourse, and do not hesitate to annoy or even ill- 
 use the stranorer within their o-ates. In Shantung and 
 
 o o o 
 
 Anwei the people are more peaceably inclined, and alto- 
 gether more tolerant of the "barbarians." The most 
 typical of the pure Chinese are to-day to be found in 
 the province of Hunan, where the people possess a
 
 THE PEOPLE. 27 
 
 finer physique and more highly developed intelligence 
 than elsewhere. These are, however, the most exclu- 
 sive of the Chinese, intolerant to a degree, and always 
 ready to attack the foreigner. 
 
 The character of the Celestial, like most things con- 
 nected with his country, is paradoxical. The Chinese 
 possess many attributes which are in themselves admir- 
 able. On the other hand, they evince certain short- 
 comings which are proportionately despicable. The 
 Chinaman is, from his earliest infancy, brought up to 
 entertain a deep respect for age. His parents have 
 power of life and death over him, and he is taught to 
 regard his forebears as his mundane gods. Religion, 
 except as a passive formality, docs not trouble him, 
 but in place of any appreciation of sanctity, he absorbs 
 a deep-rooted regard for authority and order, which, 
 except among the rabble population of the large towns, 
 is never lost. He is ridiculously vain, his conceit being 
 a national inheritance, the result of centuries of ab- 
 stention from intercourse with the outer world. Never 
 having been judged by comparison, China regards 
 herself as the best of all possible things, and resents 
 any suggestion to the contrary. It is doubtless this 
 feeling which has always encouraged her to regard the 
 foreigner as an inferior beinsf, a mere " barbarian," 
 whose presence is to be resented, and whose preten- 
 sions are to be severely snubbed. The ingrained 
 vanity thus induced has served to develop a love of 
 splendour, and anything which may serve as an excuse 
 for parade is on this account encouraged. Hence it 
 follows that the Chinese are the most formal, the most
 
 28 CHINA IN DEC A V. 
 
 polite, and the most ceremonious nation in existence. 
 Among the classes, from the small merchant to the 
 highest mandarin, every observance, even the most 
 ordinary transactions of daily life, must be con- 
 ducted with full regard to unwritten law. The 
 result is an inordinate waste of time, and a serious 
 interference with the achievement of any business 
 undertaking. 
 
 In point of honesty the Chinee is proverbial. He 
 will lie through thick and thin, for an appreciation 
 of the beauty of truthfulness is non-existent in the 
 Celestial mind. He will squeeze, i.e., take a sur- 
 reptitious commission, or make an illicit profit out of 
 every transaction in which he is concerned. He will 
 take bribes from his employer's trade rivals, and stick 
 at nothinor in order to insure his obtaining;- what he 
 considers himself justly entitled to. But he will not 
 steal in the sense of abstracting private property or 
 money, and it is little less than remarkable to note 
 how very exceptional it is for a Chinese " boy " to 
 abstract the value of a single " cash " from his master's 
 belongings. One other quality is developed in the 
 Chinaman. He possesses the faculty of application 
 in a degree rarely found among other nations. He is 
 the most industrious worker in the world, and as he can 
 subsist on less than a quarter of what almost any other 
 toiler needs, it follows that he becomes a very serious 
 competitor when pitted against the western workman. 
 On the other hand, in addition to his utter disregard 
 of truth, the Celestial is a born coward, except when 
 his blood is up, when he will morally run amok, and
 
 THE PEOPLE. 29 
 
 perpetrate the most hideous crimes. He. is a good 
 son, a fairly kind husband, and an abstemious liver. 
 He does not drink to excess, nor does he squander his 
 inheritance. He is the most trustworthy debtor, in the 
 world, always pays his dues, and can be^trusted to keep 
 his word in business relations. And, finally, the Chinee 
 is the most corrupt creature on earth, and the higher 
 one ascends in the social scale, the more ingrained is 
 the love of undue influence and peculation. 
 
 Speaking broadly, the natives of China may be 
 divided into two great divisions — the masses and the 
 mandarin. These two classes are necessary to one 
 another. The former are the workers who produce, the 
 latter the cormorants who devour. The system which 
 obtains throughout the Empire would be impossible in 
 any other country in the world. But in China it works 
 well enough, and even in certain cases appears to 
 benefit both parties. The mandarin are the official 
 class of China. They are of various grades, and per- 
 form varied duties, but all are alike underpaid, and each 
 blackmails the people under his authority for his own 
 particular benefit. The people, in turn, toil and 
 generally prosper, except in the case of the mechanics 
 and artisans, who, with the other members of the pro- 
 letariat, are frequently on the brink of starvation, and do 
 not object to playing into the hands of the officials, in 
 return for their protection. In face of such a line of 
 demarcation between the governors and the governed, 
 it is not surprising that the ambition of well-nigh every 
 young Chinaman is to enter the ranks of the chosen. 
 And every encouragement is offered even to the
 
 30 CHINA IN DECAY. 
 
 poorest and meanest of the sons of the people to join 
 the ranks of officialdom, and, theoretically at least, to 
 rise to the post of viceroy or first adviser to the 
 Son of Heaven himself. And, unlike most principles 
 which are preached in China, this is actually borne out 
 by facts. The test by which merit is alone recognised 
 throughout the Empire is that afforded by examina- 
 tion in the sacred books of China, including the writings 
 of Confucius ; and it is familiarity with these, and the 
 faculty of writing a lengthy analysis, accompanied by a 
 moral disquisition on the precepts set by way of a 
 theme, that decides the candidates' abilities in the 
 direction of governing the people. 
 
 It is towards the acquisition of a familiarity with the 
 Chinese classics that the education of the youth of the 
 country is directed. The inculcation of useful know- 
 ledge is nowhere attempted. The one desire on the 
 part of the pupil is to succeed in obtaining the much- 
 coveted degree, which may insure his obtaining an 
 official post. The amount of work necessary to 
 achieve this end is considerable, and the number of the 
 candidates who every year go up for examination is out 
 of all proportion to the number of posts likely to become 
 vacant. It is no unusual thing for ten or even twelve 
 thousand candidates to present themselves for examina- 
 tion in a big city such as Peking or Hangchau, each 
 being accommodated with a tiny cell in which he re- 
 mains during the six days over which the examination 
 extends. Archdeacon Moule relates how, on one 
 occasion, far more candidates presented themselves than 
 could be squeezed into the cells, and those who could
 
 THE PEOPLE. 31 
 
 not be accommodated were placed in sedan chairs with 
 a board in front to write upon.* 
 
 The labour entailed by these examinations is very 
 great, and numbers of candidates have died from 
 fatigue and exposure. Of the nine or ten thousand 
 competitors who attend, not more than 250 or 300 will 
 attain their ambition. Those who are so fortunate as 
 to pass, obtain a degree in accordance with their merit, 
 and enter the ranks of the literati. These fortunate 
 ones are entitled to enter for the higher decrees. 
 The highest degrees are competed for at Peking, and 
 the triumphant candidates presented to the Emperor 
 in person. 
 
 Admirable as the examination system appears, and 
 minute as are the precautions taken to prevent collusion 
 or unfair play, the whole system is delusive, since, 
 like most things in China, it is not necessarily what it 
 appears to be. It is an undoubted fact that, while the 
 time-honoured system of obtaining a substitute who 
 should, under the candidate's name, pass through the 
 examination for him, has been practically abolished, 
 and though the supervision is now of the strictest, many 
 degrees are obtained by judicious "persuasion" of the 
 examiners, and it is not at all difficult to believe the 
 statement made to me by a Chinese gentleman, who 
 judged his country by the light of experience gained 
 during a residence in western lands, that it would be 
 easy for me to insure my obtaining the Chin Shih, 
 or third degree, if I cared to fulfil certain necessary 
 
 * Xew China and Old: Personal Recollections and Obserfations of Thirty 
 Years.
 
 32 CHINA IN DEC A V. 
 
 preHmiiiaries, which did not include cramming or 
 instruction of any kind ! It is, indeed, an open secret 
 that degrees of scholarship, like most other things in 
 China, can be secured by a tactful greasing of the 
 official palm. 
 
 It is, of course, impossible to provide office for all the 
 successful candidates who pass the examinations, and 
 the number of literati without posts or emoluments 
 increases year by year. These occupy an anomalous 
 position, owing to the fact that they must not embark 
 in trade, and they are therefore compelled to become 
 the hangers-on of the yamens of the mandarin, and 
 obtain a living as best they may, the most favoured 
 method employed being to play the part of go- 
 between — for a consideration — between the mandarin 
 and his suitors. To this necessity is due much of 
 the corruption which disfigures Chinese justice. The 
 literati who are on good terms with the magistrates 
 exert their influence on behalf of those who can afford 
 to fee them, handing a portion of the fees received to 
 the ofreat man himself after his decision is g-iven. Thus 
 it comes about that all parties are satisfied, except the 
 discomfited suitor, who, being, as a rule, the poorest 
 person interested, does not receive any sympathy from 
 his fellows, and is speedily reconciled to the fate which 
 has overtaken him as a result of his penuriousness. 
 And it often happens that the greatest offenders 
 against the law are suffered to escape scot-free, the man- 
 darin who has oriven them the benefit of the doubt con- 
 soling himself for his subversion of justice by reflecting, 
 as he pockets his vail, that another opportunity is
 
 THE PEOPLE. 33 
 
 pretty safe to crop up ere long, when, in the absence of 
 pecuniary bias, justice may be done. In cases where 
 both sides fee the mandarin, he has the consolation, 
 when discomfiting one or the other, that, as soon as 
 sentence has been pronounced, he will, most probably, 
 receive a bigger bribe, in order that the culprit may 
 escape the penalty which he has been condemned to 
 pay. And so the farce continues, the greatest latitude 
 being accorded to the man with the longest purse. 
 
 The two characteristics which are most marked in 
 the Chinese character are ignorance and conserva- 
 tism. The one is, to a large extent, the outcome 
 of the other, and each is, in its way, sublime. Except 
 at those treaty ports where constant intercourse with 
 western peoples has in some degree educated the 
 natives, there is practically no limit to the supreme 
 iofnorance which is inherent in the Celestial. He 
 possesses a marked individuality, untempered by learn- 
 ing, and his innate independence exhibits itself in 
 strength of character and a disposition to defend the 
 principles to which he is accustomed to give credence. 
 The whole political system of China being an unquali- 
 fied absolutism, the individual is accustomed to accept 
 things as they are, and the idea of reform or progress 
 never enters his head. But no new departure, even 
 in the method or degree of inflicting a customary 
 injustice, is tolerated. The Chinee recognises that 
 the law ofoverninuf a certain set of circumstances 
 is one thing, and the customary manner of carry- 
 ing that law out quite another. He realises that he 
 is being wronged, or " squeezed," by an illegal enact-
 
 34 CHINA IN DFX A V. 
 
 ment, and adapts himself to circumstances accordingly. 
 But should the offending Totai, or Viceroy retire, 
 and his successor attempt to alter or increase the 
 latitude taken by his predecessor, trouble is certain to 
 arise, and in the end a complaint is most probably sent 
 to the censors, who, if they are not fee'd on an elaborate 
 scale by the delinquent, will, without fail, visit his 
 enormities with a suitable penalty, and as likely as not 
 cause his appointment to be cancelled. 
 
 Punishments in China vary greatly according to 
 the position of the offender. In the case of 
 mandarin and literati, sentences are rarely carried 
 out, for the reason that such persons have usually 
 the means of bribing the officials charged with their 
 enforcement. With the proletariat, on the other 
 hand, "justice " is short and speedy, and the magistrate, 
 who acts as counsel, judge, and jury, awards a penalty, 
 and, except in the case of a death sentence, the 
 award is made good then and there. The yamen, 
 or magisterial court, which exists in every township 
 throughout the Empire, and is always open to suitors, 
 thus becomes a justice- room, prison, and reformatory 
 rolled into one, and no sooner is a sentence of a 
 flogging or the application of the "cangue" delivered, 
 than the attendant " runners," charged with orivinof 
 effect to the least word of the mandarin, seize the 
 culprit, and flog him, or place his head in the instru- 
 ment of torture, as the case may be. The subject 
 of Chinese justice will be treated of at greater length 
 when I come to deal with the system of government 
 in China. For the present, I have said sufficient to
 
 THE PEOPLE. 35 
 
 show the relations existing- between the official and 
 the non-official classes, and to explain how the whole 
 system of social relationship is controlled by bribe 
 and " squeeze," — a custom which affects the intercourse 
 of all classes throughout the country. 
 
 The individual life of the middle-class Chinaman 
 is fairly colourless. He is, as a rule, a hard and a 
 steady worker. Sober in his habits, orderly and 
 methodical, he evinces a marked respect for his 
 superiors, and rubs along complacently, but rarely 
 having disputes with his fellows or giving trouble 
 to his superiors. He is, as a rule, on good terms 
 with the authorities. He is lightly taxed. His 
 career is entirely in his own hands, and he is free 
 to marry as many wives as he can afford to maintain, 
 though, while polygamy is permitted, it is the exception 
 rather than the rule amono" the gfreat middle class. 
 
 The ethics of Chinese life are based on the principle 
 of the family. The head of the family is the king of 
 the race, just as, to maintain the illusion, the Emperor 
 is regarded as the father of his people. Parents have 
 absolute power over their children, — a power which 
 they are apt to exercise, in the case of girls especially, 
 by killing them while young. No sacrifice is too great 
 for a child to make for its parents, even when the 
 child has entered into middle age ; and the patriarchal 
 system is carried out to the extent of all the children 
 and grandchildren dwelling under the roof of the head 
 of the clan. The position of the women is, however, 
 an unenviable one. The Chinese woman is regarded 
 as being, upon the whole, a useless individual, whose
 
 36 CHINA IN DEC A Y. 
 
 only possible career is that of a mother. Single 
 women are the exception, owing to the fact that 
 the surplusage of girls is counteracted by infanticide ; 
 and, the possession of a wife carrying with it few 
 responsibilities, every Chinaman marries in early 
 life. The mere marriage ceremonial does not 
 materially affect the status of the bride. Vows 
 there are none, nor is courting, in the western sense 
 of the word, customary. Marriages are arranged 
 by professional match-makers, who praise the girls 
 to their customers, until one lends a willing ear, when 
 negotiations are entered on by the parents of both 
 parties. The negotiations endure a considerable 
 time, and are conducted according to a fixed code. 
 The parties most interested in the issue do not, 
 except in the rarest cases, meet, or even see one 
 another, and when all is arranged, and the marriage 
 brought about, the bride is delivered over to the 
 ardent husband much as though she were a bundle 
 of goods, and it is only on her removing her veil 
 that the benedict gets to know what the partner 
 of his joys and sorrows looks like. 
 
 The rites of marriage are purely ceremonial, and 
 do not take religious form ; nor is the nuptial knot 
 absolute. It is often abrogated by mutual assent, and 
 cases occur in which both parties marry again. The 
 bride is not reo-arded as a full-fledofed woman until she 
 has borne a child. Up till this period she is spoken 
 of as still a girl. In the event of a wife becoming 
 widowed, she, as a rule, poses as being inconsolable, and 
 devotes herself to the supervision of the family, but
 
 THE PEOPLE. 37 
 
 more especially to waiting on her husband's- parents, 
 with whom she has lived as a matter of course, from 
 the day of her wedding. If a man becomes a widower, 
 he does not go out of his way to display his grief 
 There are plenty of girls to choose from, and he rarely 
 finds any difficulty in obtaining a second wife. 
 
 The treatment accorded the women of China is very 
 much the reverse of that which obtains among western 
 nations. In the Flowery Land the women are re- 
 garded as an encumbrance, whose only utility consists 
 in the procreation of children, and the tending of their 
 elders. The notion of cultivating women's society is 
 as unheard of as it is impossible, and there is little 
 sympathy or good-fellowship even between brothers 
 and sisters. In some cases the husband, or parent, 
 endeavours to employ women to his own advantage, 
 and they may occasionally be seen performing men's 
 work in the fields, while at the treaty ports they are 
 largely employed in miscellaneous callings. And 
 it is on record that a woman has been seen har- 
 nessed to the plough alongside a cow and a donkey, 
 while her husband drove the team,* but such exhibi- 
 tions are not common ; indeed, I doubt whether the 
 instance could be regarded as other than exceptional. 
 
 The " golden rule " of the Chinese is the exhibi- 
 tion of respect towards the older members of the 
 family, and nothing certainly brings more fame to the 
 individual than the performance of some striking act 
 of self-abasement for the benefit of an aged relative. 
 The custom of infanticide is one which has obtained in 
 
 * Holcoml^e, The Real Chinaman.
 
 38 CHINA IN DEC A V. 
 
 many parts of China for ages. It does not, as a 
 rule, take the form of actual murder, but consists 
 rather in assisting the laws of nature. Thus an infant 
 will be neglected and permitted to perish, or, if it sicken, 
 will be put aside and allowed to take its chance. 
 Children under the age of puberty are rarely buried 
 singly, but are placed on the dead cart which patrols 
 the big towns at intervals. The custom of disposing 
 of orirl children is so common an incident in Chinese 
 life, that notices are occasionally met with by the sides 
 of pools to the effect that " Girls may not be drowned 
 here."* In many parts of the country special re- 
 positories are provided to receive the bodies of children 
 who have been suffered to perish. By the kindness of 
 Mr T. W. Goodall of the China Inland Mission, I am 
 able to reproduce an excellent photograph of one of 
 these " towers of silence," 
 
 The funeral rites of the Chinese are, in themselves, 
 fairly simple, but they are nevertheless attended with 
 certain peculiarities. It is the great aim of every 
 Chinaman to be buried in as close proximity as possible 
 to his native place. This desire often necessitates the 
 intermission of a lengthy period between the death and 
 burial, and causes considerable annoyance to those who 
 are not as insensible as the native Chinese to olfactory 
 sensations. And the Celestials are prone to take dire 
 offence at any suggested interference with the keeping 
 of their dead above ground. It was this very question 
 which caused rioting at Shanghai the other day, when 
 objections were urged by the residents of the French 
 
 * Douglas, Society in China.
 
 THE PEOPLE. 39 
 
 settlement to the maintenance of a score or more 
 
 TOWER USED AS A REPOSITORY KOR IM-ANTS. 
 
 bodies in a disused temple, pending a suitable oppor-
 
 40 CHINA IN DEC A V. 
 
 tunity for conveying them to distant parts of the 
 territory for burial. The normal Chinaman has neither 
 a sense of smell or a knowledge of the first principles 
 of sanitation. Indeed, it is a question whether he is 
 capable of any sensation whatever. It is this peculiarity 
 which gives him that stoic placidity which is so charac- 
 teristic of his race. 
 
 Besides the desirability of conveying the body to 
 the place of its birth, it is deemed highly necessary by 
 those most concerned that both the date of removal 
 and the exact spot chosen for the interment should be 
 carefully selected by properly qualified soothsayers, 
 whose services are in great request on such occasions. 
 In no case, however, is the body interred before it has 
 remained above ground for forty-nine days, the allotted 
 period of full mourning, and this interval is frequently 
 greatly prolonged. 
 
 The bodies of single women and concubines are not, 
 as a rule, buried, but are cast away, to be devoured by 
 the birds or animals, or to rot until absorbed by the 
 earth. 
 
 There is in China an utter absence of that fear of 
 death so general in most countries. Indeed, the one 
 great idea which finds expression during the lifetime 
 of the middle-class Chinee is the desire to attain a 
 funeral calculated to attract attention to the record of 
 the departed. It is the rule, rather than the exception, 
 for a Chinaman to be provided with his coffin long be- 
 fore there is any need of it, and among the poorer folk 
 a well-designed casket is deemed the most fitting gift 
 which could be made by an affectionate and dutiful son.
 
 THE PEOPLE. 41 
 
 It has been remarked, by an acute student of the land 
 and its people,* that the needs of China are only two in 
 number — character and conscience. I am prepared to 
 admit the justice of the sarcasm so far as the conscience, 
 for it would be idle to dispute the fact. Not only has 
 the typical Celestial no conscience, but he is unable to 
 appreciate the signification of the term, as being 
 something intangible, and quite outside the limits of 
 his unimaginative consciousness. But as regards the 
 attribute of character, I must stand up for the much- 
 maligned heathen. I hold that the Chinee is full of 
 character — that he is positively bursting with it. 
 That he is wanting in individuality I grant, for one 
 Chinaman is very much like another, and Ah Sin is 
 pretty certain to act in given circumstances in precisely 
 the same way as Lo Ben did on a similar occasion. 
 But this similarity of thought, so far from pointing to a 
 lack of character, rather suggests strength. The truth 
 is, that the normal Celestial is built on a different 
 design to the western man, and it is, for this reason, a 
 matter of extreme difficulty to appreciate either his 
 reasons or his conclusions. The Chinese view of every- 
 thing is different to our own. The Chinaman's logic is 
 based on the transposition of cause and effect, and the 
 results he arrives at only serve, when judged from our 
 standpoint, to make confusion worse confounded. To 
 take an instance : A missionary, after endless trouble, 
 and by dint of great persuasion, succeeded in getting a 
 native to come to a Bible reading. The Chinee came 
 and listened, but, after the reading with its subsequent 
 
 * A. H. Smith, Chinese Characteristics.
 
 42 CHINA IN DEC A V. 
 
 explanation was over, he refused to pledge himself to 
 return, giving as his reason, and in all good faith, that 
 if he read that book, and /Ae7i told a lie, he would go to 
 hell, and as he did not want to go to hell, he would far 
 rather not read it.* It would, on the face of it, be 
 merely futile to attempt to reason with such a logician as 
 this. And yet his ratiocination may be taken as a very 
 fair example of Chinese thought. The connection be- 
 tween cause and effect is unrecognised and unrecognis- 
 able by the Chinese intelligence. It would be as easy 
 to reason a " compradore " out of the custom of extorting 
 " squeeze " as it would be to drive the certainty of 
 effect following- cause into the head of a Chinese 
 working man. I will cite one more instance of a 
 different kind : The oreat Yellow River or Hoano" Ho, 
 known as China's Sorrow, has, as already explained, 
 many times overrun its banks, and sacrificed hundreds 
 of thousands of lives in so doing. Various attempts 
 had been made to keep the river to its course, but with- 
 out success, and at last the governments of Honan and 
 Shantung decided to act on the advice of foreign 
 engineers, and proceeded to plant willows and other 
 plants, which possess the faculty of taking firm root and 
 binding earth together, in the hope that these measures 
 would prevent the sandy embankments from giving 
 way at the next spate. Immediately the work w^as 
 done, the people around, most of them badly off, 
 but all acquainted only too well with the treacherous 
 river, and many yet mourning for those who had 
 become victims to its overflow, pounced down upon 
 
 * A. H, Smith, Chinese Characteristics.
 
 THE PEOPLE. 43 
 
 the Stripling trees, and carted them away for firewood. 
 Is it possible for idiotic recklessness to go further than 
 this? 
 
 From whatever direction a Chinaman's reasonins^ fac- 
 ulties are approached, the response invariably partakes 
 of the nature of the unexpected. Ask a Celestial whether 
 he does not think that trial by jury would be superior 
 to the existing system of trial by mandarin, and he will 
 tell you that he does not, because, if one man will often 
 do an injustice, it follows that twelve men will commit 
 much greater injustices ; and if an attempt be made to 
 discuss the woman question with him, he will fight shy 
 of the main issue, and evade it cleverly enough by 
 replying that it is necessary for the English to treasure 
 their womenkind, since they value them highly, and 
 spend much on their education and their dress ; but in 
 the case of the Chinese, women are cheap, and little or 
 nothing is spent over them. Why, then, should they 
 be treasured ? 
 
 I have incidentally mentioned the subject of 
 " squeeze " as one which is ingrained in the Celestial 
 constitution. To do justice to its importance would 
 require a separate volume, but I will endeavour to 
 make the matter clear in ei couple of pages. The 
 word " squeeze " is a synonym for a secret commis- 
 sion or illegal exaction which the Chinee extorts from 
 every person with whom he deals and from every 
 transaction with which he is concerned. It is a 
 modern survival of the vialatoUa of the Middle Ages, 
 quite as imperative and even more frequent in its 
 infliction. According to the Chinese code of ethics,
 
 44 CHINA IN DEC A V. 
 
 there can be no leo;al claim on a man's abilities in 
 return for a mere fixed wage. He regards a salary as 
 a species of retaining fee, which pledges him to accord 
 his presence at his employer's residence or place of 
 business, and the performance of the most simple 
 duties. Any business transactions in which he may 
 represent his employer's interests must be separately 
 and specially rewarded, the reward taking the form of 
 a small percentage or commission on the transaction, 
 and in practice it has been found that, despite the utter 
 immorality of the custom, the employer does better, 
 and buys cheaper, by employing a native to act for him, 
 despite the squeeze he extorts on his own behalf, than 
 he could do were he to discharge his servant, and deal 
 with tradespeople or merchants himself. In short, the 
 native servant or compradore will extort his " squeeze " 
 even if he has to rob his employer in order to obtain 
 it, but he will not permit anyone else to rob him, and 
 extracts the best possible terms from the other side, in 
 order to save his master's pocket. The Englishman 
 could never deal as efficaciously with the native 
 merchant as can his own employe, and so, despite 
 endless attempts at ending the objectionable principle, 
 the "squeeze" continues to flourish, and is likely to do 
 so to the end of time. 
 
 It is absolutely hopeless for a European to attempt 
 to best a Chinaman. To do so is the merest waste of 
 time. His smartness and his resources are alike 
 unlimited. The thino^ has been tried more than once 
 without result. One instance of repeated failure has 
 been put on record by one of the most able of the
 
 THE PEOPLE. 45 
 
 ministers ever sent to Peking by the United States.* 
 The sufferer discovered that his steward was, beyond 
 doubt, charging him more for his purchases than he had 
 actually paid. After taking some considerable trouble 
 to verify the prices, the servant was taxed with the 
 offence, and immediately, with that inimitable blandness 
 so characteristic of a Chinese, confessed the imputation, 
 and promised to offend no more. Observation was 
 continued, and the master of the establishment was 
 satisfied that the servant only charged what he had 
 paid, but it suddenly dawned upon him that the weight 
 was habitually short. He thereupon invested in a 
 pair of Chinese scales, such as were used in the shops 
 from which his purchases came, but found that his 
 suspicions were unfounded, and that the weights were 
 correct. All went well for a while, until he one day 
 accidentally made the discovery that his scales weighed 
 only fourteen ounces to the pound. He went to con- 
 siderable pains, and, with the assistance of a friendly 
 mandarin, obtained another set of scales, which were 
 carefully tested and found correct. And as the quality 
 of his scales improved, so did the quantity of the meat. 
 His joints all proved to be full weight. But he had not 
 exhausted the ingenuity of his servant, for, after the 
 joint had been scaled, the cook would cut off a big slice, 
 which was speedily returned to the butcher, who repaid 
 its value to the servant as an incentive to retain his 
 custom. The best part of this story is the defence 
 entered by the cook when taxed with having cut off a 
 portion of the meat. With the greatest deference of 
 
 * Ilolcombe.
 
 46 CHINA IN DEC A V. 
 
 manner, he admitted that the joint appeared very small, 
 but added, " Your Excellency should not fail to make 
 allowance for the fact that, in a dry climate like Peking, 
 meat shrinks much more in cooking than in your 
 honourable country." * 
 
 There is, in short, no possible means of evading 
 the universal system of squeeze. If a servant is dis- 
 charged for a repetition of the offence, his successor 
 continues the enforced impost in an increased ratio, 
 and shares the result with his predecessor. To argue 
 against the practice is mere waste of words. The 
 squeeze is a national institution, and so it is ever 
 likely to remain. 
 
 The whole social system of China is one systematic 
 fraud. The people might fairly be spoken of as a 
 nation of make-believe — a nation which, under the 
 vaeuest outer show of immaculate virtue, is shame- 
 lessly venal and rotten to the core, and the worst of 
 the position is that the rottenness starts from the top, 
 and is gradually permeating down to the lowest depths. 
 The whole law of China is framed on the principles 
 enunciated by Confucius and Mencius applied to the 
 requirements of the family. Virtue and uprightness, 
 honesty and truth, are held up as the first necessities of 
 existence, in a country where neither of these attributes 
 exists. The organisation of the social system is 
 specially designed to give prominence to the display 
 of disinterested action and intrinsic merit, but the 
 safeguards provided are so numerous and so easily 
 available as to offer a premium on vice and cor- 
 
 * T/ie Real Chinaman.
 
 THE PEOPLE. 47 
 
 ruption. Honour is accorded to special cases of distin- 
 guished conduct in a variety of ways. A triumphal arch 
 may be erected, by special command of the Emperor, 
 as a record of some piece of self-sacrifice reported of a 
 mandarin in a far-off province, though the distinction 
 may, as likely as not, have been purchased of the 
 Emperor's advisers — for a consideration. Tablets of 
 honour are, at intervals, presented to specially selected 
 recipients, who may be, in fact, the biggest rogues in 
 the Empire, while, as an extreme compliment, a town- 
 ship may request the gift of the boots of a mandarin 
 whom it is desired for some reason to conciliate, and 
 these, when obtained, are hung up in a conspicuous 
 place near a gateway, to be regarded with admiration by 
 all who see them, until they fall to pieces from decay. 
 
 The Chinese mind, in common with the Chinese 
 body, delights in being swaddled out of all shape. 
 Just as the Celestial loves, even on the hottest day, 
 to swathe himself in padded robes, until his bodily 
 proportions become a matter of speculation, so does 
 the Chinaman delight in wrapping his mind in a 
 tissue of false suggestion and deceit, for the pure love 
 of misleading those with whom he comes into contact. 
 This intense love of crookedness manifests itself in 
 many ways, but in none more markedly than in the 
 pleasure taken by the natives of the Flowery Land in 
 chaffering over their business dealings. No Chinaman 
 ever yet condescended to make a straightforward reply 
 to a simple question. No shopkeeper dreams of 
 quoting anything like a reasonable price for any 
 article which a possible customer may chance to
 
 48 CHINA IN DEC A Y. 
 
 examine. The visitor's question is certain to bring 
 forth, by way of reply, a demand for five or six times 
 the amount which the dealer will gladly accept, and 
 this is not due to the desire so freely evinced by the 
 Italian or the Turkish vendor of goods to swindle his 
 customer. The Chinaman names a figure which is 
 ridiculous even to the non-expert, and entirely pro- 
 hibitive, and should the inquirer show his disgust or 
 annoyance by walking away, the merchant waxes 
 wroth, and abuses him in terms which there is no need 
 to translate. The native is simply jumping at an 
 opportunity to do a little bargaining. The chaffering 
 is even more to him than the profit he eventually 
 secures, and I am not at all certain but that, in the 
 event of the customer paying the preposterous price 
 demanded in the first instance, the vendor would be 
 inclined to be quite as abusive as if he had merely put 
 the object down and walked off. It takes quite a 
 quarter of an hour to make a small purchase in a 
 Peking or Canton shop, and if the article required be 
 one that amounts to more than two or three teals, the 
 purchaser must be prepared to waste quite double that 
 time, even if he be disposed to pay through the nose 
 for his fancy. 
 
 The habit of chaffering has, in short, long since 
 taken its place as a national characteristic. It is 
 regarded as a species of etiquette, and to forego it is 
 equivalent to exhibiting a lack of breeding. Chinese 
 etiquette is, throughout its many ramifications, as 
 purposeless, hollow, and trying a fraud as any of the 
 many shams of which the Celestial modus vivendi is
 
 THE PEOPLE. 49 
 
 composed. Among the well-to-do Chinese, every 
 action, all routine, is subject to unwritten rules of 
 conduct, which are as harassing as they are absurd. 
 To neglect them means to exhibit a want of breeding, 
 the penalty for which is open insult, for the Chinese 
 gentleman, in his conceit of superiority, is incapable of 
 making any allowances whatever. To obey these 
 dictates of oriental " bobbery " entails the loss of much 
 time and a trial of temper without producing the 
 least result, for the suave and diornified Chinee, who 
 with much parade makes a show of refusing to be 
 seated in your presence, would make no scruple about 
 bringing the interview to a close, and having you 
 summarily shown out, should you act on his suggestion 
 and take a seat before he does, and, in the same way, 
 no matter how far you may have ridden, or how hot 
 the day may be, you have only to taste the cup of tea, 
 which is, as a matter of course, presented to you on 
 your arrival, before being pressed to do so half-a-dozen 
 times, to cause your host to consider himself grossly 
 insulted, and you will possibly see him flounce out of 
 the room. Yet while the dignified mandarin, replete 
 in the conception of his own superiority, insists on your 
 according him the full honours of Chinese etiquette, you 
 are compelled to sit by him while he makes no scruple 
 of eructating in your face, and spits on the floor while 
 you reply to his inquiries as to the state of " your 
 honourable health," and the future intentions of "your 
 most dignified personality." 
 
 It is nocessary that I should append one caution 
 to the remarks I have made on the above topic. 
 
 D
 
 50 CHINA IN DEC A V. 
 
 It is, that the details I have given as to the Chinese 
 attributes, more especially in regard to the subject 
 of the last paragraph, concern the typical Chinese 
 in China. I would give especial prominence to this 
 fact, inasmuch as I shall show, further on, that it is 
 quite possible for a Chinee to be both a gentleman 
 and a man of taste. There are, indeed, at this present 
 moment, several Chinese gentlemen occupying exalted 
 positions in Europe, who, in point of breeding, 
 manners, and education, would compare favourably 
 with some English bearers of aristocratic names.* 
 But the Chinaman in China, with his undoubted 
 abilities cramped, his intelligence narrowed by ignor- 
 ance, prejudice, and conceit, his failings accentuated 
 by an utter freedom from criticism, supplies a spectacle 
 which is surely its own severest condemnation. 
 
 The feature which stands in strongfest relief in 
 the Chinese character is, without question, the 
 marvellous adaptability possessed by the typical 
 Celestial. He is an essentially handy person, and 
 can turn his attention to anything — from carrying- 
 weights to keeping house, and from negotiating a 
 bargain to minding the baby. Climate, temperature, 
 and surroundings are alike immaterial to him. He 
 is as serviceable in the north of Asia as in the Tropics, 
 and he pays no more attention to his housing or his 
 
 * The late Marquis Tseng ; Li Fong Pao, long ambassador at Berlin ; Kaw 
 Hong Beng, secretary to Chang Chi Tung, viceroy of the two Hu provinces, who 
 graduated at Edinburgh ; Mr T. Y. Lo, secretary to the Chinese legation ; and 
 his excellency Sir Chihchen Lofengluh, the Chinese ambassador to this country, 
 and a well-known figure in society, are a few examples of Chinamen whose 
 education and breeding leave nothing to be desired, even when judged from the 
 most insular standpoint.
 
 THE PEOPLE. 51 
 
 food than he does to his employment. He exists on 
 less than most other men, and eats with relish what 
 no other man would touch. He works for a lower 
 wage, yet accomplishes more than the white man, and, 
 provided he is given a copy to start with, there is 
 nothino- in the way of handiwork he cannot achieve. 
 
 It is commonly believed that the Chinee is not a 
 fighting animal. The idea is erroneous, and doubtless 
 arises from the fact that he has not succeeded in 
 holding his own against his more civilised opponents. 
 But the cause rests with his lack of training, and 
 not with any inherent shortcoming. The methods, 
 till recently, and, indeed, probably to-day, in force 
 in the Chinese army are not calculated to turn the 
 yellow soldier into a first-class fighting machine. 
 What is to be said of an army of which one-third is 
 supplied with magazine rifles, while the rest use bows 
 and arrows ? An army led by civilians, who, while 
 employing German officers to instruct their artillery 
 in the use of Krupp guns, teach their infantry to 
 make faces in order to frighten the enemy ! In all 
 those instances in which the Chinese have been 
 opposed to an enemy of their own calibre they have 
 held their own, and the achievements recorded of the 
 " ever victorious army " raised and led by General Gor- 
 don against the Taeping rebels are not such as to 
 suggest any doubt as to the capacity of the Chinese 
 when properly led. 
 
 The character in which the Celestial shows to best 
 advantage is, without question, that of a trader. John 
 Chinaman is a born merchant. He possesses all the
 
 52 CHINA IN DEC A V. 
 
 qualities which i^o to create the successful dealer ; 
 his love of chaffering has been already dwelt on. 
 Wherever he goes he carries his wits with him, and 
 employs them to his marked advantage. The small 
 expenditure necessary to his existence and his love of 
 saving stand him in good stead, and result in the 
 gradual accumulation of wealth by the Chinese traders 
 in every part of the world.
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 THE GOVERNMENT. 
 
 The system of government in force throughout the 
 Chinese Empire is one of despotism, tempered by- 
 philanthropy. It is modelled on the idea of the 
 family, and the Emperor, who is regarded as the 
 father of his people, is, in turn, spoken of as the 
 Son of Heaven itself. This last attribute, which is 
 reiterated ad nmiseani in the reports of His Majesty's 
 movements, requires a little explanation, inasmuch as 
 it is somewhat confusino-. The term " Son of Heaven " 
 is not assumed with any pretence of divine descent. 
 It is used to mark the fact that the ruler of the 
 Chinese is the one human being who is permitted to 
 act as go-between. He stands between the people and 
 the divinity, and he alone possesses the right to worship 
 and offer sacrifice at the altar of heaven, which is 
 jealously guarded, and to which no person besides the 
 Emperor is ever allowed access. On the assumption 
 that the Emperor attains his authority direct from 
 heaven, he is regarded as the source of all authority. 
 He is considered infallible and omniscient, and any 
 expression of his wishes, whether in accordance with or 
 contrary to the written law, is accepted without question,
 
 5$ CHINA IN DEC A Y. 
 
 as a satisfactory conclusion of the matter in hand. 
 The Emperor is regarded as the proprietor of the 
 country and the people. He has an easement in all 
 property, and a lien over every life. He is, in short, 
 the head of the Chinese people, just as the father is the 
 head of his family ; and he enjoys, nominally at least, 
 the same rights, but surrounded with more splendour, 
 and carried into effect with greater pomp and ceremony. 
 The actual power enjoyed by this paternal autocrat 
 is an absolutely unknown quantity. In China, 
 theory and practice seldom go hand in hand, and 
 it is more than suspected that, while every enact- 
 ment is published as being the will of the Son of 
 Heaven, there is a good deal achieved without any 
 reference to the Emperor at all, — just as many of 
 his ordinances are allowed to remain unfulfilled and 
 disregarded, owing to the exercise of superior influence 
 by the great officers of State. These personages, 
 consisting of certain members of the "imperial" 
 family, and the most favoured mandarins in the land, 
 have alone the right of access to the Emperor's 
 presence. They advise him in council, give tongue 
 to his wishes, and carry into effect his proclamations. 
 There is, of course, no parliament in China, but there 
 is a species of cabinet and a council of State, over 
 which the Emperor presides, and which is responsible 
 for the practical government of the Empire. Besides 
 these important councils, which deal with the more 
 important affairs of State, there are six public ofiices 
 or Boards, whose duty is to regulate the local and 
 departmental affairs of the country. These are the
 
 THE GOVERNMENT. 57 
 
 Civil Office, Board of Revenue, Board of Rites, Board 
 of War, Board of Punishments, and Board of Works. 
 Of these, the Board of Punishments unquestionably 
 gets through the most work. The civil office attends 
 to all such matters as the conferring of titles, granting 
 of precedence, and the rewarding of meritorious deeds 
 performed by officials. The Board of Revenue, as its 
 name suggests, supervises the national revenue. The 
 Board of Rites watches over the ritual of all the public 
 functions commanded by the Emperor. It is also re- 
 sponsible for all the ceremonial followed at Court ; and 
 the regulation of the rites suitable to an eclipse, or any 
 other national " calamity," occupies its most serious 
 attention. The Boards of War and of Works are 
 sufficiently defined in their titles. The former directs 
 the evolutions of an army which is practically non- 
 existent, while the latter nesflects the constructive 
 duties it was established to perform. 
 
 There is one other Board, which was established as 
 recently as 1861, when the signing of the treaty of 
 Tientsin necessitated some provision for the con- 
 duct of business with foreiofners. The Council in 
 question is known as the Tsungli Yamen, or Foreign 
 Office, which was called into existence by a decree 
 issued 19th January 1861, the number of members of 
 which the Board was to consist being originally fixed at 
 three, but subsequently enlarged to eleven. I shall have 
 a good deal to say about the Tsungli Yamen when I 
 come to speak of the foreign policy of China. For 
 the present it can be passed by, inasmuch as it does 
 not affect the Emperor in his relation to his people.
 
 58 CHINA IN DEC A Y. 
 
 The provincial government of China is more akin 
 to that of a repubHc of federated states than to an 
 Empire under despotic rule. China proper is divided 
 into eighteen provinces. Three of these are ad- 
 ministered by governors, the rest being in charge of 
 viceroys, several of whom rule over twin territories, 
 which, for administrative purposes, are coupled to- 
 gether. Thus the provinces of Hupeh and Hunan 
 are under the rule of the Viceroy Chang Chi Tung, so 
 well known as an avowed opponent of the English idea, 
 and in the same way the provinces of Kwangtung 
 and Kwangsi are under one ruler. Each provincial 
 government is autonomous, and to all intents and 
 purposes a distinct country. The governor or 
 viceroy is a despot without interference. His re- 
 sponsibilities are restricted to the maintenance of 
 peace and the remittance of a certain amount of 
 revenue to Peking at the end of the year. So long 
 as he observes these conditions, and provided that his 
 remittances do not fall below the average of previous 
 years, the mandarin remains monarch of all he surveys, 
 free from criticism, an autocrat of the first rank. 
 He may be severe, or even brutal, corrupt, and dis- 
 honest. He may indulge in any vice he pleases, and 
 may grow wealthy, despite his small salary, at the 
 expense of his people ; but so long as he remits the 
 revenue expected, and succeeds in keeping out of such 
 trouble as would necessitate the central government 
 bestirring itself, he may enjoy the spoils of his office 
 undisturbed. 
 
 It must, of course, be borne in mind that these
 
 THE GOVERNMENT. 59 
 
 mandarins have all been appointed to their posts on 
 the strength of having passed certain examinations 
 with credit. There is absolutely no test of fitness to 
 govern, nor is any inquiry made into the character 
 or individual peculiarities of the future ruler. The 
 Chinee who achieves a certain number of marks for an 
 analytical essay on the casuistry of Confucius, becomes, 
 in due course, if he has luck, the ruler of a province, 
 or at least its chancellor or prefect ; and he then pro- 
 ceeds to enjoy himself, and make the most of his 
 opportunities for accumulating wealth. 
 
 Every viceroy or governor is supported by a 
 treasurer, a literary chancellor, a judge, a "total" or 
 superintendent of assize, and a number of magistrates. 
 The patriarchal system is followed throughout, and 
 each official is responsible to his immediate superior, 
 the viceroy or governor being answerable directly to 
 the Emperor. Each of these officers is a mandarin, 
 and all have attained their positions, ostensibly at least, 
 by examination. Many of them will probably be 
 men of the poorest origin, and with the smallest 
 amount of general knowledge or of principle. 
 
 The lack of information which these men, as a rule, 
 exhibit, is scarcely to be believed. It is on record 
 that when, in 1870, one of the most prominent officials 
 in Peking, who had for years held constant intercourse 
 with the foreign ministers at that city, was despatched 
 to Europe on a special mission, he gave directions that 
 a large quantity of salt should be packed with his 
 baggage, as he was accustomed to use it with his 
 food, and knew that the Europeans had none. Again,
 
 6o CHINA IN DEC A V. 
 
 In 1884, a member of the Imperial Cabinet asked 
 whether foreigners had any form of marriage con- 
 tract, or whether the sexes Hved promiscuously 
 together.* 
 
 But far more startling than the gross ignorance and 
 self-sufficiency of the official class in China is their 
 corruptness. This is, in part, due to the love of gain 
 and lack of moral principle inherent in the Chinese 
 character. But it is, without doubt, largely encouraged 
 by the absurd system of insufficient pay which prevails. 
 The mandarin receives a salary out of all proportion 
 alike to the importance of his position and the duties 
 he has to perform. Indeed, one of the greatest authori- 
 ties on China has said : " The constitution of the civil 
 service renders it next to impossible that any office- 
 holder can be clean-handed in the European sense. "t 
 Appointments are nominally for three years only, and 
 the shortness of this tenure offers another inducement 
 to the mandarin to feather his nest as speedily as may 
 be possible. Despite these facts, the regulations for the 
 prevention of corruptness or undue influence are very 
 stringent, and no mandarin is permitted to take office 
 in his native province, or to employ a relation in his 
 service. 
 
 The system of corruption which endures extends its 
 ramifications to the furthest limits of the kingdom. A 
 mandarin appointed to a province with a salary in- 
 sufficient to pay the current expenses of his yamen 
 runners, will, by dint of retailing "justice" to the 
 highest bidder, and accepting bribes from any person 
 
 * Holcombe. + Professor R. K. Douglas.
 
 THE GOVERNMENT. 
 
 6i 
 
 with whom he comes into contact, speedily acquire 
 wealth. He will, as a rule, protect his underlings 
 against any charges brought against them, even if the 
 grossest bribery, or even extortion, be proved, unless it 
 occurs to him that the offender has not handed to him 
 a "present" proportionate to the haul he has made. 
 In such a case the defaulter will l)e forthwith deprived 
 
 .M-.k, i'AKlloi l.Kl'KK A>V1.L'.\!. 
 
 of his office, his superior knowing well that to disgrace 
 him will result profitably, by extracting further and 
 larger bribes, with a view to obtaining the reinstate- 
 ment of the offender. But as the big man bleeds 
 those within his jurisdiction, so is he himself bled by 
 the central government. He remits the revenue he 
 has collected to Peking, and, as he does so, forwards
 
 62 CHINA IN DEC A Y. 
 
 a suitable present of money to the particular member 
 of the council who obtained him his preferment, and 
 who naturally expects to profit by the goodwill he 
 has exhibited. The minister of State extends his pro- 
 tection over the viceroy, and in return draws an income 
 from him, and if it appears that the mandarin is grow- 
 ing wealthy too fast, or is not remitting bribes in proper 
 proportion to his peculations, he will be speedily re- 
 minded of his offence, and as likely as not be recalled. 
 More than one viceroy has thus been shelved, and 
 instances have occurred in which the extent of the 
 wealth supposed to have been accumulated has been 
 so oreat as to cause the central o-overnment to threaten 
 to pass the sentence of death, on the ground of the 
 mandarin's having used extortion in order to screw 
 money out of his people. In these cases the mandarin 
 has had no option but to offer to refund large sums of 
 money, which, having been duly paid over, are divided 
 between the high officials privy to the transaction, and 
 the viceroy purged of his offence, is permitted to 
 return to his province a poorer but a wiser man. 
 
 It would need a bulky volume to detail the various 
 methods employed by the mandarin of China for 
 enriching themselves at the expense of the country 
 and its people. The military officials, all of them 
 mandarin of high degree — for in military and naval 
 affairs the test of merit is the same as in the civil service 
 — derive a considerable income from bribes paid them 
 by aged or sick Chinamen, in order that their names 
 may be entered on the army registers, and that they 
 may receive the monthly allowance of rice to which
 
 THE GOVERNMENT. 63 
 
 all soldiers are entitled. The transaction works out 
 satisfactorily for both the mandarin and the civilian, 
 the only sufferer being the country or province, and 
 that does not matter to either of the participators in the 
 deal. On the same principle, it is not an uncommon 
 thing for the people of a district to rise in ostensible 
 rebellion. The mandarin, who has peculated his 
 soldiers' pay, is unprepared for the emergency. He 
 represents the gravity of the affair to the central 
 government, and is authorised to expend money on 
 extra men and the purchase of material. As soon 
 as this is arranged, he approaches the leader of 
 the rebels, and makes terms with him for so much 
 down, and having paid the money over, the rising- 
 collapses, peace is resumed, and the mandarin pockets 
 the surplus he has been authorised to expend, and 
 sends a glowing report of his victory over the rebels, 
 which most likely secures him some mark of distinction 
 as the reward of his heroism. The Chinese official 
 is, with certain notable exceptions, the most corrupt 
 creature on earth. His corruptness is partly inherited, 
 and partly the outcome of opportunity, but it is 
 rendered, to a certain extent, unavoidable by those 
 above him. And in no sphere of action is the amount 
 of peculation and fraud greater than in the apportion- 
 ment of taxation. 
 
 For fiscal purposes the Chinese Empire is divided 
 into eleven governments, each under a viceroy or 
 governor, who rules supreme in his own territory. 
 These potentates have a number of lesser mandarin 
 under them, engaged in the collecting of revenue,
 
 64 CHINA IN DEC A Y. 
 
 which is in clue course transmitted to the superior 
 authority until, after passing through a multiplicity of 
 hands, what is left of the original sum finds its way, 
 greatly diminished, to the Hoopoo or Board of Revenue 
 at Peking. The appointment of viceroys, as well as 
 that of the smaller fry, is theoretically vested in the 
 Emperor, but for all practical purposes the nomina- 
 tions are governed by two factors : the passing of 
 certain examinations and the payment of bribes. 
 The office of mandarin is only bestowed on one of the 
 literati who has given proof of his ability to govern 
 by an acquaintance with the books of antiquity. 
 As the number of these far exceeds that of the 
 appointments available, the position goes, as a rule, to 
 the applicant who makes it most worth the patron's 
 while to favour his cause. The constitution of the 
 civil service thus renders it practically impossible for 
 an office-holder to enter on his duties clean-handed, 
 and in the result the mandarin assumes office with the 
 fixed determination to do the best he can for himself; 
 in other words, to collect as large sums in the way of 
 taxes as possible, and to remit as little as will suffice to 
 prevent his recall. The various districts throughout 
 China are annually debited with a certain sum, which 
 it is expected the viceroy will remit to Peking. So 
 long as the total named is duly received, the mandarin 
 remains in favour. If it decreases, an inquiry is held, 
 and the officer sent for to answer awkward questions, 
 or he may be deposed without trial. Should he, on 
 the other hand, remit more than his predecessor, he 
 will possibly receive promotion to a larger district, but
 
 THE GOVERNMENT. 65 
 
 he will certainly evoke the enmity of his immediate 
 superiors, who invariably resent any attempts at spoiling 
 their own particular chances of elevation. There is, in 
 short, neither a Budget nor a Civil List. Estimates 
 are unknown, and the collectors are turned loose upon 
 the people, whom they may devour at their will, 
 restricted only by the condition that they shall remit a 
 certain annual payment to Peking, which shall not be 
 less than that which has previously been derived 
 froni the same district. 
 
 The sources of revenue in China are various, 
 and may be conveniently classified under six heads, 
 namely: — i, the land tax; 2, the salt duty; 3, the 
 opium duty ; 4, the " kwan " (native Custom-house) 
 impost ; 5, the likin, or transit dues on merchandise ; 
 and 6, the Imperial Maritime Customs. Of these, the 
 second and third are nominally fixed duties, variable 
 only in the amount of likin demanded on their account 
 during transit from one district to another. The kwan 
 varies greatly at different places, but applies entirely to 
 native traffic. The Imperial Maritime Customs repre- 
 sent the duty of 5 per cent, levied on all goods imported 
 into China. This tax is collected by European officers 
 under the supervision of Sir Robert Hart, the in- 
 spector-general, and paid to the Board of Revenue at 
 Peking without going through the hands of any inter- 
 mediaries. As a result, the sums received from this 
 source of income are honestly dealt with, and form a 
 very important item in the total revenue. The likin 
 duty on merchandise is an impost which dates from 
 '^'^H^ when it was introduced in certain districts, but it
 
 66 CHINA IN DEC A V. 
 
 was not formally legalised until i860, when the large 
 expenditure necessary to cope with the Taeping rising 
 made it imperative that a new form of revenue should 
 be discovered. An Imperial decree was accordingly 
 issued, authorising the general establishment of likin 
 barriers outside the principal towns, and at intervals 
 along the main roads throughout the Empire. The 
 mandarin were authorised to publish a tariff of duties 
 to be paid on all goods passing these barriers. As is 
 customary in China, the officials followed out the 
 terms of the decree just so far as it suited them to do 
 so. Barriers were accordingly erected, and duties levied 
 forthwith, at intervals averaging 20 miles. No tariff 
 was published, however, the amount levied being that 
 which the official in charge could manage to squeeze 
 out of the unfortunate trader. In cases where the 
 owner of the oroods refused to be mulct to the extent 
 desired, the barrier would be closed and the goods im- 
 pounded ; and so unreasonable did the collectors become 
 that they often killed trade by their repeated imposts. 
 
 In order to terminate this state of things, pressure 
 was brouofht to bear on the authorities at Pekino-, with 
 the result that " transit passes " were instituted, under 
 which a certain fixed percentage was substituted for 
 the oft-repeated likin dues on foreign goods going up 
 country ; but though the transit pass is nominally a 
 benefit available to all, its action is rendered nugatory 
 by the mandarin, who put every possible difficulty in 
 the way of traders bearing these permits, and, when 
 all opposition proves useless, trace the goods travelling 
 under pass, and extort the full likin duties from the
 
 THE GOVERNMENT. 67 
 
 nati\-e merchant t(j whom they are consic^^ned. It Is 
 only recently that this fact has been made evident. 
 
 The officials do not now raise any difficulties about 
 the issuing" of transit passes, and allow the goods 
 named to pass freely, but the consignee is invariably 
 made to pay, and if he refuses, he is arrested and im- 
 prisoned on some frivolous charge. The methods 
 employed in order to bring about this result are 
 exceedingly ingenious. Instances are quoted in well- 
 nigh every trade report published, and the annual 
 publications issued by the Foreign Office teem with 
 the complaints against the corruptness of the mandarin. 
 
 The reason for this energetic insistence on the pa)'- 
 ment of likin becomes evident in the light of the 
 announcement made by no less an authority than 
 Consul Byron Brenan, of Canton, that not more than 
 30 per cent,, on an average, of the likin duties col- 
 lected find their way into the Imperial Treasury. Nor 
 is this species of dishonesty peculiar to the likin duties. 
 It obtains in every financial operation intrusted to the 
 supervision of the mandarin. Instances might be mul- 
 tiplied indefinitely. To quote one, I turn to the land 
 tax, the most productive throughout the Empire. The 
 impost on cultivated land is levied at the rate of 200 cash 
 a " mow," * which works out at three-quarters of a tacl-'- 
 an acre. The area of the nine agricultural provinces is 
 returned by Sir N. J. Hannen at 400.000,000 acres. 
 
 * A " mow " is approximately 806 sq. yards, or one-sixth of an English acre. 
 
 t A "tael" is reckoned at 3s. 4d,, or six to the £, sterling. It is supposeil to 
 represent 1600 "cash." But, owing to the appreciation of copper, the present 
 exchange gives only 1200.
 
 68 CHINA IN DEC A V. 
 
 which, at 75 tael cents,, should bring- in a total of 
 300,000,000 taels. The actual total sum received at 
 the Board of Customs for land tax during the year 
 1896 — the last available return — was 31,650,000 taels, 
 or less than one-ninth of what was undoubtedly collected. 
 The greed of the mandarin tax-collector is, however, 
 by no means satisfied by the robbing of his employer. 
 He robs with equal readiness those whom he is sup- 
 posed to protect. By the existing treaties foreigners 
 are entitled to trade at the free ports without paying 
 any taxes beyond the 5 per cent, duty imposed by the 
 Maritime Customs. This clause is a dead-letter, owing 
 to the unscrupulous ingenuity of the officials. Where 
 white men are scarce and costly, native labour has to 
 be largely relied on, and most of the British firms 
 employ Chinese compradores to trade for them. 
 Immediately such a one takes up his post, a local 
 revenue officer will call on him and instruct him to 
 add 5 per cent, to the price of everything he sells, and 
 to pay the extra money to the mandarin. If the clerk 
 refuses, he is arrested and put in prison. Any action 
 taken by the injured firm has to be referred to Peking, 
 and involves months of delay and heavy loss of trade. 
 It follows, therefore, that the tax is paid, and the 
 merchant is robbed to the tune of 5 per cent., which 
 the mandarin pockets. 
 
 In the case of the native customs, fraud is practised 
 to a very large extent, despite the fact that all duties 
 paid are checked by official receipts. The method 
 followed is extremely simple. A merchant importing, 
 say, a hundred gallons of oil, will be allowed to take the
 
 THE GOVERNMENT. 69 
 
 whole quantity through on paying the duty upon 
 eighty and accepting a receipt for the duty upon fifty. 
 In this way the mandarin pockets the duty on thirty 
 gallons, while the importer saves that on twenty. 
 Both are gainers, each having swindled the authorities 
 to the best of his abilit\-. 
 
 Nor are the methods of the Chinese tax-collector 
 exhausted by these efforts. When the official sees a 
 chance of a haul he invariably takes it. A fair 
 instance of a very ordinary squeeze was that per- 
 petrated on the owners of a steamer, started last 
 year to run between Fuchow and Shui Kou. The 
 mandarin demanded a fee of 10,000 dollars, under 
 penalty of seizure. There was absolutely no reason 
 for the payment of such a sum, or, indeed, of any sum. 
 but the money was paid. The matter was subse- 
 cjuently inquired into by Consul Allen, of Fuchow. 
 who was informed that the sum was to compensate the 
 junkmen whose living would be interfered with. Mr 
 Allen, in reporting the incident, remarked, " I daresay 
 it may be so entered in the provincial account." Steam- 
 boats plying up the open rivers, even between treaty 
 ports, are constantly being thus blackmailed, and as 
 their owners can only choose between payment and end- 
 less delays and vexations, the money is always found. 
 
 It would be easy to cite instances innumerable of 
 pillage, misappropriation, and fraud on the part of the 
 mandarin class. To anyone who knows China it is a 
 matter of doubt whether the estimate that 30 per cent, 
 of the duties collected reaches the Treasury is not too 
 high. The tendency is for the taxes to increase with-
 
 yo ClflNA IN DEC A V. 
 
 out in any way benefiting Peking-, with the result that 
 the native trade of China is being gradually but surely 
 killed. The very food supplies of the country are dis- 
 organised, in order to bring money to the official class. 
 Thus a steamer laden with rice, for, say, Wuhu, 
 will be compelled to put in at Chinkiang, loo miles 
 down the river, with the object of insuring the tran- 
 shipment of the cargo and the .collection of two duties 
 instead of one, while, during the Japanese war, when 
 food was scarce and famine threatened in the northern 
 provinces, the shipment of rice from the south was 
 forbidden, the reason stated being that it was found 
 that the cargoes might fall into the hands of the 
 Japanese. This alleged reason will not, of course, be 
 for one moment credited, and it is instructing to record 
 the fact that, since that time, it has transpired that a 
 number of' the highest officials at Tientsin, men whose 
 paramount duty it was to see to the feeding of the starv- 
 ing people, were concerned in a "corner" in rice, and 
 pursued the course stated in order to inflate prices. 
 
 Nor does Chinese officialdom show to oreater 
 advantage in its administration of justice. " The 
 workings of the Chinese law courts show that bribery, 
 extortion, and cruel injustice are not merely possible, 
 but easy and common, under the most elaborate system 
 that can be devised."* Juries are non-existent, and 
 the principle of weighing evidence unheard of. 
 Lawyers are unknown. The only principle admitted 
 in a Chinese court is that afforded by precedent, 
 and there are a number of literati who devote 
 
 * Ilolcomhe.
 
 THE GOVERNMENT. 71 
 
 themselves to examinin«i( records of pre\'ious cases, 
 in order to discover a parallel which may assist 
 the maofistrate in arriving- at a decision. Witnesses 
 are never sworn, it being recognised that it would be 
 useless to swear them, even if there were reason to 
 suppose that the normal Chinaman could appreciate 
 the nature of an oath. Perjury is no crime, it being 
 recognised that a man will lie in any case. The judge 
 endeavours to get at the truth rather by judging the 
 expression and demeanour of those brought before 
 him, than by listening to their statements, and in cases 
 of doubt one or other of the litigants or prisoners — 
 sometimes both — are beaten in open court, or tortured 
 by being suspended by their thumbs, until the desired 
 confession is forthcoming. 
 
 The question of the punishments awarded Chinese 
 evil-doers has been dealt with by nearly every writer 
 who has been in China, but, while recoo-nisinof that 
 many of these are undoubtedly cruel, it is only fair to 
 point out that the more extreme measures are very 
 rarely resorted to, and then only in the case of the 
 worst desperadoes. Such penalties as slicing to death, 
 skinning alive, the use of the wire shirt,* and similar 
 monstrous penalties, are only imposed in the case of 
 crimes such as parricide, and similar extreme villainies. 
 These few exceptions apart, the worst cases of actual 
 torture indicted are those which occur to prisoners while 
 awaiting trial or sc^ntcncc in the Chinese jails. Some of 
 
 * The wire shin is ;x piece of iiijii netting which is bound so lii^hlly round the 
 body as to cnuse tlie victim's flesh to protrude througli the- mesh. The sufferer is 
 then shaved with a sharp knife, and it is on record that victims have sul)se(iuenlly 
 had salt rulibcd into their wounds.
 
 72 CHINA IN J) EC A ) \ 
 
 these are too rc\-oltino- to bear descripticMi, and arc appar- 
 ently due merely to the brutality of the pett)' mandarin. 
 
 The most frequently awarded penalty for minor 
 offences is the wearin^^ of the cangue, a square board 
 varying" in size and weight, with a hole in the centre the 
 size of a man's neck. The apparatus is made in two 
 pieces, but is padlocked together round the victim's neck. 
 The board projects so as to prevent the wearer's lying 
 down, nor can he feed himself The weight of these 
 instruments of torture is often such as to tax the endur- 
 ance of the strongest man. The cangue is worn day and 
 night for periods of from a few days to several months. 
 
 Unsatisfactory as is Chinese justice in the main, it 
 has, at least, some good points. It is cheap, necessitat- 
 ing neither the employment of costly counsel nor the 
 payment of exorbitant court fees. It is also easily 
 obtainable. The Chinese proverb has it that " the eye 
 of justice never sleeps," and this claim is certainly 
 borne out in practice. The Hall of Justice is open to 
 the street, and any person having a complaint to make. 
 or a charge to prefer, may go there at any hour, beat 
 the gong, and state his case to the magistrate, who is 
 by law bound to take his seat at once in the judgment 
 chair. Thus, in the matter of justice, as in other things, 
 the Chinese theory has its good points. Its practice, 
 however, is merely contemptible, and well calculated 
 to disgust the unprejudiced observer. And there can 
 be little question but that, until the present educational 
 system, together with its concomitant officialism, is wiped 
 out of existence, the administration of Chinese ofovern- 
 hient will remain as rotten and as corrupt as it is to-day.
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 FOREIGxN RELATIONS. 
 
 A PERIOD of isolation extendino- over four thousand 
 years, during which the only incidents of prime im- 
 portance have been connected with the practical absorp- 
 tion of neighbouring" territories, is not a very suitable 
 preparation for an extended intercourse with nations 
 which boast a different civilisation, and are subject to 
 opposite prejudices and beliefs. The natural outcome 
 of uninterrupted national dominance is the develop- 
 ment of national conceit, and if in the case of China 
 this has been developed to no ordinary extent, it is 
 only fair to admit that there is ample excuse for its 
 manifestation. With records cToincr back to the birth 
 of history, and dating from nearly 3000 years before 
 the Christian era, China saw the coming of seven 
 separate dynasties before the birth of Christ. And 
 as each ruler succeeded to the throne, the nation grew 
 in solidarity and acquired new strength until, by dint 
 of conquest and absorption, the half of Asia came to 
 acknowledge the suzerainty of the Son of Heaven, and 
 the people of the inner kingdom claimed for themselves 
 the dominion over what was to them the surface of the 
 earth. The system of culture which had become de-
 
 76 ClffNA IN DEC A V. 
 
 velopccl within the Hniits of the llovvcry l;ind repre- 
 sented to these people the highest form of social 
 attainment. All outside its inHuences were un- 
 civilised barbarians, mere savages whose affairs were 
 a matter of interest to the curious only, and whose 
 opinions were resultants of undeveloped intelligence. 
 The rule of several powerful dynasties, notably the 
 Tang, or national line of kings ; and the Ming, which 
 endured for more than 600 years ; increased the prestige 
 which had always been maintained by the Celestials in 
 the eyes of the dependent states, and added in no small 
 degree to the arrogance and conceit exhibited by the 
 members of the ruling nation ; and it has always been 
 the unwillingness of the people to acknowledge the 
 unreason of this attitude of superiority which they have 
 from the earliest times assumed, that has led to the 
 troubles which have cropped up between China and 
 the Western nations with whom she has come into 
 contact. 
 ^^ It was during the reign of Wontsong, the eleventh 
 ^, of the Ming kings, that communications were first 
 % opened up between Europe and China. Hitherto the 
 only knowledge possessed by Western nations of the 
 land of Cathay was that derived from the famous work 
 of Marco Polo, the capable Venetian, who visited 
 Peking on two occasions towards the close of the 
 ILj thirteenth century, and was the honoured guest of the 
 -HT Emperor Chksou. better known as Kublai Khan. 
 ^^ Polo's account of China proper is, however, lacking in 
 t\^ detail, and though an admirable piece of work from 
 "^^ a literary standpoint, serves rather to provoke the
 
 FOREIGN RELATIONS. 77 
 
 reader's curiosity than to satisfy it. The first 
 European to prosecute a specific mission in China was 
 Don Fernand Perez D'Andrade, a PortuQfuese officer 
 who sailed in charge of a small squadron in 151 7, 
 and on reaching the Canton River was well received 
 by the mandarin. He subsequently visited Peking, 
 where he remained in high favour as the representa- 
 tive of the Kinof of Portuij^al, The Portucjuese, en- 
 couraged by the reports received from D'Andrade, 
 sent a second and much larger expedition to China, 
 and unfortunately the crews hastened to make the 
 most of their opportunities by committing various out- 
 rages on the natives. This circumstance greatly in- 
 censed the Chinese, who communicated with Peking, 
 and the Emperor Wontsong ordered D'Andrade to be 
 immediately arrested. He was put in prison, just 
 before Wontsong died after a reign of sixteen years ; 
 and one of the first acts of Chitsoncr his successor, was, 
 in 1523, to have the erstwhile ambassador executed. 
 
 It was not until the reign of \VariLsh, who came 
 to the throne in 1573, that European intercourse -^ri^ 
 became developed to any considerable extent. In no / 
 way discouraged by the fate of their ambassador, the ^^ 
 Portuguese had retained a foothold in South China, '^ 
 and in 1536 had succeeded in negotiating a settlement / 
 in which to erect stores and residences. The spot ^ 
 chosen became known as Macao, and was conveniently ^ 
 situated at the mouth of the Canton River. Before '^ 
 many years had elapsed, the number of Portuguese 
 traders had grown to several hundreds, and a judicious 
 payment to the mandarin of the province of Kwang- 
 
 <§
 
 78 CHINA IN DEC A V. 
 
 tiiiiy secured them the rii^^'bt of tradino- up the river. 
 The success thus achieved soon became known in the 
 Iberian Peninsula; and Spain, desirous of emulatino- 
 the achievements of her neighbours, decided to send 
 an expedition to the China seas. Its leaders did not, 
 however, reach the mainland, but established them- 
 selves in the Philippine Islands, which they eventually 
 controlled, after massacring the native and Chinese 
 inhabitants; — over 100,000 lives being taken in cold 
 blood ; in order to establish Spanish rule on a sound 
 basis — and Manila was captured by General Legaspi 
 in 1 57 1. The English do not seem to have taken 
 any part in the exploitation of China at this period. 
 Besides the Portuguese and a few Dutch who joined 
 them in their commercial enterprises, the only Euro- 
 peans who appear to have entered China in the i6th 
 century were a band of Roman Catholic missionaries 
 who had been despatched to the East by the Pope 
 with a view to bringing the Chinese within the pale of 
 the Church of Rome. These missionaries seem to 
 have been exceptionally able men, possessed of much 
 useful knowledge which they readily imparted to the 
 Celestials, by~ whom they were well received, the 
 natives being very glad to avail themselves of the 
 services of the missionaries without exhibiting the 
 slightest intention of being influenced by their religious 
 teaching. 
 
 In 1624 the Dutch sent an expedition bent on 
 opening up commercial relations with the Chinese. 
 The expedition duly arrived at Macao, but the Portu- 
 guese would not permit its members to land, whereupon
 
 FOREIGN RELATIONS. 79 
 
 tliL'\' departecl aiul founded a settlement on the coast 
 of Formosa, which remained for many years, but never 
 attained any conspicuous success. 
 
 The year 1634 is memorable from the fact that it 
 witnessed the beo-innin'>- of British traffic with China. 
 In that year Captain Weddell explored, and partially 
 surveyed, the mouth of the Canton River, and succeeded 
 in making his way as far as Canton. His visit did 
 not lead to any immediate result, but the report which 
 this navigator brought home was largely instrumental 
 in bringing about the subsequent relations between 
 this country and China. The first trade effected was 
 a small purchase of tea, till then unknown, and this 
 reached England in 1660. The attention attracted by 
 this new product from a strange country tended to 
 encourage traders to explore the China seas, and the 
 rapid growth in the business done during the succeed- 
 ing years served to draw the attention of the East 
 India Company to the possibilities of commerce with 
 China. In 1680. the corporation, at that time the 
 ruler of Hindostan, despatched agents to Canton, and 
 devoted its resources to the development of trade with 
 the Celestials. 
 
 The political relations between Russia and China 
 date from 1692. An attempt had been made thirty-si.x 
 years earlier to obtain recognition from the Emperor 
 Chun-tche for a Russian envoy, and an officer was sent 
 from Siberia to Peking in order to open relations with 
 the court. But the Russian refused to consent to the 
 required Kowtow.* the performance of which was made 
 
 * The Kowtow, signifying kiiock-heatl from ihe Chinese Kcui-loii, has its ori;^in
 
 8o CHINA IN DEC A Y. 
 
 ;i sine qua non at any interview with the Son of Heaven, 
 ,\.x\(\ he was therefore denied an audience, and had to 
 return without having' achieved the object of his 
 errand. The Treaty of Nerchinsk, which the Russians 
 were compelled to si^^^n in 1689, and under which a large 
 extent of territory which they had occupied had to 
 be given up to China, made it very desirable that 
 diplomatic relations should be opened up between the 
 two countries in order that the reverse sustained 
 might be counterbalanced. Under the auspices of 
 Peter the Great another attempt to achieve the desired 
 end was made in 1692 ; and a trusted officer, General 
 Ides, was sent to Peking, but did not succeed in 
 obtaining an audience, so returned the second Russian 
 envoy who had failed at the Chinese Court. After 
 an interval of twenty-six years, the Czar determining 
 to send a more imposing mission, despatched to 
 Peking Captain Ismalieff and M. de Lange, accom- 
 panied by Mr Bell, an Englishman who had been in 
 China, and a numerous staff, provided with an auto- 
 graph letter from the Czar, full of the most friendly 
 expressions and written in nine languages, to insure 
 an understanding of its terms. A very complete and 
 interesting" account of this mission is to be found in the 
 journal of M. de Lange, which has been translated into 
 English by Mr Bell. 
 
 in an old Persian custom, and appears to have been introduced into China about 
 the Slh century. It does not find a place in the Chinese book of rites, but it is on 
 record that it was performed by the ambassadors who came to Peking from the 
 Court of Huroun al Raschid in 728 A.D. The performance of the Kowtow con- 
 sists in going down on hands and knees a given number of times, and knocking 
 the forehead on the floor three times on each prostration. The number cf 
 prostrations demanded of Lord Macartney was nine.
 
 FOREIGN RE LA TIONS. 
 
 8i 
 
 \^t 
 
 / 
 
 On reaching Peking the mission was well received, 
 and a house was provided, by special command of 
 the Emperor Khangi, for the accommodation of his 
 honoured guests. The mandarin, however, were not dis- 
 posed to carry out the Emperor's wishes. The Russians 
 were kept prisoners in the house provided for them. 
 
 which was closed and constantly watched, and they 
 were informed that they would have to perform the 
 Kowtow in the event of an audience being accorded. 
 After some difficulty a direct appeal made to Khangi 
 caused the ri<iid surveillance to be withdrawn, and the 
 difficulty of the Kowtow was settled by the leading 
 mandarin of the court being sent to receive the Czar's
 
 82 CHINA IN DEC A V. 
 
 letter and perform the ceremony of prostration out of 
 respect to its writer. Ismalieff, accordingly, agreed to 
 render a like homage to the Emperor, and he was 
 duly received by Khangi, and by him given permis- 
 sion to leave de Lange at Peking as ambassador from 
 the Czar. 
 
 Ismalieff thereupon returned to St Petersburg and 
 reported his success to his master, who, delighted with 
 the result of his mission, decided to cultivate a trade 
 with. Peking. A caravan was prepared and despatched 
 across the Gobi Desert to open up commerce with 
 China. But Peter reckoned without the mandarin. 
 As soon as Ismalieff had left, de Lange, the admitted 
 ambassador, was treated as a prisoner. He was 
 under constant espionage, refused audience with the 
 Emperor, and kept at a distance by the officials. And 
 when the caravan arrived outside the capital in 1721, 
 it was refused admission, and had to retrace its steps, 
 while advantage was taken of the illness of Khangi to 
 dismiss de Lange, who was escorted to the frontier 
 with the notification that in future all necessary inter- 
 course would be carried on at the boundary between 
 the two nations, 
 ^^ The reign of I<een_Lung, the greatest of the 
 x^ Manchu kings, saw much progress in the relations 
 between China and foreign powers. Coming to the 
 throne in 1735, he ruled for sixty-one years, and retired 
 full of age and honour three years before he died. 
 Keen Lung was the last of the Chinese Emperors 
 who actually ruled over the country. Despite the 
 strength of the corrupt mandarin party, always in 
 
 i
 
 FOREIGN RELA TIONS. Z^ 
 
 the ascendant at Peking ; their ruler, like Khangi his 
 predecessor, had a mind and possessed the strength 
 to insist on his wishes being obeyed. His successors 
 have been personages of a different complexion. In 
 place of a strong will, a clear-head, and an honest 
 desire for their country's good, they have proved to 
 be weaklings, whose whole idea was self-indulgence, 
 and whose sole aim in life was sensuality. For this 
 reason, the reputation of Keen Lung stands out in the 
 bolder relief and is all the more worthy of fame. 
 
 An attempt was made by the Portuguese in 1750, by 
 means of an embassy to Peking, to obtain improved 
 facilities for pushing their trade on the Canton River. 
 This embassy did not lead to any great results, though 
 it was accorded a gracious reception, and the costly 
 gifts it conveyed were accepted. The Dutch similarly 
 despatched a mission to Peking five years later, but 
 failed to create an impression on the Emperor or to 
 attain the object of their desires. The relations of 
 Russia with China became about this period somewhat 
 strained. Peter had died about the same time as 
 Khangi, and had been succeeded by Elizabeth, who 
 desired to carry out her father's policy of establishing 
 friendly relations with China. But her efforts were 
 in vain, and the proposal that Keen Lung should 
 send an ambassador to reside at St Petersburg was 
 received with an open rebuff. Despite, however, the 
 uncompromising attitude of the Peking authorities, the 
 trade between the two countries by the caravan route 
 through Kiakhta and the Gobi Desert tended to in- 
 crease, and, owing to the distance of the frontier from
 
 84 C/HNA IN DEC A Y. 
 
 the capital of Peking, it was allowed to proi^ress with- 
 out official interference. 
 
 An event of great importance in the political 
 history of China occurred in 1763, in which year two 
 Chinese subjects visited Europe and passed some 
 time in the French capital. The experiences of 
 these Celestials were duly transmitted to the east, and 
 served to show the Chinese that their appreciation of 
 the Western powers was a mistaken one, and that the 
 unknown kingdoms from which the so-called outer 
 barbarians came were quite as civilised and even 
 more powerful than their own. Here was a dilemma ! 
 The Peking government suddenly learned that it had 
 all along been making itself ridiculous by its treatment 
 of foreigners, and that, far from being outlandish 
 savages, the people of the West were in every sense 
 capable of holding their own against the vain Celestials. 
 
 The only course open to the mandarinate, in face 
 of this discovery, was plain. The fact of the actual 
 strength of the " barbarians" must be concealed from 
 the knowledge of the people ; and the foreigners must 
 be kept out of the country at all hazards. This dis- 
 covery had a very marked effect on the relations 
 between China and Europe, and undoubtedly tended to 
 the development of that opposition to Western ideas 
 which has ever since characterised the mandarin. 
 
 The growth of British influence in China had dur- 
 ing all this time been very slow. Since the arrival of 
 Captain Weddell at Canton in 1634, intercourse had 
 been fitfully carried on, partly by the East India 
 Company which traded from Calcutta, and partly by
 
 FOREIGN RELA TIONS. 85 
 
 vessels sent out by private firms in England. 
 Dealincrs with the native merchants were, however, 
 heavily handicapped by the rapacity and arrogance of 
 the officials, who, in addition to entertaining a violent 
 prejudice against the traders, were in receipt of 
 constant bribes from the Portuguese, who desired that 
 the trade with Canton should rest exclusively in their 
 hands. Various attempts were made to approach the 
 government at Peking, in the belief that it would be 
 preferable to deal with the high officials of the capital 
 rather than with the irresponsible mandarins at Canton, 
 but the Viceroy would not listen to the proposal, and 
 the relations between the countries interested con- 
 tinued to be one of mutual suspicion and distrust. 
 
 This was the position of affairs when the British 
 Government decided to make an attempt to open up 
 diplomatic relations with the Emperor of China, and 
 Lord Macartney was chosen to conduct a special 
 embassy to Peking with that object. Considerable 
 pains were taken with the arrangements. Interpreters 
 were provided. Costly presents were purchased. 
 Two of the finest vessels afloat were selected to 
 convey the mission, and Lord Macartney with a 
 brilliant suite left Portsmouth early in September 
 1792, reaching the forts at the mouth of the Peiho in 
 the August following. His reception by the Chinese 
 was gratifying. News of the coming of an embassy 
 from England had preceded his arrival, and Keen 
 Lung had issued instructions that the ambassador 
 should be received with honour. Accordingly, on 
 arrival at the Peiho, Lord Macartney was welcomed
 
 86 CHINA IN DEC A V. 
 
 by the V^iccroy of Chili, who went on board the 
 British ships accompanied by a number of mandarin, 
 and announced his intention of escortino" the am- 
 bassador up the river. At Tientsin the visitor was 
 received with a formal military salute, this being the 
 first occasion on which so o-reat an honour had been 
 granted to a foreigner. And so the embassy moved 
 on towards Peking, to find that the Emperor was away 
 at his hunting lodge at Jehol. Some delay occurred 
 pending the receipt of instructions, but after an interval 
 of a few days, a message came from Keen Lung 
 inviting the ambassador to pay him a visit forthwith. 
 At this point it became evident that the mandarin 
 were strongly opposed to the honour about to be con- 
 ferred on the "barbarian" ambassador. All sorts of 
 difficulties were invented with the object of averting 
 the proposed visit, and especial stress was laid upon 
 the humiliation which Lord Macartney would be 
 expected to undergo when in the light of the presence 
 of the Son of Heaven. The ambassador replied to 
 all the reasons which were urged, that he had been 
 invited to visit the Emperor, and he would go, and that 
 he would pay him the same respect as that which he 
 paid to his own sovereign, but that he would not 
 perform the Kowtow or prostrate himself, as such 
 observances would be unworthy of his position as 
 representing the King of England. 
 
 Lord Macartney thereupon proceeded to Jehol in an 
 English carriage, attended by his suite, and surrounded 
 by the guard allotted him. On arrival, he was in- 
 formed that notwithstanding his refusal to perform the
 
 FOREIGN RELATIONS. 87 
 
 Kowtow the Emperor had decided to receive him, and 
 the interview took place in the gardens of the palace. 
 A second audience was also accorded, when Lord 
 Macartney was bidden to a banquet at which Keen 
 Lung presided in person, and even filled a glass of 
 wine, which he handed to his guest. But beyond an 
 expression of "friendly sentiments to His Britannic 
 Majesty," no direct results were attained, and no 
 opportunity was afforded for discussing the political 
 or the commercial relations between the two countries. 
 Keen Lung was old, and the influence of his officers 
 of state antagonistic. The cordiality of the reception 
 accorded to the barbarian ambassador highly incensed 
 the haneers-on of the court, and it was determined to 
 get rid of the unwelcome visitor with as litde delay as 
 possible. 
 
 On leaving Peking, Lord Macartney proceeded over- 
 land to Canton, where he re-embarked for England. 
 His journey was not a pleasant one. for he was 
 repeatedly annoyed by the unfriendly attitude and 
 uncouth behaviour of the mandarin at the various 
 places he passed through on the way, but he reached 
 the south safely, and returned home with little to 
 report, beyond the fact that he liad been accorded a 
 friendly reception by the Emperor without obtaining 
 any of the facilities which it was hoped his mission 
 would secure. 
 
 The return of Lord Macartney brings the record 
 of the foreign relations of China during the i8th 
 century to a close, and I propose to deal with the more 
 important incidents which have since transpired in the
 
 88 CJflNA IN DEC A V. 
 
 separate chapters devoted to a consideration of the 
 poHtical situation existing between China and the 
 powers. I have, however, said enough to explain the 
 strong antipathy exhibited by the mandarin to the 
 spread of foreign intercourse, an antipathy which, bred 
 of ignorance and conceit, has been strengthened by 
 distrust and fear. The efforts of the councillors of 
 Keen Lung, the strong willed, to prevent the reception 
 of Lord Macartney, failed, and their failure was in all 
 probability largely due to the vigour with which the 
 opposition was urged, an opposition which served only 
 to whet the intelligent curiosity of the monarch. But 
 measures which proved inefficient in the case of Keen 
 Lung were ample in the case of his successor, and there 
 can be little question but that, had Lord Amherst 
 proved more pliable than he did, the mandarin who 
 ruled the court would have found means to prevent the 
 desired audience taking place, or would have inflicted 
 a series of indignities on the ambassador of Great 
 Britain. The Emperors Taoukwang, Hienfung, and 
 Tuno-che were the merest tools in the hands of their 
 ministers. The last named proved himself, during the 
 few years of his life, an incompetent weakling and 
 incorrigible debauchee, and his death, which is supposed 
 to have been due to poison administered by his own 
 relatives, did not cause a blank in history which was at 
 all difficult to fill. His successor, Kwangsu, the reign- 
 ing emperor, a young man of moderate promise, is said 
 to be entirely in the hands of the woman who acted as 
 regent until he came of age. He succeeded to the 
 throne on the death of Tungche, in 1875, being at the
 
 FOREIGN RELA TIONS. 89 
 
 time but three years of age. The government was 
 thereupon placed in the hands of the Empress Tsi Thsi, 
 widow of the Emperor Hienfung, and the ex-concubine 
 Tsi An, both extremely capable, if somewhat unscrupu- 
 lous women, and their rule was supported by the advice 
 and assistance of Prince Kung, uncle of the Emperor 
 and a Chinaman of exceptional enlightenment. 
 
 The recent death of this prince has resulted in an 
 accession of influence to the Dowager Empress, who is 
 to-day believed to be the real ruler of China, and it is 
 doubtless largely due to her initiative, aided probably 
 by the better appreciation of the true status of foreign 
 powers which is due to increased political and com- 
 mercial intercourse, that the question of diplomatic 
 relations, and more especially that of the right of 
 audience, has been put on a more satisfactory footing 
 than has ever before been arrived at. 
 
 It is impossible to review the relations between the 
 Court of China and the representatives of foreign 
 powers without being struck by the disproportionate 
 importance w^hich has always been attached by the 
 Chinese to the observance of certain forms and 
 ceremonies. The question of the performance of the 
 Kowtow has disturbed the diplomatic relations with 
 various rulers for more than two centuries, while the 
 fiction of regarding every accredited ambassador as 
 a tribute-bearer, was kept up to within a very few 
 years ago. 
 
 The reception of tribute is a custom which was, till 
 recently, inseparable in the Chinese idea from the 
 most triflinsf intercourse with foreiijn nations. Shut
 
 90 CHINA IN I) EC A V. 
 
 out from the reach of Western ideas, China had always 
 been an empire boastful of its exclusiveness and 
 arrogant over its predominance among its neighbours. 
 A series of wars and fruitless rebellions had brought 
 the bordering territories on every side within its 
 suzerainty, and the independence of these was 
 guaranteed by the Chinese rulers in return for the 
 rendering of a periodical tribute sent to Peking with 
 much display and ceremony. The intervals at which 
 this tribute was paid varied in each case, as did 
 also the value represented. Thus it came about that 
 Burma sent tribute once in ten years, Nepaul once in 
 five, Annam every fourth year, and Korea annually. 
 Tibet, Siam, and the Liuchu Islands all remitted 
 tribute to the Son of Heaven, and their contributions 
 were at all times carefully scanned with a view to 
 detecting any deficiency or departure from recognised 
 custom. It will be readily understood that the homage 
 thus rendered by neighbouring countries was largely 
 responsible for the intense conceit which marks the 
 Chinese character. All oriental rulers are pretentious, 
 but no Asiatic monarch has received such adulation as 
 the Son of Heaven, and it is only reasonable to make 
 allowances for the natural result of the homagfe which 
 has been accorded him. 
 
 The early envoys who reached Peking appear to 
 have readily complied with the requirements of the 
 court. The missions which reached China in the 
 17th century from the Dutch and Portuguese 
 performed the Kowtow without objection, as did also 
 the papal mission which visited Khangi in 1720; and
 
 FOREIGN RELATIONS. 9^ 
 
 it is interesting to note that the ceremonial observed 
 by these was precisely similar to that prescribed for 
 tribute-bearers from dependent states. There is a very 
 full and complete list of regulations for the reception 
 of tributar)' envoys at the Court of Peking, which 
 were some years ago translated by Mr G. Jamieson, 
 our able Consul-General at Shanghai, and from this I 
 quote the following instructions : — 
 
 After the officers of the court have finished their ceremonial, the 
 envoys will be conducted to the open courtyard, where they will be 
 placed at the foot of the row of officials on the west side. At 
 the word of command they will kneel and Kowtow nine times. His 
 Majesty will ask, in a soothing manner, after their welfare. The 
 president of the Board will communicate the question to the inter- 
 preter, who will pass it on to the chief envoy. The envoy will 
 reply, the interpreter will translate the reph' to the president, and 
 the president will report it to his Majesty. The ceremony being 
 ended, they will retire. 
 
 It is interesting to note how the decision of Lord 
 Macartney triumphed over the above regulations. We 
 are fortunately able to follow the precise details of 
 the actual ceremonial performed by the first British 
 ambassador to the Court of Peking, and I quote the 
 following particulars from Sir George Staunton* : — ■ 
 
 The Emperor, on his entrance to the tent, mounted ihc throne by 
 the front steps consecrated to his use alone. The chief minister and 
 two of the principal persons of the household were close to him, 
 and always spoke to him upon their knees. The princes of his 
 family, the tributaries, and great officers of state being already 
 arranged in their respective places in the tent, the president of the 
 Board of Rites conducted Lord Macartney, who was attended by his 
 
 * All authentic account of an embassy from the King of Great Britain to the 
 Emperor of China. 1 7 9 7 .
 
 92 CHINA IN DEC A V. 
 
 page and Chinese interpreter, near to the foot of the throne. The 
 ambassador, instructed by the president, held the large and magnifi- 
 cent square box of gold, adorned with jewels, in which was inclosed 
 his Majesty's letter to the Emperor, between both Ij^nds, lifted above 
 his head, and in that manner ascending the few steps that led to the 
 throne, and, bending on one knee, presented the box with a short 
 address to his Imperial Majesty, who, graciously receiving the same 
 with his own hands, placed it by his side, and expressed, in a few 
 courteous words, pleasure at the reception of the embassy and the 
 presents. 
 
 It will be gathered from the above authentic detail 
 that the whole ceremonial was that suitable to the 
 reception of tribute from a vassal state, and, if any 
 proof of this suspicion were needed, it would be sup- 
 plied by the fact, which was unfortunately not dis- 
 covered until after the event, that the banners carried 
 before Lord Macartney throughout his progress from 
 the mouth of the Pei Ho to Peking, bore the inscription 
 " Tribute Bearer," so as to prevent the populace credit- 
 ing any rumour of diplomatic relations having been 
 opened up with a nation of barbarians. 
 
 The embassy of the Dutch East India Company, 
 which found its way to Peking in 1795, has been 
 chronicled by Andre Van Braam,* and presents a 
 marked contrast to the bearing of Lord Macartney 
 only two years before. The emissaries were subjected 
 to every indignity the mandarin could invent, and. 
 although accorded an audience by the Emperor, 
 whose sixtieth anniversary they had ostensibly come 
 to celebrate, they were treated with less distinction 
 
 * Authentic accoimt of the embassy of the Dutch East hidia Company in the 
 years ijg4 and lygj.
 
 FOREIGN RELATIONS. 93 
 
 than was accorded to the tribute-bearer from a third- 
 rate state. 
 
 The second mission sent by Great Britain to Peking- 
 was due to the initiative of George IV., who despatched 
 Lord Amherst to the Emperor Kiaking, with the 
 object of obtaining, if possible, a commercial treaty 
 between the two countries. The character of Lord 
 Amherst appears to have differed as greatly from that 
 of Lord Macartney as did that of Kiaking from his 
 predecessor, Keen Lung. Lord Amherst left England 
 8th February 1816, and arrived at Tientsin in due 
 course, to find the mandarin opposed to his mission, 
 and insistent on his performing the Kowtow, which, in 
 the case of his predecessor, had been excused. Indeed, 
 they refused even to rest content with a Kowtow before 
 the Emperor in person, but required the British Am- 
 bassador to prostrate himself before a yellow covered 
 table, with a dish of incense on it, as being symbolic 
 of the Imperial presence.* Lord Amherst remained 
 firm in his refusal to Kowtow either before the Emperor 
 or his sucjorestion, and after much discussion the officials 
 gave in, and the embassy was conveyed in boats, 
 each carrying the "tribute bearing" flag to Tung 
 Chow, where the question of the Kowtow was again 
 raised, the mandarin going the length of threatening, 
 in the event of his refusal, to send the ambassador 
 out of the empire without seeing the Emperor at all. 
 To this Lord Amherst replied that he was quite 
 willing to leave, and, eventually, the officers agreed to 
 
 * Narrative of Lord Amherst's Embassy to the Court 0/ Peking, by Clarke 
 Abel, Chief Medical Officer, elc, 1818.
 
 94 CHINA IN DEC A V. 
 
 waive the question. The party were then conveyed 
 to Yuen minL,^ yuen, where the Emperor was staying, 
 arriving at early dawn. Lord Amherst was immedi- 
 ately informed that the Emperor would receive him 
 forthwith. Fatigued by his long journey, and probably 
 irritated by the endless wrangling in which he had 
 been concerned ever since he had arrived at Tientsin, 
 the ambassador refused to enter the Emperor's presence 
 until he had enjoyed some rest and refreshment, and 
 he forthwith threw himself on a bench in search of 
 repose. The Chinese, however, would take no denial. 
 They stated that the Emperor was eager and ready to 
 receive the British Ambassador, and urged his immedi- 
 ate compliance with his commands. But Lord Am- 
 herst refused, and when the Duke Ho took him by 
 the arm, and endeavoured to lead him out, he became 
 angry, and declared that force alone should carry him 
 into the Imperial presence. Convinced at last that it 
 would be useless to continue persuading the irritable 
 ambassador, the councillors left him and proceeded to 
 report to the Emperor. The exact statement made 
 by the mandarin is, of course, not known. Doubtless 
 it did not err on the side of leniency towards Lord 
 Amherst. The result came a few hours after in a 
 message to the effect that " The Emperor, incensed at 
 the ambassador's refusal to visit him, had commanded 
 our immediate departure."* 
 
 Lord Amherst's mission thus came to an end, 
 without having achieved anything beyond supplying 
 further evidence of the irreconcilable attitude of the 
 
 * Abel, Narrative', etc.
 
 FOREIGN REL A TIONS, 9 5 
 
 mandarin, and the overweening conceit with which the 
 superiority of the Chinese Court is maintained by the 
 Celestials. 
 
 The third mission sent by this country to Peking, 
 that of Lord Elgin in i860, proved entirely abortive, 
 owing to the stupidity of the British plenipotentiary, 
 and need not be more than referred to here. On the 
 occupation of Peking by the allies, charged with 
 enforcing the terms of the Treaty of Tientsin, the 
 Emperor Hienfung fled to Jehol, and, refusing to 
 return even after the close of the war, he died in 
 seclusion without coming into contact with the outer 
 barbarians, who had in March 1861 succeeded in 
 establishing, after many years of striving, an embassy 
 at Peking. The establishment of the Tsungli Yamen 
 marked the commencement of direct official intercourse 
 with foreign states ; but Hienfung was succeeded by 
 his infant son Tungche, and for some years no further 
 steps could be taken with a view to reviving the great 
 audience question. The coming of age of the young 
 Emperor in 1872 was regarded as a fitting opportunity 
 to discuss the point, and a joint note was transm.itted 
 to the newly constituted Board of Foreign Affairs by 
 the representatives of all the Powers proposing to 
 ■offer their congratulations to the young Emperor on 
 the achievement of his majority. Nothing happened 
 for awhile. Tungche took over the helm of state in 
 P'ebruary 1873, ^"^^^ fo^i' nionths later, the official 
 announcement of the Emperor's intention of receiving 
 the representatives of foreign powers appeared in the 
 Peking Gazette. The audience took place on the 29th
 
 96 CHfNA IN DEC A V. 
 
 June, in the Purple Pavilion of the Palace at Peking. 
 A full account of this momentous event in the records 
 of China was written by Sir Thomas Wade,* and it 
 forms most entertaining reading. 
 
 The ministers, including the representatives of 
 Great Britain, France, Russia, the United States, and 
 Japan, met at the north gate of the Palace grounds, 
 and were conducted in their state chairs by a mandarin 
 to the inner gate, where the chairs were left ; and 
 the visitors were received by Wensiang, the Grand 
 Secretary, Prince Kung, and the members of the 
 Tsungli Yamen. Thence the party were escorted to 
 the Palace of Reasonableness, where refreshments were 
 served, and, after a wait of an hour's duration, the 
 company moved on to a large tent pitched to the west- 
 ward of the Purple Pavilion, where the audience was 
 to take place. Another wait of more than an hour 
 occurred, the reason of the delay being stated, with 
 profuse apologies, to be the receipt of important 
 despatches which required the Emperor's attention. 
 At last the ministers were summoned to the presence, 
 and proceeded to enter the Pavilion by the western 
 steps. The interior was divided into sections by 
 wooden pillars, the Emperor being seated on a throne 
 placed on the north side of the hall. The visitors 
 advanced to a long yellow table, placed some twelve 
 paces from the throne, and bowed. The Emperor was 
 seated, Manchu fashion, with legs crossed under him, 
 with Prince Kung on his left, and surrounded by a 
 number of great officials. An address, which had 
 
 * B/i/e Book, China, No. i, 1S74.
 
 FOREIGN RE LA TIONS. 97 
 
 been specially prepared for the occasion, was read 
 in French by General Vlangaly, the doyen of the 
 diplomatists present, and a Chinese translation was 
 immediately read by M. Bismarck, Chinese secretary 
 of the German Legation, who attended as interpreter. 
 (The German minister was not present, owing to his 
 being absent from Peking on leave at the time.) On 
 hearing the address read, the Emperor made a slight 
 bow in acknowledofment, and Prince Kunof then fell 
 upon both knees at the foot of the throne, and the 
 Emperor spoke a few words to him in Manchu. The 
 Prince then rose, and, descending the steps from the 
 throne, informed the ministers that His Majesty had 
 declared that the address had been received. The 
 Prince then returned to his former post, and again fell 
 upon his knees, and the whispered converse with the 
 l^mperor was resumed. Again descending the steps, 
 Prince Kung informed those present that His Majesty 
 had expressed a hope that the respective rulers repre- 
 sented were in good health, and trusted that foreign 
 affairs might be satisfactorily arranged between the 
 ministers and the Tsungli Yamen. This brought the 
 audience, which had lasted about five minutes, to a 
 close, and the ambassadors were conducted back to 
 their chairs by the ministers of the Yamen. 
 
 It was noticed at the time that the audience thus 
 accorded did not take place within the precincts of the 
 palace, but in a separate building in the extensive 
 grounds, and considerable attention was attracted to 
 the proclamation issued, which purported to give an 
 account of the reception, in which statements entirely
 
 98 CHINA IN DEC A Y. 
 
 contnir)' to fact were made, and it was alleg'ed that 
 the ministers were so overwhehiied by the sight of 
 the Son of Heaven that they trembled from head 
 to foot. A counter manifesto, comprising- a correct 
 account of what did actually occur, was accordingly 
 circulated by the ambassadors, and the incident 
 closed. 
 
 Eighteen months after this noteworth)' event 
 Tungche died, and the throne of China once more 
 had for its occupant an infant. But those responsible 
 for the carrying on of the Government appear to have 
 acquired a sudden accession of common-sense, for, in 
 1877, Quo Ta Zahn, a mandarin of rank, was appointed 
 residential minister in London, where he arrived in 
 November, and so quickly did he take to the European 
 idea, that in the June followino- he o-ave an evening 
 reception to London society. 
 
 The present Emperor Kwangsu came of age in 
 1889, and an intimation, similar to that which had been 
 conveyed on a similar occasion to his predecessor, 
 was duly presented to the Tsungli Yamen by the 
 foreign ministers in Peking. The request for an 
 audience was not immediately responded to, but, in 
 December 1890, there appeared in the Peking Gazette 
 an edict decreeino- that an audience would be granted 
 to the foreign representatives in China, and that this 
 should be repeated every year, " in order to show my 
 desire to treat with honour all the ministers of the 
 foreign powers resident in Peking," It was further 
 ordered that, on the day following each audience, a 
 banquet should be given at the Tsungli Yamen to
 
 FOREIGN RE LA TIONS. 99 
 
 the foreign representatives, whether permanent or 
 temporary. 
 
 Notwithstanding the comparative friendhness of this 
 edict, the function which ensued left much to be 
 desired, though it was certainly an improvement on 
 that which had preceded it seven years before. The 
 ministers were received singly instead of in a body, 
 but they were not permitted to present their letters of 
 credence, as had been the case in 1873. On this 
 occasion Prince Chino-, who acted as Hioh Chamber- 
 lain, took the letters and laid them in front of the 
 Emperor. In other respects the proceedings were 
 similar to those already referred to. The audience 
 took place in a building know^i as the Tsu Kwang Ko, 
 used for the reception of the tribute-bearers coming 
 from Korea and Annam, notwithstanding that the 
 ministers had specially requested to be received in the 
 palace itself. 
 
 Accordingly a conference was held b\' those most 
 concerned, and it was decided not to attend any more 
 receptions in similar outbuildings, and, in consequence 
 of this decision, the New Year's audience did not take 
 place the following year. When Sir Nicholas O'Connor 
 arrived at Peking, in January 1S93, he was granted an 
 audience for the purpose of {)resenting his credentials 
 in another building known as the Cheng Kwang Tien, 
 which had never been used for the purpose of receiving- 
 inferior persons, but th(; arrangement was regarded as 
 unsatisfactory by the other ministers, and neither those 
 of P" ranee or Russia would consent to attend a reception 
 there.
 
 loo CHINA IN DEC A V. 
 
 After withstanding tor many years this knocking at 
 the gate, the palace authorities finally decided in i 894 
 to admit the "barbarian" ambassadors within the sacred 
 portals. On the 1 2th November in that year the seven 
 European ministers then in Peking were received in 
 the Wen Hua Tien, a portion of the palace itself, the 
 ceremonial observed being identical with that followed 
 on previous occasions. Since then a few slight changes 
 have been introduced into the order of proceedings, 
 and the following account was written by a gentleman 
 who was attached to one of the embassy escorts at the 
 reception held by the Emperor at the beginning of the 
 present year ^^ : — 
 
 The soldiers kept the mob at a respectful distance from the 
 vehicles — gorgeous Sedan chairs, in which the visitors were borne — 
 which were carried as near as possible to the Throne Chamber, 
 whence over the inner court the way was made clean by strips of 
 carpet composed of camel hair and cotton. Some fifteen minutes 
 were occupied by the passage from the embassies to the Gate of 
 Flowers, which is the entrance to the Forbidden City — where dwell 
 the Son of Heaven himself and his eunuchs. A few minutes more 
 brought the Sedan chairs to a second Gate of Flowers, some thirty feet 
 thick, through which the gigantic Royal Court could be seen with 
 its yellow roofed buildings. At the north-eastern corner of this 
 palace is the "Hall of Strength," where the Emperor pursues his 
 studies, which include, a rumour runs, amongst other subjects, the 
 English tongue. Some hundred steps from the Gate of Flowers 
 stands a third high wall, behind which are said to be situated the 
 Secret Chambers of the Emperor as well as the quarters of his three 
 to four thousand concubines. No European has ever passed beyond 
 this wall, in front of which is a moat some 30 feet wide and 
 100 long. The way to the reception hall led through the " Hall for 
 the Cultivation of the Heart and the Ennoblement of the Tempera- 
 
 * 1S9S.
 
 FOREIGN RELATIONS. loi 
 
 ment." There the ambassadors were met by their old friend Li 
 Hung Chang, as well as by the uncle of the Emperor, Prince Kung, 
 Prince Tsing, and the members of the State Council, all in their 
 finest clothes. After about half-an-hour of waiting, the ambassador?, 
 headed by Colonel Denby, the representative of the United States, 
 were conducted through antique passages into the awful presence of 
 the ruler. 
 
 The Son of Heaven sat upon a raised platform led up to by three 
 flights of five steps each, of which the middle flight was broader and 
 statelier than the other two. Red cloth overhung with yellow 
 covered the stairs as well as the table, which hid the lower half of 
 the Celestial being's body from the sacrilegious gaze of the repre- 
 sentatives of the Powers. To the right and left of the monarch 
 stood motionless and corpse-Hke two Manchurian princes. His 
 Majesty the Emperor Kwangsu, who looks somewhat older than he 
 is, gazed shyly at the ambassadors with tired eyes, into which the 
 aid of opium or morphia had imparted for this most trying day an 
 artificial brilliance. A sad, depressed, somewhat childish smile 
 played about his mouth. The lips open, several long, badly- 
 preserved yellow teeth protrude ; whilst the hollows of the cheeks 
 indicate the lack of a good many masticators. A face which 
 inspires neither sympathy nor aversion, but simply a feeUng of 
 indifference — without any capacity, used up, half dead — such was 
 my impression of Kwangsu. He appeared to take no interest in 
 the scene going on before him, the whole proceedings seemed 
 incomprehensible to him. After gazing at a distance of three 
 paces for a quarter of an hour at the face of this ruler over millions 
 of men, a feeling of compassion for him overcame me. 
 
 Colonel Denby recited, amidst deathly silence, a speech composed 
 in English. The text had been previously communicated to Prince 
 Kung, who now painfully mounted the steps upon the right, and 
 lying prostrate before the lOmperor interpreted the address in the 
 Manchu tongue. The Son of Heaven lisped a few indistinguishable 
 words in reply ; Prince Kung translated these, and the interpreter of 
 the Russian embassy rendered them back in faulty French. Prince 
 Kung then crept backwards from the throne ; the visitors retired three 
 steps, and with their faces turned towards the Empcrorleft the hall.
 
 I02 CHINA IN DEC A V. 
 
 The final step in this long drawn out progress was 
 taken on the 1 5th May last, when the Emperor 
 received Prince Henry of Prussia at the Summer 
 Palace, and subsequently himself returned the visit. 
 The Emperor, who was supported by the Empress 
 Dowager at both functions, appeared highly nervous, 
 but his self-possession became restored when Prince 
 Henry entered into a lengthy conversation with him, 
 the Emperor becoming apparently interested and less 
 self-conscious. The formality, the first of its kind, 
 passed off with great cr/aY, and marks an era in Chinese 
 history, being a concession of the right of the relatives 
 of foreign monarchs to approach the Son of Heaven 
 on equal terms. An interesting feature in the re- 
 ception was the announcement made by the Dowager 
 Empress, in response to a suggestion by Prince Henry, 
 that she would arrange to hold a State Drawing- Room 
 at which the pAiropean ladies resident in Peking would 
 be received. 
 
 One would suppose that the gradual advance which 
 has taken place in intercourse with foreign representa- 
 tives would tend to brino- about a closer reo-ard for those 
 amenities which mark the conduct of all western nations 
 towards the Chinese. But this has not been the case, 
 and even to-day with native ambassadors in most of the 
 Pluropean capitals, and ample opportunities for arriving 
 at an appreciation of western manners and customs, the 
 wiles of Chinese diplomacy remain too strong for the 
 sanctity of Chinese promises, and undertakings are 
 grudgingly given to be promptly disregarded or dis- 
 avowed. The operation of various clauses in the
 
 FOREIGN RE LA TIONS. 103 
 
 different treaties which have been arrived at between 
 Great Britain and China has been delayed, and in 
 some instances concessions promised have never been 
 given effect to, and the foreii^n business of the country 
 is placed in the hands of the TsunL;li Yamen, a board 
 which was specially created for the purpose in January 
 1 86 1, but has been not inaptly termed the bureau for 
 the prevention of business. It is with the eleven mem- 
 bers of this Board that the representatives of the foreign 
 powers at Peking have to deal, and their methods are 
 such as to drive the diplomatist unversed in the Chinese 
 idea to the verge of desperation. Speaking of the 
 members of the Yamen in 1884, the then British 
 Minister at Peking, Sir Harry Parkes, who possessed 
 a more intimate knowledge of the Chinese character 
 than any other before or since, wrote : — 
 
 They delight in engaging in correspondence. Vou gain nothing 
 by giving them the opportunity of doing so, and perhaps less by 
 your other alternative, that of going to the Vamen and having a dis- 
 cussion with eight or ten men who all like to speak at once, and 
 who, when refuted, just repeat all they have said before. In some 
 respects it is a question of physical endurance, and if you are not in 
 good condition, the struggle is trying.* 
 
 Another acute observer describes the TsunL^li 
 Yamen in a new.spaper article as follows : — 
 
 In this war of resistance to the legal demands of the foreign lega- 
 tions, the Chinese mainly rely on two potent allies, time and fatigue. 
 The Chinese ministers are many, the foreigner is one. When they 
 speak, they all speak at once. The foreign ministers' lips begin to 
 grow pale, and other signs of exhaustion warn the courageous ones 
 that it is time to shout louder if haply they may stun their auditor 
 
 * Letter Id Mr 11. S. Wilkinson, .August loth, 1SS4.
 
 I04 CHINA IN DEC A V. 
 
 with sheer noise. Some of llie ministers go but seldom to the 
 Vamen, intrusting their routine business to their interpreters or 
 dragomen, who, being mostly in the prime of life, are better able to 
 support the rigour of the Yamen work.* 
 
 The only successful method of dealing with these 
 tactics is to treat the Yamen on their own system, and 
 this has been done on more than one occasion with i^ood 
 result. The representative of a foreign power avoids all 
 reference to the business in view. He discusses the 
 weather, the harvest, the health of the mandarin, and 
 the excellence of the refreshments which are provided. 
 After two or three hours of this fooling, the Chinese 
 diplomatists plead other engagements, and the schemer 
 promptly rises and announces his intention of returning 
 on the morrow. The next day sees the process 
 repeated, and these tactics are continued until the 
 Vamen, thoroughly weary of it all, themselves introduce 
 the subject which it is desired to discuss, and finally 
 accord all that is desired in order to get rid of their 
 interlocutor. 
 
 It is. indeed, doubtful whether there exists in all the 
 world a more difticult body of men with whom to deal 
 than the members of the Chinese Board of Foreign 
 Affairs. Whether a better time is coming for the 
 patient emissaries of European States is a matter 
 of opinion, but, however modified the position may 
 become in the future, the past presents a record of 
 difficulty, inertness, and tacit opposition, which it would 
 be hard to beat. 
 
 " Times, I2th Scptemhei- 18S4.
 
 C H A P T 1: R V. 
 
 THE BRITISH RECORD. 
 
 To THE Treaty of Tientsin. 
 
 The record of British interests in China dates from 
 the beginning- of the 17th century, when, following the 
 -example set by the Portuguese, the Spaniards, and the 
 Dutch, English merchants began to turn their attention 
 to the Far East and its trade possibilities. In 1634 
 an expedition set sail for China under the command 
 of Captain Weddell, who earned the distinction of 
 naviratinor and survevino- the mouth of the Canton 
 River. China was at that time in the throes of the 
 Manchu conquest, and was strongly opposed to enter- 
 ing into intercourse with people from strange lands. 
 When Captain Weddell reached Canton, his arrival 
 was resented ; the people, acting under instructions 
 from the mandarin, refused to allow the strangers to 
 land, and it was only after having taken the city by 
 assault that the expedition was able to open communi- 
 cations with the nati\es. The result of the intercourse 
 thus initiated, was the beirinninLJ of a trade with the 
 province of Kwangtung, and the introduction of 
 tea, till then an unknown beverau^e, into Eni^land.
 
 loS Cl/IiVA IiV J)ECAY. 
 
 The opening of commercial relations with the Celestial 
 Empire did not immediately bring about any con- 
 siderable trade with this country. Its most important 
 result may be said to have been the suggestion of 
 China as a suitable sphere for the labours of Christian 
 missionaries, who promptly set out with the aim of 
 proselytising the Buddhist and Pagan Chinese. The 
 influence brought to bear on the Chinese by the mission- 
 aries, the Jesuits more especially, was considerable, 
 and to it was due the publication of the edict, pro- 
 mulgated by the Emperor Kanghi in 1692, which 
 accorded the right of residence, and freedom of inter- 
 course with the people to the missionaries in China. 
 Kanghi was, throughout his reign, a firm friend of the 
 Christian visitors to China, and on one occasion he 
 placed on record his opinion of the foreigners with 
 whom he had come into contact, in lan^uaofe which 
 has survived, and which may with advantage be 
 quoted to-day : 
 
 "Europeans have always served me with zeal and affection. 
 There are many Chinese who distrust you, but, as for myself, 
 I am so fully convinced of your uprightuess and good faith that 
 I publicly declare that you are deserving of every trust and con- 
 fidence." 
 
 The reign of this enlightened ruler witnessed many 
 innovations which his predecessors would have scorned. 
 In 1688 he had agreed, after a year's negotiation, to the 
 first treaty ever made with a foreign power — that 
 which was duly signed at Nerchinsk between Russia 
 and China — but the Emperor passed away in 1722 
 without having come into direct intercourse with the
 
 THE BRITISH RECORD. log 
 
 British, nor was it till seventy years later that the first 
 British Embassy arrived at Peking. 
 
 During this lengthy interval relations between the 
 Chinese and the British continued to be more or less 
 strained. The people of t he South were a jealous 
 race and keenly resented the intrusion of foreigners, 
 but they were made to suffer for every attempt to oust 
 them. They also learned of British prowess in other 
 parts of Asia, news of our dealings in India having 
 penetrated into the districts on the Si Kiang, and this 
 knowledge tended to decrease the contempt which had 
 always been exhibited towards the visitors by the 
 Chinese. Arnong the articles of trade which found 
 their way into China during this period, the most im- 
 portant, both in quantity and value, was Indian 
 opium, brought by the ships of the East India 
 Company, which began its operations in China in i6So. 
 The drug was not a novelty to the Chinese. It had 
 been cultivated in various parts of China from a very 
 early period, but the imported article was superior, 
 both in quality and manufacture, to the native, and the 
 Indian product found eager purchasers at good prices. 
 In 1767 the import of Indian opium reached a total of 
 1000 chests, the value of each averaging little under 
 ;/^200, and the opium traffic at Canton, then the only 
 Chinese port open to foreign trade, exceeded in value 
 all the other imports added together. 
 
 In the year 1792, struck by the growing importance 
 of the trade with China, and desirous of obtaining the 
 opening of other seaports t o forefgn trad e, William 
 Pitt, at that tinie premier of Eno-land. decid ed to
 
 I lo CHINA IN DEC A Y. 
 
 despatch an envo\' to China to seek ;in audience with 
 the Emperor, and open up diplomatic relations be- 
 tween the two countries. The choice fell upon Lord 
 Macartney, who proceeded to Peking and was accorded 
 an audience with Keen Lung, as has been related in a 
 previous chapter. 
 
 The results of Lord Macartney's mission were, how- 
 ever, illusory. Despite the favourable reception he 
 received at Peking and the gracious expressions of 
 goodwill vouchsafed by the Emperor, no diminution 
 followed of the difficulties under which foreign trade 
 had been carried on. Indeed, the bearing of the 
 Cantonese, instead of becoming more friendly, ap- 
 peared to grow more antagonistic after the return of 
 Lord Macartney than it was before, and this fact was 
 the more disappointing, when viewed by the light of 
 that knowledge of the country, which had been the 
 result of personal observation by the members of our 
 mission. An additional cause of irritation was the pro- 
 mulgation by the viceroy of Canton in 1800 of an edict 
 forbidding the importation of opium, the real object of 
 the decree being the crippling of British trade in China 
 and the exclusion of foreigners from Chinese territory. 
 
 The strained relations which ensued between the 
 British traders and the Cantonese was so great as 
 to render the continuance of trade on the west river 
 difficult if not impossible, and, in order to secure for the 
 British merchants a base convenient to their market, 
 the British seized INIacao, which, while still nominally 
 in the hands of the Portuguese, had sunk to the posi- 
 tion of a derelict territory.
 
 THE BRITISH RECORD. in 
 
 The decree which suspeiuled the trade in opium was 
 soon discovefecl to be merel)' a formal protest, and the 
 traffic_continued unahaled. Rumours of the profits 
 obtained had spread around the world, and a keen 
 competition for the trade of Canton arose between 
 the British, French and American merchants, who 
 Hocked to the Far East in search of new markets and 
 speedy fortunes. Trade was carried on in face of 
 many difficulties, indeed, it could only be sustained by 
 dint of frequent and liberal bribes to the mandarin, 
 who repeatedly blackmailed their visitors under the 
 threat of forbidding all communication. It was with a 
 view to improving the position of the merchants at 
 Canton that the British Government determined, in 
 1805, to send a letter to the Chinese Emperor, in 
 the hope of adding to the good effect which the 
 reception of Lord Macartney in 1793 had been ex- 
 pected to produce at Peking. In order to increase 
 the chances of success, it was, \"ci-y unwiscK , dcfidcc' 
 to send a costly present to Sung Tajin, one of the 
 leading mandarin at the Em[)cr()r's court, in tlic hope 
 that the bribe would interest that niinister in the 
 British cause. On arrixal In China, tlic bearers ot the 
 lerrcr and giTt were refused an audience, and were told 
 that the sending of a prescnl to a Chinese miin'ster by 
 a foreign ruler was an insult. The gilt was accordingly 
 returned, and with it a very offensi\-e letter from 
 Kiaking to George III., which, for a time at least, 
 brought to a close the friendh' relations between the 
 two countries. 
 
 Five years later an Englishman, IMiomas Manning
 
 112 CHINA IN DECAY. 
 
 by name, who, besides bein<^ an experienced traveller, 
 possessed a knowledge of colloquial Chinese, went to 
 China, with the object of exploring the country and in 
 the hope that he might be granted an audience by the 
 Emperor. He was doomed to disappointment. All 
 his attempts to penetrate into the interior from Canton 
 failed, and he returned to India, whence he succeeded 
 in reaching Lhassa, in Tibet, in 1812.* 
 
 Disheartened by these repeated failures, the British 
 decided to try the effect of another official mission to 
 Peking, in the hope that the ceremonious pomp of 
 an accredited envoy might attract more favourable 
 notice than had been accorded to individuals. Lord 
 Amherst was the ambassador selected by Lord Liver- 
 pool, and he left England in 1816 bent on con- 
 ciliatinii' the Son of Heaven. The incidents of the 
 second British mission to China have been recorded 
 in a previous chapter, and it will be remembered that 
 Lord Amherst returned home without having achieved 
 the object of his errand. 
 
 The failure of this mission did not tend to improve 
 the treatment experienced by British traders in China. 
 The relations with the mandarin at Canton continued 
 strained, and the arrogance of the officials increased. 
 In 1 82 1, the shore boat belonging to a British warship 
 was openly attacked and a number of sailors were in- 
 jured, but no satisfaction could be obtained, and the 
 imposts exacted by the officials steadily increased. No 
 foreiofners were allowed to trade with Canton without 
 
 o 
 
 '^ Journey of Thomas Manning to Lhassa in 1S11-12. Edited by Clements R. 
 Markham, C B., F.R.S.
 
 THE BRITISH RECORD. 113 
 
 a licence, which was charged for at a prohibitive rate, 
 and only men were permitted to land. The families 
 of the merchants trading up the river were compelled 
 to remain at Macao. These disabilities were partially 
 removed in 1830, and shortly afterwards it was decided 
 not to renew the East India Company's Chinese 
 Charter, which was about to expire, but to leave the 
 development of Chinese commerce to Ijritish mer- 
 chants, whose interests were to be protected by a 
 resident superintendent of the trade with China. The 
 company's charter duly expired in L834,..when Lord 
 Napier took up the duties of British superintendent. 
 The change was important and brought about an 
 entirely new situation. The duties which now de- 
 volved on Lord Napier were to protect and foster 
 trade at Canton, to endeavour to obtain markets in 
 other parts of China, and to seek an opportunity of 
 establishing direct communication with the court at 
 "■^^i^ Peking, The superintendent was further instructed 
 to deal direct with the viceroy of Kwangtung and 
 not with the mandarin who might happen to be 
 stationed at Canton. It will thus be seen that Lord 
 Napier had a series of very important duties to 
 perform, and the conduct of the British emissary was, 
 at the very outset, in such contrast to that which had 
 characterised the agents of the East India Company 
 as to attract the immediate suspicion of ihe ("hinese. 
 
 Lord Napier reached Canton in July 1834. He 
 promptly announced his arrival in a letter which he 
 addressed to the viceroy, but which the mandarin 
 refused to forward. They would not, in fact, hold 
 
 H
 
 1 14 CHINA IN DEC A V. 
 
 any converse with him, and produced an order from 
 the viceroy, forbidding his entry into the city and 
 commanding him to return to Macao. Lord Napier 
 naturally refused to obey this behest, and proceeded to 
 the English "factory" at Canton, to find that all inter- 
 course between the English and Chinese had been 
 interdicted. 
 
 The position was rapidly becoming acute. The 
 Chinese were determined to expel the unwelcome 
 foreigners from the country, while the British exhibited 
 a dogged determination" to remain. No suspicion of 
 the real strength of the English appears to have 
 crossed the Celestial mind. The vicero),^ had every 
 confidence in himself, and felt that he only had to give 
 the wordr"1or the *' barbarians " to be driven into the 
 sea. All he required was a suitable excuse, sufficient 
 to justify any course he might take when his action 
 should be reported to the central government. 
 
 The desired justification was supplied by the large 
 export of silver, which had been in progress for more 
 than ten years, during which period silver currency to 
 an enormous amount had left the country in exchange 
 for imports. To prohibit the exportation of silver 
 would be useless, since the. people would claim the 
 right of expending their treasure as they pleased ; the 
 drain continued, and it occurred to the viceroy that if 
 not stayed it would ere long deplete the national 
 treasury. As it would have been futile to lay an 
 embargo on the silver itself, it was evident that some 
 other rneans must be sought by which to achieve the 
 end in view, and, as it was believed that the bulk of
 
 THE BRITISH RECORD. 1 1 5 
 
 the bullion exported went in payment for the opium 
 which came into the country from India, the mandarin 
 determined to stop the importation of the drug. There 
 can be little doubt but that, in decidino; on this course, the 
 viceroy was fully alive to the moral argument, which 
 could be brought to bear upon the prohibition of opium. 
 To prevent the importation of the drug would in no 
 way inconvenience the consumer, as ample suj)j)lies 
 were even then raised in China, the only difterence 
 between the Chinese; and the Indian article beine one 
 of quality. Rut the use of opium, while it wasHBemg 
 indulged in almost universally, was habitually inveighed 
 against on the ground of its use being injurious and 
 demoralising, and on this plea every possible difficulty 
 was put in the way both of the merchants and the 
 superintendent of trade, who matie repeated efforts to 
 ol5taTn~an interview with the viceroy, but without 
 success. He appealed and fumed, reasoned and 
 abused in turn, and finally issued a notification con- 
 taining threats as to the penalties he would enforce, 
 in the event of the mandarin remaining obdurate. 
 The only result of this action was the imposition of 
 further restrictions on foreign trade, the withdrawal of 
 all natives from British service, and the closint^ of the 
 riveFto British ships ; whereupon Lord Napier, weary 
 and disheartened, retired from Canton and went to 
 Macao, where he died shortly afterwards. 
 
 The Chinese, finding themselves masters of the situa- 
 tion, consented to renew their trade intercourse with 
 the merchants, but refused to recognise the superin- 
 tendent of trade, and prohibited the approach of foreign
 
 1 1 6 CHINA IN DEC A V. 
 
 warships. Captain Elliot, who was appointed to succeed 
 Lord Napier, was accordingly compelled to request 
 permission to reside at Canton, not as a government 
 official but as a sort of harbour superintendent, charged 
 with the control of sailors and merchandise. His 
 application was granted on the condition that he should 
 abide by all the regulations, and should not rank above 
 a supercargo. The death of Loo, the viceroy of Kwang- 
 tuntJ", and the appointment of Lin Tsisoo to succeed 
 him, proved to be events of the first importance to 
 the British in China. From the outset, Lin proved 
 himself to be even more antagonistic to the British 
 than was his predecessor. Lin entered on his duties with 
 the determination to drive the foreigner out of China, 
 and he was supported in his views by instructions from 
 Peking (whitHer an account of the recent troubles had 
 been despatched), to inquire into the relations existing 
 between the foreign merchants and the Chinese, and 
 to suggest a remedy for the drain upon silver. 
 
 Captain Elliot had not prospered in his mission at 
 Canton. He had frequent troubles with the mandarin, 
 and, finally, was impelled to follow Lord Napier's 
 example and retire to Macao, whence he sent a report 
 honu', asking for the despatch of some ships. Several 
 men-of-war arrived at Macao at the close of 1838, and 
 Captain Elliot returned to Canton, where he found the 
 opium question still to the fore, and replied to a com- 
 munication from the mandarin, by issuing a notice 
 warning all British subjects to refrain from the opium 
 trade. He stated that he would not interfere even if 
 the Chinese Government were to confiscate any opium
 
 Ii8 CHINA IN DEC A V. 
 
 which found its way into Canton. A few cl,'iys after the 
 issuing of this notice, in January 1839, Commissioner 
 Lin arrived at Canton, and hastened to make use of 
 Captain Elliot's pronouncement in an edict denoun- 
 cing the opium trade in terms both abusive and offen- 
 sive, and finally demanded that all the opium stored 
 in Canton should be surrendered within three days. 
 By the advice of Captain Elliot, this request was com- 
 plied with, and a large number of chests of opium were 
 handed over, but Lin refused to be contented with 
 these, and threatened to attack the foreign settlement 
 forthwith. Thereupon, the British superintendent 
 called upon the British merchants to surrender to him- 
 self all the opium in their possession. Over 20,000 
 chests of the drug, valued at more thai^ ^2,000,000 
 sterling, were thereupon delivered to Captain Elliot, 
 who handed them over to Lin, by whom they 
 were destroyed. 
 
 Elated at the success of his measures, Lin sought 
 to discomfort the British further, and demanded 'that 
 sixteen of the English merchants should be handed 
 over to him, -in order that they might be punished for 
 having brought opium into the country. This last 
 demand was too much, even for the vacillating British 
 superintendent, and too weak to make a stand against 
 the insolent mandarin, he advised the British Colony 
 to leave Canton and retire to Macao. The merchants 
 accordingly closed the factory and retired ; while Cap- 
 tain Elliot despatched information of what had oc- 
 curred to the British Government, with a request that 
 protection should be accorded to the British traders,
 
 THE BRITISH RECORD. 1 19 
 
 whose interests were being endangered by the 
 Chinese. 
 
 It is unnecessary to detail at length the events 
 which transpired during the progress ofthe campaign, 
 so absurdly termed the " opium " war. Its history has 
 been ably told by more than one writer,* and its 
 incidents form bright pages in the record of British 
 prowess in the Far East. The result was a foregone 
 conclusion from the outset. The fleet which was 'de- 
 spatched from home to setde the Chinese question was 
 sufficient to achieve its purpose. It consisted of fifteen 
 batdeships, four steamers, and twenty-five transports, 
 carrying 4000 troops, and left England with instruc- 
 tions drawn up by Lord Palmerston. The policy of this 
 country towards China was set out in the followino- 
 statement made by Lord John Russell at the time : — 
 
 The expedition was authorised for the purpose of obtaining repara- 
 tion for the insults and injuries offered to Her Majesty's superinten- 
 dent and Her Majesty's subjects by the Chinese Government; and, 
 in the second place, they were to obtain for the merchants trading with 
 China, an indemnification for the loss of their property incurred by 
 threats of violence offered by persons under the direction of the 
 Chinese Government ; and, in the last place, they were to obtain a 
 certain security that persons and property, in future trading with 
 China, shall be protected from insult and injury, and that their trade 
 and commerce be maintained upon a proper footing. 
 
 The fleet arrived at the mouth of the Canton Ri\er 
 in June 1840. The British merchants, who had fled 
 from Canton and been driven out of Macao, had taken 
 refuge in the rocky island of Hong-kong, where they 
 anxiously awaited the coming of the expedition which 
 
 * See Boulger's History of China.
 
 I20 • CHINA IN DEC A V. 
 
 was to re-establish them on the Mainland. An im- 
 mediate blockade of the Canton River was declared, 
 which was answered by Lin offering a reward for 
 English heads. Sir Gordon Bremer next captured 
 the island of Chusan, which was occupied during the 
 continuance of the war, and, while this operation was 
 in progress, the Bogue forts, commanding the entrance 
 to Canton, were bombarded by two men-of-war. 
 
 The officer commanding the fleet had been charored 
 with the delivery to the Chinese of a letter, containing 
 a statement of the British claims, in order that it might 
 be forwarded to the Emperor Taoukwang at Peking. 
 The mandarin at Canton, Amoy, and Ningpo alike 
 refused to accept the letter or to hold any intercourse 
 with the British, whereupon the fleet sailed north- 
 wards to the Pei Ho, with the intention of penetrating 
 to Tientsin, and, if need be, having the missive delivered 
 inside the capital by an armed force. Captain Elliot 
 accompanied this expedition as diplomatic agent, and, 
 on arriving at the Pei Ho, was received by Keshen, the 
 viceroy of Chili, who announced that he had been 
 ordered by the Emperor to arrange matters. The vice- 
 roy accepted the letter, which he promised to deliver 
 into the Emperor's hands, offered to supply the fleet 
 with stores, and, finally, assured Captain Elliot that a 
 satisfactory reply would be sent direct to Canton, and 
 succeeded in persuading him to w^ithdraw from the 
 Pei Ho and return south. Accordingly, the British 
 vessels left Taku and returned to Canton, while the 
 astute viceroy communicated his triumphant disposal 
 of the enemy to the Emperor, w^ho promptly issued
 
 THE BRITISH RECORD. 121 
 
 orders for the struo-y^le with the invaders to be re- 
 sumed, and despatched troops to Kwangtung for the 
 purpose of driving them into the sea. Lin was re- 
 called and disgraced for not havingf succeeded in dis- 
 posing of the barbarians, and Keshen was ordered to 
 Canton to replace him. 
 
 But the patience of the British was by this time 
 exhausted, and, as they realised that the only way of 
 obtaining any concessions from the Chinese was by 
 playing on their fears, an attack was ordered on the 
 Bogue forts, and this was made on the 7th January 
 1 84 1, with the result that they were taken and occupied 
 by British troops under Captain Thomas Herbert. 
 This success produced a great effect on the Chinese. 
 K eshen sued for peace and peered to ag^ree to all th at 
 had been asked. Hono^-koncr was ceded to the British, 
 and the ri^ht to hold direct communication with the 
 central Government promised. The prospect cleared, 
 and it seemed as if all difficulties were about to be 
 arranged. Hong-kong was formally occupied on the 
 29th January, the troops, n'ecessary' for llie purj'j^se, 
 being drawn from Chusan, and the British merchants 
 beean to think of returning to Canton when the news 
 arrived that Taoukwang refused to endorse the pro- 
 mises made by his commissioner, and that, wroth at 
 the negotiations which Keshen had conducted with the 
 barbarians, he had recalled him in disgrace. Another 
 mandarin, one Eleang, succeeded Keshen. with instruc- 
 tions to drive the English out of the country. 
 
 A few days after this change of front on the part of 
 the Chinese, Sir Hugh Gough arrived at the Bogue to
 
 122 CHINA IN DECAY. 
 
 take supreme command of the British forces, and from 
 this moment events moved quickly. Without wastint^ 
 a day, Gough proceeded to reduce the various minor 
 forts round Canton, and, the way having been cleared 
 the city was attacked and its outer defences destroyed. 
 The British merchants returned to the factories on 
 the 1 8th March 1841. But it was only a lull before 
 a fresh outbreak of hostilities, A few weeks later, 
 Captain Elliot was insulted in the streets, and the 
 British succeeded in getting away from Canton just in 
 time to save themselves from a general attack by the 
 mob. The factories were attacked and burned, and 
 the Chinese were once more masters of the situation. 
 Sir Hugh Gough returned to Canton on the 24th 
 May, and landed his 4000 men, with howitzers and 
 mortars, which were speedily placed in position. 
 Canton was doomed, and the Chinese recognised the 
 fact. They accordingly once more resorted to diplo- 
 macy, and offered to pay a sum of 6,000,000 dollars as 
 a ransom, on condition that the British would with- 
 draw the troops. In face of the opposition of Sir 
 Hugh Gough, Captain Elliot accepted this proposal, 
 and the money had been partially paid when fresh dis- 
 turbances broke out which prolonged the operations for 
 another month. Eventually, however, the Canton Con- 
 vention of 1 84 1 was agreed to, and a truce declared, 
 just as Sir Henry Pottinger, who had been appointed 
 plenipotentiary, arrived from England. He speedily 
 showed a marked contrast in his policy to that 
 exhibited by Captain Elliot, who now retired. The 
 Bogue forts, already in the hands of the British, were
 
 THE BRiriSH RECORD. 123 
 
 destroyed. Amoy, Ningpo, and several other im- 
 portant towns were captured. By the end of 1841, 
 eve ry city on the central coast line was occupied, and 
 attention was then turned to the districts inland. On 
 the 13th June 1S42. the British fleet entered the 
 Yang-tse Kiang, On the i6th, Woosung was cap- 
 tured. Shanghai fell three days later. Chinkiang 
 was reached on the 20th July, and Nanking on 
 the 4th August. It was while our troops were disem- 
 barking off the southern capital that Keying arrived, 
 as special commissioner from Peking, charged with 
 coming to terms with these foreigners who had proved 
 themselves too strong for the Chinese, and had at 
 length, apparently, brought the Son of Heaven to his 
 senses. 
 
 The nesfotiations which ensued lasted a tortni'-ht, 
 at the end of which, on the 29th August 1842. the 
 first treaty between Great P)ritain and China was 
 signed on board the Cornwallis, off Nanking, by Sir 
 Henry Pottinger on behalf of the Queen, and Keying, 
 High Commissioner, and three assistant commissioners 
 on behalf of the Emperor of China. 
 
 The treaty of Nanking was of necessity drawn up 
 somewhat hurriedly, and it contained several expres- 
 sions which were not entirely unobjectionable, but it 
 achieved much for the interests of this country, and, 
 had the Chinese shown any desire to abide by its 
 clauses, the history of the succeeding years might have 
 been very different to what they were. The main 
 enactments laid down in the treaty were :— The con- 
 clusion of a lasting peace between China and Great
 
 124 CHINA /A' DEC A V. 
 
 Britain ; the payment of an indemnity of 21,000,000 
 dollars by China to England ; the opening of Amoy, 
 Canton, Fuchow, Ningpo, and Shanghai to British 
 trade, with permission for a British consul to reside at 
 each ; the cession of Hong-kong* to this country ; 
 and the occupation of the islands of Chusan and 
 Kulangsu by British troops until the terms of the 
 treaty should have been fulfilled. 
 
 The one great mistake made in the drawing up of 
 the treaty of Nanking was the omission of a stipula- 
 tion authorising the opening up of direct communica- 
 tions between this country and Peking. The omission 
 was doubtless due to the fact that it was not yet 
 perceived that the only way to successfully carry 
 on negotiations with the Chinese was by working on 
 them through their fears, and that this could only be 
 achieved by a British resident at Peking. Notwith- 
 standing this, however, the first treaty between the 
 two empires was a step in the right direction, and 
 should have served as a useful object lesson in 
 methods of dealing with the mandarin, who then as 
 now were easily handled, when satisfied that their op- 
 ponent possessed sufficient force to compel them, and 
 was prepared to use it. 
 
 The Emperor Taoukwang lost no time in ratifying 
 the treaty. The British tlleet was withdrawn, Sir 
 Henry Pottinger returned to England, and Sir John 
 Davis was appointed to look after British interests in 
 
 * riong-l:ong had already been ceded to Great Britain by Keshin on 20th 
 January 1841. The insertion of this clause in the treaty of Nanking was doubtless 
 intended as formal recognition of the event.
 
 THE BRITISH RECORD. 125 
 
 China. The first consuls were duly chosen and pro- 
 ceeded to take up their posts, and the land required 
 for the foreisrn settlements was obtained. Amon^r the 
 gentlemen who were appointed consuls were two 
 whose names will always be remembered in connec- 
 tion with British expansion in China. They became 
 afterwards Sir Thomas Wade and Sir Harry Parkes. 
 
 Soon after the treaty of Nanking had been signed, 
 the French and American Governments decided to 
 profit by the privileges which the British had obtained, 
 and both countries sent out consuls to the various 
 treaty ports. Nor were their offices sinecures. 
 Trouble was constantly arising, and disputes, insults, 
 and even attacks on the person were of daily occur- 
 rence. In 1846, a riot broke out in Canton, which was 
 with difficulty quelled, and an attempt was made to 
 keep the foreigners within the limits of their settle- 
 ments, and to restrict them from entering the native 
 city. In March 1847, a party of Englishmen were 
 attacked at Fatshan, a town near Canton, and only 
 just escaped with their lives. Recognising the in- 
 security of the position. Sir John Davies determined 
 to teach the Chinese a lesson, in the hope that he 
 might be able to obtain greater liberty and security 
 for the merchants under his charge. Accordingly, 
 on the 3rd April, he started with two regiments from 
 Honor-kone, and, havintj landed at the entrance to the 
 Canton River, seized the batteries which had l)een 
 constructed on the site of the Bogue forts, and, pro- 
 ceeding up river, took, without encountering re- 
 sistance, the forts opposite the city. He thereupon
 
 126 CHINA IN DEC A Y. 
 
 demanded that Canton should be opened to foreigners, 
 and that the British should be permitted to go about 
 the country, provided they returned to the city at 
 night. Keying agreed to these demands, and quiet 
 was restored, though a good many of the natives 
 assumed a threatening attitude. While these measures 
 were being taken at Canton, similar disputes were in 
 progress at the other treaty ports, and several en- 
 counters took place between the foreigners and the 
 natives. 
 
 The opening of Canton to foreigners had been 
 fixed for the 6th April 1849. But, as that date came 
 near, no preparations were made by the officials, and 
 it has been suggested that even had they desired to 
 keep the pledge they had made, they would have 
 been prevented from doing so by the attitude of the 
 Cantonese. The Chinese, in short, would not have 
 the foreigners in their midst. The position thus be- 
 came acute and the question arose. What could the 
 British authorities do to improve the state of things 
 which existed ? 
 
 In 1852, British interests in China were entrusted to 
 Dr John Bowring, who entered on his duties with 
 instructions " to avoid all irritatinof discussions with 
 the authorities of China." He had some experience ot 
 the Chinese character, having officiated previously as 
 consul at Canton, and he sent home a report on the 
 position, in which he wrote : " The Pottinger Treaties 
 inflicted a deep wound in the pride, but, by no means, 
 altered the policy of the Chinese Government. . . . 
 Their purpose is now, as it ever w^as, not to invite, not
 
 THE BRITISH RECORD. 127 
 
 to facilitate, but to impede and resist the access of 
 foreigners." 
 
 In 1854, Dr Bovvring received a knighthood, and the 
 viceroy of Kwangtung had been succeeded by the sub- 
 sequently notorious commissioner, Yeh. And, in the 
 same year, Sir John Bowring receiving the notifi- 
 cation of a change in his instructions, was ordered 
 by Lord Clarendon to obtain free and unrestricted 
 intercourse with the Chinese officials, and admission 
 into the cities of China, Canton especially. 
 
 Sir John Bowring accordingly forwarded to the com- 
 missioner an official request for an interview, adding 
 that it should take place in Canton. To this Yeh 
 sent an ambiguous reply, nor, during the two years 
 spent by the governor of Hong-kong in endeavouring 
 to come to an understanding with the representative of 
 the Emperor, did he fare any better. An appeal to the 
 viceroy was fruitless. Yeh would have nothing to do 
 with the foreigners, and his face was never seen by an 
 Englishman until after the fall of Canton he was run 
 to earth and taken prisoner by Harry Parkes. 
 
 With relations thus strained between the natives 
 and their visitors, it only required a spark to cause the 
 smouldering mischief to burst into fiame. This was 
 supplied in October 1856 by the seizure of the lorcha 
 Arrow, a vessel engaged in the hardware trade 
 between Canton and Hong-kong, sailing under the 
 British flag, and owned by a British subject. The 
 lorcha was seized by a party of mandarin, who 
 boarded her while at anchor off Canton. The crew 
 were marched ashore and put in prison, and the vessel
 
 128 CHINA IN DEC A Y. 
 
 impounded. Remonstrance was useless. Mr Parkes 
 sent a strong letter to Yeh, demanding the release of 
 the prisoners, and insisting that the whole matter 
 should be sifted at the British consulate. Yeh declined 
 to negotiate. He did not even attempt to justify 
 himself. He made certain statements, and refused to 
 discuss the question. The matter was a serious one, 
 and immediate reprisals were necessary. Sir Michael 
 Seymour, the admiral on the station, was communi- 
 cated with, and promptly entered the river and 
 captured the forts without loss. The commissioner 
 made no sign. He reasoned that the English only 
 souofht to intimidate him, and refused to be intimi- 
 dated. 
 
 The second Chinese war arose from entirely different 
 •circumstances to those which orave rise to the first. 
 In 1839 the Chinese, anxious to rid themselves of the 
 despised foreigner, had seized on the importation of 
 opium as a nominal casus belli. The question at issue 
 was whether the British were to be permitted to sell 
 the Indian drug within the Empire. In 1856 the 
 foreigner's presence had been condoned, and the trouble 
 arose from the refusal of the officials to enter into 
 personal relations with him. There was nothing in 
 the treaty of Nanking requiring the mandarin to have 
 dealings with the British, and Yeh insisted that he 
 was strictly within his rights in abstaining from all 
 intercourse with either the o-overnor of Honor-kong- 
 or the consul at Canton. 
 
 The Canton forts were taken on the 2Sth October 
 1856. The Chinese fleet was destroyed the following
 
 THE BRITISH RECORD. 129 
 
 month, and the bombardment of the city commenced 
 immediately after. Early in December the European 
 factories were burned by the Chinese ; and then en- 
 sued a pause, while the arrival of troops from England 
 was eagerly awaited. Sir Michael Seymour had asked 
 for 5000 men. His request was at once granted, and 
 it was decided to despatch an ambassador to China 
 to take charge of the negotiations which would be 
 necessary, and to inform the Peking Government that 
 this country would not permit the continuation of such 
 conduct as that of which Yeh had been guilty. The 
 envoy chosen was Lord Elgin, and he was instructed 
 to demand reparation for injuries inflicted ; the com- 
 plete fulfilment of the treaty of Nanking and of the 
 convention agreed on between Keying and Sir John 
 Davis in 1847 ; compensation to British subjects for 
 losses suffered, and, most important of all, the assent of 
 the Chinese Government to the residence at Pekino- of 
 a minister duly accredited by the Queen of England. 
 
 Unfortunately, the outbreak of the Indian Mutiny 
 rendered it necessary for Lord Elgin to delay his 
 operations in China, and it was not until the middle 
 of September 1857 that troops were available for 
 this purpose. Canton was then invested. A last 
 attempt was made to bring Yeh to reason, but with- 
 out result. The city was bonibarded once more and 
 taken. Yeh was captured and sent to Calcutta a 
 prisoner on board a man-of-war, and Canton was 
 effectually occupied by the French and English 
 troops. 
 
 And then Lord Elgin turned his attention to the
 
 I30 CHINA IN DEC A V. 
 
 carrying out of the instructions he had received, and, 
 after attempting, without success, to open negotiations 
 with a first-class mandarin at Shanghai, he announced 
 his intention of going north to interview the authorities 
 at Peking. In this programme Lord Elgin was sup- 
 ported by Baron Gros, the French admiral, who decided 
 to join forces with him, and the united fleets made sail 
 for the Pei Ho, where they arrived on the 20th May 
 1858, to find the river closed against them. 
 
 The Taku forts fell an easy prey to the foreign guns, 
 and the fleet continued its way to Tientsin without 
 hindrance. Lord Elgin took up his residence ashore, 
 and the Chinese, greatly impressed by the intrepidity 
 of the invaders, told the news with bated breath in 
 Peking. The Emperor Hienfung thereupon named 
 two hieh commissioners of rank to g'o and conduct 
 neofotiations with the " barbarians," and instructed his 
 envoys to meet the wishes of the said barbarians, pro- 
 vided nothing likely to injure China was required. 
 
 Accordingly, the commissioners went to Tientsin 
 and had an interview with Lord Elgin, who placed 
 his demands before them, and they at once agreed 
 to all that was asked, except the right of sending 
 an ambassador to reside at Peking. Every possible 
 excuse was made to avoid this concession, and, seeing 
 that Lord Elgin refused to withdraw the request, 
 they attempted to argue the point, explained that the 
 presence of an envoy at the capital would be likely to 
 place him in danger, and laid special stress on the fact 
 that he would be required to perform the Kowtow, in 
 the event of his being accorded an audience by the
 
 THE BRITISH RECORD. 131 
 
 Emperor. Eventually, the point was conceded by the 
 mandarin, and the treaty of Tientsin was drawn up 
 and duly signed by Lord Elgin and the Chinese 
 plenipotentiaries on the 26th June 1858. 
 
 The treaty provides for the sending of ambassadors, 
 ministers, or other diplomatic agents by the Queen, to 
 the Court of Peking, and of similar representatives by 
 the Emperor of China to the Court of St James's; 
 the freedom of trade with China ; the toleration of 
 Christianity ; the right of British subjects fo travel in 
 all parts of China ; the payment by China of the cost 
 of the war; the revision of the tariff; and the disuse 
 of the word " barbarian," as applied to foreigners in 
 China. By the XI article of this treaty five more 
 ports were opened to foreign trade : Chauchow, 
 Kiungchow, Newchang, Taiwan, and Tangchow ; 
 and the opening of Chinkiang and Hankow, with not 
 more than three other ports on the Yang-tse River, was 
 fixed to take place at as early a date as possible. 
 
 Having thus achieved the object of his mission, 
 Lord Elgin left Tientsin. He did not make any 
 attempt to obtain an audience of the Emperor, nor 
 did he take any steps to place a resident minister in 
 Peking. Entirely ignorant of the workings of the 
 Chinese mind, he failed to recognise that a treaty is 
 worthless unless immediately enforced, and. without 
 even attempting to visit the capital, he sailed down 
 river on a visit to Japan. 
 
 As soon as the British fieet had left the Pei Ho, the 
 Chinese proceeded to restore the forts at its mouth, 
 and, immediately the news of its departure had pene-
 
 132 CHINA IN DEC A V. 
 
 tratccl south, the Cantonese returned to their old 
 tactics of causing the English as much annoyance and 
 inflicting as great indignities on them as possible. 
 
 Early in March 1859, Mr Frederick Bruce, who had 
 been appointed Her Majesty's representative for the 
 purpose of exchanging ratifications of the treaty of 
 Tientsin, sailed for the Pei Ho. He was specially 
 warned by Lord Malmesbury that the Chinese would 
 probably use every means to prevent his entering 
 Peking, and instructed to remain firm and insist on 
 the ratifications being exchanged in the capital, as 
 stipulated in the original treaty. It was imperative 
 that the treaty should be ratified before the 26th June, 
 and Mr Bruce, after evading the attempts to detain 
 him made by the mandarin both at Hong-kong and 
 Shanofhai, anchored off the mouth of the Pei Ho on 20th 
 June. He found the entrance to the river closed by a 
 row of iron stakes, as well as by a boom. The forts 
 at Taku were manned, and a huoe crowd of natives 
 stood orathered on the shore darinor the "barbarians" 
 to land. Denied admission to the country, nothing 
 remained for the envoy but to instruct the ships to 
 force an entrance. Accordingly, Admiral Hope ordered 
 the removal of the iron stakes, and, this having been 
 done without resistance, the fleet moved up to the 
 boom off the forts, which immediately began firing, 
 and considerably damaged several of the ships, and 
 sank two gunboats. An assault was then made on the 
 forts, but the attack failed, and nearly 300 men were 
 killed. The fleet thereupon withdrew, leaving the 
 Chinese masters of the situation, and strengthened
 
 THE BRITISH RECORD. 133 
 
 in their determination to resist the "barbarians" to 
 the last. 
 
 In November a fresh expedition sailed from Hong- 
 kong under the command of Sir Hope Grant, who 
 had with him altogether 13,000 men, and these were 
 reinforced by an army of 6000 French under Baron 
 Gros, who decided to co-operate with the British. 
 Kauloon, which had early in the year been leased on 
 behalf of this country by Mr Parkes, was the place of 
 mobilisation, and hence the united fleets sailed early in 
 June 1 860. Chusan was again occupied without opposi- 
 tion. The Pei Ho was reached early in August, and a 
 landing was effected at Pehtang, in the rear of Taku, 
 on the 1 2th. The forts were taken without much 
 difficulty. The fleet removed the obstacles at the 
 entrance to the river, and the whole expedition duly 
 arrived at Tientsin on the 26th August, when the 
 attitude of the people was unexpectedly friendly. At 
 this juncture, Kweilyang, a mandarin who had been 
 one of the negotiators of the Tientsin treaty, appeared 
 upon the scene as high commissioner, charged with 
 carrying out its ratification. His proposal was met 
 with the formulation of three conditions, under which 
 alone would hostilities be terminated. Lord Elgin 
 demanded an apology for the attack on the British 
 envoy at Pei Ho, the payment of an indemnity to cover 
 the costs of the war. and the exchange of the ratifica- 
 tions of the treaty inside Peking with the accredited 
 representative of the Queen of Great Britain. It soon 
 became evident to Lord Elgin that the apparent desire 
 of the mandarin to arrive at a friendlv termination of
 
 ,34 CHINA IN DECA V. 
 
 iill disputes, was in reality only an attempt to gain 
 time in which reinforcements might arrive. Accord- 
 inp-ly, satisfied that nothing short of a severe lesson 
 would brine the Chinese to their senses, the allied 
 forces left Tientsin and marched towards Tungchow. 
 It was while they were midway between these places 
 that Mr Parkes had gone ahead to obtain an interview 
 with the mandarin at Tungchow, in the hope of arrang- 
 ino- an interview between the Chinese officials and the 
 French and English commanders. Mr Parkes suc- 
 ceeded in meeting the mandarin, with whom he had a 
 long and stormy interview, which led to no useful result. 
 He thereupon returned to Sir Hope Grant's camp 
 to announce the failure of his errand. On the 17th 
 September, he again returned to Tungchow, accom- 
 panied by Mr Loch, Mr de Norman, Colonel Beau- 
 champ Walker, Mr Thomson, and Mr Bowlby, special 
 correspondent of T/ie Times, to make another attempt 
 at arranging a meeting between the mandarin and the 
 allied ambassadors. The party was detained under 
 various pretexts, and Mr Parkes, Mr Loch, Mr de 
 Norman, and Mr Bowlby were taken prisoners, and, 
 bound hand and foot, despatched to Peking, w^here 
 they were imprisoned on the 21st September. On 
 the same day, a pitched battle was fought, the Chinese 
 were routed, and the allies marched without further 
 hindrance to Peking, which was reached on 8th 
 October. Mr Parkes and Mr Loch were thereupon 
 liberated, and rejoined the British force, but Mr de 
 Norman and Mr Bowlby were found dead from ill- 
 usage, while the others were never seen again, and are
 
 THE BRITISH RECORD. 135 
 
 supposed to have died from the effects of the treatment 
 accorded them.* 
 
 Peking was finally invested on the 1 2th October. 
 Hienfung fled to his hunting-seat at Jehol, outside the 
 Great Wall, but the Empress refused to leave the 
 capital. Sir Hope Grant, finding it impossible to 
 pursue the fugitive, determined on giving the Chinese 
 an object lesson, which they would not be likely to 
 forget. On the i8th October, the order was given 
 for the destruction of the Summer Palace, so recently 
 vacated by the Emperor. It was accordingly seized 
 and destroyed by fire,t and a proclamation was issued, 
 demanding the payment of ^100,000 in compensation 
 for the murder of the prisoners. The palace of Prince 
 Tsai was appropriated for the accommodation of 
 Lord Elgin and Baron Gros, and the " Hall of 
 Ceremonies " was chosen as an appropriate place in 
 which to exchange formally the ratification of the 
 treaty of 1858. The ceremony was duly performed 
 with every display of pomp on the 24th October. 
 Lord Elgin and Sir Hope Grant in chairs of state, 
 escorted by a large number of officers and 500 troops, 
 proceeded to the hall through the streets of Peking. 
 The Imperial Seal was affixed to the treaty by Prince 
 Kung, acting under an imperial edict issued for that 
 purpose. The object of the expedition had been 
 attained.! The right of residence was finally accorded 
 
 * Refer Lane-1'oole's Life of Sir Harry Parkcs, vol. i., for full particulars of 
 these outrages. 
 
 t Refer Lord Wolseley's Na>~ralive of the War with China. 
 
 X Refer Loch's Narrative of Events in China, for a picturesque description 
 of the scene at the signing of the treaty.
 
 136 CHINA IN DECAY. 
 
 to the representatives of Foreign Powers, and Mr 
 Frederick Bruce, having been provided with an official 
 residence, was inducted into the post of first British 
 minister at Peking. The alHed forces thereupon with- 
 drew, and reached the mouth of the Pei Ho just before 
 the river was closed by the ice. 
 
 Thus ended a struggle which had begun twenty 
 years before. During the whole of the interval the 
 Chinese had steadfastly endeavoured to rid themselves 
 of the foreigners, who insisted on the holding of inter- 
 course with the Celestials, and now, finally defeated in 
 all their attempts, the mandarin were at last brought 
 to realise that it was useless to protest, and that the 
 only course open to them was to accept the inevitable 
 and treat the despised "barbarians" with at least a 
 simulated courtesy. Satisfactory as the results of the 
 operations of 1859-60 were, one cannot but be struck 
 by the fact that Lord Elgin neglected a most necessary 
 duty, in leaving Peking without insisting on his right 
 to receive an audience of the Emperor, Had he 
 done this, he would once and for all have disposed of 
 the great audience question which was destined to drag 
 on for another score of years ; and there is no question 
 but that the omission to take this very obvious course, 
 was responsible for many of the slights which were 
 subsequently put upon the British residents in Peking.
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 THE BRITISH RECORD. 
 
 From the Signing of the Treatv of Tientsin. 
 
 While the British and French forces were en«-ao-ed in 
 bringing the Chinese to their senses in the provinces 
 of Kwangtung and Chili, the foreign merchants in 
 other parts of China were gradually coming to a better 
 understanding with the natives, and the commercial 
 Intercourse, which had with such great difficulty been 
 established, was extending, with satisfactory results to 
 both nations. Amoy, Fuchow, and Ningpo had de- 
 veloped early in the history of their internal relations 
 into centres of a considerable foreign trade, while 
 Shanghai had outstripped them all and. within five 
 years of the signing of the treaty of Nanking, had 
 become the most important market in China. The 
 following extract from the report of Mr Alcock, the 
 consul at Shanghai, to Sir John Davis, in 1848, shows 
 the condition of affairs at this period on the Woosung 
 River : — 
 
 The position of foreign residents and the local conditions under 
 which trade is carried on are highly satisfactory. Many facilities 
 and advantages have been gained during the past year. The town,
 
 I40 CHINA IN DEC A V. 
 
 on the banks of the river within the British limits, is rapidly increas- 
 ing. There are now located in it twenty-four mercantile firms 
 (three American), with their houses of business and extensive go- 
 downs. There are, in addition, five shopkeepers' stores, twenty- 
 five private residences, a church, an hotel, a club-house, etc., extend- 
 ing along the river front more than a quarter of a mile, and stretching 
 backwards double this distance, with intervening gardens, racing 
 ground, cemetery, etc. ; 632,820 dollars are estimated to have been 
 expended already in land and buildings within our boundaries. The 
 climate has proved healthy, only three deaths, in four years, having 
 occurred among the residents, and these are not fairly to be attributed 
 to Shanghai, but to causes which would have produced death else- 
 where.* 
 
 The progress recorded in the above report was due 
 in great measure to the more peaceable character of the 
 natives of Chekiang, as compared with those of Kwang- 
 tung. But it was without doubt largely helped by 
 lack of communication existing between the Woosung 
 River and Pekinsf. When the court officials were 
 kept informed of the relations existing between the 
 natives and the foreign residents, as was always the 
 case at Canton, trouble was certain to ensue, and, 
 notwithstanding the according of the Imperial Seal to 
 the treaties between Great Britain and China, every 
 mandarin who had been instrumental in bringing about 
 the concessions obtained was either degraded or dis- 
 missed. The charge of being favourably disposed 
 towards foreigners had always been the most serious 
 which could be urofed against a Chinese official, and 
 at least a score of first-class mandarins were severely 
 punished for their toleration, while many more were 
 
 * Returns of the Trade of the Various Ports in China, for the years 1S47-48. 
 Parliamentary Paper, No. 188, 1848,
 
 THE BRITISH RECORD. 141 
 
 promoted to the highest posts, as a reward for the anti- 
 barbarian activity they had displayed. 
 
 Notwithstanding the satisfactory state of the foreign 
 settlements in 1848, the life of the foreigner in China 
 was, at this period, not an enviable one. 
 
 The foreign community lived in dread of an outbreak of fanati- 
 cism, and the merchants kept their books and papers packed, in 
 preparation for instant flight. It was unsafe to enter a Chinese 
 boat on the river. . . . One could not walk through the suburbs, 
 without having foul words, and, very probably, stones cast at one. A 
 long series of unprovoked outrages, rising now and then to brutal 
 murder, had taught Europeans at the factories to be careful how 
 they ventured outside, and he was accounted a daring man who 
 risked a five-mile walk from the consulate.* 
 
 A feature of the British record which was largely 
 responsible for the difficulties experienced was the 
 want of continuity in the policy pursued by the various 
 officials who were charged with the guarding of our 
 interests in the Far East. In many cases the vacilla- 
 tion of the Home Government, whatever its cause may 
 have been, resulted in the exhibition of an apparent 
 weakness, which the Celestials were not slow to per- 
 ceive. From the withdrawal of the monopoly enjoyed 
 by the East India Company to the present day. British 
 policy in China has been constantly changing, accord- 
 ing to the particular views of the Government which 
 has happened to be in power. The c.\hil)ili()n ot a 
 definite policy has been the rarest occurrence, and. 
 while our interests have been the care of many good 
 men at the front, their action has been cramped and 
 
 * Report of Select Committee on Commercial Kciations wiil> China, 1S47.
 
 142 
 
 CHINA IN DECA V. 
 
 their efforts counteracted by the eccentricities of the 
 Government at home. 
 
 One of the ablest declarations of policy ever made 
 with reference to our dealings with the Chinese, is that 
 written by Lord Palmerston in 1847, in the form of a 
 despatch to Sir John Davis : — - 
 
 We shall lose all the vantage ground we have gained by our victories 
 in China if we take a low tone. We must take especial care not to 
 descend from the relative position which we have acquired. If we 
 maintain that position morally by the tone of our intercourse, we shall 
 not be obliged to recover it by forcible acts ; but if we permit the 
 Chinese, either at Canton or elsewhere, to resume, as they will no 
 doubt be always endeavouring to do, their former tone of superiority, 
 we shall very soon be compelled to come to blows with them again. 
 .... We must stop on the very threshold any attempt on their 
 part to treat us otherwise than as their equals, and we must make 
 them all clearly understand, though in the civilest terms, that our 
 treaty rights must be respected.* 
 
 The reader will be able to judge for himself how far 
 this eminently sound advice has been followed in the 
 relations which have since existed between Great 
 Britain and China. 
 
 Shortly after the Tientsin Treaty, Lord Elgin re- 
 turned to Shanghai and decided on sending an expedi- 
 tion up the Yang-tse Kiang, with the object of exploring 
 the river and opening it up to British trade, as provided 
 for in the tenth article of the treaty. The expedition 
 was entrusted to Sir James Hope, and its object be- 
 came a matter of great interest, owing to the success 
 which had attended the continued rising of the Taeping 
 
 * Parliamentary Papers, 1847. Correspondence relative to the operations in 
 the Canton River.
 
 THE BRITISH RECORD. 143 
 
 rebels, who had for nearly ten years overrun the 
 country. At the time of the start of the expedition, 
 Nanking- was held by the insurgents, who, with an 
 army of 80,000 men, carried everything before them. 
 The rebellion had i/rown from small beofinnintrs, until 
 it had assumed such proportions as to dominate the 
 whole of Southern China, and to threaten, for a time 
 at least, the capital. 
 
 The originator of the Taeping rebellion was one 
 Hung Swei-tseuen, a Christian convert, who, posing 
 as a mystic, attracted a small band of followers in the 
 province of Kwangsi, whither he had emigrated from 
 his native district of Canton. Finding that the 
 principles he enunciated found a ready acceptance, 
 he, about 1840, decided to devote himself exclusively 
 to the introduction of a new regime in human affairs. 
 He preached Christianity in a more or less subverted 
 form and enjoined a strictly moral life. His doctrines 
 attracted much attention, and in 1845 he received the 
 adhesion of the great Triad Society — the most powerful 
 of the secret organisations in Southern China — which 
 stands pledged to the expulsion of the Manchus and 
 the restoration of a native Chinese dynasty. 
 
 Strengthened by union with this society, the Tae- 
 pings became a power in the land, and fascinated by 
 the visions of the new demagogue, the conspira- 
 tors seized the city of Yungan, in which they hailed 
 their leader as the first Emperor of the new dynasty 
 of Tiieping, which signifies Grand Peace. The city 
 was occupied and held, despite all attempts made by 
 the Imperial soldiers to drive the rebels out, and in
 
 144 CHINA riV DEC A V. 
 
 April 1852 the insurgents sallied forth on their mission 
 — the regeneration of China. Wherever they went 
 they conquered. They fought their way through the 
 provinces of Kwangsi and Hunan, growing in numbers 
 on the way, until they entered the valley of the Yang- 
 tse, and captured the capitals of Hupeh and Anwei. 
 In 1853, they laid siege to Nanking, which they 
 occupied after massacring the garrison, and in the 
 following year they despatched a large force across 
 the river, with the object of effecting the capture of 
 Peking. In this attempt, the rebels were, however, 
 defeated, and had to return to Nanking, which re- 
 mained their stronghold. Despite the collapse of the 
 movement in the Northern provinces, the power of 
 the Taepings continued in the south until 1864, when 
 the Imperial forces — nicknamed the " ever- victorious 
 army," and led by General Gordon, w^ho had been lent 
 to the Government by the British — beat the insurgents 
 everywhere, and finally recaptured Nanking, and dis- 
 persed the rebels in July of that year.* 
 
 British interests had been materially affected by the 
 rebellion. Amoy had been the scene of much fighting. 
 Shanghai had been besieged, and the approaches to 
 Canton occupied. In the Southern provinces, how- 
 ever, the success of the rebels had not been lasting. 
 Their strength lay on the great river, which they 
 practically controlled as far as Ichang. During the 
 progress of the rebellion, the British observed a policy 
 of strict neutrality, and, beyond taking measures for 
 the protection of their settlements, took no part in the 
 
 * Refer Egmont Hakes' Events of the Tacpiug Rebellion.
 
 THE BRITISFI RECORD. 145 
 
 events which stirred the Empire. It was while the 
 Taepings were in possession of Nanking, Kiukiang. 
 Wuchang, and other cities on the banks of the Yang- 
 tse, that on the 21st February 1861 Admiral Hope left 
 Shanghai, on his progress up the river. 
 
 The first errand completed was the establishing of a 
 consulate at Chinkiang, at one time an extensive city, 
 but practically destroyed by the rebels, who held the 
 place for four years and only left it when there was 
 nothing to hold, and because it had ceased to be of use 
 to them.* It was with great difficulty that a building 
 was found to serve as a consulate ; the place eventually 
 chosen being a disused temple, " only fit for use as a 
 cowhouse," in charge of which after it had been cleaned, 
 Mr Phillips, the newly appointed consul, was placed 
 and the union jack hoisted on an improvised flagstaff. 
 At Nanking the expedition was accorded a friendly 
 reception by the rebel leaders. The city, which was 
 surrounded by walls no less than eighteen miles in 
 circumference, was found to be practically deserted, 
 the inhabitants who remained being mostly women. 
 The Taepings were described in the official report as 
 "looking like a pack of robbers who had just looted a 
 city."t These gentry were duly cautioned as to their 
 conduct, and their leaders were served with a proclama- 
 tion drawn up by the admiral, informing them that 
 the British had acquired the right of navigating the 
 Yane-tse, that they must not interfere with the merchant 
 vessels in the river, and that a man-of-war would be 
 
 * Journal of Sir Harry I'urkes. 
 
 t Blue Book on the Rebellion of 1S62.
 
 146 CHINA IN DEC A V. 
 
 Stationed off Nankin<^ to preserve order and protect 
 liritish interests. 
 
 There has been told by a gentleman who accom- 
 panied the expedition,* an amusing story, which serves 
 to illustrate Parkes' inimitable method of dealing with 
 the Celestial intelligence. Harry Parkes, who, during 
 a long life spent in China, rose from the position of 
 student interpreter to be minister at Peking, probably 
 knew the Chinese better than any Englishman before 
 or since his time. He was the first to appreciate the 
 necessity of firmness in dealing with the Celestial, 
 and he was invariably successful in the methods he 
 adopted. When Parkes, acting as interpreter at the 
 interview between the admiral and the rebel chiefs, 
 informed the Taepings that a man-of-war would be 
 stationed off Nanking, the self-styled " native prince " 
 replied that this could not be, as he had had a vision 
 which forbade his sanctioning such an arrangement, 
 Parkes immediately retorted : " Nonsense — won't do 
 at all — you must have another vision." The leader 
 having gauged his man, promptly obeyed his instruc- 
 tions and aofreed to the desired arranoement. 
 
 After leaving Nanking ; Wuhu, Kiukiang, and Han- 
 kow were visited, and the two last provided with 
 consuls to superintend the development of British 
 trade. During the delay necessitated by the making 
 of the requisite arrangements at Hankow, there arose 
 an alarm that the rebels were approaching, with the 
 intention of attacking the city. The inhabitants 
 immediately became panic-stricken, and, in response 
 
 * Mr Alexander Michie.
 
 T/IK BRITISH RECORD. 147 
 
 to the suggestion that there was no need for thght, 
 as the mandarin would surely protect the people, the 
 natives replied that the officials were not to be relied 
 upon, and that their lives were at the mercy of the 
 rebels if they chose to take them. The scenes wit- 
 nessed on this occasion, despite the fact that the 
 rumour proved to be false, served as a useful example 
 of the utter inefficiency of the mandarin, and the 
 dread in which the rebels were held by the people, 
 many of whom in their mad panic threw themselves 
 into the river and were drowned. 
 
 The opening of the Yang-tse to British trade was, 
 undoubtedly, next to the establishment of an embassy 
 at Peking, the most important step hitherto gained in 
 China. The results, commercial and political, which 
 have grown from the expedition of Admiral Hope in 
 1 86 1, are immense, and the value of the waterway as a 
 trade highway, great though it has already proved to 
 be, remains yet only partially developed — a rich inherit- 
 ance for generations of British merchants yet unborn. 
 
 The autumn of 1861 witnessed an interesting 
 ceremony at Canton, where a tract of land lying along 
 the river bank had been reclaimed and added to the 
 foreign concession. This land was sold by auction, 
 and fetched phenomenal prices, thus proving the 
 estimate of British rule which was held in China. 
 In October of the same year the allied troops, which 
 had invested Canton for so long, were withdrawn, and 
 the city was handed back to the custody of the Chinese. 
 The evacuation was completed on the 2 i st, three years 
 and ten days after the occupation.
 
 148 CHINA IN DEC A Y. 
 
 The ease with which the British had invariably 
 beaten the Chinese in the field, coupled with the better 
 understanding which had been brought about by the 
 signing of the treaty of Tientsin, served to teach the 
 Chinese that their methods of defence were unfitted 
 to cope with the forces of Western nations, and the 
 offer made in 1862 of the loan of a British officer to 
 command the Imperial troops and lead them against 
 the Taepings, was at once accepted. Shortly after 
 this, the Chinese availed themselves of the services 
 of Mr H. N. Lay, who had been appointed, under the 
 tenth article of the treaty of Tientsin, to arrange with 
 the Chinese a tariff of custom dues on goods imported 
 into China, and this gentleman was intrusted with the 
 purchase of a fleet of gunboats which was to serve as 
 the nucleus of a Chinese navy. In response to the 
 application of the Central Government, Captain Sherard 
 Osborn was placed at the disposal of the Chinese, by 
 whom he was appointed commodore of the fleet. The 
 vessels were duly purchased by Mr Lay in England, 
 and arrived at Tientsin, in charge of Captain Osborn, 
 in May 1863, But difficulties at once arose between 
 the Chinese and their naval chief. Captain Osborn, 
 supported by Mr Lay, announced his readiness to 
 obey implicitly the instructions of the Central Govern- 
 ment, but refused either to place himself at the orders 
 of the provincial mandarin or to consent to the sharing 
 of his authority with a Chinese official. The Chinese 
 objected to permit Captain Osborn to act single- 
 handed on behalf of the authorities, and insisted on his 
 being associated with a mandarin who had never seen
 
 THE BRITISH RECORD. 149 
 
 a gunboat ; and, in default of an arrangement being 
 arrived at, the fleet remained in the Pei Ho inactive, 
 while Gordon took command of the " ever-victorious 
 army," and showed the Chinese that he was capable 
 of suppressing the rebellion. Satisfied that the army 
 would succeed in doing the work to effect which the 
 gunboats had been purchased, the Chinese decided 
 that the vessels would not be needed. Captain 
 Osborn resigned his command, and the ships were 
 sent back to England and sold. 
 
 The prominence accorded foreigners in China about 
 this time orave great offence to certain classes of the 
 
 o o 
 
 people and their anger found vent in the rising of the 
 literati at Yangfchow on the 22nd August 1868, when 
 the Protestant mission-houses were destroyed, and the 
 missionaries only saved their lives by flight. This 
 outrage, for which compensation was obtained only 
 after considerable trouble, was the first of a series of 
 attacks on foreigners which culminated in the riots and 
 massacres of 1895. In every instance it was clearly 
 shown that the mischief arose not with the people but 
 with the mandarin or literati class, who, while not as a 
 rule taking an active part in the outrages, suggested 
 insults, and even incited the mob to harry the Christian 
 "barbarians" in their ir.idst. In June 1870 a series of 
 the most cold-blooded murders occurred at Tientsin, 
 where the Roman Catholic missions were attacked, and 
 twenty-two persons, the greater part of them ladies, to- 
 gether with the French Consul, were brutally massacred. 
 Amonof the numerous anti-foreign manifestations have 
 been the destruction of the chapels at Fatshan in 1S70,
 
 ISO 
 
 CHLVA IN DEC A V. 
 
 the attack on the Wushihshan mission in 1878, the 
 ChinkianL,^ riots in 1889, and the massacre of native 
 Christians at Jongtuytsin in 1890. In 1891 extensive 
 riotiniT occurred in the foreis^n settlement at Wuhu ; in 
 the same year the Ichang mission was destroyed. 
 The outbreak of the war between Japan and China 
 inflamed the anti-foreign feeHng throughout the Em- 
 pire, and the years '94 and '95 were marked by 
 quite a number of outrages, accompanied in several 
 instances by murder. The more notable of these 
 manifestations occurred at Chengtu, Whasang, and 
 Fatshan. The massacre at Whasang was one of the 
 most brutal which has taken place in China. There 
 were a considerable number of missionaries stationed 
 there, and it was known that the sect or secret society, 
 known as " vegetarians," were very anti-foreign in their 
 views, but it was not suspected that they would go 
 the length of openly attacking the settlement. 
 
 The party consisted of Mr and Mrs Stewart with 
 their five children and a young nurse named Helena 
 Yellop, the Misses H. E. and E. M. Saunders, and 
 the Misses Codrington, Annie Gordon, Elsie Marshall, 
 Hessie Newcombe, and Flora Stewart. A narrative 
 of the scene given by an eye-witness. Miss M. C. Hart- 
 ford, of the American Mission, will speak for itself : — 
 
 On I St August, at half-past seven o'clock in the morning, I heard 
 shouts and screams for the servants to get up, as the Vegetarians 
 were coming, and were tearing down the houses on the hill belong- 
 ing to the English Mission. Soon afterwards I met a man with a 
 trident spear. He yelled out, "Here is a foreign woman," and 
 pointed his spear at my chest. I twisted it to one side. It just 
 grazed my head and ear. He then threw me on the ground and
 
 THE BRITISH RECORD. 
 
 '5' 
 
 beat me with the wooden end of the spear. I afterwards jumped 
 down an embankment, and ran till I reached the hill, when I 
 stopped to recover my breath. The yells continued, and I saw 
 two houses being burned to the ground. 
 
 Subsequently all was quiet, and, supposing that the Vegetarians 
 had gone, I sent a servant to inquire what had happened. He 
 returned and told me to come home, stating that five ladies be- 
 
 .SCEM-: OK THE MASSACKK A I WIIASANG, 1 895. 
 
 longing to the English Mission had l)ecn killed and others wounded, 
 but that my house had not been troubled. I went home, and there 
 found Miss Codrington, much cut about the head, and beaten all 
 over ; Mildred Stew art, twelve years of age, with her knee cut, and 
 bleeding very much ; Herbert Stewart, six years of age, with his head 
 cut, and almost dead ; while the baby of the Stewart family had one 
 eye black and swollen, and the second Stewart girl, Kathleen, eleven 
 years of age, together with the second boy, Evan, three years of age, 
 had been beaten and stabbed with a spear, but not seriously injured.
 
 , 52 CHINA IN DEC A Y. 
 
 The Rev. II. S. Phillips, of the Engli.sh Mission, who lived in a 
 native house, some distance away, escaped injury, only arriving in 
 time to see the bodies of the dead, and hear the Vegetarians say, 
 "We have killed all the foreigners." At first we heard that some 
 of the foreigners had escaped and were in hiding, but Mr Stewart 
 did not come, and we began to fear the worst. Mr Phillips went to 
 the ruins of the burned houses, and there found eight bodies, five of 
 them unburned, and three so terribly scorched as to be unrecognis- 
 able. 
 
 Dr Gregory arrived after darkness had set in, and dressed the 
 wounds of the surviving patients. Coffins were made, and in these 
 the bodies of the dead were placed, while the bones of those who 
 had been burned were put into boxes. Subsequently, another burned 
 body was found, making nine in all. Topsy Saunders ran out of 
 the house, and was killed outside. Hessie Newcombe was thrown 
 down an embankment, her head having been almost severed from 
 her body, while Annie Gordon's head was also almost severed. When 
 the bodies had been coffined we left Whasang for Chiukow at four 
 o'clock in the afternoon on 2nd August. Herbert Stewart died three 
 hours later, just below Coiong. We carried the body in a chair, and 
 had a coffin made for it at Chiukow, which we reached at eight 
 o'clock on the following morning. 
 
 The party of survivors arrived at Fuhchow on Monday, 5th 
 August, and the burial of the murdered missionaries took place at 
 midnight. 
 
 The Intense anti-foreign prejudice which found ex- 
 pression in these outrages was largely due to the 
 attitude assumed by the mandarin, who did not scruple 
 to advertise their dislike of the Christian barbarians. 
 More than one official of the first-class strove to curry- 
 favour with the Tsungli Yamen by encouraging attacks 
 on the missionaries, and it was established beyond 
 question that the Tientsin massacre was suggested, if 
 not ordered, by Chung How, at that time super- 
 intendent of trade at the Northern ports. The feel-
 
 THE BRITISH RECORD. 153 
 
 ing thus aroused among the people found expression 
 not only in attacks on foreigners but in slights passed 
 upon mandarin who were suspected of sympathising 
 with them. Ma, the viceroy of Kiangsu, who had 
 •exhibited a tendency towards tolerance of the Chris- 
 tians with whom he came into contact, was on that 
 account barbarously murdered by the populace of 
 Nanking in August 1870. 
 
 The stimulus given to foreign intercourse by the 
 treaty of Tientsin had led to a very considerable 
 increase both in the number of British merchants and 
 in the extent of British trade in China, The gradual 
 opening up of the coast provinces and the exploita- 
 tion of the cities on the Yang-tse Kiang, caused the 
 traders to turn their eyes inland and seek for a means 
 of opening up commercial relations with the unexplored 
 and reputedly rich country far away from the recognised 
 trade routes ; and among the numerous suggestions 
 made was the opening up of over-land communica- 
 tion between India and the Celestial Empire. The 
 question of creating such a trade route was mooted in 
 the early sixties, and the proposal of the Indian 
 authorities had received cordial support from the 
 commercial community of Rangoon. It was known 
 that such a route had existed for centuries, and, in the 
 treaty of peace signed at Bhamo in 1769, there was a 
 stipulation that the " gold and silver road " between 
 China and Burma should be re-opened. The possi- 
 bility of using this " road " for purposes of trade had 
 been reported on by Colonel Burney, the resident in 
 Ava, as far back as 1830. In 1848, Baron des Granges
 
 154 CHINA m I) EC A V. 
 
 drew attention to the great commercial possibilities of 
 Bhamo, and, in 1862, General Fytche again dwelt 
 enthusiastically on the great importance of examining 
 the possible and probable results of re-opening the 
 Bhamo route. An attempt has been made by Colonel 
 Sladen to explore the back door into Yunnan in 1868, 
 without, however, leading to anything definite ; and, 
 in 1873, the Indian Government determined to 
 despatch another exploring party to make surveys 
 and report on the prospects of opening up the desired 
 highway. Instructions were sent to the British repre- 
 sentatives at Mandalay and at Peking in accordance 
 with the opinion expressed by Lord Northbrook, who 
 telegraphed to the India Office : " Agreement of 
 Chinese Government an essential preliminary." 
 
 After considerable delay the necessary authority 
 was obtained. The Kingr of Burma agreed to the 
 expedition meeting at Bhamo, and the Tsungli Yamen 
 consented to grant permission in accordance with 
 the right of travel conferred by the ninth article of 
 the treaty of Tientsin. These preliminaries beings 
 arranged, it was decided that, in order to assure the 
 success of the expedition, it would be well for some 
 person acquainted with the country to be traversed, 
 as well as with the people and the language, to 
 accompany the expedition. A communication to this 
 effect was sent to Mr, afterwards Sir Thomas, Wade, 
 at that time British minister at Peking, and his choice 
 fell on Mr Augustus Raymond Margary, an attache- 
 at the embassy, who had made himself master of the 
 Chinese language and who was greatly esteemed by
 
 THE BRITISH RECORD. 155 
 
 the minister. Mr Margary was accordingly instructed 
 to proceed to Shanghai, and thence, after ascending 
 the Yang-tse as far as Yochau, to take a route through 
 Hunan, Kweichau, and Yunnan to Bhamo, where he 
 would find awaiting his arrival the expedition under 
 the command of Colonel Horace Brown, whom he 
 would conduct into China by the same route he had 
 traversed on the outward journey. 
 
 Margary left Shanghai on the 23rd August 1874. 
 He reached Hankow five clays later, and set out 
 thence, on the 4th September, on what he himself 
 describes as his "six months' plunge into darkness."* 
 Passing unarmed and almost unattended through a 
 country never before explored by a European, Margary 
 visited a number of cities in which the population had 
 never even heard of the British nation. Provided 
 with passports from the Tsungli Yamen, he was well 
 received by the officials, and journeyed without inter- 
 ference. He reached the city of Yunnan on the 29th 
 November and Talifu a fortnight later, and entered 
 Bhamo on the 17th January 1875, to find Colonel 
 Brown and his expddition awaiting him. 
 
 After a rest of three weeks, the expedition started 
 on its long journey. The route chosen was that which 
 leads to Manwyne in Yunnan. Arrived at the Nam- 
 poung guardhouse, the last on the Burmese side 
 of the frontier, rumours of impending trouble were 
 heard, and it was deemed wise to delay further 
 advance until information of a reassuring character 
 was received. It was stated that the Kakyen tribe. 
 
 * Journixl of A. K. Maiynry from Shanghai to IJhamo and back to Manwyne.
 
 156 CHINA IN DECAY. 
 
 which inhabits the hills on the border-land, were 
 mustering in force, with the object of preventing the 
 passage of the expedition through their country, 
 and Colonel Brown decided to await developments. 
 Margary made light of the rumours, and maintained 
 that there was not the slicrhtest dangfer. He reminded 
 Colonel Brown and Dr Anderson, who accompanied 
 the expedition as official naturalist, that he had come 
 safely through the Kakyen Hills alone, and that he 
 was known to all the officials at the towns through 
 which their route lay. Finding that the officer in 
 charge of the expedition remained unconvinced, he 
 volunteered to go on ahead, ascertain the position 
 of affairs, and send back his report as soon as 
 possible. He accordingly started on his errand on 
 the 19th F'ebruary. with a Chinese secretary and a few 
 servants. 
 
 On the 20th, a letter was received from Margary, 
 dated from Seray, where he had been well received, 
 and whence he was about to start for Manwyne. 
 Encouraged by this report, the expedition started, and 
 arrived at Seray on the 21st, but, contrary to expecta- 
 tion, no further communication awaited them, and 
 on the following morning the camp was attacked by 
 armed natives, while news came in from the Burmese 
 agents at Manwyne that Margary had been brutally 
 murdered there on the previous day. The expedition 
 had to fight its way back to the frontier through large 
 numbers of hillmen, who attempted to persuade the 
 Burmese guard to desert their charge, in order that the 
 *' foreign devils" might be slain. Fortunately, the
 
 THE BRITISH RECORD. 157 
 
 escort proved loyal, and Colonel Brown and his com- 
 panions reached Bhamo in safety. 
 
 Such is the story of the murder of Augustus 
 Margary, — a story which reflects the more discredit 
 on the Chinese from the fact that the victim was 
 travelling under special permit from Peking, and that 
 the various officials along the route he travelled were 
 well acquainted both with his credentials and with the 
 object of his mission. Of this there is ample evidence 
 in the traveller's Journal already referred to. and it is 
 borne out by the facts brought to light by Sir Ruther- 
 ford Alcock, erstwhile minister at Peking, who knew 
 Margary well, and by the narrative of Dr Anderson.* 
 I have made use of all these in compiling my chronicle 
 of this tragedy, and I would especially recommend the 
 " Journal " to readers who appreciate the display of 
 persistent, though unconscious courage. 
 
 As soon as the news of Mr Margary 's fate reached 
 our minister at Peking, a demand for ample reparation 
 was made to the Tsungli Yamen. The demand was 
 received by that body in much their usual way. 
 Nothing was done but to talk and promise to act in 
 good time, and three months elapsed without even an 
 inquiry being ordered. At length, and entirely owing 
 to the untiring efforts of Mr Wade, an edict was issued 
 in June ordering Li Han Chang, the brother of Li 
 Hung Chang, to proceed to Yunnan and deal with the 
 matter. Li Han Chang, who at the time held the 
 post of governor of Hunan, did not leave his Yamen 
 
 * A Nanaiive of the two Expeditions to W^estern China of 1S63 and 1S75 under 
 Colonel Edward 15. Sladen and Colonel Horace Brown.
 
 158 CHINA IN DECAY. 
 
 at Hankow until August, while Mr Wade was busily 
 engaged making arrangements for the despatch of 
 Messrs Grosvenor, Davenport, Colborne, and Baker, 
 to act as British commissioners and inquire fully into 
 the story of the outrage. 
 
 The outcome of the inquiry was in full accord with 
 Chinese traditions. The officials stood by each other. 
 All agreed that the sole responsibility for the deed 
 rested with the Hill tribes. It was seriously proposed 
 that several of these should be seized and beheaded 
 or handed over to the British to be dealt with as they 
 pleased, but no other satisfaction could be obtained 
 beyond the nominal suspension of the resident magis- 
 trate at Manwyne, who remained notwithstanding in 
 full enjoyment of his office and power. Finally, the 
 British commissioners came to the conclusion that the 
 whole proceeding was a farce, and returned to Peking, 
 bearing- the offer of the lives of half-a-dozen criminals 
 who had been guilty of some offence against Chinese 
 law, and had been chosen by the mandarins as suitable 
 scapegoats. 
 
 On receiving the report of his commissioners, Sir 
 Thomas Wade refused to permit the taking of the 
 lives of men who were not in any way connected with 
 the crime it was sought to avenge, and the end of the 
 year arrived without anything having been effected. 
 
 Early in 1876 the minister returned to the charge, 
 and demanded the immediate settlement of the matter 
 in dispute, under penalty of the cessation of diplomatic 
 relations with this country. In order to prevent the 
 Tsuno-li Yamen re^ardino- this announcement as an 
 
 o 00
 
 THE BRITISH RECORD. 159 
 
 idle threat, Sir Thomas Wade quitted Peking, while 
 the China squadron, which had been previously com- 
 municated with, entered the Gulf of Pechili in silent 
 evidence of the fixed intention of the minister not to 
 be fooled any longer. 
 
 As has always happened when the Chinese have 
 mastered the fact that no refusal will be accepted, 
 the mandarin came to their senses with exceedinjjr 
 rapidity. Li Hung Chang was instructed to come to 
 an arrangement with the irate minister, and, on the 
 ambassador refusing to come to Tientsin in order to 
 conduct the necessary negotiations, Li Hung Chang 
 had perforce to do what no mandarin had ever done, 
 and seek the representative of Britain at his chosen 
 resting-place, which happened to be Chifu. 
 
 The Chifu Convention constitutes another charter 
 in the record of British rio-hts in China. It includes 
 compensation to the Margary family, the publication 
 of the right of foreigners provided with passports to 
 travel in China, and the placing of the responsibility 
 for their safety on the viceroys and governors of the 
 provinces in which they travel, the despatch of an 
 •embassy to London, the right of the British minister 
 at Peking to send his officers to any part of the 
 country to inquire into any crime alleged to have been 
 committed against a British subject, the opening of 
 Ichang, Wuhu, Wenchow, and Pakhoi as treaty ports, 
 and various minor concessions for the imjirovement 
 of trade relations between Great Britain and China. 
 The convention also authorises the despatch of a 
 British mission of exploration from Peking, through
 
 i6o CIUXA IN DECA V. 
 
 Kansu and the Koko Nor, or Sechuan, into Tibet, and 
 thence to India, or the reverse, as might be preferred. 
 The convention was signed by Sir Thomas Wade 
 and Li Hung Chang on the 13th September 1876, 
 more than eighteen months after the murder of 
 Margary. 
 
 The strained relations with Russia, caused by the 
 Kuldja incident in 1879, afforded the opportunity for 
 an exhibition of the influence which this country had 
 eained in China. When the two countries were on 
 the brink of war, Colonel Gordon, whose fame gained 
 during the Taeping rebellion had not been forgotten, 
 went from Bombay to Peking, and succeeded in 
 arranging matters satisfactorily between the Tsungli 
 Yamen and the Russian minister. While in Pekins:',. 
 Gordon also pleaded, at the suggestion of the 
 Queen, for the reprieve of Chung How, the erstwhile 
 ambassador to St Petersburg, who lay under sentence 
 of death for having concluded a treaty with Russia 
 which was deemed contrary to the interests of the 
 country. Gordon attained the reprieve of Chung 
 How. Nor was this the only occasion on which 
 Great Britain has played the part of peace-maker on 
 behalf of China. Just five years later, the war with 
 France was brouo-ht to a close througrh the orood offices 
 of Sir Robert Hart, the Inspector-General of Imperial 
 Maritime Customs. 
 
 An admirable instance of the methods employed by 
 the Tsunofli Yamen for the backing out of its enofao-e- 
 ments was afforded in 1884, when an application was 
 made, on behalf of a member of the Indian Civil
 
 THE BRITISH RECORD. i6t 
 
 Service, for the passports necessary to visit Tibet. 
 The right of entering Tibet had been formally con- 
 ceded to the British Government by the treaty of 
 Chifu, and the authorities at Peking stood pledged 
 to accord the necessary facilities. On receipt of the 
 application, the Tsungli Yamen urged a number of 
 excuses and pleaded that there was not the slightest 
 reason for their wishinor to withhold the facilities sousfht, 
 but that it would be impossible to guarantee the safety 
 of the British subjects who might venture into Tibet, 
 and for this reason it was deemed wiser not to issue 
 the desired passports. After considerable discussion, 
 the matter was allowed to drop, and to this day Tibet 
 remains closed to all the world except the Chinese, and 
 a few privileged Russian travellers. 
 
 On the 22nd March 1885, Great Britain suffered a 
 great loss by the death of Sir Harry Parkes, who 
 passed away at his post in Peking, respected alike by 
 the Europeans and the Chinese. Parkes had spent the 
 whole of his eventful life in China, and had attained a 
 knowledge of the people and the language which has 
 been rarely equalled among Englishmen. While not 
 perhaps so deeply versed in the Chinese classics as was 
 Dr Legge, or as familiar with Celestial etymology as 
 Dr S. W. Williams, Parkes acquired a familiarity with 
 the colloquial, and, what was of more consequence, an 
 understanding of the inner workings of the Chinese 
 character, such as have never been surpassed in the case 
 of any other European. It is not claiming too much 
 for the memory of this pioneer of British influence in 
 
 the Far East to state that, without Parkes's services, 
 
 L
 
 l62 CHINA IN DEC A V. 
 
 our most notable achievements in China would have 
 been impossible, and there can be little question but 
 that without his intellii^ent co-operation the treaties of 
 Nanking and Tientsin would never have been signed. 
 
 Sir Harry Parkes was succeeded at Peking by Sir 
 Robert Hart, who relinquished his post of Inspector- 
 General of Maritime Customs in order to take up 
 the duties of British minister. The new guardian of 
 British interests in China terminated his appointment, 
 however, at the end of three months, for reasons which 
 have never been made public ; but of these the chief is 
 supposed to have been a desire to counteract the effect 
 of Russian policy in regard to foreign trade. Sir Robert 
 returned to his former post, which he still holds, and he 
 was succeeded at Peking by Sir John Walsham. 
 
 In 1887 the Chinese again turned their attention to 
 the question of naval defence. The first arsenal in 
 China had been founded by Dr now Sir Halliday 
 Macartney as far back as 1863, and the model had been 
 imitated at more than one port ; but the Celestials 
 lacked ships, and, in 1886, they bought in England five 
 ironclads, which were destined to form the Northern 
 Squadron of the Chinese fleet. Application was made 
 to the British Admiralty for the services of an officer 
 to act as naval instructor, and Captain Lang was 
 engaged to accompany the squadron out from England, 
 just as Captain Osborn had been twenty-four years 
 before. And in the result the circumstances were 
 very similar. Captain Lang found himself severely 
 handicapped by the conceit and corruption of the 
 ijiandarin. He was placed under the orders of the
 
 THE BRITISH RECORD. 163 
 
 Chinese admiral, and was permitted to exercise a 
 limited control over the tuition of seamanship and 
 gunnery, but in matters of organisation and expenditure 
 he was not allowed to say a word. As soon as the 
 Chinese had obtained a faint idea of the rudiments 
 of navigation and gunnery, their arrogance prevented 
 their remaining under the tuition of a "barbarian" 
 instructor, and Captain Lang, like his predecessor, 
 quitted China after a brief and unsatisfactory tenure of 
 an impossible position. The record of the succeeding 
 years proved uneventful in respect to the interests 
 of Great Britain. The various risings directed 
 against foreign influence in China have already been 
 referred to, and the promulgation which followed of 
 edicts in support of the trader and the missionary 
 has been chronicled. The great floods which devas- 
 tated North China in 1892, succeeded by the Shensi 
 famine in the following year, did not assist in bringing 
 about better relations with the hated foreicfner, to whose 
 malign influence many natives credited the visitations 
 under which they suffered. 
 
 The great event of the years 1894 and 1895 was 
 the war between China and Japan, and, while the 
 rupture between the two countries did not directly 
 affect Great Britain, it undoubtedly helped very greatly 
 to bring about the situation which has attracted so much 
 attention during the past twelve months. 
 
 As was expected by all who knew the Chinese, the 
 unpreparedness of the country, the ignorance of its 
 leaders, and the corruptness of the mandarin, com- 
 bined to bring about a state of utter helplessness when
 
 i64 CHINA IN DEC A V. 
 
 they were attacked by so capable a nation as the 
 Japanese. The rout of the Celestials from first to last 
 was complete, and China lay helpless at the feet of 
 Japan.* 
 
 The conditions demanded as the price of peace were 
 onerous, but not unwarranted ; and the agreement 
 of China to the terms proposed was readily conceded, 
 
 * The events of the Chino-Japanese war did not directly affect any of the 
 European powers, and it is therefore not necessary that I should dwell at any length 
 on the story of the campaign. The trouble arose over the state of affairs in Korea, 
 a country in which the Japanese have always considered themselves interested. In 
 consequence of internal dissensions at Seoul in June 1894, the Japanese troops 
 entered the capital, and demanded various reforms. The Chinese immediately 
 despatched considerable bodies of men by sea to Korea, and these succeeded ia 
 beating the Japanese at Asan on the 29th July, while a Japanese man-of-war 
 encountered the Kowshing, a Chinese transport with 1500 troops on board ; the 
 latter was sunk, as was also, a few days later, the Chen Yuen, a Chinese ironclad. 
 War was formally declared the following day. Li Hung Chang was made 
 commander-in-chief of the Chinese forces. The Japanese worsted the Chinese and 
 drove them out of Ping Yang on the 17th August. On this the Japanese took up 
 the war in earnest. Vast sums were voluntarily subscribed by the nobles, and all 
 available forces were sent to Korea and China, where victory was achieved at every 
 move. The Chinese forces were surrounded and all but annihilated. A great 
 naval engagement was fought between the rival fleets at the mouth of the Yalu 
 River on the 19th September. The fleets were as nearly as possible equal, each 
 side having 12 batile-ships and several torpedo craft. In the result, four of the 
 Chinese ironclads were sunk, and all the rest disabled. The Japanese lost no 
 vessels, and the victory was complete and unquestioned. Encouraged by their 
 success, the Japanese despatched another army of 40,000 men, which was safely 
 landed in the Liao-tong peninsula, north of Port Arthur. Kinchou and Talien 
 Wan were speedily occupied. What remained of the Chine>e fleet was captured 
 while in the harbour of Port Arthur, which was subsequently taken. 
 
 On the 8ih January 1S95 a proclamation was issued at Seoul, renouncing the 
 suzerainty of China over Korea. On the 12th February, Wei hai Wei was 
 captured and occupied by the Japanese, while Admiral Ting, the Chinese 
 commander, and his staff, committed suicide rather than surrender. Newchang 
 was taken on 4th March. The Pescadores and Formosa were next attacked, but 
 at the urgent request of China, backed by the support of the Powers, an armistice 
 was agreed to on the 29th March. A treaty of Peace was subsequently signed at 
 S.iimonoseki on the 17th April.
 
 THE BRITISH RECORD. 165 
 
 the more so as Li Hung Chang, who conducted the 
 negotiations, had just before come to an understanding 
 with the Russian representative at Peking, by which 
 the intervention of the Czar, with the object of pre- 
 venting the permanent occupation of any part of China 
 by Japan, was promised. Knowing that, under this 
 arrangement, the most important clause in the treaty 
 negotiated at Shimonoseki would never be carried out, 
 Li Hung Chang signed a province away with alacrity. 
 The treaty was signed by Li Hung Chang, Li Ching 
 Tong, Count Ito, and Viscount Mutsu on the 17th April 
 1895, ^"d ratified on the loth May. The terms of the 
 treaty included the declaration of the independence of 
 Korea ; the cession of the Pescadores, Formosa, and the 
 Liao-tong peninsula to Japan ; the payment of an in- 
 demnity of 200,000,000 taels ; and the opening of 
 Shaszi, Chungking, Suchou, and Hangchau to 
 foreign trade. 
 
 Six days after the signing of the treaty a joint-note 
 was forwarded to Peking by the Russian, German, and 
 PVench Governments, protesting against the cession of 
 the Liao-tong peninsula ; and as Great Britain took no 
 part in the discussion which ensued, Japan announced, 
 on the 6th May, that she consented to abandon her 
 claim upon the mainland. 
 
 The sequel to this arrangement will be well within 
 the reader's recollection. But little more than two 
 years after standing up against the partition of China, 
 Russia, adopting as her excuse the seizure of Kiao- 
 chau by Germany, herself took possession of the very 
 territory which had been withheld from Japan, where-
 
 l66 CHINA IN DEC A V. 
 
 upon the British Government suddenly reversed the 
 policy they had all along adhered to, and took Wei 
 Hai Wei as an equivalent. 
 
 It is impossible to deny that this country came very 
 badly out of the diplomatic battle waged in China in 
 the early part of this year. While Russia, victorious 
 all along the line, had acquired everything she 
 desired, and dominated China at Peking ; and Ger- 
 many, conscious of her might and independence, had 
 taken what she demanded without a sua"a-estion of 
 asking leave, Great Britain, who had been the first to 
 open up the Empire seriously to foreign commerce, and 
 had by dint of her prestige dominated China for 50 
 years, stood for the first time in her history discredited 
 in the eyes of the Celestials by the triumphant tactics 
 of Russian emissaries and the haughty independence 
 of a German admiral. The truth is that, like all 
 oriental peoples, the Chinese can only be impressed by 
 the display of power. So long as we thrashed them 
 at intervals, they accorded us their respect. The 
 moment they learned that our methods were not proof 
 against the wiles of Russian diplomatists, or the in- 
 sistency of German exploiters, our prestige began to 
 dwindle away. 
 
 The lack of energy which has always characterised 
 our intercourse with the Chinese is responsible for the 
 inordinately slow progress which we have made in 
 their confidence, and for the ease with which our 
 representatives are worsted by rival diplomatists at 
 Peking. As we have never taken pains to appreciate 
 the Chinese character, it follows that we have never
 
 THE BRITISH RECORD. 1*^7 
 
 rightly understood how to deal with the Chinese people. 
 More than this, we have consistently refrained from 
 bringing the experience we have obtained in India to 
 bear upon our relations with the Celestials. Like all 
 oriental peoples, the Chinese are amenable only to 
 superior force. To reason with such as they Is but to 
 exhibit weakness. It Is the Inborn suspicion which Is 
 ever latent in the eastern mind, that has taught this 
 remarkable race to avoid all intercourse with foreign 
 nations, and to shut themselves up within their proper 
 territory. It was only after we had shown the 
 mandarin that we were a strong power and able 
 to enforce our will, that they climbed out of their 
 excluslveness and consented to have relations with us 
 at all. It was the subsequent discovery, that we did 
 not always exercise our strength, which encouraged the 
 Chinese to withdraw the pledges previously given. 
 Had we been consistent In our dealings with them, 
 had we shown them as we have shown the natives of 
 India, that behind a policy of moderation there was an 
 always-available force ready to be employed the very 
 moment that any evasion of an understanding was 
 attempted, the British record In China would have 
 been a very different one, and the results attained 
 infinitely greater and more valuable. 
 
 Nor are these Idiosyncrasies of recent development. 
 From the withdrawal of the East India Company 
 monopoly to the present day, British action in China 
 has been Injudicious and Inconsequent. The Govern- 
 ment has rarely had a definite policy In view, and 
 when a line of conduct has been determined on It has,
 
 168 CHINA IN DEC A V. 
 
 in nearly every instance, been abandoned ere suffi- 
 cient time has been allowed for it to produce any 
 tangible result. We have, it is true, had good men at 
 the front, but their action has been cramped and their 
 efforts counteracted by the eccentricities of the Govern- 
 ment at home. Thus, as we have, been recently 
 worsted by the Chinese, the Russians, and the French 
 in turn, so have we almost invariably been hoist by 
 our own petard in our efforts to dominate the Far East 
 without bringing either energy or ability to bear upon 
 our task. 
 
 The political relations between Great Britain and 
 China may be said to have commenced with the visit 
 of Lord Macartney to Peking in 1793. Thus, the 
 first mission sent to the Chinese capital by a Western 
 Power was, upon the whole, a success ; and we 
 showed our appreciation of the fact by sending a sub- 
 sequent mission to convey a number of costly gifts, as 
 a bribe for further favours, to the Emperor's chief 
 mandarin. Sung Taj in, thereby prejudicing the " Son 
 of Heaven " against us, and causing our best friend at 
 court to be deposed. The return of the bribes, accom- 
 panied by a sarcastic letter addressed to George III. 
 by Kiaking, is a matter of history.* It was in the 
 hope of undoing the mischief which arose from this 
 incident that Lord Amherst was despatched to China 
 in charge of a second embassy, in 1816. The Emperor, 
 on hearing of the arrival of the ambassador at Tientsin, 
 gave orders for him to be escorted to Peking with all 
 haste, and, on his arrival, sent a high official to bid 
 
 * See Boulger, History of China,
 
 THE BRITISH RECORD. 169 
 
 him come to an Immediate audience. Lord Amherst 
 appears to have thought more about his personal 
 dignity than of the importance of his mission, and 
 refused to act upon the appointment made, on the 
 plea that he was fatigued and required rest. A second 
 summons from Kiaking met with a similar rebuff, and 
 the Emperor, incensed at the repulse of his friendly 
 overtures, ordered that the "barbarian" and his escort 
 should be forthwith sent to the coast. Thus what 
 might have proved a valuable factor in the relations 
 between this country and China came to nought 
 through the self-sufficiency of an opiniated ambassa- 
 dor. The attitude assumed by Lord Napier towards 
 the viceroy of the two Kwan, on his appointment as 
 superintendent of British trade, would have been 
 amusing had it not been idiotic. Resenting the 
 reserve of the mandarin with whom he was brought 
 into contact, and ignoring the fact that he was without 
 the force necessary to carry out his threats, he de- 
 spatched a bombastic proclamation, which resulted in 
 a state of sieee beinof introduced into the British settle- 
 ment. Whereupon the official who had brought about 
 the trouble promptly retreated to Macao and left the 
 Chinese masters of the situation. His successor, 
 Captain Elliot, followed in his footsteps, and there can 
 be no question but that want of tact and ignorance of 
 the race with whom he had to deal were entirely re- 
 sponsible for the outbreak of the misnamed " Opium " 
 war. 
 
 After the British fleet, which was sent out on the 
 declaration of war in December 1839, had failed to
 
 170 CHINA IN DEC A V. 
 
 obtain a messenger who would carry a despatch to 
 Peking, it was decided that the only course was to sail 
 North and make for Tientsin. This was done, and 
 the Emperor Taoukwang came speedily to his senses. 
 Captain Elliot was received at the mouth of the Pei Ho 
 by an accredited mandarin, who persuaded him that 
 negotiations could be conducted far more satisfactorily 
 at Canton than at Peking. Accordingly, the British 
 agent surrendered all the advantage he had obtained, 
 and withdrew his fleet southwards, with results which 
 were most disastrous. And the simplicity exhibited 
 on this occasion was more than once repeated during 
 the operations on the Canton River. Nor are the 
 terms of the Nanking treaty, which ended the war, 
 suitable as between the rulers of two equal nations. 
 No able diplomatist representing a first-class power 
 would have consented to sign such a document. 
 
 The occupation of the treaty ports, opened under the 
 treaty of 1842, passed off satisfactorily, and, for awhile, 
 a good understanding subsisted. After a brief interval, 
 however, the natives were secretly encouraged to cause 
 trouble, in the hope of getting rid of the barbarian 
 invaders. The city of Fuchow set the example by 
 attacking foreigners who appeared in the streets. 
 Assaults became common. Consular attaches were 
 stoned, and the example set on the Min River was 
 speedily imitated at Canton, where the vice-consul 
 and two other Englishmen were set upon, pinioned, 
 robbed, and grievously maltreated. Shortly after this, 
 Commander Gifford was attacked at Whampoa, and 
 Governor Davis, finding ordinary measures useless,
 
 THE BRITISH RECORD. 171 
 
 determined to exact reparation for these insults. He 
 was promptly "snubbed " by Lord Aberdeen, the then 
 Foreign minister, and had to forego his intention, 
 with the result that a ireneral risincr agrainst the Enirlish 
 took place and caused much danger and loss. Six 
 Englishmen were murdered in Canton in 1848, and, 
 in the same year, three missionaries were mobbed 
 and badly injured at Shanghai. Consul Alcock, who 
 was at the time stationed on the Woosung River, find- 
 ing that without rigorous measures there was little 
 chance of the malefactors being punished, decided to 
 take the matter into his own hands. He forthwith 
 blockaded the port and refused to permit any grain 
 junks to leave their moorings until the guilty persons 
 were given over to justice. This move was immedi- 
 ately successful. Ten prisoners were brought to 
 Shanghai and duly recognised by their victims, and 
 they were severely punished. There can be no 
 question as to the common-sense of Mr Alcock's pro- 
 cedure. He not only gave the Chinese a salutary 
 lesson in manners, but did much to retrieve the reputa- 
 tion for weakness which had followed the vacillations 
 of Lord Amherst and Captain Elliot. No sooner, 
 however, were the events recorded reported to Mr 
 Bonham, the British plenipotentiary at Hong-kong, 
 than the consul was severely taken to task, and in- 
 formed that Her Majesty's Government had pcrcnij)- 
 torily forbidden the taking of offensive operations 
 without the previous sanction of the Colonial Secretary ! 
 And when, later on, Dr Bowring insisted on the 
 opening of Canton to British trade, he was himself
 
 172 CHINA IN DECAY. 
 
 " sententiously rebuked by that most sapient of 
 Foreign Secretaries," the Earl of Malmesbury, " whose 
 appointment to his responsible office was said to be 
 one of Mr Disraeli's practical jokes." * 
 
 It would be easy to quote further instances of 
 eccentricity on the part of the British Government, 
 but one more will suffice. In 1858, notwithstanding 
 the provisions of the treaty of Nanking, it was found 
 to be unsafe to go even a mile beyond the city walls of 
 Canton, Cases of robbery and assault were frequent, 
 and the matter was referred to Lord Elgin, the High 
 Commissioner entrusted with the settlement of dis- 
 putes between British and Chinese. That enlightened 
 diplomatist met the grievance brought before him by 
 decreeing that, as it was unsafe to go a mile beyond 
 the city, no British subject should go outside the walls, 
 and this in face of the country round about having 
 been declared open to the British by treaty. Well 
 might Sir Harry Parkes write : " Oh, for the time 
 when one may be able to bid adieu to official life, 
 and take to ofrowinor cabbages ! " 
 
 In the same year Lord Elgin succeeded in obtain- 
 ing the treaty of Tientsin. The concessions made 
 in this treaty were agreed to by the Chinese under 
 fear of the war being prolonged, and possibly waged 
 round the northern capital. There was not the 
 slightest intention of observing the conditions one 
 instant longer than could be helped. All that the 
 Emperor desired was to get rid of his unwelcome 
 visitors. Lord Elgin, with that extraordinary fatuous- 
 
 * Life of Sir Hany Parkes.
 
 THE BRITISH RECORD. 173 
 
 ness which has distino;uished most of our hig-h com- 
 missioners in China, blind to the real position and 
 unmindful of the ritrhts accorded him as the Queen's 
 representative by the second article of the treaty, did 
 not even demand an audience with Hienfung". Nor 
 did he leave his army at Tientsin to secure the 
 carrying out of the concessions. Accordingly, when 
 his brother Mr Frederick Bruce reached the Pei Ho 
 as minister, to exchange the ratifications of the treaty 
 at Peking, he found the river impassable and had to 
 retire amid the jibes of the people. In consequence 
 of Lord Elgin's stupidity the whole operation had to 
 be repeated. The high commissioner once more went 
 North, and, after much opposition and the loss of a 
 good many men, succeeded in reaching Peking, where 
 he established himself early in the autumn of i860. 
 Desiring to return to the coast before the river be- 
 came frozen, Lord Elgin having remained at the 
 capital a little over a week, left a second time with- 
 out having been received by the sovereign to whom 
 he had been accredited. 
 
 Another instance of the spasmodic policy of this 
 country in the P"ar East, is supplied by the record of 
 the various occupations of the three little islands 
 situated at the mouth of the Korean strait, and known 
 as Port Hamilton. These islands were occupied by 
 the British in 1840, and again in i860. In 1885 they 
 were once more held by our Navy, the British flag 
 being hoisted on the loth May. On the 27th 
 February 1887 it was hauled down and the place 
 finally evacuated.
 
 174 CHINA IN DECAY. 
 
 Is II surprising, in the face of such a record of com- 
 bined incapacity and pusillanimity, that the influence 
 of this country in the Far East has waned ? Up to 
 the point reached in the above survey the struggle 
 was a duel between the British and the Chinese. 
 During recent years the simplicity of the contest has 
 disappeared among the varied and conflicting interests 
 of a number of competing nations. It is no longer 
 a question of what England desires to obtain from 
 the Chinese. The problem to-day is, what Russia, 
 France, and Germany will permit China to accord ; 
 and the wily Celestial coquette, the very first to 
 realise this position, does not hesitate to benefit by 
 the number of her suitors, but plays one off against 
 the other with admirable cleverness and sang-froid. 
 And this very multiplicity of despoilers has proved 
 China's greatest strength, for each, jealous of the 
 others, resents any attempt, except his own, to dis- 
 member the Empire.
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 THE RUSSIAN RECORD. 
 
 The opening up of political relations between Russia 
 and China was due to the gradual absorption of 
 Siberia by the rulers of the former country. The arid 
 stretch of northern Asia was first explored by the 
 Novgorodian merchants in the middle of the i6th 
 century, and the subjection of the Tobol Tartars by 
 Yermack in 1580 paved the way for the subsequent 
 acquisition of the whole continent. Tobolsk was 
 founded in 1587, Tomsk in 1604, Yakutsk in 1637, 
 and Okhotsk in 163S. The first tidings of the dis- 
 covery of a great waterway in the south-west of the 
 new territory were brought by a traveller named 
 Poyarkoff, who had made his way from Yakutsk to the 
 sea in 1636, and the first survey was speedily followed 
 by others, which led to the formation of a settlement at 
 Albazin, despite the fact that this region was peopled 
 by Chinese Tartars,- who were under the rule of 
 Peking. The Trans-Amur districts formed a portion 
 of the Government of Heilungchiang, and the people 
 strongly resented the presence of the Muscovite in- 
 vaders. They accordingly rose, attacked the Russians, 
 and drove them out of Albazin. After a strife which
 
 178 CHINA IN DEC A V. 
 
 extended over nearly forty years the treaty of 
 Nerchinsk was signed in 16(89, under which the 
 Russians became bound to evacuate all the positions 
 they had taken up, and Albazin was razed to the 
 oTound. 
 
 Triumphant over the discomfiture of the foreigners, 
 the Chinese denied permission for the navigation of 
 the Amur River, and Russians caught on Chinese 
 territory were seized. The regulations respecting the 
 observance of the frontier were exceedingly stringent. 
 In 1694 four Russians were captured while hunting 
 sables. They were sent to Nerchinsk for trial and 
 punishment, and, in order to satisfy the Chinese, who 
 appeared to be about to recommence operations 
 against their neighbours, they were all beheaded 
 as a warning to others. Cases of this description 
 were frequent, though the trespassers were, as a rule, 
 dealt with by their captors, instead of being handed 
 over to the Russian authorities. In 1728, a further 
 treaty dealing with the frontier question was made, 
 and, satisfied with the assurances thus obtained, the 
 Chinese appear to have become less strict in their 
 surveillance over the boundary. 
 
 In the beginning of the present century, some 
 Russian officers drew attention to the desirability of 
 obtaining a concession of the right of navigating the 
 Amur. A request was accordingly made to the 
 Chinese in 1805, but it was promptly refused, and for 
 a number of years the matter was allowed to rest. In 
 1847 General Muravieff, who was at that time governor- 
 general of Eastern Siberia, decided that it was advis-
 
 THE RUSSIAN RECORD. 179 
 
 able to survey the river, in order to discover the 
 possibiHty of using it as a means of communication 
 with Kamtchatka ; and, without communicating with 
 the Chinese, he despatched an officer with a squadron 
 of Cossacks to explore the river. The officer inter- 
 preted his instructions in his own way, and, during the 
 three years w^hich he spent on the river, he founded 
 several settlements, and, in 185 1, encouraged by these, 
 the captain of a Russian warship sailed up the Amur 
 estuary and founded the towns of Nikolaievsk and 
 Mariinsk. The movement thus set afoot proceeded 
 apace. In 1853, Alexandrofsk and Konstantinovsk 
 were established on the seaboard, both well within the 
 limits of Chinese territory as defined by the treaty of 
 Nerchinsk. 
 
 In 1854 the action of the Russians in navigating the 
 Amur contrary to treaty was complained of by the 
 mandarin. JNIuravicff replied that it was a matter of 
 necessity to despatch stores to the Russian traders 
 who had effected a friendly settlement among the 
 Chinese, and that there was no other way of sending 
 them victuals. The mandarin answered that they could 
 not assent to this arrangement, and requested that the 
 Russian vessels should be withdrawn to Nerchinsk. 
 The Crimean war was being waged ynd the Black Sea 
 was blockaded. It was impossible for the Russians to 
 communicate with the Sea of Okhotsk, except by the 
 Amur route, and Muravieff was not the man to stick at 
 tritles. He accordingly fitted out an expedition, which 
 comprised a large flotilla of barges conveying 1000 
 Cossacks and many guns. This he accompanied down
 
 ,So CHINA IN DEC A Y. 
 
 river without bcln<;" interfered with by the Chinese. 
 In the following year three more expeditions were 
 despatched from Nerchinsk, comprising 3000 cossacks, 
 some hundreds of colonists, stores, and provisions. 
 Russian ports were established along the whole of the 
 nortli bank of the river. The Chinese protested but 
 were helpless. The Government at Peking could do 
 nothing, owing to the inroads of the Taeping rebels, 
 which necessitated the retention in South China of 
 all available troops. Realising the arrival of the 
 psychological moment, the Russians sent a formal 
 demand for the " rectification " of the frontier. 
 Powerless and paralysed by fear, the mandarin had 
 no choice but to agree, and, in 185S, the treaty 
 of Aigun was signed, ceding to Russia the whole 
 of the Chinese territory north of the Amur. A de- 
 cree was then issued at St Petersburo- announcinof the 
 acquisition of the new territories, under the title of the 
 Amur provinces, with an extent of nearly a million 
 square miles. 
 
 Having thus obtained possession of all the country 
 north of the great river, the Muscovite intruders cast 
 longing eyes towards that which lay on the south, and 
 when, in i860, Peking was in a state of panic, with the 
 French and English at its gates, and a large portion 
 of the Empire in the hands of the rebels, General 
 Ignatieff had Httle difficulty in obtaining, without any 
 return whatever, the cession of all the territory between 
 the Ussuri River and the sea, ranorinsr north and south 
 from the Amur to the Korean frontier. Having thus 
 acquired an addition to her Empire nearly half as big
 
 THE RUSSIAN RECORD. i8i 
 
 as her European dominions, Russia rested that she 
 might digest what she had gorged. Contrary to 
 expectation, no attempt was made to acquire inner 
 Manchuria or the Liao-tong peninsula, and for ten 
 years the relations between China and her nearest 
 neiofhbour were friendly. 
 
 While the Russian record on the Amur serves as 
 an admirable example of the methods always pursued 
 in her expansion, one cannot but admit that in this 
 particular instance the responsibility rests with China, 
 owing to the absurd policy of exclusion practised by the 
 Manchu rulers. The territories bordering on the Amur 
 River were sparsely populated and they were generally 
 neo'lected. Yet access was denied to all foreii^ners, and 
 the right of navigating the waterway, which alone 
 supplied a direct and convenient route between inner 
 Siberia and the sea, was withheld. Nor were these 
 absurd restrictions limited to foreisfners. The Chinese 
 themselves were not permitted to emigrate into 
 Manchuria, and the natives were prevented from 
 crossing the Sungari. The right of trading on the 
 Amur was moreover restricted to ten merchants, 
 who were licensed for that purpose at Peking.* It is, 
 in view of these facts, unreasonable to blame Russia 
 for having acted as any other nation would have been 
 impelled to do under similar circumstances. 
 
 While the events chronicled above were in progress, 
 the interests of Russia in another direction were beingf 
 equally advanced. During some of the frontier disputes 
 which continued for so long between the two nations 
 
 * Ravenstein, The Russians on the Amur,
 
 ,S2 CHINA IN DEC A Y. 
 
 the Chinese had taken prisoners a number of Russians, 
 and tliese liad been conveyed to Pekin[r, where they 
 were settled in a specially allotted quarter of the city. 
 The prisoners appear, upon the whole, to have been 
 well treated, and to have been accorded a considerable 
 amount of liberty. After the signing of the treaty of 
 Nerchinsk in 1689, the Russians determined to make a 
 fresh attempt to open up satisfactory diplomatic relations 
 with the Chinese, and one Everhard Ysbrand Ides, 
 as has already been stated in the chapter dealing with 
 foreign relations, went on an embassy to Peking in 1692. 
 Ides succeeded in obtaining several privileges for his 
 country, among them the permission to send a priest 
 to Peking to minister to the Russians who had become 
 settled in the Chinese capital. The priest duly arrived 
 in 1698, and, in 1727, he was reinforced by several 
 others, deputed to educate the children of the erst- 
 while cossacks, and to study the Chinese language. 
 A church and mission were founded and consecrated in 
 1732, and the Russian colony prospered exceedingly, 
 being allowed to enjoy free intercourse with the natives. 
 By these means not only were the Russians able to 
 study both the language and the people of China, but 
 they succeeded in living dowm the marked prejudice 
 which was formerly entertained by the natives towards 
 all foreigners, and there can be no question but that 
 the diplomatic successes which followed were largely 
 due to the good influence exerted by these settlers. 
 
 The most direct route between the cities of Russia 
 and Siberia, and Peking is that supplied by the 
 caravan track across the great Desert of Gobi, via
 
 THE RUSSIAN RECORD. 183 
 
 Kiakhta, Urga, and Kalgan. This commercial high- 
 way has been traversed by traders for centuries, and 
 its use by Russian merchants, while not being officially 
 recognised, had not been prohibited. The first 
 authorisation of the Kiakhta route occurs in the 
 treaty concluded between Russia and China at Tien- 
 tsin, shortly after that concluded at Aigun, in 1858. 
 By this the equality of both Governments is recog- 
 nised, the right to maintain an embassy at St Peters- 
 burg conceded, a number of treaty ports are opened, 
 and the privilege is granted of sending a Russian consul 
 to reside at each. Authority is given for the renewal 
 of the clerical mission at Peking whenever necessary, 
 and its members are expressly authorised to proceed 
 between Russia and Peking " either by land or sea." 
 In addition to these enactments, a postal service is de- 
 creed between Peking and Kiakhta every fortnight, — 
 the journey to be performed in fifteen days. Consider- 
 able as are the concessions made by this treaty to 
 Russian interests in China, they are further augmented 
 by a second treaty executed at Peking in i860, which 
 forms the Maofna Charta of the Russians in China. 
 
 The main provisions of the treaty of Peking are — 
 the cession to Russia of Lakes Balkash and Issik Kul 
 in Turkestan ; the appointment of a commission for the 
 rectification of the frontier on the Ussuri River ; the 
 establishment of free trade on all common frontiers ; 
 the concession of the right to trade between Kiakhta 
 and Peking, and to appoint a Russian consul at 
 Urga, and of liberty for all Russian merchants, 
 provided with passports, to travel throughout China,
 
 1 84 CHINA IN DEC A V, 
 
 provided they do not congregate in numbers greater 
 than 200. Finally, commercial dealings are granted 
 total immunity from restrictions of every kind. 
 It will thus be seen that the Russian treaty of 
 Peking is a very import;uit document, according, as 
 it does, far more extensive rights to the subjects of 
 the Czar than have been granted to the subjects 
 of any other ruler. 
 
 In 1863, a rebellion broke out among the Mahom- 
 medans of Jungaria, who avowed their intention 
 of freeing themselves from the Chinese rule. The 
 struggle was a lengthy and a sanguinary one, and 
 continued over a series of years, fortune sometimes 
 giving an advantage to the rebels and sometimes to 
 the Tartar generals charged with the suppression of 
 the revolt. Jungaria is situated on the border-land 
 between Chinese and Russian Turkestan, and the 
 contest was watched with considerable interest by 
 the Russians in the district of Semirechensk, where 
 there was a strong body of cossacks engaged in 
 opening negotiations with Yakoob Khan, who had 
 succeeded in creating a short-lived independent state 
 in Central Asia. In 1870 the Chinese were com- 
 pletely worsted by the Tarantchis, who, having dis- 
 posed of their erstwhile enemy, set to work fighting 
 among themselves, and, after the district had continued 
 in a state of relative anarchy for nearly eight years, a 
 Russian force marched into Kuldja, and occupied the 
 valley of the Hi. This action on the part of Russia 
 was formally notified to Peking, the explanation given 
 being that the step had become necessary in order to
 
 THE RUSSIAN RECORD. 185 
 
 restore that order which the Chinese appeared incap- 
 able of preserving, and which was threatening to 
 disturb the tribes within Russian territory. 
 
 The Chinese had no option but to assent to the 
 occupation, which it was announced would only be of a 
 temporary nature, because owing to the great distance 
 between Hi and Peking, and the waste of the Desert 
 of Gobi which lay between, communication was difficult, 
 and the despatch of a force capable of dealing with the 
 trouble was practically impossible. The authorities 
 at Peking did not, however, remain idle. They de- 
 spatched relays of military to support the general Tso 
 Tung Tang, who commanded the operations in Jungaria, 
 and that officer proved himself a capable leader in 
 the war he washed arainst the rebels. His efforts 
 were greatly aided by the sudden death of Yakoob 
 Beg which occurred early in 1877, anci the split of his 
 people into two parties which followed immediately 
 afterwards. By slow degrees the lost territory was 
 reclaimed. Yarkand was recaptured in December. 
 The fall of Kashgar followed, and by the end of the 
 year the rebel forces had been finally dispersed. 
 
 Peace being restored, the Chinese sought the 
 restoration of Hi, which was still occupied by the 
 Russians. In order to achieve this, the mandarin 
 Chung How, who had previously been on a special 
 mission to Europe, was despatched to St Petersburg 
 to negotiate with regard to the control of Kuldja 
 and the surrounding territory. Chung How arrived 
 in St Petersburg in 1879, and, after remaining in 
 Russia for some months, he had with the Czar at his
 
 1 86 CHINA IN DEC A V. 
 
 southern palace a series of interviews which resulted 
 in his signing- the treaty of Livadia. By this Russia 
 surrendered the Kuldja Valley, but retained the 
 neighbouring Teke territory, thus continuing to com- 
 mand the approaches to Kashgar. Chung How stood 
 out, however, on the question of a big Indemnity, which 
 was demanded to repay the expense of the occupation, 
 and succeeded in getting the sum reduced to 5,000,000 
 roubles. 
 
 On reaching Peking, and seeking to obtain a 
 ratification of the treaty he had agreed to, Chung 
 How was arrested and cast into prison under sentence 
 of death, while China repudiated the treaty and 
 began to prepare for war. In the hope of arranging 
 matters, the Marquis Tseng was ordered to St Peters- 
 burg, and General Gordon, whose influence with the 
 Chinese had been very great ever since he had quelled 
 the Taeping rising, went to Peking to exert his 
 powers of reasoning with the mandarin in the cause 
 of peace. The result of these measures was satis- 
 factory. Chung How^ was reprieved, and fresh negoti- 
 ations were opened up between the two countries. 
 
 After a lengthy series of palavers, the Marquis 
 Tseng succeeded in negotiating the treaty of St 
 Petersburg, under which Russia consented to give 
 back practically all the territory in dispute. The 
 indemnity to be paid was, however, considerably in- 
 creased, and a clause was inserted according to Russia 
 the rioht of naviofation on the rivers of Manchuria. 
 The treaty was signed in iSSi, and the Russian 
 forces were withdrawn from Hi the same year
 
 THE RUSSIAN RECORD. 187 
 
 From 1 88 1 until 1895 Russia confined her opera- 
 tions in Chinese territory to the obtaining- of informa- 
 tion by means of surveys, and to cultivating- the man- 
 darin as opportunity arose. There can be little doubt 
 but that, even at the time of the Kuldja difficulty, 
 Russia had begun to formulate schemes for the future 
 spoliation of the Empire, schemes which even to-day 
 are not realised by other nations, and which, some day, 
 will probably startle the world as they are gradually 
 disclosed. During this interval of fourteen years a 
 large number of Russian emissaries have penetrated to 
 the innermost recesses of Chinese territory. They have 
 crossed the eighteen provinces in every direction, have 
 surveyed the country geologically and geographically, 
 have drawn up schemes for railways, explored the 
 almost unknown territories of the Koko Nor, visited 
 every corner of Korea, and even penetrated into the 
 fastnesses of Tibet. The result of this activity is an 
 intimate acquaintance with the land and the people 
 such as is possessed by no other nation, and a number 
 of plans of campaign are all cut and dried, ready to be 
 acted on whenever the time arrives. 
 
 And so Russia remained silent, occupied in the matur- 
 ing of her schemes and only awaiting the opportunity 
 of putting them into force. In 1S95 she was tempted 
 to make her voice heard, though not ostensibly on 
 her own behalf. The occasion was the conclusion 
 of the Chino- Japanese war and the signing of the 
 treaty of Shimonoseki, which marked the termination 
 of hostilities. The second clause in this treaty accords 
 the cession to Japan of the Liao-tong peninsula, with
 
 i88 CHINA IN DEC A V. 
 
 certain neighbouring territory, in perpetuity, but this 
 change of ownership was vetoed by Russia who 
 declared that she would not tolerate the partition of 
 China, or the holding of territory on the Continent of 
 Asia by Japan. In this last view, Russia was sup- 
 ported by Trance and Germany, and the Japanese, 
 quickwitted enough to appreciate the situation, and 
 not feeling sufficiently strong at that time to enforce 
 the carrying out of the treaty by a declaration of war 
 against three first-class powers, consented to forego 
 this portion of her gains. Recent happenings have 
 shed a new light upon the disinterestedness of Russia's 
 zeal for China, and to-day the Czar, besides holding 
 the province which, by the rights of war, belongs to 
 Japan, has earmarked the whole of the continent 
 between that province and Russian soil. 
 
 The acquisition of the Liao-tong peninsula by Russia 
 in the early part of the present year will be within 'the 
 recollection of all my readers. I propose, therefore, 
 merely to summarise briefly the events which culmi- 
 nated in so large an addition to the Russian Empire 
 and to Russian influence in North China. 
 
 A complete understanding of the recent developments 
 in North China is only to be obtained by going back 
 a couple of years. The record commences in May 
 1896, when Li Hung Chung, the veteran first man- 
 darin of the Chinese Empire, was despatched to 
 Moscow to be present as the special envoy of the 
 Son of Heaven at the coronation of the Czar. Before 
 leaving China the Viceroy Li had several interviews 
 with Count Cassini, the Russian minister at Peking,
 
 THE RUSSIAN RECORD. 189 
 
 and there is not the sh^htest question but that the 
 Count, duly instructed by Prince Lobanow, who was 
 at the time the minister responsible for the foreign 
 policy of Russia, made certain proposals to the man- 
 darin, which took the form of a series of bargains con- 
 cerning three interested parties, these being : the Czar, 
 the Emperor of China, and Li Hung Chung, After a 
 number of interviews an understanding was arrived 
 at and duly set out in the form of a convention, which 
 was signed by both parties on the understanding that 
 it should be kept absolutely secret. Neither the 
 clauses nor the exact terms of this convention have 
 been made public, but it is well known that in general 
 effect it provided for the support of Russia against 
 Japanese aggression, in return for the according of 
 certain facilities by China for the extension of Russian 
 interests and the construction of railways in Manchuria. 
 There is little reason to doubt that Li Huncr Chuni>- 
 did profit to a considerable extent by this negotiation, 
 but the arrancrement made between him and Count 
 Cassini remained, like the rest of the transaction, un- 
 published. Thus, it came about that the Chinese 
 envoy left for Russia with a secret treaty in his pocket, 
 wliich had been already agreed to by himself and the 
 representative of the Russian Government. It has 
 been asserted that the clauses of this secret treaty had 
 been discussed between the mandarin and the Russian 
 minister more than a year before, and that it was with 
 the full knowledi^e that the cession of the Liao-tonof 
 peninsula would not be permitted by Russia, that the 
 viceroy of Chili assented to the demand made by
 
 I90 CHINA IN DEC A V. 
 
 Japan. Be this as it may, the treaty was duly 
 executed and deposited in the archives of the Russian 
 Foreia:n Office. 
 
 For nearly two years this secret agreement remained 
 unknown and unsuspected. The announcement of the 
 contract arrived at with Russia for the construction of 
 the Manchurian Railway attracted some attention to 
 the relations existing between the two countries, and 
 at the close of 1896 there arose a whisper of an 
 understanding between the neighbouring empires. 
 But nothing definite leaked out, and it was not until 
 the close of last year that the facts became known. 
 
 In November 1897, it became known that two 
 German missionaries had been killed in the province 
 of Shantung, and on the 14th November a German 
 squadron took possession of Kiaochau and landed 
 troops, who at once occupied the town. After a brief 
 negotiation the place was leased to Germany, and 
 steps were at once taken to fortify the harbour and 
 turn the place into a German colony. 
 
 The occupation of Kiaochau afforded Russian diplo- 
 matists the excuse they sought. On the pretence that 
 the acquisition of a naval base by Germany in North 
 China would upset the political status quo, and affect 
 adversely Russian interests, she occupied Port Arthur 
 on the 1 8th December, and a month later demanded 
 compensation for the concession accorded to Germany. 
 The diplomatic struggle which followed this action of 
 Russia's affects the whole aspect of the Far Eastern 
 Question, and I hope to deal with it in a later chapter. 
 The outcome of the position taken up by Russia, was
 
 THE RUSSIAN RECORD. 191 
 
 the cession, under a nominal lease, of the Liao-tong 
 peninsula, and the extension of the railway concession 
 already granted for the construction of railways in 
 Manchuria. Port Arthur was finally handed over to 
 Russia on the 25th of March 1898, and the results of 
 this transaction have yet to be appreciated. 
 
 Whatever may be urged against Russian diplomacy 
 In regard to its unscrupulousness, it would be unjust 
 to belittle either its thoroughness or its foresight. 
 Within twelve hours of the hoisting of the Russian 
 standard on the heights of Port Arthur, the town was 
 invested by some twenty thousand troops, and the 
 Chinese officials were given a decidedly broad hint to 
 make themselves scarce without delay. It was only 
 after this well-conceived coup had been accomplished 
 that formal notification was made to foreign Powers ; 
 and while the British Government was struck with 
 amazement at the unexpected development, the more 
 able advisers of the Czar were busy putting into execu- 
 tion the carefully-thought-out plans which had been 
 matured fifteen months before, when it was decided to 
 alter the then existing plan of the Trans-Siberian 
 Railway. 
 
 The steps taken by Russia on the 23rd of March 
 last were outwardly unimportant. Actually, they 
 amounted to the informal annexation of Manchuria. 
 While any statement to this effect would probably be 
 met by the diplomatists of St Petersburg with a suave 
 denial, the fact remains that Manchuria is not only to 
 all intents and purposes a Russian province, but is 
 already invested by Russian troops, pending the arrival
 
 192 CHINA IN DEC A Y. 
 
 of llic lime when it shall be opened up and developed 
 by Russian capital. The policy of Russia has always 
 been one of passive insistence, and her most recent 
 triumph is no exception to the rule. The acquisition 
 of Kiaochau by the Germans, the urging of claims by 
 France, the imagined humility of Great Britain, and, 
 most important of all, the threatened collapse at 
 Peking, all helped to bring along the psychological 
 moment ; and, her position having been strengthened 
 by many months of careful preparation, Russia seized 
 her opportunity and announced that she had leased 
 Port Arthur and Talienwan. The true significance 
 of this announcement will be better appreciated after a 
 glance at the accompanying map. 
 
 * It will be seen that the Liao-tong peninsula forms 
 the thin. end of the wedo;e of Manchuria. It will be 
 noted that, with the exception of the port of Yingtze, 
 servinGf Newchansf at the head of the o-ulf, Port Arthur 
 is the one important seaport, and that the country is 
 bounded by Russia on two sides, while it is bordered 
 by the Mongolian steppe and Korea on the others. 
 Ever since the annexation of Eastern Manchuria in 
 1S54, Manchuria itself has been at the mercy of Russia. 
 Her erstwhile seaboard on the Pacific has become the 
 Prim Orsk Province, from which she is overawed by 
 Vladivostock and Nova Kylosk. On the north-west, 
 where the Ussuri meets the Amur, she is held in 
 check by the garrison of Khabaroffka, capital and 
 seat of government of the maritime territory, and 
 commanding the waterways by which the greater por- 
 tion of the country is approachable. On the north,
 
 THE RUSSIAN RECORD. 193 
 
 separated from the Helung province only by the width 
 of the Amur, is Blagovieschensk, the capital of a 
 Russian Province, while on the north-west, but a 
 hundred miles or so from the lake of Dalai Nor, lies 
 Nerchinsk, with its famous silver mines, and its more 
 notorious penal settlement. Had the whole disposition 
 of country been planned by Russian intelligence, it 
 could not have been better fitted for the work which 
 has so recently been begun. 
 
 But the Muscovite is not accustomed to rest satisfied 
 with a diplomatic success. The acquisition of a terri- 
 tory more than three times as big as Great Britain is 
 not by itself satisfying to his ambition. He seeks to 
 benefit commercially as well as politically by his invest- 
 ments, and above all aims at securing that which he has 
 grasped. And so there has been produced an agree- 
 ment made in 1896, which proves to be a concession 
 for the construction of a railway across Manchuria, and 
 since the railway authorised in this document is specifi- 
 cally described as being between the Russo-Chinese 
 frontier and Nicolsk near Vladivostock, a clause is 
 added to the treaty under which the Liao-tong ports 
 are leased, authorising a further railway from a point 
 on the Trans-Manchurian line near Petuna to Talien- 
 wan and Port Arthur. 
 
 These railways are notable for several things, but 
 most of all for the extraordinary clauses to be found in 
 the agreement which has been drawn up between the 
 Russian and Chinese authorities for their construc- 
 tion. The agreement in question is made nominally be- 
 tween the Chinese Government and the Russo-Chinese 
 
 N
 
 194 CHINA IN DEC A Y. 
 
 P);ink. By it the various lines shown on the accom- 
 pany in;^ map are authorised between the Russian 
 frontier near the Dalai Nor, and Nicolsk, by way of 
 Tsitsihar, Hulan, and Ninguta, with a southern branch 
 from Tsitsihar, via Petuna, Kirin, and Moukden, 
 to Talienwan and Port Arthur, with a further 
 branch from Moukden through Chin Chow and Peita- 
 ho to Shan Hai Kuan, whence the railway is already 
 working- to Tientsin and Peking. A little study of 
 the map will serve to show the extreme ability with 
 which these lines have been designed. A study 
 of a physical map of the country will show that, 
 except in the immediate neighbourhood of Kirin 
 and Moukden, the levels will be fairly easy and the 
 engineering work comparatively light. The work is 
 to be put in hand forthwith. The steel rails are 
 ordered from America, the labour, mostly supplied 
 from the convict prisons at Nerchinsk, is to be paid 
 for by the grant of a tithe of the gross earnings accord- 
 ing to the market rate, and the supervision afforded 
 by Russian soldiers, who are already on the way to 
 take their part in the ruling of the new Russian 
 province. 
 
 The chief clauses in the railway agreement which 
 call for remark are those relating to the questions of 
 authority and finance. The work is nominally to be 
 performed, and the line managed, by a company known 
 as the Eastern Chinese Railway Company, which will 
 have a share capital of 5,000,000 roubles and a bond 
 capital of an unknown amount — the "amount, and time, 
 and condition of issuinof" these bonds beins: in the
 
 THE RUSSIAN RECORD. 195 
 
 hands of the Russian Government. The concession 
 to the company is for eighty years, after which the Hne 
 shall become the property of the Chinese Government, 
 — presuming, that is, that there is a Chinese Govern- 
 ment in eighty years' time. Shares in this exclusive 
 company can only be held by Russian or Chinese 
 subjects. Among the obligations undertaken by the 
 railway concessionnaires, are those for maintenance, the 
 despatch of trains, the attainment of a speed not less 
 than that run on the Trans-Siberian line, the establish- 
 ment of telegraphic communication along the entire 
 line, the fixing of tariffs only with the approval of the 
 Russian Government, and the conveyance of parcels 
 and letter posts. The Chinese authorities on their 
 side agree that all passengers' luggage conveyed into 
 Manchuria from China shall be exempt from customs 
 or import duties, that the rates charged for fares or for 
 goods shall be free from Chinese taxation, that all 
 goods imported into China by rail, or exported from 
 China to Russia, shall pay one-third less import or 
 export duty than that charged on foreign goods passing 
 through a seaport, and finally that goods destined to 
 pass into the interior of the country shall be accorded 
 a specially favourable tariff as compared with that 
 regulating the transit dues of other countries. It may 
 be doubted whether a more ingenious agreement, or 
 one securincr orreater advantaoes at the cost of other 
 countries, has ever been drawn up. Its direct effect 
 will be the closino^ of Manchuria to British trade, while 
 the moral effect of Enoland beinix refused the most- 
 favoured-nation treatment obtained by Russia will
 
 196 CHINA IN DEC A V. 
 
 iiiKlucstionably tend to damage permanently our 
 already threatened prestige in the East. 
 
 With such a policy persistently carried out, it will be 
 small wonder if Russian influence becomes paramount 
 in China. Of the result of her policy in Manchuria 
 there can be no question. The country is undeveloped, 
 but it is rich and fertile, possessing vast stores of coal 
 and iron, copper and gold, while the mountain sides 
 and the uplands of Kirin are richly furnished with 
 timber, including oak, elm, and walnut. The niineral 
 wealth of the country is, however, practically unworked, 
 while owing to the absence of proper roads or means 
 of transport the timber trade is neglected. The popu- 
 lation of the neglected country, amounting to some 
 twenty-three millions, may be roughly divided into 
 two broad classes, the agriculturists and the brigands. 
 The latter have always preyed upon the former, and 
 it is by no means an unusual sight to come upon 
 a farmer tillinfj his land with a loaded Q-un slunof 
 at his back. The three provinces of Manchuria are 
 populated in inverse ratio to their extent. Liao-tong, 
 the southern province, contains 50,000 square miles, 
 with a population of 12,000,000; Helung Kiang, the 
 northern province, boasts of 140,000 square miles, but 
 only 2,000,000 inhabitants ; while Kirin, midway 
 between the two, is populated proportionately to its 
 size, having an area of 90,000 square miles and 
 8,000,000 people. 
 
 But the existinor order is doomed and a new regime 
 prepared. The people will be trained and drilled until 
 they are fit to fight for their Russian masters. The
 
 THE RUSSIAN RECORD. \C)-j 
 
 country will be settled by emigration from the crowded 
 territories of Southern Russia. Brigandage will be 
 put down with a strong hand, the better-class popu- 
 lation will be educated, and gradually " Russian- 
 ised " by precept, example, and intermarriage, until 
 Manchuria will have followed Tashkent, Samarkand, 
 and Beruk, and become an integral part of the Musco- 
 vite Empire. 
 
 The activity of Russia in China has, during the past 
 eight months, been directed to the completion of the 
 achievements recorded at the beginning of the year, 
 while some considerable attention has been directed to 
 the counteracting of British influence in China. While 
 huge shipments of men and stores have followed one 
 another at short intervals from the Black Sea ports to 
 Port Arthur and Talienwan, the concession for the 
 Lu-han Railway, to be described,* has been practically 
 taken over by the Russo-Chinese Bank, and a strong 
 protest has been made against the holding by a British 
 syndicate of the concession for the continuation of 
 the Northern Railway to Newchang. These matters 
 will be discussed later on. The present chapter is in- 
 tended only to place on record the gradual growth of 
 Russian influence, and the steady extension of Russian 
 territory in China, and the record is now complete. 
 
 It only remains to glance at the new Russian strong- 
 hold, and to enquire whether Port Arthur is capable 
 of being made as impregnable a base as is generally 
 supposed. Geographically, the harbour is most favour- 
 ably situated. Its position is well adapted for the de- 
 
 * See page 305.
 
 198 CHINA IN DEC A Y. 
 
 fence of tlic Gulf of Pcchili, the entrance is easy to 
 guard, and the harbour is protected from the weather. 
 There are, however, corresponding drawbacks which 
 detract somewhat from its strength. The area of 
 deep water is small and lies close to the entrance, 
 necessitating the mooring of big vessels in full view, 
 and within range from the sea outside. The entrance 
 to the bay is extremely narrow, averaging only 40 yards 
 in width, and the entrance or departure of a fleet 
 must always be attended with clanger. This risk 
 materially detracts from the value of the port as a 
 harbour of refuge, and renders it a simple matter for 
 an opposing fleet to render the passage of the entrance 
 practically impossible. In addition to this difficulty, 
 the entrance to the bay is ice-bound two months out 
 of the twelve. It has been pointed out by Lieutenant- 
 Colonel Rheinhold Wagner* that, owing to the forma- 
 tion of the coast line on the land side of Port Arthur, it 
 would be a most difficult matter to maintain communica- 
 tion with the rear. The isthmus is extremely narrow, 
 in one part only 18 miles, and an enemy landing here 
 could easily command the situation by cutting off all 
 communications, while coal must be brought by sea. 
 Regarded from a purely strategical standpoint, Port 
 Arthur has been very greatly over-estimated. Its 
 military strength, owing to the heights by which it is 
 commanded, is considerable, but its capacity, a§ a naval 
 base, is indifferent, its accommodation limited, and its 
 situation open to attack. It is indeed questionable 
 whether the practical utility of Port Arthur is suf- 
 
 * Militdr-]Vochaiblatt, No. 6 of 189S.
 
 THE RUSSIAN RECORD. 199 
 
 ficiently great to repay its owner for the gigantic ex- 
 penditure entered upon for its armament and defence. 
 
 The position secured by Russia in Northern China 
 is the cause of much jubilation at St Petersburg. The 
 most enthusiastic of Russian tchinoviks was scarcely 
 prepared for so triumphant a progress all along the 
 line of ]\Ianchurian aggression, as has been achieved, 
 and it is this very success that has caused one or 
 two displays of recklessness, notably in the case of 
 M. Pavloff at Peking, which would not otherwise have 
 occurred. It had been expected that the seizure of 
 Port Arthur would cause complications with England 
 backed by Japan, and it was owing to this expectation 
 that such precautions were taken to have men and 
 armament available for the defence of Port Arthur 
 before taking the final step. The province of 
 Manchuria is to-day fully secured, and Port Arthur 
 is already practically impregnable. It could be starved 
 out, perhaps, but to do this would necessitate the hold- 
 ing of the belt of land behind Talienwan, and, with 
 the large number of men available for the defence, this 
 would require a very strong force indeed. Russia is 
 therefore at ease in respect to her China base, and for 
 the present is resting on her oars, while she continues 
 to add to her strength in ^Manchuria and devotes her 
 energies to the obtaining of further facilities for future 
 aggrandisement. The methods she adopts for the con- 
 solidation of her position and the exclusion of her rivals 
 are as admirable as they are impudent. One day her 
 emissaries protest against a concession being given 
 to Great Britain ; another they demand the exclusive
 
 200 CHINA IN DEC A K 
 
 ri^ht of training' Chinese sailors in the Chinese Navy ; 
 on a third it is formally announced that only vessels 
 manned exclusively by Chinese or Russian sailors will 
 be permitted to trade with Port Arthur. In short, 
 Russia takes steps in regard to British interests in 
 China which she would not dare to take against 
 Germany, for she is a good judge of human nature 
 and knows how much each of her rivals will stand.
 
 Thf skajUd bortion ihoas 
 Frcnzh TtrrUory 
 
 CcjoyrtoL' . A. K. 
 
 SOUTH CHINA : SHOWING THE FRENCH STHERE.
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 THE FRENCH RECORD. 
 
 The history of French development in China is mainly 
 interesting on account of the influence it has had on 
 British trade ; an influence which has been slight, only 
 because of the shortsightedness of our former ally. 
 Without ever having attempted to secure a footing for 
 herself in China Proper, except when acting in con- 
 junction with the British expeditions of 1858 and i860, 
 h^ ranee has absorbed nearly the whole of the former 
 dependencies of China in the Indo-Chinese peninsula, 
 and to-day stands jealously menacing British interests 
 in Yunnan. 
 
 The record of France in China dates from the 
 opening up of intercourse with the Celestials by the 
 Roman Catholic missionaries who found their way to 
 the Far East during the 17th century. The existence 
 of formal relations between the two countries may 
 be said to date from the reign of Louis XVI., who 
 in 1787 received a visit from a trusted minister of the 
 then Kine of Annam. This ambassador had been sent 
 at the suggestion of a Jesuit missionary to seek the aid 
 of the Kine of France in re-establishinc;' his master's 
 authority against the rebels who, at that time, were
 
 204 CHINA IN DEC A V. 
 
 ovcMTunniii''' Ann.iin and threatening^ to overthrow its 
 ruler. Louis agreed to this request, and despatched a 
 supply of arms with some French officers and a naval 
 force sufficient to restore the king's authority, accepting 
 in return the cession of the peninsula of Tourane and 
 the island of Pulo Condore, together with the right to 
 station consuls in any part of the kingdom of Annam. 
 The outbreak of the French Revolution prevented 
 Louis from taking advantage of the privileges accorded 
 him, but the compact signed at Versailles In 1787 was 
 not forgotten. In 1802 a French gunboat appeared off 
 Canton to protect the interests of the merchants there, 
 and the flag of the Republic was hoisted, but it was not 
 allowed to remain In evidence, and the French retired 
 without having achieved anything. In 1828 a French 
 merchant vessel was wrecked off Cochin China and the 
 crew massacred by the natives. This outrage became 
 the subject of lengthy negotiations between France and 
 China, and, in the end, seventeen pirates were executed, 
 and the French were accorded the rIo;ht to station a 
 consul at Canton. 
 
 In 1844, a special mission was despatched from Paris 
 to Peking, and a treaty signed between the two 
 countries, by which trading rights, similar to those 
 obtained by the English two years earlier, were con- 
 ceded, and the right of settlement at the treaty ports 
 was placed on record. The joint action of the French 
 and British in 1858 brought further concessions In the 
 French treaty of Tientsin and the subsequent con- 
 vention sicrned at Pekine in i860. 
 
 After the conclusion of peace in China Proper, the
 
 THE FRENCH RECORD. 205 
 
 French fleet went to Hue, to exact reparation for a 
 number of outrages which had been perpetrated by 
 the Annamese on the Christian missionaries. A biof 
 battle was fought in April 1859, in which the natives 
 were dispersed, and, after a lingering war which lasted 
 for over two years, peace was signed on the 3rd June 
 1862, the conditions being the toleration of Christianity 
 and the cession of the province of Saigon at the mouth 
 of the Mekawng River.* Three years later, the King 
 of Cambodia placed himself under the protection of 
 France, which thus obtained dominion over the whole 
 of Cochin China. 
 
 It was soon discovered by the French explorers who 
 hastened to visit the newly-acquired territory that the 
 Mekawng was not navigable, and that what was 
 supposed to be a highway into China Proper, was 
 useless for the purpose of extending trade ; but it was 
 reported about the same time that another river had 
 been discovered higher up the coast, which undoubtedly 
 flowed from across the Chinese border, and which was 
 deemed navigable.f The river in question turned out 
 to be the San koi, or Red River, which was thoroughly 
 explored in 1870 by Mons. Dupuis, who demonstrated 
 the value of the stream as a highway into Yunnan. 
 Eager to avail themselves of this discovery for the 
 furtherance of their plans, the French sought a fresh 
 treaty at the court of Hue, and in 1874 this was 
 obtained, with the result that the whole; of Annam 
 became a French protectorate, with full rights of 
 
 * Romanet du Caillaud, Histoire de V Intervention ait Tongking. 
 t Gamier, Voyage cV Exploration en Indo-Chine.
 
 2o6 CHINA LV DEC A V. 
 
 development. The nominal independence of Tu Due, 
 the ruler of Annam, was guaranteed by this treaty, 
 which repeats the clauses respecting the toleration of 
 Christianity which appeared in that of 1862. 
 
 Consistent in her ambition to find a hi^"h road to 
 the wealthy districts of China which she could keep to 
 herself, France determined to lose no time in opening 
 up the country thus placed at her disposal. From her 
 calculations, however, one important factor had been 
 omitted. The whole of Annam was a dependency of 
 Peking, and as such paid an annual tribute to the " Son 
 of Heaven." Before any trade could be developed with 
 the interior of Yunnan, it would be necessary to obtain 
 the consent of the Chinese Government, and when the 
 representatives of that country reminded France of this 
 inconvenient fact by inquiries made simultaneously of 
 the Government at Paris and the French minister at 
 Peking, she replied officially that there was not the 
 slightest intention of doing anything which could in- 
 juriously affect the rights or the interests of China. 
 
 The arrival of numbers of French adventurers, 
 accompanied by military forces, opened Tu Due's eyes 
 as to what was going on, and he remonstrated with 
 the officers who had stationed themselves at Hue, at 
 the same time communicating- to the Chinese Govern- 
 ment his desire to remain under the sea-is of Peking. 
 The position in Annam thus became strained, and hos- 
 tilities w^ould probably have ensued early in 18S3 but 
 for the sudden death of the king. 
 
 The policy declared by Tu Due was eagerly taken 
 up by the people, who resented the overbearing ways
 
 THE FRENCH RECORD. 207 
 
 of the French. Officers were insulted, Colonists 
 attacked, and Commandant Riviere, who represented 
 in the peninsula the Government of Paris, took the 
 town of Naomdink on the iith April, and, determined 
 to make the most of his advantage, moved on Hanoi, 
 the capital of Tonkin, which he seized without much 
 difficulty. As soon as he and his men had taken 
 possession of Hanoi, he was surrounded by the 
 Annamese, supported by a large army of Chinese 
 fighting men, who laid siege to the place. It was 
 captured, and Riviere, with his officers and men, was 
 put to the sword. Riviere was succeeded by General 
 Bouch, who advanced on Hanoi, re-took the town, 
 fortified it, and succeeded in repulsing the enemy with 
 great loss. 
 
 These events had by this time served to irritate 
 greatly the Peking authorities, by whose instructions 
 the Marquis Tseng left Paris, but on the advice of Li 
 Hung Chang, whose conduct during the Taeping 
 rebellion had made him a power whose counsels were 
 always respected, negotiations were resumed, and 
 finally on the nth May 1884 a treaty was signed at 
 Tientsin, under which China agreed to withdraw from 
 Tonkin, and to recognise the treaties between P" ranee 
 and Annam, as well as to open the frontiers of 
 Yunnan, Kwangsi, and Kwangtung to commerce, on 
 the understanding that those frontiers would be re- 
 spected, and that P'.rance would continue to uphold the 
 suzerainty of China over Annam. 
 
 In the negotiation of this treaty, favourable as it 
 was throughout to the pretensions of France, the
 
 2d8 china in dec a Y. 
 
 advisers of the Paris Government had not allowed for 
 the wiles of Chinese diplomacy. Thus far all had 
 gone satisfactorily. The French, in their haste to 
 achieve the conquest of territory, which, while ruled 
 by a native king, owed suzerainty to the Emperor 
 of China, had frightened the Governments both of 
 Annam and of China into the cession of the pro- 
 vince in dispute. But, on their proceeding to utilise 
 the rights which had been accorded, difficulties were 
 raised, and, on the appearance of a French force 
 before the town of Langsen, which it was intended to 
 occupy, the officer in command was informed that he 
 could not enter the town until certain necessary 
 arranofements had been made. 
 
 This protest was promptly disregarded by Captain 
 Dugenne, who attacked the town without even com- 
 municating with his superiors, and Langsen was 
 occupied without difficulty by the French on the 
 23rd June. On receipt of this news, the Peking 
 authorities denied the right of the French to 
 enter the city and ordered its evacuation forthwith, 
 and, on this demand reaching the French commander 
 at Hanoi, he decided to continue the war with all 
 possible energy. A demand was thereupon sent to 
 Peking for the immediate evacuation of all the frontier 
 forts and the payment of an indemnity of ten million 
 sterling. The French fleet, under Admiral Courbet, 
 proceeded northwards, and Admiral Lespes moved 
 on Formosa and destroved Keluno-. An offer of 
 the cession of the forts and the payment of a re- 
 duced indemnity was refused, as was also the pro-
 
 THE FRENCH RECORD. 209 
 
 posed mediation of the powers. The French 
 ambassador was withdrawn from Peking, and war 
 declared. 
 
 The Franco-Chinese war of 1884-85 had been 
 entered on, by the Western nation at least, under 
 a misapprehension. The Government of Paris had 
 made light of the impending operations on the strength 
 that China was merely a barbarous nation, a quantiU 
 negligeable. It was the duty of France to mete out a 
 merited punishment to a lot of savages, and, in order 
 to do this, it was ordered that the Chinese should be 
 attacked on their own coasts. 
 
 Admiral Courbet reached the Min River on the 
 23rd August, and, having seized the Chinese fleet 
 which had taken shelter there, sailed up to P^uchow, 
 captured the forts, and destroyed the Arsenal. On 
 the 8th October, Kelung was taken and Formosa 
 blockaded. A battle was fought near Tamsui on the 
 2nd November, and a number of minor places captured 
 with great loss to the Chinese. The war was prose- 
 cuted with continued vigour throughout the winter. 
 Kelung, which had been re-captured by the Chinese, 
 fell a second time in January 1885. Two junks were 
 successfully torpedoed on the 15th February, and 
 Chin Hae, as well as the Pescadore Islands, captured 
 in March. At length, weary of the war, the Chinese 
 consented to listen to the reasoninof of Sir Robert 
 Hart, and on the 6th April the preliminaries of peace 
 were signed at Peking. 
 
 The treaty embodying the terms arranged at Peking 
 was signed on the 9th June following. It provides for
 
 2IO CHINA IN DECAY. 
 
 the recognition by China of all the treaties concluded 
 between France and Annam, the delimitation of the 
 frontier between China and Tonkin, permission for 
 trade to pass the frontier by a choice of routes, passint^ 
 either through Mengtse in Yunnan or Lungchau in 
 Kwangsi. Customs stations were to be established 
 at these places by China, and France was to have 
 the right of stationing consuls at each. Despite the 
 completeness of these concessions, and the fact that 
 the Chinese troops had been withdrawn early in 
 May, the war was not destined to come to an 
 end. A series of massacres involving the death 
 of 700 Christians and the destruction of 30 villages 
 followed in 1886, and, in November of that year, 
 the French renewed the contest against the natives, 
 who were supported by the Chinese on the fron- 
 tier, and led by a noted pirate named Due, who 
 murdered, with great barbarity, all the Christians he 
 captured. 
 
 The acquisitions made by the process recorded 
 above were confirmed by the binding together of the 
 countries Annam, Tonkin, and Cambodia in a Customs 
 Union, and the appointment of a French resident in 
 1887, while during the years 1893 to 1896 a further 
 gain of territory extending over more than 100,000 
 square miles on the east side of the Mekawng was 
 attained after a war with Siam. 
 
 The French sphere in Indo-China to-day comprises 
 the protectorates of Annam and Cambodia and the 
 provinces of Tonkin and Cochin China, with an area 
 and a population as follows : —
 
 THE FRENCH RECORD. 2 1 1 
 
 Sq. miles. Population. 
 
 Annam (protectorate 1884), . 106,250 5,000,000 
 
 Cambodia (protectorate 1863), . 40,000 2,000,000 
 
 Cochin China (annexed 1861), . 24,000 2,000,000 
 
 Tonkin (annexed 1884), . . 145,000 9,000,000 
 
 Of these territories Tonkin is the only one which 
 shows any promise of becoming a valuable colony, and 
 this is held solely by force of arms. The number of 
 troops stationed in Annam and Tonkin is 23,000, 
 and the relations existing between the French and the 
 natives are exceedingly strained. The great object 
 aimed at by France in the acquisition of these ex- 
 tensive territories was to obtain an entrance into 
 South China from a base which should be exclusively 
 her own. By the achievement of this object it was 
 believed that not only would a very large and valuable 
 trade be developed, but that by the imposition of 
 heavy customs dues other nations would be prevented 
 from sharing in the profits. There is little doubt but 
 that another point kept in view by the French ex- 
 ploiters of Indo-China was the shutting out of Great 
 Britain from access to the fertile province of Yunnan, 
 which our neighbours regarded as their own particular 
 preserve. 
 
 Unfortunately for the achievement of these ambitions 
 the conformation of the country adjoining the Franco- 
 Chinese frontier is such as to render extremely diffi- 
 cult the opening of a direct trade route. The great 
 river, which was at first regarded as the natural high- 
 way into China, proved to be unnavigable. The 
 expedition which started from Saigon to explore the
 
 2 1 2 C///NA IN DEC A V. 
 
 MekawnLj under Captain Dondart de Lagree, had to 
 abandon its boats, and only succeeded in making- the 
 trip into Yunnan by using native canoes, and taking at 
 intervals to the banks. The expedition, after suffering 
 considerable hardships, returned to Cambodia after an 
 interval of two years, with a report unfavourable to the 
 route proposed. And so the French colonists had to 
 seek another means of satisfying their ambition, and 
 the necessity of doing this was doubtless the main 
 cause of the hasty annexation of Tonkin. It was 
 indeed presumed that the Sankoi would prove more 
 amenable than its bigger neighbour, and, as soon 
 as Hanoi had been occupied by French troops, an 
 attempt was made to reach Yunnan by its aid. 
 But the Red River proved no better than the 
 Mekawng, and, abandoning all hope of a waterway 
 into China, the military authorities turned their 
 attention to the making of a railway, which should 
 supply the deficiencies of nature. But the energetic 
 action of the French authorities was delayed by the 
 necessity of coming to terms with Great Britain on the 
 subject of the proposed railway, which it was pointed 
 out would infringe certain British rights over the Shan 
 States. 
 
 Great Britain had in 1894 restored the state of 
 Kiang Hung to China, on the condition that it should 
 not be ceded to any other power. The subsequent 
 rectification of the Franco-Chinese frontier made the 
 territories of the two countries coterminous from the 
 Mekawng River to Laokai on the Tonkin frontier ; 
 and, as this arrangement included the placing of Kiang
 
 THE FRENCH RECORD. 213 
 
 Hung under French rule, a protest from the chief 
 commissioner of Burma called for prompt attention. 
 Eventually, the matter was settled by an agreement, 
 dated 15th January 1896, by which the Mekawng was 
 made the boundary between the two nations from 
 Siam to China. From the settlement of the boundary 
 question to the present time, France has devoted her 
 energies to the exploitation of the Chinese frontier, 
 and the formation of trade routes, and in the latter 
 respect their efforts have met with considerable success. 
 The routes across the Yunnan frontier through 
 Mengtse and Lungchau were opened in 1889, and 
 their effect on the transit trade of South China became 
 apparent early in the following year, when steam-boats 
 began to ply on the Sankoi River, between Haiphong 
 and Hanoi, and Laokai, the nearest frontier town to 
 Mengtse across the frontier, while a railway was 
 constructed uniting Hanoi with Langson on the road 
 to Lungchau. A railway is also under construction 
 between Hanoi and Haiphong, and a line of steamers 
 has been established, which runs between Haiphong 
 and Hone-konor. The effect of these measures has 
 been the shifting of the bulk of the Yunnan trade, 
 which formerly found its way to the Si Kiang, and so 
 down to Canton and Honij-konQ- to the Tonkin route, 
 and this achievement is entirely due to the energy of 
 the French, who have all aloncr enforced the concessions 
 as to transit passes made by the Chinese Government. 
 It is entirely owing to this course, aided largely by 
 the construction of railways and the encouragement 
 of steam-boat communication, that the French have
 
 214 
 
 CHINA IN DEC A Y. 
 
 secured a lari^e amount of trade, and the result should 
 serve as a useful object lesson to our own Government, 
 which has consistently neglected to take similar pre- 
 cautions. At the present time British goods are 
 actually going from Hong-kong by the Sankoi route, 
 via Mengtse, to the important city of Yung Chang, 
 within a few days' road of the British frontier at 
 Bhamo, from which they could have been despatched 
 to their destination in one-third of the time, and with- 
 out paying toll to the French colony in Tonkin. The 
 only satisfaction to be gained by us from the success 
 of French activity lies in the fact that the bulk of the 
 goods which pass up the Sankoi are of English origin, 
 and many of them are conveyed in British vessels. 
 
 It has been stated by a writer who has had ex- 
 ceptional opportunities for studying the question,* that 
 the annexation of Tonkin was undertaken by France, 
 not on account of its intrinsic value but in order to 
 gain a base for the future absorption of Southern 
 China, and there can be little doubt but that she 
 would long ago have effected her purpose but for 
 the attitude of the natives, who proved themselves 
 men of very different mettle to the inhabitants of the 
 northern and central districts. The conquest of Ton- 
 kin cost France nearly 40,000 men and a very large 
 addition to her debt, and it is very improbable that she 
 will attempt further operations until either a national 
 rising or the overthrow of the Manchu dynasty affords 
 an easy opportunity. 
 
 The achievements of PVance in Indo-China have 
 
 * Mr Holt S. Hallet, Nineteenth Century, January 1S9S.
 
 THE FRENCH RECORD. 215 
 
 been marked by an expenditure of life and treasure 
 out of all proportion to the results attained, and her 
 hold on the territories over which she is supposed to 
 rule is maintained only by the employment of a very 
 large military and naval force. Indeed, in Annam and 
 Tonkin, even more than in Algeria and Madagascar, 
 French colonial policy has proved a failure. The 
 causes of this are various. In the first place, the people 
 are devoid of adaptability, and seek to develop ter- 
 ritories in the tropics on exactly the same lines as 
 have proved successful at home. The second weak 
 point in Gallic methods is to be found in the national 
 love of parade and personal aggrandisement. The 
 number of officials in France is well known to be out 
 of all proportion to the population, but in Indo-China 
 the fonctionnaires are both more numerous and less 
 competent than in Europe, and the mania for red 
 tape, with the attendant cost of administration, is also 
 greater. The colonial expeditions of France have 
 always been motived by a desire to distract attention 
 from affairs at home. Now, in addition to being- 
 popular as an excuse for a hunt for glory, the conquest 
 of far-off territory affords an opportunity for getting 
 rid of troublesome individuals who possess some in- 
 fluence, but are gratified by the conferring of an official 
 post, with the attendant right to wear a gorgeous 
 uniform. Tonkin is to-day simply swarming with 
 ofificials, the bulk of whom lead an indolent existence, 
 in which mutual jealousy and mistrust, with occasional 
 forays against the natives, afford frequent opportunities 
 for relaxation.
 
 2i6 CHINA IN DEC A V. 
 
 On this point .ill those who have had opportunities 
 for judoing the situation agree. Thus Captain C. B. 
 Norman says : — 
 
 Prcfets and sous-prefets, maires and their adjoints, precepteurs of 
 contributions directes and indirectes, bureaux of enregistrement, 
 bureaux of octroi, bureaux of police, bureaux of douanes, juges de 
 paix, juges of the tribunal civil, and of the tribunal correctionnel, 
 greffiers and huissiers, and all the hundred and one tyrants who tend 
 to make life insupportable to the man who longs for freedom, all 
 flourish with tropical profusion, and with more than their native 
 vigour in the colonies of France. When the emigrant leaves Havre 
 or Marseilles, he flatters himself that he is now leaving a land where 
 one-half of the population is taxed, in order that the other half may 
 wear a uniform ; but when he lands in his new home, he finds the 
 proportion of officials to private Frenchmen as ten to one, and he 
 then realises that his only hope of escaping vexatious and inquisi- 
 torial supervision is to accept some subordinate post himself, don 
 the kepi, and abandon all hope of a free life.* 
 
 The best proof of the accuracy of this statement is 
 afforded by the fact that a considerable proportion of 
 the emigrants who reach Indo-China from France, 
 migrate either to Hong-kong or to Singapore, where 
 they join the ranks of the British traders and prosper. 
 The expenditure entailed by the indulgence of the 
 vanity of the French authorities is simply enormous, 
 and. with rare exceptions, unproductive. In addition 
 to providing residences for the scores of officials 
 quartered everywhere within the territory under 
 French protection, consuls have been appointed 
 and consulates provided at well-nigh every town of 
 any importance in the neighbouring Lao states and 
 kingdom of Siam. Mr H. Warrington Smyth has 
 
 * Tonkin, or France in the Far East.
 
 THE FRENCH RECORD. 217 
 
 recently given an account of his visit to the French 
 representative at Korat. 
 
 The most striking innovation at Korat was the French consulate. 
 There were no French subjects, and there was no French trade, but 
 a very charming consulate was being built at a cost of 30,000 
 francs, to replace the present building occupied by the consul and his 
 interpreter, where we were most hospitably entertained. Two tri- 
 colours floated in the compound, and M. Rochet informed us that 
 the flag would soon float over the whole of the country round.* 
 
 Despite the failure of the French to make their 
 colonies remunerative, or even self-supporting, they 
 keep one aim always steadily in view. The great 
 panacea for every difficulty which stays the progress of 
 Indo-China is the acquisition of mere territory, and if 
 this can be gained in such a direction as to injure 
 British interests on the Chinese border, so much the 
 better. It has long been hinted by responsible 
 officials in Annam and Tonkin, that the occupation of 
 the whole of Siam, up to the Burmese frontier, is only 
 a matter of time ; and, pending the arrival of the 
 riorht moment, the French busv themselves with the 
 establishment of consular posts in Siamese territory 
 and the opening up of further communications with 
 Yunnan, where she hopes to succeed in establishing 
 herself on such a basis as to handicap materially the 
 relations between Great Britain and China along the 
 frontier formed by the Salween. Only last year, the 
 authorities at Hue sent a mission, consisting of ex- 
 perts, to explore the province of Hunan, which the 
 French have long since expressed their intention of 
 
 * Five Years in Stain.
 
 2i8 CHINA IN DEC A V. 
 
 opening;" up to forcli^n trade, which, of course, means to 
 the trade of Tonkin. 
 
 A most important endorsement of the rumours 
 which have reached this country of late, in this con- 
 nection, is oiven by Mr C. A. Moreing in a current 
 review. 
 
 For some time past, the French have cast longing eyes on Hunan, 
 and I am convinced that they are anxious to enlarge their sphere of 
 influence in China, by including it amongst what they already con- 
 sider as theirs. A glance at the map will show you that with Kwang- 
 tung, Kwangsi, Hunan, Kweichau, and Sechuan in their hands, a 
 French barrier will be erected between British India and the Yang- 
 tse Valley. That they are very active I am aware. French commis- 
 sions of exploration are operating in those very provinces ; and when 
 I was in Hunan, three weeks ago, a French commission crossed into 
 the province from Kwang-tung. They travelled slowly and, I learned, 
 were roughly surveying a contemplated line of railway into Hunan. 
 The commission was composed of three civil members and one 
 military officer, and I may mention that the latter akvays wore his 
 uniform. They were protected by an escort of over loo Chinese 
 soldiers, and they likewise were accompanied by Annamites. They 
 worked down the Siang Valley and proceeded to Hankow, where they 
 arrived shortly after me, and I learned that they intended to explore 
 the province of Kiangsi.* 
 
 There can be no two opinions as to the future route 
 between South-Western China and the sea. When 
 once the railway has opened up the direct route between 
 India and China, all produce destined for British 
 markets, will naturally find its way across the frontier 
 of Yunnan into Burma, and thence to Rangfoon or 
 Calcutta, but the road to Canton, Hono-konof, and the 
 sea-board of Indo-China will be not by the Yang-tse 
 
 * Nineteenth Century, September 1S9S.
 
 THE FRENCH /RECORD. 219 
 
 <jr the Si Kiang, but by the Sankoi, through Tonkin, 
 i)nd no artifice will succeed in orderincr thinsfs otherwise. 
 The French are in possession of a route to Western 
 China, which is only excelled by our own, and the effect 
 of this is already seen in the diversion of traffic from 
 the Canton River. But while she has attained con- 
 trol of a route which has many advantages, France 
 loses more than by her tenacity she gains. As 
 colonies, her possessions in Indo-China are lamentable 
 failures. To quote Mr A. R. Colquhoun, who enjoys 
 exceptional opportunities for fitting himself to speak 
 with authority : 
 
 They have not the power of adapting themselves to new peoples 
 and to new countries. They will not go abroad to the Far East as 
 colonists, or even as traders, nor is this specially to be wondered at, 
 seeing that France has no overflow of population such as other countries 
 have. . . . Tonkin has a rich delta, but is for the most part jungle 
 covered with hill country, and is unhealthy and uninhabitable for 
 French settlers or traders. France administers the Government with 
 a great yearly deficit, merely for the benefit of — excepting a multitude 
 oi fonctionnaires — natives and strangers, more especially the traders 
 of Southern China. 
 
 Recruited at random, the French colonial officials are seldom 
 either competent or trustworthy. Perhaps one out of ten may be 
 reliable and efficient. . . . The PVench codes are applied without 
 change in every quarter of the world, and in the modern Eastern 
 possessions, exactly as they were in the old colonies of France. . . . 
 Such colonies are not a source of strength, but of weakness to the 
 mere pair ie. Instead of having so many outlying bulwarks, each con- 
 tributing its quota of industry and wealth, these "uncolonised 
 colonies," these languishing and artificially maintained possessions, 
 are merely so many hostages to fortune.* 
 
 * China in '/'ransfoniiaiion.
 
 220 CHINA IN DEC A V. 
 
 And Still P>anc(; c^oes on squandering lives and 
 monc^y without return, and stands firm in her resolution 
 to follow the advice given by Prince Henri d'Orleans, 
 after his famous tour through Tonkin and Siam, ta 
 " be Asiatic, for there lies the future ! "
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 THE GERMAN RECORD. 
 
 German influence in China is a comparative!}' recent 
 growth. A mission sent by the King of Prussia to 
 Peking in 1861 succeeded in obtaining a commercial 
 treaty on lines similar to those signed at Tientsin by 
 the representatives of Great Britain and France, and a 
 second treaty was concluded between Germany and 
 China in 1880. Up to this date the intercourse 
 between the two countries was slight, and the amount 
 of trade insignificant. The first intimation of an 
 intended Far Eastern policy on the part of Germany 
 was given in the course of a speech by the foreign 
 secretary in the Reichstag towards the close of 1896, 
 when it was announced that an understanding had 
 been arrived at with Russia respecting the future 
 action of Germany in China. This speech attracted 
 a considerable amount of attention at the time, but 
 nothing followed, and it had been practically forgotten, 
 when the long sought opportunity arose for carryino- 
 out the desires of the colonial party. 
 
 Early in November 1897, two German missionaries 
 were attacked by robbers and killed while travelling- 
 in the Kuyehien district of the province of Shantunt^.
 
 324 CHINA IN DECAY. 
 
 Immediately on hearing the news, instructions were 
 sent to the German squadron in the China Sea, which 
 sailed for the province implicated and anchored in 
 Kiaochau Bay. 
 
 On Sunday, the 14th instant, at 8 a.m., a landing party was sent 
 ashore to take possession of the heights surrounding the bay. At 
 the same time the order was given to the " Cormorant's " landing 
 party, she being farthest inside the bay and commanding the passes 
 to the interior, to take the powder magazine. Towards 9 o'clock 
 these points having been secured, the Flag-Lieutenant was sent to 
 the Chinese General with an ultimatum that within three hours he 
 must clear out of the camp. The soldiers were permitted within the 
 same time to depart with their weapons and possessions. The two 
 ships " Kaiser" and "Prinzess Wilhelm " were so anchored outside 
 of the port that they commanded the forts, the order having been 
 given to fire on the same on a certain given signal. 
 
 After delivery to him of the ultimatum the General withdrew, as 
 resistance, especially as his ammunition had been seized, would have 
 been futile ; the same was done by the soldiers, saving their goods 
 and chattels as far as possible. Towards 2 p.m., the German flag 
 was hoisted on the east fort ; the Admiral made a speech to the 
 crews, these saluted and gave three cheers for the Kaiser. The 
 inhabitants behaved quite peaceably ; in reality they were satisfied to 
 be free of the native soldiers. The native soldiers withdrew behind 
 the hills and erected a camp at a distance of about five miles. The 
 forts were then all occupied and measures taken to guard the country 
 against plundering.* 
 
 The following demands were next drawn up and 
 laid before the Tsungli Yamen by Baron Von Hey- 
 king, the German ambassador at Peking : — 
 
 (1) The building of an Imperial tablet to the 
 memory of the missionaries who were 
 murdered. 
 
 * North China Daily N'ews, 29th November 1S97.
 
 THE GERMAN RECORD. 225 
 
 (2) The indemnification of the famiHes of the 
 
 murdered men. 
 
 (3) The governor of Shantung- to be degraded 
 
 permanently. 
 
 (4) The Chinese Government to defray the cost 
 
 of the German occupation of Kiaochau. 
 
 (5) German engineers to have preference in the 
 
 building of any railway which China may 
 construct in the province of Shantung, and 
 also in the working of any mine which may 
 exist along the track of such railway. 
 On receiving- these demands the Tsuncrli Yamen 
 replied declining to commence negotiations until Kiao- 
 chau was evacuated, to which Baron Von Heyking 
 answered, after having communicated with Berlin, that 
 "■ the uselessness of putting any faith in the promises 
 of the Chinese Government having been proved by 
 experience, the evacuation of Kiaochau would not 
 take place until the Chinese had assented to the 
 demands made. This announcement was made on the 
 25th November, and on the 30th. while still waiting for 
 the reply of the Tsungli Yamen, the Germans posted 
 about the town proclamations in the Chinese language, 
 notifying that a defined area round the bay would be 
 governed under the law of Germany. This course 
 greatly irritated the Tartar General in Shantung, who 
 is reported to have made use of strong anti-foreign 
 language, which at once brought a further demand 
 from the German minister for the instant dismissal of 
 the general, accompanied by a threat that he would 
 leave Peking if his demand were not complied with.
 
 226 CHINA IN DEC A V. 
 
 The Tsungli Yamen did as requested the same day, 
 and on the 3rd January 1898 the whole question was 
 solved by the leasing of Kiaochau to Germany for a 
 period of 50 years. The following is a translation of 
 the official announcement published in Berlin two days 
 later : — 
 
 According to a telegram which has arrived to-day from Peking, an 
 agreement has been come to between the German and Chinese 
 (Governments respecting the cession of Kiaochau, which is to the 
 following general effect : — 
 
 The German Government is enabled by the agreement to fulfil its 
 legitimate desire to possess, like other nations, a point of support for 
 its trade and navigation in Chinese waters. The cession is in the 
 form of a long lease, and the German Government is empowered to 
 erect all necessary buildings and establishments inside the specified 
 limits of the district ceded, and to take the measures required for its 
 defence. 
 
 The district ceded comprises the whole inner basin of the Bay of 
 Kiaochau, as far as high-Avater mark; also the large promontories 
 which lie north and south of the entrance of the bay as far as their 
 natural boundaries, to be drawn at heights suited to that purpose, as 
 well as the islands which lie inside the bay and at its mouth. The 
 district ceded has a total area of several square miles (i German 
 ecpials 4 English miles), which is surrounded by a large zone of 
 which the bay is the centre, within which no measure or order can be 
 carried out without the concurrence of Germany ; and a special pro- 
 vision is made reserving to Germany the right to control the water- 
 course without hindrance on the part of China. 
 
 In order to avoid conflicts which might affect the good relations 
 between the two Empires, the Chinese Government has surrendered 
 to the German Government all the rights of sovereignty which she 
 possessed in the ceded territory for the duration of the lease. 
 
 The duration and terms of the lease are not given in the telegram 
 announcing the conclusion of the agreement, which telegram is very 
 short. 
 
 Should Kiaochau Bay prove from any cause not to be suited to
 
 THE GERMAN RECORD. 227 
 
 the purpose which the Imperial German Government has in view, the 
 Chinese Government shall, after arriving at an understanding to that 
 effect with the German Government, cede to the latter another point 
 on the coast better suited to the end desired. In that case, the 
 Chinese Government will take over the buildings, establishments, 
 etc., erected by the German Government in the Kiaochau district, 
 and will reimburse the said Government for the expense incurred in 
 erecting them.* 
 
 The publication of this official notification at- 
 tracted considerable attention in Germany, which was 
 not lessened by the declarations made in the Rcii/ishig 
 a month later that it was the intention of the sfovern- 
 ment to open Kiaochau to the trade of the world. 
 
 On the 13th March the German Governor of Kiao- 
 chau notified that Germany claimed the whole of the 
 province of Shantung as being within her sphere of 
 influence. On the 27th April, an Imperial Order was 
 issued by the German Emperor, nominating the district 
 of Kiaochau an Imperial Protectorate, and in Septem- 
 ber it was announced that as soon as the number of 
 the European settlers warranted such a measure, a 
 system of self-government would be introduced, and 
 the town of Kiaochau declared a free port. 
 
 The Bay of Kiaochau forms one of the finest 
 harbours on the China coast. Less than two miles in 
 width at its entrance, it extends over an area of about 
 I 50 square miles, and affords at all times a perfectly 
 safe anchorage for ships. The harbour is entirely sur- 
 rounded by hills from 400 to 600 feet high, and is 
 thus admirably suited to the requirements of a naval 
 base. It is believed that when the forts now in courses 
 
 * Keic/tsanzei^cr, 51I) January 1S9.S.
 
 228 CHINA IN DEC A V. 
 
 of erection arc completed, the harbour will be practi- 
 cally impregnable by sea, while the approach from the 
 land will be defended by a series of fortifications across 
 the head of the bay. 
 
 On a spur to the east of the entrance to the bay is 
 the' town of Ching-tao, which is at present the residence 
 of the German Governor. A railway is about to be 
 constructed round the eastern side of the bay between 
 Chingtao and Kiaochau, a distance of some twenty 
 miles, and this will later on be extended towards 
 Tsinanfu to form the northern trunk-line of Shan- 
 tung. 
 
 The great feature of the district round Kiaochau is 
 the valuable mineral and metalliferous deposits which 
 abound. It is, indeed, generally supposed that it was 
 the wealth of minerals, coal especially, in Shantung 
 which led the Germans to fix on that part of China for 
 a settlement. The coal-fields of the province have 
 been surveyed by Baron Richthofen, the greatest 
 authority on the subject, and he states that the coal 
 of Shantung is of good quality, black and hard, burning 
 with a clear flame, and making excellent coke ; it has 
 great heating power. But the beds lie low, and, in 
 consequence, the pits are soon flooded, as the natives 
 do not understand how to keep the water down. 
 
 In the winter months Kiaochau is the natural out- 
 let for the trade of North China ; in the summer 
 months Tientsin is the most convenient port of access. 
 If, however, Kiaochau is made the terminus of a line 
 to Peking and North China, the advantage to the 
 province of Shantung will be immense. The chief
 
 THE GERMAN RECORD. 229 
 
 reason why it is as yet so little developed is the diffi- 
 culty of access. 
 
 The principal point is that the Power which possesses 
 Kiaochau controls the coal-supply in northern Chinese 
 waters. It is hii^hly improbable that Shantun^' will 
 ever form a German Colony in the proper sense of 
 the word. The territory is already overcrowded, and 
 immigrants from Shantung are the main element 
 in the new population of Manchuria. Europeans can- 
 not compete with Chinese labour. It is out of the 
 question that Germany should acquire a large territory 
 in Shantung, and thereby become involved in all sorts 
 of complications. Her object should be to obtain a 
 point ifappin for her trade, so as to insure herself a 
 share in the industrial development of China. 
 
 The following remarks, written by a German expert 
 on the advantages of Kiaochau as a naval base,* are 
 of considerable interest, and seem to show the import- 
 ance of the German acquisition in China : — • 
 
 No portion of the Chinese Empire, with the exception of some of 
 the provinces bordering on Russia, can be so easily acquired by an 
 enemy as the Shantung Peninsula. With Kiaochau undefended, 
 nothing would be easier than to land an army there and take up a 
 defensive position straight across the peninsula to the Pe-chi-li Gulf, 
 in rear of the waterway referred to above, and thus sever it from the 
 interior. Its recapture would be most difficult, whilst the enemy 
 could make use of it to prepare for a further advance, as was done 
 at Chifu in i860. 
 
 If on the other hand Kiaochau is well fortified, not only is the 
 most exposed position of the Shantung peninsula protected, but an 
 
 ■" Lieut. -Colonel Rheinhold Wagner, whose memorandum on the defence-: ami 
 harbours of China has been translated by Captain P. Holland in K. U. S, /. Journal, 
 August 1898.
 
 23© CfflNA IN DEC A V. 
 
 enemy could be easily expelled. ... No invasion of the country 
 could ever be attempted without the capture of Kiaochau. 
 
 In the event of an attack by land, or a siege, the harbour in Kiao- 
 chau Bay could be easily and rapidly reinforced, owing to the fact 
 that, unlike Port Arthur or Wei Hai Wei, it does not lie at the 
 extreme end of a peninsula but close to the heart of the country, and 
 troops could be easily brought up from the Yang-tse Kiang or the 
 Pei Ho if it was found they were not required there, and that the 
 enemy intended a blow at the main naval base, and the destruction 
 of the fleet. Kiaochau is, of course, not so close to the Pechili 
 Gulf as Wei Hai ^^'ei or Port Arthur ; but then, on the other hand, 
 no hostile fleet would attempt to enter this gulf with the main 
 Chinese squadron ready for action in their rear at Kiaochau. 
 They would, moreover, in order to attack the Pei Ho, have to have a 
 second fleet strong enough to hold the Chinese fleet at Kiaochau 
 in check. 
 
 Germany may therefore be said to have acquired in 
 Kiaochou the key to Northern China, and while 
 holding- this, will possess a controlling voice in all 
 questions affecting the fate of Peking. But while 
 dominant over the provinces of Shantung and Chili, 
 her power does not reach southward ; and so long as 
 the British retain Hong-kong, with the preponderating 
 influence at Shanghai, Canton, and Hankow, the 
 southern seaboard and Yang-tse Valley will remain 
 practically, if not actually, under our control, provided 
 always that we do not permit Russia to establish 
 herself on the Yang-tse, as she is exhibiting every 
 intention of doine.
 
 L:'illli'1lllllilin:l.,!:j'l!:i.|||^ill;ii!fell:;BlKi!!l|;Mllil^^
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 TRADE IN CHINA. 
 
 The commercial possibilities of an Empire covering 
 more than 400,000 square miles, and comprising a 
 population of close on 400,000,000, do not require 
 lengthy comment. If only the country were opened 
 up so as to render free intercourse possible between 
 the people and the foreign traders, there can be 
 little question but that China would speedily become 
 one of the biggest markets in the world. But, so far 
 from the country being opened up, the Chinese have 
 strained their every nerve to keep it closed against 
 the traders of the world, and it has only been 
 under pressure of defeat, or by the exercise of the 
 wiles of diplomacy, that the foreign trader has suc- 
 ceeded in obtaining a footing at all within the 
 Empire. 
 
 Despite the interval of 250 years which has 
 elapsed since first the traders of foreign nations 
 opened up relations with the natives of Canton, 
 the restrictions which were at the very outset imposed 
 remain in force, and, in face of the many opportunities 
 which have been afforded the Chinese of studying 
 western ideas and appreciating the advantages of
 
 234 
 
 CHINA IN DEC A V. 
 
 foreign intercourse, trade is to-day restricted to the 
 " treaty " ports, where alone the foreigner is permitted 
 to transact business with the native. The number of 
 treaty ports at present open is thirty, and the total of 
 the foreign trade in 1896 was ^55,600,000. 
 
 The conduct of commercial relations between 
 European nations and China is handicapped by a 
 variety of circumstances. The financial system of the 
 country is eccentric and unsatisfactory. Trade is 
 largely affected by a series of restrictions, due to the 
 existence of a number of guilds and monopolies. 
 Traffic is difficult, owing to lack of communications 
 other than the waterways, and articles of trade are taxed 
 to an excess, which unduly affects imports and very 
 materially depresses the export trade. Lastly, owing to 
 the difficulties of the lano-uao-e and the conservatism of 
 European firms, intercourse with the natives must, as a 
 rule, be maintained by the assistance of interpreters, 
 who are, generally, venal and greedy, and who bleed 
 their employers to such an extent as to seriously pre- 
 judice their interests and allow business to be carried 
 on with only a small margin of profit. This last diffi- 
 culty has increased of late years in the face of the 
 growing competition among the nations, with the 
 result that the vast profits at one time made by the 
 Merchant Princes of Canton and Shanghai have dis- 
 appeared, and that trade is rapidly becoming merely 
 a matter of small percentages. 
 
 The Chinese currency is on a silver basis, but it 
 is, like most things Celestial, subject to a series of 
 anomalies, which render financial transactions extremely
 
 TRADE IN CHINA. 235 
 
 complicated. The unit of value is an ounce of refined 
 silver, which is spoken of as a tael, but there is no such 
 coin in existence, the term being used merely as a 
 denomination of value. I' or purposes of exchange the 
 tael ismade up of a certain number of copper coins known 
 as cash, of which about 1600 go to the tael, the exact 
 number depending on the particular kind of tael em- 
 ployed and the relative appreciation of copper to silver. 
 For while the tael represents a Chinese ounce of silver, 
 the value of the definition is considerably lessened by 
 the fact that there are at least four different ounces 
 known to Chinese traders. Thus, there is the treasury 
 ounce, which may be taken as the normal weight ; the 
 commercial ounce, which is not constant but varies 
 somewhat in different districts ; the customs ounce, 
 which is considerably heavier than the treasury 
 standard ; and the light ounce, of which one hundred are 
 reckoned as ninety-eight. The treasury weight is only 
 used in dealing with the Government. House rent is 
 by custom paid in the light ounce ; while mercantile 
 transactions are carried on with the commercial ounce, 
 of which the exact value is not always known to the 
 trader. 
 
 The only coins minted to any considerable extent are 
 cash, small copper coins, of which each has a hole in the 
 centre so as to admit of its being threaded on a string, 
 and these are usually passed from hand to hand tied up 
 in bunches of a hundred. Taken at its face value, the 
 cash may be said to run eleven to the linlfpenny. 
 But, owing to the fact that an appreciation of copper has 
 of late years taken place in China, the relation of the
 
 236 CHINA IN DEC A V. 
 
 cash to the tael does not always follow the market 
 value of silver. 
 
 The form in which silver passes current throughout 
 China is the sycee, a solid chunk of refined silver, of 
 varying purity, cast in the form of a shoe, and 
 weighing about fifty ounces. These sycee are not 
 issued by the Government, but by private refiners 
 who stamp them with their names. The sycee or 
 "shoes" are either passed whole, or, when the pay- 
 ment to be made is trifling, they are cut into smaller 
 pieces and taken at the value indicated by the weight, 
 the basis of calculation being one ounces one tael. 
 In large transactions the particular sort of ounce is 
 always specified. In 1890 an imperial decree was 
 issued legalising throughout the country the silver 
 dollar coined at the new Canton mint, but the output 
 has been small, and the bulk of the silver coinage in 
 China consists of Mexican dollars, which have long 
 been accepted in payment at the treaty ports. 
 
 Bank-notes have long been used by the Chinese, 
 and are issued by private firms and bankers, but they 
 have not yet obviated the necessity of carrying one's 
 money in the form of strings of cash, which, in the 
 case of a lengthy journey, frequently form the heaviest 
 portion of the traveller's impedimenta. The arrange- 
 ments for the transmission of money from one part of 
 the country to another are entrusted to exchange 
 banks, which are almost all in the hands of men of the 
 Shansi province, who excel in this business. They 
 have worked out among themselves a very high 
 commercial morality by centuries of rigorous domestic
 
 TRADE IN CHINA. 237 
 
 discipline. If an employe defrauds a Shansi bank, 
 no appeal is made to the law or the magistrate ; he is 
 sent home to his native district, tried by his family 
 elders, and treated in a very drastic manner, some- 
 times, it is said, buried alive. An averaq-e exchanofe 
 bank would lend to business houses on personal security 
 about 200,000 taels, on which it would receive 10 to 
 12 per cent, per annum. This is security given 
 to the public that the bank can meet its drafts. A 
 piece-goods merchant with ample resources would 
 have to give for such an advance 7 to 1 2 per cent, per 
 annum, according to the state of the money market. 
 
 A curious feature in this system of banking is 
 referred to by Mr F. S. A. Bourne in a recent diplo- 
 matic report.* 
 
 These exchange banks do not care to receive deposits from the 
 public, as this would damage their credit. They employ agents 
 who are always about the business quarter inquiring into the pro- 
 ceedings of their customers so as to gauge their credit. When they 
 want money they sell their bills on other places. They are often 
 entrusted with money by the officials, sometimes Government but 
 usually private funds, and on this they give, more or less as a favour, 
 5 to 6 per cent, per annum. They do not lend money on land 
 or houses, but they lend to local banks that advance it in trade 
 on personal security. There are no bank-notes in circulation at 
 Chungking. When the merchants in the foreign import trade get 
 in their debts, as on the three settling days, they buy bank drafts on 
 Shanghai ; they would send round to two or three banks with which 
 the firm in question did business and inquire their rate. When a 
 retail shopkeeper has gathered enough cash he buys a shoe of silver, 
 and takes it at once to the merchant to reduce his indebtedness and 
 save interest. Very little money is lying idle in business : but 
 
 * Foreign Office, Miscellaneous Series, No. 45S, 1S9S.
 
 238 CHINA IN DEC A V. 
 
 there is some lioarding of silver among the country squire and 
 farming class. 
 
 The most curious feature in this system of banking is that there 
 are no advances against goods, but only on personal security. The 
 only instance of an advance against goods I heard of was in Sechuan 
 at Chiating Fu where an owner sometimes places insect wax in the 
 house of a man who advances against it. But this is a clumsy 
 transaction, only applicable to goods of fixed quality and of high 
 value. 
 
 At the commencement of foreign intercourse with 
 China, all the trade was done at Canton, where a 
 certain number of traders were known as the Hong 
 merchants, who were licensed to hold commercial 
 relations with the foreigners under a hoppo, or 
 superintendent of trade, who was responsible for the 
 good behaviour of the foreigners. Indeed, so strin- 
 gent were the regulations in these early days that the 
 foreigners were only permitted to visit Canton on 
 being vouched for by this official scapegoat, who was 
 thus the means of saving the viceroy a deal of trouble. 
 With the opening of the other ports freed by the 
 treaty of Nanking this arrangement ceased, and the 
 foreign traders were enabled to deal with the Chinese 
 direct, through an interpreter who was now one of the 
 first necessaries of a Chinese store. The demand for 
 interpreters capable of acting as go-betweens rapidly 
 increased and gave birth to a class of men known 
 as compradores, — the Portuguese for purchasers. The 
 peculiar talents of the Chinaman found an excep- 
 tionally favourable outlet in the new occupation thus 
 provided. The compradore rapidly became indispen- 
 sable to his employer, and he did not fail to recognise
 
 TRADE IN CHINA. 339 
 
 this, or to recoup himself for his service by levying 
 "squeeze" on his employer and his customer indis- 
 criminately. The position of affairs was soon realised 
 by the merchants, but they found themselves helpless, 
 and though the blackmail extorted from the purchaser 
 often prevented his paying as high prices as he would 
 otherwise have been able to do, and the spoliation 
 of the employer necessitated the charging of a higher 
 price than would otherwise have been necessary, the 
 compradore proved himself the master of the situation, 
 and so he remains at the present time. 
 
 Like every other calling in China, the compradores 
 have their guild or society, corresponding to our own 
 trades' unions, which looks after the interests of its 
 members, and frames regulations for their government. 
 So powerful are the majority of these guilds, that it 
 is practically impossible to counteract their influence. 
 In the case of the compradores, the assumed right of 
 acting as go-between is so well established that no 
 Chinese merchant will dare to deal with a foreign firm 
 which has discharged its compradore until another has 
 been engaged, and there is reason to believe that it is 
 no unusual thing for the new-comer to pay a pro- 
 portion of his pickings to his predecessor. It would, 
 indeed, be difficult to exaggerate the immense power 
 of these guilds. An idea of the influence they possess 
 is given by Mr E. L. B. Allen, British consul at 
 Pakhoi, who states : — 
 
 Order is supposed to be more or less maintained among the 
 •Chinese by the local guild of "gentry," u body which in October 
 last distinguished itself by annexing in the streets of this town a
 
 240 CHINA IN DEC A ] '. 
 
 quantity of camphor sent down from a neighbouring district by 
 a respectable native dealer, and holding it to ransom. I may 
 mention, in illustration of Pakhoi ways, that this plundered camphor 
 dealer presented a formal petition to this consulate, setting forth his 
 wrongs ; that I handed it on to the sub-district deputy magistrate, 
 and that the latter replied to me in an ofificial note acknowledging 
 that the petition was true, but that he was powerless to help the 
 wronged man. Native trade under such conditions can hardly be 
 an exhilarating pursuit.* 
 
 Mr W. R. Carles, another consular official, gives 
 some interesting' particulars of the builders' and other 
 ii'uilds at Chinkiano- on the Yang-tse : — 
 
 No interference is permitted with a customer's engaging an)'^ 
 builder preferred by him. Touting for employment is punishable 
 by a fine to be fixed in public meeting. No outside firm is 
 allowed to work until it has joined the guild, and received a 
 certificate of this, the fee for which varies from 8 to 20 dollars. 
 Assistants or foremen who endeavour to obtain business on their 
 own account from persons for whom their masters work are liable 
 to a heavy fine. Masters have to pay the guild a cash per diem 
 for every man employed by them, to form a fund to meet 
 subscriptions for canal works, etc. A similar tax is levied on 
 assistants to meet the cost of festivals, illuminations, etc. If 
 trouble occurs between a builder and his employes and work is 
 stopped, no other labour can be engaged until all outstanding 
 accounts are settled. Breaches of this rule are punishable by 
 fine levied in public meeting. A payment of 200 cash to the 
 general fund is required for every house built of a certain size. The 
 payment on smaller houses is one-half this amount. The whole 
 power of trade in China rests in combination and monopoly. This 
 has been weakened by foreign influence, but every attempt at 
 developing new branches of trade leads to an attempt to return to 
 the old principles, by seeking Government protection against 
 competition. 
 
 * Foreign Office Reports, Annual Series, No. 1983, 1S97.
 
 TRADE IN CHINA. 
 
 241 
 
 These guilds not only hamper trade and restrict 
 progress, but they also play an important part in the 
 Local Government. The likin duties, levied on the 
 passage of merchandise inland, is frequently farmed 
 out by the Local Government, the method being to 
 let the collection of the duty on a particular article of 
 consumption to a syndicate. Such syndicates have 
 frequently been run by compradores, greatly to the 
 disadvantage of their employers. This operation has 
 been several times effected in the case of likin on 
 
 A VIEW AT HANKOW. 
 
 kerosine, and a gigantic scheme to farm the taxes 
 on cotton yarn was only prevented by the exertion of 
 the Hong-kong authorities in 1894. The practice of 
 letting out the likin is more frequent than would be 
 supposed. \\\ one case, discovered only last year, the 
 duty on kerosine and matches in the province of 
 Kwangsi was let to a syndicate by proclamation for 
 twelve years, the price paid to the Government being 
 10,000 dollars a year and the likin being estimated to 
 return double that sum. Of course, a good deal of 
 the profit finds its way back into mandarin pockets 
 
 Q
 
 242 CHIXA IN DECA V. 
 
 by way of bribes and presents, in return for having 
 obtained the contract, but the syndicate always profits 
 considerably, while the national exchequer suffers in 
 proportion. 
 
 The effect of this manipulation on the British 
 merchant is disastrous. To quote Mr Bourne : — 
 
 The trader is, of course, absolutely in the dark about all this ; they 
 cannot speak Chinese themselves, nor can any of their employes 
 whom they can trust. When the merchant finds his business not as 
 profitable as it was, and proposes, perhaps, to his compradore to sell 
 English cottons in Canton, the compradore will inform him that if 
 he does the Piece-goods Guild will boycott his firm in Hong-kong. 
 This was actually done in the case of one of our largest importers 
 of Lancashire cottons. The firm will now drop back into its fetters 
 and draw such profits as the. compradore allows. 
 
 The compradore system is in reality a constant drag 
 on the increase of British trade, and its evils are 
 recognised not only by foreigners in China but also 
 by the educated Chinese, one of whom, the Hon. Ho 
 Kai, a Chinaman who was educated in England and 
 who is a member of the Leo;islative Council of Honor- 
 kong as well as a barrister-at-law, has only recently 
 spoken very plainly on the subject, and has given it as 
 his opinion that the compradore makes at least as 
 much profit on transactions effected by him as does his 
 employer. ]\Ir Ho Kai advises British merchants to 
 engage the services of trusted employes who can 
 speak Chinese. He avers that, as things are now, the 
 compradore tends to become the merchant, and the 
 head of the house his agent, since the trader who 
 wishes to do business must accept the compradore's 
 terms or do nothing. And another gentleman quali-
 
 TRADE IN CHINA. 243 
 
 fied to speak with authority, having long resided in 
 the interior, gave it as his opinion that for every dollar 
 made by a leading British firm in Hong-kong their 
 compradore makes two. 
 
 One of the factors which has had great influence 
 on the growth of foreign trade in China is the plac- 
 ing of the Maritime Customs under the control of 
 an Englishman. The Imperial Maritime Customs of 
 China stands out in bold relief against every other 
 Chinese institution, in being managed with scrupulous 
 honesty by a staff of officials who are alike conscien- 
 tious and unbribable, and there is no question but that 
 the efficient supervision under which the duties are 
 levied, is very largely responsible for the steady 
 growth of trade which has taken place during recent 
 years. 
 
 The Chinese customs department has grown from 
 small beginnings, which have gradually led to the 
 development of one of the most remarkable organisa- 
 tions in the country. To quote Mr R. S. Gundry, who 
 has enjoyed exceptional opportunities for studying the 
 subject : — 
 
 The foreign customs establishment in China is the product of 
 circumstances. The Chinese customs system, lax in itself, had 
 proved unable to deal with foreign trade. It will be remembered 
 that, prior to 1842, there had been no regular commercial intercourse 
 except at Canton. Certain methods had been devised then of 
 meeting the exceptional circumstances ; but the Chinese customs 
 at other ports had practically to deal only with the native coasting 
 trade ; and the Chinese system of administration admitted great 
 laxity in the collection of dues. The underlying conception seems to 
 have been that commodities shjuld pay duiics amounting roughly
 
 244 CHINA IN DEC A V. 
 
 to lo per cent, before entering into consumption ; about 3 per cent, 
 being usually charged at the port of shipment, and 7 per cent, at the 
 port of entry. But there seems to have been no system of accounta- 
 bility. Recognising no doubt the impossibility of exacting pre- 
 cision, the Imperial Government had compounded at some ante- 
 cedent period, for a fixed tribute from each port or customs district ; 
 and the Provincial (lovernments seem to have followed the 
 example.* 
 
 Thus was each Provincial Government supposed to 
 collect its own customs, but the system did not work, 
 and peculation, delay, and vexation to the trader 
 resulted. The incapacity of the native officials in 
 dealing" with the collection of customs sanctioned by the 
 treaty of Nanking prompted the British consuls at the 
 treaty ports to come to the assistance of the Govern- 
 ment, and these duly collected the customs authorised 
 and handed the amounts received to the superin- 
 tendents appointed by Peking. 
 
 This system proved satisfactory enough until the 
 development of trade with France and the United 
 States, when difficulties cropped up, and it was found 
 that, to the prejudice of the British traders, foreign 
 goods were being imported without the payment of the 
 full duty. On this being reported to the British 
 Government, Lord Palmerston sent instructions to Sir 
 Georo-e Bonham, to stav the collection of customs bv 
 the British consuls, and instruct the Chinese that they 
 must look after their own revenue.! 
 
 It was at this juncture that Woo, the Total of 
 
 * China, Past and Prcscut. 
 
 \ Correspondence respecting consular interference for the prevention of 
 smuggling in China presented to Parliament, 1S57.
 
 TRADE IN CHINA. 245 
 
 Shanghai, sought a conference on the 29th June 1854 
 with the British, American, and French consuls, on the 
 subject of the collection of customs dues, and it was, 
 after some discussion, decided that the Totai should 
 appoint some foreigners of known character and 
 position to act as inspectors of customs, with a staff 
 of foreigners and Chinese, chosen by them, to carry out 
 the work of collection. Accordingly, the three consuls 
 were nominated inspectors, the first British representa- 
 tive on the board being Mr Thomas Wade, then Her 
 Majesty's vice-consul at Shanghai. Mr Wade re- 
 signed his post on his appointment to Peking in 1855, 
 and was succeeded by Mr H. N. Lay, who followed 
 him as vice-consul. The French and United States 
 consuls were also removed about this time, and, as 
 neither country nominated gentlemen to succeed them 
 on the customs board, Mr Lay remained sole in- 
 spector. In 1 86 1, he came to England on leave, his 
 work being: entrusted to Mr Robert Hart, and, on the 
 final retirement of Mr Lay two years later, Mr Hart 
 became inspector-general, and he has continued to 
 perform the onerous duties attached to his post up to 
 the present time, excepting only the brief interval 
 during which he held the more important appointment 
 of British minister at Peking. 
 
 The work of the Chinese Maritime Customs extends 
 to every port on river or sea within the Chinese 
 Empire. The work was till the present year carried 
 on by the inspector-general, with the assistance of 
 30 commissioners, 12 deputy-commissioners, and 132 
 assistants, the outdoor service comprising a large
 
 246 CHINA IN DEC A V. 
 
 number of examiners, surveyors, etc., etc. The total 
 strength of the staff was 800 foreigners and nearly 
 4000 Chinese, but, owing to the supervision of the 
 likin duties, placed under the charge of Sir Robert 
 Hart as security for the loan made by Great Britain 
 and Germany to China in February last, the staff has 
 been considerably augmented, and the labour of its 
 chiefs greatly increased. 
 
 The work accomplished by the inspectors of customs 
 came at the very outset as a revelation to the Peking 
 authorities. It was the first proof they had ever had 
 of the possibility of a government servant acting 
 honestly, and the fact that the accounts were 
 scrupulously kept, the receipts accurately paid over, 
 and all offers of bribery rejected, was speedily 
 recognised with the greatest amazement. Indeed, 
 there is no doubt that other branches of the Chinese 
 revenue would have been promptly placed under foreign 
 control, but for the fact that it was realised that to 
 take the opportunities of peculation away from the 
 mandarin would probably result in something like 
 civil war. But while the native taxes and duties are 
 still in the hands of the mandarin, other work of great 
 utility has been placed in charge of the customs 
 department : notably the lighting of the coasts of 
 China and, quite recently, the organisation of the 
 Imperial Chinese Post Office, still in process of 
 incubation. 
 
 Great as the possibilities of trade with China un- 
 questionably are, the achievement is small in propor- 
 tion to the opportunities existing. This fact is due to
 
 TRADE IN CHINA. 247 
 
 the unparalleled conceit of the officials, who let no 
 opportunity pass of stimulating the exclusiveness of the 
 masses. The time is past when this could be done 
 openly and with impunity, and the repressive action of 
 the mandarin is to-day restricted to the secret encourage- 
 ment of intolerance, and the placing of as many diffi- 
 culties as possible in the way of progress. But the 
 measures thus adopted have not resulted in the banish- 
 ment of the foreigners whose presence is so bitterly 
 resented, while they have largely contributed to the re- 
 trogression of Chinese trade and the hindering of 
 Chinese development. 
 
 When first the British came to exchange their wares 
 with the natives of Canton the principal articles of 
 import were opium and cotton goods, while the chief 
 exports were tea and silk. To-day the imports are 
 increased by the addition of well-nigh every article 
 produced in foreign countries, while the exports have 
 come to include a host of heterogeneous objects which 
 find their way to every part of the world. But, in 
 several of the most important and remunerative of the 
 articles exported, there has been a gradual decrease 
 due to the extraordinary methods pursued by the 
 Chinese, who prefer to sacrifice trade and lose money 
 rather than adapt themselves to the requirements of 
 their customers and move with the times. This is 
 especially noticeable in the case of tea, which through 
 neirlect has been allowed to decline to less than one-half 
 of the quantity formerly produced. Th6 decrease in 
 what was at one time the staple Chinese export is note- 
 worthy, and it forms one of the best proofs of the
 
 248 
 
 CHINA IN DEC A V. 
 
 litter hopelessness of the official classes. The follow - 
 inif table shows at a cflfince the decrease which durinLT 
 nine years has taken place in the export of black tea. 
 The figures are those supplied by Sir Claude Mac- 
 donald in the last published return on trade in 
 China.* 
 
 
 
 Australia 
 
 
 Year. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 and 
 New Zealand. 
 
 United States. 
 
 
 Piculs.t 
 
 Piculs.t 
 
 Piculs.t 
 
 i887, .... 
 
 729,022 
 
 169,905 
 
 175,142 
 
 1892, .... 
 
 313,978 
 
 122,691 
 
 209,603 
 
 1893, .... 
 
 322,235 
 
 91,891 
 
 202,797 
 
 1894, .... 
 
 259,269 
 
 80,583 
 
 258,884 
 
 1895, .... 
 
 203,785 
 
 84,773 
 
 163,569 
 
 1896, .... 
 
 17^,113 
 
 46,910 
 
 115,053 
 
 These remarkable figures are accounted for by 
 several distinct circumstances. Experts, such as Mr 
 Cass of Amoy, attribute the ruin of the tea trade to 
 excessive taxation, which renders the cultivation of the 
 plant unremunerative, and its export at a price en- 
 abling it to compete with the product of Ceylon im- 
 possible. In his report on the tea trade of Amoy, 
 Mr Cass goes so far as to state that the promised 
 introduction of improved methods of cultivation 
 will prove futile, as the day when it was possible to 
 resuscitate the expiring trade is past. "The only 
 possible remedy is the total abolition of the likin, 
 and the reduction of the export duties to a parity with 
 
 * Foreign Office Reports, Annual Series, No. 1984, 1S97. 
 + A picul is the Chinese hundredweight, 133 lbs.
 
 TRADE IN CHINA. 249 
 
 that existent in other countries." In conclusion ]\Ir 
 
 Cass says : — 
 
 We may, perhaps, be treated to some jubilation from Fuchow 
 and Hankow when it is definitely decided that a tea rolling machine 
 has been allowed to be erected at some inland point without any 
 extraordinary levy of extra duty and squeezes on the part of the 
 Chinese officials ; but the opinion of the very highest experts is that 
 all the machinery in the world will not now save the China tea trade, 
 unless a complete amelioration of taxation accompanies its intro- 
 duction.* 
 
 The same opinion is expressed by every person 
 who is quaHfied to judge. Sir Nicholas Hannen 
 echoes Mr Cass, and their evidence is substantiated by 
 every British consular return which emanates from a 
 tea district. While the export to Great Britain and 
 America is, however, decreasing, that to the continent 
 of Europe and Russia is increasing, for the reason that 
 the Ceylon teas, which are, owing to their more careful 
 culture and preparation, forcing the Chinese out of the 
 British market, have not yet penetrated into other 
 countries. 
 
 The moral taught by the decline of the tea trade 
 applies to most branches of the foreign trade with 
 China. The officials, from the viceroy to the lowest 
 mandarin, with the rarest exceptions, care only for 
 feathering their own nests, and benefiting- their families 
 and retainers. The encouragement of trade, the 
 development of the country, and the benefit of the 
 people, are never considered, and every means which 
 offers an enlargement of opportunity for peculation is 
 seized on with avidity. 
 
 * Report on Tea. Foreign Ofllce Reports, No. 1S63, 1S97.
 
 250 CHINA IN DECA Y. 
 
 A company, known as the Fu Kiang Steamer Com- 
 pany, started in July 1896 with the object of develop- 
 ing the traffic on the great Poyang Lake, situated near 
 Kiukiang, on the Yang-tse. The main object in view 
 of the company was the towing of junks between the 
 various towns in the district, which, by effecting a great 
 saving of time, would considerably add to their earning 
 power. On hearing of this, the officials at the various 
 likin stations determined to counteract the efforts of 
 the company, and proceeded to detain the steamers at 
 the various ports of call for such a time as to bring 
 their journey up to the average length. It would be 
 easy to place many such insane proceedings on record, 
 but the efforts of the authorities are more usually 
 directed to the discovery of an illegal means of adding 
 to their revenue. In this regard I cite Mr Byron 
 Brenan. 
 
 Considering the thickly populated region which Canton should 
 supply in addition to its own 2,000,000, one cannot but be struck 
 by the absurdly small amounts of foreign imports. The superior 
 endurance of native fabrics may have something to do with the 
 restricted import of our textiles ; but the real general explanation is, 
 undoubtedly, to be found in the heavy taxation specially imposed 
 upon goods imported from abroad. The intention of the framers of 
 our treaties was that imports in British ships should pay only 5 per 
 cent, ad valorem so long as they were consumed in the port — that is 
 the city and suburbs — of Canton, and that an additional half-duty 
 should clear them of all duties on their way to any place in the 
 interior. The actual state of things is far different. Relying on the 
 theory that China as an independent power is free to tax her own 
 subjects as she pleases, and assuming that the Concession is the 
 area of exemption from likin, the Provincial Government has 
 narrowed the treaty right by confining its operation to British-im-
 
 TRADE IN CHIXA. 251 
 
 ported goods while they are in the hands of British subjects. Once 
 they are sold to Chinese, a tax, euphemistically styled terminal likin 
 or octroi, is levied specially on such goods, and it is gravely argued 
 that, as this tax is levied on all foreign goods, no matter whether they 
 pass through the foreign or the native custom-house, there is no 
 differential treatment. In this way the treaty stipulations are nulli- 
 fied. For, while 5 per cent, is undoubtedly a light tariff, 5 per cent, 
 plus an extra percentage limited only by the risk of destroying a 
 lucrative revenue means unrestricted taxation. And the practical 
 outcome is that the duty authorised by treaty represents simply the 
 share of the Central Government in the taxation of imports.* 
 
 And lest the evidence already given should leave any 
 doubt in the reader's mind as to the extent to which 
 Chinese trade is being killed by mandarin greed, I will 
 cite the remarks made by our consul at Fuchow on 
 the methods by which prohibitive imposts are laid on 
 enterprise. 
 
 While the local exports have decreased, the system of inland taxa- 
 tion which is the curse of China has become more widely developed 
 and more firmly established. The revenue received by the Govern- 
 ment is trifling in comparison with the amount collected. No 
 proper supervision of the accounts at these tax stations is attempted. 
 At some, no accounts are kept, and the cash received are merely 
 thrown into a basket until a sufficiency for the day is collected, the 
 later receipts of the day not even being put temporarily in the basket. 
 The officers in charge of the stations leave the'r duties to underlings 
 who follow their masters' example. The likin tax is capable of 
 almost indefinite extension, as the charges are at first infinitesimal 
 in amount, and so long as the Peking Government makes little or no 
 provision for supplying the deficiencies in provincial exchequers 
 caused by the diversion of their revenue to the Central Government 
 through the foreign customs, the provinces must rely largely upon 
 likin receipts not only for their administration, but, also, to pro- 
 vide for the interest on foreign loans. All new developments of 
 
 * Forci^ni Office Diplomatic Reports, No. 2156, 189S.
 
 252 CIIIXA IN DEC A V. 
 
 trade arc watched with a view to possibilities of further taxation, and 
 those officials who discover fresh sites at which likin stations can 
 advantageously be opened are sure to be recommended for promo- 
 tion. Until the likin system is absolutely abolished, to make room 
 for a more enlightened system of taxation, there seems little hope of 
 this province regaining its former prosperity.* 
 
 The discouragement accorded to the export trade 
 by this system of extortion has already produced 
 marked results, and will, if not stayed, tend ere long 
 to cripple seriously the trade of the Empire. It is 
 scarcely necessary to point out that it is the exports 
 which pay for the imports, and that, if once the former 
 decline beyond a certain point, the amount of foreign 
 goods sent into the country will have to be lessened. 
 A deficiency of exports means a decrease of purchas- 
 ing power, and this brings with it a corresponding 
 diminution of foreis^n trade. As Great Britain 
 holds something like 70 per cent, of the total 
 foreign trade of China in her hands, it follows that 
 she is the nation most deeply interested in this 
 question ; and this suggests the necessity of our 
 exerting a more marked influence on the commercial 
 exploitation of the country than we have hitherto 
 exercised. 
 
 The total trade of China amounted in 1896 to 
 ^55,600,000, of which ^39,271,000 was carried on 
 with Great Britain. The relative amount of trade 
 done with the different nations is shown in the follow- 
 ing table, the figures in which are taken from the 
 Foreign Office return : — 
 
 * Foreign Office Annual Series, Xo. 2072, 1898.
 
 TRADE IN CHINA. 
 
 253 
 
 Greater Britain, ..... ;^39,27i,ooo 
 
 Japan, 4,795,000 
 
 Europe (excluding Russia), . . . 4,585,000 
 
 United States, ...... 3,842,000 
 
 Russia (with Siberia), .... 2,856,500 
 
 Portugal (Macao), ..... 1,034,500 
 
 The remaining countries, including Spain, Cochin China, Turkey, 
 Persia, Algiers, etc., represent under a million sterling altogether. 
 
 In order to emphasise the remarks I ha\-e made 
 respecting the disproportion between imports and 
 exports in China I append a further table in which 
 the two are separately indicated. The values are 
 expressed in Haikwan {i.e., customs) taels, the present 
 value of this unit being- 3s. 3d. The figures are for 
 the year 1895. 
 
 United Kingdom, 
 
 Hong-kong, 
 
 India, 
 
 Other British Countries, 
 
 Japan, 
 
 Continent of Europe, 
 
 United States, . 
 
 Russia, 
 
 Imports to China. 
 II. Taels. 
 
 • 33-960,000 
 88,191,000 
 16,944,000 
 
 4,506,000 
 
 • 1 7> 195.0°° 
 
 9.344,000 
 
 5,093,000 
 110,000 
 
 E.xports from China. 
 H. Tads. 
 10,571,000 
 54.775,000 
 2,764,000 
 3,605,000 
 14,822,000 
 21,172,000* 
 15.383.000* 
 15.603.000* 
 
 The total value of the tea exported from China to 
 foreign countries in 1896 was, in round numbers, rather 
 over five million sterling, and of silk seven million 
 
 * These, the only cases which show an excess of exports over import?, are due 
 to the trade in tea, which, owing to the causes dealt with ahove, must decrease. 
 It will be noted that the excess shown in these three instances added together 
 makes a total of only 36,000,000, whereas the deficiency of exports, as com- 
 pared with imports, from the British Empire alone amounts to 7o,cx)0,coo taels.
 
 254 CHINA IN DEC A K 
 
 sterlino", while the principal classes of imports ranked 
 
 in the following order : — 
 
 Cotton goods and yarn, .... ;^i3, 207,000 
 
 Woollens, 1,000,000 
 
 Metals, 1,626,000 
 
 Miscellaneous manufactured goods, . . 13,258,000 
 
 Thus the total imports into China give an average 
 of less than eighteen pence a head of the population, 
 while the total trade does not allow more than half-a- 
 crown for every Celestial. 
 
 Coming to the question of method, it must be 
 admitted that the Japanese are most successful in the 
 cultivation of trade with the Chinese. This fact is 
 not difficult to understand, seeing that the inhabitants 
 of Niphon have a racial likeness to the Celestials, 
 and naturally understand their ways. The British 
 are pre-eminent in the bulk of their commerce, and, 
 owing to their enterprise and the immense capital 
 they control, are likely to maintain their lead, their 
 most formidable opponents in the near future being 
 most probably the Germans. The French are alike 
 poor traders and indifferent colonists, and, despite the 
 activity which has for some time past been displayed 
 by them in South China, their efforts appear intended 
 rather to keep Great Britain out of certain districts, 
 than to effect the capture of the trade within them 
 for French manufacturers. The total of the trade 
 carried on with China by Russia is small in propor- 
 tion to the immense extent, resources, and geographi- 
 cal position of the latter country. But with Russia as 
 with France, the procreation of commerce is an excuse
 
 TRADE IN CHINA. 255 
 
 rather than a reason for inquisitive exploration, which 
 is really intended to lead to a further acquisition of 
 territory for political and military ends. The question 
 then arises : how is the commercial intercourse between 
 foreign countries and China to be encouraged, so as to 
 extend the markets already existing and increase the 
 custom of the people ? Before attempting to answer 
 this question it will be as well to glance briefly at the 
 idiosyncrasies which distinguish the Chinese trader 
 with whom business has to be done. 
 
 The Chinese merchant is shrewd, saofacious, and 
 enterprising, and, as a general rule, trustworthy. It is 
 extremely rare for a native trader to fail to keep his 
 engagements. There arc three fixed settling days in 
 the year, but if, by arrangement, an account is allowed 
 to stand over two of these, it will most infallibly be 
 settled on New Year's Day, which is the great 
 festival set apart for balancing up and paying debts. 
 But in his reasoning the Chinese trader exhibits 
 characteristics of his own. In pricing his goods the 
 European merchant examines each article minutely, 
 and, having gauged its value, marks its selling limit. 
 The Celestial does not trouble so much about his 
 wares. He devotes all his attention to the reckoninff 
 up of his customer, and, having formed his estimate 
 of what he will pay, fixes his price accordingly. A 
 typical illustration of this method is related by Mr 
 Holcombe * in the case of a Chinese hotelkeeper who 
 aofreed to board a visitor for a dollar a dav. But 
 finding, after three months, that he could not get his 
 
 • The Kcal Chinaiiian.
 
 256 CHINA IN DEC A V. 
 
 bills settled, he voluntarily reduced his charge one- 
 half, in order that he might not lose so much by him ! 
 
 The love of bargaining among the Chinese has been 
 referred to in the chapter on the People. No trans- 
 action can be arranged without it, and, as a general 
 rule, in small transactions each party to the deal 
 succeeds in apparently besting the other, the buyer 
 paying a lower price than that demanded, while the 
 seller gives short weight or measure, thus balancing the- 
 account. The idea that cheating is dishonest never 
 enters a Chinaman's head. False or adjustable scales 
 are on sale in every big town. A purchaser will go 
 marketing with a steelyard so adjusted as to be capable 
 of weighing three different pounds. The seller is simi- 
 larly equipped, and the final settlement of the business 
 in hand may take hours. The samie methods are 
 adopted in the more important wholesale dealings of 
 the import firms. 
 
 Notwithstanding the two hundred years which have 
 elapsed since the commencement of British trade with 
 China, our merchants are to-day still on the fringe of 
 the country, being permitted to deal with the natives 
 only at certain specially appointed places, and restricted 
 from sending goods into the interior except in cer- 
 tain specially authorised directions. The result of the 
 absurd regulations which keep Western nations wait- 
 ing on the doorstep of China has been the restriction 
 of trade and the severe handicapping of the foreigner. 
 
 For a long series of years all the treaty ports were 
 on the sea-board or the estuary of some big river. 
 The first waterway opened up in the interior was the
 
 TRADE IN CHINA. 257 
 
 Pel Ho, on which the port of Tientsin was opened to 
 trade in i860. The Yang-tse followed, being opened 
 as far up as Hankow in 1862, and to Ichang in 
 1876 ; Chungking, the furthest limit yet reached, was 
 conceded as a treaty port in 1893. The only other 
 waterway open to the foreigner for the purpose of 
 trade is the Si Kiang, on which the city of Wuchau has 
 been quite recently declared a treaty port. Despite 
 the number of the places now open to trade in China, 
 the bulk of it remains in the hands of the Chinese, who 
 themselves act as ao-ents for the foreicjn merchants. 
 By a process of natural selection, the treaty ports 
 have become rano-ed in categfories orraduated accordinsf 
 to their relative commercial value. The great em- 
 porium for the trade of all China is of course Hong- 
 kong, which is not a Chinese but a British settlement. 
 The most important of the markets on Chinese soil is 
 Shanghai, where there are more than eighty British 
 firms all doing a prosperous trade. Shanghai is the 
 commercial base for mid China and the lower reaches 
 of the Yang-tse. Here are sample-rooms and stores, 
 where the native merchant seeks his purchases, and 
 whence goods of every kind are despatched up river or 
 alonof the coast. Next to Shancrhai in commercial im- 
 portance comes Hankow^ far up the Yang-tse, situated 
 on the border of two provinces, and commanding a 
 more extensive system of waterways than any other 
 city within the Empire. It is indeed possible to reach 
 any province of China by water from Hankow, and 
 this fact has long since caused the place to assert 
 itself as the commercial capital of the interior. There
 
 258 CHINA IN DEC A V. 
 
 are to-day twelve British firms established in Hankow, 
 Tientsin has become for North China just what 
 ShanLdlai is for the central coast line. It is the oreat 
 centre of commerce for Peking and the Chili 
 Shansi and Shantung provinces. It boasts nine 
 British firms, while the neighbouring ports of New- 
 chanof and Chifu accommodate five more. Next in 
 order to these come the southern ports, in which the 
 tea trade is carried on. Fuchow and Amoy each 
 contain six British merchants' establishments, while 
 Swatow has to be content with two. And lastly 
 Canton, the great southern mart of China, the scene of 
 so many contests between the natives and the hated 
 barbarians, is now the home of half-a-dozen British 
 firms. It will probably cause some surprise to the 
 reader who meets with these fiofures for the first 
 time that the number of British firms in China is so 
 small ; but various causes, to be discussed later on, 
 have tended to restrict that display of energy and that 
 risking of capital which one would suppose would tend 
 to add continuously to the number of British traders 
 in the Celestial Empire. The total number of foreign 
 firms established in China in 1897 was 595, and the 
 number of European residents 9363. Of these the 
 numbers contributed by each nation are as follows : — 
 
 Nationality. Firms. Residents. 
 
 British, ... 374 4929 
 
 German, , 
 American, 
 French, 
 Russian, , 
 Japanese, . 
 
 104 950 
 32 
 
 1564 
 69S 
 116 
 44 1106 
 
 29 6gS 
 12 116
 
 TRADE IN CHINA. 259 
 
 It Is Interesting to note that the British and the 
 Germans are the only nations whose estabhshments 
 show an increase over those of the previous year. In 
 every other instance there has been a decrease. 
 
 The great question which arises in connection with 
 commercial intercourse with China is, what can he 
 done to promote trade ? The answer is difficult. 
 There are so many factors which combine to defeat 
 any attempt at commercial development that the 
 problem appears to be practically insolvable. The 
 great poverty of the bulk of the population, the per- 
 versity and ignorance of the Central Government, 
 the selfish corruptness and thievishness of the man- 
 darin, and the crass ignorance of the literati, all tend 
 to defeat any attempt at introducing civilising inllu- 
 ences, or extending the modicum of intercourse which 
 has been already achieved. The lack of authority of 
 the Tsungli Yamen over the provincial governors 
 renders difficult, if not impossible, effective negotiations 
 between foreign ministers and the Chinese Government. 
 If an attempt be made to deal direct with a local 
 viceroy, he shelters himself behind the fact that he is 
 responsible to Peking, and all negotiations must be 
 conducted there. When the almost eternal delays, with 
 the attendant squabbling necessary to achieve anything 
 with the board of foreign affairs, have been lived 
 throuoh and a nominal concession has been obtained, 
 it is discovered that the provincial governors refuse to 
 obey the behests of their superiors, who do not make 
 the slightest attempt to insist on their orders being 
 carried out.
 
 26o CHINA IN DEC A V. 
 
 The result of the constant filchin;^ of the revenues 
 by the mandarin has been to impoverish the ex- 
 chequer to an incredible degree ; and the gradual 
 growth of the national debt has, by necessitating 
 the sequestration of the customs and likin dues, 
 increased the ravages of the officials, and further 
 decreased the revenue received at Peking. With 
 characteristic shortsightedness, the native financiers 
 seek to meet this state of things not by insistence on 
 official honesty, or the appointment of accountants and 
 surveyors to hold the mandarin in check ; but by seek- 
 ing the consent of the powers to double the rate of 
 impost levied on imports. They fail to understand 
 that such a course must infallibly kill foreign trade 
 and further deplete the national exchequer. The ex- 
 pedient is on a par with that attempted by the board 
 of revenue many years ago, when an edict was issued 
 decreeing- that each " cash " should in future be re- 
 garded as representing the value of two. 
 
 The heavy taxation imposed on inland trade tends 
 to paralyse the exchange of produce between the 
 various provinces. Each district is thereby forced 
 to be self-supporting ; whereas, if only the power of 
 the mandarin to erect likin barriers wherever they 
 choose were curtailed, a large and remunerative ex- 
 change of commodities would arise which w^ould at 
 once tend to enrich the country and to increase the 
 revenue. 
 
 To quote Mr Brenan : — 
 
 As long as provincial governments retain the power of opening 
 new tax stations, and placing them in the hands of corrupt officials,
 
 TRADE IN CHINA. 261 
 
 our goods will never be safe. Whatever promises the Chinese 
 Government may now make, there is no reason for believing that it 
 has the will or the power to abide by its new engagements more 
 faithfully than by the old. Any talk about refunding illegal imposts 
 is vain ; before restitution can be demanded there must be proof, 
 and proof will never be forthcoming, for no Chinese will venture to 
 bear witness against his own officials. It is the uncertainty as well 
 as the burden of taxation that acts in restriction of trade. Chinese 
 merchants complain that they are unable to base any estimate on 
 the published tariffs of the likin stations, for these are enforced in a 
 very loose way. Two merchants in the same line of business may 
 fare very differently, and the less favoured may ftnd that his venture 
 results in a loss.* 
 
 But patent as is the grievance of excessive taxation, 
 it is by no means the only factor responsible for the 
 relatively small volume of foreign trade in China. 
 Quite as material in its way is the utter lack of enter- 
 prise exhibited by this people of stagnant ideas. They 
 refuse to advance to meet the foreigner, or to .seek 
 trade with him. The merchant stranger must seek 
 them out himself, and tempt them with his wares. 
 Neither will they, like progressive nations, develop 
 wants. The merchant must create the demand he 
 wishes to supply. Energy and push must be provided 
 entirely by the foreigner, who has himself to find all 
 the enterprise, knowing that what he does not do will 
 not be done at all. 
 
 I am not writing for the commercial reader, and do 
 not propose going more deeply into this subject or 
 proposing remedies. But I am impelled to draw 
 attention to one means by which the interests of the 
 country could be very largely served without calling 
 
 * Trade at the treaty ports of China, 1807,
 
 262 CHINA IN DEC A V. 
 
 into existence any new machinery, or embarking" on 
 any fresh expenditure. I refer to the missionaries 
 who are to-day resident in nearly every part of China. 
 I have, on a previous occasion, drawn attention to the 
 immense services which might be rendered to our com- 
 mercial interests, if only the members of the various 
 missions in China would co-operate with our consuls 
 in the exploitation of the country, and the introduction 
 of commercial as well as of purely theological ideas to 
 the Chinese intelligence. I am glad to note that this 
 idea has met with approval in more than one quarter. 
 In a recent foreign office return, I find the following 
 expression of opinion from Her Majesty's consul at 
 Canton : — 
 
 If we could enlist the co-operation of these men, they might, once 
 rightly directed, render much service to trade, without in any way de- 
 tracting from their usefulness as missionaries, or endangering the 
 success of their spiritual work. To the sceptical Chinese, the interest 
 manifested by a missionary in business affairs would go far towards 
 dispelling the suspicions which now attach to the presence in their 
 midst of men whose motives they are unable to appreciate, and 
 therefore condemn as unholy. They are constantly coming in 
 contact with Chinese traders, and men of consideration in their own 
 ■ localities, and they must often obtain useful information which now 
 is wasted, but which might be turned to good purpose if it could be 
 communicated in the right quarter.* 
 
 The greatest factor in the restriction of trade inter- 
 course with China is the Celestial's want of knowledge 
 of the foreigner as he really is. The native only knows 
 the "outer barbarian," the "foreign devil," whom he 
 has been educated to shun with contempt ; and the 
 
 * China, >'o. ig'^g, 1897.
 
 TRADE IN CHINA. 263 
 
 missionaries who unquestionably succeed in attainini^ 
 a friendly footing among the Chinese of the interior 
 could do much to destroy these delusions. On this 
 subject I quote an apt passage from Mr Bourne : — 
 
 In order to improve China's demand for our imports, her exports 
 must be increased in value, and this can best be done by Englishmen 
 living in settlements, like that at Shanghai, at suitable places in the 
 interior, who, while managing steam shipping and developing the 
 export trade, could at the same time distribute imports and be ready 
 to engage in mining and engineering enterprises as the opportunity 
 offered. Rich men will not live in the out-ports, and poor men 
 cannot make a living independently: therefore, the work must be 
 done by rich firms or corporations able to wait and train in the 
 Chinese spoken language and mercantile customs youths selected in 
 England for their business capacity. In ten years such a system 
 would give us a hold over the foreign trade of Cliina that the present 
 methods can never do. 
 
 It may occur to an Englishman unacquainted with the East, that 
 such a programme is much too far reaching, and that the Chinese 
 can be trusted shortly to enter upon the path of progress, when our 
 existing agencies in Shanghai and Hong-kong will be cjuite sufficient 
 links of foreign trade. This is the view which has brought our 
 trade into its present condition of dead-lock ; it is based on a much 
 too sanguine estimate of Chinese institutions and character. It is 
 not that the Chinese will not progress in the modern sense, but that 
 they cannot. They have not the institutions, the laws, or the 
 character on which to base the elaborate structure of modern 
 commerce. The analogy from Japanese progress is delusive ; the 
 Japanese had till recently a feudal system ; they have an aristocracy, 
 and a healthy social hierarchy based on a sound subordination ; 
 they are an organised body, and their leaders have made them a 
 nation : the Chinese, although, individually, in physi(]uc and 
 intellect, more than a match for tlie Japanese, have none of these 
 things, nor the least desire to attain them. 
 
 Therefore it is better to base our hope of future development of 
 foreign trade in China on ICnglishmcn living in the country and
 
 264 CHINA IN DEC A V. 
 
 pursuing their own interests ; when they have achieved success the 
 Chinese will certainly try to follow in their wake. 
 
 The suggestions contained in the above quotation 
 are in every respect admirable. The principle laid 
 down is self-evident. China cannot progress, because 
 the people do not wish to, and the officials would not 
 let them if they did. And so the country remains 
 always the same, — ignorant and benighted, its short- 
 cominofs concealed behind a veil of arrocrant conceit, 
 and thus it successfully resists the attempts of en- 
 lightened nations to open up relations which can only 
 tend to the benefit of all the parties concerned.
 
 CHAPTER XL 
 
 THE BRITISH SPHERE. 
 
 The spheres of British influence in China extend to 
 well-nigh every portion of the Empire. For the pur- 
 poses of the present chapter, they may be conveniently 
 classed geographically in three zones — Central, North, 
 and South. I have already dwelt on the supremacy of 
 British trade at the treaty ports, and now purpose 
 dealing with the political, rather than with the purely 
 commercial, aspects of our relations with the Chinese. 
 
 The methods by which our representatives have 
 succeeded in securing our trade interests at the treaty 
 ports are of two kinds, and vary somewhat in detail. 
 The first necessity in the opening of a new port to 
 foreign intercourse is the obtaining of a piece of land on 
 which the new-comers may erect dwelling-houses and 
 stores, and where, later on, a quay or bund may be con- 
 structed, so as to render the berthing of ships and the 
 handling of cargoes possible. These may be attained 
 by means of a settlement or by a concession, and each 
 method has its advantages. A concession is a piece of 
 ground leased by the Chinese to the British Govern- 
 ment, and sublet to British merchants, while a settle- 
 ment is an area within which the British are permitted
 
 268 CHINA IN DEC A V. 
 
 to lease land direct from the native proprietors. The 
 form most usually employed in the case of a settlement 
 is a perpetual lease, and in either case the land becomes, 
 for the time being, and with certain limitations, British 
 soil, and is policed and controlled by the representatives 
 of the British Government, who generally delegate these 
 duties to a council of resident merchants. Experts 
 differ as to the relative advantages of these two 
 methods, but the reasoning put forward by Mr F. S. A. 
 Bourne, who has had exceptional opportunities for 
 judging the results of both, seems to me unanswerable. 
 " The area of a concession is necessarily small ; Her 
 Majesty's Government stipulate, in leasing, that land is 
 not to be sublet to Chinese ; and where this rule is 
 carried out, as, for instance, in Canton, the concession 
 tends to become stagnant, being shut off from the wave 
 of growing prosperity around it and hampered by a 
 cordon of likin surveillance. The plan of a settlement 
 seems preferable in every respect except that of pro- 
 viding an area for the exclusive residence of Westerns ; 
 and this want might be met in the case of a settlement 
 by the provision of a special site for foreign residence. 
 The point is that a sufficient space should be provided 
 for manufacture, the preparation of such exports as silk, 
 hides, wool, feathers, etc., for warehouses and for the 
 residence of the body of Chinese engaged in foreign 
 trtide. Unless such areas are provided, British mer- 
 chants will never settle up country in China ; and, I 
 submit, that without them the country can never be 
 opened up to our trade." * 
 
 * The Trade of Central and Sou'.hern China.
 
 THE BRITISH SPHERE. 269 
 
 Thus at every port there is either a British conces- 
 sion, as at Chinkiang-, or a British settlement, as at 
 Shanghai. The concHtions of trade and influence are 
 the same at Newchang in Manchuria as at Pakhoi in 
 Kwangtung", and the only difference is one of degree, 
 which depends on the rivalry of foreign traders, or on 
 the prestige enjoyed by the respective foreign powers. 
 
 In North China we have commercial strongholds at 
 Tientsin, Chifu, and Newchang. Our trade at each 
 of these is considerable, and Chifu is additionally im- 
 portant on account of its salubrious position, which has 
 caused it to be regarded as the sanatorium of China, 
 Large sums of money have been expended on the de- 
 velopment of this place, which is resorted to by consular 
 officials and British merchants from all parts of the 
 country. 
 
 The status of the British at Peking is somewhat pe- 
 culiar. The capital, so long- closed against foreigners, 
 is now the residence of representatives of all the 
 powers, each provided with a considerable estal)lish- 
 ment. Foreign trade, as understood by us, is non- 
 existent, although there can be little question that 
 a remunerative traffic might be developed with the 
 Mongolian and Tibetan caravans, which annually 
 wend their way to the city. The political influence 
 of Great Britain at Peking was, until cjuite recently, 
 supreme, but the rivalry of the powers in the struggle 
 for concessions, added to an extraordinary display 
 of weakness by the British Govt-rnmcnt, as compared 
 with the bold front exhibited by the representatives 
 of Russia, France, and Germany, have very seriously
 
 270 CHINA IN DEC A Y. 
 
 lessened the respect with which our embassy was 
 formerly regarded, and it is generally admitted that, 
 until we exert ourselves to show that we retain our old 
 vigour, our prestige will remain under a cloud. 
 
 The most noteworthy feature in the British sphere 
 in North China is the recent acquisition of Wei 
 Hai Wei. Few places have been discussed with 
 greater acrimony, or given rise to more widely 
 divergent opinions. It may, therefore, be useful if I 
 ofive a somewhat fuller account of the new naval 
 base than has yet appeared. 
 
 The territory leased to Great Britain on the 
 northern side of the Shantung promontory comprises 
 the bay of Wei Hai Wei, the walled city of the 
 same name, with the island of Liukung and the 
 smaller islands adjacent, together with a strip of 
 land lo miles wide, along the entire coast line of 
 the bay. Wei Hai Wei bay is about 18 miles in 
 circumference. It is easy of access, and capable 
 of affordinof anchorasfe to a considerable number of 
 vessels. The depth of water a mile from the shore 
 is 4 fathoms, and large battleships can anchor close 
 to the island, which is 2 miles long and 500 feet 
 high, and serves in great measure to protect the bay 
 from the north. The country round is mountainous, 
 the hills averaging some 1800 feet. The island is 
 surrounded with forts, there being eleven in all, 
 each built of stone and constructed on the most modern 
 principles. The work was performed under the super- 
 vision of a German officer, who also planned the 
 defences of Port Arthur. The prospects of the place,
 
 THE BRITISH SPHERE. 271 
 
 from a strategic point of view, are, however, of the 
 poorest. The island of Liukung, when its forts 
 are repaired, and the guns, which were removed by 
 the Japanese, replaced, will command the approaches 
 to the harbour, and probably prove capable of keeping 
 a foreign fleet at bay, but it and the whole of the bay 
 is dominated by the heights behind the town. So 
 long as the mainland is not attacked, Wei Hai Wei is 
 safe enough, but if an enemy should once carry the 
 heights, the place is lost. And to fortify the heights 
 and to man them would require a very large force 
 and the expenditure of an immense sum of money. 
 In addition to these points, the harbour is exposed to 
 the north-east, and likely to afford but an unsatis- 
 factory shelter against the storms which prevail at 
 certain times of the year. Taken as a whole, while 
 the Government were justified in taking possession of 
 Wei Hai Wei, in order to prevent Russia or Germany 
 from doing so, the place is unsuitable as a naval base, 
 and quite unsatisfactory as a fortified position. To 
 compare it with Port Arthur is equivalent to contrasting 
 Yarmouth Roads with Gibraltar. Wei Hai Wei (which 
 signifies depot of terrific warships) is 40 miles from 
 Chifu, and 100 from Port Arthur. 
 
 In respect of the number of British bases, South China 
 compares favourably with the North. Pakhoi, Wuchau, 
 Canton, Swatow, Amoy, P^uchow, Wenchau, and Ning- 
 po, each has its concession where British trade and 
 British influence are developed, though in more than 
 one instance the latter exhibits but a slow growth. 
 And in the centre of this group of outposts is Hong-
 
 272 CHINA IN DEC A Y. 
 
 konir, not a Chinese treaty port, but a British colony 
 ruled over by the Queen's representative ; in fact, one 
 of the most remarkable and most prosperous of all 
 British possessions. 
 
 Hong-kong Island was first occupied by the British 
 in January 1839, and ceded by the Chinese in 1841. 
 It was decreed a free port the following year, and 
 the settlement which was formed on the north side of 
 the island was named Victoria. Hong-kong is 9 
 miles lonof and from 2 to 6 miles wide. Its total area 
 is but 29 square miles, and the road which encircles 
 the whole island is 22 miles in length. The harbour 
 of Victoria, which is one of the finest and safest in the 
 world, lies between the north side of the capital and the 
 Chinese coast. Twenty years after the occupation of 
 Hong-kong, the peninsula of Kauloon, opposite the 
 city, was ceded by the Treaty of Tientsin, and the 
 two together have since then formed the most pros- 
 perous of the British possessions in the East. Hong- 
 kong has been fortified, and is a militarv station of the 
 first class. It contains six forts, placed round the 
 harbour, but the south side of the island is practically 
 unprotected, and could easily be seized by an enemy, 
 who would then be in a position to attack the town in 
 the rear. On the 2nd of May last, a strip of land 
 covering some 200 square miles on the coast immedi- 
 ately opposite Hong-kong, together with the neigh- 
 bouring islands, became leased to Great Britain. The 
 importance of this accession of territory is mainly one 
 of strategic interest. Along the fringe of the territory 
 leased is a range of hills of considerable altitude,
 
 THE BRITISH SPHERE. 273 
 
 which, might at any time have been used for the 
 purpose of bombarding the settlement below. The 
 placing of this district under British control obviates 
 this danofer, besides affordinsf increased facilities for 
 the extension of the colony. 
 
 There are, however, corresponding disadvantages in 
 this latest addition to British territory. The land is 
 barren, and could not, with advantage, be cultivated, and 
 the population, both on the mainland and the large 
 island of Lantao, are turbulent and very difficult to 
 control. The city of Kauloon, which is expressly left 
 under Chinese control, is noted as being the haunt of 
 the worst smugglers and the biggest thieves in China, 
 and these are so reckless of life, and so impatient of 
 interference, that they turn out and fight pitched battles 
 with the mandarin on the least provocation. Among 
 this rabble are many pirates, who, even to-day, ply their 
 trade in the creeks and inlets with which the coast is 
 serrated, with practical immunity, though they appear 
 to have learned the wisdom of leaving foreign vessels 
 alone. People who know China are all agreed that 
 it was a fatal error to permit the city of Kauloon to 
 remain under Chinese supervision. The dangerous 
 characters who haunt the place are a constant menace 
 to British interests, and, apart from the facility with 
 which they could act as spies, and afford information to 
 our opponents, may at any time turn on the English 
 around them, and do a large amount of mischief with 
 the fjreatest ease. 
 
 The population of Hong-kong, exclusive of the 
 territory recently acquired, is 240,000, of whom 8600
 
 274 CHINA IN DEC A V. 
 
 are whites, and the value of the transit trade was in 
 1896 twenty-fiv-e million pounds. Unfortunately, the 
 climate of the island is not at all times healthy. 
 Epidemics occur at intervals, and the plague has, in 
 recent years, claimed many victims. From these 
 drawbacks, however, the prosperity of the colony 
 does not appear to suffer, and the place remains a 
 notable example of what can be achieved by British 
 energy, supported by British capital. 
 
 Coming to Central China, we reach that much- 
 discussed territory, which has of late been so freely 
 descanted on in the daily press and elsewhere. I 
 have already referred to the great river of China, the 
 Yang-tse, with its immense volume and its vast possi- 
 bilities, but I have dealt with its features from their 
 geographical standpoint alone. It is now necessary 
 that I should place before the reader an account, not 
 of the river, but of the reo-ion it serves, the reo-ionj 
 spoken of as the Valley of the Yang-tse Kiang, and 
 suggested as the exclusive sphere of influence of 
 Great Britain in China. 
 
 Before going further into the question of the capa- 
 bilities of the territory in question, it will be as well if 
 I draw attention to a point which appears to have 
 escaped public attention. I refer to the fact that to 
 speak of the Yang-tse Valley as the sphere of British 
 influence is to assume a position for which there is not 
 the slightest justification. The cession of the Valley 
 has never been demanded by this country, and it has 
 most certainly not been volunteered by the Chinese. 
 The whole question arose during the negotiations
 
 THE BRITISH SPHERE. 275 
 
 between the Chinese government and our own for the 
 recent Chinese loan of ^16,000,000 sterhng-. China, 
 unable to raise the money she required in order to 
 pay the final instalment of the war indemnity to Japan, 
 sought the assistance of Great Britain. The over- 
 tures thus made were favourably received, and, in 
 return for the guarantee sought, certain privileges in 
 China were asked for this country, together with 
 certain guarantees. Among these undertakings, all 
 of which were originally suggested by Sir Claude 
 MacDonald, and approved by Lord Salisbury, was 
 a cruarantee aoainst the alienation of the Yancr-tse 
 Valley to any other power, and this was duly accorded 
 on the 2 1st January last. No suggestion was made 
 that the Valley should be made over to England. 
 All that was pledged was, that it should not be con- 
 ceded to any foreign power, and the claim of this 
 country to exclusive facilities in this region is there- 
 fore unsupported by any justification of fact. And yet 
 it is a matter of almost daily event to meet with 
 references to the Yang-tse Valley as the exclusive 
 British sphere in China, and this error is doubtless 
 responsible for much of the nonsense which has lately 
 appeared in print. 
 
 British influence in the Yang-tse region is exercised 
 from Shanghai, which is not on the Yang-tse at all, but 
 12 miles from its estuary, on a relatively unimportant 
 efifluent. At the junction of the two is the outport 
 of Woosung, and further up the tributary is the great 
 emporium, which has been raised on the outskirts 
 of a comparatively insignificant native city. To-day
 
 276 CHINA IN DEC A V. 
 
 Shanghai boasts a population of close on half a million. 
 The foreign population amounts to 5000, of whom 
 nearly 2000 are European residents of the British 
 Settlement. The annual trade of Shanghai, according 
 to the last report issued, amounts to ^37,000,000 
 sterling. 
 
 Next to Shanghai, and in some respects of quite as 
 much importance, is Hankow, the commercial capital of 
 China, situated 600 miles from the sea, which boasts, 
 with its attendant cities of Wuchang and Hanyang, 
 a population of more than 1,000,000 souls. The 
 foreign trade of Hankow amounts to some ^13,000,000 
 annually, 80 per cent, of which is in British hands, 
 the bulk of the remainder being Russian. Hankow, 
 besides being the great commercial centre of China, is 
 the capital of the Yang-tse Valley, in which British 
 trade, and till quite recently British influence, has been 
 paramount. Let us see of what this much-vaunted 
 Valley consists. 
 
 The basin of the Yano--tse Kianor is estimated to 
 cover 750,000 square miles — approximately fifteen 
 times the size of England, — and comprises the greater 
 portion of seven Chinese provinces. In importance 
 this remarkable river ranks first, and in point of size 
 third, among the watercourses of the world, and it con- 
 stitutes one of the chief elements in the prosperity of 
 the Celestial Empire. Its sources are still unexplored, 
 and most of its tributaries are closed to the foreigner ; 
 but it is known to rise among the mountains of Tibet 
 on the eastern side of the range whence the Brahma- 
 pootra takes its course towards the west. From the
 
 THE BRITISH SPHERE. 277 
 
 heights of Tibet the stream flows for more than 1000 
 miles before it is strengthened by the Yalung Kiang 
 in Yunnan, whence it flows with renewed energy over 
 a tortuous course of nearly 3000 miles to the sea. In 
 different parts of its system the Yang-tse goes b\- 
 varying names. It is known in its upper reaches as 
 Kui Ho (golden river), Kui-shi Kiang (golden sand 
 river), and Po Yang (great river), and it is only after 
 passing Hankow that it is spoken of as the Yang-tse, 
 the great girdle of China. 
 
 From the time when British influence first began to 
 assert itself in the Far East, this great thoroughfare 
 attracted the attention of the foreisfner as the hiohwav 
 down which the most valuable native produce found 
 its way to the outer world ; and the reports of the 
 daring explorers who ventured up its waters into the 
 interior directed the attention of the British Govern- 
 ment to the immense possibilities of the unknown 
 regions which it drains. The opening of Shanghai 
 and Ningpo in the vicinity of the Yang-tse estuary, 
 did much to educate British merchants as to the value 
 of the river trade, and the freeing of its course to 
 foreign enterprise by the Tientsin Treaty of 1858 
 would undoubtedly have given a very great stimulus 
 to British commerce, had its j)rovisions not been stulti- 
 fied by the inertness of Chinese diplomatists, who in- 
 vented endless excuses for withholding the promised 
 facilities, and successfully maintaincid the blockade of 
 the river. It was not until 1888 that the first Ih'itish 
 steamer found its way up stream, but its lead has been 
 closely followed, and to-day (juite a fleet of merchant
 
 278 
 
 CHINA IN DEC A Y. 
 
 vessels ply between Shanghai, Hankow, and Ichang, 
 the latter place being 950 miles from the sea. 
 
 Our knowledge of the Yang-tse Valley is still but 
 vague. Such details as we possess are due to the 
 energy of travellers, who have, at the risk of their lives, 
 ventured, often alone and unattended, into the wildest 
 parts of the Inland provinces, and it is to such as Gros- 
 
 IIOUSE-BOAT ON VANG-TSt KIANC 
 
 venor and Baker, who explored Yunnan in 1876, 
 Macarthy and Captain Gill, who followed three years 
 later, and Colquhoun,who undertook extensive journeys 
 in 1 88 1, that our knowledge of the richest districts is 
 due, while the exploration of the river banks has been 
 achieved by enthusiasts such as A. J. Little, S. \V. 
 Williams, and G. E. Morrison, all of whom have
 
 THE BRITISH SPHERE. 
 
 279 
 
 brought us tales of fertile valleys and mineral wealth 
 undreamed of previously. 
 
 The Valley of the Yang-tse is undoubtedly one of 
 the richest in the world. The only difference to be 
 found in the accounts of individual travellers is as to 
 which particular province excels in natural advantages. 
 From Sechuan, on the borders of Tibet, to Kiangsu, 
 on the Yellow Sea, each teems with natural wealth, and 
 the resources of these fertile regions, so far from being 
 exhausted, have not even been developed. The seven 
 provinces comprised in the Valley of the Yang-tse may 
 be summarised as follows : — 
 
 Population. Capital. 
 
 75,000,000 Ching-tu 
 
 4,000,000 Yunnan 
 
 20,000,000 Wuchang 
 
 16,000,000 Changsha 
 
 15,000,000 Ngan-king 
 
 15,000,000 Nanchang 
 
 20,000,000 Nanking 
 
 Of these provinces, Sechuan and Hunan are admit- 
 tedly the most wealthy, both on account of their great 
 fertility and of their immense mineral deposits, for the 
 most part unworked. Sechuan, the biggest province 
 in China, consists, mainly, of mountain ranges inter- 
 spersed with long, deep, fertile valleys, which produce 
 opium, silk, sugar, and tobacco of fine quality and in- 
 creasing quantity, while, of late years, various drugs 
 valuable in medicine have been cultivated with success. 
 This province is also the principal source from which 
 we derive our supply of the purest white wax, the pro- 
 
 Province. 
 
 Area. 
 
 Sechuan .. 
 
 . 185,000 
 
 sq. miles . 
 
 Yunnan .. 
 
 122,000 
 
 
 Hupeh . . 
 
 71,000 
 
 
 Hunan 
 
 65,000 
 
 
 Anwei 
 
 48,000 
 
 
 Kiangsi . . 
 
 72,000 
 
 
 Kiangsu .. 
 
 44,000 

 
 28o CHINA IN DECA V. 
 
 duct of -.in insect indigenous to the district. Despite 
 the fact that the chief commercial city, Chungking, has 
 been a treaty port since 1889, the province remains 
 almost entirely unknown, and its trade is practically 
 restricted to the natives. In face of this, however, the 
 exports average over ^5,000,000 in value, while the 
 imports of cotton and woollen goods, alone, are esti- 
 mated at ;^3, 000,000 annually. 
 
 Yunnan, the most southerly of the Yang-tse prov- 
 inces, is also extremely mountainous, but produces vast 
 quantities of sugar, rice, and tobacco, and one-third of 
 the plains on its eastern side is said to be given over 
 to the cultivation of the poppy, 
 
 Hunan and Hupeh, divided by the Yang-tse, 
 resemble one another in fertility and productiveness, 
 and both alike are notable for the extensiveness of their 
 water communications. The trade between the lower 
 river and the cities of Hunan is the most important yet 
 developed in Central China, and the great lake of Tung- 
 ting, over 2000 square miles in extent, though not yet 
 thoroughly surveyed, is reported to be navigable by 
 steamers of considerable size. On the borders of these 
 twin provinces are most of the important commercial 
 centres of the Yang-tse. In Hupeh are Ichang, Ching- 
 chau, Shaszi, and Hankow, while Hunan boasts 
 Yohchaufu, and Changshafu, the latter known as the 
 head centre of merchandise comino- from the south. 
 The greatest wealth of Hunan is said to consist of 
 its mineral deposits, notably coal, which exists close to 
 the surface and covers an extent of territory reaching 
 over several hundred square miles. The Chinese claim
 
 THE BRITISH SPHERE. 281 
 
 that the Hunan coalfields are more extensive than 
 those of Pechili. Up to the present, the seams have, 
 however, only been scratched, as the result of native 
 enterprise. Where the coal region ends in this highly 
 favoured province, the tea district begins, and the gar- 
 dens of Hunan are famous throughout the central 
 provinces. 
 
 Hunan possesses a strong claim to special attention 
 apart from its mineral and agricultural wealth. I refer 
 to the ethnographic features of the province, which are 
 of peculiar interest, owing to the people being a race 
 in marked contrast to those found in other parts of 
 China. The men of Hunan are believed to be the 
 sole remaining specimens of the original Chinese 
 type. They possess a finer physique, exhibit more 
 intelligence, and, when judiciously handled, are more 
 amenable to the influences of Western civilisation 
 than are those of any other province. And they 
 exhibit a personal pride in the purity of their lineage 
 sufficiently strong to cause them to regard with con- 
 tempt the typical Celestial, with his Manchu, Mongo- 
 lian, or Tartar descent. The commercial capacity of 
 the native of Hunan is distinctly higher than that 
 of his neighbours, and this has doubtless largely con- 
 tributed to the prosperity of Yochau and Shaszi, 
 which promise to rival Hankow and Wuhu as places 
 of transhipment. 
 
 Crossing the river into the prox-ince of Hupeh. we 
 find the beeinnino^s of the future commercial centre of 
 the Yang-tse Valley. Chingchau, Shaszi, and Ichang 
 are the most important markets in this region, and to
 
 282 CHINA IN DEC A Y. 
 
 them come traders from well-nigh every portion of the 
 r^mpire. For, except as regards Chili and the unex- 
 plored regions watered by the Hoang Ho, the Yang- 
 tse affords the only available highway between the far 
 interior of the Chinese Empire and the sea ; and 
 Hupeh, offering the most central ports of shipment, 
 is resorted to alike by the Mahommedan fur dealers 
 of Kansu, the vendors of low-breed horses from the 
 steppes, and the owners of mules from Shensi, while 
 it is also the habitual resort of silk merchants from 
 Sechuan, tea planters from Hunan, and drug merchants 
 from the distant Kweichau mountains. 
 
 Kiangsi, which borders Hupeh and Hunan on the 
 east, boasts, like its neighbour, a lake of considerable 
 extent, round which cluster several important cities. 
 It is less mountainous than Hunan, but, like that 
 province, it is rich in mineral deposits, and is believed 
 to contain much gold. It is famous for its porcelain 
 manufacture, an art not yet entirely lost, which is 
 shared by the neighbouring district of Anwei, which 
 also produces the finest green tea now grown. 
 
 Kiangsu, the maritime province through which the 
 Yang-tse finds its way into the sea, is remarkable from 
 the fact that it probably owes its existence to the river. 
 It is the one province in mid China which is almost 
 entirely level, and its soil is nearly all composed of 
 alluvial deposit, which has, during past ages, been 
 washed down by the mighty stream. This soil is 
 extremely fertile and produces as many as three 
 crops in the year, its cultivation being given over to 
 the production of silk, cotton, and rice. It was from
 
 THE BRITISH SPHERE. 283 
 
 the prosperity of this province that the early explorers 
 obtained their first inkling of the wealth and resources 
 of the Celestial Empire. 
 
 The mouth of the Yang-tse, which discharges its 
 waters into the Eastern sea about midway in the 
 southern portion of the Kiangsu sea-board, at a 
 •distance of 1900 miles in a direct line from its 
 source, is 70 miles wide from north to south, and the 
 delta covers an area of 60 miles in extent. The 
 estuary is divided by an island of considerable size, 
 and the channels are broken by a number of banks 
 and bars, which render the navigation somewhat 
 difficult. 
 
 The commercial activity of Kiangsu is due to the 
 existence of that most important port, Shanghai, with 
 its suburb of Woosung and the lesser treaty port of 
 Chinkiang. The city of Shanghai is the biggest 
 trade centre under Chinese rule, and the amount 
 of merchandise which passes through it is nowhere 
 equalled in the Far East. Owing to a combination 
 of circumstances, due mainly to the intolerant con- 
 servatism of the Chinese, the bulk of the foreign 
 trade of the treaty ports of the interior is carried 
 on through native merchants, who act as the go- 
 betweens of importer and consumer, and thus it 
 happens that the bulk of the foreign trade of the 
 Chinese is transacted at Shanghai, where goods are 
 •examined and purchased by native agents, who sub- 
 sequently convey them up river, either in junks or 
 foreign craft, to be disposed of in the interior. 
 
 The interest attaching to the Yang-tse Kiang is by
 
 284 CHINA IN DFX A V. 
 
 no means restricted to the magnificence of its main 
 stream. Its numerous tributaries are all of pro- 
 portionate extent, and the Min Kiang, Kia-ling, 
 Ou Kiang, Yuen Kiang, Han Kiang, and Tien Kiang 
 have each a course of more than looo miles. It is 
 calculated that the Yang-tse and its tributaries wash the 
 walls of over one hundred cities of the first class, and 
 the total population of the drainage area is estimated at 
 more than 100,000,000. The navigation of the parent 
 stream varies considerably in different parts of its. 
 course. As far as Hankow, 600 miles from the sea, 
 the river is navigable by sea-going vessels of con- 
 siderable size ; but above Hankow the water is in 
 places shallow, and a safe passage cannot be relied 
 on for steamers drawing more than 7 feet of water. 
 The head of the steam navigation, as at present 
 recognised, is at Ichang, 966 miles from the sea. 
 The remaining 400 miles to Chungking is navigable 
 only by native junks of small size, specially con- 
 structed to stem the formidable rapids in the many 
 gorges to be found above Ichang. The first occurs 
 some 3 miles above the latter town, at which place 
 the stream is more than |- mile in width. At a 
 sudden bend, the cliffs which border the banks close 
 in, and narrow the river-bed to less than 250 yards,, 
 the gorge being dominated by cliffs more than 300' 
 feet high, through which rushes a torrent of almost 
 irresistible force.* Ichang gorge is 9 miles long, and 
 its depth nowhere less than 90 feet. To navigate a 
 vessel up such a reach as this calls for more thaa 
 
 * See Throu^^h the Yaiig-tsc Gorges, by A. J. Little, F.R.G.S.
 
 THE BRITISH SPHERE. 285 
 
 ordinary seamanship, and the task is in no case free 
 from peril ; and the facts that many of the c^org-es on 
 the upper river contain sunken rocks, and that all are 
 tortuous, add greatly to their dangers. The native 
 boatmen are, however, so expert as rarely to have an 
 accident, and large numbers of junks work constantly 
 up and down, even in the summer months, when the 
 water frequently reaches a heig'ht of 60 feet above its 
 normal winter level. 
 
 The bulk of the trade of the Yang-tse Valley is done 
 through the treaty ports along its banks. There are 
 only ten of these in all, though there are signs of a 
 coming change in Chinese policy which is likely to lead 
 to a considerable addition to their number. With the 
 exception of Yohchau and Shanghai they are all placed 
 on the bank of the main river, and the exceptions are 
 in direct communication with it. Every treaty port 
 possesses a British Consulate and a collectorate of 
 the Imperial Maritime Customs Board. There is in- 
 variably a piece of ground known as the British con- 
 cession or settlement, which is set apart for the use of our 
 fellow-countrymen, and, in several instances, there are 
 also foreiofn concessions in the hands of other countries. 
 It is, however, remarkable that while other countries 
 pretend to be extremely jealous of British trade in- 
 fluence in Central China, they do not appear to be 
 able to hold their own in competition with us ; and 
 while new ao^encies are from time to time beinor 
 opened by foreigners in the various treaty ports, they 
 generally disappear after a brief and unremunerative 
 existence. Take the case of Chungking as an example.
 
 286 
 
 CHINA IN DKCA Y. 
 
 Tin's is ;i very important city, being the most inland 
 treaty port yet opened ; it is situated at the junction 
 of the Kia-ling and the Yang-tse, which give it a 
 direct means of communication with the fertile 
 valleys of Sechuan and the productive regions of 
 Eastern Tibet. The commercial interests of foreign 
 countries are represented in Chungking by one British 
 merchant, three Chinese agencies of British firms, and 
 one French merchant. The only German house estab- 
 lished in the place closed its premises and withdrew 
 last year. I hear that a Japanese firm is about to 
 make the experiment of opening a branch here. 
 About the same proportion is to be found in all the 
 ports, with the exception of Hankow and Shanghai. 
 The following table shows the treaty ports at present 
 open on the Yang-tse Kiang and its tributaries : — 
 
 Shanghai, 
 
 Woosung, 
 
 Chinkiang, 
 
 Wuhu, . 
 
 Kiukiang, 
 
 Hankow, 
 
 Yochau, 
 
 Shaszi, . 
 
 Ichang, 
 
 Chungking, 
 
 
 Miles 
 
 Opened 
 
 from sea 
 
 1842 
 
 24 
 
 1898 
 
 12 
 
 1861 
 
 193 
 
 1877 
 
 282 
 
 1861 
 
 466 
 
 1861 
 
 600 
 
 1898 
 
 722 
 
 1896 
 
 886 
 
 1877 
 
 966 
 
 1891 
 
 1,366 
 
 Population. 
 400,000 
 
 35,000 
 140,000 
 
 77,000 
 
 53.o°o 
 800,000 
 60,000 
 74,000 
 34,000 
 109,000 
 
 Of these, the most important are Shanghai, which 
 is practically the capital city of all foreign trade 
 in China, and Hankow, the most central and most 
 favourably situated of the interior settlements. Ichang 
 was badly chosen, owing to its situation, which is just
 
 THE BRITISH SPHERE. 287 
 
 above the first stretches of difficult navi^-ation on the; 
 river. The actual limit between the upper and lower 
 courses of the Yang-tse may be set at Shaszi, which 
 has long been one of the most important of the river 
 settlements. A considerable proportion of the in- 
 habitants of Shaszi, — which serves as the port of the 
 famous Tartar city of Chingchau, — live in junks 
 moored off the embankment, which protects the 
 adjacent low-lying lands from the river lloods. These 
 junks form a serried line for more than 2 miles, and 
 the place affords a busy scene, being the principal port 
 for transhipment of goods between the provinces of 
 Sechuan and Yunnan and Hankow. Yochau, on the 
 east side of the Tunof Tintr kike inlet, is the newest 
 of the treaty ports in this part of China, having been, 
 with Woosung, declared open only this year, but 
 it is likely ere long to prove as valuable as any 
 other trade centre, inasmuch as it can be reached with 
 ease by ocean-going steamers ; and being the first 
 port declared open in the anti-foreign province of 
 Hunan, it will provide an outlet for much of the wealth 
 of that fertile country, as well as tend to educate its 
 sturdy people and bring about relations with some 
 of the important cities on the south side of the 
 lake. 
 
 Hankow, with its attendant cities ot Hanyan and 
 Wuchang, is probably the best known of the interior 
 towns of China. It is an important trade centre, and 
 the head of the most extensive system of water com- 
 munications in the country. Wuchang is also the 
 joint capital of the provinces of Hunan and Hupeh,
 
 288 CHINA IN DEC A Y. 
 
 and the headquarters of the anti-foreign spirit in the 
 Yang-tse Valley. 
 
 The main difficulty attending the navigation of the 
 Yang-tse is presented by the frequent changes which 
 occur in the level of the stream. The difference between 
 the summer and the winter height of water varies 
 from 20 feet to as much as 80 feet, the rise at Hankow, 
 where the stream is more than i mile wide, averag- 
 ing 50 feet. When at its highest, in wet years, the 
 waters overflow their banks and spread over the low- 
 lying lands of Hupeh and Anwei, until stretches of 
 country 100 miles wide are under water. These 
 floods, besides interfering with the navigation, paralyse 
 trade, and frequently cause very considerable loss of 
 life ; but, taken as a whole, communications are kept 
 up with remarkable regularity, and the work performed 
 bears eloquent testimony to the admirable qualities 
 of the averaore Chinaman when not actingr under the 
 influence of the official classes. 
 
 The time has now come when it is necessary for 
 Great Britain to make up her mind definitely as to the 
 future of the Yang-tse Valley. There are two alter- 
 natives in view, which, from their effect on China, 
 would react very differently upon the interests of 
 this country. The central provinces of the Chinese 
 Empire are about to become opened to the influences 
 of Western civilisation. They may be merged in the 
 colonial acquisitions of Germany ; they may become 
 bracketed with Tonkin and Siam as the northern 
 limit of Oriental France ; or they may come to form 
 the southernmost reoion of Asiatic Russia. Failino;
 
 THE BRITISH SPHERE. 289 
 
 these, there is only one other possible future in store : 
 it is the informal occupation of the Yang-tse by 
 Great Britain, and the declaration of a protectorate 
 which ought to have been promulgated at the close 
 of the Chino-Japanese war. To work for the opening 
 of treaty ports may be as admirable as it is quixotic. 
 It is, however, doubtful whether the kindness of British 
 diplomatists, whose craving to benefit rival nations 
 appears to be insatiable, is appreciated as it deserves 
 to be. If we desire to hold the finest market for 
 our trade which is still available in the Far East, it 
 behoves us to forego those scruples which have cost 
 us so dear and wrecked our influence in the north. 
 We must lease some ports on the Yang-tse for our- 
 selves. Tungchau or Chinkiang, on the north bank 
 of the estuary, Yangchau, opposite Chinkiang, and 
 Anching, on the borders of Hupeh, would serve the 
 purpose. Once established firmly on the river, British 
 interests would be safe, and the negotiations could be 
 concluded without more than a possible grunt of dis- 
 satisfaction from the snatchers of Port Arthur. If once 
 the opportunity be lost, if we v/ait until Russia dis- 
 covers that she has vital interests in Sechuan, and 
 sends a gunboat to protect them, or until France, 
 divining our intention, hastens her policy of grab from 
 the south, and leaves the valley of the JNIekawng for 
 that of the Yang-tse, the opportunity will have been 
 lost, and we shall have sacrificed our chance of securing 
 such benefits as will assuredly not offer themselves 
 aofain.
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 RAILWAYS IN CHINA. 
 
 In the appreciation of the population of China, rail- 
 ways occupy an entirely different position from that 
 which they hold in other parts of the world. 
 Within the limits of the Celestial Empire the iron 
 road has come to be regarded neither as an object of 
 general utility nor as a joy for ever. It is held up to 
 universal objurgation for the reason that it is novel, 
 practical, and progressive, and on that account generally 
 reprehensible. For your Chinese resents progress in any 
 form. He believes in retrogression as a mark of national 
 prosperity, and above all hates anything, however 
 desirable otherwise, which suggests, ever so distantly, 
 the machinations of the "foreign devil." As 
 the Yellow Man has not yet mastered sufficient 
 enorineerinof knowledge to construct or work an iron 
 road for himself, he w^ould be compelled, should he 
 consent to w-ink at the existence of so utilitarian an 
 undertaking as a railway, to run counter to his dearest 
 prejudice and retain the services of European or 
 American engineers, thus actually attracting the 
 presence of those very objectionable types of hurnanity 
 he is most anxious to avoid. It follows, therefore,
 
 RAILWAYS .N CHINA 
 
 SCALE 
 
 J^tlu'uysynutJc ^^^Y + 4-■•-■^* 
 Juitlwayi foropoied 
 
 [ To face page 290.
 
 . o
 
 RAIL \VA YS IX CHINA. 291 
 
 that China stands in rcq^ard to railways much as 
 Iceland does to snakes. Generally speaking, they are 
 conspicuous by their absence, the exception serving 
 only to prove the rule. The proportion of railways 
 to the area of the United Kino^dom is on(! mile of road 
 to every two and three-quarter square miles of land. In 
 Japan the railways are in evidence to the extent of 
 one mile of line to every sixty-eight square miles of 
 territory. In the Flowery Land permanent- way exists 
 at the rate of one mile to 22\\\ square mik-s of area, 
 and this despite the fact that railways were introduced 
 into China more than twenty years ago. 
 
 The construction of the first railwa\- in ("liina was 
 due to the enterprise of a few of the luiropean resi- 
 dents in the Shanghai district who combined to form 
 a company with the object of constructing a line 
 unitino- Shanohai with its outer roadstead at Woosuncr. 
 The distance between these places is only twelve miles, 
 and the line was of narrow i>'aucre. Tlic historv of 
 this undertaking is instructive. Considerable opposi- 
 tion to the scheme was manifested by the mandarin 
 from the outset, and it was onlv with the CTeatest 
 difficulty that the striji of land required was obtained. 
 As the bulk of the district trax'ersed was purely 
 agricultural, the difficulties raised were fewer than 
 would otherwise have been the case, and, after 
 considerable delay, the negotiations were completed, 
 the work was accomplished, and the railway op( lutl 
 on the 30th June 1876. Contrary to expectation, 
 the attitude assumed by the natives t(nvards the rail- 
 way was one of friendly curiosity. They flocked
 
 292 CHINA IN DEC A V. 
 
 to the railway in greater numbers than could be 
 conveyed, the service had to be extended, and it 
 became evident that the venture would prove a great 
 success. But the management had not reckoned with 
 the mandarin. A coolie, who had been bribed by the 
 offer of a handsome payment to his family, walked on 
 to the line in front of a train, and lay down before the 
 approaching engine. He was immediately cut to 
 pieces, and demands w^ere forthwith made by the 
 Chinese officials that the driver of the engine should 
 be given up to them on the life for life principle. It is 
 scarcely necessary to say that this demand was not 
 complied with. A lengthy correspondence ensued, 
 and the mandarin, finding that they could not make 
 any impression on the railway people, worked on the 
 feelings of the native population to such an extent 
 as to cause the rabble to remain in a state of incipient 
 revolt against the new mode of progression. It was 
 just when the attitude of the people began to cause 
 uneasiness in the British settlement that the Chinese 
 Government offered to buy the railway, and, acting on 
 the advice of Sir Thomas Wade, the British Minister at 
 Peking, the railway company accepted the offer on the 
 understanding that the Chinese should continue to 
 work the line, which, despite the organised opposition, 
 was being largely patronised by the natives. The 
 transfer was accordingly made, and the mandarin ran 
 the trains for a while. Then suddenly, without reason 
 or formal notice, the rolling stock was put on board 
 a couple of steamers and sent to Formosa, while the 
 rails were pulled up and thrown into the sea.
 
 RA IL \VA\ 'S IX CHINA . 293 
 
 The second Introduction of niilways into China was 
 due to the energy and determination of Mr C. \\\ 
 Kinder, a young English engineer engaged to superin- 
 tend the working of the Kaiping Coal 3tlines, near 
 Tongshan, in 1879. ^'"^ order to simplif\- the handling 
 and conveyance of the coal, Mr Kinder had con- 
 structed a narrow-gauge tramway, on which was run 
 a service of trolleys, the traction being supplied by 
 coolie labour. The men received ten cents a day, and 
 the work they did was necessarily slow and unsatis- 
 factory. After much consideration the engineer decided 
 that it would be far better, as well as cheaper, to have 
 a locomotive to draw the trucks to and from the pit- 
 head. He represented his requirements to the author- 
 ities, who were greatly scandalised, and refused for one 
 moment to consider a proposal to introduce the hantli- 
 work of white-faced heathens. But Mr Kintler was 
 not to be so easily suppressed. He had decided that 
 a locomotive was needed, and a locomotive he wDuld 
 have. As permission to buy ont; had been refused 
 him, he determined to build one himself, anil he set 
 about the undertaking forthwith. He got a p.iir of 
 driving-wheels from the United States. He annexed 
 a disabled engine, and after taking it to j)iec('s fouiul 
 the boiler still serviceable, and he olttainrd other 
 working parts from a derelict thrashing machine. In 
 the end he constructed a locomotive, which lu; painted 
 yellow, decorated with Imperial dragons, and named 
 the Rocket. His daring all but cost him his position. 
 The authorities ordered the fiendish thing to be 
 suppressed, but to little purpose. Mr Kinder con-
 
 294 CHINA IN DECAY. 
 
 tinucd to run his creation with excellent results in the 
 saviiif^ of labour, time, and money, and in the end he 
 gained his point and got the Rocket licensed by the 
 authorities. 
 
 The spectacle of the trains of trolleys laden with 
 coal being hauled along by the new species of "devil," 
 brought into existence by the English engineer, 
 served to familiarise the natives of North China with 
 the idea of railways. Some of them had heard of the 
 Woosung railway, and their interest in the new mode 
 of traction was so oreat as to lead them to trust them- 
 selves in the empty coal trucks, and take occasional 
 rides. And so by slow degrees the idea became less 
 awful to contemplate, and, largely owing to the patient 
 persistency of the engineer, a permit was at length 
 obtained for the continuation of the road in the 
 direction of Tientsin. The work w^as done by Chinese 
 labour under the personal supervision of Mr Kinder, 
 and, slowly but surely, it was carried forward until 
 Tientsin was placed in communication with Shan hai 
 kuan, on the Gulf of Pechili, where the great Wall 
 of China terminates by the sea. The work of con- 
 struction was commenced in 18S7, and its success was 
 so marked that in 1896 the continuation of the line 
 to Peking was authorised. This section of the under- 
 taking was completed last year, and now the road 
 is being pushed on beyond Shan hai kuan, and some 
 fort5' miles of line are almost finished in the direction 
 of Newchang and Moukden. 
 
 The one important railway of China, known as the 
 " Northern Railway," has not been constructed without
 
 RAIL IVA \ S IN CHINA. 295 
 
 the expenditure of an Immense amount of diplomacy, 
 and the surmounting of many difficulties. The 
 Celestials are, above all things, reverent in their regard 
 For their ancestors. The youth of China obey their 
 parents with a blind sense of loyalty which might 
 with advantage be imitated by the rising generation 
 in Western lands. But while John Chinaman 
 reveres the authors of his being, he worships his 
 ancestors, and while a daily course of lying forms 
 part of his educational curriculum, and an occasional 
 outrage is regarded as an " incident," the neglect of, or 
 even a casual trespass on the grave of an ancestor 
 is held to be a crime for which no punishment known 
 to the ingenuity of man is sufficient. And, to make 
 matters more complicated, the Celestials have a knack 
 of burying their dead in all sorts of places, according 
 to the indications of the sooth-sayers generally em- 
 ployed for the purpose. 
 
 To construct a railway through a country pledged 
 to ancestor-worship is rather a big order. In the case 
 of the Shanghai-Woosung line the plans had to be 
 modified any number of times ; indeed, seldom a day 
 passed without some objection being taken to a par- 
 ticular piece of road. Thus, in one case, an embank- 
 ment as planned would have had to be constructed 
 over the grave of a deceased warrior. In another the 
 shadow of a signal-post was found to fall, during at 
 least an hour of the day, across the grave of one who 
 had been murdered ; and, again, the sinking of a well 
 within a hundred yards or so of a cemetery nearly 
 caused a riot.
 
 296 CHINA IN DEC A Y. 
 
 The train service on China's Northern Railway- 
 comprises four trains daily in each direction ; the 
 average speed run is fifteen miles an hour. The 
 traffic is worked by coolies, who receive a wage of 
 two shillinofs a week for their services. The rails and 
 plant came from England. It is instructive to note 
 that the Peking terminus is a considerable distance 
 outside the City walls, as it is generally recognised 
 that the sanctity of the Imperial residence would be 
 contaminated by the closer propinquity of the iron 
 horse. The cost of the Peking line was set down by 
 the English engineer at ^280,000, equal to ^4000 a 
 mile. The estimates having been explained to Hu 
 Chii Fei, the then Viceroy of Chili and chief mandarin 
 of the province, that august personage undertook to 
 raise the necessary capital, and by dint of orders, 
 threats, and persuasions, the magistrate raised the sum 
 of ;^396,ooo, being ^5800 a mile. This transaction 
 is a fair example of how things are done in China. 
 Another instance of Chinese methods is afforded by a 
 little incident which occurred at the other end of the 
 system. Shortly before reaching Shan hai kuan, the 
 road traverses a deep valley which is liable to being 
 Hooded at times. The P^nglish engineers who con- 
 structed the railway met the case by building a bridge 
 or viaduct across the gorge, the bridge being rather 
 over 1000 feet long. In 1895 the whole of the valley 
 was flooded, and the water rose sixteen feet above the 
 rails. After the flood had subsided it was found that 
 the masonry had stood the strain well, but that some 
 of the rails had been washed away. No attempt was
 
 RAIL IV A YS IN CHIXA. 297 
 
 made to repair the damage. The track was lowered 
 to the ground and the rails relaid across the bottom 
 of the valley so as to offer no obstruction to future 
 floods. 
 
 Since the Northern railway has become an 
 established fact, the possibility of the construction 
 of other lines has considerably improved, and more 
 than one is already under construction. The most 
 advanced of these is the second line between Shanghai 
 and Woosung, now nearly completed, which runs over 
 much the same orround as the former road which was 
 torn up by the Chinese in 1878. A start has also 
 been made on the main trunk line running southwards 
 from Peking to Paotingfu and Chingting, of which 
 more hereafter. 
 
 The question of railway communications in China 
 is an important one which is to-day occupying the 
 attention of engineers and financiers in many parts of 
 the world. Quite a number of schemes have l^een 
 drawn up, and several of these have been duly 
 authorised by the central government. The routes 
 taken by the various proposed systems of railway are 
 shown on the accompanying map, whicli will convey a 
 general idea of the various undertakings more clearly 
 than a lengthy description would do. 
 
 The commercial and political aspects of the proposed 
 railways may be classified under two heads, viz. : Those 
 M'hich affect China itself, and those which concern the 
 relations between China and her neighlx)urs. 
 
 The lines which will form links of cc^nmunication 
 between the Celesti^il Empire and foreign countries
 
 298 CHINA IN DEC A Y. 
 
 are four in number, and are in course of construc- 
 tion by three great powers. Russia has two such lines 
 in progress. England and France each have one. 
 
 The Russian routes into China, so far as they are at 
 present mapped out, will cross the boundary between 
 the two countries, one on the north-east and the other 
 on the extreme west. They are the Trans-Siberian 
 and the Central Asiatic railways. Each is, vmtatis 
 vmtandis, in the same stage of advancement. Both 
 are being built from both ends at once, and in point of 
 extent and interest they exceed every similar under- 
 taking yet achieved. 
 
 The Trans-Siberian railway will in length exceed 
 by more than looo miles the Central Pacific line across 
 America. It was planned out as far back as 1854, 
 when the Ussuri district was occupied by Russia and 
 Vladivostock chosen as the orreat naval base of Russia 
 on the Pacific, but the work was not commenced until 
 1870, when surveys were made and the railway across 
 the Urals was taken in hand. The road is now open as 
 far as Irkutsk, rather more than 3000 miles from the 
 Russian capital. In its general plan the Trans-Siberian 
 railway runs across Asia in continuation of the Riazan- 
 Samara line from Moscow^ It passes nearly due east 
 and west across Southern Siberia, over the steppes 
 of the Orenburg district, by Petropavlovsk, Omsk, 
 Kainsk, and Taiga, — whence a branch line of 60 miles 
 leads to Tomsk, — to Krasnoyarsk, famed for its gold 
 workings, and thence, bearing southwards, to Nijni- 
 Udinsk and Irkutsk, the central capital. From Irkutsk 
 the railway skirts the " unfathomable " Lake Baikal,
 
 RAIL \VA YS IN CIIIXA. 299 
 
 and passes via Chita to Stretensk. Beyond, the hne 
 reaches to the northern bank of the Amur, which it 
 follows as far as Kabarovka. Here the river is crossed, 
 and the line turns southwards, east of the Ussuri, 
 until the terminus is reached outside X'ladivostock, 
 5912 English miles from St Petersburg. 
 
 Such was the route mapped out for this huge 
 undertakin''-. Beo'un from both ends simultaneouslv, 
 a portion of the eastern section was first opened. 
 The Ussuri section between Grafsk and Madivostock 
 was working in 1895, when upwards of 70,000 men 
 were labouring on different parts of the line. It was, 
 however, found that the engineering features of the 
 eastern section between Kabarovka and Irkutsk were 
 in many places difficult, and involved great and 
 probably by political exigencies, but little has been 
 done unexpected outlay ; and for this reason, strength- 
 ened to this portion of the road beyond making sur- 
 veys of amore or less rough-and-ready kind. 
 
 The difficult nature of the country round Lake 
 Baikal has caused an important change in the plans 
 originally decided on. The line was at first designed 
 to pass round the north side of lliis inlaiul sra ; but the 
 land was found to be little better than a morass, and it 
 was decided to go round the south end. The surveys 
 which have been made, however, present a numl)er of 
 very serious difficulties, including steep gradients, high 
 embankments, deep cuttings through solid rock, and a 
 tunnel 12,530 feet long. It was therefore decided to 
 leave this section for awhile, and as an alternative it 
 was determined to carry the line from Irkutsk direct
 
 300 CHINA IN DEC A V. 
 
 to the shores of the lake at Taltsinskal, and to ferry 
 the train across 20 miles of water. In the winter, 
 when the lake is frozen, it is intended to lay rails 
 across the ice from shore to shore. From Baikal it 
 is proposed to run the train over the summit level 
 into the Valley of the Amur, where it will be left, 
 the passengers going- on board a transport which 
 will convey them clown stream over the 1 200 miles 
 to Kabarovka, whence train will be taken to Vladi- 
 vostock. 
 
 But the powers conferred on Russia by the Man- 
 churian railway treaty with China enable this com- 
 bined rail and river route to be greatly modified. The 
 treaty in question authorises the construction of a 
 railway through Northern Manchuria from a point on 
 the Trans-Baikal section of the Siberian road, to be 
 determined by the Russian authorities. The effect of 
 this will be to cut off the huge angle formed by the 
 Amur and the Ussuri, and the savino- of some 600 miles 
 between Onon, the probable point of junction on the 
 Russian line, and Vladivostock, as well as a marked 
 economy in the cost of construction, owing to the 
 absence of ena-ineerinof difficulties in the Chinese 
 territory. The total length of the Manchurian railway 
 will be 1270 miles, of which 950 will be in China. 
 
 The general construction of the line would hardly 
 find favour with one of our own Local Government 
 Board inspectors. For the greater portion it has been 
 built on the " let's oret it down and the trains will 
 do the rest " principle. The banks are loosely packed 
 and the road is of the roughest. The stations, except
 
 RAILIVA YS LV CHINA. 301 
 
 at the more important towns, are mere sheds, often 
 constructed of sleepers or rough-hewn planks piled 
 one on the other. The rails in use are of Russian 
 steel, weiohinor 16 lb. to the foot, and are laid directlv 
 on the sleepers, the use of " chairs " being thus avoided. 
 The method employed is to place the rail in a notch 
 previously sawn in the sleeper and pin it to the wood 
 by means of spikes passed through holes pierced 
 in the flansfe. The crauge is that of the Russian 
 railway system, five feet, and the greatest distance 
 between stations shown on the original plans 40 
 miles. The outcome of want of care in executing 
 the necessary work is manifest in the case of the 
 South Ussuri section of the line at the X'ladivostock 
 end, which w^as completed in 1895. The permanent 
 way is in an extremely bad state, and considerable 
 repairs are now in progress. 
 
 The treaty authorising the construction of the 
 Manchurian railway was signed on the 8th September 
 1896, and has had a very marked influence over 
 recent developments across the Russo-Chinese 
 Frontier. The document in question, which was 
 signed by representatives of the Chinese Governmeiu. 
 and the Russo-Chinese Bank, is in every respect 
 remarkable. Among the privileges it accords, besides 
 conceding the right of constructing railways in 
 Manchuria, are the exploitation of coal mines, and the 
 development of commercial ami industrial enterprises. 
 The railways to be built are to be the property of the 
 Russo-Chinese Bank for a period of eighty years from 
 the date of opening. It expressly states that all
 
 302 CHINA IN DEC A V. 
 
 passenger luggage conveyed across the frontier shall 
 be admitted duty free, and the shares can only be 
 held by Russian or Chinese subjects. By this 
 agreement, Russia obtains practically exclusive rights 
 over Manchuria, and the clause restricting the share- 
 holders to two nationalities is an effectual bar to any 
 foreiofners obtainincj influence in the manaorement of 
 the line. The new railway, which is now being 
 carefully surveyed while the material for its construc- 
 tion is being accumulated, will run from Irkutsk to 
 Petuna and Kirin, whence it will run southwards, 
 avoiding Newchang, to Talienwan and Port Arthur. 
 There will also be a branch line from Kirin to 
 Vladivostock, which will provide a line of strategic 
 communication which will most effectually place 
 Manchuria at the disposal of the Czar. 
 
 The second important Russian trunk line in Asia, 
 the Central Asiatic railway, is not being pushed on 
 with the same energy as the more northern system. 
 It starts from Oozoon Ada near Krasnovodsk on the 
 Caspian, and passes through Kizilarvat, Askabad, 
 Bokhara, Samarkand, and Tashkent, a distance of 
 nearly iioo miles. From this point the surveys for 
 future extensions are still in progress, but it is settled 
 that from Tashkent the road is to be prolonged north- 
 wards until it effects a junction with the Trans- 
 Siberian system at Omsk, while an extension will be 
 made in a north-easterly direction through Semiret- 
 schinsk to Kuldja, on the borders of Chinese 
 Turkistan. 
 
 No official announcement has been made as to
 
 RAILWA VS IX CHIXA. 303 
 
 the further prolongation of the Trans-Caspian line 
 beyond this point, but it is not a matter of any 
 great difficulty to outline the intentions of the 
 Russian engineers. The railway will be carried from 
 Kuldja across Jungaria and the western borders of 
 the Gobi Desert to Sining on the great caravan route 
 between Tibet and China. Thence it will pass 
 through Lanchau and Siganfu to Tai Yuen, and on 
 via Chinoftincr and Paotin^" to Pekins!'. The railwav 
 between Pekin^f and Chincrtino;" is now in course of 
 construction, and the fact that the branch which is to 
 be made from there to Sigan is in Russian hands 
 affords strong evidence as to the correctness of my 
 view. 
 
 Turning to the means of communication between 
 the French province of Tonkin and China proper, 
 the scheme of construction is neither so ambitious nor 
 so far-reaching as those detailed above. The great 
 trunk line which is to unite Annam and Tonkin with 
 the eighteen provinces starts from Haifong, and runs in 
 a fairly straight line nearly due north to Langsen, 
 crossing the Chinese frontier close to Ningming, 
 and running thence to Lungchou, whence the road 
 is continued to Nanningfu on the West River. It 
 is understood that the French authorities have quite 
 recently obtained a concession for the construction 
 of a branch line thence to Pakhoi and to Canton, while 
 another branch is authorised by the Convention of 
 1895 between Loakai and Yunnanfu. In addition 
 to these undertakings, for which the consent of the 
 .Chinese authorities has been obtained, a connecting
 
 304 
 
 cum A IN DEC A V. 
 
 line is proposed, running- entirely in Chinese territory, 
 between Yunnanfu and Nannin^^. The construction 
 of these railways would not, however, materially affect 
 the lelations between the Celestial Empire and the 
 outer world, like the Russian lines, inasmuch as the 
 French colonies in Cochin China are only partially 
 settled, and neither their position nor their oppor- 
 tunities, as commercial centres, are suitable for the 
 exercise of either political or commercial influence. 
 
 The construction of a connecting railway between 
 India and China has lonsf been acknowledged to be 
 the great desideratum for the adequate support 
 of British interests in the East, and the subject has 
 attracted the attention of all the most expert of our 
 Chinese specialists. For a long time the authorities 
 aimed at the construction of a road in connection 
 with the Burma railways, to run from Bhamo to 
 Momein and Talifu, but the physical difficulties met 
 with proved so serious as to cause the scheme to 
 be practically abandoned. An alternative route, first 
 suggested by Mr A. R. Colquhoun, who was formerly 
 deputy commissioner in Burma, has been adopted, 
 and is now in an advanced state of preparation. The 
 line is a continuation of the main Rangoon and 
 Mandalay railway, and runs from the latter city to 
 Kunlon Ferry on the Salween River, which forms the 
 boundary between British and Chinese territory in 
 these parts. From the Salween the hne will be con- 
 tinued to Yunnanfu and to Suifu on the Yang-tse, 
 which it will thus bring into direct overland communi- 
 cation with British India. The Kunlon Ferry line
 
 RA TL]\'A YS IN CHINA . 305 
 
 will be Opened throughout its entire length of 270 
 miles in 1899, and it is believed that the difficulties 
 reported to exist in the 280 miles of mountain country, 
 between the Sal ween and Yunnan and Talifu, have 
 been exaggerated. It is now stated that beyond 
 the necessity of bridging the Mekawng at a point 
 where it is several miles wide, no very costly feats of 
 engineering will be required. The importance of this 
 line to British interests in China cannot well be over- 
 estimated. Besides saving several weeks' time be- 
 tween this country or India and Western and Central 
 China, the railway, when completed, will open up 
 possibilities of trade which have not hitherto been 
 enjoyed, and it is undoubtedly destined to aid in 
 brino-inor about a better understandino- between British 
 traders and the hitherto exclusive inhabitants of Yun- 
 nan and Sechuan. 
 
 Of the railways destined to effect the development 
 of the interior provinces of China, one which deserves 
 especial prominence is the so-called Lu-han line, the 
 future Great Central Railroad of China. This under- 
 taking is designed to place Peking, the northern 
 capital, in communication with Hankow, the most 
 important commercial centre inland, and the great 
 distributing depot of Western China. The scheme 
 has been under consideration for a number of years, 
 it havinir lono- since been recognised that the first 
 railway necessary for the ()j)ening up ol China was a 
 north and south road which would serve to unite the 
 more important cities of the Empire with one another, 
 and, the main line once constructed, an)- number of
 
 3o6 CHINA IN DEC A V. 
 
 branches can be added to connect the provincial 
 capitals with the central trunk. The first sug^^estion 
 of the idea is credited to a Chinese merchant, who had 
 visited India and studied the railway system there, and 
 he is said to have obtained some eight years ago the 
 necessary authority to construct the line. The condi- 
 tions with which the concession was saddled were, how- 
 ever, so disadvantageous to the grantee that he was 
 unable to find any capitalists to back him, and was in 
 turn refused support by French, German, and British 
 financiers. The matter thus hung fire for about eight 
 years, until at last a syndicate of merchants at Brussels 
 determined to try and carry the thing through, in the 
 hope of finding in China a more profitable market for 
 their wares than they had found in the Congo Free 
 State. The length of the proposed line is, however, 
 considerable, being estimated at nearly looo miles, and 
 as some of the necessary engineering works are very 
 elaborate, the amount of capital required will be con- 
 siderable. The syndicate endeavoured to raise this 
 capital by the issue of bonds at 4^% interest, but with- 
 out success, and it was only in the beginning of the 
 present year that an offer was received from the Russo- 
 Chinese Bank, which is, as already stated, more nearly 
 akin to a branch of the Russian foreign ofifice than to 
 a commercial concern, to find the necessary capital on 
 terms which included the possession of a controlling 
 voice in the management of the line. Such is the 
 history of this much discussed railway, which it will be 
 seen has fallen into Russian hands through the with- 
 holding of the requisite means of support by other
 
 RAIL WA YS IN CHINA. yyj 
 
 nations. Had the British Government chosen to take 
 the matter up — as one would have supposed they would 
 deem it politic to do, seeing that the line will pass 
 through the heart of the Yang-tse Valley, and provide 
 access to those districts of China which till now have 
 been the especial trade preserve of this country -there 
 would have been no one to say them nay. and we 
 should have secured to ourselves a permanent stake in 
 the country which would have gone a long way 
 towards supporting our prestige and consolidating our 
 commerce. But our Government refused to have any- 
 thing to do with the undertaking, preferring a policy 
 of abstention as being most in accordance with colonial 
 precedent ; and the railway will, unless very drastic 
 measures be taken, become to all intents and purposes 
 a Russian State railway, controlled from St Petersburg 
 and run in the interests of Russian trade. 
 
 But the importance of the Lu-han line does not end 
 here. While only contemplating a present union 
 between Peking and Hankow, another scheme is afoot 
 to continue the undertaking southwards from Hankow 
 to Canton and Nanning, where a junction would be 
 effected with the southern railways already referred to. 
 The Hankow-Canton scheme has been entrusted to 
 an American-Chinese syndicate, which has already 
 deposited a large sum as earnest of the work being 
 carried through. 
 
 The Northern railway of China has been already 
 dealt with, and it only remains to describe the Ger- 
 man and the British aims in regard to Chinese lines. 
 
 The railways designed by Germany are restricted to
 
 3o8 CHINA IN DEC A Y. 
 
 the province of Shantung, which has been made over 
 to the Fatherland as her exclusive sphere of influence. 
 They are comparatively insignificant, but designed 
 with especial reference to the development of the 
 great mineral wealth of the district. The system 
 proposed comprises two railways between Kiaochau 
 and Tsinanfu, the one going direct from one place 
 to the other via Pingtu ; the other describing a 
 semicircle with Ichaufu at its apex. From Tsi- 
 nanfu, the lines combine and run to Tientsin, 
 where a junction will be effected with the Northern 
 railway to Manchuria. 
 
 It is somewhat surprising to find that Great Britain, 
 whose interests in China exceed those of all the other 
 nations combined, and whose trade is more than two- 
 thirds of the total recorded, is concerned in so few rail- 
 way schemes for the exploitation of the country. Only 
 three concessions have been obtained for the con- 
 struction of railways designed by British enterprise or 
 financed with British capital, and of these one is at the 
 present moment in dispute. The first of these, and by 
 far the most important, is a line which, starting from 
 Ningpo, and running through Hangchau, Shanghai, 
 and Woosung, will serve both Chinkiang and Nanking. 
 This road, which originated in the minds of a few 
 British residents in Shanghai, is destined to develop ere 
 long into an East and West trunk route, which will 
 one day traverse the whole of the Yang-tse Valley from 
 Chekiano- to Sechuan. The second railwav due to 
 British enterprise is the extension of the Northern 
 line from Shan hai kuan, on the Gulf of Pechili, to
 
 RAJLIVA YS IN CHINA. 309 
 
 Newchang, designed to retrieve the blow aimed at the 
 commerce of that important treaty port by its avoid- 
 ance of the Manchurian railway about to be constructed 
 by the Russians from Port Arthur and Talienwan to 
 Kirin. This undertaking, which is of the first import- 
 ance to British commercial interests, is to be financed 
 by the Hong-kong and Shanghai Bank, provided we 
 succeed in upholding the terms of the concession which 
 was granted some time ago, but which is now objected 
 to by the representatives of the Czar, who desire to 
 see Newchang cut off from railway facilities in order 
 that their own port at Talienwan may usurp the 
 trade which has hitherto found its way to the head of 
 the Gulf of Liao-tong.* The third line which it is 
 understood will be controlled by British capital is that 
 which will run from Tientsin to the banks of the 
 Yang-tse Kiang, immediately opposite Chinkiang, 
 This railway will most likely prove a very remunerative 
 undertaking, supplying, as it will do, a rapid and direct 
 route between the Yang-tse Valley and Shanghai and 
 the Northern capital. The negotiations have been 
 somewhat delayed by the Germans protesting against 
 the road passing through the western limits of the 
 province of Shantung, where they claim the exclusive 
 possession of all railway rights ; but the matter appears 
 to be in a fair way of being arranged, and it is expected 
 that the East Coast trunk-line will be one of the first to 
 be constructed. 
 
 * The contract for the construction of this line was signed on the lOth (^ctol>er, 
 the Ilony-kong and Shanghai Bank undertaking to find a sum of ;^2,250,ooo for 
 tlic jHirpose, and the Chinese Government guaranteeing 5 per cent, interest, and 
 givini; a charL^e upon the Peking Shan hai kuan line as security.
 
 310 CHINA IN DEC A Y. 
 
 In addition to the foregoing there is a much dis- 
 cussed scheme for the construction of a railway from 
 Canton to Kauloon opposite Hong-kong, but the 
 line has not yet been officially authorised, and there 
 are many difficulties to be arranged before it could 
 be begun. 
 
 Such are the proposals at present to the fore regard- 
 ing the construction of railways in China, and it only 
 remains to be seen which of them will be finally carried 
 into effect.
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 CHINESE POLITICS. 
 
 The newspaper reader who follows the development of 
 affairs in China, cannot but be struck by the remarkable 
 want of sympathy which is apparent in all negotiations 
 Ijetween the Celestial Government and foreign powers. 
 Concessions, treaties, and increased privileges are ob- 
 tained from the Chinese, not by dint of a diplomatic 
 exchange of views, but by covert threats and the sug- 
 gestion of an appeal to arms. The facilities for 
 opening up the country, which are from time to time 
 grudgingly granted by the Tsungli Yamen, are due, not 
 to the least desire to enter into friendly intercourse 
 with European nations, but to the fears entertained by 
 that sapient body lest, in the event of its proving 
 obdurate and refusing the demands preferred, it may in 
 the end have to meet claims still harder to endure, or 
 possibly witness a repetition of that foreign occupation 
 of Peking which so greatly alarmed Chinese official- 
 dom in i860. 
 
 Owing to its supineness, its conceit, and its dislike of 
 anything which savours of reform, the Chinese Govern- 
 ment is the merest creature of circumstances. The 
 events of recent years have served only to teach it
 
 314 CHINA IN I) EC A Y. 
 
 that the country is incapable of offering' resistance to a 
 foreign foe ; they have not stimulated it to make any 
 effort to modernise its army or its navy, or to adopt 
 any other precautions for the defence of the Empire. 
 China is, in short, dominated by a number of officials 
 who wish neither for progress or development of the 
 resources of the country committed to their charge, 
 and who are too old to learn, too foolish to profit by 
 the learning of others. The Empire, given over to 
 ignorance, intolerance, and superstition, remains a blot 
 on the face of the earth. 
 
 Notwithstanding the thievishness of the governing 
 class, and the want of anything like a national pro- 
 gramme at Peking, there is in China a portion of 
 the population which is by no means in accord with 
 the mandarins' views as to the interests of the country. 
 The merchants who have come into contact with 
 foreign traders in such places as Shanghai, Hankow, 
 and Tientsin have not been slow in appreciating the 
 merits of Western ideas, while the small but increasing 
 number of young Chinamen who are sent to Europe 
 to be educated are gradually tending to bring about a 
 better understandinof between the natives and the 
 settlers at the treaty ports. Unfortunately, the influ- 
 ence thus exerted is still but as a drop in the ocean, 
 and, so far as it concerns the great bulk of the 
 Chinese, it cannot be said to produce any appreciable 
 result. 
 
 The population of the Chinese Empire is estimated 
 at over 400,000,000, and of these it is safe to assume 
 that 350,000,000 have never heard of Great Britain or
 
 CHINESE POLITICS. 315 
 
 Russia. It seems an absurd statement to make, but a 
 very little calculation will serve to show that it is well 
 within the mark. The total population of the treats- 
 ports is less than 10.000,000. The only other city 
 open to foreigners is Pekinj^-, with an estimated popula- 
 tion of under 2,000,000. The number of the Europeans 
 who have succeeded in penetrating- the interior — out- 
 side, that is, the immediate neif^hbourhood of the 
 treaty ports — is very small indeed ; so that the total 
 population which comes habitually into contact with 
 foreigners is less than 1 2,000,000, and the balance 
 of thirty-eight millions required to make up the fifty 
 is far larger than is necessary to include those natives 
 who occasionally visit the foreign settlements. 
 
 To this remarkable ignorance on the part of the 
 bulk of the Chinese population is due the position of 
 affairs in regard to foreign inHuence in China. The 
 exclusiveness of the mandarin finds a congenial soil 
 among' the unenlightened masses, and these are 
 easily stirred up to commit outrages against the 
 foreigners whom the officials teach them to regard 
 as " barbarians." 
 
 Until the outbreak of the first Chinese war with 
 Great Britain, the Celestials clung firmly to the belief 
 that their country was rendered impregnal^le by the 
 ability of the mandarin and the utter insufficiency of 
 all other nations. That air of superiority which the 
 Chinese had always been encouraged to cultivate 
 made it impossible for them to realise that agnation of 
 mere traders, such as the English, would dare actually 
 to attack China. It was only after a considerable
 
 m6 china in I) EC a V. 
 
 portion of the Chinese coast line had been invaded 
 and occupied, that the Celestials deemed it wiser to 
 temporise and consent to the sii^^ning of a treaty, 
 which it was intended to repudiate immediately the 
 desired result had been attained. The repetition 
 in i860 of the lesson which had been wasted in 
 1842, proved efficacious, and the capture of Pekin:^ 
 caused the idea to dawn upon the Celestial intelli- 
 gence that the " barbarians " were after all more than a 
 match for the natives, and when, three years later, the 
 British offered to assist the Chinese in quelling the 
 Taeping rebellion, the proposal was at once accepted. 
 The achievements of Gordon, with his "ever-victorious" 
 army which never exceeded 5000 men, impressed the 
 authorities deeply, and they showed their appreciation 
 of the service which had been rendered them by the 
 British officer, by conferring on him the most dignified 
 order of the Yellow Jacket, an honour which is re- 
 stricted by custom to twelve of the Emperor's highest 
 councillors. But they did not go beyond this. The 
 idea of remodelling the army on the lines laid down 
 by Major Gordon did not occur to the Government, 
 or, if it did occur, was not deemed worthy of adoption. 
 No reforms were introduced into the administration of 
 the provinces concerned in the rebellion, nor were the 
 services retained of any of those Europeans who had 
 been engaged with Gordon in suppression of the 
 Taepings. The foreigners had done their work well. 
 They had been paid and even honoured. The 
 necessity for their services had disappeared and they 
 could go. China did not see her way to sink her past
 
 CHINESE POLITICS. 317 
 
 traditions and place her trusted councillors under the 
 control of foreign ability. 
 
 And so it has remained. In moments of emert^ency 
 the Tsungli Yamen does not hesitate to apply to 
 foreigners for aid, but as soon as the necessity has 
 passed the advisers are discarded and, as often as 
 not, their works destroyed. Thus, in 1884, when the 
 French were expected to attack Peking, the Chinese, 
 realising at the last moment that things looked 
 threatening, sought the advice of military experts as 
 to the defences of the capital. Except the con- 
 struction of some forts at Shan hai kuan, none 
 of the suggested safeguards were adopted, and the 
 scheme which was submitted for the safeo:uardinor of 
 Peking from a foreign attack, remains among the 
 archives of the Tsungli Yamen, having failed to lead 
 to any steps being taken for the attainment of the 
 desired end. 
 
 The Chinese are well aware that they are absolutely 
 at the mercy of any foreign power which chooses to 
 attack them. They rely for their protection, not on 
 the few forts which exist at such places as the mouth 
 of the Pei Ho, or the bravery of their vaunted Manchu 
 fiofhtine men, but on the well-known jealousv of the 
 powers among themselves and the success with which 
 the wily members of the Yamen hope to play off one 
 against the other. The mandarin realise that under 
 existing circumstances it would be absolutely impossible 
 to prevent a foreign army from landing in China, owing 
 to the great extent of coast line to be protected, but 
 they refuse to permit any foreigner to undertake the
 
 3 1 S CHINA IN J) EC A V. 
 
 construction of the defences which have been suggested 
 to them, because their conceit will not suffer them to 
 allow a "barbarian" to direct work which they con- 
 sider should remain exclusively under their own 
 control. The attempts which have, for the benefit of 
 the country, been made in the direction of foreign 
 employment, have all failed for this very reason. The 
 circumstances of the engagements of Captain Osborn 
 and Captain Lang have been detailed. Of the many 
 attempts made by foreigners to instruct the Chinese in 
 the art of warfare, the only one which produced any 
 tangible result was the establishment of the first 
 arsenal in China by Dr, now Sir Halliday Macartney 
 in 1863. 
 
 Despite the events which have occurred during the 
 past few years, the rulers of China are as antagonistic 
 as of yore to the foreign idea, with the difference that 
 they have been taught that it is not safe to heap 
 insults or indignities on the visitors to their shores. 
 The lack of public opinion throughout the country and 
 the readiness of the people to obey the wishes of the 
 mandarin render the officials masters of the situation, 
 and their power is consistently exercised to delay pro- 
 gress and to circumvent the foreigner at every turn. 
 The few officials who are sufficiently high-minded or 
 well-informed to appreciate the value of Western ideas, 
 refrain from using them, either from a dread that the 
 introduction of Europeans into the country will tend 
 to destroy their influence, or because they find that it 
 pays them to keep the foreigner, and more especially 
 the Britisher, at arm's-length.
 
 CHINESE POLITICS. 319 
 
 Thus we find that Li Hunt^ Chanty-, a man of yrcat 
 experience and ability, who has had exceptional 
 opportunities for gauging- the value of occidental 
 methods, has withheld his assistance from the British 
 cause, in order that he might play into the hands of 
 Russia. And Chang Chi Tung, viceroy of the pro- 
 vinces of Hunan and Hupeh, and said to be the most 
 honest and level-minded of the mandarin, althou<'-h he 
 offers a remarkable instance of a progressive Chinaman 
 in his opinions, and although he is strongly in favour 
 of railways and similar undertakings, is yet an avowed 
 opponent of foreign intercourse, and he refuses to have 
 dealings with the British who visit his capital for the 
 purpose of obtaining facilities for the exploitation of 
 the country. 
 
 When first the British sought trade facilities in 
 China, their overtures were met by a resolve on the 
 part of the Chinese to drive them out of the country 
 at all costs. To-day the efforts of the mandarin are 
 devoted to the limitation of foreign influence in China, 
 and the restriction of the opportunities accorded them 
 for constructing works of utility. The carrying out of 
 these aims results not only in the partial crippling of 
 foreign effort, but in retarding the natural progress of 
 the country. For the Chinese are too well acquainted 
 with the mandarin methods to feel justified in trusting 
 them, and thus, while there is a very considerabk; 
 amount of money hoarded up in China, no ca|)ii.ilist 
 would ever entrust his wealth to the keeping of men 
 of whom as a class the dishonesty is proverbial. The 
 officials in turn recognise the position, and are all the
 
 320 CHINA IN DEC A V. 
 
 more determined to prevent foreign influence from 
 becoming developed in the interior. 
 
 This determination is rendered all the more persistent 
 on account of the experience acquired during the past. 
 The creation of the department of Imperial Maritime 
 Customs caused a considerable diminution in the pro- 
 fits which the various officials derived from taxation. 
 Until its birth in 1854, the viceroys and governors 
 raised their own duties, of which the bulk found its 
 way into the official pocket, and the institution of a 
 board under foreign control deflected large sums from 
 the officials to the treasury at Peking. The views of 
 the mandarin on this subject are very pronounced, and 
 it is recorded by Mr Gundry that a Chinese official 
 declared the murder of Mr Margary to be due to a 
 determination to ward off the fiscal changes which 
 were expected to follow the opening to foreign trade of 
 the country through which he was passing. Another 
 instance of the pertinacity with which the mandarin 
 attempt to keep the foreigner at bay, is afforded by the 
 fact that when, some time aofo, the " China Merchants' 
 Steam Navigation Company " — a flourishing concern 
 run by Chinese capital and managed by natives — sought 
 permission to trade on the Si Kiang, they were refused 
 for the reason that, if the desired permit were given, 
 foreigners would be sure to want the same privilege.* 
 The authorities thus placed on record the fact that 
 they would rather withhold a benefit from a native 
 undertakino;' than run the risk of havincr to accord a 
 similar benefit to foreigners. 
 
 * China, Past and Present.
 
 CHINESE POLITICS. 321 
 
 The most marked feature in the internal policy of 
 China is the prohibitive taxation which is levied on 
 inland trade. So disproportionate is the weight of the 
 likin and customs dues imposed at every turn, that the 
 trade of the country is paralysed ; and it is no unusual 
 thing- for goods to be conveyed by the most circuitous 
 routes, in order to avoid a likin barrier or a town ruled 
 by a more than usually greedy mandarin. In the 
 South, the merchandise which formerly found its way 
 to the sea by the Si Kiang now avoids the endless 
 extortion inflicted along the entire route, by quitting 
 Chinese territory and crossing, via Langsen or Laokai. 
 into French territory, and passing down the Sankoi 
 River to the sea, whence it is often re-imported into 
 China by way of either Pakhoi or Canton. In the 
 North a saving of duty is effected by following devious 
 routes, as reported by Mr S. I*". Mayers, who passed 
 through the northern provinces on a tour of exj)lt>ra- 
 tion in the spring of 1898. 
 
 A curious feature in the carrying tratle here is the fact that foreign 
 piece-goods, yarns, etc., starting from Tientsin for Peking and other 
 northern markets, take the roundabout way of going by river to the 
 market towns of Liuliho and Huangtupo, and are then carried by 
 cart, pack, or wheelbarrow to the capital. This enables the importer 
 to avoid the numerous likin stations on the Pei Ho — the natural 
 passage of trade from Tientsin to Peking — and he finds it cheaper to 
 carry his goods 30 miles by road from Liuliho than it would be to 
 carry them 14 miles from Tungchou to the capital. 
 
 The whole policy of the Chinese officials is directed 
 towards restricting within as small limits as po.ssible, 
 the privileges afforded by the various treaties signed 
 between China and the Powers ; and what cannot be 
 
 X
 
 322 
 
 CHJN/l IN DEC A Y. 
 
 effected by direct opp(jsition is sometimes achieved by 
 workint^ on the rivalry of the nations concerned. 
 
 The opinions held by the responsible members of 
 the Chinese Government are guided by a conceit which 
 is limited only by self-interest. It is not what is best 
 for the country, but what will be most beneficial to the 
 rulers, that concerns the Tsungli Yamen, and every 
 negotiation in which they are concerned is influenced 
 by this consideration. Beset by the demands and 
 the conflicting interests of at least four Powers, the 
 authorities at Peking, no bad judges of character, 
 keep each at such a distance as they think it likely to 
 tolerate, and as Great Britain has always proved the 
 most lenient of the taskmasters of China, her repre- 
 sentatives are, as a rule, accorded less consideration 
 than those of her rivals. Russia and Germany, 
 having shown themselves less inclined to temporise 
 and more insistent in their demands, have generally 
 received more prompt satisfaction of their desires. 
 But while the TsunMi Yamen has accustomed itself 
 to face the inevitable, and to concede with as good 
 a grace as possible that which it cannot withhold ; its 
 members realise that Great Britain is, in every 
 respect, a lighter taskmaster and a more desirable 
 ally than either of her rivals, and the only question 
 which suo-crests itself in this connection is whv, holdinof 
 such an opinion, the Chinese have not before now 
 arrived at an entente cordiale with this country .■* 
 The explanation of this apparent anomaly is two- 
 fold. In the first place, the Tsungli Yamen has 
 learned that it cannot hoodwink Russia or Germany
 
 CHINESE POLITICS. 323 
 
 SO easily as it has found practicable in the case of 
 England. In the second, it dreads the downrightness 
 of British diplomacy and the straightforwardness of 
 British methods. The wonderfully successful organisii- 
 tion developed by Sir Robert Hart has not. despite its 
 immense utility to the national revenue, served to 
 educate the officials in the advantages of honest ad- 
 ministration, and the very success of the Imperial 
 Maritime Customs system causes it to be regarded 
 with marked disfavour by the mandarin. 
 
 The Celestial love of soft-speaking, with its accom- 
 paniment of evasion and procrastination, is apt to be 
 outraged by the bluff outspokenness of our diploma- 
 tists, while there is a well-defined fear that the limi- 
 tation of the opportunities for official peculation brought 
 about by the placing of the Maritime Customs in the 
 hands of foreigners would be further increased if they 
 were entrusted with the manipulation of other sources 
 of revenue. It would, of course, be futile to query 
 the correctness of the latter supposition, and il would 
 also be vain to deny the effect it has had on the 
 feelinof of the mandarin towards British intluence. 
 The Chinese would have not the slightest objection to 
 the construction of public w<irks witli foreign capital, 
 nor would they resent the foreigner finding his way 
 into the farthest recesses of the Empire, pr(>\ided he 
 did not bring with him that tendency to " look into 
 things," which ends by insisting on the introduction 
 of a new code of commercial morality such as is totally 
 opposed to Chinese ideas. 
 
 In the cases of Russia, r'rancc, and (iermany, the
 
 324 CHINA IN DECA Y. 
 
 jiinis arc territorial and not commercial. Russia uses 
 her commerce, which is practically restricted to the 
 import of oil in exchano-e for tea, merely as a means 
 of driving the thin end of the wedge into the country, 
 with a view to the future cession of provinces. France, 
 under the pretence of desiring to cultivate the trade of 
 Tonkin, seeks to assert her sway over the southern 
 provinces, while Germany is, for the present at least, 
 content with her recently acquired naval base, with 
 the province of Shantung for a commercial preserve. 
 Neither of these professes to pay much attention to 
 Chinese methods, nor is it suggested that so long as 
 their spheres are respected, they would be disposed to 
 interfere with the time-honoured methods of spoliation 
 which are so general amono- the mandarin. Recoof- 
 nising these points, the Tsungli Yamen, unable 
 to free itself altogether from foreign interference, 
 has to choose between the loss of territory and the 
 lapse of opportunity for misgovernment, and, failing 
 a device for avoiding both calamities, the astute 
 officials infinitely prefer the gradual partition of the 
 country. 
 
 The one factor which, up to a certain point, might 
 exert its influence in the immediate future of the 
 country, remains practically an unknown quantity. 
 The Emperor Kwangsu, the nominal ruler of the 
 Chinese Empire, succeeded to the throne in his 
 infancy, and is to-day in his twenty-eighth year. He 
 is supposed to be a weak prince, largely under the 
 influence of the Empress Dowager and the ministers 
 who have been associated with her during the regency.
 
 CHINESE POLITICS. 325 
 
 It is understood that, doubtless witli a view to the 
 retention of power by others, Kwangsu has been 
 encouraged in dissolute habits, and that he entered on 
 his reign in 1889, a sickly youth, deficient in will, 
 and exhibitinq- an io-norance of affairs remarkable 
 even in a Chinaman, and so far notliing has transj")ir(d 
 to discredit this rumour. It is easy to understand that 
 such a ruler is largely at the mercy of his ministers, 
 and the various edicts which have been published in 
 Kwangsu's name are, more likely than not, due to the 
 instrumentality of Li Hung Chang and the royal 
 Princes by whom the Emperor is surrounded. Nor 
 do these demand any very great expression of con- 
 fidence in their ultimate results. Situated as China is 
 to-day, it is natural to suppose that tlie ministers of 
 state would strive to anticipate the expected demands 
 of the Powers for reforms by the promulgation of 
 orders for the carrying out of designs suggested 
 by the ministers resident at Peking, but without the 
 slightest intention of having those orders obeyed. 
 Viewed in this light, the edicts published at brief 
 intervals during the present year lose something of 
 their value, and one is tempted to express a doubt 
 whether any of them are likely to become effectual so 
 long as the present order of things continues in 
 Peking. 
 
 Among the more important of the Imperial rescripts 
 which have been recently published in the Emperor's 
 name, are: the Imperial edict directing the Tsungli 
 Yamen to establish a patent office for the encourage- 
 ment of inventors; the appointment of Prince Ching
 
 326 CHINA IN DEC A Y. 
 
 to superintend the erection of a Chinese university, 
 which is to be conducted on European hnes and 
 under the educational control of Western teachers ; the 
 Imperial edict orderini^ the establishment of an universal 
 postal service ; and a third edict accordini^ universally 
 the rio-ht of memorialising the throne, and ordering 
 the publication of monthly accounts of the national 
 receipts and expenditure throughout the Empire. 
 In the event of these reforms being carried out, they 
 will, without doubt, tend to bring China far more 
 nearly in accord with the comity of nations than she 
 has ever been before, but the student of Chinese modes 
 of thought is tempted to doubt the intentions of the 
 Government, even if the recent announcements be 
 really the outcome of a desire on the part of the 
 Emperor to develop his country. What makes the 
 proposals still more doubtful is the fact that such a 
 decided change of front would point to an entire 
 change of policy on the part of the Chinese 
 Government, a volte-face which is not indicated by 
 the action it has taken in other matters of present 
 moment. 
 
 There can be little hope for China as a nation, so 
 long as the existing system of administrative appoint- 
 ments, with its resultinof mandarindom, continues. 
 The present official element is without question the 
 curse of the Empire, and so long as it endures it will 
 continue to militate against the welfare of the people 
 and the best interests of the State. In order to end 
 the condition of things I have described, it would be 
 necessary to cast some thousands of officials loose
 
 CHINESE rOLiriCS. y.-j 
 
 upon the people they have so Ioiil;' misL^o\erned, and the 
 probable outcome of such a course cannot be regarded 
 with composure. Failino- this, the only prospect for 
 China is gradual absorption into other nations, with 
 the possibility of being partly overrun by the Japanese, 
 who would probably, ere this, have become the rulers 
 of the country but for the tacit opposition of Russia 
 and her allies. 
 
 The defences of the country are lamentably weak and 
 the army is practically untrained. There is no reason 
 why China should not possess a military force fully 
 capable of holding its own against all comers, but the 
 necessary training is made impossible by the conduct of 
 the mandarin, who resent the entrusting of power to 
 foreigners, but are themselves quite incapable of drill- 
 ing the men. There is no question but that if only 
 he were properly instructed and well led, the Chinese 
 soldier would render an e.xtremely good account of 
 himself. The subject of military organisation has been 
 fully dealt with by General Gordon, who knew the 
 Celestial better than most people and recognised his 
 possibilities. 
 
 China's power lies in her numbers, in the ([uick moving of her 
 troops, in the little baggage they require, and in tticir few wants. It 
 is known that men armed with sword and spear can overcome the 
 best regular troops equipped with breech-loading rifles, if the country 
 is at all difficult, and if the men with spears and swords outnumber 
 their foe ten to one. If this is the case where men are armed with 
 spears and swords, it will be much trut-r when those men are them- 
 selves armed with breech-loaders.* 
 
 So long as the present condition of things continues, 
 
 * Report on Military Cajiacity of the Chinese.
 
 328 CHINA IN DECAY. 
 
 the training of an effective army becomes a physical 
 impossibiUty, and until China is able to defend her- 
 self, she will remain at the mercy of her despoilers. 
 It is a maxim well known and generally admitted 
 by those who have studied China, that " No 
 progress can be made by the Peking Government," 
 and the dictum is justified by the fact that progress 
 must tend to the Government's extinction, and therefore 
 of its own initiative it will never move at all. The 
 Government of China, placed in a distant corner of 
 the great Empire it controls, is out of touch with the 
 people, whom it endeavours to keep ignorant and 
 intolerant lest they should outstrip the ruling power, 
 and perhaps compass its effacement. The great 
 strength of the Government rests on the isolation 
 with which it is surrounded. Domiciled at Peking, far 
 away from the great business centres of the Empire, 
 the Emperor and his surroundings become a mystery 
 to the masses, and by their unfamiliarity command 
 respect. 
 
 So long as the Central Government of China isolates itself from 
 the Chinese people by residing aloof at Peking, so long will the 
 Chinese people have to remain passive under the humiliations which 
 come upon them through the non-progressive and destructive 
 disposition of their Government. These humiliations will be the 
 chronic state of the Chinese people, until the Central Government 
 moves from Peking and re-unites itself to its subjects. No army, 
 no purchase of ironclads will enable China to withstand a first-class 
 power so long as she keeps her queen bee at the entrance of her 
 hive. There is, however, the probability that a proud people like 
 the Chinese may sicken at their continual eating of humble pie, 
 that the Peking Government, by skirting too closely the precipice of
 
 CHINESE POLITICS. 329 
 
 war, may fall into it, and then the sequence may oe anarchy and 
 rebellion throughout the kingdom.* 
 
 The Chinese themselves realise the weakness of 
 the capital and would gladly see it moved, but there 
 is another factor in the position which has to be borne 
 in mind. The reigning dynasty is an usurping one, and 
 as such is hated in many parts of the country. For 
 several generations represented by strong and capable 
 rulers, the new order became accepted as a race of 
 conquerors. Of late years the stock has sadly deteri- 
 orated, and, failing a very marked and unexpected 
 development on the part of the present occupant of 
 the throne, it may be regarded as safe to predict that 
 the line of the Manchu Emperors is doomed. It is 
 on the question of the succession that the future of 
 China depends, and it is to be feared that the only 
 change likely to benefit the Empire is one which must 
 necessarily be brought about by a successful rebellion 
 or a civil war ; for mere change of dynasty at Peking 
 could only be effected with the assistance of the 
 mandarin, who, by way of protecting their interests, 
 would choose either a minor to act under their 
 guardianship, or a weakling who would continue on 
 the lines of his predecessors. The only hope for China 
 politically is a clean sweep of the existing order, 
 accompanied by such a change of ideas in the ad- 
 ministration of the country as that which occurred in 
 Japan in 1868. This fact is just beginning to be ap- 
 preciated by the educated classes in China ; l)ut they 
 do not yet appreciate the need of reversing the policy 
 
 * Ciordon.
 
 330 CHINA IN DEC A Y. 
 
 of isolation which has been so lon_o- maintained, and of 
 entering- into the comity of nations with a conviction 
 that there is much to be learned from the outer world, 
 and that to any nation, however ancient it may be, a 
 continuous policy of retrogression is sure to prove 
 disastrous.
 
 C H A P T H R X I V. 
 THE SITUATION. 
 
 Corrupt to the core, ill-oroverned, lackinp- cohesion, 
 and without the means of defendino- herself aoainst 
 
 o o 
 
 disruption from within, or aggression from with- 
 out, China stands to-day a sort of political Tom 
 Tiddler's ground, on which the representatives of the 
 various Powers disport themselves while making up 
 their minds as to which particular corner they will 
 finally occupy. Owing to the series of events 
 which began with the occupation of Kiaochau by 
 Germany and is not yet complete, the country has 
 become a veritable bone of contention, over which 
 Western nations growl at one another, without pro- 
 ceeding to blows, and the most likely result appears to 
 be the eventual partition of the country into a series of 
 dependencies, which, under the name of spheres of 
 influence, will become appurtenances of the European 
 Powers. 
 
 The reader who has followed me thus far will have 
 a fairly clear idea of the history of foreign aggression 
 in China. He will have noted how the Chinese have, 
 from the outset, vainly striven to evade the incursion 
 of the "outer barbarian," and how, after finding that
 
 334 CHINA IN DEC A V. 
 
 this plan was impractiaible, they devoted all their 
 energies to retardint^ the j^rowth of foreign influence 
 and weakening the stability of the foreigner's foothold, 
 within the limits of the Celestial Empire. In this con- 
 nection, the attitude assumed by the invaders is of even 
 more importance than that of the invaded, and it may 
 not be inappropriate if I briefly recall the more essential 
 motives underlying the policies adopted by the several 
 nations which have achieved a footing in territories 
 which are nominally under the rule of the " Son of 
 Heaven." 
 
 Great Britain, the most enterprising, succeeded 
 before any of the great nations of the West in 
 forming relations with China. Her aims were purely 
 commercial, and her instincts were leading her 
 to procure fresh markets for her produce and new 
 centres for her trade. Without competitors of her 
 own calibre as this country then was, it rested entirely 
 with her representatives at home to say how far the 
 national interests should be pushed in the opening up 
 of the newly-discovered but jealously-guarded land of 
 promise, and, from the very first, the British repre- 
 sentatives pitched their tune in a minor key, ordaining 
 that force should be used only as a last resource, 
 and in order to punish outrages against life or 
 property. 
 
 Russia, in the early days of attempted intercourse 
 with China, felt her way with that irresistible ability 
 which has always directed her aims. What Britain 
 effected by commercial intercourse and negotiation, 
 Muscovy achieved by the display of force, and, while
 
 THE SITUATION. 335 
 
 this country remained restricted to the estuary of thr. 
 Canton River as its sphere of operation, the emissaries 
 of the Czar annexed whole districts on the Amur, 
 without so much as formulating- a demand for their 
 surrender. The difference in the methods of the two 
 countries is important, markini^ as it does the line of 
 demarcation between their policies, which after long 
 years of gradual expansion have at last ended in 
 bringing" them cheek by jowl in North China, with 
 possibilities yet to be developed. In one respect, 
 however, the action taken by the Russians is the 
 opposite of that taken by the British. The pioneers 
 from St Petersburg have always aimed at acquiring 
 territory for the aggrandisement of their country. The 
 British explorers have sought but to open up new trade 
 routes and to provide for the extension of international 
 commerce. Our desires have been such as could only 
 benefit the Chinese equally with ourselves, while the 
 success of Russian ambition implies the spoliation of 
 China and the loss of prestige to Peking. 
 
 The causes which have led to the appearance of 
 France upon the scene have differed from both those 
 described. Without either the ability to build up an 
 over-sea trade, or the faculty of creating a colonial 
 empire, France, times out of number, has sought to 
 overcome threatened trouble at home by indulging in 
 a "glory hunt" abroad, and her expeditions in the F"ar 
 East, from the time when Baron Gros joined Lord 
 Elgin in his expedition to the Pei Ho to the seizure of 
 Tonkin, have all been the outcome of a desire to gain 
 the dclat of an addition to the empire of I-^rance,
 
 336 CJ/INA IN DEC A Y. 
 
 without rt^ference to the subsequent prospects of the 
 various "white elephants " she has acquired. 
 
 The case of Germany is another variant from the 
 foregoing. Nominally acquired as a solatium for an 
 insult to the German flag, the seizure of Kiaochau was 
 really the outcome of a resolution long previously 
 matured. As far back as 1896 the German Govern- 
 ment had formulated a Far Eastern policy, and its 
 realisation waited only for a suitable opportunity. The 
 policy of the fatherland in regard to China is largely 
 commercial, and the development of the Shantung 
 promontory is being hurried on in every way, in the 
 hope that its success will, in some measure at least, 
 recompense the nation for the failure of its African 
 colonies. In addition to her commercial objects, 
 Germany hopes by the utilisation of the natural 
 resources of Kiaochau to construct a naval base and 
 coaling station, which will largely strengthen her 
 influence amonof the nations, and make her an effective 
 power in Eastern seas. 
 
 The differences in the aims and interests, as well as 
 the opportunities of these four Powers, have by a 
 process of natural selection tended to mark out a map 
 of spheres in which their influence has become 
 developed. I am desirous of laying particular stress 
 on this point, as I hold that the question of spheres, 
 or of indefinite rights and equal opportunities, is not 
 one which is decided by the Welshes of diplomatists, but 
 is dictated entirely by the laws of propinquity, ability, 
 and relative strength. Thus Great Britain, which first 
 obtained a footing in the province of Kwangtung.
 
 THE SITUATION. 337 
 
 gradually felt her way as one port after another was 
 opened to her merchants, until to-day her interests are 
 represented along" the entire coast line and up at least 
 three of the rivers of China. But, by an unfortunate 
 oversight at the outset, the ports opened by the various 
 treaties which were due to British action were neither 
 ceded nor placed under the control of British repre- 
 sentatives. With the exception of Hong-kong, the 
 Chinese territory rendered available for foreign inter- 
 course was made international, and, as a consequence, 
 the more important of the coast towns became mere 
 places of call for Europeans, the French, German, and 
 other traders being accorded equal rights with the 
 British. Owing to this fact, Great Britain cannot 
 be said to have developed any topographical claim 
 to a sphere of influence along the coast, for other 
 nations have equal rights at every place in which her 
 subjects are permitted to reside. Had a different 
 course been pursued, the result as regards equal 
 facilities for trade would have been the same, but the 
 position of this country in China would have been very 
 different. As an example of what might have been 
 achieved, it is only necessary to glance at Hong-kong, 
 which, though a British colony, is open to the trade of 
 all nations on even more favourable terms than any one 
 of the treaty ports, inasmuch as Victoria, the capital, is 
 a free port, while the treaty ports are subject to 
 maritime customs dues on all imports. The mistake 
 made in this respect at the start, when no country 
 could have urged any objection, has been continued 
 to the present time, and we stand in the anomalous
 
 338 CHINA IN DEC A Y. 
 
 position of holding some seventy per cent, of the 
 whole trade of China in our hands, of boasting the 
 allegiance of more than half the total number of 
 Europeans in the Empire, and of possessing more 
 widely-spread interests in the country than any other 
 foreign nation, while we actually control less terri- 
 tory and possess fewer privileges as regards our right 
 of exploitation than any one of the other Western 
 powers. 
 
 The tendency of foreigners sojourning in a strange 
 country is to congregate, and the direction in which 
 the members of a particular nation are impelled 
 depends on the facilities of communication and the 
 privileges which the parent state is able to obtain 
 for its representatives. These causes have led to the 
 gradual absorption by Russia of the Northern provinces 
 of China, which are in closest proximity to the Siberian 
 frontier, while the existence of the French colony of 
 Tonkin, in the South, has caused an influx of French 
 traders and capital to the Southern districts. In this 
 very natural way have the tw^o extremes of China 
 Proper come to be the spheres of French and Russian 
 influence, while the acquisition of Kiaochau by 
 Germany and the rights of exploitation accorded her 
 throughout the province of Shantung have similarly 
 created a German sphere in the great North-East 
 promontory of the middle kingdom. Great Britain 
 alone stands possessed of no natural sphere, for the 
 reason that, while her interests are spread all over the 
 eighteen provinces, she has abstained from leasing or 
 annexing territory and remained content with the
 
 THE SITUATION. 339 
 
 accordance of mere rights of access, grudgingly given 
 and frequently threatened. 
 
 In order to satisfy the very natural desire to obtain 
 an equivalent for the large acquisitions which have 
 been made by rival powers, and to possess some out- 
 ward symbol in recognition of the immense stake which 
 this country has in China, it was last year suggested 
 that, as the centres of British influence are more ex- 
 clusive on the Yanor-tse Kianor than on the coast line, 
 and as the watershed of that remarkable river affords 
 immense opportunities for future commerce which this 
 country is especially fitted to develop, the valley of the 
 Yang-tse should be regarded as the British sphere of 
 influence. The idea was a good one, but, unfortunately, 
 it came too late. In the first place, the fact that the 
 various ports along its banks, which had been opened 
 to foreign trade, had been declared treaty ports, open 
 to all nations alike. In the second, rival powers, more 
 wide awake as to eventualities than ourselves, had 
 taken far-sighted measures to prevent any possibility of 
 the coveted district cominij^ under the influence of this 
 country. Both these dangers had been foreseen b)' all 
 who had taken the trouble to study the subject, but the 
 British Government had not taken occasion to con- 
 sider the march of events in China, and, in the most 
 deliberate and literal sense, proceeded to attempt to 
 lock the stable door after Russia had walked off with 
 the horse, and France had purloined the key. 
 
 I have dealt at some length with the possibilities 
 of the Yang-tse Valley in a previous chapter. It is 
 only necessary, at this stage, to refer to the political
 
 340 CHINA IN DliCA Y. 
 
 aspect of the question. After considerable negotia- 
 tion, the point urged by the British Government was 
 conceded by the Chinese, the undertaking given being 
 that China will not mortgage, lease, or cede to any 
 other Power any territory in the Yang-tse Valley, The 
 outcome of this "concession" is that a Dutch fishing- 
 smack would have equal rights at any of the Yang-tse 
 ports with a British man-of-war, and this country, so 
 far from being justified in regarding the Yang-tse 
 Valley as her own particular sphere of influence, 
 remains the one power in China whose effective con- 
 trol of territory is to be recorded practically in acres. 
 The following table shows the relative amount of trade, 
 and the territory controlled by the four Western Powers 
 in China : — 
 
 Total Trade, 1896. Territory controlled. 
 
 Russian Empire,. . ;^2, 800,000 462,000 sq. miles 
 
 France, . . . 5,600,000 157,600 ,, 
 Germany, . . . 2,700,000 53jOoo ,, 
 
 Great Britain, . . 39,200,000 200 ,, 
 
 In the chapter dealing with the British Record in 
 China I have pointed out how greatly the interests 
 of this country have suffered from the vacillation of 
 the authorities at home and the indecision of our 
 representatives in the East. A further charge to be 
 brought against our rulers is quite as serious in the 
 results it has brought about. In our dealings with the 
 Chinese, we have always exhibited a moderation which 
 has been mistaken for weakness, and a forbearance 
 which has been attributed to fear. The Celestials, 
 like other Oriental nations, are apt to judge their 
 adversaries not by what they are, but by what they
 
 THE SITU A TION. 
 
 34" 
 
 appear to be, and, while the possession of great strength 
 and vast resources does not make much impression 
 on their imagination, the display of ev-en a semblance 
 of force commands their immediate respect. It is for 
 this reason that the insignificance of the territory con- 
 trolled by this country is regarded as a better criterion 
 
 STKK.KI IN H\M;1I0\V. 
 
 of our power than is the preponderance of our com- 
 merce, and the swashbuckling of Russian agents pro- 
 duces far greater impression at Peking than do the 
 more temperate announcements made from time to 
 time by the representative of Great Britain. 
 
 It would be difficult to find two greater extremes of
 
 342 
 
 CHINA IN DECAY. 
 
 method than those displayed by the policies of Great 
 Britain and of Russia in China. The two countries 
 are, by force of circumstances, rivals, and therefore 
 natural antagonists. The interests of each conflict with 
 those of the other, and a success on the part of either, 
 involves a corresponding defeat. The reason for this 
 is to be found in the development of the two nations, 
 a development which in the case of Great Britain is the 
 outcome of a natural desire for commercial opportunities, 
 by which to keep pace with her growing population, 
 while in the case of Russia it is due to an artificial 
 craving for territories, which it cannot people, to serve 
 as play-grounds for the military who rule the country. 
 Both nations are Asiatic powers, with a difference which 
 is made evident in the following table, where is shown 
 the extent of Asiatic territory with its population which 
 is ruled by each of the Powers interested in China. 
 
 Territory. Population. 
 
 Russia, . . . 6,564,778 sq. miles 6,564,778 
 
 China, 
 
 Great Britain, 
 France, 
 Japan, 
 
 Germany, . 
 
 Thus Russia owns 
 smallest population 
 
 4,218,401 ,, 402,680,000 
 
 1.827,234 „ 291,304,000 
 
 315,928 „ 18,000,000 
 
 160,000 ,, 43,000,000 
 
 53,000 „ 12,000,000 
 
 the biggest territory with the 
 n the Continent ; but it is not 
 necessary for me to dwell upon the importance of this 
 fact. It is needless to explain that the prosperity of a 
 country depends not on its extent but on its population, 
 and the Russian craze for land a-rabbins^ can, in the 
 end, only react on her welfare by exhausting her 
 resources and destroying her credit. But the point to
 
 THE SITUATION. 343 
 
 be considered is not the folly of the Russian iiim, but 
 the effect on the other countries interested in China, 
 especially upon Great Britain, which is most nearly in- 
 terested in the matter and comes into closest contact 
 with the octopus of St Petersburg. 
 
 Unfortunately for this country, the foreign policy of 
 Russia is the ablest in the world : the ablest, because 
 the most successful. The reason for this might be 
 found in the fact that, in every particular, Russian 
 methods are at variance with British. Russia's policy is 
 constant, opportunist, and unscrupulous. The end of 
 all diplomacy is undoubtedly the attainment of success, 
 and, in the achievement of this, the Russian agent 
 allows nothing to interfere with his purpose. And the 
 conditions of Russian rule make this certainty of 
 success easy. Apart from the innate ability of her 
 statesmen, they are strengthened in their tasks by a 
 freedom of action unknown in other countries, while, 
 there being no Government to go out and be super- 
 seded, no public opinion to be considered, the rulers of 
 Russia are able to devote their whole energies to the 
 attainment of the ends they have in view. 
 
 The only form of opinion which finds expression in 
 Russia is that of the military, and this is practically 
 all-powerful throughout the Empire. It is the military 
 party that really rules the nation. It is the military 
 officer who, at his own time and in his own way, 
 annexes territory or claims concessions, which he well 
 knows will be duly recognised by the central Govern- 
 ment. It is by individual effort that Russia has grown 
 to her present limits. Her Empire has been doubled
 
 344 CHINA TN I) EC A Y. 
 
 within the past half century, and, with very few excep- 
 tions, every addition to her territories has been due to 
 the personal ambition and individual effort of some 
 officer who saw his opportunity and took it. And 
 so by slow yet sure degrees Russia has crept down 
 by way of the Amur, Manchuria, and Kiakhta, until 
 to-day she dominates the country from Peking and 
 dictates to Britain the terms of the contract she may 
 make for the construction of railways in China. 
 
 There is no need to recall the sequence of Russia's 
 actions in China. This has been dealt with in the 
 chapter on the Russian Record, but a brief con- 
 sideration of her most recent achievements will serve 
 to show that in her action Russia has proved herself to 
 be consistently dishonest. There is, of course, nothing 
 remarkably novel in this announcement. The art of 
 barefaced lying has long been a sine qua non in Russian 
 diplomacy, and neither Count Muravieff nor M. Pavloff 
 (who will doubtless be duly rewarded for the brilliant 
 success which has attended their efforts to befool the 
 simple-minded British representatives) is exceptional 
 in his abilities in this direction. The methods of 
 Russian diplomatists are constant and unscrupulous, 
 but most decidedly they lack variety. Indeed, one 
 Russian score is very like another, the customary 
 programme commencing with the exchange of pledges, 
 which there is not the slio-htest intention of observino-, 
 and concluding with a soft-spoken denial of such 
 pledges ever having been accorded, after the desired 
 coup has been successfully accomplished. The second, 
 perhaps the only other, characteristic of the Muscovite
 
 THE SITUATION. 345 
 
 method is its essential impudence. Russia is (accord- 
 ing to Russia) never the aggressor. She does not 
 provoke by the despatch of military expeditions or the 
 mobilisation of battle-ships. She covers her brawny 
 hands with silk gloves and despatches astronomers 
 into the interior of China to take observations of an 
 approaching eclipse — with a sotnia of cossacks to pro 
 tect them, while the arms and men requisite for the 
 terrorising of the Chinese in Manchuria are conveyed 
 by a "volunteer" fleet, armed up to the gunwale and 
 prepared for any emergency. 
 
 The softest spot in the Russian conscience is the 
 point of honour, and this is extremely susceptible. 
 The suoraestion that the Hongr-koncr and Shanorhai 
 Bank was about to finance a railway line from Shan hai 
 kuan across the frontier of Manchuria wounded Russian 
 susceptibilities to the quick, and caused such serious 
 damage to her self-esteem that the British Government, 
 notwithstanding their much-vaunted determination to 
 stand firm, trembled before the expressions of Mus- 
 covite indignation, and gave in ; and so Russia has 
 triumphed in this matter, just as she has done in every 
 other which has cropped up between the two countries. 
 
 And while Great Britain has come to a sense of the 
 injury she was about to do to Russia by constructing a 
 British railway within what the latter considers her 
 sphere of influence, Russia is busying herself with the 
 surveying of a route for a line of railway wliich will 
 pass through the richest part of the territory that has 
 come to be regarded as the British sphere ; which, when 
 completed, will bisect the valley of the Yang-tse, and
 
 346 CHINA IN DEC A Y. 
 
 divert the trade of Hankow from the practical control of 
 British merchants. Of course our Government, acting 
 on the most truly Christian principles, does not deem it 
 necessary to protest against this piece of effrontery. 
 Having had one cheek well slapped on the Manchurian 
 frontier, it turns the other on the Yang-tse Kiang, and 
 affords one of the most ridiculous spectacles in political 
 history : that of a strong and wealthy power worsted 
 at every turn by a weak and all but bankrupt nation ; 
 a community of traders ousted by a body of land 
 grabbers. It was not until this scheme was finally 
 arranged that our Government heard of its existence, 
 and, lacking the courage to speak or the energy to act, 
 it has acceded to one of the most preposterous schemes 
 ever designed. 
 
 The necessities of this country and those of Russia 
 differ so greatly as to admit of no comparison. In 
 our own case we require an extension of markets for 
 the support of our growing population, and we stand 
 in need of territory to which our children may emigrate. 
 Russia, the most thinly populated of modern countries, 
 so far from requiring extensions of territory for the 
 accommodation of a surplus population, is for want of 
 labour unable to develop her own lands, and could well 
 accommodate additional scores of millions of people 
 without becoming over-populated. The excuse that an 
 increase of territory is requisite for the demands of her 
 trade is ridiculous. Her total trade with China is but 
 a trifle over ^4,000,000 annually, and this despite the 
 exceptional facilities she enjoys, possessing as she does 
 a conterminous frontier of some 4000 miles or more,
 
 THE SITUATION. 347 
 
 with direct access to Peking by means of the caravan 
 route via Kiakhta. Of this sum of ^4,000,000 sterlin;,^ 
 the bulk represents those imports of tea which form 
 the staple trade between the two countries ; the total 
 exports from Russia into China are valued under 
 ^500,000 annually. The disparity in population is 
 even greater than in trade. The population of 
 England and Wales is 370 persons to the square 
 mile of territory. In China proper the proportion is 
 292, in .British India 184. The number of persons to 
 the square mile throughout the Russian Empire is 13. 
 In Asiatic Russia, including Siberia, the population per 
 square mile is 3, and for Siberia alone it sinks to the 
 striking figure i. These facts shed a flood of light 
 on: Russian methods. Truly they furnish food for 
 thought. 
 
 The question for consideration by the Englishman 
 is, however, not the motives which inspire Russian 
 action, but the means which have been employed to 
 prevent the imperilling of British interests, and, if these 
 are examined, the conclusion likely to be arrived at is 
 not calculated to afford much gratification to the 
 inquirer. We have, as a matter of fact, been bested 
 by Russia in every difference which has arisen between 
 the two nations in the Far East. Despite her objec- 
 tion to the integrity of China being threatened by 
 the cession of the Liao-tong peninsula to Japan in 
 1895, Russia has, notwithstanding our protest, occupied 
 that territory, and after having more than once given 
 pledges as to keeping both Port Arthur and Talien- 
 wan open to the ships of the world, she has closed them
 
 348 CHINA IN DEC A Y. 
 
 to all hut her own vessels. In the face of the assist- 
 ance we have on more than one occasion rendered the 
 Chinese in the direction of training their sailors and 
 organising" their fleet, Russia has coolly demanded that 
 the vessels of the Chinese Northern Squadron shall be 
 officered by Russians. She has ousted British capital 
 from Manchuria, brought about the failure of the con- 
 cession for the Newchang railway extension, and 
 obtained the right to construct a trunk-line of railway 
 through the heart of the country. In addition to these 
 snubs inflicted on Great Britain, she has demanded the 
 withdrawal of Mr Kinder, a British engineer engaged 
 in the management of the Northern railway from 
 Pekino" to the frontier, and as I write these lines, the 
 news comes to hand that she has objected to the 
 employment of a foreign bodyguard by the King of 
 Korea, who desired to protect himself after narrowly 
 escaping being poisoned by his courtiers. The acute 
 stage in our relations with Russia was reached at the 
 close of last year. 
 
 Even at that stage, however, we might have 
 retrieved the past and secured the premier positions in 
 the Far East. Wearied of the constant exactions of 
 her chosen protector, the Chinese cabinet, so recently 
 as the 31st January last, made a final appeal for the 
 support of Great Britain. Replying to Sir Claude 
 Mac Donald on the subject of the suggested British 
 loan, the Tsungli Yamen stated that it would be pre- 
 pared to endorse his views, and co-operate with this 
 countr}^ if the Government would afford protection 
 against Russia, this being the only thing that would
 
 THE SITUATION. 349 
 
 help them. That offer, like those which had preceded 
 it, was declined,^ — a proof of our being as slow to secure 
 an advantageous position in China as we have always 
 been in obtaining the enforcement of our rights, or com- 
 pensation for our injuries. No greater contrast is to 
 be found between the policy of England and that of 
 other countries in the Far East than that afforded by 
 the uncertainty and procrastination which invariably 
 attend any assertion of our power. More than a year 
 was permitted to elapse between the brutal murder 
 of Augustus Margary and the signing of the treaty of 
 Chifu, and, when this was obtained, its provisions 
 proved to be ridiculously inadequate to mark the 
 enormity of the deed. Our controlling influence in 
 China, so far as effective power is concerned, is lost to 
 us until such time as we shall have shown by force of 
 arms that we are yet a factor to be reckoned with. We 
 are discredited at Peking by our pusillanimity as much 
 as we are disgraced in Europe by our defeat. Our 
 opportunities have passed away, and we are left to 
 realise at leisure our discomfiture. 
 
 From the first chapter in this record of disaster 
 we have been consistent only in our errors. After 
 wasting blood and treasure in the obtaining of treaties 
 for the furtherance of intercourse, we have not success- 
 fully imposed the observance of a single one of them 
 upon the recalcitrant Celestial. We have sacrificed our 
 rights and imperilled our reputation, not only by fore- 
 going privileges, but by condoning breaches of faith 
 which have rendered us ridiculous. We have met 
 Celestial chicanery with lack of resource, and Russian
 
 350 
 
 CHINA IN DECA Y. 
 
 cibility with ah admission of impotence. And when, all 
 too late, the approaching partition of the Empire is 
 realised, we blandly pin our faith to an impossible 
 catchword, known as the " Open Door." This theory, 
 orio'inatinQf in Exeter Hall and based on the most 
 truly Christian quality of universal charity, is how- 
 ever utterly untenable, and from the standpoint of 
 the political student it is absurd. It is to be doubted 
 whether a more insane proposal was ever laid down 
 by a jaded minister than this suggestion of the " Open 
 Door." Its very idea, signifying the accordance of 
 equal rights to all nations, at all times, or, as it is 
 termed, "equality of opportunity," is opposed to every 
 principle of national policy. It is a theory only 
 possible to a nation, which, like ourselves, is capable 
 of holding its own in the commercial field against all 
 competitors. Such a policy, if the suggestion deserves 
 the title, would, without doubt, be advantageous to our- 
 selves, inasmuch as it would afford us all the advantages 
 of a preferential sphere, without the attendant expense 
 of supervision or protection ; but, to all other countries, 
 the " Open Door " would mean a loss of opportunity for 
 protected trade ; and the Powers, whose only chance of 
 successful competition rests on the imposition of tariffs 
 sufficiently high to keep British manufactures at arm's- 
 length, could never consent to accept a proposal which 
 would be equivalent to making a free gift of valu- 
 able future markets to this country. To talk of the 
 " Open Door " as a policy is about as idiotic as to 
 repeat the threadbare dictum that British interests in 
 China are commercial, not political. The one idea
 
 THE SITUATION. 351 
 
 is as impracticable as is the other. And, notwith- 
 standing, the Government cling to their Utopian 
 dream, and, in spite of their every statement being 
 discredited by facts, attempt to justify a copy-book 
 heading. 
 
 At the very moment when the British Government 
 was dilating on the beauties of the " Open Door." the 
 partition of the Chinese Empire had been begun. 
 Russia was secretly, but effectively, sending troops into 
 Manchuria. France, refusing to learn from experience 
 the hopelessness of her methods of colonisation, was 
 seeking further extension northwards in the provinces 
 of Yunnan and Kwangsi, and Germany was fully 
 occupied prospecting the metalliferous deposits of 
 Shantung for her own exclusive benefit. Great 
 Britain, possessed of the most authoritative claim to 
 a voice in the matter, alone refrained from taking part 
 in the scramble for territory, and her reiterated cry for 
 the open door found its answer in the projection of a 
 Franco- Russian line of railway across the heart of that 
 sphere which she had always deemed exclusively her 
 own. Driven at last by the indignation of its supporters, 
 as much as by the sneers of its rivals, to attempt some- 
 thinof, the British Government hastened to do some- 
 thinof wrono-, and took Wei Hai Wei, a harbour inde- 
 fensible by land and exposed towards the sea ; and, 
 goaded into a declaration of activity, Lord Salisbury 
 and his lieutenants declared their unalterable intention 
 to do what they had never done, — to protect British 
 interests in China under all circumstances. The 
 immediate ^mswer to this .statement has been the
 
 352 CHINA IN DEC A Y. 
 
 cancelling of the Newchang railway concession, and 
 we stand face to face with Russia in China, defeated 
 in every move, discredited before the world, without a 
 policy, impotent and ridiculous, awaiting a Deus ex 
 Machina to extract us from a position which any 
 nation but ourselves would ere now have discovered 
 to be untenable. 
 
 And now, while we stand discredited and helpless, 
 there comes the rumour that the Government is 
 attempting to come to an understanding with Russia. 
 Nor is the suggestion singular. There are signs to be 
 read by those skilled in such matters, that there is a 
 growing feeling among the supporters of the Govern- 
 ment that we have not done sufficient justice to 
 Muscovite ambition, and that our discomfiture has 
 been brought about by the distrust we have all along 
 manifested of Muscovite faith ! I have little doubt but 
 that Lord Salisbury would be willing to close with any 
 offer of a Russian understanding, which did not press 
 too hard on British pretensions in the Far East. 
 Nor do I question the readiness of the ministers of the 
 Czar to accord what is desired. Pledtres, undertakinofs, 
 and treaties with Russia resemble those made by her 
 nearest neighbour in Asia. Such contracts are entered 
 on with the distinct intention of observino- them as 
 little as circumstances may allow. An understanding 
 with Russia endures for as lonof as it is her interest to 
 maintain an appearance of being bound. Her policy 
 is too stable to permit her to be long affected by any 
 concession, while, in the case of China, there is too little 
 stability for a corresponding advantage to be of per-
 
 THE SITUATION. 
 
 353 
 
 manent use to the latter. And while we have lost 
 ground on every occasion when we have chanced to 
 stand in Russia's way, we are told that British 
 diplomacy has triumphed, and the newspapers devoted 
 to the inculcation of those principles, so dear to the 
 little England party, lift their voices in joyous unison 
 over the fate of Li Hung Chang, the grand secretar)' 
 of the Tsungli Yamen. I venture to assert that the 
 chorus of jubilation which has been raised over this 
 interesting event is decidedly premature, as, supposing 
 that the deposition of the grand old man of China 
 is really due to the representations of the British 
 minister at Peking, it remains a foregone conclusion 
 that the chief mandarin will only be ostensibly 
 shelved, and that his influence will remain as great 
 as it has always been. The nominal retirement of Li 
 will, in any case, not have caused him any new sensation. 
 He has already been thrice dismissed, to return to 
 office after a brief interval with increased influence and 
 enhanced reputation. The first occasion was during 
 the Franco-Chinese war, when, on the iith of April 
 1884, Prince Chun, the father of the Emperor, effected 
 a coup (Cdtat and deposed Prince Kung and the then 
 viceroy of Pechili. Retaining his position of first 
 mandarin and chief secretary, Li continued to remain 
 loyal to the Dowager Empress, and expressed himself 
 in favour of agreeing to the evacuation of Tonkin 
 demanded by the French. This action roused the fury 
 of the war party, which included all mandarindom. and 
 on the bombardment of Fuchow, the foreign secretary 
 was deprived of office and retired into private life at
 
 354 CHINA IN DEC A Y. 
 
 Tientsin. His opponents soon found that Li was 
 indispensable in any discussion of affairs with foreign 
 nations, and after an absence of just four weeks he was 
 re-appointed viceroy, restored to his various offices, and 
 instructed to take charge of the war, and bring it to as 
 speedy an issue as possible. 
 
 The return to power of Prince Kung in 1894 was 
 quickly followed by the dismissal of the viceroy, but six 
 weeks later Li was once more restored in order that he 
 miofht deal with the risincr in Kwang-tuno- and, ex- 
 cepting for the fine of a year's salary imposed on him 
 for a breach of etiquette towards the Empress on his 
 return from his famous tour round the world in 1896, he 
 has managed to remain in power until a few weeks ago. 
 
 The favour in which a hicjh official is held in Pekino- 
 depends on a variety of circumstances, among which 
 the personal opinion of the Emperor is the least. 
 China is the land of make-believe, and in the personnel 
 of its Government there is just as much deception as 
 among more commonplace persons. The actual rulers 
 of the Empire are the mandarin at Peking, who, 
 by judicious wirepulling, succeed in constraining the 
 Emperor in the direction they desire. It is the 
 majority of the officials who actually control the 
 remainder, but each member of the majority has his 
 own ends to serve and his own little pile to make. 
 The great point of variance among the members of 
 the Tsungli Yamen is the aspect in which the repre- 
 sentatives of foreign powers are to be regarded, and 
 it is Li's readiness to deal that has set his colleagues 
 by the ears.
 
 THE SITUATION. 355 
 
 When the dismissal or punishment of a recalcitrant 
 mandarin is demanded by one of the Powers, the 
 speedy fate which overtakes the suspected evil-doer is 
 reversed, and the malefactor invariably goes free. No 
 Chinese official of high rank has ever been really 
 punished or disgraced on the initiative of a European 
 power. While every mandarin connected in any way 
 with the negotiation or signature of the treaty of 
 Nankincr was degfraded and dismissed, no case is on 
 record of the inHiction of a penalty for either the 
 breaking of treaties or the ill-treatment of foreigners. 
 Neither were the officials responsible in the case of the 
 Chinkiang riots, the W^uhu rising, or the anti-foreign 
 agitation which excited the whole country in 1891, 
 brought to justice. The murder of Mr Margary was 
 proved to have been encouraged if not actually insti- 
 gated by Tsen Yuying, the futai of Manwyne, and 
 after a great deal of discussion the British commis- 
 sioners charged with the inquiry obtained a promise 
 from Li Hung Chang that this man should be sus- 
 pended and tried. But he was not suspended, nor was 
 he even arrested, and to this day he has gone scot 
 free. 
 
 In the case of the Liao-tong outrage on missionaries, 
 a number of officials were sentenced to be degraded 
 from their posts. They were removed and promptly 
 appointed to more lucrative berths in another province, 
 while the same course has been j)ursued in every 
 case, even to that of the governor of Shantung, 
 whose degradation was demanded by the Germans on 
 account of the murder of two missionaries which had
 
 356 CHINA IN DECA Y. 
 
 taken place within his jurisdiction. The degradation 
 was carried out to the extent of withdrawing the 
 official, who was promptly found an equally good 
 appointment elsewhere. 
 
 In the face of the experience afforded by these 
 instances of Chinese politics — and it would be easy to 
 quote many more — it is surely wise not to be carried 
 away by the idea that, even if Li Hung Chang owes 
 his dismissal to the representations of the British 
 minister at Peking, the event is likely to bring about 
 any remarkable change of front towards this country 
 by the wire-pulling rulers of China. So long as Li is 
 of use at Peking, so long will he be retained, and the 
 fact that of all the mandarin he is the one most 
 thoroughly versed in Western politics and Western 
 ways of thought, makes him indispensable whenever 
 diplomatic action has to be taken. If his dismissal 
 be really due to the efforts of Sir Claude Mac Donald, 
 then the announcement is worth just the paper it is 
 written on, for the reason that the Tsungli Yamen 
 will never actually throw over their greatest source of 
 strength at the bidding of a foreign minister. If, on 
 the other hand, Li's downfall is due either to political 
 scheming among his fellows, or the displeasure of the 
 Emperor, the event may safely be regarded as an 
 incident in the life of the grand secretary, another 
 entrade, which will speedily end in his reinstatement 
 with added distinctions. 
 
 And while we flatter ourselves that our diplomacy 
 has at last achieved somethinor, we learn that Russia 
 is busily engaged in extending her influence on the
 
 THE SITUATION. 357 
 
 Yang-tse by despatching more cossacks to Hankow, 
 and establishing a line of steamers to compete with the 
 British vessels, which have hitherto practically mono- 
 polised the traffic on the great highway. Well may the 
 British residents at Shanghai and elsewhere express 
 their uneasiness as to coming developments, nor can 
 one reasonably complain of the terms of irritation in 
 which these exiled Britons express their opinion of 
 the incompetence of the Government, whose first duty 
 in the Far East should be to guard the paramount 
 interests of this country. 
 
 While Russian aggression has been making hay of 
 our pretensions in North and Central China, French 
 insistence has been threatening our existence in the 
 South. Our irresponsible neighbours across the 
 channel, notino- that the attention of the British 
 Government was concentrated on the Gulf of Pechili, 
 have secured for themselves a series of concessions, 
 which, while they will not serve to teach x\\q fonciioii- 
 naires how to develop the natural resources of their 
 colonies, will undoubtedly do much to damage the 
 opportunities for an extension of trade by this countr)-. 
 Besides the right to construct the railways to Nanning, 
 Talifu, and Pakhoi, and the granting of a joint 
 interest in the central trunk-line already described, 
 France has secured an undertaking as to the non- 
 alienation of the provinces of Kwangtung and Kwang- 
 si which form the backland of Hong-kong, and will 
 be enabled to hinder British trade in South China by 
 a refusal to accord equal facilities with herself, and the 
 imposition of prohibitive rates. Of the various railways
 
 358 CHTNA IN DEC A V. 
 
 proposed and authorised in China, only two are in 
 British hands, and it is noteworthy that in the case 
 of Russia, France, and Germany alike it is expressly 
 stipulated that the material for the construction of the 
 undertakings shall be provided by the country inter- 
 ested. This fact will result not only in the loss of a 
 considerable amount of trade to this country, but also 
 in the construction of a series of roads, which will, 
 judging by the Trans-Siberian line, be neither dur- 
 able nor safe. 
 
 Any estimate of the relative strength of the positions 
 occupied by foreign powers in China must be guided by 
 the facilities for concentration possessed by each, and, in 
 this respect, France and Germany are alike so severely 
 handicapped as to be practically ineffective. The 
 relative strenoth of a foreio^n nation in the Far East 
 depends neither on the intentions nor on the capacity 
 of that power. The possibilities of each are limited 
 by the supplies available on the spot, the facility w^ith 
 which reinforcements are obtainable, and the oppor- 
 tunities for maintainingr communications with home. 
 In these respects both France and Germany are 
 practically at the mercy of Great Britain, for the 
 reason that neither possesses coaling stations of its 
 own, and the passage of its ships between Europe and 
 the Far East is dependent on the permission of this 
 country for the use of its depots. Great Britain 
 possesses supplies of coal, distributed at short intervals, 
 all over the world. On the route from England to 
 China, there are no fewer than seven coaling stations, 
 viz., Gibraltar, Malta, Aden, Bombay, Colombo, Singa-
 
 THE SITU A TJON. 359 
 
 pore, and Hong-kong, while somewhat outside the 
 direct route are Kurrachee, Trincomalee, and Calcutta. 
 So long as these ports are open to French and German 
 ships, so long can these nations maintain their com- 
 munications with China. But, in the event of trouble 
 occurring, British ports would at once be closed and 
 the means of coaling would be withdrawn. France 
 has a substitute in Pondicherry, which might serve, 
 however inadequately, to replace British ports, but 
 Germany is without resource if once our assistance be 
 denied. Russia, while at present at the mercy of this 
 country for her supply of coal between the Black Sea 
 and Port .-\rthur, will be practically independent as soon 
 as the Trans-Manchurian Railway is completed, and is, 
 therefore, in a better position than either of her co7i- 
 freres. But there are other considerations which dis- 
 count her position in the Far East, the chief of these 
 being the enormous cost of maintaining her bases on 
 the Pacific. The gigantic expenditure which has been 
 necessitated by the policy recently followed b\- Russia 
 in China, has already told on her resources to a degree 
 not generally suspected, and it is quite possible that, 
 ere long, developments will become manifest, which 
 will surprise those who regard Russia as a power pos- 
 sessing boundless wealth. 
 
 In the face of these considerations, the question arises, 
 What should be the policy of Great Britain in China? 
 How can she best consolidate licr inlcrcsls throughout 
 the Celestial Em|)ire? What mc^thods are most rcciuisite 
 in order to secure the position she has attained in the 
 trade and development of the country ? I'ive years
 
 36o CHINA IN DECA V. 
 
 ago it would have been an easy matter to answer this 
 question. But recent events have very much compli- 
 cated the position, and narrowed the courses open. 
 In days gone by the possibilities were limited only by 
 the wishes of Great Britain backed w^ith the force she 
 was able to employ. To-day it is not a question of 
 what China will give, but what other Powers will per- 
 mit her to offer, and the respect evinced by Her 
 Majesty's Government for other Powers is very 
 great ! 
 
 On one point all those who have studied the Far 
 Eastern Question are agreed. Britain must cast to 
 the winds her party cry of the open door. Neglected 
 in practice, as it has been this past month or more, it 
 must be openly and finally discarded, and in its place 
 an active policy of interference must be adopted. I 
 put it thus plainly since the occasion is not one which 
 will allow of any more /a{07is deparler. England must 
 assert herself, and in reply to the cession of territories 
 to other nations, define the limits of the sphere of 
 influence she elects to take to herself. It is scarcely 
 necessary to point out of what the sphere of Great 
 Britain should consist. There is not much choice, and 
 the valley of the Yang-tse Kiang is the only part of 
 China which is both suitable and available. But its 
 limits are ill-defined, and until this is remedied the 
 mere claiming of the valley as a sphere would be but 
 the acquisition of a name. The whole of the water- 
 shed of the Yang-tse, then, with the province of Yun- 
 nan down to the Burmese frontier, must be pledged 
 to Great Britain, and, in order to secure the great
 
 THE SITUATION. 361 
 
 river in case of need, at least three places must be 
 leased on or near its banks to serve as bases for the 
 gunboats which will protect our rights if necessar\', 
 and prevent the interference of foreign powers. This 
 proposal will, I have no doubt, be attacked as being op- 
 posed to our policy in China, and altogether too strong 
 a measure to be acted on. I reply that any measure 
 likely to permanently benefit this country in China 
 must involve a change in our policy, while it is only 
 strong measures that can serve us in the Far East. 
 What Russia has done in the North, Germany in the 
 North-East, and France in the South, we must do in 
 the centre, unless we are prepared to see our last 
 chance slip from out our grasp, and find ourselves 
 politely bowed out of China by the Powers which are 
 ■quietly but surely annexing the country. 
 
 But this is by no means all that is necessary to 
 restore our lost prestige. Russia, stable in her policy 
 and immovable in her determination, has not yet 
 achieved the objects of her ambition in the Celestial 
 Empire. She has, indeed, only begun, and it is our 
 mission to stay her hand. It matters not where the 
 line be drawn, but a line must be laid down, and beyond 
 it she must not go. Pledges, treaties, and promises are 
 alike useless. Muscovite exploiters will continue to 
 forge their way ahead until their proi^ress is impeded 
 by an obstacle they cannot surmount, — a nation as 
 stronof as their own. 
 
 If Russia's advance in China is not to be on the 
 same lines of continuous expansion as has been the 
 case in Central Asia, then that nation must be Great
 
 362 CHINA IN DEC A Y. 
 
 Britain, which must stay her march by means of a con- 
 terminous frontier beyond which she must not pass. 
 The frontier may be a political or a physical one. It 
 miofht be drawn alone;; the line of the barrier of stakes^ 
 long since disappeared, which once delineated the 
 boundaries of Manchuria and the province of Chili. It 
 might be the Pei Ho, or, if that be insufficient, there is 
 the Yellow River, in itself a formidable frontier ; but 
 some definite limit must be laid down, to pass beyond 
 which will be regarded as an act of war. Let Britain 
 guarantee to China the territory beyond that line, just 
 as Belgium is guaranteed in Europe, and, for some 
 years at least, Russia's hands will be tied and her 
 descent on Eastern Asia stayed. If this be not done, 
 then, within another score of years, Russia will have 
 reached the borders of Burma, just as she has 
 attained those of Afghanistan, and then, by the seizure 
 of Tibet, she will command the whole of the Indian 
 frontier and stand monarch of Asia and ruler of the 
 world. 
 
 But what of the Chinese ? How are the wily 
 Celestials to be dealt with while Britain is protecting 
 herself from the Muscovite descent ? The problem is 
 complicated, but not insolvable. The Government at 
 Peking must be purged ; the numerous conspirators 
 disposed of, and, most important of all, our representa- 
 tives must take a more prominent part in the work of 
 the country. Owing to the absurd seclusion in which 
 the nominal ruler of the country is maintained, it is 
 absolutely impossible to confer w^ith him, or even to 
 learn his views, presuming, that is, he is allowed to hold
 
 THE SITUATION. 363 
 
 any. If our minister at Peking were able to meet the 
 " son of heaven " just as the ministers of foreign 
 countries are permitted to meet our Queen, an 
 immense gain would most surely result, and much 
 of the scheminor which now Qroes on amone the 
 mandarin would be impossible. Moreover, besides our 
 minister at Peking, we ought to have an accredited 
 resident at each of the chief provincial capitals where 
 viceroys are placed, who should, by mixing freely with 
 the local authorities, not only gain much valuable know- 
 ledge of the interior, but be able gradually to accustom 
 the governors to Western ideas, and to overcome the 
 prejudice which still occasionally leads to attacks on 
 foreigners. 
 
 Now is the time to take action — or never. China 
 is, in all probability, on the eve of a fateful epoch in 
 her history. A crisis is approaching in her affairs, and 
 a variety of causes contribute to introduce a new order 
 of things. The Emperor, a young and irresponsible 
 being, is in the hands of an able and unscrupulous 
 woman, who is generally understood to know far more 
 about the early demise of his predecessor than has been 
 publicly stated. The ministers at Peking are a selfish 
 and corrupt lot of men, the more capable being the more 
 corrupt. Li Hung Chang, at one time within an ace 
 of becoming the nominal as well as the actual ruler of 
 the land, is hand and glove with the Dowager Empress, 
 and capable of anything likely to enhance his personal 
 reputation or his power. In addition to these factors 
 in the possibilities of change, there is revolution active 
 in the south and smoulderincr in the west, and, as if
 
 364 CHINA IN DEC A V. 
 
 the dangers from within were not sufficient to stir the 
 Empire to its extremely antiquated and very rotten 
 foundations, Russia is threatening to absorb the country 
 from her vantage ground in the north, and only seek- 
 ing her opportunity to take Peking and declare a 
 protectorate over the whole country. 
 
 For all these reasons I repeat that if Great Britain 
 desires to save China she must act promptly. It is 
 futile to take shelter in the default of precedent. Lord 
 Salisbury's refusal to find capital for the construction 
 of railways in China has cost us the loss of the Lu- 
 han line. His shortsightedness in refusinor to accord 
 the necessary protection to British capital has pro- 
 vided Russia's opportunity in the Yang-tse Valley, 
 and his truly marvellous lack of information has been 
 responsible for the squabble over the Newchang rail- 
 way concession, in which we have been as usual 
 defeated. 
 
 If we are to maintain our trade in China, we must 
 turn over a new leaf, and take a lesson from the con- 
 duct of nations wiser than ourselves. Half measures 
 are useless. Firmness, enterprise, and ability are 
 necessary to protect our interests and to stay the hands 
 of our despoilers. Money must be spent ; but it will 
 be well invested, and produce a handsome return. The 
 Yang-tse Valley and the whole of Yunnan must be 
 reserved to Great Britain, and, if a precedent be 
 demanded for such a sweeping change of front, then 
 let our rulers ponder over Egypt, and inquire how 
 much money was sunk in the purchase of the Suez 
 Canal shares, money invested in a foreign country
 
 THE SITUATION. 365 
 
 without guarantee, a practice which, according to Lord 
 Salisbury, is contrary to all precedent. 
 
 And if we continue to trust to luck and that wonder- 
 ful friendly understanding with Russia, which rejoices 
 at intervals the heart of the little England party, with- 
 out ever becoming an accomplished fact, then most 
 surely shall we lose, just as the full return is coming 
 within reach, what it has taken us nearly three centuries 
 to acquire. With our opportunities lost, our sphere of 
 control usurped by other Powers, and our assistance 
 and advice rejected scornfully, we may retire from 
 China, victims of foreign ability and of our own weak- 
 ness, and seek fresh markets elsewhere.
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 THE FUTURE OF CHINA. 
 
 It would need a man bolder than I to forecast the 
 probable future of the Chinese Empire. The problems 
 affecting the fate of the country are so intricate, and the 
 conflicting interests at work so varied, as to make the 
 Chinese puzzle one, which might with justice be termed 
 inscrutable. There are, however, certain possibilities 
 which might at any moment supervene, which would 
 effect a marked change in the existing position, and I 
 propose in this, my last chapter, to glance at these, 
 and endeavour to evolve from out the number of 
 conflicting suggestions, a line of reasoning which may 
 perchance result in actual development. 
 
 There are two causes at work, either of which might 
 at any moment bring about an entire change in the 
 affairs of China. They are the seething revolution 
 always smouldering within, and the conflicting aims 
 of rival powers without. The former is the more 
 serious of the two, and the more likely to effect a 
 sudden and a radical change in the fortunes of the 
 country, — a change which could not well be for the 
 worse, and which might very possibly be for the 
 better.
 
 Photo by\ 
 
 \RusscU ir' Sons. 
 
 I.I hum; (Iiam:.
 
 THE FUTURE OF CHINA. 369 
 
 Every political question in China is viewed from 
 one of two aspects : the view of the conservative or 
 that of the progressive Chinaman. For, remarkable 
 though it may appear, there is a progressive party in 
 China, consisting mainly of the merchants and others 
 who have been brought into contact with Europeans. 
 The proportion of progressives among the governing 
 classes is extremely small, but some there are who 
 exhibit a marked desire to introduce foreign ideas into 
 the Chinese arena. Notable amonLT such are Chancr- 
 Chi-Tung, viceroy of the two Hu provinces, Cheng 
 Bo Cheng, governor of Honan, men who have 
 benefited by a Western education, and arc honestly 
 desirous of doing their country good. The number of 
 these amonof the mandarin is, however, extremelv few, 
 and it is to be feared that any attempt to implant their 
 ideas on the majority would result in their destruction 
 at the hands of their less patriotic fellows. But 
 trouble may ensue at a moment's notice in China by 
 the death of the Emperor, which might be effected 
 without the delay of a lengthy illness. It is no unusual 
 occurrence for a Chinese notability to "pass away " 
 quietly and unexpectedly, all that transpires being a 
 few bulletins and a final announcement of demise. 
 This is all that is known of the end of Tungchi, the 
 predecessor of the present Emperor, of Ahluta. his 
 young wife, who died shortly after him, and of the 
 Dowager Empress Tsi Thsi, his aunt, who ascended to 
 Heaven in 1881, leaving Tsi An, the former concubine 
 of Hienfung [the present Dowager Empress], regent 
 over the land. It is this person who has so recently 
 
 2 A
 
 2,yo CHINA IN DEC A Y. 
 
 acquired the strings of Government as a protest to the 
 liberal character of the edicts lately issued by Kwangsu, 
 and It would not be a matter for great surprise if that 
 youthful ruler were to meet with an accident, or 
 develop heart disease, as a ready means of enabling the 
 Dowager Empress to continue her rule unhampered. 
 
 In the event of such a catastrophe, the right of 
 appointing an heir to the Celestial Throne would rest 
 in Tsi An, who would probably nominate the infant 
 grandson of the lately deceased Prince Kung, such an 
 appointment having the advantage of necessitating a 
 continued regency. Should this happen, the event would 
 open up a number of possibilities. Li Hung Chang, 
 despite his age, retains his vigour, and is said to be as 
 keen as ever to attain self-glorification. It has more 
 than once been suo-orested that he has cast loncrino- 
 eyes on the dragon throne, and this rumour is borne 
 out by some of the documents left by General Gordon, 
 who knew Li intimately, and reckoned him up in no 
 complimentary terms. In any case, the least display 
 of weakness on the part of the ruler of China would 
 be very likely to bring about a revolution which would 
 have for its object the ousting of the " usurping 
 dynasty " of the Manchus and the reintroduction of 
 a line of Chinese Emperors. That Li Hung Chang 
 could have filled the post in years gone by is undeni- 
 able, and it Is highly probable that he would have 
 received a fairly general support ; but how far his 
 truckling to the Russians has affected his status In 
 China is a question on which I am not qualified to 
 give an opinion.
 
 THE FUTURE OF CHIXA. yjx 
 
 The ultimate fate of China, whatever internal dis- 
 sensions may arise, will, however, be decided, not by 
 the scheming of officials, but by the action of the 
 Powers which she has kept knocking at her gates for 
 so long. It is Great Britain and Russia who hold the 
 destinies of China in their hands, and nothincf that the 
 people can do will affect the result. 
 
 If left to her own devices, Russia would inevitably 
 absorb the middle kinc;-dom down to the Burmese 
 frontier, while the western provinces of Kansu and 
 Sechuan would form a valuable addition to her Central 
 Asian territory. But Russia, while by no means 
 hopeless in the future, realises that in the present It 
 would be, to say the least, unwise to take steps 
 which would mean war with us, and so she refrains 
 from doing more than render it impossible for Britain 
 to obtain the entire control of the Yang-tse \^alley by 
 forming a Russian colony at Hankow. 
 
 But it would be folly to close one's eyes to the fact 
 that Russia means to absorb China, and tliat the 
 achievement of her desire is only postponed in order 
 that she may effect her purpose by instalments and 
 thus render her success all the more secure. This 
 view is, I am aware, opposed to that held by many of 
 our politicians, including members of the Government, 
 but it is nevertheless correct, and its correctness must 
 be admitted by all who are not so fatuous as to have 
 been impressed by the recently issued homily of the 
 Czar. To put it plainly, China is doomed to become 
 absorbed by a foreign power. The only question to 
 be decided is, whether that power shall be Russia or
 
 Z-J2 CHINA IN DECA V. 
 
 another? or, presuming that at the ninth hour the 
 British Government comes to face the facts and realises 
 the position, whether, as an alternative, a scheme of 
 partition into zones be agreed on, and the country be 
 divided between the Powers which are established in 
 the Far East. 
 
 To believe in the recuperative power of China is 
 mere waste faith. The people are too ignorant, the 
 rulers too obtuse to lift themselves to the level of 
 Western civilisation ; and even were this not so, the 
 inevitable jealousies certain to ensue between the 
 Powers interested in the opening up of the country, 
 would serve to bring about a disruption of territory 
 which would render the continuance of the Empire, as 
 a whole, impossible. 
 
 There is nothing in common between the situation 
 in China to-day and that which existed in Japan 
 thirty years ago. The races are entirely apart in 
 characteristics as in physique, and what has been 
 feasible in Niphon could never come to pass in Chrise. 
 China as a political entity is doomed. Diplomatically 
 she has been dead these three years, and to-day she 
 carries out the order of the strongest of those by whom 
 she is surrounded. The only chance of rebuilding the 
 Empire sunk so low, has been neglected by Britain, 
 which alone of all the Powers held the key to the position 
 and refused to use it. A judicious interference at the 
 close of the Japanese war in 1895 would have sufficed 
 not only to save China, but to obtain a footing in the 
 country under circumstances which will never recur. 
 The independence of the Empire could have been
 
 THE FUTURE OF CHINA. 373 
 
 guaranteed by the Powers ; indeed, Great Britain was 
 the only one which refrained from respondini^ to the 
 suggestion of Russia to oppose the cession of territory 
 pledged by the treaty of Shimonoseki. 
 
 The opportunity was lost, and to-day we see the 
 country at the mercy of Russia, with her conterminous 
 frontiers on tw^o sides of the Empire, elated at the 
 success of her recent tactics, and determined to continue 
 her incursions at all costs, excepting war. 
 
 For to-day Russia dare not fight in China, and a 
 display of force would prompdy cause her to hold her 
 hand. But it will not always be so ; and in a few years' 
 time, with her railways built, and her communications 
 completed, Russia w ill be in a different position. And 
 then, after having neglected our opportunities, and 
 permitted her to gain strength under our very nose, 
 then we shall have to fight Russia at the cost of blood 
 and treasure, which a little foresight, backed with 
 energy and decision, might have saved. 
 
 And afterwards ! What will be the share of China 
 in the world's history, when si)lit up into segments.'* 
 She who has held half of Asia as a suzerain power 
 shall have become resolved into a series of depend- 
 encies. What is the future in store for the four 
 hundred millions of people who to-day offer the finest 
 opening for trade with the West that has ever been 
 known ^ 
 
 The question is an absorbing one, and suggests 
 material for study which ma\' well startle the stutU-nt. 
 What will hapi)en when this people, able, energetic, 
 imitative, and industrious, learns to follow the example
 
 374 CHINA IN DEC A Y. 
 
 set l)y Western nations, and takes to manufacturini^ 
 goods, and raising produce at a cost which, while it 
 will pay them, would not find a Western labourer in 
 bread? How, when China supplies the w^orld with 
 manufactures at a tithe the cost of their production in 
 Western countries ? What will become of our Chinese 
 trade when the Celestial supplies his own requirements, 
 and undersells his teacher in his own markets ? 
 For, whatever the fate of China, the people will remain 
 with their marvellous resource and adaptability, and 
 they only need the education and the training we are 
 endeavourino- to o-ive them in order to hold their own 
 against the world. The problem is fraught with possi- 
 bilities which make one pause and ponder, and feel 
 grateful for the reminiscence that, after all, the ddnov.e- 
 ment is not likely to crop up in our time.
 
 Ctapmaa S.Hall Luuiicd
 
 A P P E X D I X A. 
 
 Landmarks in Chinese History chrono- 
 loQficallv arranii'ed. 
 
 B.C. 
 
 2637 First cycle in Chinese history begins. 
 2205 Feudal period begins. 
 1767 Feudal period ends. 
 
 221 Tsin Chi Havangti assumes title of Emperor. 
 
 211 Great Wall of China completed. 
 
 202 The Han dynasty. 
 
 A.D. 
 
 265 The second Tsin dynasty. 
 
 420 Nanking becomes the capital. 
 
 618 The Tang dynasty. 
 1225 The Sung dynasty. 
 1260 The Yuen (Mongol) dynasty. 
 Capital transferred to Peking. 
 1368 The Ming dynasty. 
 1516 Portuguese reach Canton. 
 1536 Macao granted to the Portuguese. 
 1567 Two Cossacks visit Peking. 
 1 6 16 Manchus descend on Chinese. 
 1634 Captain Weddell blockades Canton. 
 
 1644 The Tatsing or Ching (Manchu) dynasty — Chuntchc Emperor. 
 1653 Russian I-^nvoy refused audience at Peking. 
 
 1660 Tea first brought to England. 
 
 166 1 Kanghi, 2nd Manchu Emperor. 
 1664 Dutch mission to Peking. 
 1669 Portuguese mission to Peking. 
 
 375
 
 376 CHINA IN DEC A V. 
 
 1680 East India Company begins to trade. 
 J 689 Treaty of Nerchinsk signed with Russia. 
 1692 Ides (Russian) mission to Peking. 
 1720 Chinese conquest of Tibet. 
 
 Papal mission to Peking. 
 1722 Yung Ching, 3rd Manchu Emperor. 
 1735 Keen Lung, 4th Manchu Emperor. 
 1793 Lord Macartney's mission to Peking. 
 
 1795 Dutch East India Company's mission to Peking. 
 
 1 796 Kiaking, 5th Manchu Emperor. 
 1816 Lord Amherst's embassy to Peking. 
 1821 Taoukwang, 6th Manchu Emperor. 
 1834 East India Company's Charter expires. 
 
 Lord Napier arrives at Macao. 
 Opium prohibited. 
 1S39 Lin seizes opium. 
 
 British trade with China ceases. 
 Hong-kong occupied by British. 
 
 1840 Edict against intercourse with England. 
 Captain Elliot enters Pei Ho. 
 
 1 841 Sir H. Gough captures Canton and Amoy. 
 Hong-kong ceded to British. 
 
 Ningpo and Chusan taken. 
 
 1842 Woosung and Shanghai taken. 
 
 Treaty of Nanking signed, Hong-kong ceded. 
 1S50 Taeping Rebellion breaks out. 
 1 85 1 Hieufung, 7th Manchu Emperor. 
 1854 Imperial Maritime Customs established. 
 
 1856 Lorcha Arroiv seized, Canton attacked. 
 
 1857 Lord Elgin arrives at Hong-kong. 
 
 1858 Canton taken by English and French. 
 Pei Ho forts taken. 
 
 Treaty of Aigun signed with Russia. 
 
 Treaty of Tientsin signed with Great Britain. 
 
 1859 Mr Bruce stopped at Pei Ho forts. 
 Commercial treaty with America. 
 
 i860 Lord Elgin and Baron Gros reach Shanghai. 
 
 Capture of Peking and destruction of Emperor's summer palace. 
 Convention of Peking sicrned.
 
 APPENDIX. 377 
 
 1 86 1 Tsungli Yamen established. 
 
 British and French embassies established at Peking. 
 
 Admiral Hope explores Yang-tse Kiang. 
 
 French seize Annam. 
 
 Tungche declared 8th Manchu Emperor, aged 5. 
 
 Dowager Empresses appointed Regents. 
 
 Russian treaty signed. 
 
 1862 Rebels seize Ningpo and Hangchow and march against 
 
 Shanghai. 
 English and French assist Chinese against Taepings. 
 
 1863 Major Gordon leads army against rebels. 
 
 1865 Nienfei rebellion. 
 
 1866 Chinese Commissioners visit Europe. 
 Yakoob Kahn conquers Kashgar. 
 
 1868 Attack on Yangchow Mission by literati. 
 Burlinghame treaty signed at Washington. 
 
 1869 Supplementary convention to Tientsin treaty signed. 
 
 1870 Mohammedan rebellion in Norih-West China. 
 
 Massacre of French consul, priests and sisters of mercy — 22 
 persons — at Tientsin. 
 
 1871 Chung How (Chinese envoy) arrives in London. 
 Russia occupies Kuldja. 
 
 1873 First audience granted to foreign ministers by Tungche. 
 Talifu captured by Mohammedans. 
 
 1875 Kwangsu declared 9th Manchu Emperor, 4th February. 
 Dowager Empresses continue regency. 
 
 Murder of Augustus Margary, at Manwyne, 21st February. 
 Edict permitting intercourse with foreign ministers published. 
 
 1876 Shanghai \\'oosung railway opened. 
 Chefoo convention signed. 
 
 1877 Decree giving equal rights to Chinese Christians published. 
 Woosung railway purchased by Chinese. 
 
 Quo ta Zahn accredited first minister to London. 
 Yakoob Kahn totally defeated in Turkistan. 
 
 1878 Chinese minister gives first reception in London. 
 Destruction of mission house at ^Vushishan. 
 ^\'oosung railway removed to Formosa. 
 Rebellion in Kwangsi. 
 
 1879 Rebellion in Hainan.
 
 378 CHINA IN DEC A V. 
 
 1879 Marquis Tseng arrives in London. 
 Treaty of Hi signed with Russia. 
 
 1880 Chung How imprisoned for signing treaty. 
 
 1883 Difficulties with France over Tonkin. 
 
 Sir Harry Parkes appointed minister at Peking. 
 
 1884 Cou/> d'etat by Prince Chung. 
 Treaty with France. 
 
 Keelung bombarded by French. 
 
 Admiral Courbet arrives at Fuchow. 
 
 French ambassador leaves Peking. 
 
 Admiral Courbet sails up Min River, destroying fleet. 
 
 Kelung taken. 
 
 Tamsui defeated. 
 
 French protectorate of Tonkin and Annam recognised. 
 
 1885 Death of Sir Harry Parkes. 
 Peace signed with France. 
 
 Sir Robert Hart succeeds Sir Harry Parkes. 
 
 1 886 Sir John Walsham succeeds Sir Robert Hart. 
 Burmese frontier convention signed at Peking. 
 
 1 88 7 Emperor Kwangsu assumes the government, aged 16, 7th 
 February. 
 Overflow of Yellow River. 
 
 1888 Tientsin-Taku railway opened. 
 
 1889 Great famine. 
 Riots at Chinkiang. 
 
 Marriage of Emperor, 25th February. 
 
 Yellow River bursts its banks, great inundations. 
 
 Insurrection in Fukien. 
 
 Rising in North Manchuria. 
 1S90 Imperial decree on reform published. 
 
 Chungking convention signed. 
 
 Death of the Marquis Tseng. 
 
 Floods in Chi-li. 
 
 Massacre of Christians at Jongtuytsin. 
 
 Decree granting audience to representatives of foreign powers. 
 1 89 1 First audience takes place, 5th March. 
 
 Death of Prince Chung reported. 
 
 Anti-European riots at Wuhu. 
 
 Decree ordering protection of foreigners published.
 
 APPENDIX. 379 
 
 1891 Yang-tse floods. 
 
 American mission destroyed at Ichang. 
 Insurrection in Mongolia against native Christians. 
 
 1892 Mr Nicholas R. O'Connor appointed minister at I'eking. 
 Renewed outrages on missionaries reported. 
 
 Yellow River inundations. 
 
 Mr O'Connor arrives at Peking and is received by the Emperor. 
 
 1893 Famine in Shensi. 
 
 Kung Chao-quan appointed minister in London. 
 
 1894 Insurrection in Manchuria. 
 Japanese troops occupy Seoul. 
 Korea renounces suzerainty of China. 
 Koivshing sunk by Japanese. 
 
 Chinese declare war on Japan, 4th August. 
 
 Chinese defeated at Ping Yang, i6th Septembtr. 
 
 Outrage on missionaries at Liao Yang. 
 
 Battle of the Yalu, 17th September. 
 
 Imperial edict for the protection of foreigners. 
 
 Japanese forces enter Manchuria, 25th October. 
 
 Kinchou and Talienwan taken, 7th Noveml)er. 
 
 Port Arthur taken, 21st November. 
 
 Massacre of Chinese at Port Arthur, 23rd to 26ih November. 
 
 Rebellion at Wuhu. 
 
 1895 Indep-Midence of Korea proclaimed, yih January. 
 Wei Hai Wei taken, 12th February. 
 Newchang taken, 6th March. 
 
 Rebellion in Kwangtung. 
 
 Pescadores islands taken. 
 
 Treaty of Shimonoseki signed, 17th .\pril. 
 
 Russia, France, and Germany protest against cession of Liao- 
 
 tong peninsula, 23rd April. 
 Japanese abandon claim to same, 6ih May. 
 Rising against missionaries at Chengtu. 
 French frontier treaty signed. 
 
 Massacre of missionaries at Whasang, by vegetarians, ist August. 
 Missionaries attacked at Fatshan, 7th August. 
 Edict ordering construction of Peking-Tientsin railway. 
 
 1896 Imperial national post established, 27th March. 
 
 Sir Claude MacDonald minister at Peking, 24ih April.
 
 38o CHINA IN DEC A Y. 
 
 1896 Li Hung Chang attends coronation of Czar at Moscow, and 
 
 afterwards goes round the world. 
 Trans-Manchurian railway agreement signed, 4th October. 
 
 1897 Opening of West River to foreign trade agreed to. 
 
 Lu Han central railway conceded to Belgian syndicate. 
 Germany demands satisfaction for murder of two missionaries. 
 Germany occupies Kiaochau, 14th November. 
 Russia occupies Port Arthur, i8th December. 
 
 1898 Kiaochau leased to Germany, loth January. 
 
 Monopoly for development of resources of Shantung and con- 
 struction of railways accorded to Germany, 26th February. 
 Russia obtains lease of Port Arthur and Talienwan on same 
 
 terms as Kiaochau was leased to Germany, 7th March. 
 Russia obtains concession for railways in Liao-tong Peninsula. 
 German consul claims whole of Shantung province as sphere 
 
 of German influence, 13th March. 
 Loan of sixteen millions sterling concluded with Great Britain 
 
 and Germany. 
 Occupation of Wei Hai Wei by British, May. 
 Concessions to Anglo-Italian Syndicate for development of 
 
 resources of territory in Shansi and Honan, accorded 21st 
 
 June. 
 Liiperial Edict ordering establishment of University and 
 
 Patent Office on European lines, 6th July. 
 Russia opposes Newchang railway concession, Sih July. 
 Rising of Black Flags in Kwangsi, loth July. 
 Li Hung Chang dismissed from Tsungli Yamen, Sth September. 
 Edict according right of memorialising throne, etc., i8th 
 
 September. 
 Dowager Empress Tsi An assumes control of Government, 
 
 22nd September. 
 Emperor supposed to have been put to death. 
 Empress issues rescript withdrawing Emperor's Edicts, 2 7lh 
 
 September. 
 Kang Yu Wei, the reformer, escapes from Peking, and 
 
 reaches Hong-kong on British vessel, 30th September. 
 Chang Yeu Huan, Chinese envoy at the Queen's Jubilee 
 
 (1897), dismissed from office and banished to Hi, 30th 
 
 September.
 
 APPENDIX. 381 
 
 1898 British, German and Russian Governments order military 
 
 escorts to Peking to protect embassies in case of need, 
 
 4th October. 
 Parties of Marines and Cossacks detained at Tientsin on their 
 
 way to Peking by the Mandarin, 5th October. 
 Tsungli Yamen assent to foreign guards entering Peking. 
 
 They reach the capital by special train conveying 25 
 
 British marines, 30 German marines, and 63 Russian 
 
 soldiers and sailors, 7th October. 
 Final contract for the Shan hai kuan Railway Loan, signed 
 
 by the Mandarin Hu and the Hongkong and Shanghai 
 
 Bank, icth October. 
 Reactionary edicts, reverting to the old order of things, issued 
 
 in the name of the Dowager Empress, loth October. 
 Edict issued suppressing all Chinese Newspapers and Clubs, 
 
 13th October. 
 Dr Detheve of the French Legation at Peking permitted to 
 
 visit the Emperor Kwangsu at the Palace, and examine 
 
 as to his state of health. He reports that the Emperor 
 
 is unwell, but not in any danger, 19th October. 
 Rising threatened against the British in the newly acquired 
 
 territory behind Kauloon, 20th October.
 
 APPENDIX B. 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF AUTHORITIES. 
 
 Abel, Clarke. 
 
 Narrative of Lord Amherst's Embassy to the Court of Peking. 
 iSi8. 
 Anderson, John, M.D. 
 
 A Narrative of the Two Expeditions to Western China of 1868 
 and 1875. 1876. 
 Archer, W. J. 
 
 Report on a Journey in the Mekawng Valley ; Siam Blue Book 
 No. I. of 1892, 
 Atkinson, T. W. 
 
 The Upper and Lower Amur. i860. 
 Baber, E. Colbourn. 
 
 Report of the Grosvenor Mission. 
 Baron, Samuel. 
 
 A Description of the Kingdom of Tonqueen. 1732. 
 Blakiston, Captain, and Barton, Alfred. 
 
 Five Months on the Yang-tse. 1S62. 
 Biot, E. C. 
 
 Cities and Towns of China. 1879. 
 Boulger, Demetrius Charles. 
 
 England and Russia in Central Asia. 1879. 
 
 Central Asian Questions. 1S85. 
 
 Life of Gordon. 1S97. 
 
 History of China. 1898. 
 BowEN, Sir George Ferguson. 
 
 Thirty Years of Colonial Government. Edited by Stanley Lane- 
 Poole. 1S89. 
 
 382
 
 APPENDIX. 383 
 
 Brandt, M. Von. 
 
 Ostasiatische Fragen, China, Japan, Korea, altes und neues. 1S97. 
 Erebner, a. 
 
 Little History of China, 1895. 
 Callery, J. M., and Yvan Melchior, 
 
 Insurrection en Chine depuis son origine jusqu'a la prise de 
 Nankin. 1853. 
 Chirol, M. Valentine. 
 
 The Far Eastern Question. 1896. 
 COLQUHOUN, A. R. 
 
 Across Chryse. 1883. 
 
 Among the Shans. 1885. 
 
 China in Transformation. 1898. 
 
 COLTMAN, R. 
 
 The Chinese, their Present and Future. 1S91. 
 Cooke, G. W. 
 
 China : being the Times Special Correspondence from China in 
 1857-58. 1858. 
 Cooper, T. J. 
 
 Travels of a Pioneer of Commerce in Pigtail and Petticoats. 
 1871. 
 Crawford, John Martin. 
 
 The Industries of Russia. 1893. 
 CuRzoN, George N. 
 
 Problems of the Far East. 1896. 
 Davis, Sir John Fr.\ncis. 
 
 China during the War and since the Peace. 1852. 
 
 The Chinese: A General Description of the Empire of China 
 and its Inhabitants. 1857. 
 Dealy, T. K. 
 
 Notes on the Geography of the Chinese Empire. 1S96. 
 De Doncourt. 
 
 Les FranCj-ais dans I'E.xtreme Orient. 1884. 
 Dennys, Nicholas Belfield. 
 
 Notes and Queries on China. 1867. 
 
 The Treaty Ports of China and Japan. 1S67. 
 
 The Folk Lore of China and its Affinities. 1876. 
 Deschamps. 
 
 Histoire de la Question Colonial en France. 1S91.
 
 384 CHIXA IN DEC A V. a^ 
 
 De WlNDT, H. 
 
 From Peking to Calais l>y Land. 1892. 
 DooLiTTLE, Rev. Justus. 
 
 The Social Life of the Chinese. 1867. 
 Douglas, Professor R. K. 
 
 China. 1887. 
 
 Society in China. 1894. 
 
 Li Hung Chang. 1895. 
 Du Halde, Jean Baptiste. 
 
 Description geographique, historique, chronologique, et physique 
 de I'Empire de la Chine. 1736. 
 Eastlake, Dr F. W., and Yamada, Y. A. 
 
 Heroic Japan : an Authentic Account of the War between China 
 and Japan. 1897. 
 Edkins, Joseph. 
 
 Religion in China. 1S77. 
 EiTEL, Ernest John. 
 
 Feng-shui : the Rudiments of Natural Science in China. 
 
 i873-_ 
 Europe in China : the History of Hong-kong. 1S95. 
 Fortune, Robert. 
 
 Three Years' Wanderings in the Northern Provinces of China. 
 
 1847. ■ _ 
 
 A Journey to the Tea Countries of China. 1852. 
 A Residence among the Chinese from 1S53 to 1856. 1857. 
 Garnier, ]\Larie Joseph Francois. 
 
 Voyage d'Exploration en Indo-Chine effectue pendent les 
 annees 1S66, '67 et 1868. 1873. 
 Giles, Herbert Allen. 
 
 Synoptical Studies in Chinese Character. 1874. 
 Glossary of Reference on Subjects connected wiih the Far East. 
 1878. 
 Gill, Captain William John. 
 
 The River of Golden Sand. iSSo. 
 Gilmour, Rev. James. 
 
 Among the Mongols. 1SS3. 
 Gray, William John Henry. 
 
 China : a History of the Laws, Manners, and Customs of the 
 Peoiile. 1S77.
 
 APPENDIX. 385 
 
 GUETZLAFF, C. F. A. 
 
 A Sketch of Chinese History, Ancient and Modern. 1S34. 
 
 Life of the Emperor Taoukwang, with Memoirs of the Court of 
 Peking. 1852. 
 
 China Opened ; or a Display of the Topograpliy, History, etc., of 
 the Chinese Empire. 1858. 
 GUNDRY, R. S. 
 
 China and Her Neighbours. 1S93. 
 
 China Past and Present. 1895. 
 Hake, A. E. 
 
 Events of the Taeping RebelHon. 1891. 
 Hai.leit, Holt, and Coi.quhoun, A. R. 
 
 Report on the Raihvay Connexion of Burma and China. 
 1888. 
 Henry, B. C. 
 
 Ling Nam : Interior Views of Southern China. 1886. 
 Holcombe, Charles. 
 
 The Real Chinaman. 1895. 
 Hosie, Alexander. 
 
 Three Years in Western China. 1897. 
 Howarth. 
 
 History of the Mongols. 18S8. 
 Hue, E. R. 
 
 Travels in Tartary, Tibet, and China. 1852. 
 
 The Chinese Empire. 1855. 
 Hughes, Mrs T. F. 
 
 Among the Sons of Ham. i88r. 
 Inouvk, Jukuciii. 
 
 Japan China War. 1895. 
 James, H. E. M. 
 
 The Long White Mountain. 18S8. 
 Kreitner, G. 
 
 Im fernen Osten. 1SS2. 
 Lanessan, De. 
 
 L'Expansion Coloniale de la France. 1866. 
 Lanin, E. B. 
 
 Russian Characteristics. 1S92. 
 Lansdell, Rev. Henry. 
 
 Through Siberia. 18S2. 
 
 2 n
 
 386 CHINA IN DEC A Y. 
 
 Lansdell, Rev. Hknry — continued. 
 
 Russian Central Asia. 1885. 
 
 Chinese Central Asia. 1893. 
 Lav, H. N. 
 
 Notes on the Opium Question, and Brief Survey of our Relations 
 with China. 1893. 
 Little, Archibald John. 
 
 Through the Yang-tse Gorges. 1888. 
 
 LjUNGSTEDT, A. 
 
 Contribution to an Historical Sketch of the Portuguese Settle- 
 ments in China. 1832. 
 Loch, Sir H. B. 
 
 Personal Narrative of Occurrences during Lord Elgin's Second 
 Embassy to China. 1869. 
 Loir. 
 
 L'Escadre de I'Amiral Courbet. 1894. 
 
 M'GOWAN, J. 
 
 History of China. 1S97. 
 Margary. 
 
 The Journey of Augustus Raymond Margary from Shanghai to 
 Bhamo. 1876. 
 Martin, R. M. 
 
 China, Political, Social, and Commercial. 1847. 
 Martin, Rev. W. A. P. 
 
 The Chinese: their Education, Philosophy, and Letters. 1881. 
 Mayers, W. F. 
 
 Treaties between the Empire of China and Foreign Powers. 
 1877. 
 
 The Chinese Government. 1877. 
 Meadows, Thos. Taylor. 
 
 Desultory Notes on the Government and People of China. 1847. 
 
 The Chinese and their Rebellions. 1856. 
 M'Ghee, R. J. L. 
 
 How we Got to Peking. 1861. 
 Medhurst, Sir W. H. 
 
 Curiosities of Street Literature in China. 1S71. 
 
 The Foreigner in Far Cathay. 1872. 
 Medhurst, W. H., D.D. 
 
 China, its State and Prospects. 1838.
 
 APPENDIX. 387 
 
 MicHiE, Alexander. 
 
 The Siberian Overland Route from Peking to Petersburg. 1S64. 
 
 Missionaries in China. 1891. 
 Morrison, George Ernest, 
 
 An AustraUan in China. 1895. 
 Morrison, J. K. 
 
 The Currency of China. 1S95. 
 Moule Ven, Arthur E. 
 
 New China and Old. 1891. 
 MuNDV, Walter W. 
 
 Canton and the Bogue. 1875. 
 MUTCHMORE. S. A. 
 
 The Moghul, IMongol, Mikado, and Missionary. 1891. 
 Nadarov, J. P. 
 
 Southern Ussurian District at the Present Time. 1S90. 
 Nevius, John Livingston. 
 
 China and the Chinese. 1869. 
 Norman, C. B. 
 
 Tonkin; or France in the Far East. 1884. 
 Norman, Henry. 
 
 The Peoples and Politics of the Far East. 1S95. 
 Oliphant, Laurence. 
 
 Lord Elgin's Mission to China and Japan. 1S60. 
 Orleans, Prince Henri de. 
 
 Around Tonkin and Siam. 1894. 
 
 OSDORN, ShERARD. 
 
 The Past and Future of British Relations with China. 1S60. 
 Parker, E. H. 
 
 Chinese Account of the Opium War. 18SS. 
 
 Up the Yang-tse. 189 1. 
 
 Burma, with Special Reference to her Relations with Cliina. 1 S93. 
 Parkes, Sir Harrv. 
 
 Life. By Stanley Lane-Poole. 1894. 
 Percival, William Spencer. 
 
 The Land of the Dragon. 1889. 
 
 PlASSETSKV, P. 
 
 Russian Travellers in Mongolia and China. 1S84. 
 Pickering, W. A. 
 
 Pioneering in Formosa. 1898.
 
 38S CHINA IN DEC A Y. 
 
 Playfair, G. M. H. 
 
 Cities and Towns of Cliina. 1879- 
 
 The Chinese Government. 1886. 
 PoPOwsKi, Joseph. 
 
 The Rival Powers. 1893. 
 
 England and the Triple Alliance. 1896. 
 Price, Julius M, 
 
 From the Arctic Ocean to the Yellow Sea. 1892. 
 Prejevalski, Colonel. 
 
 Travels in Mongolia. 1876. 
 
 From Kuldja across the Tian Shan to Lob Nor. 1879. 
 Rambaud, Alfred Nicholas. 
 
 History of Russia from the Earliest Times. 1S82. 
 Ravenstein, E. G. 
 
 The Russians on the Amoor. 1861. 
 Rawlinson, Sir Henry. 
 
 England and Russia in the Far East. 1875. 
 Rennie. 
 
 The British Arms in North China and Japan. 1S64. 
 
 Pekin and the Pekinese. 1865. 
 RiCHTHOFEN, F. F. von. 
 
 China, Ergebnisse eigener Reisen und darauf gegriindeter 
 Studien. 1897. 
 Roche and Cowen. 
 
 The French at Fouchow. 1S84. 
 RocHER, Emile. 
 
 La Province Chinoise du Yunnan. 1879. 
 Ross, Rev. John. 
 
 The Manchus ; or the Reigning Dynasty of China. 1830. 
 ScoTT, J. G. 
 
 France and Tongking. 1SS5. 
 Shavroff, N. 
 
 Routes for Russian Commerce with Asia. 1873. 
 
 Sl.MON, E. 
 
 China: Religious, Political, Social. 1887. 
 Simpson, James Young. 
 
 Side Lights on Siberia. 1898. 
 SiRR, Henry Charles. 
 
 China and the Chinese. 1849.
 
 APPENDIX. 3?9 
 
 S.MiTir, Arthur H. 
 
 Chinese Characteristics. 1895. 
 Smith, Rev. G. 
 
 The Consular Cities of China. 1847. 
 Smyth, H. W. 
 
 Five Years in Siam. 1S98. 
 Staunton, Sir George. 
 
 An Authentic Account of an Embassy from the King of Great 
 Britain to the Emperor of China. 1797. 
 Stead, \V. T. 
 
 Truth about Russia. 1888. 
 Stumm, Hugo. 
 
 Russia's advance Eastward. 1S74. 
 Terentveff, Captain y[. A. 
 
 Russia and England : the Struggle for Markets. 1876. 
 
 TCHENG Kl TONG. 
 
 Les Chinois peints par Eux memes. 1889. 
 
 Mon Pays, la Chine d'aujourdhui. 1892. 
 Thorburn, S. S. 
 
 Asiatic Neighbours. 1894. 
 Thornton, Edward. 
 
 A Summary of the History of the East India Company. 
 
 1833. 
 Thornton, Thomas. 
 
 History of China from the Earliest Records to the Treaty of 
 Nanking. 1841. 
 TiMKOWsKi, Egor Fedorovich. 
 
 Travels of the Russian Mission through Mongolia to China 
 and Residence in Peking, 1820-21. 1827. 
 Turner, J. A. 
 
 Kwang Tung; Five Years in South China. 1S94. 
 Vleuilot, Eugene. 
 
 La Cochin Chine et le Tonquin. 1S59. 
 Vissering, W. 
 
 Chinese Currency, Coin and Paper Money. 1877. 
 Vladimir. 
 
 The China Japanese War. 1896. 
 Wakefiki.d, C. C. 
 
 Future Trade in the Far East. 1S96.
 
 390 C//IXA IN DEC A Y. 
 
 Wallace, Sir Donald Mackenzie. 
 
 Russia. 1877. 
 Webster. 
 
 War with China in i860. 
 Welldy, Captain M. S. 
 
 Through Unknown Tibet. 1898. 
 Wheeler, L. N. 
 
 The Foreigner in China. 1881. 
 Williams, S. W. 
 
 The Middle Kingdom. 1883. 
 Williamson, Rev. Alexander. 
 
 The Literati of China and How to Meet Them. 
 
 Journeys in North China, Manchuria, and Eastern Mongolia. 
 1870. 
 Wilson, Andrew. 
 
 Gordon's Chinese Campaigns and the Taij)ing Rebellion. 
 1868. 
 Wilson, James Harrison. 
 
 China Travels and Investigations. New York, 1S87. 
 Wo Chang. 
 
 England through Chinese Spectacles. 1897. 
 Wolseley, Colonel G. J. (now Lord). 
 
 Narrative of the War with China. 1S62. 
 Yule. 
 
 Cathay and the Way Thither. 1S66.
 
 I X D E X. 
 
 [.-/// Place Nanus appear in I/a!ics.'\ 
 
 Ar.Ki. Clarke, cited, 93, 94. 
 
 Aborigines, 22. 
 
 Adaptability of Chinese, 50. 
 
 Administration of the law, 32. 
 
 Age, respect for, 27, 37. 
 
 Aigim, treaty of, 180. 
 
 Albazin, 177, 178. 
 
 Allen, Consul, cited, 69, 239. 
 
 Alluvial deposit at mouth of Vang-tse 
 
 Kiang, 28;. 
 Alternative routes to Yunnan, 303. 
 Amherst, Lord, 8S. 
 
 ,, arrives at 1 "eking, 03. 
 
 ,, refuses to Kowlow, 93. 
 
 ,, leaves Peking without 
 
 seeing Emperor, 94. 
 Amoy, 17, t23, 139. 
 ,, harbour, 12. 
 ,////«r provinces, 180. 
 ,, river, 178. 
 
 ,, Russian ports established on, \Zo. 
 Anching, 289. 
 Anderson, Dr J., 156. 
 
 cited, 157. 
 Ainiaiii, 90. 
 
 ,, king of, sends mission to Louis 
 
 XVL, 203. 
 ,, a protectorate of France, 205. 
 ,, a dependency of China, lo5, 
 Anti-Foreign risings, 150. 
 Antiquity of China, 76. 
 Aiiwii province, 6. 
 .Vpplication, faculty of, 51. 
 '■ .\riow," Lorcha, 127, 
 Arsenal, first established, 1 6?. 
 Audience question, 95, 103. 
 
 Bankinc. in China, 236. 
 
 Bank-notes, 2 '6. 
 
 Barbarians, a name for fore'gners, 27. 
 
 Bargaining, love of, 48. 
 
 Bell, Mr, 80. 
 
 Bcnik, 197. 
 
 B/iaino, 155. 
 
 lidjliography of authorities on Oiina, 
 
 382. 
 J-t/ai^iyruSi/ieiisk, 1 93. 
 Hoards, the six, 56. 
 Hoica Tigris, 12. 
 Bodies cast away, 40. 
 Bo^iic forts attacked, I2r. 
 I ,, destroyed, 123. 
 
 I IJouch, General, takes command in 
 ' Tonkin. 207. 
 lii.ulger, Demetrius C, cited, 119, if 8. 
 IJourne, I*". S. A., cited, 237, 242, 263, 
 
 208. 
 Bowring, Sir John, i?6. 
 Brahinapoolra river, 1 4. 
 JSrenan, Consul Byron, cited, 67, 250, 
 
 260. 
 IJremer, Sir Gordon, 1 20. 
 IkilK-ry, 62. 
 
 Hrigandage in Manchuria, 197. 
 I5rni>h record, the, 107, 
 
 ,, fleet arrives in Canton river, 119. 
 
 ,, Government, vaciliaticjn of, 143. 
 
 ,, j)olii"y, weakness of, 167. 
 
 ,, ,, spasmodic, 173. 
 
 ,, sjihere, 267. 
 
 ,, naval ba'^e, 770. 
 
 ,, tratle with China. 84. 
 
 ,, .sailors attacked at Canton, 112. 
 Brown, Colonel Horace, 155. 
 Bruce, Frederick, sails for Tientsin, 13;. 
 Budget, aljsence of, in China, 65. 
 /Vm //(jr/- h a r I Kiu r , 12. 
 Murial in China, 3S. 
 Burma, co. 
 
 ,, routes from, 153. 
 liurney, Colonel, 153. 
 
 Caii.i.am», R. dc, cited, 20;. 
 Camlxiluc, ancient name for I'eking, 16.
 
 392 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Cambodia, 205. 
 
 Canal, Grand, see Grand Canal. 
 
 Cangue, the, 72. 
 
 Canton, 17. 
 
 ,, bombarded, 129. 
 
 ,, riot at, 125. 
 
 ,, forts taken, 128. 
 
 ,, sale of land at, 147. 
 Caravan route, 12. 
 
 ,, Peking Kiakhta, 182. 
 
 Carles, \V. R., cited, 240. 
 Cash, 235. 
 Cassini, Count, 1S8. 
 
 ,, convention, 189. 
 Central Asiatic railway, ',o\ 
 Chang Chi Tung. 58, 369. 
 Cha7i;sha, capital of Hunan, 17. 
 Chekiani^ province, 6. 
 C leng 15o Cheng, 369. 
 Chenglii, 17. 
 
 „ riot at, 150. 
 Chifu, 12, 17. 
 
 ,, convention of, 159. 
 Chili province. 6. 
 Cliiim, antiquity of, 3. 
 ,, extent of", 4, 5, 15//. 
 ,, sources of inform ition respecting, 
 
 4- 
 ,, actually a federation of states, 4. 
 ,, waterways, 6. 
 ,, physical features, 3- 
 ,, mineral wealth, ?0. 
 ,, loe=;s formation, 8. 
 ,, roads, 8, 12. 
 
 ,, andjapan, war between, 164. 
 ,, Merchants' Steam Navigation 
 
 Co., 3:0. 
 , , destined to be absorbed in some 
 foreign power, 371. 
 " China's Sorrow," 9. 
 Ch nese Empire — area and population, 
 6, I5«. 
 ,, character, 3, 33, 41. 
 ,, pohtics, 314. 
 ,, people, 22. 
 
 ,, respect for superior force, 167. 
 ,, ideas of honesty, 28. 
 ,, Gordon, see Gordon. 
 ,, Turkistan, see Turkistan. 
 ,, reasoning, instances of, 41. 
 „ Mandarin visit Paris^ 84. 
 Ching, Prince, 99. 
 Chinchau, 194, ^87. 
 Chiiigtu, capital of Sechuan, 279. 
 Chinkiang, ir, 17, 123. 
 Chinokiatig, 289. 
 
 Chitsou, Einpeior, see Kublai Khan, 76. 
 Chitsong, Emperor, 77. 
 Chronology of events, 375. 
 
 Chung How, mandarin, instigates Tien- 
 tsin massacre, 
 
 '5'- 
 
 ,, ,, negotiates treaty 
 
 with Rusiia, 
 185. 
 ,, ,, condemned to 
 
 death, 18 5. 
 ,, ,, rej^rieved at re- 
 
 quest of (Jen- 
 eral Gordon, 
 160. 
 Chitugkiiig, : 7. 
 Chuntche, Emperor, 79. 
 Clinsan island occupied by British, 120, 
 
 '33- 
 Coalfields, «'0. 
 Coinage, 235. 
 
 Colquhoun, A. R. , cited, 219, 278. 
 Commerce restricted to treaty ports, 
 
 234- 
 ,, financial system unsatis- 
 
 factory, 234. 
 Commercial possibilities, 259. 
 Competitive examinations, 30. 
 Comptadores, dishonesty of, 238. 
 
 ,, Hon. Ho Kai on, 242. 
 
 Conceit of officials, 322. 
 Concessions and settlements, 268. 
 Consuls appointed, 145. 
 Coolie commits suicide at opening of 
 
 Woosung railway, 292. 
 Copper, 20. 
 
 „ coinage, 235. 
 
 Corruptness of Chinese character, 60. 
 
 ,, of Mandarin, 60, 62. 
 
 Cotton, 19. 
 Country, the, 3. 
 Courbet, Admi>-al, seizes Chinese fleet, 
 
 209. 
 Currency, Chinese, 234. 
 Customs, native (Kwan), 65. 
 Customs, 65. 
 
 ,, Imperial Maritime, established, 
 
 243- 
 ,, Sir Robert Hart made Inspector 
 
 General, 245. 
 ,, effect of honest administration 
 
 of, 246. 
 , , evasion of, by foreign countiies, 
 
 244. 
 ,, extent of work involved, 246. 
 ,, frauds on, 68. 
 
 D'Andrade, Dox Fernand, 77. 
 Dalai No)-, 193, 194. 
 Davis, Sir John F., 125. 
 
 ,, ,, takes Bogue 
 
 batteries, 125.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 393 
 
 Defences of China, t,2'j. 
 De Lange, Mons., 80. 
 Dependencies, 13, 15;/. 
 Desirability of increasing exports, 253. 
 Diplomatic intercourse, 96, 100. 
 Dollar, silver, legal tender, 236. 
 Douglas, I'rofessor \\. K., cited, 38, Co. 
 Dowager Empresses, 89. 
 
 ,, see also Tsi An, 
 
 Dugenne, Captain, takes Langsen, 208. 
 Dupuis, M., 203. 
 Dutch intercourse with China, 78. 
 ,, mission to Peking, 83, 92. 
 
 East India Company, 79. 
 
 ,, ,, Charter ex- 
 
 pires, 113. 
 Eastern Chinese Railway Co., 194. 
 
 ,, ,, agreement re- 
 
 s|3ecting, 195. 
 Educated Chinese, instances of, 50. 
 Eighteen provinces, 6. 
 Elcang, 121. 
 Elgin, Lord, 95, 129. 
 
 ,, leaves Peking prematurely, 
 
 Elliot, Captain, succeeds Lord Napier, 
 116. 
 ,, orders opium to be 
 
 given up, 1 18. 
 Emperor of China, the present, see 
 
 Kwangsu. 
 Empire of China, 3. 
 Empress Dowager, see Tsi An. 
 Englishmen taken prisoners and tortured 
 
 at Peking, 134. 
 Enlightened Chinamen, instances of, 
 
 50 ;/. 
 Etiquette, 49. 
 Ever victorious army, 144. 
 Examination system, 30, 31, 59. 
 Exemption of Russian liavellers from 
 
 customs duty, 302. 
 Exports, deficit con.pared with im])c)rls, 
 
 253- 
 ,, value of, 253. 
 ,, proi)oriion to different 
 countries, 253. 
 Extortion, Chinese, 252. 
 
 Factoriks burned at Canton by 
 
 Chinese, 122. 
 Failure of liriiish policy in China, 349. 
 Family, principle of the, 35. 
 Famine in Shensi, 163. 
 Fatshait, foreign rioting at, 125, 150. 
 Fear of death, absence of, 40. 
 Filatures, 19. 
 Financial s)stem, 234. 
 
 Floods, see Iloang Ho. 
 " Flowery Land," 6. 
 Foreign intercourse, 75. 
 ,, customs, 65, 243. 
 ,, settlements, condition of, in 
 
 1S48, 141. 
 ,, firms in China, 25S, 
 ,, office, see Tsungli N'amen. 
 ,, relations, 31 8. 
 Formosa, Dutch settle in, 79. 
 France co-operaiei with England in 
 China, 129. 
 ,, aims of, in China, 214. 
 ,, colonial policy of, 215, 216. 
 French, the, record, 203. 
 
 ,, send gunboat to Canton, 
 
 204. 
 ,, co-operate with British, 
 
 129. 
 ,, crew massacred off Cochin 
 
 China, 204. 
 „ send mission to Peking, 
 
 1844, 204. 
 ,, take Saigon, 205. 
 
 ,, obtain protectorate over 
 
 Cochin China, 205. 
 . , take possession of Hanoi, 
 
 207. 
 ,, agreement with China, 
 
 207. 
 ,, sphere in Indo-China, ex- 
 
 tent and population, 
 21 1. 
 ,, receive cmlxissy from 
 
 Annam, 203. 
 ,, sphere in Indo-China, 
 
 211. 
 ,, aims in South China, 214. 
 
 ,, colonial policy a failure, 
 
 215, 210. 
 ,, oflricialdom, 216. 
 
 ,, mission to explore Ilunan, 
 217. 
 Fitchow, 10, 17, 139. 
 I-'iikien jirovince, b. 
 Funerals, Chinese, 3S, 40. 
 Future of China, 36O. 
 Fytche, Cicneral, on trade routes between 
 China and Purma, 154. 
 
 C.arnikr, Francis, cited, 205. 
 ( lerman record, the, 223. 
 
 ,, Eastern policy announced, 223. 
 
 ,, mis-iionaries murdered, 223. 
 
 ,, Kaiochau (>ccu|)icd, 224. 
 
 ,, flemands on Chinese, 224. 
 
 ,, Tartar general degraded, 225. 
 
 ,, refusalto trust Tsungli Vamen, 
 225.
 
 394 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Cicriiiany, aims of, in China, 223- 
 <7^/;/ desert, 13. 
 Gold, 20, 185. 
 
 Gordon, General, leads ever victorious 
 army, 144. 
 ,, intercedes between 
 
 Russia and China, 
 186. 
 „ cited, 327, 328. 
 
 Gough, Sir II., 121. 
 Government, the, 55, 
 
 ,, of Provinces, 58. 
 
 Grand Canal, 1 1. 
 Granges, Baron de, 153. 
 Grant, Sir Hope, sails for Pei Ho, 133. 
 Great Britain, treaties with Nanking, 
 .123.. 
 ,, Tientsin, 131. 
 
 „ Chifu, 159. 
 
 ,, discredited by diplo- 
 
 matic defeat, 352. 
 ,, and Russia in China, 
 
 ^52. 
 ,, policy of, in China, 
 
 107, 140. 
 Great Plain, 9. 
 Great Wall of China, 11. 
 Gros Baron, co-operates with British, 
 
 Grosvenor mission, 158. 
 
 Guilds, 239, 240. 
 
 Gundry, R. S., cited, 243, 320. 
 
 Haiphong; 213. 
 Hake, Egmont, cited, 144. 
 Hallet, H. S,, cited, 214. 
 Han Kiang, 9. 
 Hang-chaii, 17. 
 
 ,, terminus of the Grand 
 
 Canal, 11. 
 Hankow, 17, 146, 276. 287. 
 
 ,, threatened by Taepings, 146. 
 
 ,, trade of, 276. 
 
 ,, the commercial capital of the 
 
 interior, 276. 
 Hannen, Sir Nicholas, cited, 67. 
 Hanoi, 213. 
 
 ,, captured by French, 207. 
 Hanyang, 287. 
 Harbours of China, 12. 
 Hart, Sir Robert, becomes Inspector- 
 General of Cus- 
 toms, 245. 
 ,, ,, succeeds Sir H. 
 
 Parkes as Am- 
 bassador at Pe- 
 king, 162. 
 ,, ,, arranges peace with 
 
 France, ido, 209. 
 
 Ilcyking, Baron von, 225. 
 Hienfung, Emperor, 88, 95. 
 
 ,, „ sends commis- 
 
 sioners to ne- 
 gotiate with 
 Lord Elgin, 130. 
 Hing HiiahTixhowx, 12. 
 Hoaiig Ho, or Yellow river, 8. 
 
 , , named ' ' China's Sorrow," 9. 
 
 ,, overflow of, 9. 
 Ilolcombe, C. N., cited, 37, 45, 60, 70, 
 
 255- 
 Honan province, 6. 
 Honesty of Chinese, 28. 
 Hong Kong, 17, 272. 
 
 ,, ceded to British, 121. 
 
 Hope, Admiral, enters Pei Ho, 132. 
 
 ,, explores Vang-tse, 147. 
 
 Hoopoo, or board of revenue, 64. 
 Hu,!, 235. 
 Httlan, 194. 
 Hunan jjrovince, 6, 279. 
 
 „ men of, 281. 
 Hung Swei-tseuen, leader of Taeping 
 
 rebellion, 143. 
 Hii/eh province, 6, 280. 
 
 Ichang, 17, 286. 
 
 ,, destruction of foreign mission 
 at, 150. 
 Ides, General, So, 182. 
 Ignatieff, General, 180. 
 Ignorance of people respecting foreign- 
 ers, 315. 
 ///, 15. 
 
 ,, treaty of, 1S6. 
 
 Imperial ^Maritime customs, see Customs. 
 Imports, principal articles, 254. 
 ,, excess over exports, 253. 
 ,, proi)ortion from difterent coun- 
 tries, 253. 
 ,, disproportion to population, 
 
 -54- 
 Indo-Chinese Peninsula, 203. 
 
 ,, ,, ceded to 
 
 France, 210. 
 Indus river, 14. 
 Infanticide, 37. 
 Injudiciousness of British policy in 
 
 China, 349. 
 Inspector-General of Customs, 245. 
 Irkutsk, 29S. 
 Iron, 20. 
 Ismaliefl", Captain, 80. 
 
 Jamieson, G., cited, 91. 
 Japanese War, 163, 164 ;/. 
 Jehol, Emperor's palace at, 87. 
 
 ,, Lord [Macartney received at, 86.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 395 
 
 Jongtuytsin, massacre at, 150. 
 Jtiiii^aria, 14, 1S4. 
 Justice, Chinese, 32, 
 
 ,, promptness of, 72. 
 
 Kaipiiiff collieries, 293. 
 Kakyen tribe, the, 155. 
 A'algan, 183. 
 Kanghi, Emperor, 108. 
 
 ,, ,, edict in favour of 
 
 Europeans, 108. 
 Kaiisii province, 6. 
 A'askga?-, 1 85. 
 Kauloo7i, 133, 272. 
 Keen Lung, Kmperor, 82. 
 
 ,, receives Lord Macartney at 
 
 JehoL 86. 
 Kehinq taken by French, 20S-9. 
 Keshen, \'iceroy of Chili, 120. 
 
 ,, succeeds Lin at Canton, 121. 
 Keying, Commissioner, 123. 
 Khangi, Emperor, Si. 
 Kia King, Emperor, iii. 
 A'ia/;hla, IJ, 18 J. 
 Kialiiig, 9. 
 
 Kiaugsi province, 6, 2S2. 
 Kiaiigsii province, 6, 282. 
 K'ang Hung, state of, 212. 
 Ktaochati, 12, 227. 
 
 ,, occupied by Germans, 224. 
 
 ,, oOicial announcement re- 
 
 specting, 226. 
 ,, strategic importance of, 229. 
 
 ,, source of coal supply, 228. 
 
 ,, commandsN'orth China, 250. 
 
 A'ieiikaiig, ancient name for Nanking, 16. 
 Kinder, C. W., constructs railway at 
 
 Kaiping, 293. 
 " King of Heaven," the, 25. 
 Kir in, 1 94. 
 Kiiikiattg, 146. 
 
 ,, occupied by Taepings, 145. 
 
 Koko Nor, 6, 187. 
 Korea, 90, 187, 164. 
 Koreans, 13. 
 Kowtow, the, 79". 
 Kublai Kahn, or Chitsou, 16, 76. 
 Ktiidja, 15, 184. 
 Kung, Prince, 97. 
 Kungloiigicxxy, railway to, il. 
 Kwan, the, 65. 
 Kwaiti^si province, 6. 
 Kvvangsu, l.mperor, ascended throne, 88. 
 ,, receives Prince 
 
 Henry of 
 
 Prussia, 102. 
 „ gives audience to 
 
 foreign mini- 
 sters, 98, ICXD. 
 
 Kwangsu, Emperor, issues edicts, 325. 
 A'icaitj;lniig province, 6, 
 Kwcichati province, 6. 
 Kweilyatig, Commissioner, 13]. 
 
 LACREf:, Captain Dondart dc, 212. 
 
 Land Tax, 65, 67. 
 
 Lane-Poole, Stanley, cited, 135. 
 
 Lang, Captain, 162, 
 
 l.aiiiiscii, 20S. 
 
 Laiitao island, 273. 
 
 Laokai. 212, 213. 
 
 Law, Chinese, 70. 
 
 Lay, H.N., 245. 
 
 Lay-Osborne expedition, 14S. 
 
 Lead, 20. 
 
 Legaspi, General, 78. 
 
 Legge, Dr J., siiialogue, 161. 
 
 Lespts, Admiral, attacks Kelung, 20S. 
 
 Lhassa, 14. 
 
 Liao y'////^'- Peninsula, 11. 
 
 ,, ,, ceded to Japan, 
 
 165. 
 
 ,, ,, cession objected 
 
 to by the 
 Powers, 165. 
 
 ,, ,, leased to Russia, 
 
 191. 
 Li Han Chang, 157. 
 Li Hung Chang, 165, 188, 207. 
 M „ retirement of, 353. 
 
 ,, ,, possible Emperor of 
 
 China, '370. 
 Likin dues, 65. 
 
 ,, farming of, 241. 
 
 Lin 'Isisoo, Cummissioner, 116. 
 
 ,, attempts lo drive English out 
 
 of Canton, 1 iS. 
 Little, A. J., cited, 27S. 
 Literati, 31. 32. 
 
 ,, in law courts, 71. 
 /.iihfiit islands, 90. 
 /,/;//7/;/4'' island, 270. 
 l.ivadia, treaty of, l^'6. 
 Loch, Sir II. 15., cited, 135. 
 Loess, 8. 
 
 Logic, Chinese, specimen of, 42. 
 Long isolation of China, 75. 
 l.n JIait Railway, 305. 
 Liiiigihaii, 213. 
 
 Ma, \'iceroy of Kiangsxi, murdered for 
 
 tolerance of foreigners, 153. 
 Aftitito ceded to Portuguese, 77. 
 Macarthy and C.ili. 278. 
 Macartney, Lord, J^5. 
 
 \ isits Jehol. 86. 
 ,, received by Em|x;ror 
 
 Keen Lung, yi.
 
 396 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Macartney, Sir Ilalliday, 162. 
 Mahommadan rising of 1863, 184. 
 
 ,. 1871, 15- 
 I\lai!cnicna, 13. 
 
 ,, a Russian province, 191. 
 
 ,, closing of, to British trade, 
 
 195. 
 ., produce of, 196. 
 
 ,, population of, iq6. 
 
 Manchurian railway, 193, 300. 
 Manchus, the, 13, 25. 
 Mandarin, the, 29. 
 
 ,, appointed by examination, 
 
 59- 
 ,, ignorance of, 59. 
 
 ,, greed of, 68. 
 
 ,, corruptness, 60. 
 
 Mandarin refuse to receive letter for 
 
 Taonkwang, 120. 
 INIanning, Thomas, fails to reach interior 
 
 from Canton, ill. 
 Manivync, 155. 
 
 Maps, Chinese Empire, front of volume. 
 ,, China, end of volume. 
 „ The Southern Frontier showing 
 
 French sphere, 202. 
 ,, The Russian sphere showing 
 
 growth of Russia, 176. 
 ,, Railway map of Chma, 2_o. 
 ,, Yang-tse Valley, 266. 
 Margary Augustus Raymond crosses 
 China from 
 Shanghai to 
 Ehamo, 
 154. 
 ,, ,, murdered at 
 
 Manwyne, 
 156. 
 ,, ,, cited, 155. 
 
 Maritime Customs, sec Customs. 
 Ivlarkham, Clements R. , cited, 112. 
 Marriage in China, 36. 
 Massacres of foreigners, 149, 150. 
 Mekawn^^ 10, 14. 
 
 ,, discovered to be unnavigable, 
 
 205. 
 , , made boundary between Indo- 
 China and Siam, 210. 
 Mengtse, 213. 
 Merchants, Chinese, characteristics of, 
 
 255- 
 Mercury, 20. 
 
 Michie, Alexander, cited, 146. 
 " Middle State," 6. 
 Militar-Wocheublatt, cited, 19S. 
 Minkiang, 8, 10. 
 Ming dynasiy, 76. 
 J^Iirs bay, 12. 
 Missionaries, lo"^, 263. 
 
 Missionaries, French, 203. 
 ,, German, 223. 
 
 Mongolia, 13. 
 Mongolian Desert, 13. 
 Mongols, 13. 
 
 iMoreing, C. A., cited, 218. 
 Morrison, G. E., 278. 
 Moukdeu, 194. 
 
 Moule, Archdeacon, cited, 30. 
 Mow, the Chinese land measuie, 67 ;/. 
 Mulberry cultivation, 19. 
 Muravieff, General, 178.' 
 Murder of Englishmen in Peking, 134. 
 
 „ A. R. Margary, 156. 
 
 ,, French at Tientsin, 149. 
 
 ,, missionaries at Whasang, 150. 
 
 ,, German missionaries, 223. 
 
 Nam Kuan harbour, 12, 
 Nanchang, capital of Kiangsi, 17. 
 Nan king, southern capital, 16, 17, 146. 
 
 ,, treaty of, 123. 
 
 ,, omissions in treaty, 124. 
 
 ,, held by Taepings, 144. 
 
 ,, seized by I'ritish, 123. 
 
 Nanning, 17. 
 Napier, Lord, arrives at Canton, 113. 
 
 ,, difficulties with the man- 
 
 darin, 114. 
 ,, retires to Macao, 115. 
 
 Nepaul, 90. 
 Nerchinsk, 193. 
 
 ,, treaty of, with Russia, So, 1 78. 
 
 Newchang, 197. 
 Nicolsk, 193. 
 A'»;/;W sound, 12. 
 Ningpo, 12, 17, 123, 139. 
 Ninguta, 194. 
 
 Non-alienation of Yang-tse Valley, 275. 
 Norman, C. B., cited, 21b. 
 Northern railway of China, 294. 
 
 O'Connor, Sir Nicholas, 99. 
 
 " Open Door," policy of the, 351. 
 
 Opium, 19. 
 
 ,, import in 1767, 109. 
 ,, edict forbidding import, no. 
 ,, ordered to be given up, 118. 
 ,, duty, 65. 
 Opium War, see Great Britain, 
 Osborne, Captain, 148. 
 Ounce, the Chinese, 235. 
 Outrages on Foreigners — 
 ,, Yangchow, 149. 
 
 ,, Tien-tsin, 149. 
 
 ,, Fatshan, 129, 150. 
 
 ,, Wushishan, 150. 
 
 ,, Chin-kiang, 150. 
 
 „ Jongtuytsin, 130.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 397 
 
 Outrages on Foreigners — 
 ,, Wuhu, 150. 
 
 ,, Ichang, 150. 
 
 ,, Cheni^tu, 150, 
 
 ,, Whasaiig, 150. 
 
 Pakhoi \\?ixho\\x, 12. 
 
 Palmerston, Lord, on British Policy in 
 
 China, 142. 
 Paothtg, 13, 17. 
 Parkes, Sir Harry, 125. 
 
 ,, cited, lo',, 145, 172. 
 
 ,, taiccn prisoner by 
 
 Chinese, 134. 
 ,, death of, 161. 
 
 Patriarchal system, 59. 
 PavlofT, M., 199, 
 Pechili province, see Chili. 
 
 ,, Gulf of, 9. 
 Pehtam^, 133. 
 
 Pei/io, or Peking river, S, 10. 
 Peitaho, 194. 
 
 Peking, northern capital, 13, 16. 
 ,, occupied by allies, 13^ 
 ,, British Embassy established, 
 
 136. 
 ,, summer palace destroyed, 135. 
 „ Biilish status at, 269. 
 ,, Gazette, cited, 10. 
 Perjury no crime in China, 71. 
 Petuna, 193. 
 Philippine Islands, 78. 
 Phillips, Mr, consul at Chinkiang, 145. 
 Physical features, 3. 
 
 Picul, the Chinese hundredweight, 2^8. 
 Policy, British, review of, in China, 107. 
 ,, Russian, 177. 
 ,, French, 203. 
 ,, German, 224. 
 ,, Chinese, 314. 
 Polo, Marco, 76. 
 Poppy, cultivation of the, 19. 
 Population, 15. 
 
 ,, and territory of different 
 
 ]iowers in Asia, 3|2. 
 Port Adam a, 12. 
 ,, Arthur, 12. 
 
 ,, ,, taken by Japanese, 164. 
 ,, ,, occupied by Russians, 191. 
 
 ,, ,, strength as a naval base, 
 
 197. 
 ,, Hamilton, 173. 
 Ports, treaty, 2S6. 
 Portuguese in China, 77. 
 
 ,, Embassy to Peking, 83. 
 
 Pottingcr, Sir Henry, 122. 
 Po Yiin^ lake, 230. 
 
 Precedent, the only principle in Chinese 
 law, 70. 
 
 Prim Orsk province, 192. 
 
 Products, 18. 
 
 Progressive party in China, the, 369. 
 
 Provinces 01 China, 6. 
 
 Provincial governments, 58. 
 
 Prussia, Prince Henry of, received by 
 
 Kwangsu, 102. 
 Punishments, 71. 
 
 ,, board of, 57. 
 
 " Purple forbidden city" in Peking, 17, 
 
 Quota Zahn, first minister accredited 
 to London, 98. 
 
 Railways in China, 290. 
 
 ,, pro]iortiijn of lines to 
 
 area, 291. 
 ,, first railway in China, 191. 
 
 ,, purchased and destroyed 
 
 by Chinese, 29J. 
 ,, Tientsin Shan hai kuan 
 
 line, 294. 
 ,, Northern railway of China, 
 
 194, 294. 
 ,, difficulties attending rail- 
 
 way construction in 
 
 China, 295. 
 ,, Peking line, cost and 
 
 ca|)ital raised, 296. 
 ,, second W'oosung railway, 
 
 297. 
 ,, Paoting and Chengting 
 
 line, 297. 
 ,, Siberian railway, 298. 
 
 ,, Manchurian railway, 19 j, 
 
 300. 
 ,, agreement respecting, 195, 
 
 301. 
 ,, Central ^\siatic railway, 
 
 302. 
 ,, future prolongation of, 303. 
 
 ,, French railway schemes, 
 
 303. 
 ,, Langchau line, jOj. 
 
 ,, Yunnan-Nanning, 304. 
 
 ,, Kunlon ferry railway, 304. 
 
 ,, Salween and Vanglsc link 
 
 line, 304. 
 ,, Luhan central railway of 
 
 China to Hankow, 
 305. 
 ,, ,, under Ku.ssian con- 
 
 trol. 193, 194. 
 ,, ,, remissness of 
 
 British in re- 
 fusing to fniancc 
 this, 307. 
 ,, ,, continuation from 
 
 Hankow to Can- 
 ton, J07.
 
 398 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Railways in Shantung, 308. 
 
 , , British schnnes, Ningpo 
 
 Nanking, 508. 
 ,, Nc'wchang extension, 309. 
 ,, Tientsin Chinkiang, 
 
 309-, 
 Ravcnstcin, K. G., cited, 181. 
 Rebelhons, 184. 
 
 ,, bogus, 63. 
 
 Receptions by lunperor, 91. 
 Red river, see Sankoi. 
 ReHgion, Chinese, 27. 
 Respect for age, 27, 37. 
 Revenue, i. 
 
 ,, impoverished by official dis- 
 honesty, 69. 
 Rice, 18. 
 
 ,, oflicial " corner" in, 70. 
 Richthofen, Ferdinand von, cited, 
 
 20. 
 Rio'.s, Canton, 125. 
 ,, Yangchovv, 149. 
 ,, Fatshan, 149. 
 ,, Wushihshan, 150. 
 ,, Chinkiang, 150. 
 ,, Jongtuytsin, 150. 
 ,, VVuhu, 150. 
 ,, Jchang, 150. 
 ,, Whasang, 150. 
 Rites, Board of, 57. 
 Rivers of China, 6. 
 Riviere, Commander, murdered in Hanoi, 
 
 207. 
 Roads of China, 12. 
 Roman CathoHc missionaries, 78. 
 Ross, Rev. J., cited, 25. 
 Russell, Lord John, on British policy in 
 
 China, 119. 
 J\ussia, relations with China, 79. 
 Russian record, 177. 
 
 ,, mission establ'shed at Peking, 
 
 182. 
 ,, treaties with Aigun, 180. 
 ,, ,, Hi, 186, 
 
 ,, ,, Livadia, i85. 
 
 ,, ,, Nerchinsk, 178. 
 
 Peking, 183. 
 ,, merchants accorded right to 
 
 travel, 183. 
 ,, influence paramount at Peking, 
 
 166. 
 ,, population in Asia, 342. 
 ,, ability of policy, 199. 
 ,, railway agreement in Man- 
 churia, 193. 
 Russians caught on Chinese territory 
 
 beheaded, 178. 
 Russilication of Manchuria, 189. 
 Russo-Chinese Bank, 193, 197. 
 
 Sai.t, 20 
 
 Salt Tax, 65. 
 
 Salween river, 10, 14. 
 
 Samarkand, 197. 
 
 Saiiisah inlet, 1 1. 
 
 Sankoi or red river, 205, 212, 219. 
 
 San Moon bay, 12. 
 
 See/man province, 6, 279. 
 
 Settlements and concessions, difference 
 
 between, 268. 
 Seymour, Sir Michael, attacks Canton, 
 
 128. 
 Shanghai, 12, 17. 
 
 ,, China, 27', 283. 
 
 ,, development of, 139. 
 
 ,, trade of, 276. 
 
 ,, Sir R. Alcock on, 139. 
 Shanhaikitan, 13, 194. 
 Shausi province, 6. 
 Shantung province, 6. 
 
 ,, ,, mineral wealth of, 
 
 228. 
 Shaszi, 17, 287. 
 Shensi province, 6. 
 Shimonoseki, treaty of, 165, 187. 
 " Shoes " of silver, 236. 
 Sia/n, 90. 
 
 Siberia, opening up of, 177. 
 Siganfu, ancient capital, 16, 17. 
 
 , , on caravan route from Peking, 
 
 Sikiang ox west river, 8, 10. 
 
 Silk, 18. 
 
 Silver, export of, 114. 
 
 Situation, the, 334. 
 
 Sladen, Colonel, explores routes, Burma 
 
 to Yunnan, 154. 
 Smith, *A. H., cited, 41, 42. 
 Smyth, H. W., cited, 217. 
 Societies, 239. 
 Society bay, 12. 
 " Son of Heaven," the, 55. 
 Spain, intercourse with China, 78. 
 Sphere, the British, 267. 
 Spheres of influence, 338. 
 " Squeeze," 2S, 4^. 
 Staunton, Sir George, cited, 91. 
 Sugar, 19. 
 
 Suit ling harb lur, 1 2. 
 Summer palace at Peking, destruction 
 
 of, I35-. 
 Sungari river, iSl. 
 Sutlej river, 14. 
 Swatow, 17. 
 
 ,, harbour, 12. 
 Sycee, 230. 
 
 Tael, 67 «., 23;. 
 Tagin, Sung, ill.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 399 
 
 Taeping rebellion, the, 142. 
 Taepings seize Yuiigan, 143. 
 ,, take Nanking, I44. 
 Tai Yuen, 17. 
 Tajin, bung, 1 1 1. 
 'J'aku forts taken, 130, 133. 
 Talicinvan, 22. 
 Tiilijii, 17. 
 
 Tainsiii, battle of, 20). 
 Tang dynasty, 76. 
 Taoukwang, Emperor, 8S. 
 
 ,, ,, ratifies treaty of 
 
 Nanking, 124. 
 
 Tartar General degraded in Shantung, 
 
 22v 
 
 Tashkent, 197. 
 
 Taxation, excessive, on trade, 260, 261. 
 ,, excessive, effects of, on native 
 
 intercourse, 321. 
 Tea, 18. 
 ,, introduced to England, 79. 
 ,, culture and preparation neglected, 
 
 249. 
 „ demand decreasing, 2 ;8. 
 ,, Mr Cass on, 249. 
 ,, statistics, 2\>. 
 Territory ceded to Russia, 183, 185. 
 ■• „ and population of different 
 powers in Asia contrasted, 
 342. 
 ,, and trade of different powers 
 in China contrasted, 340. 
 Til'cl, 6, 14, 90, 187. 
 
 ,, right of British to visit, 160. 
 ,, refusal of same, 161. 
 I'ientsin, 11, 17. 
 
 ,, Lord Macartney reaches, $7. 
 ,, Sir Hope Grant and Baron 
 
 Gros at, 133. 
 ,, French treaues signed at, 
 
 204, 20'. 
 ,, ratified, 135. 
 ,, treaty of, 131. 
 ,, ratification of, refused, 132. 
 ,, massacre at, 149. 
 7'iincs, The, cited, 104. 
 Tin, 20. 
 
 'J'iiii^lsc harbour, 12. 
 Tobacco, 19. 
 'J'obolsk, 177. 
 'J'ontsk, 177. 
 'Jonkiii, ceded to France, 210. 
 
 ,, trade routes in, 213. 
 Torture, 71. 
 'i'otai, 59. 
 Tratle in China, 233. 
 
 ,, conditions of, at treaty jiorts, 
 
 23*^, 247. 
 ,, excessive taxation on, 2C0. 
 
 Trade, bulk of, 2 "3. 
 
 ,, statistics, 253, 254. 
 
 ,, difficulties in way of extending, 
 
 259. 
 ,, centres, 257, 2'>9. 
 ,, proportion with different 
 countries, 253. 
 Trader, helplessness <il, fS. 
 Trans-Manchurian railway, 194, 300. 
 Trans-SilK-rian railway, 2jJJ. 
 Transit pass system, 67. 
 Treaties — 
 
 ,, Aigun, iFo. 
 ,, Chifu, 159. 
 ,, Hi, i»6. 
 ,, Livadia, 1S6. 
 ,, Nanking, 123. 
 ,, Nerchinsk, 17S, 
 ,, Peking (Russian), iSy 
 ,, ,, (French), 20 ;^. 
 
 ,, Shimonosiki (Japanese), 1 87. 
 ,, Tientsin (British), 131. 
 ,, ,, (Russian), i&3. 
 
 If ,, (French), 204, 207. 
 
 Treaty ports, 234. 
 Triad Society, 143. 
 Tribute, 89. 
 Triijutary states, co 
 Tsen Vuying fulai of Manwync, 355. 
 Tseng Marquis, 186. 
 Tsi An, Dowager Empress, 89, yi(). 
 
 ,, ex-concubine, 89. 
 Tsi Thoi, Dowager Empress, 89. 
 Tsi Tlisi, 89, 369. 
 'J'siihin j'tiy 17. 
 Tsitsihar, 191. 
 Tso Tung Yang, 1S5. 
 Tsungli Vamen, 57. 
 
 ,, methods of, lO|. 
 
 Tu Due, King of Annan, 2oi. 
 Tungche, Eniper<5r, i(8. 
 
 ,, receives ambassadors, 95. 
 Tiiii^c/iinv, 16. 
 
 ,, Lord Elgin marches on, 
 
 ■34- 
 ,, Englishmen taken prisoners 
 
 at, 131. 
 Tungchau, 289. 
 7'//;/;' Sun harbour, 1 7. 
 Tiirkistau, Chinese, 14. 
 
 Union of Compradorcs, 239. 
 Urga, 13, 1S3. , ,. . 
 
 Ussuri river, l>oundary ol l\.u\M.in 
 province, 180. 
 
 \'.\( II i.Ai ION of British Government, 
 
 '4'- , . , 
 
 \an Braam, And e, cited, 92.
 
 400 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Yanz-ts 
 
 Vanity, native, 27. 
 Vegetarians, 150. 
 Viceroys of provinces, 58. 
 
 ,, ,, appointment of, 
 
 64. 
 Vladivostock, 192. 
 
 Wade, Sir Thomas, 125, 154, 245. 
 Wagner, Lieut. -Col. Reinhold, cited, 
 
 198. 
 AValsham, Sir John. 1G2. 
 Wanleh, Emperor, 77. 
 War, the " Opium," 1 840-4 1, see Great 
 Britain. 
 
 ,, with France, 207, 208. 
 
 ,, with Japan, 1894-95, 163, 164?/. 
 Water communications take the place of 
 
 roads, 13. 
 Wax, 18. 
 Weddell, Captain, blockades Canton, 
 
 79. 107. 
 Mei Valley, 16. 
 
 Weights, false and adaptable, 256. 
 Wei Hai Wei, 12, 270. 
 
 ,, defences of, 271. 
 
 West river, see Si Kiaiii^. 
 Wha-sang, massacre at, 150. 
 WiUiams, Dr S. W., 161, 278. 
 ^Vire shirt, torture of the, 71;/. 
 Wolseley, Lord, cited, 135. 
 Women in China, 35, 37. 
 Wontsong, Emperor, 76. 
 
 Woosiing captured by British, 123, Yarcand 
 . 283. 
 ,, river, 12. 
 
 Wuchang, 17, 287. 
 
 ,, held by Taepings, 145. 
 Wuchan, 17. 
 Wuhu, 146. 
 
 ,, anti-foreign riot at, 150. 
 Wushihshan, riot at, 150. 
 
 Yakoob Khax, 1S4. 
 Yakutsk, 177. 
 
 Yalu river, 1 64. 
 Yangchaufu, 2^9. 
 Yangchow, rising at, I49. 
 Yang-tse Kiati^, 8, 14. 
 
 estuary, 2*'3. 
 
 varying names of, 277. 
 
 depths, 2S.S. 
 
 rapids and gorges, 2S4. 
 
 navigation of, 28 1. 
 
 changes of level, 9, 288. 
 
 entered by British fleet, 
 
 123. 
 expedition, 14?. 
 boatmen of, 285. 
 Valley, extent, 276. 
 
 wealth of, 279, 
 statistics of area and 
 
 population, 279. 
 foreign trade in native 
 
 hands, 2^3. 
 treaty ports, 2S5, 2Sj. 
 future of, 2^8. 
 expedition of 1861, 145. 
 opened to foreign trade, 
 
 147.. 
 non-ahenation of, 275. 
 not conceded to Great 
 
 Britain, 274. 
 difficulties in regard to, 
 
 339-. 
 necessity for British 
 acquisition of, 289. 
 
 \eh, Commissioner, 127. 
 „ ',, refuses to receive 
 
 British, 127. 
 ,, ,, capture of, 129. 
 
 Ye i low river, see Hoang Ho. 
 Yermack, 177. 
 
 Yingtze, -^oxX. oi Neivcha)ig, 192, 
 Yechaufu. 287. 
 
 Yuugan seized by Taepings, 143. 
 Yunnan- fu, 17. 
 Yunnan province, 6, 2''o. 
 
 ,^./j^^^ < 
 
 NEILL AND COMPANY, LTD., PRINTERS, EDINBURGH.
 
 ^^oxmrnn"^ 
 
 ^mwm^ -^//miNnmv^ %mn^^ 
 
 
 %a3 
 
 
 ■j^lllBRARYOr 
 
 ^1 ir^^ 
 
 A>N^iIBRARYQ<- 
 
 au *1"-* 
 
 S J UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY 
 
 Los Angeles 
 This book is DUE on the last date stamped below. 
 
 ^^i\}mm//j^ 
 
 
 QB«ON 
 
 !03'90 
 
 MAY 1 6 1990 
 
 
 "^oxm 
 
 315 ^ 
 
 n^ "^/iiiJAiN 
 
 
 *mMNfl«v^ %«v8aim* 
 
 
 ^^AHvaani^^ ^j^udnvsoi^
 
 
 \WE UNIVER5//. 
 
 "^/iasAiNoiiw 
 
 ^vVOS^Cflfj^ 
 
 
 ^mwrn^^ ^ijjAiNOJWV^ "^^Aavaaii-^^^ 
 
 
 J5^HIBRARY(//: 
 
 ^lllBRARYO/v 
 
 
 30 
 
 ^OFCAlIFO^/l^ 
 
 
 X'rtfUNIVERi/, 
 
 
 
 < 
 
 r— *r v ».^ 
 
 '^<?AbVa8IH^ ^TJIJONVSOI^ "^AaJAls'^ ^^^"^^ 
 
 ^ME•UNIVERS'/A ^lOSAUCElfX;* 
 
 ^iVl33NVS01^ '^asAiNn-iwv 
 
 ^5^\EUNIVERS-/^ 
 
 ^j:?i]onvsoi^ 
 
 .^tOS'ANCElfx^ 
 
 o 
 
 %a3AIN(]-3\\V^ 
 
 ^^•llBRARY6>/> 
 
 ^OFCAllFOftjj^ 
 
 ^OFCMIFOff^ 
 
 ^^Aavaain'^ 
 
 
 1— 5 
 
 .vMllBRARYOc^ 
 
 ^^tllBRARYOr^ 
 
 § 1 ir^ ^ 
 
 ^,0FCAIIF0//4A 
 
 '^^OJIWD JO"^ 
 
 OFCAllF0/?;<^ 
 
 '^^Aavaan-^^^ 
 
 .\MEUNIVERS'/A 
 5 
 
 = y y o 
 
 ,5MEUNIVERf 
 
 >&Aaviiain^^ <riuoN\'so\^ 
 
 ^lOSAHCnrr 
 
 \10SA,....,,^ 
 
 i(S 
 
 ?5. 
 
 r^ 
 
 
 m