LIBRARY UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCES OUTLINES ATTEMPT TO ESTABLISH KNOWLEDGE EXTRANEOUS FOSSILS, SCIENTIFIC PRINCIPLES. IN TWO PARTS. BY WILLIAM MARTIN, F. L. S. AUTHOR OP " Figures and Descriptions of Petrifactions collected in Derbyshire," MACCLESFIELD : PRINTED BY J. WILSON. SOTD BV THE AUTHOR, BUXTON J J. \VHITE, FLEET-STREET, AND LONGMAN, HURST, BEES, AND ORMF, LONDOX. 1809. EARTH SCIENCES TO Aylmer Bourke Lambert, FELLOW OF THE ROYAL AND ANTIQUARIAN SOCIETIES OF LONDON VICE-PRESIDENT OF THE LINNEAN SOCIETY, &c. fcc. THIS WORK, AS A TOKEN OF GRATEFUL RESPECT, IS DEDICATED, BY HIS OBEDIENT HUMBLE SERVANT, WILLIAM MARTI JV. MACCLESHELD, Feb. 30, 1809. 4 P. 4 PREFACE. A HE study of extraneous fossils is confessedly useful to the Geologist it enables him to distin- guish the relative ages of the various strata,, which compose the surface of our globe ; and to explain, in some degree, the processes of nature, in the formation of the mineral world To the Botanist and Zoologist, an investigation, which leads to the knowledge of organic forms no longer found in a recent state, must always prove interesting And the causes, that have operated to produce the distinctions existing between plants and animals of the present day, and those of former unknown ages, offer, to every contemplative mind, an inexhaust- able source of rational enquiry. In an age, therefore, like ours, when Natural History in general is cultivated with so much ardour, and introductory helps to its scientific attainment 11 PREFACE. arc daily increasing., I esteem it somewhat strange, that an elementary treatise, on the subject of extra- neous fossils, should hitherto be wanting That is, a treatise containing a regular exposition of facts and principles, on which the study may be con- ducted, agreeably to the relation it holds with other branches of natural knowledge. The present work is an humble attempt to supply this deficiency. It remains for me to offer a few remarks on the origin and progress of this design. When I first applied my attention to the collecting and descri- bing of those subjects, belonging to the fossil king- dom, which are usually denominated extraneous, (a) I expected to find, in mineralogical or other works, some generally received principles, by which I might direct my researches ^but in vain no such princi- ples have as yet been acknowledged. On the contrary, it is even undetermined by authors, what fossils pro- perly come within the pale of this study, and what do not. Hence, some exclude all animal and vege- (a) I employ the terms native and extraneous fossils as those in general use ; but by no means contend for the propriety of their application Relics and Minerals (Reliquia et Minerce) are the terms under which I propose to divide the fossil kingdom. V. p. 3. PREFACE. HI tal remains, that have not acquired a stony or other mineral character: (&) \vhile others admit every fossil possessing the form of a plant or animal, although such form be merely imitative ; lhat is, not derived from the body it accidentally repre- sents, (c) I was early induced to turn from such a contra- riety of opinion, and seek for the principles, on which a knowledge of organic remains might be founded, in a diligent investigation of the bodies themselves : carefully noting every phenomenon that either es- tablished or opposed those ideas on this subject, which reading had given me ; and, in conclusion, strictly observing to use nothing definitively as a principle in the study, till repeated applications had proved the propriety of its adoption. With such end in view, it will readily be conceived, that many speculative notions have been abandoned, which, at (b) V. Gmel. Syst. Nat. &c. (c) V. Justi, Vogel, Linnaeus, &c. In a late most ingenious work, we find every mineral consi- dered as an extraneous, or (as it is there called) a secondary fossil, whose origin can be traced up to organized matter ; although the form and structure of such matter be lost in a natural resolution of its constituent particles. V. Parkinson's " Organic Remains/' a IV PREFACE. the commencement of my undertaking, appeared plausible and consistent (d). On this head, how- ever, it is unnecessary to trouble the reader. I shall, therefore, merely give, in this place, a general sketch of those positions, which the present work receives as permanent ones ; and on which, it is con- cluded, the study of extraneous fossils or reliquia must ultimately be fixed. 1. All natural bodies without life, found on or beneath the surface of the earth , and which are not susceptible of putrefaction, belong to the fossil king- dom Such bodies are either Reliquia or Minerals. In the definition of fossils usually given, they are stated to be " bodies destitute of an organic structure." This definition will not apply in many instances ; for, though all fossils may be said to be unorganized, according to the common acceptation of the term, they certainly are not all destitute of the structure which distinguishes an organized body. This being admitted, however, it follows, that some line must be drawn, between animal and vegetal (d) V. Tables of an Arrangement of Extraneous Fossils published in the first number of " Derbyshire Petrifactions." 1793- PREFACE. matter recently buried in the earth, and that which has acquired a genuine fossil character Such line will depend, perhaps, on putrefaction, to which even organic substances, after becoming legal deni- zens of the fossil world, are evidently no longer subject. V. p. 2. Note. 2. An organic structure (e) immediately or derivatively that of a plant or animal, is the essence of an extraneous fossil or reliquium By this alone is it characterized, or distinguished from a mineral. If these premises be not admitted, I do not see the ground on which the separation of reliquia from mineral bodies can take place. The origin of a fossil cannot alone furnish the distinction sought for, (e) By the term structure, is here to be understood not only the internal fabric, but also the external figure of the fossil. The structure of a fossil is either organic or inorganic. The inorganic is that which arises from a mere aggregation or juxta- position of particles this is called the native structure of a fossil, as originating in the fossil kingdom. The organic is medi- ately or immediately that of a plant or animal this is called the extraneous structure, as originating from bodies not belonging to the fossil kingdom. VI PREFACE. as this,, in numerous instances,, still remains dispu- table and, on the other hand, there are substances, which universal consent ranks with native fossils or minerals, that undoubtedly originate from animal and vegetal matter. It will perhaps, however, not only be urged, that the proposed principle is insuf- ficient for the purpose of division ; but, also, that extraneous forms (as the mpdern school of minera- logy calls the structure of petrifactions, &c. ) are not to be considered as independent of their constituent substances, but must be studied as mere modifica- tions in the external characters of a mineral. Yet it is evident, that if extraneous forms are to be at- tended to at all, it is the/orw, and not the material in which it occurs, that is the primary object of in- vestigation; and this, in my humble opinion, lays the foundation of a study, separate or distinct in its cha- racter from that of mineralogy. Indeed, with all due deference to the authority of Werner and his disci- ples, I think it may be justly questioned, if the extra- neous form ought to be numbered among the exter- nal attributes of a mineral substance At least, it is not an essential one (f), and of course can never, (/) That only can be called an essential attribute, in any substance or species of matter, of which it cannot be deprived, PREFACE. vii with propriety, make a part in the specific discri- mination of an earth, metal, &c. It is true, accor- ding to the positions with which we set out, an extraneous fossil exists only in form : take away such form, or consider the fossil to be independent of such form, and it becomes identical with mineral matter But still, to describe the organic structure, as characteristic among the external appearances of a given mineral, is nearly the same, as to consider, in a plant or animal, the accidental variations of figure, received by impression ( g ) from some exter- nal body, as distinctive, and add them to the cha- racter and description of the species. It is proper in this place to remark, that the principles now assumed will necessarily bring under the study of extraneous fossils some few bodies, without destroying its identity Such is the inorganic structure in minerals ; for if we destroy one or more modifications of this form, some other will remain, as long as the matter itself exists But we may obliterate every vestige of the organic structure in a fossil, and the matter remain the same. This is, therefore, an accidental or adventitious form in fossil matter, if we consider such matter as a mineral species. () Corals, shells, and funguses, arc sometimes impressed with the form of the bodies to which they happen to adhere. Yl'ii PREFACE. which modern Authors rank with minerals Bovey- coal, woodstone, and wood-opal, for instance (h). At the same time, it will exclude common coal, amber, and other bitumens, that no longer exhibit the structure of the animal or vegetal matter, from which they originate. The Graptolithi of Linnaeus and others (Petrifi- cataficta) containing Dendritts, Landskip-marUes, &c. are not, on any principle, to be admitted among extraneous fossils. 8. It is the cn^ganic form alone on which the arrangement of reliquia must be founded. (h) This only when their structure is primarily considered their substance, if it prove to be distinct from other known species of mineral matter, must still be enumerated with minerals. Werner considers the matter of woodstone as a subspecies of horneslone or chert that of bituminous wood or Bovey coal, as a species of brown coal and that of wood-opal, as a sub- species of opal. In each instance, however, the matter is cha- racterized as differing from the primary species only in its vegetal texture. Consequently, according to the principle above advanced, it does not constitute a mineral species distinct from every other ; but only a substance already determined, forming the material of an extraneous fossil. PREFACE. IX Every system of natural bodies should assume, for its basis, but one principle ; and this should be drawn from the most essential characteristics of the bodies under arrangement. Hence, form is pointed out as furnishing the only genuine principle, on which the classification of reliquia can be estab- lished. V. p. 182. also p. 199, Note. It may be here objected, that I have not my- self adhered to the principle now proposed^ as both the prototype, or original body, and the soil of the reliquiiim are brought forwards to characterize the divisions of the system, given at the end of this work. But, with respect to the prototype, it is sufficiently apparent, that this is only to be deter- mined according to the form of the extraneous fos- sil ; consequently, in this instance, the principle of arrangement proposed is strictly followed up : and, in regard to the soil, I have to remark, that it is never stated, except as a secondary and factitious character a mere geological help to discriminate a division, not a genuine distinction. 4. TJie primary divisions of the arrangement (orders, genera, &c.J should agree with such na- tural divisions of plants and animals, as arc deter- ininable by the form of the fossil subjects. X PREFACE. On this it is useless to offer any remarks, as the principle will be found sufficiently detailed in the body of the work. 5. The specific differences in reliquia depend on the specific differences of form in the original bodies One species of plant or animal can give but one real or genuine species of extraneous fossil. The* present positions naturally result from those before advanced For, if the essence of the reliquium be an organic form, its other affections, arising from substance, mode, and soil, are acci- dental, and cannot be used as specific distinctions, which must always depend on something essential to the body, we wish to discriminate. Form, there- fore, must furnish the specific differences of 'reliquia; and it follows, that there will be as many genuine species of reliquia, as there are genuine specific forms in the animal and vegetal prototypes; and, that the number of fossil species are not increased by a separation of parts, or other accidental circum- stances to which the original bodies may have been subjected, during the translation of their forms into the fossil kingdom. I am fully aware of the impediments4 that will be thought to oppose the general application of the PREFACE. X principle now promulgated ; but, the necessity of fixing the determination of species, on a certain and permanent basis, outweighs every other consideration . Indeed, the difficulty, that will attend the use of the proposed rule, must chiefly arise from our im- perfect knowledge of reliquia ; which, in certain in- stances, prevents the reduction of detached parts into individual species. This difficulty, however, will grow less, as our knowledge of these subjects increases ; and to meet the present state of the study, I think it will be sufficient to adopt, for a time, what I have denominated temporary species. V. p. 194. &c. It will not here, perhaps, be foreign to the subject, to remark, that in Botany and Zoology what constitutes a species has long been fixed and acknowledged ; while in Mineralogy, it seems unde- cided if species even exist ! In the determination of minerals, neither the integral molecule (i) assumed by Haiiy and Dolomieu, nor the union of external characters and internal composition, proposed by Werner, for the construction of species, has been uni- () Doubtless, the nearest approximation towards the esta- blishment of a natural principle, in the determination of the mineralogical species, that has yet been made. b XU PREFACE. versally admitted,, and the want of such a generally received principle is daily experienced by the prac- tical Mineralogist. In the study of extraneous fos- sils, also, no determinate principle for the division into species, has been hitherto established. None, indeed, till now proposed (A:). Hence, in every system of reliquia that has yet appeared, the species are without order and consistency ; formed accord- ing to the caprice or convenience of the writer ; and characterized by every possible affection, of which these bodies are susceptible. 6. Specific distinctions of reliquia being found- ed only on the organic form, it follows, that their geological and miner alogical affections, with their modal diversities (v. p. 72.) &c. merely charac- terize specimens. For the application of this principle the reader is referred to p. 197. 7. The specific descriptions of reliquia are to he given according to the principles of Botany and (k) Cronsted and Bergman's arrangement of extraneous fossils can scarcely be said to have contained a proposal for the establishment of species, as the specific distinctions of the mineral substances, on which the arrangement w as founded, still remained undetermined. PREFACE. Zoology Those of the specimens, according to the principles of Mineralogy and Geology. It is particularly necessary to distinguish, by description, the essential form of the reliquium from the accidental that is, the form of the original body, from that which has arisen in the fossil from the mode of mineralization, the constituent sub- stance, and the soil of the specimen./ Hence, the use of the present principle will be sufficiently ap- parent (/). 8. The nomenclature of reliquia should always manifest the extent of our knowledge with respect to the original bodies. On this principle, if we know the original recent species, the name of the reliquium must dis- tinguish it. If only the kind or genus, still that kind must be nominally pointed out in the fossil. In temporary species of reliquia ( v. p. 194.) the part ( / ) It will be advisable for the student never to make his descriptions from single examples, however perfect they may appear to be. In many instances, it is only by collating a num- ber of specimens, that we are able to acquire that knowledge of a species, which is sufficient for the purpose of its discrimination* XIV , PREFACE. of the animal or plant giving the form should also be shewn bj the name ; as this is frequently the most material,, and sometimes the only information, we are able to give of the original body. The principle of nomenclature now assumed, will, I think, properly remove from the study all those names, which have been given to extraneous fossils without any reference to their origin ; as Nummus brattensburgensis, Bufonius, Stone Lily t &c. except when these names are used in conjunc- tion with legitimate appellations ; or, no longer con- veying their original meaning, have become fixed and appropriate designations of tribes or divisions ; as is the case with the terms Glossopetra, JBufonitte, &C. &Cr On the above eight fundamental principles, I conceive, the study of reliquia may be scientifically conducted. Judging from the foregoing statement only, the reader, perhaps, will object that our premises must lead the student's attention wholly to the organic form of reliquia, and necessarily hinder him from paying a due regard to certain relations, which ought to constitute a distinguished part of his study. An examination of the work itself, I trust, will PREFACE. XV prove this objection to be groundless. I have, as far as the extent of this design would admit, fully endeavoured to point out the connection,, which sub- sists between the objects of our present investigation and those, which lawfully come within the province of the Geologist and Mineralogist. And, indeed, I wish forcibly to impress it on the mind of the stu- dent, that, however extensive or well-arranged his cabinet, the knowledge acquired there of extraneous fossils must ever be defective, unless joined to the study of these bodies in their native repositories. At the same time, it has been my aim to draw a deter- minable line between the direct and collateral parts of the science ; or ( in other words ) between those circumstances which are essential to the arrange- ment and specific discrimination of reliquia, and those wfcich form their mineralogical and geological distinctions. In the division of this work, I have given the facts and inferences, forming the basis of the study, in distinct propositions : to these are added such observations, as were thought immediately necessary for illustration : the more extraneous remarks, with references to authors, lists of zoological terms, &c. will be found at the bottom of the page, in the form of notes. XVI PREFACE. An attempt like this, to establish the elements of a study, the objects of which form, as it were, the common boundary between the organic and in- organic kingdoms of nature, has unavoidably led to details, that the already-informed naturalist may, per- haps, think unnecessary, and sometimes even imperti- nent I here particularly allude to the definitions of the classes and orders of animals and plants, given at page 77 86. the observations on mineral sub- stances, p. J36 152. and the characters of such families, in the systematic arrangement ofreliquia, as are immediately founded on the known generic distinctions of the recent subjects. To the mere student, however, these explications are not unim- portant : they will serve as first steps to the ac- quirement of that knowledge, without which his proficience in the study of extraneous fossils can be but trifling. Technical language must of course alter, in some degree, with the changes that progressively take place in the science, to which it belongs. The present treatise adds a very few terms to those already used by naturalists : it is my wish, they may not be found either useless or anomalous. It was my intention to have given, at the end of the work, a list of authors who have written on PREFACE. XYll extraneous fossils ; but, as such list has previously been drawn up by others ( m ) its omission here can be of little moment. The reader is now in possession of my plan It must be considered, merely, as an attempt to give the principles of a study yet in its infancy A study however, hourly rising into notice, and which the best Mineralogists of the pi*esent day (n) have pointed out to the attention of all, who wish for the advancement of general knowledge. In respect to the execution of this design there is little to offer. At a distance from extensive collec- tions and valuable libraries, those necessary helps to the naturalist when writing my time almost wholly taken up with the duties of my profession and debarred, by local situation, from that personal in- tercourse with the scientific, which might so mate- (>) V. Townson. Phil. Min. Jameson. Miner. Dumfries. Parkinson. Organ. Remains. &c. (w) Compare the observations of Werner, Kirwan, Jameson, Cuvier, &c. on the subject of extraneous fossils, with the illiberal reflections cast on the study by the late M. Magellan, in his edition f Constadt's Miner. XV111 PREFACE. rially have aided me in my pursuit (0) this work is truly the production of one who has possessed few advantages for its completion none, indeed, except those which have arisen from a long residence in mining county (Jj) where the objects of the study abound,, and have been constantly examined under their most interesting relations Hence I beg leave to add, that a large portion of the facts advanced in this treatise, has been repeatedly con- firmed by my own observations. These facts, I am aware, are often rudely explained, and sometimes inartificially put together : but, I trust, the errors and deficiencies of the work will not be found so nume- rous, as to prevent its being considered a proper collection of data, for the student to proceed on. Hereafter, perhaps, some one with leisure and abilities equal to the task may condescend to fill up these "Outlines;" or, sketching others with a happier hand, give to the world a complete ' ' Ph ilosophia Reliquiorum . ' y (0) I should be wanting in gratitude, however, if I did not here acknowledge the obligations I am under to iny friend Dr. Hull, of Manchester, for some valuable hints on the nomenclature of petrifactions. (/>) Derbyshire. ADDENDA. Page 6. Add to Note ft It should be observed, that the compla- nation or flattening of the reliquiam only takes place when its posifibn, in respect to its length, is parallel with that of the laminae of the inclosing substance. If the fossil be an elongated or lengthened body, as the stem of a plant, &c. and its direc- tion perpendicular, or nearly so, to the slaty structure of the surrounding stone, it always retains the original bulk of the prototype. I have observed this phenomenon repeatedly, in the shales and gritstones of Derbyshire, Lancashire, and Cheshire. Vide, also, Jameson's Elem.of Geogn. p. 181. In Note f, it is observed that rock-salt sometimes occurs in strata abounding in extraneous fossils. This is asserted on vari- ous authorities. V. Kir wan G. Ess. p. 373. In England, however, I believe neither marine nor any other kind of orga- nic remains have been found in the strata which accompany rock-salt At least, so I judge from my own observations, and all the information I have been able to obtain from others on the subject, during a residence of some months at Northwicii; Cheshire. Page 25. Add to Note on the Neptunian Theory I have to regret my not receiving a copy of Professor Jameson's exposition of the Wernerian Geognosy till the present sheets were printed off. It would have enabled me to have avoided a few errors, I have been led into, from the view taken of the prevailing Neptunian system of Geology by others the chief of these, however, are perhaps the following. Prop. 9. Obs. " The diminution in the height of the water is accounted for, by supposing the ocean began to retire gradu- ally into the internal cavities of the earth/' The reader may suppose from this statement, that th^ Wemerian opinion on tie ADDENDA. subject is here alluded to ; but this is not the case : Werner proves, by various phenomena, that a gradual diminution in the waters of the ocean has taken place, but offers no hypo- thesis iii explanation of this fact. Prop. 13. " The strata formed by these depositions" (con- stituting the transition rocks of Werner) "were chiefly of rubble-stone, sand-stones: some limestones, breccias, argillite, chert, and perhaps porphyries and sienite." The only transi- tion rocks enumerated by Professor Jameson are transition* limestone, transition-trap, grey-wacke, and flinty-slate ; to which he afterwards adds transition-gypsum. These, I presume, are the only rocks now considered by Werner as belonging to the genuine transition class. Under grey-wacke are placed common grey-wacke (rubble-stone) and grey-wacke slate, some- times confounded with clay-slate (argillite). Professor Jameson himself has, however, considered argillite as a transition rock in some instances. V. Miner, vol. 1. p. 335. &c. Prop. 16. Obs. "Hence Werner distinguishes them by the title of stratified rocks/' It should have been, perhaps, fioetz rocks. The terms are, however, frequently used indis- criminately by pupils of the Wernerean school, though by no- means synonymous. Page 139. Add to the observation, "we have not ourselves found any variety of baroselenite under an organic form/' Ginelin, indeed, expressly states that terra ponderosce, in which he includes the species just noticed, are never found in an organic form. V. Syst. Nat. T. 111. p. 63. Page 140. Add ff to the words " vegetal petrifactions " (line 12) as a reference to the following Note |f The term vegetable, as generally used in the present study, is certainly incorrect. A vegetable petrifaction or fossil literally implies a petrifaction or fossil capable of vegetation ! We should not, however, have ventured to have proposed a change in a term so long esta- blished, had we not observed, while these sheets were in the printer's hands, such change already adopted, on principles, in our humble opinion, perfectly philological. Vide Desmond' Transl. of Fourcroy's Chem. Phil. Preface, p. xviii. ADDENDA. jii Page 168. Add to the definition of the TRACT (A. 143) the following Obs. The tract of a soil, or its visible extent at the surface, may be formed by the surface of the upper stratum only, or by the extremities of several strata, when they have a considerable deviation from the horizontal position. The extremities of such strata are called their outgoings by the Werneriaa school. . Add to the definition of A PARTIAL TRACT (b. 151) after the words "of a different kind," or formation, and generally of a larger extent than the one. included"; under which the strata constituting the surrounding tract are observed to dip. EMENDANDA. PART I. % Engagements, which the author could neither postpone nor avoid, have prevented his attending regularly tt> the correction of the press : the reader's indulgence is, therefore, requested for the following errata. Page 2, line 5 from bottom, for agreeable, r. agreeably. Del. comma after fossil. 4, 11 from bottom, for Naturalist, r. Naturalists. 8, 8 from bottom, (and passim) for vegetable r. vegetal. Vidr addenda. 10, 8, for iuflamable, r. inflammable. 13, 3 from bottom, for retain, r. retains. 18, 8 for deposited, r. deposit. 21, 5, for primative, r. primitive. 22, 12 from bottom, for subteraneous, r. subterraneous. 24, 17, for stratafied, r. stratified. 29, last, for agreeable, r. agreeably. 31, 11, for regular, r. regularly. 38, 1, for loged, r, lodged. , 11 from bottom, for agreeable, r. agreeably. > 39, 2 from bottom, prefix A. as a divisional letter to 1. CONSER- VATION. 40, 10, prefix a. as a divisional letter to 2. PRIVATION. 42, 2 and 3 transpose. 46, 5, prefix b. as a divisional letter to 3. CONVERSION. 48, 18, for carbonate, r. carbonate. Line 2 from bott. for time, r. lime . 52 5 from bottom, del. of. 64, 4 from bottom, for testaceous, r. testal j and passim, when the term testaceous is usrd without reference to the substance of the rtliquium. V. testal, p. 96 and testaceous p. 153. 72, 3 from bottom, tor Rcliquia, r. Couservata. IV fcMENDANDA. 73, 4 from bottom, for Vegetable (Vegctabile) r. Vegetal (Vegetale), and passim. V. addenda. 95, 5, subjecs, r. subjects. 104, 14, for $pongi definition of page 4 B. Petrificata . . j Their Phenomena. A. General "| f~ 5 8 B. Peculiar to Petrifactions V stated ^ 8-12 C. . - to Conservata J L 12-14 Their Origin. A. Origin of Conservata ? slated f 14 B. --- of Petrificata ) \ 15 Their Introduction into the Mineral Kingdom, - l6 A. Periods of Introduction. First period "1 f ~~ 2 Second . )> stated ^ 24 Third . . J L 26 B. Agents of Introduction. The Ocean . . "| their proba- f - 27 Ancient Lakes and Seas ble *&*? * I -32 the introduc. Eivcrs and modem Lakes f Ex(r Local inundations . j n t o the Min- Tlie general Deluge . J Kiugd. stated. l_ 37 PRINCIPAL NOTES to Sect. II. Conservata generally considered as petrifactions The latter term used only in a limited sense in the present work the distinction between con- servata and petrilicata does not afford a principle of arrangement, p. 4. Compressed or flattened extraneous fossils common to all laminated strata. p. 6.- Vegetal and marine animal reliquia sometimes occur in the same i-trata. p. 7.- Certain petrifactions most common in particular substances. p. 9. Some remains of the substance of the original body to be traced in most petrifactions, p. 11. Conservata sometimes found in ancient strata. p. 12. Conservata found in veins, p. 14. Various opinions on the origin of extraneous fossils, p. 15. -Various suppositions respecting the iutro- CONTENTS. 1U duction of extraneous fossils into the mineral kingdom Extraneous fossils introduced at different periods and under various circumstances Expla- nation of the mode, in which organic bodies have become subjects of the fossil kingdom, intimately connected with geology Outlines of the Weme- ria system of geology stated* p. 16 25. Inclosure of nsh in mineral strata accounted for by Raspe and Graydvn. p. 29. Vegetal remains, mixed with those of the sea, not indicative of the agency of the deluge* p. 29. Extensive beds of sand, &c. connected with a river have gene- rally originated from former lakes, with which the river has been united, p. 35. Depositions of organic bodies, unequivocally demonstrative of a general flood, have scarcely yet occurred, p. ?6 38. Introduction of extraneous fossils into veins, p. 38. . III. DISTINCTIVE CHARACTERS of the Reli- quia. dependant on their Mode, Form, Proto- type, Substance, and Soil. . . page 37-130 Modes .... definition of, 39 A. Conservation of organic remains under 39 Privation . ^ f" 40 Conversion \- stated ^ 45 Impregnation . J L 50 B. Substitution of mineral for organic matter ; or the formation of petrifactions, under Redintegration . ~] (~ 52 Intromission . . ^> stated -\ 55 Transmutation . J i_ 6 1 Terms distinctive of Reliquia according to the Mode -66 Fortns or Structure. . . . . 70 A. Essential form of reliquia External ^ what . 71 Internal . IV CONTENTS. ~\ B Accidental form Mineral Modal )* defined -^ 72 Conditional . J I 73 Terms ditinctive of Reliquia according to the Form. ...... 73 Prototypes ... a. ,T/iV fctntfc. A, Animal prototypes. Mammalia Birds ... Amphibia . . Fish ... Insects ... Worms . . B. Vegetal- Funguses Flags ... Mosses . . Femes ... Grasses .. Palms ... Plants . . - 75 , - ... definition > definition of^ 85 A. Animal parts. Innate Fabricated . B. Vegetal Substantial External b. Their parts. .1 . j ial , . 1 ' : * J what f 86 87 89 90 CONTENTS. Terms distinguishing the Reliquium according to its Prototype . . > . . . page 91 Substances : 138 A. Organic what . . , . . 139 Earthy . } C Inflammable . . $ { 136 B. Mineral what , . . . 136* Earthy . . . "\ f ,136 Inflammable . . I enumerated J ^ 144 Metallic . . . [ | 146 Saline J L 151 Terms distinctive of Reliquia according to their Substance . . 152 Soils 155 a. Their relative age. A. Primary soils . . B. Secondary Most ancient, & anc. s. s. Less ancient . > what Modern . Very Modern . J b. Their structure. A. Continuous soils . . i > what B. Stratified - . ) c. Their materials. A. Calcareous soils Cretaceous . . ~~\ Marmorean . . ^ what . 167 Marlaceous . . J VI CONTENTS. B. Argillaceous soils Schistose . ' . } . what page 167 Arenaceo-argillaceous ^ C. Siliceous soils Quartzy . "J Arenaceous \- what . 167 Sabulous . J c. Particular products. A. Carboniferous soils ^ B. Ferriferous what . 168 d. Parts. A. The Tract what . 168 General Partial defined . - B. The Seat . . what 695 Aqueous Mineral what f 170 Its structure and materials stated, . 170-175 C. The Matrix what . 175 * Formation. Genuine Matrix I Spurious Continued ; ' > what I . - 176 Distinct : . J ** Substance. Earthy Matrix . 1 Inflammable . > - . ~ 178 Metallic . J CONTENTS. Til - *** Parts. Surface of the matrix } what . page 178 Impression . } Terms distinguishing the Reliquiuin according to its connection with the Soil . . . 179 PRINCIPAL NOTES to Sect. III. Composition of recent bones Professor Playfair's observations 011 fossil bones Carcase of a Rhinoceros found fossil, p. 41 43. Extraneous bodies inclosed in amber Amber common in Prussia Amber though of vegetal origin, not to be considered an extraneous fossil Shells 6cc. found nearly in the recent state, particularly in Hampshire, p. 4344. Vege- tal bodies frequently found fossil in an unmineralized state, p. 44. Cora- position of shells, corals, and the crusts of Echini stated according to Mr. Hatchett's observations, p. 47 48. Vegetal matter in the state of char- coal frequent in the mineral kingdom, p. 49. Process of the change of vegetal bodies into bitumen, carbon, and pit-coal, p. 49. Connection between the processes of conservation and those of petrifaction, p. 51. Nuclei, what not to be considered a mode of petrifaction, p. 54. I/if/-o- mission can only take place under particular circumstances Theory of the change produced by intromission. Mr. Parkinson's hypothesis of the pe- trifaction of wood examined, p. 55 60 Distinction between petrifactions by transmutation and conservata by conversion pointed out. p. 61. Mr. Parkinson's excellent explanation of the mode in which some vegetal petri- factions are produced, p. 62.- -Petrified leaves improperly considered as mere impression not always the production of transmutation, p. 63. Dis- tinctions of nuclei, p. 64. Professor Playfair's remark on the texture of petrified shells, 5cc. p. 64 Explanation of the mode in which the spurious nuclei of vegetal reliquia are formed, p. 69. Linnean enumeration of the modes of extraneous fossils, p. 70. The term complanated substituted forco;;i- pressed reason why the complanation of reliquia, on what dependant, p. 74. Half-shaped Petrifaction, how formed, p. 75. Observations of M. Cuvier on the fossils remains of the elephant, rhinoceros, and other mam- malia, p. 77. The supposed fossil crocodile in Derbyshire, probably an crthoceratites. p. 79. Winged insects very rare in the fossil state, p. 80. Fossil corals sometimes mistaken for petrified funguses, p. 83. Petrified wood in New South Wales, p. 90. TF.KMS used in descriptions of Echini explained, p. 93. TERMS not used by Linnaeus in the sense iu which we have employed them, explained, p. 95 TERMS, testaceological, ex- plained, p. 97. Ten MS used in descriptions ox fulciments, i.e. corals, V1U CONTENTS. corallines, and sponges, explained, p. 103 134. Rottenstone in Derby- shire,, produced by the disintegration of black limestone, p. 140. Petri- factions common in chert, p. 142. -Woodstone, how distinguished by au- thors, p. 143. Petrifactions in jasper, different opinions on. p. 144. Petrifactions, agate, what. p. 144. Lehman's distinction of rocks best suited to the present study, p. 156. --Distinction of transition rocks accord- ing to Werner, p. 158. Alluvial rocks, observation on. p. 161. Granite masses perhaps only detached parts of an immense stratum, p. 165.-- IVtrified wood found in water, observation on. p. 169. Distinction be- tween bed and stratum according to the Wernerian school, p. 170. Dip, crop, stretch, &c. of a stratum, what. p. 171. Veins, division of, into rake and pipe. p. 172. Ileliquia of veins sometimes the same as those in the surrounding rocks, p. 173. Impression not a mode of petrifaction, p. 178. . IV. GEOGRAPHIC SITUATION of Reliquia. Particular . . } f what . page 181 General . C . V. PRINCIPLES OF ARRANGEMENT. 182-198 On what hitherto founded An Arrangement founded on that of the recent subjects, most eligihle. 183 Class, Order, Genus, what . . . - 114 Natural Genera Artificial Genera, what . 185 Enumeration of Genera . . . . 1 86 Families, permanent, what . . . - 187 , temporary, . . . . - 188 Species, on what founded . . . 188 Species, permanent, what . - 189 Enumeration of the parts on which permanent species are to be founded .... 189-194 Species, temporary, what . . . . - 194 Enumeration, of the parts on which temporary species are to be founded .... 194-195 Species, temporary, not to be unnecessarily multi- plied . .. . . . . 195 CONTENTS. It Varieties, what page 196 Specimens, what 196 Enumeration of the various kinds of specimens 197 PRINCIPAL NOTES to Sect. V. Orders arbitrary divisions, p. 184. Natural and artificial divisions, what. p. 184. Species the fundamental parts of every system the principle, that one species of plant or animal can form but one genuine species of reliqui- um, not before adopted in any system of extraneous fossils, p. 188. Reasons for fixing on the parts enumerated, as the foundation of perma- nent species, p. 190 193. i VI. PRINCIPLES OF NOMENCLATURE. 998-205 Name of the c lass . . . . . 198 Names of the order ..... 200 of the genera .... 200 of the families .... 202 of the species .... 202 Trivial name, what from what to be formed, 203 PRINCIPAL NOTES to Sect. VI. Petrifact ions not to be separated from conservata in a systematic arrange- ment of reliquia. p. 199. Insertion of the family name, between that of the genus and species, when the original is unknown, recommended, p. 203. Reason for using two words as the trivial name of a reliquium, of which the original is known, p. 204. . VII. DELINEATIONS of Reliquia . 205 Elementary parts of the delineation Specific character, what ; mode of its construc- tion . . . . . . 205 The parts of the delineation appendant to the specific character enumerated . 208 Description, what . . . . 210 The parts of the delineation appendant to the the description . . . . 212 Order of the delineation . . . . 212 B X CONTENTS. Delineationis Exempla. Ichthyolithus trigonus f . . . page 214. sagittidens, . . 2l6 Conch jlioiithus Muricis antiqui, . 218 Erisniatolithus Parkinsoni, . . 219 Plrytolithus Sowerbii t . . 220 NOTES under Sect. VII. Remarks on the genus Is is. A new genus proposed. Encrinites, what, p. 207 211. Observation on the substance of the Ibssil fish of Mont* Bolca, p. 216. PART THE SECOND. SYSTEMA RELIQU10RUM . . . 2 22 . I. REGNUM FOSSILE, .... 225 . II. RELIQUIA, 226 . III. RELIQUIORUM ORDINES, . . 226 $. IV. GENERA RELIOUIORUM, Synopsis Generum, . . 227 Character?* Generum, ... 228 ^. V. FAMILI.E RELIQUIORUM, . . 230 OUTLINES. PAIIT THE FIRST. ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF EXTRANEOUS FOSSILS; EXHIBITING THEIR DISTINCTIVE CHARACTERS, GEOLOGICAL RELATIONS* NOMENCLATURE, &C. CONSPECTUS. . I. PRELIMINARY. . II. RELICS. . III. DISTINCTIVE CHARACTERS. . IV. GEOGRAPHIC SITUATION. . V. PRINCIPLES OF ARRANGEMENT, . VI. NOMENCLATURE. . VII. DELINEATIONS. ELEMENTARY INTRODUCTION, fc*. PRELIMINARY. Natural Bodies. 1 HE natural bodies, which constitute our globe, are either organized or unorganized : f the first di- vision includes animals and -vegetables, the latter fossils. t Corpora organica. Haec internorum vasorum congerie prae- dita sunt, qua e nutrimentis adsuinptis moleculae extrahuntur, praeparantur, vehuntur et distribuuntur, incremento, sustentatioiii et propagation! inservientes. Corpora anorganica. Anorganica audiunt, quae omni structura orgauica destituuntur, appositione particularum externa vi attractionis unice concrescentia. Berg. Med. de Syst. Foss. Nat. . II. et IV. Extraneous fossils do not properly accord with Bergman's definition of corpora anorganica t though he himself considers them as such. Those bodies, however, though possessing an organic form, may, with propriety, be de- fined as unorganized, since that form is no longer instrumental to growth, motion, or the propagation of the species. 2 . I. PRELIMINARY. Natural Bodies. A. 1. ANIMALS are natural bodies, organized, living, and sentient. B. 2. VEGETABLES are natural bodies, or- ganized, and living, but not sentient. C. 3. FOSSILS are natural bodies, unorganized^ and neither living, nor sentient. ff ft The Linneaii complex 'definitions of the animal, vegetable, and fossil kingdom, are frequently objected to; but none more simply correct, or applicable have been, or perhaps can be, produced. Indeed, it has been repeatedly remarked, that animals and vegetables are so closely allied, it is hardly possible to draw a line of separation between them ; and we may adcl, that the limits of the fossil king- dom are scarely determinable by a single character ; at least, not by any one founded on structure, chemical analysis, or the want of life or sensation. There are many fossil substances, for instance, which our systematic mineralogists rank even with native minerals, and which, when accurately examined, are found to possess the structure of organized bodies: such are the woodstones, Bovey coal, surturbrand, &c. nor will chemical analysis, it is evident, in all cases, distinguish a mineral from an animal or vegetable body, as there are substances, chemically the same, which belong equally to the animal, vegetable, and mineral world. Again, the ab- sence of life does not independently form a discriminative character, for were this the case, it follows, that animals and vegetables, when merely deprived of life, are to be classed as minerals ! Perhaps the only simple note of distinction, between fossils and animal, or vegetable bodies, is that which putrefaction affords. And hence, agreeable to this view of the subject, all fossil, animal, or vegetable matter, when it has passed that process, or occurs preserved from its effects by means of some natural operation, is to be considered as belonging to the mineral kingdom, although an organic arrange- ment of its particles may remain. f I. PRELIM. Fossils. .II. RELICS. Kinds. 3 Fossils. THESE bodies are usually distinguished into na- tive and extraneous. A. 4. NATIVE FOSSILS, or MINERALS {Fossilia nativa s. Miner a) are fossils destitute of an organic form: exhibiting such a structure only, as arises from the apposition of the particles,, of which they are composed. Minerals arrange under 4 classes Earths, Inflammables, Metals, and Salts. B. 5. EXTRANEOUS FOSSILS, or RELICS (Fossilia extraneas.Reliquia) are fossils,, which have the form or structure of animal or vegetable bodies. . II. RELICS. Kinds. EXTRANEOUS fossils comprehend two sorts or kinds f of animal and vegetable relics Conservata and Petrificata. f Fossil plants and animals are found principally in two distinct or separate states : in one, the original, organic matter (at least in part) and its confonnation are preserved; in the other, the. struc- ture or form of the original alone remains, the animal or vegetable 4 . II. RELICS. Phenomena. A. I. CONSERVATA are the mwatws of ani- mals (. I. 1.) or vegetables (. I. 2.) preserved by various operations of nature amongst minerals. (. I. 4.) B. 2. PETRIFICATA are mineral bodies (f. I. 4. ) which have, mediately or immediately, ft received their form from animals (. I. 4.) or ve- getables. (. I. 2.) THE Phenomena attendant on the reliquia are either general or peculiar. being displaced by a mineral substance. The distinction, between these two conditions or kinds of reliquia, should most carefully be attended to, as it will be found of peculiar importance in geological researches, to which a knowledge of these bodies immediately ap- plies. The reliquia have usually been considered, particularly by the German Naturalist, as petrifications. In the present work the term petrification is used only in its more proper and limited sense. We have to observe, although they are thus primarily distin- guished, that these two states or modes of extraneous fossils, by no means afford a ground for their classification or arrangement ; this is to be founded on other principles. Vide pt. 2. ft Mediately, when moulded in the hollow impression made in the matrix by the original body. Immediately, when moulded in the vacuities of the original body itself. ttt The object, which first claims attention in the study of Ex- traneous, fossils, is the investigation of the phenomena attendant . II. RELICS. Phenomena. 5 A. 3. The general phenomena are such, as are common to both kinds of organic remains. These are the following. a. Reliquia, or extraneous fossils, have been found in every quarter of the known world. b. They are met with embodied in the hardest rocks and stones, as well as in the softer materials, of which the surface of the earth is composed c. They are not, however, equally common to all rocks and mineral substances d. Granite, sienite, gneiss, micaceous shistus, some species of limestones, &c., never contain or- ganic remains, (v. . HI. Soil, &c. ) e. In rubblestone, breccias, gypsum, trap, &c.j they rery rarely occur f. Most limestones, sandstones, and clay-strata, abound with them. g. The rocks, &c., in which reliquia are never found, constitute the highest mountains known. h. Those which rarely hold, as well as those w 7 hich abound with extraneous fossils, form also mountains, but of an height f generally inferior to the preceding. on these bodies in their mineral beds ; this leads to an inquiry into their Origin, and the Time and Mode of their introduction into the fossil kingdom. f According to an observation of Mr. Kirwan's, no extraneous fossils are embodied in the stone of mountains higher than eight or nine thousand English feet above the present level of the sea. This is, however, disputed by many geologists. 6 . II. RELICS. Phenomena. i. The strata or masses of stone, &c., in which reliquia are never known to exist as integrant parts, but which, as just stated, constitute the most ele^ vated mountains, are always found to dip towards, and at length underlay the strata, &c. forming the lower hills and plains, in which reliquia do occur. k. Between strata abounding in extraneous fossils, beds of stone or other matter frequently in- terpose, which seldom or never contain organic remains in any situation, f /. In strata with a slaty or laminated texture, extraneous fossils are always compressed or flat- tened, ff although the same species, in concomitant strata of substances not laminated, preserve the perfect bulk of their originals. m. The parts of organized bodies most common in a fossil state, are those which are known longest to resist putrefaction and decay i. e. wood and the leaves and stems of certain plants shells, bones, corals, and other hard parts of animals. n. Very tender and succulent bodies, whether f Thus strata of rock-salt and gypsum, which rarely hold ex- traneous fossils, sometimes alternate with clays and sandstdhes, abounding in those bodies Our Derbyshire toadstone, in which the smallest trace of organic remains has never yet been discovered, runs between strata of limestone full of petrifactions. ft This observation has usually been confined to petrifactions found in strata of common clay or other argillaceous substances, but is equally applicable to all extraneous fossils bedded in lamin- ated stones, whether argillaceous or not. . II. RELICS. Phenomena. 7 animal or vegetable, are rarely found in a fos- silized state. o. Shells, and various marine exuvite of the ver- ities class, without the intermixture of other organic remains, are most commonly found in the strata im- mediately reposing on, or following tracts of granite, gneiss, and the other rocks, in which extraneous fossils are never imbedded. p. Strata containing the remains of fish and ma- rine shells, &c. mixed sometimes, with the parts of amphibious animals and plants or those in which ve- getables only occur generally succeed, or rest on the tracts, in which the exuviae ofvermcs alone are found. q. The remains of land-animals, particularly of the class mammalia, rarely occur in regular strata When they do, the strata are usually superficial ; overlaying, but never dipping under, beds of other formation. r. Animal rcliquia, particularly the marine, though not confined to, are most common in calca- reous strata. s. Vegetable reliquia frequently occupy inde- pendent argillaceous beds, especially those produc- tive of coal. t. But strata containing vegetable remains only, or vegetable remains mixed with fluviatile shells, &c. sometimes (though not often) alternate with strata, in which marine relics are found, f f Coal-beds and their accompanying argillaceous strata, holding only vegetable remains, have, in some parts of England, been found 8 . II. RELICS. Phenomena. u. In strata holding vegetable reliquia, as well as in those in which the animal occur, the different species are sometimes confusedly mixed or blended together But V. It more frequently happens, that the different species are found in distinct or separate accumula- tions. B. 4. The phenomena peculiar to petrifactions may thus be stated. a. Petrifactions are generally confined to moun- tains, or other elevated situations, where the more ancient of the secondary strata are presented to our view. (v. . III. Soil, &c. ) b. They are usually incorporated in the earths and stones, of which these strata consist,ff forming separated by seams or very thin strata of calcareous stone, contain- ing echinittK and other marine productions About a mile from Buxton, Derbyshire, on the right of the Macclesfield road, a coal-pit was opened some years back, in which we observed strata of shale and ironstone abounding in impressions of anomitue, &c. although the interceding beds of coal and gritstone exhibited only vegetable petrefactions these can only be considered as partial exceptions, however, to the more usual phenomenon of vegetable fossils and the remains of marine animals occurring in distinct tracts. ft The most common exception to this remark, and to the fore- going one, under a., occurs in petrified wood, or woodstone, (Lythoxylpn) which is generally confined to water or modern alluvial tracts, and is mostly found in a loose or unconnected state. . II. RELICS. Phenomena. 9 as it were, a part in the original fabric of the globe, f c. No particular petrifaction is confined wholly to one kind, or species of stone d. But, it is observable, that many species and families of petrifactions are common^ in particular strata, which, in others of a similar nature, and be- longing to the same tract, are extremely rare.ff e. The substance, which forms the petrifaction, is frequently of the same nature as the surrounding rock. f. When it differs, it is always found to consist of mineral matter with a finer texture, or grain, than that of the matrix. t Hence, more intimately connected with geological researches, and the various theories devised to explain the primitive state and formation of the globe, than the constrvata, which usually occur in modern or very modern strata. Vide III. Soil, &c. ft Echinitce are more common in chalk, than in other calcareous strata, apparently deposited at the same period Pis- cine remains are frequent in bituminous marlite, though rare in common marls and limestones of the same formation. Some spe- cies of shells are peculiar to compact limestone, and one (an am- monite) to alluminous schistus. Another has only been found, we believe, in the black, bituminous, shale accompanying our coal- strata. At least, we have to observe, respecting this last mentioned shell (Anomia Pecten. Linn.") that in all the specimens of it, which we have collected in various parts of England, the substance in question has always formed the matrix nor have we ever seen a vestige of it, in any of the other argillaceous stones attendant on coal. 10 . II. RELICS. Phenomena, g. A petrifaction often consists of several distinct minerals, f h. Sometimes only of one. i. The common constituent substances of petrifac- tions are earths and stones of the calcareous, argil- laceous, or siliceous class (vide . III. Substance.) k. Some of the other earths, and also the metal- lic,, saline., and inflamable bodies, occur in petrifac- tions, but much less frequently, than the substances above mentioned. /. Animal petrifactions are observed to be less common, in proportion to the greater degree of lo- comotive power the originals possessed, ff m. The vegetable petrifactions most common, are such, as bear the" form of plants growing in moist and boggy grounds, f f f ii. The petrifactions hitherto recognized, how- ever, as bearing the forms of plants or animals, known to exist at present, are very few, compared with those, the living species of which have not, as yet, been dis- covered. t Thus chalk and flint often form separate parts of an echi- nite ; and in Derbyshire, chert, calcareous spar, bitumen, and quartz, are frequently incorporated together in the same shell. ft Shells and zoophytes abound in petrifactions; fish and apte- rous insects are more rare The petrified remains of the mammalia are still less frequent ; and winged insects and birds have, perhaps, never been found in this state. ttt Particularly some species of the cryptogamia and gramina. ttft It it true, some of our European petrifactions have been . II. RELICS. Phenomena. 11 o. Of petrified shells it has been observed, that some families are most common, which afford the fewest known species in the recent state, f p. A petrifaction rarely, if ever, exhibits a com- plete change, or substitution of mineral for organic matter ; more or less of the original animal or vegeta- ble substance being generally present, and discover- able either in the external or internal parts of the fossil, ff q. The petrifying process is carried on, in some waters, at this day ; but appears to be confined to the formation of petrified wood, or woodstone. ascertained to originate from certain plants and animals peculiar to tropical climates; and a few others, particularly in France and England, have been referred to native species ; but the far greater number remains unknown in the recent state. t Anomia, nautilus, &c. shells of the same genera as those most frequent on our shores, the volutte, patellce, and cyprete, for instance, rarely occur petrified. ft This remark, we believe, will hold good in almost every in- stance ; even in what are called the most perfect petrifactions, if they be properly submitted to examination. In shells and corals petri- fied, the original calcareous matter is frequently seen covering the surface, or remaining in small portions in the internal parts (a sin- gular example of this occurs in a specimen of petrified coral de- scribed in " Derby shire Petrifactions" Vide Plate 18. Fig. 2. 3.) and is readily distinguished, although the substituted mineral, form- ing the principal portion of the fossil, be also calcareous. In the common vegetable petrifactions of our coal-strata, some vestige or remains of the original bodies, may almost always be traced ; and in jasperizcd wood, which presents, perhaps, the most complete mi- neral change known, vegetable matter still exists, according to the experiments of Mr. Parkinson. Vide " Organic Remains." p. 344. 12 . II. RELICS. Phenomena r. Petrifactions rarely exist in veins. C. 5. The phenomena peculiar to the conser- vata are as follows. a. Conservata, for the most part, occur in low or flat tracts, where the strata, consisting chieflj of loose or unconsolidated materials, are evi- dently of modern formation, f fr.They are also found in the caves and fissures which pervade the more ancient, mountain strata. ff But c. Are rarely incorporated in the stone or other substance, of which such strata consist, fff f The animal conservata, that chiefly occur in strata of this dis- cription, are shells, coral, fyones offish, and other marine remains The vegetable, are the beds of bituminous wood t found at Bovey, near Exeter, (and in some other parts of England also in Iceland, various parts of Germany, &o.) and those of decayed trees and plants, not bituminated, which have been noticed in most parts of the world, but particularly on the eastern coasts of this kingdom. (Vide Dr. Correa de Serras's paper on this subject. Phil. Trans. 17.99- P- 1.) The materials of the strata are principally marls, clays, and sand sometimes chalk and porous limestones. ft The conservata found in caves, &c. are mostly the bones of quadrupeds. The caves, or chasms, are generally in calcareous strata; and the inclosed remains, for the most part, invested by stalactitic depositions. ttt The Conservata are not wholly wanting among the remains imbedded in the more ancient of the secondary strata. We have met with very perfect specimens in that state, both shells and corals, lodged in the solid limestones of Derbyshire, and surrounded by complete petrifactions of the same species. These instances, how- ever, are rare; the conservata in general being confined to the the strata and other situations above enumerated. . II. RELICS. Phenomena. 13 d. They also occur in the beds of rivers, f and e. In most situations, where mineral or other mat- ter is daily accumulating^ f f. The conservata are found in all states, between that, in which actual decay, or the separation of the constituent principles of the original, takes place, and that, in which further decay is prevented, either by a new combination in the remaining prin- ciples, by an impregnation with mineral particles, or by some other natural process, incident to these bodies. g. The animal conservata most common are such remains, as are most rare in the petrified state i. e. the bones of mammalia and fish and shells of the same genera ( often of the same species ) as those found in the neighbouring seas. h. The most common vegetable conservata are wood and other parts of trees. ^^ i. The conservata are more frequently referable to plants and animals now existing than the petri- ficata yet t The bones of quadrupeds, wood, moss, &c. ft Among the conservata found in situations of this kind, are to be reckoned the bones of animals deposited in the banks of rivers, &c., wood and other parts of trees preserved in our bogs and morasses, and lastly, perhaps, turf or peat itself, (of which such bogs &c., generally consist) as long as it retain its vegetable nature and structure. fft Frequently such as are known in the recent state. 14 . II. RELICS. Origin, k. Many occur., which do not appear to belong to any known living species, ff 1. The conservata are not uncommon in mineral veins, fff Origin. THE origin of extraneous fossils is obviously de- monstrated by the attendant Phenomena. (. II. 3. 4. 5.) A. 6. Conservata cannot properly be said to originate from, since they really are, the remains of ft Particularly among the remains of the mammalia. -fft At least in those which intersect secondary strata. Many instances of both animal and vegetable remains, in the state of con- servata, occurring in mineral veins, have fallen under our own ob- servation, and others well authenticated might be adduced. We shall here only notice two, Fir-trees, found in a lead-vein in Wales some few years back, the wood of which was unchanged, except in being strongly impregnated with galena, (we are obliged to A, Mills, Esq., of Dublin, for our knowledge of this fact) and the entire skeleton of a very large elephant, discovered about 90 years ago, in working a vein of lead near Wirksworth, (Derby- shire). The skeleton was found at the depth of 40 yards, and, from the written account which remains with such parts of it as were collected, appears to have been in a very complete state of preservation. One of the grinders we examined lately in Mr. Watson's possession, at Bakewell ; and found it to differ littie from a recent tooth of the same kind.. i II. RELICS, Origin. 15 plants and animals, introduced by different processes of nature, into the mineral kingdom. (. II. 1.) B. 7. Petrificata owe their form to organized bodies ; their substance they derive generally from minerals. (. IL 2. ) ) t The origin of extraneous fossils, particularly of petrifactions, has afforded a subject for much speculation among the learned. About the beginning of the last century, the writings of our English naturalists were filled with disputes and contradictory opinions on this head; many esteeming these productions to be mere lusns not ura, while -others ascribed their formation to an imaginary plastic power of the earth, by which, it was contended, stojtes and other fossil substances, with the regular form of animals and vegetables, might be generated. Another singular theory of the tune, proposed to explain the origin of these bodies, was that of the learned and ingenious Lhwyd, who supposed extraneous fossils to be generated by seeds and spawn taken up in vapour, and, after being precipitated in rain, deposited by the percolat- ing water in the crevices and fissures of the earth. Here, according to the hypothesis, meeting with a proper matrix, the seminal particles gradually expand, and produce fossil bodies, in form resembling the parent animals or vegetables. (Luidii Litliop. Brit. p. 136.) In opposition, however, to such futile opinions, several philosophers of the period above alluded to, main- tained, that formed stones (as this class of fossils was then ge- nerally called) were real organic bodies petrified; or, at least, stones moulded in cavities previously filled by animal or vegetable matter a position now fully established, by the multiplied obser- vations of succeeding naturalists. For the controversy on this sub- ject, vide the works of Ray, Hook, Lhwyd, Woodward, Lister Plott, Morton, Leigh, &c. &c. 16 . II. RELICS. Introduction Introduction into the Mineral Kingdom. IT is inferred from the foregoing Phenomena, that the introduction of extraneous bodies, into the mineral kingdom, has been effected in various modes, and at various periods, during a succes- sion of ages; but, with respect to those, from which the petrificata derive their form, chiefly while the superficial parts of the globe were in their primeval soft, or liquid state ,ff and the ocean far above its present level. ft Mineralogists by no means agree in their suppositions respect- ing the period or manner, in which organized bodies have been intro- duced into the fossil world. The deluge was formerly considered by many, as an event in the natural history of our globe, which satisfactorily accounted for the accumulation and interment of ex- traneous remains, in every situation even when found at the greatest depths, and enveloped in the hardest substances, in which these bodies occur. By modern geologists, however, and indeed by those who are the most strenuous in contending for the uni- versality of the deluge (vide Mr. Kirwan's Geol. Essays) this ca- tastrophe is not esteemed adequate to the production of those appearances, which organic fossils generally exhibit; and, at most, is only supposed to have been the cause of partial and superficial depositions of these bodies such as are discovered in loose or tra- velled materials, or merely in the external clefts and chasms of ge- nuine, solid strata. Hence (with reference to that deep and extensive mass of imbedded, marine remains, which limestone tracts usually afford) it has been observed, " Ubi testacea et litho- phyta fossilia existunt in magna copia, ibi quondam fuere maris lit- tora aut abyssus, cum sint mera vestigia maris, omni historia . II. RELICS, into Min. Kiogd. 17 The subject of the present section presents itself under two heads The Periods at which,, and the antiquiora ; Diluvium vero ncn dcmcnstrant, sed tantum longi- aris (k'd -ruder a." Syst. Xat. The systems of a Woodward and a Burnet thus rejected, and it must be admitted, we think, by all who have well attended to the subject, rejected on sufficient grounds, recourse has been had to other theories, which might better, ex- plain and connect the various facts, established in the study by those, who, not satisfied wilh a mere inspection of extraneous fossils in cabinets, have investigated these relics of unknown ages, as objects of geological importance, in their mineral beds. With naturalists who have thus cultivated a knowledge of these bodies, it is now a generally received principle, that extra- neous fossils are the productions of different periods. This as- sumption is supported by various phenomena: principally, how- ever, by the different states, in which these bodies are found by their occuring in strata, which, from facts not connected with re- liquia, are evidently of various formations, and by the agreement observed between these different states, and the periods at which the inclosing strata are supposed to have been deposited. In superficial strata of modern formation, the organic remains being scarcely altered from their original state while in strata of a more ancient order, and, in point of relative situation, inferior to the preceding, they are, for the most part, completely mineralized. The next principle adopted in the study is, that the introduction of extraneous bodies into the mineral world has been effected by various causes. This proposition will not be disputed by those, who have attentively examined the facts, from which it is deduced. It is obvious, that the same cause could not involve marine re- mains in the heart or substance of a rock, which collected and de- posited, in its clefts or fissures, the relics of land-animals only that the means, whatever they might be, which nature employed in dispersing the bones of elephants and other quadrupeds, hi a loose D 18 . II. RELICS. Introduction Agency by which, the deposition of organic bodies has been effected in the mineral regions. and comparatively superficial state, over various tracts of country, were not the same as those, by which vegetable remains have beesi infixed, at the greatest depths, in the earth, and made integrant parts of solid strata neither, it is almost needless to add, can we suppose, that exactly the same natural operation could, at one time, form accumulations of sea-shells and corals, and deposited them in calcareous strata, and, at another period, collect the re- mains of plants only, and bury these in beds of argillaceous matter. As, however, a diversity in the time and mode of introduction into the mineral kingdom, will scarcely be denied to extraneous fossils, it only remains with us to point out the theory, which, in our opinion, best agrees with the principles just stated,the founda- tion of those assumed above, as our text. It is evident, that a theory of the mode, in which organic bodies have become subjects of the mineral world, includes, in fact, a ge- neral inquiry into the formation of the earth, since extraneous fossils exhibit some of the principal phenomena, on which such an inves- tigation must be founded. The various theories hitherto devised for illustrating the primitive state, as well as the present structure, of our planet, have been reduced to two classes. The Vulcanic and Neptunian the first referring the origin of most mineral phenomena to Jlre; the latter, to water. Of these two classes the last has most consistently adapted its principles to the facts, which extraneous fossils present ; and, among the different " theories of the earth" constructed by the Neptunists, that of WERNER, or at least that, which the geologists of his school propound as his, seems best calculated to stand the test of experimental inquiry. Neither the limits nor design of this introduction, however, permit us to give a detail of the Wernerian system of geology in all its parts; but, in the following sketch will be found most of its leading propositions ; or, at least, such of them, as more im- mediately apply to the object of the present work to these arc . II. RELICS, into Min. Kibgd. 19 A. 8 The periods of introduction may be reduced to three principal and determinate ones added a few cursory observations and notices, illustrative of the geological opinions of De Luc, Hutton, c. FORMATION OF THE EARTH, AND Introduction of Extraneous Fossils into the Mineral Kingdom, According to the modern Neptunian System. 1 . The materials which compose the globe, or at least its super- ficial parts to a certain depth, have been in a soft or fluid state. (Obs. De Luc supposes our globe, during the first periods of its existence, to have consisted of a dry, central mass, with another concentrical to this, in a soft or mud-like state, and a liquid covering the whole, and containing the various substances, which after- wards formed by precipitation the primordial strata.) 2. This fluidity was the effect of solution in water, and not of igneous fusion. 3. The different earths, together with the saline, inflamtiiable, and metallic substances, thus dissolved or suspended in water, con- stituted what has been called the chaotic fluid. (Obs. Mr. Kirwan believes, that the various mineral substances, which the surface of the globe at present exhibits, were at the very commencement of their existence, in that state of minute division, aqueous solution requires ; and, of course, not orginally created in a solid or compact form, and afterwards dissolved, as some authors, who support the Neptunian theory, have supposed. Vide Geol. Essays, p. 10.) 4. From this fluid, the substances just specified were successively and, at distant periods, gradually deposited. 5. These depositions were either chemical or mechanical. (Ob. Stones originating from mechanical deposits are distin- guished by the want of the sparry or crystalline texture ; or, more generally, by their integrant parts exhibiting traces of fracture and attrition ; as in some sandstones, pudding-stones, certain limestones, &c. In chemical deposits there is no such appearance, the con- 20 . II. RELICS. Introduction a. 9. The first period, commencing- with the existence of marine animals, and ending with the stituent particles having been consolidated by crystallization; a in granular limestones, granite, gneiss, c.) 6. The first deposits from the chaotic fluid were chemical, con- sisting of siliceous and argillaceous earth, a small proportion of the calcareous and magnesian, with various metallic particles, par- ticularly iron. These ingredients partially separated, and crystal- lizing according to the laws of elective attraction, produced in the iirst instance quartz, feltspar, mica, &c., which, collectively con- creting, formed rocks of the granitic class. (Ob. Hence, granite and its varieties are universally found to underlay other rocks ; constituting, as it were, the fundamental basis, on which stones of subsequent formation have been de- posited.) 7. After granite, other -primary rocks were deposited, as gneiss, micaceous schistus, argillaceous schistus, porphyries, cS^c. previous to the existence of organized bodies. (Ob. Inferred from these rocks never exhibiting organic remains in their compositions. In some instances, granite, gneiss, &c., ap- pear to be coe.val.) 8. These primary rock formations were not generally deposited in concentric strata; but mostly in immense, irregular masses, of which the more elevated parts now constitute the highest mountains of our globe. (Ob. Even secondary mountains, according to Werner, owe their elevation to the structure of the primary rocks, on which those of secondary formation, were deposited and hence, the strata in secondary mountains are more or less inclined, according to the di- rection of the base, on which they are incumbent. That the primary depositions would generally assume a massive form, or if a stratified, that the position of such primary strata would be ver- tical or highly inclined (the state in which they are mostly found) is interred from the known properties of crystallization, by which . II. RELICS, into Min. Kingd. 21 formation of plants; the surface of the ocean then so much above its present level, as to cover the summits of all secondary mountains. ( v. . III. Soil. ) process, and not by that of a mere mechanical subsidence, the materials of priraative rocks, as just stated, are supjx>sed to have been compacted. Vide G. Essays, p. 21, also View of Nept. and Ilutt. Syst. Geol. p. 106, where the massive structure of the unstratified primary rocks, and the frequent vertical position of the beds in such as are stratified, are accounted tor on Werner's principles. De Luc, in explaining the formation of mountainous tracts, and the dislocation of the strata which compose them, states, that all rocks were fonned by simple deposition, and that, consequently, the ori- ginal position of the strata was horizontal. That these horizontal strata, constituting the bottom of the ancient sea, from which they had been gradually deposited, formed a kind of shell or crust, over a mass of moistened matter, with which the original, dry, central part of the globe was surrounded, (see former Obs. to prop. 1.) That during the consolidation of these strata, the water, from the mass under them, was gradually absorbed by the dry substances in the centrical nucleus; and hence, in process of time, instead of a uniform, soft support to the incumbent beds, one of a solid but ramified structure was formed, the mineral materials, of which it consisted, coalescing and becoming compact on being de- prived of moisture. That, in proportion as the branches of this support were more contracted by subsequent consolidation, the in- tervening cavities were necessarily extended ; and that, at length, the superficial crust gave way, in different parts of the earth's sur- face ; and while one edge of a fragment sunk down, the other re- mained elevated on the solid ramifications, which had previously supported the whole external shell of concentrical strata. Thus our author endeavours to explain the retreat of the ocean, into the, at present, depressed parts of the globe, the first appearance of the great mountains which branch through our continents, and the va- 22 . II. RELICS. Introduction Obs. During this period the most ancient of the secondary tracts were formed, and the remains of zoophytes and shell-fish, the only animals apparently ried and disordered position of the secondary strata, which rest against them. In Mutton's system of the earth, mountains are considered as the production of subterraneous heat. The Doctor supposes our pre- sent habitable earth to have been formed of materials furnished by the decay of one more ancient. These materials, collected at the bottom of the sea, and horizontally arranged by the action of the water, were first consolidated into strata by an intense subterraneous heat, and afterwards broken and elevated by the eruptive force of the same agent, acting on mineral matter in perfect fusion. Thus he accounts for the emersion of our continents from the depths of the ocean, the formation of mountainous tracts, and the various direction and positions, in which their strata have been thrown. The eject* d matter, which accompanied these effects, still exists, ac- cording to his theory, in the substances of veins and unstratified jocks, of which last trap and granite are the principal. Hence ac- cording to Dr. Hutton, granite is a more recent rock formation than the superincumbent strata of other stones and earths. The action of subterancous fire, under various modifications, has been used, also, by Whitehurst, Lazzaro Moro, Faujas St. Fond, Born, Raspe, and many other authors, in explanation of the phc- nomina of mountains, and the derangement of the strata which compose them ) 9. After the formation of the primary rocks, the water, which hi- therto covered the entire surface of the earth, began to diminish in height, and the more elevated parts of our continents to appear. (Obs. Hence the secondary mountains never attain the height of the primary, being deposited when the waters were lower than the summit of these greater rock formations. The diminution in the height of the water is accounted for, bv II. RELICS, into Min. Kingd. 23 then existing, enveloped in the substance of the strata. supposing, that the ocean, after the first deposits, began to retire gradually into the internal cavities of the earth. It need not be pointed out to the scientific reader, that the assumption of subter- ranean caverns, capable of containing the vast body of water, which according to the Neptunists covered the whole surface of the globe, forms one of the most exceptionable principles in their theory.) 10. Soon after this period organization commenced marine animals of the Verities class being first created, and their re- mains gradually enveloped by subsequent depositions from tht ocean. 11. The depositions immediately after animal life commenced were partly chemical, partly mechanical 12. The chemical consisted of such matter, as was originally dis- solved in the ocean the mechanical, of such materials as its long continued action, on the emerged parts of the globe, had again, for a time, suspended. (Obs. These depositions form the intermediate or transition rocks of Werner. They rest immediately on the primary, and contain but few petrifactions, which are always marine generally shells or zoophites.) 13. The strata formed by these depositions were chiefly of rubble-stone, sandstones, some limestones, breccias, argillite, cherts, and, perhaps, porphyries and sienite. 1 4-. The water, after depositing these latter formations, conti- nued to diminish ; consequently, in process of tune, a larger extent of land was uncovered, and fitted for the reception of animals and vegetables. 15. The partial disintegration of the emerged strata being still carried on, the remains of such animals and vegetables, as had existed on those portions of the earth, which the mechanical ac- 24 II. RELICS. Introduction b. 10. The second, commencing 1 with the forma- tion of plants, and an increase of those animals which tion of the stirrounding waters had destroyed, -were collected by the ocean, and after a time deposited, either with the mine- ral materials recently acquired, or the remainder of those origi- nally suspended in the chaotic fluid. (Obs. We are not assured, that the Werner fan Geognosy em- ploys this proposition alone, to explain the formation of what are termed stratified rocks (Vide. prop. 16"); but if so, must re- mark, it by no means accounts for the phenomena attendant on certain coal tracts, and others, consisting of strata of this order, in which vegetable remains are found unaccompanied by marine relics.) 16. The rocks formed at this period, containing more mechani- cal deposits than the precedent, were more generally arranged in horizontal strata. (Obs. Hence Werner distinguishes them by the title of strata- fied rocks. They abound in petrifactions. The latest formed con- taining the most vegetable remains.) 17. They consist principally of limestones, sandstones, andpud- dingstones ; gypsum, trap, and various coal-strata more rarely argillite, porphyry, and some other substances. 18. They constitute mountains frequently, but of a height much inferior to those composed of primitive (6. 7- 8.) or transition rocks (10. 11. 12. 13.) on the sides and extended bases of which they were deposited. 19. After this period, the sea gained gradually its present level, and its last depositions were, for the most part, such substances, as now compose the low hills and plains, between the more mountain- ous parts of the earth. 20. Such are chiefly the various chalk-strata, perhaps some limestone and coal ? with sand, clay, marl, and other unconsoli- dated materials. 25 . II. RELICS, into Min. Kingd. are peculiar to^ the ocean ending with the time, at which the ocean, after a gradual subsidence 21. Alluvial and Volcanic tracts have been formed at various periods ; but, in general, since the sea retired within its present limits. (Obs. Alluvial beds have been deposited by rivers, lakes, and inundations of fresh-water. The modern are found in vales, on the banks of rivers, and other low situations. They principally con- sist of gravel, sand, clay, &c, the debris of more ancient strata. The ancient alluvial are, perhaps, some sand-stone, shales, and coal-strata.} 22. Veins have also been formed at various periods, during the consolidation of the strata they traverse; but generally before the sea had quitted the mountainous parts of our continent. 23. Veins were originally empty rents or fissures, open at the surface of the rock or stratum, through which they run. 24. These fissures were gradually filled, with the mineral sub- stances they contain, through their openings, from above. (Obs. According to Werner's theory of Veins. Mr. Kirwan is of opinion, however, that, though some veins have undoubtedly been thus filled, the materials in most have been deposited by successive percolations.) " Such are the leading principles of the Neptunian Theory, now generally adopted by the Wemerian school. The geological facts, on which these principles are founded, are very numerous; those which appertain to extraneous fossils we have stated ; for the rest, we must refer our reader to the works of Werner, De Luc, Saussure, Pallas, Charpentier, Kirwan, Jameson, Williams, &c. Those who wish to examine the objections to which the Neptu- nian system is liable, may consult, with great advantage, Pro- fessor Playfair's excellent " Illustrations of the Huttonian Theory of the Earth/' and an answer to the same, of considerable merit, intitled " a comparative view of the Huttonian and Neptunian Systems of Geology." E 26 II. RELICS. Introduction through several ages, first attained its present level, f Obs. During this period, the less ancient and some of the modern tracts ( v. . III. Soil. ) were formed ; and the remains of plants and jish, as well as shells and other relics of the vermes, added to the fossil world. Towards the middle of this period, it is probable the mammalia and other land-animalsvsere either cre- ated or considerably encreased in number, as their remains are found, though very sparingly, in some modern strata, supposed to have been deposited, just before the sea had finally retired to its present limits. c. 11. The third period commences with the re- duction of the ocean to its now actual level, and con- tinues down to the present day. Obs. Throughout this last period, modern and very recent tracts of alluvial and some other strata, &c., have been deposited, and various extraneous fossils, particularly the remains of the mammalia,\n- troduced into the mineral kingdom. f The subsidence of the ocean, assumed above as a ready illus- tration of our subject, is by no means contended for, as indubitably established. That a gradual change, in the relative level of the sea and land, has taken place, is a fact proved by numberless phe- nomena; but it is of little moment in the study of extraneous fos- sils, whether this change is considered as the effect of depression in the water, or of elevation in the surrounded continents. In either case, the same agents must have operated in the introduction of organic bodies into the mineral strata, thus elevated above, or abandoned by, their parent element. . IL RELICS, into Min. Kingd. 27 B. 12. The agent, by which the introduction of ex- traneous fossils into mineral strata&c.,has been chiefly brought about, is evidently -water i. e. of the ocean of ancient lakes and inland-seas of rivers, cur- rents, and modern lakes of local inundations of, perhaps, the general deluge. a. 13. The ocean to the agency of which,, when in a primary state, and during the first period, ( 9. j is to be referred all deposits of sea shells f and other marine bodies found in strata, which immediately follow granitic rocks, or which dip under, but do not alternate with strata, holding the remains of Jish or plants. To the same agent, but more nearly approximat- ing to its present state, f f during the second period ( 10.) are to be ascribed all other accumulations of organic bodies, in which marine remains make a considerable part, and which are deposited in re- gular, determinate beds of stone or other matter- Obs. The process by which these remains were enveloped or surrounded by their present mineral f " Shell fish appear to be of all others the most ancient; per- haps the reason might be that they could live in water more turbid with heterogeneous ingredients, and more fouled with petrol, than other fish, or because the sea was originally more salt." Kirw. G. Essays, p. 30. note. If Some modem naturalists consider the envelopment of animals and vegetables in mineral strata to be still carried on at the bottom of the sea, under the present constitution of our planet among these are Buffon and Dr. Hutton. The latter has assumed it as a leading principle in his Theory of the Earth. 28 . II. RELICS. Introduction beds, in most instances, appears to have been that of simple deposition; but under various modifications. Sea-shells and other marine bodies,possessing but a small degree of locomotive power, evidently have been generated, have lived, and died, in the same ac- cumulated heaps their remains now exhibit. These have, apparently, in some instances, been gradually intombtd, by matter, precipitated from an immense body of water, slowly, without alteration, through an unknown length of time; and, hence, forming strata of great thickness. These strata holdjhrough- out their whole substance extensive beds of shells and other organic bodies, the production of which must therefore have kept pace with the increase of matter deposited an accumulation of mineral and organic materials thus, by degrees, arising together. In other tracts, marine bodies of the vermes class have been more quickly enveloped. The matter of the deposition having been repeatedly changed, forms, in such cases, only thin, successive strata of various kinds of earths and stones, alternating with each other. In these tracts, the reliquia gene- rally occur between the strata, that is, in the seams or interposed layers of clay, &c., (semi-strata) or towards the surface of each bed, the middle part, or body of the constituent substance, being often void of organic remains. These appearances indicate the strata to have been formed at distant intervals of time and, that the deposition and consequent accu- mulation of mineral materials, in each stratum, were too sudden to allow an equal increase to the bodies enveloped. . II. RELICS, into Min. Kingd. 29 Fish, or other marine animals, endued with a great degree of locomotive power, have, probably, been arrested in their course, and instantly killed, by some sudden diffusion of matter, inimical to ani- mal life.f Hence, piscine relics occur imbedded in shoals, as it were, in those strata which are pecu- liarly the repositories of such remains. Where vegetable fossils, whose originals grew on dry land, are found mixed with marine shells, &c., in deep and regularly disposed beds,\ f it is obvious t It may be somewhat difficult to conceive, how a diffusion and subsequent deposition of matter, fatal to fish and other swift- moving animals, could take place in those parts of the ocean, which were previously habitable for such animals, and, of course, not greatly contaminated by mineral ingredients. That the cause of the event was sudden, and that the inclosureof the fish, &c., al- most instantly followed their loss of life, is pretty evident, from the attendant phenomena. Mr. Raspe has considered all this, as hav- ing been effected by sub-marine volcanic eruptions (v.Raspe.Ferber's It. pref. p. 28.) A similar idea is adopted, with much success, by Mr. Graydon, in his excellent account of the Monte Boka fish. These he supposes have been enveloped in a diffusion of lime, arising from immense masses of calcareous stone, ejected in a cal- cined state, by sub-aqueous volcanoes, (v. Irish Trans, vol. 5.p.310.} ff The phenomenon of vegetable remains being sometimes found mixed with those of the sea, has been brought fonvard as a proof of the agency of the deluge, in the interment of all organic bodies in mineral strata: but, in opposition to the inference in question, it is very justly observed, that, where extensive beds of sea-shells &c., occur, though mixed with vegetable remains, in re- gular strata, the appearances indicated are incompatible with the turbulence and short duration of the deluge ; at least agreeable to SO . II. RELICS. Introduction a transportation of vegetable bodies from the land to the Mosaic account of that event. Regular stratification can only have been tlie effect of regular and long continued depositions ; and such could not have taken place during a ten-mouth's flood, even admitting it to have been universal. It has been assumed, however, to obviate the force of the objection, that, on the gene- ral subsidence of the deluge, a portion of its waters would remain in various excavated parts of the continents, and there form exten- sive lakes or inland-seas : and that, in these lakes have been gra- dually deposited^ not only the strata now under consideration (viz. those in which a mixture of sea-shells and vegetable remains occur) but also many of those productive of coal, in which no ad- mixture of marine exuviae are found. The hypothesis is ingenious, and undoubtedly not inconsistent with the structure and general appearances attendant on coal-strata, which frequently indicate their formation to have been carried on, in the depressions or hollow parts of more ancient strata. We cannot, however, acceed to the conclusion, that the water, once filling such depressions, must have originated from the general deluge. According to sacred history, the full development of the animal kingdom, as well as of the ve- getable, had taken place long before the period, in which they were equally involved in one general inundation. And hence, in strata supposed to have been formed by depositions from water left by the deluge, not only, might we reasonably expect to find vegetable and marine relics, but also, the remains of land-animals, of quad- rupeds for instance, and even of man himself. For, however small a proportion the destroyed land-animals bore, among the ge- neral multitude of organic bodies overwhelmed by this catastrophe, as they did exist, and as the bones of quadrupeds are certainly as liable to subsidence in water, as drifted timber, or other vegeta- ble matter, they, no doubt, would occasionally be met with, in the strata in question, if such strata had really originated from the cause assigned in the hypothesis. But, on the contrary, it is an indubi- table fact, that neither the remains of man, nor of quadruped, have . II. RELICS, into Min. Kingd. 31 the sea f must have taken place. In such instan- ces, it appears probable, that plants and wood, spe- cifically lighter than water, would remain floating for a certain length of time, before their deposition ever yet been found in stones or earths constituting strata produc- tive of genuine, mineral coal ; nor, indeed, as inte rant parts of any .strata, excepting those which are decidedly of much later formation, than such as we are now treating of. To a far remoter period, therefore, than that of the flood, must we recur, in any endeavour to explain or illustrate the agency of nature, in collecting and de- positing the materials of regular disposed strata, holding vege- table remains alone, or mixed with relics from the ocean ; and immediately followed primary rocks, or such secondary, as con- tain only the vestiges of shells and zoophytes. t By the means of floods, rivers, and various other causes The reader will observe, we are here referring only to'such strata as con- sist of extensive and, apparently, undisturbed beds of sea-shells &c., mixed with a few vegetable remains. Where the testaceous re- mains and those of the vegetable kingdom are more equal, and promiscuously mingled together, (But have strata holding organic remains in tliis state ever yet been found?) or, where they separately occur, in alternating strata, as they most certainly do in some rare instances, a transposition of materials from the sea to the land may be supposed to have taken place, rather than from the land, to the sea. This may have been effected in different ways. The subsidence, occasioned by earthquakes or other causes, in strata formed, or forming, by depositions from fresh-water, may have subjected such strata for a time to the sudden inroads of the sea, and a mixture of marine and vegetable relics would of course be the consequence. Where the remains of plants and sea- shells, stances) appear to have grown on the very spot in which their re- mains are now intombed. ft These animals, as already remarked, must have been at this period but sparingly distributed over the earth, since their remains occur so rarely and only in the most recent of the strata, of the formation we are now considering Had they been long created, or had they, at this epoch of time, existed in considerable num- bers, their relics would now, doubtless, be as common in such strata, as they are in the more irregular and superficial alluvial beds of the succeeding (3d.) period. f-ff It is not, that we suppose rivers not to have existed during the second period, that we have confined their operations to the third: on the contrary it is highly probable that they began to flow long before the sea gained its present limits ; and, perhaps, it would not be going too far, to assert with Dr. Hutton, that " on our continent there is not a spot on which a river may not formerly have run/' (Theory of the Earth, vol. 2, p. 234) But the loose and irregular depositions, from streams and currents of these early ages, must long since have been obliterated by that waste and de- gradation, to which even the most solid strata (the productions of deep and still waters) have been subject. . II, RELICS, into Min. Kingd. 35 principally, woodf and the bones of mammalia. Plants, as moss, &c., and land and fresh-water shells occur also in the banks of such rivers as afford -a stalactitic tufa. d. 16. Local inundations. To these agents, since the commencement of the third period, are perhaps to be referred most superficial accumulations of organic fossils, not deposited in regular strata, and which are not immediately connected with the pre<- sent or former coursef*)* of still existing rivers. Partial inundations of fresh waters, in many in- stances, appear to have occasioned the deposits of animal bones, so frequent in the loose earth or soil of those alluvial tracts, which have not, seemingly, originated from the deeper, but more contracted influence of rivers and currents. To sudden inun- dations, also,, are perhaps to be ascribed the destruc- f Often forming deltas at the mouths of large rivers. ff Extensive depositions of sand, mud, gravel, &c., con- nected with a river, but considerably higher, as well as lower than its present level, may be supposed to have arisen from successive inundations of such rivers ; but, in general, will be found to have originated from deep and wide spread lakes, united by a constant stream or current; the beds of winch lakes have gradually as- sumed the form of alluvial land, and their contracted waters that of a river, now taking its course through the materials deposited in its former state. (For some excellent observations on the forma- tion of alluvial land by modem rivers and lakes, vide Playfair's Illustrations, p. 350.) 36 . II. RELICS. Introduction iion, at least, of those animals, whose bones are found in clefts and chasms of .ancient strata, f The extensive beds of vegetable matter, consist- ing for the most part of trees, which have evidently grown and fallen on the spot, where their remains now lie deposited and which are common on low, flat coasts, ft are doubtless the vestiges of in- roads and local inundations of the sea. Such, also, appear to have been the cause of those superficial accumulations of marine remains, in an unmineral- ized state, which are frequently discovered, on low tracts of land,f f f at considerable distances from sea. f The accumulations of bones which have been discovered in some caves, are, 'perhaps, the gradual production of successive ages, rather than the effect of any single inundation or other catastrophe. tt Vide Dr. Correa De germ's survey of a submarine forest on the east coast of England. Philos. Trans. 1799, part 1. p. 145. Similar accumulations of vegetable matter have also been observed on the western coast of this kingdom. tit It perhaps may be doubted, if any deposition of organic bodies has ever yet occurred, unequivocally demonstrative of a general flood. The shells found in Peru on a mountain con- siderably higher than any affording similar remains in Europe (vide Hist. Acad. des Sciences, 1770. Phys. Gen. n. 7.) appear to have been perfect petrifactions, included in the substance of the stone of which the mountain consists ; of course, they prove the subma- rine formation of the rock in question, but not that its contents have been elevated to their present situation by the deluge, as some geologists have supposed. Even loose or unconsolidated deposits of marine remains, sometimes found, according to Pallas, in the more external fissures and veins of lofty primary rocks, in $, II. RELICS, into Min. Kingd. 37 e. 17. The general deluge can only be referred to as the agent of superficial depositions of marine and other remains, mixed promiscuously with each which extraneous fossils do not occur as integrant parts, are no certain proof of this event. It is highly probable, that secondary strata have originally covered many elevated tracts, where there is, at present, no appearance of such formation ; and hence, the deposits in question are, perhaps, merely the debris of such strata, long since decomposed. -r-That the disintegration of stratified rocks may have produced materials, with which, in some instances, the cavities, and even veins, in primary mountains have been filled up, is a supposition by no means inconsistent with the general pheno- mena of those tracts; and, that extraneous fossils formerly im- bedded in secondary strata, will remain in a very complete state of preservation, long after their original matrix has been destroyed, is, indeed, a fact sufficiently illustrated by the loose reliquia, so abundant in the common soil of some countries, and which have been liberated, undoubtedly, by the waste and decay of their native rock. When, however, the remains of marine, and of land-animals, occur together in superficial accumulations, they certainly exhibit a less ambiguous evidence of the deluge, than such as we have just been recounting : yet not altogether a de- cisive one, except both kinds of reliquia are found in a similar state of preservation. If, on the contrary, the shells, &c., are petrified and the bones in nearly a recent or unmineralized con- dition, it is obvious they were not originally introduced into the fossil kingdom at the same period, whatever common cause may have brought them together at the present time ; and, hence, the support, which the presence of marine objects gives to the conclu- sion, that such deposits are truly diluvian, is done away with. Were the marine remains, it has been justly observed, in the same state as the bones " then the conclusion that both had been im- ported by the sea would have great probability ; but without that, 38 . II. RELICS. Introduction, &c. other, and loged in cavities, 8$c., at heights to which no partial inundation of the sea could reach. Such depositions belong also to the third period.^ their present union must be held as casual and can give no insight into the origin of either." Playfair's Illustrations, p. 475. It must not be inferred, however, from the foregoing objections, that we wish to establish a disbelief of the general deluge. The existence of that event is confirmed by authority far above the evidence of geological facts But, in the present study, it is particular^ neces- sary to guard against the too common error, of ascribing effects to causes, inadequate to their production. ft No attempt has been made above to point out separately the periods, in which extraneous fossils have occasionally been intro- duced into veins; but it may be here generally observed 1. That all geologists admit the formation of veins to be subsequent to the consolidation of the rocks they traverse 2. that different dates of formation belong even to those found in the same tract or range of strata and, 3. that Werner supposes a vein, consisting of various substances, to have been formed at various times, by successive depositions or crystallizations. Consequently the introduction of extraneous fossils into veins has always been at a less remote epoch, than that of the depositions of such bodies in the rock through which the veins run and, agreeable to the Wernerian theory, even plants and animals belonging to very distant ages, may be en- veloped in the materials of the same vein. The agency, which nature has employed in filling veins, is undoubtedly that, by which the formation of the strata themselves has been effected ; and we may conclude, that extraneous bodies have, in general, been car- ried into veins while the rocks, in which they exist, were still under water. In some instances, however, it would appear, that ve- getable and animal remains have been deposited, by floods and various other accidental causes, in veins which have been formed since the emersion of the strata from the ocean. $. III. DIST. CHAR. Mode. 39 . III. DISTINCTIVE CHARACTERS OF THE RELIQUIA. ARE the characters used in describing and distin- guishing these bodies ; and depend on their mode, FORM (essential and accidental,) PROTOTYPE, sub- stance, and soil. Obs. The essential FORM distinguishes reliqiiia from other fossils. The essential FORM,, PROTOTYPE, and SOIL, cha- racterize the orders (v. Syst. ) The essential FORM and PROTOTYPE, the genera, species, and varieties. The SUBSTANCE, accidental FORM, and SOIL, the Mode. (Modus.) THE mode of extraneous fossils respects the state or degree of mineral change, under which ihefor?u of the original has been preserved. Reliquia retain the form of their prototype under the more or less perfect conservation of the original body, or under a general substitution of mineral for organic matter. 1. CONSERVATION (conser-vatio). In this process the substance of the original is preserved 40 . III. DIST. CHAR. Mode. with its internal texture, or that peculiar disposi- tion of the constituent particles, which distinguishes organic from inorganic matter. 'Conservation is effected under,, 1. a privation, or loss of some of the parts or constituent principles of the original matter, 2. a conversion, or chemical change in the combination of the remaining prin- ciples, or, 3. a mechanical impregnation with mineral parti cles.f 2. PRIVATION (orbatio.) Conservata, in most instances, are found wanting in the oily and volatile principles, which were present in the recent body ; the more fixed and earthy alone remaining under the organic form and texture. Obs. In this state the fossil hones of land- animals frequently occur ;ff insects preserved in f The different modes, in which the conservata occur, are here considered as distinct; but it will be obvious, that they are rarely if ever so in nature. They all, indeed, frequently take place in the same individual; and the first, namely privation, is common to all extraneous fossils. f-j- Recent bones consist, principally, of phosphate of lime and gelatin, mixed with a small proportion of the carbonate of lime. The fossil subjects often retain a portion both of the gelatin and phosphoric acid in their composition, particularly in their interior parts; the surface only having undergone a privation or loss of these principles. In other instances, however, the gelatin and phosphoric acid are wholly displaced ; while a greater proportion of the carbonic acid, than that which existed in the original state, is found to be united with the calcareous matter. . III. DIST. CHAR. Mede. 41 amber ; also shells, corals, and other marine In Professor Playfair's " Illustrations" are many excellent re- marks on the different states, in which fossil bones are found. Some of these which are applicable to our present subject, we shall take the liberty to transcribe. After clearly and properly distinguish- ing between those extraneous fossils which originate from organic bodies, that existed before the formation of the present land, and those which are the parts of animals, &c., that have lived on the very same continents on which ivs now dwell, our author proceeds to consider the latter under two classes viz., those which are found in clefts and chasms, and which by the help of stalactitical concretions are often converted into stone and those which occur in loose earth or soil, and which have not acquired a stony charac- ter. No decided line, it is observed, can be drawn between these classes with respect to their antiquity, as in many instances the ob- jects of both appear to be coeval; but, in general, the remains found in loose earth c., are to be accounted of later origin, than those inclosed in caves and chasms, as they are rarely preserved in a manner so well fitted for long continuance. The fossil bones which belong to the first of these classes, " are generally found in the neighbourhood of limestone strata, and are either enveloped or penetrated by calcareous, or sometimes ferru- ginous matter." (v. Impregnation 4.) " Of this sort are the bones found in the rock of Gibraltar" (these retain the phosphoric acid, distinguishing the substance of the bones from the mineral matter, a carbonate of lime, with which they are impregnated) " and on the coast of Dalmatia. The latter are peculiarly marked for their number and the extent of the country over which they are scatter- ed, leaving it doubtful whether they are the work of successive ages or of some sudden catastrophe that has assembled in one place, and overwhelmed with immediate destruction, a vast multitude of the inhabitants of the globe. These remains are found in the greatest abundance in the islands of Cherso and Osero ; and always in what the Abbe Fortis calls an ocreo-stalactitic earth. The bones are I 42 f. III. DIST. CHAR. Mode, remains. All these are found scarcely altered from* of various animals, concreted with fragments of marble and lime often in the stale of mere splinters, the broken and confused relics in clefts and chasms of the strata. Sometimes human bones are said to be found in these confused masses." . " A very remarkable collection of bones in this state is found in the caves of Bayreuth in Franconia." Some of these, however, it is properly remarked, occur without any stalactitical concretion, so that they belong strictly to the class of fossil bones that have not acquired a stony character. We may add, that many, which are even invested with stony matter, exhibit no sign of mineral impreg- nation or change, and of course are merely in the state, to which the present note refers (Privation). The fossil bones which belong to the other class, or those which are not imbedded in stony concretions, have been " found in all countries whatsoever, but always in the loose or travelled earth, and never in the genuine strata. Since the year 1696, when the attention of the curious was called to this subject, by the skeleton of an elephant dug up in Thuringia, and described by Tentzelius, there is hardly a country in Europe which has not afforded instan- ces of the same kind. Fossil bones, particularly tusks and grinders of elephants, have been found in oilier places in Germany, in Po- land, France, Italy, Britain, Ireland, and even Iceland. Two countries, however, afford them in greater abundance by far than any other part of the known world ; namely, the plains of Siberia in the old continent, and the flat grounds on the banks of the Ohio in the new" " The fossil bones found on the banks of the Ohio, resemble in many things those of Siberia ; like them they are contained in the soil or alluvial earth, and never in the solid strata; like them too they are no otherwise changed from their na- tural state, than by being sometimes slightly calcined at the sur- face; they are also of great size, and in great numbers, being pro- bably the remains of several different species." " The ex- tent of the tract, through which the Siberian fossil bones are scat- . III. DIST. CHAR. Mode. 43 the living bodies, f except in the loss or privation of tered, is a circumstance truly wonderful. Pallas assures us, that there is not a river of considerable size in all the north of Asia, from the Tanais, which runs into the Black Sea, to the Anadyr, which falls into the gulf of Kamtchatka, in the sides and bottoms of which bones of elephants and other large animals have not been found. This is especially the case where the rivers run in plains through gravel, sand, clay, &c. ; among the mountains, ihe bones are rarely discovered." Playf. p. 458. The most remarkable conservatum, however, that Siberia has yet produced, is that of the carcase of a rhinoceros, dug from the tanks of the river Wilui. The skeleton when found was covered with the hide ; and in some parts considerable portions of the mus- cles and tendons still remained attached to the bones ! This, un- doubtedly, is to be considered as an example of conservation under simple privation < IH. 1. 2.) effected by mere inclusion in mineral matter; for it appears, that neither an absolute chemical change, nor a penetration of mineral particles had taken place to prevent the decay of the fleshy parts, the application of heat being found necessary for that purpose, after the body had been exposed sometime to the action of the open air (v. Pallas Nov. Comment. Petrop. T. XVII. p. 386). t The extraneous bodies inclosed in amber generally -exhibit every appearance of recent subjects. They are mostly insects of the smaller kinds, as ants, two-winged flies (diptera) small moths, &c. It has been remarked, that these are seldom specifically the came, as the insects of the country, in which the amber is disco- vered small vegetable -bodies are also feund in this substance; but more rarely than those just mentioned. Amber has been 'found in almost every country in Europe; but is most common in Prussia, where it occurs in loose detached mas- ses, on the shores of the Baltic. It is sometimes found imbedded also; generally at small depths, in alluvial tracts of sand, gravel, clay, &c. and is frequently accompanied by fossil wood. 44 , III. DIST. CHAR. Mode. their animal juices. Vegetable remains f f are also Amber is undoubtedly of vegetable origin, and hence has been considered, by some authors, as an extraneous fossil itself. But, by parity of reasoning, most bituminous and carbonaceous sub- stances, and perhaps some earths, ought to be so classed, as in many instances, they equally appear to be the result of principles, that once existed in organized matter. It should be remembered, however, that it is not the substance, but the organic form or structure, which properly constitutes the essential character of an extraneous fossil : and when this form has been lost in the mineral kingdom, we conceive the matter once possessing it, as strictly to belong to the class of fossils usually styled native, as that, of which the origin cannot so well be traced. Shells and other relics of the sea, differing from the recent sub- jects only in the want of the connecting animal gluten, are common in the less ancient and modern strata of marl, clay, chalk, sand, &c., inmost parts of the known world; but are no where perhaps, more frequent than in this country. Those of Hampshire have been particularly noticed, for the perfect state of preservation in which they occur, as well as for the great number of distinct species, collected together in the same tract. Both Woodward and Bran- der observe (v. Cat. Foss. T. I. part II. p. 93. et Hant. Foss. pref.) that the fossil shells, &c., of that county are found in the greatest abundance, and almost in their native state, the loss of colour ex- cepted. They appear to be most common in Hordwell cliff ; but the stratum, in which they are imbedded, a bluish clay or marl covered by gravel and sand, extends quite across the New forest, and wherever dug into, has been observed to contain the same sort of remains. tf Trees and other vegetable bodies are frequently found bu- ried in recent and modern tracts, without having undergone any actual chemical change in the composition of their substance. We have met with such in peat; particularly with the remains of oak, fir, and birch, which scarcely, in any visible quality, differed from the recent woods no trace of bituminization or other change be- i III. DIST. CHAR. Mode. 45 found, differing from the recent subjects only in the change induced by a partial decomposition or decay. ing apparent in them. These must be distinguished from similar bodies, in which the bituminous fermentation has commenced, as is the case in most of the vegetable remains in peat, &c., and from these, in which that process is in a more advanced state, and connected with carbonization, as in Bovey-coal and Suturbrand for instance. Extensive, continued beds of unchanged vegetable matter, as well as detached trees, are also common. Those on the Lincolnshire coast, already noticed (note ft. p. 36.), consist of roots, stems, and leaves of trees and shrubs, intermixed with the remains of aquatic plants, &c. Dr. Correa de Serra, who has so accurately described the appearances of these fossil vegetables, observes, that the bark of the trees is generally as fresh as when growing: and that their trunks, though mostly in a decomposed or soft state, sometimes afford very sound pieces of timber, which the people of the country, use for oeconomical purposes. The Doctor himself separated from this mass of vegetable matter per- fect leaves, which he ascertained to be those of the Ilex Aquifolium, and others, which he supposed to belong to some species ofwillorv. (Phil. Trans. 1799). The perfect preservation of such bodies seems to indicate, that no chemical combination, distinct from that existing in the recent leaves, had taken place, at least in the individuals thus ascertained. Wood, we know, under a certain degree of bituminization, or when carbonized, will retain the ar- rangement of its fibres in almost any situation ; but leaves and other tender or succulent bodies generally lose their organic con- formation, with the commencement of those processes ; especially when the surrounding matter is of the same nature, and undergoing a similar change. This is evident in the formation of peat and Bovey-coal, which seldom exhibit the foliage of the plants or trees, from which they originate. 46 . III. DIST. CHAR. Mode. In most of these instances, the further decay of the veliquium and the consequent loss of its form, ap- pear to be prevented merely by seclusion from the atmospheric air.f 3. CONVERSION (Conversio}. The separation and loss of the more volatile principles of the origi- nal body are frequently followed by a total cliatigc, arising from a new combination^ff in those which remain,, the substance thus produced being chemi- cally distinct from, yet still retaining the structure of the recent subject. Obs. The bodies most liable to this change are J- The peculiar nature and state of the inclosing substance will doubtless sometimes conduce to the more effectual conservation of such bodies, even when no actual impregnation of mineral particles has taken place. Thus, the saline quality of the earth, in which the bones so frequent in America are mostly found, is supposed to have contributed to their preservation; and it is obvious, that the putrefaction of the flesh of the Rhinoceros at)ove mentioned, could only have been prevented by the congelation of the soil, in which ft was buried, ff This must possess the structure of the original; otherwise not to be considered as an extraneous fossil, (v. Note -j-. p. 43.) A conversion or chemical change, in the principles of organic matter, when it has become a subject of the fossil kingdom, must take place in process of time, in every instance ; but the term here, is only applied to those bodies capable of preserving their internal fabric, under such spontaneous alteration. Conservata that have undergone the process of conversion, occur in the same kind of soils, as those that have not suffered a chemical change (111. 2.). . III. DIST. CHAR. Mode, 47 the bones of various animals ; shells, corals,$c., and the ligneous parts of plants and trees. The substances produced by the conversion of or- ganic matter are chiefly three namely,, carbonate of lime, charcoal or oxide of carbon, and bitumi- nated substances. The first, carbonate of lime, or lime combined with carbonic acid, is found in most conservata, in which calcareous earth forms the basis or harden- ing principle as in bones, shells, corals, &c. The other principles, with which the calcareous earth was united in the recent state, having disappeared, and given place to the acid in question.f f The composition of recent bones has been already noticed ; that of shells, corals, the coverings of echini, and other marine cal- careous bodies, differs not only in the nature of the hardening prin- ciple, (wliich in some is the same as in bone, phosphate of lime, in others, carbonate of lime, and, in many, a mixture of both, vidt; Hatchett. Phil. Trans. 1799. 1800.), but also in the state of the connecting gfuten, as it presents itself in the form of a cartilaginous, horny, or membranaceous matter, variously combined with the; calcareous particles. It will be often doubtful, therefore, except when the composition of the recent subject has been previously as- certained, whether the calcareous earth, constituting a conserra- tum of one of these bodies, exist in the same state as in the origi- nal, or under a different modification ; and especially if-dcarlonaU, whether the carbonic acid have or have not been derived from the surrounding minerals. To those who may deem the subject worthy of investigation* the following general statement, extracted from Mr. Hatchett's observations on testaceous substances, 48 . III. DIST. CHAR. Mode. Oxide of carbo?i is common in vegetable conser- will be acceptable. According to the experiments of this gentleman, Shells, in substance, are either porcellaneous or of nacre (mother of pearl). The porcellaneous have an enamelled surface ; and their texture is generally fibrous. They consist of carbonate of lime and a small proportion of gluten. Those of nacre have, generally, a rough exterior surface, and a stratified structure. They consist of a membranaceous substance hardened and in- termixed (stratum super stratum) with a small portion of car- bonate of lime. Madrepores and millepores consist, also, of carbonate of lime ce- mented by gluten, or connected, in various ways, with a mem- branaceous substance, which appears to be merely a modifi- cation of gluten. Tubipores are composed of carbonate of lime and a membrana- ceous substance. Corallince and Flustra hold, in some instances at least, phos- phate of lime, in their composition, as well as the corbonate the membranaceous part is in the same state, as that in the madrepores, c. hides consist of a cartilaginous and horny substance regularly organized The calcareous matter, principally carbonate of lime, sometimes mixed with the phosphate. Gorgonia vary considerably in their composition. In general they consist of two parts ; a horny substance, which forms the principle and interior portion of their stems, and a more friable or cretaceous matter, with which the foregoing is invested. The horny part contains phosphate of lime, but scarcely any carbo- nate. The outer part, carbonate, with scarcely any trace of the phosphate; and is united with a soft, membranaceous substance. Echini (their shells or crusts) are carbonate of lime, with a small mixture of the phosphate, cemented by gluten. The crust aceous covering of marine insects, (crabs, lobsters, fyc.) contain both carbonate and phosphate of time, but the first in the greatest proportion. . III. DIST. CHAR. Mode. 49 vata. Carbon, as a fixed principle,, exists in recent vegetables,, and forms the chief part of their ligneous substance. When buried in mineral matter., the dissipation of the principles,, with which it was com- bined in the living plant, is followed by oxidation, and an oxide of- carbon, f still retaining the ar- rangement of the original substance,, is the result. Bituminated vegetable substances,, or vegetable matter under a certain degree of bituminization^f f are also common as conservata. f- Vegetable matter, in a state similar to that of charcoal or burnt wood, is frequent in the mineral kingdom. It not only oc- curs in recent strata, but also in the modern and less ancient, when productive of coal. Some species of coal, indeed, appear to consist almost entirely of this substance. It is only, however, when it retains its vegetable texture or form, that it is to be rank- ed as an extraneous fossil. f f We do not conceive it possible, that in perfect bitumens, the product of this process when complete, the texture of the ori- ginal can be preserved, though the form sometimes may, (v. Bitu- minous Petrifactions.) Vegetable matter, in the progress of a mineral change, is first deprived of its mucilage, tannin, and other principles soluble in water, extract excepted. In this state, the fossil is to be referred to those which have undergone a partial decomposition and loss (III. 2. privation}, but not an absolute con version (IIL3.) or chemi- cal change, of principles in the remaining matter. The vegetable, however, may now be distinguished from that, which has been sub- jected to a still less degree of change, by its ashes affording no potash after combustion. The next stage of the process appears to be the loss of the extractive principle ; to which succeed the pro- duction of ihe l^s indurated bitumens, from the rttinous part of H 50 i HI. DIST. CHAR. Mode. Bituniiiiizatioa, or the process by which vegeta- ble matter is converted into bitumen,, sometimes takes place under circumstances,, which appear to prevent its completion.^- The structure of the origi- nal is then preserved ; as in wood and other vege- table bodies found in peat, Bovey-cQal, &c. c. 4. IMPREGNATION (Imbutio). Under this pro- cess the conservation is penetrated with mineral par- ticles, which are mechanically f united with those of the organic body., that still retain their original structure. Obs. Impregnation may take place in all organic matter pervious to water, the undoubted agent by the matter, and that of the oxide of carbon, from the ligneous. After this, either the separation of the bituminous matter from the carbonic takes place (wholly or in part} leaving the latter in the state we find it in Bovey coal, and other varieties of bituminated and carbonized fossil wood ; or a new combination is effected be- tween the carbonic matter and the bitumen thus formed: by which means, the texture of the original body is completely de- stroyed, and every vestige of organization, for the most part, lost in the production of the more solid and compact bitumens, as Asphaltum, Jet, &c. and the numerous varieties of pit-coal, into which the pure or simple bitumens naturally graduate. (For a number of most excellent observations on the formation of bitu- minous substances, the reader is referred to Mr. Hatchett's well known papers in the Philos. Trans. 1804, and the Linman, v.IV.) } Not chemically in which impregnated conservata differ from such of the converted, as have had their change brought about by a chemical union, between the organized particles and principles derived from the surrounding miuerals. . III. DIST. CHAR. Mode. 51 which the introduction of the mineral particles is effected. f The bodies impregnated are either such as,, at the commencement of the process, were in their original state, or such as had previously been subjected to privation (III. 2. ) or conversion (III. 3.) Thus bones with and without the phosr phoric add, are found replete with mineral matter * also shells, corals, and other marine productions of the same class, more or less altered from their origi- nal nature. Wood and other vegetable substances, either carbonized, or only slightly changed from their recent state, also occur penetrated in a similar man- ner. Impregnated conservata are either saline, metal- lic,^ earthy, or inflammable. B. 5. SUBSTITUTION (Substitutio). In this process only the form of the original is preserved ; mineral or inorganic matter having taken place of that which was organic. Miner alm&y be substituted^ the place of organic matter, under, 1. Redintegration, or a renewal of f Impregnation is the first stage of the process of intromission^ under which the formation of intrinsic petrifactions is effectecj. According to the same view of the subject, conversion is the com- mencement of transmutation : and, we may add, that as in all in- stances, the total decay and removal of the organic body must pre- cede redintegration, privation seems more particularly connected with this last mentioned mode of petrifaction than with either of the foregoing. It The metallic are most common in veins. 52 . III. DIST. CHAR. Mode. external form of the original, 2. Intromission, or the introduction of mineral particles into the or- ganic body, so as to assume its internal structure. 3. Transmutation, or a total, chemical change in the original matter and its texture, the external form only remaining.^ a. 6. REDINTEGRATION (Redintegratio). In this wocfe substitution does not take place, until the whole, or some principle part, of the original is re- moved by putrefaction, &c. and an empty cavity left in the surrounding matrix, of the size and figure of destroyed substance the cavity being afterwards filled with mineral matter, which receives, and thus renews, as in a mould, the external form of the organic body. Obs. Petrifactions, formed in this manner, are common, particularly in stones with an earthy frac- f In Redintegration the form of the organic body is renewed in Transmutation, retained in Intromission, assumed. As the materials of the petrifactions, in transmutation, are evi- dently derived from the original bodies, it may be conceived, that this mode ought to rank under conservation (. III. 1.); but we must once more observe, that principles which have existed in an organized state, are to be considered, when under a new combina- tion, of as mineral, if the original texture be lost in the change of substancjp. It is not tlit principles alone which distinguish organic from inorganic matter; but the principles combined with the organic structure Fossil <70rft0w,possessing the vegetable texture* is organic, without it, mineral matter. . III. DIST. CHAR. Mode. 53 ture, and in such as possess an open and granular structure.f Mineral matter, dissolved in water percolating through strata of stone, &c., may be separated from its menstruum, either by crystallization, or simple precipitation ; and hence, petrifactions bj redinte- gration have a sparry or an earthy structure, ac- cording to the mode, in which the constituent sub- stance has been deposited crystallization produc- ing sparry or crystalline stones (foliated of Werner's school ) precipitation, those which possess the earthy fracture. Both processes, however, are frequently apparent in the same specimen, especially among t Through means of which, the escape of the organic, and the subsequent infiltration of mineral particles, have been effected. The stones, however, in wlrich petrifactions are lodged, are not al- ways now open or porous: they frequently possess a comparatively close or compact texture. This is readily accounted for, when we consider, that the process, which fills the mould of the petri- faction, is also that, by which a superior degree of solidity may be induced in the surrounding matrix. Mr. Kirwan observes, that the induration produced in stones, by infiltration, is more consider- able than that, which is the effect of desiccation, as the minutest particles of bodies are conveyed by it into the smallest interstices. He adds, that such infiltration is not an imaginary processes appears by an elegant observation of Mr. Werner's, viz., that where various strata of a different nature occur, the petrifactions that are found in the inferior, are frequently filled with the matter of the supe- rior, instead of that of the stratum which contains them. v. Geoiog. Essays p. 45. Also p. 128, where the induration of stones of a loose texture, by infiltration, is treated of more at large. 54 . III. DIST. CHAR. Mode. testaceous rcliquia; the exterior parts of which often consist of very thin layers of earthy stone, while the interior and more general mass is crystalline Petrifactions of this kind are sometimes hollow, and have the surface of the cavity set with regular crystals. In other instances, crystalline stones, as spars, &c. occupy the whole bulk of the petrifac- tion in a solid mass. Sometimes, however, spars, or other stones the result of crystallization, form only those parts of the specimen, which have immedi- ately taken the external figure of the original, the interior part, if the petrifaction represent a hollow body, as a shell, &c., being filled with a nucleus f" of earthy matter. t Nuclei, or kernels, as they are sometimes called, are bodies of mineral matter, moulded while in a soft and plastic state, in the cavilies of fossil shells, &c. A Nucleus is said to be invested, when it occurs covered, either \vith the original body in which it was formed, or with mineral matter which ha* taken the form and place of such body bare, when its covering has been destroyed by various natural oper- ations. Some authors regard nuclei as a proper and complete mode of petrifaction; and, taking the mode for the foundation of their ar- rangements, class and describe these bodies, separately from the fossils in which they have been moulded. If, however, the prin- ciple, which we shall endeavour to establish in the following pages, be admitted that one species of organic body can give but one real or permanent species of rellquium~it will be evident, miclei are not to be considered as distinct petrifactions. Indeed, were the separation now objected to followed up, each individual $. III. DIST. CHAR. Mode. 55 b. 7. INTROMISSION (Intromissio). In which substitution takes place during the removal of the or- ganic particles the mineral being gradually in- troduced into the animal or vegetable body., sup- plying the place,, and taking the form of the matter lost. By this mode, the internal fabric, as well as the external figure, of the original is preserved. Obs. The change induced by intromission is usually supposed to have been carried on as follows By putrefaction the principles of organic bodies are gradually liberated If the putrid fermentation take place in an animal or vegetable substance., ca- pable of retaining its form,, after the commencement of the process, and to which water, holding mineral matter in solution, has free access,,f the dissipation species of fossil shell, or other like body, would in most instances furnish three separable species of reliquia; i. e. the impression of the external surface on the enclosing matrix, the body itself \ petrified or in the state of a conservatum, and the nucleus, bear- ing the impression of the concave or interior form. Nuclei, there- fore, we merely consider as appendages to the respective species they fill, or have filled and, with the same principle in view, we take the external impression to be only a part of the matrix (v. Soil, matrix, &c.) t It is obvious, that intromission can only take place, in parti- cular bodies ; and that the change, effected by this process, will be more or less perfect, according to the circumstances, under which it is carried on. If, for insiuuce, the original possess parts of such a perishable nature, as to lose their form with the commencement of putrefaction, no mineral representation of those part' will be produced such is the case with the fleshy and succulent ; the I 56 . III. DIST. CHAR. Mode. of the organic,, is followed by a deposition of mine- ral particles, which entering, by filtration,, the tex- harder and more durable alone giving their figure to the substituted matter. For these, as the wood in plants, the bones in animals, &c., preserve their general form, after their vascular structure has become, by partial decay, pervious to the infiltrating fluid; in- deed, until the fibrous and less perishable portions of their fabric are a Is destroyed ; and then the mineral, deposited in the first stages of the process, acts as the mould to the subsequent impregnations. Again, although the original should preserve its form to the last, yet if it part with organic matter, faster than the surrounding waters can supply the deficiency with petrescent particles, either no petrifaction will be produced, or one that retains but slight ves- tiges of an organic structure. On the other hand, if the water deposite mineral matter in great abundance, and the immersed body decay slowly, an incrustation, and not a petrifaction, will be the result. The theory now proposed to account for the changes induced in organized bodies, by the process we have termed intromission, is nearly that, which has been adopted by Bergman, Kirwan, Walch, Daubenton, and most modern authors, who have written directly or indirectly on the subject of petrifactions. Another hypothesis, however, has lately appeared from the pen of the ingenious Mr. Parkinson, which may be thus briefly stated. Disclaiming the idea of a mineral deposition gradually assuming the form and disposition of the organic particles, while their removal by putre~ faction, &c., is taking place, this gentleman conceives, that, in ge- neral, no insinuation of stony matter will be effected, unless the original body be prepared to receive it, by the agency of bitumi- nization. In this state, wood (the <. ily substance to which Mr. Parkinson's theory has, as yet, been applied) is frequently found with little or no alteration in its texture, and yet so thoroughly pervaded with water, " that it may be discharged from it as from . III. DIST. CHAR. Mode. 5? ture of the decaying body, assume the form and ar- rangement of the matter dispersed. The change, a sponge". The water, with which the bituminated substance is imbued, he supposes, in certain instances, to be saturated with earthy particles, which are finally consolidated by crystallization, at once infixing in the stony mass, thus formed, the undisturbed ar- rangement of the enclosed vegetable fibres. Mr. Parkinson sup- ports this theory by the fact, that every kind of petrified wood yields, when submitted to chemical tests, traces of bituminized ve- getable matter; and by observing, that the objections to the at- tempt of accounting for the lapidification of vegetable substances, by the process of substitution, are innumerable " In what man- ner/' he asks, " can it be supposed, that a line, smaller than a hair, extending from the centre of a piece of wood to its circum- ference, can have its original component parts taken away, and their places so exactly filled by earthy particles, merely deposited by water, as to preserve its continuity unbroken 7" If, however, this should be imagined to be possible, in the instance of a single line, he will by no means admit it to be so, in the complicated sys- tem of lines, which the innumerable minute vessels and fibres of decayed wood present. ^Nor can we, he thinks, on the hypo- thesis of substitution, account for the colour of the original being so exactly retained, as it is in many specimens of petrified wood. Without entering into any regular defence of the principles-we have adopted, or a refutation of those advanced by Mr. Parkin- son, it will perhaps be sufficient to remark, that the theory of sub- stitution, by intromission^ does not necessarily require, as Mr. Parkinson seems to think with Fourcroy, " the complete destruc- tion of the original matter, and the disappearance of whatever con- stituted its elements" this, indeed, can scarcely ever be the case ; nor do we understand it to be absolutely contended for, by those best informed on the subject. Bergman, on the contrary, ex- pressly states, after describing the manner, in which stony matter I 58 . Ill DIST. CHAR. Mode. thus commenced, is continued, under appropriate circumstances,, by a reciprocal removal of organized, is substituted in the place of an organic body, that " non tamen semper omnes corporum destructorum particulae auferuntur, nam destillando haud raro tales expelli possunt, quae organicorum na- turam redolent." Med. de. Syst. Foss. p. 48. Hence, we find, that the fact advanced by Mr, Parkinson, viz, that organic matter still exists in petrifactions of the formation we are now considering, is by no means a new discovery, or one incompatible, at least in Bergman's opinion, with the theory of a gradual substitution. In- deed,how should it be so? Intromission is merely an advancement in the process of a change, commenced by impregnation (III. 4.) and can seldom take place to such an extent, as to extrude every particle of the original body, from the composition of the mass, which is at last produced. It remains, therefore, only to be con- sidered, 1. whether a complete petrifaction (that is, one in which rib animal or vegetable matter can be discovered, except by the aid of a chemical test) owes its general structure to the original matter displaced; or, as Mr. Parkinson supposes, to that which still exists, involved in the substance of tlie stone 2. whether the original, previous to its impregnation, was or was not in a bitu- minated state and, 3. how far the colour of the organic body may have operated in producing that of its mineral substitute. In the first place, we must readily admit, that it is difficult to conceive the manner, in which the organic materials have been carried away, particle after particle, and those of a mineral origin substituted in their place, so as to take the form of every vessel and fibre of the destroyed body. But, on tlie other hand, is the dith'culty removed by the supposition, that a proportion of the original matter, scarcely discoverable by chemical means, can be diffused through a large mass of stone, so as to infix in every molecule, as in petrified wood,an organic structure ? We have now before us a specimen of silicified wood, the minutest particle of which, when examined with a glass $. III. DIST. CHAR. Mode. 59 and an infiltration of stony matter, until the original bodv is superseded by a complete petrifaction. xhibits a ligneous conformation ; yet the only evidence it yields of its origin, on a portion of it being submitted to distillation, is a faint empyreumatic smell. To render Mr. Parkinson's theory ad- missible, there ought to be, as lias been most justly observed, a much greater quantity of inflammable matter contained in silici- n'ed wood, than is found actually to be the case; " for it is not con- ceivable that the materials of a few grains of carbonated hydrogen and a drop or two of empyreumatic acid should be capable of re- taining the minute and intricate texture of a piece of wood/' v. Akin's Ann. Rev. Vol. III. p. 305. A Vith respect to the state in which vegetable matter existed,previous to its mineralization, we perfectly agree with Mr. Parkinson, and con- ceive there can be little doubt, that the wood has been bituminized, at least in many instances, from which the petrifaction has received its structure. But, allowing this, we see no reason to reject the hypothesis of a gradual removal of the organic matter, during the substitution of the mineral particles. Bitumiuated substances, and even bitumen itself, though not liable to spontaneous alterations like recent vege- table bodies, are still susceptible of decomposition a long mace- ration in water, aided by concurring circumstances, is known to bring about this change, (v. Hatchett. Linn. Trans. Vol. IV. p. 1 51.) Why may not, therefore, the disintegration of the particles of bitumiuated wood take place, even after its fibres have been ourrounded, and its pores filled, by an infiltration of silicious matter ? A body thus circumstanced is not impervious to water; and there seems to be no established fact to oppose the supposition, that, in process of time, the vacuities, made by the decay of the vegetable matter, would be filled by posterior impregnations of silex. The diificulty of accounting for the colour of petrified woods, by the theory of a gradual substitution, would doubtless be great t were the petrifactions in question really coloured, according to 60 . III. DIST. CHAR. Mode. The substances, most subject to this mode of sub- stitution, are wood, corals, and other bodies, whose texture is particularly porous Petrifactions of shells, leaves, &c. are rarely the production of this process. The matter of the petrifactions which are formed by intromission, is usually siliceous calcareous their originals; but this, in numberless instances, is evidently not the case; and, where the tint of the fossil actually resembles that of the recent subject, the agreement appears to be merely accident- al, and not to depend on a retention of the original, colorific par- ticles, as Mr. Parkinson seems to infer. We are not, however, disposed to deny, that a very small proportion of bituminous mat- ter may give, in some cases, a tinct to t!;e stone in which it is in- corporated; but, that the general colour of the mass, when it re- sembles that of recent wood, is in reality derived from the same source, cannot, we think, be admitted. To this we may add, that the variety of shades and lines, by which the annual circles, the medullary insertions, and the whole ligneous structure, are marked, in the fossil, as distinctly, though not with the same colour, as in the original wood, is well accounted for by the theory of a gradual substitution ; which supposes the softer or medullary fibres to de- cay, generally, faster than the more woody or durable, and that the latter infiltrations may differ materially from those of the mat- ter deposited in the first stages of the process and, of course* mark with a variety of tint the structure of the parts which they imitate. On the whole, therefore, we see no reason to reject a theory so generally received, for that which Mr. Parkinson has en- deavoured to introduce. At the same time, we beg leave to state the great respect we entertain for that gentleman's chemical knowledge, as well as for his ingenuity displayed in the investiga- tion of the present subject. . III. DIST. CHAR. Mode. 61 and argillaceous petrifactions seldom exhibit the in- ternal texture of their originals. c. 8. TRANSMUTATION (Transmutatio). In this mode, the mineral matter, substituted in the place of that which was organic, is produced by the reso- lution of the organic body itsdf the dissipation of the aqueous and volatile particles, and the loss of the original texture, f being followed by a new combination in the remaining principles. The substance, thus formed, retaining the external figure of the prototype, by the medium of the impression, made by the animal or vegetable, on the surround- ing matrix. Obs. A transmutation, or complete mineral change, may take place, both in animal and vegeta- ble bodies, under various circumstances; but the mode, to which the term is now applied, requires, for its completion, the enclosure of the organic matter by a mineral substance, capable of receiving and re- taining the impression of its external form. In this state, perfectly secluded from the atmospheric air,ff the enclosed body passes through various gradations of change, which, in the end, produce a mineral formation of matter, inflammable or earthy, ac- cording to the nature of the original, and the loss t This distinguishes petrifactions by transmutation, from con- servata which have undergone the process of conversion, (v. 3.) ff Vide note ff. p. 4.9. on the changes induced in vegetable matter, when in a fossil state. 62 . III. DIST. CHAR. Mode. it may have sustained,, of its constituent principles. In general,, we find transmutations of vegetable bodies to yield carbonaceous, or bituminous sub- stances : the animal transmutations are,, for the most part calcareous ; sometimes, however, bituminous. Vegetable petrifactions, under this mode, differ, also, in some degree, with respect to the manner in which they retain the external form of their origi- nals. The mineral, resulting from the change, forming, in certain instances, only a thin film or covering to the mass, which constitutes the chief bulk of the petrifaction as in the petrified stems of plants, &c. which frequently exhibit, in their struc- ture, a nucleus of stone ( similar to that of the ma- trix ) thinly invested with a layer or coat of coaly matter. f In petrified leaves, and other like bo- f In describing some specimens of this kind, Mr. Parkinson has so well explained the mode of their formation, that we shall take the liberty of extracting a few lines from his ingenious work. " Plate III. Fig. 3. represents a fossil of this kind from Chepstow, in Monmouthshire. This, as well as most others of this kind, is little more than an impression, covered with a bituminous film, of a very inconsiderable thickness, its internal part being entirely sand-stone. The explanation of this circumstance does not, how- ever, appear very difficult. The plant, having been surrounded by the soft or fluid materials, of which the sandstone has been since formed, its internal succulent part would soon waste away, and its place be filled with the soft magma; while the more solid and ligneous epidermis would remain, and, after a time, would give its correct impression to the surrounding lapidifying matter. Then . III. DIST. CHAR. Mode. 63 dies.f carbon or bitumen,, the product of their change,, generally constitutes the whole of the pe- trifaction, and entirely fills up the moulded impres- sion of their form,, on the inclosing stone. In some instances,, in which we may suppose the leaves, &c. to have been of a particularly thin and delicate structure, the only vestige of the transmutation is the figure of the vegetable,, delineated., as it were, by passing through the bituminous change, it would Jill its own mouldy with its own altered substance, forming such a surface, as the surrounding stony matter would adhere to but slightly ; and would therefore dispose to that separation by which its form is displayed." (Organic Remains p. 433. vide, also, p. 431.) f Frequently, but improperly, considered as mere impressions ef leaves, &c. since an accurate investigation will generally disco- ver the matter of the petrifactions adherent to what is really tlieir impressions in the matrix. In petrifactions of fern, the no- dules of ironstone, in which these fossils are often hiclosed, mostly split so as to exhibit, on one part, the plant itself petrified, on the other, its impression. It may not be unnecessary to observe, in this place, that petri- factions of leaves are not always the production of a transmutation of the original vegetable matter. We possess several specimens of petrified fern, in which not the least trace of a bituminous, or carbonaceous substance, is apparent. The matter of the sub- stitution being the same as that of the matrix, an argillaceous iron-ore ; but separable from it, in form of a thin flake, which would possess, if it coyld be detached in a perfect state, the exact thickness, as well as the figure, of the original. Such specimens are evidently casts, and have been formed by redinte- gration (v. III. 6.), in the impressions on the matrix, left emptv, for a time, bv the decay and removal of the vegetable bodies. 64 . III. DIST. CHAR. Mode. a bituminous stain, on the substance of the matrix : scarcely any visible impression from the body, as originally inclosed^ remaining. f The animal bodies,, which have undergone the mode of petrifaction \ve are now considering., are chiefly shells and corals. The shells are always filled with a nucleus of earthy stone^f of the same kind as that in which they are included : the sub- stance of the petrifaction itself is mostly calcareous spar, evidently the production of the original body, the organic texture of which has been wholly obli- terated during its mineralization, fff Petrifactions f We have a beautiful example of this mode, in a specimen now in our hands, in which hardly any impression of the leaf (a fern) is discernible even with the help of a glass, although its ge- neral form and structure are most minutely marked, by a dark, staining,bituminous matter, incorporated, as it were, in the substance of the stone. Our specimen is in an indurated marl: Mr. Par- kinson has described one of the same kind in gritstone, (v. Organic remains, pi. III. f. 5.) f j- The nucleus distinguishes shells which have undergone trans- mutation, from those casts, in which the whole mass of the petri- faction is calcareous spar ; but, still, as the change effected by redin- tegration also admits of nuclei, it is sometimes difficult to deter- jnine the mode, in which the sparry petrifaction of a shell, with an earthy nucleus, has been formed. In general, we conceive, that petrifactions of shells by transmutation will be found to have the calcareous spar, of which they consist, covered, more or less, with the chalky matter, above noticed.(p. 60.). -In testaceous petrifactions by redintegration, nothing of the kind, we believe,is ever observable. tft Professor Playfair has remarked, that the petrified shells and corals of limestone strata, though sparry, are often foliated and . III. DIST. CHAR/ Mode. 65 of this kind, particularly those of coral, are fre- quently invested with very thin coverings of clialkij matter; into which the original substance appears to have passed,, while acquiring the sparry frac- ture. The remains offish, as their bones, teeth, &c. have sometimes, also, been subjected to a sparry transmutation ; but these are almost always found only partially changed: certain parts of them, (par- ticularly the exterior parts ) still retaining their ori- ginal substance and conformation. The bituminous transmutations, furnished by the the animal kingdom, are, as already noticed, very- preserve their animal, in conjunction with their mineral texture, (v. Illustrations, p. 191.) If, by the animal texture, is here meant that peculiar grain, or disposition of the particles, which a recent shell exhibits on being broken, we must observe, that we have never yet seen this, in any calcareous petrifaction, really possess- ing the sparry or rhombic fracture nor do we conceive it possible, that the fracture of spar and the grain of the original matter can exist together. We suppose, however, by the animal texture, Professor Playfair merely intends to distinguish that stra- tified or tunicated conformation, which certain bivalves possess, and which is frequently evident in them, after they have undergone the mineral change now referred to. This retention of the gene- ral structure of the original, is easily accounted for, by the suppo- sition, that each layer or stratum has separately passed through the sparry transmutation; and of course, that each has preserved its form distinct, in some respect, from that of the other coats of the shell, to which it is attached. The same remark is also applicable to the petrified remains of the entrochi aud other jointed zoophytes, which, though changed into spar, still retain the internal, lated structure of their stems. 66 . III. DIST. CHAR. Mode. rare: petrified fish sometimes present a bituminous or coalj matter on their surface., which appears to have been produced by the substance of the parts, of which it retains the form. And the epidermis or pellicle, which is found on some species of shells, also affords, in the fossil state, a thin film of bitumen, with which the petrified subjects are still covered. TERMS, distinctive "of the Reliquium, according to its mock. a) 9. CONSERVATED (conservcitum) retailing the organic form under one or other of the modes of conservation (A. 1.) not petrified. 10. Semi-recent f (semi-recms) coriservated nearly in its recent state, the loss of substance excepted (v. 2. Privation) 11. Converted (conversum) conservated by conversion (b. 3.) 12. Impregnated (imbutum) conservated by im- pregnation ( c. 4. ) I. ) 13. PETRIFIED (petrificatum) retaining the or- ganic form under one or other of the modes of substitution (B. 5.) -j- It has not always been expedient, for obvious reasons, to form the term, discriminating the fossil by its mode, from that which has been applied to the process of the mode. Hence, the present terms do not, in some instances, point out the process, but rather the st ate , of the mineral change. . III. DIST. CHAR. Mode. 67 14. Cast, or moulded fredintcgratum) petrified by redintegration, ( a. 6. ) or the renewal of the external figure of the original, in the mould or concavity of the matrix. 15. Ingenerate (ingeneratum) produced by in- tromission (b. 7.) or the introduction of the mineral particles into the internal texture of the original. 16. Transmuted (trammutatum) petrified by transmutation (c. 8.) or a perfect mineral change in the original substance. c. ) 17. Compound ff (compost/ urn) when two or more modes of change are discoverable in the same specimen, either in the petrified or conser- vated state. 18. Semi-petrified ( semi-petrificatum ) imperfect- ly petrified some part of the rdiquium remain- ing in the conservated state. 19. Doubly-petrified (duplicato-petrificatum) when two modes of substitution are distinctly apparent in the same specimen. 20. Doubly-conservated ( dupUcato-conserva- tum) when two modes of conservation are dis- tinctly apparent in the same specimen. -ft The Compound petrified reliquia are perhaps more common than those, which have been preserved by one sim- ple mode of mineralization among the conservata, also, various processes, or mixed modes of change, are frequently apparent, in the same specimen, (v. note f page 40). 68 , III. DIST. CHAR. Mode. r/.) 31. Obducingf (obducens) when the matter of the reliquium is spread over the surface of a spurious nucleus. (37. ) 33. Staining (fucans ) when the matter of the reliquium is so incorporated with the matrix, that the form of the original is only marked by a stain,, or difference of colour, locally imparted to the inclosing stone. e. ) 33. Nucleated (nucleatum) having an internal nucleus. (36. 37. &c.) 34. Empty (vacuum) without a nucleus, and hollow. 35. Solid, or full (refertum) neither hollow nor nucleated- of the same substance and struc- ture throughout. the NUCLEUS is an appendant part of the reliquium. (v. note f. page 54.) f. ) 36. Genuine (verus) when moulded in a body which was hollow in the recent state ( as a shell, &c. ) The genuine nuclei always represent the interior form and marks of the original bodies, in which they have been formed 37. Spurious ( spurius ) when moulded in a body which has become hollow by decay (as the stem of a plant, &c ) The spurious nuclei frequently f The obducing reliquia are very common among the petri- fied stems of plants, which often exhibit tiie real substance of the petrifaction, as a mere covering to the mass of stone forming the nucleus. ,(v. page 62.) . III. DIST. CHAR. Mode, 69 present the external form of the bodies,, from which they have been moulded, f g. ) 28, Invested ( vestitus ) covered by the reliquium in which it has been generated. 29. Bare (nudus) occuring without the reli- quium. ft.) 30. Loose (liber} remaining in the rehquium, but not attached to it f f moveable in its ca- vity. 31. Fixed (Jlxus) not moveable; entirely fil- ling the cavity of the reliquium, but yet dis- tinct and separable from it. 32. Inseparable ( inseparability ) the substance of the nucleus passing gradually info that of the covering rtliquium, so as not to be distinctly separable from it. ff f , f This will not be difficult to explain in the npurious nuclei of vegetable bodies, to which these formations almost peculiarly be- long. The external form and markings in the stems of plants, the trunks of trees, &c. are always continued through the cuticle or outer covering, and fixed in the cortex or exterior bark. If, therefore, the substance of the vegetable, after being in- closed in stony matter, be gradually removed, till the decay reaches the cuticle, it is evident, the cavii\ then forced wiil impart to the matter, afterwards introduced into it, t: e external appearance of the original: and, that ihe cuticle, rerunning either in a recent or changed state, and forming the true reliquium, will, in most cases, be attached to the surface of the siuc eus thus generated. ft The matter of the nutieus hav ,ug been contracted by desic- cation. ttf This takes place in some vegetable petrifaction, in which the cavity, formed by the decay of the, interior matter of the ori- 70 . III. DIST. CHAR. Form. Form or Structure. (Forma.} The form or structure of an extraneous fossil includes the whole of its configuration This it either essential or accidental. A. 33. THE ESSENTIAL FORM (Forma esstntialis} is the configuration received from that structure which distinguished the original organic body and is either external or internal. ginal, appears not to have reached the outer integument, nor to have remained empty for any considerable space of time, the stony substance of the nucleus having been introduced, seemingly, while the organic body was still in a soft and decaying state And hence, the gradual incorporation of the native mineral matter with that of the original ; and, of course, the want of that regular se- paration, which usually takes place between the nucleus and the inclosing reliquium. As a conclusion to the remarks we have made on the Modes of extraneous fossils, it may not be improper to state those enume- rated and defined by Linnceus. " Petrificata quadruplici modo communiter evadunt : 1. Fossilia dicuntur Lithophyta aut Testacea, quae diutius in terra latuere immutata, tantum ab elementis parum quasi tfalcinata, glutine orbata, sicciora, fragiliora, nee lapidi immersa. 2. Redintegrata sunt Petrificata, quorum Animalia cortice du- riore obtecta, intra terram sepulta et arete compressa, demum in- teriore praesertim substantia consumpta, reliquere cavitatem, quam rcplevit vel terra tenuissima ab aqua allata, aut crystalliiatio, ut cvaserit solida interne, externe vero servaverit propriam f guram. . III. DIST. CHAR. Form. 71 a, 34. THE EXTERNAL ESSENT.F. (Forma essent. externa] exhibits the figure of the original. b. 35. THE INTERNAL ESSENT. F. (Forma es- sent. intern a) exhibits the fabric or texture of the original. E. 36. THE ACCIDENTAL FORM (Forma Jortuita) is the configuration imparted to the reli- quium either by the mineral substance, with which it is combined, by the mode in which the mineral change has been effected, or by the peculiar state or condition of the original during its change. Hence the accidental form is either 1 . mineral, 2. modal, or 3. conditional. a. 37. THE MINERAL ACCIDENT. F. (Forma fort, mineralis) is found in petrifactions, and includes both the external appearance and the internal structure, as far as either might have been possessed 3. Impressa sunt petrificata ex animalibus mollioribus, quae se- pulta et compressa intra terrain reliquerunt figuram, sed tola con- sumta, ut typus tantum reinanserit pristini animalis. 4. Transubstantiata sunt, quae tarn interiorem, quam exterio- rein structural!! in lapide ostendunt ; orta ex durioribus, quae diu- tius perstilerunt in terrae gremio." Museum Tess. p. 32. To the above are added, in the Sy sterna Naturae {Tom. III. p. 154. "' Incrustata, more Stalactitae, ab aqua calcaria, imprimis ther- ma lj Linnaeus justly remarks, however, that these last are scarcely to be ranked as petrifactions. With respect to the different modes of formation, in extraneous fossil bodies, ST.S thus stated, we have to observe, that the Redin- can only be considered as genuine 72 .,111. DIST. CHAR. Farm. by the mineral matter of the petrifaction, if it had not been united to an extraneous form. Obs. Thus, internally, petrifactions exhibit the compact, foliated, or slaty structure (fracture. Wer- ner ) according to the mineral disposition of the mat- ter of which they are composed ; and, externally, they have an earthy, granular, and, often, drmy, appearance, distinct from that which existed in the original body ; and dependant on the particular form of the particles of the constituent substance. b. 38. THE MODAL ACCIDENT. F. (Forma fort, modalis) is the peculiar structure or form which ihe mode (Modus, page. 39. ) has imparted to the reli- quium, so as to alter, or more or less conceal, that which belongs to ihe prototype. Obs. Thus the compressed or flattened form, is often the consequence of the mode in which the mineral change has been brought about, and not the effect of a similar structure in the original. Some reliquia retain the form only of one side, or of one half,of the organized body represented; while others present the whole of the external or internal or- ganic fabric, according to the manner, in which the mineral matter has been united to the animal or vegetable figure. petrifactions. The Fossilia nearly answer to our Reliquia, and the Impressa and Incrustata properly belong to the matrix (v. SOIL. Matrix. &c.) . III. DIST. CHAR. Form. 73 c. 39. THE CONDITIONAL ACCIDEKT. F. (Forma fort, conditionalis ) is that modification of the organic form, which can have been received only from some particular state or circumstance., under which the original has existed, but which has not been essen- tial to it as an organized body. Obs. Hence, the loss of any part, in the original body, gives a conditional form to the reliquium. ' Thus, the absence of one of the valves, in a bivalve shell the decay of the ligneous matter in vegetables, imparting to the fossil subject a struc- ture not essential to the recent wood the want of the body, or head, of the animal, in the entrochus as well as the expanded or contracted state of that part, in such specimens as possess it are all circum- stances, which produce conditional forms, in the re- spective reliqida afforded by those bodies. TERMS, discriminating the Reliquium, according toitsjf0r7?i and structure. * Essential Form. a. ) 40. Animal (Reliquium animale) having an animal form. 41. Vegetable (vegetdbile) having a vegetable form. b. ) 42. Intrinsic ( intrinsecinn ) having the internal texture or fabric of the original. 43. Extrinsic (extrinsecum) bearing only the L 74 $. III. DIST. CHAR. Form. External form of the original. To these are to be added all the terms bj which form and structure are distinguished in the original, (v. Prototype.) * * Accidental Form. a. Mineral, depends on the structure of the mineral substitute, to which the terms, distinctive of such form, ought only to be applied.f (vide Substance. ) b. Modal. 44. Complanated (complanatum)\\ flattened or compressed reduced to a level or even surface during its fossil state or change. t Thus we cannot, with propriety, or without a coufusion of terms,say a granular reliquium,*. conchoidalreliquium,&cc.to distin- guish the mineral form, as the same epithets may be used, in certain cases, to discriminate the fossil, according to the essential structure. ft Compressed is the epithet usually applied to reliquia in this state; but, as the same word is employed, both in Botany and Zoo- logy, to distinguish the form in all bodies, or their parts, with two opposite flat sides, it has been thought expedient, in the present in- stance, to adopt another term. By this means, a discrimination is established between the animal or vegetable fossils, that have re- ceived the compressed form from their originals, and those which have acquired it, during the process of their mineralization. Complanated or flattened reliquia are very common but are always confined to strata with a slaty structure, (v. note ff. p. 6.) It is observable, that the complanation or flattening of the ex- traneous fossil is constantly in a degree proportionate to the thinness $. III. DIST. CHAR. Prototype. 75 45. Half-shaped (scmiforme)^ retaining only one side, or half, of the external form and bulk of the original. 46. Complete,, or full (expletum) retaining the full bulk of the original neither complanate nor half -shaped. c. Conditional,, or accidental forms arising either from the de- ficiency of some part of the original, or from the peculiar state in which it existed,, at the time of its mineral change (v. p. 73.) can only be described by the same terms, as are employed to discriminate the circumstances in the re- cent subject, on which these forms depend. Prototype. (Protypus.) The prototype of an extraneous fossil is the ani- mal or vegetable body ( specifically considered) repre- sented by that fossil. of the laminae of the inclosing stone ; the same species approaching nearer to its genuine bulk or thickness, as the distances between, the separations of the laminae increase. The complanntion of organized bodies, after becoming subjects of the fossil kingdom, is a phenomenon by no means well account- ed for. It appears, however, to depend, in some measure, on the softening of the animal or vegetable substance by long maceration in moisture, and the compressure of the inclosing stony matter, gradually indurating by contraction. f Petrifactions, particularly of vegetables, frequently retain 76 . III. DIST. CHAR. Prototype. The original body ( C. originate ) is the indi- vidual from which the fossil has received its form. Hence, the original is to the prototype, what the individual is to the species. The prototype and the original are to he dis- tinguished,, L according to their kind (i.e. class, genus, or species, &c. ) and, 2. according to thepart, which has communicated their form to the reli- quium. a. Kind. According to which the prototype is either an ani- mal or a vegetable. A. 47. ANIMALS (Animalia] giving form to reliquia, are mammalia, birds, amphibia, fishes, in- sects and -worms. only one side of the original form, the other being lost in the matter of the surrounding stone so that the stem, or other vegetable body, appears as if it had been divided longitudinally into two parts, before its mineralization. It may be somewhat dif- ficult to explain the exact mode of formation, on which this ap- pearance depends; but, we conceive it to be owing to the unequal hardening of the enclosing stratum the lapidification of which has been sooner effected on one side of the organic body, than on the other. Hence, the stone has retained the impres- sion of that side of the vegetable, &c. on which it was first formed; while, on the other side,the decay of the organic body being- previous to the consolidation of the mineral matter, the vegetable form has been lost, in the soft mass of the matrix, forced by corn- pressure laterally into the concavity formed in the hardened part of the s)Lone. In this process it is evident, as in other nucleated relics, more or less of the original matter may remain, and cover the surface of the petrifaction. . III. DIST. CHAR. Prototype. 77 a. 48. MAMM ALI A (Mammalia} are animals that are viviparous and suckle their young (v. Syst. Nat. ed. Gmel. p. 12). Obs. The remains of mammalia are not uncom- mon in the mineral kingdom, excepting as petrifac- tions, in which state they are to he considered as very rare. The different fossil mammaliath&t have hitherto heen discovered, are, in general, those of a large kind, as Elephants, Rhinoceri, Whales, &c. Among these are many unknown species, or such as have not, as yet, been found in the recent state; par- ticularly one of an immense size, which appears to have been a carnivorous animal its remains are most common in North America, but have, also, been found in some parts of Europe. f t For the kinds (genera) of mammalia, hitherto discovered in the fossil state, v. Syst Arrangement. P. 2. In the Report of the Transactions of the National Institute of France, 1806, there are some very curious aud interesting remarks by M. Cuvier, on the different species of this class, that have been distinctly ascertained to belong to the fossil kingdom, and that have not, as yet, been found living or in the recent state. Accord- ing to this celebrated anatomist, both the elephant and rhinoceros, whose remains have been found buried in every part of the known world, are perfect 1 v distinct from the present living species. There is a marked diiference, in the structure of their skeletons, from those of the elephant and rhinoceros of the present day, and he concludes, that there can be no doubt that the animals, which fur- nished these relics, are now extinct. To these he adds two species of Bears, found buried with the remains of the Tiger and other carnivorous animals, in the caverns of Germany; and at least 78 f. III. DIST. CHAR. Prototype. b. 49. BIRDS ( Aves ) are oviparous animals, hav- ing two legs, and two wings, and the body covered with feathers, (v. Sjst. Nat. ed. Gmel. p. 233.) Obs. The remains of birds are very scarce, if in- deed they have been ever found, in the fossil state. Such,however, are said to have been met with in lime- stone. ( v.Werner's Extern. Char, by Weaver. p. 140. ) c. 50. AMPHIBIOUS ANIMALS (^frnp/wZua) breathe arbitrarily, through the mouth, by the means of lungs. Their heart has only one ventricle, and one auricle, (y. Syst. Nat. ed. Gmel. p. 1033.) Obs. The reliquia that have received the form of amphibious animals are, also, rare; but the remains, considered as such, are much less doubtful, than those of the precedent class It is but one order of the amphibia, however, namely the reptilia, that is eight more species of non-descripts, whose bones have recently been discovered in the plaster quarries near Paris. If, with these, we reckon the fossil species of pecora, that have been deemed, by their horns, to be distinct from any of that order now existing, we shall find the number of mammalia, either extinct, or remaining undiscovered, to be more considerable, than what naturalists in general have imagined. We ought to observe, that M. Cuvier, in the report just referred to, appears decided in his opinion, that the mammalia, furnishing these remains, have lived in the places where their bones are found and, that the deluge has not been the cause of their present accumulation and interment ; as they exhibit none of those appearances of attrition, which necessa- rily would be found in such bodies, if they had been transported, from one country to another, by a general inundation. $. III. DIST. CHAR. Prototype. 79 found fossil. The serpentes have not been disco- vered either in the petrified or conservated state. Among the fossil amphibia are to be enumerated the remains of the tortoise (Testudo) found near Maestricht/and elsewhere ; the petrifactions of frogs ( Ranee ) said to have been discovered in the swine- stone of Oening, amdtlielizards (Lacertce) of thebi- tuminous-marlite of Mansfeld. The supposed cro- codile found near Whitby (Yorkshire) appears to have been the skeleton of a Baltfna.( v. Camper. Phil. Trans.R.S. Vol. LXXVI. P. 1. p. 145.) And the other instances,, in which that animal is stated to have been found petrified, are very questionable. f d. 55. FISH (Pisces} are animals which breathe by the means of gills their heart is furnished with one ventricle and one auricle. ( v. Syst. Nat. ed. Gmel. p. 1126.) Obs. The fossil remains of the animals of this class are numerous each of its orders,"\\ and many of the genera fff in each order , affording subjects for the mineral kingdom many of these are known t The crocodile, said by Whifcehurst to be discovered in Derby- shire, was nothing more, we have every reason to suppose, than a particularly large species of orthoceratites. (v. Derby. Petr. pl.39,) ft Which are six according to Gmelin Apodes, Jugulares, Thoracici, Abdominales, Branchiostegi, and Chondropterygii. The last two form the Amphibia Nantes in the 12th. Ed. of the Sys. Naturee. ttt For the genera offish furnishing reliquia, v. Syst. Arrange- ment, P. 2. 80 -. III. DIST. CHAR. Prototype. as living species ; particularly the petrifactions of fresh-water fish. The originals of those, which are supposed to have been sea fish, have been ascertained, also, in a few instances; but a far greater num- ber of them appears to belong to unknown species. The state, in which these remains occur, is very various. Sometimes the petrifactions exhibit the complete external appearance of their original, as those found in Thuringia, in a bituminous-mar lite ; at other times, the mere skeletons of the fish remain,, as in those which are commonly met with in the slaty limestone of Monte Bolca, Pappenlieim, and elsewhere: more frequently, however, nothing but the detached bones are preserved, as the vertebrae, teeth, &c. These last generally abound in chalk and marl strata. e. 53. INSECTS (Insecta) are animals furnished with antennae. They breathe through lateral spira- cles, and have six, or more, legs They are also dis- tinguished from the next class by undergoing vari- ous transformations, before they acquire their last or perfect form. (v. Syst. Nat. Gmel. p. 1517.) Obs. Insects may be divided into those which have, and those which have not, wings. Of the first division, no species have yet occurred in the fossil kingdom, at least in their perfect or complete form, f t We are aware of the petrified Beetle (Entomoltthus coleop- trt) noticed by Linne, in the Museum Tessinianum; but suppose,the fossil,on more minute examination,proved to be the reliquium of some - . III. DIST. CHAR. Prototype. 81 except such as are enveloped with amber : the larvts of the dragon-fly (Libellula) and of the water-scorpion (Nepa) are, however, said to be found in the Oening limestone, (v. Werner's Ex- tern. Char. p. 142.) Of the second division, i. e. of insects without wings ( Order Apt era, Linn. ) there are several species found petrified, belonging to the genera Cancer, Monoculus ? and Oniscus.-\ f. 54. WORMS ( Vermes) are furnished with ten- tacula have no propei\or distinct head, nor legs ; do not undergo any metamorphosis, (v. Syst. Nat. ed. Gmel. p. 3021.) Obs. It is from this class that the animal petri- factions, properly so called, principally derive their form. The Vermes are divided by Gmelin into five or- ders; ff viz. Intestina, Mollusca, Testacea, ether body, as he has not enumerated it among the Entomolithi, in his last edition of the sy sterna nature. The fossil Butterjlies,'dud and other winged insects, described by some authors, are doubtless nothing more than imperfect vegetable remains as are, also, the supposed delineations of Beetles,&.c. on shale, mentioned by Rich- ardson in a letter to Lhwyd. (v. Lithoph. Brit. Luidii. p. 11 2.) f- Vide Syst. Arrangement, p. 2. . ff The orders, as they stand in the 12 Ed. of the Syst. Nat. are Intestina, Mollusca, Testacea, Lithophyta, and Zoophyta-~ Gmelin has united the Lithophyta with the Zoophyta ; but has se_ parated, from the liinnean Zooqphyta, all those animalcula which are found in vegetable infusions, &c. forming them, after the manner of Muller, into a distinct order, under the title of lufuso- M 82 , III. DIST. CHAR. Prototype. phyta and Infusoria. The first and last of these orders are not found in the fossil state. The second affords many beautiful petrifactions, chiefly Ifrom the genus Echinus. Of the third and fourth order t nearly all the generaf have been discovered in the mineral kingdom ; and the various species, from these genera,, form the principal part of every collec- tion of extraneous fossils. The shells,, zoophytes, &c. found fossil, particu- larly the petrified^ are most commonly of species at present unknown in the recent state. ff The fossil Vermes are found in all substances, in which other reliquia occur, but are most abundant in calcareous strata. ff f B. 55'. VEGETABLES (VegetaUlia) are di- vided by Linnaeus into seven families namely, Funguses, Flags, Mosses, Ferns, Grasses, Palms, and Plants. (v.Philos.Bot.p.37.)fftt a. 56. FUNGUSES (Fungi) are vegetables of the ria. Hence, the number of the orders, in this class, is the same in both editions of the Syst. Nat. now referred to, though the prin- ciples of the arrangement differ. j- For the different genera of shells and zoophyta found fossil vide Syst. Arrangement, p. 2. ft Vide page 10 and 11. note ||tt and f. &c. fft Vide page 7- o. and r. tttt Our reason for not enumerating, in this place, the classes and orders of plants, according to the Linnean Sexual System, will be found in our observations on the formation of the genera and families of extraneous fossils. . III. DIST. CHAR. Prototype. 83 most simple structure. have no distinct leaves or stem.f (C generally of a fleshy or cork-like sub- stance, and of short duration. The fructifications disposed in gills, tubes, &c ." ( v. Hull's Introd. Linn. Syst. p. xlix.) Obs. Fungi are not found in the fossil state. f f b. 57. FLAGS ( Algte ) vegetables ' c of a gelati- nous, membranous, coriaceous, filamentous, or crus- taceous substance, and, for the most part, having no distinct root, leaves, or stem. The fructifications are various, as capsules, tubercles, &c." (v. Hull's Introduct. Linn. Syst. p. xlix.) t What is usually considered as the stem in funguses is deno- minated the stipe (stipes} by Linn&us. ft Thefungifes of authors are simple madrepores in the pe- trified state, v. Syst. Arrangement, P. 2. Erismatolithus. Ferber, in his letters to Baron Born, mentions several petrified funguses, as they were supposed to be, which he observed in differ- ent collections m Italy. Some of these, according to his opinion, were undoubted Boleti. Without adverting to the impossibility of vegetable bodies, of such a perishable nature, having given their form to petrifactions, it may be observed, that com/* sometimes affect the structure of fungi so completely, that they have frequently been mis- taken for such, when petrified. We lately met vfith a specimen of fossil Millepore coral, which, in its general figure, as well as in the structure and disposition of its pores, so perfectly imitated a 'Boletus, that it was not till after repeated examinations, we were able to ascertain its real nature. In a cursory view of collections such as a Tour usually affords, we think it not impossible, there- fore, but that a naturalist even of Ferber's superior information may have been misled by the deceptive appearance of specimens of this kind, and the names imposed on them by their possessors. 84 . III. DIST. CHAR. Prototype. Obs. They are very rare in the mineral kingdom not more than two or three species of reliquia have- ing, as yet, been observed, that may without hesita- tion be referred to this tribe of vegetables. f Those that have been described appear to be marine plants, and are probably fuel. They occur in cal- careous strata. c. 58. MOSSES (Musci) have cc capsules envel- opped in a calyptre, and reticulated membranous leaves, which, after being dried, are revived by the application of water." (v. Hull's Introduct. Linn. Syst. xlix. ) Obs. As rare, perhaps, as the algce, in the petri^ fied state. A few, however, have been found in ar- gillaceous strata, with other vegetable relics. They occur also, as conservata, now and then, in amber: and, frequently, in the banks of certain rivers_, enve-^ loped by calcareous depositions. d. 59. FERNS (Filices)lm\e " their fructifications in spikes, or in dots, lines, &c. 3 on the back or mar- gin of their leaves; or at the root." ( v. Hull's Intro- duct. Linn. Syst. p. xlix.) Obs. This tribe or family of plants furnishes by far the most beautiful, as well as the most perfect, vegetable petrifactions that occur. The original species, with very few exceptions, are unknown. t One, the original of vvhicSi appears to be tliefucus vesiculosus^ has been found in marl, along with shells and other marine bodies, . III. DIST. CHAR. Prototype. 85 The fossils are almost always found in argillaceous strata,, productive of coal and ironstone. e. 60. GRASSES (Gramina) are furnished with very simple or undivided leaves, a hollo w,, jointed stem or culm, and a glumosec/?/.r: the seed is sin- gle. (Phil. Bot p. 37.) Obs. This tribe gives form,, also, to many petri- factions ; but they are rarely in a perfect state. They are, in a great measure, confined to argillaceous strata. The species are unknown as recent plants; but, in general, appear to have been allied to the canes and reeds indigenous to the Indies. f. 61 . PALMS ( Palm a ) have a simple stem (cau- dex) frondose at the top, and their fructification on a spadLv, proceeding from a spatlie. (v. Phil. Bot. p. 37.) Obs. Petrified fruits, apparently from species he- longing to the genera of Cocos and Areca, have been found in argillaceous strata, with other vegetable re- mains. g. 62. PLANTS (Plantce} include all vegetables not referrible to the foregoing tribes and are either Herbs, Shrubs, or Trees, (v. Phil. Bot. p. 37.) Herbs are such plants as perish annually down to the root. Shrubs have several permanent woody stems, di- viding from the bottom. J'/wshave only a single permanent woody trunk. f f These distinctions are according to the common acceptation of the terms Herbs, Shrubs, and Trees. Linnaeus makes the dif- 86 . III. DIST: CHAR. Prototype. Obs. Fossil plants are more common, considered as a distinct tribe,, than the remains from the pre- ceeding families ; but are rarely found in as perfect a state. Trees and shrubs seldom preserve their fo- liage when petrified; and among the conservata, the leaves of trees, &C., are generally detached from the stems. The petrified wood of trees is commonly found in very recent seats (v. SOIL, seat, &c.) Their leaves sometimes occur in modern, calcareous tracts. Petrified plants in general, however, are most fre- quent in argillaceous})^, with other vegetable reli- quia. b. Parts represented by reliquia are either animal or vegetable. A. 63. THE ANIMAL PARTS (Paries ani- medium.} are either innate or fabricated. a. 64. INNATE ANIMAL p. (Paries animal, in- natas ) are those parts of the body that have been produced independently of any effort of the animal and are either external or internal . Obs . Among the innate parts of animals, the bones are the principal internal ones, that give their form to extraneous fossils these constitute the skeleton* which is peculiar to the four first classes of animals. erence oetween them to consist in the mode of budding, or in the want of buds but observes, that with respect to trees and shrubs, nature has placed no limits between them, except in the opinion of the vulgar. i III. DIST. CHAR. Prototype. 87 The bones of land-animals ( including their teeth, horns, 8$c. ) are rarely found in the petrified state, and never at any great depth,, or forming, as it were, constituent parts of the solid strata. But, for the most part, are mere conservata, loosely deposited in alluvial tracts, or in caverns and fissures. f The bones of the amphibia, and of the aquatic mammalia, (as the seals, Phoca?, and the whales, Cete.) are sometimes found petrified ; but more commonly as conservata : these are usually lodged in recent strata (v. SOIL. &c.). The bones offish are either hard and spinous, or cartilaginous and soft-pointed those of the first kind occur both petrified and conser- vated, in modern and less ancient tracts the bones of cartilaginous fish, their teeth excepted, very rarely preserve their form in the fossil state. The various external parts of animals, to be con- sidered as innate, and which are capable of giving their form to reliquia, are principally the scales and jins of fish, the horny covering in some of the am- phibia ( the testudines ) and the integument which in- closes the whole of the body in insects : most of these are found in the petrified state, in the modern and less ancient strata, (v. SOIL. &c. ) Every part of the body, as well internal as external, of certain crustaceous worms, is found, also, in the petrified state, and incorporated with the solid rock, in the most ancient of the secondary strata. t Vide page 12. note ft- 88 . III. DIST. CHAR. Prototype. b, 65. FABRICATED ANIMAL P. (Paries animal '. fabricates ) are parts superadded to the body by some voluntary ? effort of the animal. These are shells slid fulciments. SHELLS are hard, calcareous^ moveable coverings, formed by an external apposition of matter, f se- creted by the inclosed animal. Shells are peculiar to certain genera of vermes. In respect to their general structure, shells are ei- ther multivalves, bivalves, or univalves.^ FuLCiMENTsfff are immoveable, calcareous or membranaceous props or supports, formed, also, by an apposition of matter, secreted by different species of zoophytes, fttf Fulciments are always fixed by the base to some other body, from which they are extended in various forms, more or less plant-like. In structure, fulciments are solid or cellular The solid, when recent, are internal, being surrounded by the zoophytes which fabricate them the cellular f Vide page 47. note f- tt For an explanation of these and other terms, see the end of tin's section. fit We have adopted this term as a general one, to distinguish all plant-like bodies formed by the Zoophyta, as habitations or sup- ports; and which, according to their consistence, are denominated coral, coralline, sponge, &c. fttt Fulciments are not innate bodies, although essential to the existence of the worms they support. Like shells, they are gradu- ally produced by a deposition of calcareous and jnembranaqeous matter, exuded bv the animal inhabitants. . III. DIST. CHAR. Prototype. 89 are external, and enclose the animals by which they are formed. Obs The fabricated parts of animals are those which are most common in the fossil state., both as petrifactions and conservata. The petrified abound in ancient calcareous tracts: the conservated in the less ancient and modern. ( v. SOIL. &c. ) B. 66. THE VEGETABLE PARTS (Par- tes vegetabilium) are such as belong either to the substance of the plant, or to its external form and structure. a. 67. THE SUBSTANCE OF A VEGETABLE (Sub- stantia vegetab.) consists of the cuticle, outer bark, inner bark, wood, and pith. The cuticle ( epidermis ) covers the outer bark ( cortex ) from which is deposited the inner bark (liber). This last changes gradually into hard rings of wood ( lig- num) surrounding the pith (medulla). Obs. Of these the cuticle, outer-bark, and wood, are most frequent in the fossil state : the inner bark and pith are rarely,, if ever, to be traced either in conservata or petrifactions. The cuticle is often evi- dent, in the form of a pellicle, bituminated or car- bonized, coating the stone or other mineral, under the \egetable figure; but, it is the outer bark that gives its structure, in most instances, to the body of the petrifaction ; at least, if the internal texture of the original be wanting when that is present, it is generally the wood of the plant, which forms the rdiquium. 90 . III. DIST. CHAR. Prototype. Wood is found in every state of mineralization, from the complete petrifaction to that, in which the original substance remains almost unchanged. It oc- curs mostly in alluvial tracts and other modern strata ; also in water ; sometimes in veins and fissures ; very rarely in the less ancient of the secondary strata ; but never in the more ancient (v. SoiL.)f The other vegetable substances, which preserve their form in reliquia, of course are frequently found, where the remains of the external parts of vegetables are also common i. e. in the argillace- ous strata of less ancient tracts productive of coal. -(v.59.) b. 68. THE EXTERNAL PARTS OF* VEGETABLES (Paries vcgctabilium extern. ) may be divided into the root, trunk or stem, leaves, fulcres, and fructifi- cation. The root (radix) is the part which nourishes the plant, and from which the trunk or t At least, never as a constituent, or an imbedded part, of such strata. The most singular situation in which petrified wood has been found, is that in New South Wales, described by Mr. Collins as a small, sandy tract, a considerable height above the level of the sea, covered with the scattered, broken branches of dead trees^ and what appear to have been their stumps and roots, still sticking in the ground, but changed to a brittle kind of calcareous stone. The sandy deserts of Egypt, and of some other countries, also afford petrified wood, which seems to have been the remains of trees, once growing in those situations. . III. DIST. CHAR. Prototype. 91 stem is produced. The stem (truncus) is the part which multiplies the plant; or produces the leaves and fructification. The leaves (folia) are the parts appropriated to respiration. The fructification (fructificatio) is a temporary part for the purpose of generation and the fulcres (fulcra) are parts which support or defend the plant, f Obs. The external parts of vegetables most com- mon in the fossil state are the leaves and stem. The root, fulcres, and fructification are rare in the mineral kingdom, ff TERMS, distinguishing the reliquium according to its pro- totype or original. * Kind. The terms applied to the reliquium to discrimi- nate it,by t\\ekind of organic body represented, are formed with a reference to the name, by which the prototype itself is distinguished ; as f* The primary parts of a plant, according to Linn&us, are the 1. Root, 2. Herb, 3. Fructification. The herb comprehends the leaves, stem,Julcres, and hybernacle. The fructification contains the calyx, corolla, stamens, pistil, pericarp, seed, and receptacle. ft Succulent roots are not found in the fossil state. 92 . III. DIST. CHAR. Prototype. a.) 60. Mammodolithus a fossil or petrified Mammal. 61 . Ornitholithus a fossil or petrified Avis. 62. Amphibiolithus a fossil or petrified Amphibium. &C.,, &c. b. ) 63. Anomites a fossil or petrified Anomia. 64. Echinites Echinus. &c. &c. (v. , VI.) ** Part. The terms distinguishing the reliquium accord- ing to the part represented, are such as relate to a. Animal parts; and 1 . The innate ; as a. ) 65. OSSAL ( reliquium ossale ) deriving its form from the bones or internal skeleton of the ori- ginal ; this may be 66. Vertebral (vertebrate) belonging to the vertebra. 67. Dental (dentate) belonging to the teeth. 68. Costal (cost ale) belonging to the ribs, &c. y &c. b.) 69, INTEGUMENTAL (integument ale) a reli- quium taking its form from the integument or f Ossal, testal, &c. belonging to bones, shells, &c. For the terms osseous., testaceous, &c. vide article substance, of the pre- sent section. ft A general knowledge of comparative anatomy, as far at it re- spects vertebral animals, and the terms &c. by which the bones are distinguished, will be found indispensably requisite to the study of extraneous fossil. For this the works of Cheselden, Hunter, Home, Cuvier, &c. are to be consulted. . III. DIST. CHAR. Prototype. 93 external covering of the original; this may be 70. Squamal (squamale) belonging to the scales, as in petrified fish and amphibia 71. Crustal (crustale) belonging to the crust ; as in petrified insects-^ and echini;^ &c. &c. f In insects, the external crust or covering is considered, by ana- tomist, as analogous to the bones, in the higher classes of animals, ^f The covering of the Echinus may be divided into the crust and its appendices. The CRUST (crust a) is the hard, calcareous, bone-like integu- ment, in which the animal is enveloped. Its surface is generally covered with tubercles, to which are articulated moveable spines of various shapes and sizes. fl.)Mouth (os) the aperture of the crust through which the in- closed animal takes its food. It is quiiique valve, and always situate in the base of the shell. Vent (anus} the aperture through which the excrements of the animal are passed. Its situation is various, being more or less distant from the mouth. It is freqently closed by a kind of operculum or lid ; and hence is not always visible in the fossil subject. #.)Base (basis') the bottom part of the crust, in which the aperture of the mouth is placed. Apex (apex} the top of the crust, opposite to the mouth. Ambit (ambitus) the outline of the crust when placed on its base, and viewed from the top. Margin (margo) the edge formed by the crust's taking a com- pressed or flattened shape. This is whole, dentate, sinu- ate, &c. according to the species. 4?.;Pores (pori) innumerable minute holes with which the shell is regularly perforated. These are of two kinds. Through the one, slender and almost imperceptible ligaments and fibres pass, by which the spines are attached to the tubercles, and 94 . III. DIST. CHAR. Form. c. ) 72. CORPORAL (corporate) a reliquium taking the general form of the body of the original ; rendered moveable at the will of the animal through the other, the tentacula of the animal are occasionally protruded. (v. ambulacra.} Foramina (foramina) apertures distinct from those of the mouth and vent, and only present in some certain species. In the compressed or flat echini they are often large pervi- ous holes, formed by the local coalescence of the opposite sides of the shell their number varies from two to six. Sutures (suturte) are the lines which mark the juncture of one part of the shell with another part the crtist being composed of many pieces, joined or articulated together the sutures are dentate, serrate, &c. ?.) Ambulacra (ambulacra) lines consisting of two or more series of pores, disposed in regular forms, so as to divide the surface of the shell into compartments or areas. Areas (areee) the parts which lie between the ambulacra. These two last terms have been adopted by Linnaeus , with a reference to the supposed resemblance between the surface of the shell and a garden, divided by walks into beds or areas. The number and disposition of the ambulacra and areas afford the leading specific characters of the greater part of the echini. The APPENDICES (appendices} are parts attached to the crust: these are the spines and teeth of the echinus. c.)Spines (spince} long, hard, moveable bodies, affixed by one end to the surface of the crust They vary greatly in number and shape are frequently marked with tubercles and lines are obtuse or pointed; fusiform, subulate, clavate, c. &c. On the death of the enclosed animal they usually . III. DIST. CHAR. Prototype. 95 as in some petrifactions of fish and vermes^ &c.f 2. The fabricate ; as fall from the shell, and hence are rarely found attached to it in the fossil subjecs. The petrified spines (lapidesjudaici of authors) differ consi- derably in their form, fipin those of the known living animals and hence Linnaeus supposed these fossils not to have been the spines of echini that they are so, however, is BOW placed beyond doubt, as some of the most singular in structure have been discovered, affixed to the crust, as in the recent state. ZOTeeth (denies) five, small, oblong, moveable bones, articulated to the same number of internal processes, placed perpendicu- larly round the aperture of the mouth. The teeth are often found in the fossil state detached from the shell. We have given the above definitions of the parts of an echinus, as we do not find them explained in any work to which we have, at present, an opportunity of referring. t The terms, applied by Linneus to the external parts of ani- mals, should be carefully studied by those, who wish to gain a knowledge of extraneous fossils, or communicate their observations on these bodies to others. To such the " Enchiridion Hist. Nat" of Forster may be recommended as an excellent publication; but, we must observe, its usefulness would have been much increased, if the author had extended his plan through all the classes of the animal kingdom. Since the present work went to the press, we have seen " Elements of Natural History" published at Edinburgh, in which, lists of the Linnsean zoological terms, with very correct de- finitions, are given; so as to supply, in a great measure, those de- riciences noted in Forster. The following are a few terms which either do not occur in the Linneean writings, or not exactly in the sense, in which we hare 96 5- HI. DIST. CHAR. Prototype. 73. TESTAL (testak} a reliquium deriving its form from a shell ; f and employed them. (v. Derbyshire Petrif.) They will be found ne- cessary, in discriminating the external parts of the body in certain fossil zoophytes. STIPE (stipes} the elongated appendage to the body of the zoophyte, by which it is frequently (not always) affixed to stones, rocks, and other substances as in Hydra, Vorticella, <5fc. Linnaeus calls this part stirps, a terra he also applies to the mem- branaceous, horny, and fibrous supports, fabricated by the Gorgonia, Isis, Flustra, &c. By Gmelin the term is further extended to the stony matter or coral, deposited by the Lytho- phyta of Linnaeus, and in this sense we have retained it. But the fleshy stern in Hydra, &c. as well as the crustaceous one in the genus Stylastrum (v. Note on the Stylastrum, . V.) is an innate part of the animal, and perfectly distinct in its nature from the fabricated props orfulciments ; whether solid, as in Gor- gonia, Ms, &c. or cavernous, as in those belonging to the Madre- porce, Tubiporte, &c. We have, therefore, deemed it expe- dient to mark the distinction by appropriate terms. Disk (discus} in an articulated stipe , the internal part or surface by which one joint is united to another. Ambit (ambitus} the surrounding, external surface of each joint of the stipe. Branches (rami) are the lateral arms proceeding from the stipe (not from the body) of the zoophyte. f The terms used in discriminating shells are very numerous : for their explanation we refer the reader to the " Fundament a Testaceologite," given in the " Am