UC-NRLF $B bE nS Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2007 with funding from Microsoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/discoveriesinhebOOdrakrich DISCOVERIES IN HEBREW, GAELIC, GOTHIC, ANGLO- SAXON, LATIN, BASQUE AND OTHER CAUCASIC LANGUAGES SHOWING FUNDAMENTAL KINSHIP OF THE ARYAN TONGUES AND OF BASQUE WITH THE SEMITIC TONGUES BY ALLISON EMERY DRAKE, Sc.M., M.D., Ph.D. SOMETIME UNIVERSITY FELLOW IN ANGLO-SAXON IN COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY AUTHOR OF "the [tRIPLE] AUTHORSHIP OF THE WE^T ^i^Xt)i;^r^ ; GOSPELS [a discovery]"; ASSOCIATE EDITOR OF THE '^ "' '^' ^ COLORADO MEDICAL JOURNAL. 1901-7' ' ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ , ^ , ■• ^ "Is there a thing whereof men may say, See, this is new? [Lo,] it hath been already, in the ages which were before us" (Ecclesiastes 1: 10) "... many prophets and kings desired to see the things which ye see. and saw them not" (Luke 10:24) H)en\?er THE HERRICK BOOK & STATIONERY COMPANY %on^on KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRUBNER & COMPANY, Ltd. 1907 Copyright, 1907, by ALLISON EMERY DRAKE ALL RIGHTS RESERVED f I. (xY P3ZI X>7 TO • my brother Samuel Davis Drake AND TO my cousins Mrs. Nancy Logan-Sherman AND Miss Serada Logan this work IS AFFECTIONATELY INSCRIBED 449977 CONTENTS PAGE Statement. I Summary Exposition 5 I. L(e) 5 II. Q-G 6 III. Gutturals (h, h', h^ h^) 6 IV. Palatals (g, k, q) 8 V. B, p; V, Y 9 VI. LiNGUALS (d, T, T^) 10 VII. Liquids (l, m, n, r) 10 VIII. Z,T? 11 IX. s, s^ s^ 12 X. Loss OF Radicals 13 XI. Consonantal Contact 15 XII. Suffixes; Final Radicals 16 XIII. Consonantal Transposition '16 XIV. Reduplication 17 XV. Syntactic Position 18 XVI. Comparison of Adjectives 21 XVII. Numeral Words 23 XVIII. Pronouns 26 Transliteration 30 Table I. : Transliterated Alphabets 31 Table II. : Alphabetic Cognates section a. : Aramaic : Hebrew : Arabic 32 section b. : Gaelic : Hebrew : Latin 33 section c. : Gothic : Hebrew : Anglo-Saxon 34 section d. : Hebrew : Basque 35 vi CONTENTS PAGE Instructive Roots 36 Alphabetic Exposition 38 Synopsis of Roots and Gaelic Words. 319 Synopsis of Roots and Gothic Words 324 Synopsis of Roots and Anglo-Saxon Words 329 Synopsis of Roots and Latin Words 335 Synopsis of Roots and Greek Words 340 Synopsis of Roots and Sanskrit Words 342 .Synopsis of Roots and Basque Words 345 Index of Gaelic Words 351 Index of Gothic Words 354 Index of Anglo-Saxon Words 358 Index of English Words 363 Index of Latin Words 369 Index of Greek Words 372 Index of Sanskrit Words 374 Index of Words from Various other Aryan Languages. . 375 Index of Basque Words 377 Authorities, Etc 381 An Interesting Letter 399 Postscript 400 STATEMENT Until the rise of scientific philology in the early part of the nineteenth century, the belief was general that Hebrew was the mother-tongue of the languages of Europe. The new science examined and condemned the foundations of that behef. More- over, it was discovered that Hebrew, so far from being worthy to be considered the mother-tongue of those languages, actually bore no readily discernible marks of even remote kinship with them. As might be conjectured, Bibhcal scholars did not accept without protest the imposition of these revolutionary doc- trines of the new philology. Though the controversy over the matter was earnest and long-continued, strangely the truth was not discovered. Philology, however, seemingly won the day; and to her unmerited triumph may in great measure be indirectly ascribed the discredit into which she has since fallen among her sister sciences. The conclusion in the matter arrived at by the founders and builders of scientific philology was succinctly stated by Professol* James Hadley, who "was, in the opinion of all who knew him most fully, America's best and soundest philologist'' (William Dwight Whitney). "In addition to his mastery of the Greek language, he was well versed in Hebrew, Arabic, Armenian, San- skrit, Welsh, Gaehc, Irish, and the principal modern languages" (Arthur Twining Hadley, in Johnson's Universal Cyclopaedia). In his Brief History of the Enghsh Language, pubHshed in 1864 as a part of Webster's Dictionary of the English Language, Professor James Hadley said: "All etymologizing which assumes or implies a radical affinity between English and Hebrew, Eng- lish and Finnish, or the like, is, in the present state of philology, unscientific and illusory." A few years later, in his article on Language, in Johnson's Universal Cyclopaedia, William Dwight Whitney said: "It is a STATEMENT favorite subject of effort with some philologists to demonstrate the primitive unity of the Semitic and Indo-European races; and there are many indications outside of language which favor the conclusion; but thus far, at any rate, the language is an im- passable barrier, "t A still later pronouncement on this question, — a pronounce- ment very significant because made in a volume (Gesenius' Hebrew Grammar, Oxford, 1898, page 4) which reflects throughout the perfection of Hebrew scholarship of today, is as follows: ** . . . the vocabulary of the Semites differs essentially from that of the Indo-Germanic languages, although there is here apparently more agreement than in the grammar. A considerable number of Semitic roots and stems agree in sound with synonyms in the Indo-Germanic family. But apart from expressions directly borrowed . . ., the actual similarity might be restricted to imi- tative words (onomatopoetica), and to those in which one and the same idea is represented by similar sounds in consequence of a formative instinct common to the most varied families of lan- guage. Neither of these proves any historic or generic relation, to establish which an agreement in grammatical structure would also be necessary." t Among obstacles to discovery of the truth for which many philolo- gists were eagerly searching were, in my opinion, the very principles and tests determined and adopted in those days (and for the most part still in good repute) for guidance in philological investigation. Those principles were, as I view them, too provincial, the tests too delicate, for service in the general investigation of a question, such as that of possible kinship be- tween the Semitic and the Aryan tongues, involving such vast lapses of reckoned and unreckoned time, such lengths of geographical limits wherein remain so many traces of countless wars, conquests, and subjugations, min- glings and interminglings, crossings and intercrossings of so many numerous peoples. The Semitic languages as recently classified (see Gesenius' Hebrew Grammar, Oxford, 1898, pages 1-3) comprise four groups: i. The South Semitic (Arabic, Ethiopic or Ge'"ez, etc.); ii. The Middle Semitic (Hebrew, Phenician, etc.); m. The North Semitic (Eastern Aramaic or Syriac; Western Aramaic or, obsoletely, Chaldee; etc.); iv. The East Semitic (Assyrio- Babylonian). ".. .the Indo-European or Aryan f amily ... embraces seven groups of tongues [now ten or more, the grouping as also the naming being somewhat unstable] known as the Indian or Sanskrit, the Persian or Zend, the Greek, the Italian, the Celtic, the Slavonic, and the Teutonic or Germanic. . . . All these languages have one common system of inflection, and in various respects strikingly resemble each other. They are the descendants of one common speech spoken by a single race of men untold centuries before the dawn of history" (A Latin Grammar, by Albert Harkness, page 374). STATEMENT These declarations, coming from the highest ranks in philology, show that the question of possible kinship of the Semitic with the Aryan languages is, on the evidence hitherto produced, practically unanswerable and has ceased to engage actively the attention of serious philologists. At such a time I am pleased to present, in the following pages, new evidence in the case. That evidence need not be here discussed. It will be found to be abundant, unquestionable, and unequivocal. f It should be here observed that, in the works of the old-school philologists (including Gesenius), are to be found Semitic and Aryan words associated as cognate, sometimes correctly. Having not incuriously inspected a few of those old-time etymologies and having found therein nothing of value which had not already occurred to me or which ought not readily to occur to me in the course of an investigation such as this, I deemed it not worth my while to give them further attention. Perhaps in consequence of this decision, the present volume may be found here and there to be regrettably deficient or at times even to have gone astray. A word should here be said about Basque . § It has been called "the 'ornithorhynchus' of the linguistic family" (A. H. Keane, Ethnology, page 213); and ''has not yet been shown to be related to any other language now spoken in Europe or else- tSome readers will here recall the reply of Thamus to Theuth in the Platonic myth (in the Phaedrus, 274-5), which I render as follows: "When Thamus was king of all Upper Egypt, . . . there came to him Theuth, the in- ventor of letters,. . .and said: 'This art, O King, will make the Egyptians wiser and improve their memories; for it has been found to be a recipe both for memory and for wisdom.' 'Most ingenious Theuth,' replied Thamus, 'one man can invent arts, but [only] another can judge whether they are to be baneful or beneficial to the user. Now you are the father of letters and, from predisposition, say the opposite of what you should; for this art will put forgetfulness in the souls of the learners through disuse of the memory inasmuch as they will trust to external records, nudges from others, and will not of themselves keep their memories alert from within. Wherefore, you have found a recipe, not for memory, but for prompting. You give your dis- ciples the semblance of wisdom but not the reality; and they, having be- come great but undisciplined readers, will seem wonderfully wise, but will be, for the most part, lacking in judgment and tiresome to be with because of their learned pretensions.'" §The Basque people inhabit the land lying round (and back from) the angle of the Bay of Biscay, partly in France and partly in Spain. The number of them is upwards of half a million. In general, I have found the vocabulary of the so-called French Basques in much the better state of preservation. STATEMENT where" (Edward S. Sheldon, in Johnson's Universal Cyclopaedia, about 1893). It should be remarked that a volume by G. von der Gabelenz was posthumously issued in 1894, showing Basque to be related to the languages of the native tribes of Northern Africa. (See Man: Past and Present, by A. H. Keane, pages 460-2). In the present volume will be found abundant evidence of very close relationship between the Basque vocabulary and that of Hebrew. On the framework of the Basque sentence, see section xv. SUMMARY EXPOSITION L(e). — The tenth commandment ends (Exodus 20:17) thus: " . . . , nor anything that is thy neighbor's." The last word is here grammatically a predicate possessive (predicate genitive), trans- lating a Hebrew prepositional phrase (l(e)reh''e-), in which the preposition is prefixed to its object. Of the Aryan languages, only the Gaehc (including Manxf) has in this place a preposi- tional phrase. Moreover, the Hebrew preposition here used is 1(e) and the Gaelic is le. The construction is regular in both He- brew and Gaelic. It should be remarked, however, that in the latter language re may be used for le and that, before words be- ginning with a vowel, lis (ris) is used instead of le (re). (See also entry 377 and Genesis 15:13; 20:7; 26:20; etc.; Exodus 9:4, 29; 13:12; 19:5; 29:9; Job 12:16; 39:16; Isaiah 44:5; 45:14; Obadiah 21; Habakkuk 1:6; 2:6; Haggai 2:8,8; Malachi 3:17). Scarcely less interesting to the philologist and important for my present purposes is the harmony between Hebrew 1(e) and Gaelic tManx is really a Gaelic dialect; but a new system of spelling Manx words replaced the old system in the eighteenth century and the dialect thereby became in appearance a strange tongue. Unfortunately for phi- lology, the new system of speUing was introduced before the Bible was translated into Manx (1771-5) and before a comprehensive Manx diction- ary had been constructed. If the new system of spelling had been intelligently devised, and had been accurately applied to the language (an achievement scarcely to be even hoped for in so great and so del- icately complicated a matter), the loss to philology would still have been great; for, whereas a new system of spelling aims to represent only that which is, a long-established system actually (though not always most briefly) represents what is and also points to what has been. The GaeHc of northern Scotland and adjacent islands differs but little from that of Ireland. The scantiness of this variation is remarkable in view of the length of time Gaelic is known to have been spoken in Scot- land; and in view of the improbability of any considerable communication, during that time, between the people of Scotland and those of Ireland. Remarkable indeed is this scantiness of variation if Scotland, as is thought by some, was inhabited by a non-GaeHc people when, near the middle of the sixth century of our era, Columba and his disciples established them- selves in lona. 6 SUMMARY EXPOSITION [l.-HI. le (re) when used with the infinitive. In Hebrew, ". . ., infinitives with . . . [1(e)] serve to express the most varied ideas of pur- pose or aim,. . ." (Gesenius' Hebrew Grammar, section 114, f). In Gaehc, "Le, with, placed before the infinitive mood, gives, like pour in French, the idea of intent, purpose, to perform what is expressed by the verb" (The College Irish Grammar, by Ulick J. Bourke, page 113). See especially Ecclesiastes (Dublin, 1827) 3:2-8; Gen- esis 24:43; 27:42; 28:20; Exodus 7:24; 8:26 (22); 16:8; 17:1; Micah 7:1. II. Q=G. — In Genesis 1:5, our English versions read: ''God called the Ught Day." The idiom of the original Hebrew is: "God called Day to the light," with which the Gaelic idiom is identical (in the text, Dublin, 1827; in an explanatory note, Edinburgh, 1807). This is remarkable; but more remarkable, the ground- form of the Hebrew word here rendered "called" is qarah and that of the Gaelic is goir, — forms not far apart, especially in view of the fact that "in parts of Arabia, and throughout Northern Africa, it [q] is pronounced as a hard g" (W. Wright, A Grammar of the Arabic Language, volume i., pages 6, 7). Moreover, the -h in Hebrew qarah is quiescent. These facts and the fact that Gaelic has not stable h independent bring the Gaelic goir very close to Hebrew qarah and caused me to suspect Gaelic g to be the equivalent of Hebrew q. Further investigation confirmed my suspicion. The only exceptions I have met with are in entries 239, 479 (?), 605, 657, 686, 729. The expression "to call a name to one" is actually not foreign to English. Thus, one often hears "I called 'hello' to him" or "I called 'thief to him" or "I called him names"; only, in such a case "calling a name to" is not exactly equivalent to "naming" in the sense of "bestowing a permanent name upon." (For additional examples of the Hebrew and Gaelic idiom, see Genesis 1:5,8, 10, 10; 2: 19, 19,23; 33:20; Isaiah 62: 12,12; Jeremiah 15: 16; 19:6; Hosea 2:16 (18); Malachi 1:4). III. Gutturals (h, h^ h^, h*). — As said in the preceding section, Gaelic has not stable h independent. It need cause no surprise, III.] SUMMARY EXPOSITION 7 then, that radical gutturals (I accept the word as long used in Semitic philology) are regularly unrepresented in Gaelic. (For exceptions, see entries 26, 29 (?), 40, 97 (?), 169, 251, 284, 371, 386, 420, 564). Radical gutturals (especially h, h^ which are comparatively weak) are often lost in the other Aryan languages and Basque. Radical h, h^ finalf are regularly quiescent in Hebrew (entry 797 contains an exception) and unrepresented in the Aryan languages (but see entry 433) and Basque (but see entries 484, 617, 712). It should here be observed that, among the ancient Hebrews, h^ "sometimes had a comparatively feeble sound," which fact may account in part for the exceptionally varying fate of that conso- nant in the Aryan languages and Basque. In the Teutonic languages and Latin, radical gutturals may be represented by h, hw(v), w(v, b, f, in Latin); or, by k(c, q), g; k(c, q)w(v). I have not noted an example of gw(v) coming from a radical guttural. I think it probable that w(v), when from a radical guttural, is invariably from an immediately ante- cedent hw(v). I conjecture that there are three stages in the development of Latin b or f from a radical guttural: [*hv]§; v; b or f; that is, that Latin Hibernia (entry 29), for example, was once [*Hihvernia]. The reader should take note that, here as likewise often elsewhere in this volume, I am speaking of sounds, not letters. Thus, when I say f stands for earher v, as in entry tModern scholarship (see Gesenius' Hebrew Grammar, section 75), viewing in particular Arabic and Ethiopic forms, regards quiescent -h2 of so-called Hebrew roots as standing, sometimes for earlier *-v, oftener for earlier *-y. If rightly, here is an important indication of closer kinship of the Aryan languages with Hebrew than with South Semitic; for, I find, radical v final is represented in the Aryan languages only when it is persistent in Hebrew. (See entry 763). Does the inference necessarily follow that the division between Hebrew and South Semitic had become estabhshed before the Aryan peoples began their first migrations? (See also entries 77, 235, 335). On the other hand, what of the prefix m, which is found in most if not all of the Semitic languages but not (?) in the Aryan languages? (See section vii.). §The asterisk (*), here as elsewhere, indicates that the form before which it is placed is conjectural; and the brackets [ ] indicate that the conjecture is, in my opinion, confined to the present volume. The egotism thus partly concealed in brackets as well as that so often unconcealed throughout the volume should not be ascribed wholly to self-conceit. It has seemed to me that some readers of a volume like this must wish to be here and there in- formed whether the author is dispensing current philology or merely his own opinions. 8 SUMMARY EXPOSITION [ill., IV. 543, my meaning is, not that the letter f has in the given word replaced the letter v (which in a given case may or may not be true), but rather that one sound has succeeded the other. It is well to bear in mind, moreover, that the Latin letter f was origin- ally the Greek digamma, which is supposed to have been sounded as either English w or English v. For illustrations of the changes radical gutturals undergo in the Aryan languages, see entries 29, 235, 243, 270, 286, 519, 564. In Basque, radical gutturals may be lost (as said above) or may be represented by h, g, k. (See especially entries 29, 102 (?), 228, 568, 776). By reference to Table IL, section d., it will be seen that I have not yet found radical h, h^ represented in Basque by g or k. In all cases where (in this Summary Exposition) groups of radicals are dealt with, the reader should consult Table II. to ascertain the Aryan and the Basque cognates (I use the word perhaps peculiarly, yet advisedly) of an individual radical. IV. Palatals (g, k, Q).f — Radical palatals (g, k, q) have almost the same cognates in the Aryan languages as have the radical gut- turals; but, being stronger, are seldom lost (except initial k; see entries 350, 361, 367, 375) and have the order of the cognates approximately reversed: k(c, q), g; k(c, q)w(v), (?) gw(v); h, hw(v); w(v, b, f, p, in Latin). The order here as elsewhere does not strictly denote either corresponding sequence or relative fre- quency but depends somewhat on alphabetic order. In Gaelic, there is no w or v; and radical g, k become usually c but frequently g; and radical q becomes regularly g (see, how- ever, section ii.). Note that, in Latin, 'The difference [in pronunciation] between C, K, and Q is represented by Quintihan as almost nil" (Fragments and Specimens of Early I^atin, by John Wordsworth, page 29); also that, in Latin, "C was used indiscriminately for both the sharp and flat guttural mute [c and g], till the beginning of the sixth century u. c. [about 250 b. c], when a modified form (G) tAlso classed as palatals are y and r, which, however, I have treated in sections v. and vii. respectively. IV., v.] SUMMARY EXPOSITION 9 was introduced for the flat sound" (A Grammar of the Latin Lan- guage, by Henry John Roby, part i., page 34). For illustrations of the changes radical palatals undergo in the Aryan languages, see entries 142, 352, 360, 519, 662, 668, 727. - In Basque, radical palatals become k, g, h. (See especially entries 57, 106 (?), 107, 468). V. B, p; V, Y. — In the Aryan languages, radical b becomes b, f, p, or V (in Latin). For a possible example of w (in Gothic) from radical b, see entry 1. I find that Latin b is rarely original; that is, descended from radical b. For probable if not unmis- takable examples, see entries 78, 88, 102, 106, 379, 443. In en- try 586, Latin b- probably represents radical p-. Hebrew has not the f-sound initial but has the p-sound in- stead. Arabic has not the p-sound at all but has the f-sound initial as well as medial and final. Gaelic and the Teutonic lan- guages have not natively p initial (but see entries 54, 108, 592, 596), and therefore represent radical p initial (see entries 578- 614) by b or f, as might be conjectured. (Note that, by prefixing a vowel, i\nglo-Saxon open (entry 585), open, has radical p- un- changed). Otherwise, in the Aryan languages, radical p becomes p, b, f, or V (in Latin, entries 365 and 712). In Basque (which is said not to have the letter f ; but see entries 51 and 112) radical b, p regularly become b or p. In the Aryan languages, radical v is often lost but may be- come w(v), b, f, or p. For interesting examples, see entries 20, 226, 318, 527, 763. In Basque, radical v is regularly lost (but see entry 525). Radical y is always lost in GaeHc; and usually lost, but may become w(v) or j(g), in the Teutonic languages and Latin. (See especially entries 307, 313, 325, 332). In Basque, radical y may, when initial, become j; but is other- wise lost. (See especially entries 178 and 327). In Hebrew, y often replaces radical v. Both consonants are often intrusive in roots really biconsonantal and merely effect a "strengthening [of] the vocalic element." (See Gesenius' Hebrew Grammar, sections 72-3). 10 SUMMARY EXPOSITION [VI.^ VII. VI. LiNGUALs (d, t, T^).t — Radical Unguals (d, t, t') may be- come d or t in the Aryan languages and Basque. In Hebrew, t^ is sometimes a prefix. I have not found it reflected as such in the Aryan languages (see entries 487, 708, 798) or in Basque (see entry 455). VII. Liquids (l, m, n, r). — The liquids (1, m, n, r) are some- times interchanged in the Semitic as also in the Aryan languages. Thus, Hebrew s^alah^ to send, is recognized by etymologists to be cognate with Arabic sarah^a, to send forth; Hebrew h^alaz^ loin, with Aramaic .h^araz^ hip, loin; Greek do^ron, gift, with Latin donum, gift; Greek leirion, lily, with Latin lilium, lily; etc. Radical liquids, therefore, may be expected to be somewhat in- terchanged in words common to the Semitic and the Aryan lan- guages. Interesting to note is the change of radical m to r in Eng- hsh^warm" (entry 254) (or r to m in Hebrew .h^amam, to be warm?) ; of radical r to m in Enghsh "womb" (entry 682); of radical n to r in Latin steriUs (entry 636), barren; and in English ''smear" (entry 770); of radical n to 1 in Latin clepo (entry 141), to steal. In Basque, such interchange is very frequent. Note particu- larly the change of radical m to r in entries 46, 96, 556, 719, 769; of radical n to r in entries 50, 242, 303, 443, 548, 600, 673, 722, 776; of radical r to n in entries 372, 569, 578, 687. (See also section xi.). Besides this interchange of liquids, note that radical r has be- come s in English "west" (entry 29); in English "yesterday" (entry 29); in Greek chthes (entry 29), yesterday; in Latin pecus (entry 102), cattle; and s^ in Sanskrit h^yas^ (entry 29), yester- day. Radical n initial is, in Hebrew, regularly (but not invariably) lost in certain phases of inflection if the medial radical is firm; but is regularly (but not invariably) retained if the medial radical is a guttural. (See Gesenius' Hebrew Grammar, section 66). The almost perfect agreement, in this matter, of the Aryan lan- guages and Basque with Hebrew ig very surprising, most of the fAlso classed as Unguals are 1 and n, which are to be found in the fol- lowing section (vii.). VII., VIII.] SUMMARY EXPOSITION 11 instances of disagreement being due to the preservation (not invariable), by the former languages, of radical n initial if the medial radical is g or k, that is, one closely allied to the gutturals. (See entries 397, 433, 437-92). Radical n medial is often lost in Hebrew, and the loss is some- times reflected in the Aryan languages and (?) Basque. (See en- tries 34, 51, 61, 76, 77, 92, 119, 235, 240, 242, 574). Medial n has at times been pecuharly lost from Anglo-Saxon words. (See entries 289, 302, 339, 357). Radical liquids (especially 1, m, n) when final are often lost in the Aryan languages and Basque. For the loss of radical r final in the Aryan languages (never in Gaehc unless in entry 106), see entries 102, 106, 117, 124, 129, 214, 223, 236, 273, 406, 477, 576, 591, 679, 801; in Basque, see entries 86, 102, 105, 106, 118, 209, 232, 236, 266, 477, (569), 576, (634), 638. In the Aryan languages, n is known to be sometimes intrusive. For examples, see entries 26, 28, 57, 84, 289, 290, 394, 479, 509, 612, 637, 646, 715. I have found no examples in Gaelic or Basque. In Sanskrit r^am^b (entry 712), to hang down; and Sanskrit Pam^b (entry 712), to dangle, the -nf- is supposed to be intrusive. In English ''bridegroom" (entry 656), the second -r- is supposed to be intrusive. In the Semitic languages, m is often a prefix. This is never reflected as a prefix in the Aryan languages. (See entries 150,' 190, 192, 212, 248, 322, 327, 351, 390, 397, 401, [406], 410, 419, 423, 426, 433, 442, 446, 452, 454, 457, 462, 465, 468, 469, 470, 472, 478, 479, 482, 483, 491, 515, 519, 546, 627, 638, 646, 656, 661, 747). I find that m occurs unmistakably as a prefix in Basque. (See entries 242 (?), 327, 371, 426, 495, 638, 761). VIII. z, zl — Radical z, z^ are represented in the Aryan languages by d, sd, s, st, t, or (z). Among things suggesting the Aryan values of radical z, z^ are the Aramaic use (frequent) of d and t where Hebrew has z and z^ respectively; the proper names (in English), Tyre and Sidon (Zidon), which in Hebrew begin each with z^; and the occasional interchange of z with z^ in Hebrew (entries 542 and 638). Most instructive is Hebrew *zah2ar (entry 12 SUMMARY EXPOSITION [VIIL, IX. 190) to shine, give light, which I connect with Enghsh "star." The latter word, it is well known, is cognate with Welsh ser, stars, and with Sanskrit sH^rn^as^?), stars, as well as with Sanskrit t^a^r^as^ stars; but etymologists have queried why the words begin so variably. Barely less instructive is Hebrew hozen (entry 24), ear, with which I connect Gothic auso, ear; Latin audio, to hear; etc. (The -r in English *'ear" and the -r- in Latin auris, ear, represent radical -z-. See entry 24 and section ix.). (See also especially entries 28, 68, 199, 200, 202, 203, 205, 213, 225, 327, 476, 611, 629, 636, 641, 642, 659, 660). In view of the Aramaic use (frequent) of h^ and q where Hebrew has z^ (see entry 68), I have conjectured that radical -z^ (entry 47) has become -g- (-h-) in Gothic *magan, to be able (to do); etc. In Basque, radical z, z^ become ch, tch, cht, s, ts, st, (t), z, tz, zt. (See especially entries 28, 190, 194, 196, 232, 256, 476, 531, 556, 557, 624, 626, 630, 632, 638). IX. s, s^ s^ — Radical s, s^ s^ regularly become s in the Aryan lan- guages. Often in Anglo-Saxon and regularly in Latin, s between vowels has recently been changed to r (see entries 24, 71, 262, 263, 360, 487, 542, 791). This change is well known to philologists. In view of the occasional interchange of s^ and z^ in Hebrew (see entry 613), I have made entry 613 in query and have placed Gaelic dearg, red, in entry 733 in query. In entries 74 and 754, 1 have conjectured that radical -s^- and s^- are the ancestors of st- and t- in the Aryan words cited. Etymol- ogists consider somehow related all the words (except Basque oroch, a male calf) which are cited in entry 754. In some of the Semitic languages t^ often stands for radical s^ (or s^ for radical t^ ?). I have found no reflection of this in the Aryan languages except in Greek tu (su) (entry 77), thou. Aryan philology recognizes the interchange of t and s in various relations. The interchange is doubtless related to that of t^ with radical s^ in the Semitic languages. In Basque, radical s, s^, s^ are represented by ch, (tch, cht), s, ts, st, z, tz, zt. (See especially entries 53, 70, 71, 228, 283, 285, 335, 372, 449, 450, 456, 494, 500, 505, 687, 691, 768, 769, 771, IX,, X.] SUMMARY EXPOSITION 13 778, 785, 788, 790). I have not found examples of tch or cht for radical s, s^ s^ but doubt not that they are to be found. X. Loss OF Radicals. — Roots tend to become monosyllabic in the Aryan languages and Basque, often becoming actually mono- syllabic through the loss of vowels only (see section xi.), and often becoming monosyllabic fragments through the loss of consonants with or without loss of vowels. The radical consonants most frequently lost are the gutturals (h, h^ h^, h^; see section iii.); V, y (see section v.); initial k (see section iv.); initial n, medial n, and final 1, m, n, r (see section vii.). I have noted also the loss of the following radicals: in the Aryan languages, -b (entries 275, 335 (?), 681); -d (entries 187, 390, 391, 501, 544, 604 (?), 635, 637); -t (entry 380); -k (entry 766); -p (entries 51 and 306); -q (entries 436 and 623(?)); -s' (entries 305 and 653); -t' (entries 516 and 744); in Basque, -k (entry 115); -z^ (entry 771); -s^ (entry 569). (For the loss of initial and medial radicals (strong), see entries 114, 378, 391, 445, 571, 635, 692, 799). When the medial and the final consonant of a root are the same in character, only one of them is represented in the Aryan languages (entries 222, 227, 264, 729, 784, etc. ; exceptions in en- tries 254 and 499 (?)) and Basque (entries 194, 248, 271, 304, 368, 426, etc.; exceptions in entries 231 and 294 (?)). Modern scholar- ship regards the final consonant in such cases as suffixed to biconso- nantal roots. (See Gesenius' Hebrew Grammar, section 67). The fact that the repetition of the medial radical is not regularly re- flected in the Aryan languages would seem to indicate that the so- called third radical of these roots is (as modern scholarship has con- jectured) only a suffix. The exceptions are too few to be troublesome and yet how are they to be explained? Was the root of Enghsh ''warm" (entry 254; Hebrew .h^amam, to be warm) originally [*h^.r_ni]? Or was the process of augmenting biconsonantal roots very anciently practiced? When the medial and the final consonant of a root are similar in character, only one of them (probably the stronger) is represented in the Aryan languages (entries 387, 447, 466, 716, 747, 775, 782, etc.; exceptions in entries 393, 453, 721 (?), 735 (?)) and Basque 14 SUMMARY EXPOSITION [x. (entries 104 and 310; an exception in entry 447). This observa- tion is not applicable to cases where the medial and the final consonant are liquids. In the Semitic and the Aryan languages, actual doubling (gemina- tion) of consonants occurs often, sometimes through the influence of vowels or semivowels and at other times from various designs or even seemingly mere caprice. Fictitious gemination is frequent in the Aryan languages when written or printed and is usually a mere clerical device. In all such cases I have, in the Alphabetic Exposition and the Synopses, treated the doubled consonants as if single, even when the gemination takes the form of eg, for example, instead of gg (as often in Anglo-Saxon) or of ck instead of cc (?) (as often in Enghsh). Where gemination is due to assimi- lation involving a radical and a non-radical consonant, the fact has been indicated by difference in the typography of the letters. Gemination resulting from prefixing the Hebrew article (entries 111 and 302) I have represented as arising from assimilation. This is in accordance with the long-current supposition that the Hebrew article originally ended in 1. Modern scholarship has queried whether that supposition is wtII founded. (See Gesenius' Hebrew Grammar, section 35). The distinctions in typography which I have intentionally made and which need explanation are here briefly detailed. Within a given entry, radical consonants and their successors in deriva- tives of the root have been printed in small capitals; except that, in English derivatives (not defined but) occurring in the defini- tions given and the notes, the consonants representing the root have been printed in italics. Vowels are so printed (in small capitals or italics) only when lying within limits reflecting the root, u and y being somewhat irregularly excepted in a few instances. In cases of reduplication (see section xiv.), vowels lying between the reduplicated parts of the root have been printed without distinction. In a few" instances where suflfixes (see sec- tion XII.) have become as it were radical, I have printed them in small capitals or italics. Other irregularities (readily intelligible) in the use of small capitals occur in entries 34, 324, 339, 653. Un- X., XI.] SUMMARY EXPOSITION 15 fortunately for the typographical system here detailed, the small capitals o, s, v, w, x, and z are scarcely to be distinguished from the corresponding lower-case letters o, s, v, w, x, and z. Often the typography of neighboring vowels will advise the reader, in such cases, whether the letters are to be considered small-capital or lower-case. XI. Consonantal Contact. — The ancient Hebrews uttered their words with much precision, seldom permitting contact of one consonant with another to occur. The Aryan and the Basque peoples, on the contrary, have freely dropped vowels and, by thus bringing together consonants possibly inharmonious and difficult of utterance, have at times rendered it desirable or even necessary to substitute other consonants for those offending or in fact to omit the latter without substitution. Whether combina- tions of consonants lack harmony, whether they are difficult of utterance, and, if so, what combinations can best replace them, must initially depend largely on the vocal organs and the physical as well as the critical ear of the individual speaker. Thus, it would seem, may in great measure be explained the wide variation in the forms one meets with of words that were once identical. Most readers of this volume will have been previously made familiar, by education and by observation, with many if not ^11 of the various changes that take place, in the several languages herein considered, from contact of consonant with consonant. It may, however, be well to observe here that, from such contact, gutturals (h, h^ h^ h^) often become palatals (g, k, q); as, Hebrew zanah^ (entry 203), to stink; Anglo-Saxon stincan, to stink; and to observe further that palatals, particularly in Gothic and Anglo- Saxon, may thus become guttural, as is exemphfied in Anglo- Saxon hweogul (entry 519), wheel, which becomes hweohl after dropping the vowel u. Further, I would call attention to the frequency (not regularity) with which r when brought into con- tact with d or t is in Basque replaced by some other Hquid (parti- cularly by n); as, Basque afari (entry 112), supper; afaldu, to eat supper; Hebrew k'(e)res' (entry 372), belly; Basque gantz, belly. (See also entries 36, 569, 578, 687). 16 SUMMARY EXPOSITION [XII.^ XIII. XII. Suffixes; Final Radicals. — The suffixes which are of frequent occurrence and especially worthy to be kept in mind in reading the present volume are: in Hebrew, h^, y, n, t^; in Gaelic, c, d, g, n, t; in Gothic, d, g, n, s, t; in Anglo-Saxon, c, d, g, h, n, t; in Latin, c, d, 1, m, n, r, s, t; and in Basque, n, tz, -tu (-du). Fre- quently some of these suffixes are combined or repeated. The question must often arise whether, in a given word, a given consonant is a suffix or is of radical origin. In such a case it is important to observe whether the given consonant is preceded by consonants that are conjointly capable of representing the whole root; whether represented in closely allied words; and whether frequent as a suffix; also, whether the radical considered as the possible ancestor of the given consonant is usually per- sistent under like conditions. (See especially entries 73, 91, 92, 294, 431, 433). As n and the dentals (d, t) are suffixes in many Aryan words which are cognate with Hebrew words having n or t^ correspond- ingly as a suffix, I think some of the words must have taken the suffixes before the Aryan peoples began their first migrations. For probable illustrations of this, see entries 22, 29, 67, 86, (93), 114, 146, 460, 521, 525, 574, 726. In the Aryan languages and Basque a vowel is sometimes pre- fixed to the root and becomes as it were a part of it. (See especi- ally the Greek words cited in entries 190, 302, 414; and the Basque words cited in entries 112, 136, 226, 228, 298, 456, 568). Some- thing besides a vowel seems to have been prefixed to some of the Aryan words cited in entries 715, 779, 780. (See also entry 419). XIII. Consonantal Transposition. — Instances of transposition of consonants are rarely met with in either the Semitic or the Aryan languages. Evident examples are: Hebrew h^al(e)vah^, iniquity, beside Hebrew h^av(e)lah^ iniquity; Hebrew .mal(e)t^a- h*out^ teeth, beside Hebrew m(e)t^all(e)h^out^ teeth; Anglo- Saxon acsian (entry 737), to ask, beside Anglo-Saxon ascian, to ask; Anglo-Saxon aesc (entry 374), axe, beside Anglo-Saxon aex, axe; Anglo-Saxon waeps (entry 287), wasp, beside Anglo-Saxon XIII.^XIV.] SUMMARY EXPOSITION 17 waesp, wasp; Latin ascia (for *acsia) (entry 374), axe; Greek eraze (entry 68), to earth, beside Greek erasde, to earth; and EngHsh ''mix" (for *misc) (entry 418). I have conjectured consonantal transposition in EngHsh ''back" (etc.) (entry 122); in Gothic hlahjan (etc.) (entry 393), to laugh; in Latin passer (entry 641), sparrow; and in Enghsh "grave" (etc.) (entry 650). (See also entries 289, 299, 325, 688). "Examples of transposition of letters [(consonants)] (meta- thesis, hyperthesis) are very common in Basque" (van Eys, Out- lines of Basque Grammar, page 4). I have conjectured trans- position of consonants in a great many Basque words cited in the present volume. (See especially entries 3, 36, 59, 206, 214, 233, 256, 329, 362, 557, 618, 722, 785, 790). XIV. Reduplication. — In the Semitic lang-uages, reduplication may involve only the final radical (entries 45, 514, 749); only the medial and the final radical (entries 266, 779), in which case the initial radical if weak may be lost (entry 316); or only the first two radicals if the medial and the final radical are the same in character (entries 137, 144, 634, 651). In the last case the root is supposed to be really biconsonantal (see section x.) though apparently triconsonantal. The supposedly fictitious third radical is regularly lost in the process of reduplicating the first two radicals. Further, roots with the medial radical inserted for the purpose of "strengthening the vocalic element" (see section v.) may redupli- cate the first and the last radical with loss of the medial radical (entry 457). In the older stratum of the Aryan languages are to be seen occasional examples of what I conceive to be reduplication similar to the reduplication occurring in Semitic. (See entries 1, 43, 255, 323, 495(?), 517, 524, 674 (?), 802). There are instances in which, it would seem, two radicals were at first involved, and later the second duplicate radical dropped out or was converted into a cog- nate consonant. (See entries 9 (?), 137, 661, 802). Recently, it would seem, some of the Aryan languages adopted a new kind of reduplication, which may be called regressive re- duplication, anticipatory repetition. Usually only the initial 18 SUMMARY EXPOSITION [XIV., XV. consonant is involved, being imitated (or, repeated as it were) before being itself uttered. (See entries 46, 112, 293, 421, 491). In Basque, reduplication of the Semitic sort is to be seen in entries 51, 144, 146, 253, 634. There seem to be also in Basque instances of reduplication of meaning from compounding two words, synony- mous but unrelated in form. (See entries 295, 349, 666, 666, 684, 786). I conjecture English ''selfsame" to be an example of this. Note also English (colloquial) ''bare-naked" and "free-gratis." On the peculiar typography sometimes used in the present volume in the case of words showing reduplication, see section x. XV. Syntactic Position. — The arrangement of words in sentences in any given language long undisturbed follows, in general, cer- tain grooves as it were and is very difficult to change, except in the mouths of foreigners. Metrical composition (oral and written) tends (only gradually) to render variable the syntactic position of some few words. Foreign influences, however, may abruptly bring about such variability in the case of many words, or even all the parts of a sentence; but cannot, of course, dissolve words that have become firmly compounded. Long ago, it is supposed, two widely different (though perhaps fundamentally related) families of languages met in Europe and have since, to some extent, intermingled, — the Eastern family, becoming the Ural-Altaic or Scythian family (to which are cur- rently assigned Lappish, Finnish, Hungarian, Turkish, etc.); and the Western family, becoming the Indo-European or Aryan family (which I find to be fundamentally Semitic and with which I would provisionally ally Basque). The languages spoken in Europe today, then, are the descend- ants of two seemingly distinct tongues and, it may be properly inferred, bear each some characteristic marks of each parent. Unfortunately, important characteristics of early Scythian are unknown except in so far as they have been correctly conjectured from a study of the descendant tongues, which must be supposed to have been more or less seriously corrupted from contact with the Western family. Of the descendants of this latter family, Gaelic seems to me to be most primitively Semitic; that is, to XV.] SUMMARY EXPOSITION 19 have suffered least from contact with the Eastern family; and Basque, it likewise seems, has suffered much if not most from such contact; in fact, I might say, Basque seems to me to have adjusted to its largely Semitic vocabulary and its Semitic (?) groundwork a syntax markedly Scythian. In Gaelic, the finite verb is placed before the subject much more rigidly than in any other language known to me. Gaelic, in this respect, is ultra-Semitic. In Gaelic, a noun in the genitive invariably follows the noun on which it depends. This is Semitic. In Gaelic, a noun limited by a noun in the genitive never ad- mits the definite article. This is Semitic. In Gaelic, personal pronouns are regularly compounded with prepositions and when so compounded are invariably postposi- tive. In these respects, Gaelic is Semitic. In Gaelic, a prepositional phrase is regularly used instead of the predicate possessive (predicate genitive) characteristic of the other Aryan languages (see section i.). This is Semitic. These two constructions fundamentally differ, in most if not all instances, only as prepositions differ from postpositions. In Gaelic, the numbers from 11 to 19 are expressed by placing the word for the unit or units first; the name of the things desig- nated, second; and then the word for 10; thus, ''one man ten" (for ''eleven men"); *'two men ten" (for "twelve men"); "three men ten" (for "thirteen men"); etc. (See Genesis 32:22; 14:4; 17:25; 31:41; 7:20; 46:18; 37:2; Judges 3:14; 2 Samuel 2:30). In Hebrew, "The numerals from 11 to 19 are formed by placing the units, without the copula, before the number ten . . . , but without the two words being joined into one. However, owing to their rapid pronunciation in one breath, the units almost in- variably appear in the form of the construct st. [(state)] (without pretonic vowels);..." (Gesenius' Hebrew Grammar, section 97, d). I would explain the presence of the form of the construct state here designated by supposing a noun to have been dropped in Hebrew from between the word for the unit or units and the word for 10. It should, however, be remarked that in Hebrew the name of the objects numbered regularly follows the word for 10. I conjecture that the original form of the Semitic and 20 SUMMARY EXPOSITION [XV. of the Gaelic mode of numeration here considered was hke this: ''one man ten men" (for ''eleven men"); "two men ten men" (for "twelve men"); etc.; and that Semitic has omitted the first noun; Gaelic, the second. In Basque, the subject regularly precedes the verb. This is Scythian. In Basque, a noun (or pronoun) in the genitive invariably pre- cedes the noun on which it depends. This is Scythian. In Genesis 24:48, for example, the Basque order is: ". . .my master's brother's daughter..."; just as in (the "King James") English. Again, in Genesis 24:51: "...thy master's son's wife,..."; in Basque just as in (the "King James") Enghsh. This order is Scythian; also Dano-Norwegian; but not regularly Icelandic, not regu- larly Anglo-Saxon, never (?) Wycliffite English. (See also Gen- esis 14:12; Mark 1:30; Acts 23:16). Again, in Genesis 24:67, the Basque order and idiom (invariable each) are the same as the English (not Anglo-Saxon): "...his mother Sarah's tent,..." (See also Genesis 26:24; 32:18; Matthew 14:3, 8; Mark 6:17, 24; Luke 3:19). Further, in Mark 1:1, the English is: "The begin- ning of the gospel of Jesus Christ, the Son of God." The same order is seen in the Greek and the Latin text; also in the Icelandic, the Arabic, and the Gaelic. In the Basque text, however, as also in the Turkish, the Hungarian, the Finnish, and the Dano- Norwegian, the order is practically reversed and the passage ends, as it were thus: "...gospel's beginning." This is very signi- ficant. (See also Matthew 1:1, where only the Finnish order is irregular). In Basque, pronouns regularly take governing suffixes (or, are regularly compounded with postpositions). This is Scythian. A trace of this is seen in Latin mecum (me-with), tecum (thee- with), etc. I may here observe that the component parts of Latin mecum (me-with) are, in my opinion, cognate with those of Basque enequin (enekin) (me-with). Are English "herewith," "hitherto," etc., kindred (as to the order of the component parts) with the Basque and the Latin compounds here cited? In Basque, the participle of so-called compound-tense forms invariably precedes the auxiliary. This is Scythian. The same XV., XVI.] SUMMARY EXPOSITION 21 order of participle and auxiliary prevails in the so-called com- pound-tense forms in Latin (and some other Aryan languages). The same order is seen in the form of the past tense and the per- fect participle of Teutonic weak (regular) verbs. Thus, Enghsh ''walked/' 'laid/' etc., are known to be for "*walk-did,'' "*lay- did," etc. I conjecture that the Teutonic system of weak verbs is of Scythian origin. The internal vowel-change (regular) of Teutonic strong verbs (which are known to be older in form than weak verbs) is comparable (it has been observed by philologists) to that of Semitic verbs. In Basque, the numbers from 11 to 19 are expressed by words (firmly compounded) corresponding to these: "ten-one" (for "eleven"), "ten-two" (for "twelve"), "ten-three" (for "thir- teen"), etc. This is Scythian (and also Chinese) and is in strong contrast with the Semitic and Aryan (regular) order. (See sec- tion XVII.). XVI. Comparison of Adjectives. — The comparison of adjectives in the Aryan languages is variously complicated and few of the details have been satisfactoril}^ analyzed. I conjecture (and find others have likewise conjectured) that the various Aryan endings of the comparative degree were originally demonstratives. If rightly, "he is wiser" literally means "he is wise, he," which is intelligible but might be more so. I conjecture the original form to have been "is wise he," used for emphasis instead of "is he wise," which I take to have once been our regular form of declaration and which is the regular form of declaration used in Gaelic today; that is, the beginning of the comparative degree was (as I see it) only an emphasizing variation of the position of the adjective in unemphatic declaration (see section xv.). In time, the pronoun of the emphatic order became, it is easy to see, suffixed to the adjective as ordinarily to the verb (see section xviii.). The verb, too, has in Gaelic become a regular part of the comparative form of the adjective though not joined to it and still subject to in- flection as a verb. At first the pronoun was joined, it is properly inferable, only to adjectives frequently used and was not, as now, viewed as a transferable suffix. Adjectives thus altered, being at first only emphatic forms, must have tended to render the 22 SUMMARY EXPOSITION [XVI. uneniphatic forms obsolete (see also sections xvii. and xviii.). When the emphatic form took on a definitely comparative sense, a new form for the positive meaning had to be found; that is, a word of positive form and similar meaning was substituted for the lost positive. This I conceive to be the reason why the most frequently used adjectives, in most if not all Aryan languages, are of irregular comparison, — a query of long standing in philology. The origin and literal meaning of the superlative ending -est have, I believe, never been suspected by etymologists. I conjecture that the superlative form arose from emphasizing the comparative form, just as the latter arose from emphasizing the positive form. Now what order is more emphatic for the adjective than ''is wise he" (the original comparative form)? Certainly ''wise is he"; that is, the superlative ending -est is the verb with the pronoun suffixed, the -t in the ending -est being the same as the th- in English "the" and "that" (see section xviii.). Gaelic cannot place the adjective before the verb and the consequence (?) is that the comparative and the superlative form are identical and can be distinguished only by the context. The beginning, then, as I see it, of the comparison of adjectives in the Aryan languages is as follows: Positive: "is he wise" (declarative); Comparative: "is wise he"; Superlative : "wise is he." A superlative form with m as a suffix is seen in a few Gothic and Anglo-Saxon words and is regular in Latin. The superlative in Welsh regularly ends in f, standing for earlier m. I take these forms in m to be kindred with the Basque superlative, which regularly ends in -ena, and which van Eys regards as "the genitive plural, followed by the article a." (See also entry 416). In Hebrew, adjectives have only the positive form (but see Gesenius' Hebrew Grammar, section 133, a). Hebrew adjectives translated as comparatives or superlatives in the Aryan languages are usually followed by a prepositional phrase beginning with min (mi) (entry 416), from. This shows that the ablative and the genitive used after adjectives in the comparative or the superlative degree in the Aryan languages are really the ablative and the genitive of separation. XVI., XVII.] SUMMARY EXPOSITION 23 English ''than" and Latin qnam, than, following comparatives have been thought to be accusative forms of demonstratives, but their construction and meaning do not seem to have been ascer- tained. I think them ''adverbial accusatives" originally meaning "as," like the German als, than. The following references will be found serviceable for the study of modes of comparing adjectives (and adverbs) in various lan- guages: Genesis 1:16; 3:1; 4:13; 19:9; 24:2; 25:23; 26:16; 29:19, 30; 34:19. XVII. Numeral Words. ^ — I have not been able to discover any traces of kinship between the Semitic words for 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 9, lOf and the corresponding Aryan words. This, of course, does not necessarily indicate that systematic numeration had not be- come established before the Aryan peoples began their first mi- grations; indeed, it would seem (see section xv.) that some of the features of even advanced numeration had already become fixed. 1. — In the principal Aryan languages the words for 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 are uniform. There seems to be irregularity in desig- nating 1. Some etymologists consider English "one" and Sanskrit eka, one, cognate, the -n- and the -k- being (they think) suffixes. An inspection of the words for the other numbers up to (and in- cluding) 10 does riot lead to the inference that the -n- and the -k- above designated are suffixes. It should, however, be borne in mind that the ideas of unity, oneness, aloneness call very often for emphatic expression. It is therefore possible that English "one" and Sanskrit eka, one, are (one or) both emphatic forms that have replaced an earlier form. Note that English "alone" (hterally "all-one") has succeeded Anglo-Saxon ana, alone, (see Luke 5:21;4:4; Matthew 4:4; etc.). It is possible (indeed, I may say, probable) that Enghsh "one" and Sanskrit eka, one, are from the root k-v-n (entry 348) (He- brew *kVn, to set up, establish; to be firm, fixed, stable, enduring; Hebrew k^en, (properly, firm, upright), right, veritable, true). In this case, Sanskrit eka, one, has lost radical n final (see section VII.); and most of the other Aryan languages have lost radical k tThe Semitic word for 6 and that for 7 are very much like the corres- ponding Aryan words, as etymologists have often remarked. 24 SUMMARY EXPOSITION [XVII. initial (see entries 350, 352, 361, 367, 375); but Greek heis (genitive, henos), one, has both radical k initial and radical n final represented (see also entry 350). Note also that EngUsh "one" begins actually (though not graphically) with w. This may indicate the loss of a guttural or a palatal. This derivation for Sanskrit eka, one, if correct, does not necessarily indicate that the word is unrelated to Hebrew hak(e) (entry 35), but, only, with which I have treated it as cognate; for there is a probability (etymologists think) that Hebrew hak(e) is referable to the root k-v-n. .Again, a remote possibility that should not be overlooked is that Sanskrit eka, one, may be cognate with Hebrew heh^ad (Aramaic h^ad) (entry 26), one, radical -d having been lost from the Sanskrit word (see section x.). This would make Sanskrit eka, one, cognate with Sanskrit c^at^a, hundred, like Gaelic ceud, first; hundred, (entry 26). In entry 35, I have treated the -eka of Basque hameka, eleven, as cognate with Sanskrit eka, one. Yet it is scarcely probable that this is correct if Sanskrit eka, one, is an Aryan word; since Basque hameka, eleven, is a compound made in accordance with the Scythian mode of expressing the numbers from 11 to 19 (see section xv., at end). It is possible, I conceive, that the earlier form of Basque bat, one, was [*bak], the [*-k] of which has survived in Basque hameka, eleven. (See Outlines of Basque Grammar, by W. J. van Eys, page 2). 2. — I think Anglo-Saxon twegen, two, unmistakably cognate with Hebrew .t^aham (entry 793), to be double. The -o in Latin duo, two; and the -o^ in Greek duo^ two, seem to indicate the loss of a following nasal (see also entry 139). Anglo-Saxon begen, both, seems to me to be phonetically related to Anglo-Saxon twegen, two, just as Latin bellum, war, is related to Latin duellum, war; Latin bonus, good, to Latin duonus, good; etc. I would connect Anglo-Saxon begen, both; and Latin bis, twice, with Basque biga (bi), two. I think Latin bonus (duonus), good, a compound, the second part of which is seen in Basque on, good; so that Latin bonus (duonus) literally means ''twice good." XVII.] SUMMARY EXPOSITION 25 3. — I conjecture that English "three" (entry 793) is a com- pound, made by joining (without copulaf) ''two" with -r-(-r or r-), for which I assume the meaning ''one." Note that Basque hirur means "three" and Basque laur (for [*lahirur]?) means "four." 4. — I conjecture that Latin quatuor (entries 35 and 793), four, means hterally "one [and] two [and] one." 5. — The qu- in Latin quinque (entries 35 and 445), five, is evidently the same as the qu- in Latin quatuor, four, and means, (I assume) "one." In view of the importance of the hand in primitive counting, I query whether the -nque in Latin quinque, five, does not mean "hand" (or, "parcel of four"?). I note the harmony of form between Greek pente, five; and Greek panta (neuter, plural), all; and I query whether Latin cunctus, all, may not be related to Latin quinque, five. I also query whether Latin omnis, all, may not be related to Latin manus (entry 324), hand. There is a possibility that Latin omnis, all, is related to English "many" (entry 417). English "four" and "five" are properly regarded as unmistak- ably cognate with Latin quatuor, four; and Latin quinque, five, respectively; and yet I have not so printed them in entry 35. Does English f ever represent a radical guttural or palatal? 6, 7. — I query whether the sec- in Latin sex, six; and the sep- in Latin septem, seven, are the same as the sec- in Latin secundus, the second, and denote the second series of five, the -s in Latin sex, six, meaning "one" and the -tem in Latin septem, seven, meaning "two." 8. — I query whether a prefix (represented in Latin sex, six; and in Latin septem, seven) has been dropped from Latin octo, eight; and if so, whether the word originally meant literally "(in the second series) one [and] two." 9. — Some etymologists regard Latin novem, nine, as meaning literally "a new one" in a tetradic system of numeration. 10.— I think EngUsh "ten" means hterally "two (hands)" and (with Anglo-Saxon twegen, two) is cognate with Hebrew .t^aham tl conjecture that conjunctions are as a class a comparatively recent addition to the "parts of speech." 26 SUMMARY EXPOSITION [XVII.. XVIII. (entry 793), to be double. Note also the form of Latin decern, ten. 11-19. — In the Semitic and in the Aryan languages (except Gaelic; see section xv.), the numbers from 11 to 19 are, in general, if expressed in words, regularly put thus: "one-ten" (for 11), "two-ten" (for 12), "three-ten" (for 13), etc. In strong contrast with this mode of numeration, the Basque words (also the Scythian and the Chinese) for the numbers from 11 to 19 Hterally mean "ten-one" (for 11), "ten-two" (for 12), "ten-three" (for 13), etc. (See also section xv.). EngHsh "eleven" and "twelve" seem irregular and have remained unexplained. I conjecture that the -lev- in Enghsh "eleven" and the -Iv- in English "twelve" each mean "ten," and are cognate with Hebrew helep (entry 42), which seemingly means "thousand" but which (I assume) may easily mean merely "ten (hundred)" or "tenth (count)." 100. — Etymologists suppose English "hundred" to mean literally "tenth count." I take it to mean "first count." I was led to this belief by the relation I conceived to exist between English "eleven" (and "twelve") and Hebrew helep, thousand; also by the fact that Gaelic ceud (entry 26) means both "first" and "hun- dred." I note further that Gothic has two ways of verbally indicating 100 : (1) by taihun-taihund, which is hterally "ten tens" and in line with 90, 80, 70, etc.; and (2) by hund, which seemingly means "hundred" but which I should say really means "first (count)" and is in line with Hebrew helep, thousand, ten (hundred), tenth (count). (See entries 26 and 42). XVIII. Pronouns. — As a class, pronouns are, I think, the oldest words in languagef; and hence cannot properly be said to "stand for nouns" or to be "used in place of nouns." At first, pronouns were, doubtless, unspecialized demonstratives, as is generally sup- posed; that is, were applicable ahke to the first, to the second, or to the third person, and were without distinctions for gender. tl do not regard primitive interjections as real words and have not dealt with them at all in the present volume. I take them to be instinctive in origin, like the crowing of the cock or the neighing of the horse, and there- fore without much (if any) philological value except from syntactic position. XVIII.] SUMMARY EXPOSITION 27 The importance of the first person and the scarcely less importance of the second, in almost every utterance, must have led early to specialization of demonstratives for the distinct designation of those persons, in the singular number. Particular forms for the third person, the dual, and the plural, as also for the various genders, must naturally have been of later origin. As barely a thought can be expressed without pronouns, once specialized they are necessarily persistent as such; in fact, can be replaced almost only through foreign influence and through the encroachment of words added to reinforce them. (See section xv., at beginning). Pronouns therefore may be expected to prove important witnesses in the investigation of kinship, real or merely suspected, between languages. In general, pronominal forms are of service in de- termining the order of divisions among peoples, but the com- pleteness or incompleteness of such divisions and the degree of isolation of the linguistic sections thus instituted must always be considered. The divisions, for examples, among the Semitic peo- ples were relatively incomplete and that between the Semitic and the Gaelic peoples was, it would seem, practically absolute. On inspection of the pronouns of the Semitic and of the Aryan languages, the pronominal forms of the first and those of the second person singular in the latter group of languages are found to differ but little from the corresponding forms of the first group. (See entries 49 and 77). Some of the Aryan languages, however, exhibit a noticeable irregu- larity, among themselves, in the nominative form of the first person singular. This irregularity arose, I take it, through replacement of the primitive form by an emphatic form. Verbal endings in many of the Aryan languages point to a time when the pronominal (or other) subject regularly followed its verb just as in Gaelic today (see sections xv. and xvi.). In Gaelic, the order is thus: ''is me wise." To emphasize the pronoun, Gaelic suffixes to it (or merely adds after it) a demonstrative (sa, in entry 189) and the pronoun subject has not uniformly become appended to the verb. In Hebrew, pronouns are often repeated for emphasis and often an emphasizing word meaning ''even" is placed before the repeated form (or before a pronoun when not repeated); thus, "(I,) even I" (Ezekiel 5:8; 16:43); "me, even me" (Genesis 27:34, 38); "she, 28 SUMMARY EXPOSITION [XVIII. even she" (Genesis 20:5); etc. In Hebrew, the word for "even" in such cases is regularly g^am (entry 139), which I take to be cognate with Greek kai meaning "and, even, also" and used like Hebrew g^am, even, to emphasize a pronoun. I will insert this Hebrew word, as I conceive it to have been ap- proximately used in an early Aryan declaration emphasizing the pronoun: "is me g^am me wise." Joining the first "me" to the verb and the second one to g^am will give "isme" and "gramme," which I take to be ancestors of Sanskrit as^m^i, (I) am, and San- skrit ah^am^ I; of Latin sum, (I) am, and Latin ego, I; of Gothic im, (I) am, and Gothic ik, I; etc. (Philologists have, of course, long understood the origin of these verb forms but not fully, I believe, that of the pronominal forms here considered). Under Scythianf and other influences designated in section xv., the emphatic form of the pronoun was transferred (I assume) to a position in front of the verb and gradually became the actual subject nominative. In like manner I would account for the well-known but hitherto unexplained irregularity in the ancestral (Anglo-Saxon) and the cognate (Gothic, Greek, Sanskrit, etc.) forms of English "the" and "that." The Gothic forms, which are typical, run thus : (masculine,) sa, (feminine,) so, (neuter,) thata, (genitive, this, thizos, this), meaning "this, that; the; he, she, it." It will be observed that the forms in s- occur only in the nominative and that the genitive forms are coradicate with the nominative form neuter. My inter- pretation of these phenomena is that the forms in s- are there by substitution and that the original masculine and feminine forms (nominative) in *t- are represented in Gothic ist, (he) is§ ; Greek esti, (he) is; etc. An early form of declaration, then, in these languages was approximately this: "is *ta (he) sa (this one) wise." Joining tin certain phases of inflection, the Scythian verb, like the Semitic and the Aryan verb, suffixes the pronominal subject. This suggests the probability that even the Scythian subject nominative once regularly followed the verb; also the possibility of fundamental kinship of the Scythian with the Semitic and the Aryan tongues. Further, there are pronominal forms in Scythian (notably Hungarian) that seem unmistakably to be related to corresponding Semitic and Aryan (notably Teutonic) forms. §Some etymologists think English "is" has lost an originally suffixed t. I think the word never took on the suffix. Nouns are frequently used in- stead of the pronoun of the third person and would thus tend to prevent permanent union of the verb and the pronoun, as has (I conjecture) been the case with EngHsh (and Gaehc) "is" and the pronoun subject. XVIII.] SUMMARY EXPOSITION 29 (see also above) *ta (with loss of -a) to the verb and transferring sa to a position in front of the verb will give: ''sa (this one) ist wise." Thus, it seems to me, original *ta became practically lost and sa, originally added only for emphasis, became the actual pronoun. f I may add (though it is hardly necessary) that the nominative form neuter remained undisturbed because less frequently needing emphatic reinforcement and because less frequently used as the subject nominative. Further, the nominative forms plural, in Greek, show a corresponding irregularity, which, in connection with the less usual verb endings -atai, -ato, meaning "(they),'' leads me to suspect that these endings are original forms and that the -n- of the more usual endings -ntai, -nto; etc., is intrusive (see section vii.). I query whether the plural forms of pronouns have not arisen by joining, without a copula§, two demonstratives; thus, for examples, Latin nos, we, would then literally mean "me [and] this"; Latin vos, you, "thou (?) [and] this"; etc. (Note that Latin nos, we, has n- instead of expected [*m-], like Basque ni, I. Does the v- in Latin vos, you, point to Basque hi, thou?). tit is possible that *ta and sa are each ultimately cognate with He- brew zeh^, this, that, in entry 189; and had each become somewhat special- ized before the substitution of sa for ^ta took place. (See also entry 734). § Note also the modes of forming the words for the numbers from 11 to 19 (see sections xv. and xvii.). In section xvii., I offer the conjecture that conjunctions are as a class a comparatively recent addition to the "parts of speech." TRANSLITERATION In devising a system of transliteration for the foreign alphabets represented in the present volume, I have aimed at propriety and simplicity. No character is herein employed that may not be seen on almost any page of ordinarily printed English, and no foreign character is represented by a letter not so previously used by others. A mere glance at Table I. will be found sufficient for the present needs of the reader if acquainted with the alphabets that are there transliterated. The Sanskrit alphabet as transliterated in Table I. will appear formidable only to those unacquainted with the current systems of transliterating that alphabet, which use the dot above or below, the bar above or below, the cedilla, the tilde, accents, itahcs, etc., and which are, of course, not harmonious. In transliterating words, my aim has been to enable the reader to turn without query to any given word (if in its proper place) in the lexicon. To this end every consonant in Semitic words herein transliterated, whether it be ''movable" or ''quiescent," will be found distinctively represented. The sixth Hebrew con- sonant will be found represented by v, u, or w, as explained in a note to Table I. Under — a. and under — b. in the Alphabetic Exposition, in ascribing the citation of words to any authority, I transliterate, of course, the words if in foreign characters in the authority named. I should have represented them in each such case by three dots (...) and enclosed within brackets [ ] my transliteration. (30) TABLE I.: TRANSLITERATED ALPHABETS Hebrew (and Aramaic) Arabic Greek Sanskrit 1. h 1. h 1. a 1. a 26. n' 2. b, b^ 2. b 2. b 2. a' 27. t 3. g, g' 3. t 3. g 3. i 28. f 4. d, d^ 4. t' 4. d 4. P 29. d 5. h^ 5. g 5. e 5. u 30. d^ 6. V, (u, w) 6. h^ 5a. V 6. u^ 31. n^ 7. z 7. h=^ 6. z 7. r 32. t' 8. h^ 8. d 7. e^ 8. r^ 33. t^ 9. t 9. d^ 8. th 9. 1 34. d^ 10. • y 10. r 9. i 10. P 35. d^ IL k, k^ 11. z 10. k 11. e 36. n^ 12. 1 12. s 11. I 12. ai 37. p 13. m 13. s' 12. m 13. 38. p' 14. n 14. s' 13. n 14. au 39. b 15. s 15. d^ 14. X 15. h 40. b^ 16. h^ 16. t' 15. 16. n, m 41. m' 17. P. P' 17. z' 16. p 17. k 42. y 18. z' 18. h^ 16a. q 18. k^ 43. r^ 19. q 19. g^ 17. r 19. g 44. P 20. r 20. f 18. s 20. g^ 45. V 21. s^ 21. q 19. t 21. n^ 46. c^ 22. s^ 22. k 20. u 22. c 47. s 23. t^t^ 23. I 21. ph 23. c' 48. s' 24. m 22. ch 24. g^ 49. h^ 25. n 23. ps 25. g^ 26. h^ h« 24. o' ' 27. w 28. y Notes Hebrew. — I write v for the sixth Hebrew consonant when not quiescent, and u for it when coalescent with hsoulem (o). I write w (to be sounded as the -00- in EngUsh "moon") for s^wreq. (See also entry 18). Hebrew q may be approximately sounded Hke "a strong k formed at the back of the palate." Arabic. — The 26th Arabic consonant "when used as a grammatical ter- mination" I represent by he, which, "when followed by a vowel, is to be pronounced like t." (31) TABLE II.: ALPHABETIC COGNATES SECTION A, Aramaic : Hebrew : Arabic h : H : h, w b,b^ : B, b' :b g. g' : G, G^ :g d, d^ : D,D^ :d h^h : H^ :h^h V : V : w z,d : z :z, d^ h^ : H^ : h^ h^ t : T :t^ y : Y : y, w(?) k : K, K^ :k 1 : L :1 m : M : m n N : n s S : s h^ : H* : h^ g^ P. P' : P,P^ :f,b z^ t, h^ q, z z' : s^ d^ z' q Q :q r R : r s^s S^ : s^ (s) s\ t^ t^ s^ : s, (s'), t^ t^t^ t2^T« : t, t^ d Notes A hyphen (or two) must be supplied with each letter here given, in order that the word "cognates" (at the top of this page) may be applicable in the sense here intended. The arrangement of details in this section is not designed to indicate the subordination of one language to another. (32) TABLE II.: ALPHABETIC COGNATES SECTION B. Gaelic : Hebrew : Latin -(c) : H : — , h, c b, (mh), f, p : B,B^ b, f, p, V c, g : G, G^ : c, g, qv, h, v d, t : D, D^ :d, t -(c) : h' : — , h, c, qv -,b,f : V : — , b, f, V d, sd, s, t : z : d, s, (r), st, t - (c, h) : H^ : — , h, c, g, V, b, f t, d : T •t,d — : Y — V, j c, g K, K^ c, g, qv, V, b, p l,r : L 1, r, n m, n M m, r n, m : N n, m, 1, r s s s, (r) - (g, c) H^ — , h, c, V, f b, (mh), f, p P,P^ P, (b), f, V d, s, st, t z' d, s, st, t, (g) g, (c) Q g, c, h, V, b r, 1, n R r, 1, n, (s) s, (d, t) • S^ s, (d) s, (St, t) S^ s, (r, t) t, d T^ T^ : t, d Notes A hyphen (or two) must be supplied with each single letter and with each group of letters here given, in order that the word "cognates" (at the top of this page) may be applicable in the sense here intended. Latin. — The modern method of printing Latin avoids J and u and has, for example, qv for qu (though qu for qv). For obvious reasons of weight I have, in this table, printed j for consonant i and qv for qu; but in words I have printed qu for qv and never v for the vowel u. I place Latin here with Gaelic, partly as a matter of convenience; as Gothic and Anglo-Saxon, of course, could not properly be separated. Contrary to current opinion, Latin is in much closer sympathy with the latter languages than with GaeHc; indeed, syntactically (though not phonetically, it would seem) Latin is much closer to Basque than to Gaelic. (See section xv.). (33) TABLE II.: ALPHABETIC COGNATES . SECTION C. Gothic Hebrew Anglo-Saxon — , h, hw, w, k, g H — , b, w, c, g b, f, p, (w) B, b' b, f, p k, g, q, h, hw, w G, G^ c, g, h, w d, t D, D^ d, t — , h, hw, w, g H^ — , h, hw, w, c, g — , b, f , p V -, b, f, p d, s, st, t z d, s, (r), st, t , h, hw, w, k, g, q H^ — , h, hw, w, e. g t, d T t, d —,], w Y — j, g, w k, g, q, h, hw, w K, K^ c, cw, g, h, hw, \v 1 L l,r m, n, r M m, n, r n, m, 1, r N n, m, r s, (z) S s,(r) , h, hw, w, k, g, q H^ — , h, hw, w, c. g p, b, f P,P^ p, b, f s, st, t, (zd) z' d, s, st, t g, q, k, h, hw, w Q g, c, cw, h, hw. w r, 1, m, (s) R r, 1, m, (s) s, (t) S^ s, (t) s, (st, z) S^ s, (r, st) t, d T^ T^ t,d Note A hyphen (or two) must be supplied with each single letter and with each group of letters here given, in order that the word ''cognates" (at the top of this page) may be applicable in the sense here intended. (34) TABLE 11. : ALPHABETIC COGNATES section d. Hebrew : Basque H : — , h B, b' : b, p, (h, f) G, g' : g, k, h D, D^ : d, t H^ : — , h V : -, (b) z : ch, cht, s, ts, st, z, tz, zt H^ : — h, g, k T : t, d Y : -, j f K, k' : k, g, h L : 1, r M : m, n, 1, r N : n, m, 1, r s : ch, s, ts, st, z, tz, zt H^ : — , h, g, k p, p' : p, b, (h, f) z^ : ch, tch, s, ts, st, (t), z, tz, zt Q : g, k, h R : r, 1, n, m s^ : s, ts, z, tz, zt s^ : ch, s, ts, st, z, tz, zt T^ T^ : t, d Notes A hyphen (or two) must be supphed with each single letter and with each group of letters here given, in order that the word "cognates" (at the top of this page) may be applicable in the sense here intended. Basque. — In the Alphabetic Exposition which follows, radical z, z2, s, s2, s3 would doubtless each be found to be represented in Basque by ch, tch, (cht), s, ts, (st), z, tz, and (zt) if I had inserted all the variants of the Basque words cited. (35) INSTRUCTIVE ROOTS In the Alphabetic Exposition which follows, a root, the deriva- tives with the definitions given, and the notes appended constitute what I have designated an entry. It will be observed that seem- ingly unrelated roots may be identical in form. On the other hand, sometimes in the present volume, a single root, if the groups of Semitic derivatives are widely divergent in meaning, has been treated as dual or multiple and been made the basis of two or more entries. f A few of the entries which I judge to be most in- structive are here grouped (by number), somewhat roughly ac- cording to the degree of importance which I attach to them. For the Aryan Languages a. 24, 29, 190, 243, 254, 270, 287, 302, 325, 332, 352, 356, 476, 487, 491, 519, 564, 596, 636, 659, 660, 676, 682, 763, 801. b. 26, 28, 42, 176, 195, 200, 202, 203, 239, 250, 286, 335, 409, 412, 414, 445, 464, 474, 479, 629, 667, 669, 715, 727, 737. For Basque c. 1, 43, 49, 105, 172, 178, 196, 283, 304, 321, 426, 512, 513, 538, 547, 556, 632, 638, 664, 674, 768, 769, 771, 785, 790. d. 28, 29, 36, 71, 206, 232, 266, 271, 280, 494, 505, 515, 525, 657, 558, 567, 578, 585, 626, 635, 644, 654, 691, 700, 750. tAll the forms and definitions (except those enclosed within brackets [ ]) inserted under — a. or under — b. in the Alphabetic Exposition have been carefully selected from dictionaries and lexicons named in the list of Author- ities given near the end of the present volume. To a few Hebrew words, I have assigned some definitions which were anciently accepted but which have been rejected by modern scholarship. Such definitions when seemingly reflected in Aryan or Basque cognates appear to me to deserve reconsidera- tion. (36) ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION 38 ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION Hebrew (H.), Aramaic (A.), Arabic (Ar.), Gaelic (G.), Gothic (Go.) i. Roots tend to become monosyllabic in the Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). iL Radical gutturals (h, h^, h^, h^) are regularly lost in G., and are often lost (especially h, h*) in the other Aryan languages and B, Radical h, h^ final are regularly quiescent in H. and unrepresented in the Aryan languages and B. (See section iii.). iii. Radical gutturals and palatals (h, h^, h^, h^; g, k, q) may become, in Go,, A.-S., and L,, h, k(c, q), g; or, hw(v), k(c, q)w(v), (?)gw(v); or, w(v, b, f, p, in L.). (See sections iii. and IV.). iv. Radical v, y, radical n initial, and radical 1, m, n, r final are often lost in the Aryan languages and B. (See sections v. and vii.). V. Radical liquids (I, m, n, r) are regularly represented by 1, m, n, r (not always respec- tively) in the Aryan languages and B. (See section vii.). vi. Radical z, tP- become d, sd, s, st, t, or (z) in the Aryan languages. (See section viii.). vii. In B,, ch, tch, (cht), s, ts, (st), z, \z^ and (zt) are more or less freely interchanged and may each represent radical z, z^, s, s^, s'. ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION 1. (Root, H-B-H^). la. H. HAB, head, chief ruler, lb. B. jase, master, lord, /ather, ancestor. Go. asa, man, husband. Go. Fadar, /ather. A.-S. Faeder, /ather. L. pater, /ather. S. pit^r, /ather. Gr. pate^r, /ather. Gr. pappas (papas), papa; pappos, grand/ather. Go. awo, grandmother. Icelandic aFi, grand/ather. L. avus, grand/ather. In. English papa comes from a reduplication of the root with loss of H- and -h^; and so, too, Gr. papas, etc. (See section xiv.). Go. — Etymologists have considered Go. awo, L. avus, and Ice- landic aFi cognate with Go. Fadar, etc. If rightly, the -w- in Go. awo is an example (solitary) of Go. w^ arising from radical b. The origin of the -dar in Go. Fadar, the -der in A.-S. Faeder, etc., I have not been able to discover. (See also entries 12, 43, 194, 219, 791). 2. (Root, h-b-d). 2a. H. HABAD, to perish, be 2b. G. bath, to perish, die; destroyed; to destroy, kill. to drown; death,murder,slaugh- ter. ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION 39 Anglo-Saxon (A.-S.), Latin (L.), Greek (Gr,), Sanskrit (S.), Basque (B.) viii. When the medial and the final consonant of a root are the same or similar in charac- ter, only one of them is represented in tne Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ix. Suffixes frequently occurring are: in H., h'-, y, n, t^; in G., c, d, g, n, t; in Go., d, g, n, s, t; in A.-S., c, d, g, h, n, t; in L., c, d, 1, m, n, r, s, t; and in B., n, tz, -tu(-du). Frequently some of these suffixes are combined or repeated. A vowel may be prefixed or suffixed to a root in the Aryan languages and B. (See section xii.). X. In this investigation, the aspiration of consonants and the quality and length of vowels have, in general, been provisionally treated as without philological vahie. xi. Under a given root, words or parts of words printed in small capitals (in italics if defi- nitional) are to be considered descendants of that root and therefore cognate. Vowels are so printed only when lying within limits reflecting the root. (See also section x.). xii. The asterisk (*) as usual marks conjectured forms. Before H. and A. words (Bib- lical), I use a dot ( . ) to mark such forms except those of verbs not found in "qal" or "p2(e)h%l. " Under — a. and under — b., matter added by me is enclosed within brackets [ ]. 3. (Root, H-B-S). 3a. H. HEBWS, stall, stable, 3b. B. sABai, a barn for hay. barn (where cattle are fed, and fodder stored). 3n. I take B. sABai to be by transposition for [*BAsai]. (See section xiii.). 4. (Root, h-b-r). 4a. H. HAB^B^YR, strong, 4b. Go. aBRS, great, mighty; mighty; noble, valiant. aBRaba, very, much, greatly. 5. (Root, h-b-l). 5a. H. HABAL, to grieve, la- 5b. L. flco, to weep, cry. ment. Go. FLekan (FLokan [?]), to bewail, lament. 5n. Go. — I query whether Go. FLekan is from the root h-b-l and has taken -k- as a suffix. Etymologists do not regard Go. FLekan as cognate with L. flco. 6. (Root, h-b-r). 6a. H. *HABAR, to mount up- 6b. A.-S. BRidd, a young bird wards (in flight) ; to soar (as the [(Sweet) ]. hawk); heber, wing-feather, pinion (as the instrument of fly- ing, soaring). 40 ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION Hebrew (H.), Aramaic (A.), Arabic (Ar.), Gaelic (G.), Gothic (Go.) L Roots tend to become monosyllabic in the Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ii. Radical gutturals (h, h^, h^, h^) are regularly lost in G., and are often lost (especially h, h*) in the other Aryan languages and B. Radical h, h- final are regularly quiescent in H. and iinrepresented in the Aryan languages and B. (See section iii.), iii. Radical gutturals and palatals (h, h^, h^, h''; g, k, q) may become, in Go., A.-S., and L., h, k(c, q), g; or, hw(v), k(c, q)w(v), (?)gw(v); or, w(v, b, f, p, in L.). (See sections iii. and IV.). iv. Radical v, y, radical n initial, and radical I, m, n, r final are often lost in the Aryan languages and B. (See sections v. and vii.). V. Radical liquids (1, m, n, r) are regularly represented by I, m, n, r (not always respec- tively) in the Aryan languages and B. (See section vii.). vi. Radical z, z^ become d, sd, s, st, t, or (z) in the Aryan languages, (See section viii.). vii. In B,, ch, tch, (cht), s, ts, (st), z, tz, and (zt) are more or less freely interchanged and may each represent radical z, z^, s, s^, s^. 7. (Root, h-g-m). 7a. H. HAGAM, stagnant wa- 7b. B. ene, lye. ter (specially used of the pools Go. anwa, water, stream, of stagnant water left by the river. Nile after its inundation) ; (any ) A.-S. ea, water, running wa- pool, pond. ter, stream, river. L. aQua, water. 7n. A. -S. — All the radicals have disappeared from A.-S. ea. The meanings of Go. anwa and of A.-S. ea do not directly indicate that these words are (as I take them to be) cognate with H. hag am. 8. (Root, h-g-n). 8a. H. .hag^g^an, basin,bowl. 8b. A.-S. cannc, cup, can. 9. (Root, h-g-r). 9a. H. .hagar, to gather, col- 9b. G. CRuinnich, to gather, lect; to lay up (provisions). collect. G. CRuin(n)eachd (cRuith- neachd), wheat. L. GRex (genitive, GRCGis), herd, flock, swarm; grcgo, to collect, assemble. Gr. aGEIRo^ to gather, collect. Go. HAiRda, herdy flock. A.-S. HEORd, herd, flock. 9n. L. — The -g- of L. grcgo may be a suffix or may have arisen from partial reduplication. (See section xiv.). ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION 41 Anglo-Saxon (A.-S.), Latin (L.), Greek (Gr.), Sanskrit (S.), Basque (B.) viii. When the medial and the final consonant of a root are the same or similar in charac- ter, only one of them is represented in tne Aryan languages and B. (See section x,). ix. SuflBxes frequently occurring are: in H., h^, y, n, t^; in G., c, d, g, n, t; in Go., d, g, n, s, t; in A.-S., c, d, g, h, n, t; in L., c, d, 1, m, n, r, s, t; and in B., n, tz, -tu(-du). Frequently some of these suffixes are combined or repeated. A vowel may be prefixed or suffixed to a root in tUe Aryan languages and B. (See section xii.). X. In this investigation, the aspiration of consonants and the quality and length of vowels have, in general, been provisionally treated as without philological valiie. xi. Under a given root, words or parts of words printed in small capitals (in italics if defi- nitional) are to be considered descendants of that root and therefore cognate. Vowels are so printed only when lying within limits reflecting the root. (See also section x.). xii. The asterisk (*) as usual marks conjectured forms. Before H. and A. words (Bib- lical), I use a dot ( . ) to mark such forms except those of verbs not found in "qal" or "p2(e)h*al. " Under — a. and under — b., matter added by me is enclosed within brackets [ ]. 10. (Root, G-R-P). 10a. H. .heG(E)ROP, the fist. 10b. Go. GREipan, to seize, lay hand upon, gripe. A.-S. GRipan, to seize, gripe. S. GR^AB^ to seize with the hand. lOn. Radical g- has appeared as g- in Go. GREipan, etc., — doubtless in consequence of contiguous -R-. (See section xi.). 11. (Root, h-v-d). 11a. H. HED, mist, vapor (is- lib. B. HODei (oDei), mist, suing from the earth and form- cloud, ing clouds). Go. hwatho, foam, froth. A.-S. acTHm, vapor, breath. S. a^T^m^an^, breath. Gr. aTmos, steam, vapor. 12. (Root, h-d-n). 12a. H. HADouN, owner, mas- 12b. G. aTHair, father, ter, lord. Go. aTTa, father. B. aiTa, father. L. aTTa, (a salutation used to old men, [like]) father. S. aTVa^ mother, a mother's sister, an elder sister; mother- in-law. 42 ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION Hebrew (H.), Aramaic (A.), Arabic (Ar.), Gaelic (G.), Gothic (Go.) L Roots tend to become monosyllabic in the Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ii. Radical gutturals (h, h^, h^, h^) are regularly lost in G., and are often lost (especially h, h^) in the other Aryan languages and B. Radical h, h- final are regularly quiescent in H. and unrepresented in the Aryan languages and B. (See section iii.). iii. Radical gutturals and palatals (h, h^, h^, h'*; g, k, q) may become, in Go., A.-S., and L., h, k(c, q), g; or, hw(v), k(c, q)w(v), (?)gw(v); or, w(v, b, f, p, in L.). (See sections iii. and IV.). iv. Radical v, y, radical n initial, and radical I, m, n, r final are often lost in the Aryan languages and B. (See sections v. and vii.), V. Radical liquids (1, m, n, r) are regularly represented by I, m, n, r (not always respec- tively) in the Aryan languages and B. (See section vii.). vi. Radical z, z^ become d, sd, s, st, t, or (z) in the Aryan languages. (See section viii.), vii. In B., ch, tch, (cht), s, ts, (st), z, tz, and (zt) are more or less freely interchanged and may each represent radical z, z^, s, s2, s^. Gr. aTxa, (a salutation used to elders, [like]) father. 12n. G. — The -r in G. axnair is doubtless cognate with the -r in English "father" and of uncertain origin. (See entries 1, 43, 194, 219, 791). 13. (Root, h-d-m). 13a. H. HAD AM, man. 13b. G. DUiNe, man. 13n. Of course, in this and the following entry radical -m may have been lost from the Aryan words, the nasals of which may be suffixes. 14. (Root, h-d-m). 14a. H. .HADOM (.hadem), to 14b. G. donn, brown, dun. be red, ruddy, reddish-brown. A.-S. dun, dun. 15. (Root, h-d-m). 15a. H. HADAMah% earth, 15b. G. DOMHan, the universe, ground, land, country, the the globe, the whole world, (whole) earth. 16. (Root, h-d-r). 16a. H. heder, a wide cloak, 16b. B. axoRRa, chemise, mantle. 17. (Root, h-h^-l). 17a. H. hoh^el, tent, taber- 17b. Go. HLija, tent, taber- nacle; dwelling, habitation, nacle; HLeithra, tent, hut. house; (specially,) temple. A.-S. heall, residence, hall. ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION 43 Anglo-Saxon (A.-S.), Latin (L.), Greek (Gr.), Sanskrit (S.), Basque (B.) viii. When the medial and the final consonant of a root are the same or similar in charac- ter, only one of them is represented in tne Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ix. Suffixes frequently occurring are: in H., h^, y, n, t^; in G., c, d, g, n, t; in Go,, d, g, n, s, t; in A,-S., c, d, g, h, n, t; in L., c, d, I, m, n, r, s, t; and in B,, n, tz, -tu(-du). Frequently some of these suffixes are combined or repeated. A vowel may be prefixed or suffixed to a root in the Aryan languages and B. (See section xii.). X, In this investigation, the aspiration of consonants and the quality and length of vowels have, in general, been provisionally treated as without philological value. xi. Under a given root, words or parts of words printed in small capitals (in italics if defi- nitional) are to be considered descendants of that root and therefore cognate. Vowels are so printed only when lying within limits reflecting the root. (See also section x.). xii. The asterisk (*) as usual marks conjectured forms. Before H. and A. words (Bib- lical), I use a dot ( . ) to mark such forms except those of verbs not found in "qal" or "p2(e)h%l. Under — a. and under — b., matter added by me is enclosed within brackets [ ]. 17n. Etymologists do not connect Go. HLija, etc., with A.-S. HEALL. 18. (Root, H-V-H^). 18a. H. *HAVAH^ to desire, 18b. L. aveo, to long for, de- long for; .HAVVAH^ desire, long- sire earnestly, crave, ing (for food; of sexual desire); desire, pleasure, will. 19. (Root, h-v-l). 19a. H. .HWL, (plural,) the 19b. Go. WALdan, to rule, mighty, the powerful, the chief, govern; WALdufni, power, au- thority. A.-S. wEALdan, to possess, rule; WEALdend, powerful, wielding authority. 20. (Root, h-v-n). 20a. H. HAVEN, nothingness, 20b. Go. wans, lacking,'M;ant- vanitj; falsehood, deceit; iniq- ing. uity; misery. A.-S. wan, lack, want. L. vanus, empty; fruitless, vain; false, lying, deceptive; VANum, nothingness, naught. 21. (Root, h-v-r). 21a. H. .hour, to shine, be 21b. Go. haurI, (plural,) bright; to give light; to hght, HAURJa, burning coals; a fire. 44 ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION Hebrew (H.), Aramaic (A.). Arabic (Ar.), Gaelic (G.), Gothic (Go.) i. Roots tend to become monosyllabic in the Aryan languages and B. (See section x). ii. Radical gutturals (h, h^, h^, h^) are regularly lost in G., and are often lost (especially h, h*) in the other Aryan languages and B. Radical h, h'^ final are regularly quiescent in H. and unrepresented in the Aryan languages and B. (See section iii.). iii. Radical gutturals and palatals (h, h^, h^, h^; g, k, q) may become, in Go., A.-S., and L., h, k(c, q), g; or, hw(v), k(c, q)w(v), (?)gw(v); or, w(v, b, f, p, in L,). (See sections in. and IV.). iv. Radical v, y, radical n initial, and radical 1, m, n, r final are often lost in the Aryan languages and B. (See sections v. and vii.). V. Radical liquids (1, m, n, r) are regularly represented by 1, m, n, r (not always respec- tively) in the Aryan languages and B. (See section vii.). vi. Radical z, tP- become d, sd, s, st, t, or (z) in the Aryan languages. (See section viii.). vii. In B., ch, tch, (cht), s, ts, (st\ z, tz, and (zt) are more or less freely interchanged and may each represent radical z, z^, s, s^, s^. kindle, (set on fire); hwr, light A.-S. HEORth, fireplace, (of fire) ; flame, blaze, fire ; hour, /dearth. light, daylight, morning-light. Icelandic HYRr, embers of fire. Go. aiR, early. A.-S. acR, early. Gr. e^Ri, early. 21n. Etymologists have not, of course, considered English /iearth cognate with English early. They do not consider Eng- lish early cognate with Gr. e^Ri. 22. (Root, H-V-H^). 22a. H. HOUT^ (plural, hou- 22b. Go. aixHs, odXh. T^out^), sign, pledge, token, argu- A.-S. axH, oa^/^. ment, proof, assurance, (attes- tation). 22n. I regard the -t^ in H. hout^ as cognate with the -th- (etc.) in Go. aiTHs; (etc.), although they are suffixes. (See also section xii.). 23. (Root, h-z-l). 23a. H. HAZAL, to go, go away, 23b. G. dol (dul), a going, depart. proceeding, walking. 24. (Root, h-z-n). 24a. H. *HAZAN, to /learken, 24b. G. eisD, to listen, heark- hear; hozen, ear. en, hear. Go. HAUSJan, to hear; auso, ear. ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION 45 Anglo-Saxon (A.-S.), Latin (L.), Greek (Gr.), Sanskrit (S.), Basque (B.) viii. When the medial and the final consonant of a root are the same or similar in charac- ter, only one of them is represented in tne Aryan languages and B, (See section x.). ix. Suffixes frequently occurring are: in H., h^ y, n, t^; in G.. c, d, g, n, t; in Go., d, g, n, s, t; in A.-S., c, d, g, h, n, t; in L., c, d, 1, m, n, r, s, t; and in B., n, tz, -tu(-d'u). Frequently some of these suffixes are combined or repeated. A vowel may be prefixed or suffixed to a root in the Aryan languages and B. (See section xii.). X. In this investigation, the aspiration of consonants and the quality and length of vowels have, in general, been provisionally treated as without philological value. xi. Under a given root, words or parts of words printed m small capitals (m italics if defi- nitional) are to be considered descendants of that root and therefore cognate. Vowels are so printed only when lying within limits reflecting the root. (See also section x.). xii. The asterisk (*) as usual marks conjectured forms. Before H. and A. words (Bib- lical), I use a dot ( . ) to mark such forms except those of verbs not found in "qal" or '■p2(e)h%l. " Under — a. and under — b., matter added by me is enclosed within brackets [ ]. A.-S. HYRan, to hear; hyrc- nian, to /hearken; eaRe, ear. L. auDio, to hear; auRis, ear. Gr. ous (genitive, o^tos), ear. B. eNZUN, to listen, hear. 24n. A.-S.— The -r- in A.-S. HYRan, etc., is for earlier *-s-, which, in turn, is for radical -z-. (See section ix.). L. — The connection between L. auDio and L. auRis has not been (but will, I trust, now be) clear to etymologists. B. — The -N- in B. cnzun doubtless points to a radical [*n-z-n] parallel with h-z-n. 25. (Root, H-H^-H^?). 25a. H. HAH^ fire-pot, (a 25b. Go. aunns, oven, portable) furnace (or) stove (in S. UK^a, boiler, caldron; uK^a^ which fire was kept in the king's any saucepan or pot or vessel winter apartment). which can be put on the fire. 26. (Root, h-h^-d). 26a. H. HEH^AD, one. 26b. G. ceud, first; hundred. A. H^AD, one. Go. huud, hundred. A.-S. Hunored (huud), hun- dred. L. CEUTum, hundred. S. c^AT^a, hundred. Gr. HEKATon, hundred. 26n. G. — Radical -h-^ has been strengthened to c- in G. ceud. (See also section in.). 46 ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION Hebrew (H.), Aramaic (A.), Arabic (Ar.), Gaelic (G.), Gothic (Go.) i. Roots tend to become monosyllabic in the Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ii. Radical gutturals (h, h^, h^, h^) are regularly lost in G., and are often lost (especially h, h*) in the other Aryan languages and B. Rafiical h, h^ final are regularly quiescent in H. and unrepresented in the Aryan languages and B. (See section iii.). iii. Radical gutturals and palatals (h, h^, h^, h'*; g, k, q) may become, in Go., A.-S., and L., h, k(c, q), g; or, hw(v), k(c, q)w(v), (?)gw(v); or, w(v, b, f, p, in L.). (See sections m. and IV.). iv. Radical v, y, radical n initial, and radical 1, m, n, r final are often lost in the Aryan languages and B. (See sections v. and vii.). V. Radical liquids (I, m, n, r) are regularly represented by 1, m, n, r (not always respec- tively) in the Aryan languages and B. (See section vii.). vi. Radical z, t? become d, sd, s, st, t, or (z) in the Aryan languages, (See section viii.). vii. In B., ch, tch, (cht), s, ts, (st\ z, iz, and (zt) are more or less freely interchanged and may each represent radical z, z^, s, s^, s^. Go. — Etymologists regard the Teutonic and L. forms as nasalized; that is, the -n- is intrusive. I derived in part the clew to the real meaning of Go. and A.-S. huiid, L. CEnxum, etc., from G. ceud, which means both "first" and "/ii^nc^red." Etymologists have supposed English /ii^nc^red to mean literally "tenth count/' whereas the real meaning (as I see it) is "first count." Go. has two ways of verbally indicating 100: (1) by taihun-taihund, which is lit- erally "ten tens" ; and (2) by huiid, which is, as'we saw above, literally "first (count)." (See also section xvii. and compare H. helep, thousand, that is, tenth (count), in entry 42). 27. 27a. H. HAH^w, reeds, sedge, 27b. B. ini, rush, bulrush, bulrushes. 27n. Some etymologists regard H. hahV as of Egyptian origin. Did the word come into B. directly from Egyptian? 28. (Root, h-h^-z). 28a. H. HAH^AZ, to seize,catch, 28b. S. H^AsVa, havd. lay hold of, take (especially with Go. hahdus, /iand. the Imwd; also of a snare); to A.-S. HAnD, /iand. hold, hold fast; to shut, bar. L. preHEUDo, to lay hold of, grasp, seize. B. HASTatu, to touch, /landle, feel. B. icni, shut, closed, bolted. 28n. Etymologists consider S. H^AsVa cognate with L. hasta, spear, which I refer to the root h*-z^-h^ in entry 553. They ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION 47 Anglo-Saxon (A.-S.), Latin (L.), Greek (Gr,), Sanskrit (S.), Basque (B.) viii. When the medial and the final consonant of a root are the same or similar in charac- ter, only one of them is represented in tne Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ix. Suffixes frequently occurring are: in H., h^, y, n, t^; in G., c, d, g, n, t; in Go., d, g, n, s, t; in A.-S., c, d, g, h, n, t; in L., c, d, 1, m, n, r, s, t; and in B., n, tz, -tu(-du). Frequently some of these suffixes are combined or repeated. A vowel may be prefixed or suffixed to a root in the Aryan languages and B. (See section xii.). X. In this investigation, the aspiration of consonants and the quality and length of vowels have, in general, been provisionally treated as without philological vahie. xi. Under a given root, words or parts of words printed in small capitals (in italics if defi- nitional) are to be considered descendants of that root and therefore cognate. Vowels are so printed only when lying within limits reflecting the root. (See also section x.). xii. The asterisk (*) as usual marks conjectured forms. Before H. and A. words (Bib- lical), I use a dot ( . ) to mark such forms except those of verbs not found in "qal" or "p^{e)h*a.\. " Under — a. and under — b., matter added by me is enclosed within brackets [ ]. H-H have not considered S. H^As^T^a cognate with Go. HAnDus, etc. They consider L. preHEiiDo cognate, not with Go. HAnDus, etc., but with Go. bigitan and A.-S. begitan, which I have placed in entry 290. They regard as intrusive the -n- of Go. haudus, etc. (See also section vii.). 29. (Root, 29a. H. HAH^AR, to be behind, after; to stay behind; to delay, remain; hah^er, another; ha- H^ouR, the hinder part, rear; the western quarter, the west; after- time, the future; hah^aroun, later; hindermost, {western) ;iiA- H^ARONym, the dwellers in the West; HAH^ARYT^ the end, event (of any course of things), latter state; the final lot; after time, fu- ture; descendants, posterity. 29b. G. eaRR, tail; eaRball, tail; eaRRaig, the last shift; iaR- gain, the evil effects of anything. G. iaRR, to seek. B. GERo, after. B. jaRRi, to sit down. B. jaRRaitu, to follow. G. iaR, west. A.-S. WEst, west, westward. L. HiBERus (Iberus), I6enan; HiBERNia (IvERNa, IcRNa), the island now called Ireland. G. HERiu (genitive, herenn), Erin [(Stokes)]. G. eaRar (a corruption of eaR- thrath), day-after-tomorrow. B. GERoa, the future. Go. Gistra-dagis, tomorrow. Icelandic gaer (gor), tomor- row; yesterdsij. Gr. auRion, tomorrow. 48 ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION Hebrew (H.), Aramaic (A.), Arabic (Ar,), Gaelic (G.), Gothic (Go.) L Roots tend to become monosyllabic in the Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ii. Radical gutturals (h, h^, h^, h^) are regularly lost in G., and are often lost (especially h, h*) in the other Aryan languages and B, Radical h, h^ final are regularly quiescent in H. and unrepresented in the Aryan languages and B. (See section iii.). iii. Radical gutturals and palatals (h, h^, h^, h^; g, k, q) may become, in Go., A.-S., and L., h, k(c, q), g; or, hw(v), k(c, q)w(v), (?) gw(v); or, w(v, b, f, p, in L.). (See sections iii. and IV.). iv. Radical v, y, radical n initial, and radical 1, m, n, r final are often lost in the Aryan languages and B, (See sections v. and vii.). V. Radical liquids (I, m, n, r) are regularly represented by I, m, n, r (not always respec- tively) in the Aryan languages and B. (See section vii.). vi. Radical z, z^ become d, sd, s, st, t, or (z) in the Aryan languages. (See section viii.). vii. In B,, ch, tch, (cht), s, ts, (st), z, tz, and (zt) are more or less freely interchanged and may each represent radical z, z^, s, s^, s'. A.-S. GEostra (adjective), of yesterdsiy. L. HERi, yesterdsiy. S. H"YAS^ yesterday. Gr. CHthEs, yesterdsLj. Go. WAiRTHan, to come to pass, arise; to be born. A.-S. WEORTHan, to come to be; to arise; to come to pass; to happen. L. VERTo, to turn out (well, badly) ; to turn, change, alter, transform. S. VRT^, to become; to hap- pen, take place, occur; to arise; to abide, dwell. B. GERTHatu, to happen,come to pass, fall out, occur. G. UR, fresh, new, recent; tail; child; iaRogh, great-grandchild. B. HAUR, child. 29n. G. — Radical h- and -h^- have been lost from all the G. words here given except that -h^- has been preserved in HERiu, which is ancient and which is either not a native G. word or is all but solitary in pointing to a time when G. had a stable h independent. B. — In B. GERo and GERoa, radical h- has been lost and radical -H^- has been hardened to G-. From B. jaRRi and jaRRaitu if cog- nate with H. HAH^AR, radical h- and -h^- have been lost. ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION 49 Anglo-Saxon (A.-S.), Latin (L.), Greek (Gr.), Sanskrit (S.), Basque (B.) viii. When the medial and the final consonant of a root are the same or similar in charac- ter, only one. of them is represented in tne Aryan languages and B. (See section x, ), ix. Suffixes frequently occurring are: in H., h^, y, n, t^; in G., c, d, g, n, t; in Go., d, g, n, s, t; in A.-S., c, d, g, h, n, t; in L., c, d, I, m, n, r, s, t; and in B., n, tz, -tu(-du). Frequently some of these suffixes are combined or repeated. A vowel may be prefixed or suffixed to a root in the Aryan languages and B. (See section xii.). x. In this investigation, the aspiration of consonants and the quality and length of vowels have, in general, been provisionally treated as without philological value. xi. Under a given root, words or parts of words printed in small capitals (in italics if defi- nitional) are to be considered descendants of that root and therefore cognate. Vowels are so printed only when lying within limits reflecting the root, (See also section x.). xii. The asterisk (*) as usual marks conjectured forms. Before H. and A. words (Bib- lical), I use a dot ( . ) to mark such forms except those of verbs not found in "qal" or "p2(e)h%l. " Under — a. and under — b., matter added by me is enclosed within brackets [ ]. A.-S. —The w- in A.-S. WEst represents radical -h^-. The -s- in the same word is from radical -r as is also the -s- in A.-S. GEOstra. Etymologists have not, of course, considered these words cognate. L. — The three forms of the L. name for Ireland are very in- structive, — leRNa representing a loss of radical h- and -h^-; IvERNa showing a loss of radical h- and also a loss of radical -h^- after allowing -v- to creep in; HiBERNia preserving radical h- and losing radical -h^- after allowing [*-v-] (later becoming -b-) to creep in. Go. — In Go. Gistra-dagis, radical h- has been lost and radical -H^- has been strengthened to G-, as also in A.-S. GEOstra and Icelandic gaer (gor). Etymologists have queried how these words could mean both "yesierdsij'' and "tomorrow.'' The meanings of H. hah^ar, to be behind; to be after, clear up this obscurity. Gr. — Both radical h- and -h^- have been lost from Gr. auRion. Etymologists admit the intrusion of -th- in Gr. CHthES. They do not treat Gr. auRion and Gr. cnthES as cognate. S.— The -s^ in S. hVas^ is evidently from radical -R, as also the -s in Gr. cnthES. The -t^ in S. VRT^ etc., is cognate with -t^ (which is not radical) in H. hah^arytI (See section xii.). 30. (Root, h-t-m). 30a. H. .HATAM, to shut,close, 30b. Go. faurDAMMJan, to dam stop, shut up (the mouth, the up; to stop, hinder, ears, windows). A.-S. forDEMMan,to shut (or) dam up. 50 ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION Hebrew (H.), Aramaic (A.), Arabic (Ar.), Gaelic (G.), Gothic (Go.) L Roots tend to become monosyllabic in the Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ii. Radical gutturals (h, h^, h^, h*) are regularly lost m G., and are often lost (especially h, h*) in the other Aryan languages and B. Radical h, h^ final are regularly quiescent in H. and unrepresented in the Aryan languages and B. (See section iii.), lii. Radical gutturals and palatals (h, h^, h^, h^; g, k, q) may become, in Go., A.-S., and L., h, k(c, q), g; or, hw(v), k(c, q)w(v), (?)gw(v); or, w(v, b, f, p, in L.). (See sections iii. and IV.). iv. Radical v, y, radical n initial, and radical 1, m, n, r final are often lost in the Aryan languages and B. (See sections v. and vii.). V. Radical liquids (I, m, n, r) are regularly represented by 1, m, n, r (not always respec- tively) in the Aryan languages and B. (See section vii.). vi. Radical z, z^ become d, sd, s, st, t, or (z) in the Aryan languages. (See section viii.). vii. In B., ch, tch, (cht), s, ts, (st), z, tZt and (zt) are more or less freely interchanged and may each represent radical z, z^, s, s^, s^. 31. (Root, H-V-H-). 31a. H. HY, shore, coast, is- 31b. G. i, island, land. A.-S. Ig, island; ic-land, is- land. Icelandic ev, island; eY-land, island. 31n. A.-S. — The -g in A.-S. Ig would seem to indicate that the medial letter of the root was [*-y-] rather than -v-. Moreover, it seems probable that the cognate G. word would have contained B or F if the medial letter of the root had been -v-. 32. (Root, h-y-b). 3'2a. H. .HAYAB, to be an en- 32b. Go. rijan (rian), to hate; emy; to hate; houyeb, enemy, rijands, enemy, adversary. A.-S. reogan (reon), to hate; Feond, enemy, /lend. 32n. All but the final consonant of the root has been lost from Go. Fijan, etc. (See also the following entry). 33. (Root, h-y-n). 33a. H. HAYiN, nothing, 33b. G. nI, not. ?iaught; not. Go. Ne, no, nay; nI, ?iot. A.-S. Ne, not. - L. Ne, not; non, not. S. N^a, not; mV, not. Gr. Me\ not. ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION 51 Anglo-Saxon (A.-S.), Latin (L.), Greek (Gr.), Sanskrit (S.), Basque (B.) viii. When the medial and the final consonant of a root are the same or similar in charac- ter, only one of them is represented in tne Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ix. Suffixes frequently occurring are: in H., h^, y, n, t^; in G., c, d, g, n, t; in Go., d, g, n, s, t; m A.-S., c, d, g, h, n, t; in L., c, d, I, m, n, r, s, t; and in B,, n, tz, -tu(-du). Frequently some of these suffixes are combined or repeated. A vowel may be prefixed or suffixed to a root in the Aryan languages and B. (See section xii.). X. In this investigation, the aspiration of consonants and the quality and length of vowels have, in general, been provisionally treated as without philological vahie. xi. Under a given root, words or parts of words printed in small capitals (in italics if defi- nitional) are to be considered descendants of that root and therefore cognate. Vowels are so printed only when lying within limits reflecting the root. (See also section x.). xii. The asterisk (*) as usual marks conjectured forms. Before H. and A. words (Bib- lical), I use a dot ( . ) to mark such forms except those of verbs not found in "qal" or "p2(e)h lical), I use a dot ( . ) to mark such forms except those of verbs not found in "qal" or "p2(e)h%l. Under — a. and under — b., matter added by me is enclosed within brackets [ ]. L. voRo, to eat greedily, de- vour. Gr. BORa, meat, food; bIbro^- sko^, to eat, devour. B. aFARi, supper; aFALdu (a- PALdu), to eat supper. 112n. A.-S. — Etymologists have not considered A.-S. BRead cog- nate with L. voRo, etc. B. — Van Eys thinks (possibly rightly) B. aFARi a variant of B. auhari (entry 36). 113. (Root, B-R-H^). 113a. H. B^ARAH^ to flee; to 113b. A.-S. FLeon (preterite make flee: to chase away, put tense, fleah, FLUGon); to ^ee; to flight; .b^ary(a)h^ feeing, to put to flight. fugitive. Go. THLiunan, to flee. B. BARReatu, to scatter, dis- perse. 113n. A.-S.— Radical -r- has been changed to -l- in A.-S. FLeon, etc. (See section vii.). Go. — I cannot explain the th- for radical b- in Go. THLiuHan, which etymologists regard (rightly, I think) as cognate with A.-S. FLeon. 114. (Root, B-R-H^). 114a. H. B'(E)RyT', covenant, 114b. G. breith, judgment^ agreement, compact, treaty, sentence, decision. 82 ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION Hebrew (H.), Aramaic (A.), Arabic (Ar.), Gaelic (G.), Gothic (Go.) L Roots tend to become monosyllabic in the Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ii. Radical gutturals (h, h'^, h^, h'*) are regularly lost in G., and are often lost (especially h, h*) in the other Aryan languages and B. Radical h, h- final are regularly quiescent in H. and unrepresented in the Aryan languages and B. (See section in.). iii. Radical gutturals and palatals (h, h^, h^, h^; g, k, q) may become, in Go., A.-S., and L., h, k(c, q), g; or, hw(v), k(c, q)w(v), (?)gw(v); or, w(v, b, f, p, in L.), (See sections in. and IV.). iv. Radical v, y, radical n initial, and radical I, m, n, r final are often lost in the Aryan languages and B. (See sections v. and vii.). V. Radical liquids (1, m, n, r) are regularly represented by 1, m, n, r (not always respec- tively) in the Aryan languages and B. (See section vii.). vi. Radical z, tP- become d, sd, s, st, t, or (z) in the Aryan languages. (See section viii.). vii. In B., ch, tch, (cht), s, ts, (st), z, tz, and (zt) are more or less freely interchanged and may each represent radical z, z^, s, s^, s^. league, alliance (of friendship; of marriage). G. REiTe, agreement, recon- ciliation, expiation, atonement, marriage contract. Go. gaFRiTHon, to reconcile, make peace. A.-S. FRITH, agreement, truce, league, peace, safety, protection. L. vergoBRETus, the title of the chief magistrate among the Aedui. 114n. G. — The -t^ of H. b^(e)ryt^ is thought not to be radical. Nevertheless I regard the -th, etc., of G. breith, etc., as cognate with -T^ (See section xii.). I think radical b- has been lost from G. REITe. L. — The meaning of vergo- in the non-native L. vergoBRETus is unknown, but possibly was "guardian" or the like; that is, the vergoBRETus was possibly a "guardian of agreements, con- tracts" to see that they were kept. 115. (Root, b-r-k). 115a. H. .B^ARAK(e), to bless; to curse; to praise, adore; to in- voke; to salute, greet (implying the wish or invocation of every good. . .This of course is more emphatic than the mode of salu- tation which merely asks after one's welfare). 115b. L. PARCo, to have mer- cy upon; to spare. L. PRECor, to ask, beg, be- seech, invoke, entreat, suppli- cate, ippray. S. BR^AH^m^an^ devotion, pi- ous utterance, prayer; worship- per, priest. ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION 83 Anglo-Saxon (A.-S.), Latin (L.), Greek (Gr.), Sanskrit (S.), Basque (B.) viii. When the medial and the final consonant of a root are the same or similar in charac- ter, only one of them is represented in tne Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ix. Suffixes frequently occurring are: in H., h2, y, n, t^; in G., c, d, g, n, t; in Go., d, g, n, s, t; in A.-S., c, d, g, h, n, t; in L., c, d, 1, m, n, r, s, t; and in B., n, tz, -tu(-du). Frequently some of these suffixes are combined or repeated. A vowel may be prefixed or suffixed to a root in the Aryan languages and B. (See section xii.). X. In this investigation, the aspiration of consonants and the quality and length of vowels have, in general, been provisionally treated as without philological vahie. xi. Under a given root, words or parts of words printed in small capitals (in italics if defi- nitional) are to be considered descendants of that root and therefore cognate. Vowels are so printed only when lying within limits reflecting the root. (See also section x.). xii. The asterisk (*) as usual marks conjectured forms. Before H. and A. words (Bib- lical), I use a dot ( . ) to mark such forms except those of verbs not found in "qal" or "p2(e)h%l. ' Under — a. and under — b., matter added by me is enclosed within brackets [ ]. B. BURHo, imprecation, curse; BiRau, malediction, curse. 115n. Etymologists have not regarded L. PRECor as cognate with L. PARCo; nor have they considered either of these words cognate with S. BR^AH^m^anl The meanings of H. .B^ARAK(e) imply all the meanings given under 115b. B. — On the loss of radical -k from B. burho, see section x. 116. (Root, b-r-q). 116a. H. B^ARAQ, to flash, 116b. G. breagh, beautiful, lighten; b^araq, glitter; light- splendid. ning. G. breug, lie, falsehood; BRAGainn, to boast, brag. Go. BAiRHts, bright. A.-S. BEORHt, glittering, bright. 116n. G. — I have entered here G. breug and G. BRAGainn in query. 117. (Root, b-r-r). 117a. H. .B^ARAR, to cleanse, 117b. L. purus, clean, pure, puriiy; to polish, make bright; S. pu^ to make clear, bright; to be clean, pure. to puriiy. B. BEiRa, glass. 117n. S. — Radical -r has been lost from S. pu^ (See section VII.). Etymologists, it should be remarked, regard the -r- of L. PURUs as a suffix. 84 ALPflABETIC EXPOSITION Hebrew (H.), Aiamaic (A.), Arabic (Ar.), Gaelic (G.), Gothic (Go.) L Roots tend to become monosyllabic in the Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ii. Radical gutturals (h, h^, h^, h'*) are regularly lost in G., and are often lost (especially h, h*) in the other Aryan languages and B. Radical h, h^ final are regularly quiescent in H. and unrepresented in the Aryan languages and B. (See section iii.). iii. Radical gutturals and palatals (h, h^, h^, h^; g, k, q) may become, in Go., A.-S., and L., h, k(c, q), g; or, hw(v), k(c, q)w(v), (?) gw(v); or, w(v, b, f, p, in L.). (See sections in. and IV.). iv. Radical v, y, radical n initial, and radical 1, m, n, r final are often lost in the Aryan languages and B. (See sections v. and vii.). V. Radical liquids (1, m, n, r) are regularly represented by 1, m, n, r (not always respec- tively) in the Aryan languages and B. (See section vii.). vi. Radical z, z^ become d, sd, s, st, t, or (z) in the Aryan languages, (See section viii.). vii. In B., ch, tch, (cht), s, ts, (st), z, tz, and (zt) are more or less freely interchanged and may each represent radical z, z^, s, s^, s'. 118. (Root, b-s^-r). 118a. H. *B^AS^AR, to cheer 118b. B. poz, joy; poztu, to with glad tidings; b^as^ar, flesh; rejoice. the body; pudenda viri. B. POTZuak, parties naturelles de rhomme. 118n. Van Eys suggests that B. POTzuak is cognate with B. poz, etc. These words have lost radical -r (see section vii.) if they are (as I think) cognate with H. *b^as^ar, etc. 119. (Root, B-X-H^?). 119a. H. B^at^ daughter; (plu- 119b. G. bean (plural, MNai ral, B^ANout^) daughters, nieces, and MNathan), woman, wife, young women, women; the fe- male inhabitants of any place; villages. 120. (Root, G-H-H^). 120a. H. G^AHAH^ to rise up 120b. Go. hauhs, high. (of waters); to grow up (of A.-S. heah (nea), lofty, high. plants); to be lifted up, exalted; G^EHEH^, lofty, high; proud, haughty. 120n. Go. — Radical g- has become h- in Go. hauhs, etc. Radi- cal -H- has become -h- in Go. hauhs, -h in A.-S. heah, and has been lost in A.-S. (nea). ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION 85 Anglo-Saxon (A.-S.). Latin (L.), Greek (Gr,), Sanskrit (S.), Basque (B.) viii. When the medial and the final consonant of a root are the same or similar in charac- ter, only one of them is represented in tne Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ix. Suffixes frequently occurring are: in H., h^, y, n, t^; in G., c, d, g, n, t; in Go,, d, g, n, s, t; in A.-S., c, d, g, h, n, t; in L., c, d, I, m, n, r, s, t; and in B., n, tz, -tu(-du). Frequently some of these suffixes are combined or repeated. A vowel may be prefixed or suffixed to a root in the Aryan languages and B. (See section xii.). X. In this investigation, the aspiration of consonants and the quality and length of vowels have, in general, been provisionally treated as without philological value, xi. Under a given root, words or parts of words printed in small capitals (in italics if defi- nitional) are to be considered descendants of that root and therefore cognate. Vowels are so printed only when lying within limits reflecting the root. (See also section x,). xii. The asterisk (*) as usual marks conjectured forms. Before H. and A, words (Bib- lical), I use a dot ( . ) to mark such forms except those of verbs not found in "qal" or "p2(e)h%l. " Under — a. and under — b., matter added by me is enclosed within brackets [ ]. 121. (Root, g-h-l). 121a. H. G^AHAL, to redeem, 121b. G. geall, promise, ransom (for example, a field or pledge, mortgage, farm sold, by paying back the price). 12 In. The radical ancestor of G. g is usually q. 122. (Root, g-b-b). 122a. H. g^ab, the hack. 122b. A.-S. baec, the back. 122n. I think A.-S. baec must be by transposition for [*caeb]. (See section xiii.). 123. (Root, G-B-H^). 123a. H. g^aby(a)h*, cup, 123b. L. cupa, tub, cask, bowl. Gr. Kupellon, cup. 124. (Root, g-b-r). 124a. H. G^(E)BYRah^ lady, 124b. A.-S. wif, i(;oman, lady, queen. wife. 124n. Radical g- has become w- in A.-S. wif, from which radi- cal -R has been lost. (See section vii.). 125. (Root, g-d-d). 125a. H. .g^ AD AD, to assemble 125b. G. cath, fight, battle; to attack; to attack (as an battalion, army; CATHach, war- army); gXe)dwd, troop, band rior. 86 ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION Hebrew (H.), Aramaic (A.), Arabic (Ar.), Gaelic (G.), Gothic (Go.) i. Roots tend to become monosyllabic in the Aryan languages and B, (See section x). ii. Radical gutturals (h, h^, h^, h^) are regularly lost in G., and are oft ;n lost (especially h, h*) in the other Aryan languages and B. Radical h, h^ final are regularly quiescent in H. and unrepresented in the Aryan languages and B, {See section iii.). iii. Radical gutturals and palatals (h, h2, h^, h^; g, k, q) may become, in Go., A.-S., and L., h, k(c, q), g; or, hw(v), k(c, q)w(v), (?)gw(v); or, w(v, b, f, p, in L.). (See sections in. and IV.). iv. Radical v, y, radical n initial, and radical 1, m, n, r final are often lost in the Aryan languages and B. (See sections v. and vii,). V. Radical liquids (1, m, n, r) are regularly represented by I, m, n, r (not always respec- tively) in the Aryan languages and B. (See section vii.). vi. Radical z, z- become d, sd, s, st, t, or (z) in the Aryan languages. (See section viii.). viL In B., ch, tch, (cht), s, ts, (st), z, tz, and (zt) are more or less freely interchanged and may each represent radical z, z^, s, s^, s'. (of warriors), detachment of an A.-S. heathu-, war-, army; foray, raid. 125n. A.-S. — Radical g- has become h- in A.-S. heathu- (which is found only in compounds). 126. (Root, G-D-H^). 126a. H. G^(E)Dy, kid. 126b. Icelandic kidh, kid. L. HAEDus, kid. 127. (Root, g-d-l). 127a. H. G^ADAL, to be great, 127b. A.-S. wathol, the full grow great; to be great (in val- moon. ue); G^ADOUL, great (in magni- Enghsh CATTLe, quadrupeds tude), large (tall). of the bovine family; sometimes also, including all domestic quadrupeds. 127n. The current derivation of Enghsh cattlc is not wholly satisfactory and I query whether the word is not cognate with H. G^ADAL. 128. (Root, G-D-H^). 128a. H. G^ADAH*, to cut down 128b. G. cuxaich, to shorten, (trees); to cut off; to cut in two curtail; cuTach, short, docked, (a staff). Icelandic kutI, a little blunt . knife. S. c^iD^ to cut off, hew down. 128n. The history of Enghsh cut is obscure. ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION 87 Anglo-Saxon (A.-S.), Latin (L.), Greek (Gr.), Sanskrit (S.), Basque (B.) viii. When the medial and the final consonant of a root are the same or similar in charac- ter, only one of them is represented in tne Aryan languages and B. (See section x,). ix. Suffixes frequently occurring are: in H., h^, y, n, t-; in G., c, d, g, n, t; in Go , d, g, n, s, t; in A.-S., c, d, g, h, n, t; in L., c, d, 1, m, n, r, s, t; and in B., n, tz, -tu(-du). Frequently some of these suffixes are combined or repeated. A vowel may be prefixed or suffixed to a root in the Aryan languages and B. (See section xii,). X. In this investigation, the aspiration of consonants and the quality and le"ngth of vowels have, in general, been provisionally treated as without philological value. xi. Under a given root, words or parts of words printed in small capitals (in italics if defi- nitional) are to be considered descendants of that root and therefore cognate. Vowels are so printed only when lying within limits reflecting the root. (See also section x.). xii. The asterisk (*) as usual marks conjectured forms. Before H. and A. words (Bib- lical), I use a dot ( . ) to mark such forms except those of verbs not found in "qal" or "p2(e)h*al. " Under — a. and under — b., matter added by me is enclosed within brackets [ ]. 129. (Root, g-d-r). 129a. H. GRADER, wall (es- 129b. Go. baurgs-WADDJus, pecially of a vineyard) ; a walled t o wn - wall ; gmndu-WADDJus, place, enclosure. foundation- wall. 129n. Radical g- has given place to -w- in Go. baurgs-WADDJus, etc., and radical -r does not appear. (See section vii.). 130. (Root, g-v-r). 130a. H. gVr, whelp, cub, 130b. English cur, a mongrel lion's whelp. dog. 130n. The history of English cur is obscure. 131. (Root, g-z-r). 131a. H. G^AZAR, to cut, cut 131b. B. haichtur, scissors, in two; to divide; to cut off; to shears, cut down (trees). 13 In. Radical g- has become h- in B. haichtur, and radical -z- is represented by -cht-. 132. (Root, g-h^-l). 132a. H. G^AH^ELet^ coal; 132b. A.-S. col, coa^; hat col, G^AH^ALey hes^, coah of fire. a hot coal. 132n. Radical -h^- has been lost from A.-S. col. 133. (Root, G-Y-H^). 133a. H. .g^y(a)h^ to break 133b. Go. wegs, violent move- 88 ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION Hebrew (H.), Aramaic (A.), Arabic (Ar.), Gaelic (G.), Gothic (Go.) i. Roots tend to become monosyllabic in the Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ii. Radical gutturals (h, h-', h^, h^) are regularly lost in G., and are often lost (especially h, h*) in the other Aryan languages and B, Radical h, h- final are regularly quiescent in H. and unrepresented in the Aryan languages and B. (See section iii.). iii. Radical gutturals and palatals (h, h^, h^, h^; g, k, q) may become, in Go., A.-S., and L., h, k(c, q), g; or, hw(v), k(c, q)w(v), (?)gw(v); or, w(v, b, f, p, in L.). (See sections ni. and IV.). iv. Radical v, y, radical n initial, and radical I, m, n, r final are often lost in the Aryan languages and B. (See sections v. and vii.). V, Radical liquids (I, m, n, r) are regularly represented by I, m, n, r (not always respec- tively) in the Aryan languages and B. (See section vii.). vi. Radical z, z- become d, sd, s, st, t, or (z) in the Aryan languages. (See section viii.). vii. In B., ch, tch, (cht), s, ts, (sf), z, tz, and (zt) are more or less freely interchanged and may each represent radical z, z^, s, s^, s'. forth, burst forth (, of a dash- merit, tempest; (plural,) billows, ing river). i(;a?;es. A.-S. WEG, flood, billow,i/;ai;e. 133n. Radical g- has given place to w- in Go. wegs, etc., and radical -h^ has become -g-, -g, and -v-. 134. (Root, G-L-H^). 134a. H. G^ALAH^ to carry 134b. G. call, detriment, away captive, take into exile ; damage, calamity, privation,des- G^ALwt^, captivity, exile. titution. 134n. The meanings given under 134b. are only remotely re- lated to those given under 134a., and I do not feel certain that G. CALL is cognate with H. g^alah^ 135. (Root, G-L-H^). 135a. H. *G^ALAH^tobebald; 135b. A.-S. calu, bald, cal- to shave (the head). low. L. calvus, bald, without hair. S. K^AL^vaHa, bald-headed. B. KHALLu, the skin of a slaughtered hog. 135n. B. — I assume that, among the B. people as among us, the bristles are removed from slaughtered hogs. 136. (Root, g-l-l). 136a. H. G^ALAL, dung. 136b. B. ogalc, excrement. ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION 89 Anglo-Saxon (A.-S.). Latin (L.), Greek (Gr.), Sanskrit (S.), Basque (B.) viii. When the medial and the final consonant of a root are the same or similar in charac- ter, only one of them is represented in tne Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ix. Suffixes frequently occurring are: in H., h^, y, n, t^; in G., c, d, g, n, t; in Go., d, g, n, s, t; in A.-S., c, d, g, h, n, t; in L., c, d, 1, m, n, r, s, t; and in B,, n, tz, -tu(-du). Frequently some of these suffixes are combined or repeated. A vowel may be prefixed or suffixed to a root in the Aryan languages and B. (See section xii.). X. In this investigation, the aspiration of consonants and the quality and length of vowels have, in general, been provisionally treated as without philological value. xi. Under a given root, words or parts of words printed in small capitals (in italics if defi- nitional) are to be considered descendants of that root and therefore cognate. Vowels are so printed only when lying within limits reflecting the root. (See also section x.), xii. The asterisk (*) as usual marks conjectured forms. Before H. and A. words (Bib- lical), I use a dot ( . ) to mark such forms except those of verbs not found in "qal" or "p2(e)ht (especially h, h*) in the other Aryan languages and B. Radical h, h^ final are regularly quiescent in H. and unrepresented in the Aryan languages and B. (See section iii.). iii. Radical gutturals and palatals (h, h'-, h^, h^; g, k, q) may become, in Go., A,-S , and L., h, k(c, q\ g; or, hw(v), k(c, q)w(v), (?)gw(v); or, w(v, b, f, p, in L.). (See sections iii. and IV.). IV. Radical v, y, radical n initial, and radical I, m, n, r final are often lost in the Aryan languages and B. (See sections v. and vii.). V. Radical liquids (I, m, n, r) are regularly represented by I, m, n, r (not always respec- tively) in the Aryan languages and B. (See section vii.). vi. Radical z, z^ become d, sd, s, st, t, or (z) in the Aryan languages. (See section viii.). vii. In B., ch, tch, (cht), s, ts, (st), z, tz, and (zt) are more or less freely interchanged and may each represent radical z, z^, s, s^, s'. 170. (Root, h^-b-l). 170a. H. H^ABAL, to be vain; 170b. G. uaiLL, vanity, vain- to act (or) speak vainly. glory, inconsistent boasting. 170n. Has radical -b- been lost from G. uaiLL? In other words, is G. uaiLL to be considered cognate with H. h^abal? I think so. 171. (Root, H^-G-H^). 171a. H. h^agah^ to separate, 171b. S. vie, to winnow, sift; take away (dross from silver) ; to to separate (grain from chaff by remove. . . (by) winnowing, sift- winnowing), ing [(figuratively)]. 172. (Root, H^-D-H^). 172a. H. h^adah^ to stretch 172b. B. HEDatu, to stretch, out, put out (the hand). extend [(the hand) (Mark .3:5)]. 173. (Root, h^-d-r). 173a. H. .H^ADAR, to decorate, 173b. A.-S. deorc (DYRe),glo- adorn; to honor, reverence; to be rious, magnificent; precious, be- glorious, splendid; h^adar, orna- loved, dear. ment, decoration; pomp, splen- L. aooRea, glory, fame, re- dor, honor. nown; aooRo, to reverence, hon- or, worship, sidore. 173n. L. — Of course L. adoro, to address, beseech, is a com- pound word and not referable to the root h^-d-r. ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION 101 Anglo-Saxon (A.-S.), Latin (L.), Greek (Gr.), Sanskrit (S.), Basque (B.) viii. When the medial and the final consonant of a root are the same or similar in charac- ter, only one of them is represented in tne Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ix. Suffixes frequently occurring are: in H., h^, y, n, t^; in G., c, d, g, n, t; in Go., d, K, n, s, t; in A.-S., c, d, g, h, n, t; in L., c, d, I, m, n, r, s, t; and in B„ n, tz, -tu(-du). Frequently some of these suffixes are combinetl or repeated, A vowel may be prefixed or suffixed to a root in the Aryan languages and B. (See section xii.). X, In this investigation, the aspiration of consonants and the quality and length of vowels have, in general, been provisionally treated as without philological value. xi. Under a given root, words or parts of words printed in small capitals (in italics if defi- nitional) are to be considered descendants of that root and therefore cognate. Vowels are so printed only when lying within limits reflecting the root. (See also section x.). xii. The asterisk (*) as usual marks conjectured forms. Before H. and A. words (Bib- lical), I use a dot ( . ) to mark such forms except those of verbs not found in "qal" or "p2(e)h^al. " Under — a. and under — b., matter added by me is enclosed within brackets [ ]. 174. (Root, h^-v-h). 174a. H. H^vH, he, this. 174b. G. e, he, him. Go. *His, this. A.-S. He, he. L. Hie, this. B. Hi, thou. 174n. L. — Etymologists do not consider the h- in L. mc re- lated to the h- in English he. B. — On the meaning of B. ni, see section xviii. 175. (Root, h^-v-n). 175a. H. H^ouN, riches, 175b. L. Beo, to enrich, make wealth, sufficiency. happy; seatus, rich, wealthy, happy. 1 75n. Radical -v- has become b- in L. Beo, etc. 176. (Root, n'-x-u'). 176a. H. hI\yah^ (.h^avah^), 176b. G. bI, to he; Bith, being, to he, exist ; to come to pass, hap- existence. pen, become; to become (to any- A.-S. Beon, to he, exist, be- one as his possession) : to belong come, to : [(by change of construction L. Fui, to have heen. in translating,)] to have. S. bV, to arise, become, ex- ist; to he. Go. HABan, to have. 102 ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION Hebrew (H.), Aramaic (A.), Arabic (Ar.), Gaelic (G,), Gothic (Go.) L Roots tend to become monosyllabic in the Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ii. Radical gutturals (h, h-, h^, h^) are regularly lost in G., and are often lost (especially h, h') in the other Aryan languages and B. Radical h, h^ final are regularly quiescent in H. and unrepresented in the Aryan languages and B. (See section iii.), iii. Radical gutturals and palatals (h, h^, h^, h*; g, k, q) may become, in Go., A.-S., and L., h, k(c, q), g; or, hw(v), k(c, q)w(v), (?)gw(v); or, w(v, b, f, p, in L.). (See sections iii. and IV.). iv. Radical v, y, radical n initial, and radical I, m, n, r final are often lost in the Aryan languages and B. (See sections v. and vii.). V. Radical liquids (1, m, n, t) are regularly represented by 1, m, n, r (not always respec- tively) in the Aryan languages and B. (See section vii.). vi. Radical z, z- become d, sd, s, st, t, or (z) in the Aryan languages. (See section viii.). vii. In B., ch, tch, (cht), s, ts, (st\ z, tz, and (zt) are more or less freely interchanged and may each represent radical z, z^, s, s^, s'. A.-S. HABBan, to have. L. HABeo, to have. 176n. G. — Radical -v- has become b- in G. si and G. sith. (See also entries 157 and 237). A.-S. — In form, A.-S. Beon differs cardinally from A.-S. HABBan only in having lost radical h^-. The same is true of L. Fui in comparison with L. habco. The meanings given under 176a., it will be noted, include both sets given under 176b.; that is, to he and to have. For the change of construction that (I judge) has come to Go. HABan, English have, etc., compare the con- struction of EngHsh 'like" in "I like it" for earlier EngUsh ''It likes me." Etymologists have not, of course, considered English he and have cognate. 177. (Root, h^-l-h). 177a. H. H^AL(E)Hah^ off, a- 177b. G. eiLe, other, e^se. far off; onward, forward, fur- Go. aLJis, other, another. ther;h^annaH^ALAHah^ removed, A.-S. eLLes, in another man- remote, ner, otherwise, else. L. aLius, other, another. 178. (Roots, H^-L-K, Y-L-k). 178a. H. H^ALAK(e) (.ya- 178b. A.-S. WEALcan, to roll, LAK(e)), to go, come, proceed, toss [(especially of waves)]. walk; to go out, set out, go Early English walkcu, to roll, forth; to run, flow (specially of toss; to walk. waters, streams); to overflow. B. iLKHi (jalgI, jALxi), to go out, come out, [go forth (Gen- esis 8:16, 18, 19)]. ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION 103 Anglo-Saxon (A.-S.), Latin (L.), Greek (Gr.), Sanskrit (S.), Basque (B.) viii. When the medial and the final consonant of a root are the same or similar in charac- ter, only one of them is represented in tne Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ix. Suffixes frequently occurring are: in H., h^, y, n, t-; in G., c, d, g, n, t; in Go., d, g, n, s, t; in A.-S., c, d, g, h, n, t; in L., c, d, 1, m, n, r, s, t; and in B., n, tz, -tu(-du). Frequently some of these suffixes are combined or repeated. A vowel may be prefixed or suffixed to a root in the Aryan languages and B. (See section xii.)- X, In this investigation, the aspiration of consonants and the quality and length of vowels have, in general, been provisionally treated as without philological vahie. xi. tJnder a given root, words or parts of words printed in small capitals (in italics if defi- nitional) are to be considered descendants of that root and therefore cognate. Vowels are so printed only when lying within limits reflecting the root. (See also section x.), xii. The asterisk (*) as usual marks conjectured forms. Before H. and A. words (Bib- lical), I use a dot ( . ) to mark such forms except those of verbs not found in "qal" or "p2(e)h%l. " Under — a. and under — b., matter added by me is enclosed within brackets [ ]. 178n. A.-S. — Note that the meanings of A.-S. WEALcan and of early Enghsh WALKen in the special as well as the general uses of the words are given under 178a. B. — It would seem that the B. forms reflect the two roots, radical y- perhaps becoming j-. 179. (Root, h^-l-l). 179a. H. .H^ALAL, to sing (es- 179b. Go. awiLiuth, thanks- pecially any one's praises); to giving; awiLiudon, to thank; to praise, celebrate; to glory (in), glorify. 179n. Is the -d- in Go. awidudon the cognate with d- in A.-S. don, with d- in L. do, etc., in entry 491? I think so. 180. (Root, h^-l-m). 180a. H. .H^ALAM, to smite, 180b. A.-S. LAMa, disabled in strike, beat; to smite in pieces, the limbs, crippled, lame; lem- break. ian, to lame, cripple. Icelandic LEMJa, to thrash, beat, flog; (so as) to lame, dis- able. English LAM, to beat, thrash. B. oLatu, to strike, beat, smite. 181. (Root, H^-M-H^). 181a. H. .H^AMAH^ to sound, 181b. A.-S. WEMan, to sound make a noise (, of the harp; also forth, resound; to strike up, be- 104 ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION Hebrew (H.), Aramaic (A.), Arabic (Ar.), Gaelic (G.), Gothic (Go.) i. Roots tend to become monosyllabic in the Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ii. Radical gutturals (h, h^, h-^, h^) are regularly lost in G., and are often lost (especially h, h2) in the other Aryan languages and B. Radical h, h- final are regularly quiescent in H. and unrepresented in the Aryan languages and B. (See section iii.). iii. Radical gutturals and palatals (h, h'-, h^ h^; g, k, q) may become, in Go., A.-S., and L., h, k(c, q), g; or, hw(v), k(c, q)w(v), (?)gw(v); or, w(v, b, f, p, in L.). (See sections iii. and IV.). iv. Radical v, y, radical n initial, and radical I, m, n, r final are often lost in the Aryan languages and B. (See sections v. and vii.). V. Radical liquids (1, m, n, r) are regularly represented by 1, m, n, r (not always respec- tively) in the Aryan languages and B. (See section vii.\ vi. Radical z, t,- become d, sd, s, st, t, or (z) in the Aryan languages, (See section viii.). vii. In B., ch, tch, (cht), s, ts, (st\ z, tz, and (zt) are more or less freely interchanged and may each represent radical z, z^, s, s^, s''. of other musical instruments) ; gin to sing; woAia, noise, tumult, to be noisy (, of a tumultuous brawling; wom, howling, shout- crowd); H^AMoun, noise, sound ing, lamentation. (, of singers; of rain); multitude. Go. iuMJo, crowd, multitude, crowd (of men), host. German HUMMen, to hum. 182. (Root, h^-p-k). 182a. H. H^APAK(e), to turn, 182b. L. facIo, to do, produce, turn over; to change, alter, con- cause, form, create, make (a vert, transform, turn (into any- thing into something); inter- thing); H^APEKah^ overthrow, Ficio, to bring to naught, de- destruction, fitroy, slay, kill. 183. (Root, h^-r-r). 183a. H. hIar, mount, moun- 183b. Gr. orgs, hill, moun- tain, mountains. tain. 184. (Root, h^-r-g). 184a. H. hI\rag, to kill, slay. 184b. Go. WRiKan, to perse- cute. A.-S. WREcan, to avenge, pun- ish; gewREcan, to xureak ven- geance on. 184n. I place Go. wRiKan and A.-S. wREcan, etc., in this entry on the supposition that in very early times wrongs were com- monly avenged by death. ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION 105 Anglo-Saxon (A.-S.), Latin (L.), Greek (Gr.), Sanskrit (S,), Basque (B.) viii. When the medial and the final consonant of a root are the same or similar in charac- ter, only one of them is represented in tne Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ix. Suffixes frequently occurring are: in H., h-, y, n, t^; in G., c, d, g, n, t; in Go., d, g, n, s, t; in A.-S., c, d, g, h, n, t; in L., c, d, 1, m, n, r, s, t; and in B., n, tz, -tu(-du). Frequently some of these suffixes are combined or repeated. A vowel may be prefixed or suffixed to a root in the Aryan languages and B. (See section xii.). X, In tliis investigation, the aspiration of consonants and the quality and length of vowels have, in general, been provisionally treated as without philological value. xi. Under a given root, words or parts of words printed in small capitals (in italics if defi- nitional") are to be considered descendants of that root and therefore cognate. Vowels are so printed only when lying within limits reflectino; the root. (See also section x.). xii. The asterisk {*) as usual marks conjectured forms. Before H. and A. words (Bib- lical), I use a dot ( . ) to mark such forms except those of verbs not found in "qal" or "p2(e)h%l. " Under — a. and under — b., matter added by me is enclosed within brackets [ ]. 185. (Root, H^-R-H^). 185a. H. H^ARAH^ with child, 185b. A.-S. HORe, whore. pregnant. 185n. Genesis 38:24: " . . ., she [Tamar] is with child by whore- dom." The w- in English w/iore is probably clerical in origin. Note that the Hebrew predicate adjective (h^arah^) in the pas- sage (Genesis 38:24) here translated has become in English a common name for the subject. Compare the almost exact paral- lel in Genesis 3:1 (Gothic waurms, serpent; etc., in entry 564); and also the less close parallel in Genesis 2:7 (English ''nose"; etc., in entry 487). 186. (Root, H^-R-S). 186a. H.H^ARAs, to pull down, 186b. English harass, to an- tear down (houses, cities, walls); noy by repeated attacks; to lay to tear out (teeth); to destroy, waste. 186n. The history of English harass is obscure. Is it pos- sible that the military sense of the word is the oldest? 187. (Root, z-b-d). 187a. H. ZEBED, gift, dowry. 187b. A.-S. STEOP-dohtor, s^ep-daughter; sTEOP-sunu, step- son. 187n. On the loss of radical -d, see section x. . 188. (Root, z-b-h^). 188a. H. ZABAH^ to slaughter, 188b. Gr. sphagc^ slaughter. 106 ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION Hebrew (H.). Aramaic (A.), Arabic (Ar.), Gaelic (G.)i Gothic (Go.) i. Roots tend to become monosyllabic in the Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ii. Radical gutturals (h, h^, h^, h^) are regularly lost in G., and are often lost (especially h, h*) in the other Aryan languages and B. Radical h, h- final are regularly quiescent in H. and vinrepresented in the Aryan languages and B. (See section iii.). iii. Radical gutturals and palatals (h, h^, h^, h''; g, k, q) may become, in Go,, A.-S., and L., h, k(c, q), g; or, hw(v), k(c, q)w(v), (?)gw(v); or, w(v, b, f, p, in L.). (See sections iii. and IV.). iv. Radical v, y, radical n initial, and radical I, m, n, r final are often lost in the Aryan languages and B. (See sections v. and vii.). V. Radical liquids (1, m, n, r) are regularly represented by I, m, n, r (not always i-espec- tively) in the Aryan languages and B. (See section vii.). vi. Radical z, z^ become d, sd, s, st, t, or (z) in the Aryan languages. (See section viii.). vii. In B., ch, tch, (cht), s, ts, (st\ z, tz, and (zt) are more or less freely interchanged and may each represent radical z, z^, s, s^, s^. kill (animals); to slaughter for sacrifice; to sacrifice. butchery; sphazo^ to slay, kill; (especially,) to slaughter (vic- tims for sacrifice). 189. 189a. H. ZEH^ this, thai.. 189b. G. so, ^Ms; sa, (an em- phatic adjection) [(used espe- cially with personal and posses- sive pronouns)]. Go. THata, the; this, thsit; it. A.-S. THaet, the; this, that; it. L. isxe, this, that. S. T^Si[t^], the; this, that; it. Gr. TO, the; this, that; it. 189n. See also entry 734 and section xviii. It is probable that the suffix in the Go., the A.-S., and the S. word here cited is also cognate with H. zeh^ 190. (Root, z-h^-r). 190a. H. *ZAH^AR, to shine, give light; to enlighten, teach; to admonish, warn (to beware of anything); zoh^ar, brightness, brilliancy, splendor, shining (of the heavens). H. mazzARout^ (mazzALout^), constellations, the twelve signs of the zodiac. 190b. Go. STAiRno, star. A.-S. STEORRa, star. L. sTELla, star. S. sVRn'*as^ (?), stars. S. TVR^as^, stars. Gr. asTE^R, star. Welsh SERen, star; (plural,) SER, stars. B. izAR, star. ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION 107 Anglo-Saxon (A.-S.), Latin (L.), Greek (Gr.), Sanskrit (S.), Basque (B.) viii. When the medial and the final consonant of a root are the same or similar in charac- ter, only one of them is represented in tne Aryan languages and li. (See section x.), ix. Suffixes frequently occurring are: in H., h^, y, n, t-; in G., c, d, g, n, t; in Go., d, K, n, s, t; in A.-S., c, d, g, h, n, t; in L., c, d, 1, m, n, r, s, t; and in B., n, tz, -tu(-du). Frequently some of these suffixes are combined or repeated. A vowel may be prefixed or suffixed to a root in the Aryan languages and B. (See section xii.). X. In this investigation, the aspiration of consonants and the quality and length of vowels have, in general, been provisionally treated as without philological value. xi. Under a given root, words or parts of words printetl in small capitals (in italics if defi- nitional) are to be considered descendants of that root and therefore cognate. Vowels are so printed only when lying within limits reflecting the root, (See also section x.), xii. The asterisk (*) as usual marks conjectured forms. Before H. and A, words (Bib- lical), I use a dot ( . ) to mark such forms except those of verbs not found in "qal" or "p2(e)h%l. " Under — a. and under — b., matter added by me is enclosed within brackets [ ]. 190n. The Aryan value (d, sd, s, st, t, or(z)) of radical z is in part beautifully exemplified under 190b. where it equals st- in English star, sV- in S. sVRn^as^ (?), t^- in S. T^A^as^ and s- in Welsh SERen. S. — Lexicographers query whether S. s^T^Rn^as^ (nominative form, plural) occurs. Oblique forms, plural, are found. H. — Etmyologists have not referred H. mazzARout^ (mazzA- Lout^) to the root z-h^-r. I think the forms are properly referable to that root. 191. (Root, z-v-d). 191a. H. .zwD, to cook, boil, 191b. A.-S. SEOTHan, to boil, seethe. cook, seethe. Go. sAUTHs, sacrifice. 192. (Roots, Z-V-N, y-z-n). 192a. H. *zwN (*yazan), to 192b. G. Ith (ios), to ea^. feed; mazouN, food, sustenance. Go. ixan, to ea^. A.-S. exan, to ea^. Go. wisan, to ea^. A.-S. wist, food. L. eDo, to ea^. S. aD^ to ea^. Gr. esTHio^ (eoo^), to ea^. 192n. Some lexicographers do not assign the meaning "to feed" to H. *YAZAN. It seems to me that the Go. and A.-S. double forms reflect the double forms found in 192a.; that is. Go. ixan, etc., are referable to the root z-v-n; and Go. wisan, etc., come from the root y-z-n. 108 ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION Hebrew (H.), Aramaic (A.), Arabic (Ar,), Gaelic (G.), Gothic (Go.) 1. Roots tend to become monosyllabic in the Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ii. Radical gutturals (,h, h^, h^, h'*) are regularly lost in G., and are often lost (especially h, h*) in the other Aryan languages and B. Radical h, h- final are regularly quiescent in H. and unrepresented in the Aryan languages and B. (See section iii.). iii. Radical gutturals and palatals (h. h^, h^, h''; g, k, q) may become, in Go., A.-S., and L., h, k(c, q), g; or, hw(v), k(c, q)v/(v), (?)gw(v); or, w(v, b, f, p, in L.). (See sections iii. and IV.). iv. Radical v, y, radical n initial, and radical I, m, n, r final are often lost in the Aryan languages and B. (See sections v. and vir.). V. Radical liquids (I, m, n, r) are regularly represented by 1, m, n, r (not always respec- tively) in the Aryan languages and B. (See section vii.). vi. Radical z, z^ become d, sd, s, st, t, or (z) in the Aryan languages. (See section viii.). vii. In B., ch, tch, (cht), s, ts, (st), z, tz, and (zt) are more or less freely interchanged and may each represent radical z, z^, s, s^, s'. 193. (Root, Z-Y-Z). 193a. H. ZYZ, a full breast. 193b. A.-S. tit, pap, breast, teat. 193n. The exact meaning of H. zyz is uncertain. 194. (Root, z-k-k). 194a. H. ZAK(e), pure, clean; 194b. Go. T>AVJitsiT, daughter. upright, innopent. A.-S. Dontor, daughter. S. D^uH^itV, daughter. Gr. THUGate^r, daughter. B. CHAHu, pure, clean. 194n. The forms cited under 194b. might equally well be re- ferred to the root d-v-h^ (entry 156; H. *dV(a)h^ to cleanse), per- haps more suitably if the forms alone be considered; but the mean- ings "upright" and ''innocent" (as well as ''pure" and "clean") belonging to H. zAK(e) cause me to assign Go. DAuntar, etc., to the root z-k-k. On the suffix of the Aryan words here cited, see entries 1, 12, 43, 219, 791. By consulting entries 298, 379, 479, (560), 791, it will be seen that our remote ancestors viewed their daughters and sisters as cleanly, pure, innocent, fair, etc. Thus, G. nighean (entry 479), girl, daughter, means Hterally (as I see it) "white, clean, pure, inno- cent"; B. alaba (entry 379), daughter, literally "white, clean, pure"; and EngHsh "sister" (entry 791) has radically the meaning "white, Hke marble or alabaster," probably also the readily de- rivable meanings "pure" and "innocent." ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION 109 Anglo-Saxon (A.-S.), Latin (L.), Greek (Gr,), Sanskrit (S.), Basque (B.) viii. When the medial and the final consonant of a root are the same or similar in charac- ter, only one of them is represented in tne Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ix. Suffixes frequently occurring are: in H., h^, y, n, t^; in G., c, d, g, n, t; in Go., d, g, n, s, t; in A.-S., c, d, g, h, n, t; in L., c, d, 1, m, n, r, s, t; and in B., n, tz, -tu(-du). Frequently some of these suffixes are combined or repeated. A vowel may be prefixed or suffixed to a root in the Aryan languages and B. (See section xii.). X. In this investigation, the aspiration of consonants and the quality and length of vowels have, in general, been provisionally treated as without philological value. xi. Under a given root, words or parts of words printed in small capitals (in italics if defi- nitional) are to be considered descendants of that root and therefore cognate. Vowels are so printed only when lying within limits reflecting the root. (See also section x.). xii. The asterisk (*) as usual marks conjectured forms. Before H. and A. words (Bib- lical), I use a dot ( . ) to mark such forms except those of verbs not found in "qal" or "p2(e)h%l. " Under — a. and under — b., matter added by me is enclosed within brackets [ ]. Possibly these designations for daughters and sisters point to cave-dwelling times when, we may reasonably conjecture, the females of a family, confined more or less closely within the sun- less abodes, were markedly paler than the males, roving much without, as the latter must have been, for food, for sport, and for war. Even at this day, girls are usually not only much fairer but (may I not say?) much more cleanly and innocent than their brothers. 195. (Root, z-k-r). 195a. H. ZAKAR, to remember; 195b. L. sacer, holy, dedicat- to celebrate, praise; to offer a ed to a divinity; SACRa, religious memorial offering; haz(E)K^A- worship, sacred rites. Rah^ an offering for a memorial. S. d^a^c^, to grant, offer, give; D^A^c^u, worshipping, sacrificing; D^A^c^uR^i, making offerings. 196. (Root, z-k-r). 196a; H. ZAKAR, a male. 196b. B. sokor, a male calf. B. CHEKOR, a young bullock. B. ZAKHUR, dog. B. CHiKHiRo, ram. B. aKHER, he-goat. B. aHARi, ram. B. HARRa (aR), a male. 196n. I think all the words under 196b. are referable to the root Z-K-R though some of them have no representative of radical z-. 110 ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION Hebrew (H.), Aramaic (A.), Arabic (Ar.), Gaelic (G.), Gothic (Go.) i. Roots tend to become monosyllabic in the Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ii. Radical gutturals (h, h-, h-*, h'*) are regularly lost in G., and are often lost (especially h, h2) in the other Aryan languages and B. Radical h, h- final are regularly quiescent in H. and unrepresented in the Aryan languages and B. (See section iii.). iii. Radical gutturals and palatals (h, h-, h^, h^; g, k, q) may become, in Go., A.-S , and L., h. k(c, q\ g; or, hw(v). k(c, qjw(v), (?)gw(v); or, w(v, b, f, p, in L.), (See sections iii. and IV.). iv. Radical v, y, radical n initial, and radical 1, m, n, r final are often lost in the Aryan languages and B. (See sections v. and vii.). V. Radical liquids (1, m, n, r) are regularly represented by I, m, n, r (not always respec- tively) in the Aryan languages and B. (See section vii.). vi. Radical z, z^ become d, sd, s, st, t, or (z) in the Aryan languages. (See section viii.'l. vii. In B., ch, tch, (cht), s, is, (st), z, tz, and (zt) are more or less freely interchanged and may each represent radical z, z-, s, s^, si 197. (Root, z-l-l). 197a. H. .ZALAL, to act prof- 197b. G. sALaich, to defile, ligately, obscenely; to debase, pollute. defile. L. sALax, lecherous, lustful, saZacious. 198. (Root, z-m-m). 198a. H. z AM AM, to meditate, 198b. G. SMuain, thought, have in mind, purpose, intend, fancy, reflection, imagination, determine, plot; ziMMah^ inten- tion, imagination. 199. (Root, z-m-n). 199a. H. z(e)man, appointed 199b. A.-S. TiMa, time. time; time, season. 200. (Root, z-m-b). 200a. H. .zamar, to prune (a 200b. G. SAMHRadh, summer. vine); zamyr, pruning (-time). A.-S. sumor, summer. 201. (Root, z-n-b). 201a. H. ZANAB, tail (of an 201b. B. buztan, tail of an animal) ; end, s^wmp. animal. Old High German stumph, stump; STUMPFS, briefly. 201n. B. — Evidently B. buztan is an instance of transposition. (See section xiii.). ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION 11.1 Anglo-Saxon (A.-S.), Latin (L.), Greek (Gr.), Sanskrit (S.), Basque (B.) viii. When the metlial and the final consonant of a root are the same or similar in charac- ter, only one of them is represented in tne Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ix. Suffixes frequently occurring are: in H., h-, y, n, t-; in G., c, d, g, n, t; in Go., d, g, n, s, t; m A.-S., c, d, g, h, n, t; in L., c, d, 1, m, n, r, s, t; and in B., n, tz, -tu(-du). Frequently some of these suffixes are combinetl or repeated. A vowel may be prefixed or suffixed to a root in the Aryan languages and B. (See section xii.). X. In this investigation, the aspiration of consonants and the quality and length of vowels have, in general, been provisionally treated as without philological value. xi. Under a given root, words or parts of words printed in small capitals (in italics if defi- nitional) are to be considered descendants of that root and therefore cognate. Vowels are so printed only when lying within limits reflectins; the root. (See also section x.). xii. The asterisk (*) as usual marks conjectured forms. Before H. and A. words (Bib- lical), I use a dot ( . ) to mark such forms except those of verbs not found in "qal" or *'p2(e)h%l. " Under — a. and under — b., matter added by me is enclosed within brackets [ ]. 202. (Root, Z-N-H^). 202a. H. z AN Air, to commit 202b. A.-S. syn, guilt, sin. fornication; to commit iciolatry; L. sons (genitive, soNtis), z(E)Nwt^, fornication (only trop- guilty, criminal, ically; of any breach of fidelity towards God). 202n. Note the moral if not religious sentiment that may be inferred from this entry to have been among the Teutonic and L. peoples when they began their first migrations. 203. (Root, Z-N-H^). 203a. H. ZANAH^ to emit a 203b. A.-S. STiNcan, to emit a stench: to stink. smell : to stink. Gr. TAGGOS, rancid. 203n. A.-S. — Radical -h^ has been hardened to -c- in A.-S. sTiNcan. (See section xi.). Gr. — Double g (gg) in Gr. is pronounced as -ng- in ''English." 204. (Root, z-h^-m). 204a. H. ZAH^AM, anger, in- 204b. A.-S. steam, hot exha- dignation, (properly,) foam (as lation, hot breath, steam. one angry foams at the mouth). 204n. Note that the transition in the meaning of a word from "foam (at the mouth)" to ''hot breath" could easily take place in a cold climate. 112 ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION Hebrew (H.), Aramaic (A.), Arabic (Ar,), Gaelic (G.), Gothic (Go.) L Roots tend to become monosyllabic in the Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ii. Radical gutturals (h, h^, h^, h^) are regularly lost in G., and are often lost (especially h, h*) in the other Aryan languages and B. Radical h, h^ final are regularly quiescent in H. and unrepresented in the Aryan languages and B. (See section iii.). iii. Radical gutturals and palatals (h, h^, h^, h^; g, k, q) may become, in Go., A.-S., and and IV.). L., h, k(c, q), g; or, hw(v), k(c, q)w(v), (?)gw(v); or, w(v, b, f, p, in L.), (See sections iii. ■ IV.). iv. Radical v, y, radical n initial, and radical 1, m, n, r final are often lost in the Aryan languages and B. (See sections v. and vii.). V. Radical liquids (I, m, n, r) are regularly represented by I, m, n, r (not always respec- tively) in the Aryan languages and B. (See section vii.). vi. Radical z, tP- become d, sd, s, st, t, or (z) in the Aryan languages. (See section viii.). viL In B., ch, tch, (cht), s, ts, (st\ z, tz, and (zt) are more or less freely interchanged and may each represent radical z, z-, s, s^, s'. 205. (Root, z-q-q). 205a. H. .ZEQ, fetter, chain; 205b. A.-S. Tican, to de;TEAH .hazEQ, manacle. (genitive, TEAce), band, ^ie. Icelandic taug, rope. 206. (Root, z-q-n). 206a. H. zaqan, the bearded 206b. B. gizon, man. chin ; the beard ; zaqen, old,aged; an old man. 206n. B. — Evidently B. gizon is an instance of transposition. (See section xiii.). 207. (Root, Z-Q-P). 207a. H. .zaqap, to raise up, 207b. G. SGAFFall (sGAFal, lift up. SGAFald), sca^old. A. .z(e)qap, to raise up, hang (a criminal). 207n. I enter here in query the words given under 207b. 208. (Root, z-q-q). 208a. H. .ZAQAQ, to squeeze 208b. A.-S. seon (from *sih- through a strainer; to strain, fil- an), to strain, filter; SEOHHe, a ter ; to purify, refine ; to pour out : [milk- Jstrainer . to make flow out. ^ G. DEOGHail (DEOTHail), to suck, as infants; to extract. English DUG, teat, pap, nipple. ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION 113 Anglo-Saxon (A.-S.), Latin (L.), Greek (Gr.), Sanskrit (S.), Basque (B.) viii. When the medial and the final consonant of a root are the same or similar in charac- ter, only one of them is represented in tne Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ix. Suffixes frequently occurring are: in H., h^, y, n, t^; in G., c, d, g, n, t; in Go., d, g, n, s, t; in A.-S., c, d, g, h, n, t; in L., c, d, I, m, n, r, s, t; and in B., n, tz, -tu(-du). Frequently some of these suffixes are combined or repeated. A vowel may be prefixed or suffixed to a root in the Aryan languages and B. (See section xii.). X. In this investigation, the aspiration of consonants and the quality and length of vowels have, in general, been provisionally treated as without philological value. xi. Under a given root, words or parts of words printed in small capitals (in italics if defi- nitional) are to be considered descendants of that root and therefore cognate. Vowels are so printed only when lying within limits reflecting the root. (See also section x.). xii. The asterisk (*) as usual marks conjectured forms. Before H. and A. words (Bib- lical), I use a dot ( . ) to mark such forms except those of verbs not found in "qal" or "p2(e)h%l. " Under — a. and under — b., matter added by me is enclosed within brackets [ ]. S. D^UH^ (for *D^UG^), to squeeze out, extract; to milk. 20Sn. A.-S. — Etymologists have not, of course, considered A.-S. seon and A.-S. sEOHHe cognate with G. DEOGHail, etc. 209. (Roots, Z-V-R, s-v-r). 209a. H. .zwR, to be a s^ran- 209b. B. ger; zar, stranger, enemy; [(Brown, Driyer, and Briggs cite)] A. ZWR (often equals H. swr), to turn aside. H. SWR, to turn aside (or) away; to go off, depart. 209n. B. — Radical -r has evidently been lost from B. axze (See section vii.). L. — I enter here in query L. exTRa and iuTRa. aTze, foreign, strange. L. exTRa, on the outside, without; iuTRa, on the inside, within. 210. (Root, Z-R-H^). 210a. H. .ZARAH^ to scatter, spread, s^rew. 210b. Go. STRaujan,tospread, s^rew. A.-S. STReaw, hay, s^raw; STReawian, to s^rew. L. sTERno (perfect tense, STRavi), to scatter, spread out, strew. S. sVr, to scatter, spread, strew. 114 ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION Hebrew (H.), Aramaic (A.), Arabic (Ar.). Gaelic (G.), Gothic (Go.) i. Roots tend to become monosyllabic in the Aryan languages and B. (See section x). ii. Radical gutturals (h, h^, h-^, h^) are regularly lost in G., and are often lost (especially h, h*) in the other Aryan languages and B. Radical h, h'^ final are regularly quiescent in H. and unrepresented in the Aryan languages and B. (See section in.). iii. Radical gutturals and palatals (h, h^, h^, h^; g, k, q) may become, in Go., A.-S., and L., h, k(c, q), g; or, hw(v), k(c, q)w(v), (?)gw(v); or, w(v, b, f, p, in L.). (See sections iii. and IV.). iv. Radical v, y, radical n initial, and radical I, In, n, r final are often lost in the Aryan languages and B. (See sections v. and vii.). V. Radical liquids (1, m, n, r) are regularly represented by I, m, n, r (not always respec- tively) in the Aryan languages and B. (See section vii.). vi. Radical z, z- become d, sd, s, st, t, or (z) in the Aryan languages. (See section viii.). vii. In B., ch, tch, (cht), s, ts, (st\ z, tz, and (zt) are more or less freely interchanged and may each represent radical z, Z-, s, s^, s*. 210n. Go. — The forms of the Go. and the A.-S. words here given in(iicate that the words belong rather in entry 214, and I have some misgiving in placing them here, though the meanings favor this entry. 211. (Root, Z-R-H^). 211a. H. z(E)R0u(A)H^ the 211b. A.-S. STRECcan, to hold arm. out, extend, stretch. 212. (Root, Z-R-H^). 212a. H. ZARAH^ to rise (,as 212b. G. soir, east, eastern; the sun); miz(E)RAH^, the orient, the east, east. 213. (Root, z-r-m). 213a. H. .ZARAM, to flow; to 213b. G. sreai^ih (obsolete), pour, pour upon, overwhelm; to rill, spring, stream. pour out; ZEREM, a pouring rain, A.-S. stream, river, current, violent shower, storm; gush, stream. flood (of waters). B. icHURi (isuRi), to pour, shed, spill. A.-S. STORM, tempest, storm. 213n. A.-S. — Etymologists have not considered A.-S. stream and A.-S. storm cognate. 214. (Root, Z-R-H^). 214a. H. ZAR.\H^ to scatter, 214b. Go. saian, to sow disperse; to scatter (seed), sow. [(grain)]. ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION 115 Anglo-Saxon (A.-S.), Latin (L.), Greek (Gr.), Sanskrit (S.), Basque (B.) viii. When the medial and the final consonant of a root are the same or similar in charac- ter, only one of them is repre^sented in tne Aryan languages and B, (See section x.). ix. Suffixes frequently occurring are: in H., h^, y, n, t-; in G., c, d, g, n, t; in Go,, d, g, n, s, t; m A.-S., c, d, g, h, n, t; in L., c, d, I, m, n, r, s, t; and in B., n, tz, -tu(-du). Frequently some of these suffixes are combined or repeated. A vowel may be prefixed or suffixed to a root in the Aryan languages and B, (See section xii.). x. In this investigation, the aspiration of consonants and the quality and length of vowels have, in general, been provisionally treated as without philological value, xi. Under a given root, words or parts of words printed in small capitals (in italics if defi- nitional) are to be considered descendants of that root and therefore cognate. Vowels are so printed only when lying within limits reflecting the root. (See also section x.). xii. The asterisk (*) as usual marks conjectured forms. Before H. and A, words (Bib- lical), I use a dot ( . ) to mark such forms except those of verbs not found in "qal" or "p2(e)h%l. " Under — a. and under — b., matter added by me is enclosed within brackets [ ]. A.-S. sawan, to sow (seed). L. SERO, to scatter, dissemi- nate, sow. B, HARTsi, scattered, dis- persed. 214x1. Go. — I believe that the Go. and the A.-S. words here given have lost radical -r-h^ though possibly the -w- in A.-S. sawan strangely reflects radical -h^ with loss of radical -R-. B. — Evidently B. harts! is an instance of transposition. (See section xni.). 215. (Root, h^-b-t). 215a. H. .H^ABAT, to heat off 215b, A.-S. BEATan, to strike (apples from a tree) ; to beat out, beat. thrash (grain). 216. (Root, h^-b-l). 216a. H. .H^ABAL, tobindfast; 216b. English bail, security to bind by a pledge; to take a given to obtain the release of a pledge (of anyone); h^abol, de- posit, pledge; H^EBEL, cord,rope; H^iB^B^EL, mast (of a ship); h^o- BEL, shipman, sailor. prisoner from custody. . . G. BALL, rope, cable. A.-S. FLota, ship, fleet; sailor. S. PL^u, to sail, swim, flosit. Gr. PLeo^ to sail, swim, ^oat. 216n. The current etymology of English bail is unsatisfactory. 217. (Root, h^-b-l). 217a. H. h'abal, to be per- 217b. B. BiHURRi, perverse 116 ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION Hebrew (H.), Aramaic (A.), Arabic (Ar.), Gaelic (G.), Gothic (Go.) i. Roots tend to become monosyllabic in the Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ii. Radical gutturals (h, h^, h^, h*) are regularly lost in G., and are often lost (especially h, h*) in the other Aryan languages and B. Radical h, h^ final are regularly quiescent in H. and unrepresented in the Aryan languages and B. (See section iii.). iii. Radical gutturals and palatals (h, h^, h^, h''; g, k, q) may become, in Go., A.-S., and L., h, k(c, q), g; or, hw(v), k(c, q)w(v), (?)gw(v); or, w(v, b, f, p, in L.). (See sections in. and IV.). iv. Radical v, y, radical n initial, and radical 1, m, n, r final are often lost in the Aryan languages and B. (See sections v. and vii.). V. Radical liquids (I, m, n, r) are regularly represented by I, m, n, r (not always respec- tively) in the Ary^an languages and B. (See section vii.). vi. Radical z, z^ become d, sd, s, st, t, or (z) in the Aryan languages. (See section viii.). vii. In B., ch, tch, (cht), s, ts, (st), z, tz, and (zt) are more or less freely interchanged and may each represent radical z, z^, s, s-, s^. verse, corrupt; to act perversely, corrupted, vicious, malicious, corruptly; to ruin, destroy. 21 7n. Evidently B. bihurrI is a case of transposition. (See section xiii.). 218. (Root, h^-b-q). 218a. H. .H^ABAQ, to fold (the 218b. G. BOGHa, bend, curva- hands); to clasp, embrace, fold ture; how. in one's arms; h^ib^b^uq, a fold- G. bagh, estuary, harbor,6ai/. ing (of the hands). G. baigh, attachment, fond- ness, affection. Go. BiUGan, to how, bend. A.-S. BUGan, to how, bend; BOGa, how, arch, corner; bog (boh), arm, shoulder; hough, branch. S. B^UG^, to bend, curve. S. baWu, the arm, (especial- ly,) the fore-arm. Gr. PE^CHus, the fore-arm. 218n. G. — I enter here in query G. bagh (also written with -DH in place of -gh) and G. baigh. A.-S. — Etymologists do not consider A.-S. Booa and A.-S. bog (boh) cognate, nor S. b^ug^ and S. ba^^u cognate. The cognation of these Aryan words seems to me to be indicated by the mean- ings of H. .h^abaq, etc. 219. (Root, h^-b-r). 219a. H. .H^ABAR, to join to- 219b. G. BRathair, 6rother. ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION 117 Anglo-Saxon (A.-S.), Latin (L.), Greek (Gr.), Sanskrit (S.), Basque (B.) viii. When the medial and the final consonant of a root are the same or similar in charac- ter, only one of them is represented in tne Aryan languages and B, (See section x.). ix. Suffixes frequently occurring are: in H., h^, y, n, t^; in G., c, d, g, n, t; in Go., d, g, n, s, t; in A,-S., c, d, g, h, n, t; in L,, c, d, 1, m, n, r, s, t; and in B., n, tz, -tu(-du). Frequently some of these suffixes are combined or repeated. A vowel may be prefixed or suffixed to a root in the Aryan languages and B. (See section xii.). X. In this investigation, the aspiration of consonants and the quality and length of vowels have, in general, been provisionally treated as without philological vahie. xi. Under a given root, words or parts of words printed in small capitals (in italics if defi- nitional) are to be considered descendants of that root and therefore cognate. Vowels are so printed only when lying within limits reflecting the root. (See also section x.). xii. The asterisk (*) as usual marks conjectured forms. Before H, and A. words (Bib- lical), I use a dot ( . ) to mark such forms except those of verbs not found in "qal" or "p2(e)h%l. " Under — a. and under — b., matter added by me is enclosed within brackets [ ]. gether, join in a league; h^aber, Go. BRothar, brother, associate, companion, fellow; A.-S. BRothor, brother. H^EBER, company, association. L. FRater, ?>rother. S. B^R^atV, brother. Gr. PHRatra, tribe, clan; PHRateV, a member of a PHRa- tra; (the exclusively political sense in Greek is remarkable). 219n. G. — I have not been able to discover the meaning of -thair in G. BRathair, the -thar in Go. BRothar, etc. (See also entries 1, 12, 43, 194, 791). 220. (Root, H^-B-S^). 220a. H. .H^ABAS^ to bind on 220b. Go. FAstan, to hold fast. (a turban, headgear); to saddle (an animal, by) binding on (the saddle or panniers); to shut up, restrain; to bind up (a wound). A.-S. FAEstan, to make fast; FAEstnian, to fasten. 221. (Root, h^-g-r). 221a. H. .H^AGAR, to bind a- 221b. Go. GAiRda, girdle, belt. round, gird, gird up; h^agour, girdle, belt. A.-S. GYRdan, to encircle, sur- round, gird; GYRdel, girdle, belt. B. GERRi, waist; GERRiko, gir- dle, belt, sash. 222. (Root, h^-d-d). 222a. H. .H^ADAD, to be sharp; 222b. A.-S. hwaet, sharp. 118 ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION Hebrew (H.), Aramaic (A.), Arabic (Ar.), Gaelic (G.), Gothic (Go.) i. Roots tend to become monosyllabic in the Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ii. Radical gutturals (h, h^, h-*, h*) are regularly lost in G., and are often lost (especially h, h*) in the other Aryan languages and B. Radical h, h- final are regularly quiescent in H. and unrepresented in the Aryan languages and B. (See section iii.). iii. Radical gutturals and palatals (h, h^, h^, h*; g, k, q) may become, in Go,, A.-S., and L., h, k(c, q), g; or, hw(v), k(c, q)w(v), (?)gw(v); or, w(v, b, f, p, in L,). (See sections in. and IV.). iv. Radical v, y, radical n initial, and radical I, m, n, r final are often lost in the Aryan languages and B. (See sections v. and vii.). V. Radical liquids (I, m, n, r) are regularly represented by 1, m, n, r (not always respec- tively) in the Aryan languages and B. (See section vii.). vi. Radical z, z- become d, sd, s, st, t, or (z) in the Aryan languages. (See section viii.). vii. In B., ch, tch, (cht), s, ts, (st\ z, tz, and (zt) are more or less freely interchanged and may each represent radical z, z^, s, s^, s-^. to be quick, vehement, fierce, quick, active, bold, brave; keen; .h^ad, sharp (, spoken of HWETan, to sharpen, i^to;HWET- a swor(i). Tan, to excite, urge on. Go. gaHWATJan, to incite, stir up. S. CUD^, to sharpen, whet; to impel, incite. 223. (Root, h^-d-r). 223a. H. H^EDER, apartment, 223b. Go. hethjo, apartment, chamber (especially an inner chamber (Matthew 6:6). one). 223n. Radical -r has been lost from Go. hethjo. (See section vn.). In Matthew 6:6, the Authorized Version has ''closet," and the Revised Version has ''inner chamber," for the Greek word for Avhich Go. HETHJO stands. 224. (Root, h^-v-m). 224a. H. H^VM, black, dark 224b. L. humus, soil, earth, brown. ground. Gr. CHAMai, on the ground. 225. (Root, H^-V-Z^). 225a. H. H^wz^ ou^ of doors, 225b. Go. us, ou^, ou^ of,forth without, abroad. from; ut, out, forth; UTa, out, without. ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION. 119 Anglo-Saxon (A.-S.), Latin (L,), Greek (Gr.), Sanskrit (S.), Basque (B.) viii. Wlien the medial and the final consonant of a root are the same or similar in charac- ter, only one of tliem is represented in tne Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). IX. Suffixes frequently occurring are: in H., h-', y, n, t^; in G.. c, d, g, n, t; in Go., d, g, n, s, t; in A.-S., c, d, g, h, n, t; in L., c, d, I, m, n, r, s, t; and in B., n, tz^ -tu(-du). Frequently some of these suffixes are combined or repeated. A vowel may be prefixed or suffixed to a root in the Aryan languages and B. (See section xii), X. In this investigation, the aspiration of consonants and the quality and length of vowels have, in general, been provisionally treated as without philological value. xi. Under a given root, words or parts of words printed in small capitals (in italics if defi- nitional) are to be considered descendants of that root and therefore cognate. Vowels are so printed only when lying within limits reflecting the root. (See also section x.). xii. The asterisk (*) as usual marks conjectured forms. Before H. and A. words (Bib- lical), I use a dot ( . ) to mark such forms except those of verbs not found in "qal" or •'p2(e)h*a!. ' Under — a. and under — b., matter added by me is enclosed within brackets [ J. A.-S. UT, ou^, not within doors, abroad. 225n. Go. — Etymologists have considered Go. us a variant of Go. UT (or vice versa). The radical -z^ accounts for the variation. 226. (Root, h^-v-r). 226a. H. .H^AVAR, to be white, 226b. A.-S. har, hoar, hoary, become white; H^ORy, white gray. bread (made of fine flour). B. uher, gray; aRRe, gray. L. HiBERnus, wintry. G. aRan, bread. Enghsh WAFER, a thin small cake, usually round, a thin leaf of paste [(Skeat) ]. 226n. H.— It should be observed that H. .h^avar, to be white, preserves radical -v- and H. H^ORy, white bread, has dropped it; while English hoary has lost radical -v- and English wafer pre- serves it as -F-. 227. (Root, h^-r-r). 227a. H. hVjur (h^or), hole 227b. Icelandic HURdh, door; (in the lid of a chest; in a door; hurdle, lid. in a wall). Go. HAURds, door. A.-S. HYRdel, hurdle, a frame- work of intertwined twigs (or) bars. L. CRatis, wicker-work, hur- dle: harrow. 120 ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION Hebrew (H.), Aramaic (A.), Arabic (Ar,), Gaelic (G.), Gothic (Go.) L Roots tend to become monosyllabic in the Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ii. Radical gutturals (h, h-, h^, h^) are regularly lost in G., and are often lost (especially h, h*) in the other Aryan languages and B. Radical h, h- final are regularly quiescent m H. and unrepresented in the Aryan languages and B. (See section iii.). iii. Radical gutturals and palatals (.h, h^, h^, h''; g, k, q) may become, in Go., A.-S., and L., h, k(c, q), g; or, hw(v), k(c, q)w(v), (?)gw(v); or, w(v, b, f, p, in L.). (See sections iii. and IV.). iv. Radical v, y, radical n initial, and radical 1, m, n, r final are often lost in the Aryan languages and B. (See sections v. and vii.), V. Radical liquids (1, m, n, r) are regularly represented by I, m, n, r (not always respec- tively) in the Aryan languages and B. (See section vii.), vi. Radical z, z- become d, sd, s, st, t, or (z) m the Aryan languages. (See section viii.). vii. In B., ch, tch, (cht), s, ts, (st), z, tz, and (zt) are more or less freely interchanged and may each represent radical z, z^, s, s^, s^. A.-S. HEARge [(Skeat)], Har- row. 227n. Etymologists have not considered A.-S. HEARge cognate with L. CRatis. 228. (Root, H^-V-S'). 228a. H. HVs^ to /fasten; to 228b. B. iHES (iGEs), flight. make Aaste; to flee /nastily. Dutch HAAsten, to /lasten, make Aaste. 229. (Root, H^-Z-H^). 229a. H. H^AZAH^ to see, look, behold; to gaze upon, contem- plate; to experience, feel, per- ceive ; H^Azwt^, look, appearance ; H^AZoun, vision (spoken of a night- vision or dream); oracle, divine communication, revela- tion; H^ozEH^ seer, prophet. 229b. G. aiTHnich, to discern, recognize, perceive, know. Go. wiTan, to watch; to know. A.-S. wiTan, to look, behold, see; to know; wixega, prophet. L. vroeo, to see, perceive. S. vm^, to know, perceive, ex- perience, feel. Gr. *eiDo^ (aorist tense, ei- Don), to see, behold, perceive; (perfect tense, as present, oioa,) to know; eicos, form, figure. L. VATes, prophet, seer. S. -VAT^ (with prefix api-), to know; to cause to know. S. -VAT^ (an affix... added to words to imply likeness or re- semblance). ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION 121 Anglo-Saxon (A.-S.), Latin (L.), Greek (Gr.), Sanskrit (S.), Basque (B.) viii. When the medial and the final consonant of a root are the same or similar in charac- ter, only one of them is represented in tne Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ix. Suffixes frequently occurring are: in H., h'-, y, n, t^; in G., c, d, g, n, t; in Go., d, g, n, s, t; m A.-S., c, d, g, h, n, t; in L., c, d, 1, m, n, r, s, t; and in B„ n, tz, -tu(-du). Frequently some of these suffixes are combined or repeated. A vowel may be prefixed or suffixed to a root m the Aryan languages and B. (See section xii). X. In this investigation, the aspiration of consonants and the quality and length of vowels have, in general, been provisionally treated as without plulological value. xi. Under a given root, words or parts of words printed in small capitals (in italics if defi- nitional) are to be considered descendants of that root and therefore cognate. Vowels are so printed only when lying within limits reflecting the root. (See also section x.). xii. The asterisk (*) as usual marks conjectured forms. Before H. and A. words (Bib- lical), I use a dot ( . ) to mark such forms except those of verbs not found in "qal" or "p2(e)h^al. " Under — a. and under — b., matter added by me is enclosed within brackets [ J. 229n. L. — Etymologists have not considered L. vmeo and L. VATes cognate. Some would treat the latter word as cognate with G. faidh, prophet, which I have placed in entry 440. 230. (Root, H^-Z-H^). 230a. H. H^AZEH^ the breast 230b. B. ugatz, breast [(of a (of animals). woman)]; the milk. 231. (Root, H^-z-z). 231a. H. .H^AZYZ, lightning. 231b. B. CHASTa, lightning. 23 In. Is this an instance of the final and the medial radical being the same and yet each being represented in B.? I think so. (See section x.). 232. (Root, h^-z-r). 232a. H. H^AZYR, a swine, hog. 232b. B. HASTURa, a young pig. B. CHERRi (CHARRi), hog, swine, pig; aKHETz, boar. 232n. Radical -r has been lost from B. aKHETz. (See section VII.). 233. (Root, h^-z-q). 233a. H. H^AZAQ, to be con- 233b. A.-S. DUGan, to be able, stant, diligent; to be strong, pow- strong, vigorous; to be virtuous, erful; to be of good courage, be honorable; DUGuth, glory, excel- 122 ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION Hebrew (H.), Aramaic (A.), Arabic (Ar.), Gaelic (G.), Gothic (Go.) L Roots tend to become monosyllabic in the Aryan languages and B. (See section x,). ii. Radical gutturals (h, h-', h-*, h^) are regularly lost in G., and are often lost (.especially h, h*) in the other Aryan languages and B, Radical h, h- final are regularly quiescent in H. and unrepresented in the Aryan languages and B. (See section in.). iii. Radical gutturals and palatals (h, h^, h^, h^; g, k, q) may become, in Go., A -S , and L., h, k(c, q), g; or, hw(v), k(c, q)w(v), (?)gw(v); or, w(v, b, f. p, in L.). (See sections in. and IV.). iv. Radical v, y, radical n initial, and radical !, m, n, r final are often lost in the Aryan languages and B. (See sections v. and vii.). V. Radical liquids (1, m, n, r) are regularly represented by I, m, n, r (not always respec- tively) in the Aryan languages and B. (See section vii.). vi. Radical z, z- become d, sd, s, st, t, or (z) in the Aryan languages. (See section viii.). vii. In B., ch, tch, (cht), s, ts, (st), z, tz, and (zt) are more or less freely interchanged and may each represent radical z, z-, s, s^, s'. firm, undaunted; to strengthen, lence; might, power; manhood; help; H^AZAQ, strong, powerful, multitude, army, troops; dyh- Jbig, doughty, strong. Go. *DUGan, to be fit, proper, expedient. B. HAGiTz, strong, vigorous. 233n. B. — Evidently B. hagitz is an instance of transposition. (See section xiii.). 234. (Root, h^-t-h). 234a. H. h^atah, to miss, (not 234b. A.-S. wiTe, i)unishment, hit the mark); to sin, err; torture, misery. h^et(e)h, sin, fault; punishment L. vmum, fault, defeet,blem- of sin; calamity; H^ATTAHt^ sin; ish, vice. sin-offering; punishment for sin; misfortune, calamity. 234n. A.-S. — Etymologists have not, of course, considered A.-S. wiTe cognate with L. vixium. The cognation is shown by the meanings of H. h^atah, etc. 235. (Root, h^-n-t). 235a. B..B.hTTSih.^, wheat. 235b. Go. nw AiTeis, wJieat. A. .H^iN(E)Tah% wheat; A.-S. lawAKTe, wheat. [(Brown, Driver, and Briggs cite)] (Old A. H^xh^). Ar. H^ANT^ah^un, wheat. 235n. H. — On the loss of radical n medial from H. words, see also entries 51, 76, 77, 240, 242, 574. Note that the Aryan languages have lost radical -x- from the words cited under 235b. ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION 123 Anglo-Saxon (A.-S.), Latin (L.), Greek (Gr.), Sanskrit (S.), Basque (B.) viii. When the medial and the final consonant of a root are the same or similar in charac- ter, only one of them is represented in tne Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ix. Suffixes frequently occurring are: in H., h^, y, n, t^; in G., c, d, g, n, t; in Go., d, g, n, s, t; in A.-S., c, d, g, h, n, t; in L., c, d, I, m, n, r, s, t; and in B., n, tz, -tu(-du). Frequently some of these suffixes are combined or repeated. A vowel may be prefixed or suffixed to a root in the Aryan languages and B. (See section xn.). X. In this investigation, the aspiration of consonants and the quality and length of vowels have, in general, been provisionally treated as without philological value. xi. Under a given root, words or parts of words printed in small capitals (in italics if defi- nitional) are to be considered descendants of that root and therefore cognate. Vowels are so printed only when lying within limits reflecting the root. (See also section x.). xii. The asterisk (*) as usual marks conjectured forms. Before H. and A. words (Bib- lical), I use a dot ( . ) to mark such forms except those of verbs not found in "qal" or *'p2(e)h%l. " Under — a. and under — b., matter added by me is enclosed within brackets [ ]. and in this respect are closer to H. than to Ar. (See also section III., foot-note). 236. (Root, h^-t-r). 236a. H. HOOTER, branch,twig 236b. G. DARach, oak. stick, rod. Go. TRiu, wood, ^ree, staff; weina-TRiu, vine. A.-S. TReow, a piece of wood; stake, staff, cudgel; wood, tree. A.-S. raefxER, beam, ralter. Icelandic trc, tree; the mast of a ship; beam, raiter; oxuI-trc, axle-^ree. L. araTRum, plough; tran- STRum, cross-beam. S. dVr^u, stick, log, wood; d^r\i, branch, tree; t^ar^u, tree. Gr. DORU, tree; the shaft of a spear; the pole (of a standard). Gr. DRus, tree; the oak. B. aDAR, branch. B. oTa, a pole of a hen-roost. A.-S. wiTHig, willow, vrithy. L. vixis, vine. Gr. iTea, willow. 236n. A.-S. — Etymologists have not considered the -ter in A.-S. raefTER cognate with A.-S. trcow. L.— Etymologists assign the meaning "instrument" to -tr- 124 ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION Hebrew (H.), Aramaic (A.), Arabic (Ar.), Gaelic (G.), Gothic (Go.) L Roots tend to become monosyllabic in the Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ii. Radical gutturals (h, h^, h^, h^) are regularly lost in G., and are often lost (especially h, h*) in the other Aryan languages and B, Radical h, h^ final are regularly quiescent in H, and unrepresented in the Aryan languages and B. (See section iii.). iii. Radical gutturals and palatals (h, h^, h^, h''; g, k, q) may become, in Go., A.-S., and L., h, k(c, q), g; or, hw(v), k(c, q)w(v), (?)gw(v); or, w(v, b, f, p, in L.). (See sections in. and IV.). iv. Radical v, y, radical n initial, and radical I, m, n, r final are often lost in the Aryan languages and B. (See sections v, and vii.). V. Radical liquids (1, m, n, r) are regularly represented by I, m, n, r (not always respec- tively) in the Aryan languages and B. (See section vii.). vi. Radical z, z^ become d, sd, s, st, t, or (z) in the Aryan languages, (See section viii,), vii. In B., ch, tch, (cht), s, ts, (st), z, tz, and (zt) are more or less freely interchanged and may each represent radical z, z^, s, s-', s^. in L. araTRum, etc. It is noteworthy that G. crann means "tree'' and "plough." B. — Note the loss of radical -r in B. oxa if (as is probable) the word is cognate with H. hooter. L. — Are L. vitIs, etc., from radical h^-t-r, with loss of radical -R? (See section vii.). Also, note Go. weina-TRiu, vine, in this entry. 237. (Root, H^-V-H^). 237a. H. H^AYAH^, to live; 237b. G. neo, living, alive. H^AY, alive, living; live, fresh, raw Go. qius, alive, living, quick. (, of flesh); [(Brown, Driver, and A.-S. cwic, alive, quick. Briggs cite)] Phenician h^vh, to L. vivo (perfect tense, vixi), live. to live. S. G^iV, to live. Gr. Bioo^ to live. 237n. Radical -v- has become b- in G. seo, as also probably in Gr. sioo^ A.-S. — I take the -c in A.-S. cwic to be a suffix. L. — Radical h^- has given rise to v- in L. vivo and also possibly to B- in Gr. nioo^ Has the -v- in L. vivo become a palatal (or guttural) in the perfect tense form vixi? 238. (Root, h^-v-l). 238a. H. H^AYiL, strength, 238b. Go. WAiLa, ?/;e/Z, rightly, might, valor; substance, riches, A.-S. wel, ii?e/Z, prosperously ; imalth. WEi.a, wealth, riches; weal, pros- perity. ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION 125 Anglo-Saxon (A.-S.), Latin (L.), Greek (Gr.), Sanskrit (S.), Basque (B.) viii. When the medial and the final consonant of a root are the same or similar in charac- ter, only one of them is represented in tne Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ix. Suffixes frequently occurring are: in H., h^, y, n, t'-; in G., c, d, g, n, t; in Go,, d, g, n, s, t; in A.-S., c, d, g, h, n, t; in L., c, d, I, m, n, r, s, t; and in B., n, tz, -tu(-du). Frequently some of these suffixes are combined or repeated. A vowel may be prefixed or suffixed to a root in the Aryan languages and B. (See section xii.). X. In this investigation, the aspiration of consonants and the quality and length of vowels have, in general, been provisionally treated as without philological value. xi. tJnder a given root, words or parts of words printed in small capitals (in italics if defi- nitional) are to be considered descendants of that root and therefore cognate. Vowels are so printed only when lying within limits reflecting the root. (See also section x.). xii. The asterisk (*) as usual marks conjectured forms. Before H. and A. words (Bib- lical), I use a dot ( . ) to mark such forms except those of verbs not found in "qal" or "p2(e)h*al. " Under — a. and under — b., matter added by me is enclosed within brackets [ ]. 239. (Root, h^-v-q). 239a. H. H^EYQ (h^eq), bos- 239b. G. ucnd, bosom, om. English hug, to clasp to the breast. Go. HUG j an, to think; hugs, thought, mimi. A.-S. HYGe, mind, thought, heart, soul; HYCGan, to think; HOGian, to think. 239n. The history of English hug is obscure. I do not doubt that the wopd is cognate with H. h^eyq. Go. — The relation between Go. hug j an, etc., and H. h^eyq will be evident to the reader when he recalls that English ''heart" often designates the seat of thought and feeling; and, if he is ac- quainted with L., that L. cor(d), heart, and L. credo, to believe, are cognate words. The reader should, if acquainted with Gr., further recall that Gr. phre^n is the English word "brain" and designated the diaphragm, the physical heart, and also, the heart as the seat of the mental faculties. I conjecture that the voice, apparently coming from the chest, led the ancients to believe that the organ of thought was one or another of the thoracic (or even the abdominal) viscera. 240. (Root, h^-n-k). 240a. H. H'EK(e), palate; 240b. English HANKer (pro- taste, vincial English hank), to long 126 ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION Hebrew (H.), Aramaic (A.), Arabic (Ar.), Gaelic (G.), Gothic (Go.) i. Roots tend to become monosyllabic in the Aryan languages and B. (See section x). ii. Radical gutturals (h, h^, h^, h'*) are regularly lost in G., and are often lost (especially h, h*) in the other Aryan languages and B. Radical h, h^ final are regularly quiescent in H. and unrepresented in the Aryan languages and B, (See section iii.). iii. Radical gutturals and palatals (h, h^, h^, h*; g, k, q) may become, m Go., A.-S., and L., h, k(c, q), g; or, hw(v), k(c, q)w(v), (?)gw(v); or, w(v, b, f, p, in L.). (See sections iii. and IV.). iv. Radical v, y, radical n initial, and radical 1, m, n, r final are often lost in the Aryan languages and B. (See sections v. and vii.). V. Radical liquids (I, m, n, r) are regularly represented by 1, m, n, r (not always respec- tively) in the Aryan languages and B. (See section vii.). vi. Radical z, tP- become d, sd, s, st, t, or (z) in the Aryan languages. (See section viii.). vii. In B., ch, tch, (cht), s, ts, (st), z, iz, and (zt) are more or less freely interchanged and may each represent radical z, z^, s, s^, s'. (for) with a keen appetite and uneasiness. 240n. The history of EngHsh HANKer is obscure. The word is considered by etymologists to be a variant of ''hang" but might better, I think, be considered cognate with H. H^EK(e). On the loss of radical -n- from H. H^EK(e), see entries 51, 76, 77, 235, 242, 574. 241. (Root, H^-K-H^). 241a. H. .H^AKAH^ to look 241b. B. Koi, anxious, eager, (for), wait (for), long (for). desirous. S. VAC^, to desire, long for. 242. (Root, h^-n-k). 242a. H. H^AK2K'ah^ hook, lish- 242b. A.-S. hoc, hook. hook\ angle. Dutch haak, hook. Dutch HOEK, angle, corner. B. KAKo (krako, maKo), hook. 242n. On the loss of radical n medial from H. words, see entries 51, 76, 77, 235, 240, 574. B. — It would seem that radical -n- has been lost from B. kako but changed to -r- in B. (krako). The m- in B. (maKo), which I enter here in query, may be a prefix. (See section vii.). 243. (Root, h^-k-m). 243a. H. h^akam, to be wise, 243b. Go. WAKan, to wake, act wisely; to make wise; h^a- watch; uswAKJan, to arouse, a- KAM, wise, clever, shrewd, crafty, wake from sleep. ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION 127 Anglo-Saxon (A.-S.), Latin (L.), Greek (Gr.), Sanskrit (S.), Basque (B.) viii. When the medial and the final consonant of a root are the same or similar in charac- ter, only one of them is represented in tne Aryan languages and B, (See section x.). ix. Suffixes frequently occurring are: in H., h^, y, n, t^; in G., c, d, g, n, t; in Go., d, g, n, s, t; in A.-S., c, d, g, h, n, t; in L., c, d, 1, m, n, r, s, t; and in B., n, tz, -tu(-du). Frequently some of these suffixes are combined or repeated. A vowel may be prefixed or suffixed to a root in the Aryan languages and B. (See section xii.). X. In this investigation, the aspiration of consonants and the quality and length of vowels have, in general, been provisionally treated as without philological vahie. xi. Under a given root, words or parts of words printed in small capitals (in italics if defi- nitional) are to be considered descendants of that root and therefore cognate. Vowels are so printed only when lying within limits reflecting the root. (See also section x.). xii. The asterisk (*) as usual marks conjectured forms. Before H. and A. words (Bib- lical), I use a dot ( . ) to mark such forms except those of verbs not found in "qal" or "p2(e)h%l. " Under — a. and under — b., matter added by me is enclosed within brackets [ ]. cunning; (plural,) learned, A.-S. WAcian, to remain a- shrewd (men, including astrolo- wake; WECcan, to wake. gers, magicians, and the like). L. viail, alert, Siwake, on the watch. A.-S. wicca, m^ard; wicce, witch. 243n. It will be seen from this entry that to wake one is, liter- ally, to make one wise. A.-S. — Current etymology connects A.-S. wicca, etc., not with A.-S. WAcian, etc., but with A.-S. witega, prophet. (See entry 229). Note the advancement in civilization seemingly indicated by A.-S. wicca, etc., to have been made before the Teutonic peoples began their first migration. (See also entry 676). 244. (Root, h'-l-b). 244a. H. H^ELEB, fatness, fat; 244b. Gr. Lira (accusative), the richest part (of anything); fat. H^ELEBhWah^, the fat of wheat; Go. hlaibs, bread, loaf. H^ELEB k^il(e)yout^ h^ittah^ the A.-S. hlaf, bread, loaf. kidney-fat of wheat (that is, the finest wheat, the finest flour). 244n. Gr. — Etymologists have not considered Gr. Lira and Go. HLAIBS, etc., cognate. Go. — It would seem that Go. hlaibs and A.-S. hlaf are not loan-words and indicate that fine flour was made before the Teu- tonic peoples began their first migration. 128 ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION Hebrew (H.), Aramaic (A.), Arabic (Ar.), Gaelic (G.), Gothic (Go.) i. Roots tend to become monosyllabic in the Aryan languages and B. (See section x,). ii. Radical gutturals (h, h^, h^, h'») are regularly lost in G., and are often lost (especially h, h*) in the other Aryan languages and B. Radical h, h^ final are regularly quiescent in H. and unrepresented in the Aryan languages and B. (See section iii,). iii. Radical gutturals and palatals (h, h^, h^, h**; g, k, q) may become, in Go., A.-S., and L., h, k(c, q), g; or, hw(v), k(c, q)w(v), (?)gw(v); or, w(v, b, f, p, in L.). (See sections iii. and IV.). iv. Radical v, y, radical n initial, and radical I, m, n, r final are often lost in the Aryan languages and B. (See sections v. and vii.). V. Radical liquids (I, m, n, r) are regularly represented by I, m, n, r (not always respec- tively) in the Aryan languages and B. (See section vii.). vi. Radical z, z^ become d, sd, s, st, t, or (z) in the Aryan languages. (See section viii.). vii. In B., ch, tch, (cht), s, ts, (st), z, tz, and (zt) are more or less freely interchanged and may each represent radical z, z^, s, s^, s^. 245. (Root, h^-l-d). 245a. H. HEELED, time, du- 245b. B. aLoi, time; turn. ration. Go. aLTHeis, old; aLDs, age, generation, life. A.-S. eaLD, old; eLD, age, old age. 245n. Go. — Etymologists consider (not rightly, I think) the dentals in Go. aLTHeis, etc., suffixes. 246. (Root, H^-L-H^). 246a. H. H^ALAH^ to be weak, 246b. B. herI, tobesick;sick, sick, diseased; to be pained,hurt, ill, infirm, wounded; to be anxious, grieved; B. HERio, death. H^OLy, sickness, disease, evil, Go. aoLo, grievance, afflic- inconvenience ; anxiety, afflic- tion, trouble, tribulation; us- tion, grief. aGLJan, to trouble, weary, bore. A.-S. eoLian, to trouble, pain, grieve, afflict, aiZ. L. acGER, ill, sick, diseased; acGRimonia, sorrow, anxiety, trouble. 246n. L. — I enter L. aeoER, etc., here in querj^ Etymologists do not connect the words with Go. acLo, etc. 247. (Root, h^-l-k). 247a. H. H^EL(E)Kah^ wretch- 247b. Go. halks, beggarly, ed, afflicted; the poor. needy, poor. ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION 129 Anglo-Saxon (A.-S.). Latin (L.), Greek (Gr.), Sanskrit (S.), Basque (B.) viii. When the medial and the final consonant of a root are the same or similar in charac- ter, only one of them is represented in tne Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ix. Suffixes frequently occurring are: in H., h'^, y, n, t^; in G., c, d, g, n, t; in Go., d, g, n, s, t; in A.-S., c, d, g, h, n, t; in L., c, d, 1, m, n, r, s, t; and in B., n, tz, -tu(-du). Frequently some of these suffixes are combined or repeated. A vowel may be prefixed or suffixed to a root in the Aryan languages and B. (See section xii.). X. In this investigation, the aspiration of consonants and the quality and length of vowels have, in general, been provisionally treated as without philological value. xi. Under a given root, words or parts of words printed in small capitals (in italics if defi- nitional) are to be considered descendants of that root and therefore cognate. Vowels are so printed only when lying within limits reflecting the root, (See also section x.). xii. The asterisk (*) as usual marks conjectured forms. Before H, and A. words (Bib- lical), I use a dot ( . ) to mark such forms except those of verbs not found in "qal" or *'p2(e)h%l. " Under — a. and under — b., matter added by me is enclosed within brackets [ ], 248. (Root, h^-l-l). 248a. H. H^ALAL, to bore, per- 248b. B. hil, to kill; to die; f orate, pierce; h^alal, pierced wounded, slain; H^ALLoun, win- dow (a hole for the light) .m(e)H^ILLah^ cave, cavern. KAii, to kill. B. LEiHo, window. Go. usHULon, to hollow out. A.-S. HOL, hole, hollow, cav- ern, den. 248n. B. — It is probable that B. leiho is an instance of trans- position. (See section xiii.). 249. (Root, h^-l-m). 249a. H. .H^ALAM, to be 249b. Go. hails, w;/ioZe, sound, strong, healthy; to heal, restore healthy; hail!; HAiLJan, to heal. to health, A.-S. hal, hale, sound, healih- y, whole, iiAELan, to heal. 250. (Root, h^-l-p). 250a. H. H^ALAP, to alter, change; to change (for new), re- new, revive, make flourish again; .H^ALYPah^ change (of gar- ments) ; exchange, alternation (especially, of soldiers keeping watch alternately and relieving each other. . . . Also spoken of new troops succeeding in place of those fatigued. ... So of similar 250b. Go. HiLPan, to help; HLEiBJan, to help. A.-S. HELPan, to aid, help. 130 ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION Hebrew (H.), Aramaic (A.), Arabic (Ar.), Gaelic (G.), Gothic (Go.) i. Roots tend to become monosyllabic in the Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ii. Radical gutturals (h, h^, h^, h*) are regularly lost in G., and are cjften lost (especially h, h*) in the other Aryan languages and B. Radical h, h- final are regularly quiescent in H. and unrepresented in the Aryan languages and B. (See section iii.). iii. Radical gutturals and palatals (h, h^, h^, h-*; g, k, q) may become, in Go., A.-S., and L., h. k(c, q), g; or, hw(v), k(c, q)w(v), (?)gw(v); or, w(v, b, f, p, in L.). (See sections in. and IV.). iv. Radical v, y, radical n initial, and radical I, m, n, r final are often lost in the Aryan languages and B. (See sec i ions v. and vii.). V. Radical liquids (1, n\, n, r) are regularly represented by 1, m, n, r (not always respec- tively) in the Aryan languages and B. (See section vii.). vi. Radical z, z^ become d, sd, s, st, t, or (z) in the Aryan languages. (See section viii.). vii. In B., ch, tch, (cht), s, ts, (st), z, tz, and (zt) are more or less freely interchanged and may each represent radical z, z-, s, s^, s^ changes or alternations of la- borers). 251. (Root, h^-l-q). 251a. H. H^ALAQ, to be bland, 251b. G. cealg, deceit, wile, flattering; to deal smoothly; treachery, hypocrisy. H^ALAQ, slippery, deceitful, false. Go. LiuGan, to lie, tell a ^ie. A.-S. LEOGan, to lie, tell a lie. 251n. G. — Radical h^- has become unexpectedly c- in G. cealg. (See section iii.). 252. (Root, H^-L-S^). 252a. H. .H^ALAs^, to be weak, 252b. Ga LAsiws, weak, fee- frail; to weaken, disable, van- ble. quish; h^allas^, weak; h^alw- A.-S. LAESsa, smaller, less. s^ah^, discomfiture, weakening, L. lassus, faint, tired, weary, defeat, overthrow. exhausted. 252n. L. — Etymologists have not considered L. lassus cognate with Go. LAsiws and A.-S. LAESsa. Furthermore, they regard (rightly, I think) the second -s- in L. lassus and that in A.-S. LAEssa as suffixes. 253. (Root, h^-m-h). 253a. H. H^EM(E)Hah' (h'e- 253b. G. Im, butter. Mah^), curd, cheese, butter(?). B. MaMia, cream; MaMitu, to curdle. 253n. G. — Note that G. iM is one of only a few words in G. denoting progress in civihzation at the time of the first migration of the G. peoples. ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION 131 Anglo-Saxon (A.-S.), Latin (L,), Greek (Gr.), Sanskrit (S.), Basque (B.) viii. When the medial and the final consonant of a root are the same or similar in charac- ter, only one of them is represented in tne Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ix. Suffixes frequently occurring are: in H., h^, y, n, t^; in G., c, d, g, n, t; in Go., d, g, n, s, t; in A.-S., c, d, g, h, n, t; in L., c, d, I, m, n, r, s, t; and in B., n, tz, -tu(-du). Frequently some of these suffixes are combined or repeated. A vowel may be prefixed or suffixed to a root in the Aryan languages and B. (See section xii.). X. In this investigation, the aspiration of consonants and the quality and length of vowels have, in general, been provisionally treated as without philological vahie. xi. Under a given root, words or parts of words printed in small capitals (in italics if defi- nitional) are to be considered descendants of that root and therefore cognate. Vowels are so printed only when lying within limits reflecting the root. (See also section x.). xii. The asterisk (*) as usual marks conjectured forms. Before H. and A. words (Bib- lical), I use a dot ( . ) to mark such forms except those of verbs not found in "qal" or "p2(e)h%l. " Under — a. and under — b., matter added by me is enclosed within brackets [ ]. B. — Reduplication of the medial letter of the root with loss of radical h^- and -h, has probably produced B. MaMia. (See also section xiv.). 254. (Root, h^-m-m). 254a. H. .H^AMAM, to be K;arm; 254b. Go. WARMJan, to warm; to warm one's self. to warm one's self. A.-S. WEARMian, to get warm. L. FORMus, warm. S. G^AR^M^a, heat, warmth. 254n. Go. — Radical -m- has exceptionally become -r- in Go. WARMJan, etc. (See section vii.). I conjecture that the real root maybe [*h^-r-m]. (See section x.). L. — Radical h^- has become f- in L. formus, probably having first become [*v-]. 255. (Root, H^-M-Z^). 255a. H. H^AMEZ^ to be sour, 255b. English MusTy, moldy, acid, leavened, fermented. sour; vapid, stale. 255n. The history of English MUSTy is obscure. 256. (Root, H^-M-Z^). 256a. H. .H^AMEZ^, to be red, 256b. B. mahats, grapes, scarlet; h^gmez^ sour grapes. L. MUSTum, new, unferment- ed wine, must. 256n. B. — Evidently B. mahats is an instance of transposition. (See section xiii.). 132 ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION Hebrew (H.), Aramaic (A.), Arabic (Ar.), Gaelic (G.), Gothic (Go.) L Roots tend to become monosyllabic in the Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ii. Radical gutturals (h, h^, h^, h^) are regularly lost in G., and are often lost (especially h" h2) in the other Aryan languages and B. Radical h, h^ final are regularly quiescent in H. and unrepresented in the Aryan languages and B. (See section iii.). iii. Radical gutturals and palatals (h, h2, h^, h^; g, k, q) may become, in Go., A.-S., and L., h, k(c, q), g; or, hw(v), k(c, q)w(v), (?)gw(v); or, w(v, b, f, p, in L.). (See sections in. and IV.). iv. Radical v, y, radical n initial, and radical I, m, n, r final are often lost in the Aryan languages and B. (See sections v, and vii.). V. Radical liquids (I, m, n, r) are regularly represented by I, m, n, r (not always respec- tively) in the Aryan languages and B. (See section vii.). vi. Radical z, z^ become d, sd, s, st, t, or (z) in the Aryan languages. (See section viii.). vii. In B., ch, tch, (cht), s, ts, (st), z, tz, and (zt) are more or less freely interchanged and may each represent radical z, z^, s, s^, s'. L. — I enter L. MUSTum here in query. Some lexicographers as- sign the meaning 'Vinegar'' to H. h^omez^, which they derive from H. h^amez^ to be sour, in the preceding entry. 257. (Root, h^-m-r). 257a. H. hI\mar, to boil up, 257b. A.-S. mor, a moor, foam, ferment; to rise in bub- waste and damp land, bles; H^OMER, clay, mire. Icelandic MYRr, bog, swamp, moor. 258. (Root, H^-N-H^). 258a. H. H^ANAH^, to pitch a 258b. A.-S. wuNian, to dwell, tent, encamp; to dwell, reside, abide; to inhabit. 259. (Root, h^-n-t). 259a. H. H^ANAT, to embalm 259b. B. ondu, to dry, cure (dead bodies); to ripen. (fish), tan (hides); ripe, mature, dry; pickled pork. 260. (Root, h^-n-n). 260a. H. H^\NAN, to show 260b. Go. hunsI, sacrifice; (in favor, be gracious; to implore plural,) service, favor, entreat, make supplica- A.-S. Husel, the eucharist, tion. /lousel, sacrifice. 260n. Go. — For the origin of the -si in Go. hunsI and the -sel in A.-S. Husel, see entry 767. ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION 133 Anglo-Saxon (A.-S.), Latin (L.), Greek (Gr.), Sanskrit (S.), Basque (B.) viii. When the medial and the final consonant of a root are the same or similar in charac- ter, only one of them is represented in tne Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ix. Suffixes frequently occurring are: in H., h^, y, n, t^; in G., c, d, g, n, t; in Go., d, g, n, s, t; in A.-S., c, d, g, h, n, t; in L., c, d, 1, m, n, r, s, t; and in B., n, tz, -tu(-du). Frequently some of these suffixes are combined or repeated. A vowel may be prefixed or suffixed to a root in the Aryan languages and B. (See section xn.). X, In this investigation, the aspiration of consonants and the quality and length of vowels have, in general, been provisionally treated as without philological value. xi. Under a given root, words or parts of words printed in small capitals (in italics if defi- nitional) are to be considered descendants of that root and therefore cognate. Vowels are so printed only when lying within limits reflecting the root. (See also section x.). xii. The asterisk (*) as usual marks conjectured forms. Before H. and A. words (Bib- lical), I use a dot ( . ) to mark such forms except those of verbs not found in "qal" or "p2(e)h%l. " Under — a. and under — b., matter added by me is enclosed within brackets [ ]. 261. (Root, h^-n-q). 261a. H. *H^ANAQ, to stran- 261b. A.-S. Hon (participle, gle, throttle; to strangle one's self, (hang one's self). HANGen), to suspend, crucify, hang; HANGian, to hang, be sus- pended. Go. HAHan, to leave in sus- pense. L. aNGo, to throttle, strangle. 262. (Root, h^-s-n). strong, 262b. A.-S. gesuNd (suNd), healthy, sound, entire. L. SANus, healthy, sounds Go. Huzd, treasure; Huzdjan, to lay up treasure. A.-S. HORd, treasure, hoard. A.-S. Hus, house. Go. gud-Hus, temple. 262n. A.-S. — Etymologists have not considered A.-S. gesuNd, etc., cognate with Go. Huzd, etc. 262a. H. h'asyn, mighty; H^ASON, strong; h^osen, riches, wealth, treasure ; *h^asan, to be laid up, treasured up hoarded. 263. (Root, h^-s-l). 263a. H. .H^ASAL, to eat, de- 263b. A.-S. haesel, hazel. vour. L. coRYLus, the hazel shrub. 263n. L. — Etymologists consider the -r- in L. corylus to be from earlier *-s-. 134 ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION Hebrew (H.), Aramaic (A.), Arabic (Ar.), Gaelic (G,), Gothic (Go.) L Roots tend to become monosyllabic in the Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ii. Radical gutturals (h, h^, h^, h^) are regularly lost in G., and are often lost (especially h, h*) in the other Aryan languages and B. Radical h, h^ final are regularly quiescent in H. and unrepresented in the Aryan languages and B. (See section iii.). iii. Radical gutturals and palatals (h, h^, h^, h^; g, k, q) may become, in Go., A.-S., and L., h, k(c, q), g; or, hw(v), k(c, q)w(v), (?)gw(v); or, w(v, b, f, p, m L.). (See sections in. and IV.). iv. Radical v, y, radical n initial, and radical 1, m, n, r final are often lost in the Aryan languages and B. (See sections v. and vii.). V. Radical liquids (1, m, n, r) are regularly represented by I, m, n, r (not always respec- tively) in the Aryan languages and B. (See section vii.). vi. Radical z, z^ become d, sd, s, st, t, or (z) in the Aryan languages. (See section viii.). vii. In B,, ch, tch, (cht), s, ts, (st), z, tz, and (zt) are more or less freely interchanged and may each represent radical z, z-, s, s^, s^ 264. (Root, H^-P-P). 264a. H. .H^APAP, to cover, 264b. A.-S. heofoii, heaven. surround, protect; H^up^p^ah^, A.-S. hof, an enclosed space, chamber, canopy. courtyard, house, dwelhng. A.-S. HOF, hoof. 264n. Etymologists have not considered any of the A.-S. words here cited as cognate with each other. I believe all the words are from the root h^-p-p. 265. (Root, H^-P-Z^). 265a. H. H^APEZ^ to dehght 265b. L. festus, joyful, mer- in; H^EPEz^ delight, pleasure. ry, festive; FESTum, hoUday, festiYSil; festdX banquet, feast. 266. (Root, h^-p-r). 266a. H. H^APAR, to dig (a pit, 266b. B. HOBiRatu, to inter, a well); to dig for, search for bury; hobI, ditch; grave, (something hidden); to spy out, G. FEORaich, to ask, inquire; search out, explore; .H^APAR(e)- FAiRich, to observe, see, per- p^ARah^ mole, rat. ceive; fair, to watch at night, keep guard ; fairc, guard,watch, wake. Go. FERJa, spy. French FUReter, to search out, ferrei out. 266n. B. — Note that radical -r is lost from B. hobI but preserved in B. HOBiRatu. (See section vii.). ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION 135 Anglo-Saxon (A.-S.), Latin (L.), Greek (Gr.), Sanskrit (S.), Basque (B.) viii. When the medial and the final consonant of a root are the same or similar in charac- ter, onlj' one of them is represented in tne Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ix. Suffixes frequently occurring are: in H., h^, y, n, t^; in G., c, d, g, n, t; in Go., d, g, n, s, t; in A,-S„ c, d, g, h, n, t; in L., c, d, I, m, n, r, s, t; and in B., n, tz, -tu(-du). Frequently some of these suffixes are combined or repeated. A vowel may be prefixed or suffixed to a root in the Aryan languages and B. (See section xii.). X. In this investigation, the aspiration of consonants and the quality and length of vowels have, in general, been provisionally treated as without philological value. xi. Under a given root, words or parts of words printed in small capitals (in italics if defi- nitional) are to be considered descendants of that root and therefore cognate. Vowels are so printed only when lying within limits reflecting the root. (See also section x.). xii. The asterisk (*) as usual marks conjectured forms. Before H. and A. words (Bib- lical), I use a dot ( . ) to mark such forms except those of verbs not found in "qal" or "p2(e)h*al. " Under — a. and under — b., matter added by me is enclosed within brackets [ ]. G. — Are G. fair, etc., related to English "wary," which I have placed in entry 564 ? 267. (Root, H^-P-S'). 267a. H. .H^APAs^ to search 267b. G. Fosgadh, to search diligently. for vermin. 267n. It is barely possible that G. FOsgadh (which is oftener spelt with -A- in place of -o-) is cognate with H. .h^apasI 268. (Root, h^-pV). 268a. H. *H^APAs^to be loose, 268b. G. FUASgail, to loose, free. untie. 269. (Root, h^-z^-b). 269a. H. H^AZ^EB, to cut, hew, 269b. G. stob, thorn, prickle, hew out; to be cut in, engraven, stake, any pointed iron, sharp- pointed stick; thrust, stah; to stab, thrust, push. 269n. I query whether G. stob and English stah are cognate with H. H^AZ^EB. 270. (Root, u'-z'-H.'). 270a. H. H^AZ^AH^ to cut in 270b. English waist, the two; to halve, divide; H^AZ^y, small part of the [human] body half, middle, midst. between the thorax and the hips; hence, the middle part of other bodies. 136 ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION Hebrew (H.), Aramaic (A.), Arabic (Ar.), Gaelic (G.), Gothic (Go.) i. Roots tend to become monosyllabic in the Aryan languages and B, (See section x.). ii. Radical gutturals (h, h-', h^, h^) are regularly lost in G., and are often lost (especially h, h') in the other Aryan languages and B. Radical h, h^ final are regularly quiescent in H. and unrepresented in the Aryan languages and B. (See section iii.). iii. Radical gutturals and palatals (h, h^, h^, h^; g, k, q) may become, in Go., A,-S., and L., h, k(c, q), g; or, hw(v), k(c, q)w(v), (?)gw(v); or, w(v, b, f, p, in L.). (See sections iii. and IV.). iv. Radical v, y, radical n initial, and radical I, m, n, r final are often lost in the Aryan languages and B. (See sections v. and vii.). V. Radical liquids (I, m, n, r) are regularly represented by 1, m, n, r (not always respec- tively) in the Aryan languages and B. (See section vii.). vi. Radical z, z^ become d, sd, s, st, t, or (z) in the Aryan languages. (See section viii.). vii. In B., ch, tch, (cht), s, ts, (st\ z, tz, and (zt) are more or less freely interchanged and may each represent radical z, z^, s, s^, s*. 270n. The history of Enghsh waist is obscure. The word is unmistakably from the root h^-z^-hI 271. (Root, H^-z^-z^; 271a. H. .H^Azl\z^ to divide; m(e)H^AZ^(E)z^ym, persons tak- ing part (in conversation) ; h^ez^, arrow; (figuratively of wicked men's violence; their words). 271b. B. HiTZ, word; hots, clamor, outcry; rumor, fame. B. GEzi, arrow. 272. (Roots, H^-Q-H^ H^-Q-Q). 272a. H. *H^AQAH^ to cut in, carve; to hack up (the ground with a ho%), dig (a trench); .H^AQAQ, to cut in, heiv in, in- scribe. 272b. Go. HOHa, plough. Old High German Howa (hou- wa), hoe, mattock, pick-axe. A.-S. HE A wan, to cut, hew. A.-S. toHACcian, to cut to pieces, hack to pieces. 273. (Root, h^-q-r). 273a. H. .H^AQAR, to search 273b. L. vago, to wander; out, examine, explore (a land); to seek out, investigate, try. VAGor, to ramble, wander, roam, range, rove. Old French vAGARant, vaga- bond, vagrant. L. QUAERo, to seek, search for; to ask, ingmre, seek to learn. ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION 137 Anglo-Saxon (A.-S,), Latin (L.), Greek (Gr.), Sanskrit (S.), Basque (B.) viii. When tlie medial and the final consonant of a root are the same or similar in charac- ter, only one of them is represented in tne Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ix. Suffixes frequently occurring are: in H., h^, y, n, t^; in G., c, d, g, n, t; in Go., d, g, n, s, t; jn A.-S., c, d, g, h, n, t; in L., c, d, 1, m, n, r, s, t; and in B., n, tz, -tu(-du). Frequently some of these suffixes are combined or repeated. A vowel may be prefixed or suffixed to a root in the Aryan languages and B. (See section xii.). X. In this investigation, the aspiration of consonants and the quality and length of vowels have, in general, been provisionally treated as without philological value. xi. Under a given root, words or parts of words printed in small capitals (in italics if defi- nitional) are to be considered descendants of that root and therefore cognate. Vowels are so printed only when lying within limits reflecting the root. (See also section x.). xii. The asterisk (*) as usual marks conjectured forms. Before H. and A. words (Bib- lical), I use a dot ( . ) to mark such forms except those of verbs not found in "qal" or •*p2(e)h%l. " Under — a. and under — b., matter added by me is enclosed within brackets [ ]. 273n. L. — Etymologists do not trace English vagrsmt to L. VAGo, VAGor, from which I think radical -r has been lost. (See section vii.). They have not considered L. quaero cognate with L. VAGO. 274. (Root, h^-r-r). 274a. H. .H^OR (.h^our), (plu- 274b. G. fear, man, husband, ral,) nobles, free-born. Go. wair, man. A.-S. WER, man. L. viR, man, a man of cour- age, husband. S. vi^R^a, man, hero, husband. Gr. HE^Ro^s, hero, any free- man. 274n. G. — The f- in G. fear implies a root [*h^-v-r]. Or is the word directly from L. vir ? 275. (Root, h^-r-b). 275a. H. H^EREB, sword. 275b. Go. hairus, sword. A.-S. HEORu, sword. 275n. On the loss of radical -b from the words given under 275b., see section x. 276. (Root, H^-R-H^). 276a. H. H^ARAH^ to be hot, 276b. A.-S. WRath, loroih. angry, wroth; to kindle (anger). L. iRa, anger, ire. S. H^R (hV), to be angry, UTOth. 138 ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION Hebrew (H.), Aramaic (A.), Arabic (Ar.), Gaelic (G.). Gothic (Go.) L Roots tend to become monosyllabic in the Aryan languages and B. (See section x). ii. Radical gutturals (h, h^, h^, h^) are regularly lost in G., and are often lost (especially h, h*) in the other Aryan languages and B. Radical h, h^ final are regularly quiescent in H. and unrepresented in the Aryan languages and B. (See section iii.). iii. Radical gutturals and palatals (h, h^, h^, h''; g, k, q) may become, in Go., A.-S., and L,, h, k(c, q), g; or, hw(v), k(c, q)w(v), (?)gw(v); or, w(v, b, f, p, m L.). (See sections iii. and IV.). iv. Radical v, y, radical n initial, and radical I, m, n, r final are often lost in the Aryan languages and B. (See sections v. and vii.). V. Radical liquids (1, m, n, r) are regularly represented by I, m, n, r (not always respec- tively) in the Aryan languages and B. (See section vii.). vi. Radical z, z^ become d, sd, s, st, t, or (z) in the Aryan languages. (See section viii.). vii. In B., ch, tch, (cht), s, ts, (st), z, tz, and (zt) are more or less freely interchanged and may each represent radical z, z^, s, s^, s'. B. GORi, red-hot; GORitu, to heat. 276n. Etymologists have not considered cognate any of the words given under 276b. (exceptions being prima facie evident). 277. (Root, h^-r-l). 277a. H. H^ARWL, thornbush, 277b. B. lahar (lar, nahar), bramble. bramble, brier, wild rosebush. 277n. H. — The meaning of H. h^arwl is not wholly certain. B. — On transposition in B., see section xiii. 278. (Root, h^-r-m). 278a. H. *H^ARAM, to conse- 278b. Go. HRAMJan, to cruci- crate (to God); to devote to de- fy. struction, exterminate, destroy Gr. KREMao^ to hang up; to utterly; (of persons,) to be put be hung up; to be hung up (as a to death. votive offering). 279. (Root, h^-r-m). 279a. H. .H^ARAM, to slit (the 279b. A.-S. hearm, hurt, in- nose, lip, ear, etc.): to mutilate jury, harm. (especially the face); h^erem, a Go. HLAMma, snare, hunter's net, a fisherman's net. 279n. A.-S.— Etymologists have not, of course, considered A.-S. HEARM cognate with Go. HLAMma. Go. — See also entries 40 and 411. ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION 139 Anglo-Saxon (A.-S.), Latin (L.), Greek (Gr.), Sanskrit (S.), Basque (B.) viii. When the medial and the final consonant of a root are the same or similar in charac- ter, only one of them is represented in tiie Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ix. Suffixes frequently occurring are: in H., h-, y, n, t^; in G., c, d, g, n, t; in Go., d, g, n, s, t; in A.-S., c, d, g, h, n, t; in L., c, d, 1, m, n, r, s, t; and in B., n, tz, -tu(-du). Frequently some of these suffixes are combined or repeated. A vowel may be prefixed or suffixed to a root in the Aryan languages and B. (See section xii.). X, In this investigation, the aspiration of consonants and the quality and length of vowels have, in general, been provisionally treated as without philological vahie. xi. Under a given root, words or parts of words printed in small capitals (in italics if defi- nitional) are to he considered descendants of that root and therefore cognate. Vowels are so printed only when lying within limits reflecting the root. (See also section x.). xii. The asterisk (*) as usual marks conjectured forms. Before H. and A. words (Bib- lical). T use a dot ( . ) to mark such forms except those of verbs not found in "qal" or "p2(e)h%l. " Under — a. and under — b., matter added by me is enclosed within brackets [ ]. 280. (Root, H^-R-Z^). 280a. H. H^ARAZ^ to cut; to make pointed, sharpen (the tongue) ; h^arwz^, ditch, trench, moat; gold (properly, some- thing dug out) ; spikes, the sharp points of a threshing-dray; .h^a- RYz^ a sharp instrument (of iron). 280b. Go. WAURTs, root; plant, wort. A.-S. WYRT, root; plant, herb, wort. A.-S. WROTan, to root up. L. RADix, root. Gr. HRiza, root. B. HORTZ, tooth. B. ORRATZ, pin, needle; or- RATze, comb. 281. (Root, h^-r-q). 281a. H. H^ARAQ, to grate, 281b. French ragc, madness, grind, gnash (with the teeth). rage, fury. L. RABio, to rage, rave. 281n. L. — Radical -q has become -b- in L. rabIo. (See sections III. and IV.; also entries 490 and 718). 282. (Root, h^-r-r). 282a. H. .H^ARAR, to be dry, parched; to burn, glow. 282b. B. eRRe, to scorch, parch, burn. L. aReo, to be dry; aRidus, dry, parched; aRdeo, to burn, glow. 140 ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION Hebrew (H.), Aramaic (A.), Arabic (Ar.), Gaelic (G.), Gothic (Go.) L Roots tend to become monosyllabic in the Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ii. Radical gutturals (h, h^, h^, h'') are regularly lost in G., and are often lost (especially h, h2) in the other Aryan languages and B. Radical h, h- final are regularly quiescent in H. and unrepresented in the Aryan languages and B. (See section iii,). iii. Radical gutturals and palatals (h, h^, h^, h''; g, k, q) may become, in Go., A.-S., and L., h, k(c, q), g; or, hw(v), k(c, q)w(v), (?)gw(v); or, w(v, b, f, p, in L.). (See sections in. and IV.). iv. Radical v, y, radical n initial, and radical 1, m, n, r final are often lost in the Aryan languages and B. (See sections v. and vii.). V. Radical liquids (1, m, n, r) are regularly represented by 1, m, n, r (not always respec- tively) in the Aryan languages and B. (See section vii.). vi. Radical z, z^ become d, sd, s, st, t, or (z) in the Aryan languages. (See section viii.). vii. In B., ch, tch, (cht), s, ts, (st), z, tz, and (zt) are more or less freely interchanged and may each represent radical z, z-, s, s^, s^. 283. (Root, H^-R-S^). 283a. H. .H^ARAs^ to cut, cut 283b. A.-S. hors, horse. in, engrave, inscribe; to plough; S. krs, to pull, drag along; to H^ORES^, ploughman; tool, (any) plough. cutting instrument; h^aras^, ar- B. harots (aROxz), black - tificer, engraver, craftsman, car- smith, carpenter, penter, smith. B. guraizI, chisel, shears. 283n. A.-S. — Ohthere, who "dwelt northernmost of all North- men," said "the little that he ploughed he ploughed with Worses (mid HORsan)" (King Alfred's Orosius, Sweet's edition, page 18). 284. (Root, H^-R-S^). 284a. H. .H^AREs^, to be silent, 284b. G. cluas, ear. exhibit silence ;to be silent about; A.-S. HLYstan, to listen; H^ERES^, deaf. HLYst, hearing; listening with eager attention; HLOsnian, to listen, be silent in expectation of hearing. Icelandic HLUsta, to listen; HLust, ear. 284n. G. — Radical h^- has unexpectedly become c- in G. cluas. (See sections iii. and xi.). A.-S.— Note that to listen is to be silent. (See also entry 40). 285. (Root, H^-R-S^). 285a. H. H^ORES^ thicket, 285b. B. haritz, oak-tree. wood, forest. ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION 141 Anglo-Saxon (A.-S.), Latin (L.), Greek (Gr.), Sanskrit (S.), Basque (B.) viii. When the medial and the final consonant of a root are the same or similar in charac- ter, only one of them is represented in tne Aryan languages and B, (See section x.). ix. Suffixes frequently occurring are: in H., h^, y, n, t^; in G., c, d, g, n, t; in Go., d, g, n, s, t; in A.-S., c, d, g, h, n, t; in L., c, d, I, m, n, r, s, t; and in B., n, tz, -tu(-du). Frequently some of these suffixes are combined or repeated. A vowel may be prefixed or suffixed to a root in the Aryan languages and B. (See section xii.). X. In this investigation, the aspiration of consonants and the quality and length of vowels have, in general, been provisionally treated as without philological value. xi. Under a given root, words or parts of words printed in small capitals (in italics if defi- nitional) are to be considered descendants of that root and therefore cognate. Vowels are so printed only when lying within limits reflecting the root. (See also section x,). xii. The asterisk (*) as usual marks conjectured forms. Before H. and A. words (Bib- lical), I use a dot ( . ) to mark such forms except those of verbs not found in "qal" or "p2(e)h lical), I use a dot ( . Ho mark such forms except those of verbs not found in "qal" or "p2(e)hZe. Go. FALthan, to fold. Go. tweiFLs, doubt, uncer- tainty. A.-S. FEALdan, to fold. L. duPLus, double. 367n. Radical k- seems to me to have been lost from the Aryan words given under 367b. (See also entries 350, 361, 375; also L. lupus, in entry 352). 368. (Root, K-P-P). 368a. H. K^APAP, to bend, 368b. B. Gupia, crooked, curve. 369. (Root, k-r-r). 369a. H. K^AR, lamb. 369b. G. caor, sheep. 370. (Root, K-R-H^). 370a. H. .K2ARAH^ to buy, 370b. G. CRean, a buying, purchase, get by trade. purchasing. ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION 171 Anglo-Saxon (A.-S.), Latin (L.), Greek (Gr.), Sanskrit (S.), Basque (B.) viii. When the medial and the final consonant of a root are the same or similar in charac- ter, only one of them is represented in tne Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ix. Suffixes frequently occurring are: in H., h^, y, n, t^; in G., c, d, g, n, t; in Go,, d, g, n, s, t; in A,-S., c, d, g, h, n, t; in L., c, d, 1, m, n, r, s, t; and in B., n, tz, -tu(-du). Frequently some of these suffixes are combined or repeated. A vowel may be prefixed or suffixed to a root in the Aryan languages and B. (See section xii.). X. In this investigation, the aspiration of consonants and the quality and length of vowels have, in general, been provisionally treated as without philological vahie. xi. Under a given root, words or parts of words printed in small capitals (in italics if defi- nitional) are to be considered descendants of that root and therefore cognate. Vowels are so printed only when lying within limits reflecting the root. (See also section x.), xii. The asterisk (*) as usual marks conjectured forms. Before H. and A. words (Bib- lical), I use a dot ( . ) to mark such forms except those of verbs not found in "qal" or "p2(e)h%l. " Under — a. and under — b., matter added by me is enclosed within brackets [ ]. A.-S. WARu, merchandise, ware. A.-S. HYR, hire', interest. S. KR^i^, to buy, purchase. 370n. A.-S. — Etymologists have not considered A.-S. waru cognate with A.-S. hyr, nor either of these words cognate with S, KR^il 371. (Root, K-R-H^). 371a. H. K^ARAH^ to bend, 371b. G. croc, horn; cROcan, bow (used intransitively of the crook, hook, knee), bow down. Go. wraiqs, crookeA. L. cuRvus, curved, bent, crooked. B. uKHUR, to bend forward, stoop forward. B. maKUR, bent, curved. 371n. G. — Radical -h^ has unexpectedly become -c- in G. CROcan and probably -c in G. croc (See section iii.). B. — The m- in B. maxuR is unmistakably a prefix. (See sec- tion VII.). 372. (Root, K-R-S^). 372a. H. k2(e)res2 (.k^a- 372b. B. gantz, paunch, belly. REs^), belly. 372n. Radical -r- has become -n- in B. gantz. (See section vii.). 172 ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION Hebrew (H.), Aramaic (A.), Arabic (Ar.), Gaelic (G.), Gothic (Go.) i. Roots tend to become monosyllabic in the Aryan languages and B. (See section x.), ii. Radical gutturals (h, h^, h^, h'») are regularly loi^t in G., and are often lost (especially h, h*) in the other Aryan languages and B. Radical h, h- final are regularly quiescent in H. and unrepresented in the Aryan languages and B. (See section iii,). iii. Radical gutturals and palatals (h, h^, h^, h^; g, k, q) may become, in Go., A.-S., and L., h, k(c, q), g; or, hw(v), k(c, q)w(v), (?) gw(v); or, w(v, b, f, p, in L.). (See sections in. and IV.). iv. Radical v, y, radical n initial, and radical 1, m, n, r final are often lost in the Aryan languages and B. (See sections v. and vii.). V. Radical liquids (1, m, n, r) are regularly represented by I, m, n, r (not always respec- tively) in the Aryan languages and B. (See section vii.). vi. Radical z, z^ become d, sd, s, st, t, or (z) in the Aryan languages. (See section viii.). vii. In B., ch, tch, (cht), s, ts, (st\ z, tz, and (zt) are more or less freely interchanged and may each represent radical z, z^, s, s-, s^ 373. (Root, K-R-T^). 373a. H. K^ARAT^ to cut; to 373b. L. curtus, shortened, cut off (a cluster of grapes; a short, bough); to cut ciown (trees). S. krt^ to cut, cut off. 374. (Root, k-s^-l). 374a. H. K^As^s^YL, axe. 374b. Go. aQizi, axe. A.-S. aex (acAs, aesc), a:re. L. ascia, a carpenter's a:re. Gr. axine^ Sixe. 374n. A.-S. — Note the transposition in A.-S. aesc and in L. ascia. (See section xiii.). 375. (Root, K-T^-P). 375a. H. K^AT^EP, side, shoul- 375b. G. taobh, side, der. 375n. Radical k- has been lost from G. taobh. (See also en- tries 350, 361, 367; also L. lupus, in entry 352). 376. • (Root, K-T^-T^). 376a. H. .K2AT^AT^ to beat, 376b. L. cudo, to beat; (of hammer, forge (ploughshares in- metals,) to prepare by beating, to swords); to beat down, rout hammering : to forge; incus (gen- (, as enemies). itive, incuDis), anvil. 377. 377a. H. L(e), to, towards; 377b. G. lc (rc), with, to- ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION 173 Anglo-Saxon (A.-S.), Latin (L.), Greek (Gr.), Sanskrit (S.), Basque (B.) viii. When the medial and the final consonant of a root are the same or similar in charac- ter, only one of them is represented in tne Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ix. Suffixes frequently occurring are: in H., h^, y, n, t^; in G., c, d, g, n, t; in Go d, g, n, s, t; in A.-S., c, d, g, h, n, t; in L., c, d, 1, m, n, r, s, t; and in B., n, tz, -tu(-du). Frequently some of these suffixes are combined or repeated. A vowel may be prefixed or suffixed to a root in the Aryan languages and B. (See section xii.). X. In this investigation, the aspiration of consonants and the quality and length of vowels have, in general, been provisionally treated as without philological value. xi. Under a given root, words or parts of words printed in small capitals (in italics if defi- nitional) are to be considered descendants of that root and therefore cognate. Vowels are so printed only when lying within limits reflecting the root. (See also section x.). xii. The asterisk (*) as usual marks conjectured forms. Before H. and A. words (Bib- lical), I use a dot ( . ) to mark such forms except those of verbs not found in "qal" or "p2(e)h*al. " Under — a. and under — b., matter added by me is enclosed within brackets [ ]. at, near; of, belonging to; by gether with; with, by, by means (, marking the cause and author of; by (, denoting the agent or of anything); with (, [marking] doer); in favor of, on one's side; the instrument) ; for, in behalf of with, in possession of. (anyone: for his advantage: on his side). 377n. For the use of H. L(e) and G. Le (Re) in predicated pos- session and with the infinitive, see section i. 378. (Root, l-b-h). 378a. H. LABYH, lion. 378b. G. LEOBHan (leomh- ann, LEOGHann), lion. German LOEwe, Zion. L. Leo (genitive, Leonis), lion. Gr. Leo^n (genitive, Leontos), lion. B. LEHoin, lion. 378n. Etymologists have considered the words given under 378b. loan-words from H. Fossil remains of the Zion have been found throughout the greater part of Europe. Wherefore I infer that the Aryan peoples had occasion to take the name with them on their first migrations. B. — On the possibility of the -h- in B. LEHoin representing radical -B-, compare the B. forms abo (aho), mouth, in entry 585. 379. (Root, l-b-n). 379a. *LABAN (*laben), to 379b. L. aLBus, white. 174 ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION Hebrew (H.), Aramaic (A.), Arabic (Ar.), Gaelic (G.), Gothic (Go.) 1. Roots tend to become monosyllabic in the Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ii. Radical gutturals (h, h2, h^, h^) are regularly lost in G., and are often lost (especially h, h*) in the other Aryan languages and B, Radical h, h^ final are regularly quiescent in H. and unrepresented in the Aryan languages and B, (See section iii.). iii. Radical gutturals and palatals (h, h^, h^, h^; g, k, q) may become, in Go., A.-S,, and L., h, k(c, q), g; or, hw(v), k(c, q)w(v), (?) gw(v); or, w(v, b, f, p, in L.). (See sections in. and IV.). iv. Radical v, y, radical n initial, and radical 1, m, n, r final are often lost in the Aryan languages and B. (See sections v. and vii.). V, Radical liquids (1, m, n, r) are regularly represented by I, m, n, r (not always respec- tively) in the Aryan languages and B. (See section vii.). vi. Radical z, z^ become d, sd, s, st, t, or (z) in the Aryan languages. (See section viii.). vii. In B., ch, tch, (cht), s, ts, (st), z, tz, and (zt) are more or less freely interchanged and may each represent radical z, z^, s, s2, s^. become white; to cleanse, purify; B. aLABa, daughter. LABAN, white. 379n. B. — On the mocie of designating girls among our remote ancestors, see entry 194. 380. (Root, l-h^-t). 380a. H. .LAH^AT, to burn, 380b. Go. LAUHATJan, to light- blaze up, flame; to set on fire; to en; liuhath, light; LiUHTJan, to burn up, consume. shine, give light. A.-S. LEOHT, light; Linxan, to shine, give light; liget, a flash of lightmng. L. Luceo, to shine. S. R^uc, to shine. Gr. LEUKos, light, bright. 380n. L. — On the loss of radical -t from L. Luceo, etc., see section x. Etymologists have thought the -t-(-t) of the Teutonic forms a suffix. 381. (Root, L-v-z). 381a. H. Lwz, (either) the al- 381b. B. urritz, hazel-tree, mond tree (or) the hazel. filbert-tree. 381n. Radical l- has become -rr- in B. urritz. 382. (Root, l-v-t). 382a. H. .LWT, to wrap up, 382b. Go. LiTa, hypocrisy,dis- muflfle up, cover; to do (or) act simulation; liutcI, hypocrisy, secretly; (participle, plural,) la- fraud, imposture. ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION 175 Anglo-Saxon (A.-S.), Latin (L.), Greek (Gr.), Sanskrit (S,), Basque (B.) viii. When the medial and the final consonant of a root are the same or similar in charac- ter, only one of them is represented in tne Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ix. Suffixes frequently occurring are: in H., h^, y, n, t^; in G., c, d, g, n, t; in Go,, d, g, n, s, t; in A.-S., c, d, g, h, n, t; in L., c, d, 1, m, n, r, s, t; and in B., n, tz, -tu(-du). Frequently some of these suffixes are combined or repeated. A vowel may be prefixed or suffixed to a root in the Aryan languages and B. (See section xii.). X, In this investigation, the aspiration of consonants and the quality and length of vowels have, in general, been provisionally treated as without philological value. xi. Under a given root, words or parts of words printed in small capitals (in italics if defi- nitional) are to be considered descendants of that root and therefore cognate. Vowels are so printed only when lying within limits reflecting the root. (See also section x.). xii. The asterisk (*) as usual marks conjectured forms. Before H. and A. words (Bib- lical), I use a dot ( . ) to mark such forms except those of verbs not found in "qal" or "p2(e)h%l. " Under — a. and under — b., matter added by me is enclosed within brackets [ ]. Tym, secret arts, magic arts, sor- A.-S. LYxig, wily, crafty, eery, mysteries, enchantments, L. latco, to lie concealed; to incantations. lurk, skulk. 382n. Etymologists have not considered Go. Lixa, etc., cognate with L. LATeo. 383. (Root, L-V-H^). 383a. H. .Liv(e)yah^ wreath, 383b. Go. laufs, fohage, leaf. garland. A.-S. leaf, foliage, leaf. 383n. Radical -v- has become -f- in Go. laufs (and -f in A.-S. leaf). 384. (Root, l-v-n). 384a. H. LWN, to pass the 384b. G. LUNNainn, London, night, lodge; to remain, dwell; L. LONdinium, London. maLOUN, lodging-house, inn, quarters (as of soldiers); tent, hut, cot. 384n. G. — I think it probable that G. LUNNainn is cognate with H. LWN. 385. (Root, L-V-Z^). 385a. H. .Lwz^ to mock, 385b. B. LOTsa, disgrace, in- scorn; LAz^oun, scorn, derision, famy. 386. (Root, L-H^-H^). 386a. H. L(E)H^y, cheek, jaw- 386b. G. leac, a flat stone; bone; ramat^ l(e)hV, the hill of cheek; hill. 176 ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION Hebrew (II.), Aramaic (A.), Arabic (Ar.), Gaelic (G.), Gothic (Go.) L Roots tend to become monosyllabic in the Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ii. Radical gutturals (h, h^, h^, h^) are regularly lost in G., and are often lost (especially h, h*) in the other Aryan languages and B. Radical h, h^ final are regularly quiescent in H. and unrepresented in the Aryan languages and B, (See section iii.). iii. Radical gutturals and palatals (h, h^, h^, h**; g, k, q) may become, in Go., A.-S., and L., h, k(c, q), g; or, hw(v), k(c, q)w(v), (?)gw(v); or, w(v, b, f, p, in L.). (See sections iii. and IV.). iv. Radical v, y, radical n initial, and radical 1, m, n, r final are often lost in the Aryan languages and B. (See sections v. and vii.). V. Radical liquids (I, m, n, r) are regularly represented by 1, m, n, r (not always respec- tively) in the Aryan languages and B. (See section vii.). vi. Radical z, z^ become d, sd, s, st, t, or (z) in the Aryan languages. (See section viii.). vii. In B., ch, tch, (cht), s, ts, (st), z, tz, and (zt) are more or less freely interchanged and may each represent radical z, z^, s, s^, s^. Lehi (probably so called from a chain of steep, craggy rocks). 386n. Note that radical -h^- has unexpectedly become -c in G. LEAC. (See section iii.). 387. (Root, l-h^-k). 387a. H. .LAH^AK(e), to lick, 387b. G. imLiCH, to lick, lap feed (by licking). with the tongue. A.-S. Liccian, to lick. S. L^iH^ (r^^), to lap, lick. 387n. See also entry 394. 388. (Root, l-h^-m). 388a. H. .LAH^AM, to contend, 388b. G. leum, to quarrel, fight, wage w^ar. fight; leon, to grieve, aflflict; to wound, hurt. 389. (Root, l-h^-m). 389a. H. .LAH^AM, to eat,feast 389b. G. lon, food; diet; din- upon, devour; leh^em, bread, ner; hunger, greed, food, meat; meal, feast; Go. leik, flesh; the body. .l(e)hVm, flesh, body; food, A.-S. Lic-hama, the body, meat. Icelandic LiKami, the body. 389n. A.-S. — It is remotely possible, to say the least, that A.-S. Lic-hama is not a compound word but has been made to appear so through the influence of -hama, which means "a covering'' and forms the second member of many compound words in A.-S. ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION 177 Anglo-Saxon (A.-S,), Latin (L.), Greek (Gr.), Sanskrit (S.), Basque (B.) viii. When the medial and the final consonant of a root are the same or similar in charac- ter, only one of them is represented in tne Aryan languages and B. (See section x,). ix. Suffixes frequently occurring are: in H., h-, y, n, t^; in G., c, d, g, n, t; in Go., d, g, n, s, t; in A.-S., c, d, g, h, n, t; in L,, c, d, 1, m, n, r, s, t; and in B., n, tz, -tu(-du). Frequently some of these suffixes are combined or repeated. A vowel may be prefixed or •suffixed to a root in the Aryan languages and B. (See section xii.). X. In this investigation, the aspiration of consonants and the quality and length of vowels have, in general, been provisionally treated as without philological value. xi. Under a given root, words or parts of words printed in small capitals (in italics if defi- nitional) are to be considered descendants of that root and therefore cognate. Vowels are so printed only when lying within limits reflecting the root. (See also section x.). xii. The asterisk (*) as usual marks conjectured forms. Before H. and A. words (Bib- lical), I use a dot ( . ) to mark such forms except those of verbs not found in "qal" or "p2(e)h%l. " Under — a. and under — b., matter added by me is enclosed within brackets [ ]. 390. (Root, l-k-d). 390a. H. LAKAD, to take,catch 390b. G. luch, mouse; (rare- (animals in a net or in snares); ly,) prisoner, captive, to take captive(in war) ; .maL(E)- K^ODet^ snare, trap. 390n. Radical -d has evidently been lost from G. luch. (See section x.). 391. (Root, l-m-d). 391a. H. LAMAD, to train, dis- 391b. G. oiL, to teach, train, cipline, accustom; to teach; to educate, bring up; oiLEAMHain, learn. instruction, education, training; oiLEAMHAiD, uuivcrsity. 39 In. I think radical -m- has unmistakably been lost from G. oiL and is represented by -mh- in G. oiLEAMHain, the -EAMHain of which may, however, be a suffix. Note, for example, that G. fin- eamhain means "vineyard." It is only remotely probable that radical -d is represented by -d in G. oIleamhaid. 392. (Root, l-h^-b). 392a. H. *LAH^AB, to mock at, 392b. G. leamh, importunate, deride. impertinent, impudent; vexing, galHng. 392n. The -mh in G. leamh may stand for earlier [*-bh]. It might, however, be better to place the word in entry 388. 178 ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION Hebrew (H.), Aramaic (A.), Arabic (Ar.), Gaelic (G.), Gothic (Go.) L Roots tend to become monosyllabic in the Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). IL Radical gutturals (h, h2, h^, h^) are regularly lost in G., and are often lost (especially h, h') in the other Aryan languages and B. Radical h, h^ final are regularly quiescent in H. and unrepresented in the Aryan languages and B. (See section iii.). iii. Radical gutturals and palatals (h, h^, h^, h^; g, k, q) may become, in Go., A.-S., and L,, h, k(c, q), g; or, hw(v), k(c, q)w(v), (?)gw(v); or, w(v, b, f, p, in L.). (See sections iii. and IV.). iv. Radical v, y, radical n initial, and radical I, m, n, r final are often lost in the Aryan languages and B. (See sections v. and vii.). V, Radical liquids (1, m, n, r) are regularly represented by I, m, n, r (not always respec- tively) in the Aryan languages and B. (See section vii.). vi. Radical z, z^ become d, sd, s, st, t, or (z) in the Aryan languages. (See section viii.). vii. In B., ch, tch, (cht), s, ts, (st), z, tz, and (zt) are more or less freely interchanged and may each represent radical z, z^, s, s^, s'. 393. (Root, l-h*-g). 393a. H. .LAH^AG, to mock, 393b. Go. HLAHJan, to laugh; deride. biHLAHJan, to laugh at, mock, deride. A.-S. HLiHan, to laugh; to de ride. 393n. I have entered here the words under 393b., supposing them instances of transposition. (See section xiii.). 394. (Root, l-q-q). 394a. H. .LAQAQ, to lap, hck. 394b. Go. biLAiGon, to lick. L. LinGo, to lick, lick up. 394n. Compare these forms and meanings with those in entry 387. 395. (Root, l-s^-n). 395a. H. LAS^ouN, tongue (of 395b. G. las, to flame, gleam, men and animals); l(e)s^oun blaze; LAsag, a little flame, little hes'^, a tongue of fire, flame of blaze. fire. S. L^AS^ to glance, gleam; to shine, flash, glitter; L^AS^a, mov- ing quickly hither and thither. 395n. It is probable that the meanings given under 395b. are older than those given under 395a.; that is, H. has not preserved in speech or record the earlier meanings. ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION 179 Anglo-Saxon (A.-S.), Latin (L.), Greek (Gr.), Sanskrit (S.), Basque (B.) viii. When the medial and the final consonant of a root are the same or similar in charac- ter, only one of them is represented in tne Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ix. Suffixes frequently occurring are: in H., h^, y, n, t^; in G., c, d, g, n, t; in Go., d, g, n, s, t; m A.-S., c, d, g, h, n, t; in L., c, d, 1, m, n, r, s, t; and in B., n, tz, -tu(-du). Frequently some of these suffixes are combined or repeated. A vowel may be prefixed or suffixed to a root in the Aryan languages and B. (See section xii.). X. In this investigation, the aspiration of consonants and the quality and length of vowels have, in general, been provisionally treated as without philological vahie. xi. Under a given root, words or parts of words printed in small capitals (in italics if defi- nitional) are to be considered descendants of that root and therefore cognate. Vowels are so printed onlv when lying within limits reflecting the root. (See also section x.). xii. The asterisk (*) as usual marks conjectured forms. Before H. and A. words (Bib- lical), I use a dot ( . ) to mark such forms except those of verbs not found in "qal" or "p2(e)h%l. Under — a. and under — b., matter added by me is enclosed within brackets [ ]. 396. (Root, M-H-S). 396a. H. .MAHAs, to set at 396b. Gr. Miseo^ to hate, naught, esteem hghtly, despise. 397. (Root, n-g-l). 397a. H. maGVAL, sickle. 397b. Go. GiLtha, sickle. 397n. Note that the prefix m- of H. mac^G^AL does not appear in Go. GiLtha. (See section vii.). 398. (Root, m-d-d). 398a. H. MAD AD, to measure; 398b. G. meidh, to weigh; MiD^^ah^ measure, stature, size, meud, size, bulk, dimensions, ex- extent, tent. Go. MiTan, to measure. A.-S. METan, to measure,m6^e. L. METior, to measure; modus, measure, length, size. S. mV, to measure. 398n. G. — For the -dh in G. meidh, see also entry 652. 399. (Root, m-v-t). 399a. H. .mout, to shake, 399b. S. m^at^ to shake, agi- waver, totter. tate, stir up. 180 ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION Hebrew (H.), Aramaic (A.), Arabic (Ar.), Gaelic (G.), Gothic (Go.) i. Roots tend to become monosyllabic in the Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ii. Radical gutturals (h, h^, h^', h*) are regularly lost in G., and are often loist (especially h, h2) in the other Aryan languages and B. Radical h, h^ final are regularly quiescent in H. and unrepresented in the Aryan languages and B. (See section iii.), iii. Radical gutturals and palatals (h, h^, h^, h''; g, k, q) may become, in Go., A.-S., and L., h, k(c, q), g; or, hw(v), k(c, q)w(v), (?)gw(v); or, w(v, b, t p, in L.), (See sections iii. and IV.). iv. Radical v, y, radical n initial, and radical I, m, n, r final are often lost in the Aryan languages and B. (See sections v. and vii.). V. Radical liquids (1, m, n, r) are regularly represented by 1, m, n, r (not always respec- tively) in the Aryan languages and B. (See section vii.). vL Radical z, z^ become d, sd, s, st, t, or (z) in the Aryan languages. (See section viii.). vii. In B., ch, tch, (cht), s, ts, (st), z, tz,^ and (zt) are more or less freely interchanged and may each represent radical z, z^, s, s^, s'. 400. (Root, m-v-l). 400a. H. .MWL, to circumcise; 400b. G. mill, to hurt, spoil, to cut off, cut down, destroy. destroy. « 401. (Root, h-v-m). 401a. H. mwM (mHWM, 401b. Go. wamm, spot, stain, m(e)HWM), spot, stain, blemish, blemish. A.-S. WAMM, spot, blot, stain. 401n. The generally accepted form of the root for H. mwM, etc., is m-H-M. Some etymologists, however, have conjectured the root to be h-v-m. The Go. and the A.-S. wamm unmistak- ably support the conjecture. (See also entry 406). 402. (Root, m-v-q). 402a. H. *MWQ, to deride, in- 402b. G. mag, to jeer, scoff, suit. mock. French MOQuerie, mockery, derision. Gr. MO^Kos, mockery. 403. (Root, m-v-r). 403a. H. *MWR, to change, be 403b. Go. MAURthr, murder. changed, altered. A.-S. MORth, death; murder; MORthor, mi^rder. L. MORior, to die. ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION 181 Anglo-Saxon (A.-S.), Latin (L.), Greek (Gr.), Sanskrit (S.), Basque (B.) viii. When the medial and the final consonant of a root are the same or similar in charac- ter, only one of them is represented in tne Aryan languages and B. (See section x,). ix. Suffixes frequently occurring are: in H., h^, y, n, t^; in G., c, d, g, n, t; in Go., d, g, n, s, t; in A.-S., c, d, g, h, n, t; in L., c, d, 1, m, n, r, s, t; and in B., n, tz, -tu(-du). Frequently some of these suffixes are combined or repeated. A vowel may be prefixed or suffixed to a root in the Aryan languages and B. (See section xii.). X. In this investigation, the aspiration of consonants and the quality and length of vowels have, in general, been provisionally treated as without philological vahie. xi. Under a given root, words or parts of words printed in small capitals (in italics if defi- nitional) are to be considered descendants of that root and therefore cognate. Vowels are so printed only when lying within limits reflecting the root. (See also section x). xii. The asterisk (*) as usual marks conjectured forms. Before H. and A. words (Bib- lical), I use a dot ( . ) to mark such forms except those of verbs not found in "qal" or "p2(e)h%l. Under — a. and under — b., matter added by me is enclosed within brackets [ J. S. M^K, to die. Gr. BRotos, a mortal man. G. MAiR, to live, exist, survive. 403n. H. — Note that the H. word for ''to change" is cognate with the Aryan words meaning *'to die"; and that the H. word (in the following entry) meaning "to die" is cognate with the Aryan words for ''to change." G. — I have placed G. mair here as possibly cognate with H. *MWR, inasmuch as life may be viewed as a continual change in contrast with death, which may be looked upon as but one change and that momentary. 404. (Root, M-V-T^). 404a. H. MWT^ to die. 404b. G. muth (mugh), to change, alter, destroy; to begin to rot, decay. L. MUTo, to alter, change. 404n. See notes in the preceding entry. 405. (Root, m-t-l). 405a. H. m(e)tyl, a wrought 405b. Gr. metallou, mine, 7netal rod; [(Gesenius cites)] Ar. quarry. mMT^WL, hammered iron. L. METALLum, mine, metal. 406. (Root, [h?]-t-r). 406a. H. maTAR, rain; *ma- 406b. Go. wato, water. TAR, to rain, send rain; (trop- A.-S. waeter, water; WAETan, ically of other things... as hail, to wet. 182 ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION Hebrew (H.), Aramaic (A.), Arabic (Ar.), Gaelic (G.), Gothic (Go.) i. Roots tend to become monosyllabic in the Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ii. Radical gutturals (h, h^, h^, h^) are regularly lost in G., and are often lost (especially h, h*) in the other Aryan languages and B, Radical h, h^ final are regularly quiescent in H. and unrepresented in the Aryan languages and B. (See section iii.). .). (See sections iii. lu. Radical gutturals and palatals (h, h^, h^, h^; g, k, q) may become, in Go., A.-S., and L., h, k(c, q), g; or, hw(v), k(c, q)w(v), (?)gw(v); or, w(v, b, f, p, in L.). '" and IV.). iv. Radical v, y, radical n initial, and radical 1, m, n, r final are often lost in the Aryan languages and B. (See sections v. and vii.). V. Radical liquids (1, m, n, r) are regularly represented by I, m, n, r (not always respec- tively) in the Aryan languages and B. (See section vii.), vi. Radical z, z^ become d, sd, s, st, t, or (z) in the Aryan languages. (See section viii.). vii. In B., ch, tch, (cht), s, ts, (st), z, tz, and (zt) are more or less freely interchanged and may each represent radical z, z^, s, s^, s^. lightning, fire and brimstone, Icelandic VAExa, wet, sleet, manna). rain. S. UD^an\ wave, water; an^- UD^R^a, waterless. Gr. HUDo^R (genitive, huda- Tos), water; HIIDRaino^ to water. A.-S. WEDER, storm, wind, weather. Dutch WEDER, weather. German ge witter, (thunder-) storm; thunder and lightning. A.-S. YTERen, made of o^^er's skin. Dutch OTTER, otter. S. UDVa, a kind of aquatic animal. Gr. HUDRa, hydrsi, water-ser- pent. 406n. I conjecture that m- is not radical in H. maTAR, and that the root begins with one of the gutturals (h, h^ h^ h^). (See also entry 401). Go. — Radical -r has been lost from Go. wato, Icelandic VAETa, etc. (See section vii.). Etymologists have considered the -r in A.-S. waeter, etc., a suffix. Gr.— The change from -r to -t- in Gr. hudo^r (genitive, hudatos) is paralleled in Gr. phrear (genitive, phreatos), in entry 80, but re- mains unexplained. I have treated the -t- as a successor to -r, which, however, it may not be. ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION 183 Anglo-Saxon (A.-S.), Latin (L.), Greek (Gr.), Sanskrit (S.), Basque (B.) viii. When the medial and the final consonant of a root are the same or similar in charac- ter, only one of them is represented in tne Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ix. Suffixes frequently occurring are: in H., h^, y, n, t^; in G., c, d, g, n, t; in Go., d, g, n, s, t; m A.-S., c, d, g, h, n, t; in L., c, d, 1, m, n, r, s, t; and in B., n, tz, -tu(-du). Frequently some of these suffixes are combined or repeated. A vowel may be prefixed or suffixed to a root m the Aryan languages and B. (See section xii.). X, In this mvestigation, the aspiration of consonants and the quality and length of vowels have, in general, been provisionally treated as without philological value. xi. Under a given root, words or parts of words printed in small capitals (in italics if defi- nitional) are to be considered descendants of that root and therefore cognate. Vowels are so printed only when lying within limits reflecting the root. (See also section x.). xii. The asterisk (*) as usual marks conjectured forms. Before H. and A. words (Bib- lical), I use a dot ( . ) to mark such forms except those of verbs not found in "qal" or "p2(e)h%l. Under — a. and under — b., matter added by me is enclosed within brackets [ J. Dutch. — Etymologists have identified Enghsh otter with Eng- Ush 'Water, etc. A.-S. — Etymologists have not considered A.-S. weder, etc., cognate with A.-S. waeter, etc. Cognation, however, is indicated by the meanings of the H. words cited under 406a. 407. (Root, m-y-n). 407a. H. .MYN, kind, species. 407b. Go. gaMAiNs, common, general. A.-S. gcMAENe, common, gen- eral. L. comMUNis, common, gen- eral. 408. (Root, M-Y-Z^). 408a. H. MYZ% pressing, 408b. G. MAisTir, to churn, squeezing (cream to make but- ter). 408n. I cannot account for the presence of the -r in G. MAiSTir. (See also entry 745). 409. (Root, m-l-h). 409a. H. MALEH, to fill, make 409b. L. MULtus, much, great, full; to be full. many. 409n. Etymologists consider (rightly, I think) the L. compara- tive plus and the L. superlative plurimus cognate with L. plenus, full; that is, the first two words literally mean "fuller'' and "full- 184 _ ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION Hebrew (H.), Aramaic (A.), Arabic (Ar.). Gaelic (G.), Gothic (Go.) i. Roots tend to become monosyllabic in the Aryan languages and B, (See section x.). ii. Radical gutturals (h, h^, h^, h^) are regularly lost in G., and are often lost (especially h, h*) in the other Aryan languages and B. Radical h, h- final are regularly quiescent in H. and unrepresented in the Aryan languages and B. (See section iii.). iii. Radical gutturals and palatals (h, h^, h^, h*; g, k, q) may become, in Go., A.-S., and L., h, k(c, q), g; or, hw(v), k(c, q)w(v), (?)gw(v); or, w(v, b, f, p, in L.). (See sections iii. and IV.). iv. Radical v, y, radical n initial, and radical 1, m, n, r final are often lost in the Aryan languages and B. (See sections v. and vii.). V. Radical liquids (1, m, n, r) are regularly represented by 1, m, n, r (not always respec- tively) in the Aryan languages and B. (See section vii.). vi. Radical z, z^ become d, sd, s, st, t, or (z) in the Aryan languages. (See section viii.). vii. In B., ch, tch, (cht), s, ts, (st), z, tz, and (zt) are more or less freely interchanged and may each represent radical z, z^, s, s^, s^. est'' respectively. Hence I conclude that the literal meaning of L. MULtus (which grammarians consider the positive of L. plus and L. plurimus) is ''full" or, rather, ''filled." 410. (Root, l-h-k). 410a. H. maL(E)HAK(e), one 410b. G. leigh, physician; sent, messenger; prophet, priest; surgeon, doctor. m(e)LAHKah^, work, labor; ser- Go. lekcIs, physician; lekI- vice, ministry (, of theLevites). non, to heal. A.-S. LAEca, physician, doc- tor, leech; LAcnian, to heal. French LAQuais, lackey. 410n. The frequent identification of the physician with the priest in ancient times needs here no extended demonstration. The supposition that disease is often a divine visitation was very prevalent in antiquity and tended to make the practice of medicine proper to the priest. "And Aaron took as Moses commanded, and ran into the midst of the congregation^ and, behold, the plague was begun among the people: and he put on incense and made atonement for the people. And he stood between the dead and the living; and the plague was stayed" (Numbers 16:47, 48). The physician is a quasi-servant and minister to the sick. Phy- sicians are expressly called servants in Genesis 50:2: "And Joseph commanded his servants the physicians to embalm his father: and the physicians embalmed Israel." But in this case the word "servants" may be taken (and probably should be taken) in the general sense; for, in an autocracy, all are servants to the king. ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION 185 Anglo-Saxon (A.-S.), Latin (L.), Greek (Gr.), Sanskrit (S.), Basque (B.) viii. When the medial and the final consonant of a root are the same or similar in charac- ter, only one of them is represented in tne Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ix. Suffixes frequently occurring are: in H., h^, y, n, t^; in G., c, d, g, n, t; in Go., d, g, n, s, t; in A.-S., c, d, g, h, n, t; in L., c, d, 1, m, n, r, s, t; and in B., n, tz, -tu(-du). Frequently some of these suffixes are combined or repeated. A vowel may be prefixed or suffixed to a root in the Aryan languages and B, (See section xii.). X. In this investigation, the aspiration of consonants and the quality and length of vowels have, in general, been provisionally treated as without philological value. xi. Under a given root, words or parts of words printed in small capitals (in italics if defi- nitional) are to be considered descendants of that root and therefore cognate. Vowels are so printed only when lying within limits reflecting the root. (See also section x.). xii. The asterisk (*) as usual marks conjectured forms. Before H, and A. words (Bib- lical), I use a dot ( . ) to mark such forms except those of verbs not found in "qal" or "p2(e)h lical), I use a dot ( . Ho mark such forms except those of verbs not found in "qal" or "p2(e)h%l. " Under — a. and under — b., matter added by me is enclosed within brackets [ ]. 416x1. Go. — The m (n in B.) in the ending of the superlative form of some adjectives in Go., A.-S., L., etc., is (I think) cognate with the M- in H. min (mI). (See section xvi.). 417. (Root, M-N-H^). 417a. H. MANAH^ to count, 417b. Go. MANags, much, number. many. , A.-S. MANig, many a, many. Gr. MONos, alone, only. 418. (Root, m-s-k). 418a. H. MASAK(e), to mix. 418b. G. measg, to mix. ' A.-S. Miscian, to mix. L. Misceo, to mix. S. M^icVa, mtxed. Gr. MisGo^ (MiGnumi), iomix. 41 8n. S. — Radical -s- has unexpectedly but unmistakably been lost from S. M^icVa and Gr. (MiGnumi). Etymologists, however, have considered these forms as the earlier. They also regard English mix, which I take to be an instance of transposition (see section xiii.), as representing an earlier form than G. measg, etc. 419. (Root, s-p-h). 419a. H. mis (e)p^ouh, proven- 419b. G. sop, a wisp or hand- der, fodder. ful of hay or straw. 188 ALPHABpyric exposition Hebrew (H.), Aramaic (A.), Arabic (Ar.), Gaelic (G.), Gothic (Go.) i. Roots tend to become monosyllabic in the Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ii. Radical gutturals (h, h^, h=*, h^) are regularly lost in G., and are often lost (especially h, h') in the other Aryan languages and B. Radical h, h- final are regularly quiescent in H. and unrepresented in the Aryan languages and B. (See section iii.), iii. Radical gutturals and palatals (h, h^, h^, h'*; g, k, q) may become, in Go., A.-S., and L,, h, k(c, q), g; or, hw(v), k(c, q)w(v), (?)gw(v); or, w(v, b, f, p, in L.). (See sections iii. and IV.). iv. Radical v, y, radical n initial, and radical 1, m, n, r final are often lost in the Aryan languages and B. (See sections v. and vii.). V. Radical liquids (1, m, n, r) are regularly represented by 1, m, n, r (not always respec- tively) in the Aryan languages and B. (See section vii.). vi. Radical z, z^ become d, sd, s, st, t, or (z) in the Aryan languages. (See section viii.), vii. In B., ch, tch, (cht), s, ts, (st), z, tz, and (zt) are more or less freely interchanged and may each represent radical z, z^, s, s^, s'. 41 9n. The history of English wisp is obscure. I think the word very probably a derivative of the root s-p-h, the w- of wisp being a prefix. (See also entries 715, 779, 780). 420. (Root, M-H^-H^). 420a. H. .MEH*EH^ (plural,) 420b. A.-S. MAca, the stom- the bowels, intestines; the belly; ach, maw; MAce, the belly, the womb; (the source of pro- G. mac, son. creation). Go. magus, child, boy; MAwi, maid; MAGaths, maid. A.-S. MAGu, child, son; MAEGth, maid. 420n. G.— I place here G. mac, etc., in query. I have also placed the words in entry 47, where see note. 421. (Root, m-h'*-k). 421a. H. .MAii^AK(e), to press, 421b. Gr. masso^ (perfect squeeze, bruise. tense, MCMAcna), to knead; MAGeus, one who kneads. 422. (Root, m-h*-l). 422a. H. MAH^AL, to act 422b. G. meall, to deceive; to treacherously, be faithless; to cheat, defraud, take by stealth, steal. L. malus, evil, wicked, hurt- ful. 422n. L. — I place L. malus here in query. ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION 189 Anglo-Saxon (A.-S.), Latin (L.), Greek (Gr.), Sanskrit (S.), Basque (B.) viii. When the medial and the final consonant of a root are the same or similar in charac- ter, only one of them is represented in tne Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ix. Suffixes frequently occurring are: in H., h^, y, n, t^; in G., c, d, g, n, t; in Go,, d, g, n, s, t; in A.-S., c, d, g, h, n, t; in L., c, d, 1, m, n, r, s, t; and in B., n, tz, -tu(-du). Frequently some of these suffixes are combined or repeated. A vowel may be prefixed or suffixed to a root in the Aryan languages and B. (See section xii.). X. In this investigation, the aspiration of consonants and the quality and length of vowels have, in general, been provisionally treated as without philological value. xi. Under a given root, words or parts of words printed in small capitals (in italics if defi- nitional) are to be considered descendants of that root and therefore cognate. Vowels are so printed only when lying within limits reflecting the root. (See also section x.). xii. The asterisk (*) as usual marks conjectured forms. Before H. and A. words (Bib- lical), I use a dot ( . ) to mark such forms except those of verbs not found in "qal" or "p2(e)h%l. " Under — a. and under — b., matter added by me is enclosed within brackets [ ]. 423. (Root, h^-z'-d). 423a. H. maii^Az^AD, axe. 423b. G. tuadh, axe, hatchet. 423n. G. tuadh is also spelt with -gh in place of -dh. (See also entry 652). The history of English hatchet is not full. Can the word be from the root h*-z^-d? 424. (Root, m-z^-h). 124a. H. MAz^AH, to come up- 424b. G. aMAis, to light upon, on, meet with, find, discover; to find; to meet; to aim, hit. try to find. Go. gaMOTJan, to meet. A.-S. METan, to meet with, come upon, come across, find. 425. (Root, M-Z^-H^). 425a. H. .MAz\\H^ to press 425b. Gr. mastos (MAzos),one out, squeeze out (moisture). of the breasts, (more commonly) a woman's breast. B. eMAZTe, a married woman. 426. (Root, q-l-l). 426a. H. maQQEL, rod, staff, 426b. B. maKHiLa, stick,staff. crook (of shepherd). Go. walus, staff. French gaulc, pole. English GOAL, the mark set to bound a race. 190 ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION Hebrew (H.), Aramaic (A.), Arabic (Ar.), Gaelic (G,), Gothic (Go.) L Roots tend to become monosyllabic in the Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ii. Radical gutturals (h, h^, h^, h^) are regularly lost in G,, and are often lost (especially h, h*) in the other Aryan languages and B. Radical h, h^ final are regularly quiescent in H. and unrepresented in the Aryan languages and B, (See section iii.). iii. Radical gutturals and palatals (h, h^, h^, h'«; g, k, q) may become, in Go., A.-S., and L., h, k(c, q), g; or, hw(v), k(c, q)w(v), (?)gw(v); or, w(v, b, f, p, in L.). (See sections iii. and IV.). iv. Radical v, y, radical n initial, and radical I, m, n, r final are often lost in the Aryan languages and B. (See sections v. and vii.). V. Radical liquids (I, m, n, r) are regularly represented by 1, m, n, r (not always respec- tively) in the Aryan languages and B. (See section vii.). vi. Radical z, z^ become d, sd, s, st, t, or (z) in the Aryan languages. (See section viii.). vii. In B., ch, tch, (cht), s, ts, (st), z, tz, and (zt) are more or less freely interchanged and may each represent radical z, z\ s, s^, s^. 426n. H. — Some etymologists think the root of H. maQQEL to be m-Q-L. The words under 426b. (except B. maxHiLa) seem unmistakably to show that the m- in H. maQQEL is a prefix. That the m- in B. maKHiLa may be a prefix, is shown in section vii. 427. (Root, m-q-q). 427a. H. *MAQAQ, to decay, 427b. Welsh MAcai, grub,magr- rot, fester (, of wounds); maq, ^ot. rottenness, putridity (, of ulcers). 428. (Root, m-r-h). 428a. A. MAREH, lord. 428b. L. mas (genitive, ma- Ar. MARHun, man. nis), male. French MARier, to marry. 428n. L. — Etymologists consider (possibly rightly) the -s in L. MAS original. 429. (Root, r-b-q). 429a. H. maR(E)B^EQ, a stall 429b. B. KHORBe, a manger for feeding cattle, stable. for cattle. 429n. I take B. KHORBe to be an instance of transposition. (See section xiii.). 430. (Root, M-R-H^). 430a. H. MARAH^ to be per- 430b. G. marr, to hinder, ob- verse, refractory; to oppose, dis- struct. obey, resist, rebel. A.-S. MiRRan, to obstruct, hinder. ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION 191 Anglo-Saxon (A.-S.), Latin (L.), Greek (Gr.), Sanskrit (S.), Basque (B.) viii. When the medial and the final consonant of a root are the same or similar in charac- ter, only one of them is represented in tne Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ix. Suffixes frequently occurring are: in H., h^, y, n, t-; in G., c, d, g, n, t; in Go., d, g, n, s, t; in A.-S., c, d, g, h, n, t; in L., c, d, 1, m, n, r, s, t; and in B., n, tz, -tu(-du). Frequently some of these suffixes are combined or repeated. A vowel may be prefixed or suffixed to a root in the Aryan languages and B. (See section xii.). X. In this investigation, the aspiration of consonants and the quality and length of vowels have, in general, been provisionally treated as without philological value. xi. Under a given root, words or parts of words printed in small capitals (in italics if defi- nitional) are to be considered descendants of that root and therefore cognate. Vowels are so printed only when lying within limits reflecting the root. (See also section x.). xii. The asterisk (*) as usual marks conjectured forms. Before H. and A. words (Bib- lical), I use a dot ( . ) to mark such forms except those of verbs not found in "qal" or "p2(e)h%l. " Under — a. and under — b., matter added by me is enclosed within brackets [ ]. 431. (Root, m-r-t). 431a. H. .MARAT, to make 431b. B. murritu, to clip, smooth (the head of any one), shorten; [MURRiTcaille-, sheep- make bald, pluck out hair. shearers (Genesis 38:12)]. 432. (Root, m-r-r). 432a. H. MARAR, to be bitter; 432b. Go. MAURnan, to be to make bitter, grieve; .MORRah^ anxious. bitterness, grief, sorrow. A.-S. MURnan, to be anxious, sad; to lament, mourn. L. aMARus, bitter; sad. L. MAEReo, to be sad, grieye, mourn, lament. 432n. Go. — Etymologists think connection between Go. maur- nan, etc., and L. MAEReo doubtful. They do not associate L. aMARus with those words. The definitions of H. marar, etc., show that all the words given under 432b. are interrelated. 433. (Root, n-s^-h). 433a. H. mas^(E)Het^ offer- 433b. Go. sxatts, coin, penny, ing, present, gift; contribution, money. tribute, tax. A.-S. sceatt, goods, money; gift, bribe; tax, tribute. 433n. Go. — Radical -h has exceptionally but unmistakably become -k- in Go. sKatts, and -c- in A.-S. sceatt. These words cannot be directly cognate with H. mas^(E)Het^ as the latter 192 ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION Hebrew (H.), Aramaic (A.), Arabic (Ar.), Gaelic (G.), Gothic (Go.) i. Roots tend to become monosyllabic in the Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ii. Radical gutturals (h, h^, h^, h^) are regularly lost in G., and are often lost (especially h, h*) in the other Aryan languages and B. Radical h, h^ final are regularly quiescent in H. and unrepresented in the Aryan languages and B. (See section iii.). iii. Radical gutturals and palatals (h, h^, h', h^; g, k, q) may become, in Go,, A.-S., and L., h, k(c, q), g; or, hw(v), k(c, q)w(v), (?)gw(v); or, w(v, b, f, p, in L.). (See sections in. and IV.). iv. Radical v, y, radical n initial, and radical 1, m, n, r final are often lost in the Aryan languages and B. (See sections v. and vii.). V. Radical liquids (1, m, n, r) are regularly represented by 1, m, n, r (not always respec- tively) in the Aryan languages and B. (See section vii.). vi. Radical z, z- become d, sd, s, st, t, or (z) in the Aryan languages. (See section viii.). vii. In B., ch, tch, (cht), s, ts, (st), z, tz, and (zt) are more or less freely interchanged and may each represent radical z, z-, s, s^, s^. has the prefix m-. The close parallelism of meanings suggests direct cognation; but can the prefix m- be considered more recent than the rest of the noun to which it belongs? 434. (Root, m-s^-l). 434a. H. MAS^AL, to use a by- 434b. G. MASLaich, to re- word, song of derision; m(e)s^ol, proach, taunt, affront, disgrace, a taunting proverb, by- word. degrade. 435. (Root, M-T^-H^?). 435a. H. .mat'^ (plural,) males, 435b. G. maith, good, excel- men; [(Brown, Driver, and Briggs cite)] Egyptian m-t, phallus; male. lent; MAiTHean, nobles, chiefs, heroes. L. MUTO (genitive, MUTonis), membr. v. 436. (Root, i^-t^-q). 436a. H. .MAT^OQ,tobesweet; ^- 436b. G. meadh (obsolete), MAT^ouQ, sweet (, of honey). mead, metheglin. Welsh MEDDYolyn, mead. A.-S. MEODu, mead, sl drink made from honey. S. M^AD'*u, anything sweet (es- [)ecially if liquid), mead, wine, milk, etc. Gr. METHu, wine. ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION 193 Anglo-Saxon (A.-S.), Latin (L.), Greek (Gr.), Sanskrit (S.), Basque (B.) viii. When the medial and the final consonant of a root are the same or similar in charac- ter, only one of them is represented in tne Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ix. Suffixes frequently occurring are: in H., h^, y, n, t^; in G., c, d, g, n, t; in Go., d, g, n, s, t; in A.-S., c, d, g, h, n, t; in L., c, d, 1, m, n, r, s, t; and in B., n, tz, -tu(-du). Frequently some of these suffixes are combined or repeated. A vowel may be prefixed or suffixed to a root in the Aryan languages and B. (See section xii.). X. In this investigation, the aspiration of consonants and the quality and length of vowels have, in general, been provisionally treated as without philological vahie. xi. "Under a given root, words or parts of words printed in small capitals (in italics if defi- nitional) are to be considered descendants of that root and therefore cognate. Vowels are so printed only when lying within limits reflecting the root. (See also section x.). xii. The asterisk (*) as usual marks conjectured forms. Before H. and A. words (Bib- lical), I use a dot ( . ) to mark such forms except those of verbs not found in "qal" or *'p2(e)h%l. " Under — a. and under — b., matter added by me is enclosed within brackets [ ]. 436n. Note that the Welsh MEDDYGlyn is the only one of the Aryan words cited that has a representative of radical -Q. (See section x.). Welsh llyn means ''liquor, juice.'' English metheg- lin is of course a loan-word from Welsh. G. — The -DH in G. meadh cannot have been quiescent. (See also entry 652.) 437. (Root, n-h-m). 437b. G. NAoiviH, holy, sacred; saint. 437a. H. .NAHAM, to make a solemn declaration, utter a prophecy, speak as a prophet; n(e)hum, utterance, revelation (of a prophet in the ecstatic state). 438. (Root, N-H-Z^). 438a. H.NAHAZ^ to deride; to 438b. B. NAUzatzea (nau- despise; N(E)HAZ^ah^ reproach, satu), to deride, jeer, mock, reviling, insult. :439. (Robx, n-h-r). 439a. H. *NAHAR, to abhor, 439b. G. NAiRe, shame, dis- spurn, reject as worthless. grace; ignominy, affront. 439n. The meaning of H. *nahar is uncertain. 440. (Root, n-b-h). 440a. H. *NABAH, to proph- 440 b G. raidh, prophet, 194 ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION Hebrew (H.), Aramaic (A.), Arabic (Ar,), Gaelic (G.), Gothic (Go.) i. Roots tend to become monosyllabic in the Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ii. Radical gutturals (h, h^, h^, h^) are regtilarly lost in G., and are often lost (especially h, h*) in the other Aryan languages and B. Radical h, h^ final are regularly quiescent in H. and unrepresented in the Aryan languages and B. (See section iii.). iii. Radical gutturals and palatals (h, h^, h^, h'*; g, k, q) may become, in Go., A.-S., and L., h, k(c, q), g; or, hw(v), k(c, q)w(v), (?)gw(v); or, w(v, b, f, p, in L,). (See sections in. and IV.). iv. Radical v, y, radical n initial, and radical I, m, n, r final are often lost in the Aryan languages and B. (See sections v. and vii.). V. Radical liquids (1, m, n, r) are regularly represented by I, m, n, r (not always respec- tively) in the Aryan languages and B. (See section vii.). vi. Radical z, z^ become d, sd, s, st, t, or (z) in the Aryan languages, (See section viii.). vii. In B., ch, tch, (cht), s, ts, (st), z, tz, and (zt) are more or less freely interchanged and may each represent radical z, z^, s, s^, s^. esy; to rave, be mad; nabyh, soothsayer, prophet. 440n. See also entry 229. 441. (Root, N-B-H^). 441a. H. .NABAH^, to bark(,as 441b. French aBOver, to bark, a dog). hay. 441n. The current derivations of French aBOYer (from an older form of which etymologists derive English hay) are unsatisfactory. Is it probable that the -y- of French aBOYer should be regarded as in any way descended from radical -h^ ? 442. (Root, n-b-t). 442a. H. *NABAT, to look, 442b. Go. BEiDan, to wait, ex- look unto; to look upon (that is, pect, aMe. endure to see); .maB^B^\T, ex- A.-S. Broan, to wait, a&ide, pectation, hope; (the object of await, expect, endure, expectation). 443. (Root, n-b-l). 443a. H. NABEL, to waste 443b. G. iMLeag (ioMLag), away; to wither; to become navel. shriveled and fall. A.-S. NAFELa, navel. L. uMBiLicus, navel. S. N^AB^i, wheel; N^AB^ya, the center part of a wheel : the navQ. Gr. OMPHALOS, navel. ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION 195 Anglo-Saxon (A.-S.), Latin (L.), Greek (Gr.), Sanskrit (S.), Basque (B.) viii. When the medial and the final consonant of a root are the same or similar in charac- ter, only one of them is represented in tne Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ix. Suffixes frequently occurring are: in H., h^, y, n, t^; in G,, c, d, g, n, t; in Go., d, g, n, s, t; in A.-S., c, d, g, h, n, t; in L., c, d, I, m, n, r, s, t; and in B., n, tz, -tu(-du). Frequently some of these suffixes are combined or repeated. A vowel may be prefixed or suffixed to a root in the Aryan languages and B. (See section xii.). X. In this investigation, the aspiration of consonants and the quality and length of vowels have, in general, been provisionally treated as without philological value. xi. Under a given root, words or parts of words printed in small capitals (in italics if defi- nitional) are to be considered descendants of that root and therefore cognate. Vowels are so printed only when lying within limits reflecting the root, (See also section x.). xii. The asterisk (*) as usual marks conjectured forms. Before H. and A. words (Bib- lical), I use a dot ( . ) to mark such forms except those of verbs not found in "qal" or "p2(e)h*al. " Under — a. and under — b., matter added by me is enclosed within brackets [ ]. B. eRBAL (heRBAiL), weakly, sickly; grpil (grphil), faded, withered. 443n. G. — The -m- in G. iMLeag probably corresponds to the -M- in L. uMBiLicus; that is, radical -b- has been lost from G. iM- Leag. There is a possibility that the Aryan words here cited belong in entry 472. 444. (Root, n-b-l). 444a. H. nebp:l, skin-bottle; 444b. Gr. nebros, fawn, earthen jar, pitcher, flask, water- B. aMPOLa, a small vial, flask, pot. •- Spanish aMPOLLa, vial. 444n. Gr. — Radical -l has been changed to -r- in Gr. nebros if the word is cognate with H. nebel. B. — Whether B. aMPOLa is from the Spanish aMPOLLa or Vice versa, is unknown. I think the words may be cognate with H. NEBEL. 445. (Root, n-g-d). 445a. H. *NAGAD, to tell, de- 445b. G. nochd, to show, re- clare; to exhibit, show openly; veal; naked. NEGED, what is in front, the G. nocht, membr. v. front; the fore part of the body G. nochd, night. [(Lee)]; before. Go. naqaths, naked. Go. NAHTs, night. A.-S. NACOD, naked. A.-S. NiHT, night. , L. NUDus (for *NUGDus), na- - . ked. 196 ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION Hebrew (H.), Aramaic (A.), Arabic (Ar.), Gaelic (G.), Gothic (Go.) L Roots tend to become monosyllabic in the Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ii. Radical gutturals (h, h^, h^, h^) are regularly lost in G., and are often lost (especially h, h*) in the other Aryan languages and B. Radical h, h^ final are regularly quiescent in H. and unrepresented in the Aryan' languages and B. (See section iii.). iii. Radical gutturals and palatals (h, h^, h^, h''; g, k, q) may become, in Go., A.-S., and L., h, k(c, q), g; or, hw(v), k(c, q)w(v), (?)gw(v); or, w(v, b, f, p, in L.). (See sections iii. and IV.). iv. Radical v, y, radical n initial, and radical I, m, n, r final are often lost in the Aryan languages and B. (See sections v. and vii.). V. Radical liquids (I, m, n, r) are regularly represented by I, m, n, r (not always respec- tively) in the Aryan languages and B, (See section vii.). vi. Radical z, z^ become d, sd, s, st, t, or (z) in the Aryan languages. (See section viii.). vii. In B., ch, tch, (cht), s, ts, (st), z, tz, and (zt) are more or less freely interchanged and may each represent radical z, z-, s, s^, s^ L. Nox (genitive, Nocxis), night. S. N^AGii'^a, naked. S. N'^AKT^a, night. L. quiNQue, five;cuNCTus,all. G. coiG (cuic), five. 445n. G. — Note that the G. verb and the G. adjective xochd, by their form and definitions, Unk EngUsh naked (and its im- mediate cognates) unmistakably with H. *nagad. For the con- nection between H. neged and G. nockd, night; etc., the reader should recall that the ancients regarded night as the fore part of a day: ''And the evening and the morning were the first day" (Genesis 1:5). Etmyologists have not, of course, con- sidered English naked and night cognate. L. — I place lu quixQue, etc., here in query. I think it prob- able that L. quixQue once meant "one hand" (see section xvii.), having lost radical -d, which has (I think) been preserved as -t- in L. cuxcTus. Etymologists have variously derived L. cuxctus but have not considered the word cognate with L. quixQue. For the origin of the qu- in L. quixQue and the c- in L. cuxctus, see entry 35. 446. (Root, x-G-x). 446a. H. .XAGAX, to play (on 446b. G. cax, to say, afhrm; a stringed instrument); .x(e)gy- to sing, xah^ music of stringed in- L. caxo, to sing, struments; song, psalm; . .max(E)G^xah^, song, satire. ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION 197 Anglo-Saxon (A.-S.), Latin (L.), Greek (Gr.), Sanskrit (S.), Basque (B.) viii. When the medial and the final consonant of a root are the same or similar in charac- ter, only one of them is represented in tne Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ix. Suffixes frequently occurring are: in H., h^, y, n, t^; in G., c, d, g, n, t; in Go., d, g, n, s, t; jn A,-S., c, d, g, h, n, t; in L,, c, d, 1, m, n, r, s, t; and in B., n, tz, -tu(-du). Frequently some of these suffixes are combined or repeated. A vowel may be prefixed or suffixed to a root in the Aryan languages and B. (See section xii.). X. In this investigation, the aspiration of consonants and the quality and length of vowels have, in general, been provisionally treated as without philological value. xi. Under a given root, words or parts of words printed in small capitals (in italics if defi- nitional) are to be considered descendants of that root and therefore cognate. Vowels are so printed only when lying within limits reflecting the root. (See also section x.). xii. The asterisk (*) as usual marks conjectured forms. Before H. and A. words (Bib- lical), I use a dot ( . ) to mark such forms except those of verbs not found in "qal" or "p2(e)h%l. " Under — a. and under — b., matter added by me is enclosed within brackets [ ]. 446n. G. — I place G. can, etc., here in query. Possibly the words do not belong here but are (as etymolgoists think) cognate with Go. and A.-S. hana, which I have placed in entry 550. 447. (Root, N-G-H^. 447a. H. NAG ah", to touch; to 447b. Go. NEHwa, near, come to, reach to. A.-S. neah, nigh. L. NaNciscor (perfect partici- ple, NActus), to get, obtain. S. N^AC^ to reach, attain, come up to. B. HUNKitu (uKitu), to touch, handle, feel. 44 7n. B. — I query whether B. HUNxitu is an instance of trans- position (see section xiii.) and cognate with H. nagah^ 448. (Root, n-g-r). 448a. H. *nagar, to be 448b. B. nigar (negar), to poured out (, of water) ; to over- weep; tear [(of the eye)]. flow; to flow, trickle (, of the eye in tears). 449. (Root, N-G-S^). 449a. H. .NAGAS^ to urge, im- 449b. B. nahas, to disturb, pel, drive; to exact (a task, debt, disquiet, trouble, vex. tax); to be vexed, harassed, wearied. 198 ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION Hebrew (H.), Aramaic (A.), Arabic (Ar.). Gaelic (G.), Gothic (Go.) L Roots tend to become monosyllabic in the Aryan languages and B. (See section x). ii. Radical gutturals (h, h^, h^, h^) are regularly lost m G., and are often lost (especially h, h*) in the other Aryan languages and B. Radical h, h^ final are regularly quiescent in H. and unrepresented in the Aryan languages and B. (See section iii.). iii. Radical gutturals and palatals (h, h^, h^, h^; g, k, q) may become, in Go., A,-S., and L., h, k(c, q), g; or, hw(v), k(c, q)w(v), (?)gw(v); or, w(v, b, f, p, in L.). (See sections iii. and IV.). iv. Radical v, y, radical n initial, and radical I, m, n, r final are often lost in the Aryan languages and B. (See sections v. and vii.). V. Radical liquids (I, m, n, r) are regularly represented by 1, m, n, r (not always respec- tively) in the Aryan languages and B. (See section vii.). vi. Radical z, z^ become d, sd, s, st, t, or (z) in the Aryan languages. (See section viii.). vii. In B., ch, tch, (cht), s, ts, (st), z, tz, and (zt) are more or less freely interchanged and may each represent radical z, z^, s, s^, s^. 450. (Root, N-G-S^). 450a. H. .NAGAS^ to come 450b. B. NAHASxen, to join, near, approach; to touch, join, mix, blend. 451. (Root, n-d-d). 451a. H. NiD^^ah^ unclean- 451b. B. NOTHa, stain, spot; ness, impurity, filth. dirt, filth. 452. (Root, N-D-H^). 452a. H. .NADAII^ to thrust 452b. S. n^ud^ to push, im- out, drive out, expel; to impel; pel, thrust, move, remove; to to thrust down; .maD^DV(A)H^, push on, urge, incite; (intensive,) seduction, enticement. to push (or) drive away repeat- edly. 453. (Root, n-h^-q). 453a. H. .NAH^AQ, to bray 453b. A.-S.HNAEGan, tonei^A. (spoken of the ass when hungry). 453n. I think A.-S. HNAEGan an instance of transposition. (See section xiii.). There is a possibility, however, that the word is cognate rather with H. .hanaq, to shriek, cry, groan. 454. (Root, n-v-d). 454a. H. NWD, to move to and 454b. L. nuto, to nod (with fro; to shake the head: to nod; the head). ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION 199 Anglo-Saxon (A.-S,), Latin (L.), Greek (Gr.), Sanskrit (S.), Basque (B.) viii. When the niedial and the final consonant of a root are the same or similar in charac- ter, only one of them is represented in tne Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ix. Suffixes frequently occiu-ring are: in H., h^, y, n, t^; in G., c, d, g, n, t; in Go., d, g, n, s, t; in A.-S., c, d, g, h, n, t; in L., c, d, I, m, n, r, s, t; and in B., n, tz, -tu(-du). Frequently some of these suffixes are combined or repeated. A vowel may be prefixed or suffixed to a root in the Aryan languages and B. (See section xii.). X. In this investigation, the aspiration of consonants and the quality and length of vowels have, in general, been provisionally treated as without philological vahie. xi. Under a given root, words or parts of words printed in small capitals (in italics if defi- nitional) are to be considered descendants of that root and therefore cognate. Vowels are so printed only when lying within limits reflecting the root. (See also section x.), xii. The asterisk (*) as usual marks conjectured forms. Before H. and A. words (Bib- lical), I use a dot ( . ) to mark such forms except those of verbs not found in "qal" or "p2(e)h%l. " Under — a. and under — b., matter added by me is enclosed within brackets [ ]. .maNOUD, a nodding. Gr. Neuo^ to nod. 454x1. L. — Etymologists think the -t- in L. nuto a suffix and that the word is not related to English nod, the history of which is obscure. 455. (Root, n-v-m). 455a. H. NWM, to be drowsy; 455b. B. lo, sleep; to sleep, to sleep, fall asleep, slumber; t^(e)NWMah^ slumber. 455n. Radical n- has become l- in B. lo if the word is (as I think it probable) cognate with H. nwm. 456. (Root, N-v-s). 456a. H. NWS, to flee; to es- 456b. B. Ines (Ines), flight; cape; maNous, flight. escape. 457. (Root, N-V-H^). 457a. H. Nw(A)H^ to waver, 457b. S. I^n^k^ to move un- reel; to shake (in a sieve); to steadily; to move backw^ards and cause to reel; .m(e)NAH''aNE(A)H^ forwards, up and down; to trem- a rattle (which gave a tinkling ble, shake; to swing, sound on being shaken). 458. (Root, N-Z-H^). 458a. H. .NAZAH^ to leap (for 45Sb. B. jautsI, to leap,jump, joy), exult, spring. skip. 200 ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION Hebrew (H.), Aramaic (A.), Arabic (Ar.), Gaelic (G.), Gothic (Go.) L Roots tend to become monosyllabic in the Aryan languages and B. (See section x,). ii. Radical gutturals (h, h^, h^, h'') are regularly lost in G., and are often lost (especially h, h^) in the other Aryan languages and B. Radical h, h- final are regiilarly quiescent in H. and unrepresented in the Aryan languages and B. (See section in.). iii. Radical gutturals and palatals (h, h^, h^, h''; g, k, q) may become, in Go., A.-S., and L., h, k(c, q), g; or, hw(v), k(c, qjw(v), (?)gw(v); or, w(v, b, f, p, in L.). (See sections iii. and IV.). iv. Radical v, y, radical n initial, and radical 1, m, n, r final are often lost in the Aryan languages and B. (See sections v. and vii.). V. Radical liquids (I, m, n, r) are regularly represented by I, m, n, r (not always respec- tively) in the Aryan languages and B. (See section vii.). vi. Radical z, z^ become d, sd, s, st, t, or (z) in the Aryan languages. (See section viii.). vii. In B., ch, tch, (cht), s, ts, (st), z, tz, and (zt) are more or less freely interchanged and may each represent radical z, z^, s, s-, s^. 458x1. I infer from B. jautsI a root [*y-z-h^] parallel with N-Z-H^ 459. (Root, N-H^-H^). "459a. H. .NAH^AH^ to lead, 459b. S. N^i^ to lead, guide, conduct, guide; to lead away, conduct; to carry off for one's carry away (a people into exile), self (as victor). 460. (Root, n-h^-l). 460a. H. NAH^ALah^ (na- 460b. Go. hlauts, inheritance, H^ALAT^), possession, inherit- lot. ance, portion, lot. A.-S. hlyt, portion, lot. 461. (Root, n-t-l). 461a. H. NATAL, to lift up; to 461b. Go. THULan, to bear. lay (a burden upon) ; NETEL,bur- den, load, weight. to/erate, suffer. A.-S. THOLian, to bear, en- dure, suffer. L. TOLLo, to raise, lift up. S. T^uL^, to raise, lift, weigh. Gr. *TLao^ to suffer, endure. 462. (Root, n-t-r). 462a. H. .NATAR, to guard, 462b. Gr. TE^Reo^ to guard, keep (a vineyard); to keep, watch over (a house; a city); to maintain (wrath); maxTARah^ observe, keep (an engagement). guard. S. T^R^ai, to protect, defend. ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION 201 Anglo-Saxon (A.-S.), Latin (L.), Greek (Gr.), Sanskrit (S.), Basque (B.) viii. When the medial and the final consonant of a root are the same or similar in charac- ter, only one of them is represented in tne Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ix. Suffixes frequently occurring are: in H., h^, y, n, t^; in G., c, d, g, n, t; in Go., d, g, n, s, t; m A.-S,, c, d, g, h, n, t; in L,, c, d, 1, m, n, r, s, t; and in B., n, tz, -tu(-du). Frequently some of these suffixes are combined or repeated. A vowel may be prefixed or suffixed to a root in the Aryan languages and B. (See section xii.). X. In this investigation, the aspiration of consonants and the quality and length of vowels have, in general, been provisionally treated as without philological vahie. xi. , Under a given root, words or parts of words printed in small capitals (in italics if defi- nitional) are to be considered descendants of that root and therefore cognate. Vowels are so printed only when lying within limits reflectmg the root. (See also section x.). xii. The asterisk (*) as usual marks conjectured forms. Before H. and A. words (Bib- Ucal), I use a dot ( . ") to mark such forms except those of verbs not found in "qal" or "p2(e)h'*al. " Under — a. and under — b., matter added by me is enclosed within brackets [ ]. 463. (Root, N-T-S^). 463a. H. NATAs^ to be dis- persed, scattered; to spread themselves (so the branches of a vine); to become loose, be loos- ened; .N(E)TYs^ah^ twig, tendril {of a vine). 463n. Teased wool resembles a tendril of a vine. 463b. A.-S. TAEsan, to tear to pieces, pull to pieces; to wound, tear (a person's flesh with a weapon); to teasQ (wool). 464. (Root, n-y-r). .464a; H. .NYR, to break up (with the plough): to till; nyr, a field newly cultivated; fallow ground. 464b. G. aR, to plough, till, cultivate. Go. aRJan, to plough. A.-S. eRian, to plough. L. aRo, to plough. Gr. aRoo^ to plough. 464n. This entry tends to show that agriculture is older among the Gaucasic peoples than their first migration. 465. (Root, N-K-H^). 465a. H. *NAKAH^ to smite in pieces, injure, destroy; to thrust through, kill, slay; maK^K^AH^ blow, wound, slaughter. 465b. L. Noceo, to harm, hurt, injure; neco, to destroy, kill, slay. S. N^AC^, to perish, be lost; to drive away, destroy; to extin- guish (a fire). 202 ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION Hebrew (H.), Aramaic (A.), Arabic (Ar.), Gaelic (G.)i Gothic (Go.) L Roots tend to become monosyllabic in the Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ii. Radical gutturals (h, h^, h^, h^) are regularly lost in G., and are often lost (especially h, h*) in the other Aryan languages and B. Radical h, h- final are regularly quiescent in H. and vinrepresented in the Aryan languages and B. (See section iii.). iii. Radical gutturals and palatals (h, h^, h^, h''; g, k, q) may become, in Go., A.-S., and L., h, k(c, q), g; or, hw(v), k(c, q)w(v), (?)gw(v); or, w(v, b, f, p, in L.). (See sections iii. and IV.). iv. Radical v, y, radical n initial, and radical 1, m, n, r final are often lost in the Aryan languages and B. (See sections v. and vii.). V. Radical liquids (1, n\ n, r) are regularly represented by I, m, n, r (not always respec- tively) in the Aryan languag .s and B. (See section vii.). vi. Radical z, z^ become d, sd, s, st, t, or (z) in the Aryan languages. (See section viii.). vii. In B., ch, tch, (cht), s, ts, (st\ z, tz, and (zt) are more or less freely interchanged and may each represent radical z, z^, s, s^, s^. . ^ . Gr. NEKus, dead. Go. NAus, dead. 466. (Root, N-K-H^). 466a. H. .nako(a)h^, straight; 466b. Go. *biNAUnan, to be right, true; N(E)KOH^ah^ right, lawful; gaNOHs, enough, suffi- justice; honesty. cient. A.-S. geNOH, enough, suffi- cientl5^ 466n. Etymologists consider Go. *biNAUHan, etc., cognate with Go. nehwa, etc., and with L. nanciscor, etc., which I have placed in entry 447. 467. (Root, n-k-l). 467a. H. .nakal, to be deceit- 467b. Go. holou, to cheat, ful, use artifice, deal fraudu- defraud, lently; .nekel, deceit, wiliness, A.-S. wil, device, wile. artifice, machination; KYLay (by Icelandic vel, artifice, trick, aphaeresis for .N(E)KYLay), de- vrile; VELa-lauss, guileless. ceiver, knave. L. CALvor, to deceive, delude; CALLidus, shrewd, crafty, cun- ning, sly. 467n. A.-S. — Etymologists have not considered A.-S. wil, etc., cognate with Go. holou and L. CALvor. 468. (Root, n-k-r). 468a. H. *NAKAR, to recog- 468b. L. ceruo (perfect tense, nize (a person); to acknowledge; CRevi), to distinguish by the ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION 203 Anglo-Saxon (A.-S.), Latin (L.), Greek (Gr.), Sanskrit (S.), Basque (B.) vjii. When the medial and the final consonant of a root are the same or similar in charac- ter, only one of them is represented in tne Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ix. Suffixes frequently occurring are: in H., h^, y, n, t^; in G., c, d, g, n, t; in Go., d, g, n, s, t; in A.-S., c, d, g, h, n, t; in L., c, d, 1, m, n, r, s, t; and in B,, n, tz, -tu(-du). Frequently some of these suffixes are combined or repeated. A vowel may be prefixed or suffixed to a root in the Aryan languages and B. (See section xii.). X. In this investigation, the aspiration of consonants and the quality and length of vowels have, in general, been provisionally treated as without philological vahie. xi. Under a given root, words or parts of words printed in small capitals (in italics if defi- nitional) are to be considered descendants of that root and therefore cognate. Vowels are so printed only when lying within limits reflecting the root. (See also section x.). xii. The asterisk (*) as usual marks conjectured forms. Before H. and A. words (Bib- lical), I use a dot ( . ) to mark such forms except those of verbs not found in "qal" or "p2(e)h%l. " Under — a. and under — b., matter added by me is enclosed within brackets [ ]. to be acquainted with: to know; senses, (mostly) by the eyes; to to esteem, reverence, worship; see, discern. .maK^Kl\R, relative, acquaint- B. kur (gur), to adore, rev- ance, neighbor, friend. erence; KURe, love, affection. G. CARaid, friend, relation. 469. (Root, n-s-k). 469a. H. .NASAK(e), to weave; 469b. G. sceinne, pack-thread massEKah^ web, woven stuff. [(Armstrong)]; sceinnidh, flax or hemp thread [(The High- land Society)]. English sKein, [a parcel of yarn]. 470. (Root, n-h^-l). 470a. H. nah^al, to bolt (a 470b. Go. gaNAGLJan, to nail. door); to fasten with a bolt; A.-S. naeg el, nat^, peg. maN(E)H^wL, bolt. 471. (Root, N-P-H^). 471a. H. .NAPAH^ to puff, 471b. B. Bonatu (Bunatu), to blow; .map^p^AH^ a breathing puff, blow, out, expiration (of the soul, that is, death). 472. (Root, n-p-l). 472a. H. NAPAL, to fall, fall 472b. A.-S. FEALLan, to fall, down; nepel, an untimely birth, fall down. 204 ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION Hebrew (11.), Aramaic (A.), Arabic (Ar.), Gaelic (G.), Gothic (Go.) i. Roots tend to become monosyllabic in the Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ii. Radical gutturals (h, h^, h^, h^) are regularly lost in G., and are often lost (especially h, h*) in the other Aryan languages and B. Radical h, h^ final are regularly quiescent in H. and unrepresented in the Aryan languages and B. (See section iii,). iii. Radical gutturals and palatals (h, h^, h^, h^; g, k, q) may become, in Go., A.-S., and L., h, k(c, q), g; or, hw(v), k(c, q)w(v), (?)gw(v); or, w(v, b, f, p, in L.). (See sections in. and IV,). iv. Radical v, y, radical n initial, and radical 1, m, n, r final are often lost in the Aryan languages and B. (See sections v. and vii.), V. Radical liquids (I, m, n, r) are regularly represented by I, m, n, r (not always respec- tively) in the Aryan languages and B. (See section vii.). vi. Radical z, z^ become d, sd, s, st, t, or (z) in the Aryan languages. (See section viii.). vii. In B., ch, tch, (cht), s, ts, (st), z, tz, and (zt) are more or less freely interchanged and may each represent radical z, z^, s, s^, s^. abortion; .mar^p^AL, hanging Gr. sPHALLo^to cause to fall; parts (of flesh) ; refuse. to trip, overthrow. 472n. Gr. — Etymologists regard the s- in Gr. sphallo^ as part of the root of the word. They think the Teutonic cognates have lost initial s. I would call attention to the Egyptian causative forms of verbs which are made by prefixing s to the simple verbs. "By means of the prefix. . .s there may be formed from every verb, another verb with causative meaning" (Egyptian Grammar — Erman-Breasted, page 67). 473. (Root, N-P-S^). 473a. H.NEPES^ breath, (vital 473b. Gr. PHUsa, breath,wind, principle), life; *NAPAS^ to take blast; bellows, breath (when wearied), be re- B. Bizi, life, freshed; to rest, cease (from G. fois, rest, respite, work). 474. (Root, N-Z^-H^). 474a. H. .NAz^AH^ (.naz^ah), 474b. G. nead, nest. to fly; NOUZ^AH^ feather, plum- A.-S. nest, nest. age; Noz^AH^ pinion, wing- L. nidus, nest. feather; contents of a bird's crop. 474n. H. — Each of the words cited under 474a. names some- thing related to a bird. The kindred word for nest is not there but may reasonably be inferred to have existed. % ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION 205 Anglo-Saxon (A.-S.), Latin (L.), Greek (Gr.), Sanskrit (S.), Basque (B.) viii. When the medial and the final consonant of a root are the same or similar in charac- ter, only one of them is represented in tne Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ix. Suffixes frequently occurring are: in H., h^, y, n, t^; in G., c, d, g, n, t; in Go,, d, g, n, s, t; in A.-S., c, d, g, h, n, t; in L., c, d, 1, m, n, r, s, t; and in B., n, tz, -tu(-du). Frequently some of these suffixes are combined or repeated. A vowel may be prefixed or suffixed to a root in the Aryan languages and B. (See section xii.). X. In this investigation, the aspiration of consonants and the quality and length of vowels have, in general, been provisionally treated as without philological vahie. xi. Under a given root, words or parts of words printed in small capitals (in italics if defi- nitional) are to be considered descendants of that root and therefore cognate. Vowels are so printed only when lying within limits reflecting the root. (See also section x.). xii. The asterisk (*) as usual marks conjectured forms. Before H. and A. words (Bib- lical), I use a dot ( . ) to mark such forms except those of verbs not found in "qal" or "p2(e)h%l. " Under — a. and under — b., matter added by me is enclosed within brackets [ ]. 475. (Root, N-Z^-H^). 475a. H. .NEZ^AH^ juice, liq- 475b. Gr. stazo^ (second aor- uor (which is spurted from ist tense, passive, esTAoe^n), to grapes when trodden in the fall in drops; to trickle, drip; press). STAGma, drop, distillment. 475n. Radical -h^ has been hardened to -g- in Gr. sTAGma, etc. 476. (Root, n-z^-l). 476a. H. *NAZ^AL, to take 476b. Go. STiLan, to steal. away (for example, booty); to A.-S. st-elshi, to steal. spoil, strip, plunder, despoil; to B. iTZUL, to turn, return; to snatch (from danger), deliver, restore; to escape; iTzuLbide, preserve; to be delivered, pre- refuge, escape, served, saved; to escape; h^az^- z^ALah^ deliverance. 476n. R. — For the origin of -bide (which means ''way, road") in B. iTzuLbide, see entry 84. 477. (Root, n-z^-r). 477a. H. NEZ^ER, shoot,sprout, 477b. French osier, osier, branch. water-willow. Gr. ozos (usDos), twig, shoot, branch. Gr. oisos, (a kind of) willow (or) osier. B. ozi (nozi), phimule; ozitu, to bud, germinate. 206 ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION Hebrew (H.), Aramaic (A.), Arabic (Ar.), Gaelic (G.), Gothic (Go.) L Roots tend to become monosyllabic in the Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ii. Radical gutturals (h, h^, h^, h^) are regularly lost in G., and are often lost (especially h, h*) in the other Aryan languages and B. Radical h, h^ final are regularly quiescent in H. and unrepresented in the Aryan languages and B. (See section iii.). iii. Radical gutturals and palatals (h, h^, h^, h^; g, k, q) may become, in Go,, A.-S., and L., h, k(c, q), g; or, hw(v), k(c, q)w(v), (?)gw(v); or, w(v, b, f, p, in L.). (See sections iii. and IV.). iv. Radical v, y, radical n initial, and radical I, m, n, r final are often lost in the Aryan languages and B. (See sections v. and vii.). V. Radical liquids (1, m, n, r) are regularly represented by 1, m, n, r (not always respec- tively) in the Arvan languages and B. (See section vii.). vi. Radical z, z^ become d, sd, s, st, t, or (z) in the Aryan languages. (See section viii,). vii. In B., ch, tch, (cht), s, ts, (st\ z, tz, and (zt) are more or less freely interchanged and may each represent radical z, z-, s, s^, s^. 477n. Gr. — Radical -r has been lost from the Gr. words and the B. word here cited if they are (as I take them to be) cognate with H. NEZ^ER. (See section viz.). French. — The history of French osier is obscure. Etymolo- gists regard the w^ord as cognate with Gr. oisos. 478. (Root, n-q-b). 478a. H. .NAQAB, to bore (a 478b. G. gabh, to strike, beat, hole); to pierce, strike through belabor; GABHadh, jeopardy, (the head with a staff, spear); peril, great danger. maQQEBet^, hammer. 479. (Root, N-Q-H^). 479a. H. .NAQAH^ to be clean, 479b. G. nigh, to wash, pure; to be innocent; to cleanse ; cleanse, purify; iNiCH, neat, tidy. .m(e)NAQQiyyah^, a sacrificial G. NiGHean (iNGHean),daugh- bowl. ter, girl, maid. A. n(e)qeh, pure, clean ;white L. Nincit, it snows; nix (geni- [(applied to wool) ]. tive, Nivis), snow. S. N^iG^, to wash, cleanse. Gr. Nizo^ (NiPto^), to cleanse; to wash off; to wash (the hands or feet). Gr. NiPHO^, to snow. French neigc, snow. B. negu, winter. 479n. G. — On the mode of designating girls among our remote ancestors, see entry 194. ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION 207 Anglo-Saxon (A.-S.), Latin (L.), Greek (Gr.), Sanskrit (S.), Basque (B.) viii. When the medial and the final consonant of a root are the same or similar in charac- ter, only one of them is represented in tne Aryan languages and B. (See section x,). ix. Suffixes frequently occurring are: in H., h^, y, n, t^; in G., c, d, g, n, t; in Go., d, g, n, s, t; in A,-S., c, d, g, h, n, t; in L., c, d, 1, m, n, r, s, t; and in B., n, tz, -tu(-du). Frequently some of these suffixes are combined or repeated. A vowel may be prefixed or suffixed to a root in the Aryan languages and B. (See section xii.). X. In this investigation, the aspiration of consonants and the quality and length of vowels have, in general, been provisionally treated as without philological value. xi. Under a given root, words or parts of words printed in small capitals (in italics if defi- nitional) are to be considered descendants of that root and therefore cognate. Vowels are so printed only when lying within limits reflecting the root. (See also section x.). xii. The asterisk (*) as usual marks conjectured forms. Before H. and A. words (Bib- lical), I use a dot ( . ) to mark such forms except those of verbs not found in "qal" or "p2(e)h%l. " Under — a. and under — b., matter added by me is enclosed within brackets [ ]. L. — Etymologists regard L. Nincit, etc., as cognate with Eng- lish "snow." If rightly, the latter word and its immediate cog- nates have taken s- as a prefix. (See also entry 47-2). The -n- of L. Ninoit is intrusive. (See section vii.). Gr. — Radical -q- has become -p- in Gr. (NiPto^) and -ph- in Gr. NiPHo^ as shown in part by -z- (for *-Gi-) in Gr. nizoI Et3^mol- ogists do not consider Gr. Nipto^ and Gr. nipho^ cognate. 480. (Root, n-q-r). 480a. H. .NAQAR, to bore, 480b. A.-S. gar, the point, of pierce; to bore out, pick out (the an arrow (or) spear; arrow, spear; eye); to dig out. nafu-GAR, saiger. EngUsh GORe, to pierce; to wound deeply; to scoop, dig (ob- solete). 480n. English. — For the origin of English "gore" (of a garment), see entry 688. 481. (Root, n-s^-h). 481a. H. NAs^AH, to take up, 481b. B.jaso, to raise, lift up, lift up, raise; to bear, carry; to to carry; to bear, support, sus- bring; to bear, endure; to accept tain. (the person of any one ; properly B. oNHETsi, to tolerate, suf- spoken of a king or judge who fer; to accept, receive, welcome receives or admits those who [(John 1: 11, 12) (Ba3^onne, visit him with salutations and 1887)]. presents, and favors their cause) ; mas^s^AH, load, burden, tribute. 208 ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION Hebrew (H.), Aramaic (A.), Arabic (Ar.), Gaelic (G,), Gothic (Go.) L Roots tend to become monosyllabic in the Aryan languages and B. (See section x). ii. Radical gutturals (h, h^, h^, h'') are regularly lost in G., and are often lost (especially h, h*) in the other Aryan languages and B. Radical h, h- final are regularly quiescent in H. and imrepresented in the Aryan languages and B. (See section iii,). iii. Radical gutturals and palatals (h, h^, h^, h"; g, k, q) may become, in Go., A.-S., and L., h, k(c, q), g; or, hw(v), k(c, q)w(v), (?)gw(v); or, w(v, b, f. p, in L.). (See sections iii. and IV.). iv. Radical v, y, radical n initial, and radical I, m, n, r final are often lost in the Aryan languages and B. (See sections v. and vii.). V. Radical liquids (1, m, n, r) are regularly represented by 1, m, n, r (not always respec- tively) in the Aryan languages and B. (See section vii.). vi. Radical z, z^ become d, sd, s, st, t, or (z) in the Aryan languages. (See section viii.). vii. In B., ch, tch, (cht), s, ts, (st\ z, tz, and (zt) are more or less freely interchanged and may each represent radical z, z^, s, s^, s*. 481n. I infer from B. jaso a root [*y-s^-h] parallel with n-s^-h. 482. (Root, n-s^-r). 482a. Ar. NAs^ARa, to saw. 482b. L. sERRa, a saw. A. n(e)sar, to saw. H. masVouR, a saw. 482n. I am indebted to Gesenius for the form and the definition of A. n(e)sar, as also for the Ar. citation. L. — Etymologists have thought L. sERRa to be for *secra. 483. (Root, N-S'-H^). 483a. H. nas^ah^ to lend (on 483b. G. iasad.(iasachd),cred- interest, usury); to borrow; it; loan; advantage, profit. .N(E)s^y, debt; .mas^s^EH^ loan. 484. (Root, N-S^-H^). 484a. H. .nas^ah^, to forget; 484b. B. aHANTsi, forgotten to cause to forget. " [(van Eys)]; aHANTzi, to forget [(Aizkibel)]. 484n. Does the -h- in B. aHANTsi represent radical -h^? If so, the word is an instance of transposition. (See section xiii.). 485. (Root, n-s^-k). 485a. H. NAS^AK(e), to bite 485b. B. auTsiKitu, to bite. (, as a serpent). G. scath, to prune, lop off„ cut down. ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION 209 Anglo-Saxon (A.-S.), Latin (L.), Greek (Gr.), Sanskrit (S.), Basque (B.) viii. When the medial and the final consonant of a root are the same or similar in charac- ter, only one of them is represented in tne Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ix. Suffixes frequently occurring are: in H., h^, y, n, t^; in G., c, d, g, n, t; in Go., d, g, n, s, t; in A.-S., c, d, g, h, n, t; in L., c, d, 1, m, n, r, s, t; and in B., n, tz, -tu(-du). Frequently some of these suffixes are combined or repeated. A vowel may be prefixed or suffixed to a root in the Aryan languages and B. (See section xii.). X. In this investigation, the aspiration of consonants and the quality and length of vowels have, in general, been provisionally treated as without philological value. xi. Under a given root, words or parts of words printed in small capitals (in italics if defi- nitional) are to be considered descendants of that root and therefore cognate. Vowels are so printed only when lying within limits reflecting the root. (See also section x.). xii. The asterisk (*) as usual marks conjectured forms. Before H. and A. words (Bib- lical), I use a dot ( . ) to mark such forms except those of verbs not found in "qal" or "p2(e)h*al. " Under — a. and under — b., matter added by me is enclosed within brackets [ ]. A.-S. SI col, sickle. A.-S. SAoa, saw. A.-S. sithe (siodi), scythe. Icelandic siodhr, sickle. L. SEco, to cut. 486. (Root, n-s^-l). 486a. H. NAs^AL, to cast out, 486b. L. exsuL, a banished drive out, eject (a people from a person, wanderer, exile. land)c 486n. The -sul of L. exsuL has been variously explained by etymologists. I think the syllable unmistakably cognate with H. NAS^AL. « 487. (Root, n-s^-m). 487a. H. N(E)s^AMah^ breath; 487b. A.-S. nosu (NASu),nose. t^iN(E)s^EMet^ animal. L. nasus, nose; narIs, nostril; (plural,) nostrils, nose. S. n^as^ nose. 487n. ". . .breathed into his nostrils the breath of life" (Gene- sis 2:7). The H. word here translated "breath" is from H. n(e)s^a- Mah^. (See also entries 185 and 564). 488. (Root, n-s^-q). 488a. H. NASDAQ, to kiss. 488b. G. sug, to suck. A.-S. suGan (sucan), to suck. L. suGo, to suck. 210 ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION Hebrew (H.), Aramaic (A.), Arabic (Ar.), Gaelic (G.), Gothic (Go.) L Roots tend to become monosyllabic in the Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ii. Radical gutturals (h, h^, h^, h^) are regularly lost in G., and are often lost (especially h, h*) in the other Aryan languages and B. Radical h, h^ final are regularly quiescent in H. and unrepresented in the Aryan languages and B. (See section iii.). iii. Radical gutturals and palatals (h, h^, h^, h*; g, k, q) may become, in Go., A.-S., and L,, h, k(c, q), g; or, hw(v), k(c, q)w(v), (?)gw(v); or, w(v, b, f, p, in L.). (See sections iii. and IV.). iv. Radical v, y, radical n initial, and radical I, m, n, r final are often lost in the Aryan languages and B. (See sections v. and vii.). V. Radical liquids (1, m, n, r) are regularly represented by 1, m, n, r (not always respec- tively) in the Aryan languages and B. (See section vii.). vi. Radical z, z^ become d, sd, s, st, t, or (z) in the Aryan languages. (See section viii.). vii. In B., ch, tch, (cht), s, ts, (st), z, tz, and (zt) are more or less freely interchanged and may each represent radical z, z^, s, s^, s^. 489. (Root, n-s^-q). 489a. H. NEs^EQ, weapon, 489b. L. scutum, buckler, weapons, arms (weapons and shield, armor). 489n. I have placed L. scutum in entry 499 also. The word cannot, obviously, belong in both entries. Some etymologists think it cognate with English ''shade," others with English "skin," both which words I have placed in entry 499. 490. (Root, n-t^-k). 490a. H. .NAT^AK(e), to pour 490b. A.-S. THAwiam, to thaw. out; to make flow; to melt; to be L, tabco, to melt; to waste melted; hVTVK(e), a melting, away. Gr. TE^Ko^ to melt; to thaw. 490n. L. — Radical -k has become -b- in L. tabco. (See sections III. and IV.; also entries 281 and 718). 491. (Root, n-t^-n). 491a. H. NATHAN, to put, set, 491b. G. dean, to make, do, lay, place; to give; to perform, act, perform, work (miracles); to make, rend- Go. xaujan, to do, make, per- er [(someone something)]; to form. make (an incision), make (or A.-S. Don, to do, make, act, cause) (a blemish); maT^T^AN, perform, cause; Don on, to don, gift; gifts. put on. ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION 211 Anglo-Saxon (A,-S,), Latin (L.), Greek (Gr.), Sanskrit (S.), Basque (B.) vJii. When the niedial and the final consonant of a root are the same or similar in charac- ter, only one of them is represented in tne Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ix. Suffixes frequently occurring are: in H., h^, y, n, t^; in G., c, d, g, n, t; in Go., d, g, n, s, t; in A,-S., c, d, g, h, n, t; in L., c, d, 1, m, n, r, s, t; and in B., n, tz, -tu(-du). Frequently some of these suffixes are combined or repeated. A vowel may be prefixed or suffixed to a root in the Aryan languages and B. (See section xii.). X. In this investigation, the aspiration of consonants and the quality and length of vowels have, in general, been provisionally treated as without philological vahie. xi. Under a given root, words or parts of words printed in small capitals (in italics if defi- nitional) are to be considered descendants of that root and therefore cognate. Vowels are so printed only when lying within limits reflecting the root. (See also section x.). xii. The asterisk (*) as usual marks conjectured forms. Before H. and A. words (Bib- lical), I use a dot ( . ) to mark such forms except those of verbs not found in "qal" or "p2(e)h%l. ' Under — a. and under — b., matter added by me is enclosed within brackets [J. L. DO, to give; cormo, to lay away, store up. S. dV, to give. S. dV, to put, set, lay. Gr. DiDo^mi, to give. Gr. TiTHe^mi, to put, place, set. 49 In. Go. — It is unusual for Go. to have t where A.-S. has d, as in this entry. In entry 520 also, it will be observed that Go. has d- corresponding to A.-S. t-. Etymologists do not con- sider Go. Taujan and A.-S. Don cognate. L. — Etymologists do not consider L. do cognate with -do in conDo; but remark that the roots of the words are distinct "in most of the Arian langg. ;. . . but in Italy the two seem to have been confounded, at least in compounds" (Harper's L. Dictionary, page 605, column 1). The definitions of H. nat^an show that there is only one root for the words in question and that L. has not "confounded" things in this case but has, rather, kept uni- form what sister languages have allowed to vary. 492. ' (Root, n-t^-q). 492a. H. .NAT^AQ, to pull, 492b. Go. Tiunan, to pull, draw; to tear away, tear out tow, tug. (roots); to pull off (a ring from A.-S. Teon (preterite tense, the finger). teah; plural, tugou), to draw, pull, drag, tug. L. Duco, to lead, draw. 212 ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION Hebrew (H.), Aramaic (A,), Arabic (Ar.), Gaelic (G.), Gothic (Go.) i. Roots tend to become monosyllabic in the Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ii. Radical gutturals (h, h^, h^, h'*) are regularly lost in G., and are often lost (especially h, h*) in the other Aryan languages and B. Radical h, h^ final are regularly quiescent in H. and unrepresented in the Aryan languages and B, (See section iii.). iii. Radical gutturals and palatals (h, h^, h^, h^; g, k, q) may become, in Go., A.-S., and L., h, k(c, q), g; or, hw(v), k(c, q)w(v), (?)gw(v); or, w(v, b, f, p, in L.). (See sections iii. and IV.). iv. Radical v, y, radical n initial, and radical I, m, n, r final are often lost in the Aryan languages and B. (See sections v. and vii.). V. Radical liquids (1, m, n, r) are regularly represented by I, m, n, r (not always respec- tively) in the Aryan languages and B. (See section vii.). vi. Radical z, z^ become d, sd, s, st, t, or (z) in the Aryan languages. (See section viii.). vii. In B., ch, tch, (cht), s, ts, (st\ z, tz, and (zt) are more or less freely interchanged and may each represent radical z, z^, s, s^, s^. 493. (Root, s-b-h). 493a. H. .SABAH, to drink 493b. A.-S. suran, to take wine; to become drunk. (fluid) into the mouth; to sup; soppian, to sop. 494. (Root, s-b-l). 494a. H. .SABAL, to bear,carry 494b. B. sabel, belly, stom- (heavy burdens); (participle,) ach, womb, laden (with young), pregnant; B. esPAL, bundle, sheaf. SEBEL, burden, task. 495. (Root, s-g-r). 495a. H. SAGAR, toshutjClose; 495b. L. carcer, prison, jail, to be shut up (, of persons); to Old French escRane, fire- deliA^er (into the power of any .screen, one); to give over (to the power B. masKOR, shell, husk, and discretion of any one) ; (pas- Go. swAiHRa, father-in-law; sive participle,) precious, pure swaihro, mother-in-law. (gold). A.-S. swEOR (swehor), fa- ther-in-law. L. SOGER, father-in-law. G. usGAR, jewel, pearl, orna- ment, necklace. 495n. L. — I think that L. carcer has arisen by reduplication with loss of radical s- from each member of the resulting com- pound. In H., radical s- would have been lost from only the second member. (See section xiv.). (But see also entry 351). ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION 213 Anglo-Saxon (A.-S.), Latin (L.), Greek (Gr.), Sanskrit (S.), Basque (B.) viii. When the medial and the final consonant of a root are the same or siniilar in charac- ter, only one of them is represented in tne Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ix. Suffixes frequently occurring are: in H., h^, y, n, t-', in G., c, d, g, n, t; in Go., d, g, n, s, t; in A,-S., c, d, g, h, n, t; in L., c, d, 1, m, n, r, s, t; and in B., n, tz, -tu(-du). Frequently some of these suffixes are combined or repeated. A vowel may be prefixed or suflSxed to a root in the Aryan languages and B. (See section xii.). X. In this investigation, the aspiration of consonants and the quality and length of vowels have, in general, been provisionally treated as without philological vahie. xi. Under a given root, words or parts of words printed in small capitals (in italics if defi- nitional) are to be considered descendants of that root and therefore cognate. Vowels are so printed onlv when lying within limits reflecting the root. (See also section x.). xii. The asterisk (*) as usual marks conjectured forms. Before H. and A. words (Bib- lical), I use a dot ( . ) to mark such forms except those of verbs not found in "qal" or *'p2(e)h%l. Under — a. and under — b., matter added by me is enclosed within brackets [ J. Etymologists have not, of course, considered L. carcer cognate with L. SOGER, father-in-law, one who may be viewed primarily as delivering his daughter as a bride into the power and discretion of the bridegroom. B. — The m- in B. masKOR is a prefix if the word is cognate with H. SAGAR. (See section vii.). 496. (Roots, S-H^-H^ S-V-H^). 496a. H. *sah^ah', to wipe 496b. A.-S. scitan, [(L.)] ca- off, sweep away; s(E)H^y,sweep- care; bescitan, [(L.)] cacare; to ings, off scouring; [(Gesenius bedaub, cites)] A. s(E)H^yt^ah, dung. H. swH^ah^ filth, offal, dung. 497. (Root, S-H^-P). 497a. H. .sahI\p, to sweep 497b. Go. midja-swEipains, away (with violence, as rain); flood, the deluge. [(Gesenius cites)] Ar. suh^ah- A.-S. ^w afslu, to sweep. Fun, torrent; [(and)] Ar. sa- H^YFah^'un, a violent, sweeping rain [(Tregelles)]. 497n. A.-S. — Etymologists have not considered A.-S. swAPan cognate with -sweip- of Go. midja-swEiPains. 498. (Root, s-k-k). 498a. H. .sAK(e), multitude, 498b. G. scaoth, swarm, crowd. crowd, multitude. 214 ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION Hebrew (H.), Aramaic (A.), Arabic (Ar.), Gaelic (G.). Gothic (Go.) L Roots tend to become monosyllabic in the Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ii. Radical gutturals (h, h^, h^, h^) are regularly lost in G., and are often lost (especially h. h*) in the other Aryan languages and B. Radical h, h^ final are regvilarly quiescent in H. and unrepresented in the Aryan languages and B. (See section iii.). iii. Radical gutturals and palatals (h, h^, h^, h'*; g, k, q) may become, in Go., A.-S., and L., h, k(c, q), g; or, hw(v), k(c, q)w(v), (?)gw(v); or, w(v, b, f, p, in L.). (See sections iii. and IV.). iv. Radical v, y, radical n initial, and radical I, m, n, r final are often lost in the Aryan languages and B. (See sections v. and vii.), V. Radical liquids (1, m, n, r) are regularly represented by I, m, n, r (not always respec- tively) in the Aryan languages and B, (See section vii.). vi. Radical z, tP- become d, sd, s, st, t, or (z) in the Aryan languages. (See section viii.). vii. In B,, ch, tch, (cht), s, ts, (st\ z, ix, and (zt) are more or less freely interchanged and may each represent radical z, z^, s, s^, s'. 499. (Root, s-k-k). 499a. H. .sAKAK(e), to cover; 499b. G. SGath, s/iacie, shel- to protect, shelter, screen; ma- ter, protection. SAK(e), covering, screen. G. seic, hide, .sA:in. Icelandic sKinn, a s/:in. L. scutum, shield; protection, shelter. B. osKi, s/ioe. Go. SKOHs, s/ioe. A.-S. sceo (scoh), s/ioe. Go. sKadus, s/iade, s/iadow. A.-S. sceadu (scuwa), sAade, s/iadow, shelter, protection. • S. s^Ku, to tear, pick; to cover; to collect, gather. 499n. L. — I have placed L. scutum in entry 489 also, where see note. Go. — Is the -H- in Go. skohs a suffix or does it come, excep- tionally, from radical -k, which is a repetition of radical -k-? A.-S. — Etymologists do not consider A.-S. scuAva cognate with A.-S. sceadu. . 500. (Root, s-k-n). 500a. H. .SAKAN, to be famil- 500b. L. socius, fellow, com- iar (with any one) : to know in- rade, associate, timately; soken, companion, B. ezAGUN, to know; to be ac- friend, associate. quainted with. ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION 215 Anglo-Saxon (A.-S.), Latin (L.), Greek (Gr.), Sanskrit (S.), Basque (B.) viii. When the medial and the final consonant of a root are the same or sirnilar in charac- ter, only one of them is represented in tne Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ix. Suffixes frequently occurring are: in H., h^, y, n, t^; in G., c, d, g, n, t; in Go., d, g, n, s, t; in A.-S., c, d, g, h, n, t; in L,, c, d, 1, m, n, r, s, t; and in B., n, tz, -tu(-du). Frequently some of these suffixes are combined or repeated. A vowel may be prefixed or suffixed to a root in the Aryan languages and B. (See section xii.). x. In this investigation, the aspiration of consonants and the quality and length of vowels have, in general, been provisionally treated as without philological vahie. xi. Under a given root, words or parts of words printed in small capitals (in italics if defi- nitional) are to be considered descendants of that root and therefore cognate. Vowels are so printed only when lying within limits reflecting the root. (See also section x.). xii. The asterisk (*) as usual marks conjectured forms. Before H. and A. words (Bit>- lical), I use a dot ( . ) to mark such forms except those of verbs not found in "qal" or "p2(e)h%l. ' Under — a. and under — b., matter added by me is enclosed within brackets [ ]. 501. (Root, s-l-d). 501a. H. '^'SALAD, to spring up, 501b. L. salIo, to spring, leap up, exult. leap, hop ; SALto, to dance. 501 n. The meaning of H. *salad is uncertain. 502. (Root, S-L-H^). 502a. H. selah^ rock, crag, 502b. L. silex (genitive, si- cliff . 1.1 cis), flint, flintstone, rock, crag. 503. (Root, S-L-T^). 503a. H. soLET^ fine meal, 503b. Go. salt, salt. flour; shelled grain. A.-S. sealt, salt. 504. (Root, s-m-l). 504a. H. SEMEL, likeness, im- 504b. G. sAMHLadh, likeness, age, statue, figure. shape, form; SAaiHLaich, to liken, compare. Go. SAMa, same. A.-S. SAMe, in like manner. L. siMiLis, like, Tesemhling, similsir. S. s^AM^a, even, smooth, flat; like, equal. 216 ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION — • — ■ ■ Hebrew (H.), Aramaic (A.), Arabic (Ar.), Gaelic (G.), Gothic (Go.) L Roots tend to become monosyllabic in the Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ii. Radical gutturals (h, h^, h^, h'*) are regularly lost in G., and are often lost (especially h, h*) in the other Aryan languages and B. Radical h, h- final are regularly quiescent in H. and unrepresented in the Aryan languages and B. (See section iii.). iii. Radical gutturals and palatals (h, h^, h^, h''; g, k, q) may become, in Go,, A.-S., and L., h, k(c, q), g; or, hw(v), k(c, q)w(v), (?)gw(v); or, w(v, b, f, p, in L.). (See sections m. and IV.). iv. Radical v, y, radical n initial, and radical I, m, n, r final are often lost in the Aryan languages and B. (See sections v. and vii.). V. Radical liquids (1, m, n, r) are regularly represented by 1, m, n, r (not always respec- tively) in the Aryan languages and B. (See section vii.). vi. Radical z, z^ become d, sd, s, st, t, or (z) in the Aryan languages. (See section viii.). vii. In B., ch, tch, (cht), s, ts, (st), z, tz, and (zt) are more or less freely interchanged and may each represent radical z, z^, s, s^, s'. 505. (Root, s-v?-s). 505a. H. SAS, moth (in cloth- 505b. Gr. se^s, clothes-moth, ing). B. sATsa (siTsa), moth. 505n. Gr. — Some etymologists regard Gr. se^s as a loan-word (which it may well be) from Semitic. 506. (Root, s-h^-d). 506a. H. SAH^AD, to be pros- 506b. G. saod, prosperous perous; to make prosperous condition; good humor. [(Lee)]; to support, sustain; to cheer, refresh. 507. (Roots, S-H^-R, S^-H*-r). 507a. H. SAH^AR, tempest, 507b. Go. SKURa, s/^o^(;er;sKu- storm; s(E)HVRah^ tempest, Ra windis, a storm of wind, storm, storm-wind. A.-S. scur, storm, shower. H. s^ah^'ar, storm, tempest. 508. (Root, s-p-q). 508a. H. sapaq, to vomit, 508b. Go. SPEiwan, to spit, throw up [ (Gesenius) ]. A.-S. spiwan, to vomit; to spit out, spew; spyttan, to spit. L. spuo, to spit, spit out, spew. 508n. Go. — Radical -q has given rise to -w-,-u-, in Go. sPEiwan, etc. ALPHABETIC E:JvPOSITION 217 - — ^ ' — s ; Anglo-Saxon (A.-S.), Latin (L.), Greek (Gr.), Sanskrit (S.), Basque (B.) viii. When the medial and the final consonant of a root are the same or similar in charac- ter, only one of them is represented in tne Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ix. Suffixes frequently occurring are: in H., h^, y, n, P; in G., c, d, g, n, t; in Go., d, g, n, s, t; in A.-S., c, d, g, h, n, t; in L., c, d, 1, m, n, r, s, t; and in B., n, tz, -tu(-du). Frequently some of these suffixes are combined or repeated. A vowel may be prefixed or suffixed to a root in the Aryan languages and B. (See section xii.). X. In this investigation, the aspiration of consonants and the quality and length of vowels have, in general, been provisionally treated as without philological value. xi. Under a given root, words or parts of words printed in small capitals (in italics if defi- nitional) are to be considered descendants of that root and therefore cognate. Vowels are so printed onlv when lying within limits reflecting the root. (See also section x.). xii. The asterisk (*) as usual marks conjectured forms. Before H. and A. words (Bib- lical), I use a dot ( . ) to mark such forms except those of verbs not found in "qal or •p2(e)h p, in L.). (See sections iii. and IV.). iv. Radical v, y, radical n initial, and radical 1, m, n, r final are often lost in the Aryan languages and B. (See sections v. and vii.). V. Radical liquids (I, m, n, r) are regularly represented by I, m, n, r (not always respec- tively) in the Aryan languages and B. (See section vii.). vi. Radical z, z'^ become d, sd, s, st, t, or (z) in the Aryan languages. (See section viii.). vii. In B., ch, tch, (cht), s, ts, (st\ z, tz, and (zt) are more or less freely interchanged and may each represent radical z, z^, s, s^, s^. 583. 583a. H. p^adVan, a low re- 583b. G. fod, land, country; gion, plain; field. cold, clammy earth. Gr. PEDion, a plain flat open country. , 583n. I make this entry in query. 584. (Root, p-d-r). 584a. H. .p^EDER, fat, grease, 584b. A.-S. BUTERe, huiter. suet. 585. (?R00t, P-H-H^). 585a. H. p^EH^ mouth; aper- 585b. B. aBo (ano), mouth, ture, orifice, entrance. A.-S. open, open, allowing in- gress (or) egress. L. For, to say, speak. 586. (Root, P-V-H^). 586a. H. .pV(a)h^ to blow 586b. L. Bucca, the cheek upon (, as a wind); to puff, pant, (puffed or filled out in speaking, eating, etc.). 586n. Radical p- has very unexpectedly become b- in L. Bucca if the word is cognate with H. .pV(A)H^ 587. (Root, p-v-z^). 587a. H. .pVz^ to rout, put 587b. G. FAsaich, to depopu- to flight, disperse, scatter. late, lay waste. ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION 245 Anglo-Saxon (A.-S.), Latin (L.), Greek (Gr.), Sanskrit (S.), Basque (B.) viii. When the medial and the final consonant of a root are the same or similar in charac- ter, only one of them is represented in tne Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ix. Suffixes frequently occurring are: in H., h^, y, n, t^; in G., c, d, g, n, t; in Go., d, g, n, s, t; m A.-S., c, d, g, h, n, t; in L., c, d, I, m, n, r, s, t; and in B., n, tz, -tu(-du). Frequently some of these suffixes are combined or repeated. A vowel may be prefixed or suffixed to a root in the Aryan languages and B. (See section xii.). X. In this investigation, the aspiration of consonants and the quality and length of vowels have, in general, been provisionally treated as without philological valiie. xi. Under a given root, words or parts of words printed in small capitals (in italics if defi- nitional) are to be considered descendants of that root and therefore cognate. Vowels are so printed only when lying within limits reflecting the root. (See also section x.). xii. The asterisk (*) as usual marks conjectured forms. Before H. and A. words (Bib- lical), I use a dot ( . ) to mark such forms except those of verbs not found in "qal" or *'p2(e)h%l. " Under — a. and imder — b., matter added by me is enclosed within brackets [ ]. 587x1. The meanings of G. FAsaich do not exactly indicate that the word is cognate with H. .pVz^ 588. (Root, p-v-q). 588a. H. *pVq, to get, obtain. 588b. G. faigh, to get, ac- quire, obtain. 589. (Root, p-v-s^). 589a. H. .pVs^ to become 589b. G. fas, to grow, in- numerous, flourish [(Lee)]; to be crease, scattered. 589n. The meanings of H. .pVs^ here quoted from Lee are prob- ably hypothetical. 590. (Root, p-z-z). 590a. H. p^AZ, purified, pure 590b. B. buztIuo, pure, un- (gold). mixed ; arno BuzTinoa,pure wine. 591. (Root, p-h^-r). 591a. A. p^EH^AR, potter. 591b. Icelandic BiKARr, heak- er, a large drinking cup. English. PITCHER, a water jug or jar with a large ear or handle. Gr. BiKos, an earthen wine- jar. 59 In. EngHsh. — Etymologists regard Enghsh pitcher and heaker as cognate, and (wrongly, I think) the -r and -r as suffixes. 246 ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION Hebrew (H.), Aramaic (A.), Arabic (Ar.), Gaelic (G.), Gothic (Go.) L Roots tend to become monosyllabic in the Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ii. Radical gutturals (h, h^, h^, h'') are regularly lost in G., and are often lost (especially h, h*) in the other Aryan languages and B. Radical h, h^ final are regularly quiescent in H. and unrepresented in the Aryan languages and B. (See section iii.). iii. Radical gutturals and palatals (h, h^, h^, h^; g, k, q) may become, in Go., A,-S., and L., h, k(c, q), g; or, hw(v), k(c, q)w(v), (?)gw(v); or, w(v, b, f, p, m L.). (See sections in. and IV.). iv. Radical v, y, radical n initial, and radical I, m, n, r final are often lost in the Aryan languages and B. (See sections v. and vii.). V. Radical liquids (1, m, n, r) are regularly represented by I, m, n, r (not always respec- tively) in the Aryan languages and B. (See section vii.). vi. Radical z, z^ become d, sd, s, st, t, or (z) in the Aryan languages. (See section viii.). vii. In B., ch, tch, (cht), s, ts, (st\ z, tz, and (zt) are more or less freely interchanged and may each represent radical z, z^, s, s^, s'. Gr. — Note the loss of radical -r from Gr. bikos. (See section VII.). 592. (Root, P-H^-T^). 592a. H. p^AH^AT^, pit, well. 592b. L. puxeus, pit, well. A.-S. PYTT, pit, grave. 592n. A.-S. pytt is thought to be a loan-word from L. 593. (Root, p-l-g). 593a. H. *p^ALAG, to divide, 593b. G. blaigh, fragment, cleave, split. part, half; splinter. A. p^(e)lag, half. 593n. The ancestor of G. g is usually radical q. 594. (Root, p-l-g). 594a. H. p^ELEG, brook, 594b. G. falc, flood; to bathe, stream, canal. 595. (Root, P-L-H^). 595a. H. *p^ALAH^, to be dis- 595b. G. BUAiLe, a fold for tinct, separated; to set apart, sheep; stall, make separate. 595n. I make this entry in query. 596. (Root, P-L-H^). 596a. H. .p^ALAH^ to cleave; 596b. A.-S. fealh, harrow. ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION 247 Anglo-Saxon (A.-S.), Latin (L.), Greek (Gr,), Sanskrit (S.), Basque (B.) viii. When the medial and the final consonant of a root are the same or similar in charac- ter, only one of them is represented in tne Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ix. Suffixes frequently occurring are: in H., h^, y, n, t-; in G., c, d, g, n, t; in Go., d, g, n, s, t; in A.-S., c, d, g, h, n, t; in L., c, d, 1, m, n, r, s, t; and in B., n, tz, -tu(-du). Frequently some of these suffixes are combined or repeated. A vowel may be prefixed or suffixed to a root in the Aryan languages and B. (See section xii.). X. In this investigation, the aspiration of consonants and the quality and length of vowels have, in general, been provisionally treated as without philological vahie. xi. Under a given root, words or parts of words printed in small capitals (in italics if defi- nitional) are to be considered descendants of that root and therefore cognate. Vowels are so printed only when lying within limits reflecting the root. (See also section x.). xii. The asterisk (*) as usual marks conjectured forms. Before H. and A. words (Bil> lical), I use a dot ( . ) to mark such forms except those of verbs not found in "qal" or "p2(e)h%l. Under — a. and under — b., matter added by me is enclosed within brackets [ ]. to furrow (the ground), plough; to harrow; to cut up, shce (wild cucumbers); p^elah^ shce; mih- stone. A. .p^(e)lah^ to labor, serve (often in the Targums) ; to serve, worship (God); (participle, plu- ral,) servants (of the house of God); [(Brown, Driver, and Briggs cite)] Palmyrene PLH^h, soldier. English fallow, ploughed and left unseeded. Old High German ploh, plough. Icelandic PLOGr, plough. A.-S. PLOH, a plough of land. S. p^^L^a, ploughshSiTe; a ploughed field; a kind of hoe or shovel. A.-S. FURH, furrow. Go. FiLHan, to bury; to hide, conceal. English FILCH, to pilfer, steal. G. fal, spade, scythe. L. FALX, (genitive, falcIs), sickle, scythe. A.-S. FELG, felly, part of the circumference of a wheel. A.-S. FOLCxian, to serve, obey, follow as a servant (or) disciple; to go behind, follow. A.-S. FOLC, crowd, people; a band of warriors; (plural,) war- riors, fighting-men. 596n. A.-S. — Etymologists do not consider A.-S. fealh cog- nate with any of the other words here cited. The same may be said of A.-S. ploh, etc., of A.-S. felg, of A.-S. furh, of A.-S. FOLGian, and of A.-S. folc. I treat A.-S. felg as cognate with H. .p^ALAH^, etc., on the supposition that the felly of a wheel was 245 ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION Hebrew (H.), Aramaic (A.), Arabic (Ar.), Gaelic (G.), Gothic (Go.) L Roots tend to become monosyllabic in the Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ii. Radical gutturals (h, h^, h^, h^) are regularly lost in G., and are often lost (especially h, h*) in the other Aryan languages and B. Radical h, h^ final are regularly quiescent in H. and unrepresented in the Aryan languages and B. (See section iii.). iii. Radical gutturals and palatals (h, h^, h^, h^; g, k, q) may become, in Go., A.-S., and L., h, k(c, q), g; or, hw(v), k(c, q)w(v), (?)gw(v); or, w(v, b, f, p, in L.). (See sections iii. and IV.). iv. Radical v, y, radical n initial, and radical I, m, n, r final are often lost in the Aryan languages and B. (See sections v. and vii.). V. Radical liquids (1, m, n, r) are regularly represented by I, m, n, r (not always respec- tively) in the Aryan languages and B. (See section vii.). vi. Radical z, z^ become d, sd, s, st, t, or (z) in the Aryan languages. (See section viii.). vii.. In B., ch, tch, (cht), s, ts, (st), z, tz, and (zt) are more or less freely interchanged and may each represent radical z, z^, s, s-, s'. once the whole wheel. Even today one sees cart-wheels which have been made by perforating cross sections of a log. They closely resemble millstones. I conjecture that the modern wheel was developed by cutting away parts of the felhj to reduce the weight, as well as to increase the beauty, of the wheel. Thus, we may readily imagine, felly became applicable only to the outer part of the wheel. Go. — I insert here in query Go. FiLHan and English filch. Etymologists consider the two words cognate. English. — Etymologists do not consider English fallow cog- nate with any other of the words here cited. It should be re- marked, however, that in The Century Dictionary the descent of English fallow from A.-S. fealh, harrow, is mentioned as possible. (Further, Skeat conjectured possible kinship of A.-S. FOLC and A.-S. FOLGian). 597. (Root, p-l-t). 597a. H. .p^ALAT, to deliver 597b. French pilotc, guide, (from danger); to bring into se- pilot. curity, place in safety. 597n. The history of French pilotc is uncertain and the current derivations of the word are unsatisfactory. I place the word in this entry in query. 598. (Root, p-l-k). 598a. H. p^ELEK(e), spindle, 598b. Go. FLAHta, a braid of spinning distaff. hair. L. PLECto, to interweave. Gr. PLEKo^ to twine, weave. ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION 249 Anglo-Saxon (A.-S.), Latin (L.), Greek (Gr.), Sanskrit (S.), Basque (B.) viii. When the medial and the final consonant of a root are the same or similar in charac- ter, only one of them is represented in tne Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ix. Suffixes frequently occurring are: in H., h^ y, n, t^; in G., c, d, g, n, tj in Go., d, g, n, s, t; in A.-S., c, d, g, h, n, t; in L., c, d, 1, m, n, r, s, t; and in B., n, tz> -tu(-du). Frequently some of these suffixes are combined or repeated. A vowel may be prefixed or suffixed to a root in the Aryan languages and B, (See section xii.)- X, In this investigation, the aspiration of consonants and the quality and length of vowels have, in general, been provisionally treated as without philological value. xi. Under a given root, words or parts of words printed in small capitals (in italics if defi- nitional) are to be considered descendants of that root and therefore cognate. Vowels are so printed only when lying within limits reflecting the root. (See also section x.). xii. The asterisk (*) as usual marks conjectured forms. Before H. and A. words (Bib- lical), I use a dot ( . ) to mark such forms except those of verbs not found in "qal" or ••p2(e)h%l. Under — a. and under — b., matter added by me is enclosed within brackets [ J. 598n. L. — Etymologists consider L. PLEcto, etc., cognate with English ''fold/' etc., which I have placed in entry 367. 599. (Root, p-l-l). 599a. H. *p^ALAL,to judge; to 599b. G. BAiLLidh, a country adjudge punishment; to inflict magistrate or judge in rural af- punishment; .p^alyl, judge, um- fairs. pire. G. buail, to strike, beat, smite; to -thrash (corn); buail- tean, flail. 599n. G. BUAIL may not belong in this entry, and G. BAiLLidh may be a loan-word from English. 600. (Root, P-N-H^). 600a. H. .p2ANEH^ (plural,) 600b. G. fein, self, face, person, self. B. buru, head, self. Go. iuFEiNan, to pity. Gr. OPS (oVs), eye, face. 600n. Go. — I place Go. iuFEiNan here in query, supposing the primary meaning of the compound possibly to have been ''to turn the face toward or upon." Gr. — Etymologists connect Gr. ops (oVs) with Gr. opsomai, I shall see (or) look. These words are thought (possibly rightly) to be cognate with L. oculus, which I have placed in entry 537. 250 ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION Hebrew (PI.), Aramaic (A.), Arabic (Ar.), Gaelic (G.), Gothic (Go.) L Roots tend to become monosyllabic in the Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ii. Radical gutturals (.h, h-, h^, h^) are regularly lost in G., and are often lost (especially h, h*) in the other Aryan languages and E. Radical h, h- final are regularly quiescent in H. and unrepresented in the Aryan languages and B. (See section iii.). iii. Radical gutturals and palatals (h, h-, h^, h^; g, k, q) may become, in Go., A.-S., and L., h, k(c, q), g; or, hw(v), k(c, q)w(v), (?)gw(v); or, w(v, b, f, p, in L.). (See sections iii. and IV.). iv. Radical v, y, radical n initial, and radical 1, m, n, r final are often lost in the Aryan languages and B. (See sections v. and vii.). V. Radical liquids (1, m, n, r) are regularly represented by I, m, n, r (not always respec- tively) in the Aryan languages and B. (See section vii.). vi. Radical z, z- become d, sd, s, st, t, or (z) in the Aryan languages. (See section viii.). vii. In B., ch, tch, (cht), s, ts, (sf), z, tz, and (zt) are more or less freely interchanged and may each represent radical z, z^, s, s^, s'. 601. (Root, p-s-s). 601a. H. .p^As, (plural,) palms 601b. G. bas, the palm of the (of the hands); soles (of the hand, feet). 602. (Root, p-h*-l). 602a. H. p^AH^AL, to do, make; 602b. L. nctor, maker, cre- to produce, create, form (for ex- ator; one who makes images of ample, an idol); to attempt, un- clay, wood, etc. dertake, plot; p^oh'^al, work, L. FABer, a worker in wood, deed. stone, metal : artificer, carpenter. G. FiLe, poet, bard. 602n. L. — I think the -b- of L. FABer probably stands for earlier [*-v-] descended from radical -h*-. Etymologists consider the -r of L. FABer a suffix but have not considered the w^ord cognate with L. Fictor. Some, however, think (possibly rightly) L. FABer a derivative of L. facio (which I have placed in entry 182), regarding (not rightly, I think) the -b- and the -c- as suffixes, which, moreover, they have not considered related. G. — Enghsh "poet" (which is a loan-word from Gr.) means literally "maker"; and even English "maker" is sometimes used in the sense of poet though probably only through scholastic artificiality. It is remotely possible that G. FiLe is, in relation of derivative to primary meaning, parallel to "poet" and there- fore to be considered cognate with H. p^ah^al. ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION 251 Anglo-Saxon (A.-S.), Latin (L.), Greek (Gr.), Sanskrit (S.), Basque (B.) viii. When the medial and the final consonant of a root are the same or similar in charac- ter, only one of them is represented in tne Aryan languages and B, (See section x.). ix. Suffixes frequently occurring are: in H., h^, y, n, t^; in G., c, d, g, n, t; in Go., d, g, n, s, t; in A.-S., c, d, g, h, n, t; in L., c, d, 1, m, n, r, s, t; and in B,, n, tz, -tu(-du). Frequently some of these suffixes are combined or repeated. A vowel may be prefixed or suffixed to a root in the Aryan languages and B. (See section xii.). X. In this investigation, the aspiration of consonants and the quality and length of vowels have, in general, been provisionally treated as without philological value. xi. Under a given root, words or parts of words printed in small capitals (in italics if defi- nitional) are to be considered descendants of that root and therefore cognate. Vowels are so printed only when lying within limits reflecting the root. (See also section x.). xii. The asterisk (*) as usual marks conjectured forms. Before H. and A. words (Bib- lical), I use a dot ( . ) to mark such forms except those of verbs not found in "qal" or "p2(e)h%l. " Under — a. and under — b., matter added by me is enclosed within brackets [ ]. 603. (Root, p-z^-l). 603a. H. *p^Az^AL, to peel, 603b. B. pitcho, membr. v. strip off bark. L. praePUTium, prepuce. Gr. POSTHe^ membr. v.; the foreskin. 603n. B. PITCHO may be merely a variant of B. potzuak, in entry 118. 604. (Root, p-q-d). 604a. H. p^AQAD, to go to see, 604b. Go. andBAHTi, office, visit; to inquire for, inquire af- ter, care for; to set over, appoint, give the oversight of; p^aqyd, prefect, officer, overseer, magis- trate. service, ministry. A.-S. amBEHT, servant, mes- senger, officer; office, commanci, commission. English amBASsador, an offi- cial messenger and representa- tive. L. amBACTus, a vassal. G. FOiGHnich, to ask, inquire, question. 604n. L. — The word amBACTus is L. only in form. G. — Radical -d has been lost from G. FOiGHnich if the word is cognate with H. p^aqad. (See section x.). 605. (Root, P-Q-H^). 605a. H. p^AQAH^ to open 605b. G. faic, to see, look, (the eyes); p'IQQE(A)H^ open- behold, eyed, seeing. 252 ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION Hebrew (H,), Aramaic (A.), Arabic (Ar.), Gaelic (G.), Gothic (Go.) L Roots tend to become monosyllabic in the Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ii. Radical gutturals (h, h^, h^, h*) are regularly lost in G., and are often lost (especially h, h*) in the other Aryan languages and B. Radical h, h^ final are regularly quiescent in H. and unrepresented in the Aryan languages and B. (See section iii.). ui. Radical gutturals and palatals (h, h^, h^, h'*; g, k, q) may become, in Go., A.-S., and L., h, k(c, q), g; or, hw(v), k(c, q)w(v), (?)gw(v); or, w(v, b, f, p, in L.). (See sections in. and IV.). iv. Radical v, y, radical n initial, and radical I, m, n, r final are often lost in the Aryan languages and B. (See sections v. and vii.). V. Radical liquids (1, m, n, r) are regularly represented by 1, m, n, r (not always respec- tively) in the Aryan languages and B. (See section vii.). vi. Radical z, z^ become d, sd, s, st, t, or (z) in the Aryan languages. (See section viii.). vii. In B., ch, tch, (cht), s, ts, (st), z, tz, and (zt) are more or less freely interchanged and may each represent radical z, z^, s, s^, s'. 606. (Root, p-r-r). 606a. H. p^AR, a young bull; 606b. A.-S. fear, bull; heah- p^ARah^, a young cow, heifer. FORe, heifer. A.-S. cealF (plural, cealFRu), cal/. Go. kalBo, cal/, heifer. Gr. porIs (poRtis), a young cow, heifer. 606n. A.-S. — Etymologists have not considered the -forc in A.-S. heahFORe cognate with the -fru in A.-S. cealFRu. The origin of heah- in A.-S. heahFORe is indicated in entry 518. 607. (Root, P-R-H^). 607a. H. .p^ARAH^, to bear 607b. L. parIo, to bring forth, (fruit); to bring forth, bear bear; to beget; piruhi, pear; (young); pXE)Ry, fruit; off- POMum, fruit; PRunum, plum. spring. S. p^AL^a, to bear fruit. 607n. L. — I have entered L. poMum here in query. Etymol- ogists do not connect L. PiRum with L. PRunum nor either of these words with L. PARio. 608. (Root, P-R-S). 608a. H. .p^ARAs, to break in 608b. G. bris, to break, frac- pieces, break up (bones); to ture, splinter, break (bread); to divide (the A.-S. BERstan, to break,break hoof); p^AR(E)sah^ foot, claw. to pieces, hurst. B. azTAPAR, claw, foot, paw. ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION 253 Anglo-Saxon (A.-S.), Latin (L.), Greek (Gr.), Sanskrit (S.), Basque (B.) viii. When the medial and the final consonant of a root are the same or similar in charac- ter, only one of them is represented in tne Aryan languages and B, (See section x.). ix. Suffixes frequently occurring are: in H., h^, y, n, t^; in G., c, d, g, n, t; in Go., d, g, n, s, t; in A.-S., c, d, g, h, n, t; in L., c, d, 1, m, n, r, s, t; and in B., n, tz, -tu(-du). Frequently some of these suffixes are combined or repeated. A vowel may be prefixed or suffixed to a root in the Aryan languages and B. (See section xii.). X. In this investigation, the aspiration of consonants and the quality and length of vowels have, in general, been provisionally treated as without philological vahie. xi. Under a given root, words or parts of words printed in small capitals (in italics if defi- nitional) are to be considered descendants of that root and therefore cognate. Vowels are so printed only when lying within limits reflecting the root. (See also section x.). xii. The asterisk (*) as usual marks conjectured forms. Before H. and A. words (Bib- lical), I use a dot ( . ) to mark such forms except those of verbs not found in "qal" or "p2(e)h^al. " Under — a. and under — b., matter added by me is enclosed within brackets [ ]. 608n. B. — Evidently B. azTAPAR is an instance of transposi- tion. (See section xiii.). 609. (Root, P-R-H^). 609a. H. p^ARAH^ to let go, let loose (a people) : to let go un- bridled, unchecked. 609b. Go. FReis, free; FRei- hals, liberty, freedom. A.-S. FREOH (FReo), free; FRe- ols, freedom; FREOcan, to make free. G. FiAR- meandering, fluctu- ating; perverse, fro ward, unjust, wicked. 610. (Root, P-R-H^). 610a. H. p^ERAH^ leader (of 610b. Go. FRauja, lord, mas- an army or people), prince. ter. A.-S. FRea, lord, master. Old Saxon fraho (froho), lord, master. 611. (Root, P-R-Z^). 611a. H. p^ARAz^ to break down, demolish; to scatter, dis- perse (hostile forces). 61 In. G.— Note that radical forms to the G. word. 611b. G. FAiRslich (fairt- lich), to overcome, overpower; to worst, conquer. -z^ gives, not unexpectedly, two 254 ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION Hebrew (H.), Aramaic (A.), Arabic (Ar.), Gaelic (G.), Gothic (Go.) L Roots tend to become monosyllabic in the Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ii. Radical gutturals (h, h^, h^, h^) are regularly lost in G., and are often lost (especially h, h') in the other Ajryan languages and B. Radical h, h^ final are regularly quiescent in H. and unrepresented in the Aryan languages and B. (See section iii.). iii. Radical gutturals and palatals (h, h^, h^, h^; g, k, q) may become, in Go., A.-S., and L., h, k(c, q), g; or, hw(v), k(c, q)w(v), (?)gw(v); or, w(v, b, f, p, in L,). (See sections iii. and IV.). iv. Radical v, y, radical n initial, and radical I, m, n, r final are often lost in the Aryan languages and B. (See sections v. and vii.), V. Radical liquids (I, m, n, r) are regularly represented by I, m, n, r (not always respec- tively) in the Aryan languages and B. (See section vii.). vi. Radical z, z^ become d, sd, s, st, t, or (z) in the Aryan languages. (See section viii.). vii. In B., ch, tch, (cht), s, ts, (st), z, tz, and (zt) are more or less freely interchanged and may each represent radical z, z^, s, s^, s^. 612. (Root, p-r-q). 612a. H. .p^ARAQ, to tear a- 612b. Go. BRiKan, to break, part, tear off, break off; to crush, destroy. break (bones, as a wild beast); A.-S. BREcan, to break to to rend in pieces. pieces. L. FRAnGo (perfect tense, FREGi), to break, crush, break to pieces. G. FEARG, anger, fury, wrath. 61 2n. G. — I enter G. fearg here in query. 613. (Root, P-S=^-H^). 613a. H. .p^As^AH^ to step, 613b. Go. fotus, foot. tread; p^es^ah^ step, stride. A.-S. fot, foot. L. pes (genitive, pedIs), foot. S. PAD^ to go, step, tread; foot; step. Gr. pous (genitive, podos), foot; PEZos, on foot. G. BOTuinn, boot. 613n. This whole entry is made in query. In H., z^ and s^ are sometimes interchanged; as, H. .z^ah^aq, to laugh; and H. s^ah^aq, to laugh. Etymologists regard these as parallel forms. If radical -s^- in the present case stands for [*-z^-], the Aryan words here cited might well be expected to have -t-, -d-, or the like. We should expect, however, some of the words to have -s- or -ST-, though not necessarily. ALPHABETIC EXPOSITION 255 Anglo-Saxon (A.-S.), Latin (L.), Greek (Gr,), Sanskrit (S.), Basque (B.) viii. When the medial and the final consonant of a root are the same or similar in charac- ter, only one of them is represented in tne Aryan languages and B. (See section x.). ix. Suffixes frequently occurring are: in H., h^, y, n, t^; in G., c, d, g, n, t; in Go., d, g, n, s, t; m A,-S., c, d, g, h, n, t; in L., c, d, 1, m, n, r, s, t; and in B., n, tz, -tu(-du). Frequently some of these suffixes are combined or repeated. A vowel may be prefixed or suffixed to a root in the Aryan languages and B. (See section xii.). X. In this investigation, the aspiration of consonants and the quality and length of vowels have, in general, been provisionally treated as without philological vahie. xi. Under a given root, words or parts of words printed in small capitals (in italics if defi- nitional) are to be considered descendants of that root and therefore cognate. Vowels are so printed only when lying within limits reflecting the root. (See also section x.). xii. The asterisk (*) as usual marks conjectured forms. Before H. and A. words (Bib- lical), I use a dot ( . ) to mark such forms except those of verbs not found in "qal" or "p2(e)h