>, ^ ^ VV&£ ///s???z/z, ... .;.. .■ • « '•,<• •"*• ;.. '.i' '•.•' :'•! : *•: : .•'••. — ~" ***^* l.'.* ? ' ; — ^ — T^ i •'• '. I • LONDON: PRINTED FOR LEIGH AND SOTHEBY; J. SOTHEBY; W. J. AND J. RICHARDSON} F. AND C. RIVINGTQN; J.WALKER} WILKIE AND ROBINSON; SCATCHARD AND LETTERMAN ; T. PAYNE} T. EGERTON ; T.KAY; CADELL AND DAVIES ; C. LAW^ LACK- INGTON, ALLEN AND CO. ; LONGMAN, HURST, REES AND ORME; f-OTK AND WILLIAMS. 6!*? c ^ 9 Printed by J. & E. Hodson, Cross-Street, Hatton Garden. Qf5t r CONTENTS OF THE SECOND VOLUME. CHAPTER I. PAGE LLIUS CAESAR, the First Emperor of Rome 1 CHAPTER II. From the Death of Caesar to the Battle of Aclium and the Djath of Antony, which settled the Constitution in Augustus 26* CHAPTER III. From the Death of Antony to the Death of Augustus. . 89 CHAPTER IV. Tiberius, the Third Emperor of Rome, , , . „« . . 109 a 2 U CONTENTS. J»AG« CHAPTER V. Caligula, the Fourth Emperor of Rome 143 CHAPTER VI. Claudius, the Filth Emperor of Rome « 169 CHAPTER VII. Nero, the Sixth Emperor of Rome 192 CHAPTER VIII. Sergius Galba, the Seventh Emperor of Rome .227 CHAPTER IX. Otho, the Eighth Emperor of Rome 236 CHAPTER X. Vitellius, the Ninth Emperor of Rome 243 CHAPTER XI. Vespasian, the Tenth Emperor of Rome ............ 254 CHAPTER XII. Titus, the Eleventh Emperor of Rome 269 CHAPTER XIII. Domitian, the Twelfth Emperor of Rome 274 CHAPTER XIV. Nerva, the Thirteenth Emperor of Rome ♦ 28(5 CONTENT*. ». tXGZ CHAPTER XV. Trajan, the Fourteenth Emperor of Rome 292 CHAPTER XVI. Adrian, the Fifteenth Emperor of Rome 304 CHAPTER XVII. Antoninus Pius, the Sixteenth Emperor of Rome .. .. 318 CHAPTER XVIII. Marcus Aurelius, otherwise called Antoninus the Phi- losopher, the Seventeenth Emperor of Rome. ....... 321 CHAPTER XIX. Commodus, the Eighteenth Emperor of Rome 335 CHAPTER XX. Pertinax, the Nineteenth Emperor of Rome 34S CHAPTER XXI. Didius Julian, the Twentieth Emperor of Rome 351 CHAPTER XXII. Septimus Seterus, the Twenty-first Emperor of Rome. . 355 CHAPTER XXIII. Caracalla and Geta, the Twenty-second Emperor of Rome ,..,,., • $ 365 vi CONTENTS PAGE CHAPTER XXIV. Oppillius MacrinuSj the Twenty-third Emperor of Rome 372 CHAPTER XXV. Heliogabalus, the Twenty-fourth Emperor of Rome. . 374 « CHAPTER XXVI. Alexander, the Twenty-fifth Emperor of Rome 379 CHAPTER XXVII. Maximal, the Twenty-sixth Emperor of Rome 384 CHAPTER XXVIII. Pupienus and Balbinns, making together the Twenty- seventh Emperor of Rome S97 CHAPTER XXIX. Gordian, the Twenty-eighth Emperor of Rome 398 CHAPTER XXX. Philip, the Twenty-ninth Emperor of Rome . . ...... 400 CHAPTER XXXI. Decius, the Thirtieth Emperor of Rome 403 CHAPTER XXXII. GaUus, the Thirty-first Emperor of Rome. 405 CONTENTS. vii PAGE CHAPTER XXXIII. Valerian, the Thirty-second Emperor of Rome 107 CHAPTER XXXIV. Galienus, the Thirty-third Emperor of Rome 409 CHAPTER XXXV. Claudius, the Thirty- fourth Emperor of Rome 411 CHAPTER XXXVI. Aurclian, the Thirty-fifth Emperor of Rome 415 CHAPTER XXXVII. Tacitus, the Thirty-sixth Emperor of Rome 420 CHAPTER XXXV11I. Probus, the Thirty-seventh Emperor of Rome 422 CHAPTER XXXIX. Carus and his two Sons, Carinus and Numcrian, mak- ing together the Thirty-eighth Emperor oi Rome. . . . 425 CHAPTER XL. Pioclesian, the Thirty-ninth Emperor of Rome 427 CHAPTER XLI. C'onstantius and Galerius, making together the For- tieth Emperor of Rome 433 tin CONTENTS. PAGE CHAPTER XLI1. Constantine the Great, the Forty-first Emperor of Rome 437 CHAPTER XLIII. Of the Destruction of the Roman Empire, after the Death of Constantine, and the Events which hast- ened its Catastrophe ...,...,, 448 THE HISTORY OF THE EMPIRE OF ROME. CHAPTER I. Julius Caesar, First Emperor. V^jESAR has been hutch celebrated tot Vm Cm his fortune, and yet his abilities seem equal 706. to his highest success. He possessed many shin- ing qualities, without the intermixture of any defect but that of ambition. His talents were such as would have rendered him victorious at the head of any army he commanded, and he would have governed in any republic that had given him birth. Having now gained a most complete victory, his success only seemed to in- crease his activity, and inspire him with fresh resolution to face new dangers. He resolved, therefore, to pursue his last advantage, and fol- VOL. II. B in the mean time, pre- tended to repose an entire confidence in the king's minister, making great entertainments, and as- sisting at the conferences of the philosophers who were in great numbers at Alexandria. How- ever, he soon changed his manner when he found himself in no danger from the minister's attempts, and declared, that, as being Roman consul, it was his duty to settle the succession of the Egyp- tian crown; There were at that time two pretenders to the crown of Egypt ; Ptolemy, the acknowledged king; and the celebrated Cleopatra, his sister; b 2 4 THE HISTORY OF to whom, by the custom of the country, he also was married ; and who, by his father's will, shared jointly in the succession. However, not being contented with a bare participation of power, Cleopatra aimed at governing alone ; but being opposed in her views by the Roman senate, who confirmed her brother's title to the crown, she was banished into Syria with Arsinoe her younger sister. Caesar gave her new hopes of aspiring to the kingdom, and sent to both her and her brother to plead their cause before him. Photinus, the young king's guardian, who had long borne the most inveterate hatred, as well to Caesar as to Cleopatra, disdained accepting this proposal, and backed his refusal by sending an army of twenty thousand men to besiege him in Alexandria. Caesar bravely repulsed the enemy for some time ; but finding the city of too great extent to be defended by so small an army as he then commanded, he retired to the palace, which commanded the harbour, where he purposed to make his stand. Achilles, who commanded the Egyptians, attacked him there with great vigour, and still aimed at making himself master of the fleet that lay before the palace. Ca?sar, however, too well knew the importance of those ships in the hands of an enemy ; and therefore burnt them all, in spite of every effort to prevent him. He next possest himself of the isle of Pharos, which was the key to the Alexandrian port ; by which he was enabled to receive the supplies sent him from all sides; and, in this situation, he THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 5 determined to withstand the united force of all the Egyptians. In the mean time, Cleopatra, having heard of the present turn in her favour, resolved to de- pend rather on Caesar's favour for gaining the government, than her own forces. She had, in fa6l, assembled an army in Syria to support her claims ; but now judged it the wisest way to rely intirely on the decision of her self-elected judge. But no arts, as she justly conceived, were so likely to influence Caesar as the charms of her person, which, though not faultless, were yet extremely seducing. She was now in the bloom of youth, and every feature borrowed grace from the lively turn of her temper. To the most enchanting address she joined the most har- monious voice, which the historians of her time compare to the best tuned instrument. With all these accomplishments she possessed a great share of the learning of the times, and could give audience to the ambassadors of seven dif- ferent nations without an interpreter. The dif- ficulty was how to get at Caesar, as her enemies were in possession of all the avenues that led to the palace. For this purpose she went on board a small vessel, and, in the evening, landed near the palace, where, being wrapt up in a coverlet, she was carried by one Aspolodorus into the very chamber of Caesar. Her address, at first, pleased him; her wit and understanding still fanned the flame ; but her caresses, which were b3 6 THE HISTORY OF carried beyond the bounds of innocence, intirely brought him over to second her claims. While Cleopatra was thus employed in for- warding her own views, her sister Arsinoe was also strenuously engaged in the camp, in pur* suing a separate interest. She had found means, by the assistance of one Ganymede, her confi- dent, to make a large division in the Egyptian army in her favour ; and soon after, by one of those sudden revolutions which are common in barbarian camps to this day, she caused Achilles to be murdered, and Ganymede to take the com-r mand in his stead, and to carry on the siege with greater vigour than before. Ganymede's prin- cipal effort was by letting in the sea upon those canals which supplied the palace with fresh water; but this inconvenience Caesar remedied by digging a great number of wells. His next endeavour was, to prevent the junction of Caesar's twenty-fourth legion, which he twice attempted in vain. He soon after made himself master of a bridge which joined the isle of Pharos to the continent, from which post Caesar was resolved to dislodge him. In the heat of the action, some mariners, partly through curiosity, and partly ambition, came and joined the combatants, but, being seized with a panic, instantly fled, and spread a general terror through the army. All Caesar's endeavours to rally his forces were in vain, the confusion was past remedy, and num- bers were drowned or put to the sword in at- THE EMPIRE OF ROME, 7 tempting to escape. Now, therefore, seeing the irremediable disorder of his troops, he retired to a ship, in order to get to the palace that was just opposite : however, he was no sooner on board than great crowds entered at the same time with him ; upon which, apprehensive of the ship's sinking, he jumped into the sea, and swam two hundred paces to the fleet that lay before the palace, all the time holding his own Commen- taries in his left hand above water, and his coat of mail in his teeth. The Alexandrians, finding their efforts to take the palace ineffectual, endeavoured, at least, to get their king out of Caesar's power, as he had seized upon his person in the beginning of their disputes. For this purpose they made use of their customary arts of dissimulation, professing the utmost desire of peace, and only wanting the presence of their lawful prince to give a sanc- tion to the treaty. Caesar, who was sensible of their perfidy, nevertheless concealed his suspi- cions, and gave them their king, as he was under no apprehensions from the abilities of a boy. Ptolemy, however, the instant he was set at li- berty, instead of promoting peace, made every effort to give vigour to his hostilities. In this manner Caesar was hemmed in for some time by this artful and insiduous enemy, with all manner of difficulties against him ; but he was at last relieved from this mortifying sir tuation by Mithridates Pergamenus, one of his most faithful partizans, who came with an army B4 & THE HISTORY OF to his assistance. This general, collecting a nu- merous army in Syria, marched into Egypt, took the city of Pelusium, repulsed the Egyptian army with loss, and at last, joining with Ca;sar, attacked their camp with a great slaughter of the Egyptians : Ptolemy himself, attempting to es- cape on board a vessel that was sailing down the river, was drowned by the ship's sinking, and Csesar thus became master of all Egypt without any farther opposition, He therefore, appointed Cleopatra, with her younger brother, who was then but an infant, as joint governors, according to the intent of their father's will, and drove out Arsinoe with Ganymede into banishment. Having thus given away kingdoms, he now for a while, seemed to relax from the usual ac-? tivity of his conduct, captivated with the charms of Cleopatra. Instead of quitting Egypt to go and quell the remains of Pompey's party, he abandoned himself to his pleasures, passing whole nights in feasts, and all the excesses of high- wrought luxury, with the young queen. He even resolved to attend her up the Nile into ^Ethiopia ; but the brave veterans who had long followed his fortune, boldly reprehended his con- duct, and refused to be partners in so infamous an expedition, Thus, at length, rouzed from his lethargy, he resolved to prefer the call of ambi- tion to that of love ; and to leave Cleopatra, by whom he had a son who was afterwards named Caesario, in order to oppose Pharnaces, the king THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 9 of Bosphorus, who had now made some inroads upon the dominions of Rome. This prince, who was the son of the great Mithridates, being ambitious of recovering his father's dominions, seized upon Armenia and Colchis, and overcame Domitius, who had been sent against him. Upon Caesar's march to op- pose him, Pharnaces, who was as much terrified at the name of the general as at the strength of his army, laboured, by all the arts of negotiation, to avert the impending danger. Caesar, exaspe- rated at his crimes and his ingratitude, at first dissembled with the ambassadors, and using all expedition, fell upon the enemy unexpectedly, and in a few hours, obtained a speedy and com- plete victory. Pharnaces attempting to take re- fuge in his capital, was slain by one of his own commanders — A just punishment for his former parricide. This victory was gained with so much . ease, that Caesar could not avoid observing, That Pompey was very happy in gaining so much glory against this enemy at so easy a rate. In writing to a friend at Rome, he expressed the ra- pidity of his victory in three words, veni, vidi 9 MCI : a man so accustomed to conquest, thought a slight battle scarce worth a longer letter. Caesar having settled affairs in this part of the empire, as well as time would permit ; having bestowed the government of Armenia upon Ari- obarzanes, that of Judea upon Hyrcanus and Antipater, and that of Bosphorus upon Mithri- 10 THE HISTORY OF dates, embarked for Italy, where lie arrived sooner than his enemies could expecl, but not before his affairs there absolutely required his presence. He had been, during his absence, created consul for five years, dictator for one year, and tribune of the people for life. But Anthony, who in the mean time governed in Rome for him, had filled the city with riot and debauchery, and many commotions ensued, which nothing but the arri- val of Caesar so opportunely could appease. However, by his moderation and humanity, he soon restored tranquillity to the city, scarce mak- ing any distinction between those of his own and the opposite party. Thus having by gentle means restored his authority at home, he prepared to march into Africa, where Pompey's party had found time to rally under Scipio and Cato, as- sisted by Juba, king of Mauritania. But the vigour of bis proceedings had like to have been retarded by a mutiny in his own army. Those veteran legions who had hitherto conquered all that came before them, began to murmur for not having received the rewards which they had ex- pe6ted for their past services, and now insisted upon their discharge. The sedition first broke out in the tenth legion, which till then had signa- lized themselves for their valour and attachment to their general. Carsar, at first, strove to appease them by promises of future rewards ; but these, instead of appeasing the sedition, only served to increase it. The whole army marched forward from Campania towards Rome, pillaging and THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 11 plundering all the way. Caesar immediately caused the gates of the city to be shut, and or- dered such troops as were in readiness to defend the walls : he then boldly went out alone to meet the mutineers, notwithstanding the representa- tions of his friends who were concerned for his safety. Upon coming into the Campus Martius, where the most tumultuous were assembled, he boldly mounted his tribunal ; and, with a stern air, demanded of the soldiers what they wanted^ or who had conducted them there ! A conduct so resolute seemed to disconcert the whole band : they began by complaining, that, being worn out with fatigue, and exhausted by their numberless wounds, they were in hopes to obtain a discharge. " Then take your discharge," cried Caesar, " and " when I shall have gained new conquests with " other troops, I promise that you shall be par- tf takers in the spoil." So much generosity quite confounded the seditious, who were agitated be- tween the contending passions of gratitude and jealousy ; they were grateful for his intended bounty, and jealous lest any other army should share the honours of completing the conquest of the world. They unanimously entreated his par- don, and even offered to be decimated to obtain it. Caesar for a while seemed to continue inflex- ible, and at last granted as a favour what it was his interest earnestly to desire; but the tenth legion continued ever after under his severe dis- pleasure. 12 THE HISTORY OF Ca?sar, according to his usual diligence, landed with a small party in Africa, to face Scipio, while the rest of his army followed soon after. After many movements, and several skirmishes between both armies, which only served to de- stroy mankind without determining the cause of quarrel, he resolved at last to come to a decisive battle. For this purpose he invested the city of Tapsus, supposing that Scipio would attempt its relief, which turned out according to his ex- pectations. Scipio, joining with the young king of Mauritania, advanced his army, and en- camping near Caesar, they soon came to a general battle. Cassar's success was as usual, the enemy received a complete and final overthrow with little or no loss on his side. Juba and Petreius his general killed each other in despair ; Scipio, at- tempting to escape by sea into Spain, fell in among the enemy and was slain ; so that, of all the generals of that undone party, Cato was now the only one that remained. This extraordinary man, whom no prosperity could elate, nor no misfortunes depress, having retired into Africa after the battle of Pharsalia, had led the wretched remains of that defeat through burning deserts and tra6ts infested with serpents of various malignity, and was now in the city of Utica, which he had been left to de- fend. Still, however, in love with even the show of Roman government, he had formed the prin- cipal citizens into a senate, and conceived a THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 13 resolution of holding out the town. He accord- ingly assembled his senators upon this occasion, and demanded their advice upon what measures were best to be taken, and whether they should defend this last city that owned the cause of free- dom. " If/' said he, " you are willing to submit to Caesar, I must acquiesce ; but if you are willing to hazard the dangers of defending the last remains of liberty, let me be your guide and companion in so great an enterprize. Rome has often recovered from greater cala- mities than these, and there are many motives to encourage our attempt. Spain has declared in our cause, and Rome itself bears the yoke with indignation. With respect to the ha- zards we must encounter, why should they terrify us ? Observe our enemy : he braves every danger, and encounters every fatigue to undo mankind and make his country wretched; and shall we scruple to suffer a short interval of pain in a cause so glorious ?" This speech had at first a surprising effect ; but the enthu- siasm for liberty soon subsiding, he was resolved no longer to force men to be free who seemed naturally prone to slavery. He now, therefore, desired some of his friends to save themselves by sea, and bade others to rely upon Caesar's cle- mency ; observing, that, as to himself, he was at last victorious. After this, supping cheer- fully among his friends, he retired to his apart- ment, where he behaved with unusual tender- ness to his son, and to all his friends. When he U THE HISTORY OF came into his bed-chamber, he laid himself down, and took up Plato's dialogue on the immortality of the soul ; and, having read for some time, hap- pening to cast jiis eyes to the head of his bed, he was much surprized not to find his sword there, which had been taken away by his son's order while they were at supper. Upon this, calling one of his domestics to know what was become of his sword, and receiving no answer, he resumed his studies; but some time after called for his sword again. When he had done reading, and perceiving nobody obeyed him in bringing his sword, he called all his domestics one after the other, and with a peremptory air demanded his sword once more. His son came in soon after, and with tears besought him in the most humble manner to change his resolution ; but receiving a stern reprimand, he desisted from his persuasions. His sword being at length brought him he seemed satisfied, and cried out, " Now again I am master of myself." He then took up the book again, which he read twice over, and fell into a sound sleep. Upon awak- ing, he called to one of his freed-men to know if his friends were embarked, or if any thing yet remained that could be done to serve them. The freed-man assuring him that all was quiet, he was then ordered again to leave the room ; and Cato was no sooner alone than he stabbed himself with his sword through the breast, but not with that force he intended, for the wound not dispatching. him, he fell upon his bed, and at the same time THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 15 overturned a table on which he had been drawing some geometrical figures. At the noise he made in his fall, his servants gave a shriek, and his son and friends immediately entered the room. They found him weltering in his blood, and his bowels pushed out through the wound. The physician, who attended his family, perceiving that his in- testines were yet untouched, was for replacing them ; but when Cato had recovered his senses, and understood their intention to preserve his life, he pushed the physician from him, and with a fierce resolution tore out his bowels and ex- pired. In this manner Cato died, who was one of the most faultless characters we find in the Ro- man History. He was severe but not cruel ; he was ready to pardon much greater faults in others than he could forgive in himself. His haughtiness and austerity seemed rather the efFe6l of principle than natural constitution, for no man was more humane to his dependents, or better loved by those about him. The constancy of his opposition to Caesar proceeded from a tho- rough conviction of the injustice of his aims : and the last a6l of his life was but conformable to the tenets of his seel ; as the Stoics maintained, that life was a gift which all men might return to the donor when the present was no longer pleasing. Caesar, upon hearing of Cato's end, could not help observing, that as Cato had envied him the glory of saving his life, so he had reason to envj 16 THE HISTORY OF him the glory of so bravely dying. Upon his death, the war in Africa being completed, Ca?sar returned in triumph to Rome ; and, as if he had abridged all his former triumphs only to encrease the splendor of this, the citizens were astonished at the magnificence of the procession, and the number of the countries he had subdued. It lasted four days : the first was for Gaul, the se- cond for Egypt, the third for his victories in Asia, and the fourth for that over Juba in Africa. His veteran soldiers, all scarred with wounds, and now laid up for life, followed their triumphant general crowned with laurels, and conducted him to the Capitol. To every one of these he gave a sum equivalent to about an hundred and fifty pounds of our money, double that sum to the centurions, and four times as much to the supe- rior officers. The citizens also shared his bounty ; to every one of which he distributed ten bushels of corn, ten pounds of oil, and a sum of money equal to about two pounds sterling of ours. He, after this, entertained the people at above twenty thousand tables, treated them with the combat of gladiators, and filled Rome with a concourse of spectators from every part of Italy. The people, intoxicated with the allurements of pleasure, thought their freedom too small a return for such benefits : they seemed eager only to find out new modes of homage, and unusual epithets of adulation for their great enslaver. He was created by a new title Magister Morum, or master of the morals of the people ; he re- THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 17 ceived the title of emperor, father of his country ; his person was declared sacred ; and, in short, Upon him alone were devolved for life all the great dignities of the state. It must be owned, however, that so much power could never have been intrusted to better keeping, lie immedi- ately began his empire by repressing vice and encouraging virtue. He committed the power of judicature to the senators and the knights alone, and by many sumptuary laws restrained the scandalous luxuries of the rich. He pro- posed rewards to all such as had many children, and took the most prudent methods of re-peopling the city that had been exhausted in the late com- motions. Having thus restored prosperity once more to Rome, he again found himself under a necessity of going into Spain to oppose an army which had been raised there under the two sons of Pompey, and also Labienus his former general. He proceeded in this expedition with his usual celerity, and arrived in Spain before the enemy thought him yet departed from Rome. Cneius and Sextus, Pompey's sons, profiting by their un- happy father's example, resolved as much as pos- sible to protracl the war ; so that the first opera tions of the two armies were spent in sieges and fruitless attempts to surprize each other. At length Caesar, after taking many cities from the enemy, and pursuing Pompey with unwearied perseverance, at last compelled him to come to a battle upon the plains of Munda. Pompey drew up VOL. II. c 18 THE HISTORY OF his men by break of day upon the declivity of an hill with great exactness and order. Caesar drew up his men likewise in the plain below ; and, after advancing a little way from his trenches,, he ordered his men to make an halt, expecting the enemy to come down from the hill. This delay made Caesar's soldiers begin to murmur, while Pompey's with full vigour poured down upon them, and a dreadful conflict, ensued. Hitherto Caesar had fought for glory, but here he fought for life. His soldiers behaved with intrepidity incited by the hopes of making this a final period to their labour. Pompey's men were not less strenuous, expecting no pardon, as having their lives formerly given them when overthrown in Africa. The first shock was so dreadful, that Caesar's men, who had hitherto been used to con- quer, now began to waver. Caesar was never in so much danger as now ; he threw himself seve- ral times into the very throng of battle. ". What," cried he, * are you going to give up your gene- i, - * 'i 38 THE HISTORY OF none to oppose their designs, shews what changes may quickly be wrought in the bravest people in a very short time. The result of their con- ference was, that the supreme authority should be lodged in their hands, under the title of the Triumvirate, for the space of five years ; that Antony should have Gaul ; Lepidus, Spain ; and Augustus, Africa, and the Mediterranean islands. As for Italy, and the eastern provinces, they were to remain in common, until their general enemy was entirely subdued. But the last article of their union was a dreadful one : it was agreed, that all their enemies should be destroyed, of which each presented a list. In these were com- prised, not only the enemies, but the friends of the Triumvirate, since the partisans of the one were often found among the opposers of the other. Thus Lepidus gave up his brother Pau- lus to the vengeance of his colleague ; Antony permitted the proscription of his uncle Lucius ; and Augustus delivered up the great Cicero. The most sacred rights of nature were violated ; three hundred senators, and above two thousand knights, were included in this terrible proscrip- tion ; their fortunes were confiscated, and their murderers enriched with the spoil. Rome soon felt the effecls of this infernal union : nothing but cries and lamentations were to be heard through all the city, scarce an house escaping without a murder. No man dared to refuse entrance to the assassins, although he had no other hopes of safety ; and this city, that was once the beauty THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 36 of the world, seemed now reduced to desolation without an army ; and now felt the effects of an invading enemy, with all the deliberate malice of cool-blooded slaughter. In this horrid carnage, Cicero was one of those principally sought after, who, for awhile, seem- ed to evade the malice of his pursuers ; but upon hearing of the slaughters that were committed at Rome, he set forward from his Tusculan villa, towards the sea-side, with an intent to transport himself direclly out of the reach of his enemies. There finding a vessel ready, he presently em- barked ; but the winds being averse, and the sea wholly uneasy to him, after he had sailed about two leagues along the coast, he was obliged to land, and spend the night upon shore. From thence he was forced by the importunity of his servants, on board again; but was soon after obliged to land at a country seat of his, a mile from the shore, weary of life, and declaring he was resolved to die in that country which he had so often saved. Here he slept soundly for some time, till his servants once more forced him away in a litter towards the ship, having heard that he was pursued by a party of Antony's assassins. They were scarce departed, when the assassins arrived at his house, and perceiving him to be fled, pursued him immediately towards the sea, and overtook him in a wood that lay near the shore. Their leader was one Popilius Lenus, a tribune of the army, whose life Cicero had for- merly defended and saved. As soon as the soU d 4 40 THE HISTORY OF diers appeared, the servants prepared to defend their master's life, at the hazard of their own ; but Cicero commanded them to set him down, and to make no resistance. They soon cut off his head and his hands, returning with them to Rome, as themost agreeable present to their cruel employer. Antony, who was then at Rome, received them with extreme joy, rewarded the murderer with a large sum of money, and placed Cicero's head on the rostrum, as if there once more to reproach his vile inhumanity, Cicero was slain in the sixty-third year of his age, but not until he had seen his country ruined before him. " The glory <( he obtained," says Julius Cassar, " was as much " above all other triumphs, as the extent of the te Roman genius was above that of the bounds " of the Roman empire." Thus the proscription went on to rage for some time with as much violence as when it began. As many as could escape its cruelty fled either into Macedonia to Brutus, or found refuge with young Pompey, who was now in Sicily, and co- vered the Mediterranean with his numerous navy. Their cruelties were not aimed at the men alone ; but the softer sex were in danger of being marked as objects either of avarice or resentment. They made out a list of fourteen hundred women of the best quality, and the richest in the city, who were ordered to give in an account of their for- tunes, to be taxed in proportion. But this seemed so unpopular a measure, and was so firmly op- posed by Hortensia, who spoke against it, that^ THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 41 instead of fourteen hundred women, they were content to tax only four hundred. However, they made up the deficiency, by extending the tax upon men ; near an hundred thousand, as well citizens as strangers, were compelled to furnish supplies, to the subversion of their coun- try's freedom. At last, both the avarice and ven- geance of the Triumviri seemed fully satisfied, and they went into the senate to declare that the proscription was at an end ; and thus having de- luged the city with blood, Augustus and Antony, leaving Lepidus to defend Rome in their absence, marched with their army to oppose the conspira- tors, who were now at the head of a formidable army in Asia. Brutus and Cassius, the principal of these, upon the death of Caesar being compelled to quit Rome, went into Greece, where they persuaded the Roman students at Athens to declare in the cause of freedom ; then parting, the former raised a powerful army in Macedonia, and the adjacent countries, while the latter went into Syria, where he soon became master of twelve legions, and re- duced his opponent, Dollabella, to such streights as to kill himself. Both armies soon after join- ing at Smyrna, the sight of such a formidable force began to revive the declining spirits of the party, and to re-unite the two generals still more closely, between whom there had been, some time before, a slight misunderstanding. In short, having quitted Italy like distressed exiles, with- out having one single soldier or one town that 42 THE HISTORY OF owned their command, they now found them- selves at the head of a flourishing army, furnished with all the necessaries for carrying on the war, and in a condition to support a contest where the empire of the world depended on the event. This success in raising levies was entirely owing to the justice, moderation, and great humanity of Brutus, who, in every instance, seemed stu- dious of the happiness of his country, and not his own. It was in this flourishing state of their affairs, that the conspirators had formed a resolution of going against Cleopatra, who, on her side, had made great preparations to assist their opponents. However, they were diverted from this purpose by an information that Augustus and Antony were now upon their march, with forty legions to oppose them. Brutus now, therefore, moved to have their army pass over into Greece and Macedonia, and there meet the enemy ; but Cassius so far prevailed, as to have the Rhodians and Lycians first reduced, who had refused their usual contributions. This expedition was im- mediately put in execution, and extraordinary contributions were raised by that means, the Rhodians having scarce any thing left them but their lives. The Lycians suffered still more se^ verely ; for, having shut themselves up in the city of Xanthius, they defended the place against Brutus with such fury, that neither his arts nor his entreaties could prevail upon them to sur- render. At length, the town being set on fire, THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 43 by their attempting to burn the works of the Romans, Brutus, instead of laying hold on this opportunity to storm the place, made every ef- fort to preserve it, entreating his soldiers to try all means of extinguishing the fire : but the des- perate phrenzy of the citizens was not to be mol- lified. Far from thinking themselves obliged to their generous enemy, for the efforts which were made to save them, they resolved to perish in the flames. Wherefore, instead of extinguish- ing, they did all in their power to augment the fire, by throwing in wood, dry reeds, and all kinds of fuel. Nothing could exceed the dis- tress of Brutus, upon seeing the townsmen thus resolutely bent on destroying themselves ; he rode about the fortifications, stretching out his hands to the Xanthians, and conjuring them to have pity on themselves and their city ; but, in- sensible to his expostulations, they rushed into the flames with desperate obstinacy, and the whole soon became an heap of undistinguishable ruin. At this horrid spectacle Brutus melted into tears, offering a reward to every soldier who should bring him a Lycian alive. The number of those whom it was possible to save from their own fury amounted to no more than one hun- dred and fifty. Brutus and Cassius met once more at Sardis, where, after the usual ceremonies were past between them, they resolved to have a private conference together. They shut themselves up, therefore, in the first convenient house, with ex- 44 THE HISTORY OF press orders to their servants to give no admission. Brutus began, by reprimanding Cassius for hav- ing disposed of offices, which should ever be the reward of merit, and for having overtaxed the tributary states. Cassius retorted the imputation of avarice with the more bitterness, as he knew the charge to be groundless. The debate grew warm, till from loud speaking, they burst into tears. Their friends, who were standing at the door, overheard the increasing vehemence of their voices, and began to dread for the consequences, till Favonius, who valued himself upon a cynical boldness, that knew no restraint, entering the room with a jest, calmed their mutual animosity. Cassius was ready enough to forego his anger, being a man of great abilities, but of uneven disposition; not averse to pleasure in private company ; and, upon the whole, of morals not quite sincere. But the conduct of Brutus was always perfectly steady. An even gentleness, a noble elevation of sentiments, a strength of mind over which neither vice nor pleasure could have any influence, an inflexible firmness in the de- fence of justice, composed the character of that great man. In consequence of these qualities, he was beloved by his army, doated upon by his friends, and admired by all good men. After their conference, night coining on, Cassius in- vited Brutus and his friends to an entertainment, where freedom and cheerfulness, for a while, took place of political anxiety, and softened the severity of wisdom. Upon retiring home it THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 45 was that Brutus, as Plutarch tells the story, saw a spectre in his tent. He naturally slept but little, and he had increased this state of watchful- ness by habit and great sobriety. He never al- lowed himself to sleep in the day time, as was then common in Rome ; and only gave so much of the night to sleep as could barely renew the natural functions. But especially now, when oppressed with such various cares, he only gave a short time after his nightly repast to rest ; and, waking about midnight, generally read or stu- died till morning. It was in the dead of the night, when the whole camp was perfectly quiet, that Brutus was thus employed in reading by a lamp that was just expiring. On a sudden he thought he heard a noise as if some ^ody en- tered, and looking towards the door he perceived it open. A gigantic figure, with a frightful as- pect, stood before him, and continued to gaze upon him with silent severity. At last Brutus had courage to speak to it : " Art thou a daemon '* or a mortal man ? and why comest thou to me ?" " Brutus," replied the phantom, " I am thy evil and his cavalry put to flight. There was no ef- fort that this unfortunate general did not try to make his infantry stand, stopping those that fled, and seizing himself the colours to rally them. But his own valour alone was not sufficient to inspire his timorous army. He saw himself en- tirely routed, his camp taken, and himself ob- liged to retire under a little hill at some distance Brutus, who had gained a complete victory, was just returning at this interval with his triumphant army, when he found that all was lost on the part of his associate ; he sent out a body of ca- valry to bring him news of Cassius, who, per- ceiving them advance towards him, sent one Titinius to inform himself whether they were friends or enemies. Titinius soon joined this VOL. II. e 50 THE HISTORY OF body, who received him with great transport, in- forming him of their success ; but delaying too long, Cassius began to mistake them for what hi* fears had suggested, and crying out, " that he tc had exposed his dearest friend to be taken pri- " soner," he retired to his tent with one of his freedmen, named Pindarus, who slew him, and then was never heard of after. Titinius arrived in triumph with the body of horsemen, but his joy was soon turned into anguish upon seeing his friend dead in the tent before him; upon which, accusing his own delay as the cause, he punished it with falling on his sword. Bru- tus was by this time informed of the defeat of Cassius, and soon after of his death as he drew near the camp. He seemed scarce able to re- strain the excess of his grief for a man whom he called the last of the Romans. He bathed the dead body with his tears ; and, telling his friends that he thought Cassius very happy in being be- yond the reach of those misfortunes which re- mained for them to suffer, he ordered him to be privately removed, lest the knowledge of his death should dispirit the army. It was only this pre- cipitate despair of Cassius which gave the enemy the advantage, since, till then, the republicans might be said to have the superiority. The first care of Brutus, when he became the sole general, was to assemble the dispersed troop* of Cassius, and animate them with fresh hopes of victory. As they had lost all they possessed by the plundering of their camp, he promised them tHE EMPIRE OF ROME. 51 two thousand denarii each man to make up their losses. This once more inspired them with new ardour ; they admired the liberality of their ge- neral, and with loud shouts proclaimed his former intrepidity. Still 3 however, he had not confi- dence sufficient to face the adversary, who offer- ed him battle the ensuing day. His aim was to starve his enemies, who were in extreme want of provisions, their fleet having been lately defeated. But his single opinion was over-ruled by the rest of his army, who now grew every day more confident of their strength, and more arrogant to their new general. He was, therefore, at last, after a respite of twenty days, obliged to comply With their solicitations to try the fate of the bat- tle. Both armies being drawn out> they remain- ed a long while opposite to each other without offering to engage. It is said that he himself had lost much of his natural ardour by having seen the spectre the night preceding : however, he encouraged his men as much as possible, and gave the signal for battle within three hours of sun-set. He had, as usual, the advantage where he commanded in person J he bore down the enemy at the head of his infantry, and, support- ed by his cavalry, made a very great slaughter. But his left wing, fearing to be taken in flank, stretched itself out in order to enlarge its front ; by means of which it became too weak to stand the shock of the enemy. It was there that the army of Brutus began to yield; and Antony pushing forward, drove the enemy so far back as e2 55 THE HISTORY OF to be able to turn and attack Brutus in the rear. The troops which had belonged to Cassius com- municated their terror to the rest of the forces, till at last, the whole army gave way. Brutus, surrounded by the most valiant of his officers, fought for a long time with amazing valour. The son of Cato fell fighting by his side, as also the brother of Cassius ; so that, at last, he was obliged to yield to necessity, and fled. In the mean time the two triumviri, now assured of victory, expressly ordered by no means to suffer the general to escape, for fear he should renew the war. Thus the whole body of the enemy seemed chiefly intent on Brutus alone, and his capture seemed inevitable. In this deplorable exigence, Lucilius, his friend, was resolved, by his own death, to effect his general's delivery. Upon perceiving a body of Thracian horse close- ly pursuing Brutus, and just upon the point of taking him, he boldly threw himself in their way, telling them that he was Brutus. The Thracians, overjoyed with so great a prize, immediately dis- patched some of their companions, with the news of their success to the army, Upon which, the ardour of the pursuit now abating, Antony marched out to meet his prisoner, and to hasten his death, or insult his misfortunes. He was fol- lowed by a great number of officers and soldiers, some silently deploring the fate of so virtuous a man; others reproaching that mean desire of life for which he consented to undergo capti- vity. Antony now seeing the Thracians approach, THE EMPIRE OF ROME, 55 began to prepare himself for the interview ; but the faithful Lucilius, advancing with a cheerful air, " It is not Brutus/' said he, " that is taken ; ' f fortune has not yet had the power of commit- " ting so great an outrage upon virtue. As for '? my life, it is well spent in preserving his ho- *t nour; take it, for I have deceived you," An- tony, struck with go much fidelity, pardoned him upon the spot ; and from that time forward load- ed him with benefits, and honoured him with his friendship. In the mean time, Brutus, with a small num- ber of friends, passed over a rivulet, and, night coming on, sat down under a rock which con- cealed him from the pursuit of the enemy. After taking breath for a little time, he cast his eyes up to Heaven, that was all spangled with stars ; he repeated a line from Euripides, containing a wish to the Gods, " That guilt should not pass '* in this life without punishment." To this he added another from the same poet : cc O virtue ! " thou empty name, I have worshipped thee as " a real good, but thou art only the slave of for- f* tune." He then called to mind, with great tenderness, those whom he had seen perish in battle, and sent out one Statilius to give Jiim some information of those that remained; but he never returned, being killed by a party of the enemy's horse. Brutus, judging very rightly of his fate, now resolved to die likewise, and spoke to those who stood round him to lend him their last sad assistance. None of them, howc\ej,i e3 St . THE HISTORY OF would render him so melancholy a piece of ser- vice. Upon this, raising himself up and stretch* ing out his hands, he spoke to them with a serene countenance, saying, u That he was happy in " the fidelity of his friends ; happy in the con- u sciousness of his own rectitude ; and though u he fell, yet his death was more glorious than with great boldness, went alone to the camp of Lepidus 3 and with no othet assistance than his private bounties, and the authority he had gained by his former victories; he resolved to depose his rival. The soldiers thronged round him with the most dutiful ala- crity, while Lepidus hastened to prevent their defection. But Augustus, though he received a wound from one of the centurions, flew> with great presence of mind, to the place where the military ensigns were planted, and flourishing one of them in the air, all the legionary soldiers ran in crowds and saluted him as their general; Lepidus being thus abandoned by his men, divest- ed himself of all the marks of his authority, which he could no longer keep, and submissively threw himself at the feet of Augustus. This general despised his colleague too much to take his life ; he spared it, notwithstanding the remon- strances of the army, but deprived him of all his former authority, and banished him to Circaeum. There he continued the rest of his life, despised by his friends, and to all a melancholy object of blast-* ed ambition. Augustus was received, upon his return to Rome, with universal joy ; the senators met him at the gates, and conducted him to the Capitol : the people followed crowned with garlands of flowers ; and, after having returned thanks to the gods, waited upon him to his palace. There THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 65 Remained now but one obstacle to bis ambition, which was Antony, whom h£ resolved to remove, and for that purpose began to render his character as contemptible as he possibly could at Rome. In fa6t, Antony's conduct did not a little contri- bute to promote the endeavours of his ambitious partner in the state. He had marched against the Parthians with a prodigious army, but was forced to return with the loss of the fourth part of his forces, and all his baggage. This extremely diminished his reputation; but his making a triumphal entry into Alexandria, soon after, en- tirely disgusted the citizens of Rome. However, Antony seemed quite regardless of their resent- ment : alive only to pleasure, and totally disre- garding the business of the state, he spent whole days and nights in the company of Cleopatra, who studied every art to encrease his passion, and vary his entertainments. Few women have been so much celebrated for the art of giving novelty to pleasure, and making trifles important : still ingenious in filling up the languid pauses of sen- sual delight with some new stroke of refinement, she was at one time a queen, then a Bacchanal, and sometimes an huntress. She invented a society called, The Inimitable ; and those of the court who made the most sumptuous entertain- ments, carried away the prize. Not contented with sharing, in her company, all the delights which Egypt could afford, Antony was resolved to enlarge his sphere of luxury, by granting her many of those kingdoms which belonged to the VOL. II. F 66 THE HISTORY OP Roman empire. He gave her all Phoenicia, Celo- Syria and Cyprus, with a great part of Cilicia, Arabia and Judea ; gifts which he had no right to bestow, but which he pretended to grant in imitation of Hercules. This complication of vice and folly at last totally exasperated the Ro- mans ; and Augustus, willing to take the advan- tage of their resentment, took care to exaggerate all his defects. At length, when he found the people sufficiently irritated against him, he re- solved to send Oclavia, who was then at Rome, to Antony, as if with a view of reclaiming her hus- band ; but, in facl, to furnish a sufficient pretext of declaring war against him, as he knew she would be dismissed with contempt. Antony was now at the city of Leucopolis, revelling with his insidious paramour, when he heard that Oclavia was at Athens, upon her journey to visit him. This was very unwelcome news as well to him as to Cleopatra ; who, fearing the charms of her rival, endeavoured to convince Antony of the strength of her passion by her sighs, languishing looks, and well-feigned melan- choly. He frequently caught her in tears, which she seemed as if willing to hide ; and often in- treated her to tell him the cause, which she seemed willing to suppress. These artifices, together with the ceaseless flattery, and impor- tunity of her creatures, prevailed so much upon Antony's weakness, that he commanded Oclavia to return home without seeing her, and attached himself still more closely to Cleopatra than before. THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 67 His ridiculous passion now began to have no bounds. He resolved to own her for his wife, and entirely to repudiate O&avia. He accord- ingly assembled the people of Alexandria in the public theatre, where was raised an alcove of silver, under which were placed two thrones of gold, one for himself and the other for Cleopatra. There he seated himself, dressed like Bacchus, while Cleopatra sate beside him clothed in the ornaments and attributes of Isis, the principal deity of the Egyptians. On that occasion he declared her queen of all the countries which he had already bestowed upon her ; while he asso- ciated Caesario, her son by Caesar, as her partner in the government. To the two children which he had by her himself, he gave the title of king of kings, with very extensive dominions ; and, to crown his absurdities, he next sent a minute account of his proceedings to the two consuls at Rome. One folly is generally the parent of many more. As he became a god, it was now necessary to act up to his imaginary dignity; new luxuries and pageantries were now therefore studied, and new modes of profusion found out : no less than sixty thousand pounds of our money was lavished upon one single entertainment : it is said, upon this occasion, that Cleopatra, dissolved a pearl of great value in vinegar, and drank it off. Yet, however high-wrought their entertainments might be, they Wanted that delicacy which gives the finest relish to all sensual happiness. Antony, as we are told, was but a coarse and inelegant F 2 9 8 THE HISTORY OF soldier, who mistook obscenity for wit, and pro- fusion for magnificence. Cleopatra, who was naturally more refined, was yet obliged to com- ply with his disposition, and to bear with his debaucheries, rather than share them. But we are told of one circumstance that might well re- press their delights, and teach mankind to relish the beverage of virtue, however simple, above their most zested enjoyments. He was suspicious of being poisoned in every meal ; he feared Cleopatra, whom he so much loved, and would eat nothing without having it previously tasted by one of his attendants. In the mean time Augustus had now a suffi- cient pretext for declaring war, and informed the senate of his intentions. However, he de- ferred the execution of his design for a while, being then employed in quelling an insurrection of the Illyrians. The following year was chiefly taken up in preparations against Antony, who, perceiving his design, remonstrated to the senate, that he had many causes of complaint against his colleague, who had seized upon Sicily with- out affording him a share ; alledging that he had also dispossessed Lepidus, and kept to himself the province he had commanded ; and that he had divided all Italy among his own soldiers, leaving nothing to recompence those in Asia. To this complaint Augustus was contented to make a sarcastic answer, implying, That it was absurd to complain of his distribution of a few trifling districts in Italy; when, Antony having con- THE EMPIRE Of ROME. . 69 q acred Parthia, he might now reward his sol- diers with cities and provinces. The sarcasm upon Antony's misfortunes in Parthia, so pro- voked him, that he ordered Canidius, who com- manded his army, to march, without intermission, into Europe; while he and Cleopatra followed to Samos, in order to prepare for carrying on the war with vigour. When arrived there it was ridiculous enough to hehold the odd mixture of preparations for pleasure and for war. On one side, all the kings and princes from Egypt to the Euxine sea, had orders to send him thither sup- plies both of men, provisions and arms ; on the other side, all the comedians, dancers, buffoons, and musicians of Greece, were ordered to attend him. Thus, frequently, when a ship was thought to arrive laden with soldiers, arms and ammuni- tion, it was found only filled with players and theatrical machinery. When news was expecled of the approach of an army, messengers only ar> rived with tidings of afresh quantity of venison. In this manner he laboured to unite incompatible pursuits ; the kings who attended him endea- voured to gain his favour more by their enter- tainments, than their warlike preparations: the provinces strove rather to please him by sacri- ficing to his divinity, than by their alacrity in his defence; so that some were heard to say, " What rejoicings would not this man make for " a victory, when he thus triumphs at the eve of " a dangerous war !" In short, his best friends now began to forsake his interests, which is ge~ f3 70 THE HISTORY OF nerally the case with all those who first forsake themselves. His delay at Samos, and afterwards at Athens, where he carried Cleopatra, to receive new ho- nours, was extremely favourable to the arms of Augustus. This general was, at first, scarcely in a disposition to oppose him, had he gone into Italy ; but he soon found time to put himself in a condition for carrying on the war : and, short- ly after, declared it against him in form. All Antony's followers were invited over to join him, with great promises of rewards ; but they were not declared enemies, partly to prevent their growing desperate, and partly to give a shew of moderation to his own party. At length, both sides found themselves in readiness to begin the war, and their armies were answerable to the em- pire they contended for. The one was followed by all the forces of the East ; the other drew all the strength of the West to support his preten- tions. Antony's force composed a body of an hundred thousand foot, and twelve thousand horse ; while his fleet amounted to five hundred ships of war. The army of Augustus mustered but eighty thousand foot, but equalled his adver- sary's in his number of cavalry : his fleet was but half as numerous as Antony's ; however, his ships were better, built, and manned with better soldiers. Such forces on both sides may excite our wonder, but not our interest : neither had a good cause to support, the contention of THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 71 tooth being only like that of two robbers who quarrel in the division of their plunder. The great decisive engagement, which was a naval one, was fought near A6tium, a city of Epirus, at the entrance of the gulph of Ambracia. Antony ranged his ships before the mouth of the gulph ; and Augustus drew up his fleet in opposition. Neither general assumed any fixed station to command in, but went about from ship to ship, wherever his presence was necessary. In the mean time, the two land armies, on oppo- site sides of the gulph, were drawn up, only as spectators of the engagement ; and encouraged the fleets, by their shouts, to engage. The battle began, on both sides, with great ardour ; and after a manner not practised upon former occasions. The prows of their vessels were armed with brazen points; and with these they drove furiously against each other. In this conflict, the ships of Antony came with greater force, but those of Augustus avoided the shock with greater dex- terity. On Antony's side, the sterns of the ships were raised in form of a tower ; from whence they threw arrows, from machines for that pur- pose. Those of Augustus, made use of long poles, hooked with iron, and fire-pots. They fought in this manner for some time, with equal animosity ; nor was there any advantage on either side, except a small appearance of disorder in the centre of Antony's fleet. But all of a sudden, Cleopatra determined the fortune of the day. She was seen flying from the engagement, F 4 • 7% THE HISTORY OF attended by sixty sail ; struck, perhaps, with the terrors natural to her sex : but what cncreasecl the general amazement, was, to behold Antony himself following soon after, and leaving his his fleet at the mercy of the conquerors. The engagement, notwithstanding, continued with great obstinacy till five in the evening ; when Antony's forces, partly constrained by the con- du6l of Agrippa, and partly persuaded by the promises of Augustus, submitted to the conque- ror. The land forces soon after followed the example of the navy ; and all yielded to Augus- tus without striking a blow, the fourth day after the battle. When Cleopatra fled, Antony pursued her in a five-oared galley ; and, coming along side of her ship, entered it without seeing, or being seen by her. She was in the stern, and he went to the prow, where he remained for some time si- lent, holding his head between his hands. In this manner he continued three whole days, dur- ing which, either through indignation or shame, he neither saw nor spoke to Cleopatra. At last, when they were arrived at the promontory of Tenarus, the queen's female attendants recon- ciled them, and every thing went on as before. Still, however, he had the consolation to suppose his army continued faithful to him, and, accord- ingly dispatched orders to his lieutenant Canidius, to condu6l it into Asia. However, he was soon undeceived when he arrived in Africa, where he was informed of their submission to his rival. This account so transported him with rage, that THE EMPIRE OP ROME. 7* lie was hardly prevented from killing himself; but at length, at the entreaty of his friends, he returned to Alexandria, in a very different situa- tion from that in which he had left it some time before. Cleopatra, however, seemed to retain I hat fortitude in her misfortunes, which had ut- terly abandoned her admirer. Having amassed considerable riches, by means of confiscations, and other acts of violence, she formed a very sin- gular and unheard of project : this was to con- vey her whole fleet over the isthmus of Suez into the Red Sea, and thereby save herself in another region, beyond the reach of Rome, with all her treasures. Some of her vessels were actually transported thither, pursuant to her orders ; but the Arabians having burnt them, and Antony dissuading her from the design, she abandoned it for the more improbable scheme of defending Egypt against the conqueror. She omitted no- thing in her power to put this advice in prac- tice, and made all kinds of preparations for war ; at least hoping thereby to obtain better terms from Augustus. In facl, she had always loved Anto- ny's fortunes rather than his person ; and if she could have fallen upon any method of saving herself, though even at his expence, there is no doubt but she would have embraced it with glad- ness. She even still had some hopes from the power of her charms, though she was arrived al- most at the age of forty ; and was desirous of trying upon Augustus, those arts which had been so successful with the greatest men of Rome. 7-1 THE HISTORY OF Thus, in three embassies, which were sent one after another, from Antony to Augustus in Asia, the queen had always her secret agents, charged with particular proposals in her name. Antony desired no more than that his life might be spared, and to have the liberty of passing the remainder of his days in obscurity. To those proposals Augustus made no reply. Cleopatra sent him also public proposals in favour of her children ; but at the same time privately resigned him her crown, with all the ensigns of royalty. To the queen's public proposal, no answer was given : to her private offer he replied, by giving her as- surances of his favour, in case she sent away Antony, or put him to death. These negotiations were not so private but they came to the know- ledge of Antony, whose jealousy and rage every occurrence now contributed to heighten. He built a small solitary house upon a mole in the sea, and there shut himself up, a prey to all those passions that are the tormentors of unsuccessful tyranny. There he past his time, shunning all commerce with mankind, and professing to imi- tate Timon the man-hater. However, his furious jealousy drove him even from this retreat into society; for hearing that Cleopatra had many secret conferences with one Thyrsus, an emissary from Augustus, he seized upon him, and having ordered him to be cruelly scourged, he sent him back to his patron. At the same time he sent letters by him, importing that he had chastized Thyrsus for insulting a man in misfortunes ; but THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 75 withal he gave Augustus permission to avenge himself, by scourging Hiparchus, Antony's freed- man, in the same manner. The revenge, in this case, would have been highly pleasing to Antony, as Hiparchus had left him, to join the fortunes of his more successful rival. Mean while the operations of the war were carried vigorously forward, and Egypt was once more the theatre of the contending armies of Rome. Gallus, the lieutenant of Augustus, took Paretonium, which opened the whole country to his incursions. On the other side, Antony, who had still considerable forces by sea and land, wanted to take that important place from the enemy. He, therefore, marched towards it, flat- tering himself, that, as soon as he should shew himself to the legions which he had once com- manded, the affection for their antient general would revive. He approached, therefore, and exhorted them to remember their former vows of fidelity. Gallus, however, ordered all the trumpets to sound, in order to hinder Antony from being heard, so that he was obliged to retire. Augustus himself was in the mean time ad- vancing with another army before Pelusium, which, by its strong situation, might have retard- ed his progress for some time. But the governor of the city, either wanting courage to defend it, or previously instructed by Cleopatra to give it up, permitted him to take possession of the place ; So that Augustus had now no obstacle in his way 75 THE HISTOKT OF to Alexandria, whither he marched with all ex- pedition. Antony, upon his arrival, sallied out to oppose him, fighting with great desperation, and putting the enemy's cavalry to flight. This slight advantage once more revived his declining hopes ; and, being naturally vain, he re-entered Alexandria in triumph. Then going, all armed as he was, to the palace, he embraced Cleopatra, and presented her a soldier who had distinguished himself in the late engagement. The queen rewarded him very magnificently; presenting him with an head-piece and breast-plate of gold. With these, however, the soldier went oft' the next night to the other army, prudently resolving to secure his riches, by keeping on the strongest side. Antony could not bear this defection with- out fresh indignation ; he resolved, therefore, to make a bold expiring effort by sea and land, but previously offered to fight his adversary in single combat. Augustus too well knew the inequality of their situations, to comply with this forlorn offer; he only, therefore, coolly replied, That Antony had ways enough to die besides single combat. The evening before the day appointed for his last desperate attempt, he ordered a grand enter- tainment to be prepared. " Give me good wine, u and good cheer," cried he to his friends ; let " me live to-day ; to-morrow, perhaps, you may " serve another master." About midnight, as Plutarch relates, while a melancholy silence reigned throughout the city, a noise of voices. THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 77 instruments, and dancing, was heard, as if pass- ing through the town, and seeming to go out at the gate which looked towards the enemy. At day-break, Antony posted the few troops he had remaining, upon a rising ground near the city ; from whence he sent orders to his gallies to en- gage the enemy. There he waited to be a spec- tator of the combat; and, at first, he had the satisfaction to see them advance in good order; but his approbation was soon turned into rage, when he saw his ships only saluting those of Augustus, and both fleets uniting together, and sailing back into the harbour. At the very same time, his cavalry deserted him. He tried, how- ever, to lead on his infantry, which were easily vanquished ; and he himself compelled to return into the town. His anger was now ungovern- able ; he could not help crying out aloud as he past, that he was betrayed by Cleopatra, and de- livered by her to those who, for her sake alone, were his enemies. In these suspicions he was not deceived, for it was by secret orders from the queen that the fleet had past over to the enemy. Cleopatra had, for a long while, dreaded the effects of Antony's jealousy ; and had, some time before, prepared a method of obviating any sudden sallies it might produce. Near the temple of Isis she had erecied a building, which was seem- ingly designed for a sepulchre. Hither she re- moved all her treasure, and most valuable effects, covering them over with torches, faggots, and TB Tilt HISTORY OF other combustible matter. This sepulchre she designed to answer a double purpose * as well to screen her from the sudden resentments of An- tony, as to make Augustus believe that she would burn all her treasures, in case he refused her proper terms of capitulation. Here, therefore, she retired from Antony's present fury ; shutting the gates, which were fortified with bolts and bars of iron : but, in the mean time, gave orders, that a report should be spread of her death. This news, which soon reached Antony, recalled all his former love and tenderness. This poor wretch was now a being subject to the gust of every passion, and each of them in extreme. He now lamented her death with the same vio- lence he had but a few minutes before seemed to desire it. " Wretched man," cried he to him- self, and corrupt his heart ; till, in the end, his life seemed painfully employed, in finding pretexts for appearing what he might easily have been ; and in deceiving others, by being deceived him- self. no Tin; tusTOftt of The first object of his suspicion, when he carnfc to the empire, was Agrtppa Posthumus, the third and onlv remaining sou oi' the general of that name, by Julia, daughter of Augustus. This youth having rather imitated the licentiousness of his mother, than the prudence of his father, was banished by Augustus into the island of Planasium ; and was now murdered by the or- der of Tiberius, who pretended that it was done by the particular appointment of the late empe- ror, who was solicitous for the safety of the suc- cession. He even carried his dissimulation so far, that when the centurion, who had executed his commands, came with the account, Tiberius pretended, that he had given no such command, and that he should answer for his conduct be- fore the senate. However, the business was hushed up soon after, and no enquiry made after the murderer. As for the people in general, they were now ready to suffer every injury, without murmuring. Every order of the state was ambitious of slavery, and only desirous of shewing the extent of their obedience, by the humility of their adulation. All suits and petitions were now made to Tibe- rius ; and he, at the same time, took care, that nothing material should be done without his con- currence. The senate was willing enough to give up the reins of government ; yet he had so much dissimulation in hfs nature, as to wish to make his acceptance of them the greatest favour. He began, therefore, in the senate, wKh great THE EMPIRE OF ROME. in art, to descant on the extent of the Roman em- pire, and the difficulty of guiding it with proper skill ; he then alledged his own insufficiency for the task, and hinted, that no man could be a worthy successor to Augustus. But as the city was so happily ornamented with great numbers of wise and worthy men, it would be more ad- viseable for a number to unite their care and their councils, than to lay the whole burthen upon him alone. The senate, however, skilled now only in the arts of adulation, besought him in the most humble manner, to accept of the go- vernment ; and not to reject a task, to which he alone was equal. Tiberius upon this, pretend- ing to be somewhat softened, partly accept- ed their offers ; but alledged, that he was un- able to take the charge of the whole ; but, at their request, declared himself willing to under- take the protection of any one part they assigned him. Whereupon Asinius Gallus demanded, what part he was willing to take charge of. This unexpected question quite confounded the dis- sembling emperor. He, for some time, remained fltlent ; but recovering himself, answered, with a subtle reserve, that it ill became him to chuse any one part of that, from which he begged a general exemption. Gallus, who now perceived he had gone too far, and who, perhaps, only put the question to flatter his vanity, very readily brought himself off, by saying, " That he did not offer u that question, as though he designed to divide " what was in itself indissoluble ; but from his 112 THE HISTORY OF '* own confession, to convince him, that the com- " mon wealth was but one body, and was conse- " quently to be acluated only by one soul." At length Tiberius, seemingly overcome by the im- portunities and clamours of all around him, yielded, by degrees, to their entreaties ; and at last condescended to take upon him the labour of the government, purely to satisfy their wishes, rather than his own ; adding, however, that he would keep it only till they should think fit to give repose to his old age. He was now fifty-six years old, when he 765. took upon him the government of the Ro- A ' D ' man empire. He had long lived in a pro- found state of dissimulation under Augustus, and was not yet hardy enough to shew himself in his real character. In the beginning of his reign nothing appeared but prudence, generosity and clemency. He utterly rejected many of those great names and titles of honour which were so liberally offered him by the senate. He prohi- bited their erecting statues to him but upon cer- tain occasions, and absolutely forbade their wor- shipping him as a deity. Those just praises also, which he might have received without cen- sure, seemed irksome to him ; and he appeared to desire no other rewards for his labours in the empire, but the consciousness of having deserved them. When the senate offered to swear to obey all the ordinances which had not only been made, but those he was about to enact hereafter, he checked their vile adulation ; observing, That THE EMPIRE OF ROIVIE. 113 All sublunary things were mutable and uncertain> and the higher he was raised, his state would only be the more exposed to danger. He assumed also an appearance of great patience and mode* ration upon all occasions ; and, though in the senate there past some things contrary to his will, yet he seemed not in the least offended. Having learnt that some persons had spoken ill both of him and his government, he shewed no resentment ; but mildly replied, That in a free city the tongues of men ought also to be free. When the senate would have proceeded against some who had libelled him, he would not con- sent ; alledging, That he had greater and more useful employments, than to embarrass himself with such trifling concerns ; adding, That the best way of punishing such as defamed him, was to make the account of his conduct uneasy to them, or else by retaliating their contempt. When some governors had shewn him a method ofencreasing his revenues, he with indignation answered, That a good shepherd ought to shear but never flea his flock. He made many sump- tuary edi6ts against taverns, and places of public resort ; he punished dishonest matrons, and even prohibited kissing by way of salutation. He was very Vigilant in suppressing robberies and sedi- tions, and caused justice to be duly and regularly administered in all the towns' of Italy. He also behaved in a very respeclful manner to the se- nate, and in the beginning did nothing of mo- mentwithouttheiradvice and approbation. They, vol. 11. 1 114 THE HISTORY OF on their parts, continually forced upon him the* most extravagant praises ; so that no prince was ever more flattered than he. Nor is it an impro- bable conjecture to suppose, that this adulation served greatly to pejorate his mind, and to make him more boldly throw aside the mask of dissi- mulation. The successes of Germanicus first brought his- natural dispositions to light, and discovered the malignity of his mind without disguise. He was. scarce well settled on his throne, when he re- ceived intelligence that the legions in Pannonia, hearing of the death Augustus, and desirous of novelty, had revolted ; but these were soon quieted, and Percennius their leader slain. A commotion in Germany was attended with much more important consequences. The legions in that part of the empire were -conduclcd by Ger- manicus, the son of Drusus, late brother of Ti- berius, a youth of most admirable qualities, and who had been, at the late emperor's request, adopted to succeed to the empire. The legions under his command had taken the opportunity of his absence to revolt, and now boldly began to affirm that the whole Roman empire was in their power, and that its principal grandeur was owing to the success of their arms ; wherefore, when Germanicus returned, they unanimously resolved to chuse him emperor. This general was the darling of the soldiers, and almost ido- lized by them, so that he might with very little difficulty have raised himself to the highest dig- THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 115 hity in the state ; but his duty prevailed over his ambition ; he rejected their offers with the ut- most indignation, and used the most indefatigable endeavours to oppose the sedition. This he ef- fected, though with extreme hazard, by cutting off many of the principal revolters, and then by leading the troops against the Germans, who were considered as the common enemies of the empire. Tiberius was as much pleased with the loyalty of Germanicus as he was distressed at his supe- rior popularity ; his success, also, immediately after, against the Germans, only still more ex- cited the emperor's envy and private disgust : he overthrew the enemy in several battles, subduing many wild and extensive countries, the Angri- varii, the Cherusci, and the Chatti, with other fierce nations beyond the Rhine. Among his other conquests it was not considered as the least honourable, that of recovering the standards that had been taken from the unfortunate Varus, and creeling trophies to the memory of his own le- gions, in those very wilds in which the legions of the former were slain. Upon one of the mo- numents of his victories he placed a modest in- scription, mentioning only the people that were conquered, and the army which made the con- quest, entirely omitting his own name, either willing to avoid envy, or sensible that posterity would supply the defect. All these victories, however, only served to enflame the emperor's jealousy, and every virtue 116 THE HISTORY OF in the general now became a new cause of of* fence. This dislike first began to appear by Ti- berius making use of every pretence to draw Germanicus from the legions ; but he was for a while obliged to postpone his purpose, upon ac- count of a domestic insurrection., which was made in Italy by one Clemens, who had been a slave to the young Agrippa that was slain. This adventurer being about the same age, and in person very much respmbling his late master, took upon him his name, and caused it to be re- ported in all parts of Italy that Agrippa was still AVt alive. This report, idle as it was, had a 17. surprizing influence through the empire, and raised great tumults in many towns of Italy, Clemens himself boldly asserting his claim, and now and then appearing in different parts of the countryj when he could do it with safety. Ti- berius, however, knew but too well the impos- ture, and was resolved to oppose fraud on his side to that of this young pretender. Accord- ingly, two soldiers were employed, who were to find him out, and by pretending an attachment to his person, seize him upon the first opportu- nity, This commission they executed with punctuality and success, Clemens was taken prisoner, and brought before Tiberius, who sternly demanded how he came to be Agrippa ? to which the other as boldly replied, " By the " same arts with which you have become Ca- f i sar," Tiberius finding by his resolution that it was vain to expecTt any discovery from him THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 117 ©f his accomplices, resolved to put him imme- diately to death ; however, such were his appre- hensions from the people, that he would not pu- nish him publicly, but ordered him to be con- veyed to a secret apartment in the palace, and there to be executed in private. Being now rid of his domestic enemy, he be- began to consult on the most specious means of bringing home Germanicus from the legions in Germany. For this, an invasion of the Parthians offered him the fairest opportunity. These fierce and unconquerable people having slain two of their own kings, and having refused to accept one who had been an hostage at Rome, and was, it seems, the lawful successor, they broke the peace, which had been ratified in the reign of Augustus, and invaded Armenia, a kingdom tri- butary to the empire. Tiberius was not dis- pleased at this invasion, as it gave him a pretext for recalling Germanicus from those legions, which were too much devoted to his interest. He first, therefore, began by procuring him a triumph for his viciory in Germany ; and then by writing to him to return, in order to enjoy these honours which the senate had decreed : adding, that he had reaped enough of glory in a country where he had been sent nine times, and had been every time victorious ; concluding, that the number of triumphs was sufficient ; and, that the most signal vengeance that could be inflicted on them, was their being permitted to carry on their own intestine commotions. To 13 118 THE HISTORY OF all these specious civilities Germanicus made no direcl reply, but earnestly entreated the conti- nuance of his command for one year longer, only to finish the enterprizes he had begun. Tiberius, however, was too well skilled in dis- simulation not to prevail upon him by a repeti- tion of pretended honours ; he offered him the consulship, and desired him to execute the of- fice in person ; so that Germanicus had no longer any pretences for refusing. Thus, finding the season very far advanced, he delayed his return no longer ; and he was met many miles out of the city by infinite multitudes, who received him rather with marks of adoration than respect : the gracefulness of his person ; his triumphal cha- riot, in which were carried his five children ; and the recovered standards of the army of Va- rus, threw the people into a phrenzy of joy and admiration. Tiberius, though inwardly repin- ing, seemed to join in the general rapture : he gave" the people, in the name of Germanicus, three hundred sesterces each man ; and the suc- ceeding year, made him his colleague in the con- sulship. However, his aim was to send him dis- tant from Rome, where his popularity was now become odious to him ; and yet, not to give him such a command as could at any time be turned against himself. Wherefore, the Parthian invar sion was now very convenient for his designs ; and, besides, there now offered other pretexts for sending him into Asia ; which might be consi- dered as no better than specious] banishment. THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 119 Antioehus, king of Comagena, and Philopater, king of Cicilia, being both dead, some differ- ences arose in those nations to the prejudice of the Romans. At the same time, also, Syria and Judaea, overburthened with taxes, made earnest supplications for redress. These, therefore, ap- peared to be objects worthy the attention of Ger- man icus ; and Tiberius was not wanting in ur- ging before the senate the necessity there was of his presence in that quarter of the empire. In consequence of this, all the provinces of Asia were readily decreed to Germanicus ; and a greater power given him than had been granted to any governor before. But Tiberius, to restrain this power, had sent Cneius Piso governor into Syria ; having dispossessed Silenus of that office. This Piso was a person of a furious and head- strong temper ; and, in every respect, fit to exe^ cute those fatal purposes for which he was de- signed. His instructions were to oppose Ger- manicus upon every occasion ; and to excite all the hatred against him, which, without suspicion, he could ; and even to procure his death, if an opportunity should offer. Germanicus being now appointed to his A# D# new dignity, departed from Rome for his 19 - eastern expedition, carrying with him his wife Agrippina, and his children. In the mean time, Piso, pursuant to his directions, endeavoured to gain the affections of the soldiers, by all the arts of bribery and adulation. He took every oppor- tunity of abusing Germanicus ; and taxed him i 4 120 THE HISTORY OF with diminishing the Roman glory, by his pecu- liar protection to that people who called them- selves Athenians, but were now such no longer : Germanicus disregarded his inveclives ; being more employed in executing the business of his commission, than in counteracting the private designs of Piso. In a short time, he replaced the king of Armenia, who was a friend to the Romans ; and reduced Cilicia and Comagena into Roman provinces ; placing praetors there to colle6t the taxes due to the empire. He soon after obliged the king of Parthia to sue for peace ; which was granted him, much to the advantage and honour of Rome. However, Piso, and his wife Plancina, who is recorded as one of an im- placable and cruel disposition, continued to de- fame him, and openly to tax all his proceedings. These efforts of ineffective malice, were quite dis- regarded; Germanicus only opposed patience and condescension to all their invectives ; and, with that gentleness which was peculiar to him, jepaid their resentment by courtesy. He was not ignorant of their motives ; and was rather willing to evade than oppose their enmity. Wherefore, he took a voyage into Egypt, under a pretence of viewing the celebrated antiquities of the place ; but, in reality, to avoid the machi- nations of Piso, and those of his wife,, which were still more dangerous. However, upon his return, he fell sick ; and, whether from a mind previously alarmed, or from more apparent marks THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 121 of treachery, he sent to let Piso know, that he broke off all further connexions and friendship with him. A short interval of convalescence restored the hopes of his friends, and the citizens of Antioch prepared to offer sacrifices for his re- covery. However Piso, with his lienors, dis- turbed their solemnities, and drove off their vic- tims from the foot of the altars. In the mean time, Germanicus grew daily worse ; and his death now began to appear inevitable. Where- upon, finding his end approaching, he addressed his friends who stood round his bed, to the fol- lowing effect. " Had my death been natural, I " might have reason to complain of being thus " snatched away from all the endearments of life, " at so early an age ; but now my complaints " are aggravated, in falling the vi6lim of Piso " and Plancina's treachery. Let the emperor, " therefore, I conjure you, know the manner of " my death, and the tortures I suffer. Those that " loved me, when living, those even that envied " my fortune, will feel some regret, when they " hear of a soldier, who had so often escaped 1 ' the rage of the enemy, falling a sacrifice to the " treachery of a woman. Plead then my cause cc before the people ; you will be heard with pity ; " and if my murderers should pretend to have a6l- " ed by command, they will either receive no cre- ff dit or no pardon." As he spoke these words, he stretched forth his hand, which his weeping friends tenderly pressing, most earnestly vowed 122 THE HISTORY OF that they would sooner lose their lives than their revenge. The dying prince then turning to his wife, conjured her by his memory, and all the bonds of nuptial love, to submit to the necessity of the times, and to evade the resentment of her more powerful enemies, by not opposing it, Thus much he said openly ; something more was uttered in private ; intimating, as was supposed, his fears from the emperor's cruelty jj and shortly after he expired. Nothing could exceed the dis- tress of the whole empire, upon hearing of the death of Germanicus. But the people of Rome seemed to put no bounds to their distress, A va- cation was made in all public and domestic du- ties ; the streets were filled with lamentations ; the people cast stones at their temples, and flung down their altars; while new-born infants were exposed, as objeeta not worthy parental attention in this universal distress. So much was the spi- rit of the people now changed from its former fortitude and equality. They now were so ac- customed to place their happiness in paying ho- mage to their masters, that they considered the safety of the state as comprised in an individual. In facl, the community was now composed of persons who had lately received their freedom ; or of such indolent and idle people as lived at the expence of the public treasure. These were, therefore, sensible of nothing but their own im- becillity ; and afflicted themselves, like children, for evils which were only suggested by their fears. THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 123 In this universal distress, Piso seemed marked for destruction. Historians, in general, charge him and his wife with the death of Germanicus ; it is now too remote a period to controvert their testimony ; however, the general accusation of their giving him a slow poison, is one of those imputations that seems to have but little founda- tion. The belief of slow poisons is now much disputed ; it being in general supposed by phy- sicians, that it is not in the power of art to regu- late the duration of their effe6t. Let this be as it will, not only Piso and his wife, but even the emperor himself, with his mother Livia, incurred a share of the general suspicion. These were soon after greatly encreased by the arrival of Agrippina, the widow of Germanicus, a woman in high esteem for her virtue, who appeared bear- ing the ashes of her husband, and attended by all her children. As she approached the city, she was met by the senate, and the whole body of the people of Rome, with a strange mixture of accla- mation and distress. The veteran soldiers, many of whom had served under Germanicus, gave the sincerest testimonies of their concern. The whole multitude, while the ashes were depositing in the tomb of Augustus, at first regarded the ceremony in profound silence ; but shortly after, all of a sudden, broke out into loud lamentations ; cry- ing, that the commonwealth was now no more. Tiberius, whose jealousy had some reason to be alarmed at this effeminate excess of sorrow, used all his art to hide his anger, and make a 124 THE HISTORY OF shew of sharing in the general calamity. He even permitted the accusations of Piso, who was supposed to be merely the instrument of his ven- geance. This general having returned to Rome shortly after, presuming on the great favour he was in with the emperor, was accused before the senate, in behalf of Agrippina and her friends, of the death of Germanicus, and several other crimes ; particularly his cruelty to good men, and his cor- rupting the legions, were laid to his charge. Piso, either conscious of his innocence, or seeing the inefficacy of any defence against the tide of popularity, vindicated himself but weakly against every part of the charge. However, the poisoning of Germanicus could not be made evident enough to satisfy his judges, who seemed to take part against him. His trial was therefore drawn out to a greater length than was expected ; but in the mean time, he cut it short, by putting an end to his life in his own house. His wife Plancina, who was universally believed to be most culpable, escaped punishment by the interest of Livia; so that all disturbances raised upon this account, by degrees subsided. About a year after the death of Germanicus, Tiberius took his own son Drusus, as a colleague with him in the consulship ; and, willing to ini-r tiate him into business betimes, left him in the government of the city ; while he himself retired, under the pretence of indisposition. About this time, several nations of the Gauls revolted, being unable to endure the heavy tributes which the THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 125 emperor had lately imposed upon them. The principal leaders in this revolt, were Florus and Sacrovir ; who were so successful in the begin- ning, that the fame of their successes spread con- sternation even as far as Rome. Caius Silius, however, marched with the Roman legions to oppose them ; and gained a great and decisive victory. A revolt also happened about this time in Numidia, under Tacfarinas, who had rebelled once before ; blit he was now, in some measure, brought under by Blaesus ; who, in consequence, received the honour of being saluted imperator, by the permission of Tiberius. Hitherto Tiberius had kept within bounds ; he was frugal ; just in the distribution of offices ; a rigid punisher of injustice in others ; . and an example of temperance to his luxurious court. But now, from the ninth year of his reign, it is that historians begin to trace the bloody effects of his suspicious temper. Having now no objecl of jealousy to keep him in awe, he began to pull off the mask entirely, and appear more in his natural chara6ter than before. He no longer adopted that wisest maxim, the truth of which has familiarized it into a proverb, that M honesty is the best policy." With him, judgment, justice, and extent of think- ing, were converted into slyness, artifice, and expedients adapted to momentary conjunctures. He took upon himself the interpretation of all political measures ; and gave morals whatever colour he chose, by the fine*drawn speculations 125 THE HISTORY OF of his own malicious mind. He began daily to diminish the authority of the senate; which design was much facilitated, by their own apti- tude to slavery ; so that he despised their mean- ness, while he enjoyed its effects. A law at that lime subsisted, which made it treason to form any injurious attempt against the majesty of the people. Tiberius assumed to himself the inter- pretation and enforcement of this law, and ex- tended it not only to the cases which really affecl- ed the safety of the state, but to every conjunc- ture that could possibly be favourable to his hatred or suspicions. All freedom was now, therefore, banished from convivial meetings ; and diffidence reigned amongst the dearest relations. The gloomy disposition and insincerity of the prince, were diffused through all ranks of men : friendship had the air of an allurement to betray; and a fine" genius was but a shining indiscretion ; even virtue itself was considered as an imperti- nent intruder, that only served to remind the people of their lost happiness. The law of offended majesty being revived, the first of note that fell a sacrifice to it, was Cremu- tius Cordus, who, in his annals of the Roman Empire, had called Brutus the last of the Romans. It is also thought he had given offence to Sejanus, the emperor's favourite, by too great liberty in private conversation. This brave man, seeing his death resolved upon, defended himself in the senate, with great force, and undaunted resolu- tion. Then going home, he resolved to defeat THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 127 the malice of the tyrant, by a voluntary death, and refused taking any manner of sustenance. The informers, who perceived that he was upon the point of depriving them of their reward, presented their complaints to the senate, signify- ing his intentions of escaping justice. However, while their petitions continued under delibera- tion, Cremutius, as Seneca expresses it, pro- nounced his own absolution by dying. It was in the beginning of these cruelties, that Tiberius took into his confidence Sejanus, a Ro- man knight, who found out the method of gain- ing his confidence, by the most refined degree of dissimulation, being an over-match for his master in his own arts. This favourite minister, by birth a Volscian, was close and subtle in his designs, but bold and aspiring in his attempts ; modest to outward appearance, but concealing an ambition that knew no bounds. He was so secure in the affections of the emperor, that, though ever reserved and secret to others, he was entirely open and explicit with him. He was made by the emperor, captain of the praetorian guards, one of the most confidential trusts in the state; and extolled in the senate as a worthy associate in his labours. The servile senators, with ready adulation, set up the statues of the favourite, beside those of Tiberius ; and seemed eager to pay him similar honours. It is not well known whether he was the adviser of all the cruelties that ensued soon after ; but certain it is, 128 THE HISTORY 6f that, from the beginning of his ministry, Tiberius seemed to become more fatally suspicious. It was from such humble beginnings, that this minister even ventured to aspire at the throne, and was resolved to make the emperor's foolish confidence one of the first steps to his ruin. However, he considered that cutting off Tiberius alone, would rather retard than promote his designs, while his son Drusus, and the children of Germanicus, were yet remaining. He there- fore began by corrupting Livia, the wife of Drusus, whom, after having debauched, he pre- vailed upon to poison her husband. This was effected by means of a slow poison (as we are told) which gave his death the appearance of a. casual distemper. Tiberius, in the mean time, cither naturally phlegmatic, or, at best, not much regarding his son, bore his death with great tran- quillity. He was even heard to jest upon the occasion ; for, when the embassadors from Troy came somewhat late with their compliments of condolance, he answered their pretended dis- tresses, by condoling with them also upon the death of Hector. Sejanus having succeeded in this, was resolved to make his next attempt upon the children of Germanicus, who were undoubted successors to the empire. However, he was frustrated in his designs, both with regard to the fidelity of their governors, and the chastity of Agrippina, their mother. Whereupon, lie resolved upon ehang* THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 120 ing his aims, and removing Tiberius out of the city ; by which means he expecled more frequent opportunities of putting his designs into execu- tion. He therefore used all his address to per- suade Tiberius to retire to some agreeable retreat, remote from Rome. By this he expecled many advantages, since there could be no access to the emperor but by him. Thus all letters being con- veyed to the prince by soldiers at his own devo- tion, they would pass through his hands; by which means he must in time become the sole governor of the empire ; and, at last, be in a capacity of removing all obstacles to his ambition. He now, therefore, began to insinuate to Tiberius the great and numerous inconveniences of the eity ; the fatigues of attending the senate ; and the seditious temper of the inferior citizens of Rome. Tiberius, either prevailed upon by his persuasions, or pursuing the natural turn of his temper, which led to indolence and debauchery, in the twelfth year of his reign left Rome, and went into Campania, under pretence of dedi- cating temples to Jupiter and Augustus. After this, though he removed to several places, lie never returned to Rome, but spent the greatest part of his time in the island of Caprea, a place which was rendered as infamous by his plea- sures, as detestable by his cruelties, which were shocking to human nature. For hav- ing, in pursuance of his intentions, dedicated the temples which he had built in Campania, he published an edict, forbidding all persons to dis- vol. II, k 130 THE HISTORY OF turb his repose ; and stopped the concourse of his subjects, by placing soldiers in the ways which led to his palace. But still growing- weary of places where mankind might follow him with their complaints and distresses, he withdrew him- self, as was said, into that most delightful island of Caprea, three miles from the continent, and opposite Naples. Buried in this retreat, he gave himself up to his pleasures, quite regardless of the miseries of his subjects. Thus an insurrec- tion of the Jews, upon placing his statue in Je- rusalem, under the government of Pontius Pilate, gave him no sort of uneasiness. The falling of an amphitheatre at Fidenae, in which fifty thou- sand persons were either killed or wounded, no way affecled his repose. He was only employed m studying how to vary his odious pleasures, and forcing his feeble frame, shattered by age and former debaucheries, into the enjoyment of them. Nothing can present a more horrid pic- ture than the retreat of this impure old man, at- tended in this place by all the ministers of his perverted appetites. He was at this time sixty- seven years old ,* his person was most displeasing; and some say the disagreeableness of it, in a great measure, drove him into retirement. He was qxiite bald before ; his face was all broke out into ulcers, and covered over with plaisters ; his body was bowed forward ; while its extreme height and leanness, encreased its deformity. With auih a person, and a mind still more hideous, beiag gloomy, suspicious. and\cruel. he sat down Tllti EMPIHE OF ROME. 131 with a view rather of forcing his appetites than satisfying them. He spent whole nights in de- baucheries at the table ,* and he appointed Pom- ponius Flaccus, and Lucius Piso, to the first posts of the empire, for no other merit than that of having sat up with him two days and two nights without interruption. These he called his friends of all hours. He made one Novelius Torgnatus a praetor, for being able to drink off five bottles of wine at a draught. His luxuries of another kind were still more detestable, and seemed to encrease with his drunkenness and glut- tony. He made the most eminent women of Rome subservient to his lusts, and all his inven- tions only seemed calculated how to make his vices more extravagant and abominable! Here he invented rooms adapted to his libidinous ex- ercises, where he made use of all manner of in- centives, which nothing but the depraved ima- gination of a tyrant could delight in. The num- berless obscene medals dug up in that island at this day, bear witness at once to his shame, and the veracity of the historians who have described his debaucheries, In short, in this retreat, which was surrounded with rocks on every side, he 1 quite gave up the business of the empire ; or, if he was ever active, it was only to do mischief. In facl, it had been happy for mankind, had he given up his suspicions, when he declined the' fatigues of reigning> and resigned the will to do harm, when he divested himself of the power of doing good. But from the time of his retreat k 2 132 THE HISTORY OF he became more cruel, and Sejanus always endea- voured to increase his distrusts. Secret spies and informers were placed in all parts of the city, who converted the most harmless aclions into subjects of offence. If any person of merit testified any concern for the glory of the empire, it was im- mediately construed into a design to obtain it. If another spoke with regret of former liberty, he was supposed to aim at re-establishing the commonwealth. Every a6iion became liable to forced interpretations ; joy expressed an hope of the prince's death ; melancholy, an envying of his prosperity. Sejanus found his aims every day succeeding ; the wretched emperor's terror* were an instrument that he wrought upon at his pleasure, and by which he levelled every obsta- cle to his designs. But the chief objects of his jealousy were the children of Germanicus, whom he resolved to put out of the way. He, there- fore, sedulously continued to render them ob- noxious to the emperor, to alarm him with false reports of their ambition, and to terrify them with alarms of his intended cruelty. By these means, he so contrived to widen the breach, that he ac- tually produced on both sides those dispositions which he pretended to obviate ; till at length, the two princes, Nero and Drusus, were de- clared enemies to the state, and afterwards starv- ed to death in prison, while Agrippina, their mo- ther, was sent into banishment. In consequence of their pretended crimes, many others lost their lives. Sabinus, who was THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 133 attached to their interests, was accused and con- demned by a most vile combination of informers against him. Asinius Gallus was sentenced to remain in prison only to increase the rigour of his punishment by a lingering death. Syriacus was condemned and executed, merely for being a friend to the latter. In this manner Sejanus pro- ceeded., removing all who stood between him. and the empire, and every day increasing in con- fidence with Tiberius, and power with the se- nate. The number of his statues exceeded even those of the emperor ; people swore by his for- tune, in the same manner as they would have done, had he been actually upon the throne, and he was more dreaded than even the tyrant who actually enjoyed the empire. But the. rapidity of his rise seemed only preparatory to the great- ness of his downfall, All we know of his first disgrace with the emperor is, that Satrius Secun- dum was the man who had the boldness to accuse him. Antonia, the mother of Germanicus, se- conded the accusation. What were the particu- lars of his crimes, we now cannot learn ; but certain it is, that he attempted to usurp the em- pire by aiming at the life of Tiberius ; but his own life was very opportunely substituted to that against which he aimed. Tiberius, sensible of the traitor's power, proceeded with his usual dis- simulation in having him apprehended. He granted him new honours at the very time he re- solved his death, and took him as his colleague in the consulship. The emperor's letter to the k3 134 THE HISTORY OF senate began only with slight complaints against his friend, but ended with an order for putting him in prison. He entreated the senators to pro«- te6l a poor old man, as he was, abandoned by all ; and in the mean time prepared ships for his flight, and ordered soldiers for his security. The senate, who had long been jealous of the favour- ite's power, and dreaded his cruelty, immediately took this opportunity of going beyond their or- ders. Instead of sentencing him to imprison- ment, they diret^led his execution, A strange re^ volution now appeared in the city ; of those numbers that but a moment before were pressing in£o the presence of Sejanus with offers of ser^- vice and adulation, not one was found that would seem to be of his acquaintance : he was deserted by all ; and those who had formerly re- ceived the greatest benefits from him, seemed now converted into his most inveterate enemies. As he was conducting to execution, the people loadr ed him with insult and execration. He attempted to hide his face with his hands, but even this was denied him, and his hands were secured. He was pursued with sarcastic reproaches, his statues were instantly thrown down, and he himself shortly after strangled by the executioner. Nor did the ra^e of his enemies subside with his death ; his body was ignominiously dragged about the streets^ and his whole family executed with him. Such was the end of Sejanus ; a striking example of the instability of every favourite's power, and the preeariousness of every tyrant's friendship. THE EMPIRE OF ROME. IS* His death only lighted up the emperor's rage for further executions. Plancina, the wife of Piso, was put to death as little pitied as the former. Sextus Vestilius shared the same fate, as it was pretended, for having written a satire against Caligula, the only surviving son of Ger- manicus ; but his real fault was, that his severe virtues were become intolerable to the vicious emperor. Vescularius Attic us, and Julius Ma- rinus, formerly the inseparable friends of Tibe- rius, and who had been his companions in Rhodes, were now executed by his command for being attached to Sejanus ; and Mamercus Scaurus was also obliged to prevent his execution by suicide, for having written a tragedy upon the story of Atreus. The suspicious emperor applied to him- self the inve6live that was alledged against ty- rants in general ; and declared in a rage, that if he was become an Atreus, he would compel the author to become an Ajax. Vitia, an aged wo- man, was put to death, only for having lamented the execution of her son. Fufius, and his wife Publia, being accused of treason against the empe- ror, were obliged to prevent their condemnation by suicide. Confidius Proculus, as he was chear- fully employed amongst his friends, in celebrat- ing his birth-day, found himself, in an instant, dragged before the senate, accused of conspiring against the emperor, condemned, and executed : the whole family of Theophanes was treated with the same cruel expedition. Sextus Marius found his riches and the beauty of his daughter sunl- it 4 1SG THE HISTORY OF cient causes to procure his conviclion and death. The prisons were crowded with pretended ac- complices in the conspiracy of Sejanus. Tibe- rius began to grow weary of particular execu- tions ; he therefore gave orders, that all the ac- cused should be put to death together, without further examination. The whole city was filled with slaughter and mourning. The place of execution was a deplorable scene, where persons of every sex and age were exposed, racked and mangled ; dead bodies putrefying, lay heaped on each other, while even the friends of the wretched convicls were denied the satisfaction of Weeping. Thus miserable were the Romans, under the arbitrary rod of this gloomy tyrant ; no person, though ever so virtuous, could be safe ; or, rather, every virtue was but an approach to new dangers. Of twenty senators, whom he chose for his council, he put sixteen to death. " Let them hate me," cried he, " so long as they ff obey me." He even averred, that Priam was an happy man, who outlived all his posterity. In this manner there was not a day without some barbarous execution, in which the sufferers were obliged to undergo the most shameful indignities and exquisite torments. When one Carnulius had killed himself, to avoid the torture : " Ah," <:ried Tiberius, " how has that man been able to ;" escape me !" When a prisoner earnestly en? treated, that he would not defer his death : " No," cried the tyrant, " I am not sufficiently your i( friend, to shorten your torment." Sometimes THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 137 he was more jocose in his cruel ties, particularly when a certain man, stopping an hearse, de- sired the dead body to tell Augustus, that his le- gacies to the people were yet unpaid. Tiberius, sent for him, and, having paid him his share, caused him to be immediately executed ; bid- ding him go tell Augustus, that he, at least, had been satisfied. One would have thought that such cruelties, exercised at Rome, would have sa- tiated his love of vengeance ; but Caprea itself, the place secluded for his pleasures and his ease, was daily contaminated, not less with his cruel- ties than his debauchery. He often satisfied his eyes with the tortures of the wretches who were put to death before him ; and in the days of Sue- tonius the rock was to be seen, from which he ordered such as had displeased him to be thrown headlong. As he was one day examining some persons upon the rack, he was told that an old friend of his was come from Rhodes to see him. Tiberius supposing him brought for the purposes of information, immediately ordered him to the torture ; and when he was convinced of his mis- take, he ordered him to be put to death to pre- vent farther discovery. In this manner, did the tyrant continue to torment others, although he was himself still more tortured by his own suspicions. In one of his letters to the senate, he confessed that the gods and goddesses had so afflicted and con- founded him, that he knew not what, or how to write : and,, in fa6l, he had every reason for such 138 THE HISTORY OF a confession ; a plotting senate, a reviling people, his bodily infirmities encreased by his luxuries, and his nearest friends conscious of being sus- pected. The domestic policy of the empire, also, was in the hands of miscreants ; and the frontier provinces were invaded with impunity. Mesia was seized on by the Dacians and Sar- matians ; Gaul was wasted by the Germans, and Armenia conquered by the king of Parthia. These were losses that might excite the vigilance of any other governor but Tiberius. He, how- ever, was so much a slave to his brutal appetites, that he left his provinces wholly to the care of his lieutenants, and they were intent rather on the accumulation of private fortune, than the safety of the state. Such a total disorder in the empire, might be naturally supposed to produce a degree of anxiety in him who governed it ; so that he was heard to wish, That heaven and earth might perish with him when he died. In this manner he lived, odious to all the world, and troublesome to himself; an enemy to the lives of others, and a tormenter of his own. At length, however, in the twenty-second year of his reign, he began to feel the approaches of his dissolution, and all his appetites totally to forsake him. He now, therefore, found it was time to think of a successor, and hesitated for a long while, whether he should chuse Caligula, whose vices were too apparent to escape his ob- servation. He had been often heard to say, That this youth had all the faults of Sylla, without his THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 139 virtues ; that he was a serpent that would sling the empire, and a Phaeton that would set the world in a flame. However, notwithstanding all his well-grounded apprehensions, he named him for his successor; willing, perhaps, hy the enormity of Caligula's conduct, to cover the me- mory of his own. But though he thought fit to chuse a succes- sor, he could by no means think of dying : though totally forsaken by his appetites and enjoyments, his dissimulation never forsook him : he, there- fore, concealed his approaching decline with the utmost care, as if he was willing at once to hide it from the world and himself. He long had a contempt for physic, and refused the advice of such as attended him : he even seemed to take a pleasure in being present at the sports of the sol- diers, and ventured himself to throw a javelin at a boar that was let loose before him. The effort which he made upon this occasion, caused a pain in his side, which hastened the approaches of death : still, however, he seemed willing to avoid his end ; and strove, by change of place, to put off the inquietude of his own reflections. He left his favourite island, and went upon the continent : he at last fixed at the promontory of Misenum, in a house that formerly had belonged to L uc u 11 us. It was there that Charicles, his physician, pretending to kis9 his hand, felt the .failure of his pulse, and apprized Macro, the .emperor's present favourite, that he had not above 140 THE HISTORY OF two days to live. Tiberius, on the contrarv, who had perceived the art of Chariclev, did all in his power to impress his attendants with an opinion of his health : he continued at table till the evening ; he saluted all his guests as they left the room, and read the acls of the senate, in which they had absolved some persons he had ^written against, with great indignation. He re- solved to take signal vengeance of their disobe- dience, and meditated new schemes of cruelty, when he fell into such faintings, as all believed were fatal. It was in this situation, that, by Macro's advice, Caligula prepared to secure the succession. He received the congratulations of the whole court, he caused himself to be acknow- ledged by the praetorian soldiers, and went forth from the emperor's apartment amidst the ap- plauses of the multitude ; when all of a suddea lie was informed that the emperor was recovered, that he had begun to speak, and desired to eat. This unexpected account filled the whole court with terror and alarm : every one who had be- fore been earnest in testifying their joy, now re- assumed their pretended sorrow, and left the new emperor, through a feigned solicitude for the fate of the old. Caligula himself seemed thunder- struck : he preserved a gloomy silence, expecling nothing but death, instead of the empire at which he had aspired. • Macro, however, who was hardened in crime, ordered that the dying em*- peror should be dispatched, by smothering hha THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 141 with pillows, or, as others will have it, by poison. In this manner Tiberius died in 790. the seventy-eighth year of his age, after -*• °- reigning twenty-two. Little can be added to the character of this prince, which, in every instance, was so strongly marked with cruelty and dissimulation. It only remains, therefore, to characterize the people whom he governed. The Romans were, at this time, arrived at their highest pitch of effeminacy and vice. The wealth of almost every nation of the empire, having, for some time, circulated through the city, brought with it the luxuries peculiar to each country ; so that Rome pre sented a detestable picture of various pollutions. In this reign lived Appicius, so well known for having reduced gluttony hit ) system ; some of the notorious in this way, thought it no shame to give near an hundred pounds for a single fish, and exhaust a fortune of fifty thousand pound* in one entertainment. Debaucheries of every other kind kept pace with this ; while the detestable folly of the times thought it was re- fining upon pleasure to make it unnatural. There were at Rome men called Spintriae, whose sole trade it was, to study new modes of plea sure ; and these were universally favourites of the great. The senators were long fallen from their authority, and were no less eftranged from their integrity and honour. Their whole study seemed to be, how to invent new ways of flat- tering the emperor, and various methods of tor- 142 THE HISTORY OF iuentinghis supposed enemies. The people were still mote corrupt; they had, for some years, been accustomed to live in idleness, upon the donations of the emperor ; and, being satisfied with subsistence, entirely gave up their freedom. Too effeminate and cowardly to go to war, they only railed against their governors ; so that they were bad soldiers, and seditious citizens. It is not to be wondered at, therefore, that sucb in- different subjects should be indifferently govern- ed. It has been often asked, how so many of the emperors were bad princes. The answer is easy — because the people they had brought to command, were ill disposed to obey. Good sub- jects generally make good kings; while luxury, sedition, discontent and murmurs in the popu- lace, as usually produce severity, cruelty and sus- picion in him who is appointed to govern. Lit- tle more need be said of these times, but that, in the eighteenth year of this monarch's reign, Christ was crucified ; as if the universal depra- vity of mankind wanted no less a sacrifice than that of God himself, to reclaim them. Shortly after his death, Pilate wrote to Tiberius an ac- count of his passion, resurrection" and miracles ; upon which the emperor made a report of the whole to the senate, desiring that Christ might be accounted a God by the Romans. But the senate being displeased that the proposal had not come first from themselves, refused to allow of his apotheosis ; alledging an ancient law, which gave them the superintendence in all mat-* THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 14* ters of religion. They even went so far as, by an edi6l, to command, that all Christians should leave the city ; but Tiberius, by another edicl;, threatened death to all such as should accuse them ; by which means they continued unmolested during the rest of his reign. CHAFrER V. Caligula, the Fourth Emperor of Rome. N< O monarch ever came to the throne with more advantages than Caligula. He was the son of Germanicus, who had been the darling of the army and the people. He was bred among the soldiers, from whom he received the name of Caligula, from the short buskin, called Caliga, that was worn by the common centinels, and which was also usually worn by him. He suc- ceeded a merciless tyrant ; after whom, even mo- derate merit would look like excellence. Where- fore, asheapproached Rome, the principal men of the state went out in crowds to meet him* He received the congratulations of the people on every side, all equally pleased in being free from the cruelties of Tiberius, and in hoping new advantages from the virtues of his successor. 144 THE HISTORY OF Caligula seemed to take every precaution, to impress them with the opinion of an happy change. Amidst the rejoicings of the multitude, he advanced mourning, with the dead body of Tiberius, which the soldiers brought to be burnt at Rome, according to the custom of that time. Upon his entrance into the city, he was received with new titles of honour by the senate, whose chief employment seemed now to be, the art of encreasing their emperor's vanity, He was left coheir with Gemellus, grandson to Tiberius ; but they set aside the nomination, and declared Caligula sole successor to the empire. The joy for this election was not confined to the narrow bounds of Italy, it spread through the whole empire, and victims without number were sacri- ficed upon the occasion. Some of the people, upon his going into the island of Campania, made vows for his return ; and shortly after, when he fell sick, the multitude crowded whole nights round his palace, and some even devoted themselves to death, in case he recovered, setting up bills of their resolutions in the street. In this affection of the citizens, strangers themselves teemed ambitious of sharing. Artabanus, king of Parthia, who took every method of contemning his predecessor, sought the present emperor's alliance with assiduity. He came to a personal conference with one of his legates ; he passed the Euphrates, he adored the Roman eagles, and kissed the emperor's images ; so that the whole world seemed combined to praise him for virtues, THE EMPIRE OF ROME* 145 which their hopes,, and not their experience, had given him. Thus all the enormities of this emperor were concealed in the beginning of his reign. He, at first, seemed extremely careful of the public ; and having performed the funeral solemnities of Tiberius, he hastened to the islands of Pandataria and Pontia, to remove the ashes of his mother and brothers, exposing himself to the danger of tem- pestuous weather, to give a lustre to his piety. Having brought them to Rome, he ordained annual solemnities in their honour, and ordered the month of September to be called Germanicus, in memory of his father. These ceremonies being over, he conferred the same honours upon his grandmother Antonia, which had before been given to Livia ; and ordered all informations to be burnt, that any ways exposed the enemies of his family. He even refused a paper that was offered him, tending to the discovery of a con- spiracy against himself; alledging, That he was conscious of nothing to deserve any man's hatred, and, therefore, had no fears from their machina- tions. He caused the institutions of Augustus, which had been disused in the reign of Tiberius, to be revived; he undertook to reform many abuses in the state, and severely punished corrupt governors. Among others, he banished Pontius Pilate into Gaul, where this unjust magistrate afterwards put an end to his life by suicide. He stri6lly inspected the behaviour of the knights, VOL. II. L 146 THE HISTORY OF whom he publicly degraded upon being found guilty of an infamous crime. - He banished, without remission, the Spintriae, or inventors of abominable recreations, from Rome. He attempted to restore the ancient manner of electing magistrates by the suffrages of the people, and gave them a free jurisdiction, without any appeal to himself. Although the will of Tiberius was annulled by the senate, and that of Livia suppressed by Tiberius, yet he caused all their legacies to be punctually paid ; and, in order to make Gemellus amends for tnissing the crown,, he caused him to be elected Princeps Juventutis, or Principal of the Youth. He restored some kings to their dominions, who had been unjustly dispossessed by Tiberius, and gave them the arrears of their revenues. And* that he might appear an encourager of every virtue, he ordered a female slave a large sum of money for enduring the most exquisite torments, without discovering the secrets of her master. So many concessions, and such apparent virtue, could not fail of receiving just applause. A shield of gold, bearing his image, was decreed to be carried annually to the Capitol, attended by the senate, and the sons of the nobility, singing in praise of the emperor's virtues. It was likewise ordained, that the day on which he was appointed to the empire should be called Pubitia ; implying, that when he came to govern, the city received a new foundation. THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 14? But it had been happy for him and the empire, had such a beginning been as strenuously main- tained. In less than eight months all this shew of moderation and clemency vanished; while furious passions, unexampled avarice, and capri- cious cruelty, began to take their turn in his mind; As most of the cruelties of Tiberius arose from suspicion, so most of those committed by Caligula took rise from prodigality. Some, indeed, pre- tend to assert, that a disorder which happened soon after his accession to the empire, entirely distorted his reason, and discomposed his under- standing. However this may be, madness itself could scarce chelate cruelties more extravagant, or inconsistencies more ridiculous than are im- puted to him ; some of them appear almost be- yond belief, as they seem entirely without any motive to incite to such barbarities. The first object of his cruelty, and one that will scarcely be regretted by posterity, was a person named Politus, who had devoted himself to death, in case the emperor, who was then sick, should recover. When Caligula's health was re-esta- blished, he was informed of the zeal of Politus, and actually compelled him to complete his vow, This ridiculous devotee was, therefore, led round the city, by children, adorned with chaplets, and then put to death, being thrown headlong from the ramparts. Another, named Secundus, had vowed to fight in the amphitheatre upon the same occasion. To this he was also compelled, the emperor himself chusing to be a spectator of the l2 148 THE HISTORY OF combat. However, he was more fortunate than the former, being so successful as to kill his adversary, by which he obtained a release from his vow. Gemellus was the next who suffered from the tyrant's inhumanity. The pretence against him was, that he had wished the emperor might not recover, and that he had taken a counter- poison to secure him from any secret attempts against his life. Caligula ordered him to kill himself; but as the unfortunate youth was igno- rant of the manner of doing it, the emperor's messengers soon instructed him in the fatal lesson. Silenus, the emperor's father-in-law, was the next that was put to death upon slight suspicions ; and Grecinus, a senator of noted integrity, refusing to witness falsely against him, shared his fate. After followed a crowd of victims to the emperor's avarice or suspicion. The pretext against them was their enmity to his family ; and in proof of his accusations he produced these very memorials, which but a while before he pretended to have burnt. Among the number of those who were sacrificed to his jealousy, was Macro, the late favourite of Tiberius, and the person to whom Caligula owed his empire. He was accused of many crimes, some of which were common to the emperor, as well as to him, and his death brought on the ruin of that favourite's whole family. These cruelties, however, only seemed the first fruits of a mind naturally timid and suspicious : his vanity and profusion soon gave rise to other* THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 149 which were more atrocious, as they sprung from less powerful motives. His pride first began by assuming to himself the title of ruler, which was usually granted only to kings. He would also have taken the crown and diadem, had he not been advised that he was already superior to all the monarchs of the world. Not long after he assumed divine honours, and gave himself the names of such divinities as he thought most agreeable to his nature. For this purpose he caused the heads of the statues of Jupiter and some other gods to be struck off, and his own to be put in their places. He frequently seated him- self between Castor and Pollux, and ordered that all who came to their temple to worship, should pay their adorations only to him. However, such was the extravagant inconstancy of this unaccountable ideot, that he changed his divinity as often as he changed his clothes : being at one time a male deity, at another a female ; sometimes Jupiter or Mars, and not unfrequently Venus or Diana. He even built and dedicated a temple to his own divinity, in which his statue of gold was every day drest in similar robes to those which he himself wore, and was worshipped by crowds of adorers. His priests were numerous, the sacri- fices made to him were of the most exquisite .delicacies that could be procured, and the dignity of the priesthood was sought by the most opulent men of the city. However, he admitted his wife and his horse to that honour; and, to give a finishing stroke to his absurdities, he became a l3 150 THE HISTORY OF priest to himself. His method of assuming the manners of a deity was not less ridiculous : he often went out in the full moon, and courted it in the style of a lover. He often invited it to his bed, to taste the pleasure of his embraces. He employed many inventions to imitate thunder, and would frequently defy Jupiter, crying out with a speech of Homer, " Do you conquer me, "or I will conquer you." He frequently pre^- tended to converse in whispers with the statue of Jupiter, and usually seemed angry at its replies ; threatened to send it packing into Greece. Some- times, however, he would assume a better temper, and seemed contented that they two should dwell together in amity. A person so impious respecting the Deity, was still more criminal with regard to man. He was not. less notorious for the depravation of his ap- petites, than for his ridiculous presumption. Neither person, place, nor sex, were obstacles to the indulgence of his unnatural lusts. There was scarce a lady of any quality in Rome that escaped his lewdness ; and, indeed, such was the dege- neracy of the times, that there were few ladies then who did not think this disgrace an honour. He committed incest with his three sisters, and at public feasts they lay with their heads upon his bosom by turns. Of these he prostituted Livia and Agrippina to his vile companions, and then banished them as adultresses and conspirators against his person. As for Drusilla, he took her from her husband Longinus, and kept her as his THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 151 wife. Her he loved so affectionately, that, being sick, he appointed her the heiress of his empire and fortune; and she happening to die before him, he made her a goddess. Nor did her example, when living, appear more dangerous to the people than her divinity, when dead. To mourn for her death was a crime, as she was become a goddess ; and to rejoice for her deity, was capital, because she was dead. Nay, even silence itself was an unpardonable insensibility, either of the emperor's loss or his sister's advancement. Thus he made his sister subservient to his profit, as before he had done to his pleasure ; raising vast sums of money by granting pardons to some, and by confiscating the goods of others. As to his marriages, whether he contracted them with greater levity, or dissolved them with greater injustice, is not easy to determine. Being present at the nuptials of Livia Oristilla with Piso, as soon as the solemnity was over, he com- manded her to be brought to him as his own wife, and then dismissed her in a few days. He soon after went so far as to banish her, upon sus- picion of cohabiting with her husband after she was parted from him. He was enamoured of Lol- lia Paulina, upon a bare relation of her grand- mother's beauty ; and thereupon took her from her husband who commanded in Macedonia; notwithstanding which he repudiated her as he had done the former, and likewise for -jade her future marrying with any other. The v/ife who caught his affeclions most was Milonia Csesonia, l4 152 THE HISTORY OF whose chief merit lay in her perfe6i acquaint* ance with all the alluring arts of her sex, for she was otherwise possessed neither of youth nor beauty. She continued with him during his reign, and he loved her so ridiculously, that he sometimes shewed her to his soldiers drest in ar- mour, and sometimes to his companions stark naked ; so that his very regards were a reproach to those whom he wished to oblige. His envy was still more detestable than his lusts. We are told that he put Caius to death for no other crime, than because he wore a pur- ple gown, the lustre of which called off all the regards of the spectators from himself. He or- dered several persons in the city to be shaved, for having hair more beautiful than ordinary. He ordered one Proculus, who was remarkable for his beauty and the tallness of his stature, to descend into the amphitheatre, and to fight among the combatants as a gladiator. Proculus came off victorious, having vanquished two men one after the other. However, the tyrant was not satisfied with this punishment, but caused him to be bound and clothed in rags, and then to be led round the city and slain. Being pre- sent at the public games, where' a particular gla- diator succeeded with more than ordinary ap- plause, he was so highly displeased that he flung himself out of the amphitheatre in a fury, crying out with great indignation, that the Romans gave more honour to a pitiful fencer, than to the emperor himself. THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 153 But of all vices, his prodigality was the most remarkable, and that which in some measure gave rise to the rest. The luxuries of former empe- rors were simplicity itself, when compared to those which he practised. He contrived new ways of bathing, where the richest oils and most preci- ous perfumes were exhausted with the utmost profusion. He found out dishes of immense va- lue, and had even jewels, as we are told, dissolved among his sauces. He, sometimes, had services of pure gold presented before his guests instead of meat, observing, That a man should be an •economist or an emperor. The expensive manner in which he maintained his horse will give some idea of his domestic ceconomy. He built it a stable of marble, and a manger of ivory. Whenever this animal, which he called Incitatus, was to run, he placed cen- tinels near its stable, the night preceding, to prevent its slumbers from being broken. He appointed it an house, furniture, and a kit- chen, in order to treat all its visitors with pro- per respect. The emperor sometimes invited In- citatus to his own table, presented it with gilt oats, and wine in a golden cup. He often swore by the safety of his horse, and it is said he would have appointed it to the consulship, had not his death prevented. For several days together he flung considerable sums of money among the people. He ordered ships of a prodigious bulk to be built of cedar, 154 THE HISTORY OF the sterns of ivory inlaid wifch gold and jewels, the sails and tackling of various silks, while the decks were planted with the choicest fruit trees, under the shade of which he often dined. There, attended by all the ministers of his pleasures, the most exquisite singers, and the most beauti- ful youths, he coasted along the shore of Cam- pania with great splendour. All his buildings seemed rather calculated to raise astonishment, than to answer the purposes of utility. He or- dered houses to be built in the sea ; he cut hia way through rocks of prodigious bulk ; he level- led mountains, and elevated plains and valleys* But the most notorious instance of his fruitless profusion was the vast bridge at Puteoli, which he undertook in the third year of his reign. To satisfy his desire of being master as well of the ocean as the land, he caused an infinite number ©f ships to be fastened to each other, so as to make a floating bridge from Baid to Puteoli, across an arm of the sea three miles and an half broad. The ships being placed in two rows, in form of a crescent, were secured to each other with anchors, chains, and cables. Over these were laid vast quantities of timber, and upon them earth, so as to make the whole resemble one of the streets of Rome. He next caused se- veral houses to be built upon his new bridge, for the reception of himself and his attendants, into which fresh water was conveyed by pipes from the land. He then repaired thither with all bis THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 155 court, attended by prodigious throngs of people, who came from all parts, to be spectators of such an expensive pageant. It was there that Cali- gula, adorned with all the magnificence of east- ern royalty, sitting on horseback with a civic crown, and Alexander's breast-plate, attended by the great officers of the army, and all the nobi- lity of Rome, entered at one end of the bridge, and with ridiculous importance rode to the other. At night, the number of torches and other illu- minations with which this expensive structure was adorned, cast such a gleam as illuminated the whole bay, and all the neighbouring moun- tains. This seemed to give the weak emperor new cause for exultation, boasting, that he had turned night into day, as well as sea into land. The next morning he again rode over in a trium- phant chariot, followed by a numerous train of charioteers, and all his soldiers in glittering ar- mour. He then ascended a rostrum erecled for the occasion, where he made a solemn oration in praise of the greatness of his enterprize, and the assiduity of his workmen and his army. He then distributed rewards among his men, and a splendid feast succeeded. However, there was still wanting something to mark the disposition of the mighty projector. In the midst of the entertainment many of his attendants were thrown into the sea; several ships filled with spectators, were attacked and sunk in an hostile manner; and, although the majority escaped 159 THE HISTORY OF through the calmness of the weather, yet many were drowned ; and some who endeavoured to save themselves by climbing up the bridge, were struck down again by the emperor's command. The calmness of the sea during this pageant, which continued two days, furnished Caligula with fresh opportunities for boasting; being heard to say, " That Neptune took care to keep " the sea smooth and serene, merely out of re- " verence to himself." Expences like these, it may naturally be sup- posed, must have exhausted the most unbounded wealth : in fa6l, after reigning about a year, Caligula found his revenues totally exhausted ; and a fortune of about eighteen millions of our money, which Tiberius had amassed together, entirely spent in extravagance and folly. Now, therefore, his prodigality put him upon new methods of supplying the exchequer; and, as before his profusion, so now his rapacity became boundless. He put in practice all kinds of ra- pine and extortion; while his principal study seemed to be the inventing new imposts, and illicit confiscations. Every thing was taxed, to the very wages of the meanest tradesman. He caused freemen to purchase their freedom a se- cond time ; and poisoned many who had named him for their heir, to have the immediate posr- .session of their fortunes. He set up a brothel in his own palace, by which he gained consider- able sums by all the methods of prostitution. THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 157 lie also kept a gaming house, in which he him- self presided, scrupling none of the mean tricks of that reptile race, in order to advance his gains. On a certain occasion, having had a run of ill luck, he saw two rich knights passing through his court, upon which he suddenly rose up, and causing both to be apprehended, confiscated their estates ; and then joining his former com- panions, boasted that he never had a better throw in his life. Another time, wanting money for a stake, he went dow r n, and caused several noble- men to be put to death, and then returning, told the company, That they sate playing for trifles, while he had won sixty thousand sesterces at a cast. Having had a daughter born, he com- plained openly of his poverty, and published an edicl; that he would receive whatever presents should be sent him, and actually stood in the portico of his palace, to induce the people to be liberal in their donations. These methods, however, were but subordinate to the cruelties by which he acquired immense sums. He slew many of the senate, and after- wards cited them to appear as if they had killed themselves. He condemned many persons of the highest quality to dig in the mines, and to repair the high-ways, for offering to ridicule his profusion. He cast great numbers of old and infirm men and poor decrepid housekeepers to wild beasts, to free the state from such unservice- able citizens. He usually fed his wild beasU ]58 THE HISTORY' OF with the bodies of those wretches whom he con- demned ; and every tenth day, sent off numbers of them to he thus devoured ; which he jocosely called, Clearing- his accounts. One of those who was thus exposed, crying out that he was inno- cent, Caligula ordered his tongue to be cut out, and then thrown into the amphitheatre as before. He took delight in killing men with slow tor- tures, that, as he expressed it, they might feel themselves dying ; being always present at such executions, himself directing the duration of the punishment, and mitigating the tortures, merely to prolong them. In fact, he valued himself for no quality more than this unrelenting temper, and inflexible severity which he preserved while presiding at an execution. His barbarous attempts at wit in the midst of slaughter, sufficiently evince what little pain he felt from compassion. An eminent citizen, who for an indisposition had got leave to retire into the island Anticyra, which was a place famous for curing madness by hellebore, desiring to have his stay prolonged, Caligula ordered him to be put to death ; adding, with a smile, That bleed- ing must certainly be useful to one who had so long taken hellebore without success. On put- ting a wrong person to death by mistake, upon finding his error, he said it was well done, for this criminal had doubtless deserved to die as well as the other. This horrid disposition never forsook him, even in his most festive hours : he frequently had men racked before him, while he THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 159 *at at meat, ironically pitying their misfortunes, and blaming their executioner. He always de- sired to have the friends and relations of the suf- ferer to be present at these executions. Upon a certain occasion one of them excusing himself upon account of sickness, the tyrant sent a litter to carry him. Whenever he kissed his wife or mistress, he generally laid his hand on her neck, observing, that, however smooth and lovely it was, he could take it off when he pleased. Demand- ing of one whom he had recalled from banish- ment, how he employed himself in his exile ; being told, that he had prayed for the death of Tiberius, Caligula immediately concluding that all whom he himself had banished, wished for his death likewise, commanded that all exiles should be slain without mercy. At one time, being incensed with the citizens of Rome, he wished that all the Roman people had but one neck, that he might dispatch them at a blow. Such insupportable and capricious cruelties produced many secret conspiracies against him ; but these were for a while deferred, upon ac- count of his intended expedition against the Ger- mans and Britains, which he undertook in the third year of his reign. For this purpose, he caused numerous levies to be made in 793. all parts of the empire, and talked with so A - D - much resolution, that it was universally be- lieved he would conquer all before him. His march perfectly indicated the inequality of his temper : sometimes it was so rapid that the co- 160 THE HISTORY OF horts were obliged to leave their standards be- hind them ; at other times it was so slow, that it more resembled a pompous procession than a military expedition. In this disposition he would cause himself to be carried on eight men's should- ers, and order all the neighbouring cities to have their streets well swept and watered, to defend him from the dust. However, all these mighty preparations ended in nothing. Instead of con- quering Britain, he only gave refuge to one of its banished princes ; and this he described in his letter to the senate, as taking possession of the whole island. Instead of conquering Germany, he only led his army to the sea-shore, in Batavia. There, disposing his engines and warlike ma- chines with great solemnity, and drawing up his men in order of battle, he went on board his galley, with which coasting along, he commanded his trumpets to sound, and the signal to be given as if for an engagement ; upon which his men, having had previous orders, immediately fell to gathering the shells that lay upon the shore into their helmets, terming them the spoils of the con- quered ocean, worthy of the palace and the Capi- tol. After this doughty expedition, calling his army together, as a general after victory, he ha- rangued them in a pompous manner, and highly extolled their atchievements ; and then distribut- ing money among them, dismissed them with or- ders to be joyful, and congratulated them upon their riches. But that such exploits should not pass without a memorial, he caused a lofty tower THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 161 to be ereeled by the sea-side, and ordered the galleys in which he had put to sea, to be con- veyed to Rome, in a great measure, by land. After numberless instances of folly and cruelty in this expedition, among which he had inten- tions of destroying the whole army, that had formerly mutinied under his father Germanicus, he began to think of a triumph. The senate, who had long been the timid ministers of his pride and cruelty, immediately set about consult- ing how to satisfy his expectations. They con- sidered that a triumph would, even to himself^ appear as a burlesque upon his expedition : they, therefore, decreed him only an ovation. Hav- ing come to this resolution, they sent him a de- putation, informing him of the honours granted him, and the decree, which was drawn up in. terms of the most extravagant adulation. How- ever, their flattery was far from satisfying his pride. He considered their conduct rather as a dimunition of his power, than an addition to his glory. He, therefore, ordered them, on pain of death, not to concern themselves with his ho- nours ; and being met by their messengers on the way, who invited him to come and partake of the preparations which the senate had decreed, he informed them that he would come ; and then laying his hand upon his sword, added, That he w ould bring that also with him. In this man- ner, either quite omitting his triumph, or defer- ring it to another time, he entered the city only with an ovation: while the senate passed the VOL. II. M 164 THE HISTORY OF whole day in acclamations in his praise, and speeches filled with the most excessive flattery. This conducl, in some measure, served to recon- cile him ; and soon after, their excessive zeal in his cause, entirely gained his favour. For it happened that Protogenes, who was one of the most intimate, and the most cruel of his favour- ites, coming into the house, was fawned upon by the whole body of the senate, and particu- larly by Proculus. Whereupon, Protogenes with a fierce look, asked how one who was such an enemy to the emperor could be such a friend to him ? There needed no more to excite the se- nate against Proculus. They instantly seized upon him, and violently tore him in pieces; plainly shewing by their conducl, that tyranny in the prince produces cruelty in those whom he- governs. It was after returning from his extravagant expedition, that he was waited on by a deputa- tion from the Jews of Alexandria, who came to deprecate his anger, for not worshipping hi* divinity as other nations had done. He was employed in looking over some houses of plea- sure, and giving directions to the workmen^ when Philo, the Jew, and the rest of the embas- sy, were admitted to an audience. Upon theif approaching him with the most profound hu* mility, he began by calling them enemies to the gods, and by asking them how they could refuse to acknowledge his divinity r Upon their reply- ing that they had sacrificed hecatombs, both THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 163 upon his accession to the empire, and his reco- very from sickness, he replied, That those sacri- fices were offered not to him, but for him. In the mean time, while they continued silently astonished at his impiety, he went from room to room, giving directions to his workmen concern- ing new improvements, and remarking such parts of the furniture as happened to displease him. He would now and then stop to ask some extravagant question. " What can be the reason/* cried he, "that you Jews abstain from pork?" This question seemed so very lively to his attend- ants, that they burst into such loud fits of laugh- ter, as obliged an officer who was present, to re- primand them. Philo was willing to give him all the information he was able upon this head, and began by saying, That different nations had different customs ; that, while the people of one religion abstained from pork, those of another never eat lamb. " Nor do I blame them," cried Caligula, f their ancient hatred to the senate, and remem- bered the donations and public spectacles of the emperors with regret. The latter were sensible they could have no power but in a monarchy ; and had some hopes that the election of the emperor would fall to their determination. In this opposition of interest, and variety of opinions, chance seemed at last to decide the fate of the empire. Some soldiers happening to run about the palace, discovered Claudius, Caligula's uncle, lurking in a secret place, where he had hid him- self through fear. Of this personage, who had THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 171 hitherto been despised for his imbecillity, they resolved to make an emperor ; and accordingly carried him upon their shoulders to the camp, where they proclaimed him, at a time he expected nothing but death. The senate now, therefore, perceiving that force alone was likely to settle the succession, were resolved to submit, since they had no power to oppose. Claudius was the person most nearly allied to the late emperor, then living, being the nephew of Tiberius, and the uncle of Caligula. The senate, therefore, passed a decree, confirm- ing him in the empire ; and went soon after in a body, to render him their compulsive homage. Cherea was the first who fell a sacrifice to the jealousy of this new monarch. He met death with all the fortitude of an ancient Roman, de- siring to die by the same sword with which he had killed Caligula. Lupus, his friend, was put to death with him ; and Sabinus, one of the con- spirators, laid violent hands on himself. Claudius was now fifty years old, when he began to reign. The complicated diseases of his infancy, had, in some measure, affected all the fa- culties both of his body and mind. He was con- tinued in a state of pupilage much longer than was usual at that time ; and seemed, in every part of life, incapable of conducting himself. Not that he was entirely destitute of understanding, since he had made a tolerable proficiency in the Oreek and Latin languages, and even wrote an history of his own time ; which, however desti- 172 THE HISTORY OF tute of other merit, was not contemptible in point of style. Nevertheless, with this share of erudition, he was unable to advance himself in the state, and seemed utterly neglected, till he was placed all at once at the head of affairs. The commencement of his reign, as it was with all the other bad emperors, gave the most pro- mising hopes of an happy continuance. He begun by passing an a6l of oblivion for all for- mer words and actions, and disannulled all the cruel edicls of Caligula. He shewed himself more moderate than his predecessors with re- gard to titles and honours. He forbad all per- sons, upon severe penalties, to sacrilice to him, as they had done to Caligula. He was assiduous in hearing and examining complaints ; and fre- quently administered justice in person ; temper- ing, by his mildness, the severity of strici jus- tice. We are told of his bringing a woman to acknowledge her son, by adjudging her to marry him. The tribunes of the people coming one day to attend him, when he was on his tribunal, he courteously excused himself, for not having room for them to sit down. By this deport- ment he so much gained the affections of the people, that upon a vague report of his being slain by surprize, they ran about the streets, in the utmost rage and consternation, with horrid imprecations against all such as were accessary to his death ; nor could they be appeased, till they were assured of his safety. He took a more than ordinary care that Rome should be contir- THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 173 ttually supplied with corn and provisions, secur- ing the merchants against pirates. He was not less assiduous in his buildings, in which he ex- celled almost all that went before him. He con- structed a wonderful aquEedu6t, called after his own name, much surpassing any other in Rome, either for workmanship, or plentiful supply. It brought water from forty miles distance, through great mountains, and over deep vallies, being built on stately arches, and furnishing the high- est parts of the city. He made also an haven at Ostia ; a work of such immense expence, that his successors were unable to maintain it. But his greatest work of all was, the draining the Jake Fucinus, which was the largest in Italy, and bringing its water into the Tyber, in order to strengthen the current of that river. For effect- ing this, among other vast difficulties, he mined through a mountain of stone, three miles broad, and kept thirty thousand men employed for ele-t ven years together. To this solicitude for the internal advantages of the state, he added that of a watchful guardian- ship over the provinces. He restored Judea to Herod Agrippa, which Caligula had taken from Herod Antipas, his uncle, the man who had put John the Baptist to death, and who was banished by order of the present emperor. Claudius also restored such princes to their kingdoms, as had, been unjustly dispossessed by his predecessors ; but deprived the Lycians and Rhodians of their 174 THE niSTORY OF liberty, for having promoted insurrections, and crucified some citizens of Rome. He even undertook to gratify the people by foreign conquest. The Britons, who had, for near an hundred years, been left in sole pos- session of their own island, began to seek the mediation of Rome, to quell their intestine com- motions. The principal man, who desired to subject his native country to the Roman domi- nion, was one Bericus, who, by many arguments, persuaded the emperor to make a descent upon the island, magnifying the advantages that would attend the conquest of it. In pursuance of his advice, therefore, Plautius, the praetor, was or- dered to pass over into Gaul, and make prepara- tions for this great expedition. At first, indeed, his soldiers seemed backward to embark, declar- ing that they were unwilling to make war be- yond the limits of the world, for so they judged Britain to be. However, they were at last per- suaded to go ; and the Britons, under the con- duel; of their king Cynobelinus, were several times overthrown. A . D . These successes soon after induced Clau- 46 « dius to go into Britain in person, upon pre- tence that the natives were still seditious, and had not delivered up some Roman fugitives, who had taken shelter among them. However, his expe- dition rather seemed calculated for shew than service ; the time he continued in Britain, which was in all but sixteen days, was more taken up THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 175 in receiving homage, than extending his con- quests. Great rejoicings were made upon hi* return to Rome : the senate decreed him a splen- did triumph, triumphal arches were erecled to his honour, and annual games instituted to com- memorate his victories. In the mean time, the war was vigorously prosecuted by Plautius and his lieutenant Vespasian, who, according to Sue- tonius, fought thirty battles with the enemy, and by that means reduced a part of the island into the form of a Roman province. However, A D< this war broke out afresh under the go- «. vernment of Ostorius, who succeeded Plautius. The Britons either despising him for want of experience, or hoping to gain advantage* over a person newly come to command, rose up in arms, and disclaimed the Roman power. The Iceni, the Cangi and the Brigantes, made a powerful resistance, though they were at length overcome ; but the Silures, or inhabitants of South Wales, under their king Caraciacus, were the most for- midable opponents the Roman generals had ever yet encountered. This brave barbarian not only made a gallant defence, but often seemed to claim a doubtful victory. He, with great conduct, re- moved the seat of war into the most inaccessible parts of the country, and for nine years kept the Romans in continual alarm. This general, however, upon the approach of Ostorius, finding himself obliged to come to a decisive engagement, addressed his countrymen with calm resolution ; telling them, that this ITS THE JIISTOHY OF battle would either establish their liberty, or cofl- firm their servitude : that they ought to remem- ber the bravery of their ancestors, by whose va- lour they were delivered from taxes and tributes, and that this was the time to shew themselves equal to their progenitors. Nothing, however, that undisciplined valour could perform, could avail against the conduct of the Roman legions. After an obstinate fight, the Britons were entirely routed ; the wife and daughter of Cara6tacus were taken prisoners; and he himself seeking refuge from Cartismandua, queen of the Bri- gantes, was treacherously delivered up to the conquerors. When he was brought to Rome, nothing could exceed the curiosity of the peo- ple, to behold a man who had, for so many years, braved the power of the empire. On his part, he testified no marks of base dejeclion ; but, as he was led through the streets, happening to ob- serve the splendour of every object around him ; " Alas," cried he, - but the natives being weakened by dissensions among each other, were many times overthrown, and more easily kept under. These transactions in Britain continued during the whole reign of Claudius : his first ex- pedition into Britain was in the second year of his reign, and the victory over Caraclacus in the tenth. I have thrown them, however, into one point of View, to avoid interrupting the narra- tive. Claudius, as I have said, gave, in the begin- ning of his reign, the highest hopes of an happy continuance ; but he soon began to lessen his care for the public, and to commit to his favour- ites ail the concerns of the empire. This weak prince had from his infancy been in a state of pupilage; and now, when called to govern, he was unable to act, but under the direction of others. Men of narrow capacities, and feeble minds, are only good or evil, as they happen to fall into the hands of virtuous or vicious guides ; and, unhappily for him, his dire6tors, were, to the last degree, abandoned, and infamous. The VOL. II. n 178 THE HISTORY OF chief of these, was his wife, Messalina, whose name is almost become a common appellation to women of abandoned characters. However, she was not less remarkable for her cruelties than her lusts, as by her intrigues she destroyed many of the most illustrious families of Rome. Subordinate to her were the emperor's freedmen ; Pallas, the treasurer ; Narcissus, the secretary of state ; and Callistus, the master of the re- quests. These entirely governed Claudius, so that he was only left the fatigues of ceremony, while they were possessed of all the power of the state. It would be tedious to enumerate the various cruelties which these insidious advisers obliged the feeble emperor to commit ; those against his own family will suffice. Appius Silanus, a per- son of great merit, who had been married to the emperor's mother-in-law, was put to death upon the suggestions of Messalina. After him he slew both his sons-in-law, Silanus and Pompey, and his two nieces, the Livias, one the daughter of Drusus, the other of Germanicus ; and all with- out permitting them to plead in their defence, or even without assigning any cause for his dis- pleasure. Great numbers of others fell a sacri- fice to the jealousy of Messalina and her mi- nions, who bore so great a sway in the state, that all offices, dignities and governments, were en- tirely at their disposal. Every thing was put to sale : they took money for pardons and penal- ties; and accumulated, by these means, such THE EMPIRE OF HOME. 179 vast sums, that the wealth of Crassus was consi- dered as nothing in comparison. One day, the emperor complaining that his exchequer was exhausted, he was ludicrously told, that it might be sufficiently replenished, if his two freedmen would take him into partnership. Still, how- ever, during such immense strides of corruption, lie regarded his favourites with the highest es* teem, and even solicited the senate to grant them peculiar marks of their approbation, These disorders in the ministers of government did not fail to produce conspiracies against the emperor, Statius Corvinus and Gallus Assinus formed a conspiracy against him. Two knights, whose names are not told us, privately combined to as-* sassinate him. But the revolt which gave him the greatest uneasiness, and which was punished with the most unrelenting severity, was that of Camillus, his lieutenant-governor in Dalmatia, This general, incited by many of the principal men of Rome, openly rebelled against him, and assumed the title of emperor. Nothing could exceed the terrors of Claudius, upon being in- formed of this revolt *. his nature and his crimes had disposed him to be more cowardly than the rest of mankind ; so that when Camillus com- manded him by his letters to relinquish the em* pire, and retire to a private station, he seemed inclined to obey. Notwithstanding, his fears upon this account were soon removed ; for the legions which had declared for Camillus being terrified by some remarkable prodigies, shortly n 2 im ■ fHE HISTORY OF after abandoned bim ; so that the man whom but live days before they had acknowledged as em- peror, they now thought it no infamy to destroy. The cruelty of Messalina and her minions upon this occasion, seemed to have no bounds. They ?o wrought upon the emperor's fears and sus- picions, that numbers were executed without trial or proof; and scarce any, even of those who were but suspe6ted, escaped,, unless by ran- soming their lives with their fortunes. Among the number who were put to death on this occasion, I can't omit mentioning the pathetic catastrophe of Petus and his faithful wife Arria. Cecina Petus was one of those un- fortunate men, who joined with Camillus against the emperor, and who, when his associate was slain by the army, had endeavoured to escape into Dalmatia. However, he was there appre- hended, and put on board a ship in order to be conveyed to Rome. Arria, who had been long the partner of his afle&ions and misfortunes, entreated his keepers to be taken in the same vessel with her husband. " It is usual," she said, " to grant a man of his quality a few slaves, to ''dress, undress and attend him ; I myself will lc perform all these offices, and save you the trou- " ble of a more numerous retinue." Her fidelity, however, could not prevail. She therefore hired a fisherman's bark, and thus kept company with the ship in which her husband was conveyed .through the voyage. They had an only son, equally remarkable for the beauty of his person. THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 181 and the rectitude of his disposition. This vouth died at the time his father was confined to his bed by a dangerous disorder. However, the af- fectionate Arria concealed her son's death, and in her visits to her husband testified no marks of sadness. Being asked how her son did, she re- plied that he was at rest, and only left her hus- band's chamber to give a vent to her tears. When Petus was condemned to die, and the orders were that he should put an end to his own life, Arria used every art to inspire him with resolution; and at length, finding him continue timid and wavering, she took the poniard, and stabbing herself in his presence, presented it to him, say- ing, * It gives me no pain, my Petus." By such cruelties as these, the favourites of the emperor endeavoured to establish his and their own authority: but in order to encrease the necessity of their assistance, they laboured to augment the greatness of his terrors. He now became a prey to jealousy and disquietude. Be- ing one day in the temple, and finding a sword that was left there by accident, he convened the senate in a fright, and informed them of his danger. After this he never ventured to go to any feast without being surrounded by his guards, nor would he suffer any man to approach him without a previous search. Thus wholly em- ployed by his anxiety for self-preservation, he entirely left the care of the state to his favourites, who by degrees gave him a relish for slaughter. From this time, he seemed delighted with inflicl- K3 182 THE HISTORY OF ing tortures, and on a certain occasion continued a whole day at the city Tibur, waiting for an hangman from Rome, that he might feast his eyes with an execution in the manner of the an- cients, Nor was he less regardless of the per- sons he condemned, than cruel in the infliction of their punishment. Such was his extreme stu- pidity, that he would frequently invite those to supper whom he had put to death but the day before ; and often denied the having given or- ders for an execution, but a few hours after pro- nouncing sentence. Suetonius assures us, that there were no less than thirty-five senators, and above three hundred knights, executed in his reign ; and that such was his unconcern in the midst of slaughter, that one of his tribunes bring- ing him an account of a certain senator who was executed, he quite forgot his offence, but calmly acquiesced in his punishment. In this manner was Claudius urged on by Messalina to commit cruelties, which he consi- dered only as wholesome severities, while in the mean time, she put no bounds to her enormities. The impunity of her past vices only encreasing her confidence to commit new, her debaucheries now became every day more notorious, and her lewdness exceeded what had ever been seen in Rome. She chose her paramours through wan- tonness, and then sacrificed them through caprice. She caused some women of the first quality to commit adultery in the presence of their hus- bands, and destroyed such as refused to comply. THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 183 After appearing for some years insatiable in Irer desires, she at length fixed her affeclions upon Caius Silius, the most beautiful youth in Rome. As all her passions were in extreme, her iove for this young Roman seemed to amount even to madness. She obliged him to divorce his wife Junia Syllana, that she might entirely pos- sess him herself. She obliged him to accept of immense treasures, and valuable presents, coha- biting with him in the most open manner, and treating him with the most shameless familiarity . The very imperial ornaments were transferred to his house, and the emperor's slaves and attend- ants had orders to wait upon the adulterer. No- thing was wanting to complete the insolence of their conducl, but their being married together, and that was soon after effected. They relied upon the emperor's imbecillity for security, and only waited till he retired to Ostia to put their ill-judged projccl into execution. In his ab- sence they celebrated their nuptials with all the ceremonies and splendour which attend the most confident security. Messalina giving a loose to her passion, appeared as a Bacchanalian with a thyrsus in her hand ; while Silius assumed the character of Bacchus, his body being adorned with robes imitating ivy, and his legs covered with buskins. A troop of singers and dancers attended, who heightened the revel with the most lascivious songs and the most indecent attitudes. In the midst of this riot, one Valens, a buffoon, is said to have climbed a tree ; and being de- n 4 1&4 THE HISTORY OF manded what he saw, answered that he perceived a dreadful storm coming from Ostia. What this fellow spoke at random, was actually at that time in preparation. It seems that some time before, as the friendships of the vicious are always of short duration, there had been a quarrel between Messalina and Narcissus, the emperor's first freed-man. This subtile mi- nister, therefore, desired nothing more than an opportunity of ruining the empress, and he judged this to be a most favourable occasion. He first made the discovery, by means of two concubines who attended the emperor, who were instructed to inform him of Messalina's mar- riage, as the news of the day, while Narcissus himself stept in to confirm their information. Finding that it operated upon the emperor's fears as he could wish, he resolved to alarm him still more by a discovery of all Messalina's pro- jects and attempts. He aggravated the danger, and urged the expediency of speedily punishing the delinquents. Claudius, quite terrified at so unexpected a relation, supposed that the enemy was already at his gates, and frequently inter- rupted his freedmen, by asking if he was still master of the empire. Being assured that he yet had it in his power to continue so, he resolved to go and punish the affront offered to his dignity without delay. Nothing could exceed the con- sternation of Messalina and her thoughtless com- panions, upon being informed that the emperor was coming to disturb their festivity. Every one THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 185 retired in the utmost confusion, Silius was taken. Messalina took shelter in some gardens formerly belonging to Lucullus, but which she had lately seized upon, having expelled Asiaticus the true owner, and put him to death. From thence she sent Britannicus, her only son by the emperor, with Oclavia her daughter, to intercede for her, and implore his mercy. She soon after followed them herself: but Narcissus had so fortified the emperor against her arts, and contrived such me- thods of diverting his attention from her defence, that she was obliged to retire in despair. Nar- cissus being thus far successful, led Claudius to the house of the adulterer, there shewed him the apartments adorned with the spoils of his own palace ; and then conducting him to the prae- torian camp, revived his courage by giving him assurances of the readiness of the soldiers to de- fend him. Having thus artfully wrought upon his fears and resentment, the wretched Silius was commanded to appear, who making no defence, was instantly put to death in the emperor's pre- sence. Several others shared the same fate, but Messalina still flattered herself with hopes of pardon. She resolved to leave neither prayers nor tears unattempted to appease the emperor. She sometimes even gave a loose to her resent- ment, and threatened her accusers with ven- geance. Nor did she want ground for entertain- ing the most favourable expe6tations. Claudius having returned from the execution of her para- mour, and having allayed his resentment in a 185 THE HISTORY OF banquet, began to relent. He now, therefore, commanded his attendants to apprize that miser- able creature, meaning; Messalina, of his resolu- tion to hear her accusation the next day, and or- dered her to be in readiness with her defence. The permission to defend herself would have been fatal to Narcissus, wherefore he rushed out, and ordered the tribunes and centurions who were in readiness, to execute her immediately by the emperor's command. Upon their arrival at the gardens, where she still continued, they found her stretched upon the ground, attended by her mother Lepida, who exhorted her to prevent her punishment by a voluntary death. But this un- fortunate woman was too much softened by lux- ury, to be able to face death without terror. In- stead of fortifying her resolution to meet the blow, she only gave way to tears and unpitied distress. At length, taking a sword from one of the soldiers, she put it to her breast; but her fears still prolonging the blow, the tribune ran her through the body, and so dispatched her. Claudius was immediately informed of her death, in the midst of his banquet; but this insensible ideot shewed not the least appearance of emotion. He continued at table with his usual tranquillity, while neither the love he bore her, the joy of her accusers, nor the sorrow of his children, had the least effect upon his temper. As a proof, how- ever, that this proceeded rather from stupidity than fortitude, the day following, while he was sitting at table, he asked why Messalina was ab- THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 187 sent, as if he had totally forgotten her crimes and her punishment. Claudius, being now a widower, declared publicly, that as he had been hitherto unfortunate in his marriages he would remain single for the future, and that he would be contented to forfeit his life, in case he broke his resolution. How- ever, the resolutions of Claudius were but of short continuance. Having been accustomed to live under the controul of women, his present freedom was become irksome to him, and he was entirely unable to live without a director. His freedmen, therefore, perceiving his inclinations, resolved to procure him another wife ; and, af- ter, some deliberation, they fixed upon Agrip- pina, the daughter of his brother Germanicus. This woman was more practised in vice than even the former empress. Her cruelties were more dangerous, as they were directed with greater caution : she had poisoned her former husband, to be at liberty to attend the calls of ambition ; and, perfectly acquainted with all the infirmities of Claudius, only made use of his power to advance her own. However, as the late declaration of Claudius seemed to be an ob- stacle to his marrying again, persons were sub- orned to move in the senate, that he should be compelled to take a wife, as a matter of great im* portance to the commonwealth ; and some more determined flatterers than the rest, left the house, as with a thorough resolution, that instant, to constrain him. When this decree (by which 188 THE HISTORY OF also incestuous marriages were made lawful ) past in the senate, Claudius had scarce patience to contain himself a day before the celebration of his nuptials. But such was the detestation in which the people in general held these incestuous matches, that, though they were made lawful, yet only one of his tribunes, and one of his freed- men Mere found base enough to follow his ex- ample. Claudius having now received a new director, submitted with more implicit obedience than in any former part of his reign. Agrippina's chief aims were to gain the succession in favour of her own son Nero, and to set aside the claims of young Britannicus, son to the emperor and Mes- salina. For this purpose she married Nero to the emperor's daughter 06tavia, a few days after her own marriage. Not long after this, she urged the emperor to strengthen the succession, in imi- tation of his predecessors, by making a new adoption, and advised him to take in her son Nero, in some measure to divide the fatigues of government. The feeble prince, who had no discernment nor malice but what were infused into him, immediately yielded to her persuasions, and adopted Nero in preference of his only son Britannicus. Her next care was to encrease her son's popularity, by giving him Seneca for a tutor. This excellent man, by birth a Spaniard, had been banished into the island of Corsica by Claudius, upon the false testimony of Messalina, wjio had accused him of adultery with Julia, THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 189 the emperor's niece. The people loved and admired him for his genius, but still more for his stri6i morality; and a part of his reputation therefore necessarily devolved to his pupil. This subtle woman was not less assiduous in pretend- ing the utmost a(Fe6tion for Britannicus ; whom, however, she resolved at a proper time to destroy ; but her jealousy was not confined to this child only ; she, shortly after her accession, procured the deaths of several ladies who had been her rivals in the emperor's affections. She displaced the captain of the guards, and appointed Burrhus to that command ; a person of great military knowledge, and strongly attached to her interests. From that time, she took less pains to dis- u. c. guise her power, and frequently entered 7 g 0> * the Capitol in a chariot ; a privilege which a. r. none before were allowed, except those of the sacerdotal order. In the twelfth year of this monarch's reign, she persuaded him to restore liberty to the Rho- dians, of which he had deprived them some years before ; and to remit the taxes of the citizens of Ilium, as having been the progenitors of Rome. Her design in this was to encrease the popularity of Nero, who pleaded the cause of both with great approbation. Thus did this ambitious woman take every step to aggrandize her son, and was even contented to become hateful her- self to the public, merely to encrease his popu- larity. Being one day told by an astrologer, that he would be emperor, and yet the cause of 190 THE HISTORY OF her death ; <( Let him kill me/' answered she, " provided he but reigns." Qccidct dum im- pcrat. Such a very immoderate abuse of her power, served at last to awaken the emperor's suspicions. Agrippina's imperious temper began to grow in- supportable to him ; and he was heard to declare, when heated with wine, That it was his fate to suffer the disorders of his wives, and to be their executioner. This expression sunk deep on her mind, and engaged all her faculties to prevent the blow. Her first care was to remove Nar- cissus, whom she hated upon many accounts, but particularly for his attachment to Claudius. This minister, for some time, opposed her de- signs ; but at length thought fit to retire by a voluntary exile into Campania. The unhappy emperor, thus exposed to all the machinations of his insidious consort, seemed entirely regardless of the dangers that threatened his destruction. His affe6tions for Britannicus were perceived every day to encrease, and served also to encreaso the vigilance of Agrippina, and add stings to her jealousy. She now, therefore, resolved not to defer a crime which she had meditated a long while before ; namely, that of poisoning her hus- band. She for some time, however, debated with herself in what manner she should admi- nister the poison ; as she feared too strong a dose would discover her treachery, and one too weak might fail of its effect. At length she deter- mined upon a poison of singular efficacy to de- THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 191 stroy his intellects, and yet not suddenly to ter- minate his life. As she had been long conver- sant in this horrid practice, she applied to a wo- man called Locusta, notorious for assisting on such occasions. The poison was given the em- peror among' mushrooms, a dish he was particu- larly fond of. Shortly after having eaten, he dropped down insensible ; but this caused no alarm, as it was usual with him to sit eating till he had stupified all his faculties, and was obliged to be carried off to his bed from the table. How- ever, his constitution seemed to overcome the effects of the potion, when Agrippina resolved to make sure of him ; wherefore she directed a wretched physician, who was her creature, to thrust a poisoned feather down his throat, under pretence of making him vomit, and this dispatch- ed him. The reign of this emperor, feeble and impo- tent as he was, produced no great calamities in the state, since his cruelties were chiefly levelled at those about his person. The list of the inha- bitants of Rome at this time amounted to six million eight hundred and forty-four thousand souls ; a number equal, perhaps to all the people of England at this day. In such a concourse, it is not to be doubted but every virtue and every vice must come to their highest pitch of refine- ment ; and, in fa6t, the conduct of Seneca seems an instance of the former, and that of Messalina of the latter. However, the general character of the times was that of corruption and luxury; 192 THE HISTORY OF for wherever there is a great superfluity of wealth, there will also be seen a thousand vicious modes of exhausting it. The military spirit of Rome, though much relaxed from its former severity, still contined to awe mankind ; and though dur- ing this reign, the world might be justly said to be without a head, yet the terror of the Roman name alone kept mankind in their obedience. ■ CHAPTER VII. . Nero, the Sixth Emperor of Rome. Ci LAUDIUS being destroyed, Agrippina took every precaution to conceal his death 703*. from the public, until she had settled her a-v- measures for securing the succession. A * ' strong guard was placed at all the avenues of the palace, while she amused the people with various reports ; at one time giving out that he was still alive ; at another, that he was recover- ing. In the mean while, she made sure of the person of young Britannicus, under pretence of affection for hirn. Like one overcome with the extremity of her grief, she held the child in her arms, calling him the dear image of his father, and thus preventing his escape. She used the THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 193 same precautions with regard to his sisters, Oc- tavia and Anton ia ; and even ordered an enter- tainment in the palace, as if to amuse the em- peror. At last, when all things were adjusted, the palace gates were thrown open, and Nero, accompanied by Burrhus, prefect of the praeto- rian guards, issued to receive the congratulations of the people and the army. The cohort then attending, proclaimed him with the loudest ac- clamations, though not without making some en- quiries after Britannicus. He was carried in a chariot to the rest of the army ; where, having made a speech proper for the occasion, and pro- mising them a donation, in the manner of his predecessors, he was declared emperor by the army, the senate and the people. Nero's first care was to shew all possible re- spect to the deceased emperor, in order to cover the guilt of his death. His obsequies were per- formed with a pomp, equal to that of Augustus : the young emperor pronounced his funeral ora- tion, and He was canonized among the gods, who scarce deserved the name of man. The fu- neral oration, though spoken by Nero, was drawn up by Seneca ; and it was remarked, that this was the first time a Roman emperor needed the assistance of another's eloquence. Nero, though but seventeen years of age, be- gan his reign with the general approbation of mankind. As he owed the empire to Agrippina, so, in the beginning, he submitted to her direc- tions with the most implicit obedience. On her VOL. II. o 194 THE HISTORY OF part, she seemed resolved on governing with her natural ferocity, and considered her private ani- mosities as the only rule to guide her in public justice* Immediately after the death of Clau- dius, she caused Silanus, the pro-consul of Asia, to be assassinated upon very slight suspicions, and without ever acquainting the emperor with her design. The next obje6l of her resentment was Narcissus, the late emperor's favourite; a man equally notorious for the greatness of his wealth, and the number of his crimes. He was obliged to put an end to his life, by Agrippina's order, although Nero refused his consent. This bloody outset would have been followed by many severities of the same nature, had not Seneca and Burrhus, the emperor's tutor and general, opposed. These worthy men, although they owed their rise to the empress, were above being the instruments of her cruelty. They, therefore, combined together in an opposition, and gaining the young emperor on their side, formed a plan of power, at once the most merci- ful and wise. The beginning of this monarch's reign, while he continued to act by their coun- sels, has always been considered as a model for succeeding princes to govern by. The famous emperor Trajan used to say, " That for the first " five years of this prince, all other governments " came short of his." In fact, the young mo- narch knew so well how to conceal his innate depravity, that his nearest friends could scarce perceive his virtues to be assumed. He appeared THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 195 just, liberal, and humane. When a warrant for the execution of a criminal was brought him to be signed, he was heard to cry out, with seem- ing concern, ** Would to Heaven that I had ae- " ver learned to write." The senate, upon a certain occasion, giving him their applause, for the regularity and justice of his administration, he replied, with singular modesty, " That they " should defer their thanks till he had deserved " them." His condescension and affability were not less than his other virtues ; so that the Ro- mans began to think, that Heaven had sent them a prince, whose clemency would compensate for the tyranny of his predecessors. In the mean time, Agrippina, who was ex- cluded from any share in government, attempted, by every possible method, to maintain her declin- ing power. Perceiving that her son had fallen in love with a freed-woman, named A6te, and dreading the influence of a concubine, she tried every art to prevent his growing passion. How- ever, in so corrupt a court, it was no difficult matter for the emperor to find other confidants, ready to assist him in his wishes. The gratifica- tion of his passion, therefore, in this instance, only served to increase his hatred for the em- press. Nor was it long before he gave evident marks of his disobedience, by displacing Pallas, her chief favourite. It was upon this occasion, that she first perceived the total declension of her authority, which threw her into the most ungovernable fury. In order to give terror to o2 196 THE HISTORY OF her rage, she proclaimed that Britannicus, the real heir to the throne, was still living, and in a condition to receive his father's empire, which was now possessed by an usurper. She threat- ened to go to the camp, and there expose hi* baseness and her own, invoking all the furies to her assistance. These menaces served to alarm the suspicions of Nero ; who, though apparently guided by his governors, yet already began to give way to his natural depravity. He, there- fore, determined upon the death of Britannicus ; and contrived to have him poisoned at a public banquet. Agrippina, however, still retained her natural ferocity ; she took every opportunity of obliging and flattering the tribunes and cen- turions ; she heaped up treasures, with a rapa- city beyond her natural avarice ; all her actions seemed calculated to raise a faclion, and make herself formidable to the emperor. Whereupon, Nero commanded her German guard to be taken from her, and obliged her to lodge out of the palace. He also forbid particular persons from visiting her, and went himself but rarely and ce- remoniously to pay her his respects. She now, therefore, began to find, that, with the emperor's favour, she had lost the assiduity of her friends. She was even accused by Sillana of conspiring against her son, and of designing to marry Plau- tius, a person descended from Augustus, and of making him emperor. A short time after, Pal- las, her favourite, together with Burrhus, were arraigned for a similar offence, and intending to THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 197 set up Cornelius Sylla. These informations be- ing proved void of any foundation, the informers were banished ; a punishment which was consi- dered as very inadequate to the greatness of their offences. As Nero increased in years, his crimes seemed to increase in equal proportion. He now began to find a pleasure in running about the city by night, disguised like a slave. In this vile habit he entered taverns and brothels, attended by the lewd ministers of his pleasures, attempting the lives of such as opposed him, and frequently endangering his own. In imitation of the em- peror's example, numbers of profligate young men infested the streets likewise ; so that every night the city was filled with tumult and disor- der. However, the people bore all these levities, which they ascribed to the emperor's youth, with patience; having occasion every day to expe- rience his liberality, and having also been grati- fied by the abolition of many of their taxes. The provinces also were no way affe&ed by these riots ; for, except some disturbances on the side of the Parthians, which were soon suppressed, they enjoyed the most perfe6l tranquillity. But those sensualities, which, for the four first years of his reign, produced but few disorders, in the fifth became alarming. He first began to transgress the bounds of decency, by publicly abandoning Oclavia, his present wife, and then by taking Poppea, the wife of his favourite Otho, a woman more celebrated for her beauty o3 108 THE HISTORY OF than her virtues. This was another grating cir- cumstance to Agrippina, who vainly used all her interest to disgrace Poppea, and re-instate herself in her son's lost favour. Historians as- sert, that she even offered to satisfy his passions herself, by an incestuous compliance ; and that, had not Seneca interposed, the son would have joined in the mother's crime. This, however, does not seem probable, since we find Poppea victorious, soon after, in the contention of inter- ests ; and at last impelling Nero to parricide, to satisfy her revenge. She began her arts by urg- ing him to divorce his present wife, and marry her : she reproached him as a pupil, who wanted not only power over others, but liberty to dire6l himself. She insinuated the dangerous designs of Agrippina ; and, by degrees, accustomed his mind to reflect upon parricide without horror. His cruelties against his mother began rather by several circumstances of petty malice, than by any downright injury. He encouraged several persons to teaze her with litigious suits : he em- ployed some of the meanest of the people to sing satirical songs against her, under her windows. At last, finding these ineffectual, in breaking her spirit, he resolved on putting her to death. His first attempt was by poison ; but this, though twice repeated, proved ineffectual, as she had fortified her constitution against it by antidotes. This failing, a ship was contrived in so artificial a manner, as to fall to pieces in the water, on board of which she was invited to sail to the THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 1Q9 coasts of Calabria. However, this plot was a? ineffectual as the former : the mariners not being all apprized of the secret, dsturbed each other's operations ; so that the ship not sinking as readi- ly as was expected, Agrippina found means to continue swimming, till she was taken up by some trading vessels passing that way. Nero thus finding that all his machinations were dis- covered, resolved to throw off the mask, and put her openly to death, without further delay. He therefore caused a report to be spread, that she had conspired against him ; and a poignard was dropped at his feet by one, who pretended a command from Agrippina to assassinate him. la consequence of this, he applied to his governors, Seneca and Burrhus, for their advice how to a£t, and their assistance in ridding him of the obje6l of his fears. Things were now come to such a crisis, that no middle way could be taken; and either Nero or Agrippina was to fall. Sene- ca, therefore, kept a profound silence ; while Burrhus, with more resolution, refused to ba the perpetrator of so great a crime ; alledging, that the army was entirely devoted to all the descend- ants of Caesar, and would never be brought to. imbrue their hands in the blood of any of his family. In this embarrassment, Anicetus, the contriver of the ship above-mentioned, offered his services; which Nero accepted with the greatest joy, crying out, " That this was the first " moment he ever found himself an emperor." Tbis freed-man, therefore, taking with him a o 4 203 THE HISTORY OF body of soldiers, surrounded the house of Agrip- pina, and then forced open her doors. He next seized upon every slave he met, until he came near the chamber where Agrippina lay. In the mean time, Agrippina, who strove to conceal her consciousness of Nero's designs, continued anxiously expecting the return of a messenger, whom she had sent with an account of her es- cape. However, perceiving a sudden stillness without, among the crowds that had, but a few moments before, been loud in their congratula- tions, she asked the cause, and demanded of the slave who attended her, if her emissary were re- turned. While she yet continued speaking, the slave disappeared, and Anicetus entered the apartment, accompanied by two soldiers, in whose looks she read her fate. She still, how- ever, preserved presence of mind sufficient to ask the cause of their coming. " If," cried she, tc you come to enquire after my health, you may " inform the emperor that I am better ; but if " you come with any worse intention, you alone, * and not my son, must be guilty." To this the executioners made no reply, but one of them dashed his club at her head, which, nevertheless, did not dispatch her. Now, therefore, finding that she was to expe6l no mercy, and seeing Anicetus draw his sword to stab her, she pre- sented her bosom, crying out, " Strike here, for " this place gave birth to a monster." The ex- ecutioners having dispatched her, with several wounds, left her dead on the couch, and went THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 201 to inform Nero of what they had done. Some historians say, that Nero came immediately to view the body ; that he continued to gaze upon it with pleasure, commending some parts, and dispraising others ; and ending his horrid sur- vey, by coolly observing, that he never thought his mother had been so handsome. However this be, he vindicated his condu6l next day to the senate, who not only excused, but applauded his impiety. All the mounds of virtue being thus broken down, Nero now gave a loose to his appetites, that were not only sordid, but inhuman. There seemed an odd contrast in his disposition; for while he practised cruelties, which were sufficient to make the mind shudder with horror, he was fond of those amusing arts that soften and refine the heart. He was particularly addicled, even from childhood, to music, and not totally igno- rant of poetry. But chariot driving was his fa- vourite pursuit. He never missed the circus, when chariot-races were to be exhibited there ; appearing at first privately, and soon after pub- licly ; till, at last, his passion encreasing by in- dulgence, he was not content with being merely a speclator, but resolved to become one of the principal performers. His governors, however, did all in their power to restrain this perverted ambition; but finding him resolute, they en- closed a space of ground in the valley of the Vatican, where he first exhibited only to some chosen spectators, but shortly after invited SOS THE HISTORY OF the whole town. The praises of his flattering subjects only stimulated him still more to these unbecoming pursuits ; so that he now resolved to assume a new chara6ter, and to appear as a singer upon the stage. His passion for music, as was observed, was no less natural to him than the former ; but as it was less manly, so he endeavoured to defend it by the example of some of the most celebrated men, who practised it with the same fondness. He had been instructed in the principles of this art from his childhood ; and, upon his advance- ment to the empire, he had put himself under the most celebrated masters. He patiently submit- ted to their instructions, and used all those me- thods which singers practice, either to mend the voice, or improve its volubility. Yet, notwith- standing all his assiduity, his voice was but a wretched one, being both feeble and unpleasant. However, he was resolved to produce it to the public, such as it was; for flattery, he knew, would supply every deficiency. His first public appearance was at games of his ow r n institution, called Juveniles; where he advanced upon the stage, tuning his instrument to his voice, with great appearance of skill. A groupe of tribunes and centurions attended behind him ; while his old governor, Burrhus, stood near his hopeful pupil, with indignation in his countenance, and praises on his lips. He was desirous also of becoming a poet ; but he was unwilling to undergo the pain of study. THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 203 which a proficiency in that art requires : he was desirous of being a poet ready-made. For this purpose,, he got together several persons, who were considered as great wits at court, though but very httle known as such to the public. These attended him with verses which they had com- posed at home, or which they blabbed out extern* poraneously ; and the whole of their composi- tions being tacked together, by his direction, was called a poem. Nor was he without his philoso- phers also : he took a pleasure in hearing their debates after supper ; but he heard them merelj for his amusement. Furnished with such talents as these, forgiving pleasure, he was resolved to make the tour of his empire, and give the most public display of his abilities wherever he came. The place of his first exhibition, upon leaving Rome, was at Naples. The crowds there were so great, and the curiosity of the people so earnest in hearing him, that they did not perceive an earthquake that happened while he was singing. His desire of gaining the superiority over the other aclors was truly ridiculous: he made interest with his judges, reviled his competitors, formed private factions to support him, all in imitation of those who got their livelihood upon the stage. While he con- tinued to perform, no man was permitted to depart from the theatre, upon any pretence what- soever. Some were so fatigued with hearing him, that they leaped privately from the walls, or pre- tended to fail into fainting fits, in order to be 304 THE niSTORY OF carried out. Nay, it is said, that several women were delivered in the theatre. Soldiers were placed in several parts, to observe the looks and gestures of the spectators, either to dire6t them where to point their applause, or to restrain their displeasure. An old senator, named Vespasian, happening to fall asleep upon one of these occa- sions, very narrowly escaped with his life. After being fatigued with the praises of hk countrymen, Nero resolved upon going over into Greece, to receive new theatrical honours. The occasion was this. The cities of Greece had made a law to send him musical crowns from all the games ; and deputies were accordingly dispatched with this ( to him ) important embassy. As he one day entertained the deputies at his table, in the most sumptuous manner, and conversed with them with the utmost familiarity, they entreated to hear him sing. Upon his complying, the artful Greeks knew how to satisfy his vanity, by the exaggera- tion of their praise. They testified all the marks of extasy and rapture. Applauses so warm, were pe- culiarly pleasing to Nero ; he could not refrain from crying out, That the Greeks alone were wor- thy to hear him ; and accordingly prepared, with- out delay, to go into Greece ; where he spent the whole year ensuing. In this journey, his retinue resembled an army in number ; but it was only composed of singers, dancers, taylors, and other attendants upon the theatre. He passed over all Greece, and exhibited at all their games, which he ordered to be celebrated in one year. At the THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 205 Olympic games he resolved to shew the people something extraordinary ; wherefore, he drove a chariot with ten horses : but he succeeded most wretch edly ; for, being unable to sustain the vio- lence of the motion, he was thrown from his seat. The spectators, however, gave him their unani- mous applause, and he was crowned as conqueror. In this manner he obtained the prize at the Isthmian, Pythian, and Nemean games. The Greeks were not sparing of their crowns ; he obtained eigh- teen hundred of them. An unfortunate singer happened to oppose him on one of these occa- sions; and exerted all the powers of his art, which it appears, was prodigious : but he seems to have been a better singer than a politician ; for Nero ordered him to be killed on the spot. Upon his return from Greece, he entered Naples through a breach in the walls of the citv, as was customary with those who were conquerors in the Olympic games. But all the splendour of his return, was reserved for his entry into Rome. There he appeared seated in the chariot of Au- gustus, dressed in robes of purple, and crowned with wild olive, which was the Olympic garland. He bore in his hand the Pythian crown ; and had eighteen hundred more carried before him. Be- side him sate one Diodorus, a musician; and behind him followed a band of singers, as nume- rous as a legion, who sung in honour of his vi6lories. The senate, the knights, and the people, attended this puerile pageant, filling the air with their acclamations. The whole citv was 500 THE HISTORY OF illuminated ; every street smoked with incense ; ■wherever he passed, victims were slain ; the pave- ment was strewed with saffron ; while garlands of flowers, ribbons, fowls, and pasties, ( for so we are told) were showered down upon him from the windows as he passed along* So many honours only enflamed his desire of acquiring' new ; he at last began to take lessons in wrestling, willing to imitate Hercules in strength, as he had rivalled Apollo in activity. He also caused a lion of pasteboard to be made with great .art, against which he undauntedly appeared in the theatre, and struck it down with a blow of his club. But it had been happy for mankind had he confined himself to these puerilities ; and, con- tented with being contemptible, sought not to become formidable also. His cruelties even out- did all his other extravagancies. A complete list of those would exceed the limits of the pre- sent work; and would present the reader with an hideous repetition of suspicions without cause, and punishments without mercy. Soon after the death of Agrippina, he ordered Domitia, his aunt, to be poisoned. Some say, that Burrhus, who died shortly after, Mas served in the same a. d. manner. Rebellius Plancus, together 63# with Pallas, Agrippina's favourite, were about this time put to death ; the former for being of the Caesarean family ; the latter, for being rich. Octavia, his wife, was divorced; and likewise put to death : and Poppsea made empress in her place. Sylla, and Torquatus Syllanus, with THE EMPIRE OF ROME. >getting, for which they are at present so remarkable. He was excited against them, noi only by avarice, but by jealousy, A prophecy had been long current in the East, that a person from the line of David should rule the world. Whereupon, this suspicious tyrant, willing to evade the prediction, commanded all the Jews of the lineage of David, to be diligently sought out, and put to death. Two Christians, grandsons of St. Jude, the apostle, of that line, were brought before him ; but finding them poor, and no way ambitious of temporal power, he dismissed them, considering them as objecls too mean for his jealousy. However, his persecution of the Christians was more severe than that of any of his predecessors. By his letters and edicts they were banished in several parts of the empire, and put to death with all the tortures of ingenious cruelty. The predictions of the Chaldeans and astrologers also, concerning his death, gave him violent apprehensions, and kept him in the most tormenting disquietude. As he approached the end of his reign, he would permit no criminal, or prisoner, to be brought into his presence, till they were bound in such a manner as to be incapable of injuring him ; and he generally secured their chains in his own hands. His jealousies increas- ed to such a degree, that he ordered the gallery in which he walked, to be set round with a pellucid Stone, which served as a mirror to reflect the persons of all such as approached him from 282 THE HISTORY OF behind. Every omen and prodigy gave him fresh anxiety. Ascleterion, the astrologer, was brought before him; for publishing predictions concern- ing his death. As he did not attempt to deny the charge, the emperor demanded, if he knew big own fortune ? To which the astrologer replied, that he should be devoured by dogs. Upon which, Domitian immediately ordered him to be slain, and, to frustrate his prediction, to be burnt immediately after. But we are told, that, during the execution, a furious tempest arose, which blew down the body, and dispersed the executioners ; and, in the mean time, the body was devoured by dogs, as the poor astrologer had foretold. An accident like this was a sufficient pretext for the death of hundreds. The last part of the tyrant's reign was more insupportable than any of the preceding. Nero exercised his cruelties without being a spectator; but a principal part of the Roman miseries, during this reign, was to see and be seen ; to behold the stern air, and fiery visage of the tyrant, which he had armed against blush- ing by continued intemperance, directing the tortures, and maliciously pleased with adding poignance to every agony, But a period was soon to be put to this mon- ster's cruelties. Rome had now, by horrid experience, learned the art of ridding herself of her tyrants. Among the number of those whom he at once caressed and suspected, was his wife Domitia, whom he had taken from JElim Lama, her former husband. 1 hia woman, ho wever, was THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 385 become obnoxious to him, for having placed her affections upon one Paris, a player; and lie resolved to dispatch her, with several others that he either hated or suspe6ted. It was the tyrant's method to put down the names of all such as he intended to destroy in his tablets, which he kept about him with great circumspection. Domitia, fortunately happening to get a sight of them, was struck at finding her own name in the catalogue of those fated to destruction. She shewed the fatal list to Norbanus and Petronius, praefe6is of the pra?torian bands, who found themselves set down ; as likewise to Slephanus, the comptroller of the houshold, who came into the conspiracy with alacrity. Parthenius also, the chief cham- berlain, was of the number ; and these, after many consultations, determined to take the first opportunity of putting their design into execu- tion : they, at length, fixed upon the eighteenth day of September, for the completion of their great attempt. Domitian, whose death was every day foretold by the astrologers, who, of consequence, must at last be right in their pre- dictions, was, in some measure, apprehensive of that particular day ; and, as he had been ever timorous, so was he now more particularly upon his guard. He had for some time before secluded himself in the most secret recesses of his palace, and at midnight was so affrighted as to leap out of his bed, enquiring of his attendants what hour of the night it was. Upon their falsely assuring irim that it was an hour later than that which he 584 THE HISTORY OF was taught to apprehend,, quite transported, as if all danger were past, he prepared to go to the bath. Just then, Petronius, his chamberlain, came to inform him that Stephanus, the comp- troller of the houshold, desired to speak to him,, upon an affair of the utmost importance. The emperor having given orders that his attendants should retire, Stephanus entered with his hand in a scarf, which he had worn thus for some days, the better to conceal a dagger, as none were permitted to approach the emperor with arms. He began by giving information of a pretended conspiracy, and exhibited a paper, in which the particulars were specified. While Domitian was reading the contents with an eager curiosity, Stephanus drew his dagger, and struck him in the groin. The wound not being mortal, Domitian caught hold of the assassin, and threw him upon the ground, calling out for assistance, He demanded also his sword, that was usually placed under his pillow, and a boy who attended in the apartment, running to fetch it, found only the scabbard, for Parthenius had previously removed the blade. The struggle with Stephanus still continued ; Domitian still keeping him under, at one time attempting to wrest the dagger from his hand, at another to tear out his eyes with his fingers. But Parthenius, with his freed-man, a gladiator, and two subaltern officers, now coming in, they ran all furiously upon the emperor, and dispatched him with seven wounds. In the mean time, some of the officers of the guard being THE EMPIRE OF ROME. i$S alarmed, came to his assistance, but too late to save him ; however, they slew Stephanus on the spot. It is almost incredible what some writers relate concerning Appollonius Tyaneus, who was then at Ephenus. This person, whom some call a magician, and some a philosopher, but who more probably was nothing more than an impostor, was, just at the minute in which Domitian was slain, lecturing in one of the public gardens of the city. But stopping short, all of a sudden he cried out, " Courage, Stephanus, strike the tyrant." And then, after a pause, " Rejoice, my friends, " the tyrant dies this day ; this day do I say ! the " very moment in which I kept silence he suffers " for his crimes, he dies \" Many more prodigies were said to have por- tended his death ; but the fate of such a monster seemed to produce more preternatural disturb- ances, and more predictions than it deserved. The truth seems to be, that a belief in omens and prodigies were again become prevalent ; the people were again relapsing into pristine bar- barity ; a country of ignorance is ever the proper soil for an harvest of imposture. *8« THE HISTORY OP CHAPTER XIV. Nerva, the Thirteenth Emperor of Rome. Wi HEN it was publicly known that Domi- a. n. tian was slain, the joy of the senate was so 96, great, that being assembled with the utmost haste, they began to load his memory with every reproach. His statues were commanded to be taken down ; and a decree was made, that all his inscriptions should be erased, his name struck out of the registers of fame, and his funeral omit- ted. The people, who now took little part in the affairs of government, looked on his death with indifference ; the soldiers alone, whom he had loaded with favours, and enriched by lar- gesses, sincerely regretted their benefactor. The senate, therefore, resolved to provide a suc- cessor before the army could have an opportu- nity of taking the appointment upon themselves ; and Cocceius Nerva was chosen to the empire' the very day on which the tyrant was slain. Nerva was of an illustrious family, as most say, by birth a Spaniard, and above sixty-five years old when lie was called to the throne. He was, at that time, the most remarkable man in Rome, for his virtues, moderation, and respect to the laws ; and he owed his exaltation to the blame- THE EMPIRE OP ROME. 187 less conduct of his former life. When the se- nate went to pay him their submissions, he re- ceived them with his accustomed humility, while Arius Antonius, his most intimate friend, having embraced him with great familiarity, addressed him in a language very different from that which the former emperors were accustomed to hear. '* I come," cried he, " with others, to congratu- " late, not your good fortune, but that of the " Roman empire. You have long escaped the " malice of your enemies, and the cruelty of ty- " rants. Now, at the decline of life, to be " plunged into new troubles, and surrounding " dangers, to be exposed, not only to the hatred " of enemies, but to the dangerous requests of " friendship, is not a state to be wished for : f? your enemies will naturally envy you ; and your " friends, presuming upon your former favour, '* if their suits be denied, will become enemies ; " so that you must either injure the public, or " lose their favour." Such candid advice was received with proper gratitude ; and, indeed, no emperor seemed to want such advice more than he* as the easy indulgence of his disposition made him the prey of his insidious courtiers. However, an excess of indulgence and hu- manity were faults that Rome could easily par- don, after the cruelties of such an emperor as Domitian. Being long accustomed to tyranny, they regarded Nerva's gentle reign with rapture, and even gave his imbecillity the name of bene,- feg* THE ilTSTORY OF volence. Upon coming to the throne, he so* lemnly swore that no senator of Rome should be' put to death by his command, during his reign.* though they gave never so just a cause. This oath he so religiously observed, that when two senators had conspired his death, he used no kind of severity against them \ but sending for them^ to let them see he was not ignorant of their de- signs, he carried them with him to the public theatre : there presenting each a dagger, he de- sired them to strike, as he was determined not to ward off the blow. Such acls of clemency ap- peared to the multitude as virtues; but others saw them in a different light, and considered them as encouragements to dissolution. One of the principal men in Rome, was heard to declare, that it was indeed a misfortune to live under a prince who considered innocence as a crime \ but a greater still, to live under one who regard- ed crimes as innocent. Having one night in- vited Veientq, one of Domitian's most vicious favourites, to suppe*r, the conversation ran upon the vices of Catullus Messalinus, whose memory was detested for his cruelties, during the former reign. As each of the guests mentioned him with horror, Nerva was induced to ask one Mauricus, who sat at table, " What do you think, " Mauricus, would become of such a man now ?" " I think," replied Mauricus, pointing to Veien- to, M that he would have been invited, as some of '•' us are, to supper." THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 289 However true such sarcasms might have been, Nerva bore them with the utmost good humour. Ever desirous of being rather loved than feared by his subjects, he conferred great favours, and bestowed large gifts, upon his particular friends. His liberality was so extensive, that, upon his iirst promotion to the empire, he was constrained to sell his gold and silver plate, with his other rich moveables, to enable him to continue his liberalities. He released tha cities of the em- pire from many severe duties, which had been imposed by Vespasian ; he took off a rigorous tribute, which had been laid upon carriages, and restored those to their property who had been unjustly dispossessed by Domitian. During his short reign he made several good laws. He particularly prohibited the castration of male children ; which had been likewise con- demned by his predecessor, but not wholly re- moved. He put all those slaves to death, who had, during the last reign, informed against their masters. He permitted no statues to be erected in his honour, and converted such of Domitian's as had been spared by the senate, into money. He sold many rich robes, and much of the splen- did furniture of the palace, and retrenched se- veral unreasonable expences at court. At the same time, he had so little regard for money, thj* when one of his subjects found a large treasure, and wrote to the emperor how to dispose of it, he received for answer, that he might use it: but the tinder still informing the emperor that it vol. ii. u fOd- TI1E HISTORY OF was a fortune too large for a private person, Nerva, admiring his honesty, wrote him word, that then he might abuse it. A life of such generosity and mildness, was not, however, without its enemies. Vigilius Ru- fus, who had opposed him, was not only par- doned, but made his colleague in the consul- ship. Calpurnius Crassus also, with some others, formed a dangerous conspiracy to destroy him ; but Nerva Avould use no severity : he rested sa- tisfied with banishing those who were culpable, though the senate were for inflicling more rigor- ous punishments. But the most dangerous in- surrection against his interests, was from the prae- torian bands, who, headed by Casparius Olianus, insisted upon revenging the late emperor's death, whose memory was still dear to them, from his frequent liberalities. Nerva, whose kindness to good men, rendered him more obnoxious to the vicious, did all in his power to stop the pro- gress of this insurrection ; he presented himself to the mutinous soldiers, and opening his bosom, desired them to strike there, rather than be guilty of so much injustice. The soldiers, however, paid no regard to his remonstrances, but seizing upon Petronius and Parthenius, slew them in the most ignominious manner. Not content with this, they even compelled the emperor to approve of their sedition, and to make a speech to the people, in which he thanked the cohorts for their fidelity. THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 291 So disagreeable a constraint upon the empe- ror's inclinations, was, in the end, attended with the most happy effecls, as it caused the adoption of Trajan to succeed him. Nerva perceived that in the present turbulent disposition of the times, he stood in need of ah assistant in the empire, who might share the fatigues of government, and contribute to keep the licentious in awe. For this purpose, setting aside all his own relations, he fixed upon Ulpius Trajan, an utter stranger to his family, who was then governor in Upper Germany, as his successor. Having put his de- termination in execution, and performed the ac- customed solemnities, he instantly sent off ambas- sadors to Cologne, where Trajan then resided, entreating his assistance in punishing those from whom he had received such an insult. ■ The adoption of this admirable man, proved so great a curb to the licentiousness of the sol- diery, that they continued in perfe6l obedience during the rest of this reign ; and Casperius be- ing sent to him, was by his command, either ban- ished or put to death. The adopting Trajan, was the last public a6l of Nerva. In about three months after, having put himself in a violent passion with one Regu- lus, a senator, he was seized with a fever, of which he died, after a short reign of one year, four months, and nine days. He was the first foreign emperor who reigned in Rome, and justly reputed a prince of great u2 392 THE HISTORY OF generosity and moderation. He is also celebrat- ed for his wisdom, though with less reason, the greatest instance he gave of it during his reign, being the choice of his successor. CHAPTER XV. Trajan, the Fourteenth Emperor of Rome. JL RAJAN'S family was originally from Italy, but he himself was born at Seville in Spain. 851. He very early accompanied his father, who A - D - was a general of the Romans, in his expe- ditions along the Euphrates and the Rhine, and while yet very young, acquired a considera- ble reputation for military accomplishments. He enured his body to fatigue ; he made long marches on foot; and laboured to acquire all that skill in war which was necessary for a com- mander. When he was made general of the army in Lower Germany, which was one of the most considerable employments in the empire, it caused no alteration in his manners or way of living, and the commander was seen no way dif- fering from the private tribune, except in his superior wisdom and virtues. The great quali- ties of his mind were accompanied with all the THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 29S advantages of person. His body was majestic and vigorous ; he was at that middle time of life which is happily tempered with the warmth of youth, and the caution of age, being forty-two years old. To these qualities were added a mo- desty that setMned peculiar to himself alone ; so that mankind found a pleasure in praising those accomplishments of which the possessor seemed no way conscious. Upon the whole, Trajan is distinguished as the greatest and .'the best empe- ror of Rome. Others might have equalled him in war, and some might have been his rivals in clemency and goodness ; but he seems the only prince who united these talents in the greatest perfection, and who appears equally to engage our admiration, and our regard. Upon being informed of the death of Nerva, he prepared to return to Rome, whither he was invited by the united entreaties of the state. He therefore began to march with a discipline that was for a long time unknown in the armies of the empire. The countries through which he past, were neither ravaged nor taxed, and he en- tered the city, not in a triumphant manner, though he had deserved many, but on foot, at- tended with the civil officers of the state, and followed by his soldiers, who marched silently forward, with modesty and rcspecl. One of the first leclures he received, respect ing his conduct in governing the empire, was from Plutarch, the philosopher, who had the honour of being his master. Upon bis arrival v3 294 THE HISTORY OF at Rome, he is said to have written him a letter, to the following purpose : " Since your merits, " and not your importunities, have advanced you " to the empire, permit me to congratulate your " virtues, and my own good fortune. If your u future government proves answerable to your * former worth, I shall be happy. But if you " become worse for power, yours will be the and demo- lished the magnificent palace of the kings of Par- thia. In a course of four years, during which the war continued* the Romans entered far into the Parthian country, and entirely subdued it ; but upon their return, their army was wasted to less than half its former number by pestilence and famine. However, this was no impediment to y2 334 THE HISTORY OF the vanity of Verus, who resolved to enjoy the honours of a triumph, so hardly earned by others. Wherefore, having appointed a king over the Armenians, and finding the Parthians entirely subdued, he assumed the titles of Armenicus and Parthicus ; and then returned to Rome, to par- take of a triumph with Aurelius, which was ac- cordingly solemnized with great pomp and splendor. During the course of this expedition, which continued for some years, Aurelius was sedu- lously intent upon distributing justice and hap- piness to his subjects at home. He first applied himself to the regulation of public affairs, and to the correcting such faults as he found in the laws and policy of the state. In this endeavour, he shewed a singular respe6t for the senate, often permitting them to determine without appeal ; so that the commonwealth seemed in a manner once more revived under his equitable administra- tion. Besides, such was his application to bu- siness, that he often employed ten days together upon the same subjeel, maturely considering it on all sides, and seldom departing from the se- nate house till, night coming on, the assembly was dismissed by the consul. I3ut while thus gloriously occupied, he was daily mortified with accounts of the enormities of his colleague ; be- ing repeatedly assured of his vanity, lewdness and extravagance. However, feigning himself ignorant of these excesses, he judged marriage to be the best method of reclaiming him ; and THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 325 ^therefore sent him his daughter Lucilla, a wo- man of great beauty, whom Verus married at Antioch. But even this was found ineffectual : Lueilla proved of a disposition very unlike her father ; and, instead of correcting her husband's extravagancies, only contributed to inflame them. Yet Aurelius still hoped, that, upon the return of Verus to Rome, his presence would keep him in awe. and that happiness would, at length, be restored to the state. But in this also he was disappointed. His return only seemed fatal to the empire ; for his army carried back the plague from Parthia, and disseminated the infection into all the provinces through which it passed. Nothing could exceed the miserable state of the empire shortly after the return of Verus. In this horrid picture was represented an emperor, unawed by example, or the calamities surround- ing him, giving way to unheard-of debaucheries. A raging pestilence spreading terror and desola- tion through all the parts of the western world ; earthquakes, famines, and inundations, such as had never before happened ; the produces of the earth, throughout all Italy, devoured by locusts ; all the barbarous nations surrounding the empire, the Germans, the Sarmatians, the Quadi and Marcomanni, taking advantage of its various calamities, and making their irruptions even into Italy itself. The priests doing all they could to put a stop to the miseries of the state, by at- tempting to appease the gods; vowing and of» fering numberless sacrifices ; celebrating all the *3 326 THE HISTORY OF sacred rites that had ever been known in Rome ; and exhibiting the solemnity called Leclisternia, seven days together. To crown the whole, these enthusiasts, not satisfied with the impending ca- lamities, making new, by ascribing the distresses of the state, to the impieties of the Christians alone; so that a violent persecution was seen reigning in all parts of the empire ; in which Justin Martyr, St. Polycarp, bishop of Smyrna, and an infinite number of others, suffered mar- tyrdom. In this scene of universal tumult, desolation and distress, there was nothing left but the vir- tues and the wisdom of one man alone to restore tranquillity, and bring back happiness to the empire. Aurelius began his endeavours by marching against the Marcomanni and Quadi, taking Verus with him, who reluctantly left the sensual delights of Rome for the fatigues of a camp. They came up with the Marcomanni near the city of Aquileia, and, after a furious engagement, routed their whole army : then pur- suing them across the Alps, overcame them in several contests, and, at last, entirely defeating them, returned into Italy without any consider- able loss. As the winter was far advanced, v. c. . . 922. Verus was determined upon going from A ? D * Aquileia to Rome, in which journey he was seized with an apoplexy which put an end to his life, being thirty-nine years old, hav- ing reigned in conjunction with Aurelius nine. Suspicion, which ever attends the fate of princes. THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 32? did not fail to ascribe his death to different causes. Some say that he was poisoned by the empress Faustina, some by his own wife Lucilla, who was jealous of him for the passion he bore his sister Fabia : and others still were found to say that Aurelius had a hand in it ; but the number of these reports ought to destroy the credibility of any. Aurelius, who had hitherto felt the fatigues of governing not only an empire, but an empe- ror, being now left to himself, began to a6l with greater diligence, and more vigour than ever. His first care was to marry his daughter Lucilla once more to Claudius Pompeianus, a man of moderate fortune and humble station, but emi- nent for his honesty, courage and wisdom. He then left Rome to finish the war against the Mar- comanni, who, joining with the Quadi, the Sar- matians, the Vandals and other barbarous na^ tions, renewed hostilities, with unusual rage and devastation. They had some time before attacked Vindex, pra?fe6t of the praetorian bands, and in a general battle near the Danube, destroyed no less than twenty thousand of his men. They even pursued the Romans as far as Aquileia, and would have taken the city, had not the emperor led his troops in person to oppose them. Aure- lius having repulsed the enemy, continued his endeavours to repress them from future inroads. He spent in this laborious undertaking no less than five years, harrassing these barbarous na- tions, supporting the most dreadful fatigues, and Y 4 328 THE HISTORY OF supplying, by the excess of his courage, the de- feels of a delicate constitution. The stoic phi- losophy, in which he was bred, had taught him a simplicity of living, which served as an example to the whole army. The common soldier could not murmur at any hardships he was put upon, when he saw the emperor himself every hour un- dergoing greater austerities with cheerful resigna- tion. By this conduct, Aurelius so wearied out the enemy with repeated attacks, that he at last, constrained them to accept of such terms of peace, as he thought fit to impose, and thus returned in triumph to Rome. Upon the emperor's return to Rome,, he began his usual endeavours to benefit -mankind - by a farther reformation of the internal policy ol the state. He ordered that no enquiry should be made after the fortune of deceased persons who had been dead five years. He moderated the public expences, and lessened the number of shows and sports which were exhibited on the> amphitheatre. He particularly took the poor under his protection; he found such pleasure in relieving their wants, that he considered his abi- lity to supply the dictates of his compassion, as one of the greatest happinesses of his life. He laboured incessantly to restrain the luxuries of the great, he prohibited the use of chariots and litters to persons of inferior station, and endea- voured by all means to correal the lewdness and disorders of women. THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 239 But his good endeavours were soon interrupt- ed by a renewal of the former wars. The bar- barians no sooner perceived his army withdrawn, than they took up arms once more, and renewed their ravages with greater fury than before. They had now drawn over to their side all the nations from Illyricum, to the furthest parts of Gaul. Aurelius, therefore, again saw himself surround- ed with difficulties ; his army had before been wasted by the plague, and frequent engagements, and his treasures entirely exhausted. In order to remedy these inconveniencies, he increased his forces, by enlisting slaves, gladiators, and the ban- ditti of Dalmatia. : To raise money, he sold all the moveables be- longing to the empire, and all the rich furniture which had been deposited in the cabinets of Adrian. This sale, which continued for two months, produced so considerable a sum, as to defray all the expences of the war. His next effort was to march forward, and cross the Danube by a bridge of boats. He then attacked the enemy, gained several advantages, burnt their houses and magazines of corn, and received the submissions of such, as had inconsiderately joined in the invasion. The detail of his campaigns is but confusedly related by historians ; one battle, in particular, is mentioned, which might have proved fatal, had not some most surprizing inci- dents interposed. This engagement was begun by the enemy's slingers across a river, which induced the Romans to cross it, and make a great slaughter 330 . THE HISTORY OF of those who attempted to defend its banks on the opposite side. The enemy judging they should be pursued, retired, having previously left some bodies of archers, covered by a squa- dron of horse, to skirmish with the Romans, as if they designed to stop their progress. The Romans, with inconsiderate valour, attacking this forlorn hope, pursued them among a chain of barren mountains ; where they found them- selves unexpectedly blocked up on every side. However, they continued fighting, notwithstand- . ing the disadvantage of the place ; but the ene- my, prudently declined engaging, not willing to leave that victory to chance, which they expected from delay. At length, the excessive heat of the inclosed situation, the fatigues of long employ- ment, together with a violent thirst, totally dis- heartened the Roman legions. They now found, that they could neither fight nor retreat; and that they must run upon certain danger, or be- come a prey to their barbarous enemies. In this deplorable exigence, while sorrow and despair were their only companions, Aurelius ran through their ranks, and in vain endeavoured to re-kindle their hopes and their courage. No-* thing was heard but groans and lamentations : nothing seen but marks of terror and desolation. At this dreadful juncture, and just as the barba- rians were ready to fall upon them, we are as- sured, by some writers, that the solemn prayers of a Christian legion which was among them, produced such a fall of rain, as instantly refresh* THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 331 ed the fainting army. The soldiers were seen holding their mouths and their helmets up to Heaven, and receiving the showers which came so wonderfully to their relief. The same clouds also which served for their rescue, at the same time discharged such a terrible storm of hail, accompanied with thunder, against the enemy, as astonished and confounded them. By this un- looked-for aid, the Romans recovering strength and courage, once more turned upon their pur- suers, and cut them in pieces. Such are the circumstances of an engagement, acknowledged by pagan, as well as Christian writers, only with this difference, that the latter ascribe the victory to their own, the former to the prayers of their emperor. However this be, Aurelius seemed so sensible of miraculous assist- ance, that he immediately relaxed the persecution against the Christians, and wrote to the senate in favour of their religion. Notwithstanding this victory, the war continued for some months longer; but, after many violent conflicts, the barbarians sent to sue for peace. The emperor imposed conditions upon them, more or less se- vere, as he found them more or less disposed to revolt; being actually resolved to divide their territories into provinces, and subject them to the Roman empire. However, a fresh rebellion called him to the defence of his dominions at home. Avidius Cassius was one of the emperor's most favourite generals, and had been chiefly instru- Sn THE HISTORY OF mental in obtaining the Roman successes in Parthia. His principal merit seemed to consist in his restoring the old discipline, and in pretend- ing* a 'violent regard for the commonwealth in its ancient form. But, in fact, all his seeming regard for freedom, was only to seize upon the liberties of his country for his own aggrandisement. Wherefore, finding his soldiers (for he was left with an army in the east) willing to support his pretensions, he proclaimed himself emperor in Syria. One of his chief artifices to procure po~ pularity was, his giving out, that he was descend- ed from the famous Cassius, who had conspired against Cassar ; and, like him, he pretended, that his aims were for the re-establishment of the com- monwealth of Rome. He also caused it to bo rumoured, that Aurelius was dead, and he affecled to shew the greatest respect for his memory. Hy these pretences, he united a large body of men under his command, and, in a short time, brought all the countries from Syria to mount Taurus, under his subjection. These prosperous begin- nings served to increase the emperor's activity, but not his apprehensions. He prepared to oppose him without any marks of uneasiness for the event; telling his soldiers, That he could freely yield up his empire to Avidius, if it should be judged conducive to the public good ; for, ^as to his own part, the only fruits he had from exaltation, were incessant labour and fatigue. '■ I am ready," cried he, " to meet Avidius before 1 f Jhe senate, and before you ; and to yield liim up THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 33 J ** the empire, without the effusion of blood, or * 4 striking a blow, if it shall be thought good for " the people. But Avidius will never submit to. " sueh a tribunal ; he who has been faithless to his " benefactor, cun never rely upon any man's pro- " fessions. He will not even, in case of being " worsted, rely upon me. And yet, my fellow- * c soldiers, my only fear is, and I speak it with the ■' greatest sincerity, lest he should put an end to * his own life ,* or lest some, thinking to do me a " service, should hasten his death. The greatest " hope that I have, is to prove, that I can pardori *' the most outrageous offences ; to make him my " friend, even in spite of his reluclance ; and to " shew the world, that civil wars themselves can f come to an happy issue." In the mean time, Avidius, who well knew that desperate under- takings must have a speedy execution, endeavour- ed to draw over Greece tj his assistance ; but the love which all mankind bore the good emperor, frustrated his expectations; he was unable to bring over a single city to espouse his interests. This repulse seemed to turn the scale of his former fortunes. His officers and soldiers began now to regard him with contempt ; so that they, at last slew him, in less than four months after their first revolt. His head was brought to the emperor, who received it with regret, and ordered it an honourable interment. The rest of the conspira- tors w r ere treated with great lenity ; some few of them were banished, but recalled soon after. This clemency was admired by some, and con- 331 THE HISTORY OF demned by others ; but the emperor little regard- ed the murmurs or the applause of the multitude; guided only by the goodness of his own disposi- tion, he did what, to him, seemed right ; content and happy in self-approbation. When some took the liberty of blaming his conduct, telling him, That Avidius would not have been so gene>- rous, had he been conqueror; the emperor replied in this sublime manner, " I never served " the gods so ill, or reigned so irregularly, as to *' fear Avidius could ever be conqueror." Though Avidius was no more, yet Aurelius was sensible that he had still some friends remain- ing, whom he was willing to win over. He therefore took a journey into the east, where, in all places, he at once charmed them with his affability, raised their admiration by his clemency, instructed them by precept, and improved them by his example. The better to prevent such revolts for the future, he ordained, That as Avi- dius was a native of the country in which he rebelled, no person for the time to come, should command in the place where he was born. In this journey, the empress Faustina, was unex- pectedly seized with a violent distemper, and died. She was a woman, whose wanton life gave great scandal to the dignity of her station ; how- ever, her passive husband, either could not, or, at least, affecled not, to see her enormities, but wil- lingly admitted the ill-deserved honours, which the senate importunately decreed to her me- mory. THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 335 In his way to Rqme, he visited Athens, where he conferred many honours on the inhabitants, and established professors in all the sciences, with munificent salaries for their ease. Upon landing in Italy, he quitted his soldier's habit, as also did all his army ; and made his entry into Rome in the gown which was worn in peace. As he had been absent almost eight years, he distributed to each citizen eight pieces of gold, and remitted all the debts due to the treasury for sixty years past. At the same time he nominated his son Commodus to succeed him in the empire, and made him a partner in his triumphal entry. He then retired for some time to a country-seat into the arms of philosophy, which delighted his mind, and guided his conducl : he usually called it his mother, in opposition to the court, which he considered as his step-mother. He also was fre- quently heard to say, "That the people were u happy whose philosophers were kings, or whose " kings were philosophers." He, in fact, was one of the most considerable men then in being ; and though he had been born in the meanest station, his merits, as a writer, would have insured him immortality. But it was not with him mere speculation, his practice was entirely guided by the principles of stoicism ; so that his tranquillity was such, that he was never observed to feel any emotion, or to change countenance, either in joy or in sorrow. His chief masters were, Appollo- nius of Chalcis ; and Sextus Cheronensis, grand- son to the famous Plutarch; these shared hi* 336 THE HISTORY O* bounty, as likewise did all the learned men of bis time. He had learned the art of so blending liberality with the most frugal (economy, that he seemed rather the equitable guardian of another's wealth, than the possessor of his own. He was so sensible, that few understood the art of giving, that he built a temple to the goddess who presided over benefits. In this manner, having restored prosperity to his subjects, and peace to mankind, he expe&fced in the decline of life, to rest from future toil. But it was his fortune to be ever employed. News was brought him that the Scythians, and barbarous nations of the north, were again up in arms, and invading the empire with furious impetuosity. He now, therefore, once more resolved, to expose his aged person in the defence of his country, and made speedy preparations to oppose them. He went to the senate, for the first time, and desired to have money out of the public treasury. Though it was in his power to take what sums he thought proper without their con- sent, yet he openly declared, That emperors had no private property, not so much as the palace in which they dwelt. The people, whose love to the emperor daily increased, finding him making preparations to leave them, and resolving to expose himself in a dangerous war, assembled themselves before his palace, beseeching him not to depart, till he had given them instructions for their future conducl; so that if the gods should take him to themselves, they might, by his assist- THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 337 ance, continue in the same paths of virtue, into which he had led them by his example. This was a request which the great emperor was highly pleased in obeying ; he spent three whole days in giving them short maxims, by which they might regulate their lives; and, having finished his lectures, departed upon his expedition, amidst the prayers and lamentations of all his subjects. The particulars of these campaigns are not related by historians ; we can only say, that he fought seve- ral bloody battles, where the viclory was always owing to his prudence, courage, and example. He was constantly at the head of his men, and always in places the most exposed to danger. He built several forts, and so disposed hisgarrisons, as to keep all his barbarous neighbours in awe. It was upon going to open his third campaign, that he was seized with the plague at Vienna, which stopped the progress of his success. Nothing, however, could abate his desire of being beneficial to mankind ; for, though his submis- sion to the will of Providence made him meet the approaches of death with tranquillity, his fears for the youth and unpromising disposition of Commodus, his son and successor, seemed to give him great uneasiness, and aggravated the pains of nature. Struggling with this apprehension, and fluctuating between hope and fear, he addressed his friends and the principal officers that were gathered round his bed ; telling them, That as his son was now going to lose a father, he hoped he should find many fathers in them. That they VOL. II. z . m THE HISTORY OF would direct bis youth, and give him such in- struclions as would be to the public benefit as well as bis own. " Make him more particularly •• sensible," continued the dying emperor, " that " not all the riches and honours of this world are "> sufficient to satisfy the luxury and ambition of a ic tyrant p nor are the strongest guards and armies " able to defend him from the just reward of his " crimes. Assure him, that cruel princes never li enjoy a long and peaceful reign ; and that all " the real delights of power, are reserved only for , accession to the throne. 933. He was acknowledged emperor, first by "*•"• the army, then by the senate and people, and shortly after by all the provinces. But z 2 V. c. 310 THE HISTORY OF • though he owed the empire to the adoption of his supposed father, many were of opinion, that he was the spurious issue of a gladiator ; his own conduct afterward, and the wanton chara6ler of his mother Faustina, having, perhaps, given rise lo the report. He was about nineteen years of age when he entered upon the empire; his person was comely and robust : no man was more expert in all bodily exercises ; he frequently fought \eards ; yet he was himself so jealous of aH man- kind, that he was obliged to be his own barber. In the midst of these cruelties his vanity never forsook him. Instead of being content with numberless tieles, which his flattering senate were daily offering, he was rather willing to assume such as were most agreeable to himself. He, at one time, commanded himself to be styled Her- cules, the son of Jupiter ; and, the better to imi- tate that hero, he carried a club, and dressed himself in a lion's skin. But to drive the ima- gination as far as possible, and that he might appear to destroy giants and monsters, as the former had done, he dressed up several poor men and cripples, which were found begging in the streets, like monsters, giving them sponges to throw at him instead of stones, till falling fu- z4 344 THE HISTORY OF riously among them with his club, he destroyed them all. When tired of the Herculean habit, he assumed that of an Amazon. He, at last, became so abandoned as to forsake his palace, and live in a fencing-school ; and, satiated with all his former titles, he assumed the name of a famous gladiator. During these deplorable irregularities, the barbarians on the frontiers of the empire were daily gaining ground ; and though his lieutenants were successful against the Britons, the Moors, the Dacians, the Germans, and Pannonians, yet the empire was daily declining, since their num- bers seemed to increase by defeat, so that neither treaties could bind, nor victories repel them. In the mean time, the emperor's actions were become so odious to all mankind, and so con- temptible to the citizens of Rome, that his death was ardently desired by all. At length, upon the feast of Janus, resolving to fence naked before the people, as a common gladiator, three of his friends remonstrated to him upon the inde- cency of such a behaviour. These were Lajtius, Ms general, Ele&us, his chamberlain, and Marcia, a concubine, of whom he always appeared exces- sively fond. Their advice was attended with no other effect, than that of incensing him against them, and inciting him to resolve upon their destruction. It was his method, like that of Do-r mitian, to set down the names of all such as he intended to put to death, in a roll, which he carefully kept by him, However, at this time, THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 3£$ happening to lay the roll on bis bed, while he was bathing in another room, it was taken up by a little boy, whom he passionately loved. The child, after playing with it for some time, brought it to Marcia, who was instantly alarmed at the contents. She immediately discovered her terrors to Laetus and Eleclius, who, perceiving their dan- gerous situation, instantly resolved the tyrant's death. After some deliberation, it was agreed upon to dispatch him by poison. In conse- quence of this, a draught, probably opium, was administered to him by the hands of Marcia, which beginning to operate, cast him into a heavy slumber. In order to conceal the fact, she imme- diately caused the company to retire, under pretence of allowing him rest ; but finding him awake soon after, and taken with a violent vo- miting, she was greatly alarmed with fears of his recovery. In this exigence, consulting with the rest of the conspirators, she hastily introduced a young man, called Narcissus, and shewing him his own name, among the number of those whom Commodus had destined to destruction, she pre- vailed upon him to assist in dispatching the tyrant. He boldly undertook the dangerous task, so that the emperor was soon strangled by their united eflbrts. In this manner died Commodus., in the thirty-first year of his age, after an impious reign of twelve years and nine months ; and, as if he gave the example, very few of his successors escaped a violent death. 546 THE HISTORY OF CHAPTER XX. ■ Tertinax, the JNTincteenth Emperor of Rome. JL HE secrecy and expedition with which Com- r# c modus was assassinated were such, that few 945. were at that time, acquainted with the "t'og" real circumstances of his death. His body was wrapped up as a bale of useless furni- ture, and carried through the guards, most of whom were either drunk or asleep. Previous to the assassination, the conspirators had fixed upon a successor. This was Helvius Pertinax, whose virtues and courage rendered him worthy of the most exalted station, and who had passed through many changes of fortune. He was originally the son of an enfranchised slave, called /Elius, who only gave him so much learning as would qualify him for keeping a little shop in the city. He then became a school- master ; he afterwards studied the law, and after that became a soldier : In the last station his be- haviour was such, as to raise him to the post of captain of a cohort against the Parthians. Being thus introduced to arms, he went through tlie usual gradations of military preferment in Bri- tain, and Mcsia, until he became the commander of a legion under Aurelius. In this station hq TIIE EMPIRE OF ROME, 3*7 performed such excellent services against the barbarians, that he was made consul, and succes- sively governor of Daeiu, Syria, and Asia Minor. In the reign of Commodns he was banished, an4 soon after recalled, and sent into Britain to re- form the abuses of the army. In this employ- ment his usual extraordinary fortune attended him : he was opposed by a sedition among the legions, and left for dead among many others that were slain. However, he got over this danger, severely punished the mutineers, and established regularity and discipline among the troops he was sent to command. From thence he was re- moved into Africa, where the sedition of the sol- diers had like to have been as fatal to him as in his former government. Removing from Africa, and fatigued with an active life, he betook hirn^ gelf to retirement; but Commodus, willing to keep him still in view, made him.praefect of the city ; which employment he tilled, when the conspirators fixed upon him, as the-properest person to succeed to the empire. His being advanced by Commodus only served to increase his fears of falling as an object of his suspicions ; when, therefore, the conspirators repaired to his house by night, he considered their arrival as a command from the emperor for his death. Upon Laetus entering his apartment, Pertinax, without any shew of fear, cried out, That for many days he had expe6ted to end his life in that manner, wondering that the emperor had deferred it so long. However, he was not a 348 THE HISTORY OF little surprized when informed of the real cause of their visit ; and being strongly urged to ac- cept of the empire, he, at last, complied with their offer. Being carried to the camp, Pertinax was pro- claimed emperor, and soon after the citizens and senate consented ; their joy at the election of their new sovereign being scarce equal to that for the death of their tyrant. They then pro- nounced Commodus a parricide ; an enemy to the gods, his country, and all mankind; and commanded, that his corse should rot upon a dunghill. In the mean time, they saluted Per- tinax as emperor and Csesar, with numerous ac- clamations, and cheerfully took the oaths of obe- dience. The provinces soon after followed the example of Rome, so that he began his reign with universal satisfaction to the whole empire, in the sixty-eighth year of his age. Nothing could exceed the justice and wisdom of this monarch's reign, the short time it conti- nued. He punished all those who had served to corrupt the late emperor, and disposed of his ill got possessions to public uses. He attempted to restrain the licentiousness of the praetorian bands, and put a stop to the injuries and inso- lencies they committed against the people. He sold most of the buffoons and jesters of Commo- dus as slaves ; particularly such as had obscene names. He continually frequented the senate as often as it sate, and never refused an audience, even to the meanest of the people. His success THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 349 in foreign affairs was equal to his internal po- licy. When the barbarous nations abroad had certain intelligence that he was emperor, they immediately laid down their arms, well knowing the opposition they were to expect from so ex- perienced a commander. His great error was avarice, and that, in some measure, served to hasten his ruin. The praetorian soldier, whose manners he had attempted to reform, having been long corrupt- ed by the indulgence and profusion of their former monarch, began to hate him, for the par- simony and discipline he had introduced among them. They therefore resolved t3 dethrone him ; and, for that purpose, declared Maternus, an an- cient senator, emperor, and endeavoured to carry him to the camp to proclaim him. Maternus, Ijowever, was too just to the merits of Ptrtinax, and too faithful a subject, to concur in their se- ditious designs; wherefore, escaping out of their bands, he fled, first to the emperor, and then out of the city. They then nominated one Falco, another senator, whom the senate would have or- dered for execution, had not Pertinax interposed, who declared, That, during his reign, no senator should suffer death. Tho praetorian soldiers then resolved unani- mously not to use any secret conspiracies, or private contrivances, but boldly to seize upon the emperor and empire «t once. They, accord- ingly, in a tumultuous manner, marched through the streets of Rome, and entered the palace with- 350 THE HISTORY OP out opposition. Such was the terror of theiY approach, that the greatest part of the emperor's attendant's forsook him ; while those who re-- mained, earnestly intrcated him to fly to the hody of the people, and interest them in his de- fence. However, he rejected that advice, declar- ing, That it was unworthy his imperial dignity, and all his past a61ions, to save himself by flight. Having thus resolved to face the rebels, he had some hopes, that his presence alone, would ter- rify and confound them. But what could his former virtues, or the dignity of command, avail against a tumultuous rabble, nursed up in vice, and ministers of fonner tyranny ? One Thausias, a Tungrian, struck him with his lance ,on the breast, crying out, ff The soldiers send you this." Pertinax finding all was over, covered his head with his robe, and sunk down, mangled with a multitude of wounds, which he received from various assassins. Eleclus, and some more of his attendants, who attempted to defend him, were also slain : his son and daughter only escaped, who happened to be lodged out of the palace. Thus, after a reign of three months, Pertinax fell a sacrifice to the licentious fury of the praetorian army. From the number of his adventures, he was called the Tennis-ball of Fortune ; and cer- tainly no man ever experienced such a variety of situations, with so blameless a character. ; Urn- t s< THE" UMPIRE OF ROME. 351 CHAPTER XXI. Didius Julian, the Twentieth Emperor of Rome. J. HE soldiers having* committed this • ... V. c. outrage, retired with great precipitation, 95L and getting out of the city to the rest of a. d. their companions, expeditiously fortified their camp, expecting to be attacked by the citizens. Two days having passed without any attempt of that kind, they became more insolent ; and, willing to make use of the power of which they found themselves possessed, they made proclamation, That they would sell the empire to whoever would purchase it at the highest price. In consequence of this proclamation, so odious and unjust in itself, only two bidders were found ; namely, Sulpician and Didius. The former, a consular person, pra?fe6t of the city, and son-in-law to the late emperor Pertinax. The latter, a consular person likewise, a great lawyer, and the wealthiest man in the city. He was sitting with some friends at dinner when the proclamation was published ; and being charm- ed with the prospe6t of unbounded power, im- mediately rose from the table, and hastened to the camp. Sulpician was got there before him ; but as he had rather promises, than treasure, to bestow, the offers of Didius, who produced im- 352 THE HISTORY OF mense sums of ready money, prevailed. He was received into the camp by a ladder, and the sol- diers instantly swore to obey him as emperor. From the camp he was attended by his new electors into the city; the whole body of his guards, which consisted of ten thousand men, were ranged around him in such order, as if they had rather prepared for battle, than a peaceable ceremony. The citizens, however, refused to confirm his election, but cursed him as he passed. Upon being conducted to the senate-house, he addressed the few senators that were present in a very laconic speech. iC Fathers, you want an was now about forty-seven years of age, received them with all proper respeel, and entertaining them honourably, continued his march towards Rome. As he came near the city, his first exer- tion of power was, to have all the praetorian sol- diers, who had lately sold the empire, come forth, unarmed, to meet him. These, though sensible of their danger, had no other resource left but compliance; and accordingly came forward, with branches of laurel, as to welcome his ap- proach. Severus, however, soon shewed how little their present submission could atone for their past offences ; after upbraiding them, in a THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 357 short speech, with all their crimes, he command- ed them to be instantly stripped of their military habits, deprived of the name and honour of sol- diers, and banished an hundred miles from Rome. He then entered the city in a military manner, took possession of the palace, and promised the senate to conduct himself with clemency and justice. However, though he united great vigour with the most refined policy, yet his African cunning was considered as a particular defect in him. He is celebrated for his wit, learning and prudence ; but equally blamed for perfidy and cruelty. In short, he seemed equally dis- posed to the performance of the greatest a6ts of virtue, and the most bloody severities. He be- gan his command, by seizing all the children of such as had employments or authority in the East, and detained them as pledges for the loyalty of their parents. He next supplied the city with com, and then, with all possible expedition, marched against Niger, who was still consider- ed, and honoured, as emperor of the East. One of the chief obstacles to his march, was, the leaving behind him Clodius Albinus, com- mander of the legions in Britain, whom he by all means endeavoured to secure to his interests. For this end he endeavoured to prevail upon him, by giving him hopes of succeeding to the em- pire ; insinuating, that he himself was declining, and his children as yet but infants. To deceive him still further, he wrote in the same stile to the senate, gave him the title of Caesar, and ▲ A3 358 THE HISTORY OF and ordered money to be coined with his image. These artifices serving to lull Albinus into false security, Severus marched against Niger with all his forces. After some undecisive conflicts, the last great battle that was fought between these two extraordinary men, was upon the plains of Issus, on the very spot where Alexander had formerly conquered Darius. Beside the two great armies drawn upon the plain, the neigh- bouring mountains were covered with infinite numbers of people, who were merely led by cu- riosity to become spectators of an engagement that was to determine the empire of the world. The fate of the battle was that which we have almost ever found between European and Asiatic troops, of nearly equal numbers. Severus was conqueror; and Niger's head being struck off by some soldiers of the conquering army, was insultingly carried through the camp on the point of a lance. This victory secured Severus the possession of the throne. However, the Parthians, Persians, and some other neighbouring nations took up arms, under a pretence of vindicating Niger's cause. The emperor marched against them in person, had many engagements with them, and obtained such signal victories over them, as en- larged the empire, and established peace in the East. Niger being no more, Severus now turned his views against Albinus, whom he resolved by every means to destroy. For this purpose he THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 359 sent some assassins into Britain under a pre- tence of bringing him letters, but in reality to dispatch him. Albinus being apprized of their designs, prevented their attempt by recurring to open force, and proclaiming himself emperor. Nor was he without a powerful army to sup- port his pretensions ; of which Severus being sensible, he bent his whole force to oppose him. From the East he continued his course across the Streights of Byzantium, into the most wes- tern parts of Europe, without intermission. Equally regardless of the most parching heats, and the most rigorous colds, he led his soldiers bareheaded over mountains covered with snow. Albinus being informed of his approach, went over to meet him with his forces into Gaul ; so that the campaign on both sides was carried on with great vigour. Fortune seemed for a while variable ; but at last a decisive engagement came on, which was one of the most desperate record- ed in the Roman history. It lasted from morn- ing till night, without any seeming advantage on either side ; at length, the troops of Severus began to fly, and he himself happening to fall from his horse, the army of Albinus cried out viclory. But the engagement was soon renewed with vigour by Laetus, one of Severus's com- manders, who came up with a body of reserve, designing to destroy both parties, and make him- self emperor. This attempt, though designed against both, turned out entirely to the advan- tage of Severus. He, therefore, again charged A a 4 SCO THE HISTORY OF with such fury and exactness, that he soon pluck- ed the victory from those who but a short time before seemed conquerors ; and pursuing them into the city of Lyons, took Albinus prisoner, and cut off his head ; treating his dead body with insults that could only flow from a mean and revengeful temper. All the senators who were slain in battle, he ordered to be quartered ; and such as were taken alive, were immediately executed. Having thus, by means of his army, secured himself in possession of the empire, upon his re- turn to Rome, he loaded his soldiers with re- wards and honours, giving them such privileges as strengthened his own power, while they de- stroyed that of the state. For the soldiers, who had hitherto shewed the strongest inclinations to an abuse of power, were now made arbiters of the fate of emperors ; and we shall hencefor- ward behold them setting them up, and de- throning them at pleasure. Being thus secure of his army, he resolved to give way to his natural turn for conquest, and to oppose his arms against the Parthians, who were then invading the frontiers of the empire. Having, therefore, previously given the govern- ment of domestic policy to one Plautian, a parti- cular favourite, to whose daughter he married his son Caracalla, he set out for tha. east, and prosecuted the war with his usual expedition and success. He forced submission from the king of Armenia, destroyed several cities in Arabia Fe» THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 138 lix, landed on the Parthian coasts, look and plundered the famous city Ctesiphon, marched back through Palestine, and Egypt, and at length returned to Rome in triumph. During this interval, Plautian, who was left to direct the affairs of Rome, began to think of aspiring to the empire himself. He had before been remarkably cruel to the Christians, and now be resolved to encrease the number of his crimes by ingratitude and treason. Upon the empe- ror's return, he employed a tribune of the praetorian cohorts, of which he was the com- mander, to assassinate him ; as likewise his son, Caracalla. The tribune seemed chearfully to undertake this dangerous office ; but instead of going through with it, informed Severus of his favourite's treachery. He at first received it as an improbable story, and as the artifice of one who envied his favourite's fortune. However, he was at last persuaded to permit the tribune to conduci Plautian to the emperor's apartments to be a testimony against himself. With this intent, the tribune went and amused him with a pretended account of his killing the emperor and his son; desiring him, if he thought fit to see them dead, to go with him to the palace. As Plautian ardently desired their deaths, he readiiy gave credit to his relation, and following the tribune, was conducted, at midnight, into the innermost recesses. But what must have been bis disapponitment, when, instead of finding the emperor lying dead, as he expecled, he beheld 354 THE HISTORY OF the room lighted up with torches, and Sercrus, surrounded by his friends, prepared in array to receive him. Being asked by the emperor, with a stern countenance, what had brought him there, at that unseasonable time ; he was, at first, utterly confounded, and, not knowing what excuse to make, he ingenuously confessed the whole, intreating forgiveness for what he had intended. The emperor seemed, in the begin- ning, inclined to pardon; but Caracalla, his son, who, from the earliest age, shewed a disposition to cruelty, spurned him away in the midst of his supplications, and, with his sword, ran him through the body. Severus having escaped this danger, spent a considerable time in visiting some cities in Italy, permitting none of his officers to sell places of trust or dignity, and distributing justice with the strictest impartiality. He took such an exa6l order in managing his exchequer, that, notwithstanding his great expences, he left more money behind him than any of his predecessors. His armies also were kept upon the same respectable footing, so that he feared no invasion. Being equally attentive to the preservation of all parts of the empire, he re- solved to make an expedition into Britain, where the Romans were in danger of being destroyed, or compelled to fly the province. Wherefore, after appointing Li: two sons, Cara- calla and Geta, joint successors in the empire, and taking them with him, he landed in Bri- THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 363 tain, to the great terror of such as had drawn down his resentment. Upon his progress into the country, he left his son Geta in the south- ern part of the province, which had continued in obedience, and marched, with his son Cara- calla, against the Caledonians. In this expe- dition, his army suffered prodigious hardships in pursuing the enemy ; they were obliged to hew their way through intricate forests, to drain extensive marshes, and form bridges over rapid rivers ; so that he lost fifty thousand men by fatigue and sickness. However, he supported all these inconveniences with unrelenting bra- very; and prosecuted his successes with such vigour, that he compelled the enemy to beg for peace; which they obtained, not without the surrender of a considerable part of their coun- try, together with all their arms and military preparations. Thus giving peace to Britain, for its better security, he built that famous wall, which still goes by his name, extending from Solway Frith, on the west, to the German ocean, on the east. It was eight feet broad, and twelve feet high, planted with towers, at a mile's distance from each other, and communicating by pipes of brass in the wall, which conveyed instructions from one garrison to another with incredible dispatch. Severus having thus punished his enemies, retired to York; where, partly through age and fatigue, and partly through grief for the irreclaimable life of Caracalla, he found • himself daily declining. To add to the distress 364 THE HISTORY OF of his situation, he was informed, that the sol- diers had revolted, and declared his son em- peror. In this exigence, he seemed once more to recall his natural vigour; he got himself immediately into his litter, and commanded the new emperor, with the tribunes and centuri- ons, to be brought before him. Though all were willing to court the favour of the young emperor, such was the authority of Severus, that none dared to disobey. They appeared before him confounded and trembling, and implored pardon upon their knees. Upon which, putting his hand to his head, he cried out, "■ Know, that it is the head that governs, " and not the feet." However, soon per- ceiving his disorder to encrease, and knowing that he could not outlive it, he could not help observing in his agony, That though he had been all that a man could be, it was of no ser- vice to him at that painful hour. Then order- ing his urn to be brought, wherein his ashes were to be enclosed, " Little urn," said he, " thou shalt now contain what the world could " not contain." Then addressing his friends that stood near him, " When I took the empire and drank six gallons of wine, without commit- ting any debauch in either. With a frame so athletic, he was possessed of a mind undaunted in danger, and neither fearing nor regarding any man. The first time he was made known was to the emperor Severus, who was then celebrating - games on the birth-day of his son Geta. Maxi- min was at that time a rude countryman, and re- quested the emperor to be permitted to contend for the prizes which were distributed to the best YOL. II. c c 386 THE HISTORY OF runners, wrestlers and boxers of the army. Se- verus, unwilling to infringe the military dis- cipline, would not permit him at first, as he was a Thracian peasant, to combat, except with slaves, against whom his strength appeared astonishing. He overcame sixteen in running, one after the other; he then kept up with the emperor on horseback; and having fatigued him in the course, he was opposed to seven of the most active soldiers, and overcame them with the greatest ease. From that time he was particularly noticed, and taken into the empe- ror's body guard, in which his assiduity and prompt obedience were particularly remark- able. In the reign of Caracalla, he was made a centurion, and distinguished himself, in that station, by his strict attention to the morals and dicipline of those he commanded. When made a tribune, he still retained the hardy simplicity of his life; eat as the meanest centinel; spent whole days in exercising the troops ; and would now and then himself wrestle with eight or ten of the strongest men in the army, whom he threw with scarce any effort. Being thus be- come one of the most remarkable men in the empire, both for courage, discipline and perso- nal activity, lie gave, shortly after, a very high instance of his unshaken fidelity: for when, Macrinus was made emperor, he refused to serve under a prince that had betrayed his sove- reign; and retired to Thrace, his native country^ where he followed commerce, and purchased THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 387 some lands, content with privacy rather than a guilty dependance. Upon the accession of He- liogabalus to the throne, this bold veteran once more returned to the army, but was, in the very beginning-, disgusted at the base effeminacy of the emperor: who, hearing amazing instances of his strength, asked him, if he were equally capable in combats of another nature. This lewd demand was so little suitable to the temper of Maximin, that he instantly left the court. Upon the death of Heliogabalus, he again re- turned to Rome, and was received with great kindness by Alexander, who particularly recom- mended him to the senate, and made him com- mander of the fourth legion, which consisted of new raised soldiers. Maximin gladly accept- ed of this charge, and performed his duty with great exactness and success, setting an example of virtue and discipline to all the commanders of the army. Nor was his valour less apparent against the Germans, whither he was sent with his legion ; so that he was unanimously consider- ed as the boldest bravest, most valiant and most virtuous soldier in the whole empire. He soon, however, forfeited all these justly merited titles when he was raised to the throne; and, from being the most loved commander in the army, he became the most cruel tyrant upon earth. The change in his disposition may readily serve to shew how dangerous a thing is power, that could transform a person with so . many rigid virtues into such a monster of iniquity. Yet, c c 2 388 THE HISTORY OP in fact, his former virtues were all of the severe and rigid kind ; which, without any education might very easily degenerate into tyranny; so that he might have mistaken his succeeding cruelty for discipline, and his severity for jus- tice. However this be, Maximin is considered as one of the greatest monsters of cruelty that ever disgraced power; and, fearful of nothing himself, he seemed to sport with the terrors of all mankind. Maximin seeing himself advanced to so high a station as the empire, began immediately by endeavouring to force obedience from every rank of people, and by vindicating his authority by violence. The senate and the people of Rome were the first that incurred his resentment. They utterly refusing to confirm the election of the army, he was the first emperor who reigned with- out their concurrence or approbation. How- ever, he seemed regardless of their opposition, proceeding to secure his election by putting all such to death as had been raised by his pre- decessor. The Christains also having found favour in the former reign, felt the weight of his resentment, and were persecuted in se- veral parts of the empire, particularly in those where he himself resided. His cruelty likewise extended to the rich, whose lives and estates became a frequent sacrifice to avarice and sus- picion. But what appears a still more extraordi- nary instance of his cruelty, being ashamed of the meanness of his extraction, he commanded all THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 389 such as were best acquainted with him and his parentage, to be slain, although there were some among the number, that had relieved him in his low condition. However, his cruelties did not retard his mili- tary operations, which were carried on with a spirit becoming a better monarch. He over- threw the Germans in several battles, wasted all their country with fire and sword for four hundred miles together, and set a resolution of subduing all the northern nations as far as the ocean. In these expeditions, in order to attach the soldiers more firmly to him, he encreased their pay ; and in every duty of the camp, he himself took as much pains as the meanest cen- tinel in his army, shewing incredible courage and assiduity. In every engagement, wherever the confli6l was hottest, Maximin was always seen fighting there in person; and destroying all before him : for, being bred a barbarian, he considered it his duty to combat as a com- mon soldier, while he commanded as a ge- neral. In the mean time, his cruelties had so alie- nated the minds of his subjects, that several conspiracies were secretly aimed against him. Magnus, a consular person, and some others, had plotted to break down a wooden bridge, as soon as the emperor had passed it, and to abandon him to the enemy. But this being discovered, gave Maximin an opportunity of indulging his natural severity, upon this pre- cc3 $90 THE HISTORY OF text alone, causing above four thousand to be slain. Shortly after, some of Alexander's old soldiers withdrawing themselves from the camp, proclaimed one Quarcianus as emperor, who had been lately disgusted at Maximin, for being dismissed from employment. The soldiers, in facl, constrained him to accept of the danger- ous superiority to 'which he was exposed; and shortly after, in the spirit of the times, the person who had been the promoter of his advancement, murdered him in his bed, and carried his head to Maximin, who received him kindly at first, but soon put him to a cruel death, for his com- plicated guilt of treason and treachery. These partial insurrections were soon after followed by a spirit of general discontent throughout all the empire. The provinces of Africa were the first that shewed their detesta- tion of the tyrant, whose extortions and cruel- ties among them were become insupportable. They first slew his procurator, and afterwards considering how dangerous a crime they had committed, they resolved to throw off all ex- pectations of pardon, and create a new emperor. Gordian was then proconsul of Africa, a person of great fame for his virtues, and greatly re- verenced for a blameless life of near eighty. Him, therefore, they determined to ele£t, and accordingly the soldiers and natives assembling together, tumultuously entering his house, re- solved to put their design in execution. Gor- dian, wliOj at first, supposed they were come THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 391 to kill him, being made sensible of their inten- tions, utterly reiused their offer, alledging his extreme age, and Maxim in 's power. But all his opposition was vain ; they constrained him to accept of the proffered dignity; and he, with his son Gordian, who was forty^six years of age, were declared emperors. Being thus raised, contrary to his inclinations, the old man im- mediately wrote to the senate, declaring that he had unwillingly accepted of the empire, and would only keep his authority till he had freed it from the tyranny of its present oppressor. The senate very joyfully confirmed his election, adjudging Maximin as an enemy and a traitor to the state. The citizens also shewed an equal zeal in the cause ; they flew upon such as were the reputed friends of Maximin, and tore them in pieces ; even some who were innocent, fall- ing a sacrifice to the multitude's blind rage. So great an alteration being made in the city against the interests of Maximin, the senate were resolved to drive their opposition to the extreme, and accordingly made all necessary preparations for their security, ordering Maxi- min's governors to be displaced, and command- ing all the provinces to acknowledge Gordian for emperor. This order was differently received in different parts, as people were affecled to one or the other party ; in some provinces the governors ^ere slain; in others, the messengers of the senate ; so that all parts of the empire felt the consequences of the civil war. cc 4 392 THE HISTORY OF In the mean time, when' Maximin was in- formed of these charges against him, his rage appeared ungovernable. He roared like asa- vage beast, and violently struck his head against the wall, shewing every instance of ungovern- able distraction. At length, his fury being somewhat subdued, he called his whole army to- gether; and, in a set speech, exhorted them to revenge his cause, giving them the strongest assurances, that they should possess the estates of all such as had offended. The soldiers una- nimously promised to be faithful : they received his harangue with their usual acclamation ; and, thus encouraged, he led them towards Rome, breathing nothing but slaughter and re- venge. However, he found many obstacles to his impetuosity ; and, though he desired nothing so much as dispatch, his marches were incom- modious and slow. The tumultuous and disr obedient armies of the empire, were at pre- sent, very different from the legions that were led on by aSylla, or a Caesar; they were load- ed with baggage, and followed by slaves and women, rather resembling an eastern caravan, than a military battalion. To these inconve- niencies also was added the hatred of the cities through which he passed, the inhabitants all abandoning their houses upon his approach, and securing their provisions in proper hiding- places. However, in this complication of in- conveniencies and misfortunes, his affairs began to wear a favourable appearance in Africa ; for THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 303 Capelianus, the governor of Numidia, raised a body of troops in his favour, and marched a- gainst Cordian, towards Carthage, where lie fought the younger Gordian, slew him and destroyed his arm v. His father hearing of the death of his son, together with the loss of the bat- tle, strangled himself in his own girdle. Ca- pelianus pursuing his viclory, entered Carthage, where he gave a loose to pillage and slaughter, under a pretence of revenging the cause of Maximin. The news of these successes was soon brought to the emperor, who now increased his diligence, and flattered himself with a speedy opportunity of revenge. He led on his large army by hasty journeys into Italy, threatening destruction to all his opposers, and ardently wishing for fresh opportunities of slaughter. Nothing could exceed the consternation of the senate upon the news of this defeat. They now saw themselves not only deprived of the assistance of Gordian and his son, on whom they greatly relied, but also opposed by two formi- dable tyrants, each commanding a vi6torious army, directly marching towards Rome, and meditating nothing but vengeance. In this afflicting exigence, they, with great solemnity, met at the temple of Jupiter, and after the most mature deliberation choss Pupienus and Balbi- nus emperors conjointly. These were men who bad acquired the esteem of the public both in war and peace, having commanded armies and 394 THE HISTORV OF governed provinces with great reputation; and being now appointed to oppose Maximin, they made what levies they could, both in Rome and the country. With- these, Pupienus marched to stop the progress of the invaders, leaving the city to a fresh and unlooked for calamity. This was occasioned by two of Maximin's sol- diers, who entering the senate-house, were slain by two senators. The death of these men quick- ly gave offence to the body of the praetorian sol- diers, who instantly resolved to take revenge, but were opposed by the citizens; so that no? thing was seen throughout Rome, but tumult, slaughter and cruelty. In this universal con- fusion the calamity was increased, by the sol- diers setting the city on fire, while the wretched inhabitants were combating each other in the midst of the flames. Nevertheless, Maximin himself, in whose favour these seditions were promoted, did not seem to be more fortunate. Upon being in- formed of the new election of emperors, his fury was again renewed, and he passed the Alps, entering Italy, expecting to refresh his fatigued and famished army in that fertile part of the country. But in this he was entirely disappointed; the senate had taken such care to remove all kinds of sustenance to fortified places, that he still found himself reduced to his former necessities, while his army began to murmur for want. To this another disappoint- ment was added shortly after : for approaching EMPIRE OF HOME. 395 the city of Aquileiu, which he expelled to enter without any difficulty, he was astonished to find it prepared for the most obstinate re- sistance, and resolved to hold out a regular siege. This city was well fortilied. and popu- lous, and the inhabitants greatly averse To Maximin's government; but what added still more to its strength, it was commanded by two excellent generals, Crispin us and Menophiilus, who had so well furnished it with men and ammunition, that Maximin found no small re- sistance, even in investing the place. His first attempt was, to take the city by storm: but the besieged threw down such quantities of scalding pitch and sulphur upon his soldiers, that they were unable to continue the assault. He then determined upon a blockade; but the inhabitants were so resolute, that even the old men and children were seen combating upon the walls, while the women cut oft* their hair, to furnish the soldiers with bow-strings. Maxi- min's rage, at this unexpected opposition, was now ungovernable: having no enemy to wreak his resentment upon, he turned it against his own commanders. He put many of his generals to death, as if the city had held out through their neglecl or incapacity, while fa- mine made great depredations upon the rest of his army. Nothing now appeared on either side to terminate the contest, except the total de- struction of either. But a mutiny in Maximin's own army, a while rescued the declining empire 396 THE HISTORY OF from destruction, and saved the lives of thou- sands. The soldiers being long harrassed by famine and fatigue, and hearing of revolts on every side, resolved to terminate their calami- ties by the tyrant's death. His great strength, and his being always armed, were, at first, the principal motives to deter any from assassinating him ; but at length having made his guards ac- complices in their design, they set upon him, while he slept at noon in his tent, and slew both him and his son, whom he had made his part- ner in the empire, without any opposition. Thus died this most remarkable man, after an usurpation of about three years, and in the sixty- fifth year of his age. His assiduity, when in an humble station, and his cruelty, when in power, serve very well to evince, that there are some men, whose virtues are fitted for obscurity ; as there are others, who only shew themselves great, when placed in an exalted station. THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 337 CHAPTER XXVIII. Pupienus and Balbinus, making together the Twenty- seventh Emperor of Rome. HE tyrant being dead, and his body u. c thrown to dogs and birds of prey, Pu- 991 J pienus and Balbinus continued for some a. n. time emperors without opposition. But the praetorian soldiers, who had long been no- torious for mutiny and treason, soon resolved on further change. Nor did the dissentions be- tween the new made emperors themselves, a little contribute to their downfall; for though both were remarkable for wisdom and age, yet they could not restrain the mutual jealousy of each other's power. Pupienus claimed the superiority from his great experience ; while Balbinus was equally aspiring, upon account of his family and fortune. In this ill-judged contest, the praetorian sol- diers, who were the enemies of both, set upon them in their palace, at a time when their guards were amused with seeing the Capitoline games. Pupienus perceiving their tumultuous approach, gent, with the utmost speed, for assistance from his colleague; but he, out of a culpable suspi- cion, that something was designed against him- 389 THE HISTORY OF self, refused to send such of the German guards as were next his person. Thus the seditious sol- diers found an easy access to both the emperors apartments, and dragging them from the palace towards the camp, slew them both, leaving their dead bodies in the streets, as a dreadful instance of their sedition. CHAPTER XXIX. Gordian, the Twenty-eighth Emperor of Rome. J.N the midst of this sedition, as the mutineers were proceeding along, they, by accident, 99^ met Gordian, the grandson of him who A - D - was slain in Africa, and declared him era- 238 peror on the spot. The senate and peo- ple had been long reduced to the necessity of suffering their emperors to be nominated by the army ; so that all they could do, in the present instance, was to confirm their choice. This prince was but sixteen years old when he began his reign, but his virtues seemed to compensate for his want of experience. His principal aims were, to unite the opposing members of the go- vernment, and to reconcile the soldiers and citi- zens to each other. His learning is said to have THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 399 been equal to his virtues ; and we are assured that he had sixty-two thousand books in his li- brary. His respect for Misithams, his governor and instructor, was such, that he married his daughter, and profited by his counsels, in all the critical circumstances of his reign. The four first years of this emperor's reign, were attended with the utmost prosperity ; but in the lifth, he was alarmed with accounts from the east, that Sapor, king of Persia, had furi- ously invaded the coniiues of the Roman em- pire, and having taken Antioch, had pillaged Syria, and all the adjacent provinces. Besides the Persians, the Goths also invaded the empire on their side, pouring down like an inundation from the north, and attempting to fix their resi- dence in the kingdom of Thrace. To oppose both these invasions, Gordian prepared an army ; and having gained some victories over the Goths, whom he obliged to retire, he turned his arms against the Persians, whom he defeated upon several occasions, and forced to return home with disgrace. In gaining these advantages, Misi- tha?us, whom he had made praetorian prefect, had the principal share ; his wisdom directed to success, and his courage insured it. But he dy- ing soon after (as it is supposed being poisoned by Philip, an Arabian, who was appointed his successor) the fortunes of Gordian seemed to die with him. The army began to be no long- er supplied with provision as usual ; murmurs Mere heard to prevail, and these were art- 400 THE HISTORY OF fully fomented by Philip. Things thus proceed- ing from bad to worse, Philip was, at first, made equal in the command of the empire; shortly after, he was invested with the sole power, and, at length, finding himself capable of perpetrating his long meditated cruelty, Gordian was, by his order, slain, in the twenty-second year of his age, after a successful reign of near six years. CHAPTER XXX. Philip, the Twenty-ninth Emperor of Rome. JL HILIP, having thus murdered his benefactor, was so fortunate as to be immediately ac- u. c. J 996. knowledgcd emperor by the army. The A * D - senate also, though they seemed at first to oppose his power, confirmed his election, and gave him, as usual, the title of Augustus. He was about forty years old when he came to the throne, being the son of an obscure Ara- bian, who had been captain of a band of rob- bers. Upon his exaltation, he associated his son, a boy of six years of age, as his partner in the empire; and, in order to secure his power at home, made peace with the Persians, and march- ed his army towards Rome. On his way, having THE EMPIRE OF ROME. • 401 conceived a desire to visit his native country of Arabia, he built there a city called Philqpolis ; and from thence returning to Rome, he was re- ceived as emperor, and treated with all the marks of submission, though not of joy. Perhaps it was to put the people into good humour,, that he caused the secular games to be celebrated, with a magnificence superior to any of his predeces- sors, it being just a thousand years from the building of the city. Upon occasion of these games, we are told, that both Philip and his son were converted to Christianity. However this be, a murderer and an ungrateful usurper, does no great honour to whatever opinion he may happen to embrace. We have little account of the latter part of his reign in the wretched and mutilated histories of the times ; we only learn, that the Goths, renewing their invasions, Mari- nas, Philip's lieutenant, who was sent against them, revolted, and caused himself to be declared emperor. This revolt, however, was but of short duration j for the army which had raised him, repenting of their rashness, deposed him with equal levity, and put him to death. Decius was the person whom Philip appointed to command in the room of the revolting general. The chief merit of Decius with the emperor was, that when Marinns had rebelled, he averred, in the senate, That the traitor's presumption would be very shortly his ruin ; which, when it happened ac- cordingly, Philip appointed him to succeed in the command of the rebellious army. Decius, VOL, II, D D 402 THE HISTORY OF who was a man of great subtlety, being thus en- trusted with so much power, upon arriving at the army, found that the soldiers were resolved to invest him with the supreme authority. He, therefore, seemed to suffer their importunities, as if through constraint; and, in the mean time, sent Philip word, that he had unwillingly as- sumed the title of emperor, the better to secure it to the rightful possessor ; adding, that he only looked for a convenient opportunity of giving up his pretensions and title together. Philip, however, knew mankind too well to rely upon fuch professions : he, therefore, got together what forces he could, from the several provinces, and led them forward towards the confines of Italy. However, the army was scarce arrived at Verona, when it revolted in favour of Decius, and setting violently upon Philip, one of the cen- tinels, at a blow, cut off his head; or rather cleaved it asunder, separating the under jaw from the upper. Such was the deserved death of Philip, in the forty-fifth year of his age, after a reign of about five years; Decius being universally acknow- ledged as his successor. ; THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 403 I CHAPTER XXXI. Decius, the Thirtieth Emperor of Roiiie. • HE a£livity and wisdom of Decius, c seemed in some measure, to stop the hasten- 1001. ing decline of the Roman empire. The J] l5 * senate seemed to think so highly of his merits, that they voted him not inferior to Tra- jan ; and indeed he seemed, in every instance, to consult their dignity in particular, and the welfare of all the inferior ranks of people. He among other concessions, permitted them to chuse a censor, as was the custom in the flourishing times of Rome ; and Valerian, his general, a man of such strict morals, that his life was said to he a continual censorship, was chosen to that dig- nity. But no virtues could now prevent the ap- proaching downfall of the state : the obstinate disputes between the Pagans and the Christians within the empire^ and the unceasing irruptions of barbarous nations from without, enfeebled it beyond the power of a remedy. To stop these, a persecution of the Christians, who were now grown the most numerous body of the people, was impoliticiy, not to say unjustly, begun ; in which thousands were put to death; and all the dd2 401 THE HISTORY OF arts of cruelty tried in vain to lessen their grow ing numbers. This persecution was succeeded by dreadful devastations from the Goths, particularly in Thrace and Mesia, where they had been most successful. These irruptions Decius went to oppose in person, and coming to an engage- ment with them, slew thirty thousand of these barbarians in one battle. However, being re- solved to pursue his victory, he was, by the treachery of Galius, his own general, led into a defile, where the king of the Goths had secret in- formation to attack him. In this disadvantage- ous situation, Decius first saw his son killed with an arrow, and soon after his whole army totally put to the route. Wherefore, resolving not to survive the loss, he put spurs to his horse, and instantly plunging into a quagmire, was swal- lowed up, and his body could never after be found. He died in the fiftieth year of his age, after a short reign of two years and six months, leaving the character of an excellent prince, and one capable of averting the destruction of the empire, if human means could effecl it. ■ THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 405 ll r« it.... CHAPTER XXXII. it- ti:.i.. r. j. T? _r T» Callus, the Thirty. first Emperor of Rome G "ALLUS, who had thus betrayed the Roman army, had address enough to get j^qj himself declared emperor by that part of v. i>. it which survived the defeat ; he was forty- f 5 }' five years old when he began to reign, and was descended from an honourable family in Rome. He was the first who bought a dishonourable peace from the enemies of the state, agreeing to pay a considerable annual tribute to the Goths, whom it was his duty to repress. Having thus purchased a short remission from war, by the disgrace of his country, he returned to Rome, to give a loose to his pleasures, regardless of the wretched situation of the empire. Nothing can be more deplorable than the state of the Roman provinces at that time. The Goths, and other barbarous nations, not satisfied with their late bribes to continue in peace, broke down, like a torrent, upon the eastern parts of Europe. On the other side, the Persians and Scythians committed unheard of ravages in Mes- sopotamia and Syria. The emperor, regardless of every national calamity, was lost in debauch and sensuality at home ; and the Pagans were PD3 406 THE HISTORY Of allowed a power of persecuting the Christians through all parts of the state. These calamities were succeeded hy a pestilence from Heaven, that seemed to have in general spread over every part of the earth, and which continued raging for several years, in an unheard of manner ; and all these hy a civil war, which followed short- ly after, between Gallus and his general iEmj r lianus, who, having gained a victory over the Goths, was proclaimed emperor by his conquer- ing army. Gallus hearing this, soon roused from the intoxications of pleasure, and prepared to oppose his dangerous rival. Both armies met in Mesia, and a battle ensued, in which JEmi- lianus was victorious, and Gallus, with his son, were slain. His death was merited, and his vices were such, as to deserve the detestation of pos- terity. He died in the forty-seventh year of his age, after an unhappy reign of two years and four months, in which the empire suffered inex- pressible calamities. ■ THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 407 u. c. CHAPTER XXXIII. Valerian, the Thirty-second Emperor of Rome. -/HrfMILIANUS, after his vi&ory over r Gallus, expecled to be acknowledged as em- 10 o6\ peror, but he soon found himself miserably A - ,K disappointed. The senate refused to ac- knowledge his claims ; and an army that was stationed near the Alps, chose Valerian, their own commander, to succeed to the throne. In con- sequence of this, yEmilian's soldiers began to consider their general as an obstacle to the uni- versal tranquillity, and slew him, in order to avoid the mischiefs of a civil war, Valerian being thus universally acknowledged as emperor, although arrived at the age of se- venty, set about reforming the state w ith a spi- rit that seemed to mark a good mind and un- abated vigour. But reformation was then grown almost impracticable, The disputes between the Pagans and Christians divided the empire as before, and a dreadful persecution of the latter ensued. The northern nations over-ran the Roman dominions in a more formidable man- ner than ever, and the empire began to be usurped by a multitude of petty leaders, each of whom, neglecling the general interests of the d d 4 408 THE HISTORY OF state, set up for himself. To add to these cala- mities, the Persians, under their king Sapor, in-> vaded Syria, and coming into Mesopotamia, took the unfortunate Valerian prisoner, as he was making preparations to oppose them. Nothing can exceed the indignities, as well as the cruel- ties, which were practised upon this unhappy monarch, thus fallen into the hands of his ene- mies. Sapor, we are told, always used him as a footstool for mounting his horse ; he added the bitterness of ridicule to his insults, and usually observed, That an attitude like that to which Valerian was reduced, was the best statue that eould be creeled in honour of his victory. This horrid life of insult and sufferance continued for seven years ; and was, at length, terminated, by the cruel Persian's commanding his prisoner's, eyes to be plucked out, and afterwards causing him to be flead alive. • i tod « ■ . THE EMPIRE OF ROME- 409 CHAPTER XXXIV. Gauiuvus, the Thirty-third Empehor. of Rome. V ALERIAN being taken prisoner, as hath been just mentioned, Galienus, his son, pro- mising to revenge the insult, was chosen 1012, emperor, being then about forty-one years A - P> old. However he soon discovered that he sought rather the splendours, than the toils, of the empire; for after having overthrown Inge^- nims, a commander in Pannonia, who had assuub- edthe title of emperor, he sate down, as if fati- gued with conquest, and gave himself up to ease and luxury. While the empire was afflicled throughout with pestilence and famine; while the Germans over-ran Rhaetia: while the Ale- mans wasted Gaul; while the Goths, and Quadi and Sarmatians poured forth from their forests, and carried desolation over half .the empire; Galienus remained in the utmost tranquillity at Rome, inventing new pleasures, bathing among prostitutes, studying how to preserve figs green all the year round, and diverting himself among mimic ks, parasites and buffoons. When in- formed of the loss of his provinces, or the calamities of the state, he usually answered with I jest; so that his total inattention gave rise to, I 4tO THE HISTORY OF a number of rebellions, that divided the empire into a multitude of independent sovereignties. It was at this time, that no less than thirty pretenders were seen contending with each other for the dominion of the state, and adding the calamities of civil war, to the rest of the misfortunes of this devoted empire. These are generally known in history by the name of the Thirty Tyrants. Historians are divided as to their number, names, and pretensions; it only appears, in the ill-digested accounts of these times, that they were not at all cotemporary, but succeeded each other whenever they found an opportunity of asserting their pretensions, It will be needless to dilate upon accounts and characters, that, have nothing very remarkable to keep them from oblivion; the names of these short lived pretenders will suffice, In the cast, Macrianus, and his two sons, m. Valens, iv, Piso, v. In Illyricum, Aureolus, vi. In Pal- myra, QEdenatus, vn, Herod, vin. Balista, ix. Mteonias, x. Zenobia, and her two sons, xm. In Egypt, yEmilian, xiv. In Africa, Celsus, xv. In Pannonia, Regillianus, xvi. Ingenue us, xvii. Censorinus, xvm. Trebellianus, xix. In Gaul, Posthumus, xx. Viclorinus, xxi. Posthumus Junior, xxn. Lollianus, xxm. Victoria, xxiv. Vi6lorinus Junior, xxv. Te^ trius, xxvi. Tetrius Junior, xxvn. Cyriades, xxvni. Saturninus, xxix. Marius, xxx. It may be easily supposed, that a state, har- rassed by such a number of opposing interest THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 4U and inimical armies, was in the most dreadful situation; and accordingly we find, through all parts of the empire, nothing but rapine, inur- cler and desolation ; the government, like a mighty ruin, dropping by piece-meal on the heads of those it was originally raised to protecl, and threatening every moment universal des- truction. In this general calamity, Galicnus, though at first seemingly insensible, was, at length, obliged, for his own private security, to take the field and lead an army to besiege the city of Milan, which had been taken by one of the thirty ursurping tyrants. It was there he was slain by his own soldiers, Martian, one of his generals, having conspired against him. CHAPTER XXXV. Claudius, the Thirty.fourth Emperor of Rome. X HE death of Galienus proved very advanta-? geous to the empire, and gave a general u. c« satisfaction to all, except his soldiers, who A D< " hoped to reap the reward of their treachery 268. by the plunder of Milan. But being frustrated by these expectations, and, in some measure, kept 412 THE HISTORY OF within bounds, by the largesses of Martian, Flavius Claudius being nominated to succeed, was joyfully accepted by all orders of the state, and his title confirmed by the senate and the people. We arc not sufficiently assured of this empe- ror's lineage and country. Some affirm that he was born in Dalmatia, and descended from an ancient family there; others assert, that he was a Trojan; and others, still, that he was son to the emperor Gordian, But, whatever might have been his descent, his merits were by no means doubtful. He was a man of great valour and conduel, having performed the most excellent services against the Goths, who had long con- tinued to make their irruptions into the empire. He was now about fifty-five years old, equally remarkable for the strength of his body and the vigour of his mind; he was chaste and tem- perate, a rewarder of the good, and a severe punisher of such as transgressed the laws. Thus endowed, therefore, he, in some measure, put a stop to the precipitate decline^of the empire, and once more, seemed to restore the glory of Rome. His first success, upon being made emperor, was against Aureolus, an usurper of the em- pire, whom he defeated near Milan. His next expedition was to oppose the Goths against whom he led a very numerous army. These barbarians had made their principal and most successful irruptions into Thrace and Macedonia^ swarm- THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 413 ed over all Greece, and had pillaged the famous city of Athens, which had long hcen the school of all the polite arts to the Romans. The Goths, however, had no veneration for these embellishments that tend to soften and human- ize the mind, but destroyed all momuments of taste and learning w ith the most savage alacrity* It was upon one of these occasions, that having heaped together a large pile of books, in order to burn them, one of their commanders dis- suaded them from the design, alledging, That the time which the Grecians should waste on books, would only render them more unqualified for war. But the empire seemed to tremble, not only on that side, but almost on every quarter. At the same time, above three hun- dred thousand of these barbarians (the Heruli, the Trutangi, the Virturgi, and many nameless and uncivilized nations) came down the river Danube, with two thousand ships, fraught with men and ammunition, spreading terror and de- vastation on every side. In this state of universal dismay, Claudius, alone, seemed to continue unshaken. He march- ed his disproportioned army against the savage invaders, and, though but ill prepared for en- gaging with them, as the forces of the empire were then employed in different parts of the world he came off victorious, and made an incre- dible slaughter of the enemy. The whole of their great army was either cut to pieces or taken prisoners; houses were filled with their arm?, 413 THE HISftiHY OF and scarce a province of the empire, that was not furnished with slaves, from those that sur- vived the defeat. These successes were followed by many others in different parts of the empire; so that the Goths, for a considerable time after, made but a feeble opposition. He some time after marched against the revolt- ed Germans, and overthrew them with considera- ble slaughter. His Jast expedition was to appose Tetricus and Zenobia, his two puissant rivals in the empire. But on his march, as he ap- proached near the city Sirmium, in Pannonia, he was seized with a pestilential fever, of which he died in a few days, to the great regret of his subjects, and the irreparable loss of the Roman empire. His reign, which was not of quite two years continuance., was a6live and successful: and such is the character given of him by historians, that he is said to have united in him- lelf, the moderation of Augustus, the valour of Trajan, and the piety of Antoninus. THE EMPIRE OF ROM& 413 CHAPTER XXXVI. Aurclian, the Thirty-fifth Emperor of Rome, I IMMEDIATELY after the death of Claudius, the army made unanimous choice of Aureli- J V. c. an, who was at that time master of the horse, 1023. and esteemed the most valiant commander A - **• of his time. However, his promotion was not without opposition on the part of the senate, as Quintillus the brother of the deceased emperor, put in his claim, and was, for a while, acknowledged at Rome. But this authority was of very short duration ; for finding himself abandoned by those who at first instigated him to declare for the throne, he chose to prevent the severity of his rival, by a voluntary death; and causing his veins to be opened, expired, after having reigned but seventeen days. Aurelian being thus universally acknowledged by all the states of the empire, assumed the com- mand, with a greater share of power than his predecessors had enjoyed for some time before. This a&ive monarch was born of mean and ob- scure parentage in Dacia, and was about fifty- five years old at the time of his coming to the throne. He had spent the early part of his 416 TlIE HlSTOKV OF life in the army, and had risen through all the gradations of military duty. He was of unshaken courage and amazing* strength ; he, in one single engagement, killed forty of the enemy with his own hand, and above nine hundred at several different times. In short, his valour and expedi- tion were such, that lie was compared to Julius Caesar ; and, in facl, only wanted mildness and clemency to be every way his equal. The whole of this enterprizing monarch's reign was spent, in repressing the irruptions of the northern nations ; in humbling every other pretender to the empire, and punishing the monstrous irregularities of his own subjects. He defeated the Morcomanni, a fierce and terrible nation of Germany, that had invaded .Italy* in three several engagements, and at length totally destroyed their whole army. He was not less successful against Zenobia, the queen of the East, a woman of the most heroic qualifications, who had long disclaimed the Roman power, and es- tablished an empire of her own. To oppose this extraordinary woman, Aurelian passed his army over into Asia, and suppressing all the obstruc- tions that were opposed against him, he at length sat down before Tyana, a city of Cappadocia, which seemed resolved to hold out against him, and actually, for some time, stopped his progress. The unexpected obstinacy of the besieged, serv- ed not a little to enrage the emperor, who was naturally precipitate and furious. He vowed, that upon taking the city, he would so punish THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 417 the inhabitants, as not to leave a dog alive a- mong them. After some time the city was taken ; and when his whole army expe6led the plunder of of so wealthy a place, and put him in mind of liis former protestations, he restrained their im- petuosity, and only ordered all the dogs in the place to be destroyed. He afterwards pretended that he was restrained from satiating his resent- ment on the inhabitants, by an apparition of the famous Appollonius, that warned him not to destroy his birth-place. This excuse was no doubt fictitious ; but we can easily pardon false- hood, when it is brought to the assistance of humanity. From Tyana he marched to meet the enemy > who waited his approach, near the city of Emesa in Syria. Both armies were very power* ful and numerous; the one trained up under the most valiant leader of his time; the other led on by a woman, that seemed born to controul the pride of man. The battle was long and obstinate ; victory at one time leaned to the side of the Asiatics ; but the perseverance of Aureli- an's generals, at last, carried the day. The enemy was defeated, and Zenobia was obliged to fly to Palmyra for safety. But she was soon pursued thither by the conqueror, who did all in his power to induce her to submission ; but the haughty queen refused his proferred terms of life and security with scorn, relying on the succours which she expecled from the Persians, the Saracens, and the Armenians. However, VOL. II. E E 418 THE HISTORY OF Aurelian's diligence surmounted every obstacle 3 ; he intercepted the Persian auxiliaries and dis- persed them ; the Saracens shared the same fate ; and the Armenians were, by plausible promises, led over to espouse his interests. Thus Zenobia, deceived in her expected succours, and despair- ing of relief, attempted to fly into Persia ; but was taken by a chosen body of horse sent to pursue her. The city of Palmyra likewise sub- mitted to the conqueror; and Longinus, the celebrated critic and secretary to the queen, was by Aurelian's order put to death. Zenobia was reserved to grace his triumph, and was after- wards allotted such lands, and such an income, as served to maintain her in almost her former splendor. Aurelian having thus restored peace to the empire, endeavoured, by the rigours of justice, to bring back virtue also. He was very stri6l in punishing the crimes of the soldiery ; and in his orders to his lieutenants, insisted that the peasants should not be plundered upon any pre- tence; that not even a grape, a grain of salt, or a drop of oil, should be exacted unjustly. He caused a soldier who had committed adul- tery with his hostess, to have his feet tied to two trees, forcibly bent at top to meet each other; which being let loose, and suddenly recoiling, tore the criminal in two. This was a severity that might take the name of cruelty; but the vices of the times, in some measure, required it. In these punishments inflicled on the guilty, THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 419 the Christians, who had all along been growing more numerous, were sharers. Against these he drew up several letters and edicls, which shewed that he intended a very severe persecu- tion ; but, if we may believe the credulous histo- rians of the times, he was deterred just as he was going to sign, by a thunder-bolt, which fell so near his person, that all people judged him destroyed. But, however Heaven might have interposed on this occasion, it is certain, that his severities at last were the cause of his destruction. Menesthus, his principal secretary, having been threatened by him, for some fault, which he had committed, began to consider how he might prevent the me- ditated blow. For this purpose he forged a roll of the names of several persons, whom he pre- tended the emperor had marked out for death, adding his own to strengthen him in the con- fidence of the party. The scroll thus contrived, was shewn with an air of the utmost secrecy to some of the persons concerned; and they, to procure their safety, immediately agreed with him to destroy the emperor. This resolution was soon put into execution ; for as the em- peror passed, with a small guard, from Uraclea, in Thrace, towards Byzantium, the conspirators 6et upon him at once, and slew him with very small resistance. He was slain in the sixtieth, or, as some say, the sixty-third year of his age, after a very active reign of almost five years. ee 2 420 THE HISTORY OF CHAPTER XXXVII. Tacitus, the Thirty-sixth Emperor of Rome. J. HE number of pretenders to the throne, which had formerly infested the empire, 1028. were, by the last monarch's activity, so en- *' ■ "• tirely removed, that there now seemed to be none that would even venture to declare himself a candidate. The army referred the choice to the senate ; and, on the other side, the senate declined it ; so that a space of near eight months elapsed in these interchangings of mu- tual deference. At length, however, the senate made choice of Tacitus, a man of great merit, and no way ambitious of the honours that were offered him. Upon being solicited to accept the empire, he at first refused, and retired to his country -house in Campania, to avoid their im- portunities; but being at length prevailed upon, he accepted the reins of government, being at that time seventy-five years old. One of the first a6ls of his government, was to punish those who had conspired against the late emperor ; particularly Menesthus, who was impaled alive, his body being thrown to be de- voured by wild beasts. His estate also was con- THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 421 fiscated to the exchequer ; and his ready-money, which was considerable, applied towards paying the army. During this short reign, the senate seemed to have a large share of authority, and the historians of the times are one and all liberal of their praises to such emperors as were thus willing to divide their power. Upon endeavour- ing to obtain the consulship for his brother Probus, he was refused it by the senate, at which, he seemed no way moved, but calmly remarked that the senate best knew whom to chuse. This moderation prevailed in all the rest of his con- duel : he was extremely temperate ; his table was plain, and furnished with nothing expensive ; he even prohibited his empress from wearing jewels, and forbade the use of gold and em- broidery. He was fond of learning, and the memory of such men as had deserved well of their country ; particularly the works of his name-sake, Tacitus, the historian, were greatly honoured by him. He commanded that they should be placed in every public library through- out the empire, and that many copies of them should be transcribed at the public charge. A reign begun with such moderation and jus- tice, only wanted continuance, to have made the empire happy; but after enjoying the empire about six months, he died of a fever in his march to oppose the Persians and Scythians, who had invaded the eastern parts of the empire. ee3 422 THE HISTORY OF CHAFrER XXXVIII. Probus, the Thirty-seventh Emperor of Rome. Ui PON the death of Tacitus, the army seemed divided in the choice of an emperor ; one part of it chose Florian, brother to the deceased ; but the majority were for some time undetermined. They alledged, in their conferences with each other, the necessity of chusing one eminent for valour, honesty, piety, clemency, and probity; but the last virtue being that chiefly insisted upon, the whole army, as if by common consent, cried out that Probus should be emperor. He was accordingly confirmed in this dignity, with all the usual solemnities ; and Florian, his op- ponent, finding himself deserted, even by those legions who had promised to stand up in his support, opened his arteries and bled to death. Probus was forty-four years old when he as- cended the throne, being born of noble parentage at Sirmium in Pannonia, and bred up a soldier from his youth. He began early to distinguish himself for his discipline and valour ; being fre* quently the first man that, in besieging towns, scaled the walls, or that burst into the enemy's camp. He was equally remarkable for single combats, and saving the lives of many eminent THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 423 citizens. Nor were his activity and courage* when elected to the empire, less apparent than in his private station. Every year now pro- duced only new calamities to the empire ; and fresh irruptions on every side threatened universal desolation : perhaps at this time, no abilities ex- cept those of Probus were capable of opposing such united invasions. He flew with an army to repress the Germans in Gaul, of whom he slew four hundred thousand. He then marched into Dalmatia, to oppose and subdue the Sarma- tians. From thence he led his forces into Thrace, and forced the Goths to sue for peace. He, after that, turned his arms towards Asia, subdued the province of Isauria ; and, marching onward, conquered a people called the Blemii ; who, leaving their native forests of ^Ethiopia, had possessed themselves of Arabia and Judea. Narsius, also, the king of Persia, submitted at his approach ; and upon his return into Europe, he divided the depopulated parts of Thrace among its barbarous invaders : a circumstance that afterwards produced great calamities in the empire. His diligence was not less conspicuous in suppressing intestine commotions. Saturnius, being compelled by the Egyptians to declare himself emperor, was defeated and slain. Pro- cuius also, a person remarkable only for his great attachment to women, and who boasted in a letter, that, having taken an hundred Sar* matian virgins prisoners, he deflowered ten of them in one night, and all the rest within » 424 THE HISTORY OF fortnight; this man, I say, set up against the emperor, but was compelled to fly, and at length delivered up by the Germans. At the same time, Bonosus (who was as remarkable a votary to Bacchus, being able to drink as much wine as ten men, without being disordered ) rebelled, and, being overcome, hanged himself in despair. Pro- bus, when he saw him, immediately after his death, could not avoid pointing at the body, and saying, " There hangs, not a man, but a bottle." But still, notwithstanding every effort to give quiet to the empire, the barbarians who sur^ rounded it, kept it in continual alarms. They were frequently repulsed into their native wilds, but they as duly returned with fresh rage and increased ferocity. The Goths and Vandals finding the emperor engaged in quelling do- mestic disputes, renewed their accustomed in- roads, and once more felt the punishment of their presumption, They were conquered in several engagements, and Probus returned in triumph to Rome, His active temper, however, would not suffer him to continue at rest while any of the enemy were left to conquer. In his last ex- pedition, he led his soldiers against the Persians ; and going through Sirmium, the place of his nativity, he there set several thousands of his soldiers upon draining a fen that was incommo- dious to the inhabitants. The fatigues of this undertaking, and the great restraint that was laid upon the licentious manners of the soldiers, pro-? duced a conspiracy, which ended in his ruin, THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 425 The soldiers taking their opportunity, as he was marching into Greece, set upon, and slew him, after he had reigned six years and four months, with general approbation. As an instance of the esteem, which even his rebellious army had for him, they ere6led him a sumptuous monu- ment with this epitaph — * Here lies the emperor a person of mean extraction, but very much favoured by the soldiers, whom he permitted to pillage at discretion. Thus there were several interests at the same time in opposition to each other ; and all conspiring each other's down- fall. In order to oppose Maxentius, Severus led a numerous army towards the gates of Rome; but his soldiers considering against whom they were to fight, immediately abandoned him; and f f 2 436 THE HISTORY OF shortly after, he put an end to his own life, by opening his veins. To revenge his death, Galerius marched in- to Itally resolving to ruin the inhabitants, and to destroy the whole senate. His soldiers, how- ever, upon their approach to the capital, began to waver in their resolutions; wherefore, he was obliged to have recourse to entreaties, im- ploring them not to abandon him ; and retiring by the same route by which he had advanced, he made Licinius, who was originally the son of a poor labourer in Dacia, Caesar, in the room of Severus, who was slain. This seemed to be the last a6l of his power, for shortly after he was siezed with a very extraordinary disorder in his privities, which baffled all the skill of his physicians, and carried him off, after he had languished in torments for near the space of a year. His cruelty to the christians was one of the many crimes alledged against him ; and their historians have not failed to aggravate the cir- cumstances of his death as a judgment from Heaven for his formerly impiety. However this be, he abated much of his severities against them on his death-bed, and revoked those edicts which he had formerly published, tending to their persecution, a little before his death. ■, < THE EMPIRE OF ROME 4J7 CHAPTER XLI1. Constantine the Great, the Forty-first Emperor of Rome. c ONSTANTINE being thus delivered from his greatest opponent, might now be con- v. c. sidcrcd as possessing more power than any 1 of his rivals in authority, who were yet 311. remaining. The empire was at that time divided between him and three others: Maxentius, who governed in Rome ; a person of a cruel disposi- tion, and a stedfast supporter of paganism : Licinius, who was adopted by Galerius, and commanded in the east: and likewise Maximin, who had formerly been declared Ca?sar with Severus, and who also governed some of the eas- tern provinces,. Whether the empire was by this time sick of its intestine divisions, or whether each of its commanders was content with his share, is not material to enquire; but, for a time, all things seemed to wear a peaceful appearance; till, at length, either ambition, or the tyrannieal con- duel of Maxentius, induced Constantine to en- gage in an expedition to expel that commander from Rome ; and to make the proper prepara- tions for marching into Italy. It was upon this occasion that he formed a resolution which pro- ff3 43S THE HISTORY OF duced a great change in the politics, as well as the morals of mankind; and gave a new turn to the councils of the wise, and the pursuits of ambition. One evening, as we are told by Eusebius, the army being upon it's march to- wards Rome, Constantine was taken up with various considerations upon the fate of sublunary things, and the dangers of his approaching expedition: sensible of his own incapacity to succeed without divine assistance, he employed his meditations upon the opinions that then were chiefly agitated among mankind, and sent up his ejaculations to Heaven to inspire him with wisdom to chuse the path to pursue. It was. then, as the sun was declining, that there sudden- ly appeared a pillar of light in the heavens, in the fashion of a cross, with this inscription, TOTTft NIKA, In this overcome. So extraordi- nary an appearance did not fail to create asto- nishment both in the emperor and his whole army, who considered it as their various dispo- sitions led them to believe. Those who were at- tached to paganism, prompted by their aurus- spices, pronounced it to be a most inauspicious omen, portending the most unfortunate events. But it made a different impression on the empe- ror's mind ; who,, as the account goes, was fur- ther encouraged by visions the same night. He therefore, the day following, caused a royal standard to be made, like that which he had seen in the heavens, and commanded it to be carried before him, in his wars, as an ensign of victory THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 439 and celestial protection. After this, lie consult- ed with several of the principal teachers of Chris- tianity, and made a public avowal of that sacred persuasion. Constantine having thus attached his soldiers to his interest, who were mostly of the Christian persuasion, lost no time in entering Italy, with ninety thousand foot, and eight thousand horse; and soon advanced almost to the very gates of Rome. The unfortunate Maxentius, who had long given himself up to ease and debauchery, now began to make preparations, when it was too late. He first put in practice all the super- stitious rites which paganism taught were neces- sary; he next consul! ed the Sybiliue books, from whence he was informed, that on that great day, the enemy of Rome should perish. This prediction, which was equivocal, he ap- plied to Constantine; wherefore, leaving all things in the best posture, he advanced from the city, with an army of an hundred and .seventy thousand foot, and eighteen thousand horse. The engagement was, for some time, fierce and bloody, till his cavalry being routed, vic- tory declared upon the side of his opponent, and he himself was drowned in his flight, by the breaking down of a bridge, as he attempted to cross the river Tyber, Constantine, in consequence of this vi6tory, entering the city, disclaimed all praises which the senate and people were ready to offer; ascrib- ing his success o a superior power. He even F f 4 440 THE HISTORY OF caused the cross, which he was said to have seen in the heavens, to be placed at the right of all hisstaii'rs with this inscription. " That under u the influence of that victorious cross, Con- (f stantine had delivered the city from the yoke " of tyrannical power, and had restored the " senate and people of Rome to their ancient *\ authority." He afterwards ordained that no criminal should, for the future, suffer death by the cross, which had formerly been the most usual way of punishing slaves convicted of capi- tal offenees, Edicts were soon after issued, declaring that the Christians should he eased from all their grievances, and received into places of trust and authority. Thus the new religion was seen at once to prevail over the whole Ro- man empire ; and as that enormous fabric had been built and guided upon pagan principles, it lost a great deal of its strength and coherence, when those principles were thus at once sub- verted. Things continued in this state for some time, Constantine, all the while, contributing what was in his power to the interests of religion, and the revival of learning, which had long been upon the decline, and was almost wholly extinct in the empire. But in the midst of these assiduities, the peace of the empire was again disturbed by the preparations of Maximin, who governed in the east ; and who, desirous of a full participation of power, marched against Xicomius, with a very numerous army. In THE EMPIltE OF ROME. 441 In consequence of this step, after many con- flicts, a general engagement ensued, in which Maximin suffered a total defeat; many of his troops were cut to pieces, and those that sur- vived submitted to the conqueror. Maximin, however, having escaped the general carnage, once more put himself at the head of another army, resolving to try the fortune of the field ; but his death prevented the design. As he died by a very extraordinary kind of madness, the Christians, of whom he was the declared enemy, did not fail to ascribe his end to a judgment from Heaven ; but this was the age in which false judgments and false miracles, made up the bulk of un instructive history. Constantine and Licinius thus remaining undisputed possessors and partners in the em- pire, all things promised a peaceable continu- ance of friendship and power. However, it was soon found that the same ambition that aimed after a part, would be content with nothing less than the whole. Pagan writers ascribe the rupture, between these two poten- tates, to Constantine; while the Christians, on the other hand, impute it wholly to Licinius. Both, perhaps, might have concurred, for Lici- nius is convicted of having persecuted Chris- tianity, which was so highly favoured by his rival ; and Constantine is known to have been the first to begin the preparations for an open rupture. Both sides exerted all their power to make opposition; and, at the head of very 442 THE HISTORY OF formidable armies, came to an engagement near Cybalis, in Pannonia. Constantine previous to the battle, in the midst of his Christian bishops, begged the assistance of Heaven ; while Lici- nius, with equal zeal, called upon the pagan priests to intercede with the gods in his favour. The success was on the side of truth : Constan- tine, after an obstinate resistance, became victo- rious ; took the enemy's camp ; and, after some time, compelled Licinius to sue for a truce, which was agreed upon. But this was of no long continuance ; for soon after the war break- ing out afresh, and the rivals coming once more to a general engagement, it proved deci- sive. Licinius was entirely defeated, and pur- sued by Constantine into Nicomedia, where he surrendered himself up to the victor; having first obtained an oath that his life should be spared, and that he should be permitted to pass the remainder of his days in retirement. This, however, Constantine shortly after broke; for either fearing his designs, or finding him actu- ally engaged in fresh conspiracies, he com- manded him to be put to death, together with Martian, his general, who, some time before* had been created Caesar. Constantine being now sole monarch of the empire, without a rival to divide his power, or any person from whose claims he could have the least apprehensions, resolved to establish Christianity on so sure a basis, that no new re- volutions should shake it. He commanded that THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 443 in all the provinces of the empire the orders of the bishops should be exaelly obeyed ; a privilege of which, in succeeding times, these fathers made but a very indifferent use. He called also a general council of these, in order to repress the heresies, that had already crept into the church, particularly that of Arius. To this place repaired about three hundred and eighteen bishops, besides a multitude of presbyters and deacons, together with the em- peror himself; who all, except about seventeen, concurred in condemning the tenets of Arius ; and this heresiarch, with his associates, was ba- nished into a remote part of the empire. Having thus restored universal tranquillity to the empire, he was not able to ward off the calamities of a more domestic nature. As the wretched histories of this period are entirely at variance with each other, it is not easy to tell the motives which induced him to put his wife Fausta and his son Crispus to death. The most plausible account is this. Fausta, the empress, who was a woman of great beauty, but of extravagant desires, had long, though secretly, loved Crispus, Constantine's son by a former wife. She had tried every art to inspire this youth with a mutual passion ; and finding her more distant efforts ineffectual, had even the confidence to make him an open confession of her desires. This produced an explanation, which was fatal to both. Crispus received her addresses with detestation; and she, to be re^ 414 THE HISTORY OF venged, accused him to the emperor. Con* stantine, fired at once with jealousy and rage, ordered him to die without an hearing, nor did his innocence appear till it was too late for redress. The only reparation therefore that remained, was the putting Fausta, the wicked instrument of his former cruelty, to death ; which was accordingly executed upon her, to- gether with some others, who had been accom- plices in her falsehood and treachery. But the private misfortunes of a few, were not to be weighed against evils of a more gene- ral nature, which the Roman empire shortly after experienced* These arose from a measure which this emperor conceived and executed, of transferring the seat of the empire from Rome, to Byzantium, or Constantinople, as it was afterwards called. Whatever might have been the reasons which induced him to this undertaking; whether it was because he was offended at some affronts he had received at Rome, or that he supposed Constantinople more in the centre of the empire ; or that he thought the eastern parts more required his presence; experience has shewn that they were all weak and groundless. The empire had long before been in a most declining state; but this, in a great measure, gave precipitation to its down- fall. After this it never resumed its former splendor, but, like a flower transplanted into a foreign clime, languished by degrees, and at length sunk into nothing. THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 445 His first design was to build a city, which he might make the capital of the world ; and for this purpose, he made choice of a situation at Chalcedon in Asia Minor ; but we are told, that in laying out the ground-plan, an eagle caught up the line, and flew with it over to Byzantium, a city, which lay upon the opposite side of the Bosphorus. Here, therefore, it was thought expedient to fix the seat of empire; and, in- deed, nature seemed to have formed it with all the conveniences, and all the beauties, which might induce power to make it the seat of residence. It was situated on a plain, that rose gently from the water : it commanded that streight which unites the Mediterranean with the Euxine sea, and was furnished with all the advantages which the most indulgent climate could bestow, This city, there- u. c fore, he beautified with the most magnifi- io 8 i. cent edifices ; he divided it into fourteen A « »• ... . 330 regions ; built a capitol, an amphitheatre, many churches, and other public works; and, having thus rendered it equal to the magni- ficence of his idea, he dedicated it in a very solemn manner, to the God of martyrs; and, in about two years after, repaired thither with his whole court. This removal produced no immediate altera- tion in the government of the empire; the in- habitants of Rome, though with reluctance, sub- mitted to the change ; nor was there for two or three years any disturbance in the state, until, at 4i» THE HISTORY OF CHAPTER XLIII. Of the Destruction of the Roman Empire, after the Death of Constantino^ and the Events -which hastened its Ca- tastrophe. PL ITHERTO the chara&ers of the Roman emperors, have been intimately connected with the history of the state ; and its rise or decline might have been said to depend on the virtues and vices, the wisdom or the indolence, of those who governed it. But from this dreary period its recovery was become desperate ; no wisdom could obviate its decadence, no courage oppose the evils that surrounded it on every side. In- stead, therefore, of entering into a minute ac- count of the chara6lers of its succeeding em- perors, it will at present suffice, to take a gene- ral survey of this part of the history, and rather describe the causes by which the state was brought down to nothing, than the persons who neither could hasten nor prevent its decline. Indeed, if we were to enter into a detail con- cerning the characters of the princes of those times, it should be those of the conquerors, not the conquered ; of those Gothic chiefs who led a more virtuous, and more courageous, people to the conquest of nations corrupted by vice and enervated by luxury. THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 449 These barbarians were at first unknown to the Romans, and for some time after had been only incommodious to them. But they were now become formidable,, and arose in such num- bers, that the earth seemed to produce a new race of mankind, to complete the empire's de- struction. They had been increasing in their hideous deserts, amidst regions frightful with eternal snows, and had long only waited the op- portunity of coming down into a more favoura- ble climate. Against such an enemy, no courage could avail, nor abilities be successful ; a vi6torjr only cut off numbers without an habitation, and a name, soon to be succeeded by others equally desperate and obscure. The emperors who had to contend with this people, were most of them furnished neither with courage nor conduct to oppose. Their resi- dence in Asia seemed to enervate their manners, and produced a desire in them to be adored like the monarchs of the east. Sunk in softness, they Shewed themselves with less frequency to the soldiers, they became more indolent, fonder of domestic pleasures, and more abstracted from the empire. Constantius, who reigned thirty-eight years, was weak, timid, and unsuccessful ; go- verned by his eunuchs and his wives ; and unfit to prop the falling empire. Julian, his succes- sor, surnamed the Apostate, upon account of hi relapsing into Paganism, was, notwithstanding a very good and a very valiant prince. He, by his wisdom, conduct and ceconomy, chased the vol. n. gg 450 THE HISTORY OF barbarians, tbat bad taken fifty towns upon the Rhine, out of their new settlements; and his name was a terror to them during his reign, which lasted but two years. Jovian and Valen- tinian had virtue and strength sufficient to pre- serve the empire from immediately falling under its enemies. No prince saw the necessity of re- storing the ancient plan of the empire more than Valentinian; the former emperors had drained away all the frontier garrisons, merely to strength- en their own power at home ; but his whole life was employed in fortifying the banks of the Rhine; making levies, raising castles, placing troops in proper stations, and furnishing them with subsistence for their support ; but an event, that no human prudence could foresee, brought up a new enemy to assist in the universal de- struction. That tracl of land which lies between the Pal us Maeotis, the mountains of Caucasus and the Caspian sea, was inhabited by a numerous savage people, that went by the name of the Huns and Allanes. Their soil was fertile, and the inhabitants fond of robbery and plunder. As they imagined it impracticable to cross the Palus Maeotis, they were altogether unacquaint- ed with the Romans, so that they remained con- fined within the limits their ignorance had as- signed them, while other nations plundered with security. It has been the opinion of some, that the slime which was rolled down by the current of the Tanais, had, by degrees, formed a kind . of The Empire of roMe. 451 incrustation on the surface of the Cimmacrian Bosphorus, over which those people are supposed to have passed. Others relate that two young Scythians, being in full pursuit of an heifer, the terrified creature, swam over an arm of the sea, and the youths immediately following her, found themselves in a new world, upon the opposite shore. Upon their return, they did not fail to relate the wonders of the strange lands and coun- tries, which they had discovered. Upon their information, an innumerable body of Huns pass- ed those strcights, and meeting first with the Goths, made that people fly before them. The Goths in consternation, presented themselves on the banks of the Danube, and, with a suppliant air, entreated the Romans to allow them a place of refuge. This they easily obtained from Va- lens, who assigned them several portions of land in Thrace, but left them destitute of all needful supplies. Stimulated, therefore, by hunger and resentment, they soon after rose against their protectors, and, in a dreadful engagement, which was fought near Adrianople, they de- stroyed Valens himself, and the greatest part of his army. It was in this manner the Roman armies grew weaker ; so that the emperors, finding it difficult, at last, to raise levies in the provinces, were obliged to hire one body of barbarians to oppose another. This expedient had its use in circumstances of immediate danger : but when that was over, the Romans found it was as dif- gg2 4m THE HISTORY OF ficult to rid themselves of their new allies, as of their former enemies. Thus the empire was not ruined by any particular invasion, but sunk gradually under the weight of several attacks made upon it on every side. When the barba- rians had wasted one province, those who suc- ceeded the first spoilers, proceeded on to another. Their devastations were at first limited to Thrace, Mysia, and Panonia ; but, when these countries were ruined, they destroyed Mace- donia, Thessaly and Greece ; and from thence they expatiated to Noricum. The empire was in this manner continually shrinking, and Italy, at last, became the frontier of its own dominion. The valour and conduct of Theodosius, in some measure, retarded the destruction that had begun in the times of Valens, but upon his death the enemy became irrresistible. A large body of Goths had been called in to assist the regular forces of the empire, under the command of Alaric, their king ; but what was brought in to stop the universal decline proved the most mor- tal stab to its security. This Gothic prince, who is represented as brave, impetuous and enter- prizing, perceiving the weakness of the state, and how little Arcadius and Honorius, the suc- cessors of Theodosius, were able to secure it; being instigated also, still further, by the artifices of one Rufinus, who had designs upon the throne himself; this warlike prince, I say, putting him- self at the head of his barbarous forces, declared war against his employers, and fought the, ar> THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 453 mies of the empire for some years with various success. However, in proportion as his troops were cut off', he received new supplies from his native forests ; and, at length, putting his mighty designs in execution, passed the Alps, and poured down, like a torrent, among the fruitful vallies of Italy. This charming region had long been the seat of indolence and sensual delight; its fields were now turned into gardens of pleasure, that only served to enervate the possessors from having once bceu a nursery of military strength, that furnished soldiers for the conquest of man- kind. The timid inhabitants, therefore, beheld, with terror, a dreadful enemy ravaging in the midst of their country, while their wretched em- peror, Honorius, who was then in Ravenna, still only seemed resolved to keep up his dignity, and to refuse any accommodation. But the inha- bitants of Rome felt the calamities of the times with double aggravation. This great city, that had long sate as mistress of the world, now saw herself besieged by an array of fierce and terrible barbarians ; and being crowded with inhabitants, it was reduced, by the extremities of pestilenee and famine, to a most deplorable situation. In this extremity the senate dispatched their am- bassadors to Alaric, desiring him either to grant them peace, upon reasonable terms, or to give them leave to fight it with him, in the open field. To this message, however, the Gothic monarch only replied, with a burst of laughter, " That ff thick grass was easier cut than thin :" implying, that their troops, when cooped up within the 454 THE HISTORY OF narrow compass of the city, would be more easily overcome, than when drawn out in order of battle. When they came to debate about a peace, he demanded all their riches, and all their slaves. When he was asked, " What then he " would leave them ;" he sternly replied, " Their " lives." These were hard conditions for such a celebrated city to accept ; but, compelled by the necessity of the times, they raised an immense treasure, both by taxation and by stripping the heathen temples ; and thus, at length, bought off their fierce invader. But this was but a tempo- rary removal of the calamity ; for Alaric now finding that he might become master of Rome whenever he thought proper, returned with his army, a short time after ; pressed it more closely than he had done before, and at last took it ; but whether by force or stratagem, is not agreed among historians. Thus, that city which ilea. f° r a g es na d plundered the rest of the world, •*. d. and enriched herself with the spoils of man- kind ; now felt, in turn, the sad reverse of fortune, and suffered all that barbarity could in- flict, or patience endure. The soldiers had free liberty to pillage all places except the Christian churches ; and, in the midst of this horrible de- solation, so great was the reverence of these bar- barians for our holy religion, that the pagan Romans found safety in applying to those of the Christian persuasion for protection. This dreadful devastation continued for three days ; and unspeakable were tjie precious monuments, both of art and learning, that sunk under the THE EMPIRE OF ROME. 455 fury of the conquerors. However, there were still left numberless traces of the city's former greatness j so that this capture seemed rather a correction, than a total overthrow. But the Gothic conquerors of the West, though they had suffered Rome to survive its first cap- ture, now found how easy it was to become masters of it upon any other occasion. The extent of its walls had, in fact, made it almost impracticable for the inhabitants to defend them ; and, as it was situated in a plain, it might be stormed without much difficulty. Besides this, no succours were to be expected from without; for the number of the people was so extremely diminished, that the emperors were obliged to retire to Ravenna ; a place so fortified by nature, that they could be safe without the assistance of an army. What Alaric, therefore, spared, Ges- neric, king of the Vandals, not long after con- tributed to destroy : his merciless soldiers, for fourteen days together, ravaged with implacable fury, in the midst of that venerable place. Nei- ther private dwellings, nor public buildings ; nei- ther sex, nor age, nor religion, were the leasfc protection against their lust or avarice. The capital of the empire being thus ransack- ed several times, and Italy overrun by barbarous invaders, under various denominations, from the remotest skirts of Europe ; the western emperors, for some time, coutinued to hold the title without the power of royalty. Honorius lived till he saw himself stripped of the greatest part of his dominions ; his capital taken by the g g 4 456 THE HISTORY OP Croths ; the Huns seized of Panonia ; the Alans, Suevi, and Vandals established in Spain ; and the Burgundians settled in Gaul, where the Goths also fixed themselves at last. After some time, the inhabitants of Rome also, being aban- doned by their princes, feebly attempted to take the supreme power into their own hands. Armo- rica and Britain, seeing themselves forsaken, faegan to regulate themselves by their own laws. Thus the power of the state was entirely broken, and those who assumed the title of emperors, only encountered certain destruction. At Jength, even the very name of emperor of the West expired upon the abdication of Augustus lu ; an : Odoacer, general of the Heruli, assumed the title of king of all Italy. Such was the end ©f this great empire, that had conquered man-. kind with its arms and instructed the world with its wisdom ; that had risen by temperance, and that fell by luxury; that had been established by a spirit of patriotism, and that sunk into ruin when the empire was become so extensive, that a Roman citizen was but an empty name. Its final dissolution happened about five hundred and twenty-two years after the battle of Pharsalia; an hundred and forty-six after the removal of the imperial seat to Constantinople; and four hunored and seventy-six after the nativity of our Saviour. INDEX TO THE SECOND VOLUME, A CTIUM, the engagement there between Odtavius and Antony described, 71. Adrian, elected emperor, 305. His character, and endow* ments, 305 — 308. Visits, several parts of the empire, 310—313. His death, 317. Agrippa Posthumus, put to death by Tiberius, 110. Agrippina, her character, 187. Poisons Claudius, 191, Dissentions with her son, 195. Her death, 200. Alaric, invades Italy, 452. Lays siege to, and takes the city of Rome, 453, 45 1. Alexander, succeeds Heliogabalus, 379. His excellent cha- racter and government, lb. 382. His death, 384. Antony, his character, 27. His oration to the people, 29. Opposes Octavius, 33. Declared an enemy to the state, and an army sent against him, 35. Unites with Octaviu3 and Lepidus, 36. Defeats Brutus and Cassius, 52. Dis- poseth of several kingdoms, 56. Captivated by Cleopa- tra, 58. Marries Octavia, Augustus's sister, 61. Gjes against the Parthians, ib. Gives Cleopatra several king- doms, 65. His preparations lor w^r with Octavius, 69. Defeated at Aqtiuin, 72. Returns to Alexandria, 73. Prepares to continue the war, 75. His fleet and part of his army revolt from him, 77. His death, 79, 80. Antoninus Pius, his character, 318. His death, 321. Aqueduct, that ol Claudius described, 173. Arius, his heresy condemned in a general council, aud him, sell banished, 443, INDEX. Augustus, (See Octavius) his conduct on becoming solely possessed of the empire, 89. His consultation with i\grippa and Maecenas, 92. His deceit and artifice to secure himself in the empire, 93, 9-1. Has the title of Augustus, with other honours, conferred on him, 95. JVlakes several edicts to suppress corruption in the se- nate, 96. licentiousness in the people, and for several other purposes, 96, 97. Other instances of his good government, 97 — 99. Several nations who had re- volted subdued, 100, 101. His domestic troubles, 102 — 104. Has twenty privy-counsellors assigned him, 104. His death, 106, The honours paid to his me, mory, 107. Aurelius, M. makes L. Verus his associate, 322. His ex- cellent government, 324. Defeats the IWarcomani and Quandi, 326. His army relieved by the prayers of a Christian legion, 330. Avidius Cassius rebels against him, 332. Goes against the Scythians, 337. His death, 338. Aurelian, chosen emperor by the army, 414. His charac- ter, 414, 415. Defeats and takes Zenobia prisoner, 417,418. Instances of his justiec and good_govera- jnent, 418. His death, 419. B Britain, the emperor Claudius persuaded tp invade it by Bericus, a native, 174. Revolts under Nero, 214. Subdued by Paulinus, 215. Entirely subdued and ci- vilized by Agricola, 272, and by him first discovered to be an island, 276. Brutus, conspires against Caesar, 24. His character, 44. Defeat at Phillippi, and death, 52 — 54. Byzantium, or Constantinople, its situation described, 445. Caligula, why so called, 143. Begins his reign well, 145. His cruelty and other monstrous enormities, 1 16 — 159. His expedition into Germany, 159, 160. A conspiracy formed against him, 164. His death, 168. Caracalla, kills Geta, 365. His other cruelties and extra. vagancies, 366—369. His death, 371. Caraccacus, defeated and carried to Rome, 176. Carus, chos.n emperor by the army, 425. His death, 426. Ca*o retirws from Fharsalia to Utica, 12. His death, 14, Character, 15. INDEX. Cesar, Julius, his character, I. Pursues Pompcy into Egypt* % His achievements then-, 3 — 8. Goes against Pharnaces, 9. Gains an easy victory, ib. GrOM into Africa, 10. Defeats Scipio, 12. Returns in triumph to Rome, ib. Goes again into Spain, 17. Defeats Pom. pey's sons at Munda, 19. His return to Rome, and conduct there, 19—22. A conspiracy formed against him, ib. His death, 25. Christians, a severe persecution of them under Nero, 208. Doraitian, 281. Trajan, 298. Aurelius, 32f>. Vale- rian, 407. Edicts issued in favour of them by Constan- tino, 440—443. Cicero, M. T. proscribed and murdered, 39, 40. Claudius, proclaimed emperor, 171. Regius his reign well, 172. Goes into Britain, 174. Puts several persons to death, 178 — 181. An instance of his cruelty, 182. Marries Agrippina, 188. His death, 191. Claudius, Flavins, his excellent character, atchievemeuts and death, 411—413. Cleopatra, description and character of her, 5—65. Flies from Actium, and is followed by Antony, 72. Falls into, the power of Augustus, 81. Her interview with him, 83. Her death, 85. Coramodus, succeeds Antonine, 339. His horrid cruelties and other enormities, 341—344. His death, 345. Constantine the Great, succeeds his father, 437, Con- verted to Christianity, 439. Defeats Licinius, 442. Convenes a general council of bishops, 443. Puts to death his wife and son, ibid. Removes the seat of the empire to Byzantium, 444, 445. Divides the empire, 446. His death and character, 4 17. Constantius, Chlorus, divides the empire with Galerius, 433. His character, 434. Death, 435. Cremutius, Cordus, defeats the malice of Tiberius by a vo- Juntary death, 127, Deems, voted, hy the senate not inferior to Trajan, 403. Gains a great victory over the Goths, but is afterwards routed by the treachery of his general, 404. His death, ibid. Dictator, the title when abolished, 96. Dioclesian, his descent and character, 427, 428. Subdues the Persians, 4t9. Persecutes the Ciuistians, 430. Re- signs the government, 431. His death, 432. INDEX. Domitian, the good beginning of his. reign, 274. Soon renders himself odious, 275. Several nations invade the empire, 277. His arrogance and cruelties, 278 — ! 80. A conspiracy formed against him, 283. His death, 284. Fidenae, fifty thousand persons tilled by the falling of an amphitheatre there, J 30. Fucinus, description oithe draining this lake, 173. Galba, declared emperor by the senate, 22 i. Is governed by his favourites, 230. Adopts Fiso to succeed him, 233. His death, 235. Galerius, has the eastern parts of the empire for his share of government, 433. His death, 436. Galienus, his dissolute conduct when chosen emperor, 409. Names of the thirty tyrants, Mho pretended to the em- pire, 4 JO. His death, 4U. Gallus, by his treachery occasions the defeat of the Ro- man army, 404. yet rs declared emperor by the surviving part, 405. Buys a peace of the Goths, ib. His cha-. ra6ter and death, 406. Gauls, several nations of them, 124. Are defeated, J25. Germanicus, his character and achievements in Germany, 114, 115. The provinces of Asia decreed to him, 119, J20. His death, 122. Gladiators, edicts made by Augustus to restrain the immo- derate exhibition of them, 06. Gordian, he with his son created emperors, 391. Their deaths, 393. Gordian, the younger, his character, 398, and death, 4-10. Goths, invade the empire, but are driven back by Gordian, 399. Make another invasion, 401. Are defeated, but afterwards, through treachery, route the Roman army, 401. Oblige the Romans to purchase a peace, 405, which they soon break, and again invade the empire, ib. Renew their inroads under Constantine^ 446. Admitted by Valensinto Thrace. 451, H Heliogabalus, chosen emperor, 374. His follies, prodii gality and cruelty, ibid. — 376. His death, 379. Herod Agrippa, Judea restored to him by Claudius, 173. INDEX. Jerusalem, besieged and taken, 257 — 261. Jews, revolt under Nero, 216 ; Trajan, 299 ; Adrian, 312. Julia, daughter of Augustus. Her infamous conduct, ld3. Banished by Augustus, ib. Julian, purchaseth the empire, 351. His death, 354. Julius Sabinus, the severity used to him, 264. Julius Vindex, revolts from Nero, and proclaims Galba emperor, 218. His death, 222. Lepidus, unites with Antony and Octavius, 36. Has Spain assigned to him for his share of the triumvirate, 38. In a new division . of the empire, has the provinces in Africa, 61. His army revolts to Oclavius, 64. Livy, his character as an historian, 88. Longinus, put to death by Aurelian, 418. Lucaiij put to death by Nero, 213. M Macrinus, chosen emperor, 372. His death, 374. Maxim ian, made partner in the empire by Dioclesian, 428. "With him resigns the government, 431. His death, 432. Maecenas, his advice to Augustus, 92. Maximin, his person and character, 387, 388. Cruelty, 389, 390. The provinces of Africa revolt, and create Gordian emperor, 391. which the senate and people con- firm, ib. Marches with his army towards Rome, 392. His death, 396. Messalina, her infamous condnct, 178, 182 — 1S4. Her death, 186. N Narcissus, procures the death of the empress Messalina, 184 — 186. Being prosecuted by Agrippina goes iuto Toluntary exile, 190. His death, 194. Nero, marries Octavia, daughter of Claudius, 188. Pro- claimed emperor, 193. The excellency of his govern. ment at first, 194. Breaks out into extravagancies, 196. Marries Poppaea, wife of Otho, 197. Puts his mother to death, 200. Goes into Greece, 204. Returns to Rome, 205. His palace described, 209. Puts great numbers to death, 210—214, 216, 217. Designs against him in INDEX. (■an 1 , 218. The revolt becomes general, 221. His death, 226. Nerva, chosm emperor by the senate, 286. His character, 287. His mild and good government, 288^-290. His death, 291. O Oftavius, claims the inheritance of his uncle Julius Caesar, 32. His character, 33. Opposed in his designs by An- tony, ib. Joins Antony and Lepidus, 36. The senate confer on him absolute power, ib. With AntOny and Lepidus forms the second triumvirate, 38. Marches with Antony against the conspirators, 41. War com- menced between him and Antony, 59. Are reconciled, and divide the empire between them, 61. Deprives Le- pidus of his share in the triumvirate, 6 i. His prepara- tions .against Antony, 68 — 71. Defeats him at Ac- tium, 72. Goes against him to Alexandria, 76. Puts two sons of Cleopatra to death, 82. Returns to Rome triumph, 86. See Augustus. Ostia, an haven made there by Claudius, 173. Ostorius, succeeds Plautus in the government of Britain, 175. Defeats Caractacus, 176. Otho, declared emperor by the soldiery, 234. Begins his reign with a signal act of clemency and justice, 236. Marches against Vitellius, 238. His army defeated by that of Vitellius, 240. His death, 242. Perdnax, his character, 346. Proclaimed emperor, 348. His death, 350. Petronius, his character and death, 217. Philip, declared emperor by the army and senate, 440. His death, 442. Philippi, the battle fought there, and defeat of Brutus and Cassius, 46 — 52. Piso, accused before the senate of the death of Germanicus, and other crimes, 124. Kills himself, ib. Pluiarch, his excellent letter to Trajan, 294* Pompey, Cncius, the respect paid to his memory by Cassar, 3. Pompey, Sextus, defeated by Agrippa and slain, 62, 63. Pontius Pilate ; banished into Gaul, 145. His death, ib. INDEX. Porcia, wife of Brutus, her death, 55. Probus, chosen emperor by the. army, 422. His character, atchievements and death, 422—425. Pupienus, chosen emperor, with Aibinus, by the senate, 393. Their deaths, 398. Q Quintillius Varus, cut off, with his whole army, by the Germans, 102. It Rome, the wretched state of it under the second triumvi- rate, 38 ; in the beginning of Augustus reign, 86, 87. Revenues and number of ils citizens, 88. None to be admitted to the freedom of it without previous examina- tion into their character, 97. The number of its inha- bitants at a census taken by Augustus, 105. Their lux- ury and prodigality, 141. Number of its inhabitants in the reign of Claudius, 191, A great part of it burnt, 207. Another fire and great plague, 272. When first govern- ed by two sovereigns. 322. Suffers greatly by a sedition and fire, 394. Taken and pillaged by Alaric, 4 53. and again by Gesneric, 453. Sejanus, his character and promotion, 127. Procures the death of Germanicus's two sons, Nero and Drusus, 132. His death, 134. Senate, their servile adulation of Augustus, 95. Several edicts made by him to suppress corruption in it, 96, 87. Maximin the first emperor who reigned without their concurrence, 383. Permitted by Decius to chuse a censor, 403. Seneca, appointed tutor to Nero, 188. His death, 213. Severus, declared emperor by the senate, 356. 11 is cha- racter, 357. Defeats Niger, 358. Aibinus, 360. The Parthians, 361. Goes into Britain, 362. Dies there. 365. Sicily, invaded by O&avius, 62. INDEX. Tacitus, chosen emp?ror by the senate, 420. His character and death, 421. - Tarsus, Anthony's first interview with Cleopatra there, 57. Tiberius, succeeds Augustus in the empire, 109. His dis- simulation, and the servile flattery of the senate, 110— 114. His designs against Germanicus, 117 — 119. Be- gins to appear in his natural character, 125. Retires to Capraea, 129. Puts great numbers to death, 135 — 138. Names Caligula for his successor, 139. His death, 141- Titus, lays siege to Jerusalem, 258. Takes it, 262. En- ters Rome in triumph, with his father, ib. Succeeds him, 269. His exemplary government, ib. — 271. Hi9 death, 273. Trajan, adopted by Nerva to succeed him, 291. His cha- racter, 292, 293. Defeats the Dacians, 295—297. Par- thians and other kingdoms, 333. His death, 303. The honours paid to his memory, 306. Valens, admits the Goths to settle in Thrace, 451. De- feated and slain by them, ib. Valerian, chosen emperor by the army, 407. His death, 408. Verus, Lucius, his character and conduct, 322 — 324. Vespacian, proclaimed emperor in the east, 248. Sets out for Rome, 257. Corrects many abuses, 263. His good government, character and death, 265 — 269. Vitellius, proclaimed emperor in Germany, 237 ; by the senate, 243. The legions in the east revolt, 247. His army routed at Cremona, 219. His death, 254. X Xanthians, being besieged by Brutus, destroy their city and themsdves, 42, 43. THE END. J. &. E. Hodson, Fruiters, Cross-street, Hatton Garden, uc: JBRARYFACIL/T llfff I A * 000 1027 97 ^i t-D *N BR/ NC OF CALi r 0RN»A, *ARY, LES. v^LIF.