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 THE TEACHER AND THE SCHOOL 
 
 OR 
 
 SCHOOL ECONOMY 
 
 EDWARD T. PIERCE, ?D, D. 
 
 
 
 ■ '
 
 SIATBHORMALSCBOOl
 
 THE TEACHER AND THE SCHOOL; 
 
 OR 
 
 SCHOOL ECONOMY. 
 
 OUTLINES, DIRECTIONS, AND REFERENCES : A BASIS FOR LECTURES 
 
 AND TALKS GIVEN BY THE PRINCIPAL TO THE SENIOR 
 
 CLASSES IN THE STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, 
 
 LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA. 
 
 Ill 36 
 
 BY 
 
 EDWARD T. PIERCE, Pd.D. 
 
 STATE ML SCI ' 
 
 SACRAMENTO: 
 
 a. j. Johnston, :::::: supt. state printing. 
 
 1896. 
 
 &*&• /SO 2.
 
 ALSCH 
 
 I 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 Young teachers need some definite instructions on School 
 Management before they assume charge of schools. They may 
 have a clear knowledge of the science of teaching, and utterly 
 fail in their work if they do not know how to organize and 
 manage a school. This knowledge cannot be gained in a Nor- 
 mal School. It is, therefore, the most difficult problem for 
 the young teachers when they are first thrown on their own 
 responsibility. 
 
 These hints and directions are formulated principally from 
 the experience of the author for nearly twenty-five years in the 
 public schools of three States. They, in no sense, make a 
 complete work on School Economy, but may, with the many 
 references given, be of aid to teachers who have had little 
 experience. 
 
 Quotations have been freely taken from and references made 
 to the following works: Education, George Combe; Principles 
 and Practices of Teaching, Johonnot; Lectures on the Science 
 and Art of Education, Payne; School Management, Gill; 
 School Management, Landon; Philosophy of Education, Rosen- 
 cranz; Education as a Science, Bain; Education, Spencer; 
 Teacher and Parent, Northend; Methods of Teaching, Swett; 
 School Economy, Wickersham; School Management, Raub; 
 School Management, Baldwin; Philosophy of School Disci- 
 pline, Kennedy; School Management, Holbrook; Methods of 
 Teaching in Country Schools, Lind; Theory and Practice of 
 Teaching, Page; School Amusements, Root; Principles of Edu- 
 cation Practically Applied, Greenwood; Philosophy of Educa- 
 tion, Tate; Theory and Practice of Teaching, Thring; School 
 Management, Kellogg; Psychology Applied to Teaching, Mc- 
 Lellan; Compayre's Psychology; Hewett's Psychology.
 
 4 PREFACE. 
 
 These lectures, or talks and references, will cover the follow- 
 ing general topics: 
 
 The School and its Aims. 
 
 Kinds of Schools. 
 
 The Parties Interested in a School. 
 
 The Teacher and his Fitness for the Work, 
 
 Engagement. 
 
 Work Preparatory to Taking Charge of a School. 
 
 Temporary Organization. 
 
 Permanent Organization. 
 
 Government. 
 
 School Government. 
 
 School Tactics, and their Aid in Government. 
 
 The Recitation. 
 
 The Clerical Work of the Teacher. 
 
 Marking and Testing Pupils. 
 
 School Hygiene. 
 
 Attention. 
 
 A Teacher's Kit. 
 
 The School Museum. 
 
 The Library. 
 
 General Aids to School- Work. 
 
 Beautifying the School-Room. 
 
 Beautifying the School-Grounds. 
 
 As most of our graduates teach first in country or mixed 
 schools, these directions cover work that will aid them most. 
 If any teach at first in graded schools, they will receive the 
 necessary additional aid from their Principals. It is hoped 
 that a chapter of advice to Principals and Superintendents 
 may be added to this pamphlet some time in the future. The 
 present issue is printed especially for the students of the Los 
 Angeles Normal School. Should it fall into the hands of 
 others, let them consider that the pamphlet is to be largely 
 supplemented by talks from the author.
 
 THE TEACHER AND THE SCHOOL; 
 
 OR 
 
 SCHOOL ECONOMY. 
 
 THE SCHOOL AND ITS AIMS. 
 
 The purpose of Primary and Grammar Schools is to educate 
 boys and girls. 
 
 Meaning of " Educate." 
 
 Ref.: Johonnot, 12, 24. 
 Payne, 18, 19. 
 Combe, xxxr, xxxv. 
 
 School should give both knowledge and training. 
 Education should be: 1. Physical; 2. Moral; 3. Mental; 
 4. Social; 5. Patriotic; 6. ^Esthetic. 
 Ref.: Swett, 23-64. 
 
 What is meant by " Training." 
 
 Ref.: Gill, 10-15. 
 
 Landon, chap. I. 
 Rosencranz, chaps, xiii, xiv. 
 Bain, chap. i. 
 Spencer, chap. t. 
 
 Free education. 
 
 Ref.: Rosencranz, 284. 
 
 Education may be gained through "Divine Providence, 
 through experience, or through the instruction or following the 
 directions of teachers." 
 
 Ref.: Johonnot, chap. I. 
 Landon, chap. I, n.
 
 SCHOOL ECONOMY. 
 
 KINDS OF SCHOOLS. 
 
 The different kinds of schools are Public and Private. Each 
 of these may be divided into Primary, Grammar, High, Col- 
 legiate, University, and Special schools. Character and object 
 of each. 
 
 The schools in which you will be engaged are public schools 
 of the Primary, Grammar, or High School grade. 
 
 The Public School — its organization and growth; by whom 
 supported, and purpose of such support. 
 
 Ref.: Painter, 312-314. 
 Kiddle, 715. 
 Northend, 11. 
 Swett, 21. 
 
 THE PARTIES INTERESTED IN A SCHOOL. 
 
 The parties interested in a Public School are: 1. The district 
 or society at large; 2. The parents of the children who attend 
 the school ; 3. The children; 4. The teacher. (Kennedy.) 
 
 For duties and rights of each, 
 
 See Kennedy's Outline. 
 
 Character of each. 
 
 Ref.: Baldwin, 21, 56. 
 
 Wickersham, 1-15. 
 
 THE TEACHER AND HIS FITNESS FOR HIS WORK. 
 
 1. The teacher must have physical qualifications. He should 
 (a) have good health, (b) understand and practice the laws of 
 hygiene. Hygienic suggestions. {Ref.: Page, chap, xn; Bald- 
 win, 70.) 
 
 2. The teacher must have intellectual qualifications. This 
 will include (a) scholarship, (ft) a disciplined mind, (c) power 
 to adapt himself to circumstances. 
 
 3. The teacher must have professional qualifications. He 
 must (a) love children, (b) have an aptness for teaching, (c) be 
 especially prepared for his work, (d) have an understanding 
 of the right conditions for the best school work, (e) have power 
 to control children, (/) be progressive, (g) be a student.
 
 SCHOOL ECONOMY. 7 
 
 4. The teacher must have moral qualifications. He must 
 (a) be honest, (b) be earnest, (c) be sympathetic, (d) be loyal to 
 duty, (e) be self-denying, (/) be without bad habits. {Ref.: 
 Raub, 255.) 
 
 Gen. Ref.: Payne, 103-124. 
 
 Page, chap, i, n, in, iv. 
 
 Holbrook, 3-64. 
 
 Wicker sham, 309. 
 
 The Teacher's Manual of the Science and Art 
 
 of Teaching, 219. 
 Lind, 9-34. 
 North end, 15-92. 
 Coombs, 116. 
 Raub, 243. 
 Landon, 1,12, 22,211. 
 
 ENGAGEMENT. 
 
 How to Secure a School: 1. See County Superintendent, if 
 possible; 2. See Trustees— generally useless to write; 3. If you 
 wish a certain school, be the first applicant, if possible; also 
 see the Trustees as close to the time of the election of a teacher 
 as possible; 4. Recommendations; 5. Bearing of the teacher. 
 
 Cautions: 1. Do not brag; 2. Never undermine a fellow- 
 teacher; 3. Do not underbid; 4. Changing places. 
 
 Contract. (See State School Law.) 
 
 Janitor. (See duties of Trustees in regard to engaging a 
 janitor.) 
 
 Boarding-Place: 1. Near the school; 2. Respectable; 3. Com- 
 fortable, and with facilities for studying; 4. In a private family, 
 if possible. 
 
 Ref.: Holbrook, 156-164. 
 
 WORK PREPARATORY TO TAKING CHARGE OF A 
 
 SCHOOL. 
 
 Get to your boarding-place two or three days before the 
 opening of the school. 
 
 Look over the condition of the school-house and the appa- 
 ratus. What to do in regard to: 1. Cleanliness of rooms; 2.
 
 8 SCHOOL ECONOMY. 
 
 Seats; 3. Curtains; 4. Apparatus; 5. Library; 6. Repairs in 
 general; 7. Supplies. 
 
 Ref.: The Teacher's Manual of the Science and Art of 
 Teaching, 499. 
 Raub, 23. 
 
 Wickersham, 42-46. 
 Root, 149. 
 Landon, 245. 
 
 Make the acquaintance of some of the older pupils. Why? 
 
 Secure information from the friends of the school in the 
 neighborhood in regard to: 1. Views of the people respecting 
 education; 2. Their ambitions in regard to their own school; 
 3. Their opinions regarding the methods and work of your 
 predecessor. 
 
 Caution: Be careful in your work before and after taking 
 charge of the school to say nothing against your predecessor. 
 You have your way; he has his. Get information, if neces- 
 sary, from parents in order to aid you in conducting your 
 school in the best interests of the people; but do not allow 
 pupils to tell you what was done before you assumed charge. 
 
 Ref.: Lind, 34. 
 
 Coombs, 39. 
 Page, 216. 
 
 Look up the last register, and learn all you can in regard to 
 the classification of the school. 
 
 Plan the work for the first day and for the first week before 
 the school opens. 
 
 " Know what to do, when to do it, and how to do it." 
 
 Be early the first day: (a) To see that everything is in order 
 to begin work; (b) To greet pupils; (c) To see that there is order 
 on the grounds. 
 
 What to expect of pupils the first morning. 
 
 How to meet pupils. 
 
 Opening exercises — character. 
 
 Welcoming talk — character and length. 
 
 Ref.: Baldwin, 88, 114, 118. 
 Gill, 52. 
 Lind, 38. 
 Coombs, 40.
 
 SCHOOL ECONOMY. 9 
 
 TEMPORARY ORGANIZATION. 
 
 Necessity for immediate, though temporary, organization. 
 
 1. Taking names — ways. 
 
 2. Classification — directions and aids: (a) Refer to the 
 register of your predecessor. If correctly filled out this 
 should give the classification of every pupil at the close of 
 the last term. If information cannot be obtained in this way, 
 then classify approximately by questioning; (6) Tests must 
 then be given. These should be carefully prepared before the 
 day of opening. Character of tests in Arithmetic, Language, 
 and Geography; twenty-five questions, ranging from easy to dif- 
 ficult work, and covering different topics — how given — time — 
 examining results — classification of pupils. Take note that 
 this classification may be modified after becoming acquainted 
 with the ability of the several pupils. 
 
 3. If already classified, begin work immediately. 
 
 4. Give all classes something to do the first day in all of 
 the subjects that they are to pursue. 
 
 Understand that the purpose of this first classification is to 
 learn what the pupils know. 
 
 Individualism in mixed schools. 
 Principles of classification. (Raub, 68.) 
 Suggestions on classification. (Raub, 71.) 
 
 Ref.: Baldwin, 81, 490. 
 Holbrook, 165, 172. 
 Lind, 37. 
 Coombs, 45. 
 Raub. 62. 
 Wickersham, 83. 
 Greenwood, 25. 
 
 Importance of making a good beginning. Teacher can hardly 
 change the impression made the first day. Pupils are good 
 critics. Teacher is fortunate if they say, " We have a good 
 teacher." 
 
 System is necessary in all callings. Very little can be 
 accomplished in school without a well-arranged plan. This 
 applies with especial force to the work of the first day. With-
 
 10 SCHOOL ECONOMY. 
 
 out a plan the teacher learns at the expense of the school. 
 Many changes consume valuable time, and cause confusion. 
 
 Seating. — Do not assign seats during the first day, except, 
 perhaps, by classes. Why? Have them understand that the 
 seating is but temporary, and that you shall re-seat them soon. 
 
 The programme for the first day and for the first week must 
 be carefully arranged, so as to need but few changes till you 
 know the needs of the schoo 
 
 DIRECTIONS AND HINTS FOR WORK OF FIRST DAY. 
 
 1. Make no rules during the first day; study your school. 
 
 2. Before any rule is passed, be sure that it is needed, and 
 that you can enforce it. 
 
 3. If there are many faults in the school, " make haste 
 slowly." 
 
 4. Your aim in organization should be to teach pupils to 
 govern themselves, and to work for themselves; hence the 
 necessity of waiting to see the needs of the school. 
 
 5. How to have your pupils come to class seats, and pass out 
 during the first day. 
 
 6. What to do about whispering, about leaving seats, and 
 about going out the first day. 
 
 7. What to do in the following special cases, if they occur 
 during the first day: (a) Coming to the class seats in an 
 irregular, careless manner; (b) Shuffling feet in movements; 
 (c) Asking to go out too often; (d) Noisy speech. 
 
 8. Principal objects to be gained during the first day: (a) To 
 create in the minds of the children a favorable impression of 
 the school and of the teacher; (b) To establish a kind of order 
 which should daily improve; (c) To test, as far as possible, the 
 relative standings of pupils, and to classify temporarily. 
 
 "What to do," "When to do it," and "How to do it" must 
 be thought out before entering the school. Leave as little as 
 possible for the impulse of the moment. 
 
 What Not to Do the First Day: 1. Make no positive rules; 
 2. Do not think you can reform the school in a day; 3. Do not 
 be hasty or appear excited; 4. Do not scold; 5. Do not be fret- 
 ful; 6. Do not criticise your predecessor; 7. Do not comment 
 on the order or appearance of the school; 8. Do not order per- 
 emptorily if you can avoid doing so.
 
 SCHOOL ECONOMY. 11 
 
 General Direction: Use tact. Do not go into a new school 
 and think that you must have things done according to some 
 set plan. Have a plan and adapt it to circumstances. 
 
 Ref.\ Baldwin, chap. v-vi. 
 Wickersham, chap. n. 
 Page, 216-225. 
 Raub, 62-65. 
 
 PERMANENT ORGANIZATION. 
 
 Why no organization can be really permanent. 
 
 1. Calling roll — different methods and devices. 
 
 2. Morning exercises: (a) Object; (6) Character: singing, — 
 reciting selections, — quotations, — readings, — experiments; (c) 
 Time occupied; (d) Results that should be obtained. 
 
 Ref.: Baldwin, 110. 
 Raub, 80. 
 
 3. Methods of seating: (a) By classes; (b) According to 
 size; (c) Boys and girls promiscuously; (d) What to do if 
 there are double seats; (e) One class with another. 
 
 Ref.: Baldwin, 112. 
 
 GENERAL PROVISIONS IN REGARD TO STUDY. 
 
 1. How to study: (a) From text-books; (b) From library 
 books; (c) From supplementary books; (d) From recitations 
 of classmates; (e) From teacher's talks. Discussion of each 
 method. 
 
 Ref.: Baldwin, chap. in. 
 
 2. When to study: (a) At school — see "Programme"^ 
 (b) At home — directions to give pupils in regard to this last. 
 
 Ref.: Wickersham, 70. 
 Baldwin, 118. 
 Gill, 65. 
 Raub, 66. 
 Landon, 109. 
 
 THE PROGRAMME. 
 
 1. Value of a good programme: (a) " It gives a regular study 
 system; (b) It encourages tenacity; (c) It does not allow 
 pupils to follow their whims and study on one subject longer
 
 12 SCHOOL ECONOMY. 
 
 than is necessary; (d) It inculcates right habits; (e) It en- 
 courages well-directed effort, both from teachers and pupils; 
 (/) It gives a perpetual organization, thus requiring every- 
 thing to be done at the right time." 
 Ref.: Raub, 72. 
 
 Baldwin, 255. 
 
 Greenwood, 26-32. 
 
 Landon, 198. 
 
 Lind, 36. 
 
 Wickersham, 94. 
 
 2. General directions in regard to making a programme: (a) 
 Assign those recitations that require the most thought to the 
 early part of the day — Discussion; (b) Avoid too many reci- 
 tations; (c) Combine classes in recitation as much as possible, 
 such as Writing, Drawing, Drill in Vocal Elements, etc.; (d) 
 Have no more than two or three Geography classes in any 
 school with but one teacher — How to manage this — Why this 
 caution; (e) The pupils in the three lower grades should read 
 at least four times each day— Why; (/) In large mixed 
 schools arrange your work so that during part of the recita- 
 tion period you can have pupils recite orally; when you are 
 ready for the written work, call another class to recite while 
 the first goes on with its work. 
 
 3. Suggestions for making a programme (selected from Bald- 
 win): (a) The programme must adapted to the school; (b) 
 Specific employment must be provided for each pupil during 
 the entire school day; (c) All teaching should be done during 
 the six school hours; (d) Adequate time must be secured for 
 each recitation; (e) Two classes in the same branch may recite 
 at the same time— see " Divisions "; (/ ) Two rests during each 
 half-day are highly important; (g) Each pupil should, if pos- 
 sible, have a recitation during each of the school hours; (k) 
 The entire school should, as far as possible, be engaged on the 
 
 same subject. 
 
 divisions. 
 
 If the school has six grades, divide it into three divisions; if 
 eight grades, divide into four divisions. 
 
 Study your Course of Study carefully and see what it is nec- 
 essary to teach. In most schools in this State you will have 
 the following
 
 SCHOOL ECONOMY. 13 
 
 Outline of Work. 
 
 Division D (First and Second Years): 1. Reading, Spelling, 
 and Language; 2. Number; 3. Elementary Science; 4. Writ- 
 ing and Drawing; 5. Music. 
 
 Division C (Third and Fourth Years): 1. Reading and 
 Spelling; 2. Language; 3. Number; 4. Elementary Science 
 (this includes Geography) ; 5. Writing and Drawing; 6. Music. 
 
 Division B (Fifth and Sixth Years): 1. Reading and Spell- 
 ing; 2. Language; 3. Arithmetic; 4. Geography; 5. Science; 
 6. Writing and Drawing; 7. Music. 
 
 Division A (Seventh and Eighth Years): 1. Reading and 
 Spelling; 2. Language; 3. Arithmetic; 4. Geography and His- 
 tory; 5. Physiology and Botany; 6. Writing and Drawing; 7. 
 Music. 
 
 What to do if there are Ninth-year pupils. 
 
 Discussion of actual programmes from many different 
 districts.
 
 14 
 
 SCHOOL ECONOMY. 
 
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 SCHOOL ECONOMY. 15 
 
 GOVERNMENT. 
 
 Discipline (Government): "That power of control which 
 produces and sustains order." 
 
 Kinds of government: 1. Divine; 2. State; 3. Family; 4. 
 School; 5. Self. 
 
 Ref.: Wickersham, 229. 
 
 Old notion in regard to government. True notion. End of 
 each kind of government should be to train for self-govern- 
 ment. 
 
 Good government in relation to any body of people necessi- 
 tates order. 
 
 ORDER. 
 
 Meaning of order: "Fitness of condition of things." Illus- 
 trations. 
 
 Good order requires: 1. "An appreciation of the rights and 
 duties of all parties associated"; 2. "A conscious recognition 
 of law and authority"; 3. "Cooperation of all parties for the 
 general good, and the submission of some to authority." 
 
 Order is positive, not negative. 
 
 Extent and character of order — conditioned on character of 
 the governed and the end to be attained. 
 
 Importance of good order. 
 
 Why good order is essential to progress. 
 
 AYhy good order and the power to keep one's self in order 
 trains for character. 
 
 Ref.: Gill, 85. 
 Tate, 395. 
 Baldwin, 192. 
 Holbrook, 194. 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF GOVERNMENT. 
 
 (Selected from Bain.) 
 
 1. " Restraints should be as few as the situation admits of." 
 
 2. "Duties and offenses should be definitely expressed, so as 
 to be clearly understood. This may not always be possible to 
 the full extent, but should be always aimed at." 
 
 3. " Offenses should be graduated according to their heinous- 
 ness. This needs clearness of discrimination and definite 
 language."
 
 16 SCHOOL ECONOMY. 
 
 4. " Voluntary dispositions ai - e to be trusted so far as they go." 
 
 5. " By organization and arrangement, the occasions of dis- 
 order are avoided. Quarrels are obviated by not permitting 
 crowds, jostlings, collisions. Dishonesty is checked by want of 
 opportunity; remissness, by the watchful eye and by definite 
 tests of performance.'' 
 
 6. "The awe and influence of authority are maintained by a 
 certain formality and state. Forms and ritual are adapted to 
 all the operations of law; persons in authority are clothed with 
 dignity and inviolability. The greater the necessity of enforce- 
 ing obedience, the more stern and imposing is the ritual of 
 authority. A slight tinge of formality should accompany even 
 the lowest forms of authority." 
 
 7. "It is understood that authority with all its appurte- 
 nances exists for the benefit of the governed, and not as a 
 perquisite of the governor." 
 
 8. " The operation of mere vindictiveness should be curtailed 
 to the uttermost." 
 
 9. " So far as circumstances allow, every one in authority 
 should assume a benign character, seeking the benefit of those 
 under him, using instruction and moral suasion, so as to stave 
 oft' the necessity of force. The effect of this attitude is at its 
 utmost when its limits are clearly discerned and never passed." 
 
 10. "The reasons for repression and discipline should, as far 
 as possible, be made intelligible to those concerned, and should 
 be referable solely to the general good. This involves, as a part 
 of national education, a knowledge of the structure of society, 
 as being a regulated reciprocity among all the members, for the 
 good of each and all." The same may be said of the District. 
 (See Kennedy's Outline.) 
 
 Re}.: Bain, 100-104. 
 
 ELEMENTS OF CHARACTER THAT A TEACHER MUST HAVE IN- 
 ORDER TO GOVERN WELL. 
 
 1. Self-government: (a) As to passion and anger, (6) As to 
 levity, (c) As to moroseness, (d) As to frivolity, (e) As to peev- 
 ishness, (/) As to his treatment of those pupils that have some 
 peculiarity; 2. System and orderly habits; 3. A confidence in 
 his ability to govern; 4. Cheerfulness, because this insures self- 
 control; 5. Self-assertion; G. Decision; 7. Firmness; 8. Cour- 
 age; 9. Will power; 10. Executive power (basis of this is judg-
 
 SCHOOL ECONOMY. 17 
 
 ment, which may be trained); 11. Confidence: (a) In himself, 
 (b) In his pupils, (c) In his work; 12. Culture: (a) Of mind, 
 (&) Of manners, (c) Of voice; 13. Love for his pupils and a 
 desire to make them happy; 14. Tolerance; 15. Sympathy; 16. 
 Kindness of disposition; 17. Impartiality; 18. Tact; 19. Teach- 
 ing power; 20. Deep moral principles; 21. A sense of justice: 
 (a) To his pupils, (b) To the parents, (c) To the district, (d) 
 To the commonwealth, (c) To himself; 22. Common sense, 
 which will include a fitness of things. 
 
 Ref.: Baldwin, 124-137. 
 Kellogg, 31. 
 Coombs, 83. 
 Raub, 173. 
 Page, 148. 
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 School government should be based on the ends to be attained 
 by the school itself, viz., the right education of the pupils. ( Note 
 ends to be attained by education, p. 5.) 
 
 To govern well the teacher must understand and be able to 
 perform the duties of: 1. A Legislator; 2. A Judge; 3. An Ex- 
 ecutive; for " school government includes all the various influ- 
 ences and agencies brought to bear upon the child while under 
 the influence of the teacher to induce in him such a state as is 
 most conducive to the success of his education." (Landon, 
 310.) It has for its foundation the authority of the teacher, 
 who in many respects is in loco parentis. (See State School 
 Law.) 
 
 The Popular Notion of School Government: The true notion 
 keeps in mind two objects: 1. To preserve a kind of order for 
 the furtherance of the education of pupils; 2. To train pupils 
 to self-government. 
 
 Ref.: The Teacher's Manual of the Science and Art of 
 Teaching, 158. 
 Swett, 71. 
 Lind, 44. 
 Coombs, 81. 
 Northend, 106. 
 Raub, 171. 
 Landon, 310. 
 Root, 154. 
 
 2 — SE
 
 SCHOOL ECONOMY. 
 
 THE TEACHER AS LEGISLATOR. 
 
 The teacher as legislator must understand his powers and 
 limitations. (See State School Law.) 
 
 The teacher as legislator must have just views of the pur- 
 pose of school government. 
 
 Government is for the benefit of the governed; that is, to 
 further their proper education. It should be uniform; that is, 
 should be based on principles, and not subject to the whims of 
 the teacher. It should be equal for all — no school aristocracy. 
 
 The teacher as legislator should have just views of the gov- 
 erned, for, 1. They are reasonable beings; 2. They have moral 
 sense; 3. They love approbation; 4. Most of them wish to do 
 right. 
 
 Ref.: Swett, 155. 
 
 The teacher as legislator must understand the meaning of 
 order in its relation to the work of the school. He must have 
 an understanding of the conditions of order and the causes 
 of disorder. Order depends on the duties and rights of each 
 of the parties interested in a school. Disorder is caused, or 
 may be caused, by a lack of any of the conditions of order 
 or the violation of any of the personal rights of the parties 
 interested in the school. 
 
 The causes of insubordination may be: "1. Conflict of author- 
 ity; 2. Abuse of authority; 3. Abdication of authority." 
 
 Discussion of Kennedy's Outline. 
 
 The teacher may violate any of the rights of the other parties 
 interested in a school if he: 1. Is unqualified; 2. Has bad man- 
 agement. 
 
 To avoid the latter he must clearly understand what are the 
 objects and requirements of school legislation. 
 
 The objects of school legislation are: 1. To find out means 
 of preventing disorder; 2. To find means of correcting disor- 
 der; 3. To find means to induce pupils to discharge their duties 
 of their own accord. 
 
 Ref.: Landon, 321. 
 
 Wickersham, 245. 
 
 School legislation requires the passage of wise general 
 regulations.
 
 SCHOOL ECONOMY. 19 
 
 General Regulations 
 
 May be necessary in regard to: 
 
 1. Regularity (a) of attendance of pupils; (b) of school exer- 
 cises (see "Programme"). 
 
 2. Promptitude (a) of pupils (1) in arriving at school, (2) 
 in obeying orders; (b) of teachers in beginning and closing 
 school. 
 
 3. Decorum (a) of pupils in school; (l>) of teacher at all 
 times. 
 
 4. Quiet (a) of pupils; (b) of teacher. 
 
 5. Communication of pupils. 
 
 6. System. 
 
 7. Morality. 
 
 Ref.: Baldwin, 138, 474. 
 
 The teacher, in making general regulations, should observe 
 the following principles: 1. They should be few; 2. They should 
 be general rather than specific; that is, not applying to special 
 duties; 3. They should be popular; that is, have the approval 
 of right-minded parents and pupils; 4. They should be practi- 
 cable; 5. They should be educational; 6. They should be rea- 
 sonable; 7. They should be positive, not negative; 8. They 
 should, as a rule, be inflexible; 9. They should secure the 
 general good. 
 
 Regulations should also have in view the cultivation of cer- 
 tain habits in children, such as: " 1. Promptness and regularity; 
 2. Obedience; 3. Order, system; 4. Self-respect; 5. Respect for 
 the persons, property, and rights of others; 6. Carefulness; 
 7. Neatness of persons and surroundings; 8. Courtesy; 9. Kind- 
 ness; 10. Industry; 11. Attention." (Phelps, 202.) 
 
 The general regulations may take note of such require- 
 ments as the following: 
 
 1. The regulation of the conduct of the pupils (a) on their 
 way to and from school, (6) on the grounds, (c) in school. 
 
 2. The defining of (a) the school limits, (b) the time and 
 length of intermissions. 
 
 3. The transaction of general business. (See " Programme.") 
 
 4. The administration of punishment. 
 
 5. The granting of privileges. 
 Discussion of above topics. 
 
 Ref.: Coombs, 99.
 
 20 SCHOOL ECONOMY. 
 
 The following outline, copied from Kennedy's " Philosophy 
 of School Discipline," will give a just conception of the parties 
 interested in a school, and their relative rights and duties: 
 
 "Parties in a School: 1. District; 2. Parents; 3. Children; 
 4. Teacher. 
 
 "Conditions of Order: 1. District: (a) Ability to support, 
 (I>) Willingness, (c) Healthy public sentiment; 2. Parents: 
 (a) Appreciation of knowledge, (b) Wisdom in family manage- 
 ment, (c) Proper affection towards school; 3. Children: (a) 
 Happiness, (b) Respect for superiors, (c) Interest in school; 
 4. Teacher: (a) Self-mastery, (b) Sound scholarship, (c) Cor- 
 rect apprehension. 
 
 "Deductions: The power of discipline is a moral force. Dis- 
 cipline is a remedial system. Moral order is the undisturbed 
 exercise of rights and the complete discharge of duties — the 
 reign of justice. 
 
 "Causes of Disorder: 1. Natural deformity; 2. Neglect; 3. 
 Reaction of injustice." 
 
 Ref.: Coombs, 97. 
 Raub, 185. 
 
 "Injustice — Violation of personal rights. 
 
 "Personal Rights: 1. Parents: (a) Teacher's kindness and 
 care, (b) To enjoy the develoj3ment of the children, (c) To be 
 assured of their children's success; 2. District: (a) Preserva- 
 tion of property, (b) Improved public sentiment, (c) Enhanced 
 value of property; 3. Children: (a) Parental kindness and 
 care, (b) Sound instruction and correct example, (c) Maturity; 
 4. Teacher (conditionally): (a) Pay, (b) Respect, obedience, 
 and filial love, (c) Confidence and cooperation. 
 
 " Deduction: Rights and duties are correlates." (Kennedy.) 
 
 Discussion of outline and the deduction of the necessity for 
 certain general rules and regulations for the well-being of the 
 community, and the inculcation of the above-named habits in 
 pupils. 
 
 Special Regulations. 
 
 To accomplish the ends in view, it is sometimes necessary to 
 pass special regulations in order to define the acts and move- 
 ments of pupils, and thus aid them in the formation of the 
 right habits, as well as to enable the work of the school to be 
 performed with the least friction and unnecessary energy.
 
 SCHOOL ECONOMY. 21 
 
 The following principles should be kept in mind in passing 
 special regulations: 1. They should have for their object the 
 formation of certain modes of action, and should come under 
 the head of one of the general regulations; 2. They should 
 be definite; 3. They should be adopted only when absolutely 
 necessary; 4. They should be few. 
 Ref.: Raub, 191. 
 
 Many special regulations may be avoided by a careful sys- 
 tem of school tactics. (See later.) They may be necessary, 
 however, to remedy or control some or all of the following: 
 1. Tardiness; 2. Using knives in school; 3. Disposition of 
 waste paper; 4. Defacing desks or buildings; 5. Throwing 
 stones or sticks; 6. Leaving seats; 7. Whispering; 8. Going 
 out during the school session; 9. Speaking to the teacher 
 during recitations; 10. Politeness to classmates; 11. Receiving 
 help from the teacher; 12. Limits within which certain classes 
 of pupils must play; 13. When pupils must be seated in the 
 room; 14. Fighting; etc. 
 
 Character of regulations in regard to above faults. 
 
 Under " Punishment," see what to do in case of a violation 
 of a rule passed in regard to any of above. 
 
 Adoption of Regulations. 
 
 Plan of adoption — advantages. 
 
 "1. Presentation; 2. Approval; 3. Adoption; 4. Pledge; 
 5. Enforcement." 
 
 Ref.: Baldwin, 142, 143. 
 
 Violation of Regulations, and Other Offenses Against the School. 
 
 When not to appear to notice a misdemeanor. 
 
 When misdemeanors should be noticed. What not to do 
 when they are noticed. What to do if noticed. 
 
 How to detect offenders if there has been a secret violation 
 of regulations, or if any special offense has been committed by 
 an unknown party: " 1. By private confession; 2. By negative 
 questions; 3. By public questions; 4. By seeking information 
 from well-disposed pupils; 5. By constant vigilance." 
 
 It is sometimes well to give time for the reformation of the 
 offender after the matter has been considered by the school. 
 
 Ref.: Raub, 225. 
 
 Wickersham, 291.
 
 22 SCHOOL ECONOMY. 
 
 THE TEACHER AS ATTORNEY AND AS JUDGE. 
 
 Having adopted wise regulations, if they are violated, the 
 teacher must be: 1. An attorney for the plaintiff; 2. An attor- 
 ney for the defendant ; 3. Judge. 
 
 The plaintiff may be: 1. Society at large; 2. The district; 
 
 3. The parents; 4. The school as a whole; 5. Some particular 
 pupil; 6. The teacher himself. 
 
 The defendant may be: 1. One pupil; 2. Several pupils; 3. 
 The whole school; 4. The district; 5. The parents; 6. The 
 teacher himself. 
 
 The teacher, as attorney for either party, must have a clear 
 understanding of the cause of the disturbance or disorder. 
 This understanding will include: 1. A knowledge of the rights 
 and duties of all of the parties interested in a school; 2. A clear 
 apprehension of what rights a party may be deprived, and of 
 what duty may be left undone by any party. " Rights and 
 duties are correlates." 
 
 See outline " Conditions of Order." (Kennedy.) 
 
 Discussion of the teacher as attorney, and of the case of each 
 plaintiff and defendant in its relation to violated rights and 
 neglected duties. Deduction: A plaintiff necessarily involves 
 a defendant. 
 
 It is, therefore, the teacher's duty as attorney for the plaintiff 
 to try to find out who the guilty one is, if anything is out of 
 order. (See above.) 
 
 It is his duty as attorney for the defendant to: 1. Inquire 
 into the provocation for committing the offense or neglecting 
 the duty; 2. See that the defendant is not unjustly condemned. 
 
 It is the duty of the teacher as judge to carefully weigh the 
 evidence on both sides, to decide who the guilty party is, and 
 to assign punishment or forgive the offender. Discussion. 
 
 As a wise judge the teacher must: 1. Be mature; 2. He must 
 have a knowledge of psychology; 3. He must have self-control; 
 
 4. He must be above prejudice; 5. He must be impartial; 6. 
 He should consider the punishment as an educational factor in 
 the reformation of the offender, if a pupil; 7. He must be just 
 and apportion the punishment according to the heinousness of 
 the offense — this may depend on (a) the age of the offender, (b) 
 his peculiar condition mentally and physically, (c) the number
 
 SCHOOL ECONOMY. 23 
 
 of times the offense has been repeated, (d) the motive with 
 which the offense was committed. 
 
 Ref.: Baldwin, 69, 132, 145, 148, 151, 162. 
 Wickersham, 298, 315. 
 
 THE TEACHER AS EXECUTIVE. 
 
 Having passed wise regulations, the teacher as an executive 
 must see that they are obeyed. If not obeyed, as attorney he 
 tries the case, decides who the guilty party is, and as judge 
 fixes the penalty, after which, as executive, he administers the 
 punishment. 
 
 Ref.: Wickersham, 316. 
 
 PUNISHMENT. 
 
 Necessity for punishment. 
 
 Government is impossible without the power to punish for 
 disobedience. Discussion. 
 
 Good management, which is a phase of government, may 
 avoid the necessity for inflicting much punishment. 
 
 The effects of punishment maybe: "1. Immediate change 
 in conduct by inflicting such pain as to bring the culprit to a 
 realization of the fact that he has done wrong; 2. Educational 
 or corrective in its results." 
 
 It has for its general objects: "1. The reformation of the 
 offender; 2. A warning to others; 3. The maintaining of the 
 supremacy of the law." 
 
 Ref.: Raub, 200. 
 
 Swett, 75. 
 
 School Punishments. 
 
 "Only when all other efforts have failed is punishment, 
 which is the real negation of the error, the transgression, or 
 the vice, justifiable." 
 
 " Punishment as an educational means is nevertheless essen- 
 tially corrective, since, by leading the youth to a proper esti- 
 mation of the fault and a positive change in his behavior, it 
 seeks to improve him." 
 
 " Punishment as a negation of a negation, considered as an 
 educational means, cannot be determined as to its application 
 by the mere reference to the deed, but must be modified by the
 
 24 SCHOOL ECONOMY. 
 
 peculiarities of the individual offender, and by other circum- 
 stances. Its administration calls for the exercise of the inge- 
 nuity and tact of the educator." 
 
 Ref.: Rosencranz, paragraphs 38, 39, 40. 
 
 Principles relating to the administration of school punish- 
 ments: "1. Punishment must be certain for willful wrong; 
 
 2. Punishment should be related to offenders as effects to causes; 
 
 3. Each class of offenses should have its own kind of punish- 
 ment." 4. For other principles, see " The Teacher as Judge," 
 when assigning punishment. 
 
 Discussion. 
 
 The degree of punishment should depend upon: "1. The 
 motive of the offender; 2. The nature of the offense; 3. The 
 frequency of repetition; 4. The difficulty of detection; 5. The 
 age and sex of the offender; 6. The physical and mental state 
 of the offender; 7. The circumstances under which the offense 
 was committed." 
 
 Ref.: Same as for "Teacher as Judge." 
 Holbrook. 
 Coombs, 101. 
 Thring, 247. 
 Raub, 201. 
 Wickersham, 254. 
 Landon, 338. 
 
 Kinds of Punishment. 
 Punishment may be: 1. Judicious; 2. Injudicious. 
 
 Judicious Punishments are: 1. Reproof: (a) Individual; (6) 
 Public. When to give each. 
 
 2. Privation: (a) Of seat; (b) Of recess; (c) Of recitation; 
 (d) Of class position; (e) Of certain privileges; (/) Of time 
 at noon or after school — caution; (g) Of teacher's favor. 
 
 3. Deportment marks. 
 
 4. Reparation of damages. 
 
 5. Performance of neglected duties. 
 
 6. Private apology. 
 
 7. Public apology. 
 
 8. Confinement. 
 
 9. Seating away from others.
 
 SCHOOL ECONOMY. 25 
 
 10. Suspension, which should be only for: (a) Continued 
 insubordination, and after other means have failed; (6) Gross 
 immorality. Caution. 
 
 11. Expulsion. Causes same as for "suspension," only in a 
 more marked degree. Caution. 
 
 12. Corporal punishment. 
 
 Ref.: Raub, 206. 
 
 Wickersham, 264. 
 Page, 176-189. 
 
 Before administering corporal punishment, the teacher 
 should: "1. Be sure that the pupil is guilty; 2. Appeal to 
 the honor of the pupil; 3. Try other punishments first; 4. 
 Consult with parents of the pupil, if punishment is to be 
 severe; 5. Wait until he can administer it coolly and deliber- 
 ately." 
 
 Principles which should govern the administration of cor- 
 poral punishment: "1. It should be private, unless the offense 
 is a willful defiance of authority; 2. It should be moderate; 
 3. The instrument should be appropriate; 4. It should be 
 administered on the muscular parts of the body, never on the 
 head; 5. It should be deliberate, and never in anger; 6. The 
 pupil should be made to feel that it is given in love; 7. The 
 treatment of the pupil should be tender and considerate after 
 the punishment." 
 
 Ref.: Baldwin, 174. 
 Raub, 213. 
 Holbrook, 210. 
 Wickersham, 303. 
 Page, 194. 
 
 Injudicious Punishments: 1. Scolding; 2. Ridicule; 3. Sar- 
 casm; 4. Expression of contempt — harm; 5. Confinement of 
 small children; 6. Personal indignities — examples; 7. Per- 
 sonal torture — examples; 8. Performance of tasks for miscon- 
 duct, especially of mental tasks; 9. Degradation of offender; 
 10. Worrying or nagging a pupil; 11. Vindictive punishment; 
 12. Cruel punishment; 13. Suspension from school, except in 
 extreme cases; 14. Expulsion from school, except for causes 
 stated above; 15. Keeping in for small offenses; 16. Corporal 
 punishment, except when other means fail. 
 Ref.: Raub, 221.
 
 26 SCHOOL ECONOMY. 
 
 Cautions: "1. Do not try to make pupils learn by punish- 
 ing them; 2. Never inflict a punishment when, or in such a 
 way that, a pupil has good reason for resenting it; 3. Study 
 to use as little punishment as possible; 4. Be as patient 
 as possible — children are generally careless instead of bad; 
 5. Prevent faults if possible, so as to avoid the necessity for 
 punishment; 6. Punish only for willful misconduct; 7. Do not 
 reprove those who try but fail; 8. Remember that children 
 are children." 
 
 Ref.: Baldwin, chap, v, part u. 
 Holbrook, 218. 
 Kellogg, 1, 7, 66. 
 Page, 179. 
 
 Application of punishment to cases when pupils violate any 
 of the General or Special Regulations mentioned under those 
 headings. 
 
 What to do to remedy the following special faults: 1. Dis- 
 order from physical discomfort; 2. Disorder from coughing; 
 3. Disorder from a rough and noisy class of pupils; 4. Dis- 
 order from unnecessary and continuous laughter; 5. From 
 dropping slates and pencils; 6. From noisily taking articles 
 from the desk; 7. From noisily placing articles on the desk; 
 8. From noisily handling paper and turning leaves; 9. From 
 noisily moving feet on the floor, (a) while studying, (6) when 
 assuming required positions; 10. From noisily moving lips 
 while studying; 11. From careless opening and closing doors; 
 12. From noisily closing ink-wells; 13. Forgetting to bring 
 books to school; 14. Forgetting where lessons are; 15. Look- 
 ing out of window during school hours, to the neglect of 
 lessons; 16. Eating in school; 17. Inattention; 18. Asking to 
 have questions repeated; 19. Failure to go home after the 
 close of school; 20. Tale-bearing; 21. Carelessness in dress 
 and person; 22. Imposing on weaker and younger pupils; 
 23. Marking books; 24. Defacing buildings; 25. Want of 
 respect for strangers. 
 
 Ref.: Baldwin, 182. 
 Kellogg, 117. 
 Coombs, 107.
 
 SCHOOL ECONOMY. 27 
 
 What to do with the following kinds of boys: 
 
 " Mama's Very Peculiar Boy ": Find out whether he is really 
 peculiar, or only that " mama " thinks so. Talk with his parents. 
 Have them understand that his " peculiarities " must not inter- 
 fere with the well-being of the school. Treat him as you do 
 other boys, and insist on the same obedience from him as from 
 others. 
 
 "The Petted and Spoiled Boy": Treat him much as you do 
 the " peculiar boy," and let him know that all in the public 
 schools stand on an equality. Give him to understand that 
 no partiality can be shown him in school because he has been 
 petted at home. 
 
 "The Fidgety Boy": See that he is given something definite 
 to do all of the time, and plenty of it. nsist on his doing 
 things exactly as requested. If he is really nervous because 
 of poor health, try to aid him by directing the right kind of 
 physical exercise, and have his parents consult a physician in 
 regard to him. See that you do not incite him to nervousness 
 yourself. 
 
 "The Sullen Boy": Treat him as you do other boys. Get 
 him interested in some line of work, and his sullenness will 
 doubtless disappear, 
 
 "The Fighting and Swearing Boy": Talk to him alone. 
 Show him how wicked and unmanly such conduct is. If this 
 will not do, deprive him of the society of the other boys of the 
 school. Finally, if all other means fail, send him out of the 
 school, as the other children must not be contaminated by his 
 presence. 
 
 "The Lazy Boy": Get him thoroughly interested, and he 
 will work. Few boys are naturally lazy. 
 
 "The Lying Boy": Talk with him as with the " swearing 
 boy." If no other course will answer, punish him severely. 
 Let him see that his untruthfulness always reacts on himself. 
 
 "The Noisy Boy": Make him say and do things over in a 
 quiet manner, till his bad habit is eradicated. 
 
 "The Saucy Boy": Sauciness is generally due to an idea 
 that it is smart. Teach the boy how impolite such a manner 
 is. Answer him politely but firmly. Show him the contrast 
 between his manner and that of polite boys. Let him know 
 by your manner that you do not approve of his ways. 
 
 "The Forgetful Boy": Let his forgetfulness react upon
 
 28 SCHOOL ECONOMY. 
 
 himself a few times, and he will be more likely to remember 
 afterwards. Illustration. 
 
 "The Timid Boy": Give him easy questions at first. Let 
 him see that he is accomplishing something. Praise him for 
 what he does, and thus give him confidence. 
 
 " The ' Smart ' Boy ": Aim to show him that he does not know 
 more than the others. A few fiat failures on his part may be 
 brought about by the teacher, and he be thus taught not to 
 over-estimate his ability. 
 
 "The Sly Boy": Keep your eye on him, and let him know 
 that you do so. Give him to understand that you do not trust 
 him. When he shows improvement, let him know that you 
 notice this also. 
 
 "The Smooth Boy": The smooth boy is one who is generally 
 trying to conceal something, or is one who considers himself 
 smart. He is a combination of "the smart boy" and "the sly 
 boy." 
 
 "The Touchy Boy": This boy has doubtless been imposed 
 upon many times. Be candid and firm with him. Let him 
 feel that you are trying to help him. Give him confidence in 
 you. See that other pupils do not impose upon him, and he 
 will doubtless overcome this fretful habit. 
 
 "The Obstinate Boy": Be firm with him. Let him know 
 that you always mean what you say. Insist on his performing 
 what he is told to do. Never give up to him. 
 
 Ref.: Greenwood, 173. 
 
 SCHOOL TACTICS, AND THEIR AID IN GOVERNMENT. 
 
 Definition. 
 
 Value: 1. To secure system; 2. To save time; 3. To train 
 pupils to prompt obedience; 4. To inculcate right habits. 
 
 Principles Governing School Tactics: School tactics should: 
 1. "Be uniform; 2. Be necessitated by school work; 3. Be few 
 and significant; 4. Each movement have its own signal. " - 
 
 Ref.: Raub, 77. 
 
 Baldwin, 90. 
 
 Movements should: 1. Follow signals; 2. Be executed quietly, 
 quickly, and with precision.
 
 SCHOOL ECONOMY. 29 
 
 Signals may be given: 1. By the voice, in the falling inflec- 
 tion, and in a low, firm tone; 2. By a tap of the bell; 3. By a 
 tap of the pencil; 4. By a movement of the hand or head. 
 
 Special signals should be given and definite movements 
 required in: 1. Calling school; 2. Dismissing school; 3. Call- 
 ing classes; 4. Dismissing classes; 5. Board Avork; 6. Writing 
 and drawing. 
 
 Order in Calling School: 1. King five-minute bell; 2. Ring 
 last bell; 3. Pupils who are outside fall in line in proper places; 
 4. March in and hang hats and wraps; 5. March into school- 
 room in such order as to bring all to their own seats at about 
 the same time; 6. Standby seats; 7. Be seated in proper position. 
 
 Order in Dismissing School: 1. School attention and absolute 
 quiet; 2. Clear desks and arrange books; 3. Position; 4. Special 
 directions or information by teacher preparatory to dismissing 
 for the day; 5. Turn; 6. Rise; 7. March. 
 
 Order in Calling Classes: 1. Ready; 2. Turn; 3. Rise; 4. 
 Pass'; 5. Seated. 
 
 Order in Dismissing Classes: 1. Rise; 2. Turn; 3. Pass; 4. 
 Seated. 
 
 The same signals may be used for dismissing one class and 
 calling another. 
 
 Order in Board Work: 1. Rise; 2. Pass and face; 3. Erase; 
 
 4. Face; 5. Number; 6. Write name and number; 7. Face; 8. 
 Work; 9. Face; 10. Explain; 11. Pass to seats; 12. Seated. 
 
 Order in Writing Exercises: 1. Attention; 2. Position; 3. 
 Monitors stand; 4. Monitors take books; 5. Monitors pass 
 books; 6. Open ink-wells; 7. Open books; 8. Take pens; 9. 
 Write; 10. Wipe pens; 11. Lay down pens; 12. Use blotter; 
 13. Close books; 14. Close ink-wells; 15. Position; 16. Moni- 
 tors stand; 17. Monitors pass; 18. Monitors collect books. 
 
 Discussion of above, and cautions in regard to the same. 
 
 Signals by pupils may be: 1. In the class; 2. At seats. 
 
 Signals in the class may be to signify a desire: 1. To answer — 
 when to allow this; 2. To criticise — when to allow; 3. To ask a 
 question — when to allow; 4. To express concurrence or opposi- 
 tion — when to allow. 
 
 Signals at seats may be to signify a desire: 1. To get some- 
 thing; 2. To leave seat; 3. To speak — caution; 4. To use knife; 
 
 5. To go out; 6. To speak to the teacher. 
 
 Special signals to be given in each of the above cases.
 
 30 SCHOOL ECONOMY. 
 
 Special directions by teachers. Meaning of: 1. "School"; 
 2. "Class"; 3. "Boys"; 4. "Girls"; 5. "Division." When 
 these should be used. 
 
 Directions for Teachers to give to Pupils: 1. Obey each signal 
 promptly and quietly; 2. Do not snap fingers or make other 
 noises in order to attract attention ; 3. In giving signals with 
 the hand, do not shake the arm; 4. When giving a signal, wait 
 quietly till seen by the teacher. 
 
 Directions to Teachers: 1. Enforce the above requirements of 
 pupils after they are found to be necessary; 2. Before giving a 
 second order, wait until the first is obeyed by every one for 
 whom it is given; 3. If pupils do not obey signals promptly 
 and quietly, repeat all of the movements from the beginning; 
 if it is necessary to take up more time in this way, practice 
 after the hour for closing; 4. Insist on having all of the pupils 
 for whom a signal is given, do the same thing at the same time. 
 
 What to do with laggards. 
 
 Ref.: Baldwin, 90, 99. 
 
 Rewards and Incentives that may Incite Pupils to Good Con- 
 duct and to Study: " 1. Approbation of relatives and friends; 2, 
 Approbation of society; 3. Success in school; 4. Success in the 
 attainment of life's ends; 5. An approving conscience; 6. The 
 favor of God;" 7. Rewards by the teacher, (a) Gifts— caution, 
 (b) Medals, (c) Name on Roll of Honor, (d) Honorable posi- 
 tion, (e) Approbation. 
 
 Every wise incentive should be made use of to induce pupils 
 to do right and thus avoid the necessity on the part of the 
 teacher of appearing to govern. 
 
 Ref.: Coombs, 66. 
 Kellogg, 36. 
 Wicker sham, 150. 
 
 General Directions to the Teacher in Striving to Obtain Good 
 Order in the School-Room: 1. Have it understood from the be- 
 ginning that the school-room must be quiet at all times; 2. Do 
 not assume to be what you are not; 3. Have system, a time for 
 everything, a place for everything, and a method for doing 
 everything; 4. Avoid governing too much; 5. Request, not
 
 SCHOOL ECONOMY. 31 
 
 command, whenever expedient for the best interests of the 
 pupil and the school; 6. Strive to govern by the eye, not by the 
 voice; 7. Stand well back from your pupils so as to see every 
 one; 8. Have dull, restless, and backward pupils in front; 9. 
 Try to impress pupils with the respect due to law; 10. Give 
 as few orders as possible, but be firm in insisting on prompt 
 and exact obedience; 11. Speak quietly, distinctly, and firmly, 
 never in a loud, blustering tone; 12. Do not repeat, it is de- 
 moralizing; 13. Be ever on the alert, and warn when necessary; 
 
 14. Avoid exhibiting or entertaining a suspicious spirit ; " the 
 law presumes a man is innocent until he is proven guilty;" 
 
 15. Let pupils know that you notice and approve of their good 
 traits; show them that you have confidence in them; 16. Have 
 a register of credits or some roll of honor for good pupils; 17. 
 Encourage pupils whenever possible; 18. Visit parents as often 
 as possible, especially those of troublesome pupils; 19. Try to 
 have pupils understand and obey " the law of conscience" ; 20. 
 Let pupils be sure that they will have fair treatment; 21. Cul- 
 tivate a cheerful and pleasant disposition; 22. Permit pupils to 
 do favors; 23. When you grant favors, do so cordially; 24. 
 Always perform what you promise either in the way of favors 
 or punishment without regard to lapse of time; 25. Do not 
 worry; 26. Do not nag pupils; 27. Do not scold; 28. Never 
 threaten; 29. Never sneer at pupils; 30. Seldom refer to the 
 regulations; 31. Have a quiet force about you in your manner 
 that will make your authority felt, not seen; 32. The need of 
 punishment in nearly all cases means weak handling ; if pupils 
 are troublesome, look to yourself first; 33. Do not expect to 
 reform the school in a day, if reformation is necessary; "make 
 haste slowly"; 34. "Wake up mind in the school and in the 
 district, and you will have little trouble in governing." 
 
 Ref.: Kellogg, 16. 
 Swett, 88. 
 Page, 159. 
 
 THE RECITATION. 
 
 1. The direct objects of the recitation are: (a) To direct 
 pupils to sources of knowledge and to teach them how to 
 study; (6) To impart knowledge to pupils; (c) To test the 
 knowledge of pupils; (d) To correct the errors of pupils; (e) 
 To give advanced lessons.
 
 32 SCHOOL ECONOMY. 
 
 2. Indirect but equally important objects: (a) The mental 
 discipline of pupils; (b) To cultivate habits of attention; (c) 
 To enable pupils to express themselves properly; (d) To give 
 pupils self-confidence; (e) To enable pupils to fix their minds 
 on what they are attempting to learn; (/) To awaken an 
 interest in study; (g) To lead pupils to apply their knowledge; 
 (h) To enable the teacher to keep before the minds of pupils 
 proper incentives to study. 
 
 Ref.: Swett, 95. 
 Coombs, 47. 
 Baldwin, 324. 
 Wickersham, 175. 
 Raub, 111. 
 Greenwood, 37. 
 
 General Methods of Conducting Recitations: (a) Oral; (b) 
 Written. Advantages of each. 
 
 The Oral Method may be: (a) By question and answer; (6) 
 Topical; (c) Conversational; (d) Reporting on some special 
 part of the subject by certain pupils; (e) Reciprocal. 
 
 Ref.: Baldwin, 341. 
 
 The Written Method may be: (a) By question and answer; 
 (b) Topical; (c) By outline. 
 
 The Oral Question and Answer Method may be: (a) Socratic; 
 (b) For the purpose of testing how much of the lesson has 
 been learned. 
 
 The Socratic Method of Questioning: (a) Why so named; 
 (b) Purpose; (c) Illustrations; (d) Advantages; (e) Caution. 
 
 Both kinds of questioning should be employed in nearly every 
 recitation. 
 
 Ref.: McLellan, 204. 
 Coombs, 51. 
 Greenwood, 49-61. 
 Tate, 311. 
 Wickersham, 184. 
 Raub, 115. 
 
 4 
 
 The Objects of Questioning are: "(a) To discuss knowledge; 
 (b) To test the retention of knowledge; (c) To fix knowledge; 
 (d) To bring out the important details of the subject; (e) To 
 
 >
 
 SCHOOL ECONOMY. 33 
 
 extend or enlarge knowledge; (/) To excite interest; (g) To 
 arouse attention; (h) To properly direct the efforts of the 
 learner; (i) To incite the pupil to think for himself; (j) To 
 lead the pupil to discover the truth for himself; (k) To lead 
 the pupil to observe closely; (I) To excite ambition; (m) To 
 train the pupil to analyze and synthesize." 
 
 Ref.: Coombs, 53. 
 
 McLellan, 187. 
 Raub, 122. 
 Greenwood, 71. 
 
 Principles Underlying the Art of Questioning: " 1. Questions 
 must be adapted to the capacity of the pupils; 2. Questions 
 should follow each other in logical order;" this will be true only 
 when the questioner has a direct object in view; 3. Questions 
 should be framed carefully and correctly. 
 
 "As to form, questions should be: 1. Concise; 2. Adapted to 
 the subject, and in general should be one of the following: 
 (a) What is this or that? (6) How is this or that? (c) Why 
 is this or that thus or so? (d) Whence is this or that? Adapt- 
 ability of each form to the different ages of pupils." 
 
 Ref.: Baldwin, 347. 
 McLellan, 245. 
 Raub, 127. 
 Wickersham, 190. 
 
 Cautions in Questioning: "1. Avoid questions that include 
 too much; 2. Avoid pointless and silly questions; 3. Avoid 
 questions that are made to show your own learning; 4. Avoid 
 questions that may be answered by yes or no; 5. Avoid ques- 
 tions that will suggest the answer; 6. Avoid haphazard ques- 
 tions; 7. Avoid questions of the alternative form; 8. Do not 
 repeat questions." 
 
 Manner of rutting Questions: If you are testing, give the 
 question in a general way before calling on any one to recite. 
 Hold every pupil for an understanding of the question, but 
 call on some particular one to recite. Call on pupils promis- 
 cuously. To make sure that pupils are called on an equal 
 number of times, if you wish this, adopt one of the following 
 plans: (a) Cards; (b) Chart of class; (c) Use of record cards. 
 3 — SE
 
 34 SCHOOL ECONOMY. 
 
 Sometimes put all of the questions to a single pupil; some- 
 times call on a second pupil to go on with a recitation, if this 
 can be done. Do not put questions after calling on a pupil. 
 Do not call on pupils in an alphabetical order. Do not call on 
 them in the order in which they are seated. Frequently call 
 up the inattentive to answer. Give slow pupils time to think. 
 When you make an explanation, to see that your pupils under- 
 stand it, call on some one to repeat it. 
 
 Ref.: Raub, 128. 
 
 Wickersham, 196. 
 Coombs, 55. 
 
 Matter and Form of Answers: Answers should be: (a) To the 
 point; (b) Clear; (c) Concise; (d) Comprehensive; (e) Given 
 understanding^ ; (/) Correct; (g) Given in proper tones of 
 voice. 
 
 Ref.: McLellan, 251. 
 Baldwin, 350. 
 
 Pupils should: 1. Sit erect in the class; 2. Stand while recit- 
 ing; 3. Answer in their own words; 4. Answer in complete 
 sentences; 5. Never prompt; 6. Speak clearly and distinctly. 
 7. They may raise their hands at the proper time, which may 
 be: (a) When they can answer a question which cannot be 
 answered by the one reciting; (b) When they disagree with the 
 answer given; (c) When they wish to criticise; (d) When they 
 wish to ask a question. 
 
 Ref.: Coombs, 47. 
 
 Raub, 128-133. 
 Wickersham, 198-200. 
 
 Qualifications of the Questioner: "1. Thorough knowledge; 
 
 2. Thorough preparation for the lessons of the day; 3. Analytic 
 power; 4. Knowledge of the mind; 5. Practice in questioning; 
 6. Personal endowment." 
 
 Ref.: McLeilan, 240. 
 
 Special Directions to Teachers in the Recitation: 1. Methods 
 of seating classes during recitations; 2. Go over difficult lessons 
 with pupils before requiring knowledge of the work from them; 
 
 3. Make lessons short; 4. Face every pupil who is in the reci-
 
 SCHOOL ECONOMY. 35 
 
 tation class; 5. Use your eyes; 6. Use the conversational tone 
 of voice; 7. Sit and stand erect; 8. Keep a pleasant counte- 
 nance; 9. Have something interesting to say to the class; 10. 
 Hold the attention of the class (see "Attention, and How to 
 Secure It"); 11. Do not repeat questions; 12. Do not repeat 
 answers; 13. Encourage pupils to ask questions; 14. Train 
 pupils to use good English, but do not always interrupt to cor- 
 rect them; 15. Call on dull pupils often, so as to make them 
 think; 16. Study ''apperception" and its application in the 
 recitation; 17. Hold each pupil responsible for each answer; 
 18. Except in special cases, require the pupil to recite in his 
 own language; 19. Never do for pupils what can be done by 
 themselves; 20. Train pupils to be honest, independent, and 
 thorough; 21. The pupils, not the teacher, should do the work; 
 22. Manage, if possible, to reach each pupil individually dur- 
 ing each recitation; 23. Oral and written exercises should 
 occupy about equal time; 24. In written recitations, require 
 neatness — accept no slovenly written paper; 25. Study each 
 pupil, and try to adapt your questions and the work assigned 
 to individual needs; 26. Do not scold a pupil for not reciting 
 well — see what the trouble is and seek to remedy it; 27. Put 
 life into every recitation — the hearts of both teacher and pupils 
 must be in the work to accomplish right results. 
 
 Read: Baldwin, 193. 
 Raub, 134. 
 Greenwood, 74. 
 
 THE CLERICAL WORK OF THE TEACHER. 
 
 1. Reports to the County Superintendent. 
 
 2. Keeping the school register. 
 
 3. Reports to parents. 
 
 4. Keeping record of standing of pupils. 
 
 (See the outline of the teacher's duties in the School Regis- 
 ter, and the topic, "Marking and Testing Pupils," in this 
 pamphlet.)
 
 36 SCHOOL ECONOMY. 
 
 MARKING AND TESTING PUPILS. 
 
 MARKING. 
 
 Different systems of marking: 1. Per cent method; 2. Use 
 of letters; 3. Use of words; 4. Recording opinion of advance- 
 ment at stated intervals. 
 
 Advantages and disadvantages of each. 
 
 Frequency of marking. 
 
 Marking should be based on: 1. Effort; 2. Originality; 3. 
 Attainment. 
 
 Ref.: Baldwin, 363. 
 
 Use of Report Cards: Advantage and disadvantage of their 
 use. How to use them. Forms of report cards. 
 
 EXAMINATIONS. 
 
 Arguments for and against. 
 
 Methods of examination, oral and written: 1. By questions; 
 2. Topical; 3. By paper on some division of a subject. Dis- 
 cussion of each. 
 
 Daily tests — character and length. (See " Recitation.") 
 
 Monthly tests — character and length. 
 
 Term tests — character and length. 
 
 Yearly tests — character and length. 
 
 SCHOOL HYGIENE. 
 
 Importance of a knowledge of school hygiene. 
 
 General ignorance of the teacher in regard to this subject. 
 
 The following points should he carefully considered and 
 attended to: 1. Proper lighting of the school-room; 2. Heat- 
 ing; 3. Ventilation; 4. Condition of the floors and walls; 5. 
 Position of pupils while studying; 6. Proper and systematic 
 exercise — calisthenics; 7. Play. 
 
 Discussion of each topic. 
 
 Ref.: Raub, 27. 
 
 The pupils should be instructed on the following: 1. Clean- 
 liness of person; 2. Cleanliness of clothing; 3. Correction of
 
 SCHOOL ECONOMY. 37 
 
 obnoxious and unhealthful personal habits; 4. The proper 
 supply of food; 5. The proper kind and amount of clothing; 
 6. The need of plenty of sleep; 7. The importance of having a 
 cheerful disposition. 
 
 ATTENTION. 
 
 Much has been written on Attention by psychologists and 
 those interested in education. Its importance is understood by 
 all teachers. On it all intellectual growth is founded, and 
 young teachers need some specific directions to aid them in 
 holding the attention of pupils. It has, therefore, been thought 
 wise to give a few rules, many of them culled from eminent 
 writers on the science of pedagogy. 
 
 The Moral Consequences of Defective Attention: " It is not only 
 in study, in intellectual labor, that attention is profitable. The 
 conduct of life and the virtues of character have no less need of 
 it than excellencies of intelligence have. Defective attention in 
 practical life is the synonym of thoughtlessness and heedless- 
 ness. To be habitually attentive is not only the best means of 
 learning and progressing in the sciences, and the most effective 
 prayer which we can address to the truth in order that it may 
 bestow itself upon us, but it is also one of the most precious 
 means of moral perfection, the surest means of shunning mis- 
 takes and faults, and one of the most necessary elements of 
 virtue." (Compayre.) 
 
 Conditions Favorable to Securing Attention: I. Physical: 1. 
 The pupil must be healthy bodily and his hearing and sight 
 must be normal. "Good blood, abundant sleep, and a sound, 
 well-nourished brain are particularly required by those who 
 wish to be able to 'attend' to their work, whatever it may be." 
 
 2. The room must be properly lighted, heated, and ventilated; 
 
 3. The pupil must have a comfortable seat or stand in a proper 
 position. 
 
 II. Mental: 1. The attention must not be called away from 
 the matter in hand by other attractions or disturbances. The 
 pupil is not generally inattentive, but is giving his attention to 
 something else besides the lesson. Examples. 2. "The mind 
 must not be disturbed by emotions that fill consciousness to the 
 exclusion of the topic under discussion. Whatever occasions 
 strong emotions of pleasure or pain claims attention."
 
 38 SCHOOL ECONOMY. 
 
 Difficulties in the Way of Securing Attention from Certain 
 Pupils: " The boy of feeble intellect is inattentive because of 
 incapacity. 
 
 "The sluggish, lazy boy is inattentive from a want of men- 
 tal activity. 
 
 " The timid boy is inattentive for want of sufficient confi- 
 dence in his mental powers. 
 
 " The boy of genius is inattentive, in the ordinary accepta- 
 tion of the word; to a common observer he appears dull, but 
 it is the dullness of inward thoughts." (Tate.) 
 
 Rules for Gaining and Keeping Attention: "The attention 
 can be most easily secured at the beginning of a recitation. 
 This the teacher should know how to retain till the class is 
 dismissed." The following rules and directions may be of aid: 
 
 Comenius claimed that a teacher could hold the attention 
 of a large class: 1. By always bringing before his pupils some- 
 thing pleasing and profitable; 2. By introducing the subject of 
 instruction in such a way as to commend it to them, or by 
 stirring their intelligences into activity by inciting questions 
 regarding it; 3. By standing in a place elevated above the 
 class, and requiring all eyes to be fixed on him; 4. By aiding 
 attention through representations of everything to the senses, 
 as far as possible; 5. By interrupting his instruction by fre- 
 quent and pertinent questions — for example, " What have I 
 just said?" 6. If the boy who has been asked a question should 
 fail to answer, by leaping to the second, third, tenth, thirtieth, 
 and asking the answer without repeating the question; 7. By 
 occasionally demanding an answer from any one in the whole 
 class, and thus stirring up rivalry; 8. By giving an oppor- 
 tunity to any one to ask questions when the lesson is finished. 
 
 From Baker's Psychology: "The degree of attention varies 
 with the intensity of stimulus." " Variety and novelty excite 
 attention." "Attention is more likely to be aroused if the 
 object accords with one's tastes and tendencies.'' 
 
 From Baldwin's Psychology Applied to Teaching: "1. Bring 
 before the class things interesting and profitable; 2. So present 
 the subject as to awaken and sustain interest; 3. Suffer not the 
 eye to wander; 4. Ask appropriate questions; 5. Hold each 
 member of the class responsible; 6. Train members of the 
 class to ask questions; 7. Favor attention by good manage-
 
 SCHOOL ECONOMY. 39 
 
 ment; 8. Win attention by good elocution; 9. Hold attention 
 by keeping it moving; 10. Stimulate attention by success; 11. 
 Inspire attention by pointing the way to success." 
 
 From Hewett's Pedagogy: "Attention must accompany every 
 successful mental effort. There are two ways in which the 
 man may be led to give attention: one is by attracting it, so 
 that he attends without effort; the other, by inducing him to 
 attend through sheer force of will power. The attention of the 
 child can be gained in the first way only — it can be attracted 
 and held for a short time only; but his will is not strong 
 enough to enable him to attend against his inclination, nor 
 after he has become weary. And yet he must attend if he is 
 to do anything to any purpose. Nor can his attention be 
 secured by frequent calls for attention, nor even by authority. 
 It must be attracted at first, and its object must be changed 
 frequently. It is a gradual process, by which he gets the power 
 to command attention, and this power must be gained by a judi- 
 cious course of training. To secure this training, let the teacher 
 make no statement to the child, make no explanation, lay no 
 command, etc., until he knows in his own mind, with perfect 
 clearness, what he means to say; then let him say it slowly, 
 clearly, in a few words, and say it but once. Then let him 
 insist rigidly that what is thus given shall be remembered and 
 observed. Let the teacher form the habit of never speaking to 
 his school, his class, or to a single pupil, until he has complete 
 attention, and let him stop speaking the instant attention 
 wanders. In this way everything that is done in school will be 
 an exercise in training the attention : but, occasionally, special 
 exercises for this purpose alone may be introduced. Let the 
 teacher recite a sentence, to be repeated exactly; let him give 
 directions for certain movements to be made, and then require 
 an exact performance, etc. By such processes, and others that 
 a thoughtful and ingenious teacher will discover, the child is 
 trained until his attention will obey his will promptly, fully, 
 and successfully. When this is done, he is on the high road to 
 the attainment of both knowledge and power." 
 
 Apply the laws of apperception in your teaching if you wish 
 to keep attention. 
 
 Have your own mind on the recitation yourself and not par- 
 tially on some other matter, if you wish to keep the attention 
 of the class.
 
 40 SCHOOL ECONOMY. 
 
 See that you have a quiet school when quiet is necessary, and 
 speak in a quiet, firm tone of voice if you wish to hold atten- 
 tion. The noisy teacher fails in this. 
 
 Do not go on with the lesson unless you have the attention 
 of the whole class. When you are speaking to a class or to the 
 school, stop instantly when any are inattentive, and wait till 
 all attend. 
 
 The teacher who continually calls " attention " will be sure 
 not to get it. Tapping the bell, rapping on the desk, or snap- 
 ping the fingers is a good way not to gain attention. 
 
 Give careful thought to the seating of the class during 
 recitation. 
 
 "A TEACHER'S KIT." 
 
 The teacher usually goes empty handed from one school to 
 another. 
 
 What the members of other professions need to have to be 
 successful. What mechanics need to carry on their work. 
 
 The teacher should have for his own personal use and for the 
 use of pupils in the school-room: 1. A pedagogical library; 
 2. A microscope; 3. A typewriter; 4. A mimeograph, or some 
 other means of making many copies of a paper; 5. Scrap- 
 books; 6. Charts made by himself; 7. Pictures to hang in the 
 school-room; 8. Chart for testing eyesight; 9. Stencil maps. 
 
 BLACKBOARDS. 
 
 1. Their extent; 2. Their care; 3. Their use; 4. Swinging 
 blackboards. 
 
 What to do in case there are not enough blackboards. 
 
 Ref.: Baldwin, 474. 
 
 Recipes for Slating: 1. "Take equal parts of lampblack and 
 flour of emery, and thin with a mixture of equal parts of 
 benzine and Japan varnish. Apply two coats to any smooth 
 plastered or board wall." 
 
 2. Mix 1 gallon alcohol; 1| lbs. shellac, cut in alcohol; 1-jlbs. 
 pulverized rotten stone; \ lb. best lampblack. 
 
 3. Prepared slating. 
 
 Importance of sandpapering in making a smooth board. 
 
 Erasers: How to make them, if they cannot be purchased.
 
 SCHOOL ECONOMY. 41 
 
 SIMPLE AIDS COLLECTED OR PREPARED BY THE TEACHER. 
 
 The reporter, for recording absence, tardiness, or deportment. 
 
 Pen and pencil racks. 
 
 Dictionary holder. 
 
 Shelves for holding written papers. 
 
 " All should be fish that conies to the net of the teacher." 
 
 What use to make of figures from old calendars and 
 pamphlets. 
 
 Scraps of colored worsted and goods. 
 
 Illustrations from catalogues and on cards. 
 
 Short stories mounted on cards for sight-reading. 
 
 Examples in Arithmetic, prepared at intervals, and mounted 
 on cards. 
 
 Railroad time-tables, for use in Geography work. 
 
 Catalogues from school-book publishers, for use in the study 
 of Literature. 
 
 Material from kindergarten stores. 
 
 • 
 
 THE SCHOOL MUSEUM. 
 
 Its use and value in the school. 
 How to make a collection. 
 What to include in the collection. 
 Where to store the collection. 
 
 THE LIBRARY. 
 
 Generosity of the State in regard to library fund. 
 
 The misuse of the fund in most schools. 
 
 Proper use of the money so appropriated. 
 
 How to make the best use of the library. 
 
 How to have pupils aid in forming a good loan library. 
 
 Care of the library. 
 
 GENERAL AIDS TO SCHOOL WORK. 
 
 CHARTS FOR SCHOOL USE. 
 
 What charts should be purchased by the Trustees. 
 How the teacher may make charts. 
 What charts should be made by the teacher. 
 4 — SE
 
 42 SCHOOL ECONOMY. 
 
 SCRAP-BOOKS. 
 
 The important part a scrap-book may be made to play in 
 most schools. Its use and abuse. How to get material. 
 
 Care in the selection of material. 
 
 Classification of material. Selections may be made on the 
 following general topics: Geography; History; Literature; 
 Civil Government; Commercial Facts; Industrial Facts; 
 Science; Biography. As many sub-topics may be made as 
 seems best. 
 
 How to make the book. 
 
 Committees from pupils appointed to take charge of the 
 work under different topics. 
 
 Insist on care and neatness in the preparation. 
 
 BEAUTIFYING THE SCHOOL-ROOM. 
 
 Bareness of most school-rooms. 
 
 Comparison with rooms at home. 
 
 Why school-rooms should be made beautiful. 
 
 ^Esthetic culture lost sight of by most teachers. What the 
 teacher may do in this line. 
 
 How to get pictures and decorations: 1. By entertainments; 
 2. By gifts from patrons; 3. By gifts from graduating classes; 
 4. By loans. 
 
 Inexpensive pictures and decorations. 
 
 BEAUTIFYING SCHOOL-GROUNDS. 
 
 Condition of grounds surrounding most California schools. 
 They should be fenced. 
 
 They should have shade trees and shrubbery. 
 They should have nicely kept walks. 
 They should be kept clean. 
 The teacher's duty in regard to the grounds. 
 What he may usually induce the Trustees to do in the way 
 of improving the grounds. 
 
 What he and his pupils may do. 
 Arbor day.
 
 NOTES.
 
 NOTES.
 
 NOTES.
 
 NOTES.
 
 NOTES.
 
 NOTES.
 
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