DU CATION 
 
 J. LIBERTY TADD 
 
 ART 
 
 AL MANUALTRAINING 
 NATURE STUDY 
 
 BE YE TRANSFORMED BY THE RENEWING OF THE
 
 THE LIBRARY 
 
 OF 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY 
 
 OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 SANTA BARBARA 
 
 COLLEGE 
 
 PRESENTED BY 
 
 William E. RoLerts
 
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 The Natural Rlucation Series 
 
 NEW METHODS in 
 EDUCATION 
 
 Art 
 
 Real Manual Training 
 
 Nature Study 
 
 Explaining processes whereby hand, eye and mind are educated by 
 means that conserve vitality and develop a union of thought 
 and action 
 
 By J. LIBERTY _TADD 
 
 I'lrr-lor -f tL< l-uTll: -^ h^. l..f lo.lujtrl*! \U 
 i}t uiaoiul trklnlnc Id tbr Kumfto C«lh..tl. l.lf h mKmI 
 Aad of .TTml bUtit Mbooli, all >l I'LtUdrlfLU. !>» 
 Mnnt^r '.rihr Art rliit>. rtkrtrh rtub kn<l E'liioal lookl club 
 AnJ of Iba AcmJcb; of .N«tur»l ScUncv*. l>tilU4«l|>LU 
 
 With a Wealth of Illustration 
 
 OK.WOK JUDD COMPANY 
 
 Itpbtf B«Id, Mam >'• lofh..*! X CUag«k lU 
 
 LONDON 
 
 SAMi-boN X^jw, Mah!>ton & Co 
 1899
 
 Entered according- to the act of 
 Congress, in the year 1S9S, by 
 Orange Judd Company, in the 
 office of the Librarian of Con- 
 gress, at Washington. 
 
 Registered at Stationers' Hall, 
 London^ Kngland. 
 
 Iv
 
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 SANTA BAKBaka Coi.i^ 
 
 63043 
 
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 To the. . . 
 
 Cc4USE OF TRUE EDUCATION 
 
 including 
 
 PARENTS — who are so vitally concerned 
 in the health, training and development 
 of their children 
 
 SUPERVISORS AND TEACHERS— 
 who do the work of instruction 
 
 SUPERINTENDENTS, COMMITTEES 
 AND TRUSTEES — the men and 
 women of affairs who direct the school 
 system 
 
 This 'work is dedicated
 
 TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 'BOOK ONE—^trst Principles 
 
 Chap. 1( IXTRODCCTIOX. 
 
 Esthetic training necessary in education. The first tools. 
 The methods advocati-d. Rotation of liranches of work, flakes the 
 hand skillful. Influeiici' of beauty. Jloral training, its value. How 
 to get mural culture. Trade teacliing only not beneficial. Discover 
 capacity, tlien educate it. First experiments. Fundamental meth- 
 ods. Educators, scientists, doctors and jiarc^nt.s express liearty good 
 will. ■ 3-10 
 
 Cliap. 2. Development ok Bent m; Dispositiux. 
 
 I ajiaeity for hand skill. Lack of liaiid skill one cause of pov- 
 erty. Importance of finding out the " bent " of tlie young. Skill- 
 fulness beneficial and a means of mental expansion. Ueal manual 
 training a means f>f finding out ca))a<-ily. Xeccssily of an energetic 
 <lisposition. Inspiration by pi'rformamx' of deeds. 11-15 
 
 C'linp. ii. Import.^nte oe Coxt.\< r \vi i ii Tni\(i< Ixstkad <ik 
 
 THE SVMIIOI.S (IK TllIN(iS. 
 
 Imjiortance of various .sense impressions. Importance of get- 
 ting idi-as first. Thought fabric built by variety of expression. 
 Assimilate facts not words only. Ki'pi'tition and the force of habit. 
 Vital union of heail, hanil, heart. Various .sense impressions organ- 
 ized into concrete ideas. Drawing a mode of thought expression. 
 Book-bred pi'ople inilisposcd to action. Importance of visual mem- 
 ory. Too much reading divorces ideas from action. Words studied 
 at the exiM'iise of iili-a.s. All chanm-ls fcu' im)iroving the mind to be 
 used. Automatic obedience of the hand. KIght manual training 
 will give a love nf nature. lil-'J3 
 
 C'liap. 4. DisTixriiox r.iTWKKx Tin; Tun: ash rAi,>.i; in 
 
 -MaMAI. Tl!AlM\(i. 
 
 DilVcrent kinds nf manual training. Methods that previ'iit real 
 manual training, .stupid claims for sloyd. I'tilitarian iilca over- 
 done. .S|(iyil s<deeted for criticism, ."^loyil not real manual training. 
 Automatic dexterity desired, ."^ome exercisi's consume energy ami 
 in'<|>iratiou. I'roiM-r ^^(lod-working operations. Manual training a 
 moile of thought expri-ssion. Ideas the basis of originality. .Art in 
 handicraft very rare. Krai manual training belter than api>rentice- 
 ship. Mi-clianiral training not hand training. Hand skill should 
 precede traile training. What are drawing and manual training? 
 Objections on account of cost. Ease of a|>plicalion to large num- 
 bers. Cost of elaborali- plants should br s|ieiit on teachers, 21-14
 
 VIII 
 
 Table of Contents. 
 
 Chap. o. Lack of Traintno ix Drawing — Its Xecessity. 
 
 Luck of real power of drawing. Lack of art training in com- 
 mon school. Fal.se .systems formulated l)y publishing firms. Sew- 
 ing and cooking not real manual training. Xecessity of .systematic 
 training of the sen.ses. Drawing trains the perceptive faculties. 
 Hand skill makes intelligence. Lisulficiency of old method. Teach- 
 ers must be able to draw. Supervisors should be able to draw. 
 Misuse of type forms. Foolish statements by so-called teachers. 
 Absurdities of commercial systems. Artificial forms, stained paper-s, 
 etc., usele.ss. The art part vital. Art and manual training teach- 
 ers should be e.\amined. Drill essential in the elementary stages. 3546 
 
 Chap. O. Right and Left Hand Wohk, A>rnir>EXTi!oi:s AVork. 
 
 Systematic influence. Reasons for ambidextrous work. Not 
 unreasonable mind building. Abstract work wrong. Old methods 
 of education neglect both hands. 47-51 
 
 Chap. 7. Drawing CoRRKi.ATFn with Other Stitdies. 
 
 Correlate the drawing with other school work. Bad use of art 
 work in schools. Compels love of nature. The beginning of wis- 
 dom. Knowledge of tilings of first importance in education. Good 
 pictures improve taste. Futility of present methods. Drawing a 
 mode of thought expression. Meissonier. Growtli of ideas. Ideas 
 must be locked into the mind. 52-57 
 
 Chap. 8. Xatiue Sti'dies — Right ^Iethods. 
 
 Looking at tilings not enough. Familiarity not knowledge. 
 Impressions must be repeated systematically. Let study have perma- 
 nent results. We must appreciate the beauty of nature. Permanent 
 organic impressions must be made. Effect on health of improper 
 methods. Beauty and inystery of common, things. Divine energy 
 in matter. Improved methods of study needed. Universal use of 
 new modes of expression. 58-64 
 
 BOOK TWO 'Manual-Training Drawing 
 
 Chap. 1. Considerations in M.\nu.\l Tr.\ining Dk.\wing. 
 
 The two kinds of drawing. Paper. Pencils. 65-74 
 
 Chap. 2. Elfment.^hy Drill Forms. 
 
 To get automatic facility. The first exercise is the circle. 
 Straight lines. 'J'he double loo]i. -Application of the loop. Reason 
 for these movements. The spiral. ^lodeling and carving. 75-86 
 
 Cliap. 3. Elementary I'nits. 
 
 Simple leaf forms. The natural method. Complex leaf forms. 
 These exercises are for discipline. Conventional forms. Units of 
 design based on the spiral. The crocket. On tli e elements of 
 design. Comliinations of units. Leading lines. 87-100 
 
 Chap. 4. CoMHiNATioNS OF Units and Styles. 
 
 The antlieinion. Combinations of the anthemion. Complex 
 leaf forms. Bud forms. .Vnother beautiful series of leaves. The 
 Moorish units. 101-120 
 
 Chap. 5. Drill Kok.ms and Designs. 
 
 Exercises to compel accuracy. Drill work. AVork in design. 
 Color and brusli work. Blacklioard work. Designing on black- 
 boards. 121-138
 
 Tabic of Contents. ix 
 
 Chap. O. DuAwixo kuom Likk Fukms and Mkmduv Duawi.ng. 
 
 IVrsistence reiiiiiivil. Memory (irawing. Fisli tonus. Tvpiciil 
 forms. S|H'akiiig tlirougli the finger ti]>s. Iiii|M>rlaiice of .simplicity. 
 A warning. \'ariety in forms. Kisli forms in design. General 
 remarks. 1:59-1.")4 
 
 Chap. 7. DicAwiMi 1 i:o,\i X.\iri;K and ki;".m Mi.miii;v. 
 
 Ulackboard work. lUrd forms. Color in birds. Botanical 
 forms. 15o-lC8 
 
 Chap. H. C'o.NVKNTIDXAI. AMI SyMIUU.H l-'lHtMS. 
 
 Doliiliins make lieaiitiful forms. (irittins. The l>ird form. 
 Drawing from olijcits. Symliolism. Plaster models. Architec- 
 tural models. 109-184 
 
 BOOK THREE-Modeling 
 
 Chap. 1. I.NTitoDriTiK.N. I'l.A.N r, Krc. 
 
 Only one way to know form. The plant required. A good 
 box for the clay. " 185-192 
 
 Chap. 2. Kl.F.MEXTAKY CofltSF.S IX .MoOKI.IXC;. 
 
 .Manipulation of clay. The spiral. Leaf forms. Circular 
 forms. Hints to the teacher. Klementary forms. Animal forms. 
 Other animal forms. Ve»,sel forms. 193-208 
 
 Chap. JJ. MonKLixr. Fhiit axi> Vk<;kta»i.k Fohms. 
 
 The a|>pli'. The ]iear. Hints to teachers. Thehainimi. Fruit 
 tile. Make a composition. Vegetable fonns. The tomato. The 
 turnip. 209-220 
 
 Chap. 4. MiiDELixii (iKoMKTiuc Forms. 
 
 The .s]ihere. The cube. The cylinder. The square prism. 
 The cone. " 221-228 
 
 Chap. .'>. Mcii>Ki.iX(! Koii Grammar (Jradks. 
 
 I'ay jiarticular attention to fine curves. Build solid tile for 
 scrolls. The rosette form. Position of tools. The leaf units. The 
 Moresque form. The scroll ami crocket. Combination of scrolls 
 and leartets. The anthemion. The curved leaf. Simple shell 
 forms. 229-240 
 
 Chap. O. .MmiKi.ixi; .\ximai. Forms. 
 
 Snggestiiuis. Directions for modeling. Must do work to real- 
 ize its educational value. 247-250 
 
 Chap. 7. Wax Moukmnc. 
 
 Cost and care of wax. Drawing and lining in design. Hough 
 texture wood l>cst. Modeling animal forms. 257-200 
 
 "BOOK FOUR- Wood Carving 
 
 Cha|i. 1. Tools for Wooh Carvix)!: Dksi<;x in Wood. 
 
 'I'he tools re<|uired. Age at which to learn. Tho wood to use. 
 Designing the form to carve. As to graded work. 2(il-27t> 
 
 Chap. 2. IxsTRrcTioxs for Ki.kmkxtaicv Carvixo. 
 
 How to carve. Carving the raised surface. I'ower in the hand. 
 Kncourage tlie pupil The value of carving. Use of finisheil work. 
 As a training. Finishing the carving. 271-282
 
 Table of GDntcnts. 
 
 Clmp. 3. Cauvixg thk Elf.mkxtary I'.mts of Design. 
 
 The scroll. The .simiile leaf. The spiral with crockets. The 
 antliemion. Ko.settes. Square rosettes. Fluted forms. Conven- 
 
 tionalized forms for carving. 
 
 283-290 
 
 Chap. 4. Carving ox FrRxiTriiK and Otiiku Advanced AVouk. 
 
 Carving in relief on curved surfaces. Borders and moldings. 
 Suitable forms for carving. Carving in tlie round. 291-302 
 
 'BOOK FIVE— Various Applications 
 
 Chap. 1. CoNSTKlfTIOX IN AVoODWOIJK AND MECHANICAL 
 
 Drawing. 
 
 Radical feature of this method. Machine-sliop practice has its 
 place. Large economy in equipment. Use of head work. Rotation 
 of work. Objects of instruction. Put art first. Good teacher bet- 
 ter than good tools. Jlechanical-drawing course includes -what. 
 Architecture. Blackboard work. The simpler exercises. Advanced 
 work. Woodworking course and what it includes. Tools for wood- 
 working department. Mechanical-drawing course and equipment. 
 Exercises in metal work. 305-337 
 
 Chap. 2. Correlation of Drawing with Other Studies. 
 
 Trouble with old drawing methods. Correlation of art meth- 
 ods — with language study, zoology, nature study, biology, botany, 
 elementary mineralogy, entomology, chemistry, etc. 339-357 
 
 Chap. 3. Art and Manc-vl Training in Special Schools. 
 
 Xight schools, importance of occupation, plant, materials and 
 teachers required. Vacation schools. Normal and summer schools. 359-3S3 
 
 Chap. 4. Other Uses for Art. Manual Tk.\ixing and Na- 
 ture Study. 
 
 Decorating the school room. For liackward pupils. For the 
 feeble-miiuled and insane. Reformatories and truant schools. Mis- 
 cellaneous applications. Repousse and hammered work. For par- 
 ents. 385-397 
 
 Chap. 3. Suggestions for .\rt Students. 
 
 A great field for teachers. Preparing for fine art work. Fit- 
 ting for the minor arts also. Charcoal drawing. Painting in water 
 color from casts. Life work. Summer art work. 399-417 
 
 Miscellaneous 
 
 Author's acknowledgments. Index. Lisi ot illustrations. 
 The publishers' word. 418-424
 
 Cast Drawing' ^fadc by Girl of Ten Years of Age 
 Fine work in charroal can be made by pupils in tlic schools from these models, if they have had 
 proper instruction in elemcnt:iry manual-truinin^ drawing. This drawing is very much reduced, but 
 shows free rendering and g^rasp ofinagnitudes instead of detail. 
 
 PREFACE 
 
 IT IS XOW OVER TWENTY YEARS since the author made his 
 first experiment in educational manual training and established 
 his first classes. The present methods are the results of this ex- 
 perience. Nothing was taken for granted, anil all processes had 
 to stand the test of experience and application to large numbers of 
 pupils. The first trials were made with private pupils, the author be- 
 ing employed by the late Dr. Thomas S. Kirkbride, the physician-in- 
 chicf of the Pennsylvania hosi)ital for the insane, to teach his own 
 children and some of the i)atients of the hospital. The first direction 
 and impulse to the work were inspired by his generous advice and 
 instruction 
 
 The Public School of Industrial .\rt. established at Philadelpliia in 
 1880 by Charles G. Lelan<l. of which the author was chief instructor" 
 from its inception and has been director since 1884, first gave oppor- 
 tunity for application of his methods of instruction to large numbers.
 
 xii Preface 
 
 Since then numerous institutions, public and private, liave enabled him 
 to develop a method that has proven to be founded on correct prin- 
 ciples, and is now widely acknowledged to be successful. 
 
 This book is primarily a protest against present methods of educa- 
 tion. The old education is dependent too much upon books. Books 
 are mere aids — tliey are not the original sources of education or infor- 
 mation, l)ut artificial and second-hand ones. Nature and experience 
 are the best teachers, and by immediate acquaintance with and direct 
 exercise upon the myriad forms of life we get the best training. Chil- 
 dren are told too much; they do not work out truths for themselves. 
 Reading, writing and arithmetic are made main facts instead of inci- 
 dentals of education. Some pupils become exceptionally proficient in 
 these branches at the expense of essentialities. My endeavor will be 
 to show that much scliool work shotdd and can be carried oii to better 
 advantage as regards pupils, teachers, economy and environment by 
 the method here set forth than by the ordinary system. 
 
 The love of nature is an universal instinct, and should be sedu- 
 lously cultivated. Children love nature instinctively. Nature speaks 
 as loud to-day as ever, and all should hear her voice. As Emerson 
 says, we must "bend to the persuasion which is flowing to us from 
 every object in nature, entreating us to be its tongue to the heart of 
 man." It is natural for children at certain ages, by contact with nature 
 in certain ways, to assimilate information unconsciously from the 
 actual things. Experiments with children prove conclusively that 
 these nascent periods arc well marked and should never be missed, or 
 the opportunity is gone forever. The character changes as the child 
 grows, and its disposition should be formed. 
 
 We should develop a disposition disposed to energetic action or 
 work, in response to stinuilatiug thought — a disposition that hungers 
 and thirsts for right action, according to environment. Too often mere 
 head-learning creates a wish or desire for good, without there being 
 sufficient impulse in the organism to prompt the energetic action re- 
 , quired to achieve it. For this purpose energy must be stored in the 
 organism, and conserved by a training in action and deeds, until the 
 working out of thoughts in deeds grows into a habit. To consume 
 and waste the vital energy by beginning too early with abstract tasks
 
 Preface xiii 
 
 and various forms of thouglit studies, is as needless as it is common. 
 Too often I find the mind to be enfeebled, the memory weakened, the 
 vitality abused and consumed, by studies meant to strengthen: instead 
 of methods being employed that would conserve and add to vitality, 
 at the same time that the mind, the memory, the judgment and the 
 imagination are being improved. 
 
 In common with this improvement of the mental and physical 
 being, there should be a development of the emotional being through 
 the feelings — a love of action, a training of hand and eye to obey the 
 min<l and execute its orders, that fit both head and hand, heart and 
 will, to cope with the problems of life. 
 
 Nothing gives greater dignity to man than a complete realization 
 of the power of being able to do. Xo joy is greater or more lasting 
 than that received by doing well with the complete being, — brain, eye, 
 hands, will, and judgment, — all tools, (lod-given tools, to be trained 
 and used. 
 
 Heretofore nnich of the best energy of the country has been 
 devoted to trade activities, to material welfare; but in the process of 
 evolution, of differentiation of institutions, other ideas in education 
 must prevail, and science and art be more fully considered. Material 
 purposes so far have progressed at the expense of art, and industrial 
 supremacy threatens the sacrifice of those esthetic elemeiUs that do 
 so much to make life worth living. Machinery has largely abolished 
 handicraft. The artist artisan is the rare exception, whereas he should 
 be the rule. The cause of education has been injured by a narrow 
 commercialism that sought immediate gains at the cost of permanent 
 advantage. The tendency has been to degrade labor and to exalt 
 wealth — to restrict the best development of the human organism 
 among the masses, until the world is filled with millions inca])acitated 
 for its duties, blind to its joys, wanting the hoi)efulness of self-confidt-nt 
 ability, feeble in jnirpose and unresi)onsive to spiritual inlluence. 
 
 Of late years a revolt against all this is growing among the jieoplc, 
 based on both practical and ethical grounds. The wiser folk are begin-^ ' 
 ning to realize that one object f)f education should be to (|ualify ihti 
 individual to enjoy life fully in whatever environment he may be castj 
 while at the same time developing a capacity to achieve material sue-
 
 xiv Preface 
 
 cess. Such capacity depends in part upon discovering at an early age 
 one's best bent or peculiar fitness for some special vocation, and then 
 training for this purpose not only the mind, but also the hand and the 
 eye,_indecd, the whole organism,— and forming the practical judg- 
 ment as well as the power to reason theoretically. How few ascertain 
 their bent and make the most of it is best appreciated by the millions 
 whose lives are rendered more or less unsuccessful through early lack 
 of this knowledge. The inability of book-learning alone to train the_ 
 judgment to deal with practical affairs is everywhere recognized. Its 
 failure to develop originality is also admitted, while mere book studies 
 are also deficient in training earnestness of purpose and tenacity of 
 application. 
 
 It is c(iually apparent that old methods of education too often 
 impart facts at the expense of health. Even strong children often wilt 
 in the schools, sacrificing bodily strength, mental power and vigor of 
 will to a misconception of education. For after all this effort, many 
 youths of both se.\es come out of the schools quite unfitted physically 
 for life's responsibilities, which they have subsequently to learn by 
 years of hard experience. 
 
 Largely as a result of imperfect training, or wrong methods of 
 education in youth, beauty and high quality of product are too com- 
 monly lacking in mechanical industries and in the world of literature 
 and the fine arts. Our people excel in quantity of product, but not int 
 quality. If they are to compete with the real art that characterizes so 
 much of the fine products of the old world or of the Orient, then the 
 art idea must be made more prominent in education. Art instruction 
 should be so correlated with other methods as to help in reforming the 
 educational errors alluded to. When this is ])roperly done, the rising 
 generations will reach a development in the many that has heretofore 
 been enjoyed only by the few. Our American youth will come out of 
 the early educational process sound in brain and body, strong of pur- 
 pose, positive in application, trained in the use of hand and eye, with 
 originality developed and judgment matured, possessing an al)ility 
 and a capacity to use it that will so manifest themselves in every art 
 and industry as to maintain throughout the world the supremacy of 
 American genius, effort and products. Success in these ways will be
 
 Pteh 
 
 And this means a building up of character and a recognition of man's 
 duty to humanity and to God, by which alone are to be fostered the 
 best citizenship, the largest human happiness and the fullest enjoyment 
 of the marvels of this wonderful universe in whicii we live. 
 
 Toward this high purpose the present work is a modest contribu- 
 tion. It suggests new methods of education, but only such as have 
 stood the test of many years' searching investigation and practical/ 
 experience. It aims to show by actual results that art instructionj 
 real manual training and nature study, rightly conducted and properly 
 correlated with other studies, should begin at a tender age and con4 
 tinue throughout the elementary and higher stages of education. This 
 book is not merely a technical manual of drawing and design, of 
 modeling and carving, of construction in wood and metal, or of the 
 fine arts, but is designed to demonstrate the remarkable educational 
 power of these methods when rightly used, the economy of their uni- 
 versal application, and their beneficial effect in helping to qualify the 
 individual to make the most of himself or herself. It also gives 
 an insight into the modus operandi of these methods, to the end that 
 they may be more generally ]iracticed by parents and teachers and fully 
 comprehended by school authorities and people of affairs.
 
 ^ 
 
 i 
 
 / 
 
 M 
 
 Drawing from Life 
 
 «n- T'^i'*'''^' *'"''"/''."'." !■"■ '""^ y""*^''- '■"■■'■•^ '""'='' "='•'■"■'' in size. showlnfT method of using charcoal. The un 
 Son^wo'ir^f^.'hU i ' ,'"? '^''""' r>"""^ "•"'" ''fl'in.llinKthc charcoal. Many of our students are now 
 domtr«ork of this O.aracterin various art institutions, and thev nnd that the elementary manual trainlnsr they have 
 
 Wk'hyR';i!,h^'''''''J, J'A"'^'l-'!'"ra'i,''"'°'ir- These dravyiiiKS, and also the charcoal dra^vin^s at the^ end of the 
 book hy Rembrandt and Raph.aelshoud he studied. Notice should be taken of the various modls of expression bV 
 means of lines and light and shade. Students should realize that m.any ways can be used. »f "»'"" "H 
 
 xvi
 
 AN ADDRESS 
 
 At the Graduation of the Teachers' Classes in 
 Manual Training, Public School of 
 Industrial Art. Philadelphia, June, 1894 
 By W. N. Hailmann, Ph D. ' 
 
 DTRIXG THE WORLD'S EXPOSITION AT CHICAGO, 
 one of my chief delights was the discovery of this school. As' 
 ■ lircctor and superintendent of educational work for many 
 }cars. I had long since become convinced that art represents 
 the iiiphest formulation of thoup:ht. that an education which does not 
 lead to art is at Ijest of little value and is very likely to lead to some 
 one-sidedness, which of necessity bring;? hindrance or destruction, or 
 to some form of egoistic self-conceit, which labors to hide inner insuf- 
 ficiencies under the cloak of outer pretensions or mannerisms. 
 
 This conviction was strengthened by the popular demand for 
 manual and industrial training which two decades ago came to the 
 school with irresistible force, resting firmly upon the dawning recogni- 
 tion of the imminent needs of the human mind and of the pressing 
 demands of the social organism with reference to these things. 
 
 The school anil the people whom the school is supposed to serve 
 
 •One of the best known e«lucatiun:il ;iuthorilies, of ionif and varied experience. From 1S57 to 
 1S65, he waK profesxor of natural scie^ce^, I.nuii^ville, Kv., liii;h BchooU; 1S65-7J, director German. 
 Entflish academy, I^iiiiliville, Ky. ; 1^7,^-75, director Cverman-Kni^MKh academy, Milwaukee, Wii»., 
 which l>ecanie ihrnugh hit efforts the (ierinan-.Xineriran teachers* ^cminarv, the direction of which he 
 declined. From 1S75 10 iSS_( he conducted (jointly with Mrs. Hailmann) a Iraininif ^chool for kinder, 
 (fartners, at Milwaukee until 1S7S, anti at Detroit from '7SA_;. From l^Sl^j^, Dr. Hailmann waft su|K-r 
 intcndent of achfiols at I^apiirtc, Ind.; |S<>|.,>'^, national Kuperintendent of Indian Kchool-, 
 WafrhioKton, D. C. ; at preiMrnt, nuperintendent of puMic inktruclion, I>aytt>n, O. Amontc hiii hookn 
 and wrilinifH are the following : 1866, A System of <*hjectivc Teachinic; 1S70, Hlfttory of Peda|{0|fy; 
 187J, Kinderijarten Culture for Home and School; 1W5, Application of l*ftycholo);y to I'eachinjf, 
 (prize chsay, -Vmerican institute r>f in<,truclinn) ; 1SS7, Primar\' Mcthodii; iSyj, Fmeherw Kducaliim 
 of Man, International *erie». Fr»»m |S70-S_| he wa« editor [" Krzichun|f»blaetler", a tfcrmau 
 educational journal; 1^77.^3, editor New Education anil Kinderffurten Meftitenicer; 1SS3-.H5, ai^Kociato 
 editor Primary Teacher. A number of report* ami paper* In National Council of Education, and 
 National Kilur.itiniial Avvi,, i.il i..n. 
 
 XVll
 
 xviii An Address 
 
 had come to recognize with growing clearness the facts that an educa- 
 tion which merely fills the memory with traditional formulas and 
 conventionalities is doing but a small share of its allotted work, that 
 thought does not end in itself, that volition is a phase of intelligence, 
 that action is the outward assertion of insight, that without the hand 
 man is powerless and must sink back into a hopeless pessimism which 
 tends to animality, that in art man formulates his most delicate and 
 far-reaching abstractions. They had come to recognize the fact that 
 man is truly educated only in the measure in which he has learned to 
 place himself, in his thought and feelings, into deliberate, active, 
 helpful relation with the life of some group of mankind in all its 
 struggles and strivings, in its joys and sorrows, in its conquests and 
 achievements. 
 
 A mental act is incomplete unless through its feelings and 
 thinkings and willings it reaches the corresponding deed. The hand is 
 the projected brain, through which the directing thought achieves the 
 heart purposes of man. The hand mediates inwardly and outwardly 
 between man and his environment, makes him and his environment 
 one, stimulates and establishes thought, awakens brotherly love and 
 realizes the aspirations of brotherly love. 
 
 The recognition of these facts made the traditional school appear 
 very inadequate to its purpose; and efforts, wise and otherwise, were 
 made by conscientious and thoughtful persons to remedy the defect. 
 Alanual and industrial training and art instruction became the order 
 of the day, and indeed every effort in this direction deserves even 
 to-day grateful acknowledgment, in so far as it meant to serve the 
 new light and was not undertaken by commercial adventurers with a 
 view of exploiting a new demand. 
 
 A serious error, however, was made in the introduction of 
 manual training and art-work as new subjects of instruction in 
 addition to those already in vogue. In doing this the school rather 
 emphasized the divorce between the head and the hand. Instead of 
 relieving the existing intellectual one-sidedness, it added a new manual 
 one-sidedncss, thus doubling the wrong. 
 
 To this was added another error. The new subjects of manual 
 f\ and art training were taught in the same traditional methods current
 
 An Address xbt 
 
 with other subjects of instruction. The aim was less to stimulate pur- 
 pose on the pupil's part and to secure to him the inspiring experience 
 which the achievement of spontaneous purpose brings, but rather to 
 transmit to him a certain imitativi' cmitrol of j)uri)osc'; and achieve- 
 ments of the past. 
 
 Thus, while it gave the learner certain conventional phases of | 
 manual skill and placed him in possession of certain so-called rules of 
 art, it failed to open in his soul and to subject to his conscious control 
 the fountains that keep fresh the fervors of exploration and invention. 
 of productive and creative imagination. Thus, it happened tliat in 
 many instances manual and art training fell into disrepute, and that 
 they were derided as failures even by educators whom the peojile had 
 learned justly to esteem as among the most thoughtful. 
 
 Had those who introduced the new work been familiar with Froe- 
 bel's educational prophecy, the result would have been different. This 
 educational genius, whose value is just beginning to be recognizeil, 
 had indicated the true way clearly enough. In order to render educa- 
 tion a true preparation for harmonious full-life and in order co secure 
 to the hand and to art tluir legitimate share in this, shielding man 
 equally against over-credulous optimisms and nihilistic pessimisms, 
 he would introduce manual and art training not as new subjects of / 
 instruction, would not add to the already excessive burden of the 
 school, but make this burden light by assigning to the hand and to art 
 their ])ro])cr ])lace in each subject, transforming th.ii which was a( 
 burden into a self-sustaining, self-stimulating work, changing it from 
 a mechanical dead-weight into natural sustenance of the growing or4 / 
 ganism in which manual activity is a normal concomitant of life and 
 art the normal choicest blossom ancl fruit. i 
 
 In my own uninstructed and halting fashion, I had labored for a 
 number of years towards this aim. You may, therefore, understand 
 the joy that came to me when at Chicago I caught the first glimpse of 
 the work of this school. 1 had ])assed from school to school; every- 
 where I had found the same stereotyped conventionalism, everywhere! 
 the same unreasoning endeavor to subjectart (which is intensest and' 
 freest life) to arbitrary formalisms, everywhere the pupil's gaze turned' 
 to so-called rules and legitimacies, instead of searching out the laws
 
 XX An Address 
 
 tliat live in his own soul, everywhere the same ruthless efforts to tie 
 the pupil's hand with arbitrary mannerisms, instead of liberating con- 
 ditions that might enable his ideas and ideals to live themselves forth 
 upon some recording surface or into some plastic material. From 
 booth to booth I had gone and had seen the walls plastered over with 
 weak imitations of the thoughts or no-thoughts of some system-maker 
 ,i until my soul grew sick with the musty odors of darkness and decay, 
 iwhen at last the display of the work of this school burst upon my 
 j weariness. 
 
 It came to me as a reproach and a prophecy, — a reproach for my 
 despondency, a prophecy of a new eureka. Here there was not a stroke 
 of work that did not embody a complete thought clearly elaborated in 
 the learner's mind. Every achievement rested upon the pupil's) 
 personal experience and seemed consciously related to some sponta-jj 
 neous purpose that had had its birth and growth in the pupil's heart.; ■ 
 In the light of their handiwork the students had explored the contents 
 of their own minds, judging at every step the value of their work 
 by criteria grown on the soil of their own experience and lifted into 
 consciousness by their own efforts. At every step I saw them intently 
 and yet without strain gaining at the same time clearer comprehension 
 of the object of their work and greater confidence in their powers of 
 accurate, lucid self-expression. And this seemed to be managed so 
 adroitly by the school, and with such clear-visioned consistencv and 
 unfailing respect for the learner's thought, that weariness of spirit and 
 the rebellious desire to be let alone, so common in the traditional 
 school, could not enter here. ' 
 
 In the ordinary school, which labors to force all minds into the 
 same arbitrary molds of traditional mediocrity, the teacher is forever 
 dictating, directing, holding up effete patterns, and obsolete ideals that 
 have no vital meaning in the life of the child, forever reinforcing his 
 efforts with books and charts, systems and formulas, recipes and 
 dogmas, never affording the learner an opportunity to become 
 accjuainted with himself and to gain the conviction that there is within 
 him a life teeming with possibilities far beyond the reminiscences of 
 past and the incongruities of foreign achievements. 
 
 In this school as I saw it at the exposition this was not the case.
 
 An Address xxi 
 
 I Here the pupil seemed to lead. He fairly felt himself growing. Xew 
 revelations of his power came to him at every turn. He lived himself 
 into confidence in his own power to think and to express thought. 
 Whereas the ordinary traditional school is ever busy in dryest 
 exercises to establish detached automatisms as to how to do this and 
 how to do that, directing the child's chief attention to the mechanism 
 of himself; the automatisms of the required work were here so closely 
 tied up with the pupil's thought and purpose that they took care of 
 themselves, growing with the growth of thought and purpose, leaving 
 the child free to devote himself wholly to these most important things. 
 Elsewhere, I had seen the child weighted down with cvibes and 
 balls, witii cylinders and cones?, w ith lines straight and curved, parallel 
 and diverging, loading himself with wearisome definitions of these 
 things or investing them with an unhealthy mysticism in accordance 
 with a sadly perverted reading of I-Voebel's thought; here I found 
 practical comprehension and free control of these things, attained 
 without weariness and suppressed sorrow, a loving application of 
 Froebel's living thought; cubes and cylinders, squares and circles be- 
 coming familiar friends through the service they gave in the expression ! 
 of thought and in the achievement of purpose. Here I saw the so- ', 
 called principles of parallelism and perpendicularity, of radiation and 
 balance, of circle and involute, of perspective and shadow, discovered 
 by the children in the needs of their own souls, clearly put forth and 
 thoughtfully applied in spontaneous work, shining in the lucidity of 
 native, not of borrowed, light. Here I saw an art rooted deejily in the 
 child's own continuously growing ex])erience, vitally connected with 
 his every interest and line of study, fed by every other subject of in- 
 struction and establishing in the child's organic self the income of all 
 these subjects; an art which is capable of enhancing the utilities of 
 life by clothing them in beauty, cajiable of rendering the materialities 
 of life lucid with their recognized latent spiritualities, capable of weav- 
 ing into the now and here the life-ideals that come to us from the ])ast 
 or are brought to us from afar, not in servile imitation, but in free 
 assimilation and development. Here 1 saw the ])ri>mise of a new 
 descriptive art, stimulating observation and discovery, inviting to the
 
 xxii An Address 
 
 study of the inner reasons of outer form, revealing tlie deeper laws and 
 conditions of our environment. 
 
 Here I saw (although Mr Tadd modestly repudiates this) the 
 promise of a new creative art, shall I say of a truly national and spe- 
 cifically American art, in full accordance with the subjective needs and 
 aspirations of this new nation, free from Egyptian and Persian petri- 
 factions, from Japanese trivialities, from French frivolities and pessi- 
 misms, free from all that is extraneous and effete; an art which is not 
 meant to tickle the idle and dissolute, but to sustain the earnest, which 
 does not revel in the bizarre, but strives to reveal the unity of the true 
 and the beautiful, of joy and vigor; an art which does not drag man 
 into the bogs of self-indulgence, but lifts him to the bights of self- 
 assertion in the service of holiest ideals. 
 
 I congratulate this beautiful city on the proud distinction of being 
 the home of such a school. I congratulate the nation upon the fact — 
 significant in its coincidence — that the City of Brotherly Love, from 
 which was proclaimed our national independence, is thus generously 
 preparing to secure for us a new independence in the realms of art. 
 
 SINCE writing the above, I have had the privilege of looking over 
 advance sheets of Mr. Tadd's book. The perusal of these pages 
 has confirmed me in the high esteem in which I hold the work of 
 this gifted teacher. In this book he has liberated manual and 
 art training from the trammels of tradition and from the snares of com- 
 mercial dilettantism. He has revealed to us a manual and art training 
 that rests consistently on the fundamental immanent instincts of self- 
 activity, and that appeals at every step to the highest esthetic aspira- 
 tions of the unfolding soul; a manual training that does not allow itself 
 to become clogged with the tools and tricks of shop and trade, 
 although it touches shop and trade at every point, but in a way that 
 infuses into the plainest work the beauty and charm of an esthetic con- 
 science; an art training which, far from overwhelming the pupil's 
 yearnings for self-expression with the debris of past achievements, 
 places the elements of past success at the pupil's disposal for living
 
 An Address xziii 
 
 appreciation and for his own purposes in the artistic formulation of 
 ideas and ideals; an art training which, instead of reducing art-study 
 to a dry and burdensome recitation process, makes of it a stimulating 
 delight, touching with new power every phase of growth, every im- 
 pulse of self-expression. 
 
 Mr. Tadd's book does not bring us a new "system." It does not 
 propose to drive every student through the same grooves, leading 
 jointly, not to mediocrity, hut rather to indifference. It does not look 
 upon art as a consignment of exotics, to be painfully and tremblingly 
 transplanted in an inauspicious climate. Evidently, the author respects 
 the esthetic instincts that live in every soul, and respects, too, the indi- 
 vidual directions in wiiich these instincts seek to assert themselves; to 
 each individual pupil he would afford opportunity to gather strength 
 and insight, as well as stinnihis to rise into enthusiastic mastership. 
 Art, to him, is a hardy plant whose seeds find congenial soil in every 
 clime; beauty, to him, is an universal harmony that praises the Creator 
 in all created things; this he would teach his pupils to find in every 
 environment. 
 
 He seems to look upon art neither as a luxury nor as a new indus- 
 try. Esthetic beauty is an essential element in the usefulness of things 
 which by this element become better adapted to their purpose and 
 more enjoyable and congenial to the user. Yet in thus applying art to 
 industry, the author does not fall into the error of reducing art to the 
 level of an industry, but ever keeps distinct its divine mission to lift 
 man and humanity to a fuller appreciation of the deep harmonies of 
 inmost being and purpose that are revealed to man in the form and 
 color sympiionies of created things. 
 
 A most important feature of the book is its adaptability to every 
 condition under which children are taught, from the district school at 
 the crossing of tlie roads to the elaborate school system of an opulent 
 citv. To the district school teacher as well as to the city supervisor 
 of art and manual training, it affords suggestion and guidance. In 
 both it will stinuilate to increased activity and lift into clearer light 
 whatever of latent or developed ability they may possess. Vhv intelli- 
 gent follow ing of its teachings will, in a large measure, eniancii)ate the 
 one from the need of a special teacher, and enable the other to render
 
 XXIV 
 
 An Address 
 
 himself more and more indispcnsaljle in his wider field. To both it 
 
 will come as a helper and friend. 
 
 Thus, I trust, this book is destined to clear the way for the advent 
 
 of a truly American art which, on the one hand, will add to our indu.s- 
 
 tries a growing regard for grace and beauty, and, on the other hand, 
 
 will hasten the time when .\merica shall be freed from the bane of mere 
 
 imitation in matters of art, when she shall rejoice in an art of her own 
 
 which in architecture and sculpture, in painting and engraving, shall 
 
 symbolize and thereby crystallize the ideals and aspirations of the 
 
 American people. 
 
 W. N. IIAILAIAXX, Supt. of Instruction. 
 
 Dayton, O., October, 1898. 
 
 A Child's Pen and Ink Sketches Very Much Reduced. 
 
 Drawn from pictures by .\. de Neuvillc, made by one of the girls (illustrated in this book) at 
 eleven years of aj^e. Manyofthe pupils can do freeworkof this character, owing to the knowledge 
 they have ofreal drawing.
 
 BOOK ONE 
 
 First Principles 
 
 " In childhood and in the earliest period of cdu- 
 calinn, have more care for the htalth of the botltf 
 th;»n for the miiul, :ind for the inorai character than 
 for l!ic intellrrtunl. Let nothing base or ser>-ile, 
 vulffar or disi^.icefiil, meet the eye or a*isail thcV 
 ear of the vounjj; for from words to actions is buf 
 a step. Let their earliest and first impressions of 
 all things be the best. Let them be taught fully al^ 
 the essential elements of education and as much of ^ 
 what is useful in a merely mechanical point of view 
 as will have the effect of rendering- the body, the 
 soul, and the intellectual powers capable of arriving 
 at the highest excellence oftheir respective natures. 
 The merely useful, or absolutely necessarj*, matters 
 of education are not the only ones that dcser\*c 
 attention^ but to these should be added such as 
 exalt and expand the mind and convey a sense of 
 what is beautiful and noble. For to be looking 
 everywhere to the merely useful, is little fitted to 
 form an elevated character, or a liberal mind."— 
 Aristotle.
 
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 CHAPTER I 
 
 Introduction 
 
 N THE PROBLEM OF CHILD 
 education, than which there is 
 scarcely any siil)ject more widely dis- 
 cussed, tiiere enters equally with 
 the mental, the consideration of 
 the physical and the esthetic de- 
 velopment. I consider esthetics — 
 the science of the beautiful in nature 
 ami art, especially that which treats! 
 of the expression and cmhodiment of' psthetic 
 
 beautv in art — one of the important training 
 
 L necessar>' in 
 things in education. The young, of education 
 
 whatever circumstance in life, have a 
 
 right to the joy that comes from 
 
 knowing an<l perceiving beauty in 
 
 nature and in art forms. If we are to 
 
 jilant anything in the young, or 
 
 gi^e them any capacity, it should be 
 
 the power of enabling them to 
 
 ])erceive in their environment "the 
 
 gcjod, the true and the beautiful."' 
 
 This of course is to be done at the same time that we give 
 
 the young the capacity to make a living. To teach them a trade 
 
 (3) 
 
 CLOCK 
 
 iX'tkiKnctl, (Imwn anil car^'cil 
 hy hii[h nch'wl boy*
 
 The 
 first tools 
 
 lnEaftntIlDltIsUkn>most1j 
 of children's irork. 
 
 The 
 
 methods 
 
 advocated 
 
 4 First Principles 
 
 only, or to fit them for business, or commerce only — to make 
 square pegs for round holes, as \ve often do — is a mistake. I 
 have no sympathy with the manual training methods that make 
 the use of tools and workshop exercises the main end. The 
 pupils become simply machines, thoughtless mechanisms.* 
 The first tools to be used and trained are the mind, the eyes and 
 the hands, — the instnmientalities of the organism. To these 
 our chief care should be given. It is of little use that the pupil 
 has built a machine or performed a piece of work by mechanical 
 movements, if his own organism is not complete, if his hand is 
 not sure, his eye not true, and his mind not balanced. 
 
 I make a plea for this organic skill first because I have 
 tested many pupils from divers institutions, and have found 
 almost invariably that without instruments of precision — 
 rulers, compasses, gauges, calipers, etc. — they are powerless. 
 In many cases they are simply plan-followers and thoughtless 
 mechanics, without the elementary facility that small children 
 can get spontaneously in a few weeks' practice of rational 
 methods in manual training. They have been trained under 
 traditional formulas to do certain things in certain ways, with- 
 out any endeavor to have them realize the immeasurable life 
 possibilities and potentialities planted in each person. 
 
 The methods advocated herein for elementary work in edu- 
 cation consist: — 
 
 1. In a practical development of the factors of the organ- 
 ism itself, — the hand, the eye and the brain — by the acquisition 
 of their conscious control, to be followed by automatic control. 
 
 2. In the use at certain periods of powerful rectifving 
 exercises to reform or correct awkward muscular movements 
 
 • " We teach hoys to he such men as we are. We do not teach them to aspire to be all they 
 can. \Vc do not give them a training as if we believed in their noble nature. We scarce educate 
 their bodies. AVe do not train the eye and the hand. We e,\ercisc their understandings to the 
 apprehension and comparison of some facts, to a skill in numbers, in words; we aim to make 
 accountants, attorneys, engineers, but not to make able, earnest, great hearted men. The great 
 object of Education should be commensurate with the object of life. It should be a .-noral one; 
 to leach self-trust; to inspire the useful man with an interest in himself; with acuriositv touching 
 his own nature, to acquaint him with the resources ol his mind, and to teach him what there is in 
 
 ah his strength, and to intlame him with a piety toward the Grand Mind in which he lives." 
 
 [Emerson, "Lectures and Biographical Sketches,*' I'age 134.
 
 Introduction 
 
 of work 
 
 or habits, as well as for the purpose of gaining facility, balance, 
 proportion, accuracy, magnituiles, fitness and grace. 
 
 3. Exercise in ditlerent mediums, as wood and clay, for 
 acquiring dexterity and skill in shaping various ideas. 
 
 4. Exercises for acquiring accurate and permanent 
 organic memories of environment: (a) From nature, at periods 
 when impressions are most vivid (nascent period), from animals, 
 (lowers, insects, shells, etc.; (/') from art works and ornament 
 of best periods; (c) creative designing in various materials. 
 
 Perhaps one of the most radical features of my method, 
 apart from those of ambidexterity and memory drawing, and 
 one that must be understood as !)eing applied in all our schools, ^ 
 is the rotation of the branches of work. The pupils do not take of bmnches 
 a course of drawing alone, or of modeling alone, to be followed 
 with another course for a certain period, but in every grade 
 from the lowest the children are required to work in the four 
 departments of drawing, ilesigning, clay motleling and wood 
 carving. Ry drawing ail forms first on paper, then in soft clay, 
 and then in tough wood, all tiie possible physical co-ordinations 
 are ac(juircd in the different materials. The work of making 
 form in clay reinforces the drawing; carving in wood reinforces 
 the modeling. Designing forms in clay and wood, as well as 
 on paper, compels originalitx and invention, or the exercise of 
 the creative capacity at every ste]) of the work. 
 
 The method or system of rotation varies with the different 
 schools. In some the pupils change from one branch to the 
 other at each lesson; in others, at every fourth lesson: in others 
 again. ;i ])iece of work in each br;uu-ii is finished before the 
 change is made. This method is very stimulating to the (jupils. 
 and especiail)' shows for what they are best suited. The exercise 
 of the opposite capacities gives them a chance to do work in the 
 branches in which they show most deficiency. Xo exception is 
 mailc with any ])ui)il — all. in the elementary courses, must work 
 in the various mediums, unless constitutionally defective. 
 
 Just as I insist that elementary manual training for the 
 young must precede all s])ecial work. — such as joinery, cabinet
 
 First Principles 
 
 Make the 
 hanJ skillful 
 
 Influence of 
 beauty 
 
 work, metal work, trade processes, or draughting, mechanical 
 and architectural drawing, object drawing, etc., — so I insist 
 that the hand must, by this rotation, become familiar and 
 experienced with form in these different mediums. All artists 
 and artisans at once admit the reasonableness of this. To make 
 the hand itself skillful is necessary before it can do its best 
 with tools. 
 
 By these methods all pupils without exception develop 
 their capacities. Some get remarkable power and enter the 
 diverse grades of art work at once, in various directions. All, 
 however, acquire sufficient skill to enter the different minor 
 industries with credit. All, according to their degree of 
 intelligence, are prepared to do skilled work with tools and 
 hands in the different vocations open to them, after very little 
 preliminary training, because they have skilleil hands, true eyes 
 and a certain amount of power of expression and originality. 
 
 Memory drawing and ambidextrous drawing, as described 
 in the following chapters, are made an important part of the 
 course. By the nature-study drawing we endeavor to make 
 permanent organic impressions of l^eauty that will be a joy to 
 the pupils in their after lives, no matter how poor and sordid 
 their lives may be. 
 
 So powerful is the influence of a knowledge of beauty and 
 the joy that comes from it. that it is possible to make a 
 contented mind, or a mind that will remain contented, if 
 necessary, in the most toilsome drudgery. There is a certain 
 amount of compensation in this. It is not necessary that the 
 so-called " lower .classes " should have small minds, or low 
 minds. The mind can be expanded, elevated, even in the 
 lowest stages of society. This is done by art methods rightly 
 directed and by esthetic culture, especially that which concerns 
 itself with the expression and embodiment of l)eaut\' in form, 
 which has so important an eft'ect on the organism. 
 
 The training of these activities has a higher outcome than 
 the solely phvsical one. It ministers directlv to a certain 
 amount of moral training; it has distinct ethical effects.
 
 Introduction 7 
 
 Morality is embodied in nature. Ideas of goodness and badness 
 
 are received from things. Whenever children are taught to 
 
 use their own faculties, their powers of choice and of intelligent Moral training 
 
 _ anJ its value 
 
 selection mus> become developed, until, l>y habit, perhaps by 
 
 instinct, preference for the good and dislike for the bad 
 
 become ingrained. 
 
 It is no more difficult to make children realize the immu- 
 tability of moral laws than it is to teach them the innnutal)ility 
 of physical laws. Just as a child knows the effect of gravity, or 
 the action of fire upon the body, so it can be brought to a 
 realization of the distinction between the true and the false, the 
 beautifid and the ugly; the standards of these qualities are 
 absolute. Perception of them, strengthened by the force of 
 habit, must come through the repetition of intelligent observa- 
 tion and the union of thought with action. 
 
 If we are ever to get true morality as well as intellectuality, 
 it will be bv making the voung recognize the rightness of To get true 
 
 , . ■> t ' • I I • . -1 1 -1 morality 
 
 things. Material things, — plants. Mowers, crystals, animals. — 
 
 never cheat. All nature Inims and vibrates with truth. \\'atcr, 
 
 trees, sounds from metal, stones and wood, ring out truth every 
 
 time. So will the children when, with loving recognition 
 
 attaineil through trained observation and action, they realize 
 
 the divinity and mystery of things. Only by enjoyment and 
 
 love of work can this be effected, and to do this teachers must 
 
 inculcate the higher objects of work, of struggle, of .sacrifice and 
 
 unselfishness, showing that only by work, earnest endeavor, 
 
 and unceasing effort can we reach the highest planes of physical, 
 
 mental and ethical culture. 
 
 Ex|)erience has gradually taught the author to change a 
 great many of his ideas and plans, until lie has conic, during 
 the last few years, to fundamentals in this direction. 
 
 For educational purposes, he has found that the teaching 
 
 of a trade is not the most beneficial thing that can be done for 
 
 I -iTTi II 11 < 1- r • Tra Je feachlni; 
 
 a boy or a girl. He has al.so learned that to take fifty boys not beneficial 
 
 and makejhcm all carpenters, or plumbers, irresjiectixc of their 
 
 different dispositions and tastes, is a wrong, a great wrong.
 
 8 
 
 First Principles 
 
 Discover 
 capacity, then 
 educate it 
 
 This is one of the tendencies of our modern systems of 
 e(Uication tliat can be reatHly seen in most cities now where the 
 inihistrial and the mercantile ideas have l^een overdone, where 
 chil(h-en are fitted even in the high schools and other 
 institutions for commercial courses, irrespective of any natural 
 capacity they may have. A great many institutions teach 
 typewriting, stenography, bookkeeping, penmanship, to all 
 comers, irrespective of their capacity, and by degrees the 
 market has become overstocked. 
 
 There are more clerks than we can care for, and fewer 
 artisans and skilled workers than are needful. In response to 
 an advertisement in almost any city requesting clerical help, 
 hundreds of applications may be received. In some cases the 
 applicants volunteer to work for the experience, or for nominal 
 pay. If an advertisement is put in the paper for a skilled hand 
 worker in almost any of the trades, the reverse is true; there will 
 be very few applicants, and wages must be paid in proportion 
 to capacity. 
 
 It seems reasonable to me, and the proper thing to do, 
 that we should fit our children to enter into pursuits to which 
 they are s])ecia]ly adapted, where there is not already a crowd, 
 pushing each other to the wall. It seems to me that this should 
 be especially the object of the newer instuutions of learning 
 that are founded expressly for the purpose of helping people to 
 help themselves. I consider that it is wrong to produce more 
 typewriters, stenographers, bookkeepers and penmen, when 
 the market is already overstocked. It seems an injury to the 
 ones already working. Of course I know that by struggling, a 
 ])ercentage of these newcomers will achieve distinction, that 
 they will gradually work their way to the top. But how about 
 the large percetitage who do not have much capacity to 
 struggle, who do not have even sufificient energy to make the 
 required movements to change their environment and to start 
 anew in some other line, who remain drudges on account of this 
 lack of disposition, or this mental inertia? Certainly, we 
 should consider them.
 
 Introduction 9 
 
 My first idea in teaching, years ago, was simply to give 
 several kinds of drawing, — drawing from ohjects, meclianical 
 drawing, etc.. and to teach a few trades. U'c tauglit carpenter pj^sj 
 work, designing, painting, pottery work, mosaic setting, metal experiments 
 chasing, and needle work of several kinds, at different times. • 
 
 The children and adults elected their branches of study. It was 
 gradually found, however, that this was not the best plan. 
 Three or four years of carpenter work, except in the limited 
 operations of tiic tra<ie. did nt)t develop the eye and tlie hand, 
 and proved futde in developing the mind and the judgment. 
 The operations being mostly mechanical, and being performed 
 by instruments of precision, c\ery time a board was cut it would 
 be marked off, every time a piece of wood was cut it would be 
 gauged; the caliper, the T stpiare and the ruler were con- 
 stantly used. 
 
 The sentiment of Michael .\ngelo gradually entered my 
 mind: " We must carry our instruments of precision in the eye, 
 not in the h.ind." Only after striving and struggling up above 
 the use of instruments of precision, rulers, compasses, 
 mechanical methods, do we recognize their futility in developing 
 the mind, the judgment, the eye and the liand. The mechanical 
 methods had to give way, one after the other, after trial in 
 various directions. Only by trying and testing the old methods, 
 and thus proving their fallacy, diil we emerge into the light of 
 better ways. 
 
 Feeble art methods, traile tr;iining, abuse of geometric 
 
 forms and blocks, false, artificial and unnatural systems devised 
 
 for money-making i)ur])oses, were tried :uid proved w.tnting. 
 , If, I . . • •, . TunJamental 
 
 .\ number of trade proce.sses were tested wuh smnlar results, methods 
 
 until we actually, by experience, came down to fundamental 
 
 facts, and f)n these we have built up a method reason.ible, 
 
 feasible ami without great cost, adapted to all grades, from child 
 
 to adidt; a i)lan that can be .-ijjplied without friction to every 
 
 kind of educational institution, and limited only by the capacity 
 
 of the individual; a method covered by natural law, working 
 
 with the absolute precision of nature itself; a process that
 
 fO 
 
 First Principles 
 
 Educators, 
 scientists and 
 
 will 
 
 unfolds the capacities of children, as unfold the leaves and flow- 
 ers; a system that teaches the pupils that they are in the plan 
 and jiart of life, and enables them to work out their own salva- 
 tion on the true lines of design and work as illustrated in every 
 natural thing. 
 
 !Many educators, scientists and doctors have expressed 
 their hearty good will toward the method outlined in this work, 
 anything saving wear and tear of mind and matter appealing to 
 
 doctors express ^1-,^,-,^ directlv. ^luch time and energv are saved to pupils 
 hearty good • ... 
 
 working this way: their understanding of things being quick- 
 ened, they have less drudgery to go through to obtain facility. 
 The work is chiefly and above anything else to be desired 
 for its disciplinary value as an educational method, apart from 
 its practical value, in that it cultivates judgment, proportion, 
 symmetry and fitness. In drawing on"* blackboards, the 
 children take exercise. The work is done on so large a scale 
 that they have to move about, no small work being allowed. 
 The children avoid the hal)it of peering at lines, shortening their 
 focal length. This is one great trouble in the drawing, reading 
 or writing as usually followed in schools. In many instances 
 much damage is done to sight. Too many children wear 
 spectacles in these days. 
 
 Original Design 
 
 I
 
 CHAPTER II 
 
 Development of 
 Bent or Disposition 
 
 HIS BOOK IS ALSO PRI- 
 iiiarily written to aiil people 
 remote from art centers and edu- 
 cational opportunities. It is 
 not so much with the idea that 
 witl) the hook they can learn to 
 do the work, as it is in the way of 
 suggestion to those who cannot 
 he reached hy other means. 
 The millions of such people, 
 young and olii. may jierhaps be 
 liclped hy knowing that most of 
 liie iileas enihotlied in this hook 
 have been gained in the hanl 
 school of experience. 
 
 .\ large portion of the chil- 
 dren in the various schools and 
 in the dilTercnt communities are 
 especially endowe<l or have a native capacity ft>r liand skill, — 
 the power to do skillful work in many diverse pursuits. There 
 is a much larger jjrojjortion of these than many people believe. 
 This has been demonstrated by numbers of experiments I have ^jp.^uy iir 
 made and from graded tables based thereon for a period of h.mj skill 
 years. This is true <>f tlie up])er classes of society as well as 
 the lower. 
 
 (11) 
 
 Enlarging Drawiogs
 
 12 
 
 First Principles 
 
 Lack of hand 
 skill one cause 
 of poverty 
 
 Importance of 
 tinJing out the 
 "bent" of the 
 young 
 
 Experiments have been going on in a nunil)er of countries, 
 and in a variety of institutions and prisons, wliicli have proved 
 conckisively that what liave Ijeen termed " tlic lowest and most 
 degraded meml)ers of society " owe llieir condition partly to the 
 lack of this capacity and of their hand craft being undeveloped. I 
 have found in penal institutions in which I have taught or con- 
 ducted classes, a fair proportion of pupils who, with development 
 and training, would have shown extraordinary capacity. The 
 same is also true of peo]--le who have unfortunately been bred in 
 the lap of luxury, and who have never l;een taught to do any- 
 thing, or had their capacities in these directions trained. A very 
 fair proportion of the pupils in some of the best private schools 
 and colleges, where I have been able to come in contact with 
 numl>ers of this class, show remarkable skill and capacity. 
 
 For a series of years I have kept tally of numbers of cases 
 among parents, care-takers and friends of children who have 
 visited nn' various schools. Test questions put to them show 
 that a very large proportion ha\e never been al)le to develop 
 their bent or disposition, and in the course of time and expe- 
 rience they have found this out. One of the commonest state- 
 ments in my schools is that made by parents, when they say 
 their primarv desire in bringing the children is that they nioy 
 get the training which they themselves did not have and which 
 they shoidd have had when they were young. It is remarkable 
 how many jjarcnts acknowledge that they feel now that in 
 youth they had a taste for certain branches which they were 
 never able to carry out. perhaps an inclination toward mechan- 
 ics or construction, or a feeling for form, and it is sorrowful to 
 hear the regret that is sometimes thus expressed. 
 
 If the methods in this book are good for anything at all, it 
 will be for the fact that we do find out bv their aid the disposi- 
 tion or '■ bent " of the jiupils. I am inclined to think that this 
 capacity to find out the especial capacity of pupils by various 
 tests is one of the best parts of our work. Surely this is one of 
 the first things to be done in erlucation. Even if the children 
 are to be compelled to follow certain distasteful pursuits for
 
 Development cf Bent cr Disposition 
 
 {3 
 
 lUuslrati'in ii 
 
 Kn-(-h;iiul M:inual and Mciiiury Untwiug 
 
 money, there is no reason \\li\' tlics slioulil l)c deliarrcd from ;i 
 glimi)se of. or an insij^lit into, llie possiliilities and potentialities 
 tlicy have or might have. Mucii niij^ht lie saved in the way of 
 care and worry to tiie individual, and nnicii gained in the giving 
 of a capacity to enjoy, hy following t)Ut certain of the lines 
 herein contained, as a recreation or ;i liohhy. I".\eryone recog- 
 nizes the value of this to-day. 
 
 Few parents realize the great \ariety of skilled pursuits 
 
 that are now oi)en in the various directions of hand work, as skilifulness 
 
 iH-nelicial anJ 
 compared witli a few years ago The old idea that the only amcinsof 
 
 respectable pursuit for one's child is a profession has heen worn "'^■"''■>' 
 
 ' ' ... expansion 
 
 out for many years in this coimtry, hut it persists in more 
 
 places than would he suspected, simply through ignorance of 
 
 the enorinous expansion of the industrial world of to-day, with
 
 J 4 First Principles 
 
 its opportunities and fortunes. I am so penetrated with this idea 
 from my experience that I consider it wrong for any child in 
 any condition of Hfe to be debarred from at least a portion of 
 this fundamental work. Even in the professions, such as that 
 of clergyman, doctor or lawyer, judgment, reason and imagina- 
 tion are required. It is not fair that men and women of affairs 
 should be deliarred from the extra power and mental expansion 
 that these capacities or opportunities give them. 
 Real manual Again, many kinds of l)usiness are so much alike, requiring 
 
 training a some technical skill in diverse directions, that it is almost impos- 
 
 means of finding 
 
 out capacity sible for those entering on a career to be able to find out in a few 
 
 years whether they are especially suited or adapted to it. It is 
 very disheartening gradual!}- to realize in the course of time their 
 lack of fitness or capacity for the pursuit they are following. This 
 is illustrated by thousands of cases all over the world. I have in 
 mind some bitter experiences that I have suffered individually. 
 I have a vivid recollection of a dentist who should have been a 
 farmer. I have seen many doctors and surgeons wlio should 
 have been in the possession of perfect control of their hands and 
 fingers, yet who seem to be possessed of " thumbs " only. Every 
 year of experience will show us such distressing cases, and few 
 can attain to positions of responsibility and care without coming 
 in contact with many instances of this kind. 
 
 The author's hope is to help that great army of persons 
 who feel that they are not especially gifted or endowed in any- 
 thing, and to make them able to expend their energies to advan- 
 tage ill some practical way — energies that are too often wasted 
 and puttered away in trifling work or labors that accomplish 
 
 nothing in ministering to their welfare. Too often manv fail in 
 Necessity of an , . ^ , , . ' , . . , , . i . . 
 
 energetic li'C, though possessmg good intentions and desire to do their 
 
 disposition l)est. They try one thing and then another, never becoming 
 
 thorough in any direction, and never becoming able to earn a 
 proper or sufficient income. Their work is only half-hearted, 
 they do not feel that it is their mission, and consequently move- 
 ments are made that are not energetic enough and little 
 product results.
 
 Development of Bent or Disposition 
 
 J5 
 
 Satisfaction is essential to the niiml ami liody. The organ- 
 ism is fortunately so constituted that a satisfying income or a ^^nfjai"'" 
 full purse is intimately related to a contented mind and an 
 energetic liody. 
 
 How many teachers there are who, througli small pay and 
 physical and mental inertia, do injustice to their pupils. While 
 frequently well meaning and endowed with altruistic desires, 
 they fail to accomplish anything: nay, tiiey even do harm and 
 injury, hecause to he a good teacher recjuires essentially the 
 ins])iration that the art of teaching is divine. It is a mission to 
 teach children having souls. The teacher must especially real- 
 ize that each mind or sou! is an immortal ])art of the future 
 heaven he or she is helping to build. 
 
 How difTerently one feels and works when the right thing inspiration by 
 
 and the right wav have been found! How much more intense p^"'^"'''"'''"'^* 
 
 , of JeeJs 
 
 every thought and action become. This is one of the objects 
 
 of this book — to show ways and means that transform the (lull 
 routine and drudgery of teaching into a ])!easurable and profit- 
 able means to the welfare of manv. 
 
 Blackboard Drill Work In Dctl|p>
 
 CHAPTER III 
 
 Importance of Contact 
 with Things instead 
 of the Symbols of 
 Things * 
 
 Importance of 
 various sense 
 impressions 
 
 IFE IS A SUCCESSION 
 of lessons tliat must be lived 
 to be understood." " Experi- 
 ence, and not memory, is the 
 mother of ideas." My desire 
 is to impress all with the im- 
 portance of tleveloping the 
 organism through each of the 
 ilitterent sense channels, in 
 addition to the verbal or word 
 centers. The tendency with 
 the present modes of educa- 
 tion is to overtax the memory 
 and overload the mind with 
 studied words. Instruction by 
 telling is a feeble mode of 
 impressing the mind. " Ac- 
 tions speak louder than 
 words." Only in ])roi)ortion to my experience can I under- 
 stand the symbols of things, that is, words. Words are empty 
 sounds unless accompanied by clear ideas or thoughts of the 
 
 Bench "Work 
 
 ' 1 am indebted to Dr. Hailinun for in;iny of the ideas expressed in this chapter. 
 
 (i6)
 
 Contact with Things 17 
 
 things sigiiilied. I can lia\e true ideas or false ideas only in 
 proportion to my exjjerience. 
 
 " Ideas are symbolized by words. Words are signs for nat- 
 ural facts. Every oliject, riglitly seen, unlocks a new faculty 
 in the soul and thus Ijecomes a new weapon in our arsenal of 
 power." It is important in the first place to secure ideas, then 
 
 to connect these ideas with intelligible words. " The content of 
 
 ' . . Importance of 
 
 a word dci)en(ls upon the character of the idea symbolize<l." To gettins ideas 
 
 the child the word symbolizes no more than his own ideas. The '"^^ 
 supreme thing, then, is (i) to secure ideas. (2) to connect these 
 ideas with intcl]igil)le words, (3) to combine these ideas and 
 words with appropriate actions, (4) to secure a complete work- 
 ing of this mechanism in each instance; this union of securing 
 thought and action so that it works unfailingly and in a measure 
 becomes conduct or behavior. 
 
 Every natural object bristles with facts, teems with ideas. 
 I should be bristling with facts, I should teem with ideas' The 
 object should inspire me to become eloquent, to give expression Thought fabric 
 through my various channels of facts and ideas. By the tongue Jf"expre^ton ^ 
 I should vocally give expression to ideas. I should be able to 
 write ideas, and should give expression to them by means of 
 drawing, constructing, modeling, painting, etc. By this means 
 we make thought fabric and mind structure. 
 
 We consider too much the symbols of knowledge instead 
 of tlie sources of knowledge — the objects, facts and processes 
 of nature in time and space. How can we expect to grasp tlic 
 ideas represented by these objects, facts and prr>cesses unless Dissipation 
 we embody them? We too often introduce our children to the "„^.r^v 
 sources of information which books supply, instead of to those 
 sources which nature and experience supply. If we give them 
 information from books only, there are a consumption of vital- 
 ity, a dissipation of energy, a diversion of the attention and a 
 prevention of the impulse which iiromjits to action. 
 
 C)n the other hand, if we introduce our children to the 
 sources of know ledge, the facts, objects and processes of nature, 
 there are a conservation of energy, a storing of vitality, an
 
 )8 
 
 First Principles 
 
 Assimilate facts, 
 not words 
 only 
 
 Repetition and 
 the force of 
 habit 
 
 Vital union of 
 head, hand, 
 heart 
 
 inspiration, and a compelling of the attention that gives a 
 strong, active impulse to the feelings and emotions which 
 prompt to action. 
 
 We must, therefore, "assimilate facts, not words." If we do 
 this, we make our thinking structure and mental fabric at first 
 hand. This cannot be done if we assimilate words alone; only 
 partial ideas can be formed that do not yield complete mental 
 structure. Ideas should grow in clearness, vividness, compre- 
 hensiveness and accuracy liy repetition. Expressions through 
 the various sense channels should be related and associated in 
 thought. Only thus can we get the apjjropriate impulse that 
 prompts to action; only thus can we get that right action which 
 is the fruit of a good education. 
 
 But not only must we get information first hand, but we 
 must register it organically by repetition. It must become a 
 part of us, ready to be used when needed. "The very essence of 
 knowledge is in possessing it and in being able to use it." 
 
 I want to make clear, if I can, the union which exists 
 between the head and the hand, also the union which exists 
 between the head, the hand and the heart. You cannot rightly 
 train the one without influencing the others. As Dr. Balliet 
 says: " All hand and eye work invohes l)rain work, and the dis- 
 tinction Ijetween hand work and brain work is not true." 
 
 All the intellectual forces in the world will not enable 
 me to know the te.xture of velvet or sandpaper until I touch 
 them, then at once the knowledge is awakened in mv lirain 
 through my hand and eye. I cannot rub my brain against the 
 cloth or the paper, I do it through my hand and eye. I cannot 
 know the shape of so simple a thing as a common comb through 
 the touch alone. I must see it l)efore I can get the right con- 
 ception of it, my touch not enal)ling me to feel the space between 
 each tooth. 
 
 Few persons get complete and correct ideas of the various 
 senses as organized, how distinct and separate they are, and yet 
 how mutuall}- dependent and connected. I can feel with mv 
 coarse fingers through very fine skin the most delicate pulse; I
 
 Gintact with Things 
 
 19 
 
 Illustration 14 
 
 Wood CarviDg L'lodb, I'ublic bchuul ui lndu:>tnjl Ari 
 
 can readily feel the l)lood bounding along, on some wrists I 
 
 can even see it, vet with tlie tongue, that has such wonderful vanous sense 
 
 impressions 
 sense of touch for many things, I cannot get the slightest sensa- orsanized into 
 
 tion in this direction. This curious fact is mentioned hy Sir '^•'"'■■■•'-"te iJeas 
 
 Charles Bell, the discoverer of the functions of the nerves. The 
 
 sense of touch must sometimes he helped hy the sight. It is 
 
 often difficult to touch certain parts of one's hand with the other 
 
 without the aid of sight. 
 
 Drawing should he uscil as modes of tiiought expression 
 
 quite as often and as much as speech and writing; for while 
 
 pupils gain accuracy of perception, they also gain facility of 
 
 expression, the terms interacting. Some one has said that the DrawinKa 
 
 ... /••! . .• II mode o( 
 
 foundation of right reasoning is accurate perception How i,,,,^,,,, 
 
 seldom would pupils shirk work and how j)leasant it would cxprt-s^^ion 
 become if drawing were used as a mode of e.xpression. Draw- 
 ing and art work would perforce redeem the sordid homes of 
 many pupils by teaching a certain amount of beauty and
 
 20 
 
 First Principles 
 
 BooU-brcd 
 people 
 indisposed 
 to action 
 
 Importance 
 of visual 
 memory 
 
 creating a desire for it, instead of leaving them to dissipate their 
 energy by the reading of senseless novels and trashy papers. 
 Drawing properly taught gives a disposition to do sometliing. 
 I do not by any means mean the kind of drawing given usually 
 to-day, but I mean drawing as a mode of thought expression 
 that will lie used as often as speech and writing. See what the 
 product would lie. See what the product is already in some of 
 our schools where the chiklren produce things of use and beauty 
 for the adornment of their homes. 
 
 The inspiration to perform deeds, to make movements, is 
 so important that I cannot help calling attention to it contin- 
 ually. Prof. Reuben Halleck says: " A glance around us is 
 nearly certain to discover some persons of marked deficiency in 
 the world of action. They may like to learn and to continue 
 absorbing knowledge, but they never make any worthy use of it. 
 A visit to the reading rooms of any library will enable us to find 
 chronic, sponge-like absorbers of whatever is written. Their 
 very faces come to have a dreamy, rela.xed expression. These 
 persons generall} fancy that they are going to do something 
 soon. But the motor paralysis becomes more and more com- 
 plete. Sometimes lioys are allowed to bury themselves in book 
 after book until action becomes extremely irksome to them. 
 They love to absorb ideas and to direct all tb.eir motor energy 
 into dreaming or castle-building. In the case of the majority 
 of people, motor action needs to lie cultivated and to be directed 
 to a definite end. It is not enough for one to form an idea of 
 becoming a great man. He must do things to make him- 
 self great." 
 
 Read also Sir Francis Galpin on " Inquiries Into Human 
 Faculty and Its Development:" " .\ visual image is the most 
 perfect form of mental representation wherever the shape, 
 position and relations of objects in space are concerned. It is 
 of importance in every handicraft and profession where design 
 is required. The best workmen are those who visualize the 
 whole of what they propose to do before they take a tool in their 
 hands. Strategists, artists of all denominations, physicians who
 
 Gsntact with Things 21 
 
 contrive new experiments, and in sliort all who do not follow 
 routine, have need of it. The pleasure its use can afford is 
 immense. * * * * j ijelieve that a serious study of the 
 best method of developing and utilizing this faculty witlKjut 
 prejudice to the practice of abstract thought in symbols is one 
 of the many pressing desiderata in the yet unformed science of 
 education." Prof. Halleck says further: " The great danger 
 from castle-building an<l inveterate novel reading lies in divorc- 
 ing ideas from action. The dreamer accustoms himself to 
 become incapai)lc of action." 
 
 I am convinced that some of the present methods of educa- 
 tion devitalize society. This is a question agitated among edu- 
 cators. And it has been repeatedly suggested that mere book- 
 learning does not diminish crime, but that it increases crimes 
 which involve the exercise of i)enetration and scholarly train- 
 ing. .\ writer on this subject asked recently "Whether the Too much 
 
 .short-sighte<l. illiterate or the craftv, educated man of evil ■'^"'•'"K 
 
 '^ - divorces Ideas 
 
 design was more dangerous to society." Education as at from action 
 present conducted will not develop the best potentialities in 
 man's nature, will not enable him to bring into action the best 
 that is in him. It is luireasonable to think that a knowledge 
 of the " three R s " will do this It !nust be something very 
 much more. It must be a training to obtain hal)its of self- 
 reliance and self-control and the golden fruit that results. — a 
 training that will make people think and act more instead of 
 less, that will open up the inmiense realms of itleas so few reach. 
 Under the old method of eilucation, the time being chiclly 
 given to the study of words. — primed, written and spoken. — 
 
 the i)rinted and written words (svmbols for ideas) are studied worJsstuJieJ 
 
 iit tile expense 
 at the expense of the ideas themselves. This leads to fal.se or of Ueas 
 
 partial ideas and weak imagination. The vision is used too 
 
 much, the pupil reading and writing at the expense of eyesight. 
 
 The focal length is fre(|uciitly shortened. an<l the too freijuent 
 
 use of fine finger movements retiuircd in writing cause, in 
 
 many cases, nervousness and chorea. Some of the time given to 
 
 writing should be given to larger mo\ements. to hand and arm
 
 22 
 
 First Principles 
 
 All channels 
 for improving 
 the mind to be 
 used 
 
 Automatic 
 obedience of 
 the hand 
 
 movements, finger co-ordinations coming last. This also 
 imi)ro\es the writing. 
 
 Tlie loo frequent use of the eye and ear in the old methods 
 causes injury not only to the eye. but also to the verbal memory. 
 Still worse is it that, as a result of these wrong methods, facility 
 in other modes of expression and impression — such as drawing, 
 painting, making, creating, etc. — becomes dormant or torpid 
 through never having been used. 
 
 Under the new methods of education, all the channels for 
 impressing the mind of the child should be used as much as pos- 
 sible. Through the vision, the touch, muscular sense, hearing 
 and speaking, impressions should be assimilated, and through 
 the same channels expression should be given to the ideas 
 formed by creating and designing in diverse mediums. 
 
 The soundest mental fabric is built by the perceptions that 
 arc the most accurate, and that call into play for their expres- 
 sion the largest groups of associated and connected motor cen- 
 ters; sense movements, incoming and otitgoing. Thought and 
 action are organically related, and education consists in firmly 
 connecting them by repetition and habit. I am convinced that 
 the so-called " thought studies " are valueless unless they are 
 firmly locked in the mind by systematized impressions from 
 things by action and that their value depends on the facility of 
 expression which comes from accurate perception. 
 
 Real manual training is the basis of all elementary educa- 
 tion, because " the hand is the instrument of instruments and 
 the mind is the form of forms " (Aristotle). Through the 
 union of the brain and the hand, the products of nature have 
 been made useful and valuable to man, and the work of the 
 world has been accomplished. The hand should be made spon- 
 taneously obedient to the mind; it should start forward instantly 
 to obey the mind by the ajjpropriate movement, as the tongue 
 usually obeys. Book study and word study, preaching and 
 praying, will not give this desired disposition to work and 
 action. It must Ijc the result of rational training and attention 
 to its needs during the jieriod of growth.
 
 Contact with Things 
 
 23 
 
 I firmly l)elieve that we need to-day trained and skillful 
 hands mure than we need fluent tongues. Yet I also consider 
 the training herein ailvocated the most essential for the getting 
 of true eloquence of the tongue. Right ideas and right deeds are 
 the primary inspiration for hoth. To deprive a child of this train- 
 ing is to prevent it from ever knowing the potentialities of its 
 
 own nature; to prevent the chiKl from knowing and loving Right manual 
 . I . • • I 1 .. . r 1 r 11 training will 
 
 nature as she should be loved — the fountam and source of all give a love of 
 education, science, art and religion."* To deprive the child of nature 
 this training is to rear it in ignorance of its power to use hand 
 and eye, a power that can be mastered at an early age: and a 
 power the proper development of which aids so much toward 
 practical success in the actual work of life, while also aiding the 
 physical, mental and spiritual welfare of the individual. 
 
 • Dr. G. Slanlcy Hall. 
 
 "^ 
 
 y^^- 
 
 v^r
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 
 Different kinds 
 of manual 
 training 
 
 Distinction Between 
 the True and False 
 in Manual Training- 
 
 HE OBJECT OF THE NEW EDUCA- 
 tion is to get ideas in a rational way at first 
 hand, l:)y using the activit}- of the child. 
 It is (Hlificult to decide which kinds of man- 
 ual training are educational and which are 
 not; which kind of manual training should 
 be used and which not. Many manual 
 exercises are valueless for training and 
 education, and yet nearly all kinds of 
 manual training educate to a degree. It 
 is amusing to see the variety of opinions, 
 even among intelligent people, as to what 
 kind of m;unial training is best for educational purposes. The 
 manual training that should be given is that which develops in 
 the individual: 
 
 1. The art of building ideas by using most of the chan- 
 nels of HHpression and most of the means of t'.rpression. 
 
 2. Accurate perceptive powers. 
 
 3. Facility of expression, not only in writing and verbally, 
 l)ut in a variety of ways through the hands. 
 
 4- 
 
 The strengthening of thought fabric and mind struc- 
 
 ture, and capacity to use the same. 
 
 (24)
 
 True and False Manual Training 25 
 
 5. Most skill in the shortest space of time. 
 
 6. Fitness for the greatest nimil>er of fundamental 
 operations or pursuits. 
 
 The power of expression in language, written or spoken, 
 
 depends on accurate perception of things, on the power to form 
 
 clear, definite ideas. Some kinds of manual training dull the Methods that 
 
 prevent real 
 
 power ot accurate perception and limit the power of assimilating manual 
 new impressions. Some forms of so-called manual training are *™"'"S 
 so mechanical that lliey prevent co-ordinations tliat otherwise 
 would have been made, consuming valuable time at the most 
 vital period. Under this head I include such operations as 
 paper cutting and folding, stick laying, sloyd, whittling, sawing, 
 planing and joinery work and other merely mechanical 
 movements. 
 
 Nothing can be inore absurd than the e.xtravagant claims 
 made for sloyd ami several similar narrow mechanical methods. 
 For instance: 
 
 '■ That the knife is the only too! by means of which alone 
 
 a finished object can be correctiv made." " That it is tlie most stupid claims 
 
 . . . ' ,, . . 'or sloyd 
 
 familiar and the least mec'nanica! of tools." " That it necessi- 
 tates greater concentration of thought and attention than any 
 other tool."* 
 
 ■' Vou can acquire a sensitiveness of touch and correspond- 
 ing correctness of eye more effectively l>y the judicious use of 
 sandpaper than in any other way." " The curve can only be 
 cut by hand, and hence in other courses of woodwork curved 
 forms are eschewed, except those tliat can be cut wiiii a fret 
 saw and drawn with an ' architect's curve." "t 
 
 Such .stateirents carry their own condemnation to any 
 thinking person who really understands what true hand skill or 
 inaiuiai training is. I iiave seen a sign painter so drunk tiiat ho 
 could not stand, but had to sit, yet he was able to space out and 
 block in letters with wonderful accuracy. I have seen a carriage 
 
 • "Sloyil," Ijirsnn, nnntntt, iSqj. 
 
 t •* A Pica for Sloy«l," by T. <i. Ko«»|Mrr, Kcprlntcd from " Hand and Eye," iS^
 
 26 
 
 First Principles 
 
 Limited 
 skill 
 
 Utilitarian 
 
 idea 
 
 overdone 
 
 painter in the same condition striping or painting long lines 
 free hand on w heels, with marvelous precision. No real carver 
 in wood ever uses anything hut his eye, hand and chisel, no 
 matter how elaliorate the curves are. These operations are not 
 the results of genius, they are simpl_\' the results of skill, with 
 very few physical co-ordinations, and are such as all children 
 can learn, without exception. 
 
 The utilitarian idea has been considered too much. The 
 " useful model " has been done to death, the articles made 
 being of the nature of bread boards, salt boxes, towel racks, 
 knife boxes, scoops, etc. Children have wonderful energy and 
 curiosity, but a few months' familiarity with these household 
 objects dulls their desire, and the work jiartakes of the nature 
 of a task or drudgery. Of course children will take to any kind 
 of tools, like ducks to water, to escape from the schoolroom 
 routine, even if it is a " whittling class." But consider what they 
 might have been doing in the way of real manual training and 
 invention, and in the creation of beauty. 
 
 The utilitarian idea is a valuable one, but it can readily be 
 used to dwarf and stultify the child's energies. We can of 
 course say that the child learns by " doing," but a great deal 
 ilepends upon the character of its deeds. No feeble amateur 
 with " knife work," no plain mechanic or carpenter with ham- 
 mer and chisel, should dare to dally with the works and mental 
 mechanism of a child. As well let an idiot repair a watch with 
 a stick. The child, if left to its own impulse, will assuredly do 
 something and find out something. 
 
 Again, though sloyd may be good for Sweden, where the 
 nights are long, the children require occupation, and the homes 
 need the useful models (this being the original reason for sloyd, 
 as an authority admits*), this country has very different needs 
 for its youth. 
 
 Sloyd is selected as an example of the work that is not true 
 manual training, or the best kind of elementary work in 
 
 • "Sloyd," Larson, Boston, 1S93.
 
 o 
 
 Q 
 
 3 
 
 c 
 
 C/) 
 r> 
 
 =r 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 3 
 C 
 
 > 
 
 a- 
 
 r- 
 > 
 H 
 m
 
 for 
 criticism 
 
 28 First Principles 
 
 manual training, because it is considered in so many quarters to 
 
 he superior. Sloyd is selected for criticism because it has been 
 
 sloyd selected SO thoroughly tried, and with many advantages in several cities, 
 
 no expense having been spared and all possible facilities having 
 
 been offered for its easy introduction. I consider sloyd perhaps 
 
 the best of all the amateur woodworking systems, though I 
 
 dispute the claim that there is any real drawing in it. unless 
 
 mechanical draughting is considered to be drawing. It has 
 SloyJ not real ,,-,.,, . , ■ . ,-r 
 
 nianu.-ii training been graded to fit children from the age of nine to htteen years 
 
 — six years of the most vital period of life. I have never seen 
 
 a sloyd pupi! or teacher who really had the elementary manual 
 
 training required of some of our little children, as described in 
 
 this book. 
 
 It seems as though the chief idea in sloyd was to see how 
 
 many different tools could be used and how many operations 
 
 could be devised, little thought being given to the absolute 
 
 needs of the eye, the hand and the mind as funtlamental tools. 
 
 " It includes seventy-two exercises with forty-five tools, in eight 
 
 kinds of wood, and is now employed experimentally in several 
 
 Automatic schools in Boston."* In line with paper cutting and 
 
 Jextenty folding, slovd is occupation or " busv work," but is 
 
 desired . " . 
 
 very slightly educational. Ten courses of sloyd work 
 
 will not give the pupil the automatic facility desired, or 
 even fundamental co-ordination of the motor centers of 
 the hands. Throughout the entire course, instruments of 
 precision, — the rule, the compass, the try-square, the gauge, — 
 are used constantly. Therefore, the eye and the mind never get 
 the unconscious automatic power of grasping magnitudes and 
 ])roportions so essential in elementar_\- training during the 
 period of growth. 
 
 Is it not a mistake, then, to tliiiik that facility in anv one 
 narrow mechanical direction is proper manual-training educa- 
 tion? Should not one look with suspicion upon operations, 
 such as paper cutting, stick laying, whittling, sloyd, etc., which 
 
 "Sloyd," Larson, Boston, iSoj.
 
 True and False Manual Training 29 
 
 produce sucli little results and consume so much precious time, 
 
 and endeavor to find operations that will give fundamental skill 
 
 that is valuable and that can be used in all occupations 
 
 or trades? 
 
 The graded courses and exercises in some other kinds of 
 
 woodwork and drawing, extending over two or three vears. ^"""^ 
 
 exercises 
 with all exercises thought out. mapped out and charted before- consume 
 
 hand, limit the pupils' capacitv for doing original work. '^"^''Kyand 
 ' ' ' ■ : inspiration 
 
 designing or creative work, besides consuming the energy at 
 
 the nascent period, the period of. growth, that should be given 
 
 to right manual training, wiiich if not given at this period makes 
 
 good results impossible at a later period. It is like waiting for 
 
 the hand to become fully grown before undertaking violin 
 
 playing or piano playing, or some other operation requiring 
 
 skill, instead of allowing the hand to grow into the positions so 
 
 much to be desired by skillful performers and workers, with the 
 
 added penalty of the physical impossibility of getting into these 
 
 positions after a certain time has elapsed. The same is also 
 
 true with regard to the mental states; after a certain time has 
 
 elapsed it is as impossible for the mind to invent, to design, to 
 
 create spontaneously and automatically, as it is for the fingers or 
 
 limbs to move skillfully, automatically and spontaneously. 
 
 Of course I do not speak against i)r((])er wotxlworking 
 ojjerations as described in this book. — joinery, cabinet-making Proper wooj 
 and pattern-making. After fundamental manual trannng skill operations 
 has been ac<|uired. these special trade operations are fit and 
 proper in their right jilace. just as mechanical draughting, 
 machine drawing, architectural drawing, are right and projier, 
 after training in fundamental drawing. I>ut it is wrong to 
 select a few oj^erations from any of these processes and give 
 them to young children as proper elementary training. 
 
 In many places drawing and manna! training are sci)aratc 
 
 and disassociated, courses of one being given separate and '^^""^' 
 
 ■ '^ ' trainInK a 
 
 distinct from the tithcr. In some cases the absurdity of this is moJoof 
 
 shown by graded work for each, as though they were entirely ^^Z^^^i^,„ 
 
 different studies and not related. It is as though drawing were
 
 30 
 
 First Principles 
 
 IJeas the 
 basis of 
 originality 
 
 Art in 
 handicraft 
 very rare 
 
 not a mode of thought expression, a means wlierehy ideas of the 
 form and shape of things are recorded, and as if manual training 
 were not a mode of thought expression in making and recorcHng 
 these forms and ideas l)y the hands. 
 
 The catalogue of some schools will usually show under the 
 head of manual training, for boys — w^ood turning, pattern mak- 
 ing, foundry molding, forging, machine work and liench work 
 in wood, mechanical drawing, draughting and designing; for 
 girls — sewing, dressmaking, millinery and cooking. These are 
 . occupations or trades that are good in themselves, but are lim- 
 ited in their capacity to train hand and eye to correctly carry 
 out the dictates of the mind. 
 
 Still more do the trade processes mentioned fail to develop 
 the formation of thought structure by the working out of 
 original ideas, which is the basis of true originality. Right 
 methods of manual training, on the other hand, do bring about 
 this union of thought and action, whereby the pupil is enabled 
 to //;/))/.' of the right thing, at the right time, in the right place, 
 and in the right way, and then to do it. 
 
 I must not be understood here to speak against trades. 
 I am in favor of every person having a pursuit and occupation, 
 but I speak against the idea that possession of a trade process, 
 or several trade processes, necessarily means true hand skill and 
 right manual training, the power to make the hand obey the 
 mind. The lack of this power explains the lack of real skill 
 among so many workmen. The artist artisan is the exception, 
 whereas he should be the rule. Art in handicraft is even more 
 rare than handicraft itself. The methods laid down in this 
 book, properly taught, supply the primary training that will 
 give the skill, the hand facility, the co-ordination of hand, eye 
 and brain, without which true handicraft can rarely be attaine<l, 
 even by many years of application. 
 
 But the youth who has had this true manual training dur- 
 ing his elementary schooling has already acquired more real 
 skill of hand and eye than the average apprentice working dur- 
 ing the like period at trade I'jrocesses onl\-, while the manual
 
 True and False Manual Training 31 
 
 trained youth is infinitely better off as regards mental develop- 
 ment and character building. The manual trained youth is 
 wonderfully fitted to acquire dexterity in trade processes. He training better 
 assimilates them unconsciously, because his hand is already so *han 
 thoroughly skilled. He will learn a trade and become a better 
 workman in it in a few months than the ordinary apprentice 
 would do in several years. 
 
 " What is manual training?" To some it means an exer- 
 cise for muscles, like gymnastics, and to others a process of 
 making boys merely handy; others think it a way of teaching 
 
 trades to children, and nearlv all confound it with mechanical W"''''"'"' 
 
 traininK not 
 
 training and suj^pose a drill is necessary in sawing and planing, hand training 
 chipping, filing, wood-turning, plumbing, etc., very few disas- 
 sociating it from the use of machinery and from slow, tedious 
 trade processes, or dream that it has anything to do with women 
 and girls. 
 
 Real manual training for the education of individuals can- 
 not be obtained by mechanical pursuits similar to carpentry, 
 plumbing, chipping, filing, etc. Real manual training is not a 
 matter of simply doing different things; it is the intelligent 
 selection of modes from the manv operations and pursuits most 
 
 What real 
 
 suited to produce the effect desired. Swinging dumb-bells or „,anuai 
 pushing a plane or saw produces muscles, but does not require training is 
 the constant use of the intellect; the thinking powers are not 
 increased in ratio. There are many exercises, then, more fit for 
 our purpose. We must select for manual training purposes, 
 work and methods that in addition to giving muscular activity, 
 will e.xercise the peripheral nerves as tools of the senses. 
 
 It includes all processes that train the muscles and the mind 
 to work in harmony. In some of its applications it gives skill 
 in planing boards and shaping iron; but just as legitimately does mmd must 
 it make the hand cunning to dissect a nerve, to engrave an etch- wwk together 
 ing or to finger a violin. .\nd as no school of manual training 
 is obliged to teach anatomy, engraving and nnisic, so no school 
 of the kind must necessarily teach joinery or chipping and filing. 
 Those who believe that such i>rocesses are inseparable from the
 
 32 
 
 First Principles 
 
 o>!>V.^ 
 
 Hand skill 
 should precede 
 trade training 
 
 What are 
 drawing and 
 manual training 
 
 use of saws ami liammers have not looked all around the 
 subject. 
 
 The distinction between right manual training and trade 
 processes is therefore clear. The one precedes the other, just 
 as reading, writing and arithmetic precede accomplishments 
 in the law or the ministry. Right here is a special field for true 
 manual training that is bound to widen. The old plan of teach- 
 ing the trades has been found wanting, in tliat it consumes 
 much time and yet turns out workmen poor in craftsmanship 
 and equally deficient in purpose. The new idea is to teach the 
 trades in trade schools, or technical institutions, where the 
 vouth is carefully instructed in technical processes by experts. 
 These trade schools are destined to increase in number and 
 efficiency, as have the schools of law, medicine and theology. 
 The youth who has had a proper course in manual training will 
 acquire skill in the mechanical movements incident to any spe- 
 cial trade in a fraction of the time that it requires for the novice 
 who is untrained in facility of hand and eye. And this is true, 
 whether the trade be taught in a technical school, or acquired 
 by haphazard in an ordinary apprenticeship. 
 
 \\diat are drawing and manual training when ])roperly 
 taught? 
 
 They are modes of getting ideas first hand and giving ideas 
 first hand. 
 
 They bring al)OUt the union of thought and action which is 
 so essential to the well-being of the in<li\-idual. 
 
 They are physiologically and psychologically sound. 
 
 They are methods that train the powers of the instincts as 
 they develop, that rightly educate these powers during their 
 formative ])eriod, when most responsive to good or bad- influ- 
 ence. They unify and simplify the courses of study. 
 
 They fit for the real work of life, for this training has a 
 practical application in almost every vocation. 
 
 Drawing and manual training, properly taught, do away 
 with tradition and the traditional errors in education. They are 
 modes of thought expression, just as speech and writing are
 
 True and False Manual Trainings 33 
 
 modes of thought expression. Drawing is an universal tongue. 
 It compels observation, reflection, perception and ci)ncepti()n. 
 It opens the mental eye. the eye of the understanding, that looks 
 all around, up and down. It enaljles one to understand the 
 message that is printed in every natural, normal thing, that is 
 stamped with everlasting lines on each side of every leaf and Drawing 
 blade of grass, that is twisted into the architecture of every makes mind 
 shell, and that shines in the hues of every crystal — a message 
 of beauty, of proportion, of grace and of fitness. Drawing 
 makes mind. 
 
 Drawing and manual training properly taught, as Ilailman 
 says. " render lucid the latent spiritualities of matter." They 
 " enhance the utilities of life by clothing them with beauty," 
 give power to do, power to enjoy. 
 
 One objection that lias rightly been made to the introduc- 
 tion of the so-called manual training methoils, especially by 
 connnittces and superintendents, has been the great expense of 
 the plant and equipments necessary. In large cities like Phila- 
 del])hia, only 95 cents per amium jier pupil is now spent for 
 all supplies in general school work — books, pencils, paper, pens, objections oa 
 and sewing materials. In the light of this fact, it seems ^'^^^'Junt of cost 
 absurd to pay for benches, sets of tools, etc.. for .so-called 
 manual training, sums ranging from $15 to $30 per 
 l)U])il. lor a plant that can be used by a very limitetl 
 number; the sloyd bench and tools alone costing sometimes 
 as much as $30. 
 
 The cost of the i)lant for the manual training herein set 
 forth is verv small. It will be noticed that but few and verv 
 
 Economy of 
 inexpensive tools are specified for the work in drawing, model- right method 
 
 ing and carving. In the Public School of Industrial .\rt. forty 
 
 sets of carving tools, costing less than $5 each, and a few simple 
 
 tools for use in modeling, with some models of natural and art 
 
 forms, suffice ior 1000 ])upils. The suitplies re<iuircd are 
 
 equally inexpensive, consisting mainly of chalk, pencils, ink and 
 
 brushes, cheap paper, .some clay, etc., costing very little per year 
 
 per capita. This slight expenditure only is reciuiretl for four
 
 34 
 
 First Principles 
 
 Ease of 
 
 application 
 to large 
 numbers 
 
 Cost of 
 elaborate 
 plants should 
 be spent on 
 teachers 
 
 different departments — drawing, designing, clay modeling and 
 carving, not one only, as in other systems. 
 
 Another advantage of these methods is to l)e found in their 
 ease of application to classes of large numbers, without large 
 expense; in fact, if necessary, the work in drawing, the drill 
 work, the ambidextrous work on blackboards, can all be done 
 on slates and common manilla paper. A few sets of tools and 
 appliances for modeling, and the cla\'. can l)e used in common 
 by as many classes as can be brought in succession into the 
 room. The same with the carving. Although this is not the 
 best plan, it is inexpensive. 
 
 Because of the economy of plant and supplies, this method 
 of manual training is within reach of the smallest or poorest 
 schools as well as those in wealthy communities. 
 
 Tiie saving in equipment over improper methods may 
 well be invested in more teachers and better teachers. It 
 is as wrong to employ an underpaid and ox'erworked 
 teacher (the two usually go together) in manual training 
 instruction as in other ijranches. The tendency iti school 
 work has been too much toward extravagance in equipment 
 and parsimony towar-d instructors. Fine buildings and costly 
 apparatus never compensate for poor teachers. It is the teach- 
 er's enthusiasm that must help to inspire the pupil; the teacher's 
 intuition that must aid in discovering the pupil's individuality 
 and help him to make the most of it; the teacher's human inter- 
 est that must warm u]) a responsive interest in the pupil. These 
 attributes of the teacher's personality can be supplied bv neither 
 books, apparatus nor buildings. The teacher has a mission to 
 perform, he gives more of his very life to it than the worker in 
 other vocations, and should be paid and esteemed accordingly.
 
 CHAPTER V 
 
 Lack of Real 
 Drawing — 
 
 ERE IT iMAV BE EIT TO 
 
 interject some of my ex]ieri- 
 
 ences at tlie World's I'air at 
 
 Cliicacfo in 1893. Eor jjurposes 
 
 of gaiiiinfj experience, as well as 
 
 of exliihitinji^ our methods, we 
 
 lia<l a very large space in the 
 
 cdncalional department. adj(3in- 
 
 ing the most important of the technical schools and colleges. 
 
 In this space I j)nr])osely had several " traps," one of which was 
 
 a hlackhoard twenty feet long. My jnirpose in having this 
 
 blackboard was to test adults and children of all conditions as to 
 
 their capacity in certain directions. These tests are tabulated 
 
 and systematized, and I discovered several interesting facts. 
 
 Xot more than four i)er cent, of the drawing teachers who 
 
 were tested could draw , — 1 mean ilraw a.s a mode of expression, 
 
 delineate what they thought. Tiie rest de])ended (jn the iuo<lel 
 
 entirely, .\mazement was expressed continually at their even 
 
 being recpiested to draw something simply witlntiU a model. 1 Lack of real 
 
 fouml onlv eight cases, out of several hundred, that had facilitv P"*'^''°' 
 
 • JrawinK 
 
 of hand,— I mean the kind of elementary facility refjuircd in 
 this book from children. The tests were put to the teachers of 
 a great many leading institutions, ami to norm.il ;irt school, 
 
 (3.S)
 
 36 First Principles 
 
 college and technical graduates. Almost invarial^ly there was 
 
 an absence of proficiency in organic drawing, and, considering 
 
 the amount of time they had given to the work, their imitative 
 
 drawing was feeble beyond the power of words to express. 
 
 Approaching this question from the art side, the impreju- 
 
 diced observer who has anv knowledge of art cannot fail to 
 
 realize and be impressed with the lack of any tendency toward 
 
 art training in most of the common schools of the country. 
 
 , , , , There is a gulf between the teachers and the idea that has never 
 
 Lack of art <=• 
 
 training in been crossed, and the poverty of ideas on the part of teachers, 
 
 common schools . ,,. . , .' . -, .^ , . 
 
 intelligent in other respects, is amazing. It seems as if nothing 
 
 right was being done, and that ignorance ruled in these matters. 
 This is not owing to any fault of the teachers. 
 
 I am inclined to lay more Idame upon the inventors of 
 certain systems, who are never artists, who are liacked by 
 publishing firms, and whose chief idea is to sell books and mate- 
 rials. Some of the schemes are so artificial as to require 
 different sets of materials, copy books and plant for different 
 grades, and constructions and technical terms have been so 
 loaded upon these things that it requires a wise teacher and 
 special training in the methods of the books alone to be able to 
 understand their object and their purpose. This, fortunately. 
 
 False systems ^.^^^. j^^^. tga^hers endeavor to do. Some of the svstems claim 
 
 formulated by 
 
 publishing firms that their books and materials clo awav with the necessity of the 
 
 teachers being able to draw, and tliat instruction can be 
 
 imparted in an easy and reafly fashion by means of these 
 
 ecjuipments. .\nd so the game goes on at the expense of 
 
 the children. 
 
 Another of my chief reasons for writing this Ijook is 
 
 because I feel I can be of service to a large proportion of the 
 
 community represented by the superintendents of schools, also 
 
 members of school committees, usually men and women of 
 
 affairs, and others interested in the well-being of the schools in 
 
 various towns ami cities of the L'nioii. The spirit of the age is 
 
 compelling many, in spite of dislike, to advocate various kinds 
 
 of manual training in the schools, and through lack of
 
 C/) 
 
 -n 
 o 
 
 c 
 
 70
 
 38 
 
 First Principles 
 
 Sewing and 
 cooking not 
 real manual 
 training 
 
 Necessity ot 
 systematic 
 training of 
 the senses 
 
 knowledge (and it is a little unreasonable to expect superin- 
 tendents and others to he experts on these subjects) many 
 experiments and methods of work are being tried that are fun- 
 damentally wrong, as will be proved by experience. For 
 instance, various kinds of carpenter work, knife work, sloyd 
 methods, paper cutting and paper folding are being incorpo- 
 rated at much expense in schools as manual training. 
 
 I do not object to sewing and cooking. I consider them 
 very important things. But for our purpose, they are not 
 methods of artistic or manual training. I consider cooking one 
 of the most important of all the arts, and I must be ranked as 
 an advocate of both cooking and sewing, in the proper place. 
 The proper place, howe\er, is not that gained by usurping the 
 inanual training idea in education, because every thinking per- 
 son will realize that cooking does not give exceptional dexterity 
 and skill of hand in the arts, nor does sewing. If we must haxe 
 special experts to teach cooking, sewing, writing, drawing, 
 music, should it not be necessary for us to have experts to teach 
 mathematics, history, geography, and the other studies? This 
 seems to be the tendency, but it is not feasible in the schools. 
 \\'hat is to prevent the ordinary teacher's having a certain 
 amount of capacity in these directions? We certainly cannot 
 call the teacher an educated person, or one able to teach, unless 
 he or she has some ability in these directions. 
 
 In the beginning, nothing is more important than the 
 necessity of making the various senses alert and bright by con- 
 stant and systematic use. The perceptive faculties should be 
 made accurate, the memory correct, the thinking and the will- 
 ing powers strong and true by direct use on things. These 
 capacities or faculties dimini.sh very rapidly for lack of use, and 
 at certain stages the organism refuses to work, and the best 
 impressions possible are dull, fleeting and feeble, not being dis- 
 tinct enough to form even nebulous ideas. ^Mental structure, 
 thought fabric, must be maile Ijy children' coming in contact, 
 first hand, with things, receiving and assimilating all the pos- 
 sible sense impressions, and making all the jwssible movements
 
 Lack of Real Drawing 39 
 
 ami reactions. Xo mere memorizing of printed words, no 
 jugglinjf witii figures, no listening to a series of discuiniected 
 facts, will take the place of organic impressions permanently 
 registered and systematized. 
 
 This can best be done by means of the various modes of 
 expression, when the hand, the eye and the mind are continu- 
 ously and pleasural)ly storing up facts and making the recjuired 
 movements. Tiie most perfect lessons can be received from the 
 most common and the simplest things. Hence, a good teacher 
 will make use of common and simjjlc things. In the elementary Drawing 
 
 stages of education, drawing and modeling, proncrlv tauglit t^instiie 
 ■=" * fa' I 1 . to perceptive 
 
 from the most interesting and simple forms, train the perceptive faLuities 
 
 faculties of children more than any other study, strengthen the 
 memory, juilgment and imagination, and arouse the instinctive 
 investigation so powerful in all children. The idle curiosity of 
 untrained children is the starting point for the good teacher. 
 This curiosity nuist be cherished, intensified and stimulated 
 until the habit of complete and willing attention is formed, the 
 teacher gradually increasing the power of attentive application 
 of the pui)il until the stage of genuine study and hard work with 
 the eye. hand and intelligence is obtained as a natural growth. 
 Aristotle has saiil, " The hand is the instrument of instru- 
 ments and the mind is the form of forms." Surely we must 
 give some- real and fundamental training to the hand. This 
 hand skill is to be ac(|uired by all. not because they are to work. 
 but because they cannot afford to l)e without a training that Hanaskill 
 
 makes brain co-ordinations form sense connections, and there- "laki-s 
 
 , . . . ...... intelligence 
 
 fore aids or makes nUeIhgence, reasi ii. nnagniation and judg- 
 ment in the shortest way. This hand skill is retpiisite, not 
 necessarily to enable its possessors to !)ccome artists or artisans 
 — though j)ossessing art skill and capacity through esthetics is 
 essential to complete culture, and this is ihe side usually to be 
 considered — beauty acted. V>y maiuial training methtxis the 
 person becomes able to rieal ami ilo with things if necessary, to 
 be always ready to enjoy an<l appreciate nature, and grows self- 
 reliant because confident of power.
 
 40 First Principles 
 
 I should like to utter a protest against the vain experiments 
 of certain psychologists who are at present misleading teachers 
 in wrong methods of child study; who are simply dallying with 
 things that are not essential. A great loss of energy is the 
 result. For this they have been performing trifling experiments 
 on troops of children, efforts that have no product. Why not 
 study the acts of children for some useful and educational pur- 
 pose, for some method that will tend to conserve their energy 
 and health? I think that half the energy given to some of these 
 things, spent on investigating the capacity of expression 
 through the hand, would soon lead to golden fruit. The possi- 
 bilities and potentialities in this direction are unlimited. Let 
 this field be worked. 
 
 In all my experience I have never yet found a teacher edu- 
 cated by book methods able to draw. This seems an incredible 
 statement, yet from my point of view it is correct. By drawing 
 I mean thought expression and power to express ideas of all 
 forms on surfaces and in things; not the feeVjle imitations of cer- 
 tain methods, of conventional forms, with labored application, 
 bit by bit, dot by dot, but to have organically the power at once 
 to delineate balance, proportion, grace, beauty, fitness. By 
 drawing I mean the vital union of thought and action that gives 
 definite expression to individual thought through the hand, 
 the power to reproduce mental images just as we express them 
 by speech, after assimilating certain sense impressions; creating 
 and designing nattire anew. 
 
 I have actually had pupils come to me who have recently 
 wasted money and energy by trying to learn drawing by corre- 
 spondence through the mails. Perhaps very soon some people 
 will try to teach music, singing, for instance, the same \\ay. 
 
 The methods I advocate are no longer new. Ambidex- 
 terity, psycho-physical co-ordinations, memory work, rotation 
 of classes and other features peculiar to our course, have re- 
 ceived the test of time and application to large numbers. 
 
 Could any sane person walk around the ten acres of school 
 exhibits a few years ago at Chicago, at the World's Fair, and be
 
 Lack of Real Drawing 
 
 41 
 
 Illustration lo 
 
 Till. lii..h..uJ Cn.k 
 
 Thcac tcacb'jrs <m pracu^ing la^'gc Ircc-haiiJ iiiovt^nicnta iit urdcrlu acquire facility 
 
 satisfied with the work going on under the name of art, of 
 drawing, of manual training? Coulil anyone for a moment 
 think that it represented tlie work of indivichial cliild life, of 
 growing organisms, each one alive? Did it not all seem fash- 
 ioned from the same mean lack of thought exhibited by some 
 plan or system maker? Did it not show, in its various simi- 
 larity, an endless repetition of the same things — the hand of 
 trade? Did it not show, from its very constant and feeble ring- 
 ing of the changes on cubes, blocks, cones, i)risms, defini- 'nsuffi^ii'm-yof 
 tions, — the iteration of terms, construction, representation ami 
 decoration, — shallow minds wading in a morass of second- 
 hand thoughts, words and jihrases; able to talk, parrot fashion, 
 but not able to do; able to say, but not to feel; ;ible to preach, 
 but not to act? In short, to dogmatize. That is. literally, to as- 
 sert with undue confidence and to advancewith arrogance. Did 
 it not show, from end to end, the commercial element, the 
 spirit of greed for money at the expense of mind? There were
 
 42 
 
 First Principles 
 
 Teachers must 
 be able to draw 
 
 Super\-isors 
 shoulJ be able 
 to draw 
 
 Misuse of 
 type forms 
 
 only a few green oases in the desert, represented by. some 
 schools, where I actually found real autumn leaves and fruit 
 forms drawn and colored by the pupils. \"erily, the sacrifice was 
 awful. Hundreds of miles of paper with " soft gray lines " rep- 
 resented thousands of minds distorted and drawn out of shape. 
 
 I state without fear of contradiction that no one who is 
 unalile to draw should attempt to teach drawing, yet withoiit 
 one exception I have foun<l the presenters and representers of 
 all commercial systems unable to draw, and, what is far more 
 saddening, none of their pupils could. 
 
 I protest once more against anyone's teaching drawing 
 who is mial)le to draw. It seems that many of the supervisors 
 and so-called experts on this subject throughout the country, 
 with very few exceptions, are unable to draw. Most of them 
 have worked a few years at some art school, chiefly at imitative 
 ^v()rk. The}' luue made a few liglit-and-shade drawings and 
 have studied perhaps a little perspective. They have painted a 
 fev.- flowers and made a few carpet designs. And then they 
 start out on their career with some " system." The children are 
 expected to perform a series of graded exercises, usually of 
 " geometric forms " and " objects based upon geometric 
 forms." They are compelled to work from type forms until 
 they are sick of them, and then they are expected to see resem- 
 blance in the most diverse objects to these type forms. 
 
 It seems to me that this is fundamentally wrong. We 
 should teach the children to look for dissimilarities. \\"e should 
 make their observation acute to notice how different and unlike 
 things are to each other. It is very stupid to me to make chil- 
 dren labor at a cone, for instance, and then gWe them the wrong 
 iilca that a lamp chimney and a carrot, ink bottle, etc., are based 
 on this cone, because there is a very slight resemblance. To 
 me they never look alike, and I have never yet found a bright 
 child who will begin to associate them in the mind voluntarilv. 
 Remember. I believe in type forms and in geometric forms in 
 the right place, but they arc abstractions. Children should have 
 nothing to do with abstractions in the beginning. Before they
 
 Lack, of Real Drawing 43 
 
 are given any iilea of the type forms, tlieir niimls slioulil 
 be stored with a scries of tlie natural forms, from which we 
 receive the idea of the type. When a ciiild has become familiar 
 with apples and marbles, soap bubbles and other round things, 
 then the abstract idea of the sphere may be grasped. 
 
 It may seem a little unfair that I should attack the methods 
 of the so-called drawing teachers in the schools, but what are we 
 to do when we find the great lights, or authorities, so-called, 
 giving utterance to statements like the following. In the 
 report of the proceedings of the National Educational Associa- 
 tion for 1896. on Page 693. will be found such a statement as 
 this, not by an ordinary teacher or a teacher of drawing, but by 
 the superintendent of drawing for a whole city — a teacher of 
 teachers: " There is such a thing as a child having too much 
 candy, and therr is such a thing as a child having too mucli PooUsh 
 beautv. Me mav become so accustomed to it that he will not statements by 
 
 , ■ so-c.illed 
 
 appreciate it." I leave the above to speak for itself. teachers 
 
 Again, we find in the same book, on Page 700, not signed 
 by one j)erson only, but by half a dozen, including a college 
 president, a director of one of the chief institutions in the coun- 
 try and several otfler fery ])rominent jieople, the following: 
 " The use of colored papers is the best means now available of 
 presenting and apjilying standards or iileals of color, scales of 
 these standards, and combinations of dilTcrent scales." I protest 
 against stained i)apers of any kind. I have never yet seen natural 
 colors on the papers used for this purpose in schools. They 
 are artificial and crude in all respects. What is the matter with 
 the real colors of nature, as exhibited in (lowers, shells, stones, 
 butterflies, insects, feathers, birds, etc? 
 
 .\gain, the same book. Page 698: " Models of the pure 
 geometric types of form, which un<lerlie all the manifold variety 
 of form in both nature and art. siiould be studied in connection 
 with these selected objects in order that jjupils may learn to see 
 how the type forms are the ba.sis of all other forms. Having 
 in mind accurate and distinct concepts of the types, the puj)il 
 can more easilv un<lerstand their lunnberless modifications.
 
 44 
 
 First Principles 
 
 Absurdities of 
 
 commercial 
 
 systems 
 
 Artificial forms, 
 stained papers, 
 etc., useless 
 
 The art part 
 vital 
 
 Having a clear understanding of their modifications, he can 
 best express his ideas of them l)y drawing." I have personally 
 shown this complex sentence to many artists. I have not 
 heard one agree with it. I have yet to know any artist of 
 importance who was ever educated in this way. 
 
 Another sentence is as follows: "The exercises should 
 also be distinctly classified so as to cover the three great divi- 
 sions of all art work, namely: Representation, or the appearance 
 of form, decoration or the ornamentation of form, and construc- 
 tion or the facts of form." This sentence, perhaps, will be the 
 key to a great many of the absurdities indicated above. It simply 
 shows to one who has studied the whole question carefully, and 
 without prejudice, that none of these so-called authorities can 
 themselves draw, or have the beginning of an idea about draw- 
 ing, but that they have a very complete idea of an artificial sys- 
 tem which has been classified and systematized until drawing 
 and art have absolutely disappeared from it. I venture to assert 
 that not one of them ever painted a picture or modeled a statue. 
 
 How absurd it is then that they should stand up as authori- 
 ties on the subject and mislead people. It has been done, how- 
 ever, for a purpose, and that purpose is to sell various mate- 
 rials, — series of books for each grade, series of artificial forms in 
 wood graded, pencils for a variety of purposes, stained papers, 
 geometric shapes, etc. This has gone on until even the cost of 
 these things makes the work impossible in many schools and 
 frightens the simple-minded by the seeming complexity and 
 difficulty of a very simple sul)ject. Indeed, drawing requires 
 less plant and arrangements than any other branch in the school 
 curriculum, because drawing can be done with only a piece of 
 paper and pencil, or a slate and pencil, if necessary. 
 
 We must see that art comes into every step of the elemen- 
 tary or fundamental work, using the word in its fullest meaning 
 — ars, artis, — " skill in joining and fitting," " the emplovment 
 of means to accomplish some desired end," " human labor 
 regulated by design." In every stage of the work the instru- 
 mentalities of the pupils should be set directlv at work, the
 
 Lack of Real Drawing 45 
 
 hands, the e>es and the head. There should l)e no instruments 
 of precision, no copy books to save lahor or avoid skill. The 
 art part of a great deal of work is the part that cannot be meas- 
 ured, weighed or marked. — it is the vital part. Science compels 
 observation and reflection, but does not always result in action. 
 Art compels observation, reflection and action, and makes them 
 mutuall)' dependent on each other. " Science is the knowing, 
 art is the doing." It, therefore, makes vital and alive tlie con- 
 nection that should exist between the inner thought and the 
 outward action. 
 
 I ])in my faith to the superintendents, if we are going to 
 better the schools in this direction, not to the crank artists, art 
 directors and supervisors. Superintendents are usually men of 
 affairs, teachers who liave been selected for fitness and ArtanJ manual 
 
 training 
 merit, men w ho have been taught by experience. They will teachers shoulJ 
 
 have to realize, however, tliat, just as there are many ways of 
 teaching language, reading, geography and arithmetic, some 
 gooil and some l)ad, so there are many methods that go by the 
 name of art and of manual training ami drawing. They will 
 have to demand that their art directors, supervisors and teach- 
 ers should be able to draw. I do not mean that they should 
 simply take their word for it, or be satisfied with a portfolio of 
 drawings of objects, casts, cubes, blocks, or a certificate of this j^r — i 
 
 or that normal art school or mill, but, being rational men, that 
 they should see that the teacher can draw, knowing that draw- 
 ing is a mode of thought expression, not simply a familiarity 
 with certain graded .steps of a traditional or dogmatical thought- 
 less plan. They should say: " Here is paper; express youiself; 
 draw a loaf, a house, a cat, a scroll, anything " Performance 
 should be the great test in our business not words and asser- 
 tions. I have actually known soTne teachers, when confronted 
 in this way, to say: " W here is the model for me to copy?" 
 Surely tliese are not teachers, but imitators, cojjvists 
 
 Critics may consider that the author ha.'; devoted too much 
 attention to the dec(jrative and conventional forms, to drill and 
 designing. He considers, however, that in a book of this 
 
 r^
 
 46 
 
 First Principles 
 
 Drill essential 
 in the 
 elementary 
 Stages 
 
 character, w ritten to help large numbers of workers in various 
 directions, the industrial art features and their applications 
 should be amplified especially. But this is not done at the 
 expense of any real art study. It is really the elementary part 
 of the truest kind of art work. The drawing from motlels and 
 casts, and the other usual " fine art " studies, are lightly 
 touched upon, because they are already well known. The 
 aim has been, also, to consider as much as possible the large 
 number of pupils who ilo not become artists, but who do require 
 the skill and art knowledge essential for success in the various 
 pursuits of life. 
 
 Designing, Ambidextrous- Work
 
 CHAPTER VI 
 
 Right and Left Hand 
 Work, Ambidextrous 
 Work 
 
 TIE RESULT OF THIS WORK HAS 
 only to be seen for one to l)econie im- 
 pressed with its vahie as a mecHum for the 
 e(hication of tlie individual. Tlie most 
 skeptical arc convinced 1)\- the perfect 
 results produceil, the simplicity of work, 
 the almost instant balance and symmetry, 
 and the visible development in the direc- 
 tions most to be desired in the education 
 of the hand, the eye and the mind. 
 
 Improvement is also made in other 
 tlirections. Tlic co-ordinating of one set 
 of muscles iinariably inllucnces the rest. 
 
 The hands, the eves and the mind are Sympathetic 
 
 ' , , , influence 
 
 exercised to a much greater degree tlian 
 
 is possible when using them only partially. 
 Hence, a more symmetrical whole is produced. The pupils 
 stand better, liold their heads more erect and level, — in a word, 
 they have more understanding. 
 
 If it can be done with the right han<l, why do it with the 
 left? some say. Why waste time that might be given to some- 
 thing else? These (piestions are natural, and at first seem right, 
 but a little thought makes one realize that in many trades. espe- 
 cially the ones re(|uiring skill of hatul. both hands need to be 
 
 (■•7)
 
 48 
 
 First Principles 
 
 Reasons for 
 
 ambidextrous 
 
 work 
 
 Not 
 unreasonable 
 
 used, and tlie more skilled the left hand the better the work- 
 man. Again, some artists who first hear of our ambidextrous 
 work sometimes think it absurd. They do not realize that we 
 do not attempt to sketch or paint witli the left hand, and that it 
 is mainly for its physiological and educational value that we 
 train it. 
 
 The reason we do ambidextrous work is for the physical 
 co-ordinations acquired. Biology teaches that the more the 
 senses are co-ordinated to work in harmon}- in the individual, 
 the lietter. If I work with the right hand, I use the left side of 
 the brain; if I employ the left hand, I use the right side of the 
 l)rain. In truth, I exercise some special region or center of the 
 brain in every conscious movement I make, and in every change 
 of movement 1 bring into play some other center. If, by per- 
 forming any such action with energy and precision, I aid in the 
 development of the accordant center, I am improving the cere- 
 bral organism, liuilding for myself a better and more symmet- 
 rical mental fabric. 
 
 Does this seem unreasonable? We use both feet, both eyes, 
 both ears. I am firmh- convinced that the better and firmer 
 the union of each hand with its proper hemisphere of the brain, 
 and the more facility we have of working each together, 
 and also independently, the better the brain and mind and the 
 better the thought, the reason and the imagination will be. 
 The results of my method have fully demonstrated this fact, as 
 the teachings of modern science, and especially of psychology, 
 have fully established the truth of this contention.* 
 
 • " Every impression of sense upon the brain, every current of molecul.ir activity from one 
 to another part of the brain, every cerebral reaction which passes into muscular movement 
 leaves behind it some modification of the nerve elements concerned in its function, some after. 
 effect, or, so to speak, memory of itself in them which renders its reproduction an easier matter, 
 the more easy the more often it has been repeated, and makes it impossible to say that, however 
 trivial, it shall not under some circumstances recur. Let the excitation take place in one of two 
 nerve cells lying- side by side, and between which there was not any original specific difference; 
 there will be ever afterward a difference between them. This physiological process, whatever 
 be its mature, is the physical basis of memory, and it is the foundation of the development of all 
 our mental functions."— [Maudsley, Physiology of the Mind, p.age 27.
 
 « 
 
 o n — ■ 
 
 
 r 3 
 
 cc 
 
 < 3 _ 
 
 -I - 
 
 •lib 
 f f *"" 
 
 it 
 
 
 "0 
 
 r 
 
 H 
 
 V/
 
 50 First Principles 
 
 I am convinced that in proper manual training move- 
 ments — exercises that make a firm, well knit union between tlie 
 hand and the l)rain. making the hand (and each hand) obey the 
 mind indc]iendently, we are jiroducing new mental conditioivs. 
 or physical structure in the brain. The l)rain has growth in the 
 beginning for a certain period, and arrives at a certain size dur- 
 ing youth. Afterward it increases in comple.xity and structure. 
 All recent studies of the cerebrum point to the fact that our 
 
 Mindbuiiaing intelligence is associated with a union of brain cells one with 
 another, and the more experience we gain through the variou.s 
 senses, the greater will be the structural union and complexity 
 of the brain cells. 
 
 It seems wrong to sec children compelled continuall\' to 
 memorize and to draw on the reason, the fancy and the imagina- 
 
 Abstractwork tion, before they have well developed centers or brain cells with 
 
 ^^™"'^ which to think, reason and ideate. I know for a fact that the 
 
 energy of m;m\- children is consumed and exhausted b)' the use 
 of abstract thought work too early in life, instead of Ijeing 
 conserved l)y proper training. 
 
 I claim better results from the right hand, when the left is 
 worked also, than from the right hand working alone, in the 
 same space of time, in almost any kind of hand work. In 240 
 trades or crafts the workman employs both hands cjuite freelx'. 
 and in certain occupations, like carving, engraving, modeling 
 and chasing, the left hand works as much as the right. ^^lus- 
 cular co-ordinations and facility with the left hand as well as 
 the right are therefore ver}- important and of large practical 
 ai)plication, apart from the physiological and mental \-alue of 
 amiiidextcrity. 
 
 Indeed, the old education neglected bolli hands, not the 
 
 Old methods of I'ight hand only. Yet who shall now sa}- that the education of 
 
 education these marvellous i)ortions of the anatomv should l)e longer 
 
 neglect both ^ . • ^ 
 
 hands neglected? Truly says Sir Charles Bell, in " The Hand "' 
 
 (Page 134): 
 
 '■ The human hand is so wonderfully formed, so beautifully 
 
 shaped, it has so fine a sensibility: that sensibility governs its
 
 Ambidextrous Work 
 
 5J 
 
 motions so correctly, every effort of tlie will is answered so 
 instantaneously, as if the hand itself were the seat of that will. 
 Its actions are so powerful, so free and yet so delicate, as if it 
 possessed a quality of instinct in itself, that there is no thought 
 of its complexity as an instrument or of the relations which 
 make it subservient to the mind. We use it as we draw our 
 breath, unconsciously, and have lost all recollection of tlic feeble 
 elYorts whereby it has been perfected." 
 
 Surely, then, the new education must not make the mistake 
 of training but one ham! — -one only of these two instruments of 
 power and action. 
 
 Meissonier also said: " It would be a great advantage to 
 be ambidextrous, — children ought to be taught this habit." 
 Illustration 35 
 
 Krcchand Orii;in;iI rK-siyns, Public School, (Jcrinuulown 
 All the children In the mom draw al Intcrv'nU on Ihr hlarklw>ard initklni; oriifinal dvMiifnu. The pupll» at thu 
 benches work on paper from objccl-s and in color. •i'Mncliiiw-.i al ilc..ltrnln^', ..omcfliiics al natural furiUK.
 
 CHAPTER VII 
 
 Drawing Correlated 
 with Other Studies 
 
 Correlate the 
 drawing with 
 other school 
 work 
 
 HE LESSOXS IX 
 
 ceeding books of this work 
 
 ISIodeling- Fruit Forms trom 
 Nature 
 
 THE SUC- 
 
 lave 
 
 been evohed from the resuUs of years 
 
 of experience in working by a num- 
 
 I)er of different methods. They have 
 
 been arrived at after mnch experiment, 
 
 on account of their snital^iht}- for the 
 
 young and the old, and the fact that 
 
 very little plant is required. From the 
 
 verv beginning, the object has been to 
 
 co-ordinate or correlate the drawing 
 
 with all the other school work. One 
 
 of the greatest troubles with drawing 
 
 by the old method is that it seems to 
 
 be something entireh' apart from the 
 
 other studies, a mere accomplishment, something for the select 
 
 few, the ones who display a certain amount of talent. 
 
 BaJ use of art This is wrong. Drawing and manual training are especially 
 
 work in schools g^^jted for backward and dull pupils: they are the very ones who 
 
 most need its training. 
 
 Drawing can very readily be made one of the most vital of 
 studies, one of the most important. It is the study on which 
 half the drudgery and tiresome work of the school can be placed.
 
 Drawing Correlated With Other Studies 53 
 
 It is the study tliat makes pleasing and interestinjj to them- 
 selves the work of the pupils. Drawins: and manual training, 
 above all other work studies, will enable the child to work out 
 its own salvation, in the fact that tlicy form a disposition to 
 action and allow the child to make the energetic m<)\cments 
 that are so good and proper for its well-being. 
 
 Drawing in the i>ast. to many teachers anil children, has 
 consisted of mere imitative work from a few type forms. — mean- 
 ingless blocks. It has not been made a vital and connected 
 
 part of their other studies. If children are to know things, to Compels love 
 
 of nature 
 gain knowledge (and their coming to school is for this purpose), 
 
 I know of nothing that will take the place of the riglit kind of 
 instruction in drawing, as it compels their attention to things, 
 if properly presented. 
 
 Take, for instance, a rural school, where the children get 
 a little reading, writing and arithmetic, in homeopathic doses. 
 and very little of anything else. See what glorious possibilities 
 and potentialities there are here, if the teacher has any idea of 
 drawing as it should be taught. Right at the door is the whole 
 field of nature — plants, flowers, insects, animals, stones, fruits, 
 vegetables, can be procured without any trouble. The children 
 are delighte<l to bring almost anything in the way of models of 
 this kind. If they are near the seashore, the boys can get 
 en<lless forms of life in the way of seaweeds, shells, crabs, fish. 
 etc. If in the mountains, the same can be done with dif- 
 ferent kinds of plants, weeds, stones, birds, fish, insects, etc. 
 These forms can be drawn, and the reading, writing, arithmetic, 
 spelling, composition, punctuation. and other studies hung on as The ivKinning 
 inci<Icntals. The children will be fascinated and inspired at first "' w'sJom 
 hand. They will take an added interest in their work, esi)ecially 
 when the doors of their minds .ire opened and the things of 
 which they see so much and know so little are transformed 
 for them. 
 
 Farmers' children and others should know all about the birds, 
 bugs, caterpillars, tlies, si)iders. weeds, plants, the flowers and 
 common growths of their environment, and thus have matter
 
 54 
 
 First Principles 
 
 Knowledge of 
 things of first 
 importance in 
 education 
 
 Good pictures 
 improve taste 
 
 that will be of value and an aid to them iu their future life. This 
 is very much better than cramming them with disconnected facts 
 of historv of far-off countries, incidents in the lives of kings and 
 statesmen, that are not of much value. Of course the young 
 should become as completely educated as possible, but if they 
 are to have one thing or the other, let them get, first of all, 
 direct knowledge of their own environment. 
 
 There is no reason, even in city schools, why similar work 
 should not be done; though the country child has far greater 
 advantages in the way of studying natural forms, the city child 
 has manv compensating advantages. Nearly all chiklren 
 can get from their homes and from their friends any of the 
 simple common things in the way of leaves, plants, shells, ani- 
 mals, etc., that are the fundamentals of study, and with which 
 we should first fill the mind of the child before we attempt to 
 give the higher tliought studies. 
 
 I can see already this change coming in many places, 
 akhough so far it is mostly in the way of the introduction of 
 things that have utilitarian value alone, — trades similar to car- 
 penter work, cooking and sewing, which to me simply consume 
 the valual)le time of the children without educating them. I 
 think the time is near at hand when the true idea will be 
 received. Institutions like the Drexel Instittite, the Armour 
 Institute, the Pratt Institute, are simply, in my mind, protests 
 against the old methods of education. They are schools where 
 the pupils Icani by doing, and though in some cases, trades are 
 taught instead of real education being given, I think the latter 
 W'ill be the next step. 
 
 No one can see how newspapers and books are changing, 
 with their endless pictures and illustrations; no one can see the 
 imi^rovements and means of getting l)etter pictures in all direc- 
 tions, without realizing that this mtist have a great influence on 
 the education of those to come. The same is trtie with regard to 
 smooth roads, electric lights, the bicycle, etc., all influences that 
 are tending to make life easier and better. Some of the papers 
 and magazines to-day are real works of art. Continually they
 
 56 
 
 First Principles 
 
 Futility of 
 
 present 
 
 methods 
 
 Drawing a 
 mode of 
 thought 
 expression 
 
 Meissonier 
 
 are pouring out on the multitude streams of visual information 
 that must have an influence. The school is bound to keep in 
 line with these things. Better methods and better text-books 
 and appliances must be used. The old methods liazx to change, 
 and the teachers, too. 
 
 Appliances in the schoolroom that have been used for 20 
 years are still being used the wrong way, and at the wrong time, 
 such as copy books and drawing models, imitations of copies, 
 etc. In some schools, systems of geometric forms (wooden 
 ones) are used during the entire eight years of the school 
 life of the child by teachers who have never been able to 
 draw from the beginning. 
 
 Can anyone fail to realize how tired and weary the children 
 must become of these things, and especially when they do not 
 find any vital connection in them with their work? A\'e cannot 
 expect the children to do this when we find the teachers unable. 
 All artists know how unreasonable it is to expect a product in 
 drawing from children if they receive only a few homeopathic 
 doses of " construction," " representation " and " decoration " 
 a few minutes a week. The artist knows how many hours of 
 study and actual delineation must be given before even an 
 ordinary amount of capacit}' is achieved. 
 
 The whole subject, however, assumes a very tlifferent 
 aspect when drawing is used as one of the chief instruments of 
 impressing the organism through all its various sense channels, 
 and is also used as one of the chief instruments of imparting 
 knowledge in all its various branches, being a mode of thought 
 expression, just as speech and writing are modes of thought 
 expression. 
 
 Meissonier thought drawing one of the bases of primary 
 education, and said: "To what heights might their intelli- 
 gences be trained by simply teaching them to see. I would 
 have drawing made the basis of education in all schools. It i? 
 the only language that can express all things. An outline, 
 even if ill-shaped, conveys a more exact idea of a thing than the 
 most harmonious sentences in the v.-orld. Drawing is absolute 
 truth, and the language of truth should be taught everywhere."
 
 Drawing Gjrrelatcd With Other Studies 
 
 57 
 
 Growth of 
 ideas 
 
 Ideas must be 
 
 I like my pupils and teachers to understand the distinction 
 there is l)et\veen sketching from nature and designing. In the 
 one case we put down facts, and in the other, ideas. There is 
 a tendency for many students to sketcli onl) from nature. We 
 get our ideas by thinking as well. More time shouUl he given, 
 then, to dwelling on our impressions and to systematic mental 
 reproduction, and to giving expression to these ideas constantly 
 by designing and creative work."^ 
 
 To get good art work we must have good ideas, and they 
 must be tangible and concrete ideas that we can instantly revive 
 at will — that will recur automatically to the mind when needed. 
 We can revive impressions of things, and we ought to be able 
 to revive ideas in the mind. They must be placed there first. 
 
 They must be tirmly locked into the mental faljric by the sys- locked into 
 
 " . , ' /• 1 1 1 1 the mind 
 
 tematic performance of deeds, not only once, but many tmies. 
 
 The more experience I have the more I can embody in these 
 ideas; facility of expression giving accuracy of perception. The 
 more I know of history, countries, religions, governments, 
 climates, habits, the more of value I can put in my work. 
 
 We must take in things, assimilate them and form ideas, 
 and then we will have an outcome. The more we practice this, 
 the more facility we will find (jurselves obtaining. It is always 
 possible to revive ideas in the mind and to make mental move- 
 ments and co-ordinations. The more we do this, the more 
 vital force we will have, the more deeply we will realize am' 
 appreciate things. We will begin to understand what-inspir ; 
 tion means. 
 
 •"The iitt-a in f.tcl is or^^ini/cil as ;i sep.iratc mental cxisU-nre iit lite cerehral conviilu- 
 tions, being for UA when sii or|^ani/.ed lo all intcatn anij purposes the ohject, and may he ari>iised 
 into independent activity. Every idea is, tliuN representative, the abstract of many sensation^, 
 cfimprisin^ implicitly more than it displays explicitly ; i!) it the essential Is rmhotlirtl, the unes- 
 Mrntial suppressed or rejected; it is n'>t the idea of any particular object or event, but the ide.i of 
 every object or event of a particular kind; it is fundamentally a i^neralizalion or induction. We 
 may justly »ay, then, that the ideational ner\-c centers ideali/e or ideate our sensory perceptions; 
 the process of ideation, like other processes of organic evolution, bein|( one of proi^ressivc 
 differentiation and intc^rration.-or discrimination of the unlike iind assimilation of the like.** 
 [Maudsley, Physiolotfy of Mind, l*agc 377.
 
 CHAPTER Vm 
 
 Nature Studies — Rig;ht 
 Methods 
 
 Looking at 
 thinj^s not 
 enough 
 
 Boy inakint; hirge chart 
 frt-ehund with brush and 
 ink on nianihi paper. All 
 the coinnifin names and 
 technical terms are lettered 
 by him on each part. 
 
 N EDUCATIONAL AUTHORITY 
 lias stated: "The only way to teach 
 nature study is \\ith no course laid out, 
 to bring in \vhate\er ma}' lie handy and 
 to set the inipils to looking at it. The 
 ]iupils do the work. They see the thing 
 and e.xjilain its structure and its mean- 
 ing. The exercise should not be too 
 ong. not to exceed fifteen minutes at 
 any time. And above all, the pupils 
 should never look upon it as a recita- 
 tion, anil there should never be an 
 examination. It should come as a rest 
 exercise, whenever the pupils become restless. Ten minutes a 
 day for one term of a short, sharj) and spicy observation upon 
 plants, for example, is worth more than a whole text-book of 
 botany." 
 
 I seriously doubt if this is tlie way. I question if they see 
 the thing simply by " looking " at it. I question if in this way 
 they can comprehend and explain its structure and its meaning, 
 ^lany teachers have been following this method for vears, and 
 even adults in normal schools have been doing it for a series of 
 years, Ijut I fail to find much product or result. If simply looking 
 at things will accomplish this, why is it that so few people, 
 
 (5S)
 
 Nature Studies 59 
 
 siKkleiily askeil wliose licatl is on a two-cent stamp, can answer 
 
 correctly? Are not stamps seen and handleil often? 1 have tried 
 
 this and other experiments on thousands of teachers for many 
 
 \ears. and I know people do not learn or see by simply looking. 
 
 I find that even looking at and handling things all their 
 
 lives will not enable some jieople to know the shape of the most 
 
 familiar forms. Take a connnon spoon, for instance. Xot one 
 
 in fifty can give a sure answer as 
 
 to how its handle curves, up or Familiarity 
 
 down. I do not mean that thev ""' . , 
 
 knowleJge 
 
 should be able to make a drawing 
 of it, but that they should be able 
 to know actually how it bends. 
 
 # 
 
 (See diagram.) From the concept that they have, or have 
 had, of the spoon in their minds for perhaps years, not one 
 among fifty will answer this correctly. Try it and see. The 
 same is true of the shape of the nio.st familiar tools. I can take 
 people and prove that they do not begin to know the shape of 
 their own most familiar hannner or saw handle. 
 
 Capacity of this kind, accurate observation, can only be 
 made aiUomatic and useful by art methods, by practical esthct- nij^t^i^ 
 
 ics, by organized impressions repeatedly and systematically repeated 
 
 , 1-11 • , 1 • 1 1 ' 1 1 svstetn.itically 
 
 l)erformed untn the mmd takes m tlie desired percepts and can 
 
 form the concei)ts. 
 
 But giving the sensation through one or two chaimeis is 
 
 sim|)ly useless. All e.xperience teaches this; it is better to make 
 
 a little knowledge vital and organic b\ the use of the conscious 
 
 activities of the child. The child's motor centers nuist be 
 
 trained l)y systematic exercise to respond instinctively to the 
 
 stimulation of sight ami ttnich, bv a i)roduct that compels the Let .stuJy have 
 
 ■ . . . periiuiient 
 
 e.xercise of skillful manipidation. It is this performance and results. 
 systematic repetition that make the result jjermancnt and valu- 
 able. It has actually been found that children have been made 
 more stupid, <lull, tireil and restless by too much looking and 
 handling, without using the spontaneous activities of several 
 other motor senses.
 
 60 
 
 First Principles 
 
 ^ 
 
 We must 
 
 appreciate the 
 beauty of 
 nature 
 
 Permanent 
 organic 
 impressions 
 must be made 
 
 I maintain that through art methods tangible resttlts can 
 be obtained that cause the child to take pains, that arouse its 
 emotions to a point of love and sympathy on account of the 
 trouble required to obtain some wished-for product. However 
 trifling or poor this product is, the thing desired, and for which 
 we must scheme, is to cause the child to re-create, as the work 
 of its hands and brain and et^ort, the beauty, proportion, 
 fitness, grace, etc., embodied in the forms studied. The child 
 loves its product for the trouble it has caused. 
 
 This is well illustrated by the habit most children have of 
 saving and keeping as precious, trifling odds and ends that they 
 have made, and that seem to have value to them because they 
 have thought over them and worried over tliem. Experience 
 teaches that formal collections of butterflies, pressed leaves, 
 eggs, etc., are much less cherished, and usually find their way 
 to the waste basket at some period, only a faint and feeble 
 memory Ijeing retained of their forms, one that is entirely use- 
 less so far as regards a vital love of nature and the enabling one 
 to enter into its beauties. We will not get love for nature unless 
 we can appreciate the beauty of nature. This must be culti- 
 vated. Xo douljt there are some impressions, some faint traces 
 of these things left in the adult organism, but not sufficient to 
 arouse impulses to action or energetic moving emotion; not 
 enough to inspire the motor reactions that end in deeds, though 
 often enough to result in thinking and dreaming, and some- 
 times wishing. 
 
 Yet, we can have a right return from nature study if we 
 make the right use of our opportunities. All the rambles, 
 walks and talks of ten teachers, all the looking and handling, are 
 useless for the purpose of nature teaching, unless the impres- 
 sions and information are made organic \)\ the performance of 
 work that compels systematic reaction of the motor centers to 
 yield a product, this being the outward, concrete sign of the 
 internal structure or thought fabric. So much of the one is 
 shown by so much of the other. 
 
 There is something dense in the mind of the average child
 
 Nature Studies 
 
 61 
 
 Illustration 33 
 
 Druwing from Nature 
 
 that must l)e overcome hy this systematic work. There is a 
 mental inertia, if yon will, or wh.it miij^ht he called an infirmity 
 of piirpr)se. that has to be conquered hefore the union of thoupfht 
 and action can he made automatic and comi)lete. Hence, mere 
 looking,' at and handliufj objects will not sjive the best results 
 desired in nature study. And. in proof of this, we fmd that most 
 school work of this kind tloes not produce the expected results. 
 Put the methods pointed out in this work do j)roduce the 
 desiretl results in every case. The children ^et a lovinef recojj- 
 nition of things, an<l this arouses that energetic disposition to 
 perform appropriate actions which is the natural state of the 
 alert and active normal child. 
 
 It is dreadful to see children, as the_\ grow up through the 
 primary, secondary and grammar grades of a school into the 
 high school, becoming more restless and more inditTerent
 
 62 
 
 First Principles 
 
 Effect on healtli 
 of improper 
 methods 
 
 ■■•■ I — 
 
 to so many of the essentialities, wlien. if properly trained, they 
 should lia\e Ijecome more energetic, and disposed to carry on 
 their work with the same energy they make use of in their play 
 and amusement. I am afraid the element of " fun," with a 
 number of other valuable fundamentals, is gratlually crushed 
 out by existing scliool methods. 
 
 .\'() truthful and thoughtful teacher can help but see also 
 that many physical ills result from the present methods of train- 
 ing. ]\Iany children that are chubl^y and healthy and usually 
 have fine color on entering school, are pale, narrow chested, 
 1 feeble, spectacled, cadaverous and pimple faced, when they have 
 finished the school course. By damaging the liody we, in a 
 measure, damage the mind. After all, the body is the chief 
 fabric. To this our best care should be given. The body, its 
 - movements, and its productions, are the outward fruits or signs 
 of the " inner temple." 
 
 The idle curiosity e.xcited- by things must he cherished and 
 nourished until it l^ecomes attention. Inspiration from things 
 means energy, — physical, mental and spiritual energy. We 
 must assimilate and accumulate this energy. If God speaks at 
 all (and who tloubts it?), Pie speaks through His works. " There 
 are tongues in trees, books in the running brook, sermons in 
 stones, and good in everything " (Shakespeare). Ought we 
 not to imderstand these tongues, read these books and under- 
 stand these sermons? Ought we not to get the good from 
 everything? We nuist, as Emerson says, " Bend to the persua- 
 sion llowing to us from every normal thing entreating us to be 
 its tongue to the heart of man, to teach a besotted world how 
 passing fair is wisdom." 
 
 \\'e must make our children realize the divinitv that is 
 
 planted in things. There is a great desire and tendencv in some 
 Beauty aiiJ . 
 
 mystery of quarters to lift the children above the commonplace. Should 
 
 common things .^^.^ ^^^^ rather, make them so familiar with things that even the 
 
 mud and dirt and weeds will seem filled with beautv and mys- 
 
 ter}'? Should we not open their mental eyes, the eye of the 
 
 understanding, to the beauty and splendor of the smallest
 
 Nature Studies 
 
 63 
 
 created atom? Make them realize tlie force that is in every 
 common thin;^, iliat liolds to>jfctlier eacli tlower and leaf and 
 stone; make them realize that " matter and s])irit are two sides 
 of one fact." 
 
 \\'e are compelled to he with matter in this world. We Divine energy 
 cannot lift the children above the commonplace. Instead, we '"matter 
 shonld thrust their heads well into it until they recognize their 
 Mother Xature. There is an irresistible impulse, which is like 
 the tug of gravity, that forces us sometimes against our will, to 
 be close to facts and things. Let us be obedient and bend to 
 the divine energv. Then we can grai'ually take in the idea, so 
 beautifully expressed by Ilishop Kecnc. that " mintcr is the 
 stairwav by which the soul mounts to (lod." 
 
 The desire for nature study is constantly increasing ami is 
 
 lieginning to be apj^reciated among teachers. It is the method 
 
 of studying nature that must now l>e improvcil. When we can 
 
 learn, understand and make use of the lessons with which nature 
 
 teems, the new education will indeed have made a great 
 
 advance. This means much more than merely looking at 
 
 things, though that is better than only reading about them. A 
 
 recent catalogue of a summer school contained a picture of a 
 
 professor of botany dissecting a plant while the class looked i>n. 
 
 He was learning something and receiving an actual impression 
 
 through the touch sense and the muscular sense, as well as 
 
 through the visicjn, but the members of the class were getting 
 
 only a slight visual and auditory impression of the plant and of 
 
 its parts (for I presume the profe.ssor spoke) that they would 
 
 , X- -f • f 1 . 1 1 i- I i 1 Improved 
 
 .soon forget, .now if each of the class had dissecteil tiie plant ,„i.ti,odsof 
 
 and in addition to the visual and auditory impression, had m.ide study neeJeJ 
 an impression through the muscular and touch sense and then 
 had reinforced these impressions by making diagrams and draw- 
 ings of the various parts, attaching their respective names to 
 each part, fust from the plant and then from memory, a more 
 permanent impression would have been made. It is the per- 
 lormance of actions through a mnnber i>f the modes of expres- 
 sion that calls forth powers of perce])ti<in ;uid c<incei)tii)n .md
 
 64 
 
 First Principles 
 
 Universal use 
 of new moJes 
 of expression 
 
 expression, and makes so vivid an impression on the bram as 
 never to he forgotten. 
 
 The power of imitation and suggestion, the abihty to draw, 
 to model and carve natural objects, is inherent and only needs 
 to be properly trained to become almost as universal a mode of 
 thought expression as verljal or written words. The succeed- 
 ing books of this work afford a partial insight into the methods 
 of developing and training these forms of expression. 
 
 A Touch of N;iturc
 
 BOOK TWO 
 
 Manual-Training 
 Drawing 
 
 Hi 
 
 "am 
 
 '"^l 
 
 """T^ 
 
 Original Dtrsi^ns by Gnunmur Grade Cluldix-a 
 
 "The inslantaiicous juUgiiltnts nl Ihc disUncc, Ihe pnsitioii, the si/.c, the fii;un- of object*, which aicoinpanj 
 our visual sensations, are not consciously made, nor arc Ihey put in lo;,'ical fiirin; in fact, all the labors of philoso- 
 phers hitherto have not iK'en sufficient to discover and explain the process by which we acquiri: thein— to set forth 
 explicitly the pn'inises, the reasonini;, and the conclusions which are implicit in thein."—[Maudsley, Physiolo^'V 
 of the Mind, pace Ji. 
 
 "The irrcat source of happiness is to be found in the exercise of tilents, and perhaps the greatest of all is when 
 the ingenuity i>f the mind is exercised in the dextrous employment f>f the h inds."— [Sir Charles ndl. 
 
 m 
 
 ^ 
 
 SM^J. 
 
 3 
 
 Mo.lil-. ..r l.e.if lr>n.n
 
 H 
 
 O 
 ■JO 
 
 UJ 
 
 (- 
 < 
 
 a. 
 
 
 K = 
 
 to jj 
 
 I i 
 
 3 ^ y 
 
 JZ. 3 
 
 rr "3 
 
 i: -^ 
 
 (66)
 
 Illustration 40 
 
 Some Primary Exercises 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 Preliminary Considerations 
 in Manual-Training- 
 Drawings 
 
 rllE FOLLOWIXc; Ml'TllODS arc a.lvanced with cunrtdence, 
 in view of the fact that tlierc is a general reaction against the 
 printed copybook systems of drawing already described. The 
 imsatisfactory character of such jjiireiy artificial, nay, even nieclian- 
 ical aids to the teacher, is now generally ai)parent, ami many teachers and 
 others interested, feeling this lack of results and deficiencies of methods, are 
 already seeking better ways. 
 
 Many artists are also i)OC((ming intercste<l in the education ui clnldren 
 in art work, and are practically unanimous in their condemnation of the old 
 systems. Indeed, it is iiardly possible tt) name an artist of any im|)ortance 
 who agrees with the systems in general use. Artists, usually, are not much 
 engaged in public affairs, but when one of them does look into the usual 
 methods of education, it is generally with an e.xjiression of amazement 
 at the feebleness and utter inutility of the art instruction received. Artists 
 
 (67)
 
 6S 
 
 Manual- Training Drawing 
 
 are beginning to be more interested in the sulDJect, and several voices have 
 of late been hfted up in not uncertain tones, advocating a change to rational 
 ways of work that will produce useful results. 
 
 ^^'hen artists are spoken of in this connection, real ones are meant — 
 those who actually produce art work. I do not mean those teachers of art 
 or of drawing, who have never producetl a statue, a model, or a picture. 
 Many of these, unfortunately, are engaged in teaching the artificial systems 
 complained about, and in many cases they have been trained in normal art 
 schools expressly for that kind of work. Thev never had anv real knowl- 
 edge of art work, and their products are destitute of value, being vitiated 
 by all the intricate inanities of the systems indicated. Artists must, ere 
 long, combine against the errors in education mentioned, and it is only 
 because of ignorance of actual school j^rocesses that the\' ha\'e not been 
 already aroused. Surely, their judgment should be consulted as to what is 
 best to do, even if they are not teachers. Some of them are sufificiently 
 interested to condemn false work, and to suggest improvements. I have 
 had many artists visit my schools, and ha\'e never yet found any to object to 
 any part of the work, as contrasted with the old methods. They usually 
 
 lllU';tration u 
 
 First Exercise, Manuul-Traininir Drawing
 
 Illustration 42 
 
 Preliminary G}nsi<leraticns 
 
 69 
 
 M.iiiii il I r, lining Ivxeriisi's 
 These grammar grade pupils are tr.iinctt l>y the nrdinary teacher 
 
 endorse even (he most radical changes we have made — chaiifjcs that are the 
 result of experiment — from the standpoint of the artist, not of the teacher. 
 
 It is to be distinctly understood by artists and art teachers who read 
 these chni)ters on "drill" work, that these exercises are not intended to take 
 the place of art teachinjjf oi various other forms — tlie drawing from objects, 
 the study of perspective (in its right place), the use of color. light and sliade, 
 etc. But the object of tliese exercises is for the tlefinite ])nrpose of su])ple- 
 menting art work in all directions, and ])ri!naril\- for giving fundamental skill 
 and dexterity to the hand as an instrument. .\il art teachers can realize the 
 value of a ready hand prompt to obey the miinl. one tliat by training is 
 thoroughly co-ordinated to perform all movements with facility as soon as 
 thought. Especially is this a])i)reciated if time is .saved, and certain 
 qualities — such as balance, proportion, magnitiules. space relations, etc., 
 are mailc automatic (see page 77) and. at the same time, tlie mind is stored 
 with all the conmion and conventional forms and unit> of design i)f the best 
 periods and of the ditYerent styles or schools of art. 
 
 Teachers must realize also that only a very short time need be given to 
 this drill work, about ten minutes each lesson, provided it starts at the nas- 
 cent or incipient perioij of chiltih 1. Also, th.it in all cases, (he drill work
 
 70 
 
 Manual-Training Drawing 
 
 in delineation is accompanied by form work on paper, in clay modelling from 
 forms, and (if children are not too young) by wood carving of various forms. 
 Of course, if children or adults have passed the nascent period for this work, 
 extra time must he gix-en to acquiring the desired facility: for few can be 
 found now to dispute the desirability of real manual dexterity for each hand 
 for all boys and girls whatever their future life may be, apart from the idea of 
 draw ing as a mode of thought expression for educational purposes, and as a 
 means of correlating all the various studies. I do not think a psychologist 
 can now be found who will not strenuously advocate real drawing and proper 
 manual training as one of the chief means to reinforce "knowledge." and to 
 make it "wisdom." They will advocate it as a means — through motor move- 
 ments and touch sensations — of awakening and making still more alert the 
 brain, which is far too frequently made dull and toriiid Ijy too much verbal 
 memorizing, too much ])rint. too much "telling." and too little doing. 
 
 The drill forms in delineation, then, are for the purpose of getting auto- 
 matic facilit}' for motor centers of the hand, just as all other modes of 
 expression require automatic facility, as in speech, writing, singing, playing 
 on instruments, etc. A course of this drill work alone is folly, but accom- 
 panied" by the other forms of art work and nature study, is of inestimable 
 
 Illustration 45 
 
 Ambidextrous Co-ordinations in Four Directions
 
 Illustration 1 1 
 
 Preliminary Gsnsiderations 
 
 71 
 
 Frt'c Hand Drawing 
 Grammar ^radc pupils making original designs 
 
 educational value. The forms have been arranged in tlic order of their 
 difficidty, not in the logical order. First, easy line exercises are given, then 
 simple units of design, then complex exercises and units of design, and 
 so on. 
 
 It is not expected to at once overcome all the evil effects resulting from 
 art instruction having been left so long in the hands of mere book publishing 
 concerns and their agents, but I do expect to let in some light on the subject. 
 Especially do I expect to see the artists, and peojile wiio are authorities on 
 these matters, become interested in the (|uestioii and to see them earnest 
 advocates of newer and better methods. If this interest is once aroused, we 
 need have no fear as to what will ensue. 
 
 T^ie Tivo Kinds of Draivmg. — Many will think that too much 
 time and space lia\e been given in tins l)ook tf) the manual-training drawing 
 and drill work, at the expense of the equally important work of drawing 
 from nature am! art forms. This has been done intentionally. The value 
 of drawing as manual tr.iim'ng. and of manual training to right and good 
 drawing, has not been surticieiitly emphasized in the past. Xo one ailvocatcs 
 more strongly than I the importance of drawing from nature and art forms, 
 but I also recognize the importance of manual training an.l drill work as
 
 72 Manual-Training Drawing 
 
 elementary to and supreme for the l^est results m art work and nature study. 
 For this reason I have given the manual training part of drawing in con- 
 siderable detail. 
 
 The distinction usually made between the manual training idea and 
 art work is a false one. They are two sides of one fact, equally important 
 and equally worthy of receiving all possible care and attention. 
 
 In devising the series of drill forms in manual-training drawing given 
 in this work, it should be distinctly understood that any forms or 
 like characters can be used. I am aware that the moment set things are 
 suggested as necessary, routine will begin. The teacher should be con- 
 stantlv on the lookout for new forms. In the very nature of the case, false 
 systems grow out of a rigid adherence to set forms and methods of work. 
 Teachers must change and modify their instruction in accordance with indi- 
 vidual needs and environment. The forms given are simply the result of 
 the experience of one person, and, though proved to be of value by their use 
 m large classes, may be improved upon by the experience of others. 
 
 Illustration 45 
 
 First Exercises. Primary School, Colored Children
 
 Preliminary Considerations 
 
 73 
 
 Illustration 46 
 
 Free Miind Work lor Vtr}- Young Chlltlrvn 
 
 Paper. — One of the hest kinds of paper 10 use for practice work in 
 (Irawin-^ and for drill work is the crnnnion nianila paper, (let the light 
 tints, as they arc the best for drawing, although any kind can he employed, 
 the kind that weighs 36 pounds per ream, costing about $3. is here sug- 
 gesteil. The sheets can be cut in half, giving the liberal size of iS by J4
 
 74 Manual-Training; Drawing 
 
 inches. This will cover the top of any orchnary desk or table, and as it occupies 
 all the space in front of the pupil, the hands can move with freedom over the 
 whole sheet. I use this paper because it is very cheap and quite as good 
 as the white drawing papers for practice purposes. It can be purchased 
 with any kind of texture, glazed or rough. Manila paper is good, even for 
 designing and making of patterns, on account of its texture, strength and 
 durability. 
 
 For practice purposes I ha\-e the children draw on both sides. Usually 
 we cover the paper all over man>- times with the drill forms. This paper 
 also takes India ink, or the common black inks; of course it is not quite so 
 good for color work as the white paper. I have settled on this paper after 
 trying many other kinds. 
 
 Pencils — No Rubber. — Ordinary school lead pencils will do for drill 
 purposes; the best kind is a good, medium-soft pencil. Do not allow 
 rubbers to be used; it simply wa.stes time, while no good is accomplished. It 
 is, in fact, very important to break pupils of this habit of using rubber. 
 Some children, and even adults, seem to think that the first marks must be 
 rubbed off in any case. In some schools, it seems impossible for the pupils 
 to draw unless they have a piece of rubber in the left hand. 
 
 The habit must be formed of putting down the required touches at one 
 touch to stay. This can readily be done and gives greater freedom and 
 accuracy than when feeble tentative touches are made, with the idea in the 
 mind that they must be changed several times before they can be right.
 
 Illustration 47 
 
 CHAPTER II 
 
 Elementary 
 Drill Forms * 
 
 THIS INSTRUCTION and the exercises in drill work can be 
 given by the teacher to a large niunber of pnpils at once. This will 
 save time and talking on the part of the teacher. It is advisable 
 at intervals to call the attention of the whole class to certain facts. 
 The most convenient way to do this is to ring a bell, when ail the pupils 
 cease working and can listen to the teacher's directions. Pupils working 
 at desks on paper can make forms reduced in size from blackboard work. 
 The series of marginal forms here given are intended to illustrate a graded 
 set of lessons. A large number of forms are given, so that tlie teacher may 
 make a judicious selection therefrom. Bright teachers usually make ntmi- 
 bers of other forms, and in a very short time have a collection of their own. 
 I like my pupils to forget all they have learned and studied of other systems, 
 for the time being. New ])upils, those who have never received any 
 instruction in drawing, while they may be very l)ackward witii hand train- 
 ing, are more plial)Ie and grasp the forms very readily, ])erhaps more readily 
 than those who liave been trained in other ilirections and who have varit)us 
 faults to correct: especially those who have never been taught to make a 
 firm, clear, decided line with a single stroke, but have been taught to dot 
 their lines or to lightly sketch their lines, making a scries of tentative 
 
 •AH of the cuU, csccptinjf a Uw- cf lln- most i-nniplcx ones, h-ivc !>c€n »lr:iwn l>y cliiltlrcn. 
 
 (75)
 
 Manual-Trainingf Drawing 
 
 Free llaiiU Exercises in Straij^ht I.ines 
 
 touches, witli the intention, later on, of making the marks or strokes better. 
 In the old-fashioned drawing methods, this is called "lining in." No one 
 can think for a moment without realizing how stupid it is to make several 
 attempts or to work in that way, when, with very little practice, firm, clear 
 touches can he made from the start. 
 
 To Get (Automatic Facility, — 1 have repeatedly spoken of 
 the desirability of facility in the beginning. These first exer- 
 cises are chielly for the purpose of aci|uiring facility, — actual manual 
 training, the power to make the hand obey the dictates of the mind, to 
 make the hand obedient to the will. It does not matter in the beeinnina" 
 how crudely the pupil makes the forms. Habit and repetition will correct 
 that. Give all the attention in the beginning to position, distance 
 movement, and the like. 
 
 The pupil should learn to draw as automatically as he learns to write.
 
 Elementary Drill Forms 77 
 
 Some of the written letters of the alphal>ct are exceediniily complex, 
 emijotlyiiig (lifticult compound curves, and {^rowing still more difficult when 
 combined with other letters to form a word. Notwithstanding this, the 
 dullest pupil, by constant practice, makes each one of these complex charac- 
 ters unconsciously. The movements of the hand in writing are automatic. 
 \\'hen the pupil desires to express himself in words or writing, he is not 
 obliged to "'lightly sketch" or "line in" the different characters or letters. 
 His mind is occupied with the idea he wishes to express upon the paper, and 
 his hand moves automatically, without a thought being given to the different 
 positions required to form the lines and curves which go to make up the 
 written word.* 
 
 Just so it must be in learning to draw. The different movetnents must 
 be practiced till they are drawn with as little effort and as unconsciously as 
 are the letters of the alphabet. Xo special talent or genius is necessary in 
 order to be able to write well. The same is true of lirawing, in the mere 
 acquisition of the mechanical part of the work. Talent and genius are 
 required for the higher grades of design and creative work, just as talent 
 and genius arc required to express great thoughts in written words. 
 
 The First Exercise Is the Circle. — it should be drawn with the 
 right hand directly in front (lllus. 40, 41, and 49). Let the circle 
 be about six inches in diameter. Do not make the circles 
 too large in the beginning, but later on they can be made of 
 all sizes — as large as the arm can swceji or as the blackboard 
 
 • " It is ca«y 10 perceive why will ciin only determine the rrjru// when it dictale* nn act, anj cannot determine 
 the action of a particular muscle, or the combined actions of certain muscles which have not acted tnnelher before. 
 AM it does is to Itt loose, as it were, the proiter ajjency in the motor center; and this is done by willing: the event, which 
 it i« enabled to do by means of th.-- proper motor inluilion. When I will to utter a certain word, I w ill the evinl. the 
 complex articulating; movements oeing possible to nie only throu^jh the medium of the projx-r motor intuition. The 
 impulse Jiliin the special molor intuition conslilules the particular volition. .\ voluntary movement is truly a reflex 
 •ct in the cortical centers of the brain; diflerinK from the lower rellex movements in these circuinslances—tir»t, 
 that it does not immediately ftdlow the stimulus, hut is caused by the excitation I'f many ass<H'ia(ed sensory residua 
 which have bi'en laid up in consequence c»f former experiences; and. secondU, that it contains or evinces a dis- 
 tinct adaptation In an end 01 purpose, hy reason of the excitation of associated motor residua which have been 
 or)rani/ed effects of former adjustments. If the result wishi-d is « new, unfamiliar one, no residua thereof rn>m 
 previous experiences exislin|( in the motor centers, then the will is unet|ual to the accomplishment of It; there is 
 not an exact and deAnilc idea of the end to be effected, the necessary motor inluilion beinif «anlin(!. After r«. 
 pealed trials, the desired skill is (irmly acquired, and the movement is thenceforth automatic, the motor intuition 
 having been i;nidually orifanijed in the proper nervous centers ; the result storid up strictly corresponds with that 
 which in other nervous centers we descrilu: as «/<»(rrl<( id< a. It is probable thai the so called motor centers In the 
 cerebral convf>lulions are re illy the centers of these molor intuitions ; in olher words, Ihey are the centers in which 
 the sultordinale molor center* act upon consciousness, and they thus constitute the physiolo|{lcal agency of 
 Tolontary movements."— [ Maodiley, Physiolouy of the Mind, pajjes 46<h'<7-
 
 78 Manual-Training- Drawing 
 
 will allow. This graded series of exercises, the result of 20 years' experi- 
 ence, has enabled me to decide upon certain sizes that are more convenient 
 
 and more adapted for school purposes than others. 
 Illustration 40 The circle should be drawn on a level with the chin. 
 
 All children show a disposition to make it above 
 their heads, to reach upward — a fact of much inter- 
 est to psychologists and physiologists. Adults who 
 have never had an\- training usually make their 
 circles too low on the board, and aged people make 
 them quite low — another interesting fact. For our 
 purpose and convenience, we make the circle 
 directly in front, just a little below the eye. See 
 that the body is quite erect, and the head level, and 
 that the hands swing freely around the circle many times. Then, with the 
 left hand draw a circle by the side of the first one (Illus. 41). Practice swing- 
 ing the hand around until the line flows freely. 
 
 Do not allow the body to sway or swing in doing this, but see that the 
 pupil inoves the arm entirely free from the body. The circle is essentially 
 an arm movement. Let there be an easy swing of the arm from the shoul- 
 der, keeping the remainder of the body in an easy, comfortalile position, and 
 carefully avoiding rigidity of the muscles — no tight grip of the chalk. Every 
 movement must be as easy, free and graceful as possible. 
 
 -At first there is a tendency to put the face close to the blackboard sur- 
 face, and to turn the head to one side. Resist these desires and keep up the 
 practice till the movement is free and easy. Ultimately all these movements 
 should liecome automatic, or he made \\ithout conscious attention or exer- 
 cise of the mind. Of course this cannot be expected immediately. 
 
 The next step will be to take a piece of chalk in each hand and draw 
 over the same circle with both hands at once Illns. 41). This 
 movement w.'.l l)c rather diftTcult, but in a minute or two the co- 
 ordination is made and it becomes easy. This accomplished, the pupil must 
 be trained to swing both hands to the right, then to the left, then in opposite 
 directions, letting each hand go around the circle in a direction opposite to 
 that followed by the other (lllus. 45). This last movement is much more 
 difficult, Init in a few minutes it is usually conquered by even the smallest 
 children. These six movements are to be repeated as drill forms contin-
 
 Elementary Drill Forms 79 
 
 ually, just as the five-fingfcr exercises arc practiced on the piano. Do not 
 pay nuicii attention to the accuracy of tiic circle. It doesn't matter iiow 
 crude it is in the beginning, facility being the first thing desired. Many 
 children in a very sliort time can swing perfect circles frequently with each 
 hand. 
 
 Stra.ight Lines. — Tlie next exercise will be the making of straight lines 
 for the purpose of gaining facility in this movement. The pupil, standing 
 in the same position as before, must swing the hand up and down vertically, 
 making a line about i8 inches in length. In doing this, pay especial atten- 
 tion to the position of the body. See that it is erect all the time and that 
 only the hand and arm move. Do not allow the body to wave back and 
 forth as the hand moves up and down. Try to make the hand independent. 
 Beginners will invariably sway the body at first. In teaching a large class, 
 say 12 or 20. on tlie blackboard, it is amusing to see the movements some of 
 the imtrained pupils make. This is very readily overcome, however, by 
 drawing their attention to it, and in a minute or two the hands can be made 
 to swing freely, with every figure quite erect, the heads level and at tlie right 
 distance from the board. 
 
 A second line can now be made in the horizontal direction, crossing the 
 first, the hand being kept in the same pcjsition, illustration 50 
 and allow it to swing freely from the right to 1 ; 
 
 the left, back and forth, till facility is acquired j /^ 
 
 in this movement. The movements can be ! ^/ 
 
 followed with the drawing of the diagonal • 
 
 lines, also continued until the movements are 
 made with ease in any direction (IIlus. 48 and 
 50). Invariably, in one or two places, lack 
 of co-ordination will be felt ami the line will 
 be crooked and uneven, but very little repetition 
 will overcome these defects. 
 
 It is to acquire facility and control, and to get the actual structural con- 
 nection and harmony of relation between the hand and the brain, that we 
 make these consecutive movements all around the circle, not with one hand 
 only, but with each hand. Especial care must be given to the left haml, 
 owing to the lack of its u.se with the majority of people. But with the 
 young the left hand can be made to work with as much freedom as the right,
 
 80 
 
 Illustration %! 
 
 Manual-Training Drawing 
 
 Drill Movements and Spiruls for Primary Children 
 The forms arc made with either hand 
 
 in ;i \cT_\- shoi-l time, and I see no reason wli\' any of us should not have as 
 mucli control and power over the left hand as we have over the right. 
 Crudel}- speaking, we have two brains, a hemisphere for each hand, and only 
 a very dull person will think it necessary to confine himself to the use of one. 
 Usually, in the beginning, a little more time must be given to left-hand work 
 on account of the moveinents being slower and more awkward through lack 
 of use. (See chapter W. page 50, Book One.) 
 
 The Double Loop (lllus. 52). — In making this form, let it he 
 about 12 inches in length. Very few beginners can draw it so that it will, 
 be erect. Usually the force of the writing haljit asserts itself and a great 
 many pupils tip this form to the right, finding it almost impossible to make 
 it vertical in the beginning. I ha\c a series of exercises expressly for the
 
 Elementary Drill Forms 
 
 5t 
 
 purposes of overcoming the writing hal)it — the disposition to slope forms to 
 the right. The double loop is one of them, .\llo\v the hand to swing 
 freely, make the two vertical loops equal in size (Illus. 52), and resist the 
 tendency of the chalk to follow continually the same line. Let it move about 
 till the two forms are to a degree equal and the hand moves with ease and 
 facility. Practice the same thing with the left hand. The next exercise 
 is to make the same form horizontally; then to put in the two diagonals, 
 swinging over each loop many times to get facility and to overcome all awk- 
 wardness of movement. Practice on the loops should be especially directed 
 to the points where awkwardness is indicated, and continued until this is 
 overcome. This is a beautiful exercise for compelling rectitude and for 
 making balance, proportion and fitness. It is quite difficult to make these 
 forms fit in tlic l)eginning. Do not expect accuracy at first, do not mind 
 how much the forms overlap in getting facility, ])Ut as soon as this facility 
 has been attaine<l. endeavor to get fitness and exactness. The same is to be 
 done with the left haml. Manv rosettes and forms similar to this can be 
 
 Illustration ':3 
 
 Illustration 53 
 
 Illustration =4 
 
 made. Suggestions may be found in the illustrations in this book. It is a 
 very easy matter ft)r a good teacher to make twenty arrangements of the 
 double looj). 
 
 When facility has i)ccn accpiircd, practice this loop as the smaller chiM 
 is doing in lilus. 51. The i)upil must endeavor to make the loops (47) 
 erect, equal in size, and equidistant from one end of the blackboard
 
 S2 
 
 Manoal-Trainingf Drawing 
 
 to the other. Let them be about six 
 inches in length. Then interlace the loops. 
 It is quite difficult to draw this (liius. 60) 
 so that the loops will l)e erect, equal in size, 
 and of equal distance. This is a very good 
 exercise. Do not allow the form to be 
 drawn quickly, and resist the tendency of 
 the hand to move as in writing. Continue 
 the exercise straight across the board. 
 There is a great tendency to let it dimin- 
 ish in size. This can be seen readily when 
 a large numl^er of pupils are drawing 
 the form at the same time. The same 
 exercise can be done with the left hand 
 and many varieties of it can be devised. 
 
 cAppUcation of the Loop. — The 
 next is (juite an important exercise 
 (Tllus. 55). In making this form, draw 
 the loops from six to eight inches in 
 length, letting the center loop be erect 
 and the two side loops balance. The hand 
 must swing freely over these lines till per- 
 fect control and automatic movement are 
 acquired. This compels rectitude, balance, 
 proportion and fitness. It can also be 
 interlaced by another similar form (Illus. 
 59). making, if it is properly done, a 
 complete rosette. This is also to be done 
 with the left hand. This form can be 
 varied in many ways, making use of six, 
 eight or twelve loops, interlacing them, 
 etc., as shown herewith. 
 
 '^ason for these Movements, — 
 Only a few of these forms should be prac- 
 ticed at each lesson, it being desirable to 
 give all the period to two or three, — a 
 
 Illustration 55 
 
 
 Illustration 56 
 
 Illustration 57
 
 Elementary Drill Forms 
 
 83 
 
 Illustration 58 
 
 Makini; Loop Foriii> With lliith llnndn, Prilliury C'hilltrvn 
 
 Judicious selection liaving l<ccii made l>y tlic tcaclier. It will lie foiiiul 
 that the forms and the work are a little tedious in the i)cjjimiinj^, just 
 as the scales in studying music, or the exercises re<|uired in singing, are con- 
 sidered tedious. But experience teaches that these forms, projierly carrietl 
 out, will produce the desired results in the organism in the shortest space of 
 time, and the teacher will realize that to get automatic facility a tlow of
 
 84 
 
 Manual-Trainingf Drawing 
 
 Illustration 59 
 
 Illustration 60 
 
 movement is all-important. Very little can be done in skilled iiand training 
 if the movements are made consciously. It is only by making them auto- 
 matic, thus allowing concentration of thought upon the end in view, that 
 good and skilled work can be done. 
 
 The Spiral. — The next form is one of the most frequent in all art 
 forms, — the spiral (Illus. 61). In making this, swing the hand to the cen- 
 ter with a single touch. Do not mind how crude it is in the beginning. 
 Begin this from the outside at a and aim for the center. Let the end of the 
 line be in the middle, at b. Continually practice this form. It is the 
 basis of most designs: it is seen in botanical forms, in the movements 
 of water, air and wind. Even the planets spin in spiral orbits. The 
 endeavor must be to make a true and good curve instead of a bent line. 
 Only liy making the swing automatic can this be done. The form must be 
 
 Illustration 61 
 
 Illustration 62
 
 Elementary Drill Forms 
 
 85 
 
 repeated with each hand in all directions; first, to the right, tlie left, up and 
 down, and of dittcrent lengths. 
 
 The next exercise is to douI)le this form (lllus. 63). It can also he 
 made fourfold. Xext, practice making the spirals flow one into the dther, 
 like No. C^^. Let them show gradation. This is quite difficult. Xext, 
 make a series of spirals flowing one out of the other and etpial in size, as in 
 illustration Xo. 66. To do this straight across the hoard, to keep them 
 
 Illustration 64 
 
 Illustration 63 
 
 Illustration 6^ 
 
 lllustMtirn 66 
 
 lllustra'.lon 67 (fc) 
 
 equal in size and at equal distance, is an excellent exercise. It shouUl he 
 repeated indefinitely. This is one of the most heautiful uf al! forms and it 
 is used continually in iraiiy of the Lest styles. In fact, it is hard to make 
 a good pattern without introducing this unit. Endeavor to make the lines 
 ofUie spiral flow one into the other gradually, showing the transition increas- 
 ing an<l diminishing. Do not let it he ahnq.t antl angular, as at a. hut flow- 
 ing an<l graceful, as at /'. in illustrations No. 67.
 
 86 Manual-Training Drawing 
 
 Modeling and Carving. — Years of experience demonstrate that copy- 
 ing and drawing- fronr models alone on flat surfaces fail to give pupils the 
 free swinging movements so essential in making artistic curves and touches. 
 The hand always seems to lack a certain facility that even many years of 
 work sometimes fail to give. When, however, the hand becomes able to 
 move with ease in soft clay and tough wood, when it has been trained to 
 follow lines and surfaces through these mediums, it is wonderful how 
 (juickh- the finest and most complex curves can be produced with free 
 swinging lines and touches. In drawing these spiral forms, therefore, and 
 all the other drill forms, it must be understood that the best results can only 
 be obtained when carried out as I recommend in the various mediums — on 
 paper, in soft clay and in tough wood. 
 
 The facility and accuracy of form obtained by pupils working this 
 way, compared with pupils who only draw in the ordinary manner, is e.x- 
 traordinarv. At first I could hardly believe it possible, the difference is so 
 evident. Experience, however, proves that a much deeper and more lasting 
 impression of form is secured when pupils make the various forms in differ- 
 ent mediums. The hand also seems to become stronger and more energetic. 
 Of course, working in wood compels the exercise of greater strength 
 through the hands, and this exerts a favorable influence over the body, espe- 
 cially over the upper part, the arms and chest. This influence is particularly 
 beneficial to children who suffer from the sedentary habits formed in schools, 
 who lack full chests and droop over their work. 
 
 - ■ '- ;
 
 Illustration 68 
 
 Mriiiorv r>r:iwing 
 
 These various bird forms arc drawn fmm pictures and the chamctcr and size memorized as much as possible 
 The forms arc repealed uuLil they caa be drawn from lueatal image. 
 
 CHAPTER III 
 
 Elementary Units 
 
 yl MOXG THE MOST POPULAR FORMS of ornament arc llic 
 /J various kinds of foliage. Lea\es have l)een modified for many pur- 
 ■^ -*• poses in nearly all the styles of ornament. There is no end to the 
 variety anfl shape. For our purpose, we will begin by making a 
 few of the simplest conventionalized leaves, from which we may gradually 
 pass to the most complex. The simple leaf units, I find by experience, are 
 among the best things we have for school practice and drill. They embody 
 all the desired qualities and are perfectly graded, from the .simplest leaf forms 
 to the most complex of the Roman acanthus leaf shapes. 
 
 Simple Leaf Forms. — Draw a vertical line, about eight inches long, 
 to represent the midrib of the leaf. On each side place a double curve, as 
 in N'o. C)f). Draw the center midrib ujjward in the ilirection of the growth 
 of the leaf. This form should be repeated. .\ very good way is to go over 
 the lines many times till the double curve becomes automatic. The .shape 
 can be repeated fourfold (Illus. 70), thus making eight double curves in 
 different directions; this should also be repeated until automatic. It is 
 quite difficult to resist reversing these curves in the beginning, but a very 
 
 (87)
 
 88 
 
 Manual-Training Drawing 
 
 little practice enables the pupil to get them right and to make good balance, 
 fitness, proportion, etc. The form can be made more complex by adding 
 four more leaflets, forming a rosette (No. 71). This form can be made 
 by drawing the leaflets long and narrow, short and thick, with the complex 
 curve, and the single curve, as illustrated on page 96. 
 
 Illustration 69 
 
 Illustration 70 
 
 Illustration 71 
 
 ..^gss. 
 
 The Natural Method. — Do not expect this form to be accurate in 
 the beginning and tlo not allow any ruling of construction lines or measur- 
 ing. This method is a protest against the use of mechanical or artificial aids, 
 which help the hand at the expense of the mind and the judgment. These 
 forms and rosettes will be very crooked at first, but it is surprising how soon 
 they can be made, by very young children, with precision, as though they 
 were measured and marked off by means of callipers or rulers. The more 
 construction lines are used, the more they will be needed. Abolish them 
 from the beginning. Compel the hand and the eye to obey the mind and 
 to gain proportion and fitness without aids. This capacity is so desirable, 
 so valuable throughout life, in any vocation, that it is hard to think that any- 
 one would be willing to use the crutches which are allowed, and usually pre- 
 scribed, in most drawing systems. 
 
 It has been universally the practice to teach the pupils to measure off 
 these construction lines by artificial aids, thus putting it out of their power 
 ever to be able to dispense with them. Do not mind how crooked the form 
 is in the beginning. I have never yet found a child, after drawing the most 
 crooked rosette in this way, who was unable to perceive its imperfection and 
 was not able, if allowed, to improve upon it. If is this capacity that we wish
 
 Elementary Units 
 
 89 
 
 to obtain, — tlie power to compel tlie judgment to act from tlie start, so that 
 in the course of time the hand will oiiey tlie mind and the habit be formed 
 of making accurate proportion and fitness freehand.* Of course, as facility 
 is gained, accuracy must be tried for. 
 • Children in a very short time can make this comparatively complex 
 rosette form with a great deal of correctness and facility. It shouUI be done 
 with one hand and then with the other. It is a construction, a representa- 
 tion and a decoration, ami I think it absurd to separate these qualities, as is 
 done in some " systems," and to give long lists of graded exercises under 
 each head. All of these simple forms are constructions, representations and 
 decorations. It is difficult enough to create the power to make the simple 
 forms well witiiout surrounding tlie work witii a lot of technical and seem- 
 ingly mysterious terms and processes. Many courses are filled with words 
 like " bi-symmetrical conventionalization." " systematic modifications of 
 geometric," " bi-symmetrical ornaments," " modifications of the round," 
 " kite form." etc. Unnecessary technical terms like these simply tend to 
 obscure to the young that wliicli sliould be as plain and lucid as the thing 
 itself. 
 
 The Next Form is the same as the preceding, only a little more 
 complex — a leaf with three tips or leafiets. Draw the midrib about eight 
 
 Illustration 72 
 
 Illustration 71 
 
 • The more frequcnllya vnlunlary .icllon i» rrpcitctl. the r.«icr It it to perforin, anil the greater ■• the tendency 
 of it» cnn>tiluent« (if It U a cmnplei act) lt> Like on the rerlex form, I. c., tn «rnin|ie them»elve» in a connected 
 •erici. i.f nii.vcinrnH, which run* on mechaniciilly when once Initiated hy the adequate •timului.-[Wundt'« 
 Lecture^ on Human and Animal Psychology.
 
 90 
 
 Illustration 74 
 
 Manual-Trainingf Drawing 
 
 Drill Work in Leaf Forms and Loops 
 This picture illustrates a pupil drawing the leat and loop in various ways. The lines are repeated 
 many times, without rubbins: off the forms, which wastes time. By this repetition the child is making 
 the various curved lines, the form, and the space between the forms, organic and automatic, and at the 
 same time facilitv, rectitude, balance, iitness and magnitudes are being ftlt and planted in hand, eye 
 and mind. 
 
 inches in length, balance the side vein on each side, then repeat the double 
 curve to each tip. Let the proportions of each leaflet be about the same. 
 This is a very good leaf to practice on. Do not let the tip be made too small, 
 as is the common tendency with nine out of ten children drawing for the first 
 time. Swing the hand repeatedly over the double curves till they become 
 automatic. 
 
 The same thing can be repeated fourfold, making a complex rosette 
 (No. "JT)). It is almost impossil)le to make this in the beginning without 
 reversing some of the double curves. Leave plenty of space in the center, 
 and do not mind if it is very crooked at first. This exercise can be repeated 
 till the forms fit each other, leaving a space between each leaf. 
 
 No one can see the children draw these forms without realizing what 
 an excellent exercise this is for compelling accuracy, facility, fitness and
 
 Elementary Units 91 
 
 sonic of the most desired (lualitics in drawing. In a short time the children 
 become able to make these forms automatically. From the beginning, do 
 not allow them to make "construction " lines. Let each leaf be drawn in 
 its turn separately. Do not make the ribs or veins for the four leaves 
 before starting the outline of each. 
 
 Tlicsc exercises are far discif<li)ie. it should be constantly remembered. 
 Undoubtedly, by using a few construction lines, the form can be drawn more 
 readily and with much better proportion, but my idea is to get proportion 
 and fitness in the hand, to make the hand feel that proportion and fitness 
 automatically. This can be done and well done if the forms are practiced 
 as described. Thousands of children can make this form w ith ease in some 
 of our schools, showing that it is not as difficult as it appears to people 
 viewing it for the first time. It does seem surprising to see children make 
 their hands obey their minds with fluency, accuracy and fitness, but it is not 
 so surprising when one has been through the stages and can realize how they 
 become able to do it. 
 
 I constantly suggest certain sizes for the.se forms, because experience 
 with thousands of pupils has proved the size indicated to be the best. 
 There are good reasons for making the forms either much larger or very 
 small, but for general purposes the measurements given are the most suit- 
 able. It is (luite curious to notice the tendency, among children and adults 
 alike, to show their disposition and their training by the way in which they 
 make some of these forms. For instance, children from the kindergarten 
 will almost invariably make minute, puny drawings. The reverse should 
 be the case. \'ery small children ought not to be allowed to draw that way, 
 because the brain centers with which the fine finger co-ordinations and 
 muscular movements are made, have not been formed and come much later. 
 In some little children even the bones and muscles themselves are not 
 formed. Nervousness and chorea freciucntly result from work of tliat char- 
 acter attempted too soon. Their movements especially ought to be large 
 and free, using arm and hand more than the fingers. I personally nuich 
 object to paper pricking, paper weaving ami a number of other similar occu- 
 pations in ihc kiiidiTirrirten, for the same reason. 
 
 Conventional Forms. — These leaves here given are conventional in 
 form. Some teachers may object to tlii>. tliinking it essential that children 
 should make realistic forms before conventional ones. .\ little thought,
 
 
 
 a. 
 
 C3 U3 "^ 
 
 T3 
 
 O 
 O 
 
 <J 
 C/) 
 
 
 J5 o 
 c .^ 
 
 U 
 
 O "3 
 
 
 
 T3 
 
 b;0 5
 
 Elementary Units ''3 
 
 however, should convince tlieni that if tlicy are troulile<l wiili llie details and 
 myriad-fold markings on leaves, it will he impossible for them to get facility 
 and speed; hut if they work on a few typical or conventional forms of 
 leaves until they can instantly draw them in any position, of any size and 
 proportion, and to fit any space, then it will he easy to grasp details, and 
 with very little practice many kinds of leaves and forms can he put down. 
 We must, as Michael Angelo said, "purge a thing of its superfluities and 
 grasp the essentialities." 
 
 Pui)ils who have arrived at this stage can make many designs hy using 
 these simple forms. They have already some capacity in this direction. 
 From the start children must he encouraged to arrange these forms in 
 beautiful ways, to make appropriate patterns for various purposes, in order 
 to allow their creative capacity to come into play. 
 
 Units of Design Based on the 5ptra/.— The power having been 
 acquired to make the .spiral, a large scric- ul units of design can be base<l 
 upon this line. Ir making the first one. the scroll (Illus. 75). draw the 
 outer line first, make the ball come as near the center as possible and 
 endeavor to keep the lines equidistant. This is really a form, the delinea- 
 tion of a solid, one of the forms used in all the arts. It is made in metal. 
 
 Illustration 75 Illustration 77 
 
 Illustration 76 
 
 carved in wood, modeled in clay and used for a great variety of purposes. 
 Do not make the form reverse.l, as in No. "'''■ 1^ '» » '•''l'-' ilifii'--"'^ '" t''*-' 
 beginning for some pupils to gras]> the shai>e, but it must be practiced con^ 
 tinuallv until it can be made automatically.The forms illustrated at 77 and 78 
 will be found useful f(.r practice also, and are based on the same shape, w.lh
 
 94 
 
 Manual-Training Drawing 
 
 slight changes, but increasing complexity. Each of these forms is used in 
 some of the best styles. 
 
 Do not allow the children to create freak units. We have so many to 
 choose from among the best styles that it is absurd to expect them to create 
 units of design at first, as is done in some of the poor systems of drawing in 
 which children are expected to create forms. In such cases, the children 
 invarial)Iy produce poor and feeble forms. 
 
 The Crocket. — We next have a series of forms making use of the 
 crocket. We should practice this form first with the crocket consisting of 
 
 Illustration 80 
 
 Illustration 78 
 
 ■"^ 
 
 [lustration 79 
 
 a single curve on the outside and inside the scroll, as illustrated at Xo. 80. 
 After this has been acquired, try to make the crocket with the double curve 
 (8i)- This is much more difficult and recjuires a great deal of practice, 
 much dexterity being recjuired to get these double-curved crockets so that 
 
 Illustration 81 
 
 Illustration 82 
 
 thev How and have grace. This is one of the units (see aiso 81 and 82) that 
 must be practiced continually ami for a long time. 
 
 Do not expect the children to make some of these difficult forms read- 
 ily. Remember, they have years to i)ractice them in. Some instinctively
 
 EUmentarv Units 
 
 95 
 
 Illustration 83 
 
 A Variety of Units of Dcsipn Based on the Spiral with Various Crockets 
 Tile pleasing forms shoultl he memorized 
 
 Illustration 84 
 
 let tlie lines llow with jjradatioii. lieaiily and i^iace almost from the liegin- 
 ning. \\'ith otiiers it refjiiires a good ileal of practice to get the verv tleii- 
 cate transitions, from one cnrving to the other, that are exemplified hv 
 this form. It can be made to look (jnite clnmsy. and it can he made with 
 a great deal of beauty and grace. This is true of all the forms given. 
 
 On the Elements of Design. — Xow that we have some nniis of the 
 regular styles, \\c shall in e\ery case hereafter in practicing these forms, 
 
 make the form to get (i) 
 balance, (j) projiortion an<l 
 [},) htness. 1 )n not let the 
 pupils practice any of the 
 shapes given without trying 
 for these (pialities. \'ery 
 good sim])le designs can be 
 niade by using lhe.se forms: 
 the children in the primary 
 schools can mnke tliem 
 with ;i great deal of f;icility. 
 I'mni the \er\ begin- 
 ning, origin.ility of arrange- 
 ment nnist be encouraged. 
 
 Thii pupil in practicinu Ihc ncnill and variouii cirKki'l*. Uc|>vti. 
 
 lion will enable the hand to make the form any «i/e and pr.>|«ir1i.in Hc SUrC tO liaVC tllC clllldreU 
 with clear ftwinKinic lineK. When it can lie made freelv lhi» wav, , . . p 
 
 beao.iful flowing d«i»n. can be pr.K)uced. '"'IKf tllCir patterns foF
 
 9(> 
 
 Manual-Trainingf Drawingf 
 
 some dcfniitc purpose and lie al)le to specify what tliey are for. thus associ- 
 ating iu tiieir minds the drawing with some oljject for use. It seems very 
 foolish, as is sometimes the case, to find a number of children in a class un- 
 able to state for what the drawing they have been making is intended. When 
 you ask them they say simply. " it is a pattern " or " a design." and when 
 pressed for further information about it, they say, " it is for the teacher." 
 This shows that they. have not made any mental connection between idea 
 and subject, and the work soon becomes irksome unless rhey have an object 
 in view. 
 
 It is wonderful what a variety of patterns children will make spontane- 
 ously and l)ring to the teacher if they are encouraged to make designs for 
 various purposes about the house. — designs for carpets, wall papers, hang- 
 ings, metal work, chandeliers, brackets, registers, fixtures of different kinds, 
 
 Illustration 85 
 
 Illustration 86 
 
 lllustrai.on 87 
 
 Illustration 83 
 
 -^\r 
 
 -4 
 
 lloscttc.'i f»>r Drill Work 
 
 carving on furniture, chairs, tables, sideboards, frames, hat racks, etc.; 
 designs for pottery and dishes of various kinds. The children instantly see 
 the conncctior and take a great deal of pleasure in making these forms; and
 
 Elementary Units 
 
 97 
 
 by using tlie ol)jects in tlieir own liomes tliey are ins]:)ire(l llierehy to better 
 work. Parents and friends also l)econie interested, esjjecially when they 
 see the practical application of the work. 
 
 Combinations of Units. — The children should be encouraged, as a 
 unit is thoroughly mastered, to double it, first in simple positions ami 
 then in complex ones, as shown in variety in lllus. 89 to 92. It is sur- 
 prising in how great a number of positions the simple scroll can be placed. 
 
 Illustration 89 
 
 lllustr.itiDn 00 
 
 The children must be encouraged 
 continually to arrange all the units in 
 this way. so as to form ditferent com- 
 binations. Do not let them copy oub the combinations given here, but 
 cncouraire them to form combinations of their own. 
 
 A very beautiful series of exercises for beginners can be practiced m 
 making rosettes, using the simi)le lobe or leaf form. The rosette can be 
 placed in a triangle (lllus. 93), in a sipiare. in a circle, in an ol)long, in a 
 pentagon, in an oval form, in a hexagon, in an octagon, and so on. 1 here 
 is no end to the variety of simple shapes that can be ma<le this way. It is a 
 beautiful exercise for fitness and construction. Make the square, or oblong, 
 and all construction lines entirely freehan.l. Do ibis from the very begin- 
 7
 
 98 
 
 Manual-Training Drawings 
 
 Illustration 93 
 
 Blackboard Exercises — Drawing Rosettes 
 It is excellent practice to make similar rosettes fit and till diHTerent shaped spaces. The hand and mind 
 soon grasp the idea ol concrete size on the Hat surface, and become able to make definite proportion auto- 
 matically in any position. The children practice these forms entirely witlinut construction lines. 
 
 ning. Very young pupils make very irregular forms at first, but they soon 
 begin to get a certain amount of proportion and gradually gain the correct 
 shape. Do not expect little children to make perfect forms. Accuracy 
 comes by degrees. Facility first, then accuracy. 
 
 Leading Lines. — So far we have chiefly been studying units of design. 
 Xow that a number of units have been mastered, we can take up the subject 
 of leading lines, one of the most important things in designing. In all pat- 
 terns there are a series of fundamental lines that can readily be seen by any 
 one who will study them. On these leading lines the units are placed, and 
 in accordance with the character of their arrangement will the pattern be 
 beautiful or the reverse. The basis of leading lines is the spiral, one form 
 fiowing out of the other, as in Illus. 96 and 98. If this form is doubled or 
 made fourfold, we at once have an arrangement on which anv of the units
 
 Elementary Units 
 
 99 
 
 of design can he placed, making a pattern tliat is beautiful or not. as the 
 arrangement is beautiful or the contrary. 
 
 Practice many simple arrangements witli a few curves first. In 
 making arrangements do not allow the spiral to he made the 
 same size. This is one of the universal tendencies of a hegimier. 
 Insist on variety. Let some of the scrolls he large, some meilium 
 and some small. Let them show a certain amoimt of growth, as 
 a plant grows. They should display a certain amount of branching also. 
 
 1 .r Unitt iiii; :i»il MoJclinif and Curving 
 
 Attention must be given also to compactness, to radiation and to tangential 
 llow of line. A very good exercise for practice is to make a nund>er of 
 tangential curves (lowing from the spiral ( Illus. 09). This nuist be constantly 
 practiced till the forms llow and branch out wiihoni .ingnlarity or stiffness. 
 Good tangential curvature must become automatic ami organic. \'ery little 
 
 Illustration 96 
 
 lltustratixn q? 
 
 in the way of fine designing can be done till the hand makes these move- 
 ments automatically and with absolute freedom. If we have to think of the 
 transition of one line into the other, it will never be graceful. That duty 
 must be relegated to the spinal centers.
 
 (00 
 
 Manual-Training Drawing 
 
 Illustration 98 
 
 Resist the tendency shown by 
 a great many beginners to make a 
 series of little curves all alike and 
 flowing in a like manner in differ- 
 ent directions. Try to get a 
 certain amount of strength in the 
 patterns, a certain amount of in- 
 terlacing, and at the same time a 
 certain amount of simplicitw There will al\\a\s he a few main or funda- 
 mental curves that can be readily seen, no matter how complex the pattern 
 may be. I'rom these main curves the minor ones can branch out. Very 
 little can be said in the wa_\- of rules and laws with regard to the real truth of 
 arrangements. Like harmony in nuisic and meter in poetry, it nuist be felt, 
 it must be jiart of the organism. 
 
 illustration 99 
 
 A Suggestion in tlic Use of I.t-iuiing Lines 
 Many arrangements of leading lines should be made for practice
 
 Illustration loo 
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 
 GDmbinations of 
 Units and Styles 
 
 Drill Forms— Teachers Practice in Uni!>uii 
 
 xoriii'.R i"()im. I'.ASi'.i') 
 
 oil the looj), is Diic of the 
 l)cst for |)iacticc. and can 
 now he attenijned. Make 
 the IcM)]) creel and (Hi each si<le place 
 two or tiiree loljes, as shown at loi. 
 See that the center loi)e is i|uite erect, 
 or vertical. Let each one of the side lobes cnrve a hi tic more, increasinjj in 
 niagnitnde and then diminishinJ,^ This form can he made uith five, seven, 
 nine lobes, etc. Properly drawn, it makes the anthemion, one of the most 
 bcantifnl of all (ireek forms. It is (jiiite .liftlcnlt to get the side lobes to 
 cnrve and at the same time to show gradation an<l fitness, but comparatively 
 little practice will enable one to do this. This form must also be pnic- 
 tice<l with both haiK'.s. it being one of the very best exercises for ambidex- 
 trous practice. 
 
 (lOl) 
 
 ^-tJNTVFKSTTY Of CAt.lF 
 SANTA bAKBAR.^ CULLECt ^.l
 
 t02 
 
 Illustration lot 
 
 Manual-Trainingf Drawing 
 
 Illustration 102 
 
 Illustration 103 
 
 Illustration 104 
 
 The Anthemion.— This form can next he practiced in the four dilYerent 
 directions illustrated in io5 and 116, inakint;' another beautiful rosette form. 
 To do this successfully, so that the lateral movements may be right and the 
 drawing erect, requires a great degree of manual dexterity and physical co- 
 ordination, but children in the primary grades can readily make this form 
 after a few months' practice. 
 
 It is im])ortant that children should understand the meaning of the 
 forms drawn by them, and when they are producing one the_\- ought to be 
 taught what it embodies. The anthemion is a fundamental Greek iovm. 
 and, properly drawn, possesses a variety of qualities. For instance, the cen- 
 ter lobe contains straight lines. The form has a graded series of curves from 
 a straight line to an acute curve. It has balance, projiortion, fitness, grace
 
 Combinations of Units and Styles 
 
 103 
 
 CO'Otdinalion of Miitor Centers 
 This exercise illustrates li.m- readily cl.iMrei. i.in m.iUe 
 complex phvslcil co.nr.llniili..ns in ;ill Jire. ti.n.s. The exer- 
 cl.e i« repeiiled until the .hild can svvinK all the various 
 cur>cs«ith (ij rucilitv,(J) l.alance.(.,l pn>|,orti..n, .4 , fitness, 
 urace and heaulv. automatically. Mental co.ordinalK.ns are 
 iKinKn.ade. a, well as physical. All the varieties of the an. 
 tluininn should he practiced in dilTerenl «i«. and memorised. 
 The children should be encnuraijed t.. draw them in lead 
 pencil and to note varietv of form, on .urfices and in nnl. 
 tcrial. This form is the basis of iome ..f the n.ost iK-autiful 
 of decorative forms.
 
 104 
 
 Manoal-Training Drawing; 
 
 and beauty. It has tangential cur\'ature of lines. Its magnitudes arc well 
 proportioned. It conforms to a great many of the natural laws and the laws 
 of art. It has a certain amoimt of growth, radiation and distril)ution, and 
 hardly an abstract idea of form can be conceived that is not embodied in this 
 shape. This is the reason it was used by the Greeks in preference to almost 
 any other form, and I believe it was for this reason that they used it as the 
 antefix of the Parthenon. 
 
 Illustration 107 
 
 Illustration 108 
 
 
 Illustration 109 
 
 Illustration no 
 
 ^-1^''^'^ 
 
 Varieties of the anthemion can be made in a great many ways, as here 
 illustrated. Names have been given to many of these, as the honeysuckle, 
 the palm, etc., but as used by the Greeks it was simply an ideal form and not 
 an imitation of any one plant.
 
 Combinations of Units and Styles 
 
 JOS 
 
 Illustrations iii-iu 
 
 Plaster Modi-ls Irom the Antique 
 
 Combinations of the c/lnthemion. — Wlicn facility has been ac(|iiire(l 
 in inakinjj;^ this form, a very j^ood exercise is to conihine il with the scroll 
 (^Uhis. 113). In the beginning, make the form williont many lobes, taking 
 particular |)ains to make the lobes fit each other and I'lll the s])ace e(|nally. 
 This is a little iliHicnlt. but if practiced conlinuallw a short time will enable 
 one to make the most complex of lobetl forms with case and beauty. After 
 trying the simple ones a number of times, then more elaborate and complex 
 ones can be attempted. Xo. 114 is a \ery beautiful form, combined with 
 
 llie sen ill. and can be used for an endless variety of 
 [turposes. It can be made short and thick, long an<l 
 slender, and can be compressed or extended to lit 
 aluKJSt any space. With the introduction of crock- 
 ets, lirst, the single crocket and later llie double 
 cnrveil crocket, it can be made to look still belter, 
 as illustrated iii l-'igures 1 15 and i_'o. 
 / N}^i|'//'r_) i I -^^ soon as facility is ac(|uire<l in making this 
 
 <T'^'^^ >^ST J ! form, which slujuid be pr.tcticed with each hand, 
 .'ind as soon as the power to make it with balance 
 
 lllustrntion 113
 
 i06 
 
 Manual-Training Drawing 
 
 Illustration 114 and fitness has become auto- 
 
 matic, it can also be practiced 
 with the scroll combined an- 
 other way, as in No. 120. In 
 making this, ilraw the lobes 
 first, with both hands and then 
 the inclosing scrolls. En- 
 deavor to make the forms fit. 
 This is a good exercise for 
 teaching compactness and the 
 filling of space, and may be 
 performed in a variety of ways 
 (Illus. 120). All of these forms 
 should be made fourfold as 
 soon as the first form has been 
 memorized, for once these 
 
 forms are fixed in the mind they are not forgotten, l)nt can be called upon 
 
 almost without consciousness. 
 
 Illustration 116 
 
 Illustration
 
 Gsmbinations of Units and Styles 
 
 107 
 
 Illustration 117 
 
 Illustration 118 
 
 Illustration 119 
 
 Illustration i::o 
 
 ,\;i'!l' ( k"il ;tiiJ Scrnll 
 Tlie»c fornn, varied in iiUc ana proportion, ii.u»t be dm<vnwilhilcar»winKiiiStou.hc« iinlil Ihcy ciin l>c inilde 
 without con«c ouK cITort. Tl.c l.a.U ot tlic .niningly complex lorin i. the »pinil and l.«.|'- ^Vlu 11 onc« facility 
 anil inairnllndc* liecomc automatic, licautiful forms reiult.
 
 lOS 
 
 Manual-Tfainingf Drawings 
 
 Complex Leaf Forms. — The next step is to make a leaf with five 
 leaflets, palmate in shape. Proceed in the same way as with the three- 
 pointed leaf (page 89), making the niidri!) first and two curves on each side 
 balanced, then the douI)le curves forming each leaflet (Illus. 121). This 
 
 Illustration 121 
 
 Illustration 122 
 
 must be repeatedly i)racticed till a medimn sized leaf of fine jiroportions is 
 made. Do not let the children practice a very narrow or a very short and 
 thick form. This leaf must also be made easy by repetition, and it can, like 
 the former, lie made in four directions (Illus. 122). Let it be about ten 
 inches in length when drawing it on the blackboard and three or four inches 
 in length when drawing it on ])aper. Reference is continuallv ma<le to the
 
 Combinations of Units and Styles 
 
 J09 
 
 measureinents that liave been found hy experience to be tlic most suital)le 
 for school purposes. If the l)lackboar(ls are of the ordinary size tlie meas- 
 urements given are far the best for general purposes. Be careful not to let 
 the children make forms exaggerated in size, or in miniature. 
 
 It is more ditVicuIt to draw a side view of a leaf, but when facility is 
 acquired it becomes quite easy on account of its not being a balanced form. 
 Let tlie leaf part be about ten inches in length, draw the large double curve 
 
 Illustration 135 
 
 Illustration 136 
 
 Illustration 127 
 
 Illustration 138 
 
 first and then the two ribs. (Sec 123.) Do not make it look ungraceful or 
 too tiiick and let the stem be narrow. These are connnon tendencies in the 
 l)eginning with all children. The form must be rein'ated a number of times
 
 no 
 
 Manual-Training: Drawing 
 
 to q-et facilitv, and then it can be drawn in ditterent directions, balanced, 
 made around the circle, etc. 
 
 V,y this time the double curve should flow from the hands with ease, 
 and therefore much more complex forms may now be attempted, as in Illus. 
 
 Illustrations 129-133 
 
 , IV N,„„ 
 
 
 7 
 
 ^ 1 d ^ 
 i V. ■ i I 
 
 ^\\ \ Y/l 
 
 
 ,1 i 
 
 \ 
 
 ^H'/^ 
 
 124. As many ribs and leaflets as are desired can be put in. Endeavor to 
 get style and beauty in these forms. They can l^e drawn so as to look very 
 coarse and clumsy, or, on the contrary, to look exceedingly graceful and 
 beautiful. In making these complex leaf forms, get as much variety of pro- 
 portion as possible; do not let the leaflets ])e all of the same size. The same 
 with the ribs; let them flow out with gradation and tangential curvature. 
 
 Beautiful rosettes can be made liy using the leaf curve Tsee 125). Small 
 points or darts can be placed between each leaflet and an endless variety of 
 such shapes can l)c made. Make the center boss or ball first, then draw the 
 leaflets out on each side entirely freehand, without construction lines, mak-
 
 Elementary Units and Forms 
 
 in 
 
 ing some of the leaflets with three tips, some with live or more, as shown in 
 the ])ictiires. 
 
 Bad Forms can also be made, antl leaf sheaths, consisting of an 
 exterior and interior double curve (see 134). The same forms can then 
 be made with very simple collars (as in Illus. 135), using four, five or six 
 leaflets. Let these little collars appear to embrace the root of the bud first, 
 and do not draw them as though they came out from one side only. Re- 
 member that this is delineating the appearance of a solid on a flat surface. 
 It is difficult to make the collar fit in the beginning, but the children soon 
 grasp the idea and make very iieautiful ones, — some short and thick, some 
 long and slender. This is called, in its most com])lex stages, the acanthus 
 leaf bud form. It is simply an ideal bud form. 
 
 Another Beautiful Series of Leaves can l)c made by using the dou- 
 
 lllustration iji 
 
 lUustr.ition 135 
 
 llustration 137 
 
 ble curved leaflet as before, but making an "eye" between the leaflets. This 
 change makes it more complex and a little harder to draw successfully, but 
 it is soon conquered. Make the five-pointed leaf and the side view and all
 
 112 
 
 Manual-Training: Drawing 
 
 the other forms with the eye. as illustrate<l in Xo. 136. Tlie same thing can 
 he ilone with the l)iul forms of tlie last series, ahvays drawing the hnd itself 
 tirst, then the midrihs for the collar of leaflets radiating from the hnd. and 
 
 Illustration 138 
 
 the collar of leaflets last. Never, in any of these exercises, allow the chil- 
 dren to make the ontline first. Init let them hegin with the ril)S forming the 
 skeleton or the framework, and if you once get this right, the detail is an 
 
 Illustration 139 
 
 '<:<*\l!T^i*^ 
 
 \ 
 
 
 V 
 
 • 
 
 l^J J-J^ 
 
 Leat Fomis Modeled in Clay 
 
 easy matter. As a result of this practice, the most beautiful and elaborate 
 acanthus leaf Imds and foliage can be drawn organicallw They will then 
 appear very dift'erent from the usual forms given pupils to copy, in 
 which the leaf margins and the forms of the leaves themselves are drawn 
 with meaningless lines, and with notches and points like saw teeth, instead
 
 G>mbinations of U;\its and Styles 
 
 113 
 
 of tlie l)eaiitiful (loul)le curve tliat we always find in work of the best periods 
 (see Illus. 140-142). 
 
 These ideaHzed forms very soon take on the character of tlie incH- 
 vidual drawing them. Just so much balance and proportion and fitness as 
 the pupil has in himself can be embodied in the work of the hand. If there 
 
 Illustrations 140-142 
 
 
 is a tendency to make coarse forms, then the pupil must struggle, and by 
 repetition from good copies and good styles, gradually grasp finer forms. 
 I have taken the clumsiest of bovs. who seemed to have all their lingers 
 
 lllustratiuns 143-14; 
 
 thumbs, and who produced in the beginning thick-set. coarse and clumsy 
 forms without grace, and l)y giving them special drill on one or two of the 
 most graceful of these forms. I have seen them enabled to <lraw them with
 
 )J4 
 
 Manual-Training Drawing: 
 
 unusual grace and beauty. To do the work successfully, then, it must be 
 made automatic. 
 
 The work at this stage, although good discipline, is not a task, because 
 the pupils take pleasure and joy in their efforts. There is no more pleasant 
 sight than to see eight or ten children swinging with each hand these forms 
 freely and gracefully on large blackboards. Even the beginners soon grasp 
 the spirit and endeavor to do it also. Do not, however, allow the pupils to 
 struggle with the very complex units before they have mastered the simple 
 
 Illustrations 146-148 
 
 ones, as you will tind that they continually wish to do. I am well aware 
 that there are many drawing teachers, and even in some cases artists, 
 who ought to know better, who will say there is not much good in drilling 
 children and requiring them to do work of this character. Usually, how- 
 ever, they will be found to be thoughtless people who have not looked into 
 the laws of mental growth and who do not know the force of habit. The 
 drill is necessary to get the qualities desired, and as long as it is enjoyable, 
 benefit comes to the pupil. I am well aware that the work can be overdone. 
 This is true of anv good thing. But I write this simply for the benefit of
 
 Combinations of Units and Styles 
 
 ns 
 
 teacliers wiio liave a little iina}^ination ami who w ill not \>e tieil down to any 
 one set of processes or forms. Tcn-niiiuite periods arc (piite long enough ftjr 
 tliis practice. 
 Illustration iaq Illustration 150 
 
 I.^-:ir l''orins Modck-tl in CI;iy 
 
 Another scries of bcaiititiil leal forms can he made, iisinj; the leaf 
 either with three points or ti\e points, and with and withnut the eyes, hy 
 employing donhle curves in each midrib. These are mucii harder, and 
 should not he attempted until the erect or straight leaves have Keen mas- 
 tered. The forms can he made around a circle, turned up and down, lo the 
 
 IllUsIt I 
 
 lllustratiuii i- 
 
 
 •Vvv 
 
 m 
 
 
 .It I'unni Ml 
 
 Drtiltn Mixlile.l in Cl.i\ 
 
 right and the left, as illustrated in Xo. 14O-8. i'upils will in the ])egiiming 
 find that thcv reverse these douhlc curves fretpiently in starting any new
 
 n6 
 
 Manual-Trainingf Drawing: 
 
 form, and that is a sure sign tliat the curve is not made automatically. It 
 must be practiced with hoth hands till it is right every time. Just as we 
 have practiced to get facility in making these leaves and a certain good pro- 
 portion, they should also be practiced to get fitness, — that is, to make them 
 fit different sized spaces and to proportion them to other surrountlings with 
 ease and grace. This will not take so long as one would think, when the 
 first stages have been mastered. Designs embodying these forms should 
 be made, first, by simply doubling, 
 then by making fourfold and still 
 more complex arrangements. 
 
 Illustrations 153-156 
 
 i^^^X^ 
 
 Combinations of Leaf and Scroll. —Vv^cuqg making this scroll and 
 leaf in a very simple form first (lUus. 153-G). Make the scroll with a single 
 touch, a little crocket inside, and lastly the double curving portion or piece 
 of leallet. When this has been tried in different directions a number of 
 times, make the same form, adding other curves as with leaflets.
 
 Combinations of Units and Styles 
 
 n? 
 
 Practice making these in dilTerent directions (iiiite a nimihcr of times. 
 Then the same form can l)e attempte<l with more elahoration. Make tlie leaf 
 portion witli several leaflets. These forms will he quite awkward and clumsy 
 in the heginning. It is very hard at first io make them flow out from each 
 other. Let them "grow." Persist in making them with the left hand in tiie 
 drill work, and in a very short time beautiful conventionalized foliage can be 
 drawn. 
 
 The result is very different from the amateur work usually produced by 
 people who attempt to make foliage without having first learned to draw 
 thoroughly an<l automatically. It is impossible to express growth and tan- 
 gential curvature and flow of line with comple.x leaflets and buils in dift'erent 
 places, if one has to think of details and the shape of the different portions. 
 That must all be automatic in the hand, the thought being given to the 
 arrangement, the flow and the transition of one form into the other. ( )nly 
 when such freedom is securerl ilo we have dnr.i-iit}; as a mode of cxl^rcssioii, 
 which is vcrv dilYerent from imitative drawing, cojjying a ])iece and a portion, 
 first "sketching" in with light lines and then "lining in" with others. Our 
 children have plenty of chance to make merry over that kind of drawing. 
 
 To replace the scroll any other of the units of design can now be used 
 
 iltuKtrations 157-158 
 
 ^^ 
 
 with the leaflet in endless combinations, paying attention, of course, to fine 
 arrangement, to flow of line and to beauty. Space will not allow me to 
 illustrate a fraction of all the combinations that can he made, though I 
 should like to suggest a few. These forms can readily be seen in the ilhis-
 
 (18 
 
 Manual-Trainingf Drawing 
 
 tratidiis of pn])ils drawing on l)lackl)oar(ls, in dift'erent jiarts of tlie Ijook. To 
 make combinations of these forms is one of the usual (hHll exercises in all 
 •our schools, the children stepping' up to tlie blackboard in rows and each 
 one making ditiferent patterns, that are elaborate and graceful according 
 to the amount of practice they have liad. Children starting with this work 
 at the regular primary age can readily do as good work as is here illustrated 
 by the time they are al)out ten years of age. 
 
 Illustration 159 
 
 Moresque Desigrns 
 
 These forms are quite difficult to make flowing and graceful. The single units must be thorcuighlv memorized 
 
 before successful designs can he made. Fine arningements of these can be made with brilliant colors. 
 
 The Moorish Units. — Another \ery good unit for jjractice is the 
 ^loresque unit. This is much more difficult to make automatic than 
 appears from its simple form. Make the large douljle curve on the outer 
 part of the unit first. (See Ulus. i'6o.) Then swing in the doul)le curve
 
 Combinations of Units and Styles 
 
 119 
 
 from tlie point so tliat if prolonged it would 
 tlow from the stem and the two short 
 curves, diminishinsj in breadth toward the 
 stem. 
 
 This form nuist be drawn with a single 
 touch for each line. It is an ideal form. 
 and perliajjs next to tiie (Ireek form is one 
 of the most beautiful in tiic whole range of 
 design. Make the unit short and thick, or 
 long and slender, but always with a narrow 
 stem. It is quite difticult for the pupils to 
 resist making a scroll instead of a point on 
 the short blade, as indicated in Figure 
 162. Point out to the class the two blades, 
 a long dt)uble curving blade and a short 
 thick curving blade. Time nuist be given 
 to this form, and after a good do.il of prac- 
 tice it can be doid)led. Practice drawing 
 it singly and doublc<I in all directions 
 around the circle. 
 
 The next unit ( lllus. 163), also 
 Mores(|ue. is likewise good for practice. 
 This is much more cas\' than the jire- 
 ceding form, although it looks more 
 
 Illustration 160 
 
 I lustration 161 
 
 Illustration 162 
 
 Illustration 163 
 
 Illustration 
 
 Illustration 165 
 
 Illustration \V^
 
 /20 
 
 Manual-Training Drawings 
 
 complex. Make the outer curve swinging to the top scroll, and then a 
 double curve to the second scroll and then a long, slender stem. This must 
 also be practiced in many directions. Be careful to space markings ecjually 
 and parallel. In combination with the other form given, beautiful 
 Moresque patterns may also be made. Great care should be exercised in 
 spacing out these forms and in interlacing them, otherwise the product will 
 be poor. Simple arrangements are best in the beginning. Each of these 
 forms doubled can be used for drill work on the blackboard, a few of which 
 are illustrated in No. 159. 
 

 
 lU'jstration 169 
 
 Cloloi l>U|.il> iV.Mi, rui'ii.: >Ui....i> 
 
 These childrt-n have been instructed by their own school teacher, in drnwinf^ and modeling. 
 
 CHAPTER V 
 
 Drill Forms and 
 Designs. 
 
 yt COMPLEX EXERCISE and one requiring; a ccriain amount of 
 yl dexterity is to combine circles, making different figures. Do not 
 allow the jjupils to make these exercises until they are expert with 
 the single circle. Make the folltiwing exercise ( lllus. 171) in- 
 drawing first one circle and rejjeating the line by swinging the hand on it 
 several times to memorize the size and proportion, then swing the liand to 
 the second position, making the circle as near as possible the same size, and 
 then to the third jjosition. If it is properly drawn, it ought to make a 
 complete circle inclosing three eipial circles, eipially interlaced. 
 
 This is a good e.xercise for the juiigiiieiit and to tit the forms. W'licn 
 the three-sided center piece is nuule of ecjual curves. e(iui-distant, and the 
 next space is even and equal, and so on to the inclosing circle, it shows great 
 accuracy. I shall repeat again that we must not expect accuracy in the 
 
 (■2.)
 
 J 22 
 
 Manual- Training Drawing 
 
 beginning. Facility first and then accuracy. This is a statement tliat I 
 shall make continually. Measured accuracy, of course, is not required. 
 
 The greatest artist that ever lived could not perform these simple exer- 
 cises absoluteh- true, Init ordinary people can perform them to a degree, 
 
 Illustration 170 
 
 Illustration 171 
 
 
 i\ .,.nP«;j''"=-~-%rf!-.. / 
 
 # \ J 
 
 
 \ 
 
 >. 
 
 Illustration 172 
 
 showing very good proportion, fit- 
 ness, and so on. If a large class is 
 drawing the same exercises, it is very 
 rare that one or two do not fail to 
 show remarkable facility and exact- 
 ness in doing these things. Some have 
 facility and accuracy almost organic 
 
 or automatic in the beginning: others seem to entirely lack these qualities, 
 and it seems as if they could never acquire them. 
 
 Borders make a very good series of exercises for practice and drill work. 
 The pupils can begin with the simplest frets (like 173). Make these forms 
 entirely freehand, straight across the blackboard or paper, from end to 
 end. Do not mind if they are not accurate in the beginning. The tendency 
 with everybody at first is to make them diminish in size. Resist this and 
 keep up the practice, and very soon the border can be made with straight- 
 ness and the other required qualities. Make a number of forms similar to 
 the liorder, using straight lines, as illustrated. Then a series can be
 
 Drill Forms and Dcsig;ns J 23 
 
 made, usiiigf a coiiihination of tlic liorizoiital and tlic ol)li(|iic line. .\ num- 
 ber of elements are used in Ijorders. The jiupils can hej^in. say with the sim- 
 ple frets, using straight lines, then a .simple elementary plait, the zigzag, the 
 beads, nud utiicr complex ones. The Ava\e, the scroll, and the spiral will 
 make a beautiful series qf borders, and all the ditTerent units of design can 
 be used in it. The scroll and crocket, the leaf, the Moresque unit, the Greek 
 form, etc., can be used for the same purpose, as partially suggested in the 
 accompanying sketches. 
 
 Illustration 173 
 
 Exercise In Dmwinif Borders 
 Borders of many styles cun be dniwn and memorized by n-jjclition. All the jfood common l>«»r. 
 dcrs seen in wood, metal and stonework should become ftmiliar to the pupils. It is excellent 
 practice to diaw them entirely freehand across the board, also on paper and slates. This compels 
 a prcat deal of accuracy. 
 
 Endeavor to have the children vary tliese forms and make the ."same 
 units of difTercnt proportions. Beautiful borders can l)e made with the' 
 Greek forms, introducing theanthemi(.)n. Then there is a series of Celtic frets. 
 Arabian frets, Moresque, Chinese, and so on. It is quite important that pupils 
 should understand the meanings of some of these ornaments, this enabling 
 them to enjoy the ornaments more thoroughly. \'ery few of the wonderful 
 patterns seen sometimes on barbaric ornament fail to contain or symbolize 
 certain things.
 
 124 
 
 Manual-Training Drawing 
 
 illustration 174 
 
 Strap Work, 
 Til in:ik,e these forms interlace and balance without erasing: lines or m:irkini;offthe dimensions, 
 compels attention and is valuable manual training. Very elaborate work, strap work and com- 
 plex frets, etc., may be drawn for practice this way- 
 
 Exercises to Compel Accuracy,— T\\& little exercises liere given are 
 to compel the hand to attention. I begin with a simple form, the loop 
 (shown at 174). Th^ object is to enable the hand to make the loop stand 
 erect and to interlace the band at once, freehand, without crossing. To 
 make the double loop is a little more difficult. To make it so that it 
 is equal on both sides at first is almost an impossibility. But notice that when 
 the form is repeated a few times the hand gradually becomes accustomed to 
 it. and makes it in better shape; and after a few repetitions the power to get 
 the form interlaced and at the same time drawn correctly is unconsciously 
 ap])lied or becomes automatic. Do this with the loops fourfold as above. 
 Xe.xt try the band (Illus. 17.4), making all the links equal in size and 
 each band interlaced with others at regular intervals. To do this at first 
 without raising the pencil except at the required places, compels attention 
 and a certain amount of thought and care that is beneficial. Next, try the
 
 Drill Forms and Designs 
 
 J 25 
 
 Illustration 17 
 
 u. 
 
 form of two rings interlaced. The lines are to he ilraun at once without cut- 
 ting each other, and the rings should be quite evenly drawn. This must he 
 repeated many times. Then the same thing can he done with three rings 
 interlaced. 
 
 The next exercise is to draw a hand interlacing the ring (Illus. 174). 
 Rememher. it is required that these forms shoul<l interlace without cut- 
 ting aii<I without lifting the pencil except at the projjer stops. The work 
 recjuires continued thought and trouble in the beginning. l)ut can be done 
 quite swiftly and with a great deal of accuracy after practice. This is a 
 thing to be desired and helps excee<lingly in a variety of j)laces in <lra\ving. 
 It makes the hand obey the thought in certain places with rajiidity. Do not 
 mind how crooked the forms are in the beginning, or liow many errors 
 are made. Persist with the work till it can l)e done with case and accuracy. 
 A good return will be had for the trouble taken. 
 
 Interlacing work of several kinds can also be attempted. To make 
 
 this so that eacii l)aii(l is of the right length 
 witiiuut cutting the wrong band, requires a 
 certain amount of dexterity and neatness that 
 is much to be desired, and is difficult to get. 
 Remember, the hand is to practice this till it 
 can do it automatically. Tliis seems impos- 
 sible at first, but it has only to be repeated till 
 
 . . . _^ thehand and the mind are thoroughly familiar 
 
 — j J-" — »— I -.-Li — [ with what is recpiired. when it can be done 
 
 III/] ~ | I j- readily with great ease. The size of the mesh 
 
 can be changed. It is a good ])lan to try 
 strap work of different kinds like this and other patterns. 
 
 These exercises are especially good for students who are inclined to 
 be a little careless or slovenly in their work. It is especially gotxl ft)r those 
 who are not careful in the beginning, and expect to come back at some 
 future time and make things better, when it might be done right at the 
 start. It is also excellent di.scipline, and is useful for atlults for practice 
 when they require to be braced u\> a litile or do not have energy sufficient 
 for more important things. 
 
 Drill Wory^. —Throughout this period of our work I attach much im- 
 portance to drill. I want lines to be drawn automatically. I want them
 
 J 26 
 
 Manual-Training; Drawing 
 
 Illustration 177 
 
 to be made with single sweeping- touches. A cur\e is sometliing very dif- 
 ferent from a 1:)cnt hne. The more sweep and swing- you can ol)tain, the 
 better the cnr\e will be. We shoidd be able to swing curves of any size 
 and gradation automatically with a single movement. We caiuiot imitate 
 a true curve or spiral by patches and short touches. This is the reason the 
 drill forms are so continually em])hasized and tiiat I wish you to practice 
 the sweep and the swing over antl over again, until you can make good 
 spirals, double curves, circles and ellipses. 
 
 The ellipse is the most beautiful of all geometric forms and one of the 
 most useful in design. It is even luore beautiful than a circle, because it 
 
 has the qualities of the circle combined with variety 
 of curve. Practice to make the ellipse automatic 
 by means of the following exercises. In swinging 
 this form (Ulus. 176), do not endeavor to follow 
 the same line. Swing about in different places. 
 Facility first and then accuracy. This is a good 
 exercise, because it compels l^alance. Both sides of tlie 
 ellipse must be synunetrical. When facility is acquired 
 with the one form, practice it in combination (Illus. 177), 
 as in the preceding exercises. It is also good to make 
 long and narrow ellipses, short and thick ones, to be able 
 to make the hand obe_\- automatically the mind in response 
 to the desire. We should be able to put down in drawing all these forms in 
 the proportions desired without an instant's hesitation. That is what I mean 
 when I say that proportion must be made organic, just as we endeavor to 
 make balance, facility and fitness organic. illustration :78 
 
 W hen this can be done it is very good -«=a=9* .^^i-si^ssssssss 
 
 practice to make a series of vessel forms. Let 
 the form be simple in the beginning, like 178 
 for instance. There is no exercise that will 
 give the children the idea of a solid, the com- 
 plex solid, in different positions, more quickly 
 than this. The making of simple saucer or bowl-shaped forms must become 
 automatic. One must practice with them till the form is symmetrical and 
 stands properly. It can be made deeper or wider, and different sizes can be 

 
 Drill Forms and Designs 
 
 J27 
 
 niatlc so ij^radnatcil as to indicate tlio whole tjrailation fnmi a siiaii^Iit lim- ii> 
 a circle, as observed in different relations to tlie eye. 
 
 Practice with these cnr\es will enable one to s^a-l very accurate balance 
 in these vessel-shaiie<l forms. an<! the children can also do it. Of course. 
 
 Illustration 179 
 
 Drill r<ir M.ii.'iiilii.li.ti 
 'Mlik |iicturc shows pupils tni;(nari/.ii)^ ina^iituili'S :iiul making Kitliils. I'lic L-llipsc:i iiiu>t he svvuiiK vv ilh 
 fret- ctintinunu^ liiiicllcs until tlic b.thincc uttil si/c of form is felt. \'arii»uit cylindriciil fortnft fehoiild !*« 
 ilrjwn as cylindcn*, cone*, ctrcuLir plinths, i-lc. 
 
 ill the bej^iniiing the vessels will seem a little bent or crude, but they will 
 look like soliils, like vessel-forms, containinij cavities. In teachinj:^ de- 
 lineation, this is (|uite an essential jjoint to make children realize. It is 
 quite tlitVicult by the old way to make some children, and even adults, re- 
 alize that the movements or touches they are makini,' are the visible rep- 
 resentation of .somethin;.; in their un'nds. I'sually they look at the in.irks 
 on the paper or the board as they luake them. disassociate<l from the mental 
 imaf,^e of the thini; they want to rcpre.senf. They look at the pencil lines or 
 ciialk marks as the dia},'ram in itself, and begin to work with that, modifying 
 and changing, instead of keeping to the original mental image, and making 
 the hand follow that form.
 
 128 
 
 Manual-Training- Drawing 
 
 It is not easy to make my meaning clear by means of printed words, 
 but if one will practice with this form, and at the same time think of the 
 saucers and dishes being solids, tlie hand will very soon grasp the feelingthat 
 it is delineating something tangible and concrete, not simply making pencil 
 or chalk lines. This association is strictly necessary in drawing. W'e 
 want to make the connection between the eye antl the hand machine-like, 
 automatic. We want to make one obey the other without thought, an<l 
 the more we encourage this capacit}' the better the drawing will be. All 
 kinds of cylindrical forms can be niade, cylinders of various sizes, circular 
 plinths of different sizes and the like. 
 
 It is a very good exercise when the children ha\-e acquired facility in 
 this way to make a cup and saucer. (See Illus. 179.) Every line in this 
 cup and saucer can be made accurately by means of swinging the ellipse in 
 different directions, and it can be put in very accurate perspective. It is 
 quite difficult to make the cup fit the saucer in the beginning. It is good 
 practice also to make different sizes of cups and saucers fit each other. 
 
 I l)elieve this principle was understood by the Greeks. Certainly their 
 vessel forms of all kinds conform to it. Almost 
 every Greek vessel can be drawn by a series of 
 these curves. In the simi)le vase form with 
 handles, illustrated in No. 179, page 127, every 
 line is made without any trouljle, and \ery good 
 balance can be obtained if the ellipses are even. 
 Of course this cannot be expected until the 
 ellipse is made automatically, Ijut when that 
 facility is once obtained, beautiful, balanced ves- 
 sel forms of all sizes and shapes can be produced 
 with a few touches. It is very' good drill, when 
 the children are jiracticing, to have them make 
 new vessel shapes, using the principle. Do not 
 let it be overdone. Keep the forms simple and beautiful. 
 
 The transition of curve into curve can be studied while producing this 
 vase. Some of the most beautiful Greek moldings conform to this prin- 
 ciple. Usually, the more gradual the transition from cur\e to curve is 
 made, the better the result. I repeat that this is useful in enabling one to 
 make the two sides of a complex-shaped curved figure of any kind, in wood, 
 
 Illustration 180
 
 Drill Forms and Designs 
 
 129 
 
 stone or metal. It is easy to hrintj llie concrete ellipse to anv proportion 
 and .then to rejK'at that in any position. I have never known any (tne 
 taught in the old way able, in drawing a vase form, to make the lialanced 
 line down the other side of the complex form. They can very seldom gel 
 the two sides ahke. and never with a single line. 
 
 It is one of the most tiresome of the tlrawing exercises usually given 
 to children in schools, — to make the two sides of a va.se. and I have even 
 
 Illustration i8i 
 
 DI.iifTnms (or SrcUon Vic^vfi) of Vrnscl Fonna for I>cfti^In)f I'pnn 
 Sonic of iht-Kc hhapvti urt; copied and modified. The ^nod fomiii arc memorized and original dciti^nin^ 
 U attempted. The hahinccd cur\-es i»f these form* have been inudc by swinging the ellipse lightly and then 
 cm«ing the unnece»i».lry lines. 
 
 seen the vase form cut out on paper and pasted on the wall, for them to 
 copy, as though that would make it more easy. Magnitudes must he 
 grasped mentally before they can be tlelineated. and to do this, power to 
 make magnitude must be made automatic by proper exercises. It is fool- 
 ish to exi)ect a child to ]nit down a complex magnitude by imitation at the 
 first attempt. It is invariably exaggcratetl in size, ami little |)rofit results to 
 the pupil. The eye and the hand must take in projiortion by repetition of 
 various sizes consciously assimilated (llliis. iSi). 
 
 Work in Design. — When tiie children have hail a little practice
 
 J30 
 
 Manual" Training Drawing 
 
 ^^
 
 Drill Forms and Designs 
 
 }3( 
 
 Illustrations 190-193 
 
 Dcsi(jti, in Several Colors, for StAincd Glass Window 
 
 M.iik- l.v .1 i.iiiiil ill the Manu:iITrainin(f classes of tlif NtiAv Vnrk Voung Wonicn's Chri-^tian Assfn.-i.iti<m. 
 
 The fine color-quatilics cannot be perceived in this reproduction. 
 
 Th*? center cut U unfmi^h 'd. Thc<ic dc»{t(n« arc rr. 
 
 Thi- forms arc made crttn 
 
 1^ colors fur dlfTerrnt puqxitca. 
 Ir<< h.inil.
 
 J32 Manual-Training Drawing 
 
 in drawing the units of design on paper, as well as the drill forms on 
 paper and blackboards, they can begin to make designs. See various illus- 
 trations of original designs by children and teachers on pages 66 and 130, 
 also scattered throughout the work. 
 
 In some of my classes I allow the use of the ruler, making straight lines 
 and marking out the sizes of the space that the pattern is to occupy. In 
 other classes they have to do not only this, but the drawing of the straight 
 lines entirely freehand, according to the amount of discipline which it is 
 desired to give them. If they are very young, or perhaps mixed classes in 
 the night school or mixed classes of l^eginners. it is advisable to give them 
 the ruler to help them. If they are pupils who have had thorough training 
 and the right elements of drawing, and have a certain amount of good hand 
 and eye power, like the grammar grades of children who have had this train- 
 ing from the l)eginning, they can readily make their entire patterns free- 
 hand, drawing all the lines without the use of a straight edge or ruler, not 
 measuring distances, and making all circles without callipers. It is good 
 sometimes to give the ruler to pupils to test or judge the amount of pro- 
 portion they have made, if you can depend on their not making the actual 
 forms with it. This is a question for the individual judgment of the 
 teacher. Some classes of pupils, of course, will cheat and use the ruler, 
 others will do as is required. 
 
 Color and Brush Work. — When designs are finished to the teacher's 
 satisfaction with ;i pencil, it is a good plan to allow the pupil to paint the 
 background or the design, whichever is best, in black ink. If it is a mat- 
 ter of econoni}-, say in the night schools or rural schools, common jet black 
 ink can be used, with a round pointed brush, with hairs about half an inch 
 in length, — Nos. 4 and 5. If the best results are wanted, allow the pupils 
 to paint the pattern with India ink, or Higgins's black ink, or preparations 
 of that kind. This throws out the design and enables one to see the full 
 effect, besides affording the pupil the opportimity to use another tool, the 
 brush. 
 
 It is quite important to get good brush handling, and in this elementary 
 brush work you should endeavor to get the children to make free, clean 
 touches with the brush (Illus. 194). Practice making some of the forms 
 large, and some small; try to swing tiie brush freely, without resting the 
 hand or arm. The inost beautiful flowing lines and forms can oe made this 
 
 I
 
 Drill Forms and Designs 
 
 t33 
 
 way. At first, tlie forms will he very crude, but to he of value the forms 
 must be made freely without help. Do not allow them to pick out the shape 
 with little patches. Endeavor to get them as much as possible to draw 
 with the brush. \'ery little practice w ill enable one to grasp the best mode of 
 handling the brush. There is no better way tlian the Japanese method of 
 
 Illustration 194 
 
 l-iivii-iJiU liiu>(i fi.ij 13 Oitjii Praclicc 
 In makings various forms ;inJ also backjjmunds in color. The pupils must endeavor to make the 
 form: with as Tevir touches as possible. Trv to draw with the brush, also to do it without imp- 
 porting the hand in any way. Much of the best Greek .ind Japane>c work has been painted 
 freehand. Grasp the brush sometimes in the hand like a pen, sometimes by the tip "f the handle. 
 
 working, where the entire forms arc made In brush work. The patterns 
 can also be painted in monochrome, in one or two shades of the same 
 color, as sepia or terra cotta; and later on two, three and four shades of 
 different colors. 
 
 From the beginning the best pupils should be allowetl to use white 
 paper and should be given water colors. If it is a matter of economy, 
 cheap colors can be purcha.sed tlint are very good for this purpose, as low- 
 as fifteen cents a bo.\. For ordinary school purposes, however, it is still
 
 J 34 
 
 Manual-Trajningf Drawings 
 
 better to use tlie re.qfular water-color paints. Tliey last a long time, and 
 fi\'e or six boxes will answer tbe demands of a large numlier of designers. 
 
 Blackboard Work. — Class instruction at the blackboard is shown in 
 elementary stages for grammar grade pupils in illustrations 41, 42, 43. and 
 45. These pictures are from photographs taken in one of the public schools 
 in Philadeli)hia. The teacher has about 60 pupils, and all receive this 
 instruction in turn. The four pictures simply show a series of stages 
 from the simple circle to elementary designing. No. 41 represents the 
 children making the first exercise, the circle, which is usually drawn, 
 
 Illustration 195 
 
 Freeliand Designing 
 Allow pupils to drsiw bold and free Howing arrangements as large as possible, making the curves 
 with swinging lines, 'rhis is open air work on blackboard, made by a member of my summer school 
 in the Adirondacks. 
 
 as described before, in six dilifcrent ways. The second picture fpagc 
 69) illustrates the children drawing the scroll form doubled with each 
 hand, the beginning of a pattern. The third {43) illustrates the pupils 
 drawing the anthemion four different wa}s. the hands 1)eing placed for 
 the purposes of illustration in the different positions. The fourth 
 picture (No. 44) represents the children drawing designs. These pic- 
 tures were made on the same day and the \isit was unexpected. I
 
 Drill Forms and Designs J35 
 
 made the pictures myself, but had never liccn in the Iniildins^ before, so 
 that the test was a fairly good one. 
 
 Under each stage represented there is a very large series of forms in 
 which the children are drilled. Of course it is not possible to represent 
 each one. though I should like to di^ it. The children are called up in 
 rows, two or three to a board, there being four Ijlackboards in the front of 
 the classroom. In some schools there are blackboards around two sides 
 of the wall, which will allow more pupils to be drilled at the same time. I 
 find sotne teachers can. by thus <lividing the. class, give \ery conveniently 
 a good lesson in blackboard-drawing to a large class in 20 or 30 minutes, 
 every pupil working in turn on the blackboard. 
 
 The wise teacher will modify the suggestions offered here to suit her 
 own environment. It is advisable for the pupils not working on the black- 
 boaril to observe closely those who are drawing, the teacher calling especial 
 attention to faults in position, or to particularly good results: then if con- 
 venient, or at other times, the pupils at the desks can draw the same forms 
 on their slates or pajier, as preferred. It would appear from the pictures 
 that these children are too clo.se to their w(irk. almost as though their 
 faces were touching the blackboard. This, however, is not the case. The 
 efTect is produced simply because the camera had to be placed behind the 
 children. \\)u will find that some are almost at arm's length from the de- 
 signs. There is a tendency with little children to stand too close to the 
 board. Resist this as much as possible. Let the work be bold and free. 
 
 Designing on Blackboards. — When the pui)ils have become able to 
 make the elcnienlary forms and units of design without any trouljle. and 
 have gained a certain amount of automatic balance, proportion and fitness, 
 it is desirable that they should take up a course of ilesigning on the black- 
 boarfl, it being one of the best po.ssible surfaces for doing good or advanced 
 work. I recommend, if the cla.sses are not too large, that one ])upil work 
 on each blackboard, or at least have a space 3x4 feet; 4x5 feet is still better. 
 This makes a splendid surface for a single i)attern. It is advisable that the 
 designs be made as large as possible, and that both hands be used. 
 
 Xotice the illustrations herewith, page 13A. This is p.m 01 
 a blackboard-drawing class. I''or convenience. I have shown the same 
 teachers drawing two different patterns. It will bu noticed that each pat- 
 tern is dilTerein, that the scroll, anthemion, leaf form, shell form and
 
 Illustrations 196-197 
 
 Blackboiird Dcsij^ning and Drill 
 These dcsi'^ns have been made bv teachers nf the public schools, members of the teachers' classes, Public School 
 ol Industrial Art, Philadelphia. The forms are memorized but the arrangement is oriijinal, and is drawn without 
 erasure until the entire pattern is liiiished. ISoth hands are used, the left hand for the left side and the right hand 
 for the ripht side. See paifc 135. Work like the above is done in about 4 to 6 minutes usually. 
 
 (136)
 
 Drill Forms and Designs J37 
 
 Moresque form arc used. Tlie teachers are usina;- the left liands in everv 
 case illustrated. This is simply to emphasize the desirability of using the 
 left hand, for reasons advocated in I'^irst I'rinci])les. 
 
 It is best for the pupils to make the center of the pattern first, being 
 sure that they find the middle of the board. It is not necessary to draw 
 aline, as is done in some cases, down the middle of the board. They must 
 be able to feel the middle. The center parts can be drawn with botli hands 
 at once when they are symmetrical. If tiie pupils have had proper drill in 
 the elementary stages, this will be quite easy. Then the rest of the pattern 
 can be ])ut in position. From the beginning, emphasize the desirability of 
 firm lines made with clear and swinging touches. Endeavor to erase as lit- 
 tle as possible. Of course when the pattern must be modified and changed, 
 the eraser may be used, but refrain as much as possil)le frt)m altering every 
 little part. 
 
 Try to see the form as a whole before making it. A good designer 
 can always do this; a batl designer is one who makes it up as he goes along, 
 putting things here and there by cii;uu-e, if they happen to look well. It 
 is much better to be able vividly to form the concept of what is desired, and 
 then to put it down complete, with a few firm touches. The teacher can 
 very soon distinguish the pupils who are drawing this way, with a comi)lete 
 concept in mind, from those who are " making up" as they go along. Lack 
 of clear thought shows in the hesitating movements, which betray lack of 
 confidence. I can also distinguish this class of work in finished designs. 
 
 It is a little difficult to cover the whole surface of the board with judg- 
 ment, good balance, etc., but it is good discipline, and can be done just as 
 readily as if the pattern were very .small, and gives much greater dexterity. 
 Patterns drawn this way in the beginning will sometimes be very jnior in 
 composition and sometimes be too large or too small in parts. The ob- 
 ject of the teacher should be to rectify, as much as possible, this fault. The 
 moment the pupil steps back, errors of this kind can be perceived and recti- 
 fied. It is better to hammer at one pattern several times than to try mak- 
 ing a number of different ones, letting each one have an eiuirely <Iifferent 
 character. Modify one pattern till it becomes very much better, — till 
 teacher and pupil are alike satisfied with it, — then attcmjjt another. 
 
 This practice should be continued till the forms of any style can be
 
 138 
 
 Manual-Training Drawing 
 
 varied endlessly at will. \'erv soon, when pupils arrive at the stage illus- 
 trated, there will be a desire to introduce still more complex forms in the 
 design, such as dolphins, griffins, grotesques, and other decorative forms. 
 This should he encouraged in moderation, and attention should be given 
 to the form used. It should not be used unless the pupil is thoroughly 
 familiar \\ith it. From the beginning, see that the patterns are made for 
 some purpose. Do not let the drawings be meaningless patterns on the 
 blackboard, without any intention. Of course there is practice in this. l)ut 
 from the beginning the pupil should firmly keep in mind what the pattern 
 is for, — whether it is to be used for wood, or for stone carving or fabrics, etc., 
 and as much as possible it should be rendered so as to be fit^and appro- 
 priate for use in those materials. 
 Illustration ig8 
 
 Free Hand Design with Griffins 
 Do not let pupils use any complex form in desiijning until it is thorouarhly memorized. This pattern has been drawn 
 in six niinu'es, without removing the hand until finished. The left side was drawn with the left hand first, then the 
 right side drawn in proper balance with the right hand.
 
 illustration 199 
 
 l)r.us ing from Lilc 
 
 CHAPTER VI 
 
 Drawings From Life Forms 
 and Memory Drawing- 
 
 rlllS IS AX nrPORTAXT rilASI-: of our work, and one that 
 must l)e emphasized l)y the teaclicrs, all tlie time, if they desire to 
 £jet good rcsuUs from the ])iii)ils. I'upils should he encouraged to 
 draw from living f(3rms as murh as possible. A few illustrations herewith will 
 serve to explain my meaning. Notice the picture of the girl drawing chick- 
 ens. The chicken is moving about in a coop. .\t hrst the results |)ro<luced 
 are very de])ressing. The bird will not keej) still, the pujiil comjilains. 
 With a little practice, howewr. it will be found thai it is not nec- 
 essary that the chicken should keep still : that its shape can be 
 obser\e<l even when it is moving about. Xotice that the girl has 
 drawn the s:nne chicken in Inr dilTiTi'iU i)c)silions. — a side view th.it
 
 140 Manual-Trainingf Drawing 
 
 was drawn first; the chicken eating corn; a front view of the chicken 
 looking np: the chicken seated; and the chicken holding up its head. 
 
 If the pupil will persist in making a few of these diagrams without 
 minding how crude they are in the beginning, in a very short time i^ will 
 be noticed that the hand and the mind become more familiar with the form, 
 and that although the drawings are very rough, they will become success- 
 sivelv a little better. A little more power will be registered in the mind 
 and hand by means of each diagram made, and by degrees the hand will be- 
 come more obedient. The feet will not be made too large or small, the bill will 
 become of the right proportion, and the tail will stick out in the proper 
 way. Nothing but making the form of the chicken organic by constant 
 repetition, will enable one to draw it properly. When a sufficient num- 
 ber of impressions of the various parts of the chicken have been received bv 
 the mind, through the hand, then the hand will begin to obey the mind and 
 be able to reproduce them readily. This is the stage desired, and it 
 will come to almost any one who practices a sufficient time. The chief 
 thing to do is to work, and not be discouraged by the distortion of the first 
 forms that are made. 
 
 The same discipline can be obtained from cats, dogs, horses, birds, or 
 any living animals that can be seen without trouble. The sketches may 
 be made on pieces of paper or in a note book or sketch book. In some 
 of my sunmier classes we frequently use blackboards in the open air, as will 
 be seen from several illustrations in this book. It is of no use to copy the 
 chicken a few times and then stop. The work might as well not be 
 done if that is all that is done. The memory of the form must 
 be fixed by subsequent repetition without the chicken. This is 
 an important point. Sketch first from the real things, as often as is de- 
 sired, to make the required mental and manual connection, and then as 
 soon as possible test the mind and the hand by trying to recall the shape or 
 shapes. 
 
 Do not be discouraged if the product is bad at first. Continually re- 
 enforce and refresh the mind with new impressions from the object, and in 
 a short time it will be found that facility is obtained, and that much better 
 power of expression is the result. The first pictures and sketches are not 
 made to keep. Of course I understand as well as any one that there are 
 degrees of capacity in this work, as in all other kinds of work, but I have
 
 Plate Ten 
 
 |'';iintini; in t oior irmii .N:iturc 
 
 ReautlTul color work from natural rorrn* cun hv ilonc by children in the lower ifradc* of all ■choola. If they are 
 righily in»lructfd. Vi% ii! nifinoriri* nf color should he rvccived from fnitt*, flower*, InKrct*, bird*, fi»h, ahellk, etc. 
 Color harmony and valucf should be t:iut;ht from nutuml ftinnn, imi foMn *tainrd itnd tinU-d ptipcr». The butterfly 
 should speak directly to the child. The c<d»ir», thi-ir are;i*, tint* and value* should l*e mcinnrizcd and •hnllar ar- 
 ran^emrnlti tii.ide in dcfti)|[nft for various purp<iKt-ft. I'hr teacher khnuld Ih: very carvful in the bcginnlnif not to 
 puzzle children with abntract theories about color, or l<i teach faUe nomenclature*
 
 J42 Manual Training-Drawing; 
 
 never yet found cliildren, teacliers, and other art students who have not 
 been benefited, however liad their work may be at tlie outstart, liy working 
 this way. 
 
 Good (h^awing- and sketches of this cliaracter can be made from the 
 mounted animals and other specimens in any good museum. There is a cer- 
 tain stifTness and rigidity even in the best^ stuffed forms. I)ut they are 
 good to use if nothing better can be had. In some of my schools I have 
 beautiful stuffed birtl and fish forms of various kinds, mounted for stui.Iy, 
 but if possible I prefer tlic pupils to work from the real forms, and for this 
 purpose excursions are made to zoological gardens and to other places, 
 and the children are continually invited to draw animal forms in their native 
 environment. Almost ever}- one has a cat, a dog, or a canary, and there is 
 no better practice than to sketch one of these forms continually until it ran 
 be put down successfully from memory alone. 
 
 Persistence Required. — To do this properl\- requires a good deal of 
 artistic antl manual skill, and these exercises are desirable for their aid in this 
 training, apart from the even greater \alue to the mind, the judgment and 
 the imagination that always accrues from vivid, permanent impressions reg- 
 istered in this way from the realities of life. Such sketching from memory 
 must be done continually, not a few times only, followed by long intervals 
 of cessation. It is like practicing on the piano: fifteen minutes or half an 
 hour each day, steadily persisted in, will do more good than five or six 
 hours a day with long intervals between. 
 
 I think this holds good with almost anything. All progress is a mat- 
 ter of persistence and self-control. There are many people who desire to 
 be able to play well or to sketch well, yet who have not enough force and 
 energy in their disposition to be willing to make the required movements 
 continuously, and who allow the influence or force of their surroundings to 
 draw them away from their desires. This yielding is in proportion to their 
 weakness of character. I think one of the most valuable lessons that we 
 can learn from this work is the fact that it helps to form the will and tle- 
 velops a tendency to continuous application, whicli increases as the difficul- 
 ties increase, and our tine of work is of such pleasurable character that it 
 carries with it a certain amount of satisfaction and joy that cannot fail to 
 expand ami elevate the mind. 
 
 %
 
 Life Forms and Memory Drawing 
 
 143 
 
 Memory Thaiving of all forms ami ideas is not insisteil upon enoncrh 
 anywhere, ihuugh il is one of the most bcnertcial exercises for expandino- 
 the mind and givinjr the artistic al)ility so much to I)e desired educationallv.* 
 All good artists sketch incessantly; it is henelicial even to recall forms and 
 designs when there is no opportunity to put them down on paper. Xot life 
 forms onlv should lie meiuorized, but tlie nn'nd should he exercised in mem- 
 tally designing, and making compositions or ])atterns. \'ery valuable and 
 useful power can be grailually actjuired in this way. We should be able 
 to think compositions and designs, and mentally to change them from state 
 to state, just as the character of our speech or the current of our ideas 
 change when we are tiiinking or reasoning. 
 
 Illustration 200 
 
 Common .\l:i«:kvrvl— .Sf<'««/«7/' .>tt»«W'* u^ 
 
 One of thu most importiinl of food fishw. It is finely foimed and a very Mtivc oceanic fish. All the fish 
 lorms illustrated hercafller are drawn and modeled in my various classes. 
 
 Fish Forms are fine sul)jccts for study. Usually sinii>le in form, ihe 
 children will be found to draw them with much delight.— good typical l.-rms 
 like mackerel, the salmon, the bass, perch, blue fish.— what fine shapes! 
 There is something about the fish that usually makes children's eyes sparkle. 
 I don't know whether it is because they have experienced the joys of fish- 
 ing, or whether it is that the drawings revive the sparkle and the gleam of 
 the actual fish in or out of the water, but I .lo know that children take much 
 delight in making these forms. A few suggestions will be given as to 
 drawing these on the blackboard and on paper. There is an en.lless variety 
 
 M1,e phv.ioln„ical enn.li.i < U .h,.t organic proce.. hy which ner.c expeilem-r. ,n In. different 
 
 . en.er. ari r^^i... red ; and ... - the.e eMKrle.ue. i„ .he highest cen.er, the f,..K-.lo„. ..f « hic^ 
 
 arx. attended wl.h cn„.ci..us„. v ex.ernalnr In.emal cau.e. th.lr rr.idua. u|,.,.u.U.s dU,........n«. 
 
 etc., in.ofunc.innal activity. .M„„„l..,. ,1 i.hnu.. they om..l.„... r.c..«„i.ion, .h... i. c...„„. Ion wl.h memory 
 
 of former co^nLion; .tlmula.ed fr.m, within, they eon»ti.u.e reo.lkc.ion.-iM.u,d.ley. l'hy.iolo„y o. .Mmd, ,.a„c s>4.
 
 J44 
 
 Manual-Trainingf Drawing 
 
 Illustration 201 
 
 Illustration 202 
 
 The Caninc^oid Fish — CarariT hipposis 
 
 This fish is related to the mackerel, American blue fish and pilot fish. This and other essential facts 
 about it arelearned by the children as they draw or model the form. 
 
 of form among the fi.she.s. Some seem all head, some nearly all tail, soire 
 are without fins, some with fins like wings. 
 
 Fish are beautiful examples of color. It is important to draw the 
 attention of the children to this. The colors are iridescent, pearlv, and 
 brilliant to a wonderful degree in some fishes : when thev first come out of 
 
 the water, they gleam like a rain- 
 bow. Get the children to recall 
 these impressions. In man}- 
 schools and homes small acpiari- 
 ums afford good opportunity to 
 stud)- the movements of living 
 fish. Small fish have just as beau- 
 tiful mo\-ements as the large 
 ones. After some of my talks 
 the children take a joy in visiting 
 the fish markets. Xotliing is 
 more beautiful in color than a 
 lieap of shad, herring, mackerel. 
 lobsters, crabs, and shell fish, 
 when just out of the water, and 
 children, when they once become 
 interested, are fascinated and register many vivid impressions in various 
 forms. Encourage them to look at these things. Hardly anv one can go to a 
 
 Angel Fish
 
 Life Forms and Memory Drawing; 
 
 145 
 
 fish market, when the fish are beginning to arrive, without seeing crowds of 
 men and boys, usually idlers, looking at the splendid forms, the beautiful 
 curves, the variety of color, as the fish slide aljout. If anything ex- 
 ceptional, like a large turtle or sturgeon, is on view, there will be a crowd 
 around it for some time. There is something more than idle curiosity 
 here, there is so powerful an attraction in these strange and beautiful forms 
 that the attention of even the most careless is compelled for a little while. 
 
 This is the thing to lay hold of. with children, and it is a divine energy 
 poured out on every one. On this we must build if we wish to get them in- 
 
 lllustration 203 
 
 ShvvftnhcaA — Arrhnnarfftu 
 
 A lirj:i' iinti v:ilujblc spirold food fish, .So cillcd from the f.incicd n.-scinbluncc nf it« 
 
 head and front trcth to those of a sheep. 
 
 oculated with the love of nature and the beauty and the joy that follow if 
 
 this is cultivated to the higher stage. This energy nnist be cultivated and 
 
 conserved, otherwise, like other vivid impressions of youth, it fades away, 
 
 and finally, in a great tnany cases, is wholly lost. It must be cultivated 
 
 skillfully and systematically from stage to stage. This a true teacher will 
 
 do without taking the life out of the work by tedious, needless repetitions 
 
 of tirc>;(inu- forinulas. grade<l steps, definitions, etc. 
 
 Typical Forms. — I use fish forms throughout all the grades. In the 
 
 first grade I find the children fascinated in drawing a fish, while in the 
 10
 
 146 
 
 Manual-Training; Drawing 
 
 Illustration 204 
 
 liighest grades they are 
 pleased to make various 
 fisli forms and also to ideal- 
 ize them in the way of dol- 
 phins of various shapes. 
 The experience of many 
 vears has taught that the 
 
 chiU 
 
 the liesrinning must 
 
 Tie Silver Moonfish— Vomer attipennis) 
 Called also Blunt-Nosed Shiner. 
 
 have a concrete generalized 
 fish form in its mind, a kind 
 of type form if you like, one 
 that has the usual spines on 
 its back, the tail at the end, 
 fins on the side, gills, etc., 
 but which is not the picture of any special fish. But I find that when the 
 children have once become able to make this generalized fish form with 
 facility (and by making it, I mean when the connection has been thoroughly 
 established between their finger tips and their brains so that they can re- 
 produce it automatically as they think of fish), the moment they think of 
 spines, the spines grow on the back; the moment they think of tail, the 
 tail rays out from behind: the moment they think of fins, the fins are placed 
 in position automatically; while the same is the case with the scales. I 
 find also, if this form is tlioroughly organized into the mental fabric, that 
 children, when they have special fish forms presented to them, can readily 
 grasp the differences antl the resemblances, and with \ery little practice be- 
 come able to delineate these forms. 
 
 Speaking Through the Finger Tips. — This is the manner in which I 
 should wish all drawing to be done, and the way in which I have en- 
 deavored to make my pupils work. It has proven to be quite successful. 
 To me this method is in accord with the usual process of mental develop- 
 ment, it being simply the assimilation of certain impressions till they are 
 made permanent and can be reproduced through the finger tips, just as we 
 assimilate impressions and through other motor reactions give utterance to 
 our ideas vocally or in writing. The time is coming when people will 
 speak with their finger tips as well as their tongues. I mean the common 
 people, not simply a few geniuses. I believe that there is a larger proportion
 
 ^ Life Forms and Memory Drawing J 47 
 
 than we think of people wlio are gifted in this (hrection. and I see no reason 
 why the hand should not respond to any idea or thought as instantly as the 
 tongue usually does. In education, I have found that working in this 
 direction is perfectly practicable; that the instrumentalities in all children 
 and their powers and capacities seem as though they were specially en- 
 dowed to this end. I really helieve that all hands are capable, in the way of 
 art work, of responding in an exceptional degree to some environment, or 
 to some of the varied conditions of nature. 
 
 Notice the children drawing firsli forms in lUus. J05. These are gen- 
 eralized forms. In making them tlie children, of course, have had the real 
 fish, a plaster model, or a diagram, to study. I am not as firmly set as 
 some teachers on the subject fif copying from models all the time I 
 find that a photograph or print will call up a good memory of the various 
 parts of a fish to children, especially if they are encouraged to look at and 
 memorize the real forms. I find every day that it is more important to get the 
 children to mentally recall form than it is to imitate it from the object. Of 
 course some imitation must come first, but the fine technic is a matter of 
 years, and the ideas of form can be growing meantime. But there is a 
 great deal of merit and discipline in getting the children to endeavor to make 
 tactual impressions on paper of even the complex things they cannot readily 
 have before them, like a horse, for instance, that they have seen 
 on the street. If you speak of a car horse or a cab horse or a horse in any 
 of the v.agons coming along the street, and mention several parts of its 
 form, the children usually look ft)r these things the next time they see the 
 horse. 
 
 I frequently ask them to draw a shad during the shad season, and find 
 they do not know its shajjc. They have forgotten. i)erha|)s, the sliape of its 
 spinal fin or its tail or the bulk of its head. l.el them do the best they 
 can for the lesson, and then request them tt) look at the shad, ami you will 
 find that the next time they draw they have a very vivid impression or- 
 ganized in the min<l. of spinal fin or tail or head, usually an impression tliat 
 is organized so that the concept never fades. It is to get this knowlcilge 
 to come to the finger tips, instinctively on command, that we work. 
 
 Importance of StmpUcityi.—Xotkv that the.se diagrams nl fish that the 
 children arc drawing .irc very sinqjlc, that they contain the fewest lines pos- 
 sible. From the veiy beginning the essential features of form should be
 
 H8 
 
 Manual-Training Drawing 
 
 Illustration 205 
 
 Memory Drawing of Fish Forms 
 Tlic chiltlrL-n are practicing drawing various fisli from memory, to m:il<e different sizes and proportions, and to 
 malu- lliem turn in different positions. Tlie cliild sliould get facility of expression with a few essential features, before 
 inucli in tlie way of detail is rcciuired. 
 
 grasped with a few touches. If I give a fish form to a student, of any age, 
 wlio is not practiced in our metliod, there is usually an attempt to represent 
 a maze of details, and the fish form or otlier form is lost in the endeavor to 
 ])ut down unessential features. To grasp the " essential" features and " to 
 purge the form of superfluities" is of course the artistic part of the work, 
 and this point the teacher can illustrate in different ways by showing good 
 sketches, diagrams, and pictures by good artists. Invariably it is found
 
 Life Forms and Memory Drawing J49 
 
 that ^rcat artists simplify things. Ami in drawing as a moilc of expres 
 sion, — the kind of drawing that we wish to get. — this simplicity and 
 strength is what we aim for. There is no harm in the beginning to have 
 little children copy one of these tish forms from the teacher's diagram on 
 the blackboard, or from a chart or a good photograph. The teacher can 
 also have real fish, bongiit for a few pennies, on the desk; can have a 
 stufTed fish, a pla.ster model, or a living fish in a globe. He must aid the 
 child, however, to get a certain proportion in this work, jnst as it gets a 
 certain proportion in a leaf or an a])])le. The teacher must direct attention to 
 the radiation of the spines and hns, the marking of the scales, and prac- 
 tice must be given in making these forms a number of times, till the propor- 
 tion and detail of the cUfferent parts become automatic. 
 
 Then the teacher can let the children make the fish move about — or 
 take dilTcrent positions. This is much harder, but they soon conquer it. 
 To make the fish turn around or swim up or swim down, or flaj) over, is quite 
 difiicult, but if they have once conquered the generalized form, so that it is 
 automatic, they can very soon become able to make the same forms move 
 about, and they take a great deal of pleasure in doing so. 
 
 c/l Wdrning. — Do not expect the.se things to come in two or three les- 
 sons. Kemember, though you can give a little child these forms, that it 
 usually has eight years of school time in which to practice. The children 
 you see in our illustrations drawing these forms have become able to make 
 any kind of fish in any kind of position, just as readily as they sjieak Of 
 course it is a matter of years. It is a very foolish teacher who expects .a 
 child to make a fish or other animal turn around in a few lessons, a thing 
 that some artists cannot do (if they are rc<iucsted) after years of experience, 
 simply because they do not draw from memory, by the ex])ression of ideas, 
 but by imitation. They must imitate some form before theiu, they have 
 never done anything else. 
 
 This is usually the trouble with many of ilie art sciiools. — there is 
 imitation of models and sketching from models endlessly, with very little 
 memory work. I liclieve if a qu;irter of the time spent in looking at models 
 was given to recalling, without the model, tin- !mpir-,Ni, ,iis in.idi- ti\ it 'muh 
 more valuable results would be obtained. 
 
 Variety m Forms. — When tlic children have facility in making the 
 fish forms, as illustrated, drawing them with ease, allow them to make
 
 t50 
 
 Manual-Trainings Drawing 
 
 Illustration 206 
 
 
 ^s^' 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 . Xt; 
 
 1 
 ■ 
 
 
 BS?^ 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 The Sea Bass. 
 A large marine food fish, called also locally blue bass, black sea bass, black fish, blue fish 
 and black perch. 
 
 varieties of fisli, iong and slender, short and thick, etc., and encourage them 
 to look at fish. 
 
 Invite them to catch fish. If we register the vivid impression 
 that comes when a child first catches a fish and inspects it in all its glory of 
 sparkling color, if we can make this impression vivid and organic with the 
 joy and the beauty that goes with it, we have done something toward de- 
 veloping the artistic sense; — and I attach much importance to these uncon- 
 scious glimpses of nature forms, as seen in the fields, the streets and the 
 markets. Let us do all we can to make them indelible and permanent, es- 
 pecially through the feelings and emotions. This can only be done by fre- 
 quently recalling the images and nailing them into the fa1)ric of the mind by 
 deeds, by performance of actions through the dififerent channels of human 
 activity. For our purpose we do it l)y recalling and recording the forms 
 as often as possible on i)aper, in clay and in wood. Beware of making any of 
 this pleasant and cnjoyablework a task. This is wlicre the teacher's judg- 
 ment and skill must come in. Tlin)Ugh the same door tliat yon open into 
 the mind, this energy or spirit can fly away. Watch, therefore. 
 
 Invite the chiklren to try to represent fish forms that they have ex- 
 perience of and with which they are familiar. They become sometimes 
 especially fascinated by strange fish forms, and it is well, if \'ou lia\c the
 
 Life Forms and Memory Drawing: 
 
 151 
 
 facilities, to show them pictures of these or make pictures of them on the 
 blackboartl. — a sliark, for instauce. a t1\ iug fish, or some of the many various 
 forms with special peculiarities. 
 
 By degrees various adjuncts of the fish form can he tauglu to them, 
 Willi the names of the different parts, like the diagram on ]iage 153. These 
 technical terms and others have a more or less complex character, accord- 
 ing to the grade of pupils that are receiving instruction, but they can readily 
 be fixed in the mind by this method. 
 
 I have many children who know the names of the different parts of the 
 fish, which they can express with ease by drawing. To get them to memorize 
 the names of the first dorsal, the second dorsal, the pectoral fin. the ventral, 
 anal and caudal fins, and other difficult technical names, without some means 
 of systematically reproducing them, is a hardship, and one of the things 
 from which the present schools suffer. It is unreasonable to task the mind. 
 
 Ur.uvlnif I''Ish Ktmn* Fr»nn .Mi-intirv 
 Thr childrrn aira write or print the nuiiic of each viulcly unik-r llx fiinii, no Ihiil Ihcy mvir f"r(jcl It.
 
 152 
 
 Manual-Training: Drawings 
 
 the verlxil memory, with such things. Placed in the mind, however, by 
 these instrumentahties, learning-, and even the practice of expressing ab- 
 stract thought in symbols, becomes a delight and a pleasure, and is con- 
 tinued with ease. 
 
 Encourage the children to notice the strong erect lines of the spines, 
 the stiff, springy look. In some positions fish assume most beautiful 
 
 Illustration :oS 
 
 .X\ 
 
 \ 
 
 ®X/^ 
 
 Fish Forms in Design 
 
 curves and when the children begin to ideal- 
 ize these forms, very fine designs and sugges- 
 tions can be received from them. Notice the 
 many varieties of form in which the fish is 
 used in combination with other forms. 
 
 Fish Forms in Design. — Like other animal forms, the fish is much 
 used in decorative work, and gives additional beauty to some parts. The 
 scales are used for surface decoration of many kinds. Practice in 
 drawing scales so that they fit is one of the exercises that I give chil- 
 dren at certain periods. To draw scales so that they are equal in size and 
 fit nicely, so that they gradually diminish or increase in size, compels a 
 wonderful amount of attention, and requires a great amount of manual 
 skill. To do it successfully in certain materials, like clay and wood, re- 
 quires fine manual training. Further suggestions for the use of fish forms 
 in design are described and illustrated in Chapter \'III of this book. 
 
 In making work of the highest character, of the most beaut\", it is im- 
 portant that we should know as mucii as possible about fish forms antl their 
 color. The more intimate we are with these things, the more wisdom and 
 the more knowledge we can put into the designs that we idealize or ideate 
 from them. Very few people can really enter into the pleasure and the joy
 
 Life Forms and Memory Drawing 
 
 153 
 
 of some of the great works of tlic best periotls of ditTerent iiatii)ii?>, simply 
 because tliey do not see the connection l)et\veen tlie natural forms anil tlic 
 idealized forms. Some of ilie most beautiful and wonderful of the Japanese 
 and Chinese dolphins, dragons and grotesques are made from idcalizeil fish 
 forms. It is an adtled pleasure and joy in life to be able to perceive the 
 beautiful as rendered even by " ])agans"' and other curious peoples. 
 
 Fish forms should be modeled in clay continually, especially if a vivid 
 memory of the form is desired. They also make beautiful decorative forms 
 for various purposes. 
 
 General Remarks^ — I have given this lesson on tish forms enlarged and 
 at length simply to illustrate and suggest a few points to instructors that 
 can be applied equally to all forms, the same ideas and movements applying 
 to everything" created and suitalile for instruction. Stupid and dumb is the 
 teacher who cannot, even in the most degrailed and forlorn cn\ironment, 
 get the connnon bits of nature that are so silently eloquent. Make even 
 the sticks and stones and grass speak to and through the hand, the head 
 and the heart ! 
 
 Illustration 310 
 
 N.ilurtr Study 
 Dniwinu' .1 i'h:irt to indiciiti: luchnical n.'uni-!i nf the ilifTvrcnl |i;irtii
 
 Plate Eleven 
 
 j a^rg^ 
 
 DrawinfcT from Nature 
 Rapid sketches are made of the movement?; of the dog. This work is difficult at Arst, but if th*; 
 pupil models the form also, accurate memories of form are received .ind made permanent. 
 
 (154)
 
 Illustrations 211-213 
 
 Various positiou:> of Uit ^ame shell, as memorized by Ihc children. The shells being fine in form are good 
 models. 
 
 CHAPTER Vn 
 
 Drawing from 
 Nature and from 
 Memory * 
 
 IK TVVL'RE IS THE BEST DESIGXER. Our pupils nnist assimilate 
 / \ a variety of impressions from nature l)eforc we can expect them 
 to create <ine\v. Take shells, for instance. It is almost impossible 
 to think of a new shell. the entire field seems to be exhausted by nature. shells 
 being of every conceivable variety. It seems as though nature had worked 
 out every possibility to its utmost exaggeration. We have shells thick, shells 
 thin, shells long and slender, .shells very short and thick, with spikes, spines, 
 processes, ad infinitum. Before drawing shells it is advisable for the 
 teacher, and the pupils also, to make a few diagrams, illustrating the growth 
 of shells by addition to the margin, as pictured in N'o. -'14. Tlicy can be 
 made to take much interest in the growth and structure of the shell. It is 
 advisalile to explain to them how and why shells assume the dilTerent 
 shapes, from the fiat, scalloped to the pointed, spiral form. 
 
 Simple diagrams should l)e ma<Ie at first, almost conventionalized forms 
 if you prefer, and study should be made of shells simple in form. like the 
 scalloped shell, spiral shell, cockle shell, clam shell, etc. If .some of these 
 arc in jiairs and doubled (Illus. .215). it makes a still more interesting picture, 
 and the ciiildren grasp the relation of actual shell forms to some of the 
 beautiful idealized shell forms in ornament. 
 
 •Aft much a« possible, nature lorms should be uned in drawing. Good work, hnwcvcr, can also l>c done 
 Iiom photographs and liooks. Diagrams from books arc used severaltinirs hen-in as suggestii>n». 
 
 (•55)
 
 J56 
 
 Manual-Training: Drawing 
 
 Drawing from the Object 
 All sizes of shells can be drawn in the hand this 
 way and form memorized. Small shells of beanti- 
 ful form and variety can be purchased cheaply. 
 
 "'''''"''°" ''' It is good practice to draw the 
 
 shell freehand on the lioard from one 
 held in the hand, making different 
 \-ie\vs. then memorizing them, like the 
 illnstration 214. There is no better 
 practice in drawing and color work 
 than can be received from making ac- 
 curate drawings of l)eautiful shell 
 forms. Shells can be purchased in 
 some instances for ten cents a quart. 
 In a quart of such shells scores of per- 
 fect and l)eautiful specimens can be 
 fountl. The}' last a long time and the 
 children, if they are inspired properly, 
 
 are never tired of looking at them. Shells are among the best things we 
 
 have for teaching color. Some of them are perfect poems of color, and as 
 
 they can be bought illustration 215 
 
 very cheaply, they are 
 
 among the best things 
 
 vve can have for school 
 
 models. The children 
 
 have learned one of the 
 
 most desirable lessons 
 
 when they begin to ap- 
 preciate the wonderful 
 
 architecture spun into 
 
 a shell, its form, its 
 
 color, its structure and 
 
 texture. When they 
 
 can in the slightest de- 
 gree r e pr o d u c e its 
 
 beauty, proportion and 
 
 fitness in actions that r. ■ r ,. ■ . ., ^u- 
 
 Drawmg irom Memory and Irom the Object 
 
 are themselves fit and beautiful, the shell has fulfilled one of its missions. 
 
 There is a great deal of talk about the expensiveness of school models. 
 It is simply an excuse made by some ignorant people for the barrenness and
 
 Drawing: From Memory 
 
 157 
 
 bareness of the ordinary common school room. A bright teaclier can 
 collect or gather clam shells and oyster shells that are perfect in form and 
 color. Sometimes a clean oyster shell is a revelation of jjcrfect colors and 
 tints, being iridescent, translncent. pearly, etc. The greatest scientists 
 or artists could require nothing better or conceive anything so (it. It 
 is ]iussible. for two or three ilollars, to get a collection of shells of the com- 
 moner varieties that would stand the wear and tear of a class room for man\ 
 years. The same is true of other forms. 
 
 I find usually that this idea of lack of materials is more a matter of ig- 
 norance than anything else. It comes from a barrenness of miml which is 
 an outgrowth of the common idea, so fixed in the mind of most people, tliat 
 reading, writing and arithmetic are the main things. Fortunately that 
 
 (lustrations 216-217 
 
 Shill Forms 
 
 Some of the most beautiful lines in dcsiipi and ornament have oeen taken from »hcll form*. No >ludy 
 will bro.iden and exp.-ind the mind more quickly than tn assimulatc, fimt hand direct from the shell, complete 
 ideas of line lines, curves, structure, texture, color, etc. 
 
 time is passing by. and we are beginning to find school rooms filleil with 
 appropriate things. I read in a recent paper the account of a new school in 
 a large city where the committee are actually reiiucsting the sum of $100.- 
 000 for plant and fi.xtures alone. I knov by ex|)erience that, unfortunately,
 
 158 
 
 Manual-Training: Drawing 
 
 riustrations 2if-2iq 
 
 Inside and Outside ofthe Same Shell 
 
 a great deal of this money will be spent for elaborate furniture, cumbersome 
 desks and closets, etc. But the beginning of the new era is upon us. 
 
 Blackboard Work. — Shells should be drawn on tiie blackboard at in- 
 tervals. Allow the children to select any shell they desire and to make dif- 
 ferent freehand views of it on the blackboard. The shell can be held in 
 
 Illustrations 220-221 
 
 
 ^ 1 \^' 
 
 1 
 
 
 ''"^"-^mt/^^wit^:- 
 
 
 Lesson From Shells 
 The examples ot tani^cntial curwilure, radiation, transition of curves, etc., are perfect on shells. The 
 chihlren should be carefully instructed to study and reproduce these qualities in pencil and with color. Some 
 of the scallop shells art: much used in carved work.
 
 Drawing From Memory J59 
 
 the left hand wliile iloinij this, ami even very small shells can be useil. At 
 first allow the drawings to be as simple as diagrams and of the easiest views, 
 gradually attempting the more complex positions, as facility is gained. Re- 
 member that the first object of this work is to store the memory wit!i im- 
 pressions of shell. To enable the mind to vividly recall or recollect shell, 
 these exercises should be repeated until typical shells can be drawn from 
 memory. Lead-pencil sketches for detail should be maile, and also, if pos- 
 sible, sketches in color. 
 
 Shells should also be modeled in clay, producing both realistic and 
 conventional cojjies. 
 
 ^ird ^Orms, — Little children can begin to draw bird forms. The con- 
 cefit or tyi)icai iilea of bird is made up. to the child, of the \arious impres- 
 sions it has received from the birtls with which it has been familiar. (See 
 illustrations of children drawing birds on pages i6o and i6i. It does not 
 matter how crude the first attemi)ts are. It is a good plan for the chil- 
 dren to make simple diagrams of birds' heads, like those of the pigeon, crow, 
 hawk, parrot, paroquette, eagle, and so on; or of the conmion chicken, the 
 rooster, the duck, the goose, the swan and others. Side views of the duck 
 swimming are perhaps as simple as anything in the beginning. 
 
 Endeavor to get the children to think of the shape of birds. Simple 
 diagrams or drawings can be made on the blackboard of very different 
 shapes of birds, for instance, the crane, the stork, the heron, and then birdsof 
 opposite characteristics, like the owl and the eagle. .\ simple bird form, 
 like the sparrow or any small bird that can be readily procureil, should be- 
 come automatic. The children should be made by repetition able to put 
 this form down without trouble from memory. When this can be done 
 readily, then the bird should be placed in dilTerent ])ositions ami the cliiUl 
 should be encouraged to make drawings of these positions and to mem- 
 orize them. .\llow the children to attempt these different jjositions on the 
 blackboards. ( )f course to render a bird flying or spreading its wings is 
 difficult, and it recpiires a knowledge that you must not expect from chil 
 dren in the beginning. Rut as they become able to place the sim|)le forms 
 in various positions, and as they get more practice, in drawing, of the dif- 
 ferent things refjuircd in their different studies, so they will become able to 
 make these comjjlex forms with greater case than one would think possible 
 if it be attempted to remler them without this previous work.
 
 J 60 
 
 Manual-Trainingf Drawing 
 
 lIIu<;tration 12 
 
 I'rimary Work by Little Children 
 Drawingbird forms, dogs, cats, etc., from memory-, in difl'erent positions 
 
 Encourage the children to notice different kinds of birds, as the 
 canaries at home, the parrots, and other birds they see when they go to the 
 zoological gardens, or the common birds seen in the country. Encourage 
 them to make drawings of these things, even while they are moving about. 
 I have numbers of children who can do this readily. It is not necessary 
 that a bird should be stuffed or that it should be dead before you can see 
 the length of its bill or the size of its head. If a child is looking at a 
 flamingo walking about, making its peculiar motions in the water, it can 
 notice the strange shape of the bill, the wonderful length and beautiful 
 curving of the neck, the remarkable length and structure of the legs, and 
 other particulars without any trouble. It should be able also to make a 
 drawing or tactual record of these remarkable points. It does not matter
 
 Drawing From Memory 
 
 161 
 
 if the bird bends its neck while the drawing is being made: it is still the same 
 bird and neck. With very little encouragement children become able to 
 grasp the form and reproduce it, even when the moilel is moving. This 
 is a great and desirable step in drawing. 
 
 It is only the most stupid kind of peo])le who think that the living 
 forms must jjose before them to enable them to grasp the shape. The 
 children you see working in the pictures here given have made many of 
 the drawings from living forms. They can also make very good ilrawings 
 of the same forms in any position without the models. The chickens have 
 been drawn while walking about, the same witli the parrots. 
 
 Of course in the beginning bad drawings result. Xo one can make 
 six or eight diagrams of a crane without making the last diagram better 
 than the first, if they have a crane t)r a picture or model of one to refer to. 
 
 Illustration 22 ^ 
 
 .Memory Dniwiog 
 Thcuc bird lormi have tKinmcmort/cd mm »pctimcn« phoU>({rapln.d in llin book. This pupil can 
 draw any oflhc blrdn in difTcrcntpu&itioos from mcmury,
 
 J62 Manual-Training Drawing 
 
 Illustration 224 
 
 Enlarging DrawingfS from Sketch Book 
 The samefomis should be drawn in many positions and memorized. 
 
 It is the constant repetition, the association of idea witli movement, the 
 constant endeavor to reproduce, that ultimately leads to achievement. 
 
 And do not expect likenesses, actual portraits of these forms, from lit- 
 tle children. If they get any idea of the form in the beginning, they 
 should be encouraged. When they have had sufficient practice with this 
 Illustration 225 
 
 Bird studies 
 Variety of liirds' bills, drawn from Webster's dictionary. The teacher is giving 
 an object lesson to a class.
 
 Drawing From Memory J63 
 
 memory drawing, some can reproduce images with the utmost fidelity, and 
 it is remarkable wliat an amount of observation they disclose and of acute 
 perception of details that they can render. Xever expect them to render 
 forms without first assimilating impressions from tiie real things, or from 
 prints, pictures or drawings of some kind. They must be constantly sent 
 to the source, to the thing itself, to receive fresh impressions. 
 
 By degrees they will lose the desire to sit and imitate detail by detail, 
 and this is a valuable quality we wish them to get. — the power of being able 
 to mentally photograph the object they look at, and then to revive it later; 
 to be able to recall it with its original vividness of form, color, light and 
 shade. — its essential qualities. That this can be done and well done by 
 children I am convinced from the product that we get in our schools. It 
 it is done systematically throughout all the years of school life, I claim that 
 we will have a product that will be much more valuable than any yet at- 
 taine<l A*^ teachers, this is what we must aim for. 
 
 Color in Birds. — Let the children study a feather. Beautiful lessons 
 can be given on a feather. .And then, wings! Is there anything more 
 beautiful in the world than a wing, in its wonderful structure, form, texture, 
 color? A few wings of different kinds should be drawn repeatedly till the 
 children can automatically reproduce the overlapping of the pin feathers 
 and the short feathers, just as they draw the scales of a fish or any other 
 detail. There is nothing more beautiful in the worl<l than the appearance 
 of some flying birds; the spread of wing, 
 the gradation of form shown by the Ulustratiomie 
 feathers, the regularity, strength and beauty 
 of movement must impress the most care- 
 less. ChiKlrcn can be encouraged to make 
 simple diagrams of tlying birds, like the 
 pigeon or the sea gull. an<l they will very 
 readily when they see these birds watch 
 their movements and make visual notes 
 
 of their difTerent positions when flying. The same is true of birds 
 swimming in the water, like the duck, the goose ami the swan, — the per- 
 fection of living beauty, grace, and fitness. (Illus. 2^2.) 
 
 The children should be obliged continually to notice the colors of birds. 
 I believe we can get more real knowledge of the tints, the tones and shad-
 
 164 
 
 Manual-Training; Drawing 
 
 ows, and the harmonies of color from a dead sparrow or a pigeon or the 
 head of a chick than from all the books and stained papers that have ever 
 been printed, for the purpose of teaching color. Some colors on birds 
 are ravishing. They shine like jewels, and there is a flashing effulgency 
 and a delicate iridescence on the neck of a pigeon that will in a measure 
 reproduce the soft glowing radiance of the heavens, to the heart who can 
 
 Illustratiun 227 
 
 Enlarging and Memory Drawings 
 Of birds in various positions from sketch book. The original sketches were made from the acal birds. 
 
 look at it with sufficient love. If there is anything in education that we 
 ought to cherish and to nourish, it must be this; to give the children a feeling 
 for these things, to touch their emotions if we can, to infect them with the 
 almighty energy of the love of nature. These experiences help to develop 
 desirable phases of character in the young, which are seldom reached by 
 other means. Other l)ird forms are shown on page 179, and elsewhere in 
 this book. 
 
 Botanical Forms.— ^'P^Qndid lessons in drawing and elementary botany 
 can be given. Botanical forms are especially beautiful, interesting and 
 useful for school work. The simplest leaves and flowers, the commonest 
 weeds and grasses, make good illustrations, and the pupils can be led on
 
 Drawing- From Memory 
 
 165 
 
 from the simple diagrams made of these forms to the most abstract and (Hf- 
 ficvilt scientific work. Tlie difficult nomenclature used in botany can be 
 memorized without effort if tlie lessons in drawing are given riglitly. The 
 tactual, muscular and visual impressions seem to make the form and the 
 name stick more readily in the memory. They can be recalled more 
 clearly at any future time. 
 
 Take the horse-chestnut leaf, for instance (llhis. 230). This embodies 
 the whole of the laws which are to he desirctl in some of our work. It has 
 perfect grace of form, proportional distribution of areas, radiation from 
 parent stem, tangential cur\ature of lines, even distribution of surface dec- 
 oration, repetition, growth and a number of other minor (|ualitics. This 
 is also true of an assemblage of leaves, — with their ecjual arrangement of 
 masses, and perfect distribution of gruuii or groups. 
 
 Try to make the students enter into the beauty of these simple forms. 
 
 Illustration 228 
 
 A Lesson Ui Dniwintr :iml Mli-mrntun' Ilotany 
 
 Use the if.Tl flower fonns lo draw from as often an possible, llun nieinorlte the chameterlslle features, «• 
 desenl>e<l in ( h:iptir VII. The last flower form is a cross section of a daisy. Small drawing* should also 
 be made in pencil and color. The drill work in Manual-Tr.iinini: drawini; in the present and prccedinn cliap' 
 tvrs is of wonderful value in impartintc the faculty to draw from object* of all kinds.
 
 i66 
 
 Manoal-Trainingf Drawing 
 
 Do not allow them to create freak units. When we have such a wonderful 
 range in nature of leaves, flowers, shells, and so on, it seems foolish to re- 
 quire students to make kite imits and the varieties of the kite imit, as some 
 stupid systems do. If the child is made to produce these forms, they are 
 simply wasting valuable time, but the tendency of a great deal of the present 
 mode of culture is to create freaks. All the objects of nature are beautiful, 
 created for our adiniration and for our study. 
 
 For instance, take the leaves in illustration Xo. 2t,o. — the pedate, 
 lobate, crenate, palmate, cordate, dendate, binate, and other leaves. If 
 these are drawn, instantly the technical name, the appearance symbolized by 
 
 Illustration 229 
 
 Drawingr from Fruit 
 Fniit, flowers, foliag:e should be drawn and memorized. In the spring many kinds 
 of blossoms make attractive studies. Branches of foliage alone make useful models. 
 
 the name, is registered permanently. This is a great help to the language 
 work of the chiklren, especially when they begin to dissect the plant forms, 
 and the work from the many different parts begins to be complex. 
 
 The technical names can be mastered without any trouble, and some of 
 these technical names are very formidable, even those describing the ap-
 
 Drawing From Memory 
 
 167 
 
 Illustration 230 
 
 Ilotunical DmwiciK 
 In thifl drawing', six stajjcs of the dandclinn have been illustmtcd. with various leaf forms These diafpumt 
 are drawn from memory. Accurate tlrawinjjs have previously been made with pencil from the plant 
 
 Illustration 231 
 
 Botanical Drawlntr 
 These cut* arc from Wcbutcr** nictl<marj', and the childrrn mcmorJ/f \hr 
 technical termA with the form by rcpctitttm
 
 J6S 
 
 Manual-Training Drawing 
 
 pearance of a simple leaf. I have no trouble even with children of the 
 grammar schools in getting them to remember these terms, if they have had 
 sufficient practice in making the diagrams and drawings, with, of course, 
 the auditorv impression of the name associated with the drawing at the 
 same time. Understand, I do not mean notes taken at random during a 
 long, tedious talk about function, growth or structure of various plants or 
 flowers, but I mean the close attention and clear perception of a single plant 
 or few parts of the plant, until a complete mental structure or thought-fabric 
 corresponding to the plant is erected in the mind to stay. The main thing- 
 is to actually do and act through the eye. ear, tongue, touch, muscular sense, 
 etc., instead of merely reading about or listening to a lecture upon the sub- 
 ject. I have seen so many classes of teachers and normal-school graduates 
 ^vho have listened to thousands of facts poured out in a stream, and who 
 have filled scores of note books with diagrams and notes, yet who have 
 failed to fix in the mind anything about their work. The many impressions 
 have obliterated each other and only partial ideas result. 
 
 The perfection of living beauty, ^race and fitness
 
 Illustration 233 
 
 Dolphin Forraii in Conventional D«:si)^a 
 
 CHAPTER VIII 
 
 Conventional and 
 Symbolic Forms 
 
 D 
 
 OLPHIXS MAKE VERY BEAUTIFUL FOR^[S FOR DRAW- 
 ing. It is very easy to memorize one of the simplest forms, and 
 tlien, by practice, to get facilit\- in making this form in various posi- 
 tions, as shown above. Do not let the dolphin be feeble-looking or weak, 
 but let it be made with good strong curves in all of these conventional 
 shapes. It is a good plan to begin witii a form .ilmost as simple ;is the scroll 
 itself (Illus. 234). and then make it a little more complex, in ditTerenl posi- 
 tions, suggesting the mouth, and with crockets for tins and spines. 
 
 The next stage shovdil be to intro<luce still more detail in the head, 
 putting real spines and fuis in dilTerent positions, as in J35. Then make it 
 more elaborate by getting all the characteristic features of a dolphin in good 
 proportion and by adding scales, a good tail, form and even with wings, if 
 desired. In making these forms for decorative purposes, it is per- 
 fectly pro])er to do anything one i)leases in the way of modification. Units 
 of design of ail kinds cm be used in combination with the form: it can 
 turn into leaf forms, the acanthus leaf being frecpiently used in this com- 
 bination. 
 
 (169)
 
 J70 
 
 Manual-Trainingf Drawings 
 
 I 
 
 The dolphin's head can be used instead of the scroll termination in al- 
 most all patterns, enriching them very much in some cases. In drawing 
 this form in patterns see that it becomes an actual part of the pattern. Do 
 not make it look stiff, as though it were added. It should grow out of the 
 pattern, or the pattern should grow out of it, naturally. Dolphins, griffins 
 and grotesques are never successful and cannot be drawn with much success 
 unless they form part of the design. Do not use them too frequently in 
 
 Illustrations 234-235 
 
 the same pattern. It is very good practice to make the body take different 
 positions for certain purposes, as suggested in the headpiece for this chapter. 
 
 The dolphin is one of the best of all forms for use in wood, clay, .stone 
 and metal. The fish form must be thorough!}' studied to get successful 
 dolphins. There is a squirmy appearance about a dolphin that is taken 
 from the fish, while the scaly appearance of the body, the eye, the spines and 
 the fins are usually fish forms, and the better the fish is known the better 
 these forms can be reproduced. To carve these forms successfully, even 
 after the form has become pretty familiar by drawing, it is necessary to 
 model them in clay several times. 
 
 Grotesque fish forms of simple character can also be made, an instance 
 of which is shown in Illus. 233. These are all suitable for designs for 
 various purposes. Make the simplest forms first, and as they become 
 familiar trv the more elaborate ones. Anv sfood book of ornament will
 
 Conventional and Symbolic Forms 
 
 171 
 
 contain dolphin lorms, but it is still better to see monels of the real animal 
 in material of various kintls. 
 
 Griffins also are conventional or idealized animal forms. To make 
 successful griffins, pupils must understand the character of heads of dogs 
 and lions, and the shape of their bodies. Griffins can be winged, they can 
 have spines, they can have bodies like dolphins, without legs, or they can 
 
 Idealized Animal Fnnn« 
 ThU picture .how, more clearly tlon No. ijj the .Ircnsth and fr«dora «Uh which the line, are drawn. 
 Advance from the (impler lo the more complex. 
 
 have two legs, four legs, and any kind of tail, as suggested in iltnstration 
 '2},G. The wings can be turned into leaves or scrolls, as can any part of 
 the body. The griffin is simply an animal form introduced as an clement 
 of variety, one which allows the intro<luction of beautiful curves, and which, 
 when done properly, will improve some patterns very much. It is a good
 
 172 Manual-Training Drawing 
 
 plan in learning to draw these forms to originate them, because each one 
 should be able to make a dolphin or a griffin with a certain amount of style. 
 
 It is important to begin with the very simple form, almost like a scroll 
 and then give it still more detail as one advances in knowledge of 
 its characteristic features. These shapes can be made to fill any space, and 
 of any proportion. The necks can be twisted in and out, the wings can 
 be rudimentary or extended as much as the student may desire. It will 
 repay any one to notice the beautiful forms of griffins, grotesques and 
 dolphins. These forms will always be good if the essential character of 
 the lion or the tiger is grasped. An expression of fierceness is necessary to 
 a good griffin. It should never look weak, like a kitten. It is a good 
 plan to practice making it fierce and to sketch open the jaws as widely as 
 possible. 
 
 To grasp this form practically and to become able to draw it with 
 thoroughness, it is absolutely necessary to model and carve a good type sev- 
 eral times. There is no better practice in drawing on the blackboard than 
 to make, when a little facility has been acquired in making the simpler forms, 
 the more complicated ones in the difYerent positions, — with short wings, 
 long wings, wings closed together, wings extended; to make them jumping, 
 to make them erect, to make them crouching; to throw the head up, to 
 bend it down, to make the mouth stretch ojjen in various degrees. Some 
 beautiful examples of griffins rampant can be found in heraldic devices of 
 various kinds. Motleled and carved work in man}' materials will embody 
 dolphins and griffins. 
 
 The 'Strd Form is conventionalized in a great many ways. It can have 
 the body of a lion or a griffin, and the wings and body can turn into the 
 acanthus leaf or any of the variety of units desired. It is nnich used on 
 account of the beauty of the feather forms, the curves of the neck and the 
 talons. It is used in ecclesiastical art. Xext to the griffin and the lion, 
 it is one of the commonest of heraldic devices. It is the national emblem 
 or device of various countries. 
 
 To produce these decorative figures well real bird form must be studied. 
 There is a fierce e.xpression about the eye and the bill of an eagle, and an 
 energy about the legs and claws, that is very beautiful. If these essen- 
 tial features be grasped and the form embodied, the resultant form must of 
 necessity be beautiful. Some coins have the eagle in various positions
 
 Conventional and Symbolic Forms 
 
 J73 
 
 stamped on them and they can be studied to advantage. Avoid feel)leness 
 and weakness in design of this cliaracter — its beauty depends in part upon 
 its strength and virility. 
 
 Illustration 2^7 
 
 Decorative Birds 
 
 These tlc^ifj^ns are copied :ind incmori/ed, then other arranfp:inents of itimiliir 
 fonris arc madep or entirely original deiiij^ns are created. 
 
 It will be of advantage to study a wing and the different parts of a wing. 
 Some of the arrangements of pin feathers and minor feathers on wings are 
 beautiful, and the wonderful way in which they change their position when 
 the wing is fully extended, partly closed and fully closed, repays any amount 
 of close observation and study. It is a most perfect example of fitness and 
 adaptability. 
 
 In drawing feathers, or in modeling or carving them, the main features 
 only must be grasped. When we try to put in the detail of each feather the 
 spirit is usually lost. The large groui)s must be put down, the striking 
 features and marks, but the detail must be left out. Wings can be ideal- 
 ized and conventionalized just as the other forms arc, and very great variety 
 of changes can be gi\iMi to them. 
 
 Drawmg From Ob/'ects.—nnMrL'u shoul.l continually draw from 
 various objects that interest them. If they have had proper training in
 
 J 74 Manual-Training: Drawingf 
 
 elementary work, it will he very easy for them to sketch comparatively 
 difficult forms with much truth. The birds, flowers, fish, shells, etc., are 
 interesting, but it is also important that other forms not cjuite so entertaining 
 should be drawn. 
 
 Great care, however, must be taken not to render the children tired and 
 stupid by giving them too many uninteresting shapes. The cubes, prisms, 
 cylinders, and other lilocks and abstract forms that have been given too 
 much to children in the past, actually seem to make them blockheads for the 
 time. We must make the young love the work if we wish true art, and the 
 greatest art of the teacher is to bring in the uninteresting forms without 
 making the children tire of them. Blocks and type forms continually 
 atlministered to the children by stupid teachers, who consider that through 
 them they will get a love of nature, are responsible for much of the lack of 
 interest and disgust of children for art work. The true art forms are natural 
 forms, and God has planted a certain beauty and fascination in some of the 
 simplest forms on purpose to inspire love. The truest inspiration comes from 
 the common natural forms, and to get the children to love nature, then, is 
 one of the chief works of the elementary teacher. 
 
 Children will take pleasure in drawing boxes, books, furniture, boats, 
 tools, etc., but great care must be taken not to make them dishke the work. 
 
 It is good practice for pupils to draw different kinds of printed letters 
 from type and from memory. Very few people know the actual shape of 
 common printed letters in books and newspapers. It is very good discipline 
 in free-hand work to space out and draw block letters on paper and on the 
 blackboard, being careful to make the actual form of the type without meas- 
 uring and without ruling lines. Ornamental letters can also be copied, and 
 then original designs attempted, as illustrated in Xos. 238-241. 
 
 In these suggestions for manual-training drawing, it is not possible to 
 give details about light and shade, color-work, perspective, etc. Unless the 
 teacher really understands these principles, formal lessons should not be 
 attempted. Xo one should attempt to teach these subjects unless cjualified 
 to do the work. 
 
 Children should never receive formal lessons or lectures in perspective, 
 except by continually drawing forms of different character, and then having 
 their attention drawn to self-evident facts. Thus the abstract part of the 
 work gradually dawns upon them in a natural way. Nothing is more
 
 Conventional and Symbolic Forms 
 
 J 75 
 
 Illustration 3^8 
 
 txi.rLi^i-= 1:1 l-'-llL 
 
 LVsif" 
 
 Snmenf these Ictleni are copied and memorized. Various styles of type should he made, without the u-e of luling 
 and iiuisurini;. It is quite difficult to draw simply formed letters straight across the board equal in si/.r and 
 spaced correctly. 
 
 Illustrations 339-341 
 
 Colored lK>lKn> fur Initial Letter 
 
 Made by pupils of manual IrainInK cla..e.. Youne Women'. Chri.llan A.."clal|on. New York ll U l.nim. 
 tibl. to repmduce In black an 1 white the beauty and charm of the.r illuminated dci^n. In several color..
 
 176 
 
 Manual-Training; Drawing 
 
 injurious than the lectures on perspective given to some pupils al)out '"angles 
 of vision," "vanishing lines/' "picture plans," etc., before they are ready for 
 them. They tend to obscure the sul)ject so much that I have known many 
 
 Illustration 2-12 
 
 nus parts 01 the ch:iir move into their right 
 places on the flat surface is the problem. 
 Merely drawing" it once with hibored detail will 
 not enable the child to know the complex form. 
 It must memorize the form, by feeling through 
 the eye, the touch, and the muscular senses, the 
 various positions in relation to the eye. Draw- 
 ing- from objects ol this character has its 
 proper place, for it obliges the pupil to express 
 through the hand the perception and memorv 
 of artificial forms as well as natural forms. 
 
 These children are memorizing chair forms. 
 The chair is placed near by and drawn in 
 various positions many times, the lines being 
 entirely freehand and not erased until fin- 
 ished. The character oi the lines is better 
 shown in the larger 
 engr:iving on page 
 177. The perspec- 
 tive is not correct 
 every time, but 
 each time the form 
 is drawn a more 
 vivid memorv of 
 the correct form is 
 produced and by 
 degrees the vari- 
 ous parts are 
 draim into their 
 relative positions 
 without trouble. 
 To make the vari- 
 
 But this practice is not 
 allowed at the expense of 
 facility and sweeping free 
 curves and touches. To 
 make the hand spin true 
 spirals and accurate 
 curves of all dimensions, 
 at will, implies a dexter- 
 ity that is not only indis- 
 pensable, but that is use- 
 ful in every vocation. 
 
 Drawing from Objects ia Various Positions 
 
 Students to be only confused by the seeming complexity of a comparatively 
 easy subject. 
 
 To understand correct perspective is abstract \vork. It requires a 
 certain amount of reasoning, that niust only be done after a sufficient 
 numl)er of visual and tactual impressions have been made; then it l)ecomes
 
 Conventional and Symbolic Forms 
 
 177 
 
 clear ami plain to the dullest pupil. Perspective is very often taujjht as 
 syntax used to he tau<fht in language work — the hardest part tirst. the rules 
 before the words. 
 
 Form is tirst considered, and tlicn comes light and shade in color. I 
 lay great stress upon the pupils learning form hy modeling, and learning 
 light and shatle also by modeling, in P)Ook Three. If possilile. inqiils should 
 be allowed to use light and shade and color in drawing from the birds, fishes. 
 shells, leaves, etc., as well as in designing. 
 
 The simplest forms about the house are good subjects for drawing. To 
 be able to draw chairs free-hantl. as in some of the pictures herewith, is good 
 
 Illustration 243 
 
 Freehand Drawing of Chair* in Variou« Potitioni 
 Thi» l.irKir illustration shows the strength and |M)»iti<ms of the iini» more clearly than Ihc i.nialUr pitlun.» 
 in N'n. i^j. 
 
 practice. Of course, in drawing them on the blackboard only an outline can 
 be renilercil, but to make that outline free-han<l. without erasing, and to 
 place the chairs in ditiferent positions, is no easy task. If, however, the pupils
 
 f7S Manual-Training Drawing 
 
 are encouraged to repeat t^ieir poor drawings until they actually get good 
 chairs, and then become able to draw them from memory, these compara- 
 tively complex forms, and others, can be drawn with considerable ease. 
 The perspective is not alDSolutely correct in these drawings, but to make 
 them freely, especially when foreshortened, and when the chair is cjuite near, 
 shows skill and power, particularly when the lines are drawn from the first 
 intention and are not changed. 
 
 Animal forms should also be drawn freely, as, in Plate Eleven, the 
 pupil trying to get the movements without detail, trying to get the essential 
 features with the fewest possible lines. 
 
 Sytnboltsm. — Some of the most wonderful art forms in the world are 
 symbolic. It is important that we should understantl symbolism. Too 
 many people see forms in art, decorations of all kinds, without understand- 
 ing their import. I do not think one person in a thousand begins to ap- 
 preciate why some of the greatest and simplest forms are so interesting and 
 beautiful. ^lost people look at ornament, and at con\-entionalized and 
 symbolic work, as the savage looks at jirint, — regarding them as simply 
 marks, forms, colors, that convey no idea. The mind does not grasp any 
 of the thought conveyed. It is important that common people should be 
 able to comprehend the abstract idea of these things through observation 
 of concrete forms of various kinds. 
 
 Symbolism is a word of Greek origin, and signifies a visible form; im- 
 plying something that is in itself incapable of representation. It em- 
 bodies a thought that is the sign or symbol of something higher than merely 
 meets the eye. It has l)een used in all times, and some of the most wonder- 
 ful as well as some of the most beautiful art work and ornament of all 
 periods have been symbolic. Before print was in use, or had come into 
 common use, symbols were frequently etuployed as a means of impressing 
 on the multitudes truths that were incapable of being represented by words. 
 A sign lifted u]) meant the same thing to everybody; a statement in words 
 could hardly be as generally understood. S_\mbolism has been used, per- 
 haps, most widely in religion. 
 
 Ecclesiastical work of all periods embodies some very beautiful con- 
 ceptions. These are symbolized in the simplest possible forms, and grad- 
 ually come to mean the same thing to different people. The circle, mean- 
 ing eternity, without beginning and without end; three circles interlaced.
 
 Plate Twelve 
 
 Bird Form ft 
 Thc«c rrn! hinU. with m.inv olhrr*. nT n^rd ai mtKlcU for the chlUlnrn to work fmm, Thcv orr drawn In 
 pencil, pajnttd in wiiicr colnr and nKHlclfil tncl;iy. 
 
 {'79)
 
 180 Manual-Training Drawing; 
 
 meaning the trinity in unity, or the three persons of the Godhead. The 
 trefoil has the same meaning. 
 
 The cross has been emplo\ed in myriad forms all over the world, from 
 two sticks crossed to the greatest concepts in art that it is possible for the 
 mind to bring forth. It has gradually become the keynote of Christianity, 
 which it pre-eminently symbolizes. At one time the symbol of suffering and 
 degradation, and forever after the symbol of achievement and vic- 
 tory, it to-day forms the ground plan of the noblest buildings, and 
 in gold is a fitting emblem to crown their pinnacles. Bejeweled and 
 begemmed, and stamped on the books of prayer carried around in 
 hands gloved in costly fabrics, the cross has too often lost its 
 meaning. 
 
 The nimbus or halo is a symbol. Among the early Christians many 
 forms of this were used to symbolize their rites. The Egyptians used it 
 almost entirely. Their hieroglyphics are symbols, written pictures, some 
 of them embodying very fascinating meanings that should be understood. 
 Many living forms have been used as symbols, — the serpent, the dove, the 
 eagle and a great many others. It is wonderful to what an extent 
 ecclesiastical art has gone in the representation of these forms. Take, for 
 instance, the passion flower, which symbolizes the passion of Christ. 
 To every part of this strange and beautiful flower has l^een attached 
 some symljolic meaning. It can be seen used in e\'er_\' concei\'able form in 
 wood, clay and stone, in churches; even windov.s, and fabrics of various 
 kinds are embellished with it. 
 
 Plaster Models, — The series of ^■egetable fruit forms and forms illus- 
 trated herewith (Xo. 244) suggest an excellent primary course for young 
 children. Thev can be graded according to the desire or inclination 
 of the teacher from the simple forms to the more complex. Each one of 
 these vegetable or fruit forms has been cast from nature, endeavor having 
 been made in procuring the original forms to get those most typical in 
 shape. 
 
 Childfen should not draw from casts of fruit and vegetables unless it is 
 impracticable to provide the real forms. As often as possible, real apples, 
 pears, potatoes, and other fruits and vegetables should be furnished for the 
 children to study. The forms are also to be modeled in clay. Only by 
 doing this repeatedly can organic memories of the forms be made tliat will
 
 Conventional and Symbolic Forms 
 
 m 
 
 lllustratit.n 244 
 
 Mud*.ls of 1- ruit l-'-ruib 
 
 be permanent and vahiahle. These forms, heads and other motlels are also 
 more attractive to the children than i,a'omctric forms an<l blocks, and inspire 
 them with more desire to work and more admiration for nature. It is desir- 
 able to have as manv good casts of art and nature forms as possible. All 
 
 Illustration 24: 
 
 These plaster models arc nearly life site, and 
 curving. 
 
 .\niMial Fiinii- 
 
 wilh anumKr ..I ..lliir- ire usid for drawinc, modrlint: and 
 
 oi the models pictured in the various parts of this book are used in my 
 schools. Manv of the casts are original. 
 
 The casts of animals' heads have been made especially for school pur-
 
 182 Manual-Training Drawing 
 
 poses. One series is quite small in size, the other series is of life size. Some 
 are quite difficult and some are easy. It is best, however, to allow the chil- 
 dren to make their own selection. These forms are carefully modeled, and 
 in some cases have been made by skillful artists of acknowledged reputation. 
 As well as being useful for class purposes, they are especially appropriate for 
 decoration of the class room. They should never be shut up in closets, but 
 exposed to ^iew all the time. It is a good plan to change their positions 
 occasionally, to hang them in different places in the room, or to turn them 
 around to show different views. 
 
 In some of the classes, casting in plaster of various forms is done. It is 
 good practice, and requires skill to make a fine cast from nature. The work 
 is very simple and can be done 1)}' grammar grade children who have had 
 any manual training work. All teachers should Ije able to make plaster 
 casts of leaves, fruits, fish, birds, animals, etc. Except the original, nothing 
 is more instructive than a fine cast of some natural form. The finest detail 
 can be reproduced with the utmost fidelity. The time occupied in making 
 the casts is almost the only expense, the material costing verx- little. It is 
 well to occasionally encourage the pupils by selecting some of their most 
 perfect modeling to be multiplied by casting in plaster. Casts of so many 
 things can be made good use of in every day life, the operation is so simple, 
 so quickl}- learned and so educational in \alue, that it should not be over- 
 looked as a minor feature in the course in modeling. 
 
 The Barye casts of animal forms (see page 213), of which examples 
 will be found in many of our pictures, are especially useful in the 
 class room. They are examples of the work of the greatest modeler of 
 animals of the modern period of French art. and are especially appropriate 
 to the school room for their fidelity to nature and for a certain amount of 
 breadth of style in modeling which makes it easy for the children to repro- 
 duce them. In some cases, the partly finished forms afford good illustra- 
 tions of how they should be blocked out. The young never tire of these 
 noble and interesting shapes. 
 
 Architectural Models. — These plaster models, represented in the illus- 
 trations on page i(S4, will be found very useful for a variety of purposes in the 
 schools. I wish it were possible for a series of them to be placed in every 
 school in the country. They represent five great styles of architecture, — the 
 Doric, the Ionic, the Corinthian, the Roman and the Composite. They are
 
 Conventional and Symbolic Forms 
 
 J S3 
 
 in perfect proportion witli the great orig-inals. and .--boiilil he stmlied carefnllv 
 till the pupils know tiioronglily the essential features of each style, their dif- 
 ferences and their resemblances. 
 
 Illustration ; / 
 
 Architcxtuml Forms 
 Drawinir from memory viirinus cjpitals. These should W dr.iwn cnlirvly fix-fhiinJ. 
 
 It is good practice to sketch tliese forms freeiiand on paper and to de- 
 lineate them large on the blackboards; to make accurate measurements, and 
 to memorize frequently as many tilings as possible from them, 'ibis knowl- 
 edge is of great .service to all pupils in their after life, whether they become 
 architects, technical workers, artists or tradesmen. It will be found that 
 one can enjoy the appearance of buildings ever so nuich more. an<I that 
 one's taste is inlluenced by projierly embodying these forms. 1 he vase 
 forms are classic examples of the best periods, ami should also be studieil 
 carefully fmm the models. It is quite surprising, even to experienced cilu-
 
 J 84 
 
 Illustration 247 
 
 Manual-Training: Drawing 
 
 cators, to witness the admirable effect on pupils in the grammar grades of a 
 little experience in drawing and modeling typical forms of the great styles 
 in architectinx. If these units of style are modeled as well as drawn, the 
 pupil acquires a far more intimate accpiaintance with their proportions and 
 l^eculiarities. 
 
 Illustration 248 
 
 Plaster Casts of Aichitectural btyleg
 
 w 
 
 \ 
 
 BOOK THREE 
 
 Modeling 
 
 Cluy models oi rual ti&h m;idt: by 
 gramoiar grAdc pupils 
 
 " Perception and mnnory should be indissolubly associ;ited. Two errors— to cx|>ccl a child to remembiT wh.it it 
 has never pcrccivcil, and to allow it to perceive without any systematic representation of the object in memory,** 
 [Jacobi. 
 
 "Good thou^ht^ are no better than good dreams unletts they be executed."— [Emerson. 
 
 "Without action, thought can never ripen into truth."— [Emerson. 
 
 Wood Carving by School noy
 
 
 f- 
 < 
 
 o 
 u- 
 
 
 ■T3 
 
 O 
 
 
 .= 13 
 C O 
 rt O 
 1, io 
 
 -=•1^ 
 ^f. 
 
 C -3 
 
 — jj 
 
 1^
 
 Illustration 249 
 
 ^ . 1 
 
 / 
 
 L^ 
 
 Pliisler Mode) 
 For (Iruwiii^, modeling and carving. 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 Introduction, 
 Plant. Etc.* 
 
 THERE IS ONLY ONE WAV TO KXOW FORM— that is by 
 making it. not simply drawing it. If we arc to know things as thev 
 actually are, and at the same time to cultivate an energetic disposi- 
 tion to perform deeds, then modeling, clay modeling, must become a part 
 of educational work. The greatest artists have been the men who have been 
 able to model, like Michael .\ngelo. Donatello, Cellini, Leonardo da \'inci, 
 Leighton. Gerome and others. .\11 sculptors have to know form, because 
 they have to make it. There are many artists who know form but slightly, 
 and that is the reason some of them fail in their work. 
 
 In many art schools modeling is now advocated as a means of teaching 
 form, even for i)ainters, engravers and illustrators, for one may draw the 
 shape of an object many times, and still not be familiar with its appearance 
 all around. This is not the case in modeling, for in this you have to make 
 it all around and touch it all over. .\ vivid impression is gained through 
 
 * Alt the modeled work In the illuHtntlonft, iind (he tiles inserted In the text, h.ivc been mndeled by the chlldr«a 
 of the various {grades.
 
 188 Modeling: 
 
 tlie sense of touch and the muscular sense. I have continually spoken of 
 drawing as a mode of thought-expression. In like manner modeling in 
 clav is a mode of expression, only a more thorough mode than any other. 
 
 ^Jodeling compels the use of hoth hands continually. The more we 
 use our hands the more control we have over those organs, and the more 
 vital we make the connection between the hands and the brain. In model- 
 ing we use several channels of impression, the sight, the touch, and the 
 muscular sense. All sculptors get a wonderful sense of form through feel- 
 ing or touch; the most beautiful curves and the most delicate portions of 
 some statues being made by tlie fingers alone. All bronze and marble 
 statues are first modeled in clay, and then cut in marble or cast in bronze. 
 The actual thought of the artist, the real manipulative work, is always im- 
 pressed on this plastic medium, that responds to the slightest touch. It is 
 this w-onderful " feeling" that enables the sculptor mentally to grasp almost 
 imperceptible variations and gradations of form that are invisible to the 
 ordinar}' \-ision. This seeing-power, as it may be called, is partly the re- 
 sult of the tactual impressions on the mind. Touch has been considered by 
 some to be the master sense, one of the first developed, and few realize its 
 importance as a means of training the mind and the judgment. A great 
 part of the knowledge attributed to the sense of sight is received through 
 the touch alone. 
 
 In these chapters on modeling I have purposely refrained from grading 
 the work too closely. The elementary forms suggested for little children 
 are just as good for adult teachers or others, if they have never handled clay. 
 The exercises on manipulation of course cannot be attempted by very young 
 pupils. The following lessons may be taken in any order desired, and are 
 chiefly intended to indicate the variety of things that can be made and one 
 way of making them. The lessons are the result of experience with large 
 numbers, and the forms given are some of the best for class purposes. 
 
 The Plant Required fr>r modeling is inexpensive. Aboard IJX14 and 
 about one inch thick, a palette knife to cut and smooth the clay, one or 
 two modeling tools for each pupil, and one or two cups for water for a class 
 are all that is required. Clay can be purchased at any pottery or brick- 
 yard. If it is not convenient to get it at these places, it can be purchased 
 through any art-material store. It should not cost more than a cent and a 
 half a jiound. although some dealers charge from three to five cents a pound.
 
 5) 1 I 
 
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 3 
 
 71 
 
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 50
 
 190 Modeling 
 
 It can be purchased in quantity at any pottery for about $20 a ton. This 
 clay, used in making pottery, is very fine, clean, sifted and screened, and is 
 the kind used by sculptors. Clay in some localities is gray, in others red or 
 yellow or blue. The gray clay is the best, but good work can be done with 
 the red. blue or yellow. If possible, however, procure the ordinary gray 
 clay. 
 
 Good clay is one of the cleanest mediums of which we have any knowl- 
 edge. It is antiseptic. If disease germs are placed in the clay and it is 
 allowed to remain in the sunlight to dry, the germs become devitalized.* It 
 brushes from the clothing with a very few touches, and if the pupils are not 
 allowed to scatter it on the floor, when the modeling boards are put awav 
 no one need know that clay has been used. The children should be al- 
 lowed to wash their hands after using it. Like flour in mixing dough, it 
 has a tendency to make the hands feel a little dr}- in the beginning. This 
 soon passes away. 
 
 !Many teachers object to the use of clay in schools because they say " it 
 makes a mess." Only in the hands of an ignorant teacher can it do so. 
 No one should attempt to teach clay work who is unable to model. The 
 clay must be in good condition every time it is given to the children. Onlv 
 an expert, one accustomed to model, can tell when the cla}- is in good con- 
 dition. It must not be too hard, it must not be too soft, it must not be 
 rotten, it must be just right. This can be " felt" only by one who himself 
 models. In this series of lessons I propose to illustrate, by means of a few 
 exercises, the manipulation and care of clay, the use of tools and appliances, 
 and then the making of a series of easy, simple elementary forms suited for 
 the very youngest children in primary schools, the exercises increasing in 
 difficulty up to the ordinary work of the grammar grades. 
 
 Teachers must not g-ive these series of forms to the children one after 
 
 •The following is .an extr.ict from the report of the comiiilttee of hygiene of the Philadelphia board of public 
 education as to the value of clay modeling, made in 1S95 : 
 
 " Your committee would urge as a matter pertaining to the health of the children attending our public schools^ 
 the most extended introduction possible of the present system of clay modeling, believing that such manual training , 
 is in every respect valuable and likely to be followed by the best results to mind and body. As the Director of the 
 Public School of Industrial Art has said, ' No medium better than clay will ever be devised to fulfill the plastic require- 
 ments of educational thought-expression, as is witnessed by its universal use in the arts and industries of all nations 
 since the beginning of history.* 
 
 " (Signed) Alex.ander H. McAdam, M. D., Chairman. 
 
 "(Signed) Thomas G. .Morton, M. D. 
 
 "(Signed) William K. Mattern, M. D."
 
 Introduction, Plant, Etc 
 
 J9I 
 
 the oilier in quick succession. Many of the sliapes need to he made a num- 
 ber of times, anil others of like nature should he tjivcn. The series are 
 taken from a variety of forms used in my classes, and with some classes of 
 normal pupils the entire nuniiier can he made in a few weeks. Teachers 
 must not cease to remember that the children have several vears to hecome 
 
 Illustration 250 
 
 Cicuniflric l-'iirms .ind UirJ l-'orms 
 
 Jk-i,'innin;;> ;il M' ■'.!«. 
 
 Thi!i picture nX the riyht represents the first attempts of a beginner ten ycirs of :ij^ .anil innde lit one sttltnff. 
 First the lar;;e roRcltc. then the st^iri'ish, then Ih^ rosette with hiops and then the small cant.lloupe. The hands can 
 be Hern making; the liMip. The clay has been rolled nut to .tbout the thicknesA of a lead p4>nci1 and then is bent into 
 position as desired. These pictures illustrate the simplicity of the work and the little plant that is required. 
 Almost any object in the garden or the yard can be modeled. 
 
 proficient in this work, and that it is unreasonahle to e.x]iecl lint.- rcsuhs ;it 
 the tirst attempt. This is a constant failing with some teachers; they ex- 
 pect too much from little fingers. 
 
 A Good Box for the Clay. —In constructing clay boxes, see lliat 
 they arc made without any metal or slate lining. There is no sub- 
 stance better than wood or clay. In some schools I have seen 7inc-lined 
 bo.xes and slate, used through ignorance of this fact. Clay will not stick 
 to a wooden surface, it sticks to metal or |)orce1ain-linetI boxes like wax.
 
 J92 
 
 Modeling 
 
 Any carpenter can make suitable boxes. Of course the form can be mod- 
 ified to suit any sized space in tlie class room. 
 
 I have found it useful to use a case that runs up like a book-case, witli 
 shelves that are removable. It should be possible to put the shelves close 
 together or far apart, as desired, according to the size of the work. If the 
 work is on flat tiles, they can be put within two inches of each other; if it 
 forms a large mass, several shelves can be taken out and the work put in 
 without trouble. Doors can be put to the case to keep the work secure. 
 Its lower part may open with lids. This is for the mass of clay, which 
 should be easy of access on account of its weight. A spade can be used 
 to keep it in good condition. The box may l)e made large or small, accord- 
 ing to the size of the class or the number of pupils. A box 5x6 feet and 3 
 feet deep for the clay part will serve for a class of 200. The clay can be 
 kept moist by means of pieces of flannel or 1:)lanket spread over it. 
 
 Illustration 251 
 
 Portion of till- Mocluliiig Room, Public School of Industrial Art, Philadelphia 
 
 The room accommodates fifty pupils, five at each table. Eight hundred grammar grade pupils and various 
 teachers' classes rotate into this roon- each term.
 
 Illustration 2S2 
 
 Mukia{$ a Ball ot Clay 
 
 CHAPTER II 
 
 Elementary 
 Courses in Modeling 
 
 yl MANIPULATION OF CLAY.— Take a piece of clay in the band. 
 / m'M I want you to learn something a1)oiit its manipulation. Roll it out 
 between the palms of the hands until it is as thick as the finsfer and 
 about four inches long. Notice when you iiolil it by one end th.it it is limp, 
 and will not stand erect. Now observe that I pinch tlie clay together 
 and "wedge" it, making it a little firmer in consistency. "W'etlging" 
 is a potter's term for soldifying the clay in this way. W'iien I hold 
 it up you jjerceive that it will support (piite a \reiglu, that it is strong. 
 In every piece of work that we make we should endeavor to keep 
 the clay wedged. Now I will take the same piece of <-lay and roll it 
 out again two or three times on the board or betwen my hands. I rub 
 it out and then roll it out again. Vou will now sec that the clay is no 
 longer plastic, but rigid, and that if I bend it. it breaks. This clay is now 
 "rotten." mifit for use. It has ceased to be elastic or pliable. Do not let 
 children use it when it is of a consistency like this. " Rotten" is the tech- 
 nical name given to clay that criunbles like bread, instead of being temi)ered 
 and pliable, or plastic. It can be improved very tpiickly by moistening and 
 kneading over again, and it is then what is technically called " tempered 
 clav. 
 
 l.T 
 
 ( m)
 
 J94 
 
 Modeling 
 
 The Spiral. — Take a piece of clay about the size of the last joint of the 
 thumb. Roll it out between the palms till it is about as thin as a slate pen- 
 cil, allowing it to be pointed at one end. Then try to make a spiral (Illus. 
 
 Illustration 253 
 
 ^ 
 
 i 
 
 The Spiral 
 
 The form shown in this picture and the next is an exercise to test the texture and temper ol clay. If the 
 form can be made with a few turns of the fingers, the clay is just in the right state for manipulation. 
 
 253). You cannot do this at first, but with a little practice you will be able 
 to do- it well. I have had pupils try to make this form for weeks before they 
 suceeded. Others ca.n make it in a few minutes. The more 3-ou practice, the 
 more skill you will get. Tt is good exercise in enabling you to determine the 
 texture and the temper of the clay. When with a single touch and two or 
 tliree turns you can make this form so that it will stand erect, and remain 
 without falling, it shows that you can manipulate the clay wdien it is just at 
 the right temper and texture. If it is a little too hard it breaks in a most
 
 Elementary Gjurscs 
 
 195 
 
 aggravating fashion. If it is a little too soft it does not stand up. There 
 is a happy medium, and tlie sense of touch must become educate<l until it 
 can feel the proper quality and produce it without any trouble. If you find 
 that the clay breaks, put it to one side and try another piece. Do not use 
 the same piece t^vice. When }ou can make a good spiral, you understand 
 the texture of tlio clay. 
 
 Leaf Forms. — Take a ])iece of clay about as large as the last joint 
 of the thumb, and roll it out in the palm of the hand until it is spear-shaped 
 or resembles a spear head. Xow take the form between the fingers and 
 thumbs, as illustrated in 254. and beginning at the tip. witli l)oth hands make 
 
 Illustration 354 
 
 J 
 
 ■■■J 
 
 ^^^H^^^l 
 
 ^■H 
 
 ^l 
 
 ^^B^ ' ^^^^^i^B 
 
 ^■^ 
 
 l^^^^l 
 
 [I 
 
 BOHEv ■ ' - ^ 
 
 P 
 
 »■: 
 
 1 ^ 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 1 
 
 •1 
 
 ^- - — 
 
 ^ 
 J 
 
 
 
 
 
 I^caf FonnB 
 Exercise for inanipulatinn nf clay. 
 
 a leaf form. This is a little ditlicult at first. i)Ut with jiractice each pupil 
 can make a midrib, show each of the veins and the serrations on the edge 
 of the leaf, leaving it thick in the center and thin on the edge. At first there
 
 196 
 
 Modeling 
 
 is a tendencx' to Ijreak and crumble tlie edge, hut when it lias been attempted 
 
 a few times the fingers will respond and a very good leaf will be the result. 
 
 This is a good exercise in manipulation. It compels the use of both hands, 
 
 and the complex form is the product. 
 
 Circular Forms, — Take a piece of clay about as large as the thumb 
 
 and roll it out between the palms until it makes a good, slender roll about 
 
 four or 'iwe inches long. Now bend it 
 and make both ends meet till it forms 
 a ring. Then by the use of the fingers 
 alone manipulate the clay .so that the 
 joint will not show and so that the 
 rins' is true and e\en all around. This 
 
 Illustration 2t;r; 
 
 Moulding ;l Circular Form 
 
 is another good exercise, and one 
 that requires skillful handling. It 
 is still more difficult to make an- 
 
 Jk . other ring interlacing with this one. 
 
 Hints to the Teacher.— W'^i^t--^ 
 the children are making these forms do 
 not allow them to break the clay in pieces; let them keep it in a lump except 
 the portion they are using. Allow no crumbs to fall about the board, the 
 desk or the tloor. All the pieces must be put back in the main lump. If 
 they are rotten, they can be placed at the left liy themselves. From the 
 very beginning, resist the tendency of the beginner to " make a dirt." In 
 a few lessons it will be found that pupils can model elaborate and complex 
 forms without dropping or scattering the clay at all. It is simply a habit 
 of neatness that must Ije taught, and if insisted upon from the beginning 
 there need be no trouble with the " propensity to make dirt" that is wrongly 
 attributed to clay-work. 
 
 When the children begin to make good forms do not allow their work 
 to be destroyed. Place all pieces made on a shelf to dry. Then if they 
 are not kept permanently, they can be sorted out. the good ones given to 
 the pupil to take home and the bad ones mixed with the main mass in the 
 clay-l)ox. The same mass of clay can be used for years in this way, and 
 continue perfectly healthful and free from any odor. Xever allow the clay 
 to remain for long jieriods in a damp state unused. If it is not to be used 
 for a few months. ]iermit it to dry. It can readily be moistened again when
 
 Elementary G}urses 
 
 J 97 
 
 required. The damp from the clay yields a musty and moldy odor whicli 
 is not pleasant. If the clay is constantly used, it will keep fresh and sweet 
 indefinitely. Covering with a moist, clean cloth will prevent drying. 
 
 Do not attempt to keep the clay in a crock or a tin vessel. .\ wooden 
 box is far better. I have clay boxes in some of my schools that have l)een 
 in use for fifteen years, and except that the bottoms are a little decayed, they 
 are as good as new. 
 
 Tiles and other unfinished work should be kept on wooilen shelves 
 in the clay-l)o.\ or closet. If possible in the class room devote<l to 
 modeling, shelves or ledges should be put around the room, on which 
 finished work can be placed. In this way in a very short time the rooms 
 
 Illustration 2ti6 
 
 i-'ir!.t ExcrcUcs, Muking BalLt, noscltvs, etc. 
 
 can be decorated with creditable work produced by the pupils. Tiiis is 
 inspiring to all and makes the place look like an art workshop. 
 
 Elementary Forms. — The following arc suggestive of the simplest 
 fonns that can i^c made from clay without the use of tools, for the most 
 elementary classes. Make some i)alls. by rolling the clay in the iiand. plxnit
 
 J 98 
 
 Modelings 
 
 the size of a large marble. Groupr, of these can be made. Make groups 
 of three, groups of four, groups of five. ]\Iake a pyramid, make a star, and 
 so on. Children of six years of age and upwards take pleasure in making 
 these forms. 
 
 Illustration 257 
 
 First Exercises in Modeling 
 
 Other forms can l)e made by taking a piece of clay and rolling it out 
 about as thick as a lead pencil and about four or five inches long. ]\Iakc a 
 little loop. This can be combined with others, making the following forms. 
 (Illus. 257.) Little rosettes can be made by adding a center. Do not let 
 the children make crumbs or pieces. Instruct them continually to keep 
 their clay together and see that it is in perfect condition. It must be quite 
 soft for very little fingers, and still not soft enough to stick. Make no at- 
 tempt to do anything with the clay when it is sticky. Disgust is sure to fol- 
 low if it is handled in that state. 
 
 Many simple rosette forms can be made. Make a form about the 
 size of a small marble and then press it till it is nearly flat. Make a 
 little disk or center. Combinations of these can lie made. Make the
 
 Elementary Courses 199 
 
 same form a little pointed at one end. A large series of rosettes can be 
 made witli tlie addition of a little ball or boss for a center. Rend the 
 leaves np, make them cup-shape. Make some with points. With some 
 thou,s^ht an endless variety of these forms can be devised which will give 
 a great deal of pleasure to the child and variety to the lesson. Be care- 
 ful not to let the children lire of any of the forms. .\ teacher of course can 
 make one of these forms in a half-minute, but for very young children two 
 or three of the forms are cpiite sufiicient for one lesson. 
 
 A number of natural forms can be made. Roll out a piece of clay into 
 a ball, about the size of a marble. Press it till it is nearly llat, make a little 
 stem liy rolling out another piece, and we have a very good imitation of a 
 mushroom. Bend the top over the stem a little and stick it on the board in 
 a standing position. Make several sizes, forming a group. Easy fruit 
 forms can be made by rolling out pieces till they form a ball about the size of 
 a marble, then putting long stems to them, making bunches of two and three 
 like cherries. Plums can be made with the small stems. 
 
 Animal Forms. — .\n interesting series can be made from various 
 animal ftirnis. Of course these must be reproduced from memory. It is 
 wonderful how quickly the chiklren grasj) the idea of form after a few lessons 
 in making these elementary shapes and how soon they get an amount 
 of detail. But do not expect them at the llrst few lessons to master detail, 
 since they begin to apprehend this only after they have taken notice of 
 things, through the desire to make them in clay. Do not mind how poor 
 the forms are the first few days. 
 
 l.vt us begin with a chicken. Take a piece of clay about the .size of a 
 -mall hen's egg. This will form the body. Xow take another piece of 
 clay and roll it in the palms till it is about the size" of a small marble. Place 
 this on the large piece ior the head. Xext add a little p\ccc of clay for the 
 bill, two dots or two little balls for eyes, and a few marks on the side for 
 wings. If desired, a very short tail can be i)inched out at the end. This 
 can be made with a few touches to look like a very small chicken. 
 
 Xext we can attempt a little duck form. This is more complex than 
 the chicken, and can be made about the same size. Make the neck longer 
 and give it a nice curve, make the bill a little longer and thicker. The t.iil 
 can be made longer, and the wings marked a little more carefully 
 
 A somewhat similar form can be made to represent the swan. It has
 
 200 
 
 Modeling 
 
 a body of the same shape as the duck, rather a httle larger, with a long 
 curving neck, whicli needs to be made separately and fastened on the body. 
 See that there is a double curve in the neck and that it bends back over the 
 body. Give it a nice swan's neck curve. Two wings can be made by 
 
 Illustration 258 
 
 -a*^ 
 
 ■— "^ w 
 
 .-'*:jc^ ^i>&_ 
 
 Eleinentary Forms in Clay 
 All of these forms are suitable for very young children, and are first attempts made by beginners. 
 
 flattening out some clay, and they can be pressed onto the sides of the body 
 so that they stand out. The result looks much more elaborate, but it is 
 quite as simple to make as the chicken or tlie duck. 
 
 Understand the object of these lessons. It does not matter how 
 grotesque these forms are at the start. The early art work of all races of 
 people is grotesque and their products are often examples of how children 
 should or do draw in the beginning. ^'e^y many adults, as well as chil- 
 dren, cannot recall the shape of a duck in the beginning, but no one can en- 
 deavor to make it from memory without memorizing the next time they see 
 a duck, a swan or a chicken, some part that they had never noticed before.
 
 Elementary Courses 20t 
 
 A specially valuable part of the lesson is the fact that it compels one to niem- 
 orize form. If I am modeling a frog from memory, and do not know the 
 number of toes, I may make three, four or five, but the next time I see a 
 real frog I will satisfy myself on that point and fix that knowledge so firmly 
 in my mind that I am not likely to forget it. 
 
 Usually I do not tell my children details of this kind. I prefer 
 that they should learn the truth by investigation. Some people do not 
 know how many toes a dog has, or a chicken, or a canary. If they are 
 compelled to draw or model the form from memory, they discover 
 their ignorance, and by observation of the real form they learn to 
 grasp the detail. So it is with little children. At first the forms 
 will be very crude, but when they begin to make things that they 
 have investigated, it is wonderful what an amount of detail they will em- 
 body. Remember, these are simply generalized forms. Imagination is 
 the result of a series of impressions. It is only when we have received a 
 sufficient number of impressions through the different sense channels that 
 we begin to l)e able to represent the essential facts of form. This work I 
 sometimes call compulsory memory work. 
 
 Children should be encouraged to make clay figures of any kind they 
 desire, clay horses or sheep or men and women, like the Mexican toys which 
 imitate these figures. They should be allowed to give expression to their 
 feelings and imagination with tlie pencil in making horses, buflfalo, Indians, 
 etc., ships, war vessels, etc. They will often be found to draw them with the 
 same character and simplicity that the Indians do. They grasp essentialities 
 and iirnnre details — the first thing desired in good work. 
 
 Other Animal Forms. — A starfish is a good form to model. Make 
 the five tapering members first, about the same size, by rolling out to a 
 point, and then join them in the center. Rend the form till it assumes a 
 natural position and make the detail with the tool. Make several sizes of 
 this form. Do not make them .so large that they cannot be modeled with 
 the fingers. 
 
 .\ snake about six or seven inches long is very good practice. Roll 
 it out first in the hands and then on the board. Let it taper to a fine point, 
 make the head a little thick, the neck a little thin, flatten the hca<l. make 
 the features, mouth and eyes with the tool, and then bend in a natural posi- 
 tion. A good plan is to coil it with the head standing erect as though it
 
 202 
 
 Modelingf 
 
 were going to strike. Another good j^osition is to curve it. as thongli it 
 were moving along the ground. A snake makes a series of beautiful 
 curves in moving, and very nice forms can be made by modeling. Make 
 Illustration .59 two or three. In the l^egin- 
 
 ning", of course, only the 
 most elementary kind of 
 forms can be made to sug- 
 gest a snake, but as the 
 lessons progress w i t h 
 practice the l:)od_\' can be 
 thickened a little in the 
 middle, tapering to the tail, 
 scales can be modeled, a 
 forked tongue can I )e placed 
 in the mouth, and so on. 
 Lhudren are fascmated by 
 thesesmall living forms, and afterafewattemptsgraspmanyunnoticed details. 
 The fish form is one of the best of all shapes to make. Roll out a piece 
 of clay about the size of an egg till it is a little pointed at each end. flatten 
 slightly between the two hands, then adtl the pointed tail, making it quite 
 sharp and thin on the edge. (Illus. 261). Let the body be thick in the 
 middle and taper to the tail. Make the two dorsal fins thick near the body 
 and tapering to a thin edge. Do the same with the pectoral tin on the side, 
 and with the anal fin underneath. The gills can be marked with the tool 
 and the eye can be pressed in -with its point, or a little ball can be made to 
 represent the eye, stuck on and tlien modeled. The mouth can also be 
 made with the tool. * 
 
 There is an endless variety of beautiful fish forms. In making this 
 elementary fish form, however, a very simple shape can be selected, a gen- 
 eralized fish, or a tyi)ical fish form if you wish. A very realistic effect can be 
 made by putting the rays and spines on the fins and tail with the tool. The 
 scales can also be marked, and if the fish is curved a little it will look quite 
 realistic. Numerous pictures of modeled fish ocur in this work. 
 
 A small frog can be made. Take a small piece of clay, roughly shape 
 it with the fingers about the size of the body of a medium-sized frog. The 
 mouth can be made with the tool, two little balls can be stuck on for eyes,
 
 Elementary Ojurses 
 
 203 
 
 the nnigh places on tlic l)ack can be modeled with the tool, then the two 
 hind lesrs can be made. Make the leg.s bent in the position of a fro^ sittinjj 
 down. Then make tiie two little fore-feet with smaller pieces of clay, add- 
 ing the toes last. 
 
 Xext make a small turtle. Do not mind if .some of the children have 
 not even seen a turtle or cannot recall the number of feet it has. Make the 
 body about the size of an egg. flatten, cut the division between the two 
 shells with the tool, make the ca\iiics for the four legs, a cavity for the head 
 and another for the tail. Make a pointetl tail, make a head something like 
 a snake's head, partly flattened, and then the four flippers. Of course the 
 teacher should l)e able to make each one of these forms cpiickly as a sug- 
 gestion to the class, giving some idea of the size, and as much detail as pos- 
 sible. Tlie pupils, however, are not to copy this model. They can look 
 at it and recall the mental image, as far as they have gained one. of the turtle 
 or tortoise. 
 
 A lizard makes a good form to model. Roll out the body just as wc 
 
 Illustration 360 
 
 Mudilinii: \ .iri.Miv N.iiiir.il ll|,jicl> 
 
 form the body of a snake, make the tail taper to a |)<)ini, in.ike the neck .1 
 little thin, flatten the head, form the mouth, eyes, etc., with the tool. Then 
 the legs can be formed by smaller pieces of clay bent and added onto 
 the sides.
 
 204 
 
 Modelingf 
 
 A little mouse can be made. Model the body, tiien add the long tail, 
 tiie two ears, make the detail with the tool. If desired the feet can show- 
 peeping out from Ijeneath the body. 
 
 These small life forms are suggested because children are especially 
 fond of them, and although the product will be very crude at first, impres- 
 sions are being made that cause the children to become very attentive to the 
 forms when they meet with them again. Their ideas unconsciously become 
 clearer and more vivid. Remarkable instances of observation of detail will 
 constantly be made by pupils from particular forms that interest them. 
 
 Illustration 261 
 
 K 
 
 ( J^ 
 
 Eiementarv ModcHn;r of Animal Forms 
 
 Vessel Forms. — A good e.xercise is to make a little vessel form. 
 Take a piece of clay about the size of a small egg, press it in the center till 
 you form a cavity, bending up the edge all around at the same time with the 
 fingers, till it forms a hollow, cup-shaped form. (Illus. 261.) Do not let 
 it become flat like a saucer. Make the base by pressing it on the board, 
 and, by rotating it a little between the four fingers and thumb, it can grad- 
 ually be made small and cup-like. Do not let it be thick and thin in places. 
 Smooth away the little hills and hollows, and resist the tendency of the cup 
 to spread out. Let it be about i inch or i| inches in height and perhaps 2 
 inches in diameter anfl about f inch thick. This is a splendid exercise for 
 manipulation. Work with it till the rim or top is a good circle. Let the
 
 Elementary Courses 205 
 
 base form a true circle. This requires a little more manual dexterity than 
 one would think to make it good in shape. Endeavor to make the inside 
 smooth and the rim a nice tlat edge all around. Make different sizes. With 
 a little practice small vessels for various purposes can be made, — little basins, 
 bowls, vase forms and so on. If these forms are allowed to dry, they can 
 be fired and glazed in any pottery for a few cents each. Beautiful little 
 vessel forms suitable for pin trays, flower receptacles, salt cellars, match 
 safes, etc., can be made. 
 
 Next take a piece of clay a size larger than that used for making the 
 cup, and make a small shoe. The pupil can imitate a wooden shoe, or 
 slipper or boot. Press in the cavity for the foot witli the thumb and fingers. 
 The point can be made to turn up, in the usual manner of a wooden shoe or 
 Turkish slipper, or any other shape can be made as desired. Draw the at- 
 tention of the children to the fact that the foot is wider in front than at the 
 heel, and so on. It is wonderful what a variety of shapes the children can 
 make after a few lessons. They will put rosettes of different kinds or 
 buckles on the front, and sometimes make the shoe to button or lace. It 
 requires the merest kin<l of suggestion to make the children observe in a 
 very little while all kinds of shoe shapes, and to reproduce them. That is 
 the object of the lesson, — to compel observation. A very good plan, if the 
 children are making realistic shoes, is to draw attention to their own. Let 
 them look at the foot and theshoe. Letthem see how narrow it is at the toeor 
 the instep. Let them look at the shape of the heel. This form also makes a 
 nice little receptacle for pins or flowers, if fired. Allow the jjupils to keep it 
 when it is satisfactory and is not too rough. 
 
 The ne.xt form may be a bird's nest. Take a piece of clay, roughly 
 shape it by making the cavity with the tlunnbs and fingers, working it 
 around in the hands until it assumes a cup-like form. Now place it in the 
 middle of the desk or modeling board, and with the tool make the ragged 
 edge. Try to imitate the texture of the sticks and grass, and then bend the 
 edge over till it is about the size of a nest. Do not let it be too regular, 
 make the form irregular. Allow some pieces to stick out in an accidental 
 fashion. Three, four or five eggs can now be made and placed in the nest. 
 Be sure they arc of the same size. (See Illus. jCk).) 
 
 Take a i)iece of clay and make a rough tree stumj). I 'nil up the e<lges 
 to form the ragged stem of the tree. Let it be hollow and cup-shaped. Let
 
 206 
 
 Modelingf 
 
 the edge be very irregular. Pull out a few roots, or model one or two more 
 pieces of clay and add them for roots. Be sure thev stick on, and that 
 the clay is incorporated with the main mass. Do not simply press the piece 
 on. hut incorporate it with the tool so that when it is dry the}- will not fall 
 apart. Do not make the roots or rootlets look like legs. Let them be ir- 
 regular, one on one side and two or three on the other. Make the texture 
 of the bark with the tool by a series of short, irregular marks. This also 
 forms a ver_\- nice little receptacle for flowers, pins or matches. 
 
 A small basket may be made. Take a piece of clay, press in the cen- 
 ter, making it hollow, and raise the edge; let this be about as thick as the 
 cup form that we made. The basket can be made square, oblong, or ellip- 
 tical, as desired. Roll out a piece of clay, bend it over, make a strong 
 handle. Do not make these handles too thin. In modeling never make 
 anything thinner than the handle of a small teacup, — a fine China teacup. 
 
 Anvthing smaller than this is sure to 
 Illustraton 262 ■ ^ 
 
 break with handling. The texture 
 
 of the basket can be imitated with the 
 tool. This makes a nice receptacle 
 for various purposes. All of these 
 forms can be placed on tiles, slabs or 
 plinths. 
 
 In making a tile (Illus. 262) take 
 a piece of clay, press it in the center of 
 the modeling: board, then take another 
 V _^^. 1 piece and add to it, incorporating 
 ^^ '. i one with the other. Do this contin- 
 ually, turning the piece of clay and 
 pressing it flat till it is about the de- 
 sired size. Do not allow the clay to 
 A\'hen you have a rough piece made 
 about the size or a little larger than the size you desire, take the knife and 
 flatten it. Keep turning the tile continually and give it plane surfaces by 
 pressing it against the board with the knife. When it is flat enough and of 
 even thickness, draw with the point of the knife oil the top the size of tile 
 you desire. It can then be cut with the end of the knife blade. Do not 
 cut with the entire blade of the knife: use the end of the knife and let it pass 
 
 A .Modeled Tile 
 
 The pupil h.is completed the design in cl.iy and 
 now trimming the uneven edges from the tile. 
 
 Stick to the board, fingers or tool
 
 Elementary G>urses 
 
 207 
 
 througli the clay so that tlicre is little friction. (Illiis. 262.) When the 
 children have a little more skill ami desire to keep the forms they make, it 
 is a good plan to mount them on tiles, — the animal forms, the fruit forms, 
 rosettes, etc. 
 
 Illustration 263 
 
 Modtlin); in Chiy from Birds 
 
 The p.incl below has been mod- 
 eled, from the real bird shown at 
 the left, by a pupil of the ^ammar 
 grade. It is quite a pood lile for 
 such a voung fiupil. IVrfection 
 mu^t not be expected from the chil- 
 dren, especially when they have 
 had but little experience. But the 
 eagerness with which the children 
 strive to faithfully imitate nature, 
 and their enthusiasm over this con 
 tact with the rtal thin;;, are by no 
 means the least valuable character- 
 istics developed in the young by 
 the natural education. 
 
 1 ri.. Iteal Bird 
 
 Directions for modeling birds from the real, or 
 other animal forms, are given in Chapter VI of 
 this section. Work of this kind is much more 
 advanced than the elementary exercises in this 
 chapter. 
 
 « 
 
 In making these elementary 
 forms simplicity of work is one of 
 the things to consider. Remem- 
 ber, the entire work is chieily to 
 compel the children to think of 
 and to memorize form. Children 
 instinctively endeavor to give 
 expression to thought in all directions. The miiul is worked upon 
 and developed through the .senses by externals, and it is to compel this union 
 of thought and action that we make these seemingly trilling exercises.* 
 
 The Clay .Model 
 
 • lilrnt are, on the eflerent or motor side, nascent movcmenln— that Is, intuitions of such movements as h«»« 
 been performed; on the afrerx.-nt or sensory side, they arc images of the sen»i>ry impressions which have twen capo, 
 rienced, the revival of such sensory impressions on the occasion of u suitable external stimulus being /irrrrjili4m.— 
 [Maudsley, Physiolo|ry of Minil, page 44J,
 
 208 
 
 Modeling; 
 
 Many adult minds are paralj-zed or wanting in certain directions at maturity. 
 Never having been required to perceive accurately, they do not remember 
 correctly, and so they cannot judge soundly or imagine truly. As I have 
 repeatedly quoted, " accurate perception and exact memory are the funda- 
 mental bases of sound reasoning and imagination." Do not be troubled 
 if the results are not artistic. They are sure to be pleasing to the children, 
 for children are like savages in some of their stages of development. 
 
 Many people speak of the necessity of art atmosphere in the school 
 room, and in some places or cities fragments of the antique, — statues like 
 the Elgin marbles, the frieze from the Parthenon, the Venus of J.Iilo, etc., 
 — are placed in the school room. 
 
 I find, however, that these forms do not impress the children. I would 
 rather see the same money spent on natural forms — real butterflies, birds, fish, 
 shells, good specimens of minerals, etc. We must make the children love 
 nature at first hand. W^e must inoculate them with the desire for beauty 
 through the real living forms in nature. Then, later, we can expect some 
 result when they come in contact with the great art works, — the thought 
 of great minds expressed in concrete forms. But it is useless to put before 
 their eyes the perfection of Greek art unless we first give them the hunger 
 and thirst, the vital love for beauty as it is exhibited in every natural flower, 
 leaf, and shell, and in the various living forms that attract and fascinate the 
 young. 
 
 > 
 
 I . .:l 1 
 
 Various Lciif Forms, Models
 
 niustration 266 
 
 Modeling original dcsi^s on a curved surface. Gr.iinm:ir ^nidc chitdrvn. 
 
 CHAPTER III 
 
 Modeling Fruit and 
 Vegetable Forms 
 
 Tp KriT FORMS MAKR A GOOD SERIES OF OBJECTS to \v..rk 
 J_ fruin. Endeavor to liave tlie real fruit if possible. W'c can start 
 
 uitli an apple. Let the cliiidren take up the apjde in their hands 
 first and observe its shajie. Draw their attention to the stem end, how tlcei) 
 it is; to the hlossum enil. how shallow it is. Let them continually handle 
 the form, during the le.sson. It is {jood to study the colors r)f fruit forms. 
 Draw their attention to the beautiful shades and hues of tureen or red or 
 »* r:o9)
 
 2 JO Modeling 
 
 yellow, as the case may be, on the apple. Make them aware of the facts 
 before them l)y speech as often as possible. Take a piece of dry clay and' 
 roughly shai)e it in the fingers. Do not let be too large, — make an average- 
 sized apple. Some of the apples will be large and some small, but it is best 
 to choose one of medium size. Do not let the children make any of the 
 forms in miniature. It is very absurd to see a lot of apples modeled by a 
 class, as small as cherries, to see grapes modeled as small as peas or currants, 
 and pears as small as strawberries. In every case let the children make the 
 forms abotit the average size of real fruit. 
 
 Use the tool now to make the form smooth, working it all over the 
 apple without scraping the clay. Mold it. Do not allow clay to stick to 
 the tool or to the fingers. Be very particular about this. It is a sign of 
 error if the children ha\-e chi)- on the wrong side of the fingers or sticking to 
 their hands anywhere; or if it is sticking to the board, the tool or the knife. 
 The clay must be made compact, by often caressing it with the tool. 
 It is somewhat difficult at first to prevent the tool from scraping the 
 clay, but with a little practice it can be done. Do not mind if the form 
 is a little rough or shows the tool marks, in the beginning. Remember, 
 this is simply to get de.xterity with the hands and the tool. We do not 
 care for the product of the first efforts. 
 
 Make the cavities at each end with the tool and endeavor to keep the 
 convex cur\-e like the model. One or two little touches with the tool will 
 give the appearance of the blossom end, and then a little piece of clay rolled 
 out and inserted will form the stem. Let it stick to the side of the apple 
 so that it will not break oft when dry. There is a great deal of character in 
 the stem of an apple. It is usually short and thick, therefore do not make 
 the stems too long, as is frequently done. It is absurd to see apples with 
 stems almost as long as cherries. Do not let the children use the stem of 
 the real apple in the clay apple, as they are frequently taught. This is sim- 
 ply trickery. Any child able to make an apple will take pride and pleas- 
 ure in making a good stem to it. The only people I have found who com- 
 plain of certain of these exercises being too difficult for the children, are the 
 teachers who could not make the forms themselves. 
 
 Continually draw the attention of the children to the minor facts of 
 form visible on the apple, and by degrees they will perceive, apprehend and 
 reproduce these forms. Do not, except in special cases, perform the work
 
 Fruit and Vegetable Forms 
 
 2n 
 
 for the pupils, but make them consider the form for themselves. It is the 
 idea of an apjjle that you w ish them to assimilate. The clay form or prod- 
 uct is not of nflich consequence. Think of this continnallv. It is the 
 concept of apple firmly locked into the mind in all its various aspects 
 
 Illustration 267 
 
 Plaster Casus for Moilcling 
 When the real fruits or vegetables arc not available. 
 
 tliroui^di the senses that you desire to produce. It is a very good plan at 
 the end of the lesson to let the pupils, if the lesson has been satisfactory, ac- 
 tually assimilate the apple and test its gustable qualities. This adds to the 
 permanent impression, remember, and is a very good lesson, and one that is 
 usually enjoyed. It will do no harm to speak of the structure and the text- 
 ure, the color and the taste of the api)Ie at this stage. 
 
 Illustration 368 
 
 Vcgrtablc and Fruit Form* for Modeling 
 
 Another point to speak of before we leave the apple is. not to allow 
 the children to make freak forms. Usually in a large number of apples 
 there are one or two that are very much distorted. Draw attention to the 
 typical apples. It is not neccsr.ary in the beginning for the child to make
 
 2J2 Modeling: 
 
 all the accidental kinks, creases or curves that are on the apple. It will be 
 sufficient if they make a good generalized form in the beginning. 
 
 The Pear—H more complex than the apple and requires a little 
 more thought and care. See that the pupils have good models, nicely 
 shaped pears. It is better to have a few good ones for the class, even if 
 thev cost more, than to give out a lot of poor shapes that are perhaps cheap. 
 Take a piece of clay, roughly shape it like the pear, depressing it at one 
 end. Use the tool to smooth the surface, as described in making the apple, 
 alwavs getting the main form of the pear first with the hands. Do not 
 make the forms too large. It is the tendency with all beginners to exag- 
 gerate the size. 
 
 Do not hesitate to take the tool in the left hand continually. It feels 
 very awkward in the beginning, but in all modeling the tool has to be used 
 sometimes with one hand, sometimes with the other. Later on, in large 
 forms, the tool is held a great deal with both hands. Notice that the blos- 
 som end is not so deep as in the apple, that the stem end has a distinct 
 character, and that the stem is usually a little longer than the apple stem. 
 Of course there may be exceptions. Notice also the dift'erence in color of 
 the pears and in the texture of the skin, some pears being quite rough in 
 texture, others smooth. 
 
 With a little practice texture can be imitated very successfully. The 
 smooth chul)ljiness of a tomato can be rendered: also the texture of cloth, 
 velvet, fur, and so on. Of course at first the children can not try for any of 
 these qualities. I simply mention them to show the possibilities in clay, it 
 being the most plastic medium of which we have any knowledge, and one 
 which, for tliat \ery reason, has been used by sculptors from the beginning 
 of history. 
 
 Hints to Teachers. — ^lake the children handle the model, let them 
 look continually at it and compare it with the one in their hands. Invite 
 them to observe other pear shapes, show them the typical ones from the 
 numl)cr that x'ou are using. By this time you will find that the children 
 are unconsciously using either hand and that they are actively busy with the 
 touch, the vision, the muscular sense, in the work of assimilating impres- 
 sions. In doing this work, also notice that they are overcoming awkward- 
 ness, for at first, when the tool is used in the left hand, it will feel and look 
 verv awkward. That, however, is soon overcome.
 
 3 
 
 i 3 
 
 IN 
 
 p a. = 
 
 in 
 
 5' '^ ff 
 
 2. i 
 
 5 3' 
 ft n 
 
 > 
 
 I z
 
 2J4 Modeling 
 
 ll is liahil onlv that compels the arbitrary use of the right hand in niany 
 operations: and the hal)it of using both can be just as easily taught.* Par- 
 ents begin the wrong way by conii^elling children to " take the spoon in the 
 other hand, dear;'" to hold the pencil or fork a certain way; to change the 
 scissors if they happen to pick them up with the left hand. Surely it is 
 good to be able to cut with one hand as well as with the other. I have 
 never yet found a doctor, dentist or scientist, or skilled user of instruments. 
 who does not agree with this. In fact, they say that to be able to use both 
 hands is a very valuable capacity. 
 
 The Bandtld, — Take a piece of clay, roll it out, make it four or 
 five inches long. Some bananas are very large, but the large sizes are dif- 
 ficult for the children to hanille. As we have learned by experience, 
 the medium sizes are the best for practice. Try to make the planes by 
 drawing the tool or the finger from one end of the banana to the other. 
 Sometimes they are four, five and six-sided. Try to grasp the character, 
 to apprehend the main forms. The shape is a little difficult to make at 
 first. Draw the attention of the class to the color aand other characters. 
 Other forms that can be made are the peach, the lemon, the plum, the 
 grape, and in fact any available fruit. 
 
 Fruit Tile. — A good' lesson and a \'ery simple one is to model a tile 
 with a branch of fruit forms on it, making the twig, the fruit, the stems 
 and the leaves. Make the tile about eight inches long and about four 
 inches wide. Do not trim the tile till the fruit forms have been modeled. 
 If you trim the tile in the beginning the edge will be scarred or marred be- 
 fore the form is finished, and then it has to be trimmed again. Leave that 
 for the last thing to do. Take a piece of clay, roll it out about the size of a 
 lead pencil, about three inches long. Shape the end of the branch, allow- 
 ing it to be a little thick at the lower end and tapering to the top. Place 
 this in position on the tile. Then add another piece about the same length 
 and aLso tapering, and bend it to form the shape of a branch or twig. Con- 
 tinue this from one end of the tile to the other. 
 
 • Habit— sclf-rcspect, sclf.hulp, application, industry, integrity, all are of the nature of habits, not beliefs. Prin- 
 ciples, in fact, are but the names which we assign to liabits, for the principles are words, but the habits are the 
 things themselves— benefactors or tyrants, according as they are good or evil. It thus happens that as we grow 
 older a portion of our free activity and individuali'y becomes suspended in habit— our actions become of the nature of 
 fate, and we are bound by the chains which we have woven around ourselves.— [Smiles, Self-IIelp, paije 404.
 
 Fruit and Vegetable Forms 
 
 !I5 
 
 Next make one or two liranches. Make these l)raiiclies fork out in a 
 realistic fashion. Be sure the clay is thoroujjhly incorporated with the 
 main branch. Use the tool to do this, also to incorporate the stem or 
 branch on the tile. A few little digs with the sharp end of the tool will 
 unite them and then the marks made can be removed by a little modeling. Im- 
 itate the bark of the cherry tree on the stems or branches and allow the 
 branch to bend up in one or two places. Xext make two or three cherries 
 of the natural size. Place them in position to form a group. Then make 
 the stems; let them be of the right length. J inches or 2h inches long from 
 the cherry to the branch. The cherry stems of course must be made nuich 
 thicker than they are in nature, about as thick as the handle of a very fine 
 teacup. It is a little difficuit to incorporate these tliin stems to the main 
 branch and to the cherry without breaking, but with a little j)ractice it can 
 
 Illustrations 269-271 
 
 Ciuts of Lcnf Form* 
 
 be done. Bunches of three cherries can be made, placing one on Xk\> of the 
 other two. and the stem placed in the same way. Make one or two bunches 
 of cherries, as desiretl. 
 
 Lastly, make leaves as described in " FJementary Modeling," and en- 
 deavor to get the fine points, the serrations, the midribs, an<l otlior features 
 with the fingers l)efore placing the leaves in position. Bend each leaf so 
 that it will look as natural as pos>ible. .Allow the edge to curve ui> in one
 
 2J6 Modeling: 
 
 or two places. Make several leaves in this way. Cherry leaves are long 
 and slender, two, three and four inches long and about one inch wide. Place 
 the leaves in different positions to see the effect before incorporatiag them. 
 This is quite important. 
 
 Make a Composition. — Four or five leaves will be enough for this 
 small tile. Then take a tool and incorporate the leaves carefulh- with the 
 branches and with the background of the tile. See that they are well sup- 
 ported tuiderneath. If necessary, block them up with clay so that they have 
 a solid backing connecting them, though invisibly, with the background. 
 Allow the edges of the leaf to be quite thin, l.)ut let the body of the leaf be 
 thick and strong. A leaf can be made to look as thin as paper by making 
 the edge sharp though it really may be half an inch thick. Allow the 
 leaves to curve naturally, and do not place them at regular intervals. It 
 is a little difficult at first to prevent their looking like pieces of tin. This is 
 a very good exercise for young people, because even though it is roughly 
 done, the product usually pleases them. 
 
 An apple with a branch and sex'eral leaves on a tile is a very good ex- 
 ercise (Illus. 272). ]\Iake the tile first, then the apple, as descri1je<l in our 
 first exercise; place the apple in a natural position on the tile. Then in- 
 corporate it so it will not drop off when the clay dries. To do this, press 
 part of the apple firmly into the tile, and then remodel with the tool the 
 parts marred. Next make the piece of branch of the apple tree about three 
 inches long and place it in a natural position near the ajiple, making the 
 stem reach tlie apple. 
 
 Xext model a few broad simple leaf forms and attach them in a group 
 to the branch. Take care to make the leaves look as natural as possible. 
 Let them be thick in places, and where the edges show, allow them to be 
 sharp to suggest thinness. To give strength make all the parts solid that 
 cannot be seen. Never attempt to make things too thin in clay, like leaves 
 or stems or twigs. It is better to make them solid down to the 
 slab, rather than to have them so thin that with a touch or two in hand- 
 ling they break. Try to show the curved surface of the leaf and the serra- 
 tions with the tool. It is a very good practice in composition to arrange 
 these little groups. 
 
 Two peaches, with branch and leaves, also make a very good exercise. 
 I\Iake the peaches on the tile first, side bv side. Next make the
 
 Fruit and Vegetable Form 
 
 217 
 
 brancli and tlien the leaves. Try to grasp the character of the leaf forms 
 and tlie arrangement. 
 
 These exercises are very good in learning to fit form on a surface, and 
 also for giving the children a great deal of pleasure. For tiiese forms, of 
 
 Illustration 272 
 
 Mcxlcliti^ Fruit from Nature 
 
 This pictun; illustnitcs :innlhcr cliilil ino<lclinK ;in iipplL* nn :i Itniiich, with Icavch, from the ri-al fonii 
 "Ut in the o|H.*n :iir. The l:ible is .t box with a hoard upon it; two inr>dclini; t'Kil* and .t knifv only hein|f 
 used. First the tile is made, about seven inches square, then the apple is mmleled in the hand. As soon 
 .1., It is the rit;ht si£e and with a certain amount of finish, it is iiicor|>oraled on the tile in the usual 
 Lishinn; then the stem is made, and lastly the leaves. U i* very koikI practice making the character of 
 the bninchcs ; they are quite ruiijied .ind h.ive distinct textures. The same is true ol the leaves ; the apple 
 leaf is a broad one anil finely marked. In mukin:; a tile like this, the leaves can be made solid, then the 
 ed^rs can be slij^hlly raised and undercut. 
 
 course, models may be used. If xou cannot secure the real fruit, stems and 
 leaves, casts can he purchased ;it a very low price. The teacher should 
 have models of this kind that she has made from real forms herself to show 
 the pupils. 
 
 Vegetable Forms. ~\.cl us begin with the potato. .\ potato has a 
 rough, irregular shape, but still it has its own essential character. Have the
 
 2{8 Modeling 
 
 children make a typical one; take away tlie unreal shapes. Make the 
 eves of the potato with the tool. Let them study the model in their 
 hands, and draw their attention continually to facts. Do not let them 
 miss an}' of the characteristic features of the potato. The form will stick 
 in their minds when they reproduce it with the tool. I cannot resist the 
 tendency myself when I am talking- to my class to interject a stream of facts 
 and fancies about the forms we handle. Splendid ideas can be grasped if 
 the teacher is awake. It need not be a lesson in modeling only, but in many 
 other things. The surface texture of a potato is quite different from that 
 of fruit. Make the children apprehend this. But because potatoes are 
 familiar forms and easy to get, do not tire the children with them. Lead 
 them to appreciate the tints or coloring of the potato. 
 
 The carrot is a little more complex. Do not let the carrot look like a 
 parsnip or a radish. Let the form l)e of a handy, medium size, and make the 
 texture marks with the tool. Seethatthe children apprehend the texture Do 
 not let them make simple cuts or jag marks. Give them a little time to 
 grasp the detail. Have them handle the model as much as possible, since 
 much information is conveyed to the mind through the touch. Do not try 
 to model the top or the leaf part of the carrot. Let it be cut off, just 
 showing the stem. This can be modeled with the carrot or added on. 
 
 The Tomato. — Take one that shows the typical form. .Some are 
 very much distorted and some do not have the features clearly marked. 
 ]\Iake the divisions with the tool. The stem end will be found a little 
 dif^cult. Have the children make the leaflets separate and add them on. 
 It is difficult in making the ridges to prevent the form from looking like a 
 little cantaloupe. Do not place the ridges too regularly. Use the tool as much 
 as possible in making the texture. It is very smooth and gives good prac- 
 tice. 
 
 These vegetable forms may seem trifling in their value as a mode of 
 compelling thought, but very few adults realize the shape of even the most 
 ordinary vegetables, simply because they have never consciously assimilated 
 through the different sense channels all the facts about them. Their im- 
 agination is not vivid because their impressions have not been distinct or 
 clear. The slight i)ercepts that tlicy have fade away, and it is surprising to 
 find how many pupils there are even in adult classes who show that they 
 have not the beginning of an idea as to the shape of an egg or a grape, if 
 
 o
 
 Fruit and Vegetable Forms 
 
 219 
 
 they are requested to shape it without the model. We can create talent and 
 capacity in the dullest people by teachint;^ them observation in this way. 
 There are plenty of people with good eyesight who go through the world 
 
 A More Complex Fonn for .Motlulink; in Clay 
 
 It U wonderful with what Adi-tity the children may reproduce even a whole branch in clay, with all its fruit and 
 leaves. One work of this kind wilt impress the pupil with many of the Butcinatini; lessons Nature offers so bimntl. 
 hilly. When an important composition has been well modeled, it should be tired, and may uUo be multiplied by 
 plaster cai^ts. 
 
 without seeing anything, and there are many with very poor eyesight who, 
 aided by observation, notice many things. Modeling compels observation, 
 perception, reflection and conception. 
 
 The Tormp.— Make a medium-sized one, pinching out the root and 
 modeling on the opposite end a part of the leaves. The variety of form we 
 have among root crops is wonderful, and it is by receiving these vivid im- 
 pressions, through making them, that we are fully impressed. The 
 texture, structure, color and form of the commonest, simplest vegetables 
 are valuable as lessons, if we can organically and permanently register them 
 without wasting the time and energy of the pupils. Some turnips have
 
 220 
 
 Modelingf 
 
 beautiful tints of color ami shading; some are a little rough in texture, and 
 others, like the Swedish turniji, are quite smooth. 
 
 Hitch on to your lesson as many facts as possible. Do not let the work 
 become drudgery. j\Iany other vegetable forms can be given, but do not 
 let the pupils tire of any one. Give them variety. We all need it to keep 
 our faculties and our interest in trim. It is a natural craving that we have 
 for new fields to conquer. It is not right to teach only a few set forms 
 continually instead of the variety that Providence provides for our special 
 study and delight. The children cannot readily eat the raw vegetables, so 
 that you must make up to them for it by giving them more food for thought, 
 taking extra pains to make the accompanying talk both interesting and 
 instructiye. 
 
 Master Model of Shield
 
 c 
 
 "-?; 
 
 4 
 
 ; 
 
 b 
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 
 Modelings 
 Geometric Forms 
 
 rHE SIMPLER GEOMETRIC FORMS can l.e readily modeled 
 into shape. They are not \er\ ])leasing or interesting, Iiut they 
 }iel(l useful and necessary lessons, and in tcachintj little children 
 this is the only palatable way in which these uninteresting' exercises can he 
 served. The child's awakening mind can grasp only what it sees, — an abso- 
 hite thing, an<l here we give it the opjiortunity to grasp geometric form 
 itself directly, not through a needlessMelinition. ' 
 
 It is wrong to tire the children with these abstract shapes. The 
 geometric forms are essential and necessary at certain stages of education, 
 but to present them continually all through the various grades creates in- 
 tense dislike. Excejit for modeling a few limes, they should not be used 
 in the earlv stages. I have known children to be com|)lctely spoiled for art 
 work by having these unmeaning forms ])resented to them so often. 
 
 Experience teaches that there is a feasible size for these geometric 
 forms. In some schools they are maile very large, and in others much too 
 
 '22t)
 
 222 
 
 Modeling 
 
 small. The best way will be to make the forms of a size that can be readily 
 grasped by little children and made without the use of tools by the two 
 hands alone. Many of the geometric forms can be seen in the pictures in 
 Chapters I and II of this section, also on page 231. They are shown al)Out 
 the proper size they ought to be made. 
 
 The Sphere. — Take a piece of clayand roll it in the hands till it forms a 
 ball about 1 \ inches in diameter. It is quite difificult to make this a true 
 
 Illustrations 278-280 
 
 
 r • 
 
 t 
 
 titii 
 
 Models of Pilaster Panels, Italian Rcnascencc 
 
 sphere, but by manipulation with the thumbs and forefinger, rubbing away 
 the hills and making the rough places plain, and then rolling it between the 
 palms again, a good sphere can l^e produced (Illus. 252). In making this 
 series of forms it is advisable to have the ]nipils place the forms as finished 
 along the top of their modeling board or desk. 
 
 The Cube, — Next make another sphere similar to the first and of the 
 same size. This can only be done by comparing the two. Place them 
 side by side and take away or add clay till they are equal. Now take the 
 second sphere, and tap it on the board till a plane about one inch in diameter 
 is made. Ne.xt turn it over on the opposite side, parallel to the first plane, 
 and make another plane in the same manner. Be very particular to have 
 the pui)ils endeavor to get these planes really parallel through observation. 
 Let them continually look at the form in their fingers.
 
 Geometric Forms 
 
 223 
 
 Next tap two more planes o])posite to eacli other, and then two others, 
 making the six-sided cube. It is a very good exercise now to make tliese 
 planes merge together by tapping on the^ flat board until the l\)rm is a 
 true cube, with sharp, clean corners and each jilane ecpial. To do this with 
 any accuracy recpiires constant attention. Make the children pay attention. 
 This is an excellent form for teaching a number of very desirable qualities. 
 Resist the tendency, especially if there is a large class, to tap the cube care- 
 lessly on the board. Be sure that it is grasped correctly, and that the 
 children continually look at the form. Pay strict attention to position. 
 See that the pupils sit constantly erect, keej) their heads level and take 
 inspiration. 
 
 If they have to look at the cube in their hand, let them hold it up. Do 
 not let them tip and turn the head to look under it. If you wish to see 
 
 Illustration 281 
 
 Kt'ducint; .\tanlhus Ix-af Fnriiis 
 Antique model. The work i» pluccil u|iri|cht on an fa»cl, for convenience. 
 
 things Straight, you must look at them with the hea<l level. Do not expect lit- 
 tle children to make very sharp corners or very correct cubes in the be- 
 ginning. With practice a i)erfect cube can be made if the clay is in right 
 condition, with sharp edges and fine corners. Any teacher can jicrceive
 
 224 Modeling 
 
 that to get tliese six planes equal in size with the hand and eye alone is good 
 training. To do it a few times is also pleasing, Ijut it is not wise to tire the 
 children l)y giving theni the geometric forms continually, as is so foolishly 
 done in many schools and e\-en in the kindergarten. 
 
 In this work of modeling, we are using the master sense of touch, aided 
 by all the others working in unison. This form of representation produces 
 a healthy activity of the perceptive faculties that is valuable. Here we are 
 dealing with form itself, actually making it. We are getting all around our 
 subject and are in this way made conscious of all its peculiarities. W'e are 
 getting accurate perception, which precedes exact memory, by performing 
 deeds. It is this quality in sculpture which raises it above painting and 
 drawing and places it at the head of the creative arts. It is for this reason 
 that sculptors' drawings often possess those characteristics of strength, bold- 
 ness of line, truth, which can come only from a thorough knowledge of the 
 subject, gained during many years of contact with form, not simply by look- 
 ing at it, but by actually making the forms. 
 
 We never really know form until we have attempted to reproduce it a 
 number of times in the solid. One of the chief objects of these lessons is 
 to impress this fact on the pupil while studying and trying to -make these 
 objects: even though the object is not well made, you are really gaining 
 mental development, you are making these things a part of you to the ex- 
 tent that you gain just perception of the thing modeled. You are assimilating 
 concrete knowledge through several sense channels and must become richer 
 in mind for it.* 
 
 The Cylinder. — Take a piece of clay and roll it out l^etween the palms 
 until it is about one inch in diameter. Gently tap each end on the model- 
 ing board. Let the cylinder be about two inches in height. It is cpiite 
 difficult to get the ends smooth and flat in the beginning. If it is rolled 
 too much, a hole will form in the end. Use the tip of the finger or the 
 thumb and fill the hole, and gently pat again until you have a true circle 
 at each end. Resist tlie tendency to make it too long. If it is too long, 
 pat down until it is short and roll again. Place the cylinder next to the cube. 
 
 • "The human brain is an org.-ini/.ed register of infinitely numerous experiences received during llie evolution o( 
 life, or rather, durinsr the evolution of that series of organisms through which the human organism has been 
 reached."— [Spencer.
 
 Geometric Forms 
 
 225 
 
 The Square Prism. — The next operation is to repeat the same 
 cylinder. It is a little more ditficnlt to make this one match the 
 other. Then take the second one. and by tapping on opposite sides, as in 
 forming the cube, make four ])lanes, converting the cylinder into a S(iuare 
 prism. Do not make it too long, but let it match the cylinder in size. The 
 chief difficulty will be that it tends to become too long. Keep tapping it, 
 and continually observe each plane, till it becomes a good square ])rism. then 
 place it by the side of the cylinder. If yon have a large class, notice that 
 
 lllustMtion 282 
 
 This picture shows one position ol the hands in moilclini; a head. The IhuuihK are 
 "fcelinir" the form near each eye. Sculptors frcquenlly model portions of the fi|{ure with the 
 tint;ers alone. 
 
 there is a tendency to rap the forms on the board without looking at the re- 
 sult. Make the children look to see what they are doing. Om this con- 
 tinu;ilK. 
 
 '^he Cone. — Take a i)iece of clay, roll it out in the hand so that it be- 
 comes of a cone-shaped form, and pat it on tlu- i:ni\. to form the bast.'. Make
 
 226 Modeling 
 
 the form in tlie liaiuls rough!}' first, and tlien use the flat board. It must be 
 rolled till it makes a perfect circle on the base. This form is difificult and 
 compels the use of a good deal of manual dexterity. Do not make the 
 cone too high. The tendency with all beginners is to make spear points 
 or little steeples. A great many of the cones used as models have this 
 fault of form. 
 
 Let the cone be the same height as the cylinder and square prism. As 
 soon as it is finished to your satisfaction, place this product beside the square 
 prism. Then start another cone and make it of the same size as the first 
 one. Notice in making these forms tiiat we have made a pair and turned 
 the second one each time into something else. It is very good practice for 
 gaining size and proportion, to make one like the other. The second cone 
 we will turn into a square pyramid by tapping the planes on the board. This 
 is still more difficult to keep in shape than the square prism or the cube. 
 The base must be a good square, and the four sides must taper to a point 
 and the pyramid must be of the same height as the cone. 
 
 Many other geometric forms can be made. The series given, how- 
 ever, will be sufficient to illustrate the process. The forms suggested are 
 the result of many years of experience with numbers of children and teach- 
 ers, and, if the operations are performed properly, must result in valuable 
 training. Do not tire the children with these forms. Remember con- 
 tinually that they are abstract forms. In the higher grades, when the 
 children are studying geometry, they will have plenty to do with them, but 
 do not disgust them with abstractions, as is so frequently the result in those 
 schools where geometric forms are reproduced year after year till even the 
 sight of them is abhorrent. 
 
 Notice that I have made this series of models to present a series of 
 transitional steps, each one a little more difficult, and that the forms can be 
 made without the use of any instruments or tools. Children will take great 
 pleasure in modeling these forms a few times, and that is the reason we give 
 them in the beginning, just as we give blocks to play with. But the essen- 
 tial things are natural forms. 
 
 In teaching, never mind the abstractions, continually think of the im- 
 pression that you desire to make on the mind through the eye and the 
 hand. If the impression is clear and distinct, the form will be clear and 
 distinct. If not. it will be cloudv and nebulous. In talking to teach-
 
 Geometric Forms 
 
 227 
 
 ers, continually speak of the co-ordination of the mind and senses, the tac- 
 tual, the muscular and the visual, and of the power of observation this work 
 g^ives one. tlius enforcing the acc|uisition of exact knowledge. Teachers 
 must realize that they are not simply working in clay, modeling common 
 forms in common clay, making " dirt pies," as some ignorant teachers say, 
 but they are molding the human mind, they are shaping the " stuff" out of 
 which immortal souls are made. 
 
 iCMMiJ 
 
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 .Mntlcl.i ijf Viirlous Border*
 
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 A SIkII 1-onii tor Modeling 
 
 CHAPTER V 
 
 Modeling: for 
 Grammar Grades 
 
 /.\ MODELING THIS SERIES OF FORMS the pupils will pay 
 jiarticiilar attention to niakint,' fine curves, and .ijettin;j^ clean, sharp 
 
 detail and perfect hackgrounds, — that is, making the tile of even 
 thickness, with sharj), true edges, and so on. These forms are alsf) good for 
 grammar-grade pupils, and have been tested for many years with thousands 
 of children. The entire series is t!ie result of much care in selecting forms 
 that will iU) the most good in the shortest space of time. The forms are 
 graded in accordance with their increasing tlitViculty, and include the 
 elements of the best styles. 
 
 The single forms must be made thoroughly well by the children, and 
 then they can be used in combination. It is not necessary for the pupils to 
 make the wIimI.- <.Ti(>i \s soon as they have grown expert "lib the scroll 
 
 (229)
 
 230 
 
 Modeling 
 
 Illustration 28 
 
 and the leaf, combinations in the way of decorative tiles can be made, using 
 both leaf and the scroll. As soon as the anthemion and scroll have been 
 made, these can be similarly combined. As soon as one of the rosette forms 
 has been mastered, it can be used in combination with other forms. The 
 same may be done with shells, the ^Moresque unit, the Saracenic unit, etc. 
 
 In Making the Scrolls (Illus. 288), build up a good solid tile at least 
 one inch thick and six or eight inches square. Do this with the hands alone, 
 
 piece l^y piece, as described on Page 206. 
 Do not allow it to stick to the board. 
 When it is aljout tlie right size, make it 
 plain and smooth by means of the knife, 
 but do not trim the tile till the form is 
 finished; let the rough edge remain to pro- 
 tect it. The last thing done should lie to 
 cut it square and true when the entire 
 ornament has been modeled. Now take the 
 end of the tool and draw on the tile a good 
 scroll, similar to the one illustrated. 
 Practice doing this many times. It can be 
 rubbed out with a touch of the palette 
 knife. The freehand drawing on the clay 
 surface is excellent practice, and with all my classes, adults and children, in 
 the beginning I invariably have them sketch the form for five or ten minutes 
 freehand, since at first it may Ije a little too large, then again it may be too 
 small, nius. 289 shows a child making the single scroll in clay. 
 
 i\lake the scroll so that it fits and fills the space. Let the ball come 
 near the center of the tile. As soon as you have a satisfactory drawing, 
 take a piece of clay, roll it out about two or three inches long and about as 
 thick as the finger, and place it on the drawing. Then take another piece 
 and place it in the same position, continuing until you have the scroll 
 roughly formed with the clay. Next, take the tool and press it into the 
 piece of slab and endeavor to get the curves. The raised edge in the mid- 
 dle of the modeled form is the first thing to get. That is called the " mod- 
 eled line." Press away the surplus clay and try to swing the tool around 
 the whole length of the curve froiu one side to tlie other. ]\Iake long, con- 
 tinuous touches. The clav must be exactlv right in consistencv. If it is too 
 
 A Srcoll in Clay 
 With .inother scroll flowinijout from it.
 
 r. S 
 
 
 -n 
 
 o 
 
 c/) 
 
 
 ? ^ 5 
 
 
 C 
 
 c 
 
 > 
 
 H 
 
 m 
 
 C/) 
 
 < 
 pn 
 
 z
 
 232 Modeling: 
 
 soft it will stick to the tool. It is better for it to be a little too stiff in the 
 first place than too soft, especially for the tile itself, although of course the 
 harder the clay the more difificnlt the form is to make in the beginning. 
 
 Grasp the tool in both hands as illustrated in most of the pictures show- 
 ing pupils modeling. Of course tlie hands move about in different posi- 
 tions as the tool moves. At first it will be quite ditihcult to sweep the 
 curved enil of the tool from one side to the other, making half the circuit or 
 even the whole circuit with a single sweep, l)ut with very little practice 
 manual dexterity will be acquired that will enable you to make a single 
 touch continuing all around the scroll with ease, swinging the tool back and 
 forth on the curve. Notice in doing this that you are actually drawing in 
 material. Do not mind how rough the work is if you can get this swinging 
 movement. Resist the tendency to scatter clay crumbs on the work, keep 
 all pieces in the hand or in the main lump. The form or raised edge must 
 be equal in height all over the tile; do not let it be thick in one place and 
 thin in another. It is quite difficult to get this quality at first. As soon 
 as the curved surface of the scroll has been made, then the form can be 
 clearly cut out by vertical cuts on each edge of the scroll and the sur- 
 plus clay removed, keeping the tile flat and smooth. 
 
 It is not easy to work in the center around the ball, to get into 
 the corners, to keep the edges sharp, at first, but with practice this can be 
 done. Do not mind the tool marks showing at first. We do not want 
 the work finely finished or polished. Try to make the curves as true as 
 possible. Eventually, the longer the swing of the tool, the truer and better 
 the curve will be. Do not let the curved lines look as though they were 
 bent. 
 
 This is excellent practice in getting the hands to swing curves, and it is 
 by modeling and carving these forms that we enable our children to draw 
 them with such boldness and facility that it surprises outsiders who do not 
 know of the work they have been through. All our children make these 
 forms. I cannot recall now, among the many thousands of pupils I have 
 had, one who was unable to draw, model or carve these conventional forms 
 if they learned how to do it in this way. Of course if pupils have been al- 
 lowed only to draw, or to model, or to carve, I am sure many wotdd be un- 
 able to draw the forms: but l)eing required to do the three things in rota- 
 tion, one after the other, they get a manual dexterity that makes the form
 
 Course for Grammar Grades 
 
 233 
 
 Illustration 289 
 
 organic, and enables the hand in the end to make the form automatically 
 — without conscious thought — as can he seen from the various illustrations 
 showing forms modeled by pupils, where the scroll is shown in combination 
 with other forms, sometimes ten and twenty times over. .Ml the luiits of 
 stvles. and most of the ilrill form units, are modeled and carved as well. 
 Any one can see what a great help this is in making forms organic. But 
 when we have actually, through the 
 sense of touch, made the form in soft 
 material and then actually by hard 
 struggling made the same form in 
 tough wood, it is a very easy matter to 
 draw it on paper or the blackboard with 
 the hand as lirni ami with a lino as clean 
 as though it were being made by a steel 
 bar. This facility of hand, this manual 
 dexterity, this control over the nerves 
 
 and muscles of the hand, so that 
 
 these instruments shall do as they 
 
 are directed bv eve and mind, — 
 
 One Position in Molding Modclinif Tool, while Turninif a Scroll 
 nolh h:ind> are u»rd :iiid work i-qually, the tiHil chuiiuinK |><i>iti"ii cnimlant:y-»oinrliini» the lonciivr >idi' Iwlnij 
 unil. somttiini-s the ronvex. Endeavor tn inilkr free nwinKini; touches in lonif a« |><>»«il>le • do not allow the hands 
 to reJt on work. In the above picture, one hand nr»U to enable photoKraph to lie Uktn. 
 
 are among the highly desirable objects oi maiiiiai training iliat can never be 
 attained by the liiniteil exercises of mere shop i)ractice. Wood carving is «>f 
 wonderful value in accomplishing this hand training and character growth.
 
 234 
 
 Modeling 
 
 Illustration 290 
 
 The Rosette Form. — The next form illustrated (page 235) is the 
 rosette. Make a tile eight inches square, as described before. First draw 
 the rosette with the tool freehand, making it to fit the tile. I\Iake the center 
 of the rosette in the middle of the tile and then the four leaf-like forms 
 one after the other. Do this entirely freehand. Do not make construc- 
 tion lines. Rub out the drawing with the knife and practice the drawing 
 of the rosette several times. Then start with the center boss. Let it be 
 about one inch or one and one-half inches in diam.eter. Be sure that 
 
 the clay is incorporated in the tile by mixing 
 the boss with the substance of the tile, so that 
 it will not drop off when the form is dried, then 
 model the surface with the tool till it is a true 
 hemisphere. It is quite difficult at first to swing 
 the tool over from one hand to the other in 
 making this curved surface, but by persisting a 
 little it can be done almost from the beginning, 
 iSext we make the four leaf-like forms, 
 shaping them roughly in the hand first. Let 
 them be about one inch thick, sloping down to 
 the center or boss, shaped almost like a large 
 tongue. Make all the four forms before 
 you place them in position and see that they are equal in size. When this 
 is done they can be placed around the center boss. Squeeze the forms into 
 position, being sure that the clay is roughly incorporated into the tile. If 
 it is simply pressed on the tile, it will be sure to drop ofif when the tile 
 dries. All these directions are not only essentia! to making a good tile, but 
 such thoroughness helps mind and memorv. 
 
 Remember this: The clay must always be incorporated, one piece of clay 
 worked into the other, if you wish it to hold together. It is very exasperat- 
 ing to make a number of forms and then when they dry up to have them 
 fall apart. This is usually the case unless care has been taken every time to 
 incorporate the clay with the main mass. Each piece as it is put on should 
 be made one with the parent piece. 
 
 Now the rosette must be tooled into form. It has been roughly 
 shaped with the finger, and now we take the tool and make the cup-shaped 
 
 A Complex Rosette
 
 CJ ft . 
 
 *** 5 in 
 
 E. • 
 
 OK ^ 
 
 2 i < 
 
 r. w 
 
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 rr 
 
 5
 
 236 Modelingf 
 
 hollow on each leaf with a single stroke if we can. Pass the tool over the 
 svirface of the leaf many times and then over each of the other leaves. Do 
 not tnrn the tile. 
 
 The object in this exercise is to make the four leaves in four different 
 directions while the pupil keeps the same position in relation to his work. 
 See what a wonderful amount of muscular co-ordination is recjuired to turn 
 the hands, both hands guiding the tool, in such diverse positions. Perhaps 
 we can make the leaf quite readily and easily on the right side, while it is 
 very difficult to make it on the left side. Perhaps we find the lowest leaflet 
 quite easy to make, then we find it quite difficult to make the upper ones, 
 with the same movements reversed. \\'e must, however, resist the tend- 
 ency of the pupils to turn the tile around, thus making all the leaflets in the 
 same way, and allowing the hands to make only those few movements 
 which the\- find easy to acquire. Remember, this work is educational, and 
 the object of this lesson is to enable the hands to make the physical co- 
 ordinations all over the complex surface in the dift'erent directions. When 
 your hands can move readily with ease all o\'er these four leaflets without 
 awkwardness, it indicates a great amount of manual dexterity. 
 
 Do not mind the form being rough in the beginning. Make the edges 
 sharp and clean, let the tile be smooth and flat. Make a good broad edge 
 on the leaf. Do not hesitate to make the touches all over the leaf many 
 times. Do not expect it to be finely finished with a few touches. 
 The touches must be repeated. Do not finish up one leaflet at a 
 time, making it very fine and smooth all over. Roughly finish the whole 
 series, and then go over them again. Avoid finicky, small, feeble touches. 
 Avoid ])icking the clay and making small pieces. Model or mold it into 
 shape with a few free touches. In modeling a form of this kind, if clay has 
 to be removed from the tool, we do not pick it ofi and place it in the main 
 lump every time, but add it rather to a piece which we keep in the hand. 
 When we need to add more clay, or have to remove it frt)m the model, it 
 can be taken from or added to the lump in the hand. The last step is to 
 trim and square the tile. 
 
 Position of Tools.— I have purposely made a number of pictures to 
 show the dift'erent positions of holding the tool in modeling and carving. 
 There is no one special hold. The tool is changing from one hand to the 
 other constantly. Experience will give the natural hold. Of course it is
 
 G>urse for Grammar Grades 
 
 237 
 
 Illustration jqi 
 
 difficult to get the movement from the pictures and the print alone. See- 
 ing it done by an expert is the best way. In teaching, the teacher should 
 go from seat to seat illustrating movement on each tile or slab, if necessary 
 making one leallet or part of one leaflet occasionally, the pupil looking on 
 and learning. 
 
 TTie Leaf Units. — For the three-pointed leaf form (Illus. 291). make 
 a tile, on the tile draw the leaf with the point of the tool, making the ribs 
 first and then the double curves forming the outline. Practice this a num- 
 ber of times. Make the leaf to fit the tile. Encourage children as much 
 
 as possible to make these quick drawings on 
 the clay, for position, before beginning to 
 model. Xcxt take a piece of clay, and 
 working with both hands, make the leaf 
 form about three-eighths of an inch thick 
 in relief. Make the stem also. Get the 
 entire shape in the rough, with the fingers, 
 in the beginning. Be sure that the clay for 
 the leaf is thoroughly incorporate<l with the 
 main mass, and tliat each piece you add is 
 also incorporated with the ailjoining surface. 
 See to this in all cases, so that the model will 
 A 1.V..1 rii. not come apart in drying.' 
 
 Properly worked together this way, the 
 clay tiles and models should be durable, quite strong and lasting. L'idess 
 they are struck or allowed to drop, they can be kept any length of time. It 
 is good to have shelves in the class room on which to place these forms. In 
 most of my schools all the walls are completely covered with the work of 
 the pupils, ^\'c do this so that they can get ideas from the work exhibited, 
 ami at intervals we allow them to take their proiluctions home ami place 
 others in their stead. 
 
 Next take the tool and roughly make the depressions on the leaf, first 
 for the midrib and then for the side ribs. Let these touches be bold and 
 free. Then model from the center towards the edge, making the undula- 
 tions on the leaf. Next make the double curves on each side, beginning 
 with the middle leaflet. Do not finish one part. — work all over the leaf. In 
 shai)ing the leaflet on one side, do not completely finish it. but make almost
 
 238 Modeling- 
 
 every other toucli on tlie opposite side. In this way you will tind that you 
 gradually model balance. 
 
 It will help a beginner to look at the pictures of some of the modeled 
 leaves in this book, to see how the texture is produced and also how the 
 carved leaves are made. Do not put in very fine detail in the beginning. 
 In making the serrations on the leaf, model each leaflet separately, first on 
 one side and then on the other. Hold the tool in both hands in doing most 
 of this work. Very rarely is the tool held by one hand alone, it is nearly 
 alwa_\s guided by the other hand. The same is true of the chisel in carv- 
 ing. This form can be varied, a five-pointed 
 Illustration 202 j^^^ ^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^j^ j^^ ^j^^ ^^^^^^ ^^.^^, ^^^^j ^^,j^g 
 
 a number of other shapes can l)e based 
 on it. 
 
 The Moresque Form is quite difificult, 
 although it looks so simple in outline. In 
 making this, first spend some time in draw- 
 ing it. It is a little difficult to make this 
 form fit the tile. Do not make it too small, 
 let it be about the proportion of Illus. 292. 
 
 The Moresque Unit ,^, . ., izii-.i r f 
 
 lake a piece of clay, hll m the surface of 
 the form piece by piece with the fingers until it is about three-eighths of an 
 inch in hight. Allow the form to be a little larger than the one yon intend 
 to make. Try to keep the double curve on the large blade showing clearly, 
 letting it taper to a fine point. With very little practice you will find that 
 you can get good forms with the fingers alone. With the fingers the clay 
 can be thoroughly incorporated and made into a solid piece. Now take the 
 tool, and, beginning with the stem, make a single plane from one end to the 
 other with a sweeping touch. I want you to draw this double curve repeat- 
 edly on the soft clay, compressing and flattening it at the same time. Repe- 
 tition will in lime compel acciu"ic_\-, until the hand is able to make these 
 swinging lines quite automatically. 
 
 Next we will make the other plane, allowing the modeled line to show a 
 beautiful double curve, the modeled line being the raised edge in the middle 
 of the form. Swing over this cur\e a number of times, then tr}- the curve 
 on the inside or short blade, swinging around from one end to the other 
 repeatedly. Next on the outside edge. As soon as these planes are satis-
 
 Course for Grammar Grades 
 
 239 
 
 Illustration 293 
 
 facton-, tlien witli a single toucli cut out tlie form, beginning with the large 
 double curve, then making the other side of the blade, and lastly the short 
 curve. This is one of the most difficult forms to get properly and still one 
 of the most satisfactory to make w hen practice gives facility. The entire 
 form should be made with a few strokes when dexterity has been acquired. 
 Do not make finicky touches. Allow the tool to swing from one end of 
 the unit to the other each time, holding it in both hands and pushing away 
 the surplus clay or adding on, as is needed, from a piece in the hand. Feel 
 the form with the tool and draw it out. Xext clean u]) the background 
 and see that the stem is narrow. Much attention must be given to the 
 raised edge, the modeled line; for although when the model is flat on the 
 table this does not show very plainly, it is the most important line on the 
 model, and when it is in position standing up, it shows more distinctly than 
 any other. 
 
 *7^e Scroll and Crocket. — Make the drawing of the complete scroll 
 first (Illiis. 293). allow it to lill the tile, and then add the crockets, one to 
 each corner. Make this form repeatedly till 
 it fits the tile. .\t first it will be a little too 
 small and seem a little crowded. Give five 
 or ten minutes to the drawing. Then take a 
 piece of clay, roll it out about the size of the 
 little finger and place on the drawing, incor- 
 porating the clay piece by piece till the entire 
 scroll is covered about thrcc-cigluhs of an 
 inch thick. Make the form a little thicker 
 than it is intended to be. Now add on the 
 crockets, forming the curve and the tip with 
 the fingers. Let every member of the class 
 block in the entire form with the fingers 
 
 before using the tool. Then take the tool and place the plane or curves on 
 the surface from the tip of the crocket, gradually merging them with the 
 curves of the scroll. Notice that finally the concave curve of the crocket 
 must meet the convex outer curve of the scroll: and the convex curve of the 
 crocket, the concave line of the scroll. Pass the tool repeatedly up an<l 
 down till a nice curve is made all around the scroll, curving out each tip at 
 the right place, pushing away the surplus clay with the tool, and adding it 
 
 Scroll aaJ Cnx'kct
 
 240 
 
 Modeling 
 
 to the main lump in the hand. The curve around the center boss is dif- 
 ficuU to prockice in the l)eginning, but with practice it can l^e done with a 
 few touches. Then make the curve inside the scroll. This can be very 
 much curved or almost flat. At first it would be better to make it a little 
 flat. Try to swing this from one end to the other with as few touches and 
 with a movement as continuous as possible. 
 
 Next cut out the form down to the tile with the tip of the tool, draw- 
 ing the shape of the form repeatedly and removing the surplus clay. The 
 pupil must be very attentive in doing this work, otherwise the scroll can be 
 spoiled very quickly. The crockets make the form much harder to model, 
 owing to tiie curve being interrupted, but with a little practice crockets can 
 
 Illustrations 294-296 
 
 Plaster Models lor Drawing, .Modeling- and Car\ing 
 
 be thrown out in any direction without any trouble. Later on the double- 
 curving crocket and other forms can be introduced on the scroll in the same 
 way. 
 
 Combination of Scrolls and Leaflets. — To make two scrolls in clay 
 flowing one from the otlier, is good jiractice. A leaf tip can be modeled 
 coming out of the center. To make this form tit the tile, and to curve the 
 scrolls gradually, one from the other, with single sweeps of the tool, is capital 
 manual training. Combinations of different forms can then lie attempted, 
 and balanced designs made for \-arious purposes.
 
 Course for Grammar Grades 
 
 241 
 
 The cAnthemion is perhai)s the most diflficult of all the elementary 
 forms and lakes the most time in the hci^inning. (Illus. J98.) Make a full- 
 sized tile. Make the drawing a number of times first, endeavoring to get the 
 form to tit it. Roll out the lobes in the hand, beginning with the center 
 lobe. Numerous lobes can lie made as illustratc<l in l>ook Two, Chapter 
 I\'. Be sure that they taper to a fine point, and as they grow slim towards 
 the base let them also grow less liigh in relief. Rend the side lobes so that 
 they curve and balance nicely. Make the lobes match. This is a little dif- 
 ficult at first. Try to get a good curve to each one; show the gradation 
 in the form. Try to feel with the fingers the magnitude of each lobe. 
 
 Begin tooling with the center lobe, j^ush away the surplus clay, and 
 make it taper to a fine point. It is difficult to prevent the stems or pipes of 
 the lobes from running into one another. Beginners cannot help this at 
 first. To keep all these stems gradually' cur\ing in to the center and to 
 get them to diminish gradually requires a great deal of skill. Do not ex- 
 pect fine results in the beginning. Hold the tool firmly witli both hands 
 
 IllUStnti'iTTs 717-^.°- 
 
 Scroll and Leaflet 
 
 Anthciiiioii ill Clav 
 
 and model each lobe from side to side. The widest part of the lobe will be 
 the thickest. The form must be blocked out roughly in the beginning 
 with a few large touches to get the appniximate bulk, and then it nin-i b.- 
 modeled over again several times, each lime getting a finer finish, 
 ir.
 
 242 
 
 Modeling 
 
 Do not expect good results the first time.* Any one making this form 
 can realize what excellent discipline it gives in attaining dexterity and phys- 
 ical co-ordinations. Do not allow the children to turn the tile, keep it in 
 one position throughout the entire lesson. Of course if I were to move it 
 from one side to the other and to keep my hands in the same position all 
 the time in making each lobe, it would be much easier to model. But re- 
 member, the object of the lesson is to get the skill that is given to the hands 
 when they become able to move with facility all over the complex form. 
 Pay particular attention to the stems, clean the spaces between the lobes, 
 cut the tile true. This form is much used in carving, modeling, and draw- 
 ing, and it is one of the best of all the units of design for its union of beauty, 
 balance, proportion, grace, etc. 
 
 Illustrations 299-301 
 
 Various Arr.lngements of the Anthemion 
 
 The Curved Leaf, — (lllus. 302.) First, make this fit the tile. Make 
 the drawing a number of times. Do not make it too small; allow 
 it to fill the tile. Block in the form with the fingers, as described in makingthe 
 other forms; be sure to keep the efifect of the double curves. Allow the leaf to 
 be nearly half an inch thick in the thickest part, while the back of the leaf 
 tapers down to the tile. Model a large double curve on the back of the 
 leaf first with the tool. Tn,- to make the surface undulate. Keep the 
 double curves of each leaflet true and trv to make tiiem with a single touch 
 
 •" The repetition of good action generates the habit of doing well, function developing construction, and the 
 habit of doing well generates a moral feeling in regard to said action, which it becomes at last a pain to go against."
 
 Gjurses for Grammar Grades 
 
 243 
 
 of the tool. The spaces between the leaflets should also he made with a 
 single touch of the tool. Get the texture on the surface of the leaflet 
 representing the small ribs, then finish with a narrow stem. To make this 
 leaf with graceful curves, so tliat it appears to swing nicely, requires practice. 
 Try to prevent a thick and clumsy appearance of the leaf. The tool marks 
 will give very good texture to leaf form. Tiiis can be made much more 
 complex. showiiiiLr niore leaflets. 
 
 Simple Shell Forms. — The real scailojied shell (page 2},-)) can be con- 
 ventionalized as desired. Make the drawing, get about the proportion and 
 size, and then add on the clay, making the shell curve up, being sure that it 
 is incorporated on the tile. Repeatedly speak of this to your j^upils. It 
 is very uncomfortable to find a shell form like this, for instance, come off 
 the tile, when it dries, especially if a lot of careful work has been placed upon 
 it. Try to get the halves of the shell to balance with the thumbs and 
 forefingers, working at both sides at once. The thumbs are very useful in 
 this work. With a little practice one can make an entire shell form with 
 the fingers and thumbs alone; of course, roughly. 
 
 Practice this movement continually. Feel the balance of things. Then 
 you will be able to draw balance. Sculptors 
 often find the thumbs their best tools. We 
 
 must use the fingers as much as possible. 
 
 but do not e.xpect to make the sharp edges, 
 
 the fine detail expected in woodwork, metal 
 
 work, stone work, and so on, with the 
 
 thumbs alone. The tool must be used for 
 
 this. As a person becomes more skilled he 
 
 will find the fingers more usehd, and in 
 
 making the human figure sometimes the 
 
 thumbs and parts of the fingers arc the main 
 
 tools u.sed. (See Plate Eighteen, i)agc 235.) 
 
 Use the tool to make the ribs on the shell. 
 
 It is very difficult to make these taper. The shell is a wonderful piece of 
 
 architecture. There are no finer lines or curves in nature than may be found 
 
 on a good-shape<l shell. Try to make the lines all converge and 
 
 taper gradually. Model <>n each side. Ho not finish one side first and 
 
 then the other. It is much easier to model both sides, to make all the ribs 
 
 lllustrafi n 5.-^ 
 
 I lie I iirM.I I,, il
 
 Modeling: 
 
 Real Shells for Models 
 
 All kinds of shells are suitable to be reproduced in clay. They are cheaply pur- 
 chased if not otherwise available, and otler endless variety in form, proportion, etc. 
 The accompanying text describes the shell work illustrated on page 235, not the making 
 ot these shells in Illustration 303. 
 
 and serrations first, in the rongh, and then to shape them np and make them 
 still finer. The lines of growth as well as the lines of texture show on a real 
 shell. If you are copying from a real shell endeavor to get these. 
 In some conventional shells and models of shells the lines of growth 
 are left out. The suggestion of a spiral in most shell forms where the lines 
 meet together is very beautiful. Try to make a true spiral instead of a 
 bent line. The last part to model will be the serrations on the edge of the 
 shell. Cut these out with a few simple touches. 
 
 It must be constantly remembered that, at best, word descriptions of 
 how to model are inadequate, compared to the actual doing. The reader 
 who will tr\' modeling, who begins with the elementary work and follows
 
 Course for Grammar Grades 
 
 245 
 
 along into the more ilitVicult forms, will (luickly realize the merit of each 
 point advanced in these pages. Experience is the best teacher. 
 
 The stndent will lind many snitahle forms for modeling suggested in 
 the drawings in Book Two, and the carvings in Book Four. Many of the 
 plaster casts contain also suitable forms.. After making a few of the simple 
 units, designs should be made, consisting of some of the units combined in 
 different ways, as illustrated in the [)icture of tiles on page 231, and on page 
 189 in first part of book. 
 
 Gothic Rosettes Modda
 
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 o .-
 
 AdvujucLd Clay Modi;ling 
 
 These boys are making large original designs and animal ronns in clay for architectural purposes. Advanced 
 class, K. C. High SchooL 
 
 CHAPTER VI 
 
 Modclingf 
 Animal Forms 
 
 y^XnrAL FORMS. — After the chililrcn have modeled several coni- 
 ^j^ paratively elaborate tiles and can produce simple forms with good 
 balance, proportion and fitness, they should be allowed to model 
 some of the various animal forms illustrated. Small heads are suitable to 
 begin with. .\Ilow them to make their choice of the sheei). dog, tiger, 
 horse, lion, or other animal. The teacher will find by experience that pupils 
 woxV with a great deal more energy if tliey arc allowed to work on some 
 form that pleases them. The series of head forms illustrated in 306 has been 
 made for this e.xpress purpose. Some (jf them are quite difificidt ami some 
 comparatively simple, but if a boy like a horse's head better than a dog's 
 head, althougli it is much harder to model than the dog's head, he will suc- 
 ceed better with it. So it is with girls. The girls will sometimes select the 
 tiger's head, in preference to the sheep's or the dog's head, although it is 
 much more difilicult. 
 
 (247)
 
 248 
 
 Modelingf 
 
 Do not, however, let them attempt the \-ery complex fonns till they 
 have made several of these heads. Let each pupil have a separate model, 
 and never allow two or three pupils to copy from one model, if they areseated 
 at tables. The pupils must be able to handle the form all over, whenever de- 
 sired, or to put it in any position desired, to compare it with their own work. 
 This cannot be done if two or more are working from the same model. 
 Build u\) the form in the rough first, being sure that the clay is thoroughly 
 incorporated, that it is a solid, well-wedged piece. Do not allow cavities 
 
 Illustration 306 
 
 Casts of Animal Forms 
 
 This Bet was specially modeled for school purposes, and then duplicated by making plaster casts there&onu 
 There are about twelve heads in the set; some are pictured on Jiage iSl. They form a fine series of models for va- 
 rious classes. For further remarks on these and other plaster models of Aarious forms, see pages 1S0-1S4. 
 
 to form in the clay. If there are many air spaces in the lump, it is apt to 
 crack in firing, or even in the drying when it is put on the shelf before firing. 
 I earnestly desire every one reading this book who wishes to get sug- 
 gestions on the work of modeling, to examine carefully the pictures given 
 of the class rooms. Notice the varietv of models around the walls and on
 
 Animal Forms 249 
 
 the shelves. All of these pieces of work, except the very white ones, which 
 are plaster casts, have been modeled by the piii)ils. By studying these 
 plates carefidly, ideas can be received as to the best way to work. 
 
 Do not allow the pupils to make details in the beginning. Blocking 
 out means to be able to get the large shape roughly first without any detail. 
 This is one of the most ditlicult things for beginners to do. Xearly always 
 they will begin to make the features before the size of the head is gained. 
 Also try to prevent exaggeration of size. Beginners, especially in making 
 heads, will almost invariably enlarge the size. It takes time to overcome 
 this disposition. If the illustrations accompanying this chapter are carefully 
 studied, you will find by looking at some of the pupils working, that they 
 have produced first the general form in the clay, and on this the careful 
 working for detail is done. 
 
 \'ery little can be said in ]Mint on this subject. The nioilol is the best 
 teacher. Till the form is like the model, the pupil can go on working, 
 changing and altering. Allow the pupils to measure if it helps them in 
 the beginning. Rough dimensions can be formed by means of the tool. 
 Usually the plaster models are much smoother than the forms from which 
 they are produced. The plaster casts have been made by pouring the 
 liquid plaster into mohls. This, of course, leaves the smooth surface usually 
 seen on plaster casts. The j)u])ils very soon notice the texture of different 
 substances, the texture of wood when it is carved, the texture of metal, the 
 te.xture of original models in clay. They soon tlml that it is not always 
 necessary to make the smooth surface of the i)laster cast. The re<|uired 
 surface varies with the different forms. There is no one kind of modeled 
 surface. On the head forms the tool marks can show, as they do in some 
 of the illustrations. It is far belter to show the tool marks all over than 
 to make the form so smooth that it looks like a piece of jelly or jjudding. 
 .Any good modeler or sculptor will give advice about his work at any time 
 to a student who is unable to work in a school. 
 
 For variety, after one or two heads have been made, the \m\n\s can at- 
 tempt the Barye casts (page .213)- These arc used in all my schools. They 
 are perhajjs the most perfect examples of beautifully modeled animal forms 
 that can be procured. There is a great variety, and all of them seem to 
 interest the children, main pupils being able to duplicate even the most 
 elaborate of them.
 
 250 
 
 Modelings 
 
 Illustration 507 
 
 Modelinsr from Birds 
 
 The panel below is a model in 
 clay from the rc:il bird shown at 
 the left. The panel w;is made by 
 ,1 pupil of the grammar grade, who 
 ]i:id had more training" than the 
 juipil that modeled the bird illus- 
 trated on pag-c 207, and we there- 
 fore have here a better product. 
 This panel is about 16 inches long-. 
 The pupil has had only two hours 
 a week in the I*ublic Industrial 
 Art School for drawing, modeling 
 and carving. It must be con- 
 stantly remembered that these 
 three branches of work are taken 
 in rotation by all pupils. Excel- 
 lent as is the training afforded by 
 modeling in clay, this training is 
 still better when combined with 
 appropriate exercises in drawing, 
 designing, car\'ing and wood con- 
 struction. 
 
 The Real Bird 
 
 The Animal Forms. — The ped- 
 estal or plinth is usually made first, and 
 then a rough form about the size of 
 the body is put in the required position 
 by a very solid prop under the abdo- 
 men. Let this prop be thick and 
 substantial. It does not matter if it 
 fills the ^\hole space under the bodv, in 
 the beginning. The first day the form 
 can only be very roughly built up. mak- 
 ing a kind of core. After the second 
 day, this clay will be found to be much more solid. It shrinks and 
 hardens so that about the second or third day it is quite substantial, 
 
 The Model in Clay
 
 Animal Forms 25t 
 
 and clay can readily he modeled onto this core, making tlic lonn 
 the required size and putting the legs in the required position. Every 
 dav the clay will shrink. If a model is to be made of the same size 
 as the original from \\hich it is copied, it must be started a little larger. 
 The shrinkage is about one inch in eight. Remember, the clay shrinks 
 while the form is being made till it is cpiite dry, and then it shrinks again 
 when it is fired at the pottery and turned into stone. See Plate Thirteen, 
 on page 186. 
 
 Do not let tlie core dry too much. It must be only a little harder 
 than the clay that is added to it. If it is too hard, the clay will shrink un- 
 evenly and cracks will result. If the core, or the form in the rough, is 
 moistened too much when it is put away, it is apt to fall down. Nothing 
 but experience will teach the proper manipulation. Of the two states, it 
 is better to keep the clay a little too hard than too soft. As the model 
 approaches completion, it should be allowed to become harder, and the 
 props or supports under the body can be gradually cut away. It is a little 
 difficult to get a large model to shrink evenly all over, but after two or three 
 attempts on forms that are not too difficult, like the animals that are sitting 
 on their hind quarters, it will l)e found (piite easy to model the more com- 
 plex forms that have a number of supjiorts. If the props are cut away too 
 soon, and before the clay is stiff enough to support its weight, disaster will 
 
 Illustrations 308-309 
 
 
 Modeled by Orainmnr Grude I'upits 
 
 result. The remedy, if the forms fall down, is to build tiiem nj) again with 
 new props, being sure that the broken surfaces have been made wet. so tliat 
 they will stick together. This fre(|ucntly happens even to good workers.
 
 252 Modeling: 
 
 For all of I he small forms illustrated in our ordinary class work, it is bet- 
 ter that the pupils should make their models without any interior supports, 
 that is. without pieces of wood, or of lead pipe, or of iron and wire. \\'e prefer 
 to omit these so that the clay models can be fired at the pottery and the 
 child can keep his original work, — his model when fired showing every 
 tool mark and being very durable and strong. This is much better than 
 to have a cast of the model made, which is done in a great many schools. 
 In our art school over 900 pupils model each winter, and it would l)e 
 very expensive to cast all their models. The children get a great deal 
 more skill in being able to build up their forms with such solidity. It re- 
 quires more skill to keep the clay of a regular consistency, so that it will 
 shrink e\enl\- without falling down. Of course, if a plaster cast only is de- 
 sired, supports can be used inside, or lead jjipe can be bent into the required 
 shape. This makes it more easy to model the forms. A plaster cast, how- 
 ever, breaks very readily, chips easih', antl, if handled very often, looks quite 
 dirty in a short time. I recommend for school purposes keeping and firing 
 the original models. 
 
 Many choice forms suitable for modeling can be found in the pictures 
 of the carving department. All the conventional forms of the different 
 styles make suitable subjects for modeling. 
 
 Before dolphins, grif?ins, grotesques and other complex forms are 
 carved. the\- should be modeled. 
 
 cModeling Natural Forms. — It is only possible in a book of this char- 
 acter to give suggestions for work on a few subjects. As many natural 
 forms as possible should be studied. When I speak fully and at length 
 about shells or fish, it must not be understood that I mean only those forms. 
 Birds, crabs, and animals of various kinds should be studied in the same way. 
 My idea is simply to suggest suita1)le forms and ways. 
 
 Each year we find it feasible to try new subjects before thought not 
 attainable in the school rooms. Shells and fish. InitterBies and birds, have 
 been seldom used by large numbers, as they are now used for some of our 
 classes. I find them durable and lasting to a remarkable degree. Stuffed 
 birds in the studio, that have been roughly handled for 18 years b\- private 
 pupils, are still fit for use. The colors especially seem to be (|uite permanent. 
 
 The fish forms illustrated in Book Two, beginning on page 143. are all 
 used for models in the art schools, with manv others. Thev are mounted on
 
 Animal Forms 
 
 253 
 
 panels of wood and are very durable. They arc used in tlie niodelin<^ room 
 as much as in the drawing room. 
 
 Modeling the tish in clay seems to make a very emluring impression 
 upon the mind. The children arc really fascinated, for the time being, with 
 
 Illustration 310 
 
 .M...ltliiu' l'"ii.h 1-Mriil~ 
 Ucal inoiintcd A>h are used as inmlt-N. Bird., fi>li, luittcrllk-s, iliclN, etc.. .in- hIm. kcpl for kcihtuI u«c in Ihc 
 dniwinK, m.Ktclinit .ind caninK r<Kiin», a« well m c:i>1» of v:iri..uH irl .iiul iialur. l.irin.. Conviiili..n;il foriiK nrc 
 »l«o m:i<lr, cinlMHiyinK h»h foniin, »uch an ilolphini, Krotc«|ui», iti. 
 
 the Strange and .sometimes beautiful forms and colors. Ihe ;,(.v/'inj.';/')! ;s m 
 the natural forms, as it should be. and the mere contemplation of the forms 
 seems to iiilliuiuc the pupils to action, it is insiiiring to the true teacher to
 
 254 Modelingf 
 
 realize the moving force and power of nature. Bring something into the 
 class room like a new bird form, or fish form, and all of the children follow 
 it with their eyes, which seem to almost stick out; there is no lack of atten- 
 tion here, the magnetic influence is at work, the divine energy is flowing. 
 We should flow with it instead of trying to thwart it, as is too often done. 
 This magnetic and energizing power of nature has a splendid influence on 
 the physical, mental and moral development of the young. It also fills the 
 children with interest, imbues them with \igor, inspires them to think and 
 work, while at the same time giving them an appreciation of beauty that 
 adds vastly to the ability of the young to enjoy life.* These are certainly 
 most desirable attributes to develop in youth, for whatever one's vocation 
 may be, the individual should be the better for this training. It is thus dis- 
 tinctly practical, and commends itself to the most materially inclined, as 
 well as satisfying the more ethical aspirations of our nature. "The emotion 
 accompan}'ing every generous act adds an atom to the fabric of the ideal 
 man." By working direct from l)eautiful natural forms we unite the emo- 
 tion with the action, and thus still more thoroughly educate. 
 
 The tile is first made, as in Illus. 310, and then the fish is built up piece 
 by piece, taking care to keep about the general proportion. Then the tool 
 is used to get the surface and fine curves. When the bulk of the body is 
 about right in proportion, then the spines, fins, eyes, etc., can be added and 
 the details made upon them, the scales usually being the last thing repre- 
 sented. Fish can be readily cast in plaster, and are very easy forms to begin 
 
 *"Be:uity is not a luxury, us some seem to believe. It is not the exclusive privilege of the few but the conunon 
 heritage ot the many. The rich cannot monopolize it, and persons of taste cannot appropriate it to themselves. There 
 is in every human breast a sense of responsiveness to the beauty ot the external world, and the ditference is only in 
 the decree to which that sense is developed and cultivated. It is confined to no class, to no age, to no stage ot civiliza- 
 tion. It is an universal hunger, and its cravings demand satisfaction as urgently in the cabin as on the throne. 
 
 And yet this sense of beauty is too often repressed and crushed instead of being nourished and educated as it 
 deserves. Much happiness is thus lost out of lite, for the sense of beauty, wiselyadministered to, is a wcllspring of 
 pleasure. It is even more than this. It is a fountain ot lite itselt. It adds to its fullness and energy, its refinement 
 and delicacy, its sweetness and purity. The life from which it is ungraciously pushed out grows inevitably harder 
 and rougher, coarser and colder, and its inlluence over other minds deterioriates in the same way. 
 
 "How shall this sense of beauty be s.ived and educated, for rich and poor, for old and young? One way is bj- 
 contact with its presence. Another and still surer means of cultivating the sense of beauty among us is to accustom 
 ourselves to create it in daily life. This is a part of education and of self-culturc that is sadly neglected. 
 
 "Then there is the beauty of truth and of character. Perhaps we dwell too much upon the dry and stern aspect of 
 duty and forget to exhibit or to admire the beauty ot goodness. But as last as duty, instead of a sacrifice, becomes a 
 desire, and the love of riglitconsness bec.nmes the ruling motive, does the character become noble, admirable ano 
 beautiful. So all beauty is bound together and leads up from the smallest things of life to the greatest; from th; 
 most materi.-ll to the most spiritual ; from the simplest and humblest to the most exalted."— [Anonymous.
 
 Animal Forms 
 
 255 
 
 upon in doing- plaster casting. Tlie forms are comparatively simple and 
 can he removed from the mokl without difticulty. 
 
 This work of modeling looks simple, and it is easy when you know how. 
 That is to be learned by actually modeling, rather than by reading about it. 
 The suggestions given in these pages will help, but you must do the work 
 to realize its educational power. The more you model, the more facility 
 and accuracy you will oljtain. and the more you will be fascinated with this 
 mode of thought expression. 
 
 liriffin. Original DcsIkh 
 Modeled by a R. C. high school Ihiv, (nr architectural u«c.
 
 >- 
 
 
 a.
 
 (>ri^ii);il I>cbt)xn Modeled in Wax 
 The dcsi^rn is afterwards cast in plasti-r ami ilic \v:i\ hm-.I ;il' 
 
 CHAPTER VII 
 
 Wax Modeling 
 
 CT^ HE DESIGNS SHOWN IN THE PLATE on the cnpuMtc pji-c 
 X are modeled in wax, and were made by grammar grade inipils. 
 
 They are either their original patterns or heads, antitpie fqrnis and 
 bird forms which they have copied. Eor convenience, boards 8x14 inches 
 are used to model on, as illustrated above. The pupil first makes a drawing 
 or sketch in chalk on the board. When this is satisfactory it is then lined in 
 with the pencil. 
 
 The wax is much stiffer tlian ordinary clay. It is sometimes also quite 
 sticky and not so pleasant to use as clay. We use it simply be- 
 cause it can be kept an indefinite time, and very fnic complex pieces of work 
 requiring a long period of time can be ke])t from month to month on shelves 
 without their having to be moistened, as is the ca.se with clay. Unless the 
 clay models are wet at frequent intervals they dry u]) and crack and are of 
 course spoiled. With the wa.x a piece of work can be labored ujiou for 
 months if necessary. Real modeling wax is worth about $1 a pf)und, the 
 best kind. There are several very good substitutes, however, on the mar- 
 ket under several names, which are quite as good for general use. Com- 
 position clav is uscil frequently, costing about 30 cents a pound. The 
 '■ ' ' (=57)
 
 258 
 
 Modeling 
 
 same tools are used as in clay modeling, and if the wax is a little sticky it 
 is advisable to have a cup of water to moisten the tools and fingers occa- 
 sionally. 
 
 \\'ood of a little roughness in texture is the best to model upon. Wax 
 must be rubbed into the surface so that it will stick firmly. On this sur- 
 face the form can be l)uilt 
 Illustration 313 ■ , ,1 1 • 1 1 
 
 up mto the desired .shape, 
 planing off with the tool 
 and forming it as described 
 in the clay modeling. Was. 
 is used for modeling very 
 fine forms to be cast in 
 metal and other materials. 
 Medals and coins are \isu- 
 ally modeled in wax. \^ery 
 fine and beautiful work can 
 be made with small tools. 
 A common slate with a 
 wooden rim is a useful sur- 
 face to model upon. 
 
 It is advisable to allow 
 some of the advanced pupils 
 in each class at intervals to 
 work in wax. For general 
 purposes, however, it is not 
 so good as clay. Do not 
 allow pupils to make very fine work all the time. Let them occasionally 
 make a large, bold piece for contrast. Wax can be purchased in a number 
 of colors,— bronze-green, Ijrown, red, gray. For general purposes gray is 
 best. Bronze-green is very suitaljle for figure work, having somewhat the 
 appearance of a bronze when finished. 
 
 Wax or composition clay is also more portalile than common clay and 
 has been used with success in several of my summer schools. Models of 
 animals, figures, designs, can be boxed and carried with safety when modeled 
 in wax, \\hen a clay model would be broken. The clay when dry is very 
 brittle, and any sudden jar or shock will Ijreak large and heavy work unless 
 
 Original Panel in Wax 
 
 The form is modeled in an upright position by being clamped 
 to a board. The same form with different lighting is shown oppo- 
 site. Byvicwingthe model with the light and shade changed it 
 can be improved. It is important to get good light and shade.
 
 Wax Modeling 
 
 259 
 
 it is fired. For this reason wax is a good siiljstitute. When ilic wax has 
 heen used many times and Ijecomes discolored or dirty, it may lie cleaned 
 by melting it. 
 
 The plate or designs maitc by grammar grade chiMron. page j-,(>. has 
 been taken from casts made from the wax models and then the wax is used 
 
 lllustratiun 311 
 
 
 Ml'. I. i.n- ,1 I ;.ii|.tiiii 1 . \\ .i\ 
 The Torni can he rapidly chna(rfr(l ^nd iinprovcd wht-n viewed in a difTcrrnt licht. l.'»c the finders 
 and thutnb as a tool, as illustrated in the aluive picture, us much as poKftihle. Fine cur\'es aiul swinf;in^ 
 lines can be made this way. 
 
 over again many times. Simple designs of this character can be readily cast 
 l)y the pupils or teacher in the following maimer : 
 
 When the wax pattern is rmished. buiUl a wall of clay ari>ninl the edge 
 of the design about one incii high. This wall, or fence, of clay, must entirely 
 inclose the design with de.sired margin. Next take a tin vessel and put in 
 enough water to more than fill the inclosed space. In this water sprinkle 
 the dry plaster with a large injn sptjon, stirring it slowly unlil alnmt the con- 
 sistency of thin cream. When in this state. i)our over the wax model, taking
 
 260 
 
 Modelingf 
 
 care to see that the liquid fills all the pattern and space without any large 
 bubbles; this will soon set and harden, and should be about one inch thick. 
 The clay rim can then be removed, the plaster tile lifted from the board, and 
 it will lie found to retain the form of the wax model. \\'hen the plaster 
 mold is hard, the wax can be pulled out, leaving- the exact shape of the 
 model reversed in the plaster. This is the mold. 
 
 From this mold another cast may be made that will repeat the form of 
 the wax model. To do this, a clay wall must be built around the mold, 
 and the surface and all parts of the impression upon it must be brushed with 
 sweet oil; this prevents the new plaster, when poured in. from sticking to 
 the mold. The liquid plaster can now be poured in. \\'hen it is hard the 
 cast can be separated from the mold liy tapping it gently or inserting a 
 blunt knife as a lever. If successfully done, the cast should be a complete 
 copy of the wax model. 
 
 Of course this can only be done with flat forms that do not project on 
 the ^ges to prevent the mold and 
 cast from separating. If any edge is 
 unilercut, it must be filletl with wax, 
 to insure good results. This is a good 
 way to make some of the class work 
 permanent and also interests the chil- 
 dren. Sometimes the mold is slight- 
 ly colored b}- mixing red clay or 
 other coloring matter with the plaster 
 liefore it sets. 
 
 ••J?^.<^ 
 
 Enlarging Animal Forms 
 These low relief forms arc modeled in wax from small casts.
 
 BOOK FOUR 
 
 Wood Carving 
 
 "The haml, dL-stincil to In-coine the instru- 
 ment f'lr pcrffclin^ the other si-nscs, iind fnr. 
 dcvclopinj; the cntlnwrnents nf the mind itstlt, 
 is, in the infant, iihsoluiely powerless." — ["The 
 Hand," Sir Charles Bell, K. G. II., F. K. S. 
 
 "Awkwardness of limb nnd inability to ukc 
 the finders deniy, continually entail small dis 
 asters and occasionally ({real ones; while ex 
 pcrtness frequently contes in aid of welfare, 
 cither ot self or others. One who has been well 
 practiced in the use of hi^ senses and Ills mus 
 cles, is less likely than the uopracticed to meet 
 with accidents; and when accidents iKCur, i!> 
 -•ure tt) he more eftUlent in rectifyinj; mischiefs 
 Were it not that the obvious truth is it^norcd, 
 it would be absurd to point out that, since 
 limbs and senseii cxtiit to the end of adjustin^r 
 the actions t«) surroundint; objects and move- 
 ments, it is the business of everyone to jjain 
 bkill in the performance ol s»ich actions."— 
 [Spencer. I'rincipleh of Ethic*, paKC5ij.
 
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 Uv-sig^ntd .iiKl C.mtAl by lli^'h School l*upil 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 Tcx)Is for Wood Carvingf 
 Design in Wood " 
 
 J" y\TOOD CAR\'IXG is one of tlu- most l)eautifiil of arts. It rf(|iiires 
 
 f^w'^^ a real knowledge of fcirni. tlierefore its educational value 
 
 lies in enabling pupils to rccei\e fixed or permanent imi)res- 
 
 sions. Just as i)ui)ils acquire dexterity and skill in drawing on blackboard 
 
 or paper, and just as they gain similar dexterity and skill in soft clay, so I 
 
 wish them also to obtain dexterity in tough wood. 
 
 The tools re(|uirc<l in carsing arc very simple. .\ few gouges an 1 
 chisels and a mallet, with clamps to hold the work on the table or bench, 
 will be enough. In wood carving, as in carving in marble or other sione. 
 few tools are needed: the fewer the tools used, the better the workman. .\ 
 
 •The carving and timilar wnrk Illuslratrd in lhi> chapirr arc all ilnni- l-y tin- rliililrtn ..I llii \.irinn« itr.iilo.
 
 264 
 
 Wood Carving 
 
 Illustration 316 
 
 mallet and a few chisels are the only toolsused in sculptured work, and as far 
 l)ack as we can trace in history the tools ajjpear to have been similar in shape. 
 On the hack of the \'eniis of Milo roiif^h tool niarks may be seen that in- 
 dicate to us the kind of edge and size of chisel used in tliat period of the 
 greatest Greek art. 
 
 I he Tools. — In carving, the simpler the chisels and the fewer in num- 
 ber that are used the better the 
 result. Some carvers have 
 rows of 50, 60 or 70 different 
 chisels, but these are usually 
 not very good carvers. .Again 
 some of the finest carvers will 
 do all their work in wood, 
 even the most intricate and 
 most elaborate sctdpture work, 
 with perhaps no more than 
 half a dozen. My sets for or- 
 dinary school purposes usu- 
 ually consist of about 10 tools. 
 It is far better to become thor- 
 oughly familiar with all the 
 capacities of a few tools than to handle a great variety. 
 
 Age at Which to Ledrn, — As soon as children are big enough 
 to swing their elbows freely above the table or bench, they are ready for 
 carving. Carving is work; not hard work, Ijut work that compels the ex- 
 ercise of a certain amount of energy. Some women are deterred from 
 carving because they think it is hard, and requires the exercise of main 
 strength continuall}-. This is not so. Like marble carving, wood carving 
 is re-enforced b\" the use of the mallet. If the chisel or gouge cannot be 
 readily pushed through the wood, the mallet is used, and any one who has 
 strength enough to drive a tack can cut the hardest wood. Children of 
 eight or nine, therefore, unlesstheyareconstitutionally defective or very weak, 
 are quite large enough and strong enough to carve, and usually enter into it 
 with a great deal of energy and joy. It is fun to them to see the chips fly, 
 and the}- find it especially attractive wdien they discover that from the be- 
 ginning thev can make fit and beautiful forms, — rather than the amateurish 
 
 Clamps and Mullet for Wood Car
 
 Tools for Wood Carving 
 
 265 
 
 things used in some schools, where tlie cliildren spend their energies on 
 feeljle imitative constructions in wood. 
 
 Just as our children from the beginning are fit to draw forms of the 
 best style, embodying beauty and grace; and just as in modeling they can 
 make fine forms of the best periods, so in wood we find it to be of ad- 
 vantage that they should from the beginning do the best class of work pos- 
 sible, and become familiar with the forms best suited for this material. It 
 does not follow that because a mind is young, it is less bright and clear in 
 perceiving beautiful and true things. It is just as wrong to give children 
 feeble, aimless forms to model and carve because they are young, as it is to 
 utter baby talk to them when we wish them to speak clearly and to enunciate 
 properly. 
 
 The Wood to Use, — Do not let the pupils u.se soft wood at first, — 
 such as pine or poplar. This advice, it is true, is opposed to the 
 
 Illustration 317 
 
 Set ol Carviiiff TooU 
 
 Including tmall sharpcnlne »tonc. Wiih thU simple ami im\|"nMM- 
 tct of tools all onlinary carvini; can be done. 
 
 usual practice in schools. Usually the pupils are allowed to chip blocks of 
 soft pine or poplar. This is a mistake. From the very beginning our pupils, 
 as can l)e seen by the illustrations, make in hard wood panels fit to be 
 utilized. Mv reason for using hard wood is that the children from the first
 
 266 Wood Carvingf 
 
 may gel accustomed to the texture in ordinary use; most carving Ijeing 
 done in oak and maliogan_\-. clierry and walnut, while only occasionally are 
 soft woods employed. The best and the cheapest wood for school pur- 
 poses is oak. It is a Httle tough in texture, and otTers just enough re- 
 sistance to prevent it splintering and cutting too freely. If you give a be- 
 ginner a piece of very soft wood, it splinters so readily that when attacked 
 without skill, the forms are soon spoiled. With a piece of hard wood, on the 
 contrar}-, a great deal of cutting can be done without splintering the work. 
 Of course it requires more labor, but the product is better, — and there is 
 not so much disappointment. The grain being of firm consistency, it does 
 not give way in unexpected places, as it so often does in the soft wood. 
 
 Designing the Form to Carve. — The pupils should from the start 
 make a design that will be of use and value. The first panel can embody 
 the forms that have been given in the modeling. It is not necessary to 
 carve a series of panels, each of which has a separate unit on it. The 
 units may be combined from the beginning, and a panel that will have some 
 value and that can be used for some purpose is the result. In every article 
 printed about carving heretofore, pupils are recommended to practice cut- 
 ting on soft blocks of wood first, apparently just to get exercise. They are 
 advised to use tracing paper to transfer drawings to the wood; sometimes 
 carbon paper is recommended: at other times tracing cloth, or the\ are 
 taught to use a pattern wheel, — this is a wheel with little spurs on it that 
 prick the outlines through the pattern into the wood. Some even advise 
 the making of stencils, the forms being cut out in stiiY paper in order that 
 the pupil may draw around the edges, and so produce the designs. These 
 are very erroneous bits of advice, and such methods must be avoided 
 by the carver who does not wish to be a feeble amateur. 
 
 Let the pupil take a piece of chalk and draw freehand a simple pattern, 
 — say the scroll doubled. Reserve a simple band around the edge of the 
 panel about half or three-quarters of an inch in width. Practice making 
 this drawing till the scrolls balance and fit the space. It is a little difficult 
 to draw freely on rough wood, but with practice it can be done readily. Add 
 a few crockets if desired, each added form making the carving a little more 
 complex. As soon as the form is satisfactorily placed, then with a soft 
 lead pencil — one with a thick lead preferred — make the outline permanent, 
 drawing the line heavily, so that it will not rub off. Any good teacher will
 
 Tools for Wood Carving 
 
 267 
 
 see the absurdity of advisinjj cliildren to trace or to paste on the wood or to 
 produce by artificial means a pattern tliat ou^ht to be produced automat- 
 ically by the hand of the pupil. It is because from the very beginning we 
 compel our pupils, on all various surfaces and in the different mediums. 
 
 Illustration 318 
 
 Positions ol Hands in Cuning 
 This piclurr riprrscnts four h.indii Krippinu Inols in various p€>silionB. In cuttinK from rlifhl lo IrlX 
 the left hand will usually be t'liiiliuL' thi- Kml and also rvstin|; on the work to prevent the tone from 
 going too far. 
 
 dexterity with originality of product. I have in one school alone 900 
 pupils carving, and have never had two i)attcrns made exactly alike since the 
 to make the work freehand, that wc get the results we do— uniting hand 
 school started. This drawing on the wm.d. in tlic beginning with the
 
 268 
 
 Wood Carving 
 
 Illustration 319 
 
 ■^ — .——,-,—.,..- „.,^^.„,.,^ , — «_^ proper precaution is taken. 
 
 l^^m^^TT^S^^^^^^^M. J ^^ °"^>' ^^y repeated experie 
 ^<UUi. : f '— >£^'// Y/yJJ-'^"*'~^-'^\.f^-j I i tliat pupils begin to s;rasp 
 
 Ivy J 
 
 
 chalk anil then with the lead pencil, gives \-ery good practice. It requires 
 only a few minutes to do it, and makes the children feel in the beginning 
 that the work is their own. It is very wrong to allow pupils to cheat; and 
 it is really a sort of deception when they are allowed to claim as their own 
 work that which has been copied or traced. 
 
 The background can now be scored with the pencil all over. (Illus. 319.) 
 This prevents the pupil from cutting out the ornament instead of the back- 
 ground, — a mistake w h i c h 
 will frequently occur unless 
 proper precaution is taken. It 
 experience 
 the 
 idea of form on flat surface. 
 Very few can see a back- 
 ground all over and distin- 
 guish it readily from a pattern 
 on the background, unless 
 they have had practice in 
 making these forms. Even 
 adults will frequently cut out 
 part of a background by mis- 
 take, and do this several times before they get accustomed to distinguish the 
 diiterence. It saves trouble, therefore, to score the background in every 
 case with beginners. Then very little work is spoiled. 
 
 As to Graded Work. — Illustrations are given herewith of graded 
 panels show'ing the different eleinents of design separately cut and ex- 
 hibiting the different stages. These are made simply to illustrate the steps 
 in carving, — a first, a second, and a third stage. They must be carefully 
 studied in advance, and then it will be easier to make the first attempt. In 
 our schools the children see all these operations going on at once, on the 
 different panels. They soon take in the idea, and we find in consequence 
 that it is not essential for each one to make the different units separately, 
 but they can begin on panels. 
 
 A number of pictures of panels with graded exercises have also been 
 prepared for those who like to " systematize things." These forms, how- 
 ever, are mainly useful for pupils who have never had any practice in draw- 
 
 ifiewai»<a"< a-i»;c^t^.ir..f j<ai;agj»a''=**^tf""ACJftM»^-<«i'' v>*:'K.i«**4*»iW^"*=^«J=^*''iy?(5:tJft.WA'SCS^Ji w _. 
 
 Background Marked Over for Cutting Out
 
 Tools for Wood Carving 269 
 
 ingand modeling. All the pupils in my schools receive the drawing and the 
 modeling from the beginning, in rotation with wood carving, this rendering 
 it iinnecessary for them to make the elementary forms. Usually a pupil who 
 can draw a good scroll, and who has modeled the same, can begin to produce 
 it with the chisel in the first lesson. 
 
 Illustration 320 
 
 A Piclnri.- Fruiic DifiKncd and CarMil b> tJr.imiiiar (;rnilc rupU
 
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 a 
 
 > 
 
 
 ;- 
 
 
 •ri 
 
 
 U 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 •n 
 
 -B 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 i: 
 
 1^ 
 
 
 
 b 
 
 
 
 <j 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 f/-i 
 
 </ -^ 
 
 ■u 
 
 '< 
 
 CL. 
 
 o — 
 
 E 
 
 i: r 
 
 rt 
 
 C JI 
 
 X 
 
 c: ^ 
 
 LU 
 
 
 3 
 
 1« 

 
 ^ 
 
 CarvcU by Urainiii.ir Urude PupiLs 
 
 CHAPTER II 
 
 Instructions for 
 Elementary Carving; 
 
 / / ' >\\ TO CARVE. — Take a gouge, ami without removing the lead- 
 _^ J_ l)encil marks from the panel, gouge a channel around the <Iesign. 
 Grasp the tool firmly in both hands. There is no one position for 
 holding the chisel (see Illus. Xos 32J to 326). hut in doing this work, the 
 chisel should change from one hand to the other, as we work from right to 
 left or the reverse, sometimes one hand guiding the chisel and sometimes 
 tlie other, biU most of the time both hands grasping it tightly and helping 
 to guide it. 
 
 Cutting tough oak is splendid discipline. Unless the tool is hekl 
 firmly, it is likely to slip and cut the wrong place. The wood being easy 
 to cut with the grain and hard to cut against the grain, it is diflicult at 
 first to make the chisel sweep around a curve, because some part of it will 
 be hard and resist, while the parts of it that go with the grain will be soft. 
 A very few attempts will enable a pupil to find out this characteristic. It 
 is one of the things that we can properly learn only by experience. .Ml the 
 speech in the world and all the talk of a dozen teachers will not enal)le one 
 to feel these things. If the tool is not very sharp, or if the wood is a little 
 too hard to be cut with a simple pressure of the hands, one hand can hold 
 the chisel and the other drive it, like a mallet, or the mallet even may be 
 
 USCfl. 
 
 (270
 
 272 
 
 Wood Carving: 
 
 It is better, however, in the beginning, to practice as much as possible 
 bv pushing the chisel through the wood, so that both hands can get the 
 power to grip the tool tightly, and at the same time to guide it. Do not be 
 too anxious to remove the wood cjuickly. Endeavor to make free curves 
 from the beginning. It is perhaps better to make slight grooves at first 
 
 Illustration 322 
 
 Wood Carving 
 
 This picture shows method of clamping work to the bench, position of tools and method of grasping tools 
 with both hands. Various pieces of work carved by the boys are in the background. 
 
 and then gradually increase them in depth as one's power increases. It 
 will be found very soon that while one hand guides the tool the other will 
 luild it back as much as possible. These movements must be practiced 
 continuall}- till the wood is entirely removed around the whole pattern. 
 The gouge can then be used to remove roughly the rest of the background,
 
 Instructions for Elementary Carving 273 
 
 working the chisel as freely as possible and taking care not to cut too deeplv 
 into the wood. About one-quarter or three-eighths of an incli is (juite 
 enough. Do not attempt to smooth up the background in the lieginning. 
 
 Other tools can now l)c taken and the forms can be cut sharp and clean 
 around the edge. This is done by taking a curve tliat will lit tlic edge, and 
 cutting it down vertically witli a few taps of the mallet. Endeavor to make 
 a continuous clean cut with the tool, fitting successive tools to the altering 
 curve of the outline. Do not let it show irregular marks. Do not try to 
 make a wide cur\e with a narrow-curved tool. I'rom four to six curves 
 will fit almost any part of a scroll. Where the curve is acute, a chisel of 
 quite an acute curve must be used; where the curve is almost ilat, a tlatly 
 curved tool is recjuired. 
 
 In using the mallet,, the pupil from the beginning must get accustomed 
 to holding it in both right and left hand. Do not let the pupils become 
 rightdianded, that is, so that they can use the mallet with one hand only. 
 A good carver should be able to work both ways, changing the mallet from 
 hand to hand just as the tool is changed from hand to hand, accortliug to 
 direction. Sometimes the entire background can be cut out this way, 
 using the tool and mallet. It is a matter of choice to the individual. .\n 
 expert carver will not consider the line or the drawing, but from the begin- 
 ning will sweep out with a large, deep gouge as much of the l)ackgroun(l 
 as possible, afterward shaping the different parts of the design. As soon 
 as the whole design stands u]) clean and well drawn, and as soon as all the 
 background has been removed from every part, the i)U])il must begin to 
 model the raised part. 
 
 Carving the Raised Surface. — This is the most ditVicult part of the 
 carving, and to be done skillfully requires that the pupils should feel form 
 in the wood with the chisel, just as we feel it in the clay. Select the gouge 
 according to the curve required on the scroll. N'ext carefully draw a line 
 on the design ref)resenting the modeled edge, or the edge that stands up. 
 Then take the gouge and scoop out the inside curve around each scroll to 
 this line. Do a little at a time, gradually letting the chip grow smaller as 
 we come to the end of the .sweep. Usually we carve this out about half 
 the depth of the wood, just as we have in the past modeletl the form. Prac- 
 tice swinging the chisel in both bands around the curve, making clean, 
 sharp cuts, the pressure being put on the chisel with one hand, wliile i)eing
 
 274 
 
 Wood Carvingf 
 
 guided and helc 
 
 )\- llie other. Most of the time in doing this work one 
 wrist will rest firmly on the work. This support gives a kind of center and 
 leverage that enables one to cut around the curves without much difficulty, 
 
 Illustration 323 
 
 I, V A rf, ,1.. m 
 
 Wood Carving 
 
 Two other positions of holding tools. Variety of carved panels in the backgronnd. These hoys are carv- 
 ing- i>()rli'>iis i)t" :i very handsome piece of furniture. 
 
 each hand licl])ing, one holding liack and the other pushing. Curve out 
 as carefully as j^iossible the inside of each scroll. 
 
 Then take a chisel that is almost fiat and bevel ofi' the outer edge. This 
 is a little more difficult and great care must be taken not to chip or break the 
 modeled edge. The inside curve of each crocivet must be scooped out and 
 the outer edge beveled with a nearly tkit chisel. Take care of the tips of 
 the crockets. Do not under-cut them so that they chip oft'. It will not 
 matter if some of the crockets arc broken in the liesfinning. Thev can be
 
 Instructions for Elementary Carving 275 
 
 made smaller, and, if they break again, cut still smaller, or if necessarv the 
 design can be rendered without them. Because one crocket is spoile>l, do 
 not cut off all the other crockets. Practice on those al.so. It is very fool- 
 ish to see some pupils, because they have spoiled or cut off by mistake one 
 crocket, cut off all the others. Practice making each crocket, trying to 
 keep it sharp and to ijet the curved edge and the bevel edge with facility. 
 
 Power in the Hand. — Two or three panels must be carved before 
 one becomes familiar with the grain of the wood. In cutting around a single 
 scroll, the direction of the chisel must usually be changed four times on 
 account of the grain. This seems a little troublesome at the 
 start and puzzles a beginner, bui by the time we have cut half a dozen 
 scrolls, the work l)egins to grow automatic. We no longer have to think 
 about it, and attention can be confined to the shape which we are carving, 
 the hands almost unconsciously having become aware of the texture of the 
 wood in the different positions. This is the power that we wish to get, and 
 pupils must be nia<le to struggle with the wood till they reach this stage. It 
 is an uncomfortable exi)erience to pass through, and the first scroll may 
 take perhaps one. two, or three hours to cut, when later, after facility is 
 gained, it can be dune in perhaps fifteen minutes. 
 
 Encourage the Pupil. — Remember, the wt>od is tough and unyield- 
 ing. The piiijils must i)e encouraged They must be told what to expect. 
 Unless a pupil can see an expert cut the wood, the experience they receive in 
 the beginning of lack of power is very depressing. But the wood will answer 
 to every touch like jilastic wax when once the capacity to carve is acquiretl. 
 Therefore, again I say, encourage the pupils at this stage. Because oc- 
 casionally a panel is spoiled, that is no reason why a pupil should be spoiled. 
 The first stages of a carved panel are also very depressing to look at. It 
 is the last few touches, the smoothing touches and the stamping of the 
 background that make the essential difference. Scores of times in my ex- 
 perience I have found that the pupils who are most stui)id in the be- 
 ginning, the ones who make the most awkward attempts, wlio seem to be 
 all thumbs and desjiair, are the ones who develop into skilled workers. 
 
 Do not, then, because the wood is iiard and brittle and notched, ami be- 
 cause .struggling and strength and reliance are recpiired, let the pupils fail 
 to use these qualities. I consitler that our children have learned a most 
 valuable lesson when thev become able to make a piece of tough wood
 
 276 
 
 Wood Carvingf 
 
 assuir.e the desired l)eautiful shape. In reaching this stage they have had to 
 exercise their patience, they have had to strugg'.e with both hands and 
 arms: thev lia\e hatl to compel tlieir liands to obey their minds; and to do 
 
 Illustration 324 
 
 Wood C;iiviiii_^ — l^ositioii in .Malletiiig 
 Work of pupils should be displayed arouud the chiss rooms, as illustrated. 
 
 this, they have had to bring into apphcation a knowledge of form and a 
 care and precision that make them eml)ody these qualities. They must not 
 do all this once or a few times only, but they must form the habit till it 
 becomes automatic. 
 
 The Value of Ca/bmg. — I regard carving as one of the best means, 
 with modeling, to impress permanently and quickly fundamental forms, 
 fixed concepts of form, in the minds of the children. It is comparatively 
 easy to swing forms of grace and beauty on a blackboard or on a piece of 
 paper. There is very little resistance ottered to the hand. But is is a
 
 Instructions for Elementary Carving- 
 
 277 
 
 tlifTcrent matter to swing tliese tilings in a tough piece of wood. I want 
 the pu])ils to be able to look at a Hat jianel or a rough block of woo:l ami to 
 see its possiljilities and potentialities. I want them to be able mentally to 
 see the design in the wood, and with the fewest touches to form this pat- 
 tern, not l)y ])icking it out. as too many often model and carve, bit by bit 
 and chip by chip, but by freely drawing with the tools in the wood. This 
 capacity can be acquired, and all good carvers have it. their work loi)king 
 very different from that of amateurs. 
 
 Use of Finished Work. — h is imporlant for children to .see tin- 
 isheil pieces of work. in all my class rooms, even in the niglit schools, we 
 
 lllu.stration 325 
 
 W..,.,l L.irUiiK 
 PosiliiMi whin usinu the hanil m a mallrl. The huniU should .winit .i» friily lu |>o.«lblc over the ciirvlnir. 
 
 put all the fmished work around the rooms a certain length of time, as may 
 be observed in the illustrations. The inii)ils ihns get ideas. They can see 
 the application of the work, and can follow it in its different stages.
 
 278 Wood Carving; 
 
 Anollier plan that I have pursued, is ahvays to ahow the children to 
 own their work. It must not be kept by the school altogether, to be used 
 for exhibition purposes, but should always belong to the child. I in- 
 variably let them take their pieces home for parents and friends to see; then 
 if necessary they can be brought Ijack and hung up a certain length of time, 
 usually till after the spring exhibition, when all work is carried home by the 
 pupils. Those who are the most discouraged in carving, who find that it 
 is almost impossible to work out the backgrounds and to struggle with the 
 tough wood in the hard places and in the corners, where it is so difficult to 
 remove, are the very ones who need the work the most. 
 
 For educational purposes, experience has taught me that a certain 
 proportion of children will dislike tirawing on a surface, a certain proportion 
 will dislike clay work, ami a certain proportion will dislike carving in wood. 
 Frequently these are the very pupils who do exceptionally well in the other 
 departments. Do not let them for this reason work only in those depart- 
 ments. It is in cases like this that we need the value of the work as dis- 
 cipline. I have never known a pupil, because he liked modeling and dis- 
 liked carving, to stop work altogether because he was made to carve. He 
 does the carving because it is part of the course, and the modeling because he 
 likes it, or the reverse. After a while all the pupils are intelligent enough to 
 realize the value of each department as training, and are willing to pursue it 
 irrespective of their likes and dislikes. 
 
 As a. Training. — The bitter must be taken with the sweet. Never 
 allow pupils to elect the branch in which they should work, unless in case 
 of constitutional defect, when exceptions can be made; for instance, when 
 the pupil is a cripple or is physically weak. There is a great disposition 
 among parents, and even among teachers, to let children " do as they will, 
 rather than to make them do as they ought. Moral habits must be formed 
 in children long before you can teach moral principles. In the end the 
 teacher is always justified in the mind of the child when he comes to re- 
 alize the value of the habit, and later of the principle."* Carving compels 
 attention mentally and visually, in combination with a certain amount of 
 
 ♦Dr. Phillip S. .VIoxom.
 
 Instructions for Elementary Carvings 
 
 279 
 
 muscular energy that must be exerted, a certain amount of disposition to 
 tug and pull the tougli, resisting wood into shape. 
 
 Persistent activity that requires the use of a close grip wilh both hands, 
 and that recpiires all the muscles of the arm and the thorax to be actively 
 
 Illastration 326 
 
 One |*'--ltl'-ll "t ll.iml Ml ItnilL-llli: 
 
 U.Uiilly the tools arc kept turned in one .lireilion on the bench, with .huriKnin^ .lone an.l mallet near to hand. 
 
 engaged, is good for the growing children. They are compcllctl to exert 
 themselves in the very parts of their being that are but little usc.l and are 
 allowed to be torpid most of the time in schools. The chest muscles, the
 
 280 Wood Carvingf 
 
 t 
 breatliing- muscles, the muscles of the arm and the upper part of the body, 
 are all actix'elv exercised in car\ing'. This is doubly valualjle to children, 
 because their' school work gi\-es them a disposition to lack energy, making 
 them torpid in a measure. I have seen children who are actually too tired 
 through the training they have had, to be willing to grip the handle 
 tight for a continuous period. This is a very bad condition for the pupil to 
 be in. and carving in nearly every case removes it. If a carver has any 
 capacity at all, it will be generally found that he has splendid grip, caused 
 by clutching handles for a certain purpose. We want this capacity in our 
 children, and I believe there is a very firm connection between mental grip 
 and pliysical grip. 
 
 Carving also is unlike sawing and planing, and a good many other 
 operations that merely require the use of strength without much mental 
 effort, since every touch of the chisel in carving must be guided by in- 
 telligence. There is no mechanical work aliout it. The pu])il cannot use 
 instruments of precision or other mechanical aid. There is no method b_\' 
 which original carving can be done without the use of the mind.* To 
 prevent cutting too far he must exercise continuously the eye, the hand, and 
 the intelligence, and the hands must continually follow certains forms or lines 
 and those onl_\". That is the reason carving, in combination with drawing 
 and modeling, takes a so much higher rank than all the mechanical methods 
 or the mere teaching of a trade, or those amateur systems of knife-work, 
 where a few feeble constructions are made that have been thought out by 
 the teacher, — repetitions of other people's ideas, and where amateur tools 
 are used. 
 
 Finishing the Carving. — \\'hen the carving has been modeled so far 
 as the pupil can do it, the background can be finished by stamping or left 
 exposed, showing the chisel marks. The former is done by going all over 
 the surface with the point of a stamp, of course using the mallet to apply 
 force. A stamp may be made of a big nail filed on the end to the desired 
 shape. Rough or fine backgrounds can be made as desired. This throws 
 out the design and makes the background even. 
 
 Carving and modeling are much superior means of compelling obser- 
 
 * Machines are now construrtcd that cnn copy carving very exactly. But the origrinal piece must first be carved 
 or inodcletl by the hand and mind.
 
 Instructions for Elementary Carving; 28J 
 
 vation than simple drawing; on account of the forms having been made, 
 they become fixed in the mind permanently, when in drawing or in looking, 
 alone, this is not always the case. After modeling or carving, usually the 
 first time, all the pupils remark the fact liiat they notice shapes that they 
 have never seen before on the most familiar objects — fences, gratings, build- 
 ings, and so on. 
 
 It is a fact that not one person in a hundred knows the shape of some 
 of the most familiar forms till they have actually made them. By know- 
 ing. I mean, to be able to reconstruct in any way the actual form. They 
 usually have only a partial concept, and the universal peculiarity that is re- 
 marked among modelers and carvers is the new way they have come to look 
 at things. They perceive things that they had never noticed before in 
 their environment, and they cannot hell) but speak of them continually. 
 This is simply nothing more or less than that they are beginning to ob- 
 serve to some ]5urpose for the first time in their lives, and are also beginning 
 to put their powers of observation into practice. They assimilate the dif- 
 ferences and resemblances of things that they see and embody them in a 
 work of their own hands and luinds. In other words, '" they have added 
 another weapon to their arsenal of power." 
 
 Cur\'cd k'uiicl.
 
 ^( 
 
 I . . .- • ^\ 
 
 
 Lan^a l.j llii;h >iliu..l liuy 
 
 CHAPTER m 
 
 Carving the 
 Elementary Units of 
 Design 
 
 /M THIS CilAPTI'lR are given iiistriictioiis in carving some of the units 
 of design and simple forms used for elementary work in drawing and 
 modeling. In most of mv carving classes all the pupils are engaged in 
 making these forms in combination, in designs on panels, etc., to be used 
 for various purposes. For convenience in describing methods, however, 
 the units have been carved to show three stages or steps in the work — (i) the 
 form grooved out, (2) the form nearly fmished. (3) quite finished. If these 
 cuts are studied attentively, the work of carving can l)e readily performed. 
 
 The Scroll. — The form is first carefully drawn in chalk until it fits the 
 desirctl space, then in soft lead pencil to make it show plainly. Then a line 
 is gouged around the form as slinwn in Illus. 3J9. being careful not to cut the 
 pattern and to get clean, clear curves. Tiicn the background is partly 
 gouged out. The second step is to cut down around the form to the re- 
 quired clepth and then to smooth the background. The raised part can then 
 
 (=83)
 
 284 
 
 Wood Carving 
 
 be modeled, with a curved surface ou tlie inside of the scroll and a slope on 
 the outside, being careful not to cut more than half-way down to the 
 background. 
 
 One can readily see what valuable training is given to the hand and the 
 
 Illustration 329 
 
 L';irving the Scroll 
 
 The first part shows the beginnitig of the work, the form heini^ grooved out; the 
 second partly completed; the third is the finished carving of this simple scroll. 
 
 eye, when the pupils can swing these curves freehand in the tough, unyield- 
 ing wood. What a valuable training it is, in enabling the hand to swing 
 accurate and true forms on paper or surface of any kind. 
 
 Carving the I-eaf— Three Stages 
 
 The Simple Leaf. — The leaf in this example (Illus. 330) is made 
 about the same in proportion as the leaf used in drill work and for modeling. 
 When the leaf has been carved the form is more vividlv remembered and the
 
 Elcmeutary Units of Design 
 
 285 
 
 magnitude grasped Iietter than through merely drawing and modeling it. 
 To know this simple form accurately is a help in making all other forms. 
 
 The form is lirst drawn in chalk: when the proportions suit, with soft 
 lead pencil. Then gouge the outline and remove background, as illustrated 
 in the first stage. Xow sink the background and i)artly form the surface of 
 the leaf. Third, finish curves and ribs. Kvery touch with tool will help the 
 student to embody the shape and draw it better. 
 
 The Spiral TDtth Crockets. — This form( Illus. 331 ) is more elaborate 
 and is made in the same way as the spiral. The crockets make it harder to 
 carve, because they interrupt the curves, but with a little ])ractice the forms 
 can be made to flow out with fine tangential curvature. It is difficult, at 
 first, to make the corners free and clean; they will chip off, but a little care 
 will prevent it. The raised edge, or moileled line, is hard to make fine and 
 
 Illustration 3^1 
 
 Car\'io^ Spiml Crucki;t» — The Three 8tc|>n 
 
 clean the first few times; it is difficult to preveiu it being angular, — gradual 
 transition from curve to curve is neces.sary. Right here the i)upil receives 
 experience in persistence, application, jjalience, combined with co-operation 
 of hand, eve and mind. .\11 this has an important intlucnce in forming 
 habits of industry and a love for work, as well as its intluencc manually and 
 mentally. 
 
 'The cAnthemion. (Illus. 332.) — Let this be drawn in chalk, then 
 in pencil. Then (i) remove background, (_') next deepen the background 
 and partly model the various lobes, and (3) then finish the i)ancl. To keep 
 the long narrow parts of the lobes clean and slender is hard, but with practice
 
 286 Wood Carving 
 
 all the forms can be nicely modeled with the tools. Use a nearly flat curve 
 for this finishing work, and "feel" the curves with the hand continually. The 
 tool should cut convex curves all over the lobes. 
 
 All the various units of form should be carved repeatedly in various 
 designs suitable for use as panels or enrichments for furniture, etc. All the 
 models in the various parts of this work are suitable for carving. 
 
 'l^settes are forms frequently required in carving, and to cut some of 
 them in wood gives a wonderful accuracy and fitness. The calipers are 
 used to strike the circle (Illus. t,2,o)> and the little boss in the center of the 
 circle. The wood can then be scooped out with the gouge. On this 
 curved surface the leaflets can then be drawn. With a curved chisel cut 
 down the edges, and with a parting tool make the ribs down the center of 
 each leaflet. Rememljer, the tips stand iq) and the l^ackground curves in 
 quite deep, the entire rosette Ijeing below the surface of the piece of wood. 
 The stages can be seen at 333. first a part lead-penciled, then the midrib 
 partly cut, and the leaflets at the back. These forms are simply intended 
 for suggestions, and the actual forms should be studied from examples that 
 can readily be seen in man_\- places. A second form is suggested at c in Illus. 
 333, partly finished and then completely finished. Pursue the same plan in 
 making this form and its variations. 
 
 Square l^settes can also be maile (Illus. 334). Mark out the form 
 with ruler, put on the diagonals of the square, make the little circle to rep- 
 resent the boss in the middle of the rosette, and draw the inner square. 
 Next cut around the edge of the leaves with the chisel and sink the middle 
 part of the leaf, then trim out with a nearly flat chisel the points between 
 the lea\-es; next, sink the background still deeper, and put the finishing 
 touches on with the gouge, as illustrated. In all this work requiring the 
 repetition of similar forms, we allow the use of the ruler and the compass, 
 simply to save time. The actual form is cut with the hand many times, even 
 when the lead-pencil marks have been cut away, so that it is freehand carv- 
 ing, and it is simply for convenience that we space off with the calipers. 
 Of course the spacing also might be done with the aid of the eye alone, but 
 it would never look quite as well. It is only in patterns of this kind, like 
 frets, rosettes and moldings, where there is constant repetition, that we ever 
 use the ruler or the compass. In all other work and designs of different 
 kinds, the eye alone is used.
 
 Elementary Units of Desig;n 
 
 287 
 
 Illustration 332 
 
 Illustration 333 
 
 1 
 1 - - ^ 
 
 
 
 Carviog the Anthcmiou 
 
 r 
 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 F 
 
 
 
 
 /^f?^, 
 
 ,r^ 
 
 1 
 
 ^, 
 
 ' J 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 i , 
 
 / 
 
 ^ -^ 
 
 
 1 - 
 
 L. .'J 
 
 Caning Round Ro>cttcs 
 
 Illustration 3^ 
 
 ■y 
 
 :y.^ 
 
 CarviD({ bqujrc Rovctlci
 
 288 
 
 Wood Carving 
 
 The next rosette form in the square is a httle more difficult, b. (Ilhis. 
 334.) Place diagonals of the square, as before, make the center boss and 
 then mark out the darts and the scalloped leaf behind tlie darts. Then with 
 a chisel cut down the outline of the form and remove the background. In 
 making the center of the darts, cut the middle line first quite deep, and then 
 slope down to it with a nearly flat chisel. The curved edges of the form 
 
 Illustration 335 
 
 ?1 
 
 :aSBBBBE^ 
 
 ^m\ 
 
 w/r- 
 
 mm 
 
 Curving t'lutcd Forms 
 
 can then be made and the ribs gouged out. Pupils should be encouraged 
 to make varieties of these rosette forms. 
 
 The next rosette is still more complex, and represents a conventional 
 leaf running out to the four corners, r, Illus. 334. Draw the form with a 
 soft pencil first, then cut down with a partly curved chisel, remove the back- 
 ground, gouge out the sides of the leaves, as shown in illustration, and 
 round over with a nearly flat tool. The balls can next be modeled and the 
 veins on the leaves gouged out. The background is then finished by 
 stamping. 
 
 Fluted Forms are also used for a variety of purposes in carving. 
 (See Illus. 335. j Mark out the surface to be filled, then the center, then with 
 a parting tool make a set of lines ray out from the center, and cur\-e over 
 with the chisel, lastly making the cur\ed surface at the end of each ra\-,as in a. 
 
 The fluted form in a circle {b) is more difficult. It is sunk in the wood 
 below the surface, and a concave form must first be made, leaving the center 
 boss standing up Then make the rays around the circle with the parting tool 
 and curve over. Lastly finish the edges with sharp, clean cuts. The next 
 is a still harder rendering of the same form and the ellipse, with the fluting
 
 Elementary Units of Design 
 
 289 
 
 making a double curve, as at c, Illus. 335. The general form must first be hol- 
 lowed in the surface, then the form may be drawn with the pencil and made 
 as before. It is excellent discipline to make each one of these curve and 
 diminish gradually. An exceeding amount of patience is required, which is 
 valuable discipline for an\- one. A steady hand and a true eye are de- 
 manded, and if these are properly employed there is a sure return, and a 
 product that is valuable, useful, and beautiful. 
 
 Conventionalized Forms for Carving, — The next illustration con- 
 sists of conventioalizcil shell forms. 7,x,i>. These are made the same way 
 as the forms just described. The shape is to be drawn with the pencil, the 
 surface sunk to the desired depth, and then the flutings or lobes are to be 
 carved. Shell forms are aniong the most beautiful forms that can be made 
 in wood. They seem especially appro])riate. and endless is the variety of 
 beautiful results that can be obtained by simply changing the depth and the 
 
 Illustration 336 
 
 -p. 
 
 Carvings ol CiJiivLr>Uuti.tlucd Shell Forma 
 
 relief of the carving. Sometimes they look very beautiful when scoope<l in 
 quite deeply, at other times when they are raised up in high relief. 
 
 After a few simple forms have been made, like those illustrated, many 
 others are sure to be observed, and fine carved work of difTerent kinds, and 
 the pupil will soon have a desire to make tliem. and the carving of simple 
 forms will readily enable one to grasp the more complex forms when they 
 are seen. Carving, actually making these shapes in the tough wood, is 
 the best means that I know of for making permanent records of form. This 
 
 19
 
 290 
 
 Wood Carving 
 
 is the reason that carving is one of the essential branches in this method oi 
 training. ]\Iany elaborate pieces of carved furniture have been made by the 
 meml)ers of the teachers' classes at tlie art school. They work very faith- 
 fulh- and it is valuable as an offset to their sedentarv work at the schools. 
 
 Carved by Teacher of the Public Schools
 
 Carving on a Cun'cd Surface 
 
 This piece of work, a heavy frame, is clamped in Ihc hcnch and shows iMisilion of handn m car\'in); on the 
 curx'cd hurfacc. The car\ in^ is to extend all around the frame. 
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 
 Carving on Furniture and 
 Other Advanced Work 
 
 X>\RVIX(; IX RHMRF OX Cl'KXHn STRFACHS.— Pupils must 
 y^ get skill in carving^ in relief and on cnrvecl snrfaccs, as well as in 
 tlat carving. They slinnlil make several panels in tlie flat, how- 
 ever, before attempting work in relief. The borders illustrated 
 herewith (339 to 344 are simi)le and can he used for a variety of 
 
 (»9<)
 
 292 
 
 Wood Carving 
 
 purposes in the enrichment of furniture, as can be seen by the various 
 iHustrations. In making the first strip, which consists of a series of beads 
 of different proportions (IHus. 339), it is necessary to use the caHpers, — a 
 pair witli a screw preferred. The calipers must be sharply pointed, and 
 by fixing- it to the size required, being careful to screw it tightly, the length 
 
 Illustration 359 
 
 'mdMklAMMM 
 
 
 
 mm^f 
 
 
 
 
 .... 
 
 
 
 *.tS-mt 
 
 Beaded Surface Border 
 
 Tongue and Dart Molding 
 
 of each bead can be accurately marked with the point. As soon as this 
 is done, take a flat chisel and make a slight indentation between each two 
 beads. Enlarge this till it is of the size illustrated, and then with several flat 
 tools, of small size, model each ball or curve. It is cpiite hard to make them 
 even and equal. If one is cut too small, by accident, do not make the rest 
 so. Go on with the work, making them the proper sizes. 
 
 A spoiled one can be cut off and a piece of wood glued on again to be 
 carved. Almost all forms carved in wood can be repaired in this way. It is 
 almost impossible for skilled carvers not to break off occasional pieces. These 
 can be glued on again, or, if lost, another piece of wood can be glued on and 
 then cut to the desired shape. It is very stupid to see a pupil cut oft' all the 
 elevations or points or crockets, as the case may be, simply because one or 
 two are broken or spoiled in cutting.
 
 Furniture and Other Advanced Work. 293 
 
 The 3^xt T'iece of Molding is the tongue and dart, or egg-dart 
 niolfling, (^Ulus. 340.J It is seen ireiinently in wood and stone, and 
 is consiilered to be one of the best of all moldings. All of these pieces of 
 wood have been shaped by machinery tirst, and can be purchased, with the 
 desired curve, at almost any mill. It is not necessary for the student to do 
 this preliminary work; it would simply be a waste of time. This design is 
 also to be marked out with the calipers in the beginning, iieing sure to get 
 the ovals or tongues equal in size, and to make them of such size that the re- 
 quired number will til! the space. This must be done by marking or 
 measuring off the entire surface first. As soon as it is spaced out with the 
 calipers, take a soft pencil and draw the outline of the raised edges. Next 
 take a parting tool and form the outline of the tongue and the darts. (See 
 cut.) The ne.xt step is to deepen this, as illustrated, then to make the 
 cur\-e on the tongue and to form the two slopes, making the dart. The 
 background can next be cleaned out and the further depression inade on 
 the dart. This work requires considerable care and accurate cutting to 
 make the darts look even, and is very good discipline. It is best not quite to 
 finish several forms, — simply to block them out and then go over them again 
 when the hand is more accustomed to the form. 
 
 The next molding is made on a single curved piece, and cuntaiiis the 
 dart and double curves, producing a more elaborate form, (lllus. 341.) 
 
 Illustration 341 
 
 lMi{p>'U 
 
 Plaio Curved .Molding 
 
 This nnist l)e marked out with the calipers, |)icking out ail the points and 
 distances, after wliich the forms should be drawn with a soft pencil. The 
 midrib can next be marked out with the i)arting tool and the <!oublc curve 
 made with a small gouge. A larger gouge can then be usc<l and the form 
 modeled over to the groove with a nearly llat chisel. Next work out the
 
 294 
 
 Wood Carvings 
 
 dart, keeping a sliarp edge down the center anil making the corners sharp 
 and clean. 
 
 Another Easy Molding requiring great care, liowever, can lie made 
 on the same curve, as iUustrated in Xo. 342. This is to be spaced off with 
 the caHpers, after which the form can be drawn with the soft pencil Use 
 a smah gouge to start the outline of the curved forms, and the straight 
 chisel or a i)arting tool to start the darts. The form can then be fln- 
 
 Ulustration 342 
 
 Plain Curved Yielding 
 
 ished as illustrated. The next two forms (343 and 344) are complex, mak- 
 ing use of the acanthus leaf curling over at the top. This yields a very 
 beautiful series of forms for elaborate work. Mark out carefully with the 
 calipers the size or space to be occupied by each leaf, then draw each leaf 
 carefully with a soft pencil, as illustrated in the first stage. The form can 
 
 Illustration 343 
 
 Acanthus Leaf Molding 
 
 then be cut in with a curved chisel, using the parting tool to make the rib 
 up the center of each leaf. Next, lower the surface between each two 
 leaves, the rib of the partly seen leaf to remain raised. Then the pipes 
 and undulations on the leaflets can be modeled with different-sized gouges
 
 Furniture and Other Advanced Work 295 
 
 and flat curves. The top of the leaf can also be cut down and modeled 
 over, allowing the molding to show behind each leaf. It will be found quite 
 difiicult to get the edge to run straight. The spaces between the leaves at 
 the top must be made rather deep. The four stages are well shown in the 
 accompanying cut (344). , 
 
 .\nother style, on the same kind of molding, is siiown in the next illus- 
 tration. Some tind this a little harder and some find it easier to make 
 than the other one. It is to be done in the same way, marking out with 
 the calipers, as before, the space to be occupied by each leaflet, then cutting 
 down with the curved chisel the edge of the leaflet, as siiown 
 in the illustration, then sinking the part around the leaf, allowing the partly 
 seen leaf to stand up in the middle. The surface is modeled by making the 
 ridges and forming two sloping surfaces running to the end of each leaflet. 
 It is a little difiicult to make all these pipes equal in the beginning. All of 
 
 Illustration J44 
 
 
 
 Acanthus Leaf .Mulcliii); 
 
 this work should be cut m oak at first. This wo.x! is a little tough and is 
 not so liable to chip as walnut, cherry or mahogany. Disaster is sure to 
 happen in a few places at first, but when the leaflet has been carved a num- 
 ber of times, it can be done with ease. 
 
 The cNs^ Piece of Carving illustrate<l is elaborate, and should not 
 be attempted unless the pupil has niodele.l the form in clay a number of 
 times. The shell form is one that is frefjucntly used in carving, and. with 
 tlie leaf, forms a nice shape to l)e used for many purposes, for instance, on 
 a cornice, on a chair back or part of a settee, on picture frames, and so on. 
 
 It is best not to copy these very elaborate forms froiu the illustrations. 
 This would prove a little too ditVicult. They are simply placed here as
 
 296 
 
 Wood Carving 
 
 examples of carving. Students will see carving of all kinds when their 
 eyes become opened through the work, and good examples may be seen in 
 wood, stone and metal on different buildings, which can be reproduced. It 
 is only by frequent observation that pupils become aware of form and ac- 
 
 lllustration 345 
 
 y/"-— ^Ji^l^At^^^ M 
 
 ^^■21 
 
 Partly Ciirvud Piecu, Suitable for Chair BacX 
 
 tually notice shape. Every time a different piece of work is carved, the 
 student will have increased ability to perceive various forms. 
 
 Forms Suitable for Carving. — lullustrations 346 and 347 show a 
 variety of frames that can be made of different sizes for many different pur- 
 poses. Made with narrow borders they are very suitable for water colors 
 
 Illustrations 346-347 
 
 Cirved by Night School Pupils 
 
 and engravings; made innch heavier and of thicker wood they are suitable 
 for oil colors and mirrors; made still larger, and with metal hat pins, they 
 are suitable for hat racks, and are convenient pieces of furniture to have in 
 different parts of the house.
 
 i'urniturc and Other Advanced Work 
 
 297 
 
 The series of chairs illustrated show a variety of shapes, ailiis. 348.') 
 Some of them may appear to be overloaded with carving. This is simply 
 a matter of economy, and thougli I know the forms in some cases will be 
 better if they were not carved so much, it is simply to provide surfaces for 
 work that they were made originally. Some of these chairs consist of 
 five pieces, each piece of which is heavily carved, thus affording the pupils 
 several hours of work on each. The blanks for the chairs vary in price, 
 some $3 to $5. according to the amount of labor expended upon them. The 
 chairs are usually delivered in the white and doweled together, so that they 
 
 chairs Designed and Carvx-d by Publ.^ .-v..."-. I'upils 
 
 can be taken apart with a few taps of the mallet and carved. Two or three 
 chairs will thus furnish occupation for a whole class for a number of 
 periods. 
 
 The designs are in no two cases alike. This will be foun<! true with re- 
 gard to every pattern in any material made by any of our classes, each cliild 
 according to its capacity creating the forms most suited fi>r use. I do not 
 pretend to defend all the patterns. In some cases they are crude and could 
 be made much better, but being the w(irk that the child sometimes started 
 before the teachers couM modify or criticise, it has been finished and must 
 stand on its merits. It is very easy for a good teacher to give good lessons 
 in designing and construction, using as examples the good patterns or the 
 bad ones made by the class. Examples of poor work therefore teach by
 
 295 
 
 Wood Carving: 
 
 Illustrations 349-350 
 
 FeiiKtle 
 Italian Renascence Carvin^^ bv Farari, in the Studio of the Author 
 
 contrast. No class of people perceive errors and faults in designing and 
 construction quicker than children. Usually they will be found to select 
 the best. There is an endless variety of forms that afford practice for 
 work in wood. Chests of various sizes can be made with six, eight, ten or 
 twelve panels. Settees also give opportunity for large pieces of work and 
 can be carved liberally all over. A variety of small work can be made, like 
 book-racks, mirror-backs, screens, cabinets, closets, hanging shelves. Clock 
 cases, half size and full length, are in demand and usually find a ready sale. 
 Carving is work especially appropriate for children, for the reason that 
 they are embodying value in the material upon which they work. This
 
 Furniture and Other Advanced Work 
 
 299 
 
 thev realize from the beginninsf. Tbcy are also learning the value of per- 
 sistent hard work, and they get a certain amount of knowledge of art forms 
 and real drawing that cannot he acquired in any other way. Their taste 
 and appreciation of common things around them is enlarged, and the works 
 of their hands usually enter into a great many places where taste and ap- 
 preciation are lacking, and thus act as missionaries. This is especially true 
 of the night schools. 
 
 I am mucli surprised to notice the small number of schools among all 
 the art institutions of the country where carving is thoroughly taught. It 
 
 Illustration 351-354 
 
 i— The Plain lUock 
 
 -llic l*'orin ilcgun 
 
 
 V 
 
 J 
 
 / 
 
 3— <^iLrving Mure Adv^uiccd 
 
 4— The h'iiiii>hcit Wgrk 
 
 Carving a Cupid's Head 
 
 is lauc^lit in some, hut in the lari^cr nnmhcr it is cMitircly iicj^Hcctcd. Mak- 
 ing form in tough, resisting material is one of the truest and hest methoils of
 
 300 Wood Carvingr 
 
 gaining permanent and organic ideas of form. Surely tliis is especially 
 important to the art workers in tlie liigher fields of art. It certainly was a 
 part of the education of some of the greatest of the old masters, wlio fre- 
 quently carved in stone and other materials. The energy and diligence 
 begotten by carving, where it is properly taught, are also of the utmost value 
 in counteracting the disinclination to manual effort that occurs so often in 
 children whose school hours are largely occupied with book studies. This 
 fostering of an energetic disposition, along with true ideas of elementary art, 
 is by no means the least important benefit of wood carving and real manual 
 training. Most of us have got to work for a living, and education should 
 give us energy for work instead of a disinclination for it. Not only this, but 
 carving compels accuracy, attention to details, the doing of things well, in 
 contradistinction to the carelessness in the work of one's hands which is 
 sometimes begotten in children who learn from books alone. The carver, 
 whether self-taught or learning from an instructor, will cjuickly see that 
 slovenly work will show, that the carving will reflect something of his own 
 character. The pupil will also recognize the difference between the result 
 when he tries to do his best, or when he is careless. The wood will tell the 
 truth, always an important lesson. 
 
 Carving in the Round. — In this part only a sugge.stion of what can 
 be clone is possible. In another volume I shall give detailed instruction in 
 all kinds of wood carving, with many examples of all the styles. \^ery beau- 
 tiful examples of wood carving still exist, made by artists of different periods. 
 \\'ood of different kinds, especially the Italian chestnut, is suitable for sculp- 
 tor's work, and very elaborate work may be seen in Ital}- of groups of figures, 
 etc. Examples of fine modern Italian carving are given in lUus. 349 and 
 350, made by Farari. 
 
 The series of four cuts on the previous page show the successive 
 stages in blocking out a Cupid's head with wings: i, the plain block made of 
 several pieces of wood glued together; 2, the same partly carved with form 
 in the rough: 3. the head and wings showing distinctly, but still unfinished; 
 4, the work as it appears finished. 
 
 Two examples are given of winged griffins suitable for the arms of 
 settees (Illus. 355-356). The first is shown partly carved, with the form only 
 just beginning to show the intention. The block of wood is three inches 
 thick and is a piece of mahogany. It is clamped on the benches, as shown
 
 Furniture and Other Advanced Work 
 
 301 
 
 in some of the other pictures 
 of pu])ils working, and is being 
 matle by one of tlie advanced 
 pupils of studio classes. The 
 second form shows a similar 
 piece of work of different de- 
 sign entirely finished. The 
 body consists of one block of 
 wood, the wing being an addi- 
 tion after the other part has 
 been carved. Work of this 
 character cannot be done un- 
 less the pui)ils have a \ivid 
 memory of form and have had 
 good manual training. 
 
 Dolphins are freciucntly 
 carved in wood, and the fol- 
 lowing example (Illus. 357) is 
 freciuently cut by some of the 
 pupils. The form is changed 
 and motlifietl to suit any pur- 
 pose, and is comparatively 
 easy to cut. Both sides are 
 carved, and it makes a suitable 
 arm for chair or hall bench. 
 
 A great variety of forms, 
 such as iron and brass castings, 
 or gas fi.xtures, grills and other 
 ornamental objects, are first 
 carved in wood and then used 
 as patterns for making the 
 castings. Several examples 
 are given of forms of this kind, 
 also architectural detail for in- 
 terior work, such as caps, pilas- 
 ters, panels, rosettes, etc. 
 
 lU^tl l-'.ill 
 
 Ann for Settee 
 This illustrates the block of wood partly cao'cd, with the 
 head wings, etc., in the rough. The form is car\cd on both 
 sides. 
 
 Illustration 356 
 
 Aiiolli. r Ann tor >. Itce 
 This is anotJier form of biuiilar ch;iractcr completely fininhrd. 
 
 Illustration 357 
 
 '-:^^>^ 
 
 M|>liiii Ann for Cliiiir
 
 302 
 
 Wood Caiving 
 
 Illustrations 358-365 
 
 1^^ I ^^^^^^ 
 
 
 ni!i 
 
 Carved I*:itterns for Metal 
 
 These designs are carved in wood for vario\is purposes, 
 and electric light fixtures, etc., are carved in wood first. 
 
 to be cast in metal. Many patterns for brass work, g-as
 
 BOOK FIVE 
 
 Various Applications of Art 
 Methods, Real Manual 
 Training and Nature Study 
 
 J. CONSTRUCTION -Mechanical Drawing and Wood-Working 
 
 2. CORRELATION of Art, Real Manual Training and Nature Study with Other 
 
 Instruction 
 
 3. SPECIAL SCHOOLS—'") Night Schools, (/* i Vacation Schools, (») Normal Schools, 
 
 III' Summer Schools 
 
 4. OTHER APPLICATIONS— (ff) Decorating School Rooms, {h) Backward Pupils, 
 
 {(■) Insane and Feeble Minded, ('') Truant Schools, {<•) Reformatory Institutions, 
 (/'j Miscellaneous 
 
 5. THE FINE ARTS-Some Suggestions for Art Students 
 

 
 O 
 
 I 
 >■ 
 f- 
 
 f- 
 
 0. 
 
 
 -3 
 
 ■r, -^ 
 
 "I C^ 
 
 0,= 
 
 
 .7" "* 
 .i >. O
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 Construction in 
 Woodwork and 
 Mechanical 
 Drawing 
 
 XrEKlKXel-: leads me to be- 
 lieve that constructive work 
 as taiif,'lit in many schools, 
 similar to joinery or cahinet- 
 makini;:. ^ " <1 mechanical 
 (Iranjjhtinjj, are of little value 
 educationally, except to the 
 specialist. witJiout previous 
 traininj^ in the art work and 
 real manual training 1 have 
 been a<lvocating in the |)re- 
 ceding chajiters. When pu])ils 
 have ac(|uired a certain dex- 
 terity of hand and accuracy of 
 eye and are able to draw, 
 model and carve reasonably 
 well, then it is of advantage for them to attempt constructive work and me- 
 chanical drawing. They should then be about 14 years of age. or rea<lv for 
 the iiigh school, and should have ac(|uireil complete control of their hands 
 in manual dexterity, and be able to ilraw fairly well anil observe accurately. 
 Then, and not until then, arc they reailv for tools ami tool-processes and 
 instruments of precisit)n. 
 
 The fallacy of teaching boys car|)enter work or mecl.anical ilraught- 
 20 (J^s) 
 
 l*allcrn Nfukin^ 
 Various p.-itlrms made by the hoys, to be cast in metal.
 
 306 
 
 Various Applications 
 
 ing without this elementary experience in real manual trammg is illustrated 
 in nearly all the pupils issuing from the so-called manual-training schools; 
 beyond the limited trade processes in which tlie_\' have been trained, they 
 
 llustration 367 
 
 Wood Working 
 A lesson in sawing. All forms are made from rough timber, the boys cutting it from planks as required. 
 
 do not have manual dexterity. Any ordinary test will show this. Few of 
 such graduates can do even the elementary art work illustrated in this book. 
 They lack the ability to make the hand obey eye or mind in doing work 
 outside of the few processes in which it is trained, and are of course almost 
 wholly deficient on the art side. 
 
 A Rddtca.1 Fedtare oi our manual-training method is the absence of 
 machinery, steam power, turning lathes, etc. Machine-shop methods have 
 never yet produced and will never produce craftsmen who are mechanically 
 and artistically equal to those of the best periods of history. Of course this
 
 Construction and Mechanical Drawing 
 
 307 
 
 is an industrial age, and our material progress so far has depended largely 
 on the harnessed power of steam, electricity, etc., Imt in a measure this has 
 been at the expense of the individual. Xo system of education or prtigress 
 can afi'ord to miss the lessons of the great periods in craftsmanship, when 
 the individual workers put their soul, feelings and emotions into the work of 
 
 Illustration 568 
 
 Making JuinU 
 A rouifh fru hand drawing of Ihc joint under di»cu»i>iiin i> »hii>vn on the hUckhoard. The teacher !• trslinK lU 
 fitnoB. 
 
 tlicir hands in stone, metal and wood. We are far irt.m etiualing tlic 
 buildings an<l masonry of the past, and «.ur mechanics and CDunnon people 
 scarcelv realize what artistic excellence means in metal, stone ami woo.l.
 
 f- 
 
 !- 
 < 
 
 T3 
 O 
 
 O 
 
 = -a 
 
 ^ to 
 
 o 
 o 
 Di 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 2 =- 

 
 G)nstruction and Mechanical Drawing; 
 
 309 
 
 Tlio iilc;i is loo coininon that a inaiuial-trainin.Lj school should he a ma- 
 chine shop. This was one of the many forms of so-called manual train- 
 ing that the author early tried and found wantinsa^. The deficiencies of 
 machine-shop practice for the puriKises of educating hand and eye, as well 
 as hrain, are now generally recognized among progressive educators, hut 
 
 Illustration 369 
 
 Itiiilclin*; Construction 
 Unttni^licil nwtdcl of simple tVutiu* building, Mhowint; di-t:lil conittrurtion. \\<>rk "-I ini- kiiul i- ol llu- KrtMtcst 
 practical value to the boys, and gives excellent fipp^jrtunity to correlate mechanical ilrawin^. 
 
 these deficiencies are all the more pronounced when hoys are i)ut into ma- 
 chine-shop practice without the elementary training already advocated. 
 
 It is not denied that using machines gives some skill, and that they 
 are in their i)roper |)lace in the trade school, hut tliere are many operations 
 for handwork in constructions oi various kimls th.it jirodiice more skill and
 
 3 JO Various Applications 
 
 facility, and therefore these are more educational. The time of the young 
 during the nascent period is too precious to be wasted in teaching them 
 how to use machines; it should be devoted to the development of their own 
 organism, to the training of eye and hand as well as of mind. 
 
 The whole tendency of modern industry is to make machines of us 
 soon enough, and how pitiful the narrowness of life, the one-sided develop- 
 ment, of the millions whose capacity is measured only by their ability to 
 operate an ingenious machine. The fact that many occupations and trades 
 do thus confine both mind and body within a stultif\ing range, is all the 
 more reason for so developing the mind and body that, while doing to per- 
 fection even the routine work one may have to do. he or she may be so 
 trained as to rise abo\'e the otherwise narrowing effects of constant attend- 
 ance upon machines or mechanical processes and be able to appreciate and 
 enjoy the beautiful and good in nature and in the common things of every- 
 day life. It is a great thing to be so trained as to be happy, joyous and en- 
 thusiastic — to be so educated as to know how to enjoy life and how to 
 make the most of it in whatever station our lot mav be cast. 
 
 Machine-Shop Practice Has Its Place. — Since long and costly ex- 
 perience has demonstrated the. greater educational power of hand operations, 
 the time has come to relegate machine-shop practice to its proper place. 
 In the technical school or trade school, it serves a remarkably useful pur- 
 pose. That purpose is to impart to the youth who expects to be a me- 
 chanic or an engineer the expert training and practical knowledge of ma- 
 chines and processes employed in his trade or profession. Hence there is 
 even more necessity for trade schools, engineering schools, textile schools 
 and similar technical institutes than there is for colleges of medicine and 
 surgery, divinitj' or law. But just as there are better means of giving ele- 
 mentary and high-school instruction mentally than that of introducing the 
 studies that specially qualifx' the doctor, lawyer or minister for their pro- 
 fessions, so there are better exercises for imparting real manual training to 
 the youth than the trade processes and machine methods so important to 
 the specialist in mechanics, steam or electricity. 
 
 In technical schools for special pupils, machinery of various kinds and 
 the use of power (electricity or steam) may be employed with reason, but I 
 must be understood here to protest only against the misuse of these things 
 during the early stages of many boys' lives. Before boys are 15 or 16 years
 
 Plate Twfntv <i.\ 
 
 Illustrating Roof Conslruclion 
 
 I— King; I"""! Hoof Trum j— Tru»« for Curb Ho4if 
 
 (3")
 
 3J2 
 
 Various Applications 
 
 of age, if they have had real manual training any good teacher can pick out 
 the ones suited to be engineers and mechanical workers. Their capacity 
 in these directions will then have shown itself. These, of course, can enter 
 
 Illustration 370 
 
 Wood Working 
 The first boy is cutting a dovetail, and the second boy is sharpening a chisel; correct positions are shown. 
 
 the special or trade schools, but to give machinery and machine work to 
 large classes of young boys irrespective of their capacity and dispositions, 
 before they have had real manual training and a certain amount of art 
 work, is as foolish educationally as to make them all carpenters only. 
 
 Large Economy. — This point cannot be too strongly emphasized in 
 order to correct a prevailing false notion about manual training. It also 
 shows that a costly equipment of machinery is not necessary for an ad-
 
 Construction and Mechanical Drawing; 
 
 313 
 
 vanced manual-training school, ami tliis tlemonstrates the feasibility of a far 
 more general ajiplication of manual-training methods than has heretofore 
 been thought possible. We see too that the introduction of rational meth- 
 ods of manual training in cities now ])rovided with machinery in their man- 
 ual-training departments, will i)ave the way for utilizing such e(|uii)ments of 
 machinery for trade schools or technical institutes, thus accomjjlishing an- 
 other good object at a minimum of expense. 
 
 This ine.xpensiveness of ecpiipment for the meciianical department of 
 our manual-training method is all the more important when attended, as 
 it is, by better results. How chca])ly this department can be tilted up. as 
 contrasted with the expensive machine-shop plan, may be inferred from the 
 list of tools for a room large enough to acconunodate twenty benches, given 
 
 Illustration 371 
 
 Queen P*>»t Koof Tru»» 
 
 at the close of this chapter. Twenty |)upils will form a suitable class for one 
 instructor, and 300 pupils can receive one ami a half hours' lesson in one 
 week during sessions from <) a. m. to _• j). m. The list has been found by ex- 
 perience to suit classes of high-school boys, and to be reasonably complete.
 
 314 
 
 lllusfrations :i7;-376 
 
 Various Applications 
 
 Motk-l ..t _\:. : ■ .... Lulamn 
 Base and Kntablature 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 s 
 
 f 
 
 ""^^^ 
 
 I— Dovetail Scarf Joint 
 
 2 — Scarf Joint 
 
 3— Complex Mortise Slip Joint 
 
 4— Simple Mortise Slip Joint
 
 Oinstruction and Mechanical Drawings 
 
 315 
 
 l-u].. 
 
 ..^ i>rojcclions free lianii 
 
 Use of Head Work, — Believing that one who lacks practice in 
 skill cannot become skillful, we do not sn!)stitntc machines for skilled opera- 
 tions. Even round forms and their modifications are made hv hand with 
 hand tools, instead of being turned upon a lathe. This compels the develop- 
 ment of a skill of hand and eye not possible to those who make sim- 
 ilar forms only on machines. And this makes the hand more ready to 
 work a machine skillfully when necessary. In short, we get a co-ordination 
 of hand, eye, and mind by handicraft that no amount of machine work will 
 compensate for. Along with mechanical precision we also get an artistic 
 excellence of execution and encourage originality of conception not pos- 
 sible with mechanical repetitions, or repetitions of forms made mechanically. 
 
 Rotation of Work. — In this branch of manual training ])ui)ils ro- 
 tate from mechanical drawing to work in wood during each lesson, just as 
 in their previous training they rotated the branches of drawing, modeling 
 and carving. Do not let them take separate courses of one or the other. 
 The best plan is to correlate the two branches by making the pupils draw 
 the forms in their various stages and then construct them, of course giv- 
 ing thorough instruction in use of tools and instruments t'lrst.
 
 316 
 
 Various Applications 
 
 The abstruse ideas embodied in working drawings, plans, sections, 
 etc., sliould become as familiar to the pupils as their previous studies have 
 made them familiar with common forms. Pupils should become accus- 
 tomed from the beginning to making and reading these drawings and len- 
 
 lllustratioii 378 
 
 Isometric Drawing 
 A demonstration in isometric drawini^, the cube and variouo pints are beina: explained. 
 
 daring them in material. The planning should be part and parcel of the 
 doing. Only in this way will the youth grasp the vital connection between 
 the two and be able to make the most of it. A course in mechanical draft- 
 ing dissociated from the execution of the work, is as deficient educationally 
 as freehand drawing which is not correlated with other school work. It 
 is as barren of results as to expect a love of nature or of the beautiful in 
 art to be created by the drawing and contemplation of stupid wooden blocks 
 and the type forms by unwilling pupils. 
 
 Objects of Instruction. — The object is to give a deep and com- 
 prehensive training, rather than a detailed and one-sided mechanical educa- 
 tion. It is not possible to teach a part of all the many pursuits, but it is 
 possible to teach processes which are the best for them all. Thus in wood 
 working, we do not give a detailed \-iew of every process and every tool, but 
 we give a thorough training in the principles, and facility in using the most
 
 Construction and Mechanical Drawing 
 
 3J7 
 
 Illustration 370 
 
 important tools. A pupil ought to know that there are classes of tools, and 
 should get a logical understanding of the use and possibilities of the principal 
 tools in each class. If we give in.struction in a great variety uf tools, we 
 defeat the purpose of this work. The tendency to teach tools instead of 
 processes and skill, seems to be universal. W'e must 
 adhere to fuuflamentals. we must teach the pu])ils 
 to discern between the important an<l the trivial, 
 the fundamental and the accidental. 
 
 Each pu]iil must learn tliat the tools in them- 
 selves are not the end, but only the means with 
 which we shape ideas or concejits. Ifence, we 
 should acquire early such control over tools that 
 our attention can be given to the work we ha\e to 
 do with them, instead of our thoughts being direct- 
 ed wholly to the method of using the tools. In 
 other words, the movements with tools sliouid be 
 made automatic as soon as possible, just as in draw- 
 ing we acquire unconscious control over the mus- 
 cles and nerves that guide chalk, pencil or brush. 
 It is only when we have obtained this automatic 
 action that we can concentrate our entire energy 
 to putting thought into work. 
 
 Put Art First. — In some systems, wood 
 carving is taugiit in connection with joinery and 
 cabinet making, and is taught in the same mechani- 
 cal fashion. This is radically u rong. Wood carving 
 is as distinct from woodwork as freeli;uid drawing 
 is from mechanical drawing. Wood carving 
 should always precede cabinet making, and be 
 taught in connection with clay modeling and free- 
 hand drawing. In the i)rinci])al manual-training 
 schools, the mechanical product is given chief prominence, and such work 
 is generally good, but the artistic jiroduct is very poor, in many schools re- 
 ceiving no recognition at all. The art part, which is the vital part for the 
 young, is neglected to develop mechanics. Introduce mechanical work 
 only after a thorough elementary training in art ;uiil manual dexterity. 
 
 .MoiicI of Dixit. 
 
 This In niudc in wood and Is 
 divided in the center In »liow 
 contitrui-tinii. The Keetiunn arc 
 dowclled iind (it tt>);etlu-r.
 
 3J8 
 
 Various Applications 
 
 A. Good Teacher is of more consequence than good tools. The 
 teacher sliould be a master of the metliod and of all the exercises in which 
 he assumes to instruct. Too frequently, committees and others think a 
 
 Illustration 380 
 
 Uousu Buikliiiij^ 
 
 A lesson on stjtirs. The house is the result of tlie combined eflbrts ot four boys. Ai\ the joints in the 
 b:tckground h;ive been made by the pupils. 
 
 skilled mechanic is the only proper instructor in this branch of manual 
 training-. It would be difficult to make a greater mistake. I have never 
 known a carpenter or mechanic able to teach this work in the right way. 
 In many such classes the boys make plenty of joints and enjoy it thoroughly, 
 but the educational value of the work is lost sight of and the mind and the 
 hand are not intimately related to the things, facts and processes of life as 
 thev should be.
 
 Osnstruction and Mechanical Drawings 
 
 319 
 
 If a true teacher is taken, liow e\ er, instead of a nieclianic, even the sub- 
 jects of ghie, nails, etc., will be made an avenue for much fruitful discussion 
 and instruction. Every point will be made of interest, and its connection with 
 other phases of work and study will be comprehended by the pupil so that he 
 can make actual use of his knowledge. Unless the exercises are correlated 
 in this way with the other studies. l)ench work has no business in the schools. 
 
 Our Course in Mechanical Draining includes the ordinary course 
 in most schools, the study of mechanical perspective, and of the architectural 
 
 Illustration 381 
 
 Wood Wnrklnfp 
 Pupil applyini; try iquarc tn a pUnnl ■urfucc. 
 
 stvles, and some designs an<l CDUstructiun. In eilucatioii. wlu-re wc luu^^t 
 consider the development of the esthetic princi|)les. as well as the practical 
 elements, such a course will be found more instructive than the usual one-
 
 320 
 
 Various Applications 
 
 sided and totally mechanical conrse. The teacher should stri\-e to give a 
 thorough understanding of the principles of mechanical drawing, but should 
 not enter into a lengthv and detailed discussion of machines. 
 
 Illustration 382 
 
 Apparatus for Various School Purposes 
 The boys design and manufacture considerable of the laborator\- and other apparatus needed in the school 
 Such work is not allowed at the expense of the educational object of this training. This model is to illustrate the 
 principle of the incline plane and the principle of friction in physics. 
 
 Parallel and angular perspective are dwelt upon at length, architectural 
 styles are similarly treated, and architectural design and construction are 
 discussed. Our object, at this stage, is not to make draftsmen or architects, 
 but to open up the minds of the pupils to the immense possibilities and the
 
 Construction and Mechanical Drawing 
 
 321 
 
 intrinsic lieaiity of the suljject. This course will be as vahiahle to one 
 desirins; to <Ievote his life to fine art, as to one wlio wishes to l)ecome a 
 mechanical engineer, an architect, draftsman, farmer, etc., while at the same 
 time it embraces real manual training. 
 
 Thus far, the chief attention has been given to the development of man- 
 ual skill, co-ordinated with eye-training and mind-culture, and to the study 
 of form, historical ornament, the use of water-colors, and charcoal, etc. 
 Now. when tlie abstractions included in projections, sections. <levelopments, 
 shades and shadows, and angular perspective, are dealt witli. it is surprising 
 how quickly and vividly the pujiils will com])rehcnd tliese subjects, and what 
 freedom and breadth they will exhibit in tlieir renderings. To a pupil with- 
 
 lllustration 383 
 
 Mcchiinical DniwiiiK 
 DcmonstralinK Ihc principle of a screw and »ho\vlni; applicution of helix. 
 
 out this previous training, a mechanical drawing is a <Iead object; the 
 execution of such a drawing will be devoid of all artistic iicauty, and the 
 condition of the mind of the i)upil will, generally, be at a still lower stage; 
 thus the soul and the imagination arc confined and restrained, and the possi- 
 bilities of which they arc capable are not even opened to view. 
 21
 
 322 Various Applications 
 
 The course begins witli a discussion of the instruments. One of the 
 best exercises, and one whicli brings into use all the tools, is the construction 
 of some simple frets or geometric ornaments. This is much better than a 
 simple exercise in drawing lines, or proceeding at once with some geometri- 
 cal problem, or working drawing, and gives freedom, and a logical 
 understanding of the instruments and their use. 
 
 Geometric problems are tlien taken. This will be an additional exercise 
 with the instruments. Working drawings follow; first, of a very simple 
 nature, neatness and accuracy being the essentials at this stage; later, more 
 complex figures may l:e taken, such as joints, etc. 
 
 Throughout the entire course there is every opportunity to consider the 
 individuality of the pupils. When the teacher is discussing any subject, the 
 principle should be made prominent, and the pupils should make many notes 
 and sketches. Those who exhibit more aptitude, should make more com- 
 plex drawings. In this way, each pujjil may make a different drawing, — all, 
 however, showing the same princij^le. With proper management, this will 
 not conflict with the necessary uniformity of class work. 
 
 Isometrical drawing, the simplest mechanical perspective, is taken next. 
 This will l)e found useful in illustrating constructions, projections, ami pene- 
 trations. Sections and developments follow in order. The choice of 
 particular subjects should be left to the pupils as much as possible. The 
 teacher, at all times, should exercise the greatest care anrl discretion in the 
 selection of typical figures. 
 
 Tjy this time the pupils will be found to work with considerable freedom 
 and insight into the principles involved, and will be ready for the more 
 advanced exercises. The mechanical units are now taken,— screws, nuts, 
 propellers, cams, gears, etc. As all the pupils have had a previous experience 
 in w ater-color and charcoal, they should, at various intervals, make shaded or 
 colored drawings. Of course, too much time must not be consumed in this 
 way. The class should, at times, get some practical experience. \'isits to 
 large machine shops and constructive establishments should be made; in 
 many cities there are abundant opportunities to visit large industrial plants, 
 locomotive and electrical macliine factories, and shipyards, etc. These 
 excursions can be made very interesting and will prove highly valuable to 
 the students. 
 
 Tracing and blue-printing should be treated at the best opportunity.
 
 Construction and Mechanical Drawing 
 
 323 
 
 Shades and shadows, parallel and angfiilar perspective, slimill receive a great 
 deal of attention, as they are \ahial)lc educational sniijects. 
 
 Architecture is taken next, the chief aim 1 einp to give a good under- 
 standing of styles, and their characteristics. This is a most valnaldc study, 
 for, at all times, the character of a period, or a nation is eniI)odied in their 
 
 llustration 584 
 
 l-rt'chaiid l*trs|>cctivc 
 The boys arc jrivcn rrcqocnt opportunity to muke lar^c drawings in perspective as alH»vc. 
 
 huildings. A good set of architectural models is almost indispensable for 
 this work. The students should visit ilitTerent typical buildings, and some 
 lime should lie spent ir. instructive discussion. Some time should also be 
 given to planning and construction. I'ujmIs should not be alloweti to make 
 actual copies of architectural drawings, or plans of houses, but should make 
 original ])lans of their own, iuNolving individual ideas. N'o matter how 
 crude in the begimnng. this gives them concrete ideas an<l experience. The 
 same is true of machine drawing: the jjupils should not be alwa\s copying 
 drawings of machines, often beyond their comprehension, —as is sometimes 
 done, — but should work at principles, on simple forms which thc\ fully 
 understand, and that are ty|)ical. Much time is wasted in fancy lettering, 
 and over unnecessar\- detail.
 
 324 
 
 Various Applications 
 
 Blackboard Work should be carried on as much as possible. All the 
 pupils in the constructive departments should work at intervals on the black- 
 board. .All the ordinary geometric forms and simple constructions should 
 be drawn full size and freehand, until memorized. Sketches shoulfl also lie 
 made of architectural details, plans and styles, and the forms should be 
 repeated and modified many times. 
 
 The full benefits of such a course can l)e bestowed only upon pupils who 
 have had the previous elementary art training. To them, the artistic 
 
 Illustration 385 
 
 A .Model for BuikUnj]^ 
 Conslruction showing principles of "vaulting.* 
 
 elements will appeal as much as the practical ones. They will lea\-e school 
 with their minds opened, with skilled and responsive hands and e\es, and 
 with a develoj^ed love for the beautiful and the true. 
 
 The teacher is as yet comparatively rare who is capable of givirtg this
 
 Construction and Mechanical Drawing 325 
 
 phase of rational manual traininj^f. just as the teachers are not yet numerous 
 wiio have mastered drawing and modeling in connection with school work, 
 but the sphere for such teachers is large and increasing. No branch of 
 education offers so fine an opportunity for teachers, both for usefulness and 
 for pecuniary reward. And the teacher w ho masters both the art side and 
 the mechanical side of real manual training will have the still wider o])por- 
 ttmity that awaits the real master in any i)rofession. 
 
 In Teaching the Mechanical Side >>{ nianual training, thorough in- 
 struction on and discussion of all tools, materials, and forms made should be 
 constant. Nothing should be taken for granted. 1 have frc(|uently seen 
 boys making a joint or piece of work without an itelligent idea of its name, 
 use or purpose, and this is also true in regard to tools. 
 
 Every tool should be explained thoroughly ami its use ukkIo manifest 
 in as many directions as possible. Lessons should also be given on the 
 various woods anil materials used (glues, varnishes, nails, etc.), and upon 
 the use and applications of the constructions made. Upon all these sub- 
 jects, and other phases of the work, the true teacher will have become ihor- 
 oughly informed by actual experience mainly, for no manual or text book 
 exists or can be written that will take the place of the knowle<lge the teacher 
 will ac(|uire by actually doing all branches of the work. 
 
 It is of great importance that the course should contain exercises in 
 making the principal ty|)ical forms. Don't attempt too many forms, or 
 amateur or freak forms, — a weakness in other methods. This error is 
 caused bv an undue desire to show finished product ami u.seful articles. 
 While this is an imi)ortant factor, it should not dominate the desire of ob- 
 taining the greatest amount of skill and training. 
 
 Kach pu])il should be jjrovidetl wiih a note book an<l sketch book, in 
 which he should write descriptions of the tools and their uses, and also make 
 rough drawings and an isometrical view of each exercise. 
 
 The Simpler Exercises. — .\fter learning the manipulation of the 
 most important tools and a])iiliances, the i)iipil is rea<ly to construct 
 the simpler forms of joints— first, the plain butt, miter, half and slip 
 joints, later the varieties of these. These exercises are all very valuable an<l 
 they are ideal forms at this stage. It is not necessary that each pupd 
 should make a graded series or even one of each of these, but he shi>ul 1 get 
 a thorough understanding of them all. It will be sufficient if he m.ikes
 
 Plate Twenty-seven 
 
 Simple and Complex Geometric Models 
 
 These arc models which mav he used to (jood advanta^je in geomctrvand drawinsc lor light and shade, 
 and in mechanical drawing:, in ttuchinji intersections, sections, surface development, etc. They may be 
 reproduced in wood hv hand work, as exercises in manual training. 
 
 (3^6)
 
 Construction and Mechanical Drawing 327 
 
 three or four of ihe joints— in tliis way ilic class may easily be treated in- 
 dividually. 
 
 Another feature of value is the construction of peonielric forms, such 
 as cubes, prisms, cylinders, cones, etc. (lllus. 386.) The simplest of tiiese 
 
 Illustration 3^6 
 
 \ 
 
 1 
 
 i^an' 
 
 W'u.iJ Wiirkitij; t»ttimitrit I'U.'iip 
 
 These jfcoinclric forms have heen nijldc by h.lnd hy the l»ny« withnul lathefl. They are inaile to 
 scale. The cone is made in several sections and tits to-^ether, showing Ihe conic sections. 
 
 forms are taken — the cube, the various prisms, the cylinder and the frus- 
 trums. These forms are especially valuable as exercises, because they require 
 logical thinking and render necessary various consecutive steps in their 
 construction, as well as yiekling unusual manual skill. It is not necessary 
 that the pupils should make all the geometric forms — a few of the type 
 forms made to accurate scale will be sutVicient. 
 
 After this ])attern making may 1>«' t.ik>ti up. P.eginning with .1 ilior-
 
 328 
 
 Various Applications 
 
 ough discussion of tlie subject, the pupil is then ready to construct some 
 simple pattern, such as wrench, crank, sledge hammer, head, brace, etc., 
 a few samples of which are shown in the initial letter on page 305 
 
 By this time each pupil is thoroughly acquainted with all the tools and 
 
 Illustration 387 
 
 A Lesson in Perspective 
 A scries of I'rumes are made and used in the class rooms for demonstrating perspective in various ways. 
 The object, with ground plan picture plane on glass, vanislring lines, point of sight, etc., are shown in 
 various positions. The teacher explaining parts. 
 
 processes, and has some general experience. .\t various stages of the 
 course, attention should be given to sharpening tools. Pupils should 
 master this work, without which the best tools soon become useless. 
 
 Advanced Work. — Pupils are now ready to take up the more ad- 
 vanced exercises, and very accurate and fine work mav reasonablv be ex-
 
 Construction and Mechanical Drawing; 
 
 329 
 
 pected. Next in order may he taken the various complex joints, such as 
 the mortise, dovetail, brace joints, the scarfs, and varieties of these. Then 
 advanced geometric forms may he taken — pyramids, cones, grooved cylin- 
 ders, cone in sections, etc. (Page 326.) Advanced patterns come next, 
 such as model for weight, cast-iron bracket, riy wheel, and parts of ma- 
 chinery (Illus. 388). 
 
 Illustration 388 
 
 WcKxI Working 
 
 Thciic ;in- fonns and |.atli-ms in w<M>d cut by h.ind 1<h>U entirely by high school boys. The cone show> the 
 conic ncctions, and is doweled io that it comes apart. 
 
 In these more advanced exercises the work may he carried on in- 
 dividually. Since some pupils will have ac<|uired unusual skill, they ought 
 to make elaborate exercises. Those who have not developed so readily 
 should be given exercises best suiteil to their stage. 
 
 The greatest skill is typified in ailvanced construction. This eni- 
 liraces frames, cabinets, furniture, sashes, doors, roof trusses, etc. Some- 
 times it is well for an ailvanced class to combine in constructing some large 
 project, such as a frame house (page 30<;). or a large iiiecc of furniture, simi- 
 lar to a vestment case (page jHj), or case of closets for museum, or book- 
 cases, etc., — anything suitable for school purposes. 
 
 It is not necessary that every piece t)r |)art of the work should be made 
 by the boys. Duplicate parts can be cut out at the mill, turned work, if
 
 Plate Twenty-eight 
 
 r ' ^ -f ^ 
 
 /■ 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 L 
 
 ^ 1 - 
 
 
 
 \ ■ 
 
 
 - - . 
 
 MODEL FOO. 
 
 CA5T-lgON WElOhT 
 
 WOOD-WOaX. E>.tC!.Ci5E5 
 
 Drawings for Wood Working 
 
 Working drawings of typical exercises, one-fourth actual siEe. Kach pupil makes a drawing of the object or a 
 sketch thereof in his note-book. The model for cast-iron weight is to be cut entirely by hand. The test-tube rack, to 
 be used in thechemistr\' class with oihcr apparatus, is made by the boys. The advanced geometric forms, shown at 
 bottom to the right, are to be made to scale without the use of machinery or lathe. The complex joint drawing 
 shows the principle of the mitre. 
 
 {330)
 
 Construction and Mechanical Drawing; 
 
 331 
 
 required, can be ordered: doors and sashes can he framed by machinery 
 at tlie mill, hut all tlie draiiijiitin<j. iletail <lra\vin,i:;s, tillintj and constructing 
 
 Illustrations 389-394 
 
 Complex Mortise aiitl Ttiinii Joint 
 Complex Morline and Tenon Joint 
 Mortise Slip Joint 
 
 Dovetail Joint 
 Mortiftc and 'I'enftn 
 Halved Dovetail 
 
 can readily he done l>y tlie l)i)ys in a class of this kiml. Xcarly all the 
 elaborate apparatus in wood used in teaching i)hysics can l)c made In the 
 hoys in a class of this character, ami also many useful things reiiuiretl in 
 laboratories.
 
 332 Various Applications 
 
 WOOD-WORKING COURSE. 
 
 I. Use of tools and methods. 
 
 Tools — Rip saw. cross-cut saw. Jack plane, smooth plane. Try square, 
 
 gauge. 
 Squaring to right dimensions. 
 Working with scribe knife, block plane, back saw. 
 Beveling with plane. 
 .Sandpapering. 
 
 2. Simple joints. 
 
 Butt joint, miter joint, half joint, slip joint, \arieties. 
 Laying out work — Gluing and clamping. 
 Use of bevels, chisels and chalk. 
 
 3. Sharpening tools. 
 
 Grinding, slip stones, shellac, alcohol, glue, varnish. 
 
 4. Simple geometric forms. 
 
 Cube, square prism, he.xagonal prism, octagonal prism, cylinder. 
 Use of compasses, planing round, etc. 
 
 5. Simple constructions. 
 
 Frame, wall liracket, brace, bo.x, etc. 
 
 Brace and bit, nailing, firmer gauges, scraper. 
 
 6. Easy exercises in pattern making. 
 
 Sledge hammer, wrench, crank, bracket, quoit, grate and other sim- 
 ple exercises. 
 
 7. Comple'x joints. 
 
 Mortise joint, dovetail joint, brace joint, varieties of these. 
 
 8. Advanced geometric forms. 
 
 Pyramids, square hexagonal and octagonal, cone and frustrum. 
 Cylinder with grooves, cone in sections. 
 
 9. Pattern making. 
 
 Fly wheel, weights, cams. Details of machinery. 
 10. Advanced constructions. 
 
 Brace, roof trusses, bridges, doors, frames, frame house, furniture.
 
 Plate Twenty-nine 
 
 r. 3 
 
 y -I 
 
 5" n 
 
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 334 
 
 Various Applications 
 
 Tools for Wood-Working Department. — Equipment for a class of 
 
 Uventy pupils: 
 
 20 benches 
 
 20 iron smooth planes 
 
 20 wooden jack planes 
 
 20 iron l:)lock planes 
 
 20 back saws 
 
 20 nail hammers 
 
 20 try squares 
 
 20 marking gauges 
 
 20 scrilje knives 
 
 20 bevels, 
 
 20 screw drivers 
 
 20 mallets 
 
 20 oil-stones 
 
 20 steel oilers 
 
 20 rules 
 
 20 bench hooks 
 
 20 dust brushes 
 
 2 cross-cut saws 
 
 2 rip saws 
 
 2 turning saw frames 
 
 2 keyhole saw pads 
 
 4 doz. turning saws 
 
 1 doz. keyhole saws 
 
 \ doz. firmer chisels, J to i inch 
 -J doz. firmer gauges, \ to i inch 
 i doz. spoke shaves 
 \ doz. rabbet planes 
 ^ doz. carpenter's pincers 
 
 2 doz. saw files 
 
 \ doz. compasses 
 
 1 combination plane 
 
 2 bit braces 
 
 2 auger bits, each ], f , ^, f inch 
 I doz. German bits 
 
 i doz. center bits 
 
 3 doz. rose countersinks 
 Large iron square 
 
 I grindstone 
 I set slip stones 
 I panel gauge 
 I trammel 
 
 doz. files 
 
 doz. cabinet scrapers 
 
 hatchet 
 
 doz. brad awls and nail punches 
 Glue pot and furnace 
 Shellac and alcohol 
 Lamp black 
 Sperm oil 
 Chalk 
 
 Paint brushes 
 Sandpaper 
 Four trusses 
 Blackboards 
 Closets 
 
 3 doz. handscrews 
 Woods: White pine, poplar, cher- 
 ry, mahogany, pear, walnut.
 
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 336 
 
 Various Applications 
 
 COURSE IN MECHANICAL DRAWING. 
 
 Scales, T and set squares used in constructing simple geometric ornaments 
 or frets — 'later the compasses. Inking and drawing. Erasing and 
 
 cleaning. 
 
 I — Use of tools 
 II — Geometric problems 
 III — Working drawings 
 IV — Isometric drawings 
 V — Projections 
 VI — Penetrations 
 VII — Sections 
 
 VIII — Developments 
 IX — Screws, cams, gears, etc 
 X — Tracing and Ijlue printing 
 XI — Shades and shadows 
 XII — Parallel perspective 
 XIII — Angular perspective 
 XIV — Architecture 
 
 EQUIPMENT REQUIRED 
 
 Twenty sets of instruments, including divider with pen, pencil, and 
 needle-point parts and lengthening bar, a plain divider, steel bow pencils and 
 steel bow pen. ruling pen with joint, box with leads. 
 
 20 adjustable drawing tables 
 
 20 drawing boards! 20x26 
 
 20 T squares 
 
 20 set squares, 45 deg. 7 inches 
 
 20 set squares, 60 deg. 9 inches 
 
 20 triangular scales 
 
 20 bottles India ink, black 
 
 20 bottles India ink, blue 
 
 20 bottles India ink, red 
 
 Portfolios, frames, water colors, etc. 
 
 40 tmtmg saucers 
 
 40 brushes 
 
 20 note books 
 
 Pencils, grade H. H. 
 
 Drawing paper, 17x24 
 
 20 dusting brushes 
 
 Thumb tacks 
 
 Pencil and ink rubbers 
 
 Tracing cloth, l>lue printing outfit 
 
 Exercises in Metal Work are prominent in some mamial-training 
 schools. Usually these exercises consist for a few terms of portions 
 of the work of machine shop and the blacksmith shop — a little chipping, 
 filing and fitting; molding and casting, forging and welding, ornamental 
 ironwork and tinsmithing and perhaps plumbing. Later on the opera- 
 tions consists of machine-tool practice. \\h\\ the exception of wrought- 
 iron work, which readilv lends itself to ornamental and artistic treatment.
 
 Construction and Mechanical Drawing 
 
 337 
 
 such work is entirely mechanical. No artistic work is attempted, the aes- 
 thetic idea is entirely wanting. Carefully graded forms are used, and the 
 patterns and exercises of one manual-training school can usually be found in 
 almost every other. Even the forms made in tinsmithing are nearly all alike. 
 E.xperience with a variety of these operations leads me to believe that 
 the proper j)lace for most of such work in metal is in the trade schools. 
 At most of the manual-training schools the authorities themselves will state 
 that '■ no trades are taught." Why then give portions of trade operations 
 when fundamentals should or could be taught? If the work is given for 
 its educational value, this should be done. .\ large part of the educational 
 value is secured in the construction course just given in brief. The opera- 
 tions that are not thus covered are mainly of a trade character, rather than 
 educational in their function. In many manual-training schools the present 
 tendency is to build steam engines, dynamos, bicycles, etc. Too many boys 
 are spoiled and too much energy is thus wasted. I have known all indi- 
 vidual and educational efforts of pupils and teachers of an entire school to 
 be wasted for a term this way. Much more attention should be given in 
 manual-training schools to the artistic use of various metals, in wrought-iron, 
 in brass, in molding an<l casting, in forging and hammered work.
 
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 CHAPTER II 
 
 Illustration 396 
 
 Gjrrdation of Drawing; 
 With Other Studies 
 
 Lenmio^ " Hard " Words by Jllustratin)^ tiiuir McaiuiiL; 
 
 FF.W OF THF MAXIFOLI) 
 ways in wliicli art can he eni- 
 |)l()ycil as an indispensable aid in 
 education liave been suggested in 
 tlie preceding l)ooks of this work. 
 One object therein has been to 
 ilenionstrate the inrinence of art 
 nietiiods as an energizing power 
 in forming a disposition and habit 
 of work witli mind and bo<ly, and as a means of exahing and enlarging tlie 
 mind by enabling one to [)erceive beauty. Besides this, liowever. art is one of 
 the most valuai)lc instruments, if not the most \a!ual)ie, for co-ordinating va- 
 rious memories an<l ideas on all subjects. It lieljjs to imify and solidify various 
 partial ideas and nebulous fancies that are always floating .ibout in the mind 
 of the young, and enables them to grasp, ai)prehend ami use these ideas with 
 the least physical and nervous wear ami tear, and with least loss of energy. 
 
 Every intelligent reader will recognize the wonderful value of <lrawing 
 when so taught as to really enable the young tn draw as a mode of express- 
 ing thought. .\11 must admit that a picture presents a subject capable of 
 illustration far more forcibly than nu-re words. One who accurately draws 
 a bird, or a skeleton, or a tlower, or a mathematical |)rohleni. has a more com- 
 plete mastery of that special to])ic than could be gained in almost any other 
 
 (m)
 
 340 Various Applications 
 
 way. Proper drawing being a mode of expression, it atYords simply another 
 channel for making a more vivid and permanent impression. In practically 
 every branch of study, the power to graphically and accurately illustrate and 
 to model the forms will lie a great help in the acquirement of knowledge and 
 in the mental, moral and physical development that are the real objects of 
 education. No one capacity- is more valuable than the power to steadily 
 persevere or persist at work not in itself very attractive. This kind of self- 
 control and self-reliance is especially the product of right art work ami real 
 manual training. 
 
 No joy is greater or more lasting than the power that comes from per- 
 ceiving the beauty and spirit of all nature. This is also one of the results of 
 art work. A thoughtful reading of First Principles will emphasize these 
 statements so con\-incingly as to obviate further discussion here of this par- 
 ticular pi)int. 
 
 One Trouble ivith the Old Methods of education is that they 
 fail to iix details and facts clearly and distinctly in the mind, so that they shall 
 be permanentl}- registered in the lirain, \\here they can be called upon when 
 needed. }^lany people retain cloudy and indistinct ideas of facts that they 
 learned at school or from books, but seldom forget what they have learned 
 in their business or household work by actually doing and by experience. 
 No one can know how to really make bread except by actuall}- mixing and 
 baking it; once this is mastered, the knowledge is never forgotten. Ju.st so 
 the doing will make other facts and methods permanent in mind and hand.* 
 This "doing" will register permanently the essential details of desired facts 
 and processes that constitute the very essence of wisdom, which is "knowl- 
 edge and the capacity to use it." 
 
 * Education consists fund.imentallv in tlie associ.ltion of certain definite sensory currents, excited by external 
 impressions, with certain definite motor currents, which are the adapted reactions of the individual to the impres- 
 iiions which affect him. No wonder then that we find so much automatic action when we look closely in to the mental 
 processes of men; the whole aim of education on the part ot one generation being to produce upon the next generation 
 the same impressions which it has experienced, and to teach the same reactions which it has performed. It is most 
 necessar\', however, to guard against the strong disposition which there is to iook upon certain movements, those 
 of the eye and the tongue, as having a special connection with the mental life which other movem-.nts of the body 
 have not; they have .a specially intimate connection, but not a special kind of connection. Unwarrantably separating 
 by an absolute barrier the mind from the body, and then locating it in a particular corner of the latter, as is commonly 
 done, we are prone to forget that in mental action the whole bodily life is comprehended— that what is dis,.layed out- 
 "wardly exists in the innermost — that every motor intuition has its essenti;*! j)lace and influence in our mental life. 
 [Maudsley, Physiology of the Mind, pages 470-471.)
 
 Correlation of Art Methods 
 
 341 
 
 Correlation of Art Methods. -We tln.s sec that proper correlation 
 of art aiul manual training nKiiio.ls with the various stiulies is one of the 
 problems of the new education. It is hard to resist discussing here the best 
 
 Illustration 397 
 
 Learning Facts by Otaw i\^ Them 
 
 1 he vi»unl memory is stored with Ihe actual hhiipc, Htructtire, and detuiU of fuiniliur ol»ji-ct!» and the^■ can be 
 more readily remembered and named by drawinj^. We correlate theory ani practize. 
 
 methods for fully securing this correlation, but a volume would ))e retjuircd 
 for each phase of the sul)ject. Some suggestions, however, are given that 
 should j)rove useful to teacher and pupil alike. The work is being success- 
 fully done in some schools and in time will come into general use l>ecau>c it 
 is right. 
 
 This union of study an<! "doing" imparts valuable <|ualilics to the chil- 
 dren. It improves their character ami capacity, while avoiiling much of the 
 evils (jf the old cramming process, and at the same time r..ii>-iT> fv \i..iir .iT 
 min<l and health of bodv.
 
 342 
 
 Various Applications 
 
 In Language Study, drawing and modeling have a leading place. 
 The meaning of man}' important words, their correct spelling and pronun- 
 ciation, when and liow to use them correctly, can be fixed in the mind h}' 
 
 Illustration 398 
 
 ArcIiitLctur.tl Styles 
 
 The disposition of ;i cohinni and its component parts, and of the entaljlature resting^ upon it, the various orders 
 in architecture, the names of the parts, and many otiier correhitions are more tirmly fixed in the mind by drawing. 
 
 drawing the objects the words represent, by modeling them, if necessary, and 
 by discussion and thought about them. When the mind is busy guiding the 
 hand that is fashioning or forming concrete ideas in actual things, there is 
 formed an energetic and cheerful feeling, and a desire to give utterance 
 thereto. The good teacher will make use of these feelings and emotions in 
 getting this good utterance and delivery. 
 
 This is especially true of so-called "hard words" and technical terms. 
 For instance, let a child draw and model a stalactite and a stalagmite, as illus- 
 trated in 396 and learn what it can about these objects while doing this work,
 
 Correlation of Art Methods 
 
 343 
 
 and it will never forget the meaning of the words or of the geological phe- 
 nomena they represent. These and many other words rif similar ch.aracter 
 shoulil he used with lliienc}- and ease hy the pupils. Tlii;; can seldom he as 
 long as the words are not firmly lockeil in the mind hy action and niatle 
 autoiuatic l;y repetition. Along with such drawing or modeling will go 
 work of great interest to the pupils in the way of writing, spelling. coni])osi- 
 tion, etc. ahout the suhjects in hand. These elementary studies, hy them- 
 selves unattractive, when thus correlateil with drawing or modeling, take on 
 a new interest, and Ijy what may he termed working eN])erience the chihlren 
 
 Illustration 399 
 
 Com'tuliiin of Stuilic* 
 Hy dniwinf; wc correlate various school studies with /.oology, including clji>«ilKali.>ii, h.il.il«, • li.ir.icliri«li. « and 
 di^trihulion of aniniaU, living and extinct. 
 
 readily fix in the mind a hetter knowledge than can he acquired hy a longer 
 period of more nerve-wearing stmly hy ahstract methods. 
 
 For Learning Technical Terms, no method is more fascinating or 
 more thorough. How lew .idulis. much less children, recognize the names
 
 344 Various Applications 
 
 of even the component parts of so common an object as a door ( Illus. 396), 
 yet when tlie cliikl has th"i\\n this object freehand and printed against each 
 part its proper name, and associated these names with the real door in its 
 mind, these terms are fixed in tlie mcmor}- tlirongh the comliined senses of 
 touch, siglTt, hearing and speecli. 
 
 It siiouid l)e remembered tliat this work must 1:ie done constantly, not 
 from a few things onl_\ , at long intervals. The habit must be formed by actiivi, 
 of clearly seeing, knowing and naming the essentials of environment. When 
 the mind can impel the hand, as well as the tongue, to clearl}' and distinctly 
 express form with a few fine, strong lines, it means a stronger and better 
 mental fabric. 
 
 Very few people can recall the shape of ordinary doors or windows. Of 
 course every one has a partial idea of the shape, but few can distinctly recall 
 and put down the variety of common window forms, as seen in Illus. 397. 
 This power to retain visual impression is of supreme value in an}- walk of life, 
 and is readily acquired l)y children. 
 
 \\'hen the pupil can delineate various architectural forms, the orders 
 and styles (Illus. 398), and knows the names of the various parts with the 
 related ideas, many similar forms can he drawn and enjoyed, and the mind 
 becomes able to appreciate and enjoy a wide range of beautiful forms. For 
 want of such training, few get the pleasure and satisfaction that architecture 
 is able to give, as exhibited in fine examples. All these forms should be 
 drawn without the ruler or without measurements, as these pictures have 
 been made. 
 
 It is needless to mention that many of the forms in botany, zoology, 
 geology, mineralogy, etc., can l)e drawn and memorized. In the accom- 
 panying picture of the spider, the form has been studied and the various 
 parts memorized with a variety of other forms of spiders. 
 
 Qualifying Ndtnes and special groups of animal forms can l)e memo- 
 rized and drawn, as in illus. 399. All the characteristic features of the families 
 can be illustrated. Some of the pictures illustrated in this work have been 
 taken and memorized from the dictionary. Original sketches from the 
 objects also be made and are much better, but the prints are also good. 
 
 Excellent pictures can be made from ])hotographs, etchings, prints anil from 
 sketches. Great artists of all periods have frequently drawn from the flat 
 It is the abuse of flat copying, not the use of it, to which I object.
 
 Correlation of Art Methods 
 
 345 
 
 For Nature Study we use drawing as a mode of expression, the in- 
 stninicMU, or one ol ihc instrumentalities, wherehy we remler more vivid tlie 
 impression on tlie mind of outward plienomena through the toucli. muscular 
 sense and vision. The slightest diagram or mark then reinforces the impres- 
 
 niustration 400 
 
 Itiulogy 
 ■When these forms can be drawn from memory, Ihe technical names, the various processe* and facts, 
 :tnd the visual, auditory and tactual inipressi<ms thcretif, are more firmly placed in the mental fabric. 
 
 sion. It is well known that if we write a name or a luimher we tlo not forget 
 it quite so readily, and to co-ordinate many impressions ami memories hy 
 drawing or modeling is one of the valuable ajjpiications of art and hand work 
 in the schools. To my mind this is one of the most important uses of art — 
 to help l>uild minds on the mighty foundation that nature furnishes.* 
 
 • "Kvery instrument, tool, vessel, if it d<»cs that for which it has lH*cn made, is well, and yet he who made it is 
 not there. But in the things which are held louelher hy Nature there is within and there ahidrs in them Ihe iHiwer 
 which made them; wherefore the more is it fit t" reverence this power, and to think, that if tliou d"»l live and act 
 according' to its will, evcrythini; in thee i* in conformity to inlelliKrnce. And thus also in the universe, the thin|{< 
 Trhich belong to it are in conformity to intelligence."— [Marcus .Vurelius Anttmius.
 
 346 Various Applications 
 
 Application of Dra'wing to Elementary Science Work.—Tht 
 
 series of illustrations, I'lates Seven, Tliirt\-one, Thirt\'-t\vo and Twenty-five, 
 are sim]:)Iy suggesti\e of the application of hand work and drawing to the 
 \'arious departments of study. Tiiey are made by pupils who have had 
 elementary art and manual training from their earliest school period. These 
 pupils do not approach this work as beginners, 1:)ut as children who have 
 already good powers of delineation developed by manual training. They 
 draw as a mode of thought expression, and their hands are already suffi- 
 ciently skilled to perform difficult and complex movements in technical 
 work. 
 
 Botdny. — In plate Thirty-one, one pupil is dissecting the plant 
 and preparing a portion for the microscope. The other pupil is delineating 
 views of the sweet pea and its different parts. The pupils are working 
 together and frequently change places. To work the compound micro- 
 scope, especially when using the high power lenses, requires a great deal of 
 skill. It can be readily done, however, by children who have had the 
 pro])er training. 
 
 To delineate the various fields of view is also within their power. It is 
 a great advantage to have children grow into this capacity. The most diffi- 
 cult operations are approached by them not as difficulties, but as pleasurable 
 exercises for their skill and ingenuity, that offer them full reward when the 
 work is accomplished. I am well aware that some, in looking at these pic- 
 tures, will raise the objection that these methods are not possible for all chil- 
 dren. These suggestions then are for the few who may be so fortunate, if 
 parents and teachers are wise enough, to work in this way. 
 
 I am one of the teachers who do not believe that it is neces.sary for 
 children to try to assimilate the whole series of connected facts on certain 
 topics. In the study of botany, as illustrated, 1 would rather they should 
 thoroughly know, in its relations and associations, one leaf or flower in its 
 various parts and structure, visible and invisible; that they should thoroughly 
 com])rehend and apprehend the mystery that is embodied in its form, struc- 
 ture and texture; that they should get a glimmer or a gleam of the marvel 
 and splendor of its colors when seen by the naked eye or when exhibited by 
 the microscope, a new world, as it were, in their hands, — than that they 
 should have a partial knowledge of the whole botanical field. 
 
 These radical ideas will be combated in manv directions, but neverthe-
 
 
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 348 Various Applications 
 
 less, I think it of supreme importance to thoroughly impress children in this 
 way. They have their whole future life in which to accumulate and to 
 assimilate knowledge of the many dilTerent subjects. To give them this dis- 
 cursive view in the beginning, without the love and reverence that come 
 from a thorough appreciation of a few forms intimately and organically 
 known, is futile. The wise teacher can teach an everlasting lesson from one 
 fact. It is better to do this than to give so many that the children are men- 
 tally stultitied. No thinking person can imagine more fascinating or interest- 
 ing lessons than can be given on the endless facts from plants and flowers, 
 their structure, distribution, habits, use, etc., unless they are the lessons that 
 can be received from the other elementary science studies, in mineralogy, in 
 geology, zoology, or in any department of biology, with all its beauties, mys- 
 teries and lessons. It is a simple matter of introducing the child to a 
 new heaven, where the mental horizon extends in all directions, exposing 
 worlds of ideas to l)e conquered. Few teachers consider the size of a child's 
 mind or trv to enter its chaml)ers: until this is done little progress can be 
 made. In the elementary stages of education, the child's mind should not 
 be filled with information or facts from words or print, because this tends 
 to satisfy it and stultifies it and prevents the impulse to action so energetic in 
 the beginning. Rather, it should be made more curious or inquisitive, more 
 eager and earnest to attend, to admire, to act.* 
 
 Bla.ckboa.rd Work, — At certain seasons of the year it is important 
 to allow the children to draw as much as possible from foliage, as in illustra- 
 tion 229 on page 166. Single leaves should be drawn, groups of leaves, 
 and even sprays. The first sketches should embody as much detail and 
 anatomy of the leaf as possible, and then sketches can be made showing ar- 
 rangements. The real leaf or spray of leaves, or branch, can be held in the 
 hand, and with very little practice, single leaves, groups of leaves and sprays 
 can be drawn. The forms must be studied thoroughly and the character of 
 the leaves embodied. As soon as a few careful studies are made in this way, 
 then the form should be memorized and the piq)il should attempt to draw 
 
 • For discipline, as well as for guidance, science is ofcliiefest value. In all its effects, learning the iceaaingoi 
 things is hrttcr th;m learning the meaning of words. Whether for intellectual, moral or relisfious training, the study 
 of surrounding phenomena is immcnselv superior to the study of grammars and lexicons. — [Spencer.
 
 G>rrelation of Art Methods 
 
 349 
 
 them without the leaves. Do not attempt complex arrangements of leaves 
 or sprays, until the character of the single leaf has been thoroughly prac- 
 ticed. Draw the single leaf a number of times tirst. 
 
 The morning-glory leaf, the clover leaf, the birch leaf and a number of 
 others are comparatively simple. They should be thoroughly memorized 
 and the essential features grasped, then more complex leaves, like the maple 
 leaf, the horse-chestnut leaf, the buttercuj) leaf, and so on, should be 
 practiced. 
 
 Many of the most familiar and most interesting plains spring from 
 
 lllustratinn jni 
 
 .NKniury Drawing' nT lCtciiH'iil.iry llotuiiy 
 
 seeds. The children should be taught to draw the forms and sluily the 
 structure of a few important see<ls. They should then sprout them and 
 watch the development of the plantlet from the seed. Drawings of the 
 seed, the sjirfxitlet seed, and of the plantlet in its successive stages of develop- 
 ment should be made from day to day. Characteristic details of any parts 
 should also be drawn. After a few lessons of this kind the children should
 
 350 Various Applications 
 
 he alile to represent without tlie ohjects the various seeds and plantlets, sucli 
 as peas, l:)eans, etc.. and he familiar with the names of tlie (hfferenc parts. 
 
 Experiments can be made to show absorption of water by seeds, force 
 exerted by expansion of seeds when soaked, also to show the efTect of tem- 
 perature on the germination of seeds, etTect of light and darkness, of water 
 and of carbon-dioxide, etc. By experiments, children can see whether 
 heat is given o(i in germination, they can show the use of the cotyledons to 
 the plantlet. and drawings, notes and diagrams can be made at stages of 
 the work. 
 
 Children should beccMiie interested in and draw the structure of roots 
 and their various forms, with the manner in which sap ascends and with the 
 way that the roots grow. They should watch, draw and make diagrams of 
 the way roots spring from cuttings placed in water, and should observe and 
 draw the various aerial roots. All this is far more simply done than would 
 ap]}ear from these words bv children who ha\e accpiired the habit of seeing 
 and doing through the methods described in Books Two, Three and Four. 
 
 Many kinds of tlowers can be drawn to advantage on the blackboard 
 in this way at certain seasons, .\pple blossoms, cherry blossoms, can be 
 provided. Children can bring a great variety of flowers into school. Not 
 only the flowers can be drawn, but also the ])arts of the llower, as calyx, 
 corolla, jaistil. stamens, etc. When the children have seen the parts, have 
 been given their names with the derivation, and have drawn the parts and 
 written the names against each ])art. the ideas become firmly fixed in their 
 minds. This makes nature study douMy interesting to children. The dis- 
 covery of the new facts is interesting in itself, and when children can repre- 
 sent the new ideas obtained from objects l)y means of proper drawing, the 
 study has an added value and interest. 
 
 When flowers are not available, the work need not cease, for 
 leaves may be found. It is \cry good practice in the winter to use even 
 pressed leaves. The ma])le. ivy. horse-chestnut, and a number of others are 
 always good practice, and. if pro])erly pressed, retain their color for several 
 seasons. They afford fine specimens for color work in winter. 
 
 Children should be encouraged to draw as much as possible on the 
 blackboard from the natural form. It gives a free, bold st_\le that is very 
 useful. If they have had the ])reliminary training and drill work, any forms
 
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 352 Various Applications 
 
 they enjoy should be used, and especially the memory work, or recalling of 
 visual im])ressions. 
 
 Elementary Mineralogy. — Plate Tliirty-seven represents one pupil 
 examining a fragment of quartz, and another preparing a slide of some other 
 mineral for the microscope. Drawings can also be made of the various 
 crystal forms in mineralogy. They are exceedingly interesting, and I find 
 children of the grammar grades, who have l:)een taught drawing as a mode 
 of expression, are quite as capable of appreciating and entering into the valu- 
 able facts and ideas embodied in this science as any other people. Their joy 
 and admiration are excited as readily by mineralogy as by other studies, and 
 their minds can be expanded and ideas of reverence and adoration excited 
 thereby. 
 
 Perhaps the most wonderful color it is possible for the eye to appre- 
 ciate is exhibited by the iridescent radiance that gleams from many forms 
 of crystals, of metals and other minerals. Nothing is more common in the 
 environment of most children than various kinds of minerals — granite, quartz, 
 chalk, marble, iron, lead, tin, etc. Beautiful specimens of valuable varieties 
 of mineral forms can be purchased cheaply. Some are beautiful in color, 
 such as malachite, azurite. sulphur, chalcopyrite, fire opal, jasper, etc. The 
 children should memorize and embody these colors direct from the min- 
 erals themselves, and should make drawings of specimens. They should 
 also handle and compare the samples one with the other frequently, with 
 respect to their hardness, lustre, fracture, structure, texture, color, density, 
 weight, etc. 
 
 Entomology. — To children this is one of the simplest and most inter- 
 esting departments of elementary nature study. There is a wonderful 
 amount of spontaneous curiosity excited by the.se strange and beautiful 
 creatures. Plate Seven, page 55. represents the children working with in- 
 sects that they have collected themselves and are now studying. One pupil 
 is engaged in examining a portion of the seventeen-year locust, while the 
 other is making a variety of drawings from the insect and its different parts. 
 No forms embody the wonders of color more beautifully than insects. Few 
 forms are more suitable for school purposes and class instruction, or retain 
 their perfect color and tints better than insects. Mounted as they are by 
 certain firms for individual use. they are desirable and verv handy for large
 
 Correlation of Art Methods 
 
 353 
 
 numbers to use, and tliev reveal endless combinations and beauties of color 
 with which every pupil and teacher should become familiar. 
 
 All children are pleased with the metamorphosis of insects, and espe- 
 cially that of butterlhes and moths. They can collect the egtjs and larvae 
 and observe the various stages of development — (i) egg, (2) larva, (3) pupa, 
 
 Illustration 402 
 
 Corri'lulinn with N.ilur.il llinton- 
 NLikmi; . h iri> r>i the various p;irls nf a bird, and Ihc nkclcton. The nuincs of all lln |>.iiii. 
 mid bonis arc prinlcd aKaiiift lai li. Tin- sludinl of n.il<iriil hiilory lindi this traininK a viml help 
 in fixinf( in (he mind diHicuIt factn, tcrnm and pokitinns. 
 
 (4) imago. Drawings and diagrams can be made of many of these forms 
 and stages, ami bugs and beetles that are usually objects of disgust to the 
 ordinary child become objects of delight and wonder to those trained aright. 
 Of course it is still better, especially in secondary schools, when suflicient
 
 354 Various Applications 
 
 time is devoted to this and other natural sciences, that the students capture, 
 prepare, mount and name the specimens for themselves. 
 
 I do not advocate the making of miscellaneous collections of insects to 
 be swept away in the course of time, but I do ailvocate tliat children should 
 become thoroughly familiar with a few of the forms in their relations and 
 associations. 
 
 Chemistry. — In Plate Thirty-two the children are engaged in testing 
 various substances by the action of heat and acids. One pupil is using the 
 blow-pipe, an operation in \\hicli nnich skill is required. The other pupil 
 is ready to test the same with acid. 
 
 The children should perform many experiments and make observations 
 from them. The value of the whole work will depend largely upon the accu- 
 racy of the observations, and the manner of keeping notes. In connection 
 with the notes, careful drawings and diagrams should be made of the vari- 
 ous forms and of the apparatus. Many simple experiments can be made 
 in the grammar grades or common schools that have no apparatus or lal)or- 
 atory. For instance, sulphur may be heated and dissolved in carbon bisul- 
 phide and allowed to crystallize in its three different forms, which can be 
 studied and drawn. Interesting experiments can be performed on the prep- 
 aration and properties of iodine and its eft'ect on starch; this knowledge can 
 be used in the work on seeds. 
 
 In making this series of picture's from these children, 1 have been pri- 
 marily engaged in showing the different occupations. Of course I would 
 like to exhibit ten pictures of the product of the work of these children in 
 each study. This is not possible, however, and the work is merely sugges- 
 tive. These children can test the various substances, mount the specimens 
 for the microscope, make their own ignition tubes, frames and apparatus of a 
 variety of kinds, and frequently, by investigation of the subject matter, they 
 determine its name and various other interesting and scientific facts. 
 
 Making Charts, — The pupils in the higher grades, and teachers who 
 have had suf^cient training, can make very fine charts for a variety of pur- 
 poses, as illustrated. For this purpose large sheets of manilla paper can 
 be used. It can be procured by the yard or in rolls, 36 inches, 40 inches 
 and 44 inches wide. A very good size is about 40x44 inches. These 
 sheets can I)e pinned up on the wall or on a blackboard, and drawn upon 
 just as the pupils draw on the blackboard. Charts can l)e made for a
 
 Correlation of Art Methods 
 
 355 
 
 variety of school purposes, illustrating all the botanical forms. A variety 
 of nature studies, geological formations, minerals, studies in zoology, anat- 
 omy, physiology and astronomy, can be illustrated in this way, and service- 
 able charts matle for use in the lower schools. 
 
 The illustrations given herewith (Xos. 397 to 404 inclusive) show 
 
 riustration 403 
 
 Painting Charts 
 
 One boy is ilrawini; conventional shcJIs. The other, varioun fi»h fnrms. The charts are painlcil with a hrush 
 In India ink or water color and arc uscrul in Oic lower Krailes. The name* and technical tcnnt are printed under 
 each form. 
 
 high school boys preparing charts to I)e used in the lower schools. The 
 forms are drawnfrechandwithalead-pencil, and then painlcdin monochrome, 
 in India ink, or in water colors, as desired. This is splendid practice, as 
 can be seen from the pictures, an<l the charts are very useful for purposes of 
 illustration in the school room. I am taking it for granted that the pupils 
 doing this work will have had complete training in all our methods of draw- 
 ing and manual training, and arc capable of making charts that will be
 
 356 Various Applications 
 
 sufficiently accurate to be used for school purposes. This our pupils can 
 do readily, and there is a great demand in the lower schools for these charts. 
 Remember, I am not advocating that poor work by beginners should be 
 spread around the class rooms. Only very skilled teachers or pupils who 
 have power of drawing as a mode of expression can attempt to make these 
 charts. Usually in my schools they have had four, five or six years' solid 
 training in the other departments, and are therefore quite fit to do the ex- 
 pert work illustrated. Where such experts are not available, printed charts 
 can be secured that will represent the different subjects with fidelity. 
 
 I do not believe in much copying from the flat, but I do believe that 
 it is possible for children in the lower grades of the primary schools to be 
 very much benefited by looking at and occasionally working from fine 
 charts, of forms that cannot readily be introduced into the school room. 
 Beautiful drawings of such animals as reptiles, insects, birds and fishes, can 
 be made and give pupils in the higher grades splendid practice. They can 
 be made sufficiently well for use in the lower grades in any thoroughly or- 
 ganized school. 
 
 It will be noticed in looking at the illustrations of these charts that the 
 forms are all large, made to be seen readily from any part of a large room. 
 The essential features are well marked, leaving out trifling detail, this being 
 valuable practice to the pupils making the charts, especially if they have to 
 stand up and do the work boldly and freely. Similar charts are made of 
 all the historic styles, the units of design, and important architectural forms. 
 In the mechanical departments the charts show modes of construction in 
 wood and metal; all the different joints and forms in wood can be illustrated, 
 and problems in perspecti\e and machine drawing, architectural plans and 
 elevations can be made on a large scale. 
 
 In making charts of this character, it is important to select the very 
 best forms for illustration in the stages that are most appropriate for 
 school uses. For nature studies or elementary science work many 
 beautiful charts can be made. In zoology, for instance, examples of the 
 radiates can be given, like the star fish, sea urchin, etc.; mollusks, — the snail, 
 mussel, clam, etc. Examples of articulates can also be given, — the lobster, 
 crab, grasshopper, bee, spider, etc. Examples of vertebrates — among the 
 fishes drawings can be made of trout, bass, herring, and shark. Batrachians 
 and amphibians can he drawn in various stages; examples — the toad, frog,
 
 Correlation of Art Methods 
 
 357 
 
 salamander, etc.; examples in reptiles — the snake, alligator, tortoise, lizard; 
 examples of birds — the chicken, duck, turkey, parrot, robin, swallow, etc.; 
 examples of mammals — the cat, dog^, sheep, horse, deer, lion, etc. In botany, 
 flowers can be drawn, — their general shape and appearance, and their dif- 
 ferent parts. Leaves of different kinds can be drawn,-.— simple leaves, com- 
 pound leaves and t)ther varieties. The germination and growth of plants 
 can be illustrated: seeds and their various jiarts can be explained. Other 
 charts can be made to show kinds of plants, their habits and their use: and 
 diagrams to show their anatomy, their structure, texture, etc. These are 
 simply suggestions tliat will be found elsewhere in the course for different 
 grades, and that show how drawing can be correlated to the other depart- 
 ments without any loss of time. 
 
 Illustration 404 
 
 ruiuliiHf chart of Mi.ch.inicul l'"ornii
 
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 CHAPTER III 
 
 Art and Manual Training in 
 Special Schools * 
 
 (<;) MGHT SCHOOLS 
 
 X EDUCATING THE YOUXG IX THE 
 night schools, there is no reason wliy we should 
 not give them, along with the means of making a 
 livelihood and an energetic disposition, a knowl- 
 edge of their own character and the possibilities 
 of which they are capable. All attempts in edu- 
 cation of this kind should be in the direction of 
 finding out what the pupil is most fitted for, and 
 then to develop the natural capacity. This is the 
 plan I have followed. 
 
 The training advocated is not visionary, it is 
 possible and practical. It has been tried and has 
 not been found wanting, and its beneficial 
 results are so patent as to convince even the 
 most skei)tical. In the tlilTcrent classes of the 
 various night schools that I direct, its effective- 
 ness is being constantly demonstrated. I-'ach 
 season sees an increase in the attendance, and 
 added earnestness and interest on the part of the pupils, and a real tangible 
 output of accomplished work, — work wliicli represents not only mu.scu!ar 
 energy, but thought, and which is moreover actually salal)lc. I have seen 
 many relays of pupils, ragged street urchins, dirty, irresponsible little waifs. 
 
 •In thin chapter arc given unnic Kcncral nuifitc^tlons. which arc thr mult of fincrn vrarn' experience with nluht 
 schnojs, summer fchooU and vacatinn vchuolit, after trying many kiuJ> of work with »cvcr»l graitea of chilJren anJ 
 adults. 
 
 (359)
 
 360 Various Applications 
 
 with no organized classified knowledge of anything except vice, grow into 
 sturdy youths, cleanly from personal preference, decently clothed, amenable 
 to rules, and above all, ambitious, with power to work and plod steadily. 
 They have become so unconsciously (through the performance of sys- 
 tematic and persistent actions, and through their improved associations"), un- 
 der the endeavor to create things of use and beauty. They have learned 
 how to do, how to make their hands the servants of their brains, how to use 
 their intellect to some pleasurable end. The joy they find in the discovery 
 of these unknown faculties is attested by their voluntary application to the 
 school tasks, an application which resembles that of the enthusiastic young 
 mechanic to his "job" rather than of the unwilling pupil to his lesson. 
 
 It requires very little thought to convince almost any one that there 
 must be something in artistic work, where the beauty of the product is con- 
 sidered as well as the use, that has in a measure repaid the artist in past 
 periods, since it is well known they have often received little return in the 
 way of money. This is true with regard to the work of authors, poets and 
 others, as well as of artists. There is a certain amount of joy in the labor 
 that compensates. The exercise of the higher faculties is one of the most 
 important functions of life. Children are not to be shut out from this — es- 
 pecially poor children. Neglected children, those who have not had the 
 advantages enjoyed by children in comfortable circumstances, are wonder- 
 fully responsive to the training that brings out this spirit. 
 
 To get any response from the very young and irresponsible we must ap- 
 peal to the emotions and aspirations.* Dry tasks and uninteresting work 
 will not do this; they must be fascinated and charmed. This can readily be 
 done with proper methods. Children are first idly curious, then attentive, 
 then ambitious, in an easy series of steps. 
 
 The young are imitative and very susceptible to suggestion. At cer- 
 tain stages they must be doing something, good or evil. Overflowing 
 with energy, it must have an outcome, a vent. This current can be made 
 to flow in any tlirection. Usually it is environment that controls this ex- 
 penditure or flow of energy, and the children are, and do, as their associates 
 do. I find there is a wonderful impulse to action stored up at certain 
 
 • Art tlrouscs emotions and aspirations but not appetites. Its effect is therefore to purify the feelinjjs. — [Dr. W. 
 T. Harris.
 
 Special Schools 
 
 361 
 
 periods in the young, especially among the lower classes. The lower one 
 goes in the social scale, the more energy we find exerted on material things, 
 the more we find the capacity for work implanted. 
 
 I have seen boys in some of my night schools come in drenched with 
 
 Illustration 405 
 
 Night School In a Church nascmcnt 
 Sixty pupils arc engaged in drawing, dcfeigning, mndcling and cani-ing. 
 
 the rain, after a hard day's work selling newspapers, or delivering mes- 
 sages, the slave of twenty bosses perhaps in some shop, and sit down to 
 carve or model until a pool formed at their feet. They will work two ht)nrs 
 with energy and pleasure, often at heavy work, and go home hapi)y and well, 
 if moist. The same thing done by a pupil reared in the lap of iu.xury 
 would send him to his grave, or perhaps cause him some serious illness.
 
 Z62 Various Applications 
 
 Many men and women at maturity seem to lose this natural activity that 
 is planted in them to do things. It seems to be diverted to aimless drifting 
 from one thing to another, or to reading newspapers and other matter. 
 With many this mental dram drinking seems to absorb so much energy that 
 none is left for the real things in life. It is said, " By their fruits ye shall 
 know them;" and this also, — " To him that hath shall be given, and to him 
 that hath not shall be taken even that which he hath." Unless one works, 
 even the desire to do so will gradually pass away. After maturity, in many 
 cases, it seems impossible to arouse the activities by any means. See how 
 incessant these activities in the young — so should they be during mature 
 age. 
 
 Importance of Occupation. —The path is plain for teachers who 
 really desire to change the character of the pupils in their charge. It is not 
 difficult to give the boys or girls a disposition to perform right action. Every 
 deed is a prayer and helps in forming habits of right that will result in a good 
 disposition. Their energies are just as active toward viciousness if their 
 environiiient is vicious, and it is simply to counteract these influences that 
 the teacher has to work. 
 
 Do not let the pupils in night schools or vacation schools be injured b}' 
 contact with namby-pamby, goody-goody people, who come in at intervals 
 with the very earnest desire to help, but whose ideas of help are so nebulous 
 and obscure as to usually resemble their own tendencies. They will wish to 
 amuse the children, and frecjuently think the simple contact with their supe- 
 rior presence is sufficient to elevate them. They will frequently seek to 
 patronize the children to the extent of reading to them or playing games with 
 them. In some cases I have actually seen good boys ruined by these well- 
 meaning, thoughtless people, who have attempted to better their hard lives 
 and conditions by teaching them how to dance and sing, and in some cases 
 even going to the trouble of giving them lessons on the lianjo, in jig dancing, 
 light opera, and things of this kind. 
 
 It does not require much thought to realize that unless we can put 
 these boys in a different environment from that they live in, it is an injury to 
 their characters to make them pursue pleasure for its own sake, without giv- 
 ing them at the same time a disposition to be reliant and industrious in 
 other directions. To give them the one without the other is wicked. This 
 I have seen done even in a church school.
 
 Special Schools 
 
 363 
 
 We expect too itiucIt from cliildreii when we send them to Sunday school 
 one or two hours a week, or to a night class or a guild, where ihev have 
 simply been singing hymns and listening to diluted ideas or printed matter, 
 which deals with truths of nature at second-hand. Wc expect too much 
 
 Illustrations 406-407 
 
 lit tlic Wood-Wftrkin^ lJ<-|i.irtiiii;nl, lli^li School 
 
 The teacher is explaining construction and dimensions of Bny fitting joints in a Tranie inadi- 1<y the 
 
 pattern wheel for c;islin)(. pupil. 
 
 from tliem, I say, if we expect tiiem to realize and appreciate righteousness, 
 order, high principles and so on by such " second-hand" methods. They 
 must get practical lessons in these things, not auditory impressions only. 
 The first and the whole part of a teacher's duty in the lieginning is to 
 make the children perceive the iiriiiciples of beauty and titness implanted in 
 nature, and to train them to make the necessary reactions. Children must 
 be bombarded with these ideas. Tliev must be drenched with the bcautv of
 
 364 Various Applications 
 
 things and of life at first-hand, just as nature is continually hammering at 
 them in so man_\- other directions. Then the lessons can be carried from 
 these things to the abstract ideas based on them. 
 
 How can we expect children to be influenced by concepts of evil 
 preached to them, when they are not conscious of tangible and visible evils 
 in their environment? How can we expect love to be infused into the mind 
 by beautiful words, written or spoken, if they cannot appreciate the A'isible 
 and tangible beauty in things around? How can we expect parents who 
 are blind to visible physical evils, actually existing in some of their children, 
 to realize anything about the invisible mental evils and vices that may be 
 developing in their character? The spiritual or mental life has just as many 
 sides, suffers injury just as readily and is as capable of improvement as the 
 physical. Some one has truly said, " It is much easier to let children do 
 as the}^ will than to make them do as the}- ought. It is necessary to form 
 moral habits in children before you can inculcate moral principles. Later 
 on you can justify your habits bv principles." 
 
 Application and Plant Required. — One of the chief advantages of 
 this method for night and vacation schools is its feasibility of application, 
 slight cost and ease of adaptation to diverse classes. Classes have been estab- 
 lished in \'arions churches, guilds and aid societies on week-day evenings, 
 and during the summer months in the forenoons. I propose here to give a 
 few suggestions as to cost and application, in very simple ways. These sug- 
 gestions can be used by committees of various kinds, or single individuals, 
 who can carry out the work. Usually, however, a committee of one is the 
 best. 
 
 I have supposed, for the present instance, that the room, a large room, 
 has been provided by the organization, society or church, and that there are 
 chairs and light, everything else to be furnished. The committee should 
 decide on the number of pupils and the branches. For general purposes I 
 find that the most feasible way is to use the four fundamental branches — 
 drawing, designing, clay modeling and carving. 
 
 If the committee decide to do this, and the room is large enough for 
 twelve pupils in each department, plant can be furnished as follows : Four 
 large tables, each 3x12 feet. The tops of these tables must be at least two 
 inches thick, on trestles that can be moved, so that they can be put away 
 at any time. One table is to be used for wood carving, one for modeling
 
 Special Schools 
 
 365 
 
 and two for drawing, — twelve pupils at eacli table. This allows them 
 plenty of room, and if necessary even fourteen can sit at each table. If a 
 school room is taken the ordinarv desks can be used, but tables or benches 
 
 Illustration 408 
 
 Clay Modclin:^ in u Night School 
 
 Flo-sh light picture of clay niodclin); dcp.artnicnt, in church hascnicnt. These boys somctimcit dniw on paper 
 and cun'c in wood. 
 
 are better for carving. This ])lant will be for an equipment of about fifty 
 pupils. Of course more than that number can be enrolled, there always 
 being some unavoidable absences each session. 
 
 The plant, apart from the tools, required for this number, will be: — as 
 many blackboards as there is wall space (if they can be borrowed or pro- 
 cured: for at least two or three blackboards should be used all the time, the 
 pupils taking turns at this work, — leaving their seats, working for ten min- 
 utes at the blackboard and then changing with other pupils): some open 
 shelves to stack the work ujion. a closet to lock up tools and materials, and 
 a clav box. This will be all that is required. .\ simple i)ine box 4 or 5 feet
 
 366 Various Applications 
 
 long, with a lid, will do to hold the clay. A few shelves can be put at one 
 end to place the partly finished work on. 
 
 Mdteridls Needed, — For the drawing work: One ream of manila 
 paper, 36 lbs. to the ream (this is good, strong paper, and can be used for 
 designing and for practice work, and will last about one winter for a class 
 of 50, using it very liberally); three gross lead pencils, two pounds of rub- 
 ber and four dozen small camel's-hair brushes, Xos. 4 and 5, for painting the 
 patterns and designs; two dozen bottles Higgins' black ink, or India ink, or, 
 if it is a matter of economy,, common jet-black ink can he purchased; one 
 dozen boxes common water colors (Rembrandt boxes are good for this 
 purpose, costing 25 cents each); five dozen foot-rules, — these are usually 
 given away at the art stores with advertisements on them. 
 
 For the modeling department: 18 modeling boards, 12x14 inches 
 (these can be made of pine at about fifteen cents each by any carpenter, 
 battened on each end to prevent warping); two dozen small modeling tools, 
 one dozen large modeling tools, two dozen palette knives, with blades about 
 five inches in length, — the thick, heavy ones are the best; six common cups 
 or mugs to hold water; and six small sponges. For models, plaster casts 
 and natural forms can be used, according to the amount of money that can 
 be procured for this purpose. The forms described in this book are rec- 
 ommended as being the most valuable for the purpose, and can be readily 
 purchased. 
 
 For the carving department, the following materials would be re- 
 quired : One common grindstone, foot power; one saw, cross-cut; one 
 hammer, one screw driver, one box of assorted nails, two boxes of tacks and 
 twelve sets of carving tools. There are ten tools in each box, — small sharp- 
 ening stone, one mallet, two clamps and a stamping tool, this being about 
 the usual equipment for one pupil (Illus. 317). With twelve complete sets and 
 a few additional tools that are used in common, eighteen boys if necessary 
 can work, some of the tools not being in use all of the time. A carpenter's 
 steel square, two sharpening stones and one common jack plane complete 
 the equipment of tools for the carving department. 
 
 The wood required for carving will be 250 feet of soft red oak, planed 
 to seven-eighths of an inch in thickness. This can be delivered in planks and 
 cut off as required, of various lengths, according to the size of the work the 
 pupils wish. For convenience, the planks can be cut in two at the lumber
 
 special Schools 
 
 367 
 
 yards, making pieces that can he readily stored away. The planks sliouid 
 run ahout six. eight and ten inches in width. One hundred feet of soft 
 quartered oak can be usetl for best work, of the same width and thickness. 
 In ordering lumber, be sure to get tiie soft oak. It is firm in texture ami 
 just right for carving. Some oak is very hard, and it is almost impossible 
 
 Illustration 409 
 
 Untwini^, Dc^i^ning and .Mo<lclin|( 
 St. James boys* guild ni^ht school. 
 
 for children in the beginning to do much with it. .Sec that the oak which 
 you buy. then, is the desired quality. It can usually be purchased at abcnit 
 five or six cents a foot, wholesale, in the cities. 
 
 Chalk and lead pencils to be used by the carving class in making their 
 designs on the boards, will be furnished by the drawing dci)arlment. .\ 
 can of oil must be provided for sharpening the tools, and it is good to have a 
 can of boiled linseed oil and a brush to oil the carvings when they are fin- 
 ished, according to the option of the teacher. 
 
 For the blackboard dei)artment, at least one dozen erasers will be re- 
 quired, and six gross (or boxes) of school chalk or crayon. See that the
 
 368 Various Applications 
 
 blackboards are placed in a position where they will not interfere with the 
 workers at the tables. A clock, one call bell and a roll book, with a small 
 desk or table for the teacher attending to the discipline, roll call, etc., will 
 be all the eqnipment reqnired. If possible, use slate blackboards. Any 
 other kind will wear out very quickly, on account of the constant use. Can- 
 vas or wood surfaces and painted surfaces are very good for use for or- 
 dinary purposes, but slate is the best if pupils are to work constantly, the 
 life of a canvas. board l)eing only a few months if it is used steadily. 
 
 The Tedchers Needed. — In running a class of this kind, numbering 
 from 50 to 60, three teachers will be reqnired, — one each for drawing, mod- 
 eling and carving. The pupils can change at intervals from table to table. 
 There can be a regular system, allowing pupils to change every third or 
 fourth session. — the whole class together, or it can be done at the finish of 
 each piece of work individually, according to convenience, ^^'hile rotation 
 of work is important, there need be no set rule about it. 
 
 Do not let the children work in one department only. This they will 
 sometimes desire to do. See that the pupils, however, get the advantage 
 of the opposite kinds of work. \\'e find in the cities the most convenient 
 hour for a night class to be from 7 130 to 9 :30. For vacation schools from 
 9:30 to II :30 a. m., if one session only. In some schools, however, two 
 or three classes can be received during the forenoon. The school can be 
 conducted one, two or three nights a week, according to the amount of 
 money to be spent for teachers. 
 
 The following rules will be found useful in managing the children in the 
 evenings. Do not allow them to enter the room till 7 130. See that the 
 teachers are in attendance at 7:15: this is very important. If a teacher 
 comes late, the class is demoralized. If this happens repeatedly with any 
 teacher, change the teacher. See that each teacher has the work 
 spread out and in place on each table before pupils enter, all work 
 to lie cared for and carefully put away after the class is over. Indi- 
 vidual instruction .'should be given to each pupil in rotation by the teacher 
 of each ta1)le. 
 
 Take the roll about nine o'clock, ring the bell, have all the classes 
 cease work and call ofT the names. This is the most rapid and best way. 
 At the same time, announcements can be made of any kind pertaining to 
 the work, and it is advisal)lc to make statements at frequent intervals as to
 
 Special Schools 
 
 Z69 
 
 the character and benefit of the work. Instruct the teachers to continually 
 enforce the rule that pupils must sit up in their seats, keep their heads level 
 and their designs and work spread evenly on the table. Damage is done to 
 the pupils physically by their drooping over their work, this shortening the 
 focal length of vision and injuring the breathing capacitv. 
 
 If the pupils are boisterous in their conduct, stop it at once. The 
 moment they come in, the rule should be immediately enforced that they 
 
 Illustrations 410-41 1 
 
 Designed and Car\-cd in Llii: Ni)(lit bUiuui* 
 
 take their seats proni])lly and quietly, and begin to work. .\ny boisterous 
 calling to each other or " cutting u])" nuist be cause for removal. In our 
 classes the work is so interesting that the pupils settle down very readily, 
 and there is no trouble at all in keeping order. Even " toughs." that 
 come in occasionally to some of these classes, become like " tin angels" for 
 the time being. 
 
 One of the three teachers should have general authority, and see that 
 the pupils go up to the blackboard in rotation. Invite visitors and friends
 
 370 Various Applications 
 
 of pupils as much as possible to visit the school. This encourages the 
 pupils and helps to maintain order. See that the pupils are at work all 
 of the time. 
 
 As the work is finishetl in the ilrawing, modeling or carving depart- 
 ments, have it placed on the walls for exhibition. Do this from the first 
 night. Do it while the children are there. In a very short time the walls 
 will be decorated with pieces of work. As the character of the work im- 
 proves, remove the poor pieces and place good work in their places. At 
 certain periods allow the pupils to keep their work, and take it home. If 
 any child expresses particular desire to show its parents the work, allow it 
 to be taken home, but make the rule that it should be brought back the 
 next night. Keep all finished work for the exhibition, at the end of the 
 term. After that, allow every piece of work to be kept by the pupil. 
 
 This is very important and is a great means of encouraging the classes, 
 because each piece of work will impress the parents as to its value, and they 
 will soon help the teacher in keeping pupils steady in their attendance. I 
 have known cases where the parents have forcibly removed their children 
 in the beginning, through ignorance. I have seen the same children 
 brought back by their parents when they could see what valuable work other 
 children were able to do, and what an influence it was in keeping them out 
 of mischief. 
 
 Teachers in the Night or Vacation Schools must remember that 
 the object of the work is a little different from that of the ordinary school. 
 Discipline and education are not the only things to be considered. The 
 children are also working for fun and recreation. It must be made pleasant 
 for them. Teachers must realize when they are working with degraded 
 children, that their minds are small, and they must be led from stage to 
 stage unconsciously. If you give a street arab or some waif a piece of work 
 that becomes irksome from its subject, that particular pupil is apt to despair 
 the second session, from lack of self-control and energy. Like the savage 
 who will only work when he has to, they have not been taught the habit 
 of continuous application. 
 
 A good teacher must, therefore, be very particular at this stage with 
 all the different pupils, to see that there is an element of satisfaction and 
 pleasure in their work. They must be allowed to do things which are not 
 rigidly graded and are not visibly in the nature of drill and discipline.
 
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 372 Various Applications 
 
 They must be allowed to select what they please as long as it is not too dif- 
 ficult for them to attempt, and even if the result is failure, the teacher will 
 remember that it is the endeavor that counts, not the achievement. 
 
 For this reason the drawing teacher will not give the drill forms too 
 much in the beginning. Do not present the dry aspect of the work. 
 Encourage the children to make diagrams of things they like, and even to 
 make copies of things, if they are pleased with them. Xo attempt should 
 be made to administer the drill forms steadily. That should be done on 
 the blackboard at intervals only. The rest of the time the children could 
 be making patterns and designs for various purposes similar to the ones on 
 exhibition on the walls, and this usually pleases them very much. Occa- 
 sionall}- let the pupil draw leaves, flowers, shells, animals, and other sim- 
 ilar things. Recently I have found war vessels, torpedo boats, guns, sol- 
 diers, etc.. drawn by the children spontaneously and with intense interest. 
 Keep up this work, and by degrees they become equally fascinated by other 
 forms; do not curb the pupils in these tendencies vmless absolutely neces- 
 sary. Their tasks, aims and desires can be elevated liv degrees. The 
 same is true in the modeling department, and after they have made one or 
 two very simple pieces, they may be allowed, if they desire, to attempt to 
 copy the forms that give them pleasure, no matter how grotesque or poor 
 the product is at first. The teacher will usually be surprised at the improve- 
 ment shown, as the children, when they have received encouragement 
 to go on by the pleasure they find in the work, later take readily to work 
 that is more in the nature of discipline. For this reason the teacher will 
 allow them to select simple models. Do not compel them to take any one 
 against their will; let them select the model, if it is not too difficult, whether 
 an animal's head or another form. I have known many cases where I 
 have taken boys that were discouraged from the dift'erent classes and have 
 personally put them to modeling lions or griffins or drawing a warship cv 
 something that gave them pleasure, and after a few weeks' struggling this 
 way, tlicy have become the best pupils in the class. 
 
 Encourage the Pupils, — I must repeatedly speak of the desirability of 
 encouraging the pupils and leading them from step to step unconsciously, 
 rewarding them in a measure with a chance to do more important work if 
 they complete in a satisfactory manner what they are doing. I continually 
 feel that the ones who do the poorest work anil who are the most ready to
 
 special Schools 
 
 373 
 
 give up at the slightest diftlciilty, are the ones who neeil encouragement 
 the most, and that they frequently turn out to be the steadiest and best 
 pupils in the end. Consider this all the time. No one can pick out the 
 geniuses in the beginning. 
 
 Remember, it is their characters and their minds we are shaping, and 
 the most degraded, wretched-looking pupils are the ones that respond most 
 
 illustration 412 
 
 Instrumental and Ciu.1 Drawing 
 St. James boys' guild night schcwi. 
 
 faithfullv to patience, as they are also the ones who need it the most. When 
 children reach this stage, it is very easy, in the course of a few years, to see 
 their characters change and to see the same change reflected in their faces. 
 No joy is greater than to transform mind and character, and also to see this 
 transformation reflected in the face. This is the reward of a (rue teacher. 
 No set of children respond to tliis treatment more readily than the 
 lowest, including some so unwashed and wretched, some so marked by 
 disease, that it would seem they could never reach maturity. I have seen the 
 same little wretches grown into big. strapj.ing young men, with eager, 
 bright faces, ambitious an.l energetic, ].rcpared to fight a good fight in 
 the battle of life.
 
 374 Various Applications 
 
 Street c4rabs. — There if a certain kind of street aral) tliat can he met 
 with in any large city that is something like a rat. You can see them at 
 night sneaking around street corners and alleys, restless spirits, unable to 
 sit consecutively even for ten minutes in the same place. They think if 
 you look at them steadily for a minute that you are going to strike them. 
 They are of any age from six to about eight or ten.— absolutely little an- 
 imals, able to smoke, chew and swear with ease and facility. It is not pos- 
 sible to take them at this stage into these regular classes, but in several of 
 my schools I have a place apart with a few blackboards, where they can work 
 if they wish to for a few minutes at a time. Usually they drift in and out 
 
 all the evening, sometimes as 
 Illustration 413 , 1 • 1 1 1 r 
 
 thick as a bunch of grapes, 
 
 .;.-.-'. — 'ti .i'r-f.'i'TT'r^^^"'^^^ -"] sometimes, if there are other 
 
 'A ■ I'-S^- .-^i^-i^^W ^ V- attractions on the street, verv 
 
 ■'-^ p^y-^' ' ■T'^j^i. "'■— ?"■■ f*^''\- It is advisable to have a 
 
 teacher in charge of this de 
 
 &^ 
 
 . ir,.\:L^Kj, ;_/',''; -^' ii:, partment, and thev should do 
 
 ■ ■■-J'd^'it'-',./ ,^/i ^ - ■ ■ ' almost anything they please 
 
 ',]/C^"^''^'^''^.' ■ ' " 1 °" ^'^^ blackboards. When 
 
 "^ thev have formed the habit of 
 
 Uniini>hi:j Panel by Night School Pupil couiiug and cau work steadilv 
 
 and consecutively, they are 
 promoted to seats for the ordinary work. Do not, however, let them mix at 
 this stage with the other pupils. They are very quick and ready to "get 
 onto" the advantage that accrues to them if they settle down, and pupils 
 emerge from this disorganized little body by degrees into the light, the quiet 
 and the order of the other classes. 
 
 I have found it at intervals useful to give slight money rewards to those 
 who do the best, — little spurs and incentives that urge them. This is not 
 bribery. I do not believe in the principle of awards, except in the case of 
 these classes. They are not necessary among ordinary pupils. The 
 teacher in care of these little ones must have a certain amount of tact and 
 must exert a little discipline at intervals. 
 
 Properly conducted, a class of this kind will help mightily. It is per- 
 haps more important than any other of the departments of work, because 
 of its powerful influence for good in this early period of child life, and its
 
 Special Schools 
 
 375 
 
 influence on the character. The most wretclied children can be easily bent 
 in any ilirectinn at this age or period. 
 
 Wood Curbing. — The teacher of this department in a night school 
 or vacation school will allow the pupils to carve very simple panels in the 
 beginning, about fourteen or fifteen inches long. In making their pat- 
 terns on these panels, they must be assisted. Xo harm is done if the 
 teacher in the beginning actually draws one-half the simple pattern. The 
 pupil can then be required to copy in chalk and pencil the other half. Then 
 they are ready to carve. 
 
 They are very anxious to begin with the cutting tools, and usually, 
 unless they are watched carefully, will break many tools in the beginning. 
 
 Illustration 414 
 
 Clay Modeling Department, St. Jamca Doyn' Guild Night School 
 The dcaigni on the w«ll» are made by the boy»— Clay box io the bade ground. 
 
 This must be prevented in case of malicious damage by punishments, which 
 must be carried out and enforced from the beginning. If pupils damage each 
 other's v.ork. see that the ofTender is removed. Ever}' one is surprised at
 
 376 
 
 Various Applications 
 
 the beautiful product that can be made almost from the beginning by some 
 of these boys, who seem from appearance to lack all capacity. 
 
 The boys must also be encouraged to make things for them- 
 selves as soon as possible. They should be given blanks for fur- 
 niture, and it is advisable to have a few pieces of work in the room for the 
 puipls to see, similar to the work illustrated in Nos. 346, 348 and 416. 
 
 Illustrations 415-416 
 
 Choirs Designed and Carved by Xorinul Class 
 
 From the beginning almost, boys above ten or twelve years of age can be- 
 gin making mirror frames, chairs, brackets, settees, etc. When a few in 
 the class have realized the value of these things, you will see a wonderful 
 spirit diffused among the pupils, and there is great pride on all sides in be- 
 
 longing to the school. 
 
 ^^'e have found it one of the best plans in conaucting this work, to al- 
 low the boys to carve blanks that are made up afterwards into chairs, settees,
 
 special Schools 377 
 
 hat racks, mirrors and so on, and then dispose of the work if possible l)y 
 sale, deducting the cost of the materials and giving the boy the product of 
 his labor. For instance, if a chair blank costs $3, and putting together 
 and polishing cost $2 more, it will make the chair cost about $5, which 
 chair, properly carved, will sell for $10 or $12. If the chair is sold — and we 
 can usually find customers for work of this character — the boy can then be 
 paid the amount above the cost and construction — $5 or $7, as the case 
 may be. It is a very dull, stupid boy who cannot, after a few months, make 
 forms and do carving to the value of twenty-five or fifty cents a night. If he 
 does work of this character, and witli good materials selected and superin- 
 tended by a good teacher, who sees that the work is properly constructed 
 and finished, it is always salable. Value is put into the raw material. It 
 has an auction value. It is not, like the feeble amateur work produced 
 in some places, valueless. A nicely enriched chair or mirror frame or hat 
 stand always has some money value above the cost of lumber. This kind 
 of boy is usually quick in appreciating the value of money, and I know of no 
 better means of enabling boys to realize the dignity of labor, nor a better 
 way by which we can make them become self-reliant and ambitious, than by 
 giving them a key to the power that is locked up within them, if tlicy use 
 it rightly. 
 
 I protest against the stupid idea of some people who have only partly 
 looked into these matters, and who will sometimes, because this work is 
 so valuable to the boys, frequently desire to make a charge for tuition; 
 anything, they say, — five or ten cents a lesson, — so as to make them realize 
 the value of it. These are foolish people invariably, because in so doing 
 they discourage as pupils the very ones desired most. In these classes we 
 usually desire the very pupils who are not willing to pay for the lessons, but 
 who would rather pay the five cents or the ten cents for cigarettes or to- 
 bacco, or a vicious dime novel. The good boy willing to pay is the one 
 able to get along without so much help. I have had many pupils, seem- 
 ingly most hopeless cases, that are now in successful business for them- 
 selves, and who received their start and inspiration from the methods of 
 these night schools. 
 
 Retvarcfs or Prizes. — In the night schools and vacation classes it is 
 very useful to give as an incentive prizes to the best workers at the end of 
 the season. The.se may consist of sets of tools, sets of paints, water colors,
 
 I 
 >- 
 
 t- 
 
 f- 
 < 
 
 a. 
 
 
 ■it 
 
 
 
 - y 
 
 1- y 
 
 '^ I h 
 
 00 Ni 
 
 , . > -^ j5 
 
 c ;'Z
 
 Special Schools 379 
 
 drawing materials or instruments for the pupils in drawing and designing, 
 and sets of carving tools or carpenter's tools for the carvers and wood 
 workers. Sometimes we allow them to make their choice. In some night 
 schools these prizes can be on exhibition part of the time. They act as 
 wonderful incentives to some of the boys who desire to possess them. It 
 is perfectly proper to make use of these means to encourage them to form 
 the habit of work. 
 
 Some people, of course, will say that the inspiration should come 
 to the pupil through the value of the work alone, but they forget that the 
 children, through lack of certain ideas, do not recognize this value, and that 
 means must he taken to get the habit some other way. This industrial hand- 
 training, especially tho.se kinds that engage a certain amount of the physi- 
 cal energy of the individual, educates both the mental and the physical 
 faculties. The mind being kept constantly active, and occupying the hand 
 in fashioning various forms, the time passes pleasurably. and the pupil grad- 
 ually becomes satisfied and contented with the gratification following the 
 work itself, a contentment that pleasant labor and work always produces. 
 
 (/i) VACATION' SCHOOLS* 
 
 These have been conducted in connection with St. James Protestant 
 r,piscopal church in Philadelphia every summer since 1886. In these vaca- 
 tion schools boys and girls work together, and such valuable results have 
 been obtained that the idea is being adopted in other cities and towns at 
 home and abroad. By this means large numbers of children can be kept 
 off the streets in comfortable, safe quarters, an<l at the same time can be get- 
 ting the best kind of training. Classes can be conducted in any ordinary 
 .school room, and the same plant described for the night schools can be used. 
 
 School committees and others in authority should not allow teachers 
 without elementary skill and art knowledge to attempt to teach the children 
 in vacation schools; the children have the right to proper instruction in art 
 and ufanual work. The author has seen many classes started lately by well- 
 meaning but ignorant people, where much harm has been done to the chil- 
 dren through wrong instruction and loss of time. During the past summer 
 several cities have "taken up" the vacation work, and in some schools the 
 regular teachers have been employed, and the class rooms thrown open to 
 
 » Further particuL-ir. <•• to .uch vacation .chooU and night Khool. may be oblalnrJ from Mr. W. W. 1- niller, 
 Jr., Trcisurrr St.Jamcn noys" Guild, PhiLidclphia. Pa.
 
 380 Various Applications 
 
 the children, who have simply been experimented with. Too many teachers 
 tliink that because there are plenty of children, they can dally with them and 
 test their own stupidity by consuming the child's time that is so valual^ile at 
 this vital period of life. In some classes, kindergarten work has been given 
 to grown pupils, boys 15 years of age have been seen doing paper cutting 
 and weaving or stick-laying, work with toothpicks and potato cubes, whit- 
 tling, etc. 
 
 When teachers at good salaries are employed to do work of this char- 
 acter, and expensive plants for wood-working are used and instruction given 
 to a few only, — the mob of children being really only employed with "busy 
 work," — it shows crass ignorance of elementary education. It is still the 
 idea of many that as long as the children are cutting paper, making clay 
 cubes or whittling, that they are getting art and manual training. It is a 
 mistaken and false idea and one that will work out in the course of a very 
 short period. The children will tire very quickly of these "occupations," 
 and in some of these false manual-training vacation schools the attendance 
 will diminish very rapidly instead of increasing. Right methods of art, 
 manual training and nature study should be used, that fascinate and at the 
 same time elevate the children, and that will produce lasting benefit, instead 
 of merely consuming the pupils' vital energy and time during this formative 
 period of growth. 
 
 The art and manual-training methods described in this book are valuable 
 for their feasibility of application in common rooms and school buildings, 
 no heavy plant or changes being required. These methods prove so inter- 
 esting to the children that they eagerly flock to the summer schools, when 
 other systems will not hold their attention. 
 
 (c) NORMAL SCHOOLS AND SUMMER SCHOOLS 
 
 In Norma.1 Schools, and in all training schools for teachers, the 
 applicability of these methods is especially marked. Probably it is only a 
 question of a short time before these ways of correlating art, real manual 
 training and nature study with other school work will become a prominent 
 feature in such institutions. That they greatly need improvement along 
 these lines is apparent. The public demands the new education, and as fast 
 as the methods herein are mastered by competent teachers, there will be 
 lucrative positions for them. The results of these methods of training speak
 
 Special Schoob 
 
 381 
 
 for themselves. The art, manual training and nature-study idea is right; 
 the masses are hound to have it. 
 
 Besides the classes for teachers from the IMiila<lelphia public schools, 
 private normal classes are conducted at my studios or at my private summer 
 schools. The time needeil to qualify teachers to apply the new methods 
 in elementary schools is surprisingly brief for those who really apply them- 
 selves. Not the least remarkal)le characteristic of these methods is the 
 
 Illustrations 417-418 
 
 r 
 
 L ^. 
 
 SccuiiJ ^Ui^k 
 
 Panel for Front of Dtjsk. Can vd by pupil of tummcr ftchool. 
 Adirondacks 
 
 facility with which they can be mastered, even by adults who have never 
 had any art instruction or manual training. Sometimes such adults make 
 better teachers than others who have to undo tlicir previous training. Tor 
 elementary school teachers, a course of 30 lessons each in manual training 
 .Irawing. modeling and carving, duly rotated, and accompanied by pmpcr 
 practice at home, is found to be suflicient. though more thorough training 
 of course has its compensating advantages.
 
 382 
 
 Various Applications 
 
 Summer Schools for both teachers and younger pupils in the country 
 also prove very attractive. Plate Thirty-six gives a glimpse of such a class 
 at the Adirondack summer school, which is further referred to at the close 
 of Chapter Y of this section. The summer school or institute is growing 
 in favor, and for such institutions these methods are peculiarly adapted. 
 
 Illustration 419 
 
 
 Children Modeling Vase Forms — Summer School 
 
 This picture, and also the one used for the initial to Chapter Five, were 
 made at my summer school in the Adirondacks. The work is sometimes 
 done in the open air and sometimes in the studio, according to the weather. 
 The vase and jar forms are modeled by hand entirely and then decorated. 
 Large jardinieres, two or three feet high, can be made this way. These jars 
 are fired at a pottery and can be painted several colors and glazed. The 
 firing is very hard, and only a few colors can stand it, but fine tints of 
 mazarine blue, brown, green, vellow and white can be made, and for decora-
 
 Special Schools 
 
 383 
 
 tive purposes these strong uiulerglaze colors are very appropriate. Flower 
 and innl)relia stands, urns, dishes, tiles, door weights, etc., and a variety of 
 other forms and all kinds of pottery can be made. These afTonl ample 
 opportunity for original design, or suggestions may be seen in bric-a-l)rac 
 stores. Beautiful examples of this kind of work can be seen in Japanese 
 stores; many of their quaint tlragons and idols are made of colored clay tired. 
 Work of this kind is a great help in arousing the interest of children. 
 The forms are a cliange from making tiles or the like, and the pupils will 
 work with renewed interest. To completely make a vase and decorate it 
 requires continuetl ajiplication. 
 
 Illustration 420 
 
 .Moilcliug Uic UuB Irulu Lilc— bummer School
 
 > 
 
 (/) 
 
 I 
 >- 
 
 s 
 
 H 
 u 
 
 •J 
 a. 
 
 o •Bt. 
 
 LU 
 
 
 ^ o 
 
 E.5 
 
 ^ 3 
 
 rt 
 ^« 
 
 •- n
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 
 Other Uses for 
 Art, Manual Training; 
 and Nature Study 
 Illustration 431 
 
 (<j) DECORATING THE SCHOOL ROOM 
 
 1^. XDE.WOR FROM THE BEGIN- 
 niiig t(j make the school room or the 
 class room attractive. The mind is 
 intluenccd hy its environment. Do 
 not let that environment, especially of 
 the young, he blank walls. But it is 
 not necessary that \vc should have the 
 greatest masterpieces of Greek art. 
 the frieze of the Parthenon, the Venus 
 uf Melos. etc.. in the kindergarten and 
 primary school. Art forms alone, 
 without the proper exercise and 
 proper studies, are as powerless to 
 elevate the mind as it is for a person 
 to lift himself hy his own hoot-straps. 
 But it is possible for the average teacher to make the class rooms more 
 beautiful than they are at present by ( i ) decoration with natural forms and 
 things that can be readily procured by any intelligent teacher, and 
 (2) with simple art works that little children can understand. There is no 
 reason why ordinary school rooms, in being painted, shoidd not have bor- 
 ders or dadoes painted illustrating simple patterns of the best styles. Pro- 
 vide shelves, or closets with glass doors, that could be filled with interesting 
 » (385) 
 
 Under^laze pottery and fnelal plaque made i 
 Decorative Art Club, Philadelphia
 
 386 Various Applications 
 
 objects desired by the children and selected by the teacher. Do not allow 
 trash to accumulate. 
 
 In our school rooms we find that the walls can very soon be decorated 
 with attractive designs made for all kinds of purposes and with models, some 
 of which are reproductions of the best art works of great artists. These 
 help to furnish rooms very nicely and serve as inspiration to the pupils also. 
 Pictures in this look show how attracti\e the school room mav be thus 
 made with samples of the best work of the pupils in drawing, modeling and 
 carving. Such work accumulates so rapidly there is never any trouble 
 about decorating our school rooms. A great variety of charts useful for 
 school purposes, as indicated in Illustrations 397 to 404. are not without 
 some degree of beauty. They are certainly better than walls unadorned, 
 and also give the school room an air of "business" that is quite attractive to 
 young and old. 
 
 The artists and good people who are now beginning to decorate the 
 school rooms with great art works ought to be influenced to use instead 
 work that is more suited to the minds of the children, not far above their 
 powers of appreciation. One who has heard the remarks of the children 
 and teachers about the broken Venus and several other statues of a similar 
 character during the past ten years, knows that they are not being impressed 
 as a great many persons think. Instead they are too often forming a dislike, 
 that will continue through life, to models and forms which might otherwise 
 have been a joy and a pleasure to them in later years. Purcel and Bach and 
 Handel were great musicians, but all the same you cannot make small chil- 
 dren understand or love their fugues. It is a matter of cultivation. So it is 
 with art forms. You can, however, by wrong methods, form a dislike that 
 will become ingrained and perhaps do a great deal of damage, perverting 
 some who might have been otherwise influenced. 
 
 There should be more endeavor by teachers, with the aid of their pupils, 
 to do with the school room or class room as they do at hoiue. Encourage 
 the pupils to decorate the school room with flowers at certain seasons, and 
 with branches of foliage at others. Flowers in the commonest kinds of cups 
 or vessels are beautiful at all times, and when 50 or 60 children are gathered 
 together, can usually be procured without difficulty. It is a very easy mat- 
 ter to grow things in cotiimon wooden boxes, or tins, for that matter, 
 although of course flower pots are better. There are a very few school
 
 Decorating the Schoolroom 
 
 387 
 
 rooms in wliich there is not light enough at some window to cherish some 
 kind of ()lant. This should he a ])art of the work of the scliool, am! very 
 soon the windows can heconiL- i)Owers instead of the tlreary places they are 
 at present. The same is true with regard to aquariums. They are very 
 cheap, and a small, good a<|uarium is a revelation run! a joy to pupils. — I do 
 not mean a neglected one. This again is part of the work of tiie school. 
 Objects of this character in the school should be kept in the best pos- 
 sible condition. 
 
 .\11 depends on the teacher, the living personality that is in contact w ith 
 the pupil so many hours each day. if the teacher is vulgar and coarse, the 
 
 Illustration 422 
 
 Undirrj^lnzc INitlcry l''nnn» 
 Made by mcmbcrn of private cl.i»s. W<irk nf lliit chnraclcr i> louchrtl upnn on piiKc jSj. 
 
 attempts at <lccoralion will be similar. Energy and force must be spent to 
 elevate the teacher. The o|)ening and broa<lcning of tiie teacher's mind 
 will mean the better opening and expanding of the chiM's mind. I believe 
 in the use of natural objects in the school. It is true that they .soon become
 
 388 
 
 Various Applications 
 
 "trash" ami "truck" in the hands of unskillful teachers, but that does not 
 deter niv advocacy of nature forms and nature study (along with art and 
 manual training) as one of the best means to get art and art ideas into the 
 pupils, to implant ideas of the beautiful, of order and of system. The 
 
 Illustration 423 
 
 Swi-^ iir swcili^tt Curving 
 
 The pupil is carving a box, in the style similar to the Swiss or Swedish carving that is seen. The tools are held 
 in the hand almost like an engraving tool. The form to be carved is made solid and is held in the hand or is supported 
 on a table, and by means of the tools the patterns are incised and slightly carved. If original and well selected 
 patterns are drawn, various kinds of valuable small things can be made. This work is not without some value 
 educationally, but is feeble for educational purposes compared with real carving. 
 
 greatest lessons we can learn are printed in things, common things, not alone 
 on or in art works, and this is said without prejudice to art works. We 
 should get through nature the right perception of the beauty of art works. 
 
 Too many think that "works of art" and their contemplation are the best 
 means of education and training in this direction. Fortunately nature has 
 made this impossible. We must read and listen to the Almighty voice 
 printed in and on nature, the eye must see its wonders and the heart feel a 
 response, before the smaller art creations can touch us. This attained, we 
 will be able to enjoy those lessons also.
 
 Backward Pupils 
 
 3S9 
 
 (b) For Backivdrd Pupils x\\e methods outlined herein prove to l)e 
 of marvelous utility. We do not refer here to the feei)le-minded, hut to the 
 very consi(leral)]e proportion of children in every large school wlio are liack- 
 ward compared to the majority of the scholars. \'ery often these pupils 
 who appear so backward mentally are especially apt in responding to art 
 methods, real manual training and nature study. The intellect of these 
 children is slow an<l hard to reach through the eye and ear, yet if they are 
 taught to use their hands and to develop the faculty of learning through the 
 touch and muscular sense, the results are often surprising. These are the 
 kind of pupils that can best learn by ■'doing." In many cities, the larger 
 schools have a special room for backward pupils, and with very little expense 
 it could be equippe<l for drawing, designing, modeling and carving. 
 
 Properly taught in correlation with the other school work, these meth- 
 ods will develop a large proportion of such pupils into reasonably briglit and 
 capable young people. In many cases, the result will be to make a useful, 
 self-sustaining member of society out of an individual who otiierwise may 
 become a charge in some pul)lic institution. There is here a large humani- 
 
 lllustratlun 424 
 
 .V Carvid I'.iiicl 
 Dciigned and carved by a teacher, member of the Adirondack lummer •chool. 
 
 tarian object to be subserved by these methods, which touches one of 
 the sore spots in our educational system. Experience v.ith children of this 
 type emphasizes the great importance of beginning their art and manual 
 traininjr education at an carlv age. The nis.iiit nr growii^cr period in back-
 
 390 Various Applications 
 
 ward children is the time al which they can best be reached by any method 
 of development. A whole volume might be written on this one subject, but 
 it could not more strongly emphasize the importance of this application of 
 these methods. 
 
 (i') Feeble- Minded and Insane.— I have found manual training espe- 
 cially suited for some classes of patients in insane hospitals. E.xperiments 
 with large numbers show that it is an excellent means of providing these 
 classes with pleasant occupation. For employment that is beneficial and 
 at the .same time interesting, nothing takes the place of art and industrial 
 training. There is a great tendency with some patients to be very moody 
 and to brood o\er imaginary or fancied troitbles and ills. In cases of this 
 kind it is es])eciallv important that the patients should be provided with an 
 occupation that will be sufficiently attractive to please them, and at the same 
 time interest them sufficiently to make them lose themselves in their work 
 for the time Vicing. 
 
 This, carried on to the stage where the habit of work is formed, is decid- 
 edly beneficial. The patients have something to think about even when 
 they are not working. They take renewed interest in their walks around 
 the grounds. They notice the variety of forms in flowers and leaves, insects 
 and other natural objects. The}' take especial delight in imitating these 
 forms in clay and wood. Even if the patients cannot be cured, there are 
 sometimes cases when their moody ideas can be changed, and instead of their 
 dwelling on their troubles they can be switched ofi^ onto the consideration 
 of things that will do them less harm. Good results always follow when 
 the}' become sufficiently interested in the product of their hands. That it 
 is possible for them to do elaborate and sometimes beautiful and useful work 
 is proved by the illustration herewith, — No. 425. To get pupils of this 
 character to settle down for two or tliree hours to one thing is an advantage, 
 and this can readily be done if the right kind of work is given them and they 
 are kejit interested. 
 
 Of course there will be a percentage of failures. Some give up the 
 work, some become discouraged very readily, but in the majority of cases 
 they are very willing to try again. I have had some such patients who have 
 worked with a steadiness and persistence which was surprising and who 
 have produced, and still produce, things of beauty and value. 
 
 The late Dr Kirkbride, the great expert on insanity, and director of the
 
 Feeble-Minded and Insane 
 
 39 J 
 
 Pennsylvania hospital for the insane, under whose suggestion I first experi- 
 mented in this work, repeatedly assured nie that it was very heneficiai to the 
 patients. I have very much regretted my inability to continue experiments 
 in this direction as much as could be wisheil, owing to a pressure of duties 
 in other places. If the authorities and managers of these hospitals and 
 
 Illustration 42; 
 
 I'otUry l•■orlll^ 
 IX.-si|;n<.'d and modeled by inmaUs of Ihi- Pennsylvania ho>|>iUil (or llii insane. 
 
 institutions will only introduce some of these methods under good instruc- 
 tors, I am convinced that they will be more than repaid by tlie benefits 
 accruing to the patients. 
 
 The instructors, of course, will have to pursue a dilTerent plan from that 
 in tlie ordinarv schools. — the dispositions of the patients must he studied, 
 and. above all. they must be interested in the beginning, even if the instruc- 
 tor is obliged at first, for a series of lessons, to do most of the work, 'i hese 
 pupils, like others, learn directly by observation, and when they have seen 
 a thing done a number of times they are more ready and better i>leased to 
 undertake it themselves. l"mi)hasize the nature study or work. Like very 
 little children thev are soon interested, and I liave ha<l repeatedly very pleas-
 
 392 
 
 Various Applications 
 
 ant times with them wlien they have simply been ol)serving the work antl 
 making comments upon it. Sooner or later a disposition to try it for them- 
 selves is developed. Allow others, even though they do not work, to be 
 spectators occasionally. Even this is good for the unfortunates. A special 
 treatise could be written on this phase of the subject, but these few sugges- 
 tions must suffice. 
 
 Many people outside of insane hospitals suffer from disintegration of 
 ideas and lack of thought. They have only partial ideas, and they cannot 
 
 Illustration 42G 
 
 CoiiLl.ilion ut Drawing and Nature titudy 
 By one of the children at the Adirondack summer school. 
 
 dwell on them consecutively very long. Work of the character herein advo- 
 cated is a great means of preventing such disintegration of ideas, and a help 
 to make people able to think consecutively and for continuous periods. This 
 is quite an important thing for all grades of people, from the brightest to 
 those who suffer the most in these institutions. I have been led to think 
 from my experience that there are more feeble-minded people at large than 
 in the various institutions.
 
 Truant Schook 393 
 
 (ci) In Reformatory Institutions the methods treated of in this 
 work may he ajjplied witli guud clYcct. I'lider instruction of the rifjht kind, 
 much of the good in character l)uildin<j that we get in niglit scliools with 
 "tough" boys will be obtained with "children of a larger growth" who com- 
 prise the inmates of reform schools and similar institutions. Many of the 
 occupants of such places are capable of reforming their character under 
 proper conditions. This will seldom be done by either punishment or 
 preaching, but may be accomplished by arousing in these men or women a 
 sense of their abilities and a capacity to use those abilities in making an 
 honest living. 
 
 To thus develop character and impart a training that may assist in ob- 
 taining a respectable lixclihood, is the object to be sought in reformatory 
 institutions. It is l)etter and ciicaiier for society to do this wherever pos- 
 sible than to turn out criminals who will constantly prey upon the commu- 
 nity. I know from experience the l)eneficent results of i)roi)cr art methods 
 and real manual training when applied to the unfortunates referred to. espe- 
 cially when supplemented by the teaching of trades. Such practical educa- 
 tion is evidently to become an increasingly potent factor in the irealment (jf 
 that large class of offenders who need reformatory influences more than 
 summary punishment. 
 
 (e) Truant Schools, Etc. —This method is the only safe plan for 
 truant schools and special classes for the idle and vicious. These children 
 are sometimes "smart" and clever, but are beyond the control of tlie ordinary 
 teacher. I visited a truant school only a few days ago and found the children 
 sitting in front of desks and the teacher "talking" to them; it was about lo 
 a. m., and some of the boys already looked "Ijored," with three hours more 
 to stay in school. I felt like being a truant myself. I saw failure in the face 
 of the teacher, failure in the air of the room and rebellion and hate in the 
 eyes of the pupils. Vou may lead a horse to water, but you camiot make 
 him drink, and you cannot make an unwilling cliild a good pupil by "nag- 
 ging" his mind or l)y forcing him to do something he dislikes. 
 
 My experience with this class of children has been such that I have 
 always had full classes, and when the children realize the nature of the work 
 they bring others. There are always jjupils at the door waiting for the 
 vacant places. Why is this? Simply because the children like the work, they 
 have an intense desire to be doing things, to be moving quick, to be making
 
 394 
 
 Various Applications 
 
 a noise, and to be active: it is the normal state of liealtliy boys and girls. I 
 find that boys. — rough, truant, coarse, vicious boys if you will, — like zvork, 
 if it is pleasurable. These boys work so hard in my classes in the night 
 
 Illustration 427 
 
 i^mm" 
 
 Alt .Mutal Work 
 
 These designs have been beaten into the metal repousse; the plaques were made from sheet brass and German 
 silver. 
 
 schools or vacation schools, that when the room is warm, the perspiration 
 drips from their chins or eyelashes. Pupils of this description can be con- 
 trolled, held and developed only by working in this direction. Then, in the 
 course of time, if they are treated rightly, they almost invariably become 
 biddable, responsive, studious and self-controlled. 
 
 (/) MI.SCELLANEOUS APPLICATION.S 
 
 Art in Metal Work. — No one can see the mass of crude and vulgar 
 silver forms now being made and sold since that metal has become cheap, 
 without feeling the depths to which handicraft and art have fallen. Hardly
 
 Miscellaneous 
 
 395 
 
 any one looks for beauty or fitness on the forms purchased. If it is cheap, 
 and stamjied with tiie niaj^ic word " sterling;," it is enou^ii. I venture to 
 say that very few people reading this article can even state the style or kind 
 of ornament used on the various forms they have purchased in this line, or 
 even remember of what the pattern consists. Silver, copper, brass, iron. 
 German silver, pewter, are ])erfect mediums of expression if real art and 
 handicraft are used upon them. And the workers in these metals and the 
 owners of the forms can have their minds expanded and e.xalted if right 
 ideas jircvail. 
 
 Repousse and Hammered Work. — \'ery little plant is required for 
 producing the most beautiful and exquisite work in reinnisse and hammered 
 work in metal. No medium will make a l)cttcr return in real maiuial 
 training, embodying thought in material. .\s illustrated. No. 4_'7, plaques, 
 
 Illustration 42b 
 
 Art Metal Work 
 The t»n bov» on the kft Rre nnncallnu ;i ineul |.l:.Mu.- with hand l.lu.t. Thi. pLiquc hu. iH-en hclcn nut 
 of » H^it puHcr l.r;.ii». -1 hi- oihir l«,v i» . hu.intf u ae.itfn on a metal va«; ; the vmc ■> tilled with Imrd 
 cement un*! il i^ li:imiii.t.-.l uimn .i •..iiid W.iy. 
 
 crumb trays, I)rush backs, vase forms and a variety of other metal shapes, 
 can l)e embellished. Sheet metal of various kinds can be used, and by 
 means of i)ntii 1u-s on cement it is beaten into siiape. Depressions and eleva-
 
 396 
 
 Various Applications 
 
 tions are made, and then the surface decorated from both sides. Napkin 
 rings, salt cellars, pitchers of varioits kinds, and an endless array of dishes 
 can be made of brass, copper, pewter, German silver, or sterling silver, and 
 beautifully decorated as desired. All forms illustrated have been made by 
 pupils working in some of our schools, and they are given simplv as ex- 
 amples of what can be done. The technical application of this work can- 
 not be explained here. There is a great variety of process in metal chasing 
 and repousse work, and some of the most beautiful art work of all periods 
 consists of hand work of this kind. 
 
 For Parents. — One application of these manual-training methods in 
 art, real manual training and nature study, that has not yet been touched 
 
 Illustrations 429-430 
 
 .Models in Cluy 
 Made by l)oys of the tjr;imiti;ir gr:ide. 
 
 upon is their use by parents in teaching their own children. The method is 
 so simple that any bright father or mother can accomplish much good by 
 training their children along the lines herein indicated, so far as the parent 
 may be able to do so from a careful reading of this work. All educators 
 realize that one of the great obstacles to l)etter results in elementary schools 
 is the fact that parents so often utterly fail to make any reasonable effort to 
 teach their own children. It is all left to the schools, and the child's home 
 environment is often such as to counteract much of the best effort on the part 
 of school teachers. This joint responsibility of the parent and of the teacher
 
 Miscellaneous 
 
 397 
 
 will become more and more recognized by people generally, just as it is 
 already recognized by experts in elementary education. Parents are usually 
 averse to the druilgery of teaching their ciiildrcn in the ordinary elementary 
 studies from books, but these same parents will take quite as much pleasure 
 as will their children in rational manual-training drawing, memory work 
 and original design on blackboarti or paper or in clay or wood. Some of 
 the most enthusiastic advocates of these methods are parents who have taken 
 up the work in this way with their own children. 
 
 Normul Clans Work — Carved by teacher
 
 
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 CHAPTER V 
 
 Suggfestions for 
 Art Students 
 
 X E\-ERY CONSIDERABLE XUMBER 
 of pupils there are some who desire to take 
 up art and to make it their life work. Some 
 feel that they liavc capacity in this direc- 
 tion, and some that they have a taste for 
 art. It is very th.sappointint,' to many, 
 after attending certain art schools for sev- 
 eral years, to find that they have not been 
 working in the right direction, that they 
 have been doing superficial work instead 
 of work calculated to give them real art 
 ability. 
 
 Some art schools will keep students lor 
 years engaged upon such work as copying 
 or studying objects, "normal art courses." 
 with geometric work, conventionalization 
 of tlowers, designing for fabrics, etc. The 
 students find out ultimately that they 
 slu>u]d have been doing real drawing from 
 life and the anticpie, painting and modeling 
 from life; an<l that they should have l)ecn 
 gaining manual de.xterity and experience by doing artistic work of this 
 character from the start. In some schools the art work is entirely imitative: 
 the pupils never work from memory: they are kept busy all the time co|)ying 
 objects, casts, models. 
 
 Why should the fine art schools allow numbers of ])upils of all degrees 
 
 (399) 
 
 MoJclinu a \ i-« 
 At Adirondacks summer tkChcKil.
 
 400 Various Applications 
 
 of capacity to join their classes? Granting that 3 per cent, or even 5 per 
 cent of these pupils become finished artists. — and this, I think, is not the 
 case, — what is to become of the other 97 or 95 per cent? Should they not 
 have been equipped with the artistic skill necessary to enable them to enter 
 into some of the numerous trades or vocations that require hand skill and a 
 certain amount of art taste and judgment? Do antique drawing, life paint- 
 ing, sketching and other imitative methods give this capacity? I claim that 
 they do not, especially as many only attempt this work after reaching adult 
 life, and that a waste of time for the greater number of students is involved 
 in such methods. 
 
 Surely these are not the correct methods. The pupils from their youth 
 up should certainly have had such training as would enable them to enter 
 the fine-art classes equipped with suflicient knowledge to indicate whether 
 they are fitted for the business before them. No one knows better than the 
 teachers who are engaged in teaching at some institutions of art, the incom- 
 petency of many of their pupils. In some cases the students have worked 
 five, six, eight and ten years, and are no more advanced in practical art knowl- 
 edge than when they started. Is this not the fault of the teachers and 
 instructors of these schools? Should not they advise such pupils to take up 
 pursuits that would enable them to make a living, instead of tacitly encourag- 
 ing them to follow the fine arts? 
 
 These are simply questions and statements uttered with the idea of com- 
 pelling a little thought on the subject. I for one know how difficult it is to 
 enter the higher stages of the fine arts. That should not prevent us, how- 
 ever, from being willing to discourage pupils who from the first show lack 
 of adaptation to artistic pursuits. Some of our institutions to-day have 
 hundreds of pupils who will never amount to anything in the fine arts, who 
 will waste several years, and after all be obliged to take up some other line 
 of work. If better educational methods were used in the elementary schools, 
 this would not be so often the case. 
 
 A Great Field for teachers, — 1 venture to suggest to all with 
 artistic desires the wide field and application of the manual-training and 
 industrial-art idea in education. Of course I know by experience how diffi- 
 cult it is to change the aim of many students who start out with the expecta- 
 tion of becoming great artists. They invariably find their level, but at what 
 loss of valuable time and energy! Michael Angelo did not consider it degrad-
 
 II 
 
 2 '* 
 
 ?.f. 
 
 
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 E 2 '/=) 
 
 O r. 

 
 402 Various Applications 
 
 ing to design costumes and ink ])Ottles, and Raphael and many of the best 
 and greatest artists engaged in various minor arts, in designing and working 
 in various mediums and materials, and in fact, most of the great artists of the 
 past became so through the consummate knowledge they had of ordinary 
 processes gained by years of experience. 
 
 It is not necessary that a good artisan or craftsman, or a fine teacher, 
 should be spoiled in order to produce a feeble artist. Why not, if we cannot 
 achieve the one, become the other? Be assured that there is more honor and 
 profit in it. Nothing is more dismal to himself and friends than the whining 
 of a feeble or poor artist "not appreciated by this coarse, dollar-loving age." 
 Instead of displaying that spirit, let those who manifestly can never become 
 great artists realize the magnificent opportunities that await the capable and 
 enthusiastic teacher of art, of real manual training and nature study. 
 
 While the truly great artist may be benefited by experience in teaching 
 children of all ages, it is not essential that teachers of these natural methods 
 in the elementary schools shall be geniuses in art. The truth is. that 
 far more teachers, as well as pupils, have a fair degree of capacity for the 
 simpler forms of art than has been recognized heretofore. This has been 
 abundantly demonstrated by the high average product obtained from many 
 who have received the requisite training in my schools during the past 
 few years. 
 
 '-Preparing for Fine Art Work. — Just as in the elementary work, 
 we give the hand power to produce automatically and unconsciousl\- all the 
 simple and conventional forms used in design; and just as the children gain 
 power in expressing themselves through the simple forms of nature, such as 
 leaves, flowers, shells, fish, birds and other familiar objects, so, in the higher 
 branches of art study, the mind should become familiar, as far as practicable, 
 w'ith diverse art and nature forms and their movements, and the hand should 
 gain facilit}- and dexterit_\- in reproducing them. 
 
 Some will say that this is not necessary; that if a student is fond of land- 
 scapes, for instance, it is not essential to be able to draw the figure or animals; 
 or, if the student is going to be a cattle painter, marine views or water need 
 not be studied. This is yielding to the common tendency in life to do only 
 the things w-e like and not the things which are best for us. A little thought 
 will convince any one that the wider our range of knowleilge and power the 
 better will be the individual and special expression.
 
 Suggestions for Art Students 
 
 403 
 
 After a certain range of experience has been gaineil from work upon 
 various suhjects, the student is far better able to ileterniine tlie sul)jects for 
 whidi lie lias tlie most hking, and in wliicli lie can express himself with the 
 most power. When this stage is reached, then it is right to specialize. Until 
 then, however, the more the student works from the figure, from animals, 
 from landscape, and marine views, the better. Some students will find that 
 they have more power rendering form than color; some will be able to ex- 
 Illustration 433 
 
 Lani)iiCii|ir P:iiMliii« and Druwini; in llic Aillronihicks 
 The pupiU •kclch with pencil and pninl in water color or oil colon. 
 
 press themselves better by lines than by light and shade: some will be more 
 expert in clay than paint, or in oil colors than in water colors. However 
 this may be. the student should endeavor to get control of each end. an<l 
 shoulil not be satisfied until a certain amount of |)ower is accpiired in the 
 medium or method in which he is most deficient. This is the way to get on 
 in the conquest of weaknesses.
 
 Plate Forty 
 
 Ang:elo's Sybil — Fresco from Sistine Chapel 
 
 This IS one of over four hundred fig;urcs painted by Michael Ang^clo in his composition on the ceiling ot the 
 Sistine Ch;ipcl at Komc. Some of the fiL^ures are over twenty feet high. Words iail to describe the beauty and 
 gr;uideur ot his work. It is chietly remarkable for the natural ease, grace and style ot the tiirures, the \vonderf!ii 
 and energetic movements portrayed, the endless variety of postures, and the strength of all the figures. Il was 
 as though he had demigoc's in his mind, and in the heat of liis genius he seemed to fling these colossal and beau- 
 tiful beings from his hands. He worked with remarkable rapidity and speed and seemed to know instinctively 
 just how things would appear on the painted surface or in marble. 
 
 U04)
 
 Suggestions for Art Students 405 
 
 Fitting for the cMinor Arts c^/50.— Students wlio <lo not succeed 
 in tlie lii,L,dier brandies of art should undoubtedly l)e alile to do so in tlie minor 
 arts. The fact that a man cannot succeed in painting a portrait or landscape 
 is no reason why he should not be very successful at dcsig-nins:, carvint,' or 
 modeling, or in some of the many diverse industrial arts in metal, stone, clay 
 and wood. 1 know a ])ainter who worked for twehe years producing very 
 poor pictures, yet when through chance he became familiar with the opera- 
 tions and art of metal work, produced some very beautiful and valuable 
 results, and is now far more qualified than before to make a living. 
 
 All art students are supposed to have a taste for the beautiful. This is 
 the primary reason that induces them to enter upon art studies. Such taste 
 and judgment must enable them to succeed in some of the minor arts if thev 
 fail in the higher branches. 
 
 All students, then, should follow a course that will give them manual 
 training and artistic power in any pursuit they may adopt. The proper 
 training for art institutions to give shoultl be to fit all their students (not a 
 small number of them only), to make a better living. Tlio.se incapable of 
 pursuing the higher branches of art by no means need be failures, but should 
 become good artistic workers in the various trades. Their artistic training 
 should enable them to make the low and common in any pursuit of business 
 more beautiful and refined. This implies more profit and success in what- 
 ever vocation is finally adopted, as well as more [)lcasure ami happiness, for 
 the great call in the world of industry to-day is for the artist-artisan. 
 
 The following suggestions and pictures are otTered with a view of help- 
 ing, in some of the various branches of art work, students who will ultimately 
 join the ])ropcr institutions for their higher training. 
 
 Charcoal DraJi^ing is one of the first processes in art, it being one of 
 the best mediums of e.xpression that we possess. .\ piece of charred wooil, 
 properly handled, on paper, will give all the form, all the light and shade, all 
 the te.xture, any one can de.sire. To attain some of this jwwer. a student 
 must use charcoal for some time, drawing decorative forms of the various 
 styles, then portions of the figure and from the antitjue, and from this to the 
 entire figure, or its parts, from life. 
 
 Tew materials are re(|uired. Charcoal can be purchased for a cent a 
 stick and is usually bought for 20 or 25 cents a bo.x. .\ piece of chamois skin
 
 406 
 
 Various Applications 
 
 and a few leather stumps are all that are needed. Some even dispense with 
 the stumps, using the fingers. Very black marks can be made with a piece 
 of charcoal, and they can be readily dusted off with the chamois leather. 
 
 .Ml gradations of light and shade can be produced with very few touches, 
 charcoal being perhaps the quickest medium for reproducing light and shade. 
 In reproducing a model, the simplest way is the supreme end to be attained. 
 Thousands of directions can be given to do this or that, to get this texture 
 or that, but to reproduce the appearance of the model is the main thing. The 
 
 Illustrations 434-435 
 
 charcoal Drawing 
 First stage of charcoal sketch from life. 
 
 Only pupils who already have some idea of 
 lorm and dexterity of hand should study the nude 
 form. At the same time anatomy should be studied 
 from casts of the muscles, from skeletons, and, if 
 possible, from the cadaver. At some of the best 
 art schools facilities are provided for this work in 
 connection with life drawing, painting, etc. 
 
 moment any one states that a particular surface or texture, tint or tone must 
 be made, there is danger, because sometimes the thing can be produced bet- 
 ter another way. None but experts in charcoal can give suggestions as to 
 the best way to use it. To see a good charcoal drawing being made is the 
 best lesson. To see a number l)eing made in a class is still better. 
 
 Pupils should study the sketches and studies of the old masters; they 
 should endeavor to find out how they produced certain effects. They should 
 study the appearance and renderings of diverse drawings; they should not
 
 Suggestions for Art Students 407 
 
 bliiully follow one style or fasliion, they should know many of the possiiile 
 ways of rendering color, form values, light and shade, etc.. with the hrusli or 
 pencil. The beautiful charcoal sketch by Rembrandt on page 398 should be 
 studied, also by Raphael on page 417. In any good art museum hundreds 
 of similar .sketches may be studied to advantage. 
 
 Some pu])ils make a mistake by keeping at charcoal work too long. It 
 is a happy medium to render form in light and shade, and beautiful results 
 can be produced, but I do not believe that pupils should work for years in 
 charcoal, as some do. It is not a fact that the more you work in charcoal, 
 the better you will be able to paint. Charcoal is simply an instrument of 
 expression, and a ready one in which to become familiar with form and light 
 and shade. When this stage is arrived at, then color should be used. The 
 longer this stage is put off the harder it will be for the pupil to work with 
 color, the palette with paints on it being a much more complex instrument 
 than the charcoal. If one becomes accustomed to charcoal and works a 
 number of years with it, there is difificulty in learning to handle a palette 
 with perhaps eight or ten colors upon it. 
 
 I advise pupils, therefore, to get a thorough knowledge of form, light 
 and shade by means of charcoal, and when this stage is reached, to imme- 
 diately begin painting in color part of the time. To get light and shade, 
 form and color with the palette is one of the highest forms of art, and is one 
 that will take much time. Remember, I advocate charcoal work in the ele- 
 mentary stages, and as a ready means of becoming familiar with form, but 
 I still a<lvocate color and clay work in connection with it. 
 
 There is a tendency in a great many ])laces to do too much of the sketchy 
 work, pen and ink work, and similar modes of expression, instead of settling 
 down to .solid charcoal work, and work in ])aint and clay. I have known 
 pupils who have sketched for two or three years in art schools, thinking they 
 were going to be illustrators, who would have done nuich better if they had 
 settled down to learning true form anrl light and shade in charcoal, paint and 
 clay. They would have become nuich better illustrators in the .same space 
 of time. Some newspapers and magazines are tille<l with the work of these 
 foolish people who expect to make a short cut to fame, but who take a road 
 never travele<l by any real artist. The best illustrators of any period have 
 been artists who understood their medium and gave the most care and pains 
 to the smallest and seemingly most trilling details.
 
 408 
 
 Various Applications 
 
 Painting in Water Color from Casts, — This illustration (Xo. 436) 
 is simply suggestive for the position to be taken in doing simple work of this 
 kind. As can he seen, the materials consist of a simple box of colors, a few 
 
 Illustration 436 
 
 Piiiiiling in Water Color from Cast 
 Showing position ol painter and model. The drawing is only in its first stage. 
 
 brushes, paper to paint on and the model. The model is placed so that a side 
 light strikes it at a favorable angle, and it is reproduced on the flat surface 
 by the pupil. In the illustration herewith, allowance must be made for the 
 fact that the drawing is still in an unfinished condition, showing the first few 
 washes. The cast is taken from one of the most beautiful of the works of
 
 Suggestions for Art Students 
 
 409 
 
 Michael Angelo. "The Dying Slave." It is a difficult position for the head, 
 because it is tipped on one side, tilted back and turned. For this reason it 
 is a difficult cast to draw. I believe Michael .Vngelo statetl somewhere that 
 he considered this to be one of his liest pieces of work. The original is a full- 
 sized figure in marble in the Louvre at Paris, and is still unfinished in several 
 j)arts. Till- is true of a great many of Michael .\ngelo's statues. 
 
 Life Work, — In the following series of pictures showing studio work 
 from life, I have purposely taken the two students whose ]>ictures show in 
 all the departments of the book from the first steps as children of five and si.K 
 
 Illustration 457 
 
 .skrUhing from Life— Model In Coituine 
 A kimpir po»c is sclcc-j-d and sketches lire made of the posilion of the head or hand». portions of dni|iTry, etc. 
 
 years of age. These students are now (at the ages of 13 to 13) prepared for 
 the most advanced work, drawing, painting and modeling from life. 1 laving 
 worked in all the elcmentarv branches of art work, having a certain amount
 
 410 
 
 Various Applications 
 
 of manual traininij and dexterity and knowledge of drawing as a mode of 
 thought expression, they are able to begin intelligently ui)on the highest 
 kind of work. The pictures have been taken in one of my studios used for 
 
 Illustration 438 
 
 Modeling- a Head from Life 
 The model is seated upon a movable stand which is turned at intervals, allowing the head to be seen from all po ints. 
 
 private pupils: in the other studio are facilities for all the elementary liranches 
 heretofore described. 
 
 Sketching in pencil from the living model is shown in Illustration 
 437. A sim])le pose is given with ver\' simple costume. It is important to 
 choose the most pleasing positions. This is one of the things requiring most 
 judgment and art taste, — i. e.. to be able to choose a simple arrangement 
 and at the same time a beautiful one, with good light and shade, good choice
 
 Suggestions for Art Students 
 
 411 
 
 of color, etc. Tlie model usually poses 25 minutes, with five minutes' rest 
 each half hour. 
 
 In sketching from the model, portions of the iigure are sometimes 
 drawn, then again the entire figure: sometimes special arrangements of 
 drapery are made. Sketching is ciiietly to impress the mind more vividly 
 with memories of the pose, movement, light and shade, color, etc. 
 
 cModeling from the Head. — In the next illustration (\o. 438) two 
 pupils are shown making a bust from life. The model is placed upon a raov- 
 
 lllustration 439, 
 
 Motlclin^ the 1' iKurc 
 The inndil «tiinil ii lunitil ;it inltnMls, and Ihc »lu.kiil» .il«ii tlnni-r thiir |H.f iliom, M>mclliiic> wurkiiif; clow to 
 the mcKlcl, Rdinclimi-s nt a distance. 
 
 able stand and it is turned at intervals. In this manner the head can be .seen 
 from all points. Tiic pujiils wi>rk on high stands and can also revolve the 
 stands to get the required view.
 
 4J2 
 
 Various Applications 
 
 Modeling from the Figure. — In this illustration (439) the model is 
 placed on a movable stand. The ligure is built up, without anv support in 
 the clav. and the model, if satisfactory, can l)e tired and made into terra cotta. 
 
 Illustraticn 440 
 
 Modehn .^ Irom i-ile 
 Another view of same model. Properly finished, these clay models can be fired and are convenient to keep. 
 
 Beautiful small figures of this character can be made, some of which may be 
 seen in the various views of the studio. 
 
 There are many methods of modeling the figure. Sometimes a piece of 
 lead pipe is used to support the clay; sometimes a framework of strong wire 
 or wood is made. Metal or wood supports are also used in making busts 
 or models of various forms. When these are used the model is always cast 
 in plaster. Technical details cannot be given here. A visit should be made 
 to the studio of some sculptor, where many ideas can be received.
 
 Sug:gcitions for Art Students 
 
 413 
 
 Summer Art Work. — A few of the illustrations lierewith arc tai<oii 
 from soiv.e of ilie siudcnis at work in my Adiromlacks summer school, the 
 teachers' classes at which also receive the elementary manual training in 
 drawing, designing, modeling and carving. Xumcrous artists, teachers and 
 others have heen fitted in these classes to establish schools and institutions 
 for the new education, as well as to benefit themselves in their various lines of 
 art or industry. The environment is beautiful, and every facility is provided 
 for the student ambitious for art. manual training and nature study. 
 
 Illustration 441 
 
 Al.-.rK.„umh.T..tpupn,c:.„worVato„e. all .muna ,h. model. Thr bUckWrd can 1.. u.c. .xca....„a v o 
 
 makc .he form, IMc sire To u-r .h, character «-ith a few line., .how. that the fom, I. memorUed, and .h..l . ..n 
 
 ^ XI e n d' .^^ en -iLn'-. . i „„u, ,. nlci. The h .r-ewlU ..and ver.- p...en.ly for .o„« p.r.o. e p.....i,.n.
 
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 Suggestions for Art Students 4J5 
 
 Modeling from Animal Forms. — Illustration 419 represents a pupil 
 modeling iruni a large tlog. The dog is chained to a tree and moves 
 about continually. At first it is difficult to make the form, Init after a little 
 study it does not matter how much the animal moves after the pose or posi- 
 tion is settled upon. If it is a seated positon, as in the picture, it will he found 
 that the dog will continually resume the same posture, and that the form is 
 still the same even when moving. The shape of the head, the bulk of the 
 body, the length of the legs, the character of the coarse hair, etc., can be seen 
 as readilx as w hen in rci)o.se. Beginners are confused at first, !)ut if the work 
 is persistetl in the form will soon be grasped by the inin<I, and the memory 
 of form strengthened. 
 
 All the animals on a farm can be modeled to advantage. Cattle are 
 very good and patient models, remaining in one jxjsition for long periods 
 at a time. Pigs can be tnodeletl from the side of the pen and horses in the 
 stai)le. Xo work is better for students in the beginning than this modeling 
 in clay or wax from moving forms. It renders the mind able to grasp and 
 apprehend movements that are rarely shown; it enables the hand to embody 
 these positions or motions, which are sometimes more artistic than any that 
 can be produced from the fi.xed model; and .sometimes a ra])id movement is 
 made or i)osition taken that is far more beautiful and a])propriate than any 
 befor* selected. The work, moreover, gives artistic power when it gives 
 familiarity with all tiie possible movements of the model instea<l of a few 
 A student working this way soon becomes familiar with all the possible 
 range of movements and is able to choose the most artistic for his purjiose. 
 
 It is, of course, more difficult to model in diffused daylight, or in strong 
 light and shade; but to be al)le to do so is e.xcellent discipline. These forms 
 can all be modeled in the barn (jr studio, and the class illustrated ilo so in 
 wet or stormy weather. To get certain elTects of light and shade, it is neces- 
 sary to have a side light, and beautiful work can be produced in modeling 
 form by light and shade alone. But to make the real form and proportions 
 of the models from life is feasible and perhaps the l>cst practice for pupils in 
 their student stage, when the acquisition of knowledge, not tiie object pro- 
 duced, is the main thing. Mo<lels are made con.stantly by many of our pupils 
 that possess both value and beauty, when working out of dm us .iml in this 
 manner. 
 
 Frequent sketching in pencil an<l charcoal from the animal form is
 
 
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 £-° 
 
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 c m 
 
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 ■52
 
 Sugfgestions for Art Students 
 
 4J7 
 
 recommended. Sketches sliould l)e made of movements, of parts in action 
 and in repose, of details and of the entire form. Sometimes the sketches 
 should be made large, sometimes small. It is also good practice to draw 
 the forms life-size on a l)lackl)oard or other suitable surface. The black- 
 board sketches illustrated in the pictures on pages 413 and 414 are made 
 freehand without any erasing and are memorized so that the forms can 
 be drawn in any position. The pupil drawing these forms has had i)rac- 
 tice at this kind of work for years, and 1 have purposely used the same ])upil 
 drawing on the blackboard in each of these engravings. The other members 
 of the class draw in sketch books or on pads. 
 
 Illustration 442 
 
 lUiiliJilS Mud} r.ir til. Miil.Mi... I><l I ii.Hiiiii 
 Niiw in the poii»cii!.ion of Oxford Univcrnlly. 
 
 Thi« i« apiTfrrt ".kilrh, »lii.wiiii> i.">il !■ I'"' |>"-it>"n jimiI niMvniuiil cl ll.r lliii,- imur.- .in «u|{- 
 
 KTSli-.l with .1 ft» ti)u.li.». K .. li t...i. h 1- I .. Tlnrc .in- ii" t.iil.itiv<- toiullc. ..r |i it. Ii, .. . .1. h line 
 
 has mianifitf .-iiiil intinlinn. I lu in.isi, r« i npitil « itii tin idin lu- wi ralmllv .kclrh.a. llr .I1.I nut 
 
 hav<- tn think of his l.ni» or khildo, Ihrv wtri; inajc .Mr,"in.itiullly. Xi>licc the palchru ii( nhadon iii.idi- with .1 frw 
 •wift lines. The idea of a complete conipoaition i> emfxnUnl with a fe»v mauler •lroke>. 
 2"
 
 IN CONCLUSION 
 
 The author extends his sincere thanks to a number of pupils 
 in his schools and several friends whb have aided him, directly and 
 indirectly. Special appreciation and recognition are due the following : 
 
 Mr Herbert Mvrick, for valuable aid, advice and assistance 
 throughout the entire work. 
 
 Prof W. S. Long, in nature study. 
 
 Mr Bern.\rd Uhle, in the carving. 
 
 Roman Steiner, for various drawings and help in chapter on construction. 
 
 (418)
 
 INDEX 
 
 Abstract work — energy wasted by 50, geomclric forms 
 226, should come natunllv 174 
 
 Abstruse ideas should Iiccomc r:iniili:ir3t6 
 
 Acanthus leaf inoldinf; nn, 295 
 
 Accuracy — after facility Si, SS, yS, 122, lifi, 140; exercises 
 to compel 124. ot perceptive powers created 25 
 
 Ambidextrous work — antheiiiion used for practice in 
 101, 102; blackboard designing in 66, 136; co- 
 ordination in 70, defense for 4S, educates indi- 
 vidual 47, especial care |o left hand 79, 80,137; 
 left hand trained for educational value 4S, 51; 
 loop forms good practice in S3; Meissonier's 
 opinion on 51, old education neglected both 
 hands 50, produces sympathetic influence of nil 
 sets of muscles 47 
 
 Angelo, Michael — eye, not hand, for instruments of 
 prccision9, essentialities first 93, 14$ 
 
 Angelo's Dying Slave, painting from 4^ 
 
 Angelo's Sybil 404 
 
 Animal forms (see also Bird forms and Fish forms) — 
 advice to teachers 249, Raryc casts for schoolroom 
 use iSj, 24g; Itarye casts illu<^trated 213, 246; 
 dircctiims for modeling i</iy, it^, 2\j', drawing 
 pigs from life 414, drawing the hnrsc 413, en- 
 larging in wax 2'j>i, fre<|uent sket*'hiiig recom- 
 mended 415, genenil form first ijy, illustrations 
 of iSi, 213, 24^>; individual taste ol pupils con- 
 sulted 247, m<tdeling from 415, modeling from 
 birdb 250, model for each pupil 24S, model the 
 best teacher 249, sketching from cuttle 416,100! 
 marks vs. smonthness 249, work by grammar 
 pupils 251, working on, illustrated iS'i, 247 
 
 Antefix of Parthenon 104 
 
 Anlhemion— ambidextrous practice in 102, antefix of 
 Tarlhenon 104. ba«.is of most beautiful art f«irms 
 103, combineil wilh scroll 105, 107 ; directions for 
 carding 2S5, directions for modeling 241, funda- 
 mental Greek form 102, graded curves in lOJ, 
 Ideal form, not imitation 104, illustration of 
 car\ed form »S7, love of Gri'eks for n^, m'ldelcd 
 form illuHtrated 241, tangential curvature in 104, 
 variou* arrangement* ftf 242 
 
 Antique forms— plaster inodeU from 105, vs. natural 
 forms for kchoulroom mS, working on illustrated 
 
 Antonius on the divine power in nature 345 
 
 Apple, directions for modeling J09, 21 > 
 
 Architectural form* for drawing— five style* rcpre* 
 ftented iSj, Illustration* of 1S3, iS^; memory 
 drawing of make* good practice 103, practical 
 application tSf, style* learned by drawing them 
 
 Architecture- aim to understand styles 323, archi- 
 tectural models indispensable 323, original plans 
 and original ideas 323, typical forms and princi- 
 pits first ^ii, unnccessar)' detail should be 
 avoided 323 
 
 Aristotle -bodily health and moral character first i, 
 hand instrument of instruments ij, true education 
 exalts and expands mind 1. utility atone of little 
 value 1 
 
 Armour institute's methods 54 
 
 Art — (sec also Dniwing, Manual-training dniwing and 
 Art students, suggestions to), art and mechanical 
 sides taught both t«»gcther 325, art in handicraft 
 very rare 3^. artist's views of instruction desired 
 67, art methods make knowledge automatic 59, 
 atmospht-reof in school room 2t»'N, bad use of art 
 work in schools 52, Cftmpels observation, rejec- 
 tion, actiiui 45, 340; divorced from commercial 
 systems 44, drill and designing necessary ad- 
 juncts 46, emotions aroused by 360, forms alone 
 Ciinnot elevate mind 3S5, gfK>d art requites good 
 ideas 57, itnitative work at schools 5S, lack of 
 training in cointnon schools 36, need of in funda- 
 mental work 44, Philadelphia scb<H>l of industrial 
 ly, 27, 33, gJ, lui, 22S, 2_V>, i'tj, 271; preliminary 
 sttp to manual training 44, requiri-<l in nil pur- 
 suits 46. should precede mechanical work 317, 
 symboli«in in explained 17S, iS;); true meaning 
 and use of 41, vital part in many pursuits 45, 
 work under name of 41, wrong methods often 
 engender dislike tt»r 3V1 
 
 Art methods -compel reflection and action 45, co- 
 ordinate memories and ideas 339, correlation with 
 school witrk 330. 3^7; in.ike knowledge auto, 
 nritic 54), unify and solidify ideas 339, various ap- 
 pticatiouH of 303 
 
 Art, I'hilailvlphia school of industrial — clay modeling 
 class illustrated 27, co>tt of m.inual training 
 plant 33, drawing and painting class illustrated 92, 
 modeling riMim illustrated igj, samples of gram- 
 mar grade work jjS, wax designs by pupiU 256, 
 woftd carving class illustrated it^ J'f2; wood 
 carving CKamplv« 270 
 
 Art ittudent*, suggestion* for— car\'ing in the round 
 illustrated 3i/>, characteristic of best illustrator* 
 4ri7, charcoal drawing 405, 4117; charcoal *kelch 
 illustratetl ^ctt, don't fidtowtme style 407, drawing 
 from the nude illu*traled ^rt\ dniwing the horar 
 illustrated 413, fitting for minor art* 405, good 
 artisan* v«. good arliat* 402, laitdwrape painting 
 and drawing in the Adirondnck* 403. life wttrk 
 ^tst^ methodsof art »chool* criticised fimi, Michael 
 
 (410)
 
 420 
 
 Index 
 
 Angclo evt-n designed ink bottles 402, modeling a 
 vase illustnited 399, modeling from animal forms 
 415, modeling fiom life itlustrattd 410, 411, 4U; 
 modeling from the figure 412, normal class carv- 
 intr iDustrated 397, painting in water color from 
 castb 40S, painting Angelo's Dying Slave illus- 
 trated 40S, preparing for fine art work 402, 
 Raphael's study for the Madonna del Cardellino 
 417, Rembrandt's elephant illustrated and ex- 
 plained 39S, schools' greatest fault 399, sketrhing 
 from life illustrated 409, study sketches of old 
 mas'ers 406, summer art work 413, superficial 
 v:-. real at t training 399, teachers needn't be gen- 
 iuses in art 402, when it is rightto specialize 403 
 
 Artists— (see also Art students, suggestions for) 
 carving part of education of old masters 300, give 
 care and pains to seemingly trifling details 407, 
 good artists sketch constantly 143, great artists 
 simplify things 149, greatest could model 1S7, 
 judgment of should be sought 6S 
 
 Arts, fine — see Art students, suggestions for 
 
 Arts, fitting for the minor 405 
 
 Backward pupils— can best learn by " doing " 3S9, 
 humanitarian object 3S9, nascent period ot 390, 
 olten especially apt in art methods 3S9 
 
 Balliet, Dr— no true distinction between hand and brain 
 work iS 
 
 Banana, directions for modeling 214 
 
 Barye casts— children's love for 249, illustrations of 
 213, 24'3; use of preferred in schoolroom 1S2, 249 
 
 Basket, directions for modeling 306 
 
 Beauty-as rendered by "pagans** 153, a universal 
 hunger 254, common heritage of 254, appreciation 
 of how best taught 60, contented mind through 
 knowiedgeof 6, drawing creates knowledge ot 19 
 how acted 39, goodness and truth examples of 254, 
 human responsiveness to 254, joy of perceiving 
 3, 340; knowledge of makes contented mind even 
 in drudgery 6, 310; love for in nature cultivated 
 60, 2dS; moral influence of 6, organic impressions 
 of produced 6, perception of developed 7, recog- 
 nized in common things 62, science of 3, sense of 
 how educated 254, standard of is absolute 7 
 
 Bell, Sir Charles — greatest source of happiness 65, 
 hand governed by sensibility 51, hand the instru- 
 ment for jierfectingthe senses 261 
 
 Bench work— illustration of 16, should correlate with 
 other studies 319 
 
 Bird forms — color learned from 163, conventionalized 
 172, decorative 173, directions for modeling 207, 
 350; 252; drawing and painting from life illustra- 
 ted 49, drawing illustrated 351, essential features 
 should be firs-t grasped 172, memory drawings 
 illustrated 161, modeling from life illustrated 207, 
 250; models of for drawing, painting, modeling 
 179, object lesson in 162, primarv work illustrated 
 160, simple form should become automatic 159, 
 suggestions on drawing 159 
 
 Bird's nest, directions for modeling 205 
 
 Blackboard— design and drill work illustrated 121, 13S; 
 designing on (suggestions) 135, 13S; exercises 
 for6S, 69, 7-:^, 71, 72, 9S, 134, 136, 13S; nightschool 
 work on, illustrated 37; shell exercises on 15S, 
 
 value of blackboard work 10, work on made 
 much of in woodwork construction 324 
 
 Bodily life comprehended in mental action 340 
 
 Book learning — book-bred people indisposed to action 
 20, memory overtaxed 16, vitality consumed by 
 17, words studied at expense of ideas 21 
 
 Borders — acanthus leaf 295, beaded surface 292, carved 
 work illustrated 292, 295 ; exercises in drawing 123 
 for schoolroom decoration 3S5, models in plaster 
 illustrated 227, plain curved 293, suggestions on 
 carving 291, 295; suggestions on drawing 122,123; 
 tongue and dart 292, 293 
 
 Botanical drawing 165, 167; daisy lesson illustrated 
 165, dandelion lesson 167, drawing from fruit il- 
 lustrated 166, horse-chestnut leaf embodies many 
 laws 165, leaf lesson illustrated 167, technical 
 names easily learned 166, useful for school work 
 164, 33S 
 
 Botany, drawing as aid to 165, 167^ 33S 
 
 Brain as an organized register of experiences 224 
 
 Brush work (see Color and brush work) 
 
 Bud forms 111 
 
 Building constructions illustrated 309, 111, 313 
 
 Calipers — best kind for curved surfaces 292, marking 
 out mouldings with 293, 294, 295; use in rosettes 
 3S6 
 
 Capacity for drawing inherent 64 
 
 Carpenter work, previous training required for 305 
 
 Carrot, directions for modeling 21S 
 
 Carving- see Wood carving 
 
 Carving on curved surfaces— arms for settee and chair 
 301, borders 292, 295; dolphin easy tu cut 301, flat 
 surface practice first2g!,suggestionson "spoiled" 
 work 292, work in illustrated 291, 302 
 
 Casts (see also Plaster models) — Barye 182,213,246; 
 fish forms make good 254, leaf tornis 215, of wax 
 models how made 259, teacher should make 1S2 
 
 Chair forms — drawings irom memory illustrated 176, 
 177; examples of carved work 290, 297; sugges- 
 tions on drawing 177 
 
 Character and capacity improved by doing 341 
 
 Charcoal drawing— don'r stay too long at 407, equip- 
 ment and cost 405, firs; ot art processes 405, get 
 form, light and shade through 407, light and 
 shade gradations with few touches 406, Raphael's 
 Madonna del Cardellino 417, Rembrandt's ele- 
 phant 39S, sketching the human figure 406, study 
 sketches of old masters 406, too much sketchy 
 work 407 
 
 Chart-making for school use 354, 357 
 
 Child study, danger of wrong methods 40 
 
 Chisel— acute vs flat 273, best practice at first with 272, 
 beveling outer edge 274, cui^ed form on round 
 surlace 294, 295 ; cutting around curve 273, 274; 
 feeling iorm with 273, few kinds needed 263, flat 
 form on curved surface 292, mallet used with 271, 
 position lor holding 271, 273; touch of guided by 
 intelligence 2S0 
 
 Circle, the— combinations of 122, directions for draw- 
 ing 77, 7S; directions for modeling 196, first exer- 
 cise 77, meaning of in symbolism 17S, practice 
 for freehand movements 41, six -movement exer- 
 cises 79
 
 Inde^ 
 
 42 ( 
 
 Clay (see :ilso Modeling; and clay modclini;) —box for 
 191, care of t9J, ca\ itivs in how avoided 34S, cost 
 of iSS, manipulation of 193, J51 ; ithrinkage ol 
 in modeling 250, su||C|i^'stionson usin^; 190 
 
 Clay modeling- aid to drawing S6, 154; animal forms 
 1S6, 199 — J04, 247 — 255; basket Kt*, bird forms 
 ao7, bird's nest J05, circular form, illu>trated 19^, 
 elementar\" courses in 193— ioS; eletnentarj- forms, 
 directions for making 194—^07; elementary forms 
 illustrated 1S9, 191, 19^, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, iqS, 
 aoo, 20i, 2oj, 204, joA, J31 ; tirst exercises, illustra- 
 ted i9S,lish form 202, 25i;for grammar grades 2^9 
 ^245; frog 20J, fruit and vegetable forms J09 — iio; 
 geometric forn»s 221 — J27; leaf fonns 112, 1 15, 195; 
 lizard 303, modeled lorms illustrated iS^'i, 1S9, 19S, 
 311; mouse J04, natural forms should be more 
 used 2^2, naiiiral objects J03, reason for elemen* 
 liiry forms jtj, sh(»e 205, small forms 1S9, snake 
 J02, spiral 194, suii^gestions on natural forms 2^2^ 
 tile 206, tree stump 205, turtle 20J, vessel forms 
 304, work in illustrated 27, 209 
 
 Color — good example of in bird 1(14, light and shade 
 after lorm 177, not besl taught by tinted paper 4.'( 
 
 Color and brush work — freehand brush work 133, good 
 brush handling important 132, materials for 132, 
 painting from nature 141, warning to teachers 141 
 
 Common things — maile beautiful 02, perfect lessons 
 from 39, pleading to be understood 02 
 
 Cone, directions for modeling 226 
 
 Construction m \vot>dwork, see Woodwork construe 
 tton 
 
 Construction in woodwork and mechanical drawing 
 
 305— 3'4 
 Constructive work, see Woodwork construction 
 Co-ordination, physical— ambidextrous work creates 
 48, drawing, drsi;j;ning, carving makes 5, of 
 motor centers 103, of hand, eve, brain 30, train- 
 ing ot forn»s sense connections 39 
 Correlation of drawing with other schiKjl work 52— 57, 
 
 S39-^S7 
 
 Craftsmanship now vs. the past yr; 
 
 Crocket, the — combined with scroll as model 339, 
 directions tor modeling 239, single and double 
 curved as drawing exercise** </4— ^^5 
 
 Cube, directions for modelmg 222 
 
 Cupid's head carved 299, 300 
 
 Curiosity, value of in children 3^ 
 
 Curvature, timgenlial—anthemioM example of 104, horse- 
 chestnut leaf 165, how become organic 99, ncccs* 
 sity ol in designing99, shells show 15S 
 
 Curved surface, see Carving on curved surfaces 
 
 Cylinder, directions for modeling 224 
 
 Daisy drawing lesson 105 
 
 Dandeliondrawing lesson i'»7 
 
 Decorative work (see alito Designings — anthemion In 
 103, bird fonns for 172, 173; defense for 4^, fish 
 forms in 152—153 
 
 Design, car\ ing elementary units of— anthemion, how 
 car\'ed 2S5, conventionalixed shell forms 2-^9, 
 designing the form tncanc rih—xbH; fluted forms, 
 how car\cd iSW, rosettes, how car*'c«i jVt, scroll, 
 how carved 2"^^, i'^i'. simple leaf, how ca^^'ed 
 2S4, spiral with cnickets, how carved 2S5, three 
 
 stages in work 2S3, 2'^; u..rk by public fchool 
 cliiUlren 131 
 
 IK'signer, nature the best 155 
 
 Designing (drawing)— alter work as little as i>ossibIe 
 137, blackboard 135, 136; both hands used 136, 
 center of pattern tirst 137, color and brush work 
 132, combinations of units 97, elementary units 
 S7— 100; elements of 95, (ish forms in 152, har- 
 mony in arrangement 100, object of teacher 137, 
 originality of arrangement 95, o-i ;inal pattern 
 10, 51 ; practical application of 9^, 13S; rosette in 
 9'i, 9S; ruler, use of 132, secret of strength tn 
 100, see form as whole 20, sketching coo-pared 
 with 57, spiral used in 93 
 
 Designing on wood (see also Wood car\-ing)— avoid 
 artificial means 2^> desi ;n shouid be of use and 
 value 2^>, I'ree cur\ es needed in 272, hard wood 
 preferred 2''n, outline made permanent 2'<^, scor- 
 ing the background 23S, simple freehand pattern 
 first 266 
 
 Development, natural — foundatirn of 5. importance of 
 >A '4. IS 
 
 Diagonals, exercises on 79 
 
 Disposition or bent, natural 11, 15; common lack ol 
 development in 12, inspiration through discovery 
 of 15, manual training methods find out 12 
 
 Divine energy — bend to, in nature 63, 254; build on, in 
 children 145, education should develop 164, llnw 
 with, not thwart 254, in each one 145, in natural 
 things 345, magnetic, energising power of 254 
 
 Divinity of thint;s, how learned 7 
 
 Dolphin — conventional designs of 1(19, 170; lish forms 
 first 170, suggestions for using 170, use in carv- 
 ing 301, wax design 359 
 
 Dniwing (see a!so Manual-tralnmg drawing. Design- 
 ing and Art students) — abstract forms disap- 
 proved 174, absurdities of commercial systems 
 44, anthemion 102—107; application the aim in 
 designing 9 >, artificial aids opposed SS. attention 
 to position, movement, etc. 7't, automatic move- 
 ments desired S4, beauty tau'^ht by ii;, botanical 
 165—167; bud forms 111, capacity for inherent r^, 
 circle 77 — 7v; channel for vivid and permanent 
 impression 340, children sutler liy wrtmg methods 
 36, combinations of units and styles 97, 101 — i3u; 
 compared with writing 7), i4'>; conventional 
 forms first 91, correlation with other mc!iik>1 work 
 52—57. Ai'i -.157; creative capacity develo|K-d 93, 
 crudity corrected by habit 7^1, double loop !v» — ^14; 
 drill and design forms 121 — 131 ; drill for magni- 
 tude* 127, drill work imptirlant 125, elementary 
 units S7— too; elements of design95; energy dc. 
 stroycd by definitions 145, enlarging 11, 162, 1^14; 
 facility then accuracy 9S, facts learned by illus- 
 trating their meaning 33g- 341 ; liroi exircises 72, 
 first exjwriinent* w, f<Mili*.h si iteim-nt* 43, free- 
 hand for young children 73, fruit i"7. fund.iinentai 
 methods 9, futility of present inethtHU 5't, general 
 lack of training 35, 3'*; kindercarten fault 91, 
 language of truth 5 s language study eorrelalcil 
 with 342, leading lines 9S, leaf iorms ic.S — no; lite 
 iJiO— 154* lining In opposed 7^^ 77; love of nature 
 taught by 53, makes mind 33, materials 73, 74;
 
 422 
 
 Index 
 
 Meissonier on teaching 50, memory 139 — 16S; 
 mental iniiige vs. pencil lines 127,12$; methods 
 criticised 43, Michael Angelo's maxim 9, misuse 
 of type forms 43, mode of thoug'ht expression 19, 
 40, 45, 56, 64, 117, 146,339; Moorish units iiS — 120; 
 moving models, drawing from 161, natural 
 method SS, natural vs. type forms 43, nature 155 — 
 16S; nature study drawing 6, 345; not mere ac- 
 complishment 52, object 173, 176; originality in 
 arranging forms 95, outlay required small 44, per- 
 ception trained by 39, performance the test of 
 teachers 45, perspective naturally acquired 174, 
 preliminary manual-training drawing 67 — 74; 
 primary work 160, province of, properly taught 
 20, 32; reason for consecutive movements 79, re- 
 inforces knowledge 70, sizes of units suggested 
 gi, speaking through finger tips 146, spiral S4 — S5, 
 93; steps toward better methods 71, solids 127—129; 
 straight lines 76, 79 — So; suited to the dull and 
 backward 52, supplemented by modeling and 
 carving S6, supplement to nature study 70, sys- 
 tems in common use 36, 44; teachers should be 
 tested 45, technical and hard words learned by 
 drawing 342 — 344; technical terms and instruc- 
 tions opposed S9, tangential curvature 99, teachers 
 and supervisors should draw 42, teaches begin- 
 ning of wisdom 53, union of thought and action 
 by 40, universal tongue 33, 146; value as manual 
 training 71, vital study 52, weakness of old 
 methods 41, wrong and right way nf tiaching 
 52 — 53 ; zoology aided by 343 
 
 Drawing as mode of expression 19, 40, 45, 56, 64, 117, 
 146, 153 
 
 Drawing materials — manila paper for practice work 
 73, ordinary lead pencils 74, paper 73, pencils 74, 
 reason ftir no rubber 74 
 
 Drexel institute methods 5^ 
 
 Drill forms (see also Forms and Clay modeling) — anthe- 
 mion 101—107; automatic facility in 70, 76; bird 
 forms 159—163, 172—173, 179; circle 77— 79, 122; 
 combinations of units and styles 97, loi — 120; 
 double loop So— S4; drill forms and designs 121 — 
 13S; elementary 75 — 100; ellipse i25, fish forms 
 143 — 153; leading lines 98, leaf forms loS, loop 
 form S2, S3, go, 101 ; meanings enhance enjoy. 
 ment 123, set forms opposed 72, spiral 80,84—85, 
 93; straight lines 79 — 80; strap work 124, vessel 
 forms 127 — 129 
 
 Drill work, importance of 125 
 
 Duty— as adesire, not sacrifice 254, beauty of should lie 
 more dwelt on 254 
 
 Education (see also Education in art and manual 
 training) — abstract work consumes energy 50 
 all channels should be used 22, book-bred people 
 indisposed to action 20, common idea of 157, com- 
 mon things made beautiful 62, common nature- 
 study method criticised 5S, correlate drawing with 
 other school work 52, drawing and manual train- 
 i"gr '" 32, Emerson on 4, emotions and aspirations 
 must be appealed to 360, energy from right 
 methods6i, eye troubles, cause of 10, 21 ; facts not 
 words iS, familiarity not knowledge 59, finding 
 natural "bent" one aim of 12, first step to higher 
 thought studies 54, health damaged by improper 
 
 methods 62, knowledge means ability to use iS, 
 340; learning facts by illustrating their meaning 
 339» 34' ; ^oss of energy through unessential 
 things 40, Maudsley on 340, memory overtaxed by 
 present modes 16, mental and bodily vigor by 
 unionof study and " doing" 341, modeling human 
 mind 227, motor centers trained 59, object of, real 
 4, old methods faulty 21, 340; one problem of the 
 new 341, perfect lessons from common things 39, 
 progress requires persistence 142, schoolroom 
 decoration 3S5 — 3S7; "special experts" opposed 
 38, steps to character building 362, systematic 
 training of senses through 38, teacher's mission 
 15, teachei's personality recognized 34, traditional 
 errors overcome 32, true education expands 
 mind i,true teacher draws out energy 145, 150, 
 164; union of study and "dning" 341, unites 
 thought and action 22, value of direcl knowledge 
 of environment 54, value of few things well 
 learned 34S, visual metnory important 20, vitality 
 consumed by book learning 17, words too often 
 studied at expense of ideas 21 
 Education in art and manual training (see also Edu- 
 cation, and Art students, suggestions for) — am- 
 bidextrous work 47—51 ; art and manual training 
 in special schools 359—383; beauty, perception 
 of developed 7, combinations of units and styles 
 101 — 120; contact with things forms ideas 16 — 23; 
 conventional and symbolic forms 169— 184; cor- 
 relation of drawing with other studies 339 — 358; 
 development of natural organism 4, drawing 
 correlated with other studies 52 — 57, 339^357; 
 drill forms and designs 121 — 138; elementary drill 
 forms 75 — S6; elementary units 87 — 100; elemen- 
 tary work outlined 4 — 5 ; ideas first necessary 17, 
 impressions assimilated through all senses 22, 
 inspiration of natural method 17, intelligence 
 from hand skill 39, life and memory drawing 
 139 — 154; manual dexterity, value of 233, me- 
 chanical drawing 319— 323 ; mechanical methods 
 useless 9, mediums for shaping ideas 5, modeling 
 animal forms 247 — 255; modeling for grammar 
 grades 229 — 245; modeling geometric forms 221 — 
 227; modeling, preliminary 1S5— 220; modeling 
 in w^ax 257—260; natural c;ipacity discovered 
 S, 12; nature and memory drawing 155 — 168; 
 natuie studies 58 — 64; object of new method 24, 
 organic memories developed 5, physical co-ordi- 
 nations 5, prelimi i:iry manual-training drawing 
 67 — 74; real drawing needed 35—46, rectifying 
 exercises 4, repetition and force of habit iS, ro- 
 tation of work 5, school equipment 33, school- 
 room decoration 3S5— 3S7; teachers not plants 
 needed 34, teachers should be examined 45, teach- 
 ersvs. imitators and copyists 45, 325; tool-using 
 alone makes machines 4, tool work not the end 
 but the means 317, true and false manual train- 
 ing 24— 34; union of head, hand, heart iS, utili- 
 tarian idea overdone 26, 41 ; visual memory in 20, 
 wood carving 261 — 302; woodwork construction 
 305—337 
 Elementary carving, instructions for— acute and flat 
 chisels, use of 273, beveling off outer edge 274, 
 cutting form around edge 273, cutting oak
 
 Index 
 
 423 
 
 Splendid discipline 271, encourage thr pupil 275, 
 gradually increase grooves aji, hnw to ciir\c 271, 
 pushing chisel throui;h wood 2^2, raised surface 
 how car^'ed 273, swing chi>i'l with both hands 273 
 
 Elementary courses in clay modeling lyj— loS 
 
 Elementary fonns, directions for modeling 194 — 207 
 
 Ellipse -compels balance ij6, exercises for automatic 
 use iJ'i, use in design ij6, vessel forms 126—129 
 
 Emerson— common things pleading ti> be understood 
 62, good thoughts valueless unless executed 1S5, 
 real object of education 4, thought ripened by 
 action 1S5, what education is and should be 4 
 
 Emotion— art arouses ^(io, touch children's 164, value 
 of, through generous acts 254 
 
 Energy— abstract work consumes 50, 63; bend to divine 
 in nature 63, build on divine in children 145, con- 
 screed by nature knowledge 17, dissipated by 
 mere book learning 17, divine in each one 145, 254; 
 how lost during maturity ,V'2, in children must 
 have some outlet 360, loss of lhr<)ugh unessential 
 things 40, necessity of for success 14, pleasing 
 fonns help create 247, right education creates 
 61, 300; saved bv this inelhitd 10 
 
 Essentialities first 93, 143. 14-S, 175,201 
 
 Esthetic training (see also Hc-auly)— essential to com- 
 plete culture 39, influence of beauty 6, necessary 
 in education 3, practical use of 3, 59 
 
 Exjwrience the mother of ide;is 1 1 
 
 Expression — drawing a mode of 19, 40,45.56,64, 117, 
 146; modeling a mode of iSS, 255 
 
 Eve troubles, one cause of 10, 21 
 
 Facility— automatic use of 7''>, before accuracy Si.SS, 
 9^, 122, lit^, 140 
 
 Familiarity m»t knowledge 59 
 
 Farari, sample o( car\-ing by 29S 
 
 Feebleminded and insane, best education for 390 
 
 Fine — art work, preparing for 402 
 
 Fine arts, the— see Ait students, suggestions for 
 
 Finger tips, speaking thiough 146 
 
 Fish fonns (sec also Drawing)— angel fish i44,caran- 
 goid 144, color examples in 144, combined with 
 other forms 152, directions for modeling 3*iit 
 254; drawing creates knowledge ol 151, I5j;gen- 
 crali/:ing 147, general remarks on 153, idealizing 
 146, in design 152, mackerel 143, memory draw- 
 ing of 14S, 151 ; modeled in clay 1S5, sea bass 150, 
 shccpshcad 145, subjects for study 143. typical 
 145, use of for plaster casts 254 
 
 Fluted forms, how carve 2SS 
 
 Fonn— feeling form in wockI 273, first considered 177, 
 iMlpres^ion of Inrst secured Vi, nrj ; learned 
 through modeling 177, i'>7; wood carving leaches 
 real form »h^, 300 
 
 Forms (see also Drill forms and Clay modeling) —ani- 
 mal forms in modeling 199—104, 247—255; archi- 
 tectural 1S2— 1S4; botanical 164—167; ctiair i7<t. 
 177; conventional and symbolic 161/— 1S4; con- 
 ventionalized bird forms 172, decorative and 
 conventional 45. dolphin 169-170; forms suitable 
 for car\ ing >/»— 300; fruit and vegetable forms 
 In modeling 209—110, gC"»metrii.- in wn«>d con- 
 •truction 326, 327 ; geomi-lrir lo 1 much U">t.'d in 
 drawiiiL* 0. itlealixed animal 171, tuturBl before 
 
 type 43, natural should be more used in school- 
 ro4>ni 2^1, natural v^. idealized 153, vessel sha|>cs 
 129 
 
 Forms suitable for elemenlark' carving — chairs 297, for 
 small w«>rk 19S, frames 296 
 
 Frazier, Mr. W, \V.— authority on vacation and night 
 schi>oIs 379 
 
 Frog, directions for modeling 202 
 
 Fruit forms, miKieUng fnun— apple 2oi>— J12; banana 
 314, fruit tile 214, hints to teachers 212, modeling 
 from nature 217, pear 212, texture easily imitated 
 212, use of t'N)l 210, 212 
 
 Fruit, drawing from 167 
 
 Fruit tile, directions for modeling 214 — 217 
 
 Furniture and other advanced work carving on— 
 acanthus leaf molding 294, 295; arms for chairs 
 and settees 3(x>, 301 ; N-aded surface border 192, 
 calipers sometimes necessan.* 2S6, 192, 295; chair 
 back piece jg6, chair examples 197, curved sur- 
 face, how caree on 291, forms suitable for carving 
 396 — 300; illustnitifins 291—301; picture frames 
 396, plain curbed molding 293. 2Qt; shell and leaf 
 lorms tor 2*^5, tongue and dart molding 292, work 
 in illu.ilrated 291 
 
 Galpin, >>ir Thomas — development of human faculty 20, 
 visualization jo 
 
 Geometric forms, modeling from— cone 225, cube 222^ 
 cylinder 224, general remarks 226, si/.e best lo use 
 221, sphere 222, square prism 225, too much U'^ed 
 
 56, 221, 224 
 
 Goodness and tnilh examples of beauty 254 
 
 Gouge— cutting channel around design 271, for remov- 
 ing backgntund 272, position of in earning 279, 
 select according lo curve 273, scooping out 
 inside cur\'e 273 
 
 Greek art, learning to appreciate 2tS 
 
 GrifTuis — (reehaiid designs 13**, firiginal design 255, 
 suggestions on drawing: 172. \\irii;ed form in 
 car\ed furniture 301 
 
 Habits vs. principles 214 
 
 llailmann, Dr. \V. N'.— acknmvledgment to 10, clothe 
 utility with beauty 33. Dr. llaitmann*» .iddress 
 at the graduating ckcrciKcs of the Public School 
 of Industrial Art, and his comment u|>on tni* 
 b<Hik, are in the pTvfator>' pages. 
 
 Hall, Stitnley- nature the ttource of education and 
 reti)i;ioti ii 
 
 ll.illeck, l*rof. Iteutten— acts vs. ideas in, motor action 
 ne«-dft cultivation Jo, motor paralysis of bi>ol% 
 absorlwrs jo 
 
 Hand, the— Arintntlc on J2, capacity for skill in ti, in- 
 strument for perfecting other senses 201, in»lrii- 
 ment of iii»(rument» 22, intelligence from hanii 
 skill 3g, lelthand iraining needed 4S— 51,791^^; 
 Mcifcsonier on lelthand work 51. ol>edient to will 
 jj, 70, (n, 27**; power «»i to fiml texture in wiwhI 
 271, 275; right and left-hand work 47—51; »en- 
 ftibilitv go\erns the 51, .Mr Chark* Hell on 51, 
 3f>i ; »killed hand v*. fluent tongue i\t various 
 mediums foro 
 
 Happiiie«ft in spite of drudg\-rv 6. 310 
 
 Harris Dr. W. T.— art influence 360
 
 424 
 
 Index 
 
 Health -first consideration i, improper educational 
 methods injure 62 
 
 Hobby, value of this system as 1^ 
 
 Horse-chestnut leat embodies many laws 165 
 
 Human form studies — charcoal drawings 406, methods 
 of modeling' 412, modeling and drawing from 
 life 401, modeling head from life 410, modeling the 
 figure 411, 412; Raphael's Madonna del Car- 
 detlino 417, sketching model in costume 409 
 
 Ideas — ability to revive 57, as images of sensory im- 
 pressions 207, basis of originality 30, develop- 
 ment of 16, iS; disintegration of how prevented 
 392, getting and giving first hand 32, good art 
 requires 57, growth of 57, sense impressions 
 create 16, 19; separate mental exi tence 57, sym- 
 bols of things cannot create 17, thought fabric 
 built by expressing 17, union of head, hand, 
 heart necessary iS, words made valuable by 16 
 
 Imitation — tendency ot art schools toward 149 
 
 Impressions — more time for dwelling on needed 57, 
 permanent and vivid through art channels 340 
 
 Individualitv — recognized in pupils ^22, 329; recog- 
 nized in teacher 34 
 
 Insane and feeble-minded institutions — art and indus- 
 trial training adapted for 390, disposition should 
 be studied and interest awakened 391, Dr. Kirk- 
 bride's experience 390, importance of pleasing 
 occupation 390, not all in institutions 392, pottery 
 forms modeled by the insane 391, suggestions 
 391, things of beauty and value produced by 390 
 
 Inspiration— at first hand 53, conserved by knowledge 
 through nature 17, cultivation of 174, discovery of 
 natural disposition creates 15, energy to act 
 created by 62, first understanding of 57, in 
 natural forms 253, manual training creates 15, 
 performance ot deeds causes 15, 20; teachers' 
 need of 15 
 
 Intelligence thro!igh hand skill 39, 2S0 
 
 Isometrical drawing and its use 322 
 
 Jacobi on perception and memory 1S5 
 
 Joints— complex forms named 329, first exercises 325, 
 illustrations 314, 331 ; simpler forms first 325 
 
 Keene, Bishop — " stairway to God " 63 
 
 Kirkbride, Dr., on adaptability of these methods to the 
 feeble-minded and insane 390 
 
 Knowledge (see also Education) — means ability to use 
 iS, 340; not tamiliarity 59, 340; of environment 
 necessary 54 
 
 Leading lines 9S, 100 
 
 Leaf, the — complex forms loS — no; combinations of 
 leat and scroll 116 — 117; conventional forms fir^t 
 91, curved leat how modeled 242, directions for 
 carving 20S, 2S4; directions lor drawing S7, direc- 
 tions for modeling 195, 215,237, 242; drill work 90, 
 forms modeled in clay 112, 115, 208, 215, 237,243; 
 idealized forms 1 13, illustrations of SS, S9; series 
 of forms 111—116; simple forms S7 — 93; three- 
 tipped leaf and variations S9 — 90; unnecessary 
 technical terms S9 
 
 Left hand — see Ambidextrous work 
 
 Lettering and design 175 
 
 Lite drawing {see also Drawing, and Art students, 
 suggestions for)-get new impressions from object 
 140, human form studies 409—412; illustrations 
 
 139, 141, 143, 144, 145, 146, 150, 154; living fish 
 should be studied 144, 149, 150; memory of form 
 must be fixed 140, mounted forms, use of 142, 
 moving models, drawing from 161. power regis- 
 tered by practice 140, simplicitv, importance of 
 14S, suggestions on 139 
 
 Liie work, fitted for by true manual training 32 
 
 Light and shade(seealso Color and Charcoal drawing) 
 — after form 177, learned by modeling 177 
 
 Lines, leading— fundamental lines in patterns 9S, 
 sDJral the basis 9S, suggestions on use ot 100 
 
 Lining-in opposed 76, 77 
 
 Lizard, directions for modeling 203 
 
 Loop, the double— application of S2, directions for 
 making So, exercises on Si — S4; reason for vari- 
 ous movements S2 
 
 Machinery and power misused in technical schools 310 
 
 Machine-shop methods, limitations of 306 
 
 Machine-shop practice has its place 310 
 
 Magnetic influence in nature 254 
 
 Magnitudes — drill for 127, must be grasped mentally 
 129 
 
 Mallet — aid to chisel or gouge 264, hand used as, illus- 
 trated 277, position of illustrated 276, right and 
 lelt hand with 273, use of with chisel 271, 273 
 
 Manual training, the true tsee also Manual-training 
 drawing and Hducation in art and manual train- 
 ing) — adapted to all grades and ages 9, balanced 
 human organism by 4, contact with real things 
 important 16, co-ordination of hand, eye, brain 
 30, basis of all education 22, benchwork 16, 319; 
 capacity and energv through 10, 12, 14; drawing 
 the first esstntial 6,9; drawing supplement to 29, 
 dull and backward pupils adapted to 52, 3S9; ed- 
 ucates to enjoy life even in drudgery 310, elemen- 
 tary precedes special work 5, 29; feeble minded 
 and insane educated by 300, first experiments 9, 
 first principles 1 — 64; good-will of educators for 
 10, hand obedient to will 76, h«nd skill makes 
 intelligence 39, inspiration through 15, knowledge 
 reinforced by 70, love of nature from 23, mind 
 and character developed 31, mode nl thought ex- 
 pression 30, muscle and mind in harinonv 31, old 
 methods insufficient 41, old system of carpenter 
 work illustrated 335, perspective powers trained 
 24, 40; province of 32, reformatory institutions 
 benefited by 393, school for not a machine shop 
 309, self-reliance taught by 39, senses trained 3S, 
 smallest school can teach 34, sloyd, cooking, 
 etc., not included 3S, thought and action united 
 24, 40; tools first needed 4, tools required inex- 
 pensive 33, trade processes compared with 32, 
 truant schools should* teach 393 — 394; true dis- 
 tinguished from false 3], wood-working opera- 
 tions 29, work of life fitted for 32 
 
 Manual-training drawing (see also Drawing and De. 
 signing )— construction lines not allowed SS, 
 contact with things importint 16, drill forms 72, 
 75— SA; drill work for fundamental skill 69, ele- 
 mentary units S7—100; freehand manual and 
 memory 13, modeling and carving supplements 
 to S6, nature study with 70, paper for 73, plan of 
 exercises 71, preliminary considerations 67 — 74 
 
 Manual-training school not a machine shop 300
 
 Index 
 
 425 
 
 Maudsley— education and whai ii hiiim--is i>t ^^n. 
 growth ofidcatiun 57, ideas as iina^i-ri of scnsorv 
 impressions ^07, ner\c experiences, registering; 
 ot 143, physical basis of memory 4S, unconscious 
 development of visual sensations 65 
 
 Meanings of things better than meanings of words 34.S 
 
 Mechanical draughting, previous training required 
 for 305 
 
 Mechanical drawing— artistic beauty of htnv lost 3J1, 
 class room illustrated 304, course should include 
 what 330, diflerent drawings, same principle ^22, 
 draughting and when properly taught 305, draw- 
 ings for wcM»d working 330, equipment required 
 33(), Ireehand perspective illustrated 3J3, freehand 
 projections illustrated 315, individuality of pupils 
 always considered 3*2, instrument discussion 
 begins course 32J, isometrical drawing and its use 
 jii, isometric drawing lesson illustrated yO, 
 machines should not be too much discussed ^10, 
 mechanical units 1^22, parallel and angular per- 
 spective of educatii)nal value 32*1, ^2} ; perspective 
 and architectural design included 3^0, practical 
 experience at machine shops desired \2i, pupils* 
 work illustrated 333, real manual training first 
 306, rotation with wood-working3i5, scn-w princi- 
 ple illustrated 3JI, tracing and blueprinting im- 
 portant 3J2, the previous training required 
 
 305. i" 
 
 Meissonier — ambidexterity 51, drawing^ a basis of 
 primary education 56, drawing expresses all 
 things 5^, language of truth 56 
 
 Memory (see also Memory- drawing) — basis of 4S, cor. 
 rcct use of 3S, mind expanded by drawing fr^^ii 
 143, physiological condition of 143, strengthened 
 by draw*ing 39, visual 20 
 
 Memory drawing (see also Drawing) — ability fanned 
 to "think" pictures 143, assimilate impressions 
 Ironi real things 163. bird forms for 159, botanical 
 forms ifi^ — i&S; fish forms good practice 143, 
 good artists constantly refresh memory 1^3, illus. 
 trations 14S. 151, 153, 155, I5>, i'«>, 161, lOi, 1/14; 
 not enough insisted on 143, 14*); jMrrsistence re- 
 quired 14J, primary work hy little children I'io, 
 type forms must be fixed 146 
 
 Mentnl and bodily vigor by union ol study and 
 •• doing "341 
 
 Mental fabric, building nf iS, 31.45,50,57,60,150,344 
 
 Mental image vs. pencil lines ti-j, IJ^S 
 
 Mental inertia, resultol S 
 
 Mental functions, development of 4.S 
 
 Metal, carved patterns for 30 j 
 
 Metal work— esthetic idea usually lacking 337, art in 
 3i>4, denigns 3(>4, entirety mechanical funda- 
 mentaN before trade operations 337, illustration 
 394, plaque illustrated 3S5, proper place in trade 
 schools 337, re[M»us»*' and hammered work ^Kt^, 
 working in illustrated 3(;5 
 
 Methods in manualtra Jiing t.»et-aUo Manual training) 
 — cost of equipments conlraftted 3,^, (li»tinctinn 
 between true and fnNc 14—34 i ***1»^ mrthod* con- 
 sume energy and inspiration Ju, methods ad- 
 vocated and criticined 4, old methods found 
 wanting 9. 305 ; stupid claims tor sinyd 2$ 
 
 Modeling (sec also t jay modeling and Wax modeling) 
 —aid to drawing Vi, 154; animal forms 147- J55; 
 before caning 2^2, elementary courses in 193— 
 3oS; " leeling form " 22$, f«ir grammar grades itg 
 — *»5: fwrm taught by 1S7. fruit and vegetable 
 forms 2c^~t2o; geometric forms 221—317; hints 
 to the teacher I9r>, mode of expression iSK, 255; 
 plant required iSS, 190; preliminar>' instructions 
 1S7— 192; props, use of 251, 252; suggestions on 
 1S7— iSS; wax modeling J57— 260 
 
 Modeling animal forms— advice to teachers 249, Bar>-e 
 casts lor school u8eiS2. 249; ]lan,e casts illus- 
 trated 213, 246; directions lor modeling 199 — 204, 
 ^^7-^55; K*-'"*''"**' form first 249. individual Ustc 
 of pupils consulted 247, nrodcling from birds 250, 
 model for each pupil 24S, model the best teacher 
 249, tool marks vs. smoothness 249, woik bv 
 grammar pupils 251, work in, illustrated 1S6. J47 
 
 Modeling and carving (see also .Modeling and Carving) 
 — ability inherent 64, :»ids to drawing S6 
 
 Modeling lor grammar grades— antheniion 241, cur\ed 
 leaf 242, leaf tile illustrated 237, leaf units 237, 
 Moresque form 23S, rosette 234, scroll 230. scroll 
 and crocket 239, scroll and leaflets 240, simple 
 shell forms 243, suggestions 229 
 
 Modeling, forms for — see Clay modeling 
 
 Modeling fruit and vegetiihte forms 209— 220 (sec also 
 Fruit forms and Vegetable lonn^, modeling 
 from ) 
 
 Molding— acanthus leaf 294, J95; plain curved 293, J94; 
 tongue and dart Ayi, 20i 
 
 Moorish unit^— directions for drawing 1 19, directions 
 (or modeling 23S, Moresque designs iiS, 119; 
 Moresque unit illustrated 23,$ 
 
 Morality embodied in nature 7 
 
 Moral training (seeals(» Night schools)— activities and 
 indivi. ual faculties the Kids to 6, 7 ; beauty parlot 
 gcH>dne»-s n<)t enough taught 254, before intel- 
 U'Ciual I. character developed by manual train- 
 '■*tf j<> ^M> *-\^'> divine i nergy a splendid aid 254, 
 duty sluiuld be a desire nut a sacrillce 254, habits 
 bel'orc principles 27S, knowledge of beauty an 
 imp'^rtiint aid 6, moraliiy embodied in nature 7. 
 prvlereiicc for good how best developed 7, skilled 
 hands develop 2^, 32 
 
 Motor centers— co-ordination ol 103, lack of active use 
 frequent 59 
 
 Mouse, diiectiontt for modeling 204 
 
 .Moxoin, Dr. rhilip S., on moral habits J7S 
 
 Nascent (>eri<>d, best re»ults at 29 
 
 Natural dis|M>siti«in, common lack of development in 1 j 
 
 Natural forms— inspiration in 253, schoolrtMiin use 
 of 252 
 
 Nature— ttest designer 155, drawing from 61, Imiking 
 
 at thing<t not enough 5S, love for cultivated no, 
 
 manual training teache* love for 31^ morality em 
 
 tHidird in 7. painting from 141, li>uch of 1^ 
 
 Nature anil ituiniiry drawing 155 — 106 (sec alsoNature 
 
 drawing and Memory drawing) 
 Nature drav^ing (sec also Drawing) — bird forms 159, 
 UH, I'tj; bl-uklniard work 15S, botanical 1*4 — u*ji 
 general form fi st aim 162, object drawing lUii^ 
 trated 15'% khell forms 155— 15S
 
 426 
 
 Index 
 
 Nature studv and memorv drawing 155 — 163; common 
 method criticised 5:^, 60, 61 ; drawing as supple- 
 ment to 70, 72 ; drawing- used in 6, 345 ; example of 
 153,154; familiarity not knowled^^e 50, organic 
 impressions in 60, right methods 5S - 64 
 
 Nature-study drawing, use of 6 
 
 Night schools— application and plant required 364 — 
 366; chanicter and energy how naturally de- 
 veloped 359—364; encourage the pupils 372, 
 materials needed 366 — 36S; plan of exercises 36S, 
 principles and methods and their practical work- 
 ing359— 364; pupils often injured by goody-goody 
 people 362, rewards or prizes 374, 377; scenes in 
 3SS, 361, 365. 367^ 37 >. 373. 375 ; street arabs 374, 
 suggestions for controlling pupils 369, sugges- 
 tions to teachers 370 — 372 ; teachers needed 36S, 
 v:ilue and use of manual-training methods 359, 
 wood carving in 375 — 377 ; work illustrated 
 
 369, 374 
 
 Normal schools — necessity for these methods being 
 taught3So, public denuindsthe new education 3S0, 
 teachers can easily prepare themselves to teach 
 true manual training 3S0 
 
 Nude, drawing from the 426 
 
 Oak — chiseling around curve difficult 271, cutting in, 
 splendid discip ine 271, experience with is the 
 best teacher 271 
 
 Objects of woodwork instruction 316 
 
 Originality, ideas basis of 30 
 
 Painting — 5".ee Color and brush work 
 
 Paper for drawing 74 
 
 Parents, a word to — can teach your own children from 
 this book 39f}, parents are enthusiiistic advocates 
 of these methods 397, will gain pleasure and use 
 by learning and teaching manual-training 397 
 
 Parthenon, antelix of ir4 
 
 Pattern making after geometric forms 327 
 
 Patterns in woodwork construction 305, 327, 329 
 
 Pear, directions for modeling 212 
 
 Perception — accuracy of created 25, modeling an aid to 
 219, foundation of reasoning and imagination 
 20S, memorv associated with 1S5 
 
 Perspective — architectural design included with 320, 
 lesson illustrated ^2$, naturally acquiretl 174, 
 parallel and angular 320, 323 
 
 Plaster models — animal forms iSi, 213, 246; antique 
 105, architectural models 1S2 — 1S4; Barye casts 
 for schoolroom 1S2, 1S6; borders 227, capitals 221, 
 casts vs. nature iSo, fruit forms iSi, model for 
 drawing, modeling and carving 187,240; panels 
 222, shield 220, teachers should make 1S2, vs. 
 clay models for schools 252 
 
 Potato, directions for modeling 217 
 
 l*ottery forms illustrated 3S7 
 
 Pratt institute methods 54 
 
 Processes best lor all pursuits first3i6 
 
 Radical feature of real manual-training methods 306 
 
 Raphael's Cardellino illustrated 417 
 
 Reformatory institutions — character reformed bv pleas- 
 ing work 393. cheaper methods for society 393, ex- 
 perience with art methods in 393, respectable 
 liveliliood may be earned 393 
 
 Rembrandt's elephant illustrated and exjilained 39S 
 
 Repouss^ and hammered v ork 395 
 
 Righteousness, second-hand vs. first hand methods 363 
 Roof construction 311, 313 
 
 Rosette, the— directions for carving 2S6, zSS; direc- 
 tions fir modeling 234, drawing exercises on 97— 
 9S; Gothic form illustrated 245, illustrations of 
 car\-ed torms 2S7, inodeied form 234, modeling ex- 
 ercises on 19S, models for drawing, modeling and 
 carving 99, round and square forms of illustrated 
 2S7, various designs 0, with leaf form no 
 Schoolroom decoration — aquarium 3S5, borders of 
 simple pattern 3S5, charts give business air 3S6, 
 designs and pictures 386, flowers 386, great art 
 works undesirable 3S5, natural forms 3S5, shelves 
 of interesting objects 3S5, simple art works easily 
 understood 3S5, teacher's personality in 3S7, 
 "works of art" alone no education 3SS, wrong 
 methods may engender dislike for art forms 3S5 
 School work aided by drawing — biology 345, blackboard 
 work 34S, botany 346 — 352; chart making 354 — 
 357; chemistry 352, elementary chemistry 347, ele- 
 mentary science 346, entomoloj^y 352, language 
 study 342, learning "hard" words 339, mineral- 
 ogy 352, natural history 353, nature study 345, 
 qualifying names 344, technical terms 343, 
 . zoology 343 
 Scroll, the — combined with anthemlon 105 — 107; com- 
 bined with crocket 239, conil^ined with leaflets 
 240, desi^;;ning form to carve 2S3, directions for 
 drawing and modeling 230, 239 ; modeled form 230, 
 241; "modeled line" 230, modeling lesson on, 
 illustrateil 2^^, three stages in carving 2S4 
 Self-reliance t:iu;jhtby manual training 39, 340 
 Sense impressions — assimilation of 3S, complexity of 
 brain cells from 51, concrete ideas from 19, co- 
 ordination for individual harmonv 4S, cultivation 
 of 63, importance of various 16, organized 59, re- 
 produced through fingertips 146, sense channels 
 how impressed 5^, systematic training of 3S 
 Senses — brain co-ordination forms connection between 
 39, distinct yet connected iS, mind developed 
 through 207, practiced use of prevents accidents 
 2J1, systematic training of 38 
 Shakespeare on learning from nature 62 
 Shell forms— blackboard work 15>, carvings of conven- 
 tionalized 2S9, directions for modeling 243, fiom 
 memory 155 — 15S; from object 156— 158; modeled 
 form 229, models illustrated 158, 244 
 Simplicity— characteristic of great artists 149, im. 
 
 portance of 147, one aim sought in drawing 149 
 Sketch and note books in woodwork construction 325 
 Sketching constantly practiced by good artists 143 
 Sketching vs. designing 57 
 
 Sloyd method—busy work hut not educational zS, not 
 real manual training 28, original reason for 26, 
 selected for criticism 28, stupid claims for 25 
 Smiles, on habits vs. principles 214 
 Snake, how to model 202 
 
 Solids — cups and saucers 12S, drill f »r magnitudes 127, 
 mental image vs. pencil lines 12S, principle 
 of Greek vessel forms 12S, vessel forms for prac- 
 tice 129 
 Spencer— brain the register of experiences 224, educa-
 
 Index 
 
 427 
 
 ted senses and muscles needed in accidents jr'it, 
 mciinin^ of ihinpr!^ vs. meaning^ of words 348 
 
 Sphere, tiirections for modeling; 222 
 
 Spiral, the — directions for cur\in)f spiral crockets 285, 
 directions for drawing S4— S5; directions for 
 modeling 194, drill forms So, frequent form in 
 art &|, modeling: i^t units of design based on 93 
 
 Spoiled work vs. st>oiled pupil ^75 
 
 Straight lines— directions for making 79, exercises on 
 diagonals 79 
 
 Strap work — exercises for accuracy 124— 125 ; interhic- 
 ing exercises 125 
 
 ptreet ar.ibs and what can be done with them 374 
 
 Strength in designing, secret of 100 
 
 Study and " doing '* should go together 341 
 
 Summer schools — these methods adapted to 3S2, work 
 at illustrated 3S2, 3S3 
 
 Swiss or Swedi^h car\ing 3SS 
 
 Symbolic fonns— circle iSo, cross iSo, hieroglyphics 
 iSo, nimbus iSo, passion flower iSo 
 
 Symbolism— explanatio.i of 17S, forms in described iSo 
 
 Tactual impressions— produce *' seeing |>owcr '* iSS, 
 value ol portraying 147, 160 
 
 Tangential curvatun- — see Curvature 
 
 Teacher — great field for 400, inspinition needed by 15, 
 mission of 15, 227; personality recognized 34, 
 true teacher draws out energy 145. 150, 1^4; vs 
 imitators and copyists 45 
 
 Teachers, gn-at field for 400 
 
 Technical terms learned by dr.iwing their nieaning 343 
 
 Thing!? vs. symbols ify — 2^ 
 
 Thought— drawing as mode of expression i9,'40, 45, 56, 
 64, 117, 14^, 33g; mo*leling as mode of expres. 
 sion iSS, 355; ripened by action into truth 1S5, 
 thought should be put into work instead of into 
 tools 317, valueless unless executed i^S 
 
 Thought and action united by true manual training 
 24, 40 
 
 Though* fabric— sec Mental fabric 
 
 Thought studies, first step to higher 54 
 
 Tools — calipers 2S<>, 2f)2, 293, 294, 295; car^•ing set 
 illustrated 2^15. chisel 2<)3, 271, 272, 273,274,292, 
 *>(, 2<>5; clamps 203, clamps and mallet illus- 
 traled 2')4, fewer tools, belter workmen 2*13, M^ ; 
 first ones needed 4, gouge 263, 271. 27 J, 273, J93I 
 mallet y»3, 271, 273; marks of on \*enu8 of Milo 
 264, n.itural vs. artificial 4, 2S0; not end but 
 means 317, parting tool 2i>3, ruler 132, 2S(S; sharp, 
 ening 328, simplicity of in Greek art y^, posi- 
 tion in mmleling illustrated 233. ^35: l^o^ilio^ of 
 mmle'.ing timl described 23'". sculptors' best 243, 
 Bet of carving, illustrated 2/^5, use of in elementary 
 modehng 210, 212; uf»e «»! in grammar grade 
 modeling 230—245; wood.working to*«U required 
 for 20 pupils 334, work with should become Auto- 
 matic 317 
 
 Tool work not the end but the means 317 
 
 Tomato, direction."* fnr modeling 21S 
 
 Tongue— drawing the universal 33, 146; v«. skilled J3 
 
 Tongue and dart molding Ji;2, 293 
 
 Touch - ma*tcr sens'e iSS, mind and jud(fment trained 
 by iSS, sculptor's power in iSS 
 
 Trade (see also Manual training, the true)— hand skill 
 precedes trade learnmg 29, ^2; hand of shown in 
 
 common art nietho<1s 41, mercantile ideas over- 
 done S, 13; old- fashioned ideas unavailable 13, 
 trade processes vs. manual training 32. jSo; trade 
 school's nal use ^2, true handicraft trams eye, 
 hand, brain 30, teaching of not beneficial 7, 
 weakness of old method in teaching 32 
 
 Trade processes vs. real manual training 32 
 
 Trade school's real use ^2 
 
 Tniant schools, etc— art methods always liked 393, en- 
 thusiasm awakened 304, even ** vicious" boys like 
 work 39(, forcing methods a failure 393. good 
 word for pupils in 394, rvbellion and hate vs. en- 
 thusiasm 393 
 
 Truth, the language of 5(1 
 
 Utility- alone does not educate 54, clothed with beauty 
 33, idea of overdone 26,41 ; insuffiricnt alone 1 
 
 Vacation and night schiKils, authority on 379 
 
 Vacation schools— false vs. riirht methods 3S0, Mr. \V. 
 W. Fra/ier, authority on 379, too much experi- 
 menting with 3S\ valuable results obtained 379 
 
 Vaulting principle illustrated ^21 
 
 \'cgetable forms, modeling from— carrot 21S, potato J17 
 ri-marks on 21*^, tomato 21S, turnip 219 
 
 Venus of Milo, tool marks on 2*14 
 
 Vessel shapes ijo 
 
 Visual image— best workmen have 20, designer has 
 137, necessary in designing 20, pleasure of use 
 21, unconscious development of 65, universal 
 need of 21 
 
 Vitality consumed by mere Ixwik learning 17 
 
 A'ital force how aciiuired 57 
 
 \'olunl;irv action, Wundt on S| 
 
 Water-color painting from casts — best position for 
 model 4ns, materials 40S, painting Angelo's Dy- 
 ing Slave 40S 
 
 Wax— cleaned by melting 259, colors of 25S, compared 
 with clay for modeling 257, eokt and care of 
 257, 25S; good substitutes lor J57 
 
 Wax modeling— designs 25'>, 257, 25S, 259; dirccttont 
 for making casts ot wa\ models 259, dntwing 
 and lining in for 257, enlarging animal forms 
 *», rouKhtcxture wi>od best for 2$^ 
 
 Women antl girls, hand training adapted to 31, 264 
 
 Wood — hard vs. soft in car%-lng 265—26^; practical use 
 of hard 2«W, texture learned byexperience 271, 275 
 
 Wood carving — age for teaming jbf, avoid too deep 
 cutting 273, background first n-movt-d 273, best 
 work from the sLirt 2 14, 21*$ ; beveling outer edge 
 of design 274, borders 2i>2—2v5: carved p.ittcrns 
 for metal w<jrk 3«j, 305; ca^ve^'^ grip neicsnary 
 jSo, carving on a curbed surface 2^1—296, 300— 
 301 ; carving on furniturr and tither advanced 
 work 2>>i— 302; car\-ing the elementar)* units ot 
 design JS3— 390; chairs 21^7, continuous clean cut 
 273, (.'upid's head in four stages 2ui), yxt; cutllnip 
 around curve 273, 274; design, carving elementary 
 unit!* iif 2'*3— Jfin; ■! ' mi for earning 
 
 2f'f>; disiipline and t- > of 27S, cduca- 
 
 tiimal value ri( .■ 1 1 encourage the 
 
 pupil 275, em (''«tered by j^ro, 
 
 equipment, mi ing the form In 
 
 WOtnl 27 t. fintohrd wurk 1mm\ u^ed 277, fininhing 
 
 the earning 2S », fir»l »tep» in Jftft, 271— *Si; 
 frames J96, free curves needi-d in dcklgnlng S7J,
 
 428 
 
 Index 
 
 furniture .ind other ndvanced work 291 — 301; 
 gouging; channel around desig^n 271, graded work 
 in 26S, grooves slight at first 272, hard vs. soft 
 wood 265, hard wood preferred 265, illustrafions 
 of examples of 2, 5, 65, 15S, 1S5, 261, 263, 26S— 271, 
 2S1, 2S2, 2S.5, 390, 291, 297, 29S, 299; instructions 
 for elementary work 271— 2S1 ; knowledge of form 
 required 263, line of drawing not considered by 
 expert carvers 273, muscular exercise for torpid 
 muscles 279, panel illustrated 317, 3S9; position 
 of hands 267, practical use of hard wood 266, 
 raised surface how carved 273, scooping out inside 
 curve 273, scored background illustrated 26S, 
 scoring the background 2OS. should be taught 
 with clav modeling 317, should precede cabinet 
 making 317, spoiled panel vs. spoiled boy 275, 
 spoiled work made good 292, stupid pupils make 
 skilled workmen 275, Swiss or Swedish carving 
 3SS, teaching of not common enough 299, texture 
 of wood learned by experience 271, 275; tools re- 
 quired 263, 264, 265, 273; tracing is cheating 26S, 
 transfer instruments not used 266, 267 ; wood work 
 distinct from 317, working in, illustrated 19, 262, 
 272, 274, 276, 277, 279, 291 ; wood to practice in 265 
 Woodwork construction — abstruse ideas should be- 
 come familiar 316. advanced construction 32S, ap- 
 paratus for school purposes illustrated 320, archi- 
 tecture 323, architectural column illustrated 314, 
 art and mechanical sides both taught 325, art 
 work before mechanical work 317, bench work 
 should correlate with oiher studies 319, black- 
 board work made much of 324, building construc- 
 tions illustrated 309, in. 313; carpenter work, 
 where it should be taught 305, comprehensive 
 rather than detailed training 316, difference be- 
 tween the important and the trivial must be dis- 
 
 cerned 317, door model 317, drawings for wood 
 working 330, duplicate parts may be turned work 
 329, education in requires no machinerv 310, 312; 
 equipment inexpensive 313, fallacy of ordinary 
 methods 305. geometric models 326, 327; good 
 teacher better than good tools 31S, individ- 
 uality of pupils recognized 329, joints for first ex- 
 ercises 325, joints illustrated 314, 331 ; machine- 
 shop practice has its place 310, manual-training 
 school not a machine shop 300, mechanical side 
 how best taught 325, misuse of power and ma- 
 chinerv in technical schools 310, note and sketch 
 books required 325, objects of instruction 316, oat- 
 terns for advanced work 329, patterns illustrated 
 
 305, pattern making after geometric form 
 327, perspective lesson illustrated 32S, pre- 
 liminary training required 305, present vs. old- 
 time craftsmanship 307, processes the best lor all 
 pursuits first 316, radical feature ot this method 
 
 306, real manual training first 306, root construc- 
 tion 311, 313; sawing lesson illustrated 306, simple 
 exercises for beginners 325, skilled mechanic 
 alone not best teacher 31S, teacher's best qualifi- 
 cations 325, thought should be put into work, not 
 into tools 317, tools required for woodworking de- 
 partment 334, tools not end but means 317,100! 
 workshould become automatic 317, typical forms 
 most important at first 325, use of head work in 
 315, vaultingprinciple illustrated 324, wood carv- 
 ing distinct from 317, wood working course and 
 what it includes ;^;^2y wood working illustrated 
 306, 307, 308,312,310, ^6^; wood-working samples 
 illustrated 305,309, 311. 313, 314.317, 320, ^26, 327, 
 329; wood-working tools for 20 pupils 334 
 
 Wood-working course and what it includes 332 
 Writing, compared with drawing 76, 146 
 
 THE PUBLISHERS' WORD 
 
 This book has been primarily a labor of love with the American publishers. It describes metliods that have 
 been successfully applied with many thousands of pupils and teachers in public, parochial and private schools, art 
 classes, reformatory institutions, etc. At the World's Columbian Exposition, Mr. Tadd's working display of his 
 methods was awarded the only medal '* for excellence and unique method of teaching dr.awing and its application to 
 clay and wood." The judges were Russian experts in industrial education .and manual training. It is further sig- 
 nificant of true merit, that a diflercnt set of judges should have awarded another gold meda! to this work as exhibited 
 by the Roman Catholic high school of Philadelphia in another and distant department of the exposition. The report 
 of the United States Commissioner of Education for 1S94 Says " the exhibit ol this school was a surprise," and de- 
 votes more space to it than to all the Philadelphia art schools and colleges combined. 
 
 This school also received the lion's share of space and commendation in the voluminous report to the Swiss 
 government by its accredited delegate, Mr. Leon Genoud, director of the Museum of Industry and the Pedagogium, 
 Fribourg. Mr. Tadd was invited to explain his methods to the British Association for the Advancement of Science in 
 1S95, and an institution for teaching these methods has since been successfully inaugurated at Liverpool, while it is 
 rapidly spreading througlioutthe United States. In consequence of these and other indorsements, much inquiry for 
 "the natural education" has come from leading educational bodies, not only in the United States, but in Norway 
 Sweden, .Switzerland, Belgium, France, Germany, the United Kingdom and Australia. The present work is partly to 
 satisfy these and similar inquiries. 
 
 The American publishers offer their services to families, institutions, superintendents or teachers who may wish 
 to adopt Mr. Tadd's methods in whole or in part. Correspondence is invited regarding competent instructors in art, 
 real manual training and nature study, concerning opportunities for the training of teachers in this method, or about 
 the simple and inexpensive equipment and supplies required for these natural methods in the new education. We 
 will cheerfully co-operate to any reasonable extent in promoting the universal use of these new methods in education 
 thatare so full of j>romise for the youth of the world.
 
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 Full Page Plates 
 
 Frontispiece li 
 
 1 Ciuirccial ilrawings from ca-sts vi 
 
 2 Cliililn-ii's work, graiiiiiiar grade, Pliiladelphia piililic schools 2 
 
 3 Work in day iiiiiil.'ling, I'ulilic ScIhxiI of Imlustrial Art 2" 
 
 4 Bhioktioaril work in a night sclioul 37 
 
 5 Unfinished charcoal sketch, showing how artists draw xii 
 
 6 Drawing and painting birds from life 40 
 
 7 Corrt'lation of drawing with elementary natnral science — entomology 5.3 
 
 8 Ambidextrous designing <"' 
 
 9 Drawing and painting class. Public .School of Industrial Art 02 
 
 10 Painting in color form butterflies 1 1 1 
 H Drawing dog form life l-'l 
 
 12 Bird form nuxlels for children to work from 170 
 
 13 Girl mo<l"'Iing a lion l**" 
 
 11 1H(( small forms modeled in clay 1>*0 
 15 Some of the Barye cists -!•' 
 10 A collection of pupils' work, Public School of Imlustrial Art L'2S 
 
 17 Forms suitable for elementary schools 231 
 
 18 Various ))ositions of tool in modeling rosette and shell 23.') 
 
 19 Modeling a lion 24(1 
 
 20 Original designs modeled in wax 2."i0 
 
 21 Wooil-carving room. Public School of Imlustrial Art 2'i2 
 
 22 Exaiiii>les of wood carving -'" 
 
 23 Vestm.nt casi- of U C high .school pupils 282 
 
 24 Mechanical ilrawing i*"* 
 
 25 Part of wood-working room •""* 
 20 Illustrating roof construction ''^l 
 
 27 Simple and complex geometric models '^-'tl 
 
 28 Drawings for wood working ■'•'^' 
 
 29 Mechanical drawings by pupils ^l-'-^ 
 80 Caqienter work— the old system of manual training :»='•'. 
 
 31 Botany— application of ilrawing to elementary science work 33.S 
 
 32 Elementary chemistry and drawing 
 
 33 Drawing birds from nature 
 
 (4=9) 
 
 317 
 351
 
 430 
 
 List of Illustrations 
 
 34 St. James Boys' Guild, nigjit school class 
 
 35 Boys carving funiiture in night school 
 
 36 Summer class in Adirondacks at work 
 
 37 Elementary mineralogy with drawing 
 
 38 Rembrandt's study of an elephant 
 
 39 Modeling and drawing from life 
 
 40 Angelo's Sj'bil 
 
 41 Drawing pigs, Adirondacks 
 
 42 Sketching from cattle, summer school 
 
 353 
 371 
 378 
 384 
 398 
 401 
 404 
 414 
 416 
 
 Principal Pictures, Arranged by Subjects 
 
 DRAWING 
 
 Pupil working^ on orig^inal blackboard design lo, 
 
 15.35.46. 134 
 Enlarging sketchbook drawings 11, 162 
 Freehand manual and memory work by little 
 
 children 13 
 Blackboard work in a night school 37 
 Teachers practicing freehand circle 41 
 Little child drawing circles 47 
 Class drawing and painting birds from life 49 
 Freehand designing, Germantown public school 
 
 SI 
 Correlation of drawing with elementary natural 
 
 sciences — entomology 55 
 Bov making freehand chart 5S 
 Drawing poultry from nature6i, 139 
 Original designs by grammar-grade children 65 
 Ambidextrous blackboard designing by class of 
 
 boys 66 
 Some primary exercises 67, 6S, 73 
 Grammar grade practice 69 
 
 Ambidextrous co-ordinations in four directions 70 
 Grammar grade pupils making original designs 
 
 7' 
 First exercises, primary school, colored children 
 
 7^ 
 Loop forms for drill work 75, Si, S2, 84 
 Freehand exercises in straight lines 76 
 Circle form for drill work 7S 
 Straight-line form for drill work 79 
 Children making drill movements and spirals So 
 Making loop forms with both hands, primary 
 
 children S3 
 Spiral forms for drill work S4, S5, S6 
 Drawing bird forms irom memory S7 
 Leaf forms for drill work SS, S9, loS, 109 
 
 110, 112, 113, IJ4 
 practicing leaf forms and loops 90 
 Drawing and painting class, Public School of 
 
 Industrial Art 92 
 Units of designs based on the spiral 93 
 
 Crocket forms for drill work 94 
 
 Units ot design based on spiral and crocket 95 
 
 Pupil practicing scroll and crockets 95 
 
 Rosettes of various designs 96 
 
 Combinations of units for drill work 97 
 
 Blackboard exercises— drawing rosettes 9S 
 
 Rosette models 99 
 
 Practice work for leading lines 99, 100 
 
 Teachers practicing drill forms loi 
 
 Anthemion forms for drill work 102, 104, 106, 107 
 
 Co-ordination of motor centers illustrated 103 
 
 Practicing the anthemion and scroll 107 
 
 Bud forms tor drill in 
 
 Combinations of leaf and scroll 116, 117 
 
 Moresque designs i iS, 1 19 
 
 Colored pupils making blackboard designs 131 
 
 Combinations of circle for practice work 122 
 
 Exercise m drawing borders 123 
 
 Pupil making strap work 124 
 Ellipse forms for practice 126 
 
 Memorizing magnitudes and making solids 137 
 
 Making vessel forms 129 
 
 Drill forms and designs 130 
 
 Design tor stained glass window 131 
 
 Designs by public school children 131 
 
 Freehand brush play 133 
 
 Class of teachers, designing on blackboard 136 
 
 Freehand design with griffins 13S 
 
 Painting in color from nature 141 
 
 Common mackerel 143 
 
 The carangoid fish 144 
 
 Angel fish 144 
 
 Sheepshead 145 
 
 The silver moonfish 146 
 
 Children drawing fish forms from memory 14S, 
 
 The sea bass 150 
 Fish lorms in design 152 
 Nature study offish form 153 
 Shells drawn from memory it;^
 
 List of Illustrations 
 
 43 J 
 
 Drawiag from the object and memory drawing 
 
 .56 
 
 Lesson from the shells 157, 15S 
 
 Children dmwing animnU from mcraon' 160 
 
 Mi-inory drjwinjjs of birds loi 
 
 Hird's winjf and feather 16^ 
 
 D^tsy drawing lesson 105 
 
 Workinjf from Imit and branch i«S 
 
 The dandt-lion in its different stafures 167 
 
 Botanical drawing of leaves 107 
 
 Swans 16S 
 
 Dolphin forms in conventional design 169, 170 
 
 Idealized animal forms 171 
 
 Decorative birds 173 
 
 Exercises in lettering and design 175 
 
 Drawing from objects in various positions 176 
 
 Freehand drawing of chairs 177 
 
 Bird forms for models 179 
 
 Architectuntl forms trom mcmorj' 1S3 
 
 Application o( drawing to botany 33S 
 
 Learning hard words by illustrating their mean- 
 
 Learning tacts by drawing them 341 
 Architectural style> and how learned 342 
 Drawing correlated with zoology 343 
 
 Biology and drawing 345 
 
 Elementary chemistry 347 
 
 Memorj- drawing of elementir\' botany 349 
 
 Birds trnm nature 351 
 
 Correlation with natural historj- 353 
 
 Paiiitini; charts 355 
 
 Instrumental and cast drawing, night school 373 
 
 Summer class m Adirondacks 37S 
 
 Elementary- mineralogy 3S4 
 
 Nature study 3yi 
 
 Rembrandt's elephant 398 
 
 landscape painting and drawing 403 
 
 Angclo's Sybil 404 
 
 Charcoal sketching Irom life 405 
 
 Painting in water color from cast 403 
 
 Sketching human model from life 409 
 
 Drawing the horse 413 
 
 Lesson from the pig 414 
 
 Cattle sketching 416 
 
 Raphael's Madonna del Cardellino 417 
 
 Small decorative pieces — Panel 1, 34, 74, 361, sSl, 
 303; Animal forms 4, j6; Bird tonus 5,8, 
 2». 30, 40, 45, 54, 60; Fish 6, 3J, 43; Rosette 
 23; l-^af forms 57, 6j; Spoon shapes 59; 
 Feather 63, Shells 64 
 
 MODELING 
 
 Work inclav modeling. Public School ol Indus- 
 trial Art 27 
 Girl modeling fruit forms from nature 53 
 Models of leaf lorms 65, 109, 112, 115, xS 
 Rosette fi>rms i/y 
 
 Phister models from the antique 105 
 Leaf forms in design 115 
 Bird forms as models 179 
 Fruit forms iSi 
 Animal forms in plaster iSi 
 Plaster casts of architectural styles 1S4 
 Fish lorms 1S5 
 
 Pupil modeling animal forms 1S6 
 Plaster models for drawing, modeling and car\'« 
 
 ing i>»7, 240 
 Sraall forms suitable for children 1S9 
 Making geometric and bird fonns 191 
 First exercises in modeling 191, 197, 198 
 Portion of modeling room, Public School of 
 
 Industrial Art it^i 
 Making a ball ol clay 193 
 Forming the spiral 194 
 
 Leaf forms — exenise for manipulation ofclay 195 
 Molding a circular form u/j 
 Elementary forms in rlay 200 
 Modeling the snake kjj 
 Modeling various natural objeclA J03 
 Elcment.in," miMlelmK of animal forms J04 
 A modeled tile J06 
 
 The real bird and its clay model 307, 250 
 Class working on a cur\ed surface 109 
 FniU and vegeU'dc casts 211 
 Some of the liarye ca*U 213 
 Casts of leaf forms 215 
 Making fruit fonns from nature 217 
 
 Branch and fruit 39 
 Plaster model of sliield 220 
 Models of plaster < apitals 221 
 Pilaster panels, Italian renascence 323 
 Reducing acanthus leaf forms 323 
 Modeling a head 225 
 Various borders 227 
 
 Collection ol pupils' work. Public School of In- 
 dustrial Art 22S 
 Shell lorm to work from 329 
 The scndl in clay 230 
 
 Forms suitiible for elementary schools 331 
 Po>ition for tool while turning a scroll 333 
 Complex iosette234 
 
 pi>sition of tool in modeling rosclte and shell 335 
 A leaf tile 337 
 The Moresque unit 23S 
 Scroll and cmcket 239 
 Scroll and leaHet 341 
 Anthemion in clay 341 
 X'ariouK arrangements ofanthcmloD 243 
 The curved leaf 243 
 Real shelU for mmlels 344 
 (iolhic mseltes 345 
 MfHleling a lion 24(1 
 Class in advanced clay work 347 
 Casts of antinal fornix 34S 
 Animal lormR, grammar grade work 151 
 Making fish form<t i^i 
 (iriltin. original de<«ign 25$ 
 Original drftigns in wax 256 
 pupil miHlfling in wax 257 
 Original wax panel i^S 
 Making a dolphin in wax 359 
 Enlarging animal forms in wax 360
 
 432 
 
 List of Illustrations 
 
 Night school at work 55S, 361,365, 367,375 
 Children modeling vase forms 3S3 
 ^lodeling the dog from life 3S3 
 Underglaze pottery forms 3S5, 3S7 
 Pottery furms by the insane 591 
 
 Molding a vase 599 
 Modeling and drawing from life 401 
 Modeling head from life 410 
 Making the human figure 411, 412 
 
 CARVING 
 
 Children's work, grammar grade, Philadelphia 
 
 public schools 3 
 Clock, designed, drawn and canred by high 
 
 school boys 3 
 Wood-carving class. Public School of Industrial 
 
 Art 19 
 Chair 24, 300 
 Roscite models 99 
 
 "Wood carving by school boy 1S5, 365, 369, 2S3 
 Class at work. Public Schfx>l of Industrial Art 
 
 262 
 Clamps and niallet for wfMxl carving 264 
 Setof carving tools 365 
 Positions of hands and tools in carving 367, 272, 
 
 274. ^A ^7. ^9 
 Background marked over for cutting out a6S 
 Examples of wood carving 270 
 Chest carved by pupils 27; 
 Vestment case, pupils^ work 2S2 
 Scroll and leaf forms, three stages 2S4 
 Spiral with crocket, three steps 2S5 
 Anthem ion and rosettes 2S7 
 
 Fluted forms 2SS 
 Conventionalized shell forms 2S9 
 Carving on a cur\-ed surface 291 
 Borders and moldings 392, 293, 394, 395 
 Piece for chair back 296 
 Frames by night school pupils 396 
 Chairs by public school pupils 297 
 Italian renascence car\"inga9S 
 Cupid's head, in four stages 209 
 Arms for settee and chair ^i 
 Carved patterns for metal 302, 3cg 
 Xight school class 361, 371 
 Some night school work 369 
 Panel by night school pupil 374 
 Chairs by normal class 376 
 Desk panel, two stages 3S1 
 Swiss or Swedish carv ing 3SS 
 Car\'cd panel by teacher 5S9 
 Art metal work 391, 395 
 Carving in the round 396 
 Stand, normal class work 397 
 
 WOODW^ORKING AND MECHANICAL DRAWING 
 
 Boy at bench work 16 
 
 Class in mechanical drawing 304 
 
 A lesson in sawing 306 
 
 Making joints 3C7 
 
 Part of wood-working room yS 
 
 Building construction 3C9 
 
 Illustrating roof construction 31 1 
 
 Cutting dovetail and sharpening chisel 313 
 
 Queen post roof truss 313 
 
 Forms of joints 314, 331 
 
 Pupil drawing projections freehand 315 
 
 Isometric drawing lesson 316 
 
 Model of door 317 
 
 House building — lesson on stairs 31S 
 
 Applying trv squaie to planed surlace 319 
 
 Apparatus for school purposes 330 
 
 Demonstrating principle ot screw 321 
 
 Drawing freehand perspective 323 
 
 Construction demonstrating "vaulting** 324 
 
 Simple and complex geometric models 336 
 
 Geometric forms, made without lathes 327 
 
 Lesson in perspective 32S 
 
 Forms and patterns, pupils* work 329 
 
 Drawings for wood working 330 
 
 Mechanical drawings, applying principle: 
 
 learned 333 
 Carpenter work, old system 335 
 Paintino- ch:irt r.f mechanical forms 357 
 
 SUGGESTIONS TO ART STUDENTS 
 
 High school wood-working department 303 
 
 Charcoal drawings from casts 6 
 
 Unfinished charcoal sketch from the nude 12 
 
 Rembrandt's study of an elephant 39S 
 
 Modeling and drawing from lite 401 
 
 L.andscape painting and dran'ing in the Adiron- 
 
 dacks 403 
 Angelo's Sj-bi) — frrsco froAiSistine chapel 404 
 First stage of chaicoai sketch from life 405 
 
 Dr-iwing from the nude 405 
 Painting Angclo's Dying Slave from cast 40S 
 Sketching from life— model in costume 409 
 Modeling a head from life 410 
 Modeling the n^ure — first view 41 1 
 Modeling the figure — second view 412 
 Raphael's study lor the Madoxma del Cardel- 
 lino 417
 
 i 
 
 4
 
 I 
 
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