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THE UNIVERSAL BIBLE DICTIONARY 
 
THE UNIVERSAL 
 BIBLE DICTIONARY 
 
 EDITED BY 
 
 THE VEN. A. R. BUCKLAND, M.A. 
 
 V 
 
 ARCHDEACON OF NORFOLK 
 
 ASSISTED BY 
 
 THE REV. A. LUKYN WILLIAMS, D.D. 
 
 RON. CANON OF ELY 
 
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 University oi , racy 
 
 WITHDRAWN FROM 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF REDLANDS L(BJ(ARY 
 
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 NEW YORK CHICAGO TORONTO 
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135 
 
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PREFACE 
 
 THIS Dictionary has been prepared to meet the needs of Bible readers 
 for whom the more exhaustive and costly works are unsuited. Whilst 
 aiming primarily at leading its readers to a careful examination of the Bible 
 itself, it also seeks to help the student by providing articles upon such 
 topics as the text of Holy Scripture, the Versions, the Higher Criticism, 
 Inspiration, and Theology, as well as on such cardinal doctrines as the 
 Trinity, Immortality of the Soul, Justification, Regeneration, and the like. 
 Whilst the references are for the most part to the Authorized Version, 
 names of persons and places maybe consulted under the R.V. or the A.V. 
 form. The meanings of proper names are given or suggested where 
 sufficient warrant exists. 
 
 The Editor most gratefully acknowledges the aid rendered by Canon 
 Lukyn Williams, who, in addition to contributing many important articles, 
 has revised the proofs throughout, without being responsible for their 
 final form. Some of the most valuable articles have been written by 
 Professor S. W. Green, who has also assisted in other ways in the pre- 
 paration of the work. Thanks are due to Mr. W. Grinton Berry and 
 Mr. Henry Williams for their labours upon the general body of the work ; 
 and to Dr. E. W. G. Masterman, Professor the Rev. Dr. W. H. Griffith 
 Thomas, and Principal F. S. Guy Warnian (now Bishop of Truro), for 
 valuable contributions. 
 
 In this Third Impression some few additions and corrections have been 
 made. 
 
 M124C94 
 
13 33f 
 THE UNIVERSAL 
 
 BIBLE DICTIONARY 
 
 AARON] 
 
 Aa'ron. Meaning uncertain : the first high 
 priest of Israel, descended from Levi, the third 
 son of Jacob. His father's name was Amram 
 and his mother's Jochebed, and he was the 
 brother of Moses and Miriam, three years older 
 than the former, but younger than the latter 
 (Ex. 6.20, 7.7). 
 
 God chose him to be a fellow-worker of 
 Moses because of his gift of speech (Ex. 4.16). 
 He went in with Moses to Pharaoh, performing 
 signs before the latter, and being also the instru- 
 ment of God in some of the miracles of Exodus 
 (Ex. 7-10). At the battle against Amalek, 
 Aaron, along with Hur, held up the hands of 
 Moses so that Israel might have the victory 
 (Ex. 17.12). When Moses was absent on Mount 
 Sinai, Aaron was persuaded by the people to 
 make a molten image of a calf for their worship, 
 and was severely rebuked. Moses by prayer 
 obtained the forgiveness of God for Aaron and 
 the people (Deut. 9.20). 
 
 Shortly afterwards he was consecrated high 
 priest, the office to be hereditary in his family. 
 Korah and the Levites rebelled against his 
 priestly dignity, and the former was consumed 
 by the fire of the Lord. Aaron offered incense to 
 stay the plague ; God, by granting his request, 
 manifestly accepted him as intercessor for the 
 people. Along with Moses and the princes of 
 Israel he was commanded to number the people. 
 The murmuring of Aaron and Miriam against 
 Moses probably originated with Miriam, 
 prompted by jealousy, and was speedily 
 quelled (Num. 12). With Moses, Aaron 
 sinned at Meribah (Num. 20.10 ff), and his death 
 seems to have followed almost at once on Mount 
 Hor, his son Eleazar, who alone with Moses was 
 present and performed his burial rites, succeed- 
 ing to his office (Num. 20.28). 
 
 Aaron's wife, Elisheba, bore him four sons. 
 Two of them, Nadab and Abihu, were consumed 
 by the fire of the Lord during their father's 
 lifetime for offering strange fire. Eleazar and 
 Ithamar survived their father. The high priest- 
 
 [ABBA 
 
 hood continued In the descent of the former 
 until the time of Eli, who belonged to the 
 house of Ithamar. Solomon, on his accession, 
 took it from the children of Eli and restored 
 it to Zadok, of the house of Eleazar, so fulfilling 
 the prophecy of 1 Sam. 2.30. [HIGH PRIEST.] 
 
 Aaronites. The descendants of Aaron. 
 Thirteen cities were assigned to them at the 
 apportionment of Canaan in the time of Joshua. 
 To the number of 3700, the Aaronites joined 
 David at Hebron. They must have been an im- 
 portant family at this time to be reckoned among 
 the tribes of Israel (1 Ch. 12.27). 
 
 Abad'don. Destruction: a term used in 
 conjunction with and as equivalent to Sheol 
 (Job 26.6), or Death (Job 28.22). It occurs 
 once in N.T. (Rev. 9.11), where it is personified 
 as " the angel of the abyss," the Destroyer (Greek, 
 Apollyon). 
 
 Abag'tha. Meaning uncertain : one of the 
 seven chamberlains or eunuchs in the court of 
 Ahasuerus (also called Xerxes), King of Persia 
 (Esth. 1.10). 
 
 Aba'na. Rocky : one of the two rivers of 
 Damascus (2 K. 5.12). About twenty-three 
 miles from the city and 1149 feet above it rises 
 the river Barada, which, some distance from 
 Damascus, splits up into seven principal streams 
 flowing through the city. The stream, whose 
 water is most clear and sparkling, is the Nahr 
 Banias, possibly a survival of the ancient names 
 of the larger river. [AMANA.] 
 
 Aba'rim. Regions beyond : a range of 
 mountainous country, east of the Jordan, in 
 Moab (Num. 33.47). The highest elevation is 
 Mount Nebo, the top of the " Pisgah " from 
 which Moses saw the promised land just before 
 his death (Deul. 34.1, 5). 
 
 Ab'ba. Father : the Aramaic word preserved 
 in St. Mark's record of the prayer of Jesus 
 in Gethsemane (Mk. 14.36). It appears also 
 in the Christian's invocation of God, prompted 
 by the Holy Spirit (Rom. 8.15; Gal. 4.6). In 
 each case the full phrase is " Abba, Father," 
 
ABDA] 
 
 [ABIATHAR 
 
 t.ft tho Aramaic' term 'is supplemented by its 
 Greek equivalent. This can hardly be by 
 way of interpretation : fervent prayer does not 
 atay to explain the words used. Probably the 
 invocation " Abba ", made sacred by the 
 constant usage of Jesus, was retained by Greek- 
 speaking Christians as a sort of proper name 
 ( = God), to which the title " Father " was a real 
 and natural addition. 
 
 Ab'da. Servant : 1. The father of Adoniram 
 (1 K. 4.6). 2. The son of Shammua (Neh. 
 11.17) ; also called Obadiah, son of Shemaiah, in 
 1 Ch. 9.16. 
 
 Ab'decl. Servant of God: the father of 
 Shelemiah (Jer. 36.26). 
 
 Abdi'. Servant of Jehovah: 1. A Merarite, 
 grandfather of Ethan, the singer (1 Ch. 6.44). 
 2. The father of Kish (2 Ch. 29.12). 3. A Jew 
 in the time of Ezra, who had married a foreign 
 wife (Ezra 10.26). 
 
 Ab'diel. Servant of God : see 1 Ch. 5.15. 
 
 Ab'don. Servile : 1. A city in the tribe of 
 Asher ( Josh. 21.30 ; 1 Ch. 6.74) ; in Josh. 19.28 
 it is called Hebron (Ebron). Identified with 
 Abdeh, small ruins on a hill overlooking the 
 plain of Acre. 2. The eleventh of the twelve 
 judges (Jud. 12.13-15). 3. See 1 Ch. 8.23. 
 4. First-born son of Jeiel, father of Gibeon (1 Ch. 
 8.30). 5. A son of Micah, sent with others 
 by King Josiah to Huldah the prophetess to 
 inquire of Jehovah regarding the words of the 
 Book of the Law in the temple (2 Ch. 34.20). He 
 is called Achbor in 2 K. 22.12. 
 
 Abedne'go. Servant of Nego : that is, 
 Nebo (which see). His original name was 
 Azariah, and he was one of the four young 
 princes of Judah carried away to Babylon. 
 The name of Abednego was given to him by the 
 prince of the eunuchs of Nebuchadnezzar 
 (Dan. 1.7). He was one of the three companions 
 of Daniel cast into the fiery furnace for refusing 
 to bow before the golden image erected by 
 Nebuchadnezzar in the plain of Dura (Dan. 3). 
 
 ATjeL A breath or vapour : 1. The second son 
 of Adam and Eve, a keeper of sheep, murdered 
 by his brother Cain. Cain brought an offering 
 of fruit to the Lord, Abel an offering of the 
 firstlings of his flock. Cain's offering was 
 rejected, Abel's accepted, and in jealous wrath 
 Cain slew his brother (Gen. 4.2-15, cf. Heb. 11.4). 
 Jesus Christ spoke of Abel as the first martyr 
 (Matt. 23.35). In Heb. 12.24 the phrase of 
 Gen. 4.11 (" the voice of thy brother's blood 
 crieth unto Me from the ground "), is turned into 
 the contrast between the old and new covenants: 
 " Ye ar come ... to the blood of sprinkling 
 that speaketh better than that of Abel." 
 2. Meadow (a different Hebrew word ; see 
 following articles). For 1 Sam. 6.18, see R.V. 
 and marg. 
 
 Atel-beth-maa'chah. Meadow of the house 
 of Maachah : an important town in the extreme 
 north of Palestine (2 Sam. 20.14-22). It was an 
 easy conquest in successive invasions by Syria 
 and Assyria (1 K. 15.20, 2 K. 15.29). 
 
 Atel-chera'mim. Meadow of vineyard* : 
 
 near Minnith, in Moab, named as the limit of 
 Jephthah's slaughter of the Ammonites 
 (Judg. 11.33 ; see R.V. and marg.). 
 
 A'bel-ma'im. Meadow of waters ; another 
 name for Abel-bethmaachab. It was smitten 
 by the armies of Benhadad in the days of Asa 
 (2 Ch. 16.4). 
 
 ATjel-meho'lah. Meadow of the dance: the 
 birthplace of Elisha the prophet, son of Shaphat, 
 in the north part of the Jordan valley. Here 
 Elisha was found at his plough by Elijah return- 
 ing up the valley from Horeb (1 K. 19.16, 19 : 
 see also 1 K. 4.12; Judg. 7.22). 
 
 AlDel-niizra'im. The name given by the 
 Canaanites to the threshing-floor of Atad, at 
 which Joseph, his brothers, and the Egyptians 
 mourned for Jacob (Gen. 50.11). The passage 
 probably contains a play on words as between 
 Abel, meadow, and Ebel, mourning. The nar- 
 rative would suggest some place just over the 
 Canaanite border, originally named meadow of 
 Egypt, but the statement that it was " beyond 
 Jordan " places it much further north and east, 
 involving a long detour for the mourners. 
 
 A'bel-shitt'im. Meadow of acacias : a place 
 in the plains (or deserts) of Moab, seven miles 
 east of the Jordan, opposite Jericho ; the last 
 resting-place of Israel before crossing the river 
 (Num. 33.49). Most frequently mentioned by 
 the shorter name of Shittim. 
 
 A l)ez. (?) White: a town belonging to 
 Issachar. See Josh. 19.20 (R.V. Ebez). 
 
 AM'. The daughter of Zechariah, wife of 
 Ahaz and mother of Hezekiah, kings of Judah ; 
 shortened form of Abijah (Jehovah is my father), 
 2 Ch. 29.1. 
 
 Abi'a, Abi'ah. [ABIJAH.] 
 
 ATri-arbon. (?) Father of strength : one of 
 David's mighty men (2 Sam. 23.31) called Abiel 
 in 1 Ch. 11.32. 
 
 Abia'saph. Father has gathered : the son 
 of Korah, descended from Levi, and head of 
 one of the families of the Korhites (Ex. 6.24). 
 If, as is sometimes supposed, he is identical 
 with the Ebi-asaph of 1 Ch. 6.37, he was an 
 ancestor of Samuel. 
 
 Abia'thar. (?) Father of Abundance, or The 
 Great One is father ; eleventh high priest in suc- 
 cession from Aaron. He escaped when Doeg, the 
 Edomite, at the instigation of Saul, slew his 
 father Ahimelech and eighty-five priests, because 
 Abiathar had inquired of the Lord for David, 
 and had given him the shew-bread and 
 the sword of Goliath (1 Sam. 21 ; cf. ML 2.26, 
 where " Abiathar " should be " Ahimelech "). 
 He joined David in Keilah, bringing with him 
 an ephod, which enabled him in the crisis of 
 his exile to " inquire of the Lord " (1 Sam. 23.9, 
 30.2). Abiathar and Zadok were sent with the 
 ark to Jerusalem (2 Sam. 15). He afterwards 
 conspired to make Adonijah king in succession 
 to David ; was banished to his birthplace, 
 Anathoth in Benjamin ( Josh. 21.18) ; and at last 
 was expelled from his office by Solomon. His life 
 was spared only on the ground of his services 
 to David (1 K. 2.27-35). [ABIMELECH, 4.] 
 
ABIE] 
 
 [ABIMELECH 
 
 Budding of corn : the old Canaanite j 
 name for the first month of the sacred, and 
 seventh of the civil, year of the Hebrews, on 
 the fifteenth of which Israel left Egypt (Ex. 13.4). 
 In commemoration of this deliverance the 
 Passover moon was afterwards made the be- 
 ginning of the Jewish year (Ex. 12.2). After 
 the Exile the name was changed for the Baby- 
 lonian Nisan (March-April). 
 
 Abi'da. My father knoweth : or, Abidah, son 
 of Midian and grandson of Abraham ((?*. 25.4 ; 
 1 Ch. 1.33). 
 
 Abi'dan. My father judges: chief of the 
 tribe of Benjamin at the time of the Exodus ; 
 took part in the numbering of the people 
 (Num. 1.11). 
 
 Abi'el. My Father is God : 1. Father of Kish, 
 grandfather of Saul (1 Sam. 9.1), as well as of 
 Abner, Saul's commander-in-chief (I/Sam. 14.51). 
 2. One of David's mighty men (1 Ch. 11.32). 
 In 2 Sam. 23.31 he is called Abi-albon. 
 
 Abie'zer. My father is help : eldest son of 
 Gilead, and descendant of Machir and Manasseh 
 (Josh. 17.2 ; Num. 26.30). 2. One of David's 
 mighty men (1 Sam. 23.37 ; 1 Ch. 11.28, 27.12). 
 A descendant of his is termed the Abiez'rite 
 (Judg. 6.11). 
 
 Abiga'il. (?) My father is joy: 1. The beauti- 
 ful wife of Nabal, a wealthy owner of goats and 
 sheep in Carmel. When David's messengers were 
 slighted by Nabal, Abigail took the blame upon 
 herself, supplied David and his men with pro- 
 visions, and appeased his anger. Ten days later 
 Nabal died, and Abigail became David's wife. 
 By her he had a son, called Chileab in 2 Sam. 3.3, 
 but Daniel in 1 Ch. 3.1. 2. A sister of David, 
 married to Jether, the Ishmaelite, and mother, 
 by him, of Amasa, whom Absalom made captain 
 in place of Joab (2 Sam. 17.25, marg. ; 
 1 Ch. 2.17). 
 
 Abiha'iL My father is might : 1. Father of 
 Zuriel, chief of the Levitical family of Merari, 
 a contemporary of Moses (Num. 3.35). 2. Wife 
 of Abishur (1 Ch. 2.29). 3. See 1 Ch. 5.14. 
 4. Wife of King Rehoboam, the son of 
 Solomon (2 Ch. 11.18), and a descendant of 
 Eliab, the elder brother of David. 5. Father of 
 Esther and uncle of Mordecai (Esth. 2.15 ; 9.29). 
 AbiTiu. He is my father, i.e. worshipper of 
 God : a son of Aaron, destroyed with his brother 
 Nadab for offering strange fire (Num. 26.6 ; 
 1 Ch. 24.2). 
 
 AbiTiud. My father is glory : see 1 Ch. 8.3. 
 Abi'jah or Abi'jam. Jehovah is Father: 1. Son 
 of Rehoboam, and king of Judah after his 
 father (1 K. 14.31 ; 2 Ch. 12.16). He is called 
 Abijah in Chronicles and Abijam in Kings. 
 Abijah endeavoured to recover the kingdom 
 of the ten tribes (Israel), and made war on 
 Jeroboam. He was successful in battle, and 
 took the cities of Bethel, Jeshanah, and 
 Ephrain, with their dependent villages. 
 After his victory he "waxed mighty, and married 
 fourteen wives " (2 Ch. 13.21). He only 
 reigned three years, and the latter portion of 
 his rule was wicked. He walked in all the sin 
 
 of his father, Rehoboam idolatry with its 
 accompanying immoralities. His mother was 
 Maachah, a granddaughter of Solomon (1 K. 15 ; 
 2 Ch. 11.20, and marg., 22). 2. The second 
 son of Samuel (1 Sam. 8.2, R.V. ; A.V. has 
 Allah, and so both A.V. and R.V. in 1 Ch. 6.28). 
 3. The son of Jeroboam, first King of Israel, 
 in whom alone, of all the house of Jeroboam, 
 was found some good thing toward the Lord 
 God of Israel, and who was therefore the only 
 one of the family allowed to die in peace. He 
 died in his childhood, just after Jeroboam's 
 wife had been sent in disguise to seek help for 
 him in his sickness from the prophet Abijah 
 (1 K. 14). 4. A descendant of Eleazar, who 
 gave his name to the eighth of the twenty- 
 four courses into which the priests were divided 
 by David (1 Ch. 24.10). 5. See Neh. 10.7. 
 6. The daughter of Zechariah, wife of Ahaz and 
 mother of Hezekiah (2 Ch. 29.1). 
 
 Abile'ne. A plain: a tetrarchy, mentioned by 
 Luke as under the rule of Lysanias (Lk. 3.1). 
 Abila was the capital, situated on the eastern 
 slope of Antilibanus, in a district fertilised 
 by the river Barada. Tradition associates 
 Avila, eighteen miles from Damascus, with the 
 death of Abel, and his alleged tomb, called Neby 
 Havil, rises on a height above the ruins of the 
 city, which stands in a remarkable gorge, where 
 the river breaks down through the mountain 
 towards the plain of Damascus. 
 
 Abi'mael. God is Father : a son of Joktan, 
 of the family of Shem (Gen. 10.26-28 ; 1 Ch. 
 1.20, 22), and thus the progenitor of an Arab 
 tribe, believed to have settled somewhere in 
 Arabia-Petraea. 
 
 Abi'melech. Melech (king) is father : 1. King 
 of Gerar in the time of Abraham (Gen. 20 and 21), 
 who took Sarah (the wife of Abraham) into 
 his harem. Warned, however, by God in 
 a dream as to his inadvertent offence, he re- 
 stored Sarah, and made a covenant of peace 
 with Abraham at Beersheba. 2. Another king 
 of Gerar in the time of Isaac (Gen. 26), who 
 acted in regard to Rebekah as his predecessor 
 had with regard to Sarah. After a dispute 
 about wells (wells in dry countries are frequently 
 causes of trouble), Abimelech and Isaac became 
 friends. 3. Son of Gideon (Judg. 8.31). After his 
 father's death he murdered his seventy brethren, 
 with the exception of Jotham, who concealed 
 himself. Then through the influence of his 
 mother's brethren (she was a Shechemite) he 
 was elected king of Shechem, which became 
 an independent state, free from Israel. Three 
 years later, in the absence of Abimelech, a 
 rebellion broke out in the city. It was quelled 
 by Zebul, the governor, who expelled Gaal, the 
 ring -leader, utterly destroyed the city, and 
 strewed the site with salt. At the storming 
 of Thebez a woman threw a piece of a mill- 
 stone on to the head of Abimelech (Judg. 9.53, 
 54; 2 Sam. 11.21), and to escape the disgrace of 
 dying by the hand of a woman he caused his 
 armour-bearer to kill him. 4. Son of Abiathar, 
 the high priest in the time of David (1 Ch. 
 
ABINADAB] 
 
 [ABOMINATION 
 
 18.16); in 2 5am. 8.17 he is called Ahimelech, 
 who, according to 1 Sam. 22.20, etc., was not 
 son but father of Abiathar. There seems to be 
 some confusion in the records, which has 
 affected the reference in M k. 2.26. [AHIMELECH.] 
 5. In the title of Ps. 34 this name is appar- 
 ently given to Achish, king of Gath (1 Sam. 
 21.10-15). 
 
 Abi'nadab. My father it noble: 1. An 
 Israelite of the tribe of Judah who lived near 
 Kirjath-jearim, and in whose house the ark, 
 after being sent back by the Philistines, re- 
 mained twenty years (15am. 7.1-2; 25am. 6.3-4; 
 1 Ch. 13.7). 2. Second son of Jesse (and 
 therefore brother of David), who fought for 
 Saul in the war against the Philistines (1 Sam. 
 16.8, 17.13; 1 Ch. 2.13). 3. A son of Saul 
 slain at Gilboa by the Philistines, together with 
 his brothers, Jonathan and others (1 Sam. 31.2 ; 
 1 Ch. 8.33, 9.39, 10.2). 4. Father of one of 
 Solomon's officers (1 K. 4.11 ; but R.V. Ben- 
 abinadab). 
 
 Abi'noam. My father is pleasantness : father 
 of Barak, the victor over Jabin (Judg. 4 and 
 5). 
 
 Abi'ram. My father is the lofty one : 1. A 
 conspirator with Korah and Dathan against 
 Moses and Aaron (Num. 16; Deut. 11.6; 
 Ps. 106.17). 2. The first-born son of Hiel the 
 Bethelite. As Joshua predicted (Josh. 6.26), 
 the son died, or was sacrificed, when the father 
 laid the foundations of Jericho (1 K. 16.34). 
 
 Abi'shag. My father has wandered : a beauti- 
 ful Shunammite brought to cherish David in his 
 old age (1 K. 1.1-4). After David's death 
 Adonijah (the king's fourth son) wished to 
 marry her, but Solomon, suspecting a treason- 
 able design, caused Adonijah to be put to 
 death (1 K. 2.12-25). 
 
 Abi'shai. My father is Jesse: David's 
 devoted nephew, the eldest son of his sister 
 Zeruiah (1 Ch. 2.16). He went with David 
 by night to the camp of Saul (1 Sam. 26.6), and 
 would have slain the king with his spear had 
 not David restrained him. Abishai craved 
 permission to slay Shimei, who cursed David 
 while fleeing from Absalom (2 Sam. 16.9-14). 
 Later he took part in the great battle which 
 put an end to the insurrection of Absalom 
 (2 Sam. 20.6). He fought victoriously against 
 the Ammonites (2 Sam. 10.10; 1 Ch. 19.11) 
 and against the Edomites (2 5am. 8.13; 1 Ch. 
 18.12). He aided in the treacherous murder of 
 Abner (2 5am. 3.30), and in the pursuit of 
 Bichri (2 5am. 20.6, 10). In a war with the 
 Philistines, Abishai rescued David from im- 
 pending death at the hands of Ishbi-benob, the 
 giant, whom he slew. He displayed great 
 valour in a single-handed contest with three 
 hundred men (2 5am. 23.18 ; 1 Ch. 11.20). 
 
 Abisha'lom. My father is peace : the name 
 given to Absalom in 1 K. 15.2, 10. 
 
 Abi'shua, My father is safety: 1. A de- 
 scendant of Aaron and son of Phinehas (1 Ch. 
 6.4 ; Ezra 7.5). 2. Son of Bela, the son of 
 Benjamin (1 Ch. 8.4). 
 
 Abi'shur. My father is a wall : a descendant 
 of Judah and son of Shammai (1 Ch. 2.28). 
 
 Abi'tal. My father is dew : one of David's 
 wives (2 5am. 3.4 ; 1 Ch. 3.3). 
 
 Abi'tub. My father is goodness : a Benjamite 
 (1 Ch. 8.11). 
 
 Abi'ud. A descendant of Zorobabel, in the 
 genealogy of Jesus Christ (Matt. 1.13). 
 
 Ab'ner. My father is a lamp : the commander- 
 in-chief of Saul's army. Abner's father, 
 named Ner, was the brother of Saul's father, 
 named Kish, and so Abner and Saul were full 
 cousins ; he brought David before Saul after 
 the fight with Goliath (1 5am. 17.57), and went 
 with Saul in his expedition against David 
 (26.3-14). Fire years after the death of Saul and 
 the disastrous defeat by the Philistines at 
 Gilboa, Abner proclaimed Ishbosheth, Saul's 
 son, as king of Israel ; and the new monarch was 
 generally recognised except by Judah, where 
 David reigned. A war between the rivals ensued, 
 and a battle was fought at Gibeon between 
 the men of Israel under Abner and the men 
 of Judah under Joab, son of Zeruiah, David's 
 sister (2 5am. 2.12-17). Abner was defeated, 
 and was personally pursued by Joab's youngest 
 brother, Asahel, whom Abner, in self-defence, 
 reluctantly killed. Ishbosheth foolishly re- 
 proached Abner with disl )yal designs, because 
 he had married Rizpah, Saul's concubine. 
 Abner, indignant at the charge, went over to 
 the side of David, who promised him the chief 
 command of his armies. In return for this 
 Abner was to win over Israel. Before, how- 
 ever, he could do anything in this direction, 
 he was treacherously murdered by Joab and 
 his brother Abishai, ostensibly in revenge for 
 the death of Asahel, but really out of a jealous 
 fear that Abner would dispossess them in the 
 favour of David. The treacherous act was 
 viewed by David with indignation, but reasons 
 of state caused him to let the murder go un- 
 avenged, though he showed his respect for 
 Abner by attending his funeral and speaking a 
 funeral oration over the body (2 5am. 3.33, 34). 
 
 Abomination. A term especially used of any 
 object or practice of religious abhorrence. It 
 is applied to the feeling of the Egyptians towards 
 eating with the Hebrews (Gen. 43.32), towards 
 the slaying in sacrifice by the Israelites of 
 animals held sacred (Ex. 8.26), and even towards 
 shepherds (Gen. 46.34). More frequently it 
 refers (representing several distinct Hebrew 
 words) to what was detested by Israel or Israel's 
 God unclean meats (Lev. 11), stale sacrificial 
 flesh (Lev. 7.18), heathen practices, and, especi- 
 ally, idolatry and the heathen deities (Jer. 4.1, 
 7.30, etc. ; see next article). 
 
 Abomination of Desolation. In His prophecy 
 of the destruction of Jerusalem (Mk. 13.14) 
 Jesus gave a sign to His disciples, by which they 
 should know that the event was now imminent, 
 and take to flight while there was time. " When 
 ye see the abomination of desolation (Matt, adds 
 'spoken of by Daniel the prophet') standing 
 where it ought not (Matt. ' stand in the holy 
 
ABRAHAM] 
 
 [ABRAHAM'S BOSOM 
 
 place') . . . then let them that be in Judaea flee 
 to the mountains." InDaniel (9.27, 11.31, 12.11) 
 very similar phrases are used of the attempt of 
 Antiochus Epiphanes to abolish Judaism, 
 marked by the profanation of the Temple, the 
 suspension of the sacrifices, and (hi 168 B.C.) the 
 setting up of a small idol-altar upon the Altar 
 of Burnt-offering (see 1 Mace. 1, where, ver. 54, 
 the crowning atrocity of this idol-altar is called 
 " an abomination of desolation "). The exact 
 fulfilment of the prophecy in connection with 
 the destruction of Jerusalem (70 A.D.) cannot 
 be determined. Perhaps it is satisfied by the 
 desecration of the Holy Land by the Roman 
 armies (so Lk. 21.20) ; or it may refer to some 
 more specific profanation of the Temple. 
 
 A'braham [ATttam]. (The probable meaning 
 of Abram is The Father is exalted ; the longer form 
 has no meaning, but suggests by similarity of 
 sound the Hebrew for " father of a multitude" 
 Gen. 17.5.) 
 
 The ancestor and founder of the Jewish nation 
 (Josh. 24.2; 1 K. 18.36; Isai. 29.22; Neh. 9.7, 
 etc. ; Matt. 1.1, 3.9, etc.), his history is con- 
 tained in Gen. 11.26-25.10. His father, Terah, 
 descendant of Shem, migrated from " Ur of the 
 Chaldees " with his son Abram, his son's wife 
 Sarai, and his nephew Lot to Haran, where he 
 made a home, instead of completing his purpose 
 to " go into the land of Canaan " (Gen. 11.31). 
 After Terah's death Abram heard the Divine call 
 to leave Haran, and received the first of a succes- 
 sion of Divine promises of future greatness and 
 blessedness (Gen. 12.1, "And Jehovah said": 
 the A.V. " had said" transferring the call to Ur, 
 is incorrect, and apparently is due to the trans- 
 lators'desire to conform the narrative to Acts 7.2). 
 
 Under Divine guidance, the family Abram, 
 Sarai, and Lot, with their property and slaves 
 reach Canaan, and we find Abraham in the 
 rich plain of Moreh, near Shechem, and under 
 the two famous hills facing each other, Ebal and 
 Gerizim. Here he built an altar to Jehovah, 
 and received the first distinct promise of the 
 land for his inheritance (Gen. 12.7). His second 
 resting-place was in the strong mountain country 
 between Bethel and Ai, where he dwelt securely 
 until famine drove him into Egypt. Here his 
 deceit with regard to Sarai forced him into a 
 humiliating position with respect to Pharaoh. 
 His wealth and power were now become con- 
 siderable. After his return from Egypt and 
 separation from Lot, he found a resting-place at 
 Mamre or Hebron, the future capital of Judah, 
 situated in the direct line of communication 
 from Egypt, and opening down to the wilderness 
 and pasture land of Beersheba. In the attack 
 on Chedorlaomer (Gen. 14), Abram appears as 
 the head of a small confederacy of chiefs, 
 powerful enough to venture on a long pursuit 
 to the head of the valley of the Jordan, to 
 attack with success a large force, and not only 
 to rescue Lot, but to roll back for a time the 
 stream of northern invasion. In chap. 15 the 
 promise of an innumerable seed is confirmed 
 against Abram'a objection that he U childless, 
 
 and we meet with the declaration of Abram's 
 faith, afterwards to assume such prominence 
 in Jewish and Christian theology, that " he 
 believed in the Lord ; and He counted it to 
 him for righteousness " (Gen. 15.6 ; cf. Rom. 4.3, 
 9.7 ; Gal. 3.6 ; Jas. 2.23). The promise is 
 ratified by a " covenant " between Jehovah and 
 Abram ; but before it is fulfilled in the birth of 
 Isaac, faith is tested by delay and strengthened 
 by moral discipline. Chaps. 16-20 contain 
 narratives of the birth of a son, Ishmael, to 
 Abram and Hagar (Sarai's handmaid) ; the 
 institution of circumcision as seal of the cove- 
 nant, with the change of names from Abram to 
 Abraham, from Sarai to Sarah ; the visit of 
 angels and specific promise of a son. to Abraham 
 and Sarah within a year ; Abraham's pleading 
 for Sodom, the destruction of the cities of the 
 plain, and escape of Lot ; a second deception 
 in regard to Sarah (cf. chap. 12, and see 
 ABIMBLBCH). 
 
 After the birth of Isaac, and expulsion of 
 Ishmael in favour of the " child of promise " 
 (chap. 21), history is silent for some years, until 
 in Isaac's boyhood there comes the crowning 
 trial of Abraham's faith in the command to 
 offer up his son in sacrifice (chap. 22). In view of 
 the widespread practice of human sacrifices in 
 the surrounding nations, such a command might 
 readily be regarded, without moral repugnance, 
 as the Divine will. The sequel not only vindi- 
 cated Abraham's faith, but declared that to 
 the God of Israel " obedience " was better than 
 " sacrifice." Though the life of Abraham was 
 prolonged for fifty years after this event, the only 
 other incidents recorded in detail are the death of 
 Sarah and the purchase of the cave of Machpelah 
 for a burying-place (chap. 23), and the marriage 
 of Isaac with Rebekah (chap. 24). The death of 
 Sarah took place at Kirjath-arba, i.e. Hebron, so 
 that Abraham must have returned from Beer- 
 sbeba to his old home. It is significant (Acts 7.5) 
 that the only inheritance of Abraham in the 
 land of promise should be a tomb (cf. Gen. 50.13). 
 In the beautiful story of Isaac's marriage, 
 Abraham's refusal to ally his son with the 
 idolatrous Canaanites is specially noteworthy. 
 The history closes with the mention of his 
 marriage with Keturah and of his death at the 
 age of 175. He was laid to rest by his heir 
 Isaac and the outcast Ishmael in the cave of 
 Machpelah, by the side of Sarah. In the N.T. 
 Abraham represents the true ideal of religion, 
 whether judged by his faith (Rom. 4.16-22) or by 
 his works ( Jas. 2.21-23). Our Lord even says of 
 him, " Your father Abraham rejoiced to see my 
 day " (John 8.56). In Jas. 2.23 he is called 
 " the friend of God " (cf. Isai. 41.8 ; 2 Ch. 20.7), 
 a designation which among the Arabs has super- 
 seded his proper name (Khalil Allah, or simply 
 El Khalil, the Friend). 
 
 Abraham's Bosom. At the meals of the 
 Jews the guests reclined on couches, each one 
 leaning himself on his left arm, and so his 
 neighbour next below him might be described 
 as lying in his bosom (cf. John 13.33). The 
 
ABEAM] 
 
 [ACTS OF THE APOSTLES 
 
 bosom of Abraham, therefore, the father of the 
 race, indicated a position of great honour and 
 blessedness after death (Lk. 16.22.) 
 
 A'bram. [ABRAHAM.] 
 
 Ab'salom. My father is peace: third and 
 favourite son of David, born in Hebron, of 
 Maacah (2 Sam. 3.3.) He first becomes con- 
 spicuous as the avenger of his sister Tamar, 
 who had been violated by her half-brother 
 Amnon, David's eldest son by Ahinoam, the 
 Jezreelitess. After the murder of Amnon, 
 Absalom fled to his father-in-law's court at 
 Geshur. Three years later David was per- 
 suaded to allow his son to return, but he re- 
 fused to see him for two more years, though 
 he dwelt in Jerusalem, Thereafter David 
 gave him the kiss of reconciliation. Absalom 
 was now David's eldest surviving son, but, 
 fearing that he might be supplanted by Bath- 
 sheba's child, he began courting popularity and 
 keeping a splendid retinue. Finally he rose 
 in rebellion against his father, was at first suc- 
 cessful, but subsequently captured and slain by 
 Joab, in spite of the prohibition of David, who 
 still loved him dearly (2 Sam. 3, and 13-18). 
 
 Ac'cad. A city in Shinar, sixteen miles 
 west of Baghdad, mentioned with Babel, Erech, 
 and Calneh, as forming part of Nimrod's king- 
 dom (Gen. 10.10). 
 
 Ac'cho. (R.V. Aoco): called afterwards 
 Ptolemais, and Saint Jean d'Acre, the modern 
 Akka; a place of importance on the Syrian 
 coast, about thirty miles south of Tyre. It is 
 situated on the Bay of Acre, an inlet formed 
 by the bold headland of Carmel, which juts into 
 the Mediterranean. In the division of Canaan 
 among the tribes, Accho was allotted to Asher, 
 but was never wrested from its original inhabi- 
 tants (Judg. 1.31), and hence is reckoned 
 among the cities of Phoenicia. The only 
 reference to it in the N.T. (Ptolemais) relates to 
 St. Paul's passage from Tyre to Caesarea 
 (Acts 21.7). 
 
 Acelda'ma (R.V. Akeldama). The field of 
 blood : the piece of ground at Jerusalem pur- 
 chased with the thirty pieces of silver which Judas 
 received for betraying Jesus (Acts 1.19). The 
 traditional site is now called Hakk-ed-Dumm, 
 and lies at the east end of a broad terrace on the 
 southern slope of the valley of Hinnom, not far 
 from the pool of Siloam. 
 
 Achai'a. In the N.T. the word is used to 
 designate a Roman province which included 
 the whole of Peloponnesus and the greater part 
 of Hellas proper, with the adjacent islands. 
 Achaia and Macedonia together comprised 
 the whole of Greece (Acts 19.21 ; Rom, 15.26). 
 At the time when Paul was brought before 
 Gallio (Acts 18.12), Achaia was governed by a 
 proconsul on behalf of the Roman Senate. 
 
 Achai'cus. A Corinthian who visited Paul 
 at Ephesus (1 Cor. 18.17). 
 
 A'chan. (In 1 Ch. 2.7. Achar, troubled) : 
 one of the tribe of Judah. At the destruction 
 of Jericho by Joshua he stole part of the spoil 
 and hid it, an uilence for which he and his 
 
 whole family were stoned to death (Josh. 7). 
 For this event the place where the punishment 
 was carried out received the name of Achor. 
 
 [ACHOR.] 
 
 A'char. [ACHAN.] 
 
 A'chaz. In our Lord's genealogy an ancestor 
 of Joseph (Malt. 1.9 ; R.V. Ahaz). 
 
 Ach'bor. A mouse : 1. Father of a king of 
 Edom (Gen. 36.38; 1 Ch. 1.49). 2. A messenger 
 of Josiah's sent to inquire as to the denuncia- 
 tion of wrath against the national sins recorded 
 in the Book of the Law found by Hilkiah in 
 the temple (2 K. 22.12-14 ; Jer. 26.22, 36.12). 
 Achbor is called Abdon in 2 Ch. 34.20. 
 
 A'chim. In our Lord's genealogy an ancestor 
 of Joseph (Matt. 1.14). 
 
 A'chish. A Philistine king of Gath with whom 
 David twice found refuge when he fled from 
 Saul (1 Sam. 21 and 27). In the title of the 
 34th Psalm he is called Abimelech. Probably 
 the Achish of 1 K. 2.39-40 is the same person. 
 
 Achme'tha. The capital of Media, the later 
 Ecbatana and the modern Hamadan, one of 
 the chief cities of Persia (Ezra 6.2). 
 
 Achor. Valley of trouble : the spot at which 
 Achan and his family were stoned and buried 
 ( Josh. 7.24-26 ; Eos. 2.15). It is now the Wady 
 Kelt, south of Jericho. 
 
 Achsa. Anklet : the daughter of Caleb 
 (1 Ch. 2.49), promised in marriage by her father 
 to whoever should take Debir. Othniel, her 
 father's younger brother, won her (Judg. 1.11-15). 
 
 Ach'shaph. Enchanted : a city within the 
 territory of Asher (Josh. 19.25), previously the 
 seat of' a Canaanite king, defeated by Joshua 
 (Josh. 11.1). 
 
 Ach'zib. Winter-torrent or falsehood ' 1. A 
 city of Judah (Josh. 15.44 and Mic. 1.14), 
 thought to be the same with Chezib and Chozeba. 
 Judah was at Chezib when the Canaanitess 
 Shua bare his third son Shelah (Gen. 38.5). 
 The " men of Chozeba " are mentioned (1 Ch. 
 4.22) as amongst the descendants of Shelah. 
 2. A town belonging to Asher in which the 
 Canaanites were permitted to remain (Josh. 
 19.29 ; Judg. 1.31). It is now ez-Zib, a small 
 village on the seashore a few miles north of 
 Akka. After the captivity it marked the 
 extreme northern limit of Palestine. 
 
 Acts of the Apostles. Title and Plan. The 
 title of the book in the oldest MSS. is simply 
 " Acts " or " Acts of Apostles." The indefinite- 
 ness well fits the selective character of the 
 contents. The opening words link on the 
 narrative of the Acts to that of the Gospel. 
 Whether the expression " all that Jesus began 
 to do and to teach " is intended to suggest that 
 the writer is going to record the continuance of 
 His work through the Apostles, is uncertain. 
 Possibly the phrase means simply " did at the 
 first," the contrast being not between the first 
 and second stages of one work, nut between 
 the work of Jesus and that of the " Apostles 
 whom he had chosen." Its theme is set forth in 
 1.8, " But ye shall receive power, after that the 
 Holy Ghost is come upon you ; and ye shall be 
 
ACTS OF THE APOSTLES] 
 
 [ACTS OF THE APOSTLES 
 
 My witnesses unto Me both in Jerusalem, and 
 in all Judaea, and in Samaria, and unto the 
 uttermost part of the earth." 
 
 The plan, thus informally indicated, is easily 
 recognised in the structure of the book. The 
 miracle of Pentecost is followed by the witness 
 of the Apostles, and the growth of the Church in 
 the three stages, Jerusalem (chaps. 2-7), Judaea, 
 and Samaria (chaps. 8-12), " unto the uttermost 
 part of the earth " (chaps. 13-28). The outward 
 progress of the Church is accompanied by inward 
 growth, especially in its gradual emancipation 
 from Judaism ; the third stage is almost wholly 
 identified with the labours of Paul. 
 
 The Author. External testimony from 
 Irenseus downwards is unanimous in attributing 
 both Acts and the third Gospel to Luke. It is 
 universally admitted that in the " travel- 
 document," first appearing in the "we" of 16.10, 
 we have the contemporary record of a companion 
 of Paul. Even for this other names have been 
 suggested, apparently on no other ground than 
 that it is a " disadvantage to an hypothesis 
 that it should have some amount of historical 
 attestation." But Silas and Timothy are really 
 excluded by the phraseology of the "tee-sections " 
 (cf. 16.17, 19, 20.4, 5), and if the name of Titus 
 is rendered possible by the absence of any 
 mention of him in Acts, there is nothing to give 
 him preference over the positive tradition in 
 favour of Luke. So little is known of Luke 
 that it is difficult to find internal confirmation 
 of the tradition. One such, however, may be 
 noted. Paul speaks of Luke as " the beloved 
 physician" (Col 4.14). Examination of the 
 Gospel and the Acts shows that the author 
 drops naturally into the use of medical phrase- 
 ology. But granting that the " travel-docu- 
 ment " is from the pen of an actual companion 
 of Paul, and that Luke has the best claim 
 to its authorship, does this certify the whole 
 book as his ? Inquiry shows that the argu- 
 ment for a single authorship is unassailable. 
 It rests upon (1) unity of plan and treat- 
 ment, (2) linguistic characteristics vocabulary 
 and style pervading the whole book, (3) 
 cross-references. How then did it come to 
 pass that this skilful and capable author of a 
 subsequent age, here and there, by his use 
 of we, represents himself as sharing in the 
 events he chronicles ? The only reasonable 
 explanation is, that at Troas the author 
 did join Paul, accompanied him to Philippi, 
 remained there till the Apostle returned, and 
 was with him thenceforth till he reached Rome. 
 So far as the evidence goes, we are on safe 
 ground in ascribing both Acts and the third 
 Gospel to a companion of Paul's travels, and in 
 identifying him with " Luke the beloved 
 physician." 
 
 Sources. - - The * travel-document " thus 
 appears as Luke's own notes, supplemented 
 by memory and research. For the rest we 
 may suppose that Luke would follow the 
 method suggested in Lk. 1.1-4. With Paul 
 he would have leisurely intercourse at Caesarea, 
 
 Melita, and Rome, where, it may well be, he 
 subsequently met with Peter. At any rate, 
 Mark, " the interpreter of Peter," was with him 
 in Rome (Col. 4.10 ; Phil. 24), and could 
 no doubt supply information about those 
 early events in Jerusalem of which his mother's 
 house was a centre. At Caesarea Luke stayed 
 with Philip the evangelist (21.8), and in Jeru- 
 salem met James and the elders (21.18). It is 
 entirely probable that the interval of two 
 years between the arrest and the departure 
 for Rome were used by Luke in collecting 
 authentic material for a work already pro- 
 jected. 
 
 Date. The closing words (28.30, 31) bring 
 the history down to the year 62. It has been 
 argued that the somewhat abrupt ending indi- 
 cates the limitation of the writer's knowledge, 
 and so that the book was written about 63. 
 It is hardly probable that Luke's Gospel was 
 written before 70, and the Acts is later. This 
 and other slight indications, external and 
 internal, lead to about 80 A.D. as perhaps the 
 most probable date that can be assigned. 
 
 Historical Value The general impression 
 that the book gives, of the truthful narrative 
 of a careful historian, guided by the Holy 
 Spirit, is confirmed at many points. So long 
 ago as 1790, Paley, in his Hora Paulines, traced 
 the " undesigned coincidences " between Acts 
 and the Pauline Epistles in an argument 
 which has by no means lost its value. The 
 details of chap. 27 have been vindicated in the 
 monograph of James Smith of Jordanhill, The 
 Voyage and Shipwreck of St. Paul (1848), still 
 a standard authority. In recent years brilliant 
 work has been done on the Acts by Prof. W. M. 
 Ramsay, of Aberdeen, especially in his books The 
 Church in the Roman Empire (1893), and St. 
 Paul the Traveller and the Roman Citizen (1895). 
 Some main results of modern investigation are 
 gathered together by Dr. F. H. Chase in his 
 Hulsean Lectures, The Credibility of the Book 
 of the Acts of the Apostles (1902). 
 
 The contents of the Book may be summarised 
 as follows : 
 
 I. The first portion of the history, devoted 
 entirely to the CHURCH IN JERUSALEM, narrates 
 the filling up of the apostolic body (1) : the 
 first manifestation of the Holy Spirit, according 
 to promise (2) ; and the growth and prosperity 
 of the Church amidst trials and disturbances 
 from within and without, until it is dispersed 
 for a time by persecution (3-7). In this 
 period special prominence is given to Peter's 
 early addresses, which present the Gospel as 
 the fulfilment of prophecy and the completion 
 of " the covenant made with the fathers " ; 
 and to Stephen's historical speech, showing 
 that God's dealings with ancient Israel were 
 progressive, and that the connection of religious 
 privilege with place and outward circumstance 
 was temporary. 
 
 II. Then follows an account of the further 
 diffusion of the truth, by the introduction of 
 the Gospel to SAMABIA, and the conversion of 
 
ADADAH] 
 
 8 
 
 [ADDER 
 
 a proselyte from ETHIOPIA (8) ; then, as an 
 introduction to the missionary history of the 
 Church, the conversion and call of him who 
 was to be the " Apostle of the Gentiles " (9) ; 
 the opening of the door of faith to the uncircum- 
 cised at OESARBA, through St. Peter's preach- 
 ing ; and the evangelisation of the heathen at 
 ANTIOCH, where Paul first takes up his special 
 mission (10, 11) ; and lastly, the death of one 
 and th deliverance of another of the leaders of 
 the Mother Church at Jerusalem, which then 
 ceases to be the chief subject of the history (12). 
 
 III. The third portion, starting from Antioch, 
 the great centre of the Gentile Church, begins 
 with another interposition of the Holy Spirit, 
 and follows the journeys of St. Paul, in three 
 great missionary circuits. This apostle every- 
 where addresses himself first to the Jews, but 
 is everywhere rejected and persecuted by 
 them ; while Gentiles crowd to hear the word, 
 so that numerous churches rise up under his 
 ministry in the chief seats of heathen civilisa- 
 tion (13-20). At last, when he visits 
 Jerusalem in circumstances peculiarly fitted to 
 conciliate his countrymen, he is attacked, 
 arrested, and sent as a prisoner to Csesarea, 
 whence, after a remarkable series of defences 
 of himself and his doctrine, he is sent to take 
 his trial before the Emperor in the metropolis 
 of the Gentile world. Even there he once 
 more appeals to his countrymen, closing with 
 the ancient prophetic lamentation over their 
 wilful blindness, and a declaration that " the 
 salvation of God is sent unto the Gentiles, and 
 that they will hear it " (21-28). 
 
 Out of his numerous discourses on these 
 missionary journeys, a few are selected as 
 specimens of his line of argument and manner 
 of address to different classes of hearers. That 
 in the synagogue in Pisidia (13) is an example 
 of his addresses to the Jews ; that at Lystra 
 (14) contains the arguments which he used 
 to the ruder heathen; that at Athens (17) 
 those which were adapted to the more educated 
 Greeks ; and that at Miletus (20) his admoni- 
 tions to the pastors of his widely scattered 
 converts. 
 
 Ada dah. A city in the extreme south of 
 Judah (Josh. 15.22). 
 
 A 'dah. Ornament, beauty: 1. Wife of 
 Lamech and mother of Jabal and Jubal (Gen. 
 4.19). 2. Wife of Esau, mother of Eliphaz, 
 and so the ancestress of several tribes of the 
 Edomites (Gen. 36.10). She is called Bashemath 
 in Gen. 26.34. 
 
 Ada iah. Pleasing to Jehovah : 1. Maternal 
 grandfather of King Josiah (2 K. 22.1). 2. A 
 Levite (1 Ch. 6.41). 3. A Benjamite (1 Ch. 
 8.21). 4. A priest, son of Jeroham (1 Ch. 9.12 ; 
 Neh. 11.12), who returned with two hundred and 
 forty-two others from Babylon. 5. The father 
 of a captain who aided Jeboiada to put Joash 
 on the throne of Judah (2 Ch. 23.1). 6. A de- 
 scendant of Bani. He had married a foreign wife 
 (Eua 10.29). 7. Another of a different family 
 of Bani, who had also taken a foreign wife 
 
 (Ezra 10.39). 8. A descendant of Judah 
 (Neh. 11.5). 
 
 Ada'lia. One of the ten sons of Hainan 
 slain and afterwards hanged with their father 
 (Esih. 9.8). 
 
 Ad'am. (Prob. red): 1. The name of the first 
 man, whose creation is recorded in Gen. 1 and 2. 
 He was formed " of the dust of the ground " 
 (2.7), in God's " image " and " likeness " (1.26), 
 given authority over other created things (1.26), 
 and placed in the Garden of Eden (2.8), with his 
 wife, Eve (2.22). Eve yielded to temptation 
 by the Serpent (3.5), ate of the forbidden fruit 
 of the " tree of the knowledge of good and 
 evil " (2.17, 3.6), and gave of it to Adam. 
 As a result, their eyes were opened (3.7) ; and 
 their disobedience was punished by a complete 
 change of earthly conditions, which included 
 expulsion from Eden (3.24). The curse pro- 
 nounced upon the Serpent foreshadows a re- 
 deemer (Gen. 3.15) found in the Lord Jesus, 
 who is by St. Paul presented as the Repairer 
 of the loss sustained by mankind in the Fall 
 (1 Cor. 15.22, 45). [FALL.] 
 
 2. A city on the Jordan, mentioned in con- 
 nection with the passage of the children of 
 Israel (Josh. 3.16), now Ed-Damieh. 
 
 Ada 'man. Red earth : a fortified city of 
 Naphtali (Josh. 19.36). 
 
 Adamant. A Greek word (from which is 
 derived Eng. diamond) meaning " unconquer- 
 able," and applied originally to the hardest 
 metal, thus metaphorically to anything fixed 
 and unalterable. It occurs twice in O.T. as 
 a translation of the Hebrew shamir, some stone 
 of extreme hardness (prob. corundum, crystal- 
 lised alumina) used for cutting purposes (Ezek. 
 3.9; Zech. 7.12). The same Hebrew word is 
 rendered diamond in Jer. 17.1. 
 
 Ada 'mi. Red land : a city of Naphtali 
 (Josh. 19.33, A.V.), more probably Adami- 
 nekeb (R.V.), i.e. the Pass of Adami. 
 
 A'dar. Glorious: 1. The (Babylonian) name 
 of the twelfth month of the Jewish sacred year 
 (February March) (Ezra 6.15 ; Esih. 3.7, etc.). 
 It was doubled seven times in nineteen years 
 to synchronise the lunar and the solar years. 
 2. A town on the boundary of Judah (Josh. 
 15.3, A.V. ; the R.V. has Addar). 
 
 AdT)eel. Third of the twelve sons of Ishmael 
 (Gen. 25.13 ; 1 Ch. 1.29), and thus the progeni- 
 tor of an Arab tribe. 
 
 Ad dan. Strong : the name of a place from 
 which some of the inhabitants, who could not 
 show their pedigree as Israelites, nevertheless 
 returned from the captivity with Zerubbabel 
 to Jerusalem (Eera 2.59). In Neh. 7.61, Addon. 
 Adder. The A.V. and R.V. use this word 
 as a translation of four distinct Hebrew words, 
 signifying in general any poisonous snake 
 (Gen. 49.17; Ps. 58.4, 91.13, 140.3; Prov. 
 23.32 ; also R.V. marg. Isai. 11.8, 14.29, 59.5 ; 
 Jer. 8.17). Thirty-three species of the serpent 
 tribe are known in Palestine, but only six of 
 these are poisonous. The prejudice against 
 the serpent tribe was probably as strong among 
 
ADDI] 
 
 the Jews as among the Arabs at the present day, 
 who kill all snakes when they have the oppor- 
 tunity, and believe many of the harmless species 
 to be poisonous. Hence the poison of venomous 
 serpents is employed in the Scriptures to express 
 the evil tempers of ungodly men. 
 
 Only in one passage is the exact species of 
 serpent known with any degree of certainty, 
 namely in Gen. 49.17, " Dan shall be a serpent 
 in the way, an adder (margin, or horned snake) 
 in the path, that biteth the horses' heels, so 
 that his rider falleth backward " (R.V.). This 
 adder is the cerastes of naturalists, the well- 
 known horned snake. It is the habit of this 
 extremely venomous viper its bite causes the 
 certain death of a man within half an hour to 
 lurk in the rut of wheels and the depression of a 
 footprint by the roadside, and to bite the legs 
 of unwary passers-by, or of horses or cattle. 
 Horses, aware of its nature, are said to be in 
 terror of the cerastes, and cannot be induced 
 to proceed, once they have detected the con- 
 cealed reptile. It derives its name of " horned " 
 from the presence of two protuberances, one 
 over each eye. It is of a greyish tint, about 
 a foot long, and very active. By comparing 
 the tribe of Dan to this wily serpent 
 the Patriarch intimated that by stratagem 
 more than by open bravery, they should avenge 
 themselves of their enemies and extend their 
 conquests. This was illustrated by the wily 
 manner in which Samson, a Danite, destroyed 
 his Philistine foes. 
 
 Ad'di. An ancestor of Jesus Christ (Lk. 3.28). 
 
 Ad'don. [ADDAN.] 
 
 A'der. See 1 Ch. 8.15 : R.V. Eder. 
 
 A'diel. Ornament of God : 1. A prince of 
 the tribe of Simeon, descended from Shimei 
 (1 Ch. 4.36). 2. A descendant of Aaron (1 Ch. 
 9.12). 3. Father of David's treasurer (1 Ch. 
 27.25). 
 
 A 'din. Delicate : an ancestor of some who 
 returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel (Ezra 
 2.15 and 8.6). They covenanted to separate 
 themselves from the heathen (Neh. 10.16). 
 
 Adi'na. Delicate : a Reubenite captain under 
 David (1 Ch. 11.42). 
 
 Ad'ino. One of David's valiant men (2 Sam. 
 23.8). 
 
 Aditha'im. Double passage : a city in the 
 lowlands of Judah ( Josh. 15.36). 
 
 Ad'lai. Father of Shaphat, who was overseer 
 of the herds " in the valleys " in David's time 
 (1 Ch. 27.29). 
 
 Ad'mah. Red earth : one of the cities of the 
 plain destroyed with Sodom and Gomorrah 
 (Gen. 10.19, 14.2, 8 ; Deut. 29.23 ; Eos. 11.8). 
 
 Adma'tha. One of the seven princes of 
 Persia (Esth. 1.14). 
 
 Ad'na. Pleasure : 1. One of the family of 
 Pahath-Moab. He took a foreign wife during the 
 exile (Ezra 10.30). 2. A priest (Neh. 12.15). 
 
 Ad'nah. 1. A captain of Manasseh who left 
 Saul and joined David at Ziklag (1 Ch. 12.20). 
 2. The chief captain of Johoshaphat's army of 
 300,000 men of Judah (2 Ch. 17.14). 
 
 [ADOPTION 
 
 Adonibe zek. Bezek is my lord : king of 
 Bezek (a city of the Canaanites), vanquished 
 by Judah (Judg. 1.3-7), who cut off his thumbs 
 and great toes, and brought him prisoner to 
 Jerusalem, where he died. Adonibezek himself 
 had inflicted the same cruelty upon seventy 
 petty kings, whom he had captured. This 
 practice had a military purpose behind it, viz. 
 to unfit those thus mutilated from again taking 
 the field. 
 
 Adoni'jah. Jehovah is Lord : 1. The fourth 
 son of David, born at Hebron, while his father 
 was King of Judah (2 Sam. 3.4). In the closing 
 years of David's reign Adonijah, now the eldest 
 surviving son, gathered round him an influential 
 party, and began to put forward his pretensions 
 to the succession. But David promised Bath- 
 sheba that her son, Solomon, should be king 
 after him, and gave orders that Solomon should 
 be conducted on the royal mule (see MORDECAI ) 
 to Gihon, west of Jerusalem. Here he was 
 anointed and proclaimed king by Zadok, 
 and joyfully recognised by the people. This 
 decisive measure struck terror into the opposite 
 party, and Adonijah fled to the sanctuary. He 
 was pardoned by Solomon, on condition that he 
 should " show himself a worthy man," and with 
 the threat that if wickedness were found in 
 him he should die (1 K. 1). 
 
 After the death of David, Adonijah sought 
 Solomon's consent to his marriage with Abishag, 
 who had been the wife of David in his old age. 
 Solomon thought he perceived a treasonable 
 design in this proposal, and caused Adonijah to 
 be put to death (1 K. 2.25). 
 
 2. One of the Levites sent out by Jehoshaphat 
 to teach the law (2 Ch. 17.8). 
 
 3. A Jewish chief who, with Nehemiah, 
 sealed the covenant (Neh. 10.18). [See ADONI- 
 
 KAM.] 
 
 Adoni'kam. My Lord has arisen : head of a 
 Jewish family in the time of Ezra. Of his 
 " children " 666 returned from Babylon with 
 Zerubbabel (Ezra 2.13 ; Neh. 7.18), and the re- 
 mainder with Ezra (Ezra 8.13). In Neh. 10.16 
 his name is given as Adonijah. 
 
 Adoni'ram. My Lord is exalted^ chief re- 
 ceiver of the tribute under David (2 Sam. 20.24), 
 Solomon (1 K. 4.6), and Rehoboam (1 K. 12.18). 
 The name is written A dor am in 2 Sam. 20.24 ; 
 1 K. 12.18. 
 
 Adonize'dek. Lord of righteousness : king of 
 Jerusalem, who, with four other Amorite princes, 
 formed a league against Joshua. Being de- 
 feated, they took refuge in a cave at Makkedah, 
 where they were captured and slain, and their 
 bodies hung upon trees until evening-time, 
 when they were buried in the cave in which they 
 had taken refuge (Josh. 10.1-27). 
 
 Adoption, A term by which Paul expresses 
 the relationship conveyed by the phrases sons 
 or children of God. In Rom. 8.15-23, 9.4; 
 Gal. 4.5; \Eph. 1.5, the reference is to the 
 Roman legal custom, by which the adopted 
 child took the name of his new father, and be- 
 came bis heir. The relationship was to all in- 
 
ADOEAIM] 
 
 10 
 
 [ADVOCATE 
 
 tents and purposes the same as existed between 
 a natural father and son. 
 
 The ceremony of adoption was a civil contract, 
 which not only placed the child adopted in the 
 full privileges and rights of a son, but also gave 
 the new parent any property possessed by the 
 new son, as well as the full rights of a natural 
 father. Among the Jews, however, the strict 
 laws relating to the succession of property pre- 
 vented such full and complete adoption, so 
 that while they followed all other nations in this 
 beautiful custom in its social aspect, there could 
 be no legal act binding on either party (see 
 Gen. 15.3, 16.2, 30.5-10). 
 
 The custom of adoption has been practised by 
 all nations in all times. Civil adoption was 
 allowed and provided for the relief and comfort 
 of those who had no children ; but in spiritual 
 adoption this reason does not appear. The 
 Almighty adopts believers, and they become 
 the children of God, not from any excellence 
 in themselves, but because of His goodness. 
 Pharaoh's daughter adopted Moses because of 
 his fair face (Acts 7.20, 21) ; Mordecai adopted 
 Esther for the same reason, and because of her 
 relationship to him (Esth. 2.7) ; but man has 
 nothing in him that merits adoption by God 
 (Ezck. 16.5). Further, in spiritual adoption the 
 new son receives not only a new name but a 
 new nature ; he becomes partaker of the Divine 
 nature (2 Pet. 1.4). 
 
 Adora'im. Double mound : a fortified city in 
 the lowlands of Judah, built by Rehoboam 
 (2 Ch. 11.9), generally identified with the modern 
 Dura, a large village on the slope of a hill, five 
 miles south-west of Hebron. Near it is the cele- 
 brated tomb of Neby Nuh (Noah). 
 Ado'ram. [ADONIEAM.] 
 Adram'melech. 1. An idol of the Sepharvites 
 whom Shalmaneser n., king of Assyria, brought 
 to colonise the cities of Samaria, after carrying 
 their inhabitants captive (2 K. 17.31). This idol 
 was worshipped with rites similar to those of 
 Moloch, children being sacrificed to it. 2. A son of 
 Sennacherib, king of Assyria,who,with his brother 
 Sharezer, slew his father in the temple where the 
 god Nis"och was worshipped (2 K. 19.37). 
 
 Adramyt'tium. A seaport of Mysia, in Asia 
 Minor, colonised by the Athenians (Acts 27.2). 
 The modern Edremid or Adramyti is a fair village 
 with some trade in timber. Adramyttium gives 
 its name to a gulf on the coast opposite the Isle 
 of Lesbos. Now called Adramyti. 
 
 A'dria, A'drias. The Adriatic Sea or Gulf of 
 Venice. The name, in Paul's time, also implied 
 part of the Mediterranean between Greece and 
 Sicily (Acts 27.27). 
 
 A'driel. A son of Barzillai the Meholathite, 
 to whom Saul gave his daughter Merab, although 
 he had promised her to David (1 Sam. 18.19). 
 Adriel's five sons were among the seven descend- 
 ants of Saul whom David surrendered to the 
 Gibeouites (2 Sam. 21.9) in satisfaction for the 
 endeavours of Saul to extirpate them, although 
 the Israelites had originally made a league 
 with the Gibeonites (Josh. 9.15). 
 
 Adnl'lam. A city of Judah (Josh. 15.35), 
 the seat of a Canaanite king (Josh. 12.15), evi- 
 dently a place of great antiquity (Gen. 38.1-20), 
 now known as 'Aid-el-Ma. There were many 
 caves in the limestone cliffs of the neighbourhood 
 which were the resort of David and his com- 
 panions ; thither his father's house and his 
 brethren went down to him from Bethlehem 
 (1 Sam. 22.1). It was the scene also of the 
 gallant act of the three "mighty men" who risked 
 their lives to bring David water from Bethlehem 
 (2 Sam. 23.14-17; 1 Ch. 11.15-19). The city of 
 Adullam was fortified by Rehoboam (2 Cft.11.7), 
 and was one of the towns reoccupied by the 
 Jews after their return from Babylon (Neh. 
 11.30). There are still many caves in the lime- 
 stone hills of the neighbourhood. 
 
 Adul'lamite. A native of Adullam, the term 
 used of Hirah, the friend of Judah (Gen. 38.1-20). 
 The word has come, in modern English, to 
 denote a person who with others retires in 
 discontent from his associates, forming a small 
 party or " cave." 
 
 Adul'tery. The act is forbidden in theseventh 
 commandment (Ex. 20.14; Deut. 5.18). The 
 Mosaic penalty was that both the guilty parties 
 should be stoned to death (Lev. 20.10 ; Deut. 
 22.22-24). For the account of the trial of 
 impurity by the administration of the "bitter 
 water" to the suspected woman, see Num. 
 5.11-29. The references by the prophets to 
 adultery indicate a low state of morals 
 (Isai. 57.3; Jer. 23.10; Eos. 7.4). It is 
 probable that after the captivity, when the 
 marriage tie became a looser bond of union, 
 the death penalty was seldom, if ever, inflicted. 
 The word used in Matt. 1.19, meaning to make 
 a public example, probably signifies to bring 
 the case before the local council, which was the 
 usual course. Joseph did not purpose to take it, 
 preferring repudiation, because that could be 
 managed privately. Adultery was used figura- 
 tively to express the unfaithfulness of the 
 Hebrew people to God. The figure was the 
 more appropriate because of the impure rites 
 associated with idol worship (Ezek. 16). So 
 also our Lord spoke of an " adulterous " genera- 
 tion (Matt. 12.39). [See MARRIAGE.] 
 
 The chief N.T. passages bearing on adultery 
 are in reference to divorce or separation, viz. 
 Matt. 5.31-32, 19.6; Mk. 10.11, 12; Lk. 16.18; 
 John 8.3-11 ; Rom. 7.2, 3; 1 Cor. 7.10, 11, 39. 
 
 Adum'mim. The ascent of (blood or red) : a 
 ridge west of Gilgal (Josh. 15.7). Still called 
 Tal'at ed-Dumm, " the ascent of blood," 
 from the red colour of the rocks. 
 
 Advocate. The Greek word (represented in 
 English by the word Paraclete) rendered 
 " Advocate " in 1 John 2.1 is applied also to 
 the Holy Spirit in John 14.16, 26, 15.26, 16.7, 
 where the A.V. " Comforter " is retained by 
 R.V. with margin, "or Advocate or Helper." 
 The rendering *' Comforter " may, perhaps, 
 be justified in its original sense of " strength- 
 ener," but hardly in its modern one of " con- 
 soler." For the " paraclete " is literally " one 
 
.ENEASJ 
 
 11 
 
 [AHAB 
 
 called to one's side," to help, especially against 
 a legal accusation (Lat. advocatus). The 
 Christian has, whether in the Holy Spirit or 
 in Jesus Christ, One who champions his cause. 
 [See HOLY SPIRIT.] 
 
 2En'eas. A Greek Jew of Lydda, cured by 
 Peter of the palsy (Acts 9.33-35). 
 
 SS'non. Springs : a place where John 
 baptized (John 3.23), west of the Jordan. Its 
 present name is Ainun, a village six or seven 
 miles up the Wady Fur'ah, north of Salim, be- 
 tween which and ^Enon are springs and a 
 copious stream, in a broad, open valley. 
 
 Ag'abus. A prophet from Jerusalem who went 
 to Paul at Antioch and foretold a great famine 
 (Actsll.28). Later he prophesied Paul's arrest 
 and deliverance into the hands of the Gentiles 
 (Acts 21.10, 11). 
 
 A 'gag. Violent: the king of the Amalekites 
 (I Sam. 15), whose life Saul spared in dis- 
 obedience to the Divine command. Samuel 
 declared that for this offence the succession 
 should pass from Saul's family, and himself 
 sent for Agag and hewed him in pieces. Hainan, 
 tne Agagite, whose fate is told in Esther, was 
 believed by the Jews to be a descendant of 
 Agag ; hence his hatred for their race. In 
 Num. 24.7 the name Agag seems to be used as a 
 general title of the Amalekite kings. 
 
 Agagite. [AGAG.] 
 
 Agar. [H AGAB. ] 
 
 Agee. Fugitive : a Hararite, father of 
 Shammah, one of David's three mightiest 
 heroes (2 Sam. 23.11). 
 
 Agriculture. Palestine, with the exception 
 of the southernmost portion, was a fairly well 
 watered region of mountains and valleys 
 (Deut. 8.7-9). The "early rain" begins in 
 October. It is not continuous, but intermittent, 
 and thus enables the cultivator to sow wheat 
 and barley. It continues to fall at intervals 
 during November and December, and even occurs 
 as late as March and April (latter rain). All the 
 remaining months till October there is cloud- 
 less weather. As soon as the ground in October 
 has been softened by showers, the sowing of the 
 wheat, barley, and lentils begins. The plough 
 of the ancient Hebrew probably resembled its 
 modern counterpart very closely, consisting of a 
 pole made of two pieces, to which a cross-piece 
 was fastened, to which the pair of oxen were 
 attached. At the other end a piece was inserted 
 at an obtuse angle, terminating in the share at 
 the lower end, and a rude sort of handle at the 
 upper. The oxen were driven with a goad, 
 furnished with an iron point, which was also 
 employed for breaking up the clods or clearing 
 the plough. 
 
 Harvest commences at the end of March or 
 beginning of April. The barley harvest came 
 first, and that of wheat came last, in the middle 
 of May. The entire harvesting lasted seven 
 weeks. The corn was reaped by a sickle, and 
 the stalks were gathered into sheaves or heaps 
 and conveyed to the threshing-floor, consisting 
 of a circular piece of ground some twenty yards 
 
 across, exposed to the wind. Here the grain 
 was freed from the husk by the trampling of 
 oxen or asses. Small portions of corn were 
 sometimes threshed with a staff or rude flail 
 (Isai. 28.27) ; but more frequently the instru- 
 ment employed was the " threshing sledge," a 
 plank fitted with sharp-pointed stones, which 
 were fixed into holes in the bottom. This was 
 drawn by the oxen over the corn, the driver 
 often sitting on the sledge to increase the weight. 
 Another variety of the threshing sledge con- 
 sisted of a small framework upon wheels, shaip 
 iron blades being attached to the wheels, so 
 as to cut through the corn. 
 
 The harvest was stored up in subterranean 
 chambers (Jer. 41.8). In exchange for silver 
 and gold and luxuries, Palestine supplied stores 
 of grain to the markets of Tyro and Sidon, where 
 was gathered together the merchandise of all 
 nations, from Spain to India. In Ezekiei's de- 
 scriptions of the greatness of Tyre he mentions 
 wheat among the chief articles imported from 
 Judah in his own time, sixth century B.C. [See 
 also WINNOW, etc.] A special deputation came 
 (about 44 A.D.) to King Herod Agrippa from 
 Tyre and Sidon, asking for peace, because their 
 country was fed from the king's country (Acts 
 12.20). (And see Whitehouse, Primer of Hebrew 
 Antiquities, 84-95.) 
 
 Agrippa. A member of the Herodian family. 
 Agrippa I. Appointed to rule over all 
 Palestine by Caligula. He killed James, the 
 son of Zebedee, and put Peter in prison (Acts 
 12.1). He died a terrible death at Csesarea 
 (Acts 12.23). 
 
 Agrippa II. Son of the former king, and 
 Governor (Acts 25.26) before whom Paul spoke 
 as recorded in Acts 26. Like others of his family, 
 he was profligate in his life. He died at Rome 
 100 A.D. 
 
 A'gur. Collector, or hireling : known only 
 from the mention in Prov. 30.1, " The words of 
 Agur the son of Jakeh," and apparently the 
 author of the striking sayings contained in this 
 chapter. 
 
 ATiab. Father's brother : son of Ornri, 
 seventh king of Israel, and second of his 
 house to sit on that throne. His history is 
 given in 1 K. 16-22. He married Jezebel, 
 daughter of Ethbaal, king of Tyre, who was a 
 worshipper of Baal, and had been a priest of 
 the goddess Astarte before he deposed his 
 brother and seized the throne. Ahab's reign was 
 distinguished by the ministry of Elijah, who 
 strongly opposed Jezebel when she introduced 
 into Israel the worship of Baal and Astarte. 
 [See ELIJAH.] Jezebel not only led her husband 
 into heathenism and idolatry, but also into 
 wanton extravagance. Thus he was instigated 
 to his great crime against Naboth, whose vine- 
 yard Ahab desired to add to the pleasure-grounds 
 of his new palace at Jezreel. Naboth refused 
 to sell his land on the ground that, in accordance 
 with the Mosaic law, the vineyard was the 
 "inheritance of his fathers." Accordingly a 
 charge of blasphemy was brought against 
 
AHARAH] 
 
 12 
 
 [AHBAN 
 
 Naboth, and he and his sons were stoned to 
 death (2 K. 9.26). Elijah declared that the 
 destruction of Ahab'i house would be the 
 penalty of this atrocity. 
 
 A great part of Ahab's reign was occupied 
 by three campaigns against Benhadad n., king 
 of Damascus. In the first two he was completely 
 victorious. At the end of the second campaign 
 Benhadad fell into the hands of Ahab ; but was 
 released on condition of restoring all the cities 
 of Israel which he held, and making " streets " 
 for Ahab in Damascus (1 K. 20.34) ; that is, 
 admitting into his capital permanent Hebrew 
 commissioners, in an independent position, 
 with special dwellings for themselves and their 
 retinues, to watch over the commercial and 
 political interests of Ahab and his subjects. 
 God's blessing was vrithheld from the third 
 campaign. The prophet Micaiah warned Ahab 
 that it would fail, and that the prophets who 
 ad vised it were hurrying him to his ruin. Ahab, 
 on going into battle, disguised himself so as 
 not to offer a conspicuous mark to the archers 
 of Benhadad. But be was slain by " a certain 
 man " who " drew a bow at a venture." When 
 his body was brought to be buried in Samaria, 
 the dogs licked up his blood as a servant was 
 washing his chariot (1 K. 22.37, 38). 
 
 2. The son of the false prophet Kolaiah, who 
 misled the Babylonian Israelites. He was put 
 to death by Nebuchadnezzar (Jer. 29.21). 
 
 Aha'rah. Third son of Benjamin (1 Ch. 8.1). 
 Also called Aher (1 Ch. 7.12), and Ahiram 
 (Num. 26.38). 
 
 Ahar'hel A descendant of Judah through 
 Caleb (1 Ch. 4.8). 
 
 Aha'sai. A priest (Neh. 11.13) called 
 Jahzerah in 1 Ch. 9.12. 
 
 Ahas'bai. The father of Eliphelet, one of 
 David's captains (2 Sam. 23.34). 
 
 Ahasue'rus. 1. The father of Darius the 
 Mede (Dan. 9.1). [SeeDAEius.] 2. Ahasuerus, 
 king of Persia, is mentioned in Ezra 4.6. The 
 enemies of the Jews, after the death of Cyrus, 
 desirous to frustrate the building of Jerusalem, 
 sent accusations against them to Ahasuerus. 
 He may be identified with 3 below. 3. The 
 Ahasuerus of the book of Esther is to be identified 
 with Xerxes, son of Darius Hystaspis, best 
 known for his invasion of Greece and his defeat 
 at the battle of Salamis, 480 B.C. He divorced 
 his queen Vashti for refusing to appear in public 
 at a banquet, and four years afterwards married 
 the Jewess Esther, cousin and ward of Mordecai. 
 Five years after this, Hainan, one of his coun- 
 sellors, having been slighted by Mordecai, pre- 
 vailed upon the king to order the destruction of 
 all the Jews in the Empire. But before the 
 day appointed for the massacre, Esther and 
 Mordecai overthrew the influence which Haman 
 had exercised, and so completely changed the 
 king's feelings in the matter that they induced 
 him to put Haman to death, and to give the 
 Jews the right of self-defence. This they used 
 so vigorously that they killed several thousands 
 of their opponents. [ESTHER.] 
 
 Aha'va. A place or river near the Euphrates. 
 Here Ezra assembled the second expedition 
 which returned with him from Babylon to Jeru- 
 salem (Etra 8). 
 
 A'haz. Possessor: 1. The son of Jotham, and 
 the eleventh king of Judah (2 K. 16 ; 2 Ch. 28). 
 At his accession, Rezin, king of Damascus, and 
 Pekah, king of Israel, formed a league against 
 Judah, and proceeded to lay siege to Jerusalem. 
 Isaiah exhorted Ahaz to vigorous opposition, 
 and the enterprise failed (Isai. 7.3-9). The 
 allies, however, took a vast number of captives 
 (2 Ch. 28), who were restored as a result of the 
 remonstrances of the prophet Oded, and they 
 also inflicted a most severe injury on Judah 
 (2 K. 16) by the capture of Elath, a flourishing 
 port on the Red Sea, in which, after expelling 
 the Jews, they re-established the Syrians. 
 Ahaz, in the midst of these troubles, appealed 
 for help to Tiglath-pileser, who invaded Syria, 
 took Damascus, killed Rezin, and deprived 
 Israel of its northern and trans-Jordanic dis- 
 tricts. Ahaz, in return for these services, became 
 tributary to Tiglath-pileser, sent him all the 
 treasures of the Temple and of his own palace, 
 and even appeared before him in Damascus as 
 a vassal. Ahaz fell into the idolatrous worship 
 and ceremonial of the Assyrians, and, when he 
 died after a reign of sixteen years, he was not 
 buried with the kings (2 Ch. 28.27). 
 
 2. A great-grandson of Jonathan (1 Ch. 8.35, 
 9.42). 
 
 Ahazi'ah. Whom Jehovah possesses : I. Son 
 of Ahab and Jezebel, and eighth king of Israel. 
 He was about to set out on an expedition against 
 the vassal king of Moab, who had rebelled, when 
 he was seriously injured by a fall through a 
 lattice in his palace at Samaria. In his health 
 he had worshipped his mother's gods, and now he 
 sent to inquire of the oracle and Beelzebub in 
 the Philistine city ot JLnron whether he would 
 recover his health. Elijah rebuked him for this 
 impiety, and prophesied his approaching death. 
 He reigned for two years in all (1 K. 22.51-53 ; 
 2 K. 1). 
 
 2. Fifth king of Judah, son of Jehoram and 
 Athaliah, daughter of Ahab,and therefore nephew 
 of the preceding Ahaziah. He is called Azariah 
 in 2 Ch. 22.6, and Jehoahaz in 2 Ch. 21.17. 
 Ahaziah, an idolater, successfully allied himself 
 with his uncle Jehoram, king of Israel, against 
 Hazael, king of Syria. The union between 
 uncle and nephew was so close that there was 
 great danger lest heathenism should entirely 
 overspread both the Hebrew kingdoms. This 
 was prevented by the great revolution carried out 
 in Israel by Jehu, under the guidance of Elisha. 
 While Ahaziah was visiting his uncle at Jezreel, 
 Jehu approached the town. The two kings 
 went out to meet him, but Jehu's arrow 
 pierced the heart of Jehoram, while Ahaziah 
 was pursued, and mortally wounded. He 
 had reigned only one year (2 K. 8.25-29, 
 and 9). 
 
 Ah'ban. Brother of the intelligent : a member 
 of the tribe of Judah (1 Ch. 2.29). 
 
AHER] 
 
 13 
 
 [AHIMELECH 
 
 A 'her. Another : a Benjamite (1 Ch. 7.12), 
 probably the same as Ahiram. 
 
 Alii. Brother : 1. A chief man in Gad (1 Ch. 
 5.15). 2. An Israelite of the tribe of Asher 
 (1 Ch. 7.34). 
 
 Ahi'ah. [AHIJAH.] 
 
 Ahi'am. A mother's brother : one of David's 
 thirty mighty men (2 Sam. 23.33). 
 
 Ahi'an. Brotherly : a Manassite (1 Ch. 7.19). 
 
 Ahiez'er. My brother is help : 1. A chief of the 
 tribe of Dan in the time of Moses (Num. 1.12, 
 2.25, 7.66-71, 10.25). 2. The Benjamite 
 chief of a body of archers at the time of David 
 (1 Ch. 12.3). 
 
 Ahi'hud. My brother is majesty : 1. Prince of 
 the tribe of Asher, selected to assist Joshua and 
 Eleazar in the division of the Promised Land 
 (Num. 34.27). 2. A Benjamite (1 Ch. 8.7). 
 
 Ahi'jah or Ahi'an. Brother of Jehovah : 
 1. A priest in Shiloh. The ark of God was under 
 his care, and he inquired of the Lord by means 
 of it and the ephod (1 Sam. 14.18). Probably 
 identical with the Ahimelech of 1 Sam. 21 : 
 both were sons of Ahitub (1 Sam. 14.3, 22.9) ; 
 and " brother of the King " (Ahimelech) may 
 well be a paraphrase of " brother of Jehovah " 
 (Abijah). 2. Son of Bela (1 Ch. 8.7), thought 
 to be the same as Ahoah (1 Ch. 8.4). 3. Son 
 of Jerahmeel (1 Ch. 2.25). 4, One of David's 
 mighty men (1 Ch. 11.36). 5. A Levite in 
 David's reign, who was over the treasures of the 
 House of God and over the treasures of the 
 dedicated things (1 Ch. 26.20). 6. One of 
 Solomon's princes (1 KA.3). 7. A prophet of 
 Shiloh (1 K. 14.2), hence called the Shilonite 
 (1 K. 11.29), in the days of Solomon and of 
 Jeroboam, king of Israel. Two remarkable 
 prophecies by him are extant. The first, addressed 
 to Jeroboam, announced the rending of the ten 
 tribes from Solomon in punishment of his idola- 
 tries, andthe transfer of the kingdom to Jeroboam. 
 Solomon came to know of this prophecy, and 
 Jeroboam fled for his life to Shishak in Egypt, 
 where he remained until Solomon's death (1 K. 
 11.29-40). The second prophecy, inl K. 14.6-16, 
 was delivered to Jeroboam's wife, who had come 
 in disguise to inquire concerning her son Abijah, 
 who was sick. Ahijah foretold the lad's death, 
 also the destruction of Jeroboam's house, on 
 account of his idolatry, and the captivity of 
 Israel beyond the river Euphrates. 8. Father of 
 King Baasha (1 K. 15.27, 33). 9. One of the 
 heads of the people who sealed the covenant 
 with Nehemiah (Neh. 10.26). 
 
 Ahi'kam. My brother has arisen. When 
 Shaphan, the scribe, brought to King Josiah 
 the Book of the Law which Hilkiah, the high 
 priest, had found in the Temple, Ahikam, his 
 son, was sent by the king, with four other 
 delegates, to consult Huldah, the prophetess 
 (2 K. 22). In the reign of Jehoiakim, when the 
 priests and prophets arraigned Jeremiah before 
 the princes of Judah on account of his bold 
 denunciations of the national sins, Ahikam used 
 his influence te protect the prophet (Jer. 26.24). 
 His son Gedaliah was made governor 
 
 of Judah by Nebuchadnezzar, the Chaldean 
 king, and to his charge Jeremiah was entrusted 
 when released from prison (Jer. 39.14, 40.5). 
 
 Ahi'lud. 1. Father of Jehoshaphat (2 Sam. 
 8.16). 2. Father of Baana (1 K. 4.12). 
 Possibly the two are identical. 
 
 Ahi'maaz. My brother is anger : 1. Father 
 of Saul's wife, Ahinoam (1 Sam. 14.50). 
 
 2. Son of Zadok, the priest in David's reign. 
 When David fled from Jerusalem on account of 
 Absalom's rebellion, Zadok and Abiathar, 
 accompanied by their sons, Ahimaaz and 
 Jonathan and the Levites, carried the ark of God 
 forth, intending to accompany the king. But 
 at his bidding they returned to the city, as 
 did likewise Hushai the Archite (2 Sam. 15). 
 It was arranged that Hushai should pretend to 
 be a friend of Absalom, and should tell Zadok 
 and Abiathar about anything that was going 
 forward in the palace, and the news was to be 
 taken to David by Ahimaaz and Jonathan, who 
 remained at En-rogel outside the walls of the 
 city (2 Sam. 17.17). A message soon came that 
 Ahithophel had counselled an immediate at- 
 tack against David and his followers, and that 
 the king ought to cross the Jordan at once, 
 Absalom heard of this message, and com- 
 manded Ahimaaz and Jonathan to be pursued. 
 They reached Bahurim, where the woman of the 
 house hid them in a well of the courtyard, and 
 covered the well's mouth with ground or bruised 
 corn. Accordingly, Absalom's servants searched 
 for them in vain, and Ahimaaz and Jonathan 
 were enabled to deliver their message to David, 
 who, with his whole company, crossed the Jordan 
 that very night (2 Sam. 17). 
 
 The last we hear of Ahimaaz is in connection 
 with the death of Absalom at the hands of Joab 
 and bis armour-bearers. Ahimaaz pleaded hard 
 with Joab to be allowed to carry the tidings to 
 David. Joab, being friendly to Ahimaaz, and 
 knowing how distressing the news would be to 
 the king, did not grant this request, but sent 
 Cushi instead. Even after Cushi had started 
 Ahimaaz still pleaded with Joab to be sent, 
 and at length his request was granted. Taking 
 a short cut, Ahimaaz reached David before 
 Cushi and informed the king of the victory, 
 making no mention of the death of Absalom, 
 leaving to Cushi, with Oriental cunning, the un- 
 pleasant task of this announcement (2 Sam. 18). 
 
 3. One of Solomon's officers who had the 
 charge of victualling the king's household for one 
 month in the year. He was the king's son-in- 
 law, having married his daughter Basmath 
 (1 K. 4.15). 
 
 Ahi'man. Brother of Man (a deity) : 1. 
 One of the three giant " children of Anak," or 
 Anakim, who inhabited Hebron (Num. 13.22), 
 seen by Caleb and the spies. Nearly the whole 
 race was cut off by Joshua (Josh. 11.21), and 
 these three were exterminated by the tribe of 
 Judah (Judg. 1.10). Possibly the names are 
 tribal rather than personal. 2. A Levite porter 
 in the temple (I Ch. 9.17). 
 
 Ahi'melech. Brother of a king : 1. High 
 
AHIMOTH] 
 
 14 
 
 [AIJALON, AJALON 
 
 priest at Nob in the days of Saul. He gave 
 David the shewbread and the sword of Goliath, 
 and for so doing was put to death with his 
 whole house, numbering eighty-five priests, by 
 Saul's order. Abiathar alone escaped (1 Sam. 
 22.9-20). [ABIMELECH.] 2. One of David's 
 companions while he was persecuted by Saul 
 (1 Sam. 26.6). 
 
 Ahi'moth. Brother of death: a Levite (1 Ch. 
 6.25). 
 
 Ahi'nadab. My 'brother it noble: one of 
 Solomon's twelve commissaries who supplied 
 provisions for the royal household (1 K. 4.14). 
 
 Ahi'noam. My brother is grace: 1. Wife of 
 Saul, first king of Israel (1 Sam. 14.50). 2. A 
 woman of Jezreel who became the wife of David 
 during his wandering (1 Sam. 25.43), and went 
 with him and his other wife, Abigail, to the court 
 of Achish in Gath (1 Sam. 27.3). She was mother 
 of Amnon, David's eldest son (2 Sam. 3.2). 
 
 Ahi'o. His brother : 1. One of the two sons 
 of Abinadab who accompanied the ark when it 
 was brought out of their father's house at 
 Gibeah (2 Sam. 6). 2. A Benjamite, one of 
 the sons of Beriah who drove out the inhabitants 
 of Gath (1 Ch. 8.14). 3. A Benjamite of 
 the Gibeon family from whom Saul sprang 
 (1 Ch. 8.31, 9.37). 
 
 Ahi'ra. Brother of evil: & chief of Naphtali 
 when Moses took the census shortly after the 
 Exodus (Num. 1.15). 
 
 Ahi'ram. Exalted brother : a Benjamite 
 (Num. 26.38). He is called EM in Gen. 46.21, 
 and is supposed to be the same as the Aher of 
 1 Ch. 7.12. 
 
 Ahi'ramites. Descendants of Ahiram (Num. 
 26.38). 
 
 Ahi'samech. The brother of support : father 
 of Aholiab, who was one of the architects of the 
 tabernacle (Ex. 31.6). 
 
 Ahi'shahar. Brother of the damn : grandson 
 of Benjamin (1 Ch. 7.10). 
 
 Ahi'shar. The brother of song: controller 
 of Solomon's household ( 1 K. 4.6). 
 
 Ahi'thophel. Brother of foolishness: a 
 Gihonite, counsellor of David, whose reputation 
 was so high that his advice had the authority 
 of a divine oracle. If, as suggested by 2 Sam. 
 23.34, compared with 11.3, he was the grand- 
 father of Bathsheba, it may have been her fall 
 which influenced him to join in the rebellion 
 of Absalom, who sent for him at the beginning 
 of the outbreak (2 Sam. 15.12). To show to the 
 people that the breach between Absalom and 
 his father was irreparable, Ahithophel persuaded 
 the rebel to take possession of the royal harem 
 (2Sam. 16.21). David, to counteract his counsel, 
 sent Hushai to Absalom. Ahithophel had 
 recommended an immediate pursuit of David ; 
 but Hushai advised delay, his object being to 
 send news to David, and so give him time to 
 collect his forces for a decisive engagement. 
 When Ahithophel saw that Hushai's advice 
 prevailed, he despaired of success, and, returning 
 to his own home, set his house in order and 
 hanged himself (2 Sam. 17). It has been 
 
 pointed out that this is the only case of suicide 
 mentioned in the O.T. (except in war), as that of 
 Judas is the only case in the N.T. 
 
 Ahi'tub. My brother is goodness : 1. Grandson 
 of Eli (1 Sam. 14.3, 22.9-12). 2. Father 
 (but according to Neh. 11.11, 1 Ch. 9.11, 
 grandfather) of Zadok, the high priest in the 
 time of David (2 Sam. 8.17 ; 1 Ch. 6.7). 3. 
 Another priest, father of another Zadok (1 Ch. 
 6.11 : perhaps a copyist's repetition from 
 ver. 7). 
 
 Ah' lab. One of the cities of Asher from which 
 the Cananites were not driven out (Judg. 1.31). 
 
 Ahla'i. thai!: daughter of Sheshan, a 
 descendant of Pharez, whom he gave in marriage 
 to Jarha, a slave (1 Ch. 2.31-35). 
 
 Aho'ah. Grandson of Benjamin (1 Ch. 8.4). 
 Aho'hite. Apatronymic derived from Ahoah 
 (2 Sam. 23.9 ; 1 Ch. 11.12). 
 
 Aho'lah. Tent : a symbolic name for Samaria 
 (Ezek. 23.4 ; R.V. Oholah). 
 
 Aho'liab. My Father's tent: a Danite of 
 great skill as a weaver and embroiderer, whom 
 Moses appointed with Bezaleel to erect the taber- 
 nacle (Ex. 31, 35, 36, 38 ; R.V. Oholiab). 
 
 Aho'libah. My tent within her : a symbolical 
 name of Jerusalem (Ezek. 23.4; R.V. Oholibah). 
 Aholiba'mah (R.V. Oholibamah). Tent of 
 the high place : 1. One of the wives of Esau, 
 the daughter of Anah, a descendant of Seir the 
 Horite (Gen. 36.2). In Gen. 26.34 Aholibamah 
 is called Judith. The subject of Esau's wives 
 is obscure. 2. An Edomite chief (Gen. 36.41). 
 
 Ahu'mai. One of the descendants of Judah 
 (1 Ch. 4.2). 
 
 Ahu'zam. Possession: a descendant of Judah 
 (1 Ch. 4.6). 
 
 Ahuz'zath. Possession: a friend of Abime- 
 lech, king of the Philistines in the time of Isaac 
 (Gen. 26.26). 
 
 A'i. A heap : 1. A royal city of Canaan, 
 already existing (as Hai) in the time of Abraham 
 (Gen. 12.8), the second city taken by Israel and 
 utterly destroyed after their passage of the 
 Jordan (Josh. 7, 8, 9, 10, 12). The " men 
 of Bethel and Ai," to the number of 223, returned 
 from the captivity with Zerubbabel (Ezra 
 2.28). Aiath (Isai. 10.28), passed by Sennacherib 
 in his march upon Jerusalem, and Aija (Neh. 
 11.31) are other forms of Ai. 2. A city of the 
 Ammonites (Jer. 49.3). 
 
 A'i ah, A'jah. Vulture : 1. Ancestor of one 
 of the wives of Esau (1 Ch. 1.40), called Ajah 
 in Gen. 36.24. 2. Father of Rizpah, a concu- 
 bine of Saul (2 Sam. 3.7, 21.8). 
 Ai'ath. [Ai.] 
 
 Aija'lon, Aja'lon.- Place of gazettes: 1. A 
 city of the Kohathites (Josh. 21.24), originally 
 allotted to the tribe of Dan (Josh. 19.42), 
 which tribe, however, was unable to dispossess 
 the Amorites of the place (Judg. 1.35). Aijalon 
 was one of the towns fortified by Rehoboam 
 (2 Ch. 11.10) during his conflicts with the 
 new kingdom of Israel, and the last we hear 
 of it is as being in the hands of the Philistine 
 
AIJELETH SHAHAR] 
 
 15 
 
 [ALEXANDRIA 
 
 invaders (2 Ch. 28.18). The town has been 
 identified beyond doubt as the modern Yalo, 
 a little to the north of the Jaffa road, and about 
 fourteen miles from Jerusalem. It stands on the 
 side of a long hill which forms the southern 
 boundary of a fine valley of cornfields, now 
 bearing the name of the Merj Ibn 'Amir, but 
 which there seems no reason for doubting was 
 the valley of Aijalon, which witnessed the defeat 
 of the Canaanites (Josh. 10.12). 2. A place in 
 Zebulun, mentioned as the burial-place of Elon, 
 one of the Judges (Judg. 12.12). 
 
 Aije'leth Shahar. The hind of the dawn: 
 part of the title of Ps. 22 (R.V. "set to Aijeleth 
 hash-Shahar"), and probably the name of a 
 melody to which the Psalm was to be sung. Dr. 
 Thirtle, applying his theory that the " Titles " 
 follow the Psalm to which they belong, attaches 
 it to Ps. 21, and interprets the phrase " concern- 
 ing the Hind of the Morning," as " a pictorial 
 designation of the King himself" (Thirtle, 
 The Titles of the Psalms, p. 202). 
 
 Ain. An eye: hence also, by figure of speech, 
 a spring, or natural burst of living water (cf. En- 
 gedi, En-rogel, etc.). 1. One of the landmarks 
 on the north-eastern boundary of Palestine 
 as described by Moses (Num. 34.11). 2. One of 
 the northernmost cities of Judah (Josh. 15.32), 
 afterwards allotted to Simeon (Josh. 19.7), and 
 given to the priests (Josh. 21.16). (Perhaps 
 " Ain and Rimmon " are to be identified with 
 theEn-rimmonof Neh. 11.29.) 
 
 Air." The prince of the power of the air " 
 is a title given to Satan in Eph. 2.2 and nowhere 
 else. The common belief was that the air was 
 peopled with spiritual beings, those nearest to 
 the earth being spirits of evil, with Satan for 
 their leader. The phrase may be a popular 
 way of describing an agency that is felt, but 
 not seen, over the whole world, pervading, so to 
 speak, its moral atmosphere. Compare 6.12, 
 and the corresponding figure of " darkness " 
 (Col. 1.13 ; Lk. 22.53). 
 
 Ajah. [AIAH.] 
 
 Ajalon. [AIJALON.] 
 
 A'kan. See Gen. 36.27, called Jakan in 
 1 Ch. 1.42. 
 
 Akel'dama. [ACELDAMA.] 
 
 Ak'kub. 1. A descendant of David (1 Ch. 
 3.24). 2. One * of the porters or door- 
 keepers at the east gate of the Temple. His 
 descendants succeeded to his office, and appear 
 among those who returned from Babylon 
 (1 Ch. 9.17 ; Ezra 2.42 ; Neh. 7.45). 3. The 
 chief of a family of the Nethinim who returned 
 to Jerusalem after the exile (Ezra 2.45). 4. A 
 Levite employed by Ezra to make the people 
 understand the law as read to them (Neh. 8.7). 
 
 Akrab'bim. Scorpions : a pass between the 
 south end of the Dead Sea and the Desert of 
 Zin, the beginning of the ascent to the mountains 
 of Edom, forming one of the landmarks on the 
 south boundary of Judah (Josh. 15.3) and of 
 Palestine (Num. 34.4). 
 
 Al'abaster. See Matt. 26.7; Mk. 14.3; 
 Lk. 7.37 ; the passages which describe the 
 
 occasions when a woman poured the contents 
 of an alabaster '* box " (R.V. " cruse," marg. 
 " flask ") of ointment on the head of the 
 Saviour. The ancients considered alabaster 
 (carbonate of lime) to be the best material in 
 which to preserve their ointments. The usual 
 form of these vessels was round and bulbous at the 
 bottom, and tapering upwards to a narrow neck, 
 which was carefully sealed. In the narrative 
 of Mark the woman is said to have broken the box 
 before pouring out the ointment. This may 
 imply no more than the breaking of the seal or 
 neck of the bottle ; but it may also mean that 
 the vessel itself was destroyed that it might 
 never again be used. 
 
 Ala'meth (R.V. Alemeth), a grandson of 
 Benjamin (1 Ch. 7.8). 
 
 Alam'melech (R.V. Allamelach). The King's 
 Oak : a place in the territory of Asher (Josh. 
 19.26), perhaps to be identified with a little 
 stream (the Wady Melech) flowing into the 
 Kishon. 
 
 Ala'moth. Virgins : a musical phrase ("set 
 to Alamoth") occurring in 1 Ch. 15.20, 
 and as the title to Ps. 46. In the former 
 passage it perhaps refers to a choir of female 
 or treble voices, and has its contrast in ver. 21, 
 " set to the Sheminith," or bass voices. Such 
 a direction, however, does not seem suitable 
 to the martial strains of Ps. 46 (** Luther's 
 battle-psalm"), and Dr. Thirtle (The Titles 
 of the Psalms, p. 240) finds here one of his most 
 striking instances in support of his theory that 
 the " title " which now heads a Psalm is really 
 an instruction appended to the Psalm preceding ; 
 at any rate Ps. 45, " that loveliest of marriage 
 songs," is peculiarly fitted to be sung by a 
 choir of maidens (see especially vers. 9-17). 
 
 Ale'meth. 1. (R.V. Allemeth), called Almon 
 in Josh. 21.18, a Levitical city of Benjamin 
 (1 Ch. 6.60), the modern Almet, a mile north- 
 east of Anathoth. 2. Son of Jehoadah, a 
 descendant of Saul (1 Ch. 8.36). [ALAMETH.] 
 
 Alexan'der. Helper of men : five persons of 
 this name, which was a common one, are, 
 mentioned in the N.T. 1. Son of Simon the 
 Cyrenian, who was compelled to carry the cross 
 of Jesus (Mk. 15.21). 2. A kinsman of Annas 
 the high priest, a leading member of the San- 
 hedrin in Jerusalem, when Peter and John were 
 apprehended and brought before it (Acts 4.6). 
 3. A Jew of Ephesus, whom his countrymen 
 put forward during the tumult raised by Deme- 
 trius the silversmith (Acts 19.33). 4. A convert 
 who had abandoned his faith, and had been 
 delivered to Satan by Paul (1 Tim. 1.19, 20). 
 5. A smith who had done Paul much evil, and 
 had greatly withstood his words (2 Tim. 4.14); 
 possibly identical with 3. 
 
 Alexandria. A city on the delta of the Nile, 
 founded by Alexander the Great, King of 
 Macedon, 332 B.C., as the metropolis of his 
 western Empire. From the beginning the 
 population was mixed, and one of the three dis- 
 tricts into which the city was divided was called 
 the Region of the Jews. After the capture of 
 
ALGUM or ALMUG TREES] 
 
 16 
 
 [ALMODAD 
 
 Jerusalem, Ptolemy i. removed a considerable 
 number of its citizens to Alexandria. Many 
 others followed of their own accord, and the 
 Jewish colony rapidly increased by fresh immi- 
 grations. Later, when Alexandria fell under 
 Roman rule, Julius Caesar and Augustus con- 
 firmed to the Jews the privileges which they 
 had enjoyed before. They were represented 
 by their own officer, and Augustus appointed 
 a Council " to superintend the affairs of the 
 Jews," according to their own laws. 
 
 For some time the Jewish Church in Alex- 
 andria was in close dependence on that of 
 Jerusalem, both acknowledging the high priest 
 as their religious head ; but later on the two 
 churches became alienated. The version of 
 the O.T. Scriptures in Greek (known as the 
 Septuagint, from the fact that it was made 
 by seventy Alexandrian Jews) strengthened 
 the barrier of language between Palestine and 
 Egypt, and the temple at Leontopolis (161 B.C.), 
 which subjected the Egyptian Jews to the 
 charge of schism, widened the breach which was 
 thus opened. At the beginning of the Christian 
 era, however, the Egyptian Jews still paid the 
 contributions to the service of the Temple at 
 Jerusalem, which was still the holy city and 
 mother city of the race. 
 
 According to Eusebius, Mark first preached 
 the gospel in Egypt, and founded the first 
 church in Alexandria. By the close of the 
 second century Alexandria had become an im- 
 portant centre of Christian learning and influence. 
 Its catechetical school acquired unique dis- 
 tinction. The earliest of its teachers named 
 by the historian Eusebius is Pantaenus (about 
 the year 180). Clement and Origen were the 
 most famous of his successors ; though Arius, 
 the founder of the heresy, is named by Theodoret 
 as having once been a chief teacher. The 
 N.T. references to Alexandria are Act* 6.9, 
 18.24, 27.6, 28.11. 
 
 Al'gum or Al'mng Trees. Mention of the 
 almug is made in 1 K. 10.11 (algum in 2 Ch. 
 9.10), as having been brought in great plenty 
 from Ophir, together with gold and precious 
 stones, by the fleet of Hiram, for Solomon's 
 temple and house, and for the construction of 
 musical instruments. The tree is not certainly 
 identified, but the balance of authority is in 
 favour of red sandal-wood, which is heavy, hard, 
 fine-grained, and of a beautiful garnet colour. 
 
 Al'iah, ATvah. Sublime: duke of Edom 
 (Gen. 36.40; 1 Ch. 1.51). 
 
 Al'ian, Alvan. Sublime (Gen. 36.23 ; 1 Ch. 
 1.40). 
 
 Alien. [STRANGER.] 
 
 Allegory. -The word occurs only in Gal. 4.24. 
 [PARABLE.] 
 
 Alleln'ia. The Greek form given in the 
 Septuagint to the compound Hebrew word 
 Hallelujah, i.e. " Praise ye Jehovah." This 
 ascription of praise is found in the Septuagint 
 version of Ps. 105-106, and other Psalms, where 
 the Latin Vulgate has Alleluia, the margin of 
 A.V. and R.V. Hallelujah. The adoption of 
 
 the Hebrew phrase into Christian worship is 
 due to its use in Rev. 19.1-7. By the fourth 
 century it had become recognised as a Christian 
 shout of victory or exultation. The Alleluia 
 found a special place in the early liturgies of 
 the Church in the West and the East. 
 
 Alliances. Abraham formed an alliance with 
 the chiefs of Canaan (Gen. 14.13) and with 
 Abimelech (Gen. 21.22). The latter was renewed 
 by Isaac (Gen. 26.26). When, however, the 
 Israelites settled in Canaan they were forbidden 
 to form alliances with surrounding nations, 
 the Divine intention being that the chosen 
 people should not become infected by the idolatry 
 of their neighbours. This prohibition was 
 disregarded later on. Solomon formed alliances 
 with Hiram, king of Tyre, and with Pharaoh, 
 king of Egypt. The object of the former was to 
 obtain materials and workmen for the erection 
 of the Temple, also ship-builders and sailors. 
 By the latter alliance Solomon received a 
 monopoly of the trade in horses and other 
 products of Egypt. The disputes between 
 Judah and Israel, and the relations of these 
 countries to Egypt and the monarchies of 
 Assyria and Babylonia, led to numerous alli- 
 ances and counter-alliances. See throughout the 
 books of Kings and of Chronicles, as well as 
 portions of Isaiah, Ezekiel, and Jeremiah. 
 
 Various religious rites were performed at the 
 formation of an alliance. A sacrificial victim 
 was slain and divided into two parts, between 
 which the contracting parties passed, invoking 
 imprecations of a similar destruction upon him 
 who should break the terms of the alliance. This 
 custom was in operation for a long period 
 (Jer. 34.18). Generally speaking, the oath 
 alone is mentioned in the contracting of alliances 
 either between nations ( Josh. 9.15) or individuals 
 (Gen. 26.28, 31.53 ; 2 K. 11.4). The event was 
 celebrated by a feast (Ex. 24. 11; 28am. 3.12-20). 
 Salt, as symbolical of fidelity, was used on these 
 occasions, applied to the sacrifices, hence the 
 expression "covenant of salt" (Num. 18.19; 
 2 Ch. 13.5). A pillar was set up as a memorial 
 of the alliance between Laban and Jacob 
 (Gen. 31.52). Presents were also sent by the 
 party soliciting the alliance (1 K. 15.18 ; Isai. 
 30.6). The Jews throughout their whole 
 history attached great importance to fidelity to 
 their engagements (Josh. 9.18). Divine wrath 
 fell upon the violators of them (2 Sam. 21.1 ; 
 Ezek. 17.16). 
 
 Al'lon. An oak: 1. A place named among the 
 cities of NaphtaU (Josh. 19.33). But R.V. has 
 "from the oak in Zaanannim." 2. The chief 
 of a family in Simeon (1 Ch. 4.37). 
 
 Allon-Ba'chuth. Oak of weeping : the tree 
 under which Rebekah'"s nurse, Deborah, was 
 buried (Gen. 35.8). 
 
 Almo'dad. A member of the family of Shem, 
 and the founder of an Arab tribe (Gen. 10.26 ; 
 1 Ch. 1.20). His name appears to be preserved 
 in that of Ahidad, a famous personage in 
 Arabian history, the reputed father of Ishmael's 
 Arab wife. 
 
ALMON] 
 
 17 
 
 [ALTAR 
 
 Al'mon. Hiding-place: a city of Benjamin 
 with "suburbs" given to the priests (Josh. 
 21.18). In 1 Ch. 6.60 it is called Alemeth. 
 
 Al'mon-Diblatha'im. One of the encamp- 
 ments of Israel after leaving Egypt (Num. 
 33.46-47). [See BETH-DIBLATHAIM.] 
 
 Almond, Almond Tree. Aaron's rod that 
 budded "yielded almonds" (Num. 17.8). In 
 " I see a rod of an almond tree " (Jer. 1.11), 
 the " almond " is symbolical of speed, for the 
 root of the Hebrew word for almond means to 
 watch for, " to make haste." The prophet is 
 shown a rod of an almond tree to signify that 
 Jehovah will hasten His word to perform it. 
 Early as the tree is to put forth its pinkish- 
 white flowers in this country, it is in full bloom 
 in Palestine in January, and the fruit appears 
 in March or April. From the fact that Jacob 
 sent almonds as among " the best fruits of the 
 land " to his son in Egypt (Gen. 43.11), we may 
 infer that they had not yet been introduced 
 into that country. The bowls of the golden 
 candlesticks were to be " made like unto 
 almonds" (Ex. 25.33), that is, after the pattern 
 of almond blossom. The use of the flourishing 
 of the almond tree as a symbol of old age 
 (Eccles. 12.5) was suggested by the snowy 
 whiteness of its aspect when viewed from a 
 distance. The " Jordan almonds " of commerce 
 do not come from Palestine, but from Malaga, 
 in Spain. 
 
 Alms. This word (Anglo-Saxon aclmaesse, 
 from the Greek word meaning pity) occurs 
 repeatedly in the N.T., not in the O.T., although 
 the duty of almsgiving was strictly enjoined by 
 the law of Moses. The Israelite was ordered 
 to present the first-fruits of the land before the 
 Lord each year. Every third year each pro- 
 prietor was enjoined to share the tithes of his 
 produce with " the Levite, the stranger, the 
 fatherless, and the widow." In the women's 
 court of Herod's Temple were thirteen recep- 
 tacles for voluntary offerings, one of which was 
 devoted to alms for the education of poor 
 children of good family. After the captivity 
 there were in every city three official collectors 
 of alms, the giving of which was enforced under 
 penalties. The Pharisees were zealous in alms- 
 giving, but were rebuked by the Saviour for being 
 too ostentatious in displaying this (Matt. 6.2). 
 
 The duty of relieving the poor was not 
 neglected by the Christians (Matt. 6.1-4; Lk. 
 14.13 ; Acts 20.35 ; Gal. 2.10). Every Christian 
 was exhorted to lay by on the Sunday in each 
 week some portion of his profits, to be applied 
 to the wants of the needy (Acts 11.30 ; Rom. 
 15.25-27 ; 1 Cor. 16.1-4). It was considered 
 a duty specially incumbent on widows to devote 
 themselves to such ministrations (1 Tim. 5.10). 
 Before the captivity there is no trace of per- 
 mission of mendicancy, but it was evidently 
 allowed in later times (Matt. 20.30 ; Mk. 10.46 ; 
 Acts 3.2). 
 
 Almug Tree. [ALQUM.] 
 
 Aloes, Lign-Aloes. The aloes of Scripture 
 bear no relation to the flowery aloe of modern 
 
 gardens, but represent an odoriferous wood 
 which, from a remote period, had been used in 
 the East for sacred and common purposes. In 
 Ps. 45.8, Canticles 4.14, and Prov. 7.17 
 aloes are associated with myrrh as agreeable and 
 attractive perfumes ; they are once mentioned 
 in the N.T. in connection with the burial of the 
 Saviour by Joseph and Nicodemus (John 19.39). 
 
 A'loth. Ascents : a hilly region near Asher, 
 forming with the latter the jurisdiction of one of 
 Solomon's commissariat officers (1 K. 4.16, A.V. 
 " in Asher and in Aloth," but R.V. " in Asher 
 and Bealoth "). 
 
 Al'pha. The first letter of the Greek alpha- 
 bet, as Omega is the last. The phrase, " I am 
 the Alpha and the Omega," is used of God 
 in Rev. 1.8, 21.6. Originally an obvious ex- 
 pression for completeness (parallels are found 
 in Hebrew and in English, " from A to Z"), it 
 became specially applied to the eternity and 
 omnipresence of God, the Being from whom all 
 things have their origin and to whom all things 
 tend. Hence the phrase is parallel to Isai. 41.4 
 and to Rom. 11.36; 1 Cor. 8.6; Ileb. 2.10. 
 In Rev. 22.13 the title is transferred to the 
 glorified Christ, the one revealer and fulfilment 
 of the Divine purpose of redemption, in whom 
 is the " yea and the Amen " the confirmation 
 and the accomplishment of all the promises of 
 God (2 Cor. 1.20 ; cf. also John 1.3 ; 1 Cor. 8.6 ; 
 Col. 1.15-17 ; Heb. 1.2, 3). 
 
 Alphaeus. 1. Father of the Levi (Mk. 2.14) 
 who is to be identified with Matthew the Apostle. 
 2. In each of the four lists of the Apostles 
 (Matt. 10, Mk. 3, Lk. 6, Acts 1) the ninth place 
 is given to " James the son of Alphaeus." If 
 this Alphaeus is the same as 1, Matthew and 
 James were brothers, but there is no indication 
 of this, and in Mark and Luke the names are 
 separated by that of Thomas. Among the 
 women who witnessed the crucifixion Mark 
 mentions a " Mary the mother of James the 
 less " (Mk. 15.40 ; cf. Matt. 27.56), who in the 
 parallel passage in John (19.25) appears to be 
 spoken of, as " Mary the wife of Clopas " (not 
 Cleophas, as A.V. : the name is distinct from the 
 Cleopas of Lk. 24.18). If this " James the less " 
 is " James, the son of Alphaeus," distinguished 
 by the epithet from the greater James, son of 
 Zebedee, then his mother was wife of Alphoeus, 
 and it has been argued that " Alphaeus " and 
 " Clopas " are differing Greek forms of the same 
 Aramaic name. But this is etymologically 
 doubtful ; and John's phrase may mean " Mary, 
 the daughter of Clopas." [CLOPAS, JAMBS, 
 MART.] 
 
 Altar. From altus, " high " ; used of the 
 raised or elevated structure employed for 
 sacrifices and other oSerings. The Hebrew 
 and Greek words of which it is most usually 
 the translation mean " place of slaughter." Two 
 other Hebrew (Ezek. 43.15) and one Greek word 
 (Acts 17.23) are translated " altar," but shed no 
 light on the meaning of the word. No explana- 
 tion is given in Scripture of either word or thing. 
 In the O.T. its first use is noted without any 
 
ALTAR] 
 
 18 
 
 [ALTAR 
 
 comment in Gen. 8.20. The origin of the 
 idea of an altar is unknown, and various sugges- 
 tions are made, based on primitive usage. Some 
 have said that it was originally the place where 
 the blood of the sacrifice was poured or smeared ; 
 that from this was developed the idea of a hearth 
 for burning the flesh used in sacrifice. Some- 
 times the altar was made of earth, sometimes 
 of a large stone or a heap of stones. Every- 
 thing really turns on the prior question of the 
 origin of sacrifice. Was it a divine revelation 
 or a human instinct ? If the former, the altar 
 would naturally mean the divinely-appointed 
 place of sacrifice ; if the latter, it would be 
 man's idea of the place for offering his gift. 
 
 After the first reference (Gen. 8.20), altars are 
 associated with the patriarchs (Gen. 12.7, 22.9, 
 35.1, 7), and Moses (Ex. 17.15, 24.4). The first 
 instructions as to the erection of an altar 
 in connection with the Law are found in Ex. 
 20.24, 25. It was to be of earth, or of unhewn 
 stone, and without steps. There were two altars 
 connected with the Tabernacle, one in the outer 
 court and one in the Holy Place. The former 
 was called the Brazen Altar or Altar of Burnt 
 Offering, and was in front of the door of the 
 Tabernacle. It was a hollow frame of acacia 
 wood, 7J ft. square by 4 ft. high, covered 
 with brass, and provided with rings and staves 
 for transit in the wilderness journeys. At its 
 upper corners it had four projections called 
 horns. There was no step, but a ledge round 
 for the convenience of the priests while doing 
 their work. After the sacrifices were offered 
 at this altar, its position at the opening of the 
 Tabernacle was a constant and striking object- 
 lesson to Israel, that no approach to God was pos- 
 sible except on the basis of sacrifice (Ex. 27.1-8, 
 38.1). The Altar of Incense was in the Holy 
 Place just in front of the vail, between that and 
 the Holy of holies. It was 3 ft. high and 1$ ft. 
 square, made of acacia wood overlaid with gold, 
 with horns at the corners, and two golden rings 
 at each side. Although it was situated in the 
 Holy Place, it had such a close connection with 
 the spiritual meaning of the Holy of holies, 
 that it could be said to " belong " to the latter 
 (Heb. 9.3, 4). Incense was burnt on it morning 
 and evening as a symbol of the constant worship 
 of the people (Ex. 30.1-10, 40.5 ; 1 K. 6.22 ; 
 Ps. 141.2). In Solomon's Temple the brazen 
 altar was much larger than that in the Tabernacle 
 (1 K. 8.64), and a new Altar of Incense was 
 also provided (1 K. 7.48). The Tabernacle con- 
 stituted the central sanctuary at which God 
 could be worshipped in His appointed way, and 
 Israel was forbidden to have more sanctuaries 
 than one. But there is an ambiguity about the 
 word " sanctuary," for it was used for both 
 House and Altar. The House or central sanctu- 
 ary had Us two altars, but not every altar was 
 connected with a House. Altars were per- 
 mitted everywhere, from the time of Moses on- 
 ward (Ex. 20.24-26), but only one sanctuary 
 (Ex. 25.8). The Divine qualification as to the 
 erection of altars was that thev should not be 
 
 associated with heathen altars or high places 
 (Deut. 16.21). Plurality of altars was allowed 
 (Ex. 20.24-26), but not of houses. The only 
 time when there w^as more than one house 
 was during the confusions and complications 
 of David's time, when there were two sanctuaries 
 with two brazen altars, one at Gibeon and the 
 other at Jerusalem (1 K. 3.2, 4, 15). Of course, 
 on the disruption of the kingdom, Jeroboam 
 naturally set up his own central sanctuaries at 
 Dan and Bethel, to prevent the people from 
 going to Jerusalem, and thereby being led away 
 from allegiance to him. It was impossible for 
 subjects of the Northern Kingdom to go to 
 Jerusalem, and so they had either to abstain 
 from worship by sacrifice, or else to erect 
 houses in their own territory. But we can see 
 the old belief in Elijah's altar at Carmel, which 
 was made of twelve stones, symbolising the 
 unity of the entire people in covenant with God. 
 The only other uses of the altar were for a 
 memorial (Josh. 22.10), and as an asylum in 
 danger (1 K. 1.50) ; but these were exceptional, 
 and do not affect the general idea of the altar 
 as a place of sacrifice. 
 
 In the N.T. the usage of the term altar is quite 
 infrequent. In Matt. 5.23, it refers to the Jewish 
 altar of burnt offering. In 1 Cor. 9.13, and 10.18, 
 the heathen altar and the Christian Lord's 
 Table are brought into connection and contrast. 
 It is significant that the Apostle carefully 
 avoids the use of the term altar in connection 
 with the Lord's Supper. Bishop Lightfoot calls 
 this avoidance a speaking fact, especially because 
 " the language of the context might readily have 
 suggested it to him if he had considered it appro- 
 priate " (Philippians, p. 266, Note). Altar and 
 table are essentially different. The altar was 
 used for offering, not for eating; and nothing that 
 was ever laid on an altar was taken off, except 
 in the form of ashes after burning. The table 
 was used for eating, not for offering. The two 
 terms are never used synonymously, for even 
 if an altar could be used as a table, a table 
 could not be called an altar. So that any idea 
 of the elements of the Lord's Supper being 
 offered on a holy table as on an altar, and then 
 taken off to be eaten and drunk, would be 
 altogether foreign to the O.T. ideas of the 
 altar, and repulsive to Christian Jews familiar 
 with the ritual of the Temple. 
 
 In Heb. 13.10, the words, " We have an altar," 
 are variously interpreted according as " we 
 have " is referred to Christians or Jews. Those 
 who interpret it of Christians understand it 
 either of the Cross of Christ, spiritually inter- 
 preted, or, by a well-known figure of speech, 
 of Christ on the Cross. It is impossible, in view 
 of the immediate context, and of the entire 
 epistle, to interpret the words of the Lord's 
 Supper. But as there is no emphasis on the 
 " we," it is more probable, in view of the 
 context, that the reference is to Jews, not to 
 Christians. " We Jews have in our Mosaic 
 ritual a sacrifice (the sin offering) of which the 
 priests are not allowed to eat ; it is to be burnt 
 
AL-TASCHITH] 
 
 19 
 
 [AMASA 
 
 outside the camp ; and the antitype to this 
 is the offering of Jesus outside the gate." The 
 connection of ver. 11 with ver. 10 (" for ") 
 clearly points to the Jewish idea, and the whole 
 context shows that the writer had in mind a 
 particular sacrifice, of which no part was eaten. 
 Yet in the Holy Communion, the entire elements 
 are supposed to be eaten. Moreover, there is 
 one fact which seems clearly in favour of the 
 Jewish, and against the Christian idea. An 
 altar requires a priest and a sacrifice. The three 
 go together : so that if the altar is Christian, 
 we must discover the Christian priest and 
 sacrifice, neither of which exists, and against 
 which (apart from Christ's priesthood and 
 sacrifice) the whole epistle is directed. The 
 main principle of Hebrews is that there is no 
 other Priest but Christ, and no other Sacrifice 
 but the Cross. So we conclude, with Lightfoot, 
 that "it is surprising that some should have 
 interpreted altar in Ueb. 13.10, of the Lord's 
 Table " (Philippians, p. 265, Note). 
 
 It was only subsequent to N.T. times that 
 the word altar was used of the Lord's Table. 
 Westcott says that, in the first stage of Christian 
 literature, " there is not only no example of the 
 application of the word altar to any concrete 
 material object as the Holy Table, but there is no 
 room for such an application" (Hebrews, p. 456). 
 It was a century after the N.T. times when a 
 change took place, which found its full develop- 
 ment in Cyprian's language (Ibid. p. 458), and 
 the outcome is best expressed in Westcott's 
 own words : " The history of the word offers 
 an instructive illustration of the way in which 
 spiritual thoughts, connected with material 
 imagery, clothe themselves in material forms, 
 till at last the material forms dominate the 
 thought " (Ibid. p. 461). In the Apocalypse, the 
 word altar is used symbolically of the ideas of 
 sacrifice and incense (Rev. 6.9, etc.). If there- 
 fore we keep in mind that the terms altar, priest, 
 and sacrifice go together, and cannot be separ- 
 ated, that wherever there is an altar there must 
 be a priest and a sacrifice, we see at once that 
 there is no place in the N.T. for an altar, since 
 there are no sacrifices (apart from Christ's), 
 except the three spiritual sacrifices of our- 
 selves (Rom. 12.1), our praise, and our gifts 
 (Ileb. 13.15, 16). 
 
 Al-tas'chith (R.V. Al-tashhsth). Destroy 
 not: (cf. Deut. 9.26). The phrase occurs in 
 the titles of four Psalms (57, 58, 59, 75), and 
 would seem to mark them out as prayers for 
 the Divine mercy, to be used in times of special 
 adversity and national humiliations. (So Thirtle, 
 who, however, attaches the phrase to the pre- 
 ceding Psalms, 56-58 and 74, Titles of the 
 Psalms, p. 254.) 
 
 A'lush. The ninth encampment of Israel in 
 their journeyings (Num. 33.13). 
 
 AI'vah. [ALIAH.] 
 
 Al'van. [ALIAN.] 
 
 A 'mad. A town in Asher (Josh. 19.26). 
 
 A'mal. A descendant of Asher (1 Ch. 7.35). 
 
 Ama'lek, Amalekite : according to Gen. 
 
 36.12-16 grandson of Esau, and one of the 
 dukes of Edom (cf. 1 Ch. 1.36). Elsewhere 
 the name is not personal but tribal = Amalek- 
 ites (e.g. Ex. 17.8-16), and there is good reason 
 to assign to the tribe a greater antiquity than 
 the date of their supposed ancestor Amalek. 
 See Gen. 14.7 ; and comp. Balaam's phrase, 
 " Amalek was the first [i.e. oldest] of the nations" 
 (Num. 24.20). These nomad tribes appear in 
 the early narrative of Gen. 14 as dwelling in 
 Canaan, near Kadesh, where they were smitten 
 by Chedorlaomer and his confederates (Gen. 
 14.7). After the Exodus they attacked the 
 rear of the Israelites at Rephidim, near Sinai 
 (Deut. 25.17-19), and were defeated by Joshua 
 Ex. 17.8-16). As the earliest and pitiless 
 aggressors of Israrl they were placed under the 
 Divine curse : " The Lord will have war with 
 Amalek from generation to generation"; their 
 remembrance was to be blotted out from under 
 heaven. In alliance with the Canaanites the 
 Amalekites inflicted a severe defeat upon the 
 Israelites in their first attempted entry into 
 Palestine (Num. 14.43-45). In the time of the 
 Judges the Amalekites, along with the children 
 of Ammon, joined with Eglon, King of Moab, 
 to attack Israel, took Jericho (Judg. 3.13) ; but 
 were completely defeated by Gideon in the 
 valley of Jezreel (Judg. 6.33, 7.12-22). Later, 
 Saul, commissioned to execute the Divine 
 decree of extermination, " utterly destroyed 
 all the people," but spared king Agag and the 
 best of the spoil, being punished for his dis- 
 obedience by the loss of his kingdom (1 Sam. 
 15). In David's absence they invaded and 
 plundered Ziklag, and carried off David's two 
 wives and others as captives, but were pursued 
 and defeated (1 Sam. 30.1-31); one of them, 
 accusing himself of Saul's death, was put to 
 death by David (2 Sam. 1.1-16), by whom their 
 silver and gold were dedicated to Jehovah 
 (2 Sam. 8.12 ; 1 Ch. 18.11). They were again 
 smitten in the days of Hezekiah by five hundred 
 men of the tribe of Simeon, who thereafter 
 dwelt in their place (1 Ch. 4.39-43). 
 
 A'mam. A town of south Judah (Josh. 15.26). 
 
 Ama'na. Constant : some part of the Anti- 
 Libanus ranges, from which springs the river 
 Abana (or Amana) which flows through the 
 plain of Damascus (Cant. 4.8). 
 
 Amari'ah. Jehovah hath promised : 1. See 
 1 Ch. 6.7 and 6.52. 2. High-priest in the time 
 of King Jehoshaphat (2 Ch. 19.11), whose 
 endeavours to work a reformation in Israel and 
 Judah he seems to have seconded. 3. See 
 1 Ch. 23.19 and 24.23. 4. The head of ore of 
 the twenty-four courses of priests which was 
 named after him in the time of David, of 
 Hezekiah, and of Nehemiah, where he is named 
 Immer (1 Ch. 24.14 ; 2 Ch. 31.15 ; Neh. 10.3, 
 12.2-13). 5. One of those who in the time of 
 Ezra married a " strange " (or foreign) wife 
 (EzralO.42). "6. See Zeph. 1.1. 1. See Neh. II A. 
 
 Ama'sa. Burden learer : 1. Son of David's 
 sister, Abigail (2 Sam. 1 7.25). Absalom appointed 
 him commander-in-chief of his rebel army 
 
AMASAI] 
 
 20 
 
 [AMI 
 
 in place of Joab, by whom he was routed in 
 the forest of Ephraim (2 Sam. 18.6). Later on 
 David forgave Ainasa, and made him the 
 successor of Joab, who had incurred the king's 
 displeasure by slaying Absalom (2 Sam. 19.13), 
 Joab afterwards treacherously slew Amasa while 
 pretending to greet him (2 Sam. 20.10). 2. 
 One of the heads of the children of Ephraim 
 (2Ch. 28.12). 
 
 Ama'sai. Burden - bearer : 1. See 1 Ch. 
 6.25. 2. Leader of the men of Judah and 
 Benjamin who joined David at Ziklag ; possibly 
 the same as Amasa 1 (1 Ch.12.18). 3. A priest 
 who blew the trumpet before the ark when 
 David brought it from the house of Obed-edom 
 (1 Ch. 15.24). 4. A Levite mentioned in 2 Ch. 
 29.12. 
 
 Amash'ai (R.V. Amashsai). A priest men- 
 tioned in Neh. 11.13. 
 
 Amasi'ah. Jehovah bears: the leader of 
 200,000 warriors of Judah in the reign of 
 Jehoshaphat (2 Ch. 17.1G). 
 
 Amazi'ah. Jehovah has strength : 1. The 
 eighth king of Judah, who succeeded to the throne 
 at the age of twenty-five on the murder of his 
 father Joash (2 K. 12 and 14). He made war 
 on the Edonu'tes, defeated them in the valley of 
 Salt, south of the Dead Sea, and took their 
 capital, Selah or Petra (2 Ch. 25). Amaziah 
 performed religious ceremonies in honour of the 
 gods of the country, and from this idolatrous act 
 began the misfortunes of his reign. He was 
 totally defeated at the battle of Beth-Shemesh 
 by Joash, King of Israel, whom he had challenged 
 to battle, and by whom he was captured and car- 
 ried to the gates of Jerusalem, which fell without 
 resistance (2 K. 14.13). In the twenty-seventh 
 year of his reign Amaziah was murdered by 
 conspirators at Lacliish, whither he had retired 
 for safety from Jerusalem (2 Ch. 25.27). 2. Priest 
 of Bethel, who sent accusation to Jeroboam 
 against the prophet Amos, and endeavoured to 
 drive him from Israel into Judah (Amos 7.10; 
 cf. 1 K. 12.25-33). 3. One of the "sons of 
 Simeon " mentioned in 1 Ch. 4.34. 4. A Levite 
 (1 Ch. 6.45). 
 
 Ambassador. The messenger of ruler to ruler, 
 hostile (1 K. 20.2-6; 2 K. 14.8) or friendly 
 (2 K. 16.7, 18.14). In A.V. the word occurs 
 as translation of the Hebrew " messenger " in 
 2 Ch. 35.21 ; Isai. 30.4, 33.7 ; Ezek.11.15, once 
 as equivalent of " interpreter," 2 Ch. 32.31, and 
 once to render a Hebrew verb, " to feign oneself 
 an ambassador " ( Josh. 9.4 ; so R.V. text, but 
 marg., following another reading, " took them 
 provisions "). The Hebrew noun corresponding 
 to this last is rendered " ambassador " in R.V. 
 (Prow. 13.17, 25.13; Isai. 18.2, 57.9 ; Jer. 49.14; 
 Ob. 1.1). Early instances of the practice of 
 sending an embassy are Num. 20.14, 21.21 ; 
 Judg. 11.12-19; see also 2 K. 18.17. In the 
 N.T. the word is used metaphorically (2 Cor. 
 520; Eph. 6.20: also Philem. 9, R.V. marg.). 
 Ambasaage (i.e. Embassage, a collective term 
 = ambassadors) occurs Lk. 14.32 and Lk. 
 19.14 R.V. 
 
 Amber. The word occurs three times in 
 Ezekiel and nowhere else (1.4, 27, and 8.2). It 
 is doubtful whether the Hebrew word signifies 
 the modern amber, as we understand the word, 
 a fossilised vegetable resin, yellow or red, or 
 an alloy of one part silver to four parts of gold, 
 held in high estimation by the ancients (so R.V. 
 marg. " Electrum"). 
 
 Amen. A Hebrew adverb, from a root mean- 
 ing " to make firm, sure," and hence used as a 
 formula of confirmation of what another has 
 said (cf. Eng. " surely "). 
 
 1. In O.T. it accepts and ratifies a curse (Num. 
 5.22; Deut. 27.15-26; Neh. 5.13), a royal 
 command (I K. 1.36) ; a prophecy (Jer. 28.6) ; 
 and prayer, especially at the close of a doxology 
 (Neh. 8.6), and as the people's response to the 
 doxologies which stand after the first four books 
 of the Psalms (41.13, 72.19, 89.52, 106.48; 
 cf. 1 Ch. 16.36). From this use in the services 
 of the synagogue it passed into Christian 
 worship. 
 
 2. In N.T. 
 
 (a) In public worship (2 Cor. 14.16; R.V. 
 " the Amen "). The doxology and Amen 
 which close the Lord's Prayer in A.V. (not 
 R.V.) of Matt. 6.13 are no doubt due to the 
 liturgical use of the prayer. 
 
 (b) From this responsive use the Amen 
 came to be added to confirm or emphasise 
 individual prayer or thanksgiving (Rom. 1.25, 
 9.5, 11.36 ; Gal. 6.18 ; Rev. 1.6, 7, etc.). 
 
 (c) A use peculiar to our Lord is the employ- 
 ment of this word to introduce some word of 
 His of special solemnity, in the formula " Verily 
 (lit. Amen), I say unto you," for which the 
 Fourth Gospel has the doubled affirmation 
 "Verily, verily" (Matt. 5.18, and thirty times 
 in all, M k. thirteen times, Lk. six times ; John, 
 " Verily, verily," 1.51, and twenty-five times). 
 
 (d) In 2 Cor. 1.20 the promises of God are said 
 to centre in Christ (" in Him is the yea ") and to 
 find their confirmation and fulfilment through 
 Him (" wherefore also through Him is the 
 Amen"). And in Rev. 3.14 Christ Himself 
 is called " the Amen, the faithful and true 
 witness " (cf. Isai. 65.16, " the God of truth," 
 lit. " the God of Amen "). 
 
 The use of the word in the synagogue ser- 
 vices was early transferred to the services of 
 the Christian Church (1 Cor. 14.16), and is 
 noted by the Fathers (e.g. Justin Martyr, 
 Dionysius of Alexandria, and Jerome). 
 
 Amethyst. This precious stone (a form of 
 rock-crystal) had a place in the breastplate of 
 the high priest (Ex. 28.19, 39.12). It is 
 mentioned in Rev. 21.20 as adorning the founda- 
 tions of the wall of the heavenly Jerusalem. 
 Oriental amethyst from the East Indies is a 
 rare gem, very bright, inferior only to the dia- 
 mond in , hardness, and usually of a purple 
 colour. The Hebrew word implies the belief 
 that to wear the stone caused propitious dreams ; 
 the Greek that it was a protection against 
 drunkenness. 
 
 A 'mi. A servant of Solomon. Descendants 
 
AMINADAB] 
 
 21 
 
 [AMOS 
 
 me 
 
 ? 
 
 of Ami came up with Zerubbabel from Babylon 
 (Ezra 2.57). In Neh. 7.59 he is called Amon. 
 
 Amin'adab. [AMMINADAB.] 
 
 Amit'tai. Faithful : father of the prophet 
 Jonah (2 K. 14.25; Jon. 1.1). 
 
 Am'mah. A hill near Gibeon of Benjamin, 
 mentioned as the extreme point of Joab and 
 Abishai's pursuit of Abner after the death 
 of Asahel (2 Sam. 2.24). 
 
 Am/mi. My people : a symbolic name 
 which the ransomed are directed by the Lord 
 to use (Eos. 2.1). Cf. Lo-ammi (Eos. 1.9), 
 and see Rom. 9.25, 26. 
 
 Ammi'el. Kinsman is God : 1. One of the 
 spies sent to view the Promised Land (Num. 
 13.12). 2. The father of Machir, a helper of 
 David (2 Sam. 17.27). 3. The father of Bath- 
 shua or Bathsheba, the wife of David (1 Ch. 
 3.5, called Eliam in 2 Sam. 11.3. He was the 
 son of Ahithophel, David's prime minister. 
 4. One of the door-keepers of the temple 
 (1 Ch. 26.5). 
 
 Ammi'hud. Kinsman is glory: 1. The 
 father of Elishama (Num. 1.10, 2.18, 7.48, 
 10.22). 2. The father of Shemuel, a Simeonite 
 (Num. 34.20). 3. The father of Pedahel, a 
 Naphthalite (Num. 34.28). 4. The father 
 of the King of Geshur with whom Absalom 
 took refurge (2 Sam. 13.37). 5. The father of 
 Uthai (1 Ch. 9.4). 
 
 Ammin'adab. Kinsman is generous : 1. The 
 father of Aaron's wife, Elisheba (Ex. 6.23), 
 and an ancestor of Jesus Christ (Matt. 1.4 ; 
 Lk. 3.33). 2. The chief of the sons of Uzziel, 
 whom David sent for, together with others, 
 to bring the ark of God to Jerusalem (1 Ch. 
 15.10-12). 3. In 1 Ch. 6.22, probably by 
 error, for Izhar (see vers. 2, 18, 38). 
 
 Ammin'adib. (Cant. 6.12, A.V. text and 
 R.V. marg. : but see A.V. marg. and R. V. 
 text). The passage is obscure. 
 
 Ammishad'dai. Kinsman is the Almighty : 
 father of Ahiezer, a Danite (Num. 1.12, 2.25, 
 7.66, and 10.25). 
 
 Ammiza'bad. My people hath given : the 
 son of Benaiah, one of David's captains (1 Ch. 
 27.6). 
 
 Am'mon. The name of a people (1 Sam. 
 11.11 ; Ps. 83.7) ; more generally Ammonites, 
 children of Ammon. According to Gen. 19.38 
 they were descended from Ben-Ammi, the son 
 of Lot. The Ammonites were a race of fierce 
 and cruel marauders we read of them thrusting 
 out the right eyes of their enemies (1 Sam. 11.2), 
 ripping up the women with child (Amos 1.13). 
 The Ammonite territory was east of Jordan 
 north-east of the Dead Sea, Moab lying 
 the south. Their chief city was Rabbah 
 (2 Sam. 11.1 ; Ezek. 25.5 ; Amos 1.14). They 
 never obtained a footing on the west side of 
 the Jordan, although they made raids in that 
 quarter. The Israelites hated the Ammonites 
 because they had given them no help in their 
 passage to Canaan (Deut. 23.4), and because 
 of then- share in the affair of Balaam (Deut. 
 23.4, and Nth. 13.1), The animosity between 
 
 the two people continued throughout their 
 history. An Ammonite woman, however, 
 Naamah, was one of Solomon's wives and the 
 mother of Rehoboam (1 K. 14.21). The god of 
 the tribe was Milcom (a form of Molech), the 
 abomination of the children of Ammon (1 K. 
 11.5). 
 
 Ammonitess. A woman of the Ammonite 
 race, as, for example, Naamah (1 K. 14.21), one 
 of Solomon's wives, and Shimeath (2 Ch. 24.26). 
 
 Am'non. 1. Eldest son of David by Ahinoam 
 the Jezreelitess (2 Sam. 3.2). He dishonoured 
 his half-sister Tamar, and was murdered by 
 her brother Absalom (2 Sam. 13 ; 1 Ch. 3.1). 
 
 2. A son of Shimon (1 Ch. 4.20). 
 A'mok. Deep : a priest (Neh. 12.7). 
 A'mon. The hidden : an Egyptian god. 
 
 This name is incorporated in the Hebrew 
 designation of the famous Egyptian city of 
 Thebes, viz. No- Amon (Neh. 3.8, R.V. ; Jer. 
 46.25, R.V.). 
 
 A'mon. Skilled workman: 1. King of Judah, 
 son and successor of Manasseh. He served 
 false gods, and after a reign of two years was 
 murdered (2 K. 21.19-26; 2 Ch. 33.20-25). 
 For the deplorable condition of Jerusalem 
 during his reign, see the book of Zephaniah. 
 The name occurs in the genealogy of Jesus 
 Christ (Matt. 1.10). 2. Governor of Samaria 
 in the reign of Ahab (1 K. 22.26 ; 2 Ch. 18.25). 
 
 3. One of Solomon's servants (Neh. 7.59). [See 
 AMI.] 
 
 Am'orite, the Am'orites. Mountaineer, the 
 dweller on the summits : the Amorites held an 
 important place among the nations who possessed 
 the land of Canaan before its conquest by the 
 Israelites. At first they seem to have formed 
 part of the great confederation of the descend- 
 ants of Canaan (Gen. 10.16). But between the 
 settlement of Jacob in Egypt and the Exodus 
 they had separated from the Canaanites and 
 established themselves strongly at Jerusalem, 
 Hebron, and other important places in southern 
 Palestine, while they had also crossed the 
 Jordan, and founded the kingdoms over which 
 Sihon and Og ruled (see Amos 2.9, 10). Sihon 
 refused the Israelites passage through his 
 territory, and went out to fight them, but was 
 slain, and his army utterly routed (Num. 21 ; 
 Deut. 2). Later we find the five kings of the 
 Amorites disputing with Joshua the land west 
 of the Jordan (Josh. 10). From the beginning 
 to the end the Amorites maintained their 
 character of bold mountaineer warriors. 
 Nothing is known of their history after the 
 conquest of Canaan by the Israelites. 
 
 A'mos. Burden-bearer: 1. Author of the book 
 which stands third in the collection of the books 
 of the Twelve Prophets, or " minor Prophets," 
 and is probably the earliest of the prophetical 
 wri tings. 
 
 As to the date of the prophet, since it appears 
 that Amos fulfilled his ministry in the reigns of 
 Uzziah and of Jeroboam n. (1.1), he must have 
 been contemporary with Hosea. The mission 
 of Amos was to the Ten Tribes (7.10-13). He 
 
AMOS, BOOK OF] 
 
 22 
 
 [ANAH 
 
 did not, however, belong to the kingdom of 
 Israel ; but was an inhabitant, and probably a 
 native, of Tekoa, a city south of Bethlehem, on 
 the borders of the vast open pastures of the 
 hill country of Judah. As to his personal his- 
 tory, Amos was by profession a shepherd, and 
 a husbandman (7.14), " not a prophet, or a 
 prophet's son " (i.e. not trained to that office) ; 
 but he was called, by an irresistible Divine 
 commission (3.8, 7.15), to prophesy to Israel. 
 To this fact he alludes when Amaziah, the 
 idolatrous priest in Bethel, charged him with 
 conspiring against Jeroboam. His previous 
 occupation ought to have removed all sus- 
 picion of political connection with the house 
 of David ; whilst it illustrates the sovereignty 
 and wisdom of Him who selects His ministers 
 from the tents of the shepherd, as well as from 
 the palace of the monarch, adapting each for 
 the duties to which he is appointed.- 
 
 2. The son of Nahum in the genealogy of Christ 
 (Lk. 3.25). 
 
 Amos, Book of .The style of Amos is simple, 
 but by no means deficient in picturesque 
 beauty. His manner of life was the source 
 of his original and striking illustrations, which 
 are taken mostly from rural employments, 
 and are painted with the life and freshness 
 of nature. His knowledge of the events of 
 remote antiquity (9.7), and of others more 
 recent, not elsewhere recorded (6.2), the regular 
 course of his thoughts, and the correctness of 
 his language, all tend to show that the respon- 
 sible and often dangerous (3.12) occupation 
 of a shepherd was still as favourable to mental 
 culture as it had been in the days of Moses and 
 of David. The Contents of the Book may be 
 divided into five parts : 
 
 1. Chaps. 1, 2. A series of measured arraign- 
 ments against heathen nations, Judah, and 
 lastly Israel, for their sins, with denunciations 
 of punishment. 
 
 2. Chaps. 3-5.17. Samaria (a synonym for 
 the northern kingdom of Israel) ; its sins 
 exhibited in detail ; with the certain approach- 
 ing punishment. 
 
 3. Chaps. 5. 18-6. 14. Grounds of false security 
 exposed, and warnings of judgment reiterated. 
 
 4. Chaps. 7.1-9.10. A series of five visions, 
 showing in various ways the forbearance and 
 just judgments of God. A personal narrative 
 of great interest is introduced between the 
 third and fourth visions (7.10-17). 
 
 5. Chaps. 9.11-15. A conclusion, showing 
 how the nation shall be reinstated and prosperity 
 renewed. 
 
 These last intimations of future blessings 
 are quoted by the Apostle James (Acts 15.16, 17) 
 to show that the favour in reserve for the Jews 
 will be extended to all the nations of the earth. 
 
 The language and allusions in the book of 
 Amos suggest a familiarity with the books 
 of Moses. See 2.10 (Dent. 29.5); 4.6-10 
 (Deut. 4.30, 30.2); 4.11 (Deut. 29.23); 5.11 
 (D<*t. 28.30-39). 
 
 ' the N.T. the book La cited by Stephen 
 
 in his address to the Sanhedrin, and by James 
 in the Council of Jerusalem (Acts 7.42, 43, 
 15.16-18). In the former, the extension of 
 the phrase " beyond Damascus " to " beyond 
 Babylon " is very noticeable. In the latter, 
 the " residue of men " is from the LXX, the 
 Hebrew reading being, as in A.V. and R.V., 
 " the remnant of Edam" : " Man " and " Edom " 
 are alike in the Hebrew consonants. Which- 
 ever reading be adopted, the testimony of the 
 prophet to the universality of the Gospel is 
 very striking. Note also the coincidence 
 between 3.7 and Rev. 10.7, declaring the revela- 
 tion of the mystery of God to the prophets. 
 
 A'moz. Strong: father of the prophet Isaiah 
 (Isai. 1.1). 
 
 Amphi'polis. The encompassed city : a city 
 of Macedonia, through which Paul and Silas 
 passed on their way from Philippi to Thessa- 
 lonica (Acts 17.1). It received its name from 
 the fact that the river Strymon flowed almost 
 round the town. Its site is now occupied by a 
 village called Neochori, in Turkish, Jeni-Keni, 
 literally " new town." 
 
 Am'plias. Abbreviated form of Ampliatus 
 (so R.V.). A Roman Christian (Rom. 16.8). 
 The name Ampliatus was frequently held by 
 slaves. It is found in two prominent inscrip- 
 tions (one possibly of the first century) in the 
 Christian catacomb of St. Domitilla at Rome. 
 Does this mean honour done to a slave through 
 whom a great Roman house had been converted 
 to Christianity ? 
 
 Am 'ram. Exalted people : 1. A Levite, father 
 of Moses, Aaron, and Miriam (Ex. 6.18-20). 2. 
 Son of Dishon (1 Ch. 1.41). R.V. Hamram. 
 The name is given as Hemdan in Gen. 36.26. 3. 
 A son of Bani who had taken a foreign wife 
 during the exile (Ezra 10.34). 
 
 Am'ramites. The descendants of Amram 
 (Num. 3.27 ; 1 Ch. 26.23). 
 
 Amra'phel. A king of Shinar, or southern 
 Babylonia, who helped Chedorlaomer against 
 the kings of Sodom and Gomorrah (Gen. 14). 
 The name is in all probability identical with that 
 of Hammurabi, King of Babylon, 2100, or 
 1958, B.C., whose Code of Laws was discovered 
 engraved on a large monument at Susa in 
 1902. 
 
 Am'zi. 1. A Levite (1 Ch. 6.46). 2. A 
 priest named in Neh. 11.12. 
 
 A'nab. Grape-town : a town in the mountains 
 of Judah (Josh. 15.50), inhabited by Anakim 
 (Josh. 11.21). It is still called Anab, ten miles 
 south-west of Hebron. 
 
 A'nah. In Gen. 36 Anah is (1) daughter of 
 Zibeon the Hivite, ver. 2 ; (2) daughter of 
 Zibeon, ver. 14 ; (3) son of Seir the Horite and 
 brother of Zibeon, ver. 20 ; (4) son of Zibeon. 
 But in ver. 2 the R.V. marg. reads son. and if 
 Hivite is in error for Ilorite, (1), (2), and (4) are 
 easily reduced to one. And if the name is 
 tribal rather than personal, the sub-clan Anah 
 may be at once " son " of, i.e. derived from 
 the clan Zibeon, and yet brother of Zibeon, 
 inasmuch as both are descendants of Seir 
 
ANAHARATH] 
 
 23 
 
 [ANDREW 
 
 According to the A.V., ver. 24, Anah is noted as 
 the discoverer of some " mules " in the wilder- 
 ness : R.V. has the more likely rendering of an 
 unknown Hebrew word, " hot springs." If this 
 is right, the springs may be those of Callirhoe, 
 east of the Dead Sea, well known to the Greeks 
 and Romans, and resorted to by Herod the 
 Great in his last illness. 
 
 AnabYrath. A town in Issachar (Jos7i.19.19), 
 now En-Na'urah. 
 
 Anai'ah. Jehovah has answered : 1. A 
 Levite who stood on the right hand of Ezra 
 while he read the law to the people (Neh. 8.4). 
 2. A Jew who, with Nehemiah, sealed the 
 covenant (Neh. 10.22). 
 
 A'nak. [ANAKIM.] 
 
 A'nakim A race of giants, so called either 
 from their size or their strength (Deut. 2.10), 
 descended from Arba, one of the sons of Seth, 
 dwelling after the time of Abraham in the 
 southern part of Canaan, and particularly at 
 Hebron. They are variously called sons of 
 Anak (Num. 13.33), and sons of Anakim (Deut. 
 1.28). They struck terror into the hearts of 
 the Israelites by their warlike appearance 
 (Num. 13.28; Deut. 9.2), yet Joshua drove 
 them completely from Canaan, except such as 
 found refuge in the Philistine cities of Gaza, 
 Gath, and Ashdod (Josh. 11.21, 22), where 
 they lost their separate existence. Their chief 
 city, Hebron, became the possession of Caleb, 
 who drove from it the three sons, or rather 
 families or tribes, of Anak (Josh. 15.14 ; Judg. 
 1.20). 
 
 Ana'mim. Descendants of a tribe of Miz- 
 raim, i.e. Egypt (Gen. 10.13; 1 Ch. 1.11). Of 
 their geographical position nothing is known, 
 though they are supposed to have inhabited 
 the region lying between south-west Palestine 
 and Egypt. 
 
 Anam'melech. Anu is prince: a Babylonian 
 god whose worship among the Sepharvites was 
 transplanted to Israel along with that of 
 Adrammelech when Shalmaneser peopled the 
 cities of Samaria with the Sepharvites. This 
 deity was worshipped with rites similar to those 
 of Molech, children being sacrificed to him 
 (2 K. 17.31). 
 
 A'nan. An exile who, with Nehemiah, 
 signed the covenant (Neh. 10.26). 
 
 Ana'ni. My protector: son of Elioenai (1 Ch. 
 3.24). 
 
 Anani'ah. (?) Jehovahhas protected: 1. Grand- 
 father of a returned exile (Neh. 3.23). 2. A 
 place in which the Benjamites lived after their 
 return from captivity (Neh. 11.32), now Beit 
 Hannina. 
 
 Ananias. Jehovah is gracious : Greek form 
 of Hananiah. 1. High priest when Paul was 
 brought before the Sandedrin (Acts 23 and 24). 
 At the outbreak of the revolt in 66 A.D. he was 
 murdered by the rebels as a leader of the Roman 
 and pacific party, a terrible fulfilment of St. 
 Paul's prophecy, " God shall smite thee, thou 
 whited wall " (Acts 23.3). 2. A disciple whose 
 wife Sapphira conspired with him to hold back 
 
 part of the price of a possession, and offer the 
 other part to the apostles, as though it had been 
 the whole. Peter sternly rebuked them, and 
 on hearing his words first Ananias and then 
 Sapphira fell down dead (Acts 5). 3. A Chris- 
 tian Jew of Damascus (Acts 9), who was directed 
 in a vision to seek out Saul of Tarsus, just after 
 his conversion. The laying on of his hands 
 was followed by Saul's recovery of sight and 
 by his baptism. 
 
 A'nath. The father of Shamgar, who was 
 the third of the judges after Joshua (Judg. 3.31, 
 5.6). 
 
 Ana'thema. A Greek word, meaning " a 
 thing set up," for example, within a temple 
 as a votive offering to a god. (So in Lk. 
 21.5.) In the LXX the term is applied to 
 animals devoted to God, and therefore to be 
 slain (Lev. 27.28, 29) : hence, generally, 
 " devoted to death," " accursed " (Josh. 6.17, 
 7.12). In N.T. the A.V. has the word only in 
 1 Cor. 16.22 : R.V. retains the Greek term also 
 in Rom. 9.3 ; 1 Cor. 12.3 ; Gal. 1.8, 9 (A.V. 
 " accursed "). In Acts 23.14 the word is used 
 in the sense of " curse." 
 
 Ana'thoth. Responses : 1. A city of Ben- 
 jamin, two miles east of Gibeah, allotted to the 
 priests (Josh. 21.18 ; 1 Ch. 6.60). Abiathar 
 was banished to Anathoth after the failure of 
 his attempt to put Adonijah on the throne 
 (1 K. 2.26). This was the native place of 
 Abiezer, one of David's thirty captains (2 Sam. 
 23.27 ; 1 Ch. 11.28, 27.12), of Jehu, another 
 of the mighty men (1 Ch. 12.3), and of Jeremiah 
 (Jer. 1.1, 11.21, 29.27). It was reoccupied 
 after the return from the captivity. The city 
 has been identified with the modern 'Anata, 
 not far from Jerusalem, with its well-tilled 
 fields of grain, figs, and olives. There are the 
 remains of walls and strong foundations, and 
 the quarries still supply Jerusalem with build- 
 ing stone. 2. A son of Becher (1 Ch. 7.8). 
 3. One of the chiefs that signed the covenant 
 with Nehemiah (Neh. 10.19). 
 
 Anchor. The anchor was formerly cast from 
 the stern of the ship (Acts 27.29). In this 
 passage the reference may be to the four-fluked 
 anchor in common use in shallow water, or it 
 may mean four distinct anchors (but see SHIP). 
 Used symbolically, the word denotes whatever 
 sustains the soul in times of stress and strain. 
 The grace of hope has such an influence on the 
 believing heart, and is called its anchor (Heb. 
 6.19). The anchor was one of the earliest 
 symbols used in the Christian Church, and is 
 found on rings and on monuments. 
 
 An'drew. Manly : brother of Simon Peter, 
 and one of the twelve disciples. In the 
 Synoptic Gospels he is little more than a name* ' 
 Apart from the narratives of the call of the first 
 four disciples (Matt. 4 ; Mk. 1), and the lists of 
 the twelve apostles, the only other references 
 are Mk. 1.29, 13.3. In the Fourth Gospel he 
 appears as originally a disciple of John the 
 Baptist (John 1.41), who was one of the first 
 two to follow Jesus, and at once brought t<> 
 
ANDRONICUS] 
 
 24 
 
 [ANOINT 
 
 Him his brother Simon. Hence he has been 
 regarded as a type of missionaries. Other 
 references in John are 1.44, 6.8, 12.22. In the 
 Acts of the Apostles he is never mentioned 
 after the list in Acts 1. There is the greatest 
 obscurity as to his subsequent career, but all 
 traditions agree in assigning Patroe in Achaia 
 (Greece) as the place of his martyrdom. It is 
 said by old writers that he was bound, not nailed, 
 to the cross, in order to prolong his sufferings. 
 
 Androni'cus. Man conqueror: a Christian 
 at Rome, saluted by Paul (Rom. 16.7), together 
 with Junias. They are described as Paul's 
 " kinsmen," i.e. probably Jews, as " fellow- 
 prisoners," either in some unrecorded imprison- 
 ment or as captives of Christ, as " of note 
 among the apostles," and as " in Christ " be- 
 fore Paul himself. 
 
 A'nem. Double-fountain : a city of Issachar, 
 belonging to the Gershonites (1 Ch. 6.73). It 
 is probably the same as En-gannim (Josh. 21.29). 
 
 A'ner. 1. One of three Hebronite chiefs who 
 co-operated with Abraham in the pursuit of the 
 four invading kings (Gen. 14.13-24). 2. A city of 
 the half tribe of Manasseh, west of Jordan, 
 given to the Kohathites (1 Ch. 6.70;. It seems 
 to be the same place as Tanach ( Josh. 21.25). 
 
 Anetho'thite, The. The name given to 
 Abiezer, an inhabitant of Anathoth, of the tribe 
 of Benjamin (2 Sam. 23.27). Called also 
 ANETOTHITE and ANTOTHITE. 
 
 Angel. Messenger : a doctrine of angels as 
 the attendant " hosts " of God and the messengers 
 and ministers of His will runs all through the 
 Bible. The belief, at first simple, gradually 
 developed with the growth of Judaism, especially 
 after the Exile (see the Apocryphal books of 
 2 Esdras and Tobit). There is little that 
 is distinctive in the N.T. teaching concerning 
 angels : it reflects the main features of the O.T., 
 while discarding and warning against certain 
 features and tendencies of later and unscriptural 
 speculation. 
 
 1. Their Nature. Of this we are told little. 
 Generally they appear as men (Gen. 18 ; Acts 
 1.10), sometimes with accompaniment of glory 
 (Dan. 10.5,6 ; Lk. 24.4). The Seraphim of Isai. 
 6.2, and the Cherubim of Ezek. 1.6, have wings : 
 so too Gabriel (Dan. 9.21 : but see R.V. marg.), 
 and the angel of Rev. 14.6 (not 8.13, see II. V.). 
 In Heb. 1.14 they are ministering " spirits " 
 (cf. Mk. 12.25). 
 
 2. Their Functions. Primarily they are 
 messengers of God to men, to reveal Him, to 
 guide, guard, strengthen, warn, rebuke, chastise. 
 See the stories of Gen. 18, 19, 22, 28, 32 ; Judg. 
 2, 6, 13 ; 2 Sam. 24.16, 17 ; 2 K. 19.35 : and cf. 
 Ps. 34.7, 35.5, 6, 91.11. In the earlier references 
 the angel of Jehovah is hardly to be distinguished 
 from Jehovah Himself : it is He who speaks 
 (Gen. 22.16; Ex. 3.2-16; Judg. 13.18-22). 
 But there is also the conception of a great 
 multitude of angels (Gen. 28.12, 32.2), who in 
 later thought are represented as the hosts of 
 God, His court, council, army (Ps. 103.20, 21 ; 
 89.7 ; Isai. 6.2-5, etc. : cf. Lk. 2.13 ; Matt. 26.53 ; 
 
 Lk. 12.8, 9 ; Heb. 12.22 ; Rev. 5.11, etc.). They 
 are guardians not only of individuals but of 
 nations (Ex. 23.20 ; Dan. 10.13-20) : each Chris- 
 tian Church has its " angel," representing " the 
 Divine presence and the Divine power in the 
 Church : he is the Divine guarantee of the 
 vitality and effectiveness of the Church " (Ram- 
 say: see Rev. 2.1-8, etc.). One saying of our 
 Lord seems to endorse the belief that every indi- 
 vidual has his guardian angel in heaven, and to 
 declare that the care of children is committed to 
 those of highest rank among the councillors and 
 ministers of God (Matt. 18.10 : cf. Lk. 1.19). 
 
 It is in accord with all this that angels minister 
 to Jesus (Mk. 1.13 ; Lk. 22.43), are concerned for 
 the decorum of church assemblies (1 Cor. 11.14), 
 and for human salvation (Lk. 15.10; 1 Pet. 
 1.12) ; had part in the majestic revelation of 
 Sinai (Acts 7.53 ; Gal. 3.19 ; Heb. 2.2), and will 
 execute the Final Judgment (Matt. 13.41). 
 
 They are of differing rank. Two are specially 
 named Michael, one of the chief princes (Dan. 
 10.13), " the archangel " (Jude 9), and Gabriel 
 (Dan. 8.16 ; Lk. 1.19). In the Apocrypha other 
 names appear, especially Raphael and Uriel. 
 Grades of these heavenly beings are also referred 
 to in the terms of Eph. 1.21 ; Col. 1.16, 2.15, 
 and one main theme of Colossians is condemna- 
 tion of the speculative thought which would 
 interpose them between God and man, so depriv- 
 ing Christ, the one mediator, of the honour 
 which is His alone (Col. 1.14-20, 2.18, etc.). 
 
 Fallen angels are mysteriously referred to in 
 Jude 6 ; 2 Pet. 2.4 ; and in Rev. 12.9 Satan has 
 his army of angels. 
 
 Ani'am. Lamentation of the people : a son 
 of Shemidah (1 Ch. 7.19). 
 
 A'nim. Springs : a city in the mountains 
 of Judah (Josh. 15.50). Now called Ghuwein, 
 a place eleven miles south of Hebron. 
 
 An'ise. Occurs only in Matt. 23.23 : " Ye 
 pay tithe of mint and anise and cummin." 
 The R.V. marg. has " dill," a plant which 
 grows freely in Palestine, and of which the seeds 
 are largely used as condiments in cookery. It 
 is also used medicinally all over the east. It 
 must not be confused with aniseed, an en- 
 tirely different plant. 
 
 An'na. Grace : a prophetess at the time of 
 the birth of Jesus (Lk. 2.36). 
 
 An'nas. Gracious : the high - priest from 
 7-15 A.D. Although deposed, he retained an ex- 
 traordinary power : five of his sons, and also 
 his son-in-law, Caiaphas, held the office after 
 him; indeed, according to Lk. 3.2, he seems to 
 have exercised a co-ordinate authority with 
 Caiaphas (cf. Acts 4.6). In the Fourth Gospel 
 we are told that Jesus, after His arrest, was led 
 first to Annas (John 18.13 ; cf. ver. 24 A.V. and 
 R.V., and see the commentaries for discussion 
 of a difficult problem). 
 
 Anoint. The practice of anointing the body 
 by rubbing in oil or othor unguents was a 
 common one in the hot climate of Palestine, 
 a necessity for health, comfort, arid personal 
 appearance. Anointing the head with oil or 
 
ANT] 
 
 25 
 
 [ANTIOCH 
 
 ointment was a mark of respect sometimes paid 
 by a host to his guests (Ps. 23.5 ; Matt. 26.7 ; 
 Lk 7.46 ; John 11.2, 12.3). The discontinu- 
 ance of the practice was looked upon as a 
 sign of mourning or of disaster (Deut. 28.40 ; 
 Mic. 6.15). A method of paying respect to a 
 corpse was the anointing of it with oil (Matt. 
 26.12 ; AfJfc. 16.1 ; Lk. 23.56). [See EMBALM.] 
 Isaiah (21.5) refers to the custom of anointing 
 the shield with oil before the warrior went into 
 battle. The object was that the strokes which 
 fell upon it might glance aside. 
 
 Oil was employed in various religious observ- 
 ances. The Tabernacle was dedicated to God 
 with " oil of holy ointment." It was employed 
 at the consecration of Aaron and his sons to 
 the priesthood, and each succeeding high-priest 
 was anointed on assuming office (Lev. 16.32). 
 Saul, anointed to his kingly office by the express 
 command of God, and David, Solomon, Jehu, 
 and Joash are distinctly said to have been 
 anointed. David, indeed, was anointed three 
 times (1 Sam. 16.13 ; 2 Sam. 2.4, 5.3). The 
 phrase, "mine anointed," is used as the equiva- 
 lent of " my prophets " in Ps. 105.15 ; 1 Ch. 
 16.22. 
 
 From this practice of anointing with oil as 
 the symbol of consecration and equipment for 
 the service of God comes the Hebrew title 
 " Messiah," with its Greek equivalent CHBIST, 
 the anointed One, " prophet, priest, and king," 
 anointed with the Holy Ghost and with power 
 (Acts 10.38). The followers of Christ are also 
 spoken of as " anointed " by God (2 Cor. 1.21 ; 
 1 John 2.20, 27). [UNCTION.] 
 
 Ant. This insect is twice mentioned in the 
 Book of Proverbs, where it is held up as a model 
 of industry (6.6-8) and of wisdom (30.24, 25). 
 Arabs held the wisdom of the ant in such estima- 
 tion that they used to place one of these insects 
 in the hands of a newly-born infant, repeating 
 these words, " May the boy turn out clever and 
 skilful." 
 
 Antichrist. (i.e. a rival Christ, a counter- 
 Christ). The term occurs only in 1 John 2.18-22, 
 4.3 ; 2 John 7, where the " last hour " is marked 
 by the activity of false teachers, "deceivers," 
 who deny that " Jesus Christ is come in the 
 flesh." But the idea appears under various 
 forms : it is part of the general conception that 
 the reign of Messiah or Christ will be preceded 
 and heralded by a fierce and final outbreak of 
 the powers of evil (see Ezek. 38, 39 ; Dan. 7-9, 
 11, 12). The basis of the N.T. teaching may 
 be found in the words of Jesus recorded in 
 Matt. 24.5-24. Paul speaks of this last rally 
 of the forces of antagonism to Christ as the 
 " falling away " (apostasy), and personifies 
 them as 'the man of sin " (or, lawlessness), " the 
 son of perdition " (2 Thess. 2.3-12) : in 2 Cor. 
 6.15 he uses a term " Belial," applied in Jewish 
 literature to this same conception of " Anti- 
 christ" (cf. Jude; 2 Pet. 2, 3, and the "beast" 
 of Revelation, especially 13 and 17). It is from 
 these Scriptures that the general features of 
 the " apostasy " of the " Antichrist " must be 
 
 gathered. Two points are clear : (1) that Anti- 
 christ, though a personification, is not a person 
 (1 John 2.18, "many Antichrists," and note how 
 Paul interchanges " that which restraineth " 
 with "one that restraineth," 2 Thess. 2.6, 7, 
 R.V.) ; (2) that the triumph of Christ over Anti- 
 christ is certain. 
 
 An'tioch. There were two considerable cities 
 bearing this name (1) Antioch in Syria. No 
 city, after Jerusalem, is so intimately connected 
 with the early history of Christianity as Antiocb 
 in Syria. The Christians who were dispersed 
 from Jerusalem after the death of Stephen 
 preached the Gospel at Antioch. It was at 
 Antioch that St. Paul rebuked St. Peter for 
 conduct into which he had been betrayed 
 through the influence of emissaries from Jerusa- 
 lem (Gal 2.11, 12). 
 
 Here the first Gentile Church was founded 
 (Acts 11.20, 21); here the disciples of Jesus 
 Christ were first called Christians ; here St. 
 Paul exercised systematic ministerial work ; 
 from this city he started on his first missionary 
 journey, and thither he returned. So again, 
 after the Apostolic Council (the decrees of 
 which were specially addressed to the Gentile 
 converts at Antioch, Acts 15.23), he began 
 and ended his second missionary journey at 
 this place. This, too, was the starting-point of 
 the third missionary journey, which was brought 
 to a termination by the imprisonment at 
 Jerusalem and Csesarea. 
 
 This famous city of Antioch had been founded 
 in the year 300 B.C. Jews were settled in it 
 from the first in large numbers, were governed 
 by their own ethnarch, and allowed to have the 
 same political privileges which the Greeks 
 enjoyed. It is, of course, the Antioch of the 
 Roman period with which we are concerned in 
 the N.T. The citizens were noted for scurrilous 
 wit and the invention of nicknames. The 
 name of Christians was probably given to the 
 disciples of the Crucified One in scorn. In the 
 immediate neighbourhood of Antioch was 
 Daphne, the celebrated sanctuary of Apollo. 
 The modern Antakia is a shrunken and miserable 
 place. 
 
 (2) Antioch o! Pisidia is mentioned in Acts 
 13 and 14, and in 2 Tim. 3.11. All that now 
 remains are ruins, which, however, are consider- 
 able, including those of a temple, a theatre, 
 a church, and a fine aqueduct. St. Paul's 
 preaching in the synagogue of Antioch (Acts 
 13.14) led to the reception of the Gospel by a 
 great number of the Gentiles, which so incensed 
 the Jews that they stirred up opposition against 
 the Apostle, and drove him first to Iconium and 
 afterwards to Lystra. On his return from 
 Lystra St. Paul revisited Antioch for the purpose 
 of confirming converts in their faith. The 
 events happened when he was on his first mis- 
 sionary journey in company with St. Barnabas. 
 2 Tim. 3.10, 11 shows that Timothy was well 
 acquainted with the sufferings which the Apostle 
 had undergone during his first visit to the 
 Pisidian Antioch. 
 
ANTIOCHUS IL] 
 
 26 
 
 [APE 
 
 Anti'ochus n. The name of Antiochus does 
 not occur in the scriptures, but there are several 
 references to monarchs of that designation. 
 
 Antiochus IT. is one of the kings referred to 
 in Dan. 11.6 : " they shall join themselves 
 together." He was King of Syria, and had 
 been at war with the King of Egypt (Ptolemseus 
 Philadelphus). Peace was made in 250 B.C., 
 Ptolemy (" the king of the south ") gave his 
 daughter Berenice in marriage to Antiochus 
 (" the king of the north "), who set aside his 
 former wife Laodice. When Ptolemy died 
 (247 B.C.) Laodice and her children were re- 
 called to court. Thus Berenice was "not able 
 to retain her power," and Laodice poisoned 
 Antiochus (him " that supported her," i.e. 
 Berenice), and caused Berenice and her infant 
 to be put to death (Dan. 11.6). After the death 
 of Antiochus, Ptolemseus Euergetes, the 
 brother of Berenice (" out of a branch of her 
 root"), exacted vengeance for his sister's death 
 by an invasion of Syria, in which Laodice was 
 killed, her son driven for a time from the throne, 
 and the whole country plundered (Dan. 11.7-9). 
 Hostilities continued for -many years, and a 
 grandson of Antiochus threatened to overthrow 
 the power of Egypt (Dan. 11.9, 10). 
 
 Anti'ochus in., King of Syria, surnamed 
 the Great, was the grandson of Antiochus n. 
 He united himself with Philip in. of Macedon 
 for the purpose of conquering and dividing the 
 Egyptian dominions. Some factions of the 
 Jews espoused the same cause (Dan. 11.14). 
 But Antiochus and Philip were compelled 
 by troubles at home to desist from their 
 enterprise, and the King of Egypt made himself 
 master of Jerusalem and recovered the territory 
 he had lost. In 198 B.C. Antiochus reappeared 
 in the field, captured Scopas, and the remnant 
 of his forces which had taken refuge in Sidon 
 (Dan. 11.15). The Jews welcomed Antiochus 
 as their deliverer, and he stood " in the glorious 
 land which by his hand " was to be consumed 
 (Dan. 11.16). Later, Antiochus gave his daughter 
 Cleopatra in marriage to the King of Egypt 
 (Ptolemaeus Epiphanes) with the Phoenician 
 provinces for her dower, but she favoured the 
 interests of her husband rather than those of 
 her father. In 187 B.C. Antiochus attacked 
 a temple of Belus in Elymais, and was slain by 
 the people who rose in its defence. Thus he 
 stumbled and fell and was not found (Dan. 
 11.19). 
 
 As regards the Jews, Antiochus not only gave 
 them perfect liberty of worship, but he also 
 made handsome donations to the Temple, and 
 greatly favoured the priests. Appreciating 
 the fidelity of the Jews, he transported 2000 
 families of them from Mesopotamia to Lydia 
 and Phrygia to repress the tendency to revolt 
 which was manifested in these provinces. 
 
 Anti'ochus rv., EPIPHANES, King of Syria, 
 youngest son of the preceding. Seleucus, the 
 elder brother, was slain by Heliodorus, who 
 usurped the crown. Antiochus expelled the 
 latter, and himself obtained " the kingdom by 
 
 flatteries" (Dan. 11.21), to the exclusion of 
 the son of Seleucus, viz. Demetrius. Antiochus 
 waged four successful campaigns against Egypt, 
 and the complete conquest of the country was 
 prevented only by the interference of the Romans 
 (Dan. 11.24). Antiochus was profligate in his 
 expenditure, and the condition of Palestine 
 during his reign was turbulent. On his return 
 from his second Egyptian campaign (170 B.C.), 
 he made an assault upon Jerusalem, plundered 
 the Temple, and instituted a terrible massacre. 
 Two years afterwards he occupied the city and 
 fortified it. The Temple was desecrated, and 
 the observance of the law was forbidden. 
 An offering was made in the holy place to 
 Jupiter Olympus (Dan. 11.29, 30, 31). Mat- 
 tathias and his sons organised a resistance 
 (" holpen with a little help," Dan. 11.34), which 
 preserved inviolate the name and faith of Israel. 
 Meanwhile Antiochus turned his arms to the 
 East (Dan. 11.44). He attempted in vain to 
 plunder a rich temple of Nansea (perhaps 
 " the desire of women," Dan. 11.37), in 
 Elymais. At last he died in 164 B.C. ; he 
 came to his end, and there was none to help 
 him (Dan. 11.45). 
 
 Great prominence is given to the reign of 
 Antiochus iv. in the Book of Daniel. Regardless 
 himself of the gods of his fathers (Dan. 11.37), 
 he was incapable of appreciating the power 
 of religion in others ; and he became a type 
 of the enemy of God (Dan. 11.36, 37). By the 
 Jews he was regarded as a type of Antichrist, 
 the union of power with the defiance of every- 
 thing that was Divine. 
 
 An'tipas. 1. An abbreviation of Antipater, a 
 martyr of Pergamos (Rev. 2.13). Nothing 
 further is known of Antipas, but tradition (Ada 
 Sanctorum) says he was cast into a fire within 
 the body of a brazen bull. 2. See HEBOD. 
 
 Anti'patris. A town forty-two miles from 
 Jerusalem and twenty -six from Csesarea, on an old 
 military road between these places. Here Paul 
 was brought by the soldiers (Acts 23.31) when 
 Claudius Lysias sent him to the governor at 
 Ceesarea. The town was built by Herod the Great, 
 who called it Antipatris in honour of his father 
 Antipater. It is identified with a mound crowned 
 with the ruins of a mediaeval castle, which rises 
 above the great springs of Ras el Ain. Anti- 
 patris was built by the Romans on the site 
 of an older town named Capharsaba, a name 
 which has clung to the neighbourhood, and 
 which has been the means of the identification 
 of the site, for the Roman city had been utterly 
 wiped out. 
 
 Antothi'jah (R.V. Anthothijah). Son of 
 Shashak (1 Ch. 8.24). 
 
 Anto'thite, The. [ANETHOTHITE.] 
 
 A 'nub. A descendant of Judah (1 Ch. 4.8). 
 
 Ape. " Once in three years came the navy 
 of Tharshish (Tarsus), bringing gold and silver, 
 ivory, and apes and peacocks" (1 K. 10.22; 
 2 Ch. 9.21). Various kinds of apes and monkeys 
 are depicted upon the Assyrian monuments, 
 and they were freely imported into Egypt. 
 
APELLES] 
 
 27 
 
 [APOSTLE 
 
 The association of apes with peacocks and 
 elephants' tusks suggests that these ships of 
 Tharshish came from or visited India and Ceylon. 
 [TABSHISH.] 
 
 Apel'les. A disciple at Home, to whom 
 Paul sends salutation (Rom. 16.10). 
 
 Aphar'sachites, Aphar'sathchites, Aphar- 
 sites. Names of unknown Assyrian tribes (Ezra 
 4.9, 5.6, 6.6). 
 
 A 'phek. Fortress : 1. A royal city of the 
 Canaanites, the king of which was slain by 
 Joshua (Josh. 12.18). It was assigned to 
 Issachar. 2. A city, apparently in the extreme 
 north of Asher, on the borders of the Amorites 
 (Josh. 19.30), from which the Canaanites were 
 not ejected. 3. A place at which the Philistines 
 encamped, while the Israelites pitched in 
 Ebenezer, before the fatal battle in which the 
 sons of Eli were killed, and the ark taken 
 (1 Sam. 4.1 ). It was near Jerusalem in a north- 
 west direction. 4. The scene of a battle wherein 
 Saul was defeated and slain (1 (Sam. 29.1). 5. A 
 city on the military road from Syria to Israel 
 (1 K. 20.26) This is identified with the modern 
 Fik, at the head of the Wady Fik, six miles east 
 of the Sea of Galilee, the great road between 
 Damascus and Jerusalem still passing through 
 the village. It was the scene of Benhadad's 
 defeat (1 K. 20.30), and of many other battles. 
 
 Aphe'kah. Fortress : a city in the hill- 
 country of Judah (Josh. 15.53). Probably the 
 same as Aphek (1). 
 
 Aph'iah. Renewed : one of Saul's ancestors 
 (1 Sam. 9.1). 
 
 Aph'ik. Fortress : a city of Asher in the 
 north of Canaan. The Canaanites kept 
 possession of this stronghold (Judg. 1.31). 
 Probably the same place as Aphek 2. 
 
 Aph'rah. " The house of Aphrah " ; appar- 
 ently a city of the Philistines (Mic. 1.10). R.V. 
 translates, " at Beth-le Aphrah." 
 
 Aph'ses. A Levite (1 Ch. 24.15). 
 
 Apocalypse. [REVELATION.] 
 
 Apocrypha. [NON-CANONICAL BOOKS.] 
 
 Apollon'ia. A city in the south of Macedonia, 
 through which Paul and Silas passed on their way 
 from Philippi and Amphipolis to Thessalonica 
 (Acts 17.1). Its exact site has not been ascer- 
 tained, though it lay to the east of Thessalonica. 
 There is some reason to think that the present 
 Pollina is the same place. It must not be 
 confounded with Apollonia in Illyria. 
 
 Apol'los. An eloquent Jew from Alexandria, 
 who came to Ephesus during the absence of 
 St. Paul, and was there more perfectly taught 
 in Christian doctrine by Aquila and Priscilla. 
 At their suggestion he went to Corinth, where 
 his work was very successful, especially in 
 controversy with the Jews (Acts 18.24-28). 
 When Paul wrote his first letter to Corinth 
 the Church there was split up into rival factions ; 
 there was an Apollos party in opposition to 
 others which arrogated to themselves the 
 names of Paul and Cephas and Christ (1 Cor. 
 1.12; 3.4-6, 22; 4.6). That ApoMos himself had 
 no responsibility for the schism is clear from 
 
 Paul's confidence in him expressed in 1 Cor. 16.12. 
 Apart from the reference at Tit. 3.13 nothing 
 further is known of him. The conjecture of 
 Luther that Apollos was the author of the 
 Epistle to the Hebrews has gained considerable 
 acceptance. 
 
 Apollyon. [ABADDON.] 
 
 Apostle. The word means more than 
 " messenger " : literally, " one sent forth," it 
 carries the idea of representation of the sender. 
 The apostle is an envoy, delegate, ambassador. 
 
 I. In the Gospels. St. Luke tells us that the 
 name was given to the Twelve by our Lord 
 (6.13), and he uses it of the disciples in four 
 other passages (9.10, 17.5, 22.14, 24.10 ; 
 11.49 is of doubtful interpretation). In each 
 of the other Gospels the term occurs once only 
 (Matt. 10.2; Mk. 6.30; John 13.16, R.V. marg.); 
 in Acts and the Epistles, especially those 
 of St. Paul, it is frequent. The reason is 
 plain : Jesus called " disciples," learners, 
 called them to close personal fellowship and 
 gradual training, but always with the purpose 
 of sending them forth as His representatives. 
 It follows that the essential ideas of apostleship 
 are to be traced in all His dealings with the 
 Twelve, though the name properly belongs to a 
 context in which the disciple is commissioned 
 and sent forth, whether on temporary service 
 during the life of Christ, or to carry on His 
 work after His death. The whole conception 
 is expressed with truth of insight and precision 
 of phrase when St. Mark records that " He 
 calleth unto Him whom He Himself would. 
 . . . And He appointed twelve, that they 
 might be with Him, and that He might send 
 them forth to preach" (Mk. 3.13, 14, R.V.). The 
 name apostle, though not used here, is implied 
 in the term " send forth " (Greek, apostello). 
 
 A primary study of the significance of an 
 '* Apostle," based on the Gospels, must,' then, 
 gather round these three points of call, training, 
 commission. It must suffice here to indicate 
 some features of each as they are presented 
 in the simple and primitive record of St. Mark's 
 Gospel. 
 
 1. The Call The first act of our Lord's 
 public ministry is the call of Simon and Andrew, 
 James and John, to personal companionship, 
 that He may make them " fishers of men " 
 (Mk. 1.16-20). A summons of strange 
 authority is met with instant response : these 
 features appear in the subsequent call of Levi 
 (2.14), and even in the appointment of the 
 Twelve (3.13-19). It is not a case of gradual 
 adhesion to a new teaching and a new Teacher : 
 Jesus Himself, for the purposes of His mission, 
 takes the initiative. 
 
 2. The Training. In the earlier portion of 
 the Gospel the disciples are witnesses and 
 companions of the public ministry, but there 
 is only incidental mention of direct instruction 
 from their Master (4.10-25, 35-41, 6.7-U, 31, 
 47-52, 8.14-21). Such fellowship with 
 Jesus, however, enabled Peter as spokes- 
 man for all, to make the great confession 
 
APOTHECARY] 
 
 28 
 
 [APPII FORUM 
 
 " Thou art the Christ " (8.29), a confession 
 met by Christ's prediction of His Passion, 
 thrice repeated (8.31, 9.31, 10.33), and His 
 searching lessons on renunciation, humility, 
 and service. The impression derived from 
 St. Mark is that from the time of this crisis 
 of the Galilsean ministry, and the withdrawal 
 from Galilee which soon followed it, Jesus 
 devoted Himself more and more to the 
 instruction and training of the Twelve. This 
 conclusion is borne out, with much additional 
 detail, by St. Matthew and St. Luke, and is 
 confirmed by the wonderful discourse of 
 John 13-17. 
 
 3. The Commission. The temporary mis- 
 sion recorded in Mk. 6.7-13, though not, so 
 far as we know, repeated, may be regarded as 
 typical. Stress is laid upon simplicity of outfit, 
 such as befits concentration upon an urgent 
 task, and implies confidence in their sender : it 
 is this confidence which is emphasised also in the 
 larger discourse of Matt. 10. (cf. the mission of 
 the seventy, Lk. 10.1-24). They are invested 
 with authority by Jesus, and on their return 
 teport to Him all that they had done and 
 taught. 
 
 II. In the Acts and Epistles. The supreme 
 authority of the apostles in the early Church 
 is indicated in Acts 1.1-11, and appears all 
 through the narrative. By the choice of 
 Matthias in place of Judas the circle of the 
 Twelve was made complete. One chief interest of 
 this incident is the statement of essential require- 
 ments for apostolic office companionship with 
 Jesus from baptism to ascension, and therefore 
 competence to be a witness of His resurrection 
 (Acts 1.21, 22). But under the demands of the 
 expanding Church, and the free impartation 
 of the Holy Spirit, the limitations of apostle- 
 ship to the Twelve broke down. By the act of 
 the Church at Antioch (Acts 13.1-3), Barnabas 
 and Saul were constituted apostles : the name 
 is accorded them at 14.4, 14. Paul not only 
 consistently claims the title for himself (Rom. 
 1.1; 1 Cor. 1.1 ; 2 Cor. 1.1, etc. ; 1 Cor. 9.1 ; 2 Cor. 
 11.5; Gal. 1.1, etc.), but associates Barnabas 
 with him (Gal. 2.9 ; 2 Cor. 9.5, 6). It is probable 
 that he means to use the term of James the 
 Lord's brother (1 Cor. 9.5, 15.7; Gal. 1.19), 
 of Silvanus (1 Thess. 2.6), and even of Chris- 
 tians so little known to history as Andronicus and 
 Junias (Rom. 16.7, K.V.). But this extension 
 of the Apostolic circle was limited by one 
 essential condition : an apostle must have seen 
 the Lord (1 Cor. 9.1), i.e. be able to testify at 
 first hand to the object of the Church's faith, 
 the risen Christ (1 Cor. 15.8). In addition to 
 this there must be the clear consciousness of the 
 Divine call and appointment (Rom. 1.1 ; 1 Cor. 
 
 1.1, etc.)., and, accompanying the ministry, 
 the " signs of an apostle " (2 Cor. 12.12 ; 1 Cor. 
 
 9.2, etc.). It is in virtue of these combined 
 qualifications that apostles stand first in 
 the order of God's gifts to His Church (1 Cor. 
 12.28; Eph. 4.11). They held a relation to 
 Jesus Christ which made them the depositaries 
 
 and authoritative exponents of His word (2 Pet. 
 3.2, and repeatedly in early Church writers : 
 cf. Eph. 2. 20 ; Rev. 21.14). In accordance with 
 this, the test of " apostolicity " was afterwards 
 applied to the writings which were finally 
 gathered into the N.T. Canon. 
 
 Apothecary. The Hebrew word does not refer 
 to the preparation of medicines, but of perfumes ; 
 hence R.V. substitutes " perfumer " in Ex. 
 30.25, 35, 37.29 ; Eccles. 10.1, while retaining 
 " apothecary " in 2 Ch. 16.14 ; Neh. 3.8 (marg. 
 " perfumer "). In this last passage " son of 
 the apothecaries " means that Hananiah was 
 member of a trade-guild, a point missed by 
 both A.V. and R.V. 
 
 Appa'im. The nostrils : son of Nadab (1 Ch. 
 2.30, 31). 
 
 Appeal. 1. In the O.T. There was no 
 formal legal procedure in the patriarchal age. 
 The head of the family was the final and ab- 
 solute authority in all matters. During the 
 time of the bondage the " elders of Israel " were 
 the recognised authorities for the settlement 
 of all disputes. The simple legal methods of 
 these are noted in Deut. 17 and 19. In the time 
 of the judges the final appeal lay to the judge, 
 and under the monarchy to the king. Jeshosha- 
 phat relegated his judicial authority to a court 
 permanently established for the purpose, and 
 presided over by the high-priest for all matters 
 spiritual, and by " the ruler of the house of 
 Judah " for matters temporal (2 Ch. 19.8-11). 
 After the institution of the Sanhedrin the firal 
 appeal lay to them. But the O.T. shows no 
 provision for appeal in the sense of revision by a 
 higher tribunal of the judgment of a lower. 
 
 2. In the N.T.A Roman citizen had a 
 right of appealing in criminal cases from the 
 decision of a magistrate or provincial 
 governor to the supreme tribunal, the Em- 
 peror. The governor might disallow the 
 appeal, but only at his peril. St. Paul, as a 
 Roman citizen, exercised the right of appeal 
 from the jurisdiction of the local court at Jeru- 
 salem (whether the Sanhedrin in the presence 
 of Festus, or a Roman tribunal removed for 
 convenience from Caesarea, is not quite certain), 
 to the Emperor ( Acts 25.9-12). 
 
 Ap'phia. A Christian woman to whom, 
 jointly with Philemon and Archippus, Paul 
 addressed the Epistle to Philemon. It seems 
 certain that she was a member of Philemon's 
 household, and the probability is she was the 
 wife of Philemon himself, and the mother of 
 Archippus (Philem. 2). 
 
 Ap'pii For'um (R.V. The Market of Appius): a 
 well-known station, forty- three miles from Rome, 
 on the Appian Way, the great road from Rome 
 to the Bay of Naples. St. Paul having landed 
 at Puteoli, on his arrival from Malta (Acts 28), 
 proceeded under the charge of the centurion 
 along the Appian Way towards Rome, and 
 found at Appii Forum a group of Christians who 
 had come to greet him. The site is near 
 Trefonti, where the forty-third milestone is still 
 in position. 
 
APPLE, APPLE TKEE] 
 
 29 
 
 [ARABIA 
 
 Apple, Apple Tree. The apple is mentioned 
 in several passages of Scripture (Prov. 25.11 ; 
 Song 2.3-5, 7.8, 8.5; Joel 1.12); but it is 
 doubtful whether it is our apple which is there 
 referred to, for that is not a native of Syria. 
 Authorities are divided between apple, citron 
 or orange, quince and apricot. Canon Tristram 
 maintained that there is only one fruit which 
 meets all the requirements of the above passages, 
 and that is the apricot, which is abundant in 
 the Holy Land. The tree groAvs to a height of 
 thirty feet, bearing fruit of a delicious perfume. 
 " What can better fit the imagery of Solomon, 
 ' apples of gold in pictures of silver,' than this 
 golden fruit, as its branches bend under the 
 weight of their crop, in its setting of bright yet 
 pale foliage ? " 
 
 Apple of the Eye. This expression occurs 
 in Deut. 32.10; Ps. 17.8; Prov. 7.2; Lam. 
 2.18 ; Zech. 2.8. The Hebrew word translated 
 " apple " literally means " little man," with 
 the same force as the word " pupil." 
 
 A'quila. Eagle: a Jew who, with Priscilla, his 
 wife, had left Rome under the edict of Claudius. 
 St. Paul found them at Corinth on his first visit, 
 and worked with them at Cilician hair-cloth and 
 tent-making. On St. Paul's departure eighteen 
 months later they accompanied him to Ephesus, 
 and were left by him there while he went on to 
 Syria. At Ephesus they took in hand the further 
 instruction in doctrine of Apollos, who had al- 
 ready been "instructed in the way of the Lord," 
 but imperfectly (Acts 18.24-26). The earnestness 
 of their Christian profession is shown by the 
 fact that both at Ephesus and at Rome it was 
 usual for Christians to meet at their house for 
 worship (1 Cor. 16.19; Rom. 16.5), and they 
 are described by Paul in the salutation in 
 Romans as having " laid down their own necks " 
 for his life, a reference to their loyal care of the 
 Apostle during times of tumult and danger 
 (Rom. 16.4). 
 
 Ar. City : the chief city of the Moabites, 
 on a low hill a few miles east of the Dead Sea 
 (Num. 21.28). The site is now called Rabba, 
 between Kerek and Wady Mojib, ten or eleven 
 miles from each,the Roman road passing through 
 it. In the books of Moses, Ar sometimes appears 
 to designate the whole nation of Moab. The 
 Rabbah (capital) of the Scriptures Ls always 
 Rabbah of the Ammonites. 
 
 Ara. Strong : see 1 Ch. 7.38. 
 
 Arab. Ambush : a city in the hill country 
 of Judah, east of Hebron (Josh. 15.52). 
 
 Ara'bah. The plain, the wilderness : the deep 
 sunken valley which forms the most striking 
 natural feature of Palestine, and extends, on 
 both sides of the Jordan, from beyond the Sea of 
 Galilee on the north, down beyond the Dead 
 Sea to the Elanitic Gulf of the Red Sea, one of 
 the most remarkable depressions on the surface 
 of the globe. The southern province of this 
 irregular valley that, namely, south of the Dead 
 Sea still bears the name of Arabah, and possesses 
 a peculiar interest as the scene of the wanderings 
 of the children of Irsael after their repulse from 
 
 the south of the Promised Land. Itis for the most 
 part a region of appalling desolation, stripped 
 of every particle of vegetation by the scorching 
 heat : " a dry land and a wilderness, a land 
 wherein no man dwelleth, neither doth any son 
 of man pass thereby " (Jer. 51.43). The A.V. 
 has the word only in Josh. 18.18, the R.V. 
 also in DeuL 1.1, 2.8, 3.17, 4.49, 11.30 ; Josh. 
 3.16, 8.14, 11.2, 16, 12.1, 3, 8 ; 2 -Sam. 2.29, 
 4.7 ; 2 K. 14.25, 25.4 ; Jer. 39.4, 52.7). 
 
 Ara'bia. Wilderness : the first mention of 
 this country in the Scriptures represents 
 Solomon as receiving gold from " all the kings of 
 Arabia " (1 K. 10.15 ; 2 Ch. 9.14). Jehoshaphat 
 received 7700 rams and 7700 he-goats from the 
 Arabians (2 Ch. 17.11). These wild warriors 
 came up against Judah in the days of Jehoram, 
 plundered his house, and carried away his wives 
 and his sons ; but they were defeated by 
 Uzziah (2 Ch. 26.7). Arabia and the princes of 
 Kedar traded with Tyre, and some of its inhabit- 
 ants were among the hearers of the Apostles on 
 the day of Pentecost (Acts 2.11). Paul, after 
 his conversion, retired into Arabia (Gal. 1.17), 
 which probably implied the wilderness near 
 Damascus, then included in Arabia. In Gal. 
 4.25 the reference is to the Sinaitic peninsula. 
 
 The designation Arabia, as used in the 
 Scriptures, generally applies to Arabia Petraea, 
 consisting of Sinai, Idumea, and the region of 
 Mount Seir. The country is sometimes referred 
 to as " the East " (Gen. 10.30, 25.6, 29.1). The 
 oldest inhabitants were called Horim or Horites, 
 because of their living in holes or caves; but 
 they were supplanted by the Edomites, the 
 Ishmaelites, and the Amalekites. The principal 
 tribes in Arabia Petraea mentioned in the Bible 
 were the Amalekites, Edomites, Horites, Ishmael- 
 ites, Midianites, Moabites, and Ammonites. 
 
 The inhabitants of Northern Arabia or 
 the Arabian desert (west and north of Arabia 
 Potrsea) claim descent from Ishmael and 
 Keturah. Their predatory habits are several 
 times mentioned in the O.T. (2 Ch. 21.16, 
 26.7 ; Job 1.15 ; Jer. 3.2). They conducted 
 a considerable trade in merchandise of Arabia 
 and India from the shores of the Persian Gulf 
 (Ezek. 27.20-24), whence a chain of oases 
 in the desert still forms caravan-stations. 
 Western Arabia, which includes the peninsula of 
 Sinai, was peopled by descendants of Esau, and 
 was generally known as the land of Edom or 
 Idumaea, as well as by its older name, the desert 
 of Seir or Mount Seir. The common origin of the 
 Idumaeans from Esau and Ishmael is traced to 
 the marriage of the former to a daughter of the 
 latter (Gen. 28.9, 36.3). The chief state of 
 ancient Arabia was that of the Yemen, in the 
 south-west corner of the peninsula. This was 
 the Biblical realm of Sheba, whose queen came 
 to hear the wisdom of Solomon (1 K. 10). The 
 Arabs call her Bilkis. Another important 
 kingdom was that of the Hija, which lay upon 
 the upper portion of the Red Sea littoral, and 
 of which Mudad (or El-Mudad) was one of the 
 famous rulers. Ishmael, according to the Arabs, 
 
ARABIAN] 
 
 30 
 
 [ARARAT 
 
 married a daughter of the first Mudad, whence 
 sprang Adnan, the ancestor of Mahomet. The 
 modern Arabians assert that their nation is pre- 
 dominatingly Ishmaelite. The tribes claiming 
 descent frcra the cast-off son of Abraham have 
 always been governed by petty chiefs or heads 
 of families (sheikhs and emirs), and have 
 generally followed the patriarchal life. 
 
 " No one," says the late Edward Stanley 
 Poole, " can mix with this people without 
 being constantly and forcibly reminded either 
 of the early patriarchs or of the settled Israelites. 
 We may instance their pastoral life, their 
 hospitality, their universal respect for age (Lev. 
 19.32), their familiar deference (2 K. 5.13), their 
 superstitious regard for the beard. On the signet- 
 ring, which is worn on the little finger of the 
 right hand, is usually inscribed a sentence of 
 submission to God, or of His perfection, ex- 
 plaining Ex. 39.30 (R.V.) : 4 the engravings of a 
 signet, holy to the Lord,' and the saying of 
 Christ (.7oAn3.33, R.V.), ' He hath set his seal to 
 this, that God is true.' " As a mark of trust this 
 ring is given to another person (as in Gen. 
 41.42). The inkhorn worn in the girdle is also 
 very ancient (Ezek. 9.2), as well as the veil. A 
 man has a right to claim his cousin in marriage, 
 and he relinquishes this right by taking off his 
 shoe, as the kinsman of Ruth did to Boaz (Ruth 
 4.7-8). 
 
 The spices, incense, and precious stones men- 
 tioned in the Scriptures as having been brought 
 from Arabia were probably the products of the 
 southern provinces, which are still celebrated 
 for these productions. 
 
 Christianity was introduced into Southern 
 Arabia towards the close of the second century, 
 and about a century later it had made great 
 progress. It flourished chiefly in the Yemen, 
 where many churches were built, but the pro- 
 mulgation of the Mohammedan religion, while 
 it overthrew paganism, also extinguished 
 Christianity in the country. 
 
 Arabian. [ARABIA.] 
 
 A'rad. Fugitive : 1. A royal city of the 
 Canaanites (Josh. 12.14), whose king unsuccess- 
 fully attacked the Israelites near Mount Hor 
 (Num. 21 and 33.40, R.V. The A.V. has 
 wrongly " King Arad "). The site has been 
 identified with a hill, Tell 'Arad, sixteen miles 
 south of Hebron. 2. See 1 Ch. 8.15. 
 
 A'rah. Wayfarer : 1. A son of Ulla (1 Ch. 
 7.39). 2. The family of Arah returned with 
 Zerubbabel from exile (Ezra. 2.5 ; Neh. 7.10). 
 One of his descendants became the wife of 
 Tobiah, the Ammonite, who attempted to hinder 
 Nehemiah in the rebuilding of Jerusalem (Neh. 
 6.18). 
 
 A'ram. (?) Lifted up, exalted: the country 
 lying to the north-north-east of Palestine, a 
 high pasture tableland 2000 feet above the 
 Mediterranean. It extended from Lebanon, 
 Phoenicia, and the Mediterranean to the Euph- 
 rates (Num. 23.7 ; 1 Ch. 2.23). Roughly speak- 
 ing, it included Mesopotamia and the land we 
 know as Syria (see STHIA), without Palestine. 
 
 [It must be remembered that the Syria of the 
 Bible and the modern Syria are not quite 
 identical.] 
 
 The country was peopled by Aram, the fifth 
 son of Shem, whose descendants colonised the 
 fertile country north of Babylonia called 
 Aram-Naharaim, or Aram between the two 
 rivers, the Euphrates and the Tigris, the country 
 being afterwards called Mesopotamia by the 
 Greeks, and by the Hebrews Padan-Aram 
 (Gen. 25.20, 28.2, which see). In Scripture Aram 
 is generally rendered " Syria." 
 
 The highland is part of the lofty and ex- 
 tensive chain of mountains known as Lebanon, 
 and including Mounts Hermon and Hor. The 
 Orontes, Abana, and Pharpar are its chief rivers. 
 
 During the period of O.T. history Aram 
 was divided into several petty kingdoms, varying 
 from time to time in extent and power. Syria 
 of Damascus, Zobah, Hamath, Aram-Naharaim, 
 Padan-Aram, Maachah, Beth-Rehob, and 
 Geshur were the chief of these. In the time 
 of David, Zobah was the most powerful of these 
 states, but later the sovereign authority was 
 transferred to Damascus (1 K. 11.24 ; Isai. 7.8). 
 It was afterwards reduced by Joab to sub- 
 mission to the Jewish monarchy. Solomon lost 
 Damascus (see DAMASCUS), and Rehoboam the 
 remainder of the country. 
 
 In the early days of its history the Hittites 
 inhabited the northern part of Aram (see 
 HITTITES). It was the home of Balaam (Num. 
 23.7). [See SYRIA and the Aram compounds.] 
 
 2. Son of Shem (Gen. 10.22, 23 ; 1 Ch. 1.17). 
 
 3. Son of Kemuel (Gen. 22.21). 
 
 4. An ancestor of Jesus (1 Ch. 7.37; Mall. 
 1.3, 4 ; Lk. 3.33). But see R.V. 
 
 Aramaic. The language of the people of 
 Aram. It spread far and wide ; influenced 
 Hebrew ; and in the time of our Lord was the 
 popular language of Palestine. The conquests 
 of the Arabs destroyed the position held by 
 Aramaic. 
 
 Arami'tess. A female inhabitant of Aram, 
 i.e. a Syrian woman (1 Ch. 7.14). 
 
 A'ram-nahara'im. A ram of the two rivers : 
 see the title of Ps. 60. The northern portion 
 of Syria between the Euphrates and the Tigris, 
 also called Mesopotamia and Syria (Gen. 24.10 ; 
 Deut. 23.4 ; Judg. 3.8 ; 1 Ch. 19.6). 
 
 A'ram-zo'bah. An Aramaean state comprising 
 the land between the Orontes and the Euphrates, 
 north-east of Damascus and south of Hamath 
 (Ps. 60, title). It is also called Zobah. 
 
 A 'ran. Wild goat : a descendant of Seir the 
 Horite (Gen. 36.28 ; 1 Ch. 1.42). 
 
 A'rar at. A mountainous district in Armenia, 
 mentioned in Scripture as the resting-place of 
 the ark after the flood (Gen. 8.4), as the asylum 
 of the sons of Sennacherib (2 K. 19.37 ; Isai. 
 37.38, R.V.), and as the ally, and probably the 
 neighbour, of Minni and Ashchenaz ( Jer. 51.27). 
 The Armenian plateau was well adapted to 
 be the cradle of the human race, the centre 
 from which men might start out for the various 
 quarters of the world. 
 
ARAUNAH] 
 
 31 
 
 [ARCHITECTURE 
 
 The particular mountain which has been 
 identified as that on which the ark rested, 
 though called Ararat by European explorers, 
 is known as Massis by the Armenians, Aghri- 
 Dagh, i.e. Steep Mountain, by the Turks, and 
 Kuh-i-Nuh,or Noah's Mountain, by the Persians. 
 It terminates in two conical peaks, named 
 the Great and Less Ararat, about seven miles 
 distant from each other, the former 17,260 feet 
 above sea level, and the latter 14,000 above 
 the plain of the Arapes. The higher peak 
 was ascended in 1829 by Parrot, who describes a 
 secondary summit about 400 yards distant from 
 the highest point, and on the gentle depression 
 which connects the two eminences he surmises 
 that the ark rested. Argur (the only village 
 known to have been built on its slopes), which 
 was buried beneath the de'bris brought down 
 from the upper heights by a violent earthquake, 
 was the spot where, according to tradition, 
 Noah planted his vineyard. Lower down, 
 in the plain of Araxes, is Nachitjevan, where 
 the patriarch is reputed to have been buried. 
 
 Arau'nah. A Jebusite from whom David 
 purchased the site of an altar to the Lord 
 (2 Sam. 24.18-24 ; 1 Ch. 21.25). 
 
 Arba. Four : the progenitor of the sons of 
 Anak, from whom Hebron received its name 
 of Kirjath-arba (Gen. 35.27 ; Josh. 14.15, etc.). 
 
 Arbath'ite. A native of Arabah (2 Sam. 
 23.31 ; 1 Ch. 11.32). 
 
 Ar'bite. A native of Arab, a city of Judah. 
 Paarai the Arbite was one of David's guard 
 (2 Sam. 23.35). In 1 Ch. 11.37 the name is 
 given as Naarai, the son of Ezbai. [See EZBAI.] 
 
 Archangel. Chief angel: 2Thess. 4.16; Jude 
 9. [ANGEL.] 
 
 Archela'us. Leader of the people : son of 
 Herod the Great and Matthaka, to whom Herod 
 bequeathed the largest share of his kingdom 
 (Judaea, Idumoea, and Samaria), with the title 
 of king. The only mention of him in the 
 N.T. is significant. When Joseph, the husband 
 of Mary, " heard that Archelaus did reign 
 in Judaea in the room of his father Herod, he 
 was afraid to go thither " with the child Jesus 
 (Matt. 2.22). From the beginning the govern- 
 ment of Archelaus had been stained by bloodshed 
 and cruelty. Not long after his father's death 
 3000 Jews had been slain in the Temple by a 
 cohort of Roman soldiers sent by Archelaus 
 to quell a tumult. An influential embassy of Jews 
 prayed the Emperor Augustus to depose 
 Archelaus, and attach them to the government 
 of Syria, but Augustus refused, though permit- 
 ting only the title ethnarch instead of king, 
 and Archelaus ruled for ten years, 4 B.C. to 
 6 A.D. Then a second deputation went to 
 Rome with complaints of Archelaus' cruelty. 
 This time their evidence was overwhelming. 
 Augustus confronted the Governor with his 
 accusers, and finally banished him to Vienne 
 in Gaul, where he died. 
 
 Archer. Archers were employed both in 
 the hunting field and in the army (Gen. 21.16, 
 27.3 ; Jtr. 51.3). In battle they delivered the 
 
 first attack and then retired more to the rear, 
 from whence they harassed the enemy by 
 firing over the heads of their comrades engaged 
 in the front ranks. Their arrows were short 
 or long, according to the service they were 
 employed in, and the bows were made of wood 
 or steel (Ps. 18.34). The bowstring was of 
 leather, horsehair, or catgut. The point of the 
 arrow was sometimes barbed, that it might 
 rankle and inflame the wound. 
 
 The archers that sorely grieved Joseph, and 
 shot at him, were his enemies, who with arrows 
 of false accusation, bitter words, and murderous 
 attempts, sought to destroy him (Gen. 49.23). 
 The archers of God that encompassed Job were 
 afflictions, pains, and terrors, sent by God ; 
 which, like sharp poisoned arrows, wounded 
 and vexed his soul (Job 6.4, 16.13). [See 
 ARROWS, Bows, ARMOUR, etc. ] 
 
 Ar'chevites. The inhabitants of Erech, 
 in Chaldea, who were removed to Samaria to 
 colonise the land after the Israelites had been 
 carried away (Ezra 4.9). This exchange of 
 populations was not uncommon in old-time 
 warfare. 
 
 Ar'chi. A place on the borders of the " lot 
 of the children of Joseph " (Josh. 16.2). It 
 has been identified as the modern 'Ain Arik 
 between Bethel and Bethhoron. 
 
 Archip'pus. A Colossiau Christian, joined 
 with Philemon and Apphia in the address of 
 St. Paul's letter to Philemon, and styled Paul's 
 fellow-soldier (Philem. 2). It seems probable 
 that the three were husband, wife, and son. 
 In the contemporary letter to the Church at 
 Colossae, Paul sends a message : " Say to 
 Archippus, Take heed to the ministry which 
 thou hast received in the Lord, that thou fulfil 
 it" (Col. 4.17). This need not imply remissness 
 on the part of Archippus, but rather encourage- 
 ment to a service always responsible and 
 exacting. Tradition makes him one of the 
 seventy (Lk. 10), and relates his martyrdom 
 at Chonai, near Laodicea, not far from Colossae. 
 
 Arch'ite, The. (?) Forbearance: the usual 
 designation of David's friend, Hushai (2 Sam. 
 15.32, 16.16, 17.5 and 14 ; 1 Ch. 27-33), and 
 probably meaning a native of Archi, a town on 
 the boundary of Joseph (Josh. 16.2). 
 
 Architecture. The earliest recorded build- 
 ing is the Tower of Babel, which was built 
 of burnt bricks, firmly cemented with bitumen, 
 the " slime " with which the valley of the 
 Euphrates so abounds (Gen. 11). There 
 are at least two cities in Bible lands 
 which may claim a very remote and well 
 authenticated antiquity, Damascus and Hebron. 
 The former is earlier in date than the time of 
 Abraham, and Hebron, which was of Canaanite 
 origin, was founded about 2000 B.C. 
 
 The first Israeli tes,being wandering shepherds, 
 dwelt in tents, but during their bondage in Egypt 
 they were compelled to labour at the buildings, 
 many of them of considerable age and fame. 
 
 It was not until the reign of David that the 
 Israelites could be said to build. Then they 
 
AKCTURUS] 
 
 32 
 
 [AEIDATHA 
 
 began to make use of the abundance of lime- 
 stone on every band, first for repairing the 
 ruins about them, and then for the building of 
 new palaces and strong places. But tents, or 
 huts of wattle and daub, still remained the 
 favourite houses of the people. On entering 
 the promised land they found walled cities 
 (Num. 13.28; Deut. 1.28) awaiting them. David 
 prepared for the great work, but the task of 
 building the Temple was reserved for Solomon, 
 who freely called to his aid foreign materials 
 and foreign workmen (1 K. 5.10 ; 1 Ch. 28, 29). 
 Besides his works in and near Jerusalem, 
 Solomon built fortresses and cities in various 
 places. Among the subsequent kings of Israel 
 and Judah were many great builders (1 K. 
 15.17, 23, 22.39 ; 2 K. 20.20 ; 2 Ch. 32.27, 
 30). 
 
 On the return from the captivity the Temple 
 and the walls of Jerusalem were rebuilt in 
 a substantial manner with stone and with 
 timber from Lebanon (Ezra 5.8). During the 
 government of Simon Maccabaeus the fortress 
 called Baris, and afterwards Antonia, was erected 
 for the defence of the Temple and the city. 
 "But," says Canon Philpott, "the reigns of Herod 
 and his successors were especially remarkable for 
 display in architecture. The Temple was restored 
 with great magnificence, and Jerusalem was 
 strengthened with fortifications and embellished 
 with public buildings." 
 
 The remains of many Galilean synagogues, 
 of a mixed or bastard style of architecture, 
 partly Jewish, partly Roman, and built during 
 the second and third centuries of our era, still 
 exist. 
 
 Arctu'rus. Crowd : the constellation Ursa 
 Major, known commonly as the Great Bear, 
 or Charles's Wain (Job 9.9, 38.32; R.V. 
 " the Bear "). 
 
 Ard. A son of Benjamin (Gen. 46.21), or 
 grandson (Num. 26.40). His descendants are 
 called the Ardites (Num. 26.40). The name is 
 Addar in 1 Ch. 8.3. 
 
 Ard'ites, The. [ ARD.] 
 
 Ar'don. A son of Caleb (1 Ch. 2.18). 
 
 Are'H. A son of Gad (Gen. 46.16). His de- 
 scendants are called the Arelites (Num. 26.17). 
 
 Areop'agite. A member of the court of 
 Areopagus (Acts 17.34). 
 
 Areop'agns, or Mars' Hill. Areopagus liter- 
 ally means the hill of Ares or Mars a rocky 
 height in Athens, opposite the Acropolis. Accord- 
 ing to tradition, it was called the hill of Mars, be- 
 cause this god was brought to trial here before 
 the assembled gods by Neptune, on account of his 
 murdering Halirrhotius, the son of the latter. 
 The spot is memorable as the place of meeting 
 of the Council of Areopagus, the most ancient 
 and venerable of all the Athenian courts. The 
 Areopagites sat as judges in the open air, 
 seated on a bench of stones excavated in the 
 rock. The language of Acts 17.19,22 leaves it 
 in doubt whether St. Paul was brought before 
 and stood up in the midst of the " court of the 
 Areopagus/' or led aside to Mars' Hill by the 
 
 philosophers, that in greater quiet than prevailed 
 in the market-place they might hear what he 
 had to say. (Opinion is divided : the A.V. with 
 some ambiguity: see text and marg. in both vers. 
 and the R.V. text adopt court, with alternative 
 margin. So, of modern Bible Diet., does the 
 Encyc. Bib., while Hastings and Murray 
 maintain the site.) Against the site may be 
 the sacredness of its associations to these 
 Athenians, and the expression " in the midst 
 of " Areopagus (ver. 22, cf. ver. 33) : against the 
 court, the absence of legal procedure, and the 
 popular character of St. Paul's address. Cer- 
 tainly there was no formal trial, but it is possible 
 that Paul was brought before the Court (sitting 
 in the Stoa Basileios, in the market-place), 
 either for preliminary examination, with a view 
 to prosecution, or " to satisfy the supreme uni- 
 versity tribunal of his qualifications " to teach 
 (so Ramsay, Paul ike Traveller, pp. 241-249). 
 
 Ar'etas. " Aretas the King " (2 Cor. 11.32). 
 There were many princes of Arabia of this name, 
 but the only one mentioned in Scripture is he 
 (9 B.C.-40 A.D.) whose "governor," then in 
 possession of Damascus, sought to apprehend 
 Paul, who escaped by being let down from 
 the wall in a basket. This was the Aretas 
 whose daughter married Herod Antipas. When 
 the latter put her away to make room for 
 Herodias (his brother Philip's wife), Aretas 
 sent an army against him and won a great 
 victory. This campaign was believed by the 
 populace to be a Divine punishment for 
 Herod's murder of John the Baptist. 
 
 Ar'gob. Heaped with stones : 1. A tract of 
 country on the east of the Jordan in Bashan, 
 in the kingdom of Og, containing sixty " great " 
 and fortified " cities." Axgob was in the 
 portion allotted to the half-tribe of Manasseh, 
 and was taken possession of by Jair, a chief 
 man in that tribe. It afterwards formed one 
 of Solomon's commissariat districts, under the 
 charge of an officer whose residence was at 
 Ramoth-Gilead (Deut. 3.4, 13, 14 ; IK. 4.13). 
 In later times Argob was called Trachonitis. 
 It has been identified with the Lejah, a remark- 
 able region south of Damascus and east of the 
 Sea of Galilee. The district is in reality one 
 vast bed of lava, as hard as flint, ringing like 
 metal when sharply struck. Though so rocky 
 and bare as a whole, it yet has fertile spots. It 
 must have been thickly peopled at one time, for 
 the ruins of over fifty cities have been discovered. 
 This extraordinary region forms a wonderful 
 contrast to the surrounding plain of the Hauran, 
 a plateau of waving downs of the richest agri- 
 cultural soil, stretching from the Sea of Galilee 
 to the Lejah, and beyond that to the desert, 
 almost literally " without a stone." 2. See 
 2 K. 15.25 ; this passage leaves it doubtful 
 whether he was a conspirator or an officer of 
 King Pekahiah. 
 
 Ari'dai. A son of Raman, slain by the Jews 
 (Esth. 9.9). 
 
 Aricla'tha. A son of Hainan, slain by the 
 Jews (Esth. 9.8). 
 
ARIEH] 
 
 33 
 
 [ARKITE 
 
 Ari'eh. Lion : a fellow-conspirator or fellow- 
 officer with Aigob (2 K. 15.25). [ABOOB.] 
 
 Ari'el. The lion of God : 1. One of the chief 
 men who, under Ezra, directed the caravan 
 which he led back from Babylon to Jerusalem 
 (Ezra 8.16). 2. A designation given by Isaiah 
 to the city of Jerusalem (Isai. 29.1, 2, 7), as a 
 symbol of hope. In this connection the name 
 would signify the " hearth, or altar of God." 
 
 Arimathse'a. A height : the residence of 
 Joseph, who obtained leave from Pilate to bury 
 our Lord in his own new tomb at Jerusalem 
 (Matt. 27.57 ; Lk. 23 51 ; John 19.38). It is 
 probably identical with Ramah, or Ramathaim- 
 Zophim, the birthplace of the prophet Samuel 
 (1 Sam. 1.1, 19). Now Rantieh, north of 
 Lydda. 
 
 Ari'och. 1. King of Ellasar (Gen. 14.1-9). 
 2. " The captain of the guard " of Nebuchad- 
 nezzar (Dan. 2.14). 
 
 Ari'sai. A son of Haman, slain by the Jews 
 (Esth. 9.9). 
 
 Aristar'chus. A Jew of Thessalom'ca, and 
 travelling companion of St. Paul, first mentioned 
 as roughly handled in the riot at Ephesus 
 (Acts 19.29). He was one of the delegates of 
 the Churches contributing to the "collection 
 for the saints " at Jerusalem, who accompanied 
 St. Paul thither at the close of his Third Mis- 
 sionary Journey (Acts 20.4 ; cf. 1 Cor. 16.1-4 ; 
 2 Cor. 8,9). He sailed with St. Paul from Crcsarea 
 to Rome (Acts 27.2), and was with him when 
 he wrote from there to Philemon and the 
 Church at Colossoc, his " fellow-worker," " a 
 comfort " to him, even his " fellow-prisoner " 
 (PhUem. 24 ; Col. 4.10,11). As in Philem. 23, 24' 
 only Epaphras is described as " fellow-prisoner," 
 and in Col. 4.10-14 only Aristarchus, it may be 
 conjectured that Paul's companions took turns 
 in sharing, voluntarily, his captivity. 
 
 Aristobu'lus. They of " the household of 
 Aristobulus " are greeted in Rom. 16.10, i.e. 
 probably the Christians among the slaves of 
 Aristobulus (perhaps the grandson of Herod 
 the Great). 
 
 Ark. A chest or box, or any vessel of similar 
 shape. There are three arks which call for 
 special notice. 
 
 1. Noah's Ark (Gen. 6.14 to 8.19). Noah 
 was ordered by God to construct this vessel, 
 in which he and his family and a great variety 
 of animals were preserved from the Deluge. 
 If we take a cubit as equal to eighteen inches 
 the usual assumption then the dimensions 
 of the ark were 450 feet long, 75 feet broad, and 
 45 feet high. It was made of gopher, i.e. 
 cypress wood, and rendered water-tight by 
 being daubed inside and outside with bitumen. 
 It had three storeys and a window, which 
 probably extended, with slight interruptions, all 
 round th vessel. [NoAH.J 
 
 2. The Ark of Moses, made of bulrushes 
 (Ex. 2.3-6), in which the infant Moses was 
 placed when he was exposed upon the Nile. 
 Like Noah's ark it was made water-tight with 
 bitumen. [Moses.] 
 
 3. The Ark of the Covenant, or of the Testi 
 mony, which, with its cover, the mercy-seat, 
 was especially invested with sacredness and 
 mystery. A full description of its structure 
 is given in Ex. 25. The mercy-seat, supporting 
 the cherubim, was regarded as the symbol of 
 the presence of God [MERCY-SEAT], mani- 
 fested on occasions by a luminous cloud, called 
 the Shechinah. The care of the ark was 
 given to the Levites of the house of Kohath, 
 who bore it in its progress ; but before being 
 transported it was covered over by the priests, 
 and was therefore not seen. The ark contained 
 the two tables of the Law (hence its name as 
 the Ark of the Covenant), probably also the 
 pot of manna and the rod of Aaron (Heb. 9.4). 
 The ark, which occupied the most holy spot of 
 the whole sanctuary, in " the holy of holies," 
 was never seen save by the high priest, and 
 that only on special occasions. 
 
 The ark figures prominently in the history 
 of the chosen people. It was borne by the 
 priests into the bed of the Jordan, which separ- 
 ated, opening a pathway for the whole of the 
 host to pass over (Josh. 4.9-11). It was carried 
 for seven days round Jericho before the walls 
 of the city fell down (Josh. 6.1-20). After 
 the settlement of Israel in Palestine the ark 
 remained in the tabernacle at Gilgal for a 
 season, and was then removed to Shiloh till 
 the time of Eli, when it was carried into the 
 field of battle, so as to secure, as they supposed, 
 victory to the Israelites, and was taken by the 
 Philistines (1 Sam. 4.3-11). The sanctity of 
 the ark, while it remained in the possession 
 of the heathen, was indicated by miracles, as 
 seen in its avenging progress through the 
 Philistine cities (1 Sam. 4 and 6). After six 
 months the Philistines sent back the ark into 
 Hebrew territory. It returned first to Beth- 
 shemesh, where the curiosity of the people was 
 terribly punished (1 Sam. 6.11-20) ; and after- 
 wards to Kirjath-jearim (1 Sam. 7.1), whence it 
 was brought by David with much ceremony to the 
 city of David, after a temporary halt at Perez- 
 Uzzah, where Uzzah was struck dead for touch- 
 ing it whe" it seemed to totter (2 Sam. 6.1-19). 
 It was afterwards deposited by Solomon in 
 the Temple (1 K. 8.6-9). When the Babylonians 
 destroyed Jerusalem and plundered the Temple, 
 the ark was probably taken away by Nebuchad- 
 nezzar and destroyed, as no trace of it is after- 
 wards to be found. It is not mentioned 
 amongst the sacred vessels restored (Ezra 
 1.7-11). Tacitus, the Roman historian, bears 
 witness to the emptiness of the holy of holies 
 when entered by Pompey. The absence of 
 the ark from the second temple was one of the 
 points in which it was inferior to the first temple. 
 
 Arkite. One of the families of the Canaan- 
 ites, dwelling in Area (Gen. 10.17 ; 1 Ch. 
 1.15), a city in the north of Phoenicia. Area 
 became famous for the worship paid by its 
 inhabitants to Aphrodite. It was fortified by 
 the Arabs, and attacked by the Crusaders, who, 
 under Raimond of Toulouse, vainly besieged it 
 
ARMAGEDDON] 
 
 [ARMY 
 
 for two months in 1099. It was, however, 
 afterwards taken by William of Sartanges. 
 In 1202 it was totally destroyed by earthquake. 
 The site which now bears the name of Area 
 lies about twelve miles north of Tripoli, and 
 five miles south of the Nahr-el-Kebir (Eleuth- 
 erus). The great coast road passed half-way 
 between it and the sea. 
 
 Annaged'don (R.V. Har-Magedon), the 
 mountain of Megiddo. A symbolic name 
 (derived from 2 Ch. 35.22) for the scene 
 of the last great spiritual contest (Rev. 16.16). 
 The valley of Megiddo is the great battlefield 
 of the Old Testament, where the chief conflicts 
 took place between the Israelites and the 
 enemies of God's people. There, in the plain 
 of Esdraelon, Barak won a great victory over 
 the Canaanites (Judg. 4 and 5) and Gideon 
 over the Midianites (Judg. 7). There, too, 
 Saul met his death at the hands of the Philis- 
 tines (1 Sam. 31.8), and Josiah at the hands 
 of the Egyptians (2 K. 23.29, 30 ; 2 Ch. 35.22). 
 
 Arme'nia. The Greek name for Ararat, 
 and so rendered Ararat (which see) in R.V. (2 K. 
 19.37; Isai. 37.38). This country, according 
 to tradition, was settled by Haik, son of 
 Togarmah, and grandson of Japhet (Gen. 10.3). 
 Its boundaries were not well defined, but it 
 may be described roughly as the country 
 which stretches away from the shores of Lake 
 Van, southwards to the mountains of Kurdistan. 
 Armenia was frequently invaded by the 
 Assyrians, the Babylonians, the Medes and 
 Persians, and for many years remained in 
 subjection to one or other of these empires. 
 
 Armlet (A.V. Tablet). A golden ornament of 
 some kind, perhaps a necklace (Ex. 35.22 ; 
 Num. 31.50). 
 
 Armo'ni. Born of the palace: son of Saul 
 by TCizpah. He was given up by David to the 
 Gibeonites (2 Sam. 21.8). 
 
 Armour. [ARMS.] 
 
 Armour-Bearer. This was an officer selected 
 by kings and generals from the bravest. It was 
 his duty to carry the arms of his master, and 
 also to bear messages from one part of the field 
 to another, much as the modern aido-de-onmp 
 does. In the fight the armour-bearer often 
 carried the shield and protected the person of 
 his master (Judy. 9.54 ; 1 .Sam. 16.21, 31.4). 
 
 [ARM Y.I 
 
 Armoury. The armoury (Neh. 3.19), where 
 the " thousand bucklers, all shields of mighty 
 men," hung, was in the tower of David. 
 
 [TOWBB.] 
 
 Arms. First as to the weapons of offence 
 mentioned in the Bible. 
 
 1. The sword, the most widely used weapon, 
 was a smaller weapon than the modern sword, 
 as we may infer from the statement that 
 the sword of Ehud (Judg. 3.16) was a cubit, i.e. 
 18 inches long. But in the hands of a practised 
 swordsman it could be wielded with terrible effect 
 (2 Sam. 20.8-12 ; 1 K. 2.5). It was sometimes 
 worn in a sheath, attached to a girdle. Before 
 the days of metal, weapons for s*-abbing and 
 
 cutting were made of flint, but we are not told 
 that the Israelites ever used these. The sword 
 was worn in limes of war only; in times of 
 peace even the king in state did not wear a 
 sword (1 K. 3.24). 
 
 2. The spear, of which there were several 
 varieties, from the very powerful weapon, the 
 Chanith, weighing about 25 Ibs., which was 
 the weapon of Goliath and Saul, to the Kidon, 
 a light and short spear, carried on the back of the 
 warrior, between the shoulders. Other varieties 
 include the Romach, the Shelach, and the 
 Shebet. It was with Shebets (translated 
 "darts") that Joab despatched Absalom 
 (2 Sam. 18.14). 
 
 3. The bow was a weapon in which all grades of 
 soldiers, from the lowest to the king's sons, were 
 trained. It seems to have been bent with the 
 aid of the foot. Bows of steel are mentioned as 
 if specially strong. The string was probably 
 at first some tough fibre. The arrows were 
 carried in a quiver, and were sometimes 
 poisoned. 
 
 4. The sling is first mentioned in Judg. 20.16, 
 where we hear of the 300 Renjamites who, with 
 their left hand, could " sling stones at an hair- 
 breadth and not miss." In later times slingers 
 formed part of the regular army (2 K. 3.25). 
 Slings are still used in Palestine by those who 
 watch the flocks, just as David, as a shepherd lad, 
 doubtless used the weapon with which he after- 
 wards slew Goliath. 
 
 Next are to be noticed the weapons of defence 
 mentioned in the Scriptures. They include (1) 
 the breastplate (1 Sam. 17.5) ; (2) the coat of 
 mail (2 Ch. 26.14 ; Neh. 4.16) ; (3) the helmet 
 (1 5am. 17.5 ; 2 Ch. 26.14 ; Ezek. 27.10) ; (4) 
 greaves or defences for the legs (1 Sam. 17.6) ; 
 (5) the shield, of which there were two sorts 
 the Zinnah, covering the whole person, and the 
 Magen, probably for use in hand-to-hand 
 conflicts. Both woro>5 are used in the Psalms 
 metaphorically of toe protection of God (cf. 
 Eph. 6.10-17). 
 
 Army. During the Exodus every man above 
 twenty years of age was a soldier (Num. 1.3), 
 priests and Levites alone exempted (Num. 2.33). 
 Each tribe formed a regiment, with its own 
 banner and its own leader (Num. 2.2 ; 10.14). At 
 the approach of an enemy a conscription was made 
 from the general body. From the number so 
 selected some might be excused service on certain 
 specified grounds (Deut. 20.5-8). The army was 
 then divided into thousands and hundreds under 
 their respective captains (Num. 31.14 ; 1 Sam. 
 8.12 ; 2 K. 1.9). After the entry into Canaan, 
 and the dispersion of the people throughout the 
 country, combatants could be summoned on 
 the spur of the moment by trumpet-call (Judg. 
 3.27), by messengers (Judg. 6.35), by some 
 significant token (1 Sam. 11.7), or, as in later 
 times, by the erection of a standard (Isai. 18.3 
 Jer. 4.21, 51.27), or by a beacon fire on ar 
 eminence (Jer. 6.1). 
 
 The king provided himself with a bodyguard 
 which formed the nucleus of the army. Saul 
 
ARMY] 
 
 35 
 
 [AEOEB 
 
 had a band of 3000 select warriors (1 Sam. 13.2, 
 14.52, 24.2) and David 600, which he subse- 
 quently increased (2 Sam. 15.18). He further 
 organised a national militia, divided into twelve 
 regiments, each of which was called out for one 
 month in the year (1 Ch. 27.1) ; at the head of 
 the army when in active service he appointed a 
 commander-in-chief (1 Sam. 14.50). 
 
 Hitherto the army had consisted entirely of 
 infantry, but as the foreign relations of the 
 country extended much importance was attached 
 to chariots. They were not of great service 
 in Palestine itself, owing to the very uneven 
 character of the country, but they could be 
 employed to advantage on the borders, both on 
 the side of Egypt and of Syria. David reserved 
 a hundred chariots from the spoil of the Syrians 
 (2 Sam. 8.4) ; Solomon greatly enlarged this 
 force, and applied it to the protection of his 
 border, stations or barracks being erected for 
 them in different localities (1 K. 9.19). The force 
 amounted to 1400 chariots and 12,000 horsemen. 
 Three horses were assigned to each chariot, 
 the third being kept as a reserve (1 K. 10.26; 
 2 Ch. 1.14). The ranks in the army were privates 
 ("men of war"), lieutenants ("servants"), 
 captains (" princes "), staff-officers, and cavalry 
 officers (1 K. 9.22) 
 
 Warlike operations were generally begun in 
 the spring, after solemnly taking counsel of God 
 [URIM AND THUMMIM]. Priests, bearing the 
 ark, accompanied the fighting men, both to 
 encourage and help in other ways. They also 
 acted as heralds and diplomatists both before and 
 after the battle (Num. 10.8; Deut. 20.2-4; 
 1 Sam. 7.9). 
 
 The Jews as warriors were fierce fighters, 
 loving to get near the enemy and engage him 
 hand-to-hand. They rushed to the attack 
 with loud cries and trumpet-blasts. They also 
 exercised a considerable amount of cunning, 
 and resorted to ambuscades and night attacks 
 [DAVID, JONATHAN]. Deeds of valour were 
 rewarded handsomely. 
 
 Before the establishment of the standing army 
 the soldier had to provide his own armour and 
 by force or otherwise his own food. Afterwards 
 the army became a national charge, though the 
 soldiers received no pay. 
 
 The framework of the Roman army may be 
 set out in tabular form 
 
 A century . 
 Two centuries 
 Three maniples 
 Ten cohorts . 
 
 = 50 to 100 men. 
 = 1 maniple. 
 = 1 cohort 
 = 1 legion 
 
 It follows that there were sixty centuries in a 
 legion, each under the command of a centurion. 
 Originally, a century, as the name implies, con- 
 sisted of 100 men, but subsequently the figure 
 varied according to the strength of the legion. 
 
 In the N.T. the " legion " is mentioned 
 (Matt. 26.53 ; Mk. 5.9) ; the " cohort " (Matt. 27. 
 27 ; Mk. 15.16 ; John 18.3-12 ; Acts 10.1, 21.31; 
 27.1). The commander of a cohort (Lat. 
 tribunus, Gk. chiliarch, i.e. commander of 1000, 
 
 Eng. chief captain) appears in John 18.12, and 
 frequently in Acts 21-24 : here the " cohort " 
 is the Roman garrison of Jerusalem, with its 
 quarters in Fort Antonia, adjoining the Temple. 
 
 In addition to the legionary cohorts, inde- 
 pendent cohorts of volunteers served under the 
 Roman standards. One of these was named 
 Italian (Acts 10.1), as consisting of volunteers 
 from Italy. The headquarters of the Roman 
 forces in Judoea were at Csesarea. The "Augustan 
 band " of Acts 27.1 may be another of these 
 provincial cohorts, deriving its name from 
 Sebaste (Lat. Augusta), the name given by 
 Herod the Great to the city of Samaria ; or it 
 may have had its name from some special 
 honour conferred upon it by the Emperor. 
 References to the " centurion " are found in 
 Matt. 8.5, 27.54, and frequently in Acts. Four 
 soldiers constituted the ordinary military guard, 
 of which there were four, corresponding to the 
 four watches of the night, who relieved each 
 other every three hours (John 19.23 ; Acts 12.4). 
 When in charge of a prisoner, two watched 
 outside the door of the cell, while the other two 
 were inside (Acts 12.6). The spearmen noticed 
 in Acts 23.23 appear to have been light-armed 
 irregular troops. 
 
 Ar'nan. (1 Ch. 3.21). 
 
 Ar'ni (A.V. Aram). An ancestor of our Lord 
 (Lk. 3.33). 
 
 Ar'non. A torrent : a river which formed 
 the boundary between Moab and the Amorites, 
 on the north of Moab. Rising in the mountains 
 of Arabia, it flows through the wilderness into 
 the Dead Sea, opposite En-gedi. The name 
 of the river is now Mojeb. Its course lies 
 through a ravine of great depth. The level 
 plain comes close to the abrupt descent, which 
 breaks away in limestone precipices. The 
 width across, from crest to crest, is about three 
 miles. At one part there are traces on each 
 face of the ravine of the paved Roman road, 
 with milestones, and the arch of a Roman 
 bridge still stands. The stream runs through 
 rich meadows, and is bordered in places with 
 trees, oleanders and willows. When it bursts 
 into the Dead Sea the Arnon is over eighty 
 feet wide and four feet deep, flowing through a 
 chasm with perpendicular sides of red, brown, 
 and yellow sandstone, ninety-seven feet wide. 
 
 A'rod. Wild ass : a son of Gad (Num. 
 26.17), called Arodi in Gen. 46.16. His de- 
 scendants, the Arodites, are mentioned in Num. 
 26.17. 
 
 Aro'di. [AEOD.] 
 
 Aro'dites. [AROD.] 
 
 Aro'er. 1. A town on the north bank of 
 the river Arnon, first under the sway of Sihon, 
 king of the Amorites (Josh. 12.2), and after- 
 wards the territory of the tribe of Reuben. 
 The ruins contain several wells and cisterns. 
 2. A town of Gad (Num. 32.34 ; Josh. 13.25 ; 
 Judg. 11.33; 2 Sam. 24.5). 3. A place farther 
 north than either 1 or 2, and dependent upon 
 Damascus (Isai. 17.2). 4. A town in Judah 
 (1 Sam. 30.28). 
 
AROERITE] 
 
 36 
 
 [ASENATH 
 
 Aro'erite. Ho than the Aroerite was the father 
 of two of David's chief captains (1 Ch. 11.44). 
 
 Arpachsad. [ ARPHAXAP. ] 
 
 Ar'pad, Ar'phad. A couch, a resting-place: 
 a city or district in Syria dependent upon 
 Damascus, and invariably named with Hamath, 
 now Hamah, on the Orontes (Jer. 49.23 ; 
 2 K. 18.34, 19.13; Isai. 10.9, 36.19, 37.13). 
 Now known as Tell Erfad. 
 
 Ar'phad. [ARPAD.] 
 
 Arphax'ad (R.V. Arpachsad). Issuing forth: 
 a son of Shem and the ancestor of Eber 
 (Gen, 10.22, 24, 11.10). According to tradition, 
 he was the progenitor of the Chaldeans. 
 
 Arrows. [ARMS.] 
 
 Artaxerxes. The great king. In the 
 books of Ezra and Nehemiah the name Arta- 
 xerxes appears to be given to two kings of Persia 
 (1) the Artaxerxes of Ezra 4; who stopped 
 the rebuilding of the Temple, variously identi- 
 fied with Cambyses, the pseudo-Smerdis, or 
 Xerxes ; (2) the later monarch of Ezra 1 ; Neh. 
 2.1, 5.14, 13.6, who permitted and furthered 
 the rebuilding of the walls of Jerusalem. But 
 the identification of (1) is difficult, for the 
 inscriptions disprove the theory that Artaxerxes 
 was a royal title, and not simply a name. And 
 it is now generally agreed that only one Artax- 
 erxes is referred to, and that the section, Ezra 
 4.6-27, is out of place. He is probably to be 
 identified with Artaxerxes i. (Longimanus), who 
 reigned 464-425 B.C. 
 
 Ar'temas. A companion of St. Paul (Tit. 
 3.12). 
 
 Aru'bboth. The district in which the son of 
 Hesed acted as commissariat officer for Solomon 
 (1 K. 4.10). 
 
 Am 'mail. A town five miles south-east of 
 Nablous, in the neighbourhood of Shechem, at 
 which Abimelech resided (Judg. 9.41). 
 
 Ar'vad. A small rocky island near Zidon 
 (Ezek. 27.8), now called Ruad, two or three 
 miles off the Phoenician coast. Although very 
 small barely a mile in circumference it was 
 noted for the naval skill of its inhabitants, 
 called Arvadites. It was a dependency of 
 Tyre and Sidon (Gen. 10.18; 1 Ch. 1.16). 
 
 Arvad'ite. [ARVAD.] 
 
 Arza. A steward of Elah, king of Israel, 
 who was assassinated at a banquet in Arza's 
 house by Zimri (1 K. 16.9). 
 
 A'sa. Physician : 1. Son of Abijah, and king 
 of Judah, who distinguished himself by his 
 devotion to the pure worship of Jehovah, and 
 his very active hostility to idolatry (1 K. 
 15.9-24 ; 2 Ch. 15.1-19). Maachah, his grand- 
 mother, had set up some impure worship 
 in a grove, but Asa burnt the symbol of her 
 religion and threw the ashes into the brook 
 Kidron, afterwards deposing Maachah from 
 her dignity as queen-mother. Asa fortified 
 cities on his frontiers, and raised a large army 
 (2 Ch. 14.8), with which he utterly defeated the 
 invader Zerah. On his return to Jerusalem 
 Asa convoked a great assembly, at which was 
 renewed, with impressive solemnity, the 
 
 covenant by which the nation was dedicated to 
 God (2 Ch. 15). In alliance with Benhadad, 
 king of Damascus, Asa forced Baasha, king of 
 Israel, to abandon his purpose of fortifying 
 Ramah, and strengthened the strongholds of 
 Geba and Mizpeh in Benjamin, with the inten- 
 tion of preventing emigration from, or immi- 
 gration into, the kingdom of Judah. Asa died 
 greatly loved and honoured, in the forty-first 
 year of his reign. 2. See 1 Ch. 9.16. 
 
 Asa'hel. God has made : 1. The youngest 
 son of David's sister, Zeruiah, celebrated for 
 his speed as a runner. He was one of the 
 thirty heroes of David (2 Sam. 23.24), who gave 
 him a command in the army (1 Ch. 27.7). When 
 fighting under the command of his brother 
 Joab against Ishbosheth's army at Gibeon, 
 he pursued Abner, who, after vainUy warning 
 liim to desist, was obliged in self-defence to kill 
 him (2 Sam. 2.18). 2. A Levite sent by 
 Jehoshaphat to teach the law to the people 
 in Judah (2 Ch. 17.8). 3. A Levite employed 
 under Hezekiah as an officer of the offerings 
 and tithes and dedicated things (2 Ch. 31.13). 
 4. The father of an agent employed by Ezra 
 (Ezra 10.15). 
 
 Asahi'ah (R.V. Asai'ah). Jehovah hath made : 
 1. An officer of King Josiah, sent by him, 
 together with others, to seek information of 
 JehoVah respecting the Book of the Law 
 which Hilkiah found in the Temple (2 K. 
 22.12-14, A.V. Asahi'ah ; 2 Ch. 34.20). 2. A 
 Simeonite prince in the reign of Hezekiah, 
 who drove out the Hamite shepherds from 
 Gedor (1 Ch. 4.36). 3. A Levite in the reign of 
 David, chief of the family of Merari (1 Ch. 6.30). 
 He assisted in bringing the ark from Obed-edom 
 to Jerusalem (1 Ch. 15.6). 4. The first-born of 
 " the Shilonite," according to 1 Ch. 9.5, who, 
 with his family, returned from Babylon to Jeru- 
 salem. In Neh. 11.5 he is called Maaseiah. 
 
 A'saph. Collector : 1. A Levite, one of 
 David's three chief musicians, whom the king 
 appointed to preside over " the service of 
 song in the house of the Lord " (1 Ch. 6.31, 39). 
 Asaph was also a " seer " (2 Ch. 29.30), and 
 twelve Psalms, all of a prophetical character, 
 are assigned to him (Ps. 50, 73-83). His de- 
 scendants or followers, the " sons of Asaph," 
 took part in the purification of the Temple 
 and in the celebration of that event (2 Ch. 
 29.13-30, 35.15). 2. The ancestor of Joah, 
 who was recorder under Hezekiah (2 K. 
 18.18 ; Isai. 36.3-22). 3. An officer under the 
 King of Persia, as " keeper " of the royal forests 
 in Judah (Neh. 2.8). 4. A Levite mentioned in 
 1 Ch. 9.15 ; Neh. 11.17. 
 
 Asare'el (R.V. Asarel). A son of Jehaleleel 
 (1 Ch. 4-16). 
 
 Asare'lah (R.V. Asharelah). A son of Asaph, 
 set apart by David to " prophesy with harps 
 and with psalteries and with cymbals" (1 Ch. 
 25.2; in ver. 14, Jesharelah). 
 
 Ascension. [ JESUS CHRIST.] 
 
 Ase'nath. (?) Belonging to Neit (an Egyptian 
 goddess). The Egyptian whom Joseph took to 
 
ASER] 
 
 37 
 
 [ASHKELON 
 
 wife (Gen. 41.45-50, 46.20), who bore him 
 Manasseh and Ephraim. She was the daughter 
 of Potipherah, the high- priest of On, or Helio- 
 polis, the headquarters of sun worship. 
 
 As'er. The Greek form of Asher (Lk. 2.36 ; 
 Rev. 7.6). 
 
 Ash. The word occurs only once in the A.V. 
 (Isai. 44.14). The R.V. translates " fir-tree." 
 The exact tree meant is not certainly known. It 
 cannot be our ash-tree, which is not a native of 
 Palestine. 
 
 A'shan. A city in the low country of Judah 
 (Josh. 15.42). It was allotted to Simeon, and 
 assigned to the priests. 
 
 Ashare'lah. [ASARELAH.] 
 
 Ash'bea. A proper name, but whether of a 
 man or a place is uncertain (1 Ch. 4.21). 
 
 Ash'bel. Man of Baal : one of the sons of 
 Benjamin (Gen. 46.21 ; Num. 26.38 ; 1 Ch. 8.1). 
 
 Ashbel'ite. The descendants of Ashbel 
 (Num. 26.38). 
 
 Ashche'naz. 1. A son of Gomer (1 Ch. 1.6). 
 2. A people or kingdom mentioned in Jer. 51.27. 
 
 [ASHKKNAZ.] 
 
 Ash'dod, or Azo'tus. Fortress, castle: a 
 strongly fortified town overlooking the plain of 
 Philistia. It is perched on the top of a hill, and 
 commands the entrance to Palestine from Egypt, 
 owing its great importance in history to this 
 fact. Ashdod was also a chief seat of Dagon 
 worship. It is about thirty miles from the 
 southern frontier of Palestine, three from the 
 Mediterranean Sea, and nearly midway between 
 Gaza and Joppa. Though assigned to Judah 
 (Josh. 15.47), it was never conquered by the 
 Israelites. It is mentioned, on the other hand, 
 as the point for conducting offensive operations 
 against them. When King Uzziah broke down 
 the wall of the town, he established forts on the 
 adjacent hills, so as to be safe against future 
 attacks (2 Ch. 26.6). Even down to Nehemiah's 
 age it preserved its distinctiveness of race and 
 language (Neh. 13.23, 24). The only notice of it 
 in the N.T. is in connection with Philip's return 
 from Gaza (Acts 8.40). It is now an insig- 
 nificant village, bearing the name Esdud, with 
 no memorials of its ancient importance. 
 
 Ashdod'ites, Ashdoth'ites. The inhabitants 
 of Ashdod. 
 
 Ash' doth Pisgah. Slopes of Pisgah: some 
 definite natural feature, probably a ravine, east 
 of the Dead Sea, on the borders of Reuben 
 (Deut. 3.17, 4.49 ; Josh. 10.40, 12.3, 8, 13.20). 
 The district is noted for its many perennial 
 springs, starting out of the hillsides at various 
 altitudes. The valley whence the water of 
 these springs was collected formed the northern 
 boundary of Nebo. It is a spot of great natural 
 beauty, contrasting, as it does, its springs and 
 luxuriant vegetation with the arid wastes in 
 which it lies. 
 
 Ashdoth'ites, The. [ASHDODITES.] 
 
 A'sher. Happy : the eighth son of Jacob, by 
 Zilpah, Leah's handmaid (Gen. 30.13). Of the 
 tribe descended from Asher no accountis recorded 
 during the whole course of the sacred history. 
 
 The territory assigned to the descendants of 
 Asher was on the sea-shore from Carmel north- 
 wards as far as Sidon. It contained some of the 
 finest soil in all Palestine, and in its productive- 
 ness fulfilled the blessings which had been 
 bestowed on Asher by Jacob and by Moses 
 (Gen. 49.20 ; Deut. 33.24, 25). Here was the oil 
 in which he was to " dip his foot," bread, 
 which was to be " fat," and the " royal dainties " 
 in which he was to indulge ; and here, in the 
 metallic manufactures of the Phoenicians, were 
 the " iron and brass " for his " shoes." The 
 Phoenician settlements were even at that early 
 period in full vigour ; and Asher was contented 
 to partake of their luxuries and to " dwell 
 among them " without attempting the conquest 
 and extermination enjoined in regard to all the 
 Canaanites (Judg. 1.31, 32, 5.17). At the 
 numbering of Israel at Sinai, Asher was more 
 numerous than either Ephraim, Manasseh, or 
 Benjamin (Num. 1.32-41) ; but in the reign of 
 David, so insignificant had the tribe become 
 that its name is altogether omitted from the list 
 of the chief rulers (1 Ch. 27.16-22). With the 
 exception of Simeon, Asher is the only tribo 
 west of the Jordan which furnished no hero or 
 judge to the nation. However, Anna, who 
 served God with fastings and prayers night and 
 day in the Temple (Lk. 2.36-38), was "the 
 daughter of Phanuel, of the tribe of Aser." 
 
 A'sher. A town west of the Jordan (Josh. 
 17.7), on the boundary of Manasseh, on the road 
 to Beth-shean. 
 
 Ash'erah. [GROVES.] 
 
 Ashes. The ashes of a red heifer, burnt entire, 
 according to regulations prescribed in Num. 19, 
 had the ceremonial efficacy of purifying the 
 unclean (Heb. 9.13), but of polluting the clean. 
 Ashes about the person, especially on the head, 
 were used as a sign of sorrow ; and the passage in 
 Job 2.8, sitting upon ashes, is an extreme ex- 
 presson of grief. Ashes are also used figura- 
 tively in Job 30.19 ; Isai. 44.20 ; Mai. 4.3, and 
 other passages. 
 
 Ashhur. [ASHUB.] 
 
 Ashi'ma. A god worshipped by the people of 
 Hamath. The worship was introduced into 
 Samaria by the Hamathite colonists, whom the 
 king of Assyria settled in the land (2 K. 17.30). 
 
 Ashke'lon, Askelon, Eshkalon. One of the 
 five cities of the lords of the Philistines (Josh. 
 13.3: 1 Sam. 6.17). It was situated on the 
 extreme edge of the shore of the Mediterranean 
 (Jer. 47.7). The site still retains the ancient 
 name. Samson went down from Timnath to 
 Ashkelon, where he slew the thirty men and took 
 their spoil. It was a remote town, and is much 
 less prominent in the Scriptures than the other 
 chief Philistine cities. In the time of Origen 
 some wells of remarkable shape were shown near 
 the town, which were believed to be those dug 
 by Isaac, or, at any rate, to be of the time of 
 the Patriarchs. Ascalon played a memorable 
 part in the struggles of the Crusades ; within the 
 walls and towers now standing Richard Coeur- 
 de-Lion held his court. Its name is familiar to 
 
ASHKENAZ] 
 
 38 
 
 [ASS 
 
 us in the " eschalot " or " shallot," a kind of 
 onion, first grown there, for which the place 
 was widely known. 
 
 Ashke'naz, One of the three sons of Gomer, 
 son of Japhet (Gen. 10.3) ; that is, one of the 
 peoples or tribes belonging to the great Japhetic 
 division of the human race, and springing im- 
 mediately from that part of it which bears the 
 name of Gomer, or Cimmerians. [ASCHENAZ.] 
 
 Ash'nah. The strong fort : the name of two 
 cities in the lowlands of Judah ; see Josh. 15.33 
 and 15.43. 
 
 Ashpe'naz. The master of the eunuchs of 
 Nebuchadnezzar (Dan. 1.3). 
 
 Ashtar'oth, Astar'oth. A city on the east of 
 Jordan, in Bashan, in the kingdom of Og. It 
 fell into possession of the half tribe of Manasseh 
 (Josh. 13.31), and was given with its suburbs or 
 surrounding pasture-lands to the Gershonites 
 (1 Ch. 6.71). It was the birthplace of Uzzia 
 (1 Ch. 11.44). It has been identified with Tell 
 'Ashterah, a height or low hill to the east of the 
 Sea of Galilee, rising in the midst of the plain, 
 with scattered ruins about it. [ ASTORETH. ] 
 
 Ashter'athite. Uzzia was an inhabitant of 
 Ashtaroth (1 Ch. 11.44). 
 
 Ashter'oth - Karna'im. Two-horned Ash- 
 taroth : a place of very great antiquity, the abode 
 of the Kephaim at the time of the incursion 
 of Chedorlaomer (Gen. 14.5), while the cities 
 of the plain were still standing in their oasis. 
 
 Astor'eth. Star, the planet Venus', the 
 principal female divinity of the Phoenicians, as 
 Baal was the principal male divinity. As Baal 
 was identified with the Sun, so Ashtaroth or 
 "Astarte with the crescent horns" was with 
 the moon, and was symbolised by the cow. The 
 worship of this goddess was borrowed by the 
 Canaanites from the Chaldaeans. She was the 
 goddess of productive power, of love and of war. 
 She was the Philistine goddess of war, and her 
 worship was accompanied by gross licentious- 
 ness, in which the " groves " played a prominent 
 part. Doves were sacred to her. [ASHEBAH, 
 GROVES.] 
 
 Ash'ur (R.V. Ashhur). "Father (i.e. founder) 
 of Tekoa " (1 Ch. 2.24, 4.5). 
 
 Ash'urites. The name occurs only in the 
 
 enumeration of those over whom Ishbosheth was 
 
 made king (2 Sam. 2.9). Perhaps reads Asherites. 
 
 Ash'vath. One of the sons of Japhet, of the 
 
 tribe of Asher (1 Ch. 7.33). 
 
 Asia. A Roman province which embraced 
 the western part only of what is now known as 
 the peninsula of Asia Minor, and of which 
 Ephesus was the capital. The province 
 originated in the bequest of Attalus, king of 
 Pergamum, or king of Asia, who left by will to 
 the Roman Republic his hereditary dominions 
 in the west of the peninsula (133 B.C.). The 
 frontier was altered somewhat, and Asia was 
 constituted a province, and in the reign of 
 Augustus was governed by a proconsul. It 
 contained many important cities, among which 
 were the seven Churches of the Apocalypse. 
 The "chiefs of Asia" (Acts 19.31), or Asiarchs, 
 
 R.V. marg., were officers of (he Province of 
 Asia chosen to take charge of the public games 
 and religious festivals. It is not certain 
 whether the office was annual, or was held for 
 four years. 
 
 Asi'el. A Simeonite whose descendant, Jehu, 
 lived in the reign of Hezekiah (1 Ch. 4.35). 
 
 Askel'on. [ASHKELON.] 
 
 As'nah. The children of Asnah were among 
 the Nethinim who returned with Zerubbabel 
 (Ezra 2.50). 
 
 Asnap'per (R.V. Osnapper). A ruler men- 
 tioned in Ezra 4.10 as the great and noble 
 personage who had brought several nations 
 from beyond the Euphrates and settled them 
 in Samaria. He is now generally identified 
 with the great Assyrian king, Asur-bani-pal, 
 who began to reign 668 B.C. 
 
 Asp. The word occurs in Deut. 32.33, " the 
 cruel venom of asps"; Job 20.14, 16, "the 
 gall of asps," " he shall suck the poison of asps " 
 (cf. 7fom.3.13) ; /sen". 11.8, the " sucking child shall 
 play on the hole of the asp." The word trans- 
 lated " adder " in Ps. 58.4, " the deaf adder that 
 stoppeth her ear," and in Ps. 91.13, " thou shalt 
 tread upon the lion and adder," is the same 
 Hebrew word as is elsewhere translated " asp." 
 
 The reptile referred to is that which we know as 
 the hooded cobra of Egypt. It is only to be 
 found in the wilder districts of Palestine, 
 though common enough south of Beersheba. 
 It lives in the holes of rocks or old walls. This 
 cobra is very susceptible to the charmer's 
 art, but there are some which defy all 
 attempts to soothe them, and these are called 
 " deaf " (Ps. 58.4), though they can hear well 
 enough. It is true that serpents have not a 
 keen sense of sound ; it is only sharp, shrill 
 notes, such as those produced by a flute, that 
 make any impression upon them. 
 
 Aspa'tha. One of the ten sons of Hainan 
 slain by the Jews (Esth. 9.7). 
 
 Asri'el. The son of Gilead, and great-grand- 
 son of Manasseh (Num. 26.31 ; Josh. 17.2). 
 The name occurs as Ashriel in 1 Ch. 7.14. 
 
 Asri'elites. Descendants of Asriel (Num. 
 26.31). 
 
 Ass. The frequency with which the ass is 
 mentioned in the Bible testifies to its extensive 
 use in Bible lands at all times. References to 
 the animal may be usefully grouped under five 
 heads, according to the Hebrew names for the 
 different sorts in the original. 
 
 1. The first is Chamor, the ordinary name for 
 the domestic ass, male or female, but more 
 properly the male. In eastern countries the ass 
 is a more valuable animal than with us, being 
 well cared for and considerably larger. It can 
 do a good day's journey at an easy canter or 
 trot, and it has a spirited and wide-awake 
 manner. The breed is carefully selected, and a 
 well-bred Syrian ass is worth 40. The Palestine 
 asses are the finest in the world. 
 
 The colour and markings of the domestic ass 
 are much the same everywhere, being a nearly 
 uniform drab. There is a white variety, however, 
 
ASSHUR, ASSUR] 
 
 39 
 
 [ASSYRIA, ASSHUR 
 
 in Syria which is greatly valued for its beauty, 
 though it is a delicate animal. Only kings 
 and the wealthy rode upon this ass, which was 
 found chiefly around Bagdad and Damascus. 
 Deborah and Barak address the mighty ones in 
 Israel as " ye that ride on white asses " (Judg. 
 5.10). 
 
 Amongstthe Jews the mosthonourable persons 
 rode upon asses. Asses were also used for 
 ploughing and the carrying of burdens. Abra- 
 ham went on his ass from Beersheba to Mount 
 Moriah (Gen. 22.3). See also Judg. 10.4 and 
 12.14. Women also rode on asses. Achsah 
 and Abigail are particularly mentioned as doing 
 so (Judg. 1.14 ; 1 Sam. 25.20). Though the ass 
 was reckoned a valuable possession, it was not 
 used for food, except in time of famine (2 K.Q.25), 
 being rendered unclean by the Mosaic Law, 
 because it did not chew the cud, and had an 
 undivided hoof. 
 
 2. The second word, Athon, is always rendered 
 44 she-ass." Balaam rode on a she-ass (Num. 
 22.23) ; the wealthy Shunammite saddled a 
 she-ass on her errand to Elisha (2 K. 4.24) ; 
 Saul sought the she-asses of Kish (1 Sam. 9.3) ; 
 and Jehdeiah had charge of David's she-asses 
 (1 Ch. 27.30). They were more valuable than 
 males, and we find that part of Job's wealth con- 
 sisted of a thousand she-asses. 
 
 3. The third term, Ajir, always signified a colt 
 or young ass, frequently used for riding (Judg. 
 10.4, 12.14). Our Saviour made His triumphal 
 entry into Jerusalem upon a colt, the foal of an 
 ass, and the animal selected was not typical 
 of meekness, as is generally supposed, but 
 honourable and suitable in dignity to bear the 
 King of Israel (Matt. 21.2, 5, 7). 
 
 4-5. The fourth and fifth terms,Pre and Arod, 
 are invariably rendered wild ass, though pro- 
 bably two different species are indicated 
 (Job 39.5 ; Ps. 104.11 ; /sat. 32.14; Jer. 2.24 ; 
 Dan. 5.21 ; Eos. 3.9). The wild ass is not now 
 met with in Palestine or Sinai, but, to judge from 
 the frequent mention of them, they must have 
 been plentiful in O.T. times. All wild asses 
 are swift runners, and roam over wide areas 
 in search of pasture. 
 
 Assh'ur, Assur. [ASSYRIA.] 
 
 Asshu'rim. Descendants from Dedan, the 
 grandson of Abraham (Gen. 25.3). 
 
 As'sir. Prisoner: a name frequent in the 
 family of Korah. 1. Son of Korah (Ex. 6.24; 
 1 Ch. 6.22). 2. Son of Ebiasaph, son of 
 Korah (1 Ch. 6.37). 3. Son of Ebiasaph, son 
 of Elkanah, Assir being thus nephew to 
 Samuel (1 Ch. 6.23). 4. Son of Jeconiah 
 (1 Ch. 3.17): but R.V. "Jeconiah the 
 captive." 
 
 As'sos. A town and seaport of the 
 Roman province of Asia, in the district 
 anciently called Mysia. It was situated on 
 the northern shore of the gulf of Adramyttium, 
 and was only about seven miles from the 
 opposite coast of Lesbos, near Methymna. A 
 good Roman road, connecting the towns of the 
 central part of the province with Alexandria 
 
 Troas, passed through Assos, the distance 
 between the two latter places being about 
 twenty miles. These geographical points 
 illustrate St. Paul's rapid passage through the 
 town, as mentioned in Acts 20.13, 14. The 
 ship in which he was to accomplish his voyage 
 from Troas to Coesarea went round Cape Lectum, 
 while he took the much shorter journey by land. 
 Thus he was able to join the ship without 
 difficulty, and in sufficient time for her to anchor 
 off Mitylene at the close of the day on which 
 Troas had been left. Many remains of the 
 ancient city still exist, including the citadel, 
 which commands a glorious view. The Street 
 of Tombs, leading to the Great Gate, is another 
 most remarkable feature. This once important 
 place is a small village, Bairam Kalessi. 
 
 [TBOAS.J 
 
 Assy'ria, Assh'ur. Asshur was one of the 
 grandsons of Noah (Gen. 10.11, 22), whom the 
 idolatry of later times raised to the position of 
 a god. The Assyrians often call their land 
 " the land of the god Assur " ; in the early period 
 the capital of the Empire was Assur (Kileh- 
 Shergat), and it is probable that from this city 
 the country took its name of Assyria. 
 
 Country and People. In ancient geography 
 Assyria is a country east of the Tigris, bounded 
 on the north by Armenia, on the east by Media, 
 and on the south by Susiana and Chaldea. The 
 country is watered by several rivers, the chief of 
 which is the Tigris [see HIDDEKEL]. The 
 southern and northern parts are mountainous, 
 though well adapted for pasturage and the 
 growth of fruit, corn, and cotton. In these 
 mountains Shalmaneser colonised the inhabit- 
 ants of Ephraim and Galilee, when he conquered 
 the ten tribes (2 K. 17). They are now inhabited 
 partly by Nestorians, whose forefathers em- 
 braced Christianity. The people have sunk 
 into a rude and superstitious ignorance. 
 
 According to Professor Sayce, Assur had 
 originally been the name, not of a country, but 
 of a city, founded in remote times on the Tigris, 
 which gave its name to the surrounding district. 
 It was built by a people akin to the modern 
 Turks, afterwards supplanted by the Semitic 
 Assyrians, a people allied in blood and language 
 to the Hebrews and Arabs. The name, which 
 originally signified 44 water boundary," was 
 slightly changed by the Assyrians, so as to 
 assume the form of a word which in Assyria 
 meant " gracious." Thus Assur became the 
 Divine impersonation of the power and con- 
 stitution of Assyria. 
 
 Assur (Kileh Sherghat) did not always 
 remain the capital, the seat of government 
 shifting to Nineveh, Calah, and Dur-Sargin, 
 now respectively known as Konyunjik, Nimrud, 
 and Khorsabad. Instead of Dur-Sargin, the 
 Book of Genesis mentions Resen 44 between 
 Nineveh and Calah " (Gen. 10.12). Of these 
 towns Nineveh at least is as old as Assur. The 
 rise of Assyria did not take place until the 
 Babylonian monarchy was already growing old. 
 Before, the country had been called Gutium 
 
ASSYRIA, ASSHUR] 
 
 40 
 
 [ASSYRIA, ASSHUR 
 
 (Kurdistan), a name that has been identified 
 with the Goyyim or " nations " of Gen. 14.1, 
 over which Tidal was king. There seems to 
 have been a time when the rulers of Assur were 
 mere governors appointed by the Babylonian 
 monarchs, for the earliest of whom we know 
 anything call themselves not " king," but 
 " viceroy." 
 
 It was the original possessors of the land, 
 generally termed Accadian, who invented the 
 cuneiform system of writing, founded the chief 
 cities of Babylonia, and erected the earliest 
 Babylonian monuments known [BABYLON]. 
 Though the Semitic invaders overcame the 
 Accadians, yet the latter long survived in their 
 language, which took the place that Latin does 
 amongst Europeans, and which every educated 
 Babylonian was expected to know. The Baby- 
 lonians were agriculturalists, the Assyrians a 
 military and trading people. 
 
 The Assyrian was simple in his habits, but 
 was cruel and ferocious, impaling and burning 
 alive the inhabitants of conquered cities. The 
 Assyrians were purely a military power, and 
 when their great stronghold of Nineveh was 
 destroyed, the nation itself was blotted out. 
 [ NINEVEH.] 
 
 History in Brief. For detailed history see 
 Sayce's Assyria, its Princes, Priests, and People; 
 Layard's Nineveh', Brit. Mus. Guide to Assyrian 
 Antiquities. 
 
 We know little of the early rulers of Assyria 
 except their names, the first real king (not 
 " viceroy " of Babylonia) being Bel-Kapkapi 
 (16th century B.C.). For some centuries their 
 history is occupied with the struggles with 
 Babylonia. Rimmon-nirari i. (1320 B.C.) has 
 left inscriptions recounting his wars. Calah 
 was founded by his son, and six generations of 
 his descendants followed on the throne. 
 
 Then came Tiglath-Pileser n., the founder of 
 the first Assyrian empire, who extended his 
 borders from Cilicia in the west to Kurdistan 
 in the east. When this conqueror reached the 
 Mediterranean, after overcoming the Hittites, 
 he symbolised his subjection of the sea by 
 embarking in a ship and killing a dolphin. He 
 embellished Nineveh, and in 1130 B.C. be- 
 sieged and took Babylon. [TIGLATH-PILESER. 
 Summary.] 
 
 But the conquests of Tiglath-Pileser were 
 lost during the following reigns, during which 
 time the kingdom of David and Solomon arose 
 and expanded. In the years 911-858 B.C., 
 however, the Assyrian empire revived once 
 more, the paths of the conquering monarchs 
 being marked by pross and horrible barbar- 
 ities, such as impalements and pyramids of 
 human heads. The armies of Assur-natsir- 
 pal overran Armenia, Mesopotamia, Hindostan, 
 Babylonia, Phoenicia, while those of Shal- 
 maneser n. (who subdued Hosh -a) further 
 extended the boundaries, and marked the 
 climax of the first Assyrian empire. On one 
 of the monuments of this king are figured the 
 tribute-bearers of " Jehu, son of Omri." To 
 
 protect themselves from Shalmaneser n. the 
 neighbouring kings formed a confederacy to 
 resist him. Among these " Ahab of Israel " 
 is mentioned as furnishing 2000 chariots and 
 10,000 infantry. [AHAB, BENHADAD n.] 
 
 Twelve years after, when Hazael, king of 
 Syria, was on the throne of Damascus, Shal- 
 maneser marched against him and besieged 
 Damascus. It was at this juncture that Jehu 
 arrived with offers of tribute and submission 
 [JEHU]. A revolt of twenty-seven cities, 
 including Nineveh and Assur, kept Shalmaneser 
 II. at home, and also his son and successor. 
 But Rimmon-nirari in. (810-781 B.C.) com- 
 pelled the Phoenicians, Israelites, Edomites, 
 and Philistines to pay him tribute. From this 
 time the empire decayed, until in the year 
 745 B.C. Pul seized the crown and called himself 
 Tiglath-Pileser iv., and founded the second 
 Assyrian empire. [PuL.] 
 
 This monarch greatly strengthened Assyria, 
 and inaugurated a policy of extension and 
 consolidation successfully carried on by his 
 successors. Such was the terror of his name, 
 that the petty kings Eniel of Hamath, Uzziah 
 of Judah, Rezin of Syria, Hiram of Tyre, Pisiris 
 of Carchemish, and Menahem of Samaria, 
 hastened to render bim homage (see 2 K. 15.19). 
 
 About this time Ahaz was hard pressed by 
 Rezin arid Pekah, who had combined to over- 
 throw the house of Judah. He called to Tiglath- 
 Pileser for aid, with the result that Syria became 
 an Assyrian province, the tribes beyond the 
 Jordan were carried into captivity, and Damas- 
 cus destroyed. Ahaz attended when all the 
 defeated kings and princes were doing homage 
 to the conqueror (2 K. 16.10). 
 
 The next great Assyrian monarch was Sargon 
 (who was the successor to Shalmaneser iv.), 
 whose empire, at the height of his power, 
 reached from the Mediterranean to the Persian 
 Gulf, local kings paying tribute and doing 
 homage. Sargon overran Palestine, captured 
 Jerusalem, and burnt Ashdod (Isai. 20.1). 
 Sargon was murdered, and succeeded by his son 
 Sennacherib. [SAEGON, HEZEKIAH.] 
 
 Sennacherib was chiefly occupied in retaining 
 possession of the territories acquired by his 
 predecessors. We have a long inscription of 
 his doings against Ilezekiah, but nothing about 
 the disaster which befell his army before Jeru- 
 salem (2 K. 19), a blow so severe that he never 
 recovered from it, though he was able once 
 more to recapture revolted Babylon, and give 
 it up to fire and sword. In 681 B.C. he was 
 murdered by his two elder sons. 
 
 Esar-haddon had to fight his brothers for 
 the throne. He was a military genius, though 
 not so ruthless as his predecessors. He con- 
 quered Egypt, rebuilt Babylon, whence 
 Manasseh (which see) of Judah was brought to 
 him a prisoner (2 Ch. 33.11). He occupied the 
 border of Media, and the island of Cyprus paid 
 him tribute. 
 
 Assur-bani-pal is probably the " great and 
 noble" Asnapper of Ezra 4.10. He was 
 
ASSYRIA, ASSHUR] 
 
 41 
 
 [ASSYRIA, ASSHUR 
 
 luxurious in his habits, fond of literature, and 
 left the conduct of his troops to generals, who 
 extended the empire to its widest limits. But 
 a rebellion, headed by his brother (652 B.C.), 
 ended in the loss of Egypt and the semi-in- 
 dependence of Babylonia, the governors of 
 which acted rather as sovereigns than viceroys, 
 until Nebopolassar and Nebuchadnezzar (which 
 see) threw off all semblance of submission. 
 [BABYLON.] 
 
 The last Assyrian king, Esar-haddon u., saw 
 his empire melt away until the doom, pro- 
 nounced so long before by God's prophets 
 against Nineveh, became a fact. 
 
 Religion. The Assyrian gods were of Baby- 
 lonish origin. The Accadians believed that 
 every object and phenomenon of Nature had 
 its spirit, nearly always malevolent, and only 
 to be appeased by charm and exorcism, the 
 knowledge of which was in the hands of the 
 priests, so that priest and magician were almost 
 synonymous terms. The greater gods were 
 Anu, " the sky " ; Bel, " the earth " ; Ea, 
 " the deep." Then there were in order of rank, 
 the moon-god, the sun-god, the evening star, 
 and other planets. Later, however, the sun- 
 god took highest rank, and was addressed as 
 Bel or Baal, the supreme " lord." Bettis, or 
 Bilat, his wife, was the feminine complement 
 of Bel [ASHTOBETH]. Merodach was likewise 
 known as Bel, the offspring of Sar and Kisar, 
 the upper and lower firmaments. Merodach 
 was a beneficent god, ever engaged in com- 
 bating the powers of evil. Nebo was his son, 
 and the god of literature, the inventor of the 
 cuneiform writing. His worship was carried 
 as far as Canaan [NEBO, Ezra 2.29 ; MOUNT 
 NEBO, Lent. 32.49]. 
 
 Rimmon, " the thunderer," was the god of 
 rain and storm, armed with lightning. Istar 
 (Ashtoreth), " the queen of heaven," was adored 
 under many titles and forms. She was also 
 the Astarte and Aphrodite of the Greeks. Two 
 other principal deities were Nergal and Adar, 
 the latter being the god referred to in 2 K. 17.31, 
 under the name of Adram-melech," king Adar." 
 
 Both the Babylonians and Assyrians possessed 
 a liturgy, containing services for particular 
 days arid seasons, one of the most curious 
 things in this " Prayer-book " being a prayer 
 after a bad dream. They also possessed a 
 collection of penitential psalms. Fast days 
 were observed, and days of humiliation 
 for times of national disaster. The very name 
 Sabattu was employed by the Assyrians, 
 who called it " a day of rest for the heart," 
 " a day of completion of labour." 
 
 They believed in a future life. Hades, the 
 land of the dead, was a place of gloom and 
 darkness, where the spirits of the dead flitted 
 like bats, with dust for their food, until they 
 had drunk of the waters of life, which bubbled 
 from the golden throne of Allat, the queen of 
 the under world, when they were restored to 
 life and the upper air. 
 
 Assyrian religion arid mythology were in- 
 
 extricably mixed together. There was more 
 than one legend of the creation, one bearing a 
 remarkable resemblance to that in Genesis. 
 The story of the Deluge was a favourite theme 
 among the Babylonians. [BABYLONIA.] 
 
 There were great contrasts in Assyrian religion. 
 They were grossly polytheistic, having hundreds 
 of gods, and even worshipping deified spirits of 
 men. Yet there was a strong tendency to 
 monotheism, the supreme god being Assur. 
 The Assyrian confessed his sins to his gods, and 
 begged for pardon and help, yet his worship 
 was stained with the foulest excesses, though 
 the higher minds struggled towards the con- 
 ception of one supreme God. 
 
 Art, Literature, Science, Assyrian palaces 
 and temples were built of brick (a practice 
 copied from Babylon), and lined with sculptured 
 slabs of alabaster. (For particulars see NINEVEH, 
 etc.) The palaces were of one story, built 
 on terraces, and surrounded by gardens or 
 parks. 
 
 Sculpture was generally in relief, figures 
 being drawn in profile, and often showing great 
 spirit. The Assyrians were clever carvers in 
 ivory, and the richly engraved backgrounds 
 of their sculptures repeat the minute and 
 exact work found on the ivory. The sculptures 
 were generally richly, if crudely, coloured in red, 
 black, blue, and white tints. 
 
 Literature consisted chiefly of translations 
 from Accadian originals, written in the cunei- 
 form character on clay and stone (WRITING, 
 BABYLON), though papyrus was used as well. 
 Education was widely spread, and there seemed 
 to be few who could not read and write the 
 simplified script in use for all ordinary purposes. 
 The clay books were small, and the writing 
 sometimes so minute that it was done with 
 the aid of magnifying lenses of crystal, one of 
 which has been found on the site of the library 
 of Nineveh. All the great cities of the empire 
 had libraries, which afforded occupation to a 
 large number of scribes. In later time-! 
 Aramaic was the common language of com- 
 merce and diplomacy, a fact that explains 
 how it was that the Jews, after the Babylonish 
 captivity, gave up their own language in 
 favour of Aramaic, a tongue that was known 
 and taught all over the neighbouring countries. 
 
 The Assyrians were great believers in astrology, 
 and many were skilled astronomers. These 
 produced an original work on astronomy of 
 seventy- two books in 3800 B.C. A longer work 
 on omens (one hundred and thirty-seven books) 
 was compiled for Sargon i. Treatises on agricul- 
 ture, poems, psalms, and songs have been found 
 in the library of Nineveh, as well as contracts 
 and other trading documents. Mathematics 
 and medicine were well advanced. 
 
 Dress, etc. The Assyrian dress differed little 
 from that of the Oriental of to-day (DRESS). 
 The king's tiara resembled the triple tiara of 
 the Pope, and his robe was richly embroidered 
 and fringed. The dress of the common people 
 was simple, consisting of a tunic, or jacket 
 
ASSYEIA, ASSHUE] 
 
 [ASTAETE 
 
 The soldiers in addition wore kilts and sandals, 
 the cavalry boots. [SHOES, ARMS, ARMOUR.] 
 
 The Assyrians made use of tables, chairs, and 
 couches. They were fond of good food, though 
 the common people lived mostly on bread, 
 fruit, and vegetables. Wine was widely drunk. 
 It was made from grapes, grown ne*r Damascus, 
 and from dates. Beer, milk, ci<?am, butter, 
 and oil were all much used. 
 
 Polygamy was permitted, though ^ot general, 
 and slaves were plentiful, being provided from 
 the captives of the army. A camet was worth 
 half a shekel of silver, but a slave much less. 
 Wives could sometimes be bought. 
 
 Trade. The Assyrians were great traders, 
 and their monarchs went to war to secure the 
 commerce of the world to themselves. The 
 contract tablets that have been found in such 
 abundance have to do with the sale and lease 
 of houses, slaves, and other property, and also 
 the amount of interest for loans, often as low 
 as four per cent. All these deeds were attested 
 by witnesses, who used seals or their nail- 
 marks. The document was then enclosed in an 
 outer covering of clay. Until the time of 
 Nebuchadnezzar payments were by weight, as 
 there was no coinage until his reign. 
 
 For more of detail see the Assyrian monarchs 
 under their names, also the various towns, 
 rivers, etc. 
 
 The chief references to Assyria are as follows : 
 Famous for fertility (2 K. 18.32 ; Isai. 36.17) ; 
 for commerce (Ezek. 27.23, 24) ; idolatrous 
 (2 K. 19.37) ; oppressive (Isai. 52.4) ; instru- 
 ment of Divine anger (Isai. 10.5) ; alliance 
 therewith condemned (Jer. 2.18-36; Ezek. 
 16.28, 23 ; Eos. 5.13, 7.11, 8.9) ; impotent to 
 avert Divine judgments (Eos. 5.13, 10.6, 14.3); 
 fall foretold (Isai. 10.5-19; Ezek. 31.3-17; 
 Nah; Zeph. 2.13-15). Referred to in Gen. 
 2.14, 25.18) ; and by Balaam (Num. 
 24.22-24). Shalmaneser's march of conquest 
 opposed by Hazael and Benhadad, kings of 
 Damascus ; Jehu, king of Israel, made tri- 
 butary ; Menahem made tributary by Pul 
 (2 K. 15.19) ; tribes east of Jordan and some 
 of northern Israelites carried away captive 
 (2 K. 15.29; 1 Ch. 5.26). Tiglath-pileser 
 requested by Ahaz, king of Judah, to aid him 
 against Israel (2 K. 16.7-10 ; 2 Ch. 28.16-21) ; 
 Tiglath-pileser refused, but took Damascus and 
 destroyed the kingdom of Syria (2 K. 16.9), 
 as foretold (Isai. 8.4 ; Amos 1.5). Shalmaneser 
 ii. subdued Hoshea, king of Israel, and made 
 him tributary ; on his revolt, after three years' 
 siege of Samaria, Sargon carried Israel into 
 captivity (2 K. 17.3-6, 18.9-11), as foretold 
 (Eos. 9.3, 10.6, 11.5). In Sargon's reign the 
 Tartan, or general, successfully attacked 
 Ashdod, Egypt, and Ethiopia (Isai. 20.1-4; 
 Nah. 3.8-10) ; and (probably) overran Judah 
 (see Isai. 10.5-34, 22.1-14). Under Sen- 
 nacherib, Hezekiah, king of Judah, refused 
 tribute (2 K. 18.7) ; but on a renewed Assyrian 
 invasion submitted (2 K. 18.14-16) ; Jerusalem 
 nevertheless invested, but its overthrow averted 
 
 by the rumour of the approach of the king of 
 Ethiopia, and by destruction of a great part of 
 the Assyrian army (2 K. 18.17-37, 19; 2 Ch. 
 32.1-22 ; Isai. 36 and 37) ; Sennacherib returned 
 to Nineveh, where he was killed by his sons 
 (2 K. 19.36, 37 ; Isai. 37.37, 38). Under 
 Esarhaddon (reigning at Babylon) Manasseh, 
 king of Judah, was taken to Babylon, but 
 ultimately restored to his throne (2 Ch. 33.11- 
 13) ; idolatrous colonists from distant pro- 
 vinces were settled in Samaria (2 K. 17.24 29 ; 
 Ezra 4.2, 9, 10). Return of Israel from Assyria 
 foretold (Isai. 27.13 ; Eos. 11.11 ; Zech. 10.10). 
 Many Biblical names occur in inscriptions on 
 remains found on site of Nineveh, among others 
 those of the Jewish kings Jehu, Menahem, and 
 Hezekiah. 
 Astar'oth (R.V. Ashtaroth). Deut. 1.4. 
 
 [ASHTAROTH, ASHTEBOTH-KABNAIM.] 
 
 Astrologer. The practice of foretelling 
 future events from the aspects, influences, and 
 positions of the heavenly bodies found much 
 favour among the ancients, with perhaps the 
 exception of the Hebrews. The word is com- 
 pounded of Aster (a star) and Logos (a word or 
 discourse). Though there was much of knavery 
 and quackery amongst the astrologers, especially 
 when they pretended to forecast the future from 
 an observation of the stars, which they supposed 
 had an influence upon the affairs of men, yet 
 they have transmitted much useful knowledge 
 to later centuries, and were the founders of the 
 modern science of astronomy. 
 
 An evidence that an attempt was made at a 
 very early period to regulate the year by the 
 annual revolution of the sun is shown in the 
 fact that the Jewish months were divided into 
 thirty days each (Gen. 7.11, 8.4). In astronomy 
 the Egyptians, Babylonians, and Phoenicians 
 exhibited great superiority. We are informed 
 there were magicians or enchanters in Egypt 
 (Er. 7.11 ; Lev. 19.31, 20.27 ; Deut. 18.20), who 
 computed eclipses of the sun and moon, and 
 pretended to the people that they produced 
 them by enchantment. Some of the constella- 
 tions are mentioned in Job (9.9, 38.31, 32), 
 in Isai. (13.10), in Amos (5.8) ; and in 2 K. 
 (23.5). 
 
 It is by no means a matter of wonder that the 
 Hebrews did not devote greater attention to 
 astronomy, since the study of astrology, which 
 was very highly developed among the heathen, 
 was interdicted to them (Lev. 20.27; Deut. 
 18.10; Isai. 47.9; Jer. 27.9 ; Dan. 2.13,48). 
 Daniel indeed studied the art of astrology at 
 Babylon, but he did not practise it (Dan. 1.20 
 2.2). The astrologers (the " wise men," 
 " Magi," of Matt. 2, were such) divided the 
 heavens into apartments or habitations, to 
 each one of which divisions they assigned a 
 ruler or president. This fact may perhaps 
 explain the origin of the word Beelzebub, or 
 the lord of the (celestial) dwelling (Matt. 10.25, 
 12.24-27; Mk. 3.22; Lk. 11.15-19). [MAOi, 
 SORCERERS, WISE MEN OP THE EAST.] 
 
 Astar'te. [ASHTORETH.] 
 
ASUPPIM, HOUSE OF] 
 
 [ATONEMENT, THE DAY OF 
 
 Asnp'pim, House of. H.V. The storehouse : it 
 was the name given to certain store-chambers, 
 probably of precious things, in the outer court 
 of the Temple near the southern gate (1 Ch. 
 26.15, 17). 
 
 Asyn'critus. Incomparable : a Christian at 
 Rome, saluted by Paul (Rom. 16.14). 
 
 A'tad. Thorn : a spot beyond Jordan at 
 
 ' which Joseph and his brethren, on their way 
 
 from Egypt to Hebron, made their seven days' 
 
 great and very sore mourning over the body of 
 
 Jacob (Gen. 50.10, 11). [ABEL-MIZRAIM.] 
 
 Ata'rah. Crown: wife of Jerahmeel, and 
 mother of Onam (1 Ch. 2.26). 
 
 Ata'roth. Crowns : the name of several 
 places in Palestine : 1. One of the towns in the 
 " land of Jazer and land of Gilead," built by 
 the tribe of Gad (Num. 32.3 and 34). 2. A place 
 on the south boundary of Ephraim and Manasseh 
 (Josh. 16.7). 3. Ataroth-Adar or Ataroth- 
 Addar ( Josh. 16.2, 5, 18.13), on the west border 
 of Benjamin. 4. Ataroth, the house of Joab 
 (1 Ch. 2.54). 
 
 A'ter. Bound : 1. A family of gate-keepers of 
 the Temple who returned with Zerubbabel (Ezra 
 2.42). 2. Ancestor of a family who came up 
 with Zerubbabel (Ezra 2.16 ; Neh. 7.21), and 
 who signed the covenant with Nehemiah (Neh. 
 10.17). 
 
 Ath'ach. One of the towns in the south of 
 Judah. One of David's haunts, to which David 
 sent a portion of the Amalekite spoil (1 Sam. 
 30.30). 
 
 Athii'ah. A descendant of Pharez, who 
 dwelt at Jerusalem after the return (Neh. 11.4). 
 He appears as Uthai in 1 Ch. 9.4. 
 
 Athali'ah. Jah is great : 1. Daughter of 
 Ahab and Jezebel, who married Jehoram, son of 
 Jehoshaphat, king of Judah, and introduced 
 into the south kingdom the worship of Baal, 
 which had already overspread Israel. After 
 the accession of Jehu to the throne of Samaria, 
 she killed all the members (save one) of the royal 
 family of Judah who had escaped his sword 
 (2 K. 10.14). That one was an infant named 
 Joash, the youngest son of Ahaziah, who was 
 rescued by his aunt Jehosheba, daughter of 
 Jehoram (probably by another wife than 
 Athaliah), who had married Jehoiada (2 Ch. 
 22.11), the high priest (2 Ch. 22.11). The child 
 was brought up under Jehoiada's care, and 
 concealed in the Temple for six years, during 
 which period Athaliah reigned over Judah. 
 But at the end of that time Jehoiada produced 
 to the people their lawful king, and in "the house 
 of the Lord " he received the allegiance of the 
 soldiers of the guard. On the Sabbath day a 
 third of these troops did duty at the palace, and 
 the remaining two-thirds restrained the crowd 
 of visitors and worshippers who thronged the 
 Temple. The Sabbath day, therefore, was 
 chosen for the execution of the design. 
 Athaliah, who did not worship in the house of 
 the Lord, was first roused to a sense of her 
 danger by the shouts and music which accom- 
 panied the inauguration of her grandson. She 
 
 arrived on the scene too late, and was 
 immediately put to death by Jehoiada's com- 
 mand without " the house of the Lord " (2 .11). 
 
 2. A Benjamite, a son of Jeroham (1 Ch. 8.26). 
 
 3. The father of Jeshaiah (Ezra 8.7). 
 Atharim(R.V.)(A T ttm. 21.1). (?) Tracks, the 
 
 caravan route. The A.V. translates it "the 
 spies." It is perhaps the way going up 
 to Hormah (Num. 13.21-25). 
 
 Athe'nians. The people of Athens (Acts 
 17.21). 
 
 Ath'ens. The most celebrated city of ancient 
 Greece. St. Paul visited it in his journey from 
 Macedonia, and appears to have remained there 
 some time (Acts 17). In his days Athens was 
 a free city (i.e. free from paying tribute), of the 
 Roman province of Achaia. During St. Paul's 
 residence there he delivered his memorable dis- 
 course on or before the Areopagus (which see) 
 to the men of Athens. The remark of the sacred 
 historian respecting the inquisitive character 
 of the Athenians (Acts 17.21) is borne out by 
 many other writers. The great Athenian 
 orator, Demosthenes, rebukes his countrymen 
 for their love of constantly going about in the 
 market and asking one another, What news ? 
 Their natural liveliness was partly owing to the 
 purity and clearness of the atmosphere, which 
 also allowed them to pass much of their time 
 in the open air. The people, as St. Paul remarks, 
 were somewhat superstitious ; and the city was 
 crowded in every direction with temples, altars, 
 and other sacred buildings. [Tns ' UNKNOWN 
 GOD."] 
 
 St. Paul disputed with the Jews in a synagogue 
 of the city (Acts 17.17). Of the Christian 
 Church founded by the apostle in Athens we 
 have no particulars in the N.T., but according 
 to tradition, Dionysius the Areopagite, who was 
 converted by the preaching of St. Paul, was the 
 first bishop of the Church. 
 
 Ath'lai. One of the sons of Bebai, who 
 married a strange woman, but put her away 
 at the bidding of Ezra (Ezra 10.28). 
 
 Atonement, The Day of. The great day of 
 national humiliation among the children of 
 Israel. The mode of its observance is de- 
 scribed in Lev. 16. The victims offered are 
 enumerated in Num. 29.7-11, and the conduct 
 of the people is emphatically enjoined in Lev. 
 23.26-32 and Num. 29.7-11. It was kept on 
 the tenth day of the seventh month, five days 
 before the Feast of Tabernacles [FEASTS]. 
 It was only on the Day of Atonement that the 
 high priest was permitted to enter into the 
 holy of holies. A significant part of the 
 ceremony consisted in the presentation of 
 two goats before the Lord at the door of the 
 Tabernacle. Lots were cast ; one of the goats 
 was slain, and its blood sprinkled before the 
 mercy-seat ; the other goat, the scapegoat, was 
 led away to the wilderness. But before that, 
 according to theMishna, the high priest uttered 
 the following prayer over its head : " Lord, 
 I have committed, trespassed, and sinned 
 before The, I and my house and the sons of 
 
ATROTE] 
 
 44 
 
 [AZANIAH 
 
 Aaron, Thy holy people. I beseech Thee, O 
 Lord, forgive now their trespasses, rebellions, 
 and sins which I have committed, trespassed, 
 and sinned before Thee, I and my house and (he 
 sons of Aaron, Thy holy people, as it is written 
 in the law of Moses, Thy servant, saying 'in 
 that day there shall be an atonement for you 
 to cleanse you, that ye may be clean from all 
 your sins before the Lord.' " In the law itself 
 no express mention is made of abstinence from 
 food ; but fasting is most likely implied in the 
 command that the people were " to afflict their 
 souls." In later days, in the time of the second 
 Temple, every Jew (except invalids and children 
 under thirteen years of age) was forbidden to 
 eat anything so large as a date, to drink, or to 
 wash, from sunset to sunset. 
 
 The goat which was slain was " for Jehovah," 
 and the other one which was led away was " for 
 Azazel" (margin of Lev. 16.8). There has been 
 much discussion as to the interpretation of 
 Azazel (which see), but it is clear that, in this 
 symbolic act, the sins of the people were banished 
 into the wilderness. The peculiar atoning virtue 
 of the day was symbolised in the scapegoat. 
 Further, the white garments of the high priest 
 and his entrance into the Holy of Holies have a 
 deep evangelical significance, which is brought 
 out by the writer of the Epistle to the Hebrews 
 (Heb. 9.7-28). The high priest, with his person 
 cleansed and dressed in white garments, was 
 himself the best outward type which a holy 
 man could present in his own person of that 
 pure and holy One who was to purify His 
 people and to cleanse them from their sins. 
 The sins were laid, symbolically, on the back 
 of the goat, just as, in days to come, they were 
 to be laid in fact and reality upon Christ. 
 
 At'roth (R.V. Atroth-Shophan). A city of Gad 
 (Num. 32.35). [ATAROTH, SHOPHAN.] 
 
 At'tai. Reasonable : 1. Grandson of Sheshan 
 the Jerahmeelite (1 Ch. 2.35, 36). His grand- 
 son, Zabad, was one of David's mighty men 
 (1 Ch. 11.41). 2. One of the lion-faced warriors 
 of Gad, captains of the host. He forded the 
 swollen Jordan to join David in the wilderness 
 (1 Ch. 12.11). 3. Second son of king Rehoboam 
 (2 Ch. 11.20), and grandson of Solomon. 
 
 Attali'a. A coast-town of Pamphylia men- 
 tioned in the N.T. (Acts 14.25), as the place from 
 which Paul and Barnabas sailed on their return 
 to Antioch from their missionary journey. 
 It is now called Adalia, and sometimes Antalia. 
 It occupies a fine site, and is the chief port on the 
 south coast of Asia Minor. It was built origin- 
 ally by Attalus, king of Pergamos, as a port 
 for the trade of Egypt and Syria. 
 
 Augury. [DIVINATION.] ' 
 
 Augustus. The name occurs thrice in the 
 N.T. " There went out a decree from Caesar 
 Augustus, that all the world should be taxed 
 IOT enrolled) " (Lk. 2.1). Augustus here 
 designates Octavian. the grand-nephew of 
 Julius Caesar, who, after a considerable amount 
 of struggle and fighting, became emperor of 
 Rome in 29 B.C. He was the first of the 
 
 emperors to bear the name Augustus, which 
 was conferred upon him by the Senate, 27 B.C., 
 to imply that he was worthy of religious ven- 
 eration. In the other two passages (Acts 25.21, 
 25) Augustus simply signifies the emperor, who 
 was at that time Nero (R.V. " the emperor "). 
 
 Augustus' Band (R.V. Augustan Band). 
 Roman soldiers (Acts 27.1). [ARMY.] 
 
 Authorised Version. [VERSIONS.] 
 
 A'va (R.V. Awa). A place in Assyria, on 
 the Euphrates, from which colonies were brought 
 to re-people Samaria after the Jews had been 
 carried into captivity (2 K. 17.24). Probably 
 the same as Ivah (R.V. Ivvah), 18.34. 
 
 A'ven. Nothingness : l.The " plain of Aven " 
 is mentioned by Amos (1.5) in his denunciation 
 of Aram (Syria), and the country to the north 
 of Palestine. It has been identified with the 
 great plain of Lebanon, Coelesyria, in which 
 the renowned idol temple of Baalbek or 
 Heliopolis was situated. 2. Town of Samaria, a 
 contraction of Beth-aven, that is, Bethel (Eos. 
 10.8). 3. Identical with On, Beth-shemesh, 
 or Heliopolis, the sacred city of Egypt (Ezek. 
 30.17). 
 
 Avenger of Blood. [BLOOD.] (See Deut. 
 19.6.) 
 
 A'vim, Av'vim, A'vites (R.V. Awites). 
 1. An early people among the inhabitants of 
 Palestine. They dwelt in villages or nomad 
 encampments in the south part of the Shefela, or 
 great western lowland, as far as Gaza. In 
 these rich possessions they were attacked by the 
 invading Philistines, " the Caphtorim which 
 came forth out of Caphtor," who destroyed 
 them and dwelt in their stead (Deut. 2.23). The 
 remnant of them is spoken of in Josh. 13.3,4 as 
 dwelling south of the Philistines. They have 
 been identified with the Hivites (which see). 
 2. The inhabitants of AVA (2 K. 17.31). 
 
 A'vith. Ruins : the chief city of Hadad ben- 
 Bedad, one of the kings of Edom before there 
 were kings in Israel (Gen. 36.35 ; 1 Ch. 1.46). 
 
 Aul. The form of this instrument is not 
 known, but that it was similar to our brad -awl is 
 evident from the use made of it in Ex. 21.6 ; 
 Deut. 15.17. [BOND-SERVANT.] 
 
 Axe. Several varieties of this article are 
 mentioned in the Bible. One variety consisted 
 of a head of iron fastened with thongs upon a 
 handle of wood (Deut. 19.5 ; 2 K. 6.5), liable to 
 slip off. Another variety seems to be of the 
 pickaxe order (Ex. 20.25 ; Ezek. 26.9). The 
 instrument referred to in the margin of Isai. 
 44.12, and in Jer. 10.3, seems to have been a 
 curved knife or bill, used both by the ironsmith 
 and the carpenter. The " battle-axe " of Jer. 
 51.20 was probably a heavy mace or maul. 
 
 A'zal (R.V. Azel). Declivity, slope: the 
 limit to which the ravine or cleft of the Mount 
 of Olives will extend when Jehovah shall go 
 forth to fight (Zech. 14.5). 
 
 Azali'ah. Jehovah hath set apart : the father 
 of Shaphan, the scribe under Josiah (2 K. 22.3 ; 
 2 Ch. 34.8). 
 
 Azani'ah. Jehovah hath heard : see Neh. 10.9. 
 
AZARAEL] 
 
 45 
 
 [AZMAVETH 
 
 Aza'rael. God is helper : a Levite musician 
 who assisted in the solemn dedication of the 
 wall (Neh. 12.36). 
 
 Aza'reel (R.V. Azarel). God is helper : 1. A 
 Korhite who joined David at Ziklag (1 Ch. 
 12.6). 2. A Levite musician of the family of 
 Heman, in the time of David (1 Ch. 25.18). 3. 
 Son of Jeroham, and prince of the tribe of Dan 
 when David numbered the people (1 Ch. 27.22). 
 4. One of the sons of Bani, who put away his 
 foreign wife (Ezra 10.41). 5. Father of Amashai, 
 a priest who returned from Babylon (Neh. 
 11.13). 
 
 Azari'ah. Whom Jehovah hath helped: a 
 common Hebrew name, specially in the families 
 of Eleazar. The following are among the 
 principal persons who bore the name : 1. The 
 high priest who succeeded his grandfather 
 Zadok (1 K. 4.2). He officiated at the con- 
 secration of the Temple, and was the first high 
 priest that ministered in it. 
 
 2. High priest in the reigns of Abijah and 
 Asa (1 Ch. 6.10, 11). 
 
 3. High priest in the reign of Uzziah, tenth 
 king of Judah. The most memorable event 
 of his life is recorded in 2 Ch. 26.17-20. When 
 King Uzziah took it upon himself to burn 
 incense upon the altar in the Temple, Azariah, 
 accompanied by eighty of his brethren, boldly 
 withstood him. For his presumption Uzziah 
 was smitten with leprosy. Azariah was con- 
 temporary with Isaiah, Amos, and Joel. 
 
 4. The high priest in the days of Hezekiah 
 (2 Ch. 31.10-13). He specially interested him- 
 self in providing chambers in the Temple in 
 which to store the tithes and offerings and 
 consecrated things for the use of the priests and 
 Levites. The attendance of these, and the main- 
 tenance of the services, depended entirely upon 
 the supply of such offerings, and whenever the 
 people neglected them the priests and Levites 
 were forced to disperse themselves to their 
 villages, and so the House of God was deserted 
 (Neh. 10.35-39 ; 12.27-30, 44,47). 
 
 5. One of the leaders of the children of the pro- 
 vince who went up with Zerubbabel from Babylon 
 (Neh. 7.7), elsewhere called Seraiah (Ezra 2.2). 
 
 6. One of the priests who repaired a portion 
 of the wall (Neh. 3.23, 24). 
 
 7. A Levite who assisted Ezra in instructing 
 the people in the knowledge of the law (Neh. 8.7). 
 
 8. One of the priests who sealed the covenant 
 with Nehemiah (Neh. 10.2), and probably the 
 same as the Azariah who assisted in the dedica- 
 tion of the city wall (Neh. 12.33). 
 
 9. A chief officer of Solomon, the son of 
 Nathan, perhaps David's grandson (1 K. 4.5). 
 
 10. Son of Jehoshaphat, king of Judah. 
 (2 Ch. 21.2). 
 
 11. The original name of Abed-nego (Dan. 1), 
 selected with Daniel and others for a special 
 service of Nebuchadnezzar. He refused to coun- 
 tenance idolatry, and was cast with others into 
 a fiery furnace, but was miraculously delivered. 
 
 12. The son of Oded, and a prophet in the 
 days of king Asa. He persuaded the king, with 
 
 the people of Judah and Benjamin, to put 
 away idolatry and restore the altar of the one 
 true God before the porch of the Temple. Great 
 numbers of ^Israelites from the sister kingdom 
 joined in the* reformation, and a season of peace 
 and great prosperity ensued (2 Ch. 15). 
 
 13. The son of Jeroham, and one of the 
 captains of Judah in the time of Athaliah 
 (2 Ch. 23.1). 
 
 14. One of the captains of Ephraim in the 
 reign of Ahaz, who sent back the captives and 
 spoil that were taken in the invasion of Judah 
 by Pekah (2 Ch. 28.12). 
 
 A'zaz. Strong : a Reubenite, Bela's father 
 (1 Ch. 5.8). 
 
 Aza'zel [ATONEMENT, DAT OF]. In the 
 ritual of the Day of Atonement one goat is for 
 Jehovah and the other " for Azazel " (Lev. 
 16.8, 10, 26). The A.V. renders this " for the 
 scapegoat," the R.V. retains the proper name, 
 with marg. " for dismissal." The contrast with 
 " for Jehovah " suggests a personal name of 
 some evil spirit haunting the wilderness. Deriva- 
 tion uncertain. 
 
 Azazi'ah. Whom Jehovah hath strengthened : 
 
 1. A Levite appointed to the musical service 
 when the ark was brought up from the house of 
 Obed-Edom (1 Ch. 15.21). 2. The father of 
 Hoshea, prince of the tribe of Ephraim, when 
 David numbered the people (1 Ch. 27.20). 3. 
 One of the Levites in the reign of Hezekiah 
 (2 Ch. 31.13). 
 
 Az'buk. Pardon : father, or at least ancestor, 
 of Nehemiah, a prince of Bethzur (Neh. 3.16). 
 
 Aze'kah. A town of Judah,with independent 
 villages, lying in the Shefelah or rich agricultural 
 plain. Joshua's pursuit of the Canaanites after 
 the battle of Beth-horon extended to Azekah 
 (Josh. 10.10, 11). Between Azekah and 
 Shochoh, the Philistines encamped before the 
 battle in which Goliath was killed (1 Sam. 17.1). 
 It was among the cities fortified by Rehoboam 
 (2 Ch. 11.9), and is mentioned as one of the 
 places re-occupied by the Jews after their 
 return from captivity (Neh. 11.30). 
 
 A'zel. -Noble : a descendant of Saul (1 Ch. 
 8.37, 38 ; 9.43). [AZAL.] 
 
 A'zem (R.V. Ezem). A city in the extreme 
 south of Judah, afterwards allotted to Simeon 
 (Josh. 15.29 ; 19.3). In 1 Ch. 4.29, Ezem. 
 
 Az'gad. God is strong : the children of Azgad 
 were among " the men of the people of Israel " 
 who returned with Zerubbabel (Ezra 2.12 ; Neh. 
 7.17). A second contingent of one hundred and 
 ten, led by Johanan, returned with Ezra (Ezra 
 8.12). With the other heads of the people they 
 joined in the covenant with Nehemiah (Neh. 
 10.15). 
 
 Azi'el. God is might : a Levite in the choral 
 service of the Tabernacle at the time the ark was 
 brought up from the house of Obed-Edom 
 (1 Ch. 15.20). The name is a shortened form of 
 Jaaziel (ver. 18). 
 
 Azma'veth. Death is strong: 1. One of 
 David's mighty men (2 Sam. 23.31 ; 1 Ch. 11.33). 
 
 2. A descendant of Mephibosheth or Merib- 
 
AZMON] 
 
 46 
 
 [BAALAH 
 
 baal (1 Ch. 8.36). 3. The father of Jeziel and 
 Pelet, two of the skilled slingers and archers who 
 joined David at Ziklag (1 Ch. 12.3). 4. Overseer 
 of the royal treasures in the reign of David 
 (1 Ch. 27.25). 5. A village lying on the con- 
 fine ^ of Judah and Benjamin, now Hizmeh. 
 Forty-two of the Beni-Azmaveth returned 
 from the captivity with Zerubbabel (Ezra 
 2.24). The name elsewhere occurs as Beth- 
 Azmaveth. 
 
 Az'mon. Fortress ; a place in the south of 
 Judah, near the torrent of Egypt, not yet 
 identified (Num. 34.4, 5 ; Josh. 15.4) 
 
 Az'noth-Tabor. Ears or -peaks of Tabor : 
 two hills on the borders of Naphtali (Josh. 19.34). 
 
 A'zor. An ancestor of our Lord (Matt. 
 1.13, 14). 
 
 Azo'tus. Greek form of Ashdod (which see). 
 Now Esdud (Acts 8.40). 
 
 Azri'el. God is helper: 1. The head of a 
 family of the half-tribe of Manasseh, east of the 
 Jordan (1 Ch. 5.24). 2. Ancestor of Jerimoth, 
 the head of the tribe of Naphtali at the time of 
 David's census (1 Ch. 27.19). 3. The father of 
 Seraiah, an officer of Jehoiakim, who was sent to 
 take Baruch (Jer. 36.26). 
 
 Azri'kam. 1. A son of Neariah, and de- 
 scendant of David (1 Ch. 3.23). 2. A son of 
 Azel, and descendant of Saul (1 Ch. 8.38). 3. A 
 Levite named in 1 Ch. 9.14 ; Neh. 11.15. 4. 
 The governor of the palace of king Ahaz, who 
 was slain by Zichri, an Ephraimite (2 Ch. 
 28.7). 
 
 Azu'bah. Forsaken : 1. Wife of Caleb, son 
 of Hezron (1 Ch. 2.18, 19). 2. Mother of king 
 Jehoshaphat (1 K. 22.42 ; 2 Ch. 20.31). 
 
 A'zur (R.V. Assur). Helper: 1. A Benjamite 
 of Gibeon, and father of Hananiah the false 
 prophet (Jer. 28.1). 2. father of Jaazaniah, 
 one of the princes of the people against whom 
 Ezekiel was commanded to prophesy (Ezek. 
 11.1). 
 
 Az'zah. Fortified ; i.e. Gaza (so R.V.) : 
 A Philistine city (Deut. 2.23 ; 1 K. 4.24 ; Jer. 
 25.20). 
 
 Az'zan. Strong : the father of Paltiel, a 
 prince of the tribe of Issachar, who assisted 
 in the division of the promised land (Num. 
 34.26). 
 
 Az'zur. Helper : a chief of the people who 
 sealed the covenant with Nehemiah (Neh. 
 10.17). [AzuR.] 
 
 B 
 
 Ba'al (Ba'alim). Lord, Master : this name 
 meant originally lord, or owner, but was after- 
 wards used to denote the relation of husband to 
 wife, and of the deity to his worshipper. It was 
 never a proper name strictly, but was used of 
 the god of each place, as Baal-Peor (Num. 25.3). 
 Hence the plural, Baalim. Compare the per- 
 sonal names, as Hasdrubal, Baal-Hanan (1 Ch. 
 27.28). In his "high places," Baal was 
 worshipped as the male principle, giving 
 increase to the flocks and the soil. The rites 
 were conducted with much pomp and ceremony, 
 and included the offering of the products of 
 nature, incense, burnt sacrifices, and human 
 victims (Flos. 2.8; Jer. 19.5). His priests 
 would upon occasion work themselves into 
 frenzy, during which (like other heathen priests 
 mentioned by Herodotus and Plutarch) they 
 would wound themselves with knives (lj6T.18.28). 
 
 The worship of Baal was spread over a very 
 wide area, and existed from primitive times 
 (Num. 22.41). It was prevalent among the 
 Canaanites and Moabites, whence it spread 
 to the Israelites. By Ahab's marriage with 
 Jezebel the worship of the Tynan Baal became 
 the state religion of the Ten Tribes until it was 
 rooted out by Jehu. Baal- worship never 
 wholly obliterated the worship of Jehovah. For 
 a time the two religions were practised side by 
 side ; and afterwards Jehovah became the 
 Baal (or Lord) of Canaan, worshipped with the 
 hideous rites proper to Baal. Thus it came 
 about, as already noticed, that the Israelites 
 readily associated the name of Baal with their 
 
 own names, just as they did the name of Jehovah 
 in such a name as Isaiah. [!SHBAAL, 
 
 ISHBOS7\ETH.] 
 
 The prophets of God fought strenuously 
 against this debasing and cruel worship. Elijah 
 succeeded in arousing the national conscience 
 against the practice (1 K. 18). Hosea also 
 denounced it as pure heathenism ; while Jehu 
 had blotted out with extreme harshness the 
 Baal-worship introduced by Ahab. Even then 
 it was not suppressed, for later on Josiah was 
 compelled to use violent measures to check its 
 revival among God's chosen people, who erected 
 temples to the false god, and set up his images 
 and altars everywhere over the land, and main- 
 tained his priests (2 K. 23.4, 5). His worship 
 was at the high places (1 K. 18.20), or even 
 the roofs of houses (Jer. 32.29). 
 
 So widespread was the worship of Baal, that 
 indications are to be found in names as far apart 
 as Babylon (Bel or Belun), the Phoenician 
 colonies in the Mediterranean, and even, it is 
 said, in our own country, where the Druids are 
 supposed to have been his priests. 
 
 Ba'al. 1. Reubenite (1 Ch. 5.5); 2. Gibeonite 
 (1 Ch. 8.30, 9.36). 
 
 Ba'al. [BAALATH-BEER.! (1 Ch. 4.33.) 
 
 Ba'al, House of (1 K. 16.32). The temple of 
 Baal. 
 
 Ba'alah. Mistress, possessor : 1. A city in the 
 north of Judah, identified with Kirjath-jearim 
 (Josh. 15.9,10 ; 1 Ch. 13.6). Same as Baale of 
 Judah (2 Sam. 6.2). 2. An eminence or ridge 
 in the north of Judah, between Shier on and 
 
BAALATH] 
 
 47 
 
 [BAASHA 
 
 Jabneel (Josh. 15.11). Probably the same as 
 Baalah i. 3. A city in the south of Judah 
 (Josh. 15.29). [BALAH.] 
 
 Baa'Iath. Mistress, possessor : 1. A town in 
 Dan, now identified in the modern Belain 
 (Josh. 19.44). Perhaps identical with the 
 following. 2. A town built or rebuilt by 
 Solomon, position not stated (1 K. 9.18 ; 2 Ch. 
 8.6). 
 
 Baa'lath-Beer. Baal of the well: this place 
 was in the south of Judah, south or south-east 
 of Beersheba. The name implies that Baal was 
 worshipped there, and that it had a well. It 
 was among the towns given to Simeon (Josh. 
 19.8). It is called also Baal (1 Ch. 4.33), and 
 Rarnoth of the South (1 Sam. 30.27), as in Josh. 
 19.8. 
 
 Ba'al-Be'rith. Lord of the covenant (Judg. 
 8.33, 9.4) : a god worshipped by the men of 
 Shechem after the death of Joshua. The 
 temple of Baal-Berith had a treasury from which 
 the citizens made a contribution to Abimelech 
 (Judg. 9.4). How this god was worshipped is 
 not known. 
 
 Ba'ale ol Judah. [KIRJATH - JEARIM.] 
 Another form of Baalah, now Kuriet el-Enab 
 (2 Sam. 6.2). 
 
 Ba'al-Gad. Lord of fortune or destiny: the 
 name of a presumably sacred place in the valley 
 of Lebanon, on north-west side of Hermon, the 
 northern limit of Joshua's conquests (Josh. 
 11.17, 12.7, 13.5). Some have identified it with 
 Banias, on the south side. It is probably the 
 Baal-Hermon of Judg. 3.3 ; 1 Ch. 5.23. 
 
 Ba'al-Ha'mon. Lord of multitude (Cant. 
 8.11): possibly a little north of Samaria, 
 where Solomon had a large vineyard. 
 
 Ba'al-Ha'nan. The Lord is gracious : 1. A 
 king of Edom (Gen. 36.38), though his city or 
 district is not given. 2. One of David's super- 
 intendents of olives and sycamores (1 Ch. 27.28). 
 He belonged to the town of Gederah (Josh. 15.36), 
 and was a Canaanite. 
 
 Ba'al-Ha'zor. Lord of Eazor : Absalom had 
 sheep-shearers here whom he commanded to 
 slay his brother Ammon (2 Sam. 13.23). 
 
 Ba'al-Her'mon. Lord of Hermon : generally 
 considered to be Mount Hermon, which in Judg. 
 3.3 is the Mount of Baal-Hermon. Mount 
 Hermon had several names (Deut. 3.9), and 
 Baal-Hermon is but one of them. Apparently 
 the mountain is named after its special god, 
 or its sacred place. 
 
 Ba'ali. My Lord, my Master (Eos. 2.16) : 
 a title rejected by God in favour of Ishi, which 
 see. 
 
 Ba'alim. [BAAL.] (Judg. 2.11.) 
 
 Ba'alis. (?) Son of delight : king of the 
 Ammonites (Jer. 40.14), when Jerusalem was 
 taken by Nebuchadnezzar. 
 
 Ba'al-Me'on. Lord of the habitation : a town 
 built by the Reubenites (Num. 32.38), and 
 now Main. It lies on the Moabite plateau about 
 3000 ft. above the sea, and 5 miles S.W. 
 from Madaba. It is identified with Beth-Baal- 
 Meon, mentioned in Josh. 13.17 ; the Beth-Meon 
 
 of Jer. 48.23 ; and the Beon of Num. 32.3. In 
 the time of Ezekiel it was a place of importance, 
 being classed among those that were the " glory 
 of the country " (Ezek. 25.9). 
 
 Ba'al-Pe'or. Lord of Peor (opening) : a 
 Moabite god, which Israel was enticed to worship 
 (Num. 25.3-5 ; Deut. 4.3). In several passages 
 it is simply written Peor. The nature of the 
 worship of this god is unknown, though it was 
 connected with licentious rites. The name 
 also occurs in Eos. 9.10, as the name of the place 
 where Israel was enticed. 
 
 Ba'al-Pera'zim. Lord of the breaches : a place 
 on the hills by the valley of Rephaim. David, 
 using the name " Baal " of the true God, called 
 the place thus when he defeated the Philistines, 
 and burned their idols there (2 Sam. 5.20 ; 
 1 Ch. 14.11). Possibly it had been sacred to 
 Baal before, and David gave the name a fresh 
 significance. It is called Mount Perazim in 
 Isai. 28.21. 
 
 Ba'al-Shali'sha. Lord of the third or the 
 triangle : a place near Gilgal, in Ephraim, 
 perhaps Kefr Thilth. Its crops ripened early 
 (2 K. 4.42). [SHALISHA.] 
 
 Ba'al-Ta'mar. Lord of the palm : near 
 Gibeah (Judg. 20.33). It was the scene of the 
 battle between the Benjamites and the rest of 
 the tribes. The exact spot has not been identi- 
 fied. 
 
 Ba'al-ze'bub. Lord of the fly : a Philistine god 
 at Ekron. Ahaziah consulted it (2 K. 1.2). 
 The name is supposed to be a contemptuous 
 Jewish modification of Baal-zebul, "Lord of 
 the high house" (Matt. 10.25), but also 
 " Lord of the dung-fly." [BEELZEBUB.] There 
 is nothing unnatural in such a designa- 
 tion, seeing how numerous flies are in hot 
 climates, and that the Egyptians made a god of 
 a beetle. 
 
 Ba'al-ze'phon. Lord of the watch-tower : a 
 place on the west shore of the Red Sea, near 
 where the Israelites crossed (Ex. 14.2-9 ; Num. 
 33.7). [RED SEA.] 
 
 Ba'ana, Ba'anah. Son of grief: 1. Solo- 
 mon's commissariat officer in Jezreel and 
 the north of the Jordan valley. The son of Ahilud 
 (1 K. 4.12). 2. Solomon's commissariat officer 
 in Asher (1 K. 4.16). 3. Father of Heleb, one of 
 David's thirty valiant men (2 Sam. 23.29 ; 
 1 Ch. 11.30). 4. A captain of Ishbosheth's 
 army (2 Sam. 4.2-9). With his brother he mur- 
 dered Ishbosheth, and was punished with death 
 by David. The bodies of the murderers were 
 hung up over the Pool of Hebron. 5. The 
 father of Zadok, who came up with Zerubbabel, 
 and helped to repair the wall of Jerusalem 
 (Neh. 3.4). Perhaps also Ezra 2.2. 6. A chief 
 who sealed the covenant (Neh. 10.27). 
 
 Baa'ra. A wife of Shaharaim, a Benjamite 
 (1 Ch. 8.8). 
 
 Baasei'ah. Perhaps = Maaseiah. A Ger- 
 shonite Levite, ancestor of Asaph the musician 
 (1 Ch. 6.40). 
 
 Baa'sha. Meaning unknown. A man of 
 very humble origin " exalted out of the dust " 
 
BABEL] 
 
 48 
 
 [BABYLONIA 
 
 (1 K. 16.2). The son of Ahijah, and a usurper 
 of the throne of Israel. To secure himself he 
 caused King Nadab and all of the family of 
 Jeroboam i. to be put to death at Gibbethon, and 
 so fuiailed the prophecy (1 K. 14.10). Neglect- 
 ing God's warning (1 K. 16.1-5), his reign was 
 full of trouble, for he was continually at war 
 with Judah. In his reign Benhadad, King of 
 Syria, captured several towns in the north of 
 Israel, thus compelling him to desist from forti- 
 fying Ramah against Judah (1 K. 15.20-22; 
 2 Ch. 16.4,5). Yet, after a reign of twenty-four 
 years, he was one of the few kings who died a 
 natural death. He was buried at Tirzah (1 K. 
 15.2,1) and his dynasty was extirpated by Zimri 
 (1 K. 16.9-13). 
 
 Ba'bel. In Assyrian Bab-ilu, Gate of God\ 
 the Hebrew verb balal = confound (Gen. 10.10, 
 11.9). A city in the plain of Shinar, founded 
 by Nimrod. After the Flood the survivors kept 
 together until they reached Shinar. Here they 
 made bricks and built a city, which they hoped 
 would become the centre of a world empire 
 (Gen. 11). Perhaps, as remembering the Flood, 
 they also thought to provide against a like 
 calamity by building a very high tower 
 (identified with Birs, now Birs Nimrud), but 
 their plans were frustrated by God (Gen. 
 11.5-8), who confounded their language, and 
 caused them to disperse over the earth. [BABY- 
 LON, BABYLONIA.] 
 
 Bab'ylon. The modern Eillah. [BABEL.] 
 The Greek mode of spelling the Hebrew 
 Babel. Babylon was the capital of the Chaldean 
 kingdom of Babylonia. Though not the 
 oldest city of Babylonia, Babylon became, 
 in time, the most important, both in point of 
 size and influence. Situated on the Euphrates, 
 about 50 miles south of modern Bagdad, in the 
 midst of fertile plains, and within easy reach of 
 the Persian Gulf, Babylon was the centre of the 
 commerce of the ancient world. Though the 
 date of its foundation is uncertain, yet its con- 
 nexion (Gen. 10.10) with Accad and Calneh 
 implies a great age, at least as early as 3000 B.C. 
 
 The history of Babylon is one long series of 
 struggles by various rulers and military com- 
 manders for its possession and retention. Be- 
 sieged again and again, its walls and its temples 
 levelled from time to time, its inhabitants ruth- 
 lessly slaughtered, its treasure carried off, this 
 city of wonderful magnificence rose each time 
 from the dust more splendid than ever, until, in 
 the days of Nebuchadnezzar, we find it the wonder 
 of the world, with huger buildings and a vaster 
 population than probably any other city of 
 ancient times, and intersected in every direction 
 by canals and navigable waterways. The 
 present ruins, all that remain of the city, con- 
 sist of a large number of mounds, extending from 
 north to south a distance of 5 miles, and lie 
 chiefly on the left bank of the river. These 
 mounds cover the sites, and consist of the re- 
 mains of the temples and kings' palaces. The 
 one farthest north has generally been identified 
 as the Tower of Babel, and is still 64 ft. high. 
 
 Greater than this is the series of mounds of the 
 palace. Remains of walls and ramparts are 
 numerous, and on the banks of the Euphrates 
 can still be seen traces of huge embankments. 
 It was Nebuchadnezzar who diverted the river, 
 and lined its bed through the city with brick. 
 
 The city has been described by Herodotus 
 and other eye-witnesses ; and, though their 
 accounts differ somewhat, yet they all agree in 
 their wonder at its vast size and magnificence. 
 The city was built on both sides of the river, and 
 was enclosed by a double wall of defence. 
 According to the measurement of Herodotus, 
 these walls enclosed a space 56 miles in circum- 
 ference, or 200 square miles. Nine-tenths of 
 this space consisted of gardens, parks, and fields, 
 while the people lived in houses two, three r 
 or four stories high. The walls were exceed- 
 ingly high, and wide enough on the top to allow 
 a four-horse chariot to turn. Two hundred and 
 fifty towers were built at intervals on the walls, 
 which were pierced in a hundred places, and 
 defended with gates of brass. Other walls ran 
 along the banks of the Euphrates and its quays. 
 Ferry-boats crossed the river between the gates 
 on either side, and there was one bridge, a draw- 
 bridge 30 ft. wide, connecting the two portions of 
 the city. The great palace of Nebuchadnezzar 
 was at one end of this bridge, on the eastern side. 
 Another palace, " the Admiration of Mankind," 
 commenced by Nabopolassar, and finished by 
 Nebuchadnezzar, stood on the other side and 
 protected the great reservoir. Within the walls 
 of this palace rose to a height of 75 ft. the cele- 
 brated hanging gardens, which were built in 
 the form of a square, 400 ft. each way, raised on 
 arches. The Temple of Bel, or Tower of Babel, 
 was four-square, and was a pyramid of eight 
 stages, the lowest being 600 ft. each way. The 
 top, on which stood the shrine of Bel, was 
 reached by an inclined plane. The shrine con- 
 tained a golden image of Bel, 40 ft. high, a large 
 table of gold, and many other colossal objects 
 in the same precious metal. The corners of this 
 temple, like all other Chaldean temples, corre- 
 sponded with the four cardinal points of the 
 compass. The materials for the huge struc- 
 tures, as for the walls themselves, consisted 
 of bricks made from the mud excavated from 
 the moat which surrounded the whole city. 
 
 The political history of Babylon is bound up 
 in that of Babylonia, and its final fall and ruin 
 were included in that of the whole country 
 though the worship of Bel was continued in 
 some of the temples down to as late as 29 B.C., 
 long after Babylon, as a city, had disappeared. 
 [BABYLONIA, BABEL, NEBUCHADNEZZAR.] 
 
 Babylonia. The importance to the Bible 
 student of knowledge of Babylonia is c een 
 when we find that there are, in Holy Scripture, 
 about three hundred references to the country 
 and its people. In the O.T. the Hebrew Babel 
 may mean either Babylon or Babylonia, 
 though the name Shinar is sometimes used to 
 define the whole country. Shinar, indeed, was 
 the oldest name of the country (Gen. 10.10,11.2). 
 
BABYLONIA] 
 
 49 
 
 [BABYLONIA 
 
 In the later Scriptures, after the exile, it is called 
 Chaldea, or the land of the Chasclim (Jer. 24.5 ; 
 Ezek. 12.13). The Babylonians had no name for 
 their country as a whole, but spoke of Akkad 
 or Sumer when they meant the northern or 
 the southern portions. These names they had 
 adopted from the previous inhabitants. 
 
 Physically, Babylonia is a plain, about 400 
 miles in length, by 100 in breadth. It is 
 bounded on the south by the Persian Gulf, on 
 the west by the Arabian Desert ; by the river 
 Tigris on the east, and on the north by Assyria, 
 though after the rise of Assyria to power the 
 position of this boundary was frequently 
 changed. Owing to a wise system of irrigation, 
 by means of a network of canals, the plains of 
 Babylon were exceedingly fertile. So fertile was 
 it that even wheat grew without the aid of the 
 husbandman, while the cultivated lands were 
 cropped twice in each year, and then afforded 
 pasturage in plenty. In addition to their 
 large crops of grain and dates, the wealth of the 
 Babylonians consisted of horses, camels, oxen, 
 sheep, and goats. Birds of many kinds were 
 plentiful, and the rivers were full of fish. How 
 thoroughly the prophecies of Scripture have 
 been fulfilled is seen to-day in the condition 
 of this once fertile land, now a desert, swampy 
 in places, inhabited by hyenas, lynx, panthers, 
 and wild boars ; with its huge temples and cities, 
 once the homes of mighty conquerors, now 
 heaps of rubbish. What a fall for the " glory 
 of kingdoms " (Isai. 13.19), now a wilderness, 
 destitute of inhabitants excepting some wander- 
 ing tribes of Bedouin (Isai. 14.22). 
 
 Babylonia was " the desert of the sea " of 
 Isaiah (Isai. 21.1) ; and by Jeremiah, Babylon 
 was said to " dwell upon many waters " (Jer. 
 51.13), an allusion to the overflowings of the 
 Euphrates, as also to the numerous canals dug 
 to carry of! the floods, and for purposes of 
 transit. These were " the rivers of Babylon," 
 beside which the children of Israel " sat down 
 and wept" (Ps. 137.1). 
 
 Babylonia was " a land of traffic, a city of 
 merchants " (Ezek. 17.4). The kingdom was 
 one of the four " thrones " described by Daniel, 
 and is set forth under the symbol of a lion with 
 eagle's wings. 
 
 Besides Babylon, the country had other 
 considerable cities. One of the most important 
 of these was Eridu (modern Abu-Shahrein). 
 This port was on the Persian Gulf, which, in 
 those times, extended 130 miles farther north 
 than it does now. This is due to the quantity 
 of soil and debris brought down by the Euphrates. 
 A little to the west of this modern place, Abu- 
 Shahrein, there is a mound marking the site 
 of Ur, which is almost invariably spoken of in 
 the Bible as " Ur of the Chaldees " (Gen. 11.28). 
 In early times, not later than the reign of 
 Gudaea, who conquered as far west as Palestine, 
 the kings of Ur held practically supreme rule 
 over Babylonia. One King of Ur, Ur-gur, 
 had a great zeal for religion, and built temples 
 in most of the Babylonian cities. His son, 
 
 Dungi (about 2600 B.C.), known as " king of the 
 four quarters," was also a zealous temple- 
 builder, as is shown by the inscriptions on 
 tablets now in the British Museum. It was 
 Dungi who erected a temple to the god Nergal 
 at Cuthah, the modern Tell-Ibrahim, or Cuth 
 (2 K. 17.24), which was adjacent to Babylon 
 and inhabited by a warlike tribe from Persia, 
 who were finally subdued by Alexander the 
 Great. For a time Ur suffered eclipse, while 
 the kings of Isin held sway over Babylonia ; but 
 presently we find it holding its old supremacy 
 over all Babylonia. 
 
 But the most important city of Babylonia was 
 in the north, where, holding her own inde- 
 pendent way during the second dynasty of Ur, 
 Babylon gradually attained an importance 
 which she held for nearly two thousand years. 
 After the decline of Ur, Babel gradually assumed 
 a commanding position in the " Land of the 
 Chaldeans," the best known of her kings at 
 that time (about 2000 B.C.) being Hammurabi, 
 the Amraphel of Gen. 14, until in 1700 B.C. 
 it became the fixed seat of government. 
 [BABYLON.! 
 
 The Babylonians were a short, thick-set 
 people, with a " Jewish " nose, thick lips, and 
 oblique eyes. Their hair was black, thick, 
 and curly. In a country that had great trade 
 with the neighbouring lands, it was natural 
 to find much splendour both in dress and 
 dwelling (Ezek. 23.15). Spices, ivory, gold, 
 and gems, metals, wool, and dyes were easily 
 obtained. The pearl fisheries of the Persian 
 Gulf were even at this time most carefully 
 cultivated. But luxury brought pride and 
 idleness (Isai. 13.1 1 ; Jer. 50.29). A low morality 
 sapped the foundations of the nation's strength, 
 and prepared the way for the final overthrow. 
 
 The contract tablets show us that the Baoy- 
 lonian had two names, one an official and one 
 private. When he died his body was generally 
 burnt, and it has been suggested that it was 
 in one of these funeral furnaces that the " three 
 children " were cast after it had been made 
 " seven times hotter " than usual. On the 
 death of the Babylonian his soul was said 
 to go to the " land of the silver sky," and 
 dwelt with the heroes of bygone times. Isaiah 
 knew this, and made use of his knowledge when 
 he prophesied against Babylon (Isai. 14.4-10)> 
 
 The dress of the Babylonians was a linen 
 shirt reaching to the knee, with a short cape 
 or cloak over it. They wore a species of sandal 
 with wooden soles, and, like the Turks, they 
 wore turbans. The lower classes wore nothing 
 but a tunic, fastened round with a belt. 
 
 In a country where the chief occupation 
 was war, we may expect to find the arts of that 
 science brought to great perfection. They had 
 swords, bows and arrows, spears, helmets and 
 shields. In besieging cities they used scaling 
 ladders, and also undermined walls and towers. 
 In open battle they employed chariots and 
 horses (Isai. 36.8). In fight they showed no 
 mercy, slaying all they were unable to carry 
 
BABYLONIA] 
 
 50 
 
 [BABYLONIA 
 
 away. Such captives were employed in build- 
 ing, and there is no doubt that, as in Egypt, 
 the enormous buildings of Babylon were 
 largely the result of slave labour. 
 
 After war, commerce occupied a large portion 
 of the population, for the Semite was always 
 a trader. In the British Museum are the 
 records of a firm of Babylonian traders, by 
 name Egibi and Son. The business of this firm 
 was carried on throughout all the wars and 
 civil commotions which convulsed Babylon. 
 They bought and sold land, lent money or goods 
 on interest, and arranged dowries for unwedded 
 women. Slaves were bought and sold, and 
 sometimes branded with the owner's name. 
 
 The Babylonian language was Eastern 
 Semitic, almost the same as Assyrian. The so- 
 called Chaldaean language, in which were written 
 Dan. 2.4-7, 28 ; Ezra 4.8 to 6.18, 7.12-16 ; Jer. 
 10.11, is Western Semitic, a form of Aramaic or 
 Syriac. 
 
 Their peculiar " cuneiform " (i.e. wedge- 
 shaped) writing written from right to left, is 
 based upon a simple sign of an arrow or wedge, 
 which is repeated in various positions in order 
 to form words and sentences. In the British 
 Museum there is a whole library of Babylonian 
 books and documents, written in this character. 
 They are not books in our sense of the word, 
 but the characters have been impressed upon 
 tablets and cylinders of soft clay, which were 
 afterwards dried or burnt hard. Many inscrip- 
 tions, dedications of temples, etc., have also 
 been discovered, finely engraved upon stone. 
 The mounds of Babylonia, as they are excavated, 
 yield many tablets and sculptures of great 
 interest, and it is certain that as more of the 
 tablets are discovered and deciphered, not only 
 will a completer history of Babylonia be pre- 
 sented to the world, but also many more side- 
 lights be thrown on certain parts of the Bible 
 narrative. 
 
 Of their writings that have come down to us, 
 the greater part consist of business contracts, 
 but here and there are to be found both poetical 
 and prose works, many connected with religion. 
 Some of the later kings were in the habit of 
 recording their building operations by inscrip- 
 tions upon bowls, cups, or vases. Monuments of 
 diorite, marble, and alabaster were sometimes 
 erected, and closely engraved upon both sides. 
 The huge winged bulls and lions and their 
 inscriptions belong to the Assyrian period. It 
 is from these historical inscriptions engraved 
 upon the public monuments and buildings 
 that the history of Babylonia has chiefly been 
 drawn. 
 
 The records of many of the later kings of 
 Babylon were impressed upon cylinders or 
 prisms of clay, some so minutely written that it 
 is thought magnifying glasses (the Babylonians 
 were acquainted with glass) must have been 
 used both to produce and to read them. Most 
 of the cylinders that have up to the present been 
 deciphered contain accounts of the building 
 operations of Nebuchadnezzar n., who took 
 
 Jerusalem captive (2 K. 24) ; of the taking of 
 Babylon (538 B.C.) by Cyrus ; and of the siege 
 of Jerusalem by Sennacherib (2 K. 18, 19), on a 
 six-sided prism. A beautifully inscribed ten- 
 sided prism has also been discovered written by 
 Asur-Bani-Pal (O.T. Asnapper, Ezra 4.10), who 
 settled a population of troublesome Cuthseans 
 in the cities of Samaria. He ascended the 
 throne in 668 B.C. Manassch, king of Judah, 
 paid tribute to Asur-Bani-Pal as the latter was 
 marching with a great army to the re-conquest 
 of Egypt. [MANASSEH.] 
 
 In the literature of Babylonia we find what is 
 probably the earliest dictionary. It consisted of 
 grammatical tablets giving lists of synonymous 
 words. 
 
 It was long believed that even the early 
 Babylonians had much knowledge of astronomy. 
 They knew some of the planets ; had figured 
 the zodiacal constellations ; had compiled a list 
 of the fixed stars, and had invented sundials. 
 They also knew the true length of the solar 
 year, and had formed a calendar harmonising 
 the solar and lunar years. They could also 
 calculate eclipses. But recent investigations 
 reveal little or no scientific astronomy until 
 after 747 B.C. Their astronomy was debased 
 by a large admixture of astrology, and their 
 learned men were magicians, soothsayers, 
 and sorcerers. Thus it comes about that 
 many fragments of tablets containing observa- 
 tions and calendars are of an astrological 
 rather than an astronomical character. 
 
 In religion the Babylonians were nature 
 worshippers. The four seasons, the ground, the 
 sea, the air, rain, wind, thunder and lightning, 
 etc., each was under the control of a separate 
 deity, sometimes friendly, at other times hostile 
 to man. Like man, these gods were subject 
 to human passions. They thought as men, 
 and they acted as men ; consequently they could 
 likewise be cajoled or even intimidated. These 
 gods, moreover, were not all equal ; some 
 were greater than others, though no one of 
 them exercised lordship over the others. Some 
 were formed like men, others part man and 
 part beast, while other gods, again, were wholly 
 bestial both in appearance and attributes. One 
 peculiarity of the Babylonian deities was that 
 the power and influence of the gods of the cities 
 waxed and waned with the increasing or 
 decreasing importance of the towns themselves. 
 The greater gods composed a double trinity 
 of deities. At the head of all was Anu, the god 
 of heaven, then Bel (Jer. 50.2, 51.44), the god 
 of the earth, and Ea, the god of the lower 
 world and of hidden knowledge. The second 
 triad consisted of Sin, the moon god ; Samas, the 
 sun god ; and Ramman, the god of storm, 
 thunder, and lightning. Each god had his 
 own city, and was the greatest of all the gods 
 there. The goddesses were of minor importance, 
 and in fact were but the spouses of the gods. 
 But there was one important exception to this 
 rule. This was Is tar, the Ashtaroth of Scripture 
 (Judg. 2.13), a goddess who belonged to the 
 
BABYLONIA] 
 
 51 
 
 [BADGER 
 
 " 
 
 front rank. She was the goddess of battle 
 and of love. In addition there were a multitude 
 ("uncountable") of minor gods, and it is 
 from this Babylonian pantheon that the Greeks 
 and Romans later on borrowed their divinities. 
 
 These gods and goddesses were worshipped 
 by the performance of much ritual and ceremony. 
 The priests not only conducted the worship of 
 the people, but practically controlled their whole 
 lives ; even the making and administration of 
 the law were in their hands. Not only did they 
 perform the public acts of worship, but also the 
 necessary acts for the individual worshipper. 
 When an illness or any evil befell a man, it was 
 put down to the act of some demon or evil spirit, 
 of whom the air was full. If his own personal 
 god was not able to right him the man would 
 then appeal to one of the greater gods, of course 
 through the priest. Many of the priests were 
 also given to soothsaying, which they considered 
 and conducted as a science ; the study of 
 omens was also a favourite occupation of the 
 Babylonians. Naturally this meant frequent 
 journeys to the priests, who pretended to 
 interpret the omens (Ezek. 21.21) to their 
 deluded followers. As records were kept of 
 the omens, and the interpretations of them, in 
 course of time a library of tablets, carefully 
 separated into series, grew in connexion with 
 each temple. It was a reference library, in fact. 
 
 Amongst the tablets that have been dug up 
 from the ruins of Babylon are many containing 
 legends relating to the Babylonian mythology. 
 Among these legends are some closely resembling 
 the Bible narratives of the creation and the 
 deluge. The story of Sargon of Agade, or 
 Akkad, after whom the late Sargon, mentioned in 
 Isai. 20.1, was named, describes his lowly birth, 
 and goes on to say that his mother placed him 
 in an ark of reeds, smeared over with pitch, 
 and then set him afloat on the river Euphrates. 
 He was rescued, however, by Akki, who was 
 employed upon the irrigation works. Sargon 
 served Akki in the capacity of a gardener, 
 and while in this employment was seen and 
 loved by the goddess Istar, who finally made 
 him king over the whole country. 
 
 During its history, Babylonia often became 
 tributary to Assyria, though in 703 Merodach- 
 Baladan (Isai. 39.1) in vain tried to become 
 independent. Nabopolassar took Nineveh in 
 606 B.C., thus destroying the Assyrian Empire. 
 Nebuchadnezzar, after conducting several 
 successful warlike expeditions for his father, 
 Nabopolassar, besieged Jerusalem, among other 
 achievements, and took it (2K.24). He carried 
 the inhabitants away captive to Babylon, set up 
 a golden image in the plain of Dura (Dan. 3) ; 
 put three young men into the fiery furnace (Dan. 
 6) ; had a dream which Daniel explained ; was 
 out of his mind for a time, and wandered in 
 the fields ; but was then restored to his reason 
 and his throne, and praised God (Dan. 4.34). 
 Pie also conducted the singe of Tyre, which 
 lasted for thirteen years, and maintained 
 
 veral successful campaigns against Egypt. 
 
 During his reign Babylon was rebuilt with great 
 magnificence. His son and successor, Evil- 
 Merodach(2 K. 25.27), released King Jehoiachin, 
 who had been kept in prison for 37 years by 
 Nebuchadnez/ar. Nabonidus, the next king 
 but one to Evil-Merodach, spent his time in 
 still further beautifying the chief cities, and 
 in perfecting Babylonian chronology. But he 
 gained the ill-will of the priests by making 
 Babylon the central home of all the gods. In 
 their resentment they helped Cyrus, the Persian 
 conqueror, in his conquest of the country, 
 and especially in the taking of Babylon. The 
 army of Nabonidus was commanded by Bel- 
 shazzar, his son (Dan. 5), who had been sum- 
 moned by his father to participate in the royal 
 power. 
 
 Thus, according to prophecy, Babylonia 
 ceased to exist as an independent kingdom (539 
 B.C.)- It remained a province of Persia until 
 Alexander the Great added it to his many 
 triumphs. [BELSHAZZAR, NEBUCHADNEZZAR.] 
 
 Babylon in the N.T. In Matthew and Acts 
 Babylon means the Babylon of the O.T. 
 But in Revelation it is used symbolically of 
 the great antichristian world-power, repre- 
 sented by Rome. Thus, for example, the 
 seven heads of the beast carrying the woman 
 called Babylon are seven mountains (Rev. 17-5,9), 
 with clear reference to the seven hills of Rome. 
 There is little doubt also that in I Pet. 5.13 
 Babylon is a cryptic term for Rome, just as 
 later Jews called Rome by the name of Edom. 
 
 Babylonians. Where this word is used in 
 Scripture the inhabitants of the whole country 
 are meant (Ezra 4.9 ; Ezek. 23.15, 23). 
 
 Babylonish Garment. A mantle of Shinar 
 (R.V. marg.), embroidered in the Babylonian 
 style, very costly (Josh. 7-21). 
 
 Ba'ca, Vale of. Balsam trees, which grow in 
 dry and barren places (Ps. 84.6). A valley near 
 Jerusalem, the exact locality of which is uncer- 
 tain. The Psalmist alludes to the joy of the 
 worshippers on their way up to Jerusalem at 
 finding wells provided, where nature had left all 
 barren and sandy. From these wells they 
 drank, and then went on their way rejoicing, 
 until they arrived at Zion. See also 2 Sam. 5.23 
 (R.V. marg.). 
 
 Bach'rite. Belonging to the family of Becher 
 (Num. 26.35) ; a Benjarnite clan. 
 
 Backbite. To go about as a tale-bearer and 
 slanderer (Ps. 15.3). 
 
 Backbiter. One who speaks against others 
 (Rom. 1.30). See also Prov. 25.23 ; and 2 Cor. 
 12.20. 
 
 Backside. I.e. the west (Ex. 3.1). [EAST.] 
 
 Badger. The animal whose skins were used 
 for the outer covering of the tabernacle (Ear. 25. 5) 
 to protect it from the weather is unknown, but 
 the likeliest supposition is that it was not the 
 badger, but the dugong, a kind of sea-cow, 
 plentiful in the Red Sea, whose skin would 
 answer the purpose well. See also Ex. 26.14, 
 35.7, 36.19, 39.34; Num. 4.6-25. In Ezek 
 16.10, " Egyptian leather " is mennt. 
 
BAG] 
 
 52 
 
 [BALD, BALDNESS 
 
 Bag. Several Hebrew words are so trans- 
 lated, but the specific meaning and use is evident 
 from the context in almost every case. In 
 Isai. 3.22, " crisping-pins " (A.V.) should pro- 
 bably be translated "satchels" (R.V.), or 
 " purses." The " bag " used by Judas (John 
 12.6, 13.29) was a small box, the word originally 
 meaning a box for the mouthpiece of a wind- 
 instrument. 
 
 Baharu'mite (1 Ch. 11.33), Barhumite 
 (2 Sam. 23.31). The family name of one of 
 David's thirty valiant men. An inhabitant of 
 Bahurim. 
 
 Bah'nrim. Young men's village : lying be- 
 tween the Jordan and Jerusalem. The name 
 lives only because of the interesting stories con- 
 nected with it. Here Michal was returned to 
 David (2 Sam. 3.16). Here also David was 
 cursed by Shimei when he went past as a fugi- 
 tive from Jerusalem (2 Sam. 16.5-14). And it 
 was at Bahurim that Jonathan and Ahimaaz 
 hid in a well from the vengeance of Absalom 
 (2 Sam. 17.18). It was also the home of one of 
 David's mighty men of valour (2 Sam. 23.31). 
 Site unknown. 
 
 Ba'jith (R.V. Bayith). House : Isai. 15.2 
 only. Perhaps not a place name but the house, 
 or temple, is meant. " He is gone up to " the 
 house, or temple, as opposed to the " high 
 places " in the same passage. 
 
 Bakbak'kar. A Levite who returned from 
 the Babylonian captivity to Jerusalem (1 Ch. 
 9.15). 
 
 Bak'buk. A hollow place or thing : a family 
 of Nethinim, who returned from the Babylonian 
 captivity (Ezra 2.51 ; Neh. 7.53). 
 
 Bakbuki'ah. Jehovah empties : a member of 
 the family of Asaph, a Levite, and a leader of the 
 temple worship on the return from exile 
 (Neh. 11.17, 12.9, 25). He came up to 
 Jerusalem in ZembbabeFs band, and was a 
 member of one of the guilds of temple singers. 
 
 Bakemeats. White bread: Gen 40.17. The 
 bakers of old were not behind their modern 
 successors in the variety, both in form and 
 flavour, of the loaves and cakes of bread they 
 made. The bread in Pharaoh's chief baker's 
 dream was not ordinary household bread, but 
 some of the finer delicacies and confections, or 
 cakes, for which the head of the bakehouse would 
 himself be responsible. [BREAD, CAKES, etc.] 
 
 Baker, Baking, etc. [BREAD.] 
 
 Ba'laam. Meaning unknown, perhaps De- 
 vourer. A soothsayer or prophet whom Balak, 
 king of Moab, commanded to curse the Israelites. 
 He was a son of Beor, and resided at Pethor, in 
 Mesopotamia (Num. 22.5). Instead of cursing 
 Balak's enemies, he, under Divine compulsion 
 and instruction, blessed them, and foretold the 
 future greatness of Israel (Neh. 13.2 ; Mic. 6.5 ; 
 2 Pet. 2.15 ; Jude 11 ; and Rev. 2.14). Though 
 living amongst the heathen, Balaam possessed 
 some knowledge of the true God, and was besides 
 a man of high intellect, with a reputation of 
 sanctity and wisdom. He was an accepted 
 prophet among his own people, who, with many 
 
 other nations of antiquity, had a curious custom 
 of devoting enemies to destruction before pro- 
 ceeding to war with them. Balaam had been 
 making a trade of his special gifts, as is shown 
 by the messengers of Balak taking the rewards 
 of divination with them when they went to him 
 at the king's request. The Israelites had begun 
 their career of conquest in the Holy Land, and 
 the king of Moab, with his allies the Midianites, 
 sought by this means to stay their progress. 
 But Balaam, warned by God, though desiring his 
 personal gain (2 Pet. 2.15), refused to do the 
 king's bidding, and it was not until another and 
 more important deputation waited upon him 
 that he ventured to go. But it was against the 
 will of God, who opened the ass's mouth, and in 
 some way made Balaam understand. The im- 
 mediate result we have already seen. But we 
 are not led to suppose that he became a true 
 follower of God, for we afterwards find him en- 
 deavouring to compass the destruction of the 
 Israelites by temptation of a gross and vile 
 character (Num. 25) ; and he died while fighting 
 for the Midianites against those whom he had 
 attempted to curse (Num. 31.8, 16). 
 
 Ba'lac. Rev. 2.14. [BALAK.] 
 
 Bala'dan (Merodach). Has given a son: 
 father of Berodach- (or Merodach) Baladan, 
 king of Babylon, in the time of Hezekiah 
 (2 K. 20.12; Isai. 39.1). 
 
 Ba'lah. Waste : a city of Simeon ( Josh. 19.3), 
 in the south of Judah. It is the same as Bilhah 
 (1 Ch. 4.29). Its site has not yet been identified. 
 
 Ba'Iak. Devastator : near the close of the 
 journeyings of the Israelites, Balak, king of 
 Moab, hired Balaam to curse them. They were 
 then in his territory, and his natural fear urged 
 him to this act (Num. 22.2). But he was 
 frustrated in his designs in the manner de- 
 scribed in Num. 22-24 (and see also Josh. 24.9 ; 
 Judg. 11.25 ; Mic. 6.5). [BALAAM.] 
 
 Balance, Balances. To weigh, weighing 
 machines : frequently used in Scripture of a 
 mental attitude or moral worthiness. So in 
 the case of Belshazzar (Dan. 5.27). In 7sai.40.15 
 the dust of the balance is used as the simile 
 for something quite insignificant. Honour and 
 integrity are likened to just balances (Prov. 11.1). 
 Then also there was the further idea of symmetry 
 or perfection of form, as expressed in Job 37.16. 
 The balance was a cross-bar fixed to an upright, 
 and with depending hooks or slings for the 
 weights and articles to be measured (-Prov.16.il ; 
 Rev. 6.5). The steelyard seems not to 
 have been known till Roman times. The 
 prophet Micah (6.11) exposed a common 
 fraud, for dishonest traders carried two 
 sorts of weights heavier than the standard 
 for buying, and lighter for selling. These 
 weights were generally of stone, and were carried 
 in bags. 
 
 Bald, Baldness. Natural baldness was not 
 very common in the East, and when it did 
 occur it was the occasion of ridicule. The 
 insult offered to Elisha by the young people 
 (not little children) of Bethel was not only 
 
BALM, BALSAM] 
 
 53 
 
 [BANNER 
 
 a personal affair directed at himself, but was 
 chiefly directed against him as the representative 
 of Jehovah, for Bethel was one of the chief 
 places of idolatry in Palestine. 
 
 Baldness was also a sign of misery, probably 
 because it was a symptom in some forms of 
 leprosy (for which reason it was also a dis- 
 qualification for the priesthood). In Lev. 13.29 
 directions are given to distinguish Bohak, " a 
 plague upon the head or the beard," from mere 
 natural baldness, which was pronounced to 
 be clean. But the very suspicion of leprosy 
 was a dreadful infliction, and people were ready 
 to do much to escape it. One of the means 
 they took to this end was frequent shaving, a 
 custom borrowed from Egypt. During periods 
 of mourning the hair was allowed to grow long, 
 when the wig worn by the Egyptians in ordinary 
 was discarded. The surrounding nations, and 
 Arab women in particular, cut off their hair 
 as a sign of mourning. It was therefore for- 
 bidden to the Israelites (Lev. 19.27 ; Deut. 14.1). 
 
 Artificial baldness also marked the con- 
 clusion of a Nazarite's vow (Acts 18.18, and is 
 often alluded to in Scripture (Mic. 1.16; Jer. 
 47.5). The heathen often offered their hair to 
 their gods (compare the action of the Nazarite 
 in Num. 6.18) as an acceptable gift, for, next 
 to the blood, the hair was looked upon as 
 the seat. of strength and life. This offering 
 of the hair, a purely personal and private act, 
 was the origin of the monkish tonsure. Shaving 
 the head was forbidden to women by public 
 opinion in the time of St. Paul (1 Cor. 11.5). 
 
 Balm, Balsam (Gen. 37.25). A resin ob- 
 tained from a kind of balsam tree. The balsam 
 that produces the true balm is a native of the 
 east coast of Africa, but the balm was prepared 
 and exported" from the east and south of 
 Palestine, Egypt taking the largest supply. 
 To obtain the balm, the tree, which is an ever- 
 green about 14 ft. high, is cut or gashed with 
 an axe, and a cup or bottle hung underneath 
 the wound, to catch the sap as it slowly exudes. 
 The quantity gathered from each tree is very 
 little. In olden times this odoriferous balm 
 was celebrated throughout the known world, 
 but even then it was so scarce that specimens 
 of it were thought worthy to be carried as 
 trophies to Home when Palestine was conquered. 
 
 The balm of Gilead was so called from the 
 fact that the resin was chiefly exported from the 
 slopes of Gilead. Its production was indeed 
 almost peculiar to that region. It was very 
 precious, being worth twice its weight in gold, 
 and was a very important article of commerce 
 because of its healing qualities when applied 
 to wounds and open sores. 
 
 There is an interesting story that the original 
 roots of the balsam shrub were brought to 
 Palestine by the Queen of Sheba. But this can 
 hardly be so, since balm was exported from 
 Gilead to Egypt even in patriarchal times 
 (Gen. 43.11), when Jacob deemed it an accept- 
 able gift to his unknown son. In the almost 
 tropical valley of the Jordan the shrub was very 
 
 extensively grown in late pre-Christian times. 
 The family of balsams (Balsamodendron) includes 
 several kinds, yielding both balm and myrrh. 
 Although the Romans took great pains to 
 protect and cultivate the groves of balsams, 
 which existed until the times of the crusades, 
 they have now quite disappeared from Jericho 
 arid Gilead. [BACA.] 
 
 Ba'mah. Highplace (Ezek. 20.29) : this word 
 is applied to any high place where Israel offered 
 sacrifices to idols. In Josh. 13.17 its plural 
 form, Bamoth, is used. 
 
 Ba'moth. High places : the plural of Bamah. 
 A spot where the wandering Israelites halted 
 near Mount Pisgah (Num. 21.19). It had been 
 captured from the Moabites by the Ammonite 
 king Sihon. See the next article. 
 
 Ba'moth-Baal. High places of Baal : the 
 same town as Bamoth. It was taken from the 
 Moabites by Sihon, king of the Amorites, but 
 afterwards became a city of Reuben (Josh. 13.17). 
 It was the spot from whence Balaam and 
 Balak overlooked the encampment of the 
 Israelites (Num. 22.4). See also Isai. 15.2. The 
 site has not been clearly identified. 
 
 Band. 1. Bond or fetter (Judg. 15.14 ; Eccles. 
 7.26 ; Job 38.31). Sinful customs enslave. 
 Peace and love are bonds which unite (Eph. 4.3 ; 
 Col. 3. 14). 2. A troop of men or soldiers 
 (Ezek. 12.14; 1 Ch. 12.23). A "band "of 
 Roman soldiers consisted of about 1000 men 
 (Acts 21.31). 3. In Hos. 11.4 the constraint 
 of authority or influence is intended. Slavery, 
 distress, fears, and perplexity are called bands, 
 because they restrain liberty (Lev. 26.13; Isai. 
 28.22 ; Ezek. 34.27). 
 
 Ba'ni. Posterity: a name often met with 
 after the exile. 1. A Gadite, one of David's 
 thirty valiant men (2 Sam. 23.36). 2. An 
 Aaronite, the father of Amzi (1 Ch. 6.46). 3. 
 a descendant of Pharez, son of Judah (1 Ch. 9.4). 
 4. The " children of Bani," returned with 
 Zerubbabel (Ezra 2.10). The same as Binnui 
 (Neh. 7.15). 5. A Levite who regulated the 
 worship of the people after Ezra had instructed 
 them in the Law (Neh. 9.4). 6. Ezra 10.38. 
 7. Neh. 3.17. 8. One who sealed the covenant 
 with Nehemiah (Neh. 10.14). 9. Neh. 11.22. 
 
 Banished, Banishment. Cast out : in Ezra 
 7.26 exile, or judicial exclusion from one's 
 kindred and country, or from the presence of 
 the king as a punishment. Not only was 
 banishment the punishment for crime and dis- 
 order, but those afflicted with leprosy were 
 excluded from the privileges of their fellows. 
 
 Banner (Isai. 13.2, 49.22). Banner, 
 standard, and ensign are all used in Scripture, 
 and are interchangeable terms. The chil- 
 dren of Israel, in their wanderings through 
 the desert, marched under banners that indicated 
 the position of each division. These banners 
 had distinctive devices embroidered upon 
 them, a necessary precaution is such a large 
 host. A standard for a subdivision was not a 
 banner, but only an ordinary spear holding 
 aloft some emblem. The Egyptian and the 
 
BANQUET, BANQUETING] 
 
 54 
 
 [BAPTISM, BAPTIZE 
 
 Roman standards were but modifications of 
 the spear held aloft, each surmounted by a 
 solid metal emblem, generally of gold. [ENSIGN, 
 BEACON, STANDARD.] 
 
 Banquet, Banqueting. The banquet, as 
 distinguished from the ordinary meal, figured 
 largely in the social and religious life of the 
 Hebrews. The religious festivals, accompanied 
 by feasting, will be dealt with under FEASTS, 
 which see. 
 
 Banquets were given to celebrate such 
 occasions as marriages, the weaning of the heir, 
 farewells or reunions, sheep-shearings, etc. ; 
 but although refreshments were served at 
 funerals, there was no attempt at feasting, 
 except among the heathen. Pharaoh and 
 Herod are each recorded as having birthday- 
 banquets (Gen. 40.20 ; Matt. 14.6). That 
 drunkenness and gluttony disgraced some of 
 these frequent banquets is evident from the 
 attitude of the prophets, who were compelled 
 frequently to censure the participants (Eccles. 
 10.16 ; Isai. 5.11 ; Jer. 35.5). Singers and 
 dancers were often present. From the banquet 
 there sprang the evil custom of having parties 
 for drinking only. 
 
 When a person provided a feast for his 
 friends he sent a servant with the invitation, 
 which was always given some days before. 
 Then on the evening of the day itself messengers 
 were again sent to bid the guests come. This 
 custom is mentioned in Lk. 14.7 ff. The 
 guests were not then asked for the first time, 
 but had all been invited, and had accepted 
 the invitation, and were therefore pledged. 
 To refuse after this was a gross insult to the 
 giver of the feast, and worthy of punishment. 
 The guests were made welcome by the master, 
 who embraced them or kissed them on the lips, 
 hands, knees, or feet, according to the amount 
 of honour in which the guest was held. This 
 was a general custom in the East, and common 
 among the Jews ; for our Lord complained to 
 Simon that he had given him no kiss of respect 
 (Lk. 7.45). 
 
 The custom of reclining was introduced from 
 the Persians ; the posture in early times was 
 sitting, and the guests sat in order of importance 
 (Gen. 43.33; 1 Sam. 9.22). But later the 
 Hebrews, as well as the Greeks and llomans, 
 adopted the luxurious mode of reclining while 
 they ate. 
 
 The tables for the great banquets were con- 
 structed on three sides of a square, the space 
 inside being reserved for the attendants. Round 
 these tables were placed beds or couches, with 
 their heads towards the centre of the square. 
 These were mounted with the aid of footstools. 
 The framework of these beds was highly orna- 
 mented, while the cushions or mattresses were 
 covered with elaborate embroidery. At the 
 feast of Ahasuerus, when he entertained the 
 nobles of his kingdom, beds or couches of silver 
 and gold were used ; that is to say, they were 
 profusely ornamented with the precious metals. 
 Each guest reclined upon one elbow, leaving 
 
 the right hand free to convey food to his mouth. 
 His back was supported by cushions. 
 
 It was customary for the guests to wash 
 off the dust and sweat of travelling before 
 sitting down. This was an act usually done 
 by a domestic, and was considered a very 
 undignified office, the bearer of the towel being 
 a degraded person. Yet the Saviour Himself 
 did not hesitate to take upon Himself this lowly 
 office when He wished to teach His disciples 
 lessons of love and humility (John 13.1-2). 
 
 The banquet and accompanying entertain- 
 ment were conducted by a governor of the feast 
 (John 2.9). He was chosen from among the 
 guests as the pleasantest and most diverting in 
 the company. He was to rule over the rest, to 
 forbid disorder, and to encourage mirth, and 
 to see that none should get intoxicated. This 
 last portion of his duties was a delicate matter, 
 for the master had to watch carefully the effect 
 the wine had produced on those who were under 
 his charge. If they showed signs that the wine 
 was taking effect, their next glass was liberally 
 watered, while those whose conduct showed 
 that they were free from intoxication were 
 allowed to have undiluted wine. 
 
 Portions or messes were sent from the en- 
 tertainer to each guest at table (Gen. 43.34 ; 
 1 Sam. 1.5, 9.23, 24), and double portions to 
 those particularly honoured. A more pleasing 
 custom was the sending of portions to poorer 
 friends direct from the banquet (Neh. 8.10 ; 
 Esth. 9.19, 22). Perfumes and scented oils were 
 offered the guests and sprinkled on head, beard, 
 and garments. [FEASTS, EATING, D SINKING, 
 PASSOVER, etc.] 
 
 Baptism, Baptize. To dip : John was intro- 
 ducing no new custom when he was baptizing 
 his disciples in the Jordan, for, among the Jews, 
 the immersion of the whole body, in running 
 water if possible, was a means of washing awayall 
 ceremonial uncleanness (/sat.1.16). Forthebap- 
 tism of Jesus, see Matt. 3.13-17, and references. 
 
 Besides their ceremonial washings, the Jews 
 were in the habit of baptizing converts to 
 Judaism. When, therefore, they saw John 
 baptizing, they were not surprised at the act 
 of baptism but by his baptizing. Their question, 
 " Why baptizest thou then, if thou be not that 
 Christ, nor Elias, neither that prophet ? " (John 
 1.25) shows this. They did not ask, "What new 
 rite is this ? " but, " Why dost thou administer 
 it ? " The baptism of proselytes was natural 
 to the Jews, as they considered all Gentiles 
 to be impure and unclean. 
 
 In the due administration of Christian baptism 
 the washing became the sign of inward purifica- 
 tion from sin. When a Gentile became a 
 Jewish proselyte he was necessarily baptized, 
 because his whole previous life had been cere- 
 monially unclean. Christian baptism was a 
 sign of moral purification, while that of John 
 the Baptist was intermediate between the 
 ceremonial act of the Jews and the spiritual 
 and emblematic baptism of the apostles. But 
 in the case of the Jewish and of the Christian 
 
BAPTISM FOR THE DEAD] 
 
 55 
 
 [BAB-JESUS 
 
 ceremonies immersion was not essential ; it is 
 not probable that the 3000 of Pentecost were 
 immersed, though apparently the followers of 
 John the Baptist were. John's baptism was 
 more allied to the Mosaic washings than to the 
 Christian rite. He himself belonged neither to 
 the prophets nor to the apostles. Thus those 
 whom John or his disciples baptized were 
 rebaptized when they were converted to 
 Christianity (Acts 19.1-5). Christian baptism 
 is specially connected with the gift of the Holy 
 Spirit (Matt. 28.19), and with the forgiveness 
 of sins (Mk. 16.16). The proper persons to be 
 baptized are indicated in Acts 2.41. In whose 
 name the right should be performed is shown 
 in Acts 8.16, 22.16, and in Rom. 6.3,4 Christ's 
 followers are said to be " buried with Him by 
 baptism into death." As these passages show, 
 we do not need to go beyond the N.T. for 
 the origin of Christian baptism, though 
 the Saviour Himself did not baptize, but only 
 His disciples. Among Christians it took the 
 place of circumcision. 
 
 Baptism for the Dead (1 Cor. 15.29). 
 Some find in this passage an allusion to a 
 practice (which was neither extensive nor 
 lasting) of baptizing persons in place of candi- 
 dates who died before baptism. Others take 
 the word " baptized " as figurative, referring 
 to the overwhelming trials which many suffered 
 for the sake of their hope beyond death. A 
 popular interpretation, " baptized in the room 
 of the dead," pressing onward to take the 
 place of those who had fallen in the ranks, 
 is inconsistent with the meaning of the pre- 
 position. But perhaps Christians may be here 
 said to be " baptized on behalf of the dead," 
 because in that act they vindicate their pre- 
 decessors, who have lived, suffered, and died 
 in the hope of resurrection to eternal life, 
 against such as alleged they had perished. 
 
 Baptism with the Holy Ghost, and with Fire 
 (Matt. 3.11). The absence of the second preposi- 
 tion in the Greek shows that John refers to two 
 aspects of one and the same baptism. It is to 
 be spiritual, in contrast to the material and 
 external ; and it is to be purifying. The 
 question has been raised whether "fire" refers 
 to the purification of the godly who truly 
 accept the baptism of the Spirit, or to the 
 destruction of the wicked, as in vers. 10, 12. 
 But the work of the Divine presence is always 
 twofold, as the soul yields to it willingly or the 
 reverse (Isai. 31.9, 33.14, 15). 
 
 Baptist. [JOHN THE BAPTIST.] 
 
 Bar, Bars of the Pit (Job 17.16). By this 
 expression is meant " the bars of the gates of 
 Sheol," or Hades, the place of departed 
 spirits. 
 
 Barab'bas. Son of the father or rabbi : he 
 whom Pilate released, according to an annual 
 Passover custom, instead of Jesus. The accounts 
 of the crime for which Barabbas had been put in 
 prison differ in all four Gospels. In Matt. 27.16 
 he is just a " notable " prisoner ; Mark says 
 (15.7) he was bound with others who had raised 
 
 I an insurrection with him, and that he had also 
 
 I committed murder ; Luke corroborates Mark's 
 
 j statement, but further states that the " insur- 
 
 ! rection " had taken place in Jerusalem itself ; 
 
 i while John (18.40) contents himself with the 
 
 j statement that " Barabbas was a robber." It 
 
 ! will be observed that there is practical agree- 
 
 ; ment between these accounts. Barabbas may 
 
 have been the son of an Abba or Rabbi. 
 
 The contrast between his release and the 
 
 execution of Jesus is all the greater, if this man, 
 
 who had been convicted of a serious political 
 
 offence, accompanied by murder, was set free 
 
 because his father was a great man, while 
 
 Jesus suffered the extreme penalty of the law, 
 
 though no offence could be proved against Him. 
 
 A deeply interesting fact is that, in Malt. 
 
 27.16, on the testimony of some MSS., Versions, 
 
 and Origen, the name of this prisoner was 
 
 " Jesus Barabbas." If this reading be true, 
 
 the excited crowd was practically asked by 
 
 Pilate, " Which Jesus shall I set free ? and 
 
 which shall undergo the full rigour of the 
 
 law ? " 
 
 Bara'chel. Blessed of God: the father of 
 Elihu, who contended with Job after the other 
 disputants had been silenced (Job 32.2-6). 
 
 Barachi'ah. Blessed of Jehovah (Zech. 1.1,7) : 
 the father of the prophet Zechariah. [BERE- 
 
 CHIAn.] 
 
 Barachi'as (Matt. 23.35). The N.T. form 
 of Barachiah. [ZECHARIAH.] 
 
 Ba'rak. Lightning : the son of Abinoam, 
 who, assisted by Deborah, was active in the 
 conquest of Sisera, the leader of the northern 
 Canaanites, and in the deliverance of Israel. 
 Jezreel (Esdraelon), where the battle was 
 fought, was the battlefield of Palestine (Judg. 
 4 and 5; Heb. 11.32). Barak's victory was 
 decisive, for Harosheth was taken, Sisera 
 killed, and Jabin ruined (Judg. 4). [DEBORAH, 
 JABIN.] 
 
 Barbarian, Barbarous. A term imitating 
 the language of a foreigner (compare oiir 
 " jabber "), given by Greeks to all foreigners. 
 Wherever these words occur in the N.T., they 
 mean generally foreigner or alien (Acts 28.2, 4 ; 
 Rom. 1.14). It was not until long afterwards 
 that ideas of cruelty and savagery were associ- 
 ated with the word. 
 
 Barhu'mite. [BAHARUMITE.] 
 
 Bariah. A descendant of Zerubbabel (1 Ch. 
 3.22). 
 
 Bar-jesus. Son of Jesus (Acts 13.6-12) : a 
 sorcerer and false prophet in the suite, or follow- 
 ing, of Sergius Paulus, a high Roman official at 
 Paphos, in Cyprus. When Paul and Barnabas 
 were on the island, Sergius Paulus desired to 
 receive religious instruction from them. But 
 Bar-jesus, fearing that his own reputation and 
 position, as well as his income, were in jeopardy, 
 because of their teaching, opposed them strongly. 
 As a result of this, God, through Paul, smote 
 him with blindness. Bar-jesus was a Jew, but 
 the second name (ver. 8) by which he is known, 
 Elymas, has an Arabic origin, and is derived 
 
BAR-JONA] 
 
 56 
 
 [BARUCH 
 
 from a word meaning wise or able, translated 
 " sorcerer" in the N.T. 
 
 Bar-Jo'na. Son of Jona (Matt. 16.17): 
 the family or surname of Simon Peter (see 
 PETEE). Perhaps another form of " Son of 
 John." See R.V. of John 21.15. 
 
 Bar'kOS (Ezra 2.53). A family of Nethinim 
 that returned from exile under Nehemiah 
 (Neh. 7.55). The name signifies a son or wor- 
 shipper of the god Kos, and belongs to a large 
 class of such theophorous proper names. 
 
 Barley (Ezek. 4.9). This grain was the staple 
 food of the poorer classes, and comes next to 
 wheat in the productions of Palestine. It was 
 also largely used as a food for horses, etc. 
 (1 K. 4.28). In Judg. 7.13 it stands as the 
 type of a peasant army, and not as denoting the 
 feebleness of Gideon's three hundred. Barley 
 was prescribed as an offering under the ritual 
 law, in certain cases involving a question of out- 
 raged morals (Num. 5.15). Barley was sown 
 in October, and reaped in March or April. As 
 it ripened earlier than wheat, there was some- 
 times a second sowing. Six-rowed barley is 
 found depicted upon Egyptian monuments and 
 coins 600 years B.C. 
 
 Bar'nabas. Son of exhortation, perhaps 
 originally son of Nebo : first known as Joses 
 or Joseph (Acts 4.36). Barnabas, who was a 
 Levite, and a native of Cyprus, was one of the 
 earliest believers in a risen Saviour, and seems 
 to have had special skill in exhorting and 
 encouraging. He was a man of wealth, but 
 sold his possessions and laid the price at the 
 feet of the apostles. When the Jewish 
 Christians hesitated about accepting Paul, it 
 was Barnabas who overcame their reluct- 
 ance, and introduced Paul, whom he must 
 have known, to the Church at Jerusalem 
 (Acts 9.27). So greatly did his Christian 
 brethren esteem him, and so confident were 
 they of his integrity and good sense, that they 
 sent him upon several missions requiring 
 delicate treatment (Acts 11.19-26, 30). It 
 is in reference to his mission to Antioch that 
 Luke uses of him the striking words, " He was a 
 good man, and full of the Holy Ghost and of 
 faith" (Acts 11.24). He accompanied Paul on 
 his first missionary journey (Acts 13.2, 3). At 
 Lystra, after the healing of the cripple, Bar- 
 nabas was worshipped as Jupiter (Acts 
 14.12). 
 
 Differences arose between Barnabas and 
 Paul over John Mark, cousin (Col 4.10 R.V.) 
 to Barnabas, and he was not with Paul on the 
 second journey (Acts 15.36 ff.). The breach 
 was afterwards healed, but, in the providence 
 of God, it made for the further spreading 
 of the Gospel. Little is known of the 
 later history of Barnabas. It is asserted that 
 he suffered martyrdom not an unlikely event, 
 but unproved. His life was full of disinterested 
 goodness and zeal, though once he compromised 
 in a matter that he knew to be wrong (Gal. 
 2.12, 13). That he was not a married man seems 
 to be shown in 1 Cor. 9.6, a passage which 
 
 also suggests that, in spite of the early quarrel, 
 St. Paul evidently esteemed him highly. 
 
 Barrel (1 K. 17.12-16, 18.33). This 
 " barrel " was a large earthenware jar, such 
 as was carried on a woman's head or shoulder 
 (Gen. 24.15). [PITCHER, POTTER.] 
 
 Barsa'bas, Barsabbas. 1. Sun of Saba, or 
 son of the Sabbath, as born on that day (Acts 
 1.23). He was nominated to succeed Judas 
 in the apostolate, but rejected, Matthias being 
 chosen. The organisation did not seem to be 
 complete unless the number of the twelve (com- 
 pare the twelve tribes) was made up. His 
 full name was Joseph Barsabas Justus, and 
 since the fifth century it has been thought 
 that he was one of the seventy (Lk. 10.1). 
 
 2. Another Barsabas, or Barsabbas, is 
 mentioned in Acts 15.22. He was also called 
 Judas, and was a prominent member of the 
 Church at Jerusalem. 
 
 Barthol'omew. Son of Tolmai : one of the 
 twelve apostles (Matt. 10.3). His real 
 name is not known, but he was called 
 Bartholomew, the son of Tolmai. He has been 
 identified with Nathanael through a supposition 
 based upon the fact that Bartholomew is not 
 in John's list of the disciples, and Nathanael, 
 regarding whom the others are silent, is. Born 
 at Cana of Galilee, Bartholomew was a man of 
 fine character, and received the commendation 
 of our Lord. It is said that Armenia was his 
 mission field, but that he wandered as far as 
 India, preaching and teaching. A legend says 
 that he suffered martyrdom by being flayed 
 alive and crucified head downwards. 
 
 Bartimse'us. Son of Timaus : a blind 
 beggar in Jericho, whose sight our Lord restored 
 (Mk. 10.46). Matthew and Luke describe the 
 same incident (Matt. 20.30 ; Lk. 18.35), although 
 Luke has it that the miracle was performed 
 when Jesus was entering, and not when He 
 was leaving the city. It is singular that 
 Bartimoeus is the only blind man healed whose 
 name is mentioned. His faith was so strong 
 that, though bidden again and again to hold his 
 peace and not trouble the Master, he continued 
 his efforts to attract the Saviour's attention. 
 From the time of his healing he followed our 
 Lord as one of His humble disciples. 
 
 Ba'ruch. Blessed : 1. The son of Neriah, 
 brother of Seraiah, and the friend and 
 secretary of the prophet Jeremiah (Jer. 36.4 fl."). 
 He was a learned man, of noble family (Jer. 
 51.59), and served the prophet faithfully. By 
 the instructions of Jeremiah, Baruch wrote 
 down the former's prophecies.and communicated 
 them to the princes and rulers. In anger the 
 latter accused him and Jeremiah of treason, 
 showing the king, in proof of their statements, 
 the writings which they had managed to secure. 
 When the king had read the documents, his 
 anger was grent. He ordered the arrest of both 
 Baruch and Jeremiah, but they escaped. After 
 the capture of Jerusalem by the Babylonians 
 (586 B.C.), Nebuchadnezzar treated Jeremiah 
 well, and Baruch was accused of influencing 
 
BAKZiLLAI] 
 
 57 
 
 [BATHE 
 
 Jeremiah against fleeing to Egypt (Jer. 43.3). 
 But eventually they were both compelled to 
 go there with the remnant of Judah (Jer. 43.6). 
 During his imprisonment Jeremiah had pre- 
 sented Baruch with the deeds of the land 
 purchased from Hanameel (Jer. 32.12). 
 Baruch complained much to God because of 
 all he had suffered, but was appeased, on being 
 assured that it was best for him to be 
 contented with his condition (Jer. 45.2-5). 
 [JEREMIAH, NON-CANOXICAL BOOKS.] 2. The 
 son of Zabbai, who helped to build the wall 
 (Neh. 3.20). 3. A priest who signed the 
 covenant (Neh. 10.6). 4. The son of Col- 
 hozeh, a descendant of Pharez (Neh. 11.5). 
 
 Barzil'lai. Meaning unknown. A Gileadite. 
 A wealthy man, he befriended David when the 
 latter was flying from his rebellious son Absalom 
 (2 Sam. 17-27). Afterwards, when the rebellion 
 had been suppressed, David desired Barzillai to 
 take up his residence at court, but the old man 
 pleaded his great age, arid asked to be excused, 
 sending his son Chimham [which see] up to 
 Jerusalem in his stead (2 Sam. 19.32-39). 
 David's gratitude to this faithful subject never 
 wavered, and in his final charge to Solomon 
 he enjoined it upon hirn to be still the friend of 
 Barzillai 's family (1 K. 2.7). Compare Eyra 
 2.61 ; Neh. 7.63. 
 
 2. Father of Adriel, the husband of Michal 
 (2 Sam. 21.8). 
 
 Ba'shan. Fruitful country : the first mention 
 of Bashan occurs in Num. 21.33, where it is 
 recorded that the Israelites defeated Og, the 
 king of Bashan, at the border town of Edrei, 
 whither he had hurried to resist the invading 
 hosts of Israel. It is a broad and fruitful 
 country, lying to the east of Jordan, bounded 
 on the south by the mountains of Gilead, on 
 the east by the Jebel Hauran, a line of extinct 
 volcanoes, on the west by Geshur and Ma'acah 
 (Josh. 12.5), and on the north by Hermon. The 
 name was always written with the definite 
 article, as the Bashan, or the land of Bashan. 
 When the Amorites were conquered, and, with 
 king Og, driven out, their fat and fertile land 
 fell to the portion of the half tribe of Manasseh 
 (Josh. 13.29), who entered upon possession at 
 once (Deut. 31.3, 4, compare with Num. 21.35). 
 The two chief cities of Bashan were Edrei and 
 Ashtaroth, the modern Tell'Ashtera. In Deut. 
 3.4 mention is made of threescore " fenced " 
 cities in Argob in Bashan, and under the rule 
 of Og. [ARGOB.] 
 
 It is difficult, if not impossible, to locate these 
 ancient towns, for though abundant remains 
 of stone-built cities are to be found in Bashan, 
 many of them seem to belong to the Grseco- 
 Roman period. According to one authority, 
 there are 300 sites of ancient towns on the 
 slopes of the Jebel Hauran alone. 
 
 From whichever point of view we regard 
 it, Bashan is a remarkable country, and full 
 of interest. Its extraordinary fertility is proved 
 by the density of its population (Deut. 3.4-14), 
 and by the enormous number of ruins scattered 
 
 over the whole country. Upon the break-up 
 of the empire of Alexander, its possession 
 was an object of continual contest. Then the 
 central portion of the country became a refuge 
 for robbers and outlaws, a character which 
 it retains to-day. The Arabs regard this 
 district as the original possession of the patriarch 
 Job. 
 
 Ba'shan-Ha'voth-Ja'ir. Bashan tent-villages 
 of Jair (Deut. 3.14; : the villages of Argob 
 after capture by Jair, a descendant of Manasseh 
 (Num. 32.41). 
 
 Basho'math. Fragrance: 1. A wife of Esau 
 (Gen. 26.34), and daughter of Elon the Hittite. 
 2. Another wife of Esau, and daughter of 
 Ishmael (Gen. 36.3). Reuel, her son, was the 
 founder of four tribes of Edomites. In Gen. 
 28.9 she is called Mahalath. 
 
 Bashmath. [BASHEMATH, BASMATH.] 
 
 Basin. [POTTERY, BOWL.] 
 
 Basket. The baskets of Palestine were of 
 many shapes and sizes, and made of osiers and 
 many other twigs, as well as canes and grasses. 
 Generally they were shallow, but were some- 
 times made large and deep, with well-fitting 
 covers ; these were for storage purposes. 
 Panniers for carrying goods on horse or donkey- 
 back were sometimes made of basket-work. A 
 basket of wicker-work was even used for serving 
 up meat (Gen. 40.16 ; Ex. 29.3 ; Lev. 8.2 ; 
 Judg. 6.19). The baskets referred to in the 
 miracle of feeding the 5000 (Matt. 14.20 ; 
 Mk. 8.19) were small ; those in that of the 4000 
 (Matt. 15.37 ; Mk. 8.20) were large our " flails." 
 It was in one of this latter kind that St. Paul 
 was let down at Damascus (Acts 9.25). The 
 word translated basket in 2 K. 10.7 ; Jer. 24.2 
 really means pot or jar. In Prov. 25.11, for 
 " baskets " read " filigree work," with R.V. 
 margin. 
 
 Bas'math. Solomon's daughter, who became 
 wife of Ahimaaz, one of Solomon's officers 
 (1 K. 4.15). The name is the same as Bashc- 
 math and Bashmath. 
 
 Bastard (Deut. 23.2; Zech, 9.6; Ileb. 12.8). 
 One of mixed or alien birth. The Rabbis 
 rightly applied the term to the offspring of 
 those married within the prohibited degrees. 
 
 Bat (Lev. 11.19). Among the ancients, in- 
 cluding, of course, the Israelites, the bat, which 
 is classed with the mammals, was thought to 
 partake of the nature of both bird and beast. 
 In Palestine bats inhabit caves and ruins of 
 all kinds, avoiding the light (Isai. 2.20). 
 The bat was unclean, being classed with fowls 
 that creep (Lev. 11.19 ft. ; Deut. 14.18). 
 
 Bath. A measure of capacity. About 8 
 gallons (1 K. 7.26 ; Isai. 5.10). [WEIGHTS 
 AND MEASURES.] 
 
 Bathe. Bathing was a cleansing act enjoined 
 on those who had, or were suspected of having, 
 leprosy, or who were otherwise unclean (L<v. 
 15.16-28 ; Num. 19.7 ; 2 K. 5.10). It was also 
 a necessary act after the period of mourning, 
 which implied defilement (2 Sam. 12.20). The 
 high priest had to perform ceremonial bathings 
 
BATH-RABBIM] 
 
 58 
 
 [BEAR 
 
 frequently at his inauguration, on the day 
 of atonement, and before each solemn act of 
 propitiation (Ex. 40.12 ; Lev. 16.4). There were 
 bathrooms in the Temple and in the houses of 
 the well-to-do. It was customary to anoint 
 and perfume the body after the bath 
 (Esth. 2.12). The pools (see Siloam, etc.) 
 were public bathing places (Neh. 3.15,16 ; Isai. 
 22.11 ; John 9.7), with shelters surrounding 
 them. [PORCH.] The hot baths of Emmaus 
 and of the neighbourhood of the north-eastern 
 end of the Dead Sea were much resorted to, 
 and in the times of the Greeks and Romans 
 became centres of fashion and frivolity. 
 
 Bath-Rab'bim. Daughter of many multitudes 
 (Cant. 7.4): agateof the ancient city of Ileshbon, 
 near which were two pools, to which the spouse 
 compares the eyes of his beloved. 
 
 Bathshe'ba,or Bathshu'a (1CA.3.5). Daughter 
 of the Oath : the beautiful wife of Uriah, the wife 
 of David and mother of Solomon (2 Sam. 11.3, 
 12.24 ; 1 K. 1). David's sin with her was made 
 blacker still when he procured the death of Bath- 
 sheba's husband, Uriah, who was an officer in his 
 army, and devoted to his king (2 Sam. ll.Gff.). 
 When this foul deed was accomplished David 
 made the widow his wife. Prompted by Nathan 
 the prophet, she tells the aged David of Adoni- 
 jah's conspiracy to gain the succession (1 K. 
 1.15-31). Later she is persuaded by Adonijah 
 to plead with Solomon for Abishag as wife. 
 On this occasion Solomon expressly honours 
 her as the Queen-Mother, but sees through 
 the cunning plan of Adonijah (1 K. 2.13-25). 
 Bathsheba had three other sons besides Solomon, 
 viz. Shimea, Shobab, and Nathan (Matt. 1.6 ; 
 1 Ch. 3.5). The fact that she was grand- 
 daughter of Ahithophel (2 Sam. 11.3, 23.34) may 
 explain his defection from David. 
 
 Bathshu'a. Daughter of prosperity: daughter 
 of Shua, and wife of Judah (1 Ch. 2.3 ; see 
 Gen. 38.2-12. [BATHSHEBA.] 
 
 Battering-Rain (Ezek. 4.2, 21.22). A long 
 beam of some tough wood, such as oak. One 
 end was provided with a heavy metal cap in the 
 shape of a ram's head. This beam was then 
 suspended in a framework of thick beams 
 before the wall or gate that was to be broken 
 down, and the ram's head swung back, and 
 driven against it with great force. The Romans 
 made great use of this weapon when besieging 
 fortified towns. [WAB, WEAPONS.] 
 
 Battle. [WAR.] 
 
 Battle-Axe (Jer. 51.20). Rather hammer 
 or club, i.e. " battle hammer," etc. The 
 spelling " ax " is old English. [WAR, 
 WEAPONS.] 
 
 Battlement (Deut. 22.8). ,4 restraint: a wall 
 or parapet built round the flat roof of an Eastern 
 house, its use being obviously to prevent acci- 
 dents, as roofs are used in the East much as 
 we use gardens, and also to divide one roof 
 from its neighbour, though the battlements are 
 so low that one can step over them. Also used 
 in the fortification of a city (Jer. 5.10). 
 
 [FOBTBESS.] 
 
 Bav'ai, Bavvai. Wishing : son of Henadad, 
 a ruler in the time of Nehemiah, who helped to 
 rebuild the wall of Jerusalem (Neh. 3.18). 
 
 Bay. 1. Tongue, i.e. oj a sea : (Josh. 15.2). 
 2. A reddish colour (Zech. 6.3, 7). 
 
 Bay-Tree (Ps. 37.35). Although the bay 
 laurel is found on the Carmel range and other 
 places in Palestine, David's simile has been 
 correctly interpreted as having a more general 
 reference, the Hebrew word meaning simply 
 " home-born," as of Israelites (Lev. 23.42). 
 If the Psalmist had designed to mention any 
 particular tree, he would probably have chosen 
 the stately cedar, which, with spreading ever- 
 green branches, stands for centuries, and not 
 the comparatively humble though fragrant 
 evergreen. The 11. V. has " a green tree in its 
 native soil." 
 
 Bayith. [BAJITH.] 
 
 Baz lith, Baz'luth. Stripping : a family of 
 Nethinim who returned from exile with Zerub- 
 babel (Ezra 2.52 ; Neh. 7.54). 
 
 Bdell'imn (Gen. 2.12). An aromatic gum 
 common in the East, and a production of the 
 land of Havilah. Some authorities suppose 
 the word to mean the pearl, or some other 
 precious stone. In Num 11.7 manna is said 
 to be the colour of bdellium, which, as in 
 Ex. 16.14 manna is likened to hoar frost, must 
 have had the same pearly lustre applicable 
 both to the pearl and to some kinds of gum as 
 they exude from the tree. 
 
 Beacon.^t mast or pole (Isai. 30.17) : " As 
 a beacon upon the top of a mountain." Em- 
 ployed in a double sense, as a sign of desolation, 
 and secondly as a signal for direction. The 
 Jews were like a beacon and ensign on a hill, 
 when the judgments of God had reduced their 
 number, and in other ways distressed them, to 
 warn others to avoid like sins. [BANNER.] 
 
 Beali'ah. Jehovah is Lord (1 Ch. 12.5): 
 He joined David at Ziklag. The conjunction 
 of Baal and Jehovah in this name is 
 remarkable. 
 
 Bea'loth. Ladies, mistresses (Josh. 15.24): 
 the feminine form of Baal. A city in the south- 
 east of Judah. [ALOTH.] 
 
 Beam. In Judg. 16.14 this means the 
 whole of a weaver's handloom ; in 1 Sam. 17.7 
 and similar passages only the actual beiftn of 
 the loom, to which the heddles are attached. 
 
 Bean. Mentioned twice in the Bible as 
 an article of food (2 Sam. 17.28 ; Ezek. 4.9), 
 to be cooked and mixed with other ingredients 
 in the form of bread. Beans were one of the 
 very earliest vegetables used in Europe, and 
 known to the ancient inhabitants of Palestine 
 and Egypt, where the peasantry used them 
 largely, though the Egyptian priests were not 
 allowed to eat them. In modern Palestine 
 beans are sown in November and reaped in 
 time of the wheat harvest. 
 
 Bear. That which glides softly: formerly 
 Palestine was covered with forests which pro- 
 vided shelter and food for numerous bears and 
 other large wild animals. The frequency of 
 
BEAKD] 
 
 59 
 
 [BED 
 
 its mention shows that at one time the bear 
 was common, though now very rare. The 
 ferocity of the bear is used as a simile several 
 times (2 Sam. 17.8 ; Prov. 17.12 ; Hos. 13.8). 
 The Syrian bear is different from the brown 
 bear of Europe, in that it is shorter in the limb 
 and of a dirty yellowish hue, with smaller claws. 
 It eats animal food only when hard pressed. 
 In the vision of Daniel it symbolised the Medo- 
 Persian kingdom, and foretold the destructive- 
 ness of the conquerors. The prophet Isaiah, 
 in a striking picture, to show the change of 
 heart that would be produced by the coming 
 of Christ, makes the bear a ferocious animal, 
 living partly on flesh, feed in the same pasture 
 with the cow (Isai. 11.7 ; 1 Sam. 17.34-37 ; Prov. 
 28.15 ; Lam. 3.10 ; Dan. 7.5 ; Amos 5.19 ; Rev. 
 13.2). [ELISHA.] 
 
 Beard. Among the Jews, and generally in 
 the East, great importance has always been 
 attached to the beard as a sign of dignified 
 manhood, and no greater offence could be offered 
 to a man than to treat it with indignity. For 
 a stranger to handle it contemptuously was con- 
 sidered a gross insult (1 Ch. 19.4; 2 Sam. 10.4, 5, 
 20.9). At the same time it was the object of 
 salutation, the person wishing to exhibit 
 great partiality for another lifting it to his lips 
 and kissing it. Except among the Egyptians 
 (Gen. 41.14), who did honour to the dead by 
 letting the beard grow, shaving it off, or plucking 
 it out, were expressions of mourning and grief 
 (2 Sam. 19.24 ; Ezra 9.3 ; Isai. 15.2 ; Jer. 41.5, 
 48.37). A common method for a man to assure 
 another of his good faith and honourable 
 conduct was to swear by his beard. The 
 Arabs still solemnly swear by their beards, and 
 when they want to honour a friend particularly 
 they exclaim, " May God preserve your blessed 
 beard." The idea of manliness embodied in a 
 well-grown beard is illustrated by the Jewish 
 law which forbade the shaving of it after the 
 manner of the Egyptians (Lev. 19.27), and also 
 by Ps. 133.2. Unlike the surrounding nations, 
 the Egyptians shaved all the face, with the 
 exception of the point of the chin, where a 
 tuft of hair was allowed to grow, and was kept 
 trimmed. Sometimes instead of their own hair 
 they wore a false beard of plaited hair, differing 
 in form according to the rank of the individual. 
 That there was something of ceremonial meaning 
 in the cut of the Jewish beard seems to be 
 implied in Lev. 19.27, 21.5, though it is not 
 clear what is meant by the corners of the beard, 
 unless it is that the Jews retained their whiskers, 
 which were shaved off by the Arabs. The care 
 of the beard was a matter of prime consideration 
 by persons of rank and consequence (Ps. 133.2), 
 and a carelessly kept beard was a subject of 
 scorn and ridicule. Lepers, or suspected lepers, 
 were shaved, to expose the bare skin or for 
 cleanliness' sake (Lev. 14.9). 
 
 Figuratively the people of God, or perhaps 
 their honour and dignity, are spoken of as 
 " beards " which Jehovah will shave with 
 the " razor the king of Assvria " (Isai. 1.20). 
 
 Beast. When this word is used in opposition 
 to man, any brute creature is signified (Ps. 36.6) ; 
 when to creeping things, as in Lev. 11.2-7, 29,30, 
 four-footed animals as distinct from bipeds. 
 Paul speaks of fighting with beasts (1 Cor. 15.32), 
 by which he does not mean his having been 
 exposed in the amphitheatre to fight as a 
 gladiator, but that he had to contend at Ephesus 
 with men who were as wild (he does not refer 
 to the uproar in the theatre, for this took place 
 later). There are several other passages in which 
 the term is used to represent the savage conduct 
 of lawless and persecuting men (Ps. 22.12 ; 
 Eccles. 3.18 ; Isai. 11.6-8, etc.). In Revelation 
 mention is made of four " beasts." This word, 
 as more correctly given in Ezek. 1, signifies 
 " living ones," and so the word might have 
 been more justly interpreted by the translators. 
 Under the king of Nineveh beasts took part in 
 the fast of the people (Jon. 3.7, 8). The law 
 of Moses protected them from the injurious 
 treatment of cruel masters, though they 
 suffered, with guilty man, the judgments of 
 God (Ex. 9.6 ; Ps. 135.8). [For the Beast as 
 St. John's term for Rome, see REVELATION, 
 BOOK OF.] 
 
 Beaten Work (Num. 8.4). Metal hammered 
 into the shape required, as distinguished from 
 cast (Ex. 25.18, 31, 36, 37.17, 22). 
 
 Beatitudes. [SERMON ON THE MOUNT.] 
 
 Beautiful Gate (Acts 3.2, 10). A gate of 
 the Temple. [TEMPLE.] 
 
 Be'bai. An ancestor of some of those who 
 returned from exile with Zerubbabel (Ezra 2.11, 
 8.11 ; Neh. 7.16). The name is also given 
 among those who sealed the covenant (Neh. 
 10.15). 
 
 Be'cher. Young camel : 1. The second son 
 of Benjamin. He was one of the fourteen 
 descendants of Rachel who settled in Egypt 
 (Gen. 46.21; 1 Ch. 7.6,8). To this family 
 belonged that Sheba (2 Sam. 20) who rebelled 
 against David after Absalom's death [SHEBA]. 
 Becher was the ancestor of Saul and Abner, 
 the generations following in this order Becher, 
 Abiah (1 Ch. 7.8) or Aphiah (1 Sam. 9.1), 
 Bechorath, Zeror, Jehiel (1 Ch. 9.35), Ner, 
 Kish, Saul. Abner was a younger brother of 
 Kish, and so uncle to Saul. 2. A son of 
 Ephraim (Num. 26.35). [BERED.] 
 
 Becho'rath. Grandson of Becher (1) and son 
 of Aphiar, or Abiah. 
 
 Bed. Beds in the East have always been 
 of a much simpler character than in Europe. 
 Mattresses, or thick cotton quilts, were used 
 for sleeping upon. These were laid on the 
 dais or divan, a part of the room elevated 
 above the level of the floor, covered with a 
 carpet in winter and a fine mat in summer. 
 Cushions served instead of pillows and bolsters. 
 These beds were not kept made, but the mat- 
 tresses were rolled up and placed in a cupboard 
 until nightfall. Hence our Lord's words to the 
 cured paralytic, " Take up thy bed " (Matt. 9.6). 
 The divan had an ascent of several steps. It 
 was used as a seat in the daytime, the corner 
 
BED-CHAMBER] 
 
 60 
 
 [BEER 
 
 being the place of honour (A mo 3.12). For a 
 covering a thin blanket, or ercn the outer 
 garment worn in the day, sufliced in the summer 
 (1 Sam. 19.13). In the case of the poor this 
 garment was generally the only bed and covering. 
 Hence the law provided that it should not be 
 kept in pledge after sunset (Deul. 24.13). 
 [BEDSTEAD.] 
 
 Bed-chamber. Bed-chambers were occasion- 
 ally built on the roofs of the houses of wealthy 
 people, either for extra accommodation or for 
 the sake of the air in hot weather. The murder 
 of Ishbaal took place in such a room (2 Sam. 
 4.7). The chamber built for Elisha was not 
 only for sleeping purposes (2 K. 4.10). But the 
 roof itself, without any shelter, was frequently 
 used in hot weather as the family sleeping- 
 place. The bed-chamber where Joash was hidden 
 in the temple (2 K. 11.2; 2 Ch. 22.11) was 
 not a sleeping- place, but a storeroom in which 
 the beds or mattresses were kept during the 
 daytime. Such a room would have been 
 in the most remote part of the palace, a good 
 place in which to hide. 
 
 Be'dad. Son of Adad : father of the fourth 
 king of Edom, Hadad ben-Bedad (Gen. 36.35 ; 
 1 Ch. 1.46). 
 
 Be' dan. Son of Judgment or of Dan 
 (1 Sam. 12.11) : 1. One of the Judges of Israel, 
 though his name is omitted in the history 
 of the Book of Judges. Some think it means 
 Abdon (Judg. 12.13,) others Samson (Judg. 
 13.2-24). 2. Descendant of Machir (1 Ch. 7.17). 
 
 Bedei'ah A servant of Jehovah : a member 
 of the family of Bani, whose name occurs in the 
 list of those who had taken strange wives during 
 the captivity (Ezra 10.35). 
 
 Bedsteads. Bedsteads, as we understand 
 them, were not in use in Palestine, but some- 
 thing of the kind is implied in 2 Sam. 3.31 ; see 
 also Gen. 47.31. But the divan or couch, 
 instead of being built with the house, was 
 sometimes a separate article of furniture, and 
 made of costly materials. The Book of Esther 
 (1.6) mentions beds of gold and silver, together 
 with hangings and marble pillars, in describing 
 the splendours of the court of Ahasuerus at 
 Shushan (see also Cant. 3.9, 10). Then again 
 the intercourse that existed between Egypt 
 and Palestine must have made bedsteads 
 familiar objects to many Jews, and that they 
 did not adopt them shows incidentally how 
 strong a hold custom and habit had upon this 
 conservative people. During the long centuries 
 of Bible history the bed and bedstead of the mass 
 of the people remained unchanged. It is very 
 singular that the only use of the word bedstead 
 in the Bible is where Og, king of Bashan 
 (Deut. 3.11), is described as having a bedstead 
 of iron. In the light of our present knowledge 
 this should be iron-stone or basalt, a rock which 
 contains 20 per cent, of iron. This rock was 
 commonly used east of the Jordan for the 
 " couch of death," or sarcophagus, which it is 
 thought this giant king used for his couch. 
 These basaltic sarcophagi were often ten feet 
 
 and more long, and proportionately wide, and 
 would undoubtedly form even for the living 
 comfortable resting-places when well padded. 
 
 [BED.] 
 
 Bee (Deut. 1.44). In this passage the well- 
 known pugnacity of the bee is alluded to, as 
 also in Ps. 118.12. Though the Palestine bee is 
 regarded asadistinct species by some naturalists, 
 its true place seems to be as a sub-species of the 
 common honey-bee, Apis mellifica. It is lighter 
 in colour and more clearly marked than the 
 British bee. It is also smaller and far more 
 venomous. As honey is an important article 
 of food in the East, the bee is carefully cultivated, 
 the hive consisting of a tube of clay, something 
 after the style of a drain-pipe, or a cluster of 
 them, piled one on another. These pipes are 
 about 8 ins. in diameter and 3 ft. long, the ends 
 being closed, with the exception of a small 
 opening. It is a singular fact, however, that 
 the only honey spoken of in the Bible is " wild 
 honey," many Arabs making, even at the 
 present time, a living by gathering it. That 
 the carcase of the lion which Samson slew 
 should contain honey is not surprising. The 
 flesh of the dead animal would quickly be 
 consumed by other wild beasts, and then 
 the bees would find the " hive," formed of the 
 dried ribs, a convenient place in which to store 
 the wild sweetness gathered from the profusion 
 of flowers growing all around. The curious 
 expression used in Isai. 7.18, " The Lord shall 
 hiss ... for the bee that is in the land of 
 Assyria," is an allusion to the practice of 
 calling the bees from their hives by a sharp 
 hissing sound. [HONEY.] 
 
 Beeli'ada. Baal knows (1 Ch. 14.7) : a son 
 of David. The original form of this name 
 became hateful to the Israelites because of its 
 association with the worship of Baal, and so 
 we find it altered to Eliada, " God knows " 
 (2 Sam. 5.16; 1 Ch. 3.8). 
 
 Beel'zebub. [BAAL/EBUB. J 
 
 Beer. A well (Num. 21.16): a station 
 of the Israelites beyond the Arnon, so-called 
 because of the " well " dug by the princes of 
 the people. We may identify it with the 
 " Beer-elim," " Well of heroes," of Isai. 15.8, in 
 which " the heroes " may refer to princes and 
 nobles who dug it, or rather, no doubt, ordered 
 it to be dug. " Digging " was, of course, 
 symbolical. When a new well had been found 
 and prepared for use, the chief of the tribes 
 went through the form of digging, during the 
 performance of which the tribal poet extolled the 
 virtues of the well with a song (Num. 21.17, 18). 
 The spot has recently been identified as being 
 near ruins now called el-Modeyne. " In the 
 shingle and gravel of the wady, which is almost 
 bare of vegetation, the Bedouin dig out with 
 their hands pits, from 0'3 to 1 metre deep, in 
 which water gathers from 0'2 to 0*3 metre 
 deep. Such water-pits are called Bir, Biyar. 
 Since they are regularly filled up by the winter 
 rains, they have to be freshly dug every spring. 
 . . . It is the only place north of the town 
 
BEERA] 
 
 61 
 
 [BEL 
 
 where the water comes to the surface in the 
 manner described in Num. 21.16-18 " (Expositor, 
 August, 1908). 
 
 2. A place to which Jotham, son of Gideon, 
 fled, for fear of his brother Abimelech. It 
 lies eight miles west of Hebron (Judg. 9.21). 
 
 Bee'ra. A member of the tribe of Asher 
 (1 Ch. 7.37). 
 
 Bee'rah (1 Ch. 5.6). A prince of the Reu- 
 benites, carried away captive by Tiglath-pileser. 
 [BBSBI.] 
 
 Beer-E'lim. [BEEB.] 
 
 Bee'ri. (?) The man from Beer: 1. The 
 Hittite father of Judith, one of Esau's wives 
 (Gen. 26.34). In Gen. 36.2 she bears the name of 
 Aholibamah. 
 
 2. Father of Hosea the prophet (Eos. 1.1). 
 He has been identified with Beerah (1 Ch. 5.6), 
 by the Rabbins. 
 
 Beer-Lahai'-roi. The well of the living one 
 who sees me : the name of the fountain where 
 an angel of the Lord appeared to Hagar when 
 the latter had fled from the anger of Sarai, 
 Abraham's wife (Gen. 16.14). That its position 
 was in the wilderness of Beersheba, lying west- 
 ward of the Dead Sea, is shown in Gen. 21.14-21. 
 This North Arabian district seems to have been 
 Hagar's native land, and not Egypt. It was 
 natural, therefore, for her to return to her own 
 people when sent away by Abraham. Isaac 
 also dwelt here (Gen. 24.62, 25.11). [HAGAR, 
 
 ISHMAEI,, MlZRAIM.] 
 
 Bee'roth. Wells (Deut. 10.6) : 1. One of the 
 four cities of the Hivites that secured a treaty 
 of peace from Joshua (Josh. 9.17), given to 
 Benjamin (Josh. 18.25). It was the home 
 of the murderers of Ishbosheth (2 Sam. 4.2), and 
 also of one of David's heroes (2 Sam. 23.37 ; 
 1 Ch. 11.39). See also Ezra 2.25 and Neh. 7.29. 
 Beeroth, or rather El-Bireh, about 8 miles 
 north of Jerusalem, is still the first halting- 
 place for caravans, though it is but a poor 
 village of less than 1000 inhabitants. Accord- 
 ing to tradition it was there that Jesus was 
 missed by Mary and Joseph (Lk. 2.43). 
 
 2. A place of the same name was also a station 
 of the Israelites, and is called Beeroth Bsne- 
 jaakan (Deut. 10.6 ; Num. 33.31). 
 
 Beeroth'ite. An inhabitant of Beeroth 
 (2 Sam. 4.2-9, 23.37 ; 1 Ch. 11.39). 
 
 Beer-she'ba. Well of the Oath, but according 
 to others, Well of Seven (Gen. 21.22-33, 
 26.26-33). At one time a place of some 
 size and consequence,it is now, under its modern 
 name of Bir-es-Seba, only a place of ruins, the 
 site of two immense wells, surrounded by stone 
 drinking-troughs for the use of cattle and 
 sheep. Though not on the border of Judah, 
 being indeed some 60 miles within it, yet being 
 on the verge of the cultivated territory of 
 Simeon, it was used in colloquial speech to 
 signify the southern limit of the whole country ; 
 hence the frequent phrases from " Dan to 
 Beersheba" (2 Sam. 17.11), from" Geba to 
 Beersheba " (2 K. 23.8). 
 
 At this well (or wells) Abraham, Isaac, and 
 
 Jacob all resided and watered their flocks. Situ- 
 ated about 20 miles south of Hebron, the town 
 fell finally into Simeon's hands (Josh. 15.28, 
 19.2). At Beersheba also resided the sons of 
 Samuel (1 Sam. 8.2), and in later times the 
 place had idolatrous images of the true 
 God (Amos 5.5, 8.14). Some of the returned 
 exiles settled there in Nehemiah's time (Neh. 
 11.27,30). In addition to the two circular 
 wells mentioned above, 50 ft. deep, there are 
 indications that other wells existed here, but 
 whether the full number of seven can be traced 
 is open to doubt. In later history its name 
 occurs in ecclesiastical lists as an episcopal 
 city under the Bishop of Jerusalem (620 A.D.). 
 
 Be'eshte'rah. House of Ashtaroth (Josh. 
 21.27) : a Levitical city in Manasseh, west 
 of the Jordan. It was allotted to the Gershon- 
 ites, and is identical with Astaroth. [ASH- 
 TAROTH.] 
 
 Beetle (Lev. 11.22). Not a beetle at all, 
 but almost certainly (see ver. 21) a member of 
 the family of grasshoppers, a species of locust. 
 The wording of ver. 21 shows that the animal 
 intended had high projecting legs, and was in 
 the habit of leaping. In addition the beetle was 
 not an article of diet, though the locust was. 
 The Egyptian beetle is included in Ex. 8.21, in 
 the term " swarms of flies." 
 
 Beeves. The plural of beef, cattle : the word 
 is old English, and rarely used now (Lev. 22.19). 
 
 Beggar. See 1 Sam. 2.8; Lk. 16.20-22. 
 [ALMS.] 
 
 Behe'moth. Beasts : the same word that is 
 translated "beast" in Job 35.11; Ps. 73.22, 
 " cattle," or " any large quadruped " (Gen. 6.7 ; 
 Ex. 9.25; Lev. 11.2). There have been many 
 conjectures as to the creature meant by the 
 term behemoth, though doubtless it is a vigorous 
 portrait of the hippopotamus, the plural express- 
 ing the idea of magnitude, as often in Hebrew. 
 The description in Job is close to the points of 
 the hippopotamus, with the notable exception 
 of the tail, which the writer likens to a cedar ; 
 whereas, of course, the hippopotamus has a 
 very small tail. 
 
 There are two closely allied species of the 
 hippopotamus, which is found only in Africa. 
 In spite of their enormous size, they are capable 
 of swift motion on land. They are nocturnal 
 in their habits, leaving the rivers and lakes, 
 where they are most at home, chiefly at night, 
 when they commit great havoc upon the 
 standing crops. Their favourite food is young 
 herbage, grass, and especially green corn. The 
 animal was in great demand among the Romans 
 for exhibition at their games in the circus, 
 and was obtained from Egypt. 
 
 Be'kah. Breaking : half a shekel, a sum 
 about equal to one shilling. The contribution 
 of every Israelite over twenty years of age 
 (Ex. 30.12-16, 38.26; of. Matt. 17.24-27). 
 
 Bel. Lord : the Babylonian equivalent of 
 Baal (Isni. 46.1), used both as a proper name 
 and as a title. It was the name of two gods 
 in the Babylonian pantheon, but is used ir. 
 
BELA, BELAH] 
 
 62 
 
 [BELTESHAZZAR 
 
 Isaiah of Bel-Merodach, the tutelar god of 
 Babylon itself. It is mentioned also in Jer. 
 50.2, 51.44, where the prophet is foretelling 
 the downfall of Babylon. [BAAL.] 
 
 Be'la, Be'lah. That which w consumed : 
 1. Two forms of the same word. One of the five 
 cities of the plain which resisted the supremacy 
 of the king of Shinar (Gen. 14.2-8). It was 
 somewhere on the southern shore of the Dead 
 Sea (Zoar, Jer. 48.34), not far from Sodom. 
 It was spared at the overthrow of Sodom and 
 Gomorrah at the intercession of Lot, and was 
 thenceforth called Zoar (Gen. 19.22). [NON- 
 CANONICAL BOOKS, ZOAR.] 
 
 2. The first king of Edom, son of Beor. 
 He reigned over Edom eight generations before 
 Saul, or about the time of the Exodus. His 
 capital city was Dinhabah (Gen. 36.32 ; 1 Ch. 
 1.43, 44). 
 
 3. Eldest son of Benjamin, and head 
 of the Belaites, of whom the house of Ehud 
 was the most remarkable. He was one of the 
 left-handed heroes, and slew the king of Moab, 
 thus freeing his people from the Moabitish 
 yoke, and ensuring peace for eighty years 
 (Judg. 3.14-30); Gen. 46.21; Num. 26.38; 
 1 Ch. 7.6, 7, 8.1, 3). 
 
 4. A son of Azaz, of the tribe of Reuben 
 (1 Ch. 5.8). 
 
 Be'laites. [BELA 3 (Num. 26.38).] 
 
 Be'lial. Worthlessness : a word frequently 
 used in the Scriptures. In its common use it 
 represents what is vile, worthless, and useless, 
 whether a thing (Ps. 41.8 marg.), or a person 
 or class of persons, as " children of Belial " 
 (Deut. 13.13), " son of Belial " (1 Sam. 25.17), 
 " wicked men of Belial " (1 Sam. 30.22). But 
 it is never employed in the O.T. strictly as a 
 proper name ; appearing once in the N.T., where 
 it is used as a personification of wickedness, or 
 perhaps even as a title of Satan (2 Cor. 6.15). 
 
 Bell. Bells in the form of discs or cymbals 
 of metal were a very early invention, though 
 we find the first mention of them in Scripture 
 in the time of Moses (Ex. 28.33), where it was 
 enjoined on the high priest that the lower edge 
 of his robe should be ornamented with golden 
 bells, that his presence might be known when 
 he went into the Holy Place before the Lord, 
 and when he came out, that he might not die. 
 The evident purpose of this ordinance was that 
 the public might have notice of his intention, 
 and to prevent his being put to death by the 
 watchers, none but the high-priest being per- 
 mitted to enter into the Holy Place. A bell 
 was also the signal of victory, and in process 
 of time became part of the equipment of the 
 war-horse. To this custom the prophet Zechariah 
 alludes when, in announcing the change to be 
 wrought by the universal prevalence of true 
 religion, he says, " In that day shall there be 
 upon the bells of the horses, HOLINESS UNTO 
 THE LORD " (Zech. 14.20). 
 
 Among the heathen the use of bells in their 
 religious ceremonies was common. The sound 
 was thought to be good for all kinds of expiation 
 
 and purification, and it had influence over the 
 spirits of the departed. Bells were struck also 
 to exorcise or frighten away demons. It was 
 also the custom in some heathen temples to 
 call the people together to sacrifice by the 
 sounding of a bell. This was done regularly 
 by the priests of Persephone at Athens. From 
 this arose the use of bells in our churches. 
 [CYMBALS.] 
 
 Bellows. The use of bellows was a very 
 ancient practice, probably coeval with the art 
 of smelting (Jer. 6.29). What the shape of the 
 first bellows was is not known, probably a sort 
 of blow-pipe ; but the Egyptian monuments 
 show forms of bellows not greatly differing 
 from some in use at the present time. They 
 were in two parts, worked by the feet, the 
 operator standing upon them and working each 
 foot alternately. 
 
 Bclshaz'zar. Bel, protect the king : in 
 Dan. 5, Belshazzar is described as being king 
 when that city was captured by the Medes and 
 Persians under Cyrus. He is often mentioned 
 in the Babylonian inscriptions. He was not 
 sole monarch of Babylonia, but rather the 
 commander of the army and governor of 
 Babylon. He thus could only appoint Daniel 
 third (not second) ruler in the kingdom (5.29). 
 After the fall of that city, we read that 
 Nabonidus, the real king, and fatherof Belshazzar, 
 surrendered to the conquerors at Borsippa, upon 
 the death of Belshazzar, during the tumult of 
 that awful night (Dan. 5). Between the events 
 in chap. 4 and the opening of chap. 5, historians 
 tell us that there was considerable lapse of time. 
 That Belshazzar was not the actual son of 
 Nebuchadnezzar is certain, but he was prob- 
 ably a grandson through his mother. His 
 father, Nabonidus, is said to have been a usurper. 
 The writers of the Scriptures frequently call 
 a man "son " when they really mean descendant. 
 Belshazzar's last offence was the profanation of 
 the sacred vessels belonging to the temple of 
 Jerusalem, which Nebuchadnezzar and even 
 Evil-Merodach had respected. On that 
 very night, while he and his associates 
 feasted and drank out of the holy vessels, the 
 city was taken by surprise by Darius the Mede, 
 and Belshazzar was put to death. The char- 
 acter of the handwriting on the wall of the ban- 
 queting chamber was possibly ancient Hebrew, 
 and therefore familiar to Daniel, the language 
 itself being Aramaic. The three words 
 " numbering," " weighing," " dividing," were 
 Divinely translated and amplified to Daniel, 
 who was thus enabled to warn and pass sentence 
 upon the wicked king. The foundations of the 
 great hall in which the feast took place were 
 excavated in 1909. [DANIEL, BABYLON, EVIL- 
 MERODACH, MENE.] 
 
 Belteshaz'zar. Protect his life!: this was 
 the name given to Daniel by Nebuchadnezzar's 
 chief eunuch (Dan. 1.7). The first syllable of 
 the name appears to have no connection with 
 Belshazzar, save in sound (Dan. 4.8). [DANIEL, 
 NEBUCHADNEZZAR.] 
 
BEN] 
 
 63 
 
 [BENHADAD 
 
 
 Ben. 1. Son, or perhaps Intelligent: a 
 Levite set over the service of song in the 
 time of David (1 Ch. 15.18). 2. Son : 
 a word frequently prefixed to names, as 
 Ben-hadad (the son of Hadad), Benjamin, etc. 
 
 Ben-abinadab. [ABTNADAB 4.] 
 
 Benai'ah. Jah hath built up: 1. One of 
 David's officers (2 Sam. 23.22, 23), the son of 
 Jehoiada, bore this name. He was a man of 
 heroic mould, and distinguished himself on 
 several occasions. He was an adherent of 
 Solomon against the pretensions of Adonijah 
 (1 K. 1.8 ff.), and, after putting Adonijah and 
 Joab to death, succeeded to the command of 
 the army (1 AT. 2.25, 4.4-35). On king David's 
 roll of honour he was considered next in valour 
 to " the three mighty men,'- ranking above the 
 " thirty " (2 Sam. 23.20-23). His son, called 
 Jehoiada after his grandfather, was also a 
 personal attendant of the king (1 Ch. 27.34). 
 
 2. One of David's valiant men, a Pira- 
 thonite (2 Sam. 23.30 ; 1 Ch. 11.31). 
 
 3. A prince of Simeon (1 Ch. 4.36). 
 
 4. One of David's priests in Jerusalem, 
 a singer, and one of those who played 'with 
 psalteries (1 Ch. 15.18, 20, 24 ; 16.5, 6). 
 
 There are about eight others bearing this 
 name in the O.T., but we know hardly anything 
 of them. 
 
 Benam'mt. Son of my people : father of 
 the Ammonites (Gen. 19.38). He was a grand- 
 son of Lot. 
 
 Benches. The seats on which the rowers 
 sat. The ships of Tyre were famed throughout 
 the Mediterranean, and, like all ships of those 
 days, were propelled partly by sails and partly by 
 oars. That the seats of the rowers should be 
 inlaid with ivory showed great wealth on the 
 part of the owners (Ezek. 27.6). [Snips.] 
 Ben-deker. [DEKER.] 
 
 Bene'-Berak. Sons of lightning : when 
 Joshua cast lots for the division of the Promised 
 Land amongst the Israelites, Bene-Berak 
 was one of the places that fell to the tribe of 
 Dan. It is called now Ibn Ibrak, and lies 
 about four miles to the south-east of Joppa 
 (Josh. 19.45). 
 
 Benediction. 1. The Jewish consciousness 
 of the power and love of God found natural 
 expression in words of praise acknowledging 
 His goodness and mercy. " Blessed be the 
 Lord God of Israel " (1 Sam. 25.32, etc.) is an 
 O.T. phrase frequently associated with special 
 or general mercies. The adaptation of the 
 blessing to N.T. circumstances is instructive. 
 Zacharias, in his vision of the coming glory, 
 uses the old phrase " Blessed be the Lord God 
 of Israel" (Lk. 1.68). Christ is "blessed" 
 as coming " in the name of the Lord " (Matt. 
 21.9, etc.). The Lord is " blessed " as " the 
 God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ " 
 (Eph. 1.3, etc.). 2. As God is " blessed," so 
 also are those who trust in Him and walk in His 
 ways. Compare the Beatitudes of the Psalms 
 (1.1, etc.) and the Beatitudes of the Sermon on 
 the Mount (Matt. 5.3, etc.). 3. The blessing 
 
 of food at meal-times the giving thanks to 
 God for the provision carefully recognised 
 in Jewish custom, is noted on four occasions 
 in the Gospels at the miracles of feeding the 
 five thousand and the four thousand, at the 
 Last Supper, and at the Emmaus meal. 4. 
 The last recorded action of our Lord on earth 
 was that of blessing the disciples (Lk. 24.51). 
 
 Benedictus. The Song of Zacharias (Lk. 
 1.68-79) is so called from its first word in 
 Latin. The use of this canticle in liturgies 
 dates from a very early period in the Western 
 Church. 
 
 Benefactor. Only found in oui Lord's words 
 (Lk. 22.25), "They that exercise authority 
 upon them are called benefactors." The 
 reference is to the title assumed by certain 
 kings. Thus Ptolemy, king of Egypt, was 
 called " Euergetes," or Benefactor. 
 
 Bene-JaaTcan. Sons of intelligence. [See 
 BEEROTH, a place between Moseroth and Hor- 
 hagidgad.] There were several wells at this spot, 
 which was the twenty-seventh station of the 
 Israelites (Num. 33.31,32). The place was 
 named after the descendants of Jaakan the son 
 of Ezer (1 Ch. 1.42), whose name also appears 
 as Akan. [AKAN, JAAKAN.] 
 
 Ben-Geber. [GEBER. ] 
 
 Benba'dad. Son of Hadad : a religious title 
 of the kings of Damascus, Hadad, or Adad, 
 being the storm god of Syria ; it was custom- 
 ary to add his name to the names of individuals. 
 
 1. The son of Rezon, who, as lord of 
 Damascus, gradually acquired influence and 
 dominion over the neighbouring chiefs until 
 he became a powerful monarch, his alliance 
 being courted by Baasha, king of Israel, and 
 Asa, king of Judah. Having received a large 
 payment from Asa, he allied himself with 
 him, and then overran the northern part of 
 Israel, which he harassed until the time of 
 Omri (1 K. 20.1-34). 
 
 2. Son of the above, whom he succeeded 
 on the throne of Damascus. When he 
 fought at Karkar against the Assyrians, in 
 854 B.C., Ahab was one of his allies, but he 
 was more often warring against the king of 
 Israel. [AHAB.] Benhadad besieged Samaria, 
 and on this occasion was accompanied by 
 thirty-two tributary kings. After the death 
 of Ahab, he besieged Samaria a second time, 
 and held the unfortunate city so closely 
 (2 K. 7) that famine reduced the inhabitants 
 to dreadful straits, in which they resorted to 
 human flesh as food. [ELISHA.] Jehoram, 
 the Israelite king, was at his wits' end, when 
 the investing force suddenly vanished, having 
 been seized with panic. So complete was 
 the relief that Jehoram was able to recover 
 territory as far south as Ramoth - Gilead 
 (2 K. 9). Soon after his return to Damascus 
 Benhadad was taken ill, and consulted Elisha 
 as to the issue of his malady. He got little 
 comfort from the prophet, who told him he 
 should surely die soon, though not from his 
 present disease. Hazael, who had consulted 
 
BEN-HAIL] 
 
 64 
 
 [BEOR 
 
 the prophet as the king's messenger, was 
 informed by Elisha that he was the man 
 divinely appointed to succeed Benhadad. The 
 prophecy brought its own fulfilment, for 
 Benhadad was murdered by Hazael, who then 
 seized the throne (2 K. 8.15). [HAZAEL, 
 AHAB, ELISHA, DAMASCUS, SAMAHIA.] 
 
 3. The son of Hazael, and his successor on 
 the throne. He lacked his father's great 
 qualities as king and commander, and speedily 
 lost to Jehoash in the plain of Esdraelon the 
 possessions won from the Israelites by Hazael 
 (2 K. 13.25). Tn Amos 1.4 the destruction of 
 all Benhadad's palaces, and his other mis- 
 fortunes, is foretold. [JEHOASH, ESDRAELON, 
 AKHEK.] 
 
 Ben-Ha'il. Son of might : a prince of Judah, 
 and one of the commissioners appointed to 
 teach the Law (2 Ch. 17.7). 
 
 Ben-Ha'nan. Son of the gracious : a son of 
 Shimon, a Judahite (1 Ch. 4.20). 
 
 Ben-he 'sed. [HESED. ] 
 
 Beni'nu. Our Son : one of the signatories 
 to the solemn covenant made by the Levites 
 on behalf of the people (Neh. 10.13). 
 
 Ben-Hur. [Hun.] 
 
 Benjamin. Son of the right hand: 1. The 
 name given by his father Jacob. His dying 
 mother had previously given her new-born 
 child the name of Benoni, son of my sorrow 
 (Gen. 35.18). Of the twelve sons of the Patriarch 
 Jacob, Benjamin was the youngest, and with 
 Joseph, his brother by the same mother, Rachel, 
 shared the tenderest affections of his father. 
 Benjamin wos a great comfort to his aged 
 father, and returned the natural affection of his 
 elder and full brother Joseph with peculiar 
 warmth (Gen. 45.14). He was born in Palestine, 
 between Bethel and Bethlehem, his life costing 
 his mother her own (Gen. 35.16 ft). 
 
 Nothing more is heard of Benjamin until the 
 visits of his brothers to Egypt for the purpose 
 of buying corn. Then his character peeps out 
 as an anr'able and well-loved son and brother. 
 He is the favourite with the whole family, 
 and though himself the father of a numerous 
 offspring (Gen. 46.21), he is evidently looked 
 upon as one whom the rest must carefully tend 
 and nourish (Gen. 44.20). From this point his 
 history is merged in that of the tribe to which 
 he gave a name. He, who seems to have 
 been the least manly of the twelve, 
 became the founder of a tribe of the fiercest 
 fighters. But their strength and warlike 
 qualities were the natural result of their rugged 
 country, one also exposed to attack from outside 
 enemies. That this should be so was foretold 
 by the dying Jacob (Gen. 49.27). 
 
 2. A descendant of Harim (Ezra 10.32). 
 
 3. One of those who took part in the repairing 
 of the walls of Jerusalem (Neh. 3.23). Probably 
 identical with 4 and 5. 
 
 4. (Neh. 12.34). See 3 
 
 5. (1 Ch. 7.10) 
 
 Benjamin, Gate of (Jer. 20.2, 37.13, 38.7 ; 
 Zech. 14.10). [JERUSALEM.] 
 
 Benjamin, The tribe. Though small in 
 numbers, it was singularly energetic and 
 bellicose. Even in the desert its warriors 
 numbered over 35,000 (Num. 1.37), which, 
 by the time the Israelites had obtained 
 an entrance into the Promised Land, had 
 grown to be 45,600 fighting-men (Num. 26.41). 
 After the settlement the same fierce 
 temper involved the Benjamites in a war 
 with the rest of the tribes, because they would 
 not deliver up to justice certain evil men, 
 the result being that of their brave army all 
 were put to the sword excepting only 600, 
 who took refuge in the wilderness of Rimmon 
 (Judg. 20.47). But though nearly exter- 
 minated, the tribe recovered so quickly that 
 by the time David was on the throne they 
 could muster an army of nearly 60,000, and 
 during Asa's reign 280,000, all armed and trained 
 warriors. That the continued friendship of 
 the Benjamites with the tribe of Judah was of 
 mutual benefit is certain. The ties that united 
 these two warlike peoples were drawn still 
 closer by the fact that David, having driven 
 the Jebusites out of Zion, made that strong- 
 hold his own capital (for he was now king of 
 all Israel). Now Zion, or Jerusalem, formed 
 part of the territory of Benjamin, which lay 
 alongside, indeed almost within, the larger 
 territory of Judah. 
 
 When Solomon died Judah and Benjamin 
 alone remained faithful, and formed a separate 
 kingdom (1 K. 12.21), usually called simply 
 by the name of Judah. Saul, the first king 
 over all Israel, was a Benjamite. [SAUL, 
 DAVID.] 
 
 Benjamin, The territory. This lay between 
 Ephraim and Judah, and is historically connected 
 with Joseph through his brother Benjamin. 
 Owing to its position it was exposed to frequent 
 attacks from the Moabites and the Philistines. 
 It was a compact country, being six miles long 
 by twelve broad. Its altitude was great 
 2000 feet above the Mediterranean, and 3000 
 above the Jordan valley, its eastern boundary. 
 It was a land of crags and mountains, with 
 exceeding fertile valleys and plains between 
 them. In the defiles much of the fighting 
 during the wars of occupation, and after- 
 wards, took place. [BETH HORON, SAUL, 
 JONATHAN, JOSHUA, KISH, PAUL.] 
 
 Benjamite. A member of the tribe of 
 Benjamin (Judg. 3.15). 
 
 Be'no. His Son : a Levite (1 Ch. 24.26, 27). 
 
 Beno'ni. [BENJAMIN.] 
 
 Benzo'heth. A descendant of Judah 
 (1 Ch. 4.20). 
 
 Be'on. A town in Reuben on the east of 
 the Jordan (Num. 32.3). Beon may be a 
 contraction of Baal-Meon (Num. 32.38). 
 [ BETH- R AAL-MEON. ] 
 
 Be'or. A burning: 1. The father of Bela, 
 an early king of Edom (Gen. 36.32 ; 1 Ch. 1.43). 
 2. The father of Balaam the prophet. In 
 2 Pet. 2.15 he is called Bosor (Num. 22.5, 
 24.3, 15; Deut. 23.4, etc.). 
 
BERA] 
 
 65 
 
 [BERYL 
 
 Be'ra. Gift : king of Sodom in the time 
 of Abram. He joined the league against 
 Chedorlaomer (Gen. 14.2). 
 
 Bera'cah, Bera'chah. Blessing : 1. A Ben- 
 jamite warrior attached to David (1 Ch. 12.3). 
 He joined the Litter's force at Ziklag. 2. A 
 valley near Tekoah, in the south of Judah, and 
 identified with the modern Bereikut, near 
 Tekua, lying off the main road from Bethlehem 
 to Hebron. This Valley of Blessing was the 
 scene of the great rejoicing and thanksgiving 
 festival of Jehoshaphat and his people after 
 the overthrow of the Ammonites and Moabites 
 by the immediate intervention of God (2 Ch. 
 20.26). 
 
 Berach'iah. [BERECHIAH 2.] 
 
 Berai'ah. Jehovah hath created: a son of 
 Shimhi, of the tribe of Benjamin (1 Ch. 8.21). 
 
 Bere'a, Beroea. A town, now called Verria or 
 Kara Verria, on the east slope of the Olympian 
 range at the foot of Mt. Bermios, in Lower Mace- 
 donia. Doubtless the fact that it was off the main 
 track of travel accounts for its being chosen 
 as the refuge for Paul and Silas when they 
 had escaped from Thessalonica (Acts 17.10). 
 The town contained a number of Jews, and 
 the " nobler " spirit mentioned was probably 
 due in part to their isolated position. It was 
 the birthplace of Sopater, one of Paul's com- 
 panions (Acts 20.4). Both the Jews and 
 Greeks of Berea were ready to receive the 
 gospel (Acts 17.12), but that they were of a 
 higher social level than the rest of the inhabitants 
 does not follow from the use of the term 
 "noble" (Acts 17.11). Here, then, Paul sat 
 watching over his converts at Thessalonica, 
 until the Jews of that place, once more raising 
 a public disturbance, drove him away again. 
 In his journey to Athens he was conducted 
 part of the way by some of the Berean converts. 
 Its present inhabitants (15,000 or 20,000) are 
 Turks and Greeks, and its products rice, fruit, 
 marble, and manufactured cotton goods. 
 
 Berechi'ah. Jehovah blesses : 1. A son of 
 Zerubbabel, and a descendant of Jehoiakim, 
 king of Judah (1 Ch. 3.20). 2. Father of 
 Asaph the chief of the singers (1 Ch. 15.17), 
 called Berachiah in the A.V. of 1 Ch. 6.39. 
 3. A Levite who lived near Jerusalem (1 Ch. 9.16, 
 15.23). He was the son of Asa. 4. An 
 Ephraimite (2 Ch. 28.12). He was one of the 
 chief men in his tribe in the time of Ahaz. 
 5. The father of Meshullam, and included in 
 the list of those who repaired the walls of 
 Jerusalem (Neh. 3.4, 30, 6.18). 6. The father 
 of Zechariah the prophet (Zech. 1.1, 7). 
 [BAKACHIAH, BABACHIAS.] 
 
 Be'red. 1. A division of the Ephraimites 
 (1 Ch. 7.20), called Becher in Num. 26.35. 
 Though Becher is a Benjamite name, yet the 
 close relationship of the two tribes renders the 
 transference of the name natural. 2. A place 
 in the south of Canaan, between which and 
 Kadesh lay Beer-Lahai-Roi (Gen. 16.14). 
 
 Be'ri. One of the sons of Zophah, an 
 Asherite (1 Ch. 7.36). 
 
 Beri'ah. 1. This doleful name, which 
 sounded like " in evil," was bestowed upon a 
 son of Ephraim because of a domestic tragedy 
 (1 Ch. 7.21-23). Ephraim's sons had been 
 lifting cattle, and had been killed by the men of 
 Gath in the act. When his next son was born 
 Ephraim called him Beriah, " because it went 
 evil with his house." 2. A son of Asher, from 
 whom descended the family of the Beriites 
 (Gen. 46.17 ; Num. 26.44, 45 ; 1 Ch. 7.30, 31). 
 3. A son of Elpaal, a Benjamite by adoption, 
 because of services rendered to the Benjamites 
 when the inhabitants of Gath were driven away. 
 He and his brother Shema were originally 
 chiefs of Ajalon (1 Ch. 8.13). 4. A son of 
 Shimei, a Levite and a Gershonite, who lived 
 in the time of David (1 Ch. 23.10, 11). 
 
 Ber'ites. 1. [BERIAH 2.] 2. A people 
 settled in the north of Canaan who followed 
 Joab in his pursuit of Sheba, the son of 
 Bichri, who had rebelled against David (2 Sam. 
 20.14). 
 
 Berith. Covenant : [BAAL-BERITH.] An idol 
 worshipped by the Israelites at Shechem 
 (Judg. 8.33, 9.46). 
 
 Berni'ce, Bereni'ce. This woman, who was 
 present at the hearing of Paul before Festus 
 (Acts 25 and 26), was a daughter of Herod 
 Agrippa I., and sister of Herod Agrippa II. 
 She was of an abandoned and licentious 
 character, and noted, even in that period of 
 loose morals, as one whose life was more than 
 ordinarily evil. She eventually became the 
 mistress of the Emperor Titus. Her appear- 
 ance in the presence of Paul was an interesting 
 occasion, for the Apostle had already preached 
 of sin and the judgment to come before her 
 adulterous sister Drusilla (Acts 24.24). Bernice 
 was a woman of great political importance, 
 and in later years struggled to replace the 
 Herods on the Judaean throne. But her plans 
 failed. 
 
 Berodach - Bala'dan. [MERODACH-BALA- 
 DAN.] 
 
 Bercea. [BEREA.] 
 
 Bero'thah. According to Ezekiel, this place 
 lay between Hamath and Damascus (Ez. 47.16), 
 and formed part of the northern boundary of 
 the Promised Land. [BEROTHAI.] 
 
 Bero'thai. The city of Hadadezer, king of 
 Zobah, taken by David (2 Sam. 8.8). It has 
 been identified with the modern Beirut, where 
 are still to be seen ancient wells cut in the solid 
 rock. Perhaps the same as BEROTHAH. 
 
 Bero'thite. Belonging to Beroth : identified 
 with Beeroth, which see (1 Ch. 11.39). 
 
 Beryl. This jewel was the tenth stone, or 
 the first on the fourth row, on the high priest's 
 breastplate (Ex. 28.20, 39.13). But what 
 stone is intended is very doubtful. It was also 
 the eighth of the precious stones that formed 
 the foundations of the heavenly Jerusalem 
 (Rev. 21.20), where probably it represents the 
 modern beryl, which is very like the emerald. 
 Pliny describes it as of a sea-green. Observe 
 that the high priest alone wears all the colours 
 
BESAI] 
 
 60 
 
 [BETH-BAAL-MEON 
 
 on his breast, but each part of the foundation 
 of the Holy City keeps its own peculiar colour 
 and shade of cojour. The apostles, that is 
 to say, retained each his own capacity and 
 character. 
 
 Be'sai. One of the Nethinim who returned 
 from exile with Zerubbabel (Ezra 2.49 ; 
 Neh. 7.52). 
 
 Besodei'ah. One in the secret of Jehovah : 
 father of Meshullam ; found in the list of 
 the repairers of the wall of Jerusalem, being 
 especially engaged upon the gates (Neh. 3.6). 
 
 Besom. A broom (Isai. 14.23). The besom 
 of death occurs in heathen mythology. 
 
 Be'sor. Good news : a wady (i.e. the bed of a 
 torrent) in the extreme south of Palestine. 
 The brook which is now called Ghazza falls 
 into the Mediterranean south of Gaza. Saul 
 presumably crossed this brook when he smote 
 the Amalekites (1 Sam. 15.5), and it is also 
 mentioned in the account of David's pursuit 
 of the same warlike people (1 Sam. 30.9-21). 
 
 Be'tah. Confidence : a city belonging to 
 Hadadezer out of which David took a great 
 booty of brass (2 Sam. 8.8). In 1 Ch. 18.8 we 
 find another spelling of this name, viz. Tibhath, 
 which is correct. 
 
 Be'ten. Depression, lasin : a city of Asher 
 situated eight miles east of Ptolemais. It has 
 been identified with el-B'aneh (Josh. 19.25). 
 
 Betha'bara. House of the ford : one of the 
 principal north fords of the Jordan, on the 
 road descending through the wady Jalud, and 
 leading to Gilead, north of Bethshean. The 
 name of the place, however, would more 
 properly be Bethany (not to be confused with 
 the Bethany of Mary and Martha). John was 
 baptizing here when Jesus went to him to 
 receive the rite (John 1.28 R.V.). The wrong 
 traditional site is at Beth-nimrah (Tell-Nimrin), 
 north-east of Jericho, on the opposite side ot 
 the river. It must not be confused with 
 Betharabah or Bethbarah. 
 
 Beth-a'nath. Temple of the goddess Anath : 
 a fortress or " fenced city " in Naphtali, in 
 which the original inhabitants remained after 
 the rest of the country was conquered by the 
 Israelites (Josh. 19.38), and were subjected to 
 their conquerors only to the extent of furnishing 
 labour for public works (Judg. 1.33). It is 
 the modern Aenitha in Upper Galilee. 
 
 Beth-A'noth. Same meaning as preceding: 
 an ancient stronghold amongst the mountains 
 of Judah. It is four miles north-east of Hebron, 
 now Beit-'Ainun (Josh. 15.59). 
 
 Bethany. The house of dates : it is most 
 interesting to note that this village, so intimately 
 connected with the life of our Saviour, is now 
 called el-Azeriyeh, the " town of Lazarus." 
 It lies on the south-east slope of the Mount of 
 Olives, 2200 feet above the sea, about a mile 
 from the summit, and two miles from Jerusalem 
 (John 11.18), near the road from Jericho 
 (Mark 10.46). It was the scene of the 
 hospitality of the family of Lazarus to our 
 Lord ; of the resurrection of Lazarus 
 
 (John 11.1-46, 12.1); the residence of Simon 
 the leper (Matt. 26.6) ; and the starting-place 
 of Christ's triumphal progress to Jerusalem 
 (Mark 11.1). It was also His nightly resting- 
 place the week prior to His crucifixion 
 (Matt. 21.17), and the scene of His ascension 
 (Lk. 24.50). 
 
 Apart from its connexion with our Saviour, 
 Bethany has no importance whatever. It is 
 now a tiny village of about twenty families, 
 with scarcely a trace of its ancient history, 
 and it is very doubtful if the houses of Lazarus 
 and of Simon the leper now pointed out 
 to travellers are authentic. The tomb of 
 Lazarus, as shown by the monks, is a deep 
 vault hewn out of the solid rock. The bottom 
 is reached by a flight of twenty-six steps, and 
 the tomb consists of a chamber about nine 
 feet square, with recesses for the reception of 
 the dead. 
 
 Beth-Aratah. House of the desert-plain: 
 one of the six cities in the territory of the 
 tribe of Judah, situated in the Arabah or sunk 
 valley of the Jordan and Dead Sea (Josh. 15.6,61 ). 
 It is included among the towns of Benjamin 
 in Josh. 18.22. 
 
 Beth-A'ram (R.V. Beth-Haram). House of 
 the upland : a town of Gad on the east of 
 Jordan (Josh. 13.27). The same place as that 
 named Beth-Haran in Num. 32.36. Originally 
 an Amorite city, it was strengthened by Gad. 
 Its modern name is Tell-er-Rameh, 673 feet 
 above the sea, nearly opposite Jericho, between 
 Heshbon and the Jordan. Near it were hot 
 springs, said to be efficacious against leprosy, 
 and it was therefore a favourite watering-place. 
 Herod the Great had a palace there, and Herod 
 Antipas walled it. 
 
 Beth-Ar'bel. House of God's ambush: 
 Shalman (Shalmaneser) destroyed this place, 
 sacking the town and massacring its inhabit- 
 ants (Hos. 10.14). Its exact position is not 
 known. It may be near Pella, east of Jordan, 
 or in Galilee. 
 
 Beth-A'ven. House of iniquity or idolatry 
 or nought: 1. A place east of Bethel (Josh. 
 7.2), lying between that place and Michmash 
 (1 Sam. 13.5). Its site has not been identified, 
 though it was on the border of the wilderness 
 (Josh. 18.12). 2. A reproachful synonym for 
 Bethel (Hos. 4.15, 5.8, 10.5). 
 
 Beth-Azma'veth. House of Azmaveth : a 
 town of Benjamin, reoccupied after the 
 Captivity (Neh. 7.28). It is also called 
 Azmaveth, and in the Apocrypha Bethsamos. 
 It has been located at Hizmeh, a hill village, 
 about five miles north-north-east of Jerusalem. 
 
 [AZMAVETH 5.] 
 
 Beth-Ba'al-Me'on. House of Baal-Meon : a 
 Moabite town given to Reuben. It was on 
 the north of the Arnon, a little south of Mount 
 Nebo, on the east of Jordan (Josh. 13.17). 
 At first it was called Baal-Meon (Num. 32.38), 
 to which the Israelites prefixed Beth. It was 
 also called Beth-Meon ( Jer. 48.23), and Beon, a 
 condensed form (Num. 32.3). It is one of the 
 
BETH-BAEAH] 
 
 67 
 
 [BETHEL 
 
 places mentioned on the " Moabite Stone," 
 where king Mesha is said to have either built 
 or rebuilt it. [BAAL-MEON.] Its site is 
 marked by a few ruins bearing the name 
 " Fortress of Mi'un." 
 
 Beth-Ba'rah. House of the ford : a place 
 in Gad, on the east sideof the Jordan (Judg. 7.24), 
 the scene of Gideon's victory against Midian, 
 and their utter rout by the men of Ephraim. 
 The " waters " referred to in the text were the 
 streams coming from the heights of Ephraim 
 and emptying into the Jordan. [BETHABARA.] 
 
 Beth-Bir'ei, Beth-Biri. House of my creation : 
 a town of Simeon (1 Ch. 4.31), the same place 
 that is called in Josh. 19.6 Beth-Lebaoth. Its 
 position was in the extreme south of the 
 Holy Land, somewhere in the neighbourhood 
 of Beersheba. 
 
 Beth-Car. The sheep-pasture, or house of a 
 lamb : this place is where the Israelites stayed 
 their pursuit of the Philistines, whom they had 
 chased westward from Mizpeh (1 Sam. 7.11). 
 From the expression " under " it is evident 
 that the town or stronghold was perched on 
 the top of a hill. Here also the stone Ebenezer 
 (ver. 12) was erected by Samuel, in commemora- 
 tion of the signal way in which the Lord had 
 helped the men of Israel, and also to mark 
 the end of the pursuit. 
 
 Beth-Da'gon. House of Dagon : 1. A town 
 of Judah, the name of which shows how the 
 Dagon worship of the Philistines had spread 
 beyond the borders of their own country. Its 
 position was in the low-lying parts of Judah, 
 but the exact locality cannot be identified, 
 except that it was near Gederoth (Josh. 15.41). 
 2. A border town of Asher, and near the coast. 
 It was a possession of the Philistines (Josh.\9.21). 
 It is now known as Tell D'Auk. 
 
 Beth-Diblatha'im. House of two cakes of 
 figs, or house of two collections : a Moabite 
 town, also called Almon - Diblathaim (Num. 
 33.46, 47; Jer. 48.22). King Mesha built and 
 fortified this place, as he tells us on the Moabite 
 Stone. 
 
 Beth'-eL House of God : the importance of 
 Bethel in the Bible story is roughly measured by 
 the many times it is mentioned there, viz. sixty- 
 five. It is in central Canaan, twelve miles north 
 of Jerusalem, near Luz ; and two accounts are 
 given of its origin. According to Gen. 28.19, 
 Jacob, filled with awe by what had just occurred 
 on the spot, gave the place the name of Bethel. 
 The commemorative pillar he erected was not 
 in Luz itself, but some little distance away on 
 the hillside where the vision had appeared to 
 him. The second account says that Jacob 
 named the place Bethel as a thanksgiving to 
 God for blessings bestowed upon him after his 
 return from Padan-Aram (Gen. 35.1-15). At 
 this time he received his second name of Israel. 
 In Hos. 12 A, 5, we find the only after reference 
 in the Hebrew Scriptures to this event. In 
 all the earlier references, Bethel and Luz are 
 always kept separate, the "city" of Luz 
 being one place, and Bethel, the holy " place," 
 
 another near by (Josh. 16.1, 2). It was not 
 until its capture by Ephraim that the name 
 of Luz disappeared, and that of Bethel covered 
 the whole site (Judg. 1.22). 
 
 Bethel was already known as a sanctuary 
 when Palestine was divided into the kingdoms 
 of Israel and Judah, and Jeroboam made 
 Bethel one of the two shrines which he 
 established in Israel, to prevent his people 
 going up to Jerusalem to worship. Here it 
 was that he set up one of the golden calves, 
 establishing a priesthood, ordainirig feasts and 
 encouraging pilgrimages to the altar he had 
 erected (1 K. 12.28). In consequence of this 
 idolatry, first the man of God from Judah 
 (1 K. 13.1-3), and afterwards Amos, was 
 directed by God to prophesy against Bethel. 
 Amos faithfully carried out the command, and 
 was warned by the high priest of Jeroboam 
 to flee the city, if he " would eat bread," 
 a scarcely veiled hint that he was in danger 
 of his life. Hosea also prophesied against 
 Bethel. The prophecies were fulfilled when 
 Josiah, king of Judah, destroyed its altars 
 and idols, burning upon them dead men's 
 bones (2 K. 23.15, 16). Previously to this 
 destruction Bethel had been the " sanctuary of 
 the king," and the " house of the kingdom " 
 (Amos 7.13). The position of Bethel was 
 eminently suitable for such a purpose, as it lay 
 near the junction of the great roads from the 
 coast and from Jericho to Michmash. From 
 Amos 8.5 sqq. we know that it was an import- 
 ant market, and had amongst its inhabitants 
 a number of wealthy merchants. That these 
 men of business were dishonest traders is most 
 emphatically stated, and it was because of 
 these things, as well as for its idolatry, that 
 it was to suffer. Its wealth led to other forms 
 of wickedness and "vanity" or "idolatry," 
 so that Amos had said it should come to 
 " nought " (Hebrew, "Aven," Amos 5.5), and 
 Hosea nicknamed it " Beth-aven " alternately 
 with Bethel (Hos. 4.15). 
 
 Among other references to Bethel we find 
 that in the disturbed times of the Judges the 
 people were in the habit of going to Bethel, 
 the " House of God," to consult and ask counsel 
 of God (Judg. 20.18, 26, 31, 21.2), because here 
 was the ark of the covenant, in charge of 
 Phinehas, and all the appliances for the due 
 performance of the " peace " and " burnt " 
 offerings. Samuel also went to Bethel during 
 his visitation of the holy cities (1 Sam. 7.16). 
 
 It will be noted that the worship of Jehovah 
 continued in Bethel alongside of the worship 
 of Baal, and of the curious form of idolatry 
 set up by Jeroboam. This was the condition 
 of things when Elijah visited the " sons of the 
 prophets " (2 K. 2.2, 23), and was mocked by 
 the children. Then Jehu seized the throne, 
 and, destroying the Baal worship, restored 
 to its place of supremacy the calf-worship of 
 Jeroboam (2 K. 10.29). Then commenced a 
 period of increased prosperity for Bethel, until, 
 in the time of the second Jeroboam, we read 
 
BETHEL, MOUNT] 
 
 68 
 
 [BETH-JESHIMOTH 
 
 that it was again a royal residence, with palaces 
 of " stone " and " ivory " for winter and summer 
 use, with great luxury in living (Amos 3.15,7.13). 
 
 But when the kingdom of Israel had been 
 overrun by the king of Assyria and laid waste, 
 the golden calf was carried off from Bethel by 
 Shalmaneser, though the priests remained, that 
 they might teach the people to fear Jehovah, 
 " the God of the land " (2 K. 17-27, 28). 
 This corrupt worship was finally swept away by 
 the drastic methods of Josiah (see above). 
 
 Among the ruins, in the midst of which is the 
 modern Beitln, may be seen the remains of a 
 Byzantine church, standing on the " mountain " 
 on' which Abram built the altar, and on which 
 he and Lot stood when they divided the land 
 between them (Gen. 12.8, 13.10). 
 
 2. Town in the south of Judah ; one of 
 David's haunts when fleeing from Saul (1 Sam. 
 30.27). Perhaps also mentioned in Josh. 12.16. 
 
 Bethel, Mount. The hill on which Bethel 
 stood (1 Sam. 13.2). In Josh. 16.1 read " the 
 hill country to Bethel " with the R.V. 
 
 Beth/elite. Belonging to Bethel : Hiel, who 
 rebuilt Jericho, was a Bethelite, or native of 
 Bethel (1 K. 16.34). 
 
 Beth-e'mek. House of the valley : a border 
 town of Asher, on the edge of the Phoenician 
 plain (Josh. 19.27). Perhaps the modern 
 Amka, seven miles north-east of Akko. 
 
 Be'ther. Cloven mountains : a mountain 
 land cut up by ravines (Cant. 2.17). If a 
 specific place is intended, it may be identified 
 with Bittir, a high cliff south-west of Jerusalem. 
 
 Bethes'da. House of mercy : the name of a 
 pool or reservoir in Jerusalem near the sheep 
 market (John 5.2-7). The supply of water was 
 intermittent, hence the " moving of the water " 
 (ver. 3), and the impotent man's reply to Jesus, 
 and his use of the word " troubled " (ver. 7). 
 The mention of five porches may show that the 
 pool was in reality two pools, for the porches con- 
 sisted of cloisters,which were erected on the four 
 sides, with a connecting one dividing the pool 
 into two parts. These cloisters would afford 
 ample accommodation for a large number of 
 invalids, who would gather to benefit by the 
 moving of the waters. It was rediscovered in 
 1888 near the Church of Si. Anne, and consists 
 of two pools, each about 60 feet long by 12 
 feet broad, placed end to end. 
 
 Beth-e'zel. Meaning unknown : a city in the 
 north of Judah, not yet identified with any 
 modern town or ruin. Micah foretells the 
 captivity of its inhabitants, and the mourning 
 for them (Mic. 1.11). 
 
 Beth-ga'der. The House of the wall or 
 walled place : a village founded (?) by Hareph, 
 a son of Caleb (1 Ch. 2.51). Perhaps the same 
 as Geder (which see). 
 
 Beth-ga'mul. House of recompense : a 
 Moabite town east of Jordan (Jer. 48.23) ; not 
 found in the earlier catalogues of place names in 
 Num. 32 and Josh. 13, and so doubtless of later 
 foundation. It has been identified with the 
 modern Jemail, which lies eastward from Dibon. 
 
 Beth-gilgaL [GiLG AL. ] 
 
 Beth-hacce'rem. House of the vineyard : 
 a beacon station between Tekoa and Jerusalem, 
 under the rule of Rechab (Neh. 3.14 ; Jer. 6.1). 
 It has been identified with Ain-Karim, a little 
 south-west of Jerusalem. As a military station 
 it was well placed, for its height above all 
 the surrounding district would render a fire on 
 the summit visible to all the country round 
 about. (See Jer. 6.1 : " Blow the trumpet in 
 Tekoa, and set up a sign of fire in Beth-Hac- 
 cerem.") It was also a fruitful place, worth 
 protecting. Cairns, one of which is 40 feet 
 high and 130 feet in diameter, on which the 
 beacon fires may have been lighted, are still to 
 be found on the summit of the ridge. 
 
 Beth-Ha'ram, Beth-Ha'ran. A high or strong 
 place: the same place as Beth-Aram (which see). 
 
 Beth-Hog'la, Beth-Hog'lah. House of Vie 
 partridges : a border town between Judah and 
 Benjamin, but belonging to the latter (Josh. 
 15.6, 18.19, 21). A spring and ruin named Ain 
 Hajlah are pointed out to-day as the site of 
 Beth-Hoslah. 
 
 Beth-Ho'ron. House of the hole or cavern : 
 there were two places of this name in Ephraim, 
 called respectively " Upper " arid " Lower," 
 near the borders of Benjamin (Josh. 10.10). 
 The modern representatives of these two 
 villages are called Beit-Ur el Foka and Bet-Ur 
 el Tahta, the one epithet meaning " Upper," 
 and the other " Nether." The founder of these 
 twin villages was Sherah, daughter of Beriah, 
 who in 1 Ch. 7.24 is described as their builder. 
 The reference in 2 Ch. 8.5 implies that Solomon 
 rebuilt and turned them into fortified camps 
 (see below). The position of Beth-Horon, 
 on the edge of the plateau just before the de- 
 scent into the fertile plain of Sharon, and on the 
 great high road from Jerusalem, caused it to be 
 a place of great importance from a military 
 point of view. When Gibeon was threatened 
 by the Canaanites from the low country, Joshua 
 defeated them and chased them up the ascent 
 to Upper Beth-Horon, and then down past the 
 Lower (Josh. 10.10, 11). Then later, in the 
 troublous timeswhen Saul was king, the Philistines 
 at Michmash threatened them (1 Sam. 13.16). 
 Afterwards Solomon refortified both Beth- 
 Uorons, the nether and upper, and Gezer (1 K. 
 9.17 ; 2 Ch. 8.5). It was through the pass of 
 Beth-Horon that the Egyptians invaded Judah 
 during Rehoboam's reign. The road is now little 
 used, though from some remains of pavement 
 we know that the Romans did not neglect so 
 important a point, which guarded their main 
 line of communication between Jerusalem and 
 the coast. 
 
 Beth- Jeshi 'moth. House of wastes: a 
 Moabite city close to the Dead Sea (Num. 33.49). 
 The Israelites encamped here before crossing 
 the Jordan. Before passing into the possession 
 of Moab, Beth-Jeshimoth had formed part, 
 of the territory of Reuben (Josh. 12.3). Later 
 it is named as one of the cities which were " the 
 glory of the country " (Egtk. 25.9). It is the 
 
BETH-LE-APHRAH] 
 
 69 
 
 [BETHPHAGE 
 
 modern Es-Suweimeh, at the north-east corner 
 of the Dead Sea. 
 
 Beth-le-Aphrah. [APHRAH.] 
 
 Beth-Leba'oth. House of lionesses: a 
 town in Simeon (Josh. 19.6) situated in the wild 
 and rugged country in the south of Judah. 
 In 1 Ch. 4.31 it is called Beth-Birei. 
 
 Beth'-lehem. House of bread or place of food: 
 originally called Ephrath, Bethlehem was one 
 of the very oldest towns of Palestine (Gen. 
 35.19). The modern name is Beit-Lahm. 
 Lying between five and six miles south of Jeru- 
 salem, the position of the town is very beautiful, 
 standing as it does on an eminence over 2000 
 feet above the sea, surrounded by hills and rich 
 fertile valleys (Ruth 2 ; Ps. 65.12, ]3), near the 
 main road from Jerusalem to Hebron. There 
 is no water except what can be gathered during 
 the rains in cisterns, and, by means of an aque- 
 duct, from the Pools of Solomon. 
 
 No locality in Palestine has more interesting 
 and momentous associations. Yet it is strange 
 that this place, the birthplace of David and of 
 " David's Greater Son," as well as being the 
 scene of numerous other important events, 
 should have remained in obscurity during the 
 whole of its long existence. 
 
 Its earliest name of Ephrath (which see) 
 occurs in the history of Jacob. Rachel was 
 buried near it. Salma, a son of Caleb, is regarded 
 as its " father " in 1 Ch. 2.51, 54. Later it 
 had a very special connexion with the land of 
 Moab, which continued until the time of Saul 
 (1 Sam. 22.3, 4). The story of Ruth familiarises 
 us with its people and their manner of life. 
 Though David was born in Bethlehem, the town 
 did not gain anything from its connexion with 
 the great king. He neither built monuments in 
 it nor raised its status among the other towns 
 of the kingdom. Yet, when hard pressed 
 by foes, his greatest longing was for a drink 
 of water from the old well (2 Sam. 23.15). The 
 place was fortified more than once. The 
 Philistines occupied it with a garrison (2 Sam. 
 23.14),and in after years Rehoboam is described 
 as having " built " Bethlehem (2 Ch. 11.6) ; 
 that is to say, Bethlehem was one of the towns 
 he fortified and strengthened for the defence 
 of his position in Jerusalem. From Ezra 2.21 we 
 learn that one hundred and twenty-three 
 children of Bethlehem returned from the 
 captivity with Zerubbabel (Neh. 7.26). 
 
 Close to Bethlehem was the inn or " khan " 
 of Chimham (which see). It did not differ 
 materially from other inns in Palestine, but it 
 was notable as being the starting-point for the 
 long and toilsome journey into Egypt (Jer. 
 41.17). It was at this inn, outside Bethlehem 
 the obscure, that the most memorable event 
 in the world's history occurred, in accordance 
 with the prophecy of Mic. 5.2 the Saviour 
 of man was born not in the town, not even in 
 the inn, but in the stable of the inn. From 
 here also began that flight into Egypt to save 
 the life of the young child (Matt. 2.1-15 ; Lk. 
 2.4-15; John 7.42). The subsequent history 
 
 of Bethlehem, with one or two exceptions, 
 was as obscure as its past. The Roman Emperor 
 Hadrian planted an idolatrous grove on the site 
 of the Nativity ; the Empress Helena after- 
 wards built a church on the same spot, which 
 still remains. This building is now surrounded 
 by three convents belonging to the Greek, 
 Roman, and Armenian Churches. In the 
 eleventh century Bethlehem was captured 
 from the Turks by the Crusaders, and made 
 an episcopal see. 
 
 Beit-Lahm to-day has a Christian population 
 of about 5000, and is clean and rather attractive 
 in appearance, even apart from its beautiful 
 setting among the hills. 
 
 2. A town in Zebulun mentioned only in Josh. 
 19.15. It is six miles to the west of Nazareth, 
 and is called Beit-Lahm like its famous name- 
 sake. 
 
 Bethlehemite. Belonging to, or an inhabitant 
 of Bethlehem (1 Sam. 16.1, 18, 17.58 ; 2 Sam. 
 21.19). 
 
 Beth-maa'chah. Place of oppression: iden- 
 tical with Abel-Bethma'achah, which see. 
 
 Beth-marca'both. House of chariots : a 
 Simeonite town at the south of Judah (Josh. 
 19.5 ; 1 Ch. 4.31. Its exact position is un- 
 known. 
 
 Beth-me'on. House of habitation : a city 
 of Moab (Jer. 48.23). The name is the same as 
 Beth-Baalmeon, which see. 
 
 Beth-merhak (1 Sam. 15.17 R.V.). Probably 
 an outlying house of Jerusalem on the way 
 to Jericho. 
 
 Beth-millo. [MILLO.] 
 
 Beth-nim'rah. Place of a leopard : the same 
 as Nimrah, one of the " fenced cities " of Gad 
 (Num. 32.3, 36; Josh. 13.27), east of Jordan. 
 It is now represented by the mound Tell- 
 Nimrin, where a brook runs through the lower 
 end of the Wady Shoaib into the Jordan at a 
 ford north of Jericho. It was down this valley 
 that the children of Israel descended to the 
 Jordan. (NIMRIN.) The whole surroundings 
 of the place make it remarkably appropriate 
 to the description of Bethabara. 
 
 Beth-pa'let. Beth-pelet, Beth-phelet. 
 House of escape : a place on the southern 
 border of Judah. Its site has not been 
 identified (Josh. 15.27 ; Nehll.2Q). [PALTITB.] 
 
 Beth-paz'zez. House of dispersion : a town 
 of Issachar (Josh. 19.21). 
 
 Beth-pelet. [ BBTH-PALET. ] 
 
 Beth-pe'or. House of Peor : a Moabite town 
 on the east of Jordan ; allotted to Reuben 
 (Josh. 13.20). It is six miles above Beth-haram 
 on the slopes of Mount Pisgah, and was originally 
 dedicated to Baal, whose impure rites were 
 practised there. It was also a stopping-place 
 of the Israelites (Deut. 3.29). In the ravine 
 " over against Beth-peor " it is said that Moses 
 was buried (Deut. 34.6). 
 
 Beth/phage. The House of unripe figs : 
 (the word translated " green figs " in Cant. 2.13 
 is "phagim"). Near Bethany, on the Mount 
 of Olives, on the road between Jericho and 
 
BETH-PHELET] 
 
 70 
 
 [BETH-TAPPUAH 
 
 Jerusalem (Matt. 21.1 ; Mk. 11.1 ; Lk. 19.29). 
 The relative positions of Bethphage and Bethany 
 and of both to Jerusalem Lave been variously 
 understood. In coming from Jericho our 
 Lord appears to have entered it before reaching 
 Bethany; and it probably, therefore, lay a little 
 below that town towards the east. Its site 
 has not been found. 
 
 Beth-phelet [BETH-PALET.] 
 
 Beth-ra'pha. (?) House of the giant: a name 
 in the genealogy of Judah (1 Ch. 4.12). There 
 is also a Rapha in the line of Benjamin and 
 elsewhere. 
 
 Beth-reTiob. Broad -place (as for a market), 
 or House of Rehob : a petty Syrian kingdom 
 near Laish (Judg. 18.28), whose inhabitants 
 were hired by the Ammonites to fight against 
 David (2 Sam. 10.6,8). See Rehob (Num. 13.21). 
 It still exists under the name of Hunin, a fortress 
 commanding the plain of Huleh. 
 
 Bethsaida. House of the fishing : there 
 seem to have been two places of this name : 
 one, the native place of Andrew, Peter, and 
 Philip ; the other, near the scene of the feeding 
 of the 5000. 1. The first of these, Bethsaida 
 of Galilee, was on the north-west side of the 
 Lake of Gennesareth, close to the water's edge, 
 and not far from Capernaum (Matt.. 11.21 ; 
 Mk. 6.45; Lk. 10.13; John 1.44). The 
 existence of this Bethsaida is, however, denied 
 by many scholars. 2. The other Bethsaida, 
 the scene of the miracle of the feeding of the 
 5000 (Lk. 9.10-17), was on the east side of 
 the Lake, not far from the entrance of 
 the Jordan into it. Near here also was the 
 wilderness of Bethsaida (Matt. 14.15-21; 
 Lk. 9.10). The place, formerly but a village, 
 was rebuilt, beautified, and raised to the 
 status of a town by Philip the Tetrarch, 
 who renamed it " Julias," after Julia, the 
 daughter of the Roman Emperor Augustus. 
 It is said that Philip died and was buried here. 
 The ruin of et-Tell on a hillside east of the 
 Jordan has been identified as Bethsaida Julias. 
 If there was only one Bethsaida, as many main- 
 tain, this was the place, which was at one time 
 included in Galilee, and at another in Gaulonitis. 
 (See map of Palestine in the time of our 
 Saviour.) 
 
 Beth-shan. [BETH-SHEAN.] 
 
 Beth-she'an. House of quiet: the same as 
 Bethshan. A town four miles west of Jordan, and 
 eighteen miles south of the Sea of Tiberias, which 
 was long known as Scythopolis, presumably 
 as having been conquered by the Scythians 
 about 620 B.C. It was situated on the border 
 of Galilee and Samaria, upon the edge of the 
 great plain of Jordan, within the boundaries 
 of Issachar, but allotted to Manasseh (Josh. 
 17.11 ; Judg. 1.27). The Philistines when 
 they had defeated Saul at the battle of Gilboa 
 hung his body, according to their custom, on 
 its walls (1 Sam. 31.10). Evidently Beth- 
 shean was then in their possession, though 
 afterwards we find it belonging to Judah (1 K. 
 4.12). Solomon drew his household supplies 
 
 from Bethshcan, which at this time embraced 
 the whole of the surrounding district, and was 
 under the charge of an officer of his commis- 
 sariat. From the fact that the Philistines 
 held it with a garrison, and that it had a popula- 
 tion of Canaanites (Judg. 1.27), it is thought 
 that it fell into the possession of the Israelites 
 during David's reign. 
 
 After the exile, and when the Greeks held 
 sway, it was called Scythopolis, a name which 
 afterwards faded away, and the old designation 
 was revived. In the early centuries of Chris- 
 tianity it was famous as the seat of a Christian 
 school. Its present name of Beisan but desig- 
 nates some fine ruins, though in the time of our 
 Saviour it was one of the most important 
 places of Decapolis. 
 
 Beth-she'mesh. House of the sun : 1. A border 
 town on the north-west slope of the mountains 
 of Judah, though it was a Danite possession 
 (Josh.15.10). It is now known as Ain-shems,near 
 the lower country of Philistia. That its position 
 was on low ground, or in a hollow, is clearly 
 shown by the request to the people of Kirjath- 
 jearim to " come down " and fetch the ark 
 away (1 Sam. 6.21). The Philistines were 
 too terror-stricken to keep possession of the ark, 
 and when they sent it away from Ekron, the 
 field of " Joshua the Bethshemite " was chosen 
 as its resting-place. Bethshemesh was the 
 scene of a battle between Jehoash, king of 
 Israel, and Amaziah, king of Judah (2 K. 
 14.11-13). It was also captured by the Philis- 
 tines (2 Ch. 28.18) when they made a raid upon 
 this and other places during the reign of Ahaz. 
 Bethshemesh was also one of Solomon's com- 
 missariat districts (1 K. 4.9). Both in Beth- 
 shemesh and its neighbouihood the sun was 
 extensively worshipped a statement attested 
 by the ruins still existing. 2. A city on the 
 border of Issachar (Josh. 19.22), perhaps Ain 
 esh-Shemslyeh, seven miles south of Bethsheanin 
 the Jordan valley. 3. A fenced city of Naphtali, 
 the Canaanite inhabitants of which were not 
 expelled by the Israelites, but, instead, were 
 held to tribute (Josh. 19.38). 4. A city in 
 Egypt called On (which see), where the sun 
 was worshipped, called in Greek Heliopolis, 
 which in the Middle Ages was still called Ain- 
 Shems (Jer. 43.13). 
 
 Beth-shem'ite. An inhabitant of Beth-she- 
 mesh, Joshua (1 Sam. 6.14, 18), into whose field 
 the cart bearing the ark came after the Philistines 
 in their fear had sent it away from their own 
 country. 
 
 Beth-shit 'tab. House of the acacia : this wu& 
 on the line of flight of the Midianites after 
 Gideon had routed them (Judg. 7.22). Beth- 
 shittah was near the Jordan, in the neighbour- 
 hood of Zererath and Abel-meholah, but its 
 exact position has not been discovered. 
 
 Beth-tappu'ah. House of apples : near 
 Hebron, in the mountainous country of Judah, 
 five miles west of Hebron. Its modern name 
 is Taffuh. It is still a very fruitful place, 
 with traces of ancient cultivation ( Josh. 15.53). 
 
BETHUEL] 
 
 7i 
 
 [BIDKAE 
 
 Bethu'el. Man of God: 1. A son of Nahor, 
 Abraham's brother, and father of Rebekah 
 (Gen. 22.22, 23; 24.15, 24). He was called 
 (Gen. 25.20) " Bethuel the Syrian." Though 
 his name occurs several times, yet he makes his 
 appearance but once (Gen. 24.50), and it is 
 supposed that his death occurred immediately 
 after. 2. A Simeonite town (1 Ch. 4.30). In 
 Josh. 15.30 it is called Chesik, and Bethul 
 in Josh. 19.4. 
 
 Beth' -zur. House of rock: a town in the 
 mountains of Judah (Josh. 15.58), commanding 
 the main road from Beersheba and Hebron to 
 Jerusalem. It was fortified by Rehoboam 
 (2 Oh. 11.7); and its inhabitants assisted 
 Nehemiah in rebuilding the walls of Jerusalem 
 after the captivity (Neh. 3.16). Originally the 
 strongest place in all Judaea, it is represented 
 to-day by a mere village, in the midst of ancient 
 ruins four and a half miles from Hebron, 
 Beit-sur. 
 
 Beto'nim. Pistachio nuts : u town on the 
 northern boundary of Gad, east of the Jordan 
 (Josh. 13.26). Perhaps Batne, west of Es-salt. 
 A similar word is to be found in Gen. 43.11,where 
 it is translated " nuts." 
 
 Betroth, Betrothed. Good faith or promise : 
 the betrothal of a couple was accompanied 
 among the Jews by a payment in money or 
 kind, or even of both, and, though there were 
 occasional exceptions, without consulting the 
 betrothed. The betrothal often took place in 
 childhood, about twelve months before marriage, 
 though the marriage itself was not completed 
 until the bride had reached the age of twelve. 
 Unlike the marriage ceremony, betrothals were 
 simple affairs. Abraham's servant stated the 
 object of his journey to the parents of Rebekah. 
 These called their daughter and asked, " Wilt 
 thou go with this man ? " Her reply was as 
 brief, and as much to the point, " I will go " 
 (Gen. 24.57, 58). David's manner in choosing a 
 wife was equally abrupt (1 Sam. 25.40-42). 
 Jacob's method was somewhat different, though 
 the principle was the same. He was too poor 
 to buy Rachel, so he offered his services as an 
 equivalent, and even submitted to the hard 
 bargain driven by his father-in-law. When 
 it came to Jacob's own turn to bargain with 
 a prospective son-in-law, we find Shechem 
 asking him as a matter of course what he 
 wanted as purchase-money for his daughter 
 (Gen. 34.11, 12). 
 
 Among the ancient Jews, the betrothing was 
 performed either by a writing or by the giving 
 of a piece of silver to the bride in the presence 
 of witnesses, and by giving a ring (this last not 
 in Biblical times). After the marriage was con- 
 tracted, the young people had the liberty of 
 seeing each other, which was not allowed them 
 before, and the woman was considered a lawful 
 wife, and any trespass against her betrothed 
 was punished as though they were fully 
 married. Moreover, the betrothal could not 
 be broken off without a formal bill of divorce. 
 In later times the betrothal became an elaborate 
 
 affair, accompanied with a lengthy and formal 
 written legal contract. 
 
 Betrothal is used to symbolise relations 
 between God and His people. God betroths 
 men to Himself when He leads them by faith 
 into union with the Lord Jesus Christ. He 
 betroths them for ever by an everlasting covenant, 
 and in everlasting kindness (Hos. 2.19, 20 ; 
 2 Cor. 11.2). [ESPOUSE, MARRIAGE.] 
 
 Beu'lah. Married : from a root - word 
 meaning " to be lord of," and beautifully 
 bestowed by Isaiah on the Jewish Church when 
 he would describe the intimacy of its relation 
 to God as husband and Sovereign Lord 
 (Itai. 62.4). 
 
 Bezaanan'nim. [ZAANANNIM.] 
 
 Be'zai. Meaning unknown : 1. The ancestor 
 of a family of 323 exiles who returned with Zerub- 
 babel (Ezra 2.17 ; Neh. 7.23). 2. A chief who, 
 with Nehemiah, signed the covenant (Neh. 
 10.18) with God after the return from exile. 
 
 Bezale'el, BezaleL In the shadow of God: 1. 
 The son of Uri, the son of Hur, of the tribe of 
 Judah, i.e. descendant of Caleb (1 Ch. 2.18-20, 
 50), a clever craftsman and designer, charged 
 to execute the works of art required for the 
 Tabernacle in the wilderness. He had associ- 
 ated with him Aholiab, who dealt with the 
 textile fabrics. BezaleePs personal work was 
 in metal, wood, and stone, but he was 
 Aholiab's chief, and superintended the latter's 
 work (Ex. 31.2; 35.30; 36.1, 2; I Ch. 2.20; 
 2 Ch. 1.5). See further under HUE. 2. The son 
 of Pahath-moab, one of those who had married 
 a foreign wife (Ezra 10.30). 
 
 Be'zek. Flash of lightning : 1. The residence 
 of Adonibezek, lord of Bezek. A place allotted 
 to Judah, where the Canaanites and Perizzites 
 were slaughtered, and their king taken prisoner 
 with the aid of Simeon (Judg. 1.4, 5). [ADONI- 
 BEZEK.] 2. The place where Saul numbered 
 the army before going to the relief of Jabesh- 
 gilead (1 Sam. 11.8). Its present name is Ibzik, 
 fourteen miles north from Nablus. 
 
 Be'zer. Strong fortress : 1. A city of Reuben 
 that had " suburbs " and was set apart by Moses 
 as one of three cities of refuge on the east of 
 Jordan (Dent. 4.43). It was allotted to the 
 Merarites (1 Ch. 6.78), and is now known as 
 Besheir, a ruin south-west of Dhiban. The 
 same as Bozrah (2), which see. 2. A son of 
 Zophah, and one of the heads of the house of 
 Asher (1 Ch. 7.37). 
 
 Bible. [CANON OF HOLY SCRIPTURE, 
 CRITICISM, NEW TESTAMENT, NON-CANONICAL 
 BOOKS, OLD TESTAMENT.] 
 
 Bich'ri. First-born, youthful : ancestor of 
 Sheba, who revolted against David (2 Sam. 
 20.1-22). 
 
 Bid'kar. Meaning unknown : a captain of 
 Jehu, and originally his companion in arms and 
 fellow-officer (2 K. 9.25). He executed the 
 sentence (ver. 26) passed on Jehoram, son of 
 Ahab, after Jehu had pierced him with an arrow, 
 by flinging his body into the field of Naboth the 
 Jezreelite. 
 
BIER] 
 
 72 
 
 [BIRDS 
 
 Bier. A low wooden frame for carrying the 
 dead ; that on which something is borne. In 
 the O.T. the word is the same as that used for 
 bed. It is curious to find that though burials 
 are of frequent occurrence in the Bible yet the 
 bier is only twice spoken of (2 Sam. 3.31 ; Lk. 
 7.14). [BURIAL.] In 2 Ch. 16.14 the word 
 " bed " is used. 
 
 Big'tha. A Persian word meaning perhaps a 
 gift of God : one of the chamberlains or eunuchs 
 of King Ahasuerus, placed over his harem 
 (Esth. 1.10). 
 
 Big'than, Bigtha'na. Same meaning as 
 preceding : a chamberlain (eunuch) who con- 
 spired against Ahasuerus. Mordecai was instru- 
 mental in saving the king's life, and afterwards 
 received great honour, while the conspirators 
 were put to death (Esth. 2.21, 6.2) by hanging, 
 i.e. by crucifixion or impalement, for no rope 
 was used. The same fearful death overtook 
 Haman (Esth. 7). 
 
 Big'vai. Happy : 1. One of the families that 
 returned from captivity with Zerubbabel 
 (Ezra 2.2, 14). In this passage we read that 
 the tribe numbered 2056, but in Neh. 7.19 their 
 number is stated to be 2067. A further de- 
 tachment of 72 followed later on with Ezra. 
 See (2). 2. A family of 72 persons who re- 
 turned from Babylon with Ezra (Ezra 8.14). 
 3. The chief of a family that with Nehemiah 
 sealed the covenant (Neh. 10.16). 
 
 Bil'dad. (?) Bel has loved : one of Job's three 
 friends (Job 2.11). He was a Shuhite, a direct 
 descendant of Abraham, and an inhabitant of 
 the east of Arabia. As a comforter he was a 
 failure, being blunt and unfeeling. He attri- 
 butes the deaths of Job's children to their own 
 evil lives, and tells Job himself that he also 
 must have committed great sins, to be punished 
 so severely. He fitly represents worldly wisdom 
 and want of feeling. Job silences him finally 
 by argument, and then reproves him for his 
 want of charity (Job, chaps. 8, 18, 25). [Jos.] 
 
 Biream. Destruction of the people : a 
 Levitical town which, with its suburbs, was 
 given to the Kohathites (1 Ch. 6.70). It is the 
 same place that is called Ibleam (Josh. 17.11). 
 It lay north of Samaria, a little to the west of 
 Mount Gilboa, and was included in the western 
 half of the tribe of Manasseh. It is identified 
 with Bel'ame, six hours north of Nablus. 
 
 Bil'gah. Cheerfulness : 1. A priest in David's 
 time, who was the head in the fifteenth course 
 in the Tabernacle service (1 Ch. 24.14). 2. A 
 priest who returned with Zerubbabel (Neh. 
 12.5, 18). 
 
 Bil'gai. The same meaning as Bilgah : a priest 
 who signed the covenant (Neh. 10.8). 
 
 Bil'hah. Meaning unknown : 1. The hand- 
 maid of Rachel, Laban's younger daughter, 
 and mother of Dan and Naphtali (Gen. 29.29, 
 35.25) by Jacob, whose concubine she was. Her 
 sin with Reuben led to Jacob's prediction of 
 evil for his descendants (Gen. 35.22, 49.4). 
 2. A town in Simeon (1 Ch. 4.29). It was also 
 
 called Balah in Josh. 19.3 and Baalah in Josh. 
 15.29. Its position is unknown. 
 
 Bil'han. 1. One of the children of Ezer 
 the Horite, whose home was on Mount Seir, in 
 Edom (Gen. 36.27). 2. A son of Jediael, de- 
 scendant of Benjamin (1 Ch. 7.10). The occur- 
 rence of this presumably Edomi'te name in the 
 tribe of Benjamin is remarkable. 
 
 Bill. [DIVORCE.] 
 
 Bil'shan. Searcher : a prince of the Jews 
 who came up with Zerubbabel from Babylon 
 (Ezra 2.2). 
 
 Bim'hal. Circumcised: a son of Japhlet 
 (1 Ch. 7.33). 
 
 Bind and Loose. The terms " bind " and 
 " loose " (Matt. 16.19) were frequently used by 
 the Jews in the sense of forbid and allow, 
 as applied to the authoritative teaching, both 
 doctrinal and practical, of their Rabbis. On 
 the promotion of their teachers, the Jews put 
 a _key into their hands, with these words: 
 " Receive the power of binding and loosing " ; 
 whence the allusion, " Ye have taken away the 
 key of knowledge," in Lk. 11.52. Note also 
 the Saviour's words in Matt. 5.19, where 
 " break " is the same word in the Greek as 
 "loose" in 16.19. Peter, on account of his 
 earnest and prompt avowal, is the first to 
 receive that authority, which was afterwards 
 also given to his colleagues, and for the 
 exercise of which they were endued with 
 power from on high (Matt. 18.18 ; John 
 20.23). Of him, too, God made choice, that 
 he should first admit Gentiles to the faith as 
 well as Jews (Acts 2.14, 38, 10.45). 
 
 The Jews interpreted the expression " to bind 
 the laws upon one's hand " literally, and 
 hence arose the custom of wearing phylacteries 
 on the wrist. Rolls or volumes of writing were 
 tied up with bands. Hence the expression in 
 Isai. 8.] 6, " Bind up the testimony . . . among 
 my disciples." 
 
 Bin'ea. A descendant of Saul through 
 Jonathan (1 Ch. 8.37). 
 
 Binnu'i. Building or founding a family : 
 1. Father of Noadia, a Levite appointed to 
 weigh the gold and silver brought up by 
 Ezra from Babylon (Ezra 8.33). 2. A 
 son of Pahath-moab, who had married a 
 foreigner (Ezra 10.30). 3. A member of the 
 family of Bani. He is noted as having married a 
 foreign wife (Ezra 10.38). 4. One of the family 
 of Henadad (Neh. 3.24). He helped to repair 
 the walls of Jerusalem under Nehemiah. Per- 
 haps identical with Bavai, ver. 18. 5. A family 
 that came up with Zerubbabel (Neh. 7.15). In 
 the list in Ezra 2.10 the name occurs as Bani. 
 6. A Levite (Neh. 12.8). Perhaps Nos. 4 and 6 
 are identical. 
 
 Birds. Birds were divided into clean and 
 unclean under the Mosaic law. The " unclean," 
 and consequently forbidden as food, were those 
 that fed on flesh, fish, and carrion. All those 
 that fed on insect food as well as on grain and 
 fruits were " clean." This classification would 
 fairly well agree with modern ideas on the sub- 
 
BIRSHA] 
 
 73 
 
 [BISHOP 
 
 ject. Another clause in Jewish law forbade the 
 taking of a mother-bird from the nest, though 
 her young or the eggs might be taken. 
 
 There are references to the habits of birds. 
 The times of the arrival of the stork, crane, 
 and swallow are referred to in Jer. 8.7, and 
 in Cant. 2.11, 12 the time of the singing 
 of birds and the voice of the turtle are descrip- 
 tive of spring. [TURTLE.] In Eccles. 12.4 
 the " voice of the bird " is spoken of. This was 
 the bul-bul, which abounds along the banks of 
 the Jordan and in the neighbourhood of the 
 Dead Sea. It is a sweet singer, and an easily 
 tamed bird. Such birds are in great request in 
 the East, and we find a reference to this custom 
 in Job 41.5, " Wilt thou play with him as with a 
 bird ? " The great majority of birds found in 
 Palestine belong to the migratory orders. In 
 the lower parts of the Jordan valley are to be 
 found sub-tropical birds not elsewhere found 
 so far north. Besides these there are some 
 fifteen species peculiar to Palestine. 
 
 Birds were used largely for food by the inhabit- 
 ants, and still are. In early days these were 
 caught chiefly by snares and nets (Ps. 124.7 ; Prov. 
 7.23), but nowadays immense numbers are shot 
 by gunners in the neighbourhood of Jerusalem. 
 Another method of fowling was the hunting of 
 partridges and bustards with a short throwing- 
 stick. It is this sort of sport that is alluded 
 to in 1 Sam. 26.20. In one passage Bildad men- 
 tions four different methods of catching birds(7o& 
 18.8-10). Sea-birds and water-fowl are scarce 
 in Palestine, but birds of prey, such as vultures, 
 hawks, etc., are numerous, and there are many 
 references to them in the Bible. In Deut. 
 32.11 God is said to have taught Israel as the 
 eagle trains her young. [EAGLE.] 
 
 Bir'sha. The king of Gomorrah at the 
 time of Chedorlaomer's invasion (Gen. 
 14.2). 
 
 Birthday. Three times only is this term used, 
 once in the O.T. where in Gen. 40.20 reference 
 is made to Pharaoh's birthday, always a " holy 
 day," and twice in the N.T. where in Matt. 14.6 
 and Mk. 6.21 Herod's birthday is mentioned. 
 
 In the East, as elsewhere, the custom of ob- 
 serving birthdays is very ancient, and they were 
 celebrated with great rejoicings. In Job 1.4 
 by the reference to " every one his day " of 
 the children of Job is meant their natal days, 
 and in feasting on such occasions they were but 
 following the general custom. Afterwards the 
 Jews came to look upon these feastings with 
 disfavour, owing to the idolatrous customs 
 often practised during their continuance ; but 
 in the early days of the Church of Christ the 
 days when martyrs ascended to their Lord were 
 celebrated as birthdays, the entrance to the life 
 eternal. 
 
 Birthright. In the East the first-born or 
 eldest son enjoyed certain privileges over the 
 rest of the children. This was especially the 
 case among the Hebrews. The first-born son 
 was consecrated to the Lord (Ex. 22.29) To 
 him belonged the " excellency of dignity, and 
 
 the excellency of power " (Gen. 49.3). On the 
 father's death a double portion of the family 
 estate was allotted to him (Deut. 21.17), and in 
 royal families he succeeded to the throne 
 (2 Ch. 21.3). The right of primogeniture, and 
 the privileges belonging to it, might be forfeited 
 by improper conduct, as in the instance of the 
 sons of Isaac, and the rights of the position 
 transferred (Gen. 27.37). David, by Divine 
 appointment, excluded Adonijah in favour 
 of Solomon, marking the preference by the 
 act of anointing. Great respect was paid to 
 the eldest son in the family, and as the family 
 grew into the tribe he gradually obtained more 
 authority, and hence became the " prince of 
 the congregation " (Num. 7.2, 21.18, 25.14). 
 The " double portion " of the family inheritance 
 allotted by the Mosaic law explains the request 
 of Elisha for a double portion of Elijah's spirit 
 (2 K. 2.9). In the earlier scriptural genealogies 
 the first-born of a line is often specially noticed 
 (Gen. 22.21, 25.13). Also a special sacredness 
 was attached by the Jews to the titles 
 " first - born " and " first - begotten," and 
 thus these terms seem applied to the Messiah 
 (Rom. 8.29 ; Col. 1.18 ; Heb. 1.6 ; Rev. 1.5), and 
 it is as joint heirs with Him that the redeemed 
 claim their inheritance (Lk. 22.29 ; Rom. 8.17 ; 
 Col. 3.24). [HEIB, FIRST-BORN.] 
 
 Birza'ith, Birza'vith. A grandson of Beriah, 
 son of Asher (1 Ch. 7.31). 
 
 Bish'lam. Son of peace, or in peace : an 
 officer of Artaxerxes stationed in Canaan at 
 the time of Zerubbabel's return from captivity. 
 He and the other officers successfully opposed 
 those engaged in the rebuilding of the Temple 
 (Ezra 4.7), 
 
 Bishop (Greek, episkopos, whence episcopal). 
 Overseer, superintendent : before its application 
 towan officer in the Christian Church the Greek 
 word was in general use to designate the office of 
 superintendent. Thus the workmen employed 
 by Josiah in the repair-of the Temple had certain 
 overseers (2 Ch. 34.12), and in our English 
 Bible the word overseer is rightly applied to 
 Joseph, who was overseer of Potiphar's house- 
 hold (Gen. 39.4). In the Jewish portion of the 
 Christian Church there were " elders " or " pres- 
 byters " (Acts 11.30, 15.2; cf. 14.23). The 
 elders in Acts 20.17 are called, with reference 
 to their office, " bishops " or superintendents 
 in Acts 20.28. In 1 Tim. 3.2-7 the Apostle 
 Paul particularises the qualifications for the 
 office. " Prayer " and the " laying on of hands " 
 were features of their ordination. The bishops 
 discharged functions which included pastoral 
 supervision (1 Tim. 5.17). When the organisa- 
 tion of the Christian Churches in Gentile cities 
 involved the assignment of the work of pastoral 
 superintendence to a distinct order, the title 
 (episkopos) presented itself as at once convenient 
 and familiar, and was as readily adopted by 
 the Greeks as the word " elder " (presbuteros) 
 had been in the Mother Church at Jerusalem. 
 There is no doubt, therefore, that the terms 
 " elder " and " bishop " were originally con- 
 
BIT] 
 
 74 
 
 [BLAINS 
 
 sidered equivalents. Episcopalian Churches see 
 a form of the work of a bishop in the modern 
 sense in the position of Timothy at Ephesus 
 and Titus in Crete. Once (in 1 Pet. 2.25) the 
 term is applied to Christ. 
 
 Bit. [HARNESS.] 
 
 Bithi'ah. Daughter of Jehovah : daughter of 
 a Pharaoh, or perhaps it would be more correct 
 to say, a princess of the house of Pharaoh. She 
 was also the wife of Mered, a man of the tribe 
 of Judah about the time of the Exodus (1 Ch. 
 4.18). According to a legend of the Jews, 
 Bithiah was the foster-mother of Moses. 
 Whether that be so or not, the name is interesting 
 in that it is the only case of a non- Jewish name 
 compounded with Jah or Jehovah. It is thus 
 perhaps a Judaised word, implying the con- 
 version of the owner to the worship of Jehovah. 
 
 Bith'ron. The broken or divided place: a 
 district on the east side of the Jordan valley 
 (2 Sam. 2.29), near the place where Abner's 
 party crossed the river, in the country of Gad 
 between Mahanaim and the Jordan. The 
 name itself indicates the rugged character of 
 the country. Compare BETHER. 
 
 Bithy'nia. A district and a Roman province 
 in Asia Minor, now a portion of the modern 
 Anatolia. It is bounded on the north by the 
 Black Sea, on the east by the provinces of 
 Pontus and Galatia, on the south by that of 
 Asia, and on the west by the present sea of 
 Marmora. There were probably Christians 
 here at an early date, for dwellers in Pontus 
 are mentioned in Acts 2.9. St. Paul desired 
 to go there on his second missionary journey 
 (Acts 16.7). It is included in the provinces to 
 which 1 Pet. was sent (1 Pet. 1.1). The younger 
 Pliny, who was governor there in 111 A.D., 
 witnesses to the purity and firmness of the 
 Christians in Bithynia (or Pontus) in a remark- 
 able document addressed to his master, 
 the Emperor Trajan. In the course of 
 this he said : " I have taken this course 
 with all who have ever been brought 
 before me, and have been accused as Christians. 
 I have put the question to them, Whether they 
 were Christians ? Upon their confessing to me 
 that they were, I repeated the question a second 
 and a third time, threatening also to punish 
 them with death. Such as still persisted I 
 ordered away to be punished ; for it was no 
 doubt with me, whatever might be the nature 
 of their opinion, that contumacy and inflexible 
 obstinacy ought to be punished. There were 
 others of the same infatuation whom, because 
 they are Roman citizens, I have noted down 
 to be sent to the city. 
 
 " In a short time, the crime spreading itself, 
 even whilst under persecution, as is usual in such 
 cases, divers sorts of people came in my way. . . . 
 They affirmed that the whole of their fault or 
 error lay in this, that they were wont to meet 
 together on a stated day, before it was light, and 
 sing among themselves, alternately, a hymn to 
 Christ as God ; and to bind themselves by a 
 solemn oath, not to the commission of any 
 
 wickedness, but not to be guilty of theft, or rob- 
 bery, or adultery, never to falsify their word, nor 
 to deny a pledge committed to them when called 
 upon to return it. When these things were 
 performed, it was their custom to separate, and 
 then to come together again to a meal, which 
 they ate in common without any disorder ; but 
 this they had forborne since the publication of 
 my edict, by which, according to your com- 
 mands, I prohibited assemblies. After receiving 
 this account, I judged it the more necessary to 
 examine, and that by torture, two maid-servants 
 which were called ministers (deaconesses). But 
 I have discovered nothing but an evil and 
 excessive superstition. . . . Nor has the con- 
 tagion of this superstition seized cities only, 
 but the lesser towns also, and the open country." 
 
 Bithynia was an independent state until 
 Nicomedes in., the last of its kings, left it by 
 will to the Romans in 74 B.C. Nearly one 
 hundred years later, when the Sultan of Pontus 
 had been expelled, Bithynia was joined to 
 Pontus and Paphlagonia, and firmly settled 
 under a Roman governor, who bore the title 
 " Proconsul." At the time when Pliny wrote, 
 Christianity had made great progress, so great, 
 indeed, that the pagan temples and worship 
 were almost neglected, while the priesthood 
 and those who made a living from the sacrifices, 
 etc., suffered from the waning of their religion. 
 This was the reason of the bitter persecution 
 of the Christians. 
 
 Bitter Herbs. [PASSOVER.] 
 
 Bitter Water. [JEALOUSY.] 
 
 Bittern. The word translated "bittern" (Isai. 
 14.23, 34.11 ; Zeph. 2.14) has been the subject 
 of many conjectures. In all about twenty 
 different creatures, including the hedgehog and 
 the porcupine, have been suggested for the 
 "bittern" of Isai. 34.11. Doubtless a bird is 
 meant. The bittern, classed among the cranes, 
 is a bird of solitary habits, frequenting ruins 
 and desolate marshy places, where its deep 
 hoarse cry is often heard at twilight. In size it is 
 about as large as a goose, though longer in body, 
 and having longer legs. It was formerly 
 common in the eastern counties of England. 
 
 Bizjoth'jah. (?) Contempt of Jehovah: a place 
 in the south of Judah, which seems to have been 
 in the neighbourhood of Beersheba( Josh. 15.28). 
 
 Biz'tha. Eunuch : the second of the seven 
 eunuchsof Ahasuerus(stf*. 1.10) who had guard- 
 ianship over his harem. The name is Persian, 
 and applies to his office rather than to himself. 
 
 Blains. The eruption with which the 
 Egyptians were smitten in the sixth plague. 
 Possibly the " blains " were small carbuncles, 
 intensely hot and painful. The malady has 
 been identified with the " black leprosy," a kind 
 of elephantiasis, which struck the magicians 
 with peculiar intensity, so that they were 
 unable to stand before Moses. The " botch of 
 Egypt " (Deut. 28.27) may have been the same 
 disorder. From a very early period Egypt 
 has been troubled with the bubo plague, in 
 which the boils break out singly or in groups, 
 

 BLASPHEME, BLASPHEMY] 
 
 and appear under the arms, in the groins and the 
 neck, when the glands are inflamed and swollen 
 (Ex. 9.9, 10). [LEPKOSY, PESTILENCE, BOTCH, 
 BOILS. 1 
 
 Blaspheme, Blasphemy. To " curse " God 
 and to " blaspheme the name of the Lord," 
 is in Lev. 24.16 made punishable by death, 
 even in the case of a resident alien. The 
 offender in Lev. 24.11 was the son of a Hebrew 
 mother and an Egyptian father. Special 
 direction from God was awaited before dealing 
 with him. Then, when " the mind of the 
 Lord " (Lev. 24.12), was known through Moses, 
 he was taken outside the camp ; the hearers 
 of the offence laid their hands on him, and 
 all the congregation stoned him (Lev. 24.14, 23). 
 On Lev. 24.16 the Rabbins based their belief 
 that it was not lawful to utter distinctly the 
 name of the Lord. [JEHOVAH.] 
 
 Blasphemy is dealt with by our Lord as an 
 offence of peculiar gravity. To gain a clear 
 idea of His meaning in Matt. 12.31, 32; Mk. 
 3.28, 29, observe : 1. That among the spectators 
 on this occasion there might be many who 
 denied the Divine mission of " the Son of Man," 
 but who yet might yield to further evidence ; 
 while there were others, acute and well-in- 
 formed, who were determined not to believe, 
 and malignantly ascribed to Satanic power 
 works which showed the presence of " the 
 Spirit of God " (ver. 28). To these latter our 
 Lord evidently refers ; though He may, perhaps, 
 be understood rather as warning them against 
 a sin to which they were very closely approach- 
 ing, than as declaring that they had already 
 committed it. 2. That the sin which shall not 
 be forgiven is not so much the 'particular act 
 which gave occasion to the remark, as a state 
 of heart, the result of a long course of wilful and 
 malignant opposition to known truth. 3. 
 That unpardonable sin is not confined to attri- 
 buting Christ's miracles to Satanic agency 
 (comp. Heb. 6.4-6) ; nor is it the only sin which 
 ensures final destruction. 4. That its very 
 nature is to destroy all fear of displeasing God, 
 and anxiety respecting His favour, making men, 
 like these Pharisees, either blind to their sin, 
 or hardened in it. 5. At the same time, 
 it is certain that every sin of which men truly 
 repent will be pardoned. No forgiveness, 
 therefore, implies no repentance. [THE UN- 
 PARDONABLE SIN.] 
 
 Blasted. Scorched, blighted, blackened: this 
 word, used in relation to growing crops, denotes 
 the withering and blighting effects produced 
 by a strong and dry wind, the sirocco. The 
 llebrew word is connected with an Arabic 
 root meaning blackness. In Gen. 41.6 the effect 
 produced was perhaps caused by a species 
 of " smut," a fungus growth. A blighting wind 
 alone would not account for the " thin " ears 
 of corn. 
 
 Blastus. A chamberlain (who was over the 
 bed-chamber) of Herod Agrippa I. (Acts 12.20). 
 He was persuaded by some people from Tyre 
 and Sidon to gain them an audience with the 
 
 75 [BLIND, BLINDNESS 
 
 king ; thus showing him to have been a man 
 of considerable influence. 
 
 Blemish. As applied to the priests. The 
 word implied bodily defect disqualifying for the 
 office. Such defects are specified in Lev. 
 21.18-20. Thus the bodily perfection of the 
 priests pointed to Christ, the perfect priest. 
 So also of the sacrifices ; there must be no 
 blemish in them (Lev. 22.20-24). This was 
 fulfilled in Christ's offering of Himself (1 Pet. 
 1.19). 
 
 Bless, Blessed, Blessing. When Moses 
 blessed Israel (Dent. 33) he prophesied 
 a continual progression of good things and 
 Divine favour for him. It was a patriarchal 
 form of blessing and a religious ceremony 
 fashioned after that of the Heavenly Father, 
 who continues I not spasmodic acts, be it noted) 
 to shower benefits upon His creatures. When 
 men are said to bless God, as in Ps. 103, they 
 ascribe to Him that praise and honour which 
 it is equally the duty and joy of His creatures 
 to render. But when God is said to bless 
 His people, as in Gen. 1.22; Eph. 1.3, He 
 confers upon them benefits, either temporal 
 or spiritual, and so communicates to them some 
 portion of that infinite blessedness which dwells 
 in Himself (1 Tim. 1.11). 
 
 Blessing was a custom very generally 
 observed among the Hebrews, and is often 
 mentioned in Scripture. Thus Jacob blessed 
 his sons (Gen. 49), and Moses, tha 
 children of Israel (Deut. 33). Melchisedek 
 blessed Abraham. So important a place did 
 the act of blessing occupy in the religion and 
 life of the Jews, that even the method of its 
 bestowal formed a part of their ritual (Num. 
 6.23). The blessing was given standing with the 
 hands lifted to Heaven. [BENEDICTION.] 
 
 Blessing, Cup o!. It was the practice of 
 the Jews, in their thank-offerings, for the 
 master of the feast to take a cup of wine in his 
 hand and solemnly bless God for it, and for the 
 mercies that were then acknowledged, and then 
 to pass the cup to all the guests, each of whom 
 drank in turn. The Psalmist refers to this 
 custom in Ps. 116.13; the Saviour continued 
 the practice at the farewell feast. In 1 Cor. 
 10.16 it is referred to as the " cup of blessing." 
 It is sometimes an euphemism for " curse," 
 and is so translated in Job 1.5, 11, 2.5, 9. 
 
 Blessing, Valley of. This was the scene of 
 Jehoshaphat's thanksgiving (2 Ch. 20.26). 
 
 Blind, Blindness. Blindness is of distressing 
 frequency in all parts of the East. Physical 
 causes produce the evil, which neglect and 
 improper treatment aggravate. It was a 
 blemish disqualifying for the priesthood (Lev. 
 21.18). Misleading the blind was solemnly 
 cursed (Lev. 19.14, and comp. Deut. 27.18). 
 Blindness was threatened as one of the punish- 
 ments of apostasy (Deut. 28.28). It was 
 miraculously inflicted (Gen. 19.11 ; 2 K. 
 6.18) ; and was used as a cruel form of vengeance 
 or punishment (Judg. 16.21 ; 2 K. 25.7). 
 Figuratively, the opening of the eyes of th' 
 
BLOOD] 
 
 76 
 
 [BOAZ 
 
 blind is presented by Isaiah as one of the works 
 predicted of our Lord (29.18, 35.5, 42.7). 
 
 In the N.T. the prevalence of blindness 
 is indicated. Our Lord's miracles wrought 
 upon the blind doubtless attracted special 
 attention (see John 10.21). There is a 
 spiritual blindness (John 12.40 ; 2 Cor. 4.4), 
 with a manifest influence on character (2 Pet. 
 1.9; Rev. 3.11). 
 
 Blood. First noticed in the case of Abel's 
 murder (Gen. 4.10). The eating of flesh with 
 the blood in it was forbidden (Gen. 9.4), and the 
 prohibition was set forth in detail in the Law 
 (Lev. 17.10-12), and dealt with by the Christian 
 Church (Acts 15.20-29). The shedding of blood 
 in sacrifice abounded in Hebrew ritual. The 
 use of blood at the Passover (Ex. 12.7-13) was 
 the most significant of these acts in relation to 
 the work of our Lord. In H eb. 9, 10, the old 
 sacrifices are contrasted with the " one sacrifice 
 for sins " offered by Him. There is, elsewhere, 
 frequent emphasis on the shed " blood " of our 
 Lord (e.g. Rom. 5.9; Eph. 1.7; Col. 1.20; 
 1 Pet. 1.19 ; 1 John 1.7 ; Rev. 1.5). 
 
 The term " blood " has a number of secondary 
 meanings. " Flesh and blood " signifies human 
 nature in itself, in contrast with higher or 
 spiritual body given to believers (1 Cor. 15.50) ; 
 or mankind in contrast with God (Gal. 1.16). 
 The cause " between blood and blood " (Deut. 
 17.8) is one involving capital punishment, if it 
 be satisfactorily established. 
 
 Blood and Water. When the side of the 
 Saviour was pierced by the spear of the Roman 
 soldier " forthwith came there out blood and 
 water" (John 19.34). This peculiar phenom- 
 enon has excited much discussion. By some 
 it has been regarded as miraculous and sym- 
 bolic the blood an emblem of pardon, the water 
 of purification. There was something unusual 
 in the death of the Saviour. Crucifixion is a 
 lingering death, the victim generally having 
 to be killed by some more quickly lethal act, or 
 else suffer long days of intease agony. Now, 
 Jesus died very quickly, though the union of 
 His soul and body was by no weaker bond than 
 that which ordinarily belongs to mankind. The 
 theory has been propounded by Dr. Stroud, 
 and supported by other physicians, such as 
 Dr. Walshe and Sir J. Y. Simpson, that Christ's 
 heart, already weakened by the intense agony 
 at Gethsemane, broke under the tremendous 
 mental strain of the crucifixion. Dr. Walshe, 
 who was Professor of Medicine in University 
 College, London, and Professor Simpson, say 
 that in the case of heart rupture, " the hand is 
 suddenly carried to the front of the chest, a 
 piercing shriek is uttered. . . . Usually death 
 very speedily ensues, in consequence of the 
 blood escaping into the cavity of the large 
 surrounding heart-sac or pericardium ; which 
 sac has, in cases of rupture of the heart, been 
 found on dissection to contain two, three, four, 
 or more pounds of blood accumulated within 
 it, and separated into red clot and limpid serum, 
 or ' blood and water ' as is seen in blood 
 
 when collected out of the body in a cup 
 or basin in the operation of blood-letting. 
 . . . The effect of the wounding and piercing 
 of the side was escape of this blood and water, 
 visible to the Apostle John, standing some 
 distance off." 
 
 Blood, Avenger of. The person who pursued 
 a murderer or manslayer ; and was allowed 
 under the Jewish law to kill him, unless the 
 spiller of blood had got within one of the six 
 cities of refuge (Num. 35.11, 12). [CITY OF 
 REFUOB.] The avenging of shed blood by a 
 member of the injured family was the custom 
 of uncivilised or semi-civilised people ; and 
 the blood-feud still survives amongst many 
 
 Blue. Royal apparel was usually of a blue 
 or purple colour (Ex. 25.4), corresponding to 
 the tint we know as violet, the Hebrews 
 having no term to denote real blue. Like 
 purple, the blue colour was derived from a 
 species of shell-fish, the pigment being obtained 
 from a particular gland in the animal itself, 
 and not from the shell. [COLOURS.] 
 
 The word translated " blue " is also used to 
 denote a certain kind of marble (Esth. 1.6). 
 
 Boaner'ges. Sons of rage, or of thunder : an 
 epithet bestowed upon James and John, the 
 sons of Zebedee, because of their fiery and 
 jealous natures (Mk. 3.17). For illustrations 
 of this see Mk. 9.38 ; Lk. 9.54. Scholars have 
 not been able to determine with exactness the 
 source or sources of the word. 
 
 Boar. This word occurs only once in the 
 English Bible (Ps. 80.13), and the Hebrew woid 
 used there has the sense of the Arabic, for 
 elsewhere it is invariably used to denote the 
 domestic " swine." The wild boar has always 
 been plentiful in Palestine and the East generally. 
 The Psalmist accurately describes the state of 
 things when the Jordan has overflowed its 
 banks, and driven the wild boars from 
 their usual haunts. Then the husbandman 
 has to watch his fields day and night, to prevent 
 them being altogether destroyed by the de- 
 predations of this fierce and hungry animal. 
 It is said that in a single night a family of wild 
 boars will uproot a whole field of barley or root 
 crops. 
 
 Boat. Very little is known about the boats 
 of Galilee, except that they were numerous, 
 and comprised both fishing and pleasure boats, 
 using either oars or sails. In the Scripture 
 narrative the best and most technical account 
 of the boat is to be found in Lk. 8.22-25. 
 [SHIPS AND SHIPPING.] 
 
 Bo'az. Strength, firmness : 1. A native of 
 Bethlehem, a descendant of Judah, and an 
 ancestor of Jewish kings (Matt. 1.5), and finally 
 of our Lord. He was a man of considerable 
 means, of upright character, as was shown 
 in his just treatment of his young kinswoman, 
 Ruth, the Moabite, whose cause he upheld, 
 and whom he married. In the N.T. his name 
 appears as Bo'oz (Matt. 1.5 ; Lk. 3.32). 2. One 
 of the brazen pillars erected in the porch of 
 
BOCHERU] 
 
 77 
 
 [BOOK 
 
 Solomon's Temple. It was 18 cubits high (1 K. 
 7.15-21 ; 2 Ch. 3.17), was hollow, and sur- 
 mounted with an ornamental capital 5 cubits 
 high. The different measurements in the vari- 
 ous accounts are due to the inclusion or 
 exclusion of the capital. 
 
 Boche'ru. Youth : a son of Azel and a 
 descendant of Saul (1 Ch. 8.38, 9.44). 
 
 Bo'chim. The Weepers: this is a place, 
 west of the Jordan and north of Gilgal, where 
 the Israelites wept, on being reproved for making 
 league with the Canaanitcs (Judg. 2.1, 5). 
 
 Bo'han. Thumb : a borderstone or landmark 
 between Judah and Benjamin (Josh. 15.6). 
 The position of this place is unknown. It was 
 named after a Reubenite, to commemorate 
 some achievement in the conquest of Palestine. 
 
 Boil. The irritation produced by dust and 
 heat causes many purulent diseases in Egypt 
 (Ex. 9.9). Leprosy, in some cases, seems to 
 have been caused by a long-continued succession 
 of boils (Lev. 13.18), where a constitutional 
 tendency to the disease already existed. The 
 opinion that the dreadful eruptive skin disease 
 that drove Job (2.7) from his fellows was of a 
 leprous nature is held by Sir Risdon Bennett 
 (see Diseases of the Bible), and other medical 
 authorities. The Hebrew word used to express 
 the sixth plague of Egypt and the " botch of 
 Egypt " means an inflammation, and is derived 
 from a Syrian root " to be hot." [BOTCH.] 
 
 Boiled. Cup-shaped : the calyx of flowers 
 (Ex. 9.31). The expression, " the flax was 
 boiled," means that it was in bud or blossom, 
 well advanced in growth, or nearly in a state 
 to be gathered. Thus the date of the plague 
 of hail is approximately placed in March, and 
 the damage done at this time meant, of course, 
 not only the loss of the plant, but also of all the 
 care and toil spent on it. 
 
 Bolster. The place of the head : the word has 
 the same meaning in Hebrew that it has in 
 English (Gen. 28.11 ; 1 Sam. 19.13, 16), and the 
 article itself is put to the same uses. It is not, 
 however, certain that the Hebrew word should 
 not be translated " the part about the head," 
 without any direct reference to a bolster. 
 
 Bond, Bondage. [BAND, JUBILEE, SERVANT, 
 SLAVERY.] 
 
 Bondman, Bondmaid, Bondservant. [SER- 
 VANT, SLAVERY.] 
 
 Bonnet. Turban, Headgear : when the Bible 
 was translated into English, bonnet was a 
 common name for masculine headgear. This is 
 why we find this now feminine term applied 
 to men only (Ex. 39.28; Ezek. 44.18). The 
 bonnet or turban worn by the ordinary priests 
 consisted of several rounds of linen turned in 
 and sewn together, so as to appear like a crown. 
 The whole was entirely covered with another 
 piece of linen, which came as low as the forehead 
 (Ex. 28.40). The high priest's bonnet did not 
 greatly differ (Ex. 39.28 ; Ezek. 44.18). 
 
 Book. The first books were in the form of 
 blocks and tablets of stone, of which we find 
 frequent mention u> th Scriptures. The writ- 
 
 ings, generally memorials of great or heroic deeds, 
 were engraved or cut into the substance of the 
 stone. Job wished for some such permanent 
 record of his words when he cried, " Oh that 
 they were graven with an iron pen and lead in 
 the rock for ever " (Job 19.24). Other sub- 
 stances used to record thoughts, or com- 
 municate with a distant friend, were sheets 
 of lead, tablets of wood, plates of thin 
 wood or ivory covered with a coating of wax, 
 easily inscribed with the stylus, and as easily 
 obliterated. 
 
 The most durable of all books are those which 
 have been excavated from the ruins of ancient 
 Babylonia. These are in the form of clay 
 bricks and tablets, some cylindrical, some with 
 flat sides, and others of an oval shape. Some 
 are enclosed in an outer case of clay ; all of 
 them are covered with minute writing 
 [WRITING] impressed into the clay with a stylus 
 while it was soft, and then burnt hard. These 
 books vgry in size from an inch or so in height 
 to several inches, and every part of the surface 
 is utilised. On them were written poems, 
 legends, accounts of battles and acts of 
 kings, business transactions, and contracts. 
 [BABYLON.] 
 
 Another early form of book was the roll. 
 This was constructed either of papyrus, 
 linen, or of skins specially beaten and prepared. 
 Papyrus was manufactured in Egypt from the 
 stalk of a reed which grew largely on the 
 banks of the Nile. It was a brittle substance, 
 even after all the care taken in its making, and 
 though there are specimens in our museums 
 of a very ancient date, yet these have been 
 preserved only by being hermetically sealed in 
 tombs, or buried deep beneath the dry sand of 
 the desert. This paper, made from the papyrus, 
 was in use until the Middle Ages. 
 
 But among the Hebrews the substance chiefly 
 in use for the making of their books or, rather, 
 rolls, was parchment. These rolls were of all 
 lengths and breadths, though generally about 
 twelve inches wide. The big rolls, such as 
 those of the Law, were wound on two rods, 
 one being rolled up while the other was 
 unwound. When not in use, the rolls were 
 carefully put into outer cases for preservation. 
 The parchment used for these books was very 
 carefully prepared from skins, and was often 
 obtained from Pergamos (hence the name), 
 where the manufacture was brought to great 
 perfection. The industry had not reached its 
 height until some two centuries before Christ, 
 though the art was known as early as the time 
 of Moses (Ex. 26.14). Sometimes these parch- 
 ment rolls were coloured, though generally it 
 was only the most costly parchments, known 
 as vellum, that were so treated. The libraries 
 containing these books were not, of course, like 
 our modern ones, with their rows of shelves. 
 Indeed, books were so rare and costly that 
 individuals had but few, and these were easily 
 kept in boxes and round cases. Yet here and 
 there wer# to be found libraries of considerable 
 
BOOK OF LIFE] 
 
 78 
 
 [BOW 
 
 size, containing many valuable works and public 
 records [ALEXANDRIA, BABYLON], Private 
 books wero sometimes closed with a seal (Isai. 
 20.11 ; Rev. 5.1-3) impressed with the stamp 
 of the owner. 
 
 Book of Life. Jewish Registers : when a 
 person died his name was blotted out from the 
 list kept by the authorities, which was 
 supposed to contain only the names of the 
 living (Isai. 4.3 ; Rev. 21.27). 
 
 Book of Judgment. An allusion to the 
 record kept by some Eastern monarchs of the 
 good or bad deeds of their subjects. At certain 
 seasons these were consulted, and rewards or 
 punishments meted out according to deserts 
 (Esth. 6.1-3). 
 
 Booth. In the East, gardens were often 
 unfenced, protected only by a watchman 
 seated in a hut on top of a hillock. This shelter 
 was just sufficient to protect a single person 
 from the weather (Job 27.18). Such a guard 
 was, of course, only sufficient to protect the 
 crops from animals, etc. If depredation by 
 raiders was attempted, it was his duty to give 
 the alarm (Isai. 1.8). The difference between 
 a tent and a booth was that while the first was 
 covered with a cloth the latter had but boughs 
 of trees. This was frequently erected as a shelter 
 from the heat of the sun (Neh. 8.16), and was 
 put up beneath the shade of trees by a flowing 
 stream, or, in towns and villages, on the house- 
 tops. In the hot weather townsfolk frequently 
 retired to their gardens in the fields, and lived 
 there in just such temporary and slight struc- 
 tures. [FEAST OP TABERNACLES, TENT.] 
 
 Sooty. Spoils taken in war (Num. 31.27-32). 
 According to the law of Moses, the booty was to 
 be divided equally between those who were 
 in the actual battle and those kept at home 
 and in camp. The law further required that 
 the Lord's share should come from the spoils 
 assigned to the fighting men ; and that for 
 every five hundred men, oxen, asses, sheep, etc., 
 they were to take one for the high priest, as 
 being the Lord's " first-fruits " ; and that out 
 of the spoil belonging to the people of Israel 
 they were to give for every fifty men, etc., 
 one to the Levites. David decided that in the 
 army the baggage-troops should share equally 
 with those actually engaged (1 Sam. 30.24). 
 But even in the time of Abraham a portion of the 
 spoils was reserved for religious purposes under 
 the name of tithes (Gen. 14.20). In this parti- 
 cular instance Abraham shows a splendidly 
 disinterested action in refusing his share of the 
 spoils of war. From Dent. 20.14-17, we find that 
 while captives taken in war were considered 
 lawful spoil, yet such captures were not to be 
 made in Canaan itself. [SPOIL, TITHE.] 
 
 Bo'oz. (Matt. 1.5 ; Lk. 3.32). [BoAZ.] 
 
 B orr o w . [ Lo AN. ] 
 
 Bos'cath. [BOZKATH] (2 K. 22.1). 
 
 Bo'sor. The father of Balaam (2 Pet. 2.15). 
 This is the N.T. form of Beor (which see), 
 though how the corruption came about is un- 
 certain. It seems that it does not occur in any 
 
 manuscript of the Septuagint version of the 
 O.T. 
 
 Botch. A swelling or eruptive discoloration 
 of the skin. It can scarcely be described as a 
 medical term. As derived from the Italian 
 bozza (English " boss "), the word would imply 
 either a swelling or a rough unfinished piece of 
 sculpture. If this is what our translators 
 meant when using the word, it might be held as 
 an appropriate description of some of the 
 cutaneous signs of elephantiasis, in other 
 words, of a form of leprosy (Deut. 28.27, 35). 
 
 [BOILS.] 
 
 Bottle. In nearly every instance where a 
 bottle is mentioned in Scripture the leather or 
 skin bottle is the vessel spoken of, though of 
 course earthenware, alabaster, metal, and even 
 glass bottles must have been known, for the 
 Egyptians manufactured and exported glass 
 from a very early period ; while glass bottles 
 of many shapes and sizes were found by Sir 
 A. Layard among the ruins of Babylon. In 
 Jer. 19 an earthenware bottle is used as a strik- 
 ing illustration foreshadowing the desolation of 
 the Jews for their sins. The leathern bottles 
 were, and indeed still are, made of the skins of 
 animals, properly dressed and tanned for the 
 purpose. The skins are most carefully re- 
 moved from the animals, being drawn off, 
 after the head and extremities are removed, 
 like a tight- fitting glove, then the openings 
 are stitched up, excepting the neck, which is 
 fastened by a piece of whipcord like a bag. 
 These bottles are of various sizes, according as 
 the skins are large or small. While the skin 
 is still fresh it is given to a professional tanner, 
 by whom it is rendered fit for holding not only 
 water, but wine, milk, and other liquids. The 
 tanning is done with oak bark or acacia bark, 
 and the hair is left on the outside. Pig skins 
 are never employed by the Jews for this purpose, 
 because the animal is " unclean." 
 
 During the long marches in the desert these 
 leathern, chiefly goat-skin, bottles become 
 dried up and crack, like the " old and rent " 
 bottles brought to Joshua by the Gibeonites, 
 when they deceived him as to the length of their 
 journey (Josh. 9.4). Such " broken " bottles 
 are mended by being patched and plugged, but 
 are never very useful afterwards (Matt. 9.17). 
 
 Bottles of skin were used not only by the 
 Arabs, but very generally in Europe, Asia, and 
 Africa. Even to this day the Spanish borrachas, 
 for holding wine, is very like the Arabian gerba. 
 Such wine-skins were used for the same purpose 
 by the Greeks, Romans, and Egyptians. In 
 Persia the skins were preserved by being satur- 
 ated with pitch. 
 
 " A bottle in the smoke." This passage 
 (Ps. 119.83) is a reference to the drying 
 and cracking effect of external heat upon 
 the skin ; while the expansion produced by 
 the fermentation of new wine is spoken of in 
 Matt. 9.17. 
 
 Bottomless Pit. [Pix.] 
 
 Bow. To bend the body has always 
 
BOW] 
 
 79 
 
 [BRASS 
 
 a usual form of salutation, being expressive 
 at once of respect and reverence for the person 
 saluted, and of humble deference on the part 
 of the one saluting (Gen. 24.26, 48 ; 1 K. 1.53, 
 2.19). Jacob bowed before Esau seven times 
 (Gen. 33.3). 
 
 Bow. The weapon. [ARMY.] 
 
 Bowels. Sometimes referred to in Scripture 
 as the seat of the emotions (Col. 3.12). 
 
 Bowl. The word that is translated 
 " bowl " is also translated " cup," " charger," 
 and is derived from the cup-shaped calyx of a 
 flower. Few earthen or metal manufactures 
 of the ancient Jews survive. The bowls and 
 basins in common use amongst their neighbours 
 were chiefly of pottery or wood. Hiram cast 
 for Solomon a great many bowls of gold, silver, 
 and brass, among them being the great sea 
 used in the Temple services (2 Ch. 4.8). At 
 the ceremony of purification in the wilderness 
 (Ex. 24.6, 8) Moses received half the blood of 
 the sacrifices in bowls and sprinkled it on the 
 people. Round and ornamental objects are 
 called bowls (Eccles. 12.6), and so also the globe- 
 shaped capitals of the pillars of Jachin and 
 Boaz (1 K. 7.41). The basins for feet- washing 
 were larger and deeper than those used for 
 holding food, and were frequently made of wood 
 (John 13.5). 
 
 Wooden bowls were used at meals for liquids 
 and broth (2 K. 4.40), just as they are to-day 
 by the Arabs. In the British Museum are to be 
 seen some terra-cotta bowls of Chaldean make, 
 having inscribed upon them charms against 
 sickness and evil spirits. Possibly Joseph's 
 divining-cup was a vessel of this character 
 (Gen. 44.5). These bowls were filled with a 
 liquid which was drunk off as a charm against 
 evil. [POTTERY.] 
 
 Box. A flask or bottle for oil (2 K. 9.1, 3). 
 [ALABASTER.] 
 
 Box-tree. Tliis was the sherbin cedar, a 
 species of juniper tree, generally resembling the 
 cypress (/sat. 60.13). In Isai. 41.19 the prophecy 
 is that the desert shall become like the slopes of 
 Lebanon, covered with trees ; for the box was 
 a familiar growth in that region, though it 
 was but small, rarely exceeding twenty feet 
 high, of perpendicular growth, the branches 
 inclining upwards, and with very small cones. 
 
 Bo'zez. (?) Shining : one of two sharp rocks 
 (the other is called Seneh) between which 
 Jonathan and his armour-bearer entered the 
 Philistine garrison (1 Sam. 14.4). These rocks 
 must have been close to Michmasb, where there 
 are still two crags which would answer to them. 
 
 BozTsath. High stony region : a town in 
 the lowlands of Judah (Josh. 15.39). It was the 
 natice place of Jedidah, the mother of King 
 T osiah (2 K. 22.1). The name signifies not 
 mly a high place but a stony region. It has not 
 yet been identified. In 2 K. 22.1 the word is 
 spelled Boscath. 
 
 Boz'rah. Shcepfold : 1. The royal city of 
 Jobab, king of Edom (Gen. 36.33 ; 1 Ch. 1.44), 
 situated in the mountainous district near the 
 
 northern border of the country, half-way 
 between Petra and the Dead Sea. It was 
 renowned for its sheep (Isai. 34.6 ; Mic. 
 2.12), and was the subject of prophetic 
 denunciation (Isai. 34.6, 63.1 ; Jer. 49.13, 22 ; 
 Amos 1.12). The modern representative of 
 Bozrah is el-Buseirah, south-east of the Dead 
 Sea. " Goats " such as Isaiah mentions are 
 still to be found in the neighbourhood. 2. A 
 city of Moab on the high downs on the east 
 of the Dead Sea. It suffered in the general 
 desolation of the country (Jer. 48.24). It is 
 the same as Bezel (1). King Mesha states on 
 the Moabite Stone that he rebuilt it. 
 
 Bracelet. Different words in the Hebrew 
 are rendered bracelet in our translation. 
 Thus in 2 Sam. 1.10 an armlet is meant. In 
 Ex. 35.22 the word has reference to the ring 
 form of the bracelet. In Gen. 38.18 the word 
 signifies a thread or cord for suspending a signet 
 ring. The fourth form of the word occurs more 
 frequently, and as in Gen. 24.22 the usual 
 form of bracelet is indicated ; while in Isai. 3.19 
 the twisted or chain-like character of the orna- 
 ment is shown. Bracelets were made of gold 
 and other precious metals, studded with jewels, 
 and also of iron and earthenware. Both men 
 and women wore bracelets. Among Eastern 
 princesses it was a badge of royalty, and was 
 probably regarded as such in the time of David 
 (2 Sam. 1.10). The royal bracelet was of rich 
 material, and jewelled, and was worn above 
 the elbow, while the common bracelet was worn 
 on the wrist (Ezek. 16.11). Bracelets were also 
 worn as charms against disease and evil spirits. 
 [ARMLET.] 
 
 Bramble. In Judg. 9.14, the buckthorn. In 
 Isai. 34.13 the word is the same as that translated 
 " thorn " in Job 41.2, Prov. 26.9, and elsewhere. 
 
 Branch. In Isai. 11.1 the word is used 
 figuratively and as a title for the Messiah. 
 44 And there shall come forth a rod out of the 
 stem of Jesse, and a BRANCH shall grow out 
 of his roots." When Christ is represented as a 
 slender twig, shooting from the trunk of an old 
 tree lopped to the very root and decayed, 
 this branch itself becoming a mighty tree, 
 reference is made to the kingly dignity of 
 Christ, springing from the decayed house of 
 David ; and to the exaltation which was to 
 succeed His humbled condition on earth 
 (Jer. 23.5, 33.15 ; Zech. 3.8, 6.12). 
 
 The "abominable branch" of Isai. 14.19 
 is a branch thrown on one side and neglected. 
 The allusion in Ezek. 8.17 is to an idolatrous 
 custom in which peculiarly shaped twigs were 
 carried about. 
 
 Brasen Sea. [TEMPLE SERVICE, LAYER.] 
 
 Brass. Where in the Bible the word brass 
 is used, copper or bronze is probably meant. 
 Mining the metal is spoken of in Deut. 8.9, and 
 smelting it in Job 28.2. The alloy which we 
 now call brass was invented in the thirteenth 
 century A.D. Copper was mined in the hills of 
 Canaan, and was used for a variety of purposes 
 (Judg. 16.21 ; 1 Sam. 17-5 ; 2 K. 25.7). Bronze, 
 
BRAVERY] 
 
 80 
 
 [BREASTPLATE 
 
 an alloy of copper and tin, was made at a very 
 early date, and weapons, mirrors, and ornaments 
 were manufactured of it. Copper was used 
 for money (Matt. 10.9). The word is often 
 employed also in an emblematic fashion, as 
 in Lev. 26.19, where "I will make . . . your 
 earth as brass" is a picture of utter hard- 
 ness and a glaring dryness ; for invulnerability 
 ' flesh of brass" (Job 6.12) ; for un worthiness 
 (Jer. 6.28) ; and of strength (Zech. 6.1). 
 
 Bravery. Only in Isai. 3.18, in the old sense 
 of display or show of finery. 
 
 Bray. 1. As an ass (Job 6.5). 2. To pound 
 or bruise in a mortar (Prov. 27.22). 
 
 Brazen Serpent. [SERPENT.] 
 
 Bread. At all times, even the earliest, bread 
 was the chief food of the Hebrews. Wheat and 
 barley, by themselves or mixed with other grains 
 and pulse, were pounded between stones or 
 in a mortar, mixed with water, sometimes a 
 little salt, and then baked. The art of using 
 leaven and flavouring substances came later. 
 
 In making bread, the flour was mixed in 
 wooden troughs or bowls (Gen. 18.6) with the 
 hands or feet, just as the Arabians carry on 
 the operation now. Sometimes the kneading 
 was done on a circular sheet of leather, which 
 could be gathered up like a satchel and carried 
 with ease from place to place, a convenient 
 plan for a nomadic people. The loaves were 
 shaped like a plate, sometimes of wafer-like 
 thinness, but generally about the thickness of a 
 finger. The process of baking was gone through 
 with great rapidity. Corn was ground every 
 morning, and in twenty minutes from the 
 commencement of this operation it was baked 
 into bread. This was unleavened bread, and was 
 only used in an emergency (Gen. 19.3) or for 
 ceremonial purposes. The fermented bread was 
 a longer process, because of the time occupied 
 in fermentation. A little of the dough from 
 the previous day's baking was broken up in 
 water, and then the flour or meal was mixed 
 with this, thoroughly kneaded, and set aside 
 tintil the leaven had spread through the whole 
 mass. In the O.T. three different methods 
 of baking bread are spoken of. In 1 K. 19.6 
 we read, "And he looked, and, behold, there 
 was a cake baken on the coals." This is 
 descriptive of the method pursued by the Arabs 
 to-day. A fire of sticks, straw, and camel's 
 dung was lit over some flat stones. When the 
 latter were hot the ashes were removed, the thin 
 cake of bread put on the hot stones, and the 
 ashes replaced. In a few minutes these were 
 swept of! again, the bread turned, and the ashes 
 once more put on top. In the towns 
 regular bakeries were established, with a class 
 of professional bakers. But generally each 
 household had its own oven, a deep earthen jar, 
 at the bottom of which a fire was lighted. When 
 heated, the loaves were baked by being flattened 
 on the outside or inside of the oven. Ovens in 
 the country places were holes dug in the ground 
 and plastered with clay, which would become 
 burnt hard and smooth, presenting a good 
 
 heating surface for the reception of the cakes 
 of bread. 
 
 As a rule it was the women of the household 
 who were the breadmakers, but professional 
 bakers were always men. In Jerusalem they had 
 a quarter of the town to themselves (Jer. 37.21). 
 [LEAVENED, UNLEAVENED, CAKES.] 
 
 Bread* Daily. It has been supposed that the 
 use of the word " daily " in the Lord's Prayer 
 is a reference to the fact that the thin loaves 
 soon got dry and tasteless, and so had to be 
 made freshly each day. It was for this reason 
 that only just enough was baked for the family 
 consumption. Bread that was required for a 
 journey was in reality a species of biscuit. In 
 itself the word " daily " is difficult. For it 
 occurs only in the Lord's Prayer. It probably 
 means the " ever-coming," " continual " bread, 
 or perhaps bread for the " on-coming " day. 
 
 Bread, Shew. The shewbread consisted of 
 twelve loaves (one for each of the twelve 
 tribes), presented hot each Sabbath, and 
 placed on the golden table in the Tabernacle 
 (Ex. 25.30). It was a thank-offering, and 
 derived its name because it was shown, or 
 placed, before the face of the Lord continually. 
 The stale loaves were eaten lawfully only by the 
 priests, and only in the court of the sanctuary 
 (Lev. 24.9). An exception was made, however, 
 by Ahimelech when he supplied David and his 
 followers with the shewbread that had been 
 removed from before the Lord (1 Sam. 21.1-6 ; 
 Matt. 12.4). 
 
 Bread, Unleavened. Made with flour or meal 
 and water only, and baked in very thin cakes. 
 It was not to be cut when eaten, but broken with 
 the fingers (Matt. 14.19). [CAKE, BAKE, 
 OVEN, etc.] 
 
 Breastplate. A piece of embroidery about 
 ten inches square of very rich workmanship 
 (Ex. 39.8), which the high priest wore on his 
 breast. It was made of two pieces of the same 
 rich stuff, having a front and a lining, and 
 forming a kind of purse, or bag, in which, 
 according to the Rabbins, the Urim and 
 Thummim were enclosed (Lev. 8.8). The front 
 was set with twelve precious stones, on each of 
 which was engraved the name of one of the 
 twelve tribes. They were placed in four rows, 
 and divided from each other by the little golden 
 partitions in which they were set. The names 
 of the jewels were sardonyx, topaz, emerald, 
 carbuncle, sapphire, jasper, ligure, agate, 
 amethyst, chrysolite, onyx, beryl. 
 
 The breastplate was fastened at the four 
 corners, those on the top to the shoulders by 
 hooks and chains of gold ; those below to the 
 girdle of the ephod by two strings or ribands, 
 furnished also with hooks and rings. This 
 ornament was never to be severed from the 
 priestly garment ; and it was called " the 
 memorial " (Ear. 28. 29), being designed to remind 
 both the priest that he represented the tribes 
 whose names he bore on his breast, and God 
 of His covenant promises towards them. It 
 was also called the " breastplate of judgment " 
 
BREASTPLATE] 
 
 81 
 
 [BRICK, BRICK-KILN 
 
 (Ex. 28.15), because the high priest wore it 
 when he exercised his judicial capacity in 
 matters which concerned the whole nation. 
 [EPHOD, UEIM, THUMMIM.] 
 
 Breastplate. Defensive armour. [ARMS, 
 WEAPONS.] It is used figuratively in Isai. 
 59.17 and other passages. 
 
 Breeches. On certain occasions, especially 
 on the Day of Atonement, the officiating priest 
 had to wear breeches or drawers " from the 
 loins even unto the thighs" (Ex. 28.42) when 
 he entered the holy place. They were also 
 worn by the priests when sacrificing. 
 
 Brethren. In the N.T. not only those who 
 were connected by blood (as in Matt. 1.2), 
 but also Jewish hearers (Acts 2.29) ; and the 
 general body of believers in the Christian 
 Church (Rom. 1.13). [BROTHER.] 
 
 Brethren of the Lord. Were those who are 
 spoken of (e.g. Matt. 12.46, and 13.55) as our 
 Lord's " brethren " the children of Joseph and 
 Mary ? An opinion dating from the second 
 century at least regards them as Joseph's 
 children by a prior marriage. A later view repre- 
 sented them as cousins of our Lord. They may, 
 however, have been children born to Joseph and 
 Mary. In every place, except one, where they 
 are mentioned in the Gospels they are found 
 associated with Mary. If they were Joseph's 
 elder children, Jesus would not be the heir to 
 David's throne, according to our notions of 
 primogeniture; but there are many examples 
 in Scripture of younger sons succeeding to the 
 throne. It appears that they did not believe 
 in Jesus (John 7.5) for some time after the 
 appointment of the Apostles ; and therefore 
 they could not be of the number of the Twelve ; 
 from whom, indeed, they are particularly 
 distinguished when, at a later period, they are 
 found in company with them (Acts 1.14). They 
 must therefore not be confounded with the sons 
 of Alphaeus, although bearing the same names. 
 [JAMES, EPISTLE OP.] Further, the words 
 " son " and " mother " being used in this 
 passage (Matt. 13.55) in their natural and 
 primary sense, the words " brother " and 
 " sister " should be so taken, at least so far as 
 to exclude " cousin." That the sons of Alphaeus, 
 like our Lord's brethren, were named James, 
 Joses, and Judas, proves nothing, these names 
 being among the most common in Jewish 
 families. That these brethren were passed by 
 when Jesus committed His mother to John's 
 care is accounted for by the fact that they 
 did not believe on Him at the time. Their 
 conversion appears to have been brought about 
 by our Lord's appearance to James after His 
 resurrection (1 Cor. 15.7). 
 
 Bribe, Bribery. The giving of presents was, 
 and is, so universal a custom in the East 
 that it is sometimes difficult to say where the 
 compliment ended and the bribe began. In 
 Ex. 23.8, however, there is no doubt that the 
 gift was for the purpose of escaping punish- 
 ment, and so is more correctly described as a 
 bribe. Bribes were also made to a conqueror 
 
 (2 K. 16.8). The present to a prophet was a 
 fee, and had nothing of the nature of a bribe 
 about it (1 Sam. 9.7). In Ezek. 22.12, however, 
 we find false prophets receiving bribes. That 
 bribery was common amongst certain classes 
 of the people is shown in Job 15.34 where 
 " tabernacles of bribery " is evidently descrip- 
 tive of the corruption prevalent in the courts 
 of justice. 
 
 Brick, Brick-Kiln. The bricks used by the 
 Jews for building were usually sun-dried, with 
 burnt bricks for wet or marshy sites, and for 
 ornamentation. The art of brick-making was 
 known at the building of Babel (Gen. 11.3). 
 It was acquired by the Israelites during the 
 time they were forced to labour for the Egyptians 
 (Ex. 1.14). Stone had to be fetched from a 
 distance, but the clay for brick-making was near 
 at hand and plentiful. Thus the making of 
 bricks, both sun-dried and burnt, was a finished 
 art in Egypt; and when the rulers of that 
 land found themselves in the possession of a 
 vast slave population of foreigners, nothing 
 was more natural than that these slaves should 
 be put to brick-making. The hardships the 
 Hebrews endured, as narrated in Exodus, is 
 fully borne out by sculptures on Egyptian 
 monuments, which represent them as engaged 
 in this laborious work. The taskmaster with 
 his rod is also frequently depicted. 
 
 Chopped straw and rushes or any fibrous 
 refuse was used to give consistency and strength 
 to the Nile mud used in sun-dried brick-making. 
 As we know (Ex. 5.18), the Egyptians increased 
 the burden of the Hebrews by refusing to 
 supply them with the chopped straw necessary 
 to their craft. Thus they were compelled to 
 hunt about in the fields or farmyards for straw 
 themselves. As the same tale of bricks was 
 expected of them as before, the hardship of this 
 can easily be imagined. They were made to 
 serve " with rigour." 
 
 The bricks the Hebrews were forced to make 
 were about double the size of those in use 
 to-day. Of the bricks intended for public 
 buildings, each one was stamped with the 
 king's name, and sometimes the name of the 
 building Tor which it was intended. 
 
 Babylonia, like Egypt, was a stoneless region. 
 Here, in all probability, the making of bricks 
 first began, and the remains of numerous 
 buildings that have been examined bear testi- 
 mony to the great skill and taste shown by 
 the Babylonian brick-makers. The majority 
 of the bricks found bear the name of Nebuchad- 
 nezzar, and many might better be called tiles 
 rather than bricks (Ezek. 4.1), for they were 
 often decorated and enamelled. The ruins 
 of Nineveh have also yielded many finely 
 enamelled bricks. 
 
 Brick-kilns were used in Egypt, the bricks 
 made in these being smaller than the sun- 
 dried varieties, which latter varied from 20 to 
 10 in. in length, 9 to 6 in. wide, and 7 to 3 in. 
 in thickness. Jeremiah mentions one of these 
 kilns (Jer. 43.9) in Egypt, and in 2 Sam. 12.31 
 
BRIDE, BRIDEGROOM] 
 
 82 
 
 [BULRUSH 
 
 we find them in use in Palestine in David's time ; 
 while Isaiah (65.3) complains of the people build- 
 ing altars of brick instead of unhewn stone 
 as directed by the law (Ex. 20.25). [HOUSES, 
 BUILDING, POTTERY.] 
 
 Bride, Bridegroom. [BETROTHED, MAR- 
 RIAGE, and the next article.] 
 
 Bridechamber. In Palestine, a few days 
 before marriage both bride and bride- 
 groom shut themselves up in their respective 
 homes, during which period the bridegroom 
 receives visits from parties of his young 
 male friends. This is called the " nuptial 
 joy " feast, and the young men the " children 
 of the bridechamber " (Matt. 9.15), a fact 
 which casts light upon the words of our Lord, 
 " Can the children of the bridechamber fast, 
 while the bridegroom is with them ? " (Mk. 2.19). 
 
 Bridle. Some four or five different words 
 have been translated "bridle." In Ps. 39.1 
 the word used means " muzzle," and in other 
 passages " rein," " bit," " guard," and " bridle " 
 (Job 30.11, 41.13; Ps. 32.9; Prov. 26.3; 
 Jas. 1.26 ; Eev. 14.20). 
 
 Brier. In /sat. 55.13 the word " brier " 
 carries a reference to the nettle, which burns 
 when touched. Then in Ezek. 28.24 a prick- 
 ing plant, the thorn, is implied ; and in Eeb. 
 6.8 a leaf with sharp spines on its edges, though 
 exactly what this last is, is not known. The 
 word translated brier in Judg. 8.7, 16 tells of 
 a terrible form of punishment in use among the 
 ancients. This was the punishment of lacerating 
 the flesh of the victim with thorns or thistles, 
 from the latter of which the word " carding " 
 is derived (carduus, a thistle). 
 
 In other instances the reference is to prickly 
 wilderness plants, of which there are many 
 varieties in Palestine. [BRAMBLE, THORN.] 
 
 Brigandine. A coat of mail that covered 
 the body both in front and at the back. It con- 
 sisted of two parts fastened together at the sides 
 (Jer. 46.4 ; 51.3). It was so called in English 
 because used by brigands or robbers. This 
 was the " breastplate " of Rev. 9.9. 
 
 Brimstone. Burning stone: first used in 
 Gen. 19.24 in the account of the destruction 
 of Sodom and Gomorrah. Sulphur is plentiful 
 in the neighbourhood of the Dead Sea (Deut. 
 29.23). Some hot springs that were much 
 resorted to by the Romans, and where Herod 
 built elaborate baths, deposit so great a quantity 
 of sulphur that the baths have been entirely 
 covered from sight. The word brimstone does 
 not, however, always signify sulphur, but is 
 used in the sense of " fire," and is descriptive 
 of lightning, which leaves a sulphurous smell 
 behind it during a thunderstorm (Isai. 30.33). 
 
 Broidered. (Ex. 28.4). [EMBROIDERER.] 
 Broidered (R.V. braided) is used of the hair in 
 1 Tim. 2.9. 
 
 Brook. Generally where the word is used 
 it denotes an intermittent stream, dry in the 
 hot weather and full at other times a tcady. 
 However, this distinction is not always observed, 
 for the Euphrates, the Nile, and the Jordan 
 
 are sometimes called brooks. The chief brooks 
 mentioned are Arnon, Besor, Cherith, Eshcol, 
 Kidron, Kishon, Zered, the Willows, which 
 see. By the " brooks of defence " in Isai. 
 19.6 the Nile is meant. [RIVER, RIVER OF 
 EGYPT.] 
 
 Broom. [JUNIPER. ] 
 
 Brother. There are several senses in which 
 the word " brother " appears in the Scriptures. 
 It is often used for a near kinsman (Gen. 29.12) ; 
 for nephew (Gen. 14.16) ; for a fellow-tribesman 
 (2 Sam. 19.12) ; for one of the same race (Ex. 
 2.11) ; and metaphorically for any similarity 
 (Lev. 19.7; Job 30.29; Pro??. 18.9). It is also 
 used for a friend, a fellow- worker, a disciple 
 (Matt. 25.40). It was commonly employe,! 
 among Christians when speaking of each other 
 (Acts 9.17, 22.13). By the Jews " brother " 
 was reserved to distinguish an Israelite, but 
 Christ and His apostles extended the term to 
 all the world (Lie. 10.29, 30; 1 Cor. 5.11). 
 [BRETHREN, LOVE.] 
 
 Bruit. A word that occurs but twice in 
 the Bible ( Jer. 10.22 ; Nah. 3.19). It is an 
 old English word now seldom used, and means 
 rumour or noise. (See Shakespeare, Much 
 Ado, v. i. 65.) 
 
 Buckler. By this word is conveyed the 
 idea, sometimes (as in Ezek. 26.8) of armour, 
 but generally of a shield (2 Sam. 22.31). 
 [SHIELD, ARMS.] The English word is as old 
 as Chaucer. 
 
 Buildings. [DWELLINGS, HOUSES.] 
 
 Buk'ki. Proved of Jehovah : 1. Son of Abishua 
 and father of Uzzi. Fourth from Aaron in the 
 line of the high priests (1 Ch. 6.5; Ezra 
 7.4). 2. A prince of Dan, amongst the ten chosen 
 to apportion the land (Num. 34.22). 
 
 Bukki'ah. Proved of Jehovah: a Kohathite 
 Levite, of the sons of Heman; a musician 
 in the temple, and leader in the sixth course 
 (1 Ch. 25.4, 13). 
 
 Bui. The eighth month in the sacred year, 
 answering to our October or November. It 
 was the second month in the civil year, and 
 commenced from the first new moon in October. 
 The name is of Canaanitish origin, apparently 
 a name of a god, and was adopted by the 
 Israelites (1 K. 6.38). [MONTH.] 
 
 Bull, Bullock. The bullock was used in 
 Hebrew sacrifices and offerings. Bulls in the 
 rich pastures of Bashan, being well fed, were 
 strong and ferocious animals. Hence they are 
 chosen as symbols of cruel and persecuting 
 enemies (Ps. 22.12). 
 
 The " wild ox " in Isai. 51.20 is the antelope, 
 wild and untamable, but not too powerful to 
 be caught in nets. [BASHAN, Ox, ANTELOPE.] 
 
 Bulrush. A species of reed found on the 
 Nile and other Mediterranean rivers (Ex. 
 2.3, 5). It was called papyrus, from which our 
 word paper is derived, the inner bark being 
 peeled off and the edges gummed together with 
 its own juices and dried. The height of the 
 plant is from 12 to 15 feet. The stalks being 
 pliable are used for many purposes ropes. 
 
BUNAH] 
 
 83 
 
 [BURY, BURIAL 
 
 baskets, etc. That it could be interwoven very 
 closely is evident from the fact that the ark in 
 which Moses was exposed was made from 
 it. Even vessels of large capacity were made 
 from it and used for storing goods (Isai, 18.2). 
 The fact that the juicy roots were used for food, 
 and the upper part of the stalk for writing 
 upon when prepared, perhaps explains Jer. 
 15.16. [BOOK.] 
 
 In Isai. 58.5, as also in Matt. 11.7, the refer- 
 ence is clearly to a very tall cane that grows 
 quite freely in the country, and lies flat on 
 the ground during a strong wind, to rise 
 instantly the pressure is removed. 
 
 Bu'nah. Understanding: son of Jerah- 
 meel, of the family of Pharez (1 Ch. 2.25). 
 
 Bnn'ni. Meaning unknown : 1. A Levite of 
 Nehemiah's time, who taught the people the 
 Law of Moses (Neh. 9.4). 2. A Levite, an 
 overseer of the Temple, ancestor of Shemaiah 
 (Neh. 11.15). 3. A chief who, with Nehemiah, 
 sealed the covenant (Neh. 10.15). 
 
 Burden. The word in the prophets often 
 precedes a disastrous prophecy ; the burden 
 of Babylon (Isai. 21.1), the burden of Nineveh, 
 of Moab, of Egypt. But properly, as used by 
 the prophets of their utterance, it means an 
 utterance solemnly taken upon the lips, an 
 oracle. The ill-natured question the Jews 
 asked of Jeremiah, " What was the burden of 
 the Lord ? " was answered by him, "You are 
 that burden " (Jer. 23.33-38), the implication 
 being that they were insupportable to the 
 Lord. 
 
 Burial. [BURY.] 
 
 Burning Ague. Or fever, by which malarial 
 fever, frequent in Egypt and in the neighbour- 
 hood of the Jordan, is probably indicated 
 (Lev. 26.16). The " great fever " that fell upon 
 Simon's wife's mother at Capernaum was 
 probably of the same nature (Lk. 4.38). Some 
 writers think that the " thorn in the flesh " 
 which troubled Paul (2 Cor. 12.7) was the burn- 
 ing headache which follows an attack of 
 malarial fever. [DISEASES, AGUE, FEVER.] 
 
 Burning Bush. [BUSH.] 
 
 Burning Coal. Coal (charcoal) was the name 
 given to wood already burned and blackened 
 in the fore. [COAL.] 
 
 Burnt - Off ering. The original is derived 
 from a root signifying " to ascend," and was 
 applied to the offering that was wholly con- 
 sumed and ascended in the smoke to God. 
 A detailed account of burnt-offerings is found 
 in the opening chapters of Leviticus. They 
 were in the nature of expiatory offerings, i.e. 
 they were offered as atonements for sins com- 
 mitted by those sacrificing; they were also 
 thank-offerings ; and finally they were expres- 
 sions of adoration. 
 
 The altars for burnt-offerings were invari- 
 ably built of uncut stones, with the exception 
 of that one constructed to accompany the 
 Israelites in their wanderings, covered with 
 plates of brass. [Ai/TAB.] 
 
 Burnt-offerings, as well as "meat offerings" 
 
 and " peace offerings," were voluntary offerings 
 (unlike " sin " and " trespass " offerings, which 
 were compulsory) and had to be presented in a 
 uniform and systematic manner, as laid down in 
 Lev. 1-3. The first three express generally the 
 idea of homage, self-dedication, and thanks- 
 giving, the latter two that of propitiation. 
 
 The animals used for burnt- offer ings might 
 be from the flock or herd, or birds, but whether 
 young bullock, ram, or goat, or turtle-dove, 
 the animals were to be males, without blemish, 
 and were to be entirely burnt, their blood 
 sprinkled on the altar, and their skins given to 
 the priests for clothing. Burnt- offerings were 
 to be offered every morning and evening, every 
 Sabbath day, the first day of every month, the 
 seven days of unleavened bread, and the Day of 
 Atonement. The animal was presented by the 
 offerer, who laid his hands upon it, and afterwards 
 slew it, the priest doing the rest. Burnt-offerings 
 were made at the consecration of the priests 
 (Ex. 29.15), Levites, kings, sacred places 
 (1 K. 8.64) ; the purification of women (Lev. 
 12.6), Nazarites (Num. 6), lepers (Lev. 14.19) ; 
 before war, and with sounding of trumpets at 
 feasts. [ALTAR, SACRIFICES, OFFERINGS.] 
 
 Burnt Sacrifice. Alternative rendering of 
 burnt-offering (Lev. 1.3). 
 
 Bury, BuriaL With the Jews, burial followed, 
 as a rule, as soon as possible after death. From 
 the earliest times the favourite method of 
 burial, among the more wealthy, was entomb- 
 ment. Cremation was denounced as a heathen 
 practice and contrary to the spirit of the law. 
 The reason given for this preference was the 
 statement, " Dust thou art, and unto dust shalt 
 thou return." Their respect for orderliness and 
 decorum was so great that burial was accorded 
 even to the slain enemy and malefactor (1 K. 
 11.15; Deut. 21.23). Interment was the 
 only alternative to entombment, and was the 
 method adopted by the poorer sorts of people. 
 Great respect was paid to the dead, and to 
 disturb a grave was looked upon as a barbarity, 
 only justifiable in the case of those who had 
 themselves outraged religion (2 K. 23.16, 17 ; 
 Jer. 8.1, 2). 
 
 Owing to the rugged nature of the soil of 
 Palestine, caves were numerous, and were natur- 
 ally used as tombs. In these caves, enlarged 
 and otherwise altered to serve as tombs, the 
 bodies of the dead were laid to rest with simple 
 rites and little ceremony. Jacob and Joseph, 
 who died in Egypt, are the only known instances 
 hi which the elaborate Egyptian methods 
 were used. These cave or hillside sepulchres 
 were often prepared in the owner's lifetime, and 
 are frequently to be found in private gardens 
 by the roadside, but always outside the cities 
 and towns. It seems likely that none but kings 
 and prophets were buried in towns (1 Sam. 25.1 ; 
 1 K. 2.10; 2 K. 10.35 ; 2 Ch. 16.14). Families 
 clung to their ancestral burial-places with great 
 devotion and tenacity, and it was considered an 
 indignity to be deprived of burial in the family 
 vault (1 K. 13.22). Similarly it was a mark 
 
BURY, BURIAL] 
 
 84 
 
 [BUTTER 
 
 of a profound feeling towards a person not of 
 one's family to wish to be buried with him 
 (Ruth 1.17 ; 1 K. 13.31), or to give him a 
 place in one's own sepulchre (Gen. 23.6). 
 
 The common people were buried in cemeteries 
 outside the city walls. One such public burial- 
 place is mentioned in 2 K. 23.6, where we find 
 " the graves of the children of the people " 
 situated in the valley of the Kedron, outside 
 Jerusalem. Such was also the " potter's 
 field " (Matt. 27.7). In these cemeteries the 
 bodies were interred in pits, with no other 
 covering than the grave-clothes. Neither 
 stream of water nor public road was allowed 
 to cross the burial-places, nor were sheep per- 
 mitted to graze there. It was the practice to 
 visit the graves (John 11.31), partly to mourn, 
 and partly to pray ; and it was unlawful to 
 eat, drink, read, or even to walk purposelessly 
 among them. 
 
 The bodies of cliildren of less than a month 
 were carried to the burying by their mothers, 
 all others being borne on biers, as was the 
 case at the funeral at Nain. It is an interest- 
 ing fact that most of the burials mentioned in 
 the O.T. are the obsequies of patriarchs, 
 kings, prophets, or other prominent persons ; 
 while in the N.T. it is those of a private 
 station in life whose burials are recorded. 
 But in both cases the " manner of the Jews " 
 included the use of spices, where they could be 
 afforded (2 Ch. 16.14). The " great burning " 
 made for King Asa is descriptive of the burning 
 at his funeral of bed, furniture, and other 
 articles used by him. 
 
 In the public cemeteries it was obligatory that 
 eighteen inches' space should intervene between 
 one grave and another. The caves, or rock-hewn 
 sepulchres, consisted of an ante-chamber, in 
 which the bier was deposited, and an inner or 
 lower cave, in which the bodies were deposited, 
 in a recumbent position, in niches hollowed 
 out of the rock. These abodes of the dead 
 were usually six feet long, nine feet wide, and 
 ten feet high. Here there were niches for 
 eight bodies. This was the general form ; 
 there were larger and smaller sepulchres (but 
 see TOMBS). The entrance to this sort of 
 sepulchre was closed by a large stone, in the 
 shape of a large grindstone, rolling in grooves, 
 or by a door. This structure of the tombs 
 will explain how it was that the women, coming 
 early to Christ's grave, had been astonished in 
 finding the " very great stone " rolled away, 
 and then, when they entered the outer cave, 
 were affrighted to see what seemed a young 
 man sitting on the right side (Mk. 16.4, 5 ; 
 John 20.1-12). 
 
 It was the office of the next-of-kin to preside 
 over the whole burial function, but a company 
 of public buriers, originated at a time of urgent 
 necessity, had become customary in N.T. times 
 (Acts 5.6, 10). Coffins were but seldom used, 
 and if used were open ; but fixed stone sarco- 
 phagi were common in tombs of rank. 
 
 So long as the body was actually in the house, 
 
 it was forbidden to eat or drink or to put on 
 phylacteries. All necessary food was prepared 
 and eaten if possible outside. [MOURNING, 
 DEATH, TOMB, GRAVE.] 
 
 Burying-Place. [BURY.] 
 
 Bush. Several words are translated bush. 
 The " burning bush " of Ex. 3.2 implies a 
 dense bush, such as a bramble, with thorns, 
 though the bramble is not found on Mount 
 Sinai. It is therefore thought more than prob- 
 able that the acacia bush is indicated by the 
 'Hebrew word used in the account of the 
 " burning bush." In Gen. 21.15 the word 
 used implies any low-growing and bushy shrub ; 
 while in Isai. 7.19 bushes growing near the 
 water are intended (Lk. 6.44; Acts 7.30). 
 [THORN, BRAMBLE.] 
 
 Bushel The Greek word translated bushel 
 (Matt. 5.15) is the same as the measure or 
 seah (Gen. 18.6; Matt. 13.33 ; Lk. 13.21), which 
 was one-third of an ephah, or twenty pints. 
 The Roman bushel was of very nearly the same 
 capacity as the English peck. 
 
 Butler. Bottler : an officer of the king's 
 household. In Neh. 1.11 he is called the cup- 
 bearer (Gen. 40.1-13). The service rendered 
 by the butler, or cupbearer, was personal, for 
 he had not only to supervise certain table 
 arrangements, but it was also his duty to hand 
 the wine-cup to his master. In primitive 
 times it was a guarantee that the wine was 
 not poisoned. 
 
 Butter. Butter-making in the East is rather 
 laborious, and when done the finished article 
 is by no means appetising until it has been 
 filtered and clarified. Women do the churning. 
 A goatskin " bottle " is half-filled with milk 
 and tied by the neck to a fastening in the wall. 
 It is then lustily jerked backwards and for- 
 wards until the butter sets. Sometimes two 
 women will take the skin between them, 
 alternately beating it, as if fighting with each 
 other, or the skin is rocked on the woman's 
 knees as a child is hushed to sleep, until the 
 butter is separated from the whey. When this 
 takes place it is taken out, boiled or melted, 
 and then poured into smaller bottles. In 
 winter this samen, as it is called, has a curdled 
 appearance ; in summer it is mere oil. Some- 
 times it is clarified and then stored away in. 
 jars, taking rank as an important article of 
 commerce. 
 
 When Abraham entertained the three angels, 
 and, with other refreshment, gave them" butter," 
 we are to suppose that he really offered them 
 a most refreshing drink of sour-milk or of 
 butter-milk (" leban "), still preferred to new 
 milk by the Arabs. The words of Job 29.6, 
 " I washed my steps with butter," are 
 intended to give an idea of great wealth ; 
 but they indicate a pretty general method of 
 churning, viz. treading the filled goatskin 
 with the feet until the butter arrived. Again, 
 the " butter " of Judg. 5.25 was a preparation 
 of butter or cream served as a delicacy. Another 
 great delicacy, indeed emblematic of extreme 
 
BUYER] 
 
 85 
 
 [CAIAPHAS 
 
 happiness,was made by mixing honey with butter 
 (Isai. 7.15, 22). [MILK, CREAM, CHEESE.] 
 
 The method of making butter in the East 
 explains the conduct of Jael when she opened 
 a bottle of milk. In the Song of Deborah, 
 the statement is repeated, " He asked water, 
 and she gave him milk ; she brought 
 forth butter in a lordly dish " (Judg. 
 4.19, 5.25). The word here rendered butter 
 is properly cream, not simple cream, but cream 
 produced by simmering fresh sheep's milk 
 over a slow fire. Jael therefore gave Sisera 
 sour-milk diluted with water to drink, and a 
 " lordly," that is, rich dish prepared with 
 butter or cream. 
 
 Buyer. [TRADE AND COMMERCE.] 
 
 Buz. (?) Contempt: I. Second son of Milcah 
 and Nahor the brother of Abraham (Gen. 22.21). 
 His family settled in Arabia Petraea (Jer. 25.23). 
 Elihu was a Buzite, one of Job's comforters, 
 and had his home in this region (Job 32.2). 
 This name is interesting because it supplies 
 another instance of a peculiar Jewish custom to 
 give to relatives rhyming names, thus Huz and 
 Buz, Ishua and Ishui (Gen. 46.17) ; Uzziel and 
 Uzzi (1 Ch. 7.7). It is said that so fond are 
 the Arabs of this rhyming custom that they 
 even call Cain and Abel, Kabil and Habil. 
 2. A Gadite (1 Ch. 5.14). 
 
 Bu'zi. (?) Contemned of Jehovah : father of 
 Ezekiel the prophet (Ezek. 1.3). 
 
 Buzite. [Buz 1.] 
 
 S2 
 
 line 
 can 
 buil 
 and 
 
 Hoi 
 
 Cab. Measure containing about three pints 
 (2 K. 6.25). 
 
 Cab'bon. A town in Judah (Josh. 15.40). 
 
 Cabin. (Jer. 37.16) Jeremiah's dungeon was 
 probably a deep pit (see 38.6) in the midst of 
 the inner court of the house, having vaulted 
 recesses round it near the bottom, in which the 
 prisoners were lodged. [PRISON.] 
 
 Ca'bul. Unpleasing: 1. Now Kabul. Town 
 eight or nine miles south-east of Accho (Akka), 
 on the confines of the plain ; one of the land- 
 marks on the boundary of Asher (Josh. 19.27). 
 2. The name was given by Hiram, king of 
 Tyre, to the twenty cities in the land of Galilee 
 given to him by Solomon, which " pleased him 
 not " (1 K. 9.12, 13). 
 
 Caesar. In the N.T. the Roman Emperor. 
 To him the Jews paid tribute, and to him those 
 Jews who were " Roman citizens " had the 
 right of appeal. It was the family name of Julius 
 Caesar, and was adopted by successive emperors 
 as a title. Four " Caesars " are referred to in 
 the N.T. : Augustus (Lk. 2.1), Tiberius (Matt. 
 22.17 and parallels; John 19.1 2), Claudius (Acts 
 17.7), and Nero (Acts 25; Phil. 4.22). 
 
 Caesar's Household. The entire staff of 
 officials and servitors, includ'ng the slaves. 
 The " saints " of " Caesar's household " (Phil. 
 4.22) were probably among the humbler servants. 
 Some who had been converted before Paul's 
 arrival in Rome are mentioned in Rom. 16. 
 
 Caesarea. (Not to be confounded with 
 Caesarea Philippi. ) Now Kaisarieh, a city on the 
 shore of the Mediterranean, about twenty-one 
 
 iles south of Carmel, just above the boundary 
 between Samaria and Galilee, on the great 
 caravan routes from Tyre to Egypt. It was 
 built by Herod the Great with much beauty 
 
 : magnificence, and named by him Caesarea 
 lonour of the Roman Emperor. It was the 
 nan metropolis of Juduea, and olVu ial 
 residence of the Herodian kings, and of Felix, 
 Festus, and other Roman procurators. There 
 Agrippa I., grandson of Herod the Great, 
 
 was smitten with a loathsome fatal disease 
 (Acts 12.19; 23.23; 25.1, 4, 6, 13; 12.21-23). 
 Caesarea was the home of Philip the evangelist 
 and deacon (Acts 8.40; 21.8); the port of 
 departure to Tarsus when Paul escaped from 
 Damascus ( Acts 9.30) ; the residence of Cornelius, 
 the Roman centurion, and scene of his conver- 
 sion (Acts 10.1, 24 ; 11.11) ; the port of landing 
 when Paul returned from his second and third 
 missionary tours (Acts 18.22 ; 21.8) ; when he 
 went up to Jerusalem, seventy miles ( Acts 21.15) ; 
 whither he was brought back as a prisoner, and 
 where he was kept in bonds two years by Felix 
 before he was sent by Festus to Rome (Acts 
 23.23, 33; 24.27; 25.4). Caesarea possessed 
 a large and splendid harbour. Conspicuous 
 from the sea was a temple dedicated to Caesar 
 and to Rome, and containing colossal statues 
 of the emperor of the imperial city. 
 
 Caesarea Philippi. (i.e. " Philip's Caesarea," 
 so called to distinguish it from Caesarea on the 
 coast), now Banias. A town built in a pictur- 
 esque position at the base of the south ridge of 
 Mount Hermon, overlooking the rich plain of 
 the Upper Jordan (Huleh). Here was one of 
 the chief sources of the river. The place was 
 anciently known as Paneas (from the god Pan), 
 but when it became part of the territory of 
 Philip, tetrarch of Trachonitis, he enlarged 
 and adorned it, and called it Caesarea in 
 honour of the emperor. It was included in 
 our Lord's journeys ; there Peter acknow- 
 ledged His Messiahship (Matt. 16.13-16 ; Mk. 
 8.27-29) ; and there our Lord probably ascended 
 the Mount of Transfiguration, one of the peaks 
 of Hermon (Matt. 17.1 ; Mk. 9.2). 
 
 Cage. The term is found in Jer. 5.27, and 
 indicates a trap in which decoy birds were used 
 to attract their wild relatives. In Ilev. 18.2 the 
 word rendered " cage " is more properly a 
 prison. The R.V. has " hold," marg. " prison." 
 
 Cai'aphas. Son-in-law of Annas (which 
 see) and high priest from 18 A.D. to 36 A.D. 
 an unusually long term of office. After the 
 
CAIN] 
 
 86 
 
 [CALVARY 
 
 raising of Lazarus, he uttered before the San- 
 hedrim the unconscious prediction tbat Jesus 
 " should die for the nation " (John 11.50). He 
 was privy to the plot for seizure of our Lord 
 by stratagem (Matt. 26.3). After examination 
 before Annas, Jesus was sent bound to Caiaphas 
 (John 18.24), to whom He confessed that He 
 was the Son of God. Caiaphas thereupon 
 demanded sentence of death (Matt. 26.66). 
 Caiaphas was also at the examination of the 
 apostles Peter and John (Acts 4.6). 
 
 Cain. Meaning unknown ; possibly smith, 
 but connected in Gen. 4.1 with qanah, acquire: 
 
 1. Eldest son of Adam and Eve, who, in a fit 
 of jealousy, roused by the reception of bis 
 brother's sacrifice and the rejection of his 
 own, on account of the temper in which it 
 was offered, murdered Abel. He went into 
 exile, married, and settled in the land of 
 Nod. The words, " The Lord set a mark 
 upon Cain " (Gen. 4.15), are better rendered, 
 as in the R.V., " The Lord appointed a sign for 
 Cain, lest any finding him should smite him." 
 Cain founded the first city (named after his 
 son Enoch). Of his descendants, Lamech 
 instituted polygamy ; Jabal introduced the 
 nomadic life ; Jubal invented musical instru- 
 ments ; and Tubal-cain was the first smith. 
 The N.T. references are Eeb. 11.4; 1 John 
 3.12; Jude 11. 2. A city in the hill-country 
 of Judah ( Josh. 15.57), now Yuktn. 
 
 Cai'nan, Ke'nan. 1. Son of Enos, aged 
 seventy years when he begat Mahalaleel 
 his son. He died aged nine hundred and 
 ten (Gen. 5.9-14; 1 Ch. 1.2; Lk. 3.37). 
 
 2. Son of Arphaxad and father of Sala (Lk. 
 3.35, 36). 
 
 Ca'lah. Firmness : one of the most ancient 
 cities of Assyria, founded by Asshur (Gen. 10.11), 
 identified with Nimrud, the ruins of which are 
 situated about twenty miles south of Konyunjtk 
 (Nineveh). Tiglath-pileser, Esarhaddon, and 
 other monarchs erected at Calah royal build- 
 ings of considerable extent and great magni- 
 ficence. The Assyrian remains in the British 
 Museum are, for the most part, from this 
 Calah. 
 
 Cal'amus. A sweet-smelling reed brought 
 from the East, used in compounding the 
 boly anointing oil. It came from Arabia or 
 India (Ex. 30.23 ; Cant. 4.14 ; Ezek. 27.19). 
 
 Cal'coL -A man of Judah, son or descendant 
 of Zerah (I Ch. 2.6). Probably identical with 
 Chakol, one of the four wise men whom Solomon 
 excelled in wisdom (1 K. 4.31). 
 
 Caldron. A vessel for boiling flesh for 
 either ceremonial or domestic use (1 Sam. 
 2.14 ; 2 Ch. 35.13 ; Job 41.20 ; Mic. 3.3). 
 
 Ca'leb. Son of Jephunneh (Num. 13.6). 
 One of the twelve spies who, one for each tribe, 
 were sent to search the land of Canaan in the 
 second year of the Exodus. Caleb represented 
 the tribe of Judah. He and Joshua were the 
 only two who brought back good reports, and 
 this so displeased the people, who were anxious 
 to find an excuse for not attempting the con- 
 
 quest of Canaan, that they narrowly escaped 
 being stoned to death. God punished the 
 obduracy of the people by decreeing that of 
 all those who were twenty years of age and 
 upwards, only two, Caleb and Joshua, would 
 be permitted to enter the promised land. 
 When Caleb was eighty-five years old he 
 claimed possession of the land of the Anakim, 
 Kirjath-arba or Hebron, and the neighbouring 
 hill-country (Josh. 14). He drove out the 
 three sons of Anak from Hebron, and gave his 
 daughter Achsah to his younger brother Othniel 
 as a reward for taking Kirjath-sephir (i.e. 
 Debir) ( Josh. 15.14-19 ; Judg. 1.11-15). It is 
 believed that Caleb was a Canaanite by birth, 
 the tribe of the Kenezites to which he belonged 
 (Josh. 14.6) being incorporated into the tribe 
 of Judah (Josh. 14.14.) 
 
 Caleb, The South of. The portion of the 
 south country of Palestine, occupied by Caleb 
 and his descendants (1 Sam. 30.14). 
 
 Caleb-Ephratah. A place near Bethlehem- 
 Judah, supposed to have been named after 
 Caleb and ius wife Ephratah (1 Ch. 2.24). 
 
 Calf. Aaron, during the absence of Moses 
 on the mount, made a molten calf or young 
 bull out of the golden earrings of the people, 
 at their demand, and this the people wor- 
 shipped (Ex. 32.4). Moses, when he returned, 
 burnt the calf and ground it to powder. By 
 this calf and the calves which Jeroboam set 
 up (1 K. 12) the Jews intended a symbol of 
 Jehovah. They " likened their Maker to the 
 graved ox " and so broke the second command- 
 ment, not the first. But it is to be noted that 
 the offerings, dancings, and rejoicings practised 
 before Aaron's calf were similar to those which 
 the Israelites must hare witnessed in honour 
 of Mnevis, one of the sacred bulls of Egypt. 
 The sins of Aaron and Jeroboam rapidly cul- 
 minated in grosser forms of idolatry. Hosea 
 is full of denunciations against the Northern 
 worship of the calves (Eos. 8.5,6; 10.5), and 
 mentions the curious custom of kissing them 
 (13.2). The calf at Dan was carried away by 
 Tiglath-pileser, and that of Bethel ten years 
 after, by "the king of Assyria," probably 
 Sargon (2 K. 15.29; 17.3). The expression, 
 to render " the calves of our lips " (Hos. 14.2) 
 means, " We will render to Thee sacrifices of 
 our h'ps " (i.e. the tribute of thanksgiving and 
 praise), or " We will offer to Thee the sacri- 
 fices which our lips have vowed." " Calves " 
 is used as symbolical of sacrifice. 
 
 Cal'neh, Cal'no. One of the cities of Nimrod 
 (Gen. 10.10), taken by Sargon, the Assyrian 
 (Isai. 10.9 ; Amos 6.2). 
 
 Calvary. Three of the Evangelists preserve 
 the Aramaic name of the place where our Lord 
 was crucified, Golgotha (a skull), and add the 
 interpretation, " the place of a skull " (Matt. 
 27.33; Mk. 15.22; John 19.17). Luke omits 
 this, and says more simply, " They came unto the 
 place which iscalled The Skull" (Lk. 23.33, R.v.); 
 the A.V. adopts the Latin term for " skull " 
 (calvaria) used in the Vulgate, and treats it as 
 
CAMEL] 
 
 87 
 
 [CANAANITES 
 
 a proper name, " The place which is called 
 Calvary." It follows that the name which 
 has gathered round it such sacred associations 
 is found in the N.T. only in the A.V. text and 
 R.V. marg. of Lk. 23.33. [GOLGOTHA.] 
 
 Camel. The most valuable of all animals in 
 the desert regions of the East. Camels served 
 for riding (1 Sam. 30.17), for carrying burdens, 
 and for draught (Isai. 21.7). Small camels are 
 loaded up to 800 lb., large ones to half a ton. 
 With this load they will travel thirty to thirty- 
 five miles a day at a uniform space of about 
 three miles an hour. A valuable property of the 
 camel is its power of subsisting without food 
 or drink for comparatively long periods without 
 injury. They have been known to travel as 
 many as ten days without water. The Arabian 
 camel is furnished with a series of water-cells 
 lining the first stomach, which are capable of 
 carrying as much as a gallon and a half of water 
 as a reserve. The " bunch " or hump on the 
 back is composed of fatty cells, and is a reserve 
 of food fat and plump when the animal is well 
 fed and lightly worked, shrivelling to nothing 
 after hard work and bad feeding. Camel's 
 flesh was forbidden as food, because, though 
 the camel chews the cud, it does not divide 
 the hoof (Lev. 11.4 ; Deut. 14.7). The milk is 
 much used. Jacob took a present, including 
 thirty milch camels, for Esau (Gen. 32.15). 
 The camel's hair woven into cloth was used 
 for making saddle-bags, tents, and the simple 
 clothing of the desert. John the Baptist was 
 clothed with camel's hair, the dress of the 
 prophet (Matt. 3.4; Mk. 1.6; cf. 2 K. 1.8, 
 R.V. marg. ; Zech. 13.4). Of the camel's skin 
 are made tents, shields, harness, and trunks. 
 The camel's furniture (Gen. 31.34) is described 
 as consisting of a huge wooden framework or 
 saddle upon and round the hump, over which 
 carpet and woollen cloth is fastened. On the 
 top of the pile, men sit cross-legged, but women 
 and children are carried in cages or light wooden 
 framework, slung as panniers on either side 
 of the saddle. The riding camels ar fre- 
 quently decorated with bands of bright- coloured 
 cloth or leather, on which are stitched cowrie 
 bells, little bells, and sometimes silver crescent- 
 shaped ornaments (Judg. 8.21). The proverbial 
 expression, "It is easier for a camel to go 
 through the eye of a needle" (Matt. 19.24) is 
 quite in Eastern fashion : there is no sufficient 
 evidence either that the word here rendered 
 " camel " really means " rope," or that the 
 term " eye of a needle " was applied to a 
 small postern gate. 
 
 Ca'mon. Standing-place : a city of Gilead, 
 where Jair the judge was buried (Judg. 10.5). 
 
 Camp. [ENCAMPMENT, ENTRENCHMENTS.] 
 
 Camphire. The plant referred to in Cant. 
 1.14 and 4.13 (R.V. henna) is the henna 
 plant, universally esteemed in the East for the 
 fragrance of its flowers and the colouring pro- 
 perty of its leaves. It is a shrub six or eight feet 
 in height, with pale green foliage and clusters 
 of white and yellow blossoms which emit a 
 
 delightful perfume. It is still to be found 
 near the Dead Sea at Engedi, as in Solomon's 
 time. In the East, houses are perfumed with 
 it, the blossoms are presented to guests as a 
 marked compliment, and women use the henna 
 flower as a personal ornament. It is used as a 
 dye for the hands, feet, and nails. The leaves 
 are dried and pounded and made into a paste, 
 which, when applied to the skin, produces an 
 orange or reddish tint. No reference to this 
 practice occurs in Scripture, unless the phrase 
 in Deut. 21.12, " Pare her nails," may bear that 
 meaning. 
 
 Ca'na of Galilee. A village or town memor- 
 able as the scene of Christ's first miracle ( John 
 2.1-11 ; 4.46), as well as of a subsequent one 
 (John 4.54), and also as the native place of the 
 Apostle Nathanael (John 21.2). No one of these 
 passages affords a clue to the situation of Cana. 
 All we can gather is, that it was not very far 
 from Capernaum ( John 2.12 ; 4.46). Recent 
 investigation tends to identify it with Khurbet 
 Kana, some nine miles north of Nazareth, 
 rather than Kefr Kenna, only some three miles 
 north-east. 
 
 Ca'naan. Low, flat : 1. The fourth son of 
 Ham (Gen. 10.6 ; 1 Ch. 1.8), the progenitor of 
 the Phoenicians (Zidon) and of the various 
 nations who before the Israelite conquest 
 peopled the seacoast of Palestine, and generally 
 the whole of the country westward of the Jordan 
 (Gen. 10.15). A curse was pronounced on 
 Canaan for the disrespectful conduct of Ham 
 towards his father Noah (Gen. 9.20-27). 2. 
 The name Canaan is sometimes employed 
 for " the land of Canaan." 
 
 Canaan, The land of. In Zeph. 2.5 and Matt. 
 15.22 the meaning is restricted to the low 
 maritime plains of Philistia and Phoenicia, 
 and this, as its derivation shows (low), is its 
 proper significance ; but its application was 
 extended to all the country west of the Jordan 
 and the Dead Sea, and between these waters 
 and the Mediterranean. The language of 
 Canaan (Isai. 19.18), that is Phoenician, was 
 virtually identical with Hebrew. 
 
 Canaanite, The. The name wrongly given 
 by the A.V. (following a faulty text) to Simon, 
 one of the apostles, in Matt. 10.4 ; Mk. 3.18. 
 The R.V. there has " Canansean," a name which 
 has no connexion with Canaan or Cana, but is 
 the Aramaic equivalent of the Greek word " Ze- 
 lotes " (Lk. 6.15 ; Acts 1.13), which the R.V 
 translates " the Zealot." Either he was a 
 member of the Jewish sect of the Zealots, 
 the extremists in repudiation of Roman 
 dominion, or the name was given to suit his 
 fiery zeal (cf. Acts 22.3 ; Gal. 1.14, where the 
 same word " Zelotes " is used). 
 
 Ca'naanites, The. The designation is used 
 in a narrow and in a wider sense. It implies 
 either the tribe which inhabited a particular 
 locality of the land west of the Jordan before 
 the conquest ; or the people who inhabited 
 generally the whole of that country. To take 
 the restricted signification first. The low- 
 
CANDACE] 
 
 88 [CANON OF HOLY SCRIPTURE 
 
 lands of the western country included the 
 plains lying between the shore of the Mediter- 
 ranean and the foot of the hills of Benjamin, 
 Judah, and Ephraim, the plain of Philistia 
 on the south, that of Sharon between Jaffa 
 and Carmel, the great plain of Esdraelon in the 
 rear of the bay of Akka, the plain of Phoenicia, 
 containing Tyre, Sidon, and all the other cities 
 of that nation, and, lastly, the Jordan valley, 
 which extended from the Sea of Gennesareth 
 to the south of the Dead Sea, about one 
 hundred and twenty miles in length and from 
 eight to fourteen miles wide. The seats 
 of the Canaanite tribe were on the sea- 
 shore from Sidon to Gaza, and thence as far as 
 the south end of the Dead Sea (Gen. 10.18,19). 
 The chariots, which formed a prominent part 
 of their armies ( Josh. 17.16 ; Judg. 1.19, 4.3), 
 could be driven nowhere but in the lowlands. 
 These plains were the richest parts of the 
 country. The wider application of the term, 
 Canaanites, includes all the non-Israelite in- 
 habitants of the land in the days before the 
 conquest. 
 
 Canda'ce. The royal title (cf. Pharaoh, 
 Ccesar) borne by the Queens of Ethiopia 
 (Acts 8.27). 
 
 Candlestick. Moses was commanded to 
 make one for the Tabernacle, as described 
 in Ex. 25.31-37, 37.17-24. The candlestick 
 or, rather, lamp-stand, with its appurten- 
 ances, is calculated to have been worth 
 5076, exclusive of workmanship. The candle- 
 stick of Moses was a type of the light of 
 the law, as, similarly, candlesticks are made 
 types of the Spirit, of the Church, of witnesses 
 (Zeck. 4 ; Rev. 2.5, 11.4). The candlestick 
 was placed on the south side of the first apart- 
 ment of the Tabernacle, this side being sym- 
 bolical of the light of the sunny region of 
 heaven. In Solomon's Temple, instead of the 
 Tabernacle candlestick, there were ten golden 
 candlesticks similarly embossed, five on the 
 right and five on the left (1 K. 7.49 ; 2 Ch. 4.7). 
 They were taken to Babylon (Jer. 52.19). 
 
 When our Lord cried, " I am the Light of 
 the world " (John 8.12), the allusion was prob- 
 ably suggested by the two large golden chande- 
 liers, lighted in the court of the women during 
 the Feast of Tabernacles, which illuminated all 
 Jerusalem. 
 
 Canker. Modern "cancer." 
 
 Cankerworm. The larva or caterpillar stage 
 of locust (Joel 1.4, 2.25 ; Nah. 3.15, 16). After 
 the winged locusts have passed on, says Canon 
 Tristram, the young larvae appear, and con- 
 sume all that has escaped the former. 
 
 Canon of Holy Scripture. The application of 
 the term Canon to the sum of the Books con- 
 stituting the Scriptures of the O.T. or N.T. does 
 not appear till the long process of determining 
 the contents of the N.T. reached its final stage, 
 toward the close of the fourth century. But 
 the idea was derived from the collection of the 
 Je \vish sacred Scriptures, already fixed and 
 complete at the beginning of the Christian era. 
 
 Canon, a Greek word, with cognates in Hebrew 
 and other languages, means properly a straight 
 rod for measuring or ruling : hence, in many 
 connections, that which rules or regulates. It 
 is used by St. Paul in Gal. 6.16, "As many 
 as walk by this rule, peace be on them " 
 (see also 2 Cor. 10.13, 15, 16). Such usage 
 might suggest that the term was applied to the 
 Scriptures as constituting the rule of faith and 
 conduct, i.e. as ruling or regulating. The 
 evidence, however, points another way. The 
 " canon " of Scripture is not that which rules, 
 but that which is ruled : the books which are 
 admitted (in contrast with those rejected as 
 apocryplial) are declared by Church authority 
 to be Divine writings. To canonise a book was 
 to seal it with Church approval : the book 
 became thereby canonical, and the closed col- 
 lection of the approved books formed the 
 Canon. But though these words belong to the 
 decrees of Church Councils, the decrees were 
 only the formal ratification of decisions long 
 since arrived at, in part instinctively by the 
 collective Christian consciousness, in part 
 through the spiritual insight and influence of 
 individual leaders of the Church. It is in that 
 spontaneous judgment, inspired and directed of 
 God, that we find the real spiritual authority 
 which determined the Canon of Jewish and 
 Christian Scriptures, an authority which decrees 
 of Councils might accept and endorse, but could 
 neither strengthen nor change. 
 
 A. The Canon of the O.T.L Its Contents. 
 The English O.T. contains thirty-nine books, 
 grouped according to subject matter (law, five; 
 history, twelve; poetry, fire; prophecy,seventeen). 
 This arrangement comes from the Latin Vulgate, 
 which in turn is based upon the Greek Septuagint, 
 so called from its traditional seventy translators, 
 and generally referred to as the LXX. The 
 Hebrew Scriptures, however, comprise only 
 twenty-four books, the groups 1 and 2 Sam., 
 1 and 2 K., 1 and 2 Ch., Ezra and Neh., and the 
 twelve " Minor Prophets " being each reckoned 
 as a single book (a later enumeration reduced 
 this to twenty-two, evidently to correspond with 
 the number of letters in the Hebrew alphabet, 
 by linking Ruth with Judges, Lam. with Jer.). 
 
 Moreover, the Hebrew grouping is different, 
 and is probably significant for the history of the 
 O.T. Canon. 
 
 1. Law (Torah) Gen., Ex., Lev., Num., Deut. 
 
 2. Prophets (Nebhiim). 
 Former. Josh., Judg., Sam., K. 
 
 Latter. Isai., Jer., Ezck., and the " Twelve." 
 
 3. Writings (Kethubhim, in the LXX 
 Hagiographa, or sacred writings). 
 
 a. Poetical Books : Ps., Prov., Job. 
 1. Mcgittoth (Rolls, read severally at the 
 five great festivals) : Ruth, Cant., Eccles., 
 Lam., Esth. 
 
 e. Dan., Ezra and Neh., Chronicles. 
 
 It will be noted that only the first division, 
 
 the " Law," corresponds with the English 
 
 grouping. The " Prophets " include four 
 
 historical books, and the very title of the third 
 
CANON OF HOLY SCRIPTURE] 89 [CANON OF HOLY SCRIPTURE 
 
 division, the " Writings," suggests the mis- 
 cellaneous character of its contents. 
 
 The Canon of the LXX, the version which, in 
 general, is quoted by the N.T. writers, contains 
 fourteen books in addition to those of the Hebrew 
 Scriptures. Tliis surplusage of the Greek over 
 the Hebrew constitutes the " Apocrypha," books 
 which " the Church doth read for example of life 
 and instruction of manners ; but yet doth it not 
 apply them to establish any doctrine " (Article 
 vi). 
 
 2. 7/5 History. The date of the Canon must be 
 clearly distinguished from the date of the 
 literature which it contains. A book was, of 
 course, in existence before it could be " canon- 
 ised," and might have been for many ages the 
 prized possession of the nation. Moreover, the 
 books of the O.T. bear evident marks of having 
 been compiled and edited, especially in their 
 incorporation of earlier literature, the primitive 
 records in song, law, history, prophecy, of the 
 national life and faith. A long literary history 
 often lies behind the book as it was finally 
 received into the Canon. But our concern now 
 is with the formation of the Canon itself : the 
 evidence is scanty and fragmentary, and it 
 must suffice to indicate the leading facts. 
 
 (1) The earliest mention of a look regarded as 
 of Divine authority belongs to the year 621 B.C., 
 thirty-five years before the Exile. The impres- 
 sive story of the rinding of the " book of the law " 
 in the eighteenth year of king Josiah, of the 
 effect produced on king and people, and of the 
 reforms which followed, is told in 2 K. 22 and 23. 
 From indications in the narrative it would seem 
 clear that this book, also called " the book of the 
 Covenant," is not to be identified with the 
 Pentateuch, but, in substance at least, with the 
 Book of Deuteronomy. Its previous history can 
 only be conjectured. 
 
 (2) But the actual beginnings of a sacred 
 Canon are to be ascribed to Ezra and Nehemiah. 
 In 458 B.C., Ezra left Babylon for Jerusalem, 
 having as his one purpose " to seek the law of the 
 Lord, and to do it, and to teach in Israel statutes 
 and judgments" (Ezra 7.10). Thirteen years 
 later, on the arrival of Nehemiah as governor, 
 there was read to the assembled people " the book 
 of the lawof Moses which the Lord had commanded 
 to Israel" (Neh. 8-10). These books of the 
 Pentateuch may have been long in existence 
 and held in high regard, but in this acceptance 
 of them as a sacred code of absolute and Divine 
 authority we may see the first stage hi the 
 actual formation of the O.T. Canon. It is 
 probably the fact that among the sacred writings 
 of the Jews the Pentateuch was the first to be 
 recognised in the full sense as " Scripture," 
 which accounts for the exceptional reverence 
 paid to the " law " in the after O.T. books and 
 by the later Jews (e.g. Ps. 119, Mai 4.4). Even 
 in the N.T. the " law " is used as a designation 
 of the whole O.T. (John 10.34, 12.34, 15.25; 
 1 Cor. 14.21). And the fact that the Bible of the 
 modern Samaritan community is limited to the 
 Pentateuch suggests that this was the extent of 
 
 the Canon at the time of the expulsion, by 
 Nehemiah, of Eliashib, whose grandson, 
 Manasseh, founded the Samaritan temple on 
 Mount Gerizim. 
 
 (3) At what later time the great second 
 division of the Canon, the " Prophets," was 
 recognised cannot be determined. The voice 
 of prophecy was still a living voice in the days 
 of Ezra, and the time for a closed collection of 
 prophetic writings was not yet. The compila- 
 tion of the historical books which are grouped 
 along with the prophets is probably in large part 
 due to the literary activity of the exile. But 
 the earliest piece of clear evidence to the exist- 
 ence of an expanded Canon is contained in the 
 Apocryphal book of Ecclesiasticus, or the 
 " Wisdom of Jesus, son of Sirach," written soon 
 after 200 B.C. In his eulogy of the " famous 
 men " of Israel (chaps. 44-50) the author follows 
 the order of the " law and the prophets," and 
 has an express reference to the book of the 
 " Twelve " (49.10). Moreover, the Prologue to 
 Ecclesiasticus (written by the grandson of Jesus, 
 son of Sirach, who translated his grandfather's 
 Hebrew book into Greek) speaks of 
 
 " The law and the prophets and the others 
 that have followed in their steps." 
 
 " The law and the prophets, and the other 
 books of our fathers." 
 
 " The law and the prophecies, and the rest of 
 the books." 
 
 It is clear then that by the year 200 B.C. 
 the " law and the prophets " were fully 
 established as Scripture ; the vague refer- 
 ences to the remaining books indicate that 
 a third and final division lacked as yet full 
 recognition. 
 
 (4) If we may rely on a reference in 2 Mac. 
 2.14, the human impulse which led to a final 
 collection of sacred writings may be found in 
 the persecution of the Jews by Antiochus 
 Epiphanes, and the revolt under Judas 
 Maccabseus (c. 170 B.C.), " And in like manner 
 Judas also gathered together for us all those 
 writings which had been scattered by reason of 
 the war that befell, and they are still with us." 
 Some of the " writings " were slower to gain 
 recognition than others : the canonicity of 
 Ecclesiastes, Ruth, Esther, Proverbs, and 
 Canticles was still matter of Rabbinic discussion 
 in the first century A.D., and the Canon of the 
 O.T. was only finally determined by the Synod 
 of Jamnia, near Joppa, c. 90 A.D. But virtually 
 it had been settled long before. The O.T. 
 Scriptures, regarded with reverence as the 
 Word of God by Christ and His apostles, were 
 identical with our own. Almost every book is 
 quoted by the N.T. writers, and although they 
 used the LXX, and in some passages show 
 acquaintance with its Apocryphal books, these 
 are not used as Scripture. It is true that only 
 one dubious reference is found in the N.T. to 
 the threefold division of the Canon, " the law 
 of Moses, and the prophets, and the psalms " 
 (Lk. 24.44). But the evidence is decisive that 
 by the beginning of the Christian era the whole 
 
CANON OF HOLY SCRIPTURE] 90 [CANON OF HOLY SCRIPTURE 
 
 of the O.T. Scriptures were regarded as of long- 
 established and Divine authority. 
 B. The Canon of the N.T. 
 
 1. Its Contents. The English order of the 
 twenty-seven books is derived from the Latin 
 Vulgate. It exhibits the following grouping : 
 
 a. The four Gospels, and Acts (historical). 
 
 b. A collection of fourteen Epistles of St. 
 Paul, including and ending with Hebrews. 
 
 c. The seven " Catholic " Epistles. 
 
 d. Revelation. 
 
 (The order adopted in the Greek Testament 
 of Westcott and Hort, following that of the best 
 Greek MSS., places the Catholic Epistles im- 
 mediately after Acts, and Hebrews before the 
 Pastoral Epistles). This traditional order is 
 peculiarly unfortunate in regard to the Pauline 
 writings, which appear to be arranged generally 
 according to length and importance. If this 
 treatment might possibly be justified in the 
 case of inspired " Epistles," it is to be remem- 
 bered that they were letters before, by inclusion 
 in the Canon, they became epistles, and as 
 letters they have definite place in and relation 
 to the course of St. Paul's life and ministry. 
 Their chronological sequence is really vital to 
 their, full understanding, and it can, with a 
 small margin of uncertainty, be determined. 
 In the case of Galatians, there is doubt both as 
 to the group to which it is to be assigned, and as 
 to its place in the group ; in that of Philippians, 
 as to its place among the Epistles of the im- 
 prisonment, whether first or last. Apart from 
 these minor questions of order, the following 
 grouping would be generally accepted : 
 
 Second Missionary Journey : (Galatians), 
 1 and 2 Thessalonians. 
 
 Third Missionary Journey : (Galatians), 
 1 and 2 Corinthians (Galatians), Romans. 
 
 Imprisonment : Ephesians, Colossians, and 
 Philemon ; Philippians. 
 
 After the (first) Imprisonment : Titus, 1 
 Timothy, 2 Timothy. 
 
 The N.T. literature, then, comprises a fourfold 
 Gospel, or record of the life, death, and re- 
 surrection of Jesus Christ, a further history of 
 the early Church, and especially of the labours 
 of St. Paul, a collection of twenty-one apostolic 
 Epistles, and the Apocalypse. These writings 
 constitute the fact of the N.T. Canon, and we 
 pass on to consider 
 
 2. Its History. 
 
 It was not at all to be foreseen that Christian- 
 ity would create a new sacred literature. It 
 already possessed, and, indeed, founded itself 
 upon an inspired book, the Jewish Scriptures, 
 and the place freely accorded to these by Jesus 
 and the apostles, as of Divine and final 
 authority, would suggest that they could 
 neither be added to nor superseded. The 
 Founder of the new religion neither wrote nor 
 gave commission to write. St. Paul's occasional 
 writings were letters addressed to local com- 
 munities and special needs, supplying for the 
 moment the lack of his personal presence. 
 Even the Gospels, as St. Luke tells us (Lk. 1.1-4), 
 
 grew out of many earlier and fragmentary 
 records. Out of fortuitous beginnings there 
 came somehow into being a whole of marvellous 
 unity and completeness. The idea of an ex- 
 tended Canon could only gradually emerge, 
 in itself a most notable testimony to the strength 
 of conviction with which the Church believed 
 that Jesus was indeed the Christ, and that the 
 apostles who taught in His name were possessed 
 by the Spirit and clothed with Divine authority. 
 
 (1) Jew and Christian owned in common the 
 authority of a sacred book, but the latter 
 owned also a second authority, higher and 
 interpretative, in the word of Christ. This 
 " Gospel " the record of His words and deeds, 
 His death and resurrection came to the 
 Church at large through the apostles, com- 
 missioned to be His witnesses. There is ample 
 evidence in the N.T. itself, and in the writings of 
 the sub-apostolic age, of the unique place 
 accorded to the apostles as the authorised 
 depositaries of Christian truth. Through them 
 the Lord perpetuated Himself in His Church : 
 the tradition of apostolic teaching about Jesus 
 Christ constituted an oral Christian Canon 
 alongside the written Canon of the O.T. For a 
 time, and to a Church expectant of the Parousia, 
 this would suffice. But as the Lord delayed His 
 coming the gap widened which separated the 
 Christ of faith from the Jesus of history ; 
 Christian communities were multiplied over 
 many lands, imperfectly instructed in the 
 grounds of their faith, exposed to perils from the 
 heathen without and from false teachers 
 within. The need inevitably arose for some- 
 thing more fixed and tangible than apostolic 
 tradition, an authentic record of the facts 
 concerning Jesus Christ, and of their authorita- 
 tive interpretation through His first disciples. 
 And even as it arose materials were found 
 already at hand to meet it, out of which were 
 constituted in due time, as the most essential 
 documents of Christianity, the collection of the 
 Gospels, and the collection of the Epistles of 
 St. Paul. 
 
 (2) The Gospels. It is certain that before the 
 close of the second century the four Gospels held 
 primary place in a new Canon of sacred writings, 
 of equal sanctity and authority with the O.T. 
 Scriptures. The indications of their gradual 
 " canonisation " afforded by the scanty remains 
 of early Christian literature cannot here be 
 detailed. But it may fairly be said that the 
 trend of recent criticism has been to vindicate 
 their early date, and, in a measure at least, 
 their traditional authorship. There is large 
 agreement as to the main sources of the 
 Synoptics a narrative source, ascribed by 
 Pupias (c. 150 A.D.) to Mark, and containing 
 Mark's careful reminiscences of Peter's oral 
 teaching ; and a compilation of our Lord's 
 sayings and discourses, attributed by the same 
 authority, in its Aramaic form and under the 
 title of the " Logia " (oracles), to Matthew. 
 Our " St. Mark " is substantially Mark's 
 " Pe trine memoirs"; our "St. Matthew" 
 
CANON OF HOLY SCEIPTURE] 91 
 
 [CANTICLES 
 
 combines these with the " Logia " ; so does our 
 " St. Luke," with differences as to arrangement, 
 and with inclusion of fresh sources. 
 
 The Fourth Gospel comes later, and is cast in 
 a different mould. Its purpose is dogmatic ; 
 it records and interprets, but its inclusion by 
 the Church in the fourfold Gospel, when so 
 many competing records were rejected, is a 
 declaration that its witness to the Christ of the 
 Church's faith is true. Early in the second 
 century we begin to meet isolated references to 
 St. Matthew introduced as " Scripture " ; 
 about 140 Marcion adopted St. Luke into bis 
 Canon. A little later Justin Martyr used all 
 four Gospels, and tells how, " on the day called 
 Sunday," these " memoirs of the apostles " 
 were read in the Christian assemblies, along 
 with " the writings of the prophets." Tatian 
 wove all four into the continuous Gospel, which 
 he called the Diatessaron, and finally the writings 
 of Irenseus (c. 192 A.D.) show the four firmly 
 established, without possibility of rivalry, as 
 authentic and sacred Scripture. 
 
 (3) The Epistles of St. Paul The beginnings 
 of the daring conception of a " New Testament," 
 equally inspired and authoritative with the 
 O.T., are no doubt to be found in the recognition 
 of the unique value for the Church of written 
 Gospels. But, once the idea was formed, other 
 writings silently claimed admission into the new 
 Canon ; questions as to the extent of the N.T. 
 Canon arose, which were not finally settled 
 till the close of the fourth century. Of these 
 writings the first to gain recognition were the 
 Epistles of St. Paul. They were, for the most 
 part, occasional letters to individual Churches ; 
 but it is easy to imagine that the Church which 
 received one would hold it a precious possession, 
 would lend to neighbouring Churches, and in 
 turn borrow from them. Paul himself gives 
 two directions which would tend to preservation 
 and interchange. His letters are to be publicly 
 read in the Church assembly (1 Thess. 5.27 ; 
 Col. 4.16) ; we may be sure that they would be 
 read many times, and to successive generations. 
 Moreover, two neighbouring Churches in the 
 Lycus valley, Colossae and Laodicea, are ex- 
 pressly told to interchange letters they have 
 severally received from the apostle (Col. 4.16). 
 These two facts of public reading and inter- 
 change would tend to invest these letters with 
 permanent and general value ; copies would be 
 multiplied, and before long the desire would be 
 felt on the part of some Church to possess a 
 complete collection of them. How soon this 
 collection was gathered together we do not 
 know. Marcion included ten (rejecting the 
 Pastoral Epistles) in his Canon, the Muratorian 
 Canon (c. 170 A.D.) names all the thirteen, while 
 recognition of individual Epistles as authorita- 
 tive writings dates from the beginning of the 
 second century. 
 
 (4) Other N.T. Books. Before the year 
 200 A.D. the nucleus of the N.T. Canon already 
 described had been expanded by the full re- 
 cognition of Acts, 1 Peter and 1 John. The other 
 
 five " Catholic Epistles," with Hebrews and 
 the Apocalypse, were not yet generally accepted, 
 nor were certain other books, as the Shepherd of 
 Hermas, the Epistle of Barnabas, and the 
 Apocalypse of Peter, definitely excluded. In 
 the list of Eusebius, a century later, these 
 latter were declared " spurious," while the books 
 which have any claim to be " canonical " are 
 divided into those " acknowledged " (the 
 Gospels, Acts, the Epistles of Paul, probably 
 including Hebrews, 1 John, 1 Peter) and those 
 "disputed" (James, Jude, 2 Peter, 2 and 3 John), 
 the Apocalypse strangely finding a place in 
 both classes. 
 
 The varying fortunes of individual books in 
 different sections of the Church cannot here be 
 traced. Controversy was practically closed 
 by the decree of the Third Council of Carthage 
 (397 A.D.), which, though of local authority 
 only, so accurately interpreted the considered 
 judgment of the whole Christian Church that 
 it has hardly been questioned since. This 
 Council, ordaining that " except the Canonical 
 Scriptures nothing be read in church under the 
 name of Divine Scriptures," added a list of the 
 N.T. " Canonical Scriptures " exactly corre- 
 sponding with our own N.T. Broadly speaking, 
 the test which ultimately determined accept- 
 ance or rejection was the mark of Apostolicity, 
 not dependent upon proved apostolic author- 
 ship, but discerned in the writings themselves. 
 For the application of this test the sound kernel 
 of truth possessed in the Gospels and the 
 Epistles of St. Paul formed a standard. As the 
 impulse which first led to a New Testament at all 
 was the desire to preserve for the expanding and 
 imperilled Church the word of Christ, so the 
 final result of that impulse in a completed N.T. 
 Canon expresses the devout judgment, matured 
 through three centuries of the Church's history, 
 that in these writings, as in no others, the Lord 
 did indeed speak through apostolic men. 
 
 Canticles (or the Song of Solomon). The 
 subject of this Song is the mutual affection 
 and endearments of the marriage relation. 
 Its authorship and date have been much dis- 
 cussed. The universal voice of antiquity 
 ascribed the book to Solomon, and the internal 
 evidence is consistent with his period. It has 
 always been in the Canon, but is not quoted 
 in the N.T. Some have thought that it may 
 have been originally a collection of songs 
 sung at a wedding-feast, in accordance with 
 the custom in Palestine at the present day. It 
 is to be viewed as a beautiful exhibition of the 
 legitimate exercise of that merely human love 
 which our Creator has implanted in our being. 
 But there is much more than this to be said. 
 The marriage relation is used in many pas- 
 sages of the Scriptures that illustrate the 
 connexion between Jehovah and His chosen 
 people. Accordingly the Jews have always 
 understood the Song of Solomon in a figurative 
 sense. So also Christian commentators in 
 every age have regarded this poem as illustrat- 
 ing the mutual love of the Saviour and His 
 
CAPER] 
 
 92 
 
 [CAPTIVITY 
 
 Church, and as fitly representing the closeness 
 and perpetuity of the union which subsists 
 between them. Arid when it is regarded in 
 this light, it will appear to be a valuable per- 
 ception of Divine truth ; more suitable to the 
 habits of thought and feeling of some persons 
 than of others, but peculiarly adapted to 
 enliven the religious emotions of no inconsider- 
 able portion of the people of God. Of course 
 it is in the general purport of the poem that 
 we must seek its mystical meaning ; we must 
 not attempt to interpret symbolically every 
 minute circumstance mentioned. 
 
 The poem is in the form of a dialogue ; the 
 chief speakers being Solomon and his bride, 
 with the occasional interposition of female 
 attendants, and perhaps of other spectators. 
 The Contents may be divided thus : 1. in- 
 troduction, setting forth the mutual love of 
 Bridegroom and Bride (ending 2.7) ; 2. the 
 Bridegroom's visit and the Bride's dream 
 (ending 3.5) ; 3. the royal espousals (ending 
 5.1) ; 4. a dream of estrangement and sorrow, 
 followed by the renewal of love (ending 6.9) ; 
 
 5. the delights of conjugal affection (ending 8.4) ; 
 
 6. visit to the Shulamite's house and a happy 
 retrospect (ending 8.14). As in ancient poems 
 generally, there are no breaks to indicate 
 change of scene or of speakers. In detecting 
 these changes we are guided partly by the sense, 
 but chiefly by the use in the original of feminine 
 and masculine pronouns, of the second or 
 third person. A neglect of this distinction has 
 much obscured the English version. In some 
 editions, however, as in the Annotated Para- 
 graph Bible, the different scenes and characters 
 are indicated. 
 
 Caper. A shrub of which the buds or berries 
 are made into pickle, of pungent flavour, and 
 used as stimulant to the appetite. In Eccles. 
 12.5 for " desire shall fail " the R.V. substitutes 
 " the caper-berry shall fail," i.e. fail to restore 
 the jaded appetite. 
 
 Caper'naum. Village of Nahum : on the 
 northern shore of the Sea of Galilee. The doom 
 pronounced against it and the other cities has 
 been singularly fulfilled^ The modern Tell- 
 Hum (where tbere are the ruins of a fine 
 synagogue) probably represents its site, but the 
 claims of Khan Minyeh are still maintained by 
 a few scholars. 
 
 The interest attaching to Capernaum is that 
 it was the residence of our Lord and His 
 apostles, and the scene of so many miracles and 
 " gracious words." Capernaum was His own 
 city (Matt. 9.1). It was when He returned 
 thither that He is said to have been at home 
 (Mk. 2.1). Here He called Matthew (Matt. 
 9.9). The brothers Simon Peter and Andrew 
 belonged to Capernaum (Mk. 1.29). It was here 
 that Christ worked the miracle on the centurion's 
 servant (Matt. 8.5 ; Lk. 7.1), on Simon's wife's 
 mother (Matt. 8.14; Mk. 1.30; Lk. 4.38), 
 on the paralytic (Matt. 9.1 ; Mk. 2.1 ; Lk. 5.18), 
 and on the man afflicted with an unclean spirit 
 (.Mk, 1.32 ; Lk. 4.33). The son of the nobleman 
 
 ( John 4.46) was, though resident at Ciipernaum, 
 healed by words which appear to have been 
 spoken in Cana of Galilee. At Capernaum 
 occurred the incident of the child (Matt. 18.1 ; 
 Mk. 9.33), and in the synagogue there was 
 spoken the wonderful discourse of John 6. It 
 was an important customs station, and had 
 a garrison of Roman troops. 
 
 Caph'tor, Caphto'rim. A country whence 
 the Philistines migrated to Palestine (Gen. 10.14; 
 Deut. 2.23 ; 1 Ch. 1.12 ; Jer. 47 A ; Amos 9.7); 
 Professor Sayce locates it on the shores of the 
 Nile delta ; more probably Crete. 
 
 Cappado'cia. An eastern district of Asia 
 Minor, bounded on the south and east by the 
 range of Mount Taurus and the upper course 
 of the Euphrates. In early times the name 
 extended as far north as the Black Sea, but in 
 the time of the apostles it was divided into the 
 two Roman Provinces of Pontus and Cappadocia, 
 the latter being near the Taurus. It is an 
 elevated tableland intersected by mountain- 
 chains, famous for grazing, and a good grain 
 country. Its metropolis was Ccesarea (now 
 Kaisariyeh), situated near Mount Argaeus, 
 the highest mountain in Asia Minor. Some 
 Jews of Cappadocia were among the hearers 
 of Peter's first sermon (Acts 2.9), and some of 
 its Christian residents were among the readers 
 of his First Epistle (1 Pet. 1.1). 
 
 Captain. [See ARMY.] The captain of the 
 guard (Acts 28.16) is either the Prefect of the 
 Praetorian Guard (R.V. marg.) or, more prob- 
 ably, the lesser officer in charge of the 
 " soldiers from abroad," constantly coming and 
 going on the service of outlying portions of 
 the Empire, and quartered when in Rome in 
 a permanent camp. The R.V. text omits the 
 clause. The captain of the Temple (Lk. 22.4; 
 Acts 4.1, 5.24) was not a military officer, but 
 superintended the guard of priests and Levites 
 who kept watch by night in the Temple. His 
 functions were to visit the posts during the 
 night, and see that the sentries were on duty. 
 
 Captivity, Captivities of Israel and Judah, 
 The. The origin of these calamities lay in 
 the sins of rulers and people, and then in 
 alliances with heathen powers. Pekah, King 
 of Israel, sought the aid of Rezin, King of 
 Syria, against Ahaz, King of Judah. Ahaz, 
 imitating his rival's policy, applied for help to 
 Tiglath-pileser (or Pul), King of Assyria. The 
 latter came and chastised the Israelites, carrying 
 into Media the two and a half trans-Jordan 
 tribes (Reuben, Gad, and half Manasseh) and 
 making the rest tributary. Such was the first 
 captivity of Israel. Ten years later, Hoshea, 
 King of Israel, appealed to So, King of Egypt, to 
 assist him in throwing off the tribute, Hezekiah, 
 King of Judah, joining in the confederacy. 
 This revolt brought up Shalmaneser, son of 
 Tiglath-pileser, with a large host. Samaria 
 fell before the power of Sargon, Shalmanesor's 
 successor, and was annexed to the Assyrian 
 crown. This was the second captivity of Israel, 
 completing the depopulation of the land. Jeru- 
 
CARBUNCLE] 
 
 93 
 
 [CARMEL 
 
 salem escaped, the army of Sennacherib, son of 
 Sargon, being miraculously destroyed. The 
 conquered Israelite territory was afterwards 
 peopled by settlers from the region of the Tigris 
 and the Euphrates (2 K. 17.24). They inter- 
 married with those of the Israelites who had 
 remained, and ultimately took the name of 
 the Samaritans. What became of the Ten 
 Tribes is not known. 
 
 The kingdom of Judah was tributary success- 
 ively to Assyria, Egypt, and Babylon. Zede- 
 kiah ; s revolt against Babylon brought up 
 Nebuchadnezzar against Jerusalem, 587 B.C. 
 After a siege of eighteen months, the city was 
 taken at midnight ; most of the inhabitants 
 were put to death, the children of Zedekiah were 
 slain, and he himself (his eyes put out) was 
 carried in chains to Babylon. Nebuzaradan, 
 the general of Nebuchadnezzar, burned the 
 city, destroyed the Temple, and carried off 
 the remainder of the sacred vessels and the 
 greater part of the natives, a few poor only 
 being left to till the soil. The Jews in Babylonia 
 were from the first a separate people, and in 
 several places they constituted themselves into 
 distinct communities, with elders, and a 
 government of their own. They were treated 
 as colonists (not as slaves) ; they might rise 
 to the highest positions in the State, as 
 Daniel did, or hold the most confidential 
 offices near the person of the king. The 
 idolatry by which they were surrounded had 
 no longer any attractions for them ; it 
 rather aroused a strong antagonism. The 
 restorer of the Jewish nation was Cyrus the 
 Great, who conquered Babylon, and is renowned 
 as the founder of the Persian Empire. Cyrus 
 issued a decree permitting the subjects of the 
 States that had been conquered by Babylon 
 to return to their homes and re-establish their 
 worship. The results of this decree and the 
 subsequent history of the Jews until the close 
 of the O.T. canon are found in the historical 
 books of Ezra, Nehemiah, and Esther, and in 
 the prophecies of Haggai, Zechariah, and 
 Malachi. Cyrus decreed the rebuilding of the 
 Temple in 536 B.C. In all, about 56,000 
 persons returned from exile; but the bulk 
 of living Jews, having been born in Babylonia, 
 remained there. Those of them who kept up 
 their national distinctions in that distant 
 land formed an important part of what was, 
 known as the Dispersion ( John 7.35 ; 1 Pet, 
 1.1 ; Jas. 1.1), which served a great purpose 
 in spreading a knowledge of the true God, 
 and in affording a point for the commencement 
 of the efforts of the evangelists of the Christian 
 faith. [CYRUS, DISPERSION.] 
 
 Carbuncle. The Hebrew word so rendered in 
 Ex. 28.17 and 39.10 is believed to indicate 
 the emerald. The particular gem meant by 
 a dilTerent Hebrew word in /sat. 54.12 is not 
 known. 
 
 Car'cas. One of the seven chamberlains or 
 eunuchs of Ahasuerus (Esth. 1.10). 
 
 C'arche'mish. City of Northern Syria, com- 
 
 manding the passage of the Euphrates, and 
 therefore an object of contention; taken by 
 Pharaoh-necho, and subsequently retaken by 
 Nebuchadnezzar (2 Ch. 35.20 ; Isai. 10.9 ; 
 Jer. 46.2). Its site, Jerablus, was excavated 
 in 1911, and yielded some Hittite records and 
 weights, but, as a whole, the results were 
 disappointing. [HITTITES.] 
 
 Care'ah (2 K. 25.23; R.V. Kareah, which 
 see). 
 
 Car'mel. The well-wooded place: 1. A 
 mountain which forms a striking and char- 
 acteristic feature of Canaan. It runs out 
 with a bold promontory into the Mediterranean, 
 and stretches inland, almost in a straight 
 line, for more than twelve miles to the south- 
 east, terminating abruptly in a bluff. It 
 stands as a wall between the maritime plain 
 of Sharon on the south and the more inland 
 expanse of Esdraelon on the north. Carmel 
 is formed of hard grey limestone, and abounds 
 with caves. On the mountain are occasionally 
 found round stones, known by the name of 
 " Elijah's melons." They are really what 
 the geologists call " geocles." Carmel is still 
 clothed with the same excellency of wood which 
 supplied the prophets with one of their favourite 
 illustrations (Isai. 33.9 ; Mic. 7.14). Carmel 
 fell within the lot of Asher (Josh. 19.26), and 
 the king of " Jokneam of Carmel " was one of 
 the Canaanite chiefs who fell before the arms 
 of Joshua (12.22). 
 
 The chief interest of Carmel is its connection 
 with the history of the two great prophets of 
 Israel Elijah and Elisha. Here Elijah dis- 
 comfited the priests of Baal, and brought back 
 Israel to allegiance to Jehovah. This event 
 took place at the eastern end of the ridge. 
 From this position the city of Jezreel with 
 Ahab's palace and Jezebel's temple would be 
 distinctly visible ; and under the base of the 
 mountain was clearly seen the winding bed 
 of the Kishon. After the slaughter, Elijah 
 ascended to the top of the mountain, " and there, 
 with his face on the earth, remained rapt in 
 prayer, while his servant mounted to the 
 highest point of all, whence there is a wide view 
 of the blue reach of the Mediterranean, over 
 the western shoulder of the ridge. Seven times 
 the servant climbed and looked, and seven 
 times there was nothing. At last out of the 
 far horizon there rose a little cloud, and it 
 grew till the whole sky was overcast, and the 
 forests of Carmel shook in the sound of the 
 winds " which preceded the longed-for rain 
 (I K. 18.17-46). It was on Carmel that Elijah 
 caused fire to come down from heaven and 
 consume the two " fifties " of the guard which 
 Ahaziah had dispatched to take him prisoner, 
 for having stopped his messengers to Beelzebub, 
 the god of Ekron (2 K. 1.9-15). After the 
 ascent of Elijah, Elisha went to Mount CarmeJ 
 (2 K. 2.25), though only for a time ; he re- 
 ceived the Shunammite, the bereaved mother 
 whose son he was soon to restore to. her arms 
 (2 K. 4.25). 
 
CARMELITE] 
 
 94 
 
 [CATHOLIC 
 
 2. A town in the mountainous country of 
 Judah (Josh. 15.55), familiar to us as the resid- 
 ence of Nabal (1 Sam. 25) and the native place of 
 David's favourite wife, Abigail the Carmelitess 
 (1 Sam. 27.3 ; 1 Ch. 3.1). This was doubtless 
 the spot at which Saul set up a place, i.e. a 
 monument or trophy, after his victory over 
 Amalek (1 Sam. 15.12). This also was the 
 spot at which King Uzziah had his vineyards 
 (2 Ch. 26.10). The ruins of the town, now 
 Kurmul, are ten miles below Hebron. Con- 
 spicuous among them are a castle of great 
 strength and a very fine and large reservoir. 
 
 Car'melite. A native of Carmel in the 
 mountains of Judah (1 Sam. 30.5 ; 2 Sam. 23.35). 
 
 Carmeli'tess. A woman of Carmel in Judah : 
 used only of Abigail, the favourite wife of 
 David (1 Sam. 27.3 ; 1 Ch. 3.1). 
 
 Car'mi. 1. Father of Achan, the " troubler 
 of Israel " (Josh. 7.1, 18 ; 1 Ch. 2.7). 2. The 
 fourth son of Reuben, progenitor of the family 
 of the Carmites (Gen. 46.9 ; Ex. 6.14 ; Num. 
 26.6; lCh.5.3). 
 
 Car'mites, The. A branch of the tribe of 
 Reuben, descended from Carmi (Num. 26.6). 
 
 Car/pus. A Christian at Troas, with whom 
 Paul states that he left a cloak, books, and 
 parchments (2 Tim. 4.13). 
 
 Carriage. This word signifies what we now 
 mean by baggage (e.g. 1 Sam. 17.22 ; Acts 21.15), 
 except in the margin of 1 Sam. 17.20 and 26.5-7, 
 where it denotes a wagon or cart. 
 
 Carshe'na. One of the seven princes of 
 Persia and Media " which saw the king's 
 face " in the time of Ahasuerus (Esth. 1.14). 
 
 Cart. A vehicle drawn by cattle (2 Sam. 6.6) 
 to be distinguished from the chariot drawn 
 by horses. Carts and wagons were either 
 open or covered, and were used for conveyance 
 of persons, burdens, or produce. 
 
 Carving. The arts of carving and engraving 
 were very much in request in the construction 
 both of the Tabernacle and the Temple, as well 
 as in the ornamentation of the priestly dresses. 
 In Solomon's time Huram the Phoenician had 
 the chief care of this, as of the larger archi- 
 tectural works (Ex. 28.9-36, 31.2-5, 35.33; 
 1 K. 6.18, 35 ; 2 Ch. 4.11, 16 ; Ps. 74.6 ; Zeeh. 
 3.9). 
 
 Casiph'ia. A place on the road between 
 Babylon and Jerusalem (Ezra 8.17), residence 
 of Levites and Nethinim who accompanied 
 Ezra on his return from Babylon. 
 
 Caslu'him. Mentioned in Gen. 10.14 as 
 among the offspring of Mizraim, meaning 
 thereby that the Casltihim or coast-men 
 were among the inhabitants of Egypt. The 
 words " out of whom came Philistim " in this 
 verse should come after Caphtorim, not after 
 
 Cas'sia. One of the ingredients in the " oil 
 of holy ointment " (Ex. 30.24). It is mentioned 
 in connexion with the royal bride in Ps. 45.8 : 
 
 All thy garments smell of myrrh, and aloes, 
 and cassia." It was an article of merchandise 
 in the market of Tyre (Ezek. 27.19). The 
 
 cassia tree, a small shrubby plant, is a native 
 of Cochin China, Ceylon, and the Malabar 
 Coast. The cassia of commerce is the bark 
 of the tree. The scent is more pungent and 
 less agreeable than that of cinnamon. 
 
 Castor and Pollux. A ship of Alexandria 
 whose sign was Castor and Pollux is mentioned 
 in Acts 28.11. In the ancient mythology 
 Castor and Pollux were reckoned sons of 
 Jupiter by Leda, and regarded by sailors as 
 their protecting divinities. They appear in the 
 heavens as the constellation of the Gemini or 
 Twins. On shipboard they were recognised 
 in the phosphoric lights which play about the 
 masts and sails. Castor and Pollux were repre- 
 sented frequently as young men on horseback, 
 with conical caps and stars above them, and 
 such figures were probably painted or sculptured 
 at the bow of the ship. 
 
 Caterpillar. The word denotes the locust 
 in its larva stage. [Locusx.] 
 
 Catholic Although this word is not found 
 in Scripture, it is so familiar in phrases like 
 " the Catholic Church " and " the Catholic 
 Faith " that it calls for special notice. It is 
 often misunderstood, and demands careful 
 attention. It comes from a Greek expression 
 meaning "throughout the whole," and its funda- 
 mental idea is universality ; but this idea has 
 been variously applied in the usage of the 
 word. The original application was geo- 
 graphical diffusion. The meaning was simply 
 that of universality, as in the phrase, " Thy 
 Holy Church universal." It indicated that 
 Christianity was a religion intended for 
 universal diffusion, that all men were eligible 
 for membership. This is the meaning of the 
 word when first used by Ignatius at the 
 beginning of the second century, " Where 
 Jesus Christ is, there is the Catholic Church." 
 The word as thus used is essentially expressive 
 of the supreme purpose of Christianity as a 
 world-wide religion. The same idea is con- 
 veyed by the word when it appears next in 
 the letter of the Church of Smyrna on the 
 occasion of the martyrdom of Polycarp, 
 addressed "To all the congregations of the 
 Holy and Catholic Church in every place." 
 
 This idea of universality was subsequently 
 followed by the thought of doctrinal purity and 
 completeness, as a mark of Catholicity. By 
 accurate and complete doctrine was understood 
 that which most closely adhered to the teaching 
 of Christ and His apostles. This extension of 
 the meaning of the word was directed probably 
 against Judaism, and certainly against heresy. 
 The rise of heresies and schisms seemed to 
 demand this application of the word to describe 
 those who held fast to the complete truth of New 
 Testament Christianity. As Lightfoot points 
 out, the original meaning of the word was 
 " universal," as opposed to " particular," and 
 then later " orthodox," as opposed to " hereti- 
 cal." " The truth was the same everywhere, 
 the heresies were partial, scattered, localised, 
 isolated." We see this secondary meaning of 
 
CATHOLIC] 
 
 95 
 
 [CAVE 
 
 the term, as applied to doctrinal correctness and 
 completeness, in the phrase, " the Catholic 
 Faith." 
 
 Still later came a third application of the term. 
 Geographical explanation and doctrinal purity 
 became expressed in Church unity and fellow- 
 ship. At the outset fellowship was necessarily 
 congregational ; then it was widened to include 
 associations of congregations in a town or 
 district. Later came the idea of diocesan 
 fellowship, and still later the fellowship con- 
 nected with associations of dioceses called 
 patriarchates. Last of all came the great 
 divisions of Eastern and Western Christianity, 
 each with its own view of Catholicity. 
 
 The word " Catholic," as Greek by derivation, 
 naturally came into use first in the East, and 
 did not appear in a Western Creed until nearly 
 the end of the fifth century. Professor Swete 
 points out that the Church of Rome was long 
 indifferent to the word, perhaps because she did 
 not feel the need of support from the idea of 
 Christian solidarity. There was a narrowness 
 about its use by Rome, and it came to mean 
 only those parts of Christendom that accepted 
 the Roman supremacy. In the East, Catho- 
 licity took the form of orthodox belief, combined 
 with the autonomy of certain Churches, while 
 in the West it took the form of ecclesiastical 
 unity in the Papacy. The Reformed Churches 
 of the sixteenth century naturally adopted a 
 position practically identical with that of 
 Eastern Christendom in insisting upon the inde- 
 pendence of particular Churches, while preserv- 
 ing all the essentials of the Catholic Faith of 
 Christendom. It will thus be seen that it in- 
 volves a false antithesis to speak of Christians 
 as " Catholic " and " Protestant." The word 
 " Protestant " is not opposed to what is Catholic, 
 but to what is distinctively Roman Catholic, 
 that is, to the perversion of Catholic truth, and 
 a departure from true Catholicity. The 
 various evangelical Reformed Churches, in 
 accepting those fundamental doctrines of 
 the Christian Faith which are found in the 
 N.T., rightly claim the true title of 
 " Catholic " ; and it is noteworthy that in 
 what is known as the Bidding Prayer in the 
 Church of England these words occur, " Ye 
 shall pray for Christ's whole Catholic Church, 
 that is, for the whole congregation of Christ's 
 people dispersed throughout the world." So 
 that we have the interesting and significant 
 feature of evangelical Churches all over the 
 world to-day returning to the original idea of 
 the word Catholic as expressed in Ignatius, 
 " Where Jesus Christ is, there is the Catholic 
 Church." The word is therefore most appro- 
 priate, as testifying to the world-wide ex- 
 tension of the gospel in the purpose of God. 
 As Christianity is intended for all men, so all 
 Christians form the Catholic Church. The sole 
 use of the term " Catholic " by any one body of 
 Christians is obviously a contradiction in terms. 
 The Church Catholic is the Church Universal, 
 not any one Church, however large or well- 
 
 known. In its Catholicity all differences and 
 distinctions, whether of race or position or 
 capacity, are unified and utilised in the one 
 fellowship of the saints in Christ Jesus. 
 
 Catholic Epistles. NE W TESTAMENT.] 
 
 Cattle. Abraham and the wealthier patri- 
 archs had very considerable herds of cattle, 
 of which a large portion was required for 
 sacrifice or for occasions of public hospitality, 
 or special feasts, or to entertain friends. They 
 roamed in a semi-domesticated condition over 
 great areas of land. Thus they often became 
 wild and fierce, the more especially as they 
 were in those times exposed to the attacks of 
 many wild beasts, the lion and the bear, the 
 wolf and the leopard, and thus acquired ferocity 
 in self-defence. The breed of cattle in Central 
 Palestine at the present day is small and 
 shaggy, and little used for agricultural pur- 
 poses. At the south end of the Dead Sea, 
 however, the cultivating Arabs there use them 
 almost exclusively. [BULL, Ox, SHEEP.] 
 
 Cauda. [CLAUD A. ] 
 
 Caul. The old English word " caul " de* 
 noted a netted cap worn by women (Isai. 3.18 ; 
 R.V. marg. " networks "). Also used of the 
 tissue enclosing the liver (Ex. 29.13, etc.) and 
 heart (Eos. 13.8). 
 
 Cave. The rocks of Palestine consist chiefly 
 of chalky limestone, and naturally there is a 
 large number of fissures and caverns, many of 
 which have been enlarged by the hand of man 
 for purposes of shelter and defence. The 
 shepherds near Hebron leave their villages in 
 the summer to dwell in caves and ruins, so as 
 to be near their flocks and fields. Almost all 
 the habitations at Gadara are caves. Extensive 
 systems of caves exist at Eleutheropolis in 
 Judah, and at a place between Bethlehem and 
 Hebron. Lot dwelt in a cave after the destruc- 
 tion of Sodom (Gen. 19.30). Abraham buried 
 Sarah, his wife, in the cave of Machpelah 
 (Gen. 23.19). The five kings of the Amorites, 
 when pursued by Joshua, took refuge in a cave 
 at Makkedah. Joshua rolled great stones at 
 the mouth, and continued the pursuit of the 
 enemy. When he had completely routed them, 
 he returned to the cave, brought out the kings 
 from thence, and slew them (Josh. 10.15-27). 
 Other caves mentioned in Scripture are the 
 cave of Adullam, where David and his followers 
 found refuge (1 Sam. 22.1 ; 2 Sam. 23.13-16), 
 the cave of Engedi, where Saul went to seek 
 David and his men (1 Sam. 24.1-8), the cave 
 in which Obadiah hid the prophets from the 
 fury of Jezebel (1 K. 18.4), and the cave in 
 which Elijah rested after the slaughter of the 
 prophets of Baal on Mount Carmel (1 K. 19.9). 
 Under the category of caves would also come 
 the rock sepulchres of Lazarus and of our 
 Lord (Matt. 27.60 ; John 11.38). 
 
 In the time of Gideon the Israelites took 
 refuge from the Midianites in caves, such as 
 abound in the mountain region of Manasseh 
 ( Judg. 6.2), and in the early days of Saul they 
 fled from the Philistines into holes, 
 
CEDAR] 
 
 96 
 
 [CHALDEANS, CHALDEES 
 
 Natural cavities in the rocks were frequently 
 used as cisterns for water and as places of 
 imprisonment (Isai. 24.22 ; Ezek. 32.23 ; 
 Zech. 9.11). The rocky soil of a large portion 
 of the Holy Land almost forbids interment, 
 except in cavities either natural or hewn from 
 the rock. The dwelling of the demoniac 
 among the tombs is thus explained by the rock 
 caverns abounding near the Sea of Galilee. 
 
 Cedar. The cedar of Lebanon is a member 
 of the Conifers or cone-bearers. It finds its 
 chief habitat in the ranges of Taurus and 
 Lebanon, the latter being its southernmost 
 limit. The trunk of the largest specimens 
 now existing in the forest of Lebanon measures 
 47 feet in circumference and in height nearly 
 100 feet. Cedars of Lebanon were introduced 
 into England before the close of the seventeenth 
 century, since which time they have become 
 naturalised, ripening their cones readily, though 
 not attaining to the stature of the originals. 
 The Hebrew poets regarded the cedar of Lebanon 
 as the type of power and majesty, grandeur 
 and beauty, strength and permanence (Isai. 2.13 ; 
 Ezek. 17.3, 22, 23 ; 31.3-18 ; Amos 2.9 ; Zech. 
 11.1, 2). The cedar, in its steady and continual 
 growth, is compared to the spiritual progress 
 of the righteous man (Ps. 92.12). In its native 
 forests the timber of the cedar is of superior 
 excellence. The chief woodwork of the first 
 Temple and of the royal palaces, like that of 
 David (1 Oh. 14.1), was of cedar, one of the 
 latter edifices being named " the house of 
 the forest of Lebanon" (1 K. 7.2). Cedar 
 became as common in Jerusalem during Solo- 
 mon's reign as the inferior timber of the 
 sycamore fig had been in previous times 
 (1 K. 10.27 ; 2 Ch. 9.27 ; Cant. 1.17). The 
 later kings of Judah and the Assyrian monarchs 
 had similar dwellings (Jer. 22.14, 15; Zeph. 
 2.14). The Tyrians used the trunks of Lebanon 
 cedars as masts for their ships (Ezek. 27.5). 
 Cedar supplied the timber for the second Temple 
 of Zerubbabel (Ezra 3.7), and for that of 
 Herod. 
 
 Ce'dron. Only in John 18.1, for the O.T. 
 Kidron (which see), the brook in the ravine 
 below the eastern wall of Jerusalem. Another 
 reading is "of the cedars" (R.V. marg.), 
 which takes Cedron as the gen. plur. of the 
 Greek for " cedar," perhaps a popular corrup- 
 tion from similarity of sound of the Heb. 
 Kidron (dark). 
 
 Ceiling. The ceilings of the Temple and the 
 palaces of the Jewish kings were formed of cedar 
 planks, carved, and sometimes also painted. It 
 is probable that the taste for vermilion paint- 
 ing, shown in Jehoiakim's palace (Jer. 22.14), 
 may have come from Egypt. Examples are 
 extant of Egyptian ceilings in stucco painted 
 with devices, of a date much earlier even than 
 Solomon's Temple. 
 
 Cen'chrea (R.V. correctly Cenchrese). The 
 eastern harbour of Corinth (nine miles off), and 
 the emporium of its trade with Asia. Paul sailed 
 from Cenchre* on his return to Syria from 
 
 his second missionary journey (Acts 18.18) ; 
 site of Christian Church (Rom. 16.1). 
 
 Censer. A small portable vessel of metal 
 fitted to receive burning coals from the altar, and 
 on which the incense for burning was sprinkled 
 by the priest, who bore it in his hand (2 Ch. 
 26.19 ; Lk. 1.9). 
 
 Census. [NUMBERING.] 
 
 Centurion. [ARMY.] 
 
 Ce'phas. [PETER.] 
 
 Chaff. This word in Isai. 5.24 and 33.11 
 means dry grass, and in Jer. 23.28 " straw." 
 Hay-making, in our sense of the term, is not 
 practised to any extent in Palestine. Stalled 
 cattle and horses are fed on straw and fodder 
 cut green, or dried and withered according to the 
 season. 
 
 Chain. The gold chain placed about Joseph's 
 neck (Gen. 41.42), and that promised to 
 Daniel (Dan. 5.7), were badges of office. 
 The prime minister and the judges of Egypt 
 wore chains. Men and women alike wore 
 chains for ornament (Prov. 1.9). The Midi- 
 anites adorned the necks of their camels with 
 " round tires like the moon," pieces of metal 
 made in crescent shape (Judg. 8.21, 26). The 
 means adopted for confining prisoners among 
 the Jews were fetters similar to our handcuffs, 
 fastened on the wrists and ankles and attached 
 to each other by a chain (Judg. 16.21 ; 2 Sam. 
 3.34; 2 K. 25.7; Jer. 39.7). Among the 
 Romans the prisoner was handcuffed to one 
 and occasionally to two guards the hand- 
 cuff on the one being attached to that on the 
 other by a chain (Acts 12.6, 7, 21.33). 
 
 Chalcedony. The green transparent car- 
 bonate of copper, or our copper emerald, found 
 in the island opposite Chalcedon. It is 
 mentioned in Rev. 21.19 as the stone which 
 garnished the third foundation of the heavenly 
 Jerusalem. 
 
 Chalcol. A man of marked wisdom (1 K. 
 4.31). [CALCOL.] 
 
 Chalde'a, Chaldse'a. Southern province of 
 Babylonia, about the lower course of the 
 Euphrates ; to the west of the Tigris, the 
 border of the Arabian desert, and the head 
 of the Persian Gulf ; intersected in O.T. times 
 by numerous canals, very populous, and 
 very fertile. It is now an arid waste. This 
 tract is 400 miles long, and has an average 
 width of 100 miles. The word was employed 
 in a wider sense to denote the whole of Baby- 
 lonia, and even the Babylonian Empire, on 
 account of the supremacy which the Chaldeans 
 acquired at Babylon (Ezra 5.12). It was 
 from Chaldea (Ur of the Chaldees) that Abra- 
 ham migrated (Gen. 11.28), and from Chaldea 
 came the bands which plundered Job (Job 
 1.17). The name was evidently interchange- 
 able with Babylon (2 K. 25.4, 10, 13 ; 2 Ch. 
 36.17; Isai. 13.19, 48.20; Jer. 50.1, 8, 10, 
 51.35; Ezek. 11.24, 12.13, 16.29, 23.15, 16). 
 [BABYLON.] 
 
 Chaldeans, Chaldees. They were originally, 
 says Prof. Sayce, a tribe which lived in the. 
 
CHALK-STONES] 
 
 97 
 
 [CHARITY 
 
 great salt-marshes at the mouths of the Euph- 
 rates and the Tigris south of Babylonia. This 
 tribe, however, was destined to exert an im- 
 portant influence on the fortunes of Babylonia. 
 Under Merodach-baladan, they gained posses- 
 sion of Babylon (721 B.C.), but after twelve 
 years Merodach was forced to fly before Assyrian 
 invaders, and though he returned once more 
 to Babylon, it was for but a short time. Sen- 
 nacherib ravaged Babylonia with fire and sword, 
 and it became an appanage of the Assyrian 
 crown. Nevertheless, it is probable that 
 Nebuchadnezzar and his family were of Chaldean 
 descent. Certainly, the Chaldeans attained a 
 prominent position in Babylonia, and their name 
 is used to denote the entire inhabitants of the 
 country. It is probable that the Chaldeans 
 were a Semitic race. The " Chaldeans " 
 referred to in the Book of Daniel were simply 
 " astrologers." From ancient times Babylonia 
 (that is, Chaldea in the extended use of that 
 term) was the home of astrology, and the 
 practitioners of the art were held in high 
 esteem. One of the class was raised by Sen- 
 nacherib to the throne of Babylon. 
 
 Chalk-Stones. The " chalk-stones that are 
 beaten in sunder" (Isai. 27.9) are literally 
 "stones of lime." 
 
 Chamberlain. The position held by Erastus 
 the chamberlain of Corinth (Rom. 16.23) was 
 that of public treasurer, an officer who kept 
 the accounts of the public revenues. The 
 term chamberlain is at the present day applied 
 to the official who performs similar duties in 
 the city of London. The office held by Blastus, 
 the king's chamberlain (Acts 12.20), was 
 different from that exercised by Erastus. It 
 was a post of honour, which involved great 
 intimacy and influence with the king (for 
 " chamberlain " in 2 K. 23.11 ; Esth. 1.10, etc., 
 see Eunuch). 
 
 Chameleon. The word rendered "chameleon" 
 in Lev. 11.30 is translated "land-crocodile" 
 in the R.V. This land-crocodile is a powerful 
 species of lizard, five feet or more long, found 
 in the regions round the Dead Sea and south 
 of it. It was forbidden as food by the law 
 of Moses. 
 
 Chamois. The chamois mentioned in Deut. 
 14.5 as fit for food cannot be the animal that we 
 understand by that word, for it is unknown in 
 Bible lands. Some sort of wild mountain sheep 
 is intended. 
 
 Chancellor (Ezra 4.8, 9, 17). A high official in 
 the Persian Court, whose duty it was to receive 
 the reports of the various satraps and officials. 
 
 Chapel. The term " the king's chapel " 
 (Amos 7.13) is applied not to any definite 
 temple or 'shrine, but to Bethel itself (R.V. 
 " sanctuary "). 
 
 Chapiter. The upper member of a pillar, i.e. 
 the capital (Ex. 38.17 ; 1 K. 7.31). 
 
 Chapman (2 Ch. 9.14). I.e. trader. 
 
 Clnra'shim, The Valley of. A place men- 
 tioned twice in A.V. : 1 Ch. 4.14 as having 
 been founded by Joab (R.V. Gc-harashim) 
 
 and in Nek. 11.35 as being reinhabited by 
 Benjamites after the captivity (R.V. Valley o/ 
 craftsmen, mar g.Ge-hahara shim). It was situated 
 in the swelling ground (the Snephela'i) at the 
 back of the plain of Sharon, east of Jaffa. 
 
 Charchemish. [CAECHEMISH.] 
 
 Charger. A large flat dish (Num. 7.13, etc. ; 
 Ezra 1.9). The daughter of Herodias brought 
 the head of John the Baptist in a charger 
 (Matt. 14.8) (O.E. " that which bears " what is 
 put on it, from the same root as carry, car, cargo, 
 etc.). 
 
 Chariot. The military might of a nation 
 was reckoned mainly by the number of chariots 
 it possessed. Up to the time of David, the Israel- 
 ites possessed few, if any, chariots, but Solomon 
 maintained a force of 1400 chariots by taxation 
 on certain cities (1 K. 9.19, 10.25). There is 
 early reference to the chariots of Egypt (Gen. 
 41.43; Ex. 14.7), and the "chariots of iron" 
 of the Canaanites proved a serious obstacle 
 to Israel's occupation of the land ( Josh. 17.16, 
 18 ; Judg. 4.3, 13). As these could be burnt 
 (Josh. 11.9), they were probably of wood, 
 strengthened with iron : the Vulgate transla- 
 tion, " scythed chariots," i.e. armed with 
 blades of scythes, points to a later device. 
 
 When the Jews came to make chariots of 
 their own, they were no doubt imitations of 
 Egyptian models. 
 
 The Egyptian chariot consisted of a semi- 
 circular wooden frame with straightened sides, 
 having the hinder part resting on the axle-tree 
 of a pair of wheels, and supporting a rail of wood 
 or ivory attached to the frame by leathern 
 thongs, and a wooden upright in front. The 
 floor of the car was made of rope network, in- 
 tended to give a more springy footing to the 
 occupants. The chariot was mounted from the 
 back, which was open, and the sides were 
 strengthened and ornamented with leather and 
 metal binding. Attached to the right-hand 
 side, and crossing each other diagonally, were the 
 bow-case and, inclining upwards, the quiver and 
 spear-case. If two persons were in the chariot, 
 a second bow-case was added. Each of the two 
 wheels had six spokes. There were no traces ; 
 a bearing-rein was fastened to a ring or hook in 
 front of the saddle, and the driving-reins passed 
 through other rings on each side of both horses. 
 The driver stood at the right-hand side, and in 
 discharging his arrow hung his whip from the 
 wrist. In some instances the king is represented 
 alone in his chariot, with the reins fastened 
 round his body, thus using his weapons with 
 his hands at liberty. Most commonly two per- 
 sons, and sometimes three, rode in the chariot, 
 the third carrying the state umbrella. A second 
 chariot usually accompanied the king in battle, 
 to be used in case of necessity. The Assyrian 
 and Persian chariots were very similar to those 
 of Egypt. 
 
 The Jewish monarchs who fell into idolatry 
 made offerings of chariots and horses to the sun 
 (2 K. 23.11). 
 
 Charity. The N.T. rendering of a Greek 
 
CHAEMEK] 
 
 98 
 
 [CHESULLOTH 
 
 word denoting brotherly love an essentially 
 Christian word. 
 
 Charmer. [CURIOUS ARTS, DIVINATION, EN- 
 CHANTMENTS, SERPENT-CHARMING.] 
 
 Charran. { H AR AN. ] 
 
 Chase. [HUNTING.] 
 
 Che'bar. A river or canal in the land of the 
 Chaldeans, on the banks of which the exiles who 
 had been carried away by Nebuchadnezzar with 
 Jehoiachin lived, and where Ezekiel saw his 
 earlier visions (Ezek. 1.1, 3.15, 23, 10.15,22,43.3). 
 
 Checker-Work (1 K. 7.17). After the pattern 
 of a chess-board. 
 
 Chedorlao'mer. A king of Elam, in the time 
 of Abraham, who, with three other subordinate 
 princes of Babylonia and the neighbouring 
 region, carried on two campaigns in Palestine, 
 when the kings of Sodom and Gomorrah, and 
 other cities, were reduced to servitude. For 
 twelve years he retained his hold over them ; 
 in the thirteenth they rebelled ; in the next 
 year, however, he and his allies marched upon 
 their country, and after defeating many neigh- 
 bouring tribes encountered the five kings of the 
 plain in the vale of Siddim. He completely 
 routed them ; slew the kings of Sodom and 
 Gomorrah, and carried away much spoil, to- 
 gether with the family of Lot. A rescue, however, 
 was effected by Abraham upon hearing of the 
 captivity of his nephew (Gen. 14.17). The 
 Biblical account has received striking confirma- 
 tion by the findingof the name(Kudin-Lagamar, 
 " servant of the goddess Lagamar ")in the cunei- 
 form inscriptions of Babylonia. Sayce dates 
 tue invasion about 2330 B.C. [AMRAPHEL.] 
 
 Cheese. The Hebrew words which are trans- 
 lated " cheese " simply express various degrees of 
 coagulated milk, and it is impossible to decide how 
 far these terms correspond with our notion of 
 cheese (see 1 Sam. 17.18 ; 2 Sam. 17.29 ; Job 
 10.10). 
 
 Che'lal. Completeness : one of those who 
 had married a foreign wife (Ezra 10.30). 
 
 Chel'luh, Cheluhi, Cheluhu. One of the sons 
 of Bani who had foreign wkees (Ezra 10.35). 
 
 Che'lub. 1. A descendant of Judah (1 Ch. 
 4.11 ). 2. Father of Ezri, who was one of David's 
 officers (1 Ch. 27.26). 
 
 Chelu'bai. Another form of the name Caleb 
 (1 Ch. 2.9). 
 
 Chelu'hi, Chelu'hu. [CHEIXUH.] 
 
 Chema'rims, The. They who prostrate them- 
 selves: an old Semitic word for priests, used 
 in the Bible only of unlawful or non-levitical 
 priests (Zeph. 1.4; and marg. of 2 K. 23.5; 
 Has. 10.5 ; text, " idolatrous priests "). 
 
 Che'mosh. The god of the Moabites and the 
 Ammonites, whose worship was introduced into 
 Judah by Solomon and abolished by Josiah 
 (A 7 m.2].29; 1 #. 11.7 ; 2 .23.13; Jer.48.1). 
 
 Chenaa'nah. 1. Father or ancestor of 
 Zedekiah, the false prophet (1 K. 22.11 ; 2 Ch. 
 18.10). 2. A Benjamite (1 Ch. 7.10). 
 
 Chena'ni. Jehovah hath protected : one of the 
 Levites who assisted at the solemn purification 
 of the people under Ezra (Neh. 9.4). 
 
 Chenani'ah. Jehovah hath protected : chief 
 of the Levites when David carried the Ark to 
 Jerusalem (1 Ch. 15.22, 26.29). 
 
 Cheph'ar-Haammo'nai (R.V. C.-Ammoni). 
 The hamlet of the Ammonites : a place mentioned 
 among the towns of Benjamin (Josh. 18.24). 
 
 Chephi'rah. Village, hamlet : one of the 
 four cities of the Gibeonites (Josh. 9.17). The 
 men of Chephirah returned with Zerubbabel from 
 Babylon (Ezra 2.25 ; Neh. 7.29). It has been 
 identified with Kefir, in the mountain country 
 on the western side of Benjamin, nearly five 
 miles east of Ajalon. 
 
 Che'ran. One of the sons of Dishon, the 
 Horite duke (Gen. 36.26 ; 1 Ch. 1.41). 
 
 Chere'thims. [CHERETHITES.] 
 
 Chere'thites and Pele'thites. The general 
 opinion is that the Cherethites who formed part 
 of the foreign bodyguard of David (2 Sam. 8.18, 
 15.18, 20.7; 1 K. 1.38; 1 Ch. 18.17) were 
 Philistine mercenaries. Perhaps Cherethites = 
 Cretans. [CAPHTOR.] 
 
 Che'rith, The brook. The torrent-bed or 
 wady in which Elijah hid himself during the 
 early part of the three years'drought (1 K. 17.3-5). 
 The exact situation is not known, though it was 
 probably east of Jordan. 
 
 Cherub. The name of a place or a person 
 mentioned in Ezra 2.59 and Neh. 7.61. 
 
 Cher'ub, Cher'ubim. These appear in the 
 O.T. as celestial beings, ministers of the Divine 
 will, but the references leave us in doubt both 
 as to their appearance and as to their functions. 
 In Gen. 3.24 they are placed east of the Garden 
 of Eden " to keep the way of the tree of life." 
 At either end of the cover of the ark, or mercy- 
 seat, was a cherub of gold with outspread 
 wings (Ex. 25.18-22; Heb. 9.5): figures of 
 cherubim also were woven into the curtains and 
 veil of the Tabernacle (Ex. 26). These features 
 were repeated with lavish magnificence in 
 Solomon's Temple (1 K. 6.8 ; cf. 2 K. 19.15 ; 
 Ps. 80.1 ; Isai. 37.16), and in Ezekiel's vision of 
 Jerusalem restored (Ezek. 41.18, 20, 25). The 
 fullest description is in Ezek. 10. 
 
 Chesa'lon. Now Kesla, 8 miles west of 
 Jerusalem. A place on the west part of the 
 north border of Judah, on the shoulder of 
 Mount Jearim (Josh. 15.10). 
 
 Che 'sed. Fourth son of Nahor (Gen. 22.22). 
 
 Ches'iL A town in the extreme south of 
 Palestine ( Josh. 15.30 ; in 19.4 Bethul). 
 
 Chestnut-Tree. The tree mentioned in 
 Gen. 30.37 and in Ezek. 31.8 is the Oriental 
 plane tree, one of the most agreeable and 
 conspicuous objects in the vegetation of the 
 riverside and other watered districts of Syria 
 and the Holy Land. It grows wild on the banks 
 of streams in the Lebanon district and is cultivated 
 wherever sufficient moisture can be found. Its 
 very broad leaves and horizontal branches make 
 a perfect protection from the sun's rays. The 
 bark is smooth and whitish, and scales olT 
 annually hi patches ; this may illustrate Jacob's 
 stratagem (Gen. 30.37). 
 
 Chesul'loth. One of the towns of Issachar 
 
CHEZIB] 
 
 99 
 
 [CHIUN 
 
 (Josh. 19.18; in 19.12 CUsloth-tdbor), now 
 Iksal, 3 miles west of Tabor. 
 
 Che'zib. Deceitful : Judah was at Chezib when 
 the Canaanitess, Bathshua, bare his third son, 
 Shclah (Gen. 38.5). It is identical with ACHZIB in 
 the low country of Judah (Josh. 15.44 ; M ic. 
 1.14) perhaps tho modern 'Ain-Kezbeh, near 
 Adullam. 
 
 Chi'don. Threshing-floor where the accident 
 to the Ark and the death of Uzza occurred 
 (1 Ch. 13.9). 
 
 Chief Priest. [PMEST.] 
 
 Children. The blessing of children, especially 
 of male children, is highly valued in the East, 
 and childbirth is usually, but not always, 
 attended with little difficulty, and accomplished 
 with little or no assistance (Gen. 35.17, 38.28 ; 
 Ex. 1.19 ; 1 Sam. 4.19, 20). As soon as the child 
 was born and the umbilical cord cut, it was 
 washed in a bath, rubbed with salt, and wrapped 
 in swaddling clothes (Ezek. 16.4; Lk. 2.7). 
 On the eighth day the rite of circumcision in 
 the case of a boy was performed, and a name 
 given, often conveying some special meaning. 
 After the birth of a male child the mother was 
 considered unclean for forty days ; if the child 
 were a female, for double that period. At the 
 end of the time she was to make an offering of 
 purification of a lamb as a burnt-offering, and 
 a pigeon or a turtle-dove as a sin-offering, or, 
 in case of poverty, two doves or pigeons, one as 
 a burnt-offering, the other as a sin-offering (Lev. 
 7.1-8 ; Lk. 2.22). The period of nursing appears 
 to have been prolonged sometimes to three years. 
 Nurses were employed in cases of necessity 
 (Gen. 24.59, 35.8 ; Ex. 2.9 ; 2 Sam. 4.4 ; 2 K. 11.2 ; 
 2 Ch. 22.11). The time of weaning was an 
 occasion of rejoicing (Gen. 21.8). The babies in 
 the East are usually carried by the mothers on 
 the hip or the shoulder, a custom to which 
 reference is made by Isaiah (Isai. 49.22, 66.12). 
 Boys in wealthy families had tutors or governors 
 (Num. 11.12; 2 K. 10.1-5; Esth. 2.7; Isai. 
 49.23 ; Gal 3.24). Daughters usually remained 
 in the women's apartments till marriage, and, 
 among the poorer classes, were employed in 
 household work (Lev. 22.13 ; Num. 12.14 ; 1 Sam. 
 9.11; Prov. 31.19-23). The example and 
 authority of the mother were carefully upheld 
 in the case of children of both sexes (Deut. 21.20 ; 
 
 1 K. 2.19 ; Prov. 10.1, 15.20). 
 
 The firstborn male children were regarded 
 as devoted to God, and were to be redeemed by 
 an offering (Ex. 13.13 ; Num. 18.15 ; Lk. 2.22). 
 
 The authority of parents, especially of the 
 father, was very great. The disobedient child, 
 the striker or re viler of a parent, was liable to 
 capital punishment. Children might be taken 
 as slaves, in case of non-fulfilment of their duties, 
 and were expected to perform menial offices for 
 their parents, such as washing the feet, and to 
 maintain them in poverty and old age. The like 
 obedience is enjoined by the Gospel (Gen. 38.24 ; 
 Lev. 19.32, 21.9; Num. 12.14; 1 K. 2.19; 
 
 2 K. 4.1; Neh. 5.5; Prov. 10.1, 15.20, 19.13; 
 Eph. 6.1 ; Col 3.20 ; 1 Tim. 1.9). 
 
 The inheritance was divided equally between 
 the sons except the eldest, who received a double 
 portion (Gen. 25.31, 49.3 ; Deut. 21.17 ; Judg. 
 11.2-7 ; 1 Ch. 5.1, 2). Failing sons, the inherit- 
 ance went to the daughters, but they were 
 forbidden to marry out of their father's tribe 
 (Num. 27.1-8, 36.2-8). 
 
 Chil'eab. Second son of David (2 Sam. 3.3), 
 called Daniel in 1 Ch. 3.1. 
 
 Chil'ion. Pining: the son of Elimelech and 
 Naomi, and husband of Orpah (Ruth 1.2, 5, 4.9). 
 
 Chil'mad. A town or district in Media, one 
 of the marts of Tyrian commerce (Ezek. 27.23). 
 
 Chim'ham. A follower, and probably a son, 
 of Barzillai the Gileadite ; he returned from 
 beyond Jordan with David (2 Sam. 19.37-40). 
 David appears to have bestowed on him a 
 possession at Bethlehem, on which, in later times, 
 an inn or khan was standing, well known as the 
 starting-point for travellers from Jerusalem to 
 Egypt (Jer. 41.17). 
 
 Chin'nereth, Chinnerpth, Cinneroth. En- 
 closure : a fortified city in the tribe of Naphtali 
 (Josh. 19.35). The Sea of Chinnereth (Num. 
 34.11 ; Josh. 13.27) or Chinneroth (Josh. 11.2, 
 12.3) is the O.T. name for the Lake of Gennesaret 
 or Sea of Galilee. [GENNESARETH.] In Deut. 
 3.17 and 1 K. 15.20 the name is applied to the 
 district generally. 
 
 Chios (now Scio). An island separated from 
 Smyrna on the coast of Asia Minor by a strait of 
 5 miles. Paul anchored off Chios for a night on 
 his return from his third missionary tour (Acts 
 20.15). At that time it enjoyed the privilege of 
 freedom. It is bold and mountainous, and has 
 always been celebrated for beauty and fertility. 
 
 Chis'leu, Chis'lev. The ninth month in the 
 Jewish year, beginning with the new moon of 
 December (Neh. 1.1 ; Zech. 7.1). 
 
 Chis'lon. Strong: father of Elidad (Num. 
 34.21). 
 
 Chis'loth-taber. [CHESULLOTH.] 
 
 Chit'tim, Kit'tim. First mentioned in Gen. 
 10.4 among the sons of Javan (Ionia, Greece) 
 who inhabited " the isles of the nations." 
 Josephus writes that of the sons of Javan 
 " Cethimus possessed the island Cethima; it 
 is now called Cyprus : and for this reason all 
 islands, and the greatest part of the seacoasts, 
 are named Cethim by the Hebrews." He 
 adds that the name is also preserved in the 
 city of Citium in Cyprus, the modern Larnaca 
 (Ant. i. 6. 1). Cyprus was colonised by Phoen- 
 icians in the south and east, the rest by Greeks. 
 In the O.T. Chittim stands not only for Cyprus, 
 but for any maritine power west of Palestine. 
 
 Balaam predicted that a fleet should thence 
 proceed for the destruction of Assyria (Num. 
 24.24). In Isai. 23.1, 12 it appears as the 
 resort of the fleets of Tyre. The Tyrians 
 procured thence the cedar or box-wood, which 
 they inlaid with ivory, for the decks of their 
 vessels (Ezek. 27.6). In Dan. 11.30 ships of 
 Chittim advance to the south to meet the king 
 of the north. 
 
 Chi'un. Th.e name of a deity worshipped 
 
CHLOE] 
 
 KAWN .FROM 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF REDLANDS LIBRARY 
 
 100 
 
 [CHRONICLES 
 
 by the Israelites in the desert (Amos 5.26). 
 [REMPHAN.] 
 
 Chlo'e. A woman mentioned in 1 Cor. 1.11, 
 some of whose household brought word to 
 Paul in Ephesus of divisions in the Corinthian 
 Church. It is uncertain whether she lived in 
 Corinth or in Ephesus. 
 
 Chora'shan (R.V. Cor-ashan, marg. Bor- 
 ashan). One of the places where David and 
 his men were wont to haunt and whence he 
 sent presents to his friends of the plunder 
 taken from the Amalekites. Perhaps the 
 Ashan of Josh. 15.42 (1 Sam. 30.30). 
 
 Chora'zin. Now Kerazeh, 2J miles north of 
 Tell Hum [CAPERNAUM], on the Lake of Galilee. 
 The extensive ruins include that of a synagogue. 
 Our Lord did mighty works here, but because 
 of unbelief He denounced the city (Matt. 11.21 ; 
 Lk. 10.13). 
 
 Chozeta. Deceitful : the " men of Chozeba " 
 are named amongst the descendants of Shelah, 
 the son of Judah (1 Ch. 4.22). [CHEZIB.] 
 
 Christ. [ JESUS.] 
 
 Christian. The word occurs three times only 
 in the N.T. ( Acts 11.26, 26.28 ; 1 Pet. 4.16), 
 and each reference suggests that the name was 
 of heathen origin and application. The same 
 formation is seen in " Herodians " and in the 
 Latin " Caesariani," " Pompeiani," etc., i.e. 
 adherents of Herod, Csesar, Pompey. In the 
 Acts and Epistles the followers of Christ style 
 themselves disciples, brethren, saints, etc. : the 
 honourable title which has prevailed from the 
 second century onwards, emphasising as it does 
 the cardinal truth of devotion to a Person, 
 appears to have originated as a heathen " nick- 
 name." " The disciples were called Christians 
 first in Antioch " ( Acts 11.26). In accordance 
 with this Gentile usage it is the Roman governor, 
 Festus, who declines to be made a Christian by 
 Paul " with but little persuasion " (Acts 26.28) ; 
 and it is the charge of being a Christian, laid 
 before the Roman courts, for which Peter's 
 readers may be well content to suffer (1 Pet. 
 4.16). Tacitus writing (about 116 A.D.) of the 
 persecution under Nero (64-68) says that 
 punishments were inflicted on those " whom 
 the populace called Christians." Another form 
 current was Chrestiani, followers of one known 
 as Chrestus, a name in common use, meaning 
 kind, gentle [CLAUDIUS]; and of this the 
 Christian Apologists of the second century avail 
 themselves, claiming this character of a gentle- 
 ness void of offence in answer to the charges 
 of evil-doing brought against them. 
 
 Chron'icles, First and Second Books oi 
 The present title of these Books was given 
 to them by Jerome. The two Books were 
 originally one, and were called " Words of Days," 
 i.e. diaries or journals. By the Jews they 
 were included in the Kethubim or Hagio- 
 grapha. In the Septuagint they are distin- 
 guished as Paraleipomena, Books of Omissions, 
 or Supplements. The authorship was by 
 Jewish tradition ascribed to Ezra. It will be 
 observed that the conclusion of 2 Chronicles 
 
 is the same as the beginning of Ezra, thus 
 joining these Books, which together with 
 Nehemiah originally formed one connected 
 whole. These Books will be found to resemble 
 each other in their point of view, in their choice 
 of material, and in their selection of topics. No 
 exact determination of date can be given. If 
 the main authorship was Ezra's, there was 
 probably addition by a subsequent writer 
 (1 Ch. 3.19-24). 
 
 That the " Chronicles " were compiled from 
 earlier sources, the works of prophets, is evident 
 in the Books. These documents appear some- 
 times to be quoted literally (see 2 Ch. 5.9, 8.8). 
 Many passages also are identical, or nearly 
 identical, with passages in Kings, both doubt- 
 less being drawn from the same annals. The 
 following documents are referred to : 
 
 1. The Book of the Kings of Judah and Israel 
 (2 Ch. 16.11, 25.26, 28.26). (Not the Canonical 
 Books of Kings, for allusions are made to 
 events not there recorded.) 2. The History of 
 Samuel the Seer (1 Ch. 29.29). 3. The History 
 of Nathan the Prophet (1 Ch. 29 29). 4. The 
 History of Gad the Seer (1 Ch. 29.29,. 5. The 
 Prophecy of Ahijah the Shilonite (2 Ch. 9.29). 
 
 6. The Vision of Iddo the Seer (2 Ch. 9.29). 
 
 7. The Histories of Shemaiah the Prophet, and 
 of Iddo the Seer (2 Ch. 12.15). 8. The History 
 of Jehu the son of Hanani (2 Ch. 20.34). 9. 
 The Commentary of the Book of the Kings (2 Ch. 
 24.27). 10. The Acts of Uzziah, by Isaiah, the 
 son of Amoz (2 Ch. 26.22). 11. The Vision of 
 Isaiah the Prophet, the son of Amoz (2 Ch. 
 32.32). 12. The Words of the Seers (of Hozai, 
 R.V.) (2 Ch. 33.19). 
 
 The Contents of the Books may be summarised 
 as follows : 
 
 1 Chronicles is naturally divided into two 
 parts 
 
 Part I. contains Genealogies, showing the 
 descent of the people of Israel from Adam to 
 the time of Ezra, with short historical notices. 
 Genealogies from Adam to Jacob (1, 2.2). The 
 descendants of Judah, with their settlements 
 (3-55); the family of David (3). Other 
 descendants of Judah, also of Simeon, Reuben, 
 Gad, and half of Manasseh, with their settle- 
 ments ; and historical notices (4, 5). Gene- 
 alogies of the Levites and priests (6). The 
 descendants of Issachar, Benjamin, Naphtali, 
 the other half of Manasseh, Ephraim, and 
 Asher, with some of their settlements ; and 
 historical notices (7). Genealogy of Benjamin 
 to the time of Saul ; Saul's descendants (8). 
 List of the families who dwelt at Jerusalem 
 (9.1-34). Saul's pedigree repeated (34-44). 
 
 Part II. deals mainly with the reign of David, 
 comprising : The death of Saul and Jonathan (10). 
 David's accession to the throne, and capture of 
 Jerusalem ; his mighty men (11, 12). Removal 
 of the Ark to the house of Obed-edom (13). 
 David's palace ; his children ; his victories 
 (14). Bringing up of the Ark to Jerusalem, and 
 arrangements for Divine worship in connexion 
 therewith (15, 16). David's desire to build a 
 
CHRONICLES] 
 
 101 
 
 temple, and God's message to him by Nathan 
 (17). Victories over the Philistines, Moabites, 
 Edomites, Syrians, and Ammonites (18-20). 
 Numbering of the people ; infliction of pestilence 
 and its removal (21). David's preparations 
 for the Temple (22). Number and distribution 
 of the Levites and priests (23, 24) ; the singers 
 and musicians (25) ; the porters, store-keepers, 
 officers, and judges (26). The arrangement 
 of the army ; the princes and officers (27). 
 David's last exhortations ; the offerings of the 
 princes and people for the Temple ; David's 
 thanksgiving and prayer ; Solomon's establish- 
 ment on the throne (28, 29). 
 
 2 Chronicles may also be divided into two 
 parts 
 
 Part I. The history of all Israel under Solo- 
 mon, comprising : Solomon's sacrifice at Gibeon, 
 his prayer, and choice of wisdom ; his wealth 
 and grandeur (1). The building and furnishing 
 of the Temple (2-5). Solomon's dedication- 
 prayer, and God's answer thereto (6, 7). Solo- 
 mon's buildings, officers, and commerce (8). 
 The queen of Sheba's visit ; Solomon's wealth 
 and greatness (9). 
 
 Part II. The history of the kingdom of Judah 
 after the separation of the ten tribes ; including 
 Rehoboam's accession, and the revolt of the 
 ten tribes (10). Rehoboam's government and 
 success ; his degeneracy, and the invasion of 
 the king of Egypt (11, 12). Reign of Abijam 
 (13); of Asa (14-16). Good reign of Jehosh- 
 aphat (17-20). Wicked reigns of Jehoram and 
 Ahaziah ; and Athaliah's usurpation (21, 22). 
 Reign of Joash (23, 24) ; of Amaziah (25) ; of 
 Uzziah (26) ; of Jotham (27) ; and of Ahaz 
 (28). Hezekiah's good reign and reformations ; 
 and the deliverance of Jerusalem from Senna- 
 cherib (29-32). Manasseh's wickedness, cap- 
 tivity, and repentance ; and Amon's wicked 
 reign (33). Josiah's good reign, and zeal for 
 reformation (34, 35). Reigns of Jehoahaz, 
 Jehoiakim, Jehoiachin, and Zedekiah ; destruc- 
 tion of the city and Temple ; captivity of the 
 people (36.1-21). Proclamation of Cyrus per- 
 mitting the return of the Jews (36.23, 24). 
 
 Reasons which determined or helped to deter- 
 mine the contents of the Books may be stated 
 as follows : 
 
 The land of Palestine was divided among the 
 people of Israel according to families, and this 
 \vas an institution which it was considered 
 vital to preserve. The carrying away of the 
 people into captivity made it a difficult matter 
 to resume the system when they returned to 
 their own country. Obviously one of the most 
 pressing wants of the people after their return 
 from Babylon would be trusty genealogical 
 records, in order to settle the ownership of the 
 land, and if there were any such in existence 
 the arrangement and publication of them 
 would be one of the greatest services that 
 could be rendered. Hence the genealogies in 
 the Chronicles. 
 
 But there was a further and even more im- 
 portant reason the maintenance of the Temple 
 
 services at Jerusalem. This could only be 
 effected by the residence of the priests and Levites 
 in Jerusalem, in the order of their courses ; 
 and this residence was only practicable if the 
 appointed tithes, first-fruits and other offerings 
 were paid. Immediately these ceased, the 
 priests and Levites were obliged to disperse to 
 their own villages to obtain a livelihood, and 
 Temple services were neglected. The registers 
 of the Levitical genealogies were necessary, in 
 order that it might be known who were entitled 
 to the various allowances, because all the 
 various offices went by families, and the pay- 
 ment of the tithes was dependent upon the 
 different families of Israel being established 
 each in his inheritance. 
 
 Further, Zerubbabel, Ezra, and Nehemiah 
 were anxious to make the people feel that they 
 were still inheritors of God's covenanted mercies, 
 and that the Captivity had only temporarily 
 interrupted, not dried up, the stream of God's 
 favour to their nation. Hence the compen- 
 dious history of the kingdom of David, which 
 should embrace a full account of its prosperity, 
 should trace the sins which led to its overthrow, 
 and, carrying the thread through the period 
 of the Captivity, should continue it, as it were, 
 unbroken on the other side. Naturally special 
 emphasis was given to accounts of the building 
 and restoring of the Temple, to the reformation 
 of religion, and to the zealous regulation of the 
 services of the House of God. The kingdom ol 
 Israel (or Samaria) had utterly passed away, and 
 its existing inhabitants were among the bitterest 
 adversaries of Judah; therefore it had small 
 attention. [KINGS, THB BOOKS OP THE.] 
 
 Chronology. The Hebrews had no division 
 of time below the hour. The night was divided 
 into three watches ; but in the N.T. four night- 
 watches are mentioned (Mk. 6.48, 13.35), the 
 idea being probably adopted from the Romans. 
 The week was a period of seven days, ending 
 with the Sabbath. The days of the week, save 
 the Sabbath, appear to have been unnamed. 
 The day corresponding to our Friday was, 
 however, designated " preparation day " pre- 
 paration for the Sabbath. The months were 
 strictly lunar, the year of 12 months consisting 
 of 354 days, but during and after the Exile, says 
 Professor Whitehouse, an intercalary month, 
 Ve-Adar, was added, in order to make up the 
 extra 11 daysN)f the solar year (of 365 days). 
 The new moon was kept as a sacred festival. 
 The first month is called Abib or Nisan, " the 
 month of the ears of com/' when the ears were 
 so forward that on the sixteenth day, the 
 second day of the Feast of Unleavened Bread, 
 ripe ears could be offered. This fixes the be- 
 ginning of the year in the middle of March. 
 The patriarchal year is believed to have been 
 360 days. In historical passages, from the date 
 of the Exodus downwards until the time of 
 the Captivity, the year is lunar, consisting 
 of 354 days. The year was held to begin with 
 the first day of the seventh month, when there 
 was a special sanctification above that of the 
 
CHBiONO'LOGY] ; 
 
 102 
 
 [CHRONOLOGY OF THE O.T. 
 
 ordinary new moon. The ancient Hebrews 
 did not divide their year into fixed seasons ; 
 we find mention of summer and winter, and also 
 of the agricultural seasons, seed-time and 
 harvest. Before the Captivity there were, 
 besides the Sabbaths and new moons, four 
 great festivals and a fast in the Hebrew year : 
 the Feast of the Passover and of Unleavened 
 Bread, the Feast of Weeks or Pentecost, the 
 Feast of Trumpets, the Fast of the Day of 
 Atonement, and the Feast of Tabernacles. 
 
 The Feast of the Passover took place on the 
 evening of the fourteenth day of the first 
 month, the Feast of Unleavened Bread be- 
 ginning on the morning of the fifteenth day of 
 the month, and lasting seven days, until the 
 twenty-first inclusive. The fifteenth and 
 twenty-first days were holy days. 
 
 The Feast of Weeks or Pentecost was held 
 at the close of seven weeks, counted from the 
 seventeenth day of the first month. Thanks- 
 giving was made for the blessings of the harvest, 
 and first-fruits offered in the form of loaves of 
 leavened bread. Hence it was also called the 
 Feast of Harvest and the Day of First-Fruits. 
 
 The Feast of Trumpets was the first day of 
 ike seventh month, the beginning of the civil 
 year. 
 
 The Day of Atonement was the tenth day of 
 the seventh month. It was a fast. Upon this 
 day the high priest made an offering of atone- 
 ment for the nation. 
 
 The Feast of Tabernacles was kept in the 
 seventh month, from the fifteenth to the 
 twenty-second day inclusive. It commemor- 
 ated the Exodus, the dwelling of the people in 
 tabernacles. It was also called " the Feast 
 of Ingathering," because it was also the occasion 
 of thanksgiving for the end of the fruit- 
 harvest, including the vintage. 
 
 In later times several holy days were added. 
 The most noteworthy are the Feast of Purim or 
 " Lots," commemorating the deliverance of the 
 Hebrews from Hainan's plot ; the Feast of the 
 Dedication (Chanuca), recording the cleansing 
 and dedication of the Temple by Judas Macca- 
 bneus ; and fasts on the anniversaries of great 
 national calamities of the age of the Babylonish 
 Captivity. 
 
 The Sabbatical Year was every seventh year, 
 just as the Sabbath was every seventh day. 
 During the Sabbatical year the ground lay 
 fallow. There was also remission, temporary 
 or absolute, of debts. The Sabbatical year 
 began with the seventh month. After the lapse 
 of seven Sabbatical periods, or forty-nine years, 
 a year of jubilee was to be kept, immediately 
 following the last Sabbatical year. The 
 jubilee year was called " the year of the 
 trumpet," because the beginning of the year 
 was announced on the Day of Atonement by 
 sound of trumpet. Debts were remitted, 
 lands restored to their former owners, and 
 slaves set free. 
 
 Chronology o! the O.T. This must be 
 considered in Periods, beginning in 
 
 1. The Antediluvian Period. Tor the first 
 period the genealogies in Gen. 5 are the only 
 authority, as no contemporary records exist. 
 The sum of years is found by adding together 
 the ages of the antediluvian patriarchs, each at 
 the birth of his eldest son ; Noah's age being 
 taken at the time of his entrance into the ark. 
 The Hebrew text differs from the Septuagint 
 and the Samaritan, as shown in the table 
 annexed 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 fi- 
 ts 
 
 E 
 
 
 g 
 
 e" 
 
 ' 
 
 < 
 
 
 v? 
 
 a 
 
 C5 
 
 $ 
 
 
 X 
 
 &, 
 
 5; 
 
 "5 
 
 
 tq 
 
 OS 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 Years. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Gen. 5.3 
 
 Adam 
 
 130 
 
 230 
 
 130 
 
 6 
 
 Seth 
 
 105 
 
 205 
 
 105 
 
 9 
 
 Enos 
 
 90 
 
 190 
 
 90 
 
 12 
 
 Cainan 
 
 70 
 
 170 
 
 70 
 
 15 
 
 Mahalaleel 
 
 65 
 
 165 
 
 65 
 
 >, 18 
 
 Jared 
 
 162 
 
 162 
 
 62 
 
 21 
 
 Enoch 
 
 65 
 
 165 
 
 65 
 
 25 
 
 Methuselah 
 
 187 
 
 187 
 
 67 
 
 28 
 
 Lamech . 
 
 182 
 
 188 
 
 53 
 
 it 7.11 
 
 Noah at the 
 
 
 
 
 
 Deluge 
 
 600 
 
 600 
 
 600 
 
 
 
 1656 
 
 2262 
 
 1307 
 
 It need hardly be added that, whatever the 
 number of years from Adam to the Deluge, the 
 computation affords no basis for a date B.C. 
 This must evidently depend on the length of 
 the succeeding periods. The estimate there- 
 fore of 4004 years from Adam to Christ must 
 be discarded as unsupported. In fact, there are 
 as many different views of the date of creation 
 as there are chronological systems. No fewer 
 than 140 different dates have been variously 
 assigned ; the shortest being that of the Rabbis, 
 who give only 3483 years as the time of the 
 world's duration before the Christian era. 
 
 2. From the Flood to Abraham. The second 
 period, in like manner, is calculated from the 
 Bible genealogies, but includes the beginnings 
 of secular history 
 
 
 
 
 | 
 
 j 
 
 f 
 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 n. 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 $ 
 
 
 
 Years. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Gen. 11.10 -j 
 
 Shem after^ 
 the Flood J 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 LXX and) 
 Lk. 3.36f 
 
 Arphaxad 
 Cainan 11. 
 
 35 
 
 135 
 
 135 
 130 
 
 Gen. 11.14 
 
 Salah 
 
 30 
 
 130 
 
 130 
 
 ,, 16 
 
 Heber 
 
 34 
 
 134 
 
 134 
 
 18 
 
 Peleg 
 
 30 
 
 130 
 
 130 
 
 20 
 
 Reu 
 
 32 
 
 132 
 
 132 
 
 22 
 
 Serug 
 
 30 
 
 130 
 
 130 
 
 24 
 
 Nahor 
 
 29 
 
 179 
 
 79 
 
 Gen. 11.26,) 
 32, 12.4 T 
 
 Terah . 
 
 130 
 
 130 
 
 130 
 
 Gen. 12.4 
 
 Abraham 
 
 75 
 
 75 
 
 75 
 
 
 
 427 
 
 1307 
 
 1077 
 
CHRONOLOGY OF THE O.T.] 103 [CHRONOLOGY OF THE O.T. 
 
 The discrepancy between the Hebrew text 
 and the others is here specially noticeable, 
 and has led to much discussion, as between 
 the longer and the shorter chronology. The 
 longer is by many considered to be best entitled 
 to confidence. 
 
 3. From the Call of Abraham to the Exodus. 
 The third period is calculated, first, from the 
 lives of the three great patriarchs, Abraham, 
 Isaac, and Jacob ; and, secondly, from the 
 Scripture statements regarding the duration 
 of the Israelites' abode in Egypt, thus 
 
 I 
 
 
 , 
 
 y 
 
 1 
 
 
 cq 
 
 | 
 
 Gen. 21.5 . -J 
 
 Abraham (until) 
 Isaac's birth) / 
 
 Years. 
 25 
 
 Y T ears. 
 25 
 
 25.26 . 
 
 Isaac 
 
 60 
 
 60 
 
 47.9 / 
 
 EX.12AO, 4M 
 LXX, Gat. 
 3.17, Acts \ 
 7.6 = Heb- f 
 
 Jacob, on enter- ) 
 ing Egypt . / 
 
 Israelites in Egypt 
 
 130 
 
 430 
 
 130 
 215 
 
 rewof Ex. 
 12.40. J 
 
 
 645 
 
 430 
 
 With regard to this period, there is again 
 a serious discrepancy between the different 
 estimates ; arising in this instance from the 
 addition in the LXX of an important clause in 
 Ex. 12.40. The Hebrew reads, " The sojourning 
 of the children of Israel, which they sojourned 
 in Egypt, was 430 years " ; the LXX and the 
 Samaritan, adding after Egypt, " and in the 
 land of Canaan," thus including the years of 
 the previous patriarchal abode in Palestine 
 (215 years). This was evidently the " received 
 chronology " in apostolic times, and as such 
 is adopted by the Apostle Paul ; while it 
 certainly seems to be supported by the 
 genealogies. 
 
 4. From the Exodus to Saul. In this fourth 
 period, the reckoning begins with the forty 
 years in the wilderness ; and the statement, 
 1 K. 6.1, that from the Exodus to the building 
 of the temple in the fourth year of Solomon's 
 reign there were 480 years, seems to afford a 
 sure basis for computation. But many diffi- 
 culties have arisen regarding this statement, 
 which have baffled chronologers. The LXX 
 reads " the 440th year " ; but this may be 
 simply from the omission of the forty years' 
 wandering. In 2 Ch. 3.2 (the parallel passage) 
 there is no date. Josephus, and others who 
 have left systems of chronology, seem to have 
 been ignorant of this computation, which is 
 first mentioned in the fourth century by 
 Eusebius ; and he does not adopt it. St. 
 Paul, again, seems, according to the received 
 text, to assign 450 years as the time from the 
 division of Canaan " until Samuel " (Acts 13.20), 
 
 an 1 if so, the whole period must have been 579 
 
 years at least, viz. 
 
 In the wilderness, and till the land 
 
 was divided .... 40 years 
 
 Judges including Eli and Samuel . 450 
 Saul 40, David 40, Solomon 3 . . 83 
 
 579 
 
 We cannot gather from Scripture what time 
 elapsed between the death of Samson and the 
 accession of Saul. Eli judged Israel forty years, 
 but Ussher makes him contemporary of Samson, 
 and not his successor. He reckons between 
 Eli's death and Saul's election twenty-one years, 
 though Samuel could hardly have been in that 
 case " old and grey-headed " (1 Sam. 12.2). 
 Eusebius reckons forty years for Eli, and includes 
 Samuel in Saul's reign : Josephus reckons fifty- 
 two years for Eli and Samuel, Hales allowing 
 for them seventy-two. Clinton supposes St. 
 Paul's reckoning to end with the beginning of 
 Samuel's judgeship, and adds for that thirty- 
 two years. On the whole, therefore, it may be 
 said that if we set aside the reading in 1 K.Q.I, 
 and are uncertain of the precise meaning of 
 Acts 13.20, we have not materials for solving 
 the difficulties which this fourth period involves. 
 
 5. Period of the Kingly History. For the fifth 
 period, the main source of information from 
 Scripture is in the lists of the kings of Israel and 
 Judah respectively, compared with the annals 
 of surrounding empires. The difficulties in the 
 computation arise first from the fact that the 
 two series of reigns differ in their totals ; those 
 of Judah, from the death of Solomon to the fall 
 of Samaria, seeming to amount to 259 years ; 
 those of Israel, during the same period, to 241 
 years. Different methods of explaining this 
 variation have been adopted : one by assuming 
 unrecorded intervals of anarchy in Israel ; 
 another, by showing that in Judah there were 
 instances of associated sovereignty, so that the 
 same years were counted both to father and son. 
 
 A second source of occasional difficulty is in 
 the adjustment of the annals of other nations 
 to the Bible chronology. Yet, whatever the 
 apparent discrepancies, the main result is very 
 remarkably to confirm and illustrate the state- 
 ments of Scripture. 
 
 In the latter part of this fifth period the syn- 
 chronisms with the known dates of secular 
 history make it for the first time possible 
 definitely to give the year B.C. 
 
 It should be especially noticed here that 
 certain peculiarities of reckoning cause occa- 
 sional difficulty. 
 
 (a) Jewish historians, for example, speak of 
 the reign of a king which is continued through 
 one whole year and parts of two others as a 
 three years' reign. It may be two years and ten 
 months, or it may be one year and two months. 
 
 (ft) They sometimes set down the principal 
 number ; the odd, or smaller number, being 
 omitted, as in Judg. 20.35 : see ver. 46. 
 
 (c) As sons frequently reigned with their 
 
CHRONOLOGY OF THE O.T.] 
 
 104 
 
 [CHRONOLOGY OF THE N.T. 
 
 fathers in ancient monarchies, the time of the 
 reign of each is sometimes made to include the 
 time of the other, and sometimes to exclude it. 
 Thus Jothamissaid to have reigned sixteen years, 
 2 K. 15.33 ; and yet, in ver. 30, mention is made 
 of his twentieth year. For four years he seems 
 to have reigned with Uzziah, who was a leper. 
 So 2 K. 13.1-10, 24.8, compared with 2 Ch. 36.9. 
 A similar principle explains Dan. 1.1 ; Jer. 25.1 ; 
 Nebuchadnezzar being king with his father 
 when Jerusalem was besieged. 
 
 (d) It not unfrequently happens that different 
 modes of reckoning are adopted in reference to 
 the same transaction. See Gen. 15.13 and 
 Gal. 3.17 ; Genesis speaking of 400 years from 
 the birth of Isaac to the Exodus ; Paul, of 430 
 years from the call of Abraham to the giving of 
 the Law, which occurred three months after the 
 Exodus. 
 
 6. From the Captivity to the Advent, The 
 sixth period, covering the time of the later 
 prophets, the close of the O.T. Canon, and the 
 interval before the Advent, is definitely marked 
 out by the annals of the several nations. About 
 this part of the chronology there is practically 
 no doubt. [ISRAEL.] 
 
 Chronological Eras. It should be added that 
 with respect to the synchronisms with secular 
 history in the fifth and sixth periods we hare 
 certain fixed eras or starting-points of reckoning, 
 with " Canons " or lists following. 
 
 1. Assyrian Eponym Canon. Four different 
 records have been discovered, in substantial 
 agreement ; defects in any one of them being 
 supplied by one or more of the rest. In these the 
 years are numbered by the names of officers 
 annually appointed from 893 to 659 B.C. The 
 known date of a solar eclipse mentioned in these 
 records (June 15, 763 B.C.) affords a key to the 
 rest. 
 
 2. The Babylonian Era of Nabonassar, 747 B.C. 
 Nabonassar (Budge, Babylonian Life and 
 History, p. 59) was a Babylonian king of whom 
 nothing more is known than that the celebrated 
 Canon of Ptolemy, the Egyptian astronomer 
 (about 150 A.D.), begins from his reign, extending 
 from 747 B.C. to 137 A.D. 
 
 3. The Olympiads, or periods of four years, 
 reckoned by the Greeks from the recurrence 
 of the Olympic games, beginning with 
 776 B.C. 
 
 4. The Year of the Building of Rome (Annus 
 Urbis Condit<8), generally quoted as A.U.C., 
 754-753 B.C., is employed in Roman calculations, 
 as also are the names of the consuls in each year 
 from 509 B.C. to 476 A.D. 
 
 5. The Seleucid Era begins with the occupa- 
 tion of Babylon by Seleucus Nicator, after 
 the death of Alexander's son, 312 B.C. 
 
 6. Scripture itself seldom reckons from fixed 
 points. An exception is in the prophet Ezekiel's 
 constant reference to the date of Jeconiah's 
 captivity, 597 B.C. The " thirtieth year," 
 however, in chap. 1.1, belongs to a different 
 computation, and possibly refers to the prophet's 
 own life, or else, as has been conjectured, to the 
 
 accession of Nabopolassar, father of Nebuchad- 
 nezzar, in 625 B.C. 
 
 Years beginning at different Times. The above 
 epochs severally begin on different months and 
 days : the Assyrian year commencing (like the 
 Jewish) at the new moon before the vernal 
 equinox ; the era of Nabonassar on February 26 ; 
 the Olympiads about July 1, the day of the full 
 moon following the summer solstice ; A.U.C., 
 April 21 ; the Seleucid era, September 1. 
 This has to be borne in mind in comparing the 
 several chronologies. 
 
 Chronology of the N.T. This is fixed 
 by a few important dates, the Consular lists 
 of the Roman Empire being an accurate guide. 
 It must be noted that the " year of our Lord," 
 the conventional era, from which the dates 
 before and after (B.C. and A.D.) are all reckoned, 
 is only an approximation. The year was fixed 
 by the calculations of Dionysius the Little, a 
 Roman monk in the days of the Ernpero;. 
 Justinian, as 753 A.TJ.C. (see above). As it is 
 certain, however, that our Lord was born before 
 the death of Herod the Great (750 A.U.C.), the 
 calculation was plainly incorrect by at least three 
 years, and although certainty as to the exact 
 time of Christ's birth is unattainable it was 
 probably about 749 A.U.C., i.e. in 4 or 5 B.C. 
 The question, however, is not important, and 
 the conventional landmark of time will no doubt 
 be always retained. 
 
 The N.T, gives but few direct notes of time. 
 Such as are specified are mainly connected with 
 the Roman annals. 
 
 1. Lk. 3.1, " the fifteenth year of Tiberius," 
 i.e. from the time when Tiberius was associated 
 with Augustus in the imperial government 
 (765 A.U.C.). This gives 780 A.U.C. or 27 A.D. 
 as the date of John's ministry. At the same 
 time our Lord was " about thirty years of age," 
 Lk. 3.23 about thirty-three, therefore, at the 
 time of His crucifixion, which for that and other 
 reasons is generally assigned to 30 A.D. 
 
 2. John 2.20, " Forty and six years " from 
 the time of Herod's undertaking the restoration 
 of the Temple. This work was begun, according 
 to Josephus, in the eighteenth year of Herod's 
 reign, or 19 B.C., which would give 27 or 28 
 A.D. for the date specified in the text. 
 
 3. Acts 12.23, the death of Herod Agrippa, 
 44 A.D. This date is useful, as throwing light 
 upon the time of the conversion and mission of 
 the Apostle Paul. 
 
 4. Accession of Nero, the " Csesar " of Acts 
 25.8-12, etc., to the imperial throne, 54 A.D. 
 
 5. Acts 24.27, appointment of Festus as 
 successor to Felix, as procurator of Judaea, 
 60 A.D. 
 
 6. The great persecution under Nero, be- 
 ginning 64 A.D., three or four years therefore 
 after Paul's arrival in Rome, and about two' 
 years after his first trial and acquittal. During 
 these two years, it is probable, the apostle began 
 a final and extended missionary journey. 
 
 With the help of the above data, a tolerably 
 certain N.T. Chronology may be constructed, 
 
CHRYSOLYTE] 
 
 105 
 
 [CHURCH 
 
 so far as relates to the general history. (See 
 Separate articles on the Books of the Bible, under 
 their titles.) 
 
 Chrysolyte. The modern Oriental topaz ; one 
 of the precious stones in the foundation of the 
 heavenly Jerusalem (Rev. 21.20). 
 
 Chrysoprasus. The apple-green or leek- 
 green variety of agate, owing its colour to oxide 
 of nickel (Rev. 21.20) ; one of the precious stones 
 of the New Jerusalem. 
 
 Chub. Name of a people in alliance with 
 Egypt in the time of Nebuchadnezzar (Ezek. 
 30.5). 
 
 Chun (R.V. Cun). A city of Hadadezer, 
 king of Zobah, in Syria, which David spoiled 
 (1 Ch. 18.8) : apparently the same as Berothai 
 (2 Sam. 8.8). 
 
 Church. When Jesus Christ unites an indi- 
 vidual sinner to Himself a relationship naturally 
 springs up between those who are thus united 
 to Christ. A society of believers is therefore a 
 necessary outcome of our Lord's work of redemp- 
 tion a society of those who are in direct relation 
 to Himself. This society is called by several 
 titles in the N.T., but the most im- 
 portant and the most characteristic of the 
 present age is the term "Church." It occurs 
 over one hundred times in the N.T. The 
 English word " Church " is a corruption of 
 the Greek (Kyriake), which means "belonging 
 to the Lord." This is seen still more clearly in 
 the Scottish word " kirk," the German "kirche," 
 and the Swedish " kyrkan." The Greek word 
 which is translated " Church " (Ecclesia) means 
 an assembly or congregation, and is rendered 
 by this term in Luther's Bible. 
 
 When did the Church commence ? It is 
 usual to speak of the Day of Pentecost as the 
 Church's birthday, because the company of 
 believers in Christ were then for the first time 
 constituted a spiritual body by the indwelling 
 of the Holy Spirit. But there is a sense in 
 which the Christian Church really began when 
 two of John's disciples heard him speak, and 
 united themselves to Jesus (John 1.37). And 
 there was a Jewish Church or congregation all 
 through O.T. times. The term Church is found 
 first on our Lord's lips in Matt. 16.18, then again 
 in Matt. 18.17, and these are the only occa- 
 sions in which the word is found in the Gospels. 
 But they show that it was our Lord's intention 
 to found a society, and that the society was to 
 be permanent. 
 
 How did the Church commence ? Using the 
 Day of Pentecost as a typical illustration, the 
 Church commenced by the acceptance of God's 
 Word preached by the Apostle Peter. Be- 
 lievers thereby became united to Christ and to 
 one another in Him. The precise order of 
 events should be carefully observed. Christ 
 was preached, then was accepted by faith, and 
 then He added the penitent believers to the 
 Church. There was a definite contact of each 
 believer with God, by means of faith on the 
 human side, and the Holy Spirit on the Divine 
 aide. Then came the ministerial act of baptism. 
 
 The account in Acts 2 gives in gorm everything 
 that is essential in the N.T. idea of the 
 Church. 
 
 Why did the Church come into existence ? 
 Generally, for the purpose of glorifying God 
 (Eph. 3.10 ; 1 Pet. 2.9), but specifically, for 
 fellowship between Christians, for testimony to 
 the world on behalf of Christ, and for service 
 in extending the knowledge of the Gospel. Thus 
 the Church satisfied the social instinct, and at 
 the same time provided the means of extending 
 and establishing Christianity in the world. 
 Herein lies the value of the Church : while 
 each believer is saved by direct contact with 
 Christ, he is sanctified, not solitarily, but in 
 association with others. The home, the school, 
 the village, the town, the city, the country, are 
 all illustrations of that social life which is ex- 
 pressed religiously in the Church. 
 
 The term " Church " is found in three differ- 
 ent though associated connexions in the N.T. 
 The earliest use refers to the Christians in 
 a house or a city, the believers in one place. 
 Then is seen a more general use of the aggre- 
 gate of Churches at one time in different places 
 (1 Cor. 10.32, 12.28). This in turn widens out 
 into the idea of the Church as universally 
 realised at all places and times, i.e. the " Body 
 of Christ " (Acts 20.28 ; Eph. 1.22 ; Col 1.18). 
 It should be carefully noted that the Church is 
 not to be limited to oilicials : the Church is 
 the whole body of Christians, and must never 
 be confused with the Ministry. The growth of 
 the organisation of the Church was gradual 
 according to circumstances. There was no 
 uniform organisation or government; develop- 
 ment came from within, the spiritual body 
 expressing itself in earthly forms. As need 
 arose it was met by this or that function of the 
 Church's life. The Church must therefore be 
 viewed both from the inward and the outward 
 aspects. This distinction is sometimes de- 
 scribed by the terms " invisible " and " visible," 
 according as the Church is considered as to its 
 spiritual Head or earthly organisation, according 
 to its inner life or outward obedience. The 
 Church is invisible as to its Divine Head and the 
 Spirit of its life, but visible as to those who 
 compose it. The two aspects, while connected, 
 do not cover exactly the same ground. A man 
 may belong to the Church as visible without 
 belonging to the Church as invisible. He may 
 be united to the outward society without being 
 spiritually united to Christ. 
 
 The terms " Church " and " Kingdom," while 
 closely related, are not to be regarded as synony- 
 mous. We cannot substitute the one for the 
 other in the Lord's Prayer, or indeed any- 
 where else. It is important to remember that 
 for everything essential to the idea of the 
 Church, as distinct from what is purely circum- 
 stantial, we must adhere closely to the N.T. 
 While Church life may take various forms 
 through the centuries, we can only accept as 
 absolutely necessary for the existence and well- 
 being of the Church what is found in the N.T. 
 
CHURCHES, BOBBERS OF] 
 
 106 
 
 [CISTERN 
 
 A point of some importance is that in the N.T. 
 the term Church is never used of a building, only 
 of Christ's people. Strict accuracy will lead 
 to the avoidance of the term " Church of Christ," 
 for the singular term is never used except of the 
 " Church of God." The plural is used thus : 
 " Churches of Christ." It is also very impor- 
 tant to keep in view the idea of the universal 
 Church as primarily spiritual, an organism 
 rather than an organisation. It is this spiritual 
 idea of the Church which dominates the Epistle 
 to the Ephesians, and should therefore rule all our 
 views of the local and ecclesiastical Church and 
 Ministry. As Bishop Moule says, " All other 
 meanings of the word Church are derived and 
 modified from this, but this must not be modified 
 by them " (on Eph. 1.22). The true doctrine 
 of the Church may be summarised in the well- 
 known words, " Where Christ is, there is the 
 Church." And if it be asked, Where is Christ ? 
 the answer is, Where the Holy Spirit is, for He 
 alone makes Christ real to men. And if it be 
 further asked, Where is the Holy Spirit ? the 
 answer is obvious, that the Spirit is known by 
 His grace and power in human lives. 
 
 We must be careful not to overrate the posi- 
 tion and importance of the Church. " Through 
 Christ to the Church " is wholly right ; 
 " through the Church to Christ " is only 
 partly right. We must never place the Church 
 between the sinner and the Saviour, though, on 
 the other hand, if we exalt and honour Christ, 
 the Church will always find its proper place, 
 and be valued aright. We must also be careful 
 not to underrate the position of the Church. 
 The individual Christian needs the Church for 
 everything connected with worship, fellowship, 
 evangelisation, and edification. We must 
 cultivate Church unity and fellowship in every 
 available way, and thus realise the purpose of 
 God, " that now unto the principalities and 
 powers in heavenly places might be known by 
 the Church the manifold wisdom of God " 
 (Eph. 3.10). 
 
 Churches, Robbers oi This expression in 
 A.V. of Acts 19.37 signifies" robbers of temples" 
 (R.V.), and involves a charge of sacrilege (of. 
 Horn. 2.22). When the A.V. was made, the 
 word " church " denoted a place of pagan as 
 well as of Christian worship. [SACRILEGE.] 
 
 Chushan - Rishatha'im. A king of Meso- 
 potamia who oppressed Israel for eight years 
 (Judg. 3.8 ; R.V. Cushan-K.). 
 
 Chu'za, Chuzas. The house-steward of Herod 
 Antipas, whose wife Joanna was one of the 
 women who accompanied Jesus on His journey- 
 ings (Lk. 8.3). She was one of those who came 
 early to the sepulchre on the morning of the 
 Resurrection (Lk. 24.10). 
 Cieling. [CEILING. ] 
 
 Cilicia. A maritime province in the south- 
 east of Asia Minor, girt round with lofty moun- 
 tain ranges. The eastern portion was remarkable 
 for beauty, fertility, and the softness of its 
 climate ; hence it became a favourite residence 
 of the Greeks after its incorporation with the 
 
 Macedonian empire, and its capital Tarsus was 
 elevated into the seat of a celebrated school of 
 philosophy. Cilicia was from its geographical 
 position the high road between Syria and the 
 West ; and in the apostolic age Jews were 
 settled there in considerable numbers. Tarsus 
 was the native place of Paul (Acts 9.11, 30, 
 21.39, 22.3), who visited Cilicia soon after his 
 conversion (Acts 9.30 ; Gal. 1.21), and again in 
 his second missionary journey (Acts 15.41). 
 
 Cinnamon. Cinnamon, the bark of the tree, 
 was imported from the Far East Cochin 
 China, Ceylon, and the Malabar Coast and was 
 known from a remote period in Palestine. It 
 is mentioned in Ex. 30.23 as one of the com- 
 ponent parts of the holy anointing oil ; in 
 Prov. 7.17 as a perfume for the bed ; in Cant. 
 4.14 as one of the plants of the garden 
 which is the image of the bride ; and in Rev. 
 18.13 as among the merchandise of the great 
 Babylon. 
 
 Cinne'roth. [CHINNEEETH.] 
 
 Circumcision. This practice was enjoined 
 upon Abraham and his descendants by God as 
 a token of the Covenant into which they 
 entered with Him (Gen. 17.9-14). The rite was 
 part of the common inheritance of the Hebrew 
 and the Canaanite among other nations of 
 antiquity, the Philistines, who are expressly 
 spoken of as uncircumcised (1 Sam. passim), 
 being a notable exception. It was a necessary 
 condition of Jewish nationality. Every male 
 child was to be circumcised when eight days old. 
 Slaves, whether home-born or purchased, were 
 to be circumcised. No foreigner could eat the 
 Passover, unless all the males of his family 
 were circumcised (Ex. 12.48), so that he became, 
 in fact, a Jew. 
 
 The obligation or otherwise of the rite of 
 circumcision upon the Gentile converts to 
 Christianity was a question that caused con- 
 siderable trouble. The peace of the Church 
 at Antioch was disturbed by Judaizing teachers, 
 who said to the Gentile converts, " Except 
 ye be circumcised after the manner of Moses, 
 ye cannot be saved " (Acts 15.1) ; but " the 
 apostles and elders " at Jerusalem decided that 
 the Gentiles were entirely free from all obligation 
 to undergo the rite (Acts 15.22-29). Paul's 
 position hi this matter is seen in Gal. 5 and 6 ; 
 Rom. 3.30, 4.9-12 ; 1 Cor. 7.18, 19 ; Phil. 3.2 : 
 also in Acts 16.3 ; Gal. 2.3. 
 
 Christianity, however, seized upon the 
 spiritual significance of circumcision. The 
 epithet " uncircumcised " was applied in the 
 O.T. to lips (Ex. G.12), ears (Jer. 6.10), and 
 hearts (Lev. 26.41). In the N.T. circumcision 
 is declared to be " that of the heart, in the 
 spirit, and not in the letter " (Rom. 2.29). The 
 title of the true " circumcision " is claimed for 
 Christians (Phil. 3.3; compare Col. 2.11). 
 
 Cis. The Greek form of Kish, father of 
 Saul (Acts 13.21). 
 
 Cistern. The summers of Syria are very 
 dry, and as there is a scarcity of springs in 
 many parts of the country, the rain-water 
 
CITIZENSHIP] 
 
 107 
 
 [CLEOPHAS 
 
 \vhich falls at other times is collected in cisterns 
 and reservoirs. The larger sort of public 
 tanks or reservoirs are usually called in the 
 A.V. " pool." The rocky nature of the soil 
 affords peculiar facilities for the construction 
 of cisterns either by original excavation or 
 by enlargement of natural cavities. The 
 cisterns in Palestine at the present day have 
 usually a round opening at the top, sometimes 
 built up with stonework, and furnished with 
 a curb and wheel for the bucket. Empty 
 cisterns were sometimes used as prisons and 
 places of confinement. Such was the " pit " 
 into which Joseph was cast (Gen. 37.22). 
 Jeremiah was cast into a miry, though empty, 
 cistern (Jer. 38.6). 
 
 Citizenship. The privilege of Roman citizen- 
 ship was acquired by purchase (Acts 22.28), 
 military services, and favour. Once obtained, 
 it descended to a man's children. Great 
 numbers of Jews who were Roman citizens 
 were scattered over Greece and Asia Minor. 
 A Roman citizen could not be bound or im- 
 prisoned without a formal trial (Acts 22.29), 
 still less could he be scourged (Acts 16.37), 
 and, if he demanded it, he could appeal from a 
 provincial tribunal to the Emperor at Rome 
 (Acts 25.11). Any infringement of the privilege 
 was visited with severe punishment. The figure 
 of citizenship is applied to the privileges and 
 responsibilities of the Christian in Eph. 2.19; 
 Phil. 1.27, 3.20. 
 
 City. From the time of the capture 
 of Jerusalem by David the Hebrews became, 
 to a considerable extent, a city-dwelling 
 people. The cities for the most part were 
 " fenced," i.e. possessed a wall with towers and 
 gates. But around the city, especially in 
 peaceable times, lay undefended suburbs, to 
 which the privileges of the city extended. 
 According to Eastern custom, special cities 
 were appointed to furnish special supplies 
 for the service of the State ; stone cities for 
 chariots, for horsemen, for building purposes, 
 and for provision for the royal table. To the 
 Levites forty-eight cities were assigned, dis- 
 tributed throughout the country, together with 
 a certain amount of suburban ground. 
 
 Before the Captivity the internal government 
 of Jewish cities was vested in a council of elders 
 (2 K. 10.1), with judges who were required to 
 be priests. Under the kings a president or 
 governor appears to have been appointed, and 
 judges were sent out on circuit, who presum- 
 ably referred matters of doubt to a council of 
 priests, Levites, and elders at Jerusalem. After 
 the Captivity Ezra made similar arrangements 
 for the appointment of judges. 
 
 In many Eastern cities much space is devoted 
 to gardens, and thus the size of the city is 
 much increased. The vast extent of Nineveh 
 and Babylon may thus in part be accounted 
 for. The streets are in general extremely 
 narrow, seldom allowing more than two 
 loaded camels to pass each other. The 
 internal commerce of the cities was carried 
 
 on, as now, by means of bazaars. We read 
 in Jer. 37.21 of the bakers' street. 
 
 The open spaces near the gates of towns 
 were in ancient times, as they are still, used as 
 places of assembly by the elders, of holding 
 courts by kings and judges, and of general resort 
 by citizens. They were also used as places of 
 public exposure by way of punishment. Great 
 pains were taken to supply the cities with 
 water, both by tanks and cisterns for rain- 
 water and by reservoirs supplied by aqueducts 
 from distant springs. 
 
 City o! Refuge. Six Levitical cities were 
 specially chosen as places of refuge for the invol- 
 untary homicide (Num. 35 and Josh. 20). Three 
 were on the east side of the Jordan Bezer in 
 Reuben, Ramoth-Gilead in Gad, and Golan in 
 Manasseh. The three on the west side were 
 Kedesh in Naphtali (now Kedes, 20 miles from 
 Tyre), Shechem hi Mount Ephraim, and Hebron 
 in Judah. 
 
 Clauda (now Gozzo). A small island south- 
 west of Crete, under the lee of which Paul's 
 storm-driven ship ran, on his voyage to Rome 
 (Acts 27.16). 
 
 Clau'dia. A Christian woman who sends 
 greetings to Timothy in 2 Tim. 4.21. 
 
 Ciau'dius. Fourth Emperor of Rome, reign- 
 ing from 41 to 54 A.D. He gave to Agrippa all 
 Judaea, and to his brother, Herod, the kingdom 
 of Chalcis. He terminated the dispute be- 
 tween the Jews and the Alexandrians, confirm- 
 ing the former in the freedom of Alexandria 
 and in the free exercise of their religion and 
 laws, but not permitting them to hold assemblies 
 at Rome. Agrippa dying in 44 A.D., the 
 Emperor again reduced Judaea to a province, 
 and sent Cuspius Fadus as governor. About 
 this time happened the famine, as foretold 
 by the prophet Agabus (Acts 11.28). In 
 49 A.D. Claudius published an order expelling 
 all Jews from Rome (Acts 18.2), because, as 
 Suetonius relates, of constant rioting at the 
 instigation of one " Chrestus." If, as is possible, 
 " Chrestus " is confused with " Christus," the 
 cause of disturbance may have been Jewish 
 opposition to the Christians of Rome. It is 
 doubtful whether the decree was ever fully 
 carried into effect. [CHRISTIAN.] 
 
 Ciau'dius Lys'ias.H;LYsiAs.] 
 
 Clay. Clay of various kinds was used for 
 building [BRICKS] and for pottery (Isai. 29.16, 
 45.9, etc. ; Rom. 9.21). Another use of clay 
 was in sealing ( Job 38.14) : our Lord's tomb 
 may have been thus sealed (Malt. 27. G6). 
 This practice of sealing doors with clay in 
 order to facilitate detection in case of mal- 
 practice is still common in the East. 
 
 Clean. [UXCLEAN MEATS, UXCLEANNESS.] 
 
 Clem/ent. A fellow-labourer of Paul (Phil. 
 4.3). Hardly the Bishop of Rome, who wrote 
 his Epistle about 90 A.D. 
 
 Cle'opas. One of the two disciples going to 
 Emmaus when Jesus appeared to them (Lk. 
 24.18). 
 
 Cle'ophas (R.V. Clopas). Is mentioned in 
 
CLOTHING] 
 
 108 
 
 [COLOSSIANS 
 
 John 19.25 to distinguish Mary, the wife of 
 Clopas, from Mary Magdalene. [ALPH^US.] 
 
 Clothing. [DRESS. ] 
 
 Cloud. Bible lands are ordinarily cloudless, 
 and the appearing of clouds in the sky is there- 
 fore more noted than among us. A " cloud with- 
 out rain " is a proverb for the man of promise 
 without performance (Prov. 16.15 ; cf. Jude 12). 
 A cloud is also a figure of the transitory (Job 
 30.15), and of a barrier between the divine and 
 the human. On many occasions God shrouded 
 or symbolised His manifestations by clouds 
 (Ex. 19.18, 24.16, 33.9, 40.34-38; Deut. 
 4.11 ; 2 Sam. 22.12 ; 1 K. 8.10 ; Ezek. 1.4). 
 
 Cloud, Pillar of. A pillar of cloud led the 
 host of the Exodus (Ex. 13.21) by day, and 
 became a pillar of fire by night. This was a 
 miraculous indication of God's presence leading 
 the ransomed people. The pillar of cloud 
 interposed itself at the critical moment between 
 the Israelites and the pursuing Egyptians 
 (Ex. 14.19). 
 
 Clout. An old Celtic word meaning patch 
 (Josh. 9.5; Jer. 38.11). 
 
 Cnidus (now Cape Kria). City and harbour 
 at extreme south-west promontory of Caria, 
 in Asia Minor, past which Paul sailed on his 
 voyage to Rome (Acts 27.7). The remains 
 show that it must have been a city of great 
 magnificence. 
 
 CoaL The coal referred to in the Scriptures 
 is not what we understand by the word, but 
 charcoal or other material used for fuel. Elijah's 
 miraculous meal, " a cake baken on the coals " 
 (1 K. 19.6), means a cake baked on a hot 
 stone, as is still usual in the East. The pro- 
 verbial expression, " Thou shalt heap coals 
 of fire upon his head " (Prov. 25.22), was 
 adopted by Paul to express the burning shame 
 and confusion which men must feel when 
 their evil is requited by good. 
 
 Coast. Border, neighbourhood (Matt. 2.16). 
 
 Cock-crowing. Cock-crowing is mentioned 
 in Mark 13.35 as a period of time coming be- 
 tween midnight and morning. This is really 
 the second cock-crowing, just before dawn, the 
 first being at midnight and less regular. Mark 
 (14.30) mentions the two cock-crowings, while 
 Matthew (26.34) refers to that which was em- 
 phatically the cock-crowing namely, the second. 
 
 Cockatrice. The words so rendered in 
 Isai. 11.8, 14.29, 59.5, and Jer. 8.17 signify 
 some very poisonous species of snake. In 
 each instance R.V. has " basilisk," marg. adder. 
 Both " cockatrice " and " basilisk " are fabulous 
 creatures. Originally the word "cockatrice," 
 a form of the Latin calcatrix, "treader," 
 meant the Egyptian ichneumon, an animal 
 of the weasel kind. Then, by a mistaken 
 derivation, it was said to be a monster 
 hatched from a cock's egg. 
 
 Cockle. Some sort of noxious weed, not the 
 cockle of our cornfields ( Job 31.40 ; see marg. 
 of A.V. and R.V.). 
 
 Coffer. A movable box hanging from the 
 side of a cart (1 Sam. 6.8, 11, 15). 
 
 Coffin. The body of Joseph, on his death 
 in Egypt, was embalmed and placed in a coffin 
 (Gen. 50.26). [BURIAL.] 
 
 Col-ho'zeh. Seeing all : a man of the tribe 
 of Judah in the time of Nehemiah (Neh. 3.15, 
 11.5). 
 
 Collar. In Judg. 8.26 R.V. correctly 
 " pendants." In Job 30.18 of the close-fitting 
 neckband of the under garment (cf. Ps. 133.2 
 R.V. marg.). 
 
 College, The. Huldah the prophetess "dwelt 
 in Jerusalem in the college " (2 K. 22.14). The 
 R.V. reads "in the second quarter," i.e. the 
 lower city. 
 
 Collops. Pieces of flesh (Job 15.27). 
 
 Colony. A designation of Philippi, the 
 celebrated city of Macedonia, in Acts 16.12. 
 Augustus, after the battle of Actium, assigned 
 to his veterans those parts of Italy which had 
 espoused the cause of Antony, and transported 
 many of the expelled inhabitants to Philippi 
 and other cities. Philippi was made a Roman 
 colony. It was because the Jus Italicum pre- 
 vailed at Philippi, and because Paul was a 
 Roman citizen, that the action of the magistrates 
 in causing him to be scourged was illegal. 
 
 Colos'se, Colossae, or perhaps more accurately 
 Colassse. A large city of Phrygia, Asia Minor, 
 on the river Lycus, once of great importance, 
 but in N.T. times declining before its rivals, 
 Laodicea and Hierapolis ; situated close to 
 the great road which led from Ephesus to the 
 Euphrates, about three miles from the modern 
 village of Chonas ; site of a Christian Church 
 to which Paul addressed one of his epistles , 
 residence of Philemon and his slave Onesimus 
 (Col. 4.9), Archippus (Col. 4.17), and Epaphras 
 (Col. 1.7 ; Philem. 23), who was the founder 
 of the Church there. Paul had not himself 
 visited Colossae (Col. 2.1). 
 
 Colossians, The Epistle to the. This epistle 
 was written during Paul's first imprisonment 
 at Rome, and probably about the same time as 
 the epistles to the Ephesians and to Philemon ; 
 the three letters being all sent by the same 
 messengers, Tychicus and Onesimus, the 
 latter of whom was returning to his master, 
 Philemon, at Colossae. Its date would, there- 
 fore, be about the year 62. 
 
 Its cause is manifest. The account given 
 of the Church by Epaphras, its founder, who 
 had been sent by the Colossians to Paul to comfort 
 him and inform him of their state, was on the 
 whole satisfactory. There appears, however, 
 to have been some danger from false teachers, 
 who aimed to combine with Christianity the 
 speculations of the philosophers. The supreme 
 dignity of Christ was denied, by ascribing to 
 angels the work of creation (1.16) and of medi- 
 ating in redemption between God and man ; the 
 worship of angels was introduced into the 
 Church (2.18). Reference is also clearly dis- 
 cernible to the disturbing influence of Judaiz- 
 ing and of ascetic teachers (2.16, 3.11, 18, 19). 
 To correct and refute this threefold error was 
 the purpose of this epistle. 
 
COLOURS] 
 
 109 
 
 [COMMERCE 
 
 In its contents the apostle shows that no 
 philosophical speculations, no human ordinances 
 or traditions, no ascetic austerities, can raise 
 the soul above gross pursuits, or enable it to 
 realise unseen and eternal objects. On the 
 other hand, in Christ is perfect salvation ; faith 
 in Him not only reconciling us to God, but, 
 by connecting us with an ascended Redeemer, 
 guiding our thoughts and desires to things 
 above. The leading thought of the epistle 
 is " Christ all and in all." As in Ephesians, so 
 here appears his favourite expression " riches," 
 " the riches of the glory of this mystery " 
 (1.27) ; " riches of the full assurance of 
 understanding " (2.2) ; and in adverbial form, 
 " let the word of Christ dwell in you 
 richly " (3.16). 
 
 The resemblance between this epistle and that 
 " to the Ephesians " indicates some similarity 
 in the tendencies of the Churches addressed, 
 and is also ascribable to the fact that both 
 epistles being written about the same time, 
 the same ideas, and even the same expressions, 
 would be likely to recur. The two epistles 
 must, in fact, be read together. The one is a 
 commentary on the other. A difference of stress 
 may be noted. The controversial note in this 
 epistle leads to insistence on the nature of 
 Christ and on what He is to His Church ; in 
 Ephesians Paul expounds the unity of the 
 Church and its glorious destiny in the purposes 
 of its Divine Lord. 
 
 Colours. The natural colours noticed in 
 the Bible are white, black, red, yellow, and 
 green. White was symbolical of innocence ; 
 hence the raiment of angels and of glorified 
 saints is described as white (Mark 16.5 ; John 
 20.12 ; Rev. 19.8, 14). It was also symbolical 
 of joy (Eccles. 9.8) and of victory (Zech. 
 6.3, 6). Black, as being the opposite to white, 
 is symbolical of evil (Zech. 6.2, 6 ; Rev. 6.5), of 
 mourning, affliction, calamity (Jer. 14.2 ; Lam. 
 4.8, 5.10). Red was symbolical of bloodshed 
 (Zech. 6.2 ; Rev. 6.4, 12.3). It was regarded 
 as an element of personal beauty (1 Sam. 16.12). 
 The lily of Cant. 2.1 is the red one for 
 which Syria was famed. The complexion is 
 compared to the red fruit of the pomegranate 
 (Cant. 4.3, 6.7) ; and the hue of the 
 skin is (in Lam. 4.7) redder than coral (A.V. 
 " rubies "), contrasting with the white of the 
 garments. Green, in the sense of colour, is 
 frequently applied to herbage : it also occurs, 
 in the A.V., in the sense of fresh, young, 
 moist (Gen. 30.37; Lev. 2.14, 23.14; Judg. 
 16.7, 8; Esth. 1.6; Job 8.16; Cant. 2.13). 
 Joseph's coat of many colours (Gen. 37.3) 
 was probably, as R.V. marg., a long garment 
 with sleeves, as distinct from the ordinary 
 short sleeveless tunic (see 2 Sam. 13.18 ; R.V. 
 marg.). 
 
 Comforter. [PARACLETE.] 
 
 Coming of Christ, The Second. Although 
 this phrase does not occur in the N.T., the event 
 to which it refers had prominent place in the 
 faith and hope of the Early Church. The 
 
 O.T. thought of the " day of the Lord " ( Joel 
 1.15, 2.11, etc.), mainly a day of judgment 
 (cf. Ps. 50.1-6), became identified with the 
 coming of Jesus Christ, to judge the world 
 (Acts 17.31), to restore all things and, especially, 
 to confirm and complete the salvation of believers. 
 This " coming " is generally spoken of as the 
 " Parousia " (i.e. presence, including the idea 
 of arrival) ; also, as a revelation or manifesta- 
 tion (e.g. 2 Thess. 2.8 where both ideas are 
 combined). 
 
 There can be no doubt that in the Apostolic 
 preaching, and the faith of the first generation 
 of Christians, the Parousia was regarded as im- 
 minent. Paul at first expected it within his own 
 lifetime (1 Cor. 15.51 ; 1 Thess A.15): the expecta- 
 tion of it is his constant inspiration and ground 
 of appeal (1 Cor. 1.7, 8, 7.29-31 ; Phil. 1.10, 2.16, 
 etc. ; 1 Thess. 1.10, 2.19, 3.13, 4.13 to 5.11 ; cf. 
 Heb. 10.25 ; 1 John 2.18). This belief must in 
 some way have founded itself upon the teaching 
 of our Lord, mistakenly perhaps as to the 
 time, securely as to the fact. He is recorded 
 to have declared that the kingdom of God was 
 at hand (Mk. 1.15), and repeatedly, in language 
 borrowed from the vision of Daniel (Dan. 7.13, 14), 
 to have foretold the coming of the Son of Man 
 (Mk. 8.38, 13.26, 14.62). The ethical side of 
 this teaching, as a motive to fidelity, patience, 
 and watchfulness, is emphasised (Mk. 13.9-13, 
 33-37 ; Lk. 12.35, 36, 18.8, etc.), and there are 
 hints that the coming may be delayed (Mk. 13.5 ; 
 Lk. 12.45). But in other sayings of our 
 Lord the " coming of the Son of Man " is not 
 clearly distinguished from an event which 
 was to happen within that generation (Matt. 
 10.23 ; Mk. 9.1, 13.30), and this is hardly modi- 
 fied by the language of Mk. 13.10 (cf. Col. 
 1.6, 23). It would appear, then, that our 
 conception of the Parousia predicted by Christ 
 must at least be widened to find a fulfilment 
 in Pentecost, another in the fall of Jerusalem 
 and consequent enlargement of the new faith, 
 and yet others in any signal intervention of 
 God in human history which makes for the 
 final triumph of His Kingdom. The moral 
 elements in the teaching of Jesus on this matter 
 stand self-attested : those which are more 
 strictly eschatological and even apocalyptic may 
 in part have been coloured by an over-literal 
 interpretation of what was figuratively spoken. 
 
 Commandments. [LAW. ] 
 
 Commerce. Abraham was rich in gold and 
 silver plate and ornaments (Gen. 13.2, 24.22, 53), 
 a fact which shows that even at that early time 
 the nomad races had commercial relations with 
 others. Egypt held from very early times a high 
 place as a commercial nation, though her 
 external trade was in the hands of foreigners. 
 It was an Ishmaelite caravan, laden with 
 spices, which carried Joseph into Egypt, and the 
 account shows that slaves formed sometimes a 
 part of the merchandise imported (Gen. 37.25, 
 39.1 ; cf. Job 6.19). Corn was exported from 
 Egypt and paid for by weighed silver (Gen. 
 41.57, 42.3, 25, 35, 43.11, 12, 21). The precious 
 
COMPASS] 
 
 no 
 
 [CONGREGATION 
 
 stones and spices of India were imported into 
 Egypt (Ex. 25.3, 7). At the same period trade 
 was carried on between Babylon and the Syrian 
 cities. 
 
 Until the time of Solomon the Hebrew 
 nation may be said to have had no foreign 
 trade. He, however, imported linen yarn, 
 horses, and chariots from Egypt. For all these 
 he paid in gold, which was imported by sea from 
 India and Arabia (1 K. 9.26, 27, 10.22-29). 
 It was by Phoenicians that the cedar and other 
 timber for his great architectural works was 
 brought by sea to Joppa, whilst Solomon found 
 the provisions necessary for the workmen in 
 Mount Lebanon (1 K. 5.6, 9 ; 2 Ch. 2.16). 
 
 The fleets used to sail into the Indian Ocean 
 every three years from Elath and Ezion-geber, 
 ports on the Elanitic gulf of the Red Sea, and 
 brought back gold, silver, ivory, sandal-wood, 
 ebony, precious stones, apes, and peacocks 
 (1 K. 9.26, 10.11, 12 ; 2 Ch. 8.18). 
 
 Phoenicia was supplied from Judaea with 
 wheat, honey, oil, and balm (1 K. 5.11 ; Ezek. 
 27.17 ; Acts 12.20), while Tyrian dealers 
 brought fish and other merchandise to Jerusalem 
 at the time of the return from the Captivity 
 (Neh. 13.16), as well as timber for the rebuilding 
 of the Temple. Oil was exported to Egypt 
 (Eos. 12.1), and fine linen and ornamental 
 girdles of domestic manufacture were sold to the 
 merchants (Prov. 31.24). In the language of 
 Ezekiel, Jerusalem appears as the rival of Tyre 
 in the export trade which went through its port, 
 Joppa (Ezek. 26.2). The places of public market 
 were chiefly the open spaces near the gates, to 
 which goods were brought for sale bv those who 
 came from the outside (Neh. 13.15, 16; Zeph. 
 1.10). 
 
 In the matter of buying and selling great 
 stress is laid by the law on fairness in dealing. 
 Just weights and balances are stringently ordered 
 (Lev. 19.35-36; Deut. 25.13-16). Kidnapping 
 slaves is forbidden under the severest penalty 
 (Ex. 21.16 ; Deut. 24.7). 
 
 Compass. " Fetch a compass " (Num. 34.5 ; 
 Josh. 15.3 ; 2 Sam. 5.23 ; 2 K. 3.9 ; Acts 28.13) 
 means, " make a circuit," or turn about (see 
 11. V.). 
 
 Conani'ah. Jehovah hath established: 1. A 
 Levite in the time of Hezekiah (2 Ch. 31.12, 13 ; 
 A.V.Cononiah). 2. A chief of the Levites in the 
 time of Josiah (2 Ch. 35.9). 
 
 Concision. A term of bitter reproach flung 
 out by Paul against his Judaizing opponents 
 (Phil. 3.2). The " circumcision " on which 
 they boast themselves, and which they would 
 enforce on all Gentile converts to Christianity, 
 is " concision," mere physical mutilation 
 without moral or spiritual significance (cf. Lev. 
 21.5 ; Gal. 5.12). 
 
 Concubine. In the patriarchal age the differ- 
 ence between wife and concubine was not very 
 clearly drawn, owing to the prevalence of poly- 
 gamy. Generally, however, the concubine was a 
 slave. With regard to the children of concubines 
 our ideas of legitimacy did not apply, and their 
 
 names appear in the patriarchal genealogies just as 
 those of the other children. If the concubine were 
 a Hebrew girl bought of her father as a slave, 
 or a Gentile captive taken in war, her rights 
 were protected by law (Ex. 21.7 ; Deut. 21.10-14). 
 A Hebrew was forbidden to take a Canaanitish 
 woman as a concubine, though it was from this 
 class that the concubines of the kings were mostly 
 drawn. Free Hebrew women might also become 
 concubines. [POLYGAMY.] 
 
 Conduit. A watercourse or channel men- 
 tioned in connection with the water supply of 
 Jerusalem. Hezekiah, on the approach of 
 the Assyrian army, stopped the upper water- 
 course of Gihon, diverting its waters by means 
 of a canal straight down to the west side of the 
 city (2 Ch. 32.4, 30). The idea was to secure a 
 supply of water for the inhabitants which would 
 be withdrawn from the invaders. Other re- 
 ferences to conduits are to " the conduit of the 
 upper pool " (2 K. 18.17; Isai. 7.3, 36.2), and to 
 another made by Hezekiah (2 K. 20.20 ; see also 
 Isai. 22.9, 11). There still exist the remains of 
 several aqueducts, including one constructed, 
 it is believed, by Solomon, by which water was 
 brought, a distance of 13 miles, from the "Pools 
 of Solomon " beyond Bethlehem to Jerusalem. 
 
 Coney. Mentioned four times in Scripture : 
 in Lev. 11.5 ; Deut. 14.7 among animals pro- 
 hibited for food because it " chews the cud, 
 but parts not the hoof " ; in Ps. 104.18 as finding 
 refuge in the rocks ; and in Prov. 30.26 among 
 the four little things which are exceeding wise, 
 " a feeble folk," yet making their houses in 
 the rocks. The name coney (or cony) is O.E. 
 for a " rabbit," but the coney of Scripture is 
 not a rabbit; theR.V. marg. at Lev. 11.5 correctly 
 defines it as " Heb. shaphan, the Hyrax 
 Syriacus or rock-badger." About the size of, and 
 not unlike, a rabbit, they still abound in Syria, 
 living in the rocks, and seeking instant shelter 
 at the least sign of danger. 
 
 Confection (Ex. 30.35). The R.V. trans- 
 lates "perfume," and for confectionaries 
 (1 Sam. 8.13) gives margin " perfumers." 
 
 Congregation. Most frequently applied to 
 the whole Hebrew people as a religious com- 
 munity (Ex. 12.3, etc. ; Lev. 4.13, etc. ; Num. 1.2, 
 etc.). Before the institution of kingship, the 
 parliament of the congregation consisted of the 
 head or father of each house, family, and tribe. 
 The delegates were named elders or princes ; they 
 exercised complete sovereign rights ; and the 
 people were bound by their acts even when 
 they disapproved of them (Josh. 9.1 8). Another 
 Hebrew word is used of an assembly called for 
 any special purpose, e.g. on occasion of one of the 
 great festivals (1 K. 8.65; 2 Ch. 7.8, 30.13. 
 Yet a third Hebrew word is very frequent in the 
 A.V. phrase " tabernacle of the congregation " 
 (Ex. 27.21, etc.) : the R.V. correctly renders 
 " tent of meeting," i.e. the place where God 
 meets with His people. 
 
 Congregation, The Mount of the." I will 
 sit upon the mount of the congregation," says 
 the King of Babylon in Isaiah's vision (Isai. 
 
CONIAH] 
 
 U 
 
 [CORINTH 
 
 14.13). He refers to a mountain in the north 
 of Babylonia, where, according to mythology, 
 the gods had their meeting place. 
 
 Coni 'ah. [ JECONIAH. ] 
 
 Cononi'ah. [CONANIAH.] 
 
 Consecration. [PRIEST.] 
 
 Conversation. As used in the A.V. expresses 
 " disposition " or " turn of mind " (Heb. 13.5), 
 "citizenship" (Phil. 3.20), and "manner of 
 life" (Gal. 1.13; Eph. 4.22, etc.). 
 
 Convocation. The word is applied generally 
 with the prefix " holy " only to the Sabbath 
 and the great annual festivals of the Jews 
 (Ex. 12.16; Lev. 23.2; Num. 28.18, 29.1; 
 fsai. 1.13). 
 
 Cooking. Flesh food was not an article 
 of ordinary diet among the Jews. Few animals 
 were slaughtered except on occasions of hospi- 
 tality and festivity. The throat of the animal 
 kid, lamb, or calf was cut so that the 
 blood might be poured out (Lev. 7.26). After 
 being flayed it was ready for roasting or boiling. 
 In the former case the animal was preserved 
 entire (Ex. 12.46), and roasted either over a fire 
 (Ex. 12.8) of wood (Isai. 44.16) or in an oven, 
 consisting of a hole dug in the earth, well 
 heated, and covered up. Boiling, however, was 
 the more usual method of cooking, in which 
 case the animal was cut up. The whole mass 
 was thrown into a caldron (Ezek. 24.4, 5) filled 
 with water (Ex. 12.9) or milk (Ex. 23.19). The 
 caldron was boiled over a wood fire, the scum 
 which rose to the surface being removed from 
 time to time, and salt or spices thrown in. The 
 meat and the broth were served up separately 
 (Judg. 6.19), the broth being used with unleavened 
 bread, and butter (Gen. 18.8) as a sauce for 
 dipping morsels of bread into. Vegetables 
 were usually boiled and served up as a pottage 
 (Gen. 25.29 ; 2 K. 4.38). The utensils required 
 for cooking were a range, having places for 
 two or more pots (Lev. 11.35), a caldron (1 Sam. 
 2.14), a large fork or flesh-hook, a wide open 
 metal vessel resembling a fish-kettle, adapted 
 to be used as a wash-pot (Ps. 60.8) or to eat from 
 (Ex. 16.3), and dishes. 
 
 Co'os. [Cos.] (Acts 21.1.) 
 
 Copper. The word which in Ezra 8.27 is 
 rendered " fine copper " is elsewhere translated 
 as " brass." When we read " brass " we are 
 generally to understand either copper or a 
 mixture of copper and tin (nine parts of the 
 former to one of the latter), i.e. bronze. Brass 
 is an alloy of copper and zinc; and zinc was not 
 known to the ancients. Copper was abundant, 
 and used for every kind of instrument, chains 
 (Judg. 16.21), pillars (1 K. 7.15-21), lavers 
 (2 K. 25.13 ; 1 Ch. 18.8), mirrors (Ex. 38.8 ; 
 Job 37.18), helmets and spears (1 Sam. 17.5, 6, 
 38; 2 Sam. 21.16). The bow of steel mentioned 
 in Job 20.24 and Ps. 18.34 should read " bow 
 of copper." 
 
 Cor. The largest of the dry measures, 
 equivalent to the homer, i.e. about eight bushels 
 (1 K. 4.22 ; Ezek. 45.14 ; 2 Ch. 2.10, 27.5). 
 
 Coral Job 28.18 ; Ezek. 27.16. Coral reefs 
 
 and coral islands abound in the Red Sea, whence 
 probably the Hebrews derived their knowledge 
 of it. It is found in different colours white, 
 black, and red, the last being esteemed the most 
 precious. 
 
 Cor-ashan. [CHOR-ASHAN.] (1 Sam. 30.30.) 
 
 Corban. A Hebrew word retained in Mk. 7.11 
 (not in the parallel, Matt. 15.5), where it is inter- 
 preted "given to God "(R.V.). Itoccurs frequently 
 in Lev. (e.g. 2.4) in the sense of " oblation," lit. 
 something brought near to God as an offering. 
 Hence it became a formula of dedication to 
 sacred purposes, and a mere pretext for evading 
 inconvenient obligations. The law " Honour 
 thy father and thy mother " involved the duty 
 of support to parents, if in need ; but let the word 
 " Corban " be pronounced over the necessary 
 means, and they are sacrosanct. Religion steps 
 in through its authorised exponents, the 
 scribes and Pharisees, who " no longer suffer 
 him to do aught for his father or his mother." 
 It is probable that the vow of dedication to the 
 Temple service was a formality only (cf. Matt. 
 23.16-22) ; but what Jesus condemns is not 
 simply the unreality of the vow, but the vow 
 itself. To neglect the duty of filial piety in the 
 name of religion is to " make void the word of 
 God " (cf. also Matt. 5.23, 24). 
 
 Cord. Was used for fastening tents, as a 
 halter or rein for animals, for yoking them either 
 to a cart or a plough, for binding prisoners, for 
 bowstrings, for the ropes of a vessel, foi 
 measuring ground, for fishing and snaring, for 
 attaching articles of dress, for fastening awnings, 
 for attaching to a plummet, for drawing water 
 out of a well, for raising heavy weights (Ex. 
 35.18; Judg. 15.13; Esth. 1.6; Ps. 118.27; 
 Isai. 5.18; Jer. 38.6). The finer sorts of cord 
 were made of flax (Isai. 19.9). The cords 
 made into a whip by our Lord as a symbol 
 of His authority were probably of rushes 
 (John 2.15). 
 
 As the tent supplied a favourite image of the 
 human body, the cords which held it in its place 
 represented the principle of life (Eccles. 12.6). 
 To " loosen the cord," a metaphor taken from 
 the management of animals, meant to free 
 from authority (Ps. 2.3). Cords being used for 
 measuring lands, cord or line became an ex- 
 pression for an inheritance (Ps. 16.6), hence 
 to " cast a cord " (Mic. 2.5) meant to assign 
 a property. To place a rope on the head 
 instead of the ordinary headgear was a sign of 
 abject submission (1 K. 20.31). 
 
 Core'. [KORAH.] (Jude 11.) 
 
 Coriander. A plant mentioned in Ex. 16.31 
 and Num. 11.7. It is still much employed in the 
 East as a condiment, and forms an ingredient 
 in curry powder. The fruits are aromatic, and 
 are used in medicine. Coriander is an umbelli- 
 ferous plant, growing from one to two feet in 
 height, with divided leaves and small white 
 flowers. 
 
 Corinth. A famous Greek city on the isthmus 
 connecting the Peloponnesus with the mainland, 
 thus having the benefit of two harbours. 
 
CORINTHIANS] 
 
 112 
 
 [CORINTHIANS 
 
 Cenchrcue on the east, Lechzeum on the west, 
 receiving on the one hand the rich merchandise 
 of Asia, and on the other that of Italy and the 
 West ; in very early times a great commercial 
 emporium ; the scene of great prosperity and 
 licentiousness, the worship of Venus being 
 attended with shameful rites. It was at 
 Corinth that the Apostle Paul's ghastly catalogue 
 of heathen vices was penned (Rom, 1.21-32). It 
 is not the true Greek Corinth with which we 
 have to do in the life of Paul, but the Corinth 
 which was rebuilt by Julius Caesar, and made the 
 capital of the Roman province of Achaia. 
 Scene of Paul's labours in the reign of Claudius, 
 for eighteen months, at the close of his second 
 missionary tour (Acts 18.1-18) ; whence the 
 two Epistles to the Thessalonians were written ; 
 scene of Apollos's labours (Acts 18.27, 19.1 ; 
 1 Cor. 3.6). To the Church at Corinth, composed 
 of Gentile and Jewish converts (Acts 18.4-8 ; 
 1 Cor. 1.2, 12.2 ; 2 Cor. 1.1, 23), Paul addressed 
 two epistles, from Ephesus and from Macedonia ; 
 returned during his third missionary tour for 
 three months (Acts 20.3) ; during which time the 
 Epistle to the Romans was written. Residence 
 of Stephanas (1 Cor. 1.16, 16.15, 17), Crispus 
 (Acts 18.8 ; 1 Cor. 1.14), Gaius (Rom. 16.23 ; 
 1 Cor. 1.14), and Erastus (Rom. 16.23 ; 2 Tim. 
 4.20). 
 
 Corinth has now shrunk to a mean village, on 
 the old site and bearing the old name, which is 
 often corrupted into Gortho. There are still 
 some notable relics of its former splendour, 
 including portions of the Posidonium, or 
 sanctuary of Neptune, the scene of the Isthmian 
 games, from which Paul borrows some of his most 
 striking imagery in the Corinthian and other 
 epistles. These remains include the stadium 
 where the foot-races were run (1 Cor. 9.24). 
 Abundant over the shore are the small green 
 pine trees which gave the wreath to the victors 
 in the games (1 Cor. 9.25). 
 
 Corinthians, Epistles to the. As the result 
 of the labours of Paul and Apollos a numerous 
 and flourishing church was formed at Corinth ; 
 teachers were set over the converts ; and the 
 ordinances of Christ were regularly observed. 
 Ere long, however, the peace of the Church was 
 disturbed by certain persons, who sought to 
 engraft on the doctrines of Christ the refinements 
 of human philosophy. These persons depreci- 
 ated the apostle, representing him as deficient 
 in the graces of style and the arts of oratory, and 
 even calling in question his apostolic authority ; 
 they also pleaded for a licentious manner of 
 life, under pretence of Christian liberty. Hence 
 arose divisions and irregularities ; and the Church 
 was declining from its original faith and love. 
 The state of the Corinthian Christians, in fact, 
 greatly resembled that of converts from gross 
 heathenism in all ages. The new life was 
 working among them, but it was having a hard 
 conflict with inveterate evils. This was 
 the situation which it was the purpose of 
 the two Epistles to the Corinthians to 
 meet. 
 
 The First Epistle was written from Ephesus, 
 after Paul had been for some time absent from 
 Corinth. Its date may be placed in the year 
 57. Although known as the First Epistle 
 it had evidently been preceded by another 
 which has not been preserved, but to which 
 reference is made in 5.9. This earlier letter was 
 either crossed or followed by one from the 
 Corinthians to Paul (7.1), requesting his advice 
 and instruction on some points. The contents 
 of the Epistle include the apostle's correction of 
 some disorders prevailing among them, of which 
 he had heard from some of their members (1.11, 
 5.1, 11.18), which bad occasioned him deep con- 
 cern, and led him to send Timothy to Corinth 
 (4.17 ; Acts 19.22). The evils which Paul sought 
 to correct included party divisions, a fondness 
 for so-called philosophy, immorality, litigiousness, 
 feminine immodesty, the perversion of the Lord's 
 Supper into an occasion of joviality, the abuse of 
 the gift of tongues and the denial of the Resurrec- 
 tion. The matters upon which he gives instruc- 
 tions are marriage, circumcision, and slavery ; 
 eating things offered in sacrifice to idols, and the 
 collection for the saints at Jerusalem. He shows 
 how the highest principles may be applied to all 
 the details of personal or Church life. Special 
 topics of this First Epistle are the Gospel as the 
 Wisdom of God (1-3), the supremacy of Love 
 (13), and the doctrine of the Resurrection (15). 
 
 In no epistle does Paul's own character appear 
 more illustrious than in this. The assertion of 
 his apostolic authority is beautifully blended 
 with humility and godly jealousy of himself 
 (2.3, 9.16, 27). He combines fidelity with the 
 utmost tenderness (3.2, 4.14, 6.12), and what- 
 ever be bis gifts, he prefers love to them all 
 (13.1). 
 
 The Second Epistle. Not very long after writ- 
 ing the First Epistle to the Corinthians Paul left 
 Ephesus, and went to Troas. Here he expected 
 to meet Titus (whom he had sent to Corinth), and 
 to receive from him intelligence of the state of the 
 Church and of the efforts of his former epistle. 
 But, not rinding him there, he crossed over to 
 Macedonia, where his anxiety was relieved by the 
 arrival of Titus. From him Paul learned that his 
 faithful reproofs had awakened in the minds of the 
 Corinthian Christians a godly sorrow, and a prac- 
 tical regard for the proper discipline of the Church. 
 But there were also symptoms of a painful kind. 
 The faction connected with the false teachers was 
 still depreciating his apostolic authority, and 
 misrepresenting his motives and conduct; even 
 using his former letter to bring new charges 
 against him, as having failed to keep his promise 
 of coming to see them, and having adopted an 
 authoritative style of writing, little in unison, 
 as they alleged, with the contemptibleness of his 
 person and speech. 
 
 Thereupon the apostle wrote the Second 
 Epistle, designed to carry forward the work of 
 reformation, to establish still further his authority 
 against the false teachers, and to prepare the 
 Corinthians for his intended visit, when he 
 desired to find their disorders rectified, and their 
 
CORMORANT] 
 
 113 
 
 [COVENANT 
 
 promised contributions for their afflicted 
 brethren ready. Nowhere, indeed, has the very 
 heart of Paul been more ingenuously and touch- 
 ingly laid bare than in this epistle. The 
 language of commendation, love, and thankful- 
 ness is blended with censure, indignation, and 
 grief. The main objects of the epistle were to 
 encourage and tranquillise the better portion of 
 the Church, and to guard them against being led 
 astray by the false teachers. Paul asserts his 
 apostolic authority, and adduces as credentials 
 of his mission his labours, sufferings, dangers, and 
 Divine revelations. That the epistle was in the 
 main successful in its aims may be inferred from 
 the tranquil tone which pervades the Epistle to 
 the Eomans, written from Corinth a few months 
 later, and from the absence of information to 
 the contrary. For many details of the apostle's 
 life this epistle is our only source of information. 
 [CRITICISM, THE HIGHER, 3.] 
 
 Cormorant. The Hebrew term which is 
 translated " cormorant " (so R.V.) in Lev. 11.17 
 and Deut. 14.17 implies a plunging bird, and 
 hardly fits the common cormorant. Some 
 member of the tern family is apparently 
 intended. The " cormorant " of Isai. 34.11 
 and Zeph. 2.14 is the pelican (so R.V.). 
 
 Corn. The most common kinds of corn 
 mentioned in Scripture are wheat, barley, 
 spelt, and millet. Oats are not mentioned. 
 Wheat was shred in the house for domestic 
 purposes (2 Sam. 4.6). From Solomon's time 
 Palestine was a corn-exporting country, and 
 her grain was largely taken by Tyre (2 Ch. 
 2.10, 15 ; Ezek. 27.17). [AGRICULTURE.] 
 
 Corne'lius. A centurion stationed at Csesarea, 
 one of the earliest Gentile converts to the 
 Christian Church (Acts 10). Visions sent from 
 God to Cornelius and Simon Peter individually 
 brought about a meeting between them. " Ye 
 know," said Simon Peter, " how that it is an 
 unlawful thing for a man that is a Jew to keep 
 company, or come unto one of another nation ; 
 but God hath shewed me that I should not call 
 any man common or unclean." He then 
 declared the Gospel unto Cornelius, who received 
 it, and the Holy Ghost fell on all them which 
 heard the word, i.e. on Cornelius, his kinsmen, 
 and near friends (Acts 10.24, 44). The pro- 
 minence given to this event (note the repetition 
 of the story in chap. 11) shows that it was 
 regarded as a distinct epoch in the history 
 of the Church. Cornelius, though fearing God 
 and attached to Judaism in a loose sort of way 
 (10.2), was uncircumcised (11.3), and therefore 
 not a proselyte. His baptism was thus the first 
 important step in the admission of the Gentiles 
 (11.18). 
 
 Corner. According to the Law, the corner 
 of the field was not to be wholly reaped, this 
 being part of the provision for the poor (Lev. 
 19.9). The constant complaints of the prophets 
 concerning the defrauding of the poor (Isai. 
 10.2 ; Amos 5.11, 8.G) seem to show that this 
 enactment lost practical force. Tho Hebrews 
 
 ere prohibited from cutting the " corners," i.e. 
 
 
 the extremities, of the hair and whiskers running 
 round the ears (Lev. 19.27, 21.5). 
 
 Corner-Stonc. The great stone which bound 
 together the sides of a building, either at the 
 bottom (Isai. 28.16) or top (Ps. 118.22 ; Zech. 
 4.7) of the angle. The phrase " corner-stone " 
 came to be applied to persons of influence 
 (Isai. 19.13), and in the N.T. the Scriptures 
 just cited are frequently applied to our Lord 
 (Mk. 12.10 ; Eph. 2.20 ; 1 Pet. 2.6, 7). 
 
 Cornet. In Dan. 3 the Hebrew qeren (lit. 
 hom): in 1 Ch. 15.28 ; 2 Ch. 15.14; Ps. 98.6; 
 Hos. 5.8 the Hebrew shophar, generally rendered 
 trumpet. [TRUMPET.] The " cornet " in 
 2 Sam. 6.5 (R.V. " castanets," marg. " sistra ") 
 was some kind of instrument played by being 
 shaken, like the Egyptian sistrum, consisting of 
 rings or bells hung loosely on iron rods. 
 
 Cos, Co'os. Now called Stanchio ; a small 
 island off the coast of Caria, Asia Minor, 
 where Paul passed a night on his return from 
 his third missionary tour (Acts. 21.1) ; it was 
 celebrated for its light woven fabrics and for 
 its wines, also for a temple of .Esculapius, 
 to which a school of physicians was attached, 
 \vith a museum of anatomy and pathology. 
 
 Co'sam. Ancestor of Joseph, the husband 
 of the Virgin Mary (Lk. 3.28). 
 
 Couch. [BED.] 
 
 Council. 1. See SANHEDRIN. 2. " Whoso- 
 ever shall say to his brother, Raca, shall be 
 in danger of the council" (Matt. 5.22). The 
 council here referred to is one of the lower 
 courts. See also Matt. 10.17 and Mk. 13.9. 
 3. A kind of jury or privy council, consisting 
 of assessors who assisted Roman governors in 
 the administration of justice and other public 
 matters (Acts 25.12). 
 
 Court. Most commonly applied to the 
 enclosure of the Tabernacle and the Temple. 
 The word rendered " palace " in the A.V. of 
 Matt. 26.69, "Now Peter sat without in the 
 palace," should be translated " court," i.e. 
 the quadrangle in the centre of the high priest's 
 palace. He was not in the chamber where 
 the trial of the Saviour was being held. See 
 also Mk. 14.66, 15.16, and John 18.15. 
 
 Covenant. A solemn contract or agreement 
 between man and man, or between man and 
 God. Instances of the former occur in Gen. 
 21.27, 31.44-55; Josh. 9.6-15): the idea of 
 the latter so pervades the Scriptures as finally 
 to give to the completed Canon the titles of the 
 Old Testament (i.e. Covenant) and the New 
 Testament. 
 
 1. The Old Covenant. The word is first used 
 of God's promises to Noah (Gen. 6.18, 9.9-16), 
 but the characteristic history of a compact 
 between God and His chosen people, Israel, 
 begins with Abraham, and the promises of 
 Gen. 15, ratified by solemn covenant ritual, 
 and again and again repeated and extended 
 (Gen. 17.19, 22.16). The conditions on 
 Abraham's part are faith (15.6) and obedience 
 (17.1,9, 22.16). Accordingly the story of the 
 Exodus begins with the statement that "God 
 
COW] 
 
 114 
 
 [CRETE 
 
 remembered His covenant with Abraham, with 
 Isaac, and with Jacob" (Ex. 2.24). The 
 giving of the Law from Sinai is prepared for 
 by a reminder of how God had delivered Israel, 
 and by further promises on condition of obedience. 
 Moses wrote " all the words of the Lord " in 
 the " Book of the Covenant," and after 
 expiatory sacrifices read it before the people, 
 who responded, " All that the Lord hath said 
 will we do, and be obedient " ; then he sprinkled 
 the people with " the blood of the covenant " 
 (Ex. 19.4-6, 24.4-8). It is this covenant which 
 is most frequently referred to throughout the 
 O.T. and in notable utterances of the N.T. (v. 
 infra). The tables of the Law were afterwards 
 placed in the " Ark of the Covenant," which 
 was regarded as symbol and dwelling-place of 
 Jehovah (Ex. 25.21, etc. ). As " to eat of a man's 
 salt " means a pledge of amity, the " salt of the 
 covenant " was to be added to every meal 
 offering, a beautiful reminder of sacred ties 
 between God and His chosen people (Lev. 2.13 ; 
 cf. Num. 18.19; 2 Ch. 13.5). The covenant 
 of perpetual kingship to the line of David 
 (2 Sam. 23.5) is told in 2 Sam. 7. 
 
 The O.T. references to the covenant abound 
 in notices of Israel's failure to keep it : they 
 forgot, transgressed, broke the covenant. These 
 culminate in the great prophecy of Jer. 31.31-34, 
 which foreshadows " a new covenant," not only 
 demanding obedience, but supplying the moral 
 motive power of love, its law written in the 
 heart. For the fulfilment of this prophecy 
 we pass from the O.T. (Covenant) to the 
 N.T. 
 
 2. The New Covenant [for testament hi the 
 sense of covenant see TESTAMENT]. According 
 to the earliest account of the institution of the 
 Lord's Supper, Jesus said, " This cup is the 
 new covenant in My blood " (1 Cor. 11.25 R.V. ; 
 cf. Matt. 26.28 ; Mk. 14.24 ; Lk. 22.20). The 
 reference is to Ex. 24.8 : Jesus was to create 
 a new relation between God and men, founded 
 like the old upon sacrifice, the sacrifice of 
 Himself. In the development of this truth 
 in the N.T. writings, the stress lies naturally 
 upon the means of the covenant, the blood of 
 Christ (Rom. 3.25; Eph. 1.7; Heb. 9.14; 
 
 1 Pet. 1.19 ; 1 John 1.7 ; Rev. 1.5, etc.) : the 
 thought of the covenant itself is prominent in 
 
 2 Cor. 3.6 ; Gal. 3.15, and especially in Heb. 
 8.10, 12.24, 13.20. For another view of N.T. 
 passages see TESTAMENT. 
 
 Cow. Mentioned as a domestic animal in 
 the times of Jacob in Palestine and of Pharaoh 
 in Egypt (Gen. 32.15, 41.1-4). In Canaan 
 the Israelites had numerous cows (Deut. 7.13, 
 28.4). A cow and her calf were not to be killed 
 the same day (Lev. 22.28 ; cf. Ex. 23.19 ; 
 Deut. 22.6, 7). 
 
 Coz (R.V. Hakkoz). A man among the 
 descendants of Judah (1 Ch. 4.8). 
 
 CozT)i. Deceitful : a Midianite woman, 
 daughter of Zur, one of the chiefs of the nation 
 (Num. 25.15, 18). Her connexion with Zimri, 
 a leading Simeonite, was part-cause of the plague 
 
 at Shittim. When they were destroyed, the 
 plague was stayed. 
 
 Cozeba. [CHOZEBAH.] 
 
 Cracknels. Small dry cakes. Only 1 K. 
 14.3 : the same word is rendered bread (dry 
 and mouldy) at Josh. 9.5. 
 
 Crane. /sat. 38.14 and Jer. 8.7; the A.V. 
 has " crane and swallow," the R.V. correctly 
 "swallow and crane." The crane is a 
 migratory bird, well known in Palestine, with 
 a loud, hoarse, melancholy cry. Flocks of 
 them, numbering many thousands, resort in 
 the winter to certain well-known roosting-places 
 in the southern desert. 
 
 Creation. There are two accounts of the 
 Creation in Scripture the one ending with the 
 institution of the Sabbath (Gen. 2.3), the other 
 comprising the narrative of Eden and the 
 Fall of Man (Gen. 2.4-3.24). Two points 
 should be specially noted. First, the world 
 was made. Heathen philosophers in general 
 maintained the eternity of matter, even those 
 who taught that God (or the gods) moulded 
 it into various forms. The words " God 
 created " dispel such speculations. In the 
 second place, the world was made by God 
 only. Thus is monotheism stamped from the 
 first upon the inspired record ; in absolute 
 distinction from monolatry (to use a modern 
 word), which might denote the worship of 
 one God, without denying the possible existence 
 of others. The revelation is based upon the 
 truth that Jehovah is the only God, for whereas 
 throughout) the first account the term " God " 
 is used, the second has consistently " the 
 Lord God " ; the primal creative force is no 
 other than Jehovah, the God of revelation 
 and grace. 
 
 Traditions of the creation are found among 
 the records of ancient Eastern nations, particu- 
 larly of the Accadians, the primitive inhabit- 
 ants of the plains of Lower Mesopotamia. 
 On the tablets and cylinders, rescued from the 
 long-buried palaces and temples of Assyria, 
 are inscribed narratives which bear a remarkable 
 resemblance to the record of Genesis. But 
 in dignity and religious value the Biblical 
 account stands unrivalled. Creation by the 
 Divine Will would still be creation, although 
 the process extended over millions of years, and 
 no science of the " laws of Nature " can con- 
 flict with the revelation that these are, in fact, 
 the ways in which God works. 
 
 Creditor. [LOAN.] 
 
 Crescens. A companion of Paul who left 
 him to go to Galatia (2 Tim. 4.10). It is pos- 
 sible that this was European Galatia or Gaul 
 (some MSS. read Gaul : so R.V. marg. ), practically 
 coterminous with modern France. The founding 
 of the Churches of Vienne and Mayence was 
 ascribed by tradition to Crescens. 
 
 Crete. One of the largest islands hi the 
 Mediterranean, equidistant from Europe, Asia, 
 and Africa, but always reckoned as part of 
 Europe ; inhabited by considerable numbers of 
 Jews, some of whom were present at Jt-rusalenj 
 
CRETES] 
 
 115 
 
 [CRITICISM, THE HIGHER 
 
 on the Day of Pentecost (Acts 2.11) ; passed by 
 Paul, on the south side, on his voyage to Rome 
 (Acts 27.7-13, 21) ; probably visited by him after 
 his first imprisonment in Rome (Tit, 1.5) ; scene 
 of the labours of Titus, where he received Paul's 
 epistle, in which the inhabitants are described 
 as lawless and immoral (Tit. 1.10-13), their own 
 Cretan poet, Epimenides (600 B.C.), being quoted 
 against them ( ver. 12). Titus was much honoured 
 in the island during the Middle Ages. The more 
 common modern name of the island is Candia. 
 
 Cretes (Acts 2.11), Cretians (Tit. 1.12). 
 Inhabitants of Crete. 
 
 Crib. A box or trough of stone in which the 
 animals' food was kept ( Job 39.9 ; Prov. 14.4 ; 
 Isai. 1.3). 
 
 Crimson. " Though your sins be as scarlet 
 . . . though they be red like crimson " 
 (Isai. 1.18). The word " crimson " refers to 
 the female of the cochineal insect, a grub 
 which attaches itself to the Syrian holm-oak. 
 When alive the grub is about the size of the 
 kernel of a cherry, and of a dark amaranth 
 colour, but when dead it shrivels up to the size 
 of a grain of wheat. It is very common in 
 Palestine, and is still occasionally used as a dye. 
 " Scarlet " is produced from the same insect, 
 and the colours are not always exactly dis- 
 criminated. 
 
 Crisping Pins (Isai. 3.22). R.V. " satchels " : 
 the word is rendered " bags " in 2 K. 5.23. 
 
 Crispus. A Jew of Corinth, whose conversion 
 was a fruitful event in Paul's work there. He 
 was a Tiler of the synagogue, and in order to 
 point the significance of his conversion the 
 apostle baptized Crispus with his own hands 
 (1 Cor. 1.14). 
 
 Criticism, The Higher.!. The Origin and 
 Meaning of the Phrase. It should be carefully 
 observed that the word " higher," as applied 
 to criticism, does not express any claim to 
 superiority, but is a purely technical term. 
 " Higher " is here used in contrast to " lower." 
 The " lower " criticism is that kind of 
 criticism which deals with the text, and the 
 text only. For example, the two editions of 
 the Greek Testament which are now in most 
 use among scholars are, perhaps, that of 
 Westcott and Hort, and that of Nestle. Each 
 is the result of the '* lower " criticism only, 
 i.e. criticism which deals with words alone, and 
 investigates the authorities upon which these 
 rest, in the case of the New Testament upon 
 manuscripts in the original Greek, versions or 
 translations, and quotations in the Fathers or 
 elsewhere. The same three kinds of " author- 
 ities" are used also for the text of the O.T., 
 but at present the third kind, quotations, is 
 of little value, as there are but few quotations 
 of the original dating from early times. The 
 " higher " criticism, on the contrary, goes 
 beyond the question of what are the words 
 of a given document. It endeavours to find 
 out the sources from which the document was 
 derived, and, if possible, to trace out the 
 stages by which it came to its present form. 
 
 Such criticism is, in principle, perfectly 
 legitimate. In fact, it is continually being 
 applied to all kinds of writings, profane as 
 well as sacred. The term " Higher Criticism " 
 was first given to this special method of studying 
 the Bible by J. G. Eichhorn, of Gottingen, in 
 the second edition of his Introduction to the 
 O.T., published in 1787, where he says, 
 " I have been obliged to bestow the great- 
 est amount of labour on a hitherto entirely un- 
 worked field, the investigation of the inner 
 constitution of the separate books of the 
 O.T. by the aid of the Higher Criticism" 
 (quoted by Carpenter and Harford-Battersby, 
 The Hexateuch, 1.42). 
 
 Accepting the principle that, when writing 
 under Divine inspiration, the writer of a 
 canonical book was guided to use such sources 
 of knowledge as were available, we can under- 
 stand that these may have been either written 
 or oral, or, if the expression be allowed, 
 crystallised into customs; and, further, that 
 they may have been drawn in the first instance, 
 whether by the inspired writer himself or the 
 framers of the sources used by him, from 
 Israelites or from non-Israelites. It will be 
 seen at once how wide a field is thus thrown 
 open for investigation. The fact that such 
 study, even of the Bible, is closely connected 
 with the prevailing spirit of our time that of 
 investigating and testing everything in every 
 department of knowledge (whether physical 
 or literary) by the inductive or historical 
 method, should not blind us to its value. 
 Nor should it be neglected, even though, in 
 the process of investigation, some wild theories 
 may be brought forward. 
 
 2. The Higher Criticism of the O.T. 
 In a sense there has never been a time in 
 the history of the Christian Church when 
 this has been entirely absent, for even 
 Irenaeus attributed to Ezra an inspired re- 
 arrangement of the words of earlier prophets 
 (Adv. Haer. 3.21), and in the twelfth century 
 the famous Rabbi Aben Ezra suggested that 
 small parts of the Pentateuch were not written 
 by Moses. Even Luther pointed to the allusion 
 to the Israelite monarchy in Gen. 36.31 as 
 evidence that that verse at least was due to 
 a later date than Moses. But As true, a French 
 Roman Catholic physician, in 1753, was the 
 first to make a systematic investigation of the 
 subject, by inquiring into the sources of the 
 Book of Genesis. He thought the presence of 
 two names for God, Jehovah and Elohim, was 
 due to the fact that Moses made use of two 
 sources. From his time the study has gradu- 
 ally been developed, until it is now possible 
 to procure editions of the O.T. in which chapters 
 and verses, half verses, and words, are marked 
 by different colours, or type, or symbols, 
 designating the various authors or schools of 
 authors to which critics confidently assign 
 each separate part. 
 
 Some of the positions taken up are a fol- 
 lows : 
 
CRITICISM, THE HIGHER] 
 
 11G 
 
 [CRITICISM, THE HIGHER 
 
 Ewald (1843) distinguished four writers in 
 the Pentateuch, but, like all other critics of 
 that time, thought that Deuteronomy was 
 written later than Exodus, Leviticus, and 
 Numbers. Graf (1866) went so far as to say 
 that the Priestly legislation of the Pentateuch 
 was later than Deuteronomy, and also later than 
 the Prophets. This theory, subsequently de- 
 veloped by Wellhausen (1878), is now accepted 
 by the large majority of Higher Critics. Accord- 
 ing to its exponents, of the four great writings 
 of the Pentateuch, or rather the Hexateuch (for 
 Joshua is joined with the five books of Moses), 
 two, viz. the Jehovistic and Elohistic, existed, 
 it is said, as early as the time of Amos (750 B.C.) ; 
 Deuteronomy was composed about the time 
 of Josiah (623 B.C.) ; while the Priestly legisla- 
 tion, though sketched by Ezekiel (593 B.C.), 
 was not completed until the time of Nehemiah, 
 soon after which it was combined with the 
 rest of the Pentateuch and the Book of Joshua. 
 
 Other important parts of the theories of the 
 Higher Criticism are that large portions of the 
 Book of Isaiah are very much later than that 
 Prophet (740-690 B.C.); that, in particular, 
 chaps. 40-55 belong to near the end of the 
 Exile (536 B.C.), and chaps. 56-66, together 
 with certain other chapters in the first part, 
 were written as late as the end of the Persian 
 period, or even after the time of Alexander the 
 Great (332 B.C.). Similarly, the Book of 
 Zechariah is said to consist of two parts, 
 chaps. 1-8 being written by that prophet 
 not long after the Return, i.e. in 520 and 519 
 B.C., and chaps. 9-14 written for the most 
 part quite late, perhaps after the time of 
 Alexander. 
 
 But it would appear that there is hardly a 
 single book of the O.T. which the Higher Critics 
 do not claim to be able to disintegrate, assigning 
 its portions to different dates. 
 
 3. The N.T. does not afford the same 
 scope for conjectures, because more is known 
 about the circumstances under which large 
 parts of it were written, and in any case the 
 possible limits of time are much narrower than 
 they are in the O.T. Of chief importance 
 is the question of the relation which the Four 
 Gospels, and especially the first three, hold 
 to one another. Here it is sufficient to say 
 that recent Higher Criticism seems to be 
 fairly successful in showing that (a) the First 
 and the Third Gospels used the Second, but 
 neither the First used the Third nor the Third 
 the First ; (b) a collection of our Lord's dis- 
 courses, and perhaps deeds, existed, which was 
 used by the First and the Third Gospels ; (c) 
 the First and the Third Gospels had each access 
 to material unknown to the other. 
 
 In the remaining books of the N.T. the 
 Higher Criticism is now tending to confirm 
 the belief that the author of the Third Gospel 
 and of the Acts was one and the same person, 
 who used for his Acts materials that he had 
 made on his travels with St. Paul [ACTS). 
 It has suggested, but without sufficient reason, 
 
 that Rom. 16.1-20, with its long list of salu- 
 tations addressed to an un visited Church, may 
 be a separate letter to Ephesus. And in 
 dealing with the perplexing problem of St. 
 Paul's communications with Corinth, it is, 
 on better grounds, inclined to regard 2 Cor. 
 6.14-7.1 (a passage which curiously disturbs 
 the context) as part of the lost letter referred 
 to in 1 Cor. 5.9 (therefore earlier than 1 Cor.), 
 and 2 Cor. 10-13 as an epistle intermediate 
 between 1 and 2 Cor., being the " painful letter " 
 referred to in 2 Cor. 2.3, 4, 9, 7.8, 12. But 
 it cannot be said that this theory is made out 
 with any certainty. 
 
 4. It is, however, necessary to call attention 
 to the subjective character of a large part of 
 the Higher Criticism, especially in its criticism 
 of the O.T. It claims to be the Historical 
 Method, but it is hampered on all sides by the 
 absence of adequate historical data. It there- 
 fore has to fall back very largely upon im- 
 pressions, and after removing from the genuine 
 work of, say, Isaiah, chapters or verses which 
 it believes he did not write, it argues from the 
 remainder as though they were the final test 
 of his writings. But at any time the discovery 
 of really ancient evidence may compel the 
 alteration of such theories. For example, it 
 was confidently asserted until quite recently 
 that an allusion in the prophets to Jews residing 
 in Upper Egypt brought down the date of such 
 an allusion to the time of Alexander the Great 
 at least. But the discovery in 1904 of the 
 existence of a flourishing colony of Jews at 
 Assouan at least as early as the sixth century 
 B.C. has destroyed the value of such an assertion. 
 Similarly, fifty years ago it was part of the 
 stock-in-trade of Higher Critics that when the 
 Israelites came out of Egypt they were a rude 
 and ignorant people, and found themselves 
 in Canaan among peoples equally rude and 
 ignorant ; and that for this reason it was 
 impossible to attribute the books of the Penta- 
 teuch to Moses, or to place credit in its asser- 
 tions. But now it has been proved abundantly 
 from Egyptian history and discoveries in the 
 Sinaitic Peninsula, not only that Moses must 
 have been highly educated, but also that the chief 
 men and overseers of the nation must have 
 been accustomed to write and to make reports. 
 Similarly, again, until a few years ago, Higher 
 Critics denied the possibility of the state- 
 ments of Genesis that kings of Babylon and 
 neighbouring states came as far west as 
 Palestine. But now it is a commonplace 
 that they did so several times before the time 
 of Abraham. It is also known now that the 
 laws of the kings of Babylon ran in Canaan 
 in the time of Abraham, and that the life of 
 the latter, as recorded in Genesis, is fully in 
 accord with what we know from elsewhere of 
 the conditions of things there at that period. 
 
 5. Conclusion. Lastly, it is most desirable 
 that both parties in the present controversy 
 about the Higher Criticism and the Bible 
 should remember that, whatever the ultimate 
 
CROSS] 
 
 117 
 
 [CUCUMBERS 
 
 results of this criticism may be, it cannot do 
 more than point out the sources of human 
 knowledge, and is obliged to confess that the 
 history of Israel is unique. Even if it prove 
 to be the case that portions, small or great, 
 of the contents of the inspired books be 
 drawn ultimately from non-Israelitish sources, 
 Babylonian, for example, or Arabian, yet it is 
 only as Biblical and Israelitish documents 
 that they have had their power. The more 
 we know of the pre-Christian Gentile nations 
 and their literatures, the more pre-eminent, 
 in moral power and spiritual development, 
 stand out the literature and the nation of Israel. 
 
 Cross. Crucifixion was a Roman method of 
 execution, at first reserved for slaves. It com- 
 bined every element of shame and torture, and 
 was naturally looked upon with the profoundest 
 horror. 
 
 The punishment of crucifixion commenced with 
 scourging, after the criminal had been stripped. 
 Into the scourge the soldiers often stuck nails, 
 pieces of bone, and the like, and the punishment 
 might be so severe that the sufferer died under it. 
 The scourging generally took place at a column. 
 In our Lord's case the scourging seems to have 
 been a milder punishment inflicted before 
 sentence, in order to excite pity and procure 
 immunity from further punishment (Lk. 23.22 ; 
 John 10.1). 
 
 Various sorts of crosses were used. That on 
 which our Lord was crucified was the Latin cross, 
 shaped thus *(. Other familiar types were 
 "St. Andrew's Cross" X and "St Anthony's 
 Cross " ~[~. Besides the four arms of the Latin 
 cross there was another projection arising out of 
 the central stem, on which the body of the sufferer 
 rested, in order to prevent its weight from tearing 
 away the hands. Whether there was also a 
 support to the feet, as we sometimes see in 
 pictures, is doubtful. An inscription was 
 generally placed above the person's head 
 (Matt. 27.37; Mk. 15.26; Lk. 23.38; John 
 19.19) briefly expressing his crime. The criminal 
 carried the cross-bar to the place of execution 
 (Mk. 8.34, 15.21, etc.). Our Lord was nailed to 
 the cross, but sometimes the sufferer was merely 
 tied to it, though the latter was regarded as the 
 more painful punishment, because it meant 
 such prolonged agony. Sometimes among the 
 Jews the body of an executed criminal was 
 hung on a tree, where it might not remain over- 
 night, for it was " the curse of God," and would 
 defile the land (Deut. 21.22, 23). Paul applies this 
 passage to Jesus in Gal 3.13, and echoes of it 
 may be traced in Acts 5.30, 10.39, etc. 
 
 Crown. Crowns are constantly mentioned 
 in Scripture, and represent several words of 
 differing meaning. In the O.T. there is the 
 crown or rim of gold round the furniture 
 of the Tabernacle (Ex. 25.11, 24, 30.3), the 
 crown of sacred office worn by the high priest 
 (Ex. 29.6, cf. 28.36, 37) and king (2 Sam. 1.10), 
 and, more frequently, the royal diadem (2 Sam. 
 12.30). Figurative use is made both of 
 the sacred (Pg. 89.39) and the royal crown 
 
 (Prov. 12.4, 16.31, 17.6). In the N.T. the 
 royal diadem is spoken of in Rev. 
 12.3, 13.1, 19.12. Elsewhere the reference 
 is to the wreath of victory (1 Cor. 9.25 ; 1 Pet. 
 5.4, etc.) or of festal rejoicing. [DIADEM.] 
 
 Crown of Thorns. Our Lord was crowned 
 with a wreath of thorns by the Roman soldiers, 
 in their mockery of " the King of the Jews " 
 (Matt. 27.29 and parallels). The plant used may 
 have been the Arabian nabk, which has many 
 sharp thorns and flexible branches that can 
 easily be plaited. The object was rather 
 mockery than the torture which has become 
 associated with the "crown of thorns." 
 
 Crucifixion. [CROSS.] 
 
 Cruse. A vessel of clay for containing water, 
 oil, honey, etc. (1 Sam. 26.11 ; 1 K. 14.3, 19.6). 
 
 Crystal Wisdom is declared to be more 
 valuable than " gold and the crystal" (Job 28.17). 
 The R.V. here translates "glass." In Ezek. 1.22 
 the ordinary rock-crystal is meant. In Rev. 
 4.6 and 22.1 either ice or crystal is signified. 
 
 Cub. [CHUB.] 
 
 Cubit. The Hebrew word translated cubit 
 signifies, in all cases but one, " the fore-arm." 
 The exception is in Judg. 3.16, where cubit is 
 a conjectural translation of a unique word. 
 There has been much discussion as to the length 
 of a cubit, the estimates varying from 16 to 
 22 inches. 
 
 In the N.T. cubit occurs as a measure of 
 length (John 21.8 ; Rev. 21.17). Whether it is 
 to be so interpreted in the saying of Jesus, 
 " Which of you by being anxious can add one 
 cubit unto his stature ? " (Matt. 6.27 ; Lk. 12.25) 
 is doubtful. The word rendered " stature " 
 may also mean " age " or " life," and the 
 improbability of anxiety on the part of any man 
 to increase his height by some 18 inches 
 suggests that " cubit " may be here exceptionally 
 used as a measure of time, " Add one span to his 
 life " (so R.V. marg.). On the other hand, 
 there is evidence that the " cubit " was the 
 ordinary unit of measurement for human 
 stature : short, medium, tall men are described 
 as 3, 3, and 4 cubits in height. Hence, without 
 being too literal, we may perhaps interpret 
 " which of you is able to increase his height ? " 
 
 Cuckow (i.e. the cuckoo). Mentioned 
 among unclean birds in the A.V. of Lev. 11.16 
 and in Deut. 14.15. The R.V. has " seamew," 
 and it is probable that some sort of " gull " is 
 meant. 
 
 Cucumbers. These are much cultivated in 
 the East, and appear in the lamentation of the 
 manna-fed multitude over the remembered 
 dainties of their Egyptian fare (Num. 11.5). 
 Isaiah, foretelling the desolation of Jerusalem, 
 writes (1.8), " The daughter of Zion is left as a 
 cottage in a vineyard, as a lodge in a garden 
 of cucumbers." This lodge or cottage is a 
 rude temporary structure, made of boughs cut 
 from the oleander, and sustained by four long 
 poles, in which a man or boy is set to watch 
 against robbers or destructive animals, such as 
 foxes or jackals. When the crop is gathered 
 
CUMMIN] 
 
 118 
 
 [CYRENIUS 
 
 and the lodge forsaken, " the poles will fall down 
 or lean every way, and the green boughs with 
 which it is shaded will be scattered by the 
 winds, leaving only a ragged sprawling wreck 
 a most affecting type of utter desolation." 
 
 Cummin. Being a small and tender seed, 
 cummin was threshed by being beaten with a rod 
 (Isai. 28.25-27). The ancients used cummin as a 
 condiment with fish and other viands, and as 
 a stimulant to the appetite, and the Egyptian 
 cooks sprinkled the seeds or fruits upon 
 cakes and bread, as we use caraways. In 
 Matt. 23.23 cummin is mentioned among the 
 small garden herbs upon which the scribes and 
 Pharisees scrupulously paid tithes. 
 
 Gun. [CHUN.] 
 
 Canning. In the A.V. of the O.T. " cunning " 
 has always its archaic sense of wise, skilful 
 (properly the participle of the A.-S. verb " to 
 know " : connected both with can and ken). 
 The R.V. sometimes replaces by "skilful," 
 or, of work, " curious." 
 
 Cupbearer. An officer of high rank with 
 Oriental monarchs, whose duty was to serve 
 the king with wine and guard against poison. 
 Nehemiah held this office at the Persian court 
 (Neh. 1.11). Pharaoh's " butler " was cupbearer 
 (same Heb. word). See also 1 K. 10.5 ; 2 Ch. 9.4. 
 
 Curious Arts. Magic and jugglery. The 
 books which the magicians burned (Acts 19.19) 
 contained collections of spells and charms, 
 which were sold at a great price. Some 
 examples of Ephosian spells have come down 
 to us. 
 
 Curse. [ANATHEMA. ] 
 
 Cush. 1. Son of Ham, grandson of Noah, and 
 father of Nimrod (Gen. 10.6-8). The name is 
 more commonly used as a geographical and 
 ethnic term, signifying the country (Isai. 11.11) 
 and people of Ethiopia, which is its usual 
 rendering in the O.T. Ethiopia generally corre- 
 sponded with what is now known as the Egyptian 
 Soudan, but also included the south-western coast 
 of Arabia and the opposite coast of Africa as 
 well. Prof. Sayce writes that " it was inhabited 
 for the most part by a white race, whose physical 
 characteristics connect them with the Egyptians. 
 But in the southern valley of the Nile this 
 race was in contact with two black races, the 
 negroes and the Nubians." The latter, except 
 in colour of skin and hair, possessed a much 
 more refined physical structure and appearance 
 than the negroes. 2. A Benjamite mentioned 
 in the title of Ps. 7, otherwise unknown. 
 [ETHIOPIA.] 
 
 Cu'shan (Rob. 3.7). Perhaps a tribe of Cush 
 (Ethiopia), or identical with Cushan-Rishathaim. 
 
 Cu'shan-Rishatha'im. [CHUSHAN-R.] 
 
 Cu'shi, Cushite. As a proper name Cushi is 
 1. An ancestor of Jehudi ( Jer. 36.14). 2. Father 
 of Zephaniah the prophet (Zeph. 1.1). 3. For 
 Cushi in 2 Sam. 18.21-32 the R.V. has " the 
 Cushite," i.e. an Ethiopian attached to the 
 person of Joab, who broke to David the news 
 of Absalom's death. 
 
 Cuth, Cu'thah. Now Tell-Ibrahim, 15 miles 
 
 north-east of Babylon, whence Shahnaneser 
 brought colonists into Samaria (2 K. 17.24, 30). 
 These Cutheans, who became the progenitors of 
 the Samaritans, were worshippers of Nergal, 
 one of the Assyrian gods. 
 
 Cutting. Among the Canaanites and neigh- 
 bouring nations the practices of shaving the 
 head and mutilating the body were current, as 
 supposed means of propitiating the spirits of the 
 dead. Hence the Israelites were forbidden to 
 imitate the customs (Lev. 19.28). The priests of 
 Baal cut themselves with knives to propitiate 
 then* god (1 K. 18.28). Another usage con- 
 templated by the prohibition was that of 
 tattooing the body in order to indicate allegiance 
 to a deity. This is evidently alluded to in 
 Rev. 13.16. The tearing of the flesh from grief 
 and anguish of spirit in mourning for the dead 
 was regarded as a mark of affection (Jer. 16.6, 
 41.5, 48.37). 
 
 Cymbals. Percussive instruments of copper 
 (1 Ch. 15.19) or other metal included in the 
 orchestra of 1 Ch. 13.8, 15.16, etc., and under 
 another name in 2 Sam. 6.5 ; Ps. 150.5 (two sorts). 
 In the N.T. the only reference is 1 Cor. 13.1, 
 where for the inappropriate " tinkling cymbal " 
 the R.V. has " clanging cymbal." 
 
 Cypress. See Isai. 44.14, where R.V. has 
 " holm tree." The only guidance is that the 
 Heb. root means some hard wood, and that this 
 tree is used with cedar and oak. 
 
 Cyprus. A large, beautiful, and fertile island 
 in the Mediterranean : birthplace of Barnabas 
 (Acts 4.36), early received the Gospel and sent 
 forth evangelists (Acts 11.19, 20, 21.16), visited 
 by Paul and Barnabas on their first missionary 
 tour (Acts 13.4-13), revisited by Barnabas 
 (Acts 15.39), passed on the south by Paul on his 
 return from his third missionary tour ( Acts 21.3), 
 passed on the north by Paul on his voyage to 
 Rome (Acts 27.4). Cyprus was celebrated for its 
 copper mines, which were at one time farmed to 
 Herod the Great. A remarkable event in its 
 history was a terrible insurrection of the Jews 
 in the reign of Emperor Trajan (117 A.D.), which 
 led to a massacre, first of the Greek inhabit- 
 ants and then of the insurgents themselves. 
 [CHITTIM.] 
 
 Cyre'ne. Now El-Krenna. The chief city of 
 Cyrenaica (Tripoli), which extended from Carth- 
 age to Egypt and from Libya (Acts 2.10) to the 
 Mediterranean ; inhabited by a considerable 
 number of Jews, who gave their name to one 
 of the synagogues in Jerusalem (Acts 2.10, 6.9) ; 
 home of Simon who bore the Saviour's cross 
 (Matt, 27.32; MTc. 15.21; Lk. 23.26), and of 
 early evangelists (Acts 11.20, 13.1). Gyrene, 
 though on the African coast, was a Greek city. 
 
 Cyre'nian. A native or inhabitant of Gyrene 
 (Mk. 15.21 ; Lk. 23.26 ; Acts 6.9). 
 
 Cyre'nius. Mentioned in Lk. 2.2, the Greek 
 form of P. Sulpicius Quirinus. He was governor 
 of Cilicia, which was annexed to Syria at the tune 
 of our Lord's birth. The " taxing " in this 
 passage means the enrolment or registration of 
 the people. 
 
CYRUS] 
 
 119 
 
 [DAMASCUS 
 
 Cyrus. The Sun : the early career of this 
 great conqueror is inextricably wrapped up in 
 legend. There is no record of it in the Scriptures. 
 The most trustworthy account states that he 
 was the son of Cambyses, a Persian of royal 
 blood, and grandson, on his mother's side, of 
 Astyages, the king of the Medes. He became 
 the ruler of Babylonia, Media, Persia, and other 
 countries. He led his victorious armies as far 
 north as the Greek cities of Asia Minor and as far 
 south as the valley of the Tigris. He is said to 
 have performed many feats of military engineering 
 passing over the Gyndes, a tributary of the 
 Tigris, by diverting its water into a large number 
 of small channels, and capturing Babylon by 
 
 diverting the course of the Euphrates, so that his 
 soldiers entered the city by the bed of the river. 
 Cyrus was not only a great conqueror, but a wise 
 ruler, seeking, as far as possible, to identify him- 
 self with the sentiments of the various nations 
 he had vanquished. Jews and Babylonians alike 
 were contented under his rule. He ordered the 
 rebuilding of the Temple of Jerusalem (2 Ch. 
 36.23 ; Ezra 1.2, 4.3, 5.13), returned the vessels 
 of the house of the Lord which Nebuchadnezzar 
 had taken away (Ezra 1.7), and made a grant to 
 bring cedar trees from Lebanon (Ezra 3.7). In 
 the book of Isaiah he is recognised as a shepherd 
 of the Lord (Isai. 44.28), and an anointed king 
 (Isai. 45.1). 
 
 Daba'reh. [DABBRATH.] 
 
 Dabba'sheth, Dabbe'sheth. A hump : now 
 Dabsheh ; a town of Zebulun (Josh. 19.11). 
 
 Dabe'rath. (?) Pasture: now Deburieh; a 
 town on the boundary of Zebulun (Josh. 19.12), 
 belonging to Issachar ; a Levitical city. It lies 
 at the western foot of Tabor. The same as 
 Debareh (Josh. 21.28). 
 
 Dagger. The word so translated in Judg. 
 3.16, 21, 22 is elsewhere generally rendered 
 " sword." 
 
 Da'gon. The national god of the Philistines. 
 There were temples of Dagon worship at Gaza 
 (Judg. 16.21-30) and Ashdod (1 Sam. 5.5, 6 ; 
 1 Ch. 10.10). Dagon was the god of agriculture. 
 Hence the gift of five golden field-mice 
 sent by the Philistines (1 Sam. 6.4) as a trespass- 
 offering to the God of Israel, the field-mice 
 perhaps symbolising the god who had punished 
 the worshippers of Dagon. Probably there is 
 some connexion with the fact that the plague 
 is primarily a rat disease. 
 
 Dalai 'ah, Delaiah. Jehovah hath drawn : a de- 
 scendant of Zerubbabel (1 C7&.3.24). [DELAIAH.] 
 
 Dalmanu'tha. A town or district on the west 
 side of the Sea of Galilee, whither our Lord came 
 after feeding the 4000 (Mk. 8.10), but otherwise 
 quite unknown. [MAQDALA.] 
 
 Dalmatia. Mountainous district on east coast 
 of the Adriatic, part of the Roman province of 
 Illyricum, whither Titus was sent (2 Tim. 4.10). 
 Paul himself had preached the Gospel in its 
 immediate neighbourhood (Rom. 15.19). It was 
 not itself the name of a province till 70 A.D. 
 
 Dalphon. (?) Dropping: a son of Haman 
 (Esth. 9.7). 
 
 Dama'ris. (?) Heifer : a woman converted at 
 Athens by Paul (Acts 17.34). It is hardly 
 possible that she can have been an Athenian 
 lady of rank, for one would not have teen in 
 St. Paul's audience. 
 
 Damas'cus. The most important and one of 
 the most ancient of the cities of Syria, standing in a 
 fertile, almost circular plain, 30 miles in diameter, 
 watered by the Barada and the Awaj (Abana and 
 
 Pharpar). It is distant from Jerusalem north- 
 east 133 miles. For ages it has been a commercial 
 centre (Ezek. 27.18 ; Amos 3.12). It was known 
 in the time of Abraham, and was the birthplace 
 of his steward Eliezer (Gen. 14.15, 15.2). 
 Except during the short period in which David 
 and Solomon held it in subjection, it was the 
 capital of the independent kingdom of Syria, 
 with which its history is closely linked. Damascus 
 was taken by David and laid under tribute 
 (2 Sam. 8.5,6; 1 Ch. 18.5-7), and retaken by 
 Rezon in the tune of Solomon (1 K. 11.23-25). 
 Benhadad i., king of Syria, being bribed by 
 Asa, king of Judah, broke his alliance with 
 Baasha and invaded Israel (1 K. 15.18-20; 2Ch. 
 16.2-4), continuing the war with Israel in the time 
 of Omri (1 K. 20.34). Benhadad II. vainly be- 
 sieged Samaria in the time of Ahab, returned, was 
 again routed, but secured a covenant with Ahab 
 (1 K. 20. 1-34). Three years afterwards war was 
 renewed, in which Ahab was defeated and 
 killed (1 K. 22.1, 37). From Damascus Naaman 
 was sent to Samaria for the cure of his 
 leprosy (2 K. 5). Benhadad unsuccessfully 
 besieged Samaria a second time (2 K. 6.24). 
 Hazael was visited by Elisha at Damascus and 
 designated Benhadad's successor (2 K. 8.7-15). 
 Hazael was defeated by the Assyrians, but was 
 victorious against Jehoram and Ahaziah (2 K. 
 8.28, 29). Syrians, ravaged the land of Israel 
 east of the Jordan in the reign of Jehu (2 K. 
 10.32, 33 ; Amos 1.3-5) ; besieged and took Gath 
 (2 K. 12.17 ; Amos 6.2) ; threatened Jerusalem 
 (2 K. 12.18 ; 2 Ch. 24.23) ; oppressed Israel under 
 Jehoahaz (2 K. 13.3-7, 22). Benhadad nr. 
 also was oppressive, but lost the cities which 
 Hazael had taken (2 K. 13.25), Jehoash being 
 victorious, according to the assurance of Elisha 
 (2 K. 13.14-19); Jeroboam also attacked 
 Damascus (2 K. 14.28). Rezin, in conjunction 
 with Pekah, king of Israel, unsuccessfully 
 attacked Jerusalem, but took numerous captives 
 and recovered Elath (2 K. 16.5, 6 ; 2 Ch. 28.5 ; 
 Isai. 7.1-9). Tiglath-pileser, king of Assyria, 
 at the instigation of Ahaz, took Damascus, 
 
DAMN, DAMNATION] 
 
 120 
 
 [DANIEL 
 
 : >;_- i, '.:.. . .7 
 
 the kmgdom of !! in (2 A*. 16.9-12: 
 
 ImL 17.1-3 ; Jar. 49.23-27 ; Amos 1.5). 
 
 In N.T. times TliaiaaTiii was part of the 
 of Aretas, an Arabian (2 Cor. 11.32) 
 
 '.: 1. The fifth son of Jacob, and 
 the not by Bihah (Gem. 30.6), of 
 
 know nothing. When tl 
 of 
 
 1 62,700 men able to serve, 
 , was exceeded only by Judah. The 
 of the riwiiaul Land assigned to the 
 was the smallest of the twWve, bnt it had 
 It extended from 
 the 
 
 of the 
 
 in the whole of Palestine, 
 of this territory was 
 Anuriftes and afterwards by the 
 drove the Danites up 
 plain, with their deep black soil, to the vfflage* 
 whose ruins still crown the niBs that skirt the 
 
 original seat. After the time of David 
 
 of DIM, a* applied to a tribe, ramsfaea. 
 to the tribe of Dan. It is 
 thai the name of Dan m omitted from 
 the 1st m JZc*. 7. The 
 Antichrist was expected to 
 
 city, so f amffiar as the 
 of Palestine, in the 
 from Dan eren to Beer- 
 It is at the main source of the Jordan, 
 and was originally eaDed Laish or Leshem ( Jo*. 
 19.47). It was taken by the Danites, and called 
 Dm (J*dg. 18) ; was the site of idolatrous worship 
 18^9, 30; 1 K. 1239, 30; 2 K. 10,29 ; 
 
 Ama* JU4) ; and was laid waste by Benhadad 
 ( 1 K. 15.20 ; 2 C*. 16.4). Dan was a very ancient 
 city, of great repute even in the time of Abraham 
 (Gfn. 14.14). No doubt the passage originally 
 the older name, Laish, and when that 
 by Dan, the new name was 
 MSS. It has been identified 
 with the modem Tell el-Kady, " the judge's 
 mound," whose long level top is strewed with 
 ruins. The spring which gushes out from the foot 
 of the mound is called el Leddan, and the stream 
 produced by the spring is termed Nahr ed-Dan. 
 3. In Ettt. 27.19 ** Dan also " should be read 
 as - Vedan " with the R.V. 
 
 . The Hebrew women made the dance 
 of expressing their feelings ; 
 and when their husbands or friends returned from 
 on behalf of life and home, they welcomed 
 with a dance of triumph (Ex. 15.20; 
 Jmdf. LL34). The young men are mentioned 
 as dancing with the old in Jer. 31.13. It has 
 been thought that the peculiarity of David's 
 he "danced before the Lord with 
 ' (2 &BB. 6U4) was that the dance. 
 iaatcordance with custom, should have been led 
 by Mkhal, who should have come out with 
 to welcome the conquerors. But 
 the Semitic nations sacred dances were 
 by men as well as by women. Rather 
 that it was undignified and 
 for him to divest himself of the upper 
 robes of his kingly office. The " leaping " bv 
 the priests of Baal was probably a limping 
 (1 K. 18.26). In Ca*L 6.13 "the 
 of two armies" may mean a sword 
 dance by the bride. The dance of Ps. 149.3, 150.4 
 is with pipe or other wind instrument. In no 
 case did men dance with women. Dancing by 
 girls was frequently of a licentious kind, as 
 probably in the case' of Salome (Mk. 6.22). 
 
 DtafeL God is my jwdye: 1. The second 
 son of David, bom unto him in Hebron, of 
 Abigail, the Carmelites* (1 Ch. 3.1), called 
 Cbileabm2&m.3.3. 
 
 2. The prophet Daniel, of whose history little 
 is known beyond what may be gathered from 
 the book which bears bis name (see below). 
 He was not a priest, like Jeremiah and Ezekiel ; 
 but, like Isaiah, was of the tribe of Judah, and 
 probably of the royal house (1.3-6). He was 
 carried to Babylon as a youth (1.4) in the third 
 year of Jehoiakim (605 B.C.), eight years before 
 Ezekiel. There he was placed in the court of 
 Nebuchadnezzar, and became acquainted with 
 the science of the Chaldnans, attaining a wisdom 
 superior to their own. 
 
 The first event which gained Daniel influence 
 was the disclosure and explanation of the dream 
 of Nebuchadnezzar. This occurred in the second 
 year of the toU reign of that monarch, i.e. 
 in 603. Subsequently his companions were 
 delivered from the burning fiery furnace into 
 which they had been thrown for refusing to 
 worship an image ; and some years later occurred 
 the second dream of Nebuchadnezzar. The 
 date of the events recorded in chap. 5, Bel- 
 
DANIEL, THE BOOK OF] 
 
 121 
 
 DANIEL, THE BOOK OF 
 
 shazzar's feast and the writing on the wall, seems 
 to be 538 B.C., towards the close of the reign 
 of Nabonidus, represented in Babylon by his 
 son Belshazzar. That night the young princ-e 
 (denominated " king ") was slain, and the 
 dynasty changed. By Nebuchadnezzar Daniel 
 had been raised to high rank and power ; a 
 position he retained, though no tun interruptedly, 
 under both the Babylonian and Persian 
 dynasties. In the reign of Darius he was thrown 
 into a lions' den for his fidelity towards the 
 religion of his race, but he was miraculously 
 delivered. He prophesied during the whole of 
 the Captivity (1.21), his last prophecy being 
 delivered two years later, in the third year of the 
 reign of Cyrus (10.1). He offered a pattern of 
 fidelity to the faith of Jehovah, even in a strange 
 land. Ezekiel mentions Daniel, with Noah and 
 Job, as a righteous man (14.14, 20), and as 
 endowed with special wisdom (28.3). If this be 
 the same Daniel, the classing of a young contem- 
 porary with the great names of old is very re- 
 markable. Our Lord quotes him as a prophet 
 (Matt. 24.15). 
 
 3. A descendant of Ithamar, who returned 
 from exile with Ezra (Ezra 8.2), and sealed the 
 covenant drawn up by Nehemiah (Neh. 10.6). 
 
 Daniel, The Book of. Few parts of Holy 
 Scripture have been more keenly discussed than 
 the Book of Daniel. This interest may in part 
 be traced to the relation of his prophecies to the 
 history of great nations. 
 
 Contents. The book is divided into two parts : 
 (I.) the historical, 1-6, and (II.) the prophetic, 
 7-12. In the former part Daniel is spoken of 
 in the third person ; in the latter (apart from 
 introductory notices, 7.1, 10.1) he himself is the 
 narrator. (I.) Daniel and his companions at the 
 court of Nebuchadnezzar (1) ; the king's dream 
 of the great image, typifying four kingdoms 
 (2) ; the burning fiery furnace (3) ; Nebuchad- 
 nezzar's dream of the great tree destroyed, 
 interpreted as foreshadowing his madness (4) ; 
 Belshazzar's feast (5) ; Daniel in the lions' 
 den (6). (II.) Vision of the four great beasts 
 coming up from the sea, their judgment before 
 the " Ancient of days," and the giving of a 
 kingdom to " one like unto a son of man " (7) ; 
 vision of the ram with two horns, overcome of the 
 he-goat with a " notable horn," which is broken, 
 and out of which came four horns, and from one 
 of these a " little horn," which waxed great and 
 persecuted the saints (8) ; Daniel is given under- 
 standing of Jeremiah's prophecy (Jer. 25.12, 
 29.10) as to the seventy years of the " idolatries " 
 of Jerusalem (9). Daniel, after fasting and 
 mourning, is given yet further visions (10-12). 
 
 The interpretation of the visions has been a 
 matter of keen controversy. The angel Gabriel 
 exp'ains the vision in chap. 8, and leaves its 
 historical application a simple matter. The 
 Persian empire established by Cyrus lasted from 
 538-333 B.C., when it was overthrown by Alex- 
 ander the Great at the battle of Issus. He had, 
 at his early death (in 333, aged thirty-two the 
 " broken horn "), established an almost world- 
 
 wide dominion, which, in default of an heir, was 
 partitioned out among his generals. After 
 twenty years of rivalry and conflict four king- 
 doms were established Macedonia and Greece, 
 Thrace and Bithynia, Egypt and Syria, with 
 Babylonia and the East allotted to Seleucus. 
 Hence Judaea passed under the sway of the 
 Seleucid kings, of whom the ninth was Antiochus 
 Epiphanes (175-164 B.C.), % " little horn." 
 His persecutions of the Jews led to the revolt 
 under Judas Maccabaeus, and to the recon- 
 secration of the Temple (in 165), about three 
 years after its pollution. A few months later 
 Antiochus died. 
 
 It may be inferred that, as the clear pre- 
 diction of chap. 8 is repeated and expanded 
 in the remainder of the book, it is anticipated in 
 the kindred but obscurer prophecies of chaps. 
 7 arid 2, and that the kingdoms of Media, Persia, 
 and Greece are also among the four typified by 
 the Beasts and the Image. Moreover, the first 
 of the four is that of Nebuchadnezzar himself, 
 Babylon (2.38). 
 
 At this point expositors divide. Are Media 
 and Persia one empire, the Medo-Persian, founded 
 by Cyrus, symbolised by the ram with shorter 
 and longer horns ? If so, Greece is the third, 
 and the fourth is naturally identified with Rome, 
 under whose power the empire founded by 
 Alexander eventually passed. Out of this 
 assumption spring many varied interpretations 
 of the ten kingdoms (the toes of the image, chap. 
 2, and the horns of the fourth beast, chap. 7) 
 into which the Roman empire was to be broken 
 up : also of the " little horn " of chap. 7.8, 20, 
 21, 25, often identified with the papacy. 
 
 Or, on the other hand, are Media and Persia 
 to be regarded as two, the second and third of the 
 four kingdoms, the fourth being the empire 
 founded by Alexander the Great ? In this case 
 the outlook of the prophecy is more limited, 
 and of less ambiguous interpretation. The ten 
 kings are probably Alexander's successors : 
 the " little horn " of chap. 7 being identical with 
 that of chap. 8, Antiochus Epiphanes, who is 
 represented as removing three powerful rivals 
 before securing his kingdom (7.8, 20, 28)./ 
 
 The interpretation of the fourth kingdom is 
 closely connected with the controversy as to 
 the date and authorship of the book. If, according 
 to the uniform tradition of the Jewish and 
 Christian Churches, it was written by Daniel in 
 Babylon, not only is the historicity of chaps. 1-6 
 assured, but the prophecies concerning Antiochus 
 Epiphanes, uttered four centuries before the 
 event, stand out as a marvel of prediction. 
 In favour of such a date there is urged (1) the 
 place of the book in tiie Canon. It was received 
 as Scripture in the time of the Maccabees 
 (see 1 M ace. 2.59, 60) ; and Josephus says that its 
 prophecies were shown to Alexander on his 
 arrival at Jerusalem (Ant. xi. 8 5). It is 
 included in the Septuagint version of the O.T. 
 Scriptures, which was commenced about 280 
 years B.C. (2) The testimony of our Lord 
 (Matt. 24.15). (3) The witness of the Christian 
 
DANIEL, THE BOOK OF] 
 
 122 
 
 [DARKNESS 
 
 Church. A heathen writer, Porphyry (233-302 
 A.D.), first attacked the claims of Daniel to 
 be a prophet, and Jerome dealt with his objec- 
 tions. (4) The colouring and details of the 
 narrative, which are such as a contemporary 
 alone could supply. 
 
 On the other hand, it is urged that the book 
 was written at a date long subsequent to 
 the Captivity. The following grounds of this 
 belief are given : 
 
 (1) The main interest of chaps. 7-12 centres 
 in the times of Antiochus Epiphanes : the 
 analogy of other prophetic writings would 
 suggest that it is there we should look for the 
 historical standpoint of the prophet. 
 
 (2) The series of predictions in chap. 11 are, 
 in their minuteness of detail, unlike any other 
 prophecies of Scripture. To this it is replied 
 that we have no right to limit the method of 
 possible Divine communication. 
 
 (3) Some historical details of chaps. 1-6 are 
 difficult to reconcile with the fuller knowledge 
 of Babylonian times reached by modern dis- 
 coveries : especially the identity of " Darius 
 the Mede." 
 
 (4) It is held that various indications of late 
 date are afforded by the book itself, its place in 
 the Canon, and its use in subsequent literature. 
 
 (a) The linguistic phenomena are peculiar. 
 The section 2.4-7.8 is in Aramaic : fifteen words 
 from the Persian and three from the Greek occur : 
 the Hebrew is that of the later language. 
 
 (b) In the Hebrew Canon, Daniel is not placed 
 among the " Prophets " (though that section 
 contains the post-exilic writings of Haggai, 
 Zechariah, and Malachi), but among the Kethub- 
 him (Hagiographa, Holy Writings), a collection 
 which, there is reason for thinking, marks the 
 latest stage in the formation of the O.T. 
 
 (c) The predictions in the book are, for their 
 minuteness and particularity, up to a certain 
 point, unlike any other prophecies to be found 
 in Holy Scripture. It is replied that possibly 
 some of the suspected details have been added 
 by " targumists," and transferred from the 
 margin. 
 
 For these and other reasons the book is 
 assigned by many modern critics to the times of 
 Antiochus Epiphanes, between the desecration 
 of the Temple and his death (168-164). It thus 
 becomes an appeal to the author's suffering 
 countrymen, based on reminders of what God 
 had wrought for His steadfast servants of old, 
 permeated by a religious interpretation of 
 history as the unfolding of the Divine purpose 
 for His people, and culminating in a reassertion 
 of the Messianic hope and the final triumph of 
 the Kingdom of God. 
 
 In regard to this controversy it should be 
 pointed out that the late date leaves un- 
 touched the supposition most probable on other 
 grounds that the author incorporated true, and 
 carefully cherished, traditions of Daniel and 
 his companions in Babylon. In its religious 
 interpretation of history and of the circumstances 
 amid which it was written, the book exhibits in 
 
 a marked degree the characteristics of inspired 
 prophecy. To suggest an alternative between 
 a genuine work of Daniel and a " forgery " is to 
 misapprehend the literary methods of the 
 ancient world. It is quite conceivable that this 
 Eastern writer would clothe his inspired message 
 to his persecuted compatriots in story and vision 
 gathered round the ancient history of Daniel 
 in Babylon. But the religious value of the book, 
 its revelation of the Divine working, its promise 
 of the Christ, and all moral and spiritual lessons 
 which it has so freely yielded to the Church in all 
 ages, have been, and must ever remain, inde- 
 pendent of any conclusion of criticism as to when 
 and by whom it was written. 
 
 Dan'ites, The. Members of the tribe of Dan 
 ( Judg. 13.2, 18.1, 11 ; 1 Ch. 12.35). 
 
 Dan-ja'an. Meaning unknown: a place on 
 the north-west border of David's kingdom, visited 
 by Joab in taking the census (2 Sam. 24.6). 
 Possibly to be identified with Daman, a ruin 
 4 miles north of Achzib. 
 
 Dan'nah. Meaning unknown : town in the 
 mountains of Judah (Josh. 15.49). 
 
 Da'ra. 1 Ch. 2.6. [DARDA, R.V. marg.] 
 
 Dar'da. One of four men who were of great 
 fame for their wisdom, but were excelled by 
 Solomon. He and two others are called sons of 
 Mahol, which see (1 K. 4.31). 
 
 Daric. [MONEY.] 
 
 Dari'us. Three kings bearing this name are 
 mentioned in the O.T. 
 
 1. Darius the Mede, who succeeded to the 
 government of Babylon after Belshazzar's 
 violent death. He was sixty-two years old at 
 the time (Dan. 5.31 et seq.). He made Daniel 
 one of the three presidents who were placed over 
 the 120 satraps, and after Daniel's miraculous 
 deliverance from the lions he issued a decree 
 enjoining " reverence for the God of Israel " 
 throughout his dominions. He is usually 
 identified with Gobryas, governor of Media, 
 who acted as Cyrus' representative at the capture 
 of Babylon. 
 
 2. Darius, the son of Hystaspes, proclaimed 
 king of the vast Persian empire in 521 B.C. He 
 was one of the greatest warriors in history. He 
 carried his conquering arms beyond the heights 
 of the Balkans and far along the northern coast 
 of Africa, and south to the plains of the Indus. 
 His attempt at the conquest of Greece resulted 
 in the crushing defeat of the Persians at the 
 battle of Marathon (490 B.C.), one of the decisive 
 battles of the world's history. During his 
 reign of thirty-six years he established and 
 extended the kingdom founded by Cyrus. The 
 Jews prospered during the reign of Darius, under 
 whom the work of restoring the Temple was 
 continued and completed (Ezra 6.15). 
 
 3. Darius the Persian (Neh. 12.22), probably 
 Codomannus, last king of Persia, overthrown by 
 Alexander the Great, 330 B.C. 
 
 Darkness. The phrase " outer darkness " 
 contains a reference to the darkness of the 
 streets in the East, which are never lighted up 
 by any public or private lamps after nightfall, 
 

 
 DAKKON] 
 
 123 
 
 [DAVID 
 
 in contrast with the cheerful light within the 
 house. The expression " the land of darkness " 
 (Job 10.21, 22) signifies the state of the dead. 
 
 Dar'kon. (?) Walking rapidly. Children of 
 Darken were among " the servants of Solomon " 
 who returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel 
 (Ezra 2.56 ; Neh. 7.58). 
 
 Dart. "Fiery darts" (Eph. 6.16) are 
 arrows or other missiles discharged while they 
 are on fire or armed with some combustible 
 material. 
 
 Da'than. Meaning unknown : a Reubenite 
 chieftain who joined the conspiracy of Koran 
 the Levite (Num. 16.1, 26.9; Dent. 11.6; 
 Ps. 116.17). 
 
 Daughter. The word as used in Scripture 
 sometimes implies granddaughter or other female 
 descendant. " Daughter of Belial " (1 Sam. 1.16) 
 simply means " daughter of worthlessness," 
 i.e. worthless woman ; " daughter of a strange 
 god " (Mai. 2.11) means a woman (or a nation) 
 who worshipped a false god. The " daughters 
 of music " (Eccles. 12.4) are singing birds. The 
 word is also frequently used of cities. On the 
 inheritance of daughters, see Num. 27.6-11. 
 
 David. (?)Beloved one: the second and greatest 
 king of the people of Israel, son of Jesse, 
 great-grandson of Ruth, born at Bethlehem, 
 the youngest son of a family of ten. Though 
 his father was a man of position and property, 
 David in his youth pursued the occupation 
 that of the shepherd allotted in Eastern 
 countries usually to the slaves, the females, or the 
 despised of the family. Yet Samuel neverthe- 
 less anointed him as the future king of Israel. 
 Being a skilful player on the harp, he was 
 summoned by Saul to soothe the melancholy 
 of that unhappy monarch (1 Sam. 16). The 
 scene of David's encounter with Goliath (1 Sam. 
 17) was Ephes-Dammim, among the hills on the 
 western frontier of Judah, and the water- 
 course that ran between the two armies was the 
 Elah or " the Terebinth," now Wady Es-Sunt. 
 The fame which David acquired by this exploit 
 though it won him Saul's daughter Michal 
 to wife inspired Saul to malicious jealousy 
 of the boy -warrior. Nevertheless the king 
 raised David to the post of captain of the royal 
 bodyguard, a position only inferior to that of 
 Abner, the captain of the host, and Jonathan, 
 the heir-apparent. David and Jonathan be- 
 came devoted friends, but the jealous madness 
 and murderous designs of the king at length 
 drove David into exile. He sought refuge with 
 Samuel, and later at the court of Achish, the 
 Philistine king of Gath, whence he escaped 
 by feigning madness (1 Sam. 19-21). He now 
 made his retreat in the cave of Adullam, then 
 in a stronghold near En-gedi, and afterwards 
 in the forest of Hareth, in the south of Judah. 
 David had there with him a band of devoted 
 and desperate men, who willingly shared his 
 dangers. Friendship to his cause was a perilous 
 thing, as was shown by the murder of Abimelech 
 and the priests by Doeg the Edomite at Saul's 
 command (1 Sam. 22). The band entered the 
 
 fortified town of Keilah, and Saul hoped to 
 ensnare them there (1 Sam. 23). In contrast 
 to the king's relentless pursuit of David stands 
 the fugitive's chivalrous regard for " the Lord's 
 anointed," as shown when he spared Saul's 
 life in the wilderness of En-gedi (1 Sam. 24) 
 and in the wilderness of Ziph (1 Sam. 26). The 
 same chivalrous disposition was successfully 
 appealed to by Abigail in the case of the foolish 
 Nabal (1 Sam. 25). For a time David found 
 shelter with Achish, king of Gath, and then Saul 
 " sought no more again for him " (1 Sam. 27.4). 
 In the absence of David, Ziklag was captured 
 and looted by the Amalekites ; but David 
 pursued the invaders, defeated them, and 
 rescued the captives, which included his own 
 wives (1 Sam. 30). After the disastrous battle 
 of Gilboa (1 Sam. 31), David uttered the 
 touching lamentation over Saul and Jonathan 
 (2 Sam. 1). David now became king of Judah, 
 was anointed at Hebron (2 Sam. 2), and reigned 
 there for over seven years. There was long 
 war between the house of Saul and the house 
 of David (2 Sam. 3.1). But after the murder 
 of Ishbosheth, Saul's son (2 Sam. 4) an act of 
 which David strongly disapproved he became 
 king of all Israel (2 Sam. 5). He now devoted 
 his attention to the capture of the one fortress 
 which alone in the centre of the land had defied 
 the arms of the chosen people. By one sudden 
 assault Jebus was taken, and became henceforth 
 known by its ancient name of Jerusalem, and 
 by the name of Zion (2 Sam. 5). The captured 
 city was strongly fortified and made the capital 
 of the kingdom. The ark was brought with 
 great solemnity from Kirjath-jearim, and a new 
 tent or Tabernacle erected for its reception 
 (2 Sam. 6). Prosperity continued to attend 
 the arms of David, but amidst such success 
 whilst his troops were besieging Kabbah he 
 fell into the depths of sin in compassing the 
 death of Uriah, after committing adultery with 
 Bathsheba (2 Sam. 11). He was convicted 
 of his sin, repented, and was pardoned ; but the 
 remainder of his days were embittered by 
 family feuds. Absalom, his favourite son, 
 rebelled against him, and for a time made his 
 father an exile, but ultimately perished (2 Sam. 
 15-18). The sore judgment entailed by the 
 numbering of the people still further clouded 
 the later years of the king (2 Sam. 24). At the 
 last, after Adonijah had pretended to the throne, 
 David abdicated in favour of Solomon, confiding 
 also to him the task of building the Temple, 
 for which great provision had been made. 
 After a final charge to his successor, David 
 " slept with his fathers, and was buried in the 
 city of David " (1 K. 1 and 2). 
 
 The career of David is one full of romantic 
 incidents and surprising contrasts. It is 
 essentially a human story, illustrating the weak- 
 ness as well as the strength of a character of 
 unusual capacity. That David was " a man 
 after" God's "own heart" (1 Sam. 13.14; 
 Acts 13.22) implies no presentation of David as 
 a perfect man, but only as an agent chosen of 
 
DAVID, CITY OF] 
 
 124 
 
 [DEBORAH 
 
 God for His purposes. David's sins brought sore 
 punishment ; but they also found him a man 
 who humbled himself in true sorrow under 
 conviction of sin (2 Sam. 12). Of the general 
 character of David, Dean Stanley said : " In 
 the complexity of its elements, passion, tender- 
 ness, generosity, fierceness the soldier, the 
 shepherd, the poet, the statesman, the priest, 
 the prophet, the king the romantic friend, the 
 chivalrous leader, the devoted father there is 
 no character of the O.T. at all to be compared to 
 it. ... He is the type and prophecy of Jesus 
 Christ. Christ is not called the son of Abraham 
 or of Jacob or of Moses, but ' the son of 
 David.' " 
 
 David, City oL [JERUSALEM.] 
 David, Tower of. [TOWER OP DAVID.] 
 Day> _The " heat of the day " (Matt. 20.12) 
 means about nine o'clock, when in the East the 
 sun is blazing in the sky. The " cool of the 
 day" (Gen. 3.8) is just before sunset. Before 
 the Captivity the Jews divided the night into 
 three watches : the first watch lasting till mid- 
 night (Lam. 2.19), the middle watch lasting till 
 cock-crow (Judg. 7.19), and the morning watch 
 lasting 'till sunrise (Ex. 14.24). In the N.T. 
 four watches are referred to a division borrowed 
 from the Greeks and Romans first, from twi- 
 light till nine o'clock (M k. 11.11 ; John 20.19) ; 
 second, from nine o'clock till midnight (Mk. 
 13.35) ; third, from midnight till three in the 
 morning (Mk. 13.35) ; and fourth, from three 
 o'clock till daybreak (John 18.28). The day 
 was divided into tAvelve parts (John 11.9). The 
 third, sixth, and ninth hours were devoted to 
 prayer (Dan. 6.10; Acts 2.15, 3.1). Part of 
 a day was equivalent in calculations to a whole 
 day (Matt. 12.40). The Jews had no names for 
 the days of the week, but numbered them from 
 the Sabbath. The word " day" is used of a festal 
 day (Eos. 7.5), and a day of ruin ( Job 18.20 ; 
 Hos. 1.11). It should be noted that in reckon- 
 ing the length of a king's reign, for example, 
 a small portion of a year is counted a whole year. 
 Thus, if a king came to the throne on the last 
 day of the year, the next day would be described 
 as the beginning of the second year of his reign. 
 [CHEONOLOGY, TIME, YEAB.] 
 
 Day's Journey. The ordinary rate of travel- 
 ling was for a solitary traveller three miles an 
 hour ; for a camel two and a half miles. Travel- 
 lers were " on the move " for from six to eight 
 hours.. The rate of progress frequently de- 
 pended of course upon the nature of the ground 
 to be covered. A caravan with women and 
 children, camels and mules, moved very slowly, 
 not perhaps more than ten or twelve miles a day. 
 Daysman. An old English term meaning 
 umpire or arbitrator (Job 9.33). 
 
 Deacon. The title usually applied to the Seven 
 set apart in Acts 6. The apostles, in order to 
 meet the complaints of the Grecian Jews that 
 their widows were neglected in the daily minis- 
 tration, called upon the whole multitude of 
 believers to choose seven men " full of the 
 Spirit and of wisdom," to whom they (the 
 
 apostles), by prayer and laying on of hands, 
 entrusted the duty of serving tables and dis- 
 tributing Church alms. As early as Chry- 
 sostom it was, however, contended that the 
 Seven were not the first Deacons, but were set 
 apart only for the work needed at this time. 
 But the early Church in general deemed the 
 order of Deacons to have originated in the 
 Seven of Acts 6. It will be noticed that the 
 Seven are never called Deacons in the Acts of 
 the Apostles. Towards the end of St. Paul's 
 life, however, there are clear signs of the Deacons 
 appearing as a regular part of the Church 
 organisation. They are mentioned with the 
 " Bishops " of the Philippian Church (Phil. 1.1) ; 
 and in 1 Tim. 3 Paul lays down regulations for 
 both these offices. 
 
 It should be noted that the word deacon 
 (diakonos) is used in the N.T. in the general sense 
 of a servant- or agent (as of a king, Matt. 22.13 ; 
 "of God," Rom. 13.4; "of Jesus Christ," 
 1 Tim. 4.6). It is in this sense that Paul 
 speaks of himself as a diakonos or " minister " 
 of the Gospel (Col. 1.23), and of the Church 
 (Col. 1.25). 
 
 Deaconess. From the reference in Rom. 16.1, 
 " I commend unto you Phoebe our sister, which 
 is a servant (diakonos) of the Church which is 
 at Cenchrea," it has been assumed that Phoebe 
 belonged to an already recognised order of 
 Deaconesses. But there is no evidence that this 
 was so. The more general meaning of the word 
 diakonos [see DEACON] may be that used in the 
 case of Phoebe. This would imply that Phoebe 
 was a woman of influence, whose services to the 
 apostle, as well as to others (Rom. 16.2), justified 
 him in giving her the honourable title of diakonos. 
 Note, however, that the " wives " spoken of by 
 Paul, later on, in describing the qualifications of 
 a deacon, should be " women " (1 Tim. 3.11). 
 Clearly at this period the diaconate included 
 both men and women. It has been disputed 
 whether the latter were the wives of Deacons or 
 independent women. In the early Church 
 unmarried women as well as widows were ad- 
 mitted as deaconesses. 
 
 Dead, Baptism for. [BAPTISM.] 
 
 Dead Sea. [SEA, SALT.] The name is not 
 used in Holy Scripture. 
 
 Debir. Meaning unknown, ? shrine: 1. 
 Now Edh-Dhaherayeh, a town in mountains of 
 Judah (Josh. 15.49), formerly called Kirjath- 
 sannah and Kirjath-sepher (Josh. 15.15 ; Judg. 
 1.11). Situated on the top of a long flat ridge, 
 an arid district without springs, but with fourteen 
 springs 6 miles north. Royal city of Anakim, 
 captured by Othniel (Josh. 10, 11, 12, and 15 ; 
 Judg. 1.12, 13), assigned to the priests (Josh. 
 21.15 ; 1 Ch. 6.58). 2. A place on the north 
 boundary of Judah, near " the valley of Achor," 
 (Josh. 15.7). 3. Place near the boundary of 
 Gad, on the high downs east of Jordan ( Josh. 
 13.26). 4. King of Eglon, one of the five kings 
 hanged by Joshua (Josh. 10.3, 23). 
 
 Debo'rah. Bee : 1. The nurse of Rebekah 
 (Gen. 35.8 ; compare 24.59). In the East nurses 
 
DEBT, DEBTOR] 
 
 125 
 
 pEMETRIUS 
 
 were important and highly honoured members of 
 the family (2 Ch. 22.11). Deborah accompanied 
 Rebekah to the home of her husband (Gen. 24.59). 
 2. A prophetess who judged Israel (Judg. 4.5) 
 under a palm tree in Mount Ephraim ; the wife 
 of Lapidoth. Her prophetic gift endowed her 
 with great influence in a time of despair and 
 confusion (Judg. 4.6, 14, 5.7), and she was a true 
 " mother in Israel." She roused the children 
 of Israel to withstand Jabin, king of Hazor, who 
 had oppressed Israel for twenty years. With 
 the aid of Barak she organised an army of 10,000 
 men, by whom the forces of Jabin, commanded 
 by Sisera, were completely defeated. And the 
 land of Israel had rest for forty years (Judg. 
 5.31). Her glorjpus triumphal ode is recorded 
 in the same chapter. One of the oldest and 
 greatest of Hebrew poems, it is also one of the 
 most striking odes of its kind in all literature. 
 With the exception of Athaliah, she is the only 
 female ruler in Jewish history. 
 
 Debt, Debtor. [LOAN.] 
 
 Decapolis. Ten cities: a confederation of 
 Greek cities, reckoned as ten, in an area ex- 
 tending on both sides of the Jordan about the 
 south of the Sea of Galilee, and northward. 
 They received privileges from Rome after 63 B.C. 
 Sick inhabitants of this district were healed by 
 our Lord (Matt. 4.25 ; Mk. 5.20, 7.31). The ten 
 cities, according to Pliny, were Damascus, 
 Philadelphia, Raphana, Scythopolis ( = Beth- 
 shan), Gadara, Hippos, Dion, Pella, Gerasa, 
 and Canatha. In the time of our Lord these 
 cities contained large populations, mostly Greeks, 
 and were prosperous ; six of them, are com- 
 pletely ruined and deserted ; three Scythopolis, 
 Gadara, and Canatha have still a few families 
 living, more like wild beasts than human beings, 
 amid the crumbling ruins of palaces, and in the 
 cavernous recesses of old tombs. Damascus, 
 though shorn of much of its old glory, is still 
 important and populous. 
 
 Decision, Valley of. [JEHOSHAPHAT.] 
 
 De'dan. Meaning unknown : 1. A son of 
 Raamah and grandson of Gush (Gen. 10.7). 
 2. A son of Jokshan (Gen. 25.3). The Dedanim 
 of Isai. 21.13 and Dedan of Ezek. 27.20 were the 
 descendants of one or the other, and were an 
 Arab tribe, acting as caravan merchants between 
 east and west, whose home was near Edom 
 (Ezek. 25.13). There is an island called Dadan 
 near the Persian Gulf, the name of which may 
 or may not be connected with the Biblical 
 Dedan. 
 
 Deda'nim. [DEDAN.] 
 
 Dedanites. [DEDAN.] 
 
 Dedication, Feast of the. The festival in- 
 stituted to commemorate the purification of the 
 Temple and the rebuilding of the Altar after 
 Judas Maccabseus had driven out the Syrians 
 (164 B.C.) ; mentioned only once in the Bible 
 ( John 10.22). The festival was celebrated with 
 much singing and with the carrying of branches. 
 It is still observed as Chanukah by the Jews, 
 and frills about Hie end of December. 
 
 Deep, The. The word thus translated in 
 
 Lk. 8.31 and Rom. 10.7 is rendered " abyss " 
 in the R.V. In Rev. 9.1, 2, 11, 11.7, and 20.1, 3 
 "bottomless pit" is literally "pit (or well) of 
 the abyss" (see ll.V.), the entrance to the 
 abyss being regarded as a shaft down to a 
 region lying in the depths. The usual interpre- 
 tation is that it means the prison-house of evil 
 spirits. 
 
 Degree, Good (1 Tim. 3.13). R.V. has 
 " good standing " ; a position assured by Paul 
 to those who served well as deacons. Three ex- 
 planations have been offered (1) promotion to 
 be " bishops " ; (2) reward in the favour of 
 God, possibly to be shown in a future state ; 
 and (3) a position of moral influence and auth- 
 ority in the Church. The early Fathers turned 
 to (1) ; Hort preferred (3). There are no proofs 
 that in the tune of the apostle its ministers 
 passed through successive grades ; though 
 later on the word here used (bathmos) came to 
 mean an order, or rank, in the ministry. 
 
 Degrees, Shadow of (2 K. 20.9). [DIAL.] 
 
 Degrees, Song of, or Song of Ascents. The 
 title given to fifteen Psalms (120-134). The 
 Hebrew going up to Jerusalem on a festival 
 occasion recited one or other of these Psalms. 
 The explanation that the title refers to the 
 fifteen steps from the Women's Court in the 
 Temple, and that one of these Psalms was sung 
 at each step, is improbable. 
 
 Dehav'ites, Dehaites. Some of the colonists 
 planted in Samaria by the Assyrian monarch, 
 Esarhaddon (Ezra 4.9). Perhaps the same as 
 the Dai, a nomadic tribe of Persia, mentioned 
 by Herodotus. 
 
 De'kar, The Son of (or Ben-Dekar). One of 
 Solomon's commissariat officers (1 K. 4.9). 
 
 Delai'ah. Jehovah hath drawn'. 1. A priest 
 in the time of David (1 Ch. 24.18). 2. A prince 
 of Judah in the time of Jeremiah (Jer. 36.12, 25). 
 3. " Children of Delaiah " were among the 
 people of uncertain pedigree who returned 
 from Babylon with Zerubbabel {Ezra 2.60: 
 Neh. 7.62). 4. A father of a contemporary of 
 Nehemiah (Neh. 6.10). 5. DALAIAH. 
 
 Deli'lah. (?) Languishing: a woman of Sorek 
 in Philistia, beloved by Samson. At her insti- 
 gation the Philistines won from him the secret 
 of his strength (Judg. 16.4-18). She received 
 5500 shekels (700) for her treachery. 
 
 Deluge. [NOAH.] 
 
 De'mas. Probably a shortened form of 
 Demetrius. A companion of Paul in his first 
 imprisonment at Rome (Col. 4.14 ; Philem. 24), 
 who afterwards forsook him under the more 
 trying circumstances of his second imprison- 
 ment there (2 Tim. 4.10). 
 
 Deme'trius. 1. A maker of small silver 
 shrines of Diana at Ephesus, probably repre- 
 senting the goddess seated in a niche. It was 
 customary to carry these on the person, or 
 place them in houses as amulets and charms. 
 They were freely purchased by visitors to 
 the famous temple. Demetrius raised an 
 outcry against Paul when he preached the 
 Gospel at Ephesus, considering rightly that 
 
DEMON, DEMONIAC] 
 
 126 
 
 [DEUTERONOMY 
 
 his trade was in danger (Acts 19.24). 2. A 
 convert well spoken of, who also lived at or 
 near Ephesus (3 John 12). 
 
 Demon, Demoniac. [See DEVIL, POSSESSED 
 OP A.] 
 
 Den. [CAVES.] Daniel was cast into " the 
 den of lions " (Dan. 6.16, 17). This was the 
 pit in which the lions were kept, in accordance 
 with the custom of both Assyrian and Persian 
 monarchs. 
 
 Denarius. Translated in theR.V. as " penny." 
 The denarius was the principal Roman silver 
 coin of the period, weighing 60 grains, and 
 worth about 9d. of our money. It was the 
 ordinary pay for a husbandman's day's labour 
 (Malt. 20.2-13). 
 
 Deputy (in Acts 13.7, etc. ; R.V., Proconsul). 
 [See GALLIO.] 
 
 Derbe. A city of Lycaonia (Acts 14.6) 
 geographically, though in the Roman province 
 of Galatia. It was visited by St. Paul, as 
 described in Acts 14.20, 16.1 possibly also 
 when he visited " the district of Galatia and 
 Phrygia " (Acts 18.23). Gaius, his companion, 
 was of Derbe (Acts 20.4). The site of Derbe is 
 probably that of the mound of Gudelissin, some 
 30 miles south-west of Lystra. 
 
 Desert. The ordinary idea of a desert a 
 vast treeless and waterless waste of sand 
 must not be attached to the word as it is used 
 in the Bible. The Israelites had no acquaintance 
 with such a desert either in their wanderings 
 or in their settled existence. Four different 
 Hebrew words are translated " desert " in the 
 A.V. In the historical books of the Bible the 
 " desert " means the valley of the Jordan, 
 of the Dead Sea, and of the country south of 
 the Dead Sea. Here in the flourishing days 
 of Palestine were cultivated the palm, the 
 balsam, the sugar-cane, and a luxurious vegeta- 
 tion. In the prophetical and poetical books 
 the desert does, in general, indeed signify a 
 country dried up with excessive heat, although 
 in Ezek. 47.8 it implies the Jordan valley. 
 The word rendered " desert " in Ex. 3.1, 5.3, 
 19.2, and in Num. 33.16 would be better 
 translated by " pasture land." The Israelites 
 had flocks and herds with them during the 
 whole of their passage to the Promised Land. 
 The same rendering ought also to be substituted 
 for desert in Job 24.5 ; Isai. 21.1 ; Jcr. 25.24. 
 
 Deu'eL (?)Know God: father of Eliasaph 
 (Num. 1.14, 7.42, 47, 10.20). The name 
 appears as Reuel (Num. 2.14). 
 
 Deuteronomy. The fifth book in the O.T., 
 and final book of the Pentateuch. The name, 
 derived from the contents, means the " Second 
 Law." Its contents may be summarised thus 
 
 I. Introduction, or Preface, adapted to 
 gain attention from the people : i. Commemora- 
 ting the blessings conferred on them; both in 
 peace, by the gift of a wise and religious magis- 
 tracy (1), and in war, by making them victori- 
 ous over the kin<js of Heshbon and Bashan 
 (2, 3). ii. Describing the precious law given 
 (0 them, as to its Author, its miraculous pro- 
 
 mulgation, its subject-matter, and the benefits 
 which would redound to them by its observ- 
 ance (4.1-40). 
 
 II. The Second Part contains : i. The main 
 principles of religion, in the Ten Command- 
 ments (4.44-49, 5) ; followed by a declaration 
 of the end of the Law obedience ; with an 
 exhortation thereto (6), and dissuasives from 
 those things which would hinder their obedi- 
 ence viz. intercourse with heathen nations 
 (7), forgetfulness of God's mercies (8), and self- 
 righteousness ; to beat down which Moses 
 reminds them of their own frequent rebellions, 
 murmurings, and provocations, and of God's 
 free and undeserved grace and love towards 
 them (9, 10.1-11). ii. Practical exhortations 
 deduced from these principles, introduced by 
 an earnest and impressive appeal (10.12-22, 11). 
 These chiefly concern the worship of God as 
 to its proper place and manner (12) ; the avoid- 
 ing and punishing seducers to idolatry (13) ; 
 the guarding against legal uncleanness (14.1-21) ; 
 and the times and seasons of worship, including 
 the sabbatical year (15) and the annual festi- 
 vals (16.1-17) : and the conduct of men ; either 
 in civil (16.18-22, 17), or in ecclesiastical 
 authority (18) ; or universally considered in 
 their several duties to God and man, in many 
 laws moral, judicial, and ceremonial (19-26). 
 
 III. The Conclusion, which, after enjoining 
 a solemn repetition of the law (27), is : i. 
 Hortatory : persuading to obedience by pro- 
 mises of blessings, and by denunciation of 
 curses (28); by the remembrance of the great 
 things which God had done for them ; by the 
 obligation of a solemn covenant (29) ; and by 
 encouragements to repentance (30). ii. His- 
 torical : Moses resigns his charge to Joshua, 
 and delivers the law to the priests (31.1-21); 
 composes a prophetic song, which he delivers 
 to the people (31.22-30, 32); pronounces a 
 blessing upon the tribes, each in particular 
 (33) ; views the Promised Land, into which 
 he must not enter ; dies, and is buried (34). 
 
 A comparison of this second code with the 
 laws recorded in the Bock of Exodus should be 
 carefully made by the student. The results 
 that such comparison will yield, if rightly estim- 
 ated, will but confirm the authenticity of both. 
 Some passages that at first sight seem at 
 variance may refer to different events ; as the 
 appointment of judges, 1.16-18 compared with 
 Ex. 18 and Num. 11. Or a different point of 
 view is taken, as when in 1.22 the people are 
 said to have urged the mission of the spies, 
 whereas in Num. 13.1-3 Jehovah is said to 
 have given the command; the request of the 
 people being divinely granted, as in similar 
 instances. 
 
 Additions to the history require no explana- 
 tion; as "wept before Jehovah" (1.45), " three- 
 score cities " (3.4), " what Amalek did unto thee " 
 (25.17, 18.) 
 
 Very significant and important are occasional 
 variations in the laws. Some enactments given 
 for observance in the wilderness would not apply 
 
DEVIL] 
 
 127 
 
 [DIAL 
 
 to life in Canaan. Compare, e.g., Lev. 17.3, 4 
 with Deut. 12.15. 
 
 The laws relating to the three great annual 
 festivals, Passover, Pentecost, and Tabernacles 
 are modified : compare 16.1-17 with Lev. 23 
 and Num. 28, 29. In regard again to the offering 
 of firstlings, to the position and support of the 
 Levites, the earlier and the later codes differ in 
 some respects from each other. 
 
 Deuteronomy appears to have been the book 
 discovered by Hilkiah the high priest in the tune 
 of king Josiah (2 K. 22.10), for the reforms then 
 instituted are more in accordance with its 
 teaching than with that of any other book of 
 the Pentateuch. 
 
 It was from Deuteronomy that our Lord thrice 
 quoted the words with which He answered the 
 Tempter in the wilderness (compare Matt. 4.4, 7, 
 10 with Deut. 8.3, 6.16, 6.13). 
 
 The announcement of a future prophet in 
 Deut. 18.15-19 is twice applied to Christ in 
 the N.T. by the Apostle Peter, and by 
 the martyr Stephen (Acts 3.22, 7.37). There 
 is also evidence that the words were regarded 
 by the Jews as a prediction of the coming 
 Messiah. See John 1.30, 31, 45, and 5.45-47. 
 No doubt the language of Moses had a general 
 fulfilment in the raising up of a prophetical 
 succession, culminating in the appearance and 
 work of Jesus Christ, to whom therefore it 
 eminently refers. The numerous quotations 
 from Deuteronomy in the N.T. attest the honour 
 in which the book was held from the earliest days 
 of the Christian Church. [PENTATEUCH.] 
 
 Devil. Accuser: 1. The false accuser, 
 slandering God to man and man to God. In 
 Oen. 3.5 the devil seeks to represent God as an 
 arbitrary and selfish ruler. For the devil as 
 the accuser of man, see Job 1 and 2. He is 
 described as " the accuser of our brethren, who 
 accused them before our God day and night " 
 (Rev. 12.10). Of the nature and original state 
 of Satan little is revealed in the Scripture, but 
 his power over the soul is intimated not 
 obscurely. In the parable of the sower (Matt. 
 13.19) he is represented as catching away the 
 good seed sown in the heart ; hi that of the 
 wheat and the tares (Matt. 13.39) he is depicted 
 as introducing evil into the world. Paul 
 declares to Agrippa that his mission was to turn 
 men from the power of Satan unto God (Acts 
 26.18), and represents the excommunication 
 which cuts men off from the grace of Christ in His 
 Church as a " deliverance of them unto Satan " 
 (1 Cor. 5.5 ; 1 Tim. 1.20). Then we find the 
 expression " synagogue of Satan " (Rev. 2.9, 
 3.9), the " depths of Satan " (Rev. 2.24). In 
 Hebrews the death of Christ is spoken of as 
 intended to destroy " him that hath the power 
 of death, that is, the devil " (Heb. 2.14). The 
 " wiles " (Eph. 6.11), the " devices " (2 Cor. 2.11), 
 the " snare " (1 Tim. 3.7, 6.9 ; 2 Tim. 2.26) " of 
 the devil " are expressions which indicate the 
 character of the power of evil. The devils who 
 had power to possess the souls of men are spoken 
 of ^s members of the host which Satan captains 
 
 (Matt. 12.24, 26; LJc. 10.18; Acts 10.38; 
 Eph. 6.12). The Scripture describes sins as 
 " the works of the devil," and traces to him all 
 error and evil (2 Cor. 11.14, 15 ; 1 Thess. 2.18 ; 
 Rev. 2.10, 20.10). Satan is represented as, above 
 all, the Tempter ; the chief recorded instances 
 of his activity in this character are the tempta- 
 tions of Eve and of our Lord. [SATAN.] 
 
 2. Devils, as objects of worship, to which 
 propitiatory sacrifices were offered, are referred 
 to in Lev. 17.7; Deut. 32.17; 2 Ch. 11.15; 
 Ps. 106.37. (Compare Rev. 9.20.) [And see 
 SATYE.] 
 
 Devil, Possessed of a. Demoniacal posses- 
 sion figures largely in the Gospels and Acts. 
 Three words represent the evil spirits and the 
 condition of being under their control daemon, 
 dcemonion, and the corresponding verb. They 
 imply the existence of beings inhabiting and 
 controlling human beings, or even dwelling in 
 beasts (as hi the Gadarene swine, Matt. 8.32). 
 Their influence was manifested at times in 
 physical infirmity (as dumbness, Matt. 9.32, 33) ; 
 but that those possessed thus were not ordinarily 
 sick persons is shown by distinct differentiation 
 as in Matt. 10.8. That their influence was also 
 seen in moral degradation appears from the 
 parable of the unclean spirit (Matt. 12.43-45). 
 They are opposed to the kingdom of God, and 
 their subjection was a proof that His kingdom 
 was come (Lk. 11.20). They recognised our 
 Lord as the Son of God (as in Matt. 8.29), and 
 felt the authority of His name when used by 
 others (Acts 19.15). 
 
 Attempts to represent possession by the devil 
 as merely some ordinary physical or mental 
 malady fail hi the face of the details to be 
 gathered from the Gospels. Nor is there any 
 force in the allegation that such possession does 
 not now exist. On what sure ground can any 
 such allegation be made ? Certainly such 
 phenomena as are described in the Gospels have 
 been noted in various parts of the mission -field. 
 
 Dew. Dews in Palestine are plentiful in the 
 summer, every morning. Gideon filled a basin 
 with the dew on a fleece of wool (Judg. 6.38). 
 Isaac, blessing Jacob, wished him the dew of 
 heaven, which fattens the fields (Gen. 27.28). 
 In these warm countries, where it seldom rains, 
 the night dews supply the want of showers. 
 The dew is often employed in the imagery of 
 the prophets and poets (Deut. 32.2 ; Job 29.19 ; 
 Ps. 133.3 ; Prov. 19.12 ; Isai. 26.19 ; Eos. 6.4, 
 13.3, 14.5; Mic. 5.7). In some of these 
 passages it is rather the evening-mist, which is 
 brought up by the west wind. 
 
 Dew of Hermon. [HERMOif^ 
 
 Diadem. Four words are so translated in the 
 O.T. See Job 29.14 ; Isai. 28.5, 62.3 ; Ezek. 
 21.26 (when R.V. has " mitre." [CROWN.] 
 
 Dial. The word is only found twice in the 
 A.V., 2 K. 20.11 ; Isai. 38.8. Elsewhere the 
 Hebrew word is translated " steps " or " de- 
 grees." The general opinion is that the dial 
 of Ahaz was a staircase so arranged 'that the 
 sun showed the hours upon it by the shacjow. 
 
DIAMOND] 
 
 128 
 
 [DISPERSION 
 
 It may be that at the head of the stairs 
 was a column or obelisk, the shadow of which 
 fell on a greater or smaller number of steps 
 according as the sun was low or high. The 
 relation between the length of the shadow and 
 the time of day was of course familiar to anti- 
 quity. " As a servant earnestly desire th the 
 shadow " ( Job 7.2), i.e. longs to get done with 
 his work. 
 
 Diamond. A precious stone (Ex. 28.18, 
 39.11 ; Ezek. 28.13). Modern commentators 
 prefer " onyx " as a translation. The dia- 
 mond of Jer. 17.1 should be adamant. 
 
 Dia'na. The Latin name of the Greek 
 goddess Artemis, for whose worship there 
 was a famous temple at Ephesus (Acts 19). The 
 view taken of her in that city was that she was 
 the sustainer of all living creatures. The image 
 of Diana was believed by the Ephesians to 
 have fallen down from heaven. The temple 
 was served by a college of priests and by 
 vestal virgins. [EPHESUS, DEMETRIUS.] It 
 was one of the seven wonders of the world ; 
 constructed of shining marble, it had first 
 and last taken 220 years to build. Behind 
 the shrine was a treasury where nations 
 and kings stored their most precious things. 
 This famous structure was burnt by the 
 Goths 260 A.D. 
 
 Diblah, Dib'lath. A copyist's mistake for 
 Riblah D and R being very similar letters in 
 Hebrew (Ezek. 6.14). [RIBLAH.] 
 
 Dibla'im. Meaning unknown : the father of 
 Hosea's wife Gomer (Eos. 1.3). 
 
 Diblatha'im. Meaning unknown. [ALMON- 
 
 DlBLATHAIM ; BETH-DlBLATHAIM.] 
 
 Di bon, or Dibon-Gad. Meaning unknown : 
 
 1. Dhiban, 3J miles north of the Am on. 
 Town of Moab (Num. 21.30), site of encamp- 
 ment of Israelites (Num. 33.45, 46), assigned 
 to Reuben, rebuilt by Gad (Num. 32.3, 34; 
 Josh. 13.9, 17), recovered by Moab (Isai. 15.2 ; 
 Jer. 48.18, 22). Called also Dimon (Isai. 15.9), 
 site of the discovery of the Moabite stone. 
 
 2. Town reinhabited by men of Judah after 
 return from captivity (Neh. 11.25). [DraoNAH.] 
 
 Dib'ri. A Danite whose daughter had 
 married an Egyptian, and whose son was stoned 
 for blasphemy (Lev. 24.11). 
 
 Didrachma. [ DRACHMA. ] 
 
 Did'ymus. The twin : the Greek equival- 
 ent to the Aramaic word Thomas, the apostle 
 (John 11.16, 20.24, 21.2). 
 
 Dik'lah. Palm tree : a son of Joktan of the 
 family of Shem whose descendants inhabited 
 a district in Arabia (Gen. 10.27 ; 1 Ch. 1.21). 
 They have been identified on somewhat pre- 
 carious grounds with the Minaei, a people 
 dwelling in a district of the Yemen, Arabia. 
 
 Dilan, Dil'ean. Meaning unknown : town 
 in lowlands of Judah (Josh. 15.38). 
 
 Dill. Marginal rendering of Matt. 23.23. 
 [ANISE.] 
 
 Dim'nah. (?)Dung : Levitical town of Zebu- 
 lun given to the Merarites (Jo*h. 21.35) ; 
 probably same as Rimmon, 
 
 Di'mon, The Waters of. Some streams in the 
 land of Moab (Isai. 15.9) ; same as DIBON 1. 
 
 Dimo'nah. Marshy place : town in extreme 
 south of Judah (Josh. 15.22) ; probably same 
 as DIBON 2. 
 
 Di'nah. Judged or avenged : daughter of 
 Jacob by Leah ; she accompanied her father 
 from Mesopotamia to Canaan, and was 
 violated by Shechem, son of Hamor ; Simeon 
 and Levi, own brothers to Dinah, exacted a 
 signal vengeance for this offence, slaying all 
 the males of Hamor's city and plundering it 
 (Gen. 34). 
 
 Dinaites. Assyrian tribe transported to 
 Samaria by the Assyrian king Asnapper (Assar- 
 banipal) (668-626 B.C.) after the conquest 
 and captivity of the ten tribes. They opposed 
 the rebuilding of the Temple (Ezra 4.9). It 
 has been conjectured that they are the Dayani 
 who lived in Western Armenia. 
 
 Dinha'bah. Meaning unknown : capital of 
 Bela, an Edomite king (Gen. 36.32 ; 1 Ch. 1.43). 
 
 Dinner. [MEALS. ] 
 
 Diony'sius. A convert of St. Paul and a 
 member of the supreme court at Athens (Acts 
 17.34). Said to have become the first Bishop of 
 Athens. Some famous mystical treatises attri- 
 buted to him from the fifth century onwards are 
 doubtless forgeries. 
 
 Diot'rephes. A disciple who loved pre- 
 eminence (3 John, 9). He was inhospitable 
 to travelling evangelists. 
 
 Diphath. [RiPHATH. ] 
 
 Disciple. A pupil or learner, following a 
 leader or his principles, as of Moses ( John 9.28), 
 John the Baptist (Matt. 9.14), the Pharisees 
 (Matt 22.16), and, pre-eminently, the followers 
 of our Lord either in general (Matt. 10.42), or 
 restrictedly, the apostles (Matt. 10.1). The 
 word is applied to a woman in the case of Dorcas 
 (Acts 9.36). [EDUCATION, SCHOOLS, APOSTLE.] 
 
 Discover. Used in the sense of " uncover " 
 in Deut. 22.30; 2 Sam. 22.16; Ps. 29.9, and 
 elsewhere. 
 
 Disease. [MEDICINE.] 
 
 Dish." He that dippeth with Me in the dish " 
 (Matt. 26.23 ; Mk. 14.20), said our Lord at the 
 Last Supper, referring to Judas. Guests at 
 table handled the food with their fingers. Each 
 person broke off a small piece of bread, dipped 
 it hi the dish, and then conveyed it to his 
 mouth, together with a small portion of the 
 meat or other contents of the dish. [BASIN, 
 CHARGER.] 
 
 Di'shan. (?) Leaping, or gazette or mountain- 
 goat : youngest son of Seir the Horite (Gen. 
 36.21). 
 
 Di'shon. Gazette or mountain-goat : 1. Fifth 
 son of Seir (Gen. 36.21, 26, 30; 1 Ch. 1.38). 
 2. Son of Anah and grandson of Seir (Gen. 36.25 ; 
 1 Ch. 1.41). 
 
 Dispersion, The Jews of the. The title 
 applied to Jews settled in foreign countries. 
 These colonies were kept together and prevented 
 from being lost in the surrounding community 
 by the powerful cohesion of their faith. Ip 
 
DISTAFF] 
 
 129 
 
 [DOG 
 
 these new circumstances the literal observance 
 of the Mosaic law was difficult, and the Jews 
 thereby obtained a truer insight into its spiritual 
 significance. The Dispersion was a most 
 wonderful providential preparation for the 
 spread of Christianity among both Jews and 
 Gentiles. The Temple at Jerusalem remained 
 the acknowledged centre of Judaism, and the 
 faithful Jew everywhere contributed his yearly 
 half-shekel to its maintenance. At the begin- 
 ning of the Christian era Jews were settled in 
 Babylonia, Persia, Media, Parthia, throughout 
 all Asia Minor, in Cyprus and the islands of the 
 JEgean, in Alexandria and along the northern 
 coast of Africa, and in Home itself. The 
 earliest evidence we possess of a community of 
 Dispersed Jews elsewhere than in Babylonia is 
 that at Elephantine (Assuan) in Upper Egypt, 
 where recent discoveries have shown the evi- 
 dence of a Jewish Temple in the sixth century 
 B.C. Many of them rose to prosperity and 
 influence. The influence of the Dispersion 
 on the rapid promulgation of Christianity can 
 scarcely be overrated, both in its modification 
 of Jewish (1 01 trine, and in its direct influence 
 by proselytising. Among the converts at 
 Pentecost were Jews who had come from all 
 parts of the world in which their race was 
 settled, and these naturally when they returned 
 to their homes were centres of propagandist 
 activity, and prepared the way for the subsequent 
 work of the apostles. The Dispersion had 
 created among the Gentiles a class known as 
 " the devout," who, if not formally Jews, re- 
 cognised in various degrees the faith of the God 
 of Israel. It was naturally from this class that 
 many of the first converts to Christianity were 
 drawn. 
 
 Distaff. Prow. 31.19. [SPIXXIXQ.] 
 
 Dives. [LAZARUS.] 
 
 Divination. God has been pleased to bestow 
 the gift of prophecy upon but very few persons 
 in the whole history of the world, but there 
 were hi Bible times many pretenders to the 
 gift, who practised various kinds of arts to 
 secure their supposed insight into the future. 
 Divination generally fell into the hands of a 
 priestly caste (Gen. 41.8 ; Isai. 47.13 ; Jer. 5.31 ; 
 Dan. 2.2), who used it for their own ends. The 
 persons who claimed to have familiar spirits 
 (Isai. 8.19, 29.4) are believed to have been ven- 
 triloquists who " peeped and muttered " from 
 the earth to imitate the voice of the spirits that 
 they were supposed to have summoned from the 
 dead. As regards the summoning of Samuel from 
 the dead by the witch of Endor (1 Sam. 28.7-25), 
 while the woman was no doubt an impostor, God 
 gave success to her arts on this occasion for 
 His own purpose that Saul might be fully 
 warned of what awaited him, and that he might 
 turn his heart to God even in his closing days. 
 In Ezek. 21.21 the reference is to divination by 
 arrow. The king threw up a bundle of arrows 
 to see in what direction they would alight, and 
 since they fell on the right hand he marched 
 towards Jerusalem. The cup by which Joseph 
 
 is said to have divined (Gen. 44.5) was a 
 silver vessel (symbolic of the Nile, "the 
 cup of Egypt"), which was supposed to have 
 mysterious magical qualities. The divination 
 was by means of radiations from the water or from 
 magically inscribed gems thrown into it. The 
 condition of the liver of the animal sacrificed 
 was supposed by some to be an indication to 
 future conduct (Ezek. 21.21). Moses forbade 
 every species of divination. [MAGIC.] 
 
 Divorce. The law of Moses permitted the 
 Jewish husband to put away his wife (Deut. 
 22.19, 29, 24.1-4), but for what causes is a 
 topic of dispute. Our Lord said : " Whosoever 
 shall put away his wife, saving for the cause 
 of fornication, cause th her to commit adultery ; 
 and whosoever shall marry her that is divorced 
 committeth adultery" (Matt. 5.32). Some 
 scholars think that in this verse "fornica- 
 tion " is to be understood strictly of sin 
 before marriage (Deut. 22.19). [ADULTERY, 
 MARRIAGE.] 
 
 Diza'hab. Region of gold : a place in the 
 Arabian desert, apparently on the border of 
 Moab (Deut. 1.1). 
 
 Doctor. Lk. 2.46, 5.17; Acts 5.34. 
 [LAWYER, MEDICINE, RABBI, SCRIBES.] 
 
 Do'dai. Beloved of Jah : an Ahohite, one of 
 David's captains (1 Ch. 27.4). [Dooo 2.] 
 
 Doda'nim or Roda'nim. A race descended 
 from Javan, son of Japhet (Gen. 10.4 ; 1 Ch. 1.7). 
 They may represent a Greek colony in Asia 
 Minor. If Rodanim is the correct form, it 
 will denote the natives of the island of Rhodes. 
 Rhodes had originally been occupied by 
 Phoenicians, whose tombs have been discovered 
 in the ancient cemeteries of the island, but 
 the Phoenician settlers were subsequently 
 superseded by Dorian Greeks. 
 
 Doda'vah (R.V. Dodavahu). Jah is loving : 
 father of Eliezer (2 Ch. 20.37). 
 
 Do'do. Ilis beloved-. 1. Father of Elhanan, 
 who was one of David's captains (2 Sam. 23.24 ; 
 1 Ch. 11.26). 2. An Ahohite (2 Sam. 23.9), 
 probably the same as Dodai, in which case we 
 must suppose that the words " Eleazar son of " 
 have dropped from 1 Ch. 21 A. 3. A man of 
 Issachar (Judg. 10.1). 
 
 Do'eg. (?) Anxious : chief of Saul's herdsmen, 
 an Edomite who informed Saul of Ahimelech 
 having assisted David. He destroyed the 
 priests of Nob, with their families, to the number 
 of eighty-five persons, together with all their pro- 
 perty (1 Sam. 21.7, 22.9, 17, 22). 
 
 Dog. Dogs are numerous in the East. 
 Having no owners, they run about the streets 
 in troops, living on what they can pick up or is 
 given to them by chance. They consume all 
 sorts of offal ; and even human graves, unless 
 well secured, are not safe from their search. 
 " The dogs shall eat Jezebel by the wall [ram- 
 part] of Jezreel " (1 K. 21.23). On the very spot 
 on the mounds of Jezreel, outside the modern 
 hovels, the descendants doubtless of these very 
 dogs may be seen searching for refuse. At 
 this day every town, from the greatest to the 
 
DOOR] 
 
 130 
 
 [DRAGON WELL 
 
 least, in Palestine swarms with lazy, filthy curs 
 not unlike ill-bred collies or shepherds' dogs 
 which will hardly move out of one's way in 
 the daytime, and howl hideously throughout the 
 night. To compare a person to a dog, living 
 or dead, was a bitterly insulting expression 
 (1 Sam. 17.43, 24.14 ; 2 Sam. 9.8 ; 2 K. 8.13). 
 Paul says, " Beware of dogs " (Phil. 3.2), i.e. 
 of impudent, sordid, greedy professors of 
 religion ; while in Prov. 26.11 and 2 Pet. 2.22 
 sinners, who continually relapse into sin, are 
 compared to dogs returning to their vomit. 
 " Dogs " are excluded from the New Jerusalem 
 (Rev. 22.15). 
 
 Door. [GATE.] 
 
 Doph'kah. Meaning unknown: site of 
 Israelite encampment near the Wilderness of 
 Sin (Num. 33.12, 13). 
 
 Dor. (?) Round dwelling: now Tanturah, royal 
 Canaanite city on a rocky promontory 14 miles 
 south of Carmel ; whose king joined Jabin, king 
 of Hazor, against Joshua ( Josh. 11.1, 2, 12.23) ; 
 within the territory of Asher, but allotted to 
 Manasseh ; from which the inhabitants were not 
 expelled, though made tributary (Josh. 17.11 ; 
 Judg. 1.27, 28) ; a commissariat district of 
 Solomon (1 K. 4.11). The ruins include the 
 remains of the ancient harbour. 
 
 Dorcas. A Greek word meaning gazelle 
 because of the animal's large eyes, as Tabitha 
 is the Aramaic word for gazelle because of its 
 beauty generally. A much-beloved Christian 
 woman at Joppa, who made garments for the 
 poor. She was raised from the dead by Peter 
 (Acts 9.36-42). 
 
 Do 'than. Meaning unknown : now Tell 
 Dothan, town on a hill 12 miles north of Samaria 
 in a beautiful luxuriant plain running up among 
 the south hills from the south-west side of the plain 
 of Esdraelon ; in the plain Joseph's brethren were 
 pasturing their flocks when they sold him to the 
 Midianites (Gen. 37.17) ; in the town Elisha was 
 protected from the forces which the Assyrian 
 king sent to apprehend him (2 K. 6.13). 
 
 Do to Wit. See 2 Cor. 8.1. " Do " signifies 
 " make " or " cause," and " to wit " equals 
 " to know." The R.V. reads, " We make known 
 to you." 
 
 Dove. The first mention of the dove in the 
 Bible is in Gen. 8.8, 10-12. Noah used the 
 bird to find out how far the waters of the 
 flood had subsided. Doves are very plentiful 
 in Palestine, both in the wild and domesticated 
 state. They are classed by Moses among the 
 clean birds, and have always been held in the 
 highest estimation among Eastern nations. 
 Ps. 68.13 refers to the shimmering of their 
 wings as they rise. The dove is mentioned as a 
 symbol of simplicity, innocence, gentleness, affec- 
 tion, and fidelity (Eos. 7.11 ; Matt. 10.16). Doves 
 might be offered in sacrifice by poor people 
 who could not bring a more costly oblation. 
 Thus it was that Mary offered " a pair of turtle- 
 doves or two young pigeons " after the birth of 
 Christ (Lev. 12.8 ; Lk. 2.22-24). In Itai. 60.8 
 we read : " Who are these that fly as a cloud, 
 
 and as the doves to their windows ? " The windows 
 refer to the latticed openings in the dovecots 
 (of which almost every house possesses one) or 
 to the clefts of the rocks to which the wild 
 pigeons in vast numbers resort, literally obscur- 
 ing the sun in their passage. The bright red 
 skin round the dark eye of the turtle-dove 
 explains the words " fitly set " in Cant. 5.12. 
 The dung of pigeons is very largely used for 
 manure in the East. Morier in his Persian 
 Travels describes the pigeon-houses erected at a 
 distance from habitations for the sole purpose 
 of collecting pigeons' dung. They are large 
 round towers, rather broader at the bottom than 
 the top, and crowned by conical spiracles, through 
 which the pigeons descend. Their interior 
 resembles a honeycomb pierced with a thousand 
 holes, each of which forms a snug retreat for a 
 nest. " The extraordinary flights of pigeons," 
 says Morier, " which I have seen alight upon 
 one of these buildings afford, perhaps, a good 
 illustration for Isai. 60.8 [see above]. Their 
 great numbers and the compactness of their 
 mass literally look like a cloud at a distance." 
 
 Doves' Dung. In 2 K. 6.25 only, where it 
 is said that during the siege of Samaria " the 
 fourth part of a cab [little more than half a pint] 
 of doves' dung was sold for five pieces of silver." 
 Most scholars are in favour of the literal meaning, 
 that doves' dung was used for human food ; but 
 some are of opinion that it was bought instead 
 of salt to serve as a kind of manure for raising 
 esculent plants of quick vegetation. It can 
 hardly be the name of a kind of grain. 
 
 Dowry. In the East the bridegroom offers 
 to the father of his bride a sum of money before 
 receiving the daughter in marriage (Gen. 34.12 ; 
 1 Sam. 18.25). When Jacob had no money to 
 give for a wife he purchased her by his services 
 to her father Laban (Gen. 29.18). '[MARRIAGE.] 
 
 Drachma. Transcript of the Greek word 
 translated " the piece of silver " in Lk. 15.8, 9. 
 It was a Greek coin of nearly the same value as 
 the Roman denarius, i.e. 9d. The double 
 drachma (didrachma) is the same as half a 
 shekel, two of which formed the stater paid 
 in Matt. 17.27. [DENARIUS, MONEY.] 
 
 Dragon. The reference is to the jackal in 
 the following passages : Job 30.29 ; Isai. 13.22, 
 34.13, 43.20 ; Jer. 9.11, 14.6, 51.37 ; Mic. 1.8. 
 The Holy Land, with its large number of caves 
 and old tombs, is a favourite haunt of the jackal, 
 which prowls about in search of stray sheep or 
 kids, but does not venture to attack man. 
 " The poison of dragons " (Deut. 32.33) refers 
 to an ordinary serpent; as also in Ps. 91.13. 
 The dragon of Isai. 51.9 and Ezek. 29.3 is the 
 crocodile, the great monster of the Nile (and the 
 emblem of the might of Egypt), which formerly 
 also existed in the Euphrates or Tigris (Jer. 
 51.34). The dragon of Rev. 12 is symbolical, 
 not necessarily referring to any actually existing 
 creature. John may have had the boa in his 
 mind when he describes Satan as a great red 
 dragon, striking vehemently with its tail. 
 
 Dragon Well. On the west or south-west 
 
DRAM] 
 
 131 
 
 PRESS 
 
 wall of Jerusalem (Neh. 2.13). The name is 
 probably due to a pre-Israelitish worship of 
 a sacred serpent, or a jinn in the form of a 
 serpent. 
 
 Dram. [MONEY.] 
 
 Dream. The Orientals, and particularly the 
 Jews, greatly regarded dreams, and applied for 
 their interpretation to those who undertook 
 to explain them. We see the antiquity of the 
 custom in the history of Pharaoh's baker and 
 butler (Gen. 40) ; Pharaoh himself (Gen. 41) and 
 Nebuchadnezzar (Dan. 2) are also instances. 
 The Midianites gave credit to dreams, as appears 
 from that which a Midianite related to his 
 companion, from whose interpretation Gideon 
 took a happy omen (Judg. 7.13, 15). Consider 
 also the dreams of Abimelech (Gen. 20.3-7), 
 Laban (Gen. 31.24), Joseph (Matt. 1.20), the 
 Magi (Matt. 2.12), and Pilate's wife (Matt. 
 27.19). It should carefully be noted that the 
 greater number of dreams were granted to 
 those who had not the advantage of being 
 under the Jewish covenant. 
 
 Dress. The earliest garments were made 
 from fig leaves sewn together to form an apron 
 (Gen. 3.7) ; afterwards skins of animals were 
 used, the sacred writer wishing to suggest a 
 difference between garments framed by man 
 and those provided by God at the expense of 
 life (Gen. 3.21). The garment of Elijah was 
 apparently the skin of a sheep or some other 
 animal with the wool left on (2 K. 1.8). The 
 art of weaving hair was known to the Hebrews 
 at a very early period (Ex. 26.7, 35.6); the 
 sackcloth used for mourning was made from 
 black goat's hair. John the Baptist's robe 
 was of camel's hair (Matt. 3.4). Wool was at 
 all times largely employed, particularly for the 
 outer garments (Job 31.20 ; Prov. 27.26, 31.13). 
 Linen was used in the vestments of the high 
 priests (Ex. 28.5) as well as by the wealthy 
 (Gen. 41.42; Prov. 31.22; Lk. 16.19). Silk 
 was not introduced until a very late period 
 (Rev. 18.12). The use of a mixed material such 
 as wool and flax was forbidden (Lev. 19.19 ; 
 Deut. 22.11), probably with the view of enforc- 
 ing the idea of purity and simplicity. 
 
 The general colour of the Hebrew dress was 
 the natural white, intensified in some cases by 
 the fuller's art (Mk. 9.3). The notice of scarlet 
 thread (Gen. 38.28) implies some acquaintance 
 with dyeing. The Hebrews learned from the 
 Egyptians various methods of producing decor- 
 ated stuffs, such as weaving with dyed threads 
 (Ex. 35.25), using gold thread or wire (Ex. 28.6), 
 and working figures into the texture (Ex. 26.1, 
 31, 3G.8, 35). Robes decorated with gold 
 thread (Ps. 45.13), and at a later period with 
 silver thread, were worn by royal personages ; 
 other kinds of embroidered garments were 
 worn by the rich (Judg. 5.30; Ps. 45.14; 
 Ezek. 16.13). Dyed robes were imported from 
 foreign countries (Zeph. 1.8) ; purple (Prov. 
 31.22; Lk. 16.19) and scarlet (2 Sam. 1.24) 
 were occasionally worn by the wealthy. 
 
 The modern Arab dresses much as the ancient 
 
 Hebrew did, with the same flowing robes. 
 There is an outer garment, warm and heavy, and 
 an inner of light material. There was a simi- 
 larity between the garments of men and those of 
 women, though there was difference enough to 
 indicate sex ; " the woman shall not wear that 
 which pertaineth unto a man, neither shall a 
 man put on a woman's garment " (Deut. 22.5). 
 The most essential article of dress was one which 
 resembled our shirt, made of wool, cotton, or 
 linen, and kept close to the body by a girdle. 
 A person with only this garment on was described 
 as naked (1 Sam. 19.24 ; Job 22.6 ; Isai. 20.2, 
 58.7; John 21.7; Jos. 2.15). Over this 
 garment was worn a second tunic, longer than 
 the first. The ordinary outer garment con- 
 sisted of a quadrangular piece of woollen cloth, 
 probably resembling in shape a Scotch plaid. 
 It was either wrapped round the body or worn 
 over the shoulders like a shawl, or it might be 
 thrown over the head to conceal the face (2 Sam. 
 15.30; Esth. 6.12). 
 
 The women wore the same sort of inner shirt 
 as the men, but their outer garments were 
 different, including a sort of shawl and a veil. 
 Their garments terminated with an ample 
 border or fringe, which concealed the feet 
 (Isai. 47.2 ; Jer. 13.22). 
 
 The outer garment of the Hebrews was also 
 used as bedclothes, for which reason a creditor 
 could not retain it after sunset (Ex. 22.26 ; 
 Deut. 24.12, 13). The custom of placing 
 garments in pawn appears to have been very 
 common. 
 
 The loose flowing character of the Hebrew 
 robes admitted of a variety of symbolical 
 actions ; rending them was expressive of various 
 emotions, as grief (Gen. 37.29, 34 ; 2 Sam. 1.2 ; 
 Job 1.20), fear (1 K. 21.27 ; 2 K. 22.11, 19), 
 indignation (2 K. 5.7, 11.14; Matt. 26.65), 
 or despair ( Judg. 11.35 ; Esth. 4.1). Generally 
 the outer garment alone was thus rent (Gen. 
 37.34; Job 1.20, 2.12), occasionally the inner 
 (2 Sam. 15.32), and occasionally both (Ezra 9.3 ; 
 Matt. 26.65). Shaking the garments or shaking 
 the dust off them was a sign of renunciation 
 (Acts 18.6) ; spreading them before a person, of 
 loyalty and joyous reception (2 K. 9.13 ; Malt. 
 21.8) ; wrapping them round the bead, of awe 
 (1 K. 19.13), or of grief (2 Sam. 15.30 ; Esth. 
 6.12; Jer. 14.3, 4); casting them off, of ex- 
 citement (Acts 22.23) ; laying hold of them, of 
 supplication (1 Sam. 15.27 ; Isai. 3.6, 4.1 ; Zech. 
 8.23). 
 
 In the case of travelling, the outer garments 
 were girded up (1 K. 18.46). They were thrown 
 aside also when they would impede action 
 (Mk. 10.50 ; John 13.4 ; Acts 7.58). 
 
 " Thou hast clothing " (Isai. 3.6) signifies to 
 be rich, because changes of raiment formed one 
 of the main elements of wealth (Job 27.16 ; 
 Matt. 6.19; Jas. 5.2). The women of the 
 family made the clothes (Prov. 31.22 ; Acts 9.39). 
 Owing to the great simplicity of the " cut " of 
 the garments, little art was needed. Ex- 
 travagance in dress is referred to in Isai. 3.16 ; 
 
DEINK, STRONG] 
 
 132 
 
 [DUST 
 
 Jer. 4.30 ; Ezek. 16.10 ; Zeph. 1.8 ; 1 Tim. 2.9 ; 
 1 Pet. 3.3. 
 
 Drink, Strong. The strong drink referred to 
 in Isai. 5.22 was made from barley with which 
 spices were mixed. Other intoxicating drinks 
 in addition to wine were distilled from corn, 
 honey, or dates. The effects of the use of strong 
 drink are referred to in Ps. 107.27 ; Isai. 24.20, 
 49.26, 51.17-22. It was forbidden to the priests 
 on service (Lev. 10.9) and the Nazarites (Num. 
 6.3). [DRUNKENNESS.] 
 
 Drink Offering. An offering under the 
 Mosaic law (Ex. 29.40; Lev. 23.18; Num. 
 15.5). 
 
 Dromedary. In Isai. 60.6 ; Jer. 2.23 this 
 should be rendered " young camel." The 
 translation in 1 K. 4.28 should be " swift 
 steeds" (R.V.). The expression "mules, 
 camels, and young dromedaries " (Esth. 8.10) 
 should read " swift steeds, that were used in 
 the king's service, bred of the stud " (R.V.). 
 [CAMEL.] 
 
 Drought of Summer. Lasts from middle 
 of May to middle of August, vegeta- 
 tion being then preserved by the dews 
 (Hag. 1.11). 
 
 Drowning. This was a mode of capital 
 punishment in use among the Syrians 
 (Matt. 18.6). 
 
 Drunkenness. The first instance of intoxi- 
 cation on record is that of Noah (Gen. 9.21). 
 The sin of drunkenness is condemned in Rom. 
 13.13; 1 Cor. 6.9,10; Eph. 5.18; 1 Thess. 
 5.7, 8. Men are represented as drunk with 
 sorrow, with afflictions, and with the wine of 
 God's wrath (Isai. 63.6 ; Jer. 51.57 ; Ezek. 23.33). 
 Persons under the influence of superstition, 
 idolatry, and delusion are said to be drunk 
 (Isai. 28.7 ; Rev. 17.2). 
 
 Drusilla. The third daughter of that Herod 
 Agrippa who put to death the Apostle James 
 (Acts 12.1, 2) and imprisoned Peter (Acts 12.3, 4), 
 and who was himself judicially smitten in the 
 midst of his oration at Caesarea (Acts 12.23). 
 She was remarkable for beauty. Her second 
 husband was Claudius Felix, governor of Judaea, 
 by whom she had a son whose name was Agrippa. 
 Before Drusilla and her husband Felix the 
 Apostle Paul appeared and defended his 
 Christian profession (Acts 24.24). Drusilla's 
 son, Agrippa, perished in the great eruption 
 of Vesuvius (79 A.D.), and some writers have 
 thought that she died with him. 
 
 Duke. Leader, chief. The Hebrew word 
 is Head of a thousand : the " dukes " of Edom 
 (Gen. 36.15-43) merely signify leaders or chiefs. 
 It was not an hereditary title, and was not 
 intended to be so by the translators of the A.V., 
 for in 1611 " duke " was not so used. 
 
 Dulcimer. The rendering " bagpipe " is given 
 by K.V. in Dan. 3.5, 10, 15. The real dulcimer 
 is a triangular instrument of fifty wires, struck 
 by an iron key. 
 
 Du'mah. Silence : 1. An Ishmaelite tribe 
 of Arabia, and thence the name of the principal 
 place or district inhabited by that tribe (Gen. 
 
 25.14 ; 1 Ch. 1.30). The town is now called 
 J6f, and is situated in the north part of the 
 peninsula, about half-way between Petra and 
 the Euphrates. 2. A city in the mountainous 
 district of Judah (Josh. 15.52), about 6 miles 
 from Hebron, now ed-D6meh, a large ruin, 
 with rock-hewn tombs. 3. In Isai. 21.11 it 
 seems to be a title of the prophecy following, 
 and to express the "silence" of the fate of 
 Edom. 
 
 Dumb. Unable to speak by natural infirmity 
 (Ex. 4.11), by want of knowledge and skill 
 (Prov. 31.8), by reason of unwillingness to speak 
 (Ps. 39.9). Christ repeatedly restored the dumb 
 (Matt. 9.32, 33, 12.22 ; Lk. 11.14). 
 
 Dung. The use of dung in the making of 
 bread (Ezek. 4.12-16) refers to its employment 
 as fuel, which is still common in the East, but 
 its proximity would defile the bread for a 
 Jew. As manure it consisted either of straw 
 steeped in liquid manure (Isai. 25.10) or the 
 sweepings of the streets and roads, which were 
 collected outside the town walls at fixed spots 
 (Neh. 2.13). Manure was applied to trees by 
 digging holes about the roots (Lk. 13.8). To 
 sit on a dung-heap was a sign of the deepest 
 dejection (1 Sam. 2.8 ; Ps. 113.7 ; Lam. 4.5). 
 
 Dung Gate, Dung Port. Port is Old English 
 for gate. "Gate of the refuse-heap" would 
 be a better translation. One of the gates of 
 Jerusalem (Neh. 2.13), outside of which was 
 set refuse of all kinds. It was probably near 
 the southern extremity of the city. 
 
 Dungeon. [PRISON.] 
 
 Du'ra. (?) Wall : a place in the province of 
 Babylon giving its name to the plain round it 
 where Nebuchadnezzar set up the golden image 
 (Dan. 3.1). It has been identified with the 
 mound Dowair or Du'air, south-east of Babylon, 
 where the pedestal of a colossal statue has been 
 discovered. 
 
 Dust. Dust or ashes cast on the head was 
 a sign of mourning (Josh. 7.6), sitting in the dust 
 a sign of affliction (Isai. 47.1 ; Lam. 3.29). To 
 shake or wipe off the dust of a place from one's 
 feet marks the renouncing of all intercourse 
 with it in future. To lick the dust is a sign of 
 abject submission (Ps. 72.9). God threatens the 
 Hebrews with a rain of dust (Dent. 28.24). This 
 is a reference to the terrible dust storms which 
 often do such havoc, filling eyes, ears, and 
 nostrils, and injuring the brooks, fields, and 
 gardens. To throw dust at a person is a sign 
 of the greatest abhorrence. In almost every 
 part of Asia those who demand justice against 
 a criminal throw dust upon him, signifying that 
 he deserves to lose his life, and be cast into the 
 grave. Shimei gave vent to his hostility to 
 David, when he fled before Absalom, by casting 
 dust (2 Sam. 16.13). It was an ancient custom 
 in these arid countries to lay the dust before a 
 person of distinction by sprinkling the ground 
 with water. To throw dust into the air while 
 a person was passing was an act of great dis- 
 respect ; to do so before a sovereign prince was 
 an outrage. Shimei intended to signify that 
 
DWELL DEEP] 
 
 133 
 
 [EARTH 
 
 David was unfit to live. When the Jews seized 
 Paul in the Temple they " threw dust into 
 the air " (Acts 22.23), indicating their violent 
 and deadly hatred towards him. 
 
 Dwell Deep. See Jer. 49.8 : the words refer 
 to the custom of seeking refuge from danger in 
 rock caverns, and remote desert places. 
 
 Dwelling. [HOUSE, TENT, TABERNACLE.] 
 
 E 
 
 Eagle. The astonishing number of birds of 
 prey of all sixes to be found in Palestine and 
 Arabia is constantly referred to in the Bible. 
 In some of the passages where the word 
 " eagle " occurs, a better translation would have 
 been " vulture." For instance, in Mic. 1.16, 
 " Make thee bald, and poll thee . . . enlarge thy 
 baldness as the eagle," can only refer to the 
 vulture, which is devoid of true feathers on the 
 head and neck ; a necessary provision of nature, 
 as the creature is in the habit of plunging its head 
 into the carcases of dead animals. Another 
 bird that has been rendered " eagle " is the 
 griffon vulture, whose habit of resting on the 
 highest elevation of clilTs is exactly described 
 in Jer. 49.16 and Job 39.27-30. In this last 
 passage, " Her eyes behold (the prey) afar off," 
 there is a reference to the almost incompre- 
 hensible powers of sight of the vulture. When 
 an animal falls dead or wounded in the desert, 
 travellers tell us that in an incredibly short space 
 of time a number of these birds will be attracted 
 to the carcase, though a minute before not one 
 was visible. A single carcase thus becomes the 
 focus for the arrival of a multitude of birds of 
 prey (Matt. 24.28). 
 
 The strength of the eagle and its swiftness are 
 noticed in Jer. 4.13 and Hos. 8.1. In Ps. 103.5 
 there is a reference to its longevity and apparent 
 perpetual youth. The parental care alluded to 
 in Lent. 32.11, 12, especially in encouraging the 
 first attempts at flight, Ls very characteristic of 
 the class of birds to which the eagle belongs. 
 It is from the eagle's lofty flight, its near ap- 
 proach to the heavens, resembling John's keen 
 insight into divine truths, that the eagle has been 
 assigned to him as an emblem. 
 
 The golden eagle and the imperial eagle are 
 both common in Palestine, though not so plenti- 
 ful as the griffon vulture, being seen chiefly in 
 the rocky valleys and the summits of mountain 
 ranges rarely visited. The " ossifrage " (Lev. 
 11.13 ; Deut. 14.17) or bearded vulture (II. V. 
 gier-eagle) gets its Latin name from its habit 
 of taking marrow bones high into the air and 
 then dropping them on the stones to break 
 them. A well-known tradition affirms that the 
 poet JLschylus met his death by one of these 
 birds dropping a tortoise on his bald head, mis- 
 taking it for a stone. Other eagles found in the 
 Holy Land are the tawny eagle, Bonelli's eagle, 
 and the short-toed eagle, the last being the 
 commonest, feeding on reptiles, which are re- 
 markably plentiful there. 
 
 Ear. In several instances the word is used 
 figuratively, as in Jer. 6.10, where uncircumcised 
 
 ears are ears inattentive to the word of God. The 
 "open ear" of Ps. 34.15 is a reference to the 
 constant regard of God to the prayers of His 
 people ; while the heavy ears of Isai. 6.10 signify 
 inattentive and disobedient minds. Among 
 the Jews, the slave who renounced the privilege 
 of being freed in the sabbatical year submitted 
 to have his ear bored through with an awl by his 
 master as a sign of perpetual slavery. The 
 ceremony was performed in the presence of some 
 judge or magistrate, and was a voluntary act 
 (Ex. 21.5,6). 
 
 Earing. To " ear " is O.E. for to plough. 
 Thus the expression " earing nor harvest " 
 (Gen. 45.6). The R.V. has "plowing nor harvest." 
 See also Ex. 34.21 ; Deut. 21.4 ; 1 Sam. 8.12; 
 Isai. 30.24. 
 
 Earnest. Something given in hand as an 
 assurance that something else shall be given, 
 or something shall be performed, in due time. 
 It differs from a pledge in that it is not given back 
 when full payment is made. The Holy Ghost 
 and His influences are the earnest of our inherit- 
 ance (2 Cor. 1.22, 5.5 ; Eph. 1.14). 
 
 Ear-Ring. The ear-ring was either plain, 01 
 had a drop, a pendant, or a little bell attached. 
 It was worn by the fashionable lady, who, in 
 addition, adorned herself with bracelets, finger- 
 rings, ankle-rings, nose-rings, etc. (Gen. 24.22 ; 
 Ex. 32.2, 3 ; Isai. 3.21). The size and weight of 
 this ornament sometimes far exceeded what is 
 usual among ourselves. The more elaborate 
 ear-rings were not only chased but were 
 frequently further ornamented with pearls and 
 rubies. Thus their intrinsic value made them 
 handsome presents (Num. 31.50; Job 42.11). 
 Poor people used earthenware, horn, and other 
 cheap substitutes for ear-rings. 
 
 In some passages it is impossible to say whether 
 ear-rings or nose-rings were intended, for the 
 latter was as favourite an ornament as the 
 former, and the sacred writers used the words 
 promiscuously. Every woman and girl in the 
 East wears these rings. Some of these ear-rings 
 have figures engraved upon them, either talis- 
 mans or charms, or, occasionally, the names and 
 symbols of their gods. Hence in Isai. 3.20 
 for "amulets" (11. V.) the A.V. reads "ear- 
 rings." It is probable that the ear-rings of 
 Jacob's household were of this character, and 
 that this was the reason of his demanding 
 them, that he might bury them under the oak 
 before they went up to Bethel (Gen. 35.4). 
 
 Earth. The Hebrews had various names for 
 the earth, especially Adamah and Eretz. 
 Adamah, i.e. red earth (Gen. 1.25), often denotes 
 
EARTHQUAKE] 
 
 134 
 
 [EBED 
 
 arable land (Gen. 4.2). It is also used of a 
 country, especially Palestine (Gen. 47.19 ; 
 Zech. 2.12). When Naaman asked for two mule 
 loads of earth (2 K. 5.17), he was influenced by 
 the heathen idea that Jehovah was a local god, 
 and could be worshipped successfully only on 
 his native soil. 
 
 Eretz is earth as opposed to heaven, or dry land 
 as distinct from the sea (Gen. 1.1,10). -The 
 word is also applied to the whole earth (Gen. 
 18.18), to any division of land (Gen. 21.32), and 
 even to the ground under one's feet (Gen. 33.3). 
 
 The " lower parts of the earth " (Isai. 44.23) 
 signifies literally the valleys, or deep recesses, 
 such as caverns and caves, and figuratively the 
 grave. 
 
 In the N.T. besides the ordinary word for 
 " earth," which corresponds to the various 
 meanings already noted, there is a special word 
 meaning " inhabited earth " (Lk. 4.5 ; Horn. 
 10.18, etc.), used specifically of the Roman 
 Empire. 
 
 Earth in a moral sense is opposed to what is 
 heavenly and spiritual (see John 3.31 ; 1 Cor. 
 15.47-49 ; Jas. 3.15, etc.). 
 
 Earthquake. Bible lands have always been 
 liable to earthquakes : in the Jordan valley and 
 the region of the Dead Sea traces of volcanic 
 action abound. These forces were probably 
 the instruments of destruction in the over- 
 throw of the Cities of the Plain (Gen. 19.25), and 
 the quaking of the earth naturally became 
 associated with the awful presence and judg- 
 ments of God (Ex. 19.18 ; 1 K. 19.11). Hence 
 the place of the earthquake in the symbolism of 
 prophecy (Isai. 29.6 ; Mk. 13.8 ; Rev. 16.18). 
 
 An earthquake in the days of Saul is recorded 
 in the story of the feat of arms accomplished by 
 Jonathan and his armour-bearer (1 Sam. 14.15). 
 One in the reign of Uzziah is twice mentioned in 
 terms which mark it out as a memorable cata- 
 strophe (Amos 1.1 ; Zech. 14.5). Josephus 
 connects this with the impiety of the king in 
 presuming himself to offer incense upon the 
 golden altar, and describes it in language which 
 closely resembles the prophecy of Zech. 14.4 
 (Josephus, Ant. ix. 10. 4). 
 
 According to St. Matthew our Lord's death 
 was signalised by an earthquake, with opening of 
 the tombs and appearances of the dead (Matt. 
 27.51-54). At Philippi Paul and Silas were 
 delivered from prison by an earthquake (Acts 
 16.26). 
 
 East. The Hebrews expressed the east, 
 west, north, and south by words which signify 
 " before," " behind," " left," and " right," 
 according to the position of a person who has his 
 face towards the rising sun ( Job 23.8, 9). By the 
 east they frequently described, not only Arabia 
 Deserta, and the lands of Moab and Ammon, 
 which lay to the east of Palestine, but also 
 Assyria, Mesopotamia, Babylonia, and Chaldea, 
 though these are situated rather to the north 
 than to the east of Judaea. Balaam, Cyrus, and 
 the wise men who visited Bethlehem at the time 
 Christ was born, are said to have come from the 
 
 East (Nwm. 23.7; Isai. 46.11; Matt. 2.1). 
 "The Children of the East'"' are, in particular, 
 the various desert tribes on the east of 
 Palestine (Judg. 6.3, and elsewhere). 
 
 East Sea. Another name for the Dead Sea 
 (Ezek. 47.18). 
 
 East Street. An open space in front of the 
 Temple (2 Ch. 29.4). K.V. " broad place on the 
 east." 
 
 Easter. The word elsewhere rendered " Pass- 
 over " is translated by " Easter " in the A.V. 
 of Acts 12.4 : R.V. " the Passover." The word 
 Easter is the Teutonic name of the Christian 
 feast commemorating our Lord's resurrection. 
 [PASSOVER.] 
 
 Eating. The ancient manner of eating 
 is still common in Eastern nations ; the 
 guests recline on couches, resting on the left 
 elbow, and using chiefly the right hand to pass 
 food to the mouth. This peculiar position 
 makes the scene in Lk. 7.36-50 appear quite 
 natural, and enables us to understand how one 
 guest could repose on another's bosom (John 
 13.23). Honour was paid to the guests by 
 helping them liberally. Joseph sent his brother 
 Benjamin a portion five times larger than those 
 of his other brethren (Gen. 43.34). To eat a 
 meal together is regarded as a pledge of mutual 
 confidence and goodwill. Hence the force of 
 the expression in Ps. 41.9, " Yea, mine own 
 familiar friend . . . which did eat of my bread." 
 [BANQUET, FEAST, MEALS.] 
 
 Etal. 1. A Horite (Gen. 36.23 ; 1 Ch. 1.40). 
 2. A son of Joktan, a descendant of Shem 
 (1 Ch. 1.22 : called Obal in Gen. 10.28). 
 
 E'bal Mount. Bare : a celebrated mountain, 
 3000 feet high, on the north of the valley of 
 Shechem. Ebal and Gerizim are twin moun- 
 tains, close together and separated by a deep 
 valley, in which lay the town of Shechem 
 (Judg. 9.7), the modern Nablous. The two 
 mountains are much alike in height and form. 
 One of them, Ebal, is barren, the other covered 
 with a beautiful verdure. Moses commanded 
 the Israelites as soon as they should have passed 
 over the Jordan to go directly to Shechem, and 
 there divide the whole multitude into two 
 bodies, each composed of six tribes, one com- 
 pany to be placed on Ebal, the other on Gerizim. 
 The six tribes on Gerizim were to pronounce 
 blessings on those who should faithfully observe 
 the law of the Lord, and the six others on 
 Mount Ebal were to pronounce curses against 
 those who should violate it (Dent. 11.29, 
 27.11-13; Josh. 8.30,31). 
 
 The first " great " altar to Jehovah was 
 erected on Ebal (Deut. 27.2-8), as also memorial 
 stones to mark the entry of the Israelites into 
 the Promised Land after the overthrow of 
 Jericho. The Samaritans contended, however, 
 that this altar was erected on Gerizim, and they 
 afterwards built a temple on the latter, the 
 ruins of which are still visible. The remark of 
 the Samaritan woman at Shechem has reference 
 to this fact (John 4.20). 
 
 . Servant : 1. Father of Gaal, who 
 

 EBED-MELECH] 
 
 135 
 
 [ECCLESIASTES, BOOK OF 
 
 rebelled against Abimelech when he was reign- 
 ing in Shechem (Judg. 9.26-35). 2. The son 
 of Jonathan, and one of the Bene-Adin, who 
 came back from Babylon with Ezra (Ezra 8.6). 
 
 E'bed-me'lech. The servant of the king : an 
 Ethiopian eunuch of King Zedekiah. He was in- 
 strumental in saving the prophet Jeremiah from 
 death by starvation (Jer. 38.7-13, 39.15-18). 
 
 Ebene'zer. Stone of help : a memorial stone 
 erected by Samuel after a deliverance from the 
 Philistines (1 Sam. 4.1, 5.1, 7.12). It stood 
 somewhere between Mizpeh, " the watch-tower," 
 a few miles north of Jerusalem and Shen, but 
 its exact position is not known. 
 
 ET)er, He'ber. 1. The great-grandson of Shem, 
 and son of Salah. He was the ancestor of 
 Abraham, in the seventh generation (Gen. 10.21, 
 11.14-26). Perhaps the name is ethnic rather 
 than personal, ascribing to this ancestor the 
 origin of the appellation of- Hebrews, 
 Heber signifying one that passes over, or an 
 immigrant. Such were Abraham and his family 
 among the Canaanites ; and his posterity, 
 learning and using the language of the country, 
 retained the name. 2. The chief of a family 
 in Gad (1 Ch. 5.13). 3. A son of Elpaal a 
 Benjamite (1 Ch. 8.12). 4, A son of Shashak 
 a Benjamite (1 Ch. 8.22). 5. A priest of the 
 family of Amok (Neh. 12.20). [llm*BKW.] 
 
 Ebez. [ABEZ.] 
 
 Ebia'saph. The father of gathering : a great- 
 grandson of Korah, and forefather of Samuel 
 and Heman (1 Ch. 6.23, 37). [ABIASAPH, 
 
 ASAPH.] 
 
 Ebony. A very hard, dark-coloured wood. 
 It was imported from India, was a valuable 
 article of commerce, and much prized (Ezek. 
 27.15). 
 
 Eb'ron. A town of Asher (Josh. 19.28 R.V. : 
 A.V. wrongly Hebron). 
 
 Ebro'nah. The thirtieth encampment of the 
 Israelites. Its position was near the head of 
 the Elanitic Gulf (Num. 33.34, 35; R.V. 
 Abronah). 
 
 Ecbata'na. The metropolis of North Media, 
 at which the decree of Cyrus was found, per- 
 mitting the rebuilding of the Temple (Ezra 6.2). 
 
 [ACHMETIIA.] 
 
 Ecclesiastes, Book of. A book now classed 
 with what is called (as a subdivision of the 
 sacred writings) " Wisdom Literature." Such 
 works are distinguished in substance and 
 character from those of the Prophets. They 
 are reflective and ethical rather than expressive 
 of direct messages from God. Thus they do not 
 employ the arresting words, " Thus saith the 
 Lord." Indeed, the name of Jehovah is not 
 found in Ecclesiastes. 
 
 Title and Authorship. The English name, 
 taken from the Greek version, signifies one 
 who convenes or addresses an assembly, and is 
 expressed by the term " the Preacher." Prob- 
 ably this represents the sense of the Hebrew 
 title, Qoheleth, a feminine derivative from a 
 word meaning " assembly " ; or it may be 
 rendered, '* She who is an assembly " (Tyler) ; 
 
 represented as speaking through the voice of 
 one person. The person is identified as Solo- 
 mon, but ideally, as though his spirit spoke : 
 " I was king." Early belief regarded Solomon 
 as the actual author, and held that the book 
 contained the penitent reminiscences and wise 
 conclusions of his old age. It would thus be an 
 interesting addition to the history, which no- 
 where speaks of Solomon as repentant. Accord- 
 ing to this view, Solomon, though so richly 
 endowed with wisdom, turned away from God, 
 and sought happiness in earthly and idolatrous 
 practices (1 K. 11.1-13) ; but in his latter years, 
 being made sensible of his folly, he here records 
 his experience ; the truths here given having 
 been " proclaimed " by him in public to those 
 who crowded from all parts to his court to be 
 instructed by his wisdom. Modern criticism, 
 however, places the composition of the book 
 at a much later period subsequent to 
 Malachi, possibly in the late Persian, or the 
 Greek period, but earlier than the Maccabees. 
 The Hebrew of the book is held to be that of 
 a period much later than that of Solomon. " We 
 could as easily believe," writes Dr. Ginsburg, 
 " that Chaucer is the author of Rasselas as that 
 Solomon wrote Qoheleth." " If the Book of 
 Ecclesiastes," writes Delitzsch, " was written 
 in the age of Solomon, there is no history of the 
 Hebrew language." 
 
 Contents. Whilst the great lessons of this 
 book are clearly brought out, it Is by no means 
 easy to trace the course of thought. After a 
 general introduction stating his subject and 
 design (1.1-11), the Preacher reviews his 
 personal experience in his search after happiness, 
 showing that neither luxurious pleasure nor even 
 intellectual attainments can confer it (1.12, 
 2.23) ; and he concludes that it is best to fall 
 in with the unalterable arrangements of Divine 
 Providence (2.24, 3.15). 
 
 He then recounts his observations of the lives 
 of others, especially in their social connections, 
 and here also finds vanity (3.18, 4.16); 
 upon which he founds some striking practical 
 remarks (5.1-9). He renews his observations, 
 chiefly regarding men as individuals, and ex- 
 posing the disappointment of the selfish and 
 avaricious (5.10, 6.12). He then adduces some 
 maxims of practical wisdom to alleviate these 
 inevitable ills allowing, however, that they are 
 not always successful (7.1, 9.10) ; and adds 
 some most striking and valuable instructions 
 respecting the application of wisdom to various 
 circumstances of life, so as to confer the greatest 
 attainable happiness (9.11, 11.6). 
 
 This leads to an exhibition of the highest use 
 of wisdom, in producing a thoughtful and 
 serene expectation of and preparation for old 
 age, death, and judgment (11.7, 12.7) ; from 
 which follows the conclusion, declaring as the 
 result of all: (1) that earthly objects cannot 
 possibly make men truly happy (12.8) ; (2) that 
 Divine Wisdom alone can teach them to make 
 the best of this imperfect state (12.9-12); 
 and (3) that this Divine Wisdom enjoins the 
 
ECCLESIASTICUS, BOOK OF] 136 
 
 [EDOM 
 
 cultivation of submissive and reverential piety 
 (12.13), and the expectation of a future state of 
 perfect adjustment and retribution as the best 
 thing for man on earth (12.14). 
 
 Canonicity. The right of Ecclesiastes to 
 appear in the Canon was questioned by Jewish 
 authorities, but was recognised by the early 
 Christian Church. It is not actually quoted in 
 the N.T. 
 
 Ecclesiasticus, Book of. The Latin title of 
 a book in the Apocrypha, called in the Septua- 
 gint the " Wisdom of Jesus, the son of Sirach." 
 Jesus ben Sirach, to whom the work is attributed, 
 would appear to have been a Jew of Palestine, a 
 devout student of the Hebrew Scriptures, 
 an ardent patriot who was proud of the great 
 men of his race, and an observant traveller. 
 The prologue to the book is by the author's 
 grandson, who, about 130 B.C., translated the 
 Hebrew work into Greek. The body of the 
 book was written soon after 200 B.C. Until 
 recent times the work was only known in 
 translations, of which the Greek and the Syriac 
 were made from the original Hebrew, whilst 
 the Latin was made from the Greek. But 
 now various fragments of the book in the 
 original have been discovered and examined. It 
 was first termed " Ecclesiasticus " by Cyprian, in 
 the third century A.D. In its treatment of life 
 social, domestic, and civil the book acknow- 
 ledges the fatherhood of God, treats of Wisdom, 
 and refers to the Law of Moses. Some parts of 
 it are nobly written, as the Praise of Creation, 
 42.15, 43.33, and the Eulogy of Famous Men, 
 44-50. In it we have the choicest monu- 
 ment of uncanonical Jewish literature. 
 
 Edar. [EDER.] 
 
 E'den. Delight: 1. The garden or paradise 
 planted by God for the reception of man 
 (Gen. 2.8). The locality of the garden of Eden 
 cannot exactly be fixed, though two of its four 
 rivers are undoubtedly the Tigris and the 
 Euphrates. No successful identification of 
 the Pison and the Gihon has been reached. 
 Perhaps the "river" which became four 
 " heads " is the Persian Gulf, into which the 
 Tigris and Euphrates, with two other rivers, 
 originally flowed. There is evidence that the 
 gulf was thought of as a river, and the tidal 
 phenomena would account for the parting of it 
 into four " heads." Thus Eden would lie in the 
 fertile plains of Babylonia. Other references 
 to Eden, " the garden of God," are found in 
 Isai. 51.3 ; Ezek. 28.13 ; 31.9 ; 36.35. In these, 
 as in the Genesis narrative and elsewhere, the 
 LXX uses the Persian word for park, paradise. 
 Hence in the N.T. Paradise becomes the restored 
 Eden, the ideal abode of the blessed (Lk. 23.43 ; 
 2 Cor. 12.4 ; Rev. 2.7). [PARADISE.] 2. A Ger- 
 shonite, son of Joah (2 Ch. 29.12). 3. A Levite 
 in the time of Hezekiah, who was appointed 
 to distribute the oblations (2 Ch. 31.15). 
 4. One of the marts of Tynan commerce 
 taken by an Assyrian king. It seems to have 
 been the home of the Bit-Adiniol the Assyrian 
 inscriptions, some 200 miles N.N.E. of 
 
 Damascus. They had been carried captive to 
 Telassar on the east of the Tigris (2 K. 19.12 ; 
 Isai. 37.12 ; Ezek. 27.23). 
 
 Eden, House of. Mentioned Amos 1.5 (marg. 
 Beth-eden). There is a place near Damascus 
 bearing the name of " House of Paradise." The 
 identification is uncertain. 
 
 E'der. 1. The " town of Eder " (A.V., Edar) 
 is named as a halting-place of Jacob between 
 Bethlehem and Hebron (Gen. 35.21). It was 
 one of the towers for herdsmen watching flocks. 
 They also served as places of shelter, or even as 
 summer resorts for their owners. The tower of 
 Eder was about a mile from Bethlehem. In 
 Mic. 4.8 (see B..V. marg.) the word seems to 
 stand for Bethlehem itself as birthplace of 
 the Messiah. 2. A border city in the extreme 
 south of Judah (Josh. 15.21). 3. A grandson 
 of Mcrari, son of Levi (1 Ch. 23.23). 
 
 E'dom. Red : 1. The name given to Esau from 
 the red colour of the lentil pottage for which he 
 sold his birthright to Jacob (Gen. 25.30, 36.1). 
 
 2. The country that in N.T. times was known 
 as Idumaea (Mk. 3.8). It was originally called 
 " Mount Seir " (rugged), and was then inhabited 
 by the Horites (Gen. 14.6). It extended from 
 the Dead Sea to the Red Sea, where Elath and 
 Eziongeber were the Edomite ports (Deut. 2.8). 
 It is a narrow, mountainous district, 100 miles 
 long by 20 miles wide, and its height above 
 sea-level averages 2000 feet. Bounded on the 
 east by the Arabian desert, its western frontier 
 was coterminous with Judah. It is a land of 
 deep glens and flat and fertile plains, with a 
 lovely climate, but the general character of 
 the country is wild and rugged (Jer. 49.16 ; 
 Obad.3,4). 
 
 This was the land that Esau occupied immedi- 
 ately after the death of his father Isaac (Gen. 
 36.6-8). It was subdued by his descendants 
 (Deut. 2.12). The Edomites (i.e. descendants 
 of Esau or Edom) were a warlike people, were 
 cave-dwellers like the Horites, whom they 
 dispossessed (Jer. 49.16), and idolaters (2 Ch. 
 25.14). They refused the Israelites a passage 
 through their country (Num. 20.14-21, 21.4), 
 and were accused of habitual hatred towards 
 the Israelites (Ezek. 25.12). Saul made war 
 against the Edomites, and David completely 
 subdued them after terrible slaughter (1 Sam. 
 14.47 ; 2 Sam. 8.14). From this time the kings 
 of Edom were tributary to the kings of Judah 
 until the reign of Jehoshaphat (1 K. 22.47). 
 After this they maintained their independence 
 and made repeated attacks on Judah (2 Ch. 
 28.17). Their malignant hostility (Ezek. 
 25.12) drew down upon them the awful 
 prophecies set forth in Isai. 34.5-15, 63.1-6 ; 
 Jer. 49.7-12 ; Lam. 4.21 ; Ezek. 25.14 ; Joel 
 3.19 ; Amos 1.11, 12). 
 
 During the captivity of the Israelites, the 
 Edomites, advancing in a north-westerly 
 direction, occupied many (owns in the south 
 of Judah and Simeon, but at the same time they 
 lost the southern part of their own territory 
 to the Nabatheans, a powerful tribe of Arabs. 
 
EDREI] 
 
 137 
 
 [EGYPT 
 
 Ultimately the name of Edom or Idumaea 
 extended to the whole territory from the 
 Arabian desert to the Mediterranean. Bozrah 
 (Bezer) was the chief town, and the principal 
 fortress was Petra (Sela), that wonderful and 
 almost impregnable place carved out of the 
 living rock. [?ETRA.] 
 
 The words of the prophets have been com- 
 pletely fulfilled" Edom shall be a desolation " 
 (Jer 49.17; Joel 3.19). Such is Edom's 
 desolation, that the wonder is how could such 
 wild and barren solitudes ever have been 
 adorned with cities, or inhabited by a powerful 
 and opulent nation. Its present aspect would 
 belie its ancient history, were not that history 
 corroborated by many remains of former 
 grandeur, by the traces of former cultivation, 
 the remains of walls and paved roads, and the 
 ruins of cities and fortifications. 
 
 Ed'rei. Strength : 1. A fortress town in a very 
 strong position on a rocky promontory which 
 projects from the south-west angle of the Lejah. 
 It was one of the two chief towns of Bashan, 
 and the scene of Og's overthrow by the Israelites 
 (Num. 21.33-35; Deal. 1.4, 3.10; Josh. 9.10, 
 12.4, 13.12). It was allotted to the east 
 half tribe of Manasseh (Josh. 13.29-31), but 
 not a single allusion is made to it afterwards. 
 Though formerly enormously strong, Edrei is 
 now but a ruin, to which the ancient name still 
 attaches (Edraat). 
 
 2. A town in Naphtali in the north of Palestine 
 (Josh. 19.37), 2 miles south of Kedesh. 
 
 Eg'lah. Heifer : one of David's wives, 
 mother of his son Ithream (2 Sam. 3.5 ; 1 Ch. 
 3.3). 
 
 Egla'im. Two ponds or two springs : 
 named only in Isai. 15.8, and there only as a 
 town of Moab. Perhaps the same as En-eglairn 
 in Ezek. 47.10, but its site has not been identified 
 with any modern place, though tradition placed 
 it at about 8 miles south of Areopolis. 
 
 Eglath-shelislii'yah. An heifer of three years 
 old: the name of a place in Moab (R.V. of 
 Isai. 15.5 and Jer. 48.34). 
 
 Eg'lon. 1. A king of the Moabites, who, 
 aided by the Ammonites and the Amalekites 
 (Judg. 3.12 fL), took Jericho, and for eighteen 
 years oppressed Israel and compelled them 
 to pay tribute. He was assassinated by an 
 Israelite named Ehud, who had obtained 
 admission to his presence by means of a present. 
 [Emm.] 
 
 2. One of the Amorito towns which, under 
 its king Debir and in confederation with four 
 other towns, made war against Gibeon. They 
 were destroyed by Joshua (Josh. 10.3-35, 12.12). 
 It was allotted to Judah (Josh. 15.39). Its 
 modern name is Ajlan, 14 miles north-east of 
 Gaza and 10 miles from Beit Jibrin, on the 
 south of the great maritime plain, f JOSHUA.] 
 
 Egypt. Throughout the Bible story, from 
 the time when " Abraham went down into 
 Egypt to sojourn there " (Gen. 12.10), because 
 of a great famine in Canaan, until that other 
 day when Joseph, at the command of God, 
 
 hurriedly arose and took " the young child and 
 his mother by night," and departed into Egypt 
 (Matt. 2.14), we find the Israelites and the 
 Egyptians in constant communication. In 
 Scripture the general name for Egypt is Mizraim : 
 Upper Egypt is sometimes called Pathros 
 (compare Isai. 11.11; Jer. 44.1; EzeJc. 29.14 
 with Deut. 2.23 ; Jer. 47.4 ; Ezek. 30.14-16). 
 A poetical designation of Egypt is Rahab 
 (Ps. 87.4, 89.10; Isai. 51.9). [RAHAB.] 
 
 In its Physical Features, Egypt is bounded 
 on the north by the Mediterranean ; on the 
 north-east by the brook El Arish (the River of 
 Egypt of Num. 34.5), on the borders of Palestine, 
 and the Syrian or Arabian desert to the Gulf 
 of Suez, and from thence southward by the west 
 coast of the Red Sea ; and on the west by 
 the Libyan desert. From the earliest ages 
 its southern limit has been fixed at the cataracts 
 of Assouan, the ancient Syene. The length 
 of Egypt proper is very disproportionate to 
 its breadth, being about 500 miles, while its 
 width varies from about 5 miles (of land capable 
 of cultivation) to about 80 miles, the width 
 of the sea front of the Delta. The world- 
 renowned fertility of the soil of Egypt arose 
 (and still arises) from the wonderful fertilising 
 influences of the annual inundation of the Nile, 
 a fact which is taken note of in Deut. 11.10-12, 
 where reference is made to the system of culti- 
 vation by irrigation. Palestine, the passage 
 tells us, was a country watered by rain, while 
 Egypt had to be laboriously watered by man 
 himself. For there rain falls but seldom, the 
 fertility of the soil depending upon the annual 
 overflow of the Nile. This overflow is made 
 available for the purpose of irrigation to 
 the fullest extent by means of canals and 
 trenches. The digging and cleansing of these 
 canals was amongst the " hard bondage, in 
 mortar, and in brick" (Ex. 1.14), with which 
 the lives of the Israelites were made bitter in 
 Egypt. Hence the attractiveness of the 
 Promised Land that was watered naturally by 
 rains from heaven. 
 
 Not only do the prosperity, the riches, 
 and fertility of Egypt depend on the over- 
 flowings of the Nile, but its very existence is 
 owing to the same cause. The soil of the 
 country has been brought down from the 
 mountains and tablelands of Abyssinia and 
 the far interior of Africa, and deposited during 
 the annual inundations at the rate of about 
 five inches in a century. During the inundations 
 the whole country appears like a series of 
 lakes, ponds, and reservoirs, separated by 
 dykes and raised roads ; and it is not merely 
 the saturation of the ground, but the deposit 
 of soil, which produces such vast crops. As 
 soon as the waters have subsided, cultivation 
 commences. The seed is sown in the moistened 
 soil, or even on the surface of the shallow water 
 spread over the land, and under the hot sun 
 vegetation and harvest follow with such rapidity 
 as to allow a succession of crops. The changed 
 appearance of the country caused by the annual 
 
EGYPT] 
 
 138 
 
 [EGYPT 
 
 overflow is startling. What was a parched 
 desert of sand and dust becomes in a short space 
 of time a scene of verdant beauty. So entirely 
 were the Egyptians dependent on the Nile 
 that they worshipped it, paying it divine honours 
 as the first of all their gods. It was this venera- 
 tion for their river that made the plagues of 
 frogs ana the turning of the river into blood so 
 terrible (Ex. 7.15-25, 8.1-15). Even though 
 the present population is largely Mohammedan 
 there is the same tendency to regard the Nile 
 with a superstitious reverence, and it is still 
 called the " most holy river." 
 
 Egypt, in its Political Divisions, from a 
 very early period was divided into nomcs, 
 or districts. These were at times virtually 
 separate kingdoms, subject to the supreme 
 ruler, and originally numbered thirty-six, 
 each one having its special objects for worship. 
 These nomes grew less in number until, in the 
 time of Isaiah, there were probably not more 
 than two. Only two of the divisions are 
 mentioned in Scripture, Pathros and Caphtor 
 (which see). With reference to one of these 
 divisions, the land of Goshen, we are told that 
 it was the richest pasture -land of Lower Egypt. 
 The meaning is unknown, but perhaps the 
 district was called Goshen from Gush, an Arabic 
 word meaning "a heart," or whatever is choice 
 or precious (Gen. 45.18, 47.11). This was the 
 province chosen by Joseph in which to settle 
 his kindred. Goshen lay between the most 
 easterly branch of the Nile and Palestine and 
 Arabia. It was part of the district of Helio- 
 polis, of which the On of the Scriptures was 
 the capital. [GOSHEN, ON.] 
 
 As was to be expected in such a populous 
 country as Egypt, there were many large and 
 prosperous Cities within its borders. Of the 
 more ancient of these we know but little, except 
 what has been gleaned from the monuments 
 and scattered inscriptions. Among the most 
 remarkable of these cities was Thebes, the 
 ancient capital of Egypt. This renowned 
 city was said to have been built by Mizraim, 
 the son of Ham and grandson of Noah. It 
 was also called No (Ezek. 30.14), No-Ammon, 
 and Diospolis. Thebes was situated on the 
 Nile, and was the seat of the worship of Ammon, 
 and was crowded with magnificent temples 
 and other public buildings. How great and 
 strong Thebes was, history and its existing 
 monuments testify, and Scripture confirms 
 (Nah. 3.8-10), when it compares it with Nineveh, 
 giving it pre-eminence over that city. [No.] 
 Other important cities were Zoan (Ps. 78.12) ; 
 On, or Heliopolis (Gen. 41.45) ; Pithom and 
 Raamses (Ex. 1.11) ; Sin (Ezek. 30.15) ; Pibeseth, 
 or Bubastes (Ezek. 30.17) ; Tahpanhes, or 
 Hanes (Jer. 43.8; /sat. 30.4); Migdol (Jer. 
 46.14) ; Memphis or Noph, the wealth and 
 glory of which are attested by ancient writers, 
 which wrested the chief place from Thebes, 
 and was the great city of the Pharaohs, 
 the city the Hebrews were best acquainted 
 with, and to which there are most references 
 
 in Scripture; Syene (Ezek. 29.10) and Alex- 
 andria. 
 
 The Egyptians attained a high degree of 
 refinement and luxury at a time when the 
 whole Western world was involved in barbarism, 
 ages before Carthage, Athens, and Rome were 
 founded. Their System of Government was a 
 monarchy founded upon a powerful priesthood, 
 of which the ruler himself was the head. These 
 priest-kings were originally called Pharaoh. 
 This was not a proper name, but a word signi- 
 fying " Great House," and was generally used 
 as a prefix to the monarch's real name. The 
 crown was hereditary, but the Pharaoh's actions 
 were greatly limited by custom and laws con- 
 tained in the sacred books. Subject to Pharaoh 
 were the territorial chiefs or kings. These ruled 
 over provinces, or nomes, and governed strictly 
 according to the general laws of the country. 
 In order to preserve the dignity of the monarch, 
 neither hired servant nor slave was permitted 
 near his august person. Instead, he was 
 served and ministered to by the children of 
 the priestly order, who were always highly 
 educated and refined hi manner. Great respect 
 was paid to the Pharaohs. They were honoured 
 whilst living as visible representations of the 
 Deity, and after their death were lamented 
 as more than men, and worshipped. Below 
 the monarch the people of Egypt were divided 
 into seven distinct classes or castes. These 
 were priests, soldiers, herdsmen, swineherds, 
 shopkeepers and merchants generally, inter- 
 preters, and boatmen. Besides this division, 
 each caste was subdivided into various trades 
 and occupations, no one interfering with the 
 business of another. 
 
 The Priesthood formed the real ruling power, 
 the government being rather ecclesiastical 
 than monarchical. Even if he had not pre- 
 viously been a priest, the king on his accession 
 was always adopted into that caste and initiated 
 into its mysteries. This may explain the 
 union of Joseph with Asenath, the daughter 
 of the " priest of On," arising out of the desire 
 of Pharaoh and the priests to concentrate all 
 power in their own hands. The priests possessed 
 great privileges and large revenues (Gen. 47.22, 
 26). The principal seats of their learning were 
 in the great cities, such as Thebes and On ; 
 but they were also stationed in groups about 
 the kingdom, guiding the worship of the people 
 and governing them. The high priests ranked 
 in power next the king [POTIPHERAK], while 
 the general body not only directed the 
 worship of the people and attended the service 
 of their gods, but also acted as judges, physicians, 
 soothsayers, and architects. Their temples and 
 settlements were maintained by grants of land, 
 which supplied them with provisions and a 
 common fund for themselves and families. 
 The sacred books, over which the priests kept 
 jealous guard, contained not only the mysteries 
 of their worship, but also the principles of 
 government. 
 
 Besides the kings (see above) the local 
 
EGYPT] 
 
 139 
 
 [EGYPT 
 
 gods were the objects of all public and popular 
 religion. The attempt of Amenhotep iv. (1370 
 B.C.) to worship the sun alone as supreme 
 failed. In late times the mysteries, especi- 
 ally those of Osiris and Tsis, became very 
 popular, but were only revealed to the initiated. 
 
 In their Army the Pharaohs had a splendidly 
 organised force, for the speed with which the 
 army of chariots and cavalry assembled (even 
 after the terrible disasters that had overtaken 
 their country as a result of the contest between 
 Moses and Pharaoh, Ex. 14, 15) to pursue 
 the Israelites shows that a large force was 
 constantly maintained, and always ready. 
 The army consisted of militia, and the office of 
 soldier was hereditary ; indeed he was a member 
 of a caste which enjoyed particular privileges, 
 having for its support certain nomes or 
 provinces. The monarch was the commander- 
 in-chief, and the position at his right hand was 
 one of peculiar honour. The army was divided 
 into battalions, each with its own standard, 
 carried by an officer. Their arms were bows, 
 shields, battle-axes, swords, spears, clubs, and 
 slings. Great attention was paid to the breed 
 of horses for the army; some of the princes 
 maintained scores of stables, containing hundreds 
 of horses. Yet, in spite of all their military 
 preparation, the Egyptians in the main were 
 mot a warlike people, but maintained the army 
 for their own protection. Nevertheless, some 
 of the rulers, more ambitious or more revengeful 
 than others, carried the sword and torch into 
 their neighbours' territories. 
 
 The Laws of the Egyptians were, on the 
 whole, just and inclined to mercy. These 
 laws had the credit of having been dictated 
 by the gods themselves, and Thoth (the Greek 
 Mercury) was said to have framed them for 
 the benefit of mankind. The general punish- 
 ment for all minor offences was the bastinado, 
 while mutilation, imprisonment, and death were 
 reserved for wilful murder and other serious 
 crimes. 
 
 In Agriculture and Trade the Egyptians 
 were an industrious and capable people. The 
 cultivation of flax and other fibrous products 
 for the making of linen, paper, and cloth was 
 highly developed ; while the number of vege- 
 tables grown in the fields was great. Grapes, 
 pomegranates, dates, and other fruits were 
 also produced in abundance. Several cereals 
 were grown, and constituted the chief wealth of 
 the country. Barley, rye, rice, and wheat were 
 the principal. It was the last of these for 
 which Egypt was especially famous. Some 
 people indeed look upon Egypt as the home of 
 the plant. Egypt was proverbial for its riches 
 (Ex. 12.35; Ezelc. 32.12; Heb. 11.26). In 
 addition to its valuable vegetable products, it 
 had mines of gold, silver, copper, lead, iron, 
 emeralds, and sulphur, situated in the upper 
 country. The mines were worked chiefly by 
 slave labour, which was so cruelly conducted 
 that the mortality was great. In later times, 
 when Egypt was passing from the hand of one 
 
 conqueror to another, the mines were gradually 
 abandoned. 
 
 The Social Life of the Egyptians was that 
 of a people of intelligence and culture, familiar 
 with art, dwelling amidst majestic monuments 
 of their own past, accustomed to the display 
 of wealth and to intercourse with other peoples. 
 In morals they were lax ; in their relations 
 with each other they were ceremonious ; in 
 their persons they were cleanly. Polygamy 
 was permitted, and marriage of brother and 
 sister practised. They dressed mainly hi liner^ 
 and used ornaments of gold and silver, or 
 of flowers. Slavery existed (Gen. 12.16). 
 Captives were largely employed on the monu- 
 mental works dear to successive monarchs. 
 
 Egypt was ruled by successive Dynasties, as to 
 most of which definite historical information 
 is available. Menes, the first historical king, 
 reigned about 4000 B.C. Under the fourth 
 dynasty, Cheops and others built the three 
 largest pyramids at Gizeh. Confusion reigned 
 in the time of the thirteenth and fourteenth 
 dynasties, and prepared the way for the sub- 
 jugation of Egypt by foreign invaders. They 
 are known as the Hyksos or Shepherd Kings. 
 Their yoke was broken and their last strong- 
 hold captured about 1600 B.C. Of diplomatic 
 and personal affairs under Amenophis in., of 
 the eighteenth dynasty, much information has 
 been gained from the Tel el-Amarna tablets. 
 Rameses n. (of the nineteenth dynasty), the 
 greatest of the temple-builders, has been 
 identified with the Pharaoh of the oppression, 
 and his son Meneptah with the Pharaoh of the 
 Exodus. 
 
 The Egyptian bondage of the Israelites 
 lasted about 400 years, the sojourn in Egypt 
 extending in all to 430 years (Ex. 12.40). The 
 facts of the oppression and the tragic separa- 
 tion kept the two peoples apart, if not in actual 
 enmity, until the days of David and Solomon. 
 Solomon cemented the renewed friendship by 
 marrying the daughter of Pharaoh, and received 
 as her dower the city of Gezer (1 K. 9.16). 
 Then for a long time there were periods of 
 coldness, alternating with warm alliances. The 
 inevitable happened. Israel, used as a cat's- 
 paw by her bigger and more unscrupulous ally, 
 usually suffered severely. The Egyptian alli- 
 ances led, in fact, to the final overthrow of 
 the Jewish kingdom, as foretold by Isaiah 
 (/sat. 36.6). 
 
 Taken by Persia less than a century after the 
 destruction of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar, 
 Egypt itself became a Persian province, and 
 thenceforward became the prey of one foreign 
 ruler after another. 
 
 The following is a summary of the Bible 
 references to Egypt : It is called also " Land 
 of Ham " (Ps. 78.51, 105.23, 27), and " Rahab " 
 (Ps. 87.4, 89.10; Isai. 51.9); watered by 
 Nile and artificial irrigation (Deut. 11.10,11); 
 rain rare (Deut. 11.10, 11 ; Zech. 14.18) ; remark- 
 ably fertile (Gen. 13.10) ; especially the Delta, 
 near the east side of which was the land 
 
EGYPTIAN] 
 
 140 
 
 [ELAM 
 
 of Goshen (Gen. 46.28,34, 47.1-6,11); pro- 
 ductive of grain and vegetables (Ex. 9.31,32; 
 Num. 11.5 ; /sat. 19.7), of papyrus (Ex. 2.3), 
 of horses, oxen, camels, asses, sheep (Gen. 12.16, 
 41.19 ; Ex. 9.3 ; Deut. 17.16 ; 1 K. 10.28, 29), 
 of crocodiles, frogs, and locusts (Ex. 8.2-5, 
 10.3-6,12,19; Ps. 74.13,14); famous for 
 textile fabrics (Prov. 7.16 ; Isai. 19.9), and for 
 pottery (Ex. 1.14). Was the residence of 
 Abraham (Gen. 12.10-20, 13.1) ; scene of 
 Joseph's captivity (Gen. 37.28, 36, 39, 40) and 
 administration (Gen. 41-47) ; visited by Jacob's 
 sons for corn (Gen. 42, 43) ; residence of Jacob 
 and his sons (Gen. 46-49 ; Acts 7.15) ; scene of 
 Israelite oppression (Ex. 1 ; Isai. 52.4 ; Acts 
 7.19), of ten plagues and magicians' enchant- 
 ments (Ex. 7-9), of Israel's deliverance by 
 Moses (Ex. 12. 31-42, 13.17-22, 14). Egyptian 
 converts admitted to the congregation of 
 Israel (Deut. 23.7, 8) ; idolatry of Egypt adopted 
 by the Israelites (Ex. 32.4,8; Josh. 24.14; 
 i K. 12.28; Ezek. 20.7,8). Alliance with 
 lladad the Edomite (1 K. 11.17-20); with 
 Solomon (1 K. 3.1, 7.8, 9.24, 10.28,29). 
 Pharaoh took Canaanite city Gezer (1 K. 9-16) ; 
 Shishak (Sheshenk ?) received Jeroboam when 
 fleeing from Solomon (1 K. 11.40) ; took Jeru- 
 salem in Rehoboam's reign and made him 
 tributary (1 K. 1425,26; 2 Ch. 12.2-9); 
 Zcrah (Usarken 1 or 2 ?) routed by Asa, king of 
 Judah (2 Ch. 14.9-15, 16.8) ; aid of So (Shebek) 
 sought by Hoshea, kins of Israel, when he 
 revolted from Assyria (2 K. 17.4 ; Ezek. 17.1-21) ; 
 Tirhakah (Tehrak) advanced against Senna- 
 cherib in aid of Hezekiah, king of Judah (2 K. 
 19.9 ; Isai. 36.6, 37.9). Necho, marching 
 to attack the king of Assyria, encountered by 
 Josiah, king of Judah, who was defeated and 
 killed at Megiddo (2 K. 23.29, 30 ; 2 Ch. 35.20- 
 24) ; deposed Jehoahaz and made Judah 
 tributary (2 K. 23.33, 34 ; 2 Ch. 36.1-4) ; 
 routed by Nebuchadnezzar at Carchemish 
 (Jer. 46.2), with loss of the Assyrian dominion 
 previously belonging to Egypt (2 K. 24.7). 
 Egypt the asylum of Urijah (Jer. 26.20-23). 
 Ilophra sent army to aid Zedekiah, so that 
 the siege of Jerusalem was raised for a tune 
 (Jer. 37.5-11; Ezek. 17.11-18); received 
 Jeremiah and other fugitives from Jerusalem 
 when it was taken by Nebuchadnezzar (Jer. 
 43.1-7). Egypt overrun by Nebuchadnezzar, 
 as foretold (Jer. 44.30, 46.13-26 ; Ezek. 29-32). 
 Reliance on Egypt condemned by prophets 
 (2 K. 18.21 ; Isai. 7.18, 30.1-7, 31.1-3, 
 36.6; Ezek. 17.15, 29.6; Eos. 12.1); pro- 
 phecy fulfilled in the disappearance of Memphis 
 and its idols (Jer. 46.19 ; Ezek. 30.13) ; in the 
 disappearance of papyrus (Isai. 19.6, 7) ; in 
 the filling up of the natural channels of the 
 Nile (Isai. 19.5-10) ; in the absence of a native 
 ruler (Ezek. 30.13). Promise of blessing (7at. 
 19.19-25). 
 
 Egyptian. The Egyptian of Acts 21.38, 
 u-lio led out 4000 Assassins (R.V.) or Sicarii, 
 in the time of Felix, is mentioned by Josephus, 
 but is otherwise unidentified. 
 
 ETii. A son of Benjamin (Gen. 46.21), appar- 
 ently the same as Ahiram (Num. 26.38), Aher 
 (1 Ch. 7.12), and Aharah (1 Ch. 8.1). 
 
 E'hud. 1. A descendant of Benjamin (1 Ch. 
 7.10). 2. A son of Gera, the second judge, 
 or deliverer, of the Israelites (Judg. 3.15). 
 The Israelites sent Ehud to pay tribute to 
 Eglon, a king of Moab at Jericho. He, smarting 
 under the degradation, obtained a private 
 audience of Eglon and stabbed him to death. 
 Ehud fled towards Mount Ephraim, and 
 summoning the oppressed Israelites to his 
 side they secured the fords of the Jordan, so 
 that the Moabites, who held the land by force 
 of several garrisons, could not escape. Then he 
 fell upon the enemy, cut them to pieces, and so 
 freed his country. Ehud, like many of his 
 countrymen, was left-handed, and it was with 
 his left hand that the fatal blow was dealt to 
 Eglon. 
 "E'ker. A descendant of Judah (1 Ch. 2.27). 
 
 Ek'ron. The most northerly of the five towns 
 belonging to the lords of the Philistines (Josh. 
 13.3). It was in the lowlands, and was allotted 
 to Judah (Josh. 15.11, 45, 46). It was also 
 given to Dan (Josh. 19.43), but was recovered 
 by the Philistines. It was the last Philistine 
 town to which the ark was sent before it was 
 returned to the Israelites (1 Sam. 5.10). The 
 mortality at this place was greater than at 
 cither Ashdod or Gath. It was a sanctuary 
 for the worship of Baal-zebub (2 K. 1.2-6). In 
 Amosl.8 ; Zeph. 2.4, and Zech. 9.5 the doom of 
 Ekron is foretold. Its present name is Akri, a 
 few miles south-west of Ramleh. 
 
 El. [GOD.] 
 
 Ela. [ELAH 2.] 
 
 Ela'dah. One of the descendants of Ephraim 
 (1 Ch. 7.20). 
 
 E'lah. Terebinth : 1. A prince of Edorn (Gen. 
 36.41). 2. Father of Shimei, a Benjamite, and 
 one of Solomon's commissariat officers (1 K. 
 4.18). 3. The son and successor of Baasha, 
 king of Israel. During a drunken debauch 
 he was assassinated by Zimri, one of his own 
 officers, in the house of his steward Arza. He 
 reigned only a little over a year (1 K. 16.6). 
 4. The father of Hoshea the last king of Israel 
 (2 K. 15.30). 5. A son of Caleb (1 Ch. 4.15). 
 6. A member of the tribe of Benjamin, and a 
 chief (1 Ch. 9.8). 
 
 E'lah, Valley of. A valley in Judah where 
 David slew Goliath. It runs in a north-westerly 
 direction into the Philistine plain, and is now 
 called Wady Es-Sunt (1 Sam. 17.2). It received 
 its name from the number of terebinth trees 
 growing in it. 
 
 E'lam. 1. The eldest son of Shem, whose 
 family gave his name to a district south of 
 Syria and east of Persia. From him sprang 
 the Elamites and Persians (Gen. 10.22). The 
 country was in Lower Mesopotamia, at the head 
 of the Persian Gulf, bounded on the north by 
 Assyria, and on the west by Persia. It was a 
 powerful kingdom under Chedorlaomer (Gen. 
 14.1), but its overthrow was foretold in Jer. 
 
ELAMITES] 
 
 141 
 
 [ELEAZAR 
 
 25.25, 49.34 and Ezek. 32.24. It was a pro- 
 vince of Babylon in the time of Belshazzar 
 (Dan. 8.2), when Shushan was the capital town. 
 Shushan or Susa was one of the oldest cities of 
 the East, and its kings, even after they had lost 
 their predominant position, still remained in a 
 semi-independent position, though the country 
 had been subject to Babylon from the time of 
 Nebuchadnezzar. The Elamites were warlike, 
 and distinguished as bowmen (Isai. 22.6 ; 
 Jer. 49.35). That many Jews lived in the 
 country is evidenced from the number that had 
 travelled to Jerusalem, and were there on the 
 day of Pentecost (Acts 2.9). [SHTTSHAN.] 2. A 
 son of Shashak (1 Ch. 8.24). 3. A Levite, son 
 of Meshelemiah, and one of the " sons of Asaph " 
 (1 Ch. 26.3). 4. A family of Elamites who came 
 up from Babylon with Zerubbabel (Ezra 2.7). 
 They numbered 1254, 71 others returning 
 later with Ezra. Members of this family were 
 among those who put away their foreign wives 
 (Ezra 10.26). One of them was signatory to the 
 covenant (Nch. 10.14). 5. Another family 
 of the same name, and containing the same 
 number of persons, who also returned with 
 Zerubbabel (Ezra 2.31). This family is called 
 the " other Elam " for the sake of distinction. 
 6. A priest who assisted in the dedication of 
 the wall of Jerusalem after its restoration 
 (Neh. 12.42). 
 
 E'lamites. Ezra 4.9 ; Acts 2.9. [ELAM.] 
 
 Ela'sah. God has made : 1. A priest who 
 had married a foreign wife hi the time of 
 Ezra (Ezra 10.22). 2. An ambassador from 
 king Zedekiah to Nebuchadnezzar at Babylon, 
 fie also carried a letter to the Jewish captives 
 at Babylon (Jer. 29.3). [ELEASAH.] 
 
 E'lath, E' loth. An Edomite seaport, now 
 called Eyleh, and situated at the head of the 
 Arabian Gulf. It originally belonged to the 
 Edomites, being situated in the country of 
 Iduma^a. When David conquered Edom, and 
 " throughout all Edom put he garrisons " 
 (2 Sam. 8.14), he began to establish commercial 
 intercourse with the outside world. Elath 
 became a port of consequence, and a place of 
 considerable size. In the reign of Solomon, 
 Elath, with its near neighbour Eziongeber, 
 became still more important on account of 
 the ships which he built and fitted out there 
 for the purpose of trading with Ophir, for gold 
 and other precious commodities (2 Ch. 8.17). 
 
 Elath remained in the possession of the 
 Israelites 150 years, when, in the reign of 
 Jehoram, the Edomites recovered it (2 K. 8.20). 
 It was retaken, however, by Uzziah, king of 
 Judah, who again fortified it, rep copied it with 
 his own subjects, and restored the trade to 
 Ophir. This prosperity it continued to enjoy 
 until the time of Ahaz, who lost it to the king 
 of Damascus. Once more the population of the 
 town was changed. The Jews were expelled, this 
 time for good, and were supplanted by Syrians, 
 put there by king Rezin (2 K. 14.22, 16.6). 
 
 El Beth'el God of Hie House of God (Gen. 
 35.7). [BETHEL.] 
 
 Elcla'ah. God has called : one of the sons of 
 Midian (Gen. 25.4 ; 1 Ch. 1.33). 
 
 El'dad. One of a body of seventy elders 
 appointed by Moses on the advice of Jethro 
 to help in governing the people. The seventy 
 having been gathered around the Tabernacle, 
 two, Eldad and Medad, were missing. A 
 young man reported that they were in the camp 
 and prophesying. Joshua proposed then* rebuke, 
 but Moses refused it (Num. 11.16-29). 
 
 Elders. In early forms of government 
 authority was vested in those who from age and 
 consequent experience were able to act as 
 representatives of the people. The institution 
 was by no means peculiar to Israel : Egypt, 
 Moab, and Midian each had their " elders " 
 (Gen. 50.7 ; Num. 22.7) : so had the Greeks 
 and Romans. In the history of Israel thay 
 first appear before the Exodus (Ex. 3.16-18, 
 4.29, 12.21), and continually afterwards are 
 mentioned as the representatives of the whole 
 people and medium of communication from and 
 to the leaders of the nation Moses and Joshua, 
 the Judges and Samuel. Moses, under the 
 burden of the administration of justice and at 
 the advice of Jethro his father-in-law, appointed 
 magistrates of various degrees of authority, 
 delegating to them all but the " hard causes " 
 (Ex. 18.13-26) : it is clear from ver. 12 that these 
 were chosen from the " elders of Israel." In- 
 stances of these judicial functions are found in 
 Deut. 19.12, 21.2, 22.15, 25.7; Josh. 20.4; 
 Ruth 4.2. The narrative of Num. 11 tells 
 how Moses under Divine direction appointed a 
 council of seventy elders to help and relieve 
 him : as the commonwealth of Israel was 
 essentially religious, they are made partakers of 
 the Spirit which was upon Moses. To this inci- 
 dent Jewish tradition carries back the institution 
 of the Sanhedrin. 
 
 It was the elders of Israel who asked Samuel 
 to make them a king (1 Sam. 8.5). For their in- 
 fluence in the various events of the monarchy, 
 see 2 Sam. 3.17, 5.3, 17.4 ; 1 K. 8.1, 12.6, etc. 
 After the exile they still continued to represent 
 the people (Ezra 5.5, 9, 6.7, 14, 10.8). 
 
 [For Elders (Presbyters) in the N.T. see 
 CHURCH, BISHOP, PRESBYTER.] 
 
 El'ead. God is witness : a descendant of 
 Ephraim (1 Ch. 7.21). 
 
 Eleadah. [ELADAH.] 
 
 Elea'leh. God is exalted : a Moabite town, 
 north of Heshbon, allotted to Reuben (Num. 
 32.3). It lay to the east of Jordan in a pastoral 
 country. It was denounced by both Isaiah and 
 Jeremiah. Its ruins, called El-A'al, may still 
 be seen on the top of a hill surrounded by a 
 wide plain (Isai. 15.4, 16.9 ; Jer. 48.34). 
 
 Elea'sah. God has made (the same name 
 as ELASAH, which see). A son of Helez of 
 the family of Hezron, a descendant of Judah 
 (1 Ch. 2.39). 2. A son of Rapha or Rephaiah, 
 a descendant of Saul (1 Ch. 8.37, 9.43). 
 
 Elea'zar. God has helped : 1. Third son of 
 Aaron by Elisheba, daughter of Amminadab, 
 a descendant of Judah through Pharez (Gen* 
 
ELECT, ELECTION] 
 
 142 
 
 [ELEMENTS 
 
 38.29; Ex. 6.23; Ruth 4.18). He, and his 
 family following him, succeeded Aaron in the 
 office of High Priest, and held it till the time 
 of Eli. His two elder brothers, Nadab and 
 Abihu, were struck dead because of their 
 sinfulness, although they had been consecrated to 
 the sacerdotal office. Eleazar, being the eldest 
 surviving son, succeeded his father, and was 
 himself succeeded by his eldest son Phinehas 
 and his heirs, according to the covenant (Num. 
 25.12, 13), until in Eli the sacred office 
 passed for a time to the family of Ithamar. 
 Why the sacerdotal succession was transferred 
 from Elearar to Ithamar we are not told, but 
 we are informed that it reverted to the family 
 of Eleazar because of the evil lives of the sons 
 of Eli. Thenceforward the office of Chief 
 Priest remained with the family of Eleazar 
 until the Captivity. [ABIATHAB.]" 
 
 2. A son of Abinadab to whose care the ark 
 was committed when it was sent back by the 
 Philistines. He was appointed to the task by 
 his fellow-townsmen of Kirjath-jearim (1 Sam. 
 7.1). 
 
 3. One of the chief captains of David's army 
 (2 Sam. 23.9). He was an Ahohite, a son of 
 Dodo, and a man of great personal courage 
 (1 Ch. 11.12). 
 
 4. A Merarite and a son of Mahli (1 Ch. 23.21). 
 
 5. A priest who assisted in the dedication 
 of the restored wall of Jerusalem (Nth. 12.42). 
 
 6. A son of Phinehas (Ezra 8.33). 
 
 7. See Ezra 10.25. 
 
 8. Son of Elihud, a name in the genealogy of 
 Joseph, the husband of Mary (Matt 1.15). 
 
 Elect, Election. In the A.V. of the O.T. the 
 term " mine elect " occurs four times in the second 
 part of Isaiah (42.1, 45.4, 65.9, 22) : in each 
 instance R.V. substitutes " my chosen," and 
 the numerous passages must be added in which 
 Israel is referred to as God's " chosen people " 
 (e.g. Deut. 4.32-40, 7.6-11 ; Pa. 78.67-72, 105.6 ; 
 /sat. 41.8). The record of God's redeeming 
 grace to mankind is pervaded with the con- 
 ception of the Divine choice of instruments 
 for His purposes national and individual 
 (Moses, Ps. 106.23 ; David, 1 K. 11.34, etc.). 
 In the great prophecy of the '* servant of the 
 Lord" (Isai. 42-53) the servant is identified 
 now with the whole nation, now with the 
 faithful remnant, and finally with the ideal 
 Figure of 52.13-53.12: the fulfilment is found 
 in Lk. 9.35 (R.V.), " This is my Son, my chosen." 
 The term election does not occur in the O.T. 
 
 In the N.T. the election of Israel is referred 
 to in Acts 13.17, and especially in Paul's vindica- 
 tion of the Divine dealings with God's people 
 (Rom. 9-11). The promises of God had always 
 been to those whom He chose, and the rejection 
 of all but a remnant of Israel was clearly fore- 
 told in Scripture. In the course of the argu- 
 ment there is bald assertion of the Divine 
 sovereignty (9.15-21), but this is advanced 
 rather in rebuke of the arrogance of Jewish 
 privilege than as the end of the whole matter. 
 The hardening of Israel was that the " fulness 
 
 of the Gentiles " might come in : by the mercy 
 shown to them the Jews also would obtain mercy, 
 and so God would reach His purpose of having 
 " mercy upon all." That is Paul's doctrine 
 of " election," and as he contemplates the 
 issue in the salvation of the world he breaks out 
 into the doxology which closes the discussion 
 (11.25-36). 
 
 But, apart from these historical references 
 to the Jewish people, the O.T. conception 
 of election is in the N.T. transferred to spiritual 
 Israel, the Christian Church. So, explicitly, in 
 1 Pet. 1.2, 2.9, 10, and in the term " the elect," 
 as used of believers (Matt. 24.22, 31 ; Rom. 8.33 ; 
 Col. 3.12; IThess. 1.4, etc.). The stress, of 
 course, is not upon national privilege, but upon 
 a spiritual reality, which is to be maintained 
 against temptation to apostasy (Matt. 22.14, 
 24.24), and used with diligence to be made 
 "sure" (2 Pet. 1.10; cf. Phil. 3.12; Col. 1.23, 
 3.1). The method and import of this election 
 are set forth in Eph. 1.3-14. 
 
 The choice of individuals for special service 
 appears notably in the case of the apostles 
 (John 15.16; Acts 1.2): also in that of Paul 
 (Acts 9.15), and, as already noted, is consum- 
 mated in Jesus Christ (Lk. 23.35). As applied by 
 Paul to Rufus (Rom. 16.13 " the chosen [elect] 
 in the Lord ") the term seems to mark special 
 eminence in Christian character and service. In 
 this same sense the word may be applied to the 
 unnamed person, ** the elect lady," to whom 
 St. John addresses his Second Epistle (2 John 1) : 
 more probably, perhaps, the phrase is used 
 symbolically of a church to which the apostle 
 writes, and to which (ver. 13) he sends the greeting 
 of his own church (" The children of thy elect 
 sister salute thee "). Similarly, "She that 
 is in Babylon, elect together with you " (1 Pet. 
 5.13, R.V.) may be a designation of the church 
 in Rome. [BABYLON.] 
 
 El-Elo'he-Israel. God, the God of Israel : the 
 name given by Jacob to an altar which he erected 
 on a site near Shechem, purchased from the sons 
 of Hamor (Gen. 33.20). 
 
 El-Elyon. God most high (Gen. 14.18, R.V. 
 marg.). [Goo.] 
 
 Elements. The word so rendered in Gal. 4.3 
 has several meanings : (1) the letters of the 
 alphabet, and hence the rudiments (" the 
 a b c ") of any branch of knowledge ; (2) the 
 physical elements of which the world is com- 
 pounded earth, air, water, fire ; (3) the 
 heavenly bodies, as constituent parts of the 
 universe. 
 
 In 2 Pet. 3.10, " the elements shall melt with 
 fervent heat," expositors are divided between 
 meanings (2) and (3) : R.V. marg. has " the 
 heavenly bodies," and perhaps this sense better 
 links on to the preceding " the heavens shall 
 pass away," and affords the required contrast 
 with the following " the earth also . . . shall 
 bo burned up." 
 
 In Heb. 5.12 " the first principles of the oracles 
 of God" R.V. correctly indicates meaning (1) 
 " the rudiments." 
 
ELEPH] 
 
 143 
 
 [ELIAM 
 
 There remain four Pauline passages, in 
 which the meaning is doubtful. In each 
 case (virtually in Gal. 4.9, see ver. 3) the phrase 
 is, " the elements of the world." Under these 
 the Galatians had heen in bondage, to these 
 (" weak and beggarly " as they were) they 
 were turning again (Gal. 4.3, 9). After these, 
 and not " after Christ," the Colossians were 
 in danger of being drawn away by a " philo- 
 sophy and vain deceit " : from these they had 
 died with Christ (Col. 2.8, 20). The usual inter- 
 pretation, " the rudiments of the world," takes 
 " world " in the ethical sense : the teaching 
 condemned by the apostle is at once unspiritual 
 (" of the world ") and elementary, as opposed 
 to the fulness which is in Christ. It is possible, 
 however, that " world " is used in its physical 
 sense, and that by " the elements of the world " 
 St. Paul means the heavenly bodies, and indeed 
 all natural objects which in their totality con- 
 stitute the physical universe. The reference 
 would then be to the belief that all things were 
 animated by spiritual beings and had their 
 special angels (cf. Rev. 7.1-2, 14.18, 16.5, 
 19.17). From this " worshipping of the angels " 
 (probably those specifically worshipped at 
 Colossae) (Col 2.18) the apostle recalls his 
 readers to Christ, Son of God (Gal. 4.4), in 
 whom "dwelleth all the fulness of the Godhead 
 bodily " (Clo. 2.9). 
 
 E'leph. The ox : a town near Jerusalem, 
 allotted to Benjamin (Josh. 18.28). Now the 
 village of Lifta. 
 
 Elha'nan. God is gracious: 1. According to 
 1 Ch. 20.5, the son of Jair, who slew Lahmi, the 
 brother of Goliath the Gittite. In 2 Sam. 21.19 
 the R.V. correctly has " Elhanan the son of 
 Jaare-oregirn the Beth-lehemite slew Goliath 
 the Gittite." The relation of the two state- 
 ments to one another and to the narrative of 
 1 Sam. 17 is not clear. 2. The son of Dodo the 
 Bethlehemite, and the second of David's thirty 
 mighty men (2 Sam. 23.24 ; 1 Ch. 11.26). 
 
 Eli. Exalted : a High Priest and Judge of 
 Israel. He immediately preceded Samuel, and 
 was descended from Aaron through Ithamar 
 (compare 2 Sam. 8.17 ; 1 K. 2.27 ; 1 Ch. 24.3). 
 In consequence of the loose hold he kept upon 
 his two sons, Ilophni and Phinehas, he was told 
 that God would punish him through them. The 
 message was communicated to him through the 
 child Samuel (1 Sam. 3). 
 
 Twenty -seven years later the prophecy was 
 fulfilled, Hophni and Phinehas being killed 
 while fighting the Philistines, into whose hands 
 on the same occasion the ark fell. Eli, ninety- 
 eight years of age, was so overcome with the 
 evil news brought to him by runners from the 
 battlefield that he swooned, fell backward off 
 his seat, and died by breaking his neck (1 Sam. 
 4). He was a man of blameless public life, and 
 had " judged Israel forty years " (1 Sam. 4.18). 
 
 Eli was the first of his house to hold the office 
 of High Priest, and it was part of the punish- 
 ment foretold to him by Samuel that the office 
 should revert to the family of Eleazar. Then, 
 
 his sons being killed, his grandson Ahitub 
 (1 Sam. 14.3) received the office, but Abiathar, 
 the grandson of Ahitub, was " thrust out from 
 being priest unto the Lord" (1 K. 2.27), 
 because he had joined the rebellion of Adonijah 
 against Solomon. Zadok was made High Priest 
 in his stead (1 K. 2.35). 
 
 EK, EH. [ELOI.] 
 
 Eli'ab. God is father: 1. A son of Helon, 
 and leader of the tribe of Zebulun at the time 
 of the census in the wilderness of Sinai (Num. 
 1.9). 2. A son of Pallu (Num. 26.8), and father 
 of Dathan and Abiram (Num. 16.1). He was 
 a member of one of the chief families in the 
 tribe of Reuben, and his sons were leaders in 
 the revolt against Moses (Num. 16.1-12 ; Deut. 
 11.6). 3. The eldest son of Jesse and brother 
 of David (1 Sam. 16.6). In 1 Ch. 27.18 he is 
 called Elihu. His daughter Abihail married 
 Rehoboam (2 Ch. 11.18). 4. A Levite who 
 lived in the time of David and who combined 
 the duties of porter (doorkeeper) and musician 
 (1 Ch. 15.18, 16.5). 5. A Gadite and leader 
 of his people. He was of a warlike nature, 
 and united his fortunes to those of David when 
 the latter fled to the wilderness from Saul 
 (1 Ch. 12.9). 6. A Kohathite Levite, son of 
 Nahath, from whom was descended the prophet 
 Samuel (I Ch. 6.27). In other statements of 
 the genealogy he is called Elihu (1 Sam. 1.1) 
 and Eliel (1 Ch. 6.34). 
 
 Elia'da. Whom God cares for: 1. One of 
 the youngest of David's sons, born after the 
 latter had established himself in Jerusalem 
 (2 Sam. 5.16 ; 1 Ch. 3.8). [BEELIADA.] 2. A 
 mighty warrior who led a vast army of 200,000 
 men of his tribe to the support of Jehoshaphat. 
 He was a Benjamite (2 Ch. 17.17). 3. (A.V. 
 Eliadah). An Aramite of Zobah, father of 
 Rezon, and the captain of a marauding band 
 which annoyed Solomon (1 K. 11.23). 
 
 Eli'ah (R.V. Elijah). Jehovah is God: 1. A 
 principal man of the tribe of Benjamin, and the 
 son of Jeroham (1 Ch. 8.27). 2. One of the 
 Bene-Elam in the time of Ezra who had married 
 a strange wife (Ezra 10.26). 
 
 Eliah'ba. God hides: a Shaalbonite, one of 
 David's famous guard of thirty heroes (2 Sam. 
 23.32 ; 1 Ch. 11.33). 
 
 EliaTdm. Whom God establishes: 1. One 
 of Hezekiah's court officials. He succeeded 
 Shebna as master of the royal household ; and 
 was appointed to treat with the king of Assyria, 
 who was then besieging Jerusalem (2 K. 18 and 
 19 ; Isai. 22.20). 2. Son and successor of king 
 Josiah. He was subsequently called JehoiaJcim 
 (2 K. 23.34). [JEHOIAKIM.] 3. A priest who 
 assisted in the dedication of the wall in the 
 time of Nehemiah (Neh. 12.41). 4. and 5. 
 Ancestors of Christ (Matt. 1.13 ; Lk. 3.30). 
 
 Eli'am. God is kinsman : 1. The father of 
 David's wife, Bathsheba (2 Sam. 11.3). In 
 1 Ch. 3.5 Eliam appears as Ammiel and Bath- 
 sheba as Bathshua. 2. Son of Ahithophel and 
 one of David's thirty mighty men (2 Sam. 23.34). 
 Perhaps the same as 1, 
 
ELIAS] 
 
 144 
 
 [ELIJAH 
 
 Ettas. The Greek form of Elijah used 
 in A.V. of the N.T. ; the K.V. always has 
 Elijah. 
 
 Etta'saph. God has added : 1. Son of Deuel 
 and head of the tribe of Gad at the time of the 
 census in the Wilderness (Num, 1.14). 2. The 
 son of Lael, a chief of the Gershonites (Num. 
 3.24). 
 
 Eb'a'shib. God restores : 1. A high priest who 
 made an improper use of the temple as a refuge 
 for a relative, Tobiah the Ammonite, and ex- 
 cited the wrath of Nehemiah (Neh. 13.4-7). 
 His grandson married the daughter of Sanballat 
 the Horonite (Neh. 13.28). He first appears 
 helping to rebuild the walls of the city (Neh. 3). 
 2. A priest (1 Ch. 24.12). 3. A descendant of 
 the house of Judah (1 Ch. 3.24). 4. A temple 
 musician (Ezra 10.24). 5. (Ezra 10.27). 
 6. (Ezra 10.36). 7. Father of Jehohanan 
 or Johanan (Ezra 10.6; Neh. 12.22, 23). 
 Perhaps the same as 1. 
 
 Elia'thah. God is come : a son of Heman, 
 appointed to the twentieth division of the 
 service of song in the sanctuary in the time of 
 David (1 Ch. 25.4, 27). 
 
 Eli'dad. God has loved : a chief of Benjamin 
 who was chosen to represent his tribe at the 
 partition of Canaan (Num. 34.21). 
 
 Eliehoe'nai. To Jehovah are mine eyes : 
 R.V. in 1 Ch. 26.3 (A.V. Elioenai) and Ezra 8.4 
 A.V. Elihoenai). 
 
 Eti'eL God is God: 1. The great-grand- 
 father of the prophet Samuel (1 Ch. 6.34). 
 2. (1 Ch. 5.24). 3. (1 Ch. 8.20). 4. (1 Ch. 8.22). 
 
 5. (1 Ch. 11.46). 6. (1 Ch. 11.47). 7. (1 Ch. 
 12.11). 8. A chief Levite who assisted in bring- 
 ing the ark from Obed-Edom (1 Ch. 15.9, 11). 
 9. (2 Ch. 31.13). 
 
 Elie'nai (perhaps for ELTEHOENAI). To 
 Jehovah are mine eyes: a Benjamite (1 Ch. 
 8.20). 
 
 Efie'zer. God is help : 1. Abraham's chief 
 servant, called by him " Eliezer of Damascus " 
 (Gen. 15.2). The statement in ver. 3 that he 
 was " son of my house " merely implies that 
 ho was a member of the household, not born in 
 it. This was the "eldest servant " (Gen. 24.2) 
 who was sent by Abraham to procure a wife for 
 Isaac. 2. Second son of Moses (Ex. 18.4 ; 
 1 Ch. 23.15,17). 3. Grandson of Benjamin 
 (1 Ch. 7.8). 4. (1 Ch. 15.24). 5. (1 Ch. 27.16). 
 
 6. A prophet who rebuked Jehoshaphat (2 Ch. 
 20.37). 7. (Ezra 8.16). 8. (Ezra 10.18). 
 9. (Ezra 10.23). 10. (Ezra 10.31). 11. An 
 ancestor of Joseph in the genealogy of Christ 
 (Lk. 3.29). 
 
 Elihoe'nai. [ELIEHOENAI.] 
 
 Eliho'reph. God of autumn : a scribe to 
 Solomon (1 K. 4.3). 
 
 Eli'hu. (My) God is He: 1. Son of Barachel, 
 the Buzite, of the kindred of Ram. He, 
 although a younger man, intervened in the 
 controversy between Job and his friends, 
 judging all to be in the wrong (Job 32-37). 
 2. Ancestor of the prophet Samuel (1 Sam. 
 1.1). [ELIAB 6.] 3. (1 Ch. 12.20). 4. (I Ch. 
 
 26.7). 5. A brother of David who was 
 chief of the tribe of Judah (1 Ch. 27.18). 
 
 [ELIAB 3.] 
 
 Eli'jali. Jehovah is God: 1. Elijah, the "grand- 
 est and the most romantic character that Israel 
 ever produced," was a T : shbite, a native of 
 Gilead, a country on the east of the Jordan. 
 His appearance is dramatic. Under Ahab, 
 king of Israel, influenced by his wife, Jezebel, 
 the nation had lapsed into idolatry and forsaken 
 the covenant of Jehovah. Suddenly came the 
 terrible message to Ahab tlirough Elijah, " As 
 the Lord the God of Israel liveth, before whom I 
 stand, there shall not bo dew nor rain these years, 
 but according to my word " (1 K. 17.1). 
 
 Elijah was of a fiery and impetuous nature, 
 a native and lover of the hill country. From 
 the narrative we can gather also certain personal 
 traits and appearances. His hair was long and 
 abundant (2 K. 1.8). He was also strong and 
 wiry, or he could not have run so far before 
 Ahab's chariot, or endured the forty days' fast. 
 His clothing consisted of skins, fastened with a 
 leathern girdle, and the sheepskin mantle, which 
 has become proverbial (1 K. 19.13). 
 
 The drought thus brought upon the country 
 by the wickedness of king and people lasted for 
 three years and six months (Lk. 4.25 ; Jos. 5.17). 
 The consequent famine was severe, and the 
 districts which suffered in the dire visitation 
 included Phoenicia. 
 
 Elijah having delivered his message hid 
 himself from Ahab in a deep valley east of the 
 Jordan, in which ran the brook Cherith. There 
 " the ravens brought him bread and flesh hi the 
 morning, and bread and flesh in the evening; 
 and he drank of the brook " (1 K. 17.6). " After 
 a while " the brook Cherith dried up, and 
 Elijah was commanded to seek another abode 
 at Zarephath in Sidon, Jezebel's own country 
 (1 K. 17.8, 9). There he fell in with the widow 
 gathering sticks to cook the last meal she and 
 her son would have before they died of starva- 
 tion. When Elijah asked for some of this last 
 morsel of bread, she did as the prophet com- 
 manded. Her faith was rewarded, for though the 
 famine lasted for three years longer, neither her 
 meal nor her oil gave out (1 K. 17.10-16 ; cf. 
 Lk. 4.26). During his residence at Zarephath, 
 Elijah had another opportunity to show the 
 power of Jehovah, for the widow's son sickened 
 and died. The distracted mother charged him 
 with bringing this calamity upon her, but was 
 compelled by the restoration of her son to life 
 to confess, " Now I know that thou art a man 
 of God " (1 K. 17.17-24). 
 
 By the third year the drought and conse- 
 quent famine were so severe that Ahab himself 
 and the chief of his household, Obadiah, had to 
 search everywhere for fodder to keep the horses 
 and mules alive. So preparations were made at 
 Samaria for an expedition ; and then the Lord 
 commanded Elijah to go and meet Ahab, at 
 the same time promising that He would send 
 rain, and so end the drought. On the way 
 Elijah met Obadiah, allayed his natural 
 
ELIJAH] 
 
 145 
 
 [ELIPHAL 
 
 fears of the king, and bade him fetch Ahab 
 (1 K. 18.7-10). 
 
 The encounter of king and prophet, the 
 challenge on Mount Carmel of the servant of 
 Jehovah to the prophets of Baal, with its issue, the 
 coming of the rain, are told in a narrative un- 
 surpassed for dramatic splendour (1 K. 18.17-46). 
 
 By his relentless slaughter of the prophets of 
 Baal (see Deut. 13.5, 18.20) Elijah had aroused 
 the fierce anger of Jezebel, who cried that even 
 as he had done to the priests of Baal so she would 
 do to him. Elijah could face an angry king, 
 but this threat of an angry woman drove him 
 again to the wilderness, where, despairing, he 
 wished that he might die. But God, mindful 
 of His own, sheltered and fed him and guided 
 him through forty days' journey in the wilder- 
 ness, until he came to Horeb, " the mount of 
 God." 
 
 Then, after manifestations of the dread forces 
 of Nature in the wind, the earthquake, and the 
 fire, there came the " still small voice," and 
 Elijah knew that he was in the presence of God. 
 The searching question, " What doest thou 
 here, Elijah ? " elicits a protestation of loyalty 
 to Jehovah, mingled with sense of defeat and 
 loneliness and peril of life. The prophet is 
 simply bidden go back to his abandoned task, 
 with the consciousness that the cause of God 
 stands sure. Rebuked, and yet encouraged, 
 Elijah returned to his duty, meeting with 
 Elisba, his destined successor, on the way, over 
 whom he casts his mantle, and draws him from 
 his ploughing (1 K. 19). 
 
 Two years after this event Elijah was com- 
 manded to warn and reprove Ahab for his sin 
 in the matter of Naboth's vineyard. Ahab's 
 uneasy mind cries aloud when he sees Elijah 
 approaching, " Hast thou found me, mine 
 enemy?" (1 K. 21.20). HLs penitence post- 
 pones the judgment on his sins, but does not 
 cancel it. [AHAB, NABOTH.] 
 
 Afterwards Elijah appears as God's messenger 
 to reprove Ahaziah, Ahab's son, who had 
 succeeded to the throne, for seeking strange 
 gods. Ahaziah's plan to secure the person 
 of the prophet is frustrated by the calling down 
 of fire from heaven (2 K. 1 ; cf. Lk. 9.54-56). 
 
 While on a visitation to the schools of the 
 prophets at Bethel and Jericho, it is made known 
 to Elijah that his earthly career was about to 
 end (2 K. 2). As Elijah and Elisha left Jericho 
 and proceeded to the place beyond Jordan, they 
 were followed by fifty of the students, who 
 thus became witnesses of the miraculous 
 parting of the river by means of Elijah's mantle 
 (2 K. 2.8). Elisha's request for a double portion 
 of Elijah's spirit, i.e. that he might be heir 
 to his ministry and influence (an allusion to the 
 double share which the first-born received on 
 the father's death), is answered by him 
 to the effect that though the request was very 
 great yet it would be granted, if Elisha was 
 permitted to witness his actual departure. 
 While they were talking the translation took 
 place. Elijah was carried to heaven in * 
 
 10 
 
 chariot of fire, and Elisha saw it (2 K. 2.1-12). 
 [ELISHA.] 
 
 Every part of Elijah's character is marked by 
 a moral grandeur which is heightened by the 
 obscurity thrown around his connexions and 
 his private history. His appearances are as of a 
 supernatural messenger suddenly issuing from 
 another world, to declare the commands of 
 heaven, and to awe kings by the menace of 
 fearful judgments. His boldness, his loyal 
 zeal for the honour of God, his austerity, are 
 the characters of a " man of God." He was 
 called out to combat the fearful idolatry of the 
 age, to demonstrate the being and power of 
 Jehovah, and to reclaim or punish those who 
 had forsaken Him. He " arose as fire, and 
 his word burned like a torch " (Ecclus. 48.1). 
 
 The closing prophecy of the O.T. in its out- 
 look upon "the day of the Lord" predicts, 
 " Behold, I will send you Elijah the prophet 
 before the great and terrible day of the Lord 
 come" (Mai. 4.5, R.V.). By N.T. tunes this 
 prophecy had passed into the current ex- 
 pectations of Messiah: He was to be heralded 
 by the coming of Elijah (Matt. 16.14, 17.10 ; 
 John 1.21). Jesus declared this prophecy ful- 
 filled in John the Baptist (Matt. 11.14, 17.12, 13 ; 
 see also Lk. 1.17). In the vision on the Mount 
 of Transfiguration Moses and Elijah appeared, 
 the representatives of the Law and the Prophets : 
 they passed away, and the disciples saw " Jesus 
 only" (Matt. 17.1-8). An indication of the 
 place held by Elijah in the popular imagina- 
 tion is seen in the suggestion that he might 
 appear to save our Lord from the cross (Mk. 
 15.35,36). The Epistle of James emphasises 
 the humanity of Elijah : a " righteous man," 
 yet " of like passions with us," he " prayed 
 fervently," and his prayers for drought, and 
 again for rain, were answered (Jas. 5.17, 18). 
 (With the R.V. marg. of Rom. 11.2 compare 
 Mk. 12.26, R.V.). 2. (Ezra 10.21). 3 and 4. 
 
 [ELIAH.] 
 
 Eli'ka. One of David's guard (2 Sam. 23.25). 
 
 E'lim. Palm trees : the second encampment 
 of the Israelites after crossing th Red Sea, 
 celebrated for its twelve springs and seventy 
 palm trees (Ex. 15.27 ; Num. 33.9, 10). It is 
 probably the raised and undulating plain on 
 the south bank of Wady Ghurundel. 
 
 Eli'melech. God is King : the husband of 
 Naomi, Ruth's mother-in-law. He belonged 
 to the Hezronite family dwelling in Bethlehem- 
 Ephratah at the time of the Judges. He re- 
 moved with his family to Moab in consequence 
 of a great dearth. Both Elimelech and his 
 sons died in Moab, and then Naomi and her 
 daughter-in-law Ruth returned to Bethlehem, 
 where the latter married Boaz, her kinsman, 
 "of the family of Elimelech" (Ruth 1.2,3, 
 2.1, 3, 4.3, 9). [Rura.J 
 
 Elioe'nai. To Jehovah are mine eyes : 1. (See 
 1 Ch. 3.23, 24). 2. (1 Ch. 4.36). 3. (1 Ch. 7.8). 
 4. (Ezra 10.22). 5. (Ezra 10.27). 6. (Neh. 
 12.41). 7. (1 Ch. 26.3). [ELIBHOENAI.] 
 
 Eli'phal. God has judged : one of David's 
 
ELIPHALET] 
 
 146 
 
 [ELISHA 
 
 captains (1 Ch. 11.35). Also named Eliphelet 
 (2 Sam. 23.34). 
 
 Elipha'Iet. [ELIPHELET. ] 
 
 Eli'phaz. 1. The son of Esau and Adah, the 
 daughter of Elon (Gen. 36.4 ; 1 Ch. 1.35). 2. 
 The chief of Job's three friends. He was a 
 Temanite, from a province of Idumaea, which 
 had been settled by a son of Esau (Gen. 36.10, 
 11; cf. Jer. 49.7,20). Eliphaz is the chief 
 upholder of the argument that Job's troubles 
 are a visitation from Jehovah, because of secret 
 sin. He deals more gently with Job than cither 
 Zophar or Bildad. The great truth he demon- 
 strates is the awful purity and majesty of God 
 (Job 4.12-21). [JOB, BOOK OF.] 
 
 Eliphe'leh (R.V. Eliphelehu). God is Dis- 
 tinction : a Levite who played the harp when 
 the ark was brought from Obed-Edom (1 Ch. 
 15.18, 21). 
 
 Eliphe'let. God a way of escape : 1. One of 
 David's sons, born in Jerusalem (2 Sam. 5.16), 
 A.V. Eliphalet ; in 1 Ch. 14.5 Elpalet (A.V.) 
 or Elpelet (II. V.). 2. Apparently another of 
 David's sons (1 Ch. 3.6, cf. ver. 8). 3. (2 Sam. 
 23.34) ; also named Eliphal (1 Ch. 11.35). 4. 
 (1 Ch. 8.39). 5. (Ezra 8.13). 6. (Ezra 10.33). 
 
 Elis'abeth. God is an oath : the wife of 
 Zacharias and mother of John the Baptist 
 (Lk. 1.5). She was a descendant of Aaron, and 
 was probably named after Elisheba, his wife. 
 She was a woman of exalted character, and kins- 
 woman to Mary the mother of our Lord (Lk. 
 1.36). 
 
 Elise'us. The Greek form of Elisha (Lk. 4.27, 
 A.V. : R.V. Elisha). 
 
 Elisha. God is Salvation : Elisha, son of 
 Shaphat, was the disciple and successor of Elijah. 
 Elijah, having received God's command to 
 anoint Elisha as a prophet, went to Abel- 
 meholah, where he found Elisha busy ploughing 
 with twelve pairs of oxen, and throwing his 
 mantle over him (1 K. 19.19) abruptly passed on. 
 Elisha ran after him, and begged to be allowed 
 to bid farewell to his people ; on receiving an 
 enigmatical answer, he at once killed a yoke 
 of oxen, cooked the bodies with the broken-up 
 plough, and gave a farewell feast to his neigh- 
 bours. After this he went and ministered unto 
 Elijah until the translation of the latter, when 
 he received the prophet's fallen mantle, and was 
 endued, according to his request, with that 
 " double portion " of his spirit which marked 
 him out as heir and successor to Elijah's ministry 
 (2 K. 2). 
 
 On the removal of Elijah, Elisha first tested 
 his endowment with a prophet's gifts by parting 
 the waters of Jordan with Elijah's mantle 
 (2 K. 2.14). The " sons of the prophets " publicly 
 acknowledged his claim (2 K. 2.15-18). Then 
 almost immediately followed the second and 
 third of his miracles, the sweetening of the water 
 of Jericho (2 K. 2.19-22), and the destruction 
 of the mocking children by bears (2 K. 2.23, 24). 
 When the king of Moab, who had paid tribute 
 since the days of David, rebelled against the king 
 of Israel, Jehoram and his allies, the kings of 
 
 Judah and Edom, marched into the desert in 
 the hope of surprising the king of Moab, and 
 wore suffering from thirst. At the entreaty of 
 Jehoshaphat, Elisha prophesied a remarkable 
 deliverance (2 K. 3.1-25), which was fulfilled to 
 the letter. 
 
 The chronology of Elisha's life is not very 
 clearly indicated, but as he died during the reign 
 of Joash (2 K. 13.14) his ministry must have ex- 
 tended over the four reigns of Jehoram, Jehu, 
 Jehoahaz, and Joash, lasting altogether about 
 fifty-seven years. The deepest lesson of this 
 long ministry was not the exhibition of the power 
 and might of Jehovah, but the tender care, the 
 sufficient provision, and the ever-present 
 help which the Lord extends to His own 
 servants and people. This is shown in the case 
 of the widow whose husband had feared 
 Jehovah (2 K. 4.1-7). Because of the subsequent 
 poverty of the family the creditor seized the 
 widow's sons. In so doing he availed himself 
 of his legal rights (Leo. 25.39), though his action 
 was unjustifiably harsh. Elisha,as the prophet of a 
 merciful God, could not resist the appeal for help. 
 Again, in his journeyings from Carmel, Elisha 
 was in the habit of calling at Shunem and 
 stopping to rest amid the quiet of a pious 
 Israelitish home. [SHUNEM.] The Shunam- 
 mite woman was childless, a great calamity 
 among Jewish wives, and the prophet as- 
 sured her that God would rescue her from 
 that condition (2 K. 4.8-17). Several years 
 afterwards the woman's son was smitten with 
 sunstroke and died. Laying the body upon 
 the prophet's bed, she set off on an ass to find 
 Elisha, who was instrumental in restoring her 
 son to life (2 K. 4.26-37). [SHTTNAinnrE.] 
 
 Some time after the above event, during 
 a time of great scarcity, Elisha was at Gilgal, 
 teaching the sons of the prophets and helping 
 them by his presence during this time of hard- 
 ship. A poisonous plant was gathered for the 
 pot, but the prophet rendered the food innocuous 
 by casting in meal (2 K. 4.38-4 1 ). [GFLGAL.] 
 
 The miracle of the twenty loaves and the 
 full ears of corn belongs to the same 
 period. The next miracle wrought by Elisha is 
 told in striking narrative (2 K. 5). The Syrians 
 in one of their incursions had carried away 
 a little maid, who was taken into the service 
 of Naaman, a man of high authority, "but 
 he was a leper." [LEPROSY.] Naaman was 
 brought to Elisha, and cured through the 
 instrumentality of the humble Jewish maid. 
 
 The story of the miraculously recovered 
 axehead incidentally shows the growing 
 influence of Elisha. The sons of the prophets 
 flocked to him to be instructed. Their number 
 at Jericho was now too large for the institution, 
 and they begged permission to build on the 
 banks of the Jordan, where the necessary 
 timber was abundant (2 K. 6.1-7). 
 
 After this (when, we do not know ; for the 
 events recorded in these chapters are not given 
 in chronological sequence) Elisha was able to 
 warn the king of several plots by which the 
 
ELISHA] 
 
 147 
 
 [ELKANAH 
 
 king of Syria hoped to seize his person. Th 
 Syrian monarch was not able to account for 
 Jehoram's discovery of plans laid with the 
 utmost secrecy, until it was suggested to him 
 that the miracle-working prophet of Israel 
 might have revealed them all. Then, 
 having learned where Elisha was to be found, 
 he sent soldiers to Dothan to capture the 
 prophet. But Elisha prayed that Benhadad's 
 army might be smitten with blindness. His 
 prayer was heard, and in this condition he led 
 them within the walls of Samaria. In refusing 
 to allow Jehoram to massacre the army he had 
 thus trapped, ElLsha exhibits the humaneness 
 of his nature. He also showed the Syrian 
 king the futility of his attempts to contend 
 against the God of Israel (2 K. 6.19-23). 
 
 Though Benhadad abandoned his marauding 
 forays, he gathered together a regular army 
 and laid siege to Samaria, where the king of 
 Israel and Elisha both were. The city was 
 reduced to great straits for food, so that an act 
 of cannibalism came to the king's knowledge. 
 Grieved beyond measure, Jehoram accused 
 Elisha of being the cause of all their misfortunes, 
 and sent to kill him. The prophet, forewarned 
 of what was taking place, and also knowing that 
 the king's mind was changing, secured the 
 messenger of death (2 K. 6.32), and then in- 
 formed the king that on the following day 
 food would be plentiful and cheap, which 
 came to pass (2 K. 7). 
 
 He next appeared in Damascus, the capital 
 of Syria, where he executed the Divine command 
 to Elijah of declaring that Hazael should be 
 king (2 K. 8.7-13). The next year Elisha 
 anointed Jehu king over Israel. [jEiru.] 
 
 Elisha died in his own house after sixty 
 years of public service, at the age of ninety 
 years (2 K. 13.14-19). For the account of 
 certain miraculous events that occurred after 
 his death see 2 K. 13.20-22. 
 
 The contrast between Elijah and his successor 
 has been finely drawn by Dean Stanley : 
 " The succession was close and immediate, but 
 it was a succession not of likeness, but of con- 
 trast. . . . His life was not spent, like his 
 predecessor's, in unavailing struggles, but in 
 widespread successes. He was sought out 
 not as the enemy, but as the friend and coun- 
 sellor of kings. . . . His deeds were not of 
 wild terror, but of gracious, soothing, homely 
 beneficence, bound up with the ordinary tenor 
 of human life. . . . One only trait, and that 
 on the very threshold of his career, belongs 
 entirely to that fierce spirit of Elijah which 
 called down our Lord's rebuke when he 
 cursed the children of Bethel for their mockery. 
 The act itself, and its dreadful sequel, are as 
 exceptional in the life of Elisha as they are 
 contrary to the spirit of the Gospel. At his 
 house by Jericho the bitter spring is sweetened ; 
 for the widow of one of the prophets the oil 
 is increased ; even the workmen at the prophets' 
 huts are not to lose the axehead which 
 has fallen through the thickets of the Jordan 
 
 into the eddying stream ; the young prophets, 
 at their common meal, are saved from the 
 deadly herbs which had been poured from the 
 blanket of one of them into the cauldron ; 
 and enjoy the multiplied provision of corn. 
 At his home in Carmel he is the oracle and 
 support of the neighbourhood ; and the child 
 of his benefactress is raised to life, with an 
 intense energy of sympathy that gives to the 
 whole scene a charm as of the tender domestic 
 life of modern times. And when, at last, his 
 end comes, in great old age, he is not rapt 
 away like Elijah, but buried with a splendid 
 funeral ; a sumptuous tomb was shown in 
 after ages over his grave, in the royal city 
 of Samaria ; and funeral dances were celebrated 
 round his honoured resting-place. Alone of 
 all the graves of the saints of the O.T., there 
 were wonders wrought at it, which seemed 
 to continue after death the grace of his long 
 and gentle life " (Lectures on the Jewish 
 Church, xxxi.). 
 
 Eli'shah. Eldest son of Javan, a grandson 
 of Noah (Gen. 10.4), whose descendants settled 
 in the " Isles of Elishah," and furnished the 
 Phoenicians with their purple dyes (Ezek. 27.7). 
 The locality of these islands is unknown, but 
 they probably included all the groups of small 
 islands about the coasts of Greece. 
 
 Elisha 'ma. God has heard: 1. A chief man 
 of the tribe of Ephraim and grandfather of 
 Joshua (Num. 1.10; 1 Ch. 7.26). 2. A son 
 of King David, born in Jerusalem (2 Sam. 5.16 ; 
 1 Ch. 3.8). 3. Another son of David (1 Ch. 3.6), 
 who is called Elishua in the other lists. 4. 
 (1 Ch. 2.41). 5. (2 K. 25.25). 6. (Jer. 36.12). 
 
 7. A priest (2 Ch. 17.8). 
 
 Elisha'phat. God has judged: one of the 
 " captains of hundreds " (2 Ch. 23.1). 
 
 ElisheHba. God is an oath : the wife of Aaron 
 and daughter of Amminadab (Ex. 6.23). Her 
 marriage with Aaron united the royal and 
 priestly tribes. (Same name as Elisabeth, 
 which see.) 
 
 Eli'shua. God is Saviour: a son of David 
 (2 Sam. 5.15). [ELISHAMA 3.] 
 
 Blind. (Matt. 1.14). 
 
 Eliza'phan. God has protected: 1. Son of 
 Uzziel (Num. 3.30 ; 1 Ch. 15.8 ; 2 Ch. 29.13 : 
 identical with Elzaphan, Ex. 6.22 ; Lev. 10.4). 
 2. A prince of Zebulun who was appointed to 
 assist in apportioning the land (Num. 34.25). 
 
 Eli'zur. God is a rock: a chief of Reuben 
 who assisted to take the census in the wilder- 
 ness (Num. 1.5, 2.10, 7.30, 10.18). 
 
 Elka'nah. God has possessed: 1. (See Ex. 
 6.24). 2. Father of Samuel (1 Sam. 1.1-23; 
 1 Ch. 6.27,34). He lived in the time of Eli, 
 had two wives, one of whom, Hannah, in 
 answer to prayer, gave birth to Samuel. 3. A 
 Levite ; apparently the same as 1, and an early 
 ancestor of 2 (1 Ch. 6.23). 4. Apparently a 
 nearer ancestor of 2 (1 Ch. 6.26). 5. (1 Ch. 
 9.16). 6. A Korahite who joined David at 
 Ziklag (1 Ch. 12.6). 7. A Levite (1 Ch. 15.23). 
 
 8. An officer of King Ahaz (2 Ch. 28.7). 
 
ELEOSH] 
 
 148 
 
 [EMBROIDERY 
 
 Elkosh. Birthplace of Nahum the prophet, 
 who is styled the Elkoshite (Nah. 1.1). Its 
 site is unknown : Elkosh has been identified 
 with a village in Galilee and with Eleuthero- 
 polis in Judaea, but it was probably in Galilee. 
 There is also a town in Syria named 
 Alkush, where tradition places the prophet's 
 tomb. 
 
 Elko'shite. [ELKOSH.] 
 
 Ella'sar. The dominions of King Arioch 
 (Gen. 14.1). In the time of Abraham it was 
 the capital of a kingdom owning allegiance 
 to Elam. It has been identified as the old 
 Chaldean town Larsa, now Senkereh. 
 
 Elm. (Eos. 4.13 : so, wrongly, A.V. ; R.V. 
 terebinth). 
 
 Elma'dam, Elmo/dam. Mentioned in the 
 genealogy of Joseph (Lk. 3.28). 
 
 Etaa'am. God is pleasantness (1 Ch. 11.46). 
 
 Elna'than. God has given : 1. Father of Neh- 
 ushta (2 K. 248). 2. (Jer. 26.22, 36.12, 25). Per- 
 haps identical with 1. 3. The name of three 
 Levites (Ezra 8.16). 
 
 Elohim. [GOD.] 
 
 Eloi. My God (pronounce as a trisyllable, 
 E16I): St. Mark (15.34) gives the cry of Jesus 
 from the cross in the form, " Eloi, Eloi, lama 
 sabachthani ? " St. Matthew has, " Eli, Eli, 
 etc." The difference arises from the degree 
 in which the Aramaic (or vernacular) has 
 been substituted for the Hebrew of the quoted 
 Psalm (Ps. 22.1). In both, sabachthani is 
 Aramaic for the Heb. azabhtani (" hast Thou 
 forsaken me "), but Matthew retains the Heb. 
 Eli ("my God"), for which Mark gives 
 the (apparently) Aramaic equivalent Eloi. 
 Reverence will shrink from too confident 
 assertion of what the cry meant for the con- 
 sciousness of Jesus. It was a quotation from 
 a Psalm in which the appeal of a faith dis- 
 tressed by the delay of God's help passes into 
 a shout of victory. 
 
 E'lon. Terebinth : 1. Father of Esau's wife 
 (Gen. 26.34). 2. Son of Zebulun (Gen. 46.14). 
 3. Another Zebulunite, one of the judges (Judg. 
 12.11,12). 4. A town belonging to Dan 
 (Josh. 19.43). 
 
 E'lon Beth-Ha'nan. Terebinth of the House 
 of Grace: one of the three Danite towns that 
 formed one of Solomon's commissariat districts 
 (1 K. 4.9). 
 
 Elonites (Num. 26.26). 
 
 Eloth.-(l K. 9.26). [ELATH.] 
 
 Elpa'aL God doing works: a Benjamite 
 (1 Ch. 8.11). 
 
 Elpa'tet. [ELTPHELET.] 
 
 Elpa'ran. (Gen. 14.6). [PARAN.] 
 
 Elpelet [ELIPHELET.] 
 
 Elteke, Elte'keh. A city of Dan (Josh. 19.44) 
 assigned to the Levites (Josh. 21.23). 
 
 Elte'kon. A town in the highlands of Judah 
 (Josh. 15.59). Its site is uncertain. Perhaps 
 the same as Tekoa. 
 
 Elto'lad. A city in the south of Judah 
 (Josh. 15.30) allotted to Simeon (Josh. 19.4), 
 and still in the possession of that tribe at the 
 
 tune of King David (1 Ch. 4.29, where it is 
 called Tolad). 
 
 Elu'l. The sixth month of the sacred year 
 of the Jews, roughly corresponding to the present 
 October (Neh. 6.15). [Mourns.] 
 
 Elu'zaL God is my strength : a Benjamite 
 warrior who cast in his fortunes with David at 
 Ziklag (1 Ch. 12.5). 
 
 El'ymas. Wise man or sorcerer : a false 
 prophet who withstood Saul and Barnabas at 
 Paphos in Cyprus (Acts 13.8). [BARJESTJS.] 
 
 Elza'bad. God has given : 1. One of the 
 eleven heroes who crossed the Jordan to assist 
 David at Ziklag (1 Ch. 12.12). 2. (1 Ch. 26.7). 
 
 Elza'phan. [ELIZAPHAN 1.] 
 
 Embalming. The earliest records of em- 
 balming are to be found on the Egyptian monu- 
 ments. The custom arose from the supposed 
 necessity to preserve the body for the future 
 occupation of the dead, when he had finished 
 all his transmigrations. 
 
 The art of embalming was brought to a state 
 of perfection very early. Indeed, the best 
 preserved mummies are those that date back 
 the furthest. 
 
 Only two instances of embalmment occur 
 in the Bible Jacob and Joseph both in con- 
 nexion with Egypt (Gen. 50.2, 3, 26). The 
 Hebrews did not embalm, though they made 
 great use of spices and aromatic herbs in their 
 burials Asa was laid " in the bed which was 
 filled with sweet odours and divers kinds of 
 spices prepared by the apothecaries' art " 
 (2 Ch. 16.14), and in John 19.39, 40 we read 
 how Nicodemus cared for the body of the Saviour. 
 
 Herodotus describes several modes of embalm- 
 ment hi use in Egypt, the prices ranging from a 
 small sum up to 300. In the costliest mode 
 the brain was removed through the nose with 
 an iron instrument, and the cavity filled with 
 medicaments. Then the trunk was opened, 
 the organs removed, and the space filled with 
 myrrh, cassia, and other spices. After which, 
 for sixty or seventy days, the body was steeped 
 in natron ; finally it was swathed in linen band- 
 ages, in the folds of which were aromatic spices 
 and gums, and sent home to the relatives, who 
 laid it in a wooden case shaped to the body, 
 and placed it upright in the sepulchral chamber 
 in the house for a year or more, when it was 
 finally deposited in the family vault. In the 
 cheapest methods of embalming, the body 
 was steeped in natron after the cavities had 
 been filled with cedar oil and then emptied. 
 This gave to the mummy the appearance of 
 being only skin and bone. [BURIAL.] 
 
 Embroidery. The art of decorating linen 
 or cloth by artistic designs wrought by loom 
 or needle is of high antiquity. It may have 
 been derived by the Hebrews from Babylon 
 (Josh. 7.21) or from Egypt (Ezek. 27.7). Note- 
 worthy Biblical references are (1) the High 
 Priest's garment (Ex. 28, R.V. chequer-work, 
 probably an effect produced by the blending 
 of different stuffs) ; (2) the curtains and veils 
 of the Tabernacle (Ex. 26.36) ; (3) Judg. 
 
EMEK-KEZIZ] 
 
 149 
 
 [ENGINE 
 
 5.30; Ezek. 16.10,13,18, 26.16, 27.7,16,24. 
 The preparation of the gold wire for embroidery 
 is described in Ex. 39.3. 
 
 E'mek-ke'ziz. [KEZIZ.] 
 
 Emerald. A gem highly valued by all the 
 ancients. An emerald was in the second row of 
 gems in the High Priest's breastplate (Ex. 28.18, 
 39.11). It is mentioned as one of the precious 
 stones with which the king of Tyre was decked 
 (Ezek. 28.13), and as amongst the merchandise 
 brought to Tyre (Ezek. 27.16). An emerald is 
 named amongst the foundations of the New 
 Jerusalem (Rev. 21.19). 
 
 Emerods (i.e. haemorrhoids or piles, a 
 complaint common among Eastern peoples). 
 The word occurs (in A.V.) in two contexts : (1) 
 Deut. 28.27 (R.V. marg. " or tumours or plague- 
 boils ") ; (2) of the judgment sent upon the Philis- 
 tines for their capture of the ark (1 Sam. 5, 6). 
 Throughout this passage the R.V. has tumours 
 (see R.V. marg. 1 Sam. 5.6), probably some 
 form of plague. 
 
 E'mim, E'mims. The terrible ones : an 
 ancient tribe of giants who inhabited the 
 country east of Jordan and the Dead Sea. They 
 were allied to the Anakim (Deut. 2.10, 11) and 
 other tribes of gigantic stature. They were 
 defeated by Chedorlaomer at Shaveh-Kiriathaim 
 (Gen. 14.5). 
 
 Emman'ueL The Greek form of the Heb. 
 Immanuel (Matt. 1.23). [!MMANUEL.] 
 
 Emma' us. Hot springs : a village 7 or 8 
 miles from Jerusalem, the site of which has not 
 yet been identified, although several places have 
 been suggested as likely spots. It was on the 
 way to this village that our Lord joined and 
 spoke with two of His disciples on the day 
 of His resurrection (Lk. 24.13). 
 
 Em'rnor. [HAMOE.] 
 
 Ena'im, E'nam. The double spring : an 
 unidentified town in the lowlands of Judah 
 (Gen. 38.14, R. V. ; A.V., " an open place " ; 
 Josh. 15.34). 
 
 E'nan. Fountains : father of Ahira 
 (Num. 1.15). 
 
 Encamp, Encampment. In Num. 33, forty- 
 one encampments or stations on the journey 
 through the wilderness are mentioned. We are 
 not, however, to suppose that the encampments 
 of the Israelites were fashioned after a strict 
 military pattern ; there was, for instance, 
 nothing in the nature of entrenchments or other 
 means for repelling attack ; yet for health 
 purposes most strict regulations were drawn up 
 and enforced (Num. 5.3 ; Deut. 23.14). 
 
 The form of encamping is prescribed in 
 Num. 2, 3. The whole body of the people were 
 formed into four divisions, three tribes consti- 
 tuting a division, so that the tabernacle was 
 enclosed in a hollow square. Each of these 
 divisions had a standard (Num. 1.52, 2.2), as 
 well as each tribe, and also each large family 
 association making up the tribe. 
 
 The sanitary laws of the camp were most 
 minute and very stringent. The dead were 
 buried outside (Lev. 10.4), and outside all 
 
 who had come into contact with the bodies had 
 to remain for seven days (Num. 31.19). Lepers 
 were strictly excluded (Lev. 13.46). Also out- 
 side the camp was a place where all the rubbish 
 and offal were deposited and burnt (Lev. 4.12 ; 
 Deut. 23.10). 
 
 Enchanter, Enchantment. The practice of 
 enchantment is allied with witchcraft and 
 sorcery, and is condemned by the law of 
 Moses (Deut. 18.9-12). Special terms are used in 
 Scripture to denote enchantments : (1 ) in Ps. 58.5 
 to mutter, to speak with a low voice, like 
 magicians hi their magical operations ; (2) 
 secrets, as where Moses speaks of the enchant- 
 ments wrought by Pharaoh's magicians; (3) 
 the deluding of peoples' eyes and senses by 
 those who practise jugglery, witchery, and tricks 
 (2 Ch. 33.6); (4) snake charming, that is, 
 making gentle and sociable what was before 
 fierce, dangerous, and un tractable (Deut. 18.11). 
 
 Endor. Fountain of Dor : a town in the 
 tribe of Manasseh, where the witch resided 
 whom Saul consulted before the battle of 
 Gilboa (Josh. 17.11; 1 Sam. 28). Endor is 
 also named as the place of the great victory of 
 Barak over Sisera (Ps. 83.10). It still exists 
 under the name of Endur, a deserted village 
 about four miles south of Tabor, on the slope of 
 a mountain which is full of caves. 
 
 En-egla'im. Fountain of the two calves: 
 a place near the Dead Sea near to where the 
 Jordan enters ; named in connexion with En- 
 gedi (Ezek. 47.10). It has not been identified. 
 
 En-gan'nim. Fountain of gardens. 1. A 
 town in the lowlands of Judah (Josh. 15.34). 
 2. A city in Issachar, now the modern and 
 thriving village of Jenin, 17 miles north of 
 Shechem on the border of the plain of Esdraelon. 
 Beautiful and copious streams of clear water 
 from the hills flow through the village, and 
 account for the numerous gardens in its neigh- 
 bourhood, and also for its name (Josh. 19.21). 
 
 En-gedi. Fountain of the kid: this is the 
 modern Ain Jidi, a town in the wilderness 
 of Judah on the west of the Dead Sea and 
 about midway between the north and south 
 ends (Josh. 15.62; Ezek. 47.10). Its ancient 
 name was Hazezon-tamar, " clefts of the palms " 
 (Gen. 14.7 ; 2 Ch. 20.2). It is watered by a 
 warm, ever-flowing spring, and was celebrated 
 for its palm trees and vineyards (Cant. 
 1.14). In the wilderness behind the pass are 
 numberless caverns, in which David and his 
 men found refuge (1 Sam. 23.29, 24.1-3). It 
 was on the route followed by the Moabites 
 and Ammonites when they went against 
 Jehoshaphat (2 Ch. 20.1,2). 
 
 The fountain still exists, and bursts forth 
 at once a fine stream upon a terrace on the 
 mountain side, more than 400 feet above the 
 level of the Dead Sea, into which it flows. 
 From it, going towards Jerusalem, there was a 
 steep ascent " by the cliff of Ziz " (2 Ch. 20.16), 
 which seems to have been none other than the 
 present pass, which is still traversed. 
 
 Engine. The word is twice applied in A.V. to 
 
ENGKAVE, GRAVE] 
 
 150 
 
 [EPAPHHAS 
 
 implements of warfare. In 2 Ch. 20.15 R.V. it is 
 recorded of Uzziah that "he made in Jerusalem 
 engines, invented by cunning men, to be on the 
 towers and upon the battlements, to shoot 
 arrows and great stones withal " (the word 
 here rendered " engines " occurs also in Eccles. 
 7.29 " inventions "). In Ezek. 2G.9, " engines 
 of war," the R.V. has " battering engines," 
 i.e. the " batter ing ram " of Ezek. 4.2, etc. 
 In addition to these, " forts " were used (2 K. 
 25.1), movable towers of wood gradually 
 advanced by the besiegers of a fortified city. 
 
 Engrave, Grave. Used in Scripture of any 
 carver or sculptor in wood, stone, metal, or 
 jewels. (See Ex. 28.11, 21, 35.35, 38.23.) This 
 beautiful art was very widely known and highly 
 developed throughout the ancient world. 
 [GRAVEN IMAGE.] 
 
 En-had'dah. One of the border towns of 
 Issachar (Josh. 19.21). Now probably Kefr 
 'Adan, 2 miles from the Mediterranean, near 
 Mount Carmel. 
 
 En-hakko're. Fountain of tiie partridge or 
 caller: the spring whieh burst forth and 
 refreshed Samson after his slaughter of the 
 Philistines (Judg. 15.19). The name is a play 
 on the word yihra (" he called ") in ver. 18. 
 
 En-ha'zor. Fountain of the enclosure : a 
 fenced city in Naphtali, near Kedesh (Josh. 
 19.37). It has been identified with Hazireh. 
 
 En-mish'pat. Fountain of judgment : an 
 Amorite city taken by Chedorlaomer and his 
 confederate kings (Gen. 14.7). It is the same 
 place as Kadesh-Barnea, which see. 
 
 E'noch. 1. The eldest son of Cain (Gen. 4.17), 
 after whom the first city mentioned in Scripture 
 is named. 2. The father of Methuselah, " the 
 seventh from Adam " (Jude 14) in the line 
 of Sqth (Gen. 5.1-24). We are told that he 
 "walked with God" (Gen. 5.22), an expres- 
 sion denoting the closest intimacy (Gen. 6.9 : 
 cf. Mic. 6.8 ; Mai 2.6). The record continues : 
 " and he was not ; for God took him," an enig- 
 matic phrase, thus interpreted by the writer to 
 the Hebrews, " By faith Enoch was translated 
 that he should not see death ; and he was not 
 found, because God had translated him " (Heb. 
 11.5). Later Jewish tradition ascribed to Enoch 
 the invention of writing, arithmetic, and astro- 
 nomy, as well as making him the recipient of 
 many visions and revelations. Hence there 
 gathered about his name a large apocalyptic 
 literature, of which the most notable survival 
 is the Ethiopic " Book of Enoch," dating from 
 the second and first centuries B.C. This 
 apocryphal work is quoted by Jude (vers. 
 14, 15). [NON-CANONIC AT. BOOKS.] 
 
 Enos, Enosh. Man : the son of Seth, not- 
 able because in his time " men began to call 
 upon the name of the Lord " (Gen. 4.26). 
 
 En-rirn'mon. Fountain of Rimmon : a city 
 of Judah, occupied after the return from 
 the exile (Neh. 11.29). Probably the same 
 place is referred to in passages where the 
 existing text has "Ain, and Rimmon " (Josh. 
 15.32, 19.7 ; 1 Ch. 4.32). [RIMMON.] 
 
 En-rogei. The fuller's fountain : a spring 
 which was on the boundary between Judah and 
 Benjamin (Josh. 15.7, 18J6) near Jerusalem 
 (2 Sam. 17.17). Here Jonathan and Ahimaaz 
 waited for news from the city, which they took 
 to David when he had been driven out of his 
 capital by the rebellious Absalom. Here it 
 was also that Adonijah made a feast for his 
 followers when he conspired against David 
 (1 K. 1.9). Probably to be identified with the 
 present " Fountain of the Virgin," on the east 
 side of Ophel. It yields an intermittent supply 
 of water, which flows underground to the Pool 
 of Siloam. 
 
 Ensample (i.e. Examplc).~The R.V. retains 
 the Old English word from the A.V., where the 
 sense is, a good example, one to be followed 
 (Phil. 3.17 ; 1 Thess. 1.7 ; 2 Thess. 3.9 ; 1 Pet. 5.3), 
 but substitutes ** example " in 1 Cor. 10.11 
 2 Pet. 2.G. 
 
 En-she'mesh. Fountain of the sun : a spring 
 forming one of the landmarks on the boundary 
 between Judah and Benjamin, at the east of 
 Jerusalem and the Mount of Olives. It is now 
 called Ain HOd, about a mile from Bethany, 
 on the road to Jericho (Josh. 15.7, 18.17). 
 
 Ensign. A military token, or signal. In 
 the A.V. " ensign " represents two Hebrew 
 words : one which means the standard of a small 
 division of an army (Num. 2.2 ; Ps. 74.4), the 
 other a sign specially used as a signal to gather 
 the people together for military or other pur- 
 poses (Isai. 5.26, 11.10, 12, 18.3, 30.17, 31.9). 
 
 The brazen serpent was lifted up on an 
 ensign pole (Num. 21.9), and to this our Lord 
 compares His own " lifting up " (John 3.14) ; 
 in consequence He will draw all men to Him, 
 as men follow an ensign (John 12.32). 
 [BANNEE, STAND ABD.] 
 
 En-tappu'ah. Fountain of the citron : a 
 town on the border between Manasseh and 
 Ephraim (Josh. 17.7). The same as Tappuab, 
 but to be distinguished from Beth-Tappuah in 
 Judah. 
 
 Epae'netus. One of Paul's first converts 
 in the Roman province of Asia, i.e. probably 
 Ephesus (Rom. 16.5, R.V. : A.V., wrongly, 
 Achaia, i.e. Corinth). 
 
 Ep'aphras. A Colossian (Col. 4.12) and 
 founder of the Church in Colossae (Col. 1.7, 
 R.V., " even as ye learned," not as A.V., " as 
 ye also learned "). Paul styles him his " beloved 
 fellow-servant ... a faithful minister of 
 Christ on our behalf " (Col. 1.7), and honours 
 him with the title elsewhere reserved for himself 
 and Timothy alone, " a bond-servant of Christ 
 Jesus " (Col. 4.12 ; see also ver. 13). He had 
 come to Paul in Rome bringing tidings of his 
 converts, to which the Epistle to the Colossians 
 was the response. Apparently he became 
 involved in Paul's imprisonment, though the 
 expression " my fellow-prisoner in Christ 
 Jesus " (PhUem. 23) may be figurative. The 
 name is an abbreviated form of Epaphroditus, 
 but the Colossian pastor is to be distinguished 
 from the Philippian messenger. 
 
EPAPHRODITUS] 
 
 iol 
 
 [EPHESUS 
 
 Epaphrodi'tus. A minister and messenger 
 of the Philippians, who was sent by that Church 
 to carry a money-gift to Paul, then in prison at 
 Home. He remained with the apostle, and 
 served him with such zeal that he brought on 
 a serious illness (Phil. 2.25, 4.18). Later on, 
 having heard that the Philippians were greatly 
 concerned about his health, he returned to 
 Philippi, taking with him Paul's Epistle to the 
 Philippians (Phil. 2.25-30, 4.18). 
 
 E'phah. 1. A son of Midian, grandson of 
 Abraham (Gen. 25.4 ; 1 Ch. 1.33 ; /sat. 60.6). 
 2. (1 Ch. 2.46). 3. (1 Ch. 2.47). 
 
 E'phah. A measure for things both dry and 
 liquid. The dry measure contained three pecks 
 and three pints. The ephah for liquids con- 
 tained ten homers, or seven gallons four pints. It 
 was of the same capacity as the bath (Ex. 16.36). 
 
 E'phai. One whose sons were among the 
 " captains of the forces " left in Judah after the 
 carrying away into Babylon (Jer. 40.8). They 
 submitted to Gedaliah, the representative of 
 Nebuchadnezzar, and with him were murdered 
 by Ishmael (Jtr. 40.13, 41.3). 
 
 E'pher. 1. Young deer : second son of 
 Midian (Gen. 25.4 ; 1 Ch. 1.33). 2. A son of 
 Ezra (1 Ch. 4.17). 3. A chief of Manasseh 
 (1 Ch. 5.24). 
 
 E'phes-Dam'mun. End of bloodshed: the 
 site of the Philistine encampment when David 
 overcame Goliath (1 Sam. 17.1). In 1 Ch. 11.13, 
 Pas-Dammim. 
 
 Ephesians, Epistle to the. The auffwrship of 
 this epistle is usually regarded as clear, both 
 on external and internal grounds. From the 
 time of Marcion (c. 140 A.D.) it appears in all 
 lists of St. Paul's writings. It is, however, 
 suggested by some that it may have been 
 written about the year 90 by a follower of St. 
 Paul ; but this is very improbable. The letter 
 is closely connected in character and origin with 
 the Epistle to the Colossians, and the two 
 letters may, with advantage, be read together. 
 The two epistles are amongst the parts of the 
 N.T. which in the ancient texts show the fewest 
 variations. 
 
 The dale of the epistle may be gathered from 
 the narrative. It was written about the same 
 time as the Epistles to the Colossians and to 
 Philemon, whilst Paul was a prisoner at Rome, 
 but whether it was earlier or later than the 
 Epistle to the Philippians is disputed. Accord- 
 ing to the former view, his confinement has 
 become closer ; others rather than himself now 
 preach the Gospel in Home (cf. Phil. 1.13-18 
 with Eph. 6.19, 20). He is anticipating the 
 speedy decision of his case, and its termination, 
 either in death, or, as he thinks more likely, in 
 release (Phil. 1.25, 27, 2.23, 24). It appears also 
 that there had been time for the Philippians to 
 hear of his imprisonment, to raise and send con- 
 tributions to him, to be informed of the illness 
 of their messenger Epaphroditus at Rome ; 
 and further for Paul to receive tidings of their 
 deep concern on that account (Phil. 2.25-30, 
 4.10-18). On the other hand, in PhUem. 22 he 
 
 asks that a lodging may be prepared for him, 
 and the whole tone of Ephesians and Colossians 
 suggests a long time for meditation. No doubt the 
 letter was written from Rome about the year 62 
 or 63 A.D. (60 or 61 in the revised chronology). 
 It is probable that Ephesians was in its origin a 
 circular letter (" epistle from Laodicea " of 
 Col. 4.16) intended for all the Churches of 
 Asia Minor. 
 
 The occasion of the epistle recalls the 
 ministry of St. Paul at Ephesus. His first visit 
 to Ephesus was very brief, including only a single 
 Sabbath, on his return from his second missionary 
 journey. But the work which he then began 
 among the Jews was carried on by Aquila and 
 Priscilla, and by Apollos (Acts 18.19-21, 24, 26) ; 
 so that on his second visit, in the autumn of 
 the year 54, he found some preparations already 
 made for his further labours. These he pursued 
 for more than two years, in the face of severe 
 persecution (Acts 20.19 ; 1 Cor. 15.32), but with 
 very remarkable success among both Jews and 
 Gentiles, not only in the city, but throughout the 
 whole province (Acts 19.10). Thus were founded 
 the " Seven Churches in Asia." By incessant 
 toil and assiduity (Acts 20.18-20) Paul built up 
 in Ephesus itself a large and flourishing Church, 
 to which in the following year, oahis last journey 
 to Jerusalem, he addressed through its elders a 
 solemn parting charge (Acts 20.17-35). This 
 Church he subsequently committed to the 
 oversight of Timothy (1 Tim. 1.3). 
 
 The characteristics of the epistle are dis- 
 tinctive. It is not personal or epistolary in 
 the same degree as other letters of St. Paul. It 
 is, on the other hand, remarkable for its matured 
 and careful outline of the Gospel St. Paul 
 proclaimed. Its language is that of a warm 
 and glowing heart ; it breathes an ardent spirit, 
 catholic in its aims, and generous in all its 
 aspects. There are many correspondences 
 between the language of Ephesians and that 
 of Colossians ; but also some words and 
 phrases the usage of which is noteworthy. Five 
 tunes in this epistle occurs the phrase " heavenly 
 places " ; and " grace " no less than twelve 
 times. " Riches " is another recurrent ex- 
 pression, " riches of grace," 1.7, 2.7 ; " riches 
 of glory," 1.18, 3.16 ; " riches of Christ," 3.8. 
 " Mystery," in the sense of a secret once hid 
 but now revealed, is characteristic indeed 
 generally of Paul, but characteristic specially of 
 this epistle, in which it is five times used (1.9, 
 3.3, 4, 9, 6.19), and each time with remarkable 
 emphasis ; see Robinson's Ephesians, p. 234. 
 The comparison of the Church to a magnificent 
 building, and the allegory drawn from the 
 armour of a Roman soldier, have their fullest 
 expression in this epistle (2.20-22, 6.13-17). 
 The omission of personal greetings has been 
 already noted. 
 
 The contents of the epistle are in two main parts 
 chapters 1 to 3 being chiefly doctrinal ; and 
 4 to 6 almost wholly practical. 
 
 Ephesus. A city in what is now called Asia 
 Minor, on the river Cayster, some 6 miles from 
 
EPHLAL] 
 
 152 
 
 [EPHRAIM, CITY OF 
 
 its mouth. It was a free city, the centre of the 
 Roman administration, and had many Jewish 
 inhabitants. Ephesus was widely famous for 
 its temple of Artemis (Diana), which was of 
 extreme magnificence, enriched with immense 
 treasures, and regarded as one of the wonders 
 of the world. This temple was 425 feet long, 
 220 broad, and was adorned with paintings and 
 statues. It was destroyed by fire on the day 
 that Alexander the Great was born, and lay in 
 ruins for some time. Alexander offered to 
 rebuild it if the Ephesians would place on it an 
 inscription which denoted the name of the bene- 
 factor. The offer was refused, and the inhabit- 
 ants rebuilt the temple themselves in greater 
 magnificence than ever. The ruins of Ephesus 
 are to be seen near the Turkish town of Ayasluck. 
 But many of the marbles and other precious 
 stones used in the construction of its magnificent 
 buildings were carried to Constantinople and 
 other great cities on the Mediterranean, while 
 the mass of its masonry served the neighbour- 
 hood for centuries as a quarry. 
 
 The Book of Acts mentions two visits of Paul 
 to Ephesus (18.19, 19.1). The first time, on 
 his way to Jerusalem, he preached on one 
 Sabbath in the synagogue, leaving behind him 
 Priscilla and Aquila, who were shortly after- 
 wards joined by Apollos. On his second visit 
 Paul remained there more than two years ; 
 probably on account of the importance of the 
 place, as a principal seat of idolatry and a great 
 centre of influence, and his labours were crowned 
 with signal success, both among the citizens and 
 the surrounding country. According to early 
 tradition, John, the apostle and evangelist, lived 
 at Ephesus in the later years of his life. [PAUL, 
 DIANA.] 
 
 The following is a summary of the Bible 
 references to Ephesus : Site of temple and statue 
 of Diana, which suggested illustrations to Paul 
 (1 Cor. 3.9-17; Eph. 2.19-22; 1 Tim. 3.15; 
 2 Tim. 2.20). Scene of Paul's labours at close 
 of his second tour (Acts 18.19-21); and for 
 nearly three years in the course of his third tour 
 (Acts 19.1-20, 20.31). Scene of the uproar of 
 Diana worshippers (Acts 19.21-41, 20.1 ; 1 Cor. 
 15.32) ; after which Paul sent for Ephesian 
 elders to meet him at Miletus (Acts 20.16-18). 
 Scene of Timothy's ministry (1 Tim. 1.3) ; of the 
 labours of Aquila and Priscilla (Acts 18.18, 19 ; 
 2 Tim. 4.19); of Apollos (Acts 18.24); of 
 Trophimus and Tychicus (Acts 20.4, 21.29 ; 
 2 Tim. 4.12). Residence of disciples of John the 
 Baptist (Acts 19.1-3) ; of Onesiphorus (2 Tim. 
 1.16-18, 4.19); of Alexander the coppersmith 
 (2 Tim. 4.14) ; of Demetrius (Acts 19.24) ; of 
 the sons of Sceva (Acts 19.14); of Hymenaeus 
 and Alexander (1 Tim. 1.20 ; 2 Tim. 4.14) ; of 
 Phygelus and Hermogenes (2 Tim. 1.15). Site 
 of one of the seven Churches addressed in the 
 Apocalypse (Rev. 1.11, 2.1), to which, with others, 
 Paul addressed from Rome the Epistle to the 
 Ephesians. (See the preceding article.) 
 
 Ephlal. (1 Ch. 2.37). 
 
 Ephod. The father of Hanniel, who was on 
 
 of those appointed to assist in the division of 
 Canaan among the tribes (Num. 34.23). 
 
 Epliod. The linen ephod was the distinguish- 
 ing garment of the ministering priest, some sort 
 of tunic bound round with a girdle (1 Sam. 
 2.18, 28, 14.3, 22.18 ; 2 Sam. 6.14). The 
 ephod of the High Priest is described in 
 Ex. 28, 39 ; 'Lev. 8.7. It was an elaborately 
 ornamented garment wrought in gold, blue, 
 purple, scarlet, and fine linen. It consisted 
 of two parts, one covering the back and the 
 other the breast, and united over the shoulders. 
 On each shoulder was a large onyx stone worn 
 as an epaulette, upon which were engraved 
 the names of the twelve tribes, six names on 
 each stone. In this garment the girdle was 
 woven in one piece with the front part (Ex. 28.8). 
 Over all was worn the breastplate, in which a 
 pocket contained the Urim and Thummim, or 
 sacred lots. The sacredness attaching to the 
 ephod seems to have led David to a super- 
 stitious and even idolatrous abuse. We are 
 told that Gideon used the spoils of the Midian- 
 ites to make an ephod, an act which became 
 a snare to the Israelites (Judg. 8.27). Micah 
 having made an idol, must needs also make 
 an ephod, and consecrate one of his sons as 
 priest (Judg. 17.5, 18.14-20). Some have 
 thought that the amount of gold used by Gideon 
 implies that he used the metal in making an 
 idol, and that the term which originally denoted 
 the priest's coat became applied to the coating 
 or casing with gold of an idolatrous image used 
 in divination. 
 
 Ephphatha. An Aramaic word meaning 
 " be opened " (Mk. 7.34). 
 
 Ephra'im. Fertile: the second son of 
 Joseph, bora in Egypt (Gen. 41.52). When 
 brought before the patriarch Jacob with 
 Manasseh, Jacob laid his right hand on 
 him. Joseph desired to change the posi- 
 tions of the two, but Jacob refused (Gen. 
 48.8-20). 
 
 Ephraim, Tribe oi The descendants of 
 Ephraim occupied one of the most fruitful 
 parts of Palestine, with the Mediterranean 
 to the west of them, and the Jordan protecting 
 them on the east. The northern boundary was 
 occupied by Manasseh, while Dan and Ben- 
 jamin closed it in on the south. Ephraim had 
 come out of Egypt enormously strong in 
 numbers (Num. 2.18,19), and Joshua, himself 
 an Ephraimite, gave them the portion de- 
 scribed above (Josh. 16.1-10). The ark and 
 the tabernacle remained long in this tribe, at 
 Shiloh ; and, after the revolt and separation 
 of the ten tribes, the capital of their kingdom 
 was always within the bounds of Ephraim, so 
 that the whole people is sometimes called 
 Ephraim (Jer. 31.9, 18, 20). 
 
 Ephraim, City of. A town " near to the 
 wilderness " to which our Lord retired from 
 the hostility of the Jews of Jerusalem (John 
 11.54). Probably the same as Ephrain (2 Ch. 
 13.19), and Ophrah (which see). Whether this 
 is identical with the Ephraim of 2 Sam. 13.23, 
 
EPHRAIM, FOREST OF] 
 
 153 
 
 [ESDRAS, BOOKS OF 
 
 in the neighbourhood of Absalom's sheep-farm, 
 is doubtful. 
 
 Ephraim, Forest of. The forest or wood 
 of Ephraim (1 Sam. 14.25; 2 K. 2.24) was 
 situated east of the Jordan near Jabesh-Gilead, 
 and was memorable for the battle between David 
 and the rebel army under Absalom (2 Sam. 18.6). 
 
 Ephraim, Gate of. One of the Jerusalem 
 gates near that now known as the Damascus 
 gate (2 K. 14.13 ; 2 Ch. 25.23 ; Nek. 8.16). 
 
 Ephraim, Mount (Josh. 17.15, 19.50, 20.7, 
 etc. : R.V. always " the hill country of 
 Ephraim "). The name was given to the range 
 of highlands running right through the pos- 
 sessions of Ephraim from north to south. The 
 soil on both west and east slopes was fertile. 
 
 Eph'rain (R.V. Ephron). A city near Bethel, 
 in the wilderness of Judah (2 Ch. 13.19). With 
 other towns it was captured by Abijah from 
 Jeroboam. 
 
 Eph'ratah, Eph'rathah, Eph'rath. Fruitful : 
 
 1. The ancient name of Bethlehem (Ruth 4.11; 
 Ps. 132.6) and burial-place of Rachel (Gen. 35.19). 
 
 2. The second wife of Caleb (1 Ch. 2.50). 
 Ephrathite. 1. An inhabitant of Bethlehem 
 
 (Ruth 1.2). 2. An Ephraimite (1 Sam. 1.1 ; 1 K. 
 11.26). 
 
 Eph'ron. Strength : a Hittite who owned 
 the field containing the cave of Machpelah 
 bought by Abraham for 400 shekels of silver 
 (Gen. 23.8-17, 25.9, 49.29,30). 2. A moun- 
 tain forming a landmark with the surround- 
 ing district on the north boundary of Judah 
 (Josh. 15.9). 3. [EPHEAIN.] 
 
 Epicure 'ans. A Greek philosophical sect, some 
 of whom, with the Stoics, encountered Paul 
 at Athens (Acts 17.18). [STOICS.] 
 
 Er. Watcher : 1. The first-born son of 
 Judah by a Canaanite wife (Gen. 38.3-7 ; Num. 
 26.19). The particular wickedness for which 
 the Lord slew him is not named, but it was 
 probably connected with the Canaanitish 
 idolatries. 2. A son of Shelah, youngest son 
 of Judah (1 Ch. 4.21). 3. Son of Jose (R.V. 
 Jesus), in the genealogy of our Lord (Lk. 3.29). 
 
 E'ran. Watchful : the head of the family 
 of the Eranites (Num. 26.36). 
 
 Erastus. One of those who ministered to 
 Paul at Ephesus, and thence sent with Timothy 
 to Macedonia (Acts 19.22). A little later 
 " Erastus the treasurer of the city " (i.e. of 
 Corinth) sends salutation to the Church in 
 Rome (Rom. 16.23); later still Paul tells 
 Timothy that " Erastus abode at Corinth " 
 (2 Tim. 4.20). There are no sufficient data to 
 identify these three references. 
 
 E'rech. The second of the four cities founded 
 by Nimrod in the land of Shinar (Gen. 10.10). 
 It was the burial-place of the Assyrian kings, 
 the whole neighbourhood being covered with 
 mounds and strewn with bricks and coffins. It 
 is the same as Orchoe", 82 miles south and 43 
 east of Babylon. Its modern name is 
 Warka, in the marshes of the lower Euphrates. 
 Samaria was colonised by people from Erech 
 (Ezra 4.9). 
 
 E'ri, Erites. Watcher: a family of Gad 
 (Gen. 46.16 ; Num. 26.16). 
 
 Esai'as. The Greek form of Isaiah (Matt. 
 3.3, etc. : R.V. always Isaiah). 
 
 E'sar-had'don. (Assyrian " Assur has given 
 a brother"): the son of Sennacherib, and, on 
 his murder, his successor to the kingdom of 
 Assyria (2 K. 19.37 ; Isai. 37.38). He was one 
 of the greatest of the Assyrian kings, a wise and 
 conciliatory ruler, and a successful general. 
 He rebuilt Babylon, which his father had 
 destroyed, and made it a capital of his kingdom, 
 second only to Nineveh : hence when his 
 armies overran Palestine it was to Babylon 
 that Manasseh was carried captive (2 Ch. 33.11). 
 He seems to have added colonies in Samaria to 
 those originally founded by Sargon (Ezra 4.2). 
 By successive campaigns Egypt was reduced 
 to an Assyrian province, and it was on the 
 march to punish a revolt there that Esar- 
 haddon died in 668 B.C., after a reign of thirteen 
 years (from 680). 
 
 Esau. Hairy : the son of Isaac and Rebekah, 
 and twin brother of Jacob. His name is 
 attributed to his appearance at birth, " red, 
 all over like a hairy garment" (Gen. 25.25). 
 His other name, Edom (red), borne by his 
 descendants, was derived from the pottage of 
 red lentils which, when he was famished, he 
 obtained from Jacob (Gen. 25.30). Esau was a 
 hunter, a man of the field, impetuous and 
 chivalrous, a great contrast to the smooth, 
 peaceful, and prudent Jacob. He was a frank 
 and honourable " man of the world." 
 
 The conduct of Esau in selling his birthright 
 was both wayward and profane. It was 
 profane, because the blessings of the birth- 
 right were spiritual as well as civil : the 
 promises of God to Abraham descended in the 
 line of the first-born. These high privileges 
 were despised by Esau, who is therefore in- 
 stanced by the writer to the Hebrews as a type 
 of all apostates from Christ (Heb. 12.16, 17). 
 
 When he was forty years of age Esau married 
 two Canaanitish wives, an act which gave great 
 offence to Isaac and Rebekah (Gen. 26.34). In 
 the matter of the transference of the covenant 
 blessing, Esau was greatly wronged by Jacob, and 
 vowed vengeance (Gen. 27.41). But Rebekah 
 sent Jacob away to her relatives in Mesopo- 
 tamia (Gen. 27.43). By the time Jacob had 
 returned Esau had become rich and prosperous, 
 and being of a generous nature he not only 
 forgave his brother, but offered to escort him 
 to his home at Mount Seir ; an invitation which 
 Jacob accepted, though, conscience pricking him, 
 he evidently feared to use the offered escort 
 (Gen. 32.6-8). 
 
 The next meeting of Esau and Jacob was 
 at the burial of Isaac, nearly 20 years afterwards. 
 Esau now gathered up his portion of the inherit- 
 ance, and, giving up all further thought of the 
 blessing, returned to Mount Seir, determined to 
 make that country his home, driving out its earlier 
 inhabitants (Gen. 36.8). [JACOB, EDOM.] 
 
 Esdras, Books oL [NON-CAXONICAL BOOKS.] 
 
ESEK] 
 
 154 
 
 [ESTHEK, BOOK OF 
 
 E'sek. Strife : a well dug by Isaac's servants 
 in the valley of Gerar, and the cause of a con- 
 tention between Gerar's herdsmen and Isaac's 
 (Gen. 26.20). 
 
 Eshan, [ESHBAN.] 
 
 Eshba'aL A man of Baal: the fourth son of 
 Saul, identical with Ishbosheth (1 Ch. 8.33, 
 
 9.39). [ISHBOSHETH.] 
 
 EshTjan. (1 Gen. 36.26 ; 1 Ch. 1.41). 
 
 Esh'coL Cluster of grapes : brother of 
 Mamre the Amorite, who, with Abraham, re- 
 captured Lot, who had been carried off by the 
 four kings (Gen. 14.13 fi.). 
 
 Esh'col, The Valley oL A valley near Hebron, 
 receiving its name from the abundance of its 
 grapes. This valley was visited by the spies 
 sent out by Moses (Num. 13.23,24, 32.9; 
 Deal. 1.24). 
 
 Esh'ean (R.V. Eshan). A town in the 
 mountains of Judah, unidentified (Josh. 15.52). 
 
 E'shek. A descendant of Saul, through 
 Jonathan (1 Ch. 8.39). 
 
 Esh'kalonites (R.V. Ashkelonites). (Josh. 
 
 13.3). [ASHKELON.] 
 
 Eshta'oL Hollowed out : a town in the low- 
 lands of Judah, near Mahaneh-Dan, allotted to 
 Dan (Josh. 15.33, 19.41). Now called Esh'ua. 
 
 Eshtau'lites (R.V. Eshtaolites). The inhabit- 
 ants of Eshtaol (1 Ch. 2.53). 
 
 Eshtemo'a, Eshtemoh. A town allotted 
 to the Levites (Josh. 15.50; 1 Ch. 6.57), in the 
 mountains of Judah, 9 miles south of Hebron. 
 Now Es Semu'a. 2. A descendant of Judah 
 (1 Ch. 4.17, 19). 
 
 Eshton. Womanly, effeminate (1 Ch. 4.11,12). 
 
 Esli. A name in the genealogy of Christ 
 (Lk. 3.25). 
 
 Espouse, Espousal [MARRIAGE, BETROTHAL.] 
 
 Es'rom (R.V. Hezron). A name in the 
 genealogy of Christ (Matt. 1.3 ; Lk. 3.33). 
 
 Esther. Star : it was customary for Eastern 
 monarchs to change the names of individuals 
 whom they honoured (Gen. 41.45). Thus it was 
 that the new name of Esther was given to the 
 Jewish maiden, Hadassah (myrtle), when she 
 was elevated to the rank of queen. She was 
 born an exile in the land of Persia. Her 
 father's name was Abihail. Having lost her 
 parents when very young, she was adopted by 
 her cousin, Mordecai. After the dismissal of 
 Queen Vashti, and when all the fairest maidens 
 that could be found were brought before King 
 Ahasuerus, his choice fell upon Esther, and 
 she was crowned queen with great splendour. 
 [AHASUEUUS.] Soon after her elevation Esther 
 received a communication from Mordecai, which 
 she laid before the king, to the effect that two 
 of the king's chamberlains had conspired against 
 his life. The matter was found to be as reported, 
 and the conspirators were executed. So far, the 
 nationality of the new queen was not recognised, 
 as her relations feared the jealousy of the Persian 
 nobles. Not knowing the race to whom Esther 
 belonged, the king, in a careless moment of 
 good-natured generosity, listened to the prayer 
 of Haman who was angry because Mordecai 
 
 had refused to bow down to him and gave him 
 permission to destroy all the Jews, young and 
 old, and seize their possessions. Esther was in 
 retirement, and knew nothing of what was going 
 on, but Mordecai found means to see her, and 
 secured her interposition on behalf of their 
 countrymen. Queen Esther faced a real danger 
 when she appeared before Ahasuerus unannounced 
 and uninvited. According to Persian law, such 
 a proceeding merited death, unless the monarch 
 should extend his sceptre towards the oSending 
 person. After three days of humiliation and 
 prayer, Esther appeared before the king, who 
 extended his sceptre to her. Esther invited 
 the king to a banquet, and there disclosed to 
 him the plot of Haman, who was also present. 
 Hainan was executed, and a new decree gave 
 the Jews power to defend themselves when 
 attacked. [ESTHER, BOOK OF.] 
 
 Esther, Book of. The date of this narrative 
 is that of the period between the completion 
 of the Temple and the mission of Ezra (516-458 
 B.C.). Xerxes, called in this book " Abasuerus," 
 the son of the Darius mentioned in Ezra (Darius 
 Hystaspes), was now upon the throne of Persia. 
 His tyranny is vividly depicted by Herodotus 
 (ix.). Probably the series of festivals described 
 in chap. 1 was held to inaugurate Xerxes' expedi- 
 tion to Greece, and the marriage with Esther, 
 " in the seventh year of his reign," took place 
 after the king's defeats at Salamis, Platea, and 
 Mycale", 480-479 B.C. Xerxes, according to 
 Herodotus, consoled himself under his humilia- 
 tion by the delights of his harem (ix. 108). 
 
 The source of this narrative may have been 
 the records of the Persian kingdom (see 2.23, 
 6.1). This supposition accounts for the details 
 given concerning the empire of Xerxes, and for 
 the exactness with which the names of his 
 ministers and of Haman's sons are recorded ; 
 also for the Jews being mentioned only in the 
 third person, and Esther being frequently 
 designated by the title of "the queen," and 
 Mordecai by the epithet of " the Jew." 
 
 Such a source should account for the secular 
 tone of the book, the name of God being not 
 once mentioned. But although the name of 
 God is not found hi the book, His hand is plainly 
 seen, anticipating threatened evil, defeating and 
 overruling it to the greater good of the Jews, 
 and even of the heathen (1, 2, 4-10). 
 
 Let the importance of the facts described be 
 remembered ; it was not the safety of the Jews 
 in Persia only that was in peril ; for if Hainan 
 had succeeded, as the power of Persia was then 
 supreme at Jerusalem and throughout Asia, 
 the Jews would probably everywhere have 
 perished, and with them the whole of the visible 
 Church of God. 
 
 The institution of the festival of Purim (" the 
 Lots "), observed by the Jews in all lands with 
 mirth and thanksgiving, a month before the 
 Passover, is a standing memorial of this national 
 deliverance. In the morning the Megillah of 
 Esther is read and expounded in the synagogues, 
 the rest of the day being devoted to holiday 
 
ETAM] 
 
 155 
 
 [ETERNAL, ETERNITY 
 
 amusements. According to Jewish tradition, 
 " all the feasts shall cease in the days of the 
 Messiah, except the Feast of Purim." Some 
 have thought that the Purim was " the feast " 
 mentioned John 5.1. Otherwise there is no 
 reference to the book in the New Testament. 
 
 The contents of this book are as follows : The 
 elevation of Esther to be queen in the place of 
 Vashti (1, 2) ; Hainan's plot for the destruc- 
 tion of the Jews (3) ; their consequent distress ; 
 the defeat of Hainan's plot ; the triumph of 
 the Jews over their enemies ; and the institu- 
 tion of the festival commemorating their 
 deliverance (4-10), and the advancement of 
 Mordecai. 
 
 The lessons of the narrative are distinct. In 
 the two books which in our Canon precede Esther 
 there has been shown God's mercy towards the 
 Jews who returned from Babylon to their own 
 land. From Esther we learn that those also 
 who remained in heathen countries were also 
 the objects of His watchful care. The book 
 exhibits, also, the wonderful manner in which 
 He who sees and " declares the end from the 
 beginning " provides for the execution of His 
 purposes ; exercising an absolute though unseen 
 control even over the results of men's free 
 actions. It shows, further, how easy it is for 
 Him to " put down the mighty from their 
 seats," and to " exalt them of low degree " ; 
 and teaches us how safe it is to put our trust 
 in God, and to walk humbly with Hun. It is 
 thus excellently adapted to repress pride and 
 vainglory, to administer comfort under trial, 
 and to confirm faith and hope. 
 
 E'tam. Place of birds of prey : 1. A Simeonite 
 village (1 Ch. 4.32). It is to be found now in 
 a ruin called 'Aitun, near En-Rimmon. 2. A 
 fortified city of Judah, rebuilt by Rehoboam 
 (2 Ch. 11.6; perhaps also 'l Ch. 4.3). It was 
 near Bethlehem, and from the springs for which 
 the place is famous Solomon's Pools were 
 supplied. Its modern name is ain 'Atan. 
 3. Samson took refuge " in the cleft of the rock 
 of Etam" (Judg. 15.8,11); apparently near 
 Lehi. 
 
 Eternal, Eternity. (The abstract word 
 eternity occurs only once in the text of A.V. and 
 R.V., Isai. 57.15, " that inhabiteth eternity," 
 a phrase which many Hebraists render " that 
 dwelleth for ever " : see also marg. of A.V. 
 ISam. 15.29; Jer. 10.10; Hie. 5.2; and the 
 marg. of R.V. in Eccles. 3.11 ; Isai. 9.6, all 
 doubtful). The word eternal means literally 
 " age-long," and this conception of an " age " 
 or indefinite time underlies both the Hebrew and 
 Greek expressions for endlessness. 
 
 In the O.T. the words rendered eternal (A.V. 
 only Deut. 33.27 ; Isai. 60.15) or everlasting, for 
 ever, for ever and ever, are applied primarily to 
 God ; then to His dealings with men, His mercy, 
 His covenant, His kingdom, the Messianic King 
 and Priest, etc. The phrase " the everlasting 
 hills" (Gen. 49.26; Deut. 33.15; Ildb. 3.6) 
 is exceptional and poetical (cf. Isai. 54.10). 
 
 In the N.T. we find the Greek word for age 
 
 employed in various phrases to express endless- 
 ness : endless duration in the past is " from 
 the age or ages," in the future " unto the age, 
 the ages, the ages of the ages," even " unto all 
 the generations of the age of the ages " (Eph. 3.21 ). 
 Chief importance, however, attaches to the corre- 
 sponding adjective, literally age-long, everlasting. 
 The simple sense is seen in PhUem. 15 R.V., 
 " that thou shouldest have him (Onesimus) for 
 ever." By far the most frequent use of the 
 term is in the phrase " eternal life " (so always 
 R.V. ; A.V. in 14 out of 44 instances " ever- 
 lasting life"). The expression occurs 8 times in 
 the Synoptic Gospels (in three contexts only, 
 Matt. 19.16-29 and parallels ; Matt. 25.46 ; Lk. 
 10.25), twice in Acts (13.46,48), 11 times in 
 Paul, once in Jude (ver. 21), 23 times in 
 the Gospel and the First Epistle of John. 
 That is, the phrase is especially characteristic 
 of St. John, and it is certain that he means 
 by it something far other and deeper than 
 mere endless future existence. He speaks 
 not of duration but of quality of life, a life 
 possessed here and now by the believer in 
 Christ (John 3.36, 5.24, 6.47, 54, 68, 17.3 ; 
 
 1 John 5.11,13). It is in accordance with 
 this that our Lord identifies eternal life with life 
 (Lk. 10.25 and 10.28), and that Paul uses as 
 equivalent expressions " lay hold on the life 
 eternal " and " lay hold on the life which is 
 life indeed " (1 Tim. 6.12, 19). 
 
 This transference of stress from duration to 
 quality was furthered by the contrast repeatedly 
 drawn between " this age " and " the age to 
 come " (Matt. 12.32, etc.). The age (or world) 
 to come is the Messianic kingdom, the unseen 
 world, in which all that is earthly and transitory 
 falls away and only spiritual realities abide 
 eternally. And it is to realities belonging to 
 this unseen, supersensuous world that the term 
 we are considering is regularly applied. The 
 R.V. rightly marks this aspect of the word by 
 always substituting " eternal " for the A.V. 
 " everlasting." Thus our Lord speaks of eternal 
 (not everlasting) fire, life, punishment, sin, 
 habitations (Matt. 25.41,46; Mk. 3.29 ; Lk. 16.9); 
 St. Paul writes of eternal weight of glory a 
 house in the heavens "destruction from the face 
 of the Lord," etc. (see 2 Cor. 4.17, 18, 5.1 ; 
 
 2 Thess. 1.9, 2.16 ; 1 Tim. 6.16 ; 2 Tim. 2.10 ; and 
 cf. 1 Pet. 5.10 ; 2 Pet. 1.11 ; Jude 1 ; Rev. 14.6). 
 It is not to be denied that the tune-element belongs 
 to the original significance of the word ; the 
 context may in some instances make it pro- 
 minent ; but a study of the passages shows that 
 this is but the first rung of the ladder by which 
 a higher conception is reached. The negative 
 notion of endlessness takes on the positive 
 characteristics of what belongs to God's world 
 of spirit and reality. Nowhere, apart from 
 the phrase " eternal life," is this aspect more 
 emphasised than in the Epistle to the Hebrews. 
 The writer's one theme is a contrast of the 
 temporary, provisional, imperfect foreshadowings 
 of Judaism with the substance realised in Jesus 
 Christ. And this is just the word he wants to 
 
ETERNAL LIFE] 
 
 156 
 
 [ETERNAL LIFE 
 
 mark the finality of God's revelation " in His 
 Son." Christ is the author of " eternal salva- 
 tion," obtained " eternal redemption," offered 
 Himself through His "eternal Spirit"; the 
 Christian inheritance, covenant, judgment are 
 all "eternal" (Hcb. 5.9, 6.2, 9.12,14,15, 
 13.20). 
 
 Another word, simpler in its reference to 
 mere duration, occurs twice (Rom. 1.20 ; Jude 6). 
 In both passages R.V. rightly has " everlasting." 
 
 Eternal Life. 1. O.T. Teaching. No clear 
 doctrine of a future life is revealed in the O.T. 
 So many hints, however, are given, that 
 it is possible to arrive at a definite con- 
 clusion. The truth of man's relation to God as 
 an individual soul, rightly understood, involves 
 a future for the soul, and the unexplained 
 anomalies of life here point to explanation 
 hereafter. If this were all, it would be sufficient 
 to prepare us for the revelation of the N.T., 
 and the reticence of the O.T. is rela- 
 tively a better thing than the superstitious 
 vagaries of pagan teaching as to the world 
 beyond. But the O.T. is only compara- 
 tively reticent. It speaks of She'ol, the 
 word which is translated Hell in the Authorised 
 Version. The word means " hollowness " or 
 " emptiness." There the dead still lire, but 
 deprived of all that really belongs to life. It is 
 a place of darkness, of forgetfulness, of sleep, 
 of ignorance ; there is neither hope nor praise ; 
 it is a place of corruption, a horrible pit ; there 
 is no return (see Job 7.9, 14.7-12 ; Ps. 88 and 
 115; Eccles. 9.5; Isai. 14.11). This aspect of 
 O.T. teaching sprang into existence mainly 
 through the visible surroundings of death. But 
 it is not the only aspect. We get the story of 
 Enoch and his uninterrupted walk with God, 
 the triumphant passing of Elijah, the mysterious 
 vision of Samuel at Tekoa, all illustrations of 
 the great truth that, as man has communion 
 with God, no death can really break that com- 
 munion. The oft-repeated phrase, " I am the 
 God of Abraham, of Isaac, and of Jacob," illus- 
 trates that communion in concrete form, and 
 ought to have carried to the Jewish mind the 
 lesson that our Lord taught from it. In the 
 Psalms and some of the Prophets, especially in 
 the Psalms, the fact that the pious Jew stands 
 in a close relationship to God is his security 
 even in death ; he knows little of the life beyond 
 the grave, but he can trust his God. " Thou 
 wilt not leave my soul in She'ol." " I shall be 
 satisfied when I awake with Thy likeness." 
 " Thou shalt guide me with Thy counsel, and 
 afterward receive me to glory." The vision 
 of the dry bones in Ezek. 37 teaches a similar 
 lesson (cf. also Isai. 26.19 and Dan. 12.2). 
 Alongside this teaching there existed in the 
 Jewish mind the connection of death and sin, 
 although it never quite pierced the mystery 
 of that connexion. In the Wisdom Literature, 
 viz. Ecclesiast.es, Proverbs, Job, and some of the 
 Psalms, the Jew was, moreover, taught the truth 
 of a future life by another process of argument. 
 The exigencies of life, its apparent injustice, 
 
 its inexact retribution, the obvious fact that 
 suffering is not always the result of sin, raised 
 a question, of which the only explanation is a 
 future life. It has been well said : O.T. 
 theology ends in an attitude of resigna- 
 tion not unhopeful. Firm trust in God involves 
 eternity. The Jew learned to trust, and caught 
 many a glimpse of the radiant glory yet to be 
 revealed. 
 
 2. N.T. Teaching. Here perfectly defi- 
 nitely the doctrine of eternal or everlasting 
 life is taught. The Greek word, translated 
 indiscriminately " eternal " or " everlasting " 
 (aionios), comes from a noun meaning an age 
 or a period of time. The adjective takes its 
 character largely from the noun to which it is 
 applied, in much the same way as the English 
 word " everlasting " in vulgar use does. Applied 
 to God or to life it must mean eternal in its 
 fullest sense. Applied to a slave's service, it 
 means a lifetime : " he shall serve him for 
 ever " (Ex. 21.6). God's lifetime is eternity : 
 the lifetime of those who are to be ever with 
 Him must be equally eternity ; and equally, as 
 the same word is used, the lifetime of those 
 who are to be ever absent from Him would seem 
 to be eternity. About the eternity of life 
 there can be, there never has been, amongst 
 Christians, any manner of doubt. " God's 
 good things are endless and eternal," wrote 
 Irenaeus seventeen centuries ago. Knowledge 
 of God, the personal experience of vitai 
 communion with Him, begins at conversion, 
 and " while God and I shall be, I am His, and 
 He is mine." To be with Him is heaven, to 
 be apart from Him is hell. Irenseus added : 
 " The deprival of them (God's good things) is 
 therefore eternal and endless, just as light is 
 continuous, and they who are blinded are con- 
 tinuously deprived of the enjoyment of it." 
 And, as a modern writer has commented, " the 
 deprival of eternal life is itself eternal punish- 
 ment, whatever happens to the persons 
 punished." Conceptions of heaven and hell have 
 often been too material. God is a Spirit ; 
 heaven is life with Him ; and therefore spiritual 
 and therefore eternal, and we must not interpret 
 it in material terms. Its blessedness is beyond 
 conception, and the best of human words, even 
 St. John's, can only faintly paint its glory. Hell, 
 at the very least, is privation of the endless life ; 
 it is actual suffering, it is final exclusion from the 
 blessedness of the saved ; it is a condition of 
 moral and spiritual destitution in which one 
 has no fellowship with God. The awful desola- 
 tion of hell is beyond conception. Scripture 
 speaks of both heaven and hell, life and death, 
 and of both as eternal (Malt. 25.31-46), equally 
 eternal. 
 
 The human mind, especially the human mind 
 which is touched with Divine love, shrinks from 
 the dread alternative, and many theories have 
 been evolved by which the eternity of heaven 
 is to be secured on the one hand, and a period 
 put to the duration of hell on the other. Scrip- 
 true lends no authority to such theories. Divine 
 
ETHAM] 
 
 157 
 
 [EVANGELIST 
 
 justice will do right ; exactly how we know not. 
 The parable of the few and the many stripes 
 (Lk. 12.41-48) supplies some suggestive ideas, 
 but in the last analysis eternal life remains for 
 the righteous, and punishment, eternal punish- 
 ment, for the wicked. [IMMORTALITY OF THB 
 SOUL.] 
 
 E'tham. An early station of the Israelites 
 in their journeyings (Num. 33.6, 8). It was part 
 of the great desert of Shur, which lay around 
 the north of the western gulf of the Red Sea. 
 Exact position is uncertain. 
 
 E'than. 1. An Ezrahite remarkable for his 
 wisdom (1 K. 4.31 ; 1 Ch. 2.6 ; Ps. 89, title). 
 2. A Merarite, and leader of the Temple music 
 (1 Ch. 6.44, 15.17). 3. A Kohathite, ancestor 
 of Asaph (1 Ch. 6.42). 
 
 Etna'nim. The seventh month of the sacred 
 year of the Hebrews, from the last new moon 
 of October till the first one of November (1 K. 
 8.2). [MONTHS, YEAR.] 
 
 Ethba'al. With Baal: king of Sidon, and 
 father of Jezebel, the wife of Ahab (1 K. 16.31). 
 lie was that priest of Astarte, named Ithobal, 
 who, after having murdered Pheles, king of 
 Tyre, seized the throne and reigned for thirty- 
 two years. 
 
 E'ther. Abundance : a lowland city of 
 Judah, given to Simeon (Josh. 15.42, 19.7). 
 It has not been identified. 
 
 Ethiopia, Ethiopian. The Hebrew word Cush, 
 which in Acts 8.27 is translated Ethiopia, was 
 applied to at least three distinct countries. In 
 Zeph. 3.10, where the prophet speaks of Judah's 
 return from captivity, it refers to the country 
 east of the Tigris, which is called Cuthah (2 K. 
 17.24), and also Cush. In Num. 12.1 the 
 word Ethiopian has been referred to a country 
 of Southern Arabia, lying along the Red Sea ; 
 elsewhere called Cushan (Hob. 3.7). In Isai. 
 45.14 ; Jer. 13.23 ; EzeJc. 29.10, etc., it must be 
 understood as Ethiopia proper, lying south of 
 Egypt. The northern part of this territory 
 was called by the Hebrews Seba (Isai. 43.3), 
 after the eldest son of Cush (Gen. 10.7), and 
 by the Romans Meroe, of which Candace (Acts 
 8.27) was probably queen. [<3usH.] 
 
 Eth-kazin. PTTAH-KAZIN.] 
 
 Eth'nan. (1 Ch. 4.7). 
 
 Eth'ni. (1 Ch. 6.41). 
 
 Eubu'lus. A Christian disciple at Rome 
 who joined Paul in saluting Timothy (2 Tim. 
 4.21). 
 
 Euni'ce. The mother of Timothy (2 Tim. 1.5), 
 a Christian Jewess, married to a Greek (Acts 16.1). 
 
 Eunuch. The word is rendered both 
 " officer " and " chamberlain," though these 
 officers were not always eunuchs. Eunuchs 
 were employed by eastern kings to take charge 
 of the apartments of the princes, and also of 
 the secluded princesses (Esth. 2.3). In Persian 
 and African courts the principal offices are 
 held by eunuchs (Acts 8.27), who were also 
 guardians of the harems. In Matt. 19.12 our 
 Lord speaks of those who, for the sake of the 
 kingdom of heaven, deny themselves marriage. 
 
 Eup'dias (R.V. correctly Euo'dia). She was 
 a Christian woman of Philippi, at variance with 
 Syntyche (Phil. 4.2). 
 
 Euphrates. This is the largest, longest, 
 and most important river of Western Asia. 
 It has two sources in the mountains of Armenia, 
 the north branch, the Frat being the true 
 Euphrates. This branch is itself 400 miles 
 long, while the Murad Chai, the south branch, 
 flows for 270 miles before it joins the Frat 
 at Kebban-Maden. The united stream flows 
 through the Taurus and Anti-Taurus, in a 
 south-east by south direction. Opposite 
 Seleucia the Euphrates approaches the Tigris, 
 and then flows through the flat plain of 
 Babylonia, spreading wide over the land, and 
 forming stagnant pools and lakes. After 
 running nearly parallel with the Tigris for a 
 considerable distance it finally joins that river 
 60 miles from the Persian Gulf, into which the 
 united stream discharges. From source to 
 mouth the Euphrates measures 1780 miles. 
 
 The Euphrates was one of the four rivers of 
 Eden (which see) (Gen. 2.14), and formed the 
 eastern limit of the land promised to Abraham's 
 seed (Gen. 15.18 ; Deut. 1.7, 11.24 ; Josh. 1.4). 
 The Reubenites held the country as far as the 
 Euphrates (1 Ch. 5.9) ; it was possessed also by 
 David (2 Sam. 8.3), in this instance being called 
 " the River," and by Solomon (1 K. 4.21 ; 2 Ch. 
 9.26). The dominion of Egypt was extended to 
 the Euphrates by Necho, the king of that country 
 (2 K. 23.29), but was wrested from him by 
 Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon (2 K. 24.7 ; 
 Jer. 46.2-10). The river was visited by 
 Jeremiah (Jer. 13.4-7). The last mention of it 
 in the Bible is in Revelation, where it is used 
 symbolically (9.14, 16.12). 
 
 Like most large rivers having its origin in 
 high lands, the Euphrates was subject to annual 
 risings when the snows melted. Of old time 
 the flood water was carefully utilised, 
 by irrigation, over a large tract of country. 
 It was navigable, and for ages, with the 
 help of the caravan routes, constituted a 
 highway of traffic between the Mediterranean 
 and the Persian Gulf. Boats made of wicker, 
 coated with pitch, and rafts were used for the 
 conveyance of goods. Besides Babylon there 
 were numerous populous towns on the 
 Euphrates ; the Chaldeans lived in the country 
 each side of its mouth. Owing to the rapid silting 
 up of the river, there is much marsh land along its 
 course, and especially at its mouth. It is said 
 that the ancient city of Eridu was originally 
 a seaport. 
 
 Euroc'lydon. A surge raised ly the east 
 wind: the name (according to A.V.) of the 
 tempestuous wind which descended from Crete 
 on the ship conveying Paul (Acts 27.14). The 
 R.V. has Euraquilo, a term which signifies the 
 direction " east by north." 
 
 Eu'tychus. A young man who was miracu- 
 lously restored to life by Paul (Acts 20.9, 10). 
 
 Evangelist. Preacher of good tidings : the 
 word occurs three times in the N.T. (1) It 
 
EVE] 
 
 158 
 
 [EXODUS, BOOK OF 
 
 stands third in the order of the gifts of Christ 
 to His Church ; apostles, prophets, evangelists, 
 pastors (shepherds), and teachers (Eph. 4.11): 
 the term is absent from the corresponding lists 
 in Rom. 12.6-8 ; 1 Cor. 12.28. (2) Timothy 
 is bidden by Paul to " do the work of an evan- 
 gelist " (2 Tim. 4.5). (3) Philip, one of the 
 seven (Acts 6.5), is called " the evangelist " 
 (Acts 21.8). The title seems to denote a 
 " missionary " function : the evangelist carried 
 tho " gospel " to places where it was still un- 
 known, and paved the way for more permanent 
 instruction and organisation. The application 
 of the term to the writers of the four Gospels is 
 much later. 
 
 Eve. Living : the name given by Adam 
 to the first woman (Gen. 3.20). Tempted 
 by the serpent, she ate of the forbidden 
 fruit, and gave it to Adam (Gen. 3). Eve 
 had three sons, Cain, Abel, and Seth. After 
 the birth of Seth her name drops out of the 
 Bible narrative, except by reference (2 Cor. 
 11.3 ; 1 Tim. 2.13). 
 
 Everlasting. [ETERNAL.] 
 
 E'vi. Desire', a prince of Midian, who was 
 slain in the plains of Moab, and whose lands 
 were given to Reuben (Num. 31.8 ; Josh. 13.21). 
 
 Evil-mer'odach. Son and successor of 
 Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon. He con- 
 tracted a friendship with Jehoiachin, king of 
 Judah, who was a prisoner, and placed him 
 over all the other captive kings at Babylon. 
 He reigned about two years, when he was 
 murdered by his brother-in-law, who seized the 
 crown (2 K. 25.27 ; Jer. 52.31). 
 
 Exchangers. The bankers of the time (Matt. 
 25.27 : R.V. bankers). [USURY, CHANGERS OF 
 MONEY.] 
 
 Exodus. The departure of the Israelites 
 from the Egyptian bondage. When Abraham 
 went down into Egypt, and afterwards at the 
 immigration of Jacob and his family, the country 
 was under the hated rule of the Hyksos, or 
 " shepherd kings," chiefs of an Arabian tribe 
 that had vanquished the native rulers, and 
 held the country for a little over five hundred 
 years. Hence the cordial reception at the 
 Pharaoh's court, first of Abraham, afterwards 
 of Jacob, and the assignment to the Israelites 
 of a separate district, shepherds being " an 
 abomination unto the Egyptians " (Gen. 46.34). 
 
 The " new king, which knew not Joseph " 
 (Ex. 1.8), was one of the dynasty which succeeded 
 the expulsion of these " shepherd kings," and the 
 Pharaoh of the great oppression is shown by 
 concurrent evidences to have been Rameses n., 
 tho ruins of whose " treasure cities " (Ex. 1.11) 
 remain to this day, bearing the recorded boast 
 that they were built entirely by the labours of 
 an alien people. The bricks, both with and 
 without straw, still further illustrate the history 
 of the period. According to Professor Sayce, 
 " The Amu, the representatives of the Semitic 
 race generally, are depicted as brick-makers, 
 and literally hewers of wood and drawers of 
 water." 
 
 The Exodus, in all probability, took place 
 in the reign of Meneptah, son and successor 
 of Rameses, who, in fact, explicitly mentions 
 Israel. The interpretation* of the inscription 
 is, " The Israelites are ruined ; their crops are 
 destroyed." 
 
 The immediate cause of the Exodus was the 
 oppressive slavery to which the Israelites were 
 subjected by Rameses and Meneptah. The 
 descendants of Jacob had multiplied so greatly 
 (Ex. 1.7) that they overspread the country and 
 aroused the fears of these Pharaohs. To check 
 their increase they were first subjected to cruel 
 bondage (Ex. 1.8-14). Then the Hebrew 
 midwives were commanded to kill all the male 
 children, but, under the fear of God, they evaded 
 the order (Ex. 1.15-21). Lastly, all the male 
 children were ordered to be drowned (Ex. 1.22). 
 Because of these and other acts of oppression, 
 God raised up Moses as a deliverer, and obtained 
 the release of His chosen people, and their 
 final establishment in the Land of Promise. 
 
 After the settlement of Israel in Canaan, 
 the relations of Israel and Egypt appear to 
 have been amicable for some generations, a 
 state of general friendliness, which lasted to the 
 time of Solomon, who made a commercial treaty 
 with that country and married an Egyptian 
 princess (1 K. 3.1, 10.28, 29). [EGYPT, MOSES, 
 JOSHUA, PHARAOH, PLAGUES, WANDERINGS.] 
 
 Exodus, Book of. The critical questions 
 associated with this book are considered under 
 PENTATEUCH (which see). The purpose which 
 we may reverently assume to have underlain the 
 events recorded in the book may be stated as 
 follows : By the call of Abraham, and the 
 covenant of circumcision, the people from whom 
 the promised Saviour was to come, and who 
 were to be for many ages the depositary of Divine 
 revelation, had been in some measure dis- 
 tinguished from the rest of the world. But, 
 whilst they remained mixed with other nations 
 who had degenerated into idolatry, they were 
 in danger of losing the true religion. God 
 therefore now proceeds to separate them entirely 
 from all other people. To this end, He allows 
 them to be subjected to cruel servitude and 
 oppression, consequent upon the altered policy 
 of the Egyptians changing their home of 
 plenty into a house of bondage, and causing them 
 to desire deliverance (chap. 1). He prepares 
 for them a deliverer, Moses, who undertakes 
 the mission, not by choice and self-will, but in 
 obedience to an immediate call from Jehovah, 
 who revealed Himself by His covenant name 
 (2-4). He shows forth His glory in Israel, 
 by releasing them from their bondage ; and on 
 Pharaoh, by punishing his opposition to Him- 
 self and His people (6-15). Then taking the 
 Israelites under His special guidance and dis- 
 cipline, He manifests Himself to them with that 
 material splendour which was most suited to 
 their low spiritual state ; and, amidst thunder, 
 lightning, and earthquake, promulgates His law, 
 renews ITLs promises, and solemnly avouches 
 thorn to be His people ; while they avouch 
 
EXORCIST] 
 
 159 
 
 [EZEKIEL, BOOK OF 
 
 Him to be their God (16-20). And, as their 
 Divine King, He further develops the regula- 
 tions of His government and the manner of 
 His worship, appoints His ministers, and directs 
 the construction of His dwelling-place among 
 them (21-40). In the moral laws, God shows 
 that His claims are not affected by man's 
 fall ; and convinces the sinner of his guilt and 
 misery, and consequent need of a Saviour ; 
 whilst He supplies His redeemed people with a 
 rule of life, showing them the path in which they 
 must walk on their way to heaven. The cere- 
 monial institutions were expressive of great 
 truths and principles, presented in a simple and 
 palpable form, adapted to the comparative 
 childhood of the Church ; and they were, at 
 the same time, types and figures of Christian 
 blessings. In particular, the Passover was an 
 impressive emblem of the sacrifice of Christ, 
 "the Lamb of God, who taketh away the sin 
 of the world." [LAW OF MOSES.] 
 
 Exorcist. Lit. one who adjures, i.e. who 
 invokes some more powerful name for the 
 expulsion of demons (see Acts 19.13, the only 
 occurrence of the word in Scripture). The 
 profession is bound up with belief in demoniacal 
 possession, and was common among the Jews 
 (Matt. 12.27 ; Mk. 9.38). 
 
 Our Lord cast out demons by His own 
 authority, and gave His disciples power to cast 
 them out in His name (Matt. 10.1 ; Lk. 10.17 ; 
 cf. Acts 16.18). [DEMOXIAC.] 
 
 EzT>ai. The father of Naarai, one of David's 
 "mighty men" (1 Ch. 11.37, but the text 
 is doubtful. In 2 Sam. 23.35 " Paarai the 
 Arbite " appears). 
 
 Ez'bon. 1. Son of Gad (Gen. 46.16). In 
 Num. 20.16 the name is given as Ozni. 2. 
 Grandson of Benjamin (1 Ch. 7.7). 
 
 Ezekias. (Matt. 1.9 : R.V. Hezekiali). 
 
 Ezekiel. God strengthens : one of the four 
 greater prophets, and a priest of the Jews 
 (Ezek. 1.3). He was the son of a priest named 
 Buzi, and was carried into captivity with 
 Jehoiachin, king of Judah, and was placed with 
 many others of his countrymen upon the river 
 Chebar in Mesopotamia, where he received the 
 Divine revelations contained in his book. He 
 began to prophesy about the fifth year of his 
 captivity, and continued for twenty-two years, 
 boldly censuring the idolatry and wickedness 
 of his countrymen. It was this fearlessness 
 and vehemence of condemnation that cost him 
 his life. His memory was greatly revered not 
 only by the Jews but also by the Medes and the 
 Persians. He was a contemporary of Jeremiah, 
 and the two prophets had a certain amount of 
 epistolary intercourse. 
 
 His writings show remarkable vigour, and 
 he was evidently well fitted to oppose " the 
 people of stubborn front and hard heart " 
 to whom he was sent. His characteristic, 
 however, was the subordination of his whole 
 life to his work. He ever thinks and feels as 
 the prophet a great contrast to Jeremiah. 
 That he was, nevertheless, a man of strong 
 
 feeling is clear from the brief record he has given 
 of his wife's death (Ezek. 24.15-18). The central 
 point of Ezekiel's predictions is the destruction 
 of Jerusalem. After this event, his chief care 
 was to console the exiled Jews by promises of 
 future deliverance and restoration to their 
 own land. He was put to death by a leader 
 among his fellow-exiles. In the Middle Ages, 
 a building near Bagdad was shown as his tomb. 
 
 Ezekiel, Book of. It is universally agreed 
 that this book is from the pen of the great 
 prophet whose name it bears. Its date appears 
 from the fact that he began prophesying in 
 the fifth year after the captivity of Jehoiachin 
 (1.2), that is, in Zedekiah's reign (592 B.C.), and 
 continued till at least the twenty-seventh 
 year (29.17). The year of his first prophesying 
 was also the thirtieth from the commencement 
 of the reign of Nabopolassar and from the era 
 of Josiah's reform. His influence with the 
 people is obvious, from the numerous visits 
 paid to him by the elders, who came to inquire 
 what message God had sent through him 
 (8.1, 14.1, 20.1, etc.). 
 
 The book may be divided into nine sections, 
 which are for the most part chronologically 
 arranged as follows : 
 
 I. Ezekiel's call to the prophetic office (1-3.14), 
 in the fifth year of Jehoiachin's captivity, 
 594 B.C. 
 
 II. Symbolic representations and predictions 
 of the approaching destruction of Jerusalem, 
 and the sufferings of the people ; with a promise 
 of the preservation of a remnant (3.15-7) ; 
 delivered hi the year of the prophet's call. 
 
 III. Visions presented to the prophet a 
 year and two months later than the former, 
 exhibiting the Temple polluted by Egyptian, 
 Phoenician, and Assyrian idolatries, and the 
 consequent judgments on the inhabitants of 
 Jerusalem and on the priests ; a few faithful being 
 marked for exemption ; closing with promises 
 of better times and a purer worship (8-11). 
 
 IV. A series of reproofs and warnings directed 
 against the prevalent sins and errors of the 
 people, calls to repentance, and renewed threaten- 
 ings of punishment, which is shown to be the 
 consequence of their own acts, and not only 
 of the sins of their fathers (12-19). 
 
 V. Another series of warnings, delivered 
 about a year later, announcing the coming 
 judgments to be yet nearer ; accompanied 
 with promises of future mercy (20-23). 
 
 VI. Predictions, uttered two years and fiv 
 months later, in the ninth year of Jehoiachin'a 
 captivity, announcing to the exiles the begin- 
 ning of the siege of Jerusalem on the very day 
 of the prophecy (cf. 2 K. 25.1), and assuring 
 them of its complete overthrow (24). 
 
 VII. Predictions of approaching Divine 
 judgments on surrounding heathen nations 
 (25-32) ; including the seven which had shown 
 especial hostility to Judaea : Ammon, Moab, 
 Edom, Philistia, Tyre, Sidon, and Egypt. 
 Delivered at intervals from the eleventh to the 
 twenty -seventh year of Jehoiachin's captivity. 
 
EZEL] 
 
 160 
 
 [EZRA, BOOK OF 
 
 VIII. Exhortations to the Jews to repent 
 and reform, delivered after the destruction 
 of Jerusalem ; prophecies of the future restora- 
 tion of Israel, as a flock under " David " their 
 Shepherd, the overthrow of their enemies, 
 first of Edom, and afterwards of " Gog, 
 from the land of Magog," followed by the 
 triumphs of the kingdom of God upon earth 
 (33-39). 
 
 IX. Representations of the establishment 
 and prosperity of the kingdom of Christ, under 
 the symbols of a new partition of the land 
 of Canaan, the rebuilding of the Temple, and 
 the reorganisation of its services (40-48). 
 
 The book is largely written in poetical 
 prose, although many passages of pure poetry 
 are introduced. 
 
 E'zel. Departure: the stone near Saul's 
 residence where David parted from Jonathan 
 as he fled from the court of the king (1 Sam. 
 20.19). This stone or "heap of stones" 
 was between Rama and Nob. 
 
 E'zem. Strength: a town of Simeon (Josh. 
 15.29, 19.3 ; 1 Ch. 4.29 : A.V. Azem). It was 
 near the Edomite border, but the site has not 
 been identified. Perhaps identical with Azmon. 
 
 E'zer. Help, union : there are six persons 
 mentioned bearing this name. One who was 
 slain by the inhabitants of Gath (1 Ch. 7.21). 
 A priest (Neh. 12.42). A Judahite (1 Ch. 4.4). 
 A Gadite (1 Ch. 12.9). A son of Jeshua 
 (Neh. 3.19). A Horite (Gen. 36.21). 
 
 E'zion-ga'ber, Ezion-geber. <?) Giants lack- 
 bone: the site of an Israelite encampment. 
 An Arabian city at the head of the Elanitic 
 Gulf, adjoining Elath (which see). It was here 
 that Solomon equipped his navy for trade 
 with Ophir : here also Jehoshaphat engaged in 
 a similar enterprise, but failed (Num. 33.35 ; 
 Deut. 2.8 ; 1 K. 9.26, 22.48 ; 2 Ch. 8.17, 20.36). 
 
 Eznite. A title given to ADINO (2 Sam. 23.8), 
 but the Hebrew text seems to be corrupt 
 (cf. 1 Ch. 11.11). 
 
 Ezra. Help : 1. Ezra, the son (or grandson) 
 of Seraiah (2 K. 25.18-21 ; Ezra 7.1), and 
 descendant of Aaron, was born at Babylon in 
 the fifth century B.C. He was " a priest and 
 ready scribe in the Law of Moses " (Ezra 7.6). 
 Although born in the land of captivity, yet by 
 the study of the law, and inquiry among his 
 countrymen, he had obtained some adequate 
 conception of the land and temple of his fathers, 
 and the result of this knowledge was a strong 
 desire for a moral and religious revival among 
 the Jews of Palestine. 
 
 In the seventh year of Artaxerxes Longimanus 
 (458 B.C.), Ezra received permission to return 
 to his own land with any of his people who 
 wished to accompany him, and with material 
 and money for the Temple and its services. 
 The king's decree is given in full in Ezra 7. 
 
 Then follows Ezra's own account of the 
 company who went with him (some 1800), 
 of the halt and fast at the river Ahava, with 
 prayer for Divine protection on the way, of 
 the arrival after four months at Jerusalem, 
 
 and of the steps taken in furtherance of the 
 king's decree (Erza 8). 
 
 But now Ezra's plans for religious revival 
 met with a check. The princes of the people 
 bring him tidings that there had been whole- 
 sale intermarrying with heathen women. Ezra 
 tells how when he heard it he rent his garment, 
 plucked out his hair and beard (signs of intense 
 grief), and sat down stunned. After a day of 
 humiliation he " prayed and made confession, 
 weeping and casting himself down before the 
 house of God." The effect was a voluntary 
 covenant entered into by all the people to put 
 away their foreign wives (Ezra 9-11). 
 
 We hear nothing more of Ezra, until thirteen 
 years later we find him again at Jerusalem 
 with Nehemiah at the great scene of the read- 
 ing of the Law to the assembled multitude, 
 repeated daily during the Feast of Tabernacles 
 (Nek. 8). 
 
 This is the last recorded act of Ezra. Jewish 
 tradition ascribes to him the completion of the 
 O.T. Canon and the authorship of several of 
 its books, as well as the institution of the 
 Synagogue. 
 
 2. A priest who returned from exile with 
 Zerubbabel and Joshua (Neh. 12.1). 3. (1 Ch. 
 4.17 : R.V. Ezrah). 
 
 Ezra, Book of. Portions of this book 
 (4.8-6.18, 7.12-26) are written in Aramaic, and 
 show incorporated material, consisting chiefly 
 of conversations or decrees in that tongue. 
 Ezra appears in the first person as the author of 
 7.27, 8.34, 9 : other narrative portions of the 
 book speak of him in the third person. The 
 whole period comprehended in the book, which 
 is evidently a continuation of Chronicles (2 Ch. 
 36.22,23 and EzeJc. 1.1-3), extends from 536 
 to 457 B.C., or about seventy-nine years. The 
 Book of Nehemiah, part of Ezra in the Hebrew 
 canon, narrates the joint activity of Ezra and 
 Nehemiah from 445-432. 
 
 The history in this book consists of two 
 portions, separated from each other by fifty- 
 eight years, including the whole reign of Xerxes. 
 The former part, ending 6.22, contains the 
 history of the returning exiles, and of the 
 rebuilding of the Temple, which had been 
 decreed by Cyrus, in the year 536 B.C., and was 
 completed in the reign of Darius the son of 
 Hystaspes (generally distinguished by historians 
 as Darius Hystaspis) in the year 515 B.C. 
 The latter portion, from 7.1, contains the 
 personal history of Ezra's journey to Jerusalem, 
 with commission from Artaxerxes Longimanus, 
 in the year 457 B.C. ; and his exertions for the 
 reformation of the people. 
 
 The contents may be summarised as follows : 
 
 I. The return of the first company of Jews 
 from Babylon, and the rebuilding of the Temple : 
 comprising the proclamation of Cyrus (1 ) : 
 a list of those who returned with Zerubbabel ; 
 with their offerings for the Temple (2) : the 
 setting up of the altar, and the commencement 
 of the Temple (3) : the opposition of the 
 Samaritans, and suspension of the building 
 
EZRAHITE] 
 
 161 
 
 [FAITH 
 
 (4) : the prophesying of Haggai and Zechariah ; 
 recommencement of the building ; visit of the 
 governors, and their letter to Darius ; the 
 king's favourable decree ; completion and 
 dedication of the Temple (5, 6). 
 
 II. Ezra's journey to Jerusalem with a 
 large company, and the reformations which 
 he effected : including Ezra's commission from 
 Artaxerxes, and his journey to Jerusalem with 
 his companions (7, 8) : intermarriages of 
 the Jews with their heathen neighbours ; 
 Ezra's distress, and prayer ; the repentance 
 and reformation of the people (9, 10). 
 
 Part I. should be read in connexion with the 
 contemporaneous prophecies of Haggai and 
 Zechariah. The coincidences with the former 
 have been thought to show that Haggai was 
 the annalist before Ezra's day. Cf. Ezra 
 
 5.1, 2 with Hag. 1 ; Ezra 3.6, 10-12 with Hag. 
 2.18 ; as well as the repeated references in 
 both books to the Law of Moses. 
 
 In the return of the Jews from Babylon we 
 see the fulfilment of prophecy (/sat. 44.28 ; 
 Jer. 25.12, 29.10). This restoration of the 
 Jewish Church, Temple, and worship was an 
 event of the highest consequence, as tending 
 to preserve true religion in the world, and pre- 
 paring the way of our Lord. 
 
 Ez'rahite. The family name of Ethan and 
 Heman (1 K. 4.31 ; Ps. 88 and 89, titles). It 
 probably is the same as Zerathite, Zerah, of the 
 tribe of Judah, being their father (1 Ch. 2.6). 
 Another Ethan and Heman are found in 1 Ch. 
 15.17 and elsewhere. 
 
 Ezri. One of David's overseers (1 Ch. 
 27.26). 
 
 Fable. There are only two fables, in the 
 ordinary acceptation of that term, in the 
 Bible that of the trees choosing their king 
 (Judg. 9.8-15) and that of the cedar of Lebanon 
 and the thistle (2 K. 14.9). The "fables" of 
 
 1 Tim. 1.4, 4.7; 2 Tim. 4.4; Tit. 1.14 refer to 
 Jewish legends and allegories, of which the 
 many tales in the Talmud are examples. In 
 
 2 Pet. 1.16 things which are false and unreal 
 are intended. [ALLEGORY, PARABLE.] 
 
 Fair Havens. Roadstead on south coast of 
 Crete, near Lasea, where the ship conveying 
 Paul to Rome Avas brought to anchor ( Acts 27.8). 
 It is still known by its old Greek name of Kaloi 
 Limenes. A little to the west of Fair Havens 
 the coast trends suddenly to the north. The 
 ship remained at Fair Havens because she was 
 not able to cope with the violent north-west 
 winds, in the teeth of which she would have 
 to run on continuing the voyage. 
 
 Fairs. Should be translated " wares " 
 throughout Ezek. 27. 
 
 Faith. 1. The Word Defined. Faith quite 
 simply implies the frame of mind which relies 
 on another. It differs from credulity because 
 that on which faith relies is true in fact, and, 
 although often transcending reason, is not 
 contradicted by it. Credulity feeds on the 
 imaginary, is cultivated by mere imagination. 
 Faith differs from belief because it is heart- 
 reliance, not solely intellectual acquiescence. 
 Religious faith is such trust in some person 
 or position as influences men's mental and 
 spiritual processes, and should normally in- 
 fluence their life. Faith is an attitude, and 
 should be an impulse. Christian faith is 
 reliance on Christ, so full and complete that it 
 involves union with Him and the living of the 
 life of which He would approve. It is not 
 blind, unreasoning acceptance ; it is based on 
 the facts of His life, His work, His power, His 
 Word. Revelation is a pre-requisite to faith. 
 
 II 
 
 Faith is described as " a simple but profound 
 reliance upon Him who has so shown His face 
 in the light that it becomes the instinct of His 
 true worshippers to trust His will in the dark." 
 And further, " The secret of a beautiful character 
 lies in the formative power of a perpetual 
 contact with a trusted Christ" (Bishop Moule). 
 Faith's simplest definition then is heart-reliance. 
 
 2. Faitft in the O.T. The attitude towards 
 God which faith denotes in the N.T. 
 is largely denoted in the O.T. by the word 
 " fear." Fear rather than faith : reverence 
 rather than trust. But it is quite clear that 
 confidence in God is an essential of O.T. re- 
 ligion, particularly clear in those parts of the 
 O.T. which deal with the underlying principles 
 of things, the Psalmists and the Prophets. We 
 do not go far wrong when we suggest that 
 " the fear of the Lord " contains at least the 
 germ of N.T. faith in its phrasing. The word 
 " trust " (noun and verb, the noun once, the verb 
 many times) occurs not infrequently, and the 
 most famous instance is of course in connexion 
 with Abraham, in Gen. 15. 6, which in both Jewish 
 and Christian writings came to be looked upon 
 as a typical example of faith in active exercise. 
 
 3. Faith in the Gospels. Faith is one of the 
 commonest and most distinctive words in the 
 N.T. Its meaning varies somewhat, but all 
 the variations lie very close together. It is 
 most simply used to denote the confidence of 
 some one, directly or otherwise, brought into 
 contact with Jesus, in relation to some word or 
 promise to which He has given utterance. 
 These utterances are always, or almost always, 
 definitely connected with the work and word 
 of God. So faith in this sense is confidence 
 in the work or word of God or Christ. This 
 use is the common use of the first three gospels 
 (Matt 9.29, 13.58, 15.28 ; Mk. 5.34-36, 9.23 ; 
 Lk. 17.5, 6). This faith at least once implies 
 the confidence of the disciples to do the work 
 
FAITH] 
 
 162 
 
 [FALL, THE 
 
 which Christ empowered them to do (Mk. \ 
 11.22-24 it is significant to notice that it is 
 called faith in God), the faith to work wonders. 
 But faith has a far wider and more important 
 N.T. signification, a signification not indeed 
 absent from the first tliree gospels (Matt. 
 9.2 ; Lk. 7.50), viz. saving faith in Christ, the 
 reliance that means salvation. This is the 
 general use of the fourth gospel, though very 
 curiously the noun faith nowhere occurs in that 
 gospel, the verb " believe " being, however, 
 most common. In that gospel faith is 
 depicted as springing from God's work for us 
 (John 6.44), as being definite reliance upon and 
 appropriation of the work and power of Christ, 
 and as being the instrument, thus exerted, 
 of bringing us into life and light (John 3.15-18, 
 4.41-53, 19.35, 20.31, etc.). Our Lord in each of 
 the gospels proclaims Himself as Saviour, and 
 demands faith as the attitude of mind which we 
 must acquire, the instrument which we must 
 use whereby we may appropriate the salvation 
 He offers. The position is clearer in St. John 
 than in the Synoptists, but it is sufficiently 
 clear in the latter (Matt. 18.6; Lk. 8.12, 
 22.32). 
 
 4. Faith in St. Paul's Epistles. Si. Paul's 
 life was concerned with two great controversies, 
 akin to each other, and each closely connected 
 with a true view of the place of faith in religion. 
 Both controversies were waged with Jewish 
 opponents, the first with the exclusiveness of 
 Judaism, which ended in the admission of the 
 Gentiles to the Church of Christ on equal terms 
 with the Jews ; the second with the ritualism 
 of Judaism, which ended in a clear setting forth 
 of the two the only two pre-requisites to 
 salvation, repentance and faith. The contro- 
 versies involved a careful consideration of the 
 respective places of faith and works in the 
 Christian life : and no simpler or more definite 
 issue could have been arrived at. We are justi- 
 fied, accounted righteous, simply for the merits 
 of Jesus Christ. Works have no value, they 
 are the works of rebels. Faith is not the cause 
 of our justification, but faith is the instrument, 
 the stretched -out hand, by which we appropriate 
 the gift of justification which Christ by His 
 all-atoning merits is enabled to offer. This 
 is the teaching of the Epistle to the Romans 
 (3-8) and of the Epistle to the Galatians. 
 We are being made actually righteous, we are 
 being sanctified by the ever-present work and 
 influence of God the Holy Spirit, the great gift of 
 God through Christ to the Church and to us. And 
 here, too, faith has a part to play, the same 
 part, viz. that of the instrument by which we 
 yield ourselves to the Spirit's working (Eph. 
 3.16-19, etc.). 
 
 5. Faith and Works. A contradiction has 
 been alleged between St. Paul and St. James 
 as to the place of faith and works generally, 
 and specially in relation to Abraham (Rom. 
 4.2 ; Jas. 2.21). As a careful comparison will 
 speedily reveal, St. James means by faith a 
 speculative and barren belief, mere orthodoxv. 
 
 without any germinant life springing from it. 
 By works he means the works of faith. We 
 have already seen what St. Paul means by faith. 
 It is the work and gift of God in its origin 
 (cf. Matt. 16.17) ; it is seated in the heart, 
 not merely in the head ; it is full conviction of 
 the truth of God's promises in Christ and re- 
 liance on Him ; it naturally and inevitably 
 produces works, for it is a living faith, a faith 
 that worketh by love (Gal. 5.6). Paul condemns 
 the works which ignore faith and claim merit 
 for themselves ; James commends the works 
 which follow faith and justification, which 
 indeed prove the latter. James condemns a 
 dead faith ; Paul praises a living faith. There 
 is no contradiction. Living faith, the faith 
 that justifies good works, works which please 
 God can be combined in the phrase already 
 quoted, " faith that worketh by love." 
 
 6. Faith in the Epistle to the Hebrews. The 
 teaching of this Epistle on the subject of faith 
 is in general agreement with that of St. Paul. 
 The writer, however, adds and illustrates a 
 description of faith in action (chap. 11). He 
 tells us that faith is the assurance of things 
 hoped for, the proving of things not seen. 
 This description is intended to tell us what 
 faith means to our state of mind, and the 
 verses that follow illustrate the effect of that 
 state of mind on conduct. " Assurance " in 
 this connexion means " that which gives 
 reality to." " The proving of things not seen " 
 implies not only the testing of things which 
 we cannot see, but a definite conviction about 
 them as the result of our testing. The whole 
 verse is not really a definition but a descrip- 
 tion. It tells us that faith gives reality to 
 the things for which we hope, and proves to 
 us the existence of things which we do not 
 see. Then the writer goes on to show by 
 many an illustration from the O.T. that 
 faith really does all this. For instance, Moses 
 endured, as seeing Him who is invisible. It 
 was by faith, for faith made the object and 
 hope of Moses' quest a reality to him, and 
 made the Invisible God a fact in his life. Just 
 as St. Paul in 1 Cor. 13 fails to define love, 
 and only describes what it does, so here the 
 writer does not try to define faith he explains 
 and illustrates its method of action. 
 
 Falcon. [KITE, VULTURE.] 
 
 Fall, The. The word, though not so used in 
 Scripture, commonly denotes the departure of 
 man from the state of primeval innocence to 
 the state of sinfulness which pervades humanity. 
 The story of that departure is told in Gen. 3. 
 That chapter has been interpreted both literally 
 and figuratively. Much in the story suggests 
 that which is figurative and metaphorical, 
 e.g. the two trees are decidedly not ordinary 
 trees, and the serpent is something more than 
 a mere reptile. But " whatever opinion may be 
 held as to the literary materials and composition 
 of the narrative, it commends itself as in all 
 essential features a unique and authoritative 
 record of great fundamental facts of human 
 
FALL, THE] 
 
 163 
 
 [FASTING AND FASTS 
 
 life and history ; and its Divine inspiration is 
 sufficiently attested by the profound truthfulness 
 and significance of its moral and religious 
 teaching " (Hastings, Dictionary of Christ and 
 the Gospels), It is no place here to enter into 
 the critical question. But however the narrative 
 is explained, the facts behind the narrative stand. 
 It is with these facts we have to deal. Man 
 is created, not perfect, not in his highest stage 
 of development, but sinless, innocent. He is 
 bound to God by certain simple laws of obedience ; 
 he violates those laws ; the first act of violation 
 constitutes the fall ; he is conscious of that 
 fall ; and in his first consciousness of sin there 
 comes an inkling of the^ Divine purpose of 
 redemption. Moreover, he is taught that in 
 some mysterious way the first sin is not merely 
 the sin of an individual, but it touches and 
 contaminates the race. Adam is representative ; 
 he is the first head of the human race ; in him 
 all have sinned, all die ; exactly how and why, 
 the human mind has never been able to decide. 
 Scripture reveals it, and human experience 
 testifies to the actuality of it. The age-long 
 struggle with sin, and the assurance that ulti- 
 mately good will emerge victorious, revealed 
 in the Protevangel of Gen. 3.15, concern not 
 Adam alone, but the whole race. Human life 
 has to face the one and live in the hope of the 
 other, or life would be inexplicable. 
 
 One or two points call for special notice. 
 
 1. The Origin of Evil Ultimately the problem 
 id insoluble ; but enough is clear to satisfy our 
 reasonable inquiries. This life is a life of pro- 
 bation. We are prepared, trained, educated 
 for a better world beyond. Probation and 
 training imply defect. And so St. Augustine 
 has taught us that evil has no origin ; it is 
 the negation of good : it is flaw, defect, failure. 
 All this is true, and it is difficult to see how the 
 character of man could be trained without the 
 possibilty of the choice of evil. But it does 
 not wholly answer the question. God, the 
 self-existent One, wholly good, could have made 
 us wholly good. The capacity to sin might 
 have been denied to us by an unswerving 
 rectitude of heart and conscience. God did 
 not will it so ; He willed our being made 
 perfect through the suffering of temptation, a 
 suffering which Christ Himself endured, and we 
 must be content to fight the battle out to its 
 glorious victory through Him. 
 
 2. The Fall and Christ. The N.T. accepts 
 and illustrates the dual doctrines of siu as 
 absolute evil, and of men as universally sinful, 
 and in himself utterly helpess ; but refers little, 
 u at all, to the fall itself. Our Lord never refers 
 to the story of the fall, but takes the fall itself 
 for granted in all His teaching. All have 
 sinned ; sin is a deep-rooted evil of the inner 
 life ; man cannot save himself ; yet man is of 
 superior worth and dignity. All this Christ 
 teaches, and in the parables of Lk. 15, as 
 elsewhere, He couples man's sinfulness, man's 
 fall, with Ilis own redemption and re-creative 
 work. St. Paul, as has been already noted, 
 
 bases his doctrine of sin and the Atonement 
 on the fact of the fall. With him the doctrine 
 of original sin as a result of the fall, implied 
 elsewhere, is explicitly taught (Rom. 5.12-21 ; 
 
 1 Cor. 15.22, 44-47). 
 
 3. The Fall and the Incarnation. The 
 question has been sometimes asked, if man 
 had not sinned, would Christ have become 
 man ? The question is a fruitless one, and we 
 cannot answer it. Let it be remembered that 
 the Incarnation and the death of Christ go to 
 make up the Atonement. Revelation suggests 
 that Christ became incarnate for the purpose 
 of Redemption (Matt. 20.28; Lk. 19.10; 
 Gal. 4.4, sqq.). The fall, the Incarnation, 
 the Atonement, and the final restoration are 
 facts of human history, as they were also of 
 Divine foreknowledge. Before the fall com- 
 munion with God was perfect ; in the Kingdom 
 it will be perfect again ; whether, if man's 
 probation had been sinless, the Son of God 
 would have become man for a purpose of love, 
 is a metaphysical question, the solution of 
 which would carry no practical advantage. 
 [Snr.] 
 
 Fallow-deer. The word thus translated in 
 Deut. 14.5 and 1 K. 4.23 means the roebuck, 
 which is identical with the British species. It 
 has been wrongly supposed to include the " wild 
 ox " also, which see. 
 
 Familiar. 1. Friend (Ps. 41.9; Jer. 20.10). 
 2. [DIVINATION]. 
 
 Famine. The famines of Palestine mentioned 
 in Scripture were due to the failure of the heavy 
 rams of November and December. The famines 
 of Egypt were produced by a deficiency in the 
 rise of the Nile. The most famous famine was 
 that which lasted for seven years in Egypt, 
 when Joseph was in charge of Pharaoh's store- 
 houses (Gen. 41.53-56). For other famines see 
 Gen. 12.10 and 2 K. 6, sqq. The sufferings 
 of the people on these occasions were almost 
 beyond the power of imagination. 
 
 Fan. The fork used in winnowing (laai. 30. 
 24; Matt. 3.12). 
 
 Farthing. In Matt. 10.29 and Lk. 12.6 the 
 reference is to a Roman coin called the as, equal 
 to about a halfpenny of our money. The coin 
 signified in Malt. 5.26 and Mk. 12.42 b the 
 quadrant, only the fourth of an a*. 
 
 Fasting and Fasts. Only on one day in the 
 year did the Law require all the Israelites to 
 fast, viz. on the Day of Atonement (Lev. 16.29, 
 31). During the Exile four annual fast-days 
 were established for the fall of Jerusalem 
 (Jer. 52.6), for the destruction of the Temple 
 (2 K. 25.8,9; Jer. 52.12), for the murder of 
 Gedaliah (2 K. 25.25 ; Jer. 41.1, 2), and for 
 the beginning of the siege (2 K. 25.1 ; Jer. 52.4 ; 
 Zech. 8.19, 20). In the O.T. fasting is associated 
 with mourning for the dead (1 Sam. 31.13 ; 
 
 2 Sam. 1.12), with distress and sorrow (Judg. 
 20.26; 1 Sam. 1.7, 20.34; Neh. 1.4; Ps. 
 35.13, 109.24 ; Joel 1.14, 2.12, 15), and with 
 expressions of penitence (Deut. 9.18 ; 1 Sam. 
 7.6 ; 1 K. 21.27 ; Ezra 10.6 ; Neh. 9.1 ; Ps. 
 
FAT] 
 
 164 
 
 [FEVER 
 
 69.10; Jonah 3.5). The Pharisees fasted twice 
 in the week (Lk. 18.12), on Monday and 
 Thursday. Fasting and prayer were united 
 in the practice of Gentile believers (Acts 13.1-3, 
 14.23). St. Paul warns us against attaching 
 an independent value to fasting (Rom. 14.2, 16, 
 17,21; Col 2.16,21-23; 1 Tim. 4.3-5,8, 5.23). 
 In Matt. 17.21 ; Mk. 9.29 ; 1 Cor. 7.5 " fasting " 
 is omitted in the best manuscripts. 
 
 Fat. 1. Certain portions of the fat of 
 animals offered in sacrifice were forbidden to 
 be eaten (Lev. 3.3, 9, 17, 7.3, 23), on the ground 
 that the fat was the richest part of the animal 
 and belonged to Jehovah (Lev. 3.16). Other 
 parts of the fat of sacrifices and the fat of other 
 animals unless they had died of disease or 
 were torn by other animals might be eaten 
 (Lev. 7.24). The Hebrews fully appreciated 
 well-fatted meat (1 K. 4.23 ; Jer. 46.21 ; 
 Lk. 15.23). 2. Signifies " vat " in Joel 2.24, 3.13. 
 
 Father. This word, besides its common 
 acceptation, is used in Scripture for grand- 
 father, great-grandfather, or the founder of a 
 family, however remote. So the Jews in our 
 Saviour's tune called Abraham, Isaac, and 
 Jacob their fathers. Jesus Christ is called the 
 Son of David, though David was many genera- 
 tions distant from Him. By " father " is also 
 understood the institutor, teacher, or prime 
 examp!e of a certain profession. Jabal " was 
 father of such as dwell in tents, and such as have 
 cattle." Jubal " was father of all such as handle 
 the harp and pipe " (Gen. 4.20, 21,R.V.). It is also 
 used of spiritual relationship, whether good (as 
 with God) or evil (as with the devil). The latter 
 is also called the father of lies (John 8.44). 
 Abraham is the father of the faithful. He is 
 also called " the father of many nations," 
 because many people sprung from him. In the 
 patriarchal age the authority of the father over 
 his household was absolute, although he had not 
 the power of death over his child (Deut. 21.18-21). 
 
 Fathom. [MEASUBES. ] 
 
 Feasts. [FESTIV ALS. ] 
 
 Feet. [DUST, MOURNING*, SANDAL, WASHING.] 
 
 Felix. Antonius Felix was governor of 
 Judaea in the days of the apostles, from 52 to 
 58 A.D. He resided at Csesarea when Paul was 
 brought there for safety under an escort of 
 Roman soldiers (Acts 23.26,27, 24.1). The 
 apostle delivered a notable address before him 
 and his wife Drusilla. On account of his cruelty 
 and misgovernment Felix was recalled to Rome 
 58 A.D. (hardly as late as 60), and narrowly 
 escaped punishment at the hands of the em- 
 peror. It was in order to propitiate the Jews, 
 who, he knew, would accuse him before the 
 emperor, that Felix left St. Paul in bonds for 
 two years. 
 
 Feller. A cutter of wood (/sat. 14.8). 
 
 Felloes. The curved pieces forming the 
 circumference of a wheel (1 K. 7.33). 
 
 Fenced Cities. Cities where there were 
 permanent defences, consisting of walls crowned 
 with battlemented parapets and having towers 
 at regular intervals (2 Ch. 32.5 ; Jer. 31.38). 
 
 In later times engines of war were placed on the 
 walls, and a constant watch was kept in time of 
 war (Judg. 9.45 ; 2 K. 9.17 ; 2 Ch. 26.9, 15). 
 Jerusalem was surrounded with three walls, on 
 which it is said there were 90, 14, and 60 
 towers respectively. In many towns there 
 was a keep or citadel as a last resort for the 
 defenders, as at Shechem and Thebez (Judg. 
 8.17, 9.46, 51 ; 2 K. 9.17). 
 
 Ferret. One of the unclean, creeping things 
 forbidden as food in Lev, 11.30. It is not the 
 animal that we so name, which is not a native 
 of Palestine, but a lizard, perhaps the gecko 
 (R.V.), which is extremely common. 
 
 Festivals. Some of these were associated with 
 the periodic changes of the moon and with the 
 recurring seasons of the year ; for example, 
 tbe New Moon and Sabbaths and the three great 
 annual Pilgrimage- Feasts the Passover and 
 Feast of Unleavened Bread, the Feast of Pente- 
 cost, and the Feast of Tabernacles. The Passover 
 was on the fourteenth of the first month, the 
 Feast of Unleavened Bread followed immediately, 
 beginning on the fifteenth and lasting seven days. 
 Pentecost was the fiftieth day after the sixteenth 
 of the first month, and the Feast of Tabernacles, 
 lasting seven days, began on the fifteenth day of 
 the seventh month. The first month, known as 
 Abib, roughly corresponds with our April. The 
 Feast of Unleavened Bread marked the 
 beginning of the corn harvest, and the Feast of 
 Pentecost marked the end of it, while the 
 Feast of Tabernacles was essentially a vintage- 
 feast. For particulars as to these Feasts, see 
 the respective articles. Every male in the nation 
 was enjoined to attend the services of the 
 sanctuary on the occasion of these three great 
 Feasts (Ex. 23.14-17, 34.23; Deut. 16.16), 
 and it was expressly forbidden to come empty- 
 handed. Ps. 120-134 may be described as the 
 Pilgrims* Hymn- Book. The conflux of Jews 
 from all parts of the world to Jerusalem for the 
 celebration of the three great Feasts, especially 
 that of Pentecost (Acts 2.9), was enormous, 
 sometimes exceeding two millions. Among the 
 festivals instituted after the return from the 
 exile was the Feast of Purim (Esth. 9.21), in 
 memory of the deliverance of the nation from 
 the designs of Haman. 
 
 Festus, Porcius. Succeeded Felix as governor 
 of Judaea 58 A.D. Felix had left Paul in 
 prison at Caesarea (Acts 24.27), and when Festus 
 arrived he was entreated by the principal Jews 
 to condemn the apostle or send him up to 
 Jerusalem, they having conspired to assassinate 
 him on the way. Festus, however, answered 
 that it was not customary with the Romans to 
 condemn any man without hearing him, and 
 listened to his plea in the presence of Agrippa n. 
 and Bernice. When Paul appealed to C?esar 
 he was sent to him by Festus. Feskis died two 
 years later, 62 A.D. 
 
 Fetters. Generally made of brass, though 
 iron was sometimes employed for the purpose 
 (Ps. 105.18, 149.8). [CHAINS.] 
 
 Fever. Febrile diseases are very common 
 
FIELD] 
 
 165 
 
 [FIRST-BORN 
 
 in all Eastern countries. Medical men divided 
 fevers into " great " and " less," and Luke, as 
 a physician, is precise in stating that Peter's 
 wife's mother suffered from " a great fever " 
 (Lk. 4.38 ; contrast the parallel narratives of 
 M alt. 8.14 ; M k. 1.30). Others with fever were 
 the nobleman's son (John 4.52) and the father of 
 Publius (Acts 8.28). 
 
 Field. The word as now used by us involves 
 the idea of enclosure ; in the Bible this idea is 
 absent. It generally means merely cultivated 
 land whether of limited extent (Gen. 23.13, 17 ; 
 Isai. 5.8) or a man's whole inheritance (Lev. 
 27.16 ; Ruth 4.5 ; Jer. 32.9, 25). The absence 
 of fences rendered the fields liable to damage 
 from straying cattle (Ex. 22.5). The " fruitful 
 field" of Ezek. 17.5 means a field suited for 
 planting suckers, but often it is a translation of 
 the Hebrew word Carmel (which see), as in 
 Isai. 10.18. Unwalled villages and scattered 
 houses were ranked in the eyes of the Law as 
 fields (Lev. 25.31). 
 
 Field, The Fuller's. [FULLER.] 
 
 Field, The Potter's. [ACELDAMA, POTTEB'S 
 FIELD.] 
 
 Fig, Fig Tree. Very common in Palestine. 
 It divides into many branches, well-furnished 
 with leaves and affording the most complete 
 shade against the Eastern sun. We read of 
 every man under his fig tree (1 K. 4.25 ; Mic. 
 4.4 ; Zech. 3.10). Nathanael under his fig tree 
 was probably engaged in his devotions (John 
 1.49-51). The fruit, which is produced from 
 the trunk and large branches, always precedes 
 the leaves. The early figs ripen between May 
 and August, according to situation, and drop 
 as soon as they are ripe ; falling, as Nahum says 
 (Nah. 3.12), into the mouth of the eater upon 
 the tree being shaken. The later figs ripen in 
 September. Sometimes, if the winter is mild, 
 there is a third crop gathered in the following 
 spring. The fig tree of Mk. 11.13 was cursed by 
 our Lord for its pretentiousness ; for it must be 
 observed that in this tree the fruit comes first, 
 and not the leaves, and a tree with leaves, as this 
 one had, ought to have had fruit. If a fig tree 
 with leaves has no fruit at all, it will be barren 
 for the season. " It must be remembered," 
 says Canon Tristram, " that this miracle had a 
 typical design, to show how God would deal with 
 tlie Jews, who, professing like this precocious 
 fig tree ' to be first,' should be ' last ' in His 
 favour, seeing that no fruit was produced in 
 their lives, but only ' the rustling leaves of a 
 religious profession without the good fruit of 
 works.'" Fig-cakes were given in cases of 
 exhaustion (1 Sam. 30.12), and figs were applied 
 to boils (2 K. 20.7). 
 
 Fillet. A thread or band round the base 
 of the capitals of the pillars in the Temple 
 (Jer. 52.21); or in the Tabernacle and its 
 court (Ex. 27.10, 36.38). The verb means to 
 make such bands (Ex. 38.28). 
 
 Fir. A general expression including not 
 only the fir proper, but also the cypress and 
 the juniper. Used for buildings (1 K. 6.15), 
 
 for ships (Ezek. 27.5), and for musical instruments 
 (2 Sam. 6.5). " The choice fir trees of Lebanon " 
 (Isai. 37.24) are the Aleppo pine, a very hand- 
 some tree, not unlike the Scotch fir. [CEDAR.] 
 
 Fire. God revealed His presence by fire in 
 the burning bush (Ex. 3.2), and descended on 
 Mount Sinai in the midst of flames and light- 
 ning (Ex. 19.18). The fire which came down 
 from heaven first upon the altar in the Taber- 
 nacle, and afterwards descended anew upon the 
 altar in the Temple of Solomon, at its con- 
 secration, was there constantly fed and main- 
 tained by the priests day and night. Fire for 
 sacred purposes obtained elsewhere than from 
 the altar was called " strange fire," and on 
 account of their use of such Nadab and Abihu 
 were punished with death by fire from God (Lev. 
 10.1, 2 ; Num. 3.4, 26.61). The use of fire in 
 working metals was well known to the Hebrews 
 at the time of the Exodus (Ex. 32.24). On the 
 Sabbath no fire for any domestic purpose was 
 to be kindled (Ex. 35.3 ; Num. 15.32-36). The 
 worshippers of Moloch either burnt their children 
 in the fire or made them pass through the fire 
 (2 K. 16.3, 21.6 ; 2 Ch. 33.6). The Holy Ghost 
 is compared to fire (Matt. 3.11 ; Acts 2.3), His 
 work being to convert and purify the soul, and 
 inflame it with love to God and zeal for His 
 glory. The word of God is also compared to 
 fire (Jer. 23.29). Fire or flame is used to express 
 excited feeling and Divine inspiration, and also 
 to describe temporal calamities and future 
 punishments (Ps. 66.12 ; Jer. 20.9 ; Joel 2.30 ; 
 Mai. 3.2 ; Matt. 25.41 ; Mk. 9.43). 
 
 Firebrand. Denotes the burnt end of a stick 
 (Iai. 7.4 ; Amos 4.11 ; Zech. 3.2) ; a lamp or 
 torch (Judg. 15.4) ; burning darts or arrows 
 (Pro*. 26.18). 
 
 Firepan. Used in connexion with the altar 
 of burnt-offerings to carry live coals ; of bronze 
 (Ex. 27.3, 38.3) or of gold (2 K. 25.15 ; Jer. 
 52.19). The same Hebrew word is also rendered 
 " snuff-dish," for trimming the lamps (Ex. 25.38, 
 37.23; Num. 4.9), and censer, to hold incense 
 (Lev. 10.1, 16.12; Num. 16.6). An ancient 
 firepan found in Jerusalem was shown in the 
 Jewish Exhibition at Whitechapel, 1906. It 
 was of bronze, a foot long including the 
 handle, the shovel itself being about six inches 
 by four. 
 
 Firkin. [MEASURES.] 
 
 Firmament. The Hebrew word used in 
 Gen. 1.7 properly signifies expansion, or some- 
 thing expanded, like beaten-out metal (cf. 
 Job 37.18). The word "firmament" came 
 into our language from the Vulgate, the Latin 
 translation of the Bible, still used by the Roman 
 Church, and properly means something made 
 solid. 
 
 First-Born. Many privileges attached to the 
 first-born or eldest son. He was consecrated 
 to the Lord (Ex. 22.29), and under the Law was 
 in every case to be redeemed by an offering not 
 exceeding five shekels, within one mouth from 
 birth. He had a double portion of the inherit- 
 ance allotted to him (Deut. 21.17). The first- 
 
FIRST-BORN, DEATH OF THE] 166 
 
 [FLAX 
 
 born son of a king usually succeeded to the 
 throne (2 Ch. 21.3). The privileges attaching 
 to primogeniture might, however, be forfeited 
 by misconduct, as in the case of Esau (Gen. 
 27.37). The male first-born of animals was 
 also devoted to God (Ex. 13.2, 12, 13, 22.29, 
 34.19, 20). 
 
 First-Born, Death of the. [PLAGUES.] 
 
 First-Fruits. The Law enjoined that the 
 first-fruits of produce should be offered in God's 
 House at the three great annual feasts (Ex. 
 22.29, 23.19, 34.26). This was both an in- 
 dividual and a national obligation. In various 
 other ways the Jews were required to recognise 
 their indebtedness to God for the fruitfulness 
 of the earth (Ex. 34.22 ; Lev. 23.10, 20, 39 ; 
 Num. 15.19; Deut. 26.2-11). The minimum 
 quantity of the offering was fixed by custom 
 at one-sixtieth of the whole produce. 
 
 In " going up " to the Feasts, the practice, 
 according to later tradition, was for companies 
 of twenty-four persons to assemble in the 
 evening at a central station, and pass the night 
 in the open air. In the morning they were 
 summoned by the leader of the Feast with the 
 words, " Let us arise and go up to Mount Zion, 
 the House of the Lord our God." On the road 
 to Jerusalem they recited portions of Ps. 122 
 and 150. Each party was preceded by a piper, 
 and by a sacrificial bullock, having the tips of 
 his horns gilt, and crowned with olive. At 
 their approach to the city they were met by 
 priests appointed to inspect the offerings, and 
 were welcomed by companies of citizens propor- 
 tioned to the number of the pilgrims. On 
 ascending the Temple mount each person took 
 his basket, containing the first-fruits and an 
 offering of turtle-doves, on his shoulders, and 
 proceeded to the court of the Temple, where they 
 were met by Levites singing Ps. 30. The doves 
 were sacrificed as a burnt-offering, and the first- 
 fruits presented to the priests with the words 
 appointed in Deut. 26. The priests waved the 
 offerings at the south-west corner of the altar. 
 After passing the night at Jerusalem the pilgrims 
 returned on the following day to their homes 
 (Deut. 16.7). [See SACRIFICE.] The term " first- 
 fruits" is applied metaphorically in the N.T., 
 e.g. to Christ (1 Cor. 15.20-23), with reference 
 to the Resurrection, and to Jewish or other 
 believers (Rom. 11.16 ft, 16.5 ; 1 Cor. 16.15). 
 
 Fish, Fishing. The Bible divides fish into two 
 kinds, the clean and the unclean. The latter, 
 forbidden as food, were such as had no fins 
 or scales (Lev. 11.9-12), i.e. all aquatic reptiles. 
 Fish were abundant in the Nile, and one of the 
 staple commodities of food in Egypt. Hence 
 their destruction by the plague of blood was 
 a serious visitation (Ex. 7.21). The Sea of 
 Galilee is very fruitful in fish. " The density 
 of the shoals," says Canon Tristram, " can 
 scarcely be conceived by those who have not 
 witnessed them. They sometimes cover an 
 acre or more on the surface with one dense mass, 
 their dorsal fins standing out of the water. 
 Many are carried by the rapid stream of the 
 
 Jordan into the Dead Sea, where they are 
 stupefied and soon perish, and may be seen 
 floating dead on the surface." The Sea of 
 Galilee was fished principally by means of the 
 drag or draw net a large net, leaded and 
 buoyed, which is carried out by a boat, cast, 
 and then drawn in in a circle (Matt. 13.47-50). 
 There was also the casting net, referred to in 
 John 21.8, which is used by fishermen wading 
 out into the water. Another mode was by weirs 
 or st ike-nets, formed of a sort of cane wattle. 
 Hook and line were also employed in fishing 
 (Job 41.1) ; Isai. 19.8 ; Hob. 1.15), and also ths 
 fish-spear (Job 41.7). Fly-fishing was unknown. 
 The fisheries of the Mediterranean coasts 
 were almost entirely hi the hands of Phoenicians 
 from Tyre and Sidon. These people supplied 
 Jerusalem, and the trade must have been 
 considerable ; for one of the gates of the city 
 was called the fish gate (2 Ch. 33.14), in- 
 dicating that there was a market there. 
 
 The famous passage of Job, with regard to 
 leviathan (which see), " Canst thou put an hook 
 (a rope of rushes, R.V. marg.) into his nose ? 
 or bore his jaw through with a thorn ? " refers 
 to the Egyptian practice of keeping alive in 
 tanks fish not required for immediate use. A 
 hook was put through the gills, and this was 
 attached to a stake by a rope of rushes. 
 
 The Hebrews were forbidden to worship 
 fishes (Deut. 4.18), a form of idolatry which 
 was, and is, prevalent in the East. 
 
 The use of a fish in the catacombs of Rome 
 as a symbol of Christianity arose from the fact 
 that the initials of the Greek words for " Jesus 
 Christ, Son of God, Saviour " (ICHTHUS) form 
 the Greek word for fish. 
 
 Fish Gate. A gate in the north wall of Jeru- 
 salem (Neh. 3.3, 12.39 ; Zeph. 1.10). [Fisn.] 
 
 Fish-Pools. More correctly " pools," as in 
 R.V. (Cant. 7.4). [HESHBON.] 
 
 Fitches or Vetches. The reference in Isai. 
 28.25-27 is to the plant called gith, which is still 
 widely cultivated for its seeds, which are black, 
 and used both as condiment and medicine. The 
 seeds of gith are sprinkled on bread just as 
 caraway seeds are used by us. What is meant 
 in Ezek. 4.9 is " spelt." The same Hebrew 
 word is mistakenly translated " rie " hi 
 Ex. 9.32 and Isai. 28.25. 
 
 Flag. [BULRUSH.] 
 
 Flagon. So rightly in Isai. 22.24, as meaning 
 a large vessel, but elsewhere a cake of pressed 
 raisins (2 Sam. 6.19 ; 1 Ch. 16.3 ; Cant. 2.5 ; 
 Eos. 3.1). In the first two passages the words 
 " of wine " are interpolated, and in the last " of 
 wine " should be " of grapes." 
 
 Flax. In Josh. 2.6 the word stands for the 
 plant in its undressed state. The passage 
 contains a reference to the custom of drying 
 the flax-stalks by exposing them to the heat of 
 the sun upon the flat roofs of houses. Then 
 followed the peeling of the stalks and separation 
 of the fibres. Then came the hackling with 
 combs. Flax was anciently one of the most 
 important crops in Palestine (Hos. 2.5, 9). 
 
FLEA] 
 
 167 
 
 [FOOD 
 
 Flea. David compares himself to a flea 
 (1 Sam. 24.14, 26.20), meaning to suggest his 
 insignificance. Fleas are nowhere more abundant 
 than in the East. The villagers in the wattled 
 huts of Northern Syria are frequently driven 
 away by the swarms of fleas, and are compelled 
 to desert their homes for a year or two. 
 
 Flesh. In the O.T. the Hebrew word, lasar, 
 frequently has the literal sense of flesh, whether 
 of man or beast (Gen. 2.21, 9.4 ; Lev. 6.10 ; 
 Num. 11.13) ; of all living creatures (Gen. 
 6.13, 17), and specifically of mankind (Ps. 
 65.2), sometimes with the suggestion of man's 
 weakness in contrast to the power of God 
 (Ps. 78.39). In the N.T. the word sarx is 
 employed in the same way (Matt. 13.20, 
 26.41; Heb. 2.14; 1 Pet. 1.24; Rev. 17.16). 
 St. Paul habitually contrasts flesh and 
 spirit, and the life \vhich is no more than 
 service of the fleshly nature with the Spirit- 
 controlled life of the believer (Horn. 7.5, 25, 
 8.9; Gal. 5.17, etc.). The phrase "flesh and 
 blood" (Matt. 16.17 ; Gal. 1.16) implies man in 
 distinction from God. [FOOD.] 
 
 Flint. Used for any hard or intractable 
 rock. God brought water out of the " flinty 
 rock" (Deut. 8.15, 32.13; Ps. 114.8), which 
 was probably one of the granitic varieties so 
 common in the peninsula of Sinai. In Isai. 
 50.7 and Ezek. 3.9 it denotes firmness and 
 constancy. Zipporah used a flint-knife (Ex. 
 1.25), perhaps as being more sacred than a 
 knife of metal. 
 
 Float, Flote. I.e. raft (1 K. 5.9 ; 2 Ch. 2.16) 
 formed of the logs. 
 
 Flood. [NOAH.] 
 
 Floor. [THBESHINO-FLOOB.] 
 
 Flour. [BREAD.} 
 
 Flowers. They abound in Palestine, though 
 very few are mentioned in the Bible. Their 
 beauty is referred to in Cant. 2.12 ; Matt. 6.28 ; 
 as emblems of the transitoriness of human life 
 they are mentioned in Job 14.2 ; Ps. 103.15 ; 
 Isai. 28.1, 40.6 ; Jas. 1.10. 
 
 Flute. Musical instrument used both at 
 public and private festivals (1 K. 1.40 ; Isai. 
 5.12, 30.29 ; Dan. 3.5, 7, 10, 15). The minstrels 
 of Matt. 9.23 were players on the flute, who were 
 always hired as mourners. Popular custom did 
 not allow of fewer than two players on the flute 
 at the funeral of persons even of the lowest 
 station, as well as a professional woman hired to 
 lament. 
 
 Flux, Bloody. Acts 28.8, dysentery, a disorder 
 frequent in the East. 
 
 Fly, Flies. Flies abounded in Egypt and 
 Palestine ; and one species which is found by 
 modern travellers in the vicinity of the Nile, 
 and called the Abyssinian fly, is as large as a 
 bee, and is so terrible an annoyance to cattle 
 and other large animals as to oblige them to 
 forsake their pastures and ranges, and flee to 
 some place where they can roll themselves in the 
 mud or sand. Hence we may judge of the terrible 
 nature of the plague of flies (Ex. 8.24). In Isai. 
 7.18 the prophet says that the fly shall be 
 
 found in the very places to which the cattle 
 resort to rid themselves of their presence. Even 
 the ordinary Egyptian flies are very troublesome. 
 They like to fasten themselves on the corners of 
 the eye and on the edge of the eyelid. The 
 Egyptians worshipped several sorts of flies and 
 insects. Other nations had deities whose office 
 was to defend them against flies for example, 
 Baalzebub, the fly-god of Ekron, and Hercules, 
 " the expeller of flies." Jupiter also was supposed 
 to have the power of expelling flies, and especially 
 of keeping his temples free from them. 
 
 Foam. " As the foam upon the water " 
 (Eos. 10.7) should probably be rendered " as 
 a chip [of wood] on the face of the water," the 
 suggestion being utter helplessness. 
 
 Food. Vegetable food is much more common 
 among Orientals than animal. Instead of butter, 
 lard, and suet they use olive oil. A pottage of 
 beans and lentils, seasoned with garlic and oil, is 
 a favourite dish. Eggs, honey, milk, and especi- 
 ally sour milk, and garden produce of every 
 kind, afford the principal materials of Eastern 
 diet. The most common dish consists of rice 
 cooked with meat, made into a kind of broth, 
 and coloured blue, red, or yellow. Animal food 
 was mostly reserved for special occasions 
 (Gen. 18.7 ; Lk. 15.23). Wild game, calves, 
 young oxen, lambs, and kids are favourite 
 viands in the East. It is customary to serve 
 up at one meal the whole of any animal which 
 has been killed. Fish is a general and much- 
 prized article of diet. The commonest articles 
 of food among the Egyptians are melons, 
 cucumbers, onions, endive or succory, purslane, 
 radishes, carrots, leeks, and garlic. Goats' 
 milk makes a great part of the diet of the East 
 from the beginning of April till September, and 
 cows' milk the rest of the year. Roasted meat 
 is almost confined to the meals of the rich. 
 
 The Hebrews ate large quantities of bread. 
 Sometimes, indeed, the fresh green ears of corn 
 were eaten, the husks being rubbed off by the 
 hand (Lev. 23.14 ; Deut. 23.25 ; 2 K. 4.42 ; 
 Matt. 12.1; Lk. 6.1). More frequently, 
 however, the grains were roasted in a pan over 
 a fire (Lev. 2.14) and eaten as parched corn. 
 This was an ordinary article of diet among 
 labourers (Lev. 23.14; Ruth 2.14; 1 Sam. 
 17.17, 25.18; 2 Sam. 17.28). Sometimes the 
 grain was bruised, dried in the sun, mixed with 
 oil, or made into a soft cake and then consumed 
 (Lev. 2.14, 15, 16 ; Num. 15.20 ; 2 Sam. 17.19 ; 
 Neh. 10.37 ; Ezek. 44.30). 
 
 Figs, generally dried and made into cakes 
 (1 Sam. 25.18), grapes in a dried state as raisins 
 (1 Ch. 12.40), but sometimes pressed into 
 cakes (2 Sam. 6.19), pomegranates (Cant. 8.2 ; 
 Hag. 2.19), nuts and almonds (Gen. 43.11) 
 these were among the fruits used for food. 
 
 Cucumbers (Num. 11.5 ; Isai. 1.8) and lettuce 
 (Ex. 12.8; Num. 9.11) should be added to 
 the list of vegetables used in Palestine, in 
 addition to the list given above as constituting 
 the diet of Egyptians. 
 
 The Hebrews used a large number of spices 
 
FOOL, FOOLISH, FOOLISHNESS] 168 
 
 [FOREST 
 
 or condiments : cummin, dill, coriander, mint, 
 rue, mustard, and salts. 
 
 They were forbidden to consume the blood of 
 any animal on pain of death (Lev. 3.17, 7.26, 
 19.26; Deut. 12.16; 1 Sam. 14.32; Ezek. 
 44.7, 15), on the ground that the blood contained 
 the principle of life, and was to be offered on 
 the altar (Lev. 17.11 ; Deut. 12.23). Animals 
 which had died a natural death (Deut. 14.21) 
 or had been torn of beasts (Ex. 22.31), all beasts 
 and birds classed as unclean (Lev. 11 and Deut. 
 14.4) were prohibited as food. 
 
 Christians were forbidden to eat the flesh of 
 animals which they knew had been offered to 
 idols (Acts 15.29,21.25; 1 Cor. 8.1), lest it 
 should seem to be idolatry. But they were 
 allowed to eat meat bought in the public 
 markets, or given them at a feast, without 
 asking questions (1 Cor. 10.25-27). African 
 converts in our own days act in a similar way. 
 
 Fool, Foolish, Foolishness. These words as 
 used in Scripture generally denote sin or wicked- 
 ness, not weakness or defect of understanding 
 (2 Sam. 13.13, 15.31 ; Job 2.10 ; Ps. 14.1 ; 
 Prov. 15.5, 19.1). They are used, however, in 
 their modern sense in 1 Cor. 1.27, 4.10. When 
 our Lord said (Matt. 5.22), " Whosoever shall 
 say to his brother, Thou fool, shall be in danger 
 of hell fire," He was reproving the scornful, 
 contemptuous, uncharitable spirit which is 
 utterly at variance with the meekness and love 
 which should characterise His disciples. 
 
 Foot, Feet. To water with the foot (Deut. 
 11.10) refers to a method of irrigation practised 
 in Egypt. The fields are divided into little 
 plots about 15 feet long by 6 feet wide, separated 
 from each other by little raised mounds of 
 earth. The water is conveyed from ditches 
 into channels formed in the mounds. By 
 simply making a hole with his toe in the mound 
 the peasant lets the water flow over one plot. 
 When this has had its due supply, he pushes 
 the earth together again with his toe and 
 opens a way into another plot. In this manner 
 the whole field is ultimately watered. Com- 
 pare Prov. 21.1. Nakedness of the feet was a 
 sign of respect or reverence, (Ex. 3.5), also a 
 sign of mourning (Ezek. 24.17). It was cus- 
 tomary to wash the feet of strangers coming off 
 a journey, because generally they travelled 
 barefoot or wore sandals, with the result that 
 the feet became hot and sore and dusty. It 
 must not be forgotten that on most occasions, 
 especially in dry seasons, or in desert parts 
 of the country, water was an expensive because 
 scarce, commodity, and to afford it for purposes 
 of washing was by no means a cheap mode of 
 rendering a service. In better-off households 
 the ablution was performed by a slave as a 
 menial service. Hence a very marked lesson 
 in humility was the washing of the disciples' 
 feet by the Saviour (John 13.5). 
 
 Footmen. Swift runners in attendance 
 on the king (1 Sam. 22.17). Such were Asahel 
 (2 -Sam. 2.18), Cushi, and Ahimaaz (2 Sam. 18). 
 The word means foot soldiers in Num. 11.21 ; 
 
 1 5am. 4.10, 22.17. Our modern word 
 footman owes its origin to the old custom of 
 domestic servants running by the carriage of 
 their master. Bunyan uses the word in its old 
 sense in the title of a tract, " The Heavenly 
 Footman," the text of which is St. Paul's 
 well-known comparison of the Christian life to 
 a race (1 Cor. 9.24). 
 
 Footstool. The divine glory which rested 
 symbolically in the Holy Place of the Tabernacle 
 and Temple, between the cherubim above the 
 ark, is supposed to use the ark as a footstool 
 (1 Ch. 28.2 ; Ps. 99.5). The earth is called God's 
 footstool, and heaven His throne (Isai. 66.1). 
 The common manner of sitting was upon the 
 ground or floor ; thrones or chairs, which were 
 used only on ceremonial occasions by kings and 
 high dignitaries, are in the East always so high 
 as to make a footstool necessary. 
 
 Ford. The chief ford of Jordan was near 
 Jericho ( Josh. 2.7 ; Judg. 3.28 ; 2 5am. 19.15). 
 [BETHABARA.] There are also fords of the river 
 Jabbok (Gen. 32.22) and the river Arnon (Num. 
 21.13 ; Isai. 16.2). 
 
 Forehead. Certain marks were branded on 
 the brows of slaves to make known to whom 
 they belonged. Those whom God exempted 
 from destruction were marked on the forehead 
 (Ezek. 9.4; Rev. 7.3, 22.4). The worshippers 
 of the beast had also a distinguishing mark on 
 the forehead (Rev. 13.16). " Hard of forehead " 
 is used in Ezek. 3.7-9, as descriptive of audacity, 
 the reference being to the fact that immodest 
 women did not veil their faces, contrary to the 
 practice of virtuous women in the East. 
 
 Foreigner. The term foreigner was used by 
 the Hebrews to designate any one not of their 
 stock, whether an unknown stranger (Deut. 15.3) 
 or an immigrant into their country (Ex. 12.45). 
 In Eph. 2.19 the word rendered " foreigners " 
 originally meant neighbours, and from this 
 passed into meaning a stranger without civil 
 rights. 
 
 The Hebrews were not in any sense ex- 
 clusive. While the Law strictly guarded 
 against the danger of the chosen people being 
 merged with other nations, provision was 
 made for the adoption of strangers into the 
 family of Israel. Foreigners who settled down 
 among the Hebrews were to be treated with 
 kindness (Ex. 22.21, 23.9 ; Lev. 19.33, 34, 23.22 ; 
 Deut. 14.29, 16.10, 11, 24.19), and they enjoyed 
 in many things equal rights with the true sons 
 of Jacob (Ex. 12.49 ; Lev. 24.22 ; Num. 15.15, 
 35.15). Of course they were not permitted 
 to offend the religious susceptibilities of the 
 Hebrews. 
 
 Forerunner. A word used only once in the 
 Bible (Heb. 6.20), where the reference is to 
 our Lord. [See JOHN THE BAPTIST, to whom 
 the title is commonly given.] 
 
 Forest. The forests or woods mentioned in 
 the Bible are the wood of Ephraim (Josh. 17.15), 
 the wood of Bethel (2 K. 2.23, 24), Hareth 
 (1 Sam. 22.5), and the wood in the wilderness of 
 Ziph, in which David concealed himself (1 Sam. 
 
FORKS] 
 
 169 
 
 [FEET 
 
 23.15). See also 1 Sam. 14.25; 2 Ch. 27.4; 
 Isai. 65.10. Portions of some of these 
 forests are still in existence, and there is no 
 doubt that at one time Palestine was well 
 wooded, though it is not so now. Near 
 Mahanaim was " the wood of Ephraim " (2 Sam. 
 18.6), in which the battle between David and 
 Absalom was fought. The " house of the forest of 
 Lebanon," which was built by Solomon, and 
 was magnificent in size and style (1 K. 1.2, 
 10.17, 21 ; 2 Ch. 9.16, 20), was so called from the 
 great quantity of cedar which was used in the 
 construction of it. The forest was used as a 
 symbol of pride (2 K. 19.23 ; Isai. 10.18, 32.19, 
 37.24 ; Jer. 21.14, 22.7, 46.23 ; Zech. 11.2) and 
 of unfruitfulness as contrasted with a cultivated 
 field or vineyard (Isai. 29.17, 32.15 ; Jer. 26.18 ; 
 Eos. 2.12). * 
 
 Forks. The meaning of the phrase so 
 translated in 1 Sam. 13.21 is extremely doubt- 
 ful. Perhaps they were instruments with 
 three prongs, used in gathering and removing 
 the crops. 
 
 Form of God. In Phil. 2.6-8 " form " is 
 contrasted with " fashion," the form moulded 
 from within contrasted with external appear- 
 ance. Thus " form " would be used of a body, 
 not of a statue. Jesus being in the form and 
 nature of God takes also the form and nature 
 of a servant, but divests Himself of outward 
 manifestations of the Godhead, such as those 
 with which God manifested Himself to the 
 patriarchs of old, the insignia of His visible 
 glory (Deut. 5.22-24). These outward tokens of 
 divinity Christ laid aside when He took upon 
 Him the form of a servant. So also in Rom. 
 12.2 the Greek means that we are not to put 
 on the fleeting fashioas of this world, but be 
 transformed from within. In Isai. 53.2 " form " 
 is used of physical beauty. 
 
 Fornication. This word is used in Scripture 
 both in its literal sense and as applied figura- 
 tively to idolatry unfaithfulness to God's 
 claims to the exclusive worship. [ADULTEBY.] 
 
 Forswear. [OATH.] 
 
 Fortification. [FENCED CITIES.] 
 
 Fortunatus. Mentioned with Stephanas 
 and Achaicus as being with St. Paul at Ephesus, 
 and as about to return to their home in Corinth, 
 when he wrote 1 Cor. They had been of much 
 help to him (1 Cor. 16.15, 17). 
 
 Fountain Gate. A gate on the south side of 
 Jerusalem near a fountain, perhaps that of 
 Siloam (Neh. 2.14, 3.15,12.37). 
 
 Fountains. Springs or sources of water, 
 often mentioned in the Bible. In the dry land 
 of Judaea they were of peculiar value, hence 
 the figurative use of the word as emblematic 
 of hopes, blessings, and consolations. " The 
 Lamb shall lead them unto fountains of living 
 water " (Rev. 7.17). A great number of places 
 received their names from some fountain in 
 the vicinity, this fact being indicated by the 
 prefixes Ain and En. Perpetual fountains 
 described as springs of living water were greatly 
 valued (Ps. 36.7-9; Isai. 49.10; Jer. 2.13; 
 
 Joel 3.18 ; Zech. 13.1 ; John 4.10). Zechariah 
 describes a fountain that was to be opened in 
 which all the impurities of the house of David, 
 and of Jerusalem, might be washed away, a 
 prophecy fulfilled in the atoning blood of 
 Christ. The word fountains Is also used to 
 denote children or posterity (Deut. 33.28). 
 
 Fowl, Fowler. The word fowl may signify 
 all kinds of birds. References to fowling or 
 the catching of birds occur in Prov. 7.23 ; Eccles. 
 9.12. [BiBD.] 
 
 Fox. Foxes, or rather jackals, abounded 
 in some parts of Judaea. They live on birds 
 and small quadrupeds. " They shall fall by 
 the sword ; they shall be a portion for foxes " 
 (Ps. 63.10). This verse contains a reference to 
 the fact that jackals followed the armies, and 
 consumed such bodies as might be left 
 on the march. To prevent jackals getting at 
 the contents of graves, the earth is well beaten 
 and mixed with thorns. Samson destroyed 
 the standing corn of the Philistines by catching 
 three hundred jackals, tying them in pairs 
 by their tails, inserting a lighted firebrand 
 between each pair of tails, and sending 
 them into the fields (Judg. 15.4, 5). The 
 number three hundred shows that jackals 
 must have been very common. The fact that 
 jackals go about in large packs would facilitate 
 the capture of so many by means of snares. 
 If the rope connecting the two tails was of fair 
 length, the pair would naturally run together, 
 as jackals are very gregarious. In an ancient 
 Roman festival it was customary to couple 
 foxes in a similar way, with a brand between 
 them. The foxes, or jackals, wrought great 
 havoc in the vineyards (Cant. 2.15). The 
 common jackal of Palestine is of a tawny 
 yellow colour. 
 
 Frankincense. A dry, resinous, aromatic 
 substance of a yellow tinge, bitter and acrid to 
 the taste, but exceedingly odoriferous. The 
 tree, whence the gum is obtained by incision 
 of the bark, grows in Arabia and India. The 
 prefix frank is derived from the freeness with 
 which it burns and gives forth its odours. It 
 was one of the ingredients in the perfume 
 of the sanctuary (Ex. 30.34), and was used 
 as an accompaniment of the meat-offering (Lev. 
 2.1,16, 6.15, 24.7). It is employed symbolic- 
 ally to represent agreeable qualities and devo- 
 tional fervour (Cant. 3.6, 4.6,14; Mai. 1.11). 
 The substance which is generally used in 
 modern times as incense is the production of 
 the Norway pine. 
 
 Freedom. The law of Moses permitted 
 slaves to win then: freedom under certain 
 conditions (Ex. 21.2-4, 7, 8 ; Lev. 25.39-42, 47-55 ; 
 Deut. 15.12-18). Under the Roman law the 
 freeman was one born free ; the freedman was 
 a slave who had been granted or had purchased 
 his liberty. He had not equal rights with the 
 freeman (Acts 22.28). 
 
 Fret. Used in the sense of devour (Lev. 
 13.55). It signifies in this passage the leprosy 
 spot which has eaten into a garment. 
 
FEINGES] 
 
 170 
 
 [FULLER'S FIELD, THE 
 
 Fringes. The hem or border of a Jewish 
 garment. When the Sabbath-breaker was 
 stoned to death (Num. 15.32-41) Moses was 
 commanded to speak to the children of Israel 
 and " bid them make fringes in the borders of 
 their garments throughout their generations," 
 and that they should " put upon the fringe of 
 the borders a ribband of blue," as a constant 
 remembrancer of God's commandments and 
 a visible warning against forbidden indulgence. 
 These fringes were a species of tassel, and were 
 principally upon the " corners " of the dress. 
 It was this tassel of special sacredness on our 
 Lord's dress that the woman touched (Matt. 
 9.20). At the synagogue services the Jews 
 still wear a kind of scarf, from three to five 
 feet long, and one foot wide, which is furnished 
 with fringes at the corners. These long tassels 
 consist of eight white woollen threads, knotted 
 with five knots like small buttons, and open 
 and untwisted at the end. 
 
 Frog. A plague of frogs was one of the ten 
 plagues sent upon the Egyptians (Ex. 8). The 
 edible frog still abounds in that country, filling 
 the air at night with its deafening croaking 
 in marshy places. The first marshy pool 
 examined will appear almost to break up and 
 ranish, as the frogs which filled it en masse 
 move away in detachments. But they do not 
 cease croaking because they are disturbed. 
 They will surround the intruder and croak 
 apparent defiance on all sides. The green 
 toad and the beautiful little tree frog are common 
 in Palestine. In Rev. 16.13 unclean spirits 
 are spoken of as being in the likeness of frogs 
 which came out of the mouth of the dragon. 
 
 Frontlets or Phylacteries. The method of 
 making the frontlet or phylactery for the head 
 has been thus described : the Jews take four 
 pieces of parchment and write on each of these 
 a certain passage of Scripture. The followiog 
 are the four passages employed : Ex. 13.1-10, 
 11-16; Deut. 6.4-9, 11.13-21. These four 
 pieces of parchment are enclosed in a piece 
 of tough skin, making a square. This square is 
 put on the middle of the forehead, and attached 
 to the head with thongs or ribbands. 
 
 But there is also the phylactery for the hand, 
 in accordance with the literal obedience to the 
 words of Moses : " These commandments shall 
 be for a sign unto thee upon thine hand, and 
 for a memorial between thine eyes." Accord- 
 ingly the Jews made two inscribed rolls of 
 parchment, rolled up to a point and enclosed 
 in a sort of case of black calf-skin. They were 
 then put upon a square bit of the same leather, 
 whence hung a thong of the same, about a finger 
 in breadth, and about 2 feet long. These rolls 
 were placed at the bending of the left arm, and 
 the thong was wound about the arm in a spiral 
 line, which ended at the top of the middle finger. 
 Before the Babylonish captivity no traces of 
 phylacteries appear in the history of the Jews ; 
 the prophets never inveigh against the neglect 
 of them ; nor was there any question con- 
 cerning them in the reformation of manners 
 
 at any time among the Hebrews. Our Lord 
 does not censure the Pharisees for wearing 
 them, but for making them broad out of 
 ostentation. The Pharisees in our Lord's time 
 apparently wore them always ; the common 
 people used them only at prayers ; but the 
 practice of using them was universal. There is 
 no doubt that, whatever its origin, it de- 
 generated into a superstition. Hence the Greeks 
 translated the Hebrew word by " phylactery," 
 which means " an amulet," or device for " pro- 
 tection." The modern Jews only wear them 
 at morning prayers. They are worn only by 
 males from the age of thirteen. 
 
 Frost. Jacob, relating his hardships to Laban, 
 says that the frost consumed him by night 
 (Gen. 31.40). He was in Mesopotamia at this 
 time. The nights there are as piercingly cold 
 as the day is scorchingly hot. Other references 
 to frost are Job 37.10; Ps. 78.47 ; Jer. 36.30. 
 
 Fuel. The scarcity of fuel in the East 
 obliges the inhabitants to use, by turns, every 
 kind of combustible matter. The withered stalks 
 of herbs and flowers, the tendrils of the vine, 
 the small branches of myrtle, rosemary, and 
 other plants, are all used in heating their ovens. 
 Our Lord refers to " the grass of the field, 
 which to-day is, and to-morrow is cast into 
 the oven " (Matt. 6.30). The grass in this 
 passage includes herbs in general. Hence also 
 " the crackling of thorns under a pot " (Eccles. 
 7.6). Sometimes the people were so far 
 reduced as to use dung for fuel (Ezek. 4.12-16). 
 We read in Amos 4.11 of " a brand plucked out 
 of the burning." This is a reference to the 
 vine twigs and other brushwood which the 
 Orientals use for fuel, and which in a few 
 minutes are consumed if they are not snatched 
 out of the fire. The knowledge of this fact 
 renders the striking figure of the prophet still 
 more impressive. 
 
 Fulfilled. The expression " that it might be 
 fulfilled " occurs frequently in the N.T. (Matt. 
 2.15, 17, 23, 8.17, 12.17). This does not imply 
 generally that those concerned had knowledge 
 of the fact that they were fulfilling a prophecy. 
 The sense in most cases would be accurately 
 conveyed thus " in this event was verified 
 what was said by," etc. 
 
 Fuller. The business of the fuller was to 
 cleanse garments and whiten them (Alk. 9.3). 
 The garments were placed in tubs of water, in 
 which some substance answering to our soap 
 had been dissolved (Mai. 3.2). The fullers trod 
 the garments with their feet or beat them. 
 Nitre, vegetable alkali, and bean-meal mixed 
 with water were among the substances used as 
 soap. Garments were whitened by rubbing into 
 them chalk or earth of some kind, such as 
 potter's clay or marl. The practice of the 
 trade caused offensive smells, and extensive 
 space was necessary for drying clothes ; hence 
 it was that " the fuller's field " was outside 
 the city of Jerusalem. 
 
 Fuller's Field, The. This place so-called is 
 mentioned incidentally as giving its name to 
 
FULLER'S SOAP] 
 
 171 
 
 [GAD 
 
 a highway or embanked road, which highway 
 was " the conduit of the upper pool " (2 K. 
 18.17, 26 ; Isai. 7.3, 36.2). It was situated in 
 the north of Jerusalem, and so close to the walls 
 that a person speaking from " the fuller's field " 
 could be heard on them. The fountain of 
 Siloah or Gihon, which rises at the foot of 
 Mount Moriah, formed two pools, called " the 
 upper pool" or "king's pool" (Neh. 2.14; 
 Isai. 7.3) and the " lower pool " (Isai. 22.9). 
 The aqueduct which connected the upper pool 
 with the fountain or with the lower pool, or 
 with the city, is called " the conduit of the upper 
 pool." The " pool " and the " conduit " would 
 be sufficient reasons for the presence of the 
 fullers. The " field " was, doubtless, an 
 enclosure appropriated to the drying and 
 bleaching of clothes. 
 
 Fuller's Soap. [FULLER.] 
 
 Funeral. [BUBIAL.] 
 
 Furlong. A Greek measure, equal to 606J 
 feet (Lk. 24.13). A furlong of our measure is 
 660 feet or one-eighth of a mile. 
 
 Furnace. Furnaces were used for smelting 
 the precious metals (Prov. 17.3). The furnace 
 into which Nebuchadnezzar cast the young 
 Hebrews who refused to worship his image 
 (Dan. 3.22, 23) was a large one, built like a brick- 
 kiln with an opening at the top to receive the 
 materials, and with a door on the ground by 
 which the metal was extracted. This sort of 
 furnace would also be in constant requisition 
 for the disposal of the dead, which among the 
 
 Babylonians was by cremation. A baker's 
 furnace or oven (Gen. 15.17 ; Neh. 3.11) 
 was a large pot, narrowing towards the top. 
 When it was heated by a fire made within, the 
 dough was spread over the heated surface, 
 and thus baked. The Greek word translated 
 " furnace of fire " (Matt. 13.42) is applied to 
 a potter's furnace, a blacksmith's furnace, and 
 a calcining furnace. [OVEN.] 
 
 Furniture. We read that Rachel concealed 
 her father's idols in the camel's furniture 
 (Gen. 31.34). The word signifies a covered box, 
 like the body of a carriage, which is sometimes 
 hung upon the animal, as with the howdah in 
 India. In these females may ride, and be 
 sheltered from the heat. They are not unlike 
 a roofed cradle, with back, head, and sides like 
 an easy-chair. Folds of carpeting or other 
 thick stuff are spread upon the back of the 
 animal for this contrivance to rest upon. Every- 
 where else in the Bible furniture means vessels 
 or implements. 
 
 Furrows. " If my land cry against me, or 
 the furrows thereof complain" (Job 31.38) 
 means, " If I have employed the poor to till my 
 ground, without paying them for their labour." In 
 Ezek. 17.7-10 the translation should be " beds." 
 
 Fury. When this is attributed to God (as 
 in Jer. 10.25 and elsewhere) we must re- 
 member that the inspired writers are speaking 
 after the manner of men. God's fury is simply 
 His afflictive judgments. We must not attribute 
 passion or malevolence to God. 
 
 Qa'al. Beetle : the son of Ebed and the 
 leader of a revolt against Abimelech, king of the 
 Shechemites. He was defeated and put to 
 flight, and his partisans were scattered and 
 destroyed (Judg. 9.26, 41). 
 
 Ga'ash. A hill in the mountains of Ephraim, 
 on the north side of which was Joshua's burial- 
 place (Josh. 24.30; Judg. 2.9). It was the 
 native place of one of David's guards (2 Sam. 
 23.30 ; 1 Ch. 11.32). 
 
 Gaba. [GEBA.] 
 
 Gab T>ai. Exactor of tribute : the head of an 
 important family of Benjamin resident at 
 Jerusalem (Neh. 11.8). 
 
 Gab'batha. A Hebrew or Aramaic word 
 apparently meaning a raised platform, outside 
 the praetorium of Jerusalem, whore was placed 
 the judgment-seat, from which Pilate delivered 
 our Lord to death (John 19.13). It is called 
 in Greek " the Pavement," probably from the 
 fact that it was paved with stones of tessellated 
 work a common practice in palaces and 
 public offices. Mosaic pavement was fashion- 
 able among the Romans. 
 
 GaT>riel. Man of God : the name of an 
 angel who was sent to the prophet Daniel to 
 explain his visions ; also to Zacharias to announce 
 
 to him the future birth of John the Baptist. 
 Six months afterwards he was sent to Nazareth 
 to the Virgin Mary (Dan. 8.16, 9.21; Lk. 1.19, 
 26). [ANOEL.] 
 
 Gad. Fortunate : 1. A son of Jacob by 
 Zilpah, Leah's handmaid (Gen. 30.9, 10, 11). 
 Gad had seven sons (Gen. 46.16), and the tribe 
 of Gad came out of Egypt in number 45,650. 
 After the defeat of the kings Og and Sihon, Gad 
 and Reuben desired to have their allotment 
 east of Jordan, as being much more suitable 
 than the west country for their great herds of 
 cattle. Moses granted their request, on con- 
 dition that they should accompany their 
 brethren and assist in conquering the land west 
 of Jordan. The inheritance of Gad was bounded 
 by Manasseh on the north, Jordan on the west 
 Reuben on the south, and the mountains of 
 Gilead on the east but the limits, except on 
 the west, are extremely uncertain. The territory 
 of Gad was a combination of rich arable and 
 pasture lands with fine forests. It is also a 
 land of rivers and springs, and the gorges 
 through which the streams find their way from 
 the plateau to the Jordan valley are of great 
 beauty. But, fierce and warlike, the tribe soon 
 extended itself beyond its original limits and 
 
GAD, THE] 
 
 172 
 
 [GALATIA, GALATIAN 
 
 covered the whole of Gilead. Eleven heroes of 
 Gad joined David at the time of his greatest 
 distress (1 Ch. 12.8). They were frequently 
 engaged in hostilities with the Ammonites, 
 Midianites, Hagarites, and other wandering 
 Ishmaelite tribes whom they had dispossessed 
 (1 Ch. 5.19-22). Jephthah, a native of Mizpeh 
 (Judg. 11), was a Gadite, so was Barzillai (2 Sam. 
 19.32-39), and probably also Elijah. Many 
 battles were fought in the territory of Gad 
 during the long and fierce struggles between 
 Syria and Israel, and naturally the country 
 suffered greatly in consequence (2 K. 10.33 ; 
 Amos 1.3). Gad was carried into captivity by 
 Tiglath-pileser (1 Ch. 5.26), and in the time 
 of Jeremiah the cities of the tribe were in- 
 habited by the Ammonites (Jer. 49.1). 
 
 2. The seer : a prophet and a particular 
 friend of David (1 Sam. 22.5). He was on 
 more than one occasion God's messenger to 
 David (1 5am. 22.5; 2 -Sam. 24.13-19; 1 Ch. 
 21.9-11), and was also one of David's bio- 
 graphers (1 Ch. 29.29). 
 
 Gad, The. The Hebrew word rendered in 
 Isai. 65.11 as " troop " should be " the Gad," 
 the god or goddess of Fortune (R.V. Fortune), 
 a heathen deity, mentioned in several passages 
 of Scripture: Baal-Gad (Josh. 11.17) and the 
 tower of Gad (Josh. 15.37). Those who prepare 
 the table for Gad are allotted to the sword 
 (laai. 65.11). The reference may be to the 
 heathen custom of setting apart a splendid 
 couch in the house for Gad, this couch not being 
 used in any other way. In like manner the 
 Babylonians spread a table for their god Bel, 
 and the Ethiopians for the sun. 
 
 Gad, The River of (2 Sam. 24.5). R.V. has 
 " valley of Gad," marg. " valley toward Gad." 
 Both text and interpretation are uncertain. 
 
 Gad'ara. Now Um-Keis. A large fortified 
 city of Perea on the north-west extremity of 
 the mountains of Gilead, 5 miles east of the 
 Jordan, 6 miles south-east of the Sea of Galilee ; 
 one of the towns which formed the Decapolis. 
 In the time of our Lord, Gadara was in the 
 main a Greek city, though with a strong Jewish 
 element in the population, and possibly many 
 Judaised Aramaeans. The ruins include two 
 theatres, a basilica, a temple, and a fine street 
 with a colonnade on each side. Along the 
 borders of the Sea of Galilee, near Gadara, 
 may still be seen the remains of ancient tombs 
 hewn in the rocks which face the water. In 
 the time of our Saviour they had become the 
 resort of wretched men, afflicted by diseases, 
 and made outcasts of society. In the account 
 of the cure performed by the Saviour upon a 
 demoniac in the country of the Gadarenes, 
 these tombs are particularly referred to : " There 
 met Him out of the tombs a man with an unclean 
 spirit, who had his dwelling among the tombs " 
 (Mk. 5.2, 3 ; Lk. 8.26). [GADABENES.] 
 
 Gad'arenes. The inhabitants of Gadara and 
 the surrounding district. According to Matt. 
 8.28 (R.V.) it was in "the country of the 
 Gadarenes " that our Lord healed the demoniac 
 
 and permitted the devils to enter into a herd 
 of swine; but in Mk. 5.1; Lk. 8.26, 37, the 
 R.V. has " Gerasenes." The exact situation of 
 the miracle was probably a town called Kersa, 
 the ruins of which still exist near the mouth of 
 Wady Semakh. It is within a few rods of the 
 shore, and a high hill rises directly above it, 
 in which are ancient tombs, out of which the 
 two men possessed of the devils may have 
 issued to meet Jesus. The lake is so near the 
 base of the mountain that the swine, rushing 
 madly down it, could not stop, but would be 
 hurried out into the water and drowned. This 
 Kersa (or Gerasa) may, as Matt, suggests, have 
 been included in the territory of Gadara. In 
 all three accounts there is a various reading 
 " Gergesenes." [GEHASENES, GERQESENES.] 
 
 Gad'di. My fortune : son of Susi and a chief 
 of Manasseh, sent with others to spy out the 
 land (Num. 13.11). 
 
 Gaddi'eL Gad is my fortune : son of Sodi 
 and a chief of Zebulun ; one of the spies sent to 
 " search the land of Canaan " (Num. 13.10). 
 
 Ga'di. Fortunate : father of Menahem, who 
 seized the throne of Israel from Shallum 
 (2 K. 15.14, 17). 
 
 Gadites. [GAD.] 
 
 GaTiam. Son of Nahor, Abraham's brother, 
 by his concubine Reumah (Gen. 22.24). 
 
 GaTiar. One of the Nethinim, descendants 
 of whom came up with Zerubbabel to Jerusalem 
 (Ezra 2.47 ; Neh. 7.49).- 
 
 GaL (1 Sam. 17.52, R.V.). A.V. has " the 
 valley." 
 
 Gai'us. 1. Gaius of Macedonia, a companion 
 of Paul in travel, who with Aristarchus was 
 seized by the mob in the tumult at Ephesus 
 (Acts 19.29). 
 
 2. Gaius of Derbe, probably representing 
 that church in the delegation which accom- 
 panied Paul when he took to Jerusalem the 
 contributions of the Gentile churches (Acts 20.4). 
 
 3. Gaius of Corinth, Paul's " host " in that 
 city (Rom. 16.23 ; 1 Cor. 1.14). 
 
 4. Gaius to whom in terms of warm affection 
 and commendation John addresses his third 
 Epistle (3 John 1). 
 
 It is impossible to say whether any of these 
 are identical. The name was common. 
 
 Ga'lal. 1. A Levite. One of the sons of 
 Asaph (1 Ch. 9.15). 2. Another Levite of the 
 family of Elkanah, son of Jeduthun (1 Ch. 9.16 ; 
 Neh. 11.17). 
 
 Galatia, Galatian. The name occurs in the N.T. 
 in three forms. (1) The country Galatia. Paul 
 writes of " the churches of Galatia " (1 Cor. 16.1 ; 
 Gal. 1.2) ; Crescens had gone " to Galatia " (2 Tim. 
 4.10; R.V. marg., "to Gaul"); Peter mentions 
 Galatia in the enumeration of the Roman 
 Provinces of Asia Minor to which his First Epistle 
 was addressed (1 Pet. 1.1). (2) The inhabitants, 
 Galatians (Gal. 3.1, and in the title of the same 
 Epistle). (3) In the references in Acts the country 
 is not designated by the substantive Galatia, 
 but by the adjective Galatian : the true render- 
 ing of Acts 16.6 is, " they went through the 
 
GALATIANS, EPISTLE TO THE] 173 [GALATIANS, EPISTLE TO THE 
 
 Phrygian and Galatian region " ; of 18.23, " he 
 went through the Galatian region and Phrygia." 
 
 Now Galatia has a double meaning, earlier and 
 later, ethnic and political, and it is uncertain 
 in which sense Paul and Luke use the name, a 
 question vitally affecting the recipients and the 
 date of the Epistle to the Galatians. The origi- 
 nal country Galatia was a strip of land south of 
 Bithynia, so called because occupied (c. 280 B.C.) 
 by Celts, Gauls or Galatians, who poured down 
 upon Asia Minor from Gaul and North Italy. 
 After a century of turbulence they were defeated 
 by the Romans under Manlius, 189 B.C. They 
 became faithful allies of Rome, retained a 
 measure of independence, being governed by 
 their own princes and receiving fresh grants of 
 territory, till their last king, Amyntas, left by 
 will to Rome a kingdom stretching south to the 
 Mediterranean and east to Cilicia (25 B.C.). Out 
 of this Augustus constituted the Roman Province 
 of Galatia, and to this the " Galatia " of 1 Pet. 
 1.1 undoubtedly refers. To whom, then, did 
 Paul address his Epistle to the half-civilised 
 Celtic population of Galatia proper (the North 
 Galatian theory), or to churches founded in 
 more accessible cities of the Roman province 
 (the South Galatian theory) ? The former is the 
 traditional view, maintained by Bishop Light- 
 foot ; the latter view has, in recent years, 
 especially through the brilliant advocacy of 
 Professor Ramsay, gained increasing support. 
 The discussion turns in part upon a minute 
 examination of the Lukan and Pauline designa- 
 tion of the countries of the apostle's missionary 
 labours, whether by geographical or political 
 names respectively. But the main difficulties 
 of the older view ara (1 ) that Paul should have so 
 far deviated from his settled plan of evangelising 
 along the' main lines of communication in the 
 Roman Empire, as to take a long and difficult 
 journey to reach a half-savage people, and (2) 
 that the only record in Acts of the founding of 
 an important group of churches should be the 
 bare reference of 16.6, 18.23. 
 
 It would appear from Gal. 4.13 that two visits 
 had preceded the writing of the Epistle : in the 
 North Galatian theory these would be the ones 
 recorded hi the passages just cited, on the second 
 and third missionary journeys. But the Province 
 Galatia included the towns of Pisidian Antioch, 
 Iconium, Derbe, and Lystra, visited by Paul on 
 his first journey (Acts 13.14), and again on his 
 second (Acts 16.1-6). Thus an earlier date is 
 made possible for the Epistle than on the older 
 view, some recent investigations placing it shortly 
 after, or even before, 1 and 2 Thessalonians. 
 The controversy is not yet closed. 
 
 Galatians, Epistle to the. The view taken 
 of the destination and the date of this Epistle 
 is dependent upon the meaning attached to 
 the word Galatia. [GALATIA, GALATIANS.] 
 On the North Galatian theory the two previous 
 visits to the Galatian churches (Gal 4.13) 
 are those of the second and third journeys, 
 and the Epistle falls within the later part 
 of the third journey, dating probably from the 
 
 latter period of the apostle's stay at Ephesus, 
 or from some part of his tour in Macedonia 
 (Acts 20.1, 2) on his way to Corinth, where 
 he wrote the Epistle to the Romans. It is in 
 fact an outline, or preliminary rough draft, 
 of the argument in that great Epistle ; while 
 in its vindication of his own apostolic authority 
 it resembles part of 2 Cor. Between these 
 two Epistles, therefore, it may probably be 
 placed. This chronological arrangement fully 
 accords with the word soon (or " quickly," 
 R.V.), 1.6. 
 
 If, however, the South Galatian theory be 
 accepted, the two visits are those of the first 
 and second journeys, and the letter comes 
 before the visit recorded Acts 18.23. Professor 
 Ramsay, impressed by Lightfoot's argument 
 as to the affinity of thought with the Corinthian 
 and Roman Epistles, and so desiring to place 
 Galatians as late as possible, dates it from 
 Antioch (Acts 18.22), immediately before 
 the third journey. Mr. Rendall, on the other 
 hand, finds traces of early date in the Epistle 
 itself, and places it during the second journey, 
 probably at Corinth before Paul was rejoined 
 by Silas and Timothy, whose names are joined 
 with the apostle's in 1 and 2 Thess., but not 
 in Gal. On this view the Epistle would be the 
 earliest of Paul's letters. 
 
 The occasion of the Epistle is manifest from 
 its contents. The Galatian churches con- 
 sisted in part of Jewish, but probably chiefly 
 of Gentile, converts (4.8) ; who appear, however, 
 to have been familiar with the O.T. (see 4.21-31). 
 They received the Gospel at first with readiness 
 and joy, and for a time faithfully persevered 
 (5.7). But not long after the apostle's second 
 visit to the Galatian churches, some Judaising 
 teachers (probably emissaries from the Pharisaic 
 party at Jerusalem : see Acts 15.1, 2) visited 
 the churches in Galatia, and taught them that 
 converted Gentiles must submit to circum- 
 cision and the observance of the Mosaic ritual 
 in order to salvation. They also attacked 
 Paul's authority, representing it as inferior 
 to that of Peter and the rest of the Twelve, 
 whom they professed to follow (chaps. 1, 2) ; 
 and they accused him of want of uprightness 
 in observing the law himself whilst among 
 the Jews, and yet persuading the Gentiles 
 to renounce it (5.11). 
 
 By such representations they succeeded 
 in sowing the seeds of discord and division 
 (5.15) ; and in leading astray many of the 
 Galatian Christians (1.6, 3.1, 4.9), who 
 embraced the party of their new teachers 
 with the same zeal which they had formerly 
 shown for their father in the faith. Against 
 these errors Paul had already testified in person 
 (1.9, 4.16) ; but on learning that they were 
 rapidly gaining ground, h wrote this Epistle. 
 
 In character and am, the abruptness and 
 severity with which this Epistle begins, and 
 the earnest and tender appeals which it contains, 
 show the apostle's sense of the urgency and 
 greatness of the danger which he has to meet. 
 
GALBANUM] 
 
 174 
 
 [GALL 
 
 His principal object is to prove that the doctrine 
 of the Juclaisers did, in fact, destroy the very 
 life and soul of Christianity ; but he prepares 
 the way for his main argument by first con- 
 tradicting the falsehoods which his opponents 
 had propagated respecting himself, and vindi- 
 cating his apostolic office and authority. 
 
 The chief contrast between the method of 
 this Epistle and that of the Epistle to the 
 Romans, is that the great topic of justification 
 is there introduced as part of a detailed argu- 
 ment, and without reference to any special 
 circumstances ; here all is treated contro- 
 versially, with immediate reference to the 
 Judaising teachers. 
 
 The apostle is contending, not against 
 Gentiles who regarded good works as a title 
 to a Divine reward ; nor against unbelieving 
 Jews who rejected Christianity, ho Idingobedience 
 to the law to be the only way of justification ; 
 but against Jews professing to embrace the 
 Gospel, yet teaching that the observance of 
 the ceremonial law, as well as faith in Christ, 
 was necessary to salvation. He shows that 
 it was never designed for that purpose, that it is 
 now abrogated, and that those who observe 
 its requirements with the object of securing 
 God's favour, do thereby renounce the one only 
 way of salvation. 
 
 The errors condemned as subversive of the 
 Gospel were propagated by men who professed 
 Christianity without understanding its first 
 principles, and to whom he " would not give 
 place for an hour." The mistaken views of the 
 Mosaic law which he represents in Rom. 14, 15, 
 as proper subjects of forbearance on the part of 
 the better informed, are those of sincere but 
 partially enlightened Christians, who looked to 
 Christ alone for salvation, but were not yet 
 satisfied as to the abolition of the Mosaic ritual. 
 
 The Epistle naturally divides itself into three 
 portions, each comprising two chapters. The 
 two former sections are mainly controversial, 
 and the third practical and admonitory. 
 
 I. Paul asserts and proves his Divine calling 
 and authority, as an apostle of Christ (1, 2). 
 
 II. He establishes his principal proposition, 
 that justification is entirely by faith, not by the 
 works of the law (3, 4). 
 
 III. He concludes with warnings and practical 
 directions, and a brief review of the chief topics 
 of the Epistle (5, 6). 
 
 Galba'num. A bitter and resinous gum ; an 
 ingredient in the incense burned at the golden 
 altar in the holy place (Ex. 30.34). 
 
 Oa'leed. Heap of witness : the name given 
 by Jacob to the cairn or heap made by Laban 
 and himself on Mount Gilead as an evidence of 
 the agreement between them (Gen. 31.47, 48). 
 Laban called it Jegar-Sahadutha. 
 
 Galilsean. An inhabitant of Galilee (Mk. 
 14.70). 
 
 Gal'ilee. One of the divisions of Palestine. 
 It contained the territory anciently apportioned 
 to four tribes, viz. Issachar, Zebulun, Naphtali, 
 and Asher, a part also of Dan, and of Perea 
 
 beyond the river. The boundaries were Anti- 
 Libanus on the north, Phoenicia on the west, 
 Samaria on the south, the Sea of Galilee and the 
 Jordan on the east. Upper Galilee was termed 
 " Galilee of the Gentiles," its population includ- 
 ing Egyptians, Arabians, and Phoenicians, as well 
 as Jews. Galilee was populous, the inhabitants 
 were industrious, and consequently the pro- 
 vince was rich, paying 200 talents in tribute 
 to its Roman governors. Christ is called Jesus 
 of Galilee (Matt. 26.69) because He was brought 
 up in that province, and there lived, taught, 
 and called His first disciples (Matt. 4.13-23, 
 13.55; Mk. 1.39; Lk. 4.44, 8.1, 23.5; John 
 7.1). Galilee became a name of contempt both 
 among Jews and Gentiles, because its inhabitants 
 were a mixed race and used a corrupted dialect, 
 which originated in the amalgamation of the 
 Jews, who settled there after the Captivity, with 
 the Gentile foreigners (John 1.46, 7.52; Acts 
 2.7). Peter's mode of speech at once proved 
 the place of his nativity (Matt. 26.69, 73 ; 
 Mk. 14.70). During the whole life of Christ 
 the ruler or tetrarch of Galilee was Herod 
 Antipas. Remains of splendid synagogues 
 still exist in many of the old towns and villages, 
 attesting the prosperity as well as the numbers 
 of the Jews in former days. 
 
 Gal'ilee, Sea of (in Lk. 5.1, " Lake of Gen- 
 nesaret " ; in John 6.1, 21.1, " Sea of Tiberias " ; 
 in O.T., Sea of Chinnereth or Chinneroth). This 
 inland sea is 12J miles from north to south and 
 from 4 to 7J miles in breadth. Its surface is 
 682 feet below the level of the Mediterranean : 
 its depth from 80 to 100 feet. The Jordan 
 enters in 26 miles from its source, and in that 
 distance there is a fall in the river of 1682 feet, 
 or more than 60 feet to the mile. It is 27 miles 
 east of the Mediterranean and about 60 miles 
 north-east of Jerusalem. The lake is surrounded 
 by lofty country, on the east side the mountains 
 coming close to the shore. Its surface is in 
 general as smooth as that of the Dead Sea, but 
 it is liable to sudden short-lived squalls, caused 
 by gusts from the mountains, especially when 
 the strong current formed by the Jordan is 
 opposed by a wind from the south-east, sweep- 
 ing from the mountains with the force of a 
 hurricane. We must imagine the Sea of 
 Galilee as in the time of Christ covered with 
 ships and boats, and the beaches sparkling with 
 the houses and palaces, the synagogues and the 
 temples of the Jewish or Roman inhabitants. 
 Much of our Lord's public life was spent on the 
 shores of this inland sea. 
 
 Gall. In the O.T. a plant and its fruit which 
 were exceedingly bitter (Deut. 29.18, 32.32 ; 
 Ps. 69.21 ; Jer. 8.14, 9.15, 23.15 ; Lam. 3.5, 19 ; 
 Amos 6.12). The same Hebrew word is trans- 
 lated " hemlock " in Hos. 10.4. It was a quick- 
 growing plant, possibly the poppy. The literal 
 meaning, as the fluid secreted by the liver, is 
 referred to in Job 16.13, 20.14, 25. The 
 " vinegar mingled with gall " given to our 
 Lord (Matt. 27.34) was a weak, acid wine, 
 mingled with a drug called " myrrh " in 
 
GALLERY] 
 
 175 
 
 [GARDEN 
 
 Mk. 15.23, and was used to stupefy 
 sufferers. 
 
 Gallery. In Cant. 7.5 R.V. has " the king 
 is held captive in the tresses thereof." Else- 
 where the word means " watering-troughs," and 
 perhaps the tresses of hair are compared to the 
 channels of running water seen in the pasture- 
 grounds of Palestine. The words so rendered 
 in Ezek. 41.15, 16, 42.3, 5, appear to mean 
 colonnades in cloisters. 
 
 Galley. A ship rowed with oars: only in 
 Isai. 33.21, where Jerusalem is pictured as 
 defended by broad waters, into which no enemy's 
 " galley with oars " or " gallant (i.e. magnificent) 
 ship " shall enter. 
 
 Gal'lim. Fountains : a city of Benjamin 
 (1 Sam. 25.44 ; Isai. 10.30). 
 
 Gal'lio. Brother of Seneca, the Stoic philo- 
 sopher, and made Proconsul of Achaia by the 
 Emperor Claudius. St. Paul was brought 
 before him for teaching " men to worship God 
 contrary to the law " (Acts 18.12, 13) ; but 
 Gallio cared for none of these things, meaning 
 simply that he did not wish to interfere in 
 religious controversies. It is an unkind stroke 
 of fate that his name, as that of a person in- 
 different to religion, should have passed into a 
 proverb of reproach. The conduct of Gallio 
 shows the friendly, or at least impartial, attitude 
 of the Roman authorities towards Christianity 
 in its early days. Gallio was put to death by 
 Nero. 
 
 Gama'liel. Reward of God : an illustrious 
 doctor of the Jewish law, a Pharisee, and St. 
 Paul's tutor (Acts 22.3). The learned family 
 to which he belonged enjoyed peculiar privileges, 
 especially in relation to the study of Greek 
 literature, which was generally prohibited 
 among the Jews. When the apostles were 
 brought before the rulers, Gamaliel advised the 
 assembly to treat them with caution : and ac- 
 cordingly they were liberated (Acts 5.34). 
 
 Games. There are several striking references 
 in the N.T. to the public games so well known 
 among the Greeks and Romans. The prizes 
 for the winners were placed in a very con- 
 spicuous place near the course, so that the 
 competitors might be stimulated by having them 
 always hi then* sight. The " goal " was always 
 clearly visible from one end of the stadium to 
 the other, so that the runner could make straight 
 for it. No doubt it was of these facts that St. 
 Paul was thinking when he said, " I press on 
 toward the goal, unto the prize of the high 
 calling of God in Christ Jesus " (Phil 3.14, R.V.). 
 The competitors at these games formed quite 
 a class, the athletce or athletes. They submitted 
 to very severe training preparatory to these 
 contests, inuring their bodies to fatigue, living 
 on very plain food (such as dried figs, nuts, 
 soft cheese, and coarse bread), and drinking 
 no wine. " Every man that striveth in the 
 games is temperate in all things. ... I buffet 
 my body, and bring it into bondage" (1 Cor. 
 9.25-27, R.V.). There is also a reference to 
 boxing in this passage : "So fight I, as not 
 
 beating the air." The hands and arms were 
 bound with a band of leather studded with 
 nails, which very much increased the severity 
 of the blow. The skill of the combatant was 
 shown in so avoiding the blows of his adversary 
 that they were expended on the air. The Greek 
 word rendered "castaway" (R.V. rejected) hi 
 this passage is that which was applied to the 
 rejected claimants for a prize. The athletes 
 took care to disencumber their bodies of every 
 article of clothing which could in any manner 
 hinder or incommode them. In the race they 
 were anxious to carry as little weight as possible. 
 The Christian also must " lay aside every weight 
 and the sin which doth so easily beset " him 
 (Heb. 12.1). The words " a cloud of witnesses " 
 liken the victorious heroes of faith of chap. 11 to 
 the immense number of spectators who, from the 
 tiers of seats, witnessed the games. The apostle 
 exhorts Timothy to observe the precepts of the 
 Gospel, without which he can no more hope to 
 obtain the approbation of God, and the possession 
 of the heavenly crown, than a competitor hi the 
 public games, who disregarded the established 
 rules, could hope to receive from the hands of 
 his judge the promised reward (2 Tim. 2.5). 
 The rewards for the winners consisted of crowns 
 or wreaths of various kinds wild olive, pine, 
 parsley, or laurel, according to the different 
 places where the games were celebrated. After 
 the judges had given their award, a public 
 herald proclaimed the name of the victor ; 
 one of the judges put the crown upon his head 
 and a branch of palm into his right hand. Then 
 the herald conducted him through the stadium, 
 proclaiming aloud his name and country ; 
 while the delighted multitudes at the sight ol 
 him redoubled their acclamation and applause. 
 So the Christian will receive a crown of glory, 
 but one which never fades, reserved hi heaven 
 (1 Pet. 1.4, 5.4). " I have finished the course," 
 says St. Paul ; ... " there is laid up for me 
 the crown of righteousness which the Lord, the 
 righteous Judge, shall give to me at that day " 
 (2 Tim. 4.8). Foot races, riding on horseback, 
 and chariot races were the items in the pro- 
 grammes of the games. Reference is made to 
 the Roman circus and its bloody sports in 
 1 Cor. 4.9 and 1 Cor. 15.32. The men who 
 fought with wild beasts were sometimes pro- 
 fessional performers, but more usually criminals, 
 deprived of any means of defence. 
 
 The only children's sports mentioned in the 
 Bible are keeping tame birds (Job 41.5) and 
 playing at marriages and funerals (Matt. 11.16) : 
 but see Zech. 8.5. 
 
 Gamma 'dim. Mentioned among the de- 
 fenders of Tyre: meaning uncertain (Ezek. 
 27.11 ; R.V. marg., valorous men). 
 
 Ga'muL Weaned: a priest; the leader of the 
 twenty-second course in the service of the 
 sanctuary (1 Ch. 24.17). 
 
 Garden. The gardens of the Hebrews were 
 chiefly devoted to fruit and shade trees, aro- 
 matic plants and herbs (1 K. 21.2 ; Cant. 4.12-16). 
 Gardens of roses and olives are also referred to 
 
GAREB] 
 
 176 
 
 [GEBA 
 
 in the Scriptures. Owing to the fierce heat of 
 the summer season a supply of water was 
 indispensable, either in the form of a fountain, 
 well, or stream passing through (Gen. 2.10, 
 13.10 ; Prov. 21.1 ; Eccles. 2.5, 6 ; Isai. 58.11). 
 A " well-watered garden " and a " garden 
 having no water " are the symbols of blessing 
 and curse. Gardens were used as burying- 
 places (John 19.41) and as places of religious 
 worship and retirement (7saz. 1.29, 65.3). 
 Esculent vegetables were planted in some fertile 
 spot in the garden. Watchmen were stationed 
 to guard the harvest (Job 27.18 ; Jer. 4.16, 17), 
 but these keepers were not allowed to prevent 
 one from taking from the field enough for the 
 supply of his immediate wants (Deut. 23.24). 
 In the Garden of Gethsemane, on the slopes of 
 Olivet, are eight aged olive trees marking the 
 site which tradition has connected with the 
 agony of our Lord. " Their gnarled stems and 
 almost leafless branches," says Mr. W. A. 
 Wright, " attest an antiquity as venerable as 
 that which is claimed for them." 
 
 Qa'reb. 1. One of the heroes of David's 
 army (2 Sam. 23.38). 2. A hill on the north 
 side of Jerusalem (Jer. 31.39). 
 
 Garlick. One of the good things of Egypt 
 which the Israelites remembered with regret in 
 the wilderness (Num. 11.5). 
 
 Garment. [DRESS. ] 
 
 Gar'mite, The. The descendant of Gerem 
 (1 Ch. 4.19). 
 
 Garrison. A fortified post (1 Sam. 14). In 
 Ezek. 26.11, for " thy stibng garrisons," 
 K.V. has " the pillars of thy strength," i.e. 
 obelisks, the monoliths which were regarded 
 as symbols of the presence of the deity. 
 
 Gash'mu. (Nth. 6.6). [GESHEM.] 
 
 Ga'tam. Son of Eliphaz and grandson of 
 Esau (Gen. 36.11, 16 ; 1 Ch. 1.36). 
 
 Gate. Gates of houses, as of cities, were of 
 wood, iron, or brass (1 Sam. 4.18; Acts 12.10, 13). 
 The gates of the cities were the places of greatest 
 concourse for business, judicial proceedings, con- 
 versation, and idling (Gen. 19.1; Deut. 17.5, 
 25.7; Ruth 4.1-12; 2 Sam. 15.2; 2 K. 7.1; 
 Neh. 8.1; Job 29.7; Prov. 22.22, 31.23; 
 Amos 5.10, 12, 15). As a remnant of old 
 Oriental custom and language, the court of 
 Constantinople is still called the Sublime Porte. 
 The gates of cities contained chambers over the 
 gateway. The gates were two-leaved, closed 
 with locks and fastened with metal bars. The 
 Beautiful Gate of the Temple (Acts 3.2) was made 
 entirely of Corinthian brass, and twenty men 
 were required to close it. 
 
 Gath. Wine press: one of the five Philistine 
 strongholds, the native place of Goliath 
 (1 Sam. 6.17, 17.4). In the times of the 
 Hebrew kings it was always a thorn in the 
 side of Israel. It has been identified as Tell 
 es-Safi, 16 miles east of Ashdod. The inhabit- 
 ants of Gath are called Gittites (Josh. 13.3). 
 
 Gath-Hepher or Gittah-Hepher. Wine-press 
 of digging : the birthplace of the prophet Jonah 
 (2 K. 14.25). Joshua assigned the city to the 
 
 tribe of Zebulun (Josh. 19.13; A.V. wrongly 
 Gittah-Hepher). It has been identified with the 
 present village of el Mesh-hed, 2 miles east of 
 Sepphoris (Seffurich), with a population of a 
 few Moslems. The supposed tomb of Jonah is 
 still venerated there. 
 
 Gath-Rim'mon. Wine press of Rimmon : 1. A 
 city in the territory of Dan, north-east of Joppa 
 (Josh. 19.45, 21.24 ; 1 Ch. 6.69). 2. A city of 
 Manasseh, west of Jordan (Josh. 21.25). 
 
 Ga'za or Azzah. The strong place: a city of 
 the Philistines, made by Joshua part of the 
 tribe of Judah. It was one of the five strong- 
 holds of the Philistines, situated towards the 
 southern extremity of Palestine (1 Sam. 6.17), 
 between Raphia and Askelon, 60 miles south-west 
 of Jerusalem. Joshua was not able to subdue it ; 
 and though Judah did conquer it, it did not 
 remain long in their hands. Its gates were 
 carried away by Samson (Judg. 16.1-3). Here 
 he was afterwards a prisoner and " did grind in 
 the prison house." Here he also pulled down 
 the temple of Dagon and slew " all the lords of 
 the Philistines," himself also perishing in the 
 ruin (Judg. 16.21-30). In the reigns of Jotham 
 and Ahaz it recovered its independence, but 
 was again subdued by Hezekiah (2 K. 18.8). 
 It was afterwards subject to the Egyptians, 
 Persians, and Chaldeans, and was captured 
 by Alexander the Great after a five months' 
 siege. It was afterwards taken by Alexander 
 Jannaeus, and frightful barbarities were inflicted 
 on the inhabitants. Gabinius rebuilt it and 
 placed it under Roman protection. Only a 
 remnant of its former greatness remains. The 
 modern Ghuzzeh stands on an elevation ; the 
 houses are built of stone, but of very mean 
 appearance. The scenery around is beautiful, 
 and the vegetable productions are luxuriant 
 and fragrant. 
 
 Ga'zathi'tes, Gazites. The inhabitants of Gaza 
 (Josh. 13.3; Judg. 16.2). 
 
 Gazelle. [RoE, DORCAS.] 
 
 Ga'zer. {2 Sam. 5.25; 1 Ch. 14.16: TV. 
 Gezer, which see). 
 
 Ga'zez. 1. A son of Caleb by Ephah his 
 concubine (1 Ch. 2.46). 2. Grandson of Caleb 
 and of Ephah (1 Ch. 2.46). 
 
 Ga'zites. [GA ZATHITES . ] 
 
 Gaz'zam. The sons of Gazzam were among 
 the families of the Nethinim who returned from 
 the exile with Zerubbabel (Ezra 2.48 ; Neh. 7.51). 
 
 Geba (A.V. Gaba). Hill : now Jeba, 6 miles 
 north of Jerusalem on the top of a rocky ridge 
 on the south edge of Wady es-Suweintt, which 
 separates it from Michmash (1 Sam. 14.5) and 
 commanding the pass. Town of Benjamin on the 
 north boundary of the tribe and of the kingdom 
 of Judah (Josh. 18.24 ; 1 Sam. 13.16 ; 2 Sam. 
 5.25; 2 K. 23.8; 1 Ch. 8.6); assigned to the 
 priests (Josh. 21.17 ; 1 Ch. 6.60) ; scene of 
 conflict between the Philistines and Jonathan 
 (1 Sam. 13.3) ; and of victory of David over 
 the Philistines (2 Sam. 5.25); fortified by 
 Asa (1 K. 15.22 ; 2 Ch. 16.6) ; occupied by 
 the Assyrian army on their way to Jerusalem 
 
GEBAL] 
 
 177 
 
 [GEMAEIAH 
 
 (Isai. 10.29), and by some who returned from the 
 Captivity (J&ra2.26; Neh. 7.30, 11.31, 12.29). 
 
 Getal. Boundary : town on coast of Phoe- 
 nicia, unconquered by the Israelites (Josh. 13.5) ; 
 the inhabitants (A.V. Giblites, R.V. Gebalites) 
 were famed as masons and shipwrights (1 K. 
 5.18; Ezek. 27.9). Now called Jebeil, with 
 ruins which indicate its former greatness and 
 magnificence. Whether this Gebal is intended 
 in Pa. 83.7, or another south of the Dead Sea, is 
 doubtful. 
 
 Ge'ber (R.V. Ben-geber). Strong : 1. See 
 1 K. 4.13. 2. A commissariat officer of Solomon 
 whose district included the modern Belka, the 
 great pasture-ground of the tribes east of the 
 Jordan (1 K. 4.19). 
 
 Ge'bim. Cisterns, ditches: a city of Ben- 
 jamin (Isai. 10.31). 
 
 Gecko (Lev. 11.30 R.V.). A.V. has "ferret." 
 The gecko is a repulsive-looking lizard. 
 
 Gedali'ah. Jah is great : he was appointed 
 by Nebuchadnezzar to take charge of the people 
 of Judah after he had subdued it and de- 
 stroyed the temple and capital of the nation 
 (2 K. 25.22). He was joined by Jeremiah, and 
 took measures to resettle the scattered Jews, 
 but after two months' beneficent rule he was 
 assassinated by a party of the royal family of 
 Judah, headed by Ishrnael (Jer. 40, 41). He was 
 a gentle, pious man, who governed the people 
 well, and whose death is still commemorated in 
 the Jewish calendar as a national calamity. 
 
 Ged'eon. The Greek form of the Hebrew 
 name Gideon (H eb. 11.32; R.V. Gideon). 
 
 Ge'der. Wall : a city of the Canaanites, 
 lying west of the Jordan ( Josh. 12.13). 
 
 Gede'rah. Enclosed place : a lowland city in 
 Judah (Josh. 15.36 ; 1 Ch. 4.23 R.V.). It has 
 been identified with Jedireh, 9 miles south 
 of Ludd. [LYDDA.] 
 
 Gede'rathite. Either a native of Gederah, 
 or of Gedor, in Benjamin (1 Ch. 12.4). [See 
 GEDOB 1.] 
 
 Gede'rite. An inhabitant of Geder (1 Ch. 
 27.28) or of Gederah. 
 
 Gede'roth. Walls : a town in the low 
 country of Judah (Josh. 15.41 ; 2 Ch. 28.18). 
 
 Gederotha'im. Two walls : one of the 
 fourteen cities in the low country of Judah 
 (Josh. 15.36). As the fourteen are complete 
 without it, perhaps an accidental repetition of 
 Gederah. 
 
 Ge'dor. A wall : 1. A town of Judah in its 
 mountainous region (Josh. 15.58). Identified 
 with Jedur, about 2 miles west of the road 
 from Hebron to Bethlehem. Perhaps the same 
 as the Gedor of 1 Ch. 12.7, which was a town 
 of Benjamin. [GEDERATHITE.] 2. In 1 Ch. 
 4.39 (probably a mistake for Gerar), between the 
 south of Judah and Mount Seir, i.e. Petra. 3. An 
 ancestor of Saul (1 Ch. 8.31, 9.37). 4. A mem- 
 ber of the tribe of Judah (1 Ch. 4.4, 18). 
 
 Ge-hara'shim (1 Ch. 4.14, R.V.). [CHARA- 
 SHIM, THE VALLEY OF.] 
 
 Geha'zi. Valley of vision : the confidential 
 servant of Elisha, prominent in the story of the 
 
 12 
 
 Shunammite's son (2 K. 4 and 8). When the 
 prophet cured Naaman of leprosy, the latter 
 offered him a handsome gift, which he declined. 
 Gehazi, however, by falsehood obtained a part 
 of this gift. Elisha punished him by inflicting 
 leprosy upon him and his posterity (5.15-27). 
 
 Gehen'na. (The first syllable represents the 
 Hebrew word for valley.) The Greek form in the 
 N.T. (not used in the LXX) of the place known 
 in Hebrew as the Valley of Hinnom, or more fre- 
 quently Valley of the Son of Hinnom (Children 
 in 2 K. 23.10, but see R.V. marg.). The first 
 mention is in Josh. 15.8, as part of the boundary 
 of Judah, separating that tribe from Benjamin 
 (Josh. 18.16), and running west and south of 
 Jerusalem. In the days of Ahaz and Manasseh 
 the valley, and especially a place in it called 
 Topheth, was the scene of the idolatrous worship 
 of Molech, accompanied with human sacrifice 
 by fire (2 K. 16.3, 21.6 ; 2 Ch. 28.3, 33.6; Jer. 
 7.31, 32.35). In consequence the valley was 
 " denied " by Josiah, " that no man might make 
 his son or his daughter to pass through the 
 fire to Molech " (2 K. 23.10). A revival of 
 these abominations under Jehoiakim (Jer. 
 11.10-13 ; Ezek. 20.31) brought down the curse 
 of Jeremiah upon the valley, and the prophecy 
 that it should " no more be called Tophet, nor 
 The Valley of the Son of Hinnom, but The 
 Valley of Slaughter " (Jer. 7.32, 19.1-13). The 
 use of the name to designate a place of punish- 
 ment after death does not appear in the O.T., 
 although the valley is probably referred to in 
 Isai. 50.11, 66.24. This symbolism would be 
 the more natural and striking if the late Jewish 
 tradition (c. 1200 A. P.) is well founded, that the 
 place was made the receptacle for the filth of 
 the city and the bodies of criminals, fires being 
 kept continually burning to consume and 
 purify. At any rate, by N.T. times this figura- 
 tive usage was established, and the name 
 Gehenna is used in this sense by our Lord, and 
 outside His words only in the Epistle of James 
 (Matt. 5.22, 29, 30, 10.28, 18.9, 23.15, 33 ; 
 Mk. 9.43, 45, 47 ; LJc. 12.5 ; Jas. 3.6 : in each 
 instance A.V. and R.V. " hell "). Compare also 
 the symbolic language of Matt. 8.12, 13.42, etc., 
 and Rev. 19.20, etc. Of course to recognise 
 that our Lord spoke in symbols does not affect 
 the solemn warning of His words. [HELL, 
 
 Geli'loth. Circles (perhaps stone circles, or 
 rolling stones): a place on the south boundary 
 line of Benjamin (Josh. 18.17), and so on the 
 north boundary of Judah (Josh. 15.7, where it 
 is called Gilgal). The Hebrew word occurs also 
 Josh. 13.2, 22.10, 11; Ezek. 47.8; Joel 3.4 
 (A.V. borders, coasts, country ; R.V. region). 
 
 Gemal'li. Camel owner : father of Ammiel ; 
 one of the twelve spies sent to explore the land 
 of Canaan (Num. 13.12). 
 
 Gemari'ah. Jehovah hath completed : 1. A 
 prince of Judah, from whose window Baruch 
 read Jeremiah's alarming prophecy to the 
 people. HP begged Jehoiakim not to burn the 
 roll (Jer. 30). 2. Zedekiah's ambassador to tU 
 
GENEALOGY] 
 
 178 
 
 [GENESIS, BOOK OF 
 
 king of Babylon, by whom Jeremiah sent a letter 
 to his countrymen in captivity, warning them 
 against the indulgence of any false hopes of 
 redemption (Jer. 29.3). 
 
 Genealogy. No nation was ever more careful 
 to preserve their genealogies than the Jews. 
 
 The genealogies, after the Captivity, had both 
 a civil and a religious importance as proving 
 the rights of the different families to their 
 respective inheritances, and as furnishing 
 evidence of the descent of the Messiah. In 
 Ezra (chap. 2) and Neh. (chap. 7), for 
 instance, are two separate but parallel registers 
 of the same number of people, though with 
 differences of detail. The Jewish priests were 
 obliged to produce an exact genealogy of their 
 families before they were admitted to exercise 
 their function. Wherever placed, the Jews 
 kept tables of genealogy in their several families, 
 the originals of which were lodged at Jerusalem, 
 to be consulted occasionally. These authentic 
 monuments, during all their wars and persecu- 
 tions, were taken great care of, and from time 
 to time renewed. But, since the last destruc- 
 tion of Jerusalem and the dispersion of the 
 people, their ancient genealogies have been 
 lost (1 Ch. 5.1, 17, 9.1 ; 2 Ch. 12.15 ; Ezra 2.62 ; 
 Heb. 7.3, 14). 
 
 The genealogy of our Saviour is deduced by 
 Matthew from Abraham, by Luke from Adam 
 to Joseph, through a space of 4000 years and 
 upwards. It is probable that both forms of 
 His genealogy give the descent of Joseph, not 
 of Mary, the reason being that in the public 
 registers, from which we may assume that the 
 genealogies were transcribed, Jesus, the son of 
 Mary, the espoused wife of Joseph, could only 
 appear as Joseph's son. Lord Arthur C. Harvey 
 wrote : " The simple principle that one evange- 
 list (Matthew) exhibits that genealogy which 
 contained the successive heirs to David's and 
 Solomon's throne, while the other (Luke) exhibits 
 the paternal stem of him who was the heir, ex- 
 plains all the anomalies of the two pedigrees, 
 their agreements as well as their discrepancies 
 and the circumstance of there being two at all." 
 Mary was in all probability the first cousin of 
 Joseph, so that in point of fact, though not of 
 form, both the genealogies are as much hers 
 as her husband's. "Genealogies" in 1 Tim. 
 1.4 ; Tit. 3.9. refer to such fanciful enumerations 
 as are found in the Book of Jubilees. [CHRON- 
 ICLES, GENERATION.] 
 
 Generation. The word is used in Ps. 24.6 
 to denote a particular class of people. It is 
 practically equivalent to "genealogy" in Matt. 
 1.1 and to "history" in Gen. 2.4. In the 
 long-lived patriarchal age a generation seems to 
 have been computed at 100 years (Gen. 15.16) ; 
 the later reckoning was from thirty to forty years 
 (Job 42.16). 
 
 Genesis, Book of. The critical questions as- 
 sociated with this book are discussed under 
 PENTATEUCH, which see. 
 
 The contents of the book may be summarised 
 as follows ; 
 
 1. From the Creation to the Deluge: including 
 the creation of the world, the formation of Man 
 in the image of God, the institution of the 
 Sabbath and of marriage (chaps. 1, 2) ; the intro- 
 duction of evil into the world, the sentence upon 
 the Tempter and upon man, and God's gracious 
 promise of a Saviour (3) ; the account of Cain 
 and Abel, and of Cain's descendants ; the 
 beginning of human industrial occupations, of 
 manufactures, and of the arts (4) ; the line of 
 patriarchs from Adam to Noah (5) ; the universal 
 prevalence of wickedness, the destruction of the 
 ungodly world by the Flood, with the preserva- 
 tion of Noah and his family (6, 7). 
 
 2. From the Deluge to the Call of Abraham: 
 comprising God's Covenant of mercy with the 
 new world, and Noah's prophecy respecting his 
 three sons (9) ; the re-peopling of the earth by 
 Noah's descendants, the origin of national dis- 
 tinctions, and the commencement of the principal 
 ancient empires (10) ; the confusion of tongues, 
 and the dispersion of the human family over the 
 earth (11). 
 
 3. From the Call of Abraham to the Death of 
 Joseph. In this portion of the book the general 
 affairs of mankind are only occasionally and 
 incidentally noticed ; and it is chiefly occupied 
 with the patriarch and his descendants, whom 
 God chose and separated from the rest of the 
 world, that from their race the promised Saviour 
 might come. We have the history of Abraham 
 and his family, with notices of the origin and 
 history of some of the most ancient kings and 
 nations (12-25) ; of Isaac and his family (26, 27) ; 
 of Jacob and his family (28-35) ; and more 
 particularly of Joseph, leading to the introduc- 
 tion of the house of Israel into Egypt, where they 
 were preserved from famine, and their training 
 and consolidation into a great people were to be 
 providentially accomplished (37-47) ; followed 
 by Jacob's prophecy respecting his sons and 
 their descendants, with a glimpse of the future 
 Redemption (48, 49). The book concludes with 
 Joseph's commandment concerning his remains, 
 and his death (50). 
 
 References in the New Testament to the 
 Book of Genesis are abundant. The following 
 passages are cited with the usual formulas of 
 quotation, as " It is written," " The Lord said," 
 and the like : 
 
 Gen. 1.27 . . 
 2.2 . . 
 2.7 . . 
 12.3 . . 
 17.7 . . 
 21.10, 12 
 22.16, 17 
 25.23 . 
 
 Matt. 19.4 
 
 Heb. 4.4 
 
 1 Cor. 15.45 
 
 Acts 3.25 ; Gal. 3.8 
 
 Gal. 3.16, 19 
 
 Gal. 4.30; Heb. 11.18 
 
 II eb. 6.13, 14; Jas. 2.23 
 
 Rom. 9.12 
 
 Incidents and personages in Genesis are 
 frequently referred to, as Gen. 3.4^ 5 Eve 
 beguiled by the serpent, 2 Cor. 11.3 ; 1 Tim. 
 2.14. 
 
 4.4 Abel's sacrifice, II eb. 11.4. 
 
 5.24 Character and Translation of Enoch, 
 Ueb. 11.5, 6. 
 
OENNESAKET, LAKE OF] 
 
 179 
 
 [GEZER 
 
 14.18-20 Melchizedek, Eel. 7 passim. 
 
 19.24-26 Destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah, 
 Lk. 17.29, 32 ; 2 Pet. 2.6. 
 
 22.9 Abraham's offering of Isaac, Jas. 2.21. 
 
 25.33 Esau's sale of his birthright, Heb. 12.16. 
 
 47.31 Jacob's worship, leaning on his staff 
 (or bed), Heb. 11.21 (see 25). 
 
 Add a whole series of references in Stephen's 
 address to the Sanhedrin, Acts 7. 
 
 The phrase "In the beginning" (1.1) is 
 echoed with a deeper meaning in John 1.1. Man 
 made hi the likeness of God (5.1, 9.6) is a truth 
 recognised in 1 Cor. 11.7 ; Eph. 4.24 ; Col. 3.10 ; 
 Jas. 3.9. The sanctity of the marriage relation 
 is enforced from Gen. 2.24 by our Lord, Matt. 
 19.5, and by Paul in 1 Cor. 6.16 : Eph. 5.31. The 
 faith of Abraham (15.5, 6) is repeatedly used as a 
 foreshadowing of the Christian character, Rom. 
 4.3 ; Gal. 3.6 ; Jas. 2.23. " Paradise " carries 
 the thought back to " the Garden," Gen. 2.8, 9 ; 
 Rev. 2.7, 22.1, 2, and Jacob's ladder is taken as 
 an expressive type, Gen. 28.12 ; John 1.51. 
 
 Many verbal accordances also show how this 
 book was familiar to the inspired writers of the 
 New Testament as authoritative and Divine. 
 
 Gennesaret, Lake of. [GALILEE, SEA OF.] 
 
 Gennesaret, Land of. After the miracle of 
 feeding the 5000, our Lord and His disciples 
 crossed over the Sea of Galilee and " came into 
 the land of Gennesaret " (Malt. 14.34 ; Mk. 
 6.53). The district is so called from Chinnereth, 
 the ancient name of a city (Josh. 19.35) and ad- 
 joining tract, extending 4 miles along the north- 
 west shore of the Sea of Galilee. This district 
 possessed a singular fertility, with a delightful 
 climate and an abundance of many kinds of fruit. 
 The shores of the lake at this part are strewn 
 with shapeless ruins, marking the sites of some of 
 those towns and villages in which Christ taught. 
 
 Gentiles (i.e. nations). A term applied by 
 the Hebrews to all peoples outside the pale of 
 Israel. 
 
 Genu'bath. The son of Hadad, an Edomite. 
 His mother was an Egyptian princess. He was 
 brought up like one of the sons of Pharaoh 
 (1 K. 11.19,20). 
 
 Ge'ra. The son of Bela, and a descendant of 
 Benjamin (Gen. 46.21 ; 1 Ch. 8.3). 
 
 Gerah. A small weight, or coin, and a 
 twentieth part of a shekel (Ex. 30.13). Trans- 
 lated as obelos in LXX. 
 
 Ge'rar. Now Umm el-Jerar. Town and 
 district in the country of the Philistines, south 
 of Gaza (Gen. 10.19) and Beersheba, residence of 
 Abimelech ; of Abraham after the destruction 
 of Sodom (Gen. 20.1, 2) ; and of Isaac when 
 there was a famine in Canaan (Gen. 26.1-26); 
 spoiled by Asa in his overthrow and pursuit of 
 the Ethiopians under Zerah (2 Ch. 14.13, 14). 
 
 Gerasenes. [GERGESENES.] 
 
 Gergese'nes. The country of : according to 
 A.V. of Malt. 8.28 the scene of the cure of the 
 demoniac. The true reading, however, in Matt. 
 is Gadartnes, and in Mk. and Lk. Gerasenes (but 
 see R.V. marg. Lk. 8.2G). 'Hie Gerasa of Gilead, 
 some 30 miles south-east of the lake, cannot be 
 
 intended : this Gerasa as well as " Gergesa " 
 must be identified with the modern Kersa, 
 [GADARENES.] 
 
 Geri'zim. Barren : a mountain 2849 feet 
 above the level of the sea, south of the entrance 
 of the valley of Shechem, opposite Ebal ; scene 
 of reading the blessings and curses when the 
 Israelites entered Canaan (Deut. 11.29, 27.12 ; 
 Josh. 8.33) ; of Jotham's parable to the men of 
 Shechem (Judg. 9.7) ; site of Samaritan temple 
 (John 4.20) and worship to the present day. Now 
 called Jebel et-Tor. 
 
 Gershom. Explained as meaning " a stranger 
 there " : 1. The first-born son of Moses (Ex. 2.22, 
 18.3). Jonathan the son of Gershom was the 
 first priest in the irregular worship of the tribe 
 of Dan (Judg. 18.30). 2. A member of the family 
 of Phinehas who accompanied Ezra from Babylon 
 (Ezra 8.2). 
 
 Gershon. The eldest of the sons of Levi 
 (Gen. 46.11 ; 1 Ch. 6.1, etc.) ; called also Gershom 
 in 1 Ch. 6.16, 17, 62, 71, 15.7. The line of 
 Kohath, a younger son, rose to pre-eminence, 
 for Aaron and the priests belonged to it. 
 The most distinguished of the Gershonites 
 was Asaph (1 Ch. 6.39-43). They had charge of 
 the coverings, curtains, hangings, and cords of 
 the Tabernacle (Num. 3.25, 26, 4.25, 26). Thir- 
 teen cities were apportioned to them among the 
 northern tribes (Josh. 21.27-33; 1 Ch. 6.62, 
 71-76). 
 
 Gershonites. [GERSHON.] 
 
 Geruth-Cliimham (Jer. 41.17). [CHIMHAM.] 
 
 Ge'sham (U.V. Geshan). See 1 Ch. 2.47. 
 
 Ge'shem (in Neh. 6.G Gashmu). An Arabian, 
 and one of those who opposed Nehemiah in the 
 rebuilding of the walls of Jerusalem (Neh. 2.19, 
 6.1). 
 
 Ge'shur. Small kingdom east of the Jordan, 
 south of Mount Hermon, north of Bashan 
 (Josh. 12.5) ; taken by Jair, son of Manasseh 
 (Deut. 3.14 ; 1 Ch. 2.23), but inhabitants not 
 expelled (Josh. 13.2, 11, 13); under the 
 government of Talmai, whose daughter was 
 married to David, and was the mother of 
 Absalom (2 Sam. 3.3) ; Absalom's asylum after 
 killing his brother Amnon (2 -Sam. 13.37, 38, 
 14.23, 32, 15.8). 
 
 Geshu'ri, Geshurites. 1. The inhabitants of 
 Geshur (Deut. 3.14; Josh. 12.5, 13.2, 11, 13; 
 1 Ch. 2.23). 2. A tribe mentioned in the south 
 with the Amalekites (1 Sam. 27.8) and the 
 Gezrites. 
 
 Ge'ther. The third of the four sons of Aram 
 (Gen. 10.23). 
 
 Gethsem'ane. Oil press : garden just outside 
 Jerusalem, across the Kedron, at the foot of the 
 Mount of Olives, the frequent resort of our Lord, 
 and the scene of His agony (Matt. 26.30, 36 ; 
 Mk. 14.26, 32 ; Lk. 22.39 ; John 18.1, 2). 
 
 Geu'eL Greatness of God : a son of Machi, a 
 prince of Gad, and one of the spies sent by Moses 
 to examine the land (Num. 13.15). 
 
 Ge'zer (see also Gazer). Sleep : a royal city 
 of the Canaanites taken by Joshua (Josh. 10.33, 
 12.12) ; in the south boundary of Ephraim 
 
GEZRITES] 
 
 180 
 
 [GIDOM 
 
 (Josh. 16.3 ; 1 Ch. 7.28) ; assigned to the Ko- 
 hathites, and made a city of refuge ; inhabitants 
 not expelled (Josh. 16.10, 21.21 ; Judg. 1.29; 
 1 Ch. 6.67); limit of David's pursuit of the 
 Philistines (2 Sam. 5.25 ; 1 Ch. 14.16); taken 
 and burnt by Pharaoh, given to his daughter, 
 the wife of Solomon, and rebuilt by him (1 K. 
 9.15-17). Now known as Tell Jezer, a few 
 miles south of Ramleh. The investigation of 
 the ruins shows that it was inhabited from 
 2500 B.C. continuously until recent times. 
 Among the discoveries made were skeletons 
 of children sacrificed at the building of new 
 houses, a row of large standing stones used 
 in connexion with the worship of the sun, 
 and a tongue of gold, recalling Achan's theft 
 (Josh. 7.21). 
 
 Gezrites (A.V. marg. Gerzites-, R.V. Gir- 
 zites, marg. Gizrites). Apparently the inhabit- 
 ants of Gezer, but possibly another tribe 
 (1 Sam. 27.8). 
 
 Ghost (Anglo-Saxon gasl, a spirit). To 
 " give up the ghost " ( Jer. 15.9 ; John 19.30) is 
 to die. [Goo, SPIRIT, TRINITY.] 
 
 Gi'ah. Fountainhead : place near which 
 Joab and Abishai pursued Abner (2 Sam. 2.24). 
 
 Giant. For " giants " in Gen. 6.4, etc., see 
 NEPHILIM ; in Deut. 2.11, etc., see RKPHAIM. 
 [ANAK, ZAMZUMMIM, ZUZIM.] 
 
 For " giant " in Job 16.14, the R.V. margin 
 gives " mighty man," the word being elsewhere 
 used of "mighty men," where the thought is 
 rather of prowess than of size. 
 
 Giants, Valley of the. [REPHAIM, VALLBT OP]. 
 
 Gib'bar. Hero : one who came up with 
 Zerubbabel from Babylon (Ezra2.20-,inNeh. 7.25 
 Gibeon). 
 
 Gibbe'thon. Height : Philistine town allotted 
 to Dan ; assigned to Kohathites (Josh. 19.44, 
 21.23) ; recovered by Philistines and besieged 
 by Nadab, king of Israel (1 K. 15.27, 16.15, 17). 
 Now Kibbieh. 
 
 Gib'ea. Highlander : there is little doubt 
 that in 1 Ch. 2.49 a place, and not a person, is 
 meant, namely, Gibeah in Judah. 
 
 Gib'eah. Hill: 1. Town in the mountains 
 of Judah (Josh. 15.57). 2. Gibeah of Ben- 
 jamin. Scene of wrong which led to the almost 
 entire extirpation of the tribe of Benjamin 
 (Judg. 19 and 20) ; home of Saul (1 Sam. 10.26, 
 etc.) ; whence Jonathan set out to dislodge the 
 Philistines from Geba (1 Sam. 13.2, 3) ; where 
 Saul's seven sons were hanged (2 Sam. 21.1-9) ; 
 home of three of David's mighty men (2 Sam. 
 23.29 ; 1 Ch. 11.31, 12.3) ; of Uriel (2 Ch. 13.2) ; 
 occupied by the Assyrian army on their way to 
 Jerusalem (Isai. 10.29, a passage which shows 
 that Gibeah and Geba are not the same) ; seat 
 of idolatry (Hos. 5.8, 9.9, 10.9). Identified with 
 themodern Tell el-Ful, a village on the main road 
 running north from Jerusalem. [GIBEATH.] 
 In 2 Sam. 6.3 R.V. has " the house of Abinadab 
 that was in the hill " ; cf. 1 Sam. 7.1. 
 
 Gibeath ( Josh. 18.23). [GIBEAH 2.] 
 
 Gibeathite. An inhabitant of Gibeath (1 Ch. 
 12.3), 
 
 Gib 'eon. Five miles north-west of Jeru- 
 salem, on the top of a low, isolated, oblong hill, 
 in the midst of a rich upland plain, the " land 
 of Benjamin." A chief city of the Hivites ; its 
 inhabitants made a league with Joshua (Josh. 
 9.3-17). It was consequently assaulted by 
 Canaanite kings, but relieved by Joshua (Josh. 
 10) ; allotted to Benjamin and assigned to the 
 priests (Josh. 18.25, 21.17); was the scene of 
 encounter between the men of David and of 
 Lshbosheth under Joab and Abner, and of 
 Asahel's death (2 Sam. 2.12-17,24, 3.30); of 
 Amasa's death by Joab (2 Sam. 20.5-10) and of 
 Joab's death by Benaiah (1 K. 2.28-34). It 
 was the site of the tabernacle of the congregation 
 under David and Solomon (1 Ch. 16.39 ; 2 Ch. 
 1.3), the ark being at Jerusalem (2 Ch. 1.4) ; 
 visited in state by Solomon at the beginning of 
 his reign (1 K. 3.4-15, 9.2 ; 2 Ch. 1.3-13) ; and 
 again for the removal of the tabernacle and its 
 furniture to the temple (1 K. 8.4) ; occupied 
 by some of those who returned from captivity 
 (Neh. 3.7, 7.25). It was the residence of 
 Hananiah, the false prophet (Jer. 28.1); scene 
 of recovery of IshmaePs captives by Johanan 
 (Jer. 41.12, 16). The modern name is El- Jib. 
 
 Gibeonites, The. The inhabitants of Gibeon 
 (2 Sam. 21). 
 
 Giblites, The. The inhabitants of Gebal 
 (Josh. 13.5 ; R.V. Gebalites). [GEBAL.] 
 
 Giddal'ti. / magnify God : a son of Heman, 
 the king's seer, and hence a Kohathite (1 Ch. 
 25.4, 29). 
 
 Gid'del. He hath magnified : 1. Children of 
 Giddel returned from the Captivity with Zerub- 
 babel (Ezra 2.47 ; Neh. 7.49). 2. Sons of Giddel, 
 amongst the " servants of Solomon" who returned 
 to Judaea in the same caravan as 1 (Ezra 2.56). 
 
 Gid'eon. The hewer : the son of Joash, of 
 the tribe of Manasseh ; also called Jerubbaal 
 (Jw<fy.6.32,etc.)and Jerubbesheth (2Sam. 11.21 ). 
 He dwelt in the city of Ophra, and was chosen 
 by God in a very extraordinary manner to 
 deliver the Israelites from the oppression of the 
 Midianites, under which they had suffered for 
 seven years. These cruel and rapacious hordes 
 annually destroyed all the produce of Canaan, 
 except such as could be concealed in mountain 
 fastnesses. Gideon's stratagem was well cal- 
 culated to throw consternation into the night 
 camp of a vast undisciplined army. The flash 
 of torches and the reverberating echoes of the 
 shouting and the three hundred trumpets among 
 the hills caused a panic which ended in the over- 
 whelming defeat of the Midianites. He was 
 the seventh judge of Israel, and judged for 
 fifty years. He refused to be king of Israel. 
 Unfortunately he allowed himself to be enticed 
 into idolatry in the fabrication of an ephod 
 which " became a snare to him and his house." 
 Nevertheless he is honourably mentioned in 
 Heb. 11.32. See Judg. 6.14-27, 8.1-24, etc. 
 
 Gideo'ni. Father of Abidan (Num. 1.11, etc.). 
 
 Gidom. A cutting off : a place named as 
 the limit to which the pursuit of Benjamin 
 wiUfiultxl alter the battle of Gibeah. Hence 
 
GIEK EAGLE] 
 
 181 
 
 [GILGAL 
 
 it was between Gibeah and the cliff Rimmon 
 (now called Rummon), about three miles east 
 of Bethel (Judg. 20.45). 
 
 Gier Eagle. This is one of the birds forbidden 
 for food (Lev. 11.18; Deut. 14.17 : R.V. vulture), 
 identical with the modern Egyptian vulture, 
 about the size of a raven, which feeds upon offal 
 and carrion. On the wing it is a handsome 
 creature, with a bold contrast of colours in the 
 pure white and dark brown of its plumage. 
 It has been described as the foulest feeder that 
 lives ; when it cannot obtain rotten fish, carrion, 
 or excrementary matter, it preys upon rats, 
 mice, small lizards, snakes, and insects. It 
 is commonly called Pharaoh's ben in the East, 
 and is everywhere protected on account of its 
 great value as a scavenger. 
 
 Gift. The practice of making presents is very 
 common in Oriental countries ; rulers and kings, 
 realising the difficulties and dangers of collect- 
 ing revenue by taxation, encouraged their sub- 
 jects to offer them presents freely (ISam. 10.27). 
 The practice and the expectation was that who- 
 ever approached the king or his officers should 
 come with a gift (Prov. 18.16). The practice 
 was liable to serious abuse, opening the door wide 
 to bribery and corruption, which are strongly 
 condemned in many passages of Scripture 
 (Ex. 23.8 ; Deut. 10.17 ; Ps. 15.5 ; /sat. 1.23, and 
 elsewhere). Sometimes the king when he made 
 a feast presented vestments to all the guests that 
 were invited, with which they clothed themselves 
 before they sat down to it (Gen. 45.22 ; 2 K. 10.22 ; 
 Rev. 3.5). The refusal of a present was regarded 
 as a great insult. Yet giving is frequently 
 only an Oriental move in a bargain (see Gen. 
 23 : 2 Sam. 24.22). 
 
 Gi'hon. Stream : 1. One of the rivers of 
 Eden, which see (Gen. 2.13). 2. The scene of 
 Solomon's anointing and proclamation as king 
 (1 K. 1.33, 38, 45), in the valley of the Kedron, 
 east of Jerusalem (2 Ch. 33.14), where was a 
 spring whose waters were diverted into the city 
 of David on the approach of the Assyrian army 
 (2 Ch. 32.30). 
 
 Gila'lai. A priest who was present at the 
 dedication of the wall of Jerusalem (Neh. 
 12.36). 
 
 Gil boa. Mountain range in Issachar, west 
 of the Jordan, where Saul and Jonathan were 
 defeated by the Philistines and slain (1 Sam. 
 28.4, 31.1,8; 2 Sam. 1.6,21, 21.12; 1 Ch. 
 10.1, 8). At the village of Jelbon,on the southern 
 part of the range, there is still a perennial 
 spring of water, whence doubtless the name 
 Gilboa was derived. The ridge itself is barren, 
 but there are rich valleys on either side. There 
 are nine villages on the slopes of Gilboa, the most 
 important of which is Jezreel, now known as 
 Zer'in. 
 
 Gil'ead. Hard, rocky region : 1. A moun- 
 tainous district east of the Jordan, occupied by 
 Reuben, Gad, and half-tribe of Manasseh; 
 occasionally the word signifies the whole region 
 east of the Jordan (Deut. 34.1 ; Josh. 22.9 ; 
 Judg. 20.1). The country was hilly, richly 
 
 wooded, picturesque, affording rich pasturage 
 (Num. 32.1), producing spices and aromatic 
 gums (Gen. 37.25 ; Jer. 8.22, 46.11). It was the 
 site of Jacob's encampment when overtaken by 
 Laban (Gen. 31 .21, 25); was taken by the Israelites 
 (Num. 21.24, 25, 32-35 ; Deut. 2.32-36, 3.1-10) ; 
 was the home of Jair (Judg. 10.3), of Jephthah 
 (Judg. 10.1, 11.7-11), and of Elijah (1 K. 17.1) ; 
 the refuge of Israelites from Philistines (1 Sam. 
 13.7), of Saul's sons (2 Sam. 2.8, 9), of David when 
 fleeing from Absalom, who followed him thither 
 (2 Sam. 17.24, 26) ; was taken by Hazael, king of 
 Syria, in the reign of Jehu (2 K. 10.33). The 
 " balm of Gilead " was the sap of a tree which 
 grows in that region. It is a white, sticky 
 substance, which quickly coagulates, and is 
 valuable in the cure of inflammations. In the 
 tune of Alexander the Great it was estimated as 
 worth twice its weight in silver. Mahanaim, 
 the southern capital of Gilead, still exists as 
 Mukhmah. The name of Jabesh-gilead, in the 
 north, survives in that of Wady Yabis. North- 
 west of Rabbath-ammon, in the south, the ruins 
 of Jubeihah mark the site of Jogbehah, to which 
 Gideon pursued the Midianites (Judg. 8.11). 
 Succoth, where Jacob went after Esau departed 
 from him, is identified with Tell Der'ala, north 
 of the Jabbok, and Mizpeh with Suf. 
 
 2. The word Gilead is also found as the name 
 of persons (Num. 26.29 ; Judg. 11.1 ; 1 Ch. 5.14). 
 
 Gilead, Mount. In Judg. 7.3 " depart from 
 Mount Gilead " cannot be right, as Gilead is 
 east of Jordan, and Gideon's army was en- 
 camped on Gilboa, west of Jordan. The choice 
 seems to be between reading " Gilboa," or (with 
 R.V. marg.) interpreting "go round about Mount 
 Gilead," a long detour to avoid the enemy. 
 
 Gileadites, The. A branch of the tribe of 
 Manasseh, descended from Gilead or inhabiting 
 Gilead (Num. 26.29 ; Judg. 12.4 ; 2 Sam. 17.27; 
 1 K. 2.7 ; Ezra 2.61 ; Neh. 7.63). 
 
 Gil'gal. A circle of ttones : 1. Site of first 
 Israelite encampment after crossing the Jordan. 
 Here the twelve stones taken from the river were 
 set up, those born in the wilderness were circum- 
 cised, first passover kept in the land was observed, 
 and an encampment remained during the early 
 period of the conquest (Josh. 4.19, 20, 5.9, 10, 
 9.6, 10.6-43, 14.6). It was visited by Samuel 
 as judge (1 Sam. 7.16). Here offerings were 
 presented to Jehovah (1 Sam. 10.8, 11.14, 15, 
 13.4-15, 15.12, 21); Saul was proclaimed king 
 (1 Sam. 11.14,15); Agag the Amalekite was 
 killed (1 Sam. 15.33). Thither the men of Judah 
 came to welcome David on his return to Jeru- 
 salem after the death of Absalom (2 Sam. 
 19.15-40). It was occupied after the return from 
 captivity (Neh. 12.29). The site of Gilgal is 
 now occupied by Tell Jiljul, 4J miles from the 
 Jordan and If miles from Er-Riha (Jericho). 
 2. A town 6 miles north of Bethel, whence Elijah 
 and Elisha set out before the translation of the 
 former, and whither Elisha returned (2 K. 2.1, 
 4.38). Now called Jiljilia. 3. The " king of the 
 nations of Gilgal " was overthrown by Joshua 
 ( Josh. 12.23). This Gilgal is now a village called 
 
GILOH] 
 
 182 
 
 [GOAT 
 
 Jiljuliah, north of Joppa, and 6 miles north of 
 Antipatris. 4. Landmark in the north boundary 
 of Judah, called also Geliloth, probably the same 
 as Gilgal 1 (Josh. 15.7, 18.17). 
 
 Gi'loh. Town in highlands of Judah (Josh. 
 15.51), the home of Ahithophel (2 Sam. 15.12, 
 23.34). 
 
 Gi'lonite. A native of Giloh, only used with 
 reference to Ahithophel (2 Sam. 15.12, 23.34). 
 
 Gim'zo. Town in north-west of Judah taken 
 by the Philistines in time of Ahaz (2 Ch. 28.18). 
 Now called Jimzu, a large village between 2 
 and 3 miles south-west of Lydda, south of the 
 road between Jerusalem and Jaffa. 
 
 Gi'nath. The father of Tibni (1 K. 1G.21, 22). 
 
 Ginne thon. One of those who sealed the 
 covenant (Neh. 10.6, 12.16: in 12.4 A.V. 
 Ginnetho, R.V. Ginnethoi). 
 
 Girdle. An indispensable article in the dress 
 of an Oriental, used to tuck up the long flowing 
 vestments which otherwise would be an im- 
 pediment in work or on a journey. It was 
 commonly made of leather, wool, or linen, 
 often woven into a variety of figures and made 
 to fold several times about the body. One end 
 of the girdle, being doubled back and sewn 
 along the edges, served as a purse. This is the 
 " purse " which is mentioned in Matt. 10.9 and 
 Mk. 6.8. The girdle was sometimes put to 
 a further use by fixing knives and daggers 
 in it ; while the writers and secretaries sus- 
 pended in them their inkhorns (Ezek. 9.2). To 
 loose the girdle and give it to another was a 
 token of great confidence and affection. A 
 girdle curiously and richly wrought was a mark 
 of honour, and sometimes bestowed as a reward 
 of merit (2 Sam. 18.11). " To gird up the loins" 
 is U draw the girdle tighter, and so to prepare 
 for a journey or for some vigorous enterprise. 
 
 Gir'gashites, The. One of the tribes found 
 in possession of Canaan at its invasion by the 
 children of Israel (Gen. 10.16, 15.21 ; ~Deut. 
 7.1 ; Josh. 3.10, 24.11 ; 1 Ch. 1.14 ; Neh. 9.8). 
 Their territory was on the west of the Jordan. 
 
 Gir'gasite, The (Gen. 10.16). [GIEQASHITES.] 
 
 Girzites. [GEZRITES.] 
 
 Gis'pa (K.V. Gishpa). An overseer of the 
 Nethinim after the Exile (Neh. 11.21). 
 
 Git'tah-He'pher (Josh. 19.13). [GATH-HE- 
 
 PHER.] 
 
 Git'taim. Two winepresses or place of a 
 winepress : a town of Benjamin, refuge of 
 Beerothites (2 Sam. 4.3); after the Captivity 
 inhabited by Benjamites (Neh. 11.33). 
 
 Git'tites. Inhabitants of Gath (2 Sam. 
 6.10, 11, 15.18, 19). 
 
 Git'tith. The title of three of the Psalms 
 8, 81, and 84 contains the phrase " upon 
 Gittith " (A.V.) or " set to the Gittith " (R.V.). 
 The word may be connected with the city of 
 Gath, in which case it would denote some Gittite 
 instrument or melody, perhaps brought by 
 David. More probably, however, it is derived 
 from the Hebrew word for ** winepress," and 
 the three Psalms are " vintage-songs," sung, 
 perhaps, at the autumn Feast of Tabernacles. 
 
 So Thirtle (Titles o] the Psalms), who, however, 
 attaches the title to the preceding Psalms 7, 
 80, and 83. 
 
 Gi'zonite, The. The sons of Hash em the 
 Gizonite were among the warriors of David's 
 guard (1 Ch. 11.34). The name appears as 
 Jashen in 2 Sam. 23.32. 
 
 Gizrites. [GEZRITES]. 
 
 Glass. The invention of glass dates from, 
 at least, 2000 B.C., though the only reference 
 in the O.T. is Job 28.17 (11. V. : A.V. crystal). 
 The brightness and transparency of glass form 
 part of the imagery of the Apocalypse (Rev. 4.6, 
 15.2, 21.18, 21). The art of making mirrors 
 from glass, coated with quicksilver, was not 
 known, or, at least, not practised. Mirrors 
 were made of polished metal. In this sense 
 must be understood Ex. 38.8 ; Job 37.18; Isai. 
 3.23 ; 1 Cor. 13.12 ; 2 Cor. 3.18 ; and Jas. 1.23. 
 Such a mirror was liable to many imperfections ; 
 hence " now we see in a mirror darkly," i.e. 
 obscurely, indistinctly. 
 
 Glean. A special command was given to the 
 Hebrews that they should leave some of the 
 fruits of the fields for poor relations or the poor 
 to gather (Lev. 19.9, 10 ; Judg. 8.2). [See also 
 Ruth 2.] 
 
 Glede. Enumerated among the unclean 
 birds in Deul. 14.13 and distinguished from the 
 kite. The bird intended is the buzzard, of which 
 there are two varieties in the Holy Land the 
 common buzzard and the long-legged buzzard. 
 The former, which is fairly well known in the 
 British Islands, is a large, graceful bird, of the 
 same tribe as the falcon, but not so swift. It 
 does not, like the peregrine or merlin, chase its 
 prey or strike at it on flight, but rather watches 
 for it from a position of vantage, and pounces at 
 it unexpectedly from its post. 
 
 Gnat. Mentioned only in Matt. 23.24 
 A.V. "strain at a gnat"; R.V., correctly, "strain 
 out the gnat," The commonest gnat of Pales- 
 tine is the mosquito, whose sting is very pain- 
 ful. 
 
 Goad. A long staff or wand for driving 
 cattle, with a piece of sharply-pointed iron at one 
 end (Judg. 3.31 ; 1 Sam. 13.21 ; Eccles. 12.11). 
 For " to kick against the pricks " (Acts 26.14) 
 11. V. has " to kick against the goad," a pro- 
 verbial expression current both in Greek and 
 Latin for the futility of resistance to over- 
 whelming power. 
 
 Goah. [GOATH.] 
 
 Goat. The domestic goat was one of the 
 clean beasts, to be used for food or for sacrifice. 
 The kid was considered a delicacy (Gen. 38.17 ; 
 Judg. 15.1 ; Lk. 15.29), and is still the constant 
 dish at any feast or in the exercise of hospitality 
 among the Arabs. The same shepherd who 
 looks after the sheep also herds the goats, and 
 they mingle in their pursuit of food. At night, 
 or when being driven, they keep apart in 
 separate droves. Usually, however, they are 
 found in different localities, a hilly country 
 being better adapted for the goat than the 
 slieop. Syrian goats are usually black. The 
 
GOAT, WILD] 
 
 183 
 
 [GOD 
 
 milk of the goat is greatly esteemed, cheese 
 and butter being made from it. The skin 
 is used for water-bottles and wine-bottles. 
 These bottles are the entire skin sewn up 
 where necessary. In Ps. 119.83, "I am 
 become like a bottle in the smoke," the 
 reference is to the cracked appearance these 
 skins acquire if allowed to become parched. 
 Goats' hair is used for clothing, for curtains, 
 and for tents. All herds of goats, however 
 small, have as leader a he-goat, whose move- 
 ments all the others follow. Hence he-goat is 
 used metaphorically for leader in Jer. 50.8 and 
 Zech. 10.3. Goats have done much to exter- 
 minate shrubby vegetation in southern Syria, 
 and thus helped to keep the region in a desert 
 condition. No animals are more destructive 
 to growing young timber than goats. 
 
 Goat, Wild. The ibex of southern Palestine 
 is referred to in 1 Sam. 24.2 ; Job 39.1; 
 and Ps. 104.18. Engedi (Ain Jiddy) or " the 
 fountain of the goats," is named after the wild 
 goats, which are still sometimes to be seen 
 there. They go in small herds, are very shy, 
 and dwell in the less accessible fastnesses 
 among the mountains. The flesh is excellent 
 eating, and it was no doubt this venison that 
 Isaac sent his son to procure for him with 
 quiver and bow (Gen. 27). The flesh of the 
 gazelle, the only common species of deer in the 
 country, is dry and inferior meat. 
 
 Go'ath (K..V. Go'ah). An unknown place 
 near Jerusalem (Jer. 31.39). 
 
 Gob. Cistern : scene of conflict between 
 David's forces and the Philistines (2 5am. 21.18, 
 19). In 1 Ch. 20.4 the place is called Gezer. 
 
 God. I. The Names of God. OUT English 
 word God, which according to the Oxford 
 Dictionary is perhaps derived from the Aryan 
 ghcu, invoke or sacrifice, represents more than 
 one word in the Bible, (a) That which is in 
 most frequent use is elohim, strictly speaking, 
 a plural form, of, presumably, the word eloah. 
 But though plural in form, when it refers to 
 the one true God, the verb of which it is the 
 subject, or the adjective which agrees with 
 it, is almost invariably in the singular. The 
 chief exceptions are when either the speaker, or 
 the person addressed, is a heathen (Gen. 20.13 ; 
 1 Sam. 4.8). The cause of this strange use 
 of a plural form to indicate God is not certain, 
 but probably may be found in the fact that 
 in Hebrew the plural sometimes has an 
 intensive sense. The philological meaning of 
 the words eloah, elohim, is unknown ; of the 
 many suggestions, " He who is the refuge 
 from our fear," or " He who is feared," are 
 the least improbable. (6) El, probably " the 
 strong one," also occurs frequently. It is 
 found with additions : El-Elyon, " God most 
 high " (Gen. 14.18) ; El-Shaddai, " God 
 Almighty " (Gen. 17.1) ; and enters into the 
 composition of many Hebrew names (e.g. 
 Eliab, Michael), (c) Adonai, Lord or Master. 
 This and the two preceding words were 
 used of God as the God of the world, without 
 
 special reference to Israel. _ But (d) Jehovah 
 (which see), or more properly Jahveh (the LORD, 
 in the English versions), the self-existing One, 
 who will ever prove sufficient for all the needs 
 of His people, designates Him who was the 
 covenant-God of Israel in a special sense. 
 (e) Another name, or rather title, " The Holy 
 One of Israel" (Isat. 30.11), deserves to be 
 mentioned here, because it embodied the 
 higher ethical teaching of the prophets, re- 
 minding the people that the God whom they 
 worshipped was far removed from the ordinary 
 ways of men, and therefore required His 
 people to be like Him in hatred of sin. Under 
 this title Jehovah is recognised as the touch- 
 stone, not only of ceremonial, but also of 
 ethical, purity. (/) Father. In primitive 
 Semitic religions the term as applied to the 
 gods had a physical basis. Nations believed 
 that they were the descendants of Divine 
 beings. In the O.T., however, God is regarded 
 as the Father of Israel because He formed it 
 into a nation bv.His gracious acts (Deut. 32.6; 
 Hos. 11.1; cf. Ex. 4.22). In much the 
 same way He is called the Father of the 
 Davidic line of kings, because He chose it and 
 made it supreme (2 Sam. 7.14; Ps. 2.7, 12; 
 89.27). Later, God is said to pity those 
 who fear Him (the reference is solely to 
 Israelites and to those who accept the religion 
 of Israel), as a father pities his children 
 (Ps. 103.13 ; Mai. 3.17). 
 
 If we consider these names as a history of 
 religion, we can trace advance. From primitive 
 and physical conceits men are led to regard 
 God as the object of fear (?) ; as the supreme 
 strength (?) ; as lord and master ; then as 
 the source of life and giver of all ; as the 
 absolutely holy One who requires holiness 
 in His people ; and even to consider in some 
 degree His moral and spiritual Fatherhood. 
 The way is prepared for the perfect revelation 
 in a Son (Tleb. 1.1). 
 
 For in none of this O.T. teaching is there 
 that fulness of meaning which we associate 
 with the name Father. This is derived from 
 the teaching of the N.T. Further, although 
 in one sense God is the Father of all men, 
 the N.T. teaches us to regard Him as the 
 Father in a special degree of those who believe 
 on Him. Speaking generally, the phrase, 
 " The Fatherhood of God and the Brotherhood 
 of man " comes short of the N.T. conception 
 of the personal relation of God to true believers, 
 and their ensuing relation to one another. 
 
 II. The Doctrine of God. Certain considera- 
 tions at onne suggest themselves, (a) There is 
 no attempt in the Bible to prove the existence 
 of God. This is taken for granted. To 
 primitive man, and to the human race in 
 general, there has never been any doubt of 
 His existence. And to-day, although philo- 
 sophers assure us that it is impossible to prove 
 that God is, with the same certainty with 
 which (for example) we can prove that twice 
 two are four, yet the probability in favoui 
 
GOD] 
 
 184 
 
 [GOIIM 
 
 of it is so overwhelming as to outweigh every 
 other kind of moral certainty. Among the 
 facts to be remembered in this connexion 
 are causation, leading back to a Great First 
 Cause ; personality, the highest kind of 
 existence that can be conceived, so that a 
 First Cause lacking personality would be 
 inferior to ourselves ; the sense of beauty, 
 of morality, of justice ; the innate craving 
 after more than earth, or even eternity, can 
 satisfy, if there be not One to whom we can go. 
 (6) God is one and only one (Deut. 6.4, fully 
 accepted by the Lord Jesus, Mark 12.29). 
 For if there were more than one Supreme 
 Deity there might be conflict. Hence, as 
 against the dualism of Zoroaster, according 
 to which there are two supreme beings, one 
 good, and one evil, the Bible rightly makes 
 God supreme, even over evil (Isai. 45.6, 7). 
 This fundamental fact of the Unity of God 
 the Christian doctrine of the Trinity does not 
 contradict, but, on the contrary, safeguards. 
 
 (c) God is the Creator and Sustainer of all (Gen. 
 1.1; Acts 17.24; Rev. 4.11; so also John 1.3; 
 Col. 1.16, where the immediate Agent is the 
 Second Person in the Trinity). We are 
 learning, with clearness of perception increasing 
 every day, that there is no such thing as dead 
 and motionless matter, that the very stones 
 are quivering with energy and are only held 
 together by tremendous and active forces ; 
 that there is no break visible in the various 
 types of the vegetable and the animal kingdoms, 
 or even in the transition between what is 
 vegetable and what is animal ; that by the 
 principle of adaptation to environment primi- 
 tive matter has become more and more 
 differentiated into the marvellous forms and 
 powers in which we now find it. Our ever- 
 increasing knowledge of God's methods in 
 creation leads us to ever-increasing praise. 
 
 (d) We are learning also more of His relation 
 to us as the Sustainer of all. In regard to 
 this there are two truths, neither of which 
 can be allowed to exclude the other, (i) He is 
 Transcendent, i.e. apart from, and above, this 
 universe (see Isai. 40.22, 42.5; 1 Tim. 6.16). 
 As Browning says in " Pippa Passes," " God's in 
 His heaven, all's right with the world." But 
 if we insist on this alone we rapidly come to 
 " Deism, with its distant God and mechanical 
 universe." (ii) It is, therefore, equally important 
 to remember that God is Immanent, i.e. in, 
 with, and under, matter. " Speak to Hun 
 thou, for He hears, and Spirit with Spirit can 
 meet Closer is He than breathing, and nearer 
 than hands and feet " (Tennyson, ** The Higher 
 Pantheism"). Thus we, with all creation, are 
 in Hun (Acts 17.28 ; cf. John 1.3, 4, R.V. 
 margin), and He in us by the very fact that 
 as spirit (John 4.24) He has omnipresence. 
 It is the insistence on this truth alone that 
 lies at the basis of the so-called New Theology, 
 which is essentially the teaching of Emerson : 
 " Behind nature, throughout nature, spirit is 
 present, one and not compound, it does not 
 
 act upon us from without, that is, in space 
 and time, but spiritually, or through ourselves : 
 therefore, that spirit, that is, the Supreme 
 Being, does not build up nature around us, 
 but puts it forth through us, as the life of 
 the tree puts forth new branches and leaves 
 through the pores of the old" (Works, 1884, 
 i. 52). It will readily be understood that 
 the doctrine of the Immanence of God (con- 
 sidered alone) easily leads to Pantheism, a 
 danger which the leaders of the New Theology 
 try to avoid by insisting on the personality 
 of God, but to which many parts of their 
 teaching lead. 
 
 III. The Worship of God. II religion is a 
 necessity of human nature, worship is its 
 visible form. For although we can suppose 
 a priori that the man may prostrate himself 
 before the Divine without any external sign, 
 yet this is so inconsistent with human nature, 
 and so contrary to the demands of religion, 
 requiring, as she does, the adoration of God 
 by the whole of our complex personality, that 
 it may be disregarded. 
 
 Hence from prehistoric times man appears 
 to have used external means of worship. But 
 in proportion as his culture became deeper 
 and wider so did his sense of what was suitable 
 to worship develop. Nothing was too good 
 or valuable, whether inanimate or animate 
 nature, even as far as human life itself, to be 
 spared from dedication to God, and from 
 age-long ministry. Neither has Christianity 
 raised any demurrer against this. It is true 
 that our Lord says, " God is a Spirit ; and 
 they that worship Him must worship in spirit and 
 in truth " (John 4.24), and that in consequence 
 some Christian congregations have endeavoured 
 to reduce the accessories of worship to a 
 minimum. But they have not attempted to 
 discard them wholly, and a wider considera- 
 tion of the interrelation of body and soul 
 would lead them to use every means and form 
 appealing to the body, as well as to the soul. 
 Experience, however, has shown that for 
 people in general there is a grave danger that 
 the increase of ritual fixes attention on the 
 ritual rather than on Him to whom it is 
 addressed, and that external worship tends 
 to become formal. Hence those churches 
 act more prudently, and with a greater know- 
 ledge of human nature as we find it, who refu.se 
 to overload Divine worship with symbols, 
 and trust chiefly to simplicity of prayers, 
 and to faithfulness in reading and teaching 
 the Bible, and in proclaiming the Gospel. 
 [ALTAR, BAAL, CHURCH, CREATION, ELOI, HOLT 
 SPIRIT, JEHOVAH, JESUS CHRIST, LORD, LORD 
 OP HOSTS, TABERNACLE, TEMPLE, TRINITY, 
 WORSHIP.] 
 
 Gog. 1. A Reubenite, son of Shemaiah 
 (1 Ch. 5.4). 2. A chief from the land of Magog 
 (Ezek. 38 and 39). In Rev. 20.8, Magog is a 
 companion of Gog. [MAGOG.] 
 
 Goiim. The Hebrew word for nations, and 
 so rendered in the A.V. even in Gen. 14.1 and 
 
GOLAN] 
 
 185 
 
 [GRACE 
 
 Josh. 12.23, in both of which places the R.V. 
 retains (ioiirn. In the former passage it seems 
 to represent certain hordes on the north of 
 Elam. 
 
 Go 'Ian. Naked, lore : town and district in 
 Bashan, allotted to east half-tribe of Manasseh ; 
 assigned to the Gershonites, and appointed as 
 one of the cities of refuge (DtnU. 4.43 ; Josh. 
 20.8, 21.27; 1 Ch. 6.71). 
 
 Gold. The use of gold was common among 
 the Hebrews. Several parts of the temple and 
 of its furniture and utensils were overlaid with 
 this precious metal (Ex. 36.34-38 ; 1 K. 7.48-50) ; 
 and many of the vessels of the wealthy, as well 
 as their personal ornaments and insignia of 
 office, were of gold. Ophir (Job 28.16), Parvaim 
 (2 Ch. 3.6), Sheba, and Raamah (Ezek. 27.22, 
 23) are mentioned as places producing gold. 
 It was abundant in ancient times (1 Ch. 22.14 ; 
 2 Ch. 1.15, 9.9 ; Dan. 3.1 ; Nah. 2.9), and 
 was neither coined nor used as a standard of 
 value. 
 
 Goldsmith. [HANDICRAFT.] 
 
 Golgo'tha. Skull : the Hebrew name of the 
 spot at which Christ was crucified (Matt. 27.33 ; 
 Mk. 15.22 ; John 19.17). [CALVARY.] 
 
 Goli'ath. A famous giant of Gath who defied 
 the armies of Israel, but was slain and despoiled 
 by David while a stripling (1 Sam. 17). His 
 height was " six cubits and a span." With a 
 cubit of 21 in., this would make him over 10 J ft. ; 
 taking the cubit at 18 in., it would make him over 
 9 ft. After the victory David cut off Goliath's 
 head, which he brought to Jerusalem, while 
 he hung the armour in his tent (1 Sam. 17.54). 
 
 Go'mer. Completion, heat : 1. The son of 
 Japheth and the father of Ashkenaz, Riphath, 
 and Togarmah (Gen. 10.2, 3). His descendants 
 are mentioned in Ezek. 38.6. 2. The wife or 
 concubine of Hosea (Eos. 1.3). 
 
 Gomor'rah or Gomorrha. Submersion : one 
 of the five cities of the plain (Gen. 10.19, 13.10) 
 which opposed the invasion of Chedorlaomer 
 (Gen. 14.2-11); destroyed by fire and brimstone 
 (Gen. 19.24, 28) ; its wickedness made proverbial 
 (Gen. 18.20; Deut. 29.23, 32.32; Isai. 1.9, 10; 
 Jer. 23.14, 49.18 ; Rom. 9.29) ; its fate a 
 warning against sin (Deut. 29.23 ; Matt. 10.15 ; 
 Mk. 6.11; 2 Pet. 2.6; Jude 7); supplying a 
 precedent for the destruction of Babylon (Isai. 
 13.19; Jer. 50.40); of Edom (Jer. 49.18); of 
 Moab(ZpA. 2.9); and of Israel (Jmo*4.11). The 
 cities of the plain were situated in the Jordan 
 valley near the north end of the Dead Sea. 
 They were all involved in the catastrophe except 
 Zoar, which has been identified with the modern 
 Tell esh-Shaghur, at the foot of the Moabite 
 hills. 
 
 Gopher Wood. The substance of which 
 Noah's Ark was constructed (Gen. 6.14). The 
 word nowhere else occurs in Scripture, and is 
 generally taken to signify cypress, which is still 
 found in the regions watered by the Euphrates 
 and the Tigris. 
 
 Gorget. A. V. marg. of 1 Sam. 17.6, for "a 
 target" of brass; R.V. has "javelin of brass." 
 
 Go'shen. 1. Fertile district on the east border 
 of Lower Egypt, where Jacob and his family 
 settled, and where their descendants remained 
 un til the exodus (Gen. 45. 10, 46.28-34,47.1-6, 27, 
 50.8; Ex. 8.22, 9.26). When the Hebrews 
 settled there it was not an organised province 
 occupied by an agricultural population, but a 
 large tract of marshland which might be given 
 by the king to foreigners without injury to the 
 native population. With the increase of the 
 population, no doubt the name Goshen covered 
 a large space of territory, and we may define 
 its boundaries as extending from the Tanitic 
 branch of the Nile in the eastern part of the 
 delta to the desert of the Red Sea. 2. District in 
 south Palestine taken by Joshua (Josh. 10.41, 
 11.16). 3. Town in the highlands of Judah 
 (Josh. 15.51). 
 
 Gospel. The word, meaning good news or 
 good message, is applied to the four inspired 
 histories of the life and teaching of Christ con- 
 tained in the N.T. (Matt., Mk., Lk., John) ; also 
 to the revelation of the grace of God which 
 Christ came to preach, and of which He, in His 
 life and death and resurrection, is the contents, 
 and which means for men salvation and peace. 
 It is called the Gospel of His grace, because it 
 flows from His free love (Acts 20.24) ; the Gospel 
 of the Kingdom, as it treats of the Kingdom of 
 grace and glory (Matt. 4.23) ; the Gospel of Christ, 
 because He is the author and subject of it (Rom. 
 1.16) ; the Gospel of peace and salvation, as 
 it promotes our present comfort and leads to 
 eternal glory (Eph. 1.13, 6.15); the glorious 
 Gospel, as in it the glorious perfections of God 
 are displayed (2 Cor. 4.4) ; and the everlasting 
 Gospel, as it was designed from eternity, is 
 permanent in time and of eternal effect (Rev. 14. 6). 
 [See NBW TESTAMENT, and each Gospel under 
 the name of its author.] 
 
 Gourd. There has been much discussion 
 as to the identity of the plant which afforded 
 to the discouraged prophet Jonah a welcome 
 shade and a salutary lesson. Opinion inclines 
 to the castor-oil plant, the Palma Christ! of 
 marg. of A.V. and R.V. (Jonah 4.6-10). 
 
 The wild gourds put into the pottage of Elisha 
 (2 K. 4.39) differ from the plant of Jonah. 
 These were colocynths, from which a well-known 
 medicine, bitter and drastic, is made ; the 
 flavour would at once excite alarm, and the plants, 
 if eaten as food, are highly poisonous. The 
 colocynth grows abundantly in the low flats 
 around the Dead Sea. When fully ripe it has 
 a rind of a bright orange colour and contains 
 bitter seeds and dust (see 1 K. 6.18 marg.). 
 
 Go'zan. District to which the Israelites were 
 carried captive by the Assyrians (2K. 17.6, 18.11, 
 19.12; 1 Ch. 5.26; and Isai. 37.12); probably 
 that watered by the H;ibor (Khabour), which 
 flows through Mesopotamia into the Euphrates, 
 a region of remarkable fertility. 
 
 Grace. In the O.T., favour, especially in the 
 phrase to " find grace" (Gen. 6.8, etc.). In the 
 N.T. (except Jos. 1.11, where " grace " equals 
 " comeliness "), the free, unmerited favour of 
 
GEAPE] 
 
 186 
 
 [HABAKKUK 
 
 God to man ; sometimes contrasted with the 
 Law (Rom. 6.14) ; and expressing the course of 
 mercy by which man is "called" (Gal. 1.15), 
 "saved '" (Eph. 2.8), "justified "(Rom. 3.24), 
 enabled to live aright (1 Cor. 15.10) and to find 
 this " sufficient " for him (2 Cor. 12.9). 
 
 Grape. [Vims.] 
 
 Grass. The minor vegetation of field and 
 meadow in Bible phrase ** the grass of the field " 
 springing forth so fair and abundant in the early 
 spring and quickly withering in the summer's 
 heat, is a frequent emblem of the frailty, brevity, 
 and transitoriness of human life and fortune 
 (Job 8.12; Ps. 37.2, 90.5; Isai. 40.6, 7). In 
 winter the meadows of Palestine are simply 
 colourless ; all traces of the spring glory are 
 gone. 
 
 Grasshopper. [LOCUST.] 
 
 Grave. [ BURIAL. ] 
 
 Greaves. A piece of armour for the legs 
 (1 Sam. 17.6). 
 
 Grecian. [GREEK.] 
 
 Greece, or Grecia. Country in south-east of 
 Europe, but little known to the Hebrews ; 
 referred to in early Scriptures under the titles 
 " Javan " (i.e. Ionia), " Chittim," etc. Its 
 inhabitants purchased Israelites as slaves 
 (Ezek. 27.13 ; Joel 3.6) ; its extension of empire 
 foretold (Dan. 8.21, 10.20, 11.2), and opposition 
 by Jews (Zech. 9.13). It was the sphere of 
 labours of apostles and evangelists (Acts 20.2). 
 The points of direct contact between Greece. and 
 Palestine are few and obscure. Alexander the 
 Great visited Jerusalem after the siege of Tyre, 
 treating the high-priest and the Jewish religion 
 with great respect. A fact of the greatest im- 
 portance, in view of the spread of the Gospel, 
 was the existence of Greek as a means of general 
 communication in western Asia during the 
 period of our Lord's ministry and the apostolic 
 labours. 
 
 Greeks. In the N.T. this term (Hellenes) de- 
 notes either natives of Greece or, more generally, 
 Gentiles, all who are not Jews (Rom. 1.14 ; 
 1 Cor. 1.24, etc.). It must be carefully dis- 
 tinguished from the term Hellenists, rendered 
 M Grecians " in A.V. of Acts 6.1, 9.29, 11.20, 
 
 R.V. " Grecian Jews." These were Greek- 
 speaking Jews settled in various countries of 
 the " dispersion." In Acts 11.20 the reading is 
 uncertain as between " Greeks " and " Grecian 
 Jews," a problem of great interest for the 
 interpretation of the writer's narrative of the 
 gradual extension of the Gospel to the Gentiles. 
 [DISPERSION.] 
 
 Greyhound. In Prov. 30.29-31 there is 
 mention of " four things which are stately in 
 going " : of these one is represented by a Heb- 
 rew phase, " Well girt (or well knit) in the loins " 
 (see R.V. marg.). Probably the greyhound is 
 intended, though R.V. marg. has war-horse (other 
 suggestions are a wrestler, a cock, etc.). The 
 Persian greyhound is occasionally to be seen in 
 the possession of Arab sheikhs, who keep it for 
 hunting the gazelle. It is of a similar breed to 
 our greyhound, but stronger built and more 
 shaggy. 
 
 Grisled (Gen. 31.10,12; Zech. 6.3,6). 
 " Spotted." 
 
 Grove. The word occurs some forty times 
 in the A.V. of the O.T. as a feature in idolatrous 
 worship, forbidden to Israel (Ex. 34.13 ; Judg. 
 6.25-30 ; 1 K. 16.33 ; 2 K. 18.4 ; Isai. 17.8, etc.). 
 In every instance R.V. retains the Hebrew word 
 Asherah or (plur.) Asherim, which seems to have 
 been a sacred pile, planted in the ground either 
 to mark the place of heathen worship or as 
 some symbol of the deity worshipped. 
 
 The " grove" of A.V. Gen. 21.33 ; 1 Sam. 22.6 
 marg.is rightly rendered " tamarisk-tree" by R.V. 
 
 Gudgo'dah. Site of Israelite encampment 
 (Deut. 10.7); probably same as Hor Hagidgad 
 (Num. 33.32, 33). 
 
 Guest. [HOSPITALITY.] 
 
 Gu Hi. Protected : 1. A son of Naphtali 
 (Gen. 46.24 ; 1 Ch. 7.13), the founder of the 
 family of the Gunites. 2. A descendant of 
 Gad ; father of Abdiel, a chief man in his tribe 
 (1 Ch. 5.15). 
 
 Gur. Sojourning : ascent from the plain of 
 Jezreel where Ahaziah was fatally wounded when 
 fleeing from Jehu (2 K. 9.27). 
 
 Gur-Ba aL Sojourning of Baal : residence of 
 Arabians attacked by Uzziah (2 Ch. 26.7). 
 
 H 
 
 H. This letter represents two different 
 Hebrew letters, one answering to our ft; the 
 other to the Scotch ch. Hence words or 
 syllables identical in English may have very 
 different meanings. 
 
 Haahashta'ri. Perhaps Royal: a man or 
 family descended from Ashur, father of Tekoa 
 (1 Ch. 4.6). 
 
 Habai'ah. (?) God conceals : a priestly family 
 that had lost its pedigree (Ezra 2.61), called 
 Hobaiah in Neh. 7.63 (R.V.). 
 
 Habak'kuk. (?) Wrestler : a prophet, the 
 author of the book bearing his name. Little can 
 be inferred with confidence as to his personality 
 or date. Nothing is known as to his tribe or 
 parentage, or occupation. From the fact that he 
 makes no mention of Assyria, and speaks of the 
 Chaldean power as growing with almost incred- 
 ible rapidity, it is concluded that he prophesied 
 in Judah during the reign of Jehoiakim, shortly 
 before the invasion of Nebuchadnez/ar (1.6; 
 2.3). This would make Ilabakkuk contem- 
 
HABAKKUK, BOOK OF] 
 
 187 
 
 [HAGABA 
 
 porary with Jeremiah. For an example of the 
 Jewish legends about him, see Bel and the 
 Dragon, w. 33-39. 
 
 Habakkuk, Book of. The contents of this 
 book may be divided into two parts. Chaps. 1 
 and 2 depict the sins of Judah ; and foretell the 
 punishment of the people by the Chaldeans, 
 which shall be followed by the overthrow of 
 these enemies, announced in a fivefold series of 
 " woes " against them (vv. 6-20). In chap. 3 
 the prophet concludes his book with a sublime 
 song, both of praise and prayer. This 
 psalm, which was evidently intended for use 
 in public worship, was designed to afford 
 consolation to pious Jews under their approach- 
 ing calamities. God's deliverance in the future 
 shall be as marked as the deliverance of old 
 at Mount Sinai. 
 
 The prophecy of Habakkuk is especially 
 distinguished for its declaration of the im- 
 portant truth adopted by the Apostle Paul 
 as the groundwork of his greatest teachings : 
 " The just shall live by faith " (Hob. 2.4 ; Rom. 
 1.17). [FAITH.] Besides the profound declara- 
 tion in 2.4, two sentences by this prophet 
 are also employed with evangelical meaning : 
 the warning in 1.5 which is quoted by Paul 
 at Antioch (Acts 13.40,41), and the certain, 
 although tarrying, vision (2.3), used in Heb. 
 10.37. There is also a resemblance between 
 2.11 and Lk. 19.40, and between 3.18 and 
 Lk. 1.47. 
 
 Habazini'ah, Habazzini'ah. The head of one 
 of the families of the Rechabites (Jer. 35.3). 
 
 Habergeon. A coat of mail to protect the 
 upper part of the body (Job 41.26). In Ex. 
 28.32 a linen corselet. [BREASTPLATE.] 
 
 HaT)or. Junction : a river in ancient Gozan 
 which, rising in the mountainous district of 
 Mesopotamia, flows into the Euphrates. It 
 watered the district to which the Israelites 
 were carried captive by the Assyrians (2 K. 
 17.6, 18.11 ; 1 Ch. 5.26). The transportation 
 of the ten tribes was begun by Tiglath-pileser 
 and completed by Shalmanezer. Habor is now 
 called Khabour. The country on both sides 
 of the river is covered with the remains (shown 
 only by mounds) of Assyrian cities. 
 
 Hacali'ah, Hachali'ah. Wait for Jehovah: 
 the father of Nehemiah (Neh. 1.1, 10.1). 
 
 Hachi'lah. Dark - coloured : a mountain 
 stronghold at the southern extremity of the 
 wilderness of Juda (1 Sam. 23.19, 26.1,3). 
 It was here that David hid himself from Saul. 
 Its position is not known. 
 
 Hachmo'ni. The wise : the father or 
 ancestor of Jehiel (1 Ch. 27.32), who was tutor 
 to David's sons. 
 
 Hachmo'nite (1 Ch. 11.11). Perhaps to be 
 transliterated Hachmoni and the same person 
 as th5 preceding. [TACHMONITE and JASHO- 
 
 BEAM.] 
 
 Ha'dad (perhaps " the thunderer." The 
 title of the weather-god of Palestine and Syria). 
 1. A son of Ishmael, also called Hadar (Gen. 
 25.15 ; 1 Ch. 1.30). 
 
 2. Asonof Bedad,kingof Edom, whose capital 
 was Avith (Gen. 36.35; 1 Ch. 1.46). [Avira.] 
 
 3. Another, and the last of the " kings " of 
 Edom. After his death the rulers of the country 
 were called " dukes " (1 Ch. 1.51 ). He occupied 
 Pai or Pau as his capital city (Gen. 36.39 ; 
 1 Ch. 1.50). Called Hadar Gen. 36.39. 
 
 4. The son of Bedad, king of Edom. He was 
 carried into Egypt by his father's servants, when 
 Joab, general of David's troops, extirpated the 
 males of Edom. Hadad was then but a child. 
 The king of Egypt gave him position, house, and 
 lands, and married him to the sister of his own 
 wife. After David's death Hadad desired to 
 return to his own country. Pharaoh wished to 
 detain him, for a strong friendship had grown 
 up between the families, but at last consented. 
 
 Back in Edom, Hadad began to raise dis- 
 turbances against Solomon, though we are not 
 given particulars (1 K. 11.14-25). 
 
 Hadade'zer. Hadad is help : a king of 
 Zobah whom David defeated (2 Sam. 8.3 ; 1 K. 
 11.23). Called Hadarezer in Chronicles. The 
 spoil, a thousand " shields of gold," etc., was 
 taken to Jerusalem and devoted to the service 
 of God (1 Ch. 18.3, 4, 7). Later on, at Helam, 
 he was again defeated by David (2 Sam. 10.16 ; 
 1 Ch. 19.16), and his allies became subject to 
 David. [ZoBAH.] 
 
 Ha'dadrim'mon. Hadad Rimmon : if this is 
 a place it is the scene of lamentation in the 
 valley of Megiddo, where Josiah died from 
 wounds received in battle with the Egyptians 
 (Zech, 12.11 ; see 2 K. 23.29 ; 2 Ch. 35.22). It 
 has been identified as Rummaneh. But per- 
 haps the lamentation is for the god TAIIMUZ 
 (Adonis), who may have had this joint name 
 of the two gods Hadad and Rimmon. 
 
 Hadar. [See HADAD 1 and 3.] 
 
 Hadare'zer. [HADADEZER.] 
 
 Hada'shah. New (city): a town in the 
 lowlands of Judah (Josh. 15.37). It may be 
 the modern town of Adasa. 
 
 Hadas'sah. Myrtle : the earlier and Jewish 
 name of Queen Esther (Esth.2.1). [ESTHER.] 
 
 Hadat'tah. New : one of the names of 
 Hazor (Josh. 15.25). [HAZOR-HADATTAH.] 
 
 Hades. [HELL.] 
 
 Ha'did. Pointed : a town occupied after 
 the return from captivity (Ezra 2.33 ; Neh. 
 7.37, 11.34). It is now Haditheh, 3 miles 
 east of Lydda. 
 
 Had'laL Lax : an Ephraimite, father ' of 
 Amasa, a chief of the tribe in the reign of 
 1'ekah (2 Ch. 28.12). 
 
 Hado'ram. 1. A son of Joktan the Shemite 
 (Gen. 10.27). There is a district called Dauram 
 in Yemen. 2. A son of Tou, the king of Hamath 
 (1 Ch. 18.10). 3. See AooRAwand ADONIRAM. 
 
 Ha drach. A Syrian district in the vicinity 
 of Damascus (Zech. 9.1). 
 
 Ha'gab. Locust : the sons of Hagab were 
 among the Nethinim who returned with Zerub- 
 babel (Ezra 2.46). The name is not in 
 Nehemiah's list. 
 
 Haga'ba, Haga'bah. Locust : another of the 
 
HAGAR] 
 
 188 
 
 [HAIE 
 
 Nethinim who returned (Ezra 2.45; Keh. 
 7.48). 
 
 Hagar. (?) Wanderer: an Egyptian slave 
 belonging to Sarah, and by her given to Abraham 
 that she might have children (Qen. 16). Hagar's 
 delight when she found that she was with child 
 while her mistress was childless provoked 
 Sarah to such an extent that Hagar was com- 
 pelled to flee the tents of Abraham and hide 
 in the wilderness. There she was met by an 
 angel, who persuaded her to return home and 
 submit herself to Sarah. In commemoration 
 of this vision (Gen. 16.14) the place was called 
 Beer-lahai-roi. When her son Ishmael was 
 fourteen, and Sarah was celebrating the weaning 
 of her son Isaac with great rejoicing, Hagar 
 again insulted her. Abraham, perceiving 
 that the two women could not get on together, 
 at the request of Sarah, sent Hagar away, 
 this time finally (Gen. 21.14). In the desert 
 Ishmael is miraculously saved from death. 
 
 The Arabians, who are the descendants of 
 Ishmael, call Hagar " Mother Hagar," and 
 maintain that she was Abraham's lawful wife. 
 
 The Apostle Paul takes Hagar as a type of 
 the old covenant (Gal. 4.22 ff.), her offspring 
 according to the old law being slaves with 
 herself. Sarah was free, a type of the heavenly 
 Jerusalem, and the Christian therefore is warned 
 against being bound under the Mosaic Covenant, 
 lest he finds himself bound and banned with 
 Hagar and Ishmael. [ISHMAEL, ABRAHAM.] 
 
 Hagarites, Hagarenes, Hagerite. Ishmael - 
 ites, or descendants of Hagar, who, in the time 
 of Saul, were defeated by the Reubenites 
 (1 Ch. 5.10, 19, 20). That they were nomads 
 is shown by the fact that the spoil consisted 
 chiefly of tents and camels (Ps. 83.6). The 
 chief overseer of David's flocks was Jaziz the 
 Hagerite (1 Ch. 27-31). [HAGGERI.] In later 
 times the term Hagarenes was applied to 
 Moslems, who, with the Arabians, are said to 
 be descended from Hagar. 
 
 Haggai. Festal : one of the three prophets 
 of the Restoration. Little is known as to his 
 personality, but his date appears from his book 
 and that of Ezra. He was, very probably, 
 born during the Captivity. He accompanied 
 Zerubbabel and the other exiles to Jerusalem 
 in 536 B.C. The rebuilding of the Temple 
 was begun with great zeal, but, owing to the 
 opposition of the Samaritans, was suspended 
 for fourteen years. Then, Darius Hystaspes 
 succeeding to the Babylonian throne, Haggai 
 was inspired by God to exhort Zerubbabel and 
 Joshua to recommence operations on the Temple. 
 His pleadings were effective (Hag. 1.14, 2.1), 
 and they resumed the rebuilding in 520, sixteen 
 years after the return. 
 
 It is said that Haggai was buried at Jerusalem 
 near the sepulchres of the priests. 
 
 Haggai, The Book of. The contents of this 
 book are divisible into four prophetic messages, 
 all delivered in about four months (Hag. 1.1, 
 2.1, 10, 20). They are so brief that they are sup- 
 posed to be only a summary of the original 
 
 prophecies. In the first, Haggai reproves the 
 Jews for neglecting the Temple, and promises 
 that Divine favour shall attend its erection. 
 Twenty-four days after this prophecy the 
 work is resumed, and a gracious message from 
 God received. But a short month afterwards 
 the zeal of the people again slackened, and 
 they began to doubt the expediency and 
 possibility of the restoration. To remove their 
 doubts and revive their flagging energies Haggai 
 prophesies that the Lord is with them and 
 that the glory of the new Temple shall be 
 greater than that of the former (Ilag. 2.1-9). 
 The third prophecy was to rebuke their listless- 
 ness, and to further urge them to do their best 
 (Hag. 2.10-19). The same day he delivered 
 a fourth prophecy, addressed to Zerubbabel, 
 the head and representative of the family of 
 David, and the person with whom the genealogy 
 of the Messiah (Matt. 1.12; Lk. 3.27) began 
 after the Captivity, promising the preservation 
 of the people of God, amidst the fall and rum of 
 the kingdoms of the world (2.20-23). Compare 
 Hag. 2.6 with Heb. 12.26, 27. 
 
 In 2.7 "the desire of all nations" should 
 doubtless be translated " the desirable things," 
 etc., referring to the gifts of golden vessels, etc., 
 which adorned the second Temple, and were 
 presented by Gentiles. On the other hand, 
 2.9, ** In this place will I give peace," no doubt 
 was fulfilled by the presence of the Lord Jesus 
 in the second Temple. 
 
 Hag'geri (R.V. Hagri). Wanderer (1 Ch. 
 11.38). Father of one of David's warriors. 
 Perhaps a Hagarite (which see). 
 
 Hag'gi. Festal : a son of Gad. The founder 
 of the Haggites (Gen. 46.16 ; Num. 26.15). 
 
 Haggi'ah. Feast of Jehovah : a Levite 
 (1 Ch. 6.30). 
 
 Hag'gites. The posterity of Haggi (Num. 
 26.15). 
 
 Hag'gith. Festal : a wife of David and mother 
 of Adonijah (2 Sam. 3.4 ; 1 K. 1.5, 11, 2.13 ; 
 1 Ch. 3.2). 
 
 Hagri. [HAOOERI.] 
 
 Hagrite. [HAOARITKS.] 
 
 Ha'i. [Ai.] 
 
 Hair. Hebrew women wore their hair long, 
 and divided into a number of tresses, which 
 were generally braided together. Black hair was 
 regarded by the Hebrews as most beautiful 
 (Cant. 5.11). St. Paul's statement" Doth not 
 even nature itself teach you, that, if a man have 
 long hair, it is a shame unto him ? But if a 
 woman have long hair, it is a glory to her : for 
 her hair is given her for a covering " (1 Cor. 
 11.14, 15) agrees with Orient?.! custom. 
 Hebrew men wore their natural hair trimmed, 
 but not shorn. That they took great pains to 
 enhance its natural beauty is shown by such 
 passages as Ruth 3.3 ; Ps. 23.5 ; Ecclet. 
 9.8 ; Matt. 6.17, where the practice of 
 cherishing and beautifying with perfumed oint- 
 ments is shown to have been common. The 
 Apostles noticed the excessive attention paid to 
 the elaborate dressing of the hair by the women 
 
HAJEHUDIJAH] 
 
 189 
 
 [HAMATH 
 
 of their day, and rebuked it (1 Tim. 2.9 ; 1 Pet. 
 3.3). Cutting off the hair was a sign of mourning 
 ( Job 1.20 ; Jer. 7.29) ; but sometimes for the 
 same cause the hair was suffered to grow long 
 and neglected. Plucking out the hair with the 
 hands was a sign of great and sudden grief. 
 One of the signs of leprosy was a change in the 
 colour of the hair : hence the command to cut it 
 off, as the seat of disease (Lev. 13.4, 10, 14.8, 9). 
 The expression " hair like purple " in Cant. 
 7.5 is generally taken to mean the sheen of 
 well-tended locks. The hair was considered the 
 least valuable part of man (2 Sam. 14.11 ; Matt. 
 10.30), but the Arabs still swear by their beards, 
 and perhaps the swearing by the head (Matt. 
 5.36) may have meant swearing by the hair 
 upon it. [BARBER, BKABD, HEADDRESS, BALD- 
 NESS.] 
 
 Some of the earlier natives of the East were 
 in the habit of shaving the head entirely, and 
 then replacing their shorn locks with wigs of 
 extravagant and often fantastic form. Among 
 the Egyptians and the Greeks this practice was 
 common, partly for the sake of cleanliness. 
 Among the many forms of dressing hair, powder- 
 ing was frequently resorted to, Solomon's guard, 
 according to Joseph us, sprinkling gold-dust upon 
 their hair, which had been previously curled 
 and perfumed. Among the Medes the wig 
 was worn by the upper classes ; but while the 
 Assyrians wore their hair in long ringlets it is 
 doubtful whether these were composed of their 
 own hair or of false. The Hebrews never wore 
 wigs. The favourite colour was black, and 
 sometimes dyes and stains were resorted to, to 
 give an extra sheen, or to conceal age. 
 
 Hajehudijah. [JBHUDTJAH.] 
 
 Hakka'tan. The small: the chief of the sons 
 of Azgad (Ezra 8.12). 
 
 Hak koz. The thorn or briar : a priest 
 appointed by David to the service of the Sanc- 
 tuary (1 Ch. 24.10). The name is really Koz, 
 the Ha being the definite article, which duplicates 
 the first letter. The name occurs again, without 
 the prefix, in Ezra 2.01. [Coz.] 
 
 Haku'pha. Head of a family of Nethinim 
 (Ezra 2.51). 
 
 Ha'lah. A district to which some of the 
 Israelites were carried captive by the Assyrians 
 (2 K. 17.6; 1 Ch. 5.26). It probably lay in 
 Mesopotamia. 
 
 Ha'lak. Bald or smooth mountain : the 
 southern limit of Joshua's conquests (Josh. 
 11.17, 12.7). Locality unknown. Perhaps 
 the white cliffs 8 miles south of the Dead Sea. 
 
 Hal'huL A city in the hill country of Judah 
 about 3J miles north of Hebron (Josh. 15.58). It 
 still bears its ancient name. 
 
 Ha'li. (?) Ornament : a town on the boundary 
 of Asher (Josh. 19.25). Nothing is known of its 
 situation. 
 
 Hall. [JUDGMENT HALL.] 
 
 Hallelujah. [ ALLKLUI A.] 
 
 Hallohesh. [HALOHESH.] 
 Hallow. To render sacred, set apart, or 
 consecrate. The English \vord is from the 
 
 Saxon, and is properly to holify, to make holy : 
 hence hallowed things, persons, and places : 
 hence also the name, character, power, and 
 dignity of God is to be hallowed i.e. profoundly 
 reverenced as holy (Ex. 20.11, 40.9 ; Matt. 
 6.9; Lk. 11.2). [HOLY.] 
 
 Halohesh, Hallohesh. The whisperer or 
 magician : a name that occurs in the two lists 
 of returned exiles (Neh. 3.12, 10.24). 
 
 Ham. 1. One of Noah's sons, perhaps the 
 youngest (Gen. 5.32). Possibly the name signifies 
 burnt or black, which is peculiarly significant of 
 the nations placed among his descendants viz. 
 of his eldest son Gush the Assyrians and Baby- 
 lonians, the Canaanites, Zidonians, Egyptians, 
 Libyans (Gen. 10.6). The Hamites in general 
 were often a seafaring race, and were sooner 
 civilised than their pastoral brethren of the other 
 two families. The early great empires of 
 Assyria and Egypt were founded by them, and 
 the republics of Tyre, Sidon, and Carthage were 
 fiarly distinguished for their commerce. But 
 they also fell sooner to decay. Egypt, which 
 was one of the first, became the last and " basest 
 of the kingdoms " (Ezek. 29.15), and has been 
 successively in subjection to the descendants 
 of Shem and Japheth, as have also the settle- 
 ments of the other branches of the Hamites. In 
 the reference in Ps. 78.51, 105.23 to " the land 
 of Ham," the country so designated is Egypt. 
 In 1 Ch. 4.40 it probably signifies ancient 
 Canaanites. [Cusn, CANAAN, MIZBAIM.] 
 
 2. Hot : site of the victory of Chedorlaomer 
 over the Zuzim (Gen. 14.5). 
 
 Ha 'man. The son of Hammed atha the 
 Agagite (Esth. 3.1), who was the vizier of King 
 Ahasuerus. He attempted the destruction of all 
 the Jews in the Persian Empire as a revenge 
 for a slight put upon him by Mordecai, a 
 Jew, and the uncle of Queen Esther. Mordecai 
 urged the queen to intercede with Ahasuerus 
 for their deliverance. But all the king could do, 
 the decree having already been signed, was to 
 hang Haman on the gallows that had been 
 prepared for Mordecai, and issue another decree 
 permitting the Jews to defend themselves. 
 Modern Jews have a habit of calling any common 
 enemy by this name. When Haman's name is 
 mentioned in the Synagogue at Purim it is 
 greeted in Russia with stamping and the rattle 
 of clappers made for the purpose. [ESTHER, 
 PURIM.] 
 
 Ha'math, He'math. Fortress or sacred en- 
 closure : a city and kingdom of upper Syria in the 
 valley of the Orontes ; the " entering in," being 
 at the north extremity of Lebanon, is the 
 opening between that mountain and the range 
 of Bargylus (Nusairiyeh) on the north. It was 
 the limit of territory assigned to the Israelites 
 (Num. 13.21), although the actual possession of 
 the country by them fell far short of this 
 boundary. In the time of David the name 
 comes up again when King Toi congratulated 
 him upon his defeat of their common enemy, 
 Hadadezer (2 Sam. 8.9, 10). That Hamath 
 formed part of the dominions of Solomon is 
 
HAMATHITE] 
 
 190 
 
 [HANANI 
 
 seen from the fact that he built store-cities 
 there (2 Ch. 8.4; see also 2 K. 14.28). It 
 became a free state again, however, on the 
 death of Solomon, and maintained its inde- 
 pendence until Jeroboam seized it and destroyed 
 its fortifications (2 K. 14.28). Later it got into 
 the possession of Assyria (2 K. 18.34 ; /sat. 10.9), 
 and was afterwards held by the Chaldeans in 
 the time of Zedekiah (Jer, 39.5, 49.23, 52.9, 27). 
 It was not only an important trading post, but 
 was remarkable for its system of irrigation by 
 means of large water-wheels, which raised water 
 from the Orontes for the supply of the upper 
 town. It is now known as llama. 
 
 Hamathite. The inhabitants of Hamath 
 (Gen. 10.18). They were probably akin to 
 the Hittites. Many inscriptions written in the 
 Hittite language have been found at Hamath. 
 
 Ha'math-Zo'bah. (?) Fortress of Zobah : a 
 place taken by Solomon (2 Ch. 8.3). Probably 
 identical with Hamath. 
 
 Ham 'math. IIol springs : 1. A fortified city," 
 belonging to Naphtali, one mile south from 
 Tiberias (Josh. 19.35). It is the same place as 
 Hammoth - Dor ( Josh. 21.32) and Hammon 
 (1 Ch. 6.76). Its waters are hot and sulphureous, 
 and still flow, at a temperature of 144, from 
 three springs at the extremity of the ancient city. 
 2. See HEMATH 2. 
 
 Hammeah. [MEAH.] 
 
 Hammeda'tha. Double : the father of Haman 
 ( Esth. 3. 1 ). The origin of the name is Persian. 
 
 Hamme'lech (Jer. 36.26). The king: R.V. 
 correctly, " Jerahmeel the son of the king." 
 So in 38.6. 
 
 Hammer. One word for a hammer made of 
 hard metal for beating or breaking through 
 is found in 1 K. 6.7 ; /sat. 44.12 ; and Jer. 10.4, 
 and in nearly the same form in Judg. 4.21. 
 But in the ancient song of Deborah (Judg. 5.26) 
 another word is employed, meaning a beater or 
 mallet made of wood. The hammer used by 
 Jael (Judg. 4.21) was a mallet or maul of 
 wood used to drive the tent pegs into the ground. 
 Goldbeaters and silversmiths had their special 
 hammers (/sat. 41.7), as had also the quarryman 
 and stonemason (Jer. 23.29). Metaphorically 
 " hammer " is used for any smashing, annihila- 
 ting force (Jer. 23.29, 50.23). 
 
 Hammole'keth. The queen : daughter of 
 Machir and sister of Gilead (1 Ch. 7.17, 18). 
 She was an ancestress of Gideon, the judge. 
 There is a Jewish tradition that "she used to 
 reign over a portion of the land which belonged 
 to Gilead." 
 
 Ham'mon (1 Ch. 6.76). Hot lath: 1. See 
 HAMMATH. 2. A city of Asher, not far from 
 " Great Zidon " ( Josh. 19.28, 35). It has been 
 identified with Ain Hamul, near the coast, and 
 about ten miles from Tyre. It was assigned to 
 the Gershonites out of the possessions of Naph- 
 tali (1 Ch. 6.76). 
 
 Ham 'moth-Dor. Hot springs of Dor : a town 
 of Naphtali, assigned to the Gershonites, and 
 for a city of refuge. It is the same place as 
 Hammath (Josfc. 21.32). 
 
 HammueL [ 
 
 Hamo nab,. Multitude : a city which is sup- 
 posed to have got its name from the multitudes 
 of Gog that were slaughtered and buried near 
 there (Ezek. 39.16). 
 
 Ha'mon-Gog. Gog's multitude : a glen 
 previously known as the " glen of the passengers 
 on the east of the sea," after the burial there of 
 Gog and all his multitude (Ezek. 39.11, 15). 
 
 Hamor. He-ass : a Ilivite, from whom 
 Jacob bought a piece of ground (Gen. 33.19 ; 
 Josh. 24.32). He was the father of Shechem, 
 who committed the calamitous offence against 
 Dinah (Gen. 34). 
 
 Hamran. [AMRAM.] 
 
 Hamu'el, Hammu'eL God w a sun : a 
 Simeonite (1 Ch. 4.26). 
 
 Ha'muL Treated mercifully : the head of the 
 Hamulite family, and younger son of Pharez 
 (Perez), son of Judah (Gen. 46.12 ; 1 Ch. 2.5). 
 
 Hamuli'tes. Belonging to Hamul (Num. 
 26.21). 
 
 Hamu'taL (?) Kin to the dew : daughter of 
 Jeremiah of Libnah. She was one of the wives 
 of King Josiah and mother of the kings Jeboahaz 
 and Zedekiah (2 K. 23.31, 24.18 ; Jer. 52.1). 
 
 Hanam'eel, Hana'meL (?) Grace of God, or 
 God is kind: son of Shallum and cousin of 
 Jeremiah the prophet. Jeremiah showed his 
 faith by purchasing a field from Hanameel in a 
 time of great disturbance and uncertainty, when 
 Judaea was occupied and Jerusalem threatened 
 by the Chaldeans (Jer. 32.7-12, 44). 
 
 Ha 'nan. Gracious : there were several 
 different persons of this name, which is a 
 shortened form of other longer names com- 
 pounded of one of the words for God, thus 
 suggesting God's grace and mercy such as 
 Elhanan, Hananiah, etc. 1. A son of Shashak, 
 a Benjamite (1 Ch. 8.23). 2. A descendant of 
 Saul (1 Ch. 8.38, 9.44). 3. One of David's 
 heroes (1 Ch. 11.43). 4. One of those who 
 returned from captivity with Zerubbabel 
 (Ezra 2.46; Neh. 7.49). 5. A Levite assisting 
 when Ezra read the Law (Neh. 8.7). 6. A Levite 
 who sealed the Covenant with Nehemiah and 
 the people. Possibly identical with 5 (Neh. 
 10.10, 13.13). 7. A head of a family who 
 signed the Covenant (Neh. 10.22). 8. Another 
 head of a family who signed on the same occasion 
 (Neh. 10.26). 9. The son of Igdaliah, appar- 
 ently the head of a guild of prophets who had 
 a chamber in the Temple (Jer. 35.4). 
 
 Hanan'eel. Hanan'eL God is gracious: one 
 of the towers on the wall of Jerusalem named 
 after the man who built it (Neh. 3.1, 12.39 ; 
 Jer. 31.38). Its position was between the sheep- 
 gate and the fish-gate. It is mentioned once 
 more in Ze-ch. 14.10. 
 
 Hana'ni. Jehovah is gracious : 1. David's seer 
 and head of the eighteenth course in the service of 
 the sanctuary (1 Ch. 25.4, 25). 2. He rebuked 
 Asa for buying off Benhadad (2 Ch. 16.7-10). 
 Probably the same as the next. 3. The father of 
 Jehu, a seer who spoke against Baasha (1 K. 
 16.1), and Jehoshaphat (2 Ch. 19.2, 20.34). 
 
HANANIAH] 
 
 191 
 
 [HANDICRAFT 
 
 4. A priest (Ezra 10..20). 5. A brother of 
 Nehemiah, who made him governor of Jerusalem 
 (Neh. 1.2, 7.2). 6. A priest and musician who 
 assisted in the purification of the walls of Jeru- 
 salem (Neh. 12.36). 
 
 Hanani'ah. Jehovah is gracious : this name is 
 the original form of Ananias. 1. One of the three 
 young men of the tribe of Judah and of the royal 
 family, who, being carried captive to Babylon, 
 were selected for instruction in the sciences of 
 the Chaldeans, and for office in Nebuchadnezzar's 
 palace. His name was changed to Shadrach. 
 He refused to worship the golden image (Dan. 
 1.7, 3.12). [DANIEL, SHADRACH.] 2. The chief 
 of the sixteenth course of musicians of the 
 temple service, lie was one of the fourteen sons 
 of Hernan the singer, who were employed to 
 blow the horns (1 Ch. 25.4, 23). 3. A captain in 
 Uzziah's army (2 Ch. 26.11). 4. Father of 
 Zedekiah, a prince in the time of Jehoiakim 
 (Jer. 36.12). 5. A false prophet of Gibeon, who 
 in the reign of Zedekiah foretold before Jeremiah 
 and all the people that within two years the 
 captives and all the vessels used in the temple 
 service, which Nebuchadnezzar had carried 
 to Babylon, would be restored (Jer. 28.1-17). 
 In reply, Jeremiah prophesied that instead of a 
 wooden yoke one of iron would be put on the 
 people for seventy years, and that Hananiah him- 
 self was to die within the year for rebelling 
 against the Lord. 6. Grandfather of Irijah, a 
 captain in charge of the gate of Benjamin. He 
 arrested Jeremiah on a charge of deserting to the 
 Chaldeans (Jer. 37.13). 7. A son of Shashak 
 (1 Ch. 8.24). 8. A son of Zeruhbabel (1 Ch. 
 3.19,21). 9. One of those who had taken 
 strange wives (Ezra 10.28). 10. One who united 
 the offices of apothecary (i.e. he prepared the 
 sacred oil and incense) and priest (Neh. 3.8). 
 11. One engaged on the repairs of the wall of 
 Jerusalem (Neh. 3.30). Perhaps the same as 
 9. 12. One placed in charge of Jerusalem, 
 " for he was a faithful man " (Neh. 7.2). 13. The 
 name of a family whose chief sealed the covenant 
 (Neh. 10.23). 14. A priest in the time of the 
 high-priest Joiakim, about 480 B.C. (Neh. 
 12.12,41). 
 
 Hand. The hands were employed both figura- 
 tively and ceremonially, (a) To kiss one's hand 
 was an act of adoration thus (Job 31.27): "If 
 I beheld the sun when it shined, and my mouth 
 hath kissed my hand." See also 1 K. 19.18. 
 (6) Oath-taking has been accompanied by the 
 lifting up of the hand in all nations ; (e) while 
 the giving the hand has signified peace, friendship, 
 security (2 K. 10.15). (d) To seat one on the 
 right hand was a token of high favour (Ps. 16.11, 
 77.10), and the Son of God is often represented 
 as sitting at the right hand of His Father (Heb. 
 1.13 ; cf. Ps. 110.1). Satan was at the right hand 
 of the high-priest Joshua, as accuser (Zech. 3.1) ; 
 but, on the other hand, the Psalmist says, *' I 
 have set the Lord always before me : because 
 He is at my right hand, I shall not be moved " 
 (Ps. 16.8). (e) The laying on of hands is under- 
 stood in different ways both in the Old and New 
 
 Testaments. It is often taken for ordination 
 and consecration of priests and ministers, as well 
 among the Jews as Christians (Num. 8.10 ; 
 Acts 6.6, 13.3; 1 Tim. 4.14). God appointed 
 Moses to lay his hands upon Joshua as his 
 successor (Num. 27.18). Jacob laid his hands 
 in blessing on Ephraim and Manasseh (Gen. 
 48. 14). When the high-priest recited the blessing 
 he held his hands out over the people (Lev. 9.22). 
 Again, when the Israelites presented sin-offerings 
 at the tabernacle, the priests laid their hands on 
 them while they confessed their sins (Lev. 1.4). 
 This testified that the person acknowledged 
 himself worthy of death, that he laid his sins upon 
 the sacrifice, and that he devoted himself to God. 
 Witnesses took the lead in carrying the sentence 
 of death into effect (Deut. 13.9, 17.7). Our 
 Saviour laid His hands upon the children 
 when He blessed them (Mk. 10.16); and the 
 Holy Ghost was conferred on those who were 
 baptized, by the laying on of the hands of the 
 apostles (Acts 8.17, 19.6). Pilate washed his 
 hands in token of innocence (Matt. 27.24). 
 
 Handbreadth. The handbreadth or palm was 
 the breadth of four fingers, about 3 inches, 
 and was commonly used in rough and approxi- 
 mate estimates of length (1 K. 7.26). 
 
 Handicraft. The preparation of skins for 
 tent coverings or clothing or the weaving of 
 the wool for garments would be the limit of 
 mechanical skill in the nomadic period of 
 Israel's history, and this art would be practised 
 by the women. The hides of slaughtered animals 
 would also be required for the formation of the 
 skin-bottles, so largely employed in Oriental 
 antiquity, to contain liquids (water, milk, and 
 wine), and also in making girdles, sandals, and 
 thongs. The references in /sat. 29.16 and 
 Jer. 18.2 seq. show that the art of shaping 
 vessels from clay was learned by the Hebrews 
 during the period of the kings, and had become 
 familiar. It seems probable that they derived 
 their skill in the potter's art from Babylonian 
 civilisation through their Canaanite neighbours. 
 Specimens of pottery found in Jerusalem are 
 fairly finished and graceful. In the clay vessels 
 or jugs the mouldings run in parallel lines round 
 the body or neck of the vessel. Geometric 
 figures are used in ornamentation, parallel 
 and crossing lines, meandering lines as well 
 as zigzags, squares, rhombi, and triangles. 
 Sometimes, in the larger Phoenician vases, 
 we have different fields, separated by linear 
 ornamentation, each field being filled with 
 animal shapes human figures, and hunting 
 scenes. Not until the time of David and 
 Solomon did the Hebrews engage much in 
 workmanship in wood, stone, and metal. That 
 before that date they knew the art of melting 
 down the precious metals is shown by the 
 making of tbe golden ephod at Gideon's shrine 
 in Ophrah from the golden ear-rings, crescents, 
 and pendants captured from the Midianites. 
 At this time bronze was the prevalent metal in 
 use, rather than iron. Cooking utensils and 
 fetters (Judg. 16.21) were made from it, and also 
 
HANDKERCHIEF] 
 
 192 
 
 [HARAN 
 
 armour, as helmet, shield, coat of mail, and 
 greaves (1 Sam. 17.5, 6). Even spear and bow 
 were made from the same metal (2 Sam. 21.16, 
 22.35). The material could be obtained from the 
 mines of Sinai or from those owned by the Phoe- 
 nicians in Cyprus. The use of iron was chiefly 
 confined to the head or point of arms or imple- 
 ments (as the spear, ploughshare, or axe). Among 
 the Canaanites chariots were plated with iron 
 (Judg. 1.10). 
 
 The turning point in the history of 
 Hebrew handicrafts was the introduction of 
 Phoenician workmen into Israel's southern 
 capital in the reigns of David and Solomon 
 (2 Sam. 5.11 ; 1 K. 5.6). This very fact 
 shows that the Hebrews at that time were 
 indifferent workmen. But in the reign of 
 Jehoash, about one hundred and twenty years 
 later, when Solomon's temple was repaired, we 
 have no hint of foreign workmen being re- 
 quired among the stone-masons, carpenters, and 
 builders hired for the purpose (2 K. 12.7-13). 
 When Jerusalem was captured by the Baby- 
 lonian invader, as many as one thousand lock- 
 smiths and other skilled mechanics were 
 deported from the city (2 K. 24.16). See 
 Whitehouse's Primer of Hebrew Antiquities. [Also 
 articles on METALS, POTTER, and WEAVING.] 
 
 Handkerchief (Acts 19.12 only). This word 
 is elsewhere translated napkin. [KERCHIEF.] 
 
 Handmaid. A female slave, generally 
 employed as a domestic servant (Ex. 23.12 ; 
 Lk. 1.38). [SLAVERY.] 
 
 HandstaS, Handstave. A weapon resembling 
 a short throwing spear (Ezek. 39.9). [WEAPONS.] 
 
 Ha'nes In Egypt, probably on an island in 
 the Nile, a little south of Memphis. It marks the 
 southern limit of Lower Egypt, as Zoan (which 
 see), mentioned in the same passage (Isai. 30.4), 
 marks the northern. 
 
 Hang, Hanging. Hanging in the early history 
 of the Jews was more a mark of infamy (Deut. 
 21.22) than a punishment, and was generally 
 inflicted on dead bodies. Later, however, it 
 became a form of capital punishment, though 
 not so general as strangulation, somewhat after 
 the manner of the Spanish garotte. That it 
 was used by suicides is shown in the deaths of 
 Ahithophel (2 Sam. 17.23) and Judas (Matt. 
 27.5) In several places where hanging is 
 mentioned some form of impalement or cruci- 
 fixion is implied (Josh. 8.29; 2 Sam. 4.12). 
 [CRUCIFIXION, CAPITAL PUNISHMENT.] 
 
 Hangings. Curtains used as a door, and as 
 hung before the door of the tabernacle (Ex. 
 26.36), and for covering the walls of the court 
 of the tabernacle. The same word is used for 
 the veil that hung before the Holy of Holies 
 (Ex. 35.12, 39.34). The English word is also 
 used to describe tents, or portable sanctuaries, 
 for idolatrous worship, as in 2 K. 23.7. See 
 for the thought Ezek. 16.16. 
 
 HanieL [HANXIEL.] 
 
 Hannah. Graduusne ss : one of Elkanah's 
 two wives. In answer to her prayers Samuel 
 was born ( 1 Sam. 1 ). Tier song of praise (1 Sam. 
 
 2.1-10) has a prophetic character. It may 
 be compared with the Song of the Virgin Mary 
 (Lk. 1.46-55). 
 
 Hanna'thon. Gracious : a city on the 
 northern boundary of Zebulun. It has not 
 been identified (Josh. 19.14). 
 
 Han'nieL Favour of God : 1. A prince of 
 Manasseh who assisted in the division of the 
 land (Num. 34.23). In the Hebrew text his 
 name is identical with the next. 2. Haniel in 
 A.V. A prince and hero of Asher (1 Ch. 7.39). 
 
 Ha'noch. Dedicated : 1. The son of Jared, 
 a descendant of Seth (1 Ch. 1.3). In the English 
 versions of Gen. 5 he is called Enoch, as is also 
 the son of Cain (Gen. 4.17, 18). 2. The third of 
 the children of Midian and the grandson of 
 Abraham (Gen. 25.4; 1 Ch. 1.33). 3. The 
 eldest son of Reuben (Gen. 46.9 ; Ex. 6.14 ; 
 Num. 26.5). 
 
 Ha'nochites. The descendants of Hanoch, 
 the eldest son of Reuben (Num. 26.5). 
 
 Ha nun. Favoured : son of Nahash, king of 
 the Ammonites. David had received kindness 
 from Nahash, and when the latter died he 
 sent a comforting message to Hanun. Hanun, 
 pretending to think the messengers spies, com- 
 mitted the deadly insult of shaving off half 
 their beards, and cutting off their robes half-way 
 up, thus rendering them doubly ridiculous. 
 On their way home David, hearing their story, 
 directed them to remain at Jericho until their 
 beards were grown again, and prepared for war. 
 In this war great numbers of the Ammonites 
 were slain (2 Sam. 10.1-4 ; 1 Ch.V).2-Q). 2. A 
 repairer of the valley gate (Neh. 3.13). 3. A 
 repairer of the wall (Neh. 3.30). 
 
 Haphra'im, Hapnara'im. Place of two wells : 
 a city of Issachar west of Shunem. Unidentified 
 (Josh. 19.19). 
 
 Happizzez. [APHSES.] 
 
 Hara. Apparently a district in Assyria, but 
 it has not been identified (1 Ch. 5.26). The 
 parallel passages in 2 K. 17.6, 18.11 read "the 
 cities of the Medes." 
 
 Hara dah. Trembling: a desert station, the 
 twentieth encampment of the Israelites in the 
 wilderness, and ninth from Sinai. Its position 
 is unknown (Num. 33.24, 25). 
 
 Ha'ran. 1. A town of Padan-Aram, whither 
 Abram migrated from Ur, and wh ere Terah died 
 (Gen. 11.31, 32). It was from Haran also that 
 the patriarch set out for Canaan (Gen. 12.4, 5). 
 Laban was living here when Jacob went to 
 him (Gen. 27.43). From Isai. 37.12 we find 
 that it was subject to the Assyrians ; and 
 from Ezek. 27.23 that it was a Tyrian mart. It 
 is called Nahor in Gen. 24.10, and Charran in 
 Acts 7.2,4. It still bears its ancient name, 
 Harran, and is to be found on a tributary of 
 the Euphrates. In ancient times its chief 
 deity was the moon-god. [ABRAHAM.] 2. A 
 son of Caleb (1 Ch. 2.46). 3. Mountaineer : 
 (a different word from the two preceding). 
 Son of Terah, and father of Lot, Milcah (Nahor's 
 wife), and Iscah (Gen. 11.27,29,31). 4. A 
 L-vite (1 Ch. 'JM.JM 
 
HARARITE] 
 
 193 
 
 [HARROW 
 
 Harar'ite. (?) The mountaineer', a native of 
 the hill-country of Judah or Ephraim. Three 
 of the men of David's guard are spoken of as 
 being Hararites (2 Sam. 23.11, 33 ; 1 Ch. 11.34, 
 35). 
 
 Harbo'na, Harbo/nah. An ass driver : the 
 third of the seven chamberlains or eunuchs 
 who waited upon King Ahasuerus (Esth. 1.10). 
 He it was who suggested that Haman might 
 hang on the gallows built for Mordecai (Esth. 7.9). 
 
 Hare. The hare is included among the 
 unclean animals in the Mosaic law, because, 
 although it was thought to chew the cud, it does 
 not divide the hoof (Lev. 11.6 ; Deut. 14.7). 
 The supposition that it chewed the cud was 
 due, no doubt, to its habit of constantly moving 
 its jaws about, a habit acquired to keep the 
 incisor teeth down, as otherwise they would 
 overlap. There can be no doubt that the hare 
 is the animal intended, since the word in the 
 Hebrew is the same as the present Arabic name 
 for this animal. 
 
 The hare is common in the Holy Land, there 
 being several varieties. The most ordinary 
 species is like our English hare, only a little 
 smaller, but does not extend beyond Syria. 
 There are also the Egyptian and Sinaitic 
 varieties, which abound in the southern districts 
 of Judaea. The Egyptian variety is lighter in 
 colour than the latter, which is smaller, darker, 
 and has longer legs and ears than the other 
 species. The last is an extraordinarily active 
 little creature, but stupid. This hare is occasion- 
 ally seen in the Arabah below the Dead Sea. 
 Rabbits are not found in Palestine. 
 
 Ha'reph. (?) Born in harvest : a son of Caleb 
 the son of Hur (1 Ch. 2.51). Perhaps connected 
 with Hariph 1. 
 
 Ha'reth, Hereth. Cutting : the modern 
 Kharas, on the Wady Arneba, at the head of the 
 valley of Etah in south Judah. This is the place 
 whither David fled from Saul (1 Sam. 22.5). 
 
 Harhai'ah. Father of Uzziel, a repairer of 
 the wall of Jerusalem (Neh. 3.8). 
 
 Harhas (Hasrah in 2 Ch. 34.22.) Grand- 
 father of Shallum, the husband of Huldah (2 K. 
 22.14). 
 
 Hnrhur. Head of a family of returning 
 exiles (Ezra 2.51 ; Neh. 7.53). 
 
 Ha 'rim. Flat-nosed : 1. A priest in charge of 
 the third division of the sanctuary (1 Ch. 24.8). 
 2. One of whom 1017 descendants came up with 
 Zerubbabel (Ezra 2.39 ; Neh. 7.42). Members of 
 the same family are mentioned in Ezra 10.21 
 and Neh. 10.5. 3. They had married foreign 
 wives (Ezra 10.31). Probably identical with 
 Nos. 4, 6. 4. A family that sealed the covenant 
 with Nehemiah (Neh. 10.27). Probably identi- 
 cal with Nos. 3, 6. 5. (Neh. 12.15). 6. A place 
 (as it seems) in Judah called after a family of 
 Bene-Ha'rim, which returned from captivity 
 320 in number (Ezra 2.32 ; Neh. 7.35), and 
 were probably identical with Nos. 3, 4. 
 
 Ha'riph. 1. A place so called from a family 
 numbering 112, who returned from captivity 
 with Zerubbabel (Neh. 7.24). In Ezra 2.18 
 
 13 
 
 called Jorah. [HAREPH.] 2. The head of a 
 family that sealed the covenant with Nehemiah 
 (Neh. 10.19). 
 
 Harlot. The deification of the reproductive 
 forces of nature, widely spread in the East, 
 made harlotry one of the gravest evils of O.T. 
 and N.T. times. It cast a religious sanction over 
 acts which, in the light of the Hebrew and the 
 Christian faith, were acts of gross sin. Hence 
 in the O.T. two classes of harlots are mentioned : 
 (1) The harlot set aside for religious purposes. 
 The word is used of Tamar (Gen. 38.21) ; and the 
 licentiousness associated with these idolatrous 
 practices is indicated in Eos. 4.12-14. (2) 
 The ordinary offender, such as Rahab (Josh. 2.1). 
 The frequency of the sin as well as its association 
 with idolatry caused its use in a figurative sense 
 (as in Isai. 1.21). In the N.T. the harlot is 
 classed with the publican (Matt. 21.31, 32), as 
 believing John the Baptist. St. Paul deals 
 with the sin (1 Cor. 6.15, 16). In the N.T. 
 also the sin of harlotry is used figuratively, as 
 of " Babylon " in Rev. 17. 
 
 Har-mageddon. -[ARMAGEDDON.] 
 
 Harne'pher. A chief in the tribe of Asher 
 (1 Ch. 7.36). 
 
 Harness. [ARMS, AEMOTJR, HORSE.] 
 
 Ha'rod. Fear, trembling : a spring where 
 Gideon and his army encamped before attacking 
 the Midianites (Judg. 7.1). Its modern name is 
 Ain Jalud, west of the Jordan. 
 
 Ha'rodite. An inhabitant of Harod (2 Sam. 
 23.25). In 1 Ch. 11.27 the name is Harorite. 
 
 Haro'eh. The seer, if a proper name (1 Ch. 
 2.52). But probably it is descriptive of Shobal, 
 ** who provided for half the resting-places." 
 
 Har'orite. [HABODITB.] 
 
 Haro'sheth. A city in the north of Canaan, 
 the home of Sisera, who was a general of the 
 army of Jabin, king of Canaan. Sisera retreated 
 to Harosheth after his defeat by Barak (Judg. 
 4.2, 13, 16). Its modern name is El-Harithiyeh, 
 on the right bank of the lower Kishon, north- 
 west of Megiddo. 
 
 Harp. The earliest known musical instru- 
 ment, dating from before the flood (Gen. 4.21). 
 The Hebrew word kinnor, which is translated 
 " harp " in our English versions, probably was 
 a lyre. It was employed by the Hebrews, not 
 only in their devotions, but also at their enter- 
 tainments. In its earliest forms it appears to 
 have been made of bone and tortoiseshell, and 
 the strings plucked with a key. That it was 
 light in construction is shown by the fact that 
 David danced while he played, as also did the 
 Levites (1 Sam. 16.23, 18.10). It was not used 
 on sorrowful occasions (Job 30.31 ; Ps. 137.2). 
 
 Harrow. The Jewish harrow was, and is, a 
 rough heavy wooden plank, on the under side 
 of which sharp flints or iron spikes have been 
 inserted. This was drawn over the ploughed 
 ground by oxen, the driver standing on it, to give 
 extra weight and effectiveness to the operation 
 of breaking up the hard clods of earth in 
 preparation for the seed (Isai. 28.24). Some- 
 times a still more primitive harrow is used^ 
 
HARSHA] 
 
 194 
 
 [HATITA 
 
 namely, a log of wood or a branch of a tree, 
 which is dragged over the rough ground. The 
 harrow was also used as an instrument of 
 punishment or of torture (2 Sam. 12.31), if 
 tortures are intended in that passage, and not 
 merely forms of work. 
 
 Har'sha. Head of a family of Nethinim 
 (Ezra 2.52). 
 
 Harsith. Potsherds: the name of a gate in 
 Jerusalem (Jer. 19.2 R.V.), so called because 
 they were thrown outside it, on the way to the 
 valley of Hinnom. The A.V. text has "the 
 east gate," deriving the word from heres, sun 
 (see A.V. marg.). 
 
 Hart. The hart is given among the animals 
 permitted for food (Deut. 12.15, 14.5, 15.22. 
 Solomon's provision for one day (1 K. 4.23) 
 shows that it was in use as a regular article of diet 
 by those who procured it. The word used in the 
 Hebrew probably covered the various kinds of 
 deer to be found in Palestine. The hind is even 
 oftener mentioned than the hart, chiefly as a 
 poetical image. The " loving hind " is spoken 
 of in Proverbs (5.19), and its fleetness and agility 
 are referred to in Gen. 49.21; 2 Sam. 22.34, 
 and Isai. 35.6. Characteristic of the deer are 
 care for their young and extreme timidity. The 
 latter trait sometimes causes the hind to cast her 
 young upon receiving a sudden alarm, contrary 
 to the usual practice, which is to withdraw to 
 hiding-places to give birth to her fawn. This 
 knowledge of the hind's habits gives fresh force 
 to such passages as Job 39.1 and Ps. 29.9. 
 
 Ha'rum. A descendant of Judah (1 Ch. 4.8). 
 
 Earu'maph. Father of a builder of the wall 
 (Neh. 3.10). 
 
 Harnphite. One of the Benjamites who went 
 to David's aid when he was in distress (1 Ch. 12.5). 
 
 Ha'ruz. Diligent, industrious : father of 
 Meshullemeth, King Amon's mother (2 K. 
 21.19). 
 
 Harvest. Harvest-time in Palestine begins 
 in April and ends early in June. Three months 
 intervene between the sowing and the first 
 reaping, and a month between this and the 
 full harvest. Barley is in full ear all over the 
 Holy Land in the beginning of April ; and about 
 the middle of the same month it begins to turn 
 yellow, particularly in the southern districts. 
 It is as forward around Jericho then as it is 
 a fortnight later in the plains of Acre. The 
 reaping continues until the middle of Sivan, 
 about the end of May. 
 
 The reapers in Palestine and Syria make use 
 of the sickle in cutting down the corn when 
 the crop is a full one ; but when it is short then 
 their custom is to pull it up by the roots with 
 the hands. They do this that none of the straw, 
 used to feed the cattle, may be lost. This 
 practice is referred to in Ps. 129.7. The reapers 
 go to the field very early in the morning, and 
 return home in the afternoon. They carry 
 provisions along with them, and water in 
 leathern bottles or gourds. They are followed 
 by their own children, or by others, who glean 
 the considerable quantity their careless manner 
 
 of harvesting leaves behind. There was there- 
 fore nothing unusual in Ruth's going herself to 
 the harvest-field. The right of the gleaners 
 was secured by positive law (Lev. 19.9). 
 
 The wheat harvest followed the barley harvest. 
 After the reaping it was thrashed and winnowed 
 in the open air. The wheat was put into 
 granaries, and the chaff put aside for burning 
 as fuel, it being used largely to heat the bread 
 ovens. 
 
 Hasadi'ah. Jehovah is kind : a, son of 
 Zerubbabel (1 Ch. 3.20). 
 
 Hasenn'ah, Hassenu'ah. Hated : a Benjamite 
 (1 Ch. 9.7). 
 
 Hashabi ah. Jehovah has taken account : 
 a favourite name with the Levites. Several 
 persons bearing it appear in Holy Scripture (see 
 1 Ch. 6.45, 9.14, 25.3, 26.30, 27.17 ; 2 Ch. 35.9 ; 
 Ezra 8.19, 24 ; Neh. 3.17, 10.11, 11.15, 22, 
 
 12.21, 24). 
 
 Hashab'nah. Jehovah has taken account : a 
 chief who sealed the covenant with Nehemiah 
 (Neh. 10.25). 
 
 Hashabni'ah, Hashabnei'ah (probably same 
 meaning). 1. Father of a builder of the wall 
 (Neh. 3.10). 2. A Levite (Neh. 9.5). The same 
 as Hashabiah in Ezra 8.19,24; Neh. 10.11, 
 
 11.22, 12.24. 
 
 Hashbada'na, Hashbadda'na. Probably a 
 Levite (Neh. 8.4). 
 
 Hash'em. Father of some of David's 
 heroes (1 Ch. 11.34). Called Jashen in 2 Sam. 
 23.32. 
 
 Hashmo'nah. A site of Israelite encamp- 
 ment, near Mount Hor (Num. 33.29, 30). 
 
 Hashub, Hasshnb. Considerate : the correct 
 form of this name is that given in 1 Ch. 9.14 
 Hasshub. There were several persons bearing 
 this name. 1. In Neh. 11.15 is the same as 
 mentioned in 1 Ch. 9.14 ; 2. (Neh. 3.11) ; 3. 
 (Neh. 3.23) ; 4. (Neh. 10.23). 
 
 Hashu'bah. Consideration : a son of Zerub- 
 babel (1 Ch. 3.20). 
 
 Ha'shum. 1. Head of a family of Bene- 
 Chashum who returned with Zerubbabel from 
 captivity (Ezra 2.19, 10.33 ; Neh. 7.22). 2. 
 Perhaps a Levite who supported Ezra (Neh. 8.4). 
 3. One who sealed the covenant with Nehemiah 
 (Neh. 10.18). 
 
 Has'rah. [HARHAS.] 
 
 Hassena'ah. This is the same name as 
 Senaah with the article. They rebuilt the fish- 
 gate in the wall of Jerusalem (Neh. 3.3). See 
 Ezra 2.35 and Neh. 7.38. 
 
 Hassenu'ah. [HASENTJ AH.] 
 
 Hasshub. [HASHUB.] 
 
 Hat. [TURBAN.] (Dan. 3.21.) 
 
 Ha'tach (R.V. Ha'thach). A chamberlain in 
 attendance on Queen Esther (Esth.. 4.5-10). 
 
 Ha'thath. (?) Bruised or terrified : brother of 
 Othniel (1 Ch. 4.13). 
 
 Hati'pha. Seized : a family of Nethinim 
 who returned \vith Zerubbabel (Ezra 2.54 ; 
 Neh. 7.56). 
 
 Hati'ta. Head of a Levitical family of re- 
 turned exiles (Ezra 2.42 ; Neh. 7.45). 
 
HATTIL] 
 
 195 
 
 [HAZAR-GADDAH 
 
 HattiL Hesitating, wavering : a group of 
 Solomon's servants or slaves who came back 
 with Zerubbabel (Ezra 2.57 ; Neh. 7.59). 
 
 Hat'tush. 1. A descendant of King David 
 (1 Ch. 3.22 ; Ezra 8.2). 2. A priest who 
 returned with Zerubbabel (Neh. 10.4, 12.2). 
 3. A builder of the wall (Neh. 3.10). 
 
 Hau'ran. The cave land or the black land: 
 this name is mentioned only twice in Scripture 
 (Ezek. 47.16, 18). It was a tract of country of 
 small extent in the time of the Jews, but was 
 enlarged by the Romans, who called it Auranitis. 
 It extends for about 20 miles south of Damascus 
 to a little below Bozra. Within its limits are 
 included, besides Trachonitis, Tturaea, now 
 called Dejedour, and part of Bashan (which see). 
 It is a volcanic region, with the remains of a 
 crater on the Tel Shoba, on its eastern side. 
 It produces luxuriant herbage and corn, and 
 is much frequented by the Arabs for pasturage. 
 Its surface is covered with the ruins of many 
 cities, with Grecian inscriptions. The walls 
 of the buildings are of remarkable thickness, 
 and many of the doors are of stone, dating 
 back to remote antiquity. 
 
 Havi'lah. A sandy desert : 1. A son of Gush 
 (Gen. 10.7 ; 1 Ch. 1.9). 2. A son of Joktan and 
 descendant of Shem (Gen. 10.29 ; 1 Ch. 1.23). 
 3. The land compassed by the Pison after leaving 
 Eden (Gen. 2.11). Perhaps the west of the 
 Caspian Sea, or on the west coast of the Persian 
 Gulf. [EDEN.] 4. Borderland of the Ishmael- 
 ites (Gen. 25.18), and the scene of Saul's war 
 against the Amalekites (1 Sam. 15.7). 
 
 There must have been other, perhaps many, 
 Havilahs besides the original onedistricts 
 inhabited by the numerous and widespread 
 posterity of Cush. 
 
 Ha'voth-Jair, Hav'voth- Jair. Villages of 
 Jair: the Hebrew Havoth signifies cabins or 
 huts, such as belong to the Arabians. A collection 
 of these placed in a circle formed a village or 
 hamlet. The district mentioned (Num. 32.41 ; 
 Deut. 3.14 ; Josh. 13.30 ; Judg. 10.4) was be- 
 yond Jordan, but it is not clear whether in the 
 land of Gilead (1 K. 4.13) or in Bashan (Deut. 
 3.14). Perhaps some were in each. They 
 belonged to the half-tribe of Manasseh. This 
 group of villages formed part of one of Solomon's 
 commissariat districts (1 K. 4.13). [JAIE.] 
 
 Hawk. The term expresses strong and rapid 
 flight, and is used generally for falcons or the 
 smaller birds of prey, among which the kestrel 
 is perhaps the commonest. The hawk is 
 mentioned among the unclean fowls, and not 
 to be eaten, in Lev. 11.16 and Deut. 14.15. 
 The reference in Job 39.26, " Doth the hawk 
 fly by thy wisdom, and stretch her wings toward 
 the south ? " is clearly to the migratory in- 
 stincts of most of the hawks found in Palestine, 
 which fly south to a warmer climate on the 
 approach of winter. Others reverse the 
 process, and travel northwards away from 
 the advance of summer. The red kite is of 
 this order. The hobby, the lesser kestrel, the 
 red-legged hobby, and the Levant sparrow- 
 
 hawk are all summer visitants to Palestine, 
 and fly southwards at the close of summer. In 
 Egypt one species of hawk at least was con- 
 sidered so sacred that the penalty for killing 
 one, even by accident, was death. It was the 
 sacred bird of llorus, the sun-god, and it is to 
 be noticed that solar deities are represented in 
 their statues as having the heads of hawks. 
 The connexion of the hawk with the sun lies 
 in their supposed ability to gaze at the burning 
 orb unharmed. 
 
 Hay. Really grass or greenness. Hay is 
 not made in Palestine as with us, but the grass 
 is cut green for fodder as required (Ps. 72.6 ; 
 Prov. 27.25). In Isai. 15.G for "hay" read 
 "grass" (R.V.), and for "grass" "tender 
 grass" (R.V.). 
 
 Haza'el. Whom God sees : the story of 
 Hazael, king of Damascus, is one of deep 
 tragedy. An officer of high rank under King 
 Benhadad, he was sent by him to inquire of 
 Elijah if he, Benhadad, would recover from 
 his illness. Elisha, obeying the command of 
 God given to Elijah, anointed Hazael king, 
 and at the same time told him that Benhadad's 
 illness was not fatal, yet that he would die, 
 and Hazael reign in his stead. Hazael saw 
 to it that the prophecy was fulfilled, for he 
 killed Benhadad himself and seized the throne. 
 He was a contemporary of Joram, Jehu, and 
 Jehoahaz, kings of Israel. He is mentioned 
 on the Black Obelisk in the British Museum as 
 giving tribute (with Jehu) to Shalmaneser n., 
 king of Assyria, in 842 B.C. His question to 
 Elisha (2 K. 8.13), " Is thy servant a dog, 
 that he should do this great thing ? " should 
 be translated, " But what is thy servant, 
 which is but a dog, that he should ? " etc., i.e. 
 Hazael is not at all horrified, but hypocritically 
 expresses himself as unworthy of the high 
 position promised. The cruel barbarities he 
 inflicted on Israel are narrated in 2 K. 8.12, 
 10.32 sqq., 12, 17 ; cf. 1 K. 19.15-17 ; Amos 1.4. 
 
 Hazai'ah. The Lord sees : a chief in the 
 line of Shelah, son of Judah, see Num. 26.20 
 (Neh. 11.5). [SHILONITE.] 
 
 Ka'zar-addar. Village of Adar (or of a noble): 
 a place on the south boundary of the Promised 
 Land, between Kadesh-Barnea and Azrnon 
 (A'wm. 34.4). The name appears as Adar in 
 Josh. 15.3. Exact site unknown. 
 
 The word Hazar is prefixed to a number 
 of place-names. It is employed generally 
 to indicate that the places so designated are 
 of a semi-permanent character, such as are 
 erected by Arabs. These generally consist 
 of stone walls surmounted by a roof of tent- 
 cloth. 
 
 Ha'zar-enan, Hazar-enon. Village of foun- 
 tains : a landmark in the north-east boundary 
 of the Promised Land (Num. 34.9,10; Ezek. 
 47.17). It has been identified with the modern 
 Kuryatein (" the two cities "), a village more 
 than 60 miles E.N.E. of Damascus, where 
 are large fountains, the only ones in the district. 
 
 Ha'zar-gaddab. ^^ f ^ e %*& : a town 
 
HAZAR-HATTICON] 
 
 196 
 
 [HEATH 
 
 in the south of Judah, between Moladah and 
 Heshmon. It has not been identified (Josh. 
 15.27). 
 
 Ha'zar-hat'ticon. Middle Hazar : a place 
 specified by Ezekiel as on the ultimate north 
 boundary of the Holy Land (Ezek. 47.16). Its 
 position is not known. 
 
 Hazarnia'veth. This can hardly be a Hebrew 
 name, and its meaning is unknown. The third 
 in order of the sons of Joktan of the family of 
 Shem. The name is preserved in the Arabic 
 Hadramaut the name of a province and ancient 
 people of southern Arabia a little east of Aden 
 (Gen. 10.26 ; 1 Ch. 1.20). 
 
 Hazar -shu'al. Fox-village : 1. A town in the 
 south of Judah allotted to Simeon ( Josh. 15.28 ; 
 1 Ch. 4.28). It was reoccupied after the return 
 from the Captivity (Neh. 11.27). Site unknown. 
 2. A place in Simeon (Josh. 19.3). 
 
 Hazar-su'sah, Hazar -susim. Village of horses: 
 a city in the extreme south of Judah, near Beth- 
 Marcaboth. Allotted to Simeon (Josh. 19.5 ; 
 1 Ch. 4.31). Not yet identified. 
 
 Haza 'zon-tamar. [H AZKZON-TAMAB. ] 
 
 Hazel (Gen. 30.37 only). The hazel does 
 not grow in the neighbourhood indicated, and 
 the word used probably denotes any nut-bearing 
 tree. Many scholars, however, render the word 
 almond tree (so the R.V.), which is such a well- 
 known feature of English gardens. [ALMOND 
 TREE.] 
 
 Hazelelpo'ni. (?) Give shade, thou that turnest 
 to me \ the bearer of the name was a sister 
 of the sons of Etam, of the tribe of Judah 
 (1 Ch. 4.3). 
 
 Haze 'rim. Villages : a plural form of Hazar. 
 A district in the south of Canaan near Gaza, 
 inhabited in ancient times by the Avim or Avvim, 
 a tribe that wandered over the south-west of 
 Palestine and dwelt in villages (Deut. 2.23). 
 
 Haze 'roth. Villages : the site of an Israelite 
 encampment where Miriam was stricken with 
 leprosy (Num. 11.35, 12.16, 33.17). Its position 
 is identified with *Ain Hudherah, a few miles 
 distant from Sinai on the road to Akabah. 
 
 Haze'zon-ta'mar (R.V. Haza'zon - ta'mar). 
 (? Pruning of) palm trees : the ancient name 
 of Engedi, on the west of the Dead Sea. Here 
 dwelt the Amorites who were vanquished by 
 Chedorlaomer and his allies (Gen. 14.7). It was 
 the site of the encampment of the allies who 
 invaded Judah in the reign of Jehoshaphat 
 (2 Ch. 20.2). Possibly this was the "city of 
 palm trees " from whence the Kenites migrated 
 to the wilderness of Judah (Judg. 1.16). "When 
 Balaam refers to the Kenites (Num. 24.21) he 
 could view the western shore of the Dead Sea 
 and the cliffs of Engedi in which the Kenites 
 had their stronghold or " nest." But probably 
 Judg. 1.16 refers to Jericho. 
 
 Hazi'eL Vision of God : a Levite (1 Ch. 23.9). 
 
 Ha'zo. (?) Vision : a son of Nahor by 
 Milcah, his wife, and a native of Ur (Gen. 22.22). 
 
 Hazor. Enclosure : 1. A fortified city taken 
 by Joshua and allotted to Naphtali on the 
 division of the land. It was the principal royal 
 
 Canaanite city, and lay between Ramah and 
 Kadesh on the high ground overlooking the 
 Lake of Merom (Josh. 11.1, 10-13, 12.19, 19.36). 
 It was the largest city of northern Palestine, and 
 under its king, Jabin, oppressed the Israelites, 
 but was vanquished by Deborah and Barak 
 (Judg. 4.2, 17 ; 1 Sam. 12.9). The town was 
 rebuilt by Solomon (1 K. 9.15). Afterwards 
 its inhabitants were carried captive to Assyria 
 by Tiglath-Pileser (2 K. 15.29). 2. A city in 
 the south of Judah ( Josh. 15.23). 3. Combined 
 with Hadattah means New Hazor. Another 
 town in the south of Judah (Josh. 15.25). The 
 two parts of the name are improperly separated 
 in A.V. it should read Hazor-hadattah, as in 
 R.V. 4. A place north of Jerusalem where 
 some Benjamites resided after their return from 
 captivity. Thought to be identical with Baal- 
 Hazor (Neh. 11.33), and now called Hazzur. 
 5. An Arabian district conquered by Nebuchad- 
 nezzar (Jer. 49.28, 30, 33). 
 
 Hazor-hadattah, [HAZOR 3.] 
 
 Head. The word is often used figuratively 
 in Holy Scripture. Christ is the head of the 
 church (Col. 1.18), in respect both of eminence 
 and of influence, communicating life, health, 
 strength to every believer. Also the husband is 
 the head of the wife (Gen. 3.16), in regard to 
 pre-eminence of sex (1 Pet. 3.7) and excellency 
 of knowledge (1 Cor. 14.35). The stone which 
 the builders rejected was made the head (or 
 capital) of the corner (Ps. 118.22). 
 
 Headbands. Isai. 3.20 only; R.V. "sashes," 
 worn by women. 
 
 Headstone. [ABCHTTBCTUBB, BUILDING.] 
 
 Heart. The Hebrews used this word for the 
 seat of all mental life intellect, will, and 
 emotion (Ezek. 13.2 ; Eos. 7.11 ; Lk. 8.15 ; Acts 
 16.14). 
 
 Hearth. The hearth was the pan or brazier 
 of fire. The top of the oven sunk in the floor 
 was also called the hearth. When bread was 
 wanted quickly a fire was lighted in the oven, 
 and when sufficiently heated the ashes were 
 swept away and the thin cakes of dough placed 
 on it and covered with the hot ashes. This was 
 Sarah's method of cooking when Abraham bid 
 her prepare a hasty meal for the angels (Gen. 
 18.6 ; see also Lev. 6.9). [BREAD, ARIEL.] 
 
 Heath. The word translated heath certainly 
 does not indicate the plant that abounds in 
 this country, which does not grow in Palestine. 
 The word is used twice, in Jer. 17.6 and Jer. 
 48.6. In the former the prophet contrasts the 
 godly man with him who trusts in his own 
 strength ; the one is likened to " a tree planted 
 by the waters," the other, to " the heath in the 
 desert," scrubby and scant of foliage. In the 
 second passage Moab is denounced, and her 
 citizens bidden to " flee . . . and be like the 
 heath in the wilderness," practically worthless. 
 
 The reference in both instances is to shrubs 
 growing in the barren and desolate districts 
 common in the neighbourhood of the Dead Sea 
 and the region farther south. These tracts of 
 land support bare and naked shrubs, just able to 
 
HEATHEN] 
 
 197 
 
 [HEBEEW LANGUAGE 
 
 exist in the ungenial soil. There are weird and 
 stunted shrubs in that " wilderness " which well 
 illustrate the prophet's simile, " a naked bush 
 in the desert." 
 
 Heathen. The word translated heathen 
 would more literally be " the nations," i.e. 
 others than Hebrews (Lev. 25.44 ; 1 Ch. 16.24, 
 etc.). Sometimes the word is used to describe 
 unbelievers, as in Jer. 10.25. Generally, all who 
 had not accepted God as revealed by Himself 
 to the Jews, and who remained idolaters. 
 
 It was divinely foretold that in Abraham's 
 seed all nations should be blessed ; that the 
 heathen should be gathered to the Saviour, and 
 become His people (Gen. 22.18, 49.10 ; Ps. 
 2.8, 72 ; Isai. 42.6, 60). When Christ came, 
 His answer to the Greeks implied that great 
 numbers of the heathen should be brought into 
 the Church (John 12.20, 24). Both under the 
 old and the new dispensations God's people 
 were forbidden to intermarry with the heathen. 
 Even in its early days the nation of the Jews were 
 essentially a separate people (Lev. 20.23), and 
 were bound to maintain their separate char- 
 acter, moral, political and religious, under severe 
 judgments (Lev. 26.14-38 ; Deut. 28). They were 
 even forbidden to associate or intermarry with 
 the remnant of the conquered nations remaining 
 in Palestine (Josh. 23.7), lest the same fate 
 should overtake them as had overtaken their 
 predecessors (Lev. 18.24, 25). An Ammonite 
 or a Moabite was shut out from the congrega- 
 tion of Jehovah even unto the tenth generation 
 (Deut. 23.3), though an Edomite or an Egyptian 
 was admitted in the third. The record of the 
 recurring tendency of the Israelites to relapse 
 into idolatry shows the necessity there was 
 for this strictness. 
 
 Heave-offering. This must not be confounded 
 with the Wave - offering. It represents an 
 offering " lifted up " from the rest of the 
 offerings (Ex. 29.27 ; Lev. 7.14) or of the pro- 
 duce gained by one's exertions (Deut. 12.6). 
 [SACRIFICE.] 
 
 Heaven. According to the Jews, there were 
 at least three heavens : the first was the cloudy 
 region of the air, where the birds fly, which are 
 therefore called " the fowls of heaven " (Job 
 35.11). This is the heaven referred to in pass- 
 ages where we read of the dew of heaven, the 
 clouds of heaven, and the wind of heaven. The 
 second was that part of space in which are fixed 
 the sun, moon, and stars, called " the firmament " 
 or expanse " of heaven " (Gen. 1.8). The third 
 heaven the Jews thought was typified by the 
 Holy of Holies it was the seat of God and of 
 the holy angels. This it was whence Christ 
 carne, to which He ascended after His resurrec- 
 tion (Acts 1.11), whence He shall descend again 
 (1 Thess. 4.16), and into which Paul was caught 
 up (2 Cor. 12.2). It is not like the other 
 heavens, perceptible to mortal view (John 3.12, 
 13 ; Heb.'S.I, 9.24). Some Jews distinguished 
 seven heavens (Testaments of the Twelve Patri- 
 archs, Levi, 2 and 3 ; Book of the Secrets of Enoch, 
 3-21). 
 
 Of heaven as the eternal home of the redeemed, 
 we learn that it is a place, prepared for them by 
 the Lord Jesus (John 14.2) ; a place of happiness 
 (1 Cor. 2 9) and exaltation (2 Tim. 2.11) ; but 
 also of Sabbath-rest from all trouble (Eel. 4.10, 
 11). It is called a "kingdom" (Matt. 25.34; 
 Jas. 2.5; 2 Pet. 1.11); Paradise (Lk. 23.43; 
 Rev. 2.7) ; an inheritance (1 Pet. 1.4) ; a city 
 (Heb. 11.10); and a "better country" (Heb. 
 11.16). In this blessed home the redeemed 
 serve before God, free from evil of soul or body 
 (Rev. 7.15, 16), in complete joy and felicity 
 (Ps. 16.11) past our understanding (1 Cor. 2.9). 
 
 HeTjer. (?) From the other side (Lk. 3.35). 
 [EBEE.] 1. A man of Asher (Gen. 46.17 ; Num. 
 26.45 ; 1 Ch. 7.31). 2. The husband of Jael, 
 who killed Sisera. He was a Kenite, a nom- 
 adic tribe which had settled for a time in the 
 debatable ground between the northern tribes 
 and Jabin, the Canaanitish king (Judg. 4.11-24). 
 3. A descendant of Judah (1 Ch. 4.18). 4. A 
 Benjamite (1 Ch. 8.17). 
 
 Heterites. Belonging to Heber : a family 
 descended from Heber 4 (Num. 26.45). 
 
 Hebrew. From the other side : the earliest 
 occurrence of this title is in Gen. 14.13. It is the 
 name by which the children of Israel were called 
 by the surrounding nations, though both the 
 terms Israel and Israelites were used as well. 
 The word itself is derived from Eber (men from 
 the other side of the Euphrates), which is also 
 the name of a place (Num. 24.24), and secondly, 
 the name of an ancestor of the Hebrews (Gen. 
 10.21). Now Eber means the further bank of a 
 river, and is derived from a root meaning to cross. 
 It is usually supposed that Abraham, by this, 
 became a Hebrew (one who crosses from the other 
 side) when he migrated from Mesopotamia 
 (Gen. 14.13), but it may have been given much 
 earlier to his family by the Babylonians when 
 they migrated from the Arabian peninsula 
 eastwards across the Euphrates. [ABRAHAM, 
 ISRAEL, ISRAELITES, JEWS, and the next article.] 
 
 Hebrew Language. The Hebrew language 
 was the language of the Israelites during their 
 independence. It was considered by them 
 " the sacred tongue," and in the O.T. it is called 
 the " lip of Canaan," or the Jews' language 
 (2 K. 18.26-28; Isai. 19.18, marg., 36.13). 
 It was the common tongue of Canaan and 
 Phoenicia. This is proved not only by inscrip- 
 tions, but by the silence of Scripture as to any 
 difference between the language of the Canaan - 
 ites and Hebrews. They both dwelt in the 
 land, and yet no difference of speech is noticed, 
 though the difference between the language of 
 Hebrew and Egyptian (Ps. 81.5, 114.1) is recog- 
 nised, as is even the difference between Hebrew 
 and cognate languages such as the Aramaic 
 used by the Assyrians (Isai. 36.11) and of the 
 eastern Aramaic used by the Chaldees (Jer. 
 5.15). 
 
 Hebrew, then, may be regarded as the Israel- 
 itish dialect of the Canaanitish language. But 
 in course of time so much was borrowed from the 
 languages (closely akin) surrounding them the 
 
HEBREWS, EPISTLE TO THE] 198 [HEBREWS, EPISTLE TO THE 
 
 Aramaic, the language of Aram, Mesopotamia, 
 Syria, and a large portion of Arabia that about 
 722 B.C. Hebrew began to suffer a process of 
 decay, which ended in its extinction as a spoken 
 language. It was still the language of Jeru- 
 salem at the time of Nehemiah (Neh. 13.24), 
 but long before the time of Christ it had been 
 entirely superseded by Aramaic, and its litera- 
 ture was intelligible only to scholars. The 
 Hebrew tongue, therefore, mentioned in the 
 N.T. means the popular tongue, Aramaic. 
 On the other hand, Hebrew, in contrast to 
 " Grecian " or " Hellenist," means a Jew whose 
 native language was Aramaic, not Greek, and 
 who was brought up in strictly Jewish customs. 
 
 Hebrews, Epistle to the. This epistle was 
 apparently addressed to Hebrew Christians, 
 inhabitants of some city or region (see 13.23), 
 who had formed an organised society or church, 
 having had pastors who had been removed by 
 death (13.7), and having now teachers whom 
 they are exhorted to obey. It has been gener- 
 ally assumed that they were resident in Pales- 
 tine, either at Jerusalem or Caesarea, but some 
 favour the view that the epistle was addressed 
 to the Jewish Christians at Alexandria ; others, 
 that it was intended for Jewish converts at 
 Rome ; and others, that at Antioch were the 
 readers to whom it was originally sent. 
 
 Date and place of writing. Where and when 
 this epistle was written cannot definitely be 
 determined. One doubtful indication of place 
 is given (13.24), " They of Italy salute you." 
 This may mean those among whom the writer 
 was at Rome ; or. Italians then with the writer. 
 In reference to the date of the epistle it is gener- 
 ally agreed that it was written near but not after 
 the destruction of Jerusalem. The writer speaks 
 of the Levitical ritual as still in force. 
 
 As to the authorship of the epistle, great un- 
 certainty has existed from the earliest times. 
 It has been ascribed to St. Paul. (1) Those 
 to whom the epistle was sent must have 
 known the writer (see 10.34, 13.18, 19, 23); 
 and in preserving and circulating it could hardly 
 fail to communicate their knowledge. Now the 
 early Fathers of the Eastern and Alexandrian 
 Churches, in the second and third centuries, 
 tell us that the " ancients," who must have 
 been contemporary with those who received the 
 original, if not the same persons, had handed 
 it down to them as a writing of Paul. Clement 
 of Alexandria, Origen, and Eusebius, though 
 sensible of some difficulties, held this testimony 
 to be conclusive. Origen is of opinion that 
 " the thoughts are the thoughts of the Apostle, 
 but the language and the composition are those 
 of one who recalled from memory and, as it 
 were, made notes of what was said by his 
 master " ; adding, " Who wrote the epistle 
 God only knows with certainty." (2) The 
 Pauline authorship is corroborated by the 
 author's intimate acquaintance with the Jewish 
 system ; and by his sympathising interest in 
 the salvation of the Jewish people (compare 
 Bom. 9, 10, 11 and PhU. 3). (3) The few 
 
 personal allusions found in the epistle are all 
 compatible with what we know of Paul. (4) Nor 
 is there anything in the peculiarities of style 
 and treatment of the subject that cannot be 
 reconciled with Paul's other epistles. If it 
 differs in the rhetorical length of words and 
 finish of sentences, it is only the more like his 
 speeches recorded by Luke. 
 
 On the other hand, many hold that the differ- 
 ence in style and language in the Epistle to 
 the Hebrews from that, for instance, of the 
 Epistles to the Romans, Ephesians, and Philip- 
 pians is such that they cannot have the same 
 author. Fundamentally the doctrine is the 
 same, but a different tinge is given to its expres- 
 sion : it is that of the Alexandrian rather than 
 the Palestinian school ; there is a marked 
 difference in the spirit and the manner 
 of the citations from the O.T. ; of the 
 twenty -nine direct quotations, all but three are 
 from the Septuagint. Differences also may be 
 noted in the method of argument and style of 
 composition. 
 
 If the author were not St. Paul, who was he ? 
 The range of possibilities as to the authorship 
 must, in any case, be limited to the Pauline 
 circle ; and the writer was one who could 
 fittingly speak of Timothy as " brother." 
 Luther's conjecture that it might be Apollos, 
 based upon the description of him in Acts 18.24- 
 28 as a Hellenist Jew, has many supporters. 
 Others suggest Barnabas. Tradition as early 
 as the days of Tertullian ascribed it to him. 
 Certain resemblances in style and tone of the 
 epistle to words and idioms occurring in the 
 Third Gospel and the Acts have suggested Luke 
 as the author, and to him it is attributed by 
 Calvin and others. It has been surmised that 
 Priscilla may have written it (Acts 18.26). 
 Paul places her name first (Rom. 16.3 ; 2 Tim. 
 4.19), as though for some reason the more dis- 
 tinguished. Other authorities are content to 
 attribute the epistle to some Alexandrian 
 Christian of name unknown. 
 
 As to the community to which the epistle 
 was primarily addressed, there are brief allusions 
 which may direct, if they cannot wholly decide, 
 the inquiry. They appear to have formed, 
 as has already been pointed out, an organised 
 society or church, which had existed for 
 some tune (13.7) ; they had recognised 
 teachers to whom obedience was due (13.17). 
 But these remarks would almost equally 
 apply to Jewish Christians in Palestine (as in 
 Jerusalem or Csesarea) and to those of the 
 Dispersion. 
 
 The Contents of the epistle are in two prin- 
 cipal parts the first chiefly doctrinal (1-10.18), 
 and the second chiefly practical (10.19-13). 
 
 1. In the first part, the supreme authority 
 and glory of the Christian dispensation is proved 
 by the superiority of its Mediator, the Eternal 
 Son of God, to the mediators of the old cove- 
 nant whether spiritual, as angels, or earthly, 
 as Moses ; and it is shown that His sufferings 
 and death, so far from diminishing His media- 
 
HEBRON] 
 
 199 
 
 [HEIR 
 
 torial glory, were the very means of accom- 
 plishing His work of expiation and redemption 
 (1-4.13). The comparison of Christ with Moses 
 and with Joshua is then followed by another 
 with Aaron. Christ is shown first to be, like 
 Aaron, a true Priest, appointed by God, and 
 a real representative of man and then, far to 
 surpass Aaron, as reproducing the older, nobler 
 priesthood of the priest-king Melchizedek. 
 The new economy, of which He is the Head, 
 is proved from the O.T. itself to supersede 
 and abrogate the old ; and the intrinsic and 
 perpetual efficacy of His one sacrifice, as a full 
 and perfect propitiation for sin, is contrasted 
 with the typical and ceremonial virtue of the 
 oft-repeated sacrifices which were now passing 
 away (4.14-10.18). 
 
 2. The course of the preceding argument has 
 been interspersed with practical counsels and 
 solemn warnings : and now the epistle is 
 closed by stirring exhortations to a continuance 
 in patient endurance and cheerful confidence, 
 amidst present trials and sufferings. Faith is 
 shown to be essential to a participation in God's 
 promised blessings ; its operation and triumph- 
 ant efficacy are exhibited in a long line of heroes, 
 martyrs, and confessors, ending in Jesus, the 
 great exemplar ; and the Hebrew Christians 
 are encouraged to endure similar trials, as 
 fatherly chastisement adapted to promote their 
 highest good. The glorious privileges of the New 
 Covenant are used to set forth the awful peril 
 of apostasy (10.19-12). There follow some 
 exhortations to special duties and virtues, 
 precepts and rules of life, introduced with 
 Pauline abruptness ; and the whole ends after 
 that apostle's manner with a doxology and 
 benediction (13). 
 
 Helaron. Confederation, companionship : 
 1. One of the most ancient cities in the world, 
 originally called Kirjath-Arba, near to which 
 were the terebinths of Mamre (Gen. 13.18; 
 Num. 13.22; Josh. 20.7), and situated in an 
 open valley [ESCHOL], about 18 miles south of 
 Jerusalem (Num. 13.23). It was the favourite 
 abode of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, and 
 contained the family tomb (Gen. 23, 25.9, 
 49.29-31). The cave that Abraham bought 
 is still there, surrounded by the walls of a 
 Mohammedan mosque, and the modern name 
 of Hebron, el-Khalil (" the friend "), is the 
 name by which Abraham is known to the 
 followers of Mohammed. Hebron was taken 
 by Joshua from the Canaanites and given 
 to Caleb (Josh. 10.36, 11.21, 12.10). It was 
 afterwards allotted to Judah and to the priests 
 and Kohathites, and was made a city of refuge 
 (Josh. 15.54, 21.11, 20.7, 15.13 ; Judg. 1.10). It 
 was here also that David set up his government 
 when he was anointed king of Judah ; where 
 he reigned for seven and a half years (2 Sam. 5.5). 
 Abner was buried at Hebron, as was also the 
 head of Ishbosheth (2 Sam. 3.32, 4.1, 8, 12). 
 Then it was the seat of Absalom's rebellion 
 (2 Sam. 15.7-10), and was fortified by Rehoboam 
 (2 Ch. 11.10). It was rebuilt and occupied by 
 
 Jews after their return from captivity (Neh. 
 11.25). 
 
 Hebron, or rather el-Khalil, is still a place 
 of considerable population and importance, 
 occupying both slopes of the valley where the 
 spies gathered the tempting clusters of grapes 
 (Num. 13.23). Its slopes are still covered 
 with vineyards, where are grown the finest 
 grapes and olives in all Palestine. [KIRJATH- 
 AEBA, MACHPELAH, MAMRE.] 2. A boundary 
 town of Asher, near Rehob (Josh. 19.28). It 
 is called also Abdon, which see. 3. Son of 
 Kohath, son of Levi (Ex. 6.18 ; Num. 3.19 ; 
 1 Ch. 6.2). 4. In a list of persons whose names 
 are identical with places in the south of Judah 
 (1 Ch. 2.42, 43). 
 
 Hebronites. Patronymic of the family of 
 Hebron, the son of Kohath (Num. 3.27 ; 1 Ch. 
 26 23). 
 
 Hedge. The words so translated sometimes 
 mean simply enclosures, e.g. stone walls, but in 
 Palestine the farmer and the shepherd still 
 surmount the stone walls of their orchards and 
 sheepfolds with a hedge of thorns or prickly- 
 pear. God's protecting providence is called a 
 hedge (Job 1.10; Isai. 5.2). Troubles and 
 hindrances are called hedges because they 
 obstruct the way (Job 19.8 ; Lam. 3.7 ; Eos. 
 2.6). See also Prov. 15.19. In Isai. 5.5 it is 
 a thorn hedge planted to protect the vineyard. 
 [WALLS, SHEEPFOLD.] 
 
 Eeel. To have the heels bare denoted shame, 
 contempt, captivity, distress (Jet. 13.22). To 
 lift up the heel, to kick, is to render evil for good 
 to a superior ; so Judas acted (Ps. 41.9 ; John 
 13.18). Men are taken by the heels in a snare 
 when evil overtakes them (Job 18.9). The ful- 
 filment of the prophecy of the " bruising of the 
 heel" in Gen. 3.15 is probably to be seen in the 
 suffering inflicted on our Lord. 
 
 He'gai, He'ge. The chief chamberlain, or 
 eunuch, of Ahasuerus (Esth. 2.3, 15). He had 
 special charge of the harem (Esth. 2.8). Hege is 
 the Persian form of the name. 
 
 Heifer. A young cow, used in sacrifice 
 (Num. 19.1-10). Moses and Aaron were in- 
 structed to deliver the Divine command to the 
 children of Israel, that they should procure a 
 " red heifer, without spot," and one that had 
 never been worked, and so rendered unfit to be 
 offered to God. It was not usual to put the 
 young cows that had never calved to the yoke, 
 either for ploughing or any other purpose, 
 though they were sometimes employed in 
 treading out the corn (Eos. 10.11). A red 
 heifer was chosen because red was the symbol of 
 life and energy, a fit sacrifice for sin. Its ashes 
 were to be used in Purification (which see). The 
 sportiveness, impetuosity, and wildness of the 
 young cow are referred to in Jer. 46.20 ; Eos. 
 4.16. [SACRIFICES, BLOOD.] 
 
 Heir. The principles of heirship in the East 
 differ from those among us ; so that children do 
 not always wait until their parents are dead to 
 receive their portions. Hence when Christ is 
 called " heir of all things " (Eeb. 1.2) it does 
 
HELAH] 
 
 200 
 
 [HEMAN 
 
 not imply the death of any former possessor of 
 all things ; and when saints are called heirs of 
 the promise (Heb. 11.9), of righteousness, of the 
 kingdom, of the world, of God, " joint heirs " 
 with Christ (Rom. 8.17), it implies participants 
 in such and such advantages, but no decease of 
 any one in possession ; though among our- 
 selves there is no actual heirship till the parent, 
 or proprietor, is departed (Gen. 15.3 ; 2 Sam. 
 14.7 ; Jer. 49.1, 2 ; Matt. 21.38 ; Rom. 4.13). 
 [ADOPTION, SUCCEED, BIRTHRIGHT, CONCUBINES, 
 INHERITANCE.] 
 
 He'lah. A wife of Ashur (1 Ch. 4.5, 7). 
 He'lam. (?) Fortress : the scene of the defeat 
 of the Syrian forces by David. It is situated 
 between the Jordan and the Euphrates (2 Sam. 
 10.16, 17) ; and is unidentified. 
 
 Hel'bah. (?) Fatness : a town of Asher, not 
 far from Sidon (Judg. 1.31). The Canaanites 
 were not expelled from this city. It is un- 
 identified. 
 
 Herbon. (?) Fatness : this place, celebrated 
 in ancient times for its wine, still bears its 
 original name. It is now a village, Halbun, in 
 a wild glen within a few miles of Damascus, and 
 is still famous for the excellence of its grapes 
 (Ezek. 27.18). 
 
 Hel'dai. (?) Vital, enduring : 1. The twelfth 
 captain for the monthly service in David's time, 
 a descendant of Othniel, the same as Heled 
 (1 Ch. 27.15). 2. An Israelite who returned 
 from captivity and was one of a deputation who 
 brought crowns to the High Priest, Joshua 
 (Zech. 6.10). In ver. 14 be is called Helem. 
 
 He'leb. Fat : one of David's valiant men. 
 Perhaps the same as Heldai 1 (2 Sam. 23.29). 
 He'led. (1 Ch. 11.30). [HELDAI 1.] 
 He'lek. Portion : the second son of Gilead, 
 descended from Joseph, through Manasseh. He 
 founded the family of Helekites (Num. 26.30 ; 
 Josh. 17.2). 
 
 He'lekites. Descendants of Helek (Num. 
 26.30). 
 
 He'lem. (?) Hammer : 1. A descendant of 
 Asher (1 Ch. 7.35). 2. [HELDAI 2.] 
 
 He'leph. Exchange : a boundary town of 
 Naphtali (Josh. 19.33). It may be the modern 
 Beit Lif, east of Has Abyad and west of Kades. 
 
 He'lez. Strength : 1. The Peltite or Pelonite 
 (which see), and a member of David's guard of 
 thirty (2 Sam. 23.26 ; 1 Ch. 11.27). 2. A son of 
 Azariah (1 Ch. 2.39). He was a descendant of 
 Jerahmeel of the family of Hezron of Judah. 
 
 He'li. According to St. Luke's genealogy, 
 Heli was the father of Joseph, the husband 
 of Mary the mother of our Lord. The name 
 in Hebrew is identical with Eli (Lk. 3.23). 
 [GENEALOGY OF OUR LORD.] 
 
 Hel'kai. (?) My portion is the Lord : a priest 
 in the family of Meraioth, in the time of Joiakim, 
 son of Jeshua (Neh. 12.15). 
 
 Hel'kath. Portion : a boundary town of 
 Asher, assigned to the Gershonites (Josh. 19.25, 
 21.31). It is called Hukok in the list of 
 Levitical cities in 1 Ch. 6.75. Its site has not 
 'jeen discovered. 
 
 Hel kath-haz'zurim. Field of $words : a 
 piece of level ground near the pool of Gibeon, 
 the scene of the conflict between a party of 
 Abner's men and a party of Joab's men, which 
 ended in the deaths of all the combatants 
 (2 5am. 2.16). [JoAB, ABNER.] 
 
 Hell. Three words are translated " Hell " 
 in the A.V., a fourth, a verbal form, appearing 
 in " cast . . . down to hell " (2 Pet. 2.4). 
 
 In the O.T. the word rendered " hell " is Sheol 
 (as in Deut. 32.22), which is also translated 
 in the A.V. thirty-one times as " grave " (as in 
 Gen. 37.35), and thrice as " pit" (as in Num. 
 16.30). Sheol signifies the place of departed 
 spirits, without in itself distinguishing good or 
 bad, happiness or misery (compare Ps. 16.10 
 with Num. 16.30). The O.T. Sheol in Ps. 16.10 
 is represented in the N.T. by Hades (Acts 2.27, 
 31). 
 
 In the N.T. " hell " is in ten places a trans- 
 lation of the Greek Hades, which is also rendered 
 " grave " in 1 Cor. 15.55. In its general mean- 
 ing Hades corresponds to Sheol. The Rich Man 
 (Lk. 16.23) was in Hades; and (Acts 2.27) 
 our Lord. But a separation of good and evil is 
 intimated (Lk. 16.23, 26), the evil finding it a 
 place of torment, though not the final place. 
 " Hell " is also, in twelve passages, a translation 
 of Gehenna, which is compounded of two Hebrew 
 words, Ge Hinnom, " the valley of Hinnom," 
 a place near Jerusalem in which children were 
 cruelly sacrificed by fire to Moloch, the idol of the 
 Ammonites (2 Ch. 33.6), and afterwards a place 
 for depositing refuse. It was also called Topheth 
 (2 K. 23.10), which see. Gehenna appears in 
 passages addressed to Jews, who would under- 
 stand the reference. It is a place of lasting 
 punishment (Mk. 9.43-48). 
 Hellenist. [GREEK. ] 
 
 Helmet. The helmet worn by the Israelites 
 was in the form of a cap, with hanging pieces 
 covering the ears and neck. It was of bronze 
 or brass. The helmets that Uzziah provided 
 for his vast army (2 Ch. 26.14), and that Saul 
 and Goliath wore, were of the same metal (1 Sam. 
 17.5, 38). These bronze helmets were worn only 
 by the leaders, the ordinary soldier being, as it 
 seems, supplied with quilted caps, strengthened 
 with metal bars, or else of caps made of felt or 
 leather. The Hittites wore helmets broader 
 at the top than where they fitted the head, 
 while the Assyrian officers wore them high and 
 pointed. 
 
 He'lon. Strong : father of Eliab, who repre- 
 sented Zebulon in the census (Num. 1.9). 
 Hem, of Garment. [FRINGE.] 
 He'mam. (?) Moving noisily: a son of Lotan 
 (Gen. 36.22). The correct form of the name is 
 Homam (1 Ch. 1.39). 
 
 Ee'man. Faithful : 1. A son of Zerah, the son 
 of Judah (1 Ch. 2.6), said also to be son of Mahol 
 (1 K. 4.31), who may have been a nearer ancestor 
 than Zerah. 2. A grandson of Samuel, a 
 Kohathite. He was a singer in the house of the 
 Lord (1 Ch. 6.33), and also one of the king's 
 seers or wise men in religious matters (1 Ch. 
 
HEMATH] 
 
 201 
 
 [HERMON 
 
 25.5). Psalm 88 is ascribed to him. Itisnotclear 
 whether there were one, two, or three persons 
 of this name. 
 
 He'math. Fortress : 1. Another form of 
 Hamath, which see (Amos 6.14). 2. Hammath, 
 R.V. either a person, or a place (it is im- 
 possible to determine which), appearing in the 
 genealogical lists of Judah as the founder of 
 the house of the Kenites and the Rechabites 
 (1 Ch. 2.55). 
 
 Hem'dan. Pleasant : a descendant of Seir, the 
 Horite. The eldest son of Dishon (Gen. 36.26). 
 In the parallel list of 1 Ch. 1.41 the name is 
 Hamran, which in the A.V. is Amram. In 
 Hebrew the " d " and " r " are almost exactly 
 alike, save that " d " has a " tittle " (which see). 
 
 Hemlock. The word translated hemlock is 
 a good example of a common name wrongly 
 converted into a proper one. The Hebrew word 
 is one of strong and intense significance, meaning 
 venom or poison, and not the plant hemlock with 
 which Socrates was slain. In Dent. 29.18, and 
 elsewhere, it is rendered " gall " or " worm- 
 wood." In all cases it is used as the type of 
 poisonous and bitter weeds that choke and 
 hinder the growth of beneficial plants (Eos. 
 10.4; Amos 6.12). 
 
 Hen. Grace : a son of Zephaniah (Zech. 6.14), 
 called Josiah in ver. 10. Perhaps we should 
 follow the Septuagint in translating " for the 
 kindness of the son of Zephaniah." 
 
 He'na. A city of Mesopotamia, captured by 
 the Assyrians (2 K. 19.13 ; Isai. 37.13). 
 
 Hena'dad. The favour of Hadad : a Levite 
 and chief of a family who assisted in rebuilding 
 the Temple under Jeshua (Ezra 3.9 ; Neh. 3.18). 
 
 He'pher. Pit or well : 1. The youngest of the 
 sons of Gilead (Num. 26.32). 2. A man of 
 Judah (1 Ch. 4.6). 3. One of the leaders of 
 David's guard (1 Ch. 11.36). 4. A royal city of 
 the Canaanites on the west of the Jordan that 
 was taken by Joshua (Josh. 12.17). 5. In 
 Judah, part of one of Solomon's commissariat 
 districts (1 K. 4.10). 
 
 He'pherites. Men of Hepher 1 (Num. 
 26.32). 
 
 HephzilJah. My delight is in her : 1. The wife 
 of Hezekiah, and the mother of Manasseh (2 K. 
 21.1). 2. The name by which the restored 
 Jerusalem was to be known (Isai. 62.4). 
 
 Herb. This word is used for grass and any 
 tender plant or vegetable (2 K. 4.39 ; Prov. 
 15.17 ; Lk. 11.42). It appears in the A.V. as a 
 rendering of six Hebrew words. 
 
 Herd, Herdman. The wealth of the patriarchs 
 consisted chiefly in cattle and slaves, or servants, 
 who were employed in tending the flocks and 
 herds (Gen. 13.7). Abraham and Lot had such 
 large herds of cattle that they were obliged to 
 separate to find pasture for them. Later, when 
 Lot became the victim of a raid, Abraham went 
 to his rescue with 318 of his herdsmen (Gen. 
 14.14). The treatment of these slave herds- 
 men was often better than that of hired servants. 
 They were all the more ready to defend their 
 masters' property. Another class of herdsmen 
 
 were the overseers or herd -masters. These 
 were sometimes men of honourable position 
 (Gen. 47.6 ; 1 Sam. 11.5, 21.7). The councillors 
 of David were herdsmen, and so also was 
 Doeg, one of Saul's officers, the same who slew 
 the priests, and the prophet Amos in early life 
 was a herdsman (Amos 1.1, 7.14). [CATTLE.] 
 
 He'res. Sun : 1. The equivalent to the Greek 
 Heliopolis, "City of the sun." Mount Heres 
 was near Aijalon on the borders of Judah and 
 Dan. It was inhabited by the Amorites, who 
 were not expelled (Judg. 1.35). 2. In Judg. 
 8.13, " before the sun was up " should be 
 translated " from the ascent of Heres." A 
 place east of Jordan. [TIMNATH-HERES.] 
 
 Heresh. (?) Workman : a Levite (1 Ch. 9.15). 
 
 Heresy. The English word is a translitera- 
 tion of a Greek word which meant, at first, a 
 taking (e.g. of a town); then a choice or elec- 
 tion ; an inclination or preference ; and so the 
 thing chosen, and ultimately a philosophic 
 principle or set of principles, and the persons 
 holding them, a sect or school of thought. 
 In the Acts of the Apostles the Greek word 
 equivalent to heresy is translated " sect," as 
 applied to the Sadducees (Acts 5.17), Pharisees 
 (Acts 15.5, 26.5), Nazarenes (Acts 24.5), and 
 Christians (Acts 28.22). Its use as applied to 
 the Christian Church is also seen in Acts 24.14. 
 St. Paul and St. Peter write of "heresies," 
 divisions in, or opinions dividing, the Church 
 (1 Cor. 11.19 ; Gal 5.20 ; 2 Pet. 2.1). 
 
 By ecclesiastical writers, heresy is used to 
 designate opinions deviating from the true faith. 
 St. Augustine held (De Haret.) that it was " alto- 
 gether impossible, or at any rate most difficult," 
 to define heresy. Philastrius, bishop of Brescia, 
 counted twenty-eight heresies which existed 
 amongst the Jews before our Lord's time, and 
 one hundred and twenty-eight afterwards. 
 
 Hereth. [HARETH.] 
 
 Heritage. [INHERITANCE.] 
 
 Her 'mas. Mercury : the name of one greeted 
 by Paul in Rom. 16.14. Though the origin 
 of his name is Greek, he was a Christian and 
 resident in Rome, and in fact the bulk of the 
 early Christians hi Rome appear to have spoken 
 Greek. The Shepherd of Hermas, a writing of 
 the middle of the second century, has been 
 wrongly attributed to him. He is regarded 
 as a saint in the Roman Church, his festal 
 day being May 9. 
 
 Her'mes. Mercury : a Christian Greek in 
 Rome who was addressed by Paul. Both this 
 man and Hermas were heads of Christian 
 families, and of influence in the Church 
 (Rom. 16.14). 
 
 Hermes was claimed by some as one of the 
 seventy disciples, and afterwards bishop of 
 Dalmatia. He is in the Greek calendar of 
 saints, and his festival is celebrated on April 8. 
 [MERCUEITTS.] 
 
 Hermo'genes. Descendant of Mercury : a 
 renegade Christian Greek mentioned by Paul in 
 2 Tim. 1.15. 
 
 Hermon. Probably sacred, tabooed (as with 
 
HERMONITES] 
 
 202 
 
 [HERODIANS 
 
 many mountains for example, Mount Fujiyama 
 in Japan) : Mount Hermon dominates the 
 Holy Land, its diadem of snow and dome-like 
 crest towering above the lesser heights that 
 surround it. To the old Syrian this mountain 
 was the holy place of his religion, the highest 
 of all the high places of Baal ; to Israel, warned 
 against the idolatry practised on every high 
 hill, it was little more than the natural northern 
 frontier of the Land of Promise ; but to the 
 Christian something of its more antique sanctity 
 returns in a far nobler and more divine sense 
 as being the high mountain in the parts of 
 Caesarea Philippi to which our Lord withdrew 
 for a short time, and where He was transfigured 
 before His disciples. 
 
 Hermon was the great landmark of the 
 Israelites. It is constantly spoken of as their 
 northern border. They conquered all the land 
 from the river Arnon, even unto Mount Sion, 
 "which is Hermon" (DeutAAS). Itwas the point 
 of the north, as Tabor was also ; " Tabor and 
 Hermon shall rejoice in Thy name " (Ps. 88.12). 
 It was known by other names beside Hermon ; 
 of these the oldest was Sion (Deut. 4.48). Its 
 dew is so copious that travellers' tents become 
 as wet as though they had stood out in a heavy 
 rain. The Phoenicians called it Sirion " the 
 glittering," and it was known to the Amorites 
 as Shenir (Deut. 3.9), a word of the same signifi- 
 cation names easily accounted for, because it. 
 is rarely seen without its snowy cap. On the 
 highest of its three peaks can be traced the 
 remains of the old temple of Baal, consisting 
 of squared stones arranged nearly in a circle, 
 within which are the ruins of a temple. Perhaps 
 it was overthrown by the Israelites, obeying the 
 command, *' Ye shall utterly destroy all the 
 places wherein the nations . . . served their 
 gods upon the high mountains " (Deut. 12.2). 
 From this height the priests of Baal could 
 obtain an unobstructed view of the sun's 
 course. So important a spot was this mountain 
 to the ancient idolaters, that they surrounded 
 its base with a circle of temples all facing the 
 summit ; to them it was a great sanctuary, just 
 as Jerusalem was to the Jews and Mecca to 
 the Moslems. It still retains its name Harmun 
 or Hermun. [BAAL-HERMON.] 
 
 Hennonites. Probably the peaks of Mount 
 Hermon (Ps. 42.6). 
 
 Herod the Great. His father, Antipater, 
 had been appointed Procurator of Judaea by 
 Julius Caesar in 47 B.C., and he himself was made 
 tetrarch by Antony in 40 B.C. When Antony was 
 overthrown by Augustus at the battle of Actium, 
 31 B.C., Herod lost no time in seeking the con- 
 queror, who confirmed him in the possession of the 
 whole Maccabaean kingdom, in five districts 
 Judaea, Samaria, and Galilee, west of the Jordan ; 
 Pereea and Idumaea on the east. Herod, as an 
 Idumaean, was a descendant of the Edomites. 
 His reign was marked by strange contrasts. 
 On the one hand he sought to propitiate the 
 Jews by the enlargement, fortification, and 
 adornment of their city. On the other, he 
 
 manifested a desire to Romanise the people. 
 He erected an amphitheatre in Jerusalem, in- 
 stituted public games, rebuilt Samaria (Sebaste), 
 erected sumptuous temples, both there and at 
 Csesarea Philippi (Panias), in honour of the 
 emperor. When a famine broke out in Judaea 
 and Samaria (25 B.C.) Herod spared no cost for 
 the alleviation of its horrors, contributing the 
 gold and silver ornaments of his palaces to 
 equip corn-laden vessels from Egypt. At 
 length, to crown his exertions on behalf of the 
 people, he began, in the eighteenth year of his 
 reign (20 B.C.), the reconstruction of the Temple 
 on a most magnificent scale. " Forty and six 
 years," it was said, long after his death, " was 
 this Temple in building " (John 2.20), nor was it 
 even then complete in all its details. With all 
 this, the relentless ambition and jealous cruelty 
 of the king have given him a place among the 
 worst tyrants of all time. To clear an undis- 
 puted way to the throne he put to death the 
 venerable Hyrcanus (31 B.C.). Mariamne, his 
 wife, and her two sons afterwards fell victims to 
 his insensate jealousy. The execution of Anti- 
 pater, his son by another wife, he ordered from 
 his death-bed. And from that death-bed also 
 he directed that the elders of the chief Jewish 
 cities should be shut up in the amphitheatre, 
 and slain as soon as the breath was out of his 
 body, " that there might at least be some 
 tears shed at his funeral." This order was 
 happily disobeyed. It was a short time before 
 his death that our Lord Jesus Christ was born 
 at Bethlehem, and the massacre of the innocents 
 was but of a piece with the character of this 
 jealous and passionate king. He died 4 B.C., 
 the same year, as it seems, in which our Saviour 
 was born (Matt. 2.1-22; Lk. 1.5). Great sums 
 of money were expended at his funeral, and 
 his sons, Archelaus, HEROD ANTIPAS, and Philip, 
 succeeded to his dominions, his will being con- 
 firmed by Caesar Augustus. 
 
 Herod Antipas. On the death of Herod the 
 Great, Antipas became ruler of Galilee and 
 Peraea. His chief work was the building of 
 Tiberias, on the Sea of Galilee, fashioned largely 
 after Greek models. It was Antipas whom 
 Christ spoke of as " fox," and it was to him that 
 Jesus was sent for trial by Pilate. His marriage 
 to Herodias, his brother Philip's wife, brought 
 him nothing but trouble. He was defeated in 
 battle by the father of his discarded and lawful 
 wife, the daughter of Aretas, an Arabian king ; 
 and it was through the ambition of Herodias 
 that he was finally deprived of his dominions 
 and sent into exile. His dealings with John 
 the Baptist are too well known to need mention 
 here (Matt. 14.1-6; Mk. 6.14-22, 8.15; Lk. 
 3.1,19, 8.3, 9.7,9, 13.31, 23.7-15, Acts 4.27, 
 13.1). For other members of the Herod ian 
 family see HERODIAS, AORIPPA,BERNICB, ARCHE- 
 LATJS, DRUSILLA, SALOME. 
 
 Hero'dians. A political party who favoured 
 the rule of the Herods under the Romans. Its 
 members showed decided hostility to our Lord on 
 several occasions (Matt. 22.16 ; Mk. 3.6 ; 12.13). 
 
HERODIAS] 
 
 203 
 
 [HEZEKIAH 
 
 In these encounters they were partisans 
 of the Pharisees and the Sadducees. That 
 this was but a chance coalition of parties, 
 drawn together by what they deemed a common 
 danger, seems to be shown by the infrequent 
 mention of the Herodians. Their political 
 aim was the founding of an independent Jewish 
 empire under Herod, using for the present the 
 power of Rome as a protection until they were 
 strong enough to throw off the hated yoke. 
 
 Hero'dias. Granddaughter of Herod the 
 Great. Her first husband was her uncle Philip, 
 by whom she had Salome ; but he falling into 
 disgrace, and being obliged to live in retire- 
 ment, she left him, and married his half -brother, 
 Herod Antipas, tetrarch of Galilee, who offered 
 her a palace and a crown. As John the Baptist 
 censured this incestuous marriage (Matt. 14.3, 
 4; Mk. 6.17), Antipas ordered him to be im- 
 prisoned, and afterwards, at the suggestion of 
 Herodias, beheaded him. Another suggestion 
 made by her, that Antipas should go to Rome 
 and procure the title of king, had a disastrous 
 ending. Refused a royal title, Antipas was 
 banished to Lyons, whither be was accompanied 
 by his ambitious and unscrupulous wife. [AN- 
 TIPAS, JOHN THE BAPTIST, SALOME.] 
 
 Hero'dion. A " kinsman " of Paul, but it 
 is not clear that this means more than that he 
 was a Jew (see Rom. 16.7, 21), and a Christian 
 living at Rome (ver. 11). This is all that is at 
 present known of him, though early writers 
 have made him bishop of more than one place. 
 
 Heron. The word translated heron is 
 amongst the unclean birds. But its meaning 
 is uncertain (Lev. 11.19 ; Deut. 14.18). 
 
 He'sed. Kindness : the father of one of 
 Solomon's commissariat officers (1 K. 4.10), but 
 " the son of Hesed " should probably be rendered 
 as a proper name, Ben-hesed, with the R.V. 
 
 Heshton. Stronghold : the capital city of 
 Sihon, king of the Amorites (Num. 21.26 ; Deut. 
 4.46), the ruins of which are still to be seen on 
 a hill standing on the western edge of a high 
 plain. It is 21 miles east of the north end 
 of the Dead Sea, on the boundary between 
 Reuben and Gad. It was taken by Moses 
 (Num. 21.21-26) and allotted to Reuben 
 (Josh. 13.17). It was rebuilt by Reuben 
 (Num. 32.37), and assigned to the Merarite 
 branch of the Levites (Josh. 21.39). Later the 
 Moabites (Num. 21.26) repossessed it (Isai. 15.4), 
 and also the Ammonites (Jer. 48.2). Cisterns 
 and reservoirs of water are still found among 
 the ruins of Heshbon (Cant. 7.4). Its present 
 name is Husban. 
 
 Hesh'mon. A town in the extreme south of 
 Judah, between Moladah and Beersheba. Its 
 exact position is unknown (Josh. 15.27). 
 
 Heth. The founder of the Hittites (Gen. 
 10.15; 1 Ch. 1.13). He was the second son of 
 Canaan, and dwelt south of the Promised Land. 
 Hebron, in Abraham's time, was peopled by the 
 children of Heth. [HITTITES.] 
 
 Heth'lon. A place on the northern boundary 
 of the Promised Land (Ezek. 47.15, 48.1). It 
 
 has been identified with Heitela, nearly two 
 hours from the seacoast. 
 
 He'zeki, Hizki. Jehovah is Strength : a son of 
 Elpaal. His name occurs in the genealogies 
 of Benjamin (1 Ch. 8.17). 
 
 Hezeki'ah. Jehovah is Strength : king of 
 Judah (726-697 B.C.), who succeeded to the 
 throne of his father, Ahaz, at the age of twenty- 
 five, and ruled for twenty -nine years. He is 
 generally accounted one of the wisest and best of 
 the kings of Judah. He has been called " the 
 virtuous king," and certainly the record of 
 many acts of his reign bears evidence to his 
 reverential and God-fearing character (2 K. 
 18.5). At the very beginning of his reign 
 he entirely reversed the wicked policy of his 
 father, and with zealous care destroyed the 
 idols and heathen temples that had been set 
 up in the land, and restored and purified the 
 worship of Jehovah, summoning all the nation 
 to a great Passover (2 Ch. 30.5). His reign is 
 distinguished not only by this reformation in 
 religion, but also by many public improvements 
 he brought about. In his relations with foreign 
 powers Hezekiah showed equal vigour and 
 zeal. Strengthened by a successful war against 
 the Philistines (2 K. 18.8), he prepared to shake 
 off the hated yoke of Assyria. These prepara- 
 tions consisted partly in strengthening the 
 defences of Jerusalem, both in the matter of 
 fortifications and by leading in by an under- 
 ground passage a copious supply of water 
 (2 K. 20.20 ; 2 Ch. 32.5-30). [SILOAM.] But 
 the capture of the "fenced cities" of Israel 
 by Sennacherib determined Hezekiah to cease 
 paying the tribute, which had been imposed 
 by the Assyrian on his father. The direct 
 consequence of this strong action was that 
 the Assyrian army invaded Judah (Isai. 36), 
 and demanded the surrender of Jerusa- 
 lem. Both king and people felt that the 
 time had come for resistance, and they pre- 
 pared to stake all on the coming struggle. 
 They were justified, for the judgment of God 
 fell upon the Assyrian host, who were obliged, 
 through a pestilence that broke out in their 
 camp, to beat a hasty retreat. 
 
 The illness of Hezekiah and his recovery 
 (2 K. 20.1-11 ; Isai. 38) led to the beautiful 
 passage in Isai. 38.10-20, which is the only 
 composition of his remaining to us. Yet this 
 king, who could so exquisitely express his 
 gratitude to God for His care over him, we find 
 giving way to the flattery of Merodach Baladan, 
 king of Babylon (who wished to enlist his help 
 against the king of Assyria), and making a vain 
 and pompous display before his ambassadors. 
 This caused the prophet Isaiah to predict the 
 Babylonian exile, which took place over a 
 century afterwards. We have placed this 
 incident in the order in which it is found in the 
 Bible, but the Bible order is not always chrono- 
 logical. Many have therefore thought that 
 Merodach Baladan's embassy took place early 
 in his reign, before Sennacherib attacked 
 Palestine at all. Hezekiah bowed submissively 
 
HEZION] 
 
 204 
 
 [HIGH PSIEST 
 
 to the will of God, and the remainder of his reign 
 was passed in tranquillity, his country con- 
 tinuing prosperous. He appears to have been 
 a patron of literature (Prov. 25.1). He was 
 succeeded on the throne, 697 or 686 B.C., by 
 his son Manasseh, a son in every way unworthy 
 of such a father. [SENNACHERIB, ISAIAH.] 
 
 2. A son of Neariah, a descendant of the 
 royal family of Judah (1 Ch. 3.23). 3. The 
 same name, A.V. Hizkiah, is found in Zeph. 
 1.1. Perhaps Zephaniah was a descendant of 
 the famous king. 4. An exile who returned 
 from Babylon (Ezra 2.16). [AxEB.] 
 
 Hezi'on. Vision : a king of Aram and grand- 
 father of Benhadad i. (1 K. 15.18). 
 
 He'zir. Pomegranate : 1. A priest, and leader 
 in the time of David of the seventeenth monthly 
 course (1 Ch. 24.15). 2. A chief who sealed the 
 covenant with Nehemiah (Neh. 10.20). 
 
 Hez'rai. One of David's thirty heroes, and 
 a native of Carmel (2 Sam. 23.35). [HEZRO.] 
 
 Hez'ro. The same person as Hezrai (1 Ch. 
 11.37). 
 
 Hez'ron. Settlement : 1. A son of Pharez, and 
 ancestor of David (Gen. 46.12 ; Num. 26.21). 
 2. A son of Reuben, and founder of the family 
 of the Hezronites (Gen. 46.9; Ex. 6.14; Num. 
 26.6; 1 Ch. 5.3). 3. A place on the south 
 boundary of Judah (Josh. 15.3). 4. Another 
 town in south Judah, also called Hazor 
 (Josh. 15.25). 
 
 Hez'ronites. 1. Descendants of Hezron 1 
 (Num. 26.21). 2. Descendants of Hezron 2 
 (Num. 26.6). 
 
 Hid'dai. Mighty : one of David's valiant 
 men, dwelling on the hill of Gaash (2 Sam. 
 23.30), called Hurai in 1 Ch. 11.32. 
 
 HiddeTceL (?) Rapid: the river Tigris 
 (Gen. 2.14; Dan. 10.4). One of the rivers of the 
 Garden of Eden. " The great river " of Daniel, 
 by the side of which he saw some of his most 
 important visions. It has two chief sources in 
 the mountains of Armenia. Its general direction 
 is south-east to about 60 miles from the Persian 
 Gulf, where it joins the Euphrates, after flowing 
 for some 1146 miles. It was anciently connected 
 with the Euphrates by a system of irrigating 
 canals, rendering the intervening country very 
 fertile. Its modern name of Digleh is derived 
 directly from the ancient Hiddekel. [DEN, 
 TIGRIS.] 
 
 Bi'elGod is living : a native of Bethel, 
 who rebuilt Jericho, notwithstanding the curse 
 uttered against him who should attempt to 
 rebuild it after its destruction by Joshua 
 (Josh. 6.26). Hiel, in the time of Ahab, realised 
 the effects of the curse, laying the foundations 
 at the cost of the life of his eldest son, Abiram, 
 and hanging the gates at the cost of the life 
 of his youngest son, Segub (1 K. 16.34). 
 Possibly they were sacrificed in compliance with 
 a custom of which traces are found in many 
 lands. [JERICHO, ABIRAM.] 
 
 Hierap'olis. Sacred city : mentioned only 
 once (Col. 4.13) in connexion with Coloss 
 and Laodicea in Phrygia. It was 1100 feet above 
 
 the soa, the seat of a Christian Church, perhaps 
 formed by Epaphras, and was famous for its 
 hot springs, which are still remarkable features 
 of the place. At the present time it is repre- 
 sented by a village called Pambuk Kale. 
 
 Higgai'pn. Sounding music (see Ps. 92.3, A.V. 
 inarg. ) : it appears to be a musical direction 
 (Ps. 9.16). [SELAH.] 
 
 High Place. The tops of mountains and 
 hills were the scenes of worship amongst many 
 peoples. Noah's altar was doubtless on Mount 
 Ararat (Gen. 8.20). Abraham built an altar 
 on a mountain east of Bethel (Gen. 12.8). The 
 altar built by Moses and called Jehovah-Nissi 
 was doubtless on " the top of the hill " (Ex. 
 17.9, 15). On entering the Promised Land 
 the Hebrews found high places associated with 
 idolatrous worship. Moses was directed to 
 command that the children should " quite pluck 
 down " these " high places " (Num. 33.52) ; and 
 the Deuteronomic Law bade the people look 
 forward to " a place which the Lord your God 
 shall choose," where alone sacrifice and offering 
 were to be made (Deut. 12.10-14). If this law 
 was given by Moses, it could not have been 
 accepted as an immediate command to use only 
 one place of sacrifice ; for such acts as those of 
 Gideon (Judg. 6.24, 26), David (1 Ch. 21.26), 
 and Elijah (1 K. 18.30, and comp. 1 K. 19.10) 
 do not suggest that the use of other altars 
 was exceptional. Meanwhile the heathen 
 worship at high places continued, and in some 
 notable instances was encouraged, as by Solomon 
 (1 K. 11.7) and Jeroboam, the son of Nebat 
 (1 K. 12.28, 33). The worship paid at these 
 " high places " was freely denounced by the 
 prophets (e.g. Eos. 4.13, 10.8). It was attacked 
 by Hezekiah (2 K. 18.4) and rigorously dealt 
 with by Josiah (2 K. 23.4-20). 
 
 The title "high place" in time lost its 
 physical meaning, and implied a shrine or 
 worship-place, even in the valley of Hinnom 
 (Jer. 7.31), in a gate of Jerusalem (2 K. 23.8), 
 or in a street (Ezek. 16.24). Idolatrous high 
 places had their priests (1 K. 12.31), their 
 sacrifices even human sacrifices at " the high 
 places of Tophet" (Jer. 7.31), and licentious 
 rites (Eos. 4.13). 
 
 High Priest. The head of the Jewish priest- 
 hood. Aaron and his sons were solemnly set 
 aside for the priest's office (Ex. 28.1, 40.12-15), 
 with pre-eminence for Aaron. This pre-eminence 
 was hereditary (Ex. 29.29, 30). The office was 
 at first held for life, but Solomon -deprived 
 Abiathar of the office for treason (1 K. 2.27). 
 When the sons of Eli met with death, the result 
 of their own wickedness, the succession passed 
 to the descendants of Ithamar, the second son 
 of Aaron (1 Sam. 2.35, 36). It returned, how- 
 ever, to the family of Eleazar during the reign 
 of Solomon (1 K. 2.35), and remained with that 
 branch of the family until the captivity. After 
 the Captivity the first high priest was Jeshua, 
 the son of Jozadak (Ezra 3.2). The succession 
 next passed into a private Levitical family. 
 Afterwards the office was held by some of the 
 
HIGHWAY] 
 
 205 
 
 [HINNOM, VALLEY OP 
 
 Maccabaean princes, and by them a triple crown 
 of gold was added to the mitre. Under the 
 Romans the dignity, honour, and sanctity of 
 the office were almost done away with. Even 
 at a still earlier date, after the Captivity, the 
 office was frequently sold to the highest bidder, 
 and sometimes to persons not of the priestly 
 families. Often the high priest was changed 
 every year, which explains why there could 
 be several at once. Ananus, or Annas (Lk. 3.2 ; 
 John 18.13,24; Acts 4.6), was himself high 
 priest for several years, and saw the office 
 afterwards filled by five sons and several sons- 
 in-law. This, of course, gave him considerable 
 influence. [CAIAPHAS.] 
 
 The robes of the high priest, in addition to the 
 ordinary priests' robe, were : 1. The coat, or robe 
 of the ephod. This was made of blue wool, and 
 the hem or border was ornamented with seventy- 
 two golden bells, placed alternately with as 
 many pomegranates of embroidered work. 
 [FRINGES.] 2. The ephod, a vest which was 
 fastened on the shoulders, reaching to the heels 
 behind, but only a little below the waist in 
 front. This garment was of fine twisted 
 linen, wrought with gold and purple. On 
 eath shoulder was a clasp, in which was set 
 a precious stone, engraved with the names of 
 the tribes. [EPHOD.] 3. The breastplate of 
 judgment was a piece of cloth like the ephod, 
 eleven inches square, set with twelve precious 
 stones, also engraved with the names of the 
 twelve tribes. This had something to do with 
 what is called the urim and thummin, two 
 words meaning "lights" and "perfection," 
 about which scholars have been very much 
 puzzled. When the high priest sought counsel 
 of Jehovah he wore this breastplate, and the 
 act was called asking counsel after the judg- 
 ment of urim (Num. 27.21). [BREASTPLATE.] 
 4. The high priest also wore a crown or mitre, on 
 the point of which a plate of pure gold was 
 fastened by a blue ribbon, engraved with 
 Hebrew characters meaning " Holiness to the 
 Lord " (Ex. 28 and 39). 
 
 The special duties of the high priest were 
 more particularly concerned with the Day 
 of Atonement (which see), as described in 
 Lev. 16 ; and comp. Hcb. 9. [PRIEST.] 
 
 Highway. In the time of Christ six main 
 arteries of intercourse and commerce traversed 
 the country, the chief points to which they led 
 being Csesarea and Jerusalem, the one the 
 military, the other the religious capital. First, 
 there was the southern road, which led from 
 Jerusalem by Bethlehem to Hebron, and thence 
 westward to Gaza, and eastward into Arabia, 
 whence also a direct road went northwards to 
 Damascus. It was by this road St. Paul travelled 
 into the solitudes of Arabia after his conversion 
 (Gal. 1.17,18). Secondly, there was the old 
 highway along the seashore from Egypt up to 
 Tyre, whence a straight, but not much fre- 
 quented, road led by Csesarea Philippi to 
 Damascus. The seashore road was the most 
 important military highway in the land. It was 
 
 probably by this road that the Roman escort 
 hurried off St. Paul (Acts 23.31). A third road 
 ran from Jerusalem past Beth-horon and Lydda 
 to Joppa. The fourth road led from Galilee 
 to Jerusalem, through Samaria, branching at 
 Sichem eastwards to Damascus. As a rule 
 Jewish travellers avoided passing through 
 Samaria, preferring the dangers of the fifth 
 great road (Matt. 20.17, 29 ; Lk. 10.30, 19.1, 28). 
 This fifth road went from Jerusalem, by Bethany 
 to Jericho, where it crossed the Jordan by a 
 ford, and led on to Gilead. The sixth great road 
 was not all Jewish, but connected Damascus 
 with Rome. Starting from Damascus it crossed 
 the Jordan to Capernaum, Tiberias, and Nain to 
 Nazareth, and thence to Ptolemais. Thus 
 Nazareth was on the world's great highway, and 
 what was spoken there quickly spread abroad. 
 But a large number of secondary roads also 
 traversed the country in all directions. " The 
 king's highway " (Num. 20.17, 19) was one 
 kept up for national purposes at the public 
 expense. The roads to the cities of refuge were 
 to be kept in good order (Deut. 19.3). From 
 Jewish historians we learn that these were 
 to be 48 feet wide, and provided with bridges 
 and signposts. [TRAVELLING.] 
 
 Hi'len. -[HOLON 1.] 
 
 Hilki'ah. The Lord is my portion : 1. The 
 father of Eliakim, Hezekiah's officer (2 K. 18.18). 
 
 2. High priest in the time of Josiah, king of 
 Judah (2 K. 22.4). The notable events that 
 occurred in his high priesthood render him 
 prominent above all others of the name. He 
 assisted in the great reformation of Josiah, and 
 the solemn passover kept by that king, and he 
 discovered the book of the law of Moses in the 
 Temple (1 Ch. 6.13; 2 Ch. 34.14; Neh. 11.11). 
 
 3. A Levite (1 Ch. 6.45). 4. A Levite (1 Ch. 
 26.11). 5. A priest contemporary of Ezra (Neh. 
 8.4,12.7,21). 6. Father of Jeremiah (Jer. 1.1). 
 7. Father of Gemariah (Jer. 29.3). 
 
 Hil'leL He hath praised (Judg. 12.13). 
 [PHARISEE.] 
 
 Hin. A liquid measure containing 12 logs or 
 280 cubic inches, equal to rather more than one 
 gallon. 
 
 Hind. [HART.] 
 
 Hinge. In the east both ancient and modern 
 doors turn upon pivots placed top and bottom 
 of one side of the door, which pivots turn in 
 sockets above and beneath (1 K. 7.50 ; Prov. 
 26.14). In the ruins in Syria are to be found 
 many such stone doors, some of them very 
 massive. The Temple doors had hinges of gold, 
 i.e. presumably covered with gold (1 K. 7.50). 
 
 Hin'nom, Valley oi A valley west and 
 south of Jerusalem, about 1J miles long. It 
 begins west of the city, runs in a south-easterly 
 direction towards the Jaffa Gate, bends to the 
 south for 1J miles, then curves suddenly round 
 the south-west brow of the city, runs east and 
 joins the valley of Kedron, or Jehoshaphat, at 
 Bir Eyub. Near this junction is an oblong plot, 
 the site of Tophet. This valley is sometimes 
 called the valley of the Son (Sons, 2 K. 
 
HIRAH] 
 
 206 
 
 [HITTITES 
 
 23.10) of Hinnora. It marked the boundary 
 between Judah and Benjamin (Josh. 15.8) ; was 
 the scene of idol-worship, which included the 
 sacrifice of young children in the rites of Moloch 
 (1 K. 11.7 ; 2 K. 16.3 ; 2 Ch. 28.3, etc.). Finally 
 it was used as a place for the deposit and destruc- 
 tion of all the refuse of the city ; hence it came 
 to be used as the symbol of the place of the 
 future punishment of the wicked (Matt. 5.22, 
 29,30,18.8,9; Mk. 9.43-48). [HELL ; GEHENNA, 
 
 TOPHET.] 
 
 Hi'rah. An Adullamite, the friend of Judah 
 (Gen. 38.1, 12). 
 
 Hi'ram. Shortened for Ahiram, " brother of 
 the lofty one " : 1. A king of Tyre who lived in 
 most friendly alliance with David and Solomon 
 (2 Sam. 5.11, 12 ; 1 K. 9.14, 10.22). He assisted 
 the latter in building the Temple, and also the 
 fleet at Tarshish. His own city of Tyre was 
 celebrated for its magnificence. The inter- 
 course between Hiram and Solomon was close 
 and continuous, and tradition relates that they 
 were fond of propounding riddles one to the 
 other. 2. The principal architect sent by king 
 Hiram to Solomon to assist in building the 
 Temple. In Chronicles his name is spelled 
 Huram, which see (1 K. 7.13 ; 2 Ch. 2.13). 
 
 Hireling. The hireling was the daily labourer, 
 as distinguished from the permanent servant 
 or slave. Special consideration was shown by 
 the law to the feelings and wants of the poor 
 (Deut. 24.10). They were to be paid daily 
 (Lev. 19.13 ; Deut. 24.14, 15 ; Job 7.1, 2, 14.6; 
 Matt. 20.8). 
 
 Hiss. To call any one with hissing was a 
 mark of power and authority (Isai. 5.26, 7.18). 
 Zechariah (10.8), speaking of the return from 
 Babylon, says that the Lord will hiss for and so 
 gather the house of Judah and bring them back 
 into their own country. Perhaps in all these 
 cases the word should be rendered " whistle." 
 But the word, or sound, usually expressed insult 
 and contempt (1 K. 9.8 ; Job 27.23 ; Jer. 19.8, 
 49.17, 51.37 ; Lam. 2.15 ; Ezek. 27.36 ; Zeph. 
 2.15). 
 
 Hit'tites. The descendants of Heth, the son 
 of Canaan. Until within recent years little was 
 known about the Hittites. Some critics de- 
 nied the possibility of their having ever been 
 more than a small and unimportant race, 
 and spoke of the " unhistorical tone " of 2 K. 
 7.6, " Lo, the king of Israel hath hired against 
 us the kings of the Hittites, and the kings of 
 the Egyptians, to come upon us." But dis- 
 coveries have amply vindicated the Bible 
 narrative. The Hittites were, it is now known, 
 a very real power. Not many centuries before 
 the age of Elisha they had contested the 
 empire of Western Asia with the Egyptians, 
 and though their power had waned in the days 
 of Jehoram they were still formidable enemies 
 and useful allies, worthy of comparison with 
 the divided kingdom of Egypt, and much 
 more powerful than that of Judah. But we 
 hear no more of them later in the O.T. 
 They were at their greatest at an earlier date 
 
 than the rise of the monarchy in Israel, earlier 
 even than the Israelitish conquest of Canaan. 
 The Hittites, whose cities and princes are 
 referred to in the later historical books of the 
 O.T., belonged to the north, Hamath and 
 Kadesh on the Orontes being their most 
 southerly points. But Genesis speaks of other 
 Hittites" the children of Heth " (Gen. 15.20). 
 Abraham bought the cave of Machpelah from 
 a Hittite (Gen. 23.10), and Esau's two wives 
 were both of them Hittite women (Gen. 26.34). 
 It must be to these Hittites of the south that 
 the list in Gen. 10.15 refers, and in no other way 
 can we explain Ezek. 16.3,45, that " the father " 
 of Jerusalem " was an Amorite," and her 
 " mother a Hittite." The prophet ascribes 
 the foundation of Jerusalem to the Amorite as 
 well as the Hittite. The Jebusites, accordingly, 
 from whose hands the city was wrested by 
 David, must have belonged to one or the other 
 of these two great races, probably to both, 
 for the two nations were closely interwoven. 
 
 The Hittites were an ugly people, with 
 yellow skins, whose Mongoloid features are 
 faithfully represented both on their own monu- 
 ments and on those of Egypt. Their eyes 
 were dark, and their black hair they wore in 
 pigtails. They were squat and stout, unlike 
 the Amorites, who were tall and handsome, 
 having blue eyes and fair hair. The Hittite 
 colony in Palestine was confined to a small 
 district in the mountains of Judah ; their 
 strength lay far away in the north. The 
 Amorites were the earlier population, among a 
 part of whom the Hittites settled and inter- 
 married, at what epoch is uncertain. 
 
 Outside the Bible record all that is known 
 of this mysterious empire of the Hittites is 
 gathered from the monuments of Egypt and 
 Assyria, and also from inscriptions found 
 among the ruins of Asia Minor, the centre of 
 their northern power. From the Tel el-Amarna 
 tablets we learn that, as Egypt weakened, the 
 Hittites gradually absorbed their outposts, 
 until at last the latter found themselves in the 
 northern frontier of the later Palestine, and 
 equal in power to the Egyptians, who were 
 eventually forced to yield northern Syria to 
 the Hittites, whose supremacy was acknow- 
 ledged from the Euphrates in the east to the 
 J^gean Sea in the west, from Cappadocia in 
 the north to the tribes of Canaan in the south. 
 
 Towards the close of the twelfth century 
 B.C. the Hittites were still strong enough to keep 
 the Assyrian kings in check. But they were 
 no longer under a single ruler. Then for more 
 than 200 years the inscriptions are silent. 
 This period witnessed the rise and fall of the 
 kingdom of David and Solomon, as well as the 
 rise into power of Damascus. They held 
 Carchemish on the Euphrates until its capture 
 by Sargon, king of Assyria, in 717 B.C. 
 
 The national symbol of the Hittites was the 
 double-headed eagle, still to be seen carved 
 on the monuments of Cappadocia. This 
 symbol was adopted by the Turcoman princes, 
 
HIVITES] 
 
 207 
 
 [HOR 
 
 and the Crusaders brought it with them to 
 Europe in the fourteenth century. Here it 
 became the emblem of the German emperors, 
 who have passed it on to Russia and Austria. 
 Scholars are now making strenuous efforts to 
 read the inscriptions written hi the Hittite 
 language, but have made but little progress. 
 There are some reasons for thinking that it is 
 akin to ancient Armenian. [CAECHEMISH.] 
 
 The chief deity in the Hittite pantheon was 
 the Earth-goddess, or "Great Mother," each 
 city or state representing a special form of 
 her. 
 
 Hi'vites. (?) Villagers : the Hivites (de- 
 scended from Canaan, Gen. 10.17) are specially 
 associated with the Amorites. They represent 
 the mixed population of Amorites and Canaanites 
 who lived hi the immediate vicinity of the great 
 Amorite stronghold. [AMORITE.] We hear of 
 the Hivites under Mount Hermon (Josh. 11.3) 
 " that dwelt in Mount Lebanon, from Mount 
 Baal-Hermon unto the entering in of Hamath " 
 (Judg. 3.3). We also hear of them farther 
 south, at Gibeon (Josh. 9.7), and Shechem 
 (Gen. 34.2), which are called Amorite elsewhere 
 (2 Sam. 21.2 ; Gen. 48.22). They may there- 
 fore be regarded as predominantly Amorite in 
 race, and descendants of Canaan (Gen. 10.17). 
 They occupied Shechem at the time of Jacob's 
 return to Canaan, under their prince Hamor 
 (Gen. 34.2), and fell victims to the cruel and 
 vindictive sons of Jacob. The Gibeonites were 
 also Hivites (Josh. 11.19). They followed 
 the usual practice of the Canaanites hi holding 
 their conferences at the gates of the towns. 
 They were a peaceful people in disposition 
 and behaviour. 
 
 Hizki. [HEZEKI.] 
 
 Hizki'ah. [HEZEKIAH 3.] 
 
 Hizki'jah. God is Strength (Neh. 10.17). 
 No doubt the name should be taken with Ater, 
 which precedes it, as Ater-Hizkijah. 
 
 HoTmb. Beloved : either the father-in-law 
 of Moses or his brother-in-law. In Num. 10.29 
 he is called the son of Raguel, who is identified 
 with Jethro in Ex. 2.18 compared with 3.1. 
 The words of Judg. 4.11 are in favour of Hobab's 
 identity with Jethro. 
 
 Ho 'bah. The place to which Abraham 
 pursued Chedorlaomer and his allied kings 
 after they had pillaged Sodom (Gen. 14.15). 
 It is identified with Hoba, twenty hours north 
 of Damascus. 
 
 Hobaiah. [HAB AIAH. ] 
 
 Hod. Splendour, glory : a man of Asher 
 (1 Ch. 7.37). 
 
 Hodai'ah (R.V. Hodavi'ah). Praise Jehovah : 
 1. A descendant of the royal house of Judah 
 (1 Ch. 3.24). 2. A Manassite (1 Ch. 5.24). 
 3. A Benjamite (1 Ch. 9.7). 4. A Levite 
 and founder of the family of Bene-hodaviah 
 (Ezra 2.40). Called Judah in Ezra 3.9 and 
 Hodevah in Neh. 7.43. 
 
 Ho'desh. The new moon : wife of Shaharaim 
 of Benjamin (1 Ch. 8.9). 
 
 Hode'vah. [HODAIAH.] 
 
 Hodi'ah, Hodi'jah. Jehovah is my Glory : 1. 
 Mother of the founder of Keilah and Eshtemoa 
 (1 Ch. 4.19). But according to the R.V. it is 
 the name of her husband. 2. A Levite (Neh. 
 8.7). 3. A Levite (Neh. 10.10). 4. A chief 
 of the people (Neh. 10.18). 
 
 Hog'lah. Partridge : the third of the five 
 daughters of Zelophehad, which see (Num. 
 26.33, 27.1, 36.11 ; Josh. 17.3). 
 
 Ho 'ham. An Amorite king of Hebron ; one 
 of the five kings put to death in the cave at 
 Makkedah (Josh. 10.3). 
 
 Hold. [STRONGHOLD.] 
 
 Holm-tree. (/sat. 44.14 R.V.). [CYPRESS.] 
 
 Holoa. ? Fortress : 1. A Levitical city of 
 Judah (Josh. 15.51, 21.15); called Hilem in 
 1 Ch. 6.58. 2. A city of Moab near Heshbon 
 (Jer. 48.21). 
 
 Holy Ghost. [SPIRIT, HOLT.] 
 
 Holy of Holies. [TABERNACLE, TEMPLE.] 
 
 Ho'mam. (?) Raging, destroying : son of 
 Seir, the Horite (1 Ch. 1.39) ; in Gen. 36.22, 
 Hemam. 
 
 Ho'mer. A dry measure containing 10 
 ephahs = about 76 gallons (Lev. 27.16). [CoB.] 
 
 Honey. The warm climate, the profusion of 
 flowers, and the convenient crevices hi the lime- 
 stone rocks of the country (Ps. 81.16) make 
 Palestine a land hi "which bees flourish " a 
 land flowing with . . . honey " (Ex. 3.8). Wild 
 honey is now abundant, and, doubtless, was in 
 the time of Samson (Judg. 14.8, 9), Jonathan 
 (1 Sam. 14.25-27), and John the Baptist (Matt. 
 3.4). In later Hebrew times the word for 
 honey was also used of a thick syrup made from 
 grapes or dates. It is possible that this artificial 
 honey or syrup may be referred to in 2 Ch. 31.5, 
 and other passages. Honey was forbidden in 
 any meat-offering (Lev. 2.11). 
 
 Hood. Only in Isai. 3.23, where R.V. has 
 " turban." 
 
 Hook. A special word is used for the hooks 
 of the Tabernacle (Ex. 26, 27, 36, 38). The 
 hook of 2 K. 19.28 ; Isai. 37.29 ; Ezek. 29.4, 
 and 38.4 no doubt refers to the ring placed 
 in the nose of beasts, by which they could 
 be led. [FISH-HOOK, FLESH- HOOK, PRUNING- 
 HOOK.] 
 
 Hoopoe. So the R.V. in Lev. 11.19; Deut. 
 14.18, in the lists of unclean birds. It is about 
 the size of a thrush, and feeds on insects such 
 as abound in dunghills. [LAPWING.] 
 
 Hoph'ni. (?) The hollow of the hand : a son of 
 Eli, the high-priest. With Phinehas his brother 
 he is classed with the sons of Belial, that is, 
 wicked and dissolute persons (1 Sam. 2.12). 
 They disgraced their holy office by the most 
 odious rapacity and lust. God announced by 
 means of the child Samuel the destruction of 
 Eli's house (1 Sam. 3.11, 12), and the brothers 
 were slain in battle on the same day by the 
 Philistines (1 Sam. 4.4, 11, 17). 
 
 Hophra. [PHARAOH.] 
 
 Hor. Mountain : 1. A mountain on the 
 border of Edom, usually identified with the 
 Jebel Nebi-Harun, south-west of Petra ; though 
 
HOBAM] 
 
 208 
 
 [HORSE 
 
 some prefer the Jebel Madura, north-west of 
 Edom. It was a halting-place of the Israelites 
 in their wanderings, the scene of Aaron's death, 
 and the place of his burial (Num. 20.22-29, 
 21.4, 33.37-41 ; Deut. 32.50). [PETRA.] 2. The 
 north-eastern spur of Lebanon, and the limit 
 of territory assigned to the Israelites, though 
 not actually occupied (Num. 34.7, 8). 
 
 Ho'ram. A king of Gezer who was over- 
 thrown and killed by Joshua (Josh. 10.33). 
 
 Ho'reb. A dry waste : the same sacred 
 mountain which is elsewhere called Sinai. 
 Here the burning bush was seen by Moses 
 (Ex. 3.1) ; here the rock was struck to provide 
 water for the Israelites (Ex. 17.6) ; here they 
 encamped for eleven months, and received the 
 Law (Deut. 1.2 2., 4.10-15, and following chap- 
 ters); and here they aroused Divine indignation 
 by making and worshipping the golden calf (Ex. 
 32.4, 33.6). Horeb is not used in the N.T. 
 references. [SINAI.] 
 
 Ho'rem. Devoted, consecrated : a fortified 
 town of Naphtali (Josh. 19.38). It is named 
 with two other places, Iron and Migdal-el, the 
 former being identified with Yarun. This helps 
 to fix the site of Horem at Hurah, an ancient 
 site between Has en-Nakhura and Lake Merom. 
 
 Hor-hagid'gad. Mount of Gidgad: site of 
 a desert encampment of the Israelites (Num. 
 33.32). It is thought to be the same place as 
 Gudgodah (Deut. 10.7). 
 
 Hori. Cave-dweller : 1. One of the children 
 of Lotan (Gen. 36.22). 2. A Simeonite, father of 
 Shaphat, who was one of the spies (Num. 13.5). 
 
 Ho 'rim, Ho 'rites. Cave-dwellers : the original 
 inhabitants of Mount Seir, and related to the 
 Emim and Rephaim (Gen. 14.6). They had 
 princes, and were powerful before Esau con- 
 quered their country. The Horites and Edom- 
 ites seem afterwards to have composed one 
 people (Deut. 2.12, 22 ; Judg. 5.4). Their cave- 
 dwellings are still found in the sandstone cliffs 
 and mountains of Edom. 
 
 Hor'mah. Consecrated, or asylum : a royal 
 Canaanite city taken by Joshua (Num. 21.3) 
 and allotted to Simeon. It was originally 
 called Zephath (Judg. 1.17), which see. It 
 was the limit of the route of those Israelites 
 who wanted prematurely to take the land 
 (Num. 14.45 ; Deut. 1.44). Unidentified. 
 
 Horn. The word has many senses in Holy 
 Scripture. 1. The horns of a beast (as in Gen. 
 22.13), or an imitation of them (1 K. 22.11). 
 2. The horn used as a vessel, and so, probably, 
 other vessels used for liquids or perfumes (1 Sam. 
 16.1). 3. The horn used as a trumpet (Josh. 
 6.5). 4. The horns, or four projections at the 
 corners of the altar ; deemed especially sacred, 
 in certain rituals sprinkled with blood (Ex. 
 29.12 ; Lev. 4.7) ; laid hold of by refugees 
 seeking sanctuary (1 K. 1.51, 2.28). 5. The 
 horn as a symbol of power and glory (I Sam. 
 2.1), which' can be cut off (Jer. 48.25) and 
 humbled in the dust (Job 16.15). For the 
 "horn" in the Book of Daniel, see DANIEL, 
 BOOK OF. 
 
 A horn or projection of silver is sometimes 
 worn in the East, especially by women ; and 
 amongst some savages horns are worn upon 
 the head in certain ceremonies. 
 
 Hornet. In the three passages where the 
 hornet is mentioned, it is spoken of as a 
 weapon in the hands of the Lord with which 
 to punish the Canaanites and drive them from 
 their habitations, " I will send hornets before 
 thee, which shall drive out the Hivite, the 
 Canaanite, and the Hittite from before thee " 
 (Ex. 23.28). See also Deut. 7.20 ; Josh. 24.12. 
 The commonest species of hornet met with 
 in Palestine is the Vespa Orientalis, a species 
 distinct from the British wasp, having a long 
 body and being less irritable until their nests 
 are disturbed. Nearly fifty species of wasp and 
 hornet have been obtained from Sinai and the 
 surrounding parts of Egypt and Arabia. 
 
 Horona'im. Two caverns : a Moabite town, 
 the subject of prophetic denunciation (Isai. 
 15.5 ; Jer. 48.3, 5, 34). 
 
 Ho'rpnite. Sanballat, who obstructed 
 Nehemiah in his work of restoration, is so called 
 (Neh. 2.10). The term probably means that 
 he was a native of Beth-Horon, which see. 
 
 Horse. The references to the horse in Scrip- 
 ture are to the war-horse, with the exception, 
 possibly, of Isai. 28.28, when horsemen (R.V. 
 horses) are said to thresh grain. The fine poetic 
 description in Job 39.19-25 applies solely to the 
 war-horse. The early Hebrews had no horses. 
 The prohibition to multiply them (Deut. 17.16) 
 is aimed at seeking safety in foreign alliances 
 (Isai. 31.1). The Canaanites bad chariots, and 
 therefore horses (Josh. 17.16), and chariots 
 were conspicuous in the forces of Sisera (Judg. 
 4.3). David, when successful against Hada- 
 ezer, retained some of the captured chariots 
 and their horses (2 Sam. 8.4) ; but Solomon was 
 the first who regularly bred horses and trained 
 a cavalry force. Solomon, having married a 
 daughter of Pharaoh, procured horses from 
 Egypt. So successful was he in his breed- 
 ing that presently he had 400 stables, 
 40,000 horses, and 12,000 horsemen (1 K. 
 4.26 ; 2 Ch. 9.25). When the Israelites were 
 disposed to place too much reliance upon 
 the assistance of cavalry, the prophet remon- 
 strated, " The Egyptians are men, and not 
 God ; and their horses flesh, and not spirit" 
 (Isai. 31.3). 
 
 Josiah took away the horses which his pre- 
 decessors had consecrated to the sun (2 K. 
 23.11). The sun was worshipped all over the 
 East, and was represented as riding in a chariot, 
 drawn by horses. Thus it came about that 
 horses were sacrificed to the sun by the Persians. 
 It is thought that those that Josiah removed 
 from the court of the Temple were appointed 
 for a similar purpose. 
 
 The bit and bridle of the horse are frequently 
 mentioned (Ps. 32.9), and did not differ greatly 
 from those in use at the present day, while the 
 Assyrians decorated their horses with bells 
 and hangings (Ezek. 27-20 ; Zech. 14.20). The 
 
HORSE-LEECH] 
 
 209 
 
 [HOSHAIAB 
 
 Romans sometimes shod their horses with 
 leather or iron shoes, which were tied on. While 
 at the present time horses are to be found every- 
 where in Palestine, and used for ordinary pur- 
 poses of traction or carrying, yet in olden times 
 the camel, the mule, and the ass were the 
 animals made use of by those who wished to 
 travel. Zech. 14.20 means that even horses, 
 the symbol of worldliness, shall be consecrated 
 to the Lord. [CHARIOT, TRAVELLING.] 
 
 Horse-leech. Sucker : in Prov. 30.15 the 
 horse-leech is adduced as a type of insatiable 
 appetite. In Palestine the horse-leech, the 
 medicinal leech, and several other varieties of 
 the leech family are common. 
 
 Ho'sah. A rejuge : 1. A town of Asher on the 
 boundary leading to Tyre (Josh. 19.29). 2. A 
 Levite of the family of Merari. One of the first 
 doorkeepers of the ark after its arrival at Jeru- 
 salem (1 Ch. 16.38, 26.10, 11, 16). 
 
 Hosai. [HOZAI.] 
 
 Hosan'na. " Save, we pray " : the salutation 
 of the multitude as they crowded towards our 
 Saviour on His triumphal entry into Jerusalem. 
 It was a well-known Jewish form of blessing 
 (Matt. 21.9, 15 ; Mk. 11.9, 10 ; John 12.13). 
 The psalm (118) from which the cry Hosanna ! 
 was taken was familiar to the people, even to the 
 children, for verses 25 and 26 were recited at the 
 Feast of Tabernacles. On that occasion, the 
 Great Hallel (Ps. 113-118) was chanted by one 
 of the priests, and at certain intervals the multi- 
 tudes waved their branches of willow and palm, 
 and shouted Hosanna or Hallelujah. In course 
 of time the bundles of willows came to be called 
 Hosannas, and the seventh day of the Feast as 
 the great Hosanna. 
 
 Hosea. Salvation : a prophet of Israel, and 
 first in order of those called the Minor Prophets. 
 The name, more properly written Hoshea, is 
 identical with that first borne by Joshua 
 (Num. 13.16 ; Deut. 32.44) ; that of a prince of the 
 Ephraimites (1 Ch. 27.20) ; of the last king of 
 Israel (2 K. 15.30) ; and of one of those who 
 sealed with Nehemiah the Covenant (Neh. 10.23). 
 It is written " Osee " (but R.V. has " Hosea ") 
 in Rom. 9.25. Of the prophet's history we know 
 only what he has told us. He was the son of 
 Beeri (1.1), and Christian tradition assigned him 
 to the tribe of Issachar. His Book suggests 
 by many details that he was a native of the 
 Northern Kingdom. The personal narrative in 
 chaps. 1-3 is doubtless to be interpreted as fact, 
 and not only symbolically. Under Divine com- 
 mand (1.2) he married, taking as wife Gomer, 
 the daughter of Diblaim, by whom he had three 
 children, to whom the names of Jezreel, Lo- 
 ruhamah, and Lo-ammi were respectively given. 
 Gomer proved an adulteress, and left him (2.5) ; 
 but Hosea brought her back from slavery (3.1, 2), 
 and took her again to his house, though not to 
 the relations of a wife (3.3). For the symbolical 
 interpretation of the narrative, see HOSEA, 
 BOOK OF. The date of the prophet's ministerial 
 life is given as the days of Uzziah, Jotham, 
 Ahaz, and Hezekiah, kings of Judah, and Jero- 
 
 4 
 
 boam, the son of Joash, king of Israel (1.1). He 
 was therefore contemporary with Isaiah, and 
 lived through a period of great national anxiety. 
 His own position seems to have been one of 
 religious isolation, but of close communion with 
 God. 
 
 Hosea, Book of. The prophet's message has 
 two main characteristics passionate anger at 
 the sin of Israel in falling from the worship of 
 Jehovah into idolatry, and tender yearning 
 for the return of the sinners to receive pardon 
 from God. The contents may be summarised 
 thus : 
 
 1. Chaps. 1-3 contain a representation of 
 Israel's relations with Jehovah, under the 
 figure of a wife who has been faithless to her 
 husband ; but whom that husband, with unweary- 
 ing love, has repurchased from her paramour, 
 and admitted again to his home, there to await, 
 in seclusion and repentant grief, the time of 
 full restoration to favour. To make the delinea- 
 tion more vividly real, it is associated with the 
 prophet's own experiences either in his actual 
 domestic history, or in successive visions, in 
 which he himself sustains the part of the 
 betrayed and injured husband. 
 
 2. Chaps. 4-14 consist of a series of prophetic 
 discourses, delivered at different times, from the 
 latter part of the reign of Jeroboam n. to a 
 time preceding by a short interval the fall of 
 Samaria. The main topics are repeated again 
 and again the calf-worship of Bethel and the 
 polluting idolatries of the high places, the 
 consequent moral corruption of the priests and 
 people, the disloyal and faithless endeavours 
 after heathen alliances, now with Assyria, now 
 with Egypt. The stern reproof continually 
 passes into tender upbraiding ; and this again 
 is followed by repeated and loving appeals, 
 with promises of restoration, couched in most 
 pathetic language. The whole concludes with a 
 passage of great beauty, in which the gloom 
 and apparent harshness of preceding portions 
 are replaced by pictures of exquisite loveliness, 
 which recall the Song of Solomon. 
 
 The style of the prophet is vehement and 
 abrupt, with little of the formal parallelism 
 characteristic of Hebrew poetry. 
 
 There are many references to events recorded 
 in the Pentateuch, Joshua, Judges, and Samuel ; 
 and there are marked correspondences with 
 passages in the Book of Amos. The N.T. 
 quotations of Hosea are 
 
 The Son of Jehovah called out of Egypt 
 (11.1) in Matt. 2.15 ; rejection and restoration 
 (1.10, 2.23) in Rom. 9.25, 26 ; 1 Pet. 2.10 ; the 
 great declaration " mercy rather than sacrifice " 
 (6.6) in Matt. 9.13, 12*7 ; and the promised 
 destruction of death (13.14) in 1 Cor. 15.55, 56. 
 
 Hosen. The word so translated in Dan. 3.21 
 probably means tunics or under-garments. 
 The word itself is the Old English plural of 
 hose. 
 
 Hosha'iah. Jehovah has saved: 1. A prince of 
 Judah who took part in the ceremony of the 
 dedication of the wall of Jerusalem (Neh. 12.32). 
 
HOSHAMA] 
 
 210 
 
 [HOUSE 
 
 2. The father of Jezaniah or Azariah, who was 
 one of the leaders who carried Jeremiah to 
 Egypt (Jer. 42.1, 43.2). 
 
 Hosha ma. Jehovah hath heard : one of the 
 sons of Jeconiah or Jehoiachin, king of Judah 
 (1 Ch. 3.18). Nothing is said about the sons 
 in the account of the capture of his father 
 by Nebuchadnezzar, though the mother and 
 wives are mentioned. It should be noted 
 that Jer. 22.30 is not a prediction that Jeconiah 
 shall have no sons, but that none shall be king. 
 
 Hoshea. Salvation : 1. Another form of the 
 name Hosea. The original name of Joshua 
 (Num. 13.8; Deut. 32.44). 2. An Ephraimite, 
 the son of Azaziah, and a ruler of his people 
 in the time of David (1 Ch. 27.20). 3. One of 
 the heads of the people who, with Nehemiah, 
 sealed the Covenant (Neh. 10.23). 4. The last 
 king of Israel (734 to 722 B.C.). He had 
 reached the throne by means of a conspiracy 
 in which his predecessor was slain. He was a 
 patriotic king, and sought the well-being of 
 his people, by trying to free them from paying 
 tribute to Assyria, but he made the fatal mistake 
 of forming an alliance with a heathen power. 
 
 Pekah had sought the aid of Rezin, king of 
 Syria, against Ahaz, and had at first prevailed. 
 Ahaz, imitating his rival's policy, applied for 
 help to the king of Assyria. He came anil 
 chastised the Israelites, carrying into Media 
 the two and a half trans- Jordanic tribes, and 
 making the rest tributary. This was the first 
 captivity of Israel. Ten years later, Hoshea 
 appealed to SD, king of Egypt, to assist him 
 in throwing off the tribute. Hezekiah unhappily 
 joined in the confederacy. The revolt brought 
 a large army of Assyrians upon the Israelites, 
 and in the end resulted in the second captivity, 
 completing the depopulation of the land. 
 As for Hoshea himself, he was seized and 
 treated as a rebellious vassal, shut up in prison, 
 and deprived of his sight. Though a good and 
 brave king, he came too late to save his people, 
 among whom murder, idolatry, drunkenness, 
 and lust had eaten like " an incurable wound " 
 (Mic. 1.9) into the inmost heart of the national 
 morality (2 K. 15.20, 17.1, 3, 4, 6, 18.1, 9, 10). 
 
 Hospitality. To provide hospitality is a duty 
 recognised both in the O.T. and the N.T. It 
 was a patriarchal virtue (Gen. 18.3) ; was 
 enjoined in the Law (Lev. 19.33, 34) ; implied 
 responsibility for the guest's safety (Gen. 19.6-8) ; 
 and its violation was more than a personal 
 matter (Judg. 19. and 20). Its use is urged as a 
 Christian duty (Rom. 12.13; Eel. 13.2; 1 Pet. 
 4.9), more especially in the case of a bishop, 
 or overseer (1 Tim. 3.2). The circumstances 
 of the Early Church made Christians peculiarly 
 dependent upon such aid. 
 
 Hostage. -Conquered kings or nations often 
 gave into the hands of the conqueror certain 
 persons, generally people of consequence, as 
 security against the fulfilment of a pledge or 
 engagement. The Hebrew phrase thus trans- 
 lated reads " children of pledges " (2 K. 14.14; 
 2 Ch. 25.24). 
 
 Hosts, Lord of. [SABAOTH.] 
 
 Ho'tham, Ho'than. A seal or sir/net ring : 
 
 1. A son of Heber, an Asherite (1 Ch. 7.32). 
 
 2. The father of two of David's worthies 
 (1 Ch. 11.44). 
 
 Ho'thir. Abundance : one of the sons of 
 Heman (1 Ch. 25.4). 
 
 Hough. To hough a horse is to cut the 
 important tendons and sinews worked by the 
 muscles of the ham, to hamstring it, thus 
 rendering it incapable of progression. The 
 practice was common in war time (Josh. 11.6, 9 ; 
 2 Sam. 8.4 ; 1 Ch. 18.4). Hough is the same 
 word as hock. 
 
 Hour. The ancients reckoned time from 
 sunrise to sunset. The day was divided into 
 twelve hours, which differed in length according 
 to the season : thus the twelve midsummer 
 hours were each longer than the twelve mid- 
 winter hours, the sixth hour being always 
 at noon. A still earlier division of the day 
 was into morning, heat of the day (i.e. midday), 
 and evening (Ps. 55.17). Among the Hebrews 
 the night was divided into the first, second, 
 and third watches (Judg. 7.19), but among 
 the Romans into four, and this is found in the 
 N.T. (Mk. 13.35). In the N.T. we have also 
 the division of the day into twelve hours or 
 periods (Matt. 20.1-10 ; John 11.9 ; Acts 23.23), 
 beginning at sunrise. [TIME, DAY, DIALS.] 
 
 In many passages hour is used to express 
 a short duration of time, or even a point of 
 time (Dan. 3.6, 15, 4.33 ; Matt. 8.13, 10.19). 
 The frequent phrase " in the same hour " means 
 " immediately " (Dan. 5.5 ; Acts 16.18). 
 
 House. The word layith (beth-) is used very 
 widely of any dwelling, fixed or movable. It 
 may have been formed from a root meaning to 
 spend the night. The tabernacle of God also, 
 though only a tent, is sometimes called the 
 house, the residence of God. 
 
 There has been very little change in the 
 style or method of house-building in the East. 
 In the towns we find the streets usually narrow, 
 with perhaps rows of shops on either side. 
 Behind these are the dwellings. If we enter 
 into one of the principal houses we shall first 
 pass through a gateway, with benches on each 
 side, where the master of the house receives 
 visitors and conducts his business, few persons 
 being allowed to penetrate further. Beyond 
 this entrance the privileged visitor is received 
 into the court, or quadrangle, which is generally 
 paved with marble or other hard substance, 
 and lies open to the weather. This courtyard 
 gives light and air to the various chambers 
 which open upon it. For the accommodation 
 of guests the pavement is covered with mats or 
 carpets ; and, as it is secure from interruption 
 from without, iswell adapted for entertainments. 
 Some have supposed that, because it is the 
 middle of the house, it is "the midst" (Lk. 
 5.19), into which the man was let down through 
 the ceiling, but the term doubtless means " the 
 midst" of those present. It has also been 
 thought Mint tlip roof thore mf>nfiorp<} was the 
 
HOUSE, DRAUGHT] 
 
 211 
 
 [HUNT 
 
 awning stretched across to protect from sun or 
 rain, but the term used for digging through it 
 implies that it was a part where the roof was 
 more solid. The court is generally surrounded 
 with a cloister, over which, when the house 
 has more than one storey, a gallery is erected 
 for each storey of the same dimensions with 
 the cloister, having a balustrade, to prevent 
 people from falling off. The windows which 
 look upon the street are small and placed 
 high up, being covered with pierced and carved 
 woodwork instead of glass. This plan effectu- 
 ally conceals the inmate while permitting him 
 to obtain a view of what is going on outside. 
 The windows to the upper stories, however, 
 are frequently of considerable size, and built 
 projecting beyond the house wall. This was 
 the sort of window through which Jezebel 
 was thrown by command of Jehu. 
 
 In the houses of the rich the lower part of 
 the walls is adorned with hangings of velvet 
 or damask suspended on hooks, and capable 
 of being taken down or put up at pleasure 
 (Esth. 1.6). The upper part of the walls is 
 adorned in a more permanent fashion, while 
 the ceilings are sometimes made of fragrant 
 and costly wood (Jer. 22.14). The floors of 
 these splendid apartments are covered with 
 painted tiles, or slabs of marble. Sometimes 
 they were of plaster, covered with rich carpets. 
 Round the rooms, which all open out on the 
 central courtyard, is built a raised platform, 
 a seat by day, and a bed by night, when thick 
 rugs or mattresses are produced from recesses 
 and spread for sleeping. [BEDS.] In all cases 
 the apartments of the women are secluded, 
 though the seclusion was not so strict among 
 the Hebrews as to-day. In each house of any 
 pretention a guest-chamber was provided. 
 
 The roof of the Eastern house is almost 
 always flat. It is composed of beams of wood 
 covered with stone or plaster, to protect from the 
 weather, and also to provide an airy promenade 
 in fine weather. This roof is surrounded 
 with a low parapet as a protection from falling 
 off (Dent. 22.8). In Palestine the people 
 sleep upon the tops of their houses during the 
 summer heat in arbours made of branches 
 or rushes (Neh. 8.16). The guest-chamber 
 is sometimes built on the roof, and as the 
 latter is reached by an outside staircase the 
 guests can enter or leave without communicating 
 with the family. Various household occupations 
 are also carried on on the flat roof-tops, such 
 as drying the linen, curing figs, raisins, etc. 
 They were also sometimes used for idolatrous 
 worship (2 K. 23.12 ; Jer. 32.29). The booths 
 or tabernacles used during the Feast of Taber- 
 nacles were, in the towns, erected on these flat 
 roofs, which were also chosen as wailing-places 
 for the expression of great grief. 
 
 Fireplaces did not exist in Eastern houses, 
 braziers serving instead [OVENS], or else the 
 fire was lighted in the open courtyard. The 
 kitchen, however, had a raised platform of 
 brick with hollow places, in which a fire might 
 
 be placed. These were the boiling-places of 
 Ezek. 46.23. Besides the arbours for summer 
 use on the roofs, there were specially pro- 
 tected apartments which were used in the cold 
 weather. 
 
 The houses of the indigent in the East are very 
 poor constructions, consisting of mud walls, 
 reeds, and rushes (cf. Job 4.19). The thief can 
 therefore easily dig through them (Job 24.16; 
 Matt. 24.43). Sometimes these mud, and even 
 the brick, dwellings consisted of one room only, 
 a portion of which would be divided off for 
 the cattle. The exterior view of all houses, 
 whether of the poor or of the wealthy, 
 presented rather a mean appearance. Usually 
 nothing is seen but a bare blank wall, pierced 
 high up with small windows, sometimes with 
 projecting lattices and with a single door. 
 [TENT, TABERNACLE, DWELLING.] 
 
 House, Draught. A public latrine (2 K. 
 10.27). 
 
 House, His. His family as distinguished 
 from his household, which included all under 
 his roof (Gen. 7.1). 
 
 House, Treasure. [TREASURE.] 
 
 Hozai. Seers : a proper name in the R.V. 
 2 Ch. 33.19 (Hosai, A.V. marg.), but translated 
 "the seers" in A.V. and R.V. marg. 
 
 Huktok. A ditch : a spot on the border 
 of Naphtali, thought to have been discovered 
 in Yakuk, a village 7 miles south-west of 
 Safed, and 4 north-west of the sea of Galilee. 
 Jewish tradition places the tomb of Habakkuk 
 here (Josh. 19.34). 
 
 Hu'kok. A city of Asher (1 Ch. 6.75). 
 [HELKATH.] 
 
 HuL Circle : grandson of Sliem, the son of 
 Noah (Gen. 10.23). In 1 Ch.l.ll he is called 
 the son of Shem. 
 
 Hul'dah. Weasel : a prophetess consulted 
 by King Josiah (2 K. 22.14; 2 Ch. 34.22). 
 
 [HlLKIAH.] 
 
 Humility. A lowly disposition of mind. 
 Heathenism had no word to express the full 
 grace and beauty of humility; the corre- 
 sponding terms rather meant meanness and 
 baseness of mind. Humility is well-pleasing 
 to God (1 Pet. 3.4) ; indicates that more grace 
 shall be given (Ps. 25.9 ; Jas. 4.6) ; preserves 
 the soul in tranquillity and contentment 
 (Ps. 69.32, 33), and ensures patience and 
 resignation under affliction (Job 1.21). 
 
 Our Lord set the example of humility (Phil. 
 2.6-8). The greatest promises of good are 
 made to the humble (Ps. 147.6 ; Isai. 57.15 ; 
 Matt. 5.5 ; 1 Pet. 5.5). [Lowi/r.] 
 
 Hum'tah. Lizard : a city of Judah in the 
 mountain district near Hebron (Josh. 15.54). 
 
 Hungry. [FAMINE. ] 
 
 Hunt, Hunter, Hunting. The Assyrian 
 monuments freely depict their monarchs in 
 pursuit of game. The patriarchal life was 
 rather that of the flock-owner than that of the 
 hunter ; but Nimrod (Gen. 10.9) and Esau 
 (Gen. 25.27) have their skill as hunters recorded. 
 Wild beasts appear to have abounded in Pales- 
 
HUPHAM] 
 
 212 
 
 [HYMEN^EUS 
 
 tine when the Hebrews reached it (Ex. 23.29) ; 
 and continued sources of danger to the people 
 and to their flocks (Judg. 14.5 ; 1 Sam. 17.34). 
 Beasts and birds were caught in pitfalls, traps, 
 snares, or nets ; and the operations were suffi- 
 ciently familiar to be used figuratively (Josh. 
 23.13 ; Job 18.10 ; Jer. 5.26). 
 
 Hu pham. A Benjamite and founder of 
 the family of the Huphamites (Num. 26.39). 
 In Gen. 46.21 and I Ch. 7.12 the name is 
 spelled Huppim. 
 
 Hup 'pah. Covering, protection : priest of 
 the thirteenth course (1 Ch. 24.13). 
 
 Hup 'pirn. Coverings : head of a Benjamite 
 family and grandson of Bela ; the same name 
 as Hupham (Gen. 46.21 ; Num. 26.39 ; 1 Ch. 
 7.12, 15). 
 
 Hur. Meaning unknown, possibly white: 
 I. A man who, with Aaron, held up the hands of 
 Moses at Rephidim (Ex. 17.10). With Aaron 
 also he was left in charge of the people while 
 Moses was on Mount Sinai (Ex. 24.14). Ac- 
 cording to Jewish tradition, he was the husband 
 of Miriam. 2. A son of Caleb and Ephrath 
 (1 Ch. 2.19,20). He belonged to the great 
 family of Pharez, and had three sons, who 
 founded the three cities Kirjath-jearim, Beth- 
 lehem, and Beth-gad er. Hur was followed in the 
 direct line by Salma or Salmon (Ruth 4.20), 
 called the " Father of Bethlehem," whose son 
 was Boaz, the direct progenitor of David (1 Ch. 
 2.51,54; Ruth 4.21). But Hur himself is 
 sometimes called the father of Bethlehem, 
 " Abi-Bethlehein " (Ex. 31.2, 35.30; 1 Ch. 
 2.19, 50, 4.1, 4). 3. A king of Midian, who 
 was killed with Balaam (Num. 31.8). 4. One 
 of Solomon's officers of the commissariat in 
 Mount Ephraim (1 K. 4.8). [BEN-HUR.] 
 5. The father of Rephaiah, who helped to repair 
 the wall of Jerusalem under Nehemiah (Neh. 
 3.9). 
 
 Hu'rai. (?) White: one of David's guard 
 (1 Ch. 11.32). Called Hiddai in 2 Sam. 23.30. 
 
 Hu'ram. 1. The son of Bela in the gene- 
 alogy of Benjamin (1 Ch. 8.5). 2. King of Tyre 
 (2 Ch. 2.3, 12). [HIRAM.] 3. The artificer 
 sent from Tyre to Solomon to aid him in 
 his building schemes (2 Ch. 2.13, 4.11, 16). 
 
 [HlRAM.] 
 
 Hu'ri. (?) White : a Gileadite of Gad (1 Ch. 
 5.14). 
 
 Husband. Adam was the first husband 
 (Gen. 2.22, 3.6), and the fundamental law as to 
 the relations of man and wife is first stated in 
 regard to Adam and Eve (Gen. 2.24, 25). Accord- 
 ing to Jewish law, there were ten obligations 
 which the husband was bound to observe 
 towards his wife. Of these, three are referred 
 to in Ex. 21.9, 10. The other seven included 
 her settlement, medical treatment in case of 
 sickness, redemption from captivity, funeral, 
 provision in his house so long as she remained 
 a widow and had not been paid her dowry, 
 the support of her daughters till they were 
 married, and a provision that her sons should, 
 besides receiving their portion of their father's 
 
 inheritance, also share in what was settled 
 upon her. To the husband belonged all his 
 wife's gains, and also all that came to her after 
 marriage by inheritance. But while the 
 husband could profit by gains from the ad- 
 ministration of his wife's dowry, he was 
 also responsible for any loss. He was his 
 wife's heir-at-law. The duties of the husband 
 are frequently stated in the Epistles, e.g. 
 1 Cor. 7.3; Eph. 5.25; Col. 3.19; 1 Pet. 3.7. 
 [BETROTHAL, MARRIAGE.] 
 
 Husbandman. The Hebrews were an 
 agricultural people. Husbandry appears from 
 the first in Holy Scripture, Adam being placed 
 in the garden of Eden to till and dress it. Noah 
 became an husbandman (Gen. 9.20). God is 
 compared to a husbandman (John 15.1 ; 1 Cor. 
 3.9), and the simile of land carefully cultivated 
 or of a vineyard carefully dressed is often used 
 in the Scriptures. [AGRICULTURE, LAND.] 
 
 Husband's Brother. (Deut. 25.5). [FAMILY, 
 RELATIONS.] 
 
 Hu'shah. Haste : the son of Ezer, of Judah 
 (1 Ch. 4.4). It may also be the name of a place. 
 
 [HUSHATHITE.] 
 
 Hu shai. Speeding : I. An inhabitant of 
 Archi (2 Sam. 15.32 ff.), and one of David's 
 friends. He assisted David against the counsels 
 of Ahithophel (2 Sam. 16.16; 1 Ch. 27.33). 
 2. Father of one of Solomon's twelve officers 
 (1 K. 4.16). 
 
 Hush 'am. (?) Hasting : a king of Edom 
 (Gen. 36.34, 35). [TEMANITE.] 
 
 Hu'shathite. An inhabitant of Hushah, 
 founded by Hushah (2 Sam. 21.18). 
 
 Hu'shim. Hasting : 1. The children or sons 
 of Dan (Gen. 46.23). In Num. 26.42 the name 
 appears as Shuham. 2. A man placed at the 
 end of the list of the tribe of Benjamin, called 
 the son of Aher ( = another) (1 Ch. 7.12). 
 Probably there is some corruption in the text, 
 and he is identical with Hushim 1. 3. One 
 of the two wives of Shaharaim, a Benjamite 
 (1 Ch. 8.8). 
 
 Husks. By this term is designated the 
 pod of the carob or locust tree. It has dark 
 and shining leaves, and bears long brown pods, 
 the beans being ground up for cattle and swine. 
 The poor make use of them also, and find them 
 most nourishing. They represent the " husks " 
 of the parable (Lk. 15.16). The term " locust, " 
 is due to an erroneous idea that St. John ate 
 these pods and wild honey (Mk. 1.6). It has 
 been suggested that in 2 K. 6.25 carob-pods 
 should be read instead of " doves' dung," but 
 this is improbable. 
 
 Hua or Uz. The eldest son of Nahoi 
 (Gen. 22.21). 
 
 Huz'zab. According to the Rabbis the 
 queen of Nineveh, but sometimes thought to 
 be the country adjacent to, 'and including, 
 Nineveh (Nah. 2.7). Its meaning is, however, 
 quite uncertain ; it may be a verb, " it is 
 decreed." 
 
 Hysena. [ZEBOIM, VALLEY OP.] 
 
 Hymenae'u* Nuptial : an early convert to 
 
HYMN] 
 
 213 
 
 [IDDO 
 
 Christianity, through the ministrations of 
 Paul. He afterwards fell into the heresy that 
 denied the resurrection, holding it to be already 
 accomplished (2 Tim. 2.17). He was "de- 
 livered to Satan," i.e., as it seems, excom- 
 municated by Paul (1 Tim. 1.20). 
 
 Hymn. The Christian Church inherited the 
 Psalms, and was familiar with their use in 
 public worship and in private devotions. The 
 hymn sung by our Lord and His disciples 
 (Matt. 26.30) was the great Hallel [ALLE- 
 LUIA] (Ps. 113-118). Paul encourages the 
 use of hymns (Eph. 5.19; Col 3.16). Luke 
 gives us three Christian hymns in the Magnificat 
 (Lk. 1.46-55), the Benedictus (Lk. 1.68-79), and 
 the Nunc Dimittis (Lk. 2.29-32), and possibly 
 also a fourth in the Gloria in Excelsis (Lk. 2.14). 
 Eph. 5.14 and 1 Tim. 3.16 may be fragments 
 of Christian hymns. 
 
 Hypocrisy, Hypocrite. The words are 
 derived from the Greek, and a hypocrite means 
 one who plays a part as an actor. In the O.T. 
 references, however, the Hebrew words imply 
 profanation and a profane person ; and the 
 K.V. renders accordingly. In the N.T. the 
 word is used sometimes of conscious (Matt. 
 
 6.16) and sometimes of unconscious (Matt. 7.5) 
 hypocrisy. In our Lord's denunciations of the 
 Pharisees it generally has the latter sense. 
 [PHARISEE.] 
 
 Hyssop. The word " hyssop " was adopted 
 by the Greeks directly from the Hebrew, and 
 it has been naturalised in our own language 
 with but slight alteration. The hyssop is prob- 
 ably marjoram, a bushy plant about 18 in. high, 
 with straight, slender, leafy stalks, and large 
 spikes of small blossoms. It has a pungent 
 and aromatic scent, and grows in many places, 
 even on the walls (1 K. 4.33). The aromatic 
 scent of the herb, which would tend to refresh 
 the dying Saviour, may have been the reason 
 for its employment by the Roman soldiers 
 (Ex. 12.22; Lev.UA- Jo/m 19.29; Heb. 9.19). 
 It should be added that Tristram thinks it is 
 not the marjoram, but the caper plant. Others 
 hold that the word is used rather vnguely, 
 and. includes more than one species, or even 
 family, of plants. As the stalks of the mar- 
 joram (and much more of the caper) are pliant, 
 it has been suggested that in John 19.29 the 
 Greek word " hy>sop " is an error for " hyssos," 
 the Roman javelin or short spear. 
 
 I Am, I Am That I Am. The Divine name 
 announced to Moses (Ex. 3.14), implying that 
 the name Jehovah (Yahweh) means " He will 
 be," expressing God's self-existence, faithful- 
 ness, and unchangcableness. See R.V. rnarg. 
 [JEHOVAH.] 
 
 Ib'har. (God) chooses : one of David's sons, 
 born in Jerusalem (2 Sam. 5.15 ; 1 Ch. 3.6, 
 14.5). 
 
 Ible'am. A town of Issachar (Josh. 17.11) 
 allotted to Manasseh, from which the in- 
 habitants were not expelled (Judg. 1.27) ; 
 probably identical with Bileam (1 Ch. 6.70). 
 It was near Ibleam that Ahaziah was wounded 
 when fleeing from Jehu (2' K. 9.27). 
 
 Ibnei'ah. Jehovah is builder : the chief 
 of a Benjamite family at Jerusalem at the 
 time of the first settlement (1 Ch. 9.8). 
 
 Ibni'jah. Jehovah is builder : a Benjamite 
 (1 Ch. 9.8). 
 
 Ib'ri. Hebrew : a Merarite Levite (1 Ch. 
 24 27) 
 
 Ibs am. [ JIB s A AT. ] 
 
 Ib'zan. A judge of Israel for seven years. 
 He was a native of Bethlehem in Zebulun, and 
 had thirty sons and thirty daughters (Judg. 
 12.8, 10). 
 
 Ice. Though the sight of snow is familiar 
 enough in Palestine, especially upon the moun- 
 tains, ice is a rare thing (Job 6.16, 38.29 ; Ps. 
 147.17). 
 
 Ich'abod. No glory : the son of Phinehas, 
 and grandson of Eli, the high priest. He was 
 
 so named by his mother because at the time 
 of his birth she heard the dreadful tidings of 
 the loss of the ark, and the death of her husband 
 and her father-in-law. The shock caused her 
 own death (1 Sam. 4.19-22, 14.3). 
 
 Iconium. The capital of Lycaonia ; visited 
 by St. Paul (Acts 13, 14, 16.2 ; 2 Tim. 3.11). 
 Lycaonia was the name given to the high table- 
 land in central Asia Minor, and the importance 
 of Iconium lay in the fact that it was in the 
 direct line of communication between Ephesus, 
 Antioch, and the Euphrates. It was this fine 
 position, intersected as it was by Roman 
 military roads, that rendered Iconium a good 
 place for missionary operations. It is the 
 modern Konia. [PAUL, BARNABAS, ANTIOCH.] 
 
 Ida'toh. A town of Zebulun (Josh. 19.15). 
 Its modern name is El-Huwarah, south of 
 Beit Lahm. 
 
 Wbash. One of the three sons of Abi-Etam 
 (1 Ch. 4.3). 
 
 Id'do. Beloved : 1. A commissariat officer 
 of Solomon (1 K. 4.14). 2. A descendant of 
 Gershom, the Levite (1 Ch. 6.21). In ver. 41 
 Adaiah. 3. A son of Zechariah, of the tribe 
 of Manasseh (1 Ch. 27.21). 4. A prophet and 
 seer who denounced Jeroboam, the son of 
 Nebat (2 Ch. 9.29). Josephus considers him to 
 have been the person who was slain by a lion 
 (1 K. 13). The works of Iddo, of which now 
 no trace remains, were but a part of the mass 
 of historical and prophetical literature in the 
 hands of the chronicler. See 1 Ch. 27.21, 
 
IDOL] 
 
 214 
 
 [IMAGE 
 
 29.29 ; 2 Ch. 12.15, 13.22, etc. 5, 6, 7. (See 
 Ezra 5.1, 8.17 ; Neh. 12.4, 16). 
 
 Idol (from the Greek eidolon, image). An 
 image or representation of a deity, made an 
 object of worship, and so any object which 
 usurps the place of God and receives the worship 
 or service due to Him. 
 
 In the O.T. the words most frequently 
 rendered in the A.V. by " idol " or " image," 
 or by these words with others are (1 ) Tselem, 
 image ; compare Gen. 1.26 with Ezek. 16.17, 
 and Dan. 3.1. (2) Pesel, graven image (Ex. 
 20.4). (3) Massekah, an image cast in a mould, 
 as the golden calf of Aaron (Ex. 32.4). (4) 
 Matstsebah, the sacred stone; compare Ex. 23.24 
 and 2 K. 3.2 with Gen. 28.18. (5) GiUulim, 
 meaning uncertain, but probably a term of 
 contempt, the word so freely used of " idols " 
 by Ezekiel (see Ezek. 6.4 and onward). 
 (6) Elil, a term of contempt, probably imply- 
 ing powerlessness (as in Ps. 96.5). (7) Atsab, 
 either a figure (cf. Ps. 115.4) or a cause of 
 grief. (8) Teraphim, household or personal 
 gods (Gen. 31.19 ; Judg. 17.5). Idols were in 
 some cases made, wholly or in part, of silver 
 or gold (Ex. 32.3, 4 ; Isai. 2.20). There were 
 regular idol-makers (Hob. 2.18, 19). Idols were 
 installed in temples or " houses " (Judg. 17.5 ; 
 1 Sam. 5.2). Sacrifices (Eos. 4.13) and offer- 
 ings (Hos. 2.8) were made to them. 
 
 In the N. T. idols were a familiar feature in 
 the religious life of the Gentile world. Converts 
 forsook them (1 Thess. 1.9) ; and had to observe 
 care against contamination through idolatrous 
 customs (Acts 15.29). By some early Christian 
 teachers to make idols for gain was deemed 
 equal to worshipping them (Tertullian, De Idol. 
 e. 6). [IDOLATER, IDOLATRY, IMAGB.] 
 
 Idolater, Idolatry. A worshipper, the wor- 
 ship, of idols. In the O.T. the sin was explicitly 
 condemned in the first and second of the Com- 
 mandments (Ex. 20.3-5), and its punishment 
 in the case of national transgression clearly 
 stated (Deut. 4.15-28). It appeared in the 
 patriarchal age (Gen. 31.19, 35.2); it sur- 
 rounded Israel in Egypt (Ex. 12.12 ; and see 
 Josh. 24.14) ; it was taken up in the desert 
 journey (Ex. 32.1-4) ; it confronted the people 
 on entering the Promised Land (Judg. 2.3) ; 
 it grew in evil under the kings, especially Ahab 
 (1 K. 16.33) ; it was the cause of the judgment 
 of God upon His chosen people (Amos 5.26, 
 27) ; and was the frequent object of denuncia- 
 tion by the prophets. The sin of the idolater 
 was, under the Law, punished by death, in the 
 individual (Ex. 22.20), and in the case of a 
 community (Deut. 13.12-16) ; and the tempter 
 to idolatry was dealt with in equal severity 
 (Deut. 13.6-11). In the N.T covetousness is 
 spoken of as "idolatry" (Col. 3.5, and cf. 
 Matt. 6.24) ; but the literal form of idolatry 
 everywhere confronted Christian converts 
 (Acts 15.20, 17.16). They had to be guided as 
 to intercourse with idolaters (1 Cor. 5.10) and 
 as to eating foods, exposed for sale, which had 
 been offered to idols (Acts 15.29 ; 1 Cor. 8.1). 
 
 When Christianity became dominant in Europe, 
 idolatry was forbidden by law, as by Con- 
 stantino in 324 A.D. and Theodosius 392 A.D. 
 
 Idumea. Greek form of Edom (which see) 
 (Mk. 3.8). 
 
 lezer. [JEEZER.] 
 
 I'gal. God delivers : 1. One of the spies sent 
 into the Promised Land (Num. 13.7). 2. One 
 of David's heroes (2 Sam. 23.36). He is also 
 called Joel, the brother of Nathan (1 Ch. 11.38). 
 
 Igdali'ah. God is great : a prophet men- 
 tioned only once (Jer. 35.4). It was in the 
 house of this man that Jeremiah conferred 
 with the Rechabites. 
 
 Ige'al. Deliverer: a son of Shemaiah 
 (1 Ch. 3.22). The name is the same as IGAL. 
 
 rim (R.V. lyim). Heaps: 1. The thirty- 
 seventh encampment of the Israelites. The site 
 is unknown (Num. 33.45). 2. A town in the 
 south of Judah (Josh. 15.29). 
 
 Ije-Aba'rim (R.V. lye). Ruins of Abarim : 
 site of an encampment of the Israelites as 
 they were approaching the Promised Land. 
 It was on the south-east boundary of Moab 
 (Num. 21.11, 33.44, 45). See IIM, which is a 
 shortened form of the same name. 
 
 I'jon. A ruin : a town in the north of 
 Palestine, belonging to Naphtali (1 K. 15.20 ; 
 2 Ch. 16.4). The remains of this ancient 
 fortification, which was taken and plundered 
 by Benhadad, have been located in the little 
 place at the upper end of the Merj 'Ayan, in 
 the valley of the Hasbany. 
 
 Ik'kesh. Subtle : one of David's valiant 
 men (2 Sam. 23.26). 
 
 I'lai. One of David's guard, an Ahohite 
 (1 Ch. 11.29). The same man is called Zalmon 
 in 2 Sam. 23.28. 
 
 Illyricum. A Roman province on the east 
 shore of the Adriatic, separating Greece from 
 Italy. It lies north-west of Macedonia, and 
 was the scene of the labours of Paul and Titus 
 (Rom. 15.19). It was divided by the river 
 Drilo, the part lying to the north being called 
 Illyris Barbara, the southern portion being 
 Illyris Graeca. This country included Dal- 
 matia (2 Tim. 4.10), which eventually gave its 
 name to the whole country stretching from 
 Epirus to the boundary of Italy. 
 
 Image. An artificial representation of some 
 person or thing used as an object of adoration. 
 In this connection it is synonymous with idol. 
 Micah, an Ephraimite, made images of conse- 
 crated silver (Judg. 17.3, 4). Moreover, he 
 persuaded a Levite to become its priest. This 
 image was consulted as an oracle, and publicly 
 set up by the Danites. The grandson of 
 Moses became its priest, and the office de- 
 scended in his family (Judg. 18.4-6, 14-31). 
 Gideon also made an image of the Deity of 
 gold plundered from the enemy, and set it 
 up in Ophrah (Judg. 8.24-27). 
 
 Images are not forbidden in the Bible, unless 
 they are made to represent gods and wor- 
 shipped as such. God Himself commanded 
 Moses to make a brazen serpent, and there 
 
IMLA, IMLAH] 
 
 215 [IMMORTALITY OF THE SOUL 
 
 were also various images (e.g. the cherubim) 
 used in connection with the Tabernacle and 
 Temple worship. [!DOL, IDOLATRY.] 
 
 Im'la, Im'lah. Fulfilling : ancestor of 
 Michaiali (1 A'. 22.8, 9 ; 2 Ch. 18.7, 8). 
 
 Im'manu'el. God with us : the symbolic 
 name to be given to the child whose birth 
 Isaiah predicts as part of the sign to Ahaz, 
 king of Juclah (Isai. 7.14). The name occurs 
 again only in Isai. 8.8 (cf. ver. 10) and in St. 
 Matthew's application of the prophecy to the 
 birth of Jesus (Matt. 1.23 ; A.V. Emmanuel). 
 
 Detailed interpretation of the prophecy of 
 Isai. 1 is beset with many difficulties, and 
 expositors differ widely in their conclusions. 
 The main features, however, seem clear. Ahaz 
 was faced by a hostile coalition of the kings 
 of Syria and of Israel, " and his heart was 
 moved, and the heart of his people, as the 
 trees of the forest are moved with the wind." 
 Isaiah exhorted him to " be quiet and fear 
 not," declaring that the threatened disaster 
 should not come to pass, and bidding him 
 for confirmation ask of God what sign he 
 would. But the king, already set on his 
 worldly-wise policy of an alliance with Assyria, 
 refused. Then the prophet, moved to indigna- 
 tion, forces a sign upon him whether he will 
 or no, but a sign of very different omen. Within 
 a short year a son should be born, and called 
 by his mother Immanuel. Before that child 
 reached the age of intelligence the power of 
 Assyria would have devastated not only the 
 two northern- kingdoms, but Judah herself, 
 so transient was the gathering cloud, so futile 
 the looked-for protection. The richly cultivated 
 land would be laid waste by war : only pasture 
 would remain, affording to the remnant of its 
 inhabitants and to the child Immanuel the 
 primitive fare of curdled milk and wild honey 
 (I ani. 7.15-8.8). 
 
 This expected child, then, with his name 
 symbolic of courageous and triumphant trust, 
 does not at first sight appear to present himself 
 to the prophet's thought as a personal deliverer. 
 We see him sharing the disasters that befall 
 his countrymen, and then we see him no more. 
 What, then, does his name signify ? It cer- 
 tainly represents in the first place the prophet's 
 own unwavering faith in God and in the 
 strength for the nation that lay in patient 
 reliance upon Him. Isaiah came to the inter- 
 view with Ahaz accompanied by his son, Shear- 
 jashub, " a remnant will return." The conviction 
 of that symbolic name runs through all his 
 prophecies of doom. Trust in God, deep 
 planted in the heart of the faithful few and 
 of that young mother who in face of national 
 peril would bravely name her son " God with 
 us," will triumph in the end. The king of 
 Assyria will sweep down upon Judah, and " the 
 stretching out of his wings shall fill the breadth 
 of the land." But it is " thy land, O Im- 
 manuel " (8.8). The mother is right : the 
 child's name is true, and at the renewed mention 
 Of it the prophet's vision changes from over- 
 
 throw to victory and the ruin of Judah's 
 enemies, for " God is with us " (8.9-11). 
 
 But this interpretation, valid so far as it 
 goes, seems to run short. For the present 
 disaster no deliverer was raised up, but the 
 reference to Immanuel is too concrete to be 
 regarded simply as a parabolic expression of 
 a faith in God which no disaster would be 
 able to crush. There must surely be on the 
 horizon of the prophet's outlook an actual 
 deliverer, a Divine Person in whom the un- 
 quenchable faith of " God with us " would 
 find its realisation. In this prophecy of Im- 
 manuel the Figure is shadowy, hidden as soon 
 as seen by the sweeping clouds of war and 
 desolation : it is human, for it is doubtful 
 whether Isaiah regards the birth of the child 
 as in any way supernatural (R.V. text, " A 
 virgin shall conceive, and bear a son," but 
 marg., " The maiden is with child, and beareth 
 a son "). But we can hardly dissociate the 
 prophecy from the glowing Messianic utterance 
 of 9.6, 7, " Unto us a child is born, unto us a 
 son is given : and the government shall be 
 upon his shoulder : and his name shall be 
 called Wonderful, Counsellor, Mighty God, 
 Everlasting Father, Prince of Peace." And a 
 reasonable interpretation of the nature of the 
 prophetic gift (1 Pet. 1.10-12) will not hesitate 
 so to fill in the vague outlines of this fleeting 
 vision of Immanuel as to discern in it a real 
 promise and anticipation of the Christ. [JESUS 
 CHRIST.] 
 
 Irmner. 1. Founder of a family of priests 
 who composed the sixteenth course of the 
 Temple service (1 Ch. 9.12 ; Ezra 2.37, 10.20 ; 
 Neh. 7.40, 11.13). 2. A priest named by Jere- 
 miah (Jer. 20.1). 3. Either a place or a person 
 named in Ezra 2.59 and Neh. 7.61. 
 
 Immortality of the Soul. 1. In non-Chris- 
 tian Writings. Herodotus, the Greek historian, 
 who lived some centuries before Christ, tells us 
 that the Egyptians were the first to teach that 
 the soul of man is immortal. Soon afterwards 
 Plato taught the Greek world the same truth, 
 and he is said to have learnt it from another 
 philosopher, Pythagoras. Plato based a good 
 deal of his moral teaching upon this belief. 
 Good and evil determine the future of the soul, 
 the torments of the evil are graphically depicted, 
 and the happiness of the good. Plato's teaching 
 influenced the learned world, and perhaps, 
 centuries afterwards, tended to influence the 
 Christian Church, especially through the great 
 Christian philosopher and theologian, Augustine, 
 B : shop of Hippo. Pagan teaching is important, 
 because it has been sometimes contended that 
 the Christian Church has taken her doctrine 
 as to the immortality of the soul from Plato 
 rather than from the N.T. There is, however, 
 one important difference between Plato and 
 N.T. doctrine, viz. that while Plato speaks 
 of eternal life for both good and bad, the Bible 
 never speaks of an eternity of life for the evil ; 
 it is always punishment or death. 
 
 2. In Holy Scripture little, if anything, is 
 
IMNA] 
 
 216 
 
 [INDIA 
 
 said of the origin or permanence of the human 
 soul. " God breathed into his nostrils the breath 
 of life; and man became a living soul " (Gen. 2.7). 
 The soul comes from God, whether created 
 or given. To discuss the question of its origin 
 or its pre-existence is futile. Scripture says 
 nothing, and we have no other guide. If it 
 could be proved that the soul is eternally 
 pre-existent, it would be strong argument for 
 its immortality in the future. It cannot be 
 proved, and we must turn elsewhere for our 
 arguments. As to that future, Scripture clearly 
 indicates that the soul of man lives after the 
 death of the body, or, to use language less capable 
 of being misunderstood, that human conscious- 
 ness survives the parting of body and soul. 
 Man is a person ; perhaps personality is that 
 which makes it possible to say of man that he 
 is created in the image of God. In Scripture 
 it seems to be taken for granted that " moral 
 personality is mysteriously permanent " 
 (Bishop Moule). Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob 
 are dead, but their personality endures, so our 
 Lord seems to argue (Matt. 22.31, 32) in proof 
 of the resurrection. Eternal life and eternal 
 death seem always to imply conscious states. 
 Never a word is said that suggests unconscious- 
 ness. Death, that is, death of the body, is 
 spoken of as a sleep, but death means " being 
 with Christ," and communion demands con- 
 scious personality. We do not read that man 
 was created immortal, that apart from sin he 
 would have lived for ever ; but with frequent 
 reiteration we have depicted a future state 
 in which both good and bad have conscious 
 part, and which lasts for ever. The most 
 casual acquaintance with the N.T. makes this 
 clear, and it is impossible to quote more than 
 typical passages, e.g. the parable of Dives 
 and Lazarus, the King and the wedding feast 
 (Matt. 22.1), the Talents (Matt. 25.14), and 
 such passages as Matt. 10.22,32, 26.64; LJc. 
 9.26, etc. [See also article on ETERNAL LIFE.] 
 Two modern theories, professing to base 
 themselves on Scripture, have tried to solve the 
 final problem of the soul, one, of which the most 
 famous advocate was the late Dean Farrar, 
 called " the larger hope," teaches, in a way 
 very far removed from the Roman vagaries 
 concerning Purgatory, that the punishment of 
 hell will serve its purpose, that the mercy of 
 God will find its all-victorious way, and all the 
 lost shall at last be perfected in a glorious 
 Kingdom where universal happiness shall prevail. 
 This view is sometimes, for this reason, called 
 Universalism. The second theory is called 
 the theory of Annihilation. The soul is not 
 naturally immortal; the soul in the converted 
 man is given life in Christ and becomes im- 
 mortal. The unconverted dies without the 
 gift of immortality, and his soul is annihilated. 
 But in this we dare not go beyond the witness 
 of Holy Scripture, or accept views which find 
 no su} ; :yrt in lie ords of Christ or of His 
 jisciplb* as rt,ordo!i sa Jne New Testament. 
 The recorded fact* are <*- roughly summed up 
 
 in the idea of a conscious life beyond the grave 
 for all, an existence to which Scripture admits 
 no limits, and which is called for some " life," 
 for others " death " or " punishment." The 
 words, " The soul that sinneth, it shall die " 
 (Ezek. 18.4), cannot legitimately be used in 
 favour of ultimate annihilation, because it has 
 first to be decided what is meant by " die." 
 Moreover, the emphasis of the sentence is on 
 " sinneth," not " die." [PUNISHMENT, FUTURE.] 
 
 Im'na. God keeps lack (1 Ch. 7.35). 
 
 Im'nah. 1. The first-born of Asher (Gen. 
 46.17, A.V. Jimnah ; Num. 26.44, A.V. Jimna ; 
 1 Ch. 7.30). 2. A Levite who served Hezekiah 
 (2 Ch. 31.14). 
 
 Imnites, Jilnnites. Descendants of Imnah 1 
 (Num. 26.44). 
 
 Imrah, Stubborn : an Asherite chief (1 Ch. 
 7.36). 
 
 Irnri. 1. A Judahite (1 Ch. 9.4). 2. The 
 father of Zaccur, who assisted Nehemiah in 
 rebuilding the wall of Jerusalem (Neh. 3.2). 
 
 Incarnation. [ JESUS CHRIST.] 
 
 Incense. A compound of aromatic sub- 
 stances, or the smoke given off by their 
 combustion. Of the two words rendered " in- 
 cense" in the 0.7\, one, lebonah, is also rendered 
 as " frankincense " (as in Ex. 30.34), and is the 
 name of a species of gum. The other, ketoreth, 
 refers to the smoke of the offering as well as 
 to the incense-compound. Incense was offered 
 either in conjunction with other oblations (as 
 in Lev. 2.1), or alone upon the altar of incense 
 (Ex. 30.1-9), or in a censer (Lev.- 16.12 ; Num. 
 16.17). The preparation of the incense is 
 described in Ex. 30.34-38, and the ceremonial 
 times for burning incense in Ex. 30.7, 8 ; and 
 on the Day of Atonement in Lev. 16.12, 13. 
 
 In the N.T. incense is only mentioned in 
 connexion with the Temple worship (Z&.l. 10,11), 
 and in Revelation (8.3, 4, and R.V. of 5.8, 
 18.13). The sweet fumes of the incense were 
 regarded as symbolical of ascending prayer 
 (Ps. 141.2 ; Rev. 5.8, 8.3, 4) ; as suggesting, by 
 its various ingredients, the perfection of God ; 
 and as typical of the intercession of Christ. 
 During the first four centuries of the Christian 
 Church there is no trace of the use of incense 
 in Christian worship, though it was familiar 
 in the services of Paganism. A fumigatory 
 use of incense arose later, and subsequently a 
 ritual use. 
 
 India. Though India is mentioned but 
 twice in the Bible, and that in the late Book 
 of Esther (1.1, 8.9), yet there is other evidence 
 that even in very early times the Jews had 
 some knowledge of the country, or at least of 
 certain commodities brought from thence. The 
 Tynan merchants had established a trade in 
 ivory, silks, embroidery, spices and perfumes, 
 and also in monkeys and peacocks (Ezek. 
 27.15, 24). These goods were brought in camel 
 trains across Arabia, and by sea along the 
 coasts of the Indian Ocean. Solomon's foreign 
 trade was largely in Indian productions, and 
 it is said that even tin \vas brought to Palestine 
 
INGATHERING, FEAST OF] 
 
 217 
 
 [INSPIRATION 
 
 from India. The statement in Esih. 1.1 that 
 Ahasuerus reigned from India to Ethiopia 
 fixes the extent of the Persian dominions east- 
 ward to the river Indus. The Hebrew name 
 Hoddu is an abbreviation of Honadu, itself 
 identical with the original and local name of 
 the Indus-Hindu, or Sindhu, the great river, 
 and " Hapta Hendu." The India of the Bible 
 was the modern Punjab, not the whole of the 
 peninsula, and formed part of the territory 
 conquered by Alexander the Great. [SHIPS OF 
 TARSHISH.] 
 
 Ingathering, Feast o!. [TABERNACLES, FEAST 
 OF.] 
 
 Inheritance. The Mosaic law of succession 
 to the land was by no means intricate. With 
 the exception of the elder son, who had a 
 double portion, the father's property was 
 divided equally between his sons (Deut. 21.17). 
 Only hi the case of there being no sons did the 
 daughters share in it, and then only on con- 
 dition that they married in their own tribe 
 (Num. 36.6 ft.). Failing sons or daughters, 
 the property of the deceased went to his brother, 
 then paternal uncle, and finally next-of-kin 
 (Num. 27.9-11). An interesting feature of the 
 Mosaic law of inheritance provided that if a 
 woman was left a widow without children, the 
 next-of-kin on her late husband's side had the 
 right of marrying her ; if he failed her, then 
 the next nearest had the same right (Ruth 
 3.12, 13, 4). In such a case the new husband 
 was obliged by the " right of inheritance " 
 to redeem her property if it had gone out of 
 her keeping (Jer. 32.7). It must be remem- 
 bered that all laws relating to property in land 
 were established to prevent the land .from 
 passing out of the possession of the family 
 (Deut. 21.15-17). The laws relating to the year 
 of Jubilee were ordained to have the same 
 effect, i.e. of strictly entailing landed property. 
 Thus succession was a matter of right, not of 
 choice. Indeed, the sons had the right of 
 demanding their inheritance before the death 
 of their father, provided they were all agreed. 
 This was with respect to personal property, 
 which the owner could dispose of as he willed. 
 The custom is referred to in the parable of the 
 prodigal son (Lk. 15). 
 
 Ink. Mentioned once only in the O.T. 
 (Jer. 36.18). This may imply that the pro- 
 phecies were written indelibly. On the other 
 hand, it has been inferred from Ex. 32.33, 
 Num. 5.23 that the ink used by the Hebrews 
 would wash off. The papyri show that the ink 
 used in Egypt, of various colours, contained 
 acid and was of permanent character. In the 
 N.T. there are three references to ink (2 Cor. 
 3.3 ; 2 John 12 ; 3 John 13) ; the word means 
 lit. " black." 
 
 Inkhorn. This was a receptacle worn at 
 the girdle by merchants and letter-writers 
 (Ezek. 9.2-11). It was constructed not only to 
 contain the ink but also to carry the pens. 
 [PEN, WRITING.] 
 
 Inn. The proverbial hospitality of the East 
 
 made the inn in ancient days unnecessary and 
 unthought of. It was only in later times that 
 on the unfrequented roads in Palestine, where 
 the distance between village and village was 
 considerable, or even outside towns (Lk. 2.7), 
 regular inns, or khans, were built in which to 
 lodge strangers. The forerunners of these inns 
 were simply the springs of water, which formed 
 convenient camping-places for travellers (Gen. 
 42.27, 43.21 ; Ex. 4.24 ; R.V. lodging-place). 
 In course of time these springs were either 
 enclosed with walls, or a wallod space was 
 built near by, in which the caravan animals 
 were secured for the night. Then they were 
 further developed by a wall being built all 
 round, inside compartments being provided, to 
 which families could retire with some degree of 
 privacy (Jer. 9.2, 41.17). 
 
 Like the modern khans, these places were 
 open squares, the space in the middle being 
 intended for the beasts of burden or vehicles. 
 Some were in two storeys, the rooms above 
 opening upon galleries running all round. 
 Neither the upper nor lower apartments had 
 any sort of furniture, unless a raised platform 
 for sleeping on could be so called, nor was 
 food prepared for travellers. But a sort of 
 caretaker was sometimes attached to the inn, 
 who would for payment provide necessaries. 
 An instance of this occurs in the story of the 
 Good Samaritan (Lk. 10.35). It was at such 
 an inn that Moses stopped when on his way 
 back to Egypt from Midian (Ex. 4.24) ; Joseph's 
 brethren also had halted at such a place, making 
 final preparations for their long caravan journey 
 home, when they discovered that the purchase- 
 money had been placed in their sacks (Gen. 
 42.27). 
 
 In the larger inns the arched openings gave 
 access to suites of two rooms, the inner one 
 serving the double purpose of greater privacy 
 and the safer storage of goods. Many inns also 
 had stabling apart from the central enclosure, 
 and it was in some such place that Mary gave 
 birth to our Lord (Lk. 2.7). 
 
 Inspiration. From in spiro, to " breathe 
 in," applied in Scripture (1) to God as the Author 
 of man's intelligence (Job 32.8) and (2) to 
 Scripture itself, as " inspired of God " (2 Tim. 
 3.16, R.V.). In the latter passage, it clearly 
 denotes some action of God in the provision and 
 conveyance of His revelation to man. While 
 primarily spoken of the O.T. the term may 
 rightly be extended to the N.T. also as part of 
 the literature which is regarded as Scripture. 
 The word means " God-breathed," and in- 
 dicates that primary and fundamental quality 
 which gives Scripture its character of authorita- 
 tiveness over spiritual life, and makes it profit- 
 able for the various aspects of human need. 
 
 What inspiration is can best be gathered from 
 the claim of Scripture itself. O.T. prophets 
 claim to speak as God gave them their messages. 
 The N.T. claims this quality of Divine authority 
 for the O.T. In harmony with this, Scripture is 
 everywhere spoken of as " the Word of God." 
 
INSPIRATION] 
 
 218 
 
 [INSPIRATION 
 
 Such titles as "the Scriptures" and "the 
 oracles of God " (Rom. 3.2), with such phrases 
 as " it is written," clearly involve this. Then 
 again the words of Scripture are attributed to 
 God as their Author (Matt. 1.22 ; Acts 13.34), 
 or to the Holy Spirit (Acts 1.16; Heb. 3.7), 
 and the writers are said to have spoken in or 
 through the Holy Spirit (Matt. 2.15) ; and so 
 the very words of Scripture are regarded as 
 Divinely authoritative (John 10.34, 35 ; Gal. 
 3.16), and its contents designed for the spiritual 
 use and guidance of mankind in all ages (Rom. 
 15.4 ; 2 Tim. 3.16). The Apostle Paul claims 
 for his words an authority equal to that of 
 the O.T., and as given from God, while the 
 author of the Apocalypse quite evidently 
 places his message on a level with the older 
 scriptures (Sanday, Inspiration, pp. 332, 375). 
 The warrant for this doctrine of a Divine 
 authority enshrined in the Scripture lies in the 
 teaching about the Holy Spirit, who is promised 
 as Teacher and Guide of the disciples of Christ 
 (John 14.26, 16.13). 
 
 It is best to use the term " revelation " of 
 the subject-matter of the message, and the 
 word " inspiration " of the method by which 
 the message was conveyed. By the inspira- 
 tion of Scripture we understand the com- 
 munication of Divine truth in some way unique 
 in degree and kind. As the apostles were 
 inspired to teach orally, we cannot think their 
 inspiration left them when they had to write. 
 We may therefore regard inspiration as a special 
 gift of the Holy Spirit by which the prophets 
 of the O.T. and the apostles and their com- 
 panions in the N.T. transmitted the revela- 
 tion of God as they received it. All the 
 available facts go to show that there was a 
 unique manifestation of the Holy Spirit in 
 the Apostolic age. A comparison of the works 
 of the second century with the Books of the 
 N.T. reveals the fundamental difference between 
 the work of the Spirit of God in each age, 
 between the Spirit of Inspiration and the 
 Spirit of Illumination. 
 
 The fact of a unique inspiration in Scripture 
 is clear. But how far did this inspiration 
 extend ? Revelation is the record of God's 
 thoughts for man's life. If the Divine will is 
 to be known and handed down to generations, 
 it must be embodied in words, and, to be sure 
 of the thoughts, we ought to be sure of the words. 
 Inspiration must therefore extend to language. 
 In 2 Pet. 1.21, the men, and in 2 Tim. 3.16, the 
 writings, are said to be inspired, and we cannot 
 be content to say the men, and not the writings, 
 are inspired, for the personal inspiration must 
 necessarily express itself in writing, if it is to 
 be perpetuated. Life extends to every part 
 of the body, and we cannot really distinguish 
 between spirit and form, between substance 
 and mould. 
 
 And yet the term " Verbal Inspiration " 
 needs to be carefully stated and guarded from 
 misconception. The possibility of misunder- 
 standing makes many Christians prefer the 
 
 term " Plenary Inspiration." Verbal Inspira- 
 tion does not mean mechanical dictation, 
 as if the writers were only passive ; dictation 
 is not inspiration. Verbal Inspiration states 
 how far inspiration has gone, that it extends to 
 form as well as to substance. It tells the 
 " what," not the " how," and gives no theory 
 as to the method of the Spirit's working, but 
 only defines the result. Inspiration is a com- 
 bination of Divine power and human instru- 
 mentality. God made use of the natural 
 characteristics of individual writers, and by a 
 special work of the Holy Spirit enabled them to 
 communicate in writing His will for man. 
 We observe this association of the Divine and 
 human in such passages as Matt. 1.22, 2.15 ; 
 Acts 1.16, 3.18, 4.25, where the Divine source 
 and the human channel are clearly distinguished. 
 The true view of human inspiration imph'es a 
 concurrence of the Divine and human elements. 
 The operation of the Holy Spirit was joined 
 with the mental activity of the writer, work- 
 ing through it and guiding it. Though we 
 cannot explain the mode, we know its results. 
 This view of inspiration, of course, refers only 
 to the books as they came from the hands of the 
 original writers. The original manuscripts 
 have not been preserved, and hence we need the 
 help of minute textual criticism, so as to reach 
 back as near as possible to the time and cir- 
 cumstances of the originals. 
 
 This view of inspiration may be justified 
 by the following considerations : (a) The 
 use of the Bible to-day in the life and work 
 of the Christian Church, with its authoritative 
 emphasis on verbal teaching. (b) Scholarly 
 minute exegesis in all ages, and more especially 
 to-day, (c) The appeal to the Bible in all 
 matters of controversy, (d) The belief on 
 this point in the apostolic and sub-apostolic 
 ages (Westcott, Introduction to Gospels, Appen- 
 dix B.). (e) The use of the O.T. by N.T. writers ; 
 e.g. 284 quotations and phrases like " it is 
 written." (/) Our Lord's endorsement of the O.T., 
 e.g. John 10.30-36. (g) The claim of prophets 
 and apostles to inspiration, 2 Sam. 23.2 ; Jer. 
 36.4-8; 1 Cor. 2.13, 14.37. It is impossible 
 to limit inspiration to doctrine, and to 
 regard the history as subject to ordinary cir- 
 cumstances, for doctrine and history are so 
 joined as to be inseparable. Christ's own 
 revelation is that of a historical Person, and the 
 facts and doctrines concerning Him are in- 
 separable, the latter arising out of the former. 
 And the N.T. says that the O.T. history 
 is inspired, and written for our learning 
 (Rom. 4.23, 24, 15.4 ; 1 Cor. 10.6, 11). 
 
 But we must be very careful in our use of 
 the word " inspiration/' for it is capable of 
 several distinct meanings : (a) There is the 
 inspiration involved in a direct communication 
 of truth from God (1 Cor. 11.23). (b) There 
 is the inspiration involved in a selection out of 
 wider and fuller materials (Lk. 1.1-4 ; John 
 20.30, 31). (c) There is the inspiration which 
 guarantees merely an accurate record, without 
 
10B] 
 
 219 
 
 [ISAAC 
 
 any endorsement of what is recorded, e.g. the 
 arguments of Job's friends and the sins of God's 
 people are recorded, but not justified ; inspira- 
 tion here only applies to accuracy of record. 
 (d) There is the inspiration of progressive re- 
 relation. From our Christian standpoint not 
 every part of the O.T. is of equal im- 
 portance, though everything is necessary 
 in its place and for its purpose. Revelation 
 was progressive, and while perfect at each 
 stage for that period, the perfection did not 
 necessarily extend beyond the particular stage. 
 So that O.T. morality must be judged from 
 the standpoint of each stage, and not from 
 ours to-day ; we only accept if it can be justified 
 from the N.T. level. 
 
 All this shows the need of careful discrimina- 
 tion in our use of Scripture and of the idea of 
 inspiration. If we say that all Scripture is 
 inspired, we do not mean that every word is 
 true in itself, for the sentiment may be human, 
 while the record is Divine. The Bible is in- 
 spired, but it contains a revelation. All is not 
 revealed, but all is inspired. The supreme ques- 
 tion in regard to the Bible is not a particular 
 theory of its inspiration, but the fact of its Divine 
 .-iiithority. If the Bible is authoritative for us, 
 it is so, whatever may have been the method 
 of inspiration ; for the fact of authority is 
 really independent of all particular theories of 
 the way in which it came to be. It is a real 
 assistance in the study of inspiration to note 
 the analogy between the Incarnate Word and 
 the Written Word : both are Divine and also 
 human, though in each case it is impossible 
 to say where the Divine ends and the human 
 begins. Both are there, real and inseparable, 
 so that, whether of Christ or of the Bible, it may 
 be said that all is perfectly human and all is 
 absolutely Divine. 
 
 lob. [JOB 2.] 
 
 Iphedei'ah. Jehovah redeems : a chief of the 
 tribe of Benjamin, who lived in Jerusalem (1 Ch. 
 8.25). 
 
 Iphtah. [JIPHTAH.] 
 
 Iphtah-el. [ JIPHTH AH-EL.] 
 
 Ir. Watchman : a Benjamite named in 1 Ch. 
 
 7.12. [IRL] 
 
 I'ra. Watcher : 1. A priest who was also one 
 of David's officers (2 Sam. 20.26). 2. One of 
 David's guard (2 Sam. 23.38). 3. Another of 
 David's guard (2 Sam. 23.26 ; 1 Ch. 11.28, 27.9). 
 
 I'rad. The son of Enoch and grandson of 
 Cain (Gen. 4.18). 
 
 I'ram. A chief man or duke of Edom (Gen. 
 36.40-43). [EDOM.] 
 
 I'ri. My watcher : a Benjamite, son of Bela 
 (1 Ch. 7.7). In ver. 12, Ir. 
 
 Iri'jah. Whom Jehovah sees : a captain of the 
 guard who accused Jeremiah of the intention 
 to desert to the Chaldeans (Jer. 37.13, 14). 
 
 Ir-naTiash. The name either of a descendant 
 of Chelub, or of a city (1 Ch. 4.12; see marg.). 
 
 I'ron. A town of Naphtali, mentioned in 
 Josh. 19.38, between Enhazorand Migdalel : the 
 modern Yariin. 
 
 Iron. The first mention of iron in the Bible 
 is in Gen. 4.22, where Tubal-cain is cited as the 
 forger of cutting instruments of brass and iron. 
 That the Assyrians used the metal to a large 
 extent has been shown by the explorer Layard, 
 who found saws and knive? in the ruins of 
 Nineveh. Also the smelting of iron has been 
 found pictured on Egyptian sculptures, and the 
 use of the bellows shown to have been known at 
 least 1500 B.C. In addition, iron bands have been 
 found binding the inner courses of the Pyramids. 
 Thus the knowledge of working in iron is very 
 ancient, though we do not find that Moses made 
 use of it in erecting the Tabernacle, or Solomon 
 in any part of the Temple at Jerusalem. Yet in 
 the Pentateuch we find references to its great 
 hardness (Lev. 26.19 ; Deut. 28.23, 48) ; to the 
 iron bedstead of Og, king of Bashan (Deut. 3.11 ) ; 
 to mines of iron (Deut. 8.9) ; while the severity of 
 the servitude of the Israelites in Egypt is com- 
 pared to the heat of a furnace for melting iron 
 (Deut. 4.20). We find also that swords (Num. 
 35.16), axes (Deut. 19.5), and stone-dressing 
 tools (Deut. 27.5) were made of iron. The 
 " northern iron " (Jer. 15.12) was perhaps the 
 hardened iron produced in the borders of the 
 Euxine Sea by the people there, who are said to 
 have discovered the art of tempering steel. 
 
 Iron is used figuratively, as a symbol of 
 strength ( Job 40.18), of affliction (Ps. 107.10), etc. 
 
 Irpe'el. God heals : a city of Benjamin, of 
 which no trace remains (Josh. 18.27). 
 
 Ir-she'mesh. City of the sun : a town of Dan 
 (Josh. 19.41 ), the same as Bethshemesh, which see. 
 
 I'ru. The eldest son of Caleb, son of 
 Jephunneh (1 Ch. 4.15). 
 
 Isaac. Laughter : the son of Abraham and 
 Sarah. His name was given to him by his 
 mother, because when it was told her by an 
 angel sent from God that she should have a son, 
 although she had long passed the usual age of 
 child-bearing, she laughed to herself (Gen. 
 18.10-12). When the child was born, she said, 
 " God hath made me to laugh " (Gen. 21.6). The 
 birth of Isaac was the subject of various pro- 
 phecies and promises. It was delayed by God 
 until Abraham and Sarah were both old, to try 
 their faith and to make it more evident that the 
 child was the gift of God, the child of promise 
 (Gen. 17.19). Isaac was born at Gerar (which see) 
 when his father was 100 years of age. At the 
 age of twelve he was subjected to ridicule by his 
 half-brother, Ishmael (Gen. 21.9), and later was 
 about to be sacrificed by his father when God 
 interposed (Gen. 22.6-19). He married when he 
 was forty, and had two sons, Jacob and Esau, by 
 his wife Rebekah, who was also his cousin. He 
 was half-way through his long life when famine 
 drove him to Gerar, where God appeared to him 
 and forbade him to go into Egypt. It was at 
 this place also that he repeated the mistake of 
 Abraham, and subjected himself to the censure 
 of Abimelech for falsely declaring his wife to be 
 his sister (Gen. 26.7). Having become rich in 
 spite of the opposition of the Philistines, he built 
 an altar to Jehovah at Beershcba. When his. 
 
ISAIAH] 
 
 220 
 
 [ISAIAH, BOOK OF 
 
 son Jacob had deceitfully obtained his blessing 
 he sent him away to Padan-aram (Gen.] 28.5), 
 from whence in after years he saw him return 
 prosperous and with a numerous family. He 
 lived to be 180, and was buried at Machpelah by 
 his sons, in the same cave where he and Ishmael 
 had many years previously buried Abraham. 
 [ABRAHAM, JACOB, AND ESAU.] 
 
 Isai'ah. Salvation of Jehovah : Isaiah is 
 justly called the " greatest of the prophets. " 
 But he was statesman as well as prophet, and 
 took an active part in public affairs during the 
 reigns of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah. 
 Of the prophet's father, Amoz (1.1, 2.1), nothing 
 is known. Uncertain also is the tradition 
 that Isaiah was executed by Manasseh by being 
 sawn asunder for tampering with the Mosaic law. 
 He was married, and he calls his wife " Pro- 
 phetess " (Isai. 8.3). Of his two sons we know 
 nothing except their symbolic names, Shear- 
 jashub and Maher-shalal-hash-baz (which see) 
 (Isai. 7.3, 8.3, 4). He must have exercised the 
 office of prophet during a long period of time ; 
 for the lowest computation, beginning from the 
 year in which Uzziah died (c. 740 B.C. ; Isai. 6.1) 
 to the year of the deliverance of Jerusalem from 
 Sennacherib (701 B.C.), when he disappears from 
 the history, gives a ministry of forty years. 
 Contemporary with Isaiah were the prophets 
 Hosea and Micah. 
 
 Besides the Book of Isaiah we learn from 
 2 Ch. 26.22 that the prophet wrote an account 
 of " the acts of Uzziah." This has perished, with 
 other writings of the prophet. 
 
 The life of Isaiah is closely bound up with the 
 histories of Samaria and Judah, but chiefly the 
 latter, and must be studied in this connexion. 
 
 Isaiah, Book of. The authorship of this Book 
 has given rise to a controversy which has accumu- 
 lated a large literature of its own. The Book 
 falls into two parts (1) Chaps. 1-39, and (2) 
 chaps. 40-end. While the first part is generally 
 ascribed to Isaiah, the second is by most scholars 
 attributed to an unknown prophet or prophets. 
 It will suffice to indicate the general grounds 
 upon which a second Isaiah is presumed, and 
 to state some of the reasons given for holding 
 that Isaiah was the author of both parts. 
 
 Those who demand a Second Isaiah point out 
 that, whereas the earlier part of the Book con- 
 tains a series of detached prophecies, the later 
 is mostly a continuous and lofty poem, the 
 style of which differs in many respects from 
 that of the former ; that this latter portion is 
 distinguished by Aramaisms, by characteristic 
 phrases never found in the earlier part, and by 
 other peculiarities of style, from the genuine 
 writings of Isaiah ; that the standpoint of the 
 prophet is altogether changed, more than a 
 hundred and fifty years being overleaped, and 
 that the circumstances of the writer and of 
 those whom he addresses, as well as his 
 message, appear to belong to the latter days 
 of the Captivity. 
 
 In reply, those who defend the unity of the 
 Book urge that 
 
 1. Traces of Aramaic in the style would not 
 be surprising, as it is evident that the public 
 functionaries of Hezekiah's court were well 
 acquainted with that language (see 2 K. 18.26). 
 But, in fact, the number of proved Aramaisms in 
 the Book is insignificant, and of these, some 
 occur in the portions allowed to be Isaiah's. 
 
 2. The alleged diversity of style is not greater 
 than is often found to exist between the earlier 
 and the later writings of the same author. On 
 the other hand, there is throughout an essential 
 similarity in that energy and sublimity which 
 have always been regarded as characteristic of 
 Isaiah. In these respects the later chapters 
 certainly are not inferior to the former. There 
 are also in both parts of the Book some char- 
 acteristic expressions, such as would naturally 
 be repeated by the same writer, e.g. " the Holy 
 One of Israel," as a name of God. This occurs 
 fourteen times in the earlier and fifteen times in 
 the later prophecies, though scarcely met with 
 elsewhere (only in the parallel text in Kings, 
 thrice in the Psalms, and twice in Jeremiah). 
 
 3. Ancient Jewish tradition regards the Book 
 without question as one. See Ecclus. 48.22-25. 
 This was about 200 years B.C. The Septuagint 
 also contains the Book as an undivided whole. 
 Josephus (Ant. 11.1) speaks of the latter 
 portion of the Book as by Isaiah. 
 
 4. The unity of the Book is implied by our 
 Lord and His Apostles, who quote Isaiah more 
 frequently than any other prophet, and expressly 
 attribute to him passages from chaps. 1, 6, 9, 10, 
 11, 29, 40, 42, 53, 61, 65. It was " the Book of the 
 Prophet Isaiah " which was delivered to our Lord 
 in the synagogue at Nazareth, when He opened 
 it and read the passage which we find in 61.1-3 : 
 see Lk. 4.17. From " Isaiah the prophet," also, 
 the Ethiopian traveller was reading in the wilder- 
 ness, again from the second part (Acts 8.28). 
 
 5. The argument against the early date of the 
 later prophecies against Babylon, would also 
 invalidate some earlier portions of the Book. 
 In fact, the chief advocates of the double author- 
 ship are compelled by their theory to deny the 
 genuineness of at least 13.2-14, and even of 
 24-27. 
 
 6. There are passages in this latter portion, 
 descriptive of national sins and calamities, which 
 are most naturally applicable to the time when 
 the Jews were still a people, it being impossible 
 to refer them, without greatly forcing their 
 meaning, to the nation in its captive and 
 scattered state : see especially 57, 59.1-15. 
 
 7. The scenery and natural objects described 
 in this portion are those of Palestine rather 
 than of Babylonia. The writer is familiar with 
 rocks, mountains, and forests ; the horizon of his 
 view extends to the sea and its islands ; the 
 flocks are those of Kedar, the rams those of 
 Nebaioth, the trees are the cedar and the acacia, 
 the pine and the box. Everything speaks of the 
 highland home of the Jews, not of their place 
 of exile in the great Euphrates valley ; and the 
 local colouring, so far as it goes, seems to indi- 
 cate a Jud-jean authorship. 
 
ISCAH] 
 
 221 
 
 [ISHMAEL 
 
 But it is usual among modern scholars to at- 
 tribute the chapters (56-66)from which the argu- 
 ments numbered 6 and 7 are derived to an author, 
 or authors, different from " the Second Isaiah." 
 
 The Contents of the Book may be divided into 
 seven sections as follows : 
 
 (1) Chaps. 1-6. Discourses of a general 
 character, chiefly in the prosperous but luxurious 
 times of Uzziah and Jotham ; denouncing the 
 sins of the people, with some intimations of 
 Divine mercy. Chap. 6 relates the prophet's 
 call by Jehovah, as the warrant for his threats 
 and promises. 
 
 (2) Chaps. 7-12. The Book of Immanuel 
 Prophecies connected with the invasion of 
 Judah by the combined forces of Israel and 
 Syria, and the subsequent invasions of the 
 Assyrians ; comprising warnings to Ahaz against 
 courting their alliance, and predictions of their 
 inroads, and of the overthrow of their hosts ; 
 with promises of a greater salvation. 
 
 (3) Chaps. 13-23. The Book of the Burdens. 
 Woes denounced against various nations hostile 
 to God and His people. In these even Jerusalem 
 and a high officer of the royal palace are included 
 (22) ; for they were infected with the sins of the 
 heathen. 
 
 (4) Chaps. 24-27. The Apocalypse of Isaiah. 
 A general view of all these Divine dealings of 
 judgment and mercy, showing their purposes 
 and results. 
 
 (5) Chaps. 28-35. Prophecies, chiefly of the 
 time of Hezekiah, denouncing the sins of Israel 
 and Judah, but promising mercy, and turning 
 the burden of woe upon their oppressors. 
 
 (6) Chaps. 36-39. A narrative of Senna- 
 cherib's invasion and his overthrow, illustrating 
 the foregoing prophecies ; and another narrative 
 of Hezekiah's vanity, and a consequent threaten- 
 ing of punishment, preparatory to the consolatory 
 portion which follows. 
 
 (7) Chaps. 40-66. The Great Prophecy of 
 Israel's Restoration. A lengthened disclosure 
 of God's purposes of mercy to His true Israel, 
 especially in deliverance from the Babylonian 
 captivity. This is, for the most part, one con- 
 tinuous prophecy ; but it may be divided into 
 three sections, (a) Chaps. 40-50 contain a 
 vindication of the Deity of Jehovah, who is about 
 to manifest Himself as the righteous Saviour of 
 His people, (b) Chaps. 51-56.8 announce and 
 describe this manifestation in the Messiah, and 
 the glorious result of His work. (c) Chaps. 
 56.9-66 exhibit more largely these results, in 
 the superiority of the Church of Christ over the 
 ancient national Israel in its character, privileges, 
 and destinies. 
 
 Quotations in the N.T. are numerous, more 
 especially from Isai. 53, which deals with the 
 suffering Servant of Jehovah : the Saviour from 
 sin and sorrow. This chapter is almost repro- 
 duced in the N.T., applied at every point to 
 Christ. Compare ver. 4 with Matt. 8.17 ; vers. 
 5, 6 with 1 Pet. 2.24, 25 ; vers. 7, 8 with Acts 
 8.32, 33 ; ver. 9 with 1 Pet. 2.22 ; ver. 12 with 
 Mk. 15.28 ; Lk. 22.37 ; Heb. 9.28. 
 
 Is'cah. The daughter of Haran and the sister 
 of Milcah and Lot. Jewish tradition identifies 
 her with Sarai (Gen. 11.29). 
 
 Isca'riot. Man of Kerioth. [ JUDAS ISCARIOT.] 
 
 Ish'bah. The father of Eshtemoa (1 Ch. 4.17). 
 
 Ish'bak. A son of Abraham by Keturah. 
 He founded a tribe in northern Arabia, whose 
 settlements cannot now he traced (Gen. 25.2). 
 
 Ish'bi-Ben'ob. A Philistine giant who at- 
 tacked David and was slain by Abishai (2 Sam 
 21.16, 17). 
 
 Ishbo'sheth. The man of shame : his 
 original name was Esh-baal, as given in 1 Ch. 
 8.33, 9.39; but the word baal (= master, lord), 
 harmless in itself, became so associated with 
 idolatry that names containing it were changed by 
 later writers, and bosheth (shame, thing of shame) 
 substituted. So Meribbaal = Mephibosheth, 
 Jerubbaal = Jerubbesheth. [BAAL, Ism.] He 
 was Saul's youngest son and successor on the 
 throne of Israel. At the death of Saul, Abner, his 
 kinsman and ablest general, so managed that Ish- 
 bosheth was acknowledged king at Mahanaim 
 by the greater part of Israel (2 Sam. 2.8), while 
 David reigned at Hebron over Judah. Ish- 
 bosheth was forty years old when he ascended 
 the throne. For two years he reigned peacefully, 
 but then troublous times set in. There was 
 continuous skirmishing between his forces and 
 David's, which ended only with his death. It 
 was the defection of Abner, who was offended 
 because of a false charge (2 Sam. 3.7), that led 
 to Ishbosheth's murder, while asleep, and so to 
 the extinction of Saul's house and the firm 
 establishment of David as king over all Israel 
 and Judah (2 Sam. 4). The murder was carried 
 out, with revolting circumstances, by two 
 desperate marauders, who hoped to curry favour 
 with David when they presented him with the 
 head of his enemy. But in this they were 
 mistaken, for they were themselves, for their 
 only reward, cruelly put to death (2 Sam. 4.2-12). 
 [ABNER, BAANAH, RECHAB.] 
 
 Ishhod. [ISHOD.] 
 
 I'shi. My husband: a symbolical name by 
 which Hosea said God's people would designate 
 Him when they returned to Him. The signi- 
 ficance of the name is in the fact that it is the 
 Israelitish term for " my man," " my husband," 
 and was to supersede " Baali," a Canaanitish 
 word with the same meaning (Hos. 2.16). 
 
 Ish'i. 1. A descendant of Judah (1 Ch. 2.31). 
 
 2. Another descendant of Judah (1 Ch. 4.20). 
 
 3. A Simeonite, one of four wb&_Jefr~ their 
 brethren against the Amalekites (1 Ch. 4.4^>. 
 
 4. A leader of the tribe of Manasseh (1 Ch. 5.24). 
 Ishi'ah. [ISSHIAH. ] 
 
 Ishi'jah. [IssHUAH.] 
 
 Ish'nia. A name (person or place) in the 
 genealogy of Judah (1 Ch. 4.3). 
 
 Ishma'el. God hears: 1. The son of Abraham 
 and Hagar, the handmaid of Sarah (Gen. 
 16.11-16). Hagar had fled from the anger of 
 Sarah, when the angel of the Lord appeared to 
 her and bade her return, revealing to her that she 
 should bear a son to Abraham who should be 
 
ISHMAELITE, ISHMEELITE] 
 
 222 
 
 [ISRAEL, KINGDOM OF 
 
 called Ishmael. It was also declared that he 
 would be a wild, fierce man " whose hand shall 
 be against all men, and the hands of all men 
 against him." Obeying the command, Hagar 
 returned and bore Ishmael, just thirteen years 
 before the birth of Isaac. 
 
 Two years later, Sarah, angered at the mockery 
 of Ishmael, induced Abraham to expel both him 
 and his mother (Gen. 21.14). Hagar and Ish- 
 mael wandered in the wilderness of Beersheba, 
 being miraculously delivered when reduced to 
 the uttermost extremity ; receiving the promise 
 of God that He would make Ishmael the father 
 of a great nation. The mother and child abode 
 in the wilderness of Paran, where Ishmael became 
 an expert archer, inured to fatigue and priva- 
 tion. Here his mother married him to an 
 Egyptian woman, by whom he had twelve sons 
 (Gen. 25.13) and a daughter, Mahalath or 
 Bashemath, who married Esau (Gen. 28.9, 
 36.3). The descendants of the twelve sons of 
 Ishmael formed twelve tribes of Arabians, some 
 of their names subsisting to the present day. It 
 is interesting to note in this connexion that 
 Mohammed claimed direct descent from 
 Ishmael. As Ishmael had been present, with 
 all the other sons of the Patriarch, at the burial 
 of Abraham, so he himself was buried in the 
 presence of all his brethren (Gen. 25.18). 
 
 2. A descendant of Saul through Merib-baal 
 (Mephibosheth) (1 Ch. 8.38, 9.44). 3. The father 
 of Zebadiah (2 Ch. 19.11). 4. The son of 
 Jehohanan. He assisted Jehoiada in restor- 
 ing Joash to the throne (2 Ch. 23.1). 5. A 
 priest of the time ^f Ezra. He was one of 
 those forced to give up their foreign wives 
 (Ezra 10.22). 6. Son of Nethaniah, and 
 murderer of Gedaliah. This Ishmael seems to 
 have had royal blood in his veins (Jer. 41.1), but 
 whether he was an actual son of a king of Judah, 
 or was merely the son of a secondary wife, it is 
 impossible to tell. His vile plot and the fiendish 
 manner in which it was carried out is recorded 
 in 2 K. 25.23-25 ; Jer. 40.8-16, 41.1-18. Ishmael 
 and his party, with their immense booty, were 
 pursued and overcome by Johanan. But with 
 a remnant of his company Ishmael escaped to 
 the Ammonites, and thus passed out of Bible 
 history. [GEDALIAH.] 
 
 Ishmaelite, Ishmeelite. Descendant of 
 Ishmael (Gen. 37.25 ; Ps. 83.6). 
 
 Ishma'iah. Jehovah hears : 1. One of 
 David's thirty mighty men (1 Ch. 12.4 ; A.V. 
 Ismaiah). 2. A chief of Zebulun in David's 
 reign (1 Ch. 27.19). 
 
 Ish'merai. Jehovah keeps : a Benjamite of 
 the family of Elpaal (1 Ch. 8.18). 
 
 Ish'od (R.V. Ishhod). Man of glory : an im- 
 portant man of the tribe of Manasseh, described 
 as the son of Hammoleketh or " the queen " 
 (1 Ch. 7.18). 
 
 Ishpah. [ISPAH.] 
 
 Ishpan. A chief in Benjamin (1 Ch. 8.22). 
 
 Ish-sechel. -4 man of discretion (Ezra 8.18, 
 R.V. nrirg.). 
 
 Ishtob. (2 Sam. 10.6,8; K.V.themon of Tot). 
 
 Ishuah, Isuah. [ 
 
 Ishui, Ishuai. [IsHvi.] 
 
 Ishvah. Son of Asher (Gen. 46.17, A.V. 
 Ishuah ; 1 Ch. 7.30, A.V. Isuah). 
 
 Ishvi. 1. Son of Asher (Gen. 46.17, A.V. Isui ; 
 1 Ch. 7.30, A.V. Ishuai). Hence Ishvites (Num. 
 26.44, R.V.) 2. Second son of Saul and Ahi- 
 noam (1 Sam. 14.49, A.V. Ishui). 
 
 Island, Isle. The Heb. word so rendered in 
 A.V. means rather habitable land, settlement, 
 generally implying distant lands. Thus in 
 Gen. 10.5 " the isles of the nations " includes the 
 coastlands as well as the islands of the Mediter- 
 ranean Sea : in Ezek. 26, 27 the isles are the 
 distant countries traded with by Tyre, east and 
 west, perhaps including even East Africa and 
 India (27.15). The R.V. frequently gives marg. 
 coastland, and where the reference is clearly to the 
 seaboard of Canaan substitutes coastland in the 
 text (Isai. 20.6). The " isles of the sea " are 
 generally the islands and coasts of the west 
 Mediterranean. In Job 22.30 " the island of 
 the innocent " appears to be a mistranslation for 
 " him that is not innocent " (so R.V. ; cf. marg.). 
 
 Ismachi'ah. Jehovah supports : an overseer 
 at the Temple (2 Ch. 31.13). 
 
 Ismai'ah. Jehovah hears. [!SHMAIAH 1.] 
 
 Ispah (R.V. Ishpah). A Benjamite and a 
 chief man of his tribe (1 Ch. 8.16). 
 
 Is'rael. God strives (?) : this was the new name 
 given to Jacob on his demanding a blessing when 
 he had wrestled with the Angel of the Lord 
 (Gen. 32.28 ; Eos. 12.4) at Mahanaim ; after- 
 wards used interchangeably with Jacob, though 
 less frequently. The name was also used to 
 designate his family and their descendants, until, 
 at the time of the exodus from the bondage of 
 Egypt it became the uniting name of the whole 
 of the twelve tribes (Ex. 3.16). Later on, how- 
 ever, we find the tribe of Judah excluded from 
 the nation of Israel (1 Sam. 11.8 ; 1 K. 12.16), 
 which from the time when ten tribes revolted 
 from Rehoboam became the northern kingdom 
 (the southern kingdom of Judah including Judah 
 and Benjamin, with parts of Dan and Simeon), 
 until the return of the captives from Babylon. 
 These again appropriated the name Israel, 
 though as a matter of fact they were mostly 
 Judaeans. In N.T. times the people of all the 
 tribes were generally known as Jews. 
 
 Israelites. The descendants of Jacob or 
 Israel. In the N.T. the ordinary national name 
 is Jew. Israelite is a term of special dignity, 
 " a member of the theocracy and heir of the 
 promises " (John 1.47 ; Rom. 9.4, 11.1 ; 2 Cor. 
 11.22). [HEBREW, JEW.] 
 
 Israel, Kingdom oL With the reign of 
 Solomon ended the glory of united Israel. The 
 kingdom was thenceforth dismembered, the 
 immediate cause being the folly of Rehoboam 
 (1 K. 12), although there had been much dis- 
 affection, owing in great measure to the 
 enormous pressure of the taxation needful to 
 maintain the royal state. Ten tribes, of which 
 Ephraim was chief, separated from the rest, and 
 formed the kingdom of Israel ; Judah, with which 
 
ISRAEL, KINGDOM OF] 
 
 223 
 
 [ISSACHAR 
 
 Benjamin was now united, alone remained 
 faithful to the house of David (1 K. 12.20). To 
 the kingdom of Judah, however, most of the 
 Levites, and many who feared God out of all the 
 tribes, ultimately adhered (2 Ch. 11.13-16). 
 
 Jeroboam, the first king of Israel, an Eph- 
 raimite, was raised to the throne with Divine 
 sanction conveyed through the prophet Ahijah, 
 and a conditional promise was given that his 
 kingdom should be as David's (1 K. 11.38). 
 But Jeroboam (1 K. 12-15) had neither the 
 faith nor the obedience of David. To preserve 
 the independence of his kingdom, he appointed 
 a separate priesthood, and established the 
 calf-worship at Dan and Bethel. This system 
 of idolatry became, in one form or another, part 
 of the national religion. He himself, therefore, 
 is branded in history as " Jeroboam, the son of 
 Nebat, who made Israel to sin " (1 K. 14.10). 
 From this time to that of Hoshea (2 K. 15.17, 
 18), the nineteenth and last Israelite king, we 
 find no king free from the charge of general de- 
 pravity. Omri (1 K. 16), famous and powerful 
 among the neighbouring nations, as the monu- 
 ments show, was in character among the worst. 
 Ahab (1 K. 16-22), his son, under the influence 
 of Jezebel, his Sidonian queen, introduced the 
 worship of the Phoenician Baal, idolatry of 
 deeper dye than that of Jeroboam. Jehu 
 (2 K. 9.10), indeed, destroyed the prophets of 
 Baal, and for his partial obedience was rewarded 
 with enlarged temporal blessing ; but he " took 
 no heed to walk in the law of the Lord, for he 
 departed not from the sin of Jeroboam, who made 
 Israel to sin." The nation copied their kings. 
 There were a few exceptions, but it needed, in 
 Elijah's days, a direct revelation to discover 
 them ; and out of the hundreds of thousands 
 of whom Israel was composed, but 7000 are 
 mentioned as not having bowed the knee unto 
 Baal (1 K. 19.18). 
 
 Meantime Israel was not without warning. 
 Within fifty years appeared the prophets Jehu 
 and Micaiah, Elijah and Elisha ; the two latter 
 working more miracles than any prophet had 
 wrought since the days of Moses and Joshua. 
 A few years after their ministry came Jonah, 
 Hosea, and Amos. The messages of these 
 prophets were confirmed by Divine chastise- 
 ments. 
 
 The ruin of the last two kings was directly 
 traceable to the fatal policy of alliance with 
 heathen powers. Pekah had sought the aid of 
 Rezin, king of Syria, against Ahaz, and had at 
 first prevailed. Ahaz, imitating his rival's 
 policy, applied for help to Tiglath-pileser (or 
 Pul). king of Assyria. He came and chastised 
 the Israelites, carrying into Media the two and 
 a half trans- Jordanic tribes, and making the rest 
 tributary. Such was the first captivity of 
 Israel. Ten years later, Hoshea appealed to 
 So, king of Egypt (probably Sabaco the Ethio- 
 pian, founder of the 25th dynasty), to assist him 
 in throwing off the tribute, Hezekiah unhappily 
 joining in the confederacy. This revolt brought 
 up SIiulmHneser, son of Tiglath-pileser, with a 
 
 large host ; Samaria fell before the power of 
 Sargon, Shalrnaneser's successor, and was 
 annexed to the Assyrian crown. Then followed 
 the second captivity of Israel, completing the 
 depopulation of the land. Judah escaped, the 
 army of Sennacherib, son of Sargon, being 
 miraculously destroyed. 
 
 The conquered Israelite territory was after- 
 wards peopled by settlers from the region of the 
 Tigris and Euphrates. They intermarried with 
 those of the Israelites who had remained, and 
 ultimately took the name of Samaritans. The 
 ravages of lions in the depopulated country 
 were attributed by them to the anger of " the 
 god of the land " ; and on their appeal to the 
 Assyrian king, a priest of Jehovah was sent to 
 instruct them. At first their religion was of a 
 motley kind, " they feared Jehovah and served 
 their own gods." After the reforms by Josiah, 
 however, which extended to Bethel and the 
 northern districts (2 K. 23.15 ; 2 Ch. 34.6, 7), the 
 people seem to have submitted to the destruction 
 of their idols, and nominally to have adopted the 
 Israelite religion. This fact, too, led to further 
 complications, as the succeeding history shows. 
 
 What became of the Ten Tribes is not known. 
 Many of them seem to have returned at different 
 periods to their own land. Cyrus addressed his 
 proclamation to all the people of Jehovah 
 (Ezra 1.1-3), and some of the rites connected 
 with the consecration of the Temple imply that 
 Ihere were present remnants of all the tribes ; 
 while many Israelites seem to have been settled 
 in Galilee and Persea long before the days of our 
 Lord (1 Mac. 5.9-23). The name Israelite, 
 indeed, was no longer restricted to the northern 
 tribes ; and in N.T. times the old nationality 
 seems in a measure restored. 
 
 Is'sachar. The wage-bringer : 1. The fifth son 
 of Jacob and Leah. We know nothing more of his 
 life, except that he had four sons, Tola, Phuvah, 
 Job, and Shimron (Gen. 46.13). These sons 
 founded families of importance in their tribe, 
 the position of which was to the east of the 
 Tabernacle during the desert march (Num. 2.5). 
 With Judah and Zebulun, Issachar marched at 
 the head of the tribes (Num. 10.15). The three 
 tribes had a standard in common on which 
 were inscribed their names and the figure 
 of a lion's whelp. Issachar was also one of the 
 six tribes appointed to attend the ceremony of 
 cursing and blessing on Mount Gerizim (Dent. 
 27.12). Despite the disastrous mortality at 
 Peor the tribe of Issachar increased rapidly 
 during the march to the Promised Land, for we 
 find that the number of their fighting men, 
 which was 54,400 at Sinai, amounted to 145,600 
 at the census of Joab (1 Ch. 7.2-5). 
 
 Arriving at the Promised Land, the tribe 
 received as its portion some of the best and most 
 fertile parts along the great plain or valley of 
 Jezreel, with the half-tribe of Manasseh to the 
 south of them, Zebulun to the north, while the 
 Mediterranean and the Jordan formed respect- 
 ively their western and eastern boundaries 
 (Josh. 19 .17-2H). [CAXAAX.] After the spfllo- 
 
ISSHIAH] 
 
 224 
 
 [IZZIAH 
 
 ment the connexion between Judah and 
 char almost entirely ceased, but the brotherly 
 bond with Zebulun was maintained right up to 
 the dispersion. The blessing of Jacob evidently 
 had reference to the extreme fruit.fulness of 
 Issachar's portion of the Promised Land, 
 " Issachar is a strong ass, couching down 
 between the sheepfolds : and he saw a resting- 
 place that it was good, and the land that it 
 was pleasant, and bowed his shoulder to bear, 
 and became a servant under task work " 
 (Gen. 49.14,15, R.V.), a graphic description 
 of a peaceful and well-to-do agricultural 
 people, happy in the fruitfulness of their land, 
 and willing to pay tribute to their fierce and 
 marauding neighbours of the north. In the 
 time of David numbers of the tribe had taken 
 to a life of wandering, and became mercenaries 
 in the pay of any who desired their help (1 Ch. 
 7.1-5). For twenty-six years Jssacharite kings 
 ruled Israel. [BAASHA, ELAH, ZIMEI, CANAAN.] 
 
 2. A porter in the Tabernacle service during 
 David's reign (1 Ch. 26.5). 
 
 Isshi'ali. Man of Jehovah : 1. The youngest 
 son of Izrahiah, of the tribe of Issachar 
 (1 Ch. 7.3 ; A.V. Ishiah). 2. (1 Ch. 24.21 ; in 
 26.25 Jeshaiah). 3. (1 Ch. 24.25). 
 
 Issbi'jah. (Ezra 10.31 ; A.V. Ishijah.) 
 
 Italian Band. A band or cohort of Roman 
 soldiers (properly = ^ of a legion, i.e. about 
 600 men) stationed at Caesarea, Cornelius being 
 one of its (six) centurions (Acts 10.1). The 
 " Italian Band " was composed of natives of 
 Italy, and thus distinguished from the rest of 
 the Roman troops, which would be recruited 
 from provincials. 
 
 Italy. The central state of the Roman 
 Empire, mentioned four times in the N.T. (Acts 
 18.2, 27.1, 6 ; Heb. 13.24). 
 
 Ith'ai. One of David's mighty men (1 Ch. 
 11.31). In 2 Sam. 23.29 he is called Ittai, which 
 see. 
 
 Itha'mar. The youngest son of Aaron (Ex. 
 6.23). With Eleazar he succeeded Nadab and 
 Abihu in the priesthood (Ex. 28.1, 38.21). In 
 the service of the Temple Ithamar supervised 
 the transport and care of the curtains and other 
 hangings, together with the pillars and cords 
 (Ex. 38.21). His descendant Eli became high 
 priest, but no other member of the family ever 
 bore the office. [ELEAZAR, ELI.] 
 
 Ith'iel. God is with me (Neh. 11.7). 2. One 
 of the two men to whom Agur prophesied 
 (Prov. 30.1 ; but see 11. V. marg.). 
 
 Ithlah. [ JETHLAH. ] 
 
 Ithmah. A Moabite and one of David's 
 guard (1 Ch. 11.46). 
 
 Ith'nan. A town in the extreme south of 
 Judah (Josh. 15.23). It was upon the border of 
 the desert, but the site is not yet known. 
 
 Ith'ra. Excellence : the father of Amasa and 
 brother-in-law to David (2 Sam. 17.25 ; 1 Ch. 
 2.17). In the latter passage he is called Jether 
 the Ishmaelite. 
 
 Ith'ran. Excellence : 1. AHorite (Gen. 36.26). 
 2. An Asherite (1 Ch. 7.37). 
 
 Ithre'am. David's sixth son. He was born 
 in Hebron, his mother being " Eglah, David's 
 wife " (2 Sam. 3.5 ; 1 Ch. 3.3). [EGLAH.] 
 
 Ith'rites. The name of a family of Kirjath- 
 jearim (1 Ch. 2.53) applied to two of David's 
 mighty men (2 Sam. 23.38 ; 1 Ch. 11.40). In 
 these latter passages perhaps we should read 
 Jattirite, i.e. natives of Jattir (Josh. 15.48, 
 21.14 ; 1 Sam. 30.27). 
 
 It'tah-ka'zin (R.V. Ethkazin). A place on 
 the boundary of Zebulun (Josh. 19.13). 
 
 It'tai. 1. The Gittite, a native of Gath, who 
 had apparently been banished, and with a band 
 of followers had attached himself to David 
 (2 Sam. 15.18, 19 : the " after him " of ver. 18 
 seems to refer to Ittai). The beautiful story of 
 his refusal to leave David when he fled before 
 Absalom, comparable with that of Ruth and 
 Naomi, is told in 2 Sam. 15.19-22. He appears 
 later as the captain of one-third of the force 
 detailed for the pursuit of Absalom (2 Sam. 
 18.2, 5, 12). 
 
 2. See ITHAI. 
 
 Iturse'a. A small province on the north-east 
 border of Palestine. It formed part of the 
 tetrarchy of Philip (Lk. 3.1). It derived its 
 name from Jetur, the son of Ishmael, who 
 colonised it (Gen. 25.15, 16). 
 
 Ivah (R.V. Iwah). A city, perhaps in Syria, 
 mentioned in 2 K. 18.34 with Sepharvaim 
 and Hena, and in 2 K. 19.13, Isai. 37.13, 
 with Hamath and Hena. Perhaps identical 
 with Ava (2 K. 17.24; R.V. Avva), whence 
 Sargon, king of Assyria, brought colonists to 
 Samaria. It has been supposed that Ivvah or 
 Avva is the name of a Syrian god, and at present 
 the word presents an unsolved problem. 
 
 Ivory. A trade in ivory, from Africa and 
 India, was carried on in very ancient times by 
 Assyria, Tyre, and Egypt. Solomon made a 
 great throne of ivory inlaid with gold, brought 
 by the " navy of Tarshish " (1 K. 10.18, 22 : 
 in ver. 18 the word used means simply " tooth," 
 i.e. " tusk," and so generally ; in ver. 22 
 " elephants' tooth "). The " ivory house " of 
 Ahab was probably decorated with ivory panels. 
 See also Ps. 45.8 ; Cant. 5.14, 7.4 ; Ezek. 27.6, 
 15 ; Amos 3.15, 6.4 ; Rev. 18.12. 
 
 lye-abarim. [IJE-ABABIM.] 
 
 lyim. [!IM.] 
 
 Izhar. -Glistening : 1. Son of Kohath and 
 grandson of Levi (Ex. 6.18, 21 ; Num. 3.19 
 [A.V.Izehar]', 1 Ch. 6.2, etc.). 2. Son of Ashur 
 (1 Ch. 4.7. ; R.V. marg. " and Zohar " ; A.V. 
 Zereth). The family name Izharites occurs Num. 
 3.27 [A.V. Izehariles] ; 1 Ch. 24.22, 26.23, 29. 
 
 Izliah. [JEZLIAH.] 
 
 Izrahi'ah. Jehovah rises : a man of Issachar 
 (1 Ch. 7.3). 
 
 Izrahite. The family name of Shamhuth, a 
 captain in David's guard (1 Ch. 27.8). Prob- 
 ably = Zerahite. 
 
 Izri. A Levite who was a leader of the fourth 
 course in the Temple service (1 Ch. 25.11). In 
 ver. 3 of the same chapter he is called Zeri. 
 
 Izziah. [.TEZIAH.] 
 
JAAKAN, JAKAN] 
 
 225 
 
 [JACHIN 
 
 JaaTcan, Jakan. A tribe near whose posses- 
 sions the Israelites stayed on their way to the 
 Holy Land (Num. 33.31 ; Deut. 10.6). The place 
 has not been identified. The name also occurs 
 in 1 Ch. 1.42 by a copyist's mistake, as it seems, 
 for Akan. 
 
 Jaako'bah. Supplanter : a Simeonite prince 
 (1 Ch. 4.36). 
 
 Jaa'la, Jaa'lah. Mountain goat : one of 
 Solomon's slaves (perhaps Canaan ites) whose 
 descendants returned with Zerubbabel (Ezra 
 2.56 ; Nek. 7.58). 
 
 Jaa'lam, Jalam. (?) Whom God hides : a son 
 of Esau and head of an Edomite tribe (Gen. 
 36.5). 
 
 Jaa'nai, Janai. (?) Jehovah answers : a de- 
 scendant of Gad (1 Ch. 5.12). 
 
 Jaa're-ore'gim. Forest-weavers : the father 
 of Elhanan the Bethlehemite who slew Goliath 
 or the brother of Goliath (2 Sam. 21.19; 
 1 Ch. 20.5). Oregim, however, is an addition 
 which has wrongly come in from the Hebrew 
 word for "weavers" at the end of the verse. 
 The name is simply Jaare, or, as it appears in 
 1 Ch. 20.5, Jair. 
 
 Jaareshiah. [JAEESIAH.] 
 
 Jaa'sai, Jaa'sau, Jaasu. (?) Jehovah works : 
 one who had to put away his foreign wife (Ezra 
 10.37). 
 
 Jaasi'el. God works: 1. One of David's heroes 
 (1 Ch. 11.47). 2. A son of Abner and a captain 
 over Benjamin in David's time (1 Ch. 27.21). 
 
 Jaazani'ah. Jehovah hears : 1. A Jewish 
 captain, son of the Maacathite (2 K. 25.23). 
 He assisted in recovering IshmaePs booty 
 after the murder of Gedaliah, and subsequently 
 went into Egypt (Jer. 40.8, 42.1). In these two 
 passages his name occurs as Jezaniah, and he is 
 called the son of Hoshaiah. He seems to be 
 identical with Azariah (Jer. 43.2). 2. A 
 Rechabite (Jer. 35.3). 3. Son of Shaphan, one 
 of the seventy elders of Israel who worshipped 
 idols, an act of idolatry witnessed by Ezekiel 
 (Ezek. 8.11). 4. Son of Azur, a wicked " prince " 
 of Judah, whom Ezekiel saw in a vision and 
 prophesied against (Ezek. 11.1). 
 
 Jaa'zer, Ja'zer. He helps : an Amorite town 
 near Gilead, north of Heshbon, taken by the 
 Israelites (Num. 21.32, 32.1, 3). It was rebuilt 
 by Gad and assigned to the Merarites (Num. 
 32.35 ; Josh. 13.25, 21.39 ; 2 Sam. 24.5). The 
 town was the subject of prophetic lamentation 
 (Isai. 16.8, 9 ; Jer. 48.32). The " sea " in the 
 last passage may have been a lake. Its position 
 has been placed at Sa'aur, four miles north of 
 Heshbon ; a mile farther north is " a perennial 
 stream forming a large pool." 
 
 Jaazi'ah. A descendant of Merari the 
 Levite (1 Ch. 24.26, 27). 
 
 Jaazi'el. God strengthens : a Levite and 
 musician in the Tabernacle service (1 Ch. 15.18). 
 
 15 
 
 In ver. 20 a contracted form of the name occurs 
 as Aziel. 
 
 Ja'bal. A son of Lamech the Cainite. He 
 was a tent-dweller, possessing herds and flocks, 
 like the present Bedouin (Gen. 4.20). 
 
 JabT)ok. Pouring out, gurgling : a river rising 
 in the plateau east of the mountains of Gilead. 
 It formed one of the boundaries of the land of 
 the Ammonites (Judg. 11.12-22). On its south 
 bank the interview took place between Jacob and 
 Esau (Gen. 32.22). Near the ford of this brook 
 the Angel wrestled with Jacob (Gen. 32.24). 
 
 JaT)esh. Dry : 1. The father of Shallum 
 (2 K. 15.10,14). 2. Ja'besh-Gil'ead (1 Sam. 
 11.1). 
 
 Janbesh-gil'ead. The chief town in Gilead of 
 Manasseh whose inhabitants were killed for their 
 absence from the war of Israel against Benjamin 
 (Judg. 21.8-14). Saul defended it against the 
 Ammonites, and here the remains of himself 
 and his three sons were buried (1 Sam. 11.1-13, 
 31.11-13 ; 2 Sam. 2.4, 5, 21.12 ; 1 Ch. 10.11). In 
 other places it is called Jabesh only. Its name 
 is preserved in the modern Wady Yabes, which 
 joins the Jordan below Bethshan. 
 
 JaT>ez. 1. A town of Judah (1 Ch. 2.55). 
 It has not been identified. 2. A leader in the 
 tribe of Judah. The letters of his name when 
 transposed (Jazeb) mean " He brings sorrow," 
 but his beautiful prayer staves off the mis- 
 fortune suggested by his name (1 Ch. 4.9, 10). 
 
 Ja'bin. He considers : 1. A king of Hazor 
 (which see). Fearing Joshua, who had subdued 
 the south of Canaan, he formed an alliance both 
 offensire and defensive with other kings of the 
 north, between the Jordan and the Medi- 
 terranean (Josh. 11.1). Joshua defeated the 
 allies at Merom, and pursued them to great 
 Zidon and the valley of Mizpeh. Hazor was 
 taken and Jabin slain. 2. Another king of 
 Hazor. He oppressed the Israelites for twenty 
 years, until Sisera, his general, was defeated by 
 Barak and Deborah at the foot of Mount Tabor 
 (Judg. 4.2-24). 
 
 Jabne'el. God buildeth : 1. A city on the 
 northern boundary of Judah, which was held by 
 the Philistines until Uzziah dispossessed them 
 (Josh. 15.11 : 2 Ch. 26.6). Called Jamnia in the 
 time of the Maccabees, and in the Talmud. Its 
 modern name is Yebnah, thirteen miles south 
 of Jaffa. 2. A boundary town of Naphtali 
 ( Josh. 19.33). Its position is marked by Yemma 
 in upper Galilee, seven miles south of Tiberias. 
 
 Jab'neh. He (God) buildeth : the same as 
 Jab'neel 1 (2 Ch. 26.6). 
 
 Ja'can, Ja'chan. A chief of Gad (1 Ch. 5.13). 
 
 Ja'chin. He will establish : 1. A son of 
 Simeon, who in 1 Ch. 4.24 is called Jarib 
 (Gen. 46.10). 2. A priest (1 Ch. 9.10; Neh. 
 11.10). He seems to give his name to the 
 twenty-first course of priests (1 Ch. 24.17). 3. 
 
JACHINITES] 
 
 226 
 
 [JAEL 
 
 A pillar in the porch of Solomon's Temple 
 (1 K. 7.21). 
 
 Jachinites. The family name of the descend- 
 ants of Jachin 1 (Num. 26.12). 
 
 Ja'cinth. Mentioned in Rev. 9.17 and 21.20. 
 The precious stones known by this name in 
 modern times are of several reddish tints. The 
 true jacinth is a dull red square crystal, very 
 rare, and takes a very brilliant polish. The 
 stone is of a higher specific gravity than the 
 garnet. It is also called the Hyacinth ; but the 
 hyacinthus of Pliny in the first century A.D. was 
 a blue stone, perhaps the sapphire, and this is 
 what St. John probably means. In the high- 
 priest's breastplate (Ex. 28.19, "ligure," A.V.), 
 on the contrary, it is more probable that a red 
 stone, or the yellow cairngorm, was intended. 
 Jackal. [D R AGON.] 
 
 Jacob. Supplanter : the younger son of Isaac 
 and Rebekah. At his birth he seized his twin 
 brother's (Esau's) heel, and because of this he 
 received his name (Gen. 25.26). We must not, 
 however, suppose that the name itself was 
 unknown before then, for it has been traced 
 much earlier in the inscriptions. Jacob was 
 of a meek and peaceable temper, and loved 
 a quiet, pastoral life. In this he was the very 
 opposite of his brother, who loved hunting, 
 and whose nature was fierce and turbulent. 
 Rebekah's preference for Jacob, and its con- 
 sequences, have been already noticed under Esau 
 (which see). By this trickery Jacob received 
 that blessing from his blind father Isaac which 
 was the birthright of Esau. This " birthright " 
 had already been a subject of barter between 
 the brothers, Jacob taking advantage of Esau's 
 necessities to secure the elder son's privileges 
 and rights. [BIRTHRIGHT.] Though it was 
 God's purpose that His promise to Abraham 
 should be continued through Jacob, yet the evil 
 means employed by Rebekah and Jacob en- 
 tailed punishment. Both suffered for their 
 fraud, which destroyed the peace of the family, 
 and planted a mortal enmity in the breast of 
 Esau against his brother (Gen. 27.36-41). The 
 year of absence (Gen. 27.42-44), which Rebekah 
 imagined would be sufficient to turn away 
 Esau's wrath, was lengthened into a lifelong 
 separation of mother and son. Before Jacob's 
 return Rebekah had gone to the grave " pierced 
 through with many sorrows." Esau's hatred 
 of Jacob also lived, and undoubtedly had not 
 God softened his heart at the intercession of 
 Jacob he would have fulfilled his intention 
 (Gen. 27.41) of killing his brother. 
 
 But before flying for his life Jacob was called 
 before Isaac and received again the blessing 
 of Abraham (Gen. 28.1-4). He was sent to 
 Padan-aram or Charran in quest of a wife of 
 his own kindred (Gen. 28.6). He was supported 
 on his journey by a vision and the assurance 
 of Divine support. [BETHEL.] Yet he was 
 forced to engage in a tedious service of seven 
 years for Rachel, only to be cheated in the end 
 by Laban, who substituted Leah for Rachel, 
 thus compelling Jacob to serve another seven 
 
 years for Rachel, whom he loved. Laban 
 further cheated hi the matter of wages, and it 
 was only after twenty years of distressful 
 service that Jacob was able to steal away with 
 his family and possessions (Gen. 31). He was 
 only protected from Laban's vengeance by 
 Divine interposition. The turning - point of 
 Jacob's life was at Penuel, when he was humbled 
 by the angel, and gave up his crafty ways, 
 learning at last to prevail with God by prayer 
 alone. [ISRAEL.] He had much domestic 
 trouble the impatience of his favourite wife 
 Rachel, with her pathetic plaint, " Give me 
 children, or I die " her death at the birth of 
 Benjamin the sin of his daughter Dinah 
 (Gen. 34.5-26), and the consequent tragedy at 
 Shechem the misbehaviour of Reuben, and 
 the selling of Joseph into captivity all these 
 evils together would have brought Jacob to the 
 grave had he not been divinely supported. But 
 God was with him, and the close of his life was 
 calm, happy, and prosperous. Almost his last 
 utterance was the prediction of the coming 
 Redeemer (Gen. 49.10). Of his twelve sons, two 
 only, Joseph and Benjamin, were the children of 
 Rachel. [See ISRAEL, ESAU, RACHEL, JOSEPH, 
 GILEAD, ETC., for further incidents in the life 
 of Jacob.] His history is referred to by Hosea 
 (12.2-12). See also Deut. 26.5. 
 
 2. The father of Joseph, the husband of Mary 
 (Matt. 1.15, 16). 3. A figure of speech used to 
 describe the descendants of Jacob (Num. 
 23.7, and often). 
 
 Jacob's Well. A well half a mile south- 
 west from the village of Sychar, Askar (John 
 4.6-12), and a mile east of Shechem ; the place 
 where our Saviour had the memorable interview 
 with the woman of Samaria. The well is very 
 deep, and is excavated out of the rock hi the 
 parcel of ground that Jacob bought (Gen. 33.19). 
 Its width is about 9 feet. A church has recently 
 been built over it. The fact that there is 
 abundance of water in the immediate neighbour- 
 hood so far corroborates the name, that it 
 suggests that the well was made by an alien, 
 who was not permitted to use other sources of 
 supply. Christ's offer of the " living water " 
 that should never fail was intensified by the fact 
 that this well, though 75 feet deep, yet some- 
 times was dried up. 
 
 Ja'da. Knowing, wise : a man of Judah 
 (1 Ch. 2.28). 
 
 Ja'dau. (?) Beloved: one who took a foreign 
 wife (Ezra 10.43). This name is more properly 
 Jaddai. 
 
 Jaddu'a. WeU known (to God): 1. A high- 
 priest who lived in the reign of the last Persian 
 King Darius, and in the time of Alexander the 
 Great. 332 B.C. His name occurs last in the 
 list of high -priests mentioned in O.T. (Neli 
 12.11, 22). 2. One who signed the covenant 
 with Nehemiah (Neh. 10.21). 
 
 Ja'don. He judgeih : a native of Meronoth. 
 He helped to repair the wall of Jerusalem 
 (Neh. 3.7). 
 
 Ja'el. Mountain goat : 1. The wife of Heber 
 
JAGUK] 
 
 227 
 
 [JAMES 
 
 the Kenite (Judg. 4.17-22, 5.24). Sisera, the 
 general of Jabin, king of Hazor, had been 
 defeated by Barak, and took refuge among the 
 tents of the Kenites, a neutral tribe. Here he 
 was invited to hide in the tent of Jael, a secure 
 hiding-place, as no Arab would have dreamed of 
 looking for him in the women's apartments. In 
 spite of her promise of secrecy, Jael slew him in 
 his sleep of exhaustion by driving a wooden pin, 
 used for fastening the tent, through his brain. 
 She then waited for the pursuing Barak, and 
 exultingly showed him her deed. Her act 
 showed faith in the ultimate success of Israel, 
 and therefore faith in Israel's God. But it was 
 the act of a half-savage woman who had but 
 little spiritual knowledge. 
 
 2. Apparently the name of a judge in Judg. 
 5.6. It may be a corruption of Jair (10.3), 
 possibly even identical with Jael 1. 
 
 Ja'gur. (?) He sojourneth : a town in the 
 extreme south of Judah (Josh. 15.21). It was 
 on the frontier of Edom, but its site is not known. 
 
 Jah. One of the names for God. The word 
 is very frequently combined with personal or 
 place names, etc., as Adonijah, Hallelujah 
 (Ps. 68.4). [JEHOVAH.] 
 
 JaTiath. He (God) will snatch up: a 
 descendant of Judah (1 Ch. 4.2). 2. A Levite 
 ancestor of Asaph (1 Ch. 6.20, 43). 3. Another 
 Levite (1 Ch. 23.10, 11). 4. Another Levite 
 (1 Ch. 24.22). 5. A Levite or descendant of 
 Merari. An overseer of the repairs of the Temple 
 under Josiah (2 Ch. 34.12). 
 
 Jaliaz, Jahaza, Jahazah, Jahzah. A place 
 trodden down : the scene of a decisive battle in 
 which the Israelites routed the Amorites under 
 Sihon, and gained possession of the first portion 
 of the Promised Land (Num. 21.23 ; Deut. 2.32 ; 
 Judg. 11.20). It was allotted to Reuben and 
 given to the Merarites (Josh. 13.18). It fell 
 under the ban of the prophets as part of the 
 land of Moab (Isai. 15.4 ; Jer. 48.21, 34). The 
 site is unknown. 
 
 Jaliaz 'iah, Jahzeiah. Jehovah sees : one of 
 four officers appointed to count those who had 
 married strange wives during the Captivity 
 (Ezra 10.15). 
 
 Jahazi'el. God sees : 1. An adherent of David 
 at Ziklag (1 Ch. 12.4). 2. A priest who helped 
 to bring the Ark from Obed-edom (1 Ch. 16.6). 
 3. A Kohathite (1 Ch. 23.19). 4. A Levite who 
 encouraged Jehoshaphat and his army at a time 
 of peril (2 Ch. 20.14). 5. The chief of a family 
 which returned from Babylon with Ezra 
 (Ezra 8.5). 
 
 Jah'dai. A descendant of Caleb (1 Ch. 
 2.47). 
 
 Jahdi'el. God giveth joy : a chief in Manasseh 
 (1 Ch. 5.24). 
 
 Jah'do. A Gileadite (1 Ch. 5.14). 
 
 Jahle'el. Wait for God: a son of Zebulun 
 (Gen. 46.14). 
 
 Jahle'elites. The family of Jahleel (Num. 
 26.26). 
 
 Jah'mai. May Jehovah protect : fourth son 
 of Tola, son of Issachar (1 Ch. 7.2). 
 
 Jah'zah. Trodden down. [JAHAZ.] (1 Ch. 
 6.78.) 
 
 Jahze'el, Jahzi'eL God apportioned: a son 
 of Naphtali (Gen. 46.S4 ; 1 Ch. 7.13). 
 
 Jahzeiah. [JAHAZIAH.] 
 
 Jahze'rah. Whom God protects : a priest of 
 the family of Immer who settled in Jerusalem 
 (1 Ch. 9.12). Apparently the same as Ahasai 
 in Neh. 11.13. 
 
 JahzieL [JAHZEEL.] 
 
 Jailer. [PRISON.] (Acts 16.23.) 
 
 Ja'ir. Whom God enlightens : 1. A descendant 
 of Judah and Manasseh (Num. 32.41 ; 1 K. 
 4.13). [HAYOTH-JAIB.] 2. A judge of Israel 
 for twenty-three years ( Judg. 10.3, 5). 3. Father 
 of Mordecai (Esth. 2.5). 4. Father of Elhanan, 
 who slew the giant (1 Ch. 20.5). The etymology 
 of this word differs from the preceding. 
 
 [JAARE-OREGIM.] 
 
 Jai'rus. The chief of the synagogue at 
 Capernaum whose daughter, aged twelve, was 
 raised from the dead by Jesus (Matt. 9.18; 
 Mk. 5.22; Lk. 8.41). He is notable for his 
 faith in the Saviour. The name is the Greek 
 form of Jair 1-3. 
 
 JaTseh. Pious : the father of Agur (Prov. 
 30.1). 
 
 JaTdm. He lifteth up: 1. Chief of the twelfth 
 course of priests in David's time (1 Ch. 24.12). 
 2. A Benjamite (1 Ch. 8.19). 
 
 Ja'lam. [ JA A'LAM.] 
 
 Ja'lon. A son of Ezra of Judah (1 Ch. 4.17). 
 
 JamTtfes. Referred to by St. Paul as the 
 name of one of the magicians who resisted Moses 
 at the court of Pharaoh by attempting to 
 imitate his miracles (2 Tim. 3.8). [JANNES, 
 MAGICIAN.] It is possible that his name was 
 properly Mambres. 
 
 James. The same name as Jacob. 1. 
 James, surnamed the Greater, to distinguish him 
 from James the Little, was brother to John the 
 Evangelist, and son of Zebedee and Salome 
 (Matt. 4.21). He was of Bethsaida, in Galilee, 
 with his brother John, a fisherman, and with him 
 left all to follow Christ (Mk. 1.18, 19). The 
 brothers were witnesses of our Lord's trans- 
 figuration (Matt. 17.1). During the ministry of 
 Jesus, James and John were seldom apart ; they 
 seemed to speak and act together. When 
 certain Samaritans refused to admit Jesus, 
 James and John asked leave to pray for fire 
 to be sent down from heaven to consume 
 them (Lk. 9.54). [BOANERGES.] Shortly after, 
 through their mother Salome, they made their 
 famous request to take precedence of the other 
 disciples in the Kingdom. Some days after the 
 resurrection of our Saviour, James and John 
 went to fish in the Sea of Tiberias, when they 
 saw Jesus, and they were both present at the' 
 ascension. About the year 42-44, Herod 
 Agrippa, grandson of Herod the Great, caused 
 James to be seized and killed at Jerusalem 
 (Acts 12.1, 2). A legend tells us that the one 
 who prosecuted James before the judges was so 
 impressed with his constancy in confessing Jesus 
 Christ that he also declared himself a Christian, 
 
JAMES, GENERAL EPISTLE OF] 228 [JAMES, GENERAL EPISTLE OF 
 
 and was condemned, as well as the apostle, 
 to be beheaded. 
 
 2. James, the son of Alphaeus, or the Little 
 (wrongly the Less). Also one of the Twelve, 
 but otherwise nothing is known of him. 
 
 3. James, the brother of the Lord, and of 
 the Apostle Jude; probably the writer of the 
 Epistle. He was surnarned the " Just " on 
 account of the holiness and purity of his life. 
 He is said to have been a priest, arid to have 
 observed the laws of the Nazirites from his 
 birth. Eight days after the resurrection the 
 Saviour appeared to him (1 Cor. 15.7). He 
 was at Jerusalem, and was considered as a 
 pillar of the Church, when Paul first went there 
 after his conversion, 37 A.D. (Gal. 1.19). In the 
 Council of Jerusalem (49-51 A.D.) he urged that 
 Gentile Christians should not be bound by the 
 ceremonial of the Law (Acts 15.13-29). His 
 death, according to Christian tradition, was 
 that of a martyr. About the year 63 A.D. he 
 was commanded by the Jews to proclaim, from 
 one of the galleries of the Temple, that Jesus of 
 Nazareth was not the Messiah. But, instead, he 
 cried out to the multitude that Christ was the 
 Son of God, and Judge of the world. His en- 
 raged enemies hurled him to the ground beneath. 
 He was not quite dead, and, while praying for 
 his captors, he was stoned to death. This was 
 immediately before the siege of the city. So 
 highly was James held in honour that the Jews 
 deemed the destruction of their city and temple 
 a judgment on them because of his murder. 
 On the meaning of " brother of the Lord " 
 see the next article. 
 
 James, the General Epistle of. The author- 
 ship of this Epistle has been disputed ; but it is 
 generally agreed that the writer of this Epistle 
 was not James the brother of John (to whom it 
 has been ascribed by some ancient and modern 
 expositors) ; but the James (or Jacob) who, 
 after the death of the former (Acts 12.2), is 
 mentioned as presiding over the Church at 
 Jerusalem (Acts 12.17, 15.13-29, 21.18-25) ; 
 and is called by Paul " the Lord's brother " 
 (Gal. 1.19). Some identify him with James 
 the son of Alphaeus, one of the twelve apostles 
 (Matt. 10.3). But that supposition seems to 
 be excluded by the fact that, at a period subse- 
 quent to the appointment of the Twelve, our 
 Lord's " brethren " (of whom James was 
 probably the eldest) did not believe in Him 
 (John 7.5). It is therefore supposed that they 
 first became disciples after our Lord's ascension 
 (Actt 1.13), having been convinced by the great 
 events of His death and resurrection (1 Cor. 
 15.7). 
 
 In support of this, it is urged that it is more 
 probable that the permanent president of the 
 Church at Jerusalem would not be one of the 
 twelve apostles ; it being hardly consistent 
 with their special mission (Matt. 28.19) that 
 any of them should settle at any particular spot 
 as the president of a single Church ; and that 
 in the particular circumstances of the Church at 
 Jerusalem at that period no person would be 
 
 so likely to enjoy its confidence as the eldest of 
 our Lord's nearest relatives, especially one who 
 possessed the characteristics of James. Whether 
 these " brethren " were sons of Joseph and 
 Mary, being therefore younger brothers of our 
 Lord, or sons of Joseph by a former marriage, 
 has been much disputed. The objections to 
 the former view have chiefly rested on the 
 ecclesiastical doctrine, entirely unsupported by 
 Scripture, of Mary's perpetual virginity. It has 
 also been argued that our Lord would hardly 
 have committed His mother to the care of 
 John (John 19.26) had sons of her own been 
 living. To this it may be replied (1) that the 
 unbelief of the " brethren " may well account 
 for their being passed over, and (2) that John 
 himself was a near relative of Mary, his mother 
 Salome having been her sister (John 19.25). 
 On the whole, the probability seems to be that 
 James, the writer of this Epistle, was the son 
 of Joseph and Mary, and therefore the younger 
 brother of our Lord. 
 
 There is no certain evidence as to the date 
 at which the Epistle was written. Most suppose 
 it to have been before the controversies respect- 
 ing the obligation of the Jewish ceremonial law 
 upon Gentiles, and respecting justification 
 without legal righteousness, had begun to 
 disturb the Church (Acts 15); perhaps about 
 the year 45 A.D. But some think that the un- 
 satisfactory state of the Churches here disclosed 
 requires a later date to be assigned to this 
 Epistle, not earlier than the year 58 A.D., or 
 perhaps not long before the writer's martyrdom, 
 which is said to have occurred about the year 
 63. In the former case, this Epistle would be 
 among the earliest of the New Testament 
 writings. 
 
 The Epistle is addressed to Jews, particularly 
 Jewish Christians ; perhaps to those who, 
 having been converted on the great day of 
 Pentecost (Acts 2.5-11), had returned to their 
 homes in the various parts of the Roman Empire, 
 and to others whom they had taught ; with 
 all with whom James would probably become 
 acquainted by their visits to Jerusalem at the 
 festivals. Their condition, so far as it can be 
 gathered from this Epistle, appears to have 
 been one of outward affliction, and at the same 
 time not of spiritual health and prosperity. 
 They seem especially to have been wanting in 
 patience and submission towards God, in 
 prayerful watchfulness over themselves, and 
 in Christian love to their fellow-men. 
 
 The main subject of this Epistle is the character 
 and course of life of the true and consistent 
 Christian, " the doer of the word," who stead- 
 fastly " continues in the perfect law of liberty," 
 as contrasted with the spirit and conduct of 
 the mere professor. Numerous illustrations are 
 given of this in various relations and conditions 
 of actual life, adapted to the circumstances 
 and necessities of different classes of persons. 
 Consolation and encouragement under manifold 
 trials are mixed with earnest exhortations to 
 Christian virtues ; and to these are added 
 
JAMIN] 
 
 229 
 
 [JASHER, JASHAR 
 
 warnings and reproofs to those who dishonoured 
 religion by professions of faith without corre- 
 sponding works. 
 
 The style of the Epistle is sententious and 
 forcible, graphic and rich in figures. It strik- 
 ingly resembles, both in matter and in manner, 
 the teaching of our Lord, especially in the 
 Sermon on the Mount (Matt. 5-7) ; to some 
 parts of which there are evident allusions. 
 " Wisdom " is one of the key-words of this 
 Epistle, and its style may be compared with 
 that of the wisdom literature (Chokhmah) of 
 the O.T. See 1.5-8 and 3.13-18 for the 
 enumeration of the qualities of false wisdom and 
 the true. Note likewise the prominence given to 
 faith and works ; to prayer, 1.5-7, 4.8, 5.13-18; 
 to temptation, 1.2, 12, 13, 14 ; and, notwith- 
 standing the severity of the style of address in 
 the Epistle, the constant recurrence of the 
 word " brethren." 
 
 The canonicity of the Epistle was not always 
 accepted. Eusebius speaks of it as at first 
 questioned in the Church. In the East, how- 
 ever, it was received from the beginning ; and 
 its canonicity was at length universally acknow- 
 ledged. Luther objected to it on the ground 
 of the contradiction he assumed between 
 Rom. 4.9 and Jas. 2.21. But there is no real 
 contradiction ; rather a deep harmony. 
 
 Ja'min. Right hand : 1. The second son 
 of Simeon, and the founder of the family of 
 the Jaminites (Gen. 46.10 ; Num. 26.12). 2. A 
 man of Judah (1 Ch. 2.27). 3. A priest who 
 expounded the law in the time of Ezra (Neh. 8.7). 
 
 Jam'lech. He causeth to rule: a prince or 
 chief of the house of Simeon (1 Ch. 4.34). 
 
 Janai. [JAANAI.] 
 
 Janim. [.TANUM.] 
 
 Jan'na, Jannai. An ancestor of Joseph, the 
 husband of Mary, the mother of our Lord (Lk. 
 3.24). 
 
 Jan'nes. Referred to by St. Paul as one of 
 the Egyptian magicians who opposed Moses 
 before Pharaoh (2 Tim. 3.8). [JAMBUES.] 
 
 Jano'ah. Resting-place : a town of Naphtali 
 taken by Tiglath-pileser (2 K. 15.29) during his 
 first expedition into Palestine. It has been 
 identified with Yanuh, a village east of Tyre. 
 [JANOHAH.] 
 
 JanoTiah (R.V. Janoah). Resting-place : a 
 frontier town of Ephraim (Josh. 16.6, 7), 12 miles 
 south-east of Nablous on the east slope of the 
 hills as they descend to the Jordan valley. Its 
 modern representative is the tiny village of 
 Yanun, set amidst extensive ruins. 
 
 Ja'num, Janim. A town in the mountains 
 of Judah (Josh. 15.53). Its position has not 
 been identified, though it cannot have been far 
 from Hebron. 
 
 Ja'pheth. Extending : the youngest son of 
 Noah, and the ancestor of the peoples north of 
 the Mediterranean, and of the Indian and Mon- 
 golian races (Gen. 5.32). The prophecy, " He 
 shall dwell in the tents of Shem " (Gen. 9.27), 
 was perhaps fulfilled when the Greeks, followed 
 by the Romans, invaded Palestine, the home of 
 
 Shem. Another explanation of the text is that 
 it should read, " Ho (God) shall dwell," etc., 
 thus coupling the material blessing of Japheth 
 with a spiritual one for Shem, while in the same 
 verse Ham is punished for his unfilial conduct. 
 If we take this view, the prophecy was fulfilled 
 when God's presence was with His people 
 during the long march in the wilderness, and 
 also in the Tabernacle and the Temple, and 
 fully in the Incarnation. 
 
 Japhi'a. He shall cause to shine : 1. Border 
 town of Zebulun, 2 miles south of Nazareth 
 (Josh. 19.12). Its modern name is Yafa. 2. 
 The Amorite king of Lachish defeated by 
 Joshua (Josh. 10.3). 3. One of David's sons 
 born at Jerusalem (2 Sam. 5.15 ; 1 Ch. 3.7). 
 
 Japh'let. Whom God delivers: an Asherite 
 (1 Ch. 7.32). 
 
 Japh'leti. The Japhletites, the descendants 
 of the preceding (Josh. 16.3). 
 
 Ja'pho. The same as Joppa, which see 
 (Josh. 19.46). 
 
 Ja'rah. A descendant of Saul, great-grand- 
 son of Mephibosheth (1 Ch. 9.42). In the 
 parallel passage of 1 Ch. 8.36 he is Jehoadah. 
 
 Ja'reb. Let him contend : a king of Assyria, 
 otherwise unknown. It may be a title, but 
 more probably it is only a false reading of the 
 copyists. Perhaps the original of " King 
 Jareb" was " the great king" (Hos. 5.13, 10.6). 
 
 Ja'red. The father of Enoch (Gen. 5.15-20 ; 
 Lk. 3.37). In 1 Ch. 1.2 he is called Jered. 
 
 Jarcsi'ah, Jaareshiah. A Benjamite (1 Ch. 
 8.27). 
 
 JarTia. An Egyptian slave and the son-in- 
 law of Sheshan (1 Ch. 2.34). 
 
 Ja'rib. lie contendeth : 1. Son of Simeon 
 (1 Ch. 4.24). Elsewhere called Jachin. 2. A 
 chief man who accompanied Ezra from Babylon 
 to Jerusalem (Ezra 8.16). Perhaps the same 
 as the next. 3. A priest of the house of Jeshua 
 who had married a strange wife (Ezra 10.18). 
 
 Jar'muth. 1. A city of Judah. It lies on 
 the crest of a hill about 8 miles north-east of 
 Gath. When taken by Joshua it was a royal 
 Canaanite city (Josh. 10.3, 5, 23). It was 
 reinhabited after the Captivity (Neh. 11.29). 
 Its present name is El-Yarmuk. 2. A town 
 of Issachar assigned to the Gershonites (Josh. 
 21.29). It is reasonably thought to be identical 
 with Remeth (Josh. 19.21) and Ramoth (1 Ch. 
 6.73). 
 
 Jaro'ah. A Gadite chief (1 Ch. 5.14). 
 
 Ja'shen. The father of one of David's 
 guard (2 Sam. 23.32). Called Hashem in 1 Ch. 
 11.34. 
 
 Ja'sher, Jashar. Upright : thus the Book of 
 Jasher is the " Book of the Upright " (Josh. 
 10.13; 2 Sam. 1.18). It was a national col- 
 lection of ballads, reciting the brave deeds of the 
 Jewish heroes. In addition to the two passages 
 above, a third fragment from the Book is 
 thought to be contained in Num. 21.14. There 
 has been much conjecture as to the form and 
 history of the Book, but nothing more is really 
 known. There have been several forgeries of 
 
JASHOBEAM] 
 
 230 
 
 [JEBUSITES 
 
 the Book of Jasher, which have been detected as 
 such. 
 
 Jashobe'am. The chief of David's mighty 
 men (1 Ch. 11.11, 12.6). The action which 
 made him famous was the killing of 300 men 
 at one time. He joined David at Ziklag. Called 
 the son of Zabdiel in 27.2. 
 
 Jas'hub. Returning : 1. The third son of 
 Issachar (Num. 26.24). 2. A man with a 
 foreign wife (Ezra 10.29). 
 
 Jashubi-leTiem. Returning to Bethlehem : the 
 name of a place in Judah. But probably the 
 text should be emended slightly, and rendered 
 " who returned to Bethlehem " (1 Ch. 4.22). 
 
 JashuTntes, The. Belonging to the family 
 of Jashub, son of Issachar (Num. 26.24). 
 
 Ja'son. Healing : 1. A believer of Thessa- 
 lonica who was friendly to Paul and Silas, and, 
 in consequence, was mobbed by the Jews 
 (Acts 17.1-9). There is a tradition that he 
 became a bishop of Tarsus. 2. A companion 
 of Paul (Rom. 16.21) and his kinsman, i.e. 
 fellow Jew. Perhaps identical with 1. 
 
 Jasper. The jasper of Scripture has been 
 conjectured to be the diamond, the emerald, 
 the opal, etc. But there is very little doubt 
 that the Hebrew word, as well as the Greek, 
 represented a variety of quartz, translucent and 
 showing prismatic colours. It was the twelfth 
 of the jewels in the high-priest's breastplate 
 (Ex. 28.20, 39.13), and the first of the twelve 
 used in the foundations of the New Jerusalem 
 (Rev. 21.19). It was also used in another 
 portion of the walls of the New Jerusalem 
 (Rev. 21.18). In Rev. 4.3 it is used as a figure 
 of the glory of God. 
 
 Jathni'eL God hires : a Korahite. He was a 
 Levite and a " porter," i.e. a doorkeeper of 
 the Tabernacle (1 Ch. 26.2). 
 
 Jat'tir. Probably the present 'Attir, 10 miles 
 south of Hebron. It is surrounded by brown 
 rocky hills, full of caves. It was one of the 
 towns assigned to the priests (Josh. 15.48). 
 It was also one of David's hiding-places when 
 fleeing from Sanl (1 Sam. 30.27). 
 
 Ja'van. 1. The fourth son of Japheth (Gen. 
 10.2,4). Probably identical with 2. 2. The 
 same word as Ionian. Greece and the sur- 
 rounding islands, the settlements of Javan 1 
 (Isai. 66.19). The descendants of Javan also 
 occupied Syria and Macedonia. 3. Apparently 
 a district in southern Arabia, a trading-port 
 of the Phoenicians (Ezek. 27.19), but both the 
 word and its identification are exceedingly 
 doubtful. 
 
 Javelin. A short spear used for throwing. 
 It was generally attached to the MTist by a 
 thong, to prevent its being lost. Its sharp- 
 edged head was heavy and made of bronze 
 (1 Sam. 18.10, 11, 19.9, 10, 20.33). [ARMS.] 
 
 Jawbone of an Ass. The word " new " is the 
 significant feature of this passage (Judg. 
 15.15-19). An old bone would have been too 
 brittle for use as a weapon, while the new 
 was tough and heavy. [SAMSON, LEHI.] 
 Jazer. [JAAZER.] 
 
 Ja'ziz. A Hagarite in charge of David's 
 flocks (1 Ch. 27.31). By flocks is meant the 
 sheep and goats at pasture in the wild and 
 unsettled country east of the Jordan. A 
 Hagarite was at home here. 
 
 Jealousy. God's tender love towards His 
 Church is sometimes called jealousy. Paul says 
 to the Corinthians that he is jealous over them 
 with a godly jealousy (2 Cor. 11.2). Such lan- 
 guage is symbolical, and is used to represent 
 the lively care and constant love of the heavenly 
 Husband for His bride the Church (Pt. 78.58, 
 79.5). 
 
 Jealousy, Offering of. The passage in 
 Num. 5.11-31 shows that the process pre- 
 scribed for the detection and punishment 
 of a woman who had excited her husband's 
 jealousy was very similar to some of the ancient 
 forms of trial by ordeal. This is the only 
 trial by ordeal in the Jewish Law, though 
 appeals to the casting of lots were frequent. 
 [URIM AND THUMMIM.] It is also singular that 
 there is no record of any trial under this law, 
 the underlying principle of which was that God 
 would not suffer the innocent to be harmed 
 by the potion. 
 
 Jea'rim, Mount. Forests : a place on the 
 northern boundary of Judah (Josh. 15.10) ; 
 also called Chesalon. [KIRJATH-JEARIM.] 
 
 Jeate'rai, Jeathe'rai. A descendant of Levi 
 (1 Ch. 6.21). Apparently identical with Ethni 
 (ver. 41). Ancestor of Asaph. 
 
 Jeberechi'ah. Jehovah blesses : the father 
 of one Zechariah (Isai. 8.2). This name occurs 
 only once, and almost certainly it is the longer 
 form of BERECHIAH. 
 
 JeTms, Jebu'si. The son of Canaan (Gen. 
 10.16) and father of the Jebusites. The central 
 stronghold of this fierce and warlike people 
 was called Jebus ( Judg. 19.10, 11 ; 1 Ch. 11.4, 5) 
 until it was captured by David (Josh. 15.8, 63 ; 
 2 Sam. 5.6-8), and for the first time called 
 Jerusalem. [JEBUSITES, JERUSALEM.] It has 
 been suggested that the word means, in 
 Accadian, " house of safety," and that Jerusalem 
 had the same meaning. 
 
 Jebusites. Belonging to Jebus : the descend- 
 ants of Jebus, a son of Canaan, who colonised 
 the district around Jerusalem, then called 
 Jebus or Jebusi (Gen. 10.16, 15.21). Whether 
 they were the original inhabitants, or whether 
 they replaced a still more ancient race, is not 
 known. The first mention of the Jebusites 
 is that made by the spies forty years before 
 the entrance of the Israelites into the Holy 
 Land (Num. 13.29). That they were a strong 
 and vigorous tribe is testified by the fact that 
 they were able to maintain their hold on the 
 strong citadel of Jebus until the time of David 
 (2 Sam. 5.6). Their king, Adoni-zedek, was 
 killed at the battle of Bethhoron (Josh. 10.1, 
 5, 26). Jebus itself was sacked and burnt by 
 the men of Judah (Judg. 1.21). But even 
 these continuous disasters could not drive 
 them out of their territory, for we find them 
 still dwellers in the country of Judah and 
 
JECAMIAH] 
 
 231 
 
 [JEHOAHAZ 
 
 Benjamin at a later date (Josh. 15.8, G3 ; Ezra 
 9.1). The submission of Araunah, the Jebusite 
 king, to David gives us a characteristic picture of 
 the life of the Canaanites and also of the Israel- 
 ites (2 Sam. 24.23 ; 1 Ch. 21.15). Nothing is 
 known of the religion of the Jehusites. Only two 
 members of this tribe are mentioned by name, 
 Adoni-zedek (Lord of Justice) and Araunah. 
 [JERUSALEM.] 
 
 Jecami'ah. A name of a man of Judah 
 (1 Ch. 3.18). 
 
 Jecholi'ah. Jehovah hath been able : the wife 
 of Amaziah, king of Judah (2 K. 15.2). In 
 2 Ch. 26.3 the name is given as Jecoli'ah or 
 Jechi'liah, R.V. 
 
 Jechoni'as. Jehovah is stable : the Greek form 
 of Jeconiah (Matt. 1.11, 12, A.V.). 
 
 Jecoliah. [ JECHOLIAH.] 
 
 Jeconi'ah. Jehovah is stable : an altered form 
 of JEHOIACHIN, king of Judah ; also abbrevi- 
 ated to Coniah (1 Ch. 3.16, 17 ; Esth. 2.6 ; Jer. 
 24.1). 
 
 Jedai'ah. Jehovah is praise : 1. A Simeonite 
 chief (1 Ch. 4.37). 2. A builder at the wall 
 (Neh. 3.10). Jehovah Jcnoweth: this is a 
 different naro- from the preceding, though the 
 spelling is alikb n English. Head of the second 
 course of priests in the time of David (1 Ch. 
 9.10, 24.7). The name is also found given to 
 priests, e.g. Zech. 6.10, 14. 
 
 Jedia'el. Known of God : 1. A chief of the 
 Benjamites (1 Ch. 7.6). From this Jediael 
 sprang many famous Benjamite houses, who 
 in the time of David mustered 17,200 fighting 
 men. 2. The son of Shimri, one of David's 
 valiant thirty (1 Ch. 11.45). Perhaps the same 
 as the next. 3. A headman of Manasseh, who 
 joined David at Ziklag. He was foremost in 
 the attack on the Amalekites (1 Ch. 12.20). 
 4. A Levite. A doorkeeper of the Temple (1 Ch. 
 26.2). 
 
 Jedi'dah. Beloved : Queen of Amon, and 
 mother of King Josiah (2 K. 22.1). She was a 
 native of Bozkath. 
 
 Jedidi'ah. Beloved of Jehovah : the name 
 given to Solomon by the prophet Nathan, who 
 had been sent by David to obtain a token of 
 the Divine favour on behalf of the newborn 
 infant. The name is of great interest. Jedid 
 and David are from the same root. To David, 
 the " darling " of his people, it was a happy 
 omen, and a token of his restoration to Divine 
 favour, when the prophet came and said that 
 the name of his child was to combine his own 
 with that of Jehovah Jedid-Jah, " Darling 
 of Jehovah." This practice of giving children 
 a second or pet name still exists in the East 
 (2 Sam. 12.25). 
 
 Jedu'thun. Praise : a Levite of Merari's 
 family. One of the three great masters of 
 music belonging to the Temple service (1 Ch. 
 16.38,41; 2 Ch. 29.14). He is the same as 
 Ethan ; and certain psalms are said to have 
 been composed by him, i.e. Psalms 39, 62, 77. 
 [Mustc.] 
 
 Jee'zer. The eldest son of Giload (Num. 
 
 26.30). The name is a contracted form of 
 Abiezer (which see). 
 
 Jee'zerites. The family of Jeezer (Num. 
 26.30). 
 
 Je'gar-sahadu'tha. The heap of testimony: 
 the Aramaic name given by Lab an to the 
 heap of stones erected as a testimony of the 
 compact between Jacob and himself. It 
 corresponds to the Hebrew name Galeed, given 
 by Jacob (Gen. 31.47). Laban's heap of 
 stones was not only a witness to the bargain 
 between himself and his son-in-law, but also 
 marked the severance of all further communica- 
 tions between the two. Henceforth Jacob 
 travelled in the land which his descendants were 
 to possess. [LABAN, GALEED, MIZPAH.] 
 
 Jehalel'eel, Jehalelel, Jehallelel. He shall 
 praise God : 1. A man of Judah (1 Ch. 4.16). 
 2. A Levite in the time of Hezekiah (2 Ch. 
 29.12). 
 
 Jehdei'ah. May Jehovah give joy : 1. A 
 descendant of Gershom, son of Moses (1 Ch. 
 24.20). 2. An officer of David (1 Ch. 27.30). 
 
 Jeheze'kel, Jehez'kel. God strengthened 
 the same name as Ezekiel. A priest who had 
 charge of the 20th course of the Temple service 
 in the time of David (1 Ch. 24.16). 
 
 Jehi'ah. May Jehovah live : one of the door- 
 keepers of the Ark when it was brought from 
 Obed-edom (1 Ch. 15.24). 
 
 Jehi'el, Jehuel. May God live: several un- 
 important persons in the O.T. bear this name 
 (1 Ch. 9.35, 11.44, 15.18, 20, 16.5, 23.8, 27.32 ; 
 2 Ch. 21.2, 29.14, 31.13, 35.8 ; Ezra 8.9. 10.2, 
 21, 26). 
 
 Jehie'li. The keeper of the sanctuary 
 treasures in the time of David (1 Ch. 26.21). 
 Identical with the Jehiel of 23.8. 
 
 Jehizki'ah. Jehovah strengthens : the same 
 word as Hezekiah. A son of Shallum and a 
 chief man of Ephraim. He is noted for his fine 
 courage in preventing, with others, the bringing 
 into Samaria of a large number of captives 
 and much booty, which Pekah had taken in 
 the campaign against Ahaz, king of Judah. 
 He and bis friends were instrumental in getting 
 the prisoners clothed and fed and sent back to 
 then* homes (2 Ch. 28.12). 
 
 Jehoa'dah, Jehoad'dah. A descendant of Saul 
 (1 Ch. 8.36). In the list in 9.42 the name occurs 
 as Jarah. 
 
 Jehoad'dan. The wife of Joash and the 
 mother of Amaziah ; both kings of Judah (2 K. 
 14.2 ; 2 Ch. 25.1). 
 
 Jehoa'haz. Jehovah hath grasped : 1. The 
 son of Jehu, and king of Israel for seventeen years 
 (2 K. 13.1-9). Throughout the whole of his 
 reign he was kept in partial subjection by 
 Hazael, king of Syria, who compelled him 
 to reduce his military establishment and to 
 pay tribute. Though Jehoahaz had followed 
 and supported the wicked idolatry of Jeroboam 
 I., yet his distress at the position of himself 
 and his country was so great that he finally 
 besought Jehovah to assist him. The de- 
 liverer sent was either Jeroboam n. (2 K. 
 
JEHOASH] 
 
 232 
 
 [JEHOIAKIM 
 
 14.25), or more probably Adad-nirari ni. of 
 Assyria, who blockaded Damascus about the 
 year 803 B.C. 
 
 2. Son of Josiah and king of Judah. Elected 
 by the people over his elder brother (2 K. 23.31- 
 36). His reign was a very short one, lasting only 
 three months. Short as his reign was, he proved 
 himself to be an oppressor of the people (Ezek. 
 19.3). He was carried away to Egypt a prisoner 
 in chains, and died there (2 Oh. 36.4). He was 
 also called Shallum, 
 
 3. Another name of Ahaziah, king of Judah, 
 son of Jehoram and father of Joash, both kings 
 of Judah. In Ahaziah the ending iah is the 
 same word as the prefix Jeho in Jehoahaz 
 (2 Ch. 21.17, 22.1, R.V. marg., 25.23). 
 
 Jeho'ash. Jehovah is strong : 1. The original 
 form of Joash. The son of Ahaziah (2 K. 11.21) 
 and himself a king of Judah. 2. The son of 
 Jehoahaz, and the twelfth king of Israel. He 
 was the father of Jeroboam 11. (2 K. 13.10). 
 [ JOASH.] 
 
 Jehoha'nan. Jehovah is gracious : there were 
 six different men of this name mentioned in the 
 O.T. (1 Ch. 26.3; 2 Ch. 17.15, 23.1; Ezra 
 10.28; Neh. 12.13, 42). The name was of 
 frequent use, and has come down to us as John. 
 
 Jehoia'chin. Jehovah establishes, or appoints : 
 son of Jehoiakim and Nehushta, and king of 
 Judah, called also Coniah (Jer. 22.24), and 
 Jeconiah (1 Ch. 3.17). He was born about the 
 time of the first Babylonish captivity, when his 
 father was carried to Babylon. Jehoiakim re- 
 turned from Babylon and reigned until he was 
 killed by the Chaldeans in the eleventh year 
 of his reign, when he was succeeded by 
 Jehoiachin. In 2 K. 24.8 Jehoiachin is said to 
 have been eighteen when he began to reign, 
 and in Chronicles only eight. The latter is 
 probably due to a mistake by the copyist. 
 The words of Jeremiah, " Write ye this man 
 childless " (Jer. 22.30), are not to be taken in 
 the strictest sense, since he was the father of 
 more than one child (1 Ch. 3.17 ; Matt. 1.12). 
 The prophecy meant that he should have no 
 heir to his throne, which proved to be the case. 
 He was hardly on the throne when Nebuchad- 
 nezzar besieged Jerusalem with a regular army. 
 But Jehoiachin made practically no resistance, 
 and surrendered almost as soon as the enemy 
 had settled down to the siege. He, the queen- 
 mother, and his household were carried to 
 Babylon ( Jer. 29.2), together with all the treasure 
 of the city, and all its capable inhabitants 
 (2 K. 24.13; 2 Ch. 36.9, 10). At Babylon 
 Jehoiachin was kept closely in prison for thirty- 
 six years, when Evil-Merodach, succeeding 
 Nebuchadnezzar (561 B.C.), released him and 
 set him in a place of honour over the other 
 state captives. Nothing further is known of 
 him, though Daniel and Ezekiel were his fellow- 
 captives. Jewish tradition, however, makes 
 Jehoiachin a person of great wealth and im- 
 portance, and the husband of Susanna. That 
 the Jews expected the return of Jehoiachin 
 not long after his overthrow is shown in Jer. 
 
 24.4. The conspiracy of which this expecta- 
 tion was the outcome probably led to his close 
 confinement during Nebuchadnezzar's reign. 
 
 Jehoia'da. Jehovah knows : 1. The father of 
 Benaiah (2 Sam. 8.18) and a chief of the 3700 
 priests who joined David at Ziklag (1 Ch. 
 
 12.27). [JOIADA.] 
 
 2. The successor of Azariah in the high- 
 priesthood, and husband of Jehosheba, or 
 Jehoshabeath, daughter of Jehoram, and sister 
 of King Ahaziah (2 Ch. 22.11). With the 
 help of his wife he rescued Joash, son of King 
 Joram, when but one year old, from the 
 murderous violence of Athaliah, and concealed 
 him in the Temple. After seven years he pro- 
 claimed him king, and slew Athaliah (2 K. 11, 12 ; 
 2 Ch. 23, 24). While Jehoiada lived, and Joash 
 followed his advice, all went well. Jehoiada 
 formed a design of repairing the Temple, and 
 to this end collected considerable sums in 
 the cities of Judah. The Levites made diffi- 
 culties, however, and it was not until the young 
 king came of age and co-operated with the 
 high-priest that he was able to proceed with 
 his plans (2 K. 12.7, 9 ; 2 Ch. 24.5 f.). Jehoiada 
 held his office of high-priest in high veneration. 
 When he brought out Joash and showed him 
 to the people, and proclaimed him king, he 
 had permitted none but officiating Levites 
 to enter the Temple. Nor would he allow the 
 idolatrous Athaliah to be put to death within 
 its precincts. He destroyed the altar and 
 temple of Baal and put its priest to death. 
 Jehoiada died at the age of 130 years, and for 
 his services was buried among the kings of 
 Judah in the city of David. He was succeeded 
 in the high-priesthood by his son Zechariah 
 (2 Ch. 24.20 ff.). In Jer. 29.26 he is regarded 
 as the type of a faithful priest. 
 
 3. Apparently son of Benaiah and one of 
 David's chief advisers, but many think the 
 words should be Benaiah son of Jehoiada, 
 as elsewhere (1 Ch. 27-34). 
 
 4. One who helped to repair a gate of Jeru- 
 salem (Neh. 3.6). 
 
 Jehoia kim. Jehovah raises tip : the brother 
 and successor of Jehoahaz, king of Judah. 
 He owed his crown to Pharaoh- Necho, who 
 changed his name from Eliakim (2 K. 23.34-36). 
 He remained four years tributary to that 
 monarch, until the battle of Carchemish, when 
 Necho was overcome by Nebuchadnezzar, 
 and Jehoiakim, with other subject kings, found 
 himself compelled to own the overlordship 
 of the Babylonian conqueror. Four years 
 after the subjugation of Judaea, Jehoiakim 
 revolted from the Babylonian king (2 K. 24.1), 
 who, after a while, attacked and captured him, 
 intending at first to carry him to Babylon 
 (2 Ch. 36.6), but afterwards putting him to 
 death. Thus, after a wicked and disturbed 
 reign of eleven years, Jehoiakim was slain, and 
 his body flung out of the city with indignity, 
 as Jeremiah had predicted (Jer. 22.18,19, 
 26.23), when he warned Jehoiakim of the 
 danger and foolishness of rebelling against 
 
JEHOIAEIB] 
 
 233 
 
 [JEHOSHAPHAT 
 
 Nebuchadnezzar. The king's character is 
 succinctly described in 2 K. 23.37" He did 
 that which was evil in the sight of Jehovah," 
 many of these evil things being the encourage- 
 ment of idolatry and the persecution of prophets 
 and priests (2 Ch. 36.8; Jer. 26 ; Ezek. 8). 
 
 Jehoia'rib. Jehovah pleadeth : 1. A priest 
 (1 Ch. 9.10). 2. The head of a priestly family 
 of the twenty-four courses in charge of the 
 sanctuary (1 Ch. 24.7). The name occurs 
 elsewhere as JOIARIB. 
 
 Jehona'dab. Jehovah is liberal : a son of 
 Rechab (2 K. 10.15). [JONADAB 2.] 
 
 Jehona'than. Jehovah gives : the shorter 
 form of it is Jonathan, which see. 1. The 
 superintendent of some of David's storehouses 
 (1 Ch. 27.25). 2. A Levite sent by Jehosha- 
 phat to teach the law to the people (2 Ch. 17.8). 
 3. A priest (Neh. 12.18). 
 
 Jeho'ram. Jehovah is exalted : its shortened 
 form is Joram. 1. The eldest son and successor 
 of Jehoshaphat, king of Judah (2 K. 8.16). 
 His queen, Athaliah, daughter of Ahab, incited 
 him to idolatry and other sins, which brought 
 calamities in their train. He began his career 
 by the murder of all his brothers, whom Jehosha- 
 phat had removed from affairs of state, and 
 placed in the fortified cities of Judah. As a 
 punishment for his sins, the Edomites, who had 
 been long subject to the kings of Judah, revolted 
 (2 K. 8.20, 21 ; 2 Ch. 21.8, 9), and established 
 their independence. This was followed by 
 the incursion of the Philistines, who finally 
 stormed his own palace and put to death all 
 his family and dependents, save his youngest 
 son, Ahaziah, who was carried away into cap- 
 tivity (2 Ch. 22.1). Two years afterwards he 
 died of an " incurable disease," " without being 
 desired," and was denied even burial with his 
 fathers (2 Ch. 21.19, 20). 
 
 2. The son of Ahab. When his brother 
 Ahaziah, who had succeeded to the throne, died 
 and left no children, Jehoram became king of 
 Israel. He continued the alliance with Judah 
 which his father had brought about. In conse- 
 quence of this he was called upon for help 
 by Jehoshaphat, king of Judah, and by the 
 king of Edom, in a war against the Moabites. 
 The allies were reduced to great straits for 
 want of water, and Jehoram was censured 
 by Elisha for his idolatry (1 K. 19.19-21 ; 
 2 K. 3.11). He and his army retired from the 
 conflict when the Moabite king offered his 
 own son in sacrifice to his gods (2 K. 3.27). 
 He himself " put away the image of Baal 
 that his father had made" (2 K. 3.2). The 
 incidents connected with Naaman's cure 
 deepened his reverence for Jehorah, and 
 secured for him the friendship of Elisha, a 
 friendship that stood him in good stead in the 
 ensuing war with Syria (2 K. 6). But during 
 the peaceful period that followed Jehoram 
 relapsed into idolatry, and was severely rebuked 
 by the prophet. He was punished by God, 
 who permitted the Syrians to besiege Samaria. 
 Instead of repenting and seeking Jehovah's 
 
 assistance, Jehoram tried to kill Elisha, who 
 had frequently warned him (2 K. 6.30-33). 
 Samaria was saved after the inhabitants had 
 been reduced to acts of cannibalism (2 K. 7). 
 But Jehoram's days were numbered. In 
 endeavouring to recover Ramoth-gilead from 
 the Syrians he was wounded, and retired to 
 Jezreel (2 K. 8.29, 9.14). Jehu, whom he 
 had left to hold Ramoth, revolted and hastened 
 to Jezreel, where he slew Jehoram on the piece 
 of ground which Ahab had taken from Naboth 
 (1 K. 21.21 ff.). With his death the Omri 
 dynasty ended. 
 
 3. A priest who was sent by Jehoshaphat to 
 teach Judah (2 Ch. 17.8). 
 
 Jehoshabe'ath. Jehovah is an oath : the 
 wife of Jehoiada, the high-priest, which see. 
 She was the daughter of Jehoram (2 Ch. 22.11). 
 In 2 K. 11.2 her name is spelt Jehosheba. 
 
 Jehosha'phat. Jehovah judges : 1. The son of 
 Asa, who ascended the throne of Judah at the 
 age of thirty-five. He reigned for twenty-five 
 years (2 Ch. 17.1). He prevailed against 
 Baasha, king of Israel, and placed garrisons in 
 the cities of Judah and Ephraim, which had 
 been conquered by his father. He also de- 
 molished the high places and groves of the 
 heathen gods, so far as he was able, and followed 
 this up by sending out parties of princes, 
 priests, and Levites, to traverse the land, teach- 
 ing the people the law. He maintained a 
 large standing army, and was ' respected and 
 feared by the surrounding peoples, the Philistines 
 and Arabians paying tribute. He was re- 
 proached, however, because of his alliance with 
 the idolatrous Ahab, king of Israel (1 K. 22.44 ; 
 2 Ch. 18.1, 19.2). Jehoshaphat atoned by the 
 regulations and good order which he estab- 
 lished in his dominions, both as to civil and 
 religious affairs ; by personal supervision and 
 example ; by appointing honest and able 
 judges ; by regulating the discipline of the 
 priests and Levites, and by commanding them 
 to perform their duties punctually (2 Ch. 
 19). After this God gave bun in answer to 
 prayer a complete triumph over the Moabites, 
 Ammonites, and Meonians, people of Arabia 
 Petraea. 
 
 Jehoshaphat engaged with Ahaziah in an 
 attempt to establish a navy ; but the vessels 
 being wrecked at Ezion-geber he abandoned 
 the attempt (2 Ch. 20.35-37). The disaster had 
 been predicted by the prophet Eliezer as a 
 punishment for his unholy alliance with the 
 idolatrous Ahaziah, king of Israel. The close 
 of his reign was calm and peaceful, the manage- 
 ment of affairs being in the hands of his son 
 Jehoram. Jehoshaphat, though a pious and 
 just man, lacked firmness of character, and to 
 this latter trait were due the calamities of his 
 reign ; while to his personal bravery and activity 
 was due the respect, and also fear, in which he 
 was held. He was buried in the royal sepulchre 
 (1 K. 22.50 ; 2 Ch. 21.1). 
 
 2. Recorder in the courts of David (2 Sam. 
 8.16) and Solomon (1 K. 4.3). Perhaps court 
 
JEHOSHAPHAT, VALLEY OF] 234 
 
 [JEHOVAH-SHALOM 
 
 historians were employed by Eastern potentates 
 generally for recounting victories and other 
 notable "events of their reigns (Esth, 6.1). But 
 the office may have been that of a Remem- 
 brancer, in continual attendance on the king, 
 to recall persons and events to his memory. 
 [RECORDER.] 3. An officer of the commissariat 
 under Solomon (1 K. 4.17). 4. A priest ap- 
 pointed to blow the trumpet before the Ark in 
 its progress from Obed-edom to Jerusalem 
 (1 Ch. 15.24). 5. The father of Jehu (2 K. 
 9.2, 14). 
 
 Jehosha'phat, Valley oL A symbolical name 
 assigned by the prophet Joel as the scene of 
 the Judgment (Joel 3.2, 12). From an early 
 date the valley of Kidron, a deep ravine on 
 the east of Jerusalem, has been selected as 
 the site of the seer's vision, but the probability 
 is that Joel had no particular place in his mind. 
 Certain it is that the Bible does not mention 
 any particular place by this name. It is 
 noteworthy, however, that the Jews believe the 
 last judgment will take place in the valley of 
 Kidron, which, in consequence, is literally lined 
 with the graves of Moslems and Jews, who 
 there await the final summons. The valley 
 was used for this purpose at least as early as 
 the time of Josiah (2 K. 23.6), and it is thought 
 to be not unlikely that it was called Jehoshaphat 
 before it received the name of Kidron. The 
 present name of this valley is Wady Sitti 
 Miriam. 
 
 Jehoshe'ba. The same as Jehoshabeath, 
 which see (2 K. 11.2). 
 
 Jehoshu'a. [JOSHUA.] 
 
 Jehovah (for the meaning, see below). 
 The earliest known example of the word 
 Jehovah is of 1518 A.D., and is due to a mis- 
 understanding of a Hebrew word, of which 
 the consonants are YHWH. The Jews after 
 the Captivity had so much reverence for this 
 name that it was rarely used, indeed, according 
 to some authorities, only by the High Priest 
 on the Day of Atonement once a year. Yet 
 YHWH occurs very often in Scripture, and 
 therefore another word, Adonai (LORD), was 
 substituted for it in reading aloud, and was 
 adopted by translators into foreign tongues 
 (Greek Kyrios ; Latin Dominus). Thus the 
 true pronunciation of YHWH became lost. 
 When, however (in the eighth and ninth 
 centuries A.D.), the vowel-points were added 
 to the Hebrew consonants, those of Adonai 
 were given to YHWH instead of its own. Hence 
 if the first " a " were slightly slurred it was 
 possible to read Y^nowaH, which actually 
 happened. This was the more possible in 
 that these vowels were understood to mark 
 various parts of the Hebrew verb, and thus 
 to suggest in the one word Jehovah, " He- 
 who-will-be," " He-who-is," and " He-who-was." 
 Although this is pure imagination, it falls in 
 with the phrase found in Rev. 1.4. Originally, 
 no doubt, YHWH represented that state of a 
 Hebrew verb which implies continuance (the 
 so-called "imperfect"), and with its vowels 
 
 was read as YaHaweH or Yaiiwm. Its meaning 
 was probably " He-who-is " or " He-who- 
 will-be " ; suggesting full life with endless 
 possibilities. It is in explanation of this that 
 on Moses' inquiry as to God's name the reply 
 is, " I-am-that-I-am," or, " I-will-be-that-I- 
 will-be," and he is bid say : " I-am (or 
 I-will-be) bath sent me unto you." The 
 name thus stands for the Self-existent One, 
 who will provide for every need of His 
 people. 
 
 Into the question of how far the name was 
 known to Israel before the call of Moses, it is 
 not possible to enter at any length. On the 
 one hand, God expressly says, " I am Jehovah : 
 and I appeared unto Abraham, unto Isaac, 
 and unto Jacob, as God Almighty (El- 
 Shaddai), but by My name Jehovah I was not 
 known to them " (Ex. 6.2, 3). On the other 
 hand, it occurs frequently in the Book of 
 Genesis, and traces of the name as applied 
 to a god are found in early Babylonian docu- 
 ments. On the whole, it is probable that the 
 use of the word in Genesis is due to writers, 
 or copyists, later than the call of Moses, and 
 that, although the word was known before 
 that time, it was not formally identified with 
 the true God. 
 
 In any case, its meaning was so significant, 
 so full of promise to a man beginning his life's 
 task, and to a nation about to shake off its 
 swaddling-bands and enter on a career affecting 
 the whole world, that the choice of it not 
 only revealed the nature of God, but also 
 assured the success of His people. It was 
 God's covenant-name, endued with power. 
 Or, in Bishop Westcott's words, " Elohim 
 includes the ideas of the creation, preservation, 
 and general fixed government of finite things : 
 Jehovah, the idea of living, progressive inter- 
 course with men, of whom Israel were for the 
 time the representatives" (The Epistles of 
 St. John, 1886, p. 244). [See GOD, and the 
 following words compounded with JEHOVAH.] 
 
 Jehovah-jireh. The Lord sees, or provides: 
 the name given by Abraham in Gen. 22.14 
 to the place where the Lord provided, looked 
 out, for Himself the lamb for a burnt offer- 
 ing (ver. 8). Hence the proverb, " In the 
 mount of the Lord it shall be provided." The 
 proverb can also be translated, " In the mount 
 of the Lord one shall appear," i.e. before Him, 
 and Jehovah-jireh can also mean, "The Lord 
 sees " those who come before Him. Perhaps 
 all these meanings were present to the mind of 
 the historian. 
 
 Jehovah-nissi. The Lord is my banner : 
 Moses gave this name to the altar he built 
 after the defeat of Amalek (Ex. 17.15). It 
 expresses the thought of the Lord as a rallying- 
 point for His people, and the pledge of their 
 success against all their foes. 
 
 Jehovah -Shalom. The Lord is peace : Gideon, 
 in fear of the angel of the Lord, is reassured 
 by his words, " Peace be unto thee." He there- 
 fore gives this name to the altar he built, in 
 
JEHOVAH-SHAMMAH] 
 
 235 
 
 [JEPHTHAH 
 
 remembrance of the fact that all was well 
 between him and the Lord (Judg. 6.24). 
 
 Jehovah-shammah. The Lord is there : the 
 closing words of Ezekiel (48.35). The Lord 
 had left Jerusalem (11.22 sg.), had re-entered 
 it (43.2, 4, 7), and now would abide there for 
 ever. 
 
 Jehovah-tsidkenu. The Lord is our right- 
 eousness: the title of the Messianic king in 
 Jer. 23.6, and, as it seems, of Jerusalem in 
 Messianic times in Jer. 33.16. In the former 
 the Messiah is regarded as the means by which 
 the Lord imparts righteousness to His people; 
 in the latter the city as the scene of its display, 
 and its inhabitants the recipients of it. It 
 can hardly mean that either the Messiah, or the 
 city, is the Lord. 
 
 Jehozalmd. Jehovah gives : 1. One of those 
 that slew Jehoash, king of Judah (2 K. 12.21). 
 2. A Levitical " doorkeeper " in the time of 
 David (1 Ch. 26.4). 3. One of Jehoshaphat's 
 chief captains from Benjamin, who had under 
 him 180,000 soldiers (2 Ch. 17.18). [JOZABAD.] 
 
 Jehoza'dak. Jehovah is righteous : the son of 
 Seraiah, the high-priest (1 Ch. 6.14,15). He 
 probably spent the rest of his life in captivity, 
 as nothing more is heard of him until we read 
 of his son Jeshua returning from the Captivity 
 with Zerubbabel (Ezra 3.2 ; Nek. 12.26). Here 
 the name is abbreviated to Jozadak ; and else- 
 where it is Josedech, which see. 
 
 Je'hu. Jehovah is He: 1. The son of Jehosha- 
 phat and grandson of Nimshi. With him began 
 the fifth dynasty of the kings of Israel, which 
 lasted longer than any other royal house of that 
 country (2 K. 10). Jehu's chief characteristics 
 were secrecy, rapidity of action, and cruelty, 
 lie was still a youth when God commanded 
 Elijah to anoint him king of Israel (1 K. 19.16). 
 For some reason Elijah did not carry out this 
 command, which then devolved upon Elisha, 
 who performed the ceremony by proxy and in 
 secret (2 K. 9.1,6). Jehu at the time was 
 captain of the host besieging Ramoth-gilead, 
 having been left there by Jehoram, who had 
 retired to Jezreel to be healed of a wound. On 
 the fact being made known to his brother officers 
 they acclaimed him king, and did him such 
 royal honours as the time and place permitted 
 (2 K. 9.2-15). Jehu took measures to prevent 
 the news of the insurrection reaching Jehoram, 
 and at once set off for Jezreel, where he slew 
 Jehoram with his own hand, caused the flight 
 of the king of Judah and the death of Jezebel 
 (2 K. 9.24-37). Then Jehu proceeded from 
 massacre to massacre, until he had extermin- 
 ated the house of Ahab (2 K. 10.1-14). It 
 was during Jehu's march to Samaria that he 
 encountered Jehonadab, the Rechabite, and 
 engaged his assistance in the slaughter of 
 the followers of Baal in the temple built by 
 Ahab (1 K. 16.32; 2 K. 10.23). The pillars 
 of Baal were demolished, the temple levelled 
 with the ground, and the site put to vile uses. 
 Yet though Jehu had been the instrument in 
 the hands of God for taking vengeance on the 
 
 house of Ahab, we find him in Scripture accused 
 of not entirely forsaking the sins of Jeroboam, 
 who made Israel to sin in worshipping the 
 golden calves (2 K. 10.29-31). He appears 
 to have been actuated more by the spirit of 
 ambition than by the fear of God, or a desire to 
 restore the purity of Jehovah's worship. During 
 the further twenty-seven years of his reign we 
 hear of no other public act of Jehu than that he 
 maintained the calf-worship of Jeroboam. He 
 was buried at Samaria, and was succeeded 
 by his son Jehoahaz. [HAZAEL, RAMOTH- 
 GILEAD, JEZREEL.] Jehu is mentioned on 
 "the Black Obelisk" (now in the British 
 Museum) as giving tribute to the Assyrian 
 king, Shalmanezer n. (c. 840 B.C.), and is called 
 there " Jehu son of Omri," the change of 
 dynasty not being understood by the Assyrian 
 scribes, if indeed Omri is not a clerical error for 
 Nimshi, as has been suggested. 
 
 2. A prophet of Judah, whom God sent to 
 Baasha king of Israel to predict punishment for 
 his misdeeds (1 K. 16.1-7) in destroying the house 
 of Jeroboam. He also denounced Jehoshaphal 
 (2 Ch. 19.2,3). [BAASHA.] 3. Of Simeon (1 Ch. 
 2.38). 4. Of Judah (1 Ch. 4.35). 5. One of 
 David's heroes (1 Ch. 12.3). 
 
 Jehub'bah. The name is probably Hubbah 
 (1 Ch. 7.34). 
 
 Jehu'cal. Jehovah is able : a messenger 
 sent by King Zedekiah to Jeremiah to ask his 
 intercession for the people (Jer. 37.3). In 
 Jer. 38.1 his name is Jucal. 
 
 Je'hud. A town of Dan, 7 miles from the 
 Mediterranean, near Jaffa (Josh. 19.45). Its 
 present name is El-Yehudiyeh. 
 
 Jehu'di. A Jew : a messenger of Jehoiakim 
 (Jer. 36.14, 21, 23). 
 
 Jehudi'jah. The Jewess : this word is 
 thought to De not a name, but an appellation 
 (1 Ch. 4.18). 
 
 Jehuel. [JEHIEL.] 
 
 Jehu'sh. A Benjamite (1 Ch. 8.39). [JEUSH.] 
 
 Jei'el. There are several persons of this 
 name mentioned in Chronicles and Ezra (1 Ch. 
 5.7, 9.35, 11.44, 15.18, 16.5; 2 Ch. 20.14, 
 26.11, 29.13, 35.9 ; Ezra 8.13, 10.43). 
 
 Jekabze'el. God assembleth : a fuller form of 
 Kabzeel, which see (Neh. 11.25). 
 
 Jekame'am. A Levite (1 Ch. 23.19). 
 
 Jekami'ah. (1 Ch. 2.41). [JECAMIAH.] 
 
 Jekuthi'el. The son of Ezrah by his Jewish 
 wife, the Jewess, and father of Zanoah (1 Ch. 
 4.18). 
 
 Jemi'ma, Jemimah. Job's eldest daughter, 
 born to him in his second period of prosperity 
 (Job 42.14). 
 
 Jemu'el. Light of God (Gen. 46.10). Else- 
 where the name occurs as Nemuel. 
 
 Jephthse. The Greek form of Jephthah 
 (Heb. 11.32). 
 
 Jeph'thah. He opens : one of the judges of 
 Israel. He was a son of Gilead by a concubine, 
 and was driven from home by his brethren 
 because of his birth (Judg. 11.1, 2). Afterwards 
 they implored him to return and help them 
 
JEPHUNNEH] 
 
 236 
 
 [JEREMIAH 
 
 against the Ammonites, who had invaded Israel. 
 He consented to do so on condition that he 
 should be made commander-in-chief of the 
 forces, and have an entirely free hand in the 
 operations against the invaders. His demands 
 were complied with, and he immediately pro- 
 ceeded against the foe, after endeavouring by 
 reason and parley to induce them to retire to 
 their own country and give up their claim 
 against Israel. As he started, Jephthah vowed 
 to God that if he were successful he would 
 offer as a burnt-offering the first creature 
 that should come forth from the doors of 
 his house to meet him (Judg. 11.30, 31). 
 Jephthah was successful against the Ammonites. 
 On returning to his house, his only child, a 
 daughter, came out to meet him. On seeing her, 
 Jephthah recalled his vow : " I have opened 
 my mouth unto the Lord, and I cannot go 
 back" (Judg. 11.34-39). Jephthah's daughter 
 did not flinch. The conditions of the vow 
 were fulfilled at the expiration of two months. 
 The expression used by Jephthah's daughter, 
 as well as the concluding clause of ver. 39, 
 is adduced by a few commentators as favour- 
 ing the supposition that her father's vow 
 was fulfilled by devoting her to a life of 
 celibacy. The history of Abraham and Isaac 
 would be well known by Jephthah, and its 
 lesson would be remembered. Some commen- 
 tators accordingly suppose that Jephthah, 
 having at first contemplated a human sacrifice, 
 afterwards became better acquainted with the 
 law, and availed himself of the provision made 
 in Lev. 27.2-4, by paying the redemption price 
 there prescribed ; and that further to fulfil the 
 spirit of his vow, by his daughter's civil excision 
 from among the living, he devoted her to 
 perpetual celibacy and seclusion. But this is 
 extremely improbable. 
 
 Jephthah's next public act was to punish the 
 proud men of Ephraim for questioning his right 
 to fight the Ammonites without their consent, 
 and for taking up arms against him and invading 
 Gilead. They were defeated, and the fugitives 
 from the battle put to death at the fords 
 of the Jordan (Judg. 12). [SHIBBOLETH.] 
 Jephthah's skill and wisdom served Israel for 
 six years only, when he died and was buried 
 in one of the cities of Gilead (Judg. 12.7). 
 Jephthah was manifestly, like Samson, an 
 instrument of God's power rather than an 
 example of His grace, though in Heb. 11.32 
 he is mentioned in a list of faithful worthies. 
 
 Jephun'neh. (?) God will be turned, .. made 
 gracious: 1. Father of Caleb (Num. 13.6). 2. A 
 man of Asher (1 Ch. 7.38). 
 
 Je'rah. The moon : the fourth of the sons of 
 Joktan and the founder of an Arabian tribe 
 (Gen. 10.26 ; 1 Ch. 1.20). 
 
 Jerahme'eL May God have compassion : 
 1. The first-born son of Hezron, descendant 
 of Judah (1 Ch. 2.9). His descendants, who 
 lived on the southern border of Judah, main- 
 tained friendly relations with David when he 
 was at Ziklag (1 Sam. 27.10). The name has 
 
 become famous of recent years, owing to a 
 strange theory that the tribe was the source of 
 much of the Jewish religion, and that very many 
 of the names in the O.T. are a corruption of 
 Jerahmeel. 2. A Merarite Levite who repre- 
 sented the family of Kish when David organised 
 Divine service (1 Ch. 24.29). 3. The son of 
 Hammelech, who was ordered by King Jehoiakim 
 to take Jeremiah and Baruch prisoners (Jer. 
 36.26). 
 
 Jeranme'elites. The descendants of Jerahmeel, 
 whose country was in the south of Judah 
 (1 Sam. 27.10). David sent then- cities part 
 of the spoil of the Amalekites, and represented 
 to Achish that he had invaded their country 
 (1 Sam. 30.29). 
 
 Je'red. 1. A patriarch who lived before the 
 flood. He was the father of Enoch (1 Ch. 1.2) 
 and the son of Mehalaleel. His name occurs also 
 as Jared. 2. A Judahite. Son of Ezrah and his 
 wife, " the Jewess " (1 Ch. 4.18). He was the 
 founder of the family of Gedor. 
 
 Jer'emai. Apparently a shortened form of 
 Jeremiah. A member of the family of Hashum, 
 whom Ezra compelled to put away his foreign 
 wife (Ezra 10.33). 
 
 Jeremiah. Jehovah looseneth ; possibly, 
 Jehovah is high : 1. The prophet, the son of 
 Hilkiah, a priest of Anathoth. This Hilkiah 
 was probably not the high-priest of that period 
 (2 K. 22.4), for he would not have been spoken 
 of so indefinitely as "of the priests" (Jer. 1.1); 
 and the priests of Anathoth seem to have been 
 of the house of Ithamar (1 K. 2.26), while the 
 high-priesthood had long been in the line of 
 Phinehas (1 Ch. 6.13). Jeremiah was called to 
 the prophetic office about seventy years after the 
 death of Isaiah, in the thirteenth year of Josiah, 
 whilst very young (Jer. 1.6), and still living at 
 Anathoth. Shortly afterwards he received a 
 charge to deliver a message in Jerusalem (2.1) : 
 and some suppose him to have made a tour 
 through the cities and towns of Judah for the 
 purpose of announcing to the inhabitants the 
 contents of the book of the law which had been 
 found in the Temple (11.2, 6 ; 2 K. 22). On 
 his return to Anathoth, his fellow-townsmen, 
 including even some of his own family, offended 
 at his reproofs of their wickedness, conspired 
 against him (11.21, 12.6); upon which he ap- 
 pears to have taken up his abode at Jerusalem. 
 
 During the reign of Josiah, the prophet no 
 doubt aided him in the religious reformation of 
 the people. But at the end of eighteen years 
 the invasion by Pharaoh-necho ended in the 
 good king's death, and in the Egyptian captivity 
 of his son and successor, Shallum or Jehoahaz 
 (22.10-12). Jehoiakim succeeded, and hence- 
 forth the ministry of the prophet was carried on 
 amid continual interruption and persecution. 
 The " priests and prophets " became his 
 accusers, and demanded, with the populace, that 
 he should be put to death for denouncing woe 
 against the city (26). The " princes " did not 
 dare to defy God thus openly ; but Jeremiah 
 was either placed under restraint, or deterred by 
 
JEREMIAH] 
 
 237 
 
 [JEREMIAH, BOOK OF 
 
 his adversaries from appearing in public. In 
 these circumstances he was commanded by God 
 to write his predictions, which Baruch then 
 read in the Temple on a fast day, in " the fourth 
 year of Jehoiakim," which was also the first of 
 Nebuchadnezzar. They contained a clear 
 intimation that the kingdom of Judah would 
 be orerwhelmed by the growing power of 
 Babylon (25). The princes were alarmed, and 
 endeavoured to arouse the king by reading to 
 him the words of Jeremiah. But in vain: the 
 monarch, after hearing three or four pages, cut 
 the roll in pieces, and cast it into the fire, giving 
 orders for the apprehension of Jeremiah and 
 Baruch. God preserved them, and soon after- 
 wards directed Jeremiah to write again the 
 same messages, with some additions (36). 
 
 In the short reign of the next king, Jehoiachin, 
 otherwise called Jeconiah, or Coniah, he still 
 uttered the voice of warning (cf. 2 K. 24.12 and 
 Jer. 22.24-30), though without effect. In the 
 reign of Zedekiah, Jeremiah was repeatedly com- 
 missioned to declare that the Chaldeans should 
 take Jerusalem, and burn it with fire. En- 
 deavouring to leave the city, he was accused 
 of deserting to the enemy, and cast into prison, 
 where he remained until the city was taken. 
 Nebuchadnezzar, who had been led to respect 
 the prophet's character, ordered his general, 
 Nebuzar-adan, to protect him. It was put to 
 his choice whether he would go to Babylon, 
 where doubtless he would have been honoured 
 at the court, or would remain with his own 
 people ; but he preferred the latter. He 
 subsequently warned the leaders of the people 
 against fleeing to Egypt. The people refused to 
 obey, and went to Egypt, compelling Jeremiah 
 and Baruch to accompany them (43.6). In 
 Egypt he still sought to turn them to the Lord 
 (44) ; but his writings give no information as to 
 his later life. Ancient authors assert that the 
 Jews, offended by his faithful remonstrances, 
 stoned him to death in Egypt. 
 
 Jeremiah was contemporary with Zephaniah, 
 Habakkuk, Ezekiel, and Daniel. Between 
 Jeremiah and Ezekiel there are points both 
 of comparison and of contrast. They were 
 both long labouring for the same object, at 
 nearly the same time ; the one in Palestine, 
 the other in Chaldea ; and both endeavouring 
 to persuade the Jews to become quiet citizens 
 there, though both looked forward to the 
 restoration. But Ezekiel laid much more stress 
 on the ritual side of religion than did Jeremiah. 
 They were dissimilar in character and disposition, 
 and differed widely in their modes of expres- 
 sion. We see in Jeremiah a man reluctantly 
 brought out from private life into the publicity 
 and peril which attended the prophet's office. 
 Naturally mild, susceptible, and inclined rather 
 to mourn in secret for the iniquity which 
 surrounded him than to brave and denounce 
 the wrongdoer, he stood forth at the call of God, 
 and proved himself a faithful champion of the 
 truth, amidst reproaches and persecutions. 
 In Ezekiel, on the other hand, we see the power 
 
 of Divine inspiration acting on a mind naturally 
 firm and independent, yet more ecclesiastical. 
 
 2. A man of Libnah, the father of Hamutal, 
 who was the wife of King Josiah and the mother 
 of King Jehoahaz (2 K. 23.31). 3. A Manassite 
 (1 Ch. 5.24). 4. A Benjamite (1 Ch. 12.4). 
 5. A Gadite (1 Ch. 12.10). 6. A Gadite (1 Ch. 
 12.13). 7. A priest who came back with Zerub- 
 babel (Neh. 12.1). 8. A priest who sealed 
 the covenant with Nehemiah at the dedication 
 of the wall of Jerusalem (Neh. 10.2 ; perhaps 
 the same as 12.12, 34). Perhaps Nos. 7 and 
 8 represent the name of a course rather than 
 a person, and so are identical. 9. A Rechabite 
 (Jer. 35.3). 
 
 Jeremiah, Book of. The authorship of this 
 Book in its primary form is indicated in Jer. 36. 
 To the contents of the two rolls there named 
 other material was no doubt added, in such a 
 way as to make this work a biography of the 
 prophet as well as a collection of his prophecies. 
 
 The arrangement of the contents of the Book 
 has been much discussed. The following 
 classification is suggested by certain notes of 
 time in some of the passages and by their 
 contents : 
 
 1. In the reign of Josiah, 1-12. The begin- 
 ning of chap. 11 seems to mark the time when 
 the book of the Law was newly discovered in 
 the Temple (2 K. 22.3-13). 
 
 2. Under Jehoiakim, 1320, in connexion with 
 which series of discourses is recorded the 
 conspiracy of " the princes of Judah " against 
 the prophet, with his deliverance (25, 26). 
 Chap. 22.1-19 denounces Jehoiakim for his un- 
 righteousness, and declares the fate of his 
 brother and predecessor (Jehoahaz or Shallum). 
 Chap. 35 draws lessons of constancy and obedience 
 from the conduct of the Rechabites. Chaps. 45 
 (to Baruch, the prophet's scribe) and 36 refer 
 to the roll of the above prophecies as read to 
 Jehoiakim in the fifth year of that king's reign, 
 and by him cut to pieces and burned. 
 
 3. Under Jehoiachin, 22.20-30. The fate of 
 the king (called here Coniah) is pathetically 
 depicted. He is to be a lifelong prisoner in 
 Babylon, and to leave no heir to the throne of 
 David ; being thus virtually childless. 
 
 4. Under Zedekiah. The following passages 
 belong to this period : 21, 27 (counselling sub- 
 mission to the Babylonian yoke) ; 28 (recording 
 the prediction of the false prophet Hananiah 
 of deliverance within two years) ; 34 (the king's 
 fate, and the punishment of the slave-owners' 
 perfidy) ; 37, 38 (an account of the prophet's 
 arrest and imprionmeat) ; 39, 52.1-30 (the 
 capture of Jerusalem). Chaps. 30-33 give the 
 assurance of restoration, and of the New 
 Covenant, with the remarkable episode (32) of 
 the purchase by the prophet of his ancestral 
 property at Anathoth, in the assurance that the 
 land would be regained. 
 
 5. Prophecies against hostile nations, 4652. 
 These were prbably uttered at different times, 
 and are gathered into these four chapters from 
 their similarity of subject. They relate to 
 
JEKEMIAH, BOOK OF] 
 
 238 
 
 [JERICHO 
 
 Egypt, Piiilistia, Moab, Aramon, Edom, 
 Damascus, Kedar, and the kingdoms of Hazor, 
 Elam, and Babylon. The brief discourse 
 against Elam (49.34-39) was delivered at the 
 beginning of Zedekiah's reign ; the wonderful 
 prophecy respecting Babylon (50, 51) in that 
 king's fourth year, when he went with the chief 
 officer of his court into Chaldaea on some errand 
 to us unknown. This discourse was to be 
 cast into the Euphrates bound to a stone, an 
 emblem of the sinking of the proud city 
 (51.63,64; cf. Rev. 18.21). 
 
 6. After the fall of Jerusalem. One of the 
 most striking parts of the book is in chap. 29, 
 a letter sent by Jeremiah to the exiles in 
 Babylon with Jehoiachin, counselling them as 
 to their conduct in captivity. Instead of 
 rebelling and repining they were to settle down 
 as peaceful and industrious inhabitants of the 
 land, seeking the prosperity of the country, and 
 repudiating those false prophets who sought 
 to stir up discontent. After seventy years, the 
 prophet declares, the captivity would cease. 
 This wise and noble letter had a lasting influence 
 for good, and was remembered when the day 
 of deliverance came (Ezra 1.1). 
 
 7. To the end of Jeremiah's life, 39-44. 
 This section is mainly historical, and its details 
 have been already noted. The chief prophetic 
 discourse which it contains is a protest against 
 the idolatry of the Jews in Egypt (44). 
 
 Among the special predictions of Jeremiah were 
 his prophecies of the fate of Zedekiah (34.2, 3 : 
 cf. 2 K. 25.5-7 ; Jer. 52.11), the duration of the 
 Babylonian captivity (25.11, 12; see Dan. 9.2), 
 and the return of the Jews (29.10-14 ; Ezek. 1.1). 
 The downfall of Babylon (25.12, 50-51) and of 
 many nations (46-49) is also foretold in pre- 
 dictions, the successive completion of which 
 kept up the faith of the Jews in those that refer 
 to the Messiah (23.3-8, 30.9, 31.15, 32.37, 33.26). 
 He foretells very clearly the abrogation of the 
 Mosaic law ; speaks of the ark as no more re- 
 membered (3.16) ; and reaches the very height 
 of O.T. prediction in his great prophecy of the 
 New Covenant (31.31-34). 
 
 The references in the N.T. to Jeremiah are 
 frequent. Compare 7.11 with Matt. 21.13, 
 " a den of robbers " ; 9.24 with 1 Cor. 1.31, 
 " glorying in the Lord " ; 10.7 with Rev. 15.4 ; 
 11.20 with 1 Thess. 2.4 ; 17.10 with Rev. 2.23 ; 
 22.5 with Matt. 23.38 ; 25.10 with Rev. 18.22, 23 ; 
 51.7-9 with Rev. 14.8, 17.2, 4, 18.3, 5 ; 51.45 with 
 Rev. 18.4; and 51.63, 64 with Rev. 18.21. 
 The appellation " Dayspring," as applied to the 
 Messiah, Lk. 1.78, is from the LXX of Jer. 23.5, 
 where the Heb. is " Branch " (so Zech. 3.8, 6.12). 
 The most noteworthy of such N.T. applications 
 is that of 31.31-34 in Eel. 8.8-13 and 10.15-17. 
 The prophet describes the New Covenant in 
 terms which make this passage a true anticipa- 
 tion of the gospel, and possibly suggest the 
 phrase " New Covenant " in the institution 
 of the Lord's Supper; so placing Jeremiah 
 by the side of Isaiah as an " Evangelical 
 Prophet." 
 
 Jeremi'as. Greek form of Jeremiah (Matt. 
 16.14). 
 
 Jere'moth, Jeri'moth. A son of David by 
 a concubine. His daughter became wife to 
 Rehoboam (2 Ch. 11.18). There were several 
 other persons of this name (see 1 Ch. 7.7, 8, 
 8.14, 12.5, 23.23, 25.4, 27.19 ; 2 Ch. 11.18, 31.13 ; 
 Ezra 10.26, 27). 
 
 Jer'emy. An abbreviation of Jeremiah 
 (Matt. 2.17). 
 
 Jeri'ah. Founded by Jehovah : a descendant 
 of Hebron, the Kohathite (1 Ch. 23.19). In 
 1 Ch. 26.31 bis name is given as Jerijah. 
 
 Jeri'bai. Jehovah contends : one of David's 
 heroes (1 Ch.llAQ). 
 
 Jer'icho. (?) The Fragrant Place or City of 
 Balsam : a city on the west border of the Ghor, 
 6 miles from the Jordan, under the brow oL a 
 range of barren, precipitous mountains. Tne 
 Jericho of Joshua's time was about ] J miles 
 north-west of the modern village of Eriha, and 
 20 miles north-east of Jerusalem, near the pure, 
 sweet fountain (all the others in the neighbour- 
 hood are still brackish) called 'Ain es-Sultan and 
 Elisha's Fountain, perhaps the one healed by 
 him at the request of the inhabitants (2 K. 
 2.19-22). This Jericho was a royal city of 
 high antiquity, the principal one in the valley 
 of the Jordan, and referred to as well known 
 in the Books of Numbers and Deuteronomy 
 (Num. 22.1, 26.3,63, 31.12, 33.48, 36.13; 
 Dent. 32.49, 34.1 ; Josh. 13.32 ; Jer. 52.8). It 
 was defended by walls and gates of consider- 
 able strength ( Josh. 2.5, 15, 6.2, 5, 20, 12.9). 
 Its citizens were wealthy (Josh. 6.24, 7.21), 
 and the surrounding country fruitful (Deut. 
 34.3; Judg. 1.16, 3.13). The important, and 
 indeed chief, fords of the Jordan crossed by 
 Joshua were opposite Jericho, which was 
 the first city of Palestine taken by him (Josh. 
 2.1,22.) after the two spies had returned. 
 [RAHAB.] It being doomed by God, Joshua, 
 on the fall of the walls, set fire to the city and 
 razed it to the ground. Joshua pronounced 
 a curse upon the man who should rebuild " this 
 city Jericho " ( Josh. 6.26). The penalty fell 
 five hundred years afterwards on Hiel, of 
 Bethel (1 K. 16.34). [ABIRAM, SEOUB.] A 
 school of the prophets was established at Jericho, 
 and was visited by Elijah and Elisha (2 K. 2.4-18). 
 The city was taken by the Chaldeans (2 K. 
 25.5), but was repeopled after the return from 
 the Captivity (Ezra 2.34 ; Neh. 3.2). 
 
 In the time of Christ, Jericho was the second 
 city in Judaea. It was the scene of our Lord's 
 cure of Bartimseus and of His visit to Zacchaeus 
 (Matt. 20.29 ; Mk. 10.46-52 ; Lk. 18.35, 19.1-10). 
 At one time Jericho formed part of the property 
 of Cleopatra, given to her by Antony, and by 
 her leased to Herod the Great, who built many 
 palaces and public buildings. It was finally 
 destroyed by the Romans about the year 230 A.D. 
 
 Jericho has changed but little for many 
 centuries, and is now a mean settlement of 
 about fifty dwellings, encircled with a hodge of 
 thorns as a protection against the Arabs* A 
 
JERIEL] 
 
 239 
 
 [JERUSALEM 
 
 fine brook flows by it, emptying into the Jordan, 
 which is about 3 miles away. The grounds 
 near by bear good crops of dourra, Indian corn, 
 rice, and onions. The people are Moham- 
 medans, governed by a sheikh, and it is said 
 that robbery and plunder form their chief 
 occupation. The road leading from Jerusalem 
 is still one of the most dangerous in all Palestine, 
 both because of its physical character and from 
 being the haunt of bandits. The foundations 
 of the ancient city were excavated at the end 
 of 1908. 
 
 Jeri'eL Founded by God : a chief of Issachar 
 (1 Ch. 7.2). 
 
 Jerijah. [JEHIAH.] 
 
 Jeri'moth. [J EREMOTH.] 
 
 Jerioth. Curtains : a wife of Caleb, the son 
 of Hezron, if we should not amend the text, 
 making Jerioth the name of the former husband 
 of Caleb's wife (1 Ch. 2.18). 
 
 Jerobo'am L (?) The people are many : 
 the son of Nebat and of Zeruah, " a widow 
 woman," was born (perhaps out of wedlock) 
 at Zereda (1 K. 11.26), and is stamped 
 with the infamy of having " made Israel to 
 sin" (1 K. 12.26-33, 15.34, etc.). He came 
 under the notice of Solomon when the king 
 was building Millo (apparently a part of the 
 walls of Jerusalem), and was by him placed 
 over the " charge " or levy of forced labour 
 (corvee) imposed on the Ephraimites (1 K. 
 11.26,27). Ilia ambition was fostered by 
 the prophet Ahijah, who promised that he 
 should reign over ten of the tribes, and, if he 
 obeyed God's laws, should be prospered as 
 David was (1 K. 11.29-40). Solomon took 
 the alarm, and attempted to apprehend Jero- 
 boam, who thereupon fled to Egypt, where he 
 remained until the death of Solomon. He 
 then returned to his native town, and found 
 that Rehoboam, who had succeeded to the 
 throne of David, had already alienated ten 
 of the tribes. These ten tribes, hearing of 
 Jeroboam's return, " made him king over all 
 Israel." Jeroboam fixed his residence at 
 Shechem, whidi he fortified. He also rebuilt 
 Penuel, a city beyond Jordan, putting it into 
 a state of defence, in order to keep the tribes on 
 that side of the Jordan quiet (1 K. 12.1-15). 
 
 But Jeroboam soon forgot the condition 
 (1 K. 11.38) under which prosperity was pro- 
 mised. Fearing, no doubt, that, if the ten 
 tribes went to the annual festivals at Jerusalem, 
 they might be drawn away from him, he estab- 
 lished idolatrous worship, with two chief shrines, 
 at Dan and at Bethel (1 K. 12.28-30). His 
 symbolic representation of Jehovah under the 
 form of a calf probably was not due to Egyptian 
 influence, but was a return to early Israelite 
 and Canaanite ideas. He also built temples, 
 and ordained priests of the lowest of the people, 
 who were to be neither of the family of Aaron 
 nor of the tribe of Levi (1 K. 12.31). God 
 warned Jeroboam, through the unknown pro- 
 phet, and by the withering and restoration of his 
 arm (1 K. 13.1-10) ; and again by the mouth 
 
 of the blind prophet Ahijah (1 K. 14.13-18). 
 But Divine cautions were disregarded, Jeroboam 
 and his house continuing in sin to their own 
 loss (1 K. 13.34). After reigning twenty-two 
 years, Jeroboam died, and was succeeded by 
 his son Nadab (1 K. 13, 14.1-20). 
 
 Jeroboam n. The son of Joash, king of 
 Israel, and the fourth in the dynasty of Jehu. 
 He reigned for forty-one years, and though he 
 indulged in the idolatrous practices of the son 
 of Nebat, yet God so far prospered him that his 
 reign witnessed the restoration of the kingdom 
 of the ten tribes from a state of decay to a 
 pitch of extraordinary splendour. During 
 this reign the prophets Amos, Hosea, and 
 Jonah lived and taught. The events in the 
 life of Jeroboam n. are to be found in 
 2 K. 14.23-29, and in writings of Hosea and 
 Amos. He was perhaps the " saviour," pro- 
 mised in the reign of Jehoahaz, who should 
 drive out the Syrians (2 K. 13.4, 14.26,27). 
 He did more, for he followed the retreating 
 Syrians, and took their capital, Damascus 
 (2 K. 14.28; Amos 1.3,5), and recovered 
 the whole of Solomon's dominion, according 
 to the prophecy in Amos 6.14. But the old 
 morality and the pure worship of God were not 
 restored ; vice and oppression were rife, while 
 the worship of Jehovah was defiled by idolatry 
 (Hos. 1.2, 4.12, 13, 14, 13.6; Amos 2.6-8, 4.1, 
 6.6). [AMOS, HOSEA, BETHEL.] 
 
 Jero'ham. May he receive mercy : 1. Grand- 
 father of the prophet Samuel (1 Sam. 1.1). 
 2. A Benjamite (1 Ch. 8.27). 3. Another 
 Benjamite (1 Ch. 9.8). 4. A priest (1 Ch. 9.12). 
 
 5. Father of some of David's heroes (1 Ch. 12.7). 
 
 6. A Danite. Father of Azareel (1 Ch. 27.22). 
 
 7. A captain who helped Jehoiada to put Joash 
 on the throne. Father of Azariah (2 Ch. 23.1). 
 
 Jerubba'aL Let Baal contend : this name 
 was bestowed upon Gideon by his father Joash 
 when he destroyed the altar of Baal (Judg. 
 6.32). [GIDEON, and the next article.] 
 
 Jerubbe'sheth. Let shame contend : another 
 name given to Gideon by those who wished 
 not to utter the word Baal in Jerubbaal (2 8am. 
 11.21). [See also ISHBOSHETH, MEPHIBOSHETH, 
 words of a similar construction.] 
 
 Jeru'eL Founded by God: part of the 
 wilderness of Judah, and the scene of a battle 
 between the Ammonites, Moabites, Edomites, 
 and Jehoshaphat (2 Ch. 20.16). The locality 
 is unknown. 
 
 Jerusalem. Under the name Urusalim, i.e. 
 City of Salim or City of Peace, a town existed 
 on the site of Jerusalem before the Israelites 
 crossed the Jordan into Palestine. Letters in 
 the Tel el-Amarna collection show that it was 
 then (about 1400 B.C.) a place of some import- 
 ance under a ruler subordinate to Egypt. The 
 name appears in the form Jerusalem in Josh 10.1. 
 The Jews identified it with the Salem of which 
 Melchizedek wa3, king (Gen. 14.18, and see 
 Ps. 76.2). The modern Jewish and Christian 
 inhabitants preserve the name Yerusalim ; 
 though under the Romans it was known as 
 
JERUSALEM] 
 
 240 
 
 [JERUSALEM 
 
 Mlia. Capitolina ; and by the Moslems as 
 El-Kuds, the Sanctuary, or by titles similarly 
 indicating its associations. 
 
 In situation, Jerusalem lay on the boundary 
 between the tribes of Judah and Benjamin, 
 32 miles from the Mediterranean, 18 miles from 
 the Jordan, 20 miles from Hebron, and 36 miles 
 from Samaria. It is built on the summit of 
 the broad mountain ridge which traverses the 
 country from north to south, on a double pro- 
 montory projecting southward from the plateau, 
 and is approachable only by wild mountain 
 roads. This promontory, is formed by two 
 ravines, which render access difficult except 
 from the north, and so constitute a natural 
 defence. On the east side is the valley of 
 Kidron, called also the valley of Jehoshaphat. 
 On the south-west and the south is another 
 ravine, the valley of Hinnom. These two 
 ravines unite at Jacob's Well (Bir Eyab), at a 
 depth of 670 feet lower than their starting-point 
 on the upper plateau. The city with these 
 tremendous natural defences of deep ravines 
 and surrounding mountains is thus a compact 
 mountain fastness (Ps. 87.1, 122.3, 125.1, 2). 
 
 The history of Jerusalem in the O.T. begins 
 with the appearance of Melchizedek, king of 
 Salem, who blessed Abraham (Gen. 14.18-20; 
 cf. Heb. 7.1). In Josh. 10 appears Adoni-zedek, 
 king of Jerusalem. He formed a coalition 
 against the people of Gibeon, who had made 
 terms with Joshua and the invading Israelites. 
 Joshua took and executed the five confederate 
 kings, including the king of Jerusalem ; but 
 though he attacked the cities of the other 
 four, Jerusalem for the time escaped. It is 
 named amongst the " uttermost cities of the 
 tribe of the children of Judah " (Josh. 15.21, 63), 
 with the note that the children of Judah could 
 not drive out the Jebusites, its inhabitants,' but 
 that the invaders and invaded dwelt together. 
 Its capture is recorded in Judg. 1.8. The 
 Jebusites appear to have revived their con- 
 fidence in the strength of their city. When 
 David whose capital was then at Hebron 
 attacked Jerusalem (2 Sam. 5) they derided 
 him (2 Sam. 5.6). David's retort was an appeal 
 to his men, who successfully assaulted the 
 citadel, or " stronghold of Zion." David's 
 capital was then transferred to Jerusalem, 
 about the year 1000 B.C., and Jerusalem bl- 
 came " the city of David." To it he brought 
 the ark from the house of Obed-edom (2 Sam. 
 6.12). Jerusalem was spared from the census 
 plague (2 Sam. 24.16) ; and in gratitude David 
 bought the threshing-floor of Araunah the 
 Jebusite, built there an altar (2 Sam. 24.25), 
 and prepared to raise there the Temple (1 Ch. 
 22.1-4), which Solomon built (1 K. 6.1-38). 
 On the division of the kingdom, Jerusalem 
 remained the capital of the two tribes left to 
 Rehoboam (1 K. 14.21). In his reign it was 
 taken by Shishak, king of Egypt (1 K. 14.25) ; 
 under Jehoram by the Philistines and Arabians 
 (2 Ch. 21.16, 17) ; and tinder Amaziah by 
 Joash, king of Israel (2 Ch. 25.23,24). In 
 
 the reign of Ahaz an attack by Rezin, king 
 of Syria, and Pekah, king of Israel, was un- 
 successful (2 K. 16.5). So also was the attempt 
 of Sennacherib, in the reign of Hezekiah (2 K. 
 18.19; 2 Ch. 32; /sat. 36^37). The sins of 
 king and people under Manasseh led to the 
 capture of the king and his deportation to 
 Babylon (2 Ch. 33.9-11). Josiah effected at 
 Jerusalem a religious and moral reformation 
 (2 Ch. 34.3-5). Under Jehoiachin the city was 
 besieged and taken by the forces of Nebuchad- 
 nezzar, king of Babylon, who deported the 
 king and all save the poorest of his subjects 
 to Babylon (2 K. 24.12-16). Zedekiah was 
 placed on the throne, but rebelled. Jerusalem 
 endured a prolonged siege by the forces of 
 Nebuchadnezzar, but was taken, the Temple 
 and the greater buildings were destroyed, and 
 the walls broken down (2 K. 25). Under Cyrus, 
 as recorded in Ezra, the people returned, the 
 Temple was rebuilt, and the Law restored. 
 Nehemiah restored the ruined walls (Neh. 3). 
 Alexander the Great visited the city during 
 the high -priesthood of Jaddua, who is men 
 tioned in Neh. 12.11, 22. 
 
 On the death of Alexander, and the division 
 of his conquests, Judaea lay on the borders of 
 rival states Egypt and Syria. As a result, 
 it seldom enjoyed prolonged peace. Ptolemy 
 Soter took the city about the year 320 B.C. 
 It was strengthened and beautified under 
 Simon the Just about 300 B.C. (Ecclus. 50). 
 Antiochus the Great captured it in 203 B.C., 
 but in 199 it was retaken by Scopas, the 
 Alexandrian general. On the defeat of the 
 Egyptians by Antiochus, Jerusalem again fell 
 under his sway in 198. It was captured in 
 169 by Antiochus Epiphanes, who desecrated 
 the Temple, and erected a pagan altar on the 
 altar of Jehovah (Dan. 11.31); but in 165 
 Judas Maccaboeus retook the city. Pompey 
 captured it in 65 B.C., and the Parthians sacked 
 it in 40 B.C. Herod the Great retook it in 37, 
 and rebuilt the Temple, raising the building 
 visited by our Lord. For the place of Jeru- 
 salem in the minds of the Hebrews see Ps. 122.6, 
 137.5,6; /sat. 62.1,7; and cf. 1 K. 8.38; 
 Dan. 6.10 ; Matt. 5.35. 
 
 In the N.T. Jerusalem, though so pro- 
 minent in the Gospels, loses its supremacy. 
 The interest widens far beyond the bounds of 
 Palestine. Rome, Corinth, Ephesus, and othej> 
 great cities claim attention. Jerusalem the 
 city is only referred to in three Epistles (Rom., 
 1 Cor., and Gal). Outside the Gospels and 
 the Acts, and the reference to " Jerusalem . . . 
 above " and " the new Jerusalem," its natne 
 appears only nine times in the N.T. To* it 
 came the Wise Men from the East (Matt. 2.1). 
 Joseph and Mary brought thither the infant 
 Jesus (Lk. 2.22) ; and again went up with Him 
 when He was twelve (Lk. 2.41-51). The people 
 of Jerusalem were attracted by the ministry 
 of John the Baptist (Matt. 3.5) ; but resisted 
 the ministry of our Lord (Lk. 13.33, 34). 
 [For reference to His ministry, trial, and death 
 
JERUSALEM] 
 
 241 
 
 [JERUSALEM 
 
 at Jerusalem, see JESUS CHRIST.] At Jerusalem 
 the infant Church remained by command (Acts 
 1.4) until Pentecost (Acts 2.1-36). There the 
 Church grew, miracles attending the ministry 
 of the Apostles (Acts 2-5). At Jerusalem 
 Stephen was martyred (Acts 7.59), but when 
 persecution grew, the Apostles remained at 
 Jerusalem (Acts 8.1,14, 32.1-19), where they 
 were referred to on the question of circumcision 
 (Acts 15). St. Paul first appears (as Saul) at 
 Jerusalem (Acts 8.1), but had been a student 
 there under Gamaliel (Acts 22.3). His visits 
 to Jerusalem are recorded in Acts 9.26-28, 11.29, 
 30, 15.2-6, 21.17; and see Gal. 2.1-7. The 
 poorer members of the Church at Jerusalem 
 suffering under famine, the brethren of Mace- 
 donia and Achaia sent them help (Acts 11.29, 30 ; 
 Rom. 15.25, 26 ; 1 Cor. 16.1-3). For the sym- 
 bolical use of the name Jerusalem, see Gal. 
 4.25, 26 ; Heb. 12.22 ; Rev. 3.12, 21.2, 10. 
 
 The later history of Jerusalem was as chequered 
 as the earlier. The destruction under Titus 
 (70 A.D.) was the consummation of a siege which 
 occupied about 300,000 men for nearly five 
 months. It is described by Josephus and 
 referred to by Tacitus. The city was defended 
 with desperate valour, and the total loss of life 
 entailed in the siege has been estimated at a 
 million. The Emperor Hadrian visited Jeru- 
 salem in 130 A.D., rebuilt the city, suppressing 
 a serious revolt of the Jews (132-135 A.D.), 
 and called it ^Elia Capitolina. The Emperor 
 Constantino and his mother, Helena, inaugurated 
 a new era. The sacred sites were investigated, 
 and the Church of the Resurrection was dedi- 
 cated in the year 336. The pagan reaction 
 under Julian was marked by an attempt to 
 rebuild the Temple. The Jews received the 
 proposal with enthusiasm ; but the early 
 stages of the work were attended with portents 
 deemed supernatural, and the project was 
 abandoned. In 614 the Persians sacked the city, 
 when 90,000 Christians were slain. Heraclius 
 retook it in 628; but in 637 it fell to the 
 Saracens. The crusader, Godfrey of Bouillon, 
 wrested it from the Moslems in 1099 ; and 
 Saladin recaptured it in 1187. 
 
 The watts of Jerusalem have occasioned much 
 controversy. Towards the north, three walls 
 at one time existed, but their precise lines are 
 uncertain. Jerusalem was, no doubt, a walled' 
 city early in its history, and its fort or citadel 
 filled the Jebusites with confidence (2 Sam. 5.6). 
 David, on capturing the stronghold, appears to 
 have increased the fortified area (2 Sam. 5.9). 
 Solomon added to the walls (1 K. 3.1, 9.15). 
 Jehoash, king of Israel, on capturing Amaziah, 
 king of Judah, broke down a long stretch of 
 wall (2 K. 14.13). Nebuzaradan, Nebuchad- 
 nezzar's " captain of the guard," destroyed the 
 walls more thoroughly (2 K. 25 ; Nek. 1.3, 2.13 ; 
 Jer. 52.14). Nehemiah's operations were by 
 way of restoring that which had existed. When 
 the Romans besieged the city in 70 A.D., they, 
 to deal on the n*rth side not only with two 
 ient walls, but also with the third, which 
 16 
 
 had not existed in the time of our Lord, built 
 by Agrippa i., in the time of Claudius Caesar, 
 still further to enlarge the city. The modern 
 wall of Jerusalem may follow the line of this 
 third wall along its northern course. 
 
 Many Gates of Jerusalem are mentioned in the 
 O.T. ; but more than one name may have been 
 applied to the same gate. The references are 
 as follows : 
 
 The Corner Gate (2 K. 14.13 ; 2 Ch. 25.23, 
 26.9; Jer. 31.38). 
 
 The Gate of Ephraim (2 K. 14.13; 2 Ch. 
 25.23 ; Neh. 8.16, 12.39). 
 
 The Gate of Joshua (2 K. 23.8). 
 
 The Gate " between two walls, which is by 
 the king's garden " (2 K. 25.4 ; Jer. 39.4). 
 
 The Horse Gate (2 Ch. 23.15; Neh. 3.28; 
 Jer. 31.40). 
 
 The Valley Gate (2 Ch. 26.9 ; Neh. 2.13, 15). 
 
 The Fish Gate (2 Ch. 33.14 ; Neh. 3.3, 12.39). 
 
 The Dung Gate (Nth. 2.13, 3.13, 12.31). 
 
 The Gate of the Fountain (Neh. 2.14, 3.15). 
 
 The Sheep Gate (Neh. 3.1, 32, 12.39). 
 
 The Old Gate gate of the old city, or of the 
 old wall, R.V. marg. (Neh. 3.6, 12.39). 
 
 The Water Gate (Neh. 3.26, 8.1,3, 16, 12.37). 
 
 The East Gate (Neh. 3.29 ; in Jer. 19.2 the 
 R.V. has " gate of Harsith," or, " the gate of 
 potsherds," marg.). 
 
 The Gate Miphkad the gate of Hammiphkad, 
 R.V. (Neh. 3.31). 
 
 The Prison Gate gate of the ward, R.V. 
 (Neh. 12.39). 
 
 The Gate of Benjamin (Jer. 37.13, 38.7). 
 
 The Middle Gate (Jer. 39.3). 
 
 The following streets of Jerusalem find men- 
 tion in the O.T. : The East Street (2 Ch. 29.4) ; 
 the street of tht house of God (Ezra 10.9) ; 
 the street that was before the water gate 
 (Neh. 8.1,3,16); the street of the gate of 
 Ephraim (Neh. 8.16) ; the bakers' street ( Jer. 
 37.21). 
 
 The roads leading out of Jerusalem are said 
 to have had special care from Solomon, who 
 paved them with black basalt brought from 
 beyond the Jordan. There were but two 
 maui lines of travel leading into the city. The 
 first was from the Jordan valley, by way of 
 Jericho and the Mount of Olives, and was used 
 by travellers north and east (2 Sam. 15.16 ; 
 Lk. 17.11, with 18.35), from Damascus, and 
 from the country about Samaria (2 Ch. 28.15). 
 This route is used by travellers to the present 
 time. The second road ran from the great 
 maritime plain of Philistia and Sharon, and 
 led by the two Bethhorons up to the high 
 ground at Gibeon. From there it turned 
 south, and approached Jerusalem by Ramah 
 and Gibeah. This was the road used by armies 
 in approaching the city. A third road, little 
 traversed, communicated with the hilly districts 
 to the south. 
 
 The modern Jerusalem is a walled city, about 
 2J miles in circumference, connected by railway 
 with the seaport of Jafta. The population 
 which includes Jews, Moslems, and Christians 
 
JERUSHA, JERUSHAH] 
 
 242 
 
 [JESHURUN, JESURUN 
 
 of the Greek, Roman, and Protestant Churches 
 has grown rapidly in recent years. In 1873 
 it was estimated at 20,000 ; in 1911 at 80,000. 
 The Jewish element owes something of its 
 growth to encouragement from external sources. 
 The compactness of the city to the view is 
 somewhat impaired by the great pile of Russian 
 buildings to the north-west, as well as by the 
 smaller group surrounding the " Tomb of David " 
 to the south. Within the walls the houses 
 are for the most part crowded closely together, 
 and there are few open spaces. The traveller 
 sees no streets of palaces. Instead, he finds 
 himself encompassed on every side by walls 
 of rude masonry, the dull uniformity of which 
 is broken by the occasional protrusion of a 
 small grated window. In the irregular and 
 almost forsaken streets, meanness, misery, and 
 filth appear on every side. To the native 
 population very few of the streets have names. 
 Some are a succession of arched avenues ; in 
 others, the opposite houses nearly meet over- 
 head, or a canopy of old mats and planks is 
 placed across, so low as scarcely to allow a 
 pedestrian to pass beneath. The footpaths are 
 only partially paved, and, in many instances, 
 are as rugged and steep as a mountain road, 
 and so narrow that two laden camels can with 
 difficulty pass each other. The shops are few, 
 mean, and dirty, the chief business being done 
 at the bazaars. 
 
 The Church of the Holy Sepulchre is one 
 of the chief buildings of the city. It is built 
 over the old traditional site of Calvary, and 
 is visited by every pilgrim. It is found 
 necessary to keep a guard at the church, to 
 preserve order among the members of the 
 Greek and Roman Churches. This is particu- 
 larly necessary at Easter, when the number 
 of pilgrims is greatest. 
 
 The Mosque of Omar, more properly the 
 " Dome of the Rock," with its extensive area, 
 its verdant lawn, and groups of olive and cypress 
 trees, occupies nearly one-eighth of the whole 
 city. It is a splendid building, beautiful inside 
 and out, and is held by many to stand upon 
 the site of the Temple of Solomon. 
 
 After much controversy, Jerusalem was 
 made, in 1840, the seat of a Protestant bishopric. 
 The controversy was revived in an acute form 
 when, after a vacancy of some years, the see 
 was filled by the appointment of an English 
 bishop in 1887. The Church Missionary Society 
 and the London Jews' Society have stations 
 at Jerusalem. 
 
 Jeru'sha, Jeru'shah. Taken possession of: 
 the daughter of Zadok, wife of king Uzziah, 
 and mother of king Jotham (2 K. 15.33 ; 2 Ch. 
 27.1). 
 
 Jesai'ah. Salvation of Jehovah : 1. Grandson 
 of Zerubbabel (I Ch. 3.21). 2. A Benjamite 
 (Neh. 11.7). 
 
 Jeshai'ah. Identical with Jesaiah and Isaiah. 
 1. A musician in the Temple service, and 
 chief of the eighth course of singers (1 Ch. 
 25.3). 2. A descendant of Eliezer, son of 
 
 Moses, and one of David's treasurers (1 Ch. 
 26.25). 3. Chief of the Merarites, who went 
 up with Ezra (Ezra 8.19). 4. A son of Elam, 
 who went up with Ezra (Ezra 8.7). 
 
 Jesha'nah. (?) Ancient city: a town taken 
 by Abijah from Jeroboam (2 Ch. 13.19). It 
 is thought to have been identified with Ain 
 Sinai, a village near Bethel, which place is 
 mentioned in our text as coupled with 
 Jeshanah. 
 
 Jeshare'lah. The same as Asarelah. A son 
 of Asaph in the time of David (1 Ch. 25.14). 
 
 Jeshebe'ab. (?) Seat of the father : the leader 
 of the fourteenth course of priests (1 Ch. 24.13). 
 
 Je'sher. Rightness or uprightness : a son 
 of Caleb (1 Ch. 2.18). 
 
 Jeshi'mon. A waste place, desert : the deso- 
 late desert tract of country in the south of 
 Palestine. It extends on both sides of the 
 Dead Sea (Num. 21.20 ; 1 Sam. 23.19). 
 
 Jeshi'shai. (?) Of ancient descent : an ancestor 
 of the Gadites (1 Ch. 5.14). 
 
 Jeshoha'iah. (?) Jehovah crouches : the 
 chief of a Simeonite family. He took part in 
 the raid upon the Hamites (1 Ch. 4.36) in the 
 time of Hezekiah. 
 
 Jeshu'a. Jehovah is salvation : 1. A con- 
 tracted form of Jehoshua. In Neh. 8.17 Joshua, 
 the son of Nun, is called Jeshua. [JOSHUA.] 
 2. A priest of David's time (1 Ch. 24.11). He 
 is also called Jeshuah. 3. A Levite who dis- 
 tributed the tithes to the priests in the time of 
 Hezekiah (2 Ch. 31.15). 
 
 4. The son of Jehozadak the high-priest, an 
 office which he himself held (Ezra 2.2 ; Neh. 7.7). 
 He returned from the Babylonish Captivity with 
 Zerubbabel, and took part in the rebuilding of 
 the Temple. He showed great energy and 
 courage hi the re-establishment of the country, 
 and it was mainly through his efforts that the 
 Temple services were resumed so soon after the 
 return (Ezra 3). His efforts were delayed by 
 the Samaritans [SANBALLAT] for fourteen 
 years. But at the end of that time the Temple 
 was finished, and dedicated at the celebration 
 of the Passover (Ezra 6.15-22). His piety, his 
 high character, and the importance of his work 
 in the settlement of his countrymen in their 
 own land, have gained for him the honour of 
 being a type of Christ (Zech. 3.8). In the 
 beginning of the same chapter of Zechariah he 
 represents Israel, and is assured of pardon and 
 restoration (Zech. 3.1-7). 
 
 5. A branch of the tribe of Judah that 
 returned with Zerubbabel (Ezra 2.6 ; Neh. 7.11). 
 6. Another priest and leader who returned 
 with Zerubbabel (Ezra 2.36). 7. Father of a 
 Levite who returned with Ezra (Ezra 8.33). 
 8. Father of Ezer, who repaired the wall 
 (Neh. 3.19). 9. A Levite who sealed the covenant 
 (Neh. 10.9). 10. A town near Beersheba, re- 
 occupied by Judah after the return from the 
 Captivity. Its modern name is S'Aweh 
 (Neh. 11.26). 
 
 Jeshu'run, Jesu'run. The upright one: a 
 poetical expression used to denote the people 
 
JESIAH] 
 
 243 
 
 [JESUS CHRIST 
 
 of Israel in its ideal character (Deut. 32.15). 
 In Isai. 44.2 the word is wrongly written 
 Jesurun. 
 
 Jesi'ah. 1. One of David's mighty men 
 (1 Ch. 12.6). 2. (1 Ch. 23.20). [JESHIAH and 
 IsraAH.] 
 
 Jesiini'eL God establishes : a Simeonite 
 prince in the time of Hezekiah (1 Ch. 4.36). 
 
 j es ' se ._The father of David. A son of Obed 
 and grandson of Boaz and Kuth (Ruth 4.17). He 
 is the only one of his name, and was generally 
 called " Jesse the Bethlehemite " (1 Sam. 
 16.1-18). From the time of the Exodus the 
 family was a famous one, belonging to the 
 house of Pharez. [NAHSHON, NAASON.] In 
 1 Sam. 17.12 he is given his full title of " that 
 Ephrathite of Bethlehem-Judah." Jesse had 
 eight sons living with him at Bethlehem, where 
 he was in honour, though he was not one of the 
 elders of the town (1 Sam. 16.4, 5, 10, 17.12). 
 His property consisted of flocks of sheep, under 
 the care of David (1 Sam. 16.11). Even after 
 David had become famous and powerful he is 
 still called the " son of Jesse " (1 Ch. 29.26). 
 The prophet Isaiah puts the name of Jesse on a 
 pinnacle of honour "And there shall come forth 
 a rod out of the stem of Jesse, and a Branch 
 shall grow out of his roots " (Isai. 11.], and see 
 also 11.10). 
 
 Je'sui. An Asherite (Num. 26.44). Else- 
 where his name appears as Isui (Gen. 46.17) and 
 Ishuai (1 Ch. 7.30). 
 
 Jes'uites. The descendants of the above 
 (Num. 26.44). 
 
 Jesus. Saviour : 1. The Greek form of the 
 name of Joshua, the son of Nun. So in Acts 
 7.45 ; Eel. 4.8. 2. In Col. 4.11 St. Paul writes 
 lovingly of " Jesus, which is called Justus." 
 This Jesus was a Jewish Christian, who was 
 one of the Apostle's fellow-workers at Rome, 
 and was a great comfort to him. [JOSE.] 
 
 Jesus Christ. No attempt can be made in 
 this article to deal with all the subjects associ- 
 ated with the life and work of our Lord. 
 Reference must also be made to other articles 
 as here noted. 
 
 I. The names of our Lord are used in the N.T. 
 in a manner which has significance. " Jesus," 
 the Greek equivalent of the Hebrew " Joshua " 
 (" Jehovah is deliverance "), the name given 
 before the birth of our Lord (Matt. 1.21 ; 
 Lk. 1.31), is that most frequently used in the 
 Gospels. Alone as " Jesus " it appears more 
 than 600 times; as "Jesus Christ" five or 
 six times ; and never as " Christ Jesus." 
 " Christ," from the Greek for " Anointed," 
 the equivalent of " Messiah," is used alone 
 only some 50 times in the Gospels. In the 
 Epistles and the Revelation, however, the per- 
 sonal name Jesus is used sparingly, unless 
 associated with the title " Lord " or " Christ." 
 The transition is natural, and suggests the 
 theme of apostolic preaching. " This Jesus . , . 
 is the Christ " (Acts 17.3). 
 
 II. There may be discerned a preparation for 
 Christ in the world at large. The coming was 
 not an isolated act, but an act strictly related 
 to the history of mankind. He came " in the 
 fulness of the time " (Gal. 4.4), in respect of the 
 world as well as of the Jewish people. Politic- 
 ally, the world was ready for the rapid growth of 
 a new religion by the consolidation of the Roman 
 Empire. There were ease of communication, 
 orderly conditions, and a language (Greek) as 
 useful to the traveller as is the English of to-day. 
 Religiously, the world, by the development of 
 the Roman Empire, had suffered the loss of 
 vitality in the separate religions of its various 
 peoples. Their diminished power suggested the 
 need of some central faith a need not met by 
 the deification of the Emperor himself. Philo- 
 sophy sought to point the way to such a faith. 
 It had failed. Despite the work of many men of 
 lofty ideals, Society went from bad to worse. 
 The moral condition of the Pagan world had 
 reached a depth of vileness for which no remedy 
 was apparent. The conditions indicated by 
 St. Paul in Rom. 1 are even more definitely 
 presented by the historians, poets, and play- 
 wrights of paganism. 
 
 What wonder that at this time an intoler- 
 able weariness had descended on the world, 
 and that self-murder was practised by the 
 nobler as well as the baser members of the 
 community, and was not condemned even by a 
 Marcus Aurelius ? It was at such a period that 
 there spread a belief that some new crisis was 
 at hand a belief which found a more definite 
 expression in the Messianic hope of the Jews. 
 
 The preparation for Christ in Hebrew history 
 may be studied in the development of that 
 Messianic hope. When the " fulness of the time " 
 was come, men were looking for an Elijah or one 
 of the prophets to prepare the way of the new 
 King (Mk. 6.15, 8.28 ; John 1.21, 6.14), or, like 
 Simeon and Joseph of Arimathsea, waited for 
 the promised consolation (Mk. 15.43; Lk. 2.25). 
 When John the Baptist came, men questioned 
 whether he were the promised Christ (Lk. 3.15). 
 The Jewish world was in expectation, even 
 though, when the Promised One " came unto 
 His own," they that were His own " received 
 Him not" (John 1.11). [CHRONOLOGY OP N.T., 
 MESSIAH.] 
 
 III. Our main authorities for the life of 
 our Lord are the four Gospels. Instead, there- 
 fore, of summarising the Life in a narrative 
 form, it may be more convenient to supply 
 a synopsis in the form of a harmony of the 
 Gospels. 
 
 This method of presenting the story of our 
 Lord's life on earth has also the advantage of 
 suggesting some distinctive, characteristics of 
 each Gospel. The contrast between the Synoptic 
 Gospels (Matthew, Mark, and Luke) and the 
 Gospel according to St. John in their treatment 
 of the life of our Lord is at once apparent. [See 
 each GOSPEL under its title.] 
 
JESUS CHRIST] 
 
 244 
 
 [JESUS CHRIST 
 
 EVENTS 
 
 MATT. 
 
 MARK 
 
 LUKE 
 
 JOHN 
 
 PART I. BIRTH AND CHILDHOOD OF 
 
 
 
 
 
 OUR LORD. 
 
 
 
 
 
 SECT. 
 
 ch. ver. 
 
 ch. ver. 
 
 ch. ver. 
 
 ch. ver. 
 
 1. The Genealogies 
 
 1. 1-17 
 
 
 3. 23-38 
 
 
 2. The birth of John announced to 
 
 
 
 
 
 Zacharias. Jerusalem 
 
 
 
 1. 5-25 
 
 
 3. The birth of Jesus announced to Mary. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Nazareth 
 
 
 
 1. 26-38 
 
 
 4. Mary's visit to Elisabeth, and her song 
 
 
 
 
 
 of praise. Jutta ? 
 5. The birth of John the Baptist. Jutta ? . 
 
 
 
 
 1. B9-56 
 1. 57-80 
 
 
 6. An angel appears to Joseph. Nazareth . 
 
 1. 18-25 
 
 
 
 
 7. The birth of Jesus. Bethlehem . 
 
 
 
 2.1-7 
 
 
 8. Angelic message to the shepherds. 
 Near Bethlehem 
 
 
 
 2. 8-20 
 
 
 9. The Circumcision ; Presentation in the 
 
 
 
 
 
 Temple. Bethlehem and Jerusalem . 
 
 . . 
 
 
 2. 21-38 
 
 
 10. The visit of the Magi. Jerusalem and 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bethlehem 
 
 2. 1-12 
 
 
 
 
 11. The flight into Egypt. Herod's cruelty. 
 The return from Egypt to Nazareth . 
 
 2. 13-23 
 
 
 2. 39, 40 
 
 
 12. At twelve years of age Jesus goes to the 
 
 
 
 
 
 Passover. Jerusalem 
 
 
 
 
 2. 41-52 
 
 
 PART II. ANNOUNCEMENT AND INTRO- 
 
 
 
 
 
 DUCTION OF OUR LORD'S PUBLIC 
 
 
 
 
 
 MINISTRY. 
 
 
 
 
 
 13. The ministry of John the Baptist. The 
 
 
 
 
 
 Desert. The Jordan .... 
 
 3. 1-12 
 
 1.1-8 
 
 3. 1-18 
 
 
 14. The baptism of Jesus. The Jordan 
 
 3. 13-17 
 
 1. 9-11 
 
 3. 21-23 
 
 
 15. The Temptations. Desert of Judaea 
 
 4. 1-11 
 
 1. 12, 13 
 
 4. 1-13 
 
 
 16. Testimony of John the Baptist to Jesus. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bethaoara 
 
 
 
 
 1. 15-34 
 
 17. Two of John's disciples follow Jesus. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Andrew brings Peter to Him 
 18. Jesus returns to Galilee. Philip becomes 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1. 35-42 
 
 His disciple, and brings Nathanael to 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1. 43-51 
 
 19. The marriage at Cana in Galilee. Visit 
 
 
 
 
 
 to Capernaum 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2. 1-12 
 
 PART III. FROM THE FIRST PASSOVER 
 
 
 
 
 
 DURING OUB LORD'S PUBLIC MINISTRY 
 
 
 
 
 
 UNTIL THE SECOND. 
 
 
 
 
 
 20. Jesus goes up to Jerusalem to the Pass- 
 
 
 
 
 
 over. He cleanses the Temple . 
 21. Nicodemus visits Him at night. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2. 13-25 
 
 Jerusalem 
 
 
 
 
 3. 1-21 
 
 22. Jesus leaves Jerusalem, but remains in 
 
 
 
 
 
 Judaea and makes disciples. Further 
 
 
 
 
 
 testimony of John the Baptist. 
 
 
 
 
 
 JEnon 
 
 
 
 
 3. 22-36 
 
 23. Jesus departs for Galilee after John is 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 12 
 
 1. 14 
 
 4. 14 
 
 4. 1-3 
 
 24. He converses with a woman of Sychar at 
 
 
 
 
 
 Jacob's well. Samaritans believe on 
 
 
 
 
 
 Him 
 
 
 
 
 4.4-42 
 
 25. He arrives in Galilee, and teaches publicly 
 
 4.17' 
 
 1. 14, 15 
 
 4. 14, 15 
 
 4. 43-45 
 
 26. He comes again to Cana in Galilee"; 
 
 
 
 
 
 heals the son of a nobleman at Caper- 
 
 
 
 
 
 naum ...... 
 
 
 m . 
 
 . , 
 
 4. 46-54 
 
 27. Jesus at Nazareth ; is there rejected ; 
 
 
 
 
 
 goes to Capernaum, fixes His abode 
 
 
 
 
 
 there, and teaches publicly on the 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sabbath 
 
 4. 13-16 
 
 
 4. 16-31 
 
 
JESUS CHRIST] 
 
 245 
 
 [JESUS CHEIST 
 
 BVENTS 
 
 MATT. 
 
 MARE 
 
 LUKE 
 
 JOHN 
 
 SECT. 
 
 ch. ver. 
 
 ch. ver. 
 
 ch. ver. 
 
 ch. ver. 
 
 28. The call of Peter, Andrew, James, and 
 
 
 
 
 
 John, and the miraculous draught of 
 
 
 
 
 
 fishes. 1 Sea of Galilee : near Caper- 
 
 
 
 
 
 naum 
 
 4. 18-22 
 
 1.16-20 
 
 5. 1-11 
 
 
 29. Jesus heals a demoniac in the synagogue. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Capernaum ..... 
 
 . . 
 
 1. 21-28 
 
 4. 31-37 
 
 
 30. He heals Peter's wife's mother, and many 
 
 
 
 
 
 others 
 
 8. 14-17 
 
 1.29-34 
 
 4J 38-41 
 
 
 31. He makes His first circuit with His 
 
 
 
 
 
 disciples throughout Galilee 
 
 4. 23-25 
 
 1. 35-39 
 
 4.42-44 
 
 
 32. He heals a leper. He retires from the 
 town to desert places .... 
 
 8.2-4 
 
 1.40-45 
 
 5. 12-16 
 
 
 33. He returns to Capernaum. The people 
 flock to Him. He heals a paralytic . 
 
 9.2-8 
 
 2. 1-12 
 
 5. 17-26 
 
 
 34. He calls Matthew 
 
 9 9 
 
 2. 13, 14 
 
 5. 27, 28 
 
 
 PAST IV. FROM THE SECOND * PASSOTBB 
 
 
 
 
 
 UNTIL THE THTJBD. 
 
 
 
 
 
 35. Jesus at Jerusalem at the Passover ; 
 
 
 
 
 
 heals an infirm man at the Pool of 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bethesda on the Sabbath. The Jew* 
 
 
 
 
 
 seek to kill Him .... 
 
 ., 
 
 
 
 5.1-47 
 
 36. The disciples pluck ears of corn on the 
 Sabbath. On the way to Galilee ? 
 
 12. 1-8 
 
 2. 23-28 
 
 6.1-5 
 
 
 37. Healing of a withered hand on the 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sabbath Galilee 
 
 13 9-14 
 
 3.1-6 
 
 6.6-11 
 
 
 38. Jesus withdraws to the Sea of Galilee, 
 
 
 
 
 
 and is followed by great multitudes. 
 
 
 
 
 
 He heals many 
 
 12. 15-21 
 
 3. 7-12 
 
 
 
 39. He retires to the mountain, and chooses 
 
 
 
 
 
 the Twelve ; the people follow Him. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Near Capernaum .... 
 40. The Sermon on the Mount 
 
 10.2-4 
 5. 1 to 8. 1 
 
 3. 13-19 
 
 6. 12-19 
 6.20-49 
 
 
 41. Healing of a centurion's servant. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Capernaum ..... 
 
 8.5-13 
 
 , , 
 
 7. 1-10 
 
 
 42. Jesus raises a widow's son at Nain. His 
 
 
 
 
 
 fame spreads through all the neigh- 
 
 
 
 
 
 bourhood and in Judaea 
 
 . . 
 
 . , 
 
 7. 11-17 
 
 
 43. John the Baptist in prison sends disciples 
 
 11 2-19 
 
 
 7.18-35 
 
 
 44. Jesus upbraids the inhabitants of 
 
 
 
 
 
 Chorazui, Bethsaida, and Capernaum . 
 45. While sitting at meat with a Pharisee, 
 
 11.20-30 
 
 
 
 
 Jesus is anointed by a penitent 
 
 
 
 
 
 woman. Capernaum? 
 46. Jesus, with the Twelve, makes a second 
 
 
 
 
 
 7.36-50 
 
 
 circuit in Galilee .... 
 
 . . 
 
 . . 
 
 8.1-3 
 
 
 47. He heals a demoniac. The scribes and ^ 
 Pharisees charge Him with being > 
 in league with Satan. Galilee . ) 
 
 12. 22-37 
 
 3. 19-30 | 
 
 11. 14, 15, 
 17-23 
 
 
 48. Our Lord refuses their request of a sign . 
 
 12. 38-45 
 
 .. { 
 
 11. 16, 24- 
 36 
 
 
 49. His reference to His mother and brethren 
 
 12.46-50 
 
 3. 31-35 
 
 8. 19-21 
 
 
 50. At a Pharisee's table, He exposes the 
 
 
 
 
 
 hypocrisy of the Pharisees and scribes 
 51. He discourses upon hypocrisy, worldli- 
 
 
 
 
 
 11. 37-54 
 
 
 ness, and unwatchfulness . 
 
 , , 
 
 . . 
 
 12. 1-59 
 
 
 52. Our Lord's observations upon the 
 
 
 
 
 
 slaughter of certain Galileans. Par- 
 
 
 
 
 
 able of the barren fig-tree . 
 
 
 
 
 13. 1-9 
 
 
 1 This "call" is regarded by many expositors as given on at least two distinct occasions: 
 see Dr. E. R. Conder, Outlines of the Life of Christ, p. 73. 
 
 2 It is here assumed that the "feast of the Jews," mentioned in John 5.1, was the Pass- 
 over. The third Passover is the one mentioned in John 6.4. 
 
JESUS CHRIST] 
 
 246 
 
 [JESUS CHRIST 
 
 EVENTS 
 
 MATT. 
 
 MARK 
 
 LUKE 
 
 JOHN 
 
 SECT. 
 
 ch. ver. 
 
 ch. ver. 
 
 ch. ver. 
 
 ch. ver. 
 
 53. A great multitude collect around Him ; 
 
 
 
 
 
 and He addresses them out of a 
 
 
 
 
 
 vessel on the lake. Parable of the 
 
 
 
 
 
 sower 
 
 13. 1-23 
 
 4. 1-25 
 
 8.4-18 
 
 
 54. Parables of the tares, the grain of mustard 
 
 
 
 
 
 seed, the learen, the hidden treasure, 
 
 
 
 
 
 the pearl of great price, and the drag- 
 
 
 
 
 
 net 
 
 13. 24-53 
 
 4. 26-34 
 
 
 
 55. Jesus crosses the lake with His dis-> 
 ciples, and stills a storm . . j 
 
 8. 18-27 
 
 4. 35-41 -j 
 
 8. 22-25 
 9. 57-62 
 
 
 56. The two demoniacs of Gadara. 8.E. ( 
 coast of Sea of Galilee . . ( 
 57. The feast at Levi's house, with publicans 
 and sinners. Capernaum . 
 
 8.28 ) 
 9.1 j- 
 
 9. 10-13 
 
 5. 1-21 
 2. 15-17 
 
 8.26-40 
 5. 29-32 
 
 
 58. The question of John's disciples on 
 fasting ; and our Lord's reply . 
 59. liaising of Jairus's daughter ; and heal- 
 ing of a woman with an issue of blood 
 
 9. 14-17 
 9. 18-26 
 
 2. 18-22 
 5.22-43 
 
 5. 33-39 
 8. 41-56 
 
 
 60. Two blind men healed, and a dumb 
 
 
 
 
 
 spirit cast out. Capernaum ? . 
 
 9.27-34 
 
 
 
 
 61. Jesus teaches in His own country, and 
 
 
 
 
 
 is rejected. Nazareth 
 
 13. 54-58 
 
 6.1-6 
 
 
 
 62. A third circuit throughout the country. 
 
 
 
 
 
 The Twelve sent forth 
 
 9. 35 to 11.1 
 
 6.6-13 
 
 9.1-6 
 
 
 63. Herod, hearing of Jesus, supposes Him 
 
 
 
 
 
 to be John the Baptist, whom he had 
 
 
 
 
 
 just before beheaded 
 
 14. 1-12 
 
 6. 14-29 
 
 9.7-9 
 
 
 64. The Twelve return to Jesus. He retires 
 
 
 
 
 
 with them to a desert place on the 
 
 
 
 
 
 other side of the Sea of Galilee ; is 
 
 
 
 
 
 followed by a multitude, and feeds 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 14 13-21 
 
 6.30-44 
 
 9. 10-17 
 
 6. 1-14 
 
 65. The disciples return across the Sea of 
 
 
 
 
 
 Galilee ; Jesus comes to them walking 
 
 
 
 
 
 upon the water. He goes to Genne- 
 
 
 
 
 
 saret, and great multitudes resort to 
 
 
 
 
 
 Him 
 
 14.22-36 
 
 6. 45-56 
 
 t , 
 
 6. 15-21 
 
 66. The people seek Jesus and find Hirm 
 
 
 
 
 
 at Capernaum. He teaches in the 
 synagogue. Many disciples are V 
 
 
 
 { 
 
 6. 22-71 
 7. 1 
 
 offended, and leave Him. Peter's 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 confession ' 
 
 
 
 
 
 PABT V. FROM TIIE THIED PASSOVER 
 
 
 
 
 
 UNTIL OUR LORD'S ARRIVAL AT 
 
 
 
 
 
 BETHANY, six DAYS BEFORE THE 
 
 
 
 
 
 FOURTH. 
 
 
 
 
 
 67. Pharisees and scribes from Jerusalem 
 
 
 
 
 
 object to the disciples disregarding 
 the tradition of the elders. Our 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lord's reply. Capernaum 
 68. Jesus goes to the borders of Tyre and 
 
 15. 1-20 
 
 7. 1-23 
 
 
 
 Sidon. A Syrophenician woman 
 
 
 
 
 
 obtains deliverance for her daughter 
 
 15. 21-28 
 
 7. 24-30 
 
 
 
 69. He returns through Decapolis to a 
 
 
 
 
 
 mountain near the Sea of Galilee. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Great multitudes follow Him ; He 
 
 
 
 
 
 heals many, and feeds four thousand 
 
 15. 29-38 
 
 7.31 to 8. 9 
 
 
 
 70. Jesus sends away the people, and ^ 
 crosses the lake to Dalmanutha. I 
 
 15. 39 ) 
 
 
 
 
 The Pharisees and Sadducees again ? 
 
 16. 1-4 ] 
 
 8. 10-12 
 
 
 
 require a sign ) 
 
 
 
 
 
 71. Jesus again crosses the lake. The 
 
 
 
 
 
 disciples cautioned against the leaven 
 
 
 
 
 
 of the Pharisees, etc 
 
 16. 4-12 
 
 8. 13-21 
 
 
 
JESUS CHRIST] 
 
 247 
 
 [JESUS CHRIST 
 
 EVENTS 
 
 MATT. 
 
 MAKK 
 
 LUKE 
 
 JOHN 
 
 SECT. 
 
 ch. ver. 
 
 ch. ver. 
 
 ch. ver. 
 
 ch. ver. 
 
 72. A blind man healed. Bethsaida (Julias) 
 
 m t 
 
 8. 22-26 
 
 
 
 73. Jesus goes to the region of Csesarea 
 
 
 
 
 
 Philippi. Peter and the other 
 
 
 
 
 
 disciples again profess their faith in 
 * Him 
 
 16. 13-20 
 
 8. 27-30 
 
 9. 18-21 
 
 
 74. He foretells His own death and resurrec-~| 
 
 
 ( O 1 "\ 
 
 
 
 tion, and the trials of His followers. > 
 
 16. 21-28 
 
 (8. 6l-\ 
 
 1 Q Q 1 f 
 
 9. 22-27 
 
 
 Region of Ccesarea Philippi . ) 
 
 
 {68 9. 1) 
 
 
 
 75. Our Lord's transfiguration and subse- 
 
 
 
 
 
 quent discourse .... 
 
 17. 1-13 
 
 9. 2-13 
 
 9. 28-36 
 
 
 76. Healing of a demoniac, whom the dis- 
 
 
 
 
 
 ciples could not heal .... 
 
 17. 14-21 
 
 9. 14-29 
 
 9. 37-43 
 
 
 77. Jesus again foretells His own death and 
 
 
 
 
 
 resurrection. Galilee 
 
 17. 22, 23 
 
 9. 30-32 
 
 9.43-45 
 
 
 78. The tribute-money miraculously pro- 
 
 
 
 
 
 vided. Capernaum .... 
 79. The disciples contend who shall be the 
 
 17. 24-27 
 
 9.33 
 
 
 
 greatest. Jesus exhorts to humility, 
 forbearance, and brotherly love . 
 
 18. 1-35 
 
 9. 33-50 
 
 9.46-50 
 
 
 80. The Seventy instructed and sent out. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Samaria ...... 
 
 
 1 t 
 
 10. 1-16 
 
 
 81. Jesus finally leaves Galilee, to go up 
 
 
 
 
 
 to Jerusalem to the feast of Taber- 
 
 
 
 
 
 nacles. A Samaritan village refuses 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 9. 51-56 
 
 7. 2-10 
 
 82. Ten lepers cleansed. Samaria? . 
 
 
 
 17. 11-19 
 
 
 83. Jesus at Jerusalem at the festival of'v 
 
 
 
 
 
 Tabernacles (about six months after \ 
 
 
 
 
 (711 *& 
 
 the third passover). He teaches in j- 
 
 . . 
 
 . . 
 
 . , 
 
 I. 11 O<~> 
 
 the Temple. The rulers attempt to 
 
 
 
 
 (.8. 1 
 
 seize Him J 
 
 
 
 
 
 84. His judgment is asked on a woman guilty 
 of adultery. Jerusalem 
 
 
 
 
 8. 2-11 
 
 85. Further public teaching of our Lord. 
 
 
 
 
 
 He reproves the unbelieving Jews, 
 and they attempt to stone Him . 
 
 
 
 
 8. 12-59 
 
 86. Reply to the question of a lawyer. 
 Parable of the good Samaritan . 
 
 
 
 10. 25-37 
 
 
 87. Jesus at the house of Martha and Mary. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bethany 
 
 
 m 1 
 
 10. 38-42 
 
 
 88. The disciples again taught how to pray. 
 Near Jerusalem ..... 
 
 
 
 11. 1-13 
 
 
 89. The Seventy return, having accomplished 
 
 
 
 
 
 their mission ..... 
 
 1 t 
 
 , . 
 
 10. 17-24 
 
 
 90. A man born blind is healed on the^ 
 Sabbath. Questions and objections. > 
 Jerusalem ) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (9. 1-41 
 \10. 1-21 
 
 91. Jesus in the Temple at the festival of 
 
 
 
 
 
 Dedication (about three months after 
 
 
 
 
 
 the feast of Tabernacles : 83). The 
 
 
 
 
 
 Jews seek to seize Him ; He retires 
 
 
 
 
 
 beyond Jordan ; and many resort to 
 Him 
 
 
 
 
 10. 22-42 
 
 92. He is informed of the sickness of Lazarus, 
 
 
 
 
 
 goes to Bethany, and raises Lazarus 
 
 
 
 
 
 from the dead 
 
 . , 
 
 . . 
 
 
 11. 1-46 
 
 93. The Jewish council determine to put 
 
 
 
 
 
 Jesus to death. He retires with His 
 
 
 
 
 
 disciples to Ephraim near the wilder- 
 
 
 
 
 
 ness 
 
 . . 
 
 . . 
 
 . . 
 
 11. 47-54 
 
 94. He withdraws beyond Jordan, and is 
 
 
 
 
 
 followed by multitudes. He heals 
 
 
 
 
 
 an infirm woman on the Sabbath 
 
 19. 1, 2 
 
 10.1 
 
 13. 10-21 
 
 
 95. He goes through Peraea towards Jeru- 
 
 
 
 
 
 salem, teaching on His way. Some 
 Pharisees warn Him respecting Herod 
 
 
 
 
 
 13. 22-35 
 
 
JESUS CHRIST] 
 
 248 
 
 [JESUS CHRIST 
 
 EVENTS 
 
 MATT. 
 
 MARE 
 
 LUKE 
 
 JOHN 
 
 SECT. 
 
 ch. ver. 
 
 ch. ver. 
 
 ch. ver. 
 
 ch. ver. 
 
 96. He dines with a chief Pharisee on the 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sabbath, and addresses the guests. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Parable of the great supper. Percea 
 97. He teaches the multitude what is re- 
 
 
 
 
 
 14. 1-24 
 
 
 quired of true disciples 
 98. Publicans and sinners flock to Him. 
 
 
 
 
 
 14.25-35 
 
 
 The Pharisees murmur. Parables of 
 
 
 
 
 
 the lost sheep, the lost piece of silver, 
 and the prodigal son .... 
 
 
 
 15. 1-32 
 
 
 99. Parable of the unjust steward 
 
 
 . . 
 
 16. 1-13 
 
 
 100. The Pharisees reproved. Parable of 
 
 
 
 
 
 the rich man and Lazarus . 
 
 . . 
 
 . . 
 
 16. 14-31 
 
 
 101. Jesus inculcates forbearance, faith, and 
 
 
 
 
 
 humility 
 
 m . 
 
 , , 
 
 17. 1-10 
 
 
 102. Reply to the question of the Pharisees 
 
 
 
 
 
 concerning the coming of the kingdom 
 
 
 
 
 
 of God 
 
 
 9 
 
 17. 20-37 
 
 
 103. Parables : the importunate widow ; 
 
 
 
 
 
 the Pharisee and publican . 
 
 . . 
 
 
 18. 1-14 
 
 
 104. Precepts as to divorce . . . . 
 
 19. 3-12 
 
 10. 2-12 
 
 
 
 105. Jesus receives and blesses little chil- 
 
 
 
 
 
 dren 
 
 19. 13-15 
 
 10. 13-16 
 
 18. 15-17 
 
 
 106. A rich young ruler rejects the terms'j 
 of discipleship. Parable of the V 
 labourers in the vineyard . . J 
 
 19.16-30 
 20. 1-16 
 
 1 10. 17-31 
 
 18. 18-30 
 
 
 107. On the way to Jerusalem, Jesus a third 
 
 
 
 
 
 time foretells His death and 
 
 
 
 
 
 resurrection 
 
 20. 17-19 
 
 10. 32-34 
 
 18. 31-34 
 
 
 108. The ambitious request of James and 
 
 
 
 
 
 John 
 
 20. 20-28 
 
 10. 35-45 
 
 
 
 109. Healing of two blind men near Jericho 
 
 20. 29-34 
 
 10. 46-52 
 
 (18. 35 
 tl9. 1 
 
 
 110. Visit to Zacchaeus. Jm'cfco 
 
 
 
 19. 2-10 
 
 
 111. Parable of the ten servants entrusted 
 
 
 
 
 
 with ten pounds 
 
 . . 
 
 . , 
 
 19. 11-28 
 
 
 112. Jesus arrives at Bethany six days^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 before the Passover. Those who 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 11. 55-57 
 
 have come up to the festival inquire V 
 after Him ; and many come to Him 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 12*. 1, 9-11 
 
 at Bethany J 
 
 
 
 
 
 PABT VI. THE LAST PASSOVEB WEEK. 
 
 
 
 
 
 113. First day of the week. Jesus enters) 
 Jerusalem publicly, and at night > 
 
 21. 1-11,) 
 
 14 171 
 
 11. 1-11 
 
 19. 29-44 
 
 12.12-19 
 
 returns to Bethany ) 
 
 IT~JL i j 
 
 
 
 
 114. Second day of the week. He goes in to A 
 
 
 
 
 
 Jerusalem ; on His way, curses the 1 
 barren fig- tree ; expels the traders V 
 from the Temple ; and in the evening 1 
 
 21.12, 13, > 
 18, 19 j" 
 
 11. 12-19 
 
 19. 45, 46 
 
 
 returns again to Bethany . . J 
 
 
 
 
 
 115. Third day of the week. He again goes 
 
 
 
 
 
 into the city in the morning, passing 
 
 
 
 
 
 by the withered fig-tree 
 
 21. 20-22 
 
 11. 20-26 
 
 
 
 116. He teaches in the Temple. His A 
 authority is questioned. Parables ( 
 of the two sons, and of the vineyard f 
 let out to husbandmen . . ) 
 
 21. 23-46 
 
 f 11. 27-33 
 \12. 1-12 
 
 (19.47,48 
 1 20. 1-19 
 (21. 37, 38 
 
 
 117. Parable of the marriage feast 
 118. Question of the Pharisees and Herod ians 
 
 22. 1-14 
 
 
 
 
 concerning payment of tribute to 
 
 
 
 
 
 Caesar 
 
 22. 15-22 
 
 12. 13-17 
 
 20. 20-26 
 
 
 119. Question of the Sadducees as to the 
 
 
 
 
 
 resurrection 
 
 22. 23-33 
 
 12. 18-27 
 
 20. 27-40 
 
 
 120. A lawyer questions Jesus. The two 
 
 
 
 
 
 great commandments 
 
 22.34-40 
 
 12.28-34 
 
 
 
JESUS CHRIST] 
 
 249 
 
 [JESUS CHRIST 
 
 EVENTS 
 
 MATT. 
 
 MARE 
 
 LUKE 
 
 JOHN 
 
 SECT. 
 
 ch. ver. 
 
 ch. ver. 
 
 ch. ver. 
 
 ch. ver. 
 
 121. Our Lord's question respecting the Son 
 of David 
 
 22. 41-4G 
 
 12. 35-37 
 
 20. 41-44 
 
 
 122. Warnings against the example of the 
 scribes and Pharisees. Woes against 
 
 
 
 
 
 them. Lamentation over Jerusalem . 
 
 23. 1-39 
 
 12. 38, 40 
 
 20. 45-47 
 
 
 123. The widow's offering to the Temple 
 
 
 
 
 
 treasury 
 
 . . 
 
 12. 41-44 
 
 21. 1-4 
 
 
 124. Certain Greeks desire to see Jesus. 
 
 
 
 
 
 The unbelief of the Jews . 
 
 , . 
 
 . , 
 
 , . 
 
 12.20-50 
 
 125. Jesus leaves the Temple ; and on the 
 
 
 
 
 
 Mount of Olives, on His way to 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bethany, foretells its destruction and 
 
 
 
 
 
 the overthrow of the Jewish state 
 
 24. 1-42 
 
 13. 1-37 
 
 21.5-36 
 
 
 126. He proceeds to speak of His final com-] 
 ing to judgment. Parables of the / 
 ten virgins and the five talents . J 
 
 24. 43-51 
 25. 1-46 
 
 
 
 
 127. Fourth day of the week (beginning at 
 
 
 
 
 
 sunset). The rulers conspire to seize 
 
 
 
 
 
 Jesus secretly and put Him to death. 
 
 
 
 
 
 At a supper at Bethany, He is anointed 
 
 
 
 
 
 by Mary. Judas lays his plan ; 
 
 
 
 
 
 Jesus remaining at Bethany this day 
 
 26. 1-16 
 
 14. 1-11 
 
 22.1-6 
 
 12.2-8 
 
 128. Fifth day of the week. Jesus sends two 
 
 
 
 
 
 disciples to the city to make pre- 
 
 
 
 
 
 paration for the Passover, and Him- 
 
 
 
 
 
 self repairs thither in the afternoon . 
 
 26. 17-19 
 
 14. 12-16 
 
 22. 7-13 
 
 
 129. Sixth day of the week (beginning at\ 
 
 
 
 
 
 sunset). Jesus celebrates the paschal ( 
 supper with the Twelve. They con- f 
 tend who shall be the greatest . ) 
 
 26.20 
 
 14. 17 -[ 
 
 22. 14-18, 
 24-30 
 
 
 130. Jesus washes His disciples' feet . 
 
 
 
 
 13. 1-20 
 
 131. He foretells His betrayal, and points 
 
 
 
 
 
 out the traitor. Judas withdraws . 
 
 26. 21-25 
 
 14. 18-21 
 
 22. 21-23 
 
 13. 21-35 
 
 132. He foretells the fall of Peter, and the 
 
 
 
 
 
 dispersion of the Twelve . 
 
 26. 31-35 
 
 14. 27-31 
 
 22. 31-58 
 
 13. 36-38 
 
 133. He institutes the Lord's Supper . 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 Cor. 11. 23-25 
 
 26. 26-29 
 
 14. 22-25 
 
 22. 19, 20 
 
 
 134. Our Lord's valedictory address to His) 
 disciples : His intercessory prayer ) 
 
 .. 
 
 .. 
 
 { 
 
 14. Ito 
 n2fi 
 
 135. His agony in Gethsemane . . 4 
 
 26.30, 
 36-46 
 
 14.26, \ 
 32-42) 
 
 22. 39-46 
 
 o 
 18.1 
 
 136. He is betrayed, and made prisoner 
 
 26. 47-56 
 
 14. 43-52 
 
 22. 47-53 
 
 18. 2-12 
 
 137. He is brought before the high priest in f 
 the night. Peter thrice denies Him \ 
 
 26. 57, 58, 
 69-75 
 
 14 -i.%} 
 
 22.54-62 
 
 (18.13-18, 
 \ 25-27 
 
 138. In the morning He is brought before 
 
 
 
 
 
 the high priest and the council. He 
 
 
 
 
 
 declares Himself to be the Christ ; is 
 
 
 
 
 
 condemned and mocked 
 
 26. 59-68 
 
 14. 55-65 
 
 22. 63-71 
 
 18. 19-24 
 
 139. The chief priests and rulers take Him) 
 before Pilate, in order to obtain His > 
 crucifixion ..... J 
 
 27. 1, 2, | 
 11-14 C 
 
 15.1-5 
 
 23.1-5 
 
 18. 28-38 
 
 140. Pilate pronounces Him innocent, but 
 
 
 
 
 
 sends Him to Herod : Herod sends 
 
 
 
 
 
 Him back to Pilate .... 
 
 
 
 23. 6-12 
 
 
 141. Pilate seeks to release Him; but) 
 
 
 
 
 
 finally delivers Him up to be crucified. > 
 He is scourged and mocked . ) 
 
 27.15-30 
 
 15. 6-19 
 
 23. 13-25 
 
 f 18. 39 to 
 119.6 
 
 142. Judas repents, and hangs himself . 
 
 
 
 
 
 Acts 1. 18, 19 
 
 27. 3-10 
 
 
 
 
 143. Jesus is led away to be crucified 
 
 27. 31-34 
 
 15. 20-23 
 
 23. 26-33 
 
 19. 16, 17 
 
 144. The crucifixion 
 
 27.35-44 
 
 15. 24-32 
 
 23. 33-43 
 
 19. 18-27 
 
 145. Jesus expires on the cross. Super- 
 
 
 
 
 
 natural signs accompany His death : 
 
 
 
 
 
 the testimony of the centurion . 
 146. The taking down of the body from the 
 
 27. 45-56 
 
 15. 33-41 
 
 23. 44-49 
 
 19. 28-30 
 
 cross. The burial .... 
 
 27. 57-61 
 
 15.42-47 
 
 23.50-56 
 
 19. 31-42 
 
JESUS CHRIST] 
 
 250 
 
 [JESUS CHRIST 
 
 EVENTS 
 
 MATT. 
 
 MARK 
 
 LUKE 
 
 JOHN 
 
 SECT. 
 
 ch. ver. 
 
 ch. ver. 
 
 ch. ver. 
 
 ch. ver. 
 
 147. Seventh day of the week. The guard set 
 at the sepulchre ..... 
 
 27. 62-66 
 
 
 
 
 PART VII. OUE LORD'S RESURRECTION, 
 
 
 
 
 
 HIS SUBSEQUENT APPEARANCES TO 
 
 
 
 
 
 His DISCIPLES, AND His ASCENSION. 
 
 
 
 
 
 148. First day of the week. The resurrection. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 fl8 2-4 
 
 16. 1 
 
 
 
 149. Visit of the women to the sepulchre. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Mary Magdalene returns 
 150. Vision of angels at the sepulchre . 
 
 28.1 
 28. 5-7 
 
 16.2-4 
 16. 5-7 
 
 24.1-3 
 
 24. 4-8 
 
 20. 1, 2 
 
 151. The women return to the city. Jesus 
 
 
 
 
 
 meets them 
 
 28. 8-10 
 
 16.8 
 
 24. 9-11 
 
 
 152. Peter and John run to the sepulchre 
 
 9 , 
 
 . . 
 
 24.12 
 
 20. 3-10 
 
 153. Our Lord is seen by Mary Magdalene 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 16. 9-11 
 
 
 20. 11-18 
 
 154. Report of the guard on returning into 
 
 
 
 
 
 the city 
 
 28. 11-15 
 
 
 
 
 155. Our Lord is seen by Peter ; then by two 
 
 
 
 
 
 disciples on the way to Emmaus 
 1 Cor. 15. 5 
 
 
 16. 12, 13 
 
 24. 13-35 
 
 
 156. Evening following the first day of the 
 
 
 
 
 
 week. 'He appears to the apostles, 
 Thomas being absent . 1 Cor. 15. 5 
 
 
 16.14 
 
 24. 36-49 
 
 20. 19-23 
 
 157. Evening following the first day of the 
 next week. He appears to them again, 
 Thomas being present 
 
 
 
 
 20. 24-29 
 
 158. The apostles go to Galilee. Jesus shows 
 Himself to nine of them at the Sea 
 
 
 
 
 
 of Tiberias 
 
 28. 16 
 
 . , 
 
 . . 
 
 21. 1-24 
 
 159. He meets fire hundred on a mountain 
 
 
 
 
 
 in Galilee . . . 1 Cor. 15. 6 
 
 28. 16-20 
 
 16. 15-18 
 
 
 
 160. He is seen by James, and then by all 
 
 
 
 
 
 the apostles. Jerusalem . 
 
 
 
 
 
 Acts 1. 3-8 ; 1 Cor. 15. 7. 
 
 
 
 
 
 161. He ascends into heaven. Bethany 
 Acts 1. 9-12 
 
 
 
 16. 19, 20 
 
 24. 50-53 
 
 
 IV. The Divinity of our Lord is clearly 
 claimed by Him. Pre-existence (John 8.58), 
 with the Father (John 17.4,5, and cf. 
 17.24), in heaven (John 3.13); Relationship 
 as Son with the Father ( John 10.30, 14.23 ; and 
 cf. Matt. 16.13-17, 26.62-64) ; a mission from 
 the Father (John 10.36, 16.28) these are 
 specifically claimed by our Lord. These claims 
 must be considered in the light of His 
 moral perfection [see infra, on the Character 
 of our Lord]. He Himself asks, "Whom do 
 men say that I am?" (Mk. 8.27). His 
 claims find support in the works of our 
 Lord. He Himself offered them to John as 
 such evidence (Matt. 11.2-6 ; and cf. John 
 10.37, 38), and called attention to the sin of 
 rejecting their witness (Matt. 11.21-24; John 
 15.23-25). Their influence upon some was 
 decisive, even when it stopped short of full 
 recognition (Matt. 8.27 ; Mk. 5.37-43 ; Lk. 
 7.13-16 ; John 11.33-46). And, as He bestowed 
 miraculous gifts of healing and succour, so also 
 He presents Himself as the source of spiritual 
 blessing. He can say, " Believe ... in Me " 
 
 (John 14.1) ; " I will give you rest " (Matt. 
 11.28). To love Him is to love God (John 
 14.23) ; surrender to Him is surrender to God 
 (John 17.10) ; fellowship with Him is fellow- 
 ship with God (John 17.23) ; to dwell with Him 
 is to dwell with God (John 14.23) ; and He can 
 forgive sin (Matt. 9.6). Whilst this is the lan- 
 guage of the Gospels, the Epistles are not less 
 definite. He is God (Rom. 9.5), the Son sent 
 by the Father (Heb. 1.2), omnipotent (Phil 
 3.21; Col. 2.9,10), unchangeable (Heb. 13.8), 
 Creator (Col. 1.16, 17 ; Heb. 1.2), Judge (Rom. 
 14.10), and object of worship (Phil. 2.10, 11). 
 [SON OP GOD.] 
 
 V. The Manhood of our Lord is equally clear 
 from Holy Scripture. As we believe that the 
 Son is " the Word of the Father, begotten from 
 everlasting of the Father, the very and eternal 
 God, and of one substance with the Father," 
 so also we believe that He " took man's nature 
 in the womb of the blessed Virgin, of her 
 substance ; so that two whole and perfect 
 natures, that is to say, the Godhead and Man- 
 hood, were joined together in one i'erson, never 
 
JESUS CHRIST] 
 
 251 
 
 [JESUS CHRIST 
 
 to be divided, whereof is one Christ, very 
 God, and very Man " (Art. II. of the Thirty- 
 nine Articles). " The Word became flesh " 
 (John 1.14). The event was prepared for. In 
 the promise of Gen. 3.15 ; in the assurance to 
 Abraham, " In thee shall all families of the 
 earth be blessed " (Gen. 12.3) ; in the develop- 
 ment by the Messianic idea ; and more particu- 
 larly in the picture given by " the servant of 
 the Lord " (Isai. 40-66) in all these the coming 
 is foreshadowed. [MESSIAH.] The birth was 
 supernatural; by the operation of the Holy 
 Spirit, the Virgin conceived. Thus the Lord 
 " cometh from above " (John 3.31), though 
 " made of a woman " (Gal. 4.4) and " in the 
 likeness of men " (Phil. 2.7). As " it behoved 
 Him to be made like unto His brethren " (Heb. 
 2.17), He experienced needs common to men. 
 He hungered (Matt. 4.2), thirsted (John 4.6, 7), 
 and needed sleep (Mk. 4.38). He experienced 
 emotions familiar to man : He was capable of 
 wonder and of anxiety (John 12.27, 13.21); of 
 indignation (Mk. 3.5) ; of sorrow and sympathy 
 (Matt. 20.34; John 11.35). He endured spiritual 
 conflict (Matt. 4.1-11, 26.36-46); He felt the 
 value of prayer (Mk. 1.35 ; Lk. 6.12). Yet He 
 Himself, though tempted (Matt. 4 ; Lk. 4 ; 
 Heb. 4.15), was sinless (2 Cor. 5.21 ; Heb. 4.15, 
 7.26, 9.14 ; 1 Pet. 2.22). [SoN OF MAN.] 
 
 VI. The purpose of the Incarnation of our 
 Lord is stated in the familiar words of 
 John 3.16, and is succinctly described by St. 
 John when he says, " The Father sent the 
 Son to be the Saviour of the world " (1 John 
 4.14). This mission of our Lord was not for the 
 benefit of the Jew only. On the contrary, whilst 
 on earth He was not unmindful of the " other 
 sheep" (John 10.16), and His last command 
 expressly directs His followers to a world-wide 
 enterprise. In carrying out this work He 
 " gave Himself a ransom for all " (1 Tim. 2.6), 
 dying " for our sins " (1 Cor. 15.3). [For this 
 aspect of His mission see ATONEMENT, JUSTI- 
 FICATION.] This coming of our Lord was 
 therefore for a purpose much wider than that 
 of presenting an example of perfect manhood. 
 It was an act of God relating to a greater purpose 
 of the Godhead, in which God as well as man 
 is concerned. For " God was in Christ, recon- 
 ciling the world unto Himself, not imputing 
 their trespasses unto them " (2 Cor. 5.19). 
 
 VII. The Character of our Lord, as portrayed 
 in the Gospels, is worthy of especial attention. 
 In its presentation the writers refrain from 
 praise. They describe it in a manner wholly 
 unstudied ; in simple, unaffected narratives. 
 But whilst in the Gospels four authors, in some 
 cases recording different facts and preserving 
 different parts of His teaching, deal with our 
 Lord's life, they all present a clear and con- 
 sistent view of the same character. And this 
 view is entirely original. It is not in accordance 
 with the higher pagan thought of the time ; 
 it is not such as the Jewish teachers of the day 
 would have produced. It is itself, and unique. 
 In the reverent study of our Lord's character, 
 
 as disclosed in His earthly life, the following 
 features will be noticed : 
 
 His holiness impressed all observers, and was 
 accepted by them (Matt. 26.59, 60, 27.23, 24 ; 
 Lk. 23.13-15 ; John 8.46, 10.32 ; Acts 3.13, 14 ; 
 1 Pet. 2.21-23). 
 
 His benevolence and compassion were re- 
 peatedly demonstrated (Matt. 9.36, etc., 18.11, 
 etc. ; Mk. 7.26, etc., 10.13-21, 45-52 ; Lk. 9.55, 
 10.30-37, 13.16, 14.12, 22.50, 51 ; John 4). 
 
 His kindness and affection appear in Matt. 
 14.27-31 ; Lk. 19.5, 41, 22.61 ; John 11, 19, and 
 25-27. 
 
 His meekness and humility are manifest from 
 Matt. 5.1-12, 9.28, 18.22, etc. ; Lk. 22.24-27 ; 
 John 13.4. 
 
 His moral courage, firmness, and resignation 
 are disclosed in Matt. 26.39-46; Mk. 10.32; 
 Lk. 4.23, etc., 13.31, etc., 18.29, etc.; John 
 11.7, 18.4, etc. 
 
 His sincerity and abhorrence of hypocrisy 
 and courting popularity appear in Matt. 6.1-18, 
 10.16-39, 22.18, etc. ; Mk. 12.38-40 ; Lk. 11.44, 
 etc. ; John 16.1-6. 
 
 His moderation and the absence of calculated 
 austerity are noted in Malt. 8.19, 23.23 ; Mk. 
 12.17; Lk. 5.29-35; John 2.1, etc. 
 
 Our Lord definitely asserted His own moral 
 perfection, and presented Himself to His disciples 
 as One who had kept the Father's command- 
 ments (John 15.10), who did the " things that 
 are pleasing to Him " ( John 8.29), who could 
 offer to His enemies this challenge, " Which of 
 you convinceth Me of sin ? " ( John 8.46). 
 
 The character of our Lord as thus shown in 
 the Gospel has not impressed those alone who 
 accept Him as their Lord ; it has won testimony 
 also from the critics and opponents of Christi- 
 anity. It may be convenient to cite the opinions 
 of some few, whose attacks upon the Christian 
 position have long been familiar in Europe and 
 America, and more recently have been trans- 
 lated into the languages of the East. The 
 testimony of Renan is : " This Sublime Person, 
 who daily presides still over the destiny of the 
 world, we may call divine, not in the sense that 
 Jesus absorbed all the divine, or, to use a 
 scholastic word, was adequate to it ; but in the 
 sense that Jesus is the individual who has made 
 His species take the greatest step towards the 
 divine." " Jesus is the highest of the pillars 
 that show to man whence he comes and whither 
 he ought to tend. In Him is condensed all that 
 is good and exalted in our nature " ( Vie de 
 Jesus, pp. 457, 458 llth French ed.). So Strauss, 
 in his second Leben Jesu, 1864, speaks as if 
 Christ's teaching in the Sermon on the Mount 
 brought to the world a genial revolution, " like 
 a f ertilising rain in spring." He grants " that in 
 every respect Jesus stands in the first line of 
 those who have developed the ideal of humanity," 
 and " by embodying it in His own person has 
 given it the most living warmth, while the 
 society that proceeded from Him has secured for 
 this ideal the widest reception among mankind " 
 (Leben Jesu, pp. 204, 625, G26). John Stuart 
 
JETHEB] 
 
 252 
 
 [JEWS 
 
 Mill is not less decisive : " When this pre- 
 eminent genius is combined with the qualities 
 of probably the greatest moral reformer and 
 martyr to that mission who ever existed upon 
 the earth, religion cannot be said to have made 
 a bad choice in pitching upon this man as the 
 ideal representative and guide of humanity ; nor 
 even now would it be easy even for an unbeliever 
 to find a better translation of the rule of virtue 
 from the abstract to the concrete than to 
 endeavour so to live that Christ would approve 
 our life " (Essays on Theism, p. 255). We may 
 add the tribute of a more modern critic, Samuel 
 Laing : " It is the example and teaching of 
 Jesus, the son of the carpenter of Nazareth, 
 which have been mainly instrumental in diffus- 
 ing ideas of divine love, charity, and purity 
 throughout the world, and humanising the iron- 
 clad and iron-souled warriors, whose trust was 
 in their stout hearts and strong right arms, 
 and who knew no law but 
 
 " ' The simple plan, 
 
 That he should take who has the power, 
 And he should keep who can.' " 
 (Modern Science and Modern Thought, p. 109 ; 
 Rationalistic Press Association edition.) 
 
 Je'ther. Abundance : 1. A form of Jethro, 
 which appears in Ex. 4.18. The father-in-law 
 of Moses. [JKTHEO.] 2. Gideon's first- 
 born son. He was with his father when the 
 latter defeated the Midianites, and avenged 
 his slain brethren. Being but a youth, how- 
 ever, he feared to obey his father when told 
 to assist in the (laughter of the Midianites 
 (Judg. 8.20). 3. Another form of Ithra (2 -Sam. 
 17.25), where by a copyist's mistake he is 
 wrongly called an Israelite. The captain of 
 Absalom's army. He was an Ishmaelite, and 
 the father of Amasa, David's nephew (1 K. 
 2.5, 32; 1 Ch. 2.17). He was married 4o 
 Abigail, the sister of David, during the tatter's 
 sojourn in Moab. 4. The son of Jerahmeel of 
 the tribe of Judah (1 Ch. 2.32). 5. A descendant 
 of Caleb (1 Ch. 4.17). 6. A chief of a family 
 of Asher (1 Ch. 7.38). 
 
 Je'theth. One of the dukes (princes) of 
 Edom, whose names are separately mentioned 
 in the list of Esau's descendants (Gen. 36.40 ; 
 1 Ch. 1.51). 
 
 Jeth'lah (R.V. Ithlah). (?) Hanging : a city 
 of Dan between Ajalon and Elon (Josh. 19.42). 
 Its site has not yet been identified. 
 
 Jeth'ro. Abundance : a priest-prince of 
 Midian and the father-in-law of Moses. 
 [MOSES, ZIPPOEAH.] Called also Jether and 
 Reuel, and perhaps also Hobab. It is believed 
 that he was a priest of the true God, and 
 maintained the true religion. He was de- 
 scended from Midian, son of Abraham and 
 Keturah. Moses invited him to offer sacrifices 
 to the Lord, on his arrival in the camp of Israel, 
 as one who adored the same God (Ex. 18.11, 12). 
 By his advice Moses chose a council of elders 
 to help in the government and to judge the 
 inferior cases (Ex. 18). He was requested by 
 
 Moses to share the wanderings of the Israelites 
 and to act as guide, an office rendered unneces- 
 sary by the Ark of the Covenant (Num. 10.31, 33). 
 His hospitable reception of Moses, when the 
 latter had fled for his life from Egypt, is a 
 beautiful and true picture of life and manners 
 in the East. That he was more than usually 
 cordial was due to the fact that Moses had 
 helped his daughters to water the flocks. 
 [REUEL, HOBAB.] 
 
 Jetur. (?) Enclosed: a son of Ishmael (Gen. 
 25.15 ; 1 Ch. 1.31, 5.19). 
 
 Jeu'eL A Judahite who settled in Jerusalem 
 after the return (1 Ch. 9.6). 
 
 Je'ush. He comes to help : 1. Esau's 
 son by Aholibamah. He was a duke of Edom 
 (Gen. 36.5 ; 1 Ch. 1.35). 2. A Benjamite 
 chief of David's time (1 Ch. 7.10). 3. A Levite 
 (1 Ch. 23.10, 11). 4. The son of King Reho- 
 boam, by Abihail (2 Ch. 11.18, 19). [JEHUSH.] 
 
 Je'uz. Counsellor : a Benjamite chief born 
 in Moab (1 Ch. 8.10). 
 
 Jewel This word is used in Scripture to 
 designate not only gems and jewellery, but 
 objects of value and ornament. It is also used 
 figuratively to denote anything that is precious, 
 as, for instance, in the beautiful passage in 
 Mai. 3.17, where the Lord says, " In that day 
 when I make up My jewels," where the Hebrew 
 word means " My peculiar treasure " (see Ex. 
 19.5). In Prov. 20.15 knowledge (wisdom) is 
 likened to "a precious jewel" [PEECIOUS 
 STONES under separate titles.] 
 
 Jewess (Acts 16.1, 24.24). These are the 
 only two instances where the word occurs in the 
 Bible. But see JEHUDIJAEL 
 
 Jewry. Found only in A.V. of Dan. 5.13; 
 Lk. 23.5, and John 7.1 (R.V. Judah or Judaea). 
 It is an old English word, derived through 
 Norman-French juerie. 
 
 Jews. A " Jew " meant in the first instance 
 a member of the kingdom of Judah (2 K. 16.6, 
 25.25 ; Jer. 34.9). During the Captivity and 
 after the return the Israelites who formed the 
 new state were generally known as Judaoans, or 
 Jews. Other members of the race, scattered 
 throughout the world, came in time to be called, 
 and to call themselves, Jews (Esth. 3; Dan. 
 3.8-12). [DISPERSION, HEBREW, ISRAELITE.] 
 
 Among the nations where they were settled 
 they were chiefly remarkable for their extreme 
 exclusiveness. Believing themselves under the 
 special protection of Jehovah, they soon re- 
 covered from any chastisement sent for dis- 
 obedience to the Divine commands, and resumed 
 their old complacency as the " chosen " people. 
 
 With the fall of Jerusalem, and the over- 
 throw of the Temple, the national existence of 
 the Jews terminated. Henceforth they were 
 strangers domiciled among other nations. They 
 had spread into other lands, where they formed 
 large and powerful communities long before 
 the conquest of Titus. A certain number 
 had remained behind after the return from 
 Babylon. In Egypt and Gyrene they were 
 almost aa numerous, while in Rome and in 
 
JEWS] 
 
 253 
 
 [JEZEBEL 
 
 other great cities they formed large colonies. 
 How widely they wore scattered may be 
 gathered from the list given by Luke in 
 his narrative of the doings on the Day of 
 Pentecost (Acts 2.1-11). With any other 
 nation the result of the dispersion would have 
 been, as was the case with the Danes and 
 Saxons among ourselves, the disappearance of 
 their national, if not racial, peculiarities, and 
 their absorption in the nations among whom 
 they were dwelling. But for 2000 years they 
 have dwelt apart, while obeying the laws, 
 complying with the customs of their hosts, 
 and speaking their language. After all they 
 have gone through in all nations, Hebrew is 
 still their national language, and is being 
 revived to-day for ordinary intercourse ; their 
 religion is still the ancient worship of Israel. 
 Through all, over all, though subjects of a 
 hundred kingdoms, the Jew remains a Jew, 
 and a Jew only. 
 
 It was this power of resistance to outward 
 influences that enabled them to re-establish the 
 Sanhedrin a few years after the final destruction 
 of Jerusalem. In two generations, with the 
 wonderful vitality which has ever distinguished 
 them, the Jews " had recovered in a great 
 measure their numbers, their wealth, and their 
 unconquerable spirit." It is easy now for us 
 to understand how it was that the Temple 
 treasure, so frequently carried off, was so 
 quickly replaced. On the news of each fresh 
 disaster the foreign communities of Jews would 
 send convoys of money and men to Jerusalem 
 for the Temple service, and to replace the 
 plundered treasure. 
 
 The calamities and miseries endured by the 
 Jews are perhaps unequalled by those of any 
 other nation. Our Saviour wept at the fore- 
 sight of the rapine, murder, fire and pestilence, 
 and other horrors about to fall upon God's 
 chosen people. It is hardly possible to con- 
 sider the extent of their sufferings and not to 
 think of the awful imprecation they called down 
 upon their own heads in Matt. 27.25 " His 
 blood be on us, and on our children." In the 
 early centuries of the Christian era the position 
 of the Jews in nearly all countries was pitiable 
 in the extreme. In Spain (700 A.D.) they were 
 ordered to be enslaved. In the eighth and 
 ninth centuries they were everywhere abused, 
 being made to wear a distinctive and degrading 
 dress, to ride without stirrups on asses and 
 mules. They were murdered wholesale every- 
 where during the Crusades. In France multi- 
 tudes were burnt. And at the coronation of 
 Richard i. of England they were mobbed and 
 murdered with impunity. In Egypt, Syria, 
 Mesopotamia, Persia, they were murdered and 
 otherwise ill-used. They were expelled from 
 France in 1358, as they had previously been 
 from England in 1291. In 1492 over half a 
 million were banished from Spain under cir- 
 cumstances of great cruelty and hardship. It 
 was the same story in mid- and northern 
 Europe, and it is only within the last century 
 
 or two that their condition in Europe has been 
 at all tolerable. Even in this generalisation 
 we must exclude Russia from the list of those 
 countries extending any sort of friendship to 
 God's ancient people. 
 
 In the face of all this persecution the preserva- 
 tion of the Jews is marvellous. " The bush of 
 Moses, surrounded with flames, ever burns, and 
 is never consumed. The Jews have been 
 expelled, at different times, from every part of 
 the world, but this has only served to spread 
 them in all regions. From age to age they have 
 been exposed to misery and persecution ; yet 
 they still subsist, whilst the greatest monarchies 
 have fallen, leaving nothing but the name." 
 
 Almost all the modern Jews are Pharisees in 
 doctrine, though they do not call themselves 
 such, and are as much attached to the traditional, 
 i.e. the oral law, as their ancestors were. 
 They entertain an implacable hatred to the 
 Karaites (a sect of Scripturists), who adhere 
 to the text of Moses, rejecting rabbinical inter- 
 pretation. There are no professed Sadducees, 
 but many " Reformed " Jews hold opinions not 
 dissimilar. Of the Samaritans, about 200 still 
 remain, chiefly at Nablous. 
 
 All over the world at the present time the 
 eyes of Jews are turned expectantly towards 
 the Holy Land. Many have already travelled 
 thither, and established colonies for tilling the 
 soil, and the conduct of small manufactures. 
 The Zionist movement has given a great 
 impetus in this direction. 
 
 Jezani'ah. [JAAZANIAH 1.] 
 
 Jez'ebeL Daughter of Ethbaal, king of the 
 Zidonians, and wife of Ahab, king of Israel 
 (1 K. 16.31). This princess introduced into the 
 kingdom of Samaria the Syrian form of the 
 worship of Baal, Astarte, and other Phoenician 
 deities. With this worship, she also brought 
 into the country many of those abominations 
 which had incensed God against the Canaan- 
 ites. Jezebel was so zealous in this vile 
 worship that she fed at her table 450 prophets 
 or priests of Baal, and 400 priests of Astarte 
 (1 K. 18.19). 
 
 It was an evil day for Israel when Ahab 
 brought his foreign queen to share his throne. 
 Unlike Solomon, who established each of 
 his heathen wives apart by herself, Ahab 
 allowed Jezebel to share in his government, 
 sometimes even to the exclusion of himself 
 (1 K. 21.25). The attack on the prophets of 
 Jehovah (1 K. 18.13 ; 2 K. 9.7) was the occasion 
 for a fierce rising of the people, instigated by 
 Elijah, who destroyed almost entirely the 
 worshippers of Baal (1 K. 19.1). But even 
 Elijah quailed beneath the fierce anger of 
 Jezebel on receipt of the news of the slaughter 
 of her priests, and fled for his life (1 K. 19.3). 
 
 Jezebel, like Lady Macbeth, was a woman of 
 firmer purpose than her husband. Unscrupu- 
 lous in the use of the power that should have 
 been retained in the king's own hands, she 
 procured the death of Naboth (1 K. 21.14), and 
 then bade her husband seize on the murdered 
 
JEZER] 
 
 254 
 
 [JIPHTHAHEL 
 
 man's lands, long coveted by him. For herself 
 she probably cared nothing for the coveted 
 vineyard or its owner ; but for power she cared 
 a great deal, and it was for the cruel exercise 
 of this that the prophet's curse fell upon her 
 (1 K. 21.23). The story of her dreadful end, 
 with the merciless Jehu as executioner, is told 
 with full dramatic effect in 2 K. 9.30-37. Jehu's 
 own words, as the messenger whom he had sent 
 out to bury her, " for she is a king's daughter," 
 returned and informed him what had happened 
 to the body, recalled the prophecy of Elijah 
 (2 K. 9.36, 37). It may be noted that to have 
 left her unburied would have been an insult to 
 the king of Tyre. Jezebel must have been of 
 considerable age when she died, for she survived 
 Ahab fourteen years, playing the same prominent 
 part in the court of her sons as she had done by 
 the throne of her husband. Taken altogether, 
 Jezebel was probably the wickedest, as she was 
 the greatest and cleverest, of the queens of 
 Israel. [AHAB, JEHU, ELIJAH, NABOTH.] 
 
 Je'zer. Form or 'purpose: son of Naphtali 
 (Gen. 46.24 ; Num. 26.49). 
 
 Jez'iah (R.V. Izziah). (?) May Jehovah 
 sprinkle : one who took a strange wife (Ezra 
 10.25). 
 
 Jezi'eL (?) United by God : one of David's 
 valiant men who joined him at Ziklag. He was 
 a Benjamite slinger (1 Ch. 12.3). 
 
 Jezli'ah. (R.V. Izliah). A Benjamite (1 Ch. 
 8.18). 
 
 Jezo'ar. (?) Tawny : a man of Judah. It 
 should be read as Izhar or Zohar (1 Ch. 4.7). 
 
 Jezrahi'ah. Jehovah is rising, or shining: a 
 chief of the singers at the dedication of the wall 
 of Jerusalem (Neh. 12.42). 
 
 Jezre'eL God sows : 1. A town in the 
 southern district of Judah near Carmel (Josh. 
 15.56 ; 1 Sam. 25.43). 2. A Judahite, descend- 
 ant of the founder of Etam (1 Ch. 4.3). 3. A 
 symbolic name for Israel (due to the importance 
 of Jezreel 4) (Hos. 1.4, 11), and also for the eldest 
 son of Hosea (Hos. 1.4). 4. The well-known 
 city in Issachar built on a spur of Mount Gilboa, 
 on the brow of a very steep, rocky descent. It 
 first appears in Scripture as a city of Issachar 
 (Josh. 19.18). Ahab chose it as his principal 
 residence, and Jezebel died there (1 K. 18.45, 46, 
 21 ; 2 K. 9.10, 30-37). Thither the wounded 
 Joram fled (2 K. 8.29), and Ahab's sons slain 
 (2 K. 10). About ij miles east of Jezreel 
 is Ain Jalud (Well of Goliath), the fountain of 
 Jezreel, where Saul camped before his last battle 
 (1 Sam. 29.1). From its commanding position 
 at the opening of the plain Jezreel was visible 
 from Carmel. Here Jezebel maintained 400 
 priests, and established a temple and grove 
 of Astarte (1 K. 18.19 ; 2 K. 10.11). Ahab's 
 palace, the " Ivory House " (1 K. 22.39), and 
 also Jezebel's abode, formed part of the city 
 wall on its east side. On the east also was the 
 gate flanked by the huge square watch-tower. 
 Immediately in front of the gateway was the 
 open space where offal was thrown, and where 
 the dogs, who acted as scavengers, prowled about. 
 
 Hence the rapidity with which the battered 
 remains of Jezebel were consumed (2 K. 9.35). 
 Naboth's vineyard, just beyond the walls 
 [NABOTH], was the spot where Elijah met Ahab, 
 Jehu, and Bidkar (1 K. 21.16). The modern 
 name of Jezreel is Zerin. [See JEHU, JEZEBEL, 
 NABOTH, ELIJAH, and the two following articles.] 
 
 Jezre'el, Plain of (and more generally the 
 Plain of Esdraelon). A plain called by the Arabs 
 Merj ibn Amer. This extends from the base of 
 the Nazareth hills on the north about 12 miles 
 to the hills of Samaria on the south, and from 
 the mountain range of Carmel on the west about 
 24 miles to Tabor and Gilboa on the east. On 
 the east side are three great extensions, separated 
 from each other by the ridges of Little Hermon 
 and Gilboa ; the north and middle [VALLEY OP 
 JEZREEL] branches extend to the Jordan; the 
 south extension is a cul-de-sac. On the north- 
 west the plain is contracted by Carmel into a 
 pass, by which access is gained to the plain of 
 Akka, and through which flows the Kishon. The 
 plain of Jezreel was the great throughfare and 
 battlefield of Palestine. Here Barak and Sisera 
 fought (Judg. 4.13, 14, 5.19-21), also Gideon and 
 the Amalekites and Midianites ( Judg. 7.1, 22). It 
 was the scene also of the conflict between Josiah 
 and Pharaoh-nechoh (2 K. 23.29 ; 2 Ch. 35.22), 
 and of Shalmanezer's victory (Hos. 1.4, 5, 11, 
 2.22). This plain was part of the territory of 
 Issachar (Josh. 19.18), and after the death of 
 Saul was held for awhile by Ishbosheth 
 (2 Sam. 2.9). Solomon made it one of his com- 
 missariat districts because of its fertility (1 K. 
 4.12). It was, however, an insecure place for 
 habitation, and so the people lived in villages 
 in the surrounding hills. [ESDRAELON, 
 MEGIDDO.] 
 
 Jezre'el, Valley of. A long, beautiful, and very 
 fruitful valley running from the Plain of Jezreel 
 to the Jordan. It was 15 miles long, and varying 
 in width from 2 to 3 miles. At its western 
 end lay the city of Jezreel (which see), and at 
 the eastern extremity Beth-shean (Josh. 17.16). 
 This narrow valley was the scene of Saul's final 
 defeat by the Philistines (1 Sam. 31.1), and of 
 Jehu's advance against Joram (2 K. 9). 
 
 Jezre'elite. Inhabitant of Jezreel 4 (1 A". 
 21.1). [NABOTH.] 
 
 Jezre'elitess. Inhabitant of Jezreel 1 
 (ISam. 27.3). [AHINOAM.] 
 
 Jib'sam (R.V. Ibsam). Sweet-smelling : a 
 descendant of Issachar (1 Ch. 7.2). 
 
 Jid'laph. Son of Nahor (Gen. 22.22). 
 
 Jim'na. The eldest son of Asher. His 
 descendants were called Jimnites (Num. 26.44). 
 He is called Imnah in 1 Ch. 7.30, and Jimnah in 
 Gen. 46.17. 
 
 Jim'nah, [JIMNA.] 
 
 Jiph'tah (R.V. Iphtah). He openeth : a town 
 in the lowlands of Judah (Josh. 15.43). Its 
 site has not been identified. 
 
 Jiph'thah-el (R.V. Iphtah-el). God openeth : 
 a valley forming the boundary between Zebulun 
 and Asher (Josh. 19.14, 27). It has been 
 identified with Jotapata, a city besieged by 
 
JOAB] 
 
 255 
 
 [JOASH 
 
 the Emperor Vespasian, and now the little 
 village of Jefat. The valley itself is, therefore, 
 the Wady-Abitin, which, starting near Jefat, 
 trends westward towards the sea. 
 
 Jo'ab. Jehovah is father : 1. David's nephew, 
 and son of Zeruiah, David's sister. Brother to 
 Abishai and Asahel, and one of the most valiant 
 soldiers of David's time. Joab was also cruel, 
 revengeful, and imperious. He performed great 
 services for David, to whose interests he was 
 always firm and loyal, and was commander-in- 
 chief of his forces, when David was king of 
 Judah only. His statesmanlike qualities raised 
 him to the second place in the kingdom. 
 
 Unlike his brother Abishai, who had joined 
 his fortunes to David at Ziklag (1 Sam. 2G.6), 
 Joab is mentioned for the first time when he 
 departs from Hebron at the head of David's 
 guard to watch Abner. The fatal duel that 
 ensued between twelve champions on each 
 side led to a general battle between the 
 tribes of Benjamin and Judah, the defeat of 
 the former (2 Sam. 2), and the death by Abner 
 of Asahel, Joab's brother. Asahel's death was 
 treacherously avenged by Joab (2 Sam. 3.27). 
 In obedience to the angry outburst of David on 
 hearing the news, Joab appeared at the funeral 
 of Abner in sackcloth and ashes (2 Sam. 3.31). 
 It was at the siege of Jebus [JERUSALEM] that 
 Joab gained both distinction and the command 
 of David's army. The fortress of Jebus stood 
 on a high rock, and was deemed impregnable. 
 But when David offered the post of chief of the 
 army to any one who would lead the way in, 
 Joab succeeded. The stronghold taken, Joab 
 busied himself with the fortifications of the 
 place, which was occupied by David as his 
 capital and military headquarters (1 Ch. 11.8). 
 Here Joab remained and built himself a house 
 (2 Sam. 14.30), leaving Jerusalem only to lead 
 the army in the numerous wars engaged in by 
 the king. In this position he materially assisted 
 in the consolidation of David's empire. His 
 many successful campaigns against the 
 Ammonites, the Edomites, and the Syrians 
 caused his name to be a word of terror to 
 the surrounding nations (1 K. 11.15, 16, 21). 
 At the siege of Kabbah (which see) he was 
 accompanied by the Ark (2 Sam. 11.1-11), 
 took the lower city, and then sent to his royal 
 master to come and have the honour of taking 
 the citadel (2 Sam. 12.26-28). It was this 
 loyalty that led Joab to fall in with David's 
 plot to procure the death of Uriah (2 Sam. 11) ; 
 and though from this time forward Joab ac- 
 quired further influence over the mind of the 
 king, his act was not necessarily prompted by 
 selfish motives. His loyalty was further shown 
 when he successfully pleaded for Absalom after 
 the murder of Amnon ; an occasion on which 
 David showed keen appreciation of his general 
 (2 Sam. 14.1-20). And then, later, when 
 Absalom rebelled, Joab, realising the necessity 
 for removing so dangerous an enemy to the 
 king, took full responsibility for his death 
 (2 Sam. 18.2-15, 19.5-7). For this act Joab 
 
 was removed from the command of the army, 
 and Arnasa, a rebel himself, appointed in his 
 stead (2 Sam. 20.4). But though Joab through- 
 out acted with the utmost devotion to his king, 
 this did not prevent him from carrying out deeds 
 of private vengeance ; as witness the murder of 
 Amasa, following immediately on his appoint- 
 ment by David to an office which Joab had held 
 (2 Sam. 20.7, 10 ; IK. 2.5). Joab's resistance 
 to the desire of David to number the people was 
 a question of conscience, and though the king 
 " prevailed " against him, yet he contrived that 
 two tribes, Benjamin and Levi, should escape 
 the census (2 Sam. 24.1-4 ; 1 Ch. 21.6). 
 
 A man of blood from his youth, it was perhaps 
 natural that Joab's own end should be a violent 
 one. His great trait hitherto had been loyalty 
 to the throne. Now, at the end of a long and 
 strenuous life, he " turned after Adonijah " 
 (1 K. 2.28). David lay dying. He could not 
 punish his old war-chief himself, but he 
 remembered the murder of Abner and Amasa, 
 and enjoined Solomon to avenge them (1 K. 
 2.5, 6). David died, and Joab, fearing the 
 vengeance of Solomon, fled to the altar at 
 Gibeon for sanctuary. By Solomon's direction, 
 Benaiah slew the old man there (1 K. 2.28-34). 
 [DAVID, ABNEB, ADONIJAH.] 2. Son of Seraiah, 
 a descendant of Kenaz of Judah (1 Ch. 4.14). 
 3. The name of a family which returned with 
 Zerubbabel (Ezra 2.6, 8.9 ; Neh. 7.11). 4. A 
 name mentioned in an obscure passage, appar- 
 ently connected with Bethlehem. It may refer 
 to Joab 1 (1 Ch. 2.54). 
 
 Jo'ah. Jehovah is Brother : 1. Keeper of the 
 records in Hezekiah's time (2 K. 18.18 ; Isai. 
 36.3,11,22). 2 and 3. Levites (1 Ch. 6.21; 
 2 Ch. 29.12). 4. A Levite, son of Obed-edom. A 
 door-keeper of the temple appointed by David 
 (1 Ch. 26.4). 5. Keeper of the records in 
 Josiah's time (2 Ch. 34.8). 
 
 Joa'haz. Jehovah hath grasped: father of 
 Joan 4 (2 Ch. 34.8). 
 
 Joan'na (R.V. Joanan). Jehovah is gracious : 
 1. The name of a man in the genealogy of 
 Christ (Lk. 3.27). [HANANIAH.] 2. The wife 
 of Chuza, Herod's steward (Lk. 8.3, 24.10) ; 
 one of those women who followed our Lord, and 
 assisted Him with their substance. 
 
 Jo'ash. (?) Jehovah hath aided : 1. A descend- 
 ant of Benjamin through Becher (1 Ch. 7.8). 2. 
 One of David's household officials (1 Ch. 27.28). 
 3. (This and the following are different words 
 from the two preceding.) (?) Jehovah is 
 strong : the father of Gideon, who maintained 
 at his own place an altar and an Asherah to 
 Baal. Yet when Gideon at the command of 
 God had cast down Baal's altar Joash pleads 
 for his life with the enraged idolaters (Judg. 
 6.31). 4. A son of Ahab (1 K. 22.26). 
 
 5. King of Judah. The only one of Ahaziah's 
 sons to escape the massacre ordered by Athaliah 
 (2 K. 11.2). He was rescued by Jehoshabeath, 
 and hidden for six years in the Temple. At the 
 expiration of this period a revolution raised 
 him, the only surviving descendant, to the throne 
 
JOATHAM] 
 
 256 
 
 [JOB, BOOK OP 
 
 of Solomon. A period of prosperity ensued, 
 and the true religion was re-established. But 
 when Jehoiada died, Joash lent himself to evil 
 counsel, restoring Baal- worship and the erection 
 of groves to Ashtoreth. Rebuked by Zechariah, 
 Joash caused him to be stoned in the court of 
 the Temple. Retribution followed. Hazael, 
 king of Syria, plundered the country ; and 
 sickness fell upon Joash, during which his 
 servants slew him in bed (2 Ch. 24.20-25). His 
 reign had lasted for forty years. He was buried 
 at Jerusalem, but his body was denied a place 
 in the sepulchres of the kings of Judah (2 K. 
 11.2 ft; 2 Ch. 24.25). 
 
 6. King of Israel. Son of Jehoahaz, whom 
 he succeeded, and father of Jeroboam n. (2 K. 
 14.1). In consequence of a visit Joash paid 
 to the dying Elisha, he was promised three 
 victories over the enemies of his country (1 K. 
 20.26-30). He thrice defeated Benhadad, and 
 regained certain lost cities. He was also 
 victorious in a war with Amaziah, king of 
 Judah (2 Ch. 25 ff.). The cause of this war was 
 unique. Amaziah had hired for 100 talents of 
 silver an army of Israel's fighting men, to take 
 part in an expedition against Edom. Being per- 
 suaded, however, to go to battle without them, 
 he dismissed them. Enraged at their treat- 
 ment, the mercenaries plundered a number of 
 the cities of Judah on the way home. Amaziah, 
 in revenge, declared war against Joash. Joash 
 defeated Amaziah at Bethshemesh, broke down 
 the wall of Jerusalem, and plundered the city 
 and Temple, carrying off some of the inhabitants 
 as hostages. He died at Samaria (2 K. 13.9 ff., 
 14.1-27; 2 Ch. 25; Eos. 1.1; Amoi 1.1). 
 7. A Judahite who apparently had dominion 
 in Moab (1 Ch. 4.22). 8. One of the heroes who 
 went to David's help at Ziklag. He was made 
 second in command, and otherwise honoured 
 (1 Ch. 12.3). 
 
 Jo'atham. God is perfect: another form of 
 Jotham (Matt. 1.9). [JOTHAM 2.] 
 
 Job. (?) Hated, or, reverent : 1. The principal 
 figure in the book which bears bis name. A 
 patriarch in " the land of Uz " (Job 1.1), happy 
 and prosperous, he is, by permission of God 
 (1.12), sorely tried by Satan. The experiences 
 of Job lead to a series of discussions between 
 the sufferer and certain friends. Ultimately 
 he submits himself to God, who " turned " his 
 " captivity," giving him " twice as much as 
 he had before " (42.10). His prosperity fully 
 restored, he lived, " after this ... an hundred 
 and forty years" (42.16). Job is classed by 
 Ezekiel with Noah and Daniel (Ezek. 14.14, 20), 
 and his patience is referred to by James (Jas. 
 5.11). For some of the questions associated 
 with the personality of Job, see JOB, BOOK OF. 
 
 2. A different word from the preceding, and 
 probably corrupt. The third son of Issachar 
 (Gen. 46.13, R.V. lob). His name is correctly 
 given as Jashub in 1 Ch. 7.1. In Num. 26.24 
 Jashub is again incorrectly given as Jashib. 
 
 Job, Book of. This book is named from the 
 patriarch whose experiences are recorded in it. 
 
 The age in which Job lived is a question that 
 has created much discussion. Ancient opinion 
 fixes it as earlier than Abraham, according to 
 which view it would stand between Gen. 11 and 12, 
 as a supplement to the records of the early con- 
 dition of our race, given by Moses. On the other 
 hand, some think they detect, in chaps. 15.34, 
 18.15, 20.26, allusions to the destruction of 
 Sodom, etc. ; and adduce the coincidence of 
 many names occurring in this book with those 
 of some of Abraham's descendants, through 
 Ishmael and Esau, as indications of a somewhat 
 later age. By some of these writers it is assigned 
 to the period of the sojourn in Egypt. Other 
 critics regard the book as the product of a 
 still later period, even of the post-exilic age. 
 Its unity, either of structure or of purpose, 
 is denied by some, who regard the book as a 
 thing of growth. 
 
 The authorship of the book has been ascribed 
 not only to Job himself, but also (with the 
 Rabbins generally) to Moses, to Elihu, to 
 Solomon, to Ezra, and other O.T. writers ; 
 whilst some critics find in it the work of successive 
 unknown authors who corrected or supplemented 
 each other. 
 
 The scene of the events described is not easily 
 determined. Some think it to have been in 
 Idumaea, or Arabia Deserta ; others fix it in 
 Mesopotamia. It was evidently within reach 
 of the Sabceans (1.15), of the Chaldaeans (ver. 17), 
 and of Teman in Idumaea (2.11) ; facts which 
 point to a locality somewhere in the north of 
 the Arabian peninsula. 
 
 The contents of the book divide themselves 
 into three parts : 
 
 I. The Historical Introduction in prose 
 (chaps. 1, 2), giving a narrative of sudden and 
 severe affliction (through the agency of Satan, 
 represented as appearing in the court of heaven, 
 as Job's accuser), borne with exemplary patience 
 and trust in God. 
 
 II. The Argument, or Controversy, in five 
 scenes or divisions. 
 
 1. The first series of discussions, comprising 
 Job's complaint (3) ; the speech of Eliphaz (4, 5), 
 and Job's answer (6, 7) ; of Bildad (8), and Job's 
 answer (9, 10) ; of Zophar (11), and Job's 
 answer (12-14). 
 
 2. The second series, comprising the speech 
 of Eliphaz (15), and Job's answer (16, 17) ; of 
 Bildad (18), and Job's answer (19) ; of Zophar 
 (20), and Job's answer (23 ). 
 
 3. The third series, comprising the speech of 
 Eliphaz (22), and Job's answer (23, 24); of 
 Bildad (25), and Job's answer (26-31). It has 
 been urged that a part of the speech attributed 
 to Job (27.7-23) was really a third reply by 
 Zophar, wrongly placed by a transcriber's error ; 
 but this view is not widely accepted. 
 
 The question discussed thus far is, whether 
 great suffering be not an evidence of great guilt. 
 Job's friends affirm it, and exhort him to repent 
 and reform. Job denies it, appeals to facts, 
 and complains bitterly of his friends for aggravat- 
 ing his distress by false charges. 
 
JOB, BOOK OF] 
 
 257 
 
 [JOEL, BOOK OF 
 
 4. The speech of Elihu (32-37). 
 
 Elihu maintains that afflictions are meant for 
 the good of the sufferer, even when not, strictly 
 speaking, the consequence of sin ; he reproves 
 Job for justifying himself rather than God, 
 and vindicates the Divine character and 
 government. 
 
 5. The close of the discussion, by the address 
 of the Almighty, not condescending to explain 
 His conduct, but illustrating His power and 
 wisdom (38-41) ; and Job's response and peni- 
 tential submission (42.1-6). 
 
 III. The conclusion in prose (42.7-17), giv- 
 ing an account of Job's acceptance and pro- 
 sperity. 
 
 The practical lessons suggested by the book 
 are obvious and important. Uncharitableness 
 is of the devil (1.9, 10). Its origin, no less than 
 its unloveliness, should put us on guard against 
 it. ... Perfect and upright men are among the 
 first to confess their vileness (1.1, 40.4, 42.6). 
 Our progress in holiness may be measured by 
 our humility. . . . What wisdom is needed to 
 conduct controversy wisely, when even Job 
 failed ! . . . How needful is a specific revela- 
 tion, when even good men, with an accurate 
 knowledge of God, and of many principles of 
 His government, misread the lessons written 
 upon His works ! To correct human misappre- 
 hension on such questions, God had Himself to 
 interpose. 
 
 Inquiry into the relation between Job and 
 other O.T. looks shows certain coincidences in 
 expression between Job and passages in the 
 Psalms, Proverbs, and Isaiah, suggesting that 
 the book was familiar in the days of the Hebrew 
 monarchy. There is in the N.T. but one 
 explicit quotation from Job (1 Cor. 3.19) (pre- 
 faced by the formula " it is written "), from 
 5.13. Compare also Phil. 1.19 with 13.16. In 
 Jas. 5.11 there is a reference to the "patience" 
 (or endurance) " of Job." The phrase, " the 
 day of wrath " (Rom. 2.5), although occurring 
 first in Job, may have been quoted by the 
 apostle from Zeph. 1.15, 18. 
 
 The literary character of the book drew a 
 striking testimony from Thomas Carlyle : " I 
 call this Book, apart from all theories about it, 
 one of the grandest things ever written with 
 pen. One feels, indeed, as if it were not Hebrew ; 
 such a noble universality, different from ignoble 
 patriotism or sectarianism, reigns in it. A noble 
 Book, all men's Book ! It is our first, oldest 
 statement of the never-ending Problem man's 
 destiny, and God's ways with him here in this 
 earth. And all in such free, flowing outlines ; 
 grand in its sincerity, in its simplicity ; in its 
 epic melody, and repose of reconcilement. 
 There is the seeing eye, the mildly understand- 
 ing heart. So true every way ; true eyesight 
 and vision for all things ; material things no 
 less than spiritual. . . . Such living likenesses 
 were never since drawn. Sublime sorrow, 
 sublime reconciliation; oldest choral melody, 
 as of the heart of mankind ; so soft, and great ; 
 as the summer midnight, as the world with its 
 
 seas and stars ! There is nothing written, I 
 think, in the Bible or out of it, of equal literary 
 merit " (Lectures on Heroes, ii.). 
 
 Jo'bab. (?) Cry shrilly : 1. A son of Joktan 
 (Gen. 10.29; 1 Ch. 1.23). 2. A king of Edom 
 (Gen. 36.33, 34 ; 1 Ch. 1.44). 3. A king of Madon 
 in north Canaan, who was conquered by Joshua at 
 Merom (Josh. 11.1). 4. A Benjamite (1 Ch. 8.9). 
 
 5. A Benjamite (1 Ch. 8.18). 
 
 Joche'bed. Jehovah is glory : the mother of 
 Moses, and wife and aunt of Amram (Ex. 2.1, 
 6.20 ; Num. 26.59). 
 
 Joda. [JUDA 2.] 
 
 Jo'ed. Jehovah is a witness: a Benjamite 
 (Neh. 11.7). 
 
 Jo' el Jehovah is God : 1. The first-born son 
 of Samuel. In I Ch. 6.28 the word Vashni 
 (meaning " and the second") comes in his place. 
 Probably there is a copyist's error, and we should 
 read " the first-born Joel, and the second Abiah." 
 In his old age Samuel made Joel and bis brother 
 Abiah judges of Israel. But their disgraceful 
 behaviour and the bribery they were guilty of 
 ultimately led to a change of government, and 
 the anointing of Saul as the first king. He was 
 father of Heman the singer (1 Sam. 8.2 ; 1 Ch. 
 6.33, 15.17). 2. A Simeonite prince (1 Ch. 4.35). 
 3. A Reubenite (1 Ch. 5.4, 8). 4. A Gadite chief 
 (1 Ch. 5.12). 5. A chief of Issachar (1 Ch. 7.3). 
 
 6. A brother of Nathan, and one of David's 
 valiant men (1 Ch. 11.38). 7. A Levite (1 Ch. 
 15.7, 11) ; perhaps the same as No. 8. 8. A 
 Levite (1 Ch. 23.8, 26.22). 9. A prince of the 
 half-tribe of Manasseh, west of the Jordan. He 
 lived in the time of David (1 Ch. 27.20). 10. A 
 Kohathite Levite. He was sent by his tribe to 
 represent them at the solemn purification pre- 
 ceding the restoration of the Temple (2 Ch. 29.12). 
 11. A Jew who had taken a strange wife (Ezra 
 10.43). 12. A headman of a Benjamite class 
 who lived in Jerusalem after the Return (Neh. 
 11.9). 
 
 13. The prophet and author of the book bearing 
 his name. He is described as " the son of 
 Pethuel " (Joel 1.1), but no other details of his 
 personal history are given. The frequent refer- 
 ences to Jerusalem and to Judah suggest that he 
 was a prophet of the Southern Kingdom, and may 
 have dwelt at Jerusalem [JOEL, BOOK OF.] 
 
 Joel, Book of. The work named from the 
 prophet whose message it contains (Joel 1-3). 
 The date of Joel has been much discussed. His 
 prophecy names among the enemies of his 
 country the Phoenicians (3.4), Edomites and 
 Egyptians (3.19), making no reference to Assyrians 
 and Babylonians. From this it is inferred that 
 he wrote either before these powers had become 
 formidable, or after they had ceased to be so. 
 He must have been, therefore, among the earliest 
 or ttie latest of the prophets. The former view 
 has been most generally held, and appears to be 
 correct. Joel's message shows that he lived at 
 a time when the people of Judah had not fallen 
 into the extreme depravity of their latter days. 
 He may be placed, therefore, between the reigns 
 of Joash and Uzziah. He was contemporary 
 
JOELAH] 
 
 258 
 
 [JOHN 
 
 with Hosea and Amos ; and as they addressed 
 Israel, so he addressed Judah. 
 
 The contents of the book may be divided 
 into two parts, the second beginning at 2.18. 
 In 1-2.11 the prophet delineates, with most 
 graphic force, an impending devastation, succes- 
 sive armies of locusts (1.4), and burning drought 
 (1.18, 19), representing in this form, probably, 
 the calamities consequent on coming invasions. 
 He then exhorts to penitence, fasting, and 
 prayer (2.12-17), promising the removal of these 
 evils, and rich blessing. He foretells the effusion 
 of the Holy Spirit (2.18-31; cf. Acts 2.1-21, 
 10.41), and the "terrible day of the Lord" 
 (2.31, 3.14; cf. Matt. 24.29). In chap. 3, Joel 
 foretells the assembling of the nations in the 
 Valley of Jehovah's Judgement and their 
 destruction, the establishment of Jerusalem as the 
 holy city, and the glorious state of peace and 
 prosperity to be enjoyed by the Church in the 
 days of the Messiah. 
 
 In chap. 1 the delineation is evidently literal) 
 depicting the most grievous calamities of an 
 agricultural people. The question is whether in 
 the second chapter also the same interpretation 
 holds, or whether the locust-plague is symbolic- 
 ally used for a hostile invasion (cf. Rev. 9.3-11), 
 or for repeated invasions, as those by Tiglath- 
 pileser, Shalmaneser, Sennacherib, and Nebu- 
 chadnezzar ; or even for the subjugation of the 
 country by yet later foes. Other interpretations 
 combine these views, and deem it a description 
 of impending calamity generally, both literal and 
 figurative. " Locust " is certainly used with this 
 double reference in Scripture ; and in the second 
 chapter expressions appear with apparently a 
 double aspect, as like expressions were after- 
 wards used by our Lord (Matt. 24), referring to an 
 earlier and a final visitation. Indeed, as all great 
 and Divine deliverances prefigure or represent 
 deli verance through the Cross, so all great punitive 
 visitations supply figures for describing the 
 Judgement. 
 
 The style of Joel is clear and elegant ; obscure 
 only towards the close. The double destruction 
 foretold in chaps. 1-2.11, the first by the 
 locusts, the second by the enemies of whom 
 they were harbingers, is painted in terms that 
 are admirably adapted to the twofold character 
 of the description. 
 
 Of the O.T. books, Amos has relation to Joel in 
 that Joel 3.16 furnishes the keynote to Amos 1.2. 
 In the N.T., Peter, on the Day of Pentecost, 
 quotes Joel's prediction respecting " the last 
 days " (2.28-32), as fulfilled in the gift of the Holy 
 Spirit (Acts 2.17-21). The closing words of this 
 prophecy are quoted by Paul (Rom. 10.13). The 
 locust-symbol of a destroying army is reproduced 
 in Rev. 9.7-9. 
 
 Joe'lah. (?) May He avail: one of David's 
 warriors who joined him at Ziklag (1 Ch. 12.7). 
 
 Joe'zer. Jehovah is a help : a Korahite, and 
 one 01 David's warriors who joined him at Ziklag 
 (1 Ch. 12.6). 
 
 Jogbe'hah. High, lofty place : a fortified town 
 of Gad on the east of Jordan. Gideon, in pursuit 
 
 of uie Midianites, passed near it (Num. 32.35; 
 Judg. 8.11). The place is now known as el- 
 Jubeihah, north-west from Arnmon on the way 
 to es-Salt. 
 
 Jog'li. Led into exile : chief of the tribe of Dan 
 (Num. 34.22). 
 
 Jo'ha. 1. A Benjamite (1 Ch. 8.16). 2. 
 A member of David's guard (1 Ch. 11.45). 
 
 Joha'nan. Jehovah is gracious : 1. Another 
 form of John. Son of Azariah the high- priest in 
 Solomon's time (1 Ch. 6.9, 10). 2. The eldest son 
 of Josiah, king of Judah. He died in early life 
 (1 Ch. 3.15). 3. A prince of David's line after the 
 Return (1 Ch. 3.24). 4. A high-priest about 
 370 B.C. Probably the same as Jonathan 10 
 (Neh. 12.22, 23). 5. A Benjamite warrior of 
 David (1 Ch. 12.4). 6. A Gadite warrior of 
 David (1 Ch. 12.12). 7. An Ephraimite who in 
 the time of Ahaz objected to the making slaves 
 of the captives (2 Ch. 28.12). 8. An exile who 
 returned with Ezra (Ezra 8.12). 9. Son of 
 Eliashib. A chamber in the Temple was called 
 after him. Perhaps the same as No. 4 (Ezra 10.6). 
 10. Son of Abiah the Ammonite (Neh. 6.18). 11. 
 The son of Kareah, and an officer in the army of 
 Judah. He escaped from Jerusalem when the 
 city was assaulted by the Chaldeans, took refuge 
 with the Ammonites and Moabites until the 
 invaders had withdrawn, and then submitted 
 to the new governor of Jerusalem. He rescued 
 the captives carried off by Gedaliah from Mizpah 
 ( Jer. 41.11-16). With other captains he settled 
 at Tahpanhes, and is then lost sight of (2 K. 
 25.23; Jer. 40, 41, 42, 43). 
 
 John. The Grace of God : 1. In other places 
 the name appears as Jehohanan and Johanan. 
 A kinsman of the high-priest Annas. With 
 Annas and Caiaphas he inquired concerning the 
 teaching of the Apostles Peter and John, and the 
 cure of the lame man (Acts 4.6). Nothing more 
 is known of him. 
 
 2. John Mark, the evangelist, a son of Mary, 
 and cousin (not nephew) of Barnabas. lie 
 is mentioned as John but five times (Acts 
 12.12, 25, 13.5, 13, 15.37) ; in every other 
 instance he is spoken of as Mark. [MARK.! 
 
 3. The Baptist, the Forerunner. The coming 
 of John was intimated in prophecy (Isai. 40.3 ; 
 Mai. 4.5 ; cf . Matt. 11.14), and his birth foretold 
 to his aged parents by " an angel of the Lord " 
 (Lk. 1.5-23). His father, Zacharias, was a 
 priest, and his mother, Elisabeth, " a daughter 
 of Aaron." The coming of the child was 
 intimated also to the Virgin Mary at the an- 
 nunciation (Lk. 1.36). The birth of John 
 (Lk. 1.57) was followed at his circumcision by 
 the restoration to Zacharias of his speech, which 
 had been taken from him when the coming of 
 the child was foretold by the angel (Lk. 1.20, 64). 
 
 Of the early life of John the Baptist we learn 
 no more than that he " grew, and waxed 
 strong in spirit, and was in the deserts 
 till the day of his showing unto Israel " 
 (Lk. 1.80). Thus, whilst consecrated to the 
 office of preacher and teacher before his birth 
 (Lk. 1.13-15), John did not enter upon it until 
 
JOHN] 
 
 259 
 
 [JOHN 
 
 ripe manhood, and after spending several years 
 in solitude and self-denial. The appearance 
 and manner of the Baptist when he first came 
 into notice excited general attention. His 
 clothing was of camel's hair, bound around him 
 with a leathern girdle, and his food the product 
 of the wilderness, locusts and wild honey 
 (Lev. 11.22 ; Ps. 81.16 ; Matt. 3.4). 
 
 The ministry of John began " in the wilderness 
 of Judsea " (Matt. 3.1 ; Mk. 1.4 ; Lk. 3.3 ; 
 John 1.6-28). He preached repentance and the 
 coming of the kingdom of heaven, with the 
 result that the whole country appeared to be 
 moved (Matt. 3.5; Mk. 1.5), and multitudes 
 came to him for baptism. He denounced in 
 unmeasured terms the sin of the Pharisees and 
 Sadducees who thus approached him (Matt. 
 3.7), warning also other classes of the com- 
 munity (Lk. 3.7-14), and pointing to the mission 
 of our Lord (Lk. 3.15-17; John 1.29-31), 
 Whom he baptized (Matt. 3.13-17, reff.). Men 
 wondered whether John were the promised 
 Christ (Lk. 3.15) ; but he set all doubts at rest 
 (John 1.20). 
 
 The importance of John's ministry is clearly 
 indicated in the references of our Lord and the 
 apostles to John's character and work. After 
 answering the messengers of John (Matt. 11.2-6 ; 
 Lk. 7.19-23), our Lord spoke to " the multi- 
 tudes " of John's character and mission, de- 
 claring that " among them that are born of 
 women there hath not risen a greater than 
 John the Baptist " (Matt. 11.7-11 ; Lk. 7.24-28). 
 Later on, our Lord definitely identified John 
 with the promised Elias (Matt. 17.10-13 ; Mk. 
 9.11-13) ; used the baptism of John as the 
 subject of a question which placed the " chief 
 priests and the elders of the people " in a diffi- 
 culty (Matt. 21.23-27) ; and pressed upon them 
 their responsibility for rejecting John's appeal 
 (Matt. 21.32). The baptism of John was re- 
 called by our Lord after He had risen (Acts 
 1.5); was referred to by Peter (Acts 3.22, 
 10.37, 11.16); and by Paul (Acts 13.24, 25). 
 Apollos knew only " the baptism of John " 
 (Acts 18.25) ; so also did " certain disciples " 
 at Ephesus (Acts 19.1-4). [For " the baptism 
 of John," see BAPTISM.] 
 
 John's bold ministry appears to have alarmed 
 Herod, the tetrarch of Galilee, who, according 
 to Josephus (Ant. xiii. 5. 2), regarded him as 
 a demagogue and a dangerous person. John, 
 having rebuked the sin of Herod in marrying 
 Herodias, wife of his still living brother Philip 
 [HEEODIAS], was imprisoned by Herod. Fear 
 of popular indignation (Matt. 14.5) might have 
 restrained Herod from killing John ; but the 
 daughter of Herodias, as the outcome of a 
 rash promise made by Herod, obtained John's 
 death (Matt. 14.3-12). 
 
 4. The Apostle. John, the brother of James, 
 was the son of Zebedee (Matt. 4.21) and of 
 Salome, who probably was sister of Mary, the 
 mother of our Lord (of. Matt. 27.56 with 
 Mk. 15.40; John 19.25). In that case John 
 was cousin to Jesus, a relationship making the 
 
 more natural the committal of Mary to the care 
 of John after the crucifixion (John 19.25-27). 
 John was employed with his father as a fisher- 
 man at Bethsaida in Galilee, on the Lake of 
 Gennesareth (Matt. 4.18, 21). The family 
 seem to have been in easy circumstances ; for 
 his father had " hired servants " (Mk. 1.20) ; 
 his mother was among the women who accom- 
 panied Jesus from Galilee, and " ministered unto 
 Him of their substance " (Matt. 27.56) ; John 
 himself was an acquaintance of the high- priest 
 (John 18.15), and had a home of his own (John 
 19.27). He is identified with the unnamed 
 disciple of John the Baptist, who, with Andrew, 
 followed Jesus (John 1.35-40). The definite 
 call of John and his brother James is recorded 
 in Matt. 4.21,22; Mk. 1.19,20). He was 
 numbered amongst the twelve apostles (Matt. 
 10.2, and reff.)' To John and his brother our 
 Lord gave the name of Boanerges (Mk. 3.17). 
 In his early manhood John appears to have been 
 of an ardent, impulsive temperament, and so 
 drew upon himself rebuke from our Lord for 
 forbidding a worker of miracles (Mk. 9.38, 39 ; 
 Lk. 9.49, 50), for desiring the miraculous punish- 
 ment of hostile Samaritans (Lk. 9.51-56), and for 
 personal ambition (Mk. 10.85-40). Yet he it 
 was who is called the disciple " whom Jesus 
 loved" (John 21.20), and to whom (with 
 James and Peter) our Lord gave the privilege 
 of witnessing so many great events in His 
 ministry. John was at the healing of Peter's 
 wife's mother (Mk. 1.29), the raising of Jairus's 
 daughter (Mk. 5.37 ; Lk. 8.51), the miraculous 
 draught of fishes (Lk. 5.10), the transfigura- 
 tion (Matt. 17.1, and reff.), and the agony at 
 Gethsemane (Matt. 26.37, and reff.). Like the 
 other disciples, John forsook our Lord at His 
 apprehension, but followed Him to the high- 
 priest's palace (John 18.15), and was present 
 at the Cross (John 19.26, 27). He visited with 
 Peter the emptied tomb of our Lord (John 
 20.2-8), he recognised the risen Lord at the 
 miraculous draught of fishes (John 21.7), and 
 his future was the subject of an inquiry by 
 Peter, our Lord's answer to which was by 
 some misunderstood (John 21.21-23). 
 
 After the close of the Gospel narrative John 
 is mentioned but seldom, and then always in 
 connexion with Peter. He was imprisoned 
 by the Sanhedrin (Acts 4.1-19), and sent by the 
 Church to Samaria (Acts 8.14-17). When Paul 
 first visited Jerusalem after his conversion, 
 John was absent (Gal. 1.19) ; he was found there 
 by Paul at a later period (Gal. 2.9) ; but he 
 probably was not there at the time of that 
 apostle's last visit (Acts 21.18, etc.). The 
 almost unvarying belief of the Christian Church 
 has been that he remained at Jerusalem until 
 the death of Mary, about 48 A.D. ; and that, 
 after Paul finally left Asia Minor, John went to 
 labour there, residing chiefly at Ephesus, and 
 founding several Churches in that country ; 
 that, during the persecution under Domitian, 
 or (as many hold) towards the end of the reign 
 of Nero, he was banished to Patmos, an island 
 
JOHN, THE GOSPEL] 
 
 260 
 
 [JOHN, THE GOSPEL 
 
 in the JEgean Sea, where he saw the visions of 
 the Apocalypse ; and that, on his liberation, he 
 returned to Ephesus, where he continued to 
 labour until his death, in the hundredth year of 
 his age, about 100 A.D. Though some of the 
 apostles were married (1 Cor. 9.5), tradition 
 holds that John was a celibate. Jerome (in 
 Gal. vi. 10) has a story that when John was too 
 old to preach, he had himself carried to church, 
 and addressed to the people the exhortation, 
 " Little children, love one another." No details 
 are known as to his death. 
 
 John, The Gospel according to. Upon no 
 book of the N.T. has criticism laboured more 
 strenuously than upon the Fourth Gospel. 
 Whilst the voice of Christian antiquity almost 
 without exception ascribed it to the Apostle 
 John, some modern critics have sought to 
 prove that the author cannot have been the 
 son of Zebedee, cannot have been an apostle, 
 an eye-witness of the events described, nor a 
 contemporary of our Lord. The composition 
 of the book is thus deferred until the second 
 century, and it is regarded as the work of a 
 devout Christian of philosophic character, who 
 cast his views of Christianity into the form of 
 a Life of our Lord. This position is based on 
 considerations, some of which must have been 
 as apparent to the earliest readers of the four 
 Gospels as to ourselves. These considerations 
 will be noted below. It will be convenient first 
 to consider 
 
 The positive evidence for the authorship of 
 John, the son of Zebedee. 
 
 The author's own claim meets us in the Gospel 
 itself. In three passages (1.14, 19.35, 21.24) 
 the writer, though remaining anonymous, 
 appears to refer to himself, and definitely to 
 claim the authority of an eye-witness. Guid- 
 ance as to the identity of the writer is furnished 
 in the last of these statements 21 .24. Who was 
 " the disciple which beareth witness of these 
 things " ? The answer is, " The disciple whom 
 Jesus loved, which also leaned on His breast 
 at the supper" (21.20; cf. 13.23, 25, 19.26, 20.2, 
 21.7). Now there were present at the incidents 
 of chap. 21, Peter, Thomas, Nathanael, the sons 
 of Zebedee, and " two other of His disciples " 
 (21.2). We seek for "the beloved disciple" 
 amongst those three who appear in the Synoptics 
 as admitted to closest intimacy with the Lord 
 Peter, James, and John. But Peter is excluded 
 by the narrative itself ; James suffered martyr- 
 dom long before this Gospel could have been 
 written. There remains only the Apostle John. 
 
 The internal evidence furnished by the Gospel 
 itself supports this identification. The narrative 
 warrants the inference that its author was 
 
 1. A Jew : for he is perfectly familiar with 
 Jewish opinions (especially the Messianic expec- 
 tation, 1.21 ; 4.25; 6.14,15; 7.52; 12.13,34; 
 19.15, 21) and with Jewish usages and observ- 
 ances. Explanations furnished by him are 
 such as would be given by a Jew writing at a 
 distance from Palestine, after the overthrow of 
 the Jewish polity and worship, and when Gentile 
 
 converts to Christianity had become numerous. 
 Thus he calls the feasts (which he is careful to 
 note) " feasts of the Jews " (5.1, 6.4) ; explains 
 the " Sea of Galilee " as being the same as the 
 " Sea of Tiberias " (6.1) ; tells his readers that 
 " Rabbi " signifies Teacher (1.38), and "Messiah " 
 Christ (1.41) ; and accounts for the conduct of 
 the Samaritans by recalling the fact that " the 
 Jews had no dealings with the Samaritans " 
 (4.9). 
 
 2. A Jew of Palestine : for he shows minute 
 knowledge of the topography of Palestine and 
 of Jerusalem, already in ruins when the Gospel 
 was written. 
 
 3. An Aramaic-speaking Jew : for the style 
 is Semitic, and the O.T. quotations showing 
 acquaintance with the Hebrew as well as with 
 the LXX version (in Greek). 
 
 4. An eye-witness : for time, persons, and 
 places are constantly specified, while the graphic 
 character of the narrative shows either " the 
 skill of a consummate artist or the recollection 
 of an observer" (Westcott). And see the 
 passages in the Gospel referred to above 1.14, 
 19.35, 21.24. 
 
 5. An Apostle : for he is an eye-witness 
 closely intimate with the thoughts and doings 
 of the apostles and of the Lord. 
 
 From these considerations, drawn from the 
 Gospel itself, we pass to external testimony in 
 favour of the authorship by John. John 1.1 is 
 quoted, with the preface " John says," by 
 Theophilus of Antioch (about 180 A.D.). Irenseus 
 (who knew Poly carp, who knew the Apostle 
 John) unhesitatingly ascribes the Gospel to 
 " John, the disciple of the Lord who also leaned 
 upon his breast," and affirms that he wrote 
 in Ephesus, where he remained till the times of 
 Trajan (98-117 A.D.). Similar testimony is 
 given by Tertullian, Clement of Alexandria, and 
 later writers. " In the last quarter of the second 
 century, ' ' says D rummond ( Character and A uthor- 
 ship of the Fourth Gospel, p. 79), " and subse- 
 quently, if we except the shadowy Alogi, the 
 Gospel was universally and without hesitation 
 received as the work of the Apostle John, who 
 composed it at Ephesus in his old age, after 
 the publication of the other Gospels." More- 
 over, investigations prove the use of this Gospel 
 by Tatian (about 170), make it all but certain 
 that it was known to Justin Martyr (about 150), 
 trace citations from it in Valentinus (about 130) 
 and in Basilides (about 125) as quoted by Hippo- 
 lytus, and, by vindicating the genuineness of 
 the Ignatian Epistles and the Epistle of Poly- 
 carp, carry back at least a familiarity with 
 Johannine ideas and phrases to the beginning 
 of the second century. 
 
 So much for evidence in favour of the author- 
 ship by John. It remains to consider some of 
 the objections and difficulties raised. 
 
 And first in regard to difficulties suggested by 
 the Gospel itself. 
 
 The contrast between the Fourth Gospel and the 
 Synoptic Gospels is obvious, alike in regard to 
 the facts given and in regard to the presenta- 
 
JOHN, THE GOSPEL] 
 
 261 
 
 [JOHN, FIRST EPISTLE OF 
 
 tion of our Lord and His teaching. Thus it 
 is urged that Matthew, Mark, and Luke knew 
 only a one-year ministry of our Lord, whilst 
 John extends the ministry over three, or even 
 more. But it will be remembered that all the 
 Gospels are, in a sense, incomplete ; that is, 
 they do not give a full and everywhere detailed 
 account of our Lord's earthly life. Moreover, 
 Mark does afford some indications of a ministry 
 exceeding one year ; in the Synoptic Gospels 
 there is room for the additional matter of the 
 fourth (cf. John 20.30, 21.25) ; while in the 
 lament over Jerusalem (Matt. 23.37; Lk. 
 13.34, 35) there is suggested a previous ministry 
 there, just as the woes upon Chorazin and 
 Bethsaida (Matt. 11.21 ; Lk. 10.13) are the only 
 notices of " mighty works " done in those 
 cities of Galilee. Other difficulties are met if 
 the later origin of this Gospel and the aims of 
 its writer are kept in mind. John was, no 
 doubt, acquainted with the earlier Gospels. 
 He writes as one who supposes his hearers to 
 be informed of the chief events of the Saviour's 
 life. He repeatedly alludes to facts recorded 
 by the other evangelists ; but rarely relates the 
 same events, and then only when they are 
 closely connected with the main object of. his 
 Gospel. He records only eight miracles, of which 
 six are peculiar to this Gospel. He omits all 
 the parables found in the other evangelists, as 
 well as the Sermon on the Mount, and our Lord's 
 last prophetic discourse. The Synoptic Gospels 
 dwell chiefly on our Lord's ministry in Galilee 
 and Peraea, although intimating in various ways 
 that His work extended to Judaea also. Of 
 this Judaean ministry John gives larger details. 
 Thus two-thirds of his book are entirely new ; 
 and those matters which are found elsewhere 
 are given here with such important additions 
 as to place them in a new light. 
 
 The evangelist's subject, as announced by 
 himself (1.4, 14), is the manifested glory of the 
 Incarnate Word, the Life and the Light of 
 men ; and his object is to lead his readers to 
 faith in Jesus, viewed in this aspect, that they 
 may attain eternal life (20.31). For this 
 purpose he selects such passages of the Saviour's 
 life, and places them in such a light, as may dis- 
 play most fully the " grace and truth" of the Son 
 of God. He relates those discourses in which 
 our Lord speaks most plainly of His own 
 nature, of the work given to Him by the Father, 
 and of the efficacy of His death, as an atonement 
 for the sins of the world. It is from this 
 Gospel that the most numerous and decisive 
 proofs of our Lord's Deity are derived. Yet 
 no evangelist has portrayed the gentler linea- 
 ments of our Lord's humanity with more 
 delicacy and beauty, or disclosed more of the 
 inmost affections and feelings of the Saviour's 
 heart. 
 
 A further difficulty suggested by the differ- 
 ence between the Gospel and the Revelation 
 is discussed under the latter book. [REVELA- 
 TION.] 
 
 Objections are also made on the ground that 
 
 the external evidence is weak. Stress is laid 
 upon the comparative silence of the Apostolic 
 Fathers ; but when it is remembered that a 
 Gospel issued later than the others would be 
 at some disadvantage, the evidence from this 
 source is sufficient, in view of the fulness of 
 external testimony from the year 170 onwards. 
 The absence of recognition by the heretic Marcion 
 is to be explained on the ground that its special 
 character made it unsuited to his purpose 
 
 The date of the book can only be inferred. It 
 suggests (John 21.19) a retrospect of long- 
 past events, though this chapter may have 
 been an appendix to the original narrative. 
 The date could hardly be earlier than the year 80, 
 and may have been in the last decade of the 
 first century. There is no sufficient ground for 
 doubting the belief of the early Church that 
 the Gospel was written at Ephesus. 
 
 The contents of the Gospel may be summar- 
 ised thus : 
 
 I. The prologue, displaying the glory of the 
 Son of God in His original Divine nature and 
 operations, as well as in the fact and the purpose 
 of His incarnation (1.1-18). 
 
 II. Events which occurred during His public 
 life, manifesting His glory to the whole people 
 (1.19-12.50) : 1. In the earlier portion : the 
 testimony of the Baptist, the faith of His early 
 disciples, the inquiry of Nicodemus, and the 
 faith of the Samaritans and of a Galilean noble- 
 man (1.19-4.54) ; 2. In the subsequent narra- 
 tives : Christ's own miracles, conversations, 
 and deportment, amidst violent and growing 
 opposition (5.1-12.36). This is closed by re- 
 flections on the foregoing narratives (12.37-50). 
 
 III. Events preparatory to and connected 
 with His death, manifesting His glory specially 
 to His disciples (13.1-21.25) : 1. In His private 
 discourses with His intimate followers and His 
 intercessory prayer (13.1-17.26) ; 2. In His 
 trial, sufferings, and death (18.1-19.42) ; 3. In 
 His resurrection and appearances to His 
 disciples (20), of which a further account is 
 added in an appendix (21). 
 
 John, First Epistle of. This book has the 
 character rather of a treatise or discourse on the 
 belief and duty of the Christian than of a letter 
 addressed to a particular Church. It has no 
 greetings, farewells, or other personal allusions. 
 It is called a " general " Epistle, as being addressed 
 to the Church at large. The authorship is 
 ascribed to John by some of the earliest Christian 
 writers. The similarity of its ideas and language 
 to those of the Fourth Gospel support the same 
 belief. Indeed, this Epistle has all the character 
 of a companion or supplement to and comment 
 on the Gospel. Comp., e.g., 1.4 with 16.24 ; 2.3 
 with 14.] 5 ; 2.8 with 13.34 ; 2.11 with 12.35. The 
 Epistle seems definitely to claim to have been 
 written by an eye-witness of the person and 
 labours of our Lord (1.1-4, 4.14). The place of its 
 origin is believed to have been Ephesus ; but its 
 precise date is uncertain ; a late date is highly 
 probable, from the errors which are here con- 
 demned. 
 
JOHN, SECOND EPISTLE OF] 
 
 [JOKNEAM 
 
 The object of the Epistle is stated by the author 
 (5.13) : he seeks to confirm and enforce the 
 Gospel, and to assure believers that they have 
 eternal life. In pursuit of this the author has 
 to enter upon controversy. Thus early in the 
 life of the Church false doctrine had crept in. 
 Some questioned the divine dignity of our 
 Lord, and denied Him to be the Son of God. 
 These the apostle calls deceivers and antichrist 
 (2.22, 415, 5.1). Others denied His humanity, 
 thus contradicting the real fellowship of Christ 
 with men (Heb. 2.16, 4.15), and the reality of His 
 death and propitiation. His incarnation was, as 
 they held, but an appearance, and the story of 
 His life a myth. This delusion the apostle 
 strongly denounces (4.3), and declares that he 
 had himself felt with his hand the body of bis 
 Lord (1.1), and alludes in decisive terms to the 
 water and blood from His pierced side (5.G). A 
 third party seem to have held that it was enough 
 to worship God with the spirit, leaving the body 
 to indulgence. This the apostle refutes by 
 showing that every sin is real transgression 
 (3.4); that fellowship with God purifies the 
 Christian, and that by this purity only can we be 
 recognised as His (2.5, 3.8-10, 4.13, 5.11). 
 
 The contents of the Epistle abound in positive 
 teaching under three main heads : 
 
 1. The true nature of fellowship with God 
 (1.3). He is light (1.5) and love ; and fellowship 
 implies conformity to Him : light, and therefore 
 man must be purified and redeemed (1.7-2.2) : 
 light, and therefore man must be holy (2.3-7) : 
 love, and therefore we must love one another 
 (2.10). If Christ be denied, these blessings are 
 lost (2.22-24), 
 
 2. We are taught the blessedness and duties 
 of sonship. Not only fellowship, but adoption 
 is our privilege in Christ. But God is righteous, 
 and, as His children, we must be righteous also 
 (2.29-3.3). Christ came to take away sin ; and 
 in Him is no sin ; to Him we must be conformed 
 (3.4-10). He gave His life for us, and herein His 
 love is our model (3.11-18). Having His Spirit 
 we shall share His other blessings (3.19-24). 
 Again, let Christ be denied, in His human nature 
 especially, and these blessings are lost (3.19-4.6). 
 
 3. God is not only light: God is love (4.7, 8). 
 Love is His essence, was manifested in the mission 
 and character of His Son, and is the necessary 
 condition of sonship (4.21). Love to God and 
 one another, faith in Christ, such confidence as 
 casts out fear, are all among the results which 
 ibis revelation secures. Only let us truly believe 
 mat God gives eternal life, and that life is in His 
 Son (5.11-13), and we become holy and happy ; 
 we are forgiven and sanctified. Reject this 
 truth, or any part of it, and we are left without 
 hope. Like the world, we lie in the evil one 
 (5.19). 
 
 John, Second Epistle oi This letter is 
 addressed to " the elect lady and her children " 
 (ver. 1), to whom the children of her " elect 
 sister" send greeting (ver. 13). Some have 
 assumed that under this figure the apostle writes 
 to a particular Church, or to the Church at large, 
 
 and sends greeting from a sister Church. It is 
 more generally thought that the letter is a personal 
 one, and, like the Epistle to Philemon, an example 
 of an apostle's private correspondence. For the 
 words " the elect lady " an unnamed corre- 
 spondent some would read, " the elect Kyria," 
 and others, " the lady Electa." The R.V. retains 
 the rendering " the elect lady." 
 
 The authorship of the Epistle has been by the 
 voice of antiquity very generally ascribed to 
 John, though by some ancient authorities it 
 is classed amongst the disputed books of the 
 Canon. The internal evidence points strongly 
 to the same author as that of the First Epistle. 
 Of its thirteen verses, eight are substantially 
 found in the former. " The elder," literally 
 " the presbyter," the name assumed by the 
 author of this and the succeeding Epistle (ver. 1), 
 is the same title as that by which Peter designates 
 himself (1 Pet. 5.1), and may have been used in 
 either an official, or in its primary, simple sense 
 of one advanced in years. The view that there 
 was another " John the presbyter," the author 
 of these Epistles, rests on a passage written by 
 Papias, preserved by Eusebius. There are 
 strong reasons for believing that the presbyter 
 John of Papias is the same as John the Apostle. 
 
 The date and place of writing this Epistle cannot 
 be determined. 
 
 John, Third Epistle of. This letter is in 
 its address definitely personal (ver. 1), and is 
 another example of apostolic private correspond- 
 ence. It is addressed to " the well-beloved 
 Gaius " (ver. 1), who may have been the Gaius 
 of Rom. 16.23, and possibly also of 1 Cor. 1.14 ; 
 or the Gaius of Acts 19.29 ; or the Gaius of Acts 
 20.4, 5, who may be identical with the Gaius of 
 Rom. 16.23. Or, as the name was a common one, 
 an entirely different person may have been 
 addressed. The author of the Epistle was no 
 doubt the writer of the Second Epistle. Its date 
 and place of writing cannot be determined. Its 
 object was to congratulate Gaius, to warn him 
 against one Diotrephes, and to commend one 
 Demetrius. 
 
 Joia'da. Jehovah knows : the son of Eliashib, 
 a high-priest in the time of Nehemiah (Neh. 12.10, 
 11, 22) ; a contraction of Jehoiada. 
 
 Joia'kim. Jehovah raiseth up : a high-priest, 
 the son of Jeshua the high-priest, in the time of 
 Zerubbabel. The name is a contraction of 
 Jehoiakim (Neh. 12.10, 12). 
 
 Joia'rib. Jehovah plead eth : 1. A teacher in 
 Ezra's time (Ezra 8.16). 2. A man of Judah 
 (Neh. 11.5). 3. (Neh. 11.10). [JEHOIARIB.] 
 
 Jokde'am. A town in the mountains of 
 Judah (Josh. 15.56). Its site has not been 
 identified. 
 
 Jok'un. The same word as Jehoiakim. The 
 third son of Shelah, the son of Judah (1 Ch. 4.22). 
 
 Jokme'am. (?) Let the people be established : 
 a town of Ephraim assigned to the Kohathites, 
 on the east boundary of the tribe in the Jordan 
 valley (1 K. 4.12, R.V. ; 1 Ch. 6.68), though the 
 exact site is not known. 
 
 Jokne'am. Situated under Carmel, near the 
 
JOKSHAN] 
 
 263 
 
 [JONAH, BOOK OF 
 
 north-west angle of Esdraelon. A Canaanite 
 town taken by Joshua (Josh. 12.22). In Zebulun 
 (19.11). It became a Levitical city (21.34). 
 Possibly the modem Tell Kaimun. 
 
 Jok'shan. (?) A fowler : a son of Abraham 
 and Keturah, and the father of Sheba and Dedan 
 (Gen. 25.2, 3 ; 1 Ch. 1.32). The descendants of 
 Jokshan are very numerous, for places bearing 
 his name or those of his sons are to be found 
 stretching right across Arabia. 
 
 Jok'tan. (?) Little, small : the son of Eber, 
 and, through his thirteen sons, the founder of 
 many South Arabian tribes of Arabs (Gen. 10.25 ; 
 
 1 Ch. 1.19). [ARABIA.] 
 
 Jokthe'el. 1. A town in the lowlands of 
 Judah (Josh. 15.38). Its site is unknown, but it 
 lay on the road between Beitgibrin and Gaza. 
 2. The name given by Amaziah to the cliff (Sela, 
 i.e., as it seems, Petra), the Edomite strong- 
 hold, after he had captured it (2 K. 14.7; 
 
 2 Ch. 25.11-13) and thrown his captives over 
 its edge. 
 
 Jo'aa. Jehovah is gracious : the father of 
 Peter (John 1.42). In Matt. 16.17 Peter is called 
 Simon Barjona, and in John 21.15-17 Jonas. 
 [BARJONA.] 
 
 Jonadab. Jehovah is generous : 1. David's 
 nephew, and the cousin of Amnon, to whom he 
 gave such fatal advice (2 Sam. 13.3 ff.). The 
 word " subtil " used in ver. 3 is in the original 
 the same word translated " wise " in the account 
 of Solomon. 2. The son of Rechab (Jer. 35.6-19). 
 In some verses the name is Jehonadab (which see). 
 The Rechabites were a family of the Kenites 
 (1 Ch. 2.55), probably descended from the father- 
 in-law of Moses (Judg. 1.16). Jonadab is 
 supposed to have been the chief of the tribe in 
 the days of Jehu, and was held in high esteem 
 for wisdom and piety (2 K. 10.15). It was 
 therefore important for Jehu to have his public 
 approval of the slaughter of the worshippers 
 of Baal. The self-denying observance of his 
 commands by the people, during a period of 
 nearly 300 years, is used as a rebuke to the 
 Israelites, who had repeatedly broken Jehovah's 
 laws ; and a curse is pronounced upon the 
 Israelites, and a blessing on the Rechabites. The 
 character of Jonadab makes it appear that the 
 regulations concerning houses, etc., were intended 
 to preserve the people from the luxury which was 
 enervating and debasing the Hebrews (Jer. 35.7). 
 
 Jo'nah. A dove : son of Amittai (Truthful), 
 a native of Gath-hepher, a small village of 
 Zebulun, in Galilee, now el-Meshhad, mentioned 
 in 2 K. 14.25 as having predicted the extension 
 of the kingdom of Israel to its former boundaries ; 
 which was accomplished by means of the valour 
 and prudence of Jeroboam II. He may have 
 lived during that reign ; or perhaps at an earlier 
 period, about the time of Jehoahaz. He is 
 commonly identified with the principal figure 
 in the Book of Jonah, which see. 
 
 Jonah, Book of. The author of this book 
 has been identified with the Jonah of 2 K. 14.25. 
 On the other hand, some modern critics refuse to 
 regard the work as a record of fact, and represent 
 
 it as a religious story, prepared for edifying 
 purposes after the Exile. This is inconsistent 
 with the references of our Lord to Jonah. 
 
 The contents of the book consist, with the 
 exception of the prayer in chap. 2, of a simple 
 narrative. It relates that Jonah, being sent on a 
 mission to Nineveh, attempts to flee to Tarshish ; 
 but is overtaken by a storm, is cast into the 
 sea, and is swallowed by a great fish, in whose 
 belly he continues for three days (chap. 1), when, 
 earnestly praying to God, he is wonderfully 
 delivered (chap. 2). At the renewed command 
 of God he goes to Nineveh, and announces its 
 destruction; upon which the Ninevites, believ- 
 ing his words, fast, pray, repent, and are 
 graciously spared (chap. 3). Jonah is vexed at 
 the Divine forbearance, and wishes for death. 
 Leaving the city, he is sheltered by a gourd, 
 which, however, shortly withers; and Jonah, 
 manifesting great impatience, is taught, through 
 his concern about the gourd, the propriety of 
 God's mercy to Nineveh (chap. 4). 
 
 The question of the historical character of the 
 book is deemed one of great difficulty. The 
 existence and ministry of this prophet, together 
 with the main facts of his history, are referred 
 to by our Lord (Matt. 12.39-41, 16.4; Lk. 
 11.29, 30), who not only explicitly recognises his 
 prophetical office, but in Matt. 12.40 (though it 
 is just possible that this is only a comment by 
 the Evangelist) represents his being in the 
 belly of the sea-monster as indicating a future 
 analogous event in His own history ; and, after 
 mentioning the prophet's preaching at Nineveh, 
 and the repentance of the inhabitants, speaks of 
 Himself as " a greater than Jonah." If the 
 events recorded in the book never took place, 
 it would be necessary to suppose that our Lord 
 was content to take popular beliefs for granted. 
 There is nothing strange in Jonah's reluctance 
 to undertake a mission to a distant heathen city, 
 which would expose him to peril both from the 
 king and from the people. Moses (Ex. 3.11), 
 and even the bold Elijah (1 K. 19), had shrunk 
 from similar dangers. And we can hardly be 
 surprised that no record of the repentance of 
 Nineveh has been found in the cuneiform 
 inscriptions. Jonah's want of sympathy with 
 God's sparing mercy is commonly ascribed to a 
 selfish regard to his own safety and reputation, 
 or rather to a strong national exclusiveness, 
 which made him unwilling that the doom of 
 a heathen city should be averted. He was 
 unwilling to undertake a mission which he saw 
 would end in an act of mercy. 
 
 The "great fish" (Jon. 1.17) is often erro- 
 neously supposed to have been a whale. But 
 it may be remarked that there is nothing either 
 in the Hebrew of this passage or in the Greek 
 of Matt. 12.40 to show that it was a whale. 
 That there are fishes in the Mediterranean 
 capable of swallo uing a man whole has been 
 fully proved by credible testimony. The real 
 difficulty lies not in the fact of a man being 
 swallowed by a fish, but in his remaining un- 
 injured by the gastric juices. A canard, pub- 
 
JONAN] 
 
 264 
 
 [JORDAN 
 
 lished in 1895 of an American sailor having been 
 swallowed by a whale in 1891, and found alive 
 within it on the next day, is mentioned approv- 
 ingly by Konig in Hastings' Dictionary of the 
 Bible ; but the falsehood of this supposed parallel 
 to Jonah has since been demonstrated. 
 
 The narrative presents the most striking con- 
 trast between the long-suffering mercy of God 
 and the rebellion and impatience of His servant ; 
 and further, between the readiness with which 
 the Ninevites repented, at the preaching of a 
 prophet who visited them as a stranger, and the 
 manner in which the Israelites treated the 
 servants of Jehovah, who lived and laboured 
 amongst them. These events would serve to 
 teach them that the Divine regard and com- 
 passion were not confined to them alone, but 
 were extended to men of all nations. 
 
 Jo'nan. A contraction of Johanan ; an 
 ancestor of Jesus Christ (Lk. 3.30). 
 
 Jonas. The prophet Jonah (Matt. 12.39-41, 
 
 16.4). [JONAH.] 
 
 Jon'athan. Jehovah hath given : the name of 
 many O.T. personages. 1. A Levite of Beth- 
 lehem and a descendant of Moses. Becoming 
 acquainted with Micah, a wealthy Ephraimite, 
 he was made priest over the latter's house of 
 gods. When the army of Dan went against 
 Laish they seized Micah's gods, and induced 
 Jonathan to go with them. This he did, and 
 when Laish was taken and put to the sword he 
 was made priest of the images. The office re- 
 mained in his family until the time of the 
 Captivity (Judg. 17, 18). [LAISH, MICAH.] 
 
 2. The eldest son of Saul (1 Sam. 13.2) and close 
 friend of David. His great personal courage 
 appears from the narrative in 1 Sam. 14. The 
 attachment of Jonathan to David seems to have 
 originated at David's defeat of Goliath (1 Sam. 
 18.1-4), and was unimpaired by the growth of 
 Saul's hostility to David (1 Sam. 19.1-7). The 
 tie between father and son, once so intimate 
 (1 Sam. 20.2), was strained to breaking-point by 
 Saul's attitude towards David (1 Sam. 20.34). 
 Nevertheless the friends parted (1 Sam. 20.42), 
 Jonathan, though he foresaw the future of 
 David (1 Sam. 23.17), adhering to his father's 
 cause, and falling with him at Gilboa (1 Sam. 
 31.1, 2 ; 2 Sam. 1.5). David's lamentation over 
 Saul, and more especially over Jonathan, is one 
 of the most pathetic passages in Holy Scripture 
 (2 Sam. 1.17-27). His affection for Jonathan is 
 reflected in his treatment of Mephibosheth, his 
 friend's son (2 Sam. 4.4, 9.6-13). [SAUL, DAVID, 
 MEPHIBOSHETH, MEEIB-BAAL.] 
 
 3. David's nephew. Like his uncle, he killed 
 a giant of Gath, who had on each hand six 
 fingers and on each foot six toes (2 Sam. 21.21 ; 
 1 Ch. 20.7). 4. An uncle and counsellor of 
 David (1 Ch. 27.32). 5. The last descendant 
 of Eli. He makes his appearance twice, each 
 time as a trusted messenger of important State 
 matters (2 Sam. 15.27,36, 17.17,20; 1 K. 1.42,43). 
 6. One of David's heroes (2 Sam. 23.32; 
 1 Ch. 11.34). 7. The brother of Johanan. With 
 other captains who had escaped from Jerusalem, 
 
 he wandered in the open country of the Ammonites 
 until the invaders had withdrawn. He is lost 
 sight of after he went to Mizpah to join Gedaliah 
 (Jer. 40.8). 8. Father of Ebed, who returned 
 with Ezra (Ezra 8.6). 9. A priest who inquired 
 into the question of foreign wives (Ezra 10.15). 
 
 10. A priest in the time of Joiakim (Neh. 12.14). 
 
 11. The son of Joiada, and himself a high- priest 
 (Neh. 12.11). Probably the same as Johanan 4. 
 
 12. Father of a priest who assisted at the 
 dedication of the wall of Jerusalem (Neh. 12.35). 
 
 13. A scribe in whose house Jeremiah was im- 
 prisoned (Jer. 37.15, 20, 38.26). 14. A Judahite 
 (1 Ch. 2.32, 33). 
 
 Jop'pa. (?) Beautiful : a town on the steep 
 sides of a hill overhanging the sea, on the east 
 coast of the Mediterranean, 30 miles north-west 
 from Jerusalem, of which it has been the seaport 
 from the time of Solomon. It was allotted to 
 Dan (Josh. 19.46, A.V., Japho). It was the 
 port of delivery of wood from Lebanon for the 
 building of the Temple (2 Ch. 2.16 ; Ezra 3.7). 
 Jonah embarked at Joppa for Tarshish (Jon. 
 1.3). Here Peter raised Tabitha to life, and saw 
 the vision which led him to visit Cornelius (Acts 
 9.32-43, 10.1-23, 11.5-13). 
 
 The harbour at Joppa is very poor, and has 
 always been dangerous. As a consequence, 
 except as the port of Jerusalem, it has been little 
 used. Yet, poor as it was, Joppa was frequently 
 the subject of siege and assault, and in the 
 interval between the O.T. and N.T. records 
 changed hands several times. It was destroyed 
 twice at least, by Cestius and Vespasian, the 
 second time as a means of clearing out the 
 pirates, of which it had become a veritable nest. 
 Its more recent history has been but a repetition 
 of its ancient experience, being alternately 
 burned, sacked, rebuilt, and refortified by its 
 changing owners, its last calamity being the 
 dreadful " Massacre of Joppa " by Napoleon i. 
 in 1799. It was the seat of a Christian bishop in 
 the fifth century, and has at the present time 
 several convents belonging to the different 
 Churches. 
 
 Jo'rah. (?) Early rain : ancestor of a family 
 which returned with Zerubbabel (Ezra 2.18). 
 
 [HARIPH.] 
 
 Jo'rai. Jehovah teacheth : a Gadite chief (1 Ch. 
 5.13). 
 
 Jo'ram. Jehovah is exalted : a short form of 
 Jehoram. 1. Son of Jehoshaphat (2 K. 8.21). 
 [JEHORAM 1.] 2. Son of Ahab (2 K. 8.16 ff.). 
 [JEHORAM 2.] 3. Son of Toi, king of Hamath 
 (2 Sam. 8.10). 4. A Levite in the time of David 
 (1 Ch. 26.25). 5. A priest who travelled through 
 Judah teaching the law at the command of 
 Jehoshaphat (2 Ch. 17.8). 
 
 Jor'dan. (?) Descending : the Jordan is essenti- 
 ally the river of Palestine and the natural 
 boundary of the country on the east. It is char- 
 acterised by its depth below the general surface 
 of the country, its swift descent, its many rapids, 
 and great sinuosity. Rising in the mountains of 
 Syria, it flows through Lake Merom, the Sea of 
 Galilee, and finally empties itself into the Dead 
 
JORIM] 
 
 265 
 
 [JOSEPH 
 
 Sea, after a course of about 200 milei. It is a 
 river without any considerable town on its banks 
 with two bridges and a great many fords, of 
 which the most important is at Beth-shean 
 without traffic, and without fisheries. It has 
 twenty-seven rapids in its course, and is often 
 in flood. 
 
 Jordan is first named in Gen. 13.10. Though 
 it is not so stated, Abraham must, like Jacob 
 (Gen. 32.10), have crossed the river at the ford 
 near Succoth. The remarkable passage of the 
 children of Israel under Joshua occurred near 
 Jericho ( Josh. 3.15, 16, 4.12, 13). The miraculous 
 parting of the waters by Elijah and Elisha 
 (2 K. 2.8-14) must also have been in this neigh- 
 bourhood. Two other miracles are associated with 
 Jordan the healing of Naaman (2 K. 5.14), and 
 the making of the iron axe-head to swim (2 K. 
 6.5, 6). John the Baptist, in the course of his 
 ministry, baptized our Lord (Mk. 1.9 and reff.) 
 and multitudes (Matt. 3.6) in Jordan. 
 
 The " plain of Jordan " (Gen. 13.10) is 
 literally the " circle " of Jordan, and marks the 
 low country bordering Jordan towards the 
 south. 
 
 Jo'rim. A name in the genealogy of Jesus 
 Christ (Lk. 3.29). The word is used in the 
 Septuagint as a transliteration of Jarib and 
 Joiarib. 
 
 Jorko'am, Jorke'am. A descendant of Hebron 
 of Judah (1 Ch. 2.44). 
 
 JosaTbad. Jehovah hath bestowed (1 Ch. 12.4). 
 
 [JOZABAD.] 
 
 Josa'phat (Matt. 1.8). [JEHOSHAPHAT.] 
 
 Jo'se (R.V. Jesus). A name in the genealogy 
 of Jesus Christ (Lk. 3.29). [JosES.] 
 
 Jose'dech (R.V. Jehozadak). Jehovah is just : 
 father of Jeshua, the high-priest in the time of 
 Zerubbabel (Hag. 1.1). In Ezra and Nehemiah 
 the name also appears as Jozadak. 
 
 Joseph. He [Jehovah] adds : 1. The son of 
 the patriarch Jacob by Rachel, born in Padan- 
 aram, after Rachel had long hoped in vain for a 
 child (Gen. 30.1,22-24). The children of the 
 favourite wife (Gen. 29.30), Joseph and his 
 brother Benjamin were the peculiar objects of 
 their father's affection. From this partiality 
 sprang events of surpassing moment. The first 
 mention of Joseph after his birth reveals him as 
 a lad of seventeen, the favourite son of the 
 patriarch (Gen. 37.2, 3), who in the meantime 
 had crossed the Jordan and had settled in 
 Canaan. Rachel was dead ; and thus Jacob 
 had the sole care of the two children of his old 
 age. As the favourite son, and also on account 
 of his youth, Joseph served as messenger to his 
 elder brothers, who were away keeping the herds 
 and flocks ; but he was clothed in a style superior 
 to them, a thing which gave them great offence. 
 Perhaps his father had worked his " coat of many 
 colours " with his own hands, in accordance with 
 a custom still prevailing among the Bedouins. 
 Their jealousy and hatred is easily explained. 
 His mother and he had been put in the place of 
 honour from the first. Rachel was the true wife, 
 and is alone named in the pedigree in Gen. 46 
 
 as " Jacob's wife." Their own conduct, too, 
 was such that they felt themselves condemned 
 by the purer and more peaceful conduct of 
 Joseph. Then, in his visits between their 
 encampment and the homestead at Hebron, he 
 carried to Israel reports of then 1 misdeeds (Gen. 
 37.2). But it seems that it was the bestowal of 
 the " coat of many colours " (Gen. 37.3) that 
 caused their hatred to manifest itself in action. 
 
 When we recall the outrage of Reuben, the 
 vindictive cruelty of Simeon and Levi, and the 
 ill-regulated life of Judah, it is easy to conjecture 
 the difficulties and pitfalls that beset the life of 
 Joseph, who on the one hand had to serve his 
 brethren in the affairs of daily life, and on the 
 other was bound above all to be loyal, open- 
 hearted, and faithful to their common father. 
 Grievous offence was given by Joseph when he 
 reported the dreams that had come to him 
 (Om. 37.5-11). The opportunity of revenge 
 soon presented itself. Joseph's brothers had 
 returned to their flocks at Shechem, 50 miles 
 away, and Jacob, yearning to know of their 
 welfare, sent Joseph to make inquiries. But 
 they had moved on as far as Dothan, and thither 
 Joseph journeyed, another 15 miles. He had 
 drunk of Jacob's well for the last time. Dothan 
 was an important halting-place on the great 
 caravan road from Damascus to Egypt. It 
 was in the midst of a rich pasture- land well 
 supplied with cisterns, or wells. These were 
 constructed in the shape of a bottle, with the 
 narrow mouth at the surface of the ground, and 
 often dry, even in winter. They were occasion- 
 ally used as prisons. Here Joseph overtook his 
 brethren, who resolved on his death (en. 37.19, 20). 
 Reuben, aided by Judah, succeeded in saving his 
 life ; but only at the cost of the lad being sold 
 into slavery (Gen. 37.36). His purchasers, at 
 the price of twenty pieces of silver, were Ish- 
 maelites (Gen. 37.25) or Midianites (37-28), on 
 then- way to Egypt. Meanwhile the brethren of 
 Joseph, carrying to their father the coat of many 
 colours, which they stained with the blood of a 
 goat, inflicted upon him a wound scarcely less 
 severe than that they had dealt their brother 
 himself (Gen. 37.31-35). 
 
 It was doubtless towards the close of the rule 
 of the Shepherd Kings [EGYPT] that Joseph was 
 carried as a slave into Egypt, and sold to 
 Potiphar, captain of Pharaoh's guard (Gen. 39.1). 
 He won his master's confidence, and was made 
 his major-domo, or overseer of his house (Gen. 
 39.4). Tempted by Potiphafs wife, Joseph 
 remained true to God and to his master (Gen. 
 39.8, 9) ; but was falsely accused by his mistress, 
 and cast into prison (Gen. 39.20). Here Joseph 
 won the respect of the prison-governor (Gen. 
 39.21), and successfully interpreted the dreams 
 of two fellow-prisoners, the chief butler and 
 chief baker of Pharaoh (Gen. 40). Although 
 the chief butler "forgat" Joseph, yet when 
 Pharaoh himself needed the help of an inter- 
 preter he reported to the monarch the skill Joseph 
 had shown (Gen. 41.1-13). Joseph, sent for 
 accordingly, explained that he could only inter- 
 
JOSEPH] 
 
 266 
 
 [JOSEPH 
 
 pert as a medium for the Most High God (Gen. 
 41.16). The dream explained, he added advice 
 as to the policy to be followed in view of the 
 threatened famine. Pharaoh accepted his 
 judgment, placed him in office to deal with the 
 situation, and gave him in marriage the daughter 
 of the priest of On (Gen. 41.37-45). [ASENATH.] 
 A new name was at this time bestowed by 
 Pharaoh on Joseph, " Zaphnath-paaneah." 
 
 During seven productive years Joseph pre- 
 pared for famine by laying up a fifth of the corn 
 harvested (Gen. 41.47-49). Such forethought 
 was essential in such a land at a period when 
 means of transport were more limited. Egyptian 
 governors of an earlier date than Joseph had 
 boasted that they had so provided that there had 
 been no scarcity in their times. But a famine of 
 seven years was unusual, so unusual that we find 
 one mentioned in an inscription in a tomb at 
 El-kab, in which the deceased governor of the pro- 
 vince declares that he collected the harvests and 
 distributed the corn during many years of famine. 
 If this was the same famine, this governor, whose 
 name was Baba, must have acted under the 
 supreme direction of Joseph ; for it is expressly 
 stated in the Sallier Papyrus that the whole land 
 brought its productions to Agrepi (Joseph's 
 Pharaoh) at Avaris (Hanar). But amid such 
 cares Joseph did not forget his God or his kindred. 
 His two sons, Manasseh and Ephraim, were born 
 before the famine. That he gave them both 
 Hebrew names showed that his heart was still 
 with his own people, and especially that he was 
 still devoted to the God of his fathers (Gen. 
 41.50-52). Indeed, events were so shaping them- 
 selves as to bring him again into touch with bis 
 kindred. The " famine was sore in the land of 
 Canaan," and Jacob looked towards Egypt for 
 succour (Gen. 42.1-6). The story of the visit of 
 the patriarch's sons to Egypt and their recog- 
 nition of Joseph is told in Gen. 42-45. There is 
 nothing strange in the fact that while Joseph 
 recognised his brethren they did not know 
 him (Gen. 42.8). Since their parting he had 
 grown from youth to mature manhood, while 
 they had reached a period of life when the out- 
 ward appearance changes little. Joseph also 
 had become an Egyptian in dress and language, 
 while they retained the primitive style of their 
 forefathers ; he had become a very great prince, 
 while they remained the simple shepherds he had 
 known them. 
 
 Having revealed himself to his brethren, 
 Joseph sends for his aged father (Gen. 45.4-13), 
 his request having the authority of Pharaoh 
 behind it. The patriarch, his family, and his 
 following accordingly came to Egypt, were 
 settled in " the best of the land " (Gen. 47.6), 
 and were maintained by Joseph (Gen. 47.12). 
 It has been suggested that the land of Goshen of 
 Joseph's time may be taken as having its northern 
 boundary from about the present railway junction 
 of Zagazig nearly to Tel-el-Kebir, and that 
 it extended southwards somewhat farther than 
 Belbeis. The country is fruitful, with a large 
 and prosperous population. Zagazig is near the 
 
 ancient Bubastis, the territory of which in 
 Pharaonic times was called Sckhetnuter, " the 
 divine meadow." The recent researches at 
 Bubastis (Tel Basta) have for the first time re- 
 vealed the fact that this was a chief residence of 
 the Hyksos kings. The famine in Egypt enabled 
 Joseph, acting in the interests of his master, to 
 concentrate the ownership of land in the hands 
 of the sovereign (Gen. 47.13-26), with certain 
 exceptions in regard to the priests. But the 
 people were saved from the horrors of starvation. 
 Meanwhile the Hebrew colony " multiplied ex- 
 ceedingly (Gen. 47.27). 
 
 Seventeen years later Joseph is found making 
 to Jacob a solemn promise that he will bury 
 him with his fathers (Gen. 47.29-31). The sons 
 of Joseph were brought to the aged patriarch 
 and blessed by him (Gen. 48 ; Eeb. 11.21). Then 
 the sons of the patriarch were called before him, 
 their characters and the future of their families 
 predicted, and they were charged to bury their 
 father in the cave that Abraham bought. And so 
 Jacob died (Gen. 49.33). Joseph's burial of his 
 father was performed with a splendour befitting 
 the son's condition (Gen. 50.7-9). His brethren 
 saw with some apprehension the passing of 
 Jacob, but were reassured by Joseph (Gen. 
 50.15-21). He himself lived a hundred and ten 
 years, and died in Egypt (Gen. 50.26). His body 
 was embalmed, and, according to his own dying 
 direction (Gen. 50.25), was carried to Canaan by 
 the Israelites and buried at Shechem (Ex. 13.19 ; 
 Josh. 24.32; Acts 7.16). 
 
 The title Joseph is used in Deut. 33.13 of the 
 two tribes descended from Joseph's sons, Ephraim 
 and Manasseh ; and in Amos 5.6, 15 of the 
 northern kingdom, in which the tribe of Ephraim 
 was predominant. 
 
 2. Father of Igal, who was one of the spies. 
 He belonged to Issachar (Num. 13.7). 3. Son 
 of Asaph in the time of David (1 Ch. 25.2, 9). 
 
 4. One who took a strange wife (Ezra 10.42). 
 
 5. A member of the priestly family of Shebaniah 
 in the time of Joiakim the high-priest (Neh. 12.14). 
 
 6. A name in the genealogy of Joseph, the hus- 
 band of Mary, the mother of our Lord (Lk. 3.24). 
 
 7. Another, but read Josech with the R.V. (Lk. 
 3.26). 8. Another (Lk. 3.30). 
 
 9. The husband of Mary, the mother of our 
 Lord ; an upright and just man, who was of 
 the lineage of David, his name occurring as in 
 the direct line in the registers (Matt. 1.20; 
 Lk. 2.4, 3.23 ; John 1.45). Joseph was by trade 
 a carpenter, and carried on that occupation at 
 Nazareth both before and after his sojourn in 
 Egypt. That he died before the crucifixion is 
 tolerably certain (John 19.27), but of the time 
 or manner of his death nothing is known 
 (Matt. 1.16-24; Lk. 1.27; John 1.45, 6.42). 
 [BRETHREN OF THE LOED, JESUS CHRIST, 
 GENEALOGIES.] 
 
 10. Of Arimathaea. He was a member of the 
 Jewish Senate, or Sanhedrin, and also a believer 
 in the Divine mission of the Saviour ( John 19.38). 
 Luke informs us that he was a good and just man, 
 who did not give his consent to the crucifixion of 
 
JOSES] 
 
 267 
 
 [JOSHUA, BOOK OF 
 
 Christ (Lk. 23.50, 51). Though he was unable 
 to restrain the Sanhedrin from their purpose, yet 
 he went to Pilate by night, and begged the body 
 of Jesus. This he then placed in a new tomb, 
 which, as a wealthy man, he had prepared for 
 himself (Matt. 27.57-60 ; John 19.38-42). Though 
 a good man, Joseph was timid and fearful ; but 
 the death of our Lord seems to have inspired him 
 with courage and confidence. The events of the 
 crucifixion would seem to have convinced him of 
 the Divinity of Jesus Christ and the truth of His 
 claim. There are many legendary stories con- 
 nected with the name of Joseph of Arimathaea, 
 but nothing is known of him beyond that 
 recorded in the Gospels ( Matt. 27.57, 59 ; Mk. 
 15.43 ; Lk. 23.50 ; John 19.38). [ARIKATILEA.] 
 11. Barsabas, who was one of the nominees to 
 the vacant discipleship caused by the treachery 
 of Judas (Acts 1.23). [BARSABAS.] 12. The 
 first name of the Apostle Barnabas (Acts 4.36). 
 [BARNABAS, JOSES.] 
 
 Joses. 1. The Greek form of Jose, the 
 Galilean abbreviation of Joseph. Brother of 
 our Lord (Mk. 6.3). [BRETHREN OF THE LORD, 
 JAMES.] 2. The brother of James the Little 
 (which see), whose mother Mary stood by the 
 cross in addition to the Virgin Mary (Mk. 
 15.40, 47). 3. The first name of the Apostle 
 Barnabas. But Joseph is read in the R.V. 
 (Acts 4.36). 
 
 Jo'shah. A Simeonite (1 Ch. 4.34). 
 
 Josha'phat. Jehovah judges : a shortened 
 form of Jehoshaphat. One of David's guards 
 (1 Ch. 11.43). 
 
 Joshavi'ah. One of David's guards (1 Ch. 
 11.46). 
 
 Joshbeka'shah. (?) Seated in a hard place: 
 a son of Heman (1 Ch. 25.4, 24). 
 
 Joshibiah. [JOSIBIAH.] 
 
 Joshua. Jehovah is salvation : 1. The heroic 
 son of Nun, of the tribe of Ephraim ; originally 
 called Hoshea (or Hosea), " salvation" or "wel- 
 fare" ; Jehoshua, " Jehovah is salvation," con- 
 tracted to Joshua, also Jeshua (Neh. 8.17). 
 Jesus, as the Greek equivalent of Joshua, is found 
 in Acts 7.45 ; Heb. 4.8. Joshua devoted himself 
 to the help of Moses, whose servant he is 
 commonly called, and with whom he was on Sinai 
 (Ex. 24.13, 33.11). 
 
 Joshua was a man of forty years of age on 
 leaving Egypt. He first comes into notice when 
 the Israelites were about to fight the Amalekites 
 at Rephidim, when he led the fighting men (Ex. 
 17.9). He conducted himself on this occasion 
 with such valour that thenceforth he played a 
 most important part in the nation's early 
 struggles. 
 
 The wanderings in the wilderness were almost 
 over when Moses was directed by God to invest 
 Joshua in the presence of Eleazar with full 
 authority over the people (Num. 27.18-23; 
 Deut. 31.14). Thenceforward the history of 
 Joshua is the history of the Israelites in their 
 struggle against the peoples of Canaan. For 
 six years he led the armies of the Lord, and 
 iu that time the aged warrior conquered six 
 
 nations and thirty-one kings. The fighting 
 over, Joshua, with the aid of Eleazar and the 
 heads of the tribes, completed the division 
 of the land (Josh. 13-21), appointed six cities 
 of refuge, established the temple at Shiloh, 
 assigned forty-eight cities to the Levites, and 
 dismissed his fighting men. Shortly after Joshua 
 brought all the people together again, for a last 
 exhortation and warning. This done, he caused 
 them to renew their covenant with God at 
 Shechem (Josh. 24.1-25). He died at the age of 
 a hundred and ten, and was buried at Timnath- 
 serah. 
 
 In the character of Joshua, piety, courage, and 
 disinterested integrity are conspicuous through- 
 out. "The Spirit" was in him (Num. 27.18). 
 Having a certain promise of success (Josh. 1), he 
 yet prudently used every means likely to secure 
 it. He sent spies and disciplined his forces ; not 
 resting, however, in these, but looking still to 
 God. Thus before attacking the Canaanites he 
 solemnly renewed the dedication of himself and 
 the people ( Josh. 5) ; and in seasons of emer- 
 gency he sought by prayer special blessing and 
 help (Josh. 10.12-14). His piety and devotion 
 are displayed in his closing appeals, and the 
 spirit of affectionate submission with which the 
 people received them gives us a favourable 
 impression of his influence (Josh. 23.22). 
 
 2. A Bethshemite (1 Sam. 6.14). 3. A 
 governor of Jerusalem under Josiah (2 K. 23.8). 
 4. A high-priest at the rebuilding of the Temple 
 (Hag. 1.1 ; Zech. 3.1). [JESHTJA.] 
 
 Joshua, Book of. We have no certain infor- 
 mation either as to the author or the precise 
 date of this book. Jewish writers and Christian 
 antiquity ascribed it to Joshua, the son of Nun, 
 a view followed by some modern critics. It 
 was undoubtedly written before the time of 
 David (cf. 15.63 with 2 Sam. 5.6-8) ; and prob- 
 ably by one who was a contemporary (6.25), 
 if not an eye-witness of what he relates. The 
 six books from Genesis to Joshua inclusive are 
 sometimes termed the Hexateuch. The Book of 
 Joshua may be regarded in many important 
 respects as a sequel to the Pentateuch. On the 
 other hand, it is classed by Jewish writers with 
 the succeeding books, down to and including 
 2 Kings, as " the Earlier Prophets." 
 
 The place of the narrative in the history of 
 Israel suggests the purpose of the book. In the 
 books preceding it there have been shown the 
 frequent rebellions and provocations of the 
 Israelites who came out of Egypt, on account of 
 which they were excluded from the good land 
 which they had despised. This book carries on 
 the history of the next generation those who 
 were under twenty years of age when they left 
 Egypt, and those who had been born and grown 
 up in the wilderness who appear to have been 
 of a better spirit than their fathers. The trials 
 and discipline that they underwent during their 
 long wanderings, together with the instructions 
 of Moses, had, through the grace of the Holy 
 Spirit, the effect of awakening and humbling 
 them, and fitting them to receive the fulfilment 
 
JOSIAH] 
 
 268 
 
 [JOTBATH, JOTBATHAH 
 
 of the promise. It was with this generation 
 that God renewed His covenant, as related in 
 Deut. 29. And He did great things for them. 
 They believed in God ; and, by faith, overcame 
 the armies of the Canaanites, and obtained 
 possession of the land. They showed, in several 
 instances, a fervent zeal for God ; as on the 
 occasion of Achan's sin, and when they suspected 
 that the two tribes and a half had set up an altar 
 in opposition to the appointed altar of burnt- 
 offering (22) ; and their piety is specially com- 
 mended in 23.8. 
 
 The contents of the book may be divided into 
 three principal sections : 
 
 1. The conquest of Canaan, including the 
 appointment of Joshua, and his directions to the 
 people (1) ; the spies sent to Jericho (2) ; the 
 passage of the Jordan (3, 4) ; the circumcision 
 and passover at Gilgal (5.1-13) ; the capture and 
 destruction of Jericho and of Ai, with Achan's 
 sin and punishment (5.14-8.29) ; the reading of 
 the law on Mounts Ebal and Gerizim (8.30-35) ; 
 the wily conduct of the Gibeonites (9) ; victories 
 over the Canaanites, first in the south, and then 
 in the north ; and the subjugation of the country 
 (10, 11) ; with a recapitulation of conquests 
 (12). 
 
 2. The division of the country, including 
 both the conquered and the unconquered parts ; 
 describing the portions of the several tribes 
 (13-19); the appointment of the cities of 
 refuge and the Levitical cities (20, 21) ; the 
 return of the two tribes and a half cast of 
 Jordan, and transactions which followed there- 
 upon (22). 
 
 3. Joshua's farewell admonitions and death 
 (23, 24). 
 
 Allusions to events recorded in the book are 
 found in the O.T. in 1 Ch. 2.7, 12.15 ; Ps. 44.2, 3, 
 68.12-14, 78.54, 55 ; Isai. 28.21 ; Hob. 3.11-13 ; 
 and in the N.T. in Acts 7.45 ; Heb. 4.8, 11.30, 31 ; 
 Jas. 2.25. 
 
 Josi'ah. Jehovah supports or heals : 1. The 
 son of Amon, whom he succeeded on the throne of 
 Judah at the age of eight (2 K. 21.26). Even at 
 this early age he was conspicuous for his piety 
 (2 K. 22.2 ; 2 Ch. 34.3). In his twelfth year he 
 began to put down idolatry throughout his 
 kingdom (2 Ch. 34.3 ff.). Everywhere he de- 
 stroyed the high places, groves, images, and 
 other signs of heathen worship. To this duty he 
 attended personally, and made a circuit of the 
 country, returning only when he had accom- 
 plished his purpose. This done, he sent officers 
 to inspect the repairs of the Temple (2 Ch. 34.8). 
 It was during the course of these repairs that 
 Hilkiah the high-priest found the lost Book of 
 the Law, the reading of which had a remarkable 
 effect upon Josiah and his people. This Book of 
 the Law may have been the original copy of the 
 law of Moses (2 Ch. 34.14) or of the covenant 
 which was renewed with the people in the plains 
 of Moab, for they were laid up beside the ark 
 (Deut. 31.24-26), or, more probably, a copy of 
 the central part of Deuteronomy. It is probable 
 that during the reigns of Manasseh and Amon the 
 
 reading of the law had been prohibited, and gener- 
 ally given up. The passages read to the king pro- 
 foundly moved him (2 K. 22.11). It would seem 
 that Josiah had never before heard them, though 
 many copies of the law had been made under the 
 direction of Hezekiah. To account for this it is 
 supposed that the people generally at that time 
 were satisfied with a sort of ritual directing them 
 in the outward observances of religion, ignoring 
 the threatenings and cursings of the law against 
 its transgressors. Concerned for himself and his 
 people, Josiah sent to the prophetess Huldah to 
 inquire whether the denunciations of the Law 
 would fall upon the country in his time. Huldah 
 predicted coming ruin to the country, but a 
 peaceful end for himself (2 Ch. 34.14 fl.). Josiah 
 thereupon determined to adhere to the directions 
 of the law. For this purpose he called together 
 the people, and with them renewed the covenant 
 (2 Ch. 34.29 ff.). 
 
 Josiah's plans of reformation were resisted by 
 the inveterate habits of the Israelites ; so that 
 his zealous and persevering efforts were in- 
 effectual, and the country was visited with those 
 calamities which had been foretold (2 K. 22.20). 
 Pharaoh-Necho was at war with the Assyrians. 
 Josiah, who was bound in some way to the king 
 of Assyria, opposed himself and his army to 
 Pharaoh as the latter was marching along the sea- 
 coast (2 Ch. 35.20). Necho, who was anxious 
 to avoid a conflict with the king of Judah, and 
 to get to Carchemish (on the Euphrates) with 
 his forces intact, tried to remove Josiah from his 
 front by pacific means (2 Ch. 35.21). But Josiah 
 was determined, and in consequence was mortally 
 wounded at Megiddo (2 Ch. 35.23) in the thirty- 
 ninth year of his age. He was buried with every 
 circumstance of pomp and affection in the tombs 
 of the kings. Jeremiah, who began bis public 
 career about the time that Josiah began to reign, 
 composed a solemn elegy (not now extant) on the 
 occasion, which was annually sung or recited 
 for long afterwards (2 Ch. 35.25). In Matt. 1.10 
 Josiah is called Josias. 
 
 2. The son of Zephaniah, into whose house in 
 Jerusalem Zechariah took Heldai and others who 
 had come from Babylon with presents to witness 
 the solemn crowning of the high-priest Joshua 
 (Zech. 6.9-15). He is supposed to have been a 
 treasurer of the Temple. 
 
 Josi'as. Matt. 1.10. [JOSIAH 1.] 
 
 Josibi'ah (R.V. Joshibiah). Jehovah causes to 
 dwell : a Simeonite (1 Ch. 4.35). 
 
 Josiphi'ah. Jehovah increases : father of 
 Shelomith, who, as it seems, returned with Ezra 
 (Ezra 8.10). 
 
 Jot. A shortened form of the Greek letter iota, 
 and the Hebrew yod or jod. It is the smallest 
 letter in each of these alphabets, and is used 
 emphatically to denote the smallest part (Matt. 
 
 5.18). [TITTLE.] 
 
 Jot'bah. Pleasantness : the birthplace of 
 Meshullemeth, wife of Manasseh (2 K. 21.19). 
 Probably in Judah, but site unknown. 
 
 Jot 'bath, Jotba'thah. Pleasantness : an en- 
 campment of the Israelites in the desert (Num. 
 
JOTHAM] 
 
 269 
 
 [JUDAH 
 
 33.33, 34 ; Deut. 10.7). Possibly el Talah in the 
 Arabah, about 15 miles north of Elath. 
 
 Jo'tham. Jehovah is 'perfect'. 1. Gideon's 
 youngest son, who escaped the murderous hand 
 of Abimelech at Ophra. When Abimelech was 
 crowned king, Jotham uttered his famous parable 
 of the trees who chose a king, as a warning to the 
 men of Shechem. He fled to Beer for safety, and 
 there his history ends ( Judg. 9.5-57). 
 
 2. Son of Azariah, king of Judah. Jotham 
 acted as regent for twenty-five years, during his 
 father's leprosy, before he came to the throne. 
 He was a righteous man and king, although he 
 did not abolish the high-places of idolatry. When 
 the Ammonites refused to pay the tribute levied 
 upon them by his father, he compelled them to 
 do so by force of arms. His reign was prosperous, 
 though towards the end its peace was threatened 
 by the king of Damascus and by Pekah. He was 
 contemporary with the prophet Isaiah (2 K. 15 ; 
 2 Ch. 27). 3. A descendant of Caleb (1 Ch. 2.47). 
 
 Journey, a Day's. A day's journey was 
 reckoned at about 16 or 20 miles. To this 
 distance around the camp were the quails 
 scattered for food (Nwm. 11.31). A Sabbath- 
 day's journey (Matt. 24.20; Acts 1.12) was 7 fur- 
 longs, which distance might be traversed with- 
 out breaking the law (Ex. 16.29). The first day's 
 journey on any expedition was always a short 
 one, that anything forgotten or needing altera- 
 tion might be attended to before the travellers 
 had gone too far. 
 
 JozaT)ad or Josa'bad. Jehovah hath bestowed : 
 several Scripture characters bear this name. 
 Reference to them will be found in the following 
 passages 1 Ch. 12.4, 20 bis ; 2 Ch. 31.13, 35.9 ; 
 Ezra 8.33, 10.22, 23 ; Neh. 8.7, 11.16. In 
 each of these texts Jozabad is probably a 
 separate and distinct individual. It is a short- 
 ened form of Jehozabad. 
 
 Joza'char (R.V. Jozacar). Jehovah hath re- 
 membered : the son of Shimeath and one of the 
 murderers of king Joash (2 K. 12.21). In 2 Ch. 
 (24.26) he is called, by a clerical error, Zabad. 
 The motive of Jozachar and his accomplice for 
 the murder of Joash is not clear. It may have 
 been an act of personal revenge, or they may 
 have been urged to the deed by the family of 
 Jehoiada. The murderers were put to death 
 by Amaziah (2 K. 14.5, 6). 
 
 Jozadak. [JEHOZADAK.] 
 
 Ju'bal. The son of Lamech and Adah, and the 
 inventor of musical instruments (Gen. 4.21). 
 
 Jubilee. The ram's horn : the year after 
 seven Sabbatic years was the Jubilee (Lev. 
 25.8-11). This fiftieth year was announced by a 
 great blast of rams' horns on the 10th of Tisri 
 [MONTHS], the great day of propitiation. As in 
 the ordinary Sabbatic year the land was to lie 
 untilled and the fruits ungathered, except by 
 the poor, though the people were free to hunt 
 or get their sustenance in any other way. In 
 the Jubilee year all servants or slaves were 
 to obtain their freedom (Lev. 25.39-46 ; Jer. 
 34.8-14). All the land throughout the country, 
 and the houses in the cities of the Levites, 
 
 sold during the preceding fifty years, were to 
 be returned to the sellers, except such as had 
 been consecrated to God, and redeemed (Lev. 
 25.17-28, 27.16-24). All mortgaged lands, too. 
 were to be released without charge. The 
 completeness of the release provided by these 
 arrangements makes the Jubilee a type of the 
 Gospel (/sot. 61.2 ; Lk. 4.19). The moral and 
 spiritual purposes of these festivals is plain. 
 They all tended to unite the people in a brother- 
 hood, and to separate them from the heathen. 
 They preserved the memory of past mercies. They 
 illustrated the Divine holiness. They lightened 
 the load of poverty, checked oppression and 
 covetousness, and were all either types of Gospel 
 blessings or suggestive to a spiritual mind of the 
 truths to be fully unveiled and realised in Christ. 
 
 The purpose of the Jubilee was that every 
 Israelite should recover his right to the land 
 originally allotted to his ancestors. Houses in 
 walled cities were not subject to the law of 
 Jubilee, though a house could be redeemed within 
 a year of its sale ; but houses connected with 
 the land in the country, and so essential to the 
 cultivation of the soil, were not excepted, but 
 were to be returned in the Jubilee year. The 
 houses in Levitical cities were not exempt from 
 the Jubilee law, but were to return to the 
 original owners ; while the land connected with 
 them round about was not affected in any way, as 
 it could never be sold under any condition. It 
 must be remembered, however, that we have no 
 direct evidence that the legislation of the Jubilee 
 year was ever put into force. [SABBATIC YEAR.] 
 
 Ju'caL [ JEHUCAL. ] 
 
 Ju'da. 1. A name in the genealogy of Jesus 
 (Lk. 3.30). 2. A later name in the same gene- 
 alogy (iJfc. 3.26). 3. One of the brethren of Jesus 
 (Mk. 6.3). In Matt. 13.55 he is called Judas. 
 [JuoE, JUDAS.] 4. The same as Judah 1 (Lk. 
 3.33 ; Heb. 7.14 ; Rev. 5.5, 7.5). 5. Jutah. 
 
 Judaea. [ JUDAH.] 
 
 Ju'dah. Praise: the name that elsewhere 
 occurs as Juda, Judas, Jude. Judaea is also 
 called Judah in a number of instances. 
 
 1. The name first occurs in Gen. 29.35, where 
 Leah gives it to her fourth son, when she said, 
 " Now will I praise the Lord : therefore she 
 called his name Judah." He was born at Haran 
 in Mesopotamia. With the exception of Joseph 
 he figures more largely in the history of Israel 
 than any of his brethren. It was he who 
 advised the sale of Joseph to the Ishmaelite 
 merchants, in preference to his murder (Gen. 
 37.26, 27). He stands out as the leader in family 
 affairs, or, as it is expressed in 1 Ch. 5.2, " he 
 prevailed above his brethren." On the memor- 
 able journeys to Egypt for corn it was Judah 
 who remonstrated against the detention of 
 Benjamin by Jacob, and he who undertook, by 
 offering his own sons as hostages, to bring 
 Benjamin back again (Gen. 43.3-10). In the 
 other dramatic occurrences and scenes connected 
 with the family relations to Joseph and the final 
 removal to Egypt it was Judah who always spoke 
 for the others. That Jacob recognised this 
 
JUDAH, JUD-ffiA] 
 
 270 
 
 [JUDAH, JUDAEA 
 
 ascendancy over his brethren is shown in the 
 patriarch's last words to him, " Thy father's sons 
 shall bow down before thee" (Gen. 49.8-10). 
 Judah had five sons, of whom two died young. 
 The other three, Shelah, Pharez, and Zerah, went 
 with their father to Egypt (Gen. 46.12). These 
 sons were born in Palestine in a part of the 
 country repossessed by the family, then the tribe, 
 at the conquest. [ JUDAH, JUDAEA.] 
 
 2. A Levite of the time of Zerubbabel, who 
 helped to restore the Temple (Ezra 3.9). We 
 should probably read Hodaviah, which see. 3. 
 A Levite who put away his strange wife (Ezra 
 10.23). 4. A Benjamite. An overseer over part 
 of Jerusalem in the time of Nehemiah (Neh. 11.9). 
 5. A Levite. Probably the same as Judah 2 
 (Neh. 12.8). 6. A leader of those who dedicated 
 the wall, if we should not rather understand 
 the tribe as such (Neh. 12.34). 7. A priest at 
 the dedication of the wall (Neh. 12.36). 
 
 Judah, Judaea. The name sometimes applied 
 to the whole of Palestine (Acts 28.21 ; and per- 
 haps Lk. 23.5), but more generally to the southern 
 part only. The extent of the territory allotted 
 to Judah is given with minuteness in Josh. 15, a 
 fact due, no doubt, to the unbroken line of kings, 
 and also to the presence of the priesthood, who 
 doubtless reduced the lists to their present form. 
 The north boundary of the original allotment began 
 where the Jordan entered the Dead Sea and ran 
 west past Beth-shemesh to Jabneel near Ekron, 
 some 10 miles from the Mediterranean. It then 
 ran in a south-east direction in an almost 
 straight line, skirting the country of the Philis- 
 tines, and the borders of Simeon to Kadesh 
 Barnea, on the edge of the desert. Its eastern 
 boundary was the Dead Sea and the mountains 
 of Seir in the land of Moab. But after the death 
 of Solomon the tribe of Benjamin followed Judah 
 in giving allegiance to the house of David, and 
 thus Jerusalem was brought within the boundaries 
 of the new kingdom and made a royal city 
 (2 Sam. 2.9). A part of Simeon (1 Sam. 27.6) 
 and of Dan (2 Ch. 11.10) were also included 
 in Judah. A further extension of territory 
 was made later on by the inclusion of part of 
 Ephraim (2 Ch. 13.19, 15.8, 17.2). The whole 
 of this territory was about 45 miles from north 
 to south, and about 50 miles from east to 
 west, and was divided into four regions. Of 
 ihese regions that called the South consisted 
 of the pasture-lands and the flat deserts in the 
 lower part of Palestine (Josh. 15.21). This 
 district was also called the Wilderness of Judah 
 (Judg. 1.16). It contained 37 cities, about half 
 of which were included in Simeon (Josh. 19.1-9). 
 The next great division was the Lowland or Valley 
 (Josh. 15.33), lying between the hilly country of 
 the interior and the sea. Its proper name was the 
 Shefelah, a name it still bears. It was the country 
 of the Philistines and the granary of Palestine. 
 The Philistine strongholds were on the coast, 
 built on promontories, and overlooking the sea 
 on the one hand and the very productive cornfields 
 and vineyards on the other. Modern travellers 
 still marvel at the wonderful beauty and fertility 
 
 of the land. From the abundance of this rich 
 country Solomon paid Hiram for his help in the 
 building of the Temple and royal palace. In N.T. 
 days also the countries of Tyre and Sidon were 
 " nourished " from here (Acts 12.20). Its 
 population was large, for there were 42 cities, 
 besides villages. The third division of Judah, the 
 Hill Country, was the largest and most important 
 politically. On it were planted the cities of 
 Jerusalem, Shechem, Hebron, and 38 other towns, 
 as enumerated in Josh. 15.48-60. But the whole 
 undulating country (it is not so rugged as the 
 country to the north of Jerusalem) is strewn with 
 the ruins of cities and fortifications, showing that 
 at one time the land must have been very 
 populous indeed. It is now covered with brush- 
 wood and flowers, where not planted with the 
 olive and vine. The fourth district, the Wilder- 
 ness, was the deep depression between the shore 
 of the Dead Sea and the Hill Country. It consists 
 chiefly of salt plains, had few cities, and was of 
 small importance compared with either the Hill 
 Country or the Shefelah. The " Wilderness " of 
 Jesus and John the Baptist was the extension of 
 this country above Jericho and along the Jordan. 
 
 When Joshua and Eleazar divided the land 
 among the tribes (Josh. 14.1, 19.51), and Judah 
 received their portion, they had a hard task before 
 them. They had already fought the Philistines 
 (Josh. 10.28-35), and advanced as far as Hebron 
 (Josh. 10.36-39). The Philistines were, however, 
 never completely suppressed, and retained 
 possession of some of the cities. But the tribe of 
 Judah fixed itself firmly in the mountainous region, 
 where they were left undisturbed to settle down. 
 Even when the Philistines troubled the middle 
 and northern tribes Judah was avoided, though 
 she had sent men to Saul's aid. [DAVID, SAUL.] 
 After the death of Saul, without consulting the 
 rest of the country, this independent and capable 
 people went to David and elected him king. 
 They knew their own minds, and had also an ac- 
 quaintance with the man (2 Sam. 2.4-11). They 
 knew he had all the tribe's sturdy, independent 
 will and boldness of action. Yet they held aloof 
 when the other tribes followed suit, and elected 
 their king ruler over the whole country. Judah, 
 though willing to act upon occasion in concert 
 with others, yet never hesitated to move alone, if 
 the occasion seemed to require it. It was this 
 independence of character and aloofness of dis- 
 position that caused them to be charged with 
 " despising " others (2 Sam. 19.41-43). 
 
 For a list of the cities of Judah see Josh. 
 15.21-63. Nine of the cities were allotted to 
 the priests (Josh. 21.9-19). The Levites had 
 no cities in the tribe, and the priests had none 
 among the other tribes. The case of Bethlehem 
 alone appears doubtful. It may have been a 
 Levitical city (Judg. 17.7, 9, 19.1). 
 
 After David had made Jerusalem his capital, 
 Judah became the predominant part of the king- 
 dom until the disruption under Rehoboam. From 
 that time the throne was occupied for nearly 400 
 years by 20 kings, all descendants of D~avid. 
 Only once during this long period was any serious 
 
JUDAH, JUD-EA] 
 
 271 
 
 [JUDAH, 
 
 attempt made to break the Davidic line. This 
 was when the dread of Assyria led Rezin, king 
 of Syria, and Pekah, king of Israel, to form a 
 confederacy into which they strove to force Ahaz, 
 king of Judah. Isaiah graphically shows the 
 frustration of the design (Isai. 7). Of the kings 
 of Judah, Asa, Jehoshaphat, Josiah, Hezekiah, 
 receive special commendation. Others were 
 impious and depraved ; of these, Ahaz, Manasseh, 
 and Amon were pre-eminent. Some, again, whose 
 careers on the whole were praiseworthy, com- 
 mitted grievous faults. But the Divine purpose 
 was steadfastly maintained in the long prepara- 
 tion for the Messiah, as shown in the royal 
 genealogy in the first chapter of Matthew. It is 
 noticeable that even when kings of Judah were 
 cut off by violent deaths (Ahaziah, Joash, Amon) 
 no attempt was made to interfere with the 
 Davidic line of succession. 
 
 The internal condition of the kingdom of 
 Judah was on the whole prosperous ; and its 
 annals were for the most part uneventful, apart 
 from those of Jerusalem. It is specially recorded 
 of Asa that in addition to measures to purify the 
 land from idolatry, not even sparing bis own 
 mother, he built and fortified several cities. Of 
 Jehoshaphat it is recorded that he caused a 
 knowledge of the law to be diffused throughout 
 the kingdom, and appointed officers of public 
 instruction. In 2 Ch. 17 there is an interesting 
 picture of a peaceful and prosperous community 
 under a wise, far-seeing king. Jehoshaphat also, 
 after the example of Solomon, attempted to 
 maintain a mercantile fleet at what was then 
 the port of Ezion-geber. Uzziah, during bis long 
 reign, successfully cultivated the arts of peace as 
 well as of war (2 CA.26). " He loved husbandry," 
 and showed his commercial sagacity by securing 
 and refortifying the port of Elath, at the head 
 of the eastern arm of the Red Sea, which since 
 the days of Solomon had been held by Edom. 
 Fifty years afterwards, however, Elath was 
 captured from Ahaz by either Syria or Edom. 
 
 The national existence of Judah was more than 
 once threatened ; but, under the Divine pro- 
 tection, and centred in its mountain-fortress of 
 Jerusalem, the little kingdom was able to hold 
 its own. Egypt was at first its most formidable 
 foe, being governed by the fierce and aggress- 
 ive kings of the Bubastitic or twenty-second 
 dynasty.-i In the days of Rehoboam, Shishak 
 pillaged the Temple and threatened the kingdom, 
 but the proud young king, humbled before 
 Jehovah, " strengthened himself in Jerusalem, 
 and reigned " (2 Ch. 12.13). Zerah (which see), 
 another Egyptian monarch, invaded south-west 
 Palestine during the reign of Asa, at the head of 
 a vast horde of Ethiopians, but was defeated at 
 Mareshah, in the Shephelah or Maritime plain. 
 It was a victory that relieved Judah for some 
 two centuries from all pressure on her southern 
 frontiers. It showed the Egyptians also that 
 they had more to gain from the friendship than 
 the enmity of Judah, and their attitude to the 
 kingdom changed (2 K. 17.4, 18.21-24; Isai. 
 20.5,6, 30.2-7). 
 
 Jehoshaphat's reign was, on the whole, peaceful, 
 but he had to encounter once a confederacy of 
 Moab, Ammon, and Edom. The armies met on 
 the slopes above En-gedi, where the songs of the 
 Levites, accompanied by trumpet, harp, and 
 psaltery, struck such panic into the heathen 
 hosts that they turned their arms one against 
 another, and the scene of the encounter became 
 memorable as the Vale of Berachah (" blessing "). 
 This invasion and victory are vividly described 
 in 2 Ch. 20. 
 
 But Judah had more cause to fear enmity 
 nearer home. This was the hostility of Israel, 
 or Ephraim, as the northern kingdom was dis- 
 tinctively called. Abijah, the son of Rehoboam, 
 was compelled to fight Jeroboam. The 
 latter met with a decisive defeat (1 K. 15.6 ; 
 2 Ch. 13.2-20). A more serious and prolonged 
 strife between Asa and the Israelite king, Baasha, 
 led to momentous consequences. Baasha was 
 erecting a fortress at Ramah, on the frontier 
 of the two kingdoms, and only 6 miles from 
 Jerusalem, in rivalry to that great stronghold. 
 The counter policy adopted by Asa was mis- 
 taken and sinful, though its immediate results 
 seemed to justify him. He subsidised the king 
 of Syria to attack Israel on the north, and the 
 Israelite forces were withdrawn, to face the new 
 danger. Ramah was dismantled, its materials 
 being used to strengthen the defences of the 
 southern kingdom. But " Hanani the seer " 
 perceived the terrible mistake that had been 
 made, and rebuked the king (2 Ch. 16.7-9). Asa 
 put Hanani in prison, but the course of events 
 proved the prophet's warnings to be true. 
 
 The marriage of Jehoram, Jehoshaphat's son, 
 with Athaliah, the daughter of Ahab and Jezebel, 
 was another alliance that caused harm to the 
 kingdom. Their son Ahaziah (or Jehoahaz, 
 2 Ch. 21.17) was slain at Jezreel, leaving an 
 infant son to inherit the throne. This led to the 
 usurpation of Athaliah and the miserable train 
 of evils that followed. 
 
 These alliances with the heathen nation always 
 resulted badly for the Israelites. Ahaz sought 
 the aid of Tiglath-pileser against the kings of 
 Israel and Syria. Instead of any real help the 
 immediate consequence was the paying of a 
 heavy tribute. It also cost Hezekiah most of 
 his treasure, and but for special interposition 
 would have cost him his throne. It cost 
 Manasseh bis liberty (through his alliance with 
 the Egyptian Tirhakah) ; and Josiah (who led the 
 forces of Judah to resist Pharaoh-necho) his life. 
 Jehoahaz, the son of Josiah, was taken captive 
 to Egypt. Jehoiakim, the brother and successor 
 of Jehoahaz, who owed his crown to Neco, 
 remained for four years tributary to Egypt ; 
 which power in turn yielded to the forces of 
 Babylon at Carchemish, so that Jehoiakim became 
 subject to Nebuchadnezzar, who at this time 
 succeeded his father Nabopolassar. 
 
 Four years after the subjugation of Judah, 
 Jehoiakim revolted from the Babylonian king 
 (2 K. 24.1), who, after a while, captured him 
 and put him to death (2 Ch. 36.6). Jeconiah, who 
 
JUDAS] 
 
 272 
 
 [JUDAS ISCARIOT 
 
 succeeded, was deposed and carried to Babylon 
 (597 B.C.) ; Zedekiah, the third son of Josiah, 
 being made king in his stead. Contrary to the 
 advice and remonstrance of Jeremiah, Zedekiah 
 revolted, and brought Nebuchadnezzar again to 
 Jerusalem (587 B.C.). After a siege of 18 months 
 the city was taken, and most of the inhabitants 
 were put to death. Zedekiah's children were slain, 
 and the unfortunate king had his eyes put out, 
 and was carried in chains to Babylon. A little 
 later the Temple was destroyed, and the treasure 
 and most of the inhabitants of the country 
 carried off. Thus began the Babylonian Captivity. 
 It is remarkable that no attempt was made by 
 the conquerors to colonise Judah, as had been 
 done in the case of Israel. The providence 
 of God thus kept the land vacant, ready for its 
 reoccupation by the people on their return from 
 captivity. The only inhabitants left behind by 
 Nebuchadnezzar and his generals were a few poor 
 country folk, left to till the soil and to keep its 
 " Sabbaths " until those to whom God had given 
 _itjhould return and repossess their heritage. 
 
 The wealth of Judah, which must have been 
 great (considering the number of times the 
 treasures of the plundered capital [JERUSALEM] 
 had been renewed), was not alone derived 
 from pasture and tillage. Its merchants were 
 great traders, and transacted business with 
 Egypt and other countries on the Mediterranean 
 and Red Sea. It, or at any rate Jerusalem, 
 received regular subsidies from scattered 
 Jewish colonies abroad. Thus contemporary 
 records tell of convoys carrying treasure for the 
 Temple services, making long journeys from 
 places as far distant as the countries north of 
 India, and from beyond Egypt. The country 
 had other advantages that materially helped it 
 to maintain its existence long after Israel had 
 been destroyed. It had a less exposed frontier, 
 a more rugged and comparatively sterile soil, 
 and a hardy, self-reliant population. And no 
 great road ran through it. Napoleon himself 
 refused to run the risk of taking his army up 
 through its defiles. Being possessed also of 
 the Temple of Jehovah, the people were less led 
 astray after false gods, and presented a more 
 solid and united front to the enemy. Added to 
 this, the kings of Judah were on the whole wise 
 and good, and strove to promote the best 
 interests of their subjects. The priests were 
 reverenced, and while the army was kept in a 
 state of efficiency it was not allowed the upper 
 hand. [ISRAEL, KINGS.] 
 
 Ju'das. The Greek form of the Hebrew 
 word Judah. 1. The son of Jacob (Matt. 1.2, 3). 
 2. An inhabitant of Damascus, whose house 
 sheltered Saul (Acts 9.11). It was in the 
 " street called Straight," or street of bazaars, 
 which penetrated into the heart of the city 
 from the southern gate. A " house of Judas " 
 is still shown to travellers. 3. Surnamed 
 Barsabas. Perhaps a brother of Jose (Joseph) 
 Barsabas. A member of the Church at 
 Jerusalem (Acts 15.22 ft*.). He was chosen to 
 go with Paul and Barnabas as delegates to the 
 
 Church at Antioch to report the resolution of 
 the apostles at Jerusalem, concerning the non- 
 observance of the Law by the Gentiles. He 
 had prophetical gifts, was a chief among the 
 brethren, and tradition makes him one of the 
 seventy disciples. Nothing more is known of 
 him. 
 
 4. Judas of Galilee (Acts 5.37). In 6 or 
 7 A.D. he opposed the enrolment of the people 
 made by Quirinus (Cyrenius) in Judaea. This 
 enrolment was for the purpose of taxation, 
 and was always an unpopular measure. On 
 this occasion, Judas, an inhabitant of Gamala, 
 succeeded in raising a very considerable rebellion, 
 the insurrectionists taking as their motto, 
 " We have no lord nor master but God." 
 Judas denounced the paying of tribute to 
 Caesar, and any acknowledgment of foreign 
 authority as treason to God and the Mosaic 
 Law. He was looked upon by a considerable 
 number of his followers, the Gaulonites, as they 
 were called, as the Messiah. He could do 
 nothing, however, against the might of Rome, 
 and although he was able for a while to ravage 
 the country he was at length slain and his 
 followers scattered, the movement receiving its 
 death-blow at the final overthrow of the nation. 
 Though mistaken in his methods, and impiously 
 assuming the Messiahship, Judas must be 
 looked upon as a national hero and lover of 
 his country. 
 
 5. " Judas of James," presumably son of one 
 James, also called Thaddseus (which see, with 
 LEBB^EUS). He was tenth in the catalogue of the 
 Apostles. In John 14.22 he is introduced as 
 " Judas, not Iscariot," but in Lk. 6.16 ; Acts 
 1.13 he is simply Judas, without any distin- 
 guishing mark. Tradition says that he laboured 
 at Edessa, the scene of the mission and martyr- 
 dom of Thomas ; that he travelled into Assyria, 
 and on his return to the west was put to death 
 in Phoenicia. 
 
 6. The brother of our Lord and of James 1. 
 Mentioned by the inhabitants of Nazareth, who 
 wonderingly listened to the marvellous teaching 
 of their neighbour's Son (Matt. 13.55 ; Mk. 6.3). 
 He it was who wrote the Epistle of Jude, de- 
 scribing himself humbly as the " servant of 
 Jesus Christ and brother of James" (Jude 1). 
 
 Judas Iscariot. Man of Keriofh [KERIOTH- 
 HEZRON] : one of the twelve Apostles, and the 
 betrayer of our Lord. He is called (John 6.71) 
 the son of Simon Iscariot. His true character, 
 with its issue, was always known to his Master 
 ( John 6.64). His weakness first disclosed itself 
 in the account of the anointing at Bethany (John 
 12.4, 5). The expression, " Why this waste ? " 
 was the feeling of the Twelve ; but the proposal 
 / that the ointment might have been sold, and the 
 I money given to the poor, came from Judas, as 
 we learn from John, who also gives the betrayer's 
 real motive, because he was a thief, and " had 
 the bag, and bare [or conveyed away, i.e. stole] 
 what was put therein " (John 12.4-6). In this 
 revelation of character the ultimate treachery 
 of Judas may sufficiently be explained. I Greed, 
 
JUDE] 
 
 273 
 
 [JUDE, EPISTLE OF 
 
 coupled with disappointment at the nature of 
 our Lord's mission, would account for the 
 development in the mind of Judas of the feeling 
 which culminated in the decisive surrender 
 indicated by the words " Satan entered into 
 him " (John 13.27), in the compact with the 
 chief priests, and in the betrayal of our Lord. 
 But endeavours have been made to present 
 the tragedy of Judas in a different light. De 
 Quincey and others have urged that the motive 
 of Judas was a patriotic desire to force his 
 Master into an appeal to the populace ; whilst 
 others have supposed him to argue that betrayal 
 would, if Jesus were indeed the Messiah, bring 
 angelic powers to His rescue, whilst, if He were 
 not the Messiah, His destruction would be 
 deserved. It may suffice to say that these 
 theories are inconsistent with the Gospel 
 narratives. The turning-point was reached 
 after the scene at Bethany (Matt. 26.14). Satan 
 found his instrument, and Judas went to the 
 chief priests (Lk. 22.3, 4). He probably expected 
 more than the thirty pieces of silver (Matt. 
 26.15), for there was evidently a dispute as to 
 the amount ; but he agreed to play the traitor, 
 and waited his opportunity. He accompanied 
 his Master and colleagues as before to and 
 from Bethany and Jerusalem; he had been 
 with them to Gethsemane (John 18.2) ; he was 
 present at the Last Supper, had his feet washed 
 by the Saviour, and was among those who 
 asked, " Is it I ? " (Matt. 26.25). His infamy 
 was completed when he betrayed his Master 
 with a kiss, an act that increased the sorrow of 
 his victim (Lk. 22.48). 
 
 Judas, the deed done, was seized with remorse. 
 His repentance was sincere enough to make 
 him wish to undo the evil he had wrought 
 (Matt. 27.3, 4). It was in this frame of mind that 
 he took back the thirty pieces of silver ; only 
 to be mocked. He was " the son of perdition " 
 (John 17.12), for whom there was no hope of 
 pardon in this life ; so he " departed, and he 
 went away and hanged himself" (Matt. 27.5). 
 
 There is a single wind-bent tree that crowns 
 the Hill of Evil Counsel, at the southern end of 
 the riclge of Olivet, but separated from it by the 
 Kedron Valley. Its name is the " Tree of 
 Judas," and from its branches the traitor is 
 said to have hanged himself. Here was the 
 potter's field, afterwards bought with the 
 blood- money, and called the " field of blood." 
 According to the English version of Acts 1.18 
 Judas himself bought the field, and, falling 
 headlong in it, his bowels gushed out. The 
 accounts of his death are then reconcilable, 
 if we understand that Judas first hanged him- 
 self from some tree on the edge of a precipice ; 
 and that, the rope or branch breaking, he was 
 dashed to pieces by the fall. But for " falling 
 headlong " we should probably read " being 
 swollen up." 
 
 Acts 1.20 associates the death of Judas with 
 the predictions in Ps. 69.25, 109.8; cf. also 
 John 17.12. 
 
 Jude. Another form of Juda, Judas. 
 
 18 
 
 Jude, Epistle of. The authorship of this 
 letter has been in turn ascribed to two persons 
 bearing the name of Jude or Judas. One of 
 these is the apostle Judas, called also Lebbaeus 
 and Thaddseus (Matt. 10.3 ; John 14.22). But 
 there is no evidence that this apostle was 
 "the brother of James," as the writer of the 
 Epistle calls himself. In Lk. 6.16 ; Acts 1.13, 
 the word " brother " is not in the original ; 
 and it would be more accordant with the 
 general usage of the language, and particularly 
 of the N.T. writers, if the word " son " 
 were supplied. Moreover, if the writer of this 
 Epistle had been an apostle, he could hardly 
 have felt it necessary to make himself known as 
 " the brother of James " ; noi would he have 
 distinguished himself from the apostles, as he 
 appears to do in ver. 17. From these circum- 
 stances it is inferred that the James mentioned in 
 ver. 1 was " the brother of the Lord " (Gal. 1.19 ; 
 cf. Mk. 6.3) ; who appears so prominently in the 
 latter part of the apostolic age. It would follow 
 that Jude stood in the same earthly relationship 
 to our Lord (Matt. 13.55 ; Mk. 6.3), the two being 
 probably among those brethren of our Lord who 
 were with the apostles after His ascension 
 (Acts 1.14; 1 Cor. 9.5). [BRETHREN OF THE 
 LORD.] 
 
 Of the life of Jude we have no certain informa- 
 tion. His descendants are mentioned by Euse- 
 bius, who says that when Domitian ordered that 
 all the posterity of David should be slain, " some 
 of the heretics accused the descendants of Judo 
 as the brother of our Saviour according to the 
 flesh, because they were of the family of David, 
 and as such were also related to Christ." He 
 then refers to the good confession which they 
 made before their persecutors (Eccl. Hist., iii. 20). 
 
 The Epistle does not appear to have been 
 addressed to any local body of believers. Accord- 
 ing to early tradition, Jude laboured in countries 
 eastward of Judsea ; from which some infer that 
 the Epistle was sent to the Christians in those 
 regions. Others suppose that it was written to 
 Christians in Palestine. 
 
 Its date can only be inferred from the nature 
 of the heresies and evil practices denounced, 
 and from the manner in which the preaching of 
 the apostles is spoken of as belonging to the 
 past rather than the present. It seems to have 
 been written in the later apostolic period, a few 
 years before the destruction of Jerusalem; 
 perhaps about the year 67 A.D. 
 
 The relation of this Epistle to 2 Peter is obvious. 
 
 There is a remarkable resemblance, both in 
 thought and in language, between the two. The 
 terseness of the style of Jude's Epistle, its 
 peculiar freshness and vigour of thought and 
 language, and its close coherence throughout, all 
 make against the notion that it was borrowed. 
 Whilst, on the other hand, 2 Pet. 2, in which the 
 resemblance to Jude is found, appears to differ 
 from- Peter's ordinary style. There are parts 
 also in Peter's Epistle which require the corre- 
 sponding passage in Jude to explain their 
 meaning. Compare 2 Pet. 2.11 with Jude 9. 
 
JUDEA] 
 
 274 
 
 [JUDGE 
 
 On the whole, the Epistle of Jude appears to have 
 been the original ; which Peter, while following 
 it to some extent, nevertheless employs in an 
 independent manner, abridging in part, and 
 adding fresh details. 
 
 The special object of the Epistle seems to have 
 been to guard Christians against certain false 
 teachers, who made religion consist in mere 
 speculative belief and outward profession, and 
 sought to allure the disciples into insubordina- 
 tion and licentiousness. The contents deal with 
 (1) the punishment (5-7), and (2) the general 
 character of these seducers (8-19). 
 
 Jude, like Paul in certain instances (Acts 17.28 ; 
 2 Tim. 3.8 ; Tit. 1.12), uses quotations from other 
 than scriptural sources. The reference to the 
 dispute between Michael and the devil about the 
 body of Moses (ver. 9) is said to be taken from 
 The Assumption or Ascension of Moses, a Jewish 
 apocalyptic work, written, it is supposed, about 
 50 A.D., fragments only of which are extant. 
 The Ethiopic Book of Enoch (of which 1.9 is 
 quoted in ver. 14) was well known in N.T. 
 times, and coincidences of thought and language 
 are found in some of the Pauline Epistles, in the 
 Epistle to the Hebrews, and in the Apocalypse. 
 
 A characteristic of the Epistle is the author's 
 frequent use of triplets. Observe the threefold 
 salutation and threefold benediction (vers. 1, 2). 
 Three examples of Divine retribution are cited 
 the unbelieving Israelites, the rebel angels, and 
 the cities of the plain (vers. 5-7) ; three types of 
 wickedness Cain, Balaam, Korah (ver. 11) ; 
 three classes of evil-doers murmurers, dis- 
 contented, self-willed (ver. 16) ; three modes of 
 Christian service towards the erring (see R.V.) 
 " on some have mercy, who are in doubt " ; 
 " some save, snatching them out of the fire " ; 
 " on some have mercy with fear " (vers. 22, 23). 
 
 Jude'a. A form of Judah found in Ezra 5.8 
 and in the N.T. [JUDAH.] 
 
 Judge. In the earliest times, and while still 
 in Egypt, the Israelites had their own laws, 
 which were administered by elders. Moses had 
 his earliest communications with the people 
 through the elders (Ex. 4.29), who were, no 
 doubt, the heads of tribes or families of 
 the Israelites (Deut. 29.10; Josh. 23.2) a 
 system long in vogue, and indeed existing 
 side by side with others even to David's time 
 (Num. 7.2, 10; Josh. 22.14). The first regular 
 magistrates were appointed upon the advice of 
 Jethro (Ex. 18.14-26), who saw that one man's 
 strength was unequal to the task of judging a whole 
 nation. These judges were chosen not only for 
 their moral fitness, but also because their position 
 in the tribe naturally placed them at the head 
 (Deut. 1.15, 16). The law of primogeniture was 
 recognised, and, their suitability in other respects 
 being proved, the heads of tribes and families 
 were chosen. These judges had both civil and 
 criminal cases brought before them, except those 
 of the first magnitude. As for the law itself, this 
 was taught to the people by the Levites, who thus 
 became the lawyers, as we understand the term. 
 The manner of the appointment of these judges, 
 
 their succession, their peculiar powers, are all 
 unknown to us ; but it is evident that they 
 possessed considerable authority, and that, with 
 their assistance, public affairs might proceed 
 without a king, or supreme judge, or legislative 
 body. There was also a council of seventy 
 counsellors or assistants to Moses, not originally 
 a judicial tribunal (Nwn. 11.24, 25). After the 
 Captivity in Babylon, this council, called the 
 Sanhedrin, ruled the nation. [SANHEDRIN.] 
 
 In addition to the high-priest, or ecclesiastical 
 ruler, who was the immediate channel for inter- 
 course with God, there was a supreme ruler for civil 
 affairs, to whom even the former were subordinate. 
 Moses was the first of these, then Joshua (Num. 
 27.18). After him, the elders, who had formed Ms 
 council, carried on the government. After the 
 death of Joshua and the elders whom he had 
 appointed, a state of anarchy ensued in which the 
 Divine commands were disobeyed (Judg. 2.12-15). 
 Then individual persons were chosen, by Divine 
 appointment, to act as judges or "deliverers." 
 [JUDGES, BOOK OP.] They had no power to make 
 new laws, but only to adjudge according to the 
 law of Moses. They were also the executive power, 
 though their jurisdiction sometimes extended over 
 only a part of the country. They had no regular 
 pay, but the people were accustomed to bring 
 them presents or offerings. This form of govern- 
 ment continued from the death of Joshua to the 
 appointment of Saul as king, a space of about 
 460 years. Samuel, the most notable of these 
 judges, seems to have chiefly confined himself to 
 the office of a prophet during the latter part of 
 his life. With the election of Saul ended the 
 Theocratic form of government (1 Sam. 8.7). 
 The judge was revered as holy and sacred, so 
 that consulting him was called " inquiring of 
 God " (Ex. 18.15). He was Divinely instructed 
 not to fear the face of man, " for the judgment 
 is God's " (Deut. 1.17, 18 ; cf. Ps. 82). 
 
 But their powers differed from that of kings in 
 several ways. They were not hereditary ; they 
 had no absolute power over life and death, but 
 their verdict had to be according to law ; they 
 never declared war of their own pleasure, but only 
 by the command of God or the direct call of the 
 people ; they levied no tribute ; the office was not 
 perpetual, for sometimes there was an interval 
 of several years from the death of one judge to 
 the appointment of a successor; they used 
 neither sceptre nor diadem or other trapping of 
 royalty ; finally, they had no authority to make 
 laws. Sometimes the Hebrew judges seem to 
 have been appointed only at periods of national 
 danger or some extraordinary emergency, the 
 ordinary procedure for the settlement of disputes, 
 etc., being sufficient. This was the case parti- 
 cularly with respect to Othniel, Ehud, and 
 Gideon. The power of these judges while in 
 office was very great, nor does it seem to have 
 been limited to a certain period of time. Yet it 
 is supposed that when they had performed the 
 business for which they had been appointed they 
 retired into private life. Gideon certainly 
 did so. 
 
JUDGE] 
 
 275 
 
 [JUDGES, BOOK OP 
 
 Besides the supreme judges there were the 
 city elders. Every city in the commonwealth 
 had its elders, who formed a court of judicature, 
 with the power of determining the lesser local 
 matters (Deut. 16.18). These minor judges 
 were chosen from the seniors, the Levites, heads 
 of families, and those whose wealth placed them 
 above the temptations of their office, for the 
 Hebrews were sensitive as regards the administra- 
 tion of justice. These local judges were called 
 " princes " if they belonged to the higher order; 
 or " elders " if to the lower (Ex. 2.14 ; Judg. 8.14 ; 
 Ezra 10.8; Job 29.9). They had certain heads 
 of families to assist them, recognised as leaders 
 rather than elected. These were the judges 
 in the gates (Judg. 8.14, 15) [BOAZ, RUTH], 
 men of recognised influence and judgment. 
 In addition, the Levites were scattered among 
 all the tribes, so that there were few places 
 far distant from a Leritical city. The judges 
 were usually selected from the tribe of Levi, as 
 being most conversant with the law (2 Ch. 
 19.5-11, 35.3). 
 
 Although appeal could be made to the high- 
 priest in the last resort (Deut. 17.12), such appeal 
 was seldom made, apparently because they were 
 loth to act in that capacity, for we find that the 
 demand for a king is made on the ground that 
 he is wanted " to judge " rather than to help 
 them against their foes (1 Sam. 8.5, 20). 
 
 The chief judges were fifteen in number Oph- 
 niel, Ehud, Shamgar, Deborah and Barak, Gideon, 
 Abimelech, Tola, Jair, Jephthah, Ibzan, Elon, 
 Abdon, Samson, Eli, and Samuel. These were 
 followed by the kings until the time of the Baby- 
 lonian Captivity. After the Captivity, Ezra 
 appointed two classes of judges (Ezra 7.25), but 
 difficult cases were still brought before the high- 
 priest, until the Sanhedrin, or great council, was 
 instituted. This supreme council consisted of 
 seventy-two persons, under a president and vice- 
 
 president. From the time of Herod the office of 
 president was distinct from that of high-priest, 
 and became of considerable importance. 
 
 In Ex. 21.6 and 22.8, 9, for " unto judges " we 
 should read (with TLV.) " unto God," Who was 
 supposed to preside at the tribunal. Indeed, this 
 was the underlying idea of the whole system 
 of judges, until the time of the kings, when 
 the judges represented the kingly power and 
 authority. Our Lord refers to the term in 
 John 10.34. 
 
 Judges, Book of. The authorship and date 
 of this book cannot certainly be known. It is 
 ascribed by an ancient Jewish tradition to 
 Samuel, and nothing appears to render this 
 impossible. It was certainly written before the 
 events recorded in 2 Sam. 5.6-9. (See 1.21.) 
 Some, however, have inferred, from the expres- 
 sions used in 17.6, 18.1, 19.1, 21.25, that the 
 book is the work of an ardent partisan of the 
 monarchy, who could hardly have lived in times 
 when kingly government had seriously de- 
 generated. Thus it would appear to have been 
 written in the reign of David or of Solomon, 
 and the prophets Nathan and Gad have been 
 suggested as possible authors. 
 
 The chronology of the book has been much 
 discussed. The principal data are the follow- 
 ing : 
 
 1. The statement in 1 K. 6.1 that the building 
 of the Temple was begun by Solomon " in the 
 480th year after the children of Israel were 
 come out of the land of Egypt." 
 
 2. The declaration by Jephthah ( Judg. 11.26) 
 that Israel had dwelt for 300 years in Heshbon 
 and the trans- Jordanic territory. Jephthah 
 evidently speaks in round numbers. 
 
 3. The successive enumerations in the Book 
 of Judges of the periods of servitude and of rest, 
 amounting to 350 years, up to the end of Abdon's 
 judgeship, as shown in the following table : 
 
 Servitude. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Deliverers and Judges. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Total 
 Years. 
 
 Mesopotamia (3.8) 
 
 8 
 
 Othniel (3.11) 
 
 40 
 
 48 
 
 Moab (3.14) 
 
 18 
 
 Ehud and Shamgar (3.30) . 
 
 80 
 
 98 
 
 Jabin (4.3) 
 
 20 
 
 Deborah and Barak (5.31) . 
 
 40 
 
 60 
 
 Midian (6.1) 
 
 7 
 
 /Gideon and Abimelech (8.28, 9.22) 
 \Tola and Jair (10.2, 3) ... 
 
 43 
 45 
 
 }* 
 
 Ammonites (10.8) 
 
 18 
 
 / Jephthah (12.7) .... 
 \Ibzan, Elon, Abdon (12.9, 11, 14) 
 
 6 
 25 
 
 }4 9 
 
 
 
 
 
 350 
 
 Then followed the 40 years' oppression by the 
 Philistines (13.1), probably including the judge- 
 ship of Samson (20 years, 15.20). Thus we 
 have an apparent total of 390 years between 
 the oppression by Chushan-rishathaim and the 
 death of Samson. But the round numbers of 
 years (20, 40, 80) are possibly not to be taken 
 with e^act ljteralnes.9 ; and it is further probable 
 
 that certain of these periods overlapped each 
 other. For instance, the oppression by the 
 Ammonites in the east may well have been 
 coincident with that by the Philistines in the 
 west. Jephthah and Samson would thus be 
 contemporaries. The capture of the Ark, again, 
 which caused the death of Eli, was evidently 
 before the chief exploits of Samson against th.e 
 
JUDGMENT] 
 
 276 
 
 [JUDGMENT-DAY 
 
 Philistine power, so that the early chapters 
 of 1 Sam. must be taken as preceding Judg. 
 15, 16. 
 
 4. The Apostle Paul (Acts 13.20), according 
 to the ordinary text, specifies " about 450 
 years " as the period of the Judges. The read- 
 ing, however, there is doubtful. 
 
 5. The genealogies have been thought by some 
 to show that the period of the Judges was much 
 shorter than has usually been supposed. Thus, 
 between Nahshon, a prince of Judah at the time 
 of the entrance into Canaan, and David, his 
 descendant, only four names are given (Salmon, 
 Boaz, Obed, Jesse). These, on any reckoning, 
 would give too short a time ; and there must 
 have been omissions, which render the genea- 
 logical tables in themselves an insufficient guide. 
 
 The contents of this book are as follows : 
 
 I. An account of the extent to which the wars 
 against the Canaanites were carried on after the 
 death of Joshua, followed by a sketch of the 
 course of events during the times of the Judges, 
 forming an introduction to the narratives which 
 follow (1-3.4). 
 
 II. The oppressions of the Israelites by their 
 enemies, and their deliverances by their Judges : 
 comprising their subjection to the kings of 
 Mesopotamia and of Moab, and their deliver- 
 ance by Othniel and by Ehud ; the deliverance 
 of the western tribes by Shamgar (3.5-31) ; 
 the oppression of the northern tribes by Jabin, 
 king of Canaan, and their deliverance by 
 Deborah and Barak (4, 5) ; the deliverance of 
 the eastern and northern tribes from the 
 Midianites. with the history of Gideon and his 
 family (6-9) ; the administrations of Tola and 
 Jair ; the deliverance of Israel from the Ammon- 
 ites by Jephthah ; and the administrations of 
 Ibzan, Elon, and Abdon (10-12) ; the servitude 
 of the Israelites to the Philistines, their deliver- 
 ance by Samson, and his history (13-16). With 
 this, the regular narrative closes. 
 
 III. An appendix, probably composed at a 
 later date than the rest, detailing events which 
 happened not long after the death of Joshua, 
 and therefore preceded in time the greater part 
 of the history. It gives an account of the 
 introduction of idolatry among the Israelites, 
 and their consequent corruption and punish- 
 ment, exemplified by 1. An account of 
 Micah's idols, which were stolen by the Danites 
 (17, 18). 2. The brutal outrage committed 
 by the men of Gibeah, leading to a fierce civil 
 war, in which the tribe of Benjamin were nearly 
 destroyed (19-21). 
 
 Allusions to the events recorded in Judges 
 in other books of the O.T. are frequent, and 
 will be found, e.g., in 1 Sam. 12.9-11 ; 2 Sam. 
 11.21 ; Ps. 78.56 ff., 83.9-11, 106.34-45 ; Isai. 
 9.4. In the N.T. the main references are 
 Acts 13.20; Heb. 11.32 ff. 
 
 Judgment. The judgments of the Almighty 
 are the punishments inflicted by Him for 
 particular crimes (Gen. 7.19-24 ; Ex. 14 ; Acts 
 12.23, etc.). Man has, however, to guard against 
 inferences from events such as the fall of the 
 
 tower in Siloam (Lk. 13.4). Hasty judgment is 
 forbidden (Matt. 7.1; 1 Cor. 4.5). 
 
 The " judgment " of Matt. 5.22 was that 
 of a local court, consisting, according to 
 llabbinical tradition, of twenty-three judges. 
 
 Judgment-Day. The representation of judg- 
 ment (Matt. 25.31 ff.) carries the view beyond 
 the circle of Christ's professed disciples 
 and embraces " all the nations." The term is 
 generally used in Scripture to describe, and 
 certainly here includes, the judgment of the 
 Gentiles, i.e. it is universal; and there seems a 
 special reference to forms of unconscious service. 
 Those accepted and welcomed did not know 
 that they were ministering to Christ, but the 
 Holy Spirit prompted them to acts of beneficence 
 and charity (Acts 16.31; I Cor. 15.24-26; 
 1 Thess. 4.14-17). It is in reference to the 
 judgment-day that Peter says, " The heavens 
 that now are, and the earth, by the same word 
 have been stored up for fire, being reserved 
 against the day of judgment and destruction of 
 ungodly men ' ' (2 Pet. 3. 7, R. V. ). The time fixed 
 by the apostle for the burning of the heavens 
 and the earth, namely, the day of judgment 
 and punishment of ungodly men, shows that the 
 apostle is speaking not of the destruction of a 
 single city or nation, as some have supposed, 
 but of the earth itself, with all the wicked who 
 have dwelt thereon. 
 
 A general judgment appears to be required by 
 the justice of God (2 Thess. 1.6, 7) ; suggested 
 by the accusations of natural conscience 
 (Dan. 5.6 ; Acts 24.25 ; Rom. 2.1-15) ; by 
 man's relation to God, as creature to Creator 
 (Rom. 14.12) ; and by the resurrection of 
 Christ (Acts 17.31 ; Rom. 14.9). It is clearly 
 indicated in Holy Scripture (Matt. 25 ; Acts 
 24.25; Rom. 2.1-16, 3.6, 14.10,11; 2 Cor. 
 5.10 ; 1 Thess. 4.16, 17 ; 2 Thess. 1.7, 10 ; 
 Jude 14, 15). 
 
 The time of the judgment is fixed to take 
 place after the resurrection (2 Tim. 4.1 ; Heb. 
 6.2). There is a day appointed (Acts 17.31), 
 but it is unknown to men (2 Thess. 2.1-14). 
 
 As to its procedure, the judgment will com- 
 mence with the opening of certain books (Rev. 
 20.12). Among them may be the book of 
 Divine remembrance (Mai. 3.16) ; conscience 
 (Rom. 2.15) ; and the book of Life, in which 
 the names of the justified are enrolled (Lk. 
 10.20 ; Rev. 3.5, 20.12, 15). 
 
 As to the Judge, Holy Scripture declares that 
 God will judge the world by Jesus Christ (Acts 
 17.31). The triune God will be the Judge, 
 as to original authority, power, and right of 
 judgment ; but the work is assigned to the 
 Son (Rom. 14.9,10), who will appear in His 
 human nature (John 5.27 ; Acts 17.31) with 
 great power and glory (1 Thess. 4.16, 17) visible 
 to every eye and penetrating every heart 
 (1 Cor. 4.5). He will have full authority over 
 all (Matt. 28.18), and act with strict justice 
 (2 Tim. 4.8). 
 
 This day is the great hope of the Christian, 
 for his body is to be raised and the worfc of 
 
JUDGMENT-HALL] 
 
 277 
 
 [JUSTIFICATION 
 
 redemption completed. [COMING OF CHRIST, 
 THE SECOND.] 
 
 Judgment-Hall. The Praetorium. Originally 
 the general's tent in a Roman camp, then the 
 palace of the governor, and finally the room 
 or office where he sat to administer justice. 
 Pilate's praetorium was the Tower of Antonia, 
 the citadel of Jerusalem. In Phil. 1.13 the word 
 " palace " or " Caesar's Court " is so translated 
 from the original word praetorium (as also is the 
 term "common hall" of Matt. 27.27), but it 
 may mean there the praetorian guard of soldiers 
 who guarded Caesar. 
 
 Judgment, Breastplate ot [BREASTPLATE, 
 URIM.] 
 
 Judith. Jewess : the wife of Esau (Gen. 
 26.34), and daughter of Beeri the Hittite. 
 
 Julia. Feminine of Julius : a Christian at 
 Rome. Apparently she was a connexion of 
 Philologus, and with him was saluted by Paul 
 (Rom. 16.15). 
 
 Julius. The centurion to whose charge Paul 
 was committed to be taken to Rome (Acts 
 27.1, 3). The " Augustus' band " was the 
 Augustan cohort, a detachment of the Praetorian 
 Guards attached to the person of the Roman 
 governor at Caesarea. Julius proved himself a 
 true friend to Paul during the journey. 
 
 Junia, Junias. Like Juno : this name should 
 be Junias, a contraction of Junianus, the feminine 
 being a mistranslation. Junias was a Roman 
 Christian mentioned by Paul as a kinsman 
 (i.e. a Jew) and fellow-prisoner. He was a 
 disciple before Paul, and is supposed to have 
 been one of the seventy (Rom. 16.7). 
 
 Juniper. There are 358 leguminous or pod- 
 bearing plants in Palestine and the sur- 
 rounding districts. Of these, one of the most 
 beautiful and useful is the rothem, a species of 
 broom or genista, the plant that is called juniper 
 in our version of the Scriptures. Travellers 
 speak with delight of its pink-white blossoms, 
 massed on the hillsides or dotted about the 
 plain, and exhaling a sweet odour. It is called 
 by the Arabs rit'm or retem, and, like the 
 dispirited prophet of old (1 K. 19.4,5), these 
 wanderers are glad to avail themselves of its 
 shelter, for it grows to a height of eight to ten 
 feet. Stanley, Robinson, and other travellers 
 speak of its grateful shade in the " weary land " 
 of the south. In Ps. 120.4 " coals of juniper " 
 are mentioned for their fierceness, and to-day 
 the charcoal of the retem is so highly valued 
 that the Bedouins destroy large quantities of 
 the shrub to make it for the Egyptian markets. 
 Job (30.4) speaks of the famine causing its 
 victims to " cut up juniper roots for their meat," 
 a striking figure of speech, and showing the 
 intensity of the famine, for these roots are very 
 bitter and nauseous. The fruit of the plant 
 is liked, however, by sheep. One of the stations 
 of the Israelites was Rithmah (Num. 33.18, 19), 
 so called (we may presume) from the abundance 
 of rothem in the neighbourhood. 
 
 Ju'piter. Shining : the supreme god of the 
 Roman mythology (Greek, Zeus), whom the 
 
 people of Lystra supposed to have descended 
 from heaven in the person of Barnabas (Acts 
 14.12). On the same occasion Paul was thought 
 to be Mercury (Greek, Hermes), from his elo- 
 quence. 
 
 Jushab-hesed. Kindness is returned : a son 
 of Zerubbabel (1 Ch. 3.20). 
 
 Justification. Justification is connected with 
 the supreme question affecting human life, 
 " How shall man be just with God ? " No 
 fewer than three times this question is found in 
 the Book of Job (4.17 (R.V. marg.), 9.2, 25.4, 
 cf. 15.14). Earnest Israelites felt its pressure 
 (Ps. 143.2; Mic. 6.6). It was implied in the 
 entire Mosaic ritual. It is also involved in all 
 heathen ritual and ceremonial. The first sug- 
 gestion of the true solution of the problem is 
 found in Gen. 15.1-6, where, for the first time, 
 we have the well-known terms " righteousness " 
 and " believe." God's word is said to come to 
 Abram (ver. 1), with the result that he re- 
 sponded by trust to this Divine revelation, and 
 the outcome was righteousness. This passage 
 is in some respects the key to every other 
 reference to righteousness and trust found 
 elsewhere in Scripture. The same idea of 
 justification through trust in God is touched 
 upon in Ps. 32.1, 2, and Hob. 2.4 ; but of 
 course the full doctrine of justification is only 
 found in the N.T. 
 
 Justification is solely concerned with our 
 true relation with God, not with spiritual 
 condition, but with judicial position. This true 
 relation to God was forfeited by sin, which 
 at once resulted in guilt, condemnation, and 
 separation. Justification involves the restora- 
 tion of this relation through the removal of 
 condemnation by forgiveness, the removal of 
 guilt by righteousness, and the removal of 
 separation by fellowship. Justification means 
 the reinstatement of man in his true relation 
 to God. He is regarded as righteous, accepted 
 before God as " right " in the eyes of the Divine 
 law, and therefore restored to his true position. 
 Justification is thus very much more than 
 forgiveness, though forgiveness is necessarily 
 a part of justification. The two are distin- 
 guished in Acts 13.38, 39. Forgiveness is only 
 negative, for the removal of condemnation. 
 Justification is also positive, for the removal of 
 guilt and the bestowal of a relationship with 
 God. Forgiveness is an act, and a succession 
 of acts repeated from time to time throughout 
 our Christian life. Justification is complete, 
 never repeated, and covers the whole of our 
 life, past, present, and future. " He that has 
 been lathed (justification) needeth not save 
 to wash his feet (forgiveness)" (John 13.10). 
 Justification is also to be distinguished from 
 sanctification, which is generally understood 
 to mean " making holy." Although the two are 
 inseparable in experience, they must be clearly 
 distinguished in thought. Justification is 
 concerned with our spiritual position ; sanctifica- 
 tion with our spiritual condition. The one is 
 connected with our relationship, the other 
 
JUSTUS] 
 
 278 
 
 [KADMONITES 
 
 with fellowship ; one deals with our accept- 
 ance, the other with our acceptableness ; one 
 is the foundation of our peace, Christ for us, 
 the other the foundation of our purity, Christ 
 in us. 
 
 The basis of our justification is the redemptive 
 work of our Lord Jesus Christ. " Him who knew 
 no sin He made to be sin on our behalf; that 
 we might become the righteousness of God in 
 Him " (2 Cor. 5.21). " By Him all that believe 
 are justified" (Acts 13.39). It is therefore 
 through Christ's work, not our own works or 
 merits, that we are justified. Man has always 
 tried to establish his own righteousness; but 
 universal failure has been the outcome, because 
 he has been unable either to cancel the past or 
 guarantee the future. " By grace are ye saved : 
 . . . not by works, lest any man should boast " 
 (Eph. 2.8, 9). Justification becomes ours through 
 faith. " All that believe are justified " (Acts 
 13.39) ; " being justified by faith " (Eom. 5.1). 
 Trust always implies our dependence on some 
 one outside ourselves; it is the acknowledg- 
 ment of our own inability, and of some one else's 
 ability. Faith links us to Christ, and is the 
 only possible answer we can give to God's 
 revelation. It is the renunciation of self, and 
 the reception of the Saviour. We rest our hearts 
 on Him, and receive His perfect righteous- 
 ness. The great truth of justification by 
 Christ through faith is of supreme value for 
 spiritual life and service. It is the basis of 
 spiritual peace (Rom. 5.1). It is the foundation 
 of spiritual liberty, removing the bondage of 
 sin, and leading us into the very presence of 
 God. It is the guarantee of holiness, for it 
 brings into our hearts the power of the Holy 
 Spirit. It is also the inspiration of all service ; 
 for the soul, delivered from anxiety about 
 its own salvation, is set free to work for the 
 salvation of others. 
 
 There is no contradiction between St. Paul 
 and St. James on this doctrine of justification, 
 although both apostles use Abraham as their 
 example. Paul in Eom. 4, deals with Abraham 
 in relation to the story in Gen. 15 ; James 
 deals with him in relation to the story in Gen. 
 22, that is, an event that happened twenty- 
 five years afterwards. But during those 
 twenty-five years Abraham occupied the stand- 
 ing of a man justified by faith (Gen. 15.6), and 
 then, when the time came for the great testing 
 (Gen. 22), he showed his faith by his works. So 
 Paul writes concerning non-Christians, and uses 
 Gen. 15 to prove the necessity of faith, and that 
 works must bring forth faith. James writes 
 to Christians, and uses Gen. 22 to prove the 
 necessity of works, and that faith must be 
 proved by works. Paul is dealing with a 
 legalistic spirit, and against all human merit; 
 James witii an antinomian, and against mere 
 intellectual orthodoxy. The one deals with 
 the instrument, the other with the proof of 
 justification. As Arnot well says, Paul and 
 James are not two soldiers of different armies 
 fighting against each other, but two of the 
 same army fighting back to back, against 
 enemies coming from opposite directions. 
 
 Justus. Upright : 1. The surname of 
 Joseph, called also Barsabas, who was nominated 
 to succeed Judas Iscariot as an apostle 
 (Acts 1.23). 2. A Corinthian believer, host of 
 Paul (Acts 18.7). 3. A Roman Christian, a 
 Jew, with Paul when he wrote to the Church 
 at Colossse, and called a fellow-helper (Col. 4.11). 
 His first name was Jesus. 
 
 Jutah, Juttah. A town in the mountains of 
 Judah, assigned to the priests ( Josh. 15.55) ; the 
 traditional residence of Zacharias and birth- 
 place of John the Baptist (Lk. 1.39, 40). 
 [JUDAH 5.] It is identified with the modern 
 Yuttah, 5 miles south of Hebron, 
 
 Kab. (R.V. 2 K. 6.25). [CAB.] 
 
 Kabze'el. God gathers : a town on the ex- 
 treme south-east frontier of Judah, just at the be- 
 ginning of the ascent of Akrabbim (Josh. 15.21) ; 
 the native place of Benaiah, the son of Jehoiada, 
 one of David's mighty men (2 Sam. 23.20 ; 1 Ch. 
 11.22) ; reinhabited after the Captivity (Neh. 
 11.25, Jekabzeel). 
 
 Ka'desh (sacred or sanctuary), Ka'desh-Bar'nea 
 (called En Mishpat, spring of judgment). Now 
 'Ain Kadis, 50 miles south of Beersheba. On the 
 threshold of the Promised Land (Gen. 16.14, 20.1 ). 
 Here Chedorlaomer smote the Amorite chiefs 
 (Gen. 14.7). The children of Israel encamped 
 here while the spies searched out the land 
 (Num. 13.26, 32.8; Deut. 1.2,19,46, 9.23; 
 Josh. 14.6, 7), and it was probably their head- 
 quarters for thirty-eight years. It was the 
 
 place at which Moses smote the rock (Num. 
 27.14; Deut. 32.51); whence the Israelites 
 departed for their wandering (Num. 14.25 ; 
 Deut. 2.1, 14) ; whither they returned on their 
 way to Canaan by Mount Hor, and where 
 Miriam died (Num. 20.1, 14, 22, 33.36, 37 ; 
 Judg. 11.16, 17). [MERIBAH, KEDESH 3, TAHTIM- 
 HODSHI.] 
 
 Kadmi'el. God the primeval: 1. A Levite 
 whose descendants returned from Babylon with 
 Zerubbabel (Ezra 2.40; Neh. 7.43). 2. One 
 who assisted in rebuilding the Temple (Ezra 3.9). 
 3. A Levite who led the devotions of the people 
 (Neh. 9.4). 
 
 Kadmon'ites. Easterners: a tribe who in- 
 habited Palestine east of the ' Jordan, about 
 Mount Hermon, descended from Canaan, the 
 son of Hani (Gen. 15.19). Compare the term 
 
KAIN] 
 
 279 
 
 [KENITE, THE 
 
 Bene-Kedem, the " children of the East," the 
 general name for the tribes who lived in the 
 great waste tracts on the east and south-east of 
 Palestine (Judg. 6.3). 
 
 Kain. R.V. for Cain 2. It may be also the 
 city of the Kenites in Num. 24.22 (see K.V. 
 marg.). 
 
 Kallai. The head of the priestly family of 
 Sallai in the days of Joiakim (Neh. 12.20). 
 Kamon. [C AMON. ] 
 
 Ka'nah. Reed : 1. A town in Asher near 
 Sidon, 10 miles from the Mediterranean 
 (Josh. 19.28). 2. A torrent which formed the 
 boundary between Ephraim and Manasseh 
 (Josh. 16.8, 17.9). Perhaps the stream which 
 enters the sea at Nahr Falaik, half-way between 
 Joppa and Caesarea. 
 
 Kare'ah, Care'ah. Bald : the father of 
 Johanan, a captain of the Jews when Gedaliah 
 was made governor by Nebuchadnezzar (2 K. 
 25.23 ; Jer. 40.8, etc.). 
 
 Karka'a (R.V. Kar'ka). Floor : a place on 
 south boundary of Judah (Josh. 15.3). 
 
 Kar'kor. A place in the level country east 
 of the Jordan, where Gideon surprised the 
 Midianite chiefs Zeba and Zalmunna (Judg. 
 8.10). 
 
 Kar'tah. A town of Zebulun, given to the 
 Merarites (Josh. 21.34). 
 
 Kar'tan. (?) Double town : a town of Naphtali, 
 assigned to the Gershonites (Josh. 21.32) ; the 
 same as Kirjathaim (1 Ch. 6.76). 
 
 Kat'tath. Little: a town of Zebulun 
 (Josh. 19.15). Perhaps the same as Kartah or 
 as Kitron. 
 
 Ke'dar. The black-skinned or black-tented 
 man : a son of Ishmael (Gen. 25.13), the father 
 of the Kedarenians. They lived in tents, and 
 often changed their habitation ; but they dwelt 
 principally in the south of Arabia Deserta, the 
 north of Arabia Petraea, and in the vicinity of 
 the Red Sea. Some of them, however, settled 
 in villages or towns (Cant. 1.5; Isai. 42.11). 
 Famous for flocks (Isai. 60.7 ; Jer. 49.28) and 
 archers (Isai. 21.16, 17). 
 
 Kede'mah. Eastern : the youngest son of 
 Ishmael (Gen. 25.15 ; 1 Ch. 1.31). 
 
 Kede'moth. Eastern : a town of Reuben, 
 assigned to the Merarites (Josh. 13.18, 21.37 ; 
 1 Ch. 6.79). 
 
 Ke'desh. Sanctuary : 1. Kedesh - Naphtali 
 (Judg. 4.6). Now Kades, north-west of Lake 
 Huleh ; a town in the middle of the west side 
 of the plain of Zaanaim ; full of interesting 
 ruins. It was a fortified city of Naphtali 
 (Josh. 19.37) ; a city of refuge for the northern 
 tribes, and was allotted to the Gershonites 
 (Josh. 20.7, 21.32 ; 1 Ch. 6.76). Kedesh was 
 the residence of Barak, where he and Deborah 
 assembled the tribes of Zebulun and Naphtali 
 before the conflict. Near it was the tree in 
 Zaanannim, where was pitched the tent of the 
 Kenites Heber and Jael his wife, where Sisera 
 met his death (Judg. 4.6-11). It was taken 
 by Tiglath-pileser (2 K. 15.29). 2. Now Tell 
 Abu Kudeis, near Megiddt ; a royal Canaanite 
 
 town taken by Joshua, allotted to Issachar, 
 and assigned to the Gershonites (Josh. 12.22 ; 
 1 Ch. 6.72). 3. A town of Judah, in extreme 
 south (Josh. 15.23). Possibly identical with 
 Kadesh-Barnea. 
 
 Kehela'thah. Place of assembly: site of 
 an Israelite encampment (Num. 33.22). 
 
 Kei'lah. 1. Now Kila, c. 8 miles north-west 
 of Hebron. A town in Judah (Josh. 15.44), 
 rescued by David from the Philistines, but its 
 inhabitants were ready to hand him over to 
 Saul (ISam. 23.1-13) ; reoccupied after the return 
 from the Captivity (Neh. 3.17,18). 2. The 
 Garmite, a connexion of Caleb (1 Ch. 4.19). 
 
 Kelai'ah. A Levite who had taken a foreign 
 wife during or after the Captivity ; called also 
 Kelita (Ezra 10.23). 
 
 Keli'ta. (?) Stunted : one of those who 
 " caused the people to understand the law " 
 when read by Ezra (Neh. 8.7). He was also 
 amongst those who agreed to put away their 
 foreign wives, and sealed the covenant (Ezra 
 10.23 ; Neh. 10.10). [KELAIAH.] 
 
 Kemu'el. (?) God stands or rises : 1. The 
 third son of Nahor, who was Abraham's brother 
 (Gen. 22.21). 2. A prince or chief of Ephraim ; 
 one of those appointed to divide the land 
 (Num. 3424). 3. A Levite, the father of 
 Hashabiah, who was ruler of the Levites in 
 David's reign (1 Ch. 27.17). 
 
 Ke'nan. (?) One acquired or begotten: the 
 great-grandson of Adam (1 Ch. 1.2 ; Gen. 5.9-14, 
 where A.V. reads Cainan). 
 
 Ke'nath. (?) Possession : now Kanawat, 
 south-east of the Lejah, about 20 miles north of 
 Busrah. It was a town of Manasseh, east of 
 Jordan ; taken by Nobah and called by bis 
 name ; recaptured by Geshur and Aram (Num. 
 32.42 ; Judg. 8.11 ; 1 Ch. 2.23). Its ruins cover 
 a space one mile long by half a mile wide. 
 
 Ke'naz, Ke'nez. 1. A grandson of Esau and 
 one of the dukes of Edom ; the founder of the 
 family of Kenezites (Gen. 36.11, 15, 42 ; Josh. 
 14.6, 14 ; 1 Ch. 1.53). Caleb and Othniel were 
 among his descendants (Num. 32.12). 2. A 
 grandson of Caleb (1 Ch. 4.15). 
 
 Kenez'ite.Keniz'zite. (Gen. 15.19). [KENBZ.] 
 
 Ke'nite, The, and Reunites, The. One of the 
 tribes of Palestine in the time of Abraham 
 (Gen. 15.19), dwelling in the fastnesses in 
 south of Judah (1 Sam. 15.6, 27.10), apostro- 
 phised by Balaam (Num. 24.21,22). Jethro, 
 the father-in-law of Moses, was a Kenite 
 (Judg. 1.16). For his sake, and because they 
 showed kindness to Israel when they came out 
 of Egypt, the Kenites were saved from the 
 destruction which came upon the Amalekites 
 (1 Sam. 15.6) long after the conquest of 
 Canaan. In the time of Deborah, Heber the 
 Kenite lived A in the far north (Judg. 4.11). 
 Hemath, a Kenite, was the founder of the sect or 
 family known as the Rechabites. [RECHABITES.] 
 As showing the long-continued friendly relations 
 which existed between this tribe of Midianite 
 wanderers and Israel, it should be noted that 
 the Eechabites are actually included in the 
 
KEREN-HAPPtfCH] 
 
 280 
 
 [KING 
 
 genealogies of Judah (1 Ch. 2.55). Prof. Sayce 
 thinks that the Kenites were a tribe of smiths. 
 
 Ke'ren-Hap'puch. Horn of antimony (the 
 pigment used by Eastern ladies to colour their 
 eyelashes): the youngest of the daughters of 
 Job, born to him after his trials (Job 42.14), 
 and so called probably from her great beauty. 
 
 Ke'rioth, Kirioth, (?) Cities : 1. A city of 
 Moab (Jer. 48.24). It has been identified with 
 Kureiyeh, a ruined town of some extent lying 
 between Busrah and Sulkhad in the south part 
 of the Hauran ; and perhaps better as Rabba, 
 11 miles south of Arnon. 2. Kerioth 
 (R.V. Kerioth-hezron), a town in the south 
 of Judah, on the frontier of the hill country, 
 about 12 miles south of Hebron (Josh. 15.25) ; 
 now called Kuryetein. [JUDAS ISCAEIOT.] 
 
 Ke'ros. (?) Bent : one of the Nethinim whose 
 descendants returned to Jerusalem with Zerub- 
 babel (Ezra 2.44 ; Neh. 7.47). 
 
 Ketu'rah. (?) Incense : the wife of Abraham, 
 after Sarah's death (Gen. 25.1-4 ; 1 Ch. 1.32, 33). 
 Abraham had six sons by her, including Midian. 
 
 Key. The key used in O.T. times was very 
 different from the modern key, and was a long 
 piece of wood fitted with wires or short nails. 
 This, inserted in the hollow bolt which serves 
 as a lock, raises other pins within the staple 
 so as to allow the bolt to be drawn back. It 
 is common to see a man of authority among the 
 Moors marching along with a large brass key 
 attached to his shoulder by means of a kerchief. 
 This illustrates Isai. 22.22, " The key of the 
 house of David will I lay upon his shoulder" 
 (cf. Matt. 16.19). 
 
 Kezi'a. Cassia : the second daughter of Job, 
 born after his trial (Job 42.14). 
 
 Kezi'z, The Valley of (R.V. Emek-keziz). 
 (?) Clipped: it formed part of east border of 
 Benjamin (Josh. 18.21). 
 
 Kib'roth-Hattaa'vah. Graves of lust: the 
 site of an Israelite encampment, and the scene 
 of the pestilence consequent on eating quails 
 sent in answer to craving for flesh (Num. 11.34, 
 35, 33.16, 17). 
 
 Kibza'im. (?)Two heaps: a town of 
 Ephraim, given to the Kohathites (Josh. 21.22). 
 Probably the same as Jokmeam. 
 
 Kid. [Go AT.] 
 
 Kidneys. The viscera, especially the kidneys, 
 were amongst Semitic peoples regarded as the 
 seat of emotion and of sentiment (Job 16.13 ; 
 Ps. 7.9, 73.21). The feeling explains the 
 position given to these parts in certain sacrifices 
 (Lev. 3.4,5, 8.16). "The fat of kidneys of 
 wheat " (Deut. 32.14) is a reference to the shape 
 and richness of the grain. 
 
 Kid'ron. Black : a stream which rises 1J 
 miles north-west of Jerusalem, runs to the 
 east for 1 miles along the north side, then 
 curves sharply round to the south, passes be- 
 tween the city and the Mount of Olives, contracts 
 and sinks rapidly, and becomes a deep, narrow, 
 dark torrent bed, through which no water flows 
 except during the heavy rains of winter. It is 
 joined at Bir Eyub, 670 feet below its starting- 
 
 point, by the Valley of Hinnom ; thence it 
 pursues a south-east course to the Dead Sea. It 
 was crossed by David in his flight from Absalom 
 (2 Sam. 15.23) ; by our Lord to the Mount of 
 Olives and to Gethsemane (John 18.1). Into it 
 were cast idols and other impurities (2 K. 23.4, 
 6,12; 2 Ch. 29.16, 30.14; Jer. 31.40). The 
 name appears as Cedron in A.V. of John 18.1. 
 It is now commonly known as the Valley of 
 Jehoshaphat. 
 
 Ki'nah. Lament : a town of Judah, on the 
 extreme south boundary (Josh 15.22). 
 
 King. 1. The title, as implying supreme 
 authority and power, is used of God (as in Ps. 
 10.16, 47.7; 1 Tim. 1.17). 2. The title was 
 applied to our Lord as King of the Jews (Matt. 
 27.11, 37, and reff.). 3. In the O.T. the title 
 king is employed in a very wide sense, not 
 only of great potentates such as the Pharaohs 
 of Egypt (Gen. 41.46) or the king of Persia 
 (Ezra 1.1), but also of petty monarchs such as 
 the king of Jericho (Josh. 2.2 ; and cf. 
 Judg. 1.7). 4. The title is also used of the 
 people of God (Rev. 1.6); of death, as the 
 "king of terrors" (Job 18.14); and of the 
 " leviathan " as " king over all the children of 
 pride " ( Job 41.34). 
 
 5. In the history of the Hebrews, government 
 by kings succeeded to government through 
 the medium of judges. The provision of a 
 monarch, such as surrounding peoples had, 
 was a concession by God (1 Sam. 8.7, 12.12) to 
 a desire on the part of the people. That desire, 
 which had previously found expression in the 
 offer to Gideon (Judg. 8.22,23) and in the 
 appointment of Abimelech as king of Shechem 
 (Judg. 9.6), was equivalent to a rejection of the 
 theocracy (1 Sam. 8.7). For Jehovah was the true 
 King of the nation (1 Sam. 8.7 ; Isai. 33.22). 
 Even the land was held as by direct tenure from 
 Him (Lev. 25.23). Nevertheless His care and 
 guidance were not withdrawn (1 Sam. 12.22 ; 
 1 K. 6.13). The monarchy so constituted was 
 hereditary, though the succession did not 
 necessarily go by the right of primogeniture ; 
 for David appointed Solomon as his successor 
 in preference to Adonijah, his elder brother. 
 The person of the king was inviolable (1 Sam. 
 24.5-8 ; 2 Sam. 1.14). When the diadem was 
 placed on the head of the monarch he entered 
 into a solemn covenant with his subjects to rule 
 them in righteousness (2 Sam. 5.3; 1 Ch. 11.3), 
 after which the nobles pledged themselves to 
 obedience, and confirmed the pledge with the kiss 
 of homage (1 Sam. 10.1). The royal revenue was 
 derived from cornfields, vineyards, and olive- 
 gardens (1 Sam. 8.14; 1 Ch. 27.26-28); the 
 produce of the royal flocks (1 Sam. 21.7 ; 2 Sam. 
 13.23 ; 1 Ch. 27.29-31 ; 2 Ch. 26.10) a nominal 
 tenth of the produce of cornland and vine- 
 yards and of sheep (1 Sam. 8.15,17); tribute 
 from merchants who passed through Hebrew 
 territory (1 K. 10.15); presents made by the 
 king's subjects (1 Sam. 10.27, 16.20 ; 1 K. 10.25 ; 
 Ps. 72.10); spoils of war and tribute from 
 conquered nations (2 Sam. 8.2, 7, 8, 10 ; 
 
KING] 
 
 281 
 
 [KING 
 
 1 K. 4.21 ; 2 Ch. 27.5). A further important 
 equivalent of wealth was the power of exacting 
 compulsory labour. Solomon, further, may 
 have derived profit from his commercial enter- 
 prises over the sea (I K. 10.22). The power 
 
 or the monarch was absolute (1 Sam. 22.17, 18 ; 
 2 Sam. 1.15). The history of the monarchy, 
 first as to the united and then as to the divided 
 kingdom, is summarily presented in the following 
 table : 
 
 KINGS OF ISRAEL AND JUDAH 
 
 B.C. THE UNDIVIDED KINGDOM 
 
 [? 1060 SAUL.] 
 
 1020 DAVID, king in Hebron (2 Sam. 2.1-4). 
 
 1013 DAVID, king over all Israel (2 Sam. 5.3). 
 
 c. 990 Rebellion of Absalom (2 Sam. 15-18). 
 
 980 Accession of SOLOMON (1 K. 1.39). 
 
 977 Building of the Temple begun (1 K. 6.1). 
 
 969 Dedication of the Temple (1 K. 8). 
 
 938 Death of Solomon, and Division of the Kingdom (1 K. 11, 12). 
 
 THE DIVIDED KINGDOM 
 Dates mostly as in Kamphausen's " Chronologic," 1883 
 
 JUDAH 
 
 REHOBOAM (1 K. 14.21 ; 2 Ch. 12.13). She- 
 maiah forbids attack on Israel (1 K. 12.21-24 ; 
 2 Ch. 11.1-4). Relapse of the people into 
 idolatry (1 K. 14.22-24). 
 
 Shishak (Shashanq) plunders Jerusalem 
 (1 K. 14.25-28 ; 2 Ch. 12.2-12). 
 
 ABIJAH, or Abijam ; defeats Jeroboam 
 (2 Ch. 13.3-22). 
 
 ASA (1 K. 15.9,10; 2 Ch. 14.1), puts away 
 idolatry and strengthens the kingdom (1 K. 
 15.11-15; 2 Ch. 14.2-8, 15.16-18). Victory 
 over Zerah " the Ethiopian " (2 Ch. 14.9-15). 
 Subsidises Ben-hadad i. against Baasha (1 K. 
 15.16-22). Hanani, protesting, is imprisoned 
 (2 Ch. 16.7-10). Other prophets, Oded and 
 Azariah (2 Ch. 15.1,8). 
 
 JEHOSHAPHAT: his piety and prosperity 
 (l/i. 15.24, 22.41-50; 2 Ch. 17.1-6, 20.31-33). 
 His son Jehoram married Ahab's daughter 
 Athaliah. The two kings join in the expedition 
 against Syria at Ramoth-gilead ; Jehoshaphat 
 reproved by Jehu (2 Ch. 19.1-3). Organises a 
 system of jurisprudence (19.4-11). Defeats a 
 great confederacy (Moab, Ammon, Edom, etc.) 
 in the Valley of Blessing (2 Ch. 20) (see Ps. 82, 
 115). 
 
 Jahaziel and Eliezer, prophets. Abandons 
 naval alliance with Ahaziah (1 K. 22.49). 
 
 Alliance with Joram against Moab (2 K. 
 3.5-27). 
 
 JKHOHAM. Revolt of Edom (2 K. 8.20, 21 ; 
 2 Ch. 21.8-10) ; Jehoram falls into idolatry : 
 attacked by Philistines and Arabians (2 Ch. 
 21.16, 17) ; unhonoured in his death (21.20). 
 
 B.C. 
 
 937 
 
 920 
 
 917 
 915 
 
 914 
 
 891 
 
 890 
 
 878 
 
 876 
 
 856 
 
 854 
 851 
 
 ISRAEL 
 
 JEROBOAM i. (Shechem) (1 K. 12.25). Calf- 
 worship at Dan and Bethel (12.28, 29). A 
 non-Levitical priesthood (13.33, 34). Pro- 
 phets : a Man of God out of Judah (13.1). 
 Ahijah (14.2-18). Death of the young prince 
 Abijah (14.12-18). Constant war with 
 Judah (14.30). 
 
 NADAB (1 K. 14.19, 20, 15.25-29), slain by 
 Baasha. Jeroboam's family extinct. 
 
 BAASHA (1 K. 15.27-34), defeated by Ben- 
 hadad i. (2 Ch. 16.1-6). Denounced by Jehu 
 (1 K. 16.1-4). 
 
 ELAH, murdered by Zimri (1 K. 16.6-8). 
 
 ZIMEI, reigned only for a week : committed 
 suicide on the election of Omri (1 K. 16.9-20). 
 
 OMBI, long civil war with Tibni. Samaria 
 built (1 K. 16.21-28). 
 
 AHAB : son of Omri, married Jezebel, a 
 Sidonian princess, and introduced Baal- 
 worship into Israel : withstood by Elijah. 
 Ben-hadad n. besieges Samaria, but is twice 
 defeated and forms an alliance with Ahab ; 
 denounced by a prophet (1 K. 20.13, 28). 
 Naboth's vineyard : prophecy of Micaiah. 
 Ahab falls in the attempt to win Ramoth- 
 gilead from the Syrians (16.29-22.40). 
 
 AHAZIAH : son of Ahab. Revolt of Moab 
 (1 K. 22.51-53; 2 K. 1.1). Dies from the 
 effects of a fall. Elijah translated (2 K. 2). 
 
 JEHORAM (or Joram), brother of Ahaziah. 
 War with Moab continued (2 K. 3) (Tablet of 
 Mesha). Prophecies and miracles of Elisha. 
 Siege of Samaria by Ben-hadad and sudden 
 deliverance (2 K. 6.24-7.20). Afterwards- 
 wounded in battle with Syrians, retreats to- 
 Jezreel, and is slain by Jehu. 
 
KING] 
 
 282 
 
 [KING 
 
 JUDAH 
 
 AHAZIAH : bis fatal alliance with Joram 
 against the Syrians : both kings slain at Jezreel 
 (2 K. 9.16-28). 
 
 ATHALJAH, mother of Ahaziah, usurps the 
 throne for six years. Slain by Jehoiada 
 (2 #.11). 
 
 JEHOASH, or JOASH, placed on the throne by 
 Jehoiada at the age of seven (2 K. 11 ; 2 Ch. 23). 
 Restores the Temple, but forsakes Jehovah. 
 Zechariah, son of Jehoiada, protests, and is 
 slain in the court of the Temple (2 Ch. 24.20-22). 
 Incursion of the Syrians (2 K. 12.17, 18 ; 2 Ch. 
 24.23, 24) ; Joash slain by his servants. 
 
 AMAZIAH : hires Israelite troops to assist him 
 against Edom, but at a prophet's command 
 sends them back (2 Ch. 25.5-10). Conquers the 
 Edomites, but falls into their idolatry (2 K. 
 14; 2 Ch. 25.11-16). Challenges Joash to 
 battle, but is defeated and afterwards mur- 
 dered (2 K. 14.19 ; 2 Ch. 25.27). 
 
 UZZIAH (Azariah), under the influence of the 
 prophet Zechariah, begins bis reign well ; 
 develops the resources of the country ; forti- 
 fies Jerusalem and the outposts of the Judsean 
 territory ; secures a fortified post of vantage 
 at Elath ; near the end of his reign, invading 
 the priests' office, he is stricken with leprosy, 
 Jotham becoming regent (2 K 15.1-5 ; 2 Ch. 26). 
 
 Jotham as regent. 
 
 Isaiah, Micah. 
 
 JOTHAM, sole king : both as associated with 
 his father and alone he reigned well and pros- 
 perously (2 K. 15.32-35 ; 2 Ch. 27.1-9), but 
 towards the close of his reign the kingdom was 
 much troubled by the alliance between Israel 
 and Syria (2 .15.37). 
 
 AHAZ, an impious and reckless king prone to 
 idolatry, harassed by the confederate forces of 
 Syria and Israel ; seeks the aid of Assyria, but 
 is induced to desist by the strong protest of 
 Isaiah. Jewish prisoners of war returned by 
 Pekah at the instance of Oded (2 Ch. 28.5-15). 
 
 HEZEKIAH, a deeply religious and generally 
 prosperous king (2 K. 18.7, 8) ; in the four- 
 teenth year of his reign, invaded by Sargon 
 (Isai. 10.24-34). Isaiah's prophecy of de- 
 liverance and of a spiritual kingdom (11.1-10). 
 Illness of the king, and recovery, with promise 
 of prolonged life. Campaign of Sennacherib 
 against Judah, sudden destruction of his army 
 (2 K. 18.17-37, 19 ; Isai. 36.2-22, 37 ; 2 Ch 
 32.9-23; Ps. 76). Embassy of Merodach- 
 baladan from Babylon. Isaiah predicts the 
 Captivity (Isai. 39). 
 
 B.C. 
 
 843 
 
 842 
 
 836 
 814 
 797 
 
 796 
 781 
 
 777 
 
 750 
 741 
 
 740 
 737 
 736 
 735 
 
 734 
 730 
 
 727 
 
 722 
 
 ISRAEL 
 
 JEHU, general in Joram's army, anointed 
 king (2 K. 9.1-13). Slays Jezebel, Ahab's 
 sons and Baal's worshippers (10). Tributary 
 to Shalmaneser. 
 
 JEHOAHAZ. Disastrous wars with Hazael 
 and Ben-hadad in. (2 K. 10, 13.1-9). 
 
 JEHOASH, or Joash. Death of Elisha. 
 Ben-hadad in. defeated three times. Victories 
 over Amaziah of Judah (2 Ch. 25.17-24). 
 
 JEROBOAM n. : an irreligious man, but a 
 prosperous king ; reclaims the territory 
 conquered by Syria, according to the word of 
 Jonah (2 K. 14.25-27), extended the kingdom 
 in many directions including Damascus and 
 Hamath (14.28). Ministry of Joel (?), Hosea, 
 Amos. 
 
 ZACHAEIAH (R.V. ZECHAEIAH), last of Jehu's 
 line : assassinated by Shallum (2 K. 15.8, 11). 
 
 SHALLUM, reigns but one month, slain by 
 Menahem. 
 
 MENAHEM, tributary to Assyria. 
 
 PEKAHIAH, slain by Pekah. 
 
 PEKAH, slain by Hoshea. 
 
 HOSHEA : attacked and made tributary by 
 Shalmaneser ; discontinuing tribute and 
 secretly negotiating with Egypt, he is im- 
 prisoned by the Assyrian monarch. Samaria 
 is besieged, and its overthrow completed by 
 Sargon. End of the Israelite Monarchy. 
 
 The Ten Tribes were carried into captivity, 
 and dispersed through the regions subject to 
 Assyria. Their place in Palestine was filled 
 by colonists from the East a mixed people, 
 from whom sprang the Samaritans. 
 
KING] 
 
 283 
 
 [KINGDOM OF GOD 
 
 THE JDD.&AN MONARCHY AFTEB THK FALJU OF SAMABIA 
 For the latter part of Hezekiah's reign see above. 
 
 B.C. 
 
 697 MANASSEH restores idolatry and persecutes the worshippers of Jehovah. Unavailing protest 
 of the prophets (2 K. 20.14, 19, 21.1-16 ; 2 Ch. 33.1-10). (Tradition of Isaiah's martyrdom.) 
 Taken captive by the Assyrian king Esar-haddon and deported to Babylonia. His conversion 
 and reinstatement in his kingdom (2 Ch. 33.12 17) (not mentioned in Kings). Nahum's 
 ministry, c. 660. 
 
 642 AMON : his impiety (2 K. 21.19-22 ; 2 Ch. 33.20-24) ; slain by his servants. 
 
 640 JOSIAH : his piety, measures against idolatry, restoration of the Temple ; discovery of the Book 
 of the Law (2 K. 22; 2 Ch. 34). Huldah, prophetess. Great celebration of the Passover 
 (2 K. 23.21-23 ; 2 Ch. 35.1-19). Prophets Jeremiah, Zephaniah, Habakkuk. The king slain 
 in battle at Megiddo : greatly lamented. 
 
 008 JEHOAHAZ or Shallum ; son of Josiah, king for three months ; deposed and imprisoned by Pharaoh- 
 neco ; subsequently exiled to Egypt, where he died (2 K. 23.33, 34 ; 2 Ch. 36.3, 4). 
 JEHOIAKIM or Eliakim ; eldest son of Josiah, made tributary king by Neco. 
 
 606 After the battle of Carchemish the vassalage of Judah was transferred to Babylon. Beginning of 
 the Seventy Tears' Captivity. Daniel and his companions taken to Babylon. After three years 
 Jehoiakim broke his oath of allegiance (2 K. 24.1), and troubles ensued, in the midst of which the 
 king fell in some unknown way (see Jer. 22.13-19). 
 
 598 JEHOIACHIN, or JECONIAH, son of Jehoiakim, succeeded to his uneasy throne, but occupied it only 
 three months, Nebuchadrezzar himself arriving at Jerusalem, and sending him captive to 
 Babylon (2 K. 24.6-16). 
 
 ZEDEKIAH or Mattaniah, son of Josiah, and uncle therefore to Jehoiachin ; weak and perQdious, 
 intriguing with Egypt against Babylon, notwithstanding the remonstrances of Jeremiah ; 
 Nebuchadrezzar's captain, Nebuzaradan, took Jerusalem after a protracted siege, slew many of 
 
 587 the chief men, and carried Zedekiah, blinded and in chains, to Babylon (fulfilling two pre- 
 dictions, Jer. 32.5 ; Ezek. 12.13). The Temple was burned ; the people were deported, only a 
 few poor persons left to till the land. Jeremiah's Lamentations over the fallen city and the 
 desolated land. Ezekiel notes these transactions from his home in Babylonia. Obadiah refers 
 to the cruel exultation of Edom over the catastrophe. 
 
 Kingdom of God, of Heaven. The phrase 
 " the kingdom of heaven " is found only in 
 Matthew, who uses " the kingdom of God " 
 only some four times. Probably the former 
 term represents the actual expression employed 
 by our Lord, for "heaven" was to Jews 
 synonymous with God, and was preferred from 
 motives of reverence. But the other writers 
 of the N.T. had to do more with non-Jewish 
 Christians, and therefore used the more intelli- 
 gible expression " the kingdom of God." It is 
 generally granted now that " kingdom" connotes 
 " rule," " dominion," rather than the place or 
 district ruled. But the two meanings easily 
 run one into another. 
 
 On our Lord's lips the phrase discountenanced 
 the Jewish view of His time as to the nature 
 of Messiah's kingdom. That view, based on 
 Dan. 2.44, 7.14; and cf, Ps. 2.6, 110.2, 
 represented a material kingdom of political 
 significance. For this holy men, like Joseph 
 of Arirnathaea, no doubt waited in faith with 
 hopes religious rather than secular (Mk. 15.43) ; 
 but in most minds the political and material 
 aspects of this kingdom were more prominent 
 than the spiritual and moral. The exist- 
 ence of this expectation explains the third 
 temptation of our Lord (Matt. 4.8-11); the 
 attitude of the people who would " come and 
 take Him by force, to make Him a King" 
 (John 6.15) ; the request of the mother of 
 Zebedee's children (Matt. 20.20,21); the cry 
 of the " whole multitude of the disciples " (Lk. 
 
 19.37, 38) ; and the question of Pilate (Matt. 
 27.11). Even farniliarity with the teaching of 
 our Lord did not expel the old conviction. 
 Witness the lament of the two disciples during 
 the walk to Emmaus (Lk. 24.21), and the 
 appeal of the infant Church (Acts 1.6). Never- 
 theless, this view of the kingdom was definitely 
 repudiated by our Lord (John 18.36 ; and cf. 
 Lk. 12.14). 
 
 The kingdom of God, the kingdom of 
 heaven, as presented in the words of our Lord, 
 is inseparably connected with His redemptive 
 work ; but it is not earthly in its origin or 
 support. It is not political a kingdom of 
 geographical or race limits. It is a spiritual 
 and moral domain a kingdom in which God 
 is supreme. It is open to all (Matt. 8.11, 12, 
 25.31, 34) ; not race but obedience qualifies 
 for its citizenship (Matt. 7.21 ; and cf. 5.20). 
 It is contrasted with material possessions, and 
 placed above them (Matt. 6.33). Inasmuch as 
 the kingdom is already operative in the lives 
 of its subjects, it is said to be " within " them 
 (Lk. 17.21). Yet its growth, and especially its 
 consummation, were to be prayed for (Matt. 
 6.10) ; its nearness was announced by the apostles 
 (Matt. 10.7), and our Lord's own message was 
 called " the gospel of the kingdom " (Matt. 
 9.35). This kingdom was at times spoken of by 
 our Lord in terms referring to its members, as in 
 I he parable of the tares and the net (Matt. 13) ; 
 and to the place or state in which its member* 
 shall hereafter be found (Matt. 8.11, 25.34). 
 
KINGS, THE BOOKS OF THE] 284 
 
 [KIRJATHAIM 
 
 The apostolic uses of the words in like 
 manner combine the two thoughts of the present 
 life of God's people on earth and of their future 
 glory. Thus, the kingdom is " not meat and 
 drink ; but righteousness, and peace, and joy in 
 the Holy Ghost " (Rom. 14.17) ; it is, in its other 
 aspect, a kingdom which " flesh and blood " 
 cannot inherit (1 Cor. 15.50), a heritage to come 
 (Gal. 5.21). [MESSIAH.] 
 
 Kings, The Books of the. The books known 
 as the First Book of the Kings and the Second 
 Book of the Kings were originally one. The 
 Greek translators of the O.T., who produced the 
 Septuagint, divided the work into the two parts. 
 This separation, made in such a way as to divide 
 the reign of Ahaziah, is entirely arbitrary. The 
 authorship of the books is unknown. A Jewish 
 tradition attributes the work to the prophet 
 Jeremiah, a view which finds some support in 
 certain coincidences of style and language, and 
 in the correspondence between 2 K. 24.18-25.21 
 and Jer. 52.1-27. The events recorded would 
 appear, however, to extend beyond the life of 
 the prophet. The work is, in any case, a com- 
 pilation, in the preparation of which material 
 from the records of the kings and from lives of 
 the prophets was freely employed. The sources 
 referred to are (1) the Book of the Acts of 
 Solomon (1 K. 11.41) ; (2) the Book of the Chron- 
 icles of the Kings of Judah (1 K. 14.29), referred 
 to fifteen times ; (3) the Book of the Chronicles 
 of the Kings of Israel (1 K. 14.19), referred to 
 seventeen tunes ; (4) in addition, there are 
 frequent insertions, with little or no alteration, 
 of the records of eye-witnesses in the narrative 
 portions of the histories of the prophets, Elijah, 
 Elisha, and Micaiah. The compiler gives 
 prominence to the Law of Moses, referring for 
 the most part to the Book of Deuteronomy. 
 The date of the completion of the books would 
 appear to be not later than the year 538 B.C., 
 and not earlier than 561 B.C., the first year of 
 Evil-Merodach, whose accession is recorded in 
 2 K. 25.27, though the greater part may have 
 been composed long before. The language sup- 
 ports this inference from the contents of the 
 book. The compiler uses many words not found 
 in Holy Scripture until about the time of the 
 Captivity. 
 
 The contents of the two books cover the history 
 of the Hebrews from the closing years of David's 
 reign to the Captivity, and carry the story from 
 the splendour of the United Kingdom under 
 David and Solomon to the misery of the exile 
 and the spectacle of Jehoiachin, a pensioner at 
 the court of Evil-Merodach. [For a summary 
 oi the history, see KINGS.] In the course of 
 the narrative particular attention is given to 
 the agency and influence of the prophets. 
 Nathan's interference secures the accession of 
 Solomon (1 K. 1.45). Ahijah announces the 
 division of the kingdom, with its causes (11. 29-40). 
 Shemaiah, after the division has taken place, 
 confirms it, by directing Rehoboam to disband 
 his army (12.22, 23). By various prophets, 
 Jeroboam's idolatry is publicly reproved, and 
 
 its punishment threatened (13.1-3, 147); judg- 
 ment is denounced against the house of Baasha 
 (16.1) ; and Ahab's doom is distinctly declared 
 (22.17-28). Whilst, in the midst of the national 
 history, the works of the two 'great prophets, 
 Elijah and Elisha, occupy so much of several 
 chapters, that the kings appear to hold but a 
 secondary place (1 K. 17-2 K. 13). 
 
 The relation between the Books of the Kings 
 and the Chronicles is that of independent works 
 drawn from the same or similar sources. The 
 comparative dates of Kings and Chronicles 
 explain various differences of phraseology and 
 other variations. Differences in the order of 
 events are explained by the fact that none of 
 the writers profess to give the exact order of 
 time. Additions, omissions, and abbreviations 
 may be ascribed to the different aim of each 
 narrative. Other differences, amounting to 
 discrepancies, are occasionally found, and refer 
 chiefly to numbers and names. It is well known 
 that the text of Samuel, Kings, and Chronicles 
 is in a worse condition than that of any other 
 of the inspired writings ; nor must we ascribe 
 to the author what may be due to the errors of 
 copyists. These variations, it may be added, 
 do not affect any article of faith or rule of life. 
 [KINGS, CHRONICLES, BOOKS OF THE.] 
 
 King's Dale (R.V. Vale). The valley where 
 the kings of Sodom met Abraham (Gen. 14.17), 
 and Absalom raised a memorial for himself 
 (2 Sam. 18.18). It is usually identified with the 
 valley on the east of Jerusalem. 
 
 King's Pool, The. The large reservoir on the 
 west side of Jerusalem, also called the Upper or 
 Old Pool; now Birket-el-Mamilla (Neh. 2.14; 
 Isai. 7.3, 22.11). 
 
 Kinsman. In the O.T. a word mainly used 
 in the sense of the nearest male blood relation, 
 upon whom rested certain obligations very 
 clearly illustrated in the Book of Ruth (chaps. 
 2-4). In the N.T. the word is used in a more 
 elastic sense to include members of the same 
 race (Rom. 9.3). 
 
 Kir. The original home of the Syrians (Amos 
 9.7), to which they were to be carried as exiles 
 (Amos 1.5), as fulfilled by Tiglath-pileser (2 K. 
 16.9). People of this name formed part of the 
 Assyrian army (Isai. 22.6). The land may have 
 been south-east of Babylonia. 
 
 Kir of Moab, Kir-hara'seth, Kir-hare 'seth, 
 Kir-ha'resh, Kir-he 'res. One of the two chief 
 strongholds of Moab (2 K. 3.25 ; Isai. 15.1, 
 16.7, 11 ; Jer. 48.31, 36) ; on the crown of a hill, 
 3370 feet above the Dead Sea, 10 miles aAvay, 
 overlooking the two forks of the Wady Kerak. 
 
 Kiriath. [KIBJATH.] 
 
 Kiriatha'im. Double city : a town of Moab 
 taken and rebuilt by Reuben (Num. 32.37 ; 
 Josh. 13.19) ; recovered by Moab, and the sub- 
 ject of prophetic denunciation (Jer. 48.1, 23 ; 
 Ezck. 25.9). [KIRJATHAIM.] 
 
 Kiri'oth. ( Jer. 48.41 ; Amos2.2). [KERIOTH.] 
 
 Kir'jath (R.V. Kiriath). City : a town of 
 Benjamin ( Josh. 18.28). [KIRJATH-JEARIM.] 
 
 Kirjatha'im (R.V. Kiriathaim). A town of 
 
KIBJATS-ARBA] 
 
 285 
 
 [KOHATH 
 
 Naphtali, assigned to the Gershonites (1 Ch, 
 6.76) ; contracted to Kartan (Josh. 21.32). 
 
 Kir'jath-arba (R.V. Kiriath-arba). City of 
 Arba : an early designation of Hebron (Gen. 
 23.2, 35.27 ; Josh. 14.15, 15.13, 54 ; 20.7, 21.11 ; 
 Judg. 1.10 ; Neh. 11.25). 
 
 Kir'jath-a'rim (R.V. Kiriath-arim). (Ezra 
 
 2.25). [KlRJATH-JEARIM.] 
 
 Kirjath-baal (R.V. Kiriath-baal). City of 
 Baal (Josh. 15.60, 18.14). [KIRJATH-JEARIM.] 
 Called also Baalah and Baale of Judah. The 
 names point to the existence of a sanctuary of 
 Baal at this spot before the invasion of Palestine. 
 
 Kir'jath-hu'zoth (R.V. Kiriath-huzoth). 
 City of streets : a place in Moab whence Balak, 
 king of Moab, and Balaam overlooked the 
 Israelite encampment (Num. 22.39). 
 
 Kir'jath-jea'rim (R.V. Kiriath-jearim). City 
 of forests (called also Kirjath, Kirjath-arim, 
 Kirjath-baal, Baalah, and Baale): a Gibeonite 
 town, on the boundary of Judah and Ben- 
 jamin, allotted to Judah (Josh. 9.17, 15.9,60, 
 18.14,15,23; Judg. 18.12; 1 Ch. 2.50,52); 
 the resting-place of the ark for twenty years 
 (1 Sam. 6.21, 7.1,2; 2 Sam. 6.2; 1 Ch. 
 13.5, 6 ; 2 Ch. 1.4) ; " the fields of the wood " 
 (Ps. 132.6) ; reoccupied after the Captivity 
 (Ezra 2.25; Neh. 7.29); the residence of the 
 prophet Urijah (Jer. 26.20) who enforced the 
 warnings of Jeremiah, and was cruelly murdered 
 by Jehoiakim. Its site is unknown, but pos- 
 sibly identifiable with Kuriet-el-Enab, about 
 8 miles west of Jerusalem. 
 
 Kir'jath-san'nah (R.V. Kiriath-sannah). 
 City of the (?) palm branch (Josh. 15.49). 
 
 [ KlR J ATH-SEPHER. ] 
 
 Kir'jath-se'pher (R.V. Kiriath-sepher). City 
 of the book : the early name of Debir, found 
 only in the account of the capture of the 
 place by Othniel, who gained thereby the hand 
 of his wife Achsah, Caleb's daughter (Josh. 
 15.15, 16 ; Judg. 1.11, 12). 
 
 Kish. 1. The father of Saul, the first king of 
 Israel (1 Sam. 9 ; 2 Sam. 21.14). 2. A Ben- 
 jamite (1 Ch. 9.36). 3.- A Benjamite, great- 
 grandfather of Mordecai (the cousin of Queen 
 Esther). He was taken captive at the time that 
 Jeconiah was carried to Babylon (Esth. 2.5). 
 4. A Merarite, of the house of Mahli, of the 
 tribe of Levi (1 Ch. 23.21, 22, 24.28, 29). " Kish 
 the son of Abdi " (2 Ch. 29.12) denotes the 
 Levitical house or division under its chief, 
 rather than an individual. 
 
 Kish'i. (?) Jehovah is Lord: a Levite of 
 the Merari family whose son Ethan was set 
 over the service of song (1 Ch. 6.44). He is 
 called Kuahaiah in 1 Ch. 15.17. 
 
 Ki'shion, Ki'shon. (?) Hardness : a town 
 of Issachar, assigned to the Gershonites (Josh. 
 19.20, 21.28). 
 
 Ki'shon, Ki'son. -- A river which rises in 
 Mount Gilboa, and with its affluents, winter 
 torrents, drains the plain of Jezreel and the sur- 
 rounding mountains, passes close under Mount 
 Carmel through a very narrow pass into the plain 
 of Akka, and enters the Mediterranean 5 miles 
 
 from its source. It was the scene of the defeat 
 of Sisera, and of the destruction of the prophets 
 of Baal (Judg. 4.7,13, 5.21; 1 K. 18.40; Ps. 
 83.9). It is now called Nahr el-Mukatta, i.e. 
 the river of slaughter. 
 
 Kiss. A method of salutation customary 
 amongst the Hebrews. In the O.T. its use is 
 noted between parents and children (Gen. 27.26) ; 
 between men who were related (Ex. 4.27) ; be- 
 tween men unrelated (2 Sam. 20.9). It was used 
 at meeting (Gen. 29.11); and at parting (Ruth 
 1.14). It could be a mark of homage (Ps. 2.12), 
 and is so used in idolatrous worship (1 K. 19.18 ; 
 Hos. 13.2). In the N.T. kissing the feet ap- 
 pears as an act of humble reverence (Lk. 7.45). 
 Believers saluted one another with a kiss 
 (Acts 20.37 ; Bom. 16.16; 1 Thess. 5.26 ; 1 Pet. 
 5.14). 
 
 Kite. A bird of prey, counted as unclean 
 (Lev. 11.14; Dent. 14.13). The word trans- 
 lated " vulture " in Job 28.7 should be kite. 
 
 Kith'lish (R.V. Chith'lish). (?) Reparation : 
 a town in lowland of Judah (Josh. 15.40). 
 
 Ki'tron. (?) Knotty: a town of Zebulun 
 from which the Canaanites were not expelled 
 (Judg. 1.30). Possibly the same as Sepphoris. 
 [KATTATH.] 
 
 Kit'tim, Chittim. A great-grandson of Noah 
 whose descendants are called Chittim, i.e. 
 the people of Cyprus and the adjacent coasts 
 and islands (Gen. 10.4; 1 Ch. 1.7, and also 
 apparently Num. 24.24, as well as Jer. 2.10). 
 The site of Kition in Cyprus is now occupied 
 by Larnaka. [CHITTIM.] 
 
 Kneading-troughs. When the Israelites left 
 Egypt they bound up their kneading-troughs 
 in their cloths upon their shoulders. These 
 troughs were small wooden bowls (Ex. 8.3, 
 12.34). [BREAD.] 
 
 Knife. The Hebrews made little use of 
 knives in their meals, but employed them for 
 slaughtering animals, and for cutting up the 
 carcase (Gen. 22.6 ; Lev. 7.33, 34, 8.15, 20, 25, 
 9.13; Num. 18.18; 1 Sam. 9.24; Ezra 1.9; 
 Ezek. 24.4). The earliest knives were of flint, 
 and such may have been retained for ceremonial 
 purposes (Ex. 4.25 ; Josh. 5.2, 3). 
 
 Knop. i.e. knob. Round ornaments on the 
 golden candlestick (Ex. 25.31) ; in the margins 
 of Amos 9.1 ; Zeph. 2.14 for the round capitals 
 of pillars. 
 
 Ko'a. A nation near Babylonia, probably on 
 the border of Elam and Media (Ezek. 23.23). 
 
 KoTiath. The second son of Levi and 
 grandfather of Moses, Aaron, and Miriam. 
 From him through Aaron were descended all the 
 priests. Descendants of Kohath, even though 
 not priests, took precedence of the other de- 
 scendants of Levi though Kohath was not 
 the eldest son of Levi by virtue of the fact that 
 in Kohath's family the priesthood exclusively re- 
 sided. Kohath's family was appointed to carry 
 the ark and sacred vessels of the Tabernacle, 
 while the Israelites marched through the 
 desert. The inheritance of the Kohathites 
 apart from the priests who had thirteep cities 
 
KOHATHITES] 
 
 286 
 
 [LAMB 
 
 in Judah, Simeon, and Benjamin was in the 
 half-tribe of Manasseh, in Ephraim, and in Dan. 
 Samuel was a Kohathite. Later, they took a 
 leading part in the Temple service (Gen. 46.11 ; 
 Ex. 6.16,18; Num. 3.17, etc., 4.2, etc., 7.9, 
 10.21, 16.1, 26.57 ; Josh. 21.4, etc. ; 1 Ch. 6.1, 
 etc., 9.32, 15.5, 23.6 ; 2 Ch. 20.19, 29.12, 34.12). 
 
 KoTiathites. Descendants of Kohath. 
 
 Koheleth. The Hebrew name of the Book 
 Ecclesiastes. 
 
 Kolai'ah. Voice of Jah : 1. A Benjamite, 
 some of whose descendants dwelt in Jerusalem 
 after the Exile (Neh. 11.7). 2. The father of the 
 Ahab who suffered death for falsely prophesying 
 the deliverance of the Jews from Babylon 
 (Jer. 29.21). 
 
 Ko'rah. (?) Baldness: 1. Third son of Esau 
 (Gen. 36.5-18 ; 1 Ch. 1.35). 2. A Kohathite who, 
 being dissatisfied with the rank he held among 
 the sons of Levi, and envying the authority 
 of his cousins, Moses and Aaron, formed a 
 party Against them, in which he engaged 
 Dathan, Abiram, and On, with 250 of the 
 principal Levites (Num. 16). He and his 
 
 followers perished by an earthquake with 
 flames of fire. 
 
 Korahites, Korhites, Korathites. The 
 descendants of Korah were preserved from the 
 catastrophe in which he was swallowed up, 
 and continued to serve as before in the Taber- 
 nacle. David appointed them their office in 
 the Temple, to guard the doors and sing the 
 praises of God (1 Ch. 9.19-31). To them are 
 ascribed several psalms which are designated 
 by the name of Korah. Whether these psalms 
 were composed by the Korahites themselves or 
 composed in order to be sung by them is doubt- 
 ful. [HEMAN.] 
 
 Kore, Core. 1. A Korahite (1 Ch. 9.19, 
 26.1). 2. A Levite appointed to take charge of 
 the freewill offerings at the eastern gate of the 
 Temple (2 Ch. 31.14). 3. " The sons of Kore " 
 in 1 Ch. 26.19 should be " the sons of the Korah- 
 ites." 4. Korah 2 in Jude 11. 
 
 Koz. (?) Thorn (Ezra 2.61; Neh. 3.4,21). 
 The same as Accoz, Coz, and Hakkoz. 
 
 Kusha'iah. A Merarite called Kishi in 1 Ch. 
 6.44 (1 Ch. 15.17). 
 
 Laa'dah. A grandson of Judah (1 Ch. 4.21). 
 
 Laa'dan (R.V. Ladan). 1. An ancestor of 
 Joshua (1 Ch. 7.26). 2. A descendant of 
 Gershon, the eldest son of Levi (1 Ch. 23.7, 
 26.21) ; probably the same as Libni 1. 
 
 La'ban. White : 1. The brother of Rebekah, 
 Isaac's wife, and father of Leah and Rachel, 
 who were therefore first cousins of Jacob, who 
 married them. He took a prominent part in 
 the espousals of his sister to Isaac (Gen. 24.10, 
 29-60, 27.43, 29.5). Laban was a cunning and 
 grasping man, as appears especially in his 
 relations to Jacob over the marriage of Leah 
 and Rachel (Gen. 29 and 30). [JACOB, GALEED, 
 JEOAB-SAHADUTHA.] 2. A place in neighbour- 
 hood of an Israelite encampment ; perhaps the 
 same as Libnah 2 (Deut. 1.1). 
 
 La'chish. An Amorite fortress taken by 
 Joshua and allotted to Judah (Josh. 10, 12.11, 
 15.39) ; fortified by Rehoboam and the asylum 
 of Amaziah (2 K. 14.19; 2 Ch. 11.9, 25.27). 
 It was besieged by Sennacherib, as represented 
 on Ninevite slabs found at Kouyunjik, and now 
 in the British Museum (2 K. 18.17, 19.8; 
 2 Ch. 32.9 ; Jer. 34.7 ; Mic. 1.13) ; but re- 
 occupied after the return from the Captivity 
 (Neh. 11.30). It is identified with the modern 
 Tell-el-Hesy. 
 
 Ladan. [LAADAK.] 
 
 La'eL Belonging to God : the father of 
 Kliasaph, prince of the Gershonites at the time 
 of the Exodus (Num. 3.24). 
 
 LaTiad. A great-grandson of Shobal, the 
 son of Judah (1 Ch. 4.2). 
 
 Lahai-ro'i. Of the living one who beholds me : 
 
 the well at which Hagar was saved from perish- 
 ing of thirst and realised that God saw her, in 
 the wilderness of Paran, between Kadesh and 
 Bered (Gen. 16.13, 14, 24.62, 25.11). 
 
 Lah'mam, Lah'mas. A city of Judah; 
 perhaps the modern El-lahm, about 13 miles 
 north-west of Hebron and 10 miles from Lachish 
 (Josh. 15.40). 
 
 La'nmi. Probably we should read the 
 Bethlehemite ; a brother of Goliath, slain by 
 Elhanan (1 Ch. 20.5). 
 
 La'ish. Lion : 1. A Sidonian city at the 
 north extremity of Palestine; called also 
 Leshem (Josh. 19.47) ; and afterwards Dan 
 (Judg. 18.7,29). It was the depository first 
 of the graven image of Micah, and afterwards 
 of one of the calves of Jeroboam. It is now 
 called Banias. 2. A Benjamite, whose son 
 Phalti became the husband of Michal, David's 
 wife (1 -Sam. 25.44 ; 2 Sam. 3.15). 3. Laishah. 
 
 Laishah (A.V. Laish). (?) Lion: a village 
 north of Jerusalem (Isai. 10.30). Perhaps 
 the modern Isawiye, 2 miles north-east of the 
 city. 
 
 LaTram (R.V. Lakkmn). A northern border 
 city in Naphtali (Josh. 19.33). 
 
 Lamb. In the O.T. eleven words are rendered 
 into English as " lamb." That most freely 
 used, especially in Leviticus and Numbers, re- 
 presents a young male. The passover lamb 
 might be either a lamb or a kid (Ex. 12.5), the 
 word used applying to both. The lamb was 
 conspicuous amongst the sacrifices directed by 
 the Law. It was offered daily (Ex. 29.38; 
 Num. 28.3), and op the Sabbath (Num. 28.9 ; 
 
LAMB OF GOD] 
 
 287 
 
 [LAPWING 
 
 cf. Ezek. 46.4, 13) ; at the Passover (Ex. 12.5), 
 Pentecost (Lev. 23.18), and the feast of Taber- 
 nacles (Num. 29.13), and on other occasions. 
 In the N.T. three Greek words are" rendered 
 " lamb." The lamb appears as a symbol of 
 innocence and defencelessness both in the 
 O.T. and the N.T. (Isai. 11.6, 53.7; and cf. 
 Lk. 10.3; Acts 8.32). [SACRIFICE, LAMB OP 
 GOD.] 
 
 Lamb of God. The phrase occurs only 
 twice (John 1.29, 36), and points to Isai. 53.7 
 (and cf. Acts 8.32). But the words were 
 uttered by John when the Passover was near, 
 and suggest the offering of the Paschal lamb 
 (Ex. 12.5; and cf. John 19.36; 1 Cor. 5.7; 
 1 Pet. 1.19). The phrase conveys the idea not 
 only of our Lord's innocence, but also of His 
 vicarious suffering. He was the Lamb provided 
 for sacrifice by God Himself (Gen. 22.8). The 
 epithet " Lamb " is applied to our Lord twenty- 
 nine times in Kevelation, the word used being 
 that only found in Revelation and in John 21.15. 
 It is a diminutive form of the word used in 
 Lk. 10.3. [ATONEMENT.] 
 
 La'mech. 1. A descendant of Cain, and the 
 first polygamist. He had two wives, Adah and 
 Zillah. His song is an exultation over possess- 
 ing a sword (Gen. 4.18-24). 2. A descendant 
 of Seth, and the father of Noah (Gen. 5.28). 
 
 Lamentations, The, of Jeremiah. The book 
 entitled in the A.V. and R.V. The Lamentations 
 of Jeremiah consists of five poems. Of these 
 the first four are highly artificial in their struc- 
 ture, being, in the original Hebrew, alphabetical 
 acrostics, in which every stanza begins with a 
 new letter. The third has this further peculi- 
 arity, that all three lines in each stanza have 
 the same letter at the beginning. The fifth 
 poem is not an acrostic, though, like the others, 
 it has twenty-two stanzas. The authorship of 
 the book is uniformly ascribed by ancient 
 authorities to the prophet Jeremiah, though in 
 the Hebrew no name is attached to the poems. 
 The Septuagint version has a note to the effect 
 that " Jeremiah . . . lamented this lamentation 
 over Jerusalem, and said." The elegy upon 
 Josiah, attributed to Jeremiah in 2 Ch. 35.25, 
 is referred to by Josephus (Antiq. x. 5) as re- 
 maining unto his day, and is possibly a refer- 
 ence to Lamentations. Many modern critics 
 have, however, preferred to ascribe the book to 
 an unknown author, or to Baruch, on the ground 
 that there are some assumed contradictions 
 between Jeremiah and Lamentations, that some 
 characteristic expressions of Jeremiah are 
 lacking, and that the prophet's circumstances 
 were inconsistent with the composition of this 
 work. The date of the poems, if by Jeremiah, 
 was, no doubt, the time immediately succeeding 
 the fall of Jerusalem ; if by some other author, 
 at any time before the Return. The contents of 
 the book describe (1) the misery of the fallen 
 city, the confession of its guilt and of the justice 
 of God's judgment ; (2) the misery of the city 
 still more piteously described ; (3) lamentation 
 for the misery endured, followed by the 
 
 reassertion of God's mercy and justice, and a 
 prayer for His intervention ; (4) a further con- 
 fession of sin ; (5) a further statement of the 
 affliction suffered, and a prayer for mercy. 
 
 Lamp. The first reference to a lamp is in 
 that remarkable episode of the " smoking fur- 
 nace and burning lamp," i.e. a torch, which 
 ratified the covenant made with Abraham 
 (Gen. 15.17), symbolising the fiery presence of 
 God. The lamps of Ex. 25.37; 2 Ch. 4.20, 
 13.11 ; and Zech. 4.2 signify that part of 
 the " candlestick " which bears the light. The 
 lamps of the Tabernacle were lighted every 
 evening, and cleansed every morning (Ex. 30.7, 
 8). The houses in the East were, from the 
 remotest antiquity, lighted with lamps, sustained 
 by large lampstands set upon the ground. The 
 houses of Egypt in modern times are never 
 without lights ; they burn lamps all the night 
 long and in every occupied apartment. The 
 poorest people would rather stint themselves in 
 food than do without their lamps. This gives 
 added force to Job 18.5, 6, and 21.17. A brilliant 
 lamp is a symbol of prosperity (Job 29.2, 3). 
 The lamps of Judg. 7.16, 20 were lighted torches. 
 Not only oil, but pitch, naphtha, and wax are 
 used in the East to maintain flame. Sometimes 
 strips of cotton cloth, soaked in these com- 
 bustible substances, supply the place of lamps ; 
 and in some cases it is customary to carry a 
 pot of oil in one hand, and a lamp full of oily 
 rags in the other. Swinging lamps are also used. 
 A wayfarer at night will carry one, for even in 
 the towns the streets are very rough (Ps. 
 119.105). [MARRIAGE CEREMONIES.] 
 
 Lancet. A javelin or light spear (1 K. 18.28). 
 
 Landmark. As the division of the land of 
 Canaan among the tribes and the families of the 
 tribes had, been a work of great care, and was 
 indeed one of the foundations of national polity, 
 severe penalties were threatened against the 
 removal of landmarks (Deut. 19.14, 27.17 ; 
 Prov. 23.10). A cord or line was used in the 
 division of the land among tribes, families, and 
 individuals. Hence the expression, " The lines 
 are fallen unto me in pleasant places " (Ps. 16.6). 
 
 Languages. [TONGUES, GIFT OF.] 
 
 Lantern. Some kind of covered torch (John 
 18.3). [LAMP.] 
 
 Laodice'a. A flourishing and wealthy city 
 of Asia Minor on the river Lycus, near Colossae, 
 on the high road for traffic between the east and 
 west of Asia ; the seat of an important Christian 
 Church, but not visited by Paul (Col. 2.1, 4.13, 
 15 ; Rev. 1.11, 3.14). 
 
 Laodiceans. The inhabitants of Laodicea. 
 St. Paul's letter to the Laodiceans (Col. 4.16) is 
 probably the circular letter known as that to 
 the Ephesians. 
 
 Lapi'doth (R.V. Lappidoth). Torches or 
 lightnings : the husband of Deborah the pro- 
 phetess (Judg. 4.4). 
 
 Lapwing. This bird is enumerated in the 
 "unclean" list inLev. 11. 19 and Deut. 14.18 which 
 were forbidden by the law of Moses to be eaten 
 by the Israelites. The bird intended is the 
 
LASEA] 
 
 [LAW 
 
 hoopoe, which feeda with its very long slender 
 beak on insects in dunghills and in watery 
 places, wherever it finds them, resorting alike 
 to desert valleys and marshy spots by the towns. 
 It has a tall crest ; its plumage is boldly barred 
 with white, and its movements are rather 
 grotesque than dignified. The hoopoe is about 
 the size of a thrush, and is only occasionally seen 
 in the British Islands. 
 
 Lase'a. A city of Crete, a few miles to 
 the east of Fair Havens ; now in ruins (Acts 
 27.8). 
 
 La'sha. The southern limit of the country 
 of the Canaanites, near Sodom and Gomorrah 
 (Gen. 10.19). It has been identified with 
 Callirhoe, a spot famous for hot springs near 
 the eastern shore of the Dead Sea. 
 
 Lasha'ron (R.V. Lassha'ron). A royal 
 Canaanite town taken by Joshua (Josh. 12.18) ; 
 now Sarona, about 6 miles west of south end of 
 the Sea of Galilee. 
 
 Lat'chet. The fastening by which the sandal 
 is attached to the foot. It consists of two straps, 
 one of which passes between the great and second 
 toes and the other around the heel and over the 
 instep. To unloose the straps or latchets was 
 the business of a menial (Mk. 1.7). 
 
 Latin. The language of the Romans (Lk. 
 23.38; John 19.20). Our Lord's title on the 
 cross was written in Latin (as well as Hebrew 
 and Greek) as the official language. 
 
 Lattice. The lattice through which the 
 mother of Sisera looked (Judg. 5.28) was simply 
 a narrow window. The lattice through which 
 Ahaziah fell (2 K. 1.2) was network of some 
 sort. In Cant. 2.9 the word denotes a network 
 or jalousy before the window. 
 
 Laver. A vessel in which the priests washed 
 their hands before officiating. That in use at 
 the Tabernacle, situated between its door and 
 the altar, was formed of polished brass, which 
 had served for looking-glasses for the women 
 (Ex. 38.8). In Solomon's temple there were ten 
 lavers of brass (1 K. 7.27-39), each with a 
 capacity of forty baths, or about three hundred 
 gallons. They were used for washing the animals 
 to be offered in burnt-offerings (2 Ch. 4.6). In 
 Eph. 5.26 and Tit. 3.5 " washing " may possibly 
 be read as " laver," the metaphor being applied 
 to baptism. 
 
 Law. The word so translated (Tor ah) means 
 properly a direction, originally of a ritual kind 
 (Hag. 3.11 ff.). The term is used in Scripture 
 with a variety of meaning according to the 
 scope and connexion of the passage in which it 
 occurs. Thus, for instance, sometimes it denotes 
 the revealed will of God (Ps. 1.2, 19.7, 119 ; 
 Isai. 8.20, 42.21; Jer. 31.33). Sometimes it 
 signifies the Mosaic institution as distinguished 
 from the Gospel (Matt. 11.13, 12.5 ; John 1.17 ; 
 Acts 25.8). Hence we frequently read of the law 
 of Moses as expressive of the whole religion of the 
 Jews (Matt. 5.17 ; Heb. 9.19, 10.28) ; sometimes, 
 in a more restricted sense, for the ritual or 
 ceremonial observances of the Jewish religion 
 (Eph. 2.15 ; Heb. 10.1). It is in reference to 
 
 this view that the Apostle Paul affirms that 
 " by the deeds of the law there shall no flesh be 
 justified " (Rom. 3.20). " The law written in 
 their hearts," which Paul mentions in Rom. 2.15, 
 is the sense of right and wrong inscribed by 
 God on man's conscience. [JUSTIFICATION.] 
 
 The dominant principle of the Law was 
 Theocracy. Jehovah Himself was regarded 
 as King ; the laws were delivered by Him ; the 
 Tabernacle (and afterwards the Temple) was 
 considered as His palace ; there He gave visible 
 manifestations of His glory ; there He revealed 
 His will ; there was offered " the bread of the 
 presence " ; there He received His ministers, 
 and performed His functions as Sovereign. To 
 Him, peace and war questions determined 
 under all governments by the supreme authority 
 were referred (Deut. 1.41, 42 ; Josh. 10.40 , 
 Judg. 1.1, 2 ; 1 K. 12.24). Idolatry was treason. 
 In relation, therefore, to the Jews, Jehovah was 
 both God and King. [KING.] 
 
 Theocracy had its external manifestations. 
 Thus, the Tabernacle, where public worship was 
 held from the Exodus till the reign of Solomon, 
 was both God's temple and palace. It was 
 His " holy habitation." It was the place 
 where He met the people and communed 
 with them" the tent of meeting " (R.V. Ex. 
 27.21). [TABERNACLE.] To the Tabernacle 
 succeeded the Temple, the greater grandeur 
 of the building and its services harmonising 
 with clearer views of God's authority, as 
 well as with the extended power of the nation. 
 [TEMPLE.] But Jehovah as King had not only 
 His palace or dwelling-place ; He had also His 
 ministers and officers of state. Priests and 
 Levites were set apart for His service. [PRIESTS, 
 LEVITES.] This rule of God was acknowledged 
 by sacrifice and offering, of various kinds, made 
 under carefully defined conditions, and ex- 
 pressive of propitiation, consecration, and com- 
 munion. [SACRIFICE.] The claims of God 
 were further acknowledged by recurring festivals, 
 varying from the weekly Sabbath to the three 
 great annual feasts, and to the Sabbatic year, 
 and to the Jubilee all with a spiritual and 
 moral purpose. [FEASTS, SABBATIC YEARS, 
 JUBILEE.] 
 
 The specific directions promulgated in the 
 name of God covered every part of the national 
 and individual life, but were not all delivered at 
 one time or place. There were ordinances made 
 in Egypt (Ex. 12 and 13) ; at Sinai (Ex. 19 and 
 20); at Paran (Num. 15.1); in the plains of 
 Moab (Deut. 1.5). The deliverances were at 
 times made from the Tabernacle (Lev. 1.1). 
 
 That much of this Law fell into disuse is 
 apparent, not only from the decay of religion 
 and morals under the kings, but also more 
 particularly from the discovery, in the eighteenth 
 year of King Josiah, of " the book of the law in 
 the house of the Lord" (2 K. 22.8), and the 
 reforms which followed. [DEUTERONOMY.] 
 
 The sum of the ordinances of this Law 
 supplied to the nation a code which, if 
 stringent, was salutary (cf. Neh. 9.13; Ezek. 
 
LAWYER] 
 
 289 
 
 [LEATHER, LEATHERN 
 
 20.11 ; Rom. 7.12), and one in which a right 
 mind could rejoice (Ps. 119.97-100). 
 
 The ceremonial institutions, for example, were 
 wonderfully adapted to the needs spiritual 
 as well as material of a people placed as the 
 Israelites were. For (1) they were in some 
 respects sanitary regulations. This was one 
 purpose of the laws relating to various purifica- 
 tions, the separation of lepers, and the distinc- 
 tion of meats, etc. (2) They also served to 
 perpetuate among the Israelites the knowledge 
 of the true God, to maintain reverence for holy 
 things, and to call forth and exercise religious 
 feelings in the midst of their daily conduct, and 
 in all the relations of life. The sacred festivals, 
 in particular, were valuable for these purposes. 
 
 (3) They had the effect, further, of preventing 
 the Israelites from becoming closely connected 
 or associating with surrounding nations (Eph. 
 2.14, 17). They thus might have guarded them 
 from the idolatry and corruption which reigned 
 universally in the world ; and preserved them as 
 an entirely distinct nation, until the time came 
 when this barrier should no longer be necessary. 
 
 (4) These observances had another use in their 
 symbolical meaning. In condescension to the 
 moral and intellectual state of the people, who 
 were not yet capable of readily apprehending 
 Divine truth, spiritual things were represented 
 by outward and visible objects. Thus, ideas of 
 moral purity and of the Divine holiness were 
 communicated and cherished by the repeated 
 ablutions of their persons and dwellings ; by the 
 selection of clean animals for sacrifice ; by the 
 unblemished perfection required in the victims 
 to be offered ; and by the restriction of the 
 priestly functions to a class of men who were 
 specially set apart for these duties, and upon 
 whom repeated purifications were enjoined. 
 Further, by the death of the atoning victim, 
 to which the worshipper had symbolically 
 transferred his sins by laying his hands upon 
 its head, and by the presentation to God of the 
 blood, which represented the life, the important 
 truth was taught that sin deserved extreme and 
 irremediable punishment, which could be averted 
 only by a vicarious sacrifice. Thus, by means 
 of impressive symbols, the worshippers were 
 constantly reminded of the justice and sanctity 
 of the violated law, and of their own guiltiness 
 and need of Divine mercy ; and, when these 
 services were performed in a right spirit, their 
 minds would be inspired with a humble hope 
 of mercy, leading to corresponding gratitude, 
 obedience, and love. (5) These various institu- 
 tions also prefigured greater and better things 
 to come (Gal. 3.24). We learn from Hebrews that 
 the priesthood, the sacrifices, and the whole 
 ritual, formed a typical prophecy of the person 
 and work of the Great Deliverer, and of that 
 everlasting redemption which He was to accom- 
 plish when " the fulness of the time was come." 
 
 The Law was not contradicted by the Gospel. 
 That was at once manifest from our Lord's own 
 declaration. He came not " to destroy, but to 
 fulfil " it (Matt. 5.17, 18). Where the'Law was 
 
 19 
 
 only typical, serving a purpose which the coming 
 of Christ abolished, the Law was abrogated. It 
 had done its part, and was no longer needed 
 (Gal. 3.24, 25). Ceremonial ceased to have its 
 true signification, "he One to Whom it pointed 
 was come. There K jiained the lasting obliga- 
 tions of the moral law, the application of which 
 was extended by our Lord (Matt. 5.21-48). In 
 view, however, of the position which the Law 
 had held in the life and thought of the Jewish 
 people, it is not surprising that its place under 
 the new Covenant became a matter of some 
 perplexity. For illustration of this see Acts 
 10, 11, 15; and the Epistles to the Romans, 
 Galatians, and Hebrews. [ATONEMENT, CANON 
 OF HOLY SCRIPTURE, JUSTIFICATION, LAW, 
 PENTATEUCH, WORKS.] 
 
 Lawyer. These persons, so often mentioned 
 in the N.T., devoted themselves to the study and 
 explanation of the Law of Moses, together with 
 the oral and traditional accretions to the Law 
 (Matt. 22.35 ; Lk. 7.30, 10.25, 11.45). In Tit. 
 3.13 the word probably means one who was 
 a legal advocate in Gentile courts. [SCRIBE.] 
 
 Lazarus. The Greek form of Eleazar: 1. 
 Brother to Martha and Mary. He dwelt with his 
 sisters at Bethany, near Jerusalem. Our Lord 
 did him the honour of lodging at his house when 
 He visited the city. The raising of Lazarus from 
 the dead (John 11) was the final act which made 
 the Jews decide to kilt our Lord (John 11.47 ff.). 
 2. Lazarus is the name given to the poor man 
 in the parable of the rich man and Lazarus 
 (Lk. 16.20). 
 
 Lead. Lead is first named in Ex. 15.10. It 
 was used for weights either in the form of a round 
 flat cake (Zech. 5.7) or a rough unfashioned 
 lump or stone (Zech. 5.8). In ancient times 
 stones were generally employed as weights 
 (Prov. 16.11). Job expresses a wish that his 
 words " were graven with an iron pen and lead 
 in the rock." The reference is to the practice 
 of carving inscriptions upon stone and pouring 
 molten lead into the cavities of the letters. In 
 this way they were made more legible and more 
 enduring. The mode of purifying lead from the 
 dross which is mixed with it, by subjecting it 
 to a fierce flame, furnishes several allusions in 
 Scripture to God's punishing or purifying the 
 people (EzeJc. 22.18, 20). 
 
 Leah. Meaning doubtful, perhaps wild cow, 
 as Rachel ewe : the wife of Jacob and eldest 
 daughter of Laban. By a trick she was im- 
 posed upon Jacob instead of her younger and 
 more beautiful sister Rachel, for whom he had 
 served her father seven years. He was com- 
 pelled to serve seven more for Rachel (Gen. 29.20, 
 30). Both are named in the benediction called 
 down upon Boaz (Ruth 4.11). 
 
 Lean'noth. [M AHALATH. ] 
 
 Leasing. Falsehood ; an Anglo-Saxon word 
 (Ps. 4.2, 5.6). The R.V. has in Ps. 4.2 " false- 
 hood," and in 5.6 " lies." 
 
 Leather, Leathern. Named only twice in 
 A.V. (2 K. 1.8 ; Matt. 3.4), but often implied. 
 It was used by the Jews for making shoes, 
 
LEAVEN] 
 
 290 
 
 [LEOPARD 
 
 bottles, thongs, garments, kneading-troughs, 
 ropes, and other articles. [TANNER.] 
 
 Leaven. The ordinary leaven consisted of a 
 lump of old dough in a high state of fermentation, 
 which was inserted into the mass of dough 
 prepared for baking. Leaven was forbidden to 
 the Hebrews during the seven days of the 
 Passover, in memory of what their ancestors did, 
 when they went out of Egypt ; they being then 
 obliged to carry unleavened meal with them 
 and to, make bread in haste ; the Egyptians 
 pressing them to be gone (Ex. 12.15, 19 ; Lev. 
 2.11). The insipidity of unleavened bread is a 
 suitable symbol of affliction (Deut. 16.3). Leaven 
 is used figuratively as a gradually transforming 
 power (Matt. 13.33, 18.11; 1 Cor. 5.6), for 
 example, the silent influence of the Gospel on 
 the heart of man. 
 
 Leba'na (Neh. 7.48) or Lebanah (Ezra 2.45). 
 The ancestor of certain Nethinim who returned 
 with Zerubbabel. 
 
 Lebanon. White mown tain: on the north border 
 of the Promised Land (Deut. 1.7, 11.24; Josh. 
 1.4). The name is borne by two ranges, parallel 
 to each other, and to the sea-coast from south- 
 west to north-east, for about 100 miles, separated 
 by two valleys. The more southern and smaller 
 of these, the Wady et-Teim, gives rise to the 
 Hasbany, one of the sources of the Jordan ; the 
 more northern is the " valley of Lebanon " (Josh. 
 11.17). The western range is the Lebanon of 
 Scripture, whence Solomon obtained timber 
 for the Temple (1 K. 5.9). The eastern range, 
 Anti-Libanus, " Lebanon toward the sun-rising " 
 (Josh. 13.5), was originally inhabited by Giblites 
 and Hivites (Josh. 13.5, 6 ; Judg. 3.3). It was 
 sparsely populated, and was the haunt of many 
 wild beasts (Cant. 4.8, 7.4). The mountains of 
 Lebanon are an impressive spectacle, whether 
 approached from the Mediterranean on the west 
 or the desert on the east. A refreshing sight to the 
 traveller in the desert, under a firmament of fire, 
 are the snow-capped peaks (Jer. 18.14). The 
 stupendous size, the extensive range, and great 
 elevation of Lebanon ; its towering summits 
 capped with perpetual snow or crowned with 
 fragrant cedars ; its olive plantations ; its 
 vineyards producing the most delicious 
 wines ; its clear fountains, and cold-flowing 
 brooks ; its fertile vales and odoriferous shrub- 
 beries combine to form in Scripture language 
 " the glory of Lebanon " (Isai. 35.2). Numerous 
 aromatic plants grow upon the mountains ; 
 hence Cant. 4.11 ; Hos. 14.6. 
 
 Leba'oth. Lions or lionesses : a town in 
 extreme south of Judah (Josh. 15.32) ; in Josh. 
 19.6 called Beth-lebaoth. 
 
 Lebbse'us, Lebbe'us. Man of heart : the name 
 given to the Apostle Thaddreus in some manu- 
 scripts and in the A.V. of Matt. 10.3 (not R.V.). 
 It may have been his Hebrew name, and 
 Thaddaeus his Gentile name. He is evidently 
 the same person as Judas 5. [THADD;EUS.] 
 
 Lebo'nah. Frankincense or while village : a 
 grey, venerable village less than 3 miles north-west 
 of Shiloh (Judg. 21.19); now called El-Lubban. 
 
 Le'cah. A great-grandson of Judah (1 Ch. 
 4.21). Perhaps a place which had Er, grandson 
 of Judah, for its " father." 
 
 Leek. The Hebrew word is properly green 
 grass, but it is used specially of leeks (cf. 
 " greens " used of the cabbage order). The 
 Israelites in the desert lusted after the leeks 
 that they had eaten in Egypt (Num. 11.5). 
 According to Herodotus the pyramid builders of 
 Egypt were fed on radishes, onions, and garlick ; 
 which, together with lentils, formed the chief 
 vegetables of the prolific land. 
 
 Lees. The Hebrew word may mean dark. 
 Wine " on the lees " signified wine left in the 
 vessel into which it was originally poured. So 
 standing it became thick and syrupy, full- 
 bodied, in short ; hence the expression " wine 
 on the lees " (Isai. 25.6). Before it was drunk 
 it was strained off the lees or dregs, and hence- 
 forth was considered " refined." " To settle 
 upon one's lees," meant to remain contentedly 
 unpurified, and is applied to lazy, dull, heavy 
 stupidity (Jer. 48.11 ; Zeph. 1.12). To drink 
 " to the lees " meant to drink the whole cup 
 to the bottom (Ps. 75.8; Isai. 51.17). 
 
 Legion. A Roman military term, signifying 
 about 6000 foot soldiers, with a contingent of 
 cavalry. In the N.T. it is used only meta- 
 phorically of a disciplined host (Matt. 26.53 ; 
 Mk. 5.9). 
 
 Leha'bim. The ancestor of the Egyptian 
 Libyans (Gen. 10.13 ; 1 Ch. 1.11). [LuBiM.] 
 
 Le'hi. Jawbone : a district in the hill 
 country of Judah near Philistia, and not far 
 from Jerusalem (Judg. 15.9, 14, 19) ; the scene 
 of Samson's exploit. 
 
 Lemu'eL (?) Godward: king of Massa. It 
 may be only a poetical appellation (Prov. 
 31.1, 4). [MASSA.] 
 
 Lentiles (R.V. Lentils). A kind of vetch. 
 The lentil plant grows to a height of six or 
 eight inches, when the purple flowers develop 
 into pods, each containing two or three beans. 
 In Palestine the harvest of lentils is reaped in 
 June and July, either with a scythe or by hand, 
 and then carried to the threshing-floor. Its 
 nutritive qualities are well known, and a pottage 
 made of the red variety of lentil is a savoury 
 dish. It was thus that the faint and famished 
 Esau cried out, at the first sight of his brother's 
 tempting meal, " Feed me, I pray thee, with the 
 red the red," into which he might dip the 
 soft " bread," spoon-fashion, as now his de- 
 scendants are accustomed to do. " Then Jacob 
 gave Esau bread and pottage of len tiles " 
 (Gen. 25.29-34). The Arabs have a tradition 
 that Hebron is the spot where Esau sold his 
 birthright, and in memory of this event the 
 dervishes distribute from the kitchen of a 
 mosque there a daily supply of lentil soup to 
 travellers and poor inhabitants. 
 
 Leopard. An animal once common in 
 Palestine, but now rare. Its spotted skin is 
 noticed (Jer. 13.23); its swiftness (Hab. 1.8); 
 its habit of lying in wait for its prey (Jer. 
 5.6). The Bedouins of Sinai have a great 
 
LEPER, LEPROSY] 
 
 291 
 
 [LEVITICUS, THE BOOK OF 
 
 horror of the leopard, whose favourite food is 
 their goats, almost their sole possession. Hence 
 the point of Isaiah's declaration that " the 
 leopard shall lie down with the kid " (Isai. 11.6). 
 
 Leper, Leprosy. A skin-disease described with 
 much detail in Lev. 13, 14, and essentially the 
 same as the terrible scourge which we now know 
 as leprosy. But the Mosaic Law had in view a 
 wide class of diseases, the symptoms of which 
 were eruptions on the skin. Thus the words 
 which we translate " leper," " leprous," and 
 " leprosy " were undoubtedly used in a loose and 
 general way. Naaman, for example, though a 
 leper, lived at the court and discharged the 
 duties of a general. It is certain, therefore, 
 that his disease was not that with which we are 
 now so painfully familiar in the East. Twelve 
 cases of leprosy are mentioned in the N.T. 
 (Matt. 26.6; Affc.1.40; Lie. 5.12, 17.12-19). It 
 is important in studying the Mosaic provisions 
 regarding the treatment of this disease not to 
 regard the term " unclean " as equivalent to 
 " contagious." The details of the ceremonies 
 to be observed in the " cleansing " of the leper 
 (Lev. 14) are wonderfully symbolic of the 
 cleansing of the sinner by the blood of Christ. 
 
 Of the so-called " leprosy " of garments (Lev. 
 13.47-59) and of houses (Lev. 14.33-53) nothing 
 is known. It must either have died out, or 
 have become less visible, or represent parasitic 
 or chemical growths that are comparatively 
 innocuous. 
 
 Le'shem. A city on the west of Mount 
 Tlormon (Josh. 19.47); also known as Laish and 
 as Dan. 
 
 Letu'shim. (?) Oppressed, struck: great- 
 grandchildren of Abraham (Gen. 25.3), repre- 
 senting tribes in Arabia. 
 
 Leum'mim. (?) Peoples : brothers of Letushim 
 (Gen. 25.3). 
 
 Levi. (?) Joined: 1. The third son of Jacob 
 by Leah. He was associated with his brother 
 Simeon in the terrible vengeance which they 
 took upon the men of Shechem for the dishonour 
 of their sister, Dinah (Gen. 34). In other 
 passages of his history he figures merely as one 
 of the sons of Jacob. [LEVITES.] 2. The great- 
 grandfather of Joseph, the husband of the 
 Virgin Mary (Lk. 3.24). 3. A remote ancestor 
 (Lk. 3.29). 4. Another name of Matthew, the 
 apostle [MATTHEW] (Mk. 2.14 ; Lk. 5.27, 29). 
 
 Leviathan. The leviathan of Jol 41.1 is the 
 crocodile, which is found in the Nile of Upper 
 Egypt and still exists in the Zerka or Crocodile 
 river, which rises near Samaria and flows through 
 the plain of Sharon. The crocodile preys 
 chiefly on fish, which it pursues with lightning- 
 like rapidity, but it feeds occasionally on any 
 animal it can seize. The crocodile was re- 
 garded as sacred by the Egyptians. In Ps. 
 104.25, 26 the reference is not to the crocodile, 
 but to some monster of the whale kind. There 
 are no crocodiles in the Mediterranean, the 
 " great and wide sea " of the passage. In 
 Job 3.8 (R.V.) there appears to be an allusion 
 to the mythological dragon who devours the 
 
 sun in an eclipse. In Ps. 74.14 ; Isai. 27.1 it 
 is used metaphorically of Egypt. 
 
 Levites. All the priests of the chosen people 
 were Levites, that is, descendants of Levi, 
 through Kohath (Levi's second son) and Aaron. 
 Levi, however, had other sons whose descendants 
 assisted the priests, formed the guard of the 
 Tabernacle, and conveyed it from place to 
 place (Num. 4.2, 22, 29). In David's time 
 the whole body was divided into three classes, 
 each of which was subdivided into twenty-four 
 courses. The first class attended upon the 
 priests ; the second formed the choir of singers 
 in the Temple, and the third acted as porters and 
 guards (1 Ch. 24, 25, 26) in the Temple and at 
 the gates. For the support of this large body 
 of men, forty-eight cities, with a belt of land 
 round each, were assigned ; a tenth of all the 
 produce and cattle of the country (Lev. 27.30 ; 
 Num. 35.1-8), of which tenth the priests had a 
 tenth ; all shared also in another tenth of the 
 produce, which the people generally were to 
 expend in feast-offerings, to which the Levites 
 were to be invited (Deut. 14.22-27). [PRIEST, 
 HIGH PRIEST.] 
 
 Leviticus, The Book of. The title of this 
 book is derived from that given to it in the 
 Septuagint, " The Levitical [Book]." In 
 Jewish writings it is more commonly called by 
 its first Hebrew word. [For the critical questions 
 connected with its authorship and date, see 
 PENTATEUCH.] It is closely joined with Exodus 
 and Numbers, but differs from these books in 
 giving but little historical narrative (chaps. 8-10, 
 24.10-23). The Epistle to the Hebrews gives to 
 much of Leviticus a Christian interpretation. 
 
 The contents of the book may be divided into 
 four sections : 
 
 (1) Contains the laws concerning the Sacri- 
 fices (chaps. 1-4 and parts of 5, 6, and 7). 
 (2) The institution of the Priesthood (chaps. 
 8-10). (3) The laws concerning Purifications 
 and the ordinances respecting the Day of 
 Atonement (chaps. 11-16). (4) "The Law of 
 Holiness," perhaps originally a separate Code. 
 It repeatedly insists on " holiness" in connexion 
 with various portions of the ceremonial and 
 moral law (chaps. 17-26). (5) An Appendix 
 on Vo\vs (chap. 27). 
 
 The laws in Leviticus were given in the 
 Wilderness at different times, though certain 
 expressions, as in chap. 18.27, seem to imply 
 that some were added after the settlement in 
 Canaan. From a comparison of the closing 
 words in the last two chapters it is thought 
 that chap. 27 is an appendix, added when the 
 book was reduced to the form in which we have 
 it. 
 
 The references to or quotations from Leviticus 
 in the N.T. are peculiarly interesting : The 
 characteristic phrase of this book, " Holy, for I 
 [Jehovah] am holy " (11.44, 45, 19.2, 20.7, 26), 
 is reproduced in 1 Pet. 1.16 with the formula 
 " It is written." It is here also (Lev. 19.18) 
 that the " royal law " is given : " Thou shalt 
 love thy neighbour as thyself," cited Matt. 
 
LIBERTINES] 
 
 292 
 
 [LINTEL 
 
 19.19, 22.39; Mk. 12.31; Lk. 10.27; Rom. 
 13.9; Gal. 5.14; Jas. 2.8). Special allusions 
 to sacrifices are to the " pair of turtledoves " 
 for purification (12.6, 8 ; Lk. 2.22, 24) ; to the 
 sin-offering of the bullock and the goat (16.18, 27; 
 Eeb. 9.12, 13, 10.4, 13.11-13) ; and to the sacri- 
 fices of thanksgiving (or " praise ") (7.12 ; 
 Eeb. 13.15). In Lev. also 26.11, 12 is the 
 great promise of God to His people to set His 
 tabernacle among them (cf. Ezek. 37.27) (John 
 1.14; 2 Cor. 6.16; Rev. 7.15, 21.3, see R.V. 
 marg.). 
 
 x Libcr'tines. Freedmen : apparently Jews who 
 had been captives at Rome (e.g. by Pompey, 
 63 B.C.), but being freed had returned to 
 Jerusalem, where they and their descendants 
 had a synagogue (Acts 6.9). 
 
 Lib 'nab. White: 1. A town in the south-west 
 of Palestine, though the exact site is uncertain, 
 taken by Joshua, allotted to Judah and appro- 
 priated to the priests (Josh. 10.29-39, 12.15, 
 15.42, 21.13; 1 Ch. 6.57). It revolted in the 
 reign of Jehoram (2 K. 8.22 ; 2 Ch. 21.10) ; was 
 besieged by Sennacherib (2 K. 19.8 ; Isai. 37.8). 
 Libnah was the native place of Queen Hamutal, 
 mother of Jehoahaz and Zedekiah (2 K. 23.31, 
 24.18; Jer. 52.1). 2. The site of an Israelite 
 encampment (Num. 33.20,21); perhaps the 
 same as Laban 2. 
 
 Lib'ni. White: 1. The eldest son of Gershom, 
 the son of Levi (Ex. 6.17 ; Num. 3.18 ; 1 Ch. 6.17, 
 20), and ancestor of the family of the Libnites ; 
 probably the same as Laadan 1. 2. The grandson 
 of Merari, the son of Levi (1 Ch. 6.29). 
 
 Libnites. [LIBNI 1.] 
 
 Libya. The country on north coast of Africa, 
 west from Egypt ; also called Put or Phut (Ezek. 
 27.10, 30.5, 38.5 ; Acts 2.10). 
 
 Lib'yans, Lu'bim. The inhabitants of Libya ; 
 supposed to have sprung from Phut, the son of 
 Ham (Jer. 46.9 ; Dan. 11.43). 
 
 Lice. This word occurs only with reference 
 to the third great plague of Egypt (Ex. 8.16-18 ; 
 Ps. 105.31). The Egyptian priests were regarded 
 as unfit to perform their ministrations unless 
 scrupulously clean. Every third day they 
 shaved their heads and bodies, lest they should 
 harbour any lice. Hence such a visitation may 
 be regarded as something worse than a loathsome 
 plague. It interfered directly with the perform- 
 ance of their ceremonial worship. Some, however, 
 have thought that the plague was rather of gnats 
 or mosquitoes than lice (see R.V. marg.). 
 
 Lieutenant. The word is applied to the satraps 
 or viceroys who governed the provinces of the 
 Persian empire (Ezra 8.36; Esth. 3.12, 8.9, 9.3). 
 The word "prince" is used in Daniel to signify 
 the same position. 
 
 Lign Aloes. [ALOES.] 
 
 Ligure. One of the precious stones in the 
 breastplate of the Jewish high-priest (Ex. 28.19, 
 A.V.). The text of the R.V. has jacinth, the 
 margin amber. It appears to have been yellow. 
 
 LikTli. (?) Doctrine of Jehovah : 1. Son of 
 Shemidah, a Manassite (1 Ch. 7.19). 
 
 Lilith. (Isai. 34.14, R.V. marg.): a female 
 
 demon who was active at night. She figures 
 largely in Eastern and Rabbinical superstitions. 
 
 Lily. The flower known among us as the lily 
 of the valley is not mentioned in Scripture. 
 The " lilies of the field " in Matt. 6.28 seem to 
 refer to whole families of flowers, comprising 
 such members as the tulip, iris, gladiolus, 
 hyacinth, and fritillary, as well as anemones. 
 If in Cant. 2.1,2 and Hos. 14.5 an individual 
 species is intended, it is probably the iris. 
 Large, vigorous, elegant in form and gorgeous 
 in colouring, no fitter emblem could be found, 
 trom an Oriental standpoint, in which to convey 
 the sentiment of admiration and love. 
 
 Lime. Lime is named in Isai. 33.12 and Amos 
 2.1. The use of lime was familiar in Egypt, 
 Babylonia, and Assyria. 
 
 Linen. The " fine linen " of ancient Egypt, 
 universally used in that country for clothing 
 and for wrapping the bodies of the dead, and 
 largely exported, was the spun fibre of flax. 
 One of the plagues of Egypt was the smiting 
 of the flax crops by hail. A fabric so light, 
 smooth and cleanly was specially fitted 
 to be the dress of those who were officially 
 engaged in religious worship. The Jewish priests, 
 like those of Egypt, were commanded to wear 
 linen garments (Ex. 28 ; Ezek. 44.17-19). The 
 Tabernacle curtains were embroidered upon 
 the same material (Ex. 26.1). Samuel and 
 David were " girded with a linen ephod " (1 Sam. 
 2.18; 2 Sam. 6.14). Angelic beings seen by 
 Ezekiel and Daniel (Ezek. 9.2; Dan. 10.5) 
 appeared as if " clothed in linen " ; and in the 
 final visions of the Apocalypse angels and glorified 
 saints are adorned with the same emblematic 
 garments of purity (Rev. 15.6, 19.8, 14). The 
 excellence of the spinning and weaving of 
 Jewish women is hinted at in Prov. 31.22-24. 
 " Fine linen " is among the luxuries for which, 
 in degenerate times, the Hebrew women of 
 fashion are rebuked by the prophet (Isai. 3.23). 
 The rich man hi the parable was " clothed in 
 fine linen," and Joseph of Arimathsea bestowed 
 this last honour upon the body of the Saviour 
 before laying it in the tomb (Mk. 15.46; Lk. 
 16.19). 
 
 Lines. " The lines are fallen unto me in 
 pleasant places" (Ps. 16.6). The reference 
 is to the mode of measuring land with a cord 
 or line. [MEASURES.] 
 
 Lintel. The cross-beam resting on the two 
 side-posts of a doorway. Three Hebrew words 
 are translated lintel. Of these one, ayil, has 
 itself been variously rendered, by " post " ; by 
 " trunk," as of a tree ; the " volutes of columns " ; 
 the triangular space above a door ; the whole 
 doorway itself, including the architrave or 
 lintel above it (1 K. 6.31 ; Ezek. 40.9-49, ex- 
 cepting 10, 14, 16) ; and, in the plural, the 
 ornamented front, with its fluted columns, of 
 the building itself (Ezek. 40.10,14,16). The 
 second word, caphtar, occurs in Amos 9.1 ; 
 Zeph. 2.14, and is more properly rendered 
 " knop " (which see) as in the margin of A.V. 
 The third, nuishkoph (Ex. 12.22, 23), is else- 
 
LINUS] 
 
 293 
 
 [LOGOS 
 
 where better rendered " upper doorpost " 
 (Ex. 12.7). 
 
 Linus. A Christian at Rome known to Paul 
 and Timothy (2 Tim. 4.21). He was the first 
 bishop of Rome, perhaps from 64-79 A.D. 
 
 Lion. The lion is mentioned about 130 times 
 in Scripture more frequently than any other 
 wild beast. The lion once ranged over Syria 
 and Asia Minor, but has not been seen in Pales- 
 tine since the middle of the nineteenth century. 
 Personal encounters with the lion are recorded 
 of Samson (Judg. 14.6), David (1 Sam. 17.36), 
 and Benaiah, one of David's mighty men (2 Sam. 
 23.20). Pitfalls were common means of cap- 
 turing lions. Another method was by driving 
 him from his dwelling-place into a wall of 
 net, which was placed partly around it ; such 
 a means of hunting the lion is still employed 
 in India. Sometimes the net and pit were 
 combined, when it was desired to catch the 
 animal alive. There are references to both 
 these methods in Job 19.6 and Ezek. 19. The 
 natural death of a lion is from hunger ; " the old 
 lion perisheth for lack of prey" (Job 4.11). 
 Lions were held to be the type of the highest 
 courage. Among David's best warriors were the 
 " lion-faced " men of Gad (1 Ch. 12.8). The lion 
 was the emblem of the princely tribe of Judah ; 
 nevertheless, on account of its ferocity, the lion 
 is employed as a metaphor for cruelty and 
 malignant curiosity (Ps. 7.2, 22.21 ; 2 Tim. 
 4.17), and hence for Satan himself (1 Pet. 5.8). 
 
 Lizard. Lizards are included among the 
 unclean things that creep upon the earth 
 (Lev. 11.30). They abound in Palestine. 
 
 Lo-am'mi. Not my people : the name given 
 by Hosea to his second son (Eos. 1.9), to signify 
 the rejection of the kingdom of Israel by 
 Jehovah. 
 
 Loan. It was a religious duty, in the early 
 Hebrew times, to lend to the poor, and on no 
 account was interest to be exacted (Ex. 22.25 ; 
 Lev. 25.35,37; Deut. 15.3,7-10, 23.19,20). 
 With the advance of commerce the principle 
 of interest was introduced, though the original 
 spirit of the Law was approved by Christ (Matt. 
 5.42, 25.27; Lk. 6.35, 19.23). Very rigid 
 precautions were taken by the Law of Moses 
 against the harsh treatment of debtors (Ex. 
 22.26; Deut. 24.6,10,11,17). A Hebrew 
 debtor might not be detained as a bondsman 
 longer than the seventh (or Sabbatic) year, 
 or at furthest the year of jubilee (Ex. 21.2; 
 Lev. 25.39,42; Deut. 15.9). This provision 
 did not apply to foreigners sojourning among 
 the Hebrews and seized for debt (Lev. 25.46 ; 
 2 K. 4.2 ; /sat. 50.1, 52.3). In later times the 
 debtor was liable to be detained in prison until 
 the full discharge of his obligation (Malt. 5.26). 
 
 Lock. Bars of wood or iron were used by 
 the ancient Hebrews to secure their doors. 
 A large key was applied to the bar through a 
 hole from the outside, and in this way the bar 
 or bolt was slipped forward (Judg. 3.23, 24 ; 
 1 K. 4.13 ; Cant. 5.4, 5 ; /sot. 45.2). [KEY.] 
 
 Locust. An insect, belonging to the same 
 
 order as grasshoppers, crickets, cockroaches, 
 earwigs, white ants, arid dragon-flies. Its 
 food is exclusively of a vegetable character, 
 and when locusts occur in unusual abundance 
 they are very destructive. Swarms which 
 obscure the sun at noonday alight on some 
 doomed neighbourhood, and all hope of saving 
 crops, fruit, and vegetables may be abandoned. 
 The leaves are stripped from the trees, and 
 the surface of the earth appears as if it was 
 burned (Joel 1.4, 2.4-9). Thus they cause dire- 
 ful famines; fortunately the locust visitations 
 are not frequent. Locusts were permitted to the 
 Hebrews as food, and in some places at the 
 present day in the Jordan valley, Gilead, 
 Arabia, and Morocco, for example they are 
 esteemed a great delicacy. They were eaten 
 by John the Baptist. The Hebrew language 
 is very rich in names for them, but it is not 
 certain whether these refer to different stages 
 of their growth or to different species. Several 
 such names occur in Joel 1.4. 
 
 Lod, Lydda. A town of Benjamin in the 
 plain of Sharon, reoccupied after the return 
 from the Captivity (1 Ch. 8.12 ; Ezra 2.33 ; 
 Neh. 7.37, 11.35). It was the scene of Peter's 
 cure of .Eneas (Acts 9.32-35, 38). St. George, 
 the patron saint of England, is said to have 
 been born here. 
 
 Lo-detar. Pastureless : town in Gilead on 
 east of Jordan, the home of Machir, the pro- 
 tector of Mephibosheth and the hospitable 
 helper of David (2 Sam. 9.4, 17.27). 
 
 Log. The smallest of the Hebrew liquid 
 measures, about two-thirds of a pint (Lev. 14.10, 
 12, 15, 21, 24). 
 
 Logos. The Greek term imperfectly rendered 
 by " Word " in the prologue to St. John's 
 Gospel (John 1.1,14). Imperfectly, because 
 logos, especially in its philosophical use, which 
 is here in question, stands also for reason, of 
 which a word is the expression and medium 
 of communication. " The term Logos, signifying 
 as it does, on the one hand, partly thought and 
 partly will, and, on the other hand, also the 
 expression of thought in a sentence and the 
 expression of will in a law, has no single equiva- 
 lent in modern language " (Hatch). It was 
 the purpose of St. John (shared, as will be 
 seen, by St. Paul) to set the Christian revelation 
 in its relation to current philosophical question- 
 ings, Greek and Jewish, and to find in Christ 
 their meaning and their answer. The several 
 streams of thought which meet in the Logos- 
 doctrine of the N.T. must first, therefore, be 
 briefly traced. 
 
 1. The Logos in Philosophical Speculation. 
 The idea belongs to the attempt to think out 
 the relation in which God stands to the world. 
 If, as by the Stoics, He be identified with it, 
 the world is yet not dead and formless matter. 
 It is instinct with reason : God is immanent in 
 it, expressing Himself in all its forms and forces, 
 from lowest to highest, from the force of co- 
 hesion, which holds together the particles of a 
 stone, to the supreme manifestation of His 
 
LOIS] 
 
 294 
 
 [LOOKING-GLASS 
 
 nature in the soul of roan. The one Divine 
 Logos or active reason which animates and 
 directs the whole separates into many Logoi 
 (plural), conceived as seeds, which develop each 
 into its own product of some law or form of 
 nature. In Platonism God was regarded as 
 apart from the world, shaping it by reason 
 under impulse of His goodness and power. 
 Each class of material things embodies and is 
 produced by an idea in the Divine mind : 
 these ideas, or Logoi, go forth from Him as the 
 varied creative forces by which inert matter is 
 moulded into the types which make up the 
 world of things and minds. 
 
 But the more immediate ancestry of the 
 N.T. Logos is probably to be found in Philo, 
 the Jewish philosopher of Alexandria (c. 30 B.C.- 
 50 A.I>.). In him the streams of Greek and 
 Judaistic thought meet and expand into a 
 Logos-doctrine of wonderful fulness and variety. 
 God did indeed create the universe, and through 
 all its parts His reason is revealed. But God 
 is in Himself pure Being, eternal and incom- 
 prehensible, to whom no contact with matter is 
 possible, lest He be defiled. Hence He acts 
 through the Logos, His reason or creative 
 energy, conceived as a being intermediate 
 between God arid the world, His reason or will 
 personified, though not in the full sense per- 
 sonalised. Subordinate to the Logos are a 
 host of other forces, the angels of the O.T. and 
 of popular mythology, who carry out God's 
 will upon the world. Of these the Logos is the 
 " charioteer," whom they must obey, but God, 
 as master of the chariot, prescribes to the Logos 
 the course which is to be taken. Further, the 
 Logos is the representative of the world before 
 God, its high priest and intercessor. 
 
 The main functions of the Logos, then, 
 appear as creation, revelation, and mediation. 
 In all these ways God acts through the Logos. 
 An analogy to this conception has been found 
 in certain O.T. expressions (e.g. Ps. 33.6, 
 107.20, 147.15, 18, 148.8 : cf. " the word of the 
 Lord came," " the word which Isaiah saw " : 
 also " the angel of the Lord," " the angel of 
 the covenant "), and in phrases occurring in 
 Rabbinic commentary on Genesis : " they 
 heard the voice of the word of the Lord God 
 walking in the garden," " He made a covenant 
 between Abram and His word," etc. And in 
 the Wisdom literature of the O.T. and Apocrypha 
 we have a poetical personification of Wisdom 
 akin to the metaphysical conception of Philo 
 that the Logos dwelt with God as His " wisdom " 
 (e.g. Prov. 8). But this usage cannot be re- 
 garded as the main source of St. John's Logos- 
 doctrine : even as a contributory rill it had first 
 been absorbed into Philo's thought. It is the 
 philosophical doctrine of Philo which St. John 
 adopts and transfigures. So does St. Paul, 
 in more polemic vein, vindicating against its 
 teaching of angelic mediators of God, whether 
 in creation or redemption, the sole sufficiency 
 and supremacy of Jesus Christ. 
 
 2. The Logos in the N.T. The term is con- 
 
 fined to John 1.1, 14 (the passage concerning 
 the " three heavenly witnesses," 1 John 5.7, is 
 undoubtedly an interpolation), and perhaps 
 Rev. 19.13. This Logos was with God, the 
 medium of creation and revelation (John 1-13) : 
 in these leading thoughts, as ell as in some 
 isolated expressions, St. John is plainly within 
 the circle of Phi Ionic ideas. But the differences 
 are more significant than the resemblances. 
 The stress shifts from Logos as Reason to 
 Logos as Word : this creative and revealing 
 Word is a person, not only in the beginning 
 with God, but Himself God. At one daring 
 stroke the gulf between God and man, im- 
 passable to philosophy, is bridged by faith : 
 " The Word became flesh, and dwelt among us." 
 And for climax this Divine, creative, revealing, 
 redemptive Word is identified with the man 
 Jesus, who was also the Christ, the Messiah of 
 Jewish hope (ver. 17). The mould of Philo's 
 philosophical speculation is used, and broken 
 in the use : it appears no more throughout 
 the Gospel, for St. John has to tell not of the 
 nature and functions of a vague philosophical 
 abstraction, but of the earthly ministry of the 
 incarnate Son of God. " The influence of 
 Philonian ideas on John cannot be denied, but 
 John, for all that, does not borrow the ideas of 
 Philo. He thinks Christian ideas analogous 
 to those of Philo, which Philo helps him to 
 conceive " (Loisy). 
 
 The Logos-doctrine (though not the term) 
 appears also in St. Paul, both incidentally (e.g. 
 1 Cor. 8.6; Phil. 2.6), and specifically in 
 Col. 1.15-17. In ver. 16 the controversial 
 note is struck which echoes throughout the 
 epistle. The Colossian heresy inculcated be- 
 lief in and worship of angelic powers, mediating 
 between God and man, a feature common 
 to Alexandrian and Jewish thought. Such 
 belief is treason to Christ. Whatever super- 
 natural powers there may be, called by whatever 
 name, they were created in Christ, through 
 Christ, unto Christ (1.16). He is their head 
 (2.10), and to worship them (2.18) is to forsake 
 Him through whom alone God reconciles all 
 things to Himself (1.19-23, 2.8-15). 
 
 Finally, the writer to the Hebrews introduces 
 his theme of the completeness and finality 
 of God's revelation in Christ by basing these 
 upon His nature and functions as Son. Through 
 Him God made the world : He is the " efiul- 
 gence " of God's glory, the " very image " of 
 God's substance, " upholding all things by the 
 word of His power " (Heb. 1.2, 3). The terms 
 are those applied by Philo to the Logos, but 
 the stress is upon Personality, Incarnation, 
 Atonement. All partial and imperfect thought 
 of the ways of God with men, whether 
 attained by Hebrew prophet or by Greek 
 philosopher, has pointed forward to this great 
 and final reality, that " God hath, at the end of 
 these days, spoken unto us in His Son." 
 
 Lo'is. The grandmother of Timothy, com- 
 mended by Paul for her faith (2 Tim. 1.5). 
 
 Looking-glass (R.V. Mirror). A plate of 
 
LOBD] 
 
 295 
 
 [LOTS, CASTING 
 
 polished metal, producing a reflection of objects, 
 but much less perfect than our modern looking- 
 glass (Job 37.18 ; 1 Cor. 13.12 ; Jas. 1.23). 
 
 Lord. The use of LORD in the O.T. to 
 express JEHOVAH is stated sufficiently under 
 the latter word, and as a rendering of ddon it 
 calls for no remark. In Josh. 13.3, and fre- 
 quently in Judges and Samuel, it represents 
 a seren, a native title of rulers among the 
 Philistines, but nothing is known of their 
 powers. 
 
 The use of Lord (Kurios) in the N.T. is 
 interesting, though often ambiguous. In 
 quotations from the O.T. it generally represents 
 Jehovah, and elsewhere this meaning is also 
 plain (e.g. Matt. 1.20). But, apart from such 
 quotations, there are often doubts whether it 
 is intended to refer to God as such (certainly 
 Mlc. 5.19), or to the Saviour, as our Lord and 
 Master. 
 
 In the latter case there are examples of its 
 usage passing through all gradations, acknow- 
 ledging Him as Lord and Master in the highest 
 sense (Matt. 15.22, 28.6, and generally in the 
 epistles; cf. 1 Cor. 12.3), or as an honoured 
 teacher (Matt. 8.21, 21.3), or even only as 
 one worthy to be addressed with respect, as we 
 should say " sir " (Matt. 8.6). 
 
 It should be observed that kurios, as the 
 Greek equivalent for the Latin dominus, was 
 the recognised title of the Roman Emperor 
 throughout the eastern lands bordering on 
 the Mediterranean. Hence the common as- 
 cription of the title to the Saviour by Christians 
 would serve to emphasise, to their own minds, 
 as well as to those of their neighbours, the 
 existence of an empire greater than even that 
 of Caesar. In fact, the contrast between the 
 supreme ruler of the Roman world, and Him 
 who is Lord of all, seems to underlie much of 
 the teachings of the N.T. 
 
 Lord is used five times in the A.V. (Lie. 2.29, 
 Acts 4.24, 2 Pet. 2.1, Jude 4, Rev. 6.10), as a 
 translation of despotes (the original of our 
 English " despot "), which means " master, " 
 and suggests, when used of men, the irresponsi- 
 bility attached to absolute ownership in the 
 ancient world. [SLAVERY.] 
 
 Lord o! Hosts. It is important to remember 
 that the word Lord here represents the word 
 Jehovah, the Hebrew title being Jehovah 
 Sabaoth, which seems to have been shortened 
 from the earlier form, Jehovah, God of Sabaoth 
 (Amos 3.13). The word Hosts (Sabaoth) may 
 represent the heavenly bodies (cf. Deut. 4.19), 
 or the angelic beings (1 K. 22.19), or an earthly 
 army (cf. 1 Sam. 17.45). Originally, one may 
 suppose, an earthly army suggested an heavenly, 
 but it may be questioned whether in Israel the 
 heavenly reference is not the earlier of the two, 
 before Israel had any army at all; for in 
 Babylonian Sin, the moon-god, was called " the 
 Prince of the Gods," and Nebo " the marshaller 
 of the hosts of heaven and earth." The phrase 
 is seldom found elsewhere than in the words or 
 the writings of prophets, men who, for the most 
 
 part, took a wider view of the all-sovereign 
 powers of the Lord than priests or rulers. 
 
 Lord's Day. The title is found only in Rev. 
 1.10. Whilst the balance of Christian opinion 
 is strongly m favour of a reference here to the 
 Christian weekly day of rest and worship, some 
 have thought that it means the great " day of 
 the Lord." " The first day of the week " is 
 repeatedly referred to (Lk. 24.1 ; John 20.1, 19; 
 1 Cor. 16.2, etc.), and the phrase " the Lord's 
 Day " marks the transition to a usage which, 
 from Ignatius onwards, appears to be the 
 recognised title of the Christian festival. 
 " Sunday " was the heathen name for the first 
 day of the week, recognised by Justin Martyr, 
 who, in his Apology (about 150 A.D.), describes 
 the assembly of Christians " on the day called 
 Sunday," with the religious services they held. 
 It is found also in an edict of the Emperor 
 Constantino (321 A.D.). Both names, the Lord's 
 Day and Sunday, are found in an edict of 
 Gratian (386*A.D.). The keeping of the first 
 day of the week as the Lord's day is indicated 
 in 1 Cor. 16.2 (and see Acts 20.6, 7). The 
 day so kept was regarded as the commemoration 
 of our Lord's resurrection. 
 
 Lord's Prayer. The name early given to 
 the petitions taught by our Lord to His 
 disciples in answer to their request (Lk. 11.2-4). 
 It was afterwards incorporated in the Sermon on 
 the Mount (Matt. 6.9-13 ). Though a parallel for 
 every clause may be found in Jewish writings, 
 it is absolutely unique. 
 
 Lord's Supper. [SUPPER, THE LORD'S.] 
 
 Lord's Table. (1 Cor. 10.21). [ALTAB, SCPPEK, 
 THE LORD'S.] 
 
 Lo-ruha'mah. Not pitied : a symbolic name 
 given to Hosea's daughter, indicating God's 
 rejection of Israel (Has. 1.6). 
 
 Lot. The nephew of Abraham. He accom- 
 panied his uncle from Ur of the Chaldees to 
 Canaan, thence to Egypt and back again to 
 Canaan. A quarrel between their servants led to 
 a friendly separation. Lot settled in the plain 
 wherein Sodom and Gomorrha were situated, 
 and when these were overwhelmed by fire from 
 heaven, Lot, though escaping with his life, lost 
 all his earthly possessions. He was the father 
 of Moab and Ammon. His characteristic was 
 weakness. Lot is thrice in one discourse referred 
 to by our Lord (Lk. 17.28,29,32), and his 
 deliverance is commented on in 2 Pet. 2.7. 
 [LOT'S WIFE.] 
 
 Lot's Wife. In the escape from Sodom the 
 wife of Lot " looked back . . . and . . . became 
 a pillar of salt " (Gen. 19.26). The expression 
 probably signifies that a bituminous mass, which 
 overwhelmed the woman, fixed her to the place 
 where it fell upon her, and raised a mound 
 over her (Gen. 19.26). Her fate is referred to 
 by our Lord (Lk. 17.32). 
 
 Lo'tan. (?)A covering : the eldest son of Seir 
 the Horite, and a " duke " or chief of his tribe 
 in the land of Edom (Gen. 36.20, 22, 29 ; 1 Ch. 
 1.38, 39). 
 
 Lots, Casting. A method of determining a 
 
LOVE-FEAST] 
 
 296 [LUKE, GOSPEL ACCORDING TO 
 
 choice frequently appearing in Holy Scripture. 
 In the O.T. its use in some cases was divinely 
 appointed, e.g. in the choice of the scapegoat 
 (Lev. 16.8), and in the division of the Promised 
 Land (Num. 26.55; Josh. 14.2). At the 
 crucifixion our Lord's garments were divided 
 by lot amongst the soldiers (Ps. 22.18; Matt. 
 27.35). Matthias was chosen by lot to fill the 
 place of Judas Iscariot amongst the apostles 
 Acts 1.26). [PURIM.] 
 
 Love -Feast (Agape). Members of the 
 Apostolic Church met at fixed times for a 
 common meal, at which all partook as brethren 
 (Acts 2.46). These gatherings were closely con- 
 nected with the Lord's Supper (1 Cor. 11.20 ff.), 
 and so occasioned the more distress when misused 
 by false professors of the faith (2 Pet. 2.13; 
 Jude 12). With the growth of the Church 
 social distinctions reasserted themselves, and 
 the love-feasts fell into discredit. 
 
 Low Country. This was the shephelah or 
 rising ground between the plain on the seacoast 
 and the hill country of Judah and Ephraim. 
 
 Lu'bim. Libyans : the inhabitants of the coast 
 of North Africa extending from the west of Egypt 
 as far perhaps as the pillars of Hercules (2 Ch. 
 12.3, 16.8 ; Nah. 3.9). They are often mentioned 
 on the Egyptian monuments. 
 
 Lu'cas. [LUKE.] 
 
 Lucifer (R.V. Daystar). The word rendered 
 Lucifer in /sat. 14.12 is an epithet applied to 
 the king of Babylon, who fell from his state of 
 glory and elevation. Babylon is used in the 
 Apocalypse as a type of the empire and the 
 ultimate fate of the Evil One, and hence the 
 use of Lucifer as a name for Satan in his fall 
 from heaven. 
 
 Lucius. 1. A kinsman (i.e. fellow- Jew) of 
 Paul (Rom. 16.21). 2. Lucius of Cyrene, the 
 capital of a great colony in North Africa, remark- 
 able for the number of its Jewish inhabitants. 
 Lucius was one of the prophets and teachers 
 of the Church at Antioch (Acts 13.1). 
 
 Lud. 1. A son of Shem, from whom the 
 Lydians of Asia Minor are supposed to bo 
 descended (Gen. 10.22). 2. Apparently the 
 same as Ludim (Ezek. 27.10, 30.5). 
 
 Ludim. Apparently a tribe in the west of 
 Egypt used as mercenaries ; said (Gen. 10.13) 
 to be descended from Mizraim. 
 
 Luhith. A city of Moab, which seems to 
 have been approached by an " ascent " (Isai. 
 15.5 ; Jer. 48.5 R.V.). 
 
 Luke. Luke the companion of Paul, and, 
 according to the almost unanimous belief of 
 the ancient Church, the author of the Gospel 
 according to St. Luke arid the Acts of the 
 Apostles is only thrice mentioned by name in 
 the N.T. (Col. 4.14 ; 2 Tim. 4.11 ; Philem. 24). 
 Of his life little is known. Some have con- 
 jectured that he was one of the Seventy dis- 
 ciples sent out by our Lord (Lk. 10.1) ; others 
 that he was one of the Greeks who wished to 
 see Him (John 12.20); whilst, from overlooking 
 the fact that Luke is an abbreviation of Lucanus, 
 an endeavour has been made to identify Luke 
 
 with Lucius of Cyrene (Acts 13.1). Two of 
 the Fathers say that he was a Syrian from 
 Antioch. Apparently he was not of Jewish 
 birth (Col. 4.11, 14). He was by occupation 
 a physician (Col. 4.14). He was not himself 
 an " eye-witness . . . from the beginning " 
 of the Gospel events (Lk. 1.2), though this does 
 not exclude the possibility of his having been 
 amongst the followers of our Lord. Much, 
 however, may be inferred from the use of the 
 first person in the language of the Acts. Luke 
 appears to have joined Paul at Troas (Acts 16.10), 
 to have passed over with him into Macedonia, 
 and journeyed with him as far as Philippi, 
 with which he may have been connected, and 
 where he for the time probably remained 
 (Acts 17.1). Some seven years later, when 
 Paul visited Philippi on his way to Jerusalem, 
 Luke again joined him (Acts 20.5). If Luke 
 was " the brother" of 2 Cor. 8.18, the interval 
 would seem to have been filled by an active 
 ministry. With Paul, Luke went on to Jeru- 
 salem (Acts 21.18), and with Paul he journeyed 
 to Rome (Acts 27.1). There he was with the 
 apostle during his first imprisonment (Col. 4.14 : 
 Philem. 24), and there he was also during the 
 second imprisonment, just before the apostle's 
 end (2 Tim. 4.11 ). Christian tradition represents 
 him as preaching the Gospel in Southern 
 Europe, and as meeting a martyr's death in 
 Greece. [LUKE, GOSPEL ACCORDING TO.] 
 
 Luke, The Gospel according to. The author- 
 ship of this book is by the unanimous voice 
 of antiquity, from Irenaeus (c. 180 A.D.) on- 
 wards, ascribed to Luke, the physician. Allu- 
 sions to it are by some detected as early as 
 Clement of Rome (95 A.D.). That the author 
 of the Gospel was also the author of the 
 Acts is almost universally agreed. [ACTS OF 
 THE APOSTLES.] The date of the book is un- 
 certain. Comparison with Matthew and Mark 
 suggests that it is the latest of the synoptic 
 gospels, and so may have been written after 
 70 A.D. But it has been thought that the 
 two years of Paul's imprisonment at Jerusalem 
 and Caesarea may have provided the. oppor- 
 tunity for such a work, and that it might thus 
 have been written as early as 60 A.D. The 
 style of the author is that of a man of education 
 skilled in composition. The contents may be 
 summarised thus: 
 
 Preface (1.1-4). 
 
 The birth and early life of Jesus (1.5, 2). 
 
 His baptism, genealogy, and temptation 
 (3.1-4.13). 
 
 His ministry in Galilee (4.14-9.50). 
 
 His progress from Galilee, through Samaria, 
 Persea, and Judypa, ending with His arrival 
 in Jerusalem (9.51-19.27). 
 
 His entrance to the Holy City ; and all that 
 followed, down to His crucifixion (19.28-23). 
 
 His resurrection and its results (2-1). 
 
 The characteristics of the book exhibit it as 
 a gospel neither specially for Jews nor specially 
 for Gentiles, but for all the world ; the gospel 
 of a free and universally offered salvation. 
 
LUNATIC] 
 
 297 
 
 [LYSTRA 
 
 The incidents and teaching peculiar to this 
 gospel are many and significant. They in- 
 clude : 
 
 1. The narrative of the events preceding and 
 accompanying the birth of Jesus ; including 
 the birth of John the Baptist, and the great 
 Christian hymns, known as the Magnificat 
 (1.46-55), the Benedictus (1.68-79), the Gloria 
 in Excelsis (2.14), and the Nunc Dimittis 
 (2.29-32) : the human genealogy (3.23-38). 
 
 2. The childhood of Jesus : the only incident 
 that breaks the "Thirty Years of Silence" 
 (2.41-52). 
 
 3. Many discourses and sayings of Jesus, 
 with the accompanying incidents, as those 
 connected with the feast in the house of Simon 
 the Pharisee (7), but especially those contained 
 in the great section extending from 9.51 to 
 18.14. [Some of the sayings included in this 
 section are given by Matthew and Mark in 
 different connexions, and were perhaps the 
 repetition by our Lord of His earlier utterances.] 
 Among the incidents which are absolutely 
 peculiar to Luke are our Lord's rejection by 
 the Samaritans (9), the Mission of the Seventy 
 (10), discourses concerning discipleship (14.25-35 ; 
 17.1-10), and the visit to Zacchaeus (19), with 
 several parables. 
 
 4. The following parables : The Two Debtors 
 (7) ; the Good Samaritan (10) ; the Importunate 
 Friend (11); the Rich Fool (12); the Barren 
 Fig Tree (13) ; the Lost Silver and the Prodigal 
 Son (15) ; the Unrighteous Steward ; the 
 Rich Man and Lazarus (16) ; the Unrighteous 
 Judge; the Pharisee and Publican (18); the 
 Pounds (19). [PARABLES.] 
 
 5. The miracles recorded only in this Gospel, 
 are the Miraculous Draught of Fishes (5) ; 
 the Raising of the Widow's Son (7) ; the 
 Woman with a Spirit of Infirmity (13); the 
 Man with a Dropsy (14) ; the Ten Lepers 
 (17) ; the Healing of Malchus (22). [MIRACLES.] 
 
 6. In regard to the events connected with 
 the death and resurrection of our Lord, Luke 
 is the only evangelist who records His prayer 
 for His murderers (23.34), and the incident of 
 the penitent robber (39-43). The walk to 
 Emmaus, and the Ascension (24), although 
 noticed in the summary at the end of Mark, 
 are otherwise peculiar to Luke. 
 
 It will be noted also that more than in any 
 other gospel is the dignity of womanhood 
 recognised, as not only in Luke's delineation 
 of the mother of our Lord, but in the oft- 
 recurring references to women, in Christ's 
 relation to them, and theirs to Him (Lk. 1, 2, 
 7.11-17, 8.1-3, 48, 10.38-42, 13.16, 23.28, etc.). 
 
 Further, in no other gospel is the author so 
 careful to draw out the attitude of our Lord 
 
 towards the poor and needy and despised 
 (2.24, 6.20-25, 8.2, 3, 12.16-21, 14.12-15, 16.13, 
 19-25, etc.). 
 
 Lunatic. i.e. moonstruck (Matt. 4.24, 17.15). 
 In both cases R.V. translates " epileptic." 
 
 Luz. 1. A Canaanite city, near Bethel 
 (Gen. 28.19, 35.6, 48.3; Josh. 16.2, 18.13; 
 Judg. 1.23). 2. A town built in the land of 
 the Hittites when the other Luz was taken by 
 the Israelites (Judg. 1.26). 
 
 Lycaonia. A district of Asia Minor, north- 
 west of Cilicia, inhabited in apostolic days by 
 an imperfectly civilised race ; chief scene of 
 Paul's labours during his first missionary tour 
 (Acts 14 ; 2 Tim. 3.11) ; and also traversed by 
 him on his second and third journeys (Acts 
 16.1-8, 18.23, 19.1). 
 
 Lycia. A small district in south of Asia 
 Minor, visited by Paul on returning from his 
 third missionary tour (Patara) ; and on his 
 way to Italy (Myra) (Acts 21.1, 27.5). 
 
 Ly'dda. (Acts 9.32, 35, 38). [LOD.] 
 
 Ly'dia. I- (Ezek. 30.5). [LUDIM.] 2. A 
 woman of Thyatira, a seller of purple, and 
 a worshipper of God [PROSELYTE], who at 
 Philippi was converted, and with her house- 
 hold baptized under the ministry of Paul (Acts 
 16.14, 40). Possibly this was only her business- 
 name ("the Lydian"), her real name being 
 unknown. [MACEDONIA.] 
 
 Lysa'nias. Tetrarch of Abilene, a small 
 province in Lebanon (Lk. 3.1). He is otherwise 
 unknown. Josephus mentions a king (not 
 tetrarch) of the same name over Ituraea who 
 was killed in 36 B.C., but it is hypercritical to 
 assume that the Evangelist confused the two. 
 
 Lysias. Claudius Lysias, chief captain of 
 the Roman garrison at Jerusalem (Acts 23.26, 
 24.7, 22). 
 
 Lystra. A city of Lycaonia, within the 
 Roman province of Galatia, at which Paul 
 and Barnabas in the space of a few hours 
 were first hailed as gods and then stoned by 
 the people. A temple of Zeus stood outside 
 the gate of the city (Acts 14.13). According 
 to a legend which was current in the city, 
 Jupiter and Mercury, in human shape, had in 
 times past visited the city. The rude in- 
 habitants thought that they were receiving the 
 same honour a second time. A Church was 
 afterwards founded at Lystra. Timothy, who 
 was a native of this place, witnessed, or at least 
 had intimate knowledge of, the persecutions 
 which Paul underwent on his first visit (Acts 
 14.6-20 ; 2 Tim. 3.10 ff.). When Paul paid 
 his second visit Timothy was already a Christian 
 (Acts 16.1-3 ; 2 Tim. 3.10, 11). Lystra has 
 been identified with the ruins near the village 
 of Khatyn Serai. 
 
MAACAH, MAACHAHJ 
 
 298 
 
 [MACHBANAI 
 
 M 
 
 Maa'cah, Maa'chah. Oppression : 1. The 
 daughter of Nahor, Abraham's brother, by his 
 concubine, Reumah (Gen. 22.24). 2. One of 
 David's wives, and mother of Absalom (2 Sam. 
 3.3; 1 Ch. 3.2). 3. A petty kingdom, at 
 the foot of Hermon, on the borders of Bashan, 
 allotted to Manasseh, who did not exterminate 
 the inhabitants (Deut. 3.14 ; Josh. 12.5, 13.11, 13). 
 It joined the Ammonites against David (2 Sam. 
 10.6, 8 ; 1 Ch. 10.6, 7) ; the same as Beth- 
 maachah (2 5am. 20.14, 15). 4. The father of 
 Achish, who was king of Gath at the beginning 
 of Solomon's reign (1 K. 2.39). [MAOCH.] 5. 
 The wife of Rehoboam and mother of Abijah, 
 kings of Judah (1 K. ]5.2 ; 2 Ch. 11.20). During 
 the reign of her grandson Asa she occupied the 
 influential position of " King's Mother," and 
 led the people away into idolatry (1 K. 15.13 ; 
 2 Ch. 15.16). She was removed from power 
 when Asa undertook his religious reformation. 
 6. The concubine of Caleb, son of Hezron 
 (1 Ch. 2.48). 7. A woman of Benjamin, 
 married to Machir, son of Manasseh (1 Ch. 
 7.15,16). 8. The wife of Jeliiel, father or 
 founder of Gibeon, from whom was descended 
 the family of Saul (1 Ch. 8.29, 9.35). 9. The 
 father of Hanan, one of David's warriors 
 (1 Ch. 11.43). 10. The father of Shephatiah, 
 who ruled the Simeonites in David's time (1 Ch. 
 27.16). 
 
 Maacha'thi, Maachathites. The inhabitants 
 of Maachah. [MAACAH 3.] 
 
 Maa'dai. One who had married a foreign 
 wife (Ezra 10.34). 
 
 Maadi'ah. A priest who returned from 
 Babylon with Zerubbabel (Neh. 12.5 ; in ver. 17, 
 Moadiah). 
 
 Ma'ai. One of the priests who took part 
 in the dedication of the wall of Jerusalem 
 (Neh. 12.36). 
 
 Maa'leh-Acrabtim (R.V. Ascent of Akrabbim). 
 Ascent of scorpions (Josh. 15.3) : a steep pass 
 between the south end of the Dead Sea and 
 the Desert of Zin. It was the beginning of the 
 ascent to the mountains of Edom, forming one 
 of the south boundaries of the Promised Land, 
 and of Judah, as well as a boundary of the land 
 of the Amorites (Num. 34.4; Josh. 15.3; 
 Judg. 1.36). [AKRABBIM.] 
 
 Maa'rath. A town in the mountains of 
 Judah, north of Hebron (Josh. 15.59). 
 
 Maareh-Geba. Judg. 20.33 (A.V. "the 
 meadows of Geba," or Gibeah, see ver. 10). 
 Perhaps the text should be emended and be 
 " to the west of Geba." 
 
 Maasai. [MAASIAI.] 
 
 Maasei'ah. Work of Jah: 1. A Levite who 
 took part in the ceremonies which accompanied 
 the removal of the Ark from the house of 
 Obed-edom (1 Ch. 15.18, 20). 2. One of the 
 captains who assisted in setting Joash on the 
 throne of Judah (2 Ch. 23.1). 3. An officer 
 of king Uzziah (2 Ch. 26.11). 4. A son of Ahaz, 
 
 king of Judah ; killed by Zichri, the Ephraimite, 
 in the invasion of Judah by Pekah, king of 
 Israel (2 Ch. 28.7). 5. The governor of Jerusa- 
 lem in Josiah's reign, who superintended the 
 restoration of the Temple (2 Ch. 34.8). 6. The 
 name of various persons who had married 
 foreign wives (Ezra 10.18,21,22,30). 7. The 
 father of Azariah, who repaired part of the 
 wall of Jerusalem (Neh. 3.23). 8. A priest 
 who stood beside Ezra while he read the law 
 (Neh. 8.4). 9. A priest who explained the 
 law read by Ezra (Neh. 8.7). 10. One who 
 sealed the covenant made by Nehemiah (Neh. 
 10.25). 11. A descendant of Pharez (son of 
 Judah), dwelling in Jerusalem after the 
 Captivity (Neh. 11.5). 12. A Benjamite whose 
 descendants dwelt in Jerusalem after the 
 Captivity (Neh. 11.7). 13. A priest who assisted 
 at the dedication of the wall of Jerusalem 
 (Neh. 12.41, 42). 14. A priest whose son was 
 sent by king Zedekiah to inquire of the Lord 
 (Jer. 21.1, 29.25, 37.3). 15. The father of a 
 false prophet during the Babylonian Captivity 
 (Jer. 29.21). 16. The grandfather of Baruch, 
 Jeremiah's amanuensis and messenger (Jer. 
 32.12, 51.59, R.V. Mahseiah). 17. An officer 
 of the Temple in Jehoiakim's reign (Jer. 35.4). 
 
 Maasi'ai (R.V. Maasai). Work of Jah: a 
 priest whose family dwelt in Jerusalem after the 
 Captivity (1 Ch. 9.12). 
 
 Ma'ath. An ancestor of Jesus (Lk. 3.26). 
 
 Ma'az. The son of Ram, the eldest son of 
 Jerahmeel, great-grandson of Judah (1 Ch. 
 2.27). 
 
 Maazi'ah. Jah is a refuge : a priest of the 
 twenty-fourth course in the days of David (1 Ch. 
 24.18). Priests of the same family sealed the 
 covenant made by Nehemiah (Neh. 10.8). 
 
 Macedo'nia. A Roman province extending 
 from the ^gean to the Adriatic, having Illy- 
 ricum on the north-west and Achaia on the 
 south. It was the first country in Europe 
 which received the Gospel, and was very 
 intimately associated with the ministry of Paul. 
 His work there was " in the beginning of the 
 Gospel" (Phil. 4.15). To Macedonia he was 
 summoned by a vision (Acts 16.9 ff.), 
 and he afterwards revisited its Churches 
 (Acts 19.21, 20.1-3; 1 Cor. 16.5; 2 Cor. 1.16). 
 Notable helpers of the apostle were Mace- 
 donians Gaius and Aristarchus (Acts 
 19.29), Secundus and Sopater (Acts 20.4), 
 Epaphroditus (Phil. 2.25). The Macedonian 
 Christians were eminent for piety and strength 
 of character (Acts 17.11 ; Phil. 4.10-19 ; 1 Thtss. 
 2.8,17-20, 3.10). In Macedonia, too, the 
 women converts took a conspicuous place in the 
 life of the Church of Christ. The first convert 
 was a woman (Acts 16.14), and women were 
 active C urch workers (Phil. 4.2,3). [LYDIA.] 
 
 Machba'nai (R.V. Machbannai). A Gadit* 
 warrior who joined David in Ziklag (1 Ch. 
 12.13). 
 
MACHBENAH] 
 
 299 
 
 [MAGOG 
 
 Machbe'nah (Tl.V. Machbena). A descendant 
 of Caleb (1 Ch. 2.49). 
 
 Ma'chi. A Gadite, the father of Geuel. 
 The latter was sent by Moses to spy out the 
 land (Num. 13.15). 
 
 Ma'cbir. (?) Salesman: 1. The eldest son of 
 Manasseh, and therefore the grandson of Joseph. 
 A large part of Canaan on the east of Jordan 
 was subdued by the descendants of Machir 
 (Gen. 50.23; Num. 26.29, 32.39; Dent. 3.15; 
 Josh. 17.1 ; 1 Ch. 2.21, 23). 2. The son of 
 Ammiel. He resided on the east side of the 
 Jordan, and sheltered Mephibosheth, the son of 
 Jonathan, after the downfall of Saul's dynasty 
 (2 Sam. 9.4, 5). Some years later, David, driven 
 from his throne by the rebellion of Absalom, also 
 found an asylum with Machir (2 Sam. 17.27-29). 
 
 Machirites. Descendants of Machir 1 (Num. 
 26.29). 
 
 Machnade'bai. A Hebrew who had married 
 a foreign wife (Ezra 10.40). 
 
 Machpe'lah. The field and cave at Hebron, 
 purchased by Abraham, in which were placed 
 the remains of Abraham, Sarah, Isaac, Rebekah, 
 Leah, and Jacob. The site is now covered by 
 a mosque, one of the four sanctuaries of the 
 Mohammedan world (Gen. 23.17-20, 25.9, 
 49.30, 50.13). 
 
 Ma'dai. The third son of Japheth (Gen. 10.2). 
 The same word is rendered " Medes " in 2 K. 
 17.6 and other passages. 
 
 Ma'dian. (A.V. Acts 7.29). [MIDIAN.] 
 
 Madman 'nah. Heap : a town in the south of 
 Judah (Josh. 15.31), founded by a son of Caleb 
 (1 Ch. 2.49). 
 
 Madmen. Dungheap : a town of Moab 
 (Jer. 48.2). 
 
 Madme'nah. Dunghill : a town in the lull 
 country of Benjamin (Isai. 10.31). 
 
 Madness. The epithet " mad " is applied 
 in Holy Scripture to (1 ) one deprived of reason 
 (Acts 26.24 ; 1 Cor. 14.23) ; (2) one whose reason 
 is depraved and overruled by his passions 
 (Acts 26.11); (3) one whose mind is perplexed 
 and bewildered, so disturbed that he acts in 
 an uncertain, extravagant, irregular manner 
 (Deut. 28.34; Eccles. 7.7); (4) one infatuated by 
 the vehemence of his desires after idols, vanities, 
 folly, deceit, or falsehood (Jer. 50.38 ; Has. 9.7). 
 In the East madmen are looked upon with a 
 kind of reverence, as possessed of a sort of 
 sacred character. An illustration of this is the 
 treatment of David when he feigned madness 
 at the court of Achish (1 Sam. 21.13-15). 
 
 Ma 'don. Strife : a Canaanitish town taken 
 by Joshua (Josh. 11.1, 12.19). 
 
 Maga'dan. R.V. reading in Matt. 15.39, 
 where A.V. has Magdala. 
 
 Magbish. A place mentioned in Ezra 2.30. 
 
 Magda'la. A town on the edge of the Sea 
 of Galilee, 3 miles north of Tiberias, named 
 only in A.V. of Matt. 15.39 (R.V. Magadan ; 
 Mk. 8.10 has Dalmanutha). It was the residence 
 of the Mary called from it Mary Magdalene. 
 It is identified with the modern village of El- 
 Mejdel. 
 
 Magdalene. Of Magdala, as a place of birth 
 or residence. [MARY 2.] 
 
 Magdi'el. God is renowned : a duke or ruler 
 of Edom (Gen. 36.43 ; 1 Ch. 1.54). 
 
 Magi. The word Rab-mag in Jer. 39.3,13 
 signifies " chief of the Magi," who were originally 
 a religious caste among the Persians, worshipping 
 God under the form of fire. Their presence 
 among the Chaldaeans of Nebuchadnezzar's 
 court led to a corruption of their original faith, 
 and their operations seemed mainly confined to 
 astrology, divination, and the interpretation 
 of dreams. The relations of Daniel with the 
 Magi are detailed in his prophecy. He was 
 the head of the Magi in Babylon (Dan. 5.11). 
 In the days preceding the N.T. history the name 
 " Magi " had become associated with trickery 
 of various sorts. Swarms of impostors bearing 
 the name were to be met with in every part of 
 the Roman Empire. Magus, is the epithet of 
 Simon, the trickster described in Acts 8.9. The 
 word, however, has an honourable significance 
 as applied to the " wise men from the East " who 
 came to seek the infant Saviour (Matt. 2). It 
 is rendered " sorcerer " in Acts 13.6, 8. [MEDES.] 
 Magic. The use of means to influence spirits 
 assumed to have control over men and circum- 
 stances. Magic was practised in Egypt (Ex. 7 and 
 8) and in the East generally. The Hebrews were 
 therefore in contact with the resort to magic, 
 and were by the Mosaic law forbidden to use it 
 (Lev. 19.31, 20.6 ; Deut. 18.9-14). Resort to it 
 is traceable in the incident of the mandrakes 
 found by Reuben (Gen. 30.14); in Jacob's 
 use of the peeled rods (Gen. 30.37) ; and in 
 the use of teraphim (Gen. 31.19 ; Judg. 17.5 ; 
 1 Sam. 19.13; Zech. 10.2; but cf. Hos. 3.4). 
 In the visit of Saul to the witch of Endor (1 Sam. 
 28) there is a resort to magic, with a result 
 surprising to the woman. In the N.T. the 
 " vain repetitions " of " the heathen " (Matt. 
 6.7) may have referred to the belief in the 
 efficacy of prayers or ascriptions repeated so 
 many times (cf. 1 K. 18.26). In the Acts 
 two persons are named as practising magic 
 Simon (8.9) and Elymas (13.8); and the 
 "curious arts" renounced at Ephesus (19.19) 
 were, no doubt, those of magic. Early Christian 
 writers assumed a relation between the pro- 
 fessor of magic and evil spirits ; whilst be- 
 lieving that these spirits could be controlled 
 by the word of a true believer speaking in the 
 name of Christ. The Council of Ancyra (315 A.D.) 
 was the first to legislate against magic. [EN- 
 CHANTMENT.] 
 
 Ma'gog. 1. The second son of Japheth 
 (Gen. 10.2; 1 Ch. 1.5). 2. The descendants 
 of Magog and their land : whether Scythia, 
 the country between the Black Sea and the 
 Caspian, or in Asia Minor, is uncertain. Ezekiel 
 employs them as a symbol of earthly violence 
 overthrown by the power of God (Ezek. 38.2, 
 39.6). The imagery of Ezekiel is used in the 
 Apocalypse to describe the final struggle 
 between Christ and Antichrist (Rev. 20.8). 
 [Goo.] 
 
MAGOR-MISSABIB] 
 
 300 
 
 [MALACHI, BOOK OF 
 
 Ma'gor-MissaTrib. Terror on every side (R.V. 
 marg.) : the name given by Jeremiah to Pashur, 
 the priest, when the latter put him into the 
 stocks for prophesying against the idolatry of 
 Jerusalem (Jer. 20.3). 
 
 Magpi'ash. A person or family signing the 
 covenant (Neh. 10.20). 
 
 Mahalah. [MAHLAH.] 
 
 Mahalale'el (R.V. Mahalalel). Praise of God: 
 
 1. The son of Cainan (R.V. Kenan) and fourth 
 in descent from Adam (Gen. 5.12-17 ; 1 Ch. 1.2). 
 
 2. One whose descendants dwelt in Jerusalem 
 after the Captivity (Neh. 11.4). 
 
 Maha'lath. Sickness: 1. A daughter of 
 Lshmael and one of Esau's wives (Gen. 28.9). 
 2. A granddaughter of David and one of 
 Rehoboam's wives (2 Ch. 11.18). 
 
 Maha'lath-leannoth. Words occurring in the 
 titles of Ps. 53, 88 respectively, prefaced by 
 "set to" (see R.V. and marg.). Possibly 
 Mahalath (" sickness ") is the name of some 
 plaintive melody befitting the sadness of the 
 words. But the phrases are of doubtful inter- 
 pretation. 
 
 Maha'lL [MAHLI.] 
 
 Mahana'im. Two camps or hosts : a town 
 east of the Jordan, south of the Jabbok, where 
 Jacob was met by the angels of God (Gen. 32.2). 
 It lay on the south boundary of Bashan, on 
 the frontier of Gad and Manasseh. It was 
 allotted to Gad and given to the Merarites 
 (Josh. 13.26,30, 21.38; 1 Ch. 6.80). There 
 Ishbosheth was crowned after the death of 
 Saul, and there David found refuge in his 
 flight from Absalom (2 Sam. 2.8, 12, 29, 17.24, 
 27, 19.32 ; 1 K. 2.8). It was one of Solomon's 
 commissariat districts (1 K. 4.14). Mahanaim 
 has been identified with the modern village 
 of Mahne", but this is uncertain. 
 
 Maha'neh-dan. Camp of Dan : a fortified 
 camp of Danites in their contests with the 
 Pliilistines, where the 600 gathered before 
 setting out on their expedition against Laish, 
 and where Samson passed his boyhood (Judg. 
 13.25, 18.12). 
 
 Maha'rai. One of David's warriors (2 Sam. 
 23.28 ; 1 Ch. 11.30, 27.13). 
 
 Ma'hath. Dissolution : 1. A descendant of 
 Kohath, the son of Levi (1 Ch. 6.35; 2 Ch. 
 29.12). 2. A Levite, overseer of the dedicated 
 things in Hezekiah's reign (2 Ch. 31.13). 
 
 Maha'vite, The. A designation of Eliel, one 
 of David's warriors (1 Ch. 11.46). 
 
 Mahazi'oth. Visions : one of the sons of 
 Heman, set over the service of song in David's 
 reign (1 Ch. 25.4, 30). 
 
 Ma 'her - Sha'lal - Hash - Baz. The symbolical 
 name given to a son of Isaiah, meaning " spoil 
 speedeth, prey hasteth " ; implying that 
 Damascus and Samaria were soon to be ravaged 
 by the king of Assyria (Isai. 8.1, 3). 
 
 Mah'lah. Sickness : the eldest daughter of 
 Zelophehad, descended from Manasseh, and 
 allowed a portion in the land because her 
 father left no male issue (Num. 26.33, 27.1, 36.11 ; 
 Josh. 17.3). 
 
 Mah'li. Weak: 1. A son of Merari, son oi 
 Levi (Ex. 6.19 ; Num. 3.20 ; 1 Ch. 6.19 ; Ezra 
 8.18). 2. A son of Mushi, the son of Merari 
 (1 Ch. 6.47, 23.23, 24.30). 
 
 Mahlites. The descendants of Mahli 1 
 (Num. 3.33, 26.58). 
 
 Mah'lon. Sickly : the son of Naomi and 
 first husband of Ruth (Ruth 1.2, 5, 4.9, 10). 
 [CHTLION.] 
 
 Mah'ol. Dance : the father of certain men 
 renowned for wisdom in Solomon's time (1 K. 
 4.31). 
 
 Mahseiah. [MAASEIAH 16.] 
 
 Mataz. A part of one of Solomon's com- 
 missariat districts, probably in Dan (1 K. 4.9). 
 
 Makhe'loth. The twenty-first station of 
 Israel from Egypt (Num. 33.25, 26). 
 
 Makke'dah. A town on a hill, 2 miles south- 
 east of Ekron. Five kings were here taken 
 in a cave. It was stormed by Joshua and 
 allotted to Judah (Josh. 10.10-29, 15.41). 
 
 Mak'tesh. Mortar : a place in Jerusalem, 
 the quarter of the merchants (Zeph. 1.11). 
 
 Ma'lachi. My messenger : the name or the 
 title of the author of the last book in the O.T. 
 Canon (Mai. 1.1). If Malachi were the prophet's 
 name, it may have been an abbreviation of 
 Malachiah. Jewish opinion for some time 
 after our Lord, the Early Church Fathers, and 
 most expositors prefer, however, to regard 
 Malachi not as a proper name but as a title. 
 Thus the LXX in Mai. 1.1 reads " by the hand 
 of His messenger " ; and the R.V. marg. has 
 " my messenger." Jerome refers to a Hebrew 
 view that this " messenger " was Ezra the 
 scribe. Nothing is definitely known as to the 
 personality of the writer, beyond what may be 
 gathered from his work. [MALACHI, BOOK OP.] 
 
 Malachi, Book of. The last book in the 
 division of the O.T. known as the Minor Prophets. 
 For the authorship of the book see MALACHI. 
 Its date, must be inferred from its contents ; but 
 whilst some have placed it before the arrival of 
 Ezra, others refer it to the period during which 
 Nehemiah was absent at the Persian court. 
 The style of the \vriter is vigorous, concise, and 
 clear. A deep earnestness marks all his 
 utterances. Characteristic is the use the 
 prophet makes of objections which may have 
 been urged first when his messages were 
 orally delivered (see 1.2, 2.17, 3.8, 13, 14). The 
 contents of the book may be summarised as 
 follows : 
 
 I. Profanity in Divine service (chap. 1), especi- 
 ally disgraceful on two accounts : its ingratitude 
 for Jehovah's favours shown to Israel, in con- 
 trast with Edom (1.2-5), and its contrast with 
 purer worship outside the Holy Land (1.10, 11), 
 which may describe the actual practice of the 
 Dispersion at the time, or foreshadow the 
 universal worship of the Church : " in every 
 place incense is offered unto My name," 
 anticipating our Lord's great declaration (John 
 4.21). 
 
 II. Priestly unfaithfulness (2.1-9). If the 
 people impiously brought mean and blemished 
 
MALCHAM] 
 
 301 
 
 [MAN OF SIN 
 
 offerings to the altar, the priests, by their 
 corrupt teachings and respect of persons, were 
 guiltier still. 
 
 III. Ungodly marriages (2.10-16). The great 
 purpose of God in the marriage institution, 
 to raise up a holy seed, was transgressed by 
 these alliances ; and the divorces to which they 
 led were the source of bitter domestic sorrow, 
 and of weeping which covered the altar of 
 Jehovah with tears (2.13). 
 
 IV. Such sins would bring down judgment 
 (2.17-3.6). Jehovah's messenger would come to 
 prepare His way : the Lord Himself would 
 appear in His Temple to judge and to purify. 
 
 V. The sin of the people in withholding their 
 gifts from God is again set forth ; with the 
 promise that faithfulness in this matter would be 
 followed by temporal blessing : and the question 
 of ungodly scoffers, whether religion was pro- 
 fitable, would be set at rest. In contrast with 
 these scoffers is set the example of the faithful 
 (3.7-18). 
 
 VI. The prophet closes the book with an 
 assurance of approaching salvation, predicts the 
 rising of the Sun of Righteousness, and enjoins 
 until that day the observance of the Law. To 
 confirm it, and to prepare the way for judg- 
 ment, a second Elijah would appear (4). 
 
 The N.T. references to Malachi are interesting. 
 The choice of Israel in preference to Edom (1.2) 
 is used to illustrate Divine election (Rom. 9.13). 
 The " messenger of God " (3.1) and " Elijah the 
 prophet " (4.5, 6) are identified with John the 
 Baptist (Matt. 11.10, 14, 17.11 ; Mk. 1.2, 9.11, 12 ; 
 Lk. 1.17, 76, 7.27). The image of the rising Sun 
 of Righteousness (4.2) has its parallel in " the 
 Dayspring from on high " (Lk. 1.78 ; cl. John 
 1.4, 8.12, 9.5, 12.46). 
 
 Mal'cham (R.V. Malcam). 1. Son of Shahar- 
 aim, a Benjamite (1 Ch. 8.9). 2. The god of the 
 Ammonites, also called Molech and Milcom 
 (Zeph. 1.5). The form Malcam means in Hebrew 
 " their king," and so in R.V. marg. In Jer. 
 49.1, 3, R.V. also gives Malcam in text, " their 
 king " in marg. ; in 2 Sam. 12.30, R.V. marg. 
 has Malcam as an alternative for " their king " 
 of the text. [MOLECH.] 
 
 Malchi'ah, Malchi'jah. Jah is king: 1..A 
 Gershonite, ancestor of Asaph, who was a leader 
 of the singing in David's reign (1 Ch. 6.40). 
 2. The head of a family of priests when the 
 charges of the sanctuary were assigned by lot 
 (1 Ch. 24.9). 3, 4, 5. Persons who had married 
 foreign wives during or after the Captivity, and 
 put them away at the command of Ezra (Ezra 
 10.25, 31 ; Neh. 3.11). 6, 7. Persons who assisted 
 in repairing the wall of Jerusalem after the 
 Captivity (Neh. 3. 14, 31). 8. One of the priests 
 who stood at the left hand of Ezra \\ hen he read 
 the Law to the people in the street before the 
 water-gate (Neh. 8.4). 9. A priest who sealed 
 the covenant (Neh. 10.3). 10. A priest who took 
 part in the dedicating of the wall of Jerusalem 
 (Neh. 12.42). 11. The father of Pashur. Pashur 
 was sent by king Zedekiah to Jeremiah to con- 
 sult the Lord. Jeremiah was subsequently 
 
 cast into Pashur's dungeon or cistern (1 Ch. 9.12 ; 
 Neh. 11.12 ; Jer. 21.1, 38.1, 6). 
 
 Malchi'el. God is king : grandson of Asher, 
 whose genealogy is noted in Gen. 46.17 ; Num. 
 26.45 ; 1 Ch. 7.31. 
 
 Malchi'eKtes, The. The descendants of 
 Malchiel (Num. 26.45). 
 
 Malchi'jah. [MALCHIAH.] 
 
 Malchi'ram. My king is exalted : one of the 
 sons of Jeconiah, or Jehoiachin, king of Judah 
 (1 Ch. 3.18) 
 
 Malchi-shu'a. One of the sons of King Saul 
 (1 Ch. 8.33, 9.39). He and his two brothers fell 
 at the battle of Gilboa (1 Sam. 14.49, 31.2, A.V. 
 Melchi-shua). 
 
 Malchus. The high-priest's servant whose 
 ear Peter cut off at Gethsemane. His name 
 is given by John only ( John 18.10, 26 ; cf. Matt. 
 20.51 ; Mk. 14.47 ; Lk. 22.50). 
 
 Malele'el (R.V. Mahala'leel).-(I&. 3.37). 
 [MAHALALEEL.] 
 
 Mallo'thi. One of the sons of Heman (1 Ch. 
 25.4, 26). 
 
 Mallows. Only in Job 30.4, where R.V. has 
 " salt-wort," a plant eaten by the very poor 
 in Palestine. 
 
 Mal'luch. 1. A Merarite whose descendant 
 Ethan was set over the service of song by 
 David (1 Ch. 6.44). 2, 3. Persons who had 
 married foreign wives (Ezra 10.29,32). 4, 5. 
 The name of two persons who, with Nehemiah, 
 sealed the covenant (Neh. 10.4,27, 12.2; the 
 former of these is perhaps the Malluchi (A.V. 
 Melicu) of 12.14). 
 
 Malobath'ron. In Cant. 2.17 R.V. marg., 
 where A.V. and R.V. read Bether (which see). 
 It is a spice tree, a kind of cassia, which grows 
 in China, but not wild in Palestine. 
 
 Mam'mon. An Aramaic word used in Matt. 
 6.24; Lk. 16.9, 11, 13 as a personification of riches. 
 Its original meaning may be "hidden (treasure)." 
 
 Mamre. The word occurs in three con- 
 texts : (1) The name of an Amorite, brother 
 of Eshcol and Amer, who entered into alliance 
 with Abraham (Gen. 14.13, 24). (2) The place 
 where Abraham dwelt : R.V. " by the vales 
 (marg. terebinths) of Mamre " ; A.V., wrongly, 
 "in the plain" (Gen. 13.18, 18.1). In the 
 former passage these trees are said to be " in 
 Hebron." See also 35.27. (3) In connexion 
 with Machpelah, the burying-place purchased 
 by Abraham. This was " before Marnre " 
 (23.17, 19 identified with Hebron, ver. 19 
 25.9, 49.30, 50.13). 
 
 Man. The chief words rendered " man " in 
 the O.T. are: (1) Adam (Gen. 1.26, etc.), a 
 term for mankind collectively and in distinc- 
 tion from God. (2) Ish (Gen. 2.24, etc.), a 
 male. (3) Enosh (Gen. 6.4, etc.), the biman 
 race as mortal beings. (4) Geber (Er. 10.11, 
 etc.), man in his strength. In the N.T. the 
 chief words are (1) Aner (Lk. 1.27, etc.), man 
 in age and sex ; (2) Anthropos (Matt. 4.4, etc.), 
 man as opposed to beast. 
 
 Man of Sin. Only in 2 Thess. 2.3. [ANTI- 
 CHRIST.] 
 
MAN, SON OF] 
 
 302 
 
 [MANNA 
 
 Man, Son oL [Sox OP MAN.] 
 
 Mana'en. Comforter : an early associate or 
 foster-brother of Herod Antipas, mentioned as 
 one of the five Christian prophets or teachers 
 in the Church at Antioch (Acts 13.1). 
 
 Mana'hath. Resting-place : 1. A descendant 
 of Seir, the Horite (Gen. 36.23 ; 1 Ch. 1.40). 
 2. A city in Benjamin, over against Gibeah 
 (1 Ch. 8.6). 
 
 Mana'hethites, The. The families of Shobal 
 and of Salma, two sons of Caleb (1 Ch. 2.52, 54). 
 In ver. 52 R.V. "half of the Menuhoth," 
 ver. 54 " half of the Manahathites." Probably 
 we should read " Manahathites " in both verses, 
 and suppose that the town Manahath was 
 peopled by two separate families of the Edomite 
 clan Caleb. 
 
 Manas'seh. Causing forgetfulness : 1. The 
 elder son of Joseph (Gen. 41.51). Joseph 
 brought his two sons to his dying father Jacob, 
 that he might bless them. Jacob adopted 
 them, although the birthright was given to the 
 younger, Ephraim (Gen. 48.1-22). The tribe 
 of Manasseh came out of Egypt in number 
 32,200 men, upwards of twenty years old, 
 under the leadership of Gamaliel, son of Pedah- 
 zur (Num. 2.20, 21). This tribe was divided 
 in the Promised Land. One half -tribe of 
 Manasseh settled on the east of the Jordan 
 and possessed the country of Bashan, from 
 the river Jabbok northwards ; and the other 
 half-tribe of Manasseh settled on the west of 
 Jordan and possessed the country between 
 Ephraim on the south and Issachar on the 
 north (Josh. 16.17). Gideon and Jephthah were 
 Manassites. The half-tribe on the east of 
 Jordan joined Reuben and Gad in sending 
 120,000 men fully armed to the coronation of 
 David at Hebron (1 Ch. 12.37). But prosperity 
 led them into idolatry, which brought its 
 punishment in their captivity by Pul and 
 Tilgath-Pilneser (1 Ch. 5.23-26). Members of 
 the tribe of Manasseh played a good part 
 in various religious reforms (2 Ch. 15.9, 30.1, 
 31.1, 34.6). 
 
 2. The fifteenth king of Judah. The son of 
 Hezekiah, Manasseh was twelve years old when 
 he began a reign which lasted fifty-five years. 
 He worshipped the idols of Canaan ; rebuilt 
 the high places that his father had destroyed ; 
 set up altars to Baal ; and made Asheroth. 
 [GROVE.] He raised altars to the whole host 
 of heaven in the courts of God's house ; made 
 his son pass through the fire in honour of 
 Moloch ; was addicted to magic, divinations, 
 auguries, and other superstitions ; set up an 
 idol in the house of God ; and, finally, he 
 involved bis people in all the abominations of 
 the idolatrous nations to such a degree that 
 Israel committed more wickedness than the 
 Canaanites whom the Lord had driven out 
 before them. To all these crimes Manasseh 
 added cruelty, and he shed rivers of innocent 
 blood in Jerusalem. Chronicles adds that for 
 these sins God punished him by captivity 
 at Babylon, where he bumbled himself before 
 
 God. Being restored to Jerusalem, he set up 
 again the worship of the Lord and destroyed 
 all the symbols of idolatrous worship except 
 the high places. He caused Jerusalem to be 
 fortified, and he put garrisons in all the strong 
 places of Judah. Manasseh died at Jerusalem, 
 and was buried in the garden of his house 
 (2 K. 21 ; 2 Ch. 33; Jer. 15.4). The Prayer of 
 Manasses contained in the Apocrypha is doubt- 
 less a late composition 
 
 3, 4. Persons who in the days of Ezra had 
 married foreign wives (Ezra 10.30, 33). 
 
 5. In Judg. 18.30 the first priest of the 
 idolatrous shrine set up by the tribe of Dan 
 is named as " Jonathan, the son of Gershom, 
 the son of Manasseh " (A.V. ; R.V. Moses, marg. 
 Manasseh). There can be no doubt that the 
 true reading is Moses. In the traditional Hebrew 
 text the letter n (sufficient, as only the con- 
 sonants were written, to change the one name 
 into the other) is written above the line, and 
 is a device to defend the fame of Moses. 
 It may also suggest that such idolatry was 
 more natural to a descendant of the idolatrous 
 king Manasseh than to " the son of Gershom, 
 the son of Moses." 
 
 Manas'ses. Greek form of Manasseh the 
 king (Matt. 1.10), the tribe (Rev. 7.6); (R.V. 
 Manasseh). 
 
 Manas 'sites, The. Members of the tribe of 
 Manasseh (Dent. 4.43 ; Judg. 12.4 ; 2 K. 10.33). 
 
 Mandrakes (R.V. Love Apples). Only in 
 Gen. 30.14-16; Cant. 7.13. The mandrake is 
 a near relative of the nightshades, the " apple 
 of Sodom " and the potato plant. It is found 
 throughout the valleys and plains of Palestine, 
 both west and east of the Jordan, and is reputed 
 by the Arabs to possess medicinal virtues. It 
 grows low like lettuce, to which its leaves bear 
 a strong resemblance, except that they have a 
 dark green colour. The flowers are purple. 
 The fruit, when ripe, in the beginning of May, 
 is of the size and colour of a small apple, exceed- 
 ingly ruddy, and of a strong odour. It is 
 generally valued by the inhabitants as exhilar- 
 ating their spirits. The curiously forked shape 
 of the root easily suggests a representation of the 
 human form. Magical virtues were popularly 
 attributed to the plant. 
 
 Maneh. Only in Ezek. 45.12. Elsewhere 
 the Hebrew word is rendered " pound," R.V. 
 having " Heb. maneh " in the margin (1 K. 
 10.17, etc.). [WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.] 
 
 Manna. The word is by some said to be 
 derived from the surprised question, " What 
 is it ? " (Ex. 16.15, marg., where R.V. marg. has, 
 " It is manna, Heb. Man hu "). The gift of manna 
 as food for Israel in the wilderness and the 
 conditions attending its use are described in 
 Ex. 16.14-36 ; Num. 11.6-9. A pot of manna 
 was laid up in the ark as a memorial (Ex. 16.33 ; 
 Heb. 9.4). The provision of manna is also 
 alluded to in Deut. 8.3, 16 ; Josh. 5.12 ; Neh. 
 9.20; Ps. 78.24; John 6.31,49,58). In Rev. 
 2.17 " the hidden manna " is opposed to the 
 idol-offerings. Manna has been identified with 
 
MANOAH] 
 
 303 
 
 [MARK 
 
 the exudation of a tree still found in the Sinaitic 
 peninsula, and with other substances including 
 lichen, which has been carried many miles by 
 the wind. But no single product fulfils all the 
 conditions of the Bible narrative. The manna 
 of modern use is the dried juice of the ash, arid is 
 made in South Europe. 
 
 Mano'ah. Rest : the father of Samson, whose 
 birth was announced to him and to his wife 
 by "the angel of the Lord" (Judg. 13.3-23). 
 Manoah and his wife sought to dissuade Samson 
 from marrying a Philistine woman (Judg. 
 14.2-4). Samson was buried in "the burying- 
 place of Manoah his father " (Judg. 16.31). 
 
 Manslayer. The children of Israel were 
 commanded to appoint six cities of refuge, 
 three on each side of the Jordan, that any one 
 who killed a person might flee thither from 
 the avenger of blood ; but if the act was com- 
 mitted with design, the murderer was to be given 
 up to the avenger, even though he had fled to 
 the altar of God (Ex. 21.14 ; Num. 35 ; 1 K. 
 2.29-34). At the death of the high-priest the 
 manslayer might with impunity quit the city of 
 refuge. [REFUGE, CITIES OF.] 
 
 Mantelet. Nah. 2.5 R.V., where A.V. has 
 Defence. Apparently a shelter run forward by 
 the assailants in a siege. 
 
 Mantle. The mantle with which Jael covered 
 Sisera (Judg. 4.18) was a plaid or shawl or 
 blanket such as is still commonly used by Arabs 
 in making up beds in a tent. The mantle which 
 Samuel wore when summoned from the dead 
 by the witch of Endor, and by which Saul 
 identified him, was the official priestly tunic or 
 robe (1 Sam. 28.14). The mantle of Elijah was 
 the cape or wrapper for his shoulders which, 
 with a strip of skin or leather round his loins, 
 formed all his clothing (1 K. 19.13, 19 ; 2 K. 
 2.8, 13, 14). 
 
 Ma'och. The father of Achish, king of 
 Gath. David fled to Achish when persecuted 
 by Saul (1 Sam. 27.2) ; identical with MAACAH 4. 
 
 Ma'on. Habitation : a town on a hill sur- 
 rounded by waste pasture ground in the moun- 
 tains of Judab, about 2 miles from Kurmul 
 (Carmel), and 7 miles south of Hebron. There 
 David hid himself from Saul ; and there Nabal 
 fed his flocks (Josh. 15.55 ; 1 Sam. 23.24, 25, 
 25.2 ; 1 Ch. 2.45). [MEHUNIM.] 
 
 Ma'onites, The. A tribe near Amalek, 
 mentioned among the early oppressors of Israel 
 (Judg. 10.12, see R.V. marg.). [MEHUNIM.] 
 
 Ma'ra. Bitter : the name assumed by Naomi, 
 after the loss of her husband and sons, instead 
 of her former one, which signified " pleasant " 
 (Ruth 1.20). 
 
 Ma'rah. Bitterness : a well of brackish water 
 in the wilderness of Shur, three days' journey 
 by Israel from the border of the Red Sea. Its 
 waters were made palatable by Moses casting 
 a tree therein (Ex. 15.22-25 ; Num. 33.8). 
 
 Mara'lah. A landmark on the boundary of 
 Zebulun (Josh. 19.11). 
 
 Marana'tha. An Aramaic expression used 
 by St. Paul (1 Cor. 16.22). The A.V. adopts 
 
 (without marginal explanation) an ancient and 
 widespread interpretation which linked the two 
 words " anathema maranatha " into a double 
 curse. This has no justification, and is now 
 universally abandoned. The R.V. renders 
 " let him be anathema. Maran atha," with 
 marg. "That is, Our Lord cometh." This 
 would make the phrase the Aramaic expression 
 of the early Christian watchword occurring again 
 in its Greek form at Phil. 4.5, " The Lord is at 
 hand." Some scholars, however, divide the 
 the word into marana tha, " Our Lord, come " ; 
 cf. Rev. 22.20, " Come, Lord Jesus," and this 
 view is perhaps gaining ground. [ANATHEMA.] 
 
 Marcus. [MARK.] 
 
 Mare'shah. Chief town : 1. Now Merash, 
 on the border of the Philistine plain ; a town 
 in the lowland of Judah, commanding one of the 
 passes to the hills, fortified by Rehoboam 
 (Josh. 15.44 ; 2 Ch. 11.8) ; the limit of invasion 
 by Terah the Cushite (2 Ch. 14.9, 10) ; the 
 birthplace of Eliezer the prophet (2 Ch. 20.37) ; 
 the subject of prophetic denunciation with word- 
 play on the name (Mic. 1.15). 2. The "father 
 of Hebron," which perhaps means that Hebron 
 was colonised from Mareshah 1 (1 Ch. 2.42). 
 3. The " son " of Laadah, who perhaps founded 
 Mareshah 1 (1 Ch. 4.21). 
 
 Marish. (Ezek. 47.11). Old English for 
 " marsh." 
 
 Mark. The Evangelist, a Jew who had 
 taken a Roman name, identified with " John, 
 whose surname was Mark " (Acts 12.12, 25), 
 the cousin of Barnabas (Col. 4.10), and son of 
 Mary, who resided at Jerusalem (Acts 12.12). 
 Mark himself was probably converted to 
 the faith of Christ by the ministry of Peter 
 (1 Pel. 5.13), who was accustomed to frequent 
 his mother's house (Acts 12.12). He accom- 
 panied Paul and Barnabas to Antioch from 
 Jerusalem (Acts 12.25), and set out with them 
 upon a missionary journey ; but left them 
 before its completion (Acts 13.5, 13). In 
 consequence of this, Paul refused to take him 
 on another tour, about six years afterwards : 
 and Mark then accompanied Barnabas on his 
 voyage to Cyprus ( Acts 15.38, 39). He became, 
 however, again an attendant of Paul, when a 
 prisoner at Rome ; and is mentioned in a manner 
 which shows that he had regained his place in 
 the apostle's esteem (Col. 4.10 ; 2 Tim. 4.11 ; 
 Philem. 24). Early Christian writers assert 
 that he attended Peter during a considerable 
 portion of his ministry, enjoying his intimate 
 friendship, and acting as his " interpreter " or 
 secretary ; and that he afterwards laboured 
 and suffered martyrdom in Egypt. 
 
 Some interesting conjectures are associated 
 with Mark. It has been suggested that the 
 house of Acts 12.12 was the house where (in the 
 lifetime of Mark's father) the Last Supper was 
 eaten (Mk. 14.14); that the Garden of Geth- 
 semane belonged to it ; and that Mark himself 
 was the "man" of Mk. 14.13 and the "young 
 man" of the incident related only in his Gospel 
 (Mk. 14.51,52). [JOHN 2.1 x 
 
MARK, GOSPEL ACCORDING TO] 304 
 
 [MARRIAGE 
 
 Mark, the Gospel according to. The author- 
 ship of this Gospel is ascribed to John Mark. 
 [MARK.] One of the oldest of Christian tra- 
 ditions associates its sources with Peter, indeed, 
 Justin Martyr (100-120 A.D.) quotes the Gospel 
 as the " Memoirs of Peter." Certain character- 
 istics of the Gospel (see below) support such an 
 origin. Christian tradition is not less strong 
 in naming Rome as the place of its composition. 
 Its date is said by Irenoeus to be subsequent to 
 the deaths of Peter and Paul. But from the 
 absence of reference to the capture of Jerusalem 
 (70 A.D.), it seems necessary to place it not 
 later than that year, and so between 63 and 
 70 A.D. 
 
 The contents of this Gospel may be divided 
 thus : 
 
 I. A brief introduction, describing the 
 preaching of our Lord's forerunner, and His 
 own baptism and temptation (1.1-13). 
 
 II. The leading events Of our Lord's public 
 life and ministry in Galilee, occupying the 
 larger portion of the book (1.14-9.50). 
 
 III. A short account of our Lord's journey 
 to Jerusalem (10) ; His entrance into the city, 
 and some events which occurred there, chiefly His 
 sufferings, death, and resurrection (11.1-16.8). 
 
 IV. A section (16.9-20) which has been 
 challenged as not forming a part of the original 
 Gospel (see below). 
 
 From internal evidence the Gospel was 
 written mainly for Gentile readers. Thus 
 Words not understood by Gentiles are ex- 
 plained (3.17, 5.41, 7.11 and 34, 10.46, 14.36, 
 15.34) ; Jewish customs are explained (7.3, 4, 
 14.12, 15.42); the references to the O.T. 
 are few ; Latin forms, not used in the other 
 Gospels, appear (6.27, 7.4, 12.42, 15.39, 44, 45). 
 
 The relation of Mark to the other Synoptic 
 Gospels has been the subject of much inquiry. 
 Almost the whole of Mark is found in Matthew 
 or Luke, or in both of them. Hence the inference 
 that Matthew and Luke had access to a narrative 
 which was either the present Mark or a simpler 
 form of it. An alternative explanation, that 
 Mark borrowed from Matthew and Luke, is 
 excluded by a comparison of the three narra- 
 tives. There are thus in Mark few passages 
 which have no parallels in Matthew or Luke. 
 Those peculiar to Mark are : 
 
 Miracles of the deaf and dumb man (7.31- 
 37), the blind man at Bethsaida (8.22-26); 
 the parable of the seed growing secretly 
 (4.26-29) ; the incident of the young man in 
 the linen cloth at the arrest of our Lord 
 (14.51, 52), the appearance and charge after 
 the Resurrection (16.14-18) ; and the explana- 
 tion of Jewish customs of purification (7.2-4). 
 
 The omissions of this Gospel are as noteworthy 
 as its contents. It does not present our Lord's 
 relation to the Jewish people or the Mosaic 
 economy ; its references to the prophetic 
 writings, and to the O.T. Scriptures generally, 
 nre but few, being, in most cases, citations by 
 our Lord Himself or other speakers, not by 
 the evangelist ; the only exception being in 
 
 1.2, 3. (The quotation, 15.28, is omitted by 
 the best authorities.) It does not (like Matthew) 
 aim at combating Jewish prejudices; and it 
 takes for granted, rather than fully displays (as 
 does that of Luke), the adaptation of the 
 Gospel to the world. It contains comparatively 
 little of our Lord's teaching ; and what it does 
 give, it relates with much brevity. 
 
 Amongst other characteristics of this Gospel 
 it will be noted that, unlike the others, it ex- 
 hibits no predominant theological purpose ; 
 it is simply a chronicle, dwelling particularly 
 on our Lord's wonderful deeds. The life which 
 it portrays is crowded with action, indicative at 
 once of unlimited power, unwearied energy, 
 and inexhaustible grace. The author's associa- 
 tion with Peter will account for the constant 
 vivid and circumstantial touches in the narrative. 
 The very Aramaic words employed by our 
 Lord are in several instances given, as Boanerges, 
 Talitha cumi, Ephphatha, Corban, Abba. The 
 various emotions of the personages in the 
 narrative are strikingly indicated : see, e.g., 
 3.34, 8.12, 10.14,21,32, 16.5,6. Time and 
 place are carefully particularised. Whilst Mark 
 gives certain passages referring to Peter which 
 are omitted by the other evangelists (1.36, 
 11.21, 13.3, 16.7), he omits references to Peter 
 which are equally important (cf., e.g., 7.17 
 with Matt. 15.15, and 8.29,30 with Matt. 
 16.17-19). 
 
 The last twelve verses of the Gospel have been 
 the subject of much controversy. In the R.V. 
 they are printed after a space, with the 
 following marginal note : " The two oldest 
 Greek manuscripts, and some other authorities, 
 omit from ver. 9 to the end. Some other 
 authorities have adifferent ending to the Gospel." 
 It has been suggested that they were added by 
 Aristion, who is mentioned by Papias as one of 
 the disciples of the Lord. Their style is quite 
 different from that of the rest of the Gospel. 
 
 Ma 'roth. Bitterness: a town in the lowland 
 of Judah (Mic. 1.12, where the word-play 
 should be noted). 
 
 Marriage. The institution of marriage is, in 
 Holy Scripture, dated from the creation (Gen. 
 2.23, 24), and is so described by our Lord (Matt. 
 19.4, 5). The earliest O.T. records of marriages 
 show that the union was arranged for by 
 the parents (Gen. 21.21 ; 24), though the 
 consent of the contracting parties was some- 
 times asked (Gen. 24.58). On betrothal, pur- 
 chase-money or dowry was paid (Gen. 24.53, 
 34.12) ; the bride also received presents (Gen. 
 24.53). The payment was in some cases made 
 by service rendered (Gen. 29.18, 27, 28 ; Josh. 
 15.16). The marriage was accompanied by 
 feasting (Gen. 29.22 ; Judg. 14.10, 12). The 
 bridegroom was for a year freed from the 
 summons to war or " any business " (Deut. 24.5 ; 
 cf. Lk. 14.20). 
 
 Whilst by the law marriage within certain 
 degrees of affinity was prohibited (Lev. 18.6-18, 
 20.11, 12, 17, 19-21 ; Deut. 22.30, 27.20, 22, 23), 
 there are instances of marriage between near 
 
MARRIAGE CEREMONIES] 
 
 305 
 
 [MARRIAGE CEREMONIES 
 
 relatives (Gen. 24.4, 29.19). The marriage to 
 the sister of a wife still living was forbidden 
 (Lev. 18.18). The marriage with the widow of 
 a dead brother (Gen. 38.8, 11 ; cf. Matt. 22.24) 
 was enjoined for a particular purpose. At 
 first, marriage unions were formed as far as 
 possible within the same family (cf. Gen. 29.19 
 with Gen. 27.43, 28.5). Later, marriage with 
 Canaanitish women or other pagans was 
 forbidden (Deut. 7.1-4). Exception would ap- 
 pear to have been made in favour of Edomites 
 and Egyptians (Deut. 23.7, 8). Marriage with 
 a woman taken captive in war was also allowed 
 (Deut. 21.10-14). Joseph (Qen. 41.45) and 
 Moses (Ex. 2.21 ; Num. 12.1) married outside 
 the race. So, later on, did David (2 Sam. 3.3), 
 Solomon (1 K. 11.1), Ahab (1 K. 16.31), and 
 Manasseh (1 Ch. 7.14). For difficulties occasioned 
 by marriages with heathen women see 
 Ezra 9 and~10; Neh. 13.23. The marriage of 
 the high-priest (Lev. 21.13, 14), the priests 
 (Lev. 21.7), and an heiress (Num. 36.5-9), and a 
 divorced woman (Deut. 24.1-4) were restricted 
 by ordinances. 
 
 In the N.T. our Lord refers to marriage as 
 divinely instituted, and indissoluble, and to 
 divorce as a concession due to " hardness of 
 heart " (Matt. 5.31, 32, 19.9 ; Mk. 10.2-9). He 
 was Himself present at the marriage at Cana, 
 and wrought at it His first miracle (John 2.1-11). 
 As against ascetics who preached the necessity 
 of celibacy (1 Tim. 4.3), marriage is declared 
 "honourable" (Heb. 13.4). Much of Paul's 
 language as to marriage and celibacy must be 
 read with due regard to the circumstances of 
 the times and the expectation of an early 
 Second Coming (1 Cor. 7). Members of the 
 Christian Church are warned to marry within 
 it (1 Cor. 7.39 ; 2 Cor. 6.14). The case of the 
 married couple, one of whom becomes a Christian 
 whilst the other does not, is dealt with in 1 Cor. 
 7.12-16. The general relations and duties of 
 husband and wife are set forth in 1 Cor. 11.3, 
 8-12, 14.35 ; Eph. 5.22-33 ; Col. 3.18, 19 ; 
 1 Tim. 2.11-15; 1 Pet. 3.1-7. [ADULTERY, 
 POLYGAMY, and the next article.] 
 
 Marriage Ceremonies. A knowledge of the 
 ceremonies attending weddings in the East is 
 essential to the understanding of several 
 passages of Scripture. Betrothals take place 
 with much feasting and hilarity, and then the 
 young couple are permitted to talk to each 
 other and so become better acquainted. But 
 for a few days before the marriage they both 
 shut themselves up in their respective homes, 
 when the bride and bridegroom receive visits 
 from parties of their friends. The companions of 
 the bridegroom are expressly mentioned in the 
 history of Samson ; also the companions of the 
 bride (Judg. 14.10-18 ; Ps. 45.9, 14, 15). The 
 friends and companions of the bride sang the 
 Epithalamium, or wedding song, at the door of 
 the bride the evening before the wedding. The 
 wedding-guests from either side were " the 
 children of the bride-chamber " (Matt. 9.15), 
 a fact which casts light upon the words of our 
 20 
 
 Lord, " Can the children of the bride-chamber 
 fast while the bridegroom is with them ? " The 
 bridegroom sets out to claim his bride late in 
 the evening, accompanied by a procession of 
 friends (Matt. 22.1-10, 25.1-10 ; Lk. 14.8) bearing 
 torches and lamps, and generally preceded by a 
 band of musicians. No one can join the throng 
 without bearing some kind of light. The lights 
 carried in the processions are called mesh-als. 
 Linen rags or tow are tightly forced together, and 
 put into frames of metal, at the top of a long pole. 
 At other times the lamps or torches are held in 
 one hand, while in the other is a bottle of oil ; and 
 the bearers take care to pour out of the latter, 
 from time to time, upon the linen, to keep up 
 the flame, which would otherwise go out 
 (Matt. 25.1-8). An Eastern traveller, describing 
 a bridegroom's procession which he witnessed, 
 says that " when the company arrived at the 
 entrance of the street where the bride resided, 
 we heard the sound of many female voices, and 
 observed by the light of the torches a company 
 of veiled bride's-maids, waiting on the balcony, 
 to give notice of the coming of the bridegroom. 
 When they caught sight of the approaching 
 procession, they ran back into the house, 
 making it resound with the cry, ' Halil, halil, 
 halil ! ' and music, both vocal and instrumental, 
 commenced within. Thus the bridegroom 
 entered in." 
 
 After the ceremony and benediction the 
 bride and bridegroom are conducted with great 
 pomp to their new home. The procession re- 
 sembles in all essential respects that of the 
 bridegroom coming to claim his bride. A 
 traveller thus graphically describes the home- 
 coming : 
 
 " After waiting two or three hours, at length, 
 near midnight, the coming of the bride and 
 bridegroom was announced in the very words 
 of Scripture, ' Behold, the bridegroom cometh : 
 go ye out to meet him.' All the persons em- 
 ployed now lighted their lamps, and ran with 
 them in their hands to fill up their stations 
 in the procession ; some of them had lost 
 their lights and were unprepared, but it was 
 too late then to get more. The cavalcade moved 
 forward and entered the dwelling, the courtyard 
 of which was splendidly illuminated and covered 
 with an awning. There were a great number 
 of guests, all dressed in their best. 
 
 " The bridegroom was carried in, and after 
 remaining with the guests in the open a short 
 while he entered the house, when the door 
 was immediately shut and a guard placed 
 before it. I and others expostulated with the 
 doorkeepers, but in vain. 
 
 " Never was I so struck with our Lord's 
 beautiful parable as at this moment, ' And the 
 door was shut.' " 
 
 "The parable of the 'wedding garment' is 
 founded on the fact that it was usual for per- 
 sons to appear at marriage feasts in a sump- 
 tuous dress. There was a wardrobe from 
 which every one not duly provided with a wed- 
 ding garment might be supplied. Where the 
 
MARSENA] 
 
 306 
 
 [MARY 
 
 marriage was in the higher ranks each guest 
 received a magnificent vestment. They were 
 hung in a chamber through which the guests 
 passed, and each robed himself in honour of his 
 entertainer before entering the banqueting 
 hall. It is still the custom in the East that 
 when a rich man makes a feast he provides 
 each guest with a sort of pelisse, which he 
 throws over his other apparel." 
 
 Mar'sena. One of the seven princes of Media 
 and Persia who saw the king's face at pleasure 
 (Esth. 1.14). 
 
 Marshal. In Judg. 5.14 (R.V.) this is prob- 
 ably the officer who with his staff of office was 
 next to the general. In the R.V. of Jer. 51.27 ; 
 Nah. 3.17, it represents an Assyrian word either 
 of similar import or perhaps meaning a troop, or 
 a scribe (R.V. marg.). 
 
 Mars' Hill. [AREOPAGUS.] 
 
 Mar'tha. Lady : the sister of Lazarus and 
 Mary, and mistress of the house where our 
 Saviour was entertained, in the village of 
 Bethany. Martha is always named before 
 Mary, probably because she was the elder 
 sister (Lk. 10 ; John 11). She was of a bustling, 
 anxious temperament, the excess of which, 
 on one occasion, our Lord rebuked. 
 
 Mary. 1. The mother of our Lord. Shortly 
 before the date appointed for her marriage to 
 Joseph, the angel Gabriel appeared to her 
 and announced that by a miracle of divine 
 power she would become the mother of the 
 Messiah (Lie. 1.26-56, 2.1-52 ; cf. Matt. 1, 2). 
 The only incidents during the public ministry 
 of Jesus in which Mary appears are the marriage 
 at Cana of Galilee (John 2.1-11), and her 
 attempt with the brothers at Nazareth to restrain 
 one who they thought must be beside himself 
 (Mk. 3.21, 31-35, and parallels). According 
 to the Fourth Gospel she followed our Saviour 
 to Calvary, and stood by the cross. Jesus, see- 
 ing His mother and the disciple whom He loved 
 standing by, said to His mother, " Woman, 
 behold thy son ! " and to the disciple, " Behold, 
 thy mother ! " And from that hour the disciple 
 took her unto his own home. The Synoptics have 
 no mention of her in connexion with the Cruci- 
 fixion, but we learn from Luke that she was one of 
 the company of disciples in the upper room after 
 the Ascension (Acts 1.14). Beyond that, nothing 
 is really known of her. There is no trace of 
 Mariolatry in the N.T. 
 
 2. Mary Magdalene : so called from Magdala, 
 a town of Galilee, of which she was a native or 
 where she had resided during the early part 
 of her life. Out of her Jesus had cast seven 
 devils (Mk. 16.9 ; Lk. 8.2). She attended Him in 
 the last journey He made from Galilee to Jeru- 
 salem and was witness of the Crucifixion (Malt. 
 27.56; Mk. 15.40 ; Lk. 23.49 ; John 19.25) and 
 of the burial (Matt. 27.61 ; Mk. 15.47 ; Lk. 23.55). 
 She then returned to Jerusalem to buy and prepare 
 with others certain perfumes, that she might 
 embalm the body after the Sabbath was over. 
 All the Sabbath day she remained in the city ; 
 and the next day, early in the morning, 
 
 went to the sepulchre, to find it empty and 
 receive the angelic tidings that " He is risen " 
 (Matt. 28.1-10; Mk. 16.1-8 [10-11]; Lk. 
 24.1-10; John 20.1,2: cf. John 20.11-18). 
 The first mention of " Mary that was called 
 Magdalene, from whom seven devils had gone 
 out" (Lk. 8.2), follows immediately upon the 
 story of the woman who was a " sinner " 
 (Lk. 7.36-50). There is, however, apart from 
 this mere proximity of reference, no reason 
 whatever for identifying the two, and the 
 modern connotation of the term " Magdalen " 
 is based upon a tradition of no value. Nor is 
 " Mary of Bethany " who, according to John 12.3, 
 anointed the feet of Jesus " six days before 
 the Passover" to be identified with the hypo- 
 thetical Mary of the different incident of Lk. 7. 
 
 3. From the first three Gospels we learn that 
 among the women who had followed Jesus 
 from Galilee and were present at the Cruci- 
 fixion was a " Mary the mother of James the 
 less (Mk.) and Joses" (Matt. 27.56; Mk. 
 15.40; Lk. 24.10). In the corresponding 
 passage of the Fourth Gospel (John 19.25) it 
 is almost certainly this same Mary who is 
 called " Mary of Clopas " (A.V. wrongly, 
 Cleophas), i.e. probably the wife (possibly 
 daughter) of Clopas. Several interesting ques- 
 tions here arise. (1) Is Clopas the same 
 name as Alphaeus? [ALPH^EUS, CLOPAS.] If 
 so, it becomes possible that " James the less " 
 is the apostle " James the (son) of Alphaeus " 
 (Matt. 10.3; Mk. 3.18; Lk. 6.15; Acts 1.13). 
 (2) According to John there stood by the cross 
 of Jesus " His mother, and His mother's sister, 
 Mary the wife of Clopas, and Mary Magdalene " 
 (19.25). Four women or three ? The text 
 is ambiguous, and leaves it at least possible 
 that one of three is " His mother's sister, Mary 
 the wife of Clopas." (3) If these suppositions 
 hold good, then Mary the mother of Jesus had 
 a sister, also called Mary, wife of Alphaeus and 
 mother of James the Apostle and Joses, who 
 were therefore cousins of Jesus. But a James 
 and a Joses are to be found among the four 
 brethren of Jesus (Matt. 13.55 ; Mk. 6.3 ; Gal. 
 1.19 ; Jude 1). May it not be, then, that 
 in all references to the " brethren of the Lord," 
 brother is loosely used for cousin, His " brethren " 
 being in reality sons of His mother's sister Mary 
 and Alphseus? Into this theory (propounded 
 c. 383 A.D. by Jerome) and its later develop- 
 ments we need not here enter. It is evidently 
 founded upon a complex of doubtful identifica- 
 tions, and involves the twin improbabilities 
 that two sisters should bear the same name, 
 and that the term " brother " should in this 
 connexion be persistently used for " cousin." 
 
 4. Mary the sister of Martha. The only 
 Synoptic reference is in Lk. 10.38-42, where it 
 appears that Martha was a householder in an 
 unnamed village. Her sister Mary "also (i.e. 
 apparently as well as taking her due share 
 in the hospitable preparations) sat at the Lord's 
 feet and heard His word," leaving Martha, 
 distracted about much serving, to serve alone. 
 
MASCHIL] 
 
 307 
 
 [MATTHEW 
 
 Martha's complaint and our Lord's rejoinder 
 are too familiar to need repetition. 
 
 It is the Fourth Gospel which places this 
 home in Bethany, adds Lazarus to it, and shows 
 us all three members of the household as loved 
 friends of Jesus. The parts played by Martha 
 and Mary in the story of the death and raising 
 of Lazarus (John 11.1-46) are in striking accord 
 with the character-sketch of Lk. 10. John 
 also ascribes to this Mary the anointing at 
 Bethany of Matt. 26; Mk. 14, altering 
 the date of the incident and varying in other 
 details from the Synoptics. He evidently 
 intends to represent the act as an impulse 
 of gratitude for the return of her brother 
 Lazarus from the grave (John 11.2, 12.1, 2 : cf. 
 Tennyson In Memoriam, Canto xxxii.). 
 
 5. The mother of John Mark, and aunt 
 of Barnabas (Col. 4.10), who had a house in 
 Jerusalem. After the imprisonment of Peter, 
 the faithful assembled in this house, and were 
 praying there when Peter, delivered by the 
 ministry of an angel, knocked at the door of the 
 house (Acts 12.12). 
 
 6. A Roman Christian greeted by Paul as 
 having toiled hard for the Roman Church 
 (Rom. 16.6 R.V.). 
 
 Mas'chiL A word descriptive of thirteen 
 Psalms, occurring in the title (Ps. 32, 42, 44, 45, 
 52-55, 74, 78, 88, 89, 142). The corresponding 
 verb is found in Ps. 32.8, " I will instruct thee," 
 and the form maschil in Ps. 47.7, " With under- 
 standing," R.V. marg., " In a skilful psalm." 
 Hence as a title the word perhaps means, " a 
 skilful, cunning psalm," one with unusual 
 setting of special delicacy ; or possibly " an 
 instructive, didactic psalm," of the nature of 
 a public homily. 
 
 Mash. Son of Aram and great-grandson of 
 Noah (Gen. 10.23). Professor Sayce, who 
 interprets the tenth chapter of Genesis as 
 geographical rather than ethnological (see The 
 Races of the O.T.), says that " in the Assyrian 
 inscriptions the country of Mas or Mash is 
 frequently referred to. It was the northern 
 part of Arabia, occupying not only Arabia Petrcea 
 but also the Nejd to the south." Sayce tells 
 us that his conquests had extended throughout 
 the whole land of Mas " as far as the river of 
 Egypt," and Assur-bani-pal found himself 
 compelled to traverse its waterless wastes in 
 his march against the Nabatheans. In 1 Ch. 
 1.17 the name appears as Meshech. 
 
 Ma'shaL (1 Ch. 6.74). [MISHAL.] 
 
 MasreTfah. Plantation of vines : an Edomite 
 town (Gen. 36.36 ; 1 Ch. 1.47). 
 
 Mas'sa. Burden : a son of Ishmael (Gen. 
 25.14; 1 Ch. 1.30). It is probable that Massa, 
 as the name of a country, should have place in 
 Prov. 30.1, 31.1 (see R.V. marg.). 
 
 Mas'sah. Temptation : a place in the wilder- 
 ness, near Rephidim, where the people mur- 
 mured for want of water (Ex. 17.7 ; Deut. 6.16, 
 9.22,33.8; also Ps. 95.8 R.V. ). [MEKIBAH.] 
 
 Mathu'sala. (Lk. 3.37). [METHUSALEH.] 
 
 Mat 'red. Mother of Mehetabel, wife of 
 
 Hadar, last of the old kings of Edom (Gen. 36.39 ; 
 
 1 Ch. 1.50). 
 
 Mat'ri. A Benjamite family from which 
 king Saul came (1 Sam. 10.21 ; R.V. " the 
 Matrites "). 
 
 Mat 'tan. Gift : 1. A priest of Baal in the days 
 of Athaliah. He was slain before his altar in 
 the idol temple at Jerusalem (2 K. 11.18 ; 
 
 2 Ch. 23.17). 2. The father of Shephatiah 
 (Jer. 38.1). 
 
 Matta'nah. Gift: the site of an Israelite 
 encampment, south-east of the Dead Sea (Num. 
 21.18, 19). 
 
 Mattani'ah. Gift of Jah: 1. Uncle of 
 Jehoiachin, made king of Judah instead of his 
 nephew by Nebuchadnezzar, who changed his 
 name to Zedekiah (2 K. 24.17 ; cf. 2 Ch. 36.10-13). 
 2. A descendant of Asaph, who took part in the 
 musical ceremonies at the dedication of the 
 wall of Jerusalem (1 Ch. 9.15; Neh. 11.17, 
 12.25,35). 3. A son of Heman the singer 
 (1 Ch. 25.4,16). 4. A descendant of Asaph. 
 He helped to cleanse the Temple in the days of 
 King Hezekiah (2 Ch. 29.13). 5. The name of 
 four persons who, at the bidding of Ezra, pub 
 away their foreign wives (Ezra 10.26, 27, 30, 37). 
 6. A Levite whose descendant Hanan was one 
 of the treasurers appointed by Nehemiah 
 (Neh. 13.13). 
 
 Matta'tha. Gift: an ancestor of our Lord 
 (Lk. 3.31). 
 
 Matta'thah (R.V. Mattattah). One who, at 
 the instigation of Ezra, put away his foreign 
 wife (Ezra 10.33). 
 
 Mattathi'as. The name of two ancestors of 
 our Lord (Lk. 3.25, 26). 
 
 Mattena'i. Gift of Jah : 1. The name of two 
 who, in the time of Ezra, had married foreign 
 wives (Ezra 10.33, 37). 2. A priest of the 
 family of Joiarib (Neh. 12.19). 
 
 Mat'than. Grandfather of Joseph, the hus- 
 band of Mary (Matt. 1.15) ; probably the same 
 as Matthat (Lk. 3.24). 
 
 Mat'that. The name of two persons in the 
 genealogy of Jesus (Lk. 3.24, 29). [MATTHAN.] 
 
 Matthew. The apostle who, from a com- 
 parison of Matt. 9.9; Mk. 2.14; and Lk. 
 5.17-28, is identified with Levi, the son of 
 Alphaeus. Moreover, the name of Matthew 
 appears in all four lists of the apostles (Matt. 10 ; 
 Mk. 3; Lk. 6; Acts 1), and that of Levi in 
 none. Matthew was a publican, or receiver 
 of customs in the dominion of Herod Anti- 
 pas at Capernaum, on the Sea of Galilee. 
 In this city our Lord dwelt after leaving 
 Nazareth ; and here Matthew had probably 
 seen His miracles and heard His discourses. 
 He may thus have been prepared to obey the 
 call of Jesus ; for, when s?ated in his booth 
 by the roadside, he left all to follow Him 
 (Matt. 9.9). He afterwards showed his attach- 
 ment to his Master, and his interest in the 
 welfare of his former associates, by inviting a 
 large number of publicans to a feast, at which 
 they miijht hear the Divine Teacher. He was 
 chosen by our Lord to be one of the twelve 
 
MATTHEW, THE GOSPEL] 
 
 308 
 
 [MATTHEW, THE GOSPEL 
 
 apostles (10.3), and was with the company in 
 the upper room after the Ascension (Acts 1.13). 
 The humility of Matthew is perhaps shown in 
 the Gospel which bears his name. In enumerat- 
 ing the apostles, he styles himself " Matthew 
 the publican " (10.3) ; not suppressing his 
 former employment. And it is Luke's account, 
 not his own, from which we learn that he " left 
 all " to follow Jesus, and that he " made a great 
 feast for Him in his own house " (cf. 
 9.9, 10 with Lk. 5.27-29). Eusebius (Hist. Ecc. 
 iii. 24) says that Matthew, after preaching 
 to his own countrymen, went to other nations. 
 Socrates (Ilist. Ecc. i. 19) names Ethiopia 
 as the scene of such labours. Most of the 
 early writers say that he died a martyr's death. 
 
 Matthew, the Gospel according to. The 
 authorship of this Gospel is by the uniform 
 belief of the Christian Church ascribed to 
 Matthew the Apostle. [MATTHEW.] The date 
 of the book can only be fixed approximately. 
 While later than Mark, it may be inferred from 
 MaU. 24.15 compared with Lk. 21.20 (note the 
 vagueness and the solemn warning, " Let him 
 that readeth understand ") that the crisis had 
 not yet arrived. Moreover, such passages as 
 MaU. 4.5, 5.35, 22.7, 23.2-34, 24.2, 15, 27.53, 
 with their allusions to the Holy City, Holy 
 Place, and City of the Great King, seem to 
 imply that the Gospel was written some time 
 before the tragic end of the war in 70 A.D. 
 
 What were the sources of the narrative ? As 
 Matthew was an apostle, the knowledge of our 
 Lord's ministry would have been his own. But 
 a comparison of the three Synoptic Gospels 
 suggests that the writer was indebted to two 
 other works. One of these was the Gospel 
 according to St. Mark ; the other, the use of 
 which by St. Luke seems also to be apparent, 
 is commonly spoken of as the Logia. This name 
 is derived from a statement of Papias (early in 
 the second century) that Matthew composed 
 the Logia in the Hebrew tongue. The 
 term " logia," oracles, better fits a collection of 
 discourses with their settings than a complete 
 and connected biography ; and as there are 
 [see below] insuperable objections to regarding 
 the first Gospel as it stands as a translation of 
 an Aramaic original, this Logia (in a Greek 
 translation) is identified as the second main 
 source of the Synoptic Gospels. If this be so, 
 then the two sources both embody the testimony 
 of eye-witnesses in the case of Mark, the testi- 
 mony of Peter ; in the case of the Logia, that of 
 Matthew. By recent scholars this second source 
 is commonly designated " Q." 
 
 In what language was the Gospel written? 
 From the statement of Papias, quoted above, 
 an Aramaic original has been assumed, of which 
 the present Gospel is only a Greek translation. 
 But, at the time when Matthew wrote, though 
 Hebrew was preferred by the Jews, Greek was 
 rapidly superseding it even in Palestine, and 
 was understood by the mass of the people. 
 Greek, too, was the more suitable for a book 
 of permanent and universal interest ; and was 
 
 accordingly used by James and by the author 
 of the Epistle to the Hebrews, though they 
 wrote to the Jews. The Greek of Matthew bears 
 all the marks of being an original composition ; 
 and the bulk of the quotations from the O.T. are 
 from the LXX, and not from the Hebrew. 
 
 The contents of the book show some changes 
 from the order found in Mark. Briefly sum- 
 marised the subjects are : 1.1-2.23, the birth 
 and infancy of Jesus ; 3.1-4.11, the preparation 
 for the Ministry; 4.12-18.35, the ministry in 
 Galilee ; 19.1-20.34, Peraa, and the journey to 
 Jerusalem; 21.1-25.46, the teaching in Jeru- 
 salem; 26.1-28.20, the Passion and the Re- 
 surrection. 
 
 The chief sections peculiar to this Gospel are 
 the following : 
 
 1. The royal genealogy, and the history of our 
 Lord's infant days in Bethlehem, with the 
 flight into Egypt (1, 2). 
 
 2. Discourses : Parts of the Sermon on the 
 Mount (5-7), and of the woes against the 
 Pharisees (23) ; words respecting His Church 
 (16.17-19, 18.15-20). 
 
 3. Parables .-The Tares ; the Hidden Trea- 
 sure ; the Pearl of Price ; the Draw-net (13) ; 
 the Unmerciful Debtor (18) ; the Labourers in 
 the Vineyard (20); the Two Sons (21); the 
 Wedding Garment (22) ; the Ten Virgins ; and 
 the Talents ; with the description of the Last 
 Judgment (25). 
 
 4. Miracles : The healing of two blind men 
 and casting out of a dumb spirit (9) ; Peter's 
 walking on the sea (14) ; the stater in the fish's 
 mouth (17) ; the earthquake and the rising of 
 the saints (27). 
 
 5. Incidents connected with the Trial, 
 Crucifixion, and Resurrection : The end of 
 Judas ; the dream of Pilate's wife ; the watch 
 at the grave (27) ; appearance at the sepulchre 
 to the women ; and on the Galilean mountain 
 to the disciples (28). 
 
 For whom was the Gospel written ? Apparently 
 for Jewish readers. It bears marks throughout 
 of having been written by a Christian Hebrew 
 familiar with the sacred writings of his nation 
 and deeply imbued with their spirit. His 
 chief object in writing the life of Jesus appears 
 to have been, to show that the despised Teacher 
 of Nazareth is really the promised KINO OF 
 ISRAEL. He finds the heir to David's throne 
 in a workshop in a Galilean village ; and sees 
 in Joseph's adopted child the " Immanuel " of 
 Isaiah. He records the dangers and deliver- 
 ances of the infancy of Jesus from the jealousy 
 of a rival ; and observes in them the fulfilment 
 of that " which was spoken by the prophets." 
 The teachings of Jesus are here presented as the 
 completion of the ancient law by the King of 
 [srael ; and His labours and miracles, and all 
 the circumstances of His sufferings and death, 
 are the accomplishment of prophecies as to the 
 Son of David. Of our Lord's predictions, those 
 are here preserved which relate either to the 
 persecution of His disciples by the Jews, or to 
 I the overthrow of the Jewish state, which the 
 
MATTHIAS] 
 
 309 
 
 [MEALS 
 
 ancient prophets had connected with the 
 establishment of the spiritual kingdom of Israel 
 (cf. 24 with /sat. 66). This Gospel exhibits 
 more fully than any other the connexion 
 between the O.T. and the N.T., the applications 
 being often most striking and suggestive. 
 
 Matthi'as. A disciple surnamed Justus, chosen 
 by lot to succeed Judas Iscariot as an apostle 
 (Acts 1.23, 26). 
 
 Mattithi'ah. Gift of Jah: 1. A Korahite who 
 had the charge of " things made in the pans " 
 (1 Ch. 9.31). 2. A Levite, ringer and gate- 
 keeper in the days of David (1 Ch. 15.18, 21, 
 16.5). 3. The son of Jeduthun, in the days of 
 David (1 Ch. 25.3, 21). 4. A member of the 
 family of Nebo who had married a foreign wife 
 (Ezra 10.43). 5. A prince, priest, or Levite 
 who stood beside Ezra when he read the Law 
 to the people (Neh. 8.4). 
 
 Mattock. (1 Sam. 13.20, 21, where, however, 
 the text is uncertain, and Isai. 7.25). Both the 
 pickaxe and the hoe are used in Palestine, and 
 we are not sure which is meant. 
 
 MauL (Prov. 25.18). A club such as is used 
 by shepherds. When studded with nails it is 
 a very formidable weapon, and the R.V. marg. 
 of Jer. 51.20 may be right in reading " maul " 
 instead of "battleaxe." 
 
 Maz'zaroth. The signs of the Zodiac 
 (Job 38.32). 
 
 Meadow. The word so rendered in A.V. of 
 Gen. 41.2, 18 means some kind of reed or water 
 plant (R.V. reed-grass). In Judg. 20.33 for 
 " the meadows of Gibeah " we should probably 
 read, " the cave of Gibeah." Meadows can never 
 have existed round Gibeah, yet Gibeah (and 
 not Geba, as R.V.) is clearly intended. 
 
 Me 'ah. Hundred : a tower near the sheep - 
 gate of Jerusalem (Neh. 3.1, 12.39; R.V. 
 Hammeah, rnarg. The hundred). 
 
 Meal-offering. [MEAT-OFFERING.] 
 
 Meals. The terms rendered " dine " and 
 "dinner" in Gen. 43.16 and Prov. 15.17 are 
 quite general, and should be translated " eat " 
 and " portion of food." Dinner in Lk. 14.12 
 should be " breakfast," and supper in John 21.12 
 should be "dinner." The Egyptians had their 
 principal meal at noon (Gen. 43.16) ; labourers 
 took a light meal at that time (Ruth 2.14) ; and 
 occasionally that early hour was devoted to 
 excess and revelling (1 K. 20.16). The Jews 
 followed the custom that prevails among the 
 Bedouins, and made their principal meal after 
 sunset (Gen. 19.1-3 ; Ex. 16.12, 18.12, 14 ; Ruth 
 3.7). In N.T. times breakfast took place in the 
 morning (John 21.4, 12), on ordinary days not 
 before nine o'clock, which was the first hour of 
 prayer (Acts 2.15), and on the Sabbath not 
 before noon, when the service of the Synagogue 
 was completed. 
 
 The old Hebrews sat at meals (Gen. 27.19; 
 Judg. 19.6 ; 1 Sam. 20.5, 24 ; 1 K. 13.20) ; as 
 luxury increased the practice of sitting \vas 
 exchanged for that of reclining ; Ezekiel 
 inveighs against one who sat " on a stately bed, 
 with a table prepared before it " (Ezek. 23.41). 
 
 In the time of our Lord reclining was the universal 
 custom. As a rule only three persons reclined 
 on each couch, but occasionally four or even 
 five. The couches were provided with cushions, 
 on which the left elbow rested, while the right 
 arm remained free. Each guest on the same 
 couch overlapped his neighbour, as it were, 
 and rested his head near the breast of the one 
 who lay behind him ; he was then said to 
 " recline in the bosom " of his neighbour (John 
 13.23). The close proximity into which persons 
 were thus brought rendered it more than 
 usually agreeable that friend should be next to 
 friend, and it gave the opportunity of making 
 confidential communications (John 13.25, 21.20, 
 where R.V. correctly " leaned back on Jesus' 
 breast"). The ordinary arrangement of the 
 couches was in three sides of a square, the fourth 
 being left open for the servants to bring up the 
 dishes. The first couch on the right hand of the 
 servants as they entered the room was regarded 
 as " the highest couch," the place of the greatest 
 honour, and " the lowest couch " was of course 
 that on the left, directly opposite to " the 
 highest couch." No consideration of physical 
 elevation is involved in the words " high " and 
 " low " as used here. The three guests on 
 each couch were denominated highest, middle, 
 and lowest the terms being suggested by the 
 circumstance of the guest who reclined on 
 another's bosom always appearing to be below 
 him. The "uppermost room" which the 
 Pharisees so much coveted (Matt. 23.6) was 
 the " highest " seat in the " highest " couch. 
 
 The cases of Ruth amid the reapers (Ruth 2.14), 
 of Elkanah with his wives (1 Sam. 1.4), of Job's 
 sons and daughters (Job 1.4), show that women 
 took their meals with men. It must be remem- 
 bered that the customs of the harem date from 
 the time of Mahomet. At the same time, as the 
 duty of attending upon the guests devolved 
 upon the women (Lk. 10.40), they probably took 
 a somewhat irregular and briefer repast. 
 
 Before meals the guests washed their hands ; 
 for no knives and forks were used, and they all 
 ate out of the same dish. We have but one 
 instance of grace before food in the O.T. (1 Sam. 
 9.13), but it is several times stated in the N.T. 
 that it was pronounced by our Lord Himself 
 (Matt. 15.36; Lk. 9.16 ; Joftn6.ll). Generally 
 there was a single dish into which each guest 
 dipped his hand (Matt. 26.23) ; occasionally 
 separate portions were served out to each 
 (Gen. 43.34; Ruth 2.14; 1 Sam. 1.4). A 
 piece of bread was held between the thumb and 
 two fingers of the right hand, and was dipped 
 either into a bowl of melted grease (in which 
 case it was termed " a sop," John 13.26), or into 
 the dish of meat whence a piece was conveyed 
 to the mouth between the layers of bread. It 
 was esteemed an act of politeness to hand over 
 a delicate morsel to a friend (John 13.26). At 
 the conclusion of the meal grace was again said, 
 in conformity with Deut. 8.10, and the hands 
 were again washed. 
 
 On the occasion of feasts or special occasions 
 
MEAEAH] 
 
 310 
 
 [MEDIA 
 
 more ceremony was used. The visitors were 
 received with a kiss (Lk. 7.45) ; water was 
 produced for them to wash their feet with 
 (Lk. 7.44) ; the head, the beard, the feet, and 
 sometimes the clothes, were perfumed with 
 ointment (Ps. 23.5; Amos 6.6; Lk. 7.38; 
 John 12.3) ; on special occasions robes were 
 provided (Matt. 22.11); and the head was 
 decorated with wreaths (Isai. 28.1 ). The regula- 
 tion of the feast was under the superintendence 
 of a special person, the " governor of the feast " 
 (John 2.8), who tasted the food and the liquors 
 before they were placed on the table. The 
 places of the guests were settled according to 
 their respective rank (Gen. 43.33 ; 1 Sam. 9.22; 
 Mk. 12.39; Lk. 14.8; John 13.23); portions of 
 food were placed before each (1 Sam. 1.4 ; 2 Sam. 
 6.19; 1 Ch. 16.3), the most honoured guests 
 receiving either larger (Gen. 43.34) or more 
 choice (1 Sam. 9.24) portions than the others. 
 
 Mea'rah. Cave : a place in north of Palestine 
 unconquered at the death of Joshua (Josh 13.4). 
 It has been identified with a village called 
 el-Mugh Eiriyeh in the mountains of Naphtali, 
 some 10 miles west of the northern extremity of 
 the Sea of Galilee. 
 
 Measures. [WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.] 
 
 Meat. The word as used in the A.V. means 
 food in general, rarely animal food. 
 
 Meat-offering. The law or ceremonial of the 
 " meat-offering " is described in Lev. 2 and 
 6.14-23 : the R.V. adopts the more appropriate 
 rendering " meal-offering " (lit. " gift "). It 
 was to be composed of fine flour, seasoned with 
 salt, and mixed with oil and frankincense, but 
 without leaven ; and it was generally accom- 
 panied by a drink-offering of wine. A portion of 
 it, including all the frankincense, was to be 
 burnt on the altar as " a memorial " ; the rest 
 belonged to the priest ; but the meat-offerings 
 offered by the priests themselves were to be 
 wholly burnt. It recognised the sovereignty 
 and bounty of God by dedicating to Him the best 
 of His gifts ; the flour, as the main support of 
 life ; oil, as the symbol of richness ; and wine, 
 as the symbol of vigour and refreshment (Ps. 
 104.15). The absence of leaven and the presence 
 of salt signified purity ; the frankincense 
 hallowed the gift of God's special service. The 
 " meat-offering " was a part of various other 
 ceremonies, some of them of yet deeper import 
 (Ex. 29.1, 2, 40, 41 ; Lev. 6.20, 8.2, 14.20 ; 
 Num. 6.15, 8.8, 28.9, 10, 11-14, 20, 28, 29.3-16). 
 
 Mebun/nai. One of David's warriors (2 Sam. 
 23.27). Elsewhere he is called Sibbechai 
 (2 Sam. 21.18 ; 1 Ch. 20.4), or Sibbecai (1 Ch. 
 11.29, 27.11). 
 
 Meche'rathite, The. A native or inhabitant 
 of a place called Mecherah Hepher; one of 
 David's thirty-seven warriors (1 Ch. 11.36). He 
 appears as " the Maachathite " in 2 Sam. 23.34. 
 
 Me'dad. Live : an elder on whom the Spirit 
 fell when remaining in the camp with Eldad 
 (Num. 11.26, 27). [ELDAD, ELDEBS.] 
 
 Me'dan. A son of Abraham and Keturah 
 (Gen. 25.2; 1 Ch. 1.32). 
 
 MedeT)a. Waters of quiet: a city of Moab, 
 about 4 miles south-east of Hoshbon, allotted 
 to Reuben (Num. 21.30 ; Josh. 13.9, 16 ; Isai. 
 15.2) ; recovered by the Ammonites, but taken 
 again by Joab (1 Ch. 19.7). 
 
 Medes. The people inhabiting Media, the 
 country to the north-west of Persia proper, 
 south and south-west of the Caspian, east of 
 Armenia and Assyria, west and north-west of 
 the great salt desert of Iram. [MEDIA.] Here 
 we are concerned with them only so far as they 
 touch the Bible narrative. We first hear of 
 certain " cities of the Medes " in which the 
 captive Israelites were placed by the king of 
 Assyria on the destruction of Samaria (2 K. 
 17.6, 18.11). This implies the subjection of 
 Media to Assyria at the time of Shalmaneser 
 or of Sargon, his successor. Soon afterwards 
 Isaiah prophesies the part which the Medes 
 [in conjunction with the Persians, as it happened] 
 were to take in the destruction of Babylon 
 (Isai. 13.17, 21.2) ; which is again still more 
 distinctly declared by Jeremiah (Jer. 51.11, 28), 
 in whose day Media was independent (Jer. 25.25). 
 Daniel records the Medo-Persian conquest of 
 Babylon (Dan. 5.28, 31), giving an account of 
 the reign of " Darius the Mede " [DARIUS], 
 whom Cyrus placed in Babylon as his viceroy. 
 The capture of Babylon broke up the Babylonian 
 empire and gave Cyrus the whole country be- 
 tween the Euphrates and the Mediterranean, 
 including the much coveted possession of 
 Palestine. Among the first-fruits of this great 
 victory was the edict of restoration (Ezra 1.1-4), 
 and numbers of the Jews re-entered the land 
 of their fathers, to occupy it as a Persian 
 colony. The successors of Cyrus at the head 
 of the Medo-Persian empire were Cambyses n., 
 Smerdis, Darius, and then Xerxes (the Ahasuerus 
 of Esther). Xerxes " reigned from India even 
 unto Ethiopia, over a hundred and seven and 
 twenty provinces" (Esth. 1.1). The high rank 
 of Media under the Persian kings, yet at the 
 same time its subordinate position, are marked 
 by the frequent combination of the two names 
 in phrases of honour, the precedency being 
 assigned to the Persians (Esth. 1.3, 14, 18, 19). 
 The peculiar characteristic of the original religion 
 of the Medes was the belief in two great, almost 
 equally potent, spirits of good and evil, called 
 Ormazd and Ahriman respectively. These 
 personalities had existed, and had waged war 
 with one another, from all eternity, the advantage 
 on the whole being to the Prince of Light. 
 The Medes also worshipped the sun and moon 
 and the elements of fire, water, air, and earth. 
 The popular religion of later times was Magism. 
 [MAGI.] They were a brave and warlike race, 
 excellent riders, and remarkably skilful with 
 the bow. 
 
 Media. By the Greeks and Romans this 
 country was divided into Media Atropatene 
 and Media Magna. The former corresponded 
 roughly to the province of Azerbijan in modern 
 Persia. The country, though elevated, is 
 fairly fertile, well watered in most places, and 
 
MEDIAN] 
 
 311 
 
 [MELECH 
 
 favourable to agriculture ; its climate is temper- 
 ate, though occasionally severe in winter ; it 
 produces rice, corn of all kinds, wine, silk, white 
 wax, and all manner of delicious fruits. Tabriz, 
 its modern capital, forms the summer residence 
 of the Persian kings, and is a beautiful place, 
 situated in a forest of orchards. Media Magna 
 contained the modern provinces of Ardelan 
 and Irak Ajimi, with a great part of Kurdistan 
 and Luristan. Ardelan, Kurdistan, and Luristan 
 are fertile and lovely ; whereas the greater part 
 of Irak Ajimi is bare, arid, rocky, and sandy, 
 supporting with difficulty a sparse and wretched 
 population. Each of the two districts from 
 very early times had its own capital, in both 
 cases called Ecbatana ; the northern capital 
 is the modern Takht-i-Suleiman, the southern 
 capital is Harnadan. 
 
 Median (R.V. Mede). A native of Media 
 (Dan. 5.31). 
 
 Mediator. One standing in the middle, 
 between two parties, with the view of recon- 
 ciling them. The law is said to have been 
 " ordained by angels in the hand of a mediator," 
 Moses (Gal 3.19); and our Lord is "the 
 mediator of a better covenant," the " new 
 covenant" (Heb.'S.Q, 9.15, 12.24), and the "one 
 mediator between God and man" (1 Tim. 2.5). 
 [ATONEMENT.] 
 
 Medicine and Surgery. The services of 
 mid wives are referred to in Gen. 35.17, 38.28 ; 
 Ex. 1.15-21. Physicians are referred to as 
 embalmers (Gen. 50.2) ; and as consulted by 
 King Asa (2 Ck. 16.12). Job refers to his 
 friends as " physicians of no value " (Job 13.4). 
 The use of medicine is referred to in Prov. 17.22 ; 
 Jer. 30.13, 46.11 ; Ezek. 47.12 ; of balsams and 
 plasters in 2 K. 20.7; Isai. 1.6; Jer. 8.22. 
 The treatment of wounds is also referred to 
 (Isai. 1.6), of a fracture (Ezek. 30.21), and of 
 the newborn infant (Ezek. 16.4). 
 
 In leprosy the priest examined the case, and 
 certified the cure (Lev. 13). 
 
 In the N.T. the familiarity of the physician's 
 office is clear from the proverb quoted (Lk. 
 4.23 ; and cf. Mk. 5.26). Luke is called by 
 Paul "the beloved physician" (Col. 4.14), and 
 his writings suggest in many details familiarity 
 with the healing art. 
 
 Megid'do (or Megid'don, Zech. 12.11). An 
 old Canaanitish town within the territory of 
 Issachar, but assigned to Manasseh, who did 
 not expel the Canaanites (Josh. 12.21, 17.11-13 ; 
 Judg. 1.27, 28 ; 1 Ch. 7.29). It was the scene 
 of the defeat of Sisera by Barak (Judg. 5.19) 
 and of Josiah by Pharaoh-necho (2 K. 23.29, 30 ; 
 2 Ch. 35.22) ; hence suggestive of dire conflict 
 and trouble (Zech. 12.11 ; Rev. 16.16). It was 
 in one of Solomon's commissariat districts (1 K. 
 4.12, 9.15) ; and death-place of Ahaziah (2 K. 
 9.27). Megiddo is the modern el-Lejjun, 15 miles 
 from Nazareth, and on the caravan route from 
 Egypt to Damascus. Huge mounds still exist 
 there, marking the site of the former fortresses. 
 
 Mehetabe'el (R.V. Mehetabel). (Neh. 6.10). 
 [MEHETABEL 2.] 
 
 Mehetatel. God is doing good : 1. Wife of 
 Hadad or Hadar, the eighth and last-mentioned 
 king of Edom, who had Pai or Pau for his 
 birthplace or chief city, before royalty was 
 established among the Israelites (Gen. 36.39 ; 
 
 1 Ch. 1.50). 2. A person whose grandson, 
 Shemaiah, was hired by Sanballat and Tobiah 
 to intimidate Nehemiah (Neh. 6.10). 
 
 Mehi'da. A family of Nethinirn, the descend- 
 ants of Mehida, returned from Babylon with 
 Zerubbabel (Ezra 2.52 ; Neh. 7.54). 
 
 Me'hir. A Judahite, son of Chelub (1 Ch. 
 4.11). 
 
 Mehola'thite, The. A man of Mehola ; the 
 term applied to Adriel, son of Barzillai, to whom 
 Saul's daughter Merab was married (1 Sam. 
 18.19). 
 
 Menuja'el. Smitten of God : a great-grand- 
 son of Cain ( Gen. 4.18). 
 
 Mehu/man. One of the seven chamberlains 
 that served in the presence of Ahasuerus, king 
 of Persia (Esth. 1.10). 
 
 Menu/nun, Meunim. A people against whom 
 King Uzziah waged a successful war (2 Ch. 26.7). 
 The name in the original seems to be the plural 
 of Maon (which see). They inhabited the 
 country on the east side of the great range of 
 Seir, the modern esh-Sherah, which forms the 
 east side of the Wady el-Arabah, where at the 
 present day there is still a town of the same 
 name. They are mentioned in Ezra 2.50 ; 
 Neh. 7.52 ; also 1 Ch. 4.41 R.V., and perhaps 
 
 2 Ch. 20.1 (see R.V. marg.). 
 
 Mejar'kon. Yellow water : a town of Dan 
 (Josh. 19.46). 
 
 Meko'nah (R.V. Meconah). A town ol 
 Judah reoccupied after the return from cap- 
 tivity (Neh. 11.28). 
 
 Melati'ah. Jah delivers : a Gibeonite, who 
 helped in rebuilding the wall of Jerusalem under 
 Nehemiah (Neh. 3.7). 
 
 Mel'chi. The name of two ancestors of Jesus 
 (Lk. 3.24, 28). 
 
 Melchi'ah. A priest, the father of Pashur 
 (Jer. 21.1 A.V.). [MALCHIAH 11.] 
 
 Melchi'sedec. [MELCHIZEDEK.] 
 
 Melchishu'a. [MALCHISHUA.] 
 
 Melchi'zedek. King of Salem and priest of 
 the Most High God, who met Abram after his 
 return from the slaughter of Chedorlaomer, 
 brought out bread and wine, blessed him, and 
 received tithes from him (Gen. 14.17-20). In 
 one of the Messianic psalms (Ps. 110.4), our Lord 
 is described as a priest for ever " after the order 
 of Melchizedek." This point is wrought out 
 very fully in Heb. 5, 6, 7, where the relation 
 between Melchizedek and Christ as type and 
 antitype is made to consist in the following 
 particulars: each is a priest, (1) not of the 
 Levitical order, (2) superior to Abraham, (3) 
 whose beginning and end are unknown, (4) who 
 is not only a priest, but also a king of righteous- 
 ness and peace. 
 
 Mele'a. An ancestor of Jesus (Lk. 3.31). 
 
 Melech. King : a descendant of King Saul 
 (1 Ch. 8.35, 9.41). 
 
MELICU] 
 
 312 
 
 [MEPHIBOSHETH 
 
 Meli'cu. [MALLTJCH 4.] 
 
 Mel'ita. Now Malta; the island in the 
 Mediterranean on the south of Sicily on which 
 Paul was shipwrecked (Acts 28.1). At that 
 time it was a dependency of the Roman province 
 of Sicily. Melita, from its position in the 
 Mediterranean, and the excellence of its harbours, 
 has always Been important both in commerce 
 and in war. It was famous for its honey and 
 fruits, for its cotton fabrics, for building stone, 
 and for a well-known breed of dogs. No 
 difficulty as to the identity of Melita with the 
 modern Malta arises from the reference to 
 Adria in Acts 27.27 ; for Adria, in the language 
 of the period, denoted not the Adriatic or Gulf 
 of Venice, but the open sea between Crete and 
 Sicily. 
 
 Melons." We remember," said the Israelites, 
 in the wilderness, " the melons which we did 
 eat in Egypt " (Num. 11.5). The term probably 
 includes the Flesh- melon (Cucumis melo) of our 
 hot-beds and the Water-melon (Cucurbita cit- 
 rullus). The latter is extensively grown in 
 Egypt during the rise of the Nile, attaining 
 a very large size, one fruit yielding several 
 pounds' weight of juice. A medicinal oil is 
 extracted from the seeds ; indeed, the melon 
 serves the poorer classes with meat, drink, 
 and medicine. The melon grows exuberantly 
 in some parts of the coast plain of Palestine. 
 
 Melzar. In Dan. 1.11, 16 the A.V. treats 
 this word as a proper name. R.V. regards it 
 as an official title, and renders it " the steward." 
 
 Mem'phis (in Heb. Moph, Hos. 9.6, elsewhere 
 Noph), The good abode : the chief city of Lower 
 Egypt before the founding of Alexandria. 
 Its ruins are vast, and suggest great splendour. 
 The overthrow of Memphis was repeatedly 
 predicted by the Hebrew prophets (Isai. 19.13 ; 
 Jer. 2.16, 46.14, 19 ; Ezek. 30.13, 16 ; Hos. 9.6). 
 The prophecies were fulfilled in the invasion 
 of Egypt by the Persian king Cambyses. So 
 complete was the ruin of Memphis that its 
 very site was lost, and only recently discovered. 
 The insignificant village of Meet Raheeneh occu- 
 pies nearly the centre of the ancient capital, 
 some 10 miles south of modern Cairo, on the 
 west side of the Nile. [NOPH.] 
 
 Memu'can. One of the seven princes of Persia 
 who formed the Council of State in the reign of 
 Ahasuerus. He pronounced for the disgrace 
 of Queen Vashti, " and the king did according 
 to the word of Memucan " (Esth. 1.14, 16, 21). 
 
 MenaTiem. Comforter : the son of Gadi, 
 who slew the usurper Shallum and seized the 
 vacant throne of Israel (2 K. 15.14-22). His 
 capture of the town of Tiphsah was marked 
 by an act of ferocious barbarity. The most 
 remarkable event of his reign was the first 
 appearance of a hostile force of Assyrians on the 
 north-east frontier of Israel. On this occasion, 
 however, they were bought off. Menahem was 
 an idolater. 
 
 Me'nan (R.V. Menna). An ancestor of Jesus 
 (Lk. 3.31). 
 
 Mene', mene', telsel, uphar'sin. The Aramaic 
 
 words written on the wall during Belshazzar's 
 feast, terrifying the king, baffling his wise men, 
 interpreted by Daniel (Dan. 5). Aramaic 
 would be readily understood in Babylon : we 
 may suppose the perplexity of the wise men 
 due in part to something unfamiliar in the 
 characters, and in part to the mysterious brevity 
 of the message. In the word upharsin the 
 w = and; in the interpretation, for the plural 
 pharsin the singular peres is substituted as more 
 readily suggesting, by a grim word-play, the 
 Persians already at the gates. The exact 
 signification of the several words is much con- 
 troverted, and cannot here be discussed (see 
 R.V. marg., vers. 25-28). 
 
 Meni. Where, in Isai. 65.11, the A.V. reads 
 " furnish the drink offering unto that number " 
 (marg. or, " Meni "), the R.V. has " fill up 
 mingled wine unto Destiny " (marg. " Heb. 
 Meni "). Meni was no doubt a Babylonian 
 god, the personification of Destiny. [GAD.] 
 
 Menna. [MEN AN.] 
 
 Meo'nenim, The Plain of. Where A.V. has 
 " the plain of Meonenim " (Judg. 9.37) R.V. 
 reads " the oak of Meonenim," marg. " that 
 is, the augurs' oak or terebinth." The reference 
 is to some sacred tree near Shechem connected 
 with the practice of divination. 
 
 Meono'thai. A son of Othniel, the younger 
 brother of Caleb (1 Ch. 4.14). 
 
 Mepha'ath. Beauty : an Amorite town in the 
 Mishor, allotted to Reuben, given to the Merar- 
 ites, subsequently recovered by the Moabites 
 (Josh. 13.18, 21.37; 1 Ch. 6.79; Jer. 48.21). 
 
 Mephibo'sheth. 1. Saul's son by Rizpah 
 (2 Sam. 21.8). Handed over by David to the 
 Gibeonites, he was, with six others, crucified or 
 impaled, in sacrifice to Jehovah, with the idea 
 of averting a famine from which the country 
 was suffering. After hanging five months, 
 protected by Rizpah from bird and beast, the 
 bodies were interred, with those of Saul and 
 Jonathan, in the ancestral cave of Kish at 
 Zelah. 2. The son of Jonathan, and therefore 
 grandson of Saul, originally called Merib-baal (cf. 
 Ishbosheth). He was five years old when his 
 father was killed. His nurse, on hearing the news, 
 hastened away with her charge, but in her panic 
 she stumbled, and the result was an accident 
 which deprived Mephibosheth for life of the 
 use of both feet (2 Sam. 4.4). Mephibosheth 
 was carried with the rest of his family beyond 
 the Jordan to the mountains of Gilead, where 
 he found a refuge in the house of Machir, a 
 powerful Gadite or Manassite sheikh at Lo- 
 debar. Years after, David, for the love he 
 bore to Jonathan, sought out Mephibosheth 
 and caused Him and his infant son Micha to 
 be brought to Jerusalem. Mephibosheth was 
 treated with marked tenderness and kindness 
 by the king, and from that time resided in the 
 capital. About seventeen years later David had 
 to flee Jerusalem on account of the rebellion of 
 Absalom. There are two accounts of Mephibo- 
 sheth's behaviour at this juncture, one given 
 by himself (2 Sam. 19.24-30) and the othez 
 
MEEAB] 
 
 313 
 
 [MEKOZ 
 
 tfiven by Ziba, his slave (2 Sam. 16.1-4). The 
 latter, which represents Mephibosheth as guilty 
 of base ingratitude and treachery, David chose 
 to believe, recalling half the possessions he 
 had bestowed upon Mephibosheth and giving 
 them to Ziba. [ISHBOSHETH, MERIB-BAAL.] 
 
 Me'rab. Increase : the elder daughter of 
 King Saul, promised to David, but given to 
 Adriel the Melolathite (1 Sam. 14.49, 17.25, 
 18.17, 19). She bore five sons, who were given 
 up to the Gibeonites by David, and by them 
 crucified, or impaled, on the sacred hill of 
 Gibeah (2 Sam. 21.8, where Michal is clearly a 
 mistake for Merab ; see R.V. marg.). 
 
 Merai'ah. A priest in Jerusalem in the days 
 of Joiakim, one of the family of Seraiah (Neh. 
 12.12). 
 
 Merai'otli. 1. A descendant of Eleazar the 
 son of Aaron, and head of a priestly house. 
 Among his illustrious descendants were Zadok 
 and Ezra (1 Ch. 6.6, 7, 52 ; Ezra 7.3). 2. An- 
 other priest of the same line (1 Ch. 9.11 ; Neh. 
 11.11). 3. A priest at the close of the exile 
 (Neh. 12.15). He is elsewhere called Meremoth 
 (Neh. 12.3). 
 
 Mera'ri, Merarites. Merari was the third son 
 of Levi and head of the Merarites, the third 
 great division of the Levites (Gen. 46.11). 
 At the census in the wilderness the Merarites 
 numbered 6200, from a month old and upwards ; 
 those from thirty years old to fifty were 3200 
 (1 Ch. 6.19, 47). Particulars of their duties 
 with reference to the Tabernacle will be found 
 in Num. 3.20, 33-37, 4.29-33, 42-45, 7.8, 10.17). 
 Joshua assigned them twelve cities, of which 
 one was Ramoth-Gilead, a city of refuge (Josh. 
 21.7, 34-40). 
 
 Meratha'im. Double rebellion (as in R.V. 
 marg.) : a symbolic name for Babylon, with 
 reference to the double captivity of the Israelites 
 there (Jer. 50.21). 
 
 Mercurius (R.V. Mercury). The people of 
 Lystra " called Barnabas, Jupiter ; and Paul, 
 Mercurius " (Acts 14.12). This action was 
 doubtless traceable to the fact that a visit of 
 Jupiter and Mercury hi human form to this 
 district occurs in their folklore (see Ovid, M eta- 
 morph., viii. 620-724). 
 
 Mercy-seat. The A.V. and R.V. both use 
 this as a rendering of the Hebrew Kapporeth, 
 the R.V. having also in the marg. the words 
 " or, covering." It has been much disputed 
 whether Kapporeth means a lid or cover, a seat 
 or throne of mercy, or a propitiation. The 
 object described (Ex. 25.17-22, and cf. 37.6-9) 
 was a rectangular plate of gold, placed on the 
 ark of the covenant, and having on it at 
 each end a golden cherub. On the Day of 
 Atonement it was sprinkled with the blood of 
 the sin offerings (Lev. 16.14, 15). From above 
 the mercy-seat Jehovah promised to meet and 
 commune with His people (Ex. 25.22 ; cf. 
 Num. 7.89). The Greek word used in the LXX 
 and the N.T. is literally " the propitiatory " 
 (cf. Rom. 3.25, where it is translated " a pro- 
 pitiation "). 
 
 Me'r (L Rebellious : a son of Ezra, a 
 descendant of Judah, through Caleb, son of 
 Jephunneh (1 Ch. 4.17, 18). 
 
 Mere'moth. 1. A priest appointed to weigh 
 and register the gold and silver vessels belonging 
 to the Temple which Ezra had brought from 
 Babylon. He took an active part hi the rebuild- 
 ing of the wall of Jerusalem under Nehemiah 
 (Ezra 8.33; Neh. 3.4,21). 2. One who put 
 away his foreign wife at the bidding of Ezra 
 (Ezra 10.36). 3. A priest who, with Nehemiah, 
 sealed the covenant (Neh. 10.5, 12.3 ; see 
 MERAIOTH 3). 
 
 Me'res. One- of the seven counsellors of 
 Ahasuerus, king of Persia, " wise men which 
 knew the times " (Esth. 1.14). 
 
 Meritah. Strife : a name given to the 
 waters miraculously supplied at Kadesh (which 
 see) because Israel strove with the Lord and with 
 Moses (Num. 20.1-13, 24 ; see vers. 3 (R.V.) and 
 13). The " waters of Meribah" are referred to 
 again in Num. 27.14; Deut. 32.51, 33.8; 
 Ps. 81.7; see also R.V. of Ps. 95.8, 106.32; 
 Ezek. 47.19, 48.28. A very similar incident is 
 related at an earlier stage of the wanderings, 
 at Rephidim near Horeb, when the name of 
 the place was called " Massah " (temptation), 
 and also, according to Ex. 17.7, " Meribah." 
 If the two occurrences are to be kept distinct 
 (see Deut. 33.8 ; Ps. 95.8), it would seem better 
 to regard the application of the second name 
 " Meribah " to the earlier incident as an 
 intrusion. [MASSAH.] 
 
 Merib-ba'aL Later called Mephibosheth, the 
 son of Jonathan and grandson of King Saul 
 (1 Ch. 8.34, 9.40). [MEPHIBOSHETH.] 
 
 Mer'odach. One of the principal gods 
 worshipped by the Babylonians (Jer. 50.2). 
 
 [BEI,] 
 
 Mer'odach-Bal'adaiL The king of Babylon 
 in the days of Hezekiah (Isai. 39.1 ; in 2 A'. 
 20.12 wrongly called Berodach-Baladan). He 
 resisted the growing power of the Assyrian 
 monarchs, and strove to maintain the inde- 
 pendence of his country. The chief object of 
 the visit of his ambassadors to Hezekiah was 
 doubtless to form a league between Babylonia, 
 Judaea, and Egypt against Assyria. Sargon, 
 however, drove him from his throne. For seven 
 years he was an exile, and then was restored 
 only to be finally overthrown by Sennacherib 
 after a second period of dominion lasting half a 
 year (702 B.C.). 
 
 Me'rom, Waters of. Height : the place near 
 which Joshua fought his third and last battle 
 with the Canaanites (Josh. 11.5, 7) ; probably 
 to be identified with Baheiret El-Huleh, a 
 triangular lake through which the Jordan flows. 
 
 Mero'nothite, The. A native or inhabitant 
 of Meronoth (but the name of the town is not 
 found) ; a title applied to Jehdeiah, who had 
 the charge of the royal asses of King David 
 (1 Ch. 27.30), and to Jadon, one of those who 
 assisted In the repair of the wall of Jerusalem 
 after the return from the Captivity (Neh. 3.7). 
 
 Me'roz. A locality the inhabitants of which 
 
MESHA] 
 
 314 
 
 [MESOPOTAMIA 
 
 arc, in the song of Deborah, cursed by the angel 
 of the Lord because they " came not to the 
 help of the Lord " (Judg. 5.23) when Sisera was 
 overthrown ; possibly El-Murussus, some four 
 miles north-west of Bethshan, commanding the 
 pass from the plain of Jezreel to the Jordan. 
 
 Me'sha. A locality named as the western, 
 or northern, limit of the Joktanites in south 
 Arabia (Gen. 10.30). 
 
 Me'sha. 1. The king of Moab in the reigns 
 of Ahab, and his sons, Ahaziah and Jehoram, 
 kings of Israel (2 K. 3.4). Mesha was subject 
 to Ahab, paying him a tribute of " a hundred 
 thousand lambs, and a hundred thousand 
 rams, with the wool." On the fall of Ahab at 
 Ramoth-gilead, Mesha threw off the yoke. 
 When Jehoram became king of Israel he united 
 with Jehoshaphat, king of Judah, and the 
 king of Edom in an expedition against the 
 Moabites, who were completely defeated. 
 Mesha in his extremity offered his first-born son, 
 his successor in the kingdom, as a burnt-offering 
 to Chemosh, the ruthless fire-god of Moab, with 
 the result that the three armies, horrified at 
 the deed, withdrew to their own land. In 1868 
 there was discovered amid the ruins of Dibon 
 a large fragment of a stone monument erected 
 by Mesha (c. 850 B.C.), inscribed with a record 
 of his victories over Israel. This, restored by 
 the addition of other fragments, is now in the 
 Louvre at Paris ; and a facsimile is in the British 
 Museum. It is known as the Moabite Stone. 
 2. The eldest son of Caleb (1 Ch. 2.42). 3. A 
 Benjamite (1 Ch. 8.9). 
 
 Me'shach. The Babylonian name given to 
 Mishael, one of Daniel's three companions 
 (Dan. 1.7, 2.49, 3.12-30. The meaning is 
 uncertain. 
 
 Me'shech (A.V. Me'sech in Ps. 120.5). 
 Mesech and Tubal, sons of Japheth (Gen. 10.2), 
 are almost always coupled in the O.T. Their 
 descendants appear in Assyrian inscriptions 
 under the names of Muska and Tubla. They 
 were known to classical geographers as Moschi 
 and Tibareni. In classical days, however, their 
 scats were farther to the north than they had 
 been in the age of the Assyrian monuments. 
 In the time of Sargon and Sennacherib their 
 territories still extended as far south as Cilicia 
 and the north half of Komagene. Later they 
 were forced to retreat north towards the Black 
 Sea, and it was in this region of Asia Minor that 
 Xenophon and his Greek troops found the 
 remnants of the race. The modern Georgians 
 belong to the race of Meshech and Tubal 
 (1 Ch. 1.5, 17 ; Ps. 120.5 ; Ezek. 27.13, 32.26, 
 38.2, 3). For Mesech in 1 Ch. 1.17 see MASH. 
 
 Meshelemi'ah. Jah recompenses : a Korahite, 
 who with his seven sons and his brethren were 
 porters or gate-keepers of the Tabernacle in 
 the reign of David (1 Ch. 9.21, 26.1, 2, 9). Else- 
 where the name is given as Shelemiah (1 Ch. 
 26.14), Shallum (1 Ch. 9.19), and Meshullam 
 (Neh. 12.25). 
 
 Meshe'zabeel, Meshe'zabeL God is deliverer: 
 1. One whose descendant, Meshullam, helped to 
 
 repair the wall of Jerusalem (Neh. 3.4). 2. A 
 person, or family, who with Nehemiah sealed 
 the covenant (Neh. 10.21, 11.24). Perhaps in 
 each case the reference is to the same family 
 name. 
 
 Meshille'mith. A priest whose descendants 
 dwelt in Jerusalem (1 Ch. 9.12). In Neh. 11.13 
 he is called Meshillemoth. 
 
 Meshille'moth. 1. An Ephraimite whose son 
 Berechiah opposed making slaves of the Jewish 
 captives (2 Ch. 28.12). 2. The same as Meshil- 
 lemith. 
 
 Meshul'lam. Friend : 1. The ancestor of 
 Shaphan, a scribe in the days of King Josiah 
 (2 K. 22.3). 2. The son of 'Zerubbabel (1 Ch. 
 3.19). 3. The head of a Gadite family (1 Ch. 
 5.13). 4. A Benjamite (1 Ch. 8.17). 5. A 
 Benjamite, whose son Sallu was one of the chiefs 
 of the tribe settling at Jerusalem after the 
 return from Babylon (1 Ch. 9.7 ; Neh. 11.7). 
 6. A Benjamite who lived at Jerusalem after the 
 Captivity (1 Ch. 9.8). 7. An Aaronite of the 
 family of Zadok, whose descendants dwelt in 
 Jerusalem (1 Ch. 9.11; Neh. 11.11). 8. A 
 priest, ancestor of a family that dwelt in 
 Jerusalem (1 Ch. 9.12). 9. A Kohathite, or 
 family of Kohathite Levites, in the reign of 
 Josiah, who were among the overseers of the 
 work of restoration of the Temple (2 Ch. 34.12). 
 10. A leader who returned with Ezra from Baby- 
 lon. He helped to gather together the Levites 
 to join the caravan about to return to Jerusalem 
 (Ezra 8.16). 11. A leader in the time of Ezra 
 who assisted Jonathan and Jahaziah in abolish- 
 ing the marriages which some of the people had 
 contracted with foreign wives (Ezra 10.15). 
 12. One of those who put away a foreign wife 
 (Ezra 10.29). 13. One who helped to rebuild 
 two portions of the wall of Jerusalem (Neh. 
 3.4, 30, 6.18). 14. A worker at the restoration 
 of the old gate of Jerusalem (Neh. 3.6). 15. One 
 of those who stood at the left hand of Ezra when 
 he read the Law to the people (Neh. 8.4). 16. A 
 priest, or family of priests, who sealed the 
 covenant with Nehemiah (Neh. 10.7). 17. One 
 of those who sealed the covenant with Nehemiah 
 (Neh. 10.20). 18. A priest of the family of Ezra 
 who assisted in the dedication of the wall of 
 Jerusalem (Neh. 12.13). 19. A priest (Neh. 
 12.16). 20. A Levite and gate-keeper of the 
 Temple after the Exile (Neh. 12.25). 21. One of 
 the princes of Judah who were in the right-hand 
 company of those who marched on the wall of 
 Jerusalem at the dedication (Neh. 12.33). 
 
 Meshulle'meth. The wife of Manasseh, king 
 of Judah (2 K. 21.19). 
 
 Mesobaite, The (R.V. Mezobaite). An appella- 
 tion of Jaziel, one of David's valiant men 
 (1 Ch. 11.47). 
 
 Mesopota'mia. Between the rivers : the 
 country between the Euphrates and the Tigris ; 
 but usually the west portion of this tract, 
 between the great bend of the Euphrates and 
 the Upper Tigris. It was the home of Nahor 
 and Abraham before their migration to the 
 Promised Land (Gen. 11.31, 24.10 ; Acts 7.2) ; 
 
MESSIAH, MESSIAS] 
 
 315 
 
 , MESSIAS 
 
 also of Balaam (Lent. 23.4) ; of King Chushan- 
 rishathaim (Judg. 3.8, 10) ; of the allies of the 
 Ammonites (1 Ch. 19.6) ; and of visitors to 
 Jerusalem on the Day of Pentecost (Acts 2.9). 
 
 Messiah, Messias. Anointed : the word 
 appears twice in the A.V. of the O.T. (Dan. 
 9.25, 26). The R.V. has (Dan. 9.25) " the 
 anointed one, the prince " (marg. " Or, Messiah 
 the prince. Or, an anointed one, a prince"); 
 and (Dan. 9.26) " the anointed one." Messias 
 is twice found in the A.V. of the N.T. (John 
 1.41, 4.25), where R.V. has Messiah. The 
 word anointed is applied to the priests (Lev. 
 4.3,5, 6.22); to kings (1 Sam. 2.10, 12.3, etc.), 
 even to a pagan in the case of Cyrus (Isai. 45.1). 
 
 The promise of Messiah is commonly held 
 first to appear in Gen. 3.15. The Jewish writers 
 did not, however, directly interpret this declara- 
 tion of the Messiah, though some held that the 
 victory would be " in the days of the Messiah." 
 To Abraham, the Messiah was announced, more 
 or less clearly, as the promised Seed (Gen. 12.3, 
 18.18, 22.18) ; to Moses, as the coming Prophet 
 (Deut. 18.15,18); to all of that age, as the 
 Priest ; to David, he appears, in addition, as 
 King. How far David himself was conscious 
 of the deeper meaning of the prophecies addressed 
 to him, as by Nathan, or uttered by himself in 
 Psalms, we cannot tell. To him, as to other 
 inspired seers, the words of Peter apply (1 Pet. 
 1.10-12). But from Peter also we elsewhere 
 learn that David knew that " God had sworn 
 with an oath to him, that of the fruit of his 
 loins He would set One upon his throne " (see 
 II. V., Acts 2.30 and marg.). 
 
 The Psalms, indeed, abound in references 
 to Messiah and His Kingdom. They contain 
 wonderful foreshadowings of our Lord's history, 
 His sufferings and glory. For His sufferings 
 see Ps. 22 ; for His glory, Ps. 2, 45, 72, 110. 
 Ps. 132.11 foretells His connexion with David; 
 Ps. 118.22 His rejection by the Jews; Ps. 68.18 
 His ascension and the gift of the Spirit ; Ps. 
 117 the call of the Gentiles. Nor is the Messianic 
 character restricted to such directly prophetical 
 Psalms. Throughout the Psalter we find 
 portrayed a personal ideal, righteous yet suffer- 
 ing, and through sorrow and trial attaining to 
 universal dominion. Of this ideal, Jesus Christ 
 in His person and work is the only complete 
 realisation. Thus in Psalm 8 the honour con- 
 ferred by God upon humanity is described, 
 ',' Thou hast put all things under His feet " ; 
 but the apostolic comment is, " We see not yet 
 all things put under Him ; but we see Jesus," 
 etc. (Heb. 2.8, 9). David again (Ps. 16) 
 triumphs in assured hope, " Thou wilt not leave 
 my soul in Hades, neither wilt Thou suffer 
 Thine holy One to see corruption." " Being a 
 prophet," is the comment of the Apostle Peter, 
 " he spake of the resurrection of the Christ " 
 (Acts 2.30, 31). Once more, Ps. 40 gives a 
 picture of perfect consecration, fulfilled only 
 and completely in Him (Heb. 10.5-10). 
 
 The intimations contained in the Prophets 
 are in harmony with those found in the Psalms. 
 
 Messiah is to be King, and the prophets represent 
 Him as possessed of all the characteristics of 
 the most distinguished princes of the Jewish 
 theocracy. They more than once apply to Him 
 the title of David, who was, in many respects, 
 the ideal of kingly authority (Jer. 30.9 ; Hos. 3.5 ; 
 Acts 13.34). They describe His character as 
 Prophet or Priest in the same strain, multiplying 
 images in each case adapted to give the most 
 exalted ideas of His office (Zech. 6 ; Heb. 7). In 
 the same way, they speak of His kingdom, either 
 of grace or glory, as the highest perfection of 
 the Jewish economy. It is called Jerusalem, or 
 Zion (Isai. 60.15-20, 62.1, 6, 7 ; Gal. 4.26-28 ; 
 Heb. 12.22. See also Isai. 60.6, 7, 66.23). 
 To Joel, the outpouring of the Spirit appears as 
 a general extension of the three forms of Divine 
 revelation which occur in the O.T. The idea 
 that all nations shall worship the true God 
 is expressed by the declaration that they will 
 join in the Feast of Tabernacles (Zech. 14.16). 
 The glory of the Messiah's days is repre- 
 sented by the prosperous times of David and 
 Solomon (Zech. 3.10 ; cf. 1 K. 4.25) ; the pre- 
 valence of peace, by the union of Judah and 
 Israel (Isai. 11.13; Hos. 1.11). In the same 
 way, the enemies of the kingdom of the Messiah 
 are not only called by the names given to the 
 enemies of the ancient theocracy, viz. the 
 nations of the Gentiles, but they often bear the 
 name of some one people who, at the time, were 
 peculiarly inimical or powerful. In Isai. 25 they 
 are called by the name of Moab, in Isai. 63 and 
 Amos 9.12 by the name of Edom, and in Ezek. 38 
 by the name of Magog. 
 
 It will be found, however, that there are two 
 parallel lines of prophecy pointing to Messiah ; 
 the one depicting the ideal King, the other the 
 ideal Prophet, the suffering servant of Jehovah. 
 How are these to be reconciled ? The answer 
 may be given in the words of Professor Sanday : 
 " We turn the page which separates the N.T. 
 from the O.T. We look at the Figure which 
 is delineated there, and we find in it a marvellous 
 meeting of traits derived from the most different 
 and distant sources, from Nathan, from Amos, 
 from First Isaiah, from Second Isaiah, from 
 Zechariah, from Daniel, from the second Psalm, 
 from the twenty-second, from the sixty-ninth, 
 from the hundred and tenth. And these traits 
 do not meet, as we might expect them to do, 
 in some laboured and artificial compound, but 
 in the sweet and gracious figure of Jesus of 
 Nazareth King, but not as men count kingship ; 
 crowned, but with the crown of thorns ; suffering 
 for our redemption, but suffering only that He 
 may reign " (Inspiration, p. 404). 
 
 But whilst the person and work of our Lord 
 thus wonderfully fulfil both lines of prediction, 
 the thoughts of the Jewish people at the time 
 of His coming were fixed only on the kingly 
 side of Messiah's mission. They understood by 
 this an earthly kingdom, and the knowledge of 
 their expectation spread beyond the limits 
 of Judaism. The apostles themselves were 
 infected with this opinion, even after the 
 
METHEG-AMMAH] 
 
 316 
 
 [MICAH, THE BOOK OF 
 
 itesurrection (Matt. 20.20, 21 ; Lk. 24.21 ; 
 Acts 1.6). Gleams of a truer view appear in 
 Lk. 2.30, 23.42; John 4.25. Our Lord 
 definitely identified Himself with the Messiah 
 (John 4.26), and referred to the fulfilment of O.T. 
 prophecies in Himself (Matt. 26.54 ; Mk. 9.12 ; 
 Lk. 18.31-33, 22.37, 24.27; John 5.39,46). 
 His disciples preach the same truth (Acts 
 2.16, 25, 8.28-35, 10.43, 13.23, 32-37, 26.22, 23 ; 
 1 Pel. 1.11 ; and in many passages in St. Paul's 
 Epistles). [JESUS CHBIST, KINGDOM OF GOD, 
 SERVANT OF THE LORD, SHILOH.] 
 
 Me'theg-Am'mah. The A.V. in 2 Sam. 8.1 
 takes this as the name of a place captured by 
 David from the Philistines. R.V., however, 
 translates the words as " the bridle of the 
 mother-city," apparently meaning the authority 
 of the metropolis. 
 
 Methu'sael (R.V. Methu'shael). Man of Ood : 
 a descendant of Cain (Gen. 4.18). 
 
 Methu'selah. Son of Enoch and grandfather 
 of Noah. He lived 969 years (Gen. 5.27). 
 
 Meunim. [MEHTJNIM.] 
 
 Meuzal. [UZAL.] 
 
 Meza'hab. Waters of gold : the grandfather 
 of Mehetabel, who was wife of Hadar or Hadad, 
 the last-named king of Edom (Gen. 36.39 ; 1 Ch. 
 1.50). 
 
 Mezobaite. [MESOBAITE. ] 
 
 Mi'amin (R.V. Bfijamin). 1. An Israelite 
 who, at the bidding of Ezra, put away his foreign 
 wife (Ezra 10.25). 2. The head of the sixth 
 course of priests in David's time (1 Ch. 24.9) ; 
 his family went up from Babylon with Zerub- 
 babel (Neh. 12.5), and signed the covenant 
 (Neh. 10.7). In Neh. 12.17 the name appears 
 as Miniamin. 
 
 Mib'har. One of David's valiant men (1 Ch. 
 11.88). 
 
 Mib'sam. Sweet odour : 1. A son of Ishmael 
 (Gen. 25.13 ; 1 Ch. 1.29). 2. A Simeonite 
 (1 Ch. 4.25). 
 
 Mib'zar. Fortified : a chief of Edom, de- 
 scended from Esau (Gen. 36.42 ; 1 Ch. 1.53). 
 
 Mi'cah, Mi'cha, Mi'chah. 1. An Ephraimite 
 whose story is told in Judg. 17 and 18. His 
 one idea is to enjoy the favour of Jehovah 
 (Judg. 17.13), yet so completely ignorant is he 
 of the Law that his house is stored with idols, 
 and he sets up an unauthorised priesthood, 
 first in his own family and then in the person 
 of a Levite not of the priestly line. The 
 narrative also illustrates the degraded and 
 demoralised condition into which some of the 
 Levites speedily had sunk. The Levite of the 
 incident, who, after serving in Micah's idol- 
 house, became the first priest to another system 
 of false worship in which Jehovah had no part, 
 was no other than a grandson of Moses, for 
 the " Manasseh " in Judg. 18.30 is an alteration 
 of "Moses," to shield that venerable name from 
 the discredit which such a descendant would 
 cast upon it. 2. The head of a family of Reuben 
 (1 Ch. 5.5). 3. The son of Merib-baal, or 
 Mephibosheth, the son of Jonathan (2 Sam. 
 9.12 : 1 Ch. 8.34, 35, 9.40, 41 ). 4. The " Moras- 
 
 thite " or native of Moresheth-gath (Mic. 1.14) 
 a Philistine village about twenty miles from 
 Jerusalem and the prophet. Micah seems to 
 have been commissioned not long after Amos, 
 Hosea, and Isaiah had begun their ministry ; 
 and lie includes both Israel and Judah in his 
 reproofs and warnings (1.1). There is a striking 
 resemblance between the predictions of doom 
 regarding both Samaria and Jerusalem (cf. 
 1.6 with 3.12). Greek writers (Epiphanius and 
 others) say that he was slain by Jehoram, son 
 of Ahab, confounding him with Micaiah the 
 son of Imlah (1 K. 22.8-28). (The names are 
 different forms of the same word.) Micah 
 does not appear to have suffered martyrdom, 
 but died in peace in the days of Hezekiah. 
 (See Jer. 26.18,19, where it appears that 
 Jeremiah might have been put to death for 
 foretelling the destruction of the Temple, had 
 it not appeared that Micah had foretold the 
 same thing above a hundred years before.) 
 5. A Levite of the family of Asaph, whose 
 descendants dwelt in Jerusalem (1 Ch. 9.15 ; 
 Neh. 11.17, 22). He is called Michaiah in 
 Neh. 12.35. 6. The eldest son of Uzziel, the 
 brother of Amram, and therefore cousin to 
 Moses and Aaron (1 Ch. 23.20, 24.24, 25). 7. 
 A man of high station whose son Abdon was 
 sent by King Josiah to inquire of the Lord 
 when the Book of the Law was found (2 Ch. 
 34.20). He is called Michaiah in 2 K. 22.12. 
 8. A Levite, or family of Levites, who signed 
 the covenant with Nehemiah (Neh. 10.11). 
 
 Micah, The Book oL The author of this 
 book announces himself as " Micah the Moras- 
 thite" [MiCAH 4], and gives the date of his 
 prophecies as " in the days of Jotham, Ahaz, 
 and Hezekiah, kings of Judah" (1.1). The 
 statement that he " prophesied in the days of 
 Hezekiah " (Jer. 26.18) does not limit his work 
 to that reign. The contents of the book may 
 be divided into four main sections : (1) Chap. 1, 
 the Judgments of God on Israel and Judah ; 
 (2) chaps. 2, 3, proof of the necessity of these 
 Judgments; (3) chaps. 4, 5, the Promise ; 
 (4) chap. 6, colloquy between Jehovah and 
 His people ; chap. 7, epilogue : the prophet's 
 lamentation and hope. 
 
 Micah foretells in clear terms the invasion 
 of Shalmaneser and Sennacherib (1.6-16) ; 
 the dispersion of Israel (5.7, 8) ; the cessation 
 of prophecy (3.6, 7) ; the utter destruction of 
 Jerusalem (3.12). 
 
 Just as clearly he foretells the deliverance 
 of Israel (2.12, 4.10, 5.8) ; the birthplace of the 
 Messiah (5.2) ; the promulgation of His Gospel 
 from Mount Zion, and its results ; and the 
 exaltation of His Kingdom over all nations. 
 
 The style of Micah has much of the poetic 
 beauty of Isaiah, and of the vigour of Hosea, 
 but is occasionally obscure, through his concise- 
 ness and sudden transitions. He abounds in 
 examples of the play on words, and in strik- 
 ing oratorical interrogations. His special ollice, 
 as the herald of coming judgment, causes a 
 predominant severity of tone ; but all harsh- 
 
MICAIAH] 
 
 317 
 
 [MIDIAN 
 
 ness is softened into exquisite beauty at the 
 close. 
 
 The N.T. quotations fromMicah are of interest. 
 The birth at Bethlehem of the coming King 
 (5.2) appears in Matt. 2.6. This passage is 
 especially remarkable for having been quoted 
 by the " chief priests and scribes " of Jerusalem, 
 as an accepted prophecy of the Messiah (cf. 
 John 7.42). There are also striking repro- 
 ductions of the prophet's language (7.6) in 
 Matt. 10.35, 36; Mk. 13.12, and Lk. 12.53; also 
 of 7.20 in Lk. 1.73. 
 
 Micaiah. Who is like Jah? a prophet who 
 foretold the death of Ahab at Ramoth-gilead 
 (1 K. 22.1-35; 2 Ch. 18). He was the son 
 of Imlah, and lived about 890 B.C. Micaiah's 
 name has not occurred before, but Ahab's 
 language (22.8) implies that he had previously 
 received from him messages of rebuke and 
 warning. Some suppose him to have been 
 imprisoned for his fidelity and boldness on that 
 occasion (1 K. 20.35, 42). [MICHAIAH.] 
 
 Mi'chaeL Who is like God? 1. The father of 
 one of the twelve spies (Num. 13.13). 2. A 
 Gadite who settled in Bashan (1 Ch. 5.13). 3. 
 A Gadite (1 Ch. 5.14). 4. An ancestor of Asaph 
 (1 Ch. 6.40). 5. A chief man of the tribe of 
 Issachar (1 Ch. 7.3). 6. A Benjamite (1 Ch. 
 8.16). 7. A Manassite who joined David in 
 Ziklag (1 Ch. 12.20). 8. The father, or ancestor 
 of Omri, chief of the tribe of Issachar in the 
 reign of David (1 Ch. 27.18). 9. A son of 
 Jehoshaphat who was murdered by his brother 
 Jehoram (2 Ch. 21.2,4). 10. The father, or 
 ancestor, of Zebadiah (Ezra 8.8). 11. The 
 angel of God who came to Daniel and is called 
 by him prince of the people of Israel (Dan. 10.13, 
 21, 12.1). Michael is represented in Rev. 12.7 
 as fighting in heaven against the dragon, " that 
 old serpent called the Devil and Satan, which 
 deceiveth the whole world." The reference 
 in Jude 9 is to an old Jewish legend quoted 
 from the apocryphal book, " The Assumption 
 of Moses," in which Michael appears as con- 
 tending with Satan for the body of Moses. 
 The Evil One claimed to possess it on the 
 ground of the blood-guiltiness of the great 
 leader of the deliverance (Ex. 2.12). 
 
 Michai'ah (R.V. Micaiah). Who is like Jah? 
 1. The father of Achbor, who was an important 
 official under King Josiah (2 K. 22.12). He 
 appears as Micah in 2 Ch. 34.20. 2. The wifp 
 of Rehoboam and mother of Abijah (2 Ch. 13.2). 
 She is elsewhere called " Maachah, the daughter 
 of Abishalom " (1 K. 15.2) or " of Absalom " 
 (2 Ch. 11.20). 3. A prince of Judah ordered 
 by Jehoshaphat to teach the people (2 Ch. 17.7). 
 4. A descendant of Asaph (Neh. 12.35). The 
 name appears as Micah in 1 Ch. 9.15 and as 
 Micha in Neh. 11.17. 5. One of the priests 
 who blew the trumpets at the dedication of the 
 wall of Jerusalem by Nehemiah (Neh. 12.41). 
 6. A person who declared the prophecies of 
 Jeremiah to all the princes assembled in King 
 Zedekiah's house (Jer. 36.11-13). [MICAIAH.] 
 
 Mi'chaL Who it like God? the younger 
 
 of Saul's two daughters (1 Sam. 14.49). After 
 David's exploit against Goliath, the promised 
 marriage with Saul's elder daughter, Merab, 
 did not take place. Michal fell in love with 
 him, and Saul promised to give her to the 
 youthful warrior if he slew a hundred Philistines, 
 the king secretly hoping that David would 
 lose his life in the endeavour to fulfil the 
 condition. But David succeeded, and Michal 
 became his wife. By the employment of a 
 clever stratagem she saved the life of her 
 husband from the mad fury of her father 
 ( 1 Sam. 19.11-17). Thereafter she was separated 
 from him for many years, and in the meantime 
 married Phalti or Phaltiel (1 Sam. 25.44 ; 2 Sam.. 
 3.14,15). After the death of her father and 
 brothers she fled with the remnants of Saul's 
 family to the east of the Jordan ; but when David 
 was securely established at Hebron he sent for 
 her and restored her to her place as his wife. 
 At least fourteen years had elapsed, but David's 
 love had not grown cold in the interval. David's 
 conduct at the bringing up of the Ark from 
 Kirjath-jearim to Hebron disgusted Michal, 
 between whom and the king there was a final 
 rupture (2 Sam. 6.14-23). The one later mention 
 of Michal (2 Sam. 21.8) is an error for Merab. 
 
 Mich'mas, Mich'mash. Now Mukhms; a 
 fortress in Benjamin, 7 miles north of 
 Jerusalem, 4 miles south of Bethel, on the 
 north of the Wady es-SuweinJt. It was the 
 scene of conflict between Saul and Jonathan 
 and the Philistines (1 Sam. 13.14). Here 
 Sennacherib left his heavy baggage when 
 advancing on Jerusalem (Isai. 10.28). Its in- 
 habitants returned after the Captivity (Ezra 
 2.27; Neh. 7.31,11.31). 
 
 Michme'thah. A frontier town of Ephraim 
 (Josh. 16.6, 17.7). 
 
 Mich'ri. An ancestor of Elah, a chief of the 
 tribe of Benjamin after the Captivity (1 Ch. 9.8). 
 
 Mich'tam. A term applied to six Psalms 
 (16.56-60) to denote their musical character. 
 Its significance is now lost ; possibly it was a 
 private meditation as compared with Maschil, 
 a public ministry. 
 
 Mid'din. A town of Judah, in the wilderness 
 (Midbar) (Josh. 15.61). 
 
 Mid'ian. A son of Abraham and Keturah 
 (Gen. 25.2 ; 1 Ch. 1.32), the progenitor of the 
 Midianites, or Arabians, dwelling principally 
 in the desert north of Arabia. Southwards they 
 extended along the east shore of the Gulf of 
 Akabah ; and northwards they stretched along 
 the east frontier of Palestine. The descendants of 
 Hagar and Keturah no doubt intermarried, which 
 may account for the fact that the merchants to 
 whom Joseph was sold are Ishmaelites in one 
 place and Midianites in another place (Gen. 
 37.25, 28). Moses, having killed an Egyptian, 
 fled to the land of Midian, and married a daughter 
 of a priest of Midian (Ex. 2.15-21 ). The city of 
 Midian was situated on the Arabian shore of the 
 Arabian Gulf. The Midianites fell into idolatry 
 and immorality, and their evil influence upon 
 the children of Israel is illustrated by the 
 
MIDIANITES, MIDIANITISH] 318 
 
 [MILLO 
 
 narrative in Num. 25.6-18. An Israelite 
 brought a Midianitish woman openly into the 
 camp, and both were slain. While the Canaan - 
 itish tribes were abhorred, Midian could claim 
 consanguinity with the Israelites, and thus 
 more readily seduce them from their allegiance 
 to Jehovah. Accordingly, by the express com- 
 mand of Moses, a devastating war was waged 
 against Midian (Num. 31). In later years 
 they recovered from this blow, and became 
 the ruthless oppressors of the children of 
 Israel, wasting their crops even to Gaza on the 
 Mediterranean coast. The familiar story of 
 this oppression and the deliverance of Israel by 
 the hand of Gideon is told in Judg., chaps. 
 6, 7, and 8. The booty taken by Moses and 
 Gideon shows that the Midianites were a 
 wealthy nomad people, living by plunder, and 
 delighting in finery. 
 
 Midianites, Midianitish. [MIDIAN.] 
 
 Mig'dal-eder. [EDER 1'.] 
 
 Mig'dal-eh Tower of God: now Mujeidel, 
 at the head of Wady-Kerkerah ; a fortified 
 frontier town of Naphtali (Josh. 19.38). 
 
 Mig'dal-gad. Tower of Gad: now Mejdel, 
 a town in the lowland of Judah, 2J miles west 
 of Ashkelon (Josh. 15.37) ; originally associated 
 with the worship of the ancient deity Gad 
 (" Fortune "). 
 
 Mig'doL Watch-tower : 1. The site of an 
 Israelite encampment before crossing the Red 
 Sea (Ex. 14.2; Num. 33.7). 2. A town on 
 the north-east border of Egypt, the subject 
 of prophetic denunciation (Jer. 44.1, 46.14 ; 
 Ezek. 29.10, 30.6). 
 
 Mig'ron. A town near Gibeah, where Saul 
 mustered his 600 men when pressed by the 
 Philistines, and Sennacherib passed on his 
 way to Jerusalem (1 Sam. 14.2 ; Isai. 10.28). 
 
 Mija'min. [MIAMIN. ] 
 
 Mik'loth. Rods: 1. A Benjamite in Jeru- 
 salem (1 Ch. 8.32, 9.37,38). 2. The leader 
 of the second division of David's army (1 Ch. 
 27.4). 
 
 Miknei'ah. Jah is possessor : a Levite 
 musician (1 Ch. 15.18, 21). 
 
 Mil'alai. A priest who took part in the 
 purification of the wall of Jerusalem (Neh. 
 12.36). 
 
 Mil'cah. 1. The daughter of Haran, and 
 wife of her uncle Nahor, Abraham's brother, 
 to whom she bare eight children. The youngest, 
 Bethuel, was the father of Rebekah (Gen. 11.29, 
 22.20, 23, 24.15, 24, 47). She was the sister of 
 Lot. 2. The fourth daughter of Zelophehad 
 (Num. 26.33, 27.1, 36.11 ; Josh. 17.3). 
 
 Mil'com. The god of the Ammonites (1 K. 
 11.5,33, cf. ver. 7 ; 2 K. 23.13); elsewhere 
 called Molech, Malcham, or Malchan. [MOLECH.] 
 
 Mile. A Roman measure of length equal 
 to 1618 English yards (Matt. 5.41). 
 
 Miletum. [MILETUS.] 
 
 Mile'tns. A town of Asia Minor, 36 miles 
 south of Ephesus, whither Paul - summoned 
 the elders of the Ephesian Church (Acts 20.15, 
 17; 2 Tim. 4.20, A.V. Miletum). The sea has 
 
 now receded 10 miles from the site of Miletus, 
 now called Melas. 
 
 Milk. In Bible lands not only the milk of 
 cows, but also of sheep (Deut. 32.14), of camels 
 (Gen. 32.15), and of goats (Prov. 27.27) was 
 used. In every case (except perhaps Prov. 
 30.33) the term " butter " refers to a prepara- 
 tion of coagulated milk. It was this that Jael 
 offered to Sisera (Judg. 5.2o), produced from 
 one of the goatskin bottles which are still used 
 by the Bedouins. It is still offered in hospit- 
 ality to the passing stranger, as in the days of 
 Abraham (Gen. 18.8). The prohibition against 
 seething a kid in its mother's milk was directed 
 against some heathen usage practised at the 
 time of harvest (Ex. 23.19, 34.26 ; Deut. 14.21). 
 To " suck the milk " of an enemy's land was 
 an expression betokening its complete sub- 
 jection (Isai. 60.16 ; Ezek. 25.4). 
 
 MilL The Eastern mill consists of two 
 circular stones, about 50 inches in circum- 
 ference, and 3 inches thick, placed one upon 
 the other. In the centre of the upper is a 
 hole, into which the corn is gradually poured, 
 and through which it passes between the stones, 
 where it is ground to powder. In this upper 
 stone one or two strong handles are fixed, by 
 which it is turned round. The upper surface 
 of the lower stone is slightly convex, fitting 
 into a corresponding concavity in the upper 
 stone. The work, which is hard and performed 
 daily, is generally assigned to women, especially 
 if they are female slaves. As the millstones were 
 so necessary in preparing the daily food of each 
 family, the Israelites were forbidden " to take 
 the (whole) mill or the upper millstone to 
 pledge : for he taketh a man's life to pledge " 
 (Deut. 24.6, R.V.). It is a custom in the East 
 to allow soldiers a certain quantity of corn, with 
 other articles of provisions, together with 
 some pay ; and it was the custom also to carry 
 their corn to the mill at break of day. This 
 explains what otherwise would be very 
 puzzling the conduct of Rechab and Baanah, 
 the murderers of Ishbosheth, in coming to his 
 house " as though they would have fetched 
 wheat " (2 Sam. 4.5, 6). These two captains 
 went to the palace to fetch wheat in order to 
 distribute it to the soldiers, that it might be 
 sent to the mill at the accustomed hour in the 
 morning. Lam. 5.13 reads in the R.V., " The 
 young men bare the mill, and the children 
 stumbled under the wood," the wood being the 
 woodwork or shaft of the mill which the 
 captives were compelled to carry. In Matt. 
 18.6, R.V., " a great millstone " is literally " a 
 millstone turned by an ass." 
 
 Millet. Millet is cultivated throughout 
 Eastern lands as a minor corn-plant. Although 
 mentioned but once in Scripture (Ezek. 4.9), it 
 was probably included among the bread-plants 
 of the ancient Hebrews. Several species of it 
 grow in Palestine. 
 
 Millo. (?) Earthwork : 1. Some part of the 
 fortifications of Jerusalem, first mentioned after 
 David's capture of " the stronghold of Zion " : 
 
MINES, MINING] 
 
 319 
 
 [MIRACLE 
 
 perhaps the pushing of his defences westward, 
 which involved the " filling " of the Tyropoean 
 valley to connect the two hills on which the 
 city was built (2 Sam. 5.9 ; 1 Ck. 11.8). Further 
 works were carried out by Solomon (1 K. 9.15, 
 24, 11.27), and by Hezekiah (2 Ch. 32.5). 2. 
 Beth-Millo (The House of Millo), (a) the name 
 either of a place or a family connected with 
 Shechem (Judg. 9.6, 20) ; (&) the place where 
 Joash was slain, in Jerusalem, " on the way which 
 goeth down to Silla" (2 K. 12.20). Probably 
 connected with MILLO 1. 
 
 Mines, Mining. The well-known passage, 
 Job 28.1-11, shows that the processes of smelting 
 and refining metals were familiar to Bible people 
 from very early times. Copper mines in the 
 peninsula of Sinai were worked by a colony 
 consisting for the most part of Egyptian convicts 
 as early as a period fixed by some authorities 
 at 4000 B.C. Gold and silver were refined by 
 what is known as the cupelling process, which 
 consists in mixing the alloy with lead, exposing 
 the whole to fusion upon a vessel of bone-ashes 
 or earth, and blowing upon it with bellows or 
 other blast. To this process reference is made 
 in Mai 3.3 : " He shall sit as a refiner and 
 purifier of silver ; and He shall purifiy the sons 
 of Levi, and purge them as gold and silver." 
 The hills of Palestine are rich in iron, and the 
 mines are still worked there, though in a very 
 simple, rude manner. 
 
 Mingled People. The phrase in Jer. 25.24, 
 50.37 seems to signify the foreign soldiers or 
 mercenary troops who lived among the native 
 population. Elsewhere (in 1 K. 10.15, R.V. ; 
 Jer. 25.24; and Ezek. 30.5) it means a popula- 
 tion of mixed race or of many races. [MIXED 
 MULTITUDE.] 
 
 Min'iamin. 1. A Levite in the days of 
 Hezekiah who, with others, 'distributed the free- 
 will offerings of the people among his brethren 
 (2 Ch. 31.15). 2. The same as Miamin and 
 Mijamin (Neh. 12.17). 3. One of the priests 
 who blew the trumpets at the dedication of the 
 wall of Jerusalem (Neh. 12.41). 
 
 Minister. One who officiates, waits upon, or 
 serves another, thus Joshua is described as the 
 minister of Moses (Ex. 24.13; Josh. 1.1), i.e. 
 his attendant. The ministers of Solomon 
 (1 K. 10.5) were the attaches of the court, 
 officers of lower rank than the servants men- 
 tioned in the same verse. The latter more nearly 
 correspond with our " ministers of the Crown." 
 The " minister " to whom Christ, after reading 
 from Isaiah in the synagogue at Nazareth, 
 handed the book (Lk. 4.20), was an attendant 
 whose duty it was to open and close the building, 
 to produce and replace the books employed in 
 the service, and generally to wait on the officiat- 
 ing priest or teacher. The term is also applied 
 to magistrates (Rom. 13.6) ; to pastors and 
 teachers (1 Cor. 3.5); to angels (Ps. 104.4; 
 Heb. 1.14); and to the Son of man, who came 
 into this world " not to be ministered unto, 
 but to minister " (Matt. 20.28). 
 
 Min'ni. A province of Armenia (Jer. 51.27). 
 
 At the time mentioned Armenia had been 
 subdued by the Median kings. 
 
 Min'nith. A place on the east of Jordan ; the 
 limit cf Jephthah's slaughter of the Ammonites 
 (Judg. 1 1.33). Perhaps the same place is referred 
 to in the " wheat of Minnith " which Israel 
 traded with Tyre (Ezek. 27.17) ; but the state- 
 ment presents difficulties. The ruins of Minyeh, 
 13 miles south-west of Heshbon, may mark the 
 site. 
 
 Minstrel. " Bring me a minstrel," says 
 Elisha (2 K. 3.15), meaning thereby a player 
 upon a stringed instrument like the harp. The 
 power of music to withdraw from the influence 
 of sense and outward things, and so to prepare 
 for the inward vision, is illustrated also by 
 1 Sam. 10.5, 6, 16.14-23. The minstrels in Matt. 
 9.23 were flute-players employed as professional 
 mourners. 
 
 Mint. Several species of this plant, which is 
 used as a condiment, grow in Palestine. The 
 only mention in Scripture refers to the ostenta- 
 tious and hypocritical scrupulosity of the 
 Pharisees in paying tithe on every smallest herb 
 in their garden (Matt. 23.23 ; Lk. 11.42). 
 
 Miph'kad. Appointed place : one of the gates 
 of Jerusalem at the time of the rebuilding of 
 the wall after the return from Captivity (Neh. 
 3.31). 
 
 Miracle. The English word miracle is 
 found in use as early as the year 1137. It is 
 loosely applied in the general sense of its 
 Latin derivation to anything wonderful, but 
 in the Bible is used in the restricted sense of 
 " an act of God which visibly deviates from the 
 ordinary working of His power, designed, 
 while capable of serving other uses, to authen- 
 ticate a divine message " (Cairns, Christianity 
 and Miracles at the Present Day). 
 
 Of the words rendered " miracle " in the 
 A.V., in the O.T. the Hebrew Mopheth is 
 rendered in the A.V. both " wonder " (Deut. 
 13.1) and " miracle " (Deut. 29.3 ; R.V. 
 " wonder "). The Hebrew pele (literally, 
 " wonder ") is rendered " miracle " (Judg. 6.13) 
 and " wonder " (Isai. 29.14), and Oth (literally, 
 "sign") is rendered "sign" (Deut. 13.1) and 
 "miracles" (Deut. 11.3; R.V. "signs"). In 
 the N.T. Dunamis (literally, " power ") is 
 rendered " miracle " ( Mk. 9.39, etc. ; R.V. 
 " mighty works " ; and Heb. 2.4 " miracles " ; 
 R.V. " powers ") and " mighty work " (Mk. 
 6.5, etc.). Semeion (literally, " sign," and 
 frequently so rendered, as in Mk. 8.11, etc.) 
 is also translated "miracle" (Lk. 23.8). It is 
 the characteristic word for miracle in the Fourth 
 Gospel. Our Lord's miracles are also described 
 as ergo. (" works " ; John 5.20, 7.3, 10.25, 
 15.24, etc.) and terata (" wonders " ; John 4.48 ; 
 Acts 2.22). 
 
 The main purpose of miracles, to authenticate 
 a divine message, is clearly indicated. The 
 miracles recorded in the O.T. must not be 
 considered alone, but as part of that history 
 which culminated in the incarnation of Jesus 
 Christ. They are most conspicuous in associa- 
 
MIRACLE] 
 
 320 
 
 [MIRACLE 
 
 tion with the work of Moses and Aaron, and 
 of the prophets, Elijah, Elisha, and Daniel. 
 The purpose in these connexions is clearly 
 stated (e.g. in Ex. 3.20, 7.5, 17 ; IK. 18.37 ; 
 2 K. 5.8) ; their import was understood and 
 acknowledged (Ex. 10.16, 17 ; 1 K. 18.39 ; 
 Dan. 3.28, 29, 6.26, 27). In like manner the 
 miracles of our Lord " must be conceived of as 
 congruous to His Messianic vocation, and 
 serviceable to the interests of the Divine 
 kingdom. None of the miracles, of whatever 
 class, can be regarded as mere displays of 
 power; they must all be viewed as arising 
 naturally out of their occasions, and serving 
 
 a useful purpose in connexion with Christ's 
 work as the Herald and Founder of the kingdom 
 of Heaven " (A. B. Bruce, The Miramlnus 
 Element in the Gospels, p. 207). They are so 
 treated by our Lord Himself (Mk. 2.10 ; John 
 5.36). The other N.T. miracles must be con- 
 sidered in the light of our Lord's commission 
 to the apostles (Matt. 10.8) and to the whole 
 body of believers (Mk. 16.17). They also 
 are spoken of in terms which indicate their 
 purpose (Acts 3.16, 5.12-14, 8.6, 7). 
 
 The miracles of our Lord are in the following 
 table so arranged as to show at a glance the 
 evidence for each in the several gospels : 
 
 Miracles of Christ in the several Gospels. 
 
 Recorded in the Four Gospels. 
 
 Matthew 
 
 Mark 
 
 Luke 
 
 John 
 
 Feeding the Five Thousand . 
 
 14.15-21 
 
 6.35-44 
 
 9.12-17 
 
 6.5-14 
 
 In Three of the Gospels. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Stilling the Tempest . 
 
 8.23-27 
 
 4.35-41 
 
 8.22-25 
 
 
 The Demons in the Swine 
 
 8.28-34 
 
 5.1-20 
 
 8.26-39 
 
 
 Raising the Daughter of Jairus 
 Healing the Woman with Issue of 
 
 9.18, 19, 23-26 
 
 5.22-24, 35-43 
 
 8.41, 42, 49-56 
 
 
 Blood 
 
 9.20-22 
 
 5.25-34 
 
 8.43-48 
 
 
 Healing the Paralytic at Capernaum 
 
 9.1-8 
 
 2.1-12 
 
 5.17-26 
 
 
 Healing the Leper 
 
 8.1-4 
 
 1.40-45 
 
 5.12-15 
 
 
 Healing Peter's Mother-in-law 
 
 8.14-15 
 
 1.29-31 
 
 4.38, 39 
 
 
 Restoring a Withered Hand . 
 Healing a Lunatic Child 
 
 12.9-13 
 17.14-21 
 
 3.1-5 
 9.14-29 
 
 6.6-11 
 9.37-42 
 
 
 Walking on the Sea 
 
 14.22-33 
 
 6.45-52 
 
 
 6.19-21 
 
 Healing Blind Bartimaeus (and 
 
 
 
 
 
 another) near Jericho 
 
 20.29-34 
 
 10.46-52 
 
 18.35-43 
 
 
 In Two Gospels. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Healing the Syrophopnician Damsel . 
 Feeding the Four Thousand . 
 Withering the Fig-tree . 
 
 15.21-28 
 15.32-39 
 21.17-22 
 
 7.24-30 
 8.1-9 
 11.12-14, 20-24 
 
 
 
 Healing the Centurion's Servant 
 Demoniac in synagogue cured 
 Healing a Blind and Dumb 
 
 8.5-13 
 
 1.23-26 
 
 7.1-10 
 4.33-36 
 
 
 Demoniac .... 
 
 12.22 
 
 
 11.14 
 
 
 In One Gospel only. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Two Blind Men healed . 
 
 9.27-31 
 
 
 
 
 A Dumb Demoniac healed 
 
 9.32, 33 
 
 
 
 
 The Stater in the Fish's Mouth 
 
 17.24-27 
 
 
 
 
 Healing a Deaf Mute . 
 
 
 7.31-37 
 
 
 
 Healing a Blind Man at Bethsaida . 
 
 
 8.22-26 
 
 
 
 Miraculous Draught of Fishes 
 
 
 
 5.1-11 
 
 
 Raising the Widow's Son at Nain . 
 
 
 
 7.11-16 
 
 
 Healing the W r oman with an In- 
 
 
 
 
 
 firmity ..... 
 
 
 
 13.10-17 
 
 
 Healing a Dropsical Man 
 
 
 
 14.1-6 
 
 
 Cleansing of Ten Lepers 
 
 
 
 17.11-19 
 
 
 Healing the Ear of Malchus . 
 
 
 
 22.49-51 
 
 
 Turning Water into Wine 
 
 
 
 
 2.1-11 
 
 Healing a Nobleman's Son at 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cana ..... 
 
 
 
 
 4.46-54 
 
 Healing the Impotent Man at Beth- 
 
 
 
 
 
 esda ..... 
 
 
 
 
 5.1-16 
 
 Opening the Eyes of one born Blind 
 
 
 
 
 9.1-8 
 
 Raising of Lazarus 
 
 
 
 
 11.1-46 
 
 Miraculous Draught of Fishes 
 
 
 
 
 
 (second) ..... 
 
 
 
 
 21.1-14 
 
MIRIAM] 
 
 321 
 
 [MIZPAH, MIZPEH 
 
 Mir'iam. 1. The sister of Moses and Aaron. 
 Miriam watched her infant brother's cradle 
 in the Nile, and suggested her mother as the 
 child's nurse (Ex. 2.4, 7). After the passage of 
 the Red Sea she is called the "prophetess," and 
 led the triumphant songs of the women (Ex. 
 15.20, 21). For questioning the supremacy of 
 Moses she was smitten with leprosy, but by 
 the intercession of her brothers with God was 
 restored whole again (Num. 12.10-15). She 
 died towards the close of the wanderings in the 
 wilderness, and was buried at Ka.desh(Num. 20.1). 
 
 2. A son or daughter of Jether, appearing in 
 the genealogies of the tribe of Judah and house 
 of Caleb (1 C/t. 4.17). 
 
 Mir'ma (R.V. Minnah). A Benjamite 
 (1 Ch. 8.10). 
 
 Mirror. Very rarely made of glass in olden 
 time, and the Bible references are doubtless to 
 metal, which, however well polished, gave a very 
 imperfect reflection (1 Cor. 13.12). 
 
 Mis 'gab. Lofty rock : a fortress of Moab 
 (Jer. 48.1, where the R.V. has "the high 
 fort"). 
 
 Mi'shaeL Who is what God is? I. A son of 
 Uzziel, who was the uncle of Moses and Aaron ; 
 Mishael was therefore their cousin. He helped 
 to remove from the sanctuary the bodies of Nadab 
 and Abihu, struck dead for offering strange fire 
 (Ex. 6.22; Lev. 10.4). 2. One who stood 
 beside Ezra when he read the Law (Neh. 8.4). 
 
 3. A companion of Daniel (Dan. 1.6, 7, 11, 19, 
 2.17). 
 
 Mish'al, Mishe'aL A town of Asher assigned 
 to the Gershonites (Josh. 19.26, A.V. Misheal, 
 21.30). In 1 C/t. 6.74 the name is given as 
 Mashal. 
 
 Mish'am. A Benjamite (1 Ch. 8.12). 
 
 Mish'xna. 1. A son of Ishmael (Gen. 25.14; 
 1 Ch. 1.30). 2. A Simeonite (1 Ch. 4.25). 
 
 Mishman'nah. One of the twelve " lion- 
 faced " Gadites who joined David in Ziklag 
 (1 Ch. 12.10). 
 
 Mish'raites. A family of (or colony from) 
 Kirjath-jearirn (1 Ch. 2.53). 
 
 Mis'par, Mispe'reth. Writing : one of those 
 who returned with Zerubbabel from Babylon 
 (Ezra 2.2 ; Neh. 7.7). [MIZPAH.] 
 
 Mis'rephoth-ma'im. Burning / waters or 
 smelting works by the waters : the limit of 
 Joshua's pursuit of the Canaanite kings, re- 
 maining unconquered at the death of Joshua 
 (Josh. 11.8, 13.6) ; perhaps the same as Zare- 
 phath. 
 
 Mite. The smallest Jewish copper coin, 
 equal to the Roman " quadrans " (farthing), 
 and of the value of about | of an English 
 farthing (Mk. 12.42; Lk. 21.2). In estimat- 
 ing the worth of " the widow's mite," it 
 should not be forgotten that she gave two 
 mites when she could hare kept back one for 
 her needs. The mite is mentioned also Lk. 12.59, 
 " Till thou hast paid the very last mite " ( Matt. 
 5.2G, " quadrans "). 
 
 Mith'cah, Mith'kah. Sweet place : the site of 
 an Israelite encampment (Num. 33.28, 29). 
 21 
 
 Mith'nite, The. The designation of Josha- 
 phat, one of David's guard (1 Ch. 11.43). 
 
 Mith'redath. Given by Mithra, i.e. sun : 1. 
 The treasurer of Cyrus, king of Persia (Ezra 1.8). 
 2. A Persian officer stationed at Samaria, in the 
 reign of Artaxerxes. He joined with his col- 
 leagues in prevailing upon the king to hinder the 
 rebuilding of the Temple (Ezra 4.7). 
 
 Mitre. The word used in Ex. 28.4,37,39, 
 29.6, 39.28,31; Lev. 8.9, 16.4 to describe 
 the headdress or cap worn by the high-priest. 
 It was of linen, and fastened to the front by a 
 band of blue lace was a plate of gold bearing 
 the inscription, " Holiness to the Lord." In 
 Ezek. 21.26 the word is rendered by the A.V. 
 "diadem" (R.V. "mitre"). In the other 
 passages the R.V. margin has " or, turban." 
 
 Mityle'ne. The capital, now called Castro, 
 of the island of Lesbos, in the JSgean Sea, where 
 Paul touched on his return voyage from his 
 third missionary journey (Acts 20.14, 15). It 
 enjoyed the privileges of a free city. 
 
 Mixed Multitude. A "mixed multitude" 
 journeyed with the Israelites in their exodus from 
 Egypt (Ex. 12.38). The term includes all those 
 who were not of pure Israelite blood the off- 
 spring of mixed marriages, Egyptians them- 
 selves, and members of other races involved in 
 the same oppression which had afflicted the 
 Israelites. The same word occurs Neh. 13.3, 
 and in the passages cited under MINGLED 
 PEOPLE (which see), but not in Num. 11.4, " the 
 mixed multitude that was among them fell a 
 lusting," where the term employed hardly indi- 
 cates the non-Israelite element, but the baser 
 sort of the whole multitude. Tindal, " the 
 rascall people " ; Coverdale, " comon sorte of 
 people." [MINGLED PEOPLE.] 
 
 Mi'zar. Smmll : the author of Ps. 42 writes of 
 remembering God " from the land of Jordan, and 
 the Hermons, from the hill Mizar" (ver. 6, R.V.). 
 He would seem to be writing in the neighbour- 
 hood of Hermon, where the Jordan has its 
 sources, and Mizar might be some lesser spur of 
 the Hermon range. R.V. marg. has " the little 
 mountain," and some have found in this an 
 expression of affectionate longing, from the 
 mountain land of giant Hermon, for " the little 
 mountain " of Zion with its Temple, from which 
 the Psalmist is a sad exile. A very slight 
 change would afford the suggestive rendering, 
 " I remember thee, thou little mountain, from 
 the land of Jordan and the Hermons." 
 
 Miz'pah, Miz'peh. Watch - tower : 1. The 
 heap of stones piled up by Jacob and Laban on 
 Mount Gilead (Gen. 31.48, 49) to serve both as a 
 witness of the covenant then entered into and 
 also as a landmark of the boundary between 
 them. The spot afterwards became a sanctuary 
 of Jehovah. Here the children of Israel, in 
 days of distress, assembled for the choice of a 
 leader (Judg. 10.17), and the first act of Jeph- 
 thah was to ge to " the Mizpah " and utter all 
 his words " before Jehovah." At Mizpah took 
 place the fatal meeting with his daughter on 
 his return from the war (Judg. 11.34). 2. The 
 
MIZPAE] 
 
 322 
 
 [MOLID 
 
 residence, near Hermon, of the Hivites who 
 joined the northern confederacy against Israel, 
 headed by Jabin, king of Hazor ; and the place 
 to which the defeated hosts of the same con- 
 federacy were chased by Joshua (Josh. 11.3, 8). 
 3. A city of Judah (Josh. 15.38), irothe district of 
 the Shefelah on maritime lowland. It has been 
 identified with the present Tell es-Safiyeh, 
 standing on the slopes of the mountains of 
 Judah and completely overlooking the maritime 
 plain. 4. A city of Benjamin (Josh. 18.26 ; 
 //os. 5.1); where Samuel judged the people, 
 assembled the tribes, and chose Saul to be king 
 (1 Sam. 7.5-12, 16, 10.17-25). It was fortified 
 by Asa (1 K. 15.22; 2 Ch. 16.6); was the re- 
 sidence of Gedaliah, the Chaldean governor, after 
 the capture of Jerusalem, and the scene of the 
 murder of the pilgrims from Samaria (2 K. 25.23, 
 25; Jer. 40.8, 41.16). The city was reoccupied 
 after the return from captivity (Neh. 3.7, 15, 19). 
 5. A city of Moab where the king of that nation 
 was living when David committed his parents 
 to his care (1 Sam. 22.3). 
 Miz'par ( R. V. Mis'par). (Ezra 2.2), [MISPAB, 
 
 MlSPERETH.] 
 
 Miz'peh. [MIZPAH.] 
 
 Mizra'im. The second son of Ham (Gen. 10.6, 
 13; 1 Ch. 1.8,11), and the Hebrew name of 
 the country inhabited by his descendants, in the 
 English Bible always rendered Egypt. The 
 word has been supposed to be a Hebrew duaZform, 
 " the two Mazors " or " forts," with some refer- 
 ence to the defences of the two districts of 
 Lower (or Northern) Egypt and Upper (or 
 Southern) Egypt, into which the country was 
 divided from prehistoric times. 
 
 Miz'zah. A descendant of Esau and Ishmael, 
 and one of the " dukes " of Edom (Gen. 36.13, 
 17 : 1 Ch. 1.37). 
 
 Mna'son. A native of Cyprus, an early 
 disciple, at whose house (either in Jerusalem or 
 at some halting-place midway between Caesarea 
 and Jerusalem) Paul lodged on his last visit to 
 Jerusalem (Acts 21.16). 
 
 Mo'ab. Progeny of a father : the original 
 territory of Moab appears to have been divided 
 into three portions: (1) The "land of Moab," 
 open rolling country north of the Arnon, opposite 
 Jericho, reaching to Gilead on the north ; before 
 the conquest of Canaan by the Israelites, this 
 was taken by the Amorites, then allotted to 
 Reuben and Gad, and, on the fall of the kingdom 
 of the ten tribes, recovered by the Moabites; 
 hence its cities are named by the prophets as 
 belonging to Moab (Num. 21.13, 26; Deut. 1.5, 
 29.1, 32.49, 34.5, 6; Isai. 15.1-5; Jer.4S; Ezek. 
 25.8-11). (2) The "field of Moab," upland 
 undulating plains, extending from the pre- 
 cipitous mountains overlooking the Dead Sea 
 on the west to the Arabian desert on the east, 
 from the deep chasm of the Arnon on the north 
 to Edom on the south ; this the Israelites were 
 expressly forbidden to oter, hence they passed 
 through the wilderness (Midbar) of Moab on the 
 east (Gen. 36.35 ; Deut. 2.8, 9 ; Judg. 11.15, 18 ; 
 Ruth; 1 Ch. 1.46). (3) The " Arboth-Moab," 
 
 the dry, tropical region in the Arabah on the 
 east of the Jordan (Num. 22.1, 26.3, 63, 31.12, 
 33.48-50, 35.1, 36.13; Deut. 1.5, 29.1, 34.1,8; 
 Josh. 13.32) ; a country covered with sites of 
 towns, and capable of rich cultivation. It had 
 two chief cities, Ar (city) of Moab and Kir 
 (fortress) of Moab. Throughout most of their 
 history the Moabites were determined enemies 
 of the Israelites (2 K. 1.1, 3.4, 5) ; names on 
 inscriptions coincide with those of the Bible, 
 and show that Chemosh was the god of Moab, 
 and Jehovah the God of Israel. 
 
 Moabite, Moabitess, Moabitisb, [MOAB.] 
 
 Moabite Stone. [MESHA.] 
 
 Moadiah. [MAADIAH.] 
 
 Mola'dah. Birthplace : a town in south of 
 Judah, given to Simeon, reoccupied after the 
 return from captivity (Josh. 15.26, 19.2 ; 
 1 Ch. 4.28 ; Neh. 11.26). It is the modern el- 
 Milh, about 10 miles due east of Beersheba, and 
 one of the regular stations on the road from 
 Petra to Hebron. 
 
 Mole. There is no "true mole in Palestine. 
 In Lev. 11.30 R.V. has "chameleon"; see the 
 rest of the verse and R.V. marg. In Isai. 2.20 
 (a different Hebrew word) the reference is to 
 some burrowing animal which, like the bat, 
 haunts ruins. Probably the mole-rat of Palestine 
 is intended, which is abundant on the plains of 
 Judaea, from the Dead Sea to Gaza and about 
 Becrsheba. 
 
 Mo'lech. King : called also Malcam (A.V. 
 Malcham), Milcom (which see). The name is 
 really Melech (king) ; by the change of vowel 
 the Hebrews intended to suggest the word 
 bosheth "shame," from motives of repugnance, 
 seen also in Ishbosheth for Eshbaal, Mephibosheth 
 for Meribbaal. The fire-god of the Ammonites, as 
 Chemosh was of the Moabites. Human sacrifices 
 and ordeals of fire were among the means 
 adopted of propitiating him. The Israelites 
 were warned against this worship by threats 
 of the severest punishment. The offender who 
 devoted his offspring to Molech was to be put 
 to death by stoning (Lev. 18.21, 20.2-5). In 
 Solomon's old age, high places to Molech were 
 built on one of the summits of Olivet (1 K. 11.7). 
 To make a son or daughter " pass through 
 the fire to Molech " (2 K. 23.10, 13) was to slay 
 the child, and then offer it as a burnt-offering, 
 after the manner of Mesha (2 K. 3.27). The 
 idea of the sacrifice of children was not only 
 expiatory, but purificatory, by which the 
 victims were supposed to be purged from the 
 dross of the body, and thus attain union with the 
 deity. It is stated that the image of Molech 
 was in the shape of a calf, with hands stretched 
 forth as if to receive something. In the case 
 of a similar idol in another land, the hands 
 were outstretched towards the ground in such 
 a manner that the child when placed upon them 
 fell into a pit full of fire. The priests of Molech 
 took precedence of the princes of the Ammonites 
 (Jer. 49.3, R.V.). [GEHENNA.] 
 
 Mo'lid. Begotten : a descendant of Judah 
 (1 Ch. 2.29). 
 
MOLOCH] 
 
 323 
 
 [MOSEEA, MOSERAH 
 
 Moloch. A form of Molech, derived from 
 the Greek, and found only in A.V. of Amos 5.26, 
 " the tabernacle of your Moloch," R.V. " Siccuth 
 your king," and in the quotation of this 
 passage in Acts 7 A3. 
 
 Money. In the times before coinage, gold or 
 silver was weighed out in payments (Gen. 23.16). 
 Throughout the history of Joseph we find 
 evidence of the constant use of money in pre- 
 ference to barter. All the money of Egypt 
 and Canaan was paid for corn, and then the 
 Egyptians had recourse to barter (Gen. 47.13-26). 
 At the time of the Exodus money was still 
 weighed (Ex. 30.13), silver being the metal 
 mentioned ; gold, though valuable, was not 
 employed as money. We find no evidence in 
 the Bible of the use of coined money before the 
 time of Ezra. [See articles under names of 
 individual coins.] 
 
 Money-changers. Every Israelite, whether 
 rich or poor, who had reached or passed the age 
 of twenty, was required to pay into the sacred 
 treasury, whenever the nation was numbered, 
 a half -shekel (about Is. 3 Ad.) as an offering 
 to Jehovah (Ex. 30.13-15)." The tribute must 
 be paid in Hebrew money. The money-changers 
 whom Christ expelled from the Temple (Matt. 
 21.12; Mk. 11.15; John 2.15) were the 
 dealers who supplied half-shekels, for such a 
 premium as they might be able to exact, to the 
 Jews from all parts of the world who assembled 
 at Jerusalem during the great festivals, and 
 were required to pay their tribute or ransom 
 monoy in the Hebrew coin ; and also for other 
 general purposes of exchange. 
 
 Month. From the time of the Law of Moses 
 the month among the Jews was a lunar one, 
 the commencement of which was decided by 
 observation of the new moon. Abib, the 
 month of " ears of corn," was established as the 
 first month of the year in commemoration of the 
 Exodus (Ex. 12.2); the Passover, of course, fell 
 in this month. Roughly calculated, Abib 
 answers to our April. [See names of individual 
 months.] 
 
 Moon, Moonlight is much more brilliant in 
 Eastern countries than in the West, and a great 
 deal of travelling is done by its light. The 
 reference in Ps. 121.6, " the moon shall not smite 
 thee by night," is to the injurious elTect which 
 the rays of the moon were believed to have upon 
 the eyes of those who slept under the open 
 heaven. The paroxysms of epilepsy were 
 connected with the waxing and waning of the 
 moon : this is referred to in Matthew's term 
 "moonstruck" (4.24, 17.15, A.V. " lunatick," 
 R.V. " epileptic "). The moon was worshipped 
 in Egypt, Syria, and Babylonia, as, for example, 
 at Ur of the Chaldees and at Haran. The 
 earliest reference to this form of idolatry is in 
 Job 31.26, 27. See also the warning of Moses 
 (Deut. 4.19). Manasseh "worshipped all the 
 host of heaven " (2 K. 21.3), and the priests 
 that burned incense to the moon were put down 
 by Josiah (2 K. 23.4, 5) 
 
 Moon, New. [NEW MOON.] 
 
 Moras'thite, The (It.V. Morashtite). A native 
 of Moresheth, applied to the prophet Micah 
 (Jer. 26.18; Mic. 1.1). 
 
 Mor'decai. The hero of the book of Esther 
 and the deliverer of the Jews from the destruction 
 plotted against them by Haman, the chief 
 minister of Xerxes. He was a Benjamite, and 
 one of the captivity, residing in Shushan. 
 When the decree for the massacre of all the Jews 
 in the empire was known, it was at Mordecai's 
 earnest advice and exhortation that Esther 
 undertook the perilous task of interceding 
 with the king on their behalf. Mordecai was 
 himself the cause of this decree, by his refusal 
 to bow before Haman. Mordecai saved the 
 king's life, by announcing to him a conspiracy 
 of two of the eunuchs to kill him, just before 
 Haman came to ask permission to hang Mordecai. 
 The sequel was that Haman and his sons were 
 hanged upon the gallows which had been 
 prepared for Mordecai. Considerable remains 
 of the palace of Ahasuerus (Xerxes) at Shushan 
 were discovered in the middle of last century. 
 [ESTHER.] 
 
 Mo'reh. Diviner, soothsayer : 1. The terebinth 
 (not " plain," as A.V.) of Moreh, near 
 Shechem, where Abram first encamped in the 
 Land of Promise, close to the mountains Ebal 
 and Gerizim (Gen. 12.6 ; Deut. 11.30), 2. The 
 hill of Moreh, at the foot of which the Midianites 
 and Amalekites were encamped before Gideon's 
 attack upon them (Judg. 7.1). It lay east of 
 the plain of Jezreel. It is now called Jebel ed- 
 Duhy, the " Little Hermon" of modern travellers. 
 
 More'sheth-gath. Possession of Gath : a town 
 in the lowland of Judah, the birthplace of Micah 
 
 (Mic. 1.14). [MORASTHITE.] 
 
 Mori 'ah. Vision : 1. The land in which 
 was situated the mountain on which Abraham 
 was to offer Isaac (Gen. 22.2). Its situation is 
 unknown. Possibly it is Mount Gerizim, or it 
 may be identical with 2. 2. The mount on 
 which Solomon's Temple was built, the east 
 ridge of Jerusalem (2 Ch. 3.1). 
 
 Mortar. When the manna fell the Israelites 
 ground it in the mill or pounded it in the mortar 
 till it was fit for use (Num. 11.8). So in the 
 present day stone mortars are used by the 
 Arabs to pound wheat. The mortar of Prov. 
 27.22, in which the fool was to be brayed, 
 was one of a much larger kind. 
 
 Morter (R.V. Mortar). The use of mortar 
 is mentioned in Gen. 11.3 ; Ex. 1.14 ; Lev. 
 14.42,45; Isai. 41.25; Nah. 3.14. The sub- 
 stances used for it included bitumen, common 
 mud, moistened clay, and a cement compounded 
 of sand, ashes, and lime, sometimes mixed and 
 sometimes coated with oil, so as to form a surface 
 almost impervious to the rigours of the weather. 
 Stubble or straw was added, to increase the 
 tenacity. 
 
 Mose'ra, Mose'rah, Mose'roth. (?) Fetters : the 
 place where Aaron died and was buried, site of 
 Israelite encampment near Mount Hor (Num. 
 33.30,31 (Moseroth); Deut. 10.6, A.V. Mosera, 
 R.V. Mosrrah).* 
 
MOSES] 
 
 324 
 
 [MOURNING 
 
 Moses. Drawer out (Ex, 2.10) ; but more 
 probably Egyptian, son, child : the great law- 
 giver of the Hebrews, the son of Amram 
 and Jochebed, and a member of the tribe of 
 Levi. He was born just at the time when 
 the Pharaoh of Egypt had resolved on the 
 destruction of every newly-born male child 
 among the Israelites (Ex. 2.1-4, 6.20 ; Acts 
 7.20 ; Heb. 11.23). His mother placed him in 
 an " ark of bulrushes " on the Nile. Pharaoh's 
 daughter, who saved him, gave him his name 
 of Moses, and brought him up as an adopted son, 
 so that he was skilled in all the wisdom of the 
 Egyptians (Ex. 2.5-10 ; Acts 7.21, 22). When 
 next mentioned he has grown to manhood. 
 Seeing an Israelite suffering the bastinado from 
 an Egyptian, and thinking that they were alone, 
 he slew the Egyptian and buried the corpse in 
 the sand. But the act had been witnessed, 
 and when Moses knew this be fled into Midi an, 
 where he married Zipporah, daughter of Jethro, 
 chief or priest of the Midianite tribes, becoming 
 the shepherd of his father-in-law (Ex. 2.11-21 ; 
 Acts 7.29). It was in the seclusion and sim- 
 plicity of his shepherd-life that Moses received 
 his commission to deliver the children of Israel. 
 He therefore began to return to Egypt. At first 
 he was accompanied by his Arabian wife and 
 her two infant sons, but soon they were sent 
 back to remain with Jethro, till they rejoined 
 Moses at Rephidim, when he was at the head 
 of the host of the Israelites. Soon after 
 he had parted from his wife and sons he 
 met Aaron, who in subsequent negotiations 
 acted as spokesman for Moses, because the 
 latter was slow of speech (Ex. 4.18-31). The 
 offence of Moses at Meribah (Num. 20.1-13, 
 27.14) was threefold : he distrusted or disbe- 
 lieved that water could be produced from the 
 rock merely by speaking to it ; he unnecessarily 
 smote the rock twice, thereby betraying an un- 
 warrantable impatience; he did not ascribe 
 the glory of the miracle wholly to God, but 
 rather to himself and his brother : " Must we 
 fetch you water out of this rock ? " His death 
 at the age of 120 years took place after the 
 Lord had shown him, from the top of Mount 
 Nebo, in the Pisgah range, a distant view of the 
 Promised Land, throughout its whole extent. 
 *' And He buried him in the valley in the land 
 of Moab, over against Beth-peor : but no man 
 knoweth of his sepulchre unto this day " (Deut. 
 34.6). The only strong trait of his character 
 that we can confidently state is described in 
 Num. 12.3: "The man Moses was very meek, 
 above all the men which were upon the face of 
 the earth." The word " meek " is not an 
 adequate translation ; the ideas conveyed in the 
 Hebrew word are rather " much enduring " and 
 " disinterested." He joined his countrymen 
 in their degraded servitude (Ex. 2.11, 5.4) ; he 
 forgot himself, to avenge their wrongs (Ex. 2.14) ; 
 he desired that his brother might take the lead 
 instead of himself (Ex. 4.13) ; he wished that 
 all the nation were equally gifted with himself 
 (Num. U.29). When the oiler was made that 
 
 the people should be destroyed and that he 
 should be made "a great nation" (Ex. 32.10), 
 he prayed that they might be forgiven " if not, 
 blot me, I pray Thee, out of Thy book which 
 Thou hast written " (Ex. 32.32). [For the con- 
 duct of Moses as the deliverer and lawgiver 
 of the Israelites, see separate articles, i.e. LAW 
 OP MOSES, PHABAOH, PLAGUES OP EGYPT, RED 
 SKA, etc.] 
 
 Mote. A bit of dry substance, as dust 
 (Matt. 7.3). 
 
 Moth. It is the clothes-moth which is re- 
 ferred to in Scripture (Isai. 50.9, 51.8; Matt. 
 6.19, 20; Jas. 5.2). In the East clothing was 
 regarded as of more importance, and laid by 
 and treasured in larger stores, than in this 
 country. And the substances of expensive 
 robes were in early days more valuable than at 
 present. Gifts of clothing are frequently re- 
 ferred to in the Bible, and are still prevalent 
 among Orientals. Other references are Job 
 4.19, ltf.28, 27.18; Ps. 39.11; Eos. 5.12. 
 
 Mother. The word is sometimes used in 
 Scripture for a metropolis, the " mother " or 
 capital city of a country or of a tribe, and 
 sometimes for a whole people (2 Sam. 20.19 ; 
 Isai. 50.1; Gal 4.26; Rev. 17.5). A "mother 
 in Israel," a name given to Deborah (Judg. 5.7), 
 signifies a woman whom God uses to cherish 
 or deliver the people. 
 
 Mount, Mountain. " The mountain of Israel " 
 (Josh. 11.16) and the mountain of Judah (Josh. 
 20.7) mean the hill country as opposed to the 
 valley and the plain. Similarly Mount Ephraim 
 is the mountainous district occupied by that tribe, 
 which is evident from the fact that the Mount 
 Gaash, Mount Zemaraim, the hill of Phinehas, 
 and the towns of Shechem, Shamir, Timnath- 
 Serach were all situated upon it (2 Ch. 15.8). 
 So also the " mountain of the Amorites " is 
 apparently the elevated country east of the 
 Dead Sea and Jordan (Deut. 1.7,19,20), and 
 "Mount Naphtali" the very elevated and hilly 
 tract allotted to that tribe. The "mount of 
 the valley" (Josh. 13.19) was a district on the 
 east of Jordan, within the territory allotted 
 to Reuben, and containing a number of towns. 
 
 Mourning. A marked feature of Oriental 
 mourning is its studied publicity. Thus Abra- 
 ham, after the death of Sarah, came, as it were 
 in state, to mourn and weep for her (Gen. 23.2). 
 We learn also of high places, streets, and house- 
 tops as places especially chosen for mourning, 
 not only by Jews, but by other nations. Among 
 the particular methods of showing grief were 
 rending the clothes (Gen. 37.29, 34), dressing in 
 sackcloth (Gen. 37.34), sprinkling ashes, dust, 
 or earth on the person (Josh. 7.6 ; Job 2.8), 
 wearing sad-coloured garments (2 Sam. 14.2), 
 removing ornaments from, or neglecting, the per- 
 son (Ex. 33.4, 6 ; 2 Sam. 19.24), plucking out 
 the hair of the head or beard (Ezra 9.3), fasting 
 (1 Sam. 31.13), lying on the ground (2 5am. 12.16), 
 and the employment of hired mourners consist- 
 ing of women and flute-players (2 Ch. 35.25 ; 
 Matt. 9.23). The high-priests (Ltv. 21.11) were 
 
MOUSE] 
 
 325 
 
 [MUSIC 
 
 forbidden to go into mourning, even for a father 
 or a mother. The inferior priests were limited to 
 the cases of their near relatives (Lev. 21.1-11). 
 Mourning entailed ceremonial defilement (Num. 
 19.11-16). 
 
 Mouse. The mouse was forbidden as food 
 (Lev. 11.29). Mice (field-mice) and emerods 
 were sent as a plague upon the Philistines, to 
 warn them to send back the ark to the Israelites 
 (1 Sam. 6). The eating of the mouse is referred 
 to with horror in /sot. 66.17. Mice abound in 
 Palestine. 
 
 Mowing. The " king's mowings " of Amos 7.1 
 may perhaps refer to some royal right of 
 early pasturage for the use of the caralry ; but 
 the word generally means " fleece " (cf. Ps. 72.6). 
 
 Mo'za. Sunrise : 1. A son of Caleb, the 
 son of Hezron (1 Ch. 2.46). 2. A Benjamite, 
 descendant of Saul (1 Ch. 8.36, 37, 9.42,43). 
 
 Mo'zah. Spring-head : a town of Benjamin 
 (Josh. 18.26). Now Beit Mizzeh, 4 miles 
 west of Jerusalem on the Jaffa road. 
 
 Mulberry Trees. The tree of 2 Sam. 5.23, 24 
 and 1 Ch. 14.14, 15 is nob our mulberry, but 
 what it is is quite uncertain. It may be the 
 sycamine tree (Lk. 17.6), or the poplar, of 
 which four species grow in Palestine the black, 
 white, and Lombardy poplars, well known in 
 Europe, and a species which fringes the Jordan 
 and other rivers of the country. The poplar is 
 naturally responsive to the action of the wind, 
 " trembling," " shivering," " quaking," with 
 the slightest breath of air. 
 
 Male. Mules are not mentioned till the time 
 of David, after the introduction of horses. Later 
 they appear as the ordinary riding animal of 
 persons of rank (1 K. 1.33, 18.5; /sat. 66.20). 
 Solomon probably imported his mules from Egypt, 
 since there is an injunction against the breeding 
 of mules in Lev. 19.19. The Phoenicians ob- 
 tained their mules from Togarmah (Armenia) at 
 the fairs of Tyre (Ezek. 27.14). Mules were also 
 used occasionally as beasts of burden (2 K. 5.17) ; 
 owing to their sure-footedness they are invalu- 
 able in rough, hilly districts. The word " mules " 
 in Esih. 8.14 should be translated " drome- 
 daries," and in Gen. 36.24 " hot springs." 
 
 Mup'pim. A son of Benjamin (Gen. 46.21). 
 In 1 Ch. 7.12, 15, 26.16 Shuppim ; in Num. 
 26.39, R.V., Shephupham; in 1 Ch. 8.5 Shephu- 
 phan. 
 
 Murder. Murder was punishable by death 
 (Gen. 9.6 ; Deut. 19.11, 12). When a dead 
 body was found in the fields, and the murderer 
 was unknown, the law directed that the elders and 
 judges of the neighbouring places should resort 
 to the spot (Deut. 21.1-8). The elders of the 
 city nearest to it were to take a heifer which 
 had never yet borne the yoke, and were to lead 
 it into some rude and uncultivated place which 
 had not been ploughed or sowed, where they were 
 to cut its throat. The priests of the Lord, with 
 the elders and magistrates of the city, were to 
 come near the dead body, and washing their 
 hands over the heifer that had been slain they 
 were to say : " Our hands have not shed this 
 
 blood, neither have our eyes seen it. Forgive, 
 LORD, Thy people Israel, \\hom Thou hast 
 redeemed, and suffer not innocent blood to 
 remain in the midst of Thy people Israel " 
 (R.V.). The Law of Moses prohibited com- 
 pensation or reprieve of the wilful murderer, 
 or his protection if he sought asylum in a 
 refuge-city, or even at the altar of Jehovah, 
 a principle which finds an eminent illus- 
 tration in the case of Joab (Ex. 21.12, 14 ; 
 Lev. 24.17,21; Num. 35.16,18,21,31; Deut. 
 19.11-13 ; 2 Sam. 3.27, 20.10; 1 K. 2.5, 6, 31). 
 If an animal known to be vicious caused the 
 death of any one, not only was the animal 
 destroyed, but the owner also, if he had taken 
 no steps to restrain it, was held guilty of murder 
 (Ex. 21.29, 31). It was lawful to kill a burglar 
 taken at night in the act, but unlawful to do so 
 after sunrise (Ex. 22.2, 3). 
 
 Mu'shi. A son of Merari (Ex. 6.19 ; Num. 
 3.20 ; 1 Ch. 6.19, 47, 23.21, 23, 24.26, 30). 
 
 Mushites. The family of Mushi (Num. 3.33, 
 26.58). 
 
 Music. The invention of instrumental music 
 is ascribed to Jubal, the sixth descendant from 
 Cain (Gen. 4.21). There is a reference in Gen. 
 31.26, 27 to mirth and songs, with tabret and 
 with harp. The song of Miriam and the women 
 of Israel, on the banks of the Red Sea, was 
 accompanied by timbrels and dances. Music, 
 both vocal and instrumental, was used in the 
 religious services of the Hebrews. It is certain 
 from various references that the instruments 
 were loud and sonorous. As the public singing 
 was performed with alternate responses, or the 
 chorus of all succeeded to those parts of the 
 psalm which were sung only by the appointed 
 leaders, instruments of this kind were necessary 
 to command and control the voices of so great a 
 number as was usually assembled on high occasions. 
 Music was an essential part of the instruction 
 given in the schools of the prophets. At Bethel 
 (1 Sam. 10.5) was a school of this kind, as well 
 as at Naioth in Ramah (1 Sam. 19.19,20), at 
 Jericho (2 K. 2.5, 7, 15), and at Gilgal (2 K. 4.38). 
 David gathered round him " singing men and 
 singing women," who could celebrate his victories 
 and lend a charm to his hours of peace (2 Sam. 
 19.35). Solomon did the same (Ecdes. 2.8), 
 and was himself no mean composer (1 K. 4.32). 
 The song service of the Temple was provided for 
 by the Levites. Of the 38,000 who composed 
 the tribe in the reign of David, 4000 are said 
 to have been appointed to praise Jehovah with 
 the instruments which David made (1 Ch. 23.5), 
 and for which he taught them a special chant. 
 The poet-king seems also to have organised the 
 Levitical chorus and orchestra, which existed 
 in some form through the times of Solomon, 
 Jehoshaphat, and even at the laying of the 
 foundation of the second Temple (1 Ch. 15.16- 
 24; 2 Ch. 7.6, 20.21; Ezra 3.10,11). The 
 Hebrews had music at marriages, birthdays, 
 and victories, at the inauguration of their kings, 
 and when they were coming from afar to attend 
 the great festivals of their nation. [CORNET, 
 
MUSTARD] 
 
 326 
 
 [NAAMATHITE 
 
 CYMBAL, FLUTE, NEGINOTH, ORGAN, PIPE, 
 TABRET, TRUMPET.] 
 
 Mustard. The K ingdom of Heaven is by our 
 Lord compared with the growth of a grain of 
 mustard seed into " the greatest among herbs " 
 (Matt. 13.31; Mk. 4.31; Lk. 13.19). There 
 is no doubt that He was referring to the 
 familiar plant, as common in Palestine as in 
 our own country. The mustard seed was the 
 smallest of those which the Jews were accus- 
 tomed to sow in their fields. On the rich plains 
 of Philistia, wild mustard plants have been seen 
 as tall as a horse and his rider. It would have 
 been easy for the birds to find shelter in such 
 plants. 
 
 Muth-labT>en. " For the chief musician; 
 set to Muth-labben " is the title of Ps. 9. The 
 significance of the words is quite uncertain. 
 
 My'ra. Now Dembra. City of Lycia, in Asia 
 Minor, where Paul was transferred from the 
 Adramyttian ship, which had brought him 
 from Csesarea, to a ship of Alexandria, bound 
 for Italy (Acts 27.5). In this latter vessel he 
 was shipwrecked on the coast of Malta. 
 
 Myrrh. Myrrh is mentioned as an ingredient 
 in the " anointing oil " for the Tabernacle 
 (Ex. 30.23) ; it was presented by the Magi to the 
 infant Saviour ; it was offered to and refused 
 by Him when on the cross ; and it formed part 
 of the spices in which His body was laid 
 (Matt. 2.11; Mk. 15.23; John 19.39). The refer- 
 ences to myrrh in Cant. 5.5, 13 and in Esth. 
 2.12 imply a preparation termed " oil of myrrh." 
 The rendering " myrrh " in Gen. 37.25 and 43.11 
 is incorrect. The substance mentioned in those 
 places as among the wares carried by the 
 Ishmaelite traders through Palestine to Egypt, 
 and the gifts sent by Jacob to Joseph, is a resin 
 yielded by a species of Cistus, found in Palestine, 
 Cyprus, and other parts of the Mediterranean 
 
 area. It was formerly much esteemed, but is 
 now scarcely used, except by the Turks, who 
 value it as a perfume and a fumigator. The 
 plant was not introduced into Egypt until a 
 much later date than the events described in 
 Genesis ; hence the suitability of the gift as an 
 offering to the Egyptian rulers. As is well 
 known, myrrh is the gum exuded from wounds 
 made in the bark of a certain tree. 
 
 Myrtle. The Jews returned from exile under 
 Nehemiah fetched branches of myrtle and 
 other trees from the Mount of Olives for the 
 construction of booths at the Feast of Taber- 
 nacles (Neh. 8.15). Isaiah prophesies the 
 time when the myrtle shall be planted in 
 the wilderness, and when it shall replace the 
 brier (Isai. 41.19, 55.13). Zechariah in vision 
 saw a grove of myrtle trees in a dell (Zech. 
 1.8,10,11). 
 
 My'sia. A north-west district of Asia Minor, 
 skirted by Paul on his second missionary tour 
 (Acts 16.7, 8). 
 
 Mystery. Found thrice in the Gospels, four 
 times in the Revelation, but twenty times in 
 St. Paul's Epistles. It never means only some- 
 thing strange and inexplicable, but always a 
 secret, revealed or not revealed, as the case 
 may be. In N.T. times the heathen world 
 was honeycombed with societies that taught 
 " mysteries," secrets connected with religion, 
 into which adherents were solemnly initiated. 
 Probably this fact often suggested to St. 
 Paul the use both of the word "mystery," 
 and even of some of the terms connected with 
 the " mysteries." So in Phil. 4.12, " I am in- 
 structed," A.V., but in R.V., "have I learned 
 the secret." In Col. 1.26 the secret is the 
 presence of Christ in believers. In Eph. 3.4-8 
 it is the privileges common to both Gentile and 
 Jewish Christians. 
 
 N 
 
 Na'am. Pleasantness : a son of Caleb, son 
 of Jephunneh (1 Ch. 4.15). 
 
 Na'amah. (?) Pleasantness: 1. A daughter of 
 Lamech by his wife Zillah and sister to Tubal- 
 cain (Gen. 4.22). She is one of the four women 
 whose names are preserved in the records of 
 the world before the Flood. 2. The mother of 
 King Rehoboam (1 K. 14.21, 31 ; 2 Ch. 12.13) ; 
 an Ammonite, one of the foreign women whom 
 Solomon took into his establishment. 3. A 
 town in the lowland of Judah, 6 miles north- 
 east of Lydda (Josh. 15.41 ), now Na'aneh. 
 
 Na'aman. Pleasant : 1. A Benjamite (Gen. 
 46.21; Num. 26.40; 1 Ch. 8.4,7). 2. The 
 commander-in-chief of the army of Benhadad, 
 king of Syria, who was cured of leprosy by 
 bathing seven times in the Jordan, in obedience 
 to the command of Elisha, the prophet (2 K. 5). 
 
 The prophet declined a present offered him 
 by Naaman, and the latter begged that he 
 might be permitted to carry home two mules' 
 burden of the earth of Canaan, assigning as a 
 reason for what seemed a strange request that 
 henceforth he would serve no god but Jehovah. 
 It seems that his intention was to build an 
 altar with this earth of the land to which God 
 vouchsafed His especial presence. Elisha con- 
 sented to this request. The reception which 
 at a later date Elisha received at Damascus 
 showed that the fame of " the man of God " and 
 of the mighty Jehovah in Whose name he 
 wrought was not forgotten in the city of Naaman 
 (2 K. 8.7-9). The case of Naaman is mentioned 
 by our Lord as an instance of mercy extended 
 to one who was not an Israelite (Lk. 4.27). 
 Naam'athite. Zophar, the Naamathite, was 
 
NAAMITES] 
 
 327 
 
 [NAHOR 
 
 one of Job's friends (Job 2.11, 11.1, 20.1, 
 42.9). 
 
 Na'amites. The family descended from 
 Naaman 1, the grandson of Benjamin (Num. 
 26.40). 
 
 Na'arah. (?) Damsel : the second wife of 
 Ashur, a descendant of Judah (1 Ch. 4.5, 6). 
 [NAARATH.] 
 
 Na'arai. (?) Lad of Jehovah: one of David's 
 valiant men (1 Ch. 11.37) ; called Paarai in 
 2 S<im. 23.35. 
 
 Na'aran. A town at the east limit of Ephraim 
 (1 Ch. 7.28) ; perhaps the same as Naarath. 
 
 Na'arath (R.V. Na'arah). Some point 
 on the boundary between Ephraim and 
 Manasseh (Josh. 16.7); perhaps the same as 
 Naaran. 
 
 Na'ashon. [NAHSHON.] 
 
 Na'asson. [NAHSHON.] 
 
 Nabal. Senseless, or, perhaps, reckless : " a 
 man in Maon, whose possessions [marg., 
 business] were in Carmel " (1 Sam. 25.2). He 
 was rich in flocks and herds ; but, when David 
 in his wanderings sought provisions from 
 Nabal, in return for protection given to his 
 shepherds, Nabal refused in terms of insult 
 (1 Sam. 25.10,21). Abigail, the handsome 
 wife of Nabal, hearing of the danger Nabal 
 ran from the resentment of David, herself 
 carried provisions to David, whilst Nabal was 
 occupied in a drunken orgy. On hearing 
 what had happened Nabal's " heart died within 
 him," and ten days later he died (1 Sam. 25.38). 
 Abigail became the wife of David (1 Sam. 
 25.39-42). 
 
 NaT)Oth. An Israelite of the city of Jezreel, 
 who lived under Ahab, king of the ten tribes, 
 and had a fine vineyard near the king's palace. 
 Ahab coveted his property ; but Naboth, 
 according to law (Lev. 25.23, 24), refused to sell 
 it. Through the arts of Jezebel, Naboth was 
 stoned te death on a false charge, and his vine- 
 yard seized by the king (1 K. 21.1-16). Elijah 
 conveyed to the king the assurance that this sin 
 would bring a terrible retribution (1 K. 21.17-24), 
 which was fulfilled (2 K. 9). 
 
 Na'chon (R.V. Nacon). Established : it was 
 at " Nachon's threshing-floor " that the Ark had 
 arrived on its progress from Kirjath-jearim to 
 Jerusalem, when Uzzah lost his life in his too 
 hasty zeal for its safety (2 Sam. 6.6). The 
 name is given as Chidon [which see] in 1 Ch. 13.9. 
 [PEEEZ-UZZAH.] 
 
 Na'chor (R.V. Nahor). 1. The brother of 
 Abraham (Josh. 24.2). 2. An ancestor of Jesus 
 (Lk. 3.34). 
 
 Na'dab. Liberal : 1. A son of Aaron who 
 with his brother Abihu was destroyed by fire 
 from God for presuming to offer incense to Him 
 with strange fire, instead of that from His 
 altar (Lev. 10.1, 2). From the injunction given 
 in Lev. 10.9, immediately after their death, it 
 has been inferred that the brothers were in- 
 toxicated when they committed the offence. 
 2. A king of Israel, son of Jeroboam I., who 
 was slain by Baasha (1 K. 15.25, 31). Ahijah's 
 
 prophecy (1 K. 14.10) was literally fulfilled by 
 the murderer, who proceeded to destroy the 
 whole house of Jeroboam. 3. A son of Shammai, 
 of the tribe of Judah (1 Ch. 2.28). 4. A 
 Benjamite of the kindred of King Saul (1 h. 
 8.30, 9.36). 
 
 Nag'ge (R.V. Naggai). An ancestor of our 
 Lord (Lk. 3.25). 
 
 Naha'lal, Nahal'lal, or Naha'loL A town 
 of Zebulun, in the plain of Jezreel, just under 
 the Nazareth hill, assigned to the Merarites 
 (Josh. 19.15, 21.35; Judg. 1.30). It has been 
 identified with the modern village of Malul, 4 
 miles west of Nazareth. 
 
 Nahali'eL Valley of God: the site of an 
 Israelite encampment, north of the Arnon 
 (Num. 21.19). 
 
 Na'ham. Consolation : Ezra's brother-in-law 
 (1 Ch. 4.19). 
 
 Nahama'ni. Compassionate : a chief man 
 among those who returned from Babylon with 
 Zerubbabel and Jeshua (Neh. 7.7). 
 
 Na'harai. (?) Snorting one: the armour- 
 bearer of Joab. He was a native of Beeroth 
 (2 Sam. 23.37 ; 1 Ch. 11.39). 
 
 Na'hash. (?) Serpent, or, diviner : 1. A king of 
 the Ammonites who, besieging Jabesh-Gilcad, 
 offered the inhabitants, on condition of sur- 
 render either the loss of their right eye or 
 slavery. King Saul came to their rescue, and 
 utterly defeated Nahash (1 Sam. 11.1-11). It 
 was this king or his son who rendered David 
 some great service (2 Sam. 10.2), no doubt 
 during his wanderings as a victim of Saul. 
 2. Amasa, the commander-in-chief of Absalom's 
 army, was the grandson of Nahash (2 Sam. 
 17.25). 3. See IR-NAHASH. 
 
 NaTiath. Descent : 1. A grandson of Esau, 
 and one of the " dukes" or rulers of Edom (Gen. 
 36.13). 2. An ancestor of Samuel the prophet 
 (1 Ch. 6.26). He appears te be also called 
 Toah (1 Ch. 6.34) r Tohu (1 Sam. 1.1). 3. A 
 Levite, overseer of the offerings in the days of 
 Hezekiah (2 Ch. 31.13). 
 
 Nah'bi. (?) Hidden by Jehovah: one of the 
 twelve sent by Moses to spy out the land (Num. 
 13.14). 
 
 Na'hor. 1. The grandfather of Abraham 
 (Gen. 11.22-25). In the genealogy of our Lord 
 the name is given as Nachor (Lk. 3.34, A.V.). 
 2. The brother of Abraham (Gen. 11.26,27). 
 When Abraham and Lot migrated to Canaan, 
 Nahor remained behind in the land of his 
 birth, on the east side of the Euphrates. 
 Abraham's son, Isaac, married Rebekah, a 
 granddaughter of Nahor; Laban, the brother 
 of Rebekah and the father of Leah and Rachel, 
 the wives of Jacob, was a grandson of Nahor. 
 The plural form of the Hebrew verb in Gen. 
 31.53 suggests that " the God of Nahor" was re- 
 garded as distinct from " the God of Abraham." 
 If so, he may have been one of the other 
 " gods " which before the call of Abraham 
 were worshipped by the family of Terah ; whose 
 images were in Rachel's possession during the 
 conference on Gilead (Gen. 31.19,30-35); and 
 
NAHSHON, NAASHON] 
 
 328 
 
 [NAPHTALI 
 
 which had to be discarded before Jacob could 
 go into the presence of the " God of Bethel " 
 (Gen. 35.2). The name is given as Nachor in 
 the A.V. of Josh. 24.2. 
 
 Nah'shon, Na'ashon. (?) Serpent, or, diviner : 
 a prince of Judah at the time of the first 
 numbering in the wilderness (Ex. 6.23 ; Num. 
 1.7). His sister, Elisheba, was wife to Aaron, 
 and his son, Salmon, was husband to Rahab 
 after the taking of Jericho. Nahshon, in the 
 form of Naasson, is mentioned in the genealogy 
 of our Lord (Matt. 1.4 ; Lk. 3.32). 
 
 Nahum. Comforter : 1. A name occurring in 
 the O.T. once only, at the opening of " The 
 book of the vision of Nahum the Elkoshite" 
 (Nah. 1.1). Elkosh is unidentified, but 
 Jerome speaks of it as a little village in Galilee. 
 2. See NAUM. [NAHUM, BOOK OF.] 
 
 Nahum, Book of. All that is known as to 
 the authorship of this book is contained in its 
 opening verse (Nah. 1.1). The date of the 
 prophecy it contains may be inferred from the 
 nature of the message. A period in the reign 
 of Hezekiah, after the carrying away of the 
 ten tribes and between the two invasions by 
 Sennacherib, meets the conditions set forth. 
 Thebes, " populous No " (R.V. No-amon), 
 had been taken and sacked (Nah. 3.8-10) by 
 Asurbanipal (664 B.C.). The prophet foretells 
 the fate of Nineveh from that of Thebes. 
 
 Nineveh, at the time when this prophecy of 
 its destruction was uttered, was a city of vast 
 extent and population, and the centre of the 
 principal commerce of the world. Its wealth, 
 however, was not altogether derived from trade. 
 It was a " bloody city," " full of lies and 
 robbery" (3.1). It plundered the neighbouring 
 nations ; and is compared to a family of lions, 
 which " fill their holes with prey and their dens 
 with ravin" (2.11,12). It was also strongly 
 fortified ; its colossal walls, a hundred feet high, 
 with their fifteen hundred towers, bidding 
 defiance to all enemies. The doom which Jonah 
 had pronounced had been delayed by the 
 repentance of the people. But their repeated 
 and aggravated sins brought upon them an 
 irrevocable sentence ; and so totally was the 
 city destroyed, that in the second century after 
 Christ not a vestige remained of it ; and its 
 very site was long a matter of doubt and un- 
 certainty. 
 
 The contents of the book are presented in the 
 form of a single poem. It opens with a solemn 
 description of the attributes and operations of 
 Jehovah (1.2-8). Then follows (1.9-14) an 
 address to the Assyrians, describing their per- 
 plexity and overthrow, vers. 12 and 13 being 
 thrown in parenthetically, to console the 
 Israelites with promises of future rest and relief 
 from oppression. Chap. 2 depicts the siege 
 and capture of Nineveh, and the consternation 
 of the inhabitants. Chap. 3 describes the utter 
 ruin of the city, and the various causes contri- 
 buting to it. The example of No-amon (or 
 Thebes), a great and strong city of Egypt, 
 which fell under the judgment of God, is intro- 
 
 duced (3.8-10) to illustrate the similar punish- 
 ment coming on the Assyrians. 
 
 Nain. Pleasantness : now Nein, a town on 
 the north slope of Little Hermon (ed-Duhy). 
 Here our Lord raited the widow's son (Lk. 
 7.11). 
 
 Nai'oth. (?) Habitations : a place near Ram ah, 
 where Samuel and David took refuge together 
 from Saul (1 Sam. 19.18-23, 20.1). It was the 
 seat of a school or college of the prophets over 
 which Samuel presided. 
 
 Name. Amongst the Hebrews the name 
 of a child was sometimes given at birth (Gen. 
 3 \18), or at circumcision (Lk. 1.59), one or 
 other of the parents making the choice (Gen. 
 30.24; Ex. 2.22; Lk. 1.59-63). The name 
 given sometimes bore reference to circum- 
 stances connected with the child's birth or 
 future, as in the case of Isaac (Gen. 21.3, 6), 
 Moses (Ex. 2.10), Beriah (1 Ch. 7.23). This 
 was especially so in the case of names composed 
 of complete sentences, as Maher-shalal-bash- 
 baz (Isai. 8.3). Names of persons were some- 
 times found to have suggested their characters, 
 as in the case of Jacob (Gen. 27.36) and Nabal 
 (1 Sam. 25.25). Names were changed or added 
 to under varying circumstances, as in the case 
 of Abram to Abraham (Gen. 17.5), Gideon to 
 Jerubbaal (Judg. 6.32), Daniel to Belteshazzar 
 (Dan. 1.7), Simon Peter (Matt. 16.18). Further, 
 it must be remembered that to the ancient 
 mind the name not only summed up a man's 
 history, but represented his personality, with 
 which it was almost identified. Hence " in My 
 name" suggests actual incorporation with the 
 Divine Speaker. 
 
 Places were sometimes named from events 
 associated with them, as Babel (Gen. 11.9), 
 Jehovah-jireh (Gen. 22.14), Marah (Ex. 15.23), 
 Perez-Uzzah (2 Sam. 6.8), Aceldama (Acts 1.19). 
 [For the name of God, see JEHOVAH, LORD.] 
 Na'omi. Pleasant : wife of Elimelech and 
 mother-in-law of Ruth. She migrated with her 
 family from Judaea to Moab, and on her hus- 
 band's death returned. Her character is very 
 beautifully indicated in the Book of Ruth (which 
 see). 
 
 Na'phath-dor. R.V. marg. in Josh. 12.23; 
 1 K. 4.11. It may mean " the region (or height) 
 of Dor " (which see). 
 
 Na'phish, Ne'phish. Numerous : the last 
 but one of the sons of Ishmael (Gen. 25.15 ; 
 1 Ch. 1.31, 5.19). His descendants seem to be 
 called the children of Nephusim (R.V. Nephisim) 
 in Eera 2.50, and of Nepblshesim (R.V. Ne- 
 phushesim) in Neh. 7.52. 
 
 Na'photh-dor. R.V. marg. in Josh. 11.2, 
 apparently the plural of Naphath-dor. 
 
 Naph'tali. My wrestling: 1. The sixth son 
 of Jacob and son of Bilhah (Gen. 30.8). At 
 the Exodus the tribe of Naphtali made up 
 53,400 men able to bear arms (Num. 1.43, 2.30). 
 Under Barak, the Naphtalites and the Zebu- 
 lunites fought with distinguished bravery against 
 the army of Jabin the younger; and at the 
 desire of Gideon they pursued the Midianite* 
 
NAPHTALI, MOUNT] 
 
 329 
 
 [NAZARETH 
 
 (Judg. 4.10, 5.18, 7.23). A thousand other 
 captains, with 37,000 of their troops, assisted at 
 David's coronation (1 Ch. 12.34, 40). Instigated 
 by Asa, Benhadad, king of Syria, ravaged the 
 land of Naphtali. It. also suffered in after in- 
 vasions by the Syrians (1 K. 15.20). Many, if 
 not most, of the Naphtalites were carried 
 captire by Tiglath-pileser, king of Assyria (2 K. 
 15.29). Josiah purged their country from idols 
 (2 Ch. 34.6). Our Lord and His disciples 
 preached frequently in the land of Naphtali 
 (Isai. 9.1; Matt. 4.13,15). 2. The portion 
 of Canaan allotted to the tribe of Naphtali, 
 a long, narrow strip of territory bordering 
 the west side of the Sea of Gennesaret, and 
 extending far north, on the west of the 
 Jordan, up to Lebanon. In the time of our 
 Lord the land of Naphtali was included in 
 Galilee. Under this designation it was destined 
 to become in every way far more important 
 than it had ever been before. For it was the 
 cradle of the Christian faith, the native place 
 of most of the apostles, and the home of Jesus 
 Christ. It also became populous and prosperous 
 to a degree far beyond anything of which wo 
 have indication in the O.T. 
 
 Naph'tali, Mount. A mountainous district 
 which formed a great part of the inheritance 
 of Naphtali (Josh. 20.7), answering to "Mount 
 Ephraim " in the centre and " Mount Judah " 
 in the south of Palestine. 
 
 Naph tuhim. A people mentioned in Gen. 
 10.13 and 1 Ch. 1.11 as among the descendants 
 of Noah. They are identified by Prof. Sayce 
 with the Memphites, the people of Memphis, in 
 Egypt, the city of the god Ptah. 
 
 Narcissus. Probably a famous freedman at 
 Rome who was killed about 55 A.D., his slaves 
 remaining a distinct part of Nero's household 
 for some years. Among them were some 
 Christians, who are greeted by St. Paul in his 
 Epistle to the Roman Church (Rom. 16.11). 
 
 Nard. [SPIKENARD.] 
 
 Na'than. Giver : 1. A prophet in the reigns 
 of David and Solomon. He dissuaded the 
 formr from the building of the Temple on the 
 ground that the time was not yet come. The 
 best remembered incident of his life is his rebuke 
 of David for his sin with Bathsheba, on which 
 occasion he used the famous parable of the 
 rich man an 1 the poor man's ewe lamb (2 Sam. 
 12.1-12). Nathan's influence and advocacy 
 secured the succession of Solomon to the throne 
 (1 K. 1.8-45). 2. A son of David by Bathsheba, 
 and therefore own brother to Solomon (1 Ch. 3.5). 
 He was an ancestor of Joseph, the husband of 
 the Virgin Mary (Lk. 3.31). On the failure of 
 Solomon's line in Jehoiachia or Jeconiah, who 
 died without issue, Salathiel of Nathan's house 
 became heir to David's throne, and would thus 
 be entered in the genealogical tables as " son 
 of Jooniah." 3. The father of Igal, one of 
 David's valiant men (2 5am. 23.36). 4. A lead- 
 ing member of Ezra's second expedition from 
 Babylon. He was dispatched from the encamp- 
 ment at the river Ahava to the colony of Jews 
 
 at Casiphia, to obtain thence some Levites 
 and Nethinim for the Temple service (Ezra 
 8.16). 5. Persons of the name of Nathan 
 are also mentioned in 1 K. 4.5 ; 1 Ch. 2.36, 
 11.38; Eera 10.39; Zech. 12.12. 
 
 Natha'naeL Gift of God : a disciple of Christ, 
 " an Israelite indeed, in whom is no guile," 
 the manner of whose conversion is related in 
 John 1.45-51. He was a native of Cana of 
 Galilee. Nathanael was one of the small com- 
 pany of disciples to whom Jesus showed Him- 
 self at the Sea of Tiberias after His resurrection 
 (John 21.2). He is probably the same as 
 Bartholomew (which see). 
 
 Na'than-melech. The king is giver : a eunuch 
 or chamberlain of King Josiah (2 K. 23.11). 
 
 Na'um, Nahum. Comfort : an ancestor of 
 Jesus (Lk. 3.25). 
 
 Nave (1 K. 7.33). " Central block of wheel 
 holding axle and spokes, hub" (Oxford Diet.). 
 But in R.V. felloe, or outer circle of wheel. 
 
 Nazare'ne. An inhabitant of Nazareth, a 
 term frequently applied to our Lord, probably 
 at times in scorn, but afterwards adopted and 
 gloried in by the disciples. All the inhabitants 
 of Galilee, in which Nazareth was situated, 
 were regarded with contempt by the people of 
 Judaea because of the alleged uncouthness of 
 their manners and dialect. The special oppro- 
 brium attached to Nazareth, referred to by a 
 man who was himself a Galilean (John 1.46), 
 may have been due to an evil reputation 
 for irreligion or laxity of morals. The literal 
 transcription of the Hebrew word for Nazarene 
 is Netser, signifying a shoot or sprout, and 
 identical with the word used in Isai. 11.1 : 
 " And there shall come forth a rod (shoot or 
 sprout) out of the stern of Jesse." So that 
 whenever men spoke of Jesus as the Nazarene, 
 they were, wittingly or unwittingly, pronouncing 
 one of the names of the predicted Messiah. Hence 
 the allusion in Matt. 2.23. The term Nazarenes 
 is applied to the followers of Jesus by way 
 of contempt , in Acts 24.5. The name still 
 exists in Arabic as the ordinary designation of 
 Christians. 
 
 Na'zareth. Now En-Nasirah. A town shut in 
 by round-topped hills, now rocky and barren, 
 which form the south ridges of Lebanon, just 
 before they sink down into the plain of Es- 
 draelon. It was the home of Joseph and Mary, the 
 scene of the Annunciation, the home of our Lord 
 for twenty -eight years, and the scene of His teach- 
 ing (Matt. 2.23, 4.13 ; Mk. 1.9 ; Lk. 1.26, 27, 56, 
 2.4, 16-30, 39, 51 ; John 1.45). The Galileans, 
 and the people of Nazareth in particular, were 
 held in contempt by the inhabitants of Judaea. 
 [NAZARENE.] The " Fountain of the Virgin " 
 is shown as the place where, according to tra- 
 dition, the mother of Jesus received the angel's 
 salutation (Lk. 1.28). Certainly, during her 
 life at Nazareth Mary must often have gone to 
 this fountain for water, and it is not pre- 
 sumptuous to conjecture that frequently she 
 was accompanied by her young Son. There is 
 a remarkable precipice, almost perpendicular, 
 
NAZARITE] 
 
 330 
 
 [NEBUCHADNEZZAR 
 
 and 40 or 50 feet high, which is doubtless 
 the identical one over wkich His infuriated 
 townsmen attempted to hurl Jesus (Lk. 4.29). 
 The view from the summit of Neby Ismail, one 
 of the hills behind the town, is very beautiful. 
 It should be noticed that although the village 
 was itself retired, it lay quite close to one of 
 the larger roads, which in those days were filled 
 with traffic. 
 
 Na'zarite. One separated and consecrated: 
 properly Nazirite, for the word is quite distinct 
 from Nazareth. A person of either sex who 
 under the Law of Moses engaged by a vow to 
 abstain from wine and all intoxicating liquors, 
 to let the hair grow, not to enter any house 
 polluted by having a dead body in it, not to be 
 present at any funeral. If by accident any ene 
 should die in the presence of a Nazirite, the latter 
 recommenced the whole of his consecration of 
 Naziriteship. The vow was generally for a 
 stated period, but sometimes for a lifetime. 
 Perpetual Nazirites, as Samuel, Samson, and 
 John the Baptist, were consecrated to this 
 condition by their parents, and continued all 
 their lives under their vow, drinking no wine 
 and allowing the hair to grow. Those who 
 made a vow of Naziriteship out of Palestine, 
 and could not come to the Temple when their 
 vow was expired, contented themselves with 
 observing the abstinence required by the Law, 
 cutting off their hair in the place where they 
 were ; the offerings and sacrifices, prescribed 
 by Moses, to be made at the Temple, by them- 
 selves or by others for them, they deferred till 
 a convenient opportunity. Hence it was that 
 Paul, being at Corinth, and having made what 
 seems to have been at least a modified form 
 of the Nazirite vow, had his hair cut off at 
 Cenchrese, a port of Corinth, and deferred the rest 
 of his vow until he came to Jerusalem (Num. 
 6.1-21 ; Acts 18.18, 21.23, 24). The consecra- 
 tion of the Nazirite bore a striking resemblance 
 to that of the high-priest (Lev. 21.10-12). The 
 Nazirite vow was intended to cultivate, and 
 bear witness to, the sovereignty of the will 
 over the lower tendencies of human nature, to 
 signify a sacrifice of the person to God. 
 
 Ne'ah. A to\vn of Zebulun (Josh. 19.13); 
 site unknown. 
 
 Nea'polis. New town : now Kavalla, a city 
 of Macedonia ; the seaport of Philippi, 12 
 miles distant ; where Paul first landed in 
 Europe (Acts 16.11). 
 
 Neari'ah. 1. A descendant of David (1 Ch. 
 3.22, 23). 2. A Simeonite captain who smote 
 the remnant of the Amalekites in Mount Seir 
 (1 Ch. 4.42). 
 
 NeT>ai, Notai. (?) \Fruit of Jehnvah: a 
 person or family that with Nehemiah sealed the 
 covenant (Neh. 10.19). 
 
 Nebai'oth, Neba'joth. The eldest son of 
 Ishmael and his descendants, the Nabatheans 
 (Gen. 25.13 ; Isai. 60.7), whose territory, accord- 
 ing to Josephus, embraced the country from the 
 Euphrates to the Red Sea that is, Petroea 
 and all the desert east of it. Their habits were 
 
 pastoral, they dwelt in tents, and conducted the 
 trade of the desert ; in the Red Sea, however, 
 some of them took to piracy. 
 
 NebaJ'lat. Now Beit Ncbala, 6 miles north- 
 east of Lydda ; a town of Benjamin, occupied 
 after the return from captivity (Neh. 11.34). 
 
 Ne'bat. (?)Look: the father of King Jero- 
 boam (1 K. 11.26). 
 
 NeT)0. (?) Herald: 1. A well-known deity of 
 the Babylonians and the Assyrians (Isai. 46.1), 
 supposed to preside over learning and letters. 
 His general character corresponds with that of 
 Mercury in the Latin mythology. The name 
 forms part of the words Nebuchadnezzar and 
 Nebuzaradan. Nebuchadnezzar completely re- 
 built his temple at Borsippa. 2. A town east 
 of Jordan taken and rebuilt by Reuben ; after- 
 wards recovered by the Moabites (Num. 32.3, 
 38 ; 1 Ch. 5.8 ; Isai. 15.2 ; Jer. 48.1, 22). 3. A 
 mountain now called Jebel Neba, the highest 
 summit of the mountain range of Pisgah, in the 
 land of Moab, facing Jericho, whence Moses took 
 his first and last view of the Promised Land 
 (Deut. 32.49, 34.1). 4. A town of Benjamin or 
 Judah whose inhabitants returned from the 
 Captivity. It is perhaps the same as Nob (Ezra 
 2.29 ; Neh. 7.33). 5. The ancestor of certain 
 Jews who had married foreign wives during or 
 after the Captivity (Ezra 10.43). But perhaps 
 this is a place-name, and should be identified 
 with the preceding. 
 
 Nebuchadnez'zar, or, more properly, Nebu- 
 chadrez'zar. Nebo, protect the boundary ! son 
 and successor of Nabopolassar, the founder of 
 the Babylonian empire (605-562 B.C.). He was 
 sent by his father at the head of an army to 
 punish Pharaoh-necho, king of Egypt. This 
 prince had recently invaded Syria, defeated 
 Josiah, king of Judah, at Megiddo, and re- 
 duced the whole tract, from Egypt to Carche- 
 mish on the upper Euphrates, which in the 
 partition of the Assyrian territories on the 
 destruction of Nineveh had been assigned to 
 Babylon (2 K. 23.29,30). Nebuchadnezzar 
 defeated Necho in a great battle at Carchemish, 
 605 B.C. (Jer. 46.2-12), recovered Ccele-Syria, 
 Phoenicia, and Palestine, took Jerusalem 
 (Dan. 1.1,2), and was pressing forward to 
 Egypt when, news of his father's death reaching 
 him, he, accompanied only by his light troops, 
 hurried back to Babylon. It was at this time 
 that Daniel and his companions were brought to 
 Babylon, where they soon grew into importance 
 under the favour of Nebuchadnezzar (Dan. 
 1.3-20). 
 
 Jehoiakim, who had been retained on the 
 throne of Judah as a vassal king, after three years 
 rebelled against Nebuchadnezzar (2 K. 24). 
 The king of Babylon proceeded a second time 
 against Jerusalem, which submitted without 
 a struggle (Jer. 22.18, 19). Jehoiakim was put 
 to death ; his son, Jehoiachin, set up in his 
 stead, showed signs of disaffection within 
 three months ; and Nebuchadnezzar for the 
 third time came up against the city, deposed 
 the young prince, whom he carried of! to Babylon 
 
NEBUSHASBAN] 
 
 331 
 
 [NEHEMIAH 
 
 (and kept in prison for thirty-six years), to- 
 gether with a large portion of the population, 
 and the chief of the Temple treasures, which he 
 set up in the Temple of Bel-Merodach. Zede- 
 kiah, son of King Josiah and uncle of Jehoiachin, 
 who was now made vassal king, entered into 
 a treaty with the ruler of Egypt, in spite of the 
 warning of Jeremiah (Ezek. 17.15), and renounced 
 his allegiance to the king of Babylon. Nebu- 
 chadnezzar after eighteen months' siege again 
 captured Jerusalem (586 B.C.); the sons of 
 Zedekiah were executed in the sight of their 
 father ; then Zedekiah's eyes were put out, 
 and he was carried off to Babylon, there to 
 languish until the clo^e of his life (2 K. 24.8, 
 25.21). It ought to be noted that the prophet 
 Jeremiah (Jer. 32.4,5, 34.3) had foretold the 
 deportation of Zedekiah to Babylon, while 
 Ezekiel (Ezek. 12.13) predicted that he should 
 not sec tlie city. Both prophecies were literally 
 fulfilled, Zedekiah, as we have said, being 
 cruelly blinded before he was carried thither. 
 Gedaliah, a Jew, was appointed Governor 
 of Jerusalem, but shortly afterwards he was 
 murdered, and the rest of the Jews either fled 
 to Egypt or were carried to Babylon. The 
 conquest of Jerusalem was rapidly followed 
 by the fall of Tyre and the complete submission 
 of Phoenicia, 586 B.C. (Ezek. 26 and 28) ; after 
 which the Babylonians carried their arms 
 into Egypt and inflicted severe injuries on 
 that country, 582 B.C. (Jer. 46.13-26; Ezek. 
 29.2-20). 
 
 Nebuchadnezzar's boast, " Is not this great 
 Babylon which I have built ? " (Dan. 4.30) 
 was founded upon his truly amazing achieve- 
 ments in the construction of public works. 
 These comprised more than twenty temples, 
 with strengthened fortifications, the excava- 
 tion of canals, the construction of quays, 
 reservoirs, and aqueducts, vast embankments 
 by the river, and celebrated gardens. All 
 through Babylonia the discovery of bricks 
 stamped with Nebuchadnezzar's name attests 
 his enterprise as well as his opulence and taste. 
 The excavations in Babylon during the last 
 few years, especially the winter of 1908-9, 
 have laid bare much of Nebuchadnezzar's 
 palace, the magnitude of which has not been 
 exaggerated. One of the outer walls, for ex- 
 ample, is more than 24 yards thick. 
 
 One of the best remembered incidents in the 
 life of Nebuchadnezzar is the setting up of the 
 great image in the plain of Dura, the re- 
 fusal of Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego to 
 worship it, their casting into the fiery furnace 
 and their miraculous preservation there from all 
 harm (Dan. 3). Towards the close of his reign, 
 as a punishment for his pride and vanity, 
 Nebuchadnezzar was afflicted with that strange 
 form of madness which the Greeks called 
 lycanthropy, wherein the sufferer imagines 
 himself a beast, and, quitting the haunts of men, 
 insists on leading the life of a beast (Dan. 4.33). 
 The first use that he made of his restored reason 
 was to acknowledge the justice of the Almighty 
 
 Ruler of men, and offer a song of praise for 
 the mercy vouchsafed him. He died at an 
 advanced age, having reigned forty-three years. 
 The appearance of a sort ef monotheism (Dan. 
 1.2, 4.24,32,34,37) mixed with polytheism 
 (Dan. 2.47, 3.12, 18, 29, 4.9) in the Scriptural 
 notices of Nebuchadnezzar is explained by his 
 almost exclusive devotion to one god of his 
 country, Merodach. He seems at some times 
 to have identified Merodach with the God of the 
 Jews (Dan. 4) ; at others to have regarded 
 Jehovah as one of the local and inferior deities 
 (Dan. 3) over whom Merodach ruled. 
 
 Nebush'asban, Nebushaz'ban. Nebo delivers 
 me: one of the officers of Nebuchadnezzar at 
 the time of the capture of Jerusalem. He was 
 Rab-saris, i.e. chief of the eunuchs, or, rather, 
 chief captain (Jer. 39.13). 
 
 Nebuzar'adan. Nebo hath given seed : the 
 high officer (captain of the guard) to whom 
 Nebuchadnezzar committed the work of com- 
 pleting the destruction of Jerusalem and the 
 pacification of Judsea (Jer. 39.9-18, 40.1-6). 
 His conduct to Jeremiah was marked by wisdom 
 and kindness. He conducted the chief people 
 of Jerusalem to his master at Riblah in Syria 
 (2 K. 25.18-20). Five years later Nebuzaradan 
 again passed through the country, and carried 
 off 745 more captives (Jer. 52.30). 
 
 Ne'cho, Ne'co. The personal name of the 
 Pharaoh of Egypt who fought against Nabo- 
 polessar in the days of King Josiah, and after 
 making Eliakim (or Jehoiakim) king carried off 
 Jehoahaz, his brother, to Egypt (2 Ch. 35.20, 
 22, 36.4). For his defeat at Carchemish, see 
 NEBUCHADNEZZAR. 
 
 Necromancer. [MAGIC.] 
 
 Nedabi'ah. Jehovah gives freely : son of 
 Jeconiah, or Jehoiachin, king of Judah 
 (1 Ch. 3.18). 
 
 Needle. The eye of a needle represents the 
 smallest possible opening. Hence our Lord's 
 use of the very hyperbolical phrase in Malt. 
 19.24 and the parallel passages. It is quite 
 a mistake to think our Lord referred to a small 
 gate. 
 
 Negeb. [ PALESTINE. ] 
 
 Negi'nah, Negi'noth. A general term denot- 
 ing all stringed instruments (R.V.) whatsoever, 
 whether played with the hand, like the harp 
 and guitar, or with a plectrum. The word is 
 found in the titles of Ps. 4, 6, 54, 55, 61, 67, 76. 
 
 Nehe'lamite, The. The designation of She- 
 maiah, a presumptuous person and a false 
 prophet, whom God reproved by the mouth of 
 Jeremiah (Jer. 29.24, 31, 32). 
 
 Nehemi'ah. Whom Jehovah comforts: 1. The 
 son of Hac(h)aliah, of the tribe of Judah, and 
 probably of the house of David. 
 
 Nothing is known of Nehemiah except what 
 we find in his book. He makes his first appear- 
 ance at Shushan, the principal palace of the 
 Persian kings, where he is the cupbearer of 
 Artaxerxes Longimanus (445 B.C.). A kinsman, 
 Hanani, had headed a deputation of Jews from 
 Judxa, and had given him an account of the 
 
NEHEMIAH, BOOK OP] 
 
 332 
 
 [NEHUSHTAN 
 
 deplorable condition of his countrymen who 
 had been allowed to return to Jerusalem. 
 Nehemiah w* greatly distressed, and for four 
 months besought God's blessing upon a plan that 
 had occurred to him, viz. to go in person to 
 Jerusalem, to see what could be done to better the 
 miserable conditions of its inhabitants (Neh. 1, 2). 
 His office of cupbearer was an important and 
 lucrative one, and there is no doubt that Nehe- 
 miah was a wealthy man ; for, when the king 
 consented to his mission, and sent his favourite 
 away as governor of Judaea, Nehemiah refused 
 the salary of his office because of the poverty 
 of the people. 
 
 Nehemiah's first step upon reaching the city of 
 his fathers was privately to examine the ruined 
 defences, and plan for the rebuilding of its 
 walls, a defensive measure rendered necessary 
 by the disturbed condition of the neighbouring 
 provinces. For under the rule of the Persians 
 one province was frequently at war with another, 
 little heed being taken of such disturbances 
 by the central government, so long as tribute 
 and taxes did not suffer. Such was Nehemiah's 
 enthusiasm that he induced practically the 
 whole of the people to bend their energies to 
 rebuilding the walls. It was a great task, but 
 accomplished in two months, in spite of the 
 open and secret opposition of the rulers of 
 the province of Samaria. [SANBALLAT.] The 
 machinations of Sanballat and Tobiah so far 
 succeeded that Nehemiah was recalled to the 
 Persian court (or else his leave had expired) 
 (2.6, 13.6). At the end of seven years, how- 
 ever, the interval between chapters 6 and 7, 
 Nehemiah was back again in Jerusalem, repair- 
 ing the Temple and dedicating the walls. On 
 this second visit he provided gates, ordering 
 their times of opening and closing. But a more 
 important affair was the filling of the nearly 
 empty and desolate city with a new population. 
 This he accomplished by withdrawing one family 
 in ten from the surrounding country. He also 
 took a census of the people, whom he caused 
 to be made acquainted with the Law [EZRA], 
 and collected large funds for the repair of the 
 Temple and the sust enance of its services (chaps. 
 7 and 8). He stopped the exactions of the 
 nobles, the usury of the wealthy, and the sell- 
 ing many of his poor countrymen into slavery 
 (chap. 5) ; he bound the people by a solemn 
 covenant (chap. 9) ; insisted upon. the sanctity of 
 the Temple being preserved, and ejected Tobias 
 from one of its chambers, which Eleashib had 
 permitted him to occupy. He also removed 
 from service in the Temple priests who had con- 
 tracted marriages with heathen women. His 
 last recorded public act was his strong and 
 resolute effort to restore the Sabbath to the 
 people as a holy day and a day of rest (13.15-20). 
 [NEHEMIAH, BOOK OF.] 
 
 2. One who returned from Babylon to Jeru- 
 salem with Zerubbabel (Ezra 2.2; Neh. 7.7). 
 3. The son of Azbuk, a helper in rebuilding the 
 wall of Jerusalem (Neh. 3.16). 
 
 Nehemiah, Book ot In the canon of the 
 
 Hebrew Scriptures this book formed one with 
 that of Ezra. When early Christian writers 
 divided the work, they spoke of Ezra and Nehe- 
 miah as the First and Second Books of Ezra. 
 These titles were used in the first English ver- 
 sions. The Book of Nehemiah includes sections 
 the author of which was Nehemiah himself 
 (Neh. 1-7.73, 12.27-43, 13.4-31). The narrator 
 speaks in the first person, uses some character- 
 istic phrases (such as " my God " and " God of 
 heaven "), and writes in a style more vigorous 
 than that of Ezra. Nehemiah, or the compiler of 
 the work, incorporated other material, such as 
 the list* of those who built the wall (Neh. 3), 
 of the Jews who returned with Zerubbabel 
 (Neh. 7.6-73), and those who sealed the covenant 
 (Neh. 10.1-27), of dwellers in the cities (Neh. 
 11.3-36), and of priests and Levites (Neh. 
 12.1-26). Either the compiler or the editor added 
 the section Neh. 12.44-13.3. The latest date 
 assigned to the book is suggested by the refer- 
 ence in 12.22 to " Darius the Persian," identified 
 with Darius Codomannus (336-331 B.C.). If 
 Nehemiah was himself thf> compiler of all, as 
 he was the writer of the memoirs ; or if, as 
 others contend, the compiler was Ezra, the 
 later date would only apply to the section in 
 which it occurs. The contents of the book are 
 summarised in the account of Nehemiah (which 
 see). The Books of Ezra and Nehemiah appear 
 to be closely related to the Chronicles, both in 
 regard to their historical treatment, style, and 
 phraseology. 
 
 The personal interest of the book is great. 
 Nehemiah presents a noble example of true 
 patriotism, founded on the fear of God (5.15), 
 and seeking the religious welfare of the state. 
 His respect for the Divine Law, his reverence 
 for the Sabbath (13.18), his devout acknowledg- 
 ment of God in all things (1.11, 2.18), his practi- 
 cal perception of God's character (4.14, 9.6-33), 
 his union of watchfulness and prayer (4-9), his 
 humility in ascribing all good in himself to the 
 grace of God (2.12, 7.5), are all highly commend- 
 able. Few books of the Bible, indeed, contain 
 a richer illustration of true religion taught by 
 example. 
 
 Nehi'loth. This is thought to be a general 
 term for perforated wind instruments of all 
 kinds, such as flutes and the like. It occurs 
 only in the title of Ps. 5. 
 
 NeTium. Comfort : one of those who returned 
 from Babylon with Zerubbabel (Neh. 7.7). In 
 Ezra 2.2 he is called Rehum. 
 
 Nehush'ta. Perhaps connected in meaning 
 with the following word. The daughter of Elna- 
 than of Jerusalem, wife of King Jehoiakim, and 
 mother of King Jehoiachin (2 K. 24.8). 
 
 Nehush'tan. A brazen thing, or, perhaps, 
 serpent : the contemptuous epithet applied 
 by King Hezekiah to the brazen serpent made 
 by Moses in the wilderness, when it had become 
 an object of worship (2 K. 18.4). The memorial 
 of the people's deliverance had, in the lapse of 
 years, acquired a superstitious sanctity which 
 gave rise to idolatrous reverence. The people 
 
NEIEL] 
 
 333 
 
 [NETHINIM 
 
 had fallen into the habit of burning incense to 
 it (2 K. 18.4). 
 
 Nei'eL A boundary town of Asher (Josh. 
 19.27). 
 
 Ne'keb. Cavern or pass : a border town of 
 Naphtali (Josh. 19.33). 
 
 Neko'da. Herdsmen : 1. A person whose 
 descendants returned from exile with Zerub- 
 babel (Ezra 2.48; Neh. 7.50). 2. Another, 
 whose descendants were unable to prove their 
 descent from Israel (Ezra 2.60 ; Neh. 7.62). 
 
 Nemu'eL Perhaps 1 and 2 are the same 
 person. 1. The brother of Dathan and Abiram 
 (Num. 26.9). 2. The eldest son of Simeon (Num. 
 26.12 ; 1 Ch. 4.24), from whom were descended 
 the family of the Nemuelites. In Gen. 46.10 
 and Ex. 6.15 he is called Jemuel. 
 
 Nemu'elites, The. The descendants of 
 Nemuel, the first-born of Simeon (Num. 26.12). 
 
 Ne'pheg. 1. A grandson of Kohath (Ex. 6.21). 
 2. A son of David born to him in Jerusalem 
 (2 Sam. 5.15 ; 1 Ch. 3.7, 14.6). 
 
 Nephew. Old English for "grandchild" 
 (Judg. 12.14; 1 Tim. 5.4), or "descendant" 
 (Job 18.19 ; Isai. 14.22). 
 
 Nephilim. The R.V. translation of giants in 
 Gen. 6.4; Num. 13.33. In the former passage 
 they seem to represent the heroes, or demigods, 
 of the heathen, offspring of angelic and human 
 parents; in the latter, perhaps a wider use of 
 the term, expressive only of unusual size. 
 
 Ne'phish. [NAPHISH.] 
 
 Nephi'shesim(ll.V.Nephushesim). [NAPHISH.] 
 
 Neph'thalim. The form of Naphtali in the 
 A.V. of the N.T. (Matt. 4.13, 15 ; Rev. 7.6). 
 
 Nephto'ah. Opening : now 'Ain 'Atan. 
 Spring 2 miles from Jerusalem, south of Bethle- 
 hem, lying north of the road to Kirjath-jearim, 
 on the boundary between Judah and Benjamin 
 (Josh. 15.9, 18.15). 
 
 Nephm'snn (R.V. Nephisim). [NAPHISM.] 
 
 Ner. Light : grandfather of King Saul and 
 father of Abner, who was thus uncle of Saul 
 as well as his chief captain (1 Sam. 14.50 ; 
 2 Sam. 2.8 ; 1 K. 2.5 ; 1 Ch. 8.33). The family 
 seat of Ner was at Gibeon, in Benjamin (1 Ch. 
 9.35). 
 
 Ne'reus. A Christian at Rome, saluted by 
 Paul (Rom. 16.15). 
 
 Ner'gaL Th god of war, disease, and death 
 in the Assyria* and Babylonian mythology. 
 The men of Cutha, placed in the cities of Sam- 
 aria by the king of Assyria, worshipped Nergal 
 (2 K. 17.30) under the symbol of " the man-lion.*' 
 Cutha or Tiggaba, specially dedicated to Nergal, 
 is in Arabian tradition the city par excellence of 
 Nimrod, and frm that circumstance it has been 
 conjectured that Nergal may represent the 
 deified Nimrod, " the mighty hunter before the 
 Lord." Sennacherib built a temple to Nergal 
 in th city of Tarbisu, near Nineveh. 
 
 Ner'gal-shar'eEer.-- Nergal, defend the king! 
 a prince of Babylon, bearing the title Rab- 
 mag, i.e. chief soothsayer, who accompanied 
 Nebuchadnezzar on his last expedition against 
 Jerusalem, and by command of bis master 
 
 released Jeremiah from prison (Jer. 39.3,13). 
 We know from the monuments that sub- 
 sequently he was the monarch called Nerig- 
 lissar or Neriglissoor, who was married to a 
 daughter of the king of Babylon, murdered 
 Evil-Merodach, the son of Nebuchadnezzar, and 
 succeeded him upon the throne. A palace 
 built by Neriglissar has been discovered at 
 Babylon. In Jer. 39.3 the first occurrence of 
 the name is probably due to a copyist's error. 
 
 Ne'ri. An ancestor of Joseph (Lk. 3.27). 
 
 1'eri'ah. Jehovah is light: father of 
 Baruch, the amanuensis and messenger of Jere- 
 miah (Jer. 32.12) and of Scraiah (Jer. 51.59). 
 
 Net. The Egyptians made their nets of 
 flax-string, using a netting needle of wood ; 
 and as the nets of Egypt were well known to 
 the early Jews (Isai. 19.8), the form and material 
 may have been the same in both countries. 
 The nets used for birds in Egypt were of 
 two kinds, clap-nets and traps. [FOWLER.] The 
 net is employed as an image of the subtle 
 derices of the enemies of God on one hand 
 (Ps. 9.15, 25.15, 31.4) and of the inevitable 
 vengeance of God on the other hand (Lam. 
 1.13; Ezek. 12.13; Hos. 7.12). It is also used 
 of the open cord-like work of the capital of a 
 pillar (1 K. 7.17). 
 
 Netha'neel, Nethan'eL God gives: 1. The 
 representative of Issachar among those whom 
 Moses sent to spy out the land of Canaan (Num. 
 1.8, 2.5, 7.18, 23, 10.15). 2. A brother of David 
 (1 Ch. 2.14). 3. A priest who helped to bring 
 up the Ark from the house of Obed-edom (1 Ch. 
 15.24). 4 A Levite (1 Ch. 24.6). 5. A son of 
 Obed-edom, and the doorkeeper of the Ark (1 Ch. 
 26.4). 6. One of the princes of Judah, whom 
 Jehoshaphat sent to teach in the cities of his 
 kingdom (2 Ch. 17.7). 7. A chief of the Levites 
 in the reign of Josiah, who took part in the 
 solemn passover kept by that king (2 Ch. 35.9). 
 8. One who returned from captivity with Ezra 
 and had taken a foreign wife (Ezra 10.22). 9. A 
 priest (Neh. 12.21). 10. A Levite who took 
 part in the musical services at the dedication 
 of the wall of Jerusalem under Ezra and 
 Nehemiah (Neh. 12.36). 
 
 Nethani'ah. Jehovah gives: 1. The father 
 of Ishmael, who slew Gedaliah, whom Nebuchad- 
 nezzar had left governor in the land (2 K. 25.23, 
 25; Jer. 40.8,14,15, 41.1-18). 2. A chief 
 singer in the Temple choir in the days of David 
 (1 Ch. 25.2, 12). 3. A Leyite whom Jehoshaphat 
 sent to teach the law of Jehovah in the cities 
 of Judah (2 Ch. 17.8). 4. Father of Jehudi 
 (Jer. 36.14). 
 
 Nethi'nim. Given, dedicated: persons dedi- 
 cated to the service f the Tabernacle and the 
 Temple, to perform the most laborious offices, 
 as carrying of wood and water. At first Midianites 
 were destined to this station (Num. 31.30, 47) ; 
 then GibeoniUfi (Jsh. 9.27) ; afterwards it fell 
 to the Canaantts. They were made to conform 
 to the religion of their conquerors. In later 
 times slaves were devoted by David, Solomon, 
 and other princes to the service of the Temple N 
 
NETOPHAH] 
 
 334 [NEW TESTAMENT, TEXT OF 
 
 (Ezra 2.58, 8.20). The Nethinim were carried 
 into captivity with the tribe of Judah, and great 
 numbers were placed not far from the Caspian 
 Sea, whence Ezra brought 220 of them into 
 Judzea (Ezra 8.17). Those who followed 
 Zerubbabel made up 392 (Nek. 3.26). The 
 Nethinim up to this time had been a servile 
 and subject caste ; but owing to the great 
 demand after the Exile for such services as they 
 rendered, and the small supply of Nethinim 
 to meet the demand, they rose into considerably 
 enhanced consideration. Like the priests and 
 Levites they were exempted from taxation by 
 the Persian satraps (Ezra 7.24). They were 
 under the control of a chief of their own body 
 (Ezra 2.43; Neh. 7.46). They took an active 
 part in the rebuilding of Jerusalem (Neh. 3.26), 
 and the tower of Ophel, convenient from its 
 proximity to the Temple, was assigned to some 
 of them as a residence (Neh. 11.21), while others 
 dwelt with the Levites in their cities (Ezra 2.70). 
 They took their place in the chronicles of the 
 time as next in order to the Levites (1 Ch. 9.2). 
 
 Neto'phah. Dripping : perhaps referring 
 to balsam trees. A town of Judah, near 
 Bethlehem. From the use of the word and its 
 derivative, Netophathite, we see that it was the 
 residence of two of David's guard, of one of the 
 captains who resorted to Gedaliah, of Levites, 
 and of singers who returned from Captivity 
 (2 Sam. 23.28, 29 ; 2 K. 25.23 ; 1 Ch. 9.16, 
 11.20, 27.13, 15 ; Ezra 2.22 ; Neh. 7.26, 12.28 ; 
 Jer. 40.8). 
 
 Netopha'thi, Netophathite. Inhabitant of 
 Netophah. [NETOPHAH.] 
 
 Nettle. A plant associated with thorns and 
 brambles as an inhabitant of waste and neglected 
 spots. The outcasts of Job's days " were 
 gathered together under nettles " (Job 30.7), 
 and such weeds grow to a height of six feet 
 near the Dead Sea. Solomon noticed the garden 
 of the slothful, " it was all grown over with 
 thorns, and nettles had covered the face thereof " 
 (Prov. 24.31). Four species of nettle occur in 
 Palestine, including the small, the Roman, and 
 the common stinging nettle of the British Isles. 
 
 New Moon. The first day of the lunar 
 month was observed as a holy day (Num. 
 28.11-15). Trade and handicraft-work were 
 stopped (Amos 8.5), and the Temple was opened 
 for public worship (Isai. 66.23 ; Ezek. 46.3). 
 That it was an occasion for state-banquets may 
 be inferred from David's regarding himself as 
 specially bound to sit at the king's table at 
 the new moon (1 Sam. 20.5-24). We do not 
 know how the commencement of the month 
 was ascertained in the early times, but at the 
 later period it was the custom that on the 
 30th day of the month watchmen were placed 
 on commanding heights round Jerusalem to 
 watch the sky. As soon as any one of them 
 detected the moon he hastened to a house in 
 the city, which was kept for the purpose, and 
 was there examined by the President of the 
 Sanhedrin. If the testimony of this witness 
 was accepted, the President rose up and formally 
 
 announced that the day was consecrated. 
 The information was spread throughout the 
 land by beacon fires. When the moon was 
 not visible on account of clouds, the month 
 was considered to commence on the morning of 
 the day which followed the 30lh. 
 
 New Testament, Text of. The differences 
 between the two great English versions of the 
 N.T. the A.V. of 1611 and the R.V. of 1881 
 are (1) differences in translation of the same 
 Greek text and (2) differences in the text trans- 
 lated. It is with the latter that this brief Article 
 is concerned. In the Rules originally laid down 
 for the guidance of the Revisers it was stipu- 
 lated, " That the Text to be adopted be that 
 for which the evidence is decidedly preponder- 
 ating ; and that when the Text so adopted 
 differs from that from which the Authorised 
 Version was made, the alteration be indicated 
 in the margin." This care for a time-honoured 
 but uncritical text of the Greek Testament 
 was further emphasised by the rule that every 
 departure from it must be agreed to by a two- 
 thirds majority. But even so it soon became 
 evident that the most capacious margin would 
 not suffice to advise the English reader of the 
 changes found necessary : these were ulti- 
 mately printed " in connexion with complete 
 Greek texts of the N.T., " the margin of the 
 English R.V. being reserved for cases of doubt, in 
 which a reading not adopted in the text can 
 claim more or less support from " ancient 
 authorities." Further, the rule already 
 quoted, while containing an implicit reference 
 to a standard printed text (virtually that of 
 Robert Stephens, 1550), requires that the 
 " evidence " is to be followed when " decidedly 
 preponderating." This was interpreted by the 
 Revisers as "an instruction to follow the 
 authority of documentary evidence without 
 deference to any printed text of modern tunes, 
 and therefore to employ the best resources of 
 criticism for estimating the value of evidence." 
 In view of this immense but inevitable extension 
 of their proper task of " a revision of the 
 Authorised Version," it is no wonder that they 
 add (in the Preface to the R.V.), "Textual 
 Criticism, as applied to the Greek N.T., forms 
 a special study of much intricacy and difficulty, 
 and even now leaves room for considerable 
 variety of opinion among competent critics." 
 
 But the result of nearly thirty years' joint 
 labour in this field by two members of the 
 Company of Revisers was available to lighten 
 the task, if not the responsibility. Each Re- 
 viser was furnished with advance sheets of 
 the Greek Testament of Drs. Westcott and 
 Hort, afterwards published, with Dr. Hort's 
 elaborate Introduction, within a few months of 
 the R.V. itself. The intrinsic merits of this 
 critical text, explained and defended by its 
 authors, so far prevailed that to a very large 
 extent the R.V. is a translation of WH, though 
 many of their more important variants from 
 the traditional text appear only as alternative 
 readings in the R.V. margin. 
 
NEW TESTAMENT, TEXT OF] 335 [NEW TESTAMENT, TEXT OF 
 
 The fact, thus brought home to the reader 
 of the English N.T., of divergencies in the 
 underlying Greek text, suggests an inquiry 
 into the history of the text. What are the 
 documentary sources, and how may these be so 
 compared that corrupt readings may be elimin- 
 ated and the true text recovered ? Only tho 
 briefest survey can be here attempted. 
 
 1. THE MATEBIALS OF TEXTUAL CRITICISM. 
 
 (a) Greek Manuscripts. The primary evidence 
 for the text of the N.T. writings is contained in the 
 MSS. by which those writings were transmitted 
 during the period between the Apostolic auto- 
 graphs and the first printed Greek Testament 
 (1514 : see below). These MSS. fall into two 
 classes, according to the character of the hand- 
 writing. Prior to the ninth century they were 
 written in capitals (Uncials or Majuscula) ; 
 later, the running hand of commercial or ordinary 
 correspondence was adopted for literary use 
 (Cursives or Minuscula). The older, or Uncial 
 MSS., are, for convenience, designated by the 
 capital letters of the English, Greek, and Hebrew 
 Alphabets ; the later and more numerous 
 Cursives by the Arabic numerals. Thus A 
 is the Codex Alexandrinus (codex = MS.) of 
 Cent, v., British Museum ; B is the Codex 
 Vaticanus, Cent, iv., Vatican Library ; tt 
 (Heb. Aleph) is the Codex Sinaiticus, Cent, iv., 
 St. Petersburg ; D (Gospels and Acts only) is 
 the Codex Bezae, Cent, vi., Cambridge ; D a 
 (St. Paul's Epistles) is the Codex Claromontanus, 
 Cent, vi., Paris, and so on. The Cursive MSS. 
 of various parts of the N.T. are similarly known 
 as 1, 2, 3, etc. 
 
 This system of notation for the Greek MSS. 
 was, of necessity, gradually developed as fresh 
 material was discovered and incorporated, and 
 came to be in many respects inconvenient and 
 anomalous. It has recently been revised by 
 Dr. Gregory of Leipzig (1908) in consultation 
 with N.T. scholars in all parts of the world, 
 and may conveniently be studied in Professor 
 Alexander Souter's edition of the Greek Testa- 
 ment (see below). 
 
 As the old system, thus revised, seems likely 
 to be generally adopted, a brief reference will 
 suffice to an entirely new notation devised by 
 Professor H. von Soden (also given in Professor 
 Souter's list of the Greek MSS.). Ignoring 
 the distinction between Uncials and Cursives, he 
 assigns to each MS. a number, which serves not 
 only to identify it, but to indicate its approxi- 
 mate date and, in part, its contents, whether the 
 whole N.T., the Gospels, the Epistles of St. Paul, 
 the Acts and the Catholic Epistles, the Apoca- 
 lypse, or various combinations of the books. 
 And as the MSS. broadly fall into three classes 
 according as they are MSS. of the whole N.T., of 
 the Gospels, or of St. Paul's Epistles, he prefixes 
 to each number the initial letter of the Greek 
 word for Testament (5), Gospel (e), or Apostle 
 (a). Thus, to instance the Uncials named 
 above, A becomes 8 4, B II, K 5 2, D 5 5, 
 D 2 a 1026. For further details the student 
 must be referred to recent works on Textual 
 
 Criticism (especially by Kenyon, Souter, and 
 Lake). 
 
 These MSS. of the Greek Testament are found 
 to fall into a few well-defined groups, repre- 
 senting different lines of transmission of the 
 text. There is a certain presumption in favour 
 of the more ancient, but this is qualified by the 
 fact that the earliest surviving MS. is not earlier 
 than the fourth century, when the text had 
 already suffered the corruptions incident to a 
 long period of transmission. 
 
 (b) Versions. The gap between the earliest 
 MSS. and the autographs may be in some 
 measure bridged by the earlier evidence of the 
 ancient Versions of the N.T. For already in the 
 second century the N.T. writings had been 
 translated into Syriac (the vernacular of 
 Palestine and adjacent regions), and into Latin 
 for the Christians of Carthage and the West ; 
 a little later, Egypt had these Scriptures in her 
 own dialects. The extant MSS. (of course 
 themselves of later date) of these versions or 
 portions of them enable us to reconstruct in a 
 measure the Greek text of the second or third 
 century on which they are based, and thus afford 
 indirect evidence of considerably earlier date 
 than the direct evidence contained in our 
 earliest Greek MSS. In the larger variants 
 the evidence of the Versions assumes great 
 importance : they tell us decisively, for example, 
 whether the current Greek texts of the time 
 contained the last twelve verses of St. Mark, 
 or St. John 7.53-8.11, or the baptismal formula 
 of Acts 8.37. But in lesser variations a trans- 
 lation cannot always indicate with precision 
 the underlying original. Moreover, the versions 
 have, like the MSS. of the Greek itsalf, suffered 
 corruption in the process of transmission : 
 the true text of the version itself has to be 
 recovered from evidence, often fragmentary 
 and obscure, before the version can be used 
 with confidence. The more important Versions 
 available for Textual Criticism are the following : 
 
 (1) Latin. The Old Latin (the MSS. of which 
 are indicated by small letters, a, b, c, etc.) 
 and the extant MSS. of the Vulgate or Jerome's 
 revision of the Old Latin, completed in 386. 
 
 (2) Syriac. The great majority of Syriac 
 MSS. of the N.T. contain a text known as the 
 Peshitto (simple) Version, of which the HarJclean 
 is a later revision. But an earlier translation 
 of the Gospels into Syriac survives in two MSS., 
 one of fragments only, published in 1858 by 
 Dr. Cureton (the Curetonian Syriac), and one, 
 fairly complete, discovered by Mrs. Lewis 
 in the monastery of St. Catherine on Mount 
 Sinai in 1892 (the Sinaitic Syriac). Both these 
 MSS. are of the fifth century. Whether the 
 Syriac text underlying the gospel harmony of 
 Tatian (the Diatessaron, made in the second 
 century, extant only in Armenian, Arabic, 
 and Latin translations) is directly related 
 to the Old Syriac, either as using it or used 
 by it, or whether it represents an independent 
 translation from the Greek, is still matter of 
 discussion. 
 
NEW TESTAMENT, TEXT OF] 336 [NEW TESTAMENT, TEXT OF 
 
 (3) Egyptian. The various dialects of Egypt 
 are represented by MSS., many fragmentary 
 only, in the Bohairic (sometimes called Coptic 
 or Memphitic), current in Lower or Northern 
 Egypt and the Sahidic (or Thebaic) of Upper 
 Egypt. For a long time the Sahidic version 
 was only known by fragments, but of late years 
 materials have so accumulated as to enable the 
 Rev. G. W. Homer to follow up his edition of the 
 Bohairic N.T. (vols. 1 and 2, 1898 ; vols. 3 and 4, 
 1905) by one of the Sahidic (vols. 1-3 containing 
 the Gospels, 1911). Still more recently (1912) 
 there were discovered in Egypt, and acquired by 
 Mr. J. Pierpont Morgan, complete MSS. in this 
 dialect of St. Matthew, St. Mark, and St. John : 
 of the Epistles of St. Paul, and of the Catholic 
 Epistles (except St. James and St. Jude). 
 
 Later Versions are the Armenian, the Ethiopic, 
 and the Gothic. 
 
 (c) Patristic Citations. The writings of the 
 Church Fathers of the second, third, and fourth 
 centuries abound in quotations from the N.T. 
 books. It is possible, therefore, to determine 
 the type of Greek text current at the time and 
 place of each, directly in the case of Greek 
 Fathers, indirectly in the case of Fathers of the 
 Latin or Syriac Church. The special contri- 
 bution of this evidence to the method of Textual 
 Criticism will be noted below. Meanwhile 
 two obvious considerations point to caution 
 in its use: (1) As MSS. of the N.T. were scarce, 
 bulky, and wholly without guides to " chapter 
 and verse," quotation was generally made from 
 memory. (2) The MSS. of Patristic writings 
 have, of course, been subject to the errors 
 incident to transmission by successire copying. 
 Especially in the case of Scripture quotations 
 would a scribe be likely to alter an unfamiliar 
 form to the text current where the copy was 
 made. 
 
 2. THE METHODS OP TEXTUAL CRITICISM. 
 
 (1) Internal Evidence. Given two variant read- 
 ings (e.g. Lk. 2.14, " peace on earth, among men 
 goodwill," " peace on earth among men of 
 goodwill," where the difference of a single 
 letter in th Greek word for " goodwill " 
 radically alters both the rhythm and the meaning 
 of the angels' song), the short and easy method 
 is to appeal to intrinsic probability. Which of 
 the two, having regard to the sense and to the 
 general usage of the author, do we think more 
 likely to be original ? If in making our choice 
 we can further show how the alternative read- 
 ing may hare arisen through some observed 
 tendency of the copyists to error, intentional 
 or unintentional, our appeal to intrinsic proba- 
 bility is reinforced by transcriptional probability, 
 and a fair measure of certainty may often be 
 attained. The errors of the scribes have been 
 noted and classified : rough generalisations 
 upon the observed facts constitute such well- 
 known Canons of Criticism as " The more 
 difficult reading is to be preferred," or " The 
 shorter reading is to be preferred." 
 
 But such a method is too subjective to be 
 reliable ; it increases in difficulty when the 
 
 variants are more than two, or are not sharply 
 distinguished in point of intrinsic fitness. 
 Moreover, each reading is attested by its own 
 array of witnesses, and to choose on internal 
 grounds alone would be to dismiss the witnesses 
 unheard. 
 
 (2) External Evidence. It is obvious that 
 the witnesses to a reading (whether Greek 
 MSS., Versions, or Patristic citations) must not 
 be counted, but weighed. Mere numbers of 
 attesting documents go for nothing ; they may 
 be only the numerous descendants of a corrupt 
 parent-document. The age of a document 
 does count for something, but for the reason 
 noted above mere age is not decisive ; and the 
 oldest witnesses may and do disagree. The 
 problem is to weigh the witnesses according to 
 the age and intrinsic godness of the text which 
 they contain, a difficult and, indeed, impossible 
 task, had we to deal with the multitude of 
 witnesses singly. As a matter of fact, they are 
 found to fall into a few well-defined groups / the 
 members of each holding together, with more or 
 less consistency, in support of the same variants. 
 And since identity of readings means identity 
 of origin, the existence of these groups points 
 to different lines of transmission, deflecting, all 
 but one, from the archetype. To determine 
 these lines and to choose between them is to 
 apply the genealogical method, and so to get 
 surely upon the track of the true text. The 
 classic exposition of this method is contained 
 in Dr. Hort's Introduction already referred to ; 
 its results in the determination of the critical 
 text of WH may be briefly summarised 
 
 (i) The Received or Traditional Text, 
 dominant in printed editions of the Greek 
 Testament from 1514 to 1831, and even later 
 the only text issued by the British and Foreign 
 Bible Society till 1904 has the support of the 
 immense majority of Greek MSS. (the later 
 uncials and the cursires). In estimating its 
 claim to originality it is a rital question to ask, 
 How early do its characteristic readings appear 
 in Patristic citations ? Dr. Hort's decisive 
 answer and this is the pivot of his whole 
 argument is, Not before the writings of 
 Chrysostom and his contemporaries, in the 
 second half of the fourth century. Earlier 
 Fathers use other types of text, and the 
 conclusion is reached, supported by other 
 considerations, that the text which became 
 dominant from 350 onwards is not original but 
 secondary, arising probably from authoritative 
 revision of the then current conflicting texts, 
 carried out in some Greek-speaking centre of the 
 Syrian Church (for the attesting Fathers are 
 mainly of Antioch in Syria) between 250 and 
 350 A.D. This late or revised text is styled 
 "Syrian" from its birthplace, and it follows that 
 the documents attesting it are to be set aside in 
 favour of those containing one or other of the 
 " pre-Syritm" texts. If this argument is sound, 
 the great mass of witnesses are at once put out 
 of court, and the " received text " is hopelessly 
 discredited. 
 
NEW TESTAMENT, TEXT OF] 337 [NEW TESTAMENT, TEXT OF 
 
 (ii) Further, the " pre-Syrian " texts fall under 
 two distinct types, one found in some bilingual 
 MSS. (Greek and Latin), evidently made for 
 the Church in the West, and also underlying 
 other Latin Versions : hence called Western, 
 although citations prore that the same type 
 was early current in the East also. For reasons 
 given, this " Western " text is also pronounced 
 suspect, and the true text is to be sought in 
 documents which are at once " pro-Syrian " 
 and " non- Western." Some of these, again, 
 agreeing with citations by Fathers of Alexandria, 
 are thought to show traces of revision by the 
 refined scholarship of the schools of Alexandria, 
 and we are left finally dependent upon a small 
 company of witnesses who hare escaped 
 corruption, whether Syrian, Western, r Alex- 
 andrian, and who therefore merit the term 
 " neutral." These prove to be, in the main, our 
 two oldest MSS., the Vatican and the Sinaitic 
 (B and x), supported by the Bohairic Version 
 of Lower Egypt and by quotations in Origen. 
 Virtually the text adopted by WH and, sub- 
 stantially, by the R.V.. is that of x B, or, if 
 these differ, that of B, even when confronted by 
 a host of contrary witnesses. In tabular form 
 the classification and elimination of the evidence 
 is as follows : 
 
 Existing texts (MSS., Versions, Fathers) are 
 
 Syrian 
 
 \ 
 pre-Syrian 
 
 
 Western Non- 1 
 
 SVeste 
 I 
 
 I I 
 
 Alexandrian NEUTRAL 
 
 It should be added that in its main features 
 the theory and consequent text of WH have 
 weathered the criticism of the thirty years since 
 publication, with some reservation as to the 
 claims of Western witnesses to be heard. At 
 any rate, the power of the " received text " is 
 finally broken, and a " critical text," not greatly 
 differing from that of WH, is firmly established. 
 
 It should be added that von Soden, whose 
 new notation for the MSS. has been already 
 mentioned, has long been engaged upon a fresh 
 investigation of the textual evidence, with 
 results which partly confirm and partly diverge 
 from those reached by WH. As worked out for 
 the Gospels his theory is briefly as follows : 
 
 The existing MSS. fall into three main groups, 
 each, he believes, due to a recension or revision. 
 To these he gives the symbols K, H, I, the 
 initial letters of the Greek words for common, 
 Hesychius, and Jerusalem. The K group 
 roughly corresponds to the Syrian of WH : it 
 is the " common " text of the great bulk of 
 extant MSS., and (as suggested by WH) is to 
 be connected with the name of Lucian of 
 Antioch (t 312), who is known to have carried 
 out a critical revision of the text of the LXX. 
 
 Group H represents a revision of earlier 
 
 22 
 
 texts current in Egypt, identified by von 
 Soden with the revision of Hesychius of Alex- 
 andria, several times referred to by Jerome. 
 This group is virtually the Neutral and Alex- 
 andrian of WH. Between these von Soden 
 does not discriminate, and another important 
 point of divergence from WH is that B and N 
 lose their neutral character and B its pre- 
 dominance ; both are simply outstanding 
 representatives of a revised, and therefore 
 secondary, text. 
 
 Group I contains, in the main, the authorities 
 designated by WH as Western. But instead 
 of dismissing these witnesses as corrupt, von 
 Soden extracts from them a common original 
 I, which represents an even purer text than H ; 
 it is the text used by Eusebius of Caesarea and 
 Cyril of Jerusalem, and was probably published 
 in Palestine. 
 
 Behind these three types of text K, H, and I 
 there lies the common original from which 
 they hare severally diverged, designated by von 
 Soden I H K. This can be reconstructed 
 and traced back to Origen (t 248). The crucial 
 test remains of comparing this early text, so re- 
 covered, with that underlying the still earlier 
 Old Syriac and Old Latin Versions, and with 
 the quotations of the Early Fathers. The com- 
 parison reveals many variations, which, with 
 their sinister influence on the I, H, and K types 
 of text, von Soden attributes to Tatian in the 
 compilation of the Greek text of his Diatessaron. 
 If we can get rid of the variations introduced 
 by him into the I H K text, we recover the 
 Greek Gospels as they were read about the 
 middle of the second century. The broad out- 
 lines of this new history of the text, its elabora- 
 tion in infinite detail for the Gospels, and its 
 application to the rest of the N.T., still await 
 the searching scrutiny of scholarship. 
 
 3. SOME PRINTED EDITIONS OP THE GREEK 
 TESTAMENT. 
 
 The first printed G.T. (1514) was that con- 
 tained in the great Complutensian Polyglot : in 
 publication this was anticipated by the edition 
 hastily prepared by Erasmus and issued in 
 1516. No ancient authorities were used, the 
 text being in general that contained in MSS. 
 from the tenth century and onward. Yet to 
 this uncritical text subsequent editors adhered, 
 even while accumulating variants from earlier 
 authorities and, in their margins, adopting other 
 readings. In large measure this permanence 
 was secured through the successive editions of 
 Robert Stephens, Beza, and the Elzevirs. 
 Stephens' folio edition of 1550 became the 
 standard text for England, those of the brothers 
 Elzevir 1624 and 1633, based on Stephens and 
 Beza (1565), the standard for the Continent. 
 In the preface to the 1633 Elzevir the reader is 
 assured that he now possesses " the text re- 
 ceived by all " : hence the unhappy phrase, 
 " The Received Text " (Tcxtus Receptus, con- 
 veniently referred to as TR). In the later 
 editions of Walton (1657), John Mill (1707), 
 Bengel (1734), and pre-eminently of Griesbach 
 
NEW YEAR] 
 
 338 
 
 [NIGHT-HAWK 
 
 (1774-1806), we have steady advance both in the 
 gathering of fresh materials and in the develop- 
 ment of critical principles. Not till 1831, 
 however, was the inevitable step taken of 
 ignoring the TR and relying directly and solely 
 on ancient authority. This pioneer of modern 
 critical editions was due to Karl Lachmann, 
 and was followed by the Greek Testament 
 of Tregelles (1857-1879) and by the successive 
 editions of Tischendorf (1841-1872), whose 
 final or eighth edition is still invaluable for 
 its full digest of variant readings, with the 
 attesting authorities. On a much smaller scale, 
 but with many additions from more recent 
 knowledge, is the edition of the Revisers' Greek 
 Text by Professor Alexander Souter (Oxford, 
 1910). This small volume for the first time 
 makes accessible to the ordinary student of the 
 Greek Testament the actual evidence (MSS., 
 Versions, and Fathers) for the more important 
 variants. It is prefaced by a full list (with dates) 
 of the authorities cited Uncials and Cursives 
 (according to Gregory's notation and that of von 
 Soden), Versions, and Fathers. When the student 
 has mastered the symbols employed to effect a 
 miracle of condensation, he will find this edition 
 invaluable. The Greek Testament and Intro- 
 el uction of Westcott and Hort (1881) have 
 already been noticed : later workers in the 
 same field are Bernhard Weiss and von Soden. 
 
 Convenient " resultant " Greek Texts (i.e. 
 texts following the majority of selected critical 
 editions) have been issued by Dr. Richard 
 Weymouth and by Professor Nestle. The last 
 named prepared for the Centenary of the British 
 and Foreign Bible Society (1904) a critical text 
 based on the ag"eement of two at least of three 
 authorities, Tischendorf, WH, and Bernhard 
 Weiss. The edition with " apparatus " gives 
 readings from the TR and the Greek underlying 
 the RV. 
 
 The story has been but briefly sketched. Its 
 fuller details only deepen grateful sense of the 
 quiet ways of God's providence in preserving 
 through the centuries these records of Christ 
 and His Apostles, in documents far more 
 numerous than those extant of any other ancient 
 book ; and of the debt due to the persistent and 
 often thankless toil of many workers which 
 has secured for us the priceless heritage of our 
 N.T. The variants are very numerous, far more 
 than the 30,000 reckoned by Bentley (1720). 
 But we may still say with him, " Even put 
 them into the hands of a knave or a fool, and 
 yet with the most sinistrous and absurd choice 
 he shall not extinguish the light of any one 
 chapter, nor so disguise Christianity but that 
 every feature of it will still be the same " ; or, 
 with the late Bishop Westcott, " Like the spots 
 upon the surface of the sun they neither mar 
 the symmetry nor impair the glory of the great 
 source of our Life and Light." 
 
 New Year. The new moon of the seventh 
 month (Tisri, or October) commenced the civil 
 year, and was celebrated as the Feast of Trumpets, 
 the Jewish "NPTT Year's Dnv" (7>". 23.23-25). 
 
 It was " a solemn rest," in anticipation of the 
 Day of Atonement nine days afterwards. The 
 special New Year's service and offerings are 
 described in Num. 29.1-6. [YEAR.] 
 
 Nezi'ah. One of the Nethinim whose descend- 
 ants returned from exile with Zerubbabel 
 (Ezra 2.54 ; Neh. 7.56). 
 
 Ne'zrib. Pillar : now Beit Nusib. A town in 
 the lowland of Judah, really off the plain (Josh. 
 15.43). 
 
 Nib'haz. A deity of the Avvites, introduced 
 by them into Samaria in the time of Shalmancser 
 (2 K. 17.31) ; otherwise unknown. 
 
 Nib'shan. Town of southern Judah, probably 
 near the Dead Sea ( Josh. 15.62). 
 
 Nica'nor. Conqueror : one of the " seven 
 deacons" (Acts 6.5); otherwise unknown. 
 
 Nicode'mus. A Pharisee, and a member of the 
 Sanhedrin (John 3.1), who was at first a secret 
 disciple of the Lord. Afterwards he defended 
 Him against the chief priests and Pharisees 
 (John 7.50, 51), and finally he avowed himself 
 a believer, when he came with Joseph of 
 Arimathea to pay the last duties to the body of 
 Christ, which they took down from the cross, 
 embalmed, and laid in the sepulchre (John 
 19.39, 40). 
 
 Nicola'itanes (R. V. Nicolaitans ). " Those 
 that hold the doctrine of the Nicolaitanes " are 
 reprobated in Rev. 2.6, 15 in close proximity 
 with " those that hold the doctrine of Balaam." 
 It is believed that the misdeeds of these sects 
 were practically identical, and what the character 
 of the latter was may be gathered from 2 Pet. 
 2.10-22 and Jude 4-19. They did not abstain 
 from " meats offered to idols " and from " forni- 
 cation " (Acts 15.20, 29). Those were allied evils, 
 for idolatrous feasts were often the occasion 
 of gross indecency. To hate such deeds was a 
 sign of life in a Church that otherwise was weak 
 and faithless (Rev. 2.6). To tolerate them was 
 well-nigh to forfeit the glory of having been 
 faithful under persecution (Rev. 2.14, 15). 
 
 Nicolas. Conqueror of the people : a native 
 of Antioch, one of the " seven deacons " 
 (Acts 6.5). Some writers think that he fell 
 away and was the leader of the Nicolaitans, 
 but there is nothing but the similarity of the 
 name to suggest this. 
 
 Nico'polis. City of victory : a town where 
 Paul intended to winter (Tit. 3.12). There 
 was a city of the name in Thrace, in Cilicia, and 
 in Epirus, and it is not certain which is referred 
 to in the passage. The probability is that it 
 was Nicopolis in Epirus, a city built by Augustus 
 in memory of the battle of Actium, and on the 
 ground which his army occupied before the 
 engagement. It was conveniently situated for 
 journeys in the eastern parts of Achaia and 
 Macedonia, and also to the northwards. 
 
 Ni'ger. Black: the surname of Simeon, a 
 teacher and prophet in the Church at Antioch 
 (Acts 13.1). 
 
 Night-hawk. Probably intended in the A.V. 
 and R.V. to mean the goat-sucker or night-jar. 
 It is a bird forbidden as food in Lev. ]].](} and 
 
NIGHT-MONSTER] 
 
 339 
 
 [NINEVEH 
 
 Deut. 14.15. But the meaning of the Hebrew 
 word is uncertain. It may be a kind of owl. 
 There are five common sorts of owls in Palestine. 
 
 Night-monster. [LILITH.] 
 
 Nile. The word Nile nowhere occurs in 
 Scripture, but the references to that river are 
 many. The word rendered Sihor or Shihor in 
 Josh. 13.3 1 ICh. 13.5; Isai.23.3- and Jer. 2.18 
 signifies the Nile. " The rivers of Ethiopia " 
 (Isai. 18.1) mean the confluents or tributaries 
 of the Nile. [EGYPT.] 
 
 Nun/rah. Perhaps Tell Nimrin, on the east of 
 Jordan nearly opposite Jericho (Num. 32.3) ; 
 the same as Beth-nirnrah, a fenced city of 
 Gad in the valley on east of Jordan (Josh. 13.27). 
 
 Nim'rim. A stream or brook within the 
 country of Moab mentioned in the denunciations 
 of Isaiah (Isai. 15.6) and Jeremiah (48.34) ; 
 now Wady Numere at the south-east end of the 
 Dead Sea. 
 
 Nim'rod. Son of Gush, apparently the son of 
 Ham, the son of Noah. It is thought that 
 this Gush should be pronounced Cash, and 
 represents, not the Gush of Ethiopia but the 
 Kashite dynasty of Babylon. He is described 
 as " a mighty hunter before the Lord " (Gen. 
 10.9). The title " hunter" may be understood 
 literally of hunting wild beasts, or as indicat- 
 ing a leader of forays against the surrounding 
 nations. Probably " before the Lord " had 
 originally a theological reference, to the effect 
 that the supreme Deity took interest in his 
 prowess. Nimrod established an empire in 
 Shinar (Babylonia), the chief towns being 
 Babel, Erech, Accad, and Calneh, subse- 
 quently extending this empire northwards along 
 the course of the Tigris over Assyria, where 
 he founded a second group of capitals, Nineveh, 
 Rehoboth, Calah, and Resen. The name of 
 Nimrod occurs only once more in the O.T. : 
 in Mic. 5.6 "the land of Asshur" (Assyria) 
 and " the land of Nimrod " are placed in 
 parallelism one to the other. The tradition 
 of Nimrod is still strong among the modern 
 Arabs, who ascribe to him all the great public 
 works of antiquity. There is some reason for 
 thinking that the word is a corrupt form of 
 Merodach, but many think that the description 
 suits the hero Gilgamesh, who was partly human 
 and partly divine. 
 
 Nim'shi. The grandfather of Jehu (1 K. 
 19.16 ; 2 K. 9.2, 14, 20 ; 2 Ch. 22.7). 
 
 Ni'neveh. The capital of the Assyrian Empire 
 built by Nimrod (Gen. 10.11). It is mentioned 
 in the time of Hammurabi as a seat of the 
 worship of Istar. In 2 K. 19.36 and Isai. 
 37.37 the city is first distinctly mentioned as 
 the residence of the monarch of Assyria. Sen- 
 nacherib rebuilt it, and was slain there when 
 worshipping in the temple of Nisroch, his god. 
 The library stored there by Assurbanipal has 
 been the great source of our knowledge 
 of Assyrian and Babylonian affairs. In the 
 days of the prophet Jonah it was " a great 
 city, an exceeding great city, of three days' 
 journey" (Jon.. 1.2, 3,3), perhaps in circuit. 
 
 It is estimated that the population numbered 
 600,000 souls. We are not to imagine 
 that all the space within its mighty walls 
 was built upon ; it contained great parks and 
 extensive fields, and detached houses and 
 buildings, like Babylon. The threatened over- 
 throw of Nineveh within three days was, by 
 the general repentance and humiliation of the 
 inhabitants, from the highest to the lowest, 
 suspended for nearly 200 years until "their 
 iniquity came to the full " ; and then the 
 prophecy was literally accomplished by the 
 combined Medes and Babylonians (606 B.C.). 
 The Greek and Roman writers tell us that 
 the last king, whom they call Sardanapalus, 
 had been encouraged to hold out in consequence 
 of an ancient prophecy that Nineveh should 
 never be taken by assault till the river became 
 its enemy ; but a sudden inundation which threw 
 down twenty stadia of the wall in length con- 
 vinced him that the oracle was accomplished, 
 and he thereupon destroyed himself, together 
 with his treasures. The enemy, entering by the 
 breach, sacked and razed the city. The prophet 
 Nahum foretold the destruction of Nineveh: 
 " The gates of the river shall be opened, and the 
 palace shall be dissolved. Nineveh of old, like 
 a pool of water, with an overflowing flood he 
 will make an utter end of the place thereof " 
 (Neh. 1.8, 9, 2.6). The historian Diodorus 
 describes the facts by which the other pre- 
 dictions of the prophet were as literally fulfilled. 
 He relates that the king of Assyria, elated with 
 his victories, and ignorant of the revolt of the 
 Bactrians, had appointed a time of festivity, 
 and supplied his soldiers with abundance of 
 wine. The commander of the invaders, informed 
 of this state of things by deserters from the 
 Assyrian army, as soon as possible led bis men 
 to the attack, defeated and routed the enemy. 
 Thus the words of the prophet were verified: 
 " While they be folden together as thorns, and 
 while they are drunken as drunkards, they shall 
 be devoured as stubble fully dry " (Nah. 1.10). 
 The prophet promised much spoil to the enemy, 
 " Take ye the spoil of silver, take the spoil 
 of gold : for there is none end of the store, 
 the glory of all pleasant furniture" (Nah. 2.9). 
 And the historian affirms that many talents 
 of gold and silver, preserved from the fire, were 
 carried to 'Ecbatana. According to Nah. 3.15 
 the city was not only to be destroyed by an 
 overwhelming flood, but the fire also was to 
 devour it; and, as Diodorus relates, partly by 
 water, partly by fire, it was destroyed. The 
 utter and perpetual destruction and desolation 
 of Nineveh were foretold: "The Lord will 
 make an utter end of the place thereof. Afflic- 
 tion shall not rise up the second time. She 
 is empty, void, and waste " (Nah. 1.8, 9, 2.10, 
 3.17-19). The most vivid picture of its ruined 
 and deserted condition is that given by 
 Zephaniah : " He will make Nineveh a desola- 
 tion, and dry like a wilderness. And flocks 
 shall lie down in the midst of her, all the beasts 
 pf the nations : both the cormorant and the 
 
NINEVITES] 
 
 340 
 
 [NON-CANONICAL BOOKS 
 
 bittern shall lodge in the upper lintels of it ; 
 their voice shall sing in the windows ; desolation 
 shall be in the thresholds ; for He shall uncover 
 the cedar work. . . . How is she become a 
 desolation, a place for beasts to lie down in ! 
 every one that passeth by her shall hiss, and 
 wag his hand" (Zeph. 2.13-15). The canals 
 which once fertilised the soil are now dry. 
 Except when the earth is green after the period- 
 ical rains, the site of the city, as well as the 
 surrounding country, is an arid yellow waste. 
 Flocks of sheep and herds of camels may be seen 
 seeking scanty pasture amongst the mounds. 
 The croak of the cormorant and the bittern 
 is heard from unwholesome swamp and reedy 
 stream. In the deserted halls of her palaces 
 the hyena, the wolf, the fox, and the jackal now 
 lie down. [NAHTTM, BOOK OP.] 
 
 Ni'nevites. The inhabitants of Nineveh (Lk. 
 11.30). 
 
 Ni'san. The first month of the sacred year 
 (called Abib in the books of Moses), beginning 
 with the new moon at the end of March, when 
 the Babylonian year also began. It is the 
 name of the Babylonian god of spring (Neh. 
 2.1 ; Esth. 3.7). [Too;, YEAH.] 
 
 Nis'roch. The name of an idol of Nineveh, 
 in whose temple Sennacherib was worshipping, 
 when assassinated by his sons, Adrammelech 
 and Sharezer (2 K. 19.37; /sat. 37.38). As 
 no such name is mentioned in the cuneiform 
 inscriptions, it is thought to be a corrupt form of 
 Nusku, a god of the sun. 
 
 Nitre. With the ancients nitre was carbonate 
 of soda, a mineral alkali, found in a natural 
 state in Egypt (Pro*. 25.20 ; Jer. 2.22). In the 
 former passage he that singeth songs to a heavy 
 heart is compared to " vinegar upon nitre." 
 Vinegar, or any acid, applied to nitre makes 
 it emit a disagreeable odour, and destroys 
 its qualities. The figure is meant to indicate 
 strongly the incongruity and unsuitableness 
 of the two things singing songs to a heavy 
 heart. 
 
 No, No-amon. City, CityofAmon : an Egyptian 
 deity. Thebes, the chief city of Upper Egypt ; 
 the only one built on both sides of the Nile. 
 It excelled all others in extent and in the 
 magnificence of its temples. Thebes was sacked 
 and destroyed by Assurbanipal in 664 B.C. 
 (Jer. 46.25; *dk. 30.14-16; Nah. 3.8). [NAHUM, 
 BOOK OP.] 
 
 Noadi'ah. Meeting with Jehovah : I. A 
 Levite who weighed the vessels of gold and 
 silver belonging to the Temple which were 
 brought back from Babylon by Ezra (Ezra 8.33). 
 2. A prophetess who tried to intimidate Nehe- 
 rniah while rebuilding the wall of Jerusalem 
 (Neh. 6.14). 
 
 Noah. Best : 1. The son of Lamech and 
 grandson of Methuselah (Gen. 5.26-29). From 
 his uprightness of character (Gen. 6.8, 9 ; 
 Ezek. 14.14, 20) he found favour in the sight 
 of God. When the wickedness of man led to 
 the flood (Gen. 6.5-7), Noah was forewarned 
 and directed to build an ark for the safety 
 
 of himself and his house (Gen. 6.14-22). Noah, 
 with his wife, sons, and daughters-in-law, entered 
 the ark, which floated on the waters for 1",0 
 days before resting on Ararat (Gen. 1 and 8). On 
 leaving the ark, Noah built an altar, offered 
 sacrifice to God, was blessed by Him, and given 
 an assurance that no flood would again cover 
 the earth (Gen. 8.21-9.17). Thereafter Noah 
 " began to be a husbandman, . . . planted a 
 vineyard, . . . drank of the wine, and was 
 drunken" (Gen. 9.20,21). The conduct of 
 Ham on this occasion contrasted unfavourably 
 with that of Shem and Japheth ; with the result 
 that Ham was solemnly cursed, whilst his 
 brothers were blessed (Gen. 9.22-27). The 
 prophecy was amply fulfilled in the history 
 of their descendants. Noah " lived after the 
 flood three hundred and fifty years, . . . and 
 he died " (Gen. 9.28, 29). The witness of Noah 
 is referred to by our Lord (Matt. 24.37, 38 ; 
 Lk. 17.26, 27), by St. Peter (1 Pet. 3.20; 2 Pet. 
 2.5), and in the Epistle to the Hebrews (11.7). 
 
 2. A daughter of Zelophehad of Manasseh 
 (Num. 26.33, 27.1, 36.11 ; Josh. 17.3). 
 
 No-amon. [No.] 
 
 Nob. A city of the priests, whither David 
 fled from Saul ; in consequence whereof the 
 inhabitants were massacred by order of Saul 
 (1 -Sam. 21.1, 22.9-19); a halting-place of the 
 Assyrian army (Isai. 10.32). It was re- 
 occupied after the return from Captivity (Neh. 
 11.32). [NEBO 4.] 
 
 No 'bah. Meaning unknown, perhaps Barker : 
 1. A Manassite warrior (Num. 32.42), who, 
 during the conquest of the territory on the east 
 of Jordan, captured the town of Kenath and 
 the villages or hamlets dependent upon it, 
 and gave them his own name. 2. A place 
 mentioned in Gideon's pursuit of the Midiariites 
 (Judg. 8.11). Its connexion with 1 is only con- 
 jectural, as also its identification with Kanawat, 
 south-east of the Lejah, about 20 miles north 
 of Busrah. 
 
 Nobai. [NEBAI.] 
 
 Nod. Wandering : the country to which 
 Cain fled after the murder of Abel (Gen. 4.16) ; 
 quite unidentified. 
 
 No'dab. The name of an Arab tribe mentioned 
 only in 1 Ch. 5.19. 
 
 No'e (R.V. Noah). The form used in 
 Matt. 24.37, 38 ; Lk. 3.36, 17.26, 27 for No.u*. 
 
 No'gah. Shining : a son bora to David after 
 he became king (1 Ch. 3.7, 14.6). 
 
 NoTiah. Rest: fourth son of Benjamin 
 (1 Ch. 8.2). 
 
 Non (R.V. Nun). The father of Joshua 
 (1 Ch. 7.27). [NUN.] 
 
 Non-canonical Books, or Apocrypha. 1. The 
 word Apocrypha means " hidden," and the term 
 was, in all probability, originally applied by 
 certain sects to books of their own which wero 
 kept for their onm use. It thus meant " secret." 
 Some writers, indeed, hav suggested that the 
 word was applied to those books whirh were 
 placed in the cupboard, or chamber, in the 
 synagogue, called "Genia" ("hidden"). But 
 
NON-CANONICAL BOOKS] 
 
 341 
 
 [NON-CANONICAL BOOKS 
 
 those were always canonical books, kept there 
 because they were worn out or damaged, where- 
 as the term Apocrypha is restricted to non- 
 canonical books. A later application of the 
 word, especially in its adjective " apocryphal," 
 is to works of spurious authorship. 
 
 2. The Apocrypha of the O.T. No part of 
 this was ever in the Hebrew Canon, but all its 
 books were more or less accepted by Greek- 
 reading Jews of Alexandria and elsewhere, and 
 a few are quoted in the Talmud. All but 
 2 Esdras, Ecclesiasticus, Judith, Tobit, 1 Mac- 
 cabees were originally written in Greek. Its 
 contents vary in different collections. As given 
 in the Authorised and Revised Versions, they 
 are : 1st (3rd) Book of Esdras, a history from 
 the time of Josiah to that of Ezra, mostly 
 taken from Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah ; written 
 perhaps in the first century B.C. 2nd (4th) 
 Book of Esdras, visions and prophecies, especi- 
 ally apocalyptic, given to Bsdras (Ezra); of 
 about the end of the first century A.D. Tobit, 
 legendary, interesting for its use of the old- 
 time story of Ahikar ; about the beginning 
 of the second century B.C. Judith, a legendary 
 account of the deliverance of the Jews from 
 I-Iolo femes, a Persian general, by the courage 
 of the heroine ; written about the middle of the 
 second century B.C. Esther, additional chapters 
 to the canonical work ; perhaps of the second 
 century B.C. The Wisdom of Solomon, some- 
 thing in the style of the Book of Proverbs, and 
 valuable for its contrast of true wisdom with 
 heathenism ; between 50 B.C. and 10 A.D. Ecclesi- 
 asticus, or The Wisdom of Jesus, Son of Sirach, 
 a collection of sensible and prudent sayings, in 
 form much like the Book of Proverbs. It was 
 written originally in Hebrew about 180-175 B.C. 
 (most of the Hebrew having been discovered in 
 1896-1900), and translated into Greek soon 
 after 132 B.C. [ECCLESIASTICUS.] Baruch, a pre- 
 tended prophecy made by him in Babylon, with 
 a Letter to Baruch by Jeremiah ; probably of the 
 second century B.C. Additions to the History 
 of Daniel, namely, (a) The Song of the Three 
 Children (Benedicite, with an introduction) ; 
 (b) The Story of Susannah, portraying Daniel 
 as the just judge ; (c) Bel and the Dragon, in 
 which Daniel shows up the folly of heathenism. 
 There is little to determine the date of these 
 additions. The Prayer of Manasses, king of 
 Judah, in his captivity in Babylon ; the date 
 is unknown. The First Book of the Maccabees, 
 giving a history of the Maccabean revolt, 167 B.C. 
 onwards, written about 80 B.C. The Second 
 Book of the Maccabees, similar matter, but more 
 legendary and homiletic ; somewhat later. 
 There are also, but not in the English Versions, 
 a so-called Third Book of the Maccabees, which 
 is apparently a fictitious history of the period 
 217 B.C., dealing with the relation of the 
 Egyptian king, Ptolemy IT., to the Jews of 
 Palestine and Alexandria. Date uncertain, 
 but before 70 A.D. A so-called Fourth Book of 
 the Maccabees, which is a homiletic essay, by 
 an Alexandrian Jew acquainted with Stoicism, 
 
 on the matter contained in 2 Mace. ; perhaps of 
 the first century A.D. Although the Apocrypha 
 was included in the Septuagint Version, yet 
 there is no certain quotation made from it in 
 the N.T. The Fathers, indeed, individually 
 often quoted it as Scripture, but when pressed 
 they distinguished it from the canonical books. 
 Jerome in particular, in the end of the fourth 
 century, made a very clear distinction. For 
 in defending himself for limiting his Latin 
 translation to the books of the Hebrew canon, 
 he says : " Whatever book is beyond these must 
 be reckoned among the Apocrypha." Augustine 
 (354-430 A.D.), on the contrary, who knew no 
 Hebrew, included the Apocrypha with the 
 Canonical, as against heretical, books. Un- 
 fortunately, the views of the latter father pre- 
 vailed, and the Apocrypha remained in the 
 official " Vulgate " of the Roman Church. 
 The Council of Trent, 1546, accepted " all the 
 books . . . with equal feeling and reverence," 
 and anathematised such persons as did not. 
 The English Church at the Reformation, in its 
 thirty-nine Articles (1563 and 1571), definitely 
 followed Jerome, by rejecting the Apocrypha 
 as Holy Scripture, valuing it only " for ex- 
 ample of life and instruction of manners." 
 
 3. The Pseudepigraphic Books. No article on 
 the Apocrypha can wholly omit these, for every 
 year their importance is being more under- 
 stood. They are called Pseudepigraphic because 
 they profess to have been written by Old Testa- 
 ment saints. They are largely Apocalyptic ; 
 and represent hopes and expectations which did 
 much to mould early Christianity. Among them 
 may be mentioned The (Ethiopian) Book of 
 Enoch, which is quoted in Jude 14. It is of 
 various dates, ranging through the last two 
 centuries before the Christian era. The 
 (Slavonic) Secrets of Enoch, by an orthodox 
 Hellenistic Jew in the first half of the first 
 century A.D. The Book of Jubilees, or the Little 
 Genesis, dealing with the details of Genesis in 
 a fanciful and legendary form, written by a 
 Pharisee between 135 and 105 B.C. The 
 Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs. In these 
 there is a high standard of ethical teaching. 
 Its original Hebrew is thought to have been 
 composed in 109-107 B.C., and the Greek trans- 
 lation, in which it has come down to us, before 
 50 A.D. The Sibylline Oracles, Books in.-v., 
 poetical descriptions of the past and future 
 condition of the Jews ; the oldest portion 
 is placed about 140 B.C. ; part is as late as 
 80 A.D. The Psalms of Solomon, between 70 
 and 40 B.C. The Odes of Solomon, c. 100 A.P., 
 are probably Christian. The Syriac Apocalypse 
 of Baruch (2 Baruch), 60-100 A.D. The Greek 
 Apocalypse of Baruch (3 Baruch), the second 
 century A.D. The Assumption of Moses, 7-30 A.D. 
 The Ascension of Isaiah, first to second century 
 A.D. See further Charles, Apocrypha and 
 Pseudepigrapha of the O.T., 1913. 
 
 4. The N.T. Apocrypha. Under this 
 name are sometimes collected various Christian 
 writings of early date, which claim either to 
 
NOPH] 
 
 342 
 
 [NYMPHAS 
 
 give fresh information about our Lord and 
 His Apostles, or fresh instruction about the 
 nature of Christianity in the name of early 
 Christians. Of the Apocryphal Gospels may 
 be mentioned : The Gospel according to the 
 Hebrews (fragments, second century), the Gospel 
 according to St. James, dealing with the birth 
 of Mary and of our Lord (second century), 
 the Acts of Pilate ; of the Acts, those of 
 Paul and Thecla (second century) and of 
 Peter (third century) ; of Epistles, that of 
 Barnabas (end of first century) ; of Apoca- 
 lypses, that of Peter (second century). 
 Although occasionally a non-canonical book 
 is found appended to a manuscript of the 
 New Testament, this is so rare that we may 
 say that virtually there has never been a 
 serious question of including any of these 
 books in the Canon. 
 
 Noph. More accurately Moph, as, indeed, the 
 Hebrew reads in Eos. 9.6. Same as MEMPHIS 
 (Isai. 19.13; Jer. 2.16,44.1,46.14,19; Ezek. 
 30.13, 16). The reference in Hos. 9.6 (" Memphis 
 shall bury them ") is to the great Necropolis 
 of the city; for its burial-ground, stretching 
 for 20 miles along the edge of the Libyan desert, 
 greatly exceeds that of any other Egyptian town. 
 [NAHUM, BOOK OF.] 
 
 No'phah. A town of Moab (Num. 21.30). 
 Nose-jewel. This ornament was one of the 
 presents which the servant of Abraham gave 
 to Rebecca, in the name of his master : " I 
 put." said he, " the ear-ring upon her face," or, 
 better (R.V.), " I put the ring upon her nose" 
 (Gen. 24.47). It is the custom in many parts 
 of the East even in the present day for women 
 to wear rings in their noses, usually in the right 
 nostril, which is bored low down in the middle. 
 These rings are of gold, and have commonly two 
 pearls and one ruby between them, placed in 
 the ring. 
 
 Numbers, Book of. For the critical questions 
 affecting this book, see PENTATEUCH. The 
 title of the book is derived from the two number- 
 ings of Israel : the former in the second year 
 of their journey (1-4), the latter on the borders 
 of Canaan, thirty-eight years afterwards (26). 
 The contents, in addition to these subjects, include 
 the record of various laws and observances 
 (5-10.10), as well as several striking incidents, 
 such as the appointment of seventy elders (11) ; 
 and the expedition of the Spies and its conse- 
 quences (13, 14). The journey is now pro- 
 longed. There follows the rebellion of Korah, 
 with subsequent enactments respecting the 
 priesthood (16-19). The end of the march 
 through the wilderness is then recorded, with 
 the incidents of the Smitten Rock and the 
 Brazen Serpent, and the visit and prophecies 
 of Balaam (20-24). The murmurings and 
 punishments of the people occupy a large part 
 of the book, which concludes with the conquest 
 
 of Midian (31), the partition of the territory 
 east of Jordan (32), a recapitulation of the 
 stations in the wilderness (33), a statement 
 of the boundaries of the Promised Land (34), 
 and enactments in regard to the Cities of Refuge 
 (35) and to the marriage of heiresses (36). 
 
 Numbers, apart from its historical importance, 
 is peculiarly valuable for its presentation of 
 the care of Jehovah for His people, His justice, 
 and His mercy. The character of Moses is 
 also strikingly set forth alike in regard to its 
 weakness and its strength. The N.T. references 
 to personages and incidents in Numbers include : 
 The Nazirites (Num. 6; Lk. 1.15; Acts 18.18, 
 21.26); the Passover (Num. 9; John 19.36; 
 1 Cor. 5.7); the Manna (Num. 11.4-9; John 
 6.31-35, 41-58; Rev. 2.17); the faithfulness 
 of Moses (Num. 12.7 ; Heb. 3.5, 6) ; the slain 
 in the Wilderness (Num. 14.16; 1 Cor. 10.5; 
 Heb. 3.8; Jude 5); the sin of Korah (Num. 
 16; Jude 11); Aaron's rod (Num. 17.8; Heb. 
 9.4) ; the ordinance of the red heifer (Num. 19 ; 
 Heb. 9.13); Balaam (Num. 22.5, 31.16; 2 Pet. 
 2.15 ; Jude 11 ; Eev. 2.14) ; lign-aloes (Num. 
 24.6). The comparison " to sheep having no 
 shepherd " occurs first in Num. 27.17. Compare 
 1 K. 22.17; 2 Ch. 18.16; Ezek. 34.5; Zech. 
 10.2; and in the N.T. Matt. 9.36 ; Mk. 6.34. 
 
 Nun. Continuation of posterity : the father 
 of Joshua (Ex. 33.11), descended from Ephraim 
 (1 Ch. 7.27), the son of Joseph. 
 
 Nurse. The nurse in an Eastern family is 
 always an important personage, considered 
 as a sort of second parent, whether she has 
 been foster-mother or otherwise. She always 
 accompanies the bride to her husband's house 
 " and they sent away Rebekah and her nurse " 
 (Gen. 24.59). See also Gen. 35.8 ; Num. 11.12 ; 
 Ruth 4.16 ; 2 Sam. 4.4 ; 2 K. 11.2 ; Isai. 49.23. 
 Nuts. The nuts which formed part of the 
 present forwarded to his unknown son by 
 Jacob (Gen. 43.11) were the nuts of the pistachio 
 tree which is indigenous to Palestine and 
 Syria, where it is still extensively cultivated 
 for the sake of its nuts, which are exported 
 from Aleppo and the ports of the Levant. The 
 oily almond-like kernels are eaten as a dessert, 
 and made into a sweetmeat. The nuts were 
 highly valued by the ancients, both for food and 
 as a stomachic ; and also as an antidote to 
 the bite of serpents. In " the garden of nuts" 
 (Cant. 6.11) the reference is to the familiar 
 walnuts. At the present time the walnut is 
 cultivated in all the glens and lower slopes of 
 Lebanon and Hermon, and in some parts of 
 Galilee. 
 
 Nym'phas, or, Nympha. A rich and earnest 
 Christian in Laodicea, whose house was used as 
 a place of assembly for Christians (Col. 4.15). 
 It is doubtful whether Nymphas (a man) or 
 Nympha (a lady) is the right form, probably 
 the latter. 
 
OAK] 
 
 343 
 
 [OBADIAH, BOOK OF 
 
 Oak. There are no fewer than nme species of 
 oak in Syria, besides almost as many varieties. 
 When the land was colonised by Canaanite 
 tribes, Western Palestine was probably as rich 
 in oak forests as Eastern Palestine is still. 
 Some oaks are evergreen, and others deciduous, 
 shedding their foliage in the autumn. This is 
 an obvious distinction such as would be noticed 
 even in an unscientific age. That such was the 
 case with the ancient Hebrews we learn from 
 two passages in Isaiah " Ye shall be as an 
 oak (R.V. marg., terebinth) whose leaf fadeth " 
 (Isai. 1.30) and " As a teil tree, and as an oak, 
 whose substance is in them, when they cast 
 their leaves " (Isai. 6.13 ; but see 11. V. and 
 marg.). The evergreen oak is represented in 
 Palestine chiefly by the prickly evergreen or 
 Kermes oak, specimens of which are to be found 
 with a girth of from twenty-two to thirty-seven 
 feet. Another abundant species is the Valonia 
 or prickly-cupped deciduous oak, of the Levant, 
 where its acorns are used in tanning, but the 
 Arabs eat them for food. The oak was used as a 
 symbol of strength : " He was strong as the 
 oaks " (Amos 2.9). Idols were sometimes made 
 of oak (Isai. 44.14, 15), and the oars for the 
 Syrian galleys (Ezek. 27.6). It should be noted 
 that in nine passages, for a Hebrew word 
 rendered " plain " in A.V. the R.V. has " oak," 
 marg. "terebinth" (Gen. 12.6, 13.18, 14.13, 18.1; 
 Deut. 11.30; Judg. 4.11, 9.6, 37 ; 1 Sam. 10.3). 
 See also R.V. of Josh. 19.33 ; Isai. 57.5. 
 
 Oath. The use of oaths in solemn agreements 
 and associations is frequent. In the O.T. this 
 use was recognised by the Law (Ex. 20.7 ; Lev. 
 19.12) ; appears in promises of God Himself 
 (Gen. 26.3) ; is used in agreements between 
 king and subject (1 K. 2.43), patriarch and 
 people (Gen. 50.25), master and servant (Gen. 
 24.2-9), people and people (Josh. 9.20), one 
 individual and another (Ruth 1.17); and is 
 employed in promises to God (Gen. 14.22, 23). 
 Many forms of oath are found, " God do so to 
 me and more also," with its variants, being the 
 most frequent (1 Sam. 3.17 ; 1 K. 2.23). One 
 manner of taking an oath is described in Gen. 
 24.2-9. The more usual method was by raising 
 the right hand to heaven (Gen. 14.22 ; and cf. 
 Ps. 106.26). In the N.T. our Lord's words in 
 Matt. 5.33-37 are directed not against judicial 
 oaths, but against the careless and profane use 
 of an oath in ordinary transactions (see also 
 Matt. 23.16-22 ; Jas. 5.12). He Himself, when 
 questioned, answered on oath (Matt. 26.63, 64 : 
 Mk. 14.62). Expressions in the nature of oaths 
 are found in St. Paul's Epistles (Rom. 1.9 ; 1 Cor. 
 15.31 ; 2 Cor. 1.18 ; Gal. 1.20). 
 
 Obadiah. Servant of Jehovah : 1. A descend- 
 ant of Zerubbabel. His sons are mentioned in 
 1 Ch. 3.21. 2. A descendant of Issachar and a 
 leading man of his tribe (1 Ch. 7.3). 3. A de- 
 scendant of King Saul (1 Ch. 8.38, 9.44). 4. A 
 
 member of the Temple choir in the time of 
 Nehemiah (1 Ch. 9.16; Neh. 12.25). In Neh. 
 11.17 his name is given as Abda. 5. A Gadite 
 warrior who joined David at Ziklag (1 Ch. 12.9). 
 6. One of the princes of Judah in the reign of 
 Jehoshaphat who were sent by the king to teach 
 in the cities of Judah (2 Ch. 17.7). 7. One who 
 returned from Babylon with Ezra (Ezra 8.9). 
 8. A priest, or family of priests, who sealed the 
 covenant with Nehemiah (Neh. 10.5). 9. An 
 officer of high rank in the court of Ahab. 
 He was a secret worshipper of Jehovah, and 
 concealed a hundred of the prophets from the 
 persecution of Jezebel. Elijah encountered him 
 and insisted in spite of the timidity of Obadiah 
 that he (Obadiah) should bring the prophet 
 into the presence of Ahab (1 K. 18.3-16). He 
 has been identified by some with Obadiah the 
 prophet. 10. The father of Ishmaiah (1 Ch. 
 27.19). 11. An overseer of workmen at the 
 restoration of the Temple (2 Ch. 34.12). 
 
 12. Obadiah, the prophet, and author of the 
 book bearing his name. Nothing is known as to 
 his history. In the time of Jerome his identifica- 
 tion with the servant of Ahab or the " third 
 captain of fifty " (2 K. 1.13) was current. 
 The Talmud notices a statement that Obadiah 
 was a proselyte from Edom. 
 
 Obadiah, Book ot The date of the prophecy 
 contained in this book must depend very largely 
 upon the identification of the capture of Jeru- 
 salem referred to in ver. 11. The circumstances 
 point to this being the capture by the Chaldeans 
 under Nebuchadnezzar. The Edomites, against 
 whom the prophecy is directed, were ancient 
 enemies of Israel (Num. 20.14-21), and, though 
 conquered, had regained something of their 
 old power (2 K. 16.6, R.V.). Apparently they 
 joined Nebuchadnezzar in humbling their old 
 adversaries. Obadiah denounces Edom for 
 this offence, probably about the years 588-6 
 B.C. His predictions as to Edom were com- 
 pletely fulfilled. The contents of his book may 
 be summarised thus : 
 
 Israel had no greater enemy than the Edom- 
 ites. They were proud of their wisdom (ver. 8), 
 and of their rocky and impregnable position 
 (ver. 3). The prophet foretells the uncovering 
 of their treasures, and rebukes their heartless 
 treatment of the Jews, their kinsmen, in rejoicing 
 over their calamities and encouraging Nebuchad- 
 nezzar utterly to exterminate them (Ps. 137.7) ; 
 for all which an early day of retribution was to 
 come : " As thou hast done, it shall be done 
 unto thee " (rer. 15). But the chosen race them- 
 selves had just been carried into captivity ; the 
 holy land was deserted, and the chastisement 
 denounced against the Edomites might therefore 
 appear not to differ from that which had already 
 been inflicted upon the seed of Jacob. The 
 prophet therefore goes on to declare that Edom 
 should be as though it had never been, and 
 
OBAL? 
 
 344 
 
 [OIL 
 
 should be swallowed up for ever (ver. 18) (a 
 prophecy which has been remarkably fulfilled) ; 
 while Israel should rise again from her present 
 fall ; should repossess, not only her own land, 
 but also Philistia and Edom ; and finally rejoice 
 in the holy reign of the promised Messiah. With 
 the prophecy of Obadiah compare the words 
 of Ezek. 35; Joel 3.19,20; Amos 1.11,12, 
 9.11-15; and, more especially, Jer. 49.7-22. 
 There are no N.T. references to this short pro- 
 phecy. 
 
 O'bal. Bare : the founder of an Arab tribe 
 (Gen. 10.28). In 1 Ch. 1.22 the name is written 
 Ebal. 
 
 O'bed. Servant: 1. The son of Boaz and 
 Iluth the Moabitess, father of Jesse, grandfather 
 of King David, and an ancestor of our Lord 
 (Ruth 4.17, 21, 22 ; 1 Ch. 2.12 ; Matt. 1.5 ; 
 Lk. 3.32). 2. The grandson of Zabad, one of 
 Davfd's chief warriors (1 Ch. 2.37, 38). 3. One 
 of David's mighty men (1 Ch. 11.47). 4. A gate- 
 keeper of the Temple (1 Ch. 26.7). 5. The 
 father of Azariah (2 Ch. 23.1). 
 
 O'bcd-e'dom. Servant of Edom: 1. The ark, 
 when being conducted from the house of Abina- 
 dab in Gibeah to the city of David, was carried 
 aside to the house of Obed-edom, a Gittite, 
 where it continued three months, bringing 
 blessing upon the whole household (2 Sam. 
 6.10-11 ; 1 Ch. 13.13-14). 2. Obed-edom the 
 Levite, son of Jeduthun (1 Ch. 16.38), a door- 
 keeper for the ark. The family continued to be 
 keepers of the vessels of the Temple in the reign 
 of Amaziah (1 Ch. 15.18, 21, 24, 16.5, 26.4, 8, 
 15 ; 2 Ch. 25.24). Possibly the two are iden- 
 tical. 
 
 Obeisance. [SALUTATIONS.] 
 
 Obelisk. [ON 2, PILLAR.] 
 
 O'bil. Camel-driver : an Ishmaelite camel- 
 driver in the days of David (1 Ch. 27.30). 
 
 Ob lation. [SACRIFICE. ] 
 
 OTjoth. An encampment of the Israelites, 
 east of Moab, during the journey through the 
 wilderness (Num. 21.10, 33.43). 
 
 Occupy. In Ezek. 27 and Lk. 19.13 this 
 means trade with. 
 
 Occurrent. In 1 K. 5.4 the old form of our 
 modern "occurrence." 
 
 Oc'ran (R.V. Ochran). The father of Pagiel 
 (Num. 1.13, 2.27, 7.72, 77, 10.26). 
 
 O'ded. Restorer: 1. The father of the pro- 
 phet Azariah (2 Ch. 15.1). In ver. 8 there is 
 evidence that the text should read " the pro- 
 phecy of Azariah the prophet, the son of Oded." 
 2. A prophet of Jehovah in Samaria, at the 
 time of Pekah's invasion of Judah. He per- 
 suaded Pekah to restore the 200,000 captives 
 he had taken (2 Ch. 28.9). 
 
 Offence, Offend. These words often mean 
 "a stumbling-block," or "cause to stumble." 
 So Matt. 16.23, 18.6. 
 
 Offerings. [SACRIFICE.] 
 
 Officer. Several Hebrew words are in the 
 O.T. rendered into English as " officer." In 
 some cases there is implied a personage employed 
 about the court (Gen. 37-30 ; 1 A'. 22.9 ; 2 Ch. 
 
 18.8) ; or persons with the oversight of others 
 (Ex. 5.6 ; Deut. 1.15) ; or, generally, persons 
 doing the king's business (Esth. 9.3, R.V.). In 
 the N.T. the word in Lk. 12.58 is rendered in the 
 R.V. marg. as " exactor," i.e. the person secur- 
 ing payment of the fine imposed. The more 
 usual N.T. word (Matt. 5.25, and frequently in 
 John) suggests an officer corresponding to a 
 beadle or bailiff. 
 
 Og. An Amoritish king of Bashan, a man of 
 gigantic stature, whose rule extended over sixty 
 cities (Josh. 13.12). He, his children, and his 
 people were exterminated at the battle of 
 Edrei, and the territory was assigned to the 
 Reubenites, Gadites, and half the tribe of 
 Manasseh (Num. 32.33 ; Deut. 1.4, 3.1-13, 4.47, 
 31.4 ; Josh. 2.10, 9.10, 13.12, 30). This victory 
 lingered long in the national memory (Ps. 
 135.11, 136.20). Og's " bedstead of iron," 
 treasured in Rabbah of the children of Ammon 
 (Deut. 3.11), was, more probably, a sarcophagus 
 of black basalt. [BASHAN.] 
 
 O'had. One of the six sons of Simeon (Gen. 
 46.10; Ex. 6.15). 
 
 O'heL Tent : a son of Zerubbabel (1 Ch. 3.20). 
 
 Oho'lah, Oholibah. [AHOLAH, AHOLIBAH.] 
 
 Oho'liab. [AHOLIAB.] 
 
 Oholiba'mah. [AHOLIBAMAH.] 
 
 Oil The principal source of oil among the 
 Jews was the olive-berry. Trade in oil was 
 carried on with the Tynans, by whom it was 
 probably often re-exported to Egypt, whose 
 olives do not, for the most part, produce good 
 oil. Oil to the amount of 20,000 batlis (2 Ch. 
 2.10) or 20 measures (1 K. 5.11) was among 
 the supplies furnished by Solomon to Hiram. 
 Direct trade in oil was also carried on between 
 Egypt and Palestine (1 K. 5.11 ; 2 Ch. 2.10, 15 ; 
 Ezra 3.7 ; Isai. 30.6, 57.9 ; Ezek. 27.17 ; Eos. 
 12.1). The "meat-offerings" prescribed by 
 the Law were frequently mixed with oil (Lev. 
 2.4, 7, 15, 8.26, 31 ; Num. 7.19 ; Deut. 12.17, 
 32.13; 1 K. 17.12,15; 1 Ch. 12.40; Ezek. 
 16.13, 19). Oil was included among the first- 
 fruit offerings (Ex. 22.29, 23.16; Num. 18.12; 
 Deut. 18.4 ; 2 Ch. 31.5). Tith^ of oil were re- 
 quired (Deut. 12.17 ; 2 Ch. 31.5 ; Neh. 10.37, 39, 
 13.12 ; Ezek. 45.14). The oil for " the light " 
 was expressly ordered to be olive-oil, beaten, 
 i.e. made from olives bruised in a mortar (Ex. 
 25.6,27.20,21, 35.8; Lev. 24.2; 1 Sam. 3.3; 
 2 Ch. 13.11 ; Zech. 4.3, 12). Oil was used at 
 the consecration of priests (Ex. 29.2, 23; Lev. 
 6.15,21), the daily sacrifice (Ex. 29.40), the 
 leper's purification (Lev. 14.10-18,21,24,28), 
 and the completion of the Nazirite's vow 
 (Num. 6.15). Certain offerings were to be 
 devoid of oil, as, for example, the sin-offering 
 (Lev. 5.11) and the offering of jealousy (Num. 
 5.15). Oil was used by the Jews for anoint- 
 ing the body, after a bath, for example, or 
 before a festive occasion. In time of mourn- 
 ing or calamity they abstained from the use of 
 oiL At Egyptian entertainments it was usual 
 for a servant to anoint the head of each guest, 
 as he took his seat (Deut. 28.40; ItuA 3.3; 
 
OIL THEE] 
 
 345 
 
 [OLD TESTAMENT, THE 
 
 2 Sam. 12.20, 14.2 ; Ps. 23.5, 92.10, 104.15 ; 
 Isai. 61.3 ; Dan. 10.3 ; Amos 6.6 ; Mic. 6.15 ; 
 Lk. 7.46). Oil, applied externally or internally, 
 was used as a medicine (Isai. 1.6, R. V. ; ML 6.13 ; 
 Lk. 10.34 ; Jas. 5.14). Oil was used in general 
 for lamps ; it is used in Egypt with cotton wicks 
 twisted round a piece of straw, the receptacle 
 being a glass vessel into which water is first 
 poured (Matt. 25.1-8; Lk. 12.35). Oil indi- 
 cated gladness, the absence of oil sorrow or 
 humiliation (Isai. 61.3 ; Joel 2.19 ; Rev. 6.6). 
 Oil is often used as symbolical of nourishment 
 and comfort (Deut. 32.13, 33.24; Job 29.6; 
 Ps. 45.7, 109.18; Isai. 61.3). [ANOINT, OLIVE.] 
 
 Oil Tree. The oil tree mentioned in Isai. 41.19 
 is the oleaster, sometimes erroneously termed 
 the " wild olive." It yields an inferior kind 
 of oil, used as a medicament, though 
 unfit for food. The oleaster is a small tree 
 common in all parts of Palestine except the 
 Jordan valley. The wood is hard and fine- 
 grained, and hence was very suitable for carving 
 into the symbolic figures of cherubimiin Solomon's 
 temple (1 K. 6.23, where the translation " olive 
 tree " should be " oleaster "). The leaves are 
 small and narrow, and the flowers inconspicuous ; 
 yet the oleaster is a graceful shrub. The same 
 Hebrew word occurs in Neh. 8.15 (A.V. " pine 
 branches," R.V. "branches of wild olive"). 
 [OLIVE.] 
 
 Ointment. In Ex. 30.25, for " an oil of holy 
 ointment," the R.V. has " an holy anointing 
 oil." In Isai. 1.6 for " ointment " R.V. reads 
 " oil." The ointment with which our Lord 
 was anointed (Malt. 26.7 ; John 12.3) was spike- 
 nard. ("ANOINT, OIL. SPIKENARD.] 
 
 Old Testament, The. I. The Title. It is 
 difficult to decide whether " Covenant " or 
 " Testament " represents the more accurately 
 the word diatheke in the phrase he kaine diatheke 
 (" the new diatheke ") in Lk. 22.20 ; 1 Cor. 11.25 
 (compare Heb. 9.15 and elsewhere). The facts 
 appear to be that the Hebrew word berith means 
 properly a covenant, an agreement, whether 
 between man and man (Gen. 31.44), or between 
 God and man (Gen. 15.18 ; Ex. 19.5 ; Jer. 31.31). 
 It was, however, evident that a covenant on 
 God's side implied much condescension and 
 grace on His part, and very little more than 
 mere acceptance on the part of man. Hence 
 the Alexandrian translators of the O.T. into 
 Greek, with a reverence for God which is seen 
 frequently in their version, shrank from using 
 the usual Greek word for a covenant or agree- 
 ment, syntheke, and used instead the similar 
 word diatheke, which was commonly used of a 
 disposition of property, to take effect either 
 during the lifeLme of the disposer (in which case 
 it would correspond to our deed of gift), or at 
 his death (in which case it would correspond 
 to our will or testament). Hence, while we 
 perforce use the term The Old Testament, we 
 must not limit it to our ordinary meaning of 
 the word testament, but must include in it also 
 that of free disposal by the supreme Lord, as 
 well as covenant or agreement. The phrase 
 
 implies that there has been a change in the 
 manner in which God deals with us, according 
 to His promise in Jer. 31.31, and the use of 
 testament rather than covenant represents the 
 consciousness of the Christian Church that this 
 change is in the direction of greater grace on 
 God's part, and a recognition on man's of his 
 inability to do more than receive it. No doubt 
 also the Roman custom of making " testaments " 
 dependent only on the death of the " testator " 
 (Heb. 9.16) has strengthened the use of the term 
 by believers, who know that they owe every- 
 thing to Christ's death. 
 
 II. When we turn to the O.T. itself we observe 
 that its English form answers to the contents 
 of the Hebrew original, and, generally speaking, 
 to the order of the Septuagint Greek translation. 
 For our English Bible carefully separates from 
 the canonical books, which alone we usually 
 call the O.T., " the other books," which we 
 usually call the Apocrypha. The Septuagint 
 made no such distinction. [NON-CANONICAL 
 HOOKS.] The Hebrew order, however, is different 
 from our own. It is in three collections, 
 first the Law, i.e. the Pentateuch; secondly 
 the Former and Latter Prophets, including 
 in the former the Books of Joshua, Judges, 
 1 and 2 Samuel, and 1 and 2 Kings, and 
 in the latter the Greater Prophets Isaiah, 
 Jeremiah and Ezekiel, and the Book of the 
 Twelve, i.e. the Minor Prophets; thirdly, 
 the Writings, viz. the three Poetical Books 
 (Psalms, Proverbs, Job), the Five Rolls (Song 
 of Songs, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, 
 Esther) ; Daniel, Ezra. Nehemiah, and 1 and 2 
 Chronicles. The basis upon which this arrange- 
 ment rests appears to be the order in which the 
 several books were received into the Canon 
 of Scripture. [CANON.] 
 
 It is more important to call attention to the 
 fact that the present text of the Hebrew Bible, 
 from which our English version was translated, 
 is that accepted by the Massoretic writers (as 
 they are called) of the ninth and tenth centuries 
 A.D. These were Jewish scholars who busied 
 themselves with the exact letters and vowel- 
 points of the Bible, fixing these as closely as they 
 could by the tradition (Massora) that had come 
 down to them. By a comparison of other and 
 earlier evidence (such as the Talmud of the 
 fifth or sixth centuries, Jerome's Vulgate of 
 about 390 A.D., the Mishna in the third century, 
 and quotations in the Fathers and in the N.T. 
 and even in Josephus and Philo), we are able to 
 see that the text of the O.T. fixed by the 
 Massoretes was practically identical with that 
 current in the beginning of the first century 
 of our era. From that time at least the Jews 
 appear to have guarded it with scrupulous 
 tidelity. But earlier evidence tends to show 
 the contrary. Some of the divergences of 
 the Septuagint from the Massoretic Text must 
 be due to mutilations, copyists' mistakes, and 
 even different readings in the Hebrew manu- 
 scripts used by the translators. The Nash 
 Papyrus of the Ten Commandments, thougli 
 
OLD TESTAMENT, THE] 
 
 346 
 
 [OLD TESTAMENT, THE 
 
 dating perhaps from the second century A.D., 
 differs in details from the ordinary text. Hence 
 we cannot affirm that until the first century or 
 so the Jews took any special trouble to copy their 
 manuscripts with scrupulous accuracy. No 
 doubt they took ordinary care, but no more. 
 Later Jews, especially after the time of R. 
 Akiba (132 A.D.), drew lessons from every 
 single letter. Earlier Jews had not attained 
 to such a pitch of superstition, and guarded the 
 books more than the letters. When we add 
 to this the facts that our existing Hebrew 
 manuscripts are very late (the earliest was 
 " probably \vritten about 820-55,' ? see Ginsburg's 
 Introduction to the Hebrew Bible, p. 469), and 
 that the earliest translation (the Septuagint, 
 which see) is often very vague and uncertain, 
 and that we have practically no quotations 
 earlier than the first century A.D., we can 
 understand that there is much more scope for 
 scholarly conjecture and emendation of the text 
 of the O.T. than there is in that of the N.T. 
 
 III. The Present Value of the O.T. For the 
 value and the specific teaching of the separate 
 books of the O.T. we must refer the reader to 
 the articles dealing with each book. Here it 
 must be sufficient to speak of the O.T. as a 
 whole. 
 
 1. There are certain general principles which 
 must be borne in mind by every reader of it. 
 (i.) It does not stand on an equality with the 
 N.T. as regards either doctrine or morality. 
 For want of remembering this not a few persons 
 have derived from it grievous heretical leaching, 
 and infidels have drawn weapons from it, 
 thinking thereby to attack Christianity. But 
 the writer of the Epistle to theHe&rews expressly 
 says (1.1, R.V.) that it was " by divers portions 
 and in divers manners " that God spoke t the 
 fathers by the prophets, that (to put the phrase 
 into modern language) His revelation of Him- 
 self was but fragmentary, as well as given under 
 many provisional modes ; His full and final 
 revelation was given only in the Lord Jesus. 
 Hence the statements of the O.T. have only 
 relative value, compared with the great truths 
 contained in the N.T. The highest standard 
 of truth and ethics is given in the N.T. alone ; 
 the final court of appeal is there. 
 
 (ii.) Closely akin to this is the fact that the 
 O.T. describes the actions and words of persons 
 who were in a different plane of culture from 
 our own. It is difficult for a prosaic English- 
 man to enter into the poetic temperament of an 
 Oriental who is accustomed to parable and 
 hyperbole in everyday speech. The reader 
 of the Bible, especially of the O.T., must re- 
 member that sayings which we should naturally 
 understand literally would to him at once 
 suggest parable and allegory; also, on the 
 other hand, that prudery is unknown in the 
 East, and that Orientals feel no shame in 
 speaking of many things as to which we in 
 t'.ie West, and in the twentieth century, keep 
 silence. 
 
 (iii.) We must remember that the O.T. is 
 
 essentially a record of how God prepared a 
 nation to be the recipient of the full revelation 
 of Himself. His method was not one which 
 we should ourselves have devised, and perhaps 
 we are only beginning to understand much of 
 what that method was. For He seems not 
 only to have trained the nation of Israel, but 
 also to have prepared the surroundings, the 
 milieu, in which Israel was to be trained. He 
 did riot, unless all modern investigation 
 (whether by spade work or literary work) is 
 to be thrown aside, take a nation from its 
 beginning, uninfluenced by earlier nations, and 
 keep it so apart that it drew nothing from 
 nations around. Rather He took a nation 
 which had imbibed from its earliest infancy 
 spiritual nourishment from others (Abraham 
 and his immediate descendants must have been 
 steeped in Babylonian and Arabian lore), and 
 as it grew gave it leaders learned in the wisdom 
 of other countries. Moses was learned as an 
 Egyptian, and also, as trained in the court, can 
 hardly have been ignorant of Babylonian 
 cuneiform. When the Israelites settled in 
 Palestine, they came, for good or evil, into 
 touch with Canaanite culture, which appears 
 to have been high. To David, and still more 
 to Solomon, came the influence of Tyre and 
 other nations, while Assyria, and, later, Baby- 
 lonia and Persia, brought much, more than mere 
 military and political power to bear on the men 
 of Israel of succeeding ages. In one sense, indeed, 
 Israel lived alone, for it refused to acknowledge 
 the false gods of the nations round ; but in 
 another, lying as it did on the high road between 
 Babylon and Egypt, and bordering on Moab 
 and Edom and the desert tribes, it was in a 
 condition to assimilate what was good in their 
 learning. 
 
 God, Who had worked among the heathen, 
 for the Life was erer the Light of men (John 1.4), 
 prepared His special people not only by separat- 
 ing them, se that they grew up in mental and 
 spiritual vigour, but also by incorporating 
 among them from time to time such Gentile 
 teaching as enabled them to make fuller progress 
 in the knowledge of Him. Israel, and Israel 
 alone, was able to assimilate all this ; Israel, 
 and Israel alone, became increasingly fitted to 
 be the recipient of the Incarnation. 
 
 2. The O.T. is evidently intended to be of 
 spiritual help to ourselves, (i.) It is for the 
 most part history, in which principles are 
 illustrated. No single person, for example, 
 is depicted as faultless, but, however good and 
 great he is, when he sins, his sin bears the fruit 
 of sin, and punishment follows in some form. 
 On the other hand, it is easy to trace out in every 
 instance the effect of good actions, and, in 
 particular, good motives, upon the destiny of 
 individuals and peoples. Naturally the reader 
 will make a great mistake in his perception of 
 these principles, and his perception of their 
 results, if he judges the actions and words of 
 the various persons by one and the same 
 standard. ITe must allow for the public opinion 
 
OLIVE] 
 
 347 
 
 [ON 
 
 of the time of a Jael or a Jephthah, or even of 
 an Elijah and a Jehu ; he must endeavour to 
 appreciate the sense of tribal and family unity 
 which involved all the members in the sin and 
 the punishment ; he must understand the fury 
 of the oppressed against the oppressor, though 
 as a follower of Christ he himself has learned 
 higher methods of prayer than Imprecatory 
 Psalms. 
 
 (ii.) But the Christian reader of the O.T. 
 will pain more than a clearer insight into eternal 
 principles, and illustrations of their application. 
 He will find much direct spiritual help. The 
 lives of the saints recorded there for saints 
 many of them were, in spite of their comparative 
 ignorance of the higher revelation of God's 
 will will yield him encouragement, and will 
 bring him to his knees in humility and shame 
 that with his greater advantages he comes so 
 far short of them. He will glory in the Hope 
 of social perfection set before him in the Latter 
 Prophets, a Hope which has been fulfilled but 
 partially as yet in the coming of Messiah for 
 the work of Messiah has been only begun. 
 Above all, he will try to enter into the spirit 
 of the Psalms, written as these were by men 
 who evidently had very close communion with 
 God, and had made great progress in spiritual 
 life. No devout Christian man can safely 
 neglect prayerful study of the O.T., however 
 much he reads the N.T. 
 
 Olive. The olive tree is first named in 
 Gen. 8.11, Noah's dove returning with an olive 
 leaf. The tree was a conspicuous feature of the 
 Holy Land when the Israelites took possession 
 (Deut. 6.11 ); and is associated with the vine as a 
 source of profit (1 Sam. 8.14 ; 2 K. 5.26). The 
 fruit was gathered by beating or shaking the 
 tree (Deut. 24.20), provision being made as to 
 gleaners (Ex. 23.11). The oil was extracted by 
 beating, pressing, or treading the fruit (Ex.27. 20 ; 
 Joel 2.24 ; Mic. 6.15). The use of the olive- 
 wood is referred to in 1 K. 6.23 ; it is still 
 employed in Palestine for cabinet-work. So 
 familiar an object was naturally used symbolic- 
 ally. A righteous man is compared to the olive 
 on account of its freshness of appearance and its 
 fruitfulness (Ps. 52.8 ; Uos. 14.6), and his children 
 are described as olive branches (Ps. 128.3). 
 Eliphaz says of the wicked, " He shall cast off 
 his flower as the olive" (Job 15.33), referring to 
 the profusion with which the blossoms some- 
 times fall from the tree. The fruit of the olive 
 in its wild state is small and worthless ; it is made 
 plentiful and valuable by the grafting in of 
 scions from a good stock. Paul uses this fact with 
 striking force in showing the obligations of the 
 Gentiles to the true Israel (Rom. 11.17); it is 
 contrary to nature, he says, to graft a wild 
 scion upon a good stock. [On,.] 
 
 Olives, Mount of (or, Olivet, 2 Sam. 15.30 A.V. ; 
 Jets 1.12). A flattened and rounded ridge, rather 
 more than a mile long, on the east of Jerusalem 
 (Ezek. 11.23; Zech. 14.4), and separated from 
 it by the valley and gorge of the Kidron. It is 
 about 300 feet higher than the Temple Mount, 
 
 and gradually rises from the high level tract 
 north of the city, trending east and south to about 
 | mile south of the Haram, where the Kidron turns 
 east towards the Dead Sea. The ridge has four 
 summits (1) The Galilee, or, Viri GalilcBi (" men 
 of Galilee "), the traditional spot upon which the 
 angels stood and said, " Ye men of Galilee " (Acts 
 1.11) ; (2) the traditional " Mount of Ascension " ; 
 (3) the " prophets " from a singular catacomb 
 called " the prophets' tombs " ; (4) " the mount 
 of offence " from Solomon's idol-worship 
 (1 K. 11.7 ; 2 K. 23.13). The ridge was the 
 scene of David's flight from Absalom (2 Sam. 
 15.30, 16.1, 13). From it branches were ob- 
 tained to celebrate the Feast of Tabernacles after 
 the return from captivity (Neh. 8.15). It was 
 the scene of the triumphal entry of our Lord into 
 Jerusalem, by the road between summits (3) and 
 (4) ; of His last prophecy, and of His ascension, 
 from the east brow near Bethany (Matt. 26.30 ; 
 Mk. 14.26 ; Lk. 22.39 ; John 8.1 ; Matt. 21.1- 
 11; Mk. 11.1; Lk. 19.29,37; Matt. 24.3; 
 Mk. 13.3 ; Lk. 21.37, 24.50 ; Acts 1.12). 
 
 Olym'pas. A Christian at Rome whom Paul 
 salutes (Rom. 16.15). 
 
 O'mar. A grandson of Esau and a " duke " 
 of Kdom (Gen. 36.11, 15 ; 1 Ch. 1.36). 
 
 'mega. The last letter of the Greek alphabet 
 (Rev. 1.8, 11). 
 
 Omer. A dry measure equal to 5'1 pints 
 (Ex. 16.36). 
 
 Om 'ri. Worshipper of Jehovah : 1. A king of 
 Israel and father of Ahab. When Omri first 
 appears, about 890 B.C., in the sacred narrative 
 he is commander-in-chief under king Elah. On 
 the murder of the latter by Zimri, Omri was 
 proclaimed king by his soldiers. He attacked 
 Zimri at Tirzah, and took the city. Zimri 
 perished in the flames of the palace wherein he 
 had been holding his court as king of Israel. 
 Tibni and Joram challenged the supremacy 
 of Omri, and a civil war lasting four years 
 followed. Omri was successful, reigned for 
 six years at Tirzah, and then transferred his 
 residence to Samaria, 6 miles from Shechem, 
 where he reigned six years more. Omri made 
 a treaty with Benhadad I., king of Damascus, 
 surrendering to him some frontier cities, and 
 making provision for a resident Syrian colony 
 in Samaria. Omri married his son, Ahab, to 
 Jezebel, the daughter of an important Phoenician 
 prince, and in this way the evils of the Tyrian 
 form of Baal-worship were introduced into the 
 kingdom. Further, during the reign of Omri 
 Bethel remained the religious capital f the 
 country, where the calf-worship of Jeroboam 
 was continued. Micah, about 730 B.C., de- 
 nounced the policy and religion of Omri under 
 the name of " the statutes of Omri " (1 K. 
 16.15-26, 20.34 ; Mic. 6.16). 2. A grandson of 
 Benjamin (1 Ch. 7.8). 3. A descendant of 
 Judah (1 Ch. 9.4). 4. A chief of the tribe of 
 Issachar in the reign of David (1 Ch. 27.18). 
 
 On. A chief of a tribe of Keuben who took 
 part in a revolt against Moses (Num. 16.1). 
 
 On. Heliopolis, or city of the sun ; a city of 
 
ONAM] 
 
 34S 
 
 [OEPAH 
 
 Egypt where Joseph's father-in-law was priest 
 (Gen. 41.45,50, 46.20). It is identified with 
 Aven \Ezek. 30.17) and Bethshemesh (Jer. 43.13). 
 The site is about 10 miles north-east of Cairo. It 
 lay at no great distance from the land of Goshen. 
 " ' Cleopatra's needle ' was originally one of 
 the numerous obelisks erected in front of the 
 temple there by Thothmes ra., 1503-1449 B.C." 
 (Driver). Tradition points to On as a place 
 where Mary and the infant Christ came when, 
 in fear of Herod, Joseph brought them into 
 Egypt. 
 
 O'nam. 1. A son of Shobal (Gen. 36.23 ; 
 1 Ch. 1.40). 2. The son of Jerahmeel (1 Ch. 
 2.26, 28). 
 
 'nan. The second son of Judah by the 
 Canaanitess, " the daughter of Shua " (Gen. 
 38.4; 1 Ch. 2.3). 
 
 One'simus. Profitable : a slave at Colossae 
 who ran away from his Christian master, came 
 to Rome, and was there converted to Christianity 
 by Paul. Onesimus thereafter returned to his 
 master, Philemon, bearing a letter to him from 
 Paul. This is now familiar to us as the Epistle 
 to Philemon. See also Col. 4.9. [PHILEMON.] 
 
 Onesi'phorus. Helpful : a Christian of 
 Ephesus from whom Paul received kindness 
 when in captivity at Rome (2 Tim. 1.16-18, 
 4.19). 
 
 Onions. The onions of Egypt, which the 
 Israelites remembered with longing (Num. 11.5), 
 are of a milder flavour than our own. Easterns 
 have always been very fond of this vegetable. 
 
 O'no. A town of Benjamin whose inhabit- 
 ants returned from captivity (1 Ch. 8.12 ; Ezra 
 2.33; Nth. 6.2, 7.37,11.35). 
 
 On'ycha. An ingredient of the "pure and 
 holy" perfume described in Ex. 30.34,35. 
 Onycha is supposed to be the operculum (or 
 covering to the mouth) of a species of mollusc 
 (Strombus) living in Eastern seas. The shells 
 are used in large quantities for making cameos, 
 and the operculum is pounded and mixed with 
 aromatic substances. It is the "odoriferous 
 shell " of the ancients. 
 
 Onyx. A precious stone so called from the 
 Greek onux, the nail, from its colour and veining. 
 It is first mentioned with the gold and bdellium 
 of the river Pison in Eden (Gen. 2.12, R.V. marg. 
 beryl). Onyx stones are prepared by David for 
 the Temple (1 Ch. 29.2). These were probably 
 stones of the marble onyx or onychus ; gems 
 would hardly be used in the exterior of the 
 Temple, though variegated marble might very 
 well be. The onyx of the high-priest's pectoral 
 was, no doubt, the gem onyx (Ex. 28.9-12, etc.), 
 which was specially adapted for engraving. 
 See also Job 28.16 ; Ezek. 28.13. 
 
 Ophel. Swelling mound : a portion of the east 
 hill of Jerusalem ; the low projecting shoulder 
 sloping a horizontal distance of 2000 feet from the 
 south wall of the Haram platform to the pool of 
 Siloam (2 Ch. 27.3, 33.14 ; Neh. 3.26, 27, 11.21). 
 
 O'phir. 1. A son of Joktan (Gen. 10.29; 
 1 Ch. 1.23). The name is understood to corre- 
 spond to some city, region, or tribe in Arabia. 
 
 2. Ophir, as a geographical name, has been 
 identified with three localities, the south part 
 of Arabia, India, and east coast of Africa. 
 The preponderance of evidence is in favour of 
 Arabia. It was the source whence David and 
 Solomon obtained gold and other valuable com- 
 modities (1 K. 9.23, 10.11, 22.48 ; 1 Ch. 29.4 ; 
 2 Ch. 8.18, 9.10; Job 22.24, 28.16; Ps. 45.9; 
 Isai. 13.12). 
 
 Oph'ni. The most northerly town of Benja- 
 min (Josh. 18.24). 
 
 Oph'rah. (?) Hind : K A frontier town of 
 Benjamin, 4 miles east of Bethel (Josh. 18.23 ; 
 1 Sam. 13.17) ; perhaps the Ephraim to which 
 our Lord retired after the resurrection of 
 Lazarus (John 11.54). 2. A town of Manasssh ; 
 the residence and burial-place of Gideon (Judg. 
 6, 8.27, 32, 9.5). 3. The son of Meonothai 
 (1 Ch. 4.14). 
 
 Orator. The phrase, " eloquent orator," in 
 Isai. 3.3 is rightly rendered in R.V. " the skilful 
 enchanter." In Acts 24.1 " orator " represents 
 the professional title of Tertullus, the Roman 
 advocate retained by the Jews as prosecuting 
 counsel. 
 
 O'reb. Haven : 1. One of the chieftains of 
 the Midianile host which invaded Israel and was 
 defeated and driven back by Gideon (Judg. 7.25, 
 8.3; Ps. 83.11). Oreb was slain by the men 
 of Ephraim and his head brought to Gideon. 
 2. The rock Oreb, a sharp peak overlooking the 
 plain of Jordan ; where the Midianite chief 
 Oreb and his forces were intercepted when 
 fleeing from Gideon, and slain by the Ephraimites 
 ( Judg. 7.25 ; Isai. 10.26). See 1. 
 
 O'ren. A son of Jerahmeel (1 Ch. 2.25). 
 
 Organ (R.V. Pipe). The word occurs four 
 times in the O.T. (Gen. 4.21 ; Job 21.12, 30.31 ; 
 Ps. 150.4). The context points to a general 
 term for a wind-instrument as distinguished 
 from a " harp " or string instrument. 
 
 Ori'on. The constellation referred to in 
 Job 9.9, 38.31, and Amos 5.8 is that known to 
 us under the same name. 
 
 Ornaments. The inhabitants of Palestine 
 as of the East at the present day were devoted 
 to finery. Isaiah (3.18-23) describes the articles 
 worn by luxurious women in his day. Orna- 
 ments were lavishly displayed at festivals, 
 whether of a public or private character, par- 
 ticularly at weddings (Isai. 61.10 ; Jer. 2.32 ; 
 Hos. 2.13). In times of public mourning they 
 were laid aside (Ex. 33.4-6). The "earring" 
 of Gen. 24.22 should be " nose-ring." " Brace- 
 lets " of Gen. 38.18 should read "string"; 
 " bracelets " and " tablets " of Ex. 35.22 
 should be "brooches" and "armlets." 
 
 Or'nan. A Jebusite prince whose thrashing- 
 floor was purchased by David for an altar 
 (1 Ch. 21.15-25; 2 Ch. 3.1). In 2 Sam. 
 24.18-24 the name is Araunah (which see). 
 
 Or'pah. Orpah and Ruth married brothers, 
 men of Bethlehem-judah, sojourning in Moab. 
 When the husbands died, Orpah remained in 
 Moab, while Ruth returned with her mother- 
 in-law (Ruth 1.4, 14). 
 
OSEE] 
 
 349 
 
 [OZNITES 
 
 Osee (R.V. Eosea). (Rom. 9.25). 
 
 Oshe'a (R.V. Hoshea). Deliverance (Num. 
 13.8, 16) : the original name of JOSHUA 
 (Jehovah is deliverer), 
 
 Osnapper. [ASNAPPER.] 
 
 Ospray. One of the birds it, was forbidden 
 to eat (Lev. 11.13 ; Deut. 14.12). It is found 
 chiefly in the north of Palestine, especially 
 resorting to the shores of the Bay of Acre and 
 the streams flowing into it. It feeds upon 
 fish. [EAGLE.] 
 
 Ossifrage (R.V. Gier Easle). The bird so 
 called in Lev. 11.13 and Deut. 14.12 is the 
 lammergeier or bearded vulture. It is about 
 3 feet in length and its expanse of wing over 
 9 feet. [EAOLE.] 
 
 Ostrich. The bird is twice referred to in 
 the A.V. In Job 39.13-18 there is a vivid 
 picture of its pride of speed qualified by 
 stupidity and cruelty towards its eggs and young 
 ones ; its proverbial cruelty is noted also in 
 Lam. 4.3. In addition to these passages the 
 R.V. substitutes " ostrich " for " owl " among 
 unclean birds (Lev. 11.16; Deut. 14.15), and 
 as a creature dwelling in the desolation of the 
 desert (Job 30.29; /sat. 13.21, 34.13, 43.20; 
 Jer. 50.39 ; Mic. 1.8). It is not true that the 
 ostrich ever hides its head in the sand, in the 
 belief that it is then invisible. Ostriches have 
 been known from time immemorial in Syria, 
 Arabia, and Mesopotamia. 
 
 Oth'ni. The son of Shemaiah (1 Ch. 26.7). 
 
 Othni'el. The son of Kenaz of Judah 
 (Josh. 15.17) ; and the younger brother of 
 Caleb (Judg. 1.13), whose daughter, Achsah, he 
 received in marriage as a reward for taking 
 Kirjath-sepher ( Judg. 3.9 ; 1 Ch. 4.13). The mar- 
 riage of an uncle with his niece is not expressly 
 prohibited by the Levitical law (Lev. 18.12, 
 20.19). Othniel was the first Judge of Israel 
 after Joshua. He delivered the land from the 
 oppression which it had suffered at the hands 
 of the king of Mesopotamia. 
 
 Ouch. Properly Nouch. An ornament set 
 with jewels. So on each shoulder of the high- 
 priest's ephod (Ex. 28.11,12; 39.6, 7) ; also used 
 of the gold casing of the jewels on his breast- 
 plate (Ex. 28.13). 
 
 Oven. Public ovens are common in the 
 East, the inhabitants of every dozen houses or 
 so building one for their general use. The oven 
 is often, in size and shape, much like a beehive, 
 constructed of well -baked bricks, cemented 
 together with lime mixed with a good deal of 
 salt. The space left open for baking is about 
 3 feet in diameter and the aperture barely 
 9 inches square. The oven is first filled with 
 brambles, brushwood, or dried herbage (Matt. 
 6.30). These are burned, and when the oven is 
 sufficiently heated the hot cinders and ashes 
 
 are swept with a birch-broom to the sides. 
 A wet cloth is quickly placed over the centre 
 of the oven, the thin cakes of flour are de- 
 posited on this, the door of the oven is closed 
 with a large stone, and in ten minutes the bread 
 is ready. In the earliest times each household 
 possessed a portable oven, similar to above 
 (Ex. 8.3), and it was only on occasions of famine 
 that the same oven sufficed for several families 
 (Lev. 26.26). Another sort of oven was a 
 shallow earthen vessel, placed on the ground 
 or floor, with a fire beneath. 
 
 OwL The "great owl" (Lev. 11.17; Dent. 
 14.16 ; Isai. 34.15) of Palestine is the Egyptian 
 eagle owl, and is almost confined to Egypt and 
 Palestine. It is a large bird, nearly 2 feet long, 
 haunting ruins and the desolate wilderness. 
 In the latter case it nests in burrows. The 
 " little owl " of Palestine is very common there. 
 It is a great favourite with the Arabs, says 
 Mr. H. Chichester Hart (Animals of the Bible), 
 " being regarded as a lucky species, and one 
 friendly to man. . . . Neither ruin nor tomb 
 of pretension will easily be found without one. 
 Around the villages and in the olive gardens it 
 is always to be met with, and as regularly as 
 the sun sets its musical melancholy note is 
 almost sure to be heard, no matter where the 
 traveller pitches his tent. As it cries, it bows 
 and sways itself in a most grotesquely weird 
 fashion, and, as it is quite tame, it admits of a 
 close study of its amusing ways." The " little 
 owl" of Palestine (Lev. 11.17; Deut. 14.16) 
 is closely allied to the " little owl " of Europe, 
 but is smaller and of a paler colour (Job 
 30.29; Ps. 102.6; Isai. 34.14; Jer. 50.39 ; Mic. 
 1.8). 
 
 Ox, Oxen. Oxen, among the Israelites, 
 performed all those agricultural duties which 
 horses do with us. They were used for plough- 
 ing (Deut. 22.10 ; 1 K. 19.19), for treading out 
 corn (Deut. 25.4; Eos. 10.11), for draught 
 purposes (Num. 7.3 ; 1 Sam. 6.7), and as 
 beasts of burden (1 Ch. 12.40). The flesh 
 was eaten (Deut. 14.4 ; 1 K. 1.9). They were 
 used for sacrifices (Gen. 15.9 ; 2 Ch. 29.33 ; 
 1 K. 8.63), and milk and butter were derived 
 from them. As a rule, oxen were allowed 
 to roam over the fields, but a certain selection 
 were fattened for the table and stall-fed by 
 the rich. Fat oxen are distinguished from 
 oxen out of the pastures in 1 K. 4.23. 
 
 O'zem. 1. A brother of David (1 Ch. 2.15). 
 2. A son of Jerahmeel (1 Ch. 2.25). 
 
 O'zias. An ancestor of our Lord (Matt. 
 1.8, 9). [UzziAH.] 
 
 Oz'ni. A son of Gad (Num. 26.16), called 
 Ezbon in Gen. 46.16. 
 
 Oz'nites. The descendants of Ozni (Num. 
 26.16) 
 
PAARAI] 
 
 350 
 
 [PALE3TINA, PALESTINE 
 
 Paa'raL "The Arbite." One of David's 
 heroes (2 Sam. 23.35). In 1 Ch. 11.37 he is 
 called Naarai. [ARBITE, THE.] 
 
 Pace. Found in 2 Sam. 6.13 only. The 
 word so translated is elsewhere rendered step, 
 and the distance would presumably be that of 
 one of our steps or paces, about 3 feet. 
 
 Pa'dan (R.V. Pad'dan). (?) Garden, field (Gen. 
 48.7). [PADAN-ARAM.] 
 
 Pa'dan-a'ram (R.V. Pad'dan-aram). - The field 
 of Aram, or Syria : the cultivated plateau in 
 the north of Mesopotamia which bordered on 
 the Euphrates, as distinguished from the hilly 
 country round about. Here Nahor anil Abraham 
 dwelt before journeying to Canaan (Gen. 
 25.20, 28.2,7, 31.18, 33.18, 35.9,26, 46.15). 
 [MESOPOTAMIA.] 
 
 Paddle. Found in Deut. 23.13 only. Pro- 
 perly " spaddle " or small spade. 
 
 Pa'don. Ransom', the ancestor of some 
 who returned with Zerubbabel (Ezra 2.44 ; 
 Neh. 7.47). 
 
 Pagi'el. The son of Ocran. He was the 
 chief prince of Asher at the time of the Exodus, 
 and was chosen to number the people (A'um. 
 1.13, 2.27, 7.72, 77, 10.26). 
 
 Pa'hath-moab. Governor of Moab : the chief 
 of one of the" principal tribes of Judah. His 
 posterity returned with Zerubbabel (Ezra 2.6, 
 10.30 ; Neh. 3.11, 7.11, 10.14). The singularity 
 of his name may be accounted for through the 
 migration of the sons of Shelah, son of Judah, 
 to Moab where they " had dominion " (1 Ch. 
 4.22). Compare the case of Elimelech (Ruth 
 1.2). Another party of the same family re- 
 turned with Ezra (Ezra 8.4). 
 
 Pai. Bleating : an unknown city of Edom 
 (1 Ch. 1.50 ; Pau in Gen. 36.39). It was the 
 capital of King Hadad. 
 
 Paint, Painting. The art of painting is 
 almost unrecognised in the O.T., but there is 
 a solitary reference ( Jer. 22.14) to its decorative 
 use in domestic architecture. Painting the 
 eyes is thrice referred to : in the case of 
 Jezebel (2 K. 9.30) where for "painted her 
 face " R.V. has " painted her eyes " ; in 
 Jer. 4.30, where for " rentest thy face with 
 painting " R.V. " enlargest [marg. Heb. 
 rendest] thine eyes with paint " ; and in Ezek. 
 23.40. Generally the eyebrows and both 
 eyelids were painted with stibium or antimony. 
 In modern Egypt kohl is used for this purpose. 
 It is made of the smoke-black of burned 
 almond-shells, or of an aromatic resin called 
 liban. The custom has been handed down in 
 Egypt intact through four or five millenniums, 
 for ancient paintings and sculptures exhibit 
 it, and even kohl vessels, with the probes and 
 the remains of the black powder, have been 
 discovered in ancient tombs. The dye when 
 used was mixed with oil, and was kept in small 
 jars of horn. Thf> prob* with which it was 
 
 applied was a small blunt bodkin of wood 
 or ivory. The process of painting the eyes 
 is thus described by Chandler " A girl, 
 closing one of her eyes, took the two lashes 
 between the forefinger and the thumb of the 
 left hand, pulled them forward, and then 
 thrusting in at the external corner the probe 
 which had been dipped in the paint, and 
 extracting it again, the particles remained 
 within and were presently ranged round the 
 organ." The eyes were thus literally " put 
 in paint " and were " rent " open in the process. 
 A broad line was also drawn round the eye. 
 The result of the whole was an apparent 
 enlargement of the eye (Jer. 4.30). There is 
 nothing to show that henna [CAMPHIRE], now 
 used in the East to stain finger and toe nails, 
 was known to the Hebrews. 
 
 Palace. Eight Hebrew words are rendered 
 " palace " in the A.V. The English word is 
 thus applied not only to the king's dwelling 
 but also to a stronghold (Ezra 6.2 ; Neh. 1.1), 
 a temple (1 Ch. 29.1), or even the abode of a 
 wealthy person (Ps. 45.8). In the N.T. the 
 word is especially applied to the residence of 
 the Roman governor, the palace built by 
 Herod referred to as the praetorium (Mk. 
 15.16). It is also used of the high-priest's 
 palace (John 18.15). In Phil. 1.13 "palace" 
 should be altered with the R.V. to " praetorian 
 guard." David's palace was built by the aid of 
 artisans whom Hiram, king of Tyre, supplied 
 (2 Sam. 5.11). The more imposing palace built 
 by Solomon is described in 1 K. 5.8. There are 
 allusions to the treasures found in the king's 
 house or palace (1 K. 14.26, 15.18 ; 2 K. 14.14, 
 etc.) ; and (Ezra 6.2) to a roll or record found 
 in the palace at Ecbatana. 
 
 Pa'laL A judge : the son of Uzzai appointed 
 to help in the restoration of the walls of Jeru- 
 salem in the time of Nehemiah (Neh. 3.25). 
 
 Palanquin. Cant. 3.9, R.V., where the 
 R.V. marg. has "car of state." Probably a 
 sumptuous litter. 
 
 Palesti'na, Palestine. The Philistine land: 
 properly, the district of the Holy Land inhabited 
 by the Philistines. It was on the west coast of 
 Canaan, reaching from the River of Egypt, a 
 little south of Gaza, to Joppa. The word in 
 these forms occurs but four times, being rendered 
 elsewhere by the terms Philistia or Philistines 
 (Ex. 15.14 ; Isai. 14.29, 31 ; Joel 3.4). [PHTLISTIA, 
 PHILISTINES.] In its modern sense, Western 
 Palestine included that part of Syria between 
 the Jordan Valley and the Dead Sea and the 
 eastern coast of the Mediterranean. Eastern 
 Palestine ran out to the Syrian desert The 
 northern boundary was a line drawn from a 
 few miles south of Tyre to Dan, and thence 
 along the foot of Mount Hermon eastward to 
 the desert. The southern boundary was the 
 " hrnnk of Egypt." th<> W:v1v -l-Arish, a winter 
 
PALESTINA, PALESTINE] 
 
 351 
 
 [PALESTINA, PALESTINE 
 
 torrent which carries the waters of the Negeb 
 into the Mediterranean, at a point about 40 
 miles south of Gaza. The distance from Dan 
 in the north to Beersheba in the south is 143 
 miles. The length of Western Palestine is given 
 as about 1 40 miles ; its average breadth from 
 Jordan to the Mediterranean about 40. 
 
 The main geographical features of the country 
 are the fertile plain stretching from north to 
 south along the shore of the Mediterranean ; 
 the Shephelah, or hilly lowland, in both the 
 northern and the southern parts of the 
 country ; the mountainous interior, likewise 
 stretching the whole length of the country 
 from north to south; the Jordan Valley, con- 
 taining the river Jordan, Lakes Merom, 
 Tiberias, and the intensely salt Dead Sea ; the 
 Negeb, or Southern, dry land, south of Judaea ; 
 and the Wilderness of Zin, known also as the 
 Arabah, the scene of the last year of the 
 " wanderings " of the Israelites. 
 
 The coast plain extended southwards from 
 the Phoenician frontier to Mount Carmel, a 
 bold promontory jutting into the sea, then 
 along the flowery vale of Sharon, still im- 
 mensely fertile when its covering of sand is dug 
 through ; lastly, the Philistine plain stretched 
 inland in a series of low hills (the Shepholah) 
 to the foot of the Judaean mountains (1 Ch. 
 7.28; Jer. 17.20; Zech. 7.7). 
 
 The Galilean highlands (Mountains of Naph- 
 tali) are composed of flat-topped limestone, 
 deeply indented and scarred with clefts and 
 precipices. Between these hills and the moun- 
 tains of Samaria lies the famous Valley of 
 Jezreel, triangular in shape, and about 15 miles 
 long [ARMAGEDDON, ESDKAELON], its base being 
 against the eastern hills and its apex near the sea 
 at the foot of Mount Carmel and near the mouth 
 of the river Kishon (Judg. 5.21). This valley 
 was the great historic battlefield of Palestine, 
 the scene of many decisive encounters. [BARAK, 
 GIDEON, SAUL, DAVID, MEGIDDO, JOSIAH.] 
 Dominating this famous valley and plain are 
 the heights of Tabor and Gilboa, and amongst 
 its towns were Slmnem, Endor, Cana, Nain, 
 Nazareth. South of the Valley of Jezreel is the 
 range of hills called Mount Ephraim. Amidst 
 these hills of Samaria are many fertile valleys, 
 notably the vale of Shechem, between Ebal and 
 Gerizim. The chief towns of this district were 
 Samaria, Tirzah, Bethel, and Shiloh. Still to the 
 southward are the hills of Judaea. Rugged and 
 precipitous, they form a position of extreme 
 security and strength, a fitting site for the 
 fortress - sanctuary of Jerusalem. Southward 
 of the Holy City the hill-country continues to 
 Beuiilehem and to Hebron (or Kirjath- arba), 
 one of the most ancient cities in the world. 
 Here, at Mamre, Abraham conversed with angels. 
 Here, too, at Machpelah, one of the Bible sites 
 that is certainly known, he was buried. Twenty- 
 five miles farther south at Beersheba the hills 
 sink into the desert, the natural boundary of the 
 land. 
 
 The Wilderness of Judah (Judq. 1.16) is a 
 
 of exceedingly wild land, south and east of 
 Jerusalem, and extending along the western 
 side of the Dead Sea. Here the rugged and pre- 
 cipitous rocks abound in caverns, occupied with 
 a few petty wandering tribes in search of the 
 scant pasturage. Wild goats and " conies " are 
 to be found in this desolate region. It was the 
 scene of David's wanderings, and, at En-gedi, of 
 his memorable meeting with Saul. 
 
 The Valley of the Jordan is a narrow, level 
 plain, 65 miles long, formed of alluvial deposit 
 on which tropical vegetation flourishes. In 
 April the melting snows cause the Jordan to 
 overflow its banks and the low-lying lands near 
 by, dislodging wild animals from their lairs, and 
 forcing them to the higher country. The sinu- 
 osity of the Jordan is so great that its length is 
 three times that of the valley through which it 
 runs. 
 
 The Salt Sea (the name " Dead Sea " is not 
 found earlier than the second century A.D.) is 
 16 miles from Jerusalem. It is overhung on 
 all sides by desolate and barren mountains. The 
 water of this salt lake is so intensely bitter that 
 no form of organised life can survive in it. 
 Though it receives the waters of the Jordan and 
 many other streams, yet its great depth (1292 feet 
 below the level of the Mediterranean) gives it a 
 temperature so high that evaporation proceeds 
 at an enormous rate. It is called in Scripture 
 the "Sea of the Plain" (Deut. 4.49; 2 K. 
 14.25), the " Salt Sea " (Deut. 3.17 ; Josh. 3.16, 
 12.3), and the " East Sea " (Ezek. 47.18 ; Joel 
 2.20 ; Zech. 14.8) ; and by the Arabs, Ba.hr Lut, 
 the " Lake of Lot." 
 
 The Lake of Tiberias (Bohr Tubariyeh), called 
 also Sea of Galilee, Lake of Gennesaret, and 
 Chinnereth, lies 682 feet below the Mediterranean. 
 It is over 12 miles in length and 7J miles in 
 breadth, the course of the turbid Jordan being 
 clearly defined far into its beautifully clear 
 waters. Owing to its position, sheltered on all 
 sides by hills and lying so deep, the heat is in- 
 tense during the day, and violent storms are 
 caused when evening brings a rapid fall in tem- 
 perature. The lake abounds in fish. 
 
 Lake Merom (Baheiret el-Huleh) lies also on 
 the course of the Jordan, nearer its source than 
 the Sea of Galilee, and its surface is nearly 700 
 feet higher than that lake, being 7 feet above 
 the level of the ocean. It is 7 miles long, and 
 narrows considerably towards its outlet into 
 the Jordan, while its northern shore is sur- 
 rounded with marshes, filled with a dense mass 
 of rank vegetation, the shelter of numerous 
 wild creatures. [MEROM.] 
 
 The Mountains and High Lands of Palestine 
 are a continuation of the Lebanon range, Mount 
 Hermon being 91GO feet high. Mount Safed 
 (2773 feet), midway between Lakes Merom and 
 'Tiberias, attracts attention in the north, not 
 so much because of its height as because it is 
 surrounded by such deep valleys. The ancient 
 town that surmounts it is supposed to have 
 been the "city sot on a hill" referred to by 
 the Saviour in the Sermon on the Mount, 
 
PALESTINA, PALESTINE] 
 
 352 
 
 [PALESTINA, PALESTINE 
 
 Jebel Jermak, to the west of Safed, is a forest- 
 clad eminence 3934 feet above the sea, the 
 highest mountain in Palestine proper. Tabor 
 (Jebel el-Tor), 1890 feet, is one of the most 
 striking objects in Palestine. Its north-western 
 side overlooks the vale of Nazareth. Carmel is 
 a chain of hills extending from the coast inland 
 for 15 miles. The highest point of the chain 
 is 1750 feet above the Mediterranean. The 
 northern aspect is abrupt and steep, while the 
 southern has numerous spurs sloping towards 
 the coast. 
 
 Conspicuous in Samaria are Mounts Ebal and 
 Gerizim (Jebel Eslamizeh and Jebel et-Tor), 
 rising opposite to each other to a height of about 
 3000 feet, with a narrow but very fertile valley 
 between, at the narrowest part of which lies 
 Shechem, now Ps 7 ablus. 
 
 The Tablelands of Judaea are a continuation 
 of the heights of Samaria. Though there are no 
 outstanding mountains, yet the general level of 
 the hilltops above the sea is 1500 feet. 
 
 The Hot Springs of Palestine indicate that 
 volcanic action has not ceased there, though 
 indeed frequent earthquakes render such evi- 
 dence superfluous. These springs are to be found 
 from the head of the Dead Sea along the valley 
 of the Jordan northward to Tiberias, where the 
 Romans had built many favourite baths. The 
 water is too hot for the hand to bear, a tempera- 
 ture of 144* having been observed at the surface 
 of the ground. Further evidence of the volcanic 
 character of this region is seen in the extensive 
 lava and sulphur deposits, especially on the 
 west coast of the Dead Sea and around the foot 
 of Mount Safed, where are traces of two extinct 
 volcanoes. Palestine has always been subject 
 to earthquakes (Amos 1.1 ; Zech. 14.5). 
 
 Palestine is fairly well watered. Though many 
 of its streams are periodical, yet a number of 
 wells and springs, especially in the higher moun- 
 tains, compensate for the absence of perennial 
 streams. The distribution of the supply, however, 
 is irregular, and some districts, notably the 
 Judsean desert and the low hill-country near the 
 coast, come very badly off. But in many spots 
 where water is deficient, compensation comes 
 in the form of very heavy dews. The rivers are 
 few, and, with the exception of the Jordan, of 
 little importance. After Jordan the chief is the 
 Leontes (Nahr Litany), which rises in the north 
 and discharges into the Mediterranean about 
 5 miles above Tyre (es-Sur), The Brook 
 Kishon (Nahr el-Mukutta) enters the Mediter- 
 ranean north of Mount Carmel. The Shihor ( Wady 
 el-Arish), or Brook of Egypt, rises in the hills 
 in the north of the Sinai tic Peninsula, and flows 
 into the Mediterranean at the extreme south 
 of Palestine. Besides these, there are several 
 streams on the east of Jordan, which do not con- 
 cern us here (but see JORDAN), and numerous 
 wadys, full only in winter or after heavy rains, 
 at other times mere dry, rocky ravines. 
 
 The climate of Palestine is very variable. The 
 mean temperature of the coastal region is 70, 
 the extremes being 50 and 85. The higher 
 
 lands are cooler, Jerusalem having a mean tem- 
 perature of 62, while the extremes are much 
 greater. Frost and snow sometimes occur, 
 but do not last long. In the Jordan valley it 
 is almost never cool, the thermometer seldom 
 registering lower than 77, while, on the other 
 hand, it sometimes rises to 130*. The heat of 
 Judaea and Galilee in summer-time is very 
 great, sometimes even fatal, especially in the 
 neighbourhood of Mount Tabor. (Compare the 
 story in 2 K. 4.18-20.) There is no rain in 
 Palestine during the summer, but in the evening 
 the dew, with a heavy mist, falls heavily and sud- 
 denly, so that the incautious traveller is wetted 
 to the skin. The early rains fall in the month 
 of Tisri (September-October), replenishing the 
 streams in the south (Ps. 126.4) ; the latter rains, 
 in the month Nisan (March-April). The former 
 quicken the seed, the latter fill the ears. It was 
 at the time of the Passover, when the Jordan 
 had been swollen by the latter rains, that the 
 Israelites crossed the Jordan (Josh. 3). 
 
 The east wind in Palestine is harmful to 
 vegetation, as, owing to its extreme dryness, it 
 carries off all moisture. It is dangerous also 
 from its long duration and strength (Ps. 48.7). 
 The west wind is beneficent, bringing rain after 
 drought. Like the east wind, the north wind is 
 cold and dry (Job 37.9-22), while that from the 
 south is tempestuous. 
 
 As the rainfall is only about 30 inches annually, 
 and distributed over only fifty days, the value of 
 the numerous wells in Palestine can be ap- 
 preciated. It was this fact that made them so 
 frequently a cause of strife, as between Abimelech 
 and Isaac (Gen. 26.18-21), while Moses com- 
 memorated God's bounty in giving wells without 
 the labour of digging (Devi. 6.11). [RAIN, 
 WELLS, WATER.] It is owing to the very dryness 
 of the air that the mirage so often appears to 
 disappoint the thirsty traveller with a vision of 
 cool water (Isai. 35.7). 
 
 The geological structure of Palestine is that of 
 a rugged mountainous tract of limestone of the 
 Jurassic and Cretaceous periods, forming the 
 southern offshoot of the Lebanon range, and 
 part of a vast deposit of limestone stretching far 
 beyond the limits of the Holy Land. Its most 
 exceptional feature is the straight crevasse (not 
 uncommon in limestone formations, but nowhere 
 of such extent and depth as here) extending north 
 and south, and containing the river Jordan, Lakes 
 Merom and Tiberias, and the Dead Sea. This 
 fissure is of volcanic origin, the result of an 
 upheaval from beneath, which has tilted the lime- 
 stone back on each side, leaving this huge split in 
 the earth, 2625 feet below the sea-level in its 
 deepest part. The upper stratum of limestone is 
 tolerably hard, varying in colour from white to 
 reddish brown, with few fossils, and abounding 
 in caverns. Its general surface has been formed 
 into gently rounded hills, crowded together and 
 separated by numerous clefts or ravines due to 
 erosion, and spreading out into narrow valleys 
 and plains of great fertility. But many of the 
 fissures, caused by loner-past earthquakes, ex- 
 
PALESTINA, PALESTINE] 
 
 353 
 
 [PALESTINA, PALESTINE 
 
 hibit the lower strata. This lower formation 
 differs entirely in character from the upper. The 
 huge fissures, cleaving the rock in all directions, 
 sometimes to a depth of 1000 feet, while only 
 30 to 40 feet wide, show it as a dark grey stone, 
 compact and solid, with abundant fillets of an ex- 
 tinct echinus, and forming the solid floor of the 
 country under its whole extent and both sides 
 of the Jordan. Subsequent to the violent up- 
 heaval which produced the rugged fissures and 
 abrupt, pointed landscape such as is seen on 
 the road from Jericho to Jerusalem, it was 
 pierced again, and large eruptions of lava were 
 forced up from beneath. This lava now appears 
 as basalt or trap, abundant in the mountains 
 north of Samaria. This basalt forms the cliSs 
 at the back of Tiberias, and to its disintegration 
 is due the black soil of the plain of Gennesaret 
 and neighbouring localities. In the neighbour- 
 hood of Safed are still to be found three ancient 
 craters, filled with water, and known as lakes 
 of El-Jish, Taiteba, and Delata. 
 
 of several kinds. The heron, bittern, lap whig, 
 osprey, owl, partridge, peacock, pigeon, dove, 
 quail, raven, stork, sparrow, are all to be found 
 there, some in great quantity. 
 
 Of the fishes of Palestine nearly half the total 
 number are peculiar to the Jordan, and belong 
 to genera that are chiefly African in type. There 
 are no fish in the Dead Sea, but the Lake of 
 Tiberias contains many varieties, the catching 
 of them forming an important industry. [FISH, 
 FISHING.] 
 
 Of the insects, bees, locusts, grasshoppers 
 are most abundant, the latter two often causing 
 great damage to the crops, and causing constant 
 terror to the husbandman. Though the flea is 
 only twice mentioned in the Bible (1 Sam. 24.14, 
 26.20) it is so abundant as to be a very serious 
 annoyance, especially about camping grounds 
 and in the inns. Flies also are another nuisance, 
 being a chief cause of the spreading of ophthal- 
 mia, so prevalent all over the East. The gad-fly, 
 horse-fly, and other stinging and blood-sucking 
 
 TABLE SHOWING THE ANCIENT DIVISIONS OP THE COUNTRY. 
 
 Canaanitish. 
 
 Israelitish. 
 
 
 Roman. 
 
 Sidonians . 
 Unknown . 
 
 Tribe of Asher (in Libanus) 1 
 Naphtali (north-west of the Lake of Tiberias) 
 
 \ 
 
 Upper Galilee 
 
 Perizzites . 
 
 Zebulun (west of the Lake of Tiberias) 
 Issachar (Plain of Esdraelon, Mount Tabor) 
 
 \ 
 
 Lower Galilee 
 
 Hivites . 
 
 Half tribe of Manasseh (Dora and Caesarea) 
 Ephraim (Shechem, Samaria) . 
 
 I 
 
 Samaria 
 
 Jebusites . 
 
 Benjamin (Jericho, Jerusalem) 
 
 
 
 Amorites, Hitlites 
 
 Judah (Hebron, Judaea Proper) 
 
 
 
 Philistines. 
 
 Simeon (south-west of Judah) . . 
 
 
 Judaea 
 
 ,, 
 
 Dan (Joppa) .... . 
 
 
 
 Moabites . 
 
 Reuben (Persea, Heshbon) 
 
 
 
 Ammonites, Gilead 
 
 Gad (Decapolis) ... 
 
 
 Persea 
 
 Kingdom of Bashan . 
 
 Half-tribe of Manasseh (Gaulanitis, Batanea) 
 
 
 
 With its wonderfully varied climate it might 
 be expected that the vegetable life of Palestine 
 would in like manner be widely varied. Wheat, 
 barley, millet, maize, beans, peas, and lentils 
 form the principal crops ; while oranges, citrons, 
 and lemons are largely grown and exported. 
 The principal trees are the palm, oak, tere- 
 binth, fig, olive, cypress, cedar, sycamore, 
 acacia, pine, and box. 
 
 Animal life is not very varied. Besides the 
 domesticated animals, such as the horse, the ox, 
 and the sheep and camels, asses and mules, the 
 animals of Palestine include several beasts of 
 prey, the chief of which are the lion (now 
 extinct), bear, leopard, wolf, hyaena, jackal, and 
 fox. The dog may also be almost considered a 
 wild creature, for he is tolerated only for his 
 services as scavenger. The crocodile still exists 
 in Palestine, as well as the wild boar, wild goat, 
 and numerous smaller creatures. 
 
 Song birds are rare, but birds of prey are very 
 numerous, the eagle, vulture, and hawks and kites 
 23 
 
 varieties are common in the valley of the 
 Jordan, and are exceedingly injurious to animals. 
 [BEE, FLY.] 
 
 An estimate of the population of Palestine 
 in O.T. times gives it at about five millions. At 
 the present day the population is considerably 
 under one million, probably between 600,000 
 and 700,000, chiefly Mohammedans, Christians, 
 and Jews, the Moslems being about four-fifths 
 of the whole; the Jews, numbering about 
 100,000, live chiefly in and around Jerusalem. 
 Arabic is the common language. 
 
 According to race the population consists of 
 Syrians, Greeks, Arabs, Turks, Jews, and Franks. 
 The Arabian is again of two classes, settled and 
 wandering. The latter, known as Bedouin, are 
 divided into tribes. These live by cattle-rearing 
 and thieving, and there is constant hostility 
 between them and the other inhabitants. 
 
 The Bible has many names for the country 
 known to us as Palestine. In the time of the 
 Patriarchs and Judges it was called the " Land 
 
PALESTINA, PALESTINE] 
 
 354 
 
 [PALESTINA, PALESTINE 
 
 of Canaan," " the land of the Hebrews " (Gen. 
 40.15), perhaps the "land of the Hittites " 
 ( Josh. 1.4), the " land of Israel " (1 Sam. 13.19, 
 etc.), a term applied to the whole country west 
 of the Jordan, and not to that portion of it com- 
 prising the kingdom of Israel. Hosea's lofty 
 title was the "land of Jehovah" (Eos. 9.3), 
 while Zechariah (2.12) calls it the " Holy Land," 
 a title which is said to have been bestowed upon 
 the country even before the time of the Hebrews. 
 In Daniel it is " the glorious land" (Dan. 11.41), 
 in Amos the " land of the Amorite " (Amos 2.10), 
 "the Land" only in Ruth 1.1; Jer. 22.27; 
 Lie. 4.25. From the Captivity to the birth 
 of Jesus the name Judoea had been applied to 
 the whole country (Matt. 19.1 ; Mk. 10.1). In 
 Hebrews Palestine is spoken of as the " Land of 
 Promise " (Heb. 11.9). 
 
 Ephraim and half of Manasseh the middle 
 districts (Samaria) ; while Judah, Benjamin, 
 Dan, and Simeon possessed the southern 
 portion (Judaea). But Dan, finding a difficulty 
 in overcoming the Philistines of the sea-coast, 
 afterwards divided, and sent a colony north, 
 which settled in the country to the west of 
 Mount Hermon and south of the Lebanon range. 
 The remaining tribes, Reuben, Gad, and half 
 of Manasseh were given possessions east of the 
 Jordan, the Lake of Galilee, and the Dead Sea, 
 districts not generally included in Palestine by 
 modern geographers. See each tribe separately. 
 After the extension and consolidation of the 
 kingdom of Solomon, the distinction of the 
 tribes became less marked, and there was 
 more of a national feeling and sentiment, 
 tending towards the obliteration of sectional 
 
 OP HEROD THE GREAT, 37 B.C. TO 4 B.C. 
 
 Judaea, Samaria, Idumoea. 
 
 Galilee, Peraea Proper. 
 
 Trachonitis and Ituroea. 
 
 Revenue 400 talents (about one 
 million sterling). 
 
 These he bequeaths to his son, 
 
 Archelaus, who is banished, and 
 the province is put under 
 procurators Coponius, 69 
 A.D. ; Ambibulus, 9-12 A.D. ; 
 Rufus, 12-15 A.D. ; Valerius 
 Gratus, 15-27 A.D. 
 
 Pontius Pilate, 26-36 A.D. 
 
 Revenue 200 talents. 
 
 These he bequeaths to his son, 
 
 Herod Antipas, who beheaded 
 John. 
 
 Herod Antipas was banished 
 39 A.IX 
 
 Revenue 100 talents. 
 
 These he bequeaths to his son, 
 Philip Herod (Lk. 3.1). 
 
 Philip dies 34 A.D. 
 
 Herod Agrippa i. (grandson of Herod) (Acts 12) made king of the whole 41-44 A.D. 
 
 Procurators : Fadus, 44 - ? 
 A.D. ; Alexander, ?-48 A.D. ; 
 Ventidius, 48-52 A.D. ; Felix, 
 52, 53-60 A.D.; Festus, 
 60-62 A.D. 
 
 Agrippa I.), tetrarch of Chalc 
 Trachonitis and part of Galile 
 him at Coesarea (Acts 25.26). 
 
 Agrippa n. (son of Herod 
 s, 50 A.D., is made tetrarch of 
 B, 53 A.D. Paul pleads before 
 
 The political history of the country shows us 
 that there were in the early times ten nations 
 of Canaanites, afterwards reduced to seven 
 (Gen. 15.18-21; Lent. 7-1). The most powerful 
 of these were the Amorites (Gen. 15.10), who 
 sometimes even gave their name to the whole. 
 At the time of the entry of the Hebrews the 
 country was occupied by the Philistines, Moab- 
 ites, Midianites, Amorites, Ammonites, Amalek- 
 ites, and Edomites. Joshua divided the country 
 into twelve parts, one for each tribe, including 
 Ephraim and Manasseh, the tribe of Levi 
 having its portion scattered among the rest. 
 Asher, Naphtali, Zebulun, and Issachar were 
 given the northern portion of the land (Galilee) ; 
 
 boundaries and interests. This tendency was 
 hastened by the king's action in redividing 
 the land into twelve new provinces or governor- 
 ships as related in 1 K. 4.7-19. 
 
 The death of Solomon resulted in the rupture 
 of the kingdom. Ten tribes revolted from his 
 son Rehoboam and founded the separate 
 kingdom of Israel, with Shechem (afterwards 
 Tirzah and Samaria) as their capital (1 K. 15.33, 
 16.23, 24). The loyal tribes of Benjamin and 
 Judah, with parts of Dan and Simeon, formed 
 the kingdom of Judah, with Jerusalem for 
 capital. These two kingdoms lasted side by 
 side for 220 years, until the overthrew/ of 
 Israel by the Assyrians under Sargon. One 
 
PALLU] 
 
 355 
 
 [PAMPHYLIA 
 
 hundred and twenty years later the Babylonians 
 conquered Judah, and Nebuchadnezzar carried 
 the people into captivity, where they remained 
 until permitted to return by Cyrus the Persian, 
 who had in turn overthrown Babylonia. 
 
 Under Cyrus, Palestine formed part of the 
 Persian province of Syria, until the conquests 
 of Alexander and the division of his empire 
 between his generals resulted in Palestine 
 becoming subject in turn to the rulers of Egypt 
 and Syria until the final conquest by the 
 Romans. [See ISRAEL, JUDAH, etc., for detailed 
 history.] 
 
 Under the Romans Palestine was divided into 
 the districts of Galilee, Samaria and Judaea, 
 and Idumsea, with Peraea, Trachonitis, and 
 Iturcea, beyond the Jordan. At the birth of 
 our Saviour the whole of these constituted 
 the Dominions of Herod the Great, who ruled 
 from 37 B.C. to 4 B.C. [HEROD.] It belonged 
 to the Roman Empire in its western or 
 eastern form till 636 A.D., when the Moham- 
 medan Arabs conquered it, and though the 
 Crusaders held temporary possession for nearly 
 two centuries, 1100 to 1271, it has belonged to 
 Mohammedans since. The Turks seized it in 
 1518. In the time of the Crusades episcopal sees 
 were established in the principal cities. 
 
 At the present time the whole country is 
 divided into the pachaliks, or governments, 
 of Beyrout, Damascus, and Jerusalem. Several 
 societies of Jews throughout the world, called 
 Zionists, are feeling their way towards the 
 purchase of Palestine with a view to the estab- 
 lishment of their ancient nation and faith in 
 the land of their fathers. 
 
 Pal'lu. (?) Distinguished : second son of 
 Reuben and founder of the Palluites (Ex. 6.14 ; 
 Num. 26.5, 8 ; 1 Ch. 5.3). In Gen. 46.9 he is 
 called Phallu. 
 
 Pal'luites. Descendants of Pattu (Num. 26.5). 
 
 Palm, Palm Tree. It is with the date-palm 
 that the Bible student is concerned a tree 
 the value of which in Egypt, Palestine, and 
 Arabia can hardly be overestimated. The 
 Arabs have a saying that the palm has as many 
 uses as there are days in the year. Its date 
 was and is a familiar article of food. The 
 palm trees of Elim are noted in the wilderness 
 journey of the children of Israel (Ex. 15.27 ; 
 Num. 33.9). The booths at the Feast of Taber- 
 nacles were to be made in part of palms (Lev. 
 23.40). Jericho was distinguished as the " City 
 of palm trees " (Deut. 34.3 ; 2 Ch. 28.15 ; and 
 cf. Judg. 1.16, 3.13). Deborah dwelt under 
 a palm tree associated with her name 
 (Judg. 4.5). Palms appeared in the carved 
 work of Solomon's temple (1 K. 6.29, etc.). 
 For names suggested by the palm, see TAMAR, 
 BAAL-TAMAR, HAZEZON-TAMAR. Our Lord, at 
 His entry into Jerusalem, was met by people 
 bearing palms (John 12.13). The symbolical 
 references to the tree show that the palm was 
 formerly, as now, considered the embodiment of 
 grace and beauty. Its lofty stature is referred to 
 in the Song of Solomon (7.7) and the Book of 
 
 Jeremiah (10.5) ; its verdure and fruitfulness 
 even to old age in Pa. 92.12, 14. 
 
 Palmer-worm. In Hebrew, gazam, the shaver. 
 A caterpillar, probably one of the larval states 
 of the locust (Joel 1.4, 2.25 ; Amos 4.9). 
 [LOCUST.] 
 
 Palsy. A paralysis, of parts or of the 
 entire nervous system, brought about by some 
 mechanical injury, or disease of the brain, 
 spinal cord, or particular nerves. In some 
 cases the paralysis depends on temporary 
 causes capable of removal. But more fre- 
 quently a loss of function is involved, so that 
 the person who is said to be palsied is per- 
 manently disabled in some way, generally 
 by inability to move or help himself in any 
 way. That this was the case of the one who 
 was borne of four and brought to Christ at 
 Capernaum is evident (Matt. 9 ; Mk. 2 ; 
 Lk. 5), because the special term used by Luke 
 is the correct technical Greek word for pro- 
 nounced paralysis from disease. But it is 
 not necessary to assume that his disease was 
 the direct result of special sin, any more than 
 in the case of the impotent man at the pool 
 of Bethesda. The miraculous character of the 
 cure is shown by the rapidity with which it was 
 effected, so that the subject was not only freed 
 from his infirmity but his strength was restored, 
 and he was able to carry the mat on which he 
 lay. The case of the centurion's servant 
 was one of progressive paralysis, attended by 
 muscular spasms (Matt. 8.6 ; Lk. 7.2), in- 
 volving great pain as well as imminent danger 
 to life. Some have thought the impotent man 
 (John 5.2-9) and the woman mentioned by 
 Luke (13.11-17) to have been paralytic cases, 
 but there is little to support this view. 
 
 Pal'ti. Jehovah delivers : the son of Raphu, 
 a Benjamite, and one of the twelve spies (Num. 
 13.9). [PHALTI.] 
 
 Palti'el. God delivers : the son of Azzan, 
 and a prince of Issachar ; one of the appointed 
 twelve who divided the land of Canaan (Num. 
 34.26). [PHALTI, PHALTIEL.] 
 
 Pal'tite, The. One of David's mighty 
 men (2 Sam. 23.26), perhaps an inhabitant 
 of Beth-palet in the south of Judah (Josh. 
 15.27). In 1 Ch. 11.27, however, he is called 
 " the Pelonite " ; and also in 1 Ch. 27.10, where 
 he is spoken of as an Ephraimite and as captain 
 of 24,000 of David's soldiers. 
 
 Pamphylia. A Roman province in the south 
 of Asia Minor, having Cilicia to the east, Lycia 
 to the west, Pisidia to the north, and the 
 Mediterranean south of it. It was 80 miles 
 long and about 20 wide. The large island of 
 Cyprus lies opposite its coast, and the sea 
 between is called the Sea of Pamphylia (cf. 
 Acts 27.5). The country was of small 
 extent, including only a narrow strip of level 
 ground between the sea and the Taurus range. 
 In 74 A.D. Lycia was united to its government. 
 
 Its chief city, Perga, was near the river 
 Cestrus. Paul and Barnabas had sailed up the 
 river after crossing the sea from Cyprus. It 
 
PAN] 
 
 356 
 
 [PARABLE 
 
 was here that John Mark left them (Acts 13.13, 
 15.38). They preached there on the return 
 journey (14.25), and sailed from Attalia, also 
 in Pamphylia (14.26). 
 
 There were a good number of Jews in Pam- 
 phylia, and it is supposed that they had a syna- 
 gogue at Perga (Acts 2.10). [PERGA.] 
 
 Pan. Sometimes this word is used to denote 
 a shallow vessel of clay or metal, and sometimes 
 a pot or caldron. The shallow utensil is still 
 used by the Arabs for cooking their cakes of 
 meal rapidly ; the deeper pan was chiefly 
 employed in cooking meat, for which purpose it 
 was placed on three stones with the fire beneath. 
 Seven different Hebrew words are translated by 
 " pan " in the Authorized Version. But the 
 division given above indicate^ the chief and 
 most certain difference between the utensils 
 mentioned. [PoT.] 
 
 Pan'nag. An unknown balsam or spice or 
 food exported from Palestine to Tyre (EzeJc. 
 27.17). 
 
 Paper, Papyrus. The Egyptians at a very 
 early period used for a writing surface a material, 
 in some respects resembling paper, called papyrus. 
 This was derived from the stem of the papyrus- 
 reed, a plant common to the rivers and lakes of 
 Egypt and Palestine. The process of manu- 
 facture, though tedious, was easy. When the 
 outer skin or bark was taken off the reed, the 
 pith was sliced in thin layers. These were then 
 laid side by side on a table and carefully matched 
 and flatted together, the separated pieces ad- 
 hering together after being moistened with thin 
 glue and water and put under pressure. Each 
 sheet was composed of two layers, one in which 
 the slips ran horizontally, the other perpendicu- 
 lar. They were dried in the sun, the surfaces 
 polished, and were then ready to be written upon. 
 For letters and short documents a single sheet 
 was sufficient, but for a longer work the sheets 
 were glued together. 
 
 Isaiah (19.7), when he speaks of the " paper- 
 reed" (R.V. meadows), is referring to the growing 
 papyrus ; and the passage in 2 John 12 is a 
 reference to the writing material made from it. 
 Countless numbers of documents, private, official, 
 and literary, written upon papyrus, have been 
 discovered in Egypt in recent years, and have 
 thrown great light on the customs and the 
 languages of residents in Egypt from about 
 500 B.C. to GOO A.D. 
 
 Pa'phos. A town at the south-west ex- 
 tremity of Cyprus, and the scene of Saul's 
 encounter with Elymas the sorcerer, during 
 his first missionary tour (Acts 13.6). Paphos, 
 now Baffo, was a noted shrine for the worship 
 of Venus, or Aphrodite, who was said to have 
 risen from the sea at this place. It was the 
 scene of much profligacy amongst the crowds of 
 pilgrims who gathered to worship at her shrine. 
 An independent king, who was also the heredi- 
 tary high-priest of the temple of the goddess, 
 ruled the city and the western portion of the 
 island until the Romans occupied the island in 
 58 B.C. 
 
 Parable. A parable is a narrative, imagined 
 or true, told >for the purpose of imparting a 
 truth. It differs from the proverb in that the 
 picture presented is not so concentrated, but 
 contains more detail, and so requires less mental 
 effort to its understanding. It differs from the 
 allegory in that it illustrates persons in their 
 conduct and conversation, whereas the latter 
 personifies attributes and qualities themselves. 
 It differs again from the fable in limiting its 
 scope to the human and possible. In the O.T. 
 Jotham's story (Judg. 9.8-15) is rather a fable 
 than a parable, but Nathan's (2 Sam. 12.1-4) 
 and Joab's (14.5-7) are true examples. See also 
 the half-acted parable by the wounded prophet 
 (1 K. 20.39 f.). In Isai. 5.1-6 we have the semi- 
 parable of the vineyard, and in 28.24-28 of the 
 various operations in agriculture. 
 
 Our Lord's use of parables was quite in accord- 
 ance with the method of teaching given to the 
 people from Temple and synagogue. The scribes 
 and teachers of the Law made a large use of 
 parables and figures of speech to illustrate their 
 homilies. Such are the Haggadoth of the Rab- 
 binic books. The parable was an instrument of 
 education for those who were children either in 
 age or character. Thus the constant employ- 
 ment of parable in His ministry (Mk. 4.34) 
 served at once to illuminate His teaching, by 
 contact with common life and human interests, 
 to set forth the nature of His kingdom, and to 
 test the disposition of His hearers (Matt. 21.45 ; 
 Lk. 20.19). 
 
 The Saviour's Parables differ greatly from one 
 another. Some are short and easy ; others 
 longer and more difficult to understand. Some 
 teach a simple moral lesson, others a deep 
 spiritual truth. 
 
 Neander has thus classified the parables of our 
 Lord with reference to the truths taught in them, 
 and their connexion with His kingdom : 
 
 PARABLES ON THE PROGRESS OF THE KINGDOM 
 OF CHRIST. 
 
 1. The Sower, Matt. 13.3-8 ; Mk. 4.3-8 ; Lk. 
 8.5-8. 
 
 2. The Tares, M att. 13.24-30. 
 
 3. The Mustard-Seed, Matt. 13.31, 32 ; Mk. 
 4.30-32 ; Lk. 13.18, 19. 
 
 4. The Leaven, Matt. 13.33 ; Lk. 13.20, 21. 
 
 5. The Net, Matt. 13.47, 48. 
 
 MORAL REQUISITES FOR ENTERING THE KINGDOM 
 OF CHRIST. 
 
 (1) Anti-Pharisaic Parables, or Negative 
 Requisites. 
 
 6. The Lost Sheep, Matt. 18.12, 13 ; Lk. 15.4-6. 
 
 7. Lost Piece of Money, Lit. 15.8-10. 
 
 8. The Prodigal Son, Lk. 15.11-32. 
 
 9. Pharisee and Publican, Lk. 18.9-14. 
 
 10. Strife for the- first Place at Feasts, Lk 
 14.7-11. 
 
 (2) Positive Requisites. 
 
 11. The Two Sons, Matt. 21.28-30. 
 
 12. The Hidden Treasure, Matt. 13.44. 
 
PARABLE] 
 
 357 
 
 [PARADISE 
 
 13. The Pearl, Matt. 13.45, 46. 
 
 14. The Tower and the Warring King, Lk. 
 14.28-33. 
 
 15. The Wedding Garment, Matt. 22.11-14. 
 
 CALL TO ENTER THE KINGDOM OF CHRIST. 
 
 16. The Feast, Matt. 22.1-14 ; Lk. 14.16-24. 
 
 ACTIVITY IN THE KINGDOM OF CHRIST. 
 
 17. The Vine, John 15.1-8. 
 
 18. Wicked Vine-Dressers, Matt. 21.33-41 ; 
 
 Mk. 12.1-9 ; Lk. 20.9-16. 
 19. The Talents, Matt. 
 
 25.14-30; and the 
 
 (2) The right Use of worldly Possessions. 
 
 24. The Unjust Steward, Lk. 16.1-12. 
 
 25. The Rich Man and Lazarus, Lk. 16.19-31. 
 
 (3) The Christian Spirit under the Name of 
 Prudence. 
 
 26. The Ten Virgins, Matt. 25.1-13. 
 
 (4) Prayer. 
 
 27. The Importunate Widow, Lk. 18.1-8. 
 
 28. The Friend on his Journey, Lk. 11.5-10. 
 The following table shows the occurrence of 
 
 the parables in the gospels : 
 
 THE PARABLES OF OUR LORD IN THE GOSPELS. 
 
 Related in three Gospels 
 
 Matthew. 
 13.3-23 
 
 Mark. 
 43-20 
 
 Luke. 
 8 4-15 
 
 3 The Mustard-Seed 
 
 13.31, 32 
 
 4.30, 32 
 
 13 18 19 
 
 The Wicked Vine-Dressers 
 Related in two Gospels only 
 fThe Leaven 
 
 21.33-41 
 1333 
 
 12.1-9 
 
 20.9-16 
 1320 21 
 
 
 19.12, 14 
 
 
 15.3-7 
 
 Related in one Gospel only 
 Z The Tares . 
 
 13.24-30 
 13.44 
 
 .. 
 
 
 The Pearl of Great Price 
 ? The Draw-Net . . . 
 The Unforgiving Servant ..... 
 
 13.45, 46 
 13.47-50 
 18.23-35 
 20.1-16 
 
 
 
 
 The Two Sons 
 The Marriage of the King's Son .... 
 The Wedding Garment 
 The Ten Virgins 
 The Ten Talents 
 
 21.28-32 
 22.1-10 
 22.11-14 
 25.1-13 
 25.14-30 
 
 
 
 
 
 ? The Seed Growing Secretly .... 
 The Householder and his Servants 
 The Two Debtors 
 The Good Samaritan 
 
 
 4.26-29 
 13.34-37 
 
 7.41-43 
 
 10.25-37 
 
 The Friend at Midnight 
 The Rich Fool 
 The Stewards and their Absent Master 
 The Barren Fig-Tree 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 11.5-10 
 12.16-21 
 12.41-48 
 13.6-9 
 
 The Great Supper 
 The Lost Piece of Silver 
 
 
 
 
 
 14.16-24 
 15.8-10 
 
 
 
 
 15.11-32 
 
 The Dishonest Steward 
 The Rich Man and Lazarus .... 
 The Unprofitable Servant 
 The Judge and the Importunate Widow 
 The Pharisee and Publican .... 
 The Pounds 
 
 
 
 
 
 16.1-9 
 16,19-31 
 17.7-10 
 18.1-8 
 18.9-14 
 19.12-27 
 
 
 
 
 
 The Vine . . 
 
 
 John 15 1-8 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pounds, Lk. 19.12-27. 
 
 20. Barren Fig Tree, Lk. 13.6-9. 
 
 21. The Labourers, Matt. 20.1-16. 
 
 TEE TRUE SPIRIT OF THE KINGDOM OF CHRIST. 
 (1) Forgiveness. 
 
 22. Good Samaritan, Lk. 10.30-37. 
 
 23. Unforgiving Servant, Matt. 18.23-35 ; cf . 
 Lk. 7.41, 42. 
 
 Paraclete. [SPIRIT, HOLY.] 
 
 Paradise. The word is of Persian origin, mean- 
 ing a garden, park, or enclosure. It occurs in the 
 N.T. only, either as the place of the godly de- 
 parted spirits (Lk. 23 A3 ; 2 Cor. 12.4), or in its 
 full meaning (Rev. 2.7). The Hebrew word of 
 allied form is found in Neh. 2.8 of the " king's 
 forest " (R. V. marg., or, park) ; in Cant. 4.13 as " an 
 orchard " (R.V. marg., or, a paradise). [EDEN.] 
 
PARAH] 
 
 358 
 
 [PARTRIDGE 
 
 Pa 'rah. Ileift*: a town allotted to Ben- 
 jamin (Josh. 18.23). Its present name is Farah, 
 a little west of Jericho. 
 
 Pa'ran. Usually identified with the modern 
 El-Tih, the billy country and desert crossing 
 midway the peninsula of Sinai, from the Wady 
 Feirun on the south, northwards to Palestine. 
 Paran was the home of Ishmael (Gen. 21.21), 
 and the scene of the wanderings of the Israelites 
 (Num. 10.12, 12.10, 13.3,26; Deut. 1.1, 33.2; 
 Hob. 3.3). David dwelt here after the death of 
 Samuel (1 Sam. 25.1, if the text should not be 
 emended to Maon) ; and Hadad sought safety 
 in its fastnesses from Solomon (1 K. 11.18). 
 
 Par'bar. Lighted (by the sun) : a Persian 
 word, apparently the same as that translated 
 " suburbs " in the A.V., and " precincts " in 
 the K.V., of 2 K. 23.11*. A walled-in place west 
 of the Temple (1 Ch. 26.18, "the Precinct," 
 R.V. marg.) ; perhaps an open colonnade. 
 
 Parcel of ground. Parcel in Old English 
 signified a division, share, or portion. It is still 
 used as a law term. To parcel, was to divide 
 into portions (Gen. 33.19; Josh. 24.32; Ruth 
 4.3). 
 
 Parched corn. This was corn, gathered 
 while the unripe ears were still soft, roasted on 
 hot plates. Wheat or barley ears thus prepared 
 was a common article of diet in O.T. times, 
 and continues to be to this day in all Eastern 
 countries (Lev. 23.14 ; Josh. 5.11 ; Ruth 2.14 ; 
 1 Sam. 17.17 ; 2 Sam. 17.28). 
 
 Parched ground (/sat. 35.7). Better 
 " mirage," with the R.V. marg. 
 
 Parchment. A material for writing on, made 
 from the skins of calves, sheep, asses, goats, 
 pigs, and various wild animals. According to 
 Pliny, it derived its name from a king of Per- 
 gamum, Eumenes n., who reigned about 
 160 years before Christ. His ambition was to 
 create a great library that should compare 
 favourably with that of Alexandria in Egypt. 
 But the king of that country, jealous of his 
 rival, forbade the export of papyrus, and so 
 compelled Eumenes to fall back on the ancient 
 method, and use prepared skins. In the making 
 of parchment the skins are deprived of all hair, 
 flesh, fat, and excrescences and roughnesses 
 rubbed down with pumice. While still stretched 
 on the frame the skins are then gone over with 
 chalk and more rubbing until a smooth velvety 
 surface is produced, fit for its purpose. The 
 parchment is then allowed to dry slowly while 
 still stretched on the frame. Jerome is said 
 to have been the first to possess a library 
 wholly of works written on parchment. The 
 parclunents asked for by Paul (2 Tim. 4.13) 
 are not described by him. Many conjectures 
 have been made as to their contents, the identi- 
 fications varying from legal documents to notes 
 on the life of our Lord. 
 
 Pardon. The forgiveness by God of trans- 
 gression against Him is variously represented. 
 It is a lifting up, or taking away of sin 
 (Ps. 32.1); a covering of sin (Ps. 85.2); a 
 non-imputation of it (1's. 32.2) ; a blotting 
 
 out (Isai. 43.25) ; and a non-remembrance of 
 it (Isai. 43.25; Heb. 8.12). Pardon is an act 
 of free grace (Ps. 51.1 ; Isai. 43.25) ; a point of 
 justice, in accordance with His purpose, on the 
 confession of our sins (1 John 1.9) ; a complete 
 act of forgiveness (Ps. 103.2, 3 ; 1 John 1.7). 
 The act of pardon is final, and will never be 
 repealed (Mic. 7.19). God only can pardon, 
 though man may declare His readiness to 
 forgive. Wealth cannot buy pardon (Prov. 
 11.4), and works of righteousness cannot merit 
 it (Rom. 11.6). 
 
 Par mash 'ta. Perhaps from the Sanscrit, 
 meaning chief: one of the ten sons of 
 Haman the Agagite slain by the Jews in the 
 days of Esther (Esih. 9.9). 
 
 Par'menas. Steadfast, abiding: the sixth 
 on the list of the seven commonly called 
 deacons (Acts 6.5). He is said to have been 
 martyred at Philippi in the reign of Trajan. 
 
 Par'nach. The father of Elizaphan, prince 
 of the tribe of Zebulun (Num. 34.25). 
 
 Pa'rosh. Flea: 1. Ancestor of some who 
 returned with Zerubbabel (Ezra 2.3 ; Nth. 7.8). 
 2. One whose descendants returned with Ezra 
 (Ezra 8.3). Of these, seven had married foreign 
 wives (Ezra 10.25). 3. Father of the Pedaiah 
 who helped build the wall (Neh. 3.25). 4. A 
 family that sealed the covenant with Nehemiah 
 (Neh. 10.14). 
 
 Parshanda'tha. Perhaps, given by prayer : 
 the eldest son of Haman, the Agagite, who was 
 slain by the Jews in Shushan (Esih. 9.7). 
 
 Parthians. A great empire of antiquity, 
 which arose out of the ruins of the Persian 
 (256 D.C.), and maintained a long struggle 
 against the Romans. The country extended 
 from India to the Tigris, and from the Chorasmian 
 desert to the shores of the Southern Ocean. 
 The Parthians were a nation of fighters, being 
 the only power that was able to resist the 
 Roman arms. Their armies were composed of 
 horsemen, who fought chiefly with the bow ; 
 then* skill in managing their horses and in using 
 their bows obtained for them a renown and a 
 feeling of dread that became proverbial, " A 
 Parthian shot" denoting at once their method 
 of shooting a deadly shaft while pretending re- 
 treat and also the skill displayed in the action. 
 For five hundred years the Parthian empire lasted, 
 and then the Persians under Artaxerxes, son 
 of Sassan, succeeded in re-establishing their 
 empire 226 A.D. Parthia is still a part of 
 Persia, but is poor and thinly inhabited. All 
 that is left of its former greatness is the ruins 
 of several cities. The Parthians are mentioned 
 only in Acts 2.9. 
 
 Partridge. In Palestine and Asia generally, 
 north of the Himalayas, is to be found the 
 Chukor partridge, large, handsome, and beauti- 
 fully marked. In autumn the birds gather 
 into coveys, but scatter in winter. They are 
 much esteemed for food, but are not easily 
 caught, being extremely adroit at concealing 
 themselves. In the south of Palestine the 
 Chukor is replaced by the Heyii partridge. 
 
PARUAH] 
 
 359 
 
 [PASSION 
 
 This is the partridge of Sinai. It is a very 
 beautifully mottled little bird, and very difficult 
 to distinguish from the stones and sand on 
 which it sits. It does not readily take to 
 flight, trusting more to its legs than to its wings. 
 Thus it is that these birds are easily hunted with 
 sticks (1 Sam. 26.20). " The passage in Jeremiah 
 (17.11) has led to many ingenious interpreta- 
 tions. If it is true, as stated, that the ancient 
 Orientals believed the partridge was in the habit 
 of stealing the eggs and hatching them, and 
 that when the young were hatched they forsook 
 their false parent, we might be satisfied with 
 the marginal reading. Another meaning and a 
 Detter one is taken from the fact that partridge 
 eggs are assiduously collected for food by the 
 Arabs, and hence that he who collects wealth 
 unjustly will have as little enjoyment and 
 satisfaction out of it as a partridge who has 
 laid a clutch of eggs and commenced to sit on 
 them, but is robbed " (Animals of the Bible). 
 [EN-HAKKOEE.] 
 
 Paru'ah. (?) Blooming : a man of Issachar 
 (1 K. 4.17). 
 
 Parva'im. An unknown place from whence 
 gold was procured for Solomon's Temple 
 (2 Ch. 3.6) ; perhaps Farwa in Yemen in Arabia. 
 
 Pa'sach. Cut off : a chief of the tribe of 
 Asher (1 Ch. 7.33). 
 
 Pas-dammin. (?) Ending of bloodshed: the 
 same place as Ephes-dammin, which see (1 Ch. 
 11.13). 
 
 Pase'ah, Phase'ah. Limping : 1. A son of 
 Eshton in the genealogies of Judah (1 Ch. 4.12). 
 2. His descendants were of the Nethinim who 
 returned with Zerubbabel (Ezra 2.49). So also 
 Neh. 7.51, where the same Hebrew word is 
 transliterated in the A.V. as Phaseah. 3. The 
 father of Jehoiada, who assisted Nehemiah to 
 rebuild the old gate (Neh. 3.6). 
 
 Pash'hur, Pash'ur. 1. The son of Immer and 
 chief of a family of priests at Jerusalem (Jer. 
 20.1). Immer was the head of the sixteenth 
 course of priests (1 Ch. 24.14). He imprisoned 
 Jeremiah in the stocks by the gate of Benjamin, 
 and received from the outraged prophet the 
 name of Magor-missabib (Terror on every side). 
 Jeremiah also prophesied that he and his house 
 should die captives in Babylon. Pashur appears 
 to have performed the office of prophet (Jer. 
 20.6). 2. Another head of a priestly family and 
 a prince of Judah (1 Ch. 9.12 ; Neh. 11.12 ; Jer. 
 21.1). He also persecuted Jeremiah, and when 
 the prophet foretold disaster (Jer. 38.1) he 
 advised the king to put him to death. 3. 
 Father of the Gedaliah, who joined Pashur 2 in 
 persecuting Jeremiah (Jer. 38.1). 4. The head 
 of a priestly family which came up with 
 Zerubbabel (Eera 2.38, 10.22 ; Neh. 7.41). He 
 may be the same as Pashur 1. 5. A priest 
 who sealed the covenant (Neh. 10.3), if it is not 
 rather the name of the House of Pashur 1. 
 
 Passion. The familiar usage of this term 
 in its older sense of suffering as applied to 
 the redemptive sufferings of our Lord (Geth- 
 semane, the trial, scourging, mockery, and the 
 
 cross) is found only once in the English Bible 
 (Acts 1.3, " after His passion," A.V. and B..V. : 
 Wyclif and other earlier versions have the word 
 also in Heb. 2.9; 1 Pet. 1.11, 4.13). Literally 
 the phrase means " after that He suffered," the 
 absolute use of the verb (i.e. without an object ; 
 cf." suffer many things, these things," MTc. 8.31 ; 
 Lk. 24.26, etc.) showing approach to a technical 
 or theological sense, according to which all 
 the incidents of our Lord's betrayal and death 
 were summed up into one great act of redemp- 
 tion. This absolute use of the verb is not found 
 in St. Paul, though in the same way he speaks 
 of " the sufferings " of Christ (2 Cor. 1.5, Phil. 
 3.10 : cf. " afflictions of Christ," Col 1.24) ; 
 but in later N.T. writings it is common (Lk. 24.46 ; 
 Acts 1.3, 3.18, 17.3; Heb. 2.18, 9.26, 13.12; 
 1 Pet. 2.21, 3.18, 4.1). More limited but virtually 
 equivalent expressions are to be noted in the 
 references to the death, crucifixion, cross of 
 Christ, especially to the humiliation and shame 
 of the cross, a mode of death from which Paul 
 himself, as Roman citizen, was exempt (Gal. 3.13, 
 Phil. 2.8 ; cf. Heb. 12.2, 13.13). 
 
 We are not here concerned with the inter- 
 pretation of our Lord's " passion," but only with 
 the N.T. record of the facts. The Synoptic 
 Gospels dwell little on the meaning, but .much 
 on the event. In the earliest of them, St. Mark, 
 whose account is used by the other two, Jesus 
 thrice predicts His sufferings (Mk. 8.31, 9.31, 
 10.33), once refers to His death as " a ransom 
 for many" (10.45), and once to His "blood 
 of the covenant, which is shed for many" 
 (14.24). Yet to the events immediately con- 
 verging upon the cross, occupying less than a 
 week, St. Mark devotes more than one-third 
 of his whole book. The fragmentary record 
 becomes a diary : the stress laid by the history 
 upon the Passion, endorses and vindicates the 
 stress laid upon it in the faith of the early 
 Church. 
 
 On the main incidents of the Passion the 
 Synoptic records may be briefly compared. 
 (For the Fourth Gospel see below.) 
 
 1. Gethsemane.In the sorrowful emotion of 
 Jesus, Mark depicts an element of " amazement " 
 or " terrified surprise " (Swete), omitted by 
 Matthew. Luke greatly shortens this part of the 
 narrative, and alone records the appearance of 
 the angel and the " agony " (Lk. 22.43, 44. It is 
 doubtful whether the two vers.form part of Luke's 
 original text, but Westcott and Hort regard them, 
 with 23.34, where a similar doubt exists, as the 
 most precious among the remains of evangelic 
 tradition which were rescued from oblivion by 
 the scribes of the second century). The slight 
 variations in the accounts of the prayer for 
 deliverance from death, with its victorious 
 submission to the Father's will, leave the sub- 
 stance unaffected. 
 
 2. The Arrest. Mark gives no word from Jesus 
 in answer to the kiss of betrayal; Matthew, 
 " Friend, do that for which them art come " ; 
 Luke, " Judas, betrayest thou the Son of man 
 
PASSOVER] 
 
 360 
 
 [PASSOVER 
 
 with a kiss ? " In some minor details the narra- 
 tives supplement one another. 
 
 3. The Mockery. All record the mockery in 
 the high-priest's house: in Mark and Matthew 
 this precedes, in Luke follows, condemnation. 
 Mark and Matthew tell of the scourging and the 
 mockery by the soldiers of Pilate : Luke omits 
 both, but records an earlier mockery by the 
 soldiers of Herod. 
 
 4. The Crucifixion. The taunts of the by- 
 standers (people, rulers, and soldiers) appear in 
 all three accounts : according to Mark and 
 Matthew, both of the crucified robbers joined in 
 the reproaches, but Luke tells the beautiful story 
 of the " penitent thief." Mark speaks of drink 
 twice offered to our Lord, both times as an act 
 of mercy ; the customary stupefying draught 
 (" wine mingled with myrrh ") before cruci- 
 fixion, which Jesus refused to drink, and a sponge 
 soaked in vinegar (or sour wine), to relieve the 
 last moments of exhaustion. The former of 
 these is represented by Matthew as an additional 
 cruelty (" wine mingled with gall ") : Luke 
 makes the offering of " vinegar " a feature of 
 the mockery by the soldiers as soon as Jesus was 
 crucified. 
 
 5. The Seven Words from the Cross. The 
 probable order of these, with the attesting 
 Gospels, is as follows : 
 
 (1) "Father, forgive them; for they know 
 not what they do " (Lk. 23.34 ; see R.V. marg.). 
 
 (2) " Verily I say unto thee, To-day shalt 
 thou be with Me in Paradise " (Lk. 23.43*). 
 
 (3) " Woman, behold thy son ! ... Behold 
 thy mother ! " ( John 19.26, 27). 
 
 (4) "My God, My God, why hast Thou 
 forsaken Me?" (Matt. 27.46; Mk. 15.34). 
 
 (5) " I thirst " ( John 19.28). 
 
 (6) " It is finished " (John 19.30). 
 
 (7) " Father, into Thy hands I commend My 
 spirit " (Lk. 23.46). 
 
 The account of the Passion contained in the 
 Fourth Gospel is dominated by the writer's 
 lofty conception of the Person of Christ. There 
 is less stress upon our Lord's humiliation and 
 human sufferings, more upon the Divine self- 
 surrender of One who, while He submits, remains 
 Master and King (see John 18.6, 36, 19.11). St. 
 John says nothing of the struggle in Gethsemarie 
 (yet see John 12.27, 28) : with him the scourg- 
 ing is not that undergone by a criminal con- 
 demned to death, but a lighter punishment, 
 inflicted by Pilate at an earlier stage, in the hope 
 of appeasing the Jews and saving Jesus. The 
 story of the mockery by the soldiers loses much 
 of its harshness, and is developed into a symbol 
 of the real Kingship of its victim : the account 
 of the crucifixion is greatly curtailed. And in 
 the added incident of the pierced side from which 
 " came out blood and water," the writer 
 emphasises afresh the central truths of this 
 Gospel of the self - revelation of the " Son of 
 God," the " Word " become flesh. 
 
 Passover. The festival instituted to keep in 
 remembrance the destruction of the first-born of 
 
 Egypt, and the deliverance of the Israelites. It 
 derived its name from the passing over by the 
 angel of death, of those dwellings of the Israelites 
 whose doorposts were sprinkled with the blood 
 of the paschal lamb (Ex. 12.11-27). It is called 
 "the Lord's Passover" (Ex. 12.11,27); the 
 " feast of unleavened bread " (Lev. 23.6 ; Lk. 
 22.1) ; the " days of unleavened bread " (Acts 
 12.3, 20.6). The word Passover is applied not 
 only to the feast as a whole, but also to the 
 paschal lamb (Lk. 22.7 ; 1 Cor. 5.7) ; and the 
 paschal meal (Matt. 26.18, 19 ; Heb. 11.28). 
 
 At its institution, the directions for keeping 
 the Passover were as follows : The month 
 of the coming out of Egypt (Nisan = Abib) was 
 to be the first month of the sacred or ecclesi- 
 astical year ; and on the fourteenth day of this 
 month, between the evenings, i.e. between the 
 sun's decline and its setting, Israelites were to 
 kill the paschal lamb and to abstain from 
 leavened bread. The day following, being the 
 15th, reckoned from six o'clock of the pre- 
 ceding evening, began the grand feast of the 
 Passover, lasting seven days ; but only the first 
 and seventh days were peculiarly solemn. The 
 slain lamb was to be without defect, a male, and 
 of the first year. If no lamb could be found 
 the Israelites could take a kid. They were to 
 eat the lamb the same night, roasted, with 
 unleavened bread and a salad of bitter herbs. 
 It was forbidden to eat any part of the sacrifice 
 raw, or boiled ; nor were they to break a bone. 
 If any part remained to the following day, it 
 was burnt. Those who ate the Passover were 
 to be in the posture of travellers, having their 
 loins girt, shoes on their feet, staves in their 
 hands, and eating in a hurry. During the whole 
 eight days of the Passover no leavened bread 
 was to be used, though it was allowed to dress 
 victuals, which was forbidden on the Sabbath 
 day (Ex. 12). 
 
 The Passover was one of the three feasts 
 at which all males were to " appear before the 
 Lord God " (Ex. 23.14-17). The obligation of 
 keeping the Passover was so strict, that whoever 
 should neglect it would be condemned to death 
 (Num. 9.13) ; but those who had any lawful 
 impediment, as a journey, sickness, or un- 
 cleanness [UNCLEANNESS] were to defer the 
 celebration of the Passover until the second 
 month of the ecclesiastical year, the fourteenth 
 day of the month lyyar (April and May). We 
 see an example of this in Hezekiah's time (2 Ch. 
 30.2, 3). 
 
 Later modifications of these directions included 
 the offering of the Omer, or first sheaf of harvest 
 (Lev. 23.10-14), the instructions as to the special 
 sacrifices to be offered each day of the festival 
 week (Num. 28.16-25), and the command that 
 the paschal lambs should be slain at the national 
 Sanctuary, and that the blood should be sprinkled 
 on the altar, instead of the lintels and door- 
 posts of the houses (Deut. 16.1-6). " Between 
 the evenings," possibly as the sun was setting 
 (between sunsei and dark), or perhaps between 
 three and six o'clock, the lambs were slain, the 
 
PASSOVER] 
 
 361 
 
 [PASSOVEE 
 
 fat and blood being set aside. The meal was 
 then partaken of in accordance with its original 
 institution. The same night, after the 15th 
 of Nisan had commenced, the fat was burned by 
 the priest, and the blood sprinkled on the altar 
 (2 Ch. 30.16, 35.11). On the 15th, the night 
 being past, a convocation was held, during 
 which no unnecessary work might be done 
 (Ex. 12.16). On the following day the first 
 sheaf of harvest was oSered, waved by the priest 
 before the Lord, and a male lamb was offered 
 as a burnt sacrifice with a meat and drink offer- 
 ing. The intervening days until the seventh of 
 the festival were days of quiet, excepting that 
 certain burnt and sin offerings were made, and 
 freedom from some kinds of labour was enjoined. 
 The 21st of Nisan, the last day, there was again 
 a holy convocation (Deut. 16.8). Cheerfulness 
 was to be the prevailing tone of the whole 
 feast (Deut. 27.7). 
 
 In the time of our Lord, as the festival and 
 accompanying sacrifices could only be made 
 at Jerusalem, an enormous number of people 
 were thus brought together, far too many to be 
 accommodated within the walls of the city. 
 This was the reason the rulers gave for not 
 apprehending our Lord. They feared an up- 
 roar from the multitude of people gathered at 
 Jerusalem for the celebration of the Passover 
 (Matt. 26.5). 
 
 The Last Supper occurred at the time of the 
 Passover. The expressions used in John 
 13.1-20, 18.28, 19.14, 31 seem to imply that the 
 Jewish Passover night had not yet arrived, and 
 hence it would follow that the Supper was eaten 
 on the day before the regular Passover day. It 
 would follow therefore that the evening was the 
 13th to 14th of Nisan, the regular time of the 
 paschal feast being the 14th to 15th. The 
 day of the Crucifixion, therefore, would not be 
 the solemn feast of the Jews, immediately suc- 
 ceeding the Passover evening, but the day before. 
 But in the other three Gospels it is explicitly 
 stated that on the day " when the Passover 
 must be " (i.e ought legally to be) " killed," " in 
 the evening," " when the hour was come," 
 " He sat down with the Twelve," and said that 
 He had earnestly " desired to eat this Passover " 
 before He suffered. It is not easy to explain 
 the apparent discrepancy. Only we may be 
 well assured that John, writing after the other 
 evangelists, and evidently familiar with then* 
 accounts, perceived no contradiction, and that 
 there must be some facts, even if unknown to 
 us, which would make the whole clear. The 
 question is between the apparent meaning of the 
 first three evangelists, and the apparent meaning 
 of John. The testimony of John is more dis- 
 tinct than that of the synoptical Gospels, and it 
 is therefore probable that the paschal meal was 
 forestalled by our Lord, and that He, the true 
 Paschal Lamb, died at the very hour when the 
 lambs were slain in the Temple. 
 
 By our Lord's time the simple directions in 
 Ex. 12 had been added to. The observance 
 then was as follows : The males of the family 
 
 or company, met together in the evening, when 
 they washed their feet and hands and placed 
 themselves at table in the reclining posture 
 then customary. [BANQUETS.] In earlier days 
 they had eaten the Passover standing, with their 
 staves in their hands, as though about to go a 
 journey (Ex. 12.11) ; but after they had reached 
 the Promised Land the usual custom of meal- 
 times was followed. The meal was begun by a 
 cup of wine, mixed with water, being presented 
 to each guest, over which a blessing was pro- 
 nounced, " Blessed be He that created the 
 fruit of the vine ! " The lamb, some unleavened 
 bread, and bitter herbs, were then placed on 
 the table, as appointed by the Law, also other 
 articles of food. The principal person then 
 distributed portions of the paschal lamb, with 
 unleavened bread, until all the lamb had been 
 eaten. Every person present was bound to eat 
 to the size of an olive at least. After this first 
 repast they again washed their feet, and set them- 
 selves in their former positions, to eat the second 
 course. This consisted of the bitter herbs eaten 
 with a sauce made of bruised palm branches, 
 and berries or raisins, mixed with vinegar. 
 This sauce was thick, and called " haroseth," 
 and represented the clay from which their 
 forefathers made bricks during their captivity. 
 Another cup of wine was taken. The master of 
 the feast divided the bread into two parts, and, 
 laying one part aside, covered with a napkin, 
 blessed the other and distributed it, saying, 
 " Blessed be Thou, O Lord our God, the King 
 of the whole world, in the eating of unleavened 
 bread." He next took the reserved part from 
 the napkin, and divided it into as many portions 
 as there were guests. 
 
 At that point one of the youngest of the 
 company asked the meaning of this rite (Ex. 
 12.26). The master answered the child by 
 repeating the hagadah, or " showing forth." 
 " This is the bread of affliction, which our fathers 
 ate in the land of affliction. Let him that is 
 hungry come and eat the passover; for this 
 Passover is our Saviour and our refuge." Then 
 taking the cup he first tasted it himself, and 
 presented it to each, saying, " Blessed be Thou, 
 Lord our God, King of the world, who hast 
 created the fruit of the vine ! " This third cup 
 was usually called the cup of blessing (Ps. 
 116.13 ; 1 Cor. 10.16). The meal ended with the 
 taking of a fourth cup of wine, and the singing 
 of the 113th and five following psalms of 
 praise and thanksgiving, of which the 118th is 
 peculiarly significant of the coming of Christ. 
 These psalms were called the great Hallel, or 
 Hallelujah. 
 
 During the Passover week (on the 16th of Abib), 
 the sheaf of the first-fruits of the barley harvest 
 was offered with a particular sacrifice (Lev. 
 23.9-14). On the anniversary of this day our 
 Lord rose from the dead, and the Apostle Paul 
 may have had this fact in view when speaking of 
 Christ's resurrection, " He is become the first- 
 fruits of them that slept " (1 Cor. 15.20). 
 
 The keeping of the Passover is recorded at its 
 
PASTOR] 
 
 362 
 
 [PAUL 
 
 foundation (Ex. 12.28, 50) ; in the wilderness of 
 Sinai (Num. 9.3-5) ; in the plains of Jericho on 
 entering Canaan (Josh. 5.10, 11) ; by Hezekiah 
 and some of the people (2 Ch. 30) ; by Josiah 
 (2 K. 23.21-23 ; 2 Ch. 35.1, 18, 19) ; after the 
 return from the Captivity (Ezra 6.19-22) ; by 
 our Lord (Matt. 26.17-20; Lk. 22.15; John 
 2.13, 23). [FESTIVALS, LORD'S SUPPER.] 
 
 Pastor. Shepherd : in the O.T. found only 
 in the Book of Jeremiah (2.8, etc.) ; in the N.T. 
 only in Eph. 4.11, where " pastors and teachers " 
 (one class) are distinguished from " prophets 
 and evangelists." 
 
 Pat'ara. A city on the coast of Lycia, 40 
 miles west of Myra. Paul sailed from this port 
 on his way to Jerusalem at the close of his third 
 missionary voyage (Acts 21.1-2). Patara pos- 
 sessed a famous oracle of Apollo, and though 
 once of considerable importance, and the seat of 
 a bishop, is now but a place of ruins, which are 
 being slowly buried in sand. 
 Path, Pathway. [ROADS.] 
 Path'ros. An Egyptian word meaning the 
 South Land. The northern part of Upper 
 Egypt, and the Thebais of the Greeks. It 
 extended from a few miles south of Memphis to 
 Syene on the first cataract. Recent discoveries 
 of papyri have confirmed the existence of Jews 
 at Syene in the sixth century B.C. Jeremiah 
 included the Jews who dwelt in Pathros in the 
 doom he pronounced against " all the Jews which 
 dwell in the land of Egypt " (Jer. 44.1) for their 
 idolatrous leanings. Ezekiel mentions Pathros 
 when speaking of the return of captive Egyptians 
 (Ezek. 29.14, 30.14). Isaiah prophesied the 
 return of the Jews from " Egypt, and from 
 Pathros, and from Cush " (Isai. 11.11). 
 [PATHRUSIM.] 
 
 Pathru'sim. The people of Pathros (Gen. 
 10.14 ; 1 Ch. 1.12). 
 
 Pat'mos. A small rocky and bare island in 
 the JZgean Sea, lying in a south-west direction 
 from Ephesus (Rev. 1.9). It is about 18 miles 
 in circumference, and on account of its dreary 
 and desolate character was used by the Roman 
 emperors as a place of confinement for criminals. 
 To this island John was banished by the Em- 
 peror Domitian; and here he received the 
 revelation recorded in the Apocalypse. 
 
 Patriarchs. Princes, chiefs or heads of families 
 or tribes-, the term has been applied in a 
 special sense in the N.T. to Abraham, Isaac, 
 Jacob, the sons of Jacob, and to David (Acts 
 2.29, 7.8,9; Heb. 7.4). In the O.T. the 
 equivalent expression is, generally, " Prince of 
 a tribe." But commonly the title is given to 
 those who lived before the time of Moses. Under 
 the patriarchal system the parent of the family 
 or head of the tribe exercised supreme authority 
 over his children and servants. He was himself 
 accountable to no earthly superior, and could 
 reward or punish as he thought proper. This is 
 fully exemplified in the lives of Abraham, Isaac, 
 and Jacob. 'Each exercised his authority with 
 an absolute power and, as in the cases of Ishmael, 
 Esau and Jacob, Simeon and Levi, acted from 
 
 what would appear personal feelings, rather 
 than from any defined code of laws. It is 
 obvious that in proportion as men were actuated 
 by the fear of God their government would be 
 exercised with justice and kindness, but where 
 this was wanting there would be oppression, 
 violence, and wrong. 
 
 Pat'robas. An abbreviated form of Patrobius. 
 A Christian at Rome saluted by Paul (flom.16.14). 
 He was said to have been one of the seventy, 
 afterwards bishop of Puteoli, and to have been 
 martyred. 
 Pau. [PAL] 
 
 Paul. Little one : the Roman name of Saul 
 of Tarsus, first used in Acts 13.9, when he 
 withstood Elymas the sorcerer, and began his 
 definitely Gentile work at the court of Sergius 
 Paulus. Presumably he had borne the name 
 before in intercourse with Gentiles ; but after 
 this incident it is always used of the apostle in 
 the Acts and in his epistles. Inscriptions show 
 that Paul was at the time a not uncommon 
 name in Syria and the east of Asia Minor. 
 
 The birth and parentage of the future apostle 
 enabled him to call himself " a Hebrew of the 
 Hebrews." He was of unmixed Jewish blood, 
 of the tribe of Benjamin (Rom. 11.1 ; 2 Cor. 
 11.22; Phil. 3.5), born at Tarsus in Cilicia 
 (Acts 9.11, 21.39, 22.3) about the year 2 B.C., 
 when the power of the Roman Emperor Augustus 
 was at its height. His education was character- 
 istically Jewish. As a boy he was sent to Jeru- 
 salem for instruction under Gamaliel " according 
 to the perfect manner of the law of the fathers " 
 (Acts 22.3). Gamaliel, like Paul's own family, 
 belonged to the Pharisees. From him it was 
 natural that Paul should obtain a firm grasp 
 of the doctrine of the resurrection (Acts 23.6, 
 26.5; Phil. 3.5). By Gamaliel, also, he was 
 taught to be " zealous " with the zeal of the 
 " straitest sect " of his religion (Gal. 1.14). 
 Further, Paul learned the craft of a tent-cloth 
 maker (Acts 20.34 ; 1 Thess. 2.9). But Tarsus 
 was a centre of learning, almost as celebrated as 
 Athens or Alexandria, and it was here doubtless 
 that Paul acquired such familiarity (more or less) 
 with the old poets and writers as is shown by the 
 three or four quotations that he makes from 
 them (Acts 17.28 ; 1 Cor. 15.35 ; Tit. 1.12). 
 The equipment of Paul was thus comprehensive. 
 In intellectual culture he was in contact with the 
 Greek world ; through his citizenship he was in 
 political contact also with the Roman world ; 
 and from the fact that this citizenship was 
 hereditary it follows that his family had social 
 advantages. His relatives were widely scattered, 
 for some lived in Jerusalem (Acts 23.16), and, 
 according to one interpretation, some in Rome 
 (Rom. 16.11), who even became Christians before 
 him (Rom. 16.7). 
 
 Paul first appears in the Acts of the Apostles 
 in the account of the stoning of Stephen. While 
 he took no part in the actual stoning, he watched 
 the garments of those who did (Acts 7.58-60, 
 8.1). It was an incident of momentous im- 
 portance to Paul, and manifestly made a deep 
 
PAUL] 
 
 363 
 
 impression on his mind (Acts 22.20). Paul now 
 threw himself into the work of persecution. 
 In so doing he claimed for himself that he was 
 acting for God, and for the traditions of his 
 fathers (Acts 22.3, 26.9; Gal 1.14). Very soon 
 Jerusalem proved an insufficient field for his 
 zeal, all the Christians in it being either in prison, 
 or in concealment, or in flight. " Breathing out 
 threatenings and slaughter," he desired of the 
 high-priest " letters to Damascus unto the syna- 
 gogues, that if he found any that were of the Way, 
 whether men or women, he might bring them 
 bound to Jerusalem " (Acts 9.1, 2). It would 
 seem likely that Paul was elected a member of 
 the Sanhedrin soon after the murder of Stephen, 
 if he was not one before. As he himself said, he 
 not only exercised the power of imprisonment 
 by commission from that body, but also gave his 
 " voice " or vote against the Christians (Acts 
 26.10). 
 
 Stephen's death led to Paul's conversion. 
 Full of his mission of service to God, as he 
 supposed it was, Saul proceeded on his way to 
 Damascus. But on the way the persecutor 
 was changed into a disciple ; his zeal for the 
 destruction of Christianity was turned to the 
 support and comfort of the persecuted. The mir- 
 aculous event is narrated by Luke (Acts 9.1-19) 
 and by Paul in his speeches to the crowd in 
 Jerusalem after his arrest (Acts 22.4-16), and 
 before Agrippa and Festus at Cscsarea (Acts 
 26.10-18). 
 
 The scene of the event was a spot near 
 Damascus, perhaps even in that part of the 
 road traversing the surrounding gardens, which 
 are in remarkable contrast to the desert-road 
 forming the general approach to the city. It 
 happened at noon, with the light of midday 
 (Acts 22.6). 
 
 The first eflect of the miracle was the relief 
 of the Christians at Damascus. His errand was 
 well known in the city, and the terror it inspired 
 can be gathered from the reluctance of Ananias 
 to approach him (Acts 9.13, 14), and the in- 
 credulity of the disciples when Saul appeared 
 as a fellow-disciple in the synagogues (Acts 9.21). 
 The blindness of Paul, and his distress of mind 
 and body, noted by Luke (Acts 9.18, 19), were 
 part of the preparation for the visit of Ananias 
 and the further revelation of God's will. Note- 
 worthy, too, are the words addressed to Ananias, 
 " Behold, he prayeth " (Acts 9.11). They 
 mark the man whose habit was to look up to 
 God for everything (Acts 16.25, 20.36, 21.5). 
 Paul's own words (Gal. 1.16, 17) emphasise 
 this. 
 
 The nature of the Lord's revelation to Paul is 
 dwelt on by him. It is evident that it was not 
 merely an inward impression made on his mind 
 during a trance or ecstasy. It was the direct 
 perception of the visible presence of Jesus 
 Christ. This is asserted in various passages, 
 both positively and incidentally. In his first 
 letter to the Corinthians, when ho contends for 
 the validity of his own apostleship, his argu- 
 ment is, " Am I not an apostle ? Have I not 
 
 seen Jesus our Lord ? " (1 Cor. 9.1). And 
 when he adduces the evidence for the truth 
 of the resurrection his argument is, " He was 
 seen . . . Cephas . . . James ... all the 
 apostles . . . last of all of me ... as of one 
 born out of due time " (15.5-8). Significant, too, 
 are the words of Ananias : " The Lord hath 
 sent me, even Jesus who appeared to thee in 
 the way as thou earnest " (Acts 9.17, and cf. 
 Acts 22.14). The direct and immediate character 
 of this call, without the intervention of any 
 human agency, is another point on which Paul 
 himself, in the course of his apostolic life, laid 
 the utmost stress. " Called to be an apostle," 
 " An apostle by the will of God " (Bom. 1.1 ; 
 1 Cor. 1.1 ; 2 Cor. 1.1 ; Eph. 1.1 ; Col. 1.1), 
 are expressions not used by the other apostles. 
 They are the phrases under which Paul describes 
 himself, in the cases where his authority was 
 in danger of being questioned. 
 
 From the blindness which came with the 
 vision, Paul was relieved through the ministry 
 of Ananias (Acts 9.18) ; and with the opening 
 of his eyes came final submission to the will of 
 God, and the desire to be " His witness unto 
 all men " (Acts 22.14, 15). He was baptized, 
 and began his ministry amongst the children of 
 Israel in Damascus (Acts 9.18-22, 27, 26.20). 
 
 The precise order of events immediately after 
 the conversion is uncertain. According to the 
 Acts, Paul, after his conversion, remained 
 " many days " at Damascus until, by persecu- 
 tion, he was forced to leave (Acts 9.23-25). 
 According to Gal. 1.17 he went at once into 
 Arabia, and afterwards returned to Damascus ; 
 and thus, as it seems, it is not until after his 
 second sojourn there that, driven away by 
 persecution, he returned to Jerusalem after an 
 absence of three years. The only thing to be 
 settled is whether the journey in Arabia can be 
 included in what the Acts represent as a con- 
 tinuous sojourn at Damascus. The words in 
 Acts 9.23 are, " And after that many days were 
 fulfilled " an old form of expression, sufficiently 
 comprehensive to admit of the three years 
 which, the apostle tells us, elapsed between 
 his conversion and his return to Jerusalem. 
 On the other hand, it is not to be wondered at 
 that the Acts should omit this Arabian journey, 
 which Paul only barely mentions in Galatians, 
 and to which he makes no other reference. 
 What preaching the apostle did in Arabia, if 
 any, was unostentatious. Like Moses, like 
 John the Baptist, and the Master Himself, he 
 retired chiefly for meditation and prayer, pre- 
 paring himself and receiving consecration at 
 the hands of the Lord. It were unlikely that 
 the disciples at Jerusalem would have mis- 
 trusted him so much if they had heard of him 
 as preaching Jesus for so considerable a period 
 as three years. Whether in Arabia, or in 
 Damascus or elsewhere, the probability is that 
 Paul remained comparatively silent until tho 
 time came for him to take his place as onu of 
 the apostles. 
 
 There is more certainty respecting Paul's 
 
PAUL] 
 
 364 
 
 [PAUL 
 
 departure from Damascus, for we have the 
 double evidence of St. Luke in the Acts and 
 of the apostle in 2 Cor. According to the former, 
 the Jews lay in wait for Saul, to kill him. As 
 they watched the gates, his brethren let him 
 down in a basket from the wall ; not a difficult 
 matter, as houses were not only on the wall, 
 but actually overhung it. According to Paul's 
 own statement (2 Cor. 11.32), it was the ethnarch 
 under Aretas the king who tried to capture 
 him. There is no difficulty in reconciling the 
 two statements. We might similarly say that 
 our Lord was put to death by the Jews or by 
 the Koman Governor. 
 
 Having escaped from Damascus, Paul went 
 to Jerusalem, and there endeavoured to join 
 himself to the body of the disciples (Acts 9.26). 
 They were in doubt, but the friendship of 
 Barnabas secured that of the other Christians, 
 and Paul " was with them, coming in and going 
 out at Jerusalem." His Hellenistic education 
 made him a successful disputant among the 
 " Grecians." His changed attitude and zeal 
 roused unusual opposition among the Jews, and, 
 his life being endangered, he was forced to fly 
 to Tarsus, his native city (Acts 9.30). The 
 repeated command of God, conveyed to him in 
 a trance (Acts 22.17-21), convinced him that 
 his duty lay elsewhere, among the Gentiles. H 
 journeyed to Tarsus by way of Caesarea (Caesarea 
 Stratonis) on the coast, and then by Antioch. 
 Paul's activities were now exercised in studying 
 and teaching at Tarsus, or in founding those 
 Churches (Acts 15.23, 41) which were afterwards 
 greeted in the apostolic letter from Jerusalem, 
 as the brethren " in Antioch and Syria, and 
 Cilicia." He is back in the home of his child- 
 hood, and it is uncertain that he was ever here 
 again. 
 
 The apostle himself tells us (Gal. 1.18, 19) 
 that the cause of his visit to Jerusalem, after 
 quitting Damascus, was that he might see and 
 Confer with Peter and James the Lord's brother, 
 who were the only apostles there at that time. 
 He lived with Peter fifteen days, but remained 
 unknown in person to the generality of Chris- 
 tians in Judaea. His object in being thus 
 particular was to show that he had received his 
 commission of apostleship direct from the Lord 
 Jesus, through Ananias, and not from the other 
 apostles. What, then, was Paul's relation to 
 the other apostles chosen, taught, and sent out by 
 Jesus Himself when He was on earth ? Paul 
 energetically repels the idea of any sort of in- 
 feriority ; he feels that it would be an injury to 
 his miraculous and exceptional vocation if he 
 were to admit that it was not equal to that on 
 which the Twelve rested their authority. " Am 
 I not an apostle ? " he says to the Corinthians, 
 and further, " Have I not seen Jesus our 
 Lord ? " (1 Cor. 9.1). The apostles themselves 
 made no difficulty over Paul's claim. In fact, 
 even before Paul's appearance they had gladly 
 recognised and welcomed as colleagues all those 
 who, by their abounding faith and zeal, were 
 pointed out as the chosen of God. In this 
 
 spirit they had accepted Stephen and Philip, 
 among others. 
 
 While Paul was at Tarsus, men of Cyprus were 
 made the instruments of awakening the Gentiles. 
 One of them might be that " Mnason of Cyprus," 
 who afterwards was his host (Acts 21.16) ; 
 another, Joses, the Levite of Cyprus, whom the 
 apostles had long ago called Barnabas, the " son 
 of exhortation" (Acts 4.36). He was the first 
 teacher sent by the mother Church to the new 
 disciples at Antioch. He laboured hard himself 
 (Acts 11.23) ; but, feeling the greatness of the 
 work, " he departed to Tarsus to seek Saul," 
 whose vigorous character he felt would be of value 
 in this city of heathen philosophies. Paul, for 
 his part, felt the call, and the two departed at 
 once for Antioch. For a whole year Paul laboured 
 with Barnabas, and it was to their converts 
 that the name " Christian " was first given 
 (Acts 11.26). At this time Jerusalem and the 
 rest of Judaea was suffering from famine, follow- 
 ing a period of severe earthquakes. Relief 
 flowed in from all quarters, and the Gentiles 
 at Antioch felt themselves bound to assist their 
 Christian brethren at Jerusalem then, as some 
 thirteen years later (Rom. 15.27). They lost no 
 time, but got together what they could, and 
 entrusted the money to Paul and Barnabas 
 (Acts 11.29, 30). On their return to Antioch Paul 
 and his companion carried with them " John, 
 whose surname was Mark," cousin of Barnabas 
 (Col. 4.10). 
 
 The first missionary journey (Acts 13.1-15.28). 
 Having returned to Antioch, Paul and Barna- 
 bas felt that the time for preaching the gospel 
 in other countries had come. The new move- 
 ment was made in obedience to the Holy Spirit 
 (Acts 13.2), and was prepared for by fasting 
 and prayer. Taking John Mark with them, 
 they went first to Cyprus, the native country 
 of Barnabas (Acts 4.36). Landing at Salamis, 
 they preached in the synagogues, and then 
 crossed the island from east to west until they 
 came to Paphos (which see), a city dedicated to 
 Venus, and the centre of a shameless idolatry. 
 Paphos was the home of the pro-consul Sergius 
 Paulus, an enlightened man, who, for want of 
 some better way, was seeking the light through 
 a Jewish magician, Bar-jesus. The words of 
 Paul were heard with joy by Paulus, but Bar- 
 jesus interposed, until he was smitten with 
 temporary blindness as a punishment for the 
 blindness of his heart (Acts 13.11). Leaving 
 Cyprus, Paul and his companions now passed 
 over to Asia Minor until they reached Perga in 
 Pamphylia, where Mark left them. The event 
 must have caused deep sorrow to Paul, and 
 probably some estrangement between him and 
 Barnabas, which eventually caused them to 
 quarrel and separate (15.37-39). He had 
 travelled with them from the coast as far as this 
 Greek city, and now, apparently losing heart at 
 the magnitude of the work sketched out by Paul, 
 returned to Jerusalem (Acts 13.13). Whatever 
 the cause of the estrangement, it was not last- 
 ing, for afterwards we find Paul commending 
 
PAUL] 
 
 365 
 
 [PAUL 
 
 Mark to the Colossians as "a fellow- worker " 
 and " a comfort " (Col. 4.10, 11) to himself and 
 "profitable to the ministry " (2 Tim. 4.11). 
 
 Perhaps even a bolder man than John Mark 
 might have hesitated before venturing on the 
 journey contemplated by Paul. " Perils of 
 rivers'* and "perils of robbers" are only 
 mildly descriptive of the dangers he would be 
 likely to encounter in the journey from Perga to 
 Antioch in Pisidia. The lawless and marauding 
 habits of the people of the mountains of Asia 
 Minor were notorious. Reaching Antioch in 
 Pisidia, the apostles were received with great 
 joy by the Gentiles when these had heard the 
 message; but the Jews raised such a storm 
 of opposition that they " expelled Paul and 
 Barnabas out of their coasts" (Acts 13.50). 
 So, obeying their Master's direction, they 
 shook oft the dust of their feet. 
 
 Lystra, whither the travellers proceeded, 
 after a short experience of opposition at Iconium 
 (Acts 14.1-6), possessed a statue and temple to 
 Jupiter in front of the city gate. Jupiter was 
 conceived as the " father of gods and men," and 
 it was believed that he sometimes visited the 
 earth, accompanied by Mercury, the god of 
 eloquence. It was not surprising, therefore, 
 when the heathen inhabitants saw Paul heal the 
 lame man, that they should think themselves 
 honoured with a visit from the gods they so 
 ignorantly worshipped. Barnabas they called 
 Jupiter because of the dignity of his face and 
 figure. Paul, we know, was a small man (2 Cor. 
 10.1, 10). Him the Lystrians called Mercury, 
 " because he was the chief speaker." They would 
 have done sacrifice to the visitors, but were 
 restrained by the apostles, St. Paul explaining 
 their position (Acts 14.8-18). But the apostles 
 had been followed from Iconium, and even from 
 Antioch (Acts 14.19), by certain hostile Jews. 
 These stirred the populace to action. Paul 
 was stoned, and then flung outside the city walls 
 as dead. But " as the disciples stood about him, 
 he rose up, and came into the city " (Acts 14.20). 
 The next day Paul departed with Barnabas to 
 rest for awhile at Derbe (Acts 14.20). It is not 
 unreasonable to attribute the conversion of 
 Timothy to this first visit of Paul to Lystra. On 
 his second visit, a year or two after, we are told 
 that he found a certain Christian there " whose 
 name was Timothy " (Acts 16.1). Now, as we 
 know that Timothy was converted by Paul 
 himself, we must suppose this change to have 
 taken place at the time of the first visit. It 
 is not unlikely that Timothy had witnessed 
 both the stoning and the coming to life again of 
 the apostle (2 Tim. 3.10, 11). 
 
 Derbe (Gudelissin), whither the apostles 
 retired from the persecution of Lystra, was some 
 30 miles distant, in Lycaonia (Acts 14.6, 20). 
 Here they were not exposed to persecution, nor 
 hindered in their work of evangelising the city ; 
 the result being that they had " many disciples " 
 (Acts 14.21). 
 
 Turning back, Paul revisited the places 
 where he had been so shamefully used on the 
 
 outward journey, Lystra, Iconium, then 
 Antioch (Acts 14.21), thus bringing to a close 
 the first missionary journey. 
 
 Between this journey and the second a 
 matter of great importance was decided. Great 
 numbers of Jews had long been dispersed beyond 
 the limits of their own land. In every con- 
 siderable city, both of the east and west, were 
 Jews established, with their synagogues, wherein 
 Moses was preached every Sabbath day (Acts 
 15.21). They were surrounded, not only by an 
 idolatry which shocked all their deepest feelings, 
 and by a shameless profligacy associated with 
 what was called religion, but also by a proud 
 and contemptuous philosophy that alienated 
 the more educated classes to as great a distance 
 as the unthinking multitude. Thus the " middle 
 wall of partition " (Eph. 2.14) was maintained 
 and strengthened, and Jew and Gentile were as the 
 poles asunder on most matters of life, excepting 
 those of commerce. In the meantime there was 
 this great difficulty : it was " unlawful," as 
 Peter said to Cornelius, "for a man that 
 was a Jew to keep company or come unto one 
 of another nation " (Acts 10.28). Peter himself 
 afterwards offended his brethren at Jerusalem 
 because he had " gone in " to men uncircumcised 
 and had " eaten with them " (Acts 11.3). How, 
 then, were Jews and Gentiles to be united in 
 Christian brotherhood, as members in the family 
 of a common Father ? Paul was instrumental in 
 solving the difficulty. When Peter explained 
 the matter of eating with the uncircumcised, and 
 had produced his witnesses of the pouring out of 
 the Holy Ghost on them, his accusers were silent, 
 and even glorified God for His mercy to the 
 Gentiles (Acts 11.1-18). But the discontent 
 recurred. It was therefore decided that " Paul 
 and Barnabas, with certain others," should be 
 sent to confer with the apostles and elders at 
 Jerusalem, the Church of which was still pre- 
 sided over by James, and was regarded as the 
 mother Church of Christendom (Acts 15.1-6, 12; 
 Gal. 2.4, 5). The question narrowed to the one 
 point of circumcision. Paul succeeded, how- 
 ever, in maintaining his position, and received 
 the " right hand of fellowship," returning to 
 Antioch as the recognised apostle of the " gospel 
 of the uncircumcision " (Acts 15.22-26). This 
 was fourteen, or more probably seventeen, years 
 after his conversion. 
 
 But though Paul had succeeded at Jerusalem, 
 on his return to Antioch, whither he was followed 
 by Peter, the whole of the Jewish Christians, 
 including Peter and Barnabas, separated from 
 the Gentile brethren, on the ground that the Law 
 was still operative as regarded the social life. 
 
 [It should, however, be stated that some 
 scholars are now of opinion that the narrative 
 in Gal. 2 is topical rather than chronological, and 
 that this visit of Peter to Antioch really took 
 place before the council.] 
 
 The second missionary journey (Acts 15.36 
 18.28) was more extended than the first. Start- 
 ing from Antioch in Syria, Paul proceeded by 
 way of Issus, Derbe, Lystra, Iconium, North 
 
PAUL] 
 
 366 
 
 [PAUL 
 
 Galatia (as it seems), Troas, Philippi, Amphi- 
 polis, Thessalonica, Berea, Athens, Corinth, 
 Ephesus, whence he sailed back to Caesarea. 
 The start was marred by a difference of opinion 
 between Paul and Barnabas. The latter wished 
 to make Mark, a kinsman, who had been rebuked 
 by Paul for half-hearted work (Acts 15.38), one 
 of their company. Paul's refusal led to an open 
 rupture. It led also to far more important 
 results. It meant that the Gentiles were to 
 have the Water of Life brought them through 
 two distinct streams, instead of one. Paul kept 
 to the mainland of Asia and Europe, while 
 Barnabas went to Cyprus (Acts 15.39). The 
 quarrel, though violent, did not last long, for 
 Paul speaks well of him afterwards (1 Cor. 
 9.6). [BARNABAS, MARK.] Barnabas and his 
 young cousin departed first, and then Paul, 
 choosing Silas for his companion, and receiv- 
 ing the blessing of the Church (Acts 15.40), 
 started for Cilicia, his native province. Thus 
 " he went through Syria and Cilicia, confirm- 
 ing the Churches" (Acts 15.41). At Derbe 
 he had a momentous interview with Timothy. 
 The circumcision of Timothy by Paul needs 
 explanation, for had not the latter taught that 
 circumcision was nothing ? (1 Cor. 7.19, 20). 
 The fact was that so much of the apostle's work 
 lay among the Jews that the presence in his 
 company of an uncircumcised son of a Jewess 
 would have greatly retarded his work. It was 
 an act of far-sighted caution, in view of the un- 
 trodden field before him, for his purpose was to 
 act on the cities through the synagogues, and to 
 preach the gospel first to the Jew and then 
 to the Gentile (Acts 13.5, 14, 14.1, 17.1, 2, 10, 
 etc.). Such a course would have been impossible, 
 had not Timothy been circumcised. His was 
 quite a different case from that of Titus, who 
 was a Gentile on both sides, and therefore, 
 apparently, was not circumcised, in spite of the 
 pressure brought to bear upon Paul (Gal. 2.3). 
 
 Northern Galatia was probably the next 
 scene of his labours. Its inhabitants received 
 Paul's message with enthusiasm and glad- 
 ness (Gal. 3.1, 4.14, 15), overlooking his mean 
 personal appearance and some grievous bodily 
 illness. This seems to have affected his eyes, 
 for St. Paul continues (Gal. 4.15), "If it 
 had been possible ye would have plucked out 
 your own eyes, and have given them to me." 
 Whether or not this had any connexion with the 
 " thorn in the flesh " (2 Cor. 12.7) is a matter of 
 conjecture. Whether it was ophthalmia, or 
 malaria, or epilepsy, is uncertain. 
 
 Leaving Galatia the travellers crossed a part 
 of Mysia (being forbidden by " the spirit of 
 Jesus" to enter Bithynia) and came to Troas. 
 Here Paul was only separated by a small 
 stretch of sea from Europe. Nevertheless he 
 had as yet no intention of leaving Asia Minor, 
 where many places remained to be visited. 
 During his short sojourn in Troas, Paul attached 
 to himself a new companion, the future historian 
 of his labours. Luke was a physician, so Paul 
 calls him, and not, as tradition calls him, 
 
 a painter. [LuKE.] It is Luke himself who 
 tells us that it was here he met Paul. " We 
 endeavoured to go into Macedonia " (Acts 16.10), 
 he says, and it is this we which suddenly reveals to 
 us the presence of Luke among the companions 
 of Paul at Troas. 
 
 It was in a vision of the night that the Lord 
 gave Paul his commission to go to Macedonia 
 (Acts 16.9). The commission was promptly 
 accepted (Acts 16.10), and the apostle and his 
 three companions, Silas, Timothy, and Luke, set 
 sail, and in two days arrived at Ncapolis, the 
 seaport of Philippi. 
 
 Philippi was a great military post and com- 
 mercial centre. There were not many Jews 
 at Philippi, and no synagogue, only a temporary 
 place of prayer, i.e. a retired spot surrounded 
 by a wall, but not protected by a roof. The 
 congregation consisted chiefly of women (Acts 
 16.13), some Jews and others proselytes. Of 
 the latter, Lydia, of Thyatira, was con- 
 verted and baptized. Here was the first 
 Christian baptism in Europe, though Lydia 
 herself was from Asia. The restoration to her 
 right mind of a demoniac girl led to the arrest 
 and imprisonment of Paul and Silas (Acts 16.19-) 
 after they had suffered the punishment of 
 scourging. In prison, as they prayed, their 
 bonds were broken and the doors opened through 
 the violence of an earthquake. Their jailer 
 was converted, took them to his own residence 
 over the prison, and fed them (Acts 16.30-34). 
 In the morning came the order to " let those men 
 go," literally, " let those fettows go," for it was 
 a contemptuous release of men who the magis- 
 trates thought had been sufficiently punished. 
 They were startled enough when their messengers 
 returned from the jail, and reported that the 
 men were Roman citizens, and refused to take 
 their freedom in such a manner. Quitting 
 Philippi at the earnest request of the praetors, 
 Paul, leaving Timothy and Luke behind to look 
 after the infant Church, proceeded to Thessa- 
 lonica, another Macedonian city (about 100 miles 
 from Philippi). The road Paul now traversed 
 was the route by which Xerxes had brought his 
 army. Paul's first appearance was before a 
 crowded assembly of true-born Jews, intent on 
 their religious worship. For three successive 
 Sabbaths he pleaded (Acts 17.2), obtaining 
 much success among the proselytes and Gentiles, 
 but rousing the hostility of the Jews. These 
 last raised the mob, and in the absence of Paul 
 and Silas carried off Jason, who was their host, 
 and brought him before the magistrates for 
 harbouring the apostles. Thereupon Paul and 
 Silas left Thessalonica, and travelled 60 miles 
 to Beroea, on the eastern slope of the Olympian 
 range, where they were glady received and their 
 teaching carefully and thoughtfully examined. 
 The result was the formation of a Church strong 
 in numbers and influence (Acts 17.10-12). But 
 the hostility of the Thessalonian Jews followed 
 him even here, and the Church of Beroea sud- 
 denly lost its founder and teacher, though Silas 
 and Timothy remained behind. Directing their 
 
PAUL] 
 
 367 
 
 [PAUL 
 
 steps towards the sea, Paul, with some new com- 
 panions, took ship for Athens (Acts 17.14, 15). 
 As Paul "went through the city" (Acts 17.16-23) 
 he saw God dishonoured on every side, and was 
 melted with pity for the city which was " full 
 of idols" ("wholly given to idolatry," A.V.). 
 He was not blinded by the many forms of beauty 
 about him, nor by words of human wisdom. 
 He saw and heard with an earnestness of con- 
 viction which no Epicurean or Stoic could have 
 understood, the noted hideousness of immorality 
 underlying so fair an exterior, and felt for the 
 people proportionately. Yet he was alone in 
 Athens, and longed for the presence of Silas and 
 Timothy, to comfort his own soul, and to aid him 
 in explaining the nature of the " Unknown God." 
 He had seen in his survey of the city an altar 
 thus inscribed (Acts 17.23), and he sought to 
 turn the fact to advantage. " Whom ye ignor- 
 antly worship, Him declare I unto you " (Acts 
 17.23). 
 
 This speech on Mars' Hill was but the con- 
 tinuation of daily discussions that had taken 
 place in " the market " and in the synagogue. 
 The result was that certain men and women 
 believed [DIONYSIUS, DAMARIS], but we do not 
 know if the number of Christians was large or 
 small, or how long Paul remained among them. 
 He waited for some time, till Silas and Timothy 
 could join him. But we possess no letter to the 
 Athenians ; and we do not know that he was 
 ever in Athens again. 
 
 From Athens Paul had sent for his companions. 
 Timothy he had sent off again to help and 
 encourage the Christians at Thessalonica, pre- 
 ferring to be alone to feeling that they were 
 without a guide in their tribulations (1 Thess. 
 3.1,2). Silas does not appear at Athens, but 
 we find him with the apostle at Corinth, and 
 he joins in the salutation of 1 and 2 Thess. (see 
 below). But Paul had come by himself to this 
 city, sad and heavy, terrified at the magnitude 
 of the task (1 Cor. 2.3). The " much trembling " 
 with which he had entered the city soon gave 
 place to joy. He not only saw how gladly the 
 people received the Word, but God miraculously 
 revealed to him His designs regarding the city 
 (Acts 18.9, 10). Corinth was a very corrupt 
 place. It had become a byword; and to live 
 as a Corinthian meant to pay no respect to 
 the laws of morality. Bengel says, " ' The 
 Church of God in Corinth ! ' what a huge and 
 glorious paradox ! " Amidst all the wrangling 
 and tumult Paul lived at first quietly with a 
 Jew (Acts 18.2) who had been banished from 
 Rome by Claudius, and perhaps was already a 
 Christian. Or Paul may have been attracted to 
 Aquila because he was a tentmaker, like him- 
 self. [AQUILA, PRISCILLA.] Paul had already 
 determined not to take anything for himself 
 for preaching the Word, and he therefore re- 
 sumed his trade. The connexion soon resulted 
 in his hosts becoming his assistants in the 
 spread of the gospel, and as such are com- 
 memorated for all time by the apostle (Acts 
 18.18,20; 1 Cor, 16.19; 2 Tim. 4.19). While 
 
 Paul was living thus quietly, Timothy and 
 Silas returned from Macedonia (Acts 18.5'). The 
 report of Timothy as to the condition of the 
 Church at Thessalonica, and the errors they had 
 fallen into, caused Paul to write to those beloved 
 converts the First Epistle to the Thessalonians. 
 At this time the Jews at Corinth were causing 
 Paul much concern by endeavouring to withhold 
 him from speaking to the Gentiles (1 Thess. 
 2.15, 16). He was greatly concerned, and " shook 
 the dust off his garments" (Acts 18.6) and, 
 proclaiming himself innocent of the blood of 
 those who refused salvation (Ezek. 33.8, 9 ; 
 Matt. 27.24 ; Acts 5.28, 20.26), he declared his 
 intention henceforth to preach to the Gentiles. 
 A proselyte named Titus or Titius Justus, of 
 whom nothing more is known, oll'ered his own 
 house, which was close to the synagogue. In 
 this place the apostle continued to meet his 
 flock. He was followed by Crispus, the ruler 
 of the synagogue, whom he baptized himself. 
 With his own hands also he baptized Gaius and 
 the household of Stephanas, in these instances 
 departing from his usual custom, which was 
 not to baptize those who were converted by 
 his preaching. 
 
 Paul had been about eighteen months in 
 Corinth, perhaps also visiting other places in 
 Achaia and establishing Churches, when he 
 thought the time had come for him to return 
 to Judoea. Priscilla and Aquila, for this is the 
 usual order of their names, were journeying to 
 Ephesus, and the apostle decided to accompany 
 them. He took a solemn farewell of the Church 
 (Acts 18.18), and departed on his voyage. His 
 second journey had lasted about three years. 
 Paul embarked at Cenchreae, the eastern port of 
 Athens, " having shorn his head, for he had a 
 vow " (Acts 18.18). This vow was a common 
 Jewish expression of thankfulness for deliver- 
 ance from danger. The man who took this vow 
 abstained from wine or strong drink for thirty 
 days, letting his hair grow long, in sign of con- 
 secration. On the thirtieth he cut off his hair, 
 usually in the Temple, and burnt it on the altar, 
 with appointed sacrifices (Num. 6). Paul 
 omitted these latter details, perhaps in order 
 to safeguard Christian liberty, and prevent a 
 triumph for the Judaisers. Contrast his later 
 action (Acts 21.24). His stay this time at 
 Ephesus was short. He made a visit to his 
 fellow-countrymen, preached in the synagogue, 
 and then, avoiding all requests to remain, he 
 embarked once more for Syria, leaving behind 
 him Priscilla and Aquila, who had business in 
 Ephesus. But he promised to return if possible, 
 a promise he amply fulfilled. The vessel 
 coasted the islands of Cos, Cnidus, Rhodes, 
 Cyprus, thence across the open sea to Caesarea. 
 From Caesarea Paul made a hasty visit to 
 Jerusalem. We do not know for certain if he 
 was in time for the festival, but it is probable 
 that he was. We are told simply that he 
 " saluted the Church " and proceeded at once to 
 Antioch (Acts 18.22). Though Antioch had 
 become the central point of Christianity, which 
 
PAUL] 
 
 368 
 
 [PAUL 
 
 was receding more and more from the land 
 which gave it birth, yet, so far as we know, Paul 
 now visited the city for the last time. Antioch 
 is not mentioned in the Acts after 18.22, but its 
 position was favourable for guarding the Churches 
 of Asia Minor from the Judaising party, and a 
 convenient starting-point from which to reach 
 not only the Churches of Asia and Galatia, but 
 those of the Isles and of Greece. 
 
 Leaving Antioch, Paul, accompanied by 
 Timothy, on his third missionary journey (Acts 
 19.121.34), passed through Asia Minor, visiting 
 and encouraging the many Churches he had 
 established in that region. There were many 
 wealthy districts in which idleness and luxury 
 undermined the character of the Christians, so 
 that some [GNOSTIC] even went so far as to 
 declare that sins of the body could have no 
 effect on the soul. Disputes had also arisen at 
 Corinth as to the superior efficacy of baptism 
 by Paul, by Apollos, and others [Apoixos], each 
 professing himself a follower of that apostle. 
 Paul therefore sent Titus there, and also Timothy 
 (though the latter appears not to have gone so 
 far, see 1 Cor. 4.17, 16.10 with AcU 19.22), 
 and wrote the First Epistle to the Corinthians, 
 after he had been in Ephesus about three years 
 (Acts 20.31). In the spring of 57 A.D., when he 
 came first to Ephesus on this journey, he had 
 his memorable meeting with the twelve men, 
 followers of John the Baptist (Acts 19.1). In 
 the brief report of the interview we have but 
 a question or two, " Did ye receive the Holy 
 Ghost when ye believed ? " (Acts 19.1-7), and the 
 resulting laying on of hands. Paul's preach- 
 ing produced great effects at Ephesus, both 
 among Jews and Gentiles. The idolatrous 
 practices of the city had been seriously affected, 
 and many burnt their magical books, and mean- 
 while Paul's character had risen so high as 
 to obtain influence over some of the wealthiest 
 and most powerful personages of the province. 
 The danger that now threatened Paul was the 
 outcome of his growing influence, and its serious 
 interference with the worship of Diana. 
 Demetrius, a manufacturer of idols and little 
 shrines containing an image of Diana, addressed 
 an inflammatory speech to his workmen and 
 others against the teaching of Paul, which was 
 taking away their profits (Acts 19.25 ff.), and 
 putting the great temple of Diana itself in 
 danger. The excitement spread instantly ; but 
 the mob, after some hours of uproar, was tran- 
 quillised by the " town-clerk " (19.35), shown 
 by the inscriptions to be a very important 
 personage at Ephesus. 
 
 Shortly after, Paul gathered the Christians 
 together in one last affectionate meeting, com- 
 mended them to the grace of God, and bade 
 them farewell (Acts 20.1). Leaving Ephesus, 
 Paul visited Troas for the second time, with 
 the intention of founding a Church (2 Cor. 
 2.12) ; but the non-arrival of Titus, who had 
 been sent to Corinth from^JSphesus, caused 
 Paul to be cast down. Nevertheless, he con- 
 tinued preaching, and laid the foundations 
 
 for a Christian Church, before continuing his 
 journey to Neapolis in Macedonia. Land- 
 ing at Neapolis, he immediately proceeded to 
 Philippi, where he was cheered by the warmth 
 of his reception. Here he met with Timothy 
 again, but it was not until he had been some 
 time in Macedonia that he was comforted by 
 the presence of Titus. His bodily health was 
 bad at this time (2 Cor. 4.7, 5.10, etc.) ; especi- 
 ally was the " thorn in the flesh " troubling 
 and impeding him. But the real trouble was 
 the weight of the " care of all the Churches," 
 and the real cause of his grief was the danger 
 which now threatened the souls of his converts 
 everywhere throughout the Empire. The 
 struggle was between Judaism and Christianity. 
 These were the " fightings without " which 
 filled him with " fears within " and gave him 
 no rest (2 Cor. 7.5). Paul's anxiety was relieved 
 at last by the arrival of Titus in Macedonia, with 
 the good tidings that the Corinthian Church 
 had submitted to rebuke and set about reforma- 
 tion. The offending person had been punished, 
 and though a party there still charged Paul 
 with applying to his own uses funds con- 
 tributed for the Christians of Palestine, yet 
 the Churches as a whole trusted him entirely. 
 
 As soon as Titus had explained the situation 
 at Corinth, he was sent back again with two 
 others, who were to receive the subscriptions 
 of the faithful for the relief of Palestine. Paul 
 entrusted to Titus himself another letter, ad- 
 dressed this time not only to the Corinthian 
 Church but to all the Christians of Achaia, 
 our Second Epistle to the Corinthians. The 
 great collection of money which the apostle 
 had instituted, and which was now being carried 
 on in Macedonia and hi Achaia, was started 
 with a twofold object. There was undoubtedly 
 great distress among the Hebrew Christians, 
 which the apostle properly thought the wealthier 
 communities that were being added to the 
 Church should relieve. At the same time, he 
 was also statesman enough to see that the 
 breach between the Judaisers and Gentiles, 
 which was becoming wider and threatened to 
 do much mischief, might be bridged if not 
 closed by the kind-hearted liberality of the 
 Gentiles. The healing of this division was at 
 this time the dominating idea with Paul. 
 He felt that if the Gentiles had been made 
 partakers of the spiritual blessings of the Jews, 
 their duty was to return the benefit with earthly 
 blessings (Rom. 15.27 ; 2 Cor. 9.12-15). Of all 
 the Churches of Macedonia, none took a more 
 active part in this collection than that of 
 Philippi. Of the three persons principally en- 
 gaged in the work only Titus is known by 
 name, though they are all warmly commended 
 for zeal and trueheartedness (2 Cor. 8.18, 19, 22). 
 
 [TITUS.] 
 
 After the departure of Titus, Paul continued 
 to visit the Churches in the northern part of 
 Macedonia, and even extended his operations 
 along the eastern side of the Adriatic Sea in 
 the country then called Illyricum, but now 
 
PAUL] 
 
 369 
 
 [PAUL 
 
 known as Dalmatia, Croatia, and Herzegovina, 
 provinces of the Austrian Empire. But his 
 heart was in Corinth, and, as winter was 
 coming on, he soon turned southwards. He 
 declared his determination to punish the dis- 
 obedient (2 Cor. 10.6) minority who still dis- 
 puted his authority and retained their habits 
 of impurity. But (on the most probable theory 
 of the date of the Epistle to the Galatians) 
 when the apostle reached Corinth he was met 
 with the news of a serious defection of the 
 Galatian Churches, probably those of North 
 Galatia, who were throwing off his authority 
 and submitting to the Judaising preaching of 
 missionaries from Jerusalem, who told them 
 that Paul was no true apostle, never having 
 been with Christ, nor received His commission. 
 Also that his doctrine was in opposition to that 
 of Peter and James. Paul therefore wrote his 
 Epistle to the Galatians. 
 
 For three months Paul made Corinth his 
 headquarters, completing the great contribution 
 for Palestine. This was now collected from 
 the individual contributors, and entrusted to 
 treasurers elected by the whole Church, who 
 were to carry it to Jerusalem in company with 
 Paul. While waiting until all should be in 
 readiness for his departure, Paul entrusted a 
 letter to the Church at Rome to the hands of 
 a remarkable woman, named Phoebe, who had 
 much befriended him and other Christians, a 
 Christian lady of Cenchreoe, who was travel- 
 ling to Rome on private business. His reason 
 for writing was to inform them of his in- 
 tention of visiting them when on his way 
 from Jerusalem to Spain, a journey already 
 planned. That he had a considerable acquaint- 
 ance in the metropolis of the civilised world 
 is shown in the Epistle, and that the Christians 
 there were chiefly Gentile is assumed from the 
 fact that he emphasises his post of apostle to 
 the Gentiles, given him by Christ (Rom. 1.13). 
 Paul returned to Jerusalem by sea. On the eve 
 of his departure for Syria he learned of a 
 plot against his life, such as he had met on 
 other occasions (Acts 9.23, 29, 23.12 ; 2 Cor. 
 11.32). To escape his enemies Paul was com- 
 pelled to travel another way, moving rapidly 
 through Macedonia by Thessalonica to Philippi, 
 where he was once more in the company of 
 Luke, apparently left there on the second 
 missionary journey six years before. He seems 
 to have kept the Passover there, for " after the 
 days of unleavened bread" he embarked for 
 Troas, the ship being delayed either by calms 
 or head winds, taking five days on the voyage. 
 [TROAS.] 
 
 It was at Troas that Paul raised from the dead 
 the young man Eutychus (Acts 20.9 ft.). Though 
 the ship started from Troas, Paul himself went 
 overland, round the promontory, to Assos, 
 doubtless to enjoy the quiet which could not 
 be obtained in a ship of those days, before 
 finally embarking. The next port of call being 
 Miletus, whence Paul sent to the Church at 
 Ephesus, there was great joy among the 
 
 24 
 
 Christians there when they heard that the 
 apostle was so near, and many of them went 
 the 20 miles that they might once more see 
 and hear him. His speech to the elders was a 
 solemn reminder of their duties, and a warning 
 of the temptations that would soon arise (Acts 
 20.18-35). The parting came all too soon, and 
 the ship set sail with a fair wind (Acts 21.1) past 
 Cos and Rhodes (which see) to Patara, the har- 
 bour of Xanthus, now " a desert of moving sand." 
 Here the apostle and his company changed 
 vessels (21.2) and left Patara the same day, and 
 with the wind still in their favour sailed into 
 the open sea, crossing the 340 miles between 
 Patara and Tyre. There were disciples at Tyre, 
 and these warned Paul of the danger of going on 
 to Jerusalem. But he resolved to face it, and 
 after seven days, when the vessel was ready, 
 he embarked once more after an affecting leave- 
 taking from the faithful. The same scene was 
 repeated at Ptolemais, where Paul landed, 
 though he did not stop, but pushed on for 
 Ccesarea [TYHB, PTOLEMAIS], where he went 
 to the house of Philip the Evangelist. At 
 Csesarea he was able to spend some days, as 
 he had arrived in good time for the festival. 
 Agabus, who had the gift of prophecy, showed 
 Paul his danger in dramatic fashion. Luke and 
 the other companions of Paul wept and implored 
 him not to go, but his resolution was fixed, and 
 his friends recognised the Will of God in the 
 matter (21.10-14), and even accompanied him 
 to Jerusalem, where he was welcomed by the 
 brethren, 58 A.D. 
 
 Paul was received by James and the elders of 
 the Church with the kiss of brotherhood (21.19). 
 With the deputies who had accompanied him 
 he delivered the great collection of money from 
 the Gentile Churches, and then described to the 
 assembly all that "God had wrought among 
 the Gentiles by his ministry " (21.19). For this 
 good news the assembly glorified God, and 
 joined in solemn thanksgiving. But there was 
 an element in the Christian Church from among 
 the Pharisees which sought to turn Christianity 
 into a Jewish sect. They had all along been 
 Paul's enemies. Their minds were in a state 
 of transition between the Law and the Gospel. 
 To calm the agitation of this noisy party, the 
 assembly induced Paul to accompany four 
 Jewish Christians, who were under a Nazirite 
 vow [Vow], to the Temple, and perform with 
 them the necessary ceremonial. As a measure 
 of conciliation Paul's action proved useless. 
 As he was in the Temple he was sprung upon 
 and held upon a false charge of bringing a Greek 
 into the Holy Place (21.28). He would un- 
 doubtedly have been torn to pieces by the 
 infuriated mob had not the Roman Commandant, 
 appeared and stopped their rage. Calmed for 
 the moment when they saw Paul a prisoner, 
 they broke out once more when, receiving per- 
 mission to speak from the steps leading up to 
 the Castle of Antonia from the Temple area, 
 he declared his Divinely appointed mission to 
 the Gentiles. The Commandant was perplexed, 
 
PAUL] 
 
 370 
 
 [PAUL 
 
 and was about to extort information from the 
 apostle when Paul declared himself a Roman 
 citizen, whom it was unlawful to punish without 
 a trial. Lysias was afraid because he had 
 "bound" the apostle. It seems also that in 
 any case it would have been illegal to have 
 had immediate recourse to torture. Certainly it 
 was contrary to Roman Law to put any Roman 
 citizen to the torture, either by scourging or by 
 any other way. Later, however, this rule was 
 violated. 
 
 The scene now suddenly changes from the 
 Roman fortress to a meeting of the Sanhedrin, 
 specially called by the Commandant to consider 
 the case of Paul. Seeing how little justice he 
 would obtain, Paul defends himself by declaring 
 himself a Pharisee (who believed in the re- 
 surrection of the body), knowing that a fierce 
 party spirit would be roused against the 
 Sadducees (who held no such belief). His ruse 
 succeeded, and Paul found himself once more 
 guarded, rather than held prisoner, by the 
 Roman soldiers (Acts 23.10). In the depression 
 of mind that followed, Paul was comforted by 
 another vision. His safety was secured through 
 the instrumentality of his nephew, who revealed 
 a plot to assassinate him. The Commandant 
 immediately put Paul out of danger by sending 
 him secretly to the governor Felix at Csesarea 
 (23.24 ff.), who ordered him to be retained until 
 his accusers arrived. 
 
 For nearly two years Paul was kept prisoner 
 while Felix, in expectation of a large bribe (he 
 may have heard of the collection the deputa- 
 tion had brought to Palestine) for his release. 
 But the maladministration of Felix brought about 
 his recall to Rome, and Festus took his place 
 as governor. Hardly was he come when the 
 Sanhedrin besought him to let them try Paul 
 at Jerusalem. Festus refused their demand, 
 but of his own accord suggested that course to 
 Paul. But the apostle knew that his assassina- 
 tion was the prime object of the change of scene, 
 and appealed even from the Provincial Court, pre- 
 sided over by Festus, to that of Caesar at Rome. 
 Festus had no choice ; the right of appeal was 
 one of the most important privileges of the 
 Roman citizen. [APPEAL, FESTUS.] 
 
 But Festus was puzzled by the character of 
 the charge brought against his prisoner, and 
 gladly sought the aid of his friends, King Herod 
 Agrippa n. and his sister Bernice, who had come 
 to him on a visit. Paul spoke in his own defence, 
 and Agrippa held that he might have been set 
 at liberty except for his appeal to Rome. 
 
 For Rome Paul sailed in a coasting " ship of 
 Adramyttium " (Acts 27.2), which after touching 
 at Sidon took them as far as Myra, sailing north 
 of Cyprus, instead of on the ordinary course 
 south of that island, because of the west winds. 
 They found an Alexandrian corn-ship bound for 
 Rome sheltering here. The vessel was a large 
 one, for she carried, in addition to her cargo, 
 nearly 300 souls (Acts 27.37). Driven by strong 
 gales southwards, the ship ran until sheltered by 
 the island of Crete, an imprudent course to take, 
 
 for the south coast of that island is deficient 
 in harbours. However, they anchored at Fair 
 Havens, a roadstead which still retains the 
 name. Here they were detained by the north- 
 west winds continuing. Paul advised remaining 
 at Fair Havens, advice that would probably have 
 been taken had that anchorage afforded better 
 accommodation (Acts 27.12). But the centurion 
 (who was supreme) preferred the judgment of 
 the sailing master and the owner of the ship. 
 A favourable change of weather occurring just 
 then, the sailors light-heartedly hoisted sail and 
 rounded the point of land called Cape Matala 
 and headed for Phoenice (Lutro). But they 
 were almost at once met by a wind of hurricane 
 force called the Euroclydon (Euraquilo, R.V.), 
 and were forced to run before it until they got 
 under the lee of the small island of Clauda, 
 about 23 miles south of Phoenice. Here they 
 managed to get the boat aboard, and " under 
 girded" the ship with ropes, to prevent her 
 planks starting in the gale. They also reduced 
 the sails exposed to the wind, and made every- 
 thing as snug as they could. The gale continuing, 
 the next day they lightened the ship by throwing 
 overboard all spare gear. Then followed several 
 days of continued hardship and anxiety, when 
 desperate efforts had to be made to keep the 
 vessel afloat. Paul encouraged the sailors by 
 describing to them a vision he had had in the 
 night. On the fourteenth night from Fair 
 Havens the sailors thought they were near 
 land. They endeavoured to leave the pass- 
 engers to their fate, and escape in the boat. 
 But Paul, seeing through their excuses, spoke 
 to the centurion, who settled the point by 
 cutting the boat adrift, thus compelling the 
 sailors to remain on board and attend to the 
 safety of all. But Paul goes further; he en- 
 courages the exhausted soldiers and sailors to 
 eat, and himself, "giving thanks," sets the 
 example. Thus encouraged, they set to work to 
 throw out the cargo in order to further lighten 
 the vessel and to make other preparations for 
 running ashore. As day broke, a favourable 
 place presented itself, and with seamanlike 
 precautions the ship was beached. The soldiers, 
 answerable with their lives for the safe custody 
 of their prisoners, were now about to kill them 
 all, to prevent their escaping, when the centurion 
 " kept them from their purpose," such a strong 
 hold had the conduct of Paul taken of his mind. 
 So as the wreck broke up all escaped to land, 
 which they found was the island of Melita 
 (Malta). 
 
 The population of Melita (which see) was of 
 Phoenician origin, speaking a mixture of Latin 
 and Greek. They were " barbarians " only in 
 the sense of being foreigners (Rom. 1.14 ; 
 1 Cor. 14.11; Col. 3.11). Like most of the 
 heathen they were superstitious, and saw in the 
 incident of the viper, revived by the warmth of 
 the fire, a sign of the vengeance of the gods for 
 some wrong committed by Paul. Then when 
 they saw that the deadly creature had not 
 harmed the apostle, they swiftly changed theii 
 
PAUL] 
 
 371 
 
 [PAVEMENT 
 
 opinions, and looked upon him as a god (Acts 
 28.3 ff.). 
 
 For three months the shipwrecked passengers 
 and crew were kept on the island, hospitably 
 entertained by the kindly people, especially by 
 a man of note named Publius. This kind treat- 
 ment Paul returned, healing their sick by prayer 
 and the laying on of hands. Then sailing by a 
 ship dedicated to Castor and Pollux [Snips] they 
 reached Syracuse in Sicily. We know nothing of 
 what happened at Syracuse, or even if the apostle 
 was allowed to land. But from the feelings 
 entertained for him by Julius it is most likely 
 that he was permitted to address the many Jews 
 and Jewish proselytes sure to be found in such 
 an important place. 
 
 Sailing past Ortygia under an adverse wind 
 they put into Khegium (Reggio), a city whose 
 patron divinities were the very protectors of sea- 
 farers after whom the ship was named. The 
 next day, the wind having taken a favourable 
 turn to the south, they set sail once more, 
 and reached Puteoli the day following. Here 
 Paul found Christians (Acts 28.14), who at once 
 communicated with the brethren at Rome. 
 Paul is now on one of the most crowded 
 thoroughfares of the Roman Empire. Travel- 
 ling along the Appian Way, after the seven 
 days spent with the Christians of Puteoli, he 
 would find himself " in the midst of praetors 
 and proconsuls, embassies, legions and turms 
 of horse." On the arrival of the party at 
 Appii Forum, they were met by Christians who 
 had come from Rome. Ten miles farther on, at 
 a place called the Three Taverns, where a road 
 from the coast joined the great road they were 
 on, another body of Christians met them, to 
 honour " the ambassador in bonds." 
 
 Paul remained under military custody for 
 two years (Acts 28.16-30) during this First 
 Imprisonment at Rome. He was permitted to 
 reside in his own house, but was constantly 
 chained to a soldier of the praetorian guard. It 
 was this very fact that enabled him to make those 
 converts in the Imperial household to whom he 
 refers in the Epistle to the Philippians (1.12 ff., 
 4.22). 
 
 Paul's trial could not take place before the 
 arrival of his accusers, which was probably in 
 the summer or autumn of 61 A.D., and there 
 might be further delays, as each of the charges 
 had to be heard and decided on separately. 
 During this time the apostle laboured with 
 great effect, aided by faithful attendants and 
 messengers, who wrote from his dictation and 
 carried his letters. Among his associates were 
 Luke, Timothy, Tychicus, Mark, Onesimus, and 
 his "fellow-prisoners" Aristarchus and Epaphras, 
 mentioned in the Epistles of this period, which 
 were written probably in the following order, 
 Philippians, and later Philemon, Colossians, 
 Ephesians (Eph. 6.21 ; Phil 1.1 ; Col. 1.1, 7, 
 4.7, 10, 14 ; Philem. 1, 10, 23, 24). 
 
 Near the beginning of this period (Phil. 1.25, 
 2.24), and still more clearly near its close (Philem. 
 1, 22), he expresses a confident expectation of 
 
 release. The evidence against him was not strong 
 enough, and the apostle was released, and once 
 more resumed his apostolic labours. His Epistles 
 to Timothy and Titus were written at a later 
 period than the close of Luke's narrative of the 
 Acts, while they contain allusions to facts and 
 incidents of travel which cannot be harmonised 
 with his journeys recorded there. 
 
 If we combine these, we gather that after being 
 liberated in the spring of 61 or 63 A.D., and ac- 
 companied by Luke and Timothy, Paul proceeded 
 first to Macedonia and Asia Minor. Soon after- 
 wards he visited Spain, thus fulfilling an ex- 
 pressed wish (Rom. 15.24-28). He then went to 
 Ephesus, again visited Macedonia, from whence 
 he sent his First Epistle to Timothy, to whose 
 oversight he had committed the Ephesian 
 Church. After this he went to Crete, leaving 
 Titus there, to whom he afterwards wrote the 
 Epistle. [Trrus.] Other places he also visited, 
 building up weak Churches, founding new, and 
 encouraging the strong. 
 
 It was perhaps at Nicopolis (Tit. 3.12) that 
 Paul was arrested as the leader of the Christian 
 sect, which the Roman authorities had since the 
 time of the great Roman conflagration (after- 
 wards suspected to be Nero's own work) begun 
 to persecute severely ; and was sent a second 
 time to Rome for trial. But this Second Im- 
 prisonment is very different from the former. 
 He is now treated as a malefactor (2 Tim. 2.9) 
 and cast into prison, where he is only visited 
 by those bold enough to brave shame and 
 danger (2 Tim. 1.16). He appears at first to 
 hare defended himself successfully (2 Tim. 
 4.16, 17) ; yet to have had a presentiment of 
 approaching martyrdom (2 Tim. 4.7). This 
 Second Epistle to Timothy is the apostle's last 
 letter and farewell). He was now alone, with 
 the exception of the " beloved physician " Luke, 
 though Timothy and Mark had been sent for. 
 
 The tradition of the Christian Church is that 
 Paul was martyred by beheading at the close of 
 Nero's reign (e. 67 A.D.). 
 
 The personal appearance of the apostle has 
 been preserved for us by tradition, and accords 
 with that suggested by the reference to his 
 opponents at Corinth (2 Cor. 10.10). He is 
 described as " small in stature, bald-headed, 
 bow-legged, stout, close-browed, with a slightly 
 prominent nose, and full of grace." A pagan 
 satirist also speaks of him as " bald in front, 
 with a slightly prominent nose." 
 
 Paulus, Sergius. -The deputy (R.V. pro- 
 consul) of Cyprus when Paul visited the island 
 (Acts 13.7). He is described as " a prudent man," 
 willing to hear the apostolic message, though 
 Elymas sought to turn him " away from the 
 faith " (Acts 13.8). The punishment inflicted on 
 Elymas appears to have had much to do with 
 the conversion of the deputy (Acts 13.12). 
 
 Pavement. The "pavement" mentioned in 
 John (19.13) denoted a flagged or paved space 
 in Pilate's palace on which the tribunal was 
 sometimes set up. [GABBATHA.] In the O.T. 
 the word used has sometimes the sense of 
 
PAVILION] 
 
 372 
 
 [PELICAN 
 
 building up or putting together, in the manner 
 of mosaic (Esth. 1.6). 
 
 Pavilion. The word rendered " pavilions " 
 (A.V. rnarg. "tents"; R.V. marg. "huts") 
 is more often translated " booth " (Gen. 33.17, 
 etc.). Darkness is made the " pavilion " of 
 God (Ps. 18.11, R.V.). Another word is trans- 
 lated "pavilion " in Jer. 43.10, where the reference 
 may be to the glittering hangings of a canopy. 
 
 Peace-offering, or Thank-offering (which see). 
 This offering consisted of the presentation of 
 a bullock, a sheep, or a goat. It was brought by 
 the offerer, with laying on of hands, and was 
 slain by him on the south side of the altar. The 
 blood was sprinkled round the altar ; the fat 
 was burnt. The " heaved " breast and " waved " 
 shoulder belonged to the priest, and the rest 
 of the animal was used as a sacrificial feast 
 (1 Cor. 10.18). It was a freewill offering, 
 sometimes offered in fulfilment of a vow (Num. 
 6.14-17). Jehovah was regarded as present at 
 the offering, and the offerer as in communion 
 with Hun. The peace -offering succeeded the 
 sin and burnt offerings, thus following up the 
 work of atonement with a solemn thanksgiving 
 (Ex. 20.24, etc.). [ALTAR, SACRIFICE.] 
 
 Peacock. Named amongst the rarities 
 brought to Solomon by the " navy of Tarshish" 
 (1 K. 10.22; 2 Ch. 9.21). In Job 39.13 the 
 rendering " ostrich " is to be preferred. 
 
 Pearl. Mentioned only once in O.T. (Job 
 28.18) ; more frequently in N.T. Esteemed in 
 the East above other jewels, the pearl was pro- 
 cured chiefly in the Persian Gulf, and was well 
 known to the Hebrews. The shell of the pearl- 
 oyster was extensively used in ornamentation, 
 al it is to-day (Matt. 7.6, 13.45, 46 ; Rev. 21.21). 
 
 Peda'hel. God hath redeemed : a son of 
 Ammihud and a chief of Naphtali. He was 
 chosen to assist in the division of the land 
 (Num. 34. 28). 
 
 Pedah'zur. The Rock (God) hath redeemed: 
 the father of Gamaliel, who was chosen to 
 number the people. He was the chief of the 
 tribe of Manasseh (Num. 1.10, 2.20, 7.54,59, 
 10.23). 
 
 Peda'iah. Jehovah hath redeemed: 1. Mater- 
 nal grandfather of King Jehoiakim (2 K. 23.36). 
 
 2. The father of Zerubbabel (1 Ch. 3.18,19). 
 
 3. Father of a Manassite captain in the 
 time of David (1 Ch. 27.20). 4. (Neh. 3.25). 
 5. (Neh. 8.4). 6. (Neh. 11.7). 7. (Neh. 13.13). 
 
 Pedigree. Only found in Num. 1.18. 
 [GENEALOGY, GENERATION.] 
 
 Peep. Imitative of the cry of a young bird, 
 like cheep (Isai. 8.19, 10.14). 
 
 PeTcah. (?) Open-eyed, watchful: the son of 
 Remaliah, an officer of the royal forces who 
 murdered Pekahiah, king of Israel, and seized 
 the throne, 736 B.C. He was a man of energy 
 and resource, and endeavoured to restore the 
 fortunes of his country, which had been much 
 weakened by the heavy tribute demanded by 
 the Assyrian monarchs (2 K. 15.20), and by 
 internal strife. He conspired with King Rezin 
 cf Damascus (2 K. 15.37) with the object of 
 
 plundering the kingdom of Judah. This he 
 afterwards accomplished in part (2 Ch. 28.6), 
 with terrible slaughter, but was driven back 
 through the help of the king of Assyria (2 A'. 
 16.7-9). 
 
 The results of this war were remarkable. 
 It occasioned the great prophecies of Isaiah 
 (chapters 7 to 9) ; Elath, the only Jewish port 
 on the Red Sea, was taken ; and in the end 
 Pekah lost half of his kingdom to Tiglath- 
 pileser, the king of Assyria, who had been 
 called to the aid of Judah (2 A'. 15.29 ; 1 Ch. 
 5. 20). Pekah, who came to the throne by 
 violence, was himself murdered by Hoshea, the 
 son of Elah, who seized the throne (2 K. 15.30). 
 
 Pekahi'ah. Jehovah hath opened the eyes 
 (mind) : the son of Menahem and seventeenth 
 king of Israel. He was slain by Pekah, one of 
 his captains, in the second year of his reign. 
 Pekah, with fifty companions, Gileadites, forced 
 his way into the royal palace, slew Pekahiah, 
 Argob, and Arieh, and seized the throne. Like 
 his predecessors, Pekahiah was an idolater 
 (2 K. 15.22-26). [PEKAH.] 
 
 PeTsod. (?) Visitation, punishment : a tribe in 
 south-east Babylonia (Jer. 50.21 ; Ezek. 23.23). 
 
 Pela'iah. (?) Jehovah is wonderful: 1. Son of 
 Elioenai, one of the last of the royal house of 
 Judah (1 Ch. 3.24). 2. A priest or Levite 
 (Neh. 8.7, 10.10). 
 
 Pelali'ah. Jehovah hath judged : the son of 
 Amzi (Neh. 11.12). 
 
 Pelati'ah. Jehovah hath delivered : 1. 
 grandson of Zerubbabel (1 Ch. 3.21). 2. One 
 of the band of 500 Simeonites who smote the 
 Amalekites at Mount Seir (1 Ch. 4.42). 3. The 
 name of a family sealing the Covenant (Neh. 
 10.22). 4. The son of Benaiah ; one of those 
 against whom Ezekiel was told to prophesy. 
 He died in consequence (Ezek. 11.1-13). 
 
 Pe'leg. Channel or division : the son of Eber 
 and brother of Joktan (Gen. 10.25, 11.16-19 ; 
 1 Ch. 1.19) ; so named because in his time his 
 family was divided, one branch migrating into 
 Southern Arabia, the other remaining in Meso- 
 potamia. 
 
 Pe'let. Escape : 1. A descendant of Caleb 
 (1 Ch. 2.47). 2. The son of Azmaveth, a 
 Benjamite, who joined David at Ziklag (1 Ch. 
 12.3). 
 
 Pe'leth. 1. A Reubenite and father of On 
 (Num. 16.1). We should perhaps read Pallu 
 (Gen. 46.9). 2. Of Judah (1 Ch. 2.33). 
 
 Peleth'ites. A special corps of David's army, 
 who were more particularly employed as mes- 
 sengers and executioners to carry out the 
 personal commands of the king (2 Sam. 8.18), 
 and hence formed part of his bodyguard (1 A'. 
 1.38, 44). [CHERETHITE.] 
 
 Pelican. One of the unclean birds (Lev. 
 11.18 ; Deut. 14.17) ; belonging to the order 
 Steganopodes. The ordinary white pelican is 
 the most common in Syria, though the Dalma- 
 tian pelican is also found there. 
 
 The expression in Ps. 102.6, " pelican of the 
 wilderness," has been cavilled at, as the pelican 
 
PELONITE] 
 
 373 
 
 [PENTATEUCH, THE 
 
 is a sea bird. But it is the custom of this bird 
 to resort to its fishing-ground very early in the 
 morning, returning regularly to its favourite 
 sandbank or inland marsh before noon, to digest 
 its bagful of fish and to feed its young, re- 
 peating the operation in the evening. The 
 appearance of the bird when digesting its food, 
 with its head sunk on its shoulders, and its 
 bill resting on its breast, is full of dejection. 
 The wings of the pelican are of great power, 
 " the spread of the wings reaching over twelve 
 feet" (Tristram). The Hebrew name of the 
 pelican signifies " to vomit," and refers to the 
 creature's habit of storing food in the large 
 pouch attached to its lower mandible, for the 
 purpose of feeding its young. This it emits by 
 pressing its beak against its breast (Lev. 11.18 ; 
 Deut. 14.17). 
 
 Pelon'ite. 1. Helez, an Ephraimite, one of 
 David's mighty men, was called a Pelonite 
 (1 Ch. 11.27, 27.10). In 2 Sam. 23.26 he is 
 called " the Pallite," as one corning from Beth- 
 palet in the south of Judah (Josh. 15.27). 2. 
 1 Ch. 11.36 names " Ahijah the Pelonite " as 
 among David's valiant men. Probably " the 
 Gilonite " should be read. [GiLOH.] 
 
 Pen. For writing with ink on papyrus or 
 parchment the Hebrews made use of a reed 
 pen. The point of this was sharpened by means 
 of a special " secretary's knife," also used for 
 cutting paper (Jer. 36.23). It was almost 
 exactly the same in form as the reed pen used 
 by the ancient Romans. Both paper and pens 
 were borrowed from Egypt. The " iron pen " 
 of Job (19.24) was a sharp graver's tool (Judg. 
 5.14; Isai. 8.1; Jer. 8.8). [WRITING, PARCH- 
 MENT, INK.] 
 
 Peni'el. The face of God : the name given 
 by Jacob to the place where he had wrestled 
 with God (Gen. 32.30); elsewhere written 
 Penuel, which seems to have been its original 
 name, " u " marking an older grammatical 
 form. Its position was between the Jabbok 
 and Succoth ; the way by which Gideon pursued 
 the Midianites (Judg. 8.8, 9, 17). It was forti- 
 fied by Jeroboam (1 K. 12.25). [PENUEL.] 
 
 Penin'nah. (?) Coral : one of Elkanah's two 
 wives (1 Sam. 1.2). 
 
 Penknife. [PEN.] 
 
 Penny, Pence. A silver Roman coin in 
 most general use throughout the Empire in 
 N.T. times. Its Latin name was Denarius, in 
 Greek Denarion. The latter is rendered 
 "penny" (Matt. 20.2, 22.19; Mk. 6.37, 12.15; 
 Lk. 20.24; John 6.7, 12.5; Rev. 6.6). The 
 denarius, worth rather more than eightpence, 
 continued to be current throughout Europe 
 long after the dismemberment of the Empire, 
 and was a fair equivalent for a day's work. 
 The one circulating in the time of Christ bore 
 on the obverse the head of Tiberius, with this 
 inscription, " Tiberius Ca-sar Augustus, son of 
 the deified Augustus" (Ency. Bib.). On the 
 reverse is the Empress Livia, with sceptre and 
 flower. [MOXEY.] 
 
 Pentateuch, The. Five volumes : all com- 
 
 plete copies of Holy Scripture begin with the 
 Pentateuch. It was called by the Jews "the 
 Law" (Torah), or, more fully, "the five-fifths 
 of the Law," or simply " the fifths " ; a single 
 book being called " a fifth." Whether it was 
 originally one is uncertain. If so, the division 
 may, or may not, be due to the Alexandrian 
 translators, but such facts as the Jewish 
 arrangement of the Psalter in five books, and 
 the collection of the five " Megilloth," or rolls, 
 seem to indicate an early tradition in regard 
 to this special number. Many modern critics 
 have proposed to amend this arrangement by 
 including the Book of Joshua, which has several 
 points in common with the Five. Hence 
 the Hexateuch, " the Six Volumes." The Five 
 Books, moreover, stand apart from the rest, 
 as pre-eminently the basis of the Hebrew 
 Theocracy. 
 
 In considering the Mosaic origvn of these 
 books certain preliminary questions have to 
 be met. 
 
 1. It has been said that the arts of writing 
 and of literary composition were not in the 
 time of Moses equal to such productions. 
 Against this we have the testimony of the 
 monuments. The Tel el-Amarna tablets, dis- 
 covered in 1887 on the site of an ancient royal 
 city in Middle Egypt, have yielded to explorers 
 a long series of inscriptions belonging to about 
 the fifteenth century B.C. Such testimony 
 accumulates. Still earlier are the Babylonian 
 tablets of the reign of Khammurabi (now 
 identified with Amraphel, king of Shinar, Gen. 
 14.1), showing that writing and literature 
 existed in the days of Abraham. This objec- 
 tion is now generally given up. 
 
 2. It has been alleged that the books imply 
 a state of religious culture inconsistent with 
 the date claimed for them. But this is a mere 
 assumption ; arbitrarily setting aside not only 
 the internal marks of authenticity which the 
 history contains, but its confirmation from the 
 Israelite religion in subsequent ages. That 
 religion has its manifest basis in an early mono- 
 theism, such as the patriarchal annals portray. 
 The Pentateuch accounts for the fabric of the 
 Jewish faith ; without it the whole system 
 becomes confused and unintelligible. 
 
 Coming, then, to the positive evidence for the 
 genuineness of the Five Books ; their Mosaic 
 origin is attested by considerations such as the 
 following : 
 
 1. Universal ancient tradition, both Jewish 
 and heathen, assigns the work to Moses. The 
 conviction of the Jewish people was uniform 
 and unquestioning from the first. Throughout 
 the O.T., the fact is taken for granted as in- 
 disputable. See Josh. 1.7,8, 8.31,34, 23.6; 
 
 1 K. 2.3 ; 2 K. 11.12 (" the Testimony " : see 
 reff. R.V.), 14.6, 23.25; 1 Ch. 22.12,13; 
 
 2 Ch. 25.4, 33.8 ; Ezra 3.2-6, 6.18 ; Neh. 1.7, 8, 
 and 8. Heathen testimonies naturally follow 
 the Jewish, which are accepted without question 
 by Tacitus, Juvenal, and Strabo ; also by 
 Longinus, Porphyry, and the Emperor Julian. 
 
PENTATEUCH, THE] 
 
 374 
 
 [PENTATEUCH, TH 
 
 Mohammed explicitly recognises the inspira- 
 tion of Moses and the Divine origin of the 
 Jewish Law. 
 
 2. This testimony is sustained by the record 
 itself. The references in the Pentateuch to 
 " a book," or to " the book " which was in 
 course of preparation, are repeated and ex- 
 plicit. See Ex. 17.14, 24.3-7; Num. 33.2; 
 Deut. 28.58, 61, 31.9-12, 24. It is noteworthy, 
 however, that none of the books, excepting 
 Deuteronomy, directly claims Mosaic authorship. 
 
 3. The remaining O.T. books, especially the 
 Prophets, abound in references, more or less 
 explicit, to these Five Books. The laws, the 
 histories, the very phraseology of the Penta- 
 teuch, were evidently in the minds of the 
 sacred writers, as familiar and authoritative. 
 The evidence is cumulative. A few coincidences 
 might conceivably be accidental ; many, taken 
 separately, would be of little force ; but, com- 
 bined, they are irresistible. From Prophets 
 of the Northern Kingdom, the following refer- 
 ences may be given : HOSEA 1.10 (Gen. 22.17), 
 4.10 (Lev. 26.26), 4.13 (Deut. 12.2), 5.6 (Ex. 10.9), 
 8.12, a remarkable passage, which may be 
 rendered (as R.V. marg.), " I wrote for him 
 the ten thousand things of My law, but," etc., 
 11.1 (Ex. 4.22), 11.3 (Deut. 1.31), 11.8 (Deut. 
 29.22, 23), 12.3 (Gen. 25.26, 32.24-28), 12.5 
 (Ex. 3.15), 13.6 (Deut. 8.11-14). AMOS 2.2 
 (Num. 21.28), 2.7 (Ex. 23.6, etc.), 4.4 (Num. 
 28.3) 9.13 (Lev. 26.5). From Prophets of the 
 Southern Kingdom : JOEL 2.2 (Ex. 10.14), 2.23, 
 26, 27 (Lev. 26.4, 5, 11-13). ISAIAH 11.9 
 (Num. 14.21), 12.2 (Ex. 15.2), and JEREMIAH 
 4.23 (Gen. 1.2), 41.10 (Deut. 31.6-8), 44.2 (Deut. 
 32.15, 33.5,26), 52.12 (Ex. 12.33,39, 14.19), 
 58.14 (Deut. 32.13). 
 
 See also MICAH 5.7 and HABAKKUK 3.19 
 (Deut. 32.8,13); MICAH 6.5 (Num. 22.5); 
 ZEPHANIAH 3.13 (Lev. 26.5, 6). That JEREMIAH 
 also abounds in references to Deuteronomy is 
 admitted by alL 
 
 Our Lord and his apostles consistently assume 
 and refer to the Mosaic origin of the Pentateuch. 
 It is impossible to read such passages as John 
 1.17, 5.45-47, 7.19-23 without feeling that the 
 whole weight of N.T. authority is on the 
 " traditional " side. We cannot here discuss 
 the arguments against the force of our Lord's 
 testimony. 
 
 5. The contents as a whole are consistent with 
 Mosaic authorship. (1) The books were written 
 by a Hebrew speaking the language and cherish- 
 ing the sentiments of his nation. (2) They 
 were written by a Hebrew acquainted with 
 Egypt and Arabia, their customs and learning. 
 But Egyptian learning was carefully concealed 
 from foreigners. The priests alone, and the 
 royal family, who were reckoned as priests, 
 had access to it (see Herodotus, ii. 3, 164, 168, 
 etc.). To this class, therefore, the writer must 
 have belonged. (3) There is, moreover, an 
 exact correspondence between the narrative 
 and the institutions, showing that both had 
 one author. The laws are not given in the 
 
 form of statutes, but are mixed with narrative, 
 and are inserted as the exigencies requiring 
 them arose. They are often briefly sketched, 
 and afterwards repeated at greater length, with 
 such modifications as were demanded by altered 
 circumstances. Compare Ex. 21.27 and Deut. 
 15.12-17 ; Num. 4.24-33 and 7.1-9 ; Lev. 17.3, 4, 
 and Deut. 12.5, 6, 21 ; Ex. 22.26 and Deut. 24.6, 
 10-15. 
 
 6. The case of Deuteronomy is special. It is 
 probable that it was " the book " that Hilkiah 
 the high-priest discovered in the Temple during 
 the repairs under King Josiah (2 K. 22.10 ; 2 Ch. 
 34.14). Hence it has been concluded by some 
 critics that Hilkiah himself prepared the book ; 
 while others, shrinking from this imputation 
 of literary forgery, have on various grounds 
 referred the book to the time of Manasseh, or 
 the early days of Isaiah. This view has been 
 supported by the alleged differences in some 
 important respects between the Deuteronomic 
 and the Levitical legislation; but these might 
 naturally arise from the circumstances in which 
 the great Lawgiver uttered his final charge to 
 Israel. The desert- wandering was over, and the 
 instructions now given were adapted to the 
 new life on which the people were entering. 
 The following facts are of use in determining 
 the question : 
 
 (1) The references to Egypt in Deuteronomy 
 are such as would be made by one conversant 
 with the life of that country, and newly escaped 
 from its bondage. 
 
 (2) The language of the book corresponds 
 with that of the rest of the Pentateuch, rather 
 than with that of other O.T. books. 
 
 (3) The references already given prove that 
 Deuteronomy was known to the Prophets of 
 the Northern and the Southern Kingdoms. 
 
 (4) The whole tone of the book is inconsistent 
 with the later date assigned to it. Had its 
 object been to bring down the provisions of 
 the Law to the later times of the monarchy, 
 there are omissions and insertions alike in- 
 conceivable. Among the omissions may be 
 mentioned that of the Service of Song in the 
 House of Jehovah ; among the insertions, the 
 decree for the utter extermination of the 
 Canaanites. Had the book been written 
 several generations after the disappearance 
 of these tribes, such injunctions would have 
 been, says Professor Green of Princeton, " as 
 utterly out of date as a law in New Jersey at 
 the present time offering a bounty for killing 
 wolves, or a royal proclamation in Great Britain 
 ordering the expulsion of the Danes." 
 
 (5) There is, at the same time, nothing in the 
 Mosaic origin of the books inconsistent with 
 the view that they were reduced to writing in 
 Canaan, after the conquest. 
 
 The Mosaic origin of the Five Books implies 
 their essential unity. Whatever the remoter or 
 later sources of this or that part of the annals, 
 the divinely inspired historian and lawgiver of 
 the Hebrew people fused them into one. 
 
 7. But (1) the unity asserted does not in any 
 
PENTATEUCH, THE] 
 
 375 
 
 [PENTECOST 
 
 way exclude the employment of pre-existing 
 documents. Inspiration does not supersede the 
 ordinary methods of the historian ; and every 
 historian has recourse to his authorities. Vitringa 
 long ago (1707) remarked that Moses may have 
 had before him " documents of various kinds, 
 coming down from the times of the Patriarchs, 
 and preserved among the Israelites, which he 
 collected, digested, and amplified where 
 deficient." Such records, albeit in strange 
 and varied forms, are now known to have been 
 preserved by different nations Egyptian, 
 Assyrian, Babylonian; and Moses could not 
 have been ignorant of them. 
 
 Again (2) the Mosaic authorship does not 
 preclude the notion of editorial care in succeeding 
 ages. We are not to suppose that we have in 
 our hands the Five Books, without alteration or 
 addition, as they were written in the wilderness. 
 Changes are not indeed to be arbitrarily assumed ; 
 but the work of later hands appears upon the 
 very surface. Thus, where we are told (Gen. 
 13.7) "the Canaanite was then in the land," 
 we infer that when that sentence was written 
 the Canaanites had been dispossessed. In Gen. 
 36.31, " These are the kings that reigned, . . . 
 before there reigned any king over the children 
 of Israel," is plainly a later addition to the 
 early text. This is found again in 1 Ch. 1.43, 44. 
 In Ex. 16.35 that " the children of Israel did 
 eat manna forty years, until they came unto 
 the borders of the land of Canaan," is a remark 
 most probably added after their entrance into 
 Palestine. See also Lev. 18.28. In like manner, 
 modern names of places are found in the text : 
 Dan, Gen. 14.14; Deut. 34.1 (see Josh. 19.47; 
 Judg. 18.27, 29) ; Hebron, Gen. 13.18, 23.2 
 (see Josh. 14.15 ; Judg. 1.10) ; and perhaps 
 Herman, Num. 14.45 (see 21.1-3 ; Judg. 1.17). 
 Editorial parentheses may also have been 
 introduced into Gen. 13.3, 14.2, 8 ; Deut. 3.9, 
 4.48. It is quite possible that such alterations, 
 with others, were made by Ezra when he 
 issued "the Book of the Law" after the 
 Captivity ; but however this may have been, 
 the isolated phrases cannot be suffered to 
 weigh against the abundant evidence for the 
 earlier origin of the book that contains them. 
 That the last chapter of Deuteronomy was 
 added after the death of Moses is, of course, 
 unquestionable. On the whole, we may safely 
 recognise in the Pentateuch a pre-Mosaic, a 
 Mosaic, and a post-Mosaic element, the second 
 of these being supreme. 
 
 8. It is necessary to state briefly the modern 
 critical hypothesis. About the middle of the 
 eighteenth century, Jean Astruc, Professor of 
 Medicine at Paris, and Court Physician to 
 Louis xiv., made the various use of the Divine 
 names in Genesis and the first six chapters 
 in Exodus the ground of " conjectures " as to 
 the " original documents of which Moses appar- 
 ently availed himself." Thus in Gen. 1.1-2.3 
 the name Elohim, " God," is uniformly em- 
 ployed ; in 2.4-3 it is Jehovah Elohim (a double 
 appellation, it may be remarked, nowhere else 
 
 occurring in the Pentateuch, excepting Ex. 9.30). 
 In chap. 5 it is Elohim only, excepting in ver. 29, 
 where a quotation is made. In chaps. 6-9 
 Elohim and Jehovah are used indiscriminately 
 everywhere, and in 11.1-9, 12, 13, Jehovah 
 only. In chap. 14 a new name is introduced, 
 El-Elyon (God Most High), and is used through- 
 out the chapter. Such variations furnished a 
 hint for distinguishing the documents employed. 
 In the view of Astruc, these were mainly two 
 " Elohist " and " Jehovist," with a few un- 
 classed and subordinate sections. The clue was 
 followed up by others, and a vast literature has 
 grown up around the subject. The Mosaic 
 authorship, which Astruc, Eichhorn, and 
 their immediate followers regarded as un- 
 questionable, is now denied by the critics, 
 while the hypothesis of various documents has 
 been extended from Genesis and Exodus to the 
 other books of the Pentateuch, and latterly to 
 Joshua. 
 
 It may be convenient here to give the latest 
 proposed arrangement of the legislation. It can 
 hardly be regarded, even by its supporters, as 
 final, in view of the many preceding schemes 
 which have had their day and ceased to be. 
 The scheme is as follows : 
 
 1. The two so-called Books of the Covenant 
 (Ex. 20-23 and 34.10, 14-26), wrought together 
 from the original sources, J E (Jehovist and 
 Elohist), which existed before the prophetic 
 writings. 
 
 2. Deuteronomy (D). 
 
 3. The Priestly Code (P or P C), which, besides 
 a brief prefatory history, contains the injunc- 
 tions (Ex. 25-31.17,35-40; Lev. 1-27; Num. 
 1-10.28, 15, 18, 19, 25.6-31, 33-36) (only the 
 longer sections are enumerated: Mb'ller). R 
 stands for editor (redactor) of the whole. 
 
 The first of these " is a brief code dating from 
 an early period, and designed to regulate the 
 life of a community living under simple con- 
 ditions and devoting itself chiefly to agriculture." 
 
 The second "is without doubt the Book of 
 th.e Law, which was found in the Temple in the 
 eighteenth year of King Josiah (621 B.C.), and 
 which formed the prime factor in his great re- 
 formation" (2 K. 22.8-23.25). 
 
 " The last appears to have grown up during 
 the Exile, and to have attained its present form 
 probably in the days of Ezra, about the middle 
 of the fifth century B.C." (Contentio Veritatis, 
 essay by C. F. Burney, M.A., 1902). 
 
 Pentecost. The fiftieth day from the second 
 day of the Passover (16th Nisan). The Hebrews 
 call this solemn festival the Feast of Weeks, 
 because it was kept seven weeks after the 
 Passover. The offerings consisted of the first- 
 fruits of the wheat-harvest, which was then 
 completed ; seven lambs of that year, one calf, 
 and two rams for a burnt-offering ; two lambs 
 for a peace-offering ; and a goat for a sin- 
 offering (Ex. 34.22; Lev. 23.15,16; Num. 
 28.26 ff. ; Deut. 16.9,10). The feast was in- 
 stituted to oblige the Israelites to repair to the 
 Tabernacle or Temple (Ex. 34.22) ; to acknow- 
 
PENUEL] 
 
 376 
 
 [PERFECT, PERFECTION 
 
 ledge the absolute dominion of the Lord by 
 the freewill offering of first-fruits (Ex. 23.16) ; 
 and to commemorate and give thanks to God 
 for the Law given upon Sinai on the fiftieth 
 day after their coming out of Egypt. At first 
 the freewill nature of the offering was observed ; 
 but gradually as the Law hardened it became 
 imperative, and the amount and nature of the 
 offerings a fixed quantity (Lev. 23.15, 21), de- 
 termined only by the wealth of the individual. 
 It became, indeed, a species of taxation. 
 
 It was on the Feast of Pentecost that the 
 Holy Ghost descended in the miraculous manner 
 related in Acts 2.1-4. [FEAST OF TABERNACLES, 
 HARVEST.] 
 
 Modern Jews celebrate the Pentecost for two 
 days. They deck the synagogues and their own 
 houses with flowers ; they listen to an oration 
 in praise of the law, and read appointed lessons 
 from the Pentateuch. 
 
 Penu'el. Face of God: 1. The same as 
 Peniel (Gen. 32.31 ; Judy. 8.8-17). 2. Father of 
 Gedor of Judah (1 Ch. 4.4). 3. A Benjamite 
 (1 Ch. 8.25). 
 
 Peor. Opening : I. One of a group of moun- 
 tains which includes Ncbo and Pisgah. Peor is 
 in Moab, and is the place to which Balak con- 
 ducted Balaam, to curse the Israelites (Num. 
 23.28). Its exact position is unknown. 2. The 
 Moabite god (Num. 25.18, 31.16; Josh. 22.17). 
 In these passages the word is a contraction 
 of Baal-Peor. 
 
 Ferazim. [BAAL-PERAZIM.] 
 
 Perdition. A term signifying the utter loss 
 of future happiness, and applied by our Lord 
 to Judas (John 17.12). The same meaning 
 applies to the " son of perdition " in 2 Thess. 2.3. 
 [MAN OP SIN.] 
 
 Pe'res. From a root meaning " break in 
 two." The plural is found in Dan. 5.25, U 
 (and) pharsin 'pharsin half-minahs or divisions. 
 The singular comes in 5.28, to suggest the name 
 of the Persians, whose empire was to supersede 
 that of Babylon. [MENE.] 
 
 Pe'resh. The son of Machir of Manasseh 
 (1 Ch. 7.16). 
 
 Pe'rez. Breaking through : a family of im- 
 portance in Judah, members of which took 
 leading parts in the national life of the Jews 
 (1 Ch. 27.3 ; Neh. 11.4-6). The same as Pharez, 
 which see. 
 
 Pe'rez-uz'za, Pe'rez-uz'zah. Breach upon 
 Uzzah : the name given by David to the 
 threshing-floor where Uzzah was slain (2 Sam. 
 6.8; 1 Ch. 13.11). [UZZAH.] 
 
 Perfect, Perfection. The words, especially 
 the former, occur many times in both 
 the O.T. and N.T. They are applied 
 sometimes to things, e.g. the law of the Lord, 
 occasionally to God (Matt. 5.48), but most 
 often to man. In the O.T. the attribute is 
 ascribed to particular men or denied to others ; 
 in the N.T. to be perfect is generally a matter 
 of aim and exhortation. What is exactly meant 
 by perfection ? 
 
 1. Present Meaning. The Century Dictionary 
 
 defines perfection as " absolute freedom from 
 defect, blemish, weakness, or liability to err 
 or fail," a definition which implies absolute 
 perfection. Latham's Johnson defines some- 
 what differently, "complete, finished, neither 
 defective nor redundant." The latter is prob- 
 ably the better definition, having regard to 
 the derivation of the word, which comes from 
 the Latin, and means " thoroughly done," 
 " completed." At any rate, it helps us to see 
 what the word implies when it is accurately 
 used. It implies that the thing to which it 
 is applied is of its kind and according to its 
 character complete ; it possesses the qualities 
 that it ought to possess, it has none of the 
 defects which it ought not to have. The 
 moss rose-bud is perfect of its kind, i.e. as 
 a bud ; the application of the word to it does 
 not deny that presently it may reach a more 
 perfect development in the flower. Perfection 
 is always relative to the nature and character 
 of that to which it is applied. Only as applied 
 to God is it absolute, because God alone is 
 absolute. 
 
 2. Bible Usage. The O.T. word for 
 perfect is tdmim. It seems to have originally 
 meant that which is closed or finished off, and 
 thus to come very near to the English word. It 
 is applied to the victim of sacrifice, and then 
 means without blemish (Ex. 12.5) ; it is applied 
 to man, and then means upright, men of integrity 
 (Gen. 6.9, 17.1 ; Ps. 119.1). It is applied to 
 the way, the word, the law of God in its largest 
 and fullest sense. The N.T. word is 
 teleios, the root idea of which is, " tdos," the 
 end. That which is perfect is that which reaches 
 the end for which it was intended, that fulfils 
 its destiny. And so we see the Bible use of 
 the word is identical with the accurate modern 
 use. It is relative ; it varies in meaning with 
 that to which it is applied. Absolute perfec- 
 tion belongs to God alone, and is demanded of 
 none of His creatures. But in their limited 
 relationship men and things may have the 
 word applied to them. 
 
 3. Perfection and the Christian Character. 
 There are certain passages in the N.T. in 
 which the word is applied to the disciple of 
 Christ, of which the most notable is Matt. 5.48, 
 " Ye shall be perfect as your heavenly 
 Father is perfect." The tense is future, 
 but it is quite obvious our Lord means 
 it as a command. The Christian is to fulfil his 
 duty as God fulfils His ; he is, as man, to be like 
 Him in conduct, character, and life. It is not 
 a command that is impossible, " a counsel of 
 perfection," but a practical aim and motive for 
 life. The Sermon on the Mount suggests 
 the method. Whole-hearted love to God ; the 
 manifestation of that same love to their fellow- 
 men ; the cultivation in their OAVTI character of 
 the holiness for which love is but a shorter 
 name ; these are the things by which man 
 becomes perfect, fulfils his end. The verse 
 under discussion is a summary of the teaching 
 of the whole sermon. Indeed, all teaching, all 
 
PERFUMES] 
 
 377 
 
 [PERSECUTE, PERSECUTION 
 
 Scripture is given " that the man of God may 
 be complete, furnished completely unto every 
 good work" (2 Tim. 3.17, R.V.). The atoning 
 work of Christ was carried out to make it 
 possible for man to live the life which leads 
 to perfection. The Holy Spirit is man's ever- 
 present helper ; and one day, in His day, 
 it shall be accomplished, when the Christian 
 Church will fulfil its destiny, " till we all come 
 unto the perfect man" (Eph. 4.13). 
 
 " That ye may stand perfect and complete " 
 (Col 4.12). It is not so yet. Occasionally 
 unguarded language has been used by Christian 
 teachers, and has led men to claim this perfect- 
 ness in this life. It is clearly contrary tc 
 the teaching of the N.T. St. Paul says 
 definitely, " Not that I have already obtained, 
 or am already made perfect " (Phil. 3.12, 
 R.V.), and the whole teaching of Rom. 7 clearly 
 indicates that the battle with sin ends only 
 with life. The goal is before us ; it is a matter 
 of strenuous aim and urgent prayer on our side, 
 of the Holy Spirit working on the Divine side, 
 and at last it will be reached. There is no 
 place for presumption, and certainly none for 
 despair. 
 
 Note (1 ), (hat there are some uses of the word 
 in the N.T. which are clearly modified by the 
 context, as is the case in the O.T. The word 
 may mean mature, full grown, e.g. Phil. 3.15, 
 and the cognate word used of sin in Jas. 1.15, 
 " The sin, when it is full grown, bringeth forth 
 death," where in St. James' picturesque phrase 
 lust is represented as the parent of sin, and 
 grown-up sin as the parent of death. And 
 (2), both in the O.T. and N.T. other words 
 than those already noted are translated by the 
 same English equivalent, but the idea behind 
 these words is very much the same as that 
 behind the two words most frequently used. 
 
 (For further study see Bishop Moule's Thoughts 
 on Christian Sanctity, and W. S. Bruce, The 
 Formation of Christian Character.) 
 
 Perfumes. The use of perfumes was common 
 among the Hebrews and other Orientals before 
 it was known to the Greeks and Romans. 
 Moses speaks of the art of the perfumer in 
 Egypt, and gives the composition of two per- 
 fumes : one to be offered on the golden altar, 
 the other to be used for anointing the high- 
 priest and his sons, the tabernacle, and the 
 sacred vessels (Ex. 30.23, 25, 34 ft). Perfumes 
 were also used in embalming, being composed 
 of myrrh, aloes, and other strong and astrin- 
 gent drugs, to prevent infection and corrup- 
 tion. Many perfumes also were used on the 
 person (Esih. 2.12). The spouse in the Song 
 commends the perfume of her lover (Song 
 3.6), and is complimented in like terms. He 
 names particularly spikenard, cinnamon, myrrh, 
 and aloes. This proves that both men and 
 women used these scents, a practice just as 
 common to-day in those countries, where the 
 heat of the sun and the absence of water 
 almost compel the use of strong-smelling and 
 deodorising scents (Esih. 2.12; Dan. 10.3). 
 
 Perfumes were prepared in the forms of liquids, 
 pomades, powders; also in concentrated form 
 for dilution. It should be observed that among 
 Orientals the sense of smell is much more keenly 
 developed than among Europeans. It is said 
 that Arabs will often pass apples round at a 
 feast, not to be eaten, but for their scent to be 
 enjoyed by each guest. 
 
 Per'ga. A city of Pamphylia; the first 
 place in Asia Minor visited by Paul on his first 
 missionary tour (Acts 13.13); now known as 
 Eski-Kalesi. It is of very ancient foundation, 
 and was celebrated for the worship of Artemis 
 (Diana), whose temple stood on a hill outside 
 the town. It was built near the river Cestius, 
 60 miles from the sea. Paul preached at the 
 place on his return (Acts 14.25). [PAMPHTLIA.] 
 
 Per'gamos, Pergamum. A city of Mysia, now 
 Borgama ; seat of one of the seven Churches of 
 Asia, to whom the Apocalyptic letters were 
 addressed (Rev. 2.12-17). Its position was close 
 to the river Caicus (now Bakyr-tchai), 20 miles 
 from its mouth. It is celebrated by the fact 
 that parchment was first perfected here. It also 
 had a library of 200,000 volumes, which after- 
 wards were taken to Alexandria. Legend gives 
 Pergamos a sacred character as the birthplace 
 of Zeus. Under the Attalic kings Pergamos 
 became a city of temples, colleges, and royal 
 residences, and took rank as the first city in 
 Asia. One of its chief features was a temple 
 of ^Esculapius, who was represented by the 
 figure of a serpent, from the fact that the medical 
 practice of the time included charms and in- 
 cantations among its agencies. " The throne 
 of Satan" was there (Rev. 2.13), probably 
 indicating the fact that Pergamos was at that 
 time the official capital of the Province of 
 Asia, and the oldest and chief centre of the 
 worship of Csesar. 
 
 There were a number of Jews in the city, 
 who farmed the tolls and held land, and were 
 only excluded from public office by their un- 
 willingness to take part in heathen religious 
 ceremonial. The charge against the Church at 
 Pergamos (Rev. 2.14) that some of them were 
 of the school of Balaam, shows that these had 
 become connected in some way with the Aphro- 
 dite worship, which was a feature of the town, 
 Balaam having caused the Israelites to sin in 
 like manner. 
 
 Peri'da. Separation : a member of Solomon's 
 household whose descendants came back with 
 Zerubbabel (Neh. 7.57). In Ezra 2.55 the 
 name is spelled Peruda. 
 
 Perizzites. Villagers : a pre-Israelitish tribe 
 in possession of the hill country of Judaea. Their 
 country was occupied after Judah and Simeon 
 had defeated them by the Ephraimites (Gen. 
 13.7 ; Judg. 1.4, 5 ; Neh. 9.8). 
 
 Persecute, Persecution. Literally and for- 
 mally the equivalent of to pursue and pursuit. 
 Thus in Neh. 9.11, the A.V. rendering, " their 
 persecutors," becomes in the 11. V. " their 
 pursuers." Persecution early befell the 
 Christian Church. Our Lord had foretold it 
 
PERSIA, PERSIAN] 
 
 378 
 
 [PERSIA, PERSIAN 
 
 in the Sermon on the Mount (Matt. 5.10-12), 
 and in His charge to the Twelve (Matt. 10.17, 18). 
 After our Lord's death persecution again and 
 again attended the preaching of the Gospel. 
 It varied in form from the acts of a ruler (as 
 Herod), and regular legal proceedings, to out- 
 breaks of mob violence. After Peter's address 
 (Acts 3) the priests and the Sadducees seized 
 the two apostles. The ministry of Stephen 
 led to charges against him (Acts 6.11), to his 
 own martyrdom (Acts 7.58), and to a " great 
 persecution " of the Church at Jerusalem 
 (Acts 8.1). Herod took up the work (Acts 12.1), 
 and Jews vied with Gentiles in resisting the 
 progress of the infant Church. If Gentiles 
 persecuted at Philippi and Ephesus (Acts 16 
 and 19), Jews were the agressors at Pisidian 
 Antioch (Acts 13), Iconium and Lystra (Acts 
 14), Thessalonica (Acts 17), Corinth (Acts 18). 
 The charges against Paul led to his appeal 
 to Rome (Acts 25.11), where he was executed. 
 He himself wrote of persecution that should 
 befall others as it had befallen him (2 Tim. 
 3.11, 12). Peter comforts his readers in the 
 face of " fiery trial " (1 Pet. 4.12-19). John 
 in the Revelation (2.10, 13, etc.) speaks of 
 persecution existing or to come. The Emperor 
 Nero set on foot a great persecution in the 
 year 64. The tortures of the Christians at 
 last reached a point which, according to the 
 Roman historian Tacitus, won for them sym- 
 pathy (Ann. 15.24). From this time, until early 
 in the fourth century, one great persecution 
 succeeded another. In modern history, the 
 persecution of Protestants by the Church of 
 Rome resulted in a greater loss of life than 
 all the persecutions of Paganism. Mission 
 Churches have also suffered the severest perse- 
 cution, as in the case of the first Roman 
 Catholic converts in Japan, and, in still more 
 recent times, the persecutions in Madagascar, 
 Uganda, and China. The Roman Church has 
 never disavowed its principle that what it 
 deems heresy should be put down by force. 
 It seeks to defend its position by reference to 
 the Law of Moses (as in Deut. 13). But there 
 the punishment is for going after " other gods " 
 i.e. for idolatry. The true Christian position 
 is stated by Paul in 2 Cor. 10.4. 
 
 Persia, Persian. In its widest extent the 
 empire of Persia extended from Thrace and 
 Egypt on the west to the Indus on the east, 
 from the Black Sea, the Caucasus, the Caspian 
 Sea, and the Oxus and Jaxartes on the north to 
 Arabia, the Persian Gulf, and the Indian Ocean 
 on the south. The chief cities were Babylon 
 (conquered by Cyrus in 539 B.C.), Susa, Ecbatana 
 in Media (2 Ch. 36.20-23 ; Esth. 1.3, 14, 18, 10.2 ; 
 Ezek. 27.10, 38.5 ; Dan. 8.20, 10.1, 13, 20, 11.2). 
 The original Persia was a comparatively small 
 tract of country on the Persian Gulf, still known 
 as Fars, or Farsistan. It was bounded on the 
 north by Media, on the west by Elam, on the east 
 by Carmania. It was principally desert, subject 
 to stormy winds, but in the higher regions away 
 from the coast contained some fertile valleys. 
 
 Vines, oranges, and lemons are produced abund- 
 antly in this region, which is famous for its 
 wines of Shiraz. The northern parts are again 
 arid stretches of desert. There are but two 
 references to Persia proper, as contrasted with 
 the empire, in Scripture (Ezek. 27.10, 38.5), and 
 there perhaps Pathros should be read. 
 
 The Persians belonged to the Aryan race, 
 and spoke an Aryan or Indo-European language. 
 The physical type of the countrymen of Darius 
 and Xerxes, like that of their modern descend- 
 ants, was Aryan in all its traits. Travellers 
 still speak of the fair-complexioned, blue- 
 eyed populations met with in the Persian 
 highlands, though the mass of the people 
 belong to the " long-headed " brunette type, 
 with black hair and eyes; even in the same 
 family some members may be of the blonde 
 and others of the brunette type. The Persians 
 were at the outset a Median tribe, who had 
 established themselves on the shores of the 
 Persian Gulf. They had pushed farther south 
 than the rest of their kinsmen, and established 
 themselves in the rear of Elam, on the eastern 
 shore of the Persian Gulf. They were then still, 
 it would seem, in the Stone Age, according 
 to the testimony of graves that have been 
 opened. But intercourse with the civilised 
 kingdom of Assyria soon introduced them to 
 the use of bronze and iron, and even to the 
 glazed pottery of Nineveh. From the very 
 earliest times Persia has been noted for its fruit 
 and vegetable productions. Most of the fruit 
 trees of the temperate and sub-tropical climes 
 grow well, and the care of them forms a staple 
 industry of the people. Rice, wheat, barley, 
 maize, peas and beans are easily grown, the 
 first named forming the staple food of great 
 numbers of the people. All garden vegetables 
 are cultivated and greatly esteemed. The 
 Persians are good gardeners, and very fond of 
 flowers, especially roses, which excel in size, 
 beauty, and fragrance, those of most other 
 countries. The Persians were not great 
 traders, but they brought the arts of husbandry 
 to a great state of perfection. 
 
 The government of ancient Persia was mon- 
 archical, and the crown hereditary. The power 
 of the kings was absolute, and they regarded 
 the people as slaves. The titles by which they 
 were named, " the great king," and " the king 
 of kings," show in what reverence they were 
 held by their subjects, who indeed looked 
 upon their rulers as more than mortal, or at 
 least as vicegerents of the Deity, and paid them 
 the compliment of prostration. In addition to 
 the king there were seven state counsellors, 
 always men of high birth (Ezra 7.12 3.). This 
 council did not interfere with the king's ruling ; 
 it existed but to advise. 
 
 The king as judge was assisted by several 
 '* royal judges," chosen by himself, who ad- 
 ministered justice at stated times in the various 
 provinces of the empire. Ordinary judges, who 
 were numerous, were selected from proved men 
 over fifty years of age. The governors of the 
 
PERSIS] 
 
 379 
 
 [PETEE, SIMON 
 
 provinces were called satraps, appointed by the 
 king himself. These had no authority except 
 through the king, who could appoint, punish, j 
 or reward them. For the speedy despatch of 
 public business the provinces were connected 
 with the capital by regular posts established 
 upon a plan devised by Cyrus. These posts 
 travelled day and night by means of carefully 
 placed relays (EstJi. 8.10). 
 
 The Persians held an ancient belief in one 
 supreme God, but they also worshipped the 
 sun, moon, stars. Their priests were the Magi, 
 who under the Assyrians and Medes had done 
 much to obtain power over king and people. 
 When the Persians triumphed, this priestly 
 caste lost much of its influence, and was perse- 
 cuted by the monarchs. Cyrus adopted this 
 policy, and effected great changes in the systems 
 of the Magi. His revolution was completed by 
 Zoroaster, whose system was most striking, 
 considering it was but the product of human 
 reason. " God," he taught, " existed from all 
 eternity, and was like infinity of time and space. 
 There were two principles in the universe, 
 good and evil ; the one was named Ormuzd, 
 the presiding agent of all good ; and the other 
 Ahriman, the lord of evil. Each had the power 
 of creation, and hence we find good and evil 
 in all things. Light was the type of the good, 
 darkness of the evil spirit." Hence the dis- 
 ciple of Zoroaster turns to the fire on the 
 altar, and to the sun as the noblest of all 
 lights. Zoroaster professed that his book con- 
 tained everything necessary for the Persians to 
 know, whether in religion, politics, literature, 
 science, morality, or physics. There is a re- 
 markable verse in Isaiah (45.7), supposed to 
 contain a reference to the Magian religion, 
 which prevailed in Persia in the time of Cyrus : 
 " I form the light, and create darkness : I make 
 peace, and create evil : I the Lord do all these 
 things." In this passage the Lord rebukes the 
 worship of senseless substances, and draws atten- 
 tion to Himself as the author of them all, therefore 
 greater. The religion of the Persians permitted 
 polygamy and incest. Their manner of dispos- 
 ing of the dead was a religious act. The body 
 was exposed on a high tower, and wild beasts 
 and birds were permitted to devour it. This 
 was a custom hateful to the people at large, who 
 abandoned it as soon as opportunity arose ; 
 it lingers, however, among the Parsees, who 
 expose their dead to the elements in " Towers 
 of Silence." 
 
 The Bible references to Persia are as follows : 
 2 Ch. 36.20-23; Ezra 1.1,2,8, 3.7, 4.3,5,7,24, 
 6.14, 7.1, 9.9 ; Neh. 12.22 ; Esth. 1.3, 14, 18, 19, 
 10.2 ; Eztk. 27.10, 38.5 ; Dan. 5.28, 6.8, 15, 28, 
 8.20, 10.1, 13, 20, 11.2. 
 
 Per'sis. A disciple at Rome to whom Paul 
 sent a salutation, commending her for the good 
 work she had done with diligence and care 
 (Rom. 16.12). 
 
 Peru'da. -[PEBIDA.] 
 
 Pestilence. The term pestilence, or plague, 
 is used by the Hebrews generally for all con- 
 
 tagious complaints, or epidemic diseases. The 
 prophets usually connect together sword, pes- 
 tilence, and famine as three of the most grievous 
 inflictions upon a disobedient people (2 Sam. 
 24.12; also Ex. 5.3, 9.15; Lev. 26.25; Matt. 
 24.7 ; Lk. 21.11). [PLAQUE.] 
 
 Pestle. A heavy instrument of wood used to 
 pound grain into meal in a mortar. In the houses 
 of the wealthy both mortar and pestle were of 
 metal (Num. 11.8 ; Prov. 27.22). [MOBTAR, 
 MILL.] 
 
 - Peter, Simon. The apostle, son of John 
 (John 1.42, R.V.) or Jonah (Matt. 16.17), was 
 a fisherman of Bethsaida in Galilee (Matt. 4.18 
 refi.). The temperament ascribed to the Gali- 
 leans is apparent in the energy, independence, 
 and outspoken frankness of Peter. His speech 
 also was characteristic of his upbringing 
 (Mk. 14.70; Acts 2.7). Apparently he was 
 married before his call to follow our Lord, for 
 the healing of his mother-in-law is -recorded 
 (Matt. 8.14 reft.), and he may have taken his 
 wife with him on his missionary journeys 
 (1 Cor. 9.5); but the "Marcus my son" of 
 1 Pet. 5.13 was, no doubt, John Mark, the title 
 " son " being often applied to disciples. 
 
 When Christ was at Bethany, beyond Jordan 
 (John 1.28, R.V.), Andrew, Simon's brother, 
 brought him to Jesus (John 1.40, 41). To him 
 our Lord then gave the name Cephas (John 1.42). 
 As a disciple of Jesus, Peter was with his Master 
 at Cana (John 2.1-11), and possibly accompanied 
 Him on the Judaean tour (John 2.12, 4.4), re- 
 turning afterwards to his ordinary occupation 
 (John 4.43). Then came the call to definite 
 ministry (Matt. 4.18-22; Mk. 1.16-20; Lk. 
 5.1-11), followed by Peter's inclusion in the 
 number of the Twelve Apostles (Matt. 10.2-4 ; 
 Mk. 3.13-19 ; Lk. 6.12-19). Henceforth Peter 
 is, in the gospel narratives, the most con- 
 spicuous of the Twelve. He witnessed the 
 raising of Jairus' daughter (Mk. 5.37 ; Lk. 
 8.51) ; walked on the water to meet our Lord 
 (Matt. 14.28-31); confessed Christ as "the 
 Christ, the son of the living God," and 
 was blessed by Him (Matt. 16.13-20; Mk. 
 8.27-30 ; Lk. 9.18-21) ; was rebuked by Christ 
 for deprecating the sufferings our Lord foresaw 
 for Himself (Matt. 16.22,23); was a witness 
 of the Transfiguration (Matt. 17.1-4; Mk. 
 9.2-6; Lk. 9.28-32; 2 Pet. 1.17,18); found 
 the tribute money in the fish's mouth (Matt. 
 17.24-27); inquired of our Lord as to the 
 practice of forgiveness (Matt. 18.21) ; received 
 assurance as to the future glory of those who 
 had "left all and followed" Christ (Matt. 
 19.27-30; Mk. 10.28-31; Lk. 18.28-30); 
 joined in asking as to the time of the sorrows 
 foretold for Jerusalem (Mk. 13.1-4) ; and was 
 sent with John to make ready the Passover (Lk. 
 22.8). At the Last Supper Peter at first shrank 
 from permitting our Lord to wash his feet (John 
 13.6-9); he prompted John to ask our Lord 
 the name of His betrayer (John 13.24); de- 
 clared his own unalterable fidelity to Christ, and 
 was warned of his approaching fall (Matt. 
 
PETER, SIMON] 
 
 380 
 
 [PETER, FIRST EPISTLE OF 
 
 26.33-35 ; Mk. 14.29-31 ; Lk. 22.31-34 ; John 
 13.36-38). He accompanied his Master to 
 Gethsemane (Matt. 20.36-46; Mk. 14.33-42; 
 Lk. 22.40-46). On the arrival of the band sent 
 to apprehend our Lord, he resisted, and 
 cut off the ear of Malchus (John 18.10,26). 
 Peter followed his Master as He was led away ; 
 was brought by John into the high-priest's 
 palace ( John 18.16) ; and during the trial 
 thrice denied his Master, but repented (Matt. 
 26.69-75 ; Mk. 14.66-72 ; Lk. 22.55-62 ; John 
 18.17,18, 25-27). 
 
 After the crucifixion, Peter, with John, visited 
 the sepulchre (Lk. 24.12; John 20.2-6), and 
 Peter received from the risen Christ a message 
 which implied a renewal of trust (Mk. 16.7). 
 The risen Christ appeared when he was alone 
 (Lk. 24.34; 1 Cor. 15.5); and with other 
 disciples " at the sea of Tiberias," when Peter 
 was questioned and recommissioned by his 
 Lord (John 21.1-23; 2 Pet. 1.14). He was 
 present with the Church at its gathering after 
 the Ascension (Acts 1.13), and suggested the 
 appointment of an apostle in the place of 
 Judas (Acts 1.15-25). It was Peter who 
 explained the manifestations on the Day of 
 Pentecost (Acts 2.14-40). His healing of the 
 lame man at the Beautiful Gate of the Temple 
 led to his address to the people and his arrest 
 (Acts 3, 4.1-22). Peter dealt with Ananias and 
 Sapphira (Acts 5.1-11) ; and, miracles being 
 wrought by the apostles, they were imprisoned, 
 scourged, and released (Acts 5.12-42). 
 
 Soon afterwards, Peter and John, as repre- 
 senting the apostles, were sent to confirm the 
 converts at Samaria (Acts 8.14), where Peter and 
 John, finding baptized Christians who had not 
 received the Holy Ghost, laid their hands upon 
 them. SIMON MAGUS brought a denunciation 
 upon himself by proposing to Peter that the 
 apostles should sell him the power of giving 
 the Holy Ghost by the laying on of hands 
 (Acts 8). Three years later occurred the first 
 recorded meeting of Peter and Paul (Acts 
 9.26; Gal. 1.17,18). Then two miracles of 
 healing [.ENEAS, DORCAS] were wrought while 
 Peter was on a general tour among the 
 Churches in South Palestine. A vision led 
 to the conversion of Cornelius, and to the 
 removal of doubts from Peter's mind as to the 
 possibility of the heathen becoming Christians 
 without first becoming Jews (Acts 10). The 
 household of Cornelius received the Holy 
 Ghost, and were baptized by Peter, who thus 
 gave offence to his countrymen (Acts 11.2). 
 His defence convinced them that " God hath 
 also to the Gentiles granted repentance unto 
 life" (Acts 11.18). Peter's imprisonment by 
 Herod Agrippa i., and miraculous release, 
 followed. James the son of Zebedee had already 
 been executed (Acts 12.2). [JAMES.] Later we 
 find him at Jerusalem six years afterwards 
 discussing with the other apostles the question 
 of circumcision. But he did not preside at the 
 conference ; nor did he pronounce its decisions 
 (Acts 15). It was at Antioch not long after- 
 
 wards, or, as some think, before the council, 
 that the memorable collision between Peter and 
 Paul took place (Gal. 2.11-14). Peter appeared 
 to waver on the question of the equality of the 
 Gentiles. Paul denounced Peter's conduct, but 
 the older submitted to the younger apostle, re- 
 maining his friend to the end (2 Pet. 3.15). 
 
 Of the latter part of Peter's life nothing certain 
 is known. On leaving Antioch it is supposed 
 that he returned to Jerusalem, and remained 
 there for some years. Very early tradition says 
 that he afterwards went to Rome, and was 
 crucified there, head downwards, according 
 to the prediction of the Lord (John 21.18, 19). 
 Another account has it that he died in Baby- 
 lonia. All that is really certain is, that he 
 was put to death during one of the persecu- 
 tions of Nero's reign, in perhaps 67 A.D. The 
 divergence in these traditions is due to the 
 different opinions held as to the meaning of 
 Babylon in his First Epistle (1 Pet. 5.13; see 
 the next article). 
 
 Peter, First Epistle of. This epistle is num- 
 bered amongst the writings the authenticity of 
 which was unquestioned in the Early Church. 
 The internal evidence also points to the author- 
 ship of Peter. Its date is generally assigned 
 to the period between 64 and 67 A.D. The 
 place of its origin has been a matter of some 
 dispute. It is given as " Babylon " (5.13). 
 That Babylon is actually meant implies, however, 
 conditions for which there is no sufficient 
 evidence. It is more generally held that 
 " Babylon " is here used, as in the Revelation, 
 for Rome. Until the time of Calvin no other 
 view was entertained. Peter's connexion 
 with Rome has, however, been the subject of 
 much controversy, due, in part, to the ex- 
 travagant claims made by the Roman Church. 
 By some, especially by Roman Catholic 
 historians, it is alleged that Peter was for 
 twenty-five years in Rome, and that he was 
 bishop of the Church there. By others it is 
 denied that he was ever at Rome at all. Others 
 held that the apostle may have gone to Rome 
 a short time before his death, in the brief 
 interval between the date of Paul's Second 
 Epistle to Timothy and his martyrdom. The 
 last, considering the weight of traditional 
 testimony, seems to be the most probable 
 opinion. The epistle is addressed to " the 
 elect who are sojourners of the Dispersion " 
 (R.V.) in the provinces of Asia Minor, though 
 it also includes references to Gentile converts 
 within their Churches (1.14, 4.3). 
 
 The contents of the epistle may be divided 
 into two parts, exclusive of the salutation 
 (1.1,2), introduction (3-12), and conclusion 
 (5.13, 14). 
 
 I. General exhortations to love and holi- 
 ness (1.13-2.10). In this portion of the epistle 
 it is especially shown how the distinctions and 
 privileges of the ancient Church are not lost, 
 but reproduced in a higher form, and conferred 
 upon all believers. They are a chosen generation, 
 and their election is in Christ (1.2) ; they have 
 
PETER, SECOND EPISTLE OF] 381 
 
 [PHALTIEL 
 
 a land of promise, incorruptible and unfading, 
 as their " inheritance " (1.4) ; they are a people 
 for God's own possession (2.9) ; the Temple 
 remains, a spiritual house, with Christ the 
 corner-stone (2.4, 5) ; they have an Altar and a 
 Sacrifice, the precious blood of Christ (1.18, 19) ; 
 while they themselves are a holy and royal 
 Priesthood (2.5, 9) ; and the Prophets themselves 
 wrote and spoke for the Christian Church. 
 
 II. Particular exhortations on specific duties 
 (2.11-5.12). While the epistle has thus a 
 practical design, it is as evangelical as if it 
 had been chiefly doctrinal. It points every- 
 where to Christ ; to His atonement, foretold by 
 prophets, contemplated by angels appointed 
 before the foundation of the world ; to His 
 resurrection, ascension, and gift of the Spirit ; 
 His example as a suffering Saviour, and the 
 awful solemnities of the last judgment. Like 
 Paul, he urges the doctrines of the gospel as 
 the great motives to holiness and patience ; 
 like him he descends to the enforcement of 
 every relative duty, while giving the most 
 exalted view of our privileges as believers in 
 Christ. 
 
 Peter's honourable notice of Paul (2 Pet. 3.15), 
 who had publicly reproved him, and recorded 
 that reproof in his Epistle to the Galatians, to 
 whom Peter himself was now writing (Gal. 2.11 ; 
 1 Pet. 1.1 ; 2 Pet. 3.1), is a manifestation of 
 true humility. He illustrates in this way his 
 own precept (1 Pet. 5.5), and had clearly not 
 forgotten the lessons of the last days of our 
 Lord. His explicit reference to Christ as the 
 true corner-stone of the Church (2.4-7) may 
 contain an allusion to the name which had 
 been conferred upon him, and by anticipation 
 to refute the inference drawn from it that Peter 
 is the foundation. 
 
 Some characteristics of the epistle are its 
 emphasis on hope founded on the Resurrec- 
 tion (1.3, 6, 7, 9, 11, 13, etc.) ; the duty of 
 patience under suffering and trial (1.6, 7, 
 2.19-21, 3.13-18, 4.12,13,19); and the use 
 of the term grace for the whole Christian 
 revelation (1.10, 13, 3.7, 4.10, 5.12). The title 
 " chief Shepherd " (5.4) applied to our Lord is 
 peculiar to this epistle. 
 
 Peter, Second Epistle of. This epistle was 
 not generally accepted as canonical by the 
 Early Church. Eusebius places it amongst 
 the disputed books. But the authorship is 
 definitely claimed for Peter in the book itself 
 (1.1, 3.2). The author writes as an old man 
 nearing his end (1.14), who had already 
 addressed a prior letter to the same readers 
 (3.1). The language of the epistle, especially 
 in the first chapter, as compared with that 
 of the speeches of Peter in the Acts, and with 
 that of the First Epistle, is in agreement with 
 this claim. The date of the book may be 
 placed near the end of the apostle's life 
 (1.14). If we accept the traditional belief 
 that he died in Rome, we may place the date 
 not later than 70 A.D. or earlier than 64. The 
 contents of the epistle may be summarised 
 
 thus: The apostle, after his address and 
 salutation, exhorts his readers to perseverance 
 in truth amidst prevailing error and practical 
 infidelity. The best preservative is, he tells 
 them, progressive piety (1.3-11) ; decisive evi- 
 dence of the truth of Scripture doctrine being 
 given also by irrefragable testimony and ful- 
 filled prophecy (1.16-21). He warns false 
 teachers, and those who were beginning to 
 yield to their seductions, of their guilt and 
 danger (2.1-22) ; and assures them that the 
 second coming of the Lord, though delayed, 
 through long-suffering, is as certain as the 
 fact of the Deluge (3.1-3). He then bids 
 Christians be diligent and holy (3.14-18). 
 Appealing to Paul's teaching, in confirmation 
 of his views, he marks how men had wrested 
 his teaching so as to make it countenance most 
 pernicious practices, an evil to be remedied 
 not by neglecting those Scriptures, but by in- 
 creased teachableness and humility (3.5, 16). 
 
 Certain marked correspondences between 
 this epistle and the epistle of Jude (cf., e.g., 
 2.4 and Jude 6; 2.6 and Jude 7; 2.11 and 
 Jude 9 ; 2.17 and Jude 12) suggest a relation 
 between the two. [JUDE, EPISTLE OP.] 
 
 " Knowledge " is the keynote of the epistle. 
 But it is more interesting to note, as identifying 
 the authorship of this and the First Epistle, 
 the recurrence of the words " holy," " conversa- 
 tion " (i.e. manner of life), and the remarkable 
 term "virtue" applied to God (1 Pet. 2.9, 
 " praises" A.V.; " excellencies " R.V. ; 2 Pet. 1.3). 
 There are other striking duplications of terms 
 in the two epistles. What have been called the 
 "retrospective allusions" in the language of 
 the epistle should be noted as quite in accord 
 with the simple, outspoken character of Peter. 
 Thus he uses the expression " to catch with a 
 bait"; of "beguiling" (2.14) (literally, "lay- 
 ing a bait for ") ; " they allure (set a bait) 
 through the lusts of the flesh " (2.18). 
 
 Pethahi'ah. Jehovah has opened: 1. A 
 priest (1 Ch. 24.16). 2. A Levite who had 
 married a foreign wife (Ezra 10.23), who regu- 
 lated the service after Ezra had read the Book 
 of the Law to the people (Neh. 9.5). 3. A son 
 of Meshezabeel of Judah, employed by Darius, 
 the king of Persia, to report to him matters 
 affecting the returned exiles (Neh. 11.24). 
 
 Pe'thor. (?) Interpretation of dreams : a town 
 of Mesopotamia and the residence of Balaam. 
 The Assyrian name was Pitru, on the west bank 
 of the Upper Euphrates (Num. 22.5; Deut. 
 23.4). 
 
 Pethu'eL Father of the prophet Joel (Joel 
 1.1). 
 
 Peul'thai (R.V. Peull'ethai). A Levite (ICh. 
 26.5). 
 
 Pha'lec. Division (Lk. 3.35). [PELEO.] 
 
 Phalti. Jehovah delivers : a Benjamite, to 
 whom Saul gave his daughter Michal, who was 
 David's wife (1 Sam. 25.44). In 2 Sam. 3.15 
 he is called Phaltiel, and then disappears aftei? 
 restoring Michal. 
 
 Phalti'el (2 Sam. 3.15). 
 
PHANUEL] 
 
 382 
 
 L PHAKAOH'S DAUGHTER 
 
 Phanu'el. Face of Ood: the same word as 
 Penuel. Father of Anna the prophetess (Lk. 
 2.36). 
 
 Pharaoh. The Great House : originally of the 
 palace, afterwards of the king himself. The 
 title of the monarch of Egypt. With the ex- 
 ceptions of Pharaoh-nechoh (2 K. 23.29) whose 
 march eastward to Carchemish was resisted 
 by Josiah and Pharaoh-hophra who tempted 
 Zedekiah to resist Nebuchadnezzar (Jer. 44.30) 
 no Pharaoh of Scripture can be identified 
 '.vith certainty. When Abraham (Gen. 12.15 fi.) 
 went to Egypt, Amenemhet m. of the 12th 
 dynasty was, according to some authorities, 
 Pharaoh. He was the first king that took 
 measures to provide a regular water-supply 
 to prevent the terrible famines, which were 
 frequent. He built the huge reservoir called 
 Lake Moeris, and distributed the water by a 
 splendid series of dykes and canals. So well 
 was the work conceived and executed that 
 modern engineers say that it would be well 
 worth repairing the works and restoring the 
 lake. Joseph's Pharaoh (Gen. 37.28 ff.) was one 
 of the early Hyksos or shepherd kings. We 
 have many particulars of this ruler, but not 
 his name. He reigned somewhere about 1700 
 B.C. His sudden advancement of Joseph to a 
 place next himself shows his absolute power, 
 which he exercised on behalf of his favourite 
 minister and his family. The oppression did 
 not begin in Joseph's lifetime ; but by a 
 Pharaoh belonging to a dynasty that "knew 
 not Joseph" (Ex. 1.8). The Pharaohs of the 
 oppression (19th dynasty) were Egyptians, who 
 had driven out the shepherd kings and returned 
 to power. The Pharaoh who died while Moses 
 was in Midian is thought to have been 
 Rameses n. 
 
 Both tradition and the monuments prove 
 that Rameses n. set the foreigners in his 
 land hard and difficult tasks, and this fact he 
 inscribed in each of his buildings, boasting 
 that not a single native Egyptian was employed 
 on the work. He also set up a brick-field of his 
 own. By employing the labour of captives he 
 was enabled to sell his bricks below the market 
 price (Wilkinson, Ancient Egyptians, i. p. 343). 
 All of Rameses n.'s bricks were impressed with 
 his own stamp. Some of these may be seen in 
 the British Museum. 
 
 The persecution begun by Rameses n. was 
 continued with increased vigour by Meneptah, 
 who made the Israelites' lives so hard to bear 
 that their groans mounted up to the throne 
 of God. Not much is known of this Pharaoh 
 of the EXODUS. What is shown of him in 
 Scripture reveals him as superstitious, and 
 vacillating in purpose. His vacillation cost 
 him his army, drowned in the Red Sea. His 
 mummy has been discovered, and is exhibited 
 in the Cairo Museum of Egyptian Antiquities. 
 The account in Exodus does not say that he 
 was drowned with his army (though see Ps. 
 136.15). 
 
 Both Solomon's and David's enemy the Edom- 
 
 ite King Hadad, had married daughters of a 
 Pharaoh of the 21st dynasty (1 K. 3.1, 11.18-20). 
 Towards the end of the 20th dynasty the high- 
 priests of Amen, the god of Thebes, gained great 
 power, and succeeded in overthrowing the power 
 of the Rameses family in Upper Egypt. At 
 the same time a line of Tanite kings ruled in 
 Lower Egypt. There were then two, some 
 think three, rulers in Egypt at the same time 
 until the Bubasites of the 22nd dynasty, of 
 whom Shishak of the Bible was the first, com- 
 bined the two crowns in his own. Shishak 
 began to reign about the twenty-fifth year of 
 Solomon (990 B.C.). Hadad was received with 
 favour at the Egyptian court. He was given 
 the Pharaoh's daughter in marriage and a 
 secure place to dwell in (1 K. 11.18-20). 
 [HADAD, TAHPENES.] 
 
 The Pharaoh of Solomon's time led an ex- 
 pedition into Palestine, seized Gezer, and 
 gave it to his daughter, Solomon's wife (1 K. 
 9.16). Solomon's kingdom was still of small 
 extent, as, according to this account, it did not 
 include even the whole of Palestine. [PALES- 
 TINE.] This alliance was a disastrous one 
 for the Hebrews, for it brought them into 
 friendly relations with idolaters, a fact which 
 subsequently led to the captivities and final 
 dispersion. 
 
 During Rehoboam's reign Shishak brought an 
 army against him (2 Ch. 12.2-4). On a wall 
 at Thebes is a list of the towns captured 
 by this king Bethhoron, Ajalon, Megiddo, 
 Edom, and " Judah-melek," which Dr. Birch 
 (Hist, of Egypt, p. 157) considers to be the 
 royal city of Judah, i.e. Jerusalem. But as 
 some cities in the northern kingdom of Israel 
 are also mentioned, it is clear that he did not 
 attack Judah only. 
 
 Pharaoh-necho and Pharaoh-hophra are the 
 only other Pharaohs mentioned in the Bible. 
 The first met Josiah, king of Judah, in battle 
 at Megiddo. He was afterwards so severely 
 beaten, however, by Nebuchadnezzar n. that 
 he remained for the rest of his life in his own 
 land (2 K. 24.7). Pharaoh-necho is the first 
 Pharaoh mentioned in the Bible who bears a 
 proper name. 
 
 The second, Pharaoh - hophra, helped 
 Jehoiakim and Zedekiah to rebel against 
 Nebuchadnezzar. The result was disastrous 
 to all the allies (Jer. 27.5-8; Ezek. 17.11-18). 
 Hophra came to the throne about 590 B.C., 
 and ruled nineteen years. Ezekiel describes 
 Hophra as a great crocodile lying in his rivers, 
 and boasting they were his own (Ezek. 29.3). 
 But Ezekiel prophesied disaster, as did Jeremiah, 
 who, with other Jews, had taken refuge in 
 Egypt (Jer. 44.30, 46.25,26). The prophecies 
 were fulfilled to the letter. His palace at 
 Memphis was excavated by Prof. Petrie in the 
 winter of 1908-9. It covered two acres, and in 
 parts was fifty feet high. 
 
 Pharaoh's Daughter (Ex. 2.5). Two other 
 daughters of Pharaohs were married to Bible 
 characters. [PHARAOH.] 
 
PHARES] 
 
 383 
 
 [PHILEMON 
 
 Phares. Breach : the same as Pharez and 
 Perez (which see) (Matt. 1.3 ; Lk. 3.33). 
 
 Pharez (R.V. Perez). Son of Judah and 
 Tamar, his daughter-in-law (Gen. 38). Pharez 
 obtained the right of primogeniture over his 
 brother and founded a numerous family, the 
 fertility of which is alluded to in Ruth (4.12). 
 From him sprang two new chief houses, Hezron- 
 ites and Hamulites. From Hezron came the 
 House of David, and eventually our Lord Jesus 
 Christ. In David's time the house of Pharez 
 was particularly distinguished (2 Sam. 23.8 ; 
 cf. 1 Ch. 11.11 with 27.2,3), the royal family 
 itself being at the head. The family was still 
 numerous after the Captivity, for of the sons 
 of Perez, or Pharez, alone 468 were living at 
 Jerusalem, Zerubbabel himself being included 
 (Neh. 11.4-6). In all the important affairs of 
 the nation, and in times of national crisis, the 
 descendants of Pharez are prominent, the Books 
 of Chronicles and Nehemiah being full of refer- 
 ences to individuals among them. [PHARES.l 
 
 Pharisees. Separated : the most important 
 of the Jewish schools of thought which sprang 
 up after the spirit of prophecy had ceased, 
 about a century and a half before the birth of 
 the Saviour. They received their name because 
 they separated themselves from all other Jews, 
 aiming at more than ordinary sanctity and 
 strictness in religion ; but their separation con- 
 sisted chiefly in certain distinctions respecting 
 food and religious ceremonies. This was too 
 often but outward show (Matt. 23.25-28), though 
 as a whole they did not lack sincerity, but rather 
 depth of religion. The party soon obtained 
 great reputation and power with the people, 
 and it was a proverbial saying, that if but two 
 persons entered heaven, one of them would be 
 a Pharisee. They alone survived after the de- 
 struction of the Jewish state, and stamped their 
 doctrines on all later Judaism. The Talmudic 
 literature is solely Pharisaic. 
 
 Their principal doctrines were as follows : the 
 oral law, which they supposed God delivered to 
 Moses by an angel on Mount Sinai, and was pre- 
 served and developed by traditional teaching, 
 was of equal authority with the written law. By 
 observing both these laws, a man might not only 
 obtain justification with God, but might perform 
 meritorious works of supererogation. Fasting, 
 almsgiving, ablutions, and confessions, were a 
 sufficient atonement for sin. Thoughts and 
 desires were not sinful, unless carried into action. 
 They believed in predestination, acknowledged 
 the immortality of the soul, future rewards and 
 punishments, the existence of good and evil 
 angels, and the resurrection of the body. 
 [RESURRECTION.] 
 
 The state of future felicity in which some of 
 the Pharisees believed was very gross. They 
 imagined that men in the next world were to 
 eat, drink, and enjoy the pleasures of love, each 
 being reunited to his former wife. Hence the 
 shrewd question of the Sadducees, who believed in 
 no resurrection, when they asked whose wife the 
 woman would be who had had seven husbands. 
 
 In their dress, the Pharisees affected many 
 peculiarities. Their phylacteries (pieces of 
 parchment with texts written on them, and 
 worn on the forehead or on the arm) were made 
 broader than other people's (Deut. 6.8) ; they 
 enlarged the borders of their garments (Matt. 
 23.5) ; the fringes (Num. 15.38, 39) were made 
 larger ; and they adopted peculiar dress and head- 
 gear when performing a vow. 
 
 Phar'par. Swift : a river flowing southwards 
 from Hermon past Damascus (2 K. 5.12) ; either 
 the stream Awaj, or perhaps the Taura. 
 
 Phar'zites. Descendants of Pharez (Perez) 
 (Num. 26.20). 
 
 Phete (R.V. Phoe'be). Shining : a Christian 
 woman mentioned in Epistle to Romans (16.1, 2). 
 Perhaps officially a deaconess of her Church, 
 that of Cenchrese, who was going to Rome, for 
 what reason we know not. Her wealth and in- 
 dependent state enabled her to be particularly 
 useful to the young Church and its ministers. 
 [DEACOENSS, PAUL.] 
 
 Pheni'ce, Phcenix. Country of palm trees: 
 
 1. A town and harbour on the south-east coast 
 of Crete (Acts 27.12). It was the haven towards 
 which Paul was sailing when he was wrecked. 
 
 2. (Acts 11.19, 15.3). The same as Phoenicia 
 (which see). 
 
 Phenicia (Phoenicia), Phenice. Country of 
 palm trees : the country between the west base 
 of Lebanon and the Mediterranean. It varied 
 in extent from time to time. Its farthest limits 
 were Aradus and Antaradus on the north, and 
 Dor, below Carmel, on the south. At no time 
 was it more than 20 miles broad. It was the 
 scene of the labours of the first Christian Evangel- 
 ists (Acts 11.19, 15.3, 21.2). The name Phoenicia 
 was given it by the Greeks, and the palm tree 
 can be seen as an emblem on the coins of Tyre 
 and Sidon, the chief cities of the district. The 
 native name was Canaan (low-land), to dis- 
 tinguish it from the adjoining highland Aram, 
 the Hebrew name of Syria. [PHCENICIANS, 
 TYRE, SIDON.] 
 
 Phi'chol, Phi'col. Chief captain of Abimelech 
 (Gen. 21.22, 32, 26.26). 
 
 Philadelphia. Brotherly love : a city of Lydia, 
 the seat of one of the seven Churches of Asia 
 to whom the Apocalyptic letters were addressed 
 (Rev. 1.2, 3.7). It is now known as Allah 
 Sheher (city of God), and has a considerable 
 population, including many Christians. 
 
 The city was founded by Attalus Philadelphus 
 (138 B.C.) as a market and storehouse for the 
 wine produced in the surrounding district, 
 which is described as being wonderfully fertile, 
 though subject to earthquake shocks. In 
 Roman times it was of some importance, but 
 attached to the jurisdiction of Sardis. It lay 
 on the direct route between Smyrna and the 
 highlands of Central Asia Minor, and the Church 
 there appears to have used its opportunities for 
 spreading the gospel. 
 
 Philemon. A Christian of Colossse to whom 
 Paul wrote on behalf of his slave Onesimus 
 (Col. 4.9). His wife was Apphia, and his son 
 
PHILEMON, EPISTLE TO] 
 
 384 
 
 [PHILIPPIANS, EPISTLE TO 
 
 Archippus. From the narrative it is evident 
 that Philemon was a man of substance, and 
 hospitable, and grateful to Paul as his spiritual 
 father. He was full of good works and faith 
 (Philem.). 
 
 Philemon, Epistle to. The purpose of the 
 epistle is clearly shown. Onesimus, an absconded 
 slave of Philemon, had succeeded in getting 
 to Rome, and while there had been brought 
 under the power of the gospel through the 
 preaching of Paul. The apostle appreciated 
 his character, and would gladly have retained 
 him in his own service, had he not thought it 
 better the runaway should return to his master. 
 Onesimus was sent with Tychicus to Colossoe 
 (60, 61 or 62, 63 A.D.) with a special commenda- 
 tion in the words of this letter, which intimates 
 in a delicate manner the duty of a Christian 
 master towards a slave who had now become 
 a "beloved brother" (10,17). The letter is a 
 model of courtesy and freedom in the inter- 
 course of Christian friendship. 
 
 Phile'tus. Beloved : one who, with Hymenseus, 
 was condemned by Paul for teaching that 
 " the resurrection is past already," and so 
 destroying the faith of some (2 Tim. 2.17, 18). 
 
 Philip. Lover of horses : 1. The apostle, 
 a native or resident of Bethsaida, the city of 
 Andrew and Peter, called by our Lord early 
 in His ministry (John 1.43, 44). Philip in 
 turn brought in Nathanael, who, like himself, 
 may have dwelt much on the O.T. promises 
 of a Messiah (John 1.45). He was one of the 
 twelve apostles (Matt. 10.3; Mk. 3.18; Lk. 
 6.14 ; Acts 1.13), and was questioned by our 
 Ixjrd at the miracle of feeding the 5000 (John 
 6.5-7). With Andrew he brought to Jesus 
 towards the close of our Lord's life " certain 
 Greeks," who desired to see Him (John 12.20- 
 22) ; and at the Last Supper he addressed to 
 our Lord the plea, " Show us the Father, and 
 it sufficeth us" (John 14.8). Philip is found 
 amongst the apostles assembled in the upper 
 room after the Ascension, but is not subsequently 
 named in the N.T. 
 
 2. The second of the seven deacons (Acts 6.5). 
 He perhaps belonged to Csesarea in Palestine, 
 where afterwards he and his daughters 
 lived (Acts 21.8, 9). After the stoning of 
 Stephen, Philip preached at Sebaste or 
 Samaria, where he worked several miracles, 
 and converted many. He baptized them ; but 
 when the apostles at Jerusalem heard that 
 Samaria had received the word of God, they 
 sent Peter and John, who came and prayed that 
 the Holy Ghost might come upon them. It 
 was while Philip was here that an angel com- 
 manded him to take the road from Jerusalem 
 to old Gaza. He obeyed, and met with and 
 baptized an Ethiopian eunuch in the service 
 uf Queen Candace. Philip continued his work 
 at Azotus (Ashdod), and made his way along 
 the coast to Csesarea (Acts 8). Nothing more 
 is known of him for about twenty years, when 
 Paul and his companions took shelter in his 
 house where he lived with his four daughters, 
 
 who all had the gift of prophecy. He was 
 still known as " one of the seven," and as 
 "the Evangelist" (Acts 21.8). 3. Son of 
 Herod the Great (Matt. 14.3). [HEROD.] 4. 
 Another son of Herod the Great, who was 
 tetrarch of Iturea (Lk. 3.1). 
 
 Philippi. Belonging to Philip : a city of 
 Macedonia, originally Crenides, which was 
 renamed by Philip, king of Macedonia, and 
 father of Alexander the Great, who rebuilt and 
 beautified it (about 350 B.C.). The ancient 
 Philippi, which was 9 miles from the coast, is 
 no more than ruins, but its old port of Neapolis 
 is now known as Kavalla. Between Philippi 
 and the sea was a range of steep hills, up and 
 down which passed the ancient paved road, 
 constructed for the traffic to and from the 
 mines of the interior. It was at Philippi that 
 Paul first preached the gospel in Europe in the 
 course of his second missionary tour, when Lydia 
 and the jailer were converted (Acts 16.12-40 ; 
 1 Thess. 2.2). The apostle twice revisited 
 the place (Acts 20.1-6), strengthening the 
 Church there, which was under the care of 
 Luke for many years. The Christians at 
 Philippi were always full of gratitude for the 
 faith they had received through Paul. They 
 assisted him on several occasions (Phil. 4.16) ; 
 sent him money while in Achaia ; and being 
 informed that he was a prisoner at Rome, they 
 sent a gift to him by Epaphroditus, 61, 62 A.D. 
 (Phil. 2.25-30, 4.10-20). 
 
 Philippians, Epistle to the. The authorship 
 of this epistle was by the unvarying voice of 
 the Early Christian Church ascribed to Paul. 
 There is direct testimony from the second 
 century (Polycarp, Irenseus, and Clement of 
 Alexandria) onwards. The date and place of 
 writing may be inferred with some confidence. 
 It was evidently prepared at Rome, probably 
 during the earlier part of Paul's first captivity 
 in that city, or say 61 or 62 A.D. (1.12-14, 25, 27, 
 2.23, 24, 4.22). It was written when Epaph- 
 roditus was sent with assistance from his grate- 
 ful disciples at Philippi. Epaphroditus was 
 taken ill at Rome, and the Philippians were so 
 distressed that Paul was induced to send him 
 back sooner than he had intended (2.24-30). 
 
 The contents of the epistle may be divided 
 into three parts 
 
 1. After an introduction, Paul expresses his 
 gratitude to God for the Philippians whose 
 conduct had been so exemplary (1.1-11). He 
 reassures them regarding his imprisonment. 
 If Christ be preached and magnified, whether 
 it be by Paul's labours or by his martyrdom, 
 he himself is more than content (1.12-30). 
 He encourages the Philippians to be strong 
 and united (2.1-11), and promises to send 
 Timothy (2.12-24), as he is sending Epaphroditus 
 (2.25-30). 
 
 2. The writer bids the Philippians be on 
 their guard against Judaising teachers, and to 
 strive after perfection, as he himself was doing ; 
 contrasting with this the conduct of false pro- 
 fessors (3.2-4.1). 
 
PHILISTIA] 
 
 385 
 
 [PHINEHAS 
 
 3. He administers admonitions to individual 
 members of the Church ; followed by exhorta- 
 tion to holy joy, moderation, prayer, and thanks- 
 giving ; and to the study of all praiseworthy 
 qualities (4.2-9). The epistle concludes with 
 grateful thanks and the benediction (4.10-23). 
 
 A connexion between this epistle and those 
 to the Ephesians and Colossians is traceable 
 in certain ideas (such as the view of the Church 
 as a city or commonwealth, cf. Phil. 3.20 with 
 Eph. 2.12, 19), phrases (as " preach Christ," 
 Phil 1.16, 18 and Col 1.28), and words (as 
 " lowliness of mind " in Greek one word, 
 Eph. 4.2; Phil 2.3; Col 3.12). 
 
 Philistia. Palestine (Ps. 60.8, 87.4, 108.9). 
 [PALESTINE, PHILISTINES.] 
 
 Philistim. The same as Philistines (Gen. 
 10.14). 
 
 Philistines. Meaning unknown, possibly 
 immigrants : the Philistines inhabited the low- 
 lands of Judah along the sea from Joppa to 
 the desert of Gaza. The district had five 
 divisions, each with its chief town Ashdod or 
 Azotus, Gaza, Askelon, Gath, and Ekron, the 
 last two being inland. These five principalities 
 formed a confederacy of which Ashdod was 
 chief (1 Sam. 6.17), for it was here that the 
 Ark was brought (1 Sam. 5.1). The date of 
 their settlement in Canaan is very uncertain, 
 but they supplanted the Avvim, having come 
 from Caphtor (which see) (Deut. 2.23 ; Jer. 
 47.4; Amos 9.7). 
 
 The Israelites, on their entry into the country, 
 soon came into conflict with the Philistines, 
 who stubbornly resisted the invaders, and 
 indeed compelled a portion of the tribe of 
 Dan to migrate to the neighbourhood of Mount 
 Hermon (Judg. 18). The power of the Philis- 
 tines increased throughout the rule of the 
 Judges and Saul, until, after the death of the 
 latter, David united the tribes and signally de- 
 feated them. [SAMSON.] 
 
 The upper part of the territory of the Philis- 
 tines was claimed by Ephraim (1 K. 15.27, 16.15), 
 who could not, however, drive the inhabitants 
 out. Philistia was at no time ever part of the 
 Kingdom of Israel (2 K. 1.3, 8.2) ; but, on the 
 contrary, its people continued to harass the 
 Israelites by fierce forage, seizing the inhabit- 
 ants and selling them into slavery (1 Sam. 10.5, 
 13.3,17, 14.21, 23.1, 28.1, 29.11, 31.1-12). 
 This condition of things lasted until Tiglath- 
 pileser (734 B.C.) overran the whole country, 
 incidentally subduing the Philistines as far as 
 Gaza. A few years afterwards they revolted 
 against Sargon (Isai. 20) and Sennacherib. 
 Hezekiah was involved by receiving into his 
 care the king of Ekron, who had before been 
 friendly to Assyria. Hezekiah had re-estab- 
 lished the hold over Philistia that Solomon 
 had acquired (2 K. 18.8). In this action 
 he was assisted by the Egyptians, who seized 
 the lower parts of the country (Isai. 19.18). 
 But Sennacherib on his way against the 
 Egyptians took Ashkelon. Other Philistine 
 cities submitted to the Assyrians, and were 
 
 given portions of Hezekiah's country. For a 
 long time the Assyrians held Ashdod, until the 
 Egyptians, under Psammetichus i., finally re- 
 duced it (Jer. 25.20). Neco (Necho), the next 
 Egyptian monarch, on his return from the 
 battle of Megiddo [MEGIDDO] captured Gaza. 
 Once again the Philistines fell between the 
 struggle of two great powers, Egypt and Chaldea, 
 Nebuchadnezzar sweeping the country, slaying 
 and taking captive almost the whole of the 
 population (Jer. 47). The old hatred that the 
 Philistines bore to the Jews was exhibited 
 during the Captivity (Ezek. 25.15-17). From the 
 time of the return, however, the history of the 
 Philistines is absorbed in the struggles of the 
 neighbouring kingdoms. 
 
 Beyond the fact that the Philistines seem 
 to have been a Semitic race, and so kindred 
 to the Jews, scarcely anything is known about 
 them. They were idolaters ; wore charms 
 against disaster ; carried their idols to battle 
 with them (2 Sam. 5.21); and had priests and 
 diviners (1 Sam. 6.2). 
 
 Philol'ogus. Friend of learning : a Christian 
 at Rome whom Paul greeted together with 
 Julia (Rom. 16.15). It was a common slave- 
 name, and the holder may have been connected 
 with the Imperial household. 
 
 Philosopher, Philosophy. The former (Acts 
 17.18 only) is used of Stoics and Epicureans 
 (which see), i.e. Greek thinkers, representative 
 of what is still called philosophy. The latter 
 (Col. 2.8 only) does not refer to Greek philo- 
 sophy, but rather to that special system of 
 thought and practice taught by the false teachers 
 among the Colossians, whatever it was. Perhaps 
 it dealt chiefly with rules of conduct and cere- 
 monial observance. 
 
 Phin'ehas. Probably an Egyptian word 
 meaning the negro: 1. Son of Eleazar, son of 
 Aaron (Ex. 6.25). Whilst young, Phinehas 
 displayed great zeal in suppressing the licentious 
 idolatry that was spreading among his people 
 (Num. 25.7 ff.). For his action on this occasion 
 he was promised that the priesthood should 
 remain in his family for ever (Num. 25.10-13). 
 He was present when the Midianites were 
 routed (Num. 31.6), and, a long while after- 
 wards, he headed an important deputation 
 sent to admonish the trans-Jordanic tribes 
 against the erection of an altar (Josh. 22.13-32). 
 At the division of the land his share was a hill 
 on the Ephraim range (Gibeath-Pinhas). On 
 Eleazar's death, Phinehas became high-priest, 
 and as such gave the oracle to his people in the 
 matter of Gibeah (Judg. 20.28). [ORACLE.] 
 His reputed tomb is pointed out at Awertah, 
 4 miles south-east of Nablous, and tradition 
 has it that the hill on which Awertah is built 
 is the original " Hill of Phinehas." 
 
 2. A younger son of Eli and a judge of Israel 
 (1 Sam. 1.3, 2.34). This Phinehas belonged to 
 the family of Ithamar. He was killed with 
 his brother at the capture of the Ark by the 
 Philistines. 3. A priest or Levite whose son, 
 Eleazar, returned with Ezra (Ezra 8.33). 
 
PHLEGON] 
 
 386 
 
 [PHYSICIAN 
 
 Phleg'on. Zealoug, turning : a Roman 
 Christian greeted by Paul (Rom. 16.14). 
 Phoebe. [PHEBE.] 
 Phoenicia. [PHENICIA.] 
 Phoenicians. The Phoenicians were traders, 
 and settled a colony at Carthage, which became 
 a serious obstacle to Rome in its conquering 
 progress. Their language was Semitic, and 
 closely allied to Hebrew, and Aramaic, the 
 common speech of Palestine in the time of 
 Christ, and to Arabic. Greek and Roman 
 writers are agreed that letters were first com- 
 municated to the Greeks by the Phoenicians. 
 Indeed, it was the ancient belief that they in- 
 vented the alphabet, a statement that remains 
 to be proved. In the time of Solomon the Jews 
 and Phoenicians together carried on the foreign 
 trade of the country (1 K. 10.22). A closer 
 union of the two peoples was prevented by the 
 disastrous revolt of the ten tribes, though an 
 attempt was made by Ahaziah to restore the 
 trade formerly carried on in conjunction with 
 the Phoenicians in the Red Sea (1 K. 22.48, 49). 
 The friendly covenant was not renewed, and sub- 
 sequently the Phoenicians made great profits by 
 buying captive Hebrews and selling them again. 
 The religion of the Phoenicians was a poly- 
 theism, in which the forces of Nature and the 
 male and female principles of reproduction had 
 their place. The sun, moon, and planets were 
 worshipped as intelligent powers, controlling 
 human destinies. Among their gods were Baal, 
 Ashtaroth, and, as it seems, Asherah, deities 
 which had an evil influence on the Hebrews, 
 chiefly because they were worshipped by a 
 people of a higher culture than themselves. 
 The worship of Baal by the Phoenicians was 
 accompanied by the horrible sacrifice of sons 
 by fire [MOLOCH] (Jer. 19.5). 
 Phoenix. [PHEXICE.] 
 
 Phrygia. An inland district of Asia Minor 
 (Acts 2.10, 16.6, 18.23). At one time it in- 
 cluded nearly the whole of Asia Minor, but 
 was afterwards divided into Phrygia Major in 
 the south and Phrygia Minor in the north-west. 
 The greater part of it was in the Roman Province 
 of Asia, and it is probable that whenever 
 Phrygia is mentioned in the N.T. the part that 
 was in " Asia" is always intended, though some 
 scholars think that Acts 16.6 refers to part in 
 the Province of Galatia. Towns of Phrygia 
 named in the N.T. are Laodicea, Hierapolis, 
 and Colossse. The country lies high above the 
 sea, and shows considerable diversity of soil 
 and climate. Jews have resorted thither from 
 early times for purposes of trade, and in the time 
 of the apostles were pretty numerous. 
 
 Phu'rah (R.V. Purah). Gideon's servant 
 (Judg. 7.10, 11). 
 
 Phut, Put. The third of the sons of Ham 
 (Gen. 10.6; 1 Ch. 1.8). He peopled Lybia. 
 His descendants in the time of the prophets 
 (Ezek. 27.10) hired themselves as mercenaries 
 to Tyre. [LYBIA, TYRE.] Nahum (3.9) and 
 Jeremiah (46.9) mention the Phut as mercenary 
 soldiers. In Isai. 66.19 it is misspelt Pul. 
 
 Phu'vah. A son of Issachar (Gen. 46.13). 
 Pua (Num. 26.23) and Puah (1 Ch. 7.1) are 
 other forms of the same name. In Judg. 10.1 
 he is said to be the father of Tola, elsewhere his 
 brother. [PUAH.] 
 
 Phygel'lus (R.V. Phygelus). (?) Fugitive : 
 one who deserted Paul in Asia, or perhaps in 
 Rome during his last imprisonment (2 Tim. 
 
 1.15). [HERMOaENES.] 
 
 Phylactery. A mulet or charm : certain 
 verses from the Law were written in very small 
 Hebrew characters upon four pieces of parch- 
 ment, and these were placed in a square leather 
 case with four divisions. The little parch- 
 ments were folded and packed tightly in the 
 cells with the hairs of clean animals. The 
 box was then placed on three thicknesses of 
 leather, to form the base which rests upon the 
 forehead, and these pieces were stitched to the 
 box with twelve stitches, to represent the 
 twelve tribes, three in each side. Instead of 
 thread, fine sinews from the foot of a clean 
 animal were used. Leathern thongs were 
 attached to the frontlet to fasten it upon 
 the forehead. 
 
 In the arm phylactery the box is not divided 
 into sections, but inside it is placed one piece 
 of parchment, containing the appointed verses 
 of Scripture, written in four columns. This is 
 tied upon the left arm near the heart. 
 
 Phylacteries are worn by every pious male Jew 
 of the age of thirteen and upwards on every week- 
 day in the year during morning prayer, and used 
 to be worn (as it seems) throughout the day. 
 They are not worn on Sabbaths and holy days, 
 for these are enough " signs " in themselves. 
 Our Lord condemned the ostentatious wearing 
 of phylacteries by the Pharisees (Matt. 23.5). 
 The custom appears to be as old as the third 
 or even the fourth century B.C. 
 
 Besides the phylacteries worn on the person 
 there is another called " mezuzah " (doorpost), 
 which is fixed to the right-hand post of every 
 doorway in a Jewish house. The pious Jew 
 touches this whenever he passes it, and, kissing 
 his two fingers, repeats in Hebrew, " The Lord 
 shall preserve thy going out and thy coming 
 in " (Ps. 121.8). 
 
 The verses invariably placed within the 
 phylacteries are Ex. 13.1-16 ; Deut. 6.4-9, 13-21. 
 The raised figure on the outside of the case is 
 the Hebrew letter Shin, the initial letter for 
 Shaddai (Almighty). 
 
 The explanation of this custom is found in 
 Ex. 13.9; Deut. 6.6-8, where Moses tells the 
 people that they should show reverence to 
 and obey God's commands, adding, " And thou 
 shalt bind them for a sign upon thine hand, 
 and they shall be as frontlets between thine 
 eyes." The direction was, of course, intended 
 to be obeyed spiritually. 
 
 Physician. Physicians are mentioned not 
 only in the Egyptian inscriptions, but also in 
 the Code of Khammurabi, the contemporary of 
 Abraham. Later, Alexandria became the store- 
 house of the medical learning of the world. But 
 
PI-BESETH] 
 
 387 
 
 [PILEHA 
 
 it was the Greeks who made a science of the 
 art. Specialisation was as much practised then 
 as now, and Herodotus says that every part of 
 the body was studied by a distinct practitioner. 
 Midwifery was a separate occupation, and in 
 Egypt, at least, was in the hands of women (Ex. 
 1.15). The Egyptian physicians had salaries 
 from the public treasuries, and treated always 
 according to formula. When science failed 
 magic was called in. 
 
 The ceremonial law, and their horror of 
 41 uncleanness," prevented, with a few ex- 
 ceptions, the Jews from practising surgery, but 
 as physicians many of them were skilled and 
 in request among neighbouring nations. What 
 medical skill the Hebrews had was doubtless 
 first obtained from the Egyptians. Moses 
 had all the learning of the Egyptians, doubtless 
 including medicine, and this knowledge had 
 perhaps much to do with the suggestion of 
 sanitary laws. 
 
 Under the Law, God Himself was the physi- 
 cian. Hence allusions to God's " healing 
 mercy " (Ex. 15.26 ; Ps. 103.3 ; Jer. 17.14, 30.17). 
 Any one might practise medicine (Ex. 21.19 ; 
 2 K. 8.29), but only the priest could pro- 
 nounce upon the cure (2 Ch. 16.12 ; Jer. 8.22). 
 What is remarkable about the Hebrew healing 
 arts, is the absence of sorcery, charms, and 
 spells, so common among all other peoples. 
 This in itself was enough to elevate the standard 
 of Jewish medical art above the Egyptian. 
 Ecclesiasticus shows familiarity with the heal- 
 ing art (10.10, 38.1-15), and Jewish tradition 
 ascribes to Solomon a " volume of cures." The 
 large number of Jews scattered over the Roman 
 Empire, and established in Rome itself, led to 
 many of them taking to the arts of healing, so 
 that even among the heathen they had great 
 reputation. Luke's medical knowledge must 
 have been from a Greek source perhaps from 
 Tarsus. Greek schools of medicine were well 
 known at that time, and were attended by 
 students from distant parts. [MEDICINE.] 
 
 Pi-beseth, or Bubastis. The house of Ubasti, 
 who was an Egyptian goddess. It is the modern 
 Tel Basta, about 30 miles north-east from Cairo 
 (Ezek. 30.17). 
 
 Picture. Framed pictures as we have them 
 were unknown to the ancients, but sculptured 
 pictures in low relief, or fresco paintings in 
 clear tone, on the walls of temples and royal 
 palaces, were numerous (Ezek. 23.14). In Egypt, 
 mummy cases were adorned with coloured 
 portraits of the dead, and elaborate inscriptions 
 covered all available space. The " pictures of 
 silver " (Prov. 25.11) were carved ornaments of 
 fruit and foliage. [POMEGRANATES.] 
 
 Piece of Silver. (1 Sam. 2.36). In this 
 passage the reference is clearly to wages for 
 services rendered. In Lk. 15.8, 9 the pieces 
 of silver on the woman's head-dress, one of 
 which she had lost [HEAD-DRESS], were 
 small Greek silver coins, equivalent in value 
 to the Roman denarius. [PENNY.] The thirty 
 pieces of silver for which our Lord was be- 
 
 trayed (Matt. 26.15, 27.3, 5, 6, 9) were most 
 likely shekels. [SHEKEL, JUDAS.] Though 
 shekels were not current coin in our Lord's 
 time, yet there was an equivalent in the stater 
 or tetradrachm (2s. 8d.). [MONEY.] 
 
 Pigeon. [DOVE.] 
 
 Pi-hahi'roth. The site of an Israelite en- 
 campment on the Red Sea, and the end of the 
 third march from Rameses (Ex. 14.2, 9 ; Num. 
 33.7, 8) ; possibly the same as " Pikerehet, not 
 far from Pithom, at the foot of the present 
 Djebel Mariam" (Naville). The first part of 
 the word is the definite article, and is omitted 
 in Num. 33.8. [EXODUS.] 
 
 Pilate, Pontius. Procurator, or governor, of 
 Judaea, under the Roman Emperor Tiberius, 
 26-36 A.D. His birthplace is unknown. 
 History gives him an unfavourable character as 
 an official ; but it is urged by some that his 
 complicity in the crucifixion of our Lord may 
 have led to an exaggerated statement of his 
 defects. It would appear that Pilate was of 
 impetuous temper, an unjust judge, and ready 
 to sell justice for gold. In public and private 
 he excelled in cruelty (cf. Lk. 13.1), and 
 during the whole ten years of his government 
 he was the chief occasion of continual troubles 
 and revolts. Pilate made some attempts to 
 deliver our Lord because he knew the cause of 
 the hostility to Him (Matt. 27.18), and because 
 his wife had been troubled by a dream. He was 
 at the time anxious to preserve the public peace, 
 and so tried to appease the Jews by scourging 
 Jesus (Matt. 27.26 ; John 19.1), whilst offering 
 to release Him on the day of the Passover. 
 Lastly, to save himself, he sent Jesus to Herod, 
 hoping he would pronounce judgment (Lk. 
 23.7, 8). All these expedients proving futile, 
 and fearing he might offend both Jews and 
 the Emperor (John 19.12-15), Pilate delivered 
 Jesus to death, first publicly washing his hands, 
 to show his own innocence of the crime (Matt. 
 27.23, 24). That Pilate repented the action he 
 felt it necessary to take is seen by the inscrip- 
 tion he placed over the crucified victim (John 
 19.19). Pilate's last act recorded in the N.T. 
 was the placing a guard over the tomb where 
 the body of Jesus lay (Matt. 27.65). 
 
 Pilate had disturbed Judaea for ten years, 
 when he was at length deposed by Vitellius, the 
 proconsul of Syria, 36 A.D., and sent to Rome, 
 to give an account of his conduct to the 
 Emperor. While on his way to Rome, Tiberius 
 died, but his successor, Caligula, banished Pilate 
 to Vienne in Gaul, where he was reduced to 
 such extremity that he laid violent hands upon 
 himself. There is a beautiful legend in the 
 Acts of Pilate (Gospel of Nicodemus) that so 
 long as Pilate had upon him the robe without 
 seam which had belonged to our Lord, Caesar's 
 wrath melted into tenderness, and he could not 
 condemn him. 
 
 Pil'dash. Son of Nahor and nephew of 
 Abraham (Gen. 22.22). 
 
 Pil'eha (R.V. Pilha). A chief or family who 
 signed the covenant with Nehemiah (Neh. 10.24). 
 
PILLAR] 
 
 388 
 
 [PITHOM 
 
 Pillar. In very early times rough upright 
 stones were used for votive and monumental 
 purposes, sacrifices being often made near them. 
 We see this in Jacob's pillars (Gen. 28.18, 
 31.45,51,52, 35.14), in the pillars set up by 
 Moses on Sinai (Ex. 24.4), the twenty-four 
 stones at Jordan, and that in Shechem (Josh. 
 4.8,9, 24.26,27). Such pillars often became 
 the scene of idolatrous worship. Pillars were 
 also set up as landmarks and waymarks (1 Sam. 
 20.19). [EzEL.] 
 
 The term also occurs in a metaphorical sense. 
 Thus we have a pillar of cloud, of fire, of smoke, 
 etc. (Ex. 13.21 ; Judg. 20.40). Job speaks of 
 the pillars of heaven and of the earth (9.6, 26.11), 
 as though the heavens and the earth were an 
 edifice raised by the hand of the Creator. Paul 
 speaks of the Christian Church as a pillar or 
 column, on which the truth of the gospel is 
 inscribed (1 Tim. 3.15). In 2 Sam. (18.18) we 
 find Absalom erecting one in the valley of 
 Jehoshaphat to himself, that his name might 
 not be forgotten. So the believer shall have a 
 place of permanence and usefulness in the Divine 
 temple, with the name of God and His city 
 inscribed upon him (Rev. 3.12). 
 
 Pillar, Plain of the. (Judg. 9.6). More cor- 
 rectly " Oak of the Pillar." It was a tree near 
 Shechem, where Abimelech was crowned. 
 
 Pillar of Salt. [SALT, LOT'S WIFE.] 
 
 Pilled. Equivalent to peeled (Gen. 30.37). 
 
 Pillow. 1. [BOLSTER.] 2. In 1 Sam. 19.13 
 perhaps a quilt or a mosquito-net. 3. In Ezek. 
 13.18 perhaps bands placed on the joints of the 
 hands of those who came to consult the diviners. 
 4. In Mk. 4.38 the wooden head-rest at the 
 stern of the boat, or possibly a rower's cushion. 
 
 [HOTJSB.] 
 
 Pilot. [SAILING.] 
 
 Pil'tai. Delivered by Jehovah : head of the 
 priestly house of Moadiah (Neh. 12.17). 
 
 Pine Tree. In Isai. 41.19, 60.13 this is 
 probably an elm. In Neh. 8.15 it is an olive 
 or a wild olive. 
 
 Pinnacle of the Temple. The pinnacle in 
 Matt. 4.5 is sometimes thought to have been the 
 gallery, or parapet, on the top of the buttresses 
 which surrounded the roof of the Temple, or 
 else the top of the Royal Portico on the edge of 
 the Temple area near the ravine. More probably 
 it was the extreme corner of the " winglike " 
 porch which led into the sanctuary. 
 
 Pi'non. Founder of a tribe of Edomites 
 (Gen. 36.41 ; 1 Ch. 1.52). The seat of the family 
 was between Pelra and Zoar, a copper-mining 
 district. [PUNON.] 
 
 Pipe, Piper. The Hebrew word is derived 
 from a root meaning to bore or perforate, 
 and is well translated '* pipe," an old English 
 \vord for flute. It is one of the oldest musical 
 instruments, and the pipe of the Hebrews 
 differed little from that of the Egyptians and 
 Greeks. It was used at all festive occasions in 
 public and in private life (Isai. 5.12; Lk. 7.32), 
 at banquets, at weddings, and at certain religious 
 services and public processions (1 Sam. 10.5 ; 
 
 1 K. 1.40; Isai. 30.29); as also at funerals 
 (Matt. 9.23), and on occasions of public mourn- 
 ing (Jer. 48.36). 
 
 Pi'ram. A king of the Amorites who was 
 slain by Joshua (Josh. 10.3). [JARMUTH.] 
 
 Pira'thon. (?) Height: the home of Abdon 
 the judge, and of Benaiah, one of David's guard 
 (Judg. 12.13,15; 2 Sam. 23.30; 1 Ch. 11.31, 
 27.14). Perhaps the modern Farata, 6 miles 
 south-west of Nablus. 
 
 Pis'gah. (?) Cleft : a ridge in the mountainous 
 regions of Abarim, in the land of Moab (Num. 
 21.20; Dent. 4.49). It was here that Balak 
 brought Balaam to curse the Israelites (Num. 
 23.14), and from this height that Moses viewed 
 the Promised Land (Deut. 3.27, 34.1). [NEBO.] 
 
 Pishon [PisoN.] 
 
 Pisid'ia. A mountainous district of Asia 
 Minor, surrounded by Lycaonia on north and 
 east, Pamphylia on the south, and the province 
 of Asia on the north and west. In Paul's time 
 it formed part of the province of Galatia, 
 where Paul preached (Acts 13.14, 14.24; cf. 
 
 2 Tim. 3.11). [PAUL.] 
 
 Pi'son (R.V. Pishon). One of the four 
 great rivers that watered Paradise (Gen. 2.11). 
 [EDEN.] 
 
 Pis'pah. A man of Asher (1 Ch. 7.38). 
 
 Pit. A word used often in Holy Scripture 
 with varying significance. 
 
 Gen. 14.10. Slime-pits. The bituminous lake 
 which covers the lower part of the Jordan 
 valley. [SLIME.] 
 
 Gen. 37.20. A dry well, bottle-shaped, 
 into which Joseph was cast by his brethren. 
 [WELLS.] 
 
 Ex. 21.33. Storehouse for grain, sometimes 
 excavated in the living rock. [CORN.] 
 
 Num. 16.30; Job 17.16. Sheol, or Hades. 
 The " bars of the pit " are the bars of the gates 
 of Sheol. [HELL.] See also Job 33.18 ff. ; 
 Ps. 9.15, etc. 
 
 Ps. 7.15. An allusion to the method of catch- 
 ing wild beasts by digging pits and lightly cover- 
 ing them with branches or soil. [HUNTING.] 
 
 Rev. 9.1, 2. " The bottomless pit." Liter- 
 ally " the pit of the abyss," the abode of evil 
 spirits. See also Lk. 8.31, where " the deep " 
 has the same meaning. [HELL.] 
 
 Pitch. Bitumen and vegetable resins. 
 Eruptions of bitumen are frequent along the 
 shores of the Dead Sea, which has been called 
 " Lake of Asphaltites." It was used largely 
 in building, and quantities of it, dry and hard, 
 have been found amongst the larger ruins, as at 
 Babylon (Gen. 6.14 ; Ex. 2.3 ; Isai. 34.9). 
 
 Pitcher. (Gen. 24.14 ff.). An earthenware 
 vessel with two handles was generally used 
 to raise water from wells. [RACHEL.] Full or 
 empty it was carried on the head, giving the 
 bearer a graceful upright bearing. [POTTERY, 
 BOTTLE.] 
 
 Pi'thom. House of (the god) Atum : an 
 Egyptian treasure city (Ex. 1.11) in Goshen, oast 
 of the Nile, near the present Lsmailia. The 
 " treasure " was most probably corn, or other 
 
PITHON] 
 
 389 
 
 [PLAGUES, THE TEN 
 
 stores ; not likely of precious metals or jewels. 
 It was built by the enslaved Israelites under 
 Rameses n. The Romans built Heroopolis on 
 the edge of its site. It was rediscovered by 
 Naville at Tel-el-Mashkuta. [GosHEN.] 
 
 Pi'thon. Harmless : grandson of Jonathan, 
 son of Saul (1 Ch. 8.35, 9.41). 
 
 Plague. A deadly contagious disease, very 
 prevalent over the East from time immemorial, 
 and the most dreaded scourge of Egypt and 
 Syria. The term is used metaphorically to 
 express a special visitation or punishment for 
 wrong-doing (Ex. 9.14; Lev. 26.21 ; 1 K. 8.37 ; 
 see also the next article) ; also to denote 
 calamity (Mk. 5.29, 34 ; Lk. 7.21). 
 
 Several Hebrew words are translated 
 " plague," which is used to denote various 
 malignant diseases, as well as moral and physical 
 evils. In modern speech the plague is the 
 '' bubo-plague," which can be traced back 
 certainly as far as the third century B.C., and 
 probably existed in Egypt even in the time of 
 the Exodus, and perhaps was one of the ten 
 plagues that afflicted Pharaoh and his people. 
 
 " The leading characteristics of true or bubo- 
 plague may be briefly stated as a highly con- 
 tagious, malignant fever, attended by sudden 
 and extreme prostration of all the powers, a 
 leaden, sunken look of the eyes, erysipelatous 
 inflammation of the skin, buboes, carbuncles, 
 and pet echial patches, with diarrhoea" (Diseases 
 of the Bible, p. Gl). Some of these symptoms 
 are plainly seen in the plague on the Philistines 
 in 1 Sam. 5 and 6, where notice also the mention 
 of mice (or rats), for the connexion of these with 
 plague is now well known. It has also been 
 suggested that the curtains of the Ark might 
 have carried the infection by fleas, and given 
 it to the men of Bethshemesh when they looked 
 into the Ark (1 Sam. 6.19). 
 
 The plague that followed the eating of the 
 quails was evidently ptomaine poisoning (Num. 
 11.31 ff.). The sudden advent of vast numbers 
 might well cause the flesh to be more or less 
 putrid when eaten. The nature of the plague 
 that in a short time carried off 14,700 of the 
 people (Num. 16.41-50) is uncertain, but the 
 account of its miraculous stoppage is remark- 
 able, as foreshadowing modern ideas about 
 isolation and fumigation. 
 
 Plagues, The Ten. The design of these awful 
 visitations was to make Pharaoh know and con- 
 fess that the God of the Hebrews was supreme, 
 even over the power of the greatest nation, 
 as Egypt then was (Ex. 9.16 ; 1 Sam. 4.8, etc.) ; 
 to execute judgment upon the Egyptians for 
 their cruelty, and their gross idolatry. They 
 were in most, if not in all, cases unusual examples 
 of natural calamities. 
 
 1. Turning the Nile into Blood. The Egyptians 
 paid divine honours to the Nile, and revered it 
 as the first of their gods. They declared him 
 to be the rival of heaven, since he watered the 
 land without the aid of clouds and rain. The 
 turning of their sacred river into blood for seven 
 days was a calamity that caused consternation 
 
 and dismay (Ex. 7.14 H). It is said that some- 
 times a red fungus grows over the Nile which 
 looks like blood; but it does not injure the 
 water. 
 
 2. The Plague of Frogs. In the plague of 
 frogs the sacred river itself was made an active 
 instrument of punishment, together with another 
 of their gods. The frog was a sacred animal, 
 consecrated to the sun, and considered an em- 
 blem of divine inspiration in its inflations. 
 The sudden removal of the plague was as strong 
 a proof of God's power as its infliction (Ex. 
 8.1 ff.). [FROGS.] 
 
 3. Lice. The plague of lice was peculiarly 
 offensive to a people so scrupulously neat and 
 cleanly as the Egyptians. The priests, especi- 
 ally, shaved their whole bodies every third day, 
 that no vermin might be found upon them while 
 they served their gods. This plague reflected 
 on the magicians themselves, because from the 
 minuteness of the objects they could not produce 
 them by sleight-of-hand, and they were forced 
 to confess the " finger of God " (Ex. 8.19) in the 
 miracle. 
 
 4. Flies. The three first plagues were borne 
 by Egyptian and Israelite alike, but in the 
 fourth God specially separated His people from 
 their oppressors (Ex. 8.20-23). This miracle 
 would be in part against the sacred beetles 
 worshipped in Egypt. 
 
 5. Murrain of Cattle. A fifth plague broke 
 out on the morrow, according to Divine threaten- 
 ing (Ex. 9.1 ff.). Again a distinction is made 
 between the Egyptians and their captives. 
 The cattle of the former are all destroyed, that 
 of the Israelites escaping. This miracle was 
 directly from the hand of God without the inter- 
 vention of Aaron, though Moses was sent to 
 Pharaoh with the usual warning. 
 
 6. Boils and Blains.(Ex. 9.8 ff.). The sixth 
 plague marked an increasing severity in God's 
 dealings with the obdurate and false-hearted 
 monarch. A new feature also was that Moses 
 appeared personally as the executor of the Divine 
 commands. As, in the presence of Pharaoh, he 
 threw ashes into the air, a plague of boils fell on 
 the people. It was a significant act. The scatter- 
 ing of the ashes would remind the Egyptians of 
 their custom in the sacrifice of human victims, 
 and another of their deities, the air, was made 
 to disseminate the disease. 
 
 7. The Hail. In the tremendous plague of 
 hail, the united elements of air, water, and fire 
 were employed. Evidently there had been some 
 interval between this plague and No. 6, for the 
 Egyptians had had time to procure more cattle 
 from the land of Goshen, where the Israelites 
 dwelt. Also it is evident that the Egyptians had 
 by this time a wholesome dread of the God of 
 Israel, and took timely shelter from the terrible 
 lightning and hail of ice that rained upon the 
 land (Ex. 9.20). 
 
 8. The Locusts. This plague attacked the 
 vegetable kingdom. It was a more terrible 
 punishment than the others, because the p-eople's 
 food was almost entirely vegetable. This time 
 
PLAISTER, PLASTER] 
 
 390 
 
 [POETRY OF THE HEBREWS 
 
 Pharaoh's advisers urged him to comply with 
 the demand of God's messengers, pointing out 
 that the country had already suffered as much 
 as it could bear (Ex. 10.7). Pharaoh yielded 
 so far that he permitted men to go (10.7-11), 
 but even this concession was made with a bad 
 grace, and he " drives " Moses and Aaron out of 
 his presence. So once more Moses stretched 
 out his hand at the command of God, and the 
 land was covered with locusts, which destroyed 
 all such vegetation as had escaped the hail. 
 Again the monarch promised to let the Israelites 
 go, and again refused to keep his word when the 
 plague was removed. The word " coast " in this 
 narrative is an old English word for district. 
 
 9. Three Days of Darkness. The plague of 
 darkness would show the powerlessness of the 
 God of the Sun whom the Egyptians worshipped. 
 The ninth plague came upon the Egyptians 
 without warning, bringing darkness, gross and 
 palpable, over the land for three days (10.21 ff.). 
 But the Israelites had light in their dwellings. 
 Pharaoh now consented that all the people shall 
 go, leaving their cattle behind. The offer was 
 rejected by Moses, who announces the last and 
 most dreadful plague, the destruction of all the 
 first-born of Egypt (10.24-11.8). He departs in 
 anger from the presence of Pharaoh, whose heart 
 is still hardened (11.9, 10). This visitation is 
 connected by many with the sirocco, or Chasmin, 
 a hot, scorching wind from the desert of Sahara, 
 sometimes accompanied with dense darkness, 
 owing to the atmosphere being filled with fine 
 sand. The sirocco did not extend to the district 
 of Goshen, being miraculously withheld or turned 
 aside. [DARKNESS.] 
 
 10. Death of the First-born. This was the last 
 and decisive plague (Ex. 11.1 ff.). It was also 
 the one most plainly inflicted by direct Divine 
 interposition, not only not bearing any re- 
 semblance to any natural phenomenon, but 
 occurring without the intervention of any known 
 agency. Even the childless were smitten, in 
 the destruction of the first-born of the beasts. 
 The Israelites were protected from the destroy- 
 ing angel by obeying the special commands of 
 God. 
 
 Plaister, Plaster. In Deuteronomy (27.2) the 
 uneven surface of the stones was to be smoothed 
 over with a cement, capable of resisting the action 
 of the air in a dry climate, and then engraved or 
 painted with the words of the Law. Such plaster 
 inscriptions are found among the antiquities of 
 Egypt. In Leviticus (14.43) the plastering of a 
 house that had been infected with a fungus was 
 an act of sanitation. Theplaister of Isaiah (38.21) 
 was a poultice of figs, to draw out the matter 
 from the boil. [MORTAR.] 
 
 Plane. [CARPENTER, TOOLS.] 
 
 Planets. (2 K. 23.5). In this passage the 
 Hebrew word means " the resting-places " of 
 the sun, i.e. the twelve signs of the zodiac. 
 
 Plat. Plot, i.e., of ground (2 K. 9.26). 
 
 Pledge. A security given for the perform- 
 ance of a contract (Deut. 24.10-13). So Judah 
 gave pledges to Tamar (Gen. 38.17). Under the 
 
 Jewish law the taking of pledges was regulated : 
 the millstone was not to be taken in pledge 
 (Deut. 24.6), nor was a person taking a pledge to 
 enter a house to fetch it (the sacredness given 
 to the poor man's home strikingly illustrates 
 the refined and humane spirit of these laws), 
 nor to detain necessary raiment after sunset, 
 nor was a widow's raiment to be taken in 
 pledge (Deut. 24.17). In Job (22.6) some are 
 reproached because they have taken their 
 brother's pledge, and in Job (24.3,9) because 
 they have taken the widow's ox. It has gener- 
 ally been the case in all countries that the legis- 
 lature has enacted laws to protect the poor debtor 
 from the oppressive creditor. House and land, 
 or even sons and daughters, could be given in 
 pledge (Neh. 5.5), in which case they became 
 slaves to the creditor. Sometimes the law 
 about keeping the Sabbath was evaded by the 
 purchaser giving a pledge instead of money (Ex. 
 22.26 ; Prov. 20.16 ; Amos 2.8). In 1 Sam. 
 17.18 " take their pledge " means " bring back 
 a token of their welfare." [SLAVERY.] 
 
 Pleiades. A group of stars, seven of which 
 are larger than the others, in the neck or near 
 the shoulder of Taurus (the bull) (Job 9.9, 38.31 ; 
 Amos 5.8). 
 
 Plough. The Syrian plough, used in all the 
 regions around, was a very simple contrivance, 
 and so light that a man might carry it in one 
 hand. Sometimes, indeed, it was nothing more 
 than the branch of a tree, cut below the bifurca- 
 tion, and used without wheels. With such an 
 imperfect machine it was impossible to do 
 more than scratch the surface of the ground. 
 Even the ploughs furnished with shares and 
 coulters were, and are still, very light, com- 
 pelling the ploughman to lean his whole weight 
 on it to produce any effect (Lk. 9.62). Some- 
 times the end of the shaft was shod with iron, 
 which is of such a shape that the prophecies of 
 Isai. 2.4 and Joel 3.10 can easily be fulfilled. 
 Ploughs were generally drawn by asses and cows, 
 seldom by oxen ; sometimes one or more of a 
 kind being used, the yoking together of beasts 
 of unequal size and step produced too jerky a 
 motion for an operation requiring regularity, 
 besides being cruel to the beasts themselves 
 (Deut. 22.10). 
 
 Ploughshare. [PLOUGH.] 
 
 Plower, Plowman. [HUSBANDMAN.] 
 
 Plumbline, Plummet. The use of this was 
 well known to the Hebrews, the English trans- 
 lation representing three words in the original. 
 The first of these ('anaq) in Amos 7.7, 8 suggests 
 a weight of metal ; while the second (eben b e dil) 
 in Zech. 4.10 points to this being made of tin. 
 The third (mishqoleth, or mishqeleth), in 2 K. 
 21.13 ; Isai. 28.17, is a more general term for 
 a weight. 
 
 Poche'reth of Zebaim (K. V. Pochereth-hazze- 
 baim). Binder of gazelles: a servant of Solo- 
 mon. His descendants returned with Zerubbabel 
 (Ezra 2.57 ; Neh. 7.59). 
 
 Poetry of the Hebrews, The. I. Its Form. 
 It is probable that in the very earliest times, 
 
POETRY OP THE HEBREWS] 
 
 391 
 
 [POETRY OF THE HEBREWS 
 
 when history and doctrine, and even rules for 
 ritual and conduct, began to be handed down, 
 poetry became used as a ready means for 
 making an impression upon the memory. But 
 it is even more probable that such poetry was 
 in the most rudimentary form, rhyme and metre 
 belonging to a later stage of its history. If 
 this be so, Hebrew poetry, as regards its form, 
 represents an early period of poetical expression. 
 For, as far as we are able to determine the 
 character of the poetry of the Bible, metre 
 seems to have been absent from it, save in one 
 well-marked instance, and rhyme to have been 
 used very rarely. In one instance, as has 
 been said, metre can be clearly traced, namely, ' 
 in the wailing songs used by women at funerals, 
 and in poems of the same character. Such, for 
 example, are the words put into the mouths 
 of the mourning women in Jer. 9.18-20, and 
 the lamentation of Amos 5.1, sqq., and the 
 elaborate example of Lam. 1-4. In this metre, a 
 verse is in two parts, the proportion of which 
 is as 3 to 2, with a sharp ccesura between them, 
 " giving rise to a peculiar limping rhythm, 
 in which the second member, as it were, dies 
 away and expires." It is called the Kinah 
 or Lamentation metre. 
 
 Numerous attempts have been made to trace 
 other metres, but so far with little success. 
 The authors of the various theories of Biblical 
 metres are compelled to make innumerable 
 changes in the Massoretic text, in order to pro- 
 duce consecutive examples which fit their 
 system. They urge in favour of their attempts 
 that we must expect difficulties in recognising 
 metres, when there is so often doubt about the 
 exact vocalisation of the Hebrew consonants, 
 and when the nature of the musical melodies 
 to which the words were set is quite unknown 
 to us. But the non-specialist in such studies 
 can only reply that there are limits to the 
 alteration of the traditional text, and that 
 discoverers of Hebrew metres can hardly claim 
 that they have made any disciples to their 
 several systems. 
 
 Wherein, then, is Hebrew poetry to be distin- 
 guished by its form ? The answer is, by its 
 Rhythm. A piece of Hebrew prose may be 
 very charming, as is, for example, the English 
 prose of Ruskin ; but it lacks a rhythm which 
 is distinctive of poetry. In Hebrew poetry 
 the rhythm has a balance not merely of form, 
 but also of meaning. This is technically called 
 'parallelism, and in all introductions to the 
 Book of Psalms, the various kinds of parallelism 
 are given at length. It is sufficient here to say 
 that it is evident that the second half of a verse 
 can either agree with the statement of the first 
 (Ps. 19.1), or can show the opposite side of 
 truth (Ps. 1.6), and again that such parallelisms 
 can be double (Ps. 103.11, 12). The technical 
 names of these varieties of parallelism are of 
 no importance ; the facts represented by the 
 names are. 
 
 There are also some " minor embellish- 
 ments " in Hebrew poetry which should be 
 
 mentioned. Some poets, particularly, as it 
 would seem, those of later ages, liked to begin 
 each line of a poem with a fresh letter of the 
 alphabet (e.g. Ps. 25), and in one case (Ps. 119) 
 each of the stanzas begins with the same letter, 
 until all the twenty-two letters of the Hebrew 
 alphabet are exhausted. Modern Hebrew poets 
 are very fond of making the lines of poems 
 begin or end with the letters of their own name, 
 or of the name of a famous person connected 
 with their poem. But there is no certain, or 
 even probable, example of this in the O.T. 
 Other marks of poetry are archaistic terms 
 and figures of speech, but these need no explan- 
 ation, for such are employed by poets of all 
 ages and countries. 
 
 II. Its Character. The more important 
 poems in the O.T. are Lamech's Song of the 
 Sword (Gen. 4.23, 24), Miriam's song on crossing 
 the Red Sea (Ex. 15), the well song (Num. 
 21.17, 18), Moses' Song in Deut. 32, Deborah's 
 Song (Judg. 5), the extracts from the Book of 
 Jasher, Josh. 10.12, 13 (the battle of Gibeon 
 under Joshua), and 2 Sam. 1.19-27 (David's 
 lamentation over Saul and Jonathan), David's 
 Song (2 Sam. 22), poems contained in the Book 
 of Isaiah (e.g. 5.1-7, 26), Psalms, Proverbs, 
 Job, the Song of Songs, Lamentations. Besides 
 these, many prophecies approach the poetic 
 form, but are not poems, in the strict sense of 
 the word. It will be observed that none of 
 the poems is purely secular, although naturally 
 there must have been many secular songs among 
 the Hebrews (cf. Isai. 23.15, 24.9). Part of a 
 vintage song is given in the Talmud. Even 
 Lamech's is the song of a typical heathen 
 boasting of his sword, of the material against 
 the spiritual. The Song of Songs, though 
 properly a collection of odes sung during the 
 marriage week, is hardly an exception, because, 
 as the collection stands, it was probably under- 
 stood from the very first to signify the relation 
 of God to Israel. 
 
 Thus all that survives deals, more or less 
 directly, with the communion of the individual 
 soul with God, or with the close relation in 
 which the nation stands to God. In not a few 
 of the poems it is difficult to decide which of 
 these two subjects is described, for the language 
 may fairly be applied to either. Even the 
 " I " of the writer may represent the soul of 
 the nation addressing itself to God. [PSALMS.] 
 But, even if many commentators were right in 
 making this identification, as often as they do, 
 there would still remain enough passages to 
 indicate a very advanced sense of the personal 
 relationship between the Psalmist himself and 
 God. The deep spiritual experience of these 
 poets is very remarkable. Hence it is that the 
 Psalms have been transferred in their entirety 
 to the worship of Christians, who find in them 
 the expression of that fellowship with God 
 to which their own souls would fain attain. 
 
 III. The Poetry of the N.T. This can 
 hardly be altogether omitted under the title 
 of the poetry of the Hebrews, for all the writers 
 
POISON] 
 
 392 
 
 [PONTUS 
 
 of the N.T. were Jews, save St. Luke, and he, 
 curiously enough, is the one who has preserved 
 for us the greater part of the poems. This 
 poetry of the N.T. represents two stages. First, 
 that of devout Jews at the time when Christ 
 was born. The Magnificat (Lk. 1.46-55), the 
 Benedictus (Lk. 1.68-79), the Nunc Dimiitis 
 (Lk. 2.29-32) were doubtless originally Hebrew 
 or Aramaic poems, and are marked by the form 
 and character of Hebrew poetry, the chief 
 difference from the Psalms lying in their subject 
 that the Messiah is at hand, yea, has come. 
 Secondly, we might have expected that the 
 realisation of peace and joy through the Gospel, 
 together with the outpouring of the Holy Spirit, 
 would soon cause the formation of Christian 
 hymns. This seems in fact to have been the 
 case, for we find fragments of such hymns quoted 
 by St. Paul to illustrate his own words in 
 Eph. 5.14, and 1 Tim. 3.16. These are only 
 fragments, but they illustrate both the ethical 
 and the doctrinal side of the revelation of 
 Christ, and also two of the great functions of 
 sacred poetry, viz. to help the memory to 
 preserve truths, and to awaken the soul to such 
 close communion with God that it may receive 
 the full light which He is willing to impart. 
 
 Poison. The Bible mentions the poison of asps 
 (Job 20.16), serpents (Deut. 32.24), and dragons 
 (Deut. 32.33). [GALL, HEMLOCK.] Evil conduct 
 and language are likened to poison or venom, 
 hurtful and deadly to men's souls and bodies 
 (Deut. 32.33 ; Ps. 58.4 ; Rom. 3.13 ; Jas. 3.8). 
 The destructive judgments of God are also 
 compared to poison (Job 6.4, 20.16). Poisoned 
 arrows have been used from very ancient times, 
 and Job (6.4) seems to refer to this custom. 
 Poisoning in any form was not a vice of the 
 Jews, though their herbalists were skilled 
 chemists, and must have been familiar with 
 many poisonous substances. [Asp, ADDER, 
 DEATH.] 
 
 Poll. The head, especially the back of the 
 head (Num. 1.2, 18, 20, 3.47 ; 1 Ch. 23.3, 24). 
 To poll is to cut the hah- (2 Sam. 14.26). In the 
 visions of Ezekiel the godly priests would poll, 
 or cut short, the hair of their heads, but not 
 shave them, as both a mark of manliness and 
 an avoidance of the customs of heathen priest- 
 hood (Ezek. 44.20). [HAIB.] 
 
 Pollux. In heathen mythology, the twin 
 brother of Castor. The vessel which carried 
 Paul to Rome had the sign (figurehead) of 
 Castor and Pollux (Acts 28.11). 
 
 Polygamy. Polygamy was a recognised in- 
 stitution amongst the Hebrews ; but " from the 
 beginning," as our Lord reminded His hearers, 
 "it was not so" (Matt. 19.8). Polygamy 
 early appeared amongst the family of Cain 
 (Gen. 4.23) ; it was the custom with the Patri- 
 archs (Gen. 16.3, 25.1, 29.29, 30), though, as 
 in the case of Abraham and Jacob, reasons 
 are assigned ; it existed amongst the Judges 
 (Judg. 8.30) ; in the case of David there is 
 indirectly express sanction (2 flam. 12.8) ; 
 and amongst the kings (2 Sam. 5.13), though 
 
 there were restrictions on royal license (Deut. 
 17.17), and, as in tha case of Solomon, evil 
 results are traced to the influence of the 
 many wives (1 K. 11.4). The existence of 
 polygamy was closely related to that of 
 domestic slavery ; and the rights of the 
 woman sold into slavery by her father, and 
 married by her master or his son, were defined 
 (Ex. 21.7-11). In the N.T. monogamy has 
 become the rule, though polygamy is not 
 expressly repudiated. In the mission-field 
 the policy adopted in dealing with polygamy 
 varies. By some missions a polygamist is not 
 admitted to baptism he must put away all 
 his wives save one. By others a polygamist 
 is baptized, but must not take more wives ; 
 nor must a Christian with one wife take another. 
 The wife of a polygamist is sometimes admitted 
 even when the husband is not. 
 
 Pomegranate. A low, bush-like tree common 
 in Palestine and the East generally. Its 
 branches are very thick and bushy, some being 
 armed with sharp thorns. The leaves are 
 spear-shaped, the flowers red. The fruit, con- 
 sisting of a hard rind enclosing red grains of 
 pulp-covered seeds, ripens in October, and 
 has a considerable quantity of sweetish-acid 
 juice, very refreshing in a hot climate, though 
 rather thin to northern palates. The high 
 estimation in which the pomegranate was held 
 by the Jews may be inferred by its being 
 one of the fruits brought by the spies from 
 Eshcol (Num. 13.23, 20.5), and by its being 
 specified by them as one of the greatest luxuries 
 they had left behind in Egypt. To Moses the 
 fruit was one of the chief recommendations of 
 the Promised Land (Deut. 8.8). Its form, also, 
 was so admired, and so clear a figure of fruitful- 
 ness, that it was much used in ornamentation, 
 being honoured with a place at the bottom of 
 the high-priest's robe (Ex. 28.33), and was 
 chosen by Solomon as the principal ornament 
 of his Temple. The rind is used for tanning 
 Morocco leather, and also medicinally. 
 
 Pommel. Projections from the capitals of 
 pillars (2 Ch. 4.12,13). The same word is 
 translated " bowls " in 1 K 7.41. 
 
 Pontius Pilate. [PILATE.] 
 
 Fontus. Country by the sea : the north-east 
 district of Asia Minor, bordering on the Black 
 Sea. It is bounded on the south by Cappa- 
 docia ; on the east by Colchis ; by Paphlagonia 
 and Galatia on the west. It was formerly part 
 of Cappadocia, when this was a satrapy of Persia. 
 In 480 B.C. it contributed 100 ships to the fleet 
 of Xerxes. Nearly four hundred years later, 
 Mithridates the Great extended its borders, and 
 assisted the Greeks against the Scythians, his 
 influence reaching to the Danube. Within a few 
 years, however, he lost the greater part of his 
 territory, and Pontus became a Roman province 
 about 64 B.C. In the latter part of Paul's time 
 the north-east part was made into the province 
 of Bithynia and Pontus, while the rest of it 
 was included in the huge province of Galatia. 
 
 It was the residence of Jews present at 
 
POOE] 
 
 393 
 
 [POTTER'S FIELD 
 
 Jerusalem on the great day of Pentecost, of 
 Aquila, and of Christians addressed by Peter 
 (Acts 2.9, 18.2 ; 1 Pet. 1.1). 
 
 Poor. [POVERTY.] 
 
 Poplar. In the two passages where this word 
 occurs (Gen. 30.37; Eos. 4.13) the original is 
 from a root signifying " to be white." The white 
 poplar, so plentiful in our own country, is also 
 common in Palestine, and fulfils the conditions 
 of the two passages of Scripture where it occurs. 
 It was planted for its shade, and its wood was 
 used for making household utensils. Peeled 
 rods of poplar were put by Jacob before Laban's 
 ring-streaked sheep (Gen. 30.37). 
 
 Po'ratha. Given by lot, or fate : one of 
 Haman's ten sons killed in Shushan by the 
 Jews (Esth. 9.8). [HAMAN.] 
 
 Porch. Five different words have been trans- 
 lated " porch." In 1 Kings (6.3, 7.6 ff.), Ezekiel 
 (8.16), etc., read, arch or colonnade ; in Judges 
 (3.23), a verandah ; in Mark (14.68), a passage 
 or corridor uniting an outer court with the 
 house door ; in Matthew (26.71), the passage or 
 gateway from the street ; in John (5.2, 10.23), 
 Acts (3.11, 5.12), a portico or cloister. 
 
 Porcius Festus. [FESTUS.] 
 
 Porter. In every case where this word is 
 used it signifies a doorkeeper (2 Sam. 18.26 ; 
 1 Ch. 16.42 ; Ezra 2.42 ; John 10.3). The 
 porters of the Temple were a distinct class, and 
 were on duty day and night, having regular 
 reliefs. They also had the care of the treasure 
 and offerings. They were a semi-military body, 
 " the soldiers of the Lord," guarding His house, 
 to the several entrances and courts of which 
 they were appointed by lot, serving in turn 
 (" courses ") (1 Ch. 26.1, 13, 19 ; 2 Ch. 8.14, 
 35.15). It was their duty to keep order, prevent 
 unlawful entrance of unclean or excommuni- 
 cated persons. There were twenty-four in 
 number on duty always, under a superior officer, 
 who made the rounds at irregular intervals. 
 
 Possession. [DEVIL, POSSESSED OP A.] 
 
 Posts. Messengers or couriers (2 Ch. 30.6 ; 
 Esth. 3.13,15, 8.10, 14 ; Job 9.25 ; Jer. 51.31). 
 The establishment of regular posts, with relays 
 of runners on foot or on horseback, is generally 
 ascribed to the Persians. The speed with which 
 messages could be sent on is almost incredible, 
 the postmen having authority to press into their 
 service men, animals, or indeed anything that 
 could help them on their way (cf. Matt. 5.41). 
 Sometimes messages were passed on by the 
 voices of men stationed on eminences at some 
 distance apart. 
 
 Pot. The Hebrews had many forms of pots. 
 Besides the pot or ordinary vessel used for boil- 
 ing (Judg. 6.19), we meet with the sir, a vessel 
 or pan chiefly employed in cooking flesh (Ex. 
 16.3). This was a large open vessel, also used 
 for washing (Ps. 60.8). Another word rendered 
 " pot " was the cheres, which was used for stew- 
 ing or baking (Ezck. 4.9). The dud was another 
 cooking vessel (1 Sam. 2.14). The pots of Jer. 
 35.5 should be described as bowls. The water- 
 pots of stone (John 2.6) at Cana were amphorae, 
 
 holding about twenty gallons each. These large 
 jars were often made of earthenware or metal, 
 as well as of stone, pointed or rounded at the 
 bottom, and supported by specially constructed 
 stands. The saph (Ex. 12.22) was used to contain 
 the blood with which the doorposts were 
 sprinkled ; the Jciyyor (Ex. 30.18) was a wash- 
 ing-pot ; but this and the saph were both terms 
 to designate vessels employed in religious ritual. 
 [BOWL, PAN, POTTERY.] 
 
 Poti'phar. The gift of Ra (the noonday sun) : 
 Pharaoh's chief executioner, or butcher, who 
 bought Joseph from the travelling merchants 
 (Gen. 37.36, 39.1). From his position he prob- 
 ably had charge of the prison, and lived in 
 official quarters within it. His private pro- 
 perty consisted of land, the charge of which was 
 given to Joseph (Gen. 39.4-6). The movements 
 of Egyptian women of all classes was that of 
 absolute freedom, and there was therefore full 
 opportunity for Joseph's temptation. That 
 Potiphar did not slay his servant on the spot 
 seems to show that he valued him highly, and 
 that he had some suspicion of the genuineness of 
 the charge brought against him. [JOSEPH.] 
 
 Potiphe'rah. He whom Ea gave : a priest 
 of On, and father of Asenath, the wife of Joseph 
 (Gen. 41.45, 50, 46.20). [ON.] 
 
 Potsherd. A piece of broken pottery (Job 
 2.8). Such pieces were largely used in Egypt 
 as cheap and handy writing materials, and these 
 ostraca have supplied much information with 
 regard to the everyday language and customs 
 of the times when they were inscribed. 
 
 Pottage. Something prepared in a pot : a 
 dish of red lentils (Gen. 25.29-34) which Jacob 
 gave to Esau in return for the birthright. This 
 food, when cooking, has a very appetising odour. 
 
 Potter. Though the art of pottery is one of 
 the most ancient of all industries, yet it is hardly 
 mentioned among the Hebrews until the times 
 of Saul and David (2 -Sam. 17.28 ; 1 Ch. 4.23). 
 In the early or nomadic stages of their life the 
 needs of the Israelites were few, and earthen- 
 ware utensils would be very simple, especially 
 as every animal they killed gave them a skin 
 to make into a receptacle for water, milk, or 
 wine. The prophets, however, make frequent 
 mention of the potter and his art (Isai. 29.16, 
 30.14, 41.25, 64.8 ; Jer. 18.2-6, 19.1-11). 
 
 Potter's Clay. (Isai. 29.16). Potter's clay 
 was a comparatively rare substance, especially 
 in Palestine, and valued accordingly. Its pre- 
 paration entailed much laborious kneading and 
 treading under water, to get it perfectly smooth 
 and free from impurities (Isai. 41.25). Then, 
 in its soft state, it was absolutely obedient to 
 the will and hand of the potter, who could 
 make it into whatever form he liked ; or break 
 it down and make it up again into some other 
 shape (Isai. 64.8 ; Jer. 18.4). 
 
 Potter's Field. It is thought that this place 
 received its name from the land connected with 
 pottery established at Jerusalem (Isai. 30.14), 
 or perhaps from the potter's house of Jer. 18.2. 
 It was this piece of ground that was bought 
 
POTTER'S WHEEL] 
 
 394 
 
 [PREDESTINATION 
 
 with the betrayal money which Judas returned 
 to the Sanhedrin, who converted it into a burial- 
 ground for stranger Jews (Matt. 27.7, 10). 
 
 Potter's Wheel. In Eastern lands this is of 
 either wood or stone, turned sometimes by 
 hand or the foot, and sometimes by an assistant. 
 
 Pound. [WEIGHTS AND MEASURES, MONEY.] 
 
 Poverty. The Jewish law was mindful of 
 the poor. They had the right of gleaning in 
 the cornfields, in the vineyards, and olive- 
 orchards (Lev. 19.9, 10 ; Deut. 24.19, 21 ; Ruth 
 2.2). In the sabbatical year the poor were 
 entitled to a share in the crops (Ex. 23.11 ; 
 Lev. 25.6) ; and if they had parted with land 
 or personal freedom, these were to be restored hi 
 the year of Jubilee (Lev. 25.25 ff . ; Deut. 15.12 ff.). 
 In addition, they were protected from usury 
 (Lev. 25.35,37; Deut. 15.7,8, 24.10-13), re- 
 ceived a portion of the tithes (Deut. 26.12, 13), 
 and were to be considered in other ways also 
 (Lev. 19.13 ; Deut. 16.11, 14). [ALMS, LOANS, 
 TITHES.] 
 
 Powder. In Deut. 28.24 a storm of dust 
 instead of rain. In Song of Sol. 3.6 " powders 
 of the merchant " are perfumes. 
 
 Power on her Head. (1 Cor. 11.10). A veil 
 or covering, such as ensures respect for an 
 Eastern woman passing through the streets. 
 Here perhaps the apostle means that both men 
 and angels would be shocked at seeing a woman 
 unveiled at Divine worship. 
 
 Prsetorium. The residence of the Roman 
 Governor at Jerusalem, formerly the palace of 
 Herod the Great (Mk. 15.16) ; and at Csesarea, 
 where it had also been Herod's palace (Acts 
 23.35). In Phil. 1.13 the same Greek word is 
 translated " praetorian guard," i.e. the guard 
 whose duty it was to take care of the Emperor. 
 
 Prayer. Christian prayer is based on the 
 conviction that a Heavenly Father, Whose 
 providential care is over us (Matt. 6.26, 30, 
 10.29, 30), Who is " very pitiful, and of tender 
 mercy" (Jas. 5.11), will hear and answer the 
 petitions of His children in such a way and at 
 such a time as He may deem best. Prayer, 
 then, can be made in all confidence (Phil. 4.6), 
 though God " knoweth what things " we " have 
 need of " before we ask Him (Matt. 6.8, 32). 
 His answer may be delayed (Lk. 11.5-10) ; 
 it may be needful that prayer should be 
 importunate (Lk. 18.1-8) and repeated, as in 
 the case of our Lord (Matt. 26.44) ; and the 
 answer may not be of the nature asked for 
 (2 Cor. 12.7-9) ; but the believer can lay all 
 over-anxiety aside, resting in the peace of God 
 (Phil. 4.6, 7). Apart from prayer associated 
 with worship, or prayer at stated periods 
 (Ps. 55.17 ; Dan. 6.10), prayer was made 
 where and as occasion required it within the 
 " great fish " (Jon. 2.1) ; on mountains (1 K. 
 18.42; Matt. 14.23); on the housetop (Acts 
 10.9) ; in an inner chamber (Matt. 6.6) ; in 
 prison (Acts 16.25) ; on the seashore (Acts 21.5). 
 The Temple was pre-eminently a " house of 
 prayer " (Lk. 18.10), and those who could not 
 join in ita worship turned towards it in their 
 
 prayers (1 K. 8.38; 2 Ch. 6.34; Dan. 6.10). 
 Various attitudes in prayer are noted both in the 
 O.T. and in the N.T. Standing (1 Sam. 1.26 ; 
 Mk. 11.25) ; kneeling (Dan. 6.10 ; Lk. 22.41) ; 
 bowing the head and bowing to the ground 
 (Ex. 12.27, 34.8) ; prostrate (Num. 16.22 ; Matt. 
 26.39). In standing or kneeling in prayer the 
 hands were spread out (Ezra 9.5), or raised 
 (Ps. 28.2; cf. 1 Tim. 2.8). Manifestations of 
 contrition and distress sometimes accompanied 
 prayer (Ezra 9.5; Lk. 18.13). Intercessory 
 prayer (Jas. 5.16-18) is enjoined both in O.T. 
 and N.T. (Num. 6.23 ; Job 42.8 ; Isai. 62.6, 7 ; 
 Matt. 5.44; 1 Tim. 2.1). Examples of inter- 
 cessory prayer are seen in the case of Moses 
 (Ex. 32.31, 32), David (2 Sam. 24.17 ; 1 Ch. 
 29.18), Stephen (Acts 7.60), Paul (Rom. 1.9). 
 Requests for intercessory prayer may be found 
 in Ex. 8.8; Num. 21.7; 1 K. 13.6; Acts 
 8.24; Rom. 15.30-32; and answers to inter- 
 cessory prayer in Ex. 8.12, 13 ; Num. 21.8, 9 ; 
 1 K. 13.6 ; Acts 12.5-8 ; and cf. 2 Cor. 12.8. 
 
 Our Lord's own example as to prayer is de- 
 cisive. He indicated the foundation on which 
 belief in prayer rests the providential care of 
 an all-wise Father in Heaven (Matt 7.7-11) ; He 
 taught His disciples how to pray, and how not 
 to pray (Matt. 6.5-15; Lk. 11.1-13); He as- 
 sured them of the certainty of God's answer to 
 right prayer (Matt. 7-7, 18.19, 21.22 ; John 15.7, 
 16.23, 24) ; He associated prayer with the life 
 of obedience (Mk. 14.38 ; Lk. 21.36) ; He en- 
 couraged persistence and importunity in prayer 
 (Lk. 11.5-8, 18.1-7); He sought privacy for 
 prayer (Matt. 14.23, 26.36-46; Mk. 1.35; 
 Lk. 5.16) ; He used intercessory prayer in the 
 supplication known as His High Priestly Prayer 
 (John 17) ; He prayed during the agony of the 
 Cross (Matt. 21 AQ ; Mk. 15.34 ; Lk. 23.34, 46). 
 Prayer in the name of Christ is authorised by 
 our Lord Himself (John 14.13, 14, 15.16), and 
 by St. Paul (Eph. 5.20; Col. 3.17). The 
 Holy Spirit also " maketh intercession for us " 
 (Rom. 8.26). 
 
 Precious Stones. See under separate titles, 
 JACINTH, RUBY, etc. 
 
 Predestination. The English word " pre- 
 destinate " in the A.V. is rendered " fore- 
 ordain " in the R.V. Both express the Greek 
 word proorizo (cf. our horizon), which means, 
 defining or delimiting beforehand (Acts 4.28; 
 Rom. 8.29, 30 ; 1 Cor. 2.7 ; Eph. 1.5, 11). It is 
 thus concerned with God's purpose and plan. 
 It will help us to understand the meaning of 
 the Divine purpose when applied to spiritual 
 religion, if, first of all, we consider it on a very 
 much wider scale. God's eternal purpose is 
 not confined to Christianity, or even to religion ; 
 it is involved in the very constitution of the 
 universe. His purpose may be said to embrace 
 everything and everybody. This is really 
 what we mean by Divine providence. Such 
 a purpose of God has been seen again and again 
 in the course of history. Why was Israel 
 chosen out of the nations to be God's witness 
 to the world ? Why do we find such frequent 
 
PREDESTINATION] 
 
 395 
 
 [PREDESTINATION 
 
 instances of younger sons being chosen, instead 
 of elder sons? Why are Englishmen higher 
 in the scale of nations than Kaffirs ? Why 
 has civilisation been in existence in the West 
 for centuries, while it has not yet affected many 
 of the nations of the East ? How is it that 
 individuals differ in bodily strength, mental 
 power and moral capacity ? With every 
 consideration of what are regarded as secondary 
 forces and influences, including man's freedom, 
 these difficulties are not explicable, apart from 
 God's inscrutable and eternal purpose. The 
 primary cause must rest in the will of God. 
 History constantly shows the over-ruling 
 providence of God working by certain plans 
 for His own Divine purpose. We must not be 
 surprised, therefore, if we find something in 
 Christianity answering to this great fact in 
 nature and history. The problem is just as 
 acute when associated with external and 
 temporal blessing as it is when associated with 
 spiritual things, for the underlying cause, 
 God's eternal purpose, is the same in both 
 
 When we look at the narrower idea of God's 
 predestination, or foreordination, in regard to 
 religion, we are still face to face with Divine 
 purpose ; and at this point the doctrine of 
 predestination may be said to be associated with 
 that of election ; the only difference is that 
 election refers to the act of choice, and pre- 
 destination to the purpose or aim of that choice. 
 In the great passage Eph. 1.4-14, the blessings 
 of the Gospel are associated with (a) the eternal 
 purpose of the Father (vers.4-6a), (6) the histori- 
 cal revelation of the Son (vers. 66-12), and (c) 
 the personal gift of the Holy Spirit (vers. 13.14). 
 Predestination is connected with the first of 
 these. The Christians referred to in the epistle 
 were the subjects of God's love and pre- 
 destinating purpose, which manifested itself 
 in due course in the work of Christ, and then 
 became applied personally in individual lives 
 by the Holy Spirit. Scripture teaches first 
 of all God's predestination, in the sense of His 
 general purpose to provide salvation. This, 
 in the O.T., is seen in the form of Israel's 
 election to national, temporal and spiritual privi- 
 leges. But in the N.T. election it is associated 
 with spiritual realities, whether they are present 
 opportunities and possessions, or future pro- 
 spects and certainties. Yet all the while the 
 N.T. is equally insistent on the human response 
 to this Divine attitude, and on the human re- 
 sponsibility to hear, accept and obey, in order 
 to enjoy these blessings. There is thus a clear 
 emphasis on the two great factors, Divine 
 sovereignty and human responsibility, with 
 no attempt whatever to reconcile these two 
 apparently opposite, but really complementary, 
 factors of the universe. God's purpose is to 
 save man from sin by the provision of Christ 
 and of grace in Him. This purpose is shown 
 in God taking the initial step in providing 
 salvation, and then offering and bestowing it. 
 Yet Scripture is equally clear that Divine grace 
 
 works through men's willingness to receive it, 
 and teaches that a man cannot be saved unless 
 he does receive it. These two sides thus 
 definitely taught, and never reconciled, must 
 be held fast, without any attempt at full 
 explanation ; for, with our present limited 
 faculties, reconciliation is obviously impossible. 
 The two sides are like parallel lines which 
 never meet, but are equally and absolutely 
 necessary. We must be careful to hold all that 
 Scripture teaches, and also to hold it in the 
 way Scripture presents it to us. Predestination 
 is always associated (1) with union with Christ 
 (Eph. 1.4); (2) with God's foreknowledge 
 (1 Pet. 1.2) ; (3) with God's purpose of service 
 for others (Eph. 2.10) ; and (4) with His Divine 
 requirement of holiness (Rom. 8.28-30; Eph. 
 1.4; 2 Thess. 2.13). When the doctrine is kept 
 in close association with these aspects of truth, 
 and emphasis is constantly placed on its spiritual 
 reality, and not merely on its intellectual aspect, 
 there will be no practical difficulty. When 
 we begin the Christian life through simple faith 
 in Christ, we soon realise something of the 
 Divine purpose concerning us, and are able to 
 enter more deeply into God's provision and 
 plans, as the Spirit of God works in our hearts. 
 
 Connected with this doctrine is the great 
 question whether believers can fall away from 
 grace, and be lost for ever. This problem should 
 not be faced precisely in this way. It is no 
 question of abstract possibility. The real 
 problem is not, can they, but will they, fall away, 
 that is, will those who have tasted the sweetness 
 and satisfaction of Divine grace leave Him whose 
 presence provides it ? From the first moment 
 of our Christian life we are surrounded by 
 God's protecting and preserving grace, and with 
 all the safeguards of these privileges. The 
 real question should be faced on moral and 
 spiritual grounds, and when so considered it 
 will lead to the assurance that the believer 
 will not depart from so gracious and wonderful 
 a spiritual atmosphere and home. It is for 
 this reason that the two sides of Divine truth 
 are always balanced in Scripture. The phrase, 
 " Final Perseverance " emphasises the human 
 side ; and is balanced by the phrase, " Final 
 Preservation," which emphasises the Divine 
 side ; and in almost every passage in which 
 this subject is dealt with, these two sides are 
 kept clearly before us ( John 6.44, 45, 10.27, 28 ; 
 Eph. 1.4, 5 ; 2 Tim. 2.19). We must therefore 
 hold fast to both aspects of truth, and refuse 
 to speculate or attempt reconciliation. If 
 a believer reaches heaven, it will only be by 
 the predestinating love and sovereign grace 
 of God ; and yet love and grace always work 
 through means. Inasmuch as no one is able 
 to read his own name in the Book of Life, and 
 thereby to become assured of final salvation 
 as an individual, the only possible attitude is 
 one of strong faith and confident hope, founded 
 on the written Word of God and on witness of 
 the Holy Spirit in the heart. Kept humble 
 by the grace of God, and inspired by the great 
 
PREPARATION] 
 
 396 
 
 [PRIEST 
 
 and precious promises, the believer rests on the 
 faithfulness of God for everlasting salvation. 
 
 Preparation. " The day of the preparation " 
 (Matt. 27.62), the day before the Sabbath ; in 
 John 19.14 " the preparation of the passover," 
 the day before the Sabbath which occurred 
 during the Passover festival of eight days. 
 
 Presbytery. In 1 Tim. 4.14, Paul bids 
 Timothy " neglect not the gift that is in thee, 
 which was given thee . . . with the laying on of 
 the hands of the presbytery." In 2 Tim. 1.6, he 
 speaks of " the gift of God which is in thee by 
 the putting on of my hands." " Presbytery " 
 was the body of presbyters (cf. Acts 13.1-3). 
 [BISHOP, CHURCH.] 
 
 President. Head or chief (Dan. 6.2, 3, 4, 6, 7 
 only). 
 
 Press. The press for making wine or oil 
 (Isai. 16.10), or the vat in which the liquid was 
 collected (Hag. 2.16). 
 
 Pricks. (Acts 9.5, 26.14). [GOAD.] 
 
 Priest. The English word "priest" is 
 ambiguous, and has to do duty for two quite 
 different words in Hebrew, Greek, and Latin. 
 It is used to translate both kohen (Hebrew), 
 hiereus (Greek), and sacerdos (Latin), and also 
 zaqen (Hebrew), presbuteros (Greek), and pres- 
 byter (Latin). It is the contraction of the 
 Latin word presbyter (prester, priest). But in 
 the O.T. and N.T. the English word " priest " 
 is always used for the former series of words, 
 and never for the latter. 
 
 Before considering the various Bible aspects 
 of priesthood, it is necessary to discover what 
 are the essential characteristics of priesthood. 
 What did the priest do, as a priest, which no 
 one else could do under any circumstances ? 
 The most accurate definition of a priest is 
 found in Heb. 5.1. The priest was " appointed 
 for men in things pertaining to God." That 
 is, he presented things, gifts and sacrifices 
 from man to God : and as such, his work was 
 the opposite of that of the prophet, which is 
 to represent God to man. Thus the fundamental 
 idea of a priest is that of a mediator between 
 man and God. The priest comes between man 
 and God, just as the prophet comes between God 
 and man. If the priest ever did any other 
 work, he did it, not as a priest, but only as 
 performing the functions of other men. This 
 Godward act of priesthood is always emphasised 
 in Scripture; Ex. 28.1; Ezek. 4416; Heb. 7.25. 
 In patriarchal times the head of the family or 
 tribe acted as priest, representing his family 
 before God. Such were Noah, Abraham, 
 Isaac, and Jacob. At the time of the Exodus 
 there were Israelites who possessed this right 
 of priesthood, and were exercising it ; but 
 it became necessary to appoint a special order 
 to undertake the duties, and so the tribe of 
 Levi was selected for this purpose. Out of 
 this tribe came the Aarom'c priests, who hence- 
 forth were the mediators between man and God, 
 and representatives of the people in all worship. 
 All the sons of Aaron were priests, unless de- 
 barred by some legal disqualification. This 
 
 arrangement continued in the Southern kingdom 
 all through the history, arid the action of Jero- 
 boam, in appointing his own priesthood, bears 
 testimony to the essential need of mediation. 
 Priesthood thus witnessed to the sinfulness of 
 man, to the holiness of God, and to the need 
 of certain conditions of approach to God. 
 Man must draw near to God by an offering, 
 and be near to God for intercession. At the 
 return from captivity, Ezra reconstructed the 
 Levitical arrangements, and this continued in 
 substance until the destruction of Jerusalem 
 in A.I>. 70. 
 
 In the N.T. the few passages in the Gospels 
 where the word " priest " occurs refer solely 
 to the Jewish priesthood. And in relation 
 to Christianity the singular term " priest " is 
 never applied to any one but our Lord. While 
 priestly functions connected with sacrifice and 
 intercession are frequently found in the N.T. 
 associated with Christ (Matt. 20.28; Rom. 8.34; 
 Rev. 1.5), it is only in Hebrews that these 
 functions are attributed to Him as Priest. 
 Christ's priesthood is the keynote of Hebrews, 
 and it is used to show the difference between 
 spiritual immaturity and maturity. Those 
 who know Christ as Saviour have an elementary 
 knowledge of Him as Redeemer ; but those 
 who know Him as Priest are regarded as more 
 mature in knowledge and experience. Re- 
 demption is mainly negative, implying deliver- 
 ance from sin ; but priesthood is wholly positive, 
 involving access and nearness to God. The 
 Hebrew Christians knew Christ as Redeemer, 
 but they were to know Him also as Priest, 
 with the opportunity of free, courageous access 
 to God at all times. This priesthood of Christ 
 is associated with that of Melchizedek, a 
 mysterious priesthood mentioned in Gen. 
 14, and hinted at ages afterwards in Ps. 110. 
 The argument of Hebrews is that the very men- 
 tion in that Psalm of another priesthood, not 
 Aaron's, was a proof that something superior 
 to the Aaronic priesthood was necessary. 
 Melchizedek's priesthood is used to illustrate 
 the Divine Person of the priest, while his work 
 is illustrated from the Aaronic priesthood, 
 since there was no actual priestly work con- 
 nected in Gen. 14 with Melchizedek. The 
 priesthood of Christ is regarded as abiding 
 and eternal, never delegated to any one else 
 (Heb. 7.24). And this character of the priest- 
 hood is due to the fact that our Lord's sacrifice 
 is superior to the sacrifices of the O.T., because 
 it is complete, spiritual and efficacious for re- 
 demption (Heb. 9.12-14, 10.11-14). Thus the 
 priesthood of Christ teaches the great truth 
 that Christianity is " the religion of access " ; 
 and can be summed up in the exhortation, 
 " Draw near." 
 
 In Christ all believers are regarded as priests, 
 and the Christian minister, as distinct from the 
 layman, is never spoken of in the N.T. as a 
 priest. He is a presbyter or elder, an en- 
 tirely difTerent word and idea. Even the 
 priesthood of believers is never associated with 
 
PRINCE] 
 
 397 [PROPHECY AND PROPHETS 
 
 individual Christians, but only with believers 
 in their corporate capacity ; " a holy priest- 
 hood " (1 Pet. 2.5). The fundamental truth 
 concerning priesthood in the N.T. is that 
 Christianity is, not has, a priesthood. 
 
 Prince. The word is used of the head or chief 
 person of the family (Gen. 17.20, 23.6), or of the 
 tribe (Gen. 25.16) ; of the princes of the syna- 
 gogue, or assembly (Num. 16.2) ; of the princes 
 of the children of Reuben, of Judah, etc. (Num. 
 1.16, 34.18 if.), and of others. It is also applied 
 to the sovereign of a country and his principal 
 officers (Gen. 12.15). Jesus Christ is the " Prince 
 of the kings of the earth," because in His person 
 He surpasses, and bestows authority as He 
 sees fit (Rev. 1.5). He is the " Prince of life," 
 because supreme over life and the Giver of it 
 (Acts 3.15) ; and He is the " Prince of peace," 
 because under His rule is perfect peace (Isai. 
 9.6). The " prince of this world " is the Devil, 
 who boasts of having all the kingdoms of the 
 world at his disposal (John 12.31, 14.30, 16.11). 
 
 Pris'ca, Priscil'la. A Christian Jewess whom 
 Paul first met at Ephesus (Acts 18.2, 18, 26 ; 
 1 Cor. 16.19). She was the wife of Aquila, whom 
 she helped in the instruction of Apollos. She 
 afterwards went back to Rome (Rom. 16.3), and 
 later again to Ephesus (2 Tim. 4.19). From the 
 way in which her name is mentioned before her 
 husband's, it has been thought that she was of 
 better birth. It has also been suggested that 
 she, with the help of her husband, wrote the 
 Epistle to the Hebrews, because chap. 11 refers 
 so often to women ; but, in view of the fact that 
 in the Greek of 11.32 the participle translated 
 " tell " is in the masculine singular, this seems 
 to be a very improbable theory. [AQUILA.] 
 
 Prison. Imprisonment, as a punishment, 
 though early in use among the Egyptians (Gen. 
 39, 40.3, 42.17), was not directed by Jewish law, 
 though the accused was kept in prison until his 
 trial (Lev. 24.12; Num. 15.34). During the 
 period of the conquest and settlement, indeed, 
 until the time of Saul, there is no indication that 
 the Hebrews had prisons. Then the prison was 
 part of the royal palace (1 K. 22.27). This was 
 complying with the custom of the surrounding 
 nations (2 K. 25.27 ; Neh. 3.25 ; Jer. 32.2). 
 There was another form of prison, in which a 
 private individual kept a house for the safe 
 custody of the accused, being answerable only 
 for their persons (Jer. 37.15). In these the 
 prisoners were maintained at their own cost, 
 faring accordingly. In the time of Christ each 
 palace or fortress had its prison, generally 
 dungeons (Lk. 3.20 ; Acts 12.4-10). The 
 Sanhedrin also had its prison (Acts 5.18-23, 8.3). 
 In all prisons, fetters and stocks were used as 
 extra safeguards, the Romans even chaining the 
 prisoners to soldiers. Generally, as in Paul's 
 case, friends had access to prisoners (Matt. 11.2, 
 25.36,39; Acts 24.23). In addition to the 
 recognised prisons, any convenient place would 
 be used as a place of confinement (Gen. 37.24 ; 
 Jer. 38.6-11). 
 
 Metaphorically, a low and afflicted condition 
 
 is a prison (Eccles. 4.14) ; as is also the state in 
 which God keeps Satan (Rev. 20.7). The state of 
 spiritual thraldom in which sinners are kept by 
 Satan and their own evil deeds and desires 
 (Isai. 42.7, 53.8). Hell is likened to a prison 
 (1 Pet. 3.19). Captives, bondmen, etc., are 
 called prisoners (Job 3.18 ; Ps. 63.33 ; Isai. 
 49.9). 
 
 Pro'chorus. Leader of the " dance " : one of 
 the seven deacons chosen to attend the poor 
 (Acts 6.5). Nothing more that is certain is known 
 of him. 
 
 Proconsul. " Deputy " in A.V. The chief 
 Roman official of such provinces as were governed 
 directly by the Senate. The term is used of 
 Sergius Paulus in Cyprus (Acts 13.7, 8, 12), and 
 of Gallic in Achaia (Acts 18.12). The plural is 
 found once used, as it seems, rhetorically by 
 the " town-clerk " of Ephesus (Acts 19.38). 
 
 Procurator. Steward: "Governor" in A.V. 
 and R.V. The chief Roman official of such 
 provinces as were governed directly by the 
 Emperor. Such were Pilate, Felix, and Festus. 
 
 Prognosticators. Used only once (Isai. 47.33). 
 In this passage, " monthly prognosticates " are 
 classed with astrologers, etc., as futile forecasters 
 of the future. As a class their business would 
 be that of making almanacs, in which events, 
 supposed to be predicted by the stars, would be 
 classed under the months of the year. 
 
 Prophecy and Prophets. I. ~The Meaning of 
 the Words. Once in the Authorised Version 
 " prophecy " represents the Hebrew word 
 Massa (Prov. 30.1), which properly means 
 "oracle" [BURDEN], and once "prophet" re- 
 presents the Hebrew word chozeh (Isai. 30.10), 
 which properly means " seer," and refers to 
 the prophet as one who sees visions. But 
 always elsewhere in the O.T. " prophecy " 
 stands for nebua, and " prophet " for nabi 
 The original meaning of this root (NB') is not 
 certain. It is generally understood to be con 
 nected with a root that is more similar when 
 rendered in English signs (NB") than it is in 
 reality, for the last consonant of this other root 
 is a hard guttural, often pronounced like " ng." 
 This root (NB f ) means to bubble up, and nabi, 
 therefore, is supposed to mean one who bubbles 
 up with the Divine inspiration or message. It 
 is, however, more probable that nabi is rather 
 to be connected with an Assyrian and Arabian 
 root, meaning to utter, proclaim, utter as a 
 message. In this case the nabi is regarded as 
 the commissioned speaker. This suits Ex. 7.1, 
 where we read : " The Lord said unto Moses, 
 See, I have made thee a god to Pharaoh : and 
 Aaron thy brother shall be thy prophet." 
 Hence it is probable that " prophet " as used 
 in the Bible generally means one who speaks 
 as the accredited messenger of Almighty God. 
 It will be observed that nothing in the term 
 implies telling beforehand. A prophet may, or 
 may not, do this, according to the message that 
 God gives him. So the Greek word prophetes 
 (the original, of course, of our English word), 
 found in the Septuagint version of the O.T-, 
 
PEOPHECY AND PROPHETS] 398 [PROPHECY AND PROPHETS 
 
 and in the N.T., means " he who speaks forth." 
 The abstract substantives nebu'a and propheteia 
 ("prophecy") have a corresponding meaning. 
 
 II. The State of the Prophets when receiving 
 their message. It is most important that we 
 should form a right conception as to this, so 
 far as we are able to penetrate into the secrets 
 of the intercourse of man with God. The 
 heathen conception of prophecy was that a 
 prophet should be absolutely passive, that the 
 more unconscious he was, the better he was 
 fitted to receive the Divine message. This 
 notion still prevails largely in the East, where 
 an idiot is regarded as being specially near to 
 God, and the utterances of him or a madman 
 are reverenced as inspired (compare the story 
 of the poor girl in Acts 16.16, sqq.). Dervishes 
 will work themselves into a frenzy, in order that 
 when they are prostrate in mind and body they 
 may receive communications from God. Some- 
 thing of this kind is to be seen in the history of 
 the Israelites. The sacred dance of the prophets 
 of Baal, in which they lashed themselves to 
 fury, cutting themselves with knives, that they 
 might receive a visible sign of Divine approval 
 (1 K. 18.26-28), was typical ; and it is probable 
 that the false prophets of later times took 
 similar measures to make themselves give forth 
 ecstatic utterances. But the heathen idea of 
 prophecy is most clearly seen in Balaam. His 
 will and his very thoughts are overcome by the 
 Divine afflatus, and he pours forth God's message 
 in spite of himself (Num. 22-24). 
 
 In the time of Samuel we see the beginning 
 of a better system. He gathered into com- 
 munities those who seemed to have gifts of 
 prophecy, disciplining them, training them by 
 music, and, as it would seem, study of history 
 and religion, that so they might be the better 
 fitted to receive God's words (1 Sam. 10.10-13, 
 19.18-20). One can understand that music 
 may quiet the mind (1 Sam. 16.14-23), and 
 prepare it for communications from God (2 K. 
 3.15). Whether these were written down by the 
 prophet or not probably depended upon the 
 particular function which each utterance was 
 intended to perform. But in any case we must 
 assume that many such were written before 
 those which have come down to our own time 
 as the works of the writing prophets, of whom 
 Amos is probably the earliest. 
 
 These works, it should be observed, are the 
 very opposite of merely ecstatic utterances. 
 They are written with great choice of language, 
 revealing the previous life and interests and 
 occupations of the prophet, and represent in 
 various degrees the culture and the circum- 
 stances of the time in which each was written. 
 The prophecies of an Amos, a Micah, an Isaiah, 
 a Jeremiah, are removed from those of Balaam 
 as far in spiritual vision as in conscious thought 
 and deliberate study. Prophets had learned 
 that God could use every power they possessed, 
 and make it an instrument for declaring His 
 truth. 
 
 But, in fact, if we would form the highest 
 
 conception of the state of the Prophet when 
 receiving Divine communications, we must find 
 it in the Lord Jesus Christ. He had continual 
 intercourse with His Father, handing on to men 
 what He heard and saw (John 8.26-40, 15.15, 
 17.8), and with Him there was no ecstasy, but 
 open, clear relation of mind to mind, every 
 power alert, receptive and active. In propor- 
 tion as the prophets attained to this standard 
 were they able to receive and transmit the 
 Divine message in its perfection. 
 
 III. The Function of the Prophets. We cannot 
 learn either from the words translated " pro- 
 phecy " or " prophets," or from the state in 
 which the prophets received their messages, the 
 kind of messages that they received. Their 
 function, that is to say, is to be learned only by 
 a study of what they actually said and did. 
 
 1. Some forms of their activity appear to us 
 to be hardly worthy of the prophetical office. 
 Samuel describes to Saul the discovery of his 
 father's asses (1 Sam. 10.2). Ahijah, though 
 blind with age, recognises the wife of Jeroboam, 
 and foretells the fatal issue of the illness of her 
 son Abijah (1 K. 14.1-13). Elisha performs 
 miracles that to some seem trivial. Yet even 
 in these cases we can see a connexion between 
 the events and the furtherance of the cause of 
 God. 
 
 2. Examining their words more broadly, and 
 taking into consideration the work of the 
 prophets as a whole, we observe that one of 
 their most important functions was the inter- 
 pretation of past or present facts. As they 
 studied events in the presence of God He showed 
 these to them in His light, and thus they came 
 to understand them in their true bearing and 
 significance. Hence the prophets became not 
 merely historians (such as the writer of the 
 Books of Kings), but sometimes active political 
 as well as religious leaders. Among these may 
 be placed not only Isaiah and Jeremiah, -but 
 also Elisha, when he sent one of the sons of the 
 prophets to anoint Jehu, and thus effect the 
 destruction of the Baal-worshipping dynasty of 
 Omri (2 K. 9). 
 
 Again, their perception of the meaning of past 
 or present events enabled the prophets to see 
 the issues of personal and national lines of 
 conduct, and to enunciate principles which had 
 a much wider and more far-reaching tendency 
 than they could possibly have supposed. So 
 that when the same kinds of forces are at work 
 in ages and places very far distant from those 
 contemplated by the prophets themselves, 
 their words of warning or comfort find a fulfil- 
 ment, not, perhaps, only once or twice, but 
 again and again. It is to this power, inherent 
 in a truly inspired outlook, to which reference 
 seems to be made in 2 Pet. 1.20, " no prophecy 
 of scripture is of private interpretation," i.e. 
 its meaning and reference are not to be limited 
 to any one event or occasion. 
 
 Again, it will be noticed that the special 
 sphere of their predictions, as well as of their 
 teachings, generally is conditioned by the fact 
 
PROPHECY AND PROPHETS] 
 
 399 
 
 [PROPHECY AND PROPHETS 
 
 that they considered everything with reference 
 to God. To predict an event which had (if 
 such were possible) no relation to the cause of 
 God would be out of keeping with their thoughts 
 and spiritual preparation. Rather, as they 
 thought over the position of righteousness in 
 its warfare with sin, God's past actions told 
 them that He was on the side of righteousness, 
 and ordered affairs accordingly. Hence the 
 prophets were assured that righteousness was 
 to triumph, and further, as they bore in mind 
 the effect of personal influence, it was an easy 
 step to expect the coming of a Person who 
 should be a great leader in righteousness, 
 practising it perfectly Himself, and winning 
 others to it. The doctrine of a personal Messiah 
 was closely connected with the expectation of 
 the final triumph of good over evil. But which 
 was the earlier, the hope of the Messiah or that 
 of the triumph of good, it is impossible to say. 
 
 IV. The Value of the Prophecies. I. To the 
 generation in which each prophet lived. This 
 has already been partly indicated. For it is 
 impossible that the presence of men living in 
 such close touch with God as the prophets lived, 
 and the utterance of their words of warning or 
 encouragement, should not have enabled many 
 of their contemporaries to learn the way of God 
 more perfectly. There was, it is true, much 
 ritual of religious observance apart from pro- 
 phecy, and there were many religious laws 
 affecting the social life which in no way owed 
 their existence to prophets usually so-called 
 (even the Higher Critics would grant this much), 
 but the spiritual and higher moral teaching of 
 O.T. times appears to have rested chiefly with 
 the prophets. The priests were concerned with 
 ritual, or at best with liturgical prayers and 
 sacred song. In the prophets there is a wider 
 outlook, and a fuller realisation of God in daily 
 life, private and national. Perhaps if we are 
 to sum up in one word the effect of the teachings 
 of the prophets upon their contemporaries 
 whether persons or nations it is that of hope, 
 that, in spite of the past, stained by sin, and 
 the present, threatened by punishment, yet 
 above all and through all God is working His 
 purpose out in mercy and blessing. No non- 
 Jewish or pre-Christian religion can show a 
 body of teaching marked by such an expecta- 
 tion. In it no doubt lies one of the great 
 secrets of the reason for the unique success of 
 the religion of Israel. 
 
 2. But if the contemporaries of the prophets 
 gained, or were in a position to gain, much 
 from them, we ought to gain more. For we 
 are now able to trace the effect of their teaching 
 and predictions, and see the eternal truth on 
 which they relied. In particular, of course, we 
 can appreciate at an approximately true value 
 their statements about the great Person through 
 whom they expected deliverance should come. 
 
 It is not proposed in this article to enumerate 
 the various prophecies of Christ. The majority 
 are well known. It is sufficient to say that 
 though the prophets probably did not grasp the 
 
 full meaning of their own words, they were 
 expecting One who was to be ideally perfect, 
 as King to rule, Prophet to teach, and Priest 
 to reconcile ; who was to be Man, yet more 
 than man, even God Himself ; who was to 
 suSer, even to death, and yet to reign for ever 
 in glory. 
 
 It must have been impossible to reconcile 
 these various utterances before Christ came. 
 But His birth, life, death, resurrection, ascension, 
 fitted in with them all, and we praise God who 
 gave such insight unto His servants as to make 
 them capable of receiving and transmitting 
 statements of great principles which found their 
 uniting point when the Saviour came. 
 
 V. Prophecy and Prophets in the N.T. There 
 had been a pause. God had not spoken by men 
 for three hundred years. But now John, the 
 son of Zacharias, surnamed the Baptist, ap- 
 peared, " a prophet," and " more than a 
 prophet " (Matt. 11.9), revealing to the throng- 
 ing multitudes the will of God for them, and 
 telling them that the time was at hand when 
 the predictions of the coming of the Deliverer 
 were to be fulfilled. And then He came, the 
 ideal Prophet, who more than satisfied the 
 words of Moses (Deut. 18.18 ; Acts 3.22), and 
 revealed in deed and word the mind of His 
 Father who was in heaven. 
 
 It is no wonder that the prophetical activity 
 did not cease with the Lord Jesus, but rather 
 began in a fresh way when the Holy Spirit was 
 poured out by Him at Pentecost. Then the 
 words of Joel received part of their fulfilment, 
 " your sons and your daughters shall prophesy " 
 (Joel 2.28 ; Acts 2.17), and believers were 
 accustomed once more to hear prophets address- 
 ing them in the name of the Lord. Among 
 these are mentioned : Agabus and other prophets 
 from Jerusalem (Acts 11.27, 28, 21.10), prophets 
 at Antioch (Acts 13.1), Judas and Silas (Acts 
 15.32), the four daughters of Philip the Evan- 
 gelist (Acts 21.9). St. Paul also refers to 
 Christian prophets in 1 Cor. 12.28 f., 14.29,32,37 ; 
 Eph. 3.5, 4.11, from which passages we learn 
 that they took a prominent part in Christian 
 meetings for worship, and were sometimes 
 inclined to think that they could not restrain 
 the impetus to speak. There was, that is to 
 say, a tendency to fall back into the heathen 
 conception of a prophet mentioned in II. 
 The Book of the Revelation also refers fre- 
 quently to Christian prophets, whom the writer 
 reckons as his brethren (Rev. 22.9; see also 
 10.7, 11.10-18, 16.6, 18.20-24, 22.6). There is 
 much on the subject in the Didache, or Teaching 
 of the Apostles, dating from about 100 A.D., in 
 which they are spoken of as travelling from 
 place to place, without, as it seems, much dis- 
 cipline, and in some cases discrediting their pro- 
 fession by allowing unworthy motives to influ- 
 ence their words. In the middle of the second 
 century the heresy of Montanus, who laid too 
 much stress on the freedom of Christian prophecy 
 in contrast to the more settled government, and 
 perhaps the increasing world liness of the 
 
PROPHETS, FALSE] 
 
 400 
 
 [PROVERBS, THE BOOK OF 
 
 Church, led to excesses on the part of so-called 
 prophets, and prophecy as such ceased to have 
 any recognition as a present force among 
 Christians. 
 
 Prophets, False. Both in O.T. and N.T. 
 times there were those who claimed to speak 
 in the name of God, and yet had no authority 
 or message from Him. Isaiah denounces " the 
 prophet that teacheth lies" (7sai. 9.15) ; Jeremiah 
 complained that " the prophets prophesy 
 falsely" (Jer. 5.31), and described their mis- 
 leading counsels (Jer. 14.13-15). See also 
 Eos. 9.8; Mic. 3.5; Zeph. 3.4; ZecTi. 13.3. 
 Our Lord warned His disciples against false 
 prophets (Matt. 7.15, 24.24). The prophets of 
 1 K. 22.6 may have been prophets attached 
 to Baal-worship (cf. 1 K. 18.40), or of the 
 groves (1 K. 18.19), or of the calf-worship of 
 Rehoboam. They were the ministers, not of 
 Jehovah-worship, but of paganism. 
 
 Propitiation. Propitiation is something that 
 causes or enables some one to pardon an offence 
 or to act mercifully towards the offender. Our 
 Lord is twice called by St. John (1 John 2.2, 4.10) 
 " the propitiation for our sins " ; whilst St. 
 Paul (using another word) speaks of " the 
 redemption that is in Christ Jesus : whom God 
 hath set forth to be a propitiation " (Rom. 3.24, 
 25). Thus the propitiation required by the 
 justice of God is supplied in Christ Jesus by the 
 mercy of God. The word used in Bom. 3.25 
 signifies a " place or instrument of propitiation," 
 and in Eeb. 9.5 is rendered " mercy-seat " (R.V. 
 margin, " Gr. the propitiatory "). In the LXX 
 it is commonly used of the lid of gold above the 
 ark. [MERCY-SEAT.] 
 
 Proselyte. A stranger, a foreigner : the name 
 given by the Jews to those not Jews by birth 
 who came to live in their country, and be under 
 the protection of Jehovah, or who embraced 
 their religion in other lands. In the N.T. they 
 are sometimes called proselytes, and sometimes 
 "Gentiles, fearing God" (Act* 2.10, 10.2,22, 
 13.16, 43). 
 
 The later Jews distinguished two kinds of 
 proselytes: Proselytes of the Gate, who dwelt in 
 the Holy Land, or even out of it ; who, without 
 circumcision, or any ceremony of the Law, feared 
 and worshipped God, observing the rules im- 
 posed on Noah. These rules of Noah were 
 (1) to abstain from idolatry ; (2) from blasphemy ; 
 (3) from murder ; (4) from adultery ; and 
 (5) from theft ; (6) to appoint just and upright 
 judges ; (7) not to eat the flesh of any animal 
 cut off while it was alive. The privileges of 
 proselytes of the gate were, that through 
 holiness they might have hope of eternal life ; 
 and they might dwell in Palestine and share in 
 its prosperity. Proselytes of justice or righteous- 
 ness were those converted to Judaism, after a 
 careful examination, who were circumcised, and 
 observed the whole law of Moses. They were 
 admitted to all the prerogatives of the Israelites. 
 After circumcision, they were baptized by im- 
 mersion, receiving a new birth, so that those 
 who were before their parents were no longer 
 
 regarded as such, and those who before were 
 slaves now became free. 
 
 According to Josephus, proselytes were made 
 after the restoration, to recruit the exhausted 
 nation, which, later, compelled, at the point 
 of the sword, Idumseans, Ituraeans, and many 
 cities in Eastern Palestine to embrace Judaism. 
 Another large body of proselytes became such 
 through self-interest, rather than from piety. 
 
 Proverbs. A name given by the Hebrews to 
 moral sentences, maxims, pithy comparisons, 
 or summings-up of sayings, and enigmas. 
 Solomon called those men wise who studied 
 proverbs (Prov. 1.6). The word in its simplest 
 meaning stands for illustrations of life and 
 truth drawn from material things (Prov. 10.15, 
 22.1). 
 
 Proverbs, The Book of. This book is an 
 example of the Hebrew literature dealing with 
 Wisdom, or, as we should say, philosophy. To 
 the same class belong Ecclesiastes, Job (though 
 this is in some respects unique), and certain of 
 the Psalms; also the apocryphal books of the 
 Wisdom of Solomon and Ecclesiasticus- These 
 books are clearly distinguished from the pro- 
 phetic literature of Israel. They are practical 
 rather than speculative ; they express the 
 philosophy of reflective minds rather than the 
 express messages of Jehovah. There is no 
 " Thus saith the Lord " in their dealing with 
 human experience and the problems of exist- 
 ence. Their outlook is wider than that of the 
 Jewish race ; they are human, cosmopolitan, 
 rather than national. They deal with all sides 
 of human life. But the Divine Spirit that 
 prompted them made their thoughts subservient 
 to the highest purposes. They often uttered, 
 like the prophets, truths deeper than they 
 knew, and words which awaited the interpreta- 
 tion of time. 
 
 The word proverb, as applied to the contents 
 of the Book of Proverbs, must be taken in a 
 comprehensive sense, including the introductory 
 discourse (chaps. 1-9) and a parable or allegory 
 (24.30-34). In form, the proverbs are mostly 
 presented in couplets, arranged according to the 
 various methods of parallelism characteristic of 
 Hebrew poetry. 
 
 The authorship of the book was early ascribed 
 to Solomon. The introduction is prefaced 
 by the words, " The proverbs of Solomon the 
 son of David, king of Israel" (1.1); the section 
 beginning with 10. 1 has the title, " The proverbs 
 of Solomon " ; and that opening with 25.1 
 begins, " These are also the proverbs of Solomon, 
 which the men of Hezekiah, king of Judah, 
 copied out." But other sections are ascribed 
 to different sources : " The words of the wise " 
 (22.17) ; " Sayings of the wise " (24.23) ; " The 
 words of Agur, the son of Jakeh " (30.1) ; " The 
 words of king Lemuel" (31.1). It may be, 
 therefore, that the main collection (10.1-22.16) 
 and the section 25-29, with the introduction, 
 were the work of Solomon himself a part only 
 of the " three thousand proverbs " ascribed to 
 him in 1 K. 4.32 and that other collections 
 
PSALMS, THE] 
 
 401 
 
 [PSALMS, THE 
 
 were added. The time of Hezekiah has been 
 suggested as the date of the last addition. 
 Most scholars, however, think that 10.1-22.16 is 
 the oldest part of the book, and is not earlier 
 than the reign of Jehoshaphat, and that the 
 book was not completed until after the Exile. 
 
 The contents may be divided into five parts : 
 1. A connected discourse on the value and 
 attainment of true wisdom (1-9). 2. Proverbs, 
 strictly so called, expressed in couplet form, with 
 much force and simplicity (10-22.16). Headed, 
 " The Proverbs of Solomon." 3. Renewed 
 admonitions on the study of wisdom, as in 
 part 1 (22.17-24). Headed, "The Words of 
 the Wise." 4 Proverbs of Solomon, selected 
 by " the men of Hezekiah " (25-29). 5. The 
 wise instructions of Agur, the son of Jakeh, to 
 his pupils Ithiel and Ucal, and lessons taught 
 to King Lemuel by his mother (30, 31). The 
 proverbs of chap. 30 are chiefly enigmatical, and 
 chap. 31, vers. 10-31, an alphabetical acrostic, 
 gives a picture of female excellence adapted to 
 that age and country. Though most of Solomon's 
 rules are based chiefly on considerations of 
 prudence, strictly religious motives are either 
 presupposed or expressly enjoined. The descrip- 
 tions of Wisdom in 1.20-33, 8, and 9.1-6 apply 
 emphatically to the wisdom of God, revealed 
 and embodied in His Son, and to the Son Him- 
 self, as the eternal Word. Cf. chap. 8 with 
 John 1.1, 14.10. Pre-intimations of immortality 
 are also given in 4.18, 12.28, 14.32, 15.24. The 
 nature and consequences of sin are implied in 
 the very terms which describe holiness (1.20 
 with 9.3, 14) ; and that holiness is a Divine gift 
 is plainly implied in 1.23. 
 
 Psalms, The. No part of Holy Scripture 
 has been the subject of more inquiry and more 
 comment than the Psalms. From the letter of 
 Athanasius on the Interpretation of the Psalms, 
 the Homilies of Chrysostom on the Psalms, and 
 the Enarrationes in Psalmos of Augustine, down 
 through the works of learned Jews in the Middle 
 Ages such as Aben Ezra and David Kimchi ; 
 of great Reformers such as Luther and Calvin ; 
 to those of modern scholars like Delitzsch, 
 Perowne, and Kirkpatrick, there has been a 
 stream of comment and of criticism. This 
 interest witnesses to the almost unique position 
 of the book as an aid to devotion. The eulogium 
 of Hooker (Eccles. Pol. bk. v. 37) is amply 
 justified : " Heroical magnanimity, exquisite 
 justice, grave moderation, exact wisdom, re- 
 pentance unfeigned, unwearied patience, the 
 mysteries of God, the sufferings of Christ, the 
 terrors of wrath, the comforts of grace, the 
 works of Providence over this world, and the 
 promised joys of that world which is to come ; 
 all good necessarily to be either known, or done, 
 or had, this one celestial fountain yieldeth. 
 Let there be any grief or disaster incident into 
 the soul of man, any wound or sickness named, 
 for which there is not in this treasure-book a 
 present comfortable remedy at all times ready 
 to be found." 
 
 The title of the collection is given as " the 
 
 book of Psalms " in LJc. 20.42 ; Acts 1.20, and 
 " the Psalms " simply in Lk. 24.44. The 
 Hebrew title (tehillim) means " praises " ; the 
 English, taken from the LXX, denotes odes 
 adapted to music. In individual Psalms, the 
 title generally employed is mizmor, " a song with 
 musical accompaniment " (fifty-seven times). 
 Shir, " song " or " ode," is prefixed to 45, 46 ; 
 and in combination with mizmor to 30, 48 ; as 
 well as with hammaaloth, " the steps," to 120- 
 134 (" Songs of Degrees"). To five Psalms (17, 
 86, 90, 102, 142) the word tephillah, " prayer," 
 is prefixed ; and the same word, in the plural, 
 is used in the postscript to 72. 
 
 The arrangement in five books, followed by the 
 R.V., is that of the Hebrew and the LXX. The 
 division is as follows : 
 
 1. Ps. 1-41. With four exceptions (1, 2, 10, 
 33), of Psalms attributed by their titles to 
 David. This book is marked by the use of the 
 name Jehovah (Lord), the Covenant God. 
 
 2. Ps. 42-72. Psalms of " the sons of Korah," 
 42-47, of " David," 51-65, 68-70 ; possibly a 
 compilation for the Tabernacle and Temple 
 services. The name Elohim (God) predominates 
 in one Psalm (53), being altered from Jehovah 
 (14). 
 
 3. Ps. 73-89. Psalms of " Asaph," 73-83, 
 and " Korah," 84-89, mostly supplemental to 
 the Second Book. Only one Psalm in this book 
 (86) is attributed to David. The names of the 
 Deity are here equally employed. 
 
 4. Ps. 90-106. The first attributed to Moses, 
 two to David (101, 103), the rest anonymous. 
 Jehovah the prevailing Divine name. 
 
 5. Ps. 107-150. Liturgic, including the 
 Hallelujah Psalms and the Songs of Degrees ; 
 perhaps collected for the service of the second 
 Temple. Jehovah is the predominant name. 
 
 The authorship of Ps. 110 is ascribed to 
 David by our Lord (Mk. 12.36,37; Lk. 
 20.42, 44) ; and so other passages in Acts 1.16, 
 2.25, 4.25 ; Rom. 4.6, 11.9 ; Heb. 4.7). To him 
 Jewish tradition ascribed the greater part of the 
 collection. That he was a poet is clear from 
 other passages (2 Sam. 1.19-27, 3.33) ; Ps. 18 
 is quoted in 2 Sam. 22.2-51, and in 2 Sam. 23.1 
 David is called " the sweet psalmist of Israel " ; 
 he founded the services of the sanctuary (2 Ch. 
 29.27,30); he was a musician himself, and 
 careful of the development of religious music 
 (1 Sam. 16.17, 18; Amos 6.5). But not all the 
 Psalms are referred to David. In the Hebrew 
 his name is prefixed to seventy-three, and in the 
 LXX to twelve more. The name of Asaph, 
 David's chief musician, or of his descendants, is 
 connected with twelve Ps. 50, 73-83. To the 
 Sons of Korah, another family of choristers, 
 eleven more are attributed or inscribed ; to this 
 family, Heman, the Ezrahite, and grandson of 
 Samuel, belonged (Ps. 88 ; cf. 1 Sam. 8.2 ; 
 1 Ch. 6.33) ; and Ethan is named as the author 
 of 89. Solomon's name is connected with Ps. 72 
 and 127 ; but probably he is rather the subject 
 than the author of the former. Moses is reputed 
 to be the author of Ps. 90, and the following 
 
PSALTERY] 
 
 402 
 
 [PUBLICAN 
 
 ten are ascribed to him by Jewish critics, but 
 without good ground ; see 97.8 and 99.6. The 
 anonymous Psalms have b^en ascribed to various 
 authors. The LXX mentions Jeremiah as the 
 author of Ps. 137, and Haggni and Zechariah as 
 the authors of Ps. 146, 147. Some of the Psalms 
 were written after the Exile ; and endeavours 
 have been made to prove that some are as late 
 as the oppression under Antiochus Epiphanes. 
 It may, however, be affirmed with some certainty 
 that the collection of Psalms was complete soon 
 after the days of Malachi. The additions made 
 from time to time were naturally associated with 
 the older material, and known by the name of 
 the chief author. 
 
 The Psalms have been classified in many 
 ways. The following arrangement (from E. 
 Bickersteth) may be useful for devotional 
 purposes : 
 
 1. Didactic Psalms : on the character of good 
 and bad men, their happiness and misery, 1, 5, 7, 
 9-12, 14, 15, 17, 24, 25, 32, 34, 36, 37, 50, 52, 53, 
 58, 73, 75, 84, 91, 92, 94, 112, 119, 121, 125, 127, 
 128, 133 ; on the excellency of the Divine Law, 
 19, 119 ; on the vanity of human life, 39, 49, 90 ; 
 on the duty of rulers, 82, 101 ; on humility, 131. 
 
 2. Psalms of Praise and Adoration : acknow- 
 ledgments of God's goodness and mercy, and 
 particularly of His care of good men, 23, 34, 36, 
 91, 100, 103, 107, 117, 121, 145, 146; acknow- 
 ledgments of His power, glory, and attributes 
 generally, 8, 19, 24, 29, 33, 47, 50, 65, 66, 76, 77, 
 93, 95-97, 99, 104, 111, 113-115, 134, 139, 147, 
 148, 150. 
 
 3. Psalms of Thanksgiving : for mercies to 
 individuals, 9, 18, 22, 30, 34, 40, 75, 103, 108, 
 116, 118, 138, 144; for mercies to the Israelites 
 generally, 46, 48, 65, 66, 68, 76, 81, 85, 98, 105, 
 124, 126, 129, 135, 136, 149. 
 
 4. Devotional Psalms : expressive of penitence, 
 called, emphatically, the Seven Penitential 
 Psalms, 6, 32, 38, 51, 102, 130, 143 ; expressive 
 of trust under afflictions, 3, 16, 27, 31, 54, 56, 57, 
 61, 62, 71, 86 ; expressive of extreme dejection, 
 though not without hope, 13, 22, 69, 77, 88, 143. 
 Prayers in time of severe distress, 4, 5, 11, 28, 
 41, 55, 59, 64, 70, 109, 120, 140, 141, 143. 
 Prayers when deprived of public worship, 42, 
 43, 63, 84. Prayers asking help in considera- 
 tion of the uprightness of his cause, 7, 17, 26, 35. 
 Prayers in time of affliction and persecution, 44, 
 60, 74, 79, 80, 83, 89, 94, 102, 129, 137. Prayers 
 of intercession, 20, 67, 122, 132, 144. 
 
 5. Psalms eminently prophetical, 2, 16, 22, 40, 
 45, 68, 69, 72, 97, 110, 118, mostly Messianic. 
 
 6. Historical Psalms, 78, 105, 106. 
 
 N.T. quotations from and references to the 
 Psalms are frequent. The following is a list 
 of passages applied to our Lord and His work : 
 
 Ps. 2, Messianic Psalm : predicting the con- 
 quests and sovereignty of the Divine Son, 
 repeatedly quoted in the N.T., Acts 4.25, 13.33 ; 
 Heb. 1.5, 5.5 ; Rev. 2.26, 27, 12.5 in the first 
 of these passages attributed by the apostles to 
 David. Ps. 16, the Kesurrection of the Holy 
 One, Acts 2.27 (Peter), 13.35 (Paul). 
 
 Ps. 8.5, 7, Man the lord of creation, an ideal 
 realised only in Christ, Heb. 2.5-9. 
 
 Ps. 22.7,8,18, An innocent Sufferer, Mail. 
 27.35, 46. 
 
 Ps. 22.22, Testimony of the Saviour to His 
 own work, Heb. 2.11. 
 
 Ps. 31.5, Jesus commends His departing 
 spirit to God, Lk. 23.46. 
 
 Ps. 35.19, Hated without a cause, John 15.25. 
 Ps. 40.6, Incarnation, obedience, and sacrifice, 
 Heb. 10.5-10. 
 
 Ps. 41.9, The traitor amid professed friends, 
 John 13.18. 
 
 Ps. 45.6, Messianic Psalm : The Son's eternal 
 throne, Heb. 1.8, 9. 
 
 Ps. 68.18, His Descent and Ascension, Eph. 4.8. 
 Ps. 69.9, Zeal for His Father's House, John 
 2.17. 
 
 Ps. 69.21-25, Christ and His enemies, Matt. 
 27.14, 48 ; Rom. 11.9, 10 (Matt. 23.37, 38). 
 
 Ps. 110, Messianic Psalm : attributed by 
 Christ Himself to David, Christ the Conqueror, 
 and Priestly King, Matt. 22.43, etc., Acts 2.34 ; 
 1 Cor. 15.25 ; Heb. 1.13, 5.6, 7.17. 
 
 Ps. 118.22, 23, The Stone which the builders 
 rejected, Matt. 21.42, etc., Eph. 2.20. 
 
 Ps. 132.11, The Inheritor of David's throne, 
 Acts 2.30. 
 
 [For the headings and musical directions 
 attached to the Psalms (e.g. " Higgaion," 
 " Michtam," " Alamoth "), see the articles under 
 the respective titles.] 
 
 Psaltery. A stringed instrument to accom- 
 pany the voice (Ps. 33.2, 144.9). It was a 
 species of lute, resembling the guitar, though 
 triangular in form. The number of its strings 
 varied from six to twelve. These were stretched 
 over a tightly drawn skin fastened to the frame- 
 work, and were played by the fingers, like the 
 harp (2 Sam. 6.5 ; 1 K. 10.12). 
 
 Ptolema'is. City of Ptolemy (Acts 21.7): a 
 town on the coast between Carmel and Tyre. 
 It was anciently called Accho (which see), and 
 received its name of Ptolemais in Greek and 
 Roman times. Paul called here on his way 
 home from his third missionary journey. After- 
 wards the town was known as Acre. It is now 
 Akka. 
 
 Puah. 1. A midwife in Egypt (Ex. 1.15; 1 
 Chr. 7.1). 2. Also Pua (Numb. 26.23; Judg. 
 10.1). [PHUVAH.] 
 
 Publican. A revenue officer, employed in the 
 collection of the taxes. Among the Romans 
 there were two sorts of tax receivers: general 
 receivers, who had deputies in each province, 
 and were accountable to the Emperor for 
 the revenues of the Empire. These had con- 
 siderable weight in the government, and were 
 generally members of great families ; but the 
 deputies, the under-farmers, the publicans of 
 the lower orders, for their rapine and extortion 
 were looked upon as so many thieves and 
 pickpockets. The tax-gatherer's duties were 
 much more comprehensive than with us, for 
 he charged on every article of merchandise 
 that was carried along the road. [MATTHEW.] 
 
PUBLIUS] 
 
 403 
 
 [PUNISHMENT, FUTURE 
 
 Theocritus being asked, " Which was the most 
 cruel of all beasts ? " replied, " Among the 
 beasts of the wilderness, the bear and the 
 lion ; among the beasts of the city, the publican 
 and the parasite." Among the .Tews also the 
 name and profession of a publican were odious. 
 The Galileans, especially, submitted to them 
 with the greatest impatience, even to the extent 
 of considering the payment of tribute unlawful 
 (cf. Matt. 22.17). Those of their own nation who 
 became publicans they considered little better 
 than heathen (Matt. 18.17). The publicans of the 
 N.T. were looked upon as traitors and .apostates, 
 willing tools of the oppressor, and classed with 
 the vilest characters (Matt. 9.11, 11.19, 18.17, 
 21.31, 32), their only friends being outcasts. It 
 was no wonder, therefore, that the finger of scorn 
 should be pointed at One Who could eat and 
 drink with publicans (Matt. 9.11 ; Lk. 15.1, 19.2), 
 with people whose very alms were refused for the 
 Synagogue poor-box. One virtue at least they 
 possessed. They were not hypocritical. The 
 publican who cried, " God be merciful to me a 
 sinner" (Lk. 18.13) showed that some of this 
 despised class had been stirred by the preach- 
 ing of John the Baptist (Matt. 21.32). The 
 publican Matthew was appointed by our Lord 
 one of the Twelve. 
 
 Pub 'lias. Common : the governor of Melita 
 when Paul was shipwrecked there (Acts 28.7). 
 Paul miraculously healed the father of Publius 
 of a fever, and this becoming known, other sick 
 were brought to him to be healed. [PAUL.] 
 Melita was under the Roman praetor of Sicily, 
 and Publius, as the chief landowner on the 
 island, was probably made his local representa- 
 tive. He is said to have been made first bishop 
 of the island, and to have suffered martyrdom. 
 
 Pudens. Shamefast : Pudens is mentioned 
 (with Claudia) by Paul as a Christian in Rome 
 who greets Timothy (2 Tim. 4.21). Nothing 
 whatever is known of him. But because the 
 Roman poet, Martial, about 80 A.D., speaks of 
 the marriage of Pudens and Claudia, and also 
 says that a Claudia came from Britain, a fanciful 
 theory has been framed identifying Martial's 
 and St. Paul's names. 
 
 Pu'hites (R.V. Puthites). Descendants of 
 Caleb in Kirjath-jearim (1 Ch. 2.53). 
 
 PuL 1. The Babylonian name for Tiglath- 
 pileser m. (iv.), the king of Assyria (2 K. 
 15.19), who appeared against Menahem, king 
 of Israel, who had neglected to pay him tribute 
 as vassal. [ISRAEL.] Menahem was successful 
 for awhile in his rebellion, and even extended 
 his borders to what it had been under Solomon 
 (1 K. 4.24). But Pul marched to Palestine, 
 and Menahem only escaped destruction by pay- 
 ing a thousand talents of gold, collected by 
 means of a poll-tax (1 Ch. 5.26). 2. [PHUT.] 
 
 Pulse. Seeds which grow in pods, as beans, 
 peas, lentils, etc. The Hebrews of old took 
 parched peas with them when on a campaign 
 (2 Sam. 17.28). The pulse on which " the four 
 children" (Dan. 1.12, 16) throve for ten days is 
 pot to be taken literally as meaning seeds from 
 
 pods only, but as including vegetable diet 
 generally, including grain. 
 
 Punishment. Capital punishment was carried 
 out in various ways. Hanging (Josh. 8.29 ; 
 2 Sam. 21.12; Esth. 7.10); stoning, the usual 
 method (Ex. 17.4; Lk. 20.6; John 10.31; 
 Acts 14.5) ; by fire or burning (Gen. 38.24 ; 
 Lev. 20.14, 21.9) ; the rack, or bastinado (Heb. 
 11.35) ; precipitation, or throwing persons head- 
 long from a rock, sometimes with a stone tied 
 round the neck (2 Ch. 25.12 ; Lk. 4.29); decapita- 
 tion (Gen. 40.19 ; Judg. 9.5 ; 2 K. 10.7 ; Matt. 
 14.8) ; sawing asunder (Heb. 11.37), adopted from 
 Persia; crucifixion. [CROSS.] Offences punished 
 with death were numerous. Dishonouring a 
 parent (Ex. 21.15-17); breaking the Sabbath (Ex. 
 31.14 ; Num. 15.35) ; blasphemy (Lev. 24.14, 16 ; 
 
 1 K. 21.10; Matt. 26.65,66); adultery and 
 unchastity (Lev. 20.10, 21.9 ; Deut. 22.21, 22, 25 ; 
 John 8.5) ; incest, etc. (Ex. 22.19 ; Lev. 20.11, 
 14,16); idolatry (Lev. 20.2; Num. 25.8; 
 Deut. 13.6 ff., 17.2, 7 ; Josh. 22.20). The lighter 
 punishments of the Jews were imposed on the 
 principle of " an eye for an eye " (Ex. 21.24, 25). 
 Amongst those noted are cutting off the hands 
 and feet (Judg. 1.5-7 ; 2 Sam. 4.12) ; stripes, a 
 common punishment, and scourging (Deut. 25.3 ; 
 
 2 Cor. 11.24 ; Judg. 8.16) ; stocks (Jer. 20.2). 
 Restitution and compensation were imposed 
 
 for various offences, such as theft, burglary, 
 firing ricks, losing a pledge, slandering (Ex. 
 21, 22; Lev. 24.18-21; Deut. 19.21, 22.18). 
 Many of the Jewish punishments were borrowed 
 from Egypt, where the power of life and death 
 and imprisonment was vested in the monarch 
 and certain high officials (Gen. 40.3, 22, 43.13). 
 
 Punishment, Future. There is perhaps no 
 subject as to which it is more necessary to keep 
 strictly to the exact words and meaning of 
 Holy Scripture, without attempting to draw 
 any inferences beyond those which strict 
 exegesis allows. We must proceed carefully 
 to examine, first, the language, and then the 
 teaching of Scripture, in order that we may be 
 able to draw any conclusions which arise out 
 of them. 
 
 I. The Terms used. It is important to 
 study the various words and phrases connected 
 with future punishment. In the O.T. the word 
 " Sheol " occurs 65 times, and is rendered in 
 the A.V. by " Hell " 31 times, by " grave " 
 31, and by " pit " 3 times. In the R.V. the 
 rendering " the grave " or " the pit " is found 
 in the historical books, to show that the word 
 does not signify " the place of burial." In 
 the poetical books " Sheol " is usually found 
 in the text, and " the grave " in the margin. 
 It is quite clear from a careful study of all the 
 passages, that Sheol is to be distinguished from 
 the grave (Gen. 37.35; Ps. 16.10). In the 
 N.T. " Hades " occurs 11 times, in 10 of which 
 it is rendered " Hell," and once " grave." The 
 R.V. has " Hades " for these 10 cases. The 
 word means generally " the unseen place," 
 and is equivalent to the O.T. Sheol, as a general 
 term for the place in the next world for both 
 
PUNISHMENT, FUTUEE] 
 
 404 
 
 [PUNON 
 
 good and bad. The word " Tartarus " occurs 
 in a verbal form once (2 Pet. 2.4), and is rendered 
 in A.V. and R.V. by " Hell." The word 
 " Gehenna " is always " Hell " in the A.V. 
 and occurs 12 times. The R.V. adds a marginal 
 note where it occurs, indicating the Greek word. 
 In the O.T. the phrase merely signifies the name 
 of a place, the Valley of Hinnom, near Jerusalem. 
 In the N.T. wherever Gehenna occurs, it is 
 used to imply the place of final punishment of 
 the wicked. No indication is found there of 
 its use as applied to the polluted valley of 
 Hinnom. But if that valley was used as a place 
 of refuse, which was always burning, we can 
 readily see how appropriate was the symbolical 
 application of the term by our Lord. The word 
 " eternal " (Greek aidnios), is rendered in- 
 discriminately in the R.V. by " eternal " and 
 " everlasting," though there does not seem to 
 have been any intention to indicate a funda- 
 mental difference between the two words. In 
 many passages the Greek must mean " end- 
 less " ; but usage alone can settle the matter. 
 It occurs 71 times in N.T. ; 44 of eternal life, 
 3 times of God, 3 times of the blessings of 
 the Gospel and our future glory, and 4 times 
 of punishment and judgment. " Of the future 
 it is nowhere used in the N.T. except of eternal 
 life or punishment." 
 
 II. The Teaching Given. The truth of the 
 N.T. in regard to future punishment may be 
 summed up along the following lines : (a) there 
 will be a day of judgment (Amos 5.18-20 ; Matt. 
 16.27, 25.31 ; 2 Cor. 5.10) ; (b) every man will 
 be rewarded according to his works (Rom. 2.16 ; 
 Rev. 20.12); (c) the punishment of the wicked 
 is certain (Matt. 13.36-43, 25.30 ; Mk. 9.43-48). 
 (d) There will be degrees of punishment (Matt. 
 16.27 ; Lk. 12.47, 48) ; (e) the punishment of 
 the wicked will be everlasting (Matt. 25.46 ; 
 Mk. 9.48; Rev. 14.11); (/) there will be a 
 resurrection of the unjust as well as of the just 
 ( John 5.29). 
 
 III. Theories Advocated. There are three 
 usual lines of interpretation of the N.T. teaching. 
 (a) Universalism. Some hold dogmatically, 
 others only in hope, that there will be a uni- 
 versal restitution of all men. But the very 
 grave warnings seem too strong for this to be 
 the true interpretation (Matt. 5.22, 18.9 ; 
 Mk. 9.45 ; Lk. 12.5 ; Jas. 3.6). (b) Anni- 
 hilation. This teaches that the wicked will 
 be destroyed, and that only those who are in 
 Christ will have eternal life. This interpreta- 
 tion is based on the thought of death as destruc- 
 tion ; but the Greek word rendered " destroy " 
 does not always denote annihilation (Matt. 
 27.20; Lk. 19.47). The root idea of death 
 does not seem to be destruction, but separation 
 (Eph. 2.1 ; 1 Tim. 5.6), just as the root idea 
 of life is not mere existence, but union (John 
 15.4). As the soul is to survive death (John 
 5.28), it may perhaps be assumed to be able to 
 survive anything. Immortality is taken for 
 granted in the N.T., and if 1 Tim. 1.17 and 6.16 
 are pressed, they make God only immortal, 
 
 and no one else in the universe. It hardly 
 seems likely that the wicked will be raised only 
 to be destroyed ; nor does it seem just to 
 deal with every degree of sin exactly in the 
 same way by annihilation. To expel sin 
 by destroying the sinner, would almost appear 
 like a confession of failure. Punishment is 
 said to be " for ever " (Rev. 14.11), and the 
 Divine Wrath is said to " abide on " the un- 
 believer (John 3.36). (c) Everlasting Punish- 
 ment. This view is certainly closest to the 
 exegesis of Scripture. It has the advantage of 
 connecting sin with its penalty, by showing 
 that the doom of the sinner is self-chosen, and 
 that punishment comes from within, not arbi- 
 trarily from without. Character tends to per- 
 manence, and this view of the future supports 
 the well-known truth of the fixity and per- 
 sistence of personal character. While judg- 
 ment is God's strange work, in which He has no 
 pleasure (Isai. 28.21 ; Matt. 25.41), everything 
 we know tends to show that the principle 
 of punishment is not exhausted in the idea 
 of reformation. Human justice demands 
 righteous retribution ; the words of Christ 
 and His disciples clearly indicate a feeling of 
 deep horror at the fate of the wicked, and the 
 power of will shows that any one can resist 
 God's grace, and sin, in spite of everything God 
 may do. Modern science with its emphasis 
 on law, tends to support the principle of punish- 
 ment for ever. The weak point of this theory 
 seems to lie in its implication of the eternity 
 of sin in the universe of God. Will God allow 
 evil to go on for ever ? Is sin never to be 
 finally dispossessed ? If God is to be " all in 
 all," is the presence of sin compatible with this 
 purpose? It will thus be seen that there are 
 two lines of scriptural teaching. One starts 
 from God, and tends in the direction of the final 
 consummation of all things, when " God will 
 be all in all." The other line starts from man. 
 with his freedom of will, and tends towards 
 the solemn possibilities of " an eternal sin " 
 (Mk. 3.29 R.V.). Scripture does not seem to 
 reconcile these apparently opposite positions. 
 It is the old problem of Divine sovereignty 
 and human freedom. Perhaps, if sin is not 
 to last for ever, there may be found a solution 
 by which those who have sinned will remain for 
 ever as they are, not finally impenitent, but 
 permanently bearing the consequences of their 
 former sin. They will realise their loss, and will 
 always recall what might have been, and yet 
 will never be able to remove the incapacities 
 of their former evil, even though they are no 
 longer to go on sinning for ever. But punish- 
 ment is not synonymous with " torment," as is 
 sometimes alleged. We must wait for the next 
 life before we can obtain any reconciliation of 
 the two aspects of truth which are so manifestly 
 set before us in Holy Scripture. 
 
 Pu'nites. Descendants of Pua (Num. 26.23). 
 [PHUVAH.] 
 
 Pun 'on. Site of Israelite encampment towards 
 the close of the wandering (Num. 33.42,43) 
 
HJRAH] 
 
 405 
 
 [PUTEOLI 
 
 between Petra and Zoar. It was three days' 
 journey from boundary of Moab, but the site 
 has not been found. 
 
 Purah. - [PHUEAH.] 
 
 Pur, Purim. Lot, lots : a feast of the Jews, 
 instituted to commemorate the lots cast by 
 Haman, the enemy of the Jews (Esth. 3.7). 
 These lots were cast in the first month of the 
 year, and gave the thirteenth day of the twelfth 
 month (Adar) of the same year for the execu- 
 tion of Hainan's design to destroy all the Jews 
 in Persia. The superstition of Haman in credit- 
 ing these lots caused his own ruin and the 
 preservation of the Jews, who thus had time to 
 seek the aid of Esther. The Jews keep the 
 festival on the fourteenth and fifteenth of Adar, 
 as days of thanksgiving to God (Esth. 9.14). 
 
 It is- said that there is a proverb that " The 
 Temple may fall, but the Purim never," so 
 powerfully did this deliverance affect the 
 national imagination. [ESTHER, HAMAN, MOE- 
 DECAI.] 
 
 Purgatory. A supposed place of suffering, 
 in which holy souls are cleansed and purified 
 between death and judgment. The chief texts 
 upon which Roman Catholics base belief in 
 Purgatory are : Ps. 38.1, 66.12 ; Isai. 4.4, 9.18 ; 
 Mic. 7.8, 9 ; Zech. 9.11 ; Mai 3.3; Matt. 5. 22, 25, 
 26, 12.32; 1 Cor. 3.12-15. The last alone 
 presents difficulty ; but " the day " must refer 
 to the day of judgment, which comes after 
 Purgatory, on the Roman theory. On the 
 other hand, the whole tenor of N.T. teaching 
 negatives Purgatory. There is no such state 
 for the thief on the cross (Lk. 23.43) ; nor for 
 Paul (2 Cor. 5.8 ; Phil. 1.23). Note also that 
 the Roman theory is directly contradicted by 
 Wisdom 3.1-3 (which Rome includes in the 
 Canon of Holy Scripture) : " The souls of the 
 righteous are in the hands of God, and there 
 shall no torment touch them . . . they are in 
 peace." The doctrine of Purgatory was first 
 clearly laid down by Pope Gregory i. (590-604), 
 though the idea had long been known in pagan 
 literature (see, for example, Virgil, 2Ln. v. 
 739). It was one of the doctrines most plainly 
 repudiated by the Reformers, especially as the 
 Romanists connected it with Indulgences, and 
 other superstitious means, by which it was 
 thought that the time of souls in Purgatory 
 was shortened. 
 
 Purification. The purifications enjoined by 
 the Jewish law were often observed by 
 the performance of vows (Acts 21.23, 24). 
 [NAZABITE.] Ceremonial washings or ablu- 
 tions are among the most ancient religious rites ; 
 but the simplicity of the rites of purification 
 directed by Divine Law was well calculated 
 to guard the Israelites against the use of the 
 superstitious and often barbarous rites practised 
 by the heathen for lustrations. No one was 
 permitted to approach God without undergoing 
 the double purification of the altar and the 
 laver which we may perhaps spiritualise as 
 typifying the blood and the spirit of Jesus 
 (Ex. 30.18 ff. ; Heb. 10.19, 22). 
 
 There was a washing of the whole body, used 
 at the admission of Jewish proselytes in later 
 times, and in some ablutions commanded by the 
 law (Ex. 29.4; Lev. 14.8). There was also a 
 pouring of water on the feet and hands, or a 
 sprinkling (Num. 8.7, 19.18; Deut. 21.6). In 
 the solemn sacrifices sprinkling the blood was 
 an indispensable ceremony, typifying Christ's 
 shedding His blood for our sins (Lev. 1.5 ; 
 1 Pet. 1.2). Also anointing with oil was some- 
 times used (Ex. 30.26-28 ; Lev. 14.27-29). 
 
 Purple. The famous Tyrian dye ; extracted 
 from the purpura or murear, a species of shell- 
 fish belonging to the Mediterranean. Phoenicia 
 was celebrated for the manufacture of the dye, 
 and Tyrian purple was of world- wide fame . E ach 
 shell yielded but a single drop of the colouring 
 matter, which was consequently very valuable, 
 and used by the Jews as an emblematic colour 
 of royalty and high office, as it was also among 
 the Greeks. The art of making the dye has 
 been lost, as has also the exact shade of purple. 
 It is thought to have been nearer to our 
 scarlet than to what we know as purple. With 
 reference to the purple vestment (Lk. 16.19), 
 it may be observed that although this colour was 
 not always a royal one, and was also used by 
 people of high rank, in our Lord's case it was 
 doubtless meant to be a gibe on His claim to 
 royalty (Ex. 25.4 ; 2 Ch. 2.7 ; Ezek. 27-7 ; Mk. 
 15.17, 20 ; John 19.2, 5 ; Acts 16.14). [LYDIA, 
 SCARLET, COLOURS.] 
 
 Purse. A bag of skin or knitted silk suspended 
 to the waist by a girdle. It was used by 
 travellers and merchants, the latter carrying 
 not only their money in it, but their weights. 
 Those used by women were sometimes highly 
 ornamented (Isai. 3.23). Another kind of purse 
 was a long woven sash of wool. One end of this 
 was of double material, forming a bag. This was 
 put round the waist and then buckled, the 
 remainder of the sash being wound round and 
 round until the waist was covered with several 
 folds, the end being secured by being tucked 
 under (Prov. 1.14 ; Matt. 10.9 ; Mk. 6.8 ; Lk. 10.4, 
 22.35, 36). [BAG, MONET.] 
 
 Pursuer. (Josh. 2.16,22, 8.20; Lam. 1.6). 
 [CITIES OF REFUGE, ATENGER.] 
 
 Purtenance. Ex. 12.9, A.V. ; "Inwards" 
 R.V., i.e. intestines. 
 
 Put. [PHUT.] 
 
 Pute'oli. Wetts, springs : a seaport town of 
 Italy on the north-east shore of the Bay of Naples, 
 where Paul remained a week on his way to Rome 
 (Acts 28.13). Its modern name is Pozzuoli. At 
 one time, when the southern half of Italy 
 belonged to the Greeks, Puteoli was called 
 Dicaearchia ; its name of Puteoli (so called 
 from its natural hot baths) was given to it by 
 the Romans. As a seaport, it became a place of 
 great importance, for here came the Alexandrian 
 grain ships, and here landed most of the travellers 
 for Rome. For two hundred years before Christ 
 Puteoli was also the chief port used by the 
 Roman army. Puteoli has suffered from earth- 
 quakes, and is now not of great importance. 
 
PUTHITES] 
 
 406 
 
 [RABBI 
 
 Puthites. [PUHITBS.] 
 
 Putiel. (?) He whom God has given : father- 
 in-law of Eleazar, son of Aaron (Ex. 6.25). 
 
 Puvah. [PHUVAH.] 
 
 Pygarg. A species of antelope. The pygarg 
 was one of the clean animals permitted for food 
 (Deut. 14.5). It has been identified with the 
 addax (Antelope addax) of North Africa and 
 Arabia. The Greek name (Pygarg) it bears 
 signifies an animal with a " white rump." It 
 may be supposed that the term represents any 
 of the large, white-tailed antelopes ; but as the 
 
 addax is the only antelope with this special 
 feature left in Palestine, it is probably the 
 animal intended by the writer of the passage. 
 
 The addax is characterised by the posses- 
 sion of horns in both sexes, by the body being 
 peculiarly deep at the shoulder, arid by its long 
 tail. Its horns are twisted and curved backwards. 
 Its coat is nearly white, with black front. 
 
 Python. (Acts 16.16, R.V. marg.). A sooth- 
 saying spirit, so called from the fact that the 
 famous oracle of Delphi was in the district of 
 Pytho. 
 
 Q 
 
 Qoheleth. [ECCLESTASTES.] 
 
 Quail. A small bird of the partridge family. 
 The Israelites were miraculously supplied with 
 quails in the wilderness of Zin (Ex. 16.13), and 
 at Kibroth Hattaavah (Num. 11.31-34). It has 
 been suggested that the quails which supplied the 
 Israelites were driven in their annual migration 
 by a south-westerly wind sweeping from Ethi- 
 opia and Egypt over the shores of the Red Sea. 
 
 Quarries. Only in Judg. 3.19, 26, where A.V. 
 and R.V. margins have " or; graven images," 
 sculptured stones. 
 
 Quarry. Occurs also in 1 K. 6.7, R.V., in the 
 ordinary sense of a stone-quarry. 
 
 Quartus. A Christian of Corinth, whose 
 salutations Paul sends to the brethren at Rome 
 (Rom. 16.23). 
 
 Quater'nion. A guard of four soldiers, two 
 of whom were attached to the person of a 
 prisoner, while the other two kept watch outside 
 the door of his cell. Peter was " delivered to 
 four quaternions of soldiers," each of which took 
 charge of him for a watch of the night (Acts 
 12.4-6). 
 
 Queen. Of the words rendered " Queen " in 
 the A.V., one, signifying a queen-regnant, is used 
 
 of the Queen of Sheba (1 K. 10.1) ; but also of 
 Vashti and Esther (Esth. 1.9, 2.22), and of the 
 consort of Belshazzar (Dan. 5.10). A second 
 (Neh. 2.6 ; Ps. 45.9) implies a queen- consort. A 
 third (1 K. 11.19 ; 2 K. 10.13, etc.) was used of 
 the queen-mother, who, conformably to Oriental 
 custom, exercised great authority. 
 
 Queen of Heaven. The title given to the 
 goddess to whom the Hebrew women, with the 
 connivance of their husbands, offered cakes, 
 poured out drink-offerings, and burnt incense in 
 the streets of Jerusalem (Jer. 7.18, 44.17-25). 
 The most probable identification of this goddess 
 is with the Babylonian Istar, either the planet 
 Venus or the moon. [ASHTORETH.] 
 
 Quicksands. Only hi Acts 27.17, where R.V. 
 reads " lest they should be cast upon the Syrtis " 
 the African coast between Carthage and 
 Cyrene, dreaded by sailors because of its shifting 
 sands and perplexing currents. 
 
 Quiri'nius. R.V. Lk. 2.2. [CYEENIUS.] 
 
 Quiver. The receptacle in which arrows were 
 carried (Job 39.23). The word is used meta- 
 phorically in Ps. 127.5. In Gen. 27.3 the word 
 rendered quiver may imply a sword or other 
 weapon suspended from the shoulder. 
 
 R 
 
 Raa'mah (R.V. Raama, 1 Ch. 1.9). (?) Thun- 
 der : son of Cush, son of Ham. The tribe of 
 Raamah became renowned as traders (Gen. 10.7 ; 
 Ezek. 27.22) ; settled, it is believed, on the shores 
 of the Persian Gulf, or near Mein in South- West 
 Arabia. 
 
 Raami'ah. (?) Thunder of Jehovah: one of 
 the chiefs who returned with Zerubbabel (Neh. 
 7.7). In Ezra 2.2 he is called Reelaiah. 
 
 Raam'ses. (Ex. 1.11). [RAMESES.] 
 
 Rab'bah, Bab 'bath. -Greatness : 1. Metropolis 
 and very strong fortress of the Ammonites, 
 19 miles south-east from Ramoth-gilead, in a 
 broad valley on a head stream of the Jabbok ; 
 
 not included in the territory of the Israelites 
 (Josh. 13.25); taken by David (2 Sam. 11.1, 
 12.26-29, 17.27 ; 1 Ch. 20.1) ; subject of pro- 
 phetic denunciation (Jer. 49.2, 3 ; Ezek. 21.20, 
 25.5 ; Amos 1.14). It is now known as' Amman. 
 Ar of Moab is now called Rabbah. 
 
 2. Town of Judah (Josh. 15.60) ; the modern 
 Rubbah, 2 miles south-west of Adullam. 
 
 Rabbi. A title of respect, signifying Master 
 or Teacher, employed by the Jews, and often 
 applied to our Lord (Matt. 23.7, 8, 26.25, 49 ; 
 Mk. 9.5, 11.21, 14.45; John 1.38,49, 3.2,26, 
 4.31, 6.25, 9.2, 11.8). Bab, signifying great, 
 enters into the composition of many names of 
 
RABBITH] 
 
 407 
 
 [RAKKATH 
 
 dignity and office. [RABBONI, RAB-MAG, RAB- 
 SARIS, RAB-SHAKEH.] 
 
 RabTnth. Now Raba ; a town of Issachar, 
 south-east of Jenln (Josh. 19.20). 
 
 Rabbo'ni. My master', a kindred term to 
 Rabbi (John 20.16). 
 
 Bab-mag. Possibly the chief of the Magi 
 (Jer. 39.3, 13), but more probably the chief of 
 the commanders. 
 
 Rab-sa'ris. (?) Chief eunuch : 1. An officer 
 of Sennacherib, king of Assyria, sent up against 
 Jerusalem in the time of Hezekiah (2 K. 18.17). 
 2. The title of two princes, Sarsechim and 
 Nebushasban, of Nebuchadnezzar, king of 
 Babylon. The first was present at the capture 
 of Jerusalem when Zedekiah, after endeavouring 
 to escape, was taken and blinded and sent in 
 chains to Babylon. The second is mentioned 
 among the other princes sent to deliver Jeremiah 
 out of prison (Jer. 39.3, 13). 
 
 Rab-sha'keh. An Assyrian military title of 
 high rank, the exact meaning being unknown. 
 An envoy of Sennacherib, king of Assyria, 
 known to us only by his title, sent to persuade 
 the people of Jerusalem to surrender, while 
 his master, having taken other large cities of 
 Judah, was besieging Lachish. Rab-shakeh, 
 who was familiar with Hebrew, spoke to the 
 people in their own tongue, maintaining that 
 the expedition of Sennacherib had the sanction 
 and command of Jehovah. The reference may 
 have been to the prophecies of Isaiah concern- 
 ing the desolation of Judah and Israel by the 
 Assyrians, which may have come to his know- 
 ledge in some way (2 K. 18.19 ; Isai. 8.7, 8, 
 10.5, 6, chaps. 36 and 37). 
 
 Ra'ca. A popular term of reproach signifying 
 " worthless " (Matt. 5.22). It is closely con- 
 nected with the word (rekim) translated " vain 
 fellows" in Judg. 11.3 (R.V.). The Rabbis taught 
 that the use of such an expression was almost 
 as great a crime as murder. 
 
 Race. [GAMES.] 
 
 Ra'chab. Rahab the harlot (Matt. 1.5). 
 
 Ra'chal (R.V. Racal). (?) Trader : one of 
 David's haunts when fleeing from Saul (1 Sam. 
 30.29). It should perhaps be read " Carmel." 
 
 RacheL Ewe : the wife of Jacob, who, to 
 win her, served Laban, her father and his uncle, 
 fourteen years. Her theft of her father's images 
 shows that' she was not free from the supersti- 
 tions and idolatry which prevailed in the land 
 whence Abraham had been called (Josh. 24.2, 
 14). She was the sister of Leah, and the mother 
 of Joseph and Benjamin. Rachel died in giving 
 birth to Benjamin, and was buried " on the way 
 to Ephrath " or Bethlehem. Her tomb the 
 first Bible example of the setting-up of a sepul- 
 chral monument is still shown there (Gen. 
 35.19). But in 1 Sam. 10.2 her tomb is placed 
 on the northern border of Benjamin, at Ramah 
 (Jer. 31.15). It has been suggested that while 
 Rachel's real tomb was at Bethlehem in Judah, 
 a representation of her tomb was placed at 
 Ramah, a place in the territory of her son 
 Benjamin, from which the real tomb could 
 
 be seen. The incidents of her life are 
 described in Gen. 29-33, 35. Jeremiah (31.15) 
 and Matthew (2.18) have put Rachel for the 
 tribes of Ephraim and Manasseh, the children 
 of Joseph. The prophecy was fulfilled when 
 these two tribes were carried into captivity 
 beyond the Euphrates ; and Matthew uses it to 
 illustrate what happened in Bethlehem, when 
 Herod put to death the children of two years 
 old and under. Then Rachel, who was buried 
 there, might be said to make her lamentations 
 for the death of so many innocent children. 
 
 Rad'dai. One of David's brothers (1 Ch. 
 2.14). 
 
 Ra'gau (R.V. Reu). An ancestor of Jesus 
 (Lk. 3.35). 
 
 Ragu'el (R.V. Reuel). The father-in-law of 
 Moses, also called Reuel or Jethro. He was 
 a prince-priest of Midian (Num. 10.29). Moses 
 invited him to offer sacrifices to the Lord, on his 
 arrival in the camp of Israel, as one who adored 
 the same God (Ex. 18.11,12). [HOBAB, 
 JETHKO, REUEL.] 
 
 Ra'hab. Fierceness, insolence, pride : a 
 poetical name of Egypt (Ps. 87.4, 89.10; 
 Isai. 51.9), based, it would seem, on an old 
 mythological tale, in which it was the name of 
 a sea-monster. 
 
 Ra'hab, Ra'chab. A harlot of Jericho who 
 concealed the spies sent by Joshua. As a 
 recompense, her life was spared when the city 
 was captured (Josh. 2 and 6.25). She married 
 Salmon, a prince of Judah, and was an ances- 
 tress of David and of our Lord (Matt. 1.5). The 
 writer of the Epistle to the Hebrews magni- 
 fies her faith (11.31), and St. James mentions 
 her as an example of faith producing works 
 (2.25). 
 
 Raliam. (?) Gentle : a descendant of Caleb 
 (1 Ch. 2.44). 
 
 RaTiel (R.V. Rachel). Jer. 31.15. [RACHEL.] 
 
 Rain. There are references in Scripture 
 to the "early" and the "latter" rain (Deut. 
 11.14 ; Jer. 5.24; Eos. 6.3 ; Joel 2.23 ; Jas. 5.7). 
 The former fell about October or November 
 (not long after the beginning of the civil year), 
 and the latter in the spring. In Palestine, 
 the time of the year during which rain falls, 
 generally speaking, lies between these dates. 
 Thunder and rain in wheat harvest was a 
 miracle which filled the people with fear and 
 wonder (1 Sam. 12.16-18) ; and Solomon could 
 speak of " rain in harvest " as the most forcible 
 expression for conveying the idea of something 
 utterly out of place and unnatural (Prov. 26.1). 
 The rains came mostly from the west and 
 south-west (Lk. 12.54). 
 
 Rainbow. The right interpretation of Gen. 
 9.13 is not that the rainbow then for the first 
 time made its appearance, but that God con- 
 secrated this phenomenon as the sign of His 
 love and the v. itness of His promise. 
 
 Raisins. [VINE.] 
 
 Ra'kem. A descendant of Manasseh, on the 
 east of Jordan (1 Ch. 7.16). 
 
 Rak'kath. A fortified town of Naphtali 
 
EAKKON] 
 
 408 
 
 [EEAIA, REAIAH 
 
 (Josh. 19.35), said in the Jerusalem Talmud 
 to be the same as Tiberias. 
 
 Rak'kon. Probably a repetition of the name 
 Me-jarkon (Josh. 19.46). 
 
 Ram. 1. Brother of Jerahmeel and father 
 of Amminadab, ancestor of David (Ruth 4.19 ; 
 
 1 Ch. 2.9, 10, 25 ; Matt. 1.3, 4 ; Lk. 3.33). 2. 
 Son of Jerahmeel (1 Ch. 2.25, 27). Perhaps 
 a confusion in the description of 1. 3. Elihu 
 is described as of "the kindred of Ram" (Job 
 32.2) ; possibly the same as Aram (which see). 
 
 Ram. [SHEEP, SACRIFICE.] 
 
 Ram, Battering. This instrument of war 
 (referred to in Ezek. 4.2, 21.22) was so called 
 either because the head of it was shaped like 
 that of a ram, or because the motion resembled 
 the butting of a ram. Sometimes the battering- 
 ram formed part of a very tall structure with 
 warriors on the summit, and was as high as the 
 M-alls of a city, or even as the city towers. The 
 battering-ram was moved on four or six wheels. 
 
 Ra'ma. (Matt. 2.18). Same as Raman 1. 
 
 Ra'mah. High flace: 1. A town of Ben- 
 jamin, now Er-Ram (Josh. 18.25 ; Judg. 4.5, 
 19.13), on the summit of a round hill commanding 
 the great north road, 5 miles from Jerusalem, as 
 a frontier fortress frequently taken and retaken 
 (1 Sam. 22.6 ; 1 K. 15.17-22 ; 2 Ch. 16.1, 5, 6 ; 
 Isai. 10.29 ; Hoi. 5.8) ; a scene of slaughter 
 (Jer. 31.15; Matt. 2.18); and of Jeremiah's 
 imprisonment (Jer. 40.1) ; reoccupied after the 
 return from captivity (Ezra 2.26; Neh. 7.30, 
 11.33). The present ruins of the place indicate 
 its former importance. 2. A town of Mount 
 Ephraim, the birthplace, home, and burial- 
 place of Samuel (1 Sam. 7.17, 8.4, 15.34, 16.13, 
 19.18, 25.1, 28.3). The fuller name of the place 
 is Ramathaim-zophim. It has been identified 
 with Neby Samwil, a lofty eminence 4 miles to 
 the north-west of Jerusalem. Here the alleged 
 tomb of the prophet is shown. 3. Now Er- 
 Rameh ; 2 miles north-west of Ain-Hazor. 
 Fenced town in south of Naphtali (Josh. 19.36). 
 4. Now Ramia ; 3 miles from Tyre. Boundary 
 town of Asher (Josh. 19.29). 5. 2 K. 8.29 and 
 
 2 Ch. 22.6 ; the same as Ramoth-gilead. 
 Ramatha'im-zo'phim. The same as Ramah 2. 
 Ra'mathite. An inhabitant of Ramah, but 
 
 of which Ramah is not known (1 Ch. 27.27). 
 
 Ra'math-leTu. High place of the jawbone: 
 name given by Samson to the scene of his 
 slaughter of the Philistines with a jawbone 
 (Judg. 15.17). 
 
 Ra'math-miz'peh. High place of the watch- 
 tower : a place in Gad (Josh. 13.26) ; the same 
 as Ramoth-gilead. 
 
 Ra'math of the South. High place of the 
 south (Josh. 19.8). Same as Baalath-beer. 
 
 Ra'meses, or Ra'amses. Ba (the sun-god) has 
 lorne him : a city of Egypt occupied by Joseph's 
 brethren (Gen. 47.11); one of the stone cities 
 built (or rebuilt) for Pharaoh by the oppressed 
 Israelites (Ex. 1.11), and the starting-point of the 
 Exodus from Egypt (Ex. 12.37 ; Num. 33.3, 5). 
 It was situated in the western part of the land of 
 Goshen, not far from Pithom (which see). 
 
 Rami'ah. An Israelite, a son of Parosh. He 
 put away his foreign wife at Ezra's command 
 (Ezra 10.25). 
 
 Ra'moth. 1. One of the four Levitical cities 
 of Issachar, given to the Gershonites (1 Ch. 
 6.73). The name appears as Jarmuth in Josh. 
 21.29, and Remeth in Josh. 19.21. 2. An 
 Israelite who put away his foreign wife at Ezra's 
 command (Ezra 10.29). But " and Ramoth " 
 should perhaps be read as " Jeremoth," with 
 the R.V. 
 
 Ra'moth-gi'lead. Heights of Gilead : a town 
 of Gad, and city of refuge ; given to the Merarites 
 (Dent. 4.43 ; Josh. 20.8, 21.38). It was one of 
 Solomon's commissariat districts (1 K. 4.13) ; 
 was taken by the king of Syria ; in the attempt 
 to recover it Ahab lost his life (1 K. 22 ; 2 Ch. 
 18) ; was recovered by Joram (2 K. 8.28, 29, 
 9.14 ; 2 Ch. 22.5, 6), and there Jehu, one of 
 his captains, was anointed and proclaimed king 
 in his stead (2 K. 9.1-14). 
 
 Ramoth in Gilead. [RAMOTH-GILEAD.] 
 
 Ransom. A price paid to obtain a person or 
 thing from one who keeps that person or thing 
 in captivity. Whatever is substituted or ex- 
 changed, in compensation for the person, is his 
 ransom. A man is said to ransom his life 
 (Ex. 21.30), to substitute a sum of money instead 
 of his life (Ex. 30.12 ; Job 36.18 ; Ps. 49.7), and 
 some kinds of sacrifices might be regarded as 
 ransoms, that is, as substitutes for the offerer. 
 In like manner, Christ is said to " give His life 
 a ransom for many " (Matt. 20.28 ; M k. 10.45 ; 
 1 Tim. 2.6), a substitute for them, bearing 
 sufferings in their stead, undergoing the penalty 
 which would otherwise attach to them (see also 
 Bom. 3.24 ; 1 Cor. 1.30 ; Eph. 1.7, 4.30 ; Heb. 
 9.15; 1 Pet. 1.18). [ATONBMENT.] 
 
 Ra'pha. 1. A son of Benjamin (1 Ch. 8.2). 
 2. A Benjamite and a descendant of Saul 
 (1 Ch. 8.37) ; called Rephaiah in 1 Ch. 9.43. 
 [RAPHAIAH 4.] 
 
 Ra'phu. The father of Palti, who was 
 selected as the spy from the tribe of Benjamin 
 (Num. 13.9). 
 
 Raven. The first bird mentioned by name in 
 the Bible (Gen. 8.7). Ravens were the means, 
 under the command of God, of supporting the 
 prophet Elijah at the brook Cherith (1 K. 17.4, 6). 
 The reference in Prov. 30.17 is to a well-known 
 custom of the raven, which invariably first 
 attacks the eyes of young or sickly animals. The 
 raven is quoted as illustrating the care with 
 which God watches over His creatures, for it 
 lives in desolate places where food is very scarce, 
 and yet finds sustenance somehow (Job 38.41 ; 
 Ps. 147.9; Lk. 12.24). Birds of the raven 
 kind are abundant in Palestine ; they feed more 
 or less upon carrion, and therefore they were 
 pronounced unclean and forbidden for food 
 (Lev. 11.15 ; Deut. 14.14), 
 
 Reai'a, Reai'ah. The Lord hath seen : 1. A 
 descendant of Judah (1 Ch. 4.2). 2. A Reuben- 
 ite (1 Ch. 5.5). 3. The children of Reaiah 
 were a family of Nethinim who returned from 
 Babylon with Zerubbabel (Eera 2.47 ; Neh. 7.50). 
 
REBA] 
 
 409 
 
 [BED SEA 
 
 Be'ba. A Midianite king slain by the Israel- 
 ites (Num. 31.8 ; Josh. 13.21). 
 
 Rebecca. (Rom. 9.10). [REBEKAH.] 
 
 Rebe'kah. The daughter of Bethuel, found at 
 the city of Nahor in Padan-aram by Abraham's 
 servant and brought away to become the 
 wife of Isaac (Gen. 24). After nineteen years 
 of childlessness she became the mother of Esau 
 and Jacob (Gen. 25.20-26). Rebekah favoured 
 the younger son, abetted him in his deceit upon 
 his father (Gen. 27), and, when she feared the 
 consequences of Esau's anger, persuaded Isaac 
 to send Jacob to Padan-aram, to her own 
 kindred. Rebekah is not mentioned when 
 Jacob returns to his father, and accordingly it is 
 conjectured that she died during her son's stay 
 in Padan-aram. Paul refers to Rebekah as 
 being made acquainted with the purpose of God 
 regarding her children before they were born 
 (Rom. 9.10). 
 
 Recall. [RECHAH.] 
 
 Re'chab. (?) Band of riders : 1. Father of 
 Jehonadab (2 K. 10.15, 23 ; Jer. 35.6-19) ; con- 
 nected with the Kenites (1 Ch. 2.55). [RECHAB- 
 ITES.] 2. A warrior who, with his brother 
 Baanah, assassinated Ishbosheth, son of Saul. 
 They were put to death by David for doing so 
 (2 Sam. 4.2). 3. The father or ancestor of 
 Malchiah, ruler of part of Beth-haccerem (Neh. 
 3.14), named as repairing the dung-gate in 
 the fortifications of Jerusalem under Nehemiah ; 
 perhaps the same as 1. 
 
 Rechabites. A sect or religious order originat- 
 ing with Jehonadab or Jonadab, the son of 
 Rechab. The tenets of the Rechabites were a 
 reaction and a protest against the luxury and 
 licence which, under Jezebel and Ahab, threat- 
 ened to destroy altogether the simplicity of the 
 ancient nomadic life of Israel. Accordingly, 
 the Rechabites drank no wine, nor built houses, 
 nor sowed seed, nor planted vineyards, nor had 
 any. They dwelt in tents, as remembering 
 that they were strangers in the land. For two 
 centuries and a half they adhered faithfully to 
 their rules. The invasion of Judah by Nebuch- 
 adnezzar in 607 B.C. drove the Rechabites from 
 their tents. The Rechabites, on account of the 
 purity and austerity of their lives, were recog- 
 nised as incorporated into the tribe of Levi. 
 There is evidence which seems to point to the 
 existence of the Rechabites as a recognised body 
 up to the destruction of Jerusalem, sharing 
 in the ritual of the Temple, partly descended 
 from Jehonadab, partly recruited from the 
 devotees of austerity. As late as the middle 
 of last century there was a tribe near Mecca 
 which claimed to be descended from Jonadab, 
 and to be the fulfilment of the prophetic words, 
 " Jonadab, the son of Rechab, shall not want a 
 man to stand before Me for ever " ( Jer. 35.19). 
 
 Re'chah (R.V. Recah). (1 Ch. 4.12). 
 Reconcile, Reconciliation. In the O.T. the 
 word rendered " reconcile " in Lev. 6.30, 16.20 ; 
 Ezek. 45.20 ; and " to made reconciliation " in 
 Lev. 8.15 ; Ezek. 45.15, 17, is in the R.V. ren- 
 dered by " atone " and " make atonement." 
 
 In 1 Sam. 29.4 another word is employed ; and in 
 2 Ch. 29.24 a third, which is rendered by R.V. 
 " make a sin-offering." In the N.T. the words 
 used (except in Heb. 2.17, where R.V. reads 
 "propitiation") imply a change or changing 
 from enmity to friendship. God is said to re- 
 concile man, " all things," " the world," unto 
 Himself (2 Cor. 5.18,19; Col. 1.20,21) by 
 Jesus Christ (2 Cor. 5.18) in His death (Rom. 
 5.10). So Christ is said to reconcile both Jews 
 and Gentiles to God (Eph* 2.16) ; and the task 
 of proclaiming to others the reconciling work of 
 our Lord is called " the ministry," " the word," 
 of reconciliation (2 Cor. 5.18, 19). [ATONE- 
 MENT, PBOPITIATION.] 
 
 Recorder. An officer who perhaps originally 
 reminded the king of duties and persons, and 
 afterwards looked after the national records, 
 and presided in the king's privy council. The 
 position was one of importance (2 Sam. 8.16, 
 20.24; 1 K. 4.3 ; 2 K. 18.18, 37 ; 1 Ch. 18.15 ; 
 2 Ch. 348). 
 
 Redeem, Redeemer, Redemption. To resume 
 possession of, to buy back, a person or thing, to 
 resume a claim, are acts provided for in much 
 detail under the Mosaic Law. The redemption 
 of land and houses (Lev. 25.23, 24, 29) of an 
 Israelite (Lev. 25.48), of property vowed or 
 " sanctified " to God (Lev. 27.9-27), is thus 
 legalised. As, however, the person who had 
 sold house or land or himself was hardly likely 
 to have the means to redeem that which had been 
 alienated, the right of redemption was secured 
 to his kinsmen (Lev. 25.48, 49). Thus the 
 Hebrew go el, " redeemer," came to mean 
 " kinsman," and is so rendered (Num. 5.8 ; 
 Ruth 2.20, etc.). This goel exercised the right 
 of the Avenger of Blood (Num. 35.19,21,27; 
 Dent. 19.12). Another Hebrew word is used for 
 the redemption of the first-born (Ex. 13.13, 15). 
 In the N.T. of the two ideas suggested by the 
 words rendered " redeem " and " redemption " 
 are (1) purchase (Gal. 3.13, 45 ; Rev. 5.9), and (2) 
 loosing or setting free (Lk. 1.68, 24.21 ; Rom. 
 3.24 ; Eph. 1.7 ; Tit. 2.14 ; 1 Pet. 1.18, etc.). 
 [ATONEMENT, AVENGES OF BLOOD, PBOPITIA- 
 TION.] 
 
 Red Heiler. [SIN-OFFEBENG.] 
 
 Red Sea. Generally in Scripture called Tarn 
 Suph, signifying " sea of weeds." It separates 
 Egypt from Arabia ; in the north part divided 
 into two arms by the Sinaitic peninsula ; the 
 western arm, the larger, is now called the Gulf 
 of Suez, while the eastern arm is the Elanitic 
 Gulf or Gulf of Akaba. The head of the Gulf of 
 Suez has gradually risen since the Christian era 
 (Isai. 11.15, 19.5), and the tongue of the Red Sea 
 has dried up for a distance of at least 50 miles, 
 hence increased difficulty in determining where 
 the Israelites crossed it ; but probably it was 
 somewhere about the present Bitter Lakes. At 
 the head of the Gulf of Akaba were the only two 
 ports of the Red Sea mentioned in the Bible, 
 Elath and Ezion-geber. The greatest width of 
 the Red Sea from the south to where it splits 
 into two gulfs is 200 miles, and the narrowest 
 
REED, RUSH] 
 
 410 
 
 [REGENERATION 
 
 part about 100 miles ; the Gulf of Suez has an 
 average width of about 18 miles, and the Gulf 
 of Akaba considerably less. The former is con- 
 nected with the Mediterranean by the Suez 
 Canal. It is probable that the Israelites crossed 
 the Red Sea at a point about 30 miles to the 
 northward of the present head of the Gulf of 
 Suez, that is, near the northern extremity 
 of the Red Sea as it then was. As the whole 
 Egyptian army perished, the Red Sea at this 
 point must have been several miles broad, at 
 least 12. The deliverance of Israel at the Red 
 Sea became, in the mind of the Jewish nation, 
 the greatest fact in their history. 
 
 Reed, Rush. The Hebrew words rendered 
 " reed " are as general in their application as 
 the English word itself, which is applied to a 
 large variety of reeds, rushes, sedges, etc. The 
 "paper reeds " of Isai. 19.7 are meadows. The 
 flags (in which Moses was laid) of Ex. 2.3 were 
 simply " weeds," a word which includes alike 
 sea-weeds (Jon. 2.5) and those growing in fresh 
 water. The flag of Job 8.11, " Can the flag grow 
 without water?" means "marshy vegetation." 
 In Job 41.2, 20 for " hook " and " caldron " read 
 " rope (of rushes) " and " (burning) rushes." 
 There is no doubt that in some cases the 
 papyrus is specially meant. More than twenty 
 species of rushes, and nearly thirty of sedges, 
 grow in Palestine, including the papyrus, which 
 is a tall green sedge, with a large and drooping 
 panicle or tuft of florets springing from a sheath 
 at the top. It reaches a height of from ten to 
 fifteen feet, with a diameter of from two to 
 three inches at the base. To make paper from 
 papyrus, the rind was removed, the pith cut 
 in strips and laid lengthwise on a flat board, 
 with other strips across, the two largest united 
 by some glue or cement, and the whole sub- 
 jected to pressure, compacting the several parts 
 into one fabric. 
 
 Reelai'ah. [RAAMIAH.] 
 
 Refiner. The Jewish method of refining 
 metals was as follows : the metal was reduced 
 to a liquid state by heat, then alkali or lead 
 was applied, which amalgamated with the dross, 
 and then the pure metal was run off (Isai. 1.25 ; 
 Jer. 6.29). The process of refining is employed 
 figuratively in Zech. 13.9 and Mai. 3.2, 3. In 
 the East, a refiner of silver often tests the 
 quality of the molten metal by seeing whether 
 it reflects his face. 
 
 Refuge, Cities of. [CITY OP REFUGE.] 
 
 Re'gem. (?) Friend: a son of Jahdai ; appar- 
 ently a descendant of Caleb (1 Ch. 2.47). 
 
 Re'gem-me'lech. (?) Friend of the king : one 
 of two persons who were sent on behalf of 
 the captivity to make inquiries at the Temple 
 concerning fasting (Zech. 7.2). 
 
 Regeneration. The word translated "re- 
 generation " is found only twice in the N.T. 
 (Matt. 19.28; Tit. 3.5). The former text 
 refers to the new state or condition of things 
 which will be ushered in by Christ's coming. 
 The latter refers to the present spiritual life 
 of the believer, and is stated to be the first of 
 
 two means by which the mercy of God saves 
 us : (a) " by the washing of regeneration," and 
 (b) "renewing of the Holy Ghost." By dis- 
 tinction from (b), (a) would seem to suggest a 
 sphere or condition in which the Holy Spirit 
 does His work of renewal, and if so, the word 
 will mean in relation to the present what Matt. 
 19.28 means in relation to the future. Cognate 
 words are found in several passages. In John 
 1.121. believers are said to be " born ... of 
 God " ; in John 3.3 " born again " (or " from 
 above "), and 3.5 " born of water and the Spirit." 
 In 1 John there are several marks descriptive 
 of him who is born of God (2.29, 3.9, 10, 14, 
 4.7, 5.1,4,18). Other parallel phrases are 
 "a new creation" (2 Cor. 5.17), "passed out 
 of death into life " (John 5.24), and " children 
 of God." But the phrases rendered " born 
 again " would be more accurately rendered 
 " begotten again," as in 1 Pet. 1.3. It would 
 have helped to clearness if begetting and birth 
 could have been carefully distinguished, for 
 as physical birth is not the commencement of 
 life, so regeneration in the sense of new birth is 
 not the commencement of spiritual life. In both 
 cases life is presumed to exist before birth, 
 and birth is the introduction of life into a 
 new sphere. Much confusion aiises from re- 
 garding regeneration in the sense of new birth 
 as the commencement or first bestowal of 
 new life. This latter idea is not new birth, 
 but new begetting. Birth is the entrance of 
 a living being (of one already begotten), into 
 a new world in which the life can grow, ful- 
 filling its functions and enjoying its privileges. 
 This is clearly the meaning of " regeneration " 
 in Matt. 19.28 ; it refers to that sphere or state 
 into which hereafter the disciples of Christ 
 shall enter. So with birth when applied to the 
 present ; it is not life, but the introduction 
 of life to a new sphere. Life is bestowed 
 on the soul by the Spirit of God through the 
 Word (Jas. 1.18; 1 Pet. 1.23), and then the 
 soul, thus begotten or made alive, is admitted 
 into the new sphere of the Christian community 
 by birth or regeneration. Christ's words in 
 John 3.3 clearly refer to birth as distinct from 
 life or conception, as may be seen from Nico- 
 demus' reply (ver. 4, " can he ... a second time 
 ... be born "). So in Matt. 2.2, " where is He 
 that is born " (cf. John 16.21, " that a man is 
 born "). The very idea of birth is not secret, or 
 hidden, or dormant life, but life visible and 
 manifested. " In this the children of God are 
 manifest" (1 John 3.10). God's bestowal of 
 life is hidden and secret between Him and the 
 soul; but birth is visible to all. So we must 
 carefully distinguish between God's implantation 
 of spiritual life, and the bringing forth (birth) 
 of that life for human observation. The term 
 " regeneration " in Tit. 3.5, and our Lord's 
 words " born from above " (John 3.3), describe 
 nativity (Latin, nativitas), not generation (Latin, 
 generatio). The newly begotten soul is newly 
 born, but re-birth (Latin, renatus) always 
 presupposes a re-begetting (Latin, regeneratio). 
 
REHABIAH] 
 
 411 
 
 [KEMMON-METHOAR 
 
 The Holy Spirit, who bestows life through the 
 Word (Jas. 1.18), is also the Divine agent of 
 new birth (John 3.3, 5, 6, 8 " born from above, 
 born ... of the Spirit"), for it is He who unites 
 us to the spiritual community in which our life 
 is to grow (Acts 2.47: "the Lord- added "). 
 On the earthly side the newborn soul is intro- 
 duced into the visible community of Christians 
 by baptism (Acts 2.41), into that sphere in 
 which its already-existing life is to grow and 
 work. Thus, on the spiritual side the Holy 
 Spirit, and on the temporal or earthly side, the 
 ordinance of baptism, are regarded as intro- 
 ducing the new life respectively into the spiritual 
 and into the earthly spheres of the Church. 
 These two sides may be coincident or separate, 
 for the birth of the Spirit is not tied to the 
 time of baptism. As we can only judge of the 
 presence of physical life by its manifestations, 
 so we can only detect the existence of spiritual 
 life by its proofs. Baptism in the N.T. is 
 never an ordinance of life, but only of birth, 
 and when this is clearly realised it will guard 
 us against all mechanical and superstitious 
 ideas of that rite, and enable us to preserve and 
 emphasise its true place and value. Baptism 
 is not life-giving, but life-expressing, and, 
 normally, it is never the occasion of life's 
 bestowal, but simply of its introduction. 
 The requirements of repentance and faith 
 prior to baptism prove this, for they imply 
 already the presence of spiritual life before 
 Baptism, i.e. life before birth. Regeneration, 
 whether as re-begetting or as re-birth, is to be 
 carefully distinguished from Conversion. Re- 
 generation is a Divine work ; Conversion is the 
 corresponding human response to it. It is 
 the turning of the soul to God, as the result of 
 the gift of life. The word rendered " con- 
 verted " in Matt. 18.3 ; Lk. 22.32 ; Acts 3.19 
 should be translated " turn/' thus emphasising 
 the active, not the passive side. 
 
 Rehabi'ah. A grandson of Moses (1 Ch. 23.17, 
 24.21, 26.25). 
 
 Re'hob. Breadth : 1. The farthest place in 
 the north visited by the spies (Num. 13.21) ; the 
 same as Beth-rehob. 2. A town of Asher, near 
 Sidon (Josh. 19.28). 3. Another town of Asher 
 (Josh. 19.30). Either (2) or (3) was allotted to 
 the Gershonites, and from either (2) or (3) the 
 Canaanites were not expelled (Josh. 21.31 ; 
 Judg. 1.31 ; 1 Ch. 6.75). It is possible that 
 (2) and (3) are identical. 4. The father of 
 Hadadezer (2 Sam. 8.3, 12). 5. A Levite, or 
 family of Levites, who sealed the covenant with 
 Nehemiah (Neh. 10.11). 
 
 Rehobo'am. The son and successor of 
 Solomon (1 K. 11.43). He was forty-one years 
 of age when he ascended the throne. His 
 refusal to remit any of the taxes imposed by 
 his father, and his bravado answer to the petition 
 for redress, led to the revolt of the ten tribes and 
 the establishment of the kingdom of Israel under 
 Jeroboam. Rehoboam assembled an army of 
 180,000 men to take the field against the in- 
 surgents ; but the expedition was forbidden by 
 
 the prophet Shemaiah, who declared that the 
 separation of the kingdoms was in accordance 
 with God's will (1 K. 12.24). The worship of 
 Jehovah without images of Him was main- 
 tained in Judah, and many Levites and pious 
 Israelites removed from the northern kingdom 
 into the southern in disgust at the calf-worship 
 introduced by Jeroboam at Dan and Bethel. 
 [JEROBOAM 1.] Rehoboam, however, did not 
 remove the elements of lascivious idolatry 
 which had been introduced by his father (1 K. 
 14.22-24). This wickedness was punished by an 
 invasion from Egypt, and Rehoboam was com- 
 pelled to purchase peace by the surrender of 
 his father's treasure (1 K. 14.25-28). Rehoboam 
 reigned seventeen years. He bequeathed his 
 kingdom to Abijah, his son by Maachah. 
 
 Re'hoboth. Broad spaces : 1. A city built by 
 Asshur (Gen. 10.11, Rehoboth-Ir, R.V.) ; possibly 
 it was a suburb of Nineveh, especially as its full 
 title is Rehoboth-Ir, i.e. broad places of the city. 
 
 2. A town on the Euphrates, the residence of 
 Shaul, one of the early kings of the Edomites 
 (Gen. 36.37 ; 1 Ch. 1.48). The name still re- 
 mains attached to two spots on the Euphrates. 
 
 3. The name given to a well dug by Isaac when 
 he secured room enough from the herdmen of 
 Gerar (Gen. 26.22) ; now existing near the 
 ruins of Ruheibeh. 
 
 Re 'hum. (?) Compassion : 1. One who re- 
 turned with Zerubbabel from Babylon (Ezra 2.2) ; 
 called Nehum in Neh. 7.7. 2. A Persian official 
 in Judah, who wrote to his master Artaxerxes 
 urging him to stop the rebuilding of the walls 
 and temple of Jerusalem (Ezra 4.8, 9, 17, 23). 
 3. A Levite who assisted in rebuilding the walls 
 of Jerusalem (Neh. 3.17). 4. One of the chiefs 
 of the people who signed the covenant with 
 Nehemiah (Neh. 10.25). 5. A priestly family 
 at the head of a priestly house, who went up 
 with Zerubbabel (Neh. 12.3). [HAEIM.] 
 
 Re'i. (?) Friendly : one who remained faith- 
 ful to David when Adonijah rebelled (1 K. 1.8). 
 Perhaps the passage should be read Shimei 
 and his friends. 
 
 Reins. In Isai. 11.5 the loins ; but elsewhere 
 the word employed means the kidneys. These 
 are represented in the O.T. as the seat of all 
 moral sentiment and the emotions (Job 16.13 ; 
 Ps. 7.9, 26.2; Prov. 23.16, etc. ; and cf. Rev. 2.23). 
 
 ReTsem. 1. A king of Midian slain by the 
 Israelites (Num. 31.8; Josh. 13.21). 2. The 
 father of Shammai of Hebron (1 Ch. 2.43, 44). 
 3. A town of Benjamin (Josh. 18.27). [RAKEM.] 
 
 Remali'ah. (?) The Lord hath adorned: 
 father of Pekah, king of Israel (2 K. 15.25-37, 
 16.1, 5; 2 Ch. 28.6; Isai. 7.1-9, 8.6). 
 
 Re'meth. Height : a town of Issachar 
 (Josh. 19.21), among the hills between Jenln 
 and Samaria. It is now called Er-Rameh. The 
 same as Ramoth 1. 
 
 Rem'mon (R.V. Rimmon). (Josh. 19.7). 
 
 [RlMMON.] 
 
 Rem'mon-metho'ar. (Josh. 19.13). An inac- 
 curate rendering for Rimmon. Methoar is 
 translated in the R.V. " which stretcheth out." 
 
EEMPHAN] 
 
 412 
 
 [BESURRECTION 
 
 Remphan. This represents in the Septuagint 
 and Stephen's quotation in Acts 7.43 the word 
 Chiun of Amos 5.26. It is probably an error of 
 the Greek copyist for Kewan, the Assyrian god 
 resembling Saturn. [CHIUN.] 
 
 Repent, Repentance. To repent is to feel 
 sorrow for a thing done. In this sense it is used 
 of God (Gen. 6.6 ; 1 Sam. 15.11, etc.), just as His 
 actions are in other ways represented by terms 
 properly applied to man (Gen. 8.1, 11.5). The 
 appeal for repentance of sin and turning from 
 it is heard throughout the Prophets (Isai. 55.7 ; 
 Jer. 3.12-14 ; Ezek. 14.6 ; Joel 2.12, 13). For 
 some O.T. examples of repentance and confession 
 of sin, see Num. 12.11 ; 1 Sam. 15.24-31 ; 2 Sam. 
 12.13 ; 1 K. 21.27-29 ; 2 Ch. 12.6, 7. In the 
 N.T. one word rendered " repentance " denotes 
 regret for a thing done (Matt. 21.29), and is 
 used of Judas (Matt. 27.3). Another word (both 
 in its verbal and substantival forms) expresses a 
 change of mind issuing in a change of life and 
 purpose. It is the word used of the preaching 
 of our Lord (Matt. 4.17, etc.), of the Apostles 
 (Acts 2.38, 5.31, etc.), in the Epistles (Bom. 
 2.4, etc.), and in Revelation (2.5, etc.). 
 
 Repha'el. God healeth : a gatekeeper of the 
 Tabernacle (1 Ch. 26.7). 
 
 Re'phah. An ancestor of Joshua*(l Ch. 7.25). 
 
 Rephai'ah. (?) The Lord healeth: 1. A 
 descendant of David (1 Ch. 3.21). 2. A 
 Simeonite, who led an expedition of 500 men 
 against the Amalekites of Mount Seir, and drove 
 them out (1 Ch. 4.42). 3. A son of Tola of 
 Issachar (1 Ch. 7.2). 4. A descendant of Saul 
 (1 Ch. 9.43) ; called Rapha in 1 Ch. 8.37. 5. One 
 who helped to rebuild the wall of Jerusalem 
 under Nehemiah (Neh. 3.9). 
 
 Re'phaim. 1. A race of giants (Gen. 14.5, 
 
 15.20). [GIANTS.] 
 
 2. The valley of Rephaim; now El-Bukeia. 
 Fertile plain, shut in on all sides by rocky hilltops 
 and ridges, which descends gradually south-west 
 from Jerusalem for more than a mile, when it 
 contracts into a narrow valley, the Wady 
 el-Werd. It was the boundary between Judah 
 and Benjamin (Josh. 15.8, 18.16), and the 
 scene of conflicts between David and the 
 Philistines (2 Sam. 5.18, 22, 23.13 ; 1 Ch. 11.15, 
 14.9, 13). 
 
 Rephan. - (Acts 7.43, R.V.). [REMPHAN.] 
 
 Rephi'dim. (?) Supports : the first long halt- 
 ing-place of the Israelites in the Exodus, where 
 they murmured and the rock was smitten for 
 water. Here Jethro visited Moses, and here 
 the Amalekites were defeated (Ex. 17.8, 19.2 ; 
 Num. 33.14, 15). Perhaps the modern Wady 
 Feiran. 
 
 Re 'sen. (?) Halter: a city built by Asshur 
 (Gen. 10.12), between Nineveh and Calah. The 
 ruins of Nineveh and Calah have been discovered, 
 and Resen has been identified, conjecturally, 
 with the modern village of Selamiyeh. 
 
 Re'sheph. Flame, fire-bolt : a son of Ephraim 
 (1 Ch. 7.25). 
 
 Resurrection. The resurrection of the dead, 
 as understood in Holy Scripture, is to be dis- 
 
 tinguished from resuscitation, or renewal of 
 ordinary human life. Resuscitation is restora- 
 tion to the life laid down. Resurrection is the 
 entry upon a new state of existence. There 
 are three narratives of resuscitation in the 
 O.T. and five in the N.T., viz. : Elijah's 
 restoration of the widow's son of Zarephath 
 (1 K. 17.17-23); Elisha's restoration of the 
 Shunammite's son (2 K. 4.18-36) ; the revival 
 of the man cast into the sepulchre of Elisha 
 (2 K. 13.20, 21) ; our Lord's raising of the 
 daughter of Jairus (Mk. 5.35-42 ; LJc. 8.49-56), 
 the widow's son at Nain (Lk. 7.11-15), and 
 Lazarus (John 11.1-44) ; and two in the Acts 
 the case of Tabitha (9.36-42) and of Eutychus 
 (20.9-12). 
 
 Intimations of a belief in a resurrection are, 
 in the O.T., few ( Job 14.13-15 ; Ps. 49.15, 73.24 ; 
 Isai. 26.14, 19 ; Dan. 12.2) ; it was not for the 
 enemies of God (Ps. 49.14 ; cf. Isai. 26.14) ; but 
 the hope was applied symbolically to the nation 
 (Ezek. 37.1-14 ; Hos. 6.2). The belief grew in the 
 Jewish Church, gathering in distinctness as we 
 approach the time of our Lord. 
 
 Its development may be seen in the Apoc- 
 rypha. The bodily resurrection of the righteous 
 is definitely stated in 2 Mace. 7.8, 11, 23, 14.46 ; 
 Wisd. 2.23, 3.1-5, 8.13,17. A general resur- 
 rection to judgment appears in the Apocalypse 
 of Baruch (50.3,4, 51.1-6; 2 Esd. 7.32-35). 
 Elsewhere the dead are represented as only at 
 rest in Sheol (Ecclus. 17.27-30, 44.9-15). 
 
 In the time of our Lord the general resurrection 
 was a widely accepted doctrine, though the 
 Sadducees, adhering to the view of Ecclesiasticus, 
 denied it. So Martha, when assured by our Lord, 
 " Thy brother shall rise again," answered, " I 
 know that he shall rise again in the resurrection 
 at the last day " (John 11.23, 24 ; and cf. Acts 
 24.15). When our Lord dealt with the rising 
 from the dead, He did not, however, declare it 
 as recognised by the Law or the Prophets; 
 but stated that the doctrine was implied in the 
 words of God to Moses at the burning bush, 
 adding, " He is not the God of the dead, but 
 of the living " (Mk. 12.27). 
 
 But He clearly taught a general resurrection 
 of the just and the unjust (Matt. 22.23-33 ; Mk. 
 12.18-27 ; Lk. 20.27-38 ; John 5.28). The resur- 
 rection to life our Lord definitely associated 
 with His own atoning work for His people ( John 
 6.39, 44, 54, 11.25, 26, 14.19). This also was the 
 apostolic doctrine (Acts 4.2 ; Rom. 6.5, 8 ; 1 Cor. 
 15.20-22 ; 1 Pet. 1.3, 4). But in Rom. 8.11 we 
 find "shall quicken also your mortal bodies 
 through his Spirit that dwelleth in you" (R.V.). 
 The resurrection is in the N.T. ascribed to God 
 in general, to the Father or to the Son (John 
 5.21, 6.39, 11.25 ; 2 Cor. 4.14), but not to the 
 Holy Spirit alone (in 1 Pet. 3.18 the R.V. should 
 be followed " quickened in the spirit," i.e. as 
 Christ died in body, so life was quickened, or 
 brought to new life in His spirit). 
 
 In regard to the resurrection body, the argu- 
 ment of Paul in 1 Cor. 15.35-53 shows (a) that 
 it is real ; (&) that it is mtich higher in quality 
 
RESURRECTION OF CHRIST] 413 [REVELATION, BOOK OF THE 
 
 and power than the earthly body; (c) that it 
 H in some way the result of this. [RESUR- 
 RECTION OF JESUS CHRIST, IMMORTALITY OP THE 
 SOUL.] 
 
 Resurrection of Jesus Christ. In the history 
 of our Lord's earthly life no part is treated in 
 so much detail either by the Evangelists or by the 
 authors of Acts and the Epistles as His resur- 
 rection. This treatment corresponds with the 
 position assigned to the resurrection in St. 
 Paul's arguments (1 Cor. 15.14), and warrants 
 the conclusion of Bishop Westcott that " taking 
 all the evidence together . . . there is no 
 single historic incident better or more variously 
 supported than the resurrection of Christ " 
 (Gospel of the Resurrection, 2nd ed., p. 133). 
 
 Intimation of the resurrection may be seen in 
 Ps. 16.9, 10 (Acts 2.31) and Isai. 26.19 ; but 
 there is no indication that these were understood 
 before the event ; indeed, the evidence points 
 in the other direction (Mk. 9.10). Our Lord 
 Himself, however, foretold His resurrection not 
 less plainly than His death (Matt. 12.40, 16.21, 
 17.23, 20.19, 26.32, 27.63; Mk. 9.9, 14.28; 
 Lk. 24.7 ; John 2.19, 21). The action of Peter 
 (Matt. 16.22) indicates the spirit in which these 
 warnings were received. 
 
 The facts of the resurrection are recorded by 
 the Evangelists in Matt. 28 ; Mk. 16 ; Lk. 24 ; 
 John 20, 21. These narratives record appear- 
 ances of the risen Lord to Mary Magdalene at 
 the garden (Mk. 16.9, 10 ; John 20.14, 17) ; to 
 the women returning from the tomb (Matt. 28.9) ; 
 to the disciples on the way to Emmaus (Mk. 
 16.12, 13 ; Lk. 24.13-35) ; to Peter at Jerusalem 
 (Lk. 24.34 ; 1 Cor. 15.5) ; to the ten apostles in 
 the upper room (Lk. 24.36 ; John 20.19) ; to the 
 eleven apostles in the upper room (Mk. 16.14 ; 
 John 20.26); to the disciples at the Sea of 
 Tiberias (John 21.1-24) ; to the eleven apostles 
 on a mountain in Galilee (Matt. 28.16) ; to 
 the apostles at the Ascension (Mk. 16.19 ; 
 Lk. 24.50, 51 ; Acts 1.4-10). In addition to 
 these, St. Paul records appearances to five 
 hundred brethren at once, to James, and to 
 himself (1 Cor. 15.6-8). The language of 
 Acts 1.3 suggests that these lists are not ex- 
 haustive. The manifestations recorded are 
 clearly distinguished from anything in the 
 nature of vision or hallucination. The risen 
 Lord talked with His disciples, ate with them, 
 was touched by them. The circumstances 
 varied ; and the appearances were both to those 
 unprepared for the fact and to those prepared 
 for it. 
 
 The resurrection of Christ from the first 
 stood in the forefront of apostolic teaching. 
 A successor to Judas in the ranks of the apostles 
 was chosen " to be a witness ... of His resur- 
 rection " (Acts 1.22). The first-hand nature of 
 the apostolic testimony was insisted on (Acts 
 2.32, 3.15, 10.41, 13.31). It was the theme of 
 apostolic discourse (Acts 4.2,33, 17.18, 23.6). 
 Alike in the Acts and in the Epistles the 
 teaching of the Apostles is that of men who 
 recognised the importance of the resurrection 
 
 to those, once dead in trespasses and sins, who 
 found themselves " begotten . . . again unto a 
 lively hope by the resurrection of Jesus Christ 
 from the dead " (1 Pet. 1.3). That resurrection 
 is declared to be " for our justification " (Rom. 
 4.25) ; we shall be " saved by His life " (Rom. 
 5.10) ; confession of the Lord and belief in the 
 resurrection are joined as grounds of salvation 
 (Rom. 10.9) ; and His resurrection is the pledge 
 of our own (1 Cor. 15.20-23). The change in 
 the apostles when they became assured of the 
 resurrection, and their confident declaration of 
 the fact, are not more remarkable than the 
 reliance of the Church of Christ thereafter upon 
 a risen and ascended Lord. The history of 
 the Church of Christ is only explicable because 
 of its belief in and dependence upon the One 
 who said, " I am He that liveth, and was dead ; 
 and, behold, I am alive for evermore, Amen " 
 (Rev. 1.18). [ATONEMENT.] 
 
 Re'u. Son of Peleg and an ancestor of 
 Abraham, who lived 239 years (Gen. 11.18, 19, 
 20, 21 ; 1 Ch. 1.25). 
 
 Reuben. Behold a son! the eldest son of 
 Jacob and Leah (Gen. 29.32). As the result of 
 misconduct he lost his birthright and all the 
 privileges of primogeniture (Gen. 35.22). He 
 delivered Joseph from death at the hands of his 
 brethren (Gen. 37.22). At the Exodus the tribe of 
 Reuben contained 46,500 men above twenty-one 
 years of age and fit for service (Num. 1.20, 21, 
 2.11), and was in strength sixth on the list. 
 Some died in the conspiracy of Korah (Num. 16.1 ; 
 Deut. 11.6). Their inheritance was on the east 
 side of the Jordan, bounded on the north by the 
 brook Jazer, on the south by the brook Arnon, 
 on the west by the Jordan, and on the east by 
 the mountains of Gilead. This territory under 
 its modern name of the Belka is " still esteemed 
 beyond all others by the Arab sheep-masters. 
 It is well watered, coveredjwith smooth short turf, 
 and losing itself gradually in these illimitable 
 wastes which have always been and always will be 
 the favourite resort of pastoral nomad tribes." 
 The Reubenites gradually lost all community 
 of feeling or of interest with the Western tribes, 
 departing from the worship of Jehovah, and 
 vanish from history when carried off by Tiglath- 
 pileser to Mesopotamia (1 Ch. 5.26). We have 
 no record of any judge, prophet, or hero 
 belonging to the tribe of Reuben. 
 
 Reu'eL 1. A son of Esau and " duke " 
 of Edom (Gen. 36.4, 10, 13, 17 ; 1 Ch. 1.35, 37). 
 2. The father-in-law of Moses, called also 
 Jethro and Raguel (Ex. 2.18). 3. The father 
 of Eliasaph of Gad (Num. 2.14). 4. A Ben- 
 jamite (1 Ch. 9.8). 
 
 Reu'mah. The concubine of Nahor, Abra- 
 ham's brother (Gen. 22.24). 
 
 Revelation. {BIBLE, INSPIRATION.] 
 
 Revelation, The Book of the. This book is 
 called the Revelation or Apocalypse, as contain- 
 ing matters revealed to its author by Jesus 
 Christ. Its authorship is by the book itself 
 ascribed to " John " (1.1, 4, 9, 22.8). He was 
 " the servant " of Jesus Christ (1.1), one who 
 
REVELATION, BOOK OF THE] 414 [REVELATION, BOOK OF THE 
 
 "bare witness of the word of God, and of the 
 testimony of Jesus Christ" (1.2, R.V.). The 
 almost universal testimony of the Early Church 
 identified this John with the apostle, the son 
 of Zebedee, the author of the Fourth Gospel. 
 The date of the book has been much disputed. 
 The main question has been whether John's 
 banishment to Patmos, a small island in the 
 ^Egean Sea, occurred under the Roman Emperor 
 Nero (54-68 A.D.) or under the Emperor 
 Domitian (81-96). The testimony of the Early 
 Church is divided. In favour of the earlier 
 date it is urged (1) that there is a marked 
 difference in language between the Revelation 
 and the Gospel of John ; that the language 
 of the Revelation is admittedly rugged ; that 
 Greek and Hebrew constructions are strangely 
 intermingled ; that in literary form it is very 
 unlike the smooth Greek of the gospel and 
 epistles written by John after living twenty-five 
 or more years in Ephesus amid the influences of 
 Greek culture and civilisation. (2) The con- 
 tents of the Revelation, in many of the symbolical 
 expressions and allusions, agree with the sorrows 
 of Jerusalem at the great Jewish revolt, and 
 with those of the persecutions under Nero. The 
 references to Jerusalem and the Temple in 
 chap. 11 seem clearly to imply that the siege 
 had not occurred at the time the book was 
 written. The prominence given to the expecta- 
 tion of Christ's speedy second coming suggests 
 an early date. In favour of the later date it is 
 held that the ecclesiastical organisation of the 
 Churches addressed, their state of spiritual 
 declension, as compared with the commenda- 
 tion in Ephesians, the use of the expression 
 " the Lord's Day," instead of the earlier and 
 current phrase " the first day of the week," 
 and of the " synagogue of Satan," and the in- 
 dications of a more wide persecution than that 
 of Nero, all point to the time assigned to the 
 book by Irenaeus, somewhere about 95-96 A.D. 
 It has been attempted to reconcile the two hypo- 
 theses by holding that the book was added to 
 by later writers ; that what was written under 
 the Emperor Galba, 68 A.D., was revised under 
 Vespasian about 75-79, and perhaps in Domi- 
 tian's reign of terror about 95-96. 
 
 In its character the book belongs to the same 
 order as Daniel and in part Ezekiel. This 
 apocalyptic literature [NON-CANONICAL BOOKS] 
 was always intended to encourage and stimulate 
 the people in times of national distress by the 
 assurance of a glorious future in the triumph 
 of Israel's long-wished-for Deliverer. 
 
 The contents may be divided as follows: 
 I. (1-3) relating to " the things which are " ; 
 comprising a preparatory vision of the Divine 
 perfections and the human sympathy of the 
 Redeemer, and the addresses or epistles to the 
 "angels," personifications of the spirit or 
 " genius " of each of the Seven Churches ; each 
 of which consists of three parts : (1) the Intro- 
 duction, referring in each case to some of the 
 attributes of Him who addresses the Church, 
 taken from the preceding vision, in which a 
 
 progressive order is observable, and an ap- 
 propriateness to the general tenor of the 
 epistle which follows; (2) a description of the 
 characteristics of the Church, with suitable en- 
 couragement, admonition, or reproof ; and (3) 
 promises of reward to those who overcome, 
 which are addressed to all the Churches. II. 
 (4-22) occupied with the prophecy of " the things 
 which shall be hereafter " ; a series of visions, 
 showing by symbolical imagery and figurative 
 language, the conflicts and sufferings of the people 
 of God, and His judgments upon their enemies ; 
 ending with representations of the downfall of 
 the mystic Babylon, type of antagonism to the 
 truth, and the triumph of the New Jerusalem, 
 the Church perfected. 
 
 Or, a sevenfold arrangement may be adopted, 
 thus: After the Prologue (1.1-8) 1. Seven 
 epistles to the Seven Churches (1-3) ; 2. Seven 
 seals (4.1-8.1) ; 3. Seven trumpets sounded 
 (8.2-11); 4. Seven Mystic Figures, (1) The 
 Sun-clothed Woman, (2) The Red Dragon, 
 (3) The Man-child, (4) The First Wild Beast, 
 from the Sea, (5) The Second Wild Beast, from 
 the Land, (6) The Lamb on Mount Sion, (7) 
 The Son of Man on the Cloud ; 5. Seven vials 
 poured out (15, 16) ; 6. The enemies of the 
 Church overthrown (17-20); 7. The Glories 
 of the Holy City, the New Jerusalem (21-22.5) ; 
 Epilogue (22.6-21). 
 
 The interpretation of the prophecies has been 
 a matter of much dispute. The theories may be 
 stated as follows : (1) The Praterist interpreta- 
 tion, which considers the greater part of the 
 prophecies to have had their fulfilment in the 
 early ages of the Church. Those who take this 
 view regard a large portion of the Revelation 
 as referring to the Neronian persecution and the 
 Jewish rebellion. The seven kings (Rev. 17.10) 
 are identified with the emperors Augustus, 
 Tiberius, Gaius Caligula, Claudius, Nero, Galba, 
 and Otto. What is said in 13.18 regarding the 
 " number " of the beast, 666, is found to 
 correspond with the numerical value of the 
 letters in the words Neron Caesar in Hebrew 
 characters. That the writer set forth his 
 great secret according to the numerical value 
 of the Hebrew letters, while the book is written 
 in Greek, may certainly appear strange, until it 
 is remembered that while with Jewish fellow- 
 Christians the secret would be safe, to 
 treacherous Gentile informers the more difficult 
 its discovery was made the better. (2) The 
 Historical school of expositors regard these 
 prophecies as a delineation of the great features 
 in the history of the world, or of the Church, 
 from the apostolic age to the end of time. (3) The 
 Futurist view regards the greater part, if not 
 the whole, of this series of prophecies to represent 
 events which are to take place shortly before 
 the second advent of Christ. The antichrist 
 or apocalyptic beast is, according to this theory, 
 a personal infidel antichrist who is to reign over 
 the whole extent of the old Roman Empire 
 and to persecute and triumph over the saints 
 for just three years and a half, until Christ's 
 
415 
 
 [RINNAH 
 
 coming to destroy him. (4) The system of 
 interpretation, known as the Spiritual or Ideal, 
 regards the Revelation as the pictorial unfolding 
 of great principles in constant conflict, though 
 under various forms and eclectic in its char- 
 acter. 
 
 It may be convenient to note some corre- 
 spondences of language between the Gospel 
 according to St. John and the Apocalypse : 
 
 1. The application of the title The Word of 
 God given to our Lord (19.13). This name 
 " the Word " is found in the N.T. only in 
 John's writings (John 1.1 ; 1 John 1.1). 
 
 2. The idea of the Lord Jesus Christ as a 
 Lamb occurs in the Revelation twenty-five 
 times, and only elsewhere in John 1.29, 36. 
 
 3. The use of the term to conquer, in the sense 
 of overcoming the evil of the world, occurs 
 repeatedly in the letters to the Seven Churches 
 (2, 3, also in 12.11, 15.2, 17.14, 21.7 ; cf. 1 John 
 2 13, 14, 4.4, 5.4, 5). 
 
 4. The word " true," in the sense of real, 
 genuine, contrasted with fictitious, pretended, 
 is found thirteen times in the gospel and epistles, 
 and ten times in the Revelation (3.7, 19.11 ; 
 cf. John 1.14, 15.1 ; 1 John 5.20). 
 
 5. The statement in Rev. 1.7, " and they 
 which pierced Him," is found only in John 19.37, 
 and is there also connected with the same 
 translation of Zech. 12.10, which differs in 
 rendering from that of the Septuagint. 
 
 6. A prominent idea of John in the Gospel, 
 expressed by the Greek noun variously rendered 
 " witness," " testimony," " record," and the 
 corresponding verb, in the sense of declaration 
 respecting Jesus Christ, of public profession of 
 belief, is prominent also in Revelation (1.2, 9, 
 6.9, 12.11, 17, 19.10, 20.4, 22.18, 20). 
 
 Re'zeph. (?) Burning : a city subdued by 
 Assyrians (2 K. 19.12; Isai. 37.12). Now 
 Rusafa, between Palmyra and the Euphrates. 
 
 Ee'zia (R.V. Rizia). An Asherite, a son of 
 Ulla (1 Ch. 7.39). 
 
 Re'zin. 1. A king of Damascus who alh'ed 
 himself with Pekah, king of Israel, against 
 Jotham and Ahaz, successive kings of Judah. 
 The combined armies laid unsuccessful siege to 
 Jerusalem (2 K. 15.37, 16.5 ; Isai. 7.1). Rezin, 
 however, secured possession of Elath, a cele- 
 brated town at the head of the Gulf of Akaba, 
 which commanded an important line of trade 
 (2 K. 16.6). Rezin was afterwards defeated 
 and slain by Tiglath-pileser in. (iv.), king of 
 Assyria (2 K. 16.9). 2. One of the families of 
 the Nethinim who returned with Zerubbabel 
 (Ezra 2.48 ; Neh. 7.50). 
 
 Re'zon. The captain of a band of freebooters 
 who established himself at Damascus and 
 harassed the kingdom of Solomon during his 
 whole reign (1 K. 11.23). 
 
 Rhe'gium. Now Reggio ; town of Italy 
 passed by Paul on his voyage to Rome (Acts 
 28.13). It is situated at the point of the toe 
 of the Italian peninsula. 
 
 Rhe'sa. Apparently a son of Zerubbabel, 
 an ancestor of Jesus (Lk. 3.27), but it may 
 
 be only a title of Zerubbabel, meaning " the 
 Prince." 
 
 Rho'da. Rose : the maid who announced 
 Peter's arrival at the door of the house of Mary 
 (the mother of John Mark) after his miraculous 
 release from prison (Acts 12.13). 
 
 Rhodes. Rose : the island near south-west 
 angle of Asia Minor, touched at by Paul on his 
 return voyage from his third missionary tour 
 (Acts 21.1). 
 
 Riba'i. (?) Contention of the Lord : the father 
 of Ittai, one of the thirty (2 Sam. 23.29 ; 1 Ch. 
 11.31). 
 
 Rib'lah. 1. Now Ribleh ; a town in the land 
 of Hamath, on east bank of the Orontes (el-Asy), 
 on the great road between Palestine and the 
 Eastern empires ; site of military encampments ; 
 where Pharaoh-necho imprisoned Jehoahaz and 
 Nebuchadnezzar gave judgment upon Zedekiah 
 (2 K. 23.33, 25.6, 20, 21 ; Jer. 39.5, 6, 52.9-27). 
 2. A town within the north boundary of Israel, 
 but unidentified (Num. 34.11). 
 
 Rie. {RYE.] 
 
 Righteousness. [JUSTIFICATION.] 
 
 Rim'mon. Pomegranate : 1. Now Umm 
 Er - Rumamin ; a town of Judah, allotted 
 to Simeon, reoccupied after the return from 
 captivity (Josh. 15.32, 19.7; 1 Ch. 4.32; 
 Neh. 11.29; Zech. 14.10). 2. Now Rummon; 
 a white chalk cliff overhanging the Jordan 
 wilderness (Midbar) ; an inaccessible fastness 
 where the remnant of the Benjamites, after the 
 slaughter of the tribe, took refuge for four 
 months (Judg. 20.45, 47, 21.13). Its position, 
 as the crow flies, is 3 miles east of Bethel and 
 7 miles north-east of Gibeah. 3. The father of 
 Rechab and Baanah, the murderers of Ish- 
 bosheth (2 Sam. 4.2, 5, 9). 4. The god of wind, 
 storm, and rain, worshipped at Damascus, where 
 there was a house or temple of Rimmon (2 K. 
 5.18). 5. Now Rummaneh, north of Nazareth ; 
 a town of Zebulun, assigned to the Merarites 
 (1 Ch. 6.77, Rimmono, R.V.); the same as 
 Remmon-methoar (Josh. 19.13, A.V.). 
 
 Rimmon-parez (R.V. Rimmon-perez). High 
 place of the breach: the site of an Israelite 
 encampment (Num. 33.19, 20). 
 
 Ring. In ancient as in modern times the 
 fingers were adorned with rings. Indeed, these 
 had an official significance. Thus Pharaoh 
 presented Joseph with a ring when he was 
 invested with authority (Gen. 41.42), and 
 Ahasuerus gave a ring to Haman (Esth. 3.10). 
 The reason for this was that the ring was used 
 as a seal, and seals have always been very 
 common in the East, the impression being equiva- 
 lent to our signature. It was also frequently 
 inscribed with the name of the owner, and was 
 worn on the right hand (Jer. 22.24). The father 
 of the prodigal put a ring upon his finger as a 
 mark of the latter's restoration to favour and 
 power (Lk. 15.22). 
 
 Ringstraked. Streaked with rings, but the 
 Hebrew word means only striped or streaked 
 (Gen. 30.35). 
 
 Rin'nah. A descendant of Judah (1 Ch. 4.20). 
 
RIPHATH] 
 
 416 [ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE 
 
 Ri'phath. The second son of Gomer (Gen. 
 10.3 ; 1 Ch. 1.6), said by Josephus to denote the 
 Paphlagonians. [DIPHATH.] 
 
 Ris'sah. The site of an Israelite encampment 
 (Num. 33.21, 22). 
 
 Rith'mah. Broom plant : the site of an 
 Israelite encampment (Num. 33.18, 19). 
 
 Ri ver . The rivers of Palestine, with the 
 exception of the Jordan, are either entirely 
 dried up in the summer months, and converted 
 into hot lanes of glaring stones, or else reduced 
 to very small streamlets, deeply sunk in a 
 narrow bed and concealed from view by a dense 
 growth of shrubs. The Arabic word Wady, so 
 often occurring in the modern geography of 
 Palestine, signifies a dry valley or the stream 
 which occasionally flows through it. The word 
 commonly translated " brook " signifies a Wady. 
 Elijah was commanded to hide himself in 
 (not by) the Cherith (1 K. 17.3). 
 
 River (R.V. Brook) o! Egypt. In Gen. 15.18 
 the Nile is so designated, meaning the Pelusiac 
 or easternmost branch. In other passages the 
 reference is to a desert stream on the border of 
 Egypt, still flowing occasionally in the Wady 
 El-Arish, from the heart of the peninsula of 
 Sinai towards the Mediterranean. 
 
 Rizia. [REZIA.] 
 
 Riz'pah. Glowing stone : a concubine of king 
 Saul. The accusation made by Ishbosheth 
 against Abner, in conversation with Rizpah 
 (2 Sam. 3.7), amounted to an insinuation that 
 Abner was about to make an attempt on the 
 throne. Rizpah was the mother of Saul's sons, 
 Armoni and Mephibosheth. David handed over 
 these two sons and five grandsons of Saul to the 
 Gibeonites as an atonement for Saul's slaughter 
 of the latter. The Gibeonites crucified these 
 victims, whose bodies hung upon the crosses 
 from the beginning of barley-harvest in spring, 
 right through the blazing summer till the fall 
 of the periodical rain in October. Rizpah 
 during the whole of that time sat by, to suffer 
 neither the birds of the air by day, nor the beasts 
 of the field by night, to prey upon the bodies 
 (2 Sam. 21.1-11). 
 
 Road. In 1 Sam. 27.10 old English for 
 " raid." 
 
 Robbery. The Mosaic Law on the subject of 
 theft is contained in Ex. 22.1-15. Man-stealing 
 was punishable with death (Ex. 21.16; Deut. 
 24.7). 
 
 Roboam (R.V. Rehoboam). (Matt. 1.7). 
 [REHOBOAM.] 
 
 Rod. [SHBPHEED .] 
 
 Rodanim. [DODANIM.] 
 
 Roe, Roebuck. The roe of Scripture is the 
 gazelle ; it was permitted for food and provided 
 for the royal table (Deut. 12.15, 22, 14.5, 15.22 ; 
 1 K. 4.23). The Dorcas gazelle is very common 
 in Palestine, especially in the Judaean wilderness 
 and the Arabah. Between Beersheba and Gaza 
 herds of gazelle, from twenty to fifty or sixty in 
 number, are frequently seen. They are graceful, 
 gentle, timid, beautiful, and swifter than the 
 fleetest horse or greyhound. "Roe" iji Prov. 
 
 5.19, A.V., but " doe " R.V., is the female ibex. 
 
 [GOAT.] 
 
 Roge'Iim. Fullers : the residence of Bar- 
 zillai, the Gileadite (2 Sam. 17.27, 19.31). 
 
 Roh'gah. An Asherite (1 Ch. 7.34). 
 
 RolL A book in ancient times consisted of a 
 single long strip of paper or parchment, which 
 was usually kept rolled up on two sticks, and was 
 unrolled when a person wished to read it. The 
 " roll " of /sat. 8.1 more correctly means 
 " tablet." [PAPER, PAECHMENT.] 
 
 Romam'ti-e'zer. - 1 have made lofty help : 
 a son of Heman. He held an office in connec- 
 tion with the musical part of the Temple service 
 (1 Ch. 25 A, 31). 
 
 Roman Empire. The association of the 
 Roman Empire with Hebrew history may be 
 dated from about the year 161 B.C. Judas 
 Maccabaeus (representing the oldest branch of 
 the family of Aaron), who by patriotic revolt 
 against the Syrians had won the independence 
 of the Jews and become their ruler, concluded 
 a defensive alliance with the Roman senate. 
 In 63 B.C., however, Pompey marched an army 
 into Judaea and took Jerusalem. From this time 
 the Jews were practically under the government 
 of Rome, though Hyrcanus of the same family 
 as Judas Maccabaeus retained a nominal sove- 
 reignty. The minister of Hyrcanus was Anti- 
 pater, whose son to be known to history as 
 Herod the Great was made king by Antony's 
 interest in 40 B.C., and confirmed in his position 
 by Augustus. The Jews, however, were all this 
 time tributaries of Rome, and their princes were 
 Roman procurators. Roman soldiers were 
 quartered at Jerusalem in Herod's time. On the 
 banishment of Archelaus, 6 A.D., Judaea became 
 an appendage of the province of Syria, and was 
 governed by a Roman procurator who resided 
 at Caesarea. Galilee and the adjoining districts 
 were left under the government of Herod's 
 sons and other petty princes. Such were the 
 relations of the Jewish people to the Roman 
 government when the N.T. history begins. 
 Some of the cities in the conquered or annexed 
 provinces were " free " that is, governed by 
 their own magistrates and exempted from 
 occupation by a Roman garrison. Such were 
 Tarsus, Antroch in Syria, Athens, Ephesus, 
 Thessalonica. Other cities were " colonies," 
 i.e. communities of Roman citizens trans- 
 planted, like garrisons of the imperial city, 
 into a foreign land. Such were Philippi, 
 Corinth, Troas, the Pisidian Antioch. The 
 provinces were heavily taxed for the benefit 
 of Rome and her citizens. The taxes were 
 " farmed," the " farmers " paying a fixed sum 
 to Rome, and wringing out of the provincials 
 as much as they could. The collectors were 
 of the lowest class the publicans of the N.T. 
 The Roman Empire had its part in the prepara- 
 tion of the world for Christ, and in assisting the 
 spread of Christianity. [JESUS CHRIST.] 
 
 Romans, The Epistle to the. This letter 
 is addressed " to all that be in Rome, beloved 
 of God, callei to be saints " (1.7). The origin 
 
ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE] 
 
 417 
 
 [ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE 
 
 of the Church is uncertain. The Jews, as 
 classical literature shows, were familiar figures 
 in the life of Rome. Commerce may have 
 led some there ; slavery after war, especially 
 after the capture of Jerusalem by Pompey 
 in 63 B.C., many others. They were en- 
 couraged by some Emperors, banished by 
 others. [ROME.] Who first preached the gospel 
 to this community, or amongst the Gentiles of 
 Rome, is unknown. Some of the " strangers 
 of Rome, Jews and proselytes," witnesses of 
 the events at Pentecost (Acts 2.10), may have 
 carried back the faith. Certain of the Early 
 Fathers attributed the foundation of the Church 
 to the ministry of Peter and Paul ; and the 
 Roman Catholic Church is pledged to the 
 establishment of the Church by Peter, who is 
 alleged to have presided over it as bishop. The 
 theory as to Peter is inconsistent with the 
 contents of the epistle, as well as with Acts, 
 which shows him to have been at Jerusalem 
 at the very time when he is said to have been 
 at Rome. In this epistle there is no mention of 
 Peter as ever having been at Rome. Now, if 
 Peter had not only been there, but had actually 
 founded the Church, and had presided over it, it 
 is impossible to suppose that Paul could have 
 failed to notice the fact. And, further, had 
 Peter been at Rome when Paul wrote this 
 epistle, he would certainly have been one of 
 those to whom salutations were sent in chap. 
 16. As to Paul, there is nothing in Acts 28 to 
 compel the belief that there were no Christians in 
 Rome until his arrival. The " brethren " of 
 28.15 would naturally appear to be Christians, 
 and are not identical with " the chief of the 
 Jews" (28.17). The evidence of the epistle 
 itself is against the Pauline origin of the 
 Church, suggesting its existence when Paul 
 had a visit to it in mind. Nor is support to 
 be derived from his other 'etters. Nowhere 
 does he call the Romans his sons or children 
 (cf. 1 Cor. 4.14 ; Gal. 4.19). In regard to the 
 constitution of the Roman Church when the 
 apostle wrote, it is uncertain whether the 
 majority of the Christians in Rome had been 
 proselytes, or only Jews, or direct converts from 
 heathenism. Some were Jewish Christians in 
 belief, but Gentiles in origin ; others Jewish, 
 for the apostle everywhere argues with them as 
 Jews; others again Gentiles, for he expressly 
 addresses them as Gentiles (cf. 2.17, 4.16, 7, 
 etc., with 1.13, 15, 11.13, 14.15, etc.). 
 
 The authorship of the epistle was from the 
 first attributed to Paul the Apostle, and no 
 doubt seems to have been raised until the 
 year 1792. The place and date of writing are 
 determined in the following way : Paul had 
 not yet been to Rome (1.11, 13, 15) ; but 
 was intending to visit it, after first visiting 
 Jerusalem (15.23-28). This was his purpose 
 during his residence at Corinth (Acts 19.21). 
 He was about to carry a collection from Mace- 
 donia and Achaia to Jerusalem (15.26-31) ; and 
 this he did from Corinth to Jerusalem at the 
 close of his visit (Acts 24.17). When he wrote 
 27 
 
 the epistle, Timothy, Sosipater, Gaius, and 
 Erastus were with him (16.21, 23). Gaius ua^ 
 his host, and resided at Corinth (1 ('/ 11 
 Erastus was himself a Corinthian, and ha. I '' 
 sent shortly before from Ephesus with Tin:.>n._ 
 on their way through Corinth to Macedonia 
 (Acts 19.22 ; 1 Cor. 16.10, 11) ; and the first 
 three are expressly mentioned in Acts 20.4 as 
 being with Paul at Corinth. Phoebe, moreover, 
 generally supposed to have been the bearer of 
 the epistle, was a member of the Church at the 
 Corinthian port of Cenchreae (16.1). As Paul, 
 therefore, was preparing to visit Jerusalem, 
 one of his converts was also departing from 
 Corinth in an opposite direction for Rome, and 
 by her this epistle was taken to that city. It 
 was therefore written from Corinth, probably in 
 the winter of 56-57 A.D. 
 
 The contents and its argument of the epistle 
 may be analysed as follows : 
 
 I. INTRODUCTION (1.1-17). 
 
 1. The salutation (1.1-7). 2. Introduction, 
 and Paul's estimate of the gospel (8-17). The 
 sixteenth verse contains in brief the subject of the 
 whole epistle. The gospel is (1) the power of 
 God unto salvation, (2) to every one that 
 believeth ; (3) to the Jew first, and also (4) to 
 the Greek. 
 
 II. DOCTRINAL EXPOSITION (1.18-8.39). 
 
 (a) Sinfulness of the human race. 
 
 1. Condition of the Gentiles In relation to 
 God (1.18-23). In relation to human duty 
 (24-32). 
 
 2. Condition of the Jews Mere knowledge 
 will not save (2.1-11). It even aggravates guilt 
 (12-29). 
 
 3. Comparison of Jews and Gentiles Value 
 of O.T. dispensation not lowered (3.1-8). Both 
 guilty, and needing salvation (9-20). 
 
 (b) The gospel plan of salvation explained, in 
 itself, and in its results. 
 
 1. This plan explained, a revelation of Divine 
 justice and mercy excludes all boasting (3.27), 
 and saves all on the same terms (21-31). 
 
 2. Holy men of old justified by faith Illus- 
 trated, Abraham (4.1-5) ; David (6-8). 
 
 Circumcision the sign (9-12), and the theo- 
 cracy the result (13-17) of the covenant : the 
 result, therefore, of justification, rather than 
 subservient to it. 
 
 3. Abraham's faith described. Its results 
 (4.18-25). 
 
 4. The fruits of faith in Christian experience 
 in imparting peace, joy, and hope (5.1-11). 
 
 5. The excellence of faith shown by a com- 
 parison between Adam, the head of the fallen 
 race, and Christ, the Author of spiritual life, to 
 all who are united to Him (5.12-21). 
 
 (r) This way of salvation favourable to holi- 
 ness. (See 3.8.) 
 
 1. We cannot go on in sin, that grace may 
 abound ; for we are one with Christ our Head, 
 in His baptism, death, and life (6.1-14) ; verses 
 
ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE] 
 
 418 [ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE 
 
 12-14 illustrating the idea that Christ is our 
 King, as well as Head. 
 
 2. Nor can we go on in sin, because under 
 grace and not under law. P'or the servants of 
 another are bound to obey their master, and, 
 moreover, men are increasingly swayed by that 
 authority, which they heartily acknowledge. 
 It becomes a yoke, which, however, if it be 
 righteousness, is free, and has a glorious issue 
 (6.15-23). 
 
 3. The same truth illustrated, as in 6.2, by an 
 example founded on the Law (7.1-6). 
 
 4. Hence a twofold objection : 
 (i) Either the Law is sin 
 
 No ; for it reveals sin, and impresses it on the 
 conscience (7.7-12) : 
 
 (ii) Or, being itself good, it has become 
 death (7.13-25). 
 
 No ; for we (" our inner man ") admit it 
 to be spiritual, even when not obeying it ; the 
 paradox of the awakened and regenerate con- 
 science. 
 
 Both facts meet the objection, and show our 
 need of a new system. 
 
 (d) The Law having failed to justify and 
 sanctify, Christ for us and Christ in us is our 
 justification and holiness. 
 
 1. The Christian justified in Christ and 
 sanctified in Him, through the Spirit ; which 
 sanctification will be complete (8.1-11). 
 
 2. The Christian's duty and privilege 
 (8.12-17). 
 
 3. The connexion between the perfection of 
 creation, and that of the children of God 
 (8.18-30). 
 
 4. Exultant assurance of salvation (8.31-39). 
 
 III. SPECIAL RELATION OP THE JEWS TO 
 THE GOSPEL (9-11). 
 
 As in 1.18-3.20 the apostle has explained the 
 relation of Jews and Gentiles to the Law, so in 
 9.1-11.36 he explains the relation of both to the 
 gospel. 
 
 That salvation is by Christ, and for all that 
 believe, is the conclusion to which the apostle 
 has come ; but if so, the great majority of the 
 Jews perish, and the Gentiles have taken their 
 place ; a result apparently severe, and to the 
 Jew particularly startling. The apostle meets 
 this feeling. 
 
 1. He affirms his own distress at their state of 
 rejection (9.1-5). 
 
 2. It cannot be said, however, that the pro- 
 mise is unfulfilled, or that this difference of 
 treatment is without precedent ; for 
 
 The promise did not extend to all the children 
 of Abraham, but only to the descendants of 
 Sarah ; nor to all her descendants, but only 
 to Isaac (9.7-9), and of Isaac's children, to 
 Jacob (9.10-13), the ground of the difference 
 being, not the actual merit of the persons, but 
 the election of God. 
 
 Least of all does it follow that God is unjust, 
 for all mercy on God's part is evidence of kind- 
 ness, and is altogether undeserved. 
 
 That God has a right to make distinctions in 
 
 His dealings, and does make them, is further 
 shown in the case of Pharaoh (9.14-18). 
 
 3. But does not this idea of purpose on God's 
 part free us from blame ? No, for first God has 
 a right to do as He will ; and in the exercise of 
 that right there can be no wrong ; and secondly, 
 in exercising that will, both the justice and the 
 mercy of God will be the more illustriously re- 
 vealed (9.19-24), saving all on the same condi- 
 tions, both Jews and Gentiles. 
 
 4. Both this call of the Gentiles, and the 
 salvation of a remnant only of the Jews, are 
 foretold, or have their precedents in the Old 
 Testament (9.25-29). 
 
 5. The failure and rejection of the Jews, 
 though in one sense in accordance with the 
 Divine purpose, are really results of unbelief 
 (9.30-33). 
 
 This last thought is expanded (10). After 
 again expressing his distress at the unbelief of 
 the Jews, the apostle shows that their rejection 
 is the result of unbelief ; and that all who call 
 on the name of the Lord, Jews and Gentiles, 
 shall be saved (10.4-13). 
 
 Objected, that the Jews could not call upon 
 one of whom they had not heard (10.14-17). 
 Answer, they have heard, so that their rejection 
 of truth was not owing to ignorance, but to 
 disobedient unbelief ; as foretold by their own 
 prophets (10.18-21). 
 
 6. It must not be supposed that Israel, as a 
 whole, have been rejected. 
 
 Not Jews as Jews, but Jews as unbelievers ; 
 for "I myself," says he, "am an Israelite " 
 (11.1). In Elijah's days there were thousands 
 who had not bowed to Baal, so now there is a 
 remnant according to the election of grace, 
 chosen not for their works, but from free favour ; 
 while the rest have missed the blessing through 
 unbelief (11.2-10). 
 
 Nor, speaking of the Jews as a nation, is 
 there utter rejection : 
 
 Their unbelief gave occasion for the pro- 
 clamation of the truth to the Gentiles, and their 
 conversion will be connected with the general 
 diffusion of the truth (11.11-15), of all which 
 the faith of their fathers is a kind of earnest 
 (11.16). 
 
 7. Humility, faith, adoring reverence of the 
 justice and mercy of God, with hope in this 
 general issue, become all Gentile converts 
 (11.17-24), and 
 
 8. By and by Israel, as a whole, shall be con- 
 verted to God (11.25-32). 
 
 9. The whole scheme of salvation an evidence 
 of the unfathomable wisdom and love of God 
 (11.33-36), to whose praise all will ultimately 
 redound. 
 
 IV. ETHICAL DEVELOPMENT OP TRUTH 
 (12-15.17). 
 
 (a) In relation to general behaviour. 
 
 1. All previous doctrine points to consecra- 
 tion of the whole life as the appropriate result, 
 and with this consecration all holiness begins 
 (12.1, 2), 
 
ROME] 
 
 419 
 
 [RUE 
 
 This founded in humility, i.e. in a true and 
 healthy view of ourselves, and of our position 
 (12.3). 
 
 This consecration will include 
 
 2. The Christian's relation to the Church 
 (12.4-13), including love, faith, and hope ; and 
 
 3. The Christian's relation to the world 
 (12.14-21). 
 
 4. Chap. 13. Especially is this spirit of con- 
 secration seen in submission to the ruling power, 
 which has the force of a Divine law (1-7). 
 Obedience in such cases is another form of the 
 great law of love (8-10), which is especially in- 
 cumbent under the gospel, as is all spiritual 
 holiness (11-14). 
 
 (b) In relation to our behaviour in things 
 indifferent (14.1-15.7). 
 
 Here, forbearance is our rule. He who 
 regards things indifferent as binding may be the 
 weaker Christian, but God has received him ; 
 he does all to Christ, who is his judge ; and in 
 accordance with his own conscience, which is, 
 subordinately, his law. 
 
 Therefore, neither is he the less welcome, nor 
 is he to be tempted by ridicule or rebuke to 
 violate what he himself believes (14.2-23). 
 
 The example of Christ, and the ultimate 
 design of the Scriptures, teach this duty on even 
 more comprehensive grounds the common 
 good (15.1-7). 
 
 The lesson is repeated, that Gentiles and Jews 
 are one body, and that the salvation of each 
 illustrates the faithfulness and mercy of God 
 (15.8-13). 
 
 V. PERSONAL COMMUNICATIONS. 
 
 1. Explanation of the Apostle's relation to 
 the Gentiles and of his earnestness on their 
 behalf (15.14-21). 
 
 2. Notice of his proposed journeys (15.22, 23). 
 
 3. Salutations (16.1-23), with cautions in 
 reference to such as caused divisions (17-20). 
 
 4. Conclusion (16.24-27). 
 
 The twenty-six salutations in the last chapter, 
 addressed to a community personally unknown 
 to the Apostle, present a difficulty which has 
 been variously met. Certain variations, and 
 the absence from some early copies of the text 
 of the last two chapters, have led to the 
 supposition that the epistle " was circulated at 
 an early date in two forms, both with and with- 
 out the last two chapters. In the shorter form 
 it was divested as far as possible of its epistolary 
 character by abstracting the personal matter 
 addressed especially to the Romans" (Bishop 
 Lightfoot). Or early copies of the epistle may 
 have been sent with varying terminations to 
 different Churches, one being the Church at 
 Ephesus, as the salutations (16.1-20) are ad- 
 dressed to persons whom one would expect to 
 find rather there than in Rome (e.g. verse 3, 
 Aquila and Priscilla ; verse 5, Epsenetus) ; so in 
 other districts where the Apostle had resided 
 and laboured, verses 9, 13. There seem, in fact, 
 to be at least two distinct endings to the epistle, 
 one beginning 15.30, the other 16.17. There 
 
 are two (or three) closing benedictions, 15.33, 
 16.20, 24, but according to the best texts one of 
 them is to be omitted. R.V. omits 16.24. 
 
 Rome. The former "mistress of the world," 
 on the Tiber, 15 miles from its mouth ; the 
 seven hills of the ancient city are on the left 
 bank. Rome is mentioned only in the Acts, 
 the Epistle to the Romans, and the Second 
 Epistle to Timothy. Many Jewish captives 
 and emigrants were brought to Rome in the 
 time of Pompey, and a special district assigned 
 to them on the right bank of the Tiber. Julius 
 Caesar, Augustus, and Tiberius during the 
 latter part of his reign, were well disposed to- 
 wards the Jews. Claudius " commanded all 
 Jews to depart from Rome" (Acts 18.2) on 
 account of tumults connected with the preach- 
 ing of Christianity. Nevertheless, there were 
 many Jews in Rome at the time of Paul's visit 
 (Acts 28.17). He was detained there for two 
 whole years, dwelling in his own hired house 
 with a soldier that kept watch over him (Acts 
 28.16,30), to whom, according to Roman 
 custom, he was bound with a chain (Acts 
 28.20; Eph. 6.20; Phil. 1.13). Here he 
 preached to all that came to him, no man for- 
 bidding him (Acts 28.30, 31). It is generally be- 
 lieved that he was acquitted at this time, that he 
 resumed his liberty, but after a period was im- 
 prisoned again, and suffered martyrdom at Rome 
 during the persecution of Nero. On Rome in 
 the First Epistle of Peter and the Revelation, 
 see those articles. [ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE.] 
 
 Room. The word in Matt. 23.6 ; Mk. 12.39 ; 
 Lk. 14.7,8, 20.46 signifies the chief place on 
 the chief couch round the dinner or supper- 
 table, the " uppermost seat " of Lk. 11.43. 
 
 Rose (Cant. 2.1 ; Isai. 35.1). Not our rose ; 
 possibly (as R.V. marg.) the autumn crocus 
 (meadow-saffron), or the narcissus. 
 
 Rosh. 1. A son of Benjamin (Gen. 46.21). 
 2. " Magog, the chief prince of Meshech and 
 Tute.1" (Ezek. 38.2,3, 39.1) ought to run, 
 " Magog, the prince of Rosh, Mesech, and Tubal." 
 meaning that Magog is the head of the three great 
 Scythian tribes, of which " Rosh " is the first. 
 Rosh was the tribe on the north of the Taurus, 
 and in the name we have, as it seems, the 
 first trace of the Rusa or Russian nation. No 
 other name of any modern nation occurs in the 
 Scriptures. 
 
 Ruby. Wherever this word comes in the 
 text of the A.V. it represents the Hebrew 
 penmlm, i.e. coral (e.g. Lam. 4.7), not pearls, as 
 some have supposed. " Ruby " also stands for 
 the Hebrew kadkod in the R.V. of Isai. 54.12 ; 
 Ezek. 27.16, perhaps as sparkling. It also 
 occurs in the margins of A.V. and R.V., Ex. 
 28.17, 39.10; Ezek. 28.13 as a rendering of 
 'odem, which means a red stone. [SARDIUS.] 
 
 Rue. A small shrub, of from two to three 
 feet in height, with much-divided leaves and 
 yellow flowers. Its scent is too powerful to be 
 agreeable to Western taste, but it was valued 
 by the ancients. Rue was formerly used not only 
 for condiment but as a medicine (Lk. 1 1 .42). 
 
RUFUS] 
 
 420 
 
 [SABBATH 
 
 Rufus. Red: Simon the Cyrenian, whom 
 the Jews compelled to bear the cross on the 
 way to Golgotha, had two sons, Alexander and 
 Rufus (Mk. 15.21). The phrasing of the verse 
 suggests that the sons were better known than 
 the father among the people for whom Mark 
 wrote his gospel. See also Bom. 16.13. 
 
 Ruha'mah. Pitied : a symbolic name of 
 Israel, denoting that the chosen people were 
 still the objects of the Lord's compassion (Eos. 
 2.1). 
 
 Ru'mah. High : residence of Pedaiah, 
 maternal grandfather of King Jehoiakim (2 K . 
 23.36). Perhaps Rumeh, 6 miles north of 
 Nazareth. [ARUMAH.] 
 
 Rush. The word is used three times in 
 Isaiah (9.14, 19.15, 35.7) in a general sense. 
 
 Ruth. See the following article. 
 
 Ruth, Book of. This book is linked by its 
 opening words to Judges. In the Jewish Canon, 
 it forms part of the Hagiographa ; being the 
 second of the five Megilloth or Festal Rolls, 
 one of which was publicly read at each festival. 
 Ruth, on account of its harvest associations, 
 was appointed for Pentecost. In the LXX 
 and Vulgate, it is placed next to Judges, as in 
 modern versions. Its authorship is unknown, 
 but was by Jewish tradition ascribed to Samuel. 
 Its date is uncertain. It is clear that it was 
 written after the era of the Judges (1.1), when 
 
 certain Israelite usnges had become antiquated, 
 4.7 (cf. Dent. 25.9), and, probably, when 
 David's house was established upon the throne 
 (4.17-22 ; although the genealogy may have 
 been inserted by a subsequent editor). The 
 contents of the book record the history of Ruth, 
 a Moabitess, who (1) married Chilion, one of the 
 two sons of Elimelech, a man of Bethlehem - 
 judah, who, under stress of famine, went into the 
 country of Moab, possibly during the Midianitish 
 invasions (Judg. 6.1-6). Elimelech and his sons 
 dying, Naomi, his wife, returned to Bethlehem 
 with Ruth. They arrived at harvest-time, 
 and (2) Ruth gleaned in the fields of Boaz, a 
 kinsman of Elimelech. Boaz showed her kind- 
 ness, and (3) Ruth, instructed by Naomi, claimed 
 of him the help due from a kinsman. Boaz 
 acknowledged the claim, (4) himself undertook 
 the responsibilities involved, and married Ruth, 
 who bare him a son, Obed, the grandfather of 
 David. Ruth, though a Gentile, thus became 
 an ancestor of Jesus Christ (Matt. 1.5, 16). 
 [REDEEM.] 
 
 Rye, Rie. (Ex. 9.32; Isai. 28.25). R.V. 
 rightly has " spelt," a hard and rough-grained 
 wheat, bearded, but much resembling the 
 ordinary kind. It seems to have been culti- 
 vated in Palestine and Egypt from very early 
 times. Some think that a kind of vetch is 
 meant. [FITCHES.] 
 
 s 
 
 Sabachtani. [Ei.oi.] 
 
 Sabaoth. [LORD OF HOSTS.] 
 
 Sabbath. Cessation (of labour) : the primitive 
 institution of the Sabbath is recorded in Gen. 
 2.2, 3 ; but the word first occurs in Ex. 16.23. Its 
 observance is there spoken of as required by 
 God's law (Ex. 16.25-30) ; and the law of the Sab- 
 bath was enshrined in the fourth commandment 
 (Ex. 20.8-11). Associated first with the creation 
 work (Gen. 2.3 ; Ex. 20.11), it was also con- 
 nected with the deliverance from Egypt (Deut. 
 5.15). The law laid stress upon the observance 
 of the day, even " in earing time and in harvest " 
 (Ex. 34.21). The work forbidden included 
 even the kindling of a fire (Ex. 35.3), and the 
 gathering of sticks on that day was punished 
 by death (Num. 15.32-36). A particular 
 burnt- offering was appointed for the Sabbath 
 (Num. 28.9, 10). The due observance of the 
 day was connected by the prophets with the 
 blessing of God, and its violation with His 
 anger (Isai. 56.2, 58.13 ; Jer. 17.20-22 ; Ezek. 
 20.13). These notices indicate a growing 
 laxity in the observance of the day, whilst a 
 formal observance by those indifferent to the 
 spirit of God's law is also noted (Isai. 1.13). 
 Nehemiah found profanation of the day preva- 
 lent amongst the " nobles of Judah " and others, 
 and restored it observance (Neh. 13.15-22). 
 
 This observance grew in stringency, until, by 
 the time of our Lord, the " commandments of 
 men" had accumulated in bewildering in- 
 tricacy around the keeping of the Sabbath. 
 Fantastic distinctions and ingenious evasions 
 abounded. Human interpretations of the law 
 had made it an insupportable burden. The 
 teaching of our Lord placed the Sabbath in its 
 true position. He came not to destroy the Law, 
 but to fulfil it (Matt. 5.17) ; He was Himself 
 accustomed to be present at synagogue-worship 
 on that day (Mk. 6.2 ; Lk. 4.16, 6.6, 13.10). 
 But He claimed authority over the Sabbath 
 (Matt. 12.8) ; pressed its institution for the 
 benefit of man (Mk. 2.27) ; worked a miracle 
 on that day (Matt. 12.13 ; Mk. 3.5 ; Lk. 6.10) ; 
 and defended His disciples against a charge of 
 infringing the Sabbath law (Matt. 12.3-8). 
 
 For a time Jewish Christians observed both 
 the Sabbath and the Lord's Day; but St. 
 Paul clearly taught that the requirements of 
 the law as to the Sabbath were not binding 
 on Christians (Rom. 14.5, 6 ; Col. 2.16, 17 ; and 
 cf. Gal. 4.10). The institution of the seventh 
 day as a day of rest is, however, prior to 
 the giving of the law. The Christian Church 
 has transferred that rest day from the seventh 
 to the first, using the latter as a day of rest and 
 worship; "no longer," as Ignatius wrote, 
 
SABBATH DAY'S JOURNEY] 421 
 
 [SACRIFICE 
 
 " keeping the Sabbath, but living in the spirit of 
 the Lord's Day " (ad Magn. ix.). [LORD'S DAY.] 
 
 Sabbath Day's Journey. About seven fur- 
 longs, the extent to which the Jews allowed 
 themselves to go on the Sabbath (Acts 1.12). 
 It is said to have been originally fixed by the 
 distance from the Tabernacle to the extremity 
 of the camp in the wilderness. The milage of 
 Bethany was fifteen furlongs from Jerusalem 
 (John 11.18). 
 
 Sabbatical Year. Every seventh year was to 
 be celebrated among the Jews by allowing the 
 land to rest (Ex. 23.10 ; Lev. 25.2, 3, etc.) un- 
 cultivated. This Sabbatical year began in 
 the autumn, after the harvest. The people 
 were then to set slaves at liberty (Ex. 21.2), to 
 remit all debts, and each was to re-enter on 
 his inheritance that had been alienated. The 
 Sabbatic year had been instituted to celebrate 
 the creation ; to enforce the acknowledgment 
 that God was Lord over all things, particularly 
 over the land of Canaan, which He had given to 
 the Hebrews. In this year the fruits of the 
 fields and of the vineyards belonged to the 
 poor and needy, and finally for the beasts 
 (Ex. 20.10 ff.); and special services were held 
 at the time of the Feast of Tabernacles (Deut. 
 31.10-13). This institution, as Moses had pre- 
 dicted (Lei). 26.34, 35), was long disregarded, 
 but after the Captivity, during which the land 
 lay waste, to make up the arrears of rest which 
 had been accumulating by a long period of 
 neglect (2 Ch. 36.21), it was observed more care- 
 fully. [HARVEST, JUBILEE.] 
 
 Sa1)eans. Isai. 45.14 [SEBA]; Job 1.15; 
 Joel 3.8 [SHEBA]. In Ezek. 23.42 R.V. has 
 " drunkards." 
 
 Sabta, Sabtah. The third son of Cush 
 (Gen. 10.7 ; 1 Ch. 1.9). The descendants 
 peopled a portion of Arabia Felix and gave the 
 name Sabtah to a place on the southern coast 
 of Arabia. 
 
 Sab'techa, Sabtechah fR.V. Sabteca). The 
 fifth son of Cush (Gen. 10.7 ; 1 Ch. 1.9). The 
 place of his settlement is unknown. 
 
 Sa'car (1 Ch. 11.35). Hire : 1. He appears 
 as Sharar in 2 Sam. 23.33. 2. A gatekeeper 
 of the Tabernacle in David's time (1 Ch. 26.4). 
 
 Sackbut. A wind-instrument, a primitive 
 form of the trombone. It is probable that the 
 Aramaic word used in Daniel signifies rather 
 a stringed instrument, the " Sambuca " of the 
 Lat. and Gk. versions (O.E. Sambuke), a kind 
 of harp varying in size, shape, and number of 
 strings, made of elder-wood (Lat. Sambucus, 
 elder tree). 
 
 Sackcloth. A word of pure Hebrew origin 
 (sak), which has spread over Europe through 
 the aid of Phoenician traders. It was a strong, 
 rough cloth made of camel and goat's hair, and 
 worn next the skin as a sign of grief and mourn- 
 ing in times of great calamities, in penitence, 
 in trouble (Gen. 37.34 ; 2 Sam. 3.31). Generally 
 it was worn around the loins, causing great 
 discomfort (Ezek. 27.31). Its colour was dark, 
 verging on black (Rev. 6.12). 
 
 Sacrament. {BAPTISM, SUPPER, THE LORD'S.] 
 
 Sacrifice. Sacrifice and offering appear as 
 early as the time of Cain and Abel. Cain 
 brought "of the fruit of the ground"; Abel 
 " of the firstlings of his flock, and the fat thereof " 
 (Gen. 4.3,4). Sacrifices appear in the patriarchal 
 age (Gen. 15.9-11, 17, 31.54, 46.1) ; and were 
 familiar to the Israelites in Egypt (Ex. 3.18). 
 The law laid down in great detail the sacrifices 
 and offerings required of the Jews. The offerings 
 were taken from both the vegetable and animal 
 kingdoms, those from the former called the 
 " bloodless " offerings, from a Hebrew word 
 meaning " gifts," and those from the latter the 
 bloody offerings, from a term meaning slain 
 sacrifices. In both the vegetable and flesh 
 offerings, salt, an emblem of purity, was used. 
 
 From the vegetable kingdom were taken 
 flour, cakes, parched corn, and libations of 
 wine for the drink-offerings. Both offerings 
 were usually united, and were considered as 
 an addition to the thank-offerings made by fire 
 (Lev. 14.10-21 ; Num. 15.5-11, 28.7-15). The 
 animals offered were oxen, goats, and sheep ; 
 all were to be without blemish, not under eight 
 days old, nor over three years (there is one 
 exception, however, " the bullock of seven 
 years old," Judg. 6.25) ; doves were also 
 offered in some cases (Ex. 12.5, 22.20 ; Lev. 5.7, 
 9.3,4). Fish were never offered; and human 
 sacrifices were expressly forbidden (Lev. 18.21, 
 20.25). 
 
 The offerings were presented only in the 
 front court of the sanctuary, the tabernacle, 
 that is, and afterwards the Temple (Lev. 17.1-9 ; 
 Deut. 12.5-7). Occasionally, however, sacrifices 
 were offered elsewhere, without reprehension 
 (Judg. 2.5, 6.26, 13.16; 1 Sam. 7.17, 9.12, 
 11.15, 16.5; 1 K. 18.30); while the people 
 evinced a frequent disposition to sacrifice in the 
 " high places " to which they had recourse 
 before the existence of a permanent sanctuary 
 (1 K. 3.2), and afterwards in a schismatic 
 spirit (1 K. 12.31 ; 2 Ch. 33.17). 
 
 In the performance of the sacrifice, the offerer, 
 himself legally purified (Ex. 19.14 ; 1 Sam. 16.5), 
 brought the victim to the altar, and turning 
 towards the sanctuary laid his hand upon its 
 head (Lev. 1.4, 3.2, 4.33), thus identifying it 
 with himself, and dedicating it to the purpose 
 of atonement through sacrifice. He then slew 
 the animal, an act, however, which the priest 
 might do (2 Ch. 29.24 ; Ezra 6.20). As the 
 victim was slain the priest received the blood, 
 and sprinkled or poured it near the different 
 offerings, yet apart from them. The victim was 
 cut in pieces by the offerer (Lev. 1.6), and the fat 
 was burnt by the priest. In some sacrifices, 
 before or after the slaying, the victim was 
 heaved or b'fted up, and waved towards the 
 altar and back, a symbol of its presentation to 
 Jehovah. In those cases where the worshippers 
 ate part of the sacrifice the idea of communion 
 \vith God and each other was emphasised. 
 
 These sacrifices were in themselves very 
 imperfect, and altogether incapable of purifying 
 
SACRILEGE] 
 
 422 
 
 [SAINTS 
 
 the soul. Paul has described these and other 
 ceremonies of the Law as " weak and beggarly 
 elements " (Gal. 4.9). They represented grace 
 and purity, but they did not communicate 
 them. They convinced the sinner of the necessity 
 to purify himself, and make satisfaction to God ; 
 but they did not impart holiness to him. Of 
 this fact the pious Jew was not insensible. 
 Hence the profound feeling of the Psalmist 
 " The sacrifices of God are a broken spirit ; a 
 broken and a contrite heart, O God, Thou wilt 
 not despise" (Ps. 51.17). God had taught 
 His people by the prophets that without these 
 dispositions they could not present any offer- 
 ing agreeable to Him (Ps. 40.6, 51.16; Isai. 
 1.11-14; Jer. 35.15; Hos. 14.2; Joel 2.12,13; 
 Amos 5.21, 22). All sacrifices emblematically 
 set forth the sacrifice of Christ, being the insti- 
 tuted type and shadow of it (Heb. 9.9-15, 10.1). 
 Christ abolished all other sacrifices when He 
 offered Himself (1 Cor. 5.7 ; Heb. 10.8-10). 
 
 The idea of sacrifice is often used in a secondary 
 or metaphorical sense, and applied to the good 
 works of believers, the duties of prayer and 
 praise, etc. (Heb. 13.16). " But to do good, and 
 to communicate, forget not ; for with such 
 sacrifices God is well pleased." " I beseech 
 you, by the mercies of God, that ye present 
 your bodies a living sacrifice " (Rom. 12.1). 
 The worshipper was not to offer that which 
 cost him nothing ; part of his substance was to 
 be transferred from himself to God. The offering 
 might be in time, ease, comfort, property, 
 intellect ; all of which might be dedicated to 
 the Lord. [ALTAR, PEACE-OFFERING.] 
 
 Sacrilege. Only found in Rom. 2.22, where 
 R.V. has " dost thou rob temples ? " In the 
 ancient Church, sacrilege, the violation of sacred 
 things, or the desecration of things consecrated 
 to God, was very severely punished. To break 
 into and enter a church or place of worship and 
 commit any felony therein is still an offence 
 in English law. 
 
 Sadducees. A Jewish party, only mentioned 
 thirteen times in the N.T., and not at all in the 
 Fourth Gospel or in the Epistles, but playing an 
 important part in the religious history of the 
 time. (1) Their name is now generally held to 
 be derived from the name Zadok either the 
 name of some unidentified leader of the party, or 
 that of the Zadok who was priest under David 
 (1 K. 1.8) and Solomon (1 Ch. 29.22). The 
 descendants of Zadok were found in the priest- 
 hood after the Exile, and came to form a party 
 which was in its aims political as well as ecclesi- 
 astical or religious. Josephus (Antiq. xiii. 
 chap. x. 6), noting the differences between 
 Pharisees and Sadducees, says that the latter 
 " influence none but the rich, and have not the 
 populace on their side, but the Pharisees have 
 the multitude to back them." They had been 
 an important party in the State for more 
 than a century before the birth of Christ, and 
 during N.T. times all the high-priests were 
 Sadducees. (2) Their attitude to our Lord and 
 His message appears natural enough, in view of 
 
 their position as an aristocratic party, closely 
 associated with the priesthood. His teaching 
 struck directly at their position. Their in- 
 dignation when He cleansed the Temple (Matt. 
 21.12) and when He accepted the title " Son 
 of David" (Matt. 21.15) was natural. The 
 desire to suppress Him brought them into 
 line with the Pharisees (Lk. 19.47) ; whilst 
 they also sought to create difficulties for Him 
 by cleverly framed questions (Matt. 22.23). 
 Our Lord, early in His ministry, publicly re- 
 buked them (Matt. 3.7), and warned His dis- 
 ciples to beware of their " leaven " (Matt. 
 16.6, 11, 12). (3) After the death of our Lord, 
 the opposition of the Sadducees joined as 
 usual with that of the priests is again felt 
 (Acts 4.1, 5.17). Paul, in self-defence, made 
 use of the doctrinal differences between Phari- 
 sees and Sadducees (Acts 23.6). The prominence 
 given by Paul to the doctrine of the resurrection 
 will be noted in connexion with the teaching of 
 the Sadducees. (4) Their distinctive doctrinal 
 position is noted by our Lord (Matt. 16.6, 12) 
 and by the Evangelists (Matt. 22.23 ; Mk. 12.18 ; 
 Lk. 20.27). The conflict between themselves 
 and the Pharisees is illustrated in Acts 23.6-8. 
 From the passages already referred to it is seen 
 that the Sadducees denied (1) the resurrection, 
 and (2) the existence of angels and spirits. As to 
 (1) the resurrection, Josephus, after explaining 
 the belief of the Pharisees in fate and freewill, 
 in the " immortal power " of the soul, and in a 
 future state of rewards and punishments, adds, 
 " but the doctrine of the Sadducees is that 
 souls die with the bodies " (Antiq. xviii. 
 chap. i. 4). As to (2) the denial of the exist- 
 ence of angels and spirits, this ran counter to 
 so much of the O.T. that the unpopularity of 
 the Sadducees may find an explanation on this 
 as well as other sides. Josephus points out that 
 when Sadducees became magistrates they had 
 to " addict themselves to the notions of the 
 Pharisees, because the people would not other- 
 wise put up with them " (Antiq. xvin. i. 4). 
 The Sadducees as a party were never a numerous 
 body, and they ceased to exist after the destruc- 
 tion of Jerusalem. 
 
 Sadoc. Just : a name in the genealogy of 
 Jesus (Matt. 1.14). 
 
 Saffron. The English name of this substance 
 is derived from the Arabic zafaran. It is 
 obtained in minute quantities from the yellow 
 stigmas and style of a crocus, 60,000 blooms, 
 it is stated, being needed to make one pound 
 of saffron. In the East it is converted into a 
 fragrant perfume (Cant. 4.14), used to flavour 
 meat and wine, and as a powerful stimulative 
 medicine. It is also used as a dye, chiefly so in 
 this country. An inferior kind is made from 
 Carthamus tinctorius, a tall plant of the order 
 Composite. 
 
 Saints. In the A.V. of O.T. " saints " re- 
 presents two Hebrew words : (1) Lit. pious, godly 
 (Ps. 30.4, and frequently in Psalms, elsewhere 
 only 1 Sam. 2.9 ; 2 Ch. 6.41 ; Prov. 2.8). (2) Lit. 
 separate, applied to angels (Ps. 89.5,7; R.V. 
 
SALA, SALAH] 
 
 423 
 
 [SALT SEA 
 
 " holy ones ") and to men (Deut. 33.3 ; cf. 
 ver. 2 ; Ps. 16.3, 34.9 ; Dan. 7.18, etc.). 
 
 It is this latter word which (in its Greek 
 equivalent) is taken over into the N.T. as the 
 characteristic designation of the Christian 
 community (Acts 9.13 ; Rom. 1.7 ; 1 Cor. 1.2 ; 
 2 Cor. 1.1, etc.). The term thus indicates 
 primarily the call and status of the Christian 
 believer, secondarily the qualities which befit 
 and issue from such high privilege. Scripture 
 contains no warrant for the limitation of the 
 word to persons of special holiness. [SANCTIFI- 
 
 CATION.] 
 
 Sa'la, Sa'lah (R.V. Shelah). A branch, 
 offshoot : grandson of Shem and father of Eber 
 (Gen. 10.24, 11.12 ; Lk. 3.35). 
 
 Sal'amis. A city at the east end of Cyprus, 
 where Paul landed in the course of his first 
 journey (Acts 13.5). That there were many 
 Jews in the place is shown by the mention of 
 synagogues, whereas in most places outside the 
 Holy Land one synagogue was sufficient. 
 Contemporary history shows that this was so, 
 and that Herod the Great leased copper mines 
 in Cyprus, employing Jews to work them. The 
 city has quite disappeared, but its ruins are 
 near the present Famagousta. [PAUL.] 
 
 Salathi'el, ShealtieL Father of Zerubbabel 
 and grandson of Jehoiakim, king of Judah 
 (1 Ch. 3.17 ; Ezra 3.2, etc. ; Neh. 12.1 ; Hag. 
 1.1, etc. ; Matt. 1.12 ; Lk. 3.27). 
 
 Salcah, Sal'chah (R.V. Salecah). An isolated 
 fortress in a wady running into the Yahmuk, 
 at the south extremity of the Jebel Hauran. 
 It was the south outpost of Argob, and the limit 
 of Bashan and Gad (Deut. 3.10 ; Josh. 12.5, 
 13.11; 1 Ch. 5.11). Its modern name is 
 Sulkhad, a town of considerable size. 
 
 Salem. Peace: the city of which Melchizedek 
 was king (Gen. 14.18 ; Heb. 7.1, 2). It is prob- 
 ably to be identified with Jerusalem, in accord- 
 ance with Jewish tradition, but the Samaritans 
 place Salem near Shechem, a view advocated 
 by Dean Stanley (Sinai and Palestine, p. 250). 
 This might find some support in A.V. of Gen. 
 33.18, if Shalem= Salem : there is still a village 
 Salim east of Shechem. But the R.V. " came 
 in peace to the city of Shechem " is probably 
 correct. Salem is a poetic designation of Jeru- 
 salem (Ps. 76.2). 
 
 Salim. Peace : in John 3.23 it is stated that 
 John the Baptist " was baptizing in ^Enon near 
 to Salim, because there was much water there." 
 This is the only occurrence of the two names, 
 and the sites cannot be certainly identified. 
 There is a Salim near Nablous (see last article), 
 and an Ahum in the Wady Faria, a valley well 
 supplied with springs running east to the Jordan ; 
 but these are between 7 and 8 miles apart. 
 
 Sal'lai. 1. A Benjamite who settled in Jeru- 
 salem with his people after the Captivity (Neh. 
 11.8). 2. A priest \vho returned with Zerub- 
 babel (Neh. 12.20). His name appears as 
 Sallu in Neh. 12.7. 
 
 Sal'lu. 1. (1 Ch. 9.7 ; Neh. 11.7). 2. (Neh. 
 
 12.7). [SALLAI2.] 
 
 Sal'ma, Sal'mon. The father or founder of 
 Bethlehem (1 Ch. 2.51, 54). He was the father 
 of Boaz, who married Ruth, and thus the founder 
 of the House of David (Ruth 4.20, 21 ; 1 Ch. 2.11 ; 
 Matt. 1.4 ; Lk. 3.32). 
 
 Salmai. [SHALMAI.] 
 
 Salmon. [ZALMONT.] 
 
 Salmo'ne. The eastern promontory of Crete, 
 passed by Paul on his last voyage (Acts 27.7). 
 
 Salo'me. 1. One of the women who witnessed 
 the Crucifixion (Mk. 15.40, 16.1). It appears 
 from a comparison with Matt. 27.56 she was the 
 wife of Zebedee, and possibly from John 19.25 
 that she was the sister of Mary, the mother of 
 Jesus. [MARY.] She it was who asked the Lord 
 for seats of honour for her sons in the kingdom 
 of heaven (Matt. 20.20). 2. The daughter of 
 Herodias (Matt. 14.6 ; Mk. 6.22) was also named 
 Salome. 
 
 Salt. The Jews had access to an inex- 
 haustible supply of salt on the shores of the 
 Dead Sea, and in the mountain of soli^ salt 
 at its southern end, described by Robinson 
 as being 5 miles in length. In this neigh- 
 bourhood were the saltpits (Zeph. 2.9) and 
 the valley of salt (2 Sam. 8.13). In addition, 
 the Phoenicians procured quantities of salt 
 from the Mediterranean by evaporation. The 
 salt used by the ancients was rock, or fossil, 
 salt, besides that left by evaporation of salt 
 lakes. It was impure, and the outside portion 
 flavourless, through deliquescence. The allu- 
 sion in Matt. 5.13 was to this kind of salt, much 
 of which had to be thrown away as worthless. 
 
 The Orientals are accustomed to ratify 
 their engagements by gifts of salt. It is the 
 emblem of preservation, and so of constancy 
 and fidelity. It is a sacred pledge of hospi- 
 tality, which they never dare to break, shelter- 
 ing even murderers, rather than give up to justice 
 a criminal who had eaten of their salt. Even 
 the robber Bedouins of the desert refrain from 
 molesting one who has sought the shelter of 
 their tent, and has, in consequence, been offered 
 the salt of friendship. By the command that 
 every meat-offering should be seasoned with 
 salt (Lev. 2.13), this sacred " covenant of salt " 
 was established between God and His people 
 (Num. 18.9; 2 Ch. 13.5). Its qualities of 
 flavouring and preserving appear to be referred 
 to in Matt. 5.13 ; Mk. 9.50 ; Col. 4.6. 
 
 The effect of salt on vegetation is described 
 as " burning " (Deut. 29.23). This is the true 
 reason of the barrenness of the shores of the 
 Dead Sea. So a salt land (Jer. 17.6) is the same 
 as the " parched places of the wilderness," and 
 is descriptive of barrenness, as saltness also is 
 (Job 39.6; Ps. 107.34; Ezek. 47.11; Zeph. 
 2.9). Hence the ancient custom of sowing 
 an enemy's city, when taken, with salt in token 
 of perpetual desolation (Judg. 9.45). 
 
 Salt, City of. The position of this city of 
 Judah is unknown, but it must have been 
 somewhere on the plain extending from the 
 south end of the Dead Sea (Josh. 15.62). 
 
 Salt Sea. The Dead Sea is called the Salt 
 
SALT, VALLEY OF] 
 
 424 
 
 [SAMARIA 
 
 Sea in Deut. 3.17 ; Josh. 3.16, 12.3. It receives 
 its name from the immense quantity of salt 
 its waters hold in solution, giving to its waters 
 a specific gravity of from 20 to 25 per cent, 
 greater than that of sea water. No form of 
 life can survive in its depths, and fish carried 
 down to it by the Jordan immediately die. The 
 sea has no outlet, its waters being carried off 
 by the enormous evaporation, amounting to 
 six millions of tons per day (Bible Hand-Book, 
 p. 289). The surface of the Salt Sea is 1292 
 feet below that of the Mediterranean. [DEAD 
 SEA, JORDAN.] 
 
 Salt, Valley of. A ravine in the neighbour- 
 hood of Petra [SELA] where David and 
 Amaziah defeated and slew large numbers of 
 Edomites (2 Sam. 8.13; 2 K. 14.7; 1 Ch. 
 18.12 ; 2 Ch. 25.11 ; Ps. 60, title). 
 
 Saltpits. Pits made on the shore of the 
 Dead Sea that they may be filled at the rising 
 of the water in times of flood. When the 
 water^ subside that in the pits soon evaporates, 
 leaving a crust of salt about an inch in thick- 
 ness (Zeph. 2.9). 
 
 Salu. A Simeonite slain by Phinehas 
 (Num. 25.14). 
 
 Salutation. Words of salutation or greeting 
 are frequently quoted in the O.T. Thus, 
 " My Lord " (Gen. 19.18) ; " Blessed of the Lord " 
 (Gen. 24.31) ; " Blessed be ye of the Lord " 
 (1 Sam. 23.21); " Peace be with thee" (Judg. 
 19.20) ; and note especially the elaborate form : 
 " Peace be both unto thee, and peace be to thine 
 house, and peace be unto all that thou hast" 
 (1 Sam. 25.6). In the N.T. we find, "Hail, 
 Master" (Matt. 26.49); "All hail" (Matt. 
 28.9) ; " Peace be to this house " (Lk. 10.5) ; 
 " Peace be unto you " (John 20.21). See also 
 the salutations in the various Epistles. 
 
 The acts which accompanied the salutation 
 varied. Kissing was an ancient custom which 
 persisted in N.T. times (Gen. 33.4, 45.15, 50.1 ; 
 Lk. 7.45, 15.20; Acts 20.37; 2 Cor. 13.12). 
 A mounted traveller alighted before a superior 
 (Gen. 24.64; 1 Sam. 25.23). Prostration was 
 usual in the presence of kings (1 K. 1.53 ; 
 Esth. 8.3); so Cornelius before Peter (Acts 
 10.25). Bowing lovr was a familiar token of 
 respect (Gen. 23.7, 42.6 ; 1 Sam. 24.8). Kneel- 
 ing was an act of homage used in worship (1 K. 
 8.54; Lk. 22.41), but was sometimes employed 
 by suppliants (Mk. 1.40, 10.17, 15.19). 
 
 Salvation, Save, Saved. The words thus 
 rendered are used both in the O.T. and N.T. in 
 more than one sense. From the saving or being 
 saved from some danger to the body or the life, 
 the words pass into meaning salvation in its 
 religious sense, usually with direct or implied 
 reference to the Messianic hope or to the work 
 of our Lord. Thus in the O.T. " salvation " 
 and the words rendered " save " are used of 
 deliverance from a specified danger, as in the 
 case of the Israelites at the Red Sea (Ex. 
 14.13,30), and of Jonathan (1 Sam. 14.45); 
 and saved is used of saving the individual life 
 (Gen. 12.12 ; Josh. 6.25), and the lives of animals 
 
 (1 K. 18.5). The words implying safety 
 secured by deliverance are used of the security 
 of those who trusted in Jehovah, Who is 
 Salvation personified (Ps. 3.8, 35.9, 62.2; 
 Isai. 12.2 ; Jer. 33.16 ; Mic. 7.7 ; Hab. 3.8, 18). 
 This deliverance or security is national (Ps. 
 28.9; Isai. 25.9; Hos. 14.3), as well as 
 personal (Ps. 6.4, 69.1), and looks forward to 
 the greater deliverance bound up with the 
 Messianic hope (cf. Lk. 1.69, 77). In the N.T. 
 usage the same breadth of meaning is found. 
 Save is used of deliverance from peril 
 (Matt. 8.25; John 12.27; Acts 27.20); but 
 more often save and salvation refer to the 
 condition of pardon and security obtained for 
 man by Christ Jesus (Matt. 1.21 ; Lk. 19.10 ; 
 John 12.47; Acts 2.21, 4.12,13,47, 16.30; 
 Rom. 5.9 ; 1 Cor. 1.18 ; 1 Thess. 5.9 ; Heb. 5.9). 
 This salvation is for the present as well as the 
 future, and is associated with faith in the 
 Saviour, whether the immediate relief be 
 bodily, or whether a deeper meaning were also 
 attached to the words (Lk. 7.50, 18.42 ; Acts 
 16.30, 31 ; Rom. 10.9 ; 1 Cor. 1.21). It is the 
 free, unmerited provision of God a matter of 
 grace (Eph. 2.5, 8 ; Tit. 2.11). [ATONEMENT, 
 SAVIOUR.] 
 
 Samaria. Watchtower : 1. The country of 
 Samaria included at first the whole of the 
 territories occupied by the revolting ten tribes, 
 joined together under the kingship of Jeroboam. 
 It extended from Bethel to Dan, from the 
 Mediterranean to Syria and Ammon. 
 
 It was limited by the inclusion of Simeon 
 and Dan in the kingdom of Judah ; by the 
 conquests of Hazael (2 K. 10.32), of Pul and 
 Tiglath-pileser (2 K. 15.29; 1 Ch. 5.26), of 
 Shalmaneser (2 K. 17.5, 6), after which it was 
 a scene of utter desolation (2 K. 17.23, 21.13), 
 until it was repeopled by foreigners during the 
 years of the Captivity (2 K. 17.24 ; Ezra 4.10). 
 [ISBAEL, KINGDOM OF.] 
 
 2. The position of the capital city of the ten 
 tribes that revolted from David was a strong 
 one, equalling that of Jerusalem. It lay 
 midway between the Jordan and the Medi- 
 terranean, east of the plain of Sharon, on the 
 summit of a steep oblong hill, precipitous on 
 one side and easily defended on the other. It 
 was built by Omri, king of Israel, who bought 
 the hill Samaria of Shemer for two talents of 
 silver (1 K. 16.24). The kings of Israel omitted 
 nothing that could enhance the strength and 
 beauty and riches of Samaria. Ahab built a 
 palace of ivory (1 K. 22.39) ; and Amos describes 
 the city as the seat of luxury and effeminacy 
 (Amos 3.15, 4.1,2). Samaria was associated 
 with Ahab's career and death, and with Baal- 
 worship (1 K. 16.32, 22.38; 2 K. 10.1-28; 
 2 Ch. 18). It was the scene of Elisha's ministry 
 (2 K. 5, 6.1-20, 7). It was twice ineffectually 
 besieged by the Syrians (1 K. 20.1-34; 2 K. 
 0.24, 7.20), and was taken at last after a three 
 years' siege begun by Shalmaneser iv., and con- 
 cluded by Sargon in 722 B.C. (2 K. 17.5,6). 
 The severities the city suffered are vividly 
 
SAMARITANS, THE] 
 
 425 
 
 [SAMOTHBACIA 
 
 described by Hosea (10.4,8,9), while Micah 
 (1.6) says that the city was reduced to a 
 heap of stones. Sargon, having subdued the 
 city, carried all its inhabitants away and settled 
 them in places remote from their old home. 
 Following out the usual policy of old-time 
 conquerors, he, and, later, Esarhaddon, repeopled 
 Samaria with Babylonians, Cutheans, and others 
 from a distance, the object being of course to 
 destroy national feelings amongst the conquered 
 peoples (2 K. 17.24; Ezra 4.2). 
 
 . The Cuthites rebuilt in a measure the destroyed 
 city, and on the return of the Jews from 
 captivity a number of them with their foreign 
 wives went to reside there (Ezra 4.17 ; Neh. 4.2). 
 [SAMARITANS.] 
 
 Very little change took place in Samaria until 
 Aulus Gabinius, Pompey's Legate, about 60 B.C., 
 rebuilt it. Yet it remained an insignificant 
 place until Herod the Great again rebuilt it 
 [HEROD], and restored it to more than its 
 ancient splendour, calling it Sebaste, i.e. 
 Augusta, after the Roman Emperor. Herod 
 made it more of a citadel than ever it had 
 been, and adorned it with a magnificent 
 temple, of which only some rows of ruined 
 columns are visible. These ruins lie outside 
 the present small village of Sebastieh, the 
 modern representative of the ancient capital 
 of the kings of Israel. Whether the city of 
 Samaria is mentioned in the N.T. depends on 
 the presence or absence of the Greek article in 
 Acts 8.5. Herod died in 4 B.C., when Samaria 
 became part of the dominions of his son Archelaus. 
 Tradition states that John the Baptist was 
 buried at Sebaste, and points to the ruins of a 
 church of that name in proof. 
 
 3. The district of Samaria in N.T. times 
 lay between Judaea and Galilee (Lk. 17.11); 
 bounded on the north by the range of hills which 
 form the south border of the plain of Esdraelon, 
 on the south by the north limits of Benjamin. It 
 was traversed by our Lord (John 4.4-43), and 
 in part early received the Gospel (Acts 8.5-25). 
 
 Samaritans, The. An ancient but still exist- 
 ing sect among the Jews, who derived their name 
 from Samaria, the capital city of their dominions. 
 [ISRAEL, ISRAELITES.] After the fall of Samaria, 
 and the kingdom of Israel, Sargon the con- 
 queror carried away the bulk of the inhabitants 
 to Assyria, and partly replaced them with 
 people from the neighbourhood of the Tigris 
 and the Euphrates (2 K. 17). The new- 
 comers intermarried with the Israelites left 
 in the country, and ultimately took the name 
 of Samaritans. The depopulated country had 
 become overrun with wild beasts, and the 
 idolatrous immigrants, concluding that " the 
 God of the land " was angry, sent to the king 
 of Assyria begging him to send them a priest 
 of Jehovah to instruct them how to worship 
 Him. At first their religion was of a motley 
 kind, " they feared Jehovah and served their 
 own gods." After the reforms of Josiah, 
 however, which extended to Bethel and the 
 northern districts (2 K. 23.15 ; 2 Ch. 34.6, 7), 
 
 the people seem to have submitted to the 
 destruction of their idols, and nominally to 
 have adopted the Israelite religion. But 
 though they were united in religion they were 
 not so in the affection of the Jews ; for they 
 employed various calumnies and stratagems to 
 hinder the rebuilding of the Temple at Jeru- 
 salem (2 K. 17 ; Ezra 4.5, 6). 
 
 After the Captivity, Nehemiah had begun a 
 reform in Judsea, when some of the Jews, who 
 had married heathen wives, went over to the 
 Samaritans rather than give them up. One of 
 these was Manasseh, a son of the high-priest, 
 who persuaded the Samaritans to renounce 
 many of then* idolatries, and built a temple 
 on Mount Gerizim, where rites were cele- 
 brated resembling the worship at Jerusalem. 
 [MANASSEH, NEHEMIAH, SANBALLAT.] After- 
 wards, when the country was part of the Greek 
 empire, the Samaritans revolted from Alexander. 
 He drove them out of Samaria, replaced them 
 with Macedonians, and gave the province of 
 Samaria to the Jews. This circumstance con- 
 tributed in no small degree to increase the 
 hatred and animosity between those two peoples. 
 Samaria became a place of refuge for Jewish law- 
 breakers, who then embraced the worship on 
 Mount Gerizim. When the affairs of the Jews 
 were prosperous, the Samaritans did not fail 
 to call themselves Hebrews, and of the race of 
 Abraham. But when the Jews suffered per- 
 secution, the Samaritans disowned them, and 
 alleged that they were from Phoenician stock, 
 or descended from Joseph or his son Manasseh. 
 
 The Samaritans claimed an interest in the 
 Mosaic covenant ; their faith and practice they 
 founded on the PentateuchN alone, and they 
 rejected the whole of the other Jewish books. 
 Their temple on Mount Gerizim remained till 
 the year 109 B.C. Our Lord distinguishes the 
 Samaritans from the lost sheep of the house of 
 Israel and from the Gentiles (Matt. 10.5,6). 
 At this time the hatred between them and the 
 Jews was at its height (Lk. 9.52, 53 ; John 4.9), 
 and the title " Samaritan " was applied to the 
 Saviour as including all that was bad (John 8.48). 
 
 Samgar-nebo. One of the princes of the 
 king of Babylon who sat in the middle gate of 
 Jerusalem after the capture of the city (Jer. 
 39.3). But perhaps the text is corrupt. 
 
 Samlah. An ancient king of Edom, who 
 succeeded Hadad (Gen. 36.36, 37 ; 1 Ch. I AT, 48). 
 [EDOM.] 
 
 Samos. An island off the west coast of Asia 
 Minor, slightly south of Ephesus, about 1 mile 
 from the shore. Through the narrow channel 
 Paul sailed on his return from his third mission- 
 ary journey (Acts 20.15). The island is moun- 
 tainous, a natural feature which is said to have 
 given it its name (height). It was an important 
 place, noted for its worship of Juno, as the 
 birthplace of Pythagoras, and for a decisive 
 Greek victory over the Persian fleet, (479 B.C.) 
 in the narrow sea where Paul sailed. 
 
 Samothra'cia (R.V. Samothrace). - A small 
 though conspicuous island in the north-east of 
 
SAMSON] 
 
 426 
 
 [SAMUEL, THE BOOKS OF 
 
 the ^Sgean Sea where Paul's ship anchored during 
 his first missionary journey (Acts 16.11). Samo- 
 thrace lies between Troas and Neapolis, being 
 visible throughout the voyage between those 
 places. It had several names at different 
 periods, being called Dardania, Leucania, and 
 Samos. Its chief town was on the north side 
 of the island, where also was the anchorage. 
 Though only 17 miles in circumference, it was 
 a free state. It is now called Samothraki. 
 [PAUL.] 
 
 Samson. Pertaining to the sun : the son of 
 Manoah of the tribe of Dan, born at Korah, 
 his birth being miraculously intimated to his 
 parents (Judg. 13). He was a Nazirite (Judg. 
 16.17). He married, contrary to the law 
 (Ex. 34.16 ; Dent. 7.3), a Philistine woman of 
 Timnath. Having slain a lion on the way to 
 Timnath (Judg. 14.5-9), he afterwards pro- 
 pounded a riddle, which his wife, under pressure, 
 revealed to the Philistines. To pay his loss 
 over this, he sleAV and despoiled thirty Philis- 
 tines of Askelon ; but his wife was given by her 
 father to another (Judg. 14.19, 20). In revenge, 
 Samson turned foxes (jackals), with burning 
 brands tied to their tails, loose into the corn 
 of the Philistines and destroyed their crop. A 
 war of reprisals continued (Judg. 15), until 
 Samson was betrayed by Delilah, captured and 
 blinded by the Philistines, who imprisoned 
 him at Gaza. Brought out for their sport in 
 a feast to Dagon, their god, he involved himself 
 and them in a common destruction. His 
 brethren secured his body, and laid it in the 
 family burying-place between Zorah and 
 Eshtaol. Samson judged Israel twenty years 
 (Judg. 16). He is classed with the heroes of 
 faith in Heb. 11.32, 33. 
 
 Samuel. Name of God, hardly Heard of God : 
 the son of Elkanah and Hannah his wife, and, 
 like Isaac, a child of promise (1 Sam. I). Before 
 his birth Samuel had been vowed (1 Sam. 1.11) 
 to the Lord as a Nazirite, a promise duly kept 
 (1 Sam. 1.24-28). The child " did minister unto 
 the Lord before Eli the priest" (1 Sam. 2.11). 
 He wore the priestly ephod of white linen, and 
 was visited once a year by his mother, who 
 brought him clothing (2.19). The sons of Eli, 
 Phinehas and Hophni, openly and shamelessly 
 sinned (1 Sam. 2.12 ff.), and were rebuked by 
 the aged father. Then the word of the Lord 
 came to Samuel, intimating the punishment of 
 Eli's house (1 Sam. 3.11-14). 
 
 Years later, Samuel is found in office as ruler 
 and judge. The Ark had been returned by the 
 Philistines, and the Israelites, exhorted by 
 Samuel, " did put away Baalim and Ashtaroth, 
 and served the Lord only." The Philistines 
 renewing their attacks, Samuel interceded for 
 the people, who defeated the enemy, and the 
 pillar Eben-ezer was set up by Samuel to com- 
 memorate the victory. His home was at 
 Ramah, but as judge he went " in circuit to 
 Bethel, and Gilgal, and Mizpeh " (1 Sam. 7). 
 
 After another long interval, Samuel reappears 
 as an old man, appointing his two sons, Joel 
 
 and Abiah, to administer justice in his place 
 (1 Sam. 8.1). Their wrong-doing led to the 
 demand of the people for a king. Samuel, 
 appealing to the Lord for guidance, was told 
 to let the people have their wish, after explaining 
 to them the risks they ran in placing one man 
 over the lives and fortunes of the nation 
 (1 Sam. 8). 
 
 Samuel, under the direction of God, anointed 
 Saul as king, and summoned Israel to Mizpeh 
 to choose their ruler (1 Sam. 9, 10). In a 
 noble address he vindicated his own uprightness, 
 warned the people of their duty to Jehovah, and 
 promised his intercession for them (1 Sam. 12). 
 When Saul sinned, it was Samuel who conveyed 
 to him the Divine reproof (1 Sam. 13.11-15). On 
 the rejection of Saul he anointed David (1 Sam. 
 16.1-13 ; 1 Ch. 11.3). He seems to have acted 
 as judge, despite the appointment of a king 
 (1 Sam. 7.15), but it is as prophet and seer that 
 he is commonly spoken of (1 Sam. 10.11 ; 
 1 Ch. 9.22, 26.28, 29.29). He died, lamented 
 by all Israel, and was buried at Rarnah (1 Sam. 
 25.1, 28.3). His position in the eyes of his 
 nation is indicated by later references to his 
 personality and work (Ps. 99.6 ; Jer. 15.1 ; 
 Acts 3.24, 13.20 ; Heb. 11.32). [SAUL.] 
 
 Samuel, The Books of. These two books 
 originally formed but one. In the LXX the 
 Books of Samuel and the Books of Kings are 
 treated as one history, the former being called 
 respectively the First and Second Books of 
 Kings. The authorship is uncertain. Chaps. 
 1-24 of the First Book are ascribed to Samuel ; 
 and with him on the basis of 1 Ch. 29.29 are 
 joined Nathan the prophet and Gad the seer. 
 From similar references to sources (2 Ch. 9.29, 
 12.15, 26.22) it is probable that these two 
 were the authors of records of first-hand 
 authority from the history of David's reign 
 (cf. 1 Sam. 22.5; 2 Sam. 7.2-17, 12.1, 24.11-14 ; 
 1 Ch. 21.11,12). Other possible sources are 
 " the Chronicles of King David " (1 Ch. 27.24) ; 
 the Book of Jashar (2 Sam. 1.18) ; and the 
 collection supplying the strong poetic element. 
 The Song of Hannah (1 Sam. 2.2-10) developed 
 later into the Magnificat of Mary (Lk. 1. 46-55). 
 It prophetically refers to a coming King, " the 
 Anointed," and thus falls into the line of the 
 foreshadowings of the Messiah. There are also 
 David's elegies on the death of Saul and Jona- 
 than, and on that of Abner (2 Sam. 1.17-27, 
 3.33, 34), his ode of triumph over his enemies 
 (2 Sam. 22 ; Ps. 18), and the last song of " the 
 sweet psalmist of Israel " (23.1-7). 
 
 The date of the compilation is uncertain. It 
 must have been subsequent to the division of the 
 kingdom, unless the reference to the kings of 
 Judah (1 Sam. 27.6) be a late interpolation ; 
 but there is no reason for requiring a later date 
 than soon after the disruption. The Hebrew 
 text of Samuel, especially in the First Book, 
 presents some difficulties in regard to the order 
 of incidents, and to numerical statements, and 
 in several passages is obscure. It has evidently 
 suffered at the hands of transcribers. 
 
SANBALLAT] 
 
 42? 
 
 [SANDAL 
 
 The contents may be summarised as follows : 
 
 1 Samuel. 1. The conclusion of the times 
 of the Judges ; comprising the birth and early 
 life of Samuel; the wickedness of Eli's sons, 
 and denunciations of judgment against his 
 family (1-3) ; defeat of the Israelites ; capture 
 of the Ark; chastisement of the Philistines, 
 and restoration of the Ark (4-6) ; repentance 
 and deliverance of the Israelites (7). 2. The 
 commencement of the monarchy. The desire 
 of the people for a king (8) ; designation and 
 appointment of Saul (9, 10) ; Saul's victory over 
 the Ammonites (11) ; Samuel's address to the 
 people on resigning the government (12) ; Saul's 
 wars with the Philistines and Amalekites, his 
 disobedience and rejection (13-15). 3. The 
 close of Saul's reign, and appointment of David 
 as king. An interval of from twenty to thirty 
 years separates this portion of the book from the 
 preceding. The anointing of David by Samuel 
 (16) ; his victory over Goliath (17) ; his per- 
 secution by Saul, and flight to Ramah, Nob, 
 Gath, and Adullam (18-22.5) ; the slaughter 
 of the priests at Nob (22.6-23) ; David's rescue 
 of Keilah, and flight into the wilderness and to 
 Gath (23-27) ; renewal of war by the Philistines ; 
 Saul and the witch of Endor (28) ; David's 
 dismissal by the Philistine princes, and pursuit 
 of the Amalekites (29, 30) ; defeat of the Israelites 
 by the Philistines, and death of Saul and his 
 sons (31). 
 
 2 Samuel. 1. The triumphs of David ; com- 
 prising David's lamentation over Saul and 
 Jonathan (1) ; his election as king, first over 
 Judah, and then over all Israel (2-4); his 
 capture of Jerusalem, and victories over the 
 Philistines (5) ; the bringing up of the Ark to 
 Jerusalem (6) ; his desire to build a temple, 
 God's covenant of mercy with him, and his 
 prayer and thanksgiving (7) ; the subjugation of 
 the Philistines, Moabites, Syrians, Ammonites, 
 etc. (8-10). 2. The troubles of David, with 
 their cause ; his repentance^ and subsequent 
 history ; including David's sin in respect to 
 Uriah, and Nathan's reproof (11, 12) ; Amnon's 
 sin, and murder by Absalom (13) ; Absalom's 
 rebellion, ending in his defeat and death (14-19) ; 
 rebellion of Sheba, and its suppression (20) ; 
 avengement of the Gibeonites (21.1-14) ; battles 
 with the Philistines (21.15-22) ; David's psalm 
 of thanksgiving, and last words (22, 23.1-7) ; 
 his chief military officers (23.8-39) ; his offence 
 in numbering the people, with its punishment ; 
 his prayer and sacrifice (24). 
 
 Sanbal'lat. A Horonite from Horonaim in 
 Moab (Neh. 2.10, 19, 4.1, 7, 6.1-14). A military 
 commander of Artaxerxes, the Persian monarch, 
 in charge of the inhabitants of Samaria (Neh. 
 4.2) at the time when Nehemiah returned with 
 his commission to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem. 
 With Tobiah the Ammonite and Geshem the 
 Arabian he did all he could to trouble and 
 thwart Nehemiah (Neh. 2.19, 4.7). His daughter 
 was married to a grandson of Eliashib. The 
 expulsion of his son-in-law from the priesthood 
 led to further trouble with Nehemiah and the 
 
 returned Jews. He and his sons are mentioned 
 in the papyri of 408 B.C. found in Elephantine. 
 [NEHEMIAH.] 
 
 Sanctification, Sanctify. The O.T. words 
 rendered sanctify, Sanctification, imply a 
 setting apart. Most of the words translated 
 holy have the same meaning. The foundation 
 fact indicated by the use of the words is the 
 holiness of God Himself. He is holy, the holy 
 One of Israel (2 K. 19.22; Ps. 71.22 ; Isai. 1.4, 
 etc.), and holiness is required in those who are 
 His (Lev. 11.44,45, 19.2, 21.8; Josh. 24.19; 
 Ps. 22.3 ; Isai. 6.3). So also persons and things 
 associated with the holy God or His services, 
 or set apart for Him, acquire a relative holiness. 
 They are holy, sanctified. Thus the words are 
 applied to the seventh day (Gen. 2.3 ; Neh. 8.11), 
 the ground at the burning bush (Ex. 3.5), 
 the Tabernacle (Ex. 29.44), Aaron and his sons 
 (Ex. 28.41 ; Lev. 8.30), with their garments 
 (Ex. 28.2), the anointing oil (Ex. 30.25), the 
 convocation (Ex. 12.16), the Temple (2 Ch. 7.16), 
 a fast (Joel 1.14, 2.15), etc. This thought of 
 separation shows signs of passing, in the O.T., 
 into the sense of sanctified as representing the 
 work of the Holy Spirit within man (Isai. 62.12 ; 
 Ezek. 37.28). In the N.T. our Lord speaks of 
 Himself as the " One Whom the Father hath 
 sanctified" (John 10.36) consecrated, set apart, 
 for His redeeming work ; and of sanctifying 
 Himself, devoting Himself, that His followers 
 may be sanctified (John 17.17, 19). His whole 
 teaching is in opposition to forms of righteous- 
 ness expressed in external obedience to the law. 
 In the teaching of the apostles sanctify has the 
 sense not only of setting apart or hallowing 
 (as in the case of the unbelieving husband 
 or wife, 1 Cor. 7.14), but also of the cleansing 
 and guiding work of the Holy Spirit in man 
 (Rom. 15.16; 2 Thcss. 2.13; 1 Pet. 1.2). The 
 results of this work are expressed by St. John 
 as walking " in the light " (1 John 1.7), keeping 
 God's commandments (1 John 2.3) ; by St. 
 Paul as pleasing God (1 Thess. 4.1), walking 
 " worthy of the Lord unto all pleasing " (Col. 
 1.10), having the heart established " unblame- 
 able in holiness before God" (1 Thes$. 3.13), 
 " perfecting holiness in the fear of God " 
 (2 Cor. 7.1), etc. [JUSTIFICATION, SAINT.] 
 
 Sanctuary. A placg set apart, devoted to God ; 
 used of the Promised Land (Ex. 15.17 ; Ps. 78.54), 
 the Tabernacle (Ex. 25.8, 36.1), the holy place 
 (Lev. 4.6), the Temple (1 Ch. 22.19), fche dwelling- 
 place of God (Ps. 102.19), a refuge (Isai. 8.14). 
 
 Sandal Found only in Cant. 7.1 (R.V.); 
 Mk. 6.9 ; Acts 12.8 ; but the form of " shoe " 
 worn in the East was generally, as to this day, 
 a sandal. They consisted of a sole of leather 
 or wood tied to the feet by thongs (Gen. 14.23 ; 
 Isai. 5.27). They were removed on entering a 
 house or sanctuary (Ex. 3.5 ; Josh. 5.15 ; Lk. 7.38 ; 
 and cf. Ex. 12.11 ; Josh. 9.5-13). 
 
 The Prodigal Son returned to his home bare- 
 foot (Lk. 15.22). No doubt sandals differed 
 in costliness (cf. Cant. 7.1; EzeJc. 16.10 (R.V.) 
 with Amos 2.6, 8.6). 
 
SANHEDRlNj 
 
 428 
 
 [SAUDIS 
 
 The varied symbolism connected with shoes 
 in Scripture requires notice. (1) To unloose 
 (or carry) another's shoes seems to have 
 been a mark of inferiority, perhaps the office 
 of the meanest slave of the household (Mail. 
 3.11 ; Mk. 1.7 ; Lk. 3.16 ; John 1.27). (2) To 
 shake or wipe off the dust from one's shoes ex- 
 pressed repudiation, with release from responsi- 
 bility (Matt. 10.14 and parallels; Lk. 10.11; 
 Acts 13.51). (3) The renunciation and trans- 
 ference of legal rights was ratified by drawing 
 off a shoe and giving it as a sort of bond to the 
 other party to the transaction (Deut. 25.10 ; 
 Ruth 4.7,8). (4) If the phrase in Ps. 60.8, 
 108.9 be rendered as A.V., " Over Edom will I 
 cast out my shoe," or as R.V., " Upon Edom 
 will I cast my shoe," it would seem to indicate 
 a symbolic act similar to (3), the throwing of 
 a shoe upon a piece of newly acquired land in 
 token of legal possession. An alternative render- 
 ing, however, is, "Unto Edom" (R.V. marg.). 
 This would make Edom the slave to whom the 
 victorious soldier flings his sandals to clean or 
 to carry (see (1)), just as proud Moab is humbled 
 to be his "washpot," the vessel in which he 
 bathes his feet. (5) For the curious blessing 
 upon Asher, " Thy shoes shall be iron and brass " 
 (Deut. 33.25), R.V. has " Thy bars." (6) In 
 Eph. 6.15 the Christian warrior is to have his 
 feet shod " with the preparation of the gospel 
 of peace," lit. " readiness," as of one eager to 
 cany the good news (cf. Isai. 52.7). 
 
 Sanhedrin. Sitting in council: the Hebrew- 
 Aramaic form of the Greek word synedrion, 
 always rendered "council" in both A.V. and 
 R.V. This was the name of the supreme court 
 of law and authority in Jerusalem in N.T. times, 
 but the origin of the court is obscure. Probably 
 it stood in some historical connexion with the 
 primitive assembly of Elders in the Israelitish 
 State, interrupted formally, though perhaps 
 hardly in fact, by the personal rule of the kings. 
 Jehoshaphat seems to have given some shape to 
 it as a court of justice (2 Ch. 19.8). In any 
 case, the existence of assemblies of Elders in 
 other towns than the capital would suggest to 
 the Jews of the Captivity the formation of a 
 body to care for the whole nation. On the 
 Return, Jerusalem was the recognised head of 
 the organisation of the new State, and its 
 assembly, increased from without as the Jews 
 spread in the country round, became more and 
 more respeofced and influential. But there is no 
 certain mention of such an assembly till the 
 time of Antiochus the Great (246-226 B.C.), 
 when it is called the Gerousia or SENATE. The 
 Sanhedrin is said to have contained 71 members 
 (compare the 70 Elders of Num. 11.6, with the 
 addition of Moses), prominent among whom were 
 the high-priest, and, in later years, those who 
 had preceded him in his office and their im- 
 mediate connexions. These belonged to the 
 party of the Sadducees, but at some periods the 
 Pharisees were in the majority. The duties of 
 the Sanhedrin v.jere of the widest, from framing 
 decisions of religious practice, caring for the 
 
 Temple, and investigating the claims of religious 
 teachers, to entering into relations with foreign 
 states. Naturally the last would depend on the 
 strength, or weakness, of those who were kings 
 or governors at the time. The Romans deprived 
 the Sanhedrin of the power of life and death 
 somewhere about 20 A.D. [ELDER, COUNCIL, 
 SENATE.] 
 
 Sansan'uah. Palm-branch : a town in the 
 south of Judah (Josh. 15.31). It is the same 
 as Hazar-susah (Josh. 19.5), which see ; now 
 Sushi. 
 
 Saph. One of the race of the giants or 
 Rephaim (2 Sam. 21.18). The name occurs 
 as Sippai in 1 Ch. 20.4. 
 
 Saphir (R.V. Shaphir). Beautiful : a city 
 of Ephraim about 9 miles north-east of Ascalon 
 (Mic. 1.11). On modern maps it appears as 
 Es-Suafir. 
 
 Sapphi'ra. Beautiful : the wife of Ananias 
 (Acts 5.1-10). [ANANIAS.] 
 
 Sapphire. Beauty : a pellucid blue gem 
 extremely beautiful and valuable, and second 
 only to the diamond in lustre, hardness, and 
 value. Its proper colour is pure blue ; in the 
 choicest specimens it is of the deepest azure, 
 but in others it varies between that and a pure 
 crystal brightness, without the least tinge of 
 colour, but with a superior lustre. The 
 Oriental sapphire, of a fine sky-blue colour, is 
 most beautiful. Sometimes the sapphire is 
 variegated with veins of a white sparry sub- 
 stance, or has distinct spots of a gold colour 
 (Job 28.6, 16 ; Eztk. 28.13). The sapphire was 
 the second stone in the second row of the high- 
 priest's breastplate (Ex. 28.18). The clearness 
 and transparency of the gem is referred to in 
 Ex. 24.10 in the vision of God granted to Moses 
 and the elders (cf. Etek. 1.26, 10.1). It is one 
 of the twelve foundations of the wall of the 
 New Jerusalem (Rev. 21.19, R.V. marg. lapis 
 lazuli ; cf. Isai. 54.11). See also Cant. 5.14 ; 
 Lam. 4.7. 
 
 Sara, Sarah, Sarai. Princess : the wife of 
 Abraham (Gen. 11.29), and, according to Gen. 
 20.12, his half-sister. For her history, see 
 ABRAHAM. She died at the age of one hundred 
 and twenty-seven, and was buried in the cave 
 of Machpelah (Gen. 11.29-23.20). She is 
 (Gal. 4.22-31) the type of the " Jerusalem 
 which is above." Her excellences are recalled 
 in Heb. 11.11 ; 1 Pet. 3.6. 
 
 Saraph (1 Ch. 4.22). Burning. 
 
 Sardine (R.V. Sardius). (Rev. 4.3). 
 
 Sar'dis. The ancient capital of the kings of 
 Lydia, on the banks of the Pactolus, a tributary 
 of the river Hermus ; now known as Sari. 
 It was the seat of one of the seven Churches 
 of Asia to which the Apocalyptic letters were 
 addressed (Rev. 1.11). The Church in Sardis 
 was reproached for its want of vital religion; 
 it had a name to live, but was really dead (Rev. 
 3.1-4). The place is now a pitiful village in 
 the midst of the ruins of former magnificence, 
 but possessing a khan useful for the caravans 
 from Persia to Smyrna, travelling \vilh silk. 
 
SARDITES] 
 
 429 
 
 [SAVIOUR 
 
 Sar'dites. Descendants of Sered (Num. 
 2G.2G). 
 
 Sardius. A reddish precious stone, which 
 occupied the first place in the first row of the 
 high-priest's breastplate (Ex. 28.17, 39.10). 
 It was also among the jewels worn by the king 
 of Tyre (Ezek. 28.13). The Occupant of the 
 heavenly throne (Rev. 4.3) is described as looking 
 " like a jasper stone and a sardius." The re- 
 maining mention of this stone is in Rev. 21.20, 
 where the sixth foundation stone of the heavenly 
 Jerusalem is said to consist of a sardius. The 
 sardius, or sard (sardonyx), a species of agate, 
 was often employed for seals and rings that 
 were engraved upon, being chosen for its tough- 
 ness and hardness; hence also its employment 
 in the breastplate of the high-priest. Some 
 varieties have a tinge of yellow in them. 
 
 [RUBY.] 
 
 Sar'donyx. A variety of sard, consisting of 
 " a white opaque layer superimposed upon a 
 red transparent stratum of the true red sard " 
 (Antique Gems). It is an agate used largely 
 for cameo engraving. In Rev. 21.20 it is men- 
 tioned as the fifth foundation stone of the wall of 
 the heavenly Jerusalem. 
 
 Sarep'ta. Smelting place : the Greek form of 
 Zarephath (Lk. 4.26). [ZABEPHATH.] 
 
 Sar'gon. An Assyrian general who usurped 
 the throne on the death of Shalmaneser iv. in 
 722, and reigned till 706 B.C. (Isai. 20.1). He 
 is referred to, though not by name, in 2 K. 
 17.6 and 18.11. He was a successful warrior, 
 and peopled Media with the inhabitants of 
 Samaria and other conquered countries. His 
 armies proved so victorious that his power 
 extended over Babylonia, Media, the whole of 
 Assyria, Philistia, and for a time over Egypt 
 (see Isai. 20.2-4). Besides conducting several 
 successful wars, Sargon rebuilt Nineveh on a 
 most magnificent scale, and resided there him- 
 self. His son, Sennacherib, succeeded to his 
 throne. 
 
 Sa'rid. A boundary town in the south of 
 Zebulun (Josh. 19.10,12). Its exact position 
 is unknown. 
 
 Sa'ron (R.V. Sharon). (Acts 9.35). [SHARON]. 
 
 Sarse'chim. A Babylonian general who 
 assisted at the taking of Jerusalem (Jer. 39.3) 
 by Nebuchadnezzar. 
 
 Sa'ruch (R.V. Serag). [SEBUG.] 
 
 Satan. Adversary. [DEVIL.] 
 
 Satrap. [LIEUTENANT.] 
 
 Satyr. A bestial creature of the Greek 
 mythology, the upper part human, the lower 
 a he-goat. Some such demon, with which in 
 popular belief desert places were peopled, 
 seems to be intended in several passages by the 
 Hebrew word generally rendered " he-goat " 
 (Isai. 13.21, 34.14, A.V. and R.V. ; R.V. marg. 
 " he-goats," American Rev. " wild goats," 
 without marg. ; LXX " demons "). The same 
 word is rendered " devils " in A.V. of Lev. 17.7 ; 
 2 Ch. 11.15, where the R.V. has " he-goats," 
 marg. " satyrs," LXX " foolish things." 
 
 Saul. Afkfd for : 1. The first king of Israel; 
 
 a Benjamite, the son of Kish, a yeoman of sub- 
 stance (1 Sam. 9.1, 14.51 ; 1 Ch. 8.33, 9.39). 
 On the people desiring a king, Samuel was led 
 to anoint Saul, and he was subsequently chose n 
 by lot (1 Sam. 10.21). He dwelt at Gibeeh 
 (1 Sam. 10.26, 14.2). The Ammonites under 
 Nahash offering to the men of Jabesh-gilead 
 contemptuous terms of servitude, Saul roused 
 the nation to their defence, defeated the enemy, 
 and put to shame those who had resented his 
 advancement (1 Sam. 10.27, 11.1-13). At the 
 instigation of Samuel, Saul was " made . . . king 
 before the Lord in Gilgal " (1 Sam. 11.14, 15). 
 He vindicated his right to the confidence of the 
 people by the success of his campaigns against 
 their enemies (1 Sam. 14.47-52). Directed, 
 however, to destroy Amalek, he saved the king 
 and the best of the spoil ; was rebuked by 
 Samuel, and warned that God had rejected him 
 (1 Sam. 15). His character at this period was 
 gloomy and melancholic. It was whilst " an 
 evil spirit from the Lord troubled him" (1 Sam. 
 16.14) on such occasion that he first saw David, 
 a musical shepherd lad brought to the palace 
 as an experiment (1 Sam. 16.18). The event 
 justified the action (1 Sam. 16.23). An affection 
 for David sprung up in the heart of the king, 
 an affection even exceeded in the case of his 
 son Jonathan. From this time the histories of 
 Saul and David were closely interwoven. The 
 prophetical gift which Saul had displayed at 
 first left him, only to return occasionally, and 
 the greater part of the forty years of his reign 
 was marked by outbursts of mad rage in which 
 he displayed a terrible zeal (1 Sam. 19.24, 22.6 ff., 
 28.3-9 ; 2 Sam. 21.1 ff.). In another mood Saul 
 himself took occasion to seek advice from one 
 of the wise women on witchery (1 Sam. 28.3 ft.). 
 [WrrcH.] This event was soon followed by 
 an invasion of Philistines, who overcame Saul, 
 and pursued him, killing his sons. This last 
 calamity caused the wounded king to fall Upon 
 his own sword (1 Sam. 31.1-6). His head 
 was placed in the temple of Dagon, and his 
 naked body, with those of his three sons, hung 
 upon the walls of Beth-shan. At the beginning 
 of his career he had saved the people of Jabesh- 
 gilead from slaughter. These now removed 
 the dishonoured corpses by night, burnt them, 
 and gave them decent burial (1 Sam. 31.11-13). 
 [DAVID, ENDOR, SAMUEL.] 
 
 2. The sixth king of Edom (Gen. 36.37, 38), 
 who in 1 Ch. 1.48, 49 is called Shaul, the proper 
 form of Saul (so R.V. in all the passages). 3. 
 The name of Paul before his conversion (Acts 
 7.58, 8.1,3, 9.1 ff.). [PAUL.] 
 
 Saviour. The word is used in the O.T. of 
 God (2 Sam. 22.3; Ps. 106.21; Isai. 43.3, 
 49.26, etc.) ; and of human deliverers (2 K. 
 13.5 ; Neh. 9.27 ; Obad. 21). The same word 
 (rendered deliverer, A.V.) is applied to the 
 Judges (Judg. 3.9, 15; and cf. 2.16). In the 
 N.T. "God my Saviour" (Lk. 1.47) and in 
 St. Paul's Pastoral Epistles, " God our Saviour " 
 (1 Tim. 1.1, 2.3 ; Tit. 1.3, 2.10, 3.4 ; as also in 
 2 Pet. 1.1 and Jude 25) refer to God as our 
 
SAVOUR] 
 
 430 
 
 [SCORPION 
 
 Redeemer in Jesus Christ (cf. 2 Cor. 5.19). 
 For its use as applied to our Lord, see JESUS 
 CHRIST. [SALVATION.] 
 
 Savour. Taste, odour, fragrance. [PERFUME, 
 SPICES.] 
 
 Saw. The saws of the ancients were made 
 of bronze, and afterwards of iron. They had 
 straight blades, either single or double-handed, 
 the object to be sawn being placed upright, 
 the cut being downward. In form they did 
 not greatly differ from the ordinary hand-saws 
 of the present time. That stone was cut with 
 saws we know from the mention of sawn stone 
 for the Temple (1 K. 7.9). The saw was used 
 as an instrument of torture or death (1 Ch. 
 20.3 ; cf. Heb. 11.37). Another interpretation 
 of this act of David is, however, suggested by 
 the expression in the parallel account of 2 Sam. 
 12.31, " He put them under (R.V. marg. to) 
 saws," etc. 
 
 Scab. (Lev. 13.2, 6, etc.). [LEPROSY.] 
 
 Scales. [BALANCES.] 
 
 ScalL (Lev. 13.30, etc.). [LEPROSY.] 
 
 g ca l p< _The crown of the head ; in Ps. 68.21 
 only. 
 
 Scandal. [STUMBLING- BLOCK .] 
 
 Scape-goat. (Lev. 16.8, etc.). [AZAZEL.] 
 
 Scarlet. This dye was produced at various 
 places on the coast of the Mediterranean, from 
 the cochineal insect. It was used chiefly in rich 
 articles (Ex. 28.15), and ceremonial costumes 
 given by kings to those on whom they conferred 
 a favour (Prov. 31.21). Emblematically it was 
 used to denote luxuriousness and idle living 
 (2 Sam. 1.24). 
 
 Sceptre. A Greek word properly signifying a 
 rod or staff of command and authority which is 
 supposed to be in the hands of kings, governors, 
 and others in authority (Gen. 49.10 ; Num. 24.17 ; 
 /sat. 14.5). The sceptre is used for the rod of 
 correction, and for the supreme authority that 
 punishes or humbles (Ps. 2.9 ; Prov. 22.15, etc.). 
 A shepherd's crook was also called a sceptre 
 (Lev. 27.32) ; in this passage the word " rod " 
 is the same as that elsewhere translated sceptre 
 (see also Mic. 7.14). Sceptres were made of 
 many substances : iron (Ps. 2.9, 125.3), gold 
 (Esth. 4.11), silver, and other metals, besides 
 ivory and fine-grained woods. Metaphorically 
 the word was used to express dominance 
 (Gen. 49.10) ; the government of God is called 
 the sceptre of righteousness (Ps. 45.6 ; Heb. 1.8). 
 
 [ROD.] 
 
 Sce'va. During Paul's second visit to Ephesus, 
 the " seven sons of one Sceva, a Jew, and chief 
 of the priests," are mentioned amongst the 
 exorcists who tried to cast out evil spirits in the 
 name of Jesus (Acts 19.13-16). But the man 
 in whom the evil spirit was " mastered both 
 of them." It is not clear how the seven of 
 ver. 14 became only two in ver. 16 (see R.V.). 
 Perhaps some details have dropped out of ver. 
 14 ; or, as the papyri seem to indicate, " both " 
 was colloquially used for " all " ; or only two 
 were present when the incident occurred. 
 
 School From a Greek word originally 
 
 meaning leisure, then the occupation of leisure 
 in lectures or discussions, and so the place where 
 such discussions or lectures were held. The 
 word " school " has this meaning in the only 
 place where it occurs in Scripture. Paul at 
 Ephesus was able for three months to use the 
 synagogue as his lecture-room ; driven thence 
 by opposition, he " separated the disciples, 
 reasoning daily in the school of Tyrannus " 
 (Acts 19.8-10). The " Western text " of the 
 passage has the interesting addition " from the 
 fifth to the tenth hour," i.e. from 11 a.m to 
 4 p.m. As public life in Ionian cities began at 
 daybreak and ended before noon, at 11, Paul's 
 work at his trade would be over, and the school 
 would be free for the mission work to which 
 he devoted the hours usually given to rest and 
 recreation. 
 
 Paul's use of the synagogue at Ephesus 
 suggests that this was the recognised place of re- 
 ligious instruction, carried on in Palestine after 
 the Exile by a body of professional teachers, the 
 Scribes (which see). It has often been assumed 
 that in earlier times a similar work was carried 
 on by the " Schools of the Prophets " ; but 
 this phrase does not in fact occur, and there is 
 no evidence that the " sons of the prophets 5! 
 (which see) engaged in education. While the 
 O.T. has many references to " instruction " 
 and " teachers," there is no trace of schools 
 for children. It would seem that the Jewish 
 home was the school, and the parents the 
 instructors. 
 
 Schoolmaster. The A.V. rendering in Oal. 
 3.24, 25 of the Greek word " pedagogue," lit. 
 child-leader: the R.V. has "tutor," and so 
 for the same word in 1 Cor. 4.15 (A.V. " in- 
 structors"). No English equivalent is quite 
 satisfactory. The " pedagogue " was a con- 
 fidential servant (usually a slave) or male 
 nurse, to whose charge the Greek or Roman boy 
 was committed till he should reach the freedom 
 of manhood. There is no special reference in 
 the Galatian passage to this slave's duty of 
 seeing the boy safe to school. The contrast 
 is between the restraint and tutelage of the Law 
 and the freedom which is reached in Christ. 
 
 Science. The word occurs twice in the A.V. 
 In Dan. 1.4 it is retained by the R.V. as a 
 convenient synonym for " knowledge," but the 
 phrase " understanding science " simply re- 
 peats the generality of the previous clause 
 " cunning in knowledge." In 1 Tim. 6.20 for 
 A.V. " avoiding profane and vain babblings, 
 and oppositions of science falsely so called," 
 R.V. has " turning away from the profane 
 babblings and oppositions of the knowledge 
 falsely so called." The reference is to theo- 
 sophical speculation ; " science " in the modern 
 sense is not referred to in the Bible. 
 
 Scorpion. The scorpion belongs to the same 
 class as do the spiders, and is found chiefly in 
 hot countries. They vary greatly in size, from 
 about 6 inches in Africa to 3 or less in other 
 parts bordering the Mediterranean. The chief 
 characteristic of the scorpion is its sting, a 
 
SCOURGE] 
 
 431 
 
 [SEA 
 
 curved spur having two poison glands at its 
 base placed at the extremity of the tail. The 
 creature hides in holes or under stones, coming 
 out at night in search of prey, large insects and 
 grubs. These it seizes in its pincer jaws, and at 
 once stings to death by a stroke of its tail, which 
 it brings over its back. Scorpions are very 
 abundant about the Dead Sea and the Sinaitic 
 Peninsula generally, just as they were in the days 
 of the Exodus, " wherein were fiery serpents, 
 and scorpions, and drought " (Dent. 8.15). 
 A pass on the southern boundary of Judah, 
 mentioned in Josh. 15.3, has the name of the 
 Scorpion's Pass. [AKRABBIM.] The only other 
 O.T. references are Ezek. 2.6 a metaphor of 
 rebellious Israel and 1 K. 12.11 ; 2 Ch. 10.14, 
 " I will chastise you with scorpions," probably 
 a figurative expression, though possibly (cf. 
 Eng. " cat ") the name of some kind of scourge. 
 In the N.T. the scorpion appears in the imagery 
 of Revelation (9.3, 5, 10), and in two sayings 
 of our Lord (Lk. 10.19, 11.12) ; in the latter of 
 these there is perhaps allusion to the egg-like 
 appearance of the curled-up scorpion. 
 
 Scourge. Beating with rods was and is a 
 common mode of punishment in the East 
 (Deut. 25.1-3 ; Prov. 22.15, etc.) ; the use of the 
 scourge or whip is referred to in the O.T. only 
 in 1 K. 12.11, 14 ; 2 Ch. 10.11, 14 (not Lev. 
 19.20 ; see R.V.). For " scourge " in a meta- 
 phorical sense, see Josh. 23.13 ; Job 5.21, 9.23 ; 
 Isai. 10.26, 28.15. 
 
 The Jewish practice of scourging offenders 
 against religion is referred to in Matt. 10.17, 
 23.34, and Paul records that he suffered this 
 punishment on five occasions (2 Cor. 11.24 ; 
 cf. Heb. 11.36). The lashes of the Roman 
 scourge were knotted with pieces of sharp bone 
 or metal. Scourging usually preceded cruci- 
 fixion, and was part of the punishment inflicted 
 upon our Lord (Matt. 27.26; Mk. 15.15; cf. 
 John 19.1, where the scourging, perhaps in 
 lighter form, precedes the sentence as part of 
 Pilate's attempt to avoid the death penalty). 
 
 By the Lex Porcia a Roman citizen was 
 exempt from scourging (Acts 22.25). 
 
 Screech Owl Only in Isai. 34.14, where 
 A.V. marg. and R.V. text have " night-monster." 
 R.V. marg. has " Heb. Lilith." Lilith, accord- 
 ing to Hebrew tradition, was not a bird, but a 
 demon in the form of a spectral woman that fed 
 upon children. 
 
 Scribe. Writer : before the Captivity the 
 word is used of one who performs certain duties 
 in the army (Judg. 5.14; 2 K. 25.19; Isai. 
 33.18 ; Jer. 52.25) ; and as king's secretary 
 (2 Sam. 20.25 ; 1 K. 4.3 ; 2 K. 12.10), an office 
 near the royal person, and one of high rank. In 
 later Jewish history the Scribes are students, 
 interpreters, and copyists of the Law. Thus 
 Ezra is described as " a ready scribe in the law 
 of Moses " (Ezra 7.6) ; and the claim of the pro- 
 fession was, " We are wise, and the law of the 
 Lord is with us " (Jer. 8.8). When the speech 
 of the people passed into Aramaic, they re- 
 mained familiar with Hebrew, They were the 
 
 professed students of the Law, written and oral, 
 and by the time of our Lord they, had so ob- 
 scured the former with their own explanations 
 and additions that they were charged by Him 
 with transgressing the commandments of God 
 by their " tradition," and with " teaching for 
 doctrines the commandments of men " (Matt. 
 15.1-9; Mk. 7.7). They are most frequently 
 named in conjunction with the Pharisees, no 
 doubt as representing a similar attitude towards 
 the law and a similar formalism in religious 
 life (Matt. 5.20, 12.38, etc.); but, though the 
 Scribes may, for the most part, have been 
 Pharisees, they were not all associated with 
 that party (cf. Mk. 2.16; Lk. 5.30; Acts 
 23.9). Their influence is indicated by their 
 close association with the chief priests and 
 elders (Matt. 16.21, 20.18, 26.3; Mk. 10.33, 
 14.53 ; Acts 6.12). The teaching of our Lord 
 was so definitely opposed to the formalism of the 
 Scribes that their hostility towards Him was 
 natural (Lk. 5.30, 6.7, etc.); and this hostility 
 was continued towards the apostles (Acts 4.5, 
 6.12). 
 
 Scrip. A bag used by travellers for carrying 
 money and provisions for a journey. It was of 
 various materials, generally skin or leather, 
 and was attached to the girdle (1 Sam. 17.40 ; 
 Matt. 10.10 ; Lk. 12.33-36). [PuESE.] 
 
 Scripture. Once only in the O.T. (Dan. 10.21). 
 In the N.T. the plural is used of Scriptures 
 the O.T. writings generally (Matt. 21.42 ; 
 Mk. 12.24 ; John 5.39 ; Acts 17.11, etc.) ; the 
 singular usually of a particular passage given 
 in the context (Mk. 12.10; John 7.38, etc.). 
 [CANOH OF HOLY SCRIPTURE, NEW TESTAMENT, 
 NON-CANONICAL BOOKS, OLD TESTAMENT.] 
 
 ScrolL The figure in Isaiah (34.4 ; Rev. 6.14) 
 is a reference to the rolling up of the ancient 
 books, which were written on long sheets of 
 papyrus or parchment, and rolled up on sticks. 
 [BOOK, PAPER, ROLL.] 
 
 Scurvy. A skin-disease that disqualified a 
 descendant of Aaron from serving in the Temple 
 (Lev. 21.20). Nothing could be offered for 
 sacrifice that had the scurvy (Lev. 22.22). 
 
 Scythian. Named once only, and then as a 
 general term for a rude and barbarous people 
 (Col. 3.11). Scythians were classed with Britons 
 by Cicero. The country of Scythia extended 
 from the Black Sea across Central Asia, but the 
 term Scythian is used very loosely by early 
 historians to denote the uncivilised nomadic 
 tribes that wandered over the vast plains 
 bounded on the west by the Caspian and Black 
 Seas, and extending eastwards. They came into 
 Palestine, for Beth-shean was called Scythopolis, 
 and Herodotus tells us that the Egyptians de- 
 feated them at Ashdod. 
 
 g ea ._The Hebrews gave the name " sea " 
 to all large bodies of water. Thus the term 
 included the ocean (Gen. 1.2 ; 1 K. 10.22 ; Job 
 38.8) ; the Mediterranean, which was called the 
 hinder sea (Deut. 11.24), the western sea (Deut. 
 34.2, R.V. marg.; Jod 2.20), and by several 
 other names (see Ex. 23.31 ; marg. " the sea " ; 
 
SEA, MOLTEN] 
 
 432 
 
 [SEIRATH 
 
 Ps. 80.11) ; the Red Sea (Ex. 10.19 ; Josh. 24.6) ; 
 the Dead Sea (Num. 34.3; Josh. 18.19); lliu 
 Sea of Galilee (Num. 34.11 ; Matt. 4.15 ; Mk. 
 3.7) ; the Sea of Jazer, a small lake near Heshbon 
 (Jer. 48.32). In addition, the word was some- 
 times applied to great rivers, as the Nile (/sat. 
 11.15), the Euphrates, the Tigris, which were 
 subject to annual overflowings by which the 
 surrounding country was inundated. 
 
 Sea, Molten. The molten sea was the great 
 brazen laver constructed for ritual purposes in 
 the service of the Temple. For the Tabernacle 
 a " laver " was made, its position being between 
 the altar and the " tent of meeting." This 
 was a large basin, with an ornamented foot or 
 stand, in which the priests washed their hands 
 and feet when about to perform their duties. 
 It was made of brass (bronze or copper), devout 
 women giving up their mirrors of polished 
 metal for the purpose (Ex. 38.8). In the first, 
 or Solomon's, Temple, the molten sea, or brass 
 laver, was an immense vessel nine feet deep and 
 over fifty in circumference. Its precise shape 
 is not known, but it contained from 12,000 to 
 20,000 or more gallons of water. The basin 
 rested on twelve figures of oxen (2 Ch. 4.3, 4), 
 all facing outward. This laver was constructed 
 with the " brass " carried away by David 
 from Tibhath and Chun (1 K. 7.23 ff. ; 1 Ch. 
 18.8), and was supplied with water by the 
 Gibeonites until long afterwards, when an 
 aqueduct carried it from the pools of Bethlehem. 
 What the laver in the last Temple was like is 
 not known, but it was supplied with water by 
 means of a draw-well or wheel from a sub- 
 terranean reservoir. [TEMPLE.] 
 
 Sea, Salt. [SALT SEA.] 
 
 Seah. [WEIGHTS AND MEASUBES.] 
 
 Seal Seals were usually worn as rings cither 
 on the finger or hung by a cord from the neck. 
 Others were in the form of rollers bored through 
 their length, being passed over the clay or other 
 substance to be impressed. 
 
 They were generally of some hard or precious 
 stone, but sometimes of pottery, and even of 
 baked clay. Specimens of ancient Palestinian 
 seals and seal-rings clearly show that the art of 
 engraving on stone was acquired by the Hebrews 
 at an early date, probably from the Phoenicians. 
 Most of the seal-rings are merely oval stones. 
 Frequently the ring simply contained the name 
 of the owner engraved upon it. One very early 
 specimen must have belonged to an ancient 
 Hebrew, judging from the antiquity of the 
 characters. It has this engraving, " Belonging 
 to Obadiah, servant of the king." 
 
 For the use of seals in O.T. times see 1 K. 
 21.8 ; Esth. 8.8 ; Jer. 32.10 ; Dan. 6.17. The 
 N.T. often employs the metaphor of a seal as 
 token of validity and finality. See John 3.33, 
 6.27 ; Rom. 4.11, 15.28 ; 1 Cor. 9.2 ; 2 Cor. 1.22 ; 
 Eph. 1.13, 4.30 ; 2 Tim. 2.19 ; Rev. 5-8, 9.4, etc. 
 
 Sealskin. (Ex. 25.5, R.V.). [BADGER.] 
 
 Sea-monster. [WHALE.] 
 
 SeT>a. The eldest son of Gush (Gen. 10.7 ; 
 1 Ch. 1.9). The descendants of Seba occu- 
 
 pied a position on the shores of the Red Sea, 
 a kingdom extending from the coast of the 
 Red Sea inland to Meroe, between the rivers 
 Astapus (Blue Nile) and Astaboras (Atbarah). 
 It was a great centre of trade (Pt. 72.10; 
 Isai. 43.3, 45.14), and important politically, its 
 people being described as fine and handsome in 
 appearance. [Cusn, SABHAN, SHEBA.] 
 
 Sebam. [SHEBAM.] 
 
 Se'bat, Shebat The eleventh month of the 
 Jewish year, beginning with the new moon of 
 February (Zech. 1.7). 
 
 Seca'cah. A town of Judah on the shore of 
 the Dead Sea. Though called a town, it was 
 most probably a fort or stronghold established 
 in the far south to hold the wild tribes off the 
 more settled portions of the country (Josh. 
 15.61). 
 
 Se'chu (R.V. Seen). A place between 
 Gibeah and Ramah (1 Sam. 19.22). Its exact 
 position is unknown. 
 
 Second Coming, The. [COMING OF CHRIST, 
 THK SECOND.] 
 
 Sect. Used of the Sadducees (Acts 5.17), 
 the Pharisees (Acts 15.5, 26.5), the Christians 
 as Nazarenes (Acts 24.5), and the Christians 
 without other title (Acts 28.22) ; also in the 
 R.V. of Acts 24.14, where A.V. has " heresy." 
 [HERESY.] 
 
 Seen. [SECHU.] 
 
 Secundus. A Thessalonian Christian who 
 accompanied Paul part of the way on his return 
 from the third missionary journey (Acts 20.4). 
 
 Secure. In old English this meant "free 
 from care." So Judg. 18.7 ; Matt. 28.14. 
 
 Seducers. 2 Tim. 3.13, where R.V. reads 
 " impostors," the general meaning which the 
 Greek word had acquired. Reference to persons 
 who practised magic might, however, have been 
 implied (Acts 8.9, 19.19). 
 
 Seer. [PROPHET.] 
 
 Se'gub. 1. The youngest son of Hiel, who 
 rebuilt Jericho in the time of Ahab (1 K. 16.34). 
 2. Son of Hezron (1 Ch. 2.21, 22). 
 
 Seir, Mount. Rough, rugged : 1. A range 
 of mountains extending from the south of the 
 Dead Sea to the eastern arm of the Red Sea 
 at Ezion-geber. It is 100 miles long by 20 
 miles broad. Its slopes and valleys were 
 originally inhabited by the Horites (Gen. 14.6, 
 36.20 ; Deut. 2.12, 22). By Esau the country 
 was merged into Edom (Gen. 32.3, 33.14, 36.8, 
 9.30; Deut. 1.44, 2.1-20, 29 ; Josh. 11.17, 12.7, 
 24.4 ; 2 Ch. 20.10). The country had, however, 
 been previously invaded and overrun by Chedor- 
 laomer, king of Elam. Mount Seir was avoided 
 by the Israelites in their long march to the 
 Promised Land (Deut. 1.2, 2.1 ; 2 Ch. 20.10). 
 The two nations were in conflict here (1 Ch. 
 4.42 ; 2 Ch. 20). It was the subject of poetical 
 reference (Num. 24.18 ; Deut. 33.2 ; Judg. 5.4; 
 Isai. 21.11; Ezek. 25.8). Its chief city was 
 Petra. [SELA.] 2. A mountain on the north 
 boundary of Judah (Josh. 15.10). Its position 
 was between Kirjath-jearim and Beth-shemesh. 
 
 Sei'rath (R.V. Seirah). Place on Mount 
 
SELA, SELAH] 
 
 433 
 
 [SENNACHERIB 
 
 Ephraim where Ehud collected his countrymen 
 after killing Eglon (Judg. 3.26). 
 
 Sela, Se'lah. Rock or cliff : the capital city 
 of the Edomites, a stronghold shut in by mighty 
 mountain cliffs (Judg. 1.36, E.V. marg. ; Isai. 
 16.1 ; Jer. 49.16 ; Obad. 3) ; taken by Amaziah 
 and called Joktheel (which see) (2 K. 14.7; 
 2 Ch. 25.12). The more recent city of Petra is 
 supposed to be on the site of the older Sela. 
 
 Se'la-hanimah'lekoth. Rock of separation : 
 a hill in the wilderness of Maon, where David 
 escaped from Saul (1 Sam. 23.28). The Wady 
 Malaki is said to mark the place. 
 
 Se'lah. A musical term of uncertain mean- 
 ing, occurring seventy-one times in thirty-nine 
 Psalms and three times in the Psalm of Hob. 3. 
 An ancient interpretation regards the word as 
 directing a pause, perhaps filled by an instru- 
 mental interlude before the singers again take up 
 the strain. This does not fit the facts, and is 
 generally abandoned. There is large agreement 
 among scholars that the word is derived from a 
 root meaning to raise, lift up. Its significance 
 would thus be Up ! Variously interpreted as 
 a direction (1) to the players for a louder 
 accompaniment, some scholars being even of 
 opinion that it is only a transliteration of the 
 Greek word Psalle, " play the instruments " ; 
 (2) to the singers to continue to lift up heart 
 and voice in praise ; (3) to all the congregation 
 to join in the benediction, " Blessed be Jehovah 
 for ever and ever," lifting up their voices, or 
 extolling the Lord. [HiGGAioN.] 
 
 Se'led. A son of Nadab and descendant of 
 Jerahmeel (1 Ch. 2.30). 
 
 Seleu'cia. A Mediterranean port and one of 
 the chief cities of Syria, lying near the mouth of 
 the Orontes. Paul and Barnabas sailed from 
 this port on their first missionary tour (Acts 
 13.4). The city derived its name from Seleucus 
 Nicator. Antioch, of which Seleucia was the 
 port, was inland about 16 miles. From its 
 foundation its importance was great, and more 
 than once it successfully resisted the invader. 
 In N.T. times it had obtained its freedom for 
 an especially brave defence against Tigranes. 
 
 Sem (R.V. Shem). (Lk. 3.36). 
 
 Semachi'ah. Whom Jehovah supports : a 
 tabernacle gatekeeper in the time of David 
 (1 Ch. 26.7). 
 
 Semei (R.V. Semein). (Lk. 3.26). [SHIMEI.] 
 
 Sena'ah. Acacia tree : a town of Judah, the 
 inhabitants of which returned from captivity 
 with Zerubbabel (Ezra 2.35 ; Neh. 7.38). 
 
 Senate, Senator. The term senators in Ps. 
 105.22 means simply (as R.V. marg.) " elders." 
 In Acts 5.21, " Called the council together, and 
 all the senate of the children of Israel," authori- 
 ties are divided as to whether the term " senate " 
 (only here in N.T.) is another name for the 
 " council " (Sanhedrin) just mentioned, or a 
 larger body, increased for the special business 
 in hand by calling into council all men of age 
 and experience. 
 
 Se'neh. Pointed rock : one of two crags 
 between which Jonathan and his armour- 
 28 
 
 bearer entered the Philistine garrison at 
 Michmash (1 Sam. 14.4). 
 
 Se'nir, She'nir. The Amorite name for part 
 of Mount Horeb (Deut. 3.9 ; 1 Ch. 5.23 ; Ezek. 
 27.5) ; now Jebel esh-Sheikh. 
 
 Sennacherib. Sin (the moon-god) has in- 
 creased brothers : the son and successor of Sar- 
 gon, king of Assyria, who ascended the throne 
 705 B.C. Brought up in the ease and splendour 
 of the palace, Sennacherib displayed none of the 
 virtues of his father. He was weak, boastful, 
 cruel ; and preserved his empire only by the help 
 of the veterans and generals trained by Sargon. 
 In his second year he was engaged in subduing 
 an insurrection by means of which Merodach- 
 baladan had possessed himself of Babylon. 
 In 701 B.C. he invaded Phoenicia and Palestine, 
 because Hezekiah, king of Judah, and other 
 neighbouring kings had refused tribute (2 K. 
 18.13-16). Of this campaign we have an account 
 in Sennacherib's own words, inscribed, according 
 to custom, on a commemorative monument 
 " Zedekiah, king of Ashkelon, who had not 
 submitted to my yoke, himself, the gods of the 
 house of his fathers, his wife, his sons, his 
 daughters, his brothers, the seed of the house of 
 his fathers, I removed, and I sent him to Syria. 
 I set over the men of Ashkelon Saludari, the 
 son of Rukipti, their former king, and I imposed 
 upon him the payment of tribute, and the 
 homage due to his majesty, and he became a 
 vassal. In the course of my campaign I ap- 
 proached and captured Beth-Dagon, Joppa, 
 Bene-berak, and Azur, the cities of Zedekiah, 
 which did not submit at once to my yoke, and 
 I carried away their spoil. The priests, the chief 
 men, and the common people of Ekron who had 
 thrown into chain* their king Padi, because he 
 was faithful to his oaths to Assyria, and had 
 given him up to Hezekiah, the Jew, who im- 
 prisoned him like an enemy in a dark dungeon, 
 feared in their hearts. The king of Egypt, 
 the bowmen, the chariots, and the horses of the 
 king of Ethiopia, had gathered together in- 
 numerable forces, and gone to their assistance. 
 In sight of the town of Eltekeh was their order 
 of battle drawn up ; they called their troops 
 (to the battle). Trusting in Assur, my lord, 
 I fought with them and overthrew them. . . . 
 I captured the towns of Eltekeh and Timnath, 
 and I carried away their spoil. I marched 
 against the city of Ekron (which see), and put to 
 death the priests and the chief men who had 
 committed the sin (of rebellion), and I hung up 
 their bodies on stakes all round the city. The 
 citizens who had done wrong and wickedness I 
 counted as a spoil ; as for the rest of them who 
 had done no sin or crime, in whom no fault was 
 found, I proclaimed a free pardon. I had 
 Padi, their king, brought out from the midst of 
 Jerusalem, and I seated him on the throne of 
 royalty over them. . . . But as for Hezekiah 
 of Judah, who had not submitted to my yoke, 
 forty-six of his strong cities, together with 
 innumerable fortresses and small towns which 
 depended on them, by overthrowing the walls 
 
SENUAH] 
 
 434 
 
 [SEPTUAGINT, THE 
 
 and open attack, by battle engines and batter- 
 ing-rams, I besieged, I captured. I brought out 
 from the midst of them and counted as a spoil 
 200,150 persons, great and small, male and 
 female, horses, mules, asses, camels, oxen, and 
 sheep without number. Hezekiah himself I 
 shut up like a bird in a cage in Jerusalem, his 
 royal city. ... I made his country small. 
 In addition to their former tribute ... I added 
 other tribute . . . the fear of the greatness of 
 my majesty overwhelmed him, even Hezekiah, 
 and he sent after me to Nineveh, my royal city, 
 by way of gift and tribute . . . 800 talents of 
 pure silver ... a vast treasure (of enumerated 
 articles) ; and he sent his ambassador to offer 
 homage." In this account of his campaign 
 Sennacherib discreetly says nothing about the 
 disaster to his army before Jerusalem (2 K. 
 19). Instead, he represents the tribute offered 
 by Hezekiah at Lachish, when he tried to 
 buy oS the threatened Assyrian attack, as 
 the result of a successful campaign. The 800 
 talents of silver, however, are not exaggerated, 
 as they are equal to the 500 (2 K. 19), when 
 reckoned according to the standard of value 
 in use in Nineveh. The destruction of Senna- 
 cherib's army by a pestilence, which carried off 
 185,000 men, freed Palestine from his power. 
 During the rest of his reign he refrained from 
 any further attack. (For the Bible account of 
 this campaign, see and compare 2 K. 18, 19 ; 
 2 Ch. 32 ; Isai. 36, 37). In 700 B.C. Sennacherib 
 had to take the field again to suppress a revolt 
 in his own territory. This was followed by 
 fighting in Babylonia, and the appointment of 
 his eldest son, Assurnadin-sumi, viceroy of 
 Babylon. The latter, however, was later taken 
 captive by the Elamites, who had invaded the 
 country and defied the Assyrian power for 
 four years, until they were beaten in a decisive 
 battle at Khalule. The following year, Senna- 
 cherib captured Babylon and gave it over to 
 fire and sword ; the inhabitants were sold into 
 slavery, and the waters of the Araxes canal 
 overflowed the ruined city. The rest of his 
 life was chiefly spent in constructing canals, 
 aqueducts, and the rebuilding of his magnificent 
 palace at Nineveh. For though he left the 
 conduct of his wars chiefly to his generals he 
 was a great builder. His palace covered over 
 eight acres, and was adorned with fine sculptures 
 and inscriptions, many of which can be seen to- 
 day. He was murdered (681 B.C.) by his two 
 elder sons, Adrammelech and Sharezar, whilst 
 worshipping his god (2 K. 19.37; Isai. 37.38). 
 [BABYLON, HEZEKIAH, NINEVEH.] 
 
 Sen'uah (R.V., with definite article the, 
 Hassenuah). A Benjamite, the father of Judah 
 who was second over Jerusalem after the return 
 from Babylon (Neh. 11.9). The same name 
 appears in 1 Ch. 9.7. 
 
 Seo'rim. Chief of David's fourth course of 
 priests (1 Ch. 24.8). 
 
 Se'phar. A place in Arabia, called " the 
 mountain of the east," and named as one of 
 the boundaries of the clan of Joktan (Gen. 10.30). 
 
 Sepha'rad. A land where Jews were held in 
 captivity (Obad. 20), the Saparda of the Assyrian 
 inscriptions, and probably north-east of Assyria. 
 A Jewish tradition identifies it with Spain ; 
 hence the Spanish Jews still call themselves 
 Scphardim. 
 
 Sepharva'im. A town or towns from which 
 the king of Assyria brought captives to re- 
 populate the cities of Samaria (2 K. 17.24, 31) ; 
 identified with Sipar, or Sippar, the city of 
 Samas the sun-god. The Sepharvaim of 2 K. 
 18.34 (Isai. 36.19) and 19.13 (Isai. 37.13) may 
 have been the same or another city. A double 
 city of Sippar on the banks of the Euphrates is 
 identified with Sepharvaim by some authorities. 
 Sepharvites. Inhabitants of Sippar (2 K. 
 17.31), who continued their idolatrous worship 
 even after their removal to Samaria. [SEPHAK- 
 VAIM.] 
 
 Septuagint, The. I. The Origin of the Trans- 
 lation. The Septuagint, or Seventy, so-called 
 from the Latin word septuaginta, is the name 
 by which the first and only complete Greek 
 translation of the O.T. is known. The legend 
 of its origin is contained in a letter professedly 
 written by one Aristeas, a courtier in the 
 service of Philadelphia, King of Egypt (285-247 
 B.C.), to his brother Philocrates. He says that 
 at the suggestion of the royal librarian at 
 Alexandria, King Philadelphus desired to 
 procure for his library a translation of the 
 Jewish laws, and sent a letter to the High 
 Priest Eleazar at Jerusalem, asking him to 
 send to Alexandria six learned elders from 
 each of the twelve tribes to make the trans- 
 lation. In due course they arrived, bringing 
 with them a copy of the Hebrew Law written 
 in letters of gold on a roll composed of skins. 
 They were ultimately conducted to a building 
 on the island of Pharos, and set to work com- 
 paring their several results, and making them 
 agree. In this way the translation and tran- 
 scription was completed in seventy-two days. 
 In the second century A.D. the legend is told 
 with the addition that the translators worked 
 separately in separate cells, and that at the end 
 their translations were found to be identical ! 
 
 There has been much discussion as to the 
 genuineness of the letter of Aristeas and its 
 trustworthiness, but now scholars are generally 
 agreed that, although the letter cannot have 
 been written much less than fifty years after 
 the death of Philadelphus, some of its state- 
 ments are true in particular that the transla- 
 tion did begin in the time of Philadelphus, 
 and that the part then made was only the 
 Pentateuch or Law. It is probable that the 
 Jews of Alexandria felt at that time their need 
 of a Greek version of the Law, and that this part 
 at least was made under the more or less official 
 sanction of the Jewish community there. 
 But the language (see below) is Egyptian 
 Greek, and not such as Palestinian translators 
 would have written. It is even probable also 
 that the translation was welcomed by Phil- 
 adelphus and his courtiers as a useful addition 
 
SEPTUAGINT, THE] 
 
 435 
 
 [SEPTUAGINT, THE 
 
 to their means of understanding the religion 
 of their Jewish citizens. 
 
 While, however, we may thus place the trans- 
 lation of the Pentateuch as early as 250 B.C., 
 we have little evidence for the date of the rest 
 of the version. On the whole, it is probable 
 that much less care was taken with this, and 
 indeed that the various books were translate 1 
 to satisfy the needs of private persons rather 
 than of the community, and parts of some 
 books by different people. This accounts for 
 the great variety in the style of the Greek, 
 and in accuracy of rendering the Hebrew. 
 But the Prophets, former and latter (s>e O.T.), 
 appear to have been completed by 132 B.C., 
 and the greater part even of the Holy Writings 
 (see O.T.) by the same time. Some scholars, 
 however, place the translation of even these a 
 century earlier. 
 
 II. The Nature of its Language. It is unneces- 
 sary here to say much about the curious cha- 
 racter of the Greek language in which the 
 Septuagint is written. Yet the discoveries of 
 the last few years have thrown so much light 
 upon this, that it cannot be left quite un- 
 noticed. For until recently it was supposed 
 that the Greek of the Septuagint, and practically 
 of the N.T. as well, was peculiar to the Bible, 
 and was the offspring of the union of Hebrew 
 thought with classical Greek language. Even 
 now we may not neglect the influence of Hebrew 
 upon it, but this is by no means the sole or most 
 important part. In fact, so far from Biblical 
 Greek, as it was called, being something peculiar, 
 and by itself, it represents the popular language 
 of the whole of the Mediterranean. Classical 
 or Attic Greek was at most the spoken, or 
 perhaps even only the written, language of 
 Athens and its neighbourhood, and it became 
 the standard of the best Greek writing ; but 
 elsewhere the Greek of ordinary life and ordinary 
 documents was practically that which is now 
 found in the Septuagint and the N.T. Of 
 course there are many technical terms in the 
 Hebrew books which had to be translated, or 
 else transliterated, into this popular Greek, 
 and so far the LXX differs from all other 
 Greek, but only so far. In other respects, the 
 language is that of the inscriptions on monu- 
 ments throughout Asia Minor, of the papyri, 
 and even of the thousands of " ostraka " (i.e. 
 scribblings on broken pieces of pottery) found 
 everywhere in Egypt. The study in recent years 
 of these two last, in particular, has thrown a 
 flood of light on both the language and the 
 customs of Greek-speaking peoples in Egypt, 
 and has enabled us to understand more clearly 
 the wide extent of the audience to which a 
 speaker or writer of the so-called " Biblical " 
 Greek could appeal. We can see that both 
 language and thought had been prepared for 
 the spread of the Gospel. 
 
 III. Its Contents and Arrangement. On open- 
 ing any edition of the Septuagint, the reader is 
 at once struck by the difference of the contents 
 from those of the ordinary English Bible, which, 
 
 as regards its matter, resemble the original 
 Hebrew. He will find many additions, such 
 as an extra hundred and fifty-first Psalm, 
 additional chapters to the Book of Esther, 
 and the stories of Susanna, Bel and the Dragon, 
 and the Benedicite or Song of the Three Children 
 added to the Book of Daniel, besides additional 
 matter in 1 K. 8 and 12. He will also find many 
 verses absent from 1 Sam. 17 and 18. Further, 
 in the original Septuagint (though not in our 
 present manuscripts), the Book of Job existed 
 in a much shorter form than that of the Hebrew 
 text. 
 
 Besides these differences, he will find whole 
 books added 1 Esdras, the Wisdom of Solomon, 
 the Wisdom of Sirach or Ecclesiasticus, Judith, 
 Tobit, Baruch, the Epistle of Jeremiah, and at 
 least two Books of the Maccabees. The English 
 reader will recognise these as forming with 
 2 Esdras, and the Prayer of Manasseh (and, of 
 course, the additional chapters previously 
 mentioned), the Apocrypha which is printed 
 as an Appendix to some editions of the English 
 O.T. [NON-CANONICAL BOOKS.] 
 
 But the Septuagint differs from the Hebrew, 
 not only in the addition or omission of passages 
 and the addition of whole Books, but also in 
 the arrangement of its contents. The Hebrew 
 Bible (see O.T.) is arranged, as it seems, by the 
 principle of the date of the canonisation of its 
 three great divisions the Law, the Prophets 
 (former and latter), and the Writings ; the 
 Septuagint rather by the classes of Law, History, 
 Poetry, and Prophecy. Roughly speaking, the 
 Vulgate, or standard Latin version, follows this 
 order also, and our English Bible as well, 
 though it separates the Apocryphal books, 
 placing them, as has been said, in an Appendix. 
 This, which by force of habit seems the natural 
 order to us, is certainly more convenient, but 
 it neglects the more scientific basis of the order 
 adopted by the compilers of the Hebrew Bible. 
 It should be added that in some books, 
 notably Jeremiah and the end of Proverbs, the 
 order of the chapters differs considerably in 
 the Hebrew and the Septuagint ; also that the 
 numbering of Pss. 10 -147 is altered by the 
 facts that the LXX treats Pss. 9 and 10 as one, 
 and again subdivides Ps. 147 into two. 
 
 IV. Present State of the Text. It is most un- 
 fortunate that this first and greatest of all 
 versions of the O.T. has come down to us in 
 so unsatisfactory a state. No one can say at 
 present what were the exact words written 
 even by the translators of the Pentateuch, 
 much less by those of the other parts of the 
 Bible. This uncertainty is due to rather 
 curious circumstances, which must now be 
 briefly explained. 
 
 The Septuagint became from the first the 
 form of the Bible which was used by Christians 
 (see below), and naturally they appealed to it 
 in their endeavours to convince the Jews of the 
 truth of the Gospel. This led the Jews of the 
 second century A. P. to make a fresh translation, 
 which should be n ore in accord with the 
 
SEPTUAGINT, THE] 
 
 436 
 
 [SEPTUAGINT, THE 
 
 system of interpretation in favour with Jews of 
 that time, and should also translate certain 
 passages of the O.T. in an anti-Christian way. 
 This was made by Aquila (about 130 A.D.), 
 a Gentile who had been a Christian, and had 
 become a Jew. It aimed at extreme literalness. 
 Another version was made slightly later (say 
 about 150 A.D.) by Theodotion, who appears 
 to have been a Christian. This, though nearer 
 to the Hebrew than was the Septuagint, was 
 much liked by Christians, and his translation 
 of Daniel was so much accepted, that it is the 
 text of Daniel found in the ordinary editions of 
 the Septuagint, and the Septuagint translation 
 proper has survived in one manuscript only. 
 A third version was that of Symmachus (about 
 190 A.D.), of whom even less is known. He 
 tried to render the Hebrew into more idiomatic 
 Greek than that of its predecessors. There were 
 also other translations of separate books, of 
 wluch we possess only very small fragments. 
 
 Thus, by the first quarter of the third century 
 A.D., there were four great Greek versions of 
 the Hebrew Scriptures, besides others of 
 separate books. Origen (185-253 A.D.), the 
 greatest and most original of all the Fathers, 
 conceived the plan of copying all these out in 
 parallel columns, together with the Hebrew 
 original, and a transliteration of the Hebrew 
 into Greek characters. He thus formed a vast 
 work of six columns (Hexapla, i.e. sixfold), 
 besides sometimes additional columns, when 
 other versions of any book existed. Further, 
 he marked in the Septuagint column the 
 beginning of those passages which were want- 
 ing in the Hebrew with one kind of mark 
 ( or -f- ), and he added to that column passages 
 which were properly not in the Septuagint 
 (from Aquila or Theodotion), marking the 
 beginning of these his own additions by 
 another kind of mark (& ). For each set he 
 marked the end of the passage by a third kind 
 of mark ( : or / r X)- This was well enough 
 in the one great original manuscript at Qr,sarea 
 in Palestine (where it remained till its destruc- 
 tion in the sixth century), but it is evident 
 that when the all-important column of the 
 Septuagint was copied, the copyists would 
 very easily make mistakes in the various kinds 
 of marks, and indeed sometimes omit them 
 altogether. This is what actually happened. 
 With the exception of a very few fragments, 
 we possess no manuscript that does not contain 
 the readings of Aquila and Theodotion, mixed 
 in with the Septuagint proper. When to this 
 confusion of text are added the corruptions 
 that invariably arise in the long succession 
 of copies, it is evident that the task of those 
 who would sift out the true text of the Septua- 
 gint is extremely complicated. Very little, 
 in fact, has been done by scholars in this direc- 
 tion. The most trustworthy edition of the 
 Septuagint (by Dr. Swete, Cambridge, 1894- 
 1899), aims only at reproducing the Vatican 
 manuscript (B) as accurately as possible, 
 supplementing it where it is mutilated, and 
 
 adding readings from a few other manuscripts. 
 Even the large edition of Messrs. Brooke and 
 McLean, of which only the Pentateuch has ap- 
 peared, differs from this only in the immense 
 number of manuscripts and versions which it 
 cites. It makes no attempt to reproduce the 
 original text of the Septuagint translators. 
 
 V. Its Present Value. Notwithstanding the 
 uncertainty that surrounds the details, there 
 is no reason to doubt that the greater part of 
 the text of the Septuagint represents the 
 work of the original translators. So far as 
 this is the case we have a translation from 
 Hebrew manuscripts many hundreds of years 
 earlier than any which now exist. Hence 
 scholars have earnestly discussed the question 
 whether the Hebrew text represented by the 
 Septuagint is better than that of the ordinary 
 Hebrew Bible. It is generally agreed to-day, 
 that while sometimes the Septuagint has 
 preserved the better reading, this is not the 
 case as a whole. Each variation must be 
 studied on its merits, for there are many causes 
 of variation. For example, it may be due to a 
 variation in the Hebrew, as, for instance, an 
 interchange of similar letters, or to a mis- 
 translation of the Hebrew, or to a reverential 
 change of expression about God and His powers, 
 or even to a traditional interpretation of a 
 Hebrew phrase instead of an accurate trans- 
 lation. Indeed, it is probable that not a few 
 of the so-called mistranslations or various 
 readings are due to this last cause the wish 
 to paraphrase rather than translate. Even if 
 we had before us an accurate text of the Septua- 
 gint version as it left the hands of its trans- 
 lators, it would require scholarship that com- 
 bined an accurate knowledge of the Greek of 
 the period with one equally accurate of the 
 Hebrew scholarship and traditional learning of 
 the Jews who were likely to have made the 
 translation, before a decisive answer could be 
 given to the question, What was the Hebrew 
 text in front of the translators ? In the present 
 backward state of these two parts of the neces- 
 sary scholarship, it is well to be very cautious 
 in pronouncing dogmatically upon any apparent 
 variation between the Greek and the Hebrew 
 texts, and to hesitate before emending the 
 Hebrew by the Greek. 
 
 VI. Its Historical Importance. Lastly, it 
 must be remembered that the Septuagint is of 
 extreme interest not only for what it is, but 
 also for what it has done. 1. It was, as has been 
 already stated, the Bible of N.T. times. By 
 far the greater part of the quotations from 
 the O.T. found in the N.T. are taken from the 
 Septuagint. In the Epistle to the Hebrews, 
 crowded though it is with quotations, none 
 are drawn from the Hebrew. But it is equally 
 instructive that it is not certain that any of 
 the quotations are taken from the Apocryphal 
 books of the Greek Bible. There are indeed 
 a few verbal coincidences, which indicate that 
 the inspired authors knew some of these books, 
 but they do not use them in evidence it 
 
SEPULCHRE] 
 
 437 
 
 [SERPENT, BRAZEN 
 
 should be observed that the Book of Enoch, 
 quoted in Jude 14, is no part of the Septuagint. 
 
 2. Not only, however, was the Septuagint 
 practically the Bible of the N.T. writers, but 
 it was, as has also been stated, the O.T. of 
 the early Fathers. Greek was the mother 
 tongue of the Levant, and even of a great part 
 of the population at Rome, certainly of the 
 foreign part, which included the great majority 
 of the Christians there. It is easy to understand, 
 therefore, that the Septuagint would suggest 
 the words for many theological terms, and 
 that as the Fathers, with one or two exceptions, 
 could not read Hebrew, their modes of forming, 
 as well as expressing, theological doctrines 
 would be largely determined by the Septuagint. 
 For example, in the fourth century the whole 
 Christian Church was interested in the dis- 
 cussion of the words, " The Lord created me " 
 in the Septuagint version of Prov. 8.22, although 
 the Hebrew is properly represented by the 
 English version, " The Lord possessed me." 
 The history of the development of much of the 
 theology in the Christian Church would be 
 almost unintelligible without the Septuagint. 
 
 3. Finally, the LXX is of immense importance 
 for its effect upon those translations which 
 were made by its help, whether directly from it 
 or from the Hebrew with its assistance. This, 
 in both forms of influence, is especially true of 
 the Latin versions, the older of which (the old 
 Latin) was made from the Septuagint, the 
 later (the Vulgate) professedly, indeed, from 
 the Hebrew, but only after the Septuagint 
 had already determined much of the Latin 
 wording of sacred things. It should be noted 
 that the so-called Vulgate of to-day is a mix- 
 ture of the old Latin and Jerome's Vulgate 
 proper. 
 
 The Latin Fathers, like the Greek, were in 
 almost every case ignorant of Hebrew (Jerome 
 is the greatest of the few exceptions), and, like 
 them, therefore, were dependent ultimately 
 on the Septuagint, which had influenced the 
 Latin so greatly. It is almost needless to 
 point out that those later translations, such as 
 the English, which were influenced directly 
 and indirectly by the Vulgate, contain much 
 that historically is due to the Septuagint. 
 
 For further study the student should read 
 Swete's Introduction to the O.T. in Greek, and 
 Kenyon's article on " Greek Versions of the O.T." 
 in Hastings-Selbie's Diet, of the Bible. 
 
 Sepulchre. {BURIAL.] 
 
 Se'rah. Sarah (Gen. 46.17; Num. 2G.46 ; 
 
 1 Ch. 7.30). [SARAH.] 
 
 Serai'ah. 1. A scribe (2 Sam. 8.17). 
 [SHEVA.] 2. Chief priest at Jerusalem when it 
 was taken by Nebuchadnezzar (2 K. 25.18 ; 
 1 Ch. 6.14 ; Etra 7.1 ; Jer. 52.24). 3. Son of 
 Tanhumeth (2 K. 25.23 ; Jer. 40.8). 4. Brother 
 of Othniel (1 Ch. 4.13, 14). 5. A Simeonite 
 (1 Ch. 4.35). 6. A priest who returned with 
 Zerubbabel (Ezra 2.2 ; Neh. 10.2, 12.1, 12). 
 In Neh. 7.7 Azariah. 7. A post-exilic priest 
 who was called " ruler of the house of God " 
 
 (Neh. 11.11). 8. (Jer. 36.26). 9. Son of Neriah. 
 He was sent to Babylon by Jeremiah with the 
 written doom of that city, and was instructed 
 to sink it in the Euphrates, as indicative that 
 so Babylon should sink never to rise again (Jer. 
 51.59-61). 
 
 Ser'aphim. An order of angels, mentioned 
 only in the vision of Isaiah (6.2, 6). They are 
 described as human in form, but with six wings, 
 standing above the Lord (R.V.). One cried to 
 another and said, " Holy, holy, holy, is the LORD 
 of Hosts ; the whole earth is full of His glory." 
 In the self-abasement of the prophet before 
 the vision of the Holy One a seraph flies to 
 him with a live coal from the altar, with which 
 he touches Isaiah's lips, to purge away his sin. 
 Possibly the name means burning ones, in an 
 active sense, and in reference to this function 
 of purifying as by fire those to whom they were 
 sent. [ANGEL.] 
 
 Se'red. (Gen. 46.14 ; Num. 26.26). 
 
 Sergius Pau'lus. [PAULUS-SEKGIUS, also CY- 
 PRUS, ELYMAS.] 
 
 Serjeants. The English rendering in Acts 
 16.35, 38 for a Greek word meaning rod-bearers. 
 They were the Roman lictors, officers in attend- 
 ance upon the magistrates to carry out their 
 orders, especially of punishment, and bearing 
 as their symbol of office the " fasces," an axe 
 tied round with a bundle of rods. 
 
 Serpent. Some thirty species of serpents 
 have been found in Palestine, several of which 
 are highly poisonous. The serpent is first 
 mentioned in Gen. 3.1, 13, where it is said to 
 be more subtil than all the beasts of the field. 
 The venomous properties of the serpent tribe 
 are mentioned in Ps. 58.4, " Their poison is like 
 the poison of a serpent," and in Deut. 32.24 
 and Prov. 23.32 The poison appears in some 
 passages to have been held to reside in the 
 tongue (Job 20.16 ; Ps. 140.3), instead of being 
 attributed to the bite, as is correctly indicated 
 in Num. 21.9 and Prov. 23.32. The habit of 
 serpents to lie hidden is referred to (Eccles. 
 10.8; Amos 5.19). The peculiar mode of pro- 
 gression is noticed with wonder in Prov. 30.19. 
 In Isaiah (59.5), " They hatch basilisks' (marg. 
 adders') eggs " shows that the fact of serpents 
 being oviparous was well known (cf . 34.15, R.V.). 
 The taming and charming of serpents appears 
 in Ps. 58.5 ; Eccles. 10.11 ; Jer. 8.17. The tradi- 
 tional wisdom of the serpent is alluded to by 
 our Lord (Matt. 10.16). 
 
 Serpent, Brazen. The snakes which attacked 
 the Hebrews were probably asps and adders, 
 the burning inflammation set up by their 
 poisonous bite being aptly described by " fiery " 
 (Num. 21.6). The brazen serpent set up by 
 Moses at the command of God was afterwards 
 used by our Lord as symbolical of the uplifted 
 Son of man (John 3.14). The brazen serpent 
 had, of course, no natural tendency to work a 
 cure, but owed all its efficacy to the Divine 
 appointment, faith in which was expressed by 
 the act of looking at it for deliverance. A 
 superstitious use was afterwards made of this 
 
SERUG] 
 
 438 
 
 [SHAHAZIMAH 
 
 brazen serpent, and led to its being destroyed 
 by Hezekiah (2 K. 18.4). [NBHUSHTAN.] 
 
 Serug. (?) Entwined : the great-grandfather 
 of Abraham (Gen. 11.20-23 ; 1 Ch. 1.26 ; Lk. 3.35, 
 R.V., where A.V. has Saruch). 
 
 Servant. In the O.T. this is most frequently 
 the rendering of two Hebrew words meaning 
 a boy, a lad, an attendant, or a slave. The 
 word is sometimes employed in humility 
 (Gen. 32.18, 20), and of high officials at court 
 (Gen. 40.20; 2 Sam. 10.2,4). A third word 
 (used of Joshua, Ex. 33.11) implies an attendant 
 ministering to his needs. But " servant " in the 
 O.T. most commonly represents bond-servant 
 or slave. In the N.T., in like manner, whilst 
 servant appears as the rendering of words indi- 
 cating a house-servant (as in Lk. 16.13), a child 
 or boy (as in Matt. 8.6), or an underling (as in 
 Matt. 26.58), the word most often appearing 
 is equivalent to bond-servant, slave (Matt. 8.9, 
 etc.). This word is applied by the apostles to 
 themselves as the servants of God (Acts 4.29 ; 
 Tit. 1.1 ; Jas. 1.1) and of Jesus Christ (Rom. 1.1 ; 
 Phil. 1.1 ; Jude 1). [SLAVE, SLAVERY.] 
 
 Servant of the Lord. In the O.T. several 
 persons are spoken of as servants of the Lord 
 Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob (Deut. 9.27), Moses 
 (Josh. 1.2), Joshua (Josh. 24.29), Isaiah (20.3), 
 Job (1.8), and even Nebuchadnezzar (Jer. 27.6). 
 The title was also applied to the people of Israel, 
 sometimes spoken of as Jacob, as the people 
 chosen of God (/sat. 41.8, 42.19 ; Jer. 30.10 ; 
 Ezek. 28.25). There are four other passages, 
 in which the use of the title is used with a 
 deeper significance. These are Isai. 42.1-4, 
 49.1-6, 50.4-9, and 52.13-53.12. Some authori- 
 ties are content only to identify this Servant 
 with the ideal Israel. The nation was called 
 to be God's servant (Deut. 10.12, 20), and, 
 although punished by Him for their sins, was 
 not by Him " cast off " (Rom. 11.1, and cf. 
 11.29) ; there remained a " holy seed " (Isai. 
 6.13), a " remnant " (Rom. 11.5). So far, then, 
 the identification appears natural. But in 
 Isai. 49.5, 6 the Servant stands apart from 
 and has a duty towards Israel, by whom 
 in Isai. 53 he is rejected. Thus there is 
 reached the higher conception of the Servant 
 of the Lord, who was the Lord Jesus Himself, in 
 His person fulfilling the prediction of Isai. 53, 
 offering the " one sacrifice for sins " (Heb. 10.12). 
 [ISAIAH, THE BOOK OF.] 
 
 Seth. (?) Shoot : the son of Adam and Eve 
 (Gen. 4.25, 26, 5.3-8 ; 1 Ch. 1.1 ; Lk. 3.38). 
 
 Se'thur. An Asherite spy employed by 
 Moses (Num. 13.13). 
 
 Settle. The use of this word in Ezekiel 
 (43.14 ff.) denotes a ledge or step of the altar. 
 
 Seven. The use of the number seven sug- 
 gests a peculiar regard for it. Appearing first 
 at the record of creation (Gen. 2.3), it is found 
 in the law in regard to feasts (Ex. 12.15 ; 
 Lev. 25.8; Deut. 16.9), and the consecration 
 of priests and altars (Ex. 29.30, 35, 37), de- 
 filement (Lev. 12.2), the sprinkling of blood 
 (Lev. 4.6), and oil (Lev. 14.16). Of persons in 
 
 sevens we have sons (Ruth 4.15 ; 1 Sam. 2.5 ; 
 Jer. 15.9; Acts 19.14), chamberlains (Ezra 7.14; 
 Esth. 1.10, 14) ; maidens (Esth. 2.9), wise 
 men (Prov. 20.16), poor men (Eccles. 11.2), 
 women (Isai. 4.1), deacons (Acts 6.3); also 
 angels (Rev. 8.2), spirits (Rev. 1.4), devils 
 (Mk. 16.9). Of things in sevens animals 
 (Gen. 7.2), kine and ears of corn (Gen. 41.2-7), 
 altars (Num. 23.1), pillars (Prov. 9.1), 
 streams (Isai. 11.15), withs and locks (Judg. 
 16.7, 13), eyes (Zech. 3.9), stars (Amos 5.8), 
 seals (Rev. 5.1), etc. Seven times is connected 
 with bowing (Gen. 33.3), punishment (Lev. 
 26.18, 21), praising God (Ps. 119.164), restora- 
 tion (Prov. 6.31), forgiveness (Matt. 18.22). 
 Seven was also used as a round number (Job 
 5.19, etc.), and, as sevenfold, in the sense of 
 frequency or fully (Gen. 4.15). 
 
 Seventy, The. The disciples sent out by our 
 Lord, as recorded by Luke alone (Lk. 10.1, 17). 
 
 Shaalab'bin. A town of Dan in which the 
 Amorites were allowed to remain ; one of Solo- 
 mon's commissariat districts (Josh. 19.42 ; Judg. 
 1.35 ; 1 K. 4.9). Its present name is Selbit. 
 
 Shaal'bim. The same as Shaalabbin (Judg. 
 1.35 ; 1 K. 4.9). 
 
 Shaalbonite. Inhabitant of Shaalbin (2 Sam. 
 23.32 ; 1 Ch. 11.33). 
 
 Shaalim. [SHALIM.] 
 
 Sha'aph. 1. A son of Jahdai (1 Ch. 2.47). 
 2. A son of Caleb. The founder of the town of 
 Madmannah (1 Ch. 2.49). 
 
 Shaara'im, Shara'im. Two gates : 1. A town 
 in the lowland of Judah. It was east of Gath 
 and north of Kadesh (Josh. 15.36 ; 1 Sam. 17.52). 
 2. A town of Simeon, in the Negeb (1 Ch. 4.31). 
 
 Shaash'gaz. A chamberlain of Ahasuerus 
 (Esth. 2.14). 
 
 Shab'bethaL Born on the Sabbath : 1. ALevite 
 (Ezra 10.15) who expounded the Law after it 
 had been read (Neh. 8.7). 2. A Levite who 
 was an overseer of the House of God (Neh. 
 11.16) ; perhaps the same as 1. 
 
 Shach'ia. A son of Shaharaim, a Benjamite 
 (1 Ch. 8.10). 
 
 Shaddai. The meaning is quite unknown, 
 though it seems to be connected with the 
 thought of the power of God. Conjectures, 
 ancient or modern, are " the Over-powerer," 
 " the Destroyer," " my Mountain," " He is who 
 is sufficient," " the Rain-giver." [GoD.] 
 
 Shad'rach. The Babylonian name given to 
 Hananiah, one of the three Jewish princes 
 who had been carried captive to the court 
 of Nebuchadnezzer, and cast into the fiery 
 furnace rather than deny bis God (Dan. 1.7, 
 2.49, 3.12-30). [HANANIAH.] 
 
 Sha'ge. Father of Jonathan, who was one 
 of David's valiant men (1 Ch. 11.34). 
 
 Sha'har. [AIJELETH-SHAHAR.] 
 
 Shahara'im. The passage is of doubtful 
 meaning (1 Ch. 8.8). 
 
 Shahazi'mah (R.V. Shahazu'mah). Lofty 
 place : a border town of Issachar lying between 
 Mount Tabor and the Jordan (Josh. 19.22). 
 
SHALEM] 
 
 439 
 
 [SHAPHAN 
 
 Sha'lem. Safe : the site of Jacob's encamp- 
 ment on entering the Promised Land (Gen. 33.18). 
 But the K.V. renders this passage " Jacob came 
 in safety to Shechem." [SALEM.] 
 
 Sha'lim (R.V. Sha'alim). Foxes : a district 
 through which Saul passed when seeking his 
 father's asses (1 Sam. 9.4). Its position was 
 probably north of Michmash. [SALIM.] 
 
 Shall 'sha. A district traversed by Saul in 
 the search for his father's asses (1 Sam. 9.4). 
 [BAAL-SHALISHAH.] 
 
 Shalle'cheth. Casting out : a western gate of 
 the Temple of Solomon ; possibly that through 
 which garbage was taken (1 Ch. 26.16). 
 
 Shal'lum. Retribution : 1. A son of Jabesh. 
 He slew Zechariah, the fourteenth king of Israel, 
 and usurped his throne. After reigning one 
 month, he was himself assassinated in Samaria 
 by Menahem, 770 B.C. (2 K. 15.10-15). 2. 
 Keeper of the wardrobe and husband of the 
 prophetess Huldah (2 K. 22.14 ; 2 Ch. 34.22). 
 
 3. A descendant of Jerahmeel (1 Ch. 2.40, 41). 
 
 4. A son of King Josiah (1 Ch. 3.15 ; Jer. 22.11). 
 He is also known as Jehoahaz. [JEHOAHAZ.] 
 
 5. Grandson of Simeon (1 Ch. 4.25). 6. Father 
 of Hilkiah (1 Ch. 6.12, 13 ; Ezra 7.2). 7. Son 
 of Naphtali (1 Ch. 7.13). He is Shillem in 
 Gen. 46.24. 8. A Levite who was chief of the 
 gatekeepers of the east gate of the Temple 
 (1 Ch. 9.17,31; Ezra 2.42; Neh. 7.45). 9. 
 Father of Jehizkiah (2 Ch. 28.12). 10. A gate- 
 keeper of the sanctuary (Ezra 10.24). 11. One 
 of the sons of Bani (Ezra 10.42). 12. Son of 
 Hallohesh. He ruled half of Jerusalem, and with 
 the aid of his daughters assisted in the repairs 
 to the walls of the city (Neh. 3.12). 13. The 
 son of Col-hozeh (Neh. 3.15). Here spelt 
 Shallun. 14. Uncle of Jeremiah the prophet 
 (Jer. 32.7). Possibly the same as Shallum 2. 
 15. An officer in the service of the Temple in the 
 time of Jehoiakim (Jer. 35.4). 
 
 Shal'mai. A family of servants or Nethinim 
 (Ezra 2.46, R.V. Shamlai ; Neh. 7.48, R.V. 
 Salmai). 
 
 Shal'man. Presumably an abbreviated form 
 of Shalmaneser (Hos. 10.14). Beth-arbel, which 
 he " spoiled," was probably a fortress taken by 
 one of the Assyrian kings of that name, perhaps 
 Shalmaneser m., 783-773 B.C. It has been 
 identified with the modern Irbid. Near this 
 place are extensive caverns, which were re- 
 peatedly fortified by the Jews. 
 
 Shalmane'ser. The fourth king of Assyria 
 of that name, who succeeded Tiglath-pileser and 
 reigned five years, from 727-722 B.C. (2 K. 17.3, 
 18.9). He invaded Israel twice. The second 
 time he carried off Hoshea, who had revolted 
 from his authority and refused payment of 
 tribute, and besieged Samaria, which held out 
 over two years, and was finally taken by Sargon 
 after Shalmaneser's death. [SARGON.] 
 
 Sha'ma. A Reubenite and member of David's 
 guard (1 Ch. 11.44). 
 
 Shamari'ah. [SHEMARIAH 2.] 
 
 Shambles. The meaning of the word so 
 translated is " provision-market," and especially 
 
 "meat-market." So 1 Cor. 10.25. Doubtless 
 some of the meat had been offered in sacrifice 
 at the heathen temples. 
 
 Sha'med (R.V. She'med). (1 Ch. 8.12). 
 [SHEMEB 4.] 
 
 Sha'mer. 1. (1 Ch. 6.46, R.V. Shemer). 
 2. (1 Ch. 7.34, R.V. Shemer). In 1 Ch. 7.32 
 it appears as Shomer. 
 
 Sham 'gar. Son of Anath and deliverer of 
 Israel from the Philistines, of whom he slew 600 
 with an ox-goad (Judg. 3.31). The only other 
 reference is in the Song of Deborah (5.6). It 
 would seem from 3.31, 4.4 that his place in the 
 line of the Judges is between Ehud and De- 
 borah, but he is not mentioned in 4.1. The name 
 may be identical with Sangara, a Hittite king, 
 and as Anath was a heathen goddess it has been 
 conjectured that Shamgar was of Hittite descent. 
 
 Sham'huth. One of David's captains, who 
 commanded in the fifth month (1 Ch. 27.8). 
 [SHAMMAH 4, SHAMMOTH.] 
 
 Sha'mir. 1. Town in the mountains of Judah 
 (Josh. 15.48). 2. Residence and burial-place of 
 Tola, the judge (Judg. 10.1, 2). 3. A Kohathite 
 (1 Ch. 24.24). 
 
 Sham'lai. [SHALMAI.] 
 
 Sham 'ma. A son of Zophah (1 Ch. 7.37). 
 
 Sham'mah. 1. Grandson of Esau (Gen. 
 36.13, 17 ; 1 Ch. 1.37). 2. David's brother who 
 fought against the Philistines at the battle of 
 Elah (1 Sam. 16.9, 17.13; 1 Ch. 2.13). His 
 name also appears as Shimma, Shimea, and 
 Shimeah. 3. One of David's mighty men 
 (2 Sam. 23.11). 4. Another of the mighty 
 men (2 Sam. 23.33). [SHAMHUTH, SHAMMOTH.] 
 5. Another (2 Sam. 23.25). 
 
 Sham'mai. 1. Son of Onam (1 Ch. 2.28, 32). 
 2. Son of Rekem (1 Ch. 2.44,45). 3. Son of 
 Mered (1 Ch. 4.17). 
 
 Sham'moth. (1 Ch. 11.27). [SHAMHUTH, 
 SHAMMAH 4.] 
 
 Shammu'a. 1. A Reubenite sent by Moses 
 to spy out the Promised Land (Num. 13.4). 
 2. David's son, born in Jerusalem (1 Ch. 14.4). 
 His name is spelt Shimea in I Ch. 3.5, and 
 Shammuah in A.V. of 2 Sam. 5.14. 3. A Levite 
 connected with the Temple worship (Neh. 11.17). 
 4. A Levite (Neh. 12.18). 
 
 Shamshe'rai. A Benjamite (1 Ch. 8.26). 
 
 Sha'pham. A chief of Gad (1 Ch. 5.12). 
 
 Sha'phan. 1. Son of Azaliah and father of 
 Ahikam (2 K. 22.3, 12). His other sons were 
 Elasah and Gemariah (Jer. 29.3, 36.10, 
 11, 12), and his grandsons, Gedaliah (Jer. 39.14, 
 40.5 ff.) and Michaiah (Jer. 36.11). He was 
 secretary and a chief officer to King Josiah. 
 As scribe he accompanied as an equal in rank 
 those sent to look after the money collected 
 by the Levites for the repair of the Temple 
 (2 K. 22.4-22 ; 2 Ch. 34.8-20). The copy of the 
 Law which Hilkiah had discovered was con- 
 veyed to Josiah by Shaphan, and read by him 
 to the king. [HILKIAH, HULDAH, JOSIAH.] 
 
 2. Father of Elasah (Jer. 29.3), and possibly 
 identical with 1. 3. Father of Jehazaniah 
 (Ezek. 8.11), and possibly identical with 1. 
 
SHAPHAT] 
 
 440 
 
 [SHEBNA 
 
 Sha'phat. 1. One of the spies employed by 
 Moses (Num. 13.5). [SPIES.] 2. Father of the 
 prophet Elisha (1 K. 19.16, 19 ; 2K. 3.11, 6.31). 
 3. A descendant of David (1 Ch. 3.22). 4. A 
 chief of Bashan (1 Ch. 5.12). 5. One of David's 
 chief herd-keepers (1 Ch. 27.29). 
 
 Sha'pher (R.V. Shepher). Gleam ing : a 
 mountain on the route of the Israelites in the 
 wilderness where an encampment was made 
 (Num. 33.23, 24). Site unknown. 
 
 Sha'phir. [SAPHIR.] 
 
 Sha'raL A son of Bani (Ezra 10.40). 
 
 Sha'rar. One of David's valiant men 
 (2 Sam. 23.33). [SACAR 1.] 
 
 Share'zer. With his brother Adrammelech 
 he murdered their father Sennacherib, and then 
 fled to Armenia, where he was given a place 
 in which to settle (2 K. 19.37 ; Isai. 37.38). 
 The Sherezer of Zech. 7.2 is the same name, 
 though a different personage. [SHEKEZEH.] 
 
 Sha'ron. Level ground : 1. There were two 
 tracts of pasture-land bearing this name. The 
 first is the plain lying between the mountains 
 of Ephraim and the Mediterranean, and between 
 Carmel on the north and Joppa on the south. 
 This is the Sharon that was so celebrated for its 
 beauty and fertility. It still preserves this char- 
 acter, and in the spring is adorned with the red 
 and white rose, the narcissus, carnations, white 
 and orange lilies. On its pastures the royal 
 herds of David browsed (1 Ch. 27.29). Its 
 beauty and utility were such that its loss would 
 be regarded as a calamity (Isai. 33.9). It was 
 symbolical of prosperity (/sat". 65.10) and of 
 attractiveness (Cant. 2.1). This is the Saron 
 of Acts 9.35. [PALESTINE.] 2. The second 
 Sharon lay east of the Jordan, and consisted of 
 the pasture-land of Gilead and Bashan, where 
 the Gadites fed their flocks (1 Ch. 5.16). 
 
 Sharonite. Title of Shitrai, who had charge 
 of the royal herds (1 Ch. 27.29). [SHARON 1.] 
 
 Sharulien. Town in the territory of Judah, 
 allotted to Simeon ( Josh. 19.6). Probably identi- 
 cal with Shilhim (15.32) and Shaaraim (1 Ch. 
 4.31). Its present name is Tell esh-Sheriah. 
 
 Sha'shaL A son of Bani (Ezra 10.40). 
 
 Sha'shak. A Benjamite (1 Ch. 8.14, 25). 
 
 Sha'uL Asked for : 1. A son of Simeon 
 (Gen. 46.10 ; Ex. 6.15 ; 1 Ch. 4.24). 2. A king 
 of Edom (Gen. 36.37, A.V. Saul ; 1 Ch. 1.48, 49). 
 3. A Levite (1 Ch. 6.24). 
 
 Shaulites. The family of Shaul 1 (Num. 
 26.13). 
 
 Sha'veh, The Vale of. Level plain : place of 
 the meeting between Abraham and the king of 
 Sodom, east of the Jordan (Gen. 14.17). 
 
 Sha'veh-kiriatha'im. The level plain of the 
 double city : residence of Emim (Gen. 14.5) in 
 the district afterwards possessed by Reuben 
 (Num. 32.37). 
 
 Shav'sha. David's scribe (1 Ch. 18.16) ; 
 the same as Seraiah in 2 Sam. 8.17, Sheva in 
 2 Sam. 20.25, and Shisha in 1 K. 4.3. 
 
 She'aL A son of Bani (Ezra 10.29). 
 
 Sheal'tiel. [SALATHIEL.] 
 
 Shea'riah. (1 Ch. 8.38, 9.44). 
 
 Shear-ja'shub. A remnant shall return : the 
 name given to the son of Isaiah previous to 
 the invasion of Judah by the Syrians and the 
 Ephraimites. The name was symbolic and 
 prophetical, at once indicating the Captivity 
 and the Return (Isai. 7.3 ; cf. 8.18, 10.20-22). 
 
 She'ba. Seven : 1. A Benjamite who rebelled 
 against David (2 Sam. 20.1 ff.). [DAVID.] 2. 
 A Gadite (1 Ch. 5.13). 3. A town in thft terri- 
 tory of Judah, allotted to Simeon (Josh. 19.2). 
 Probably the same as Shema (Josh. 15.26). 
 
 She'ba. A different word in the Hebrew 
 from the preceding, and the meaning is un- 
 known. 1. Son of Raamah and grandson of 
 Ham (Gen. 10.7 ; 1 Ch. 1.9). 2. Son of Yoktan 
 (Gen. 10.28; 1 Ch. 1.22). 3. Grandson of 
 Abraham (Gen. 25.3; 1 Ch. 1.32). These are 
 to be regarded as differing genealogies of the 
 people described in the following article. 
 
 She'ba. A kingdom embracing the greater 
 part of the Yemen in the south of Arabia, 
 between the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf. 
 The kingdom of Sheba arose after the decay of 
 that of Ma'in or the Minaeans, and its rulers 
 were already masters of northern Arabia in 
 the time of Tiglath-pileser and Sargon (733-715 
 B.C.). Its ancient capital is now represented 
 by the ruins of Mareb, in the south-western 
 corner of Arabia. Owing to its trade its popula- 
 tion was regarded as the wealthiest in Arabia. 
 The valuable products of the country are 
 alluded to (Ps. 72.15 ; Isai. 60.6 ; Jer. 6.20) ; and 
 its merchants (Ezek. 27.22,23, 38.13). Some 
 authorities placed Sheba in Ethiopia. Its in- 
 habitants are called Sabeans in the A.V. of 
 Job 1.15 and in Joel 3.8. 
 
 Sheba, Queen of. The visit to King Solomon 
 of a queen of Sheba, who had heard of his 
 " fame . . . concerning the name of the Lord," 
 is recorded in 1 K. 10.1-13 and 2 Ch 9.1-12, 
 and is referred to by our Lord (Matt. 12.42). 
 Presumably she came from the country described 
 in the preceding article. 
 
 Shebah (R.V. Shibah). Seven or Oath: the 
 well which gave its name to JBeersheba (which 
 see) (Gen. 26.33). 
 
 SheTbam (R.V. Sebam). Balsam, fragrant : 
 town of Dan, near Heshbon, on the east of the 
 Jordan. At one time it belonged to Moab, 
 then to the Amorites (Num. 32.3). It also 
 appears as Shibmah (ver. 38, R.V. Sibmah) and 
 Sibmah (Josh. 13.19 ; Isai. 16.8, 9 ; Jer. 48.32). 
 
 Shebani'ah. Brought back by Jehovah : 1. A 
 priest who helped bring the Ark from Obed- 
 edom to Jerusalem (1 Ch. 15.24). 2. A 
 Levite (Neh. 9.4,5, 10.10). 3. A priest (Neh. 
 10.4, 12.14). 4. A Levite (Neh. 10.12). 
 
 Sheba'rim. Breaches : limit of pursuit of 
 the men of Ai (which see) (Josh. 7.5; see 
 R.V. marg.). 
 
 She'bat. [SEBAT.] 
 
 She'ber. Breach : son of Caleb (1 Ch. 2.48). 
 
 Sheb'na. King Hezekiah's scribe or secre- 
 tary (2 K. 18.18 ff., R.V. Shebnah). At one 
 time he was ruler of the palace, but was reduced 
 through the instrumentality of Isaiah for his 
 
SHEBUEL] 
 
 441 
 
 [SHEEP MARKET 
 
 overbearing conduct and his leanings towards 
 idolatry (2 K. 18.26, 37, 19.2 ; /sat. 22.15, 36.3, 
 11, 22, 37.2). 
 
 Sheba'el. 1. Son of Gershom and grandson 
 of Levi (1 Ch. 23.16). In 24.20 he is called 
 Shubael. 2. Son of Heman, and head of the 
 thirteenth band of twelve in the Temple service 
 of song (1 Ch. 25.4). He is called Shubael in 
 25.20. 
 
 Shechani'ah, The Lord hath taken up His 
 abode : 1. (1 Ch. 3.21, 22). 2. A priest (1 Ch. 
 24.11). 3. (Ezra 8.3). 4. (Ezra 8.5). 5. The 
 first to confess to taking strange wives (Ezra 
 10.2). 6. (Neh. 3.29). 7. (Neh. 6.18). 8. 
 (Neh. 12.3). 
 
 She'chem. Shoulder, saddle : 1. A town in 
 the valley between Ebal and Gerizim on the 
 backbone of Palestine, 40 miles from Jerusalem 
 on the road to Nazareth (Gen. 33.18) ; called 
 also Sichem, Sychem in the A.V. of Gen. 12.6 ; 
 Acts 7.16. The name of Neapolis (whence the 
 modern Nablous) was given to it by the 
 Emperor Vespasian. Abraham came into this 
 valley (Gen. 12.6 ff.) ; and there he saw the 
 vision in which he was promised the land for 
 an inheritance. Here also he built an altar to 
 the Lord. Jacob purchased a field here, erected 
 an altar, and dug a well (Gen. 33.18-20, 34, 
 35.4; John 4.6). Here Joseph sought his 
 brethren, and was directed to Dothan, whither 
 they had removed (Gen. 37.12 ff.) ; hither were 
 his bones brought from Egypt and buried in 
 the parcel of ground which Jacob had bought 
 (Josh. 24.32). 
 
 On the division of the land it was allotted to 
 Ephraim, though near Manasseh (Josh. 17.7). 
 Then it was assigned to the Levites, and made 
 a city of refuge (Josh. 20.7, 21.21 ; 1 Ch. 6.67, 
 7.28). 
 
 Shechem was the scene of a remarkable 
 national gathering, when Joshua built an altar on 
 Mount Ebal, overlooking the valley, and inscribed 
 on stone the words of the Law, which he then read 
 to the people assembled on the opposing slopes 
 of Mounts Ebal and Gerizim (Josh. 8.30-35). 
 From this time it was a rallying-point of the 
 nation (Josh. 24.1-25 ; 1 K. 12.1 ; 2 Ch. 10.1). 
 Shechem was the birthplace of Abimelech, the 
 scene of his insurrection, of Jotham's parable 
 (Judg. 8.31, 9). It was destroyed, and Abimelech 
 killed by the stone thrown by a woman after 
 he had pulled down the city and sown its site 
 with salt (Judg. 9). It was rebuilt by Jero- 
 boam (1 K. 12.25). Jeremiah tells us that some 
 of its inhabitants who were on their way to 
 Jerusalem were killed by Ishmael (41.5, 7). 
 
 It was about 2 miles from Shechem that our 
 Lord talked with the woman of Samaria (John 
 4.1-42). The disciples also perhaps ministered 
 here (Acts 8.25). [JACOB'S WELL, SYCHAR.] 
 
 2. Son of Hamor, a Hivite, and the chief 
 of Shechem when Jacob arrived there (Gen. 
 33.19; Josh. 24.32; Judg. 9.28). For his 
 conduct towards Dinah (which see) Shechem 
 was skin by her brothers (Gen. 34.2-26), and 
 his city ravaged. 3. Son of Gilead (Num. 26.31 ; 
 
 Josh. 17.2). 4. Son of Shechem 3 (1 Ch. 
 7.19). 
 
 Sheche'mites. Family of Shechem 3 (Num. 
 26.31). 
 
 Shede'ur. A Reubenite who assisted to 
 number the people (Num. 1.5, 2.10, 7.30,35, 
 10.18). 
 
 Sheep. The sheep formed the chief portion 
 of the wealth of the patriarchs. Not only did 
 its flesh form a chief article of food, but its 
 fleece furnished almost the whole of the clothing 
 of the people. Moreover, owing to the rugged 
 nature of the land, sheep -farming was carried 
 on extensively, and was of more importance 
 than agriculture. The sheep of Palestine are 
 of three breeds the common sheep, the small 
 stunted sheep tended by Amos (Amos 1.1) and 
 owned by MESHA (see below), and the broad- 
 tailed sheep, the latter chiefly remarkable for 
 its enormously broad and heavy tail, which 
 sometimes weighs between ten and twenty 
 pounds. This breed is found in Tartary, 
 Arabia, Persia, Barbary, and Syria, and was 
 well known to the ancients, being found figured 
 on Assyrian monuments. The body is white, 
 head and neck dark, and the tip of the tail 
 horny. The tail, which is almost all fat, is 
 regarded as a great delicacy by the Arabs. It 
 formed a part of the peace-offering (Lev. 3.9, 
 R.V.). 
 
 The sheep is the first animal specified by 
 name in the Bible, when Abel offered the first- 
 lings of his flock to the Lord (Gen. 4.2). Abra- 
 ham was very rich in sheep, and Job at one 
 time had 14,000 in his flocks. In 2 K. 3.4 
 the Moabitish shepherd-king MESHA gives a 
 tribute of a hundred thousand lambs and a 
 hundred thousand rams ; and this country is 
 still noted for its vast flocks of sheep. Solo- 
 mon sacrificed 120,000 sheep at the dedication 
 of the Temple. The lamb was a type of 
 innocence and purity, and therefore figured 
 conspicuously in the sacrificial offerings. The 
 male lamb or the kid was usually selected 
 the ram alone for the trespass-offering. 
 
 Sheep's wool as clothing is often mentioned 
 (Lev. 13.47 ; Dent. 22.11 ; Prov. 31.13). Sheep- 
 shearing is alluded to many times in Scripture : 
 " Jehu and the brethren of Ahaziah at the 
 shearing-house," etc. (2 K. 10.12, 14) ; and in 
 Gen. 38.12, " Judah went up unto his sheep- 
 shearers," and in other passages. Musical 
 instruments were made from the horns of 
 rams (Josh. 6.4), and also vessels for holding oil 
 and other liquids (1 Sam. 16.1). Besides cloth- 
 ing made from spun yarn of wool, the dressed 
 skins were used for coverings (Heb. 11.37) ; and 
 the Tabernacle was lined with red ram skins 
 (Ex. 26.14). Sheep-dogs were used (Job 30.1), 
 apparently for much the same purposes as with 
 us (Josephus, Antiq. iv. viii. 9). [SHEPHERD.] 
 
 Sheep Gate. (Neh. 3.1, 32, 12.39; John 5.2, 
 R.V.). [IEMPLE, GATES OF.] 
 
 Sheep Market. (John 5.2, A.V. ; R.V., 
 correctly, sheep gate). The Greek text has no 
 noun, but simply the feminine adjective " per- 
 
SHEEEAH] 
 
 442 
 
 [SHEM 
 
 taining to sheep," with which the feminine noun 
 for " gate " is to be supplied. 
 
 Sheerah. [SHEE AH. ] 
 
 Shehari'ah. Jehovah is the light : son of 
 Jehoram (1 Ch. 8.26). 
 
 She'kel. In all the early uses of this word 
 the reference is to a weight. From the very 
 earliest times the precious metals were used 
 as representative of wealth. Abraham bought 
 the cave of Machpelah for four hundred shekels 
 of silver weighed out to Ephron (Gen. 23.16). 
 There are many similar instances of this use of 
 money by weight. Abimelech gave to Abraham 
 a thousand pieces of silver (Gen. 20.16). The 
 Philistines paid to Delilah eleven hundred pieces 
 of silver (Judg. 16.5, 18). See also Gen. 37.28 ; 
 Judg. 17.2 ; 2 K. 5.23. The contributions to the 
 Tabernacle (Ex. 30.13, 38.26), the sacrifices of 
 animals (Lev. 5.15), the redemption of the first- 
 born (Num. 3.50, 18.16), and the payment to 
 the seer (1 Sam. 9.8) were all regulated by 
 weight. The half-shekels had a distinct value, 
 as had also the half -shekel of Ex. 30.13, and 
 the fourth part of a shekel of 1 Sam. 9.7, 8. 
 Later on the word shekel became the name 
 for an actual coin, the change from shekel the 
 weight to shekel the coin taking place in much 
 the same way as in the use of the English word 
 pound. In addition to the shekel, there was the 
 bekah or half-shekel (Ex. 38.26), the third part 
 (Neh. 10.32), the rebah or fourth part (1 Sam. 
 9.8), and the gerah or twentieth part of a shekel 
 (Ex. 30.13). [MONEY, WEIGHTS.] 
 
 She'lah. 1. Youngest son of Judah (Gen. 
 38.5, 11, 14, 26 ; 1 Ch. 2.3, 421. 2. The same 
 as Sala (which see) (1 Ch. 1.18, 24). 3. [SILOAM.] 
 
 She'lanites. Descendants of Shelah 1 (Num. 
 26.20). 
 
 Shelemi'ah. 1. A gatekeeper of the Taber- 
 nacle (1 Ch. 26.14). 2. (Ezra 10.39). 3. (Ezra 
 10.41). 4. Father of Hananiah (Neh. 3.30). 
 5. A treasurer of the tithes appointed by 
 
 Nehemiah (Neh. 13.13). 5. (Jer. 36.14). 7. 
 Son of Abdeel, who was ordered by Jehoiakim 
 to arrest Baruch and Jeremiah (Jer. 36.26). 
 [JEHOIAKIM.] 8. Father of Jehucal (Jer. 
 37.3). In Jer. 38.1 Jehucal appears as Jucal. 
 9. Father of Irijah, who arrested Jeremiah (Jer. 
 37.13). 
 
 She'leph. Son of Joktan (Gen. 10.26 ; 1 Ch. 
 1.20). 
 
 She'lesh. A name in the genealogy of Asher 
 (1 Ch. 7.35). 
 
 Shelo'mi. A chief of Asher (Num. 34.27). 
 
 Shelo'mith. 1. Mother of the Egyptian whose 
 son was stoned (Lev. 24.11). 2. Daughter of 
 Zerubbabel (1 Ch. 3.19). 3. A Levite (1 Ch. 
 23.9, R.V. Shelomoth). 4. (1 Ch. 23.18, see 
 Shelomoth). 5. A treasurer of the Tabernacle 
 appointed in the days of David (1 Ch. 26.25, 26, 
 28, R.V. Shelomoth). 6. A child of Rehoboam, 
 uncertain whether son or daughter (2 Ch. 11.20). 
 7. (Ezra 8.10). 
 
 Shelo'moth. 1. (1 Ch. 24.22). [SHELO- 
 MITH 4.] 2. [SHELOMITH 5.] 3. [SHELO- 
 MITH 3.] 
 
 Shelumi'eL A Simeonite chief at the time of 
 the Exodus. He helped Moses to number the 
 people (Num. 1.6, 2.12, 7.36, 41). 
 
 Shem. Name, renown : the eldest of the 
 three sons of Noah (which see) (Gen. 5.32). 
 After the Flood he, with the other members of 
 Noah's family, entered into the covenant with 
 God (Gen. 9.1 ff.). He was then ninety-eight 
 years old, with a wife, but no children. After- 
 wards he had five sons, on whom the blessing 
 of Noah fell because of his filial act as narrated 
 in Gen. 9.25 fi. He lived to the age of six hun- 
 dred years. His posterity possessed Upper and 
 Middle Asia, stretching from the Mediterranean 
 to the east of India. From his third son, 
 Arphaxad, sprang the chosen race, and so the 
 Messiah, in whom " all the families of the earth 
 shall be blessed." 
 
 
 Shem 
 1 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 m Asshur 
 
 1 1 
 Arphaxad Lud 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 Aram 
 
 1 
 
 Salah | | 
 | Ux Hul 
 Eber 
 ! 
 
 I 
 Gether 
 
 Mash 
 
 Peleg 
 
 I 
 Reu 
 
 I 
 Serug 
 
 Nahor 
 
 I 
 Terah 
 
 I 
 Joktan 
 
 I 
 Almodad and 12 others 
 
 Abram 
 See each name separately for their settlements, etc. 
 
SHEMA] 
 
 443 
 
 [SHEPHERD 
 
 She'ma. 1. A town of Judah (Josh. 15.20). 
 Its position was near Anam in the south ; now 
 unknown. Probably the same as the Sheba of 
 Josh. 19.2, which was allotted to Simeon. 2. Son 
 of Hebron (1 Ch. 2.43, 44). 3. (1 Ch. 5.8). 4. 
 A Benjamite and chief of Aijalon (1 Ch. 8.13). 
 5. (Neh. 8.4). 
 
 Shema'ah. Father of two of David's heroes 
 (1 Ch. 12.3). 
 
 Shemai'ah. Jehovah has heard : 1. A 
 prophet of the time of Rehoboam. The latter 
 was about to lead his army against the revolting 
 kingdom of Israel when Shemaiah was sent to 
 warn him not to war against his brethren 
 (1 K. 12.22 ; 2 Ch. 11.2). He appeared again to 
 bring comfort to Judah during the investment 
 of Jerusalem by Shishak (which see), king of 
 Egypt (2 Ch. 12.5, 7). He also wrote a history 
 of Kehoboam's reign (2 Ch. 12.15). 2. A 
 descendant of David (1 Ch. 3.22). 3. Father 
 of Shimri and a Simeonite prince (1 Ch. 4.37). 
 4. A Reubenite chief (1 Ch. 5.4). 5. A Merarite 
 (1 Ch. 9.14 ; Neh. 11.15). 6. A Levite (1 Ch. 
 9.16). 7. A Kohathite who assisted in bringing 
 up the Ark from Obed-edom (1 Ch. 15.8, 11). 
 8. A Levite and recorder in David's time (1 Ch. 
 24.6). 9. A Kohathite (1 Ch. 26.4-7). 10. A 
 Levite (2 Ch. 17.8). 11. A son of Jeduthun 
 (2 Ch. 29.14). 12. A Levite (2 Ch. 31.15). 13. 
 A chief Levite (2 Ch. 35.9). 14 One who re- 
 turned with Ezra (Ezra 8.13). 15. A messenger 
 of Ezra (Ezra 8.16). 16. A priest who married 
 a foreign wife (Ezra 10.21). 17. One who had 
 married a foreign wife (Ezra 10.31). 18. A 
 repairer of the wall (Neh. 3.29). 19. An oppon- 
 ent of Nehemiah (Neh. 6.10). 20. A priest 
 (Neh. 10.8). 21. A helper of Nehemiah (Neh. 
 12.36). 22. One who gave thanks at the dedi- 
 cation of the wall (Neh. 12.42). 23. Father of 
 Uriah (Jer. 26.20). 24. One who stirred up 
 hostility to Jeremiah (Jer. 29.24). 25. Father 
 of Delaiah (Jer. 36.12). 
 
 Shemari'ah. Guarded by God : 1. One of 
 David's mighty men (1 Ch. 12.5). 2. Son of 
 King Rehoboam (2 Ch. 11.19). 3. (Ezra 10.32). 
 4. (Ezra 10.41). 
 
 Sheme'ber. The king of Zeboim, who allied 
 himself with others against Abraham (Gen. 
 14.2). 
 
 Shemed. [SHAMED, SHEMER 4.] 
 
 She'mer. Watch, or guardian : I. Owner of 
 the ground which Omri purchased and on which 
 Samaria (which see) was built (1 K. 16.24). 
 2. [SHAMEB 1.] 3. [SHAMEB 2.] 4. A various 
 reading for Shemed or Shamed. 
 
 Shemi'dah (R.V. Shemi'da). Son of Gilead 
 (Num. 26.32 ; Josh. 17.2 ; 1 Ch. 7.19). 
 
 Shemida'ites. Descendants of Shemidah 
 (Num. 26.32 ; Josh. 17.2). 
 
 Shemi'nith. A musical term occurring in 
 1 Ch. 15.21 and in the titles of Psalms 6 and 12, 
 R.V. " set to the Sheminith," marg. or" eighth," 
 i.e., probably, octave. The " harps set to the 
 Sheminith" of 1 Ch. 15.21 stand in contrast 
 with the " psalteries set to Alamoth " of ver. 
 20. If this latter means the choir of female 
 
 voices, Sheminith would seem to denote the 
 male choir, singing an octave lower. [ALAMOTH.] 
 
 Shemira'moth. 1. A Levite (1 Ch. 15.18, 
 20, 16.5). 2. A Levite sent by Jehoshaphat 
 to teach the people of Judah (2 Ch. 17.8). 
 
 Shenm'el. Name of God, hardly Heard of 
 God : 1. A Simeonite chief who assisted in 
 the division of the land (Num. 34.20). 2. The 
 prophet Samuel (1 Ch. 6.33, R.V. Samuel). 
 3. Head of a family of Issachar (1 Ch. 7.2). 
 
 Shen. Tooth, crag, or peak : a place near 
 which Samuel erected the stone Ebenezer 
 (1 Sam. 7.12). 
 
 Shena'zar (R.V. Shenazzar). A son of 
 Jeconiah (1 Ch. 3.18). 
 
 She'nir (R.V. Senir) (Deut. 3.9 ; Cant. 4.8) 
 Peak. [SENIR.] 
 
 SheoL [HELL.] 
 
 She'pham. Bareness : landmark on the 
 north-east boundary of the Promised Land 
 (Num. 34.10, 11). 
 
 Shephati'ah. Jehovah judges : David's 
 fifth son (2 Sam. 3.4; 1 Ch. 3.3). 2. A 
 Benjamite (1 Ch. 9.8). 3. A valiant man who 
 joined David at Ziklag (1 Ch. 12.5). 4. A 
 prince of Simeon in the time of David (1 Ch. 
 27.16). 5. A son of Jehoshaphat (2 Ch. 21.2). 
 6. One whose descendants returned with 
 Zerubbabel (Ezra 2.4). 7. Another whose 
 descendants returned (Ezra 2.57). 8. One 
 whose descendants, Zebadiah and others, 
 returned (Ezra 8.8). 9. A descendant of 
 Pharez (Neh. 11.4). 10. A prince of Judah 
 (Jer. 38.1). 
 
 Shephelah. [PALESTINE.] 
 
 Shepherd. Shepherds in the East lead a 
 lonely life. They wander far from human 
 habitations in the quest of pasturage ; and they 
 have to protect their flocks by day and night. 
 In the morning the shepherd lets the sheep out 
 of the roughly-built fold, and, calling them, he 
 leads the way, and they follow, " for they know 
 his voice " (John 10.1-5). The sheep will pur- 
 sue the shepherd and surround him rather than 
 let him escape from them, such is their trust in 
 him, their natural protector from the dreaded 
 wolf. The finding of water is a matter of great 
 concern to the shepherd. Hence it is that wells, 
 such as that at Beersheba, and running streams, 
 are great resorts and centres for pasture (Ps. 
 23.2). Noontide is the usual watering-time. 
 In the story of Gen. 29 the point of the incident 
 is the rolling away of the stone from the well 
 for Rachel to water her sheep, the heavy stone 
 being placed as a protection against dust and 
 sand. Later on, Moses performed the same 
 services for the daughters of Jethro, pouring 
 the water into the troughs for the sheep. To this 
 day the well is the common meeting-place in 
 the East. [WELL.] If the shepherd lost any of 
 his sheep it was his duty to search until they 
 were found (Ezek. 34.12 ; Lk. 15.4). His ordi- 
 nary equipment was a long crook or staff 
 (mishencth), a short, thick-headed rod (shebet), 
 and a sling. As he let them into the fold in 
 the evening he compelled them to pass under a 
 
SHEPHI, SHEPHO] 
 
 444 
 
 [SHIGGAION 
 
 rod across the entrance, checking each animal 
 as it passed by a turn of the hand (Lev. 27.32 ; 
 Jer. 33.13; Ezek. 20.37). The duties of the 
 day over, he still had to keep watch during the 
 night. Sometimes, however, another person 
 kept the night watch (John 10.3). The tender- 
 ness and regard of the shepherd for his sheep 
 was shown by his care of the feeble and 
 sick members of his charge (Qen. 33.13 ; /sat. 
 40.11). 
 
 The relations of God to His people are sym- 
 bolically referred to as those of shepherd and 
 sheep (Ps. 23.1, 80.1 ; and see the Messianic 
 passages, /sat. 40.11 ; Zech. 13.7). Our Lord 
 calls Himself " the good shepherd " (John 
 10.11; and cf. Heb. 13.20; 1 Pet. 2.25). 
 
 [SHEEP.] 
 
 Sheph'i, Sheph'o. A son of Shobal (Gen. 
 36.23 ; 1 Ch. 1.40). 
 
 Shephu'phan (1 Ch. 8.5). Serpent : a 
 descendant of Benjamin. His name appears 
 also as Shephupham (Num. 26.39, R.V. ; A.V. 
 Shupham), Shuppim (1 Ch. 7.12, 15), and 
 Muppim (Gen. 46.21). 
 
 She'rah (R.V. Sheerah). A daughter of 
 Beriah (1 Ch. 7.24). 
 
 Sherebi'ah. A Levite who, with his family, 
 returned with Ezra, joined in expounding the 
 Law, and sealed the covenant with Nehemiah 
 (Ezra 8.18, 24; Neh. 8.7, 9.4, 5, 10.12, 12.8, 24). 
 
 She'resh. (1 Ch. 7.16). 
 
 Sheriffs. An official title used only in Daniel 
 (3.2, 3). What the office was is unknown. 
 
 She'shach. A secret or mystical name for 
 Babylon (Jer. 25.26, 51.41). The word seems to 
 be formed from Babel, by a system in which the 
 first letter of the alphabet is written for the last, 
 the second for the last but one, and so on. 
 
 She'shai. A son of Anak who, with his 
 brethren, dwelt at Hebron, and was killed by 
 Caleb and his Judahite followers (Num. 13.22 ; 
 Josh. 15.14 ; Judg. 1.10). 
 
 She 'sham A descendant of Jerahmeel (1 Ch. 
 2.31, 34, 35). 
 
 Sheshbaz'zar. Zerubbabel, the Chaldsoan 
 governor of Judah (Ezra 1.8, 11, 5.14, 16). The 
 name was bestowed upon him by Cyrus, though 
 its significance is uncertain. The case is 
 analogous to those of Shadrach, Meshach, etc. 
 
 Sheth. 1. The same as Seth (which see) 
 (1 Ch. 1.1). 2. In Num. 24.17 for A.V. 
 " children of Sheth," R.V. has " sons of tumult," 
 a title descriptive of the fighting men of Moab 
 (cf. Jer. 48.45). 
 
 She'thar. A Persian prince who had free 
 access to the king (Eslh. 1.14). 
 
 She'thar-boz'nai. A commanding officer in 
 the service of the Persian king Darius who 
 tried to obstruct the rebuilding of the Temple 
 (Ezra 5.3, 6, 6.6, 13). 
 
 She'va. 1. (2 Sam. 20.25). 2. (1 Ch. 2.49). 
 [SHAVSHA.] 
 
 Shewbread. [BREAD, SHEW.] 
 
 Shibah. [SHEBAH.] 
 
 Shib'boleth. Flood, stream, also, an ear of 
 corn : a word which the Gileadites, after their 
 
 defeat of Ephraim, used as a test of the fugitives 
 who sought to cross the fords of Jordan by 
 denying that they were Ephraimites. For the 
 Ephraimites could not pronounce the Hebrew 
 " Sh " ; therefore they said Sibboleth instead 
 of Shibboleth, and, self-betrayed, were slain 
 (Judg. 12.6). 
 Sbib'mah (R.V. Sibmah). (Num. 32.38). 
 
 [SlBMAH.] 
 
 Shic'ron (R.V. Shikkeron). Boundary town 
 in the north-west of Judah (Josh. 15.11). Site 
 unknown, though it must have been near to the 
 sea. 
 
 Shield. Four Hebrew words are translated 
 shield in the A.V. The first was of large size, 
 adapted to covering the whole body. This 
 was the tsinnah, the great shield or buckler 
 which was constructed of wood and covered 
 with hardened hides ; the magen was a small 
 round or octagonal shield, much used by the 
 Jews, Babylonians, Chaldaeans, Assyrians, and 
 Egyptians. This small shield was also made of 
 wood covered with leather for general use, but it 
 was frequently covered with copper, or even 
 overlaid with gold (1 K. 10.16, 17, 14.26, 27). 
 The larger shield was employed by infantry 
 chiefly, and was sometimes carried by the 
 fighter's attendant (1 Sam. 17.7). It was used 
 also during sieges, several being placed together 
 to protect the heads of the besiegers from darts 
 and stones flung from the walls or towers. The 
 small round shield was worn by cavalry as well 
 as by infantry. The third (kidon) is properly 
 a dart or javelin (1 Sam. 17.45). The meaning 
 of the fourth (shelet in 2 Sam. 8.7) is uncertain, 
 though probably it is a shield of some kind. 
 To lose the shield in battle was a disgrace, for 
 it was an aggravation of the national mourn- 
 ing that " the shield of the mighty was vilely 
 cast away" (2 Sam. 1.21). With the Greeks 
 it was a capital crime, and punished with 
 death. Lacedaemonian mothers would excite the 
 ambition of their sons by handing them their 
 fathers' shields with these words, " This shield 
 thy father always preserved ; do thou preserve 
 it also, or perish." 
 
 It was the pride of the warrior to keep the 
 shield bright. It was covered up when not in 
 use, and rubbed with oil to protect it from the 
 weather (/sat. 21.5, 22.6). Shields overlaid 
 with gold were largely used for decorative 
 purposes, and for ostentatious display. Solomon 
 employed them thus, and in religious pro- 
 cessions (1 K. 10.16 ff.), as his father had previ- 
 ously done, with his battle trophies (2 Sam. 8.7). 
 
 Faith is described as a shield in Eph. 6.16 ; as 
 is salvation in Ps. 18.35. 
 
 Shiggai'on. Ps. 7 is described in the title 
 as " Shiggaion of David." The word is obscure ; 
 supposed to come from a root meaning to wander, 
 it has been imaginatively interpreted as " a 
 dithyrambic poem in wild ecstatic wandering 
 rhythms, with corresponding music." The plural 
 occurs in the title of the Psalm of Hob. 3, " Set 
 to Shigionoth," possibly a corruption for 
 Sheminith (which see). 
 
SHIGIONOTH] 
 
 445 
 
 [SHIMEI 
 
 Shigio'noth. The plural of Shiggaion (Hal. 
 3.1). 
 
 Shi'hon (R.V. and A.V. of 1611, Shion) 
 V town of Issachar near Mount Tabor (Josh. 
 19.19). Its modern name is 'Ayun esh-Sh'ain. 
 
 Shi'hor. Black, turbid : in Josh. 13.3 and 
 1 Ch. 13.5 the " River of Egypt " ; now the Wady 
 d-Arlsh; in Isai. 23.3 and Jer. 2.18, the Nile. 
 
 Shi'hor-lib'nath. River of glass : a place 
 marking the south boundary of Asher (Josh. 
 19.20). 
 
 Shikkeron. [SmcRosr.] 
 
 Shillii. Grandfather of King Jehoshaphat 
 (1 K. 22.42 ; 2 Ch. 20.31). 
 
 Shirhim. Town in the south of Judah (Josh. 
 15.32). It has not been identified. 
 
 Shiriem. [SHALLUM 7.] 
 
 Shil'lemites. (Num. 26.49). [SHALLUM 7.] 
 
 Shilo'ah. [SILOAH, SILOAM.] 
 
 Shi'loh. Rest : now Seilun ; a place 10 miles 
 north-east of Bethel on a bold knoll, surrounded 
 by higher hills. A copious fountain springs up a 
 little to the east, making the locality a desirable 
 camping ground. It was on the main road from 
 Bethel to Shechem. Under Joshua, Shiloh was 
 the meeting-place and sanctuary of the Israelites. 
 Here also the land was divided by lot (Josh. 
 19.51) amongst the tribes, the town itself falling 
 to the share of Manasseh. The Ark and Taber- 
 nacle remained here until the time of Samuel, a 
 period of 300 years ( Josh. 18.1-10, 22.12 ; Judg. 
 18.31 ; 1 Sam. 1, 2, 3, 4 ; 1 K. 2.27 ; Ps. 78.60 ; 
 Jer. 7.12, 14, 26.6, 9). Here also the remnant of 
 Benjamin obtained their wives (Judg. 21.12-21), 
 and Abijah lived (1 K. 14.2, 4). It was resettled 
 by the returned exiles from Babylon (Jer. 41.5). 
 
 Shiloh. In the A.V. and R.V. of Gen. 49.10 
 this word appears as a personal proper name. 
 Jacob is blessing his sons, and, predicting the 
 pre-eminence of Judah, declares, " The sceptre 
 shall not depart from Judah . . . until Shiloh 
 come." This has been interpreted as a Messi- 
 anic title, Shiloh meaning " the peaceful One " 
 (cf. Isai. 9.6). The difficulties, however, are very 
 great. (1) It is generally agreed by scholars 
 that the Hebrew word cannot bear the meaning 
 thus assigned to it. (2) Everywhere else Shiloh 
 is a place ; there is no reference either in O.T. 
 or N.T. to this supposed Messianic title. (3) 
 This interpretation lacks any support from the 
 ancient versions (or from the earlier English 
 translations of Wyclif and Coverdale). 4. 
 Such a prediction of Messiah by name would be 
 unique in Messianic prophecy. 
 
 On these and other grounds this rendering 
 is generally abandoned, and opinion is divided 
 in the main between two interpretations. (1) 
 Keeping the existing Hebrew text, we may 
 translate the phrase, " Until he come to Shiloh." 
 In this case the reference would be to the pre- 
 eminence of Judah during the period of the 
 wanderings and the conquest of Canaan (Num. 
 10.14; Josh. 15 ; Judg. 1.2, 10) until tribal differ- 
 ences were merged in a national unity, of which 
 Shiloh was the religious and political centre 
 (cf. Josh. 18.1). The. Messianic outlook of the 
 
 prophecy, while detached on this view from the 
 word Shiloh, still remains in the context. (2) 
 Without discussing modern "conjectural emenda- 
 tions," it must be noted that the ancient ver- 
 sions cannot have been based upon the existing 
 Hebrew text as vocalised by the Massoretes. 
 The Latin Vulgate reads the word with a 
 different final consonant nearly of the same 
 form, and renders, " Till he come who is to be 
 sent." The LXX translation does not neces- 
 sarily require any change in the consonants, 
 and is (in the best text), " Till the things 
 reserved for him shall come," i.e. until the 
 ideal Judah be realised in the Messiah. The 
 Syriac Version renders, " Until he come whose 
 it is," an even more significant prediction of 
 Messiah. Compare Ezek. 21.27, " Until he come 
 whose right it is," which probably refers to our 
 passage. See further R.V. marg. 
 
 Shilo'ni. [SHILONITE.] 
 
 Shi'lonite. Belonging to Shiloh : Ahijah the 
 prophet is so called (1 K. 11.29, 12.15, 15.29 ; 
 1 Ch. 9.5, etc.). But in 1 Ch. 9.5 and Neh. 11.5 
 (A.V., wrongly, Shiloni) perhaps we should read 
 Shelanite, descendant oi Shelah. [SHELAH 1, 
 and cf. Num. 26.20.] 
 
 Shil'shah. An Asherite (1 Ch. 7.37). 
 
 Shim'ea. 1. David's brother (1 Ch. 20.7) ; 
 called Shimeah (2 Sam. 21.21), Shimma (1 Ch. 
 2.13), and Shammah (1 Sam. 16.9). 2. A son 
 of David of Bathsheba (1 Ch. 3.5), called Sham- 
 muah (2 Sam. 5.14 ; 1 Ch. 14.4). 3. A Merarite 
 Levite (1 Ch. 6.30). 4. A Gershonite Lerite 
 (1 Ch. 6.39). 
 
 Shim'eah. 1. [SHIMEA 1.] 2. A Benjamite 
 (1 Ch. 8.32) ; called Shimeam (1 Ch. 9.38). 
 
 Shim'eam. {SHIMEAH 2.] 
 
 Shiin'eath. An Ammonitess whose son killed 
 Joash, king of Judah (2 K. 12.21 ; 2 Ch. 24.26). 
 
 Shimea'thites. A family of scribes (1 Ch. 
 2.55). 
 
 Shim'ei. 1. Son of Gershom (Num. 3.18 ; 
 1 Ch. 6.17, 42, 23.7-10 ; Zech. 12.13) ; called 
 Shimi in A.V. of Ex. 6.17. 2. A Benjamite, 
 son of Gera (2 Sam. 16.5, 19.16-23 ; 1 K. 
 2.8-44). He was a member of the house of 
 Saul, and lived at Bahurim. While David and 
 his troops were passing Bahurim, Shimei taunted 
 him with being a " man of blood " (2 Sam. 
 16.7, 8), cast stones and dirt at him, and called 
 down curses on his head for having slain Saul 
 and his sons. David forbade Abishai to hurt 
 Shimei (2 Sam. 16.9, 10), and afterwards forgave 
 him, allowing him to reside at Jerusalem. On 
 his accession to the throne, Solomon, who had 
 been cautioned by David (1 K. 2.9), forbade 
 Shimei to leave the city under pain of death. 
 Three years afterwards, Shimei, while in pursuit 
 of some runaway slaves, disobeyed the order, 
 and was slain by Benaiah (1 K. 2.36-46). 3. 
 One of David's officers who remained faithful 
 to him during the usurpation of Adonijah (1 K. 
 1.8). 4. One oi Solomon's officers (1 K. 4.18). 
 5. A grandson of Jeconiah (1 Ch. 3.19). 6. A 
 Benjamite (1 Ch. 4.26,27). 7. A Reubenite 
 (1 Ch. 5.4>. 8. A Merarite (1 Ch, 6.29). 9. A 
 
SHIMEON] 
 
 446 
 
 [SHITTAH, SHITTIM 
 
 Benjamite (1 Ch. 8.21, A.V. Shimhi, marg. or, 
 Shema). 10. A Levite (1 Ch. 25.17). 11. A 
 man of Rama and an officer of David (1 Ch. 
 27.27). 12. One of the sons of Heman (2 Ch. 
 29.14). 13. A Levite in the time of Hezekiah 
 (2 Ch. 31.12, 13). 14. A Levite (Ezra 10.23). 
 
 15. One of the family of Hashum (Ezra 10.33). 
 
 16. One of the family of Bani (Ezra 10.38). 17. 
 The grandfather of Mordecai (Esth. 2.5). 
 
 Shim'eon. An Israelite who had married a 
 foreign wife (Ezra 10.31). The name is the same 
 as Simeon. 
 
 Shim'hi (R.V. Shimei). (1 Ch. 8.21). 
 
 Shim'ites. Descendants of Shimei 1 (Num. 
 3.21). 
 
 Shim 'ma (R.V. Shimea). Brother of David 
 (1 Ch. 2.13). The same as Shammah, Shimea, 
 Shimeah. 
 
 Shi'mon. A descendant of Caleb (1 Ch. 
 4.20). 
 
 Shim/rath. A son of Shimhi (1 Ch. 8.21). 
 
 Shim'ri, Simri. 1. Head of a Simeonite 
 family (1 Ch. 4.37). 2. The father of one of 
 David's valiant men (1 Ch. 11.45). 3. A Merarite 
 (1 Ch. 26.10). 4. A Levite (2 Ch. 29.13). 
 
 Shim'rith. A Moabitess and mother of one of 
 the murderers of Joash (2 Ch. 24.26). In 2 K. 
 12.21 she is called Shomer. 
 
 Shim'ron. 1. A son of Issachar (Gen. 46.13 ; 
 Num. 26.24 ; 1 Ch. 7.1). 2. Town in Zebulun. 
 It had previously been a royal Canaanite city 
 (Josh. 11.1, 19.15). Now Semunieh, west of 
 Nazareth. Probably the same as Shimron-meron 
 (Josh. 12.20). 
 
 Shimron-meron. [SHIMKON 2.] 
 
 Shim'shai. Sunshine : a scribe employed to 
 write to the Persian monarch objecting to the 
 rebuilding of Jerusalem (Ezra 4). 
 
 Shi'nab. King of Admah (Gen. 14.2). He 
 was one of the five associated kings attacked 
 by Chedorlaomer. The name is identical with 
 Sinabu in Babylonian. 
 
 Shi'nar. Ancient name for the country after- 
 wards known as Babylonia (Gen. 10.10, 11.2, 
 14.1,9; Isai. 11.11; Dan. 1.2; Zech. 5.11). 
 The derivation and meaning are uncertain. 
 [BABYLONIA, CHALD^A.] 
 
 Shion. [Snmox.] 
 
 Ship. First named in Jacob's blessing, where 
 it is predicted that Zebulun " shall be an haven 
 for ships" (Gen. 49.13). The ships most 
 familiar to the Hebrews would be the semi-raft- 
 like constructions of reeds on the Nile and the 
 trading vessels of the Mediterranean, propelled 
 partly by means of oars and partly by one 
 large sail. Jehoshaphat endeavoured to found 
 a mercantile fleet, having its base at Ezion- 
 gaber (2 Ch. 20.36). This was for the purposes 
 of foreign trade. Jonah sought to escape from 
 God by taking ship (Jon. 1.3) to sail across the 
 Mediterranean to the port of Tarshish, a Phoeni- 
 cian settlement in what is now Spain. The early 
 trading vessels were partly decked over, forming 
 a cabin and hold for the protection of persons 
 and goods. Jonah had gone below," into the sides 
 of the ship " (Jon. 1.5). In some, cabins were 
 
 erected on deck, as is shown in ancient inscrip- 
 tions. Figures wore sometimes painted or 
 carved on the prow and the stern of the vessel. 
 This would generally take the form of a god, or 
 protecting deity. [CASTOR AND POLLUX.] Jonah's 
 Tarshish ship had such an image or images (Jon. 
 1.5), as had Paul's Alexandria ship at a much 
 later date (Acts 28.11). Vessels of war seem to 
 have been in existence from a very early period. 
 The prophet Ezekiel gives the fullest account of 
 such a ship (Ezek. 27). It was probably a galley 
 or fighting ship of the largest size, with a pro- 
 jecting gallery all round, for the warriors to stand 
 and fight, and on which they would hang their 
 shields when not in use. Ezekiel likens such 
 a vessel to the city of Tyre, " The walls round 
 about " (ver. 11), i.e. the fighting stage, sug- 
 gesting the parallel. The towers were high 
 places upon the forecastles. 
 
 In Paul's days sailors had no compass, and 
 when they left the sight of land (which was 
 seldom) they could only direct their way by 
 the sun and stars. In cloudy weather, there- 
 fore, it was usual to anchor for the night (Acts 
 27.20). They often remained in port during the 
 winter (Acts 27.1 2). Ships carried several anchors. 
 These were at first large blocks of stone, but 
 bronze and finally iron were employed. Four 
 anchors were cast out of the stern of Paul's ship 
 by the help of a boat (Acts 27.29, 30). Vessels 
 were steered by large-bladed oars or sweeps 
 fastened by cords to the sides of the ship, one 
 on each side. 
 
 The " ships " on the Sea of Galilee were fisher- 
 men's boats, carrying mast and sail, and but 
 rarely decked over. The fishermen who left all 
 to follow Jesus were not necessarily poor men, 
 certainly not of the poorest (Matt. 4.22). 
 
 Shiph'i. A Simeonite prince '(1 Ch. 4.37). 
 
 Shiph'mite. An officer of David who had 
 charge of his wine cellars and saw to their 
 replenishment (1 Ch. 27.27) ; perhaps a native 
 of Shepham. 
 
 Shiph'rah. A Hebrew midwife who dis- 
 obeyed Pharaoh and saved newborn males 
 (Ex. 1.15). 
 
 Shiph'tan. An Ephraimite (Num. 34.24). 
 
 Shi'sha. The father of two of Solomon's 
 scribes (1 K. 4.3). [SHAVSHA.] 
 
 Shi'shak. A king of Egypt who received 
 Jeroboam (1 K. 11.40), and invaded Judaea 
 during the reign of Rehoboam. He took several 
 fenced cities as well as Jerusalem, and carried 
 off the Temple treasures (1 K. 14.25, 26 ; 2 Ch. 
 12.2-9). He is identified with the first king of 
 the twenty-second dynasty, Shoshenk I. The 
 south wall of the great temple at Karnak had 
 sculptures giving a list of the cities in Palestine 
 taken by the king. 
 
 Shit'rai. A herdsman of Sharon who had 
 charge of David's flocks (1 Ch. 27.29). 
 
 Shit 'tab, Shittim. In the prophecy of Isai. 
 41.19 among the trees to be planted in the 
 desert is the shittah (R.V. acacia). Elsewhere 
 the word is used in the plural, " shiltim wood," 
 R.V. " acacia wood." The references are con- 
 
SHITTIM] 
 
 447 
 
 [SHUSHAN 
 
 fined to the Book of Exodus with Deut. 10.3, 
 from which we learn that it was the chief material 
 used in the construction of the Tabernacle and 
 its furniture. 
 
 The tree in question, the Egyptian " sunt," 
 is the Acacia seyal, and yields the gum-arabic 
 of commerce. It grows chiefly in the Sinaitic 
 peninsula, but extends some distance into 
 Palestine, being found in the Jordan valley and 
 on the east side of the Dead Sea. It has a 
 rugged and thorny stem, and bears yellow 
 blossoms amidst its feathery foliage; its seed 
 is a pod like that of the laburnum. The wood 
 is hard and very durable, and admirably adapted 
 for cabinet-work (Ex. 25, 26, 27, 30, 35, 36, 
 37, 38 ; Deut. 10.3). 
 
 Sbittim. Acacias : site of the last Israelite 
 encampment before the passage of the Jordan 
 (Num. 25.1 ; Mic. 6.5). Its full name was Abel- 
 shittim, which see. 
 
 Shi'za. The father of one of David's valiant 
 men (1 Ch. 11.42). 
 
 Sho'a. A district of Assyria (EzeJc. 23.23). 
 Sho'bab. 1. One of David's sons born in 
 Jerusalem (2 Sam. 5.14 ; 1 Ch. 3.5, 14.4). 2. A 
 descendant of Caleb (1 Ch. 2.18). 
 
 Sho'bach. One of King Hadarezer's captains, 
 slain by Joab (2 Sam. 10.15-18). In 1 Ch. 
 19.16 he is called Shophach. 
 
 Sho'bai. One whose descendant returned 
 with Zerubbabel (Ezra 2.42 ; Neh. 7.45). 
 
 Sho'bai. 1. A son of Seir the Horite (Oen. 
 36.20, 29 ; 1 Ch. 1.38, 40). 2. A son of Caleb, 
 son of Hur (1 Ch. 2.50, 52). 3. A son of Judah 
 (1 Ch. 4.1, 2). 
 
 Sho'bek. One of those who sealed the 
 covenant (Neh. 10.24). 
 
 Sho'bi. A son of Nahash who befriended 
 David as he fled from Absalom (2 Sam. 17.27). 
 Sho'cho, Shoco, Shochoh. [Socno.] 
 Shoe. [SANDAL.] 
 
 Sho'ham. A Merarite Levite (1 Ch. 24.27). 
 Sho'mer. 1. The father of Jehozabad (2 K. 
 12.21) ; called Shimrith in 2 Ch. 24.26. 2. An 
 Asherite (1 Ch. 7.32). In vcr. 34 his name 
 appears as Shamer (R.V. Shemer). 
 Sho'phach. [SHOBACH.] 
 Sho'phan. A fortified town of Gad (Num. 
 32.35). [ATEOTH-SHOPHAN.] 
 
 Shoshan'nim. Lilies : a musical direction 
 in Psalms 45 and 69. R.V. " Set to Shoshan- 
 nim." Also Psalm 60 is, " Set to Shushan- 
 eduth," i.e. " the lily of testimony," and Psalm 80 
 to " Shoshannim-eduth," i.e. " lilies, a testi- 
 mony." Probably the name of the melody; 
 perhaps connected with the spring festival of 
 the Passover commemorating the great deliver- 
 ance wrought by Jehovah. Dr. Thirtle (Titles 
 of the Psalms) applies the title in each case to 
 the preceding Psalm. 
 
 Shovel. Shovels were among the utensils 
 attached to the altar (Ex. 27.3, 38.3 ; Num. 
 4.14). The reference in Isai. 30.24 is to the 
 broad-bladed winnowing shovel of wood. 
 
 Shrine. In Acts 19.24 the " silver shrines 
 of Diana " were miniature temples or grottoes 
 
 containing the image of the goddess. They 
 were also made in marble and terra-cotta. 
 
 Shua. A sister of Shomer (1 Ch. 7.32). 
 
 Shu'ah. 1. One of Abraham's sons by 
 Keturah (Gen. 25.2). 2. A Canaanite (Gen. 
 38.2, R.V. Shua); in 1 Ch. 2.3 Shua (R.V. 
 Beth-shua). 3. A descendant of Caleb, son of 
 Hur (1 Ch. 4.11, R.V. Shuhah). 
 
 Shu'al. An Asherite (1 Ch. 7.36). 
 
 Shu'al, Land of. Jackal : the district 
 through which the marauding party of Philistines 
 went (1 Sam. 13.17) ; in the hill country of 
 Benjamin. 
 
 Shuba'el. [SHEBUEL 1 and 2.] 
 
 Shuhah. [SHUAH 3.] 
 
 Shu 'ham. A son of Dan, and founder of 
 the family of the Shuhamites (Num. 26.42). 
 
 Shu'hamites. The family of Shuham (Num. 
 26.42, 43). 
 
 Shu'hite. A designation of Job's friend, 
 Bildad. Perhaps from Shuah 1 (Job 2.11, etc.). 
 
 Shu'lamite (R.V. Shulammite). A designa- 
 tion of the heroine of the Song of Songs (6.13). 
 Perhaps Shulem was an alternative form of 
 Shunem (which see). 
 
 Shu'mathites. Descendants of Shobal of 
 Kirjath-jearim (1 Ch. 2.53). 
 
 Shunam'mite. A native of Shunem (1 K. 
 1.3, 15, 2.17-22 ; 2 K. 4.12, 25, 36). The term 
 is applied in the above passages to Abishag, a 
 nurse of King David, and to the woman who 
 received the prophet Elisha into her house. 
 [ABISHAG, ELISHA.] 
 
 Shu'nem. A town of Issachar at the south- 
 west corner of Little Hermon ( Jebel Duhy), more 
 than 20 miles from Carmel. It was the camping- 
 place of the Philistines before the battle of 
 Gilboa ; the original home of Abishag, David's 
 nurse, and of the hostess of Elisha. Its present 
 name is Solam (Josh. 19.18 ; 1 Sam. 28.4 ; 
 1 K. 1.3 ; 2 K. 4.8, 25). 
 
 Shu'ni. Fortunate : a son of Gad (Gen. 
 46.16 ; Num. 26.15). 
 
 Shu 'nit es. Descendants of Shuni (Num. 
 26.15). 
 
 Shu'pham (R.V. Shephupham). Serpent : a 
 son of Benjamin (Num. 26.39). [SnuppiM 1.] 
 
 Shu'phamites. Descendants of Shupham 
 (Num. 26.39). 
 
 Shup'pim. Serpent : 1. Descendant of Ben- 
 jamin (1 Ch. 7.12, 15). 2. A Levite and door- 
 keeper (1 Ch. 26.16). [MUPPIM, SHUPHAM, 
 SHEPHUPHAN.] 
 
 Shur. Wall: the wilderness between Palestine 
 and Egypt, extending south-east from the Isthmus 
 of Sue?, between the Gulf and et-Tih (Gen. 16.7, 
 20.1, 25.18; Ex. 15.22; 1 Sam. 15.7, 27.8); 
 called also the Wilderness of Etham. [ETHAM.] 
 
 Shu'shan. A city on the branch of the 
 Choaspes (Kerkhah); afterwards called Sus or 
 Shush, Greek Susa. Originally the capital of 
 Elam, then of Persia, and the usual residence 
 of the Persian monarchs (Neh. 1.1 ; Esth. ; 
 Dan. 8.2). Here Daniel had the vision of the 
 ram and the he-goat (Dan. 8) ; and here Darius 
 Hystaspes issued his decree for the rebuilding 
 
SHUSHANCHITES] 
 
 448 
 
 [SILVER, SILVERSMITH 
 
 of the Temple at Jerusalem, in gratitude for 
 which the Jews called the eastern gate of the 
 Temple the gate of Shushan, and had a picture 
 of that city carved thereon. At Shushan, 
 also, Darius kept the splendid feast described 
 in Esther (1.6). 
 
 Shushanchites. [SUSAXCHITES.] 
 
 Shu'shan-e'duth. [SHOSHANNIM.] 
 
 Shuthalites, Shuthelahites. Descendants of 
 Shuthelah 1 (Num. 26.35). 
 
 Shuthe'lah. 1. Descendant of Ephraim (Num. 
 26.35, 36 ; 1 Ch. 7.20). 2. Another descendant 
 of Ephraim, but possibly the same as Shuthelah 1 
 (1 Ch. 7.21). 
 
 Shuttle. [WEAVING.] 
 
 Si'a, Sia'ha. Ancestor of some who returned 
 to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel (Ezra 2.44 ; Neh. 
 7.47). 
 
 Sib'becai, Sib'bechai. One of David's officers. 
 He slew the giant Saph in single combat at 
 Gezer (2 Sam. 21.18 ; 1 Ch. 11.29, 20.4, 27.11). 
 
 Sibtoleth. [SHIBBOLETH.] 
 
 Sib 'man. [SHEBAM.] 
 
 Sibra'im. Landmark on the north boundary 
 of the Holy Land (Ezek. 47.16). 
 
 Siccuth. Or rather Sakkuth, a name of Adar, 
 the Assyrian god of war (Amos 5.26, R.V., 
 where A.V. reads tabernacle, as though it was 
 connected with Succoth). 
 
 Si'chem. [SHECHEM.] 
 
 Sickle. [HABVEST, REAPING.] 
 
 Sid'dim. A valley at the north-west corner 
 of the Dead Sea ; the scene of the battle of the 
 kings in which Lot was taken prisoner (Gen. 
 14.3-12). [Lor.] 
 
 Sidon. Fishery : 1. The eldest son of Canaan 
 and legendary founder of Sidon 2 (Gen. 10.15, 
 R.V. Zidon). 2. The Greek form of Zidon. 
 
 [ZlDON.] 
 
 Sidonians. [ZiDONiANs.] 
 
 Signet. [RING, SEAL.] 
 
 Si'hon. An Amorite king in Heshbon who 
 attacked the Israelites as they approached the 
 Promised Land. He lost the battle and his 
 life, his army was annihilated and his country 
 occupied by the enemy. Previously to the 
 coming of the Israelites, Sihon had defeated 
 the Moabites and had taken a portion of their 
 country (Num. 21.21 ff. ; Dcut. 1.4, 2.24 ff., 
 3.2,6; Judg. 11.19-21; Neh.9.22; Ps. 135.10-12, 
 136.18, 19 ; Amos 2.9). [AMORITB.] 
 
 Si'hor (R.V. Shihor). (Josh. 13.3 ; 1 Ch. 13.5 ; 
 Isai. 23.3 ; Jer. 2.18). [SHIHOR.] 
 
 Si'las. A prominent member of the Early 
 Christian Church, and a Roman citizen (Acts 
 15.22). He was sent by the apostles to Antioch 
 with Paul and Barnabas (Acts 15.22,27,34). 
 He was also Paul's fellow-labourer and com- 
 panion on his second missionary journey 
 through Asia Minor ( Acts 15.40, 16.19, 17.4, 10 ; 
 1 Thess. 1.1 ; 2 Thess. 1.1). Silas was cast 
 into prison with Paul at Philippi (which see), 
 but released by a miracle (Acts 16.19-40). 
 For awhile he remained at Berea with 
 Timothy (Acts 17.14), but rejoined Paul at 
 Corinth (Acts 17.15, 18.5). Silas is a con- 
 
 traction of Silvanus, the name by which he is 
 known in the Epistles (2 Cor. 1.19 ; 1 Thess. 
 1.1 ; 2 Thess. 1.1). He is probably the Silvanus 
 who was the bearer of the First Epistle of Peter 
 (1 Pet. 5.12). 
 
 Silk. Though silk is only mentioned three 
 times in the Bible (in Prov. 31.22, R. V., correctly, 
 " fine linen "), it was well known in the Holy 
 Land and neighbouring countries, being im- 
 ported from the far East in its rough state, 
 called " whole silk." A method of separating 
 the threads into a finer state was employed, 
 and the woven web resembled the modern 
 gauze. Silk was manufactured and coloured 
 at Tyre and Berytus ; sometimes it was mixed 
 with other materials. [LINEN.] It was very 
 costly, being at times worth its weight in gold 
 (Ezek. 16.10, 13 ; Rev. 18.12). 
 
 Sil'la. Highway : an unknown spot in or 
 near Jerusalem, apparently in the Tyropoeon 
 Valley (2 K. 12.20). 
 
 Silo'ah. The same as Shiloah, Siloam. 
 
 Silo'am. Sent forth : the " pool of Siloam " 
 is referred to in John 9.7, 11 ; from Neh. 3.15 
 (Shelah, R.V.) we learn that its "wall" was 
 " by the king's garden," i.e. probably a portion 
 of the fortifications at the south end of the 
 Tyropoeon Valley, of which perhaps the " tower 
 in Siloam " (Lk. 13.4) formed part. The only 
 other mention is Isai. 8.6, " The waters of 
 Shiloah that go softly." Both the name itself 
 (sent) and the phrase " go softly " seem to 
 refer to the fact that the pool was supplied 
 by a rock-hewn conduit from the " Fountain 
 of the Virgin " [GraoN], an intermittent spring 
 in the Kidron Valley. This conduit has been 
 discovered, with an inscription (found in 1880) 
 near its issue in the pool, describing how the 
 miners worked from both ends and met in the 
 middle. In all probability, both pool and 
 conduit are to be attributed to Hezekiah (2 K. 
 20.20 ; 2 Ch. 32.2-4, 30 ; Isai. 22.9, 11). The 
 pool is identified with the present Birket Silwan, 
 in the Tyropceon Valley, and lay just outside 
 the city wall. 
 
 Silvanus [SILAS.] 
 
 Silver, Silversmith. Lead and silver are 
 both found in Palestine, and silver was mined 
 (Job 28.1-11). Silver refining and the mixing 
 of alloys are also alluded to (Ps. 12.6 ; Prov. 
 8.19, 25.4 ; Jer. 6.30 ; Ezek. 22.20 ff.). But 
 silver was also largely imported from Spain and 
 India, being brought by the merchants of 
 Tarshish in plates (2 Ch. 9.21 ; Jer. 10.9). It 
 was used for money, for the making of 
 drinking and other vessels, and for overlaying 
 baser materials (Gen. 13.2; Amos 8.6; Matt. 
 26.15). David provided a quantity for the 
 Temple (1 Ch. 29.2, 7), and in Solomon's time 
 it was very abundant (1 K. 10.27). The 
 introduction of Phoenician workmen for the 
 building of David's palace (2 Sam. 5.11) and 
 Solomon's Temple brought the art of engraving 
 on silver and other arts to the Hebrews, who 
 readily learnt from Hiram's skilled workmen. 
 In the reign of Jehoash, when repairs became 
 
SILVER, PIECE OF] 
 
 449 
 
 [SIN 
 
 necessary, we have no hint of foreign workmen 
 being employed (2 K. 12.7-13). 
 
 Silver, Piece of. In the O.T. this phrase 
 probably refers to the shekel, and so, probably, 
 in Matt. 26.15, 27.3, 5, 6, 9, a reference to the 
 thirty shekels paid for a slave (Zech. 11.12, 13). 
 In Lk. 15.8, 9 the coin is named the " drachma," 
 a Greek coin equivalent to the Roman silver 
 " denarius " (penny). [MONEY, WEIGHTS.] 
 
 Silverling. Small piece of silver (Isai. 7.23). 
 
 Sim'eon Hearing : 1. The son of Jacob and 
 Leah (Gen. 29.33, 34.25). Jacob foretold that, 
 because of their cruelty to the Shechemites, 
 Simeon and Levi should have no fixed share 
 in the Promised Land. " I will divide them 
 in Jacob, and scatter them in Israel" (Gen. 
 49.5, 7). During the famine Simeon was kept 
 prisoner by Joseph for the surety of his breth- 
 ren's return (Gen. 42.24, 36). The reason for 
 this choice is not given. The tribe of Levi 
 never had any fixed lot or portion, and that of 
 Simeon received only a portion of land dis- 
 membered from Judah (Josh. 19.1, etc.), and 
 certain territories in the mountains of Seir and 
 the deserts of Gedor (1 Ch. 4.39,42) which 
 they wrested from the original inhabitants. 
 The tribe of Simeon was a small one, its 
 rate of increase being low (1 Ch. 4.27). At 
 the numbering at Sinai it was relatively large, 
 furnishing 59,300 fighting men (Num. 1.23, 
 2.12, 13), but at the second counting, at Shittim, 
 it was the smallest tribe of all (Num. 26.14). 
 Its position on the march was south of the 
 Tabernacle under the standard of Reuben (Num. 
 2.12). There was great mortality in the tribe 
 following its idolatry at Peor. Josiah destroyed 
 the Simeonite idols (2 Ch. 34.6). David took 
 refuge among the Simeonites, and gave them 
 part of the spoils of the Amalekites, and when 
 he had secured the throne a deputation attended 
 his coronation (1 Ch. 12.23 ff.) at Hebron. 
 
 2. An aged and pious Jew who blessed Jesus 
 in the Temple (Lk. 2.25 ff.). Gamaliel, the in- 
 structor of Saul (Acts 22.3), is said to have been 
 Simeon's son; if so, Simeon was probably a 
 Rabbi of high rank. Tradition makes him 
 chief of the Sanhedrin. 3. A name in the 
 genealogy of our Lord (Lk. 3.30). 4. A disciple 
 and prophet at Antioch, surnamed Niger (black). 
 He was a teacher at Antioch (Acts 13.1). 5. 
 (Acts 15.14). [PETER, SYMEON.] 
 
 Si'mon. Hearing : 1. The " brother " of 
 our Lord (Matt. 13.55 ; Mk. 6.3). [BRETHREN 
 OF THE LORD.] 2. (Matt. 4.18, etc.). [PETEB.] 
 3. The Canansean, an apostle of Jesus Christ. 
 The term (A. V., wrongly, Canaanite) is equivalent 
 to the Greek " zealot." We know nothing of 
 his acts as an apostle (Matt. 10.4 ; Mk. 3.18 ; 
 Lk. 6.15; Acts 1.13). [ANAANITE.] 4. A 
 leper living at Bethany, at whose house the 
 Saviour's head was anointed with oil (Matt. 
 26.6 ; Mk. 14.3). As he was living among the 
 people and in his own house, he must have 
 recovered from his leprosy ; probably he was 
 one of those miraculously cured by the Lord. 
 Lazarus, Mary, and Martha were present as 
 
 quests (John 12.2). 5. A Cyrenean who was 
 compelled to help carry the cross to the site of 
 (he Crucifixion (Matt. 27.32; Mk. 15.21; Lk. 
 23.26) when Jesus was too fatigued to bear it 
 longer ; the father of Alexander and Rufus 
 (Mk. 15.21) ; the latter perhaps the Christian of 
 Rome named in Rom. 16.13. 6. A Pharisee 
 at whose house Jesus was anointed by the 
 " woman who was a sinner " (Lk. 7.36-50). 7. 
 The father of Judas Iscariot (John 6.71, 12.4, 
 13.2, 26). [JUDAS.] 8. A sorcerer of Samaria, 
 generally called Simon Magus, who sought to 
 purchase for money the gift of the Spirit (Acts 
 8.9-24). His impious offer of money for the 
 gift of the Holy Ghost is embodied in the term 
 Simony. Later Christian tradition has much 
 to say of his subsequent history. 9. Simon the 
 tanner : a Christian of Joppa at whose house 
 Peter stayed (Acts 9.43, 10.6, 17, 32). 
 
 Simri (R.V. Shimri). (1 Ch. 26.10). 
 
 Sin. Mire : 1. A city of Egypt, afterwards 
 called Pelusium. It was situated amongst the 
 marshes of the north-east branches of the Nile, 
 now overflowed (Ezek. 30.15, 16). 2. Wilder- 
 ness of. A wild tract of country between Elim 
 and Sinai traversed by the Israelites. It was 
 here that the manna and quails were given 
 (Ex. 16.1, 17.1 ; Num. 33.11, 12). [MANNA, 
 QUAIL.] 
 
 Sin. I. One great object of the Bible is 
 to deal with the facts of human life, to state 
 their meaning and effect, and sometimes to 
 throw light upon their cause. In the case of 
 sin there are two chief facts first, that men 
 commit sins ; secondly, that every man commits 
 them. It may be expected, therefore, that the 
 Bible will throw light on the meaning and 
 effect of sins, and also on the cause of their 
 universal prevalence among men, and if there 
 be a remedy will indicate it. 
 
 II. According to the Bible, the cause of sins is 
 due ultimately (so far as regards earthly life) 
 to the sin of the first human pair, with its 
 consequences on them and their children. 
 This subject is considered under FALL. Here 
 it must be sufficient to say that, however low 
 in the scale of humanity (according to the 
 theory of evolution) the first man was, yet, 
 if he was man, he must have had some rudi- 
 mentary sense of right and wrong, and after 
 his first wilful disobedience to this moral sense 
 must have been in a different and lower state 
 morally from what he was before. The first 
 conscious transgression cannot but be a moral 
 fall, however much intellectual wisdom may 
 be gained in the process. Further, it is only 
 reasonable to believe that children begotten 
 after such a fall so far share their parents' 
 nature as to be themselves more weak as regards 
 morality than they would have been if their 
 parents had not transgressed. 
 
 This very reasonable belief appears to be the 
 central thought of the narrative in Gen. 3. 
 For the writer is evidently doing more than 
 state the sin of Adam and Eve as such. He 
 desires to show that it has affected the whole of 
 
SINA, SINAI] 
 
 450 
 
 [SIN-OFFERING 
 
 mankind. Every one comes into the world 
 with the original tendency of human nature 
 modified for the worse. It is, therefore, not 
 to be wondered at that every person does in 
 fact sin. In succeeding chapters the terrible 
 and far-reaching effects of that first sin are 
 stated plainly. 
 
 III. The different aspects of sin which pre- 
 sented themselves to the writers of the Bible 
 may be seen most conveniently in the various 
 names given to it. For the Bible is very rich 
 in words for sin, evil, iniquity, wickedness, 
 of which the more important may be mentioned 
 here: 1. Words that mean " failure," " miss- 
 ing one's aim," etc. In Hebrew, chet and cog- 
 nate words (Ps. 51.9) ; in Greek, hamartia (Rom. 
 3.9), hamartema (I Cor. 6.18). 2. Perversion, dis- 
 tortion, with an implication of guilt, is presented 
 by the Hebrew 'avon (1 K. 17.18). 3. Several 
 words indicate the transgression of a law, or 
 rebellion against a lawgiver. In Hebrew pesha 
 (Prov. 28.13 ; Isai. 53.5) ; in Greek parabasis 
 ("transgression," Rom. 4.15), paraptoma 
 (" trespasses," R.V., Eph. 2.5), anomia (dis- 
 regard of God's law, 1 John 3.4, where we read 
 " hamartia is anomia "), asebeia (disregard of 
 God, 2 Tim. 2.16). 4. Wickedness, a habit of 
 sin, and often violence, are intended by the 
 Hebrew resha (1 Sam. 24.13), and the Greek 
 adikia (Lk. 13.27). 5. Unfaithfulness, treachery 
 to God and man, by the Hebrew ma'al 
 (Josh. 22.22, "trespass," R.V.) 6. Guilt 
 requiring a guilt-offering is expressed by 
 : dshdm (Prov. 14.9). 7. Sin is regarded as a 
 debt in the Lord's Prayer, opfoiTlma (Malt. 6.12). 
 
 IV. Among the greater effects of sin may be 
 mentioned : 1. The dread of God, in contrast 
 to reverential, filial fear (Gen. 3.10). 2. The 
 gradual hardening of the will against good and 
 good influences (Ex. 7.13). 3. The eating away 
 of the vigour and life of the soul, as leprosy 
 eats away the body. (" There is no reference in 
 the Bible to leprosy as a type of sin ; the 
 nearest approach to this is in Ps. 51.7, where 
 the reference is to the ceremonial cleansing 
 of the leper." A. Macalister in Hastings' 
 B.D. in. 98.) 4. All these culminating in 
 separation from God (Gen. 3.24 ; Lev. 13.46 ; 
 2. Thess 1.9). 
 
 V. But in the Bible the remedy for sin is at 
 least as prominent as its cause, nature, and 
 effect. Frequently, of course, there are appeals 
 to sinners to leave their sins, emphasised with 
 statements of the disasters that overtake sinners, 
 and there are promises of the kindly reception 
 which God gives to such repentant sinners 
 (notably 2 Sam. 12.13), the human means 
 being repentance and faith. But both the 
 O.T. and the N.T. state clearly that more 
 is required. In Isai. 53 the self-sacrifice 
 of the Ideal Servant is represented as the 
 means by which sinners are healed, as the Person 
 on whom our iniquity was laid. Other sacri- 
 fices were but types of this one sacrifice. See 
 also John 1.29 ; Col 1.21, 22. This remedy is 
 effective for the restoration of a right standing 
 
 with God (Rom. 5.1; 1 John 1.9), for the 
 removal of the stain brought even on the 
 very highest places by sin, which touches the 
 honour of God and His temple (Heb. 9.23-26), 
 and also for the gradual elimination of sin in 
 the believer (1 John 1.7-96), although while 
 he is on earth he is never wholly free from it 
 (Rom. 7.23 ; Gal. 5.17 ; 1 John 1.10). It is 
 no wonder that our Lord received His name, 
 " for it is he that shall save his people from 
 their sins " (Matt. 1.21, R.V.). 
 
 Among the many helps for the student of this 
 subject may be mentioned Bishop Westcott's 
 additional note on 1 John 1.9, The Idea of 
 Sin in St. John, and Chancellor E. R. Bernard's 
 article on " Sin " in Hastings' Bible Dictionary. 
 [ATONEMENT.] 
 
 Sina, Sinai. The peninsula lying between 
 the Gulfs of Suez and Akabah. The Wilderness 
 of Sinai, where the Israelites continued encamped 
 almost a year, and where Moses erected the 
 Tabernacle of the Covenant, is itself higher than 
 the rest of the country. Here the Almighty 
 made known His will, through Moses, to the 
 assembled multitude. At Mount Sinai, rising 
 abruptly from the plain, the Decalogue was 
 given, and the covenant made (Ex. 20.1-17, 
 24.7, 8). In this desert also the worship of the 
 golden calf took place ; the people were numbered 
 (Num. 1.19, 3.1) ; Aaron and his sons were 
 consecrated ; the second passover was cele- 
 brated (Num. 9.5) ; and Nadab and Abihu 
 were destroyed for offering strange fire unto 
 the Lord. [NADAB, Asrau.] The mountain 
 from which the Law was given is called Horeb 
 in Deuteronomy (1.2, etc.); elsewhere it is 
 Sinai. Horeb, it seems, denotes the whole dis- 
 trict, and Sinai the mountain where the Law 
 was given. 
 
 Sinim, The Land oL A country in the Far 
 East ; by some identified with China, by others 
 with Persia (Isai. 49.12). But it should per- 
 haps be emended to SYENB. The district of 
 the SINTTBS is too near. 
 
 Sinites. Descendants of Canaan, who occu- 
 pied the maritime district north of Sidon (Gen. 
 10.17 ; 1 Ch. 1.15). [CANAAN.] 
 
 Sin-offering. An offering of atonement for 
 sin (Lev. 4.32-35). The sin-offering was a 
 burnt-offering, differing from other sacrifices 
 in that the victims were offered for sins com- 
 mitted inadvertently, or through ignorance, 
 but for which the offender would have deserved 
 cutting off, if done willingly. It was the " expia- 
 tion of sin by a substituted life" (Lev. 5.17-19, 
 15.2, 9, 39, etc. ; Num. 6.11). Sin-offerings were 
 (1) presented by the high-priest when he had 
 committed an offence and brought guilt upon 
 the nation, or (2) when the nation had sinned 
 inadvertently ; also (3) by individuals who had 
 sinned through ignorance (Lev. 4.32 ff.) ; and 
 (4), more especially, on the great Day of Atone- 
 ment. In the first and last cases the high- 
 priest laid bis hand on the head of the victim, 
 confessing his sin. In the second case the elders 
 laid their hand on the victim, and in the third 
 
SIGN] 
 
 451 
 
 [SMITH 
 
 case on the person who brought the offering. 
 The transactions of the great Day of Atonement 
 were exceedingly significant (Lev. 16.20, 26-33 ;' 
 Num. 29.7-11) ; the goat for AZAZBL carrying 
 away the sins of the people, and forming, with 
 the second goat, which was sacrificed, a single 
 complete type of the work of our Lord. Sin- 
 offerings were also presented on various occasions 
 of purification (Lev. 9.22, 14.19-31, 15.2, 14, 15, 
 25-30 ; Num. 6.2-12). 
 
 In the N.T. our Lord is spoken of in terms 
 that represent Him as a sin-offering (Rom. 8.3 ; 
 2 Cor. 5.21 ; Heb. 1.3, 9.28). 
 
 Si'on. Peak : 1. Mount Hermon (Deut. 
 4.48). 2. The Greek form of Zion. [ZiON.] 
 
 Siph'moth. Town in the south of Judah, to 
 which David fled from Saul (1 Sam. 30.28). 
 Position unknown. 
 
 Sip'pai. A giant (sons of Rephaim) killed 
 by Sibbechai at Gezer (1 Ch. 20.4). The name 
 appears again as Saph in 2 Sam. 21.18. 
 
 Si'rach, Book of. [ECCLESIASTICUS, NON- 
 CANONICAL BOOKS.] 
 
 Si'rah. Going aside : a pit or well about one 
 mile on the north road from Hebron, where Abner 
 was killed by Joab (2 Sam. 3.26). Now 'Ain 
 Sarah. 
 
 Si'rion. The name given to Mount Hermon 
 by the Zidonians (Deut. 3.9 ; Ps. 29.6). 
 
 Sisa'mai (R.V. Sismai). A Jerahmeelite 
 (1 Ch. 2.40). 
 
 Sis'era. (?) Child : 1. A captain of the army 
 of Jabin, king of Canaan. He was slain by Jael 
 (Judg. 4.2 ff., 5.20-30 ; 1 Sam. 12.9 ; Ps. 83.9). 
 Sisera had been defeated by Barak and Deborah, 
 and fled from the battlefield. Exhausted, he 
 sought shelter in the tent of Jael, who drove 
 a tent-pin through his skull while he slept. 
 [JAEL.] 2. The ancestor of a family that re- 
 turned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel (Ezra 
 2.53; Neh. 7.55). 
 
 Sis'mai. [SisAMAi.] 
 
 Sith. Old English for " since " (Ezek. 35.6). 
 
 Sith'ri. [ZiTHEi.] 
 
 Sit'nah. Accusation, strife : a well dug by 
 Isaac's servants which the herdsmen of Gerar, 
 Abimelech's servants, strove to obtain (Gen. 
 2G.21). 
 
 Si 'van. The third month in the Jewish sacred 
 calendar. It lasted from the new moon of May 
 to that of June. On the sixth and seventh was 
 the Pentecost or Feast of Weeks, being seven 
 weeks from the days of unleavened bread 
 (Esth. 8.9). 
 
 Skirt. That part of the flowing mantle below 
 the girdle (Deut. 22.30; 1 Sam. 24.11; Ezek. 
 16.8). 
 
 Skull, Place of a. [CALVARY, GOLGOTHA.] 
 
 Slave, Slavery. The word slave occurs once 
 in the A.V. (Rev. 18.13 ; but see the word in italics 
 in Jer. 2.14) ; and twice in R.V. (Deut. 21.14, 
 24.7). The word servant most frequently ex- 
 pressed all that we mean by slave. Slavery 
 as an institution appears in the oldest records 
 of mankind. The slaves, or bond-servants, of 
 0-T. times were obtained in various ways. 
 
 Many were prisoners of war (Gen. 14.14 ; Deut. 
 20.14 ; 2 Ch. 28.8 ; Dan. 1.4). Offenders, i.e. 
 thieves, etc., were sold into slavery (Ex. 22.3). 
 If a man owed money and could not pay, he 
 became the slave of him to whom he was in- 
 debted, and might be sold by him (2 K. 4.1 ; 
 Neh. 5.4, 5 ; Matt. 18.25). Some were the chil- 
 dren of slaves, and born in the master's family 
 (Gen. 14.14, 15.3, 17.23, 21.10; Jer. 2.14; cf. 
 Ps. 86.6, 116.16). Slaves of this latter class 
 were generally treated with more kindness than 
 the others ; but there was a great difference 
 between them and the sons of the family 
 (Rom. 8.15 ; Gal. 4.6). Yet their masters put 
 great confidence in them, and even armed them 
 for the general defence (Gen. 14.14, 32.6, 33.1). 
 The stories of Joseph and Daniel show that 
 slaves were sometimes advanced to posts of 
 great authority. 
 
 The Mosaic Law was a law of mercy for the 
 bond-servant (Ex. 20.10, 21.20, 26,27; Deut. 5.14, 
 12.18, 16.11, etc.). Hebrews who had been 
 compelled to become slaves were to be set free 
 at the end of the seventh year, unless they chose 
 to continue in the service of their master 
 (Deut. 15.12). It was partly through the neglect 
 of this merciful provision that the Lord delivered 
 the nation into the hands of their enemies 
 (Jer. 34.9, 20). [SERVANT.] 
 
 Slime. Asphalt or bitumen. This substance 
 was gathered in the form of a muddy slime from 
 the region of the Dead Sea (which see), the 
 Euphrates, and other places, and used for 
 cementing stone and brick used in building 
 (Gen. 11.3), especially for protecting the lower 
 courses from damp. The bitumen which 
 bubbles up from springs is frequently found 
 floating on the surface of the Dead Sea in large 
 lumps; such lumps are sometimes also seen 
 floating down the Euphrates. 
 
 Sling. Slings were part of the equipment of 
 soldiers in ancient times (2 Ch. 26.14). The 
 Benjamites were celebrated for their skill with 
 the weapon (Judg. 20.16), and David killed 
 Goliath with a sling (1 Sam. 17.40-50). Later, 
 the Romans constructed instruments that could 
 sling stones and darts to great distances, and 
 thus foreshadowed the modern guns. [ARMS, 
 WAR.] 
 
 The sling was also used by shepherds and 
 herdsmen to drive off threatening beasts of 
 prey. They became expert in the use of the 
 simple instrument, which consisted of two 
 strings fastened to opposite sides of a small 
 piece of leather in which the stone was placed. 
 
 Sluice. A channel for the conveyance of 
 water (Isai. 19.10, A.V.). But in Isai. 19.10 
 the R.V. rightly gives quite a different trans- 
 lation. [SlLOAM.] 
 
 Smith (1 Sam. 13.19). It was not until the 
 times of the kings that the Israelites took up 
 handicrafts. Then they learnt them from the 
 imported workmen of King Hiram, etc. Bronze 
 was the prevalent metal employed by the 
 smiths, from which they made cooking-utensils 
 and fetters (Judg. 16.21), besides armour and 
 
SMYRNA] 
 
 452 
 
 [SOLOMON 
 
 weapons (1 Sam. 17.5, 6 ; 2 Sam. 21.16, 22.35). 
 Iron was chiefly used to point spears, to edge 
 ploughshares and axes, and the Canaanite 
 chariots were plated with iron (Judg. 1.19) ; 
 all of which work implied skill in the smiths of 
 a high order. [KENITE.] 
 
 Smyrna. An ancient and flourishing city on 
 the west coast of Asia Minor near the head 
 of a deep bay, now as in N.T. times a centre 
 of commerce for the Levant. It was the seat 
 of one of the seven Churches of Asia to which 
 the apocalyptic letters were addressed (Rev. 
 1.11, 2.8). Polycarp was one of its early 
 bishops. 
 
 Snail. Two words are translated " snail." 
 In Lev. 11.30 a variety of lizard is evidently 
 intended. In the only other case in which the 
 word occurs (Ps. 58.8) the metaphor is derived 
 from the slimy track left by the snail, which 
 gives it the appearance of melting as it moves. 
 Snails are abundant in Palestine and other Bible 
 lands. 
 
 Snow. Snow falls in Palestine not only on 
 the mountains of the north, but generally over 
 the country as far south as Nazareth and 
 Jerusalem, where it falls frequently. It does 
 not last, however, on the lowlands and lesser 
 heights, so that when ice is wanted for cooling 
 purposes it has to be brought from Lebanon 
 (Prov. 25.13; Jer. 18.14). Falling snow is 
 mentioned in 2 Sam. 23.20 ; Ps. 147.16, 148.8 ; 
 and see Job 6.16, 24.19. The snow never melts 
 from the summit of Mount Hermon. Meta- 
 phorically snow stands for purity (Ps. 51.7 ; 
 Isai. 1.18), for shining brightness (Dan. 7.9; 
 Rev. 1.14), for whiteness (Ex. 4.6 ; Num. 12.10), 
 for cleansing qualities (Job 9.30), and for chill- 
 ing and blighting effects (Prov. 25.13, 26.1). 
 
 So. An Egyptian king of Ethiopian descent 
 whose fuller name was Sabaku, in the twenty- 
 fifth dynasty. Hoshea, who desired to free him- 
 self from the Assyrian yoke, sought the help 
 and alliance of So (2 K. 17.4). The result was 
 disaster, for Hoshea was taken prisoner by the 
 Assyrians, who also took Samaria and carried 
 the ten tribes into captivity. Many, however, 
 think that So was only a sub-king in the Delta. 
 [HOSEA, ISRAEL, SAMARIA.] 
 
 Soap. {SopE.] 
 
 So'cho, So'co, So'coh, Sho'choh, So'choh. 
 1. A town of Judah, near which the Philistines 
 were encamped when Goliath was slain (1 Sam. 
 17.1) ; fortified by Rehoboam, and retaken by 
 the Philistines in the reign of Ahaz (1 K. 4.10 ; 
 2 Ch. 11.7, 28.18). 2. Another town in the 
 mountain district of Judah (Josh. 15.48). 
 
 So'di. Intimacy of Jehovah : the father of 
 one of the spies (Num. 13.10). 
 
 Sodom. One of the chief cities of the plain 
 which opposed the invasion of Chedorlaomer 
 (Gen. 14) ; the dwelling-place of Lot (Gen. 
 13.12, 13). For its crimes of pride, gluttony, 
 idleness, and lust (Ezek. 16.49,50; 2 Pet. 
 2.6-9 ; Jude 7), it was destroyed, together with 
 Gomorrah, Zeboim, and Admah, neighbouring 
 cities, so completely that no trace of any of 
 
 them remains (Gen. 19). [GOMORRAH, VINE OP 
 SODOM.] 
 
 Sodoma. The Greek form of Sodom (Rom. 
 9.29). 
 
 So journer . [STRANGER .] 
 
 Soldier. [ARMY.] 
 
 Solomon. (?) Place of Jehovah : the third 
 king of Israel ; tenth son of David and his second 
 by Bathsheba. His birth was foreshadowed in 
 the promise conveyed by the prophet Nathan 
 (2 Sam. 7.12, 13 ; 1 CA. 22.8-10). Born at Jeru- 
 salem (2 Sam. 5.14), he was named by the pro- 
 phet Jedidiah, " Beloved of the Lord " (2 Sam. 
 12.24,25). When David's son Adonijah, in 
 his father's old age, " exalted himself," and said, 
 " I will be king " (1 K. 1.5), Nathan incited 
 Bathsheba to remind David of his promise as 
 to Solomon. Bathsheba acted promptly, and 
 David, hearing of Adonijah's pretensions, 
 caused Zadok and Nathan to anoint Solomon 
 king. Adonijah's supporters promptly deserted 
 him, but Solomon for the time dismissed his 
 half-brother to his house (1 K. 1 ; 1 Ch. 23.1). 
 The ceremony of anointing was repeated later 
 (1 Ch. 29.22-25). After the death of David 
 (1 K. 2.10), Solomon married a daughter of the 
 Egyptian Pharaoh, and brought her to Jeru- 
 salem (1 K. 3.1). In a dream he asked of God 
 wisdom, and received the promise of abundant 
 honour (1 K. 3.5-15). His wisdom (1 K. 3.16-28) 
 and piety (1 K. 5.5), the splendour of his sur- 
 roundings and the extent of his kingdom, spread 
 his fame broadcast (1 K. 10.1-13). According 
 to the promise given, he built the first Temple 
 at Jerusalem (1 K. 5, 6 ; 2 Ch. 2-4), a palace 
 for himself, the House of the Forest of Lebanon, 
 a palace for his Egyptian queen, the wall of 
 Jerusalem, and various cities (1 K. 3.1, 7.1, 2, 8, 
 9.15-19, 24). 
 
 Solomon and his people enjoyed a profound 
 peace during his reign and throughout his 
 dominions. He ruled over all the countries and 
 kingdoms from (and even beyond) the Euphrates 
 to the Nile. His army was large and well 
 equipped (1 K. 4.26, 10.26 ; 2 Ch. 1.14). He 
 so encouraged commerce that Palestine became 
 rich, and articles of luxury abundant (1 K. 
 9.26-28, 10.14,15,27-29). His court was a 
 scene of wealth and splendour (1 K. 10.5 ; and 
 cf. Matt. 6.29). But prosperity degenerated 
 into voluptuousness ; moral and religious decay 
 ensued. Solomon took wives and concubines, 
 to the number of a thousand, from among the 
 Moabites, Ammonites, Idumaeans, Sidonians, and 
 Hittites. These perverted his heart, so that 
 he worshipped false gods, Ashtoreth of the 
 Sidonians, Moloch of the Ammonites, and 
 Chemosh of the Moabites, to whom he built 
 temples on the Mount of Olives (1 K. 11.1-2 ; 
 Neh. 13.26). His sins brought down the 
 chastisement foretold (2 Sam. 7.14; 1 K. 
 11.9-13), and enemies appeared (1 K. 11.14-40), 
 clouding his last days. After a reign of forty 
 years, Solomon died, and was buried " in 
 the city of David his father" (1 K. 11.42, 43 ; 
 2 Ch. 9.29-31). Three O.T. books Proverbs, 
 
SOLOMON'S PORCH] 
 
 453 
 
 [SON OF MAN, THE 
 
 Ecclesiastes, and Canticles are attributed to 
 him. The wisdom and splendour of Solomon 
 were alluded to by our Lord (Matt. 6.29, 12.42 ; 
 Lk. 11.31, 12.27). [ADONIJAH, BATHSHEBA, 
 TEMPLE.] 
 
 Solomon's Porch. In Herod's Temple there 
 was a colonnade on each of the four sides of the 
 Temple area, that on the east being named 
 after Solomon, perhaps because it was on the 
 same site as one built by him, or that even some 
 remains of the original building still survived. 
 Our Lord taught there (John 10.23), and it was 
 the scene of Christian work by Peter and John 
 (Acts 3.11) and the apostles (Acts 5.12). 
 
 Solomon's Servants, The Children of. A 
 group of persons attached to the second Temple 
 (Ezra 2.55, 58 ; Neh. 7.57, 60, 11.3). 
 
 Solomon, Song of. [CANTICLES.] 
 
 Son of Consolation (R.V. Exhortation). 
 The interpretation in the A.V. of the name 
 Barnabas. [BARNABAS.] 
 
 Son of God. In the O.T. the title " sons of 
 God " appears in Gen. 6.2, where it has been 
 variously interpreted as (1) young men of rank, 
 (2) angels, (3) the descendants of Seth, (4) the 
 descendants of Cain ; in Job 1.6, 38.7, where it 
 is used of angels ; and in Eos. 1.10 of the 
 spiritual Israel. As God revealed Himself as a 
 Father to Israel (Isai. 63.16, 64.8 ; Jer. 31.9), 
 so they are called His sons (Ex. 4.22 ; Deut. 
 14.1. Cf. Deut. 1.31 ; Isai. 1.2, 30.1). The 
 words of Ps. 2.7, " Thou art my Son ; this day 
 have I begotten thee," are in Acts 13.33, Heb. 
 1.5, 5.5 applied to our Lord. 
 
 In the N.T. the titles " Son of God," or " the 
 Son," are applied as distinctive titles to our 
 Lord. In the Synoptic Gospels the title is used 
 before the birth of Christ (Lk. 1.35) ; is be- 
 stowed by the Divine voice at the Baptism and 
 the Transfiguration (Matt. 3.17, 17.5 ; Mk.1.11, 
 9.7 ; Lk. 3.22, 9.35) ; is used by Peter (Matt. 
 16.16), and by men who saw the miracles 
 (Matt. 14.33) ; by the devil at the Temptation 
 (Matt. 4.3, 6 ; Lk. 4.3, 9), and by demoniacs 
 (Mk. 3.11, 5.7 ; Lk. 4.41, 8.28) ; by the priests 
 and others interrogatively at the Crucifixion 
 (Matt. 27.43) ; and by the watching centurion 
 (Matt. 27.54 ; Mk. 15.39). 
 
 The Fourth Gospel opens with the writer's 
 personal testimony to the Son of God (1.34) ; 
 the title is used by Christ Himself (9.35, 37, 11.4), 
 and the use is testified to by His accusers before 
 Pilate (19.7) ; to promote belief in Him as the 
 Son of God is declared to be the purpose of 
 the author (20.31). Compare also 3.16, 17, 18, 
 35, 36, 5.20, 21, 22, etc. In Acts the title only 
 appears in 8.37, which is omitted by R.V., and in 
 9.20 (and cf . 13.33). Neither " Son of God " nor 
 " the Son " appears in several epistles Philip- 
 pians, 2 Thessalonians, 1 and 2 Timothy, Titus, 
 Philemon, James, 1 Peter, Jude, and 3 John. 
 But the uses of " the Son of God," or " the 
 Son," speak of Him as sent by God (Rom. 8.3), 
 " spared " by Him (Rom. 8.32), manifestly de- 
 clared as His Son (Rom. 1.4) ; as the great High 
 Priest (Heb. 4.14) ; as manifested to " destroy the 
 
 works of the devil " (1 John 3.8), to give eternal 
 life (1 John 4.9, 5.11), to be " the propitiation 
 for our sins " (1 John 4.9, 10), and " the Saviour 
 of the world " (1 John 4.14), belief on Whom 
 procures the indwelling of God, victory over the 
 world, and eternal life (1 John 4.15, 5.5, 10, 11, 
 12). [JESUS CHRIST.] 
 
 Son of man, The. This title is applied to 
 the Lord Jesus in the N.T. only by Himself, 
 with the exception of Acts 7.56 and (though 
 rather as a description than a title) Rev. 1.13, 
 14.14. He uses it with reference to power and 
 supremacy (Matt. 9.6, 13.41, 16.27, 19.28, 
 24.27, 30, 25.31, 32, 26.64 ; Mk. 14.62), and 
 also to weakness, humiliation, and suffering 
 (Matt. 8.20, 17.22, 26.24). Doubtless His 
 followers avoided it because they were more 
 occupied with His Divinity than His humanity. 
 What meaning, however, did He Himself give 
 to it, and from what source did He derive it ? 
 . It has been asserted that, as in the Aramaic of 
 (approximately) our Lord's day, and pre- 
 sumably spoken by Him, " a son of man " 
 meant " a man," i.e. an ordinary human being, 
 " the son of man " meant " the man," i.e. the 
 ordinary human being. But the phrase 
 " the son of man " has not yet been found in 
 the existing fragments of Aramaic of that 
 time, and therefore the argument is precarious. 
 It is, moreover, plain that on our Lord's lips 
 the phrase meant more than " the ordinary 
 human being." 
 
 Whence, however, did He derive it ? Was 
 it from Dan. 7.13, which in the A.V. is " one 
 like the son of man " ? Hardly, for the 
 R.V. rendering is right : " One like unto a 
 son of man," i.e. a human being, in contrast 
 to the brute forms mentioned just before. 
 There, too, it refers, not to the Messiah, but 
 to " the saints of the Most High," the people 
 of Israel. No doubt our Lord used some 
 terms taken from that passage, e.g. "the 
 clouds of heaven," when describing the 
 return of Himself as the Son of man, but 
 the phrase itself can hardly be derived thence. 
 Was it, then, taken from the Book of Enoch, 
 written (in this part) between 94 and 79 B.C. ? 
 [ NON-CANONICAL BOOKS.] There the Son 
 of man is with " the Head of days," is 
 chosen by the Lord of spirits, will arouse the 
 kings, will grind to powder the teeth of the 
 sinners, will put down the kings from their 
 thrones ( 46). Before the creation of the sun 
 and stars, his name was named before the 
 Lord of spirits. He will be a staff to the 
 righteous, and be the light of the Gentiles. 
 He was chosen and hidden before the Lord 
 of spirits, before the creation of the world, 
 and for evermore ( 48). He is identical with 
 Him who is called the Anointed, i.e. the 
 Messiah ( 48), and the Elect One ( 40), who 
 sits on God's throne (51), which is also the 
 throne of the Son of man (62). At first 
 sight it does seem probable that our Lord 
 derived His use of the term from the Book 
 of Enoch. But although the Book was 
 
SONG OP SOLOMON] 
 
 454 
 
 [SPARROW 
 
 known to Jude (ver. 14), in perhaps 70 A.D., 
 there is no evidence that it was known to the 
 circle in which our Lord was brought up. But 
 even if it were, the contrast between Himself, 
 the meek and lowly Jesus, and the glorious Son 
 of man of the Apocalyptists, was so great that 
 it would not, and did not, occur to the populace 
 to identify them. Hence He could use the title 
 of Himself without it being a direct and open 
 claim to Messiahship, a claim He was careful to 
 avoid, save to His disciples privately (Malt. 
 16.13-16), and, at the very last, to the high- 
 priest (Mk. 14.61, 62). Further, in the Book of 
 Enoch only the high position of the Son of man 
 is described ; nothing is said of His humilia- 
 tion and suffering. But this side was, as we 
 have seen, brought out by our Lord equally 
 with the other. On the whole, therefore, it 
 is improbable that He derived the title from 
 the Book of Enoch. In the Book of Ezekiel, 
 however, both aspects of the title are con- 
 tained ; that of human weakness in contrast 
 to God, quite plainly, in perhaps all the many 
 times (nearly one hundred) that the phrase 
 occurs. But the aspect of power and glory 
 is also implied. For in the introductory 
 vision of the four living creatures (the 
 " chariot " of God, to use an ancient phrase), 
 each having faces of a man, a lion, an ox, and 
 an eagle, there is seated on the throne above 
 them " a likeness as the appearance of a 
 man upon it " (1.26), who then addresses 
 the prophet as " Son of man." Thus Ezekiel 
 is bid remember that he stands in close con- 
 nexion with, not the chariot alone, but also 
 the Charioteer. It ia to this double relation 
 that our Lord refers in His use of the term. 
 He is man among creation, and therefore 
 liable to suffering, but also He holds a 
 unique place as regards the Supreme, a rela- 
 tion to Him of which Ezekiel's relation was 
 only a hint, a relationship enduing Him with 
 power to govern and to judge. The phrase 
 suggests also that He is the ideal man, stand- 
 ing closer to God than any human being, even 
 than the first Adam. Thus, while the title, 
 " the Son of man," was not identified in the 
 common consciousness of the time with the 
 personality of the Messiah, and therefore was 
 not a direct claim to the Messiahship, it 
 admirably expressed both His humiliation and 
 His glory, and was appreciated by the disciples 
 when they had come to know Him as He really 
 was, human yet Divine. [JESUS CHRIST.] 
 
 Song of Solomon. [CANTICLES.] 
 
 Sons of Thunder. [BOANERGES, THUNDBK.] 
 
 Soothsayer. [DIVINATION.] 
 
 So 'pater. A Greek Christian who returned 
 with Paul from his third missionary tour (Acts 
 20.4). He was a native of Beroea, and is thought 
 by some to be the same as Sosipater (Rom. 16.21). 
 
 Sope. Soap is so spelt in A.V. (Jer. 2.22; 
 Mai. 3.2). 
 
 Sopher'eth. Learned one : a family that re- 
 turned from captivity with Zerubbabel (Ezra 
 2.55 ; Neh. 7.57). 
 
 Sorcerer, Sorcery. [DIVINATION, WITCH.] 
 
 So 'rek. Choice vine : a valley in which was 
 the home of Delilah (Judg. 16.4), near Gaza; 
 possibly the modern Wady Surak. [SAMSON.] 
 
 Sosi'pater. A kinsman of Paul, named among 
 those who sent salutations from Corinth to Rome 
 (Rom. 16.21). [SOPATER.] 
 
 Sps'thenes. 1. A ruler of the synagogue at 
 Corinth, who was beaten by the Greeks when 
 Gallic refused to entertain the charges brought 
 by the Jews of that place against Paul during his 
 second journey (Acts 18.17). 2. Another person 
 of the same name ; a Christian believer associ- 
 ated with Paul at Ephesus (1 Cor. 1.1). But 
 many think he is identical with 1, who had 
 become a Christian after the events mentioned 
 in Acts 18.17. 
 
 So'tai, Ancestor of a family who returned 
 with Zerubbabel (Ezra 2.55 ; Neh. 7.57). 
 
 SouL Save in two cases (Job 30.15 ; Isai. 
 57.16) " soul " in the A.V. represents the Hebrew 
 nepheshj which in many other passages is trans- 
 lated " life " or " creature." It is used of a 
 living being (Gen. 17.14 ; Num. 9.13, etc.) ; and, 
 as " creature," of animals (Gen. 2.19, 9.15, etc.) ; 
 of the soul as distinguished from the body 
 (Gen. 35.18) ; of animal life (Gen. 2.7 ; and 
 note the apparent identification with blood, 
 Lev. 17.14 ; Deut. 12.23) ; of the soul as the 
 seat of affections, sensations, passions as, e.g., 
 capable of anguish (Gen. 42.21), of affliction 
 (Lev. 16.29), of discouragement (Num. 21.5), 
 of desire (Deut. 14.26), of abhorrence (Ps. 
 107.18); but also as capable of intercourse 
 with God, as being His (Ezek. 18.4), desiring 
 Him (Ps. 42.1 ; Itai. 26.9), rejoicing in Him 
 (Ps. 35.9; Isai. 61.10), trusting in Him (Ps. 
 57.1), worshipping Him (Ps. 86.4, 104.1), sin- 
 ning against Him and being sinned against 
 (Jer. 44.7 ; Ezek. 18.4 ; Mic. 6.7). 
 
 In the N.T. " soul " is the rendering of the 
 Greek psvche, which, like nephesh, is often 
 rendered " life." It is used of the individual 
 man (Acts 2.41 ; Rom. 13.1 ; 1 Pet. 3.20) ; of the 
 animal sentient life, with its passions and de- 
 sires, distinguished from the body (Matt. 10.28), 
 and from the spirit (Lk. 1.46 ; 1 Thess. 5.23 ; 
 Heb. 4.12) ; capable of being lost (Matt. 16.26), 
 or saved (Heb. 10.39 ; Jas. 1.21) ; and of exist- 
 ing after separation from the body (Matt. 10.28 ; 
 Rev. 6.9, 20.4). [IMMORTALITY OP THE SOUL, 
 SPIRIT.] 
 
 South Country. [PALESTINE.] 
 
 Sow, Sower. [AGRICULTURE.] 
 
 Spain. The present country of that name, 
 which Paul proposed to visit, though there is no 
 satisfactory evidence to show that he ever did 
 so (Rom. 15.24, 28). [PAUL, TARSHISH.] 
 
 Span. The span was a measure of length 
 equal to three palms, or 9 inches (Ex. 28.16, 
 etc.). [WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.] 
 
 Sparrow. In two passages (Ps. 84.3, 102.7) 
 the word translated " sparrow " is generally 
 used to indicate simply " bird " or " fowl," 
 though in these instances it seems to point to 
 a particular species of bird. Canon Tristram 
 
SPEAR] 
 
 455 
 
 [SPIRIT 
 
 considers that the sparrow of Ps. 102.7 may be 
 the blue thrush, which is common in Palestine, 
 solitary in its habits, and fond of sitting on a 
 roof or any conspicuous eminence, while uttering 
 a plaintive cry. Of true sparrows there are 
 several varieties in the East, the English variety 
 being very abundant. It is, however, more 
 brilliantly coloured, and a trifle smaller. A 
 marsh sparrow is found in the Jordan valley, 
 and on the east of the Dead Sea is another 
 variety, the " Moabitish sparrow " (Matt. 10.29, 
 31 ; Lk. 12.6, 7). 
 
 Spear. (1 Sam. 13.19, etc.). [ARMS, ARMY.] 
 
 Speech. [LANGUAGE.] 
 
 Spelt. [RYE.] 
 
 Spice. The ancients had most of the spices 
 with which we are familiar, and valued them 
 greatly. With spice they seasoned their meat 
 (Ezek. 24.10), flavoured their wines (Cant. 8.2), 
 perfumed their persons and beds (Esth. 2.12 ; 
 Ps. 45.8 ; Prov. 7.17), and embalmed the dead 
 (2 Ch. 16.14; Jer. 34.5 ; Mk. 16.1). The trade 
 in spices was carefully encouraged and pro- 
 tected. It was carried on largely by means of 
 caravans travelling across the Arabian desert and 
 along the Palestine shore of the Mediterranean 
 to Egypt and beyond (Gen. 37.25). Many 
 spices were brought to Palestine from India 
 and Persia, but those in common use were chiefly 
 the product of the country itself, such as balm 
 of Gilead, myrrh, spikenard (which see), though 
 these partake rather of the nature of perfumes 
 than of spices proper. 
 
 Spider. In Prov. 30.28, " The spider taketh 
 hold with her hands," the word probably has 
 reference to the " gecko," a species of lizard 
 (R.V. lizard). This creature has suckers on its 
 toes, by means of which it can run up walls with 
 the greatest ease. In the other two cases (Job 
 8.14 ; /sat. 59.5, 6) there is no doubt as to the 
 creature intended, for not only the spider, but 
 its web is mentioned. Palestine has its due 
 proportion of spiders, adapted to various modes 
 and habits of life, dwelling on the surface of the 
 ground, in holes beneath, or suspended from 
 trees, besides inhabiting dwellings and caverns 
 in large numbers ; sometimes walls and bushes 
 will be quite covered with their webs. To the 
 slenderness of the filmy web Job compares the 
 hope of the wicked (8.14). 
 
 Spies. When the Israelites had reached the 
 borders of Canaan at Kadesh, Moses, by the 
 command of God, sent out twelve men, one 
 from each tribe, to spy out the land and report 
 on its character and the number and quality of 
 its inhabitants (Num. 13.1-20). They were 
 absent forty days, and then returned with speci- 
 mens of the produce, favourable news of the 
 productiveness of the land, but an alarming 
 account of its inhabitants (25-33). Two of the 
 spies, however, when the Israelites broke out 
 into open mutiny against Moses and Aaron 
 (14.1-4), assured the people that the conquest 
 of the country was by no means impossible (5.10). 
 These two, Joshua and Caleb, were about to be 
 stoned by the enraged multitude when Jehovah 
 
 Himself intervened (11, 12). As a result, only 
 Joshua and Caleb of the spies were permitted 
 eventually to enter the Promised Land (14.13-35) ; 
 the ten were punished with immediate death 
 (36-38). Afterwards Joshua sent two spies 
 into Jericho when he approached to take that 
 city (Josh. 2.1 ff.). They were discovered, 
 and would have been killed, but were saved by 
 Rahab. In return for this act she was saved, 
 with all her belongings and goods, when the 
 city was destroyed (Josh. 6.1 ff. ; and see also 
 Heb. 11.31). 
 
 Spikenard. A fragrant oil extracted from 
 an Indian plant, and very costly (Mk. 14.3-5 ; 
 John 12.3-5). Its name is simply " nard," which 
 is the Hebrew word translated " spikenard " 
 in the O.T. passages, which refer to its use as 
 a perfume (Cant. 1.12, 4.13, 14). The Greek of 
 the N.T. passages cited above has the same 
 word " nard," but joined with an adjective of 
 obscure etymology and meaning " pistic nard " 
 (see A.V. and R.V. margins). " Spikenard " 
 comes from the Latin Vulgate rendering of this 
 phrase, " spiked nard," a reference to the spiked 
 shoots at the base of the plant, from which the 
 oil is extracted. [OINTMENT, PBFDMES.] 
 
 Spindle. Among the Jews tke spinning of 
 thread was a domestic operation rather than a 
 regular trade. It is so still, to a large extent, 
 not only in Palestine but all over the East. 
 The instruments for spinning were of the most 
 primitive kind, consisting of a distaff and spindle, 
 no wheel being employed. The spindle was a 
 short staff less than a foot in length, with a 
 clay or stone whorl at the lower end to give 
 it weight and to steady its rotary motion. The 
 material to be spun was loosely fastened to the 
 distaff, which was held in the left hand, and 
 drawn off by the right hand, which also 
 kept the spindle in motion. The industry 
 was entirely in the hands of women, though 
 men assisted in the wearing (Ex. 35.25, 26 ; 
 Prov. 31.19; Matt. 6.28; Lk. 12.27). 
 [WEAVING.] 
 
 Spirit. In the O.T., with two exceptions, 
 a rendering of the Hebrew ruach, which also 
 bears its literal meaning of " wind " (Gen. 8.1, 
 etc.), and in many passages is translated 
 " breath," as applying to air breathed (Job 
 17.1 ; Isai. 2.2), and in the phrase " the breath 
 of life " (Gen. 6.17, 7.15, and cf. Ps. 104.29 ; 
 Ezek. 37.8). Thus, naturally, it is used of 
 the vital principle, the principle of animal life 
 (anima, psuehe), whether of men or beasts 
 (" breath," EccUs. 3.19), of men (Gen. 45.27 ; 
 Num. 16.22 ; Jtt 10.12 ; Ps. 104.29, " breath " ; 
 Ecdes. 12.7; ISM. 38.16, 57.16). In other 
 passages it refers to the spiritual principle or 
 rational soul (animus, pneuma). In this sense 
 the spirit is the seat of the senses and emotions ; 
 it is haughty (Prov. 16.18), sorrowful (1 Sam. 
 1.15), contrite (Prov. 16.18) ; it is the subject 
 of divine graces (Ps. 51.10 ; Ezek. 11.19, 36.26). 
 In the N.T., spirit (pneuma), as the divinely 
 bestowed faculty by which man can come into 
 communion with God, is distinguished from his 
 
SPIRIT, 1?HE HOLV] 
 
 456 
 
 [STANDARD 
 
 natural self (psuche) : see especially 1 Cor. 
 2.10-16. The Bible clearly implies the separate 
 existence of the spirit apart from the body 
 after death (Lk. 24.37, 39 ; Heb. 12.23). [HOLY 
 SPIRIT, SOUL.] 
 
 Spirit, The Holy. The Holy Spirit, the 
 Third Person of the Trinity, appears in 
 Scripture as " the Spirit," " the Holy Spirit," 
 " the Holy Ghost," " the Spirit of God," " the 
 Spirit of the Son of God," and the Comforter. 
 The Spirit moved on the waters at Creation 
 (Gen. 1.2 ; Job 2G.13) ; was given to particular 
 men for their work Bezaleel (Ex. 31.2, 3), Joshua 
 (Num. 27.18), Gideon (Judg. 6.34), Jephthah 
 (Judg. 11.29), Saul (1 Sam. 11.6), David (1 Sam. 
 16.13) ; was especially manifest in the prophets 
 (Ezek. 11.5 ; Zech. 7.12) ; was given for man's 
 enlightenment (Prov. 1.23) ; promised to the 
 Messiah (Isai. 11.2, 42.1), and to " all flesh " 
 (Joel 2.28). 
 
 In the N.T. the Holy Spirit in the Synoptic 
 Gospels is manifested at the baptism of our 
 Lord (Matt. 3.16 ; M k. 1.10), and at the Tempta- 
 tion (Matt. 4.1; Mk. 1.12; Lk. 4.1); and 
 immediately after the Temptation (Lk. 4.14) ; 
 while in His sermon at Nazareth our Lord recalls 
 the Messianic promise of Isai. 61.1, 2 ; cf . 42.1-4. 
 So also the Holy Ghost speaks to and guides 
 the aged Simeon (Lk. 2.25-27). The gift of the 
 Holy Spirit is definitely promised by our Lord 
 (Lk. 11.13). In the Fourth Gospel the teaching 
 of our Lord as to the work of the Spirit is more 
 definite. " God is Spirit " (4.24, R.V. marg.) 
 in respect of His nature. Unless a man be 
 born again " of water and of the Spirit " he 
 cannot enter into the kingdom of God (3.5). 
 The Spirit is given without measure to Messiah 
 (3.34). In His use of the Messianic promises 
 (Isai. 44.3 ; Joel 2.28) the Lord " spake of the 
 Spirit which they that believe on Him should 
 receive " (7.39), for the Spirit, in manifestation 
 or operation, was in this sense " not yet given " 
 (7.39) ; but, as the " Comforter," Paraclete, 
 Advocate (14.16, 26, 15.26, 16.7 ; 1 John 2.1), 
 the " Spirit of truth," by Whom the truth is 
 expressed and is brought home to man (15.26, 
 16.13), He was to be " given " to the faithful 
 by the Father (14.16), abiding by them and 
 dwelling in them, and glorifying the Son (16.14) 
 by making Him known. In 1 John 3.24, 4.13, 
 this indwelling is one of the two marks or tests 
 of union with Christ ; and the Spirit, Who " is 
 truth," bears witness of the Son (1 John 5.6). 
 In the Acts the manifestation of the Spirit is 
 made at Pentecost, and the fact is identified 
 with that foretold by the prophet (2.4, 17, 18) ; 
 Ananias and Sapphira " tempt " the Spirit, 
 putting to the test His indwelling in the Church 
 (5.9) ; fehe Spirit expressly directs the action 
 of apostles and evangelists (1.2, 8.29, 39, 10.19, 
 11.12, 16.7, 21.4) ; and inspires Agabus (11.28). 
 In the Epistles of Paul the indwelling of the Spirit 
 is clearly stated (Rom. 8.11 ; 1 Cor. 3.16, 6.17-19). 
 He is the author of faith (1 Cor. 12.3, and cf. 
 2 Cor. 4.13) ; in the Spirit men live (Gal. 5.25), 
 aided by Him in their infirmities (Rom. 8.26, 27), 
 
 strengthened by Him (Eph. 3.16), receiving 
 from Him gifts (1 Cor. 12), bearing fruit as a 
 result of His presence (Gal. 5.22). He is the 
 means of their resurrection (Rom. 8.11). Peter 
 (1 Pet. 1.2) writes of sanctification as the work 
 of the Spirit. In Revelation the apostle is 
 consciously influenced by the Spirit (1.10, 4.2), 
 and the message to the Seven Churches is the 
 message of the Spirit (2.7, 11, 17, 29). 
 
 The Holy Spirit is a divine Person, not merely 
 a method of divine action (see especially our 
 Lord's words, John 14.16, 17, 15.26, 16.7, 8, and 
 cf. Matt. 12.31,32; Acts 5.3,9, 7.51; Rom. 
 8.14 ; 1 Cor. 2.10 ; Heb. 3.7, etc.). The Spirit 
 proceedeth from the Father (John 15.26) and 
 from the Son (Gal. 4.6 ; 1 Pet. 1.11, etc.) ; He is 
 both " the Spirit of God " and " the Spirit 
 of Christ " (Rom. 8.9). Thus in the mysteries 
 of redemption and the new life, in regeneration, 
 sanctification, and union with Christ, it is a 
 Person Who is at work, the Helper of man, 
 yet One Who may be denied, quenched, 
 and grieved (Eph. 4.30; 1 Thess. 5.19). 
 [TRINITY.] 
 
 Spiritual Gifts. The powers or graces con- 
 ferred on certain believers by the Holy Spirit 
 for the profit of the Church. Their nature and 
 the manner of their right exercise are dealt 
 with in Rom. 12 and 1 Cor. 12-14 ; and see 
 also 1 Cor. 7.7 ; 1 Tim. 4.14 ; 2 Tim. 1.6 ; 1 Pet. 
 4.10. They are more than examples of the 
 ordinary Christian graces (" the fruit of the 
 Spirit," Gal. 5.22,23), for they are certain 
 definite powers. 
 
 Sponge (A.V. Spunge). Though the sponge 
 is only mentioned in connexion with the Cruci- 
 fixion, yet we learn from early writers that it 
 was well known in ancient times. It was ob- 
 tained all round the coasts of the Mediterranean 
 (Matt. 27.48 ; Mk. 15.36 ; John 19.29). 
 
 Spring. Palestine is a land of springs, 
 though most of them run dry at certain seasons. 
 For a constant supply of water, wells had to be 
 dug, and aqueducts and cisterns constructed ; 
 indeed, the oldest architectural remains in the 
 country are connected with the supply and re- 
 servation of water. The possession of water 
 was a source of happiness (Isai. 41.18), and the 
 digging of a well almost a religious act (see 
 Num. 21.16, 17). [BEER.] 
 
 Spy. [SPIES.] 
 
 Sta'chys. Ear of corn : a Greek Christian 
 in Rome mentioned by Paul (Rom. 16.9). 
 
 Stacte. One of the three ingredients com- 
 posing the sacred perfume (Ex. 30.34, 35). The 
 Hebrew word signifies a drop, and " stacte " 
 is the Greek equivalent. It was perhaps a resin 
 yielded by Storax officinale, a plant alh'ed to that 
 yielding benzoin ; or possibly a form of myrrh is 
 intended. 
 
 Staff. [ROD, SHEPHERD.] 
 
 Standard. During the march of the Israelites 
 each tribe gathered round its own standard. 
 When in camp, three tribes were stationed on 
 each side of the Tabernacle, each three con- 
 stituting a separate camp or division under a 
 
STAR] 
 
 457 
 
 [STOICS AND EPICUREANS 
 
 common standard (Num. 1.52, 2.2 ff.). [BANNER, 
 ENSIGN.] 
 
 Star. Astronomy was studied by some of 
 the ancients, and O.T. references to the stars 
 show both observation and reflection. Wonder 
 and awe were stirred by their contemplation. 
 Their origin is with God (Gen. 1.16; Ps. 8.3, 
 136.9), and they are under His control (Job 9.7 ; 
 Jer. 31.35), Who alone can number them (Ps. 
 147.4 ; Isai. 40.26). The darkening or disturb- 
 ance of the heavenly bodies is associated with 
 calamity both in O.T. (Isai. 13.10; Ezek. 
 32.7; Joel 2.10, 3.15), and in N.T. (Matt. 
 24.29; Mk. 13.25; Acts 2.19,20; Rev. 6.13, 
 8.10-12). Worship of the heavenly bodies was 
 one of the forms of idolatry with which the 
 Hebrews were in contact (JDeut. 4.19 ; 2 K. 
 17.16; Jer. 19.13; Amos 5.26; Zeph. 1.5; 
 Acts 7.43). Our Lord is spoken of as the Morn- 
 ing Star (Rev. 2.28, 22.16). The " wandering 
 stars " of Jude 13 are a comparison with comets. 
 For particular stars or constellations, see 
 ARCTURUS, MAZZAROTH, ORION, PLEIADES. 
 
 Star in the East, The. The star seen by the 
 Magi (Malt. 2.2, 7, 9, 10) was evidently more 
 than an ordinary star, though not observed 
 by the general public; Herod had to inquire 
 (2.7) as to the time of its rising. It has been 
 conjectured by some to have been a new star, 
 a comet, or a conjunction of certain planets 
 known to have occurred at that time. 
 [ASTROLOGER, MAGI.] 
 
 Steel. Although some kind of refined and 
 hardened iron was known to the ancients, yet 
 in most instances where the word " steel " 
 occurs in the A.V. the R.V. correctly has 
 " brass " (2 Sam. 22.35 ; Job 20.24 ; Ps. 18.34 ; 
 Jer. 15.12). " Steel " occurs once in R.V. 
 (Nah. 2.3, " The chariots flash with steel " ; 
 A.V. " The chariots shaU be with flaming 
 torches"). [ARMS, BRASS, COPPER.] 
 
 Steph'anas. A crown : a Corinthian who 
 was baptized with all his family by Paul, and 
 by him styled " the first-fruits of Achaia " 
 (1 Cor. 1.16, 16.15, 17). 
 
 Ste'phen. A crown : a Hellenistic Jew, and 
 the first Christian martyr. He is mentioned 
 first among " the Seven " of the Church at 
 Jerusalem as one " full of faith and of the Holy 
 Spirit," " full of grace and power," and as 
 performing many miracles (Acts 6.5-8). In the 
 many disputes that ensued, Stephen was chosen 
 spokesman and leader to answer the Hellen- 
 istic opponents of the young Church (ver. 9). 
 His success led to his arrest. Brought before 
 the Sanhedrin, his address in his own defence 
 stirred a deadly hostility against him. He 
 was stoned, calling upon God and praying for 
 his murderers (Acts 7.58-60). The persecution 
 then begun had remarkable results for the Church 
 (Acts 8.1, 4, 11.19). 
 
 Stoics and Epicureans. Mentioned as en- 
 countering Paul at Athens and inquiring of 
 him concerning his " new teaching " (Acts 
 17.18-33). 1. The Stoics were a sect of Greek 
 philosophers, disciples of Zeno, who derived 
 
 their name from Stoa, " a porch," the " porch " 
 being that where their master stood to teach 
 at Athens (299 B.C.). The distinguishing tenets 
 of the Stoics were : that God is underived, 
 incorruptible, and eternal ; that He is possessed 
 of infinite wisdom and goodness ; the cause 
 and preserver of all things and qualities : that 
 matter, in its original elements, is also unde- 
 rived and eternal ; and is by the powerful 
 energy of the Deity impressed with motion and 
 form : that though God and matter existed 
 from eternity the present system of things 
 had a beginning, originating in chaos, and shall 
 end in a conflagration resolving all material 
 tilings to their original state, when all life will 
 be reabsorbed in the Deity ; and that this 
 birth out of chaos, and subsequent resolution 
 into chaos again, is to be repeatedly re-enacted 
 to all time. Some imagined even that each 
 individual would at each reappearance return 
 to his own body. Those among the Stoics who 
 maintained the existence of the soul after 
 death, supposed it to be removed to the 
 celestial regions of the gods, where it remained 
 until, at the general conflagration, all souls, 
 both human and divine (those of gods), shall be 
 absorbed in the Deity. Some also believed in a 
 sort of purgatory in which the soul was purged 
 and purified from all grossness. The Stoics 
 were stern fatalists ; all things, even the gods, 
 being subject to an eternal chain of causes and 
 effects. They taught that a wise and virtuous 
 man might be happy in the midst of torture, 
 and that all external things were to him in- 
 different. If a man was satisfied with himself, 
 that was sufficient. They detested vice. 
 
 2. Epicureans. Epicurus was a Greek philo- 
 sopher who taught in Athens from 307 B.C. 
 He was born in the year 344 B.C. His 
 system held that the great business of life 
 is the pursuit of pleasure. He admitted the 
 existence of divine beings, but did not believe 
 that they had any intercourse with men. 
 These beings existed in a state of perfect 
 purity, tranquillity, and happiness. With 
 respect to the life of man, Epicurus taught that 
 a tranquil life, free from evils and enriched with 
 pleasure, is man's chief good. His followers 
 maintained that the world was formed not by 
 God, nor with any design, but by the fortuitous 
 concourse of atoms. They denied the immor- 
 tality of the soul. The happiness they sought 
 was to be obtained through pleasure ; while 
 some of them sought this happiness in the 
 tranquillity and joy of mind arising from the 
 practice of morality, others sought it in the 
 grosser pleasures of the appetites. The philo- 
 sophy of Epicurus was twofold first, there was 
 the study and observation of all things pertain- 
 ing to nature, and, secondly, of moral actions 
 by which man's conduct should be controlled, 
 and the giving of pain be avoided. Man's life 
 consisted of pleasure and pain, therefore the 
 true philosopher was he who could increase the 
 joy of life and diminish its pain. Moreover, 
 true and perfect happiness could only be ob- 
 
STOMACHER] 
 
 458 
 
 [STUBBLE 
 
 tained by virtuous living and thinking, and the 
 practice of temperance, gentleness, compassion, 
 gratitude, and friendship. 
 
 Stomacher. Perhaps used of a species of tunic 
 (/sat. 3.24). 
 
 Stone. Heaps or pyramids of stones were 
 erected as memorials or historic landmarks. 
 Jacob and Laban each raised such a monument 
 on Mount Gilead (Gen. 31.46). Joshua erected 
 one at Gilgal (Josh. 4.5-7), and the two and a 
 half Tribes beyond Jordan raised one on the 
 bank of that river, as a testimony of their one- 
 ness with the Tribes in Western Palestine 
 (Josh. 22.10). 
 
 Stone Knives. Flint knives were sometimes 
 used at sacrifices, and the Egyptians used them 
 in preparing the dead for embalmment. In each 
 case they appear to have been a religious sur- 
 vival from the time when flint was the only 
 material used (see Ex. 4.25 ; Josh. 5.2). 
 
 Stone, White." I will give him a white 
 stone, and upon the stone a new name written " 
 (Rev. 2.17). White pebbles were used for 
 voting, as entrance tickets to various functions, 
 and were presented to victors in the games. 
 The exact custom here referred to is uncertain. 
 But the " new name " is inscribed upon material 
 which is imperishable, and is white, the colour 
 of good fortune. [CORNER-STONE.] 
 
 Stone-cutters. From the times of Saul and 
 David the Hebrews became acquainted with 
 the art of working stone for building, having 
 acquired the knowledge from the Phoenicians 
 (2 Sam. 5.11 ; 1 K. 5.18). 
 
 Stoning. Stoning, amongst the Jews, was 
 the usual method of carrying out the death 
 sentence. Any crime meriting death, unless 
 the law expressly stipulated for another form, 
 was punished with stoning. The witnesses were 
 to cast the first stones (Deut. 17.7). Some O.T. 
 references are Ex. 8.26, 19.13, 21.28-32 ; Lev. 
 20.2, 10, 27 ; Deut. 13.5, 10 ; 1 K. 21.10. In the 
 N.T. references stoning is not only a legal punish- 
 ment, but an act of mob violence (Lk. 13.34 ; 
 John 8.5, 10.31-33 ; Acts 5.26, 7.58, 59, 14.19). 
 
 Stork. The stork is a migratory bird, reaching 
 Palestine at the end of March. It flies by day, 
 so that its arrival "in the heaven " (Jer. 8.7) 
 is patent to every one. 
 
 It was accounted an unclean bird (Lev. 
 11.19 ; Deut. 14.18). The quill feathers of the 
 wings are black, the rest of the plumage pure 
 white, presenting a beautiful contrast. Job 
 has been thought to refer to this feature (39.13, 
 A.V. marg.). The wings are large and power- 
 ful, with an expanse of 7 feet (Zech. 5.9), 
 enabling the birds to fly long distances at a 
 great altitude. 
 
 Stranger. The English word both in A.V. 
 and R.V. represents Hebrew terms of very 
 different import, and though it is hardly possible 
 for the English reader to determine in any given 
 passage which word is employed in the original, 
 he ought always to be on his guard, and turn, 
 if possible, to a commentary for further infor- 
 mation. 
 
 1. Nekar, Nokri. A foreigner who may or 
 may not come into contact with Israel. He 
 worships strange gods, and is regarded as quite 
 outside the interests of God's people (Gen. 35.2 ; 
 Ex. 12.43). 
 
 2. Zar. A word of wider meaning, used of 
 any one who is outside a particular relationship, 
 e.g. strange to a family (Deut. 25.5), or to a 
 priestly house (Lev. 22.12), or to the land (Hos. 
 7.9). 
 
 3. Toshab. A sojourner for a short time, who 
 does not (as such) enter into any kindly relation- 
 ship with Israel. It is often joined with ths 
 next word (Lev. 22.10). 
 
 4. Ger. A resident alien, and a sojourner in 
 the best sense. It sometimes has a general 
 meaning, as of Abraham at Hebron (Gen. 23.4), 
 Israel in Egypt (Gen. 15.13; Ex. 22.20), but 
 frequently the technical sense of a foreigner 
 who comes to live more or less permanently in 
 Israel, and places himself under the protection 
 of Jehovah, obtaining thereby certain rights 
 and privileges (Josh. 8.33). He is to share in 
 the Sabbath rest (Ex. 20.10), and is not to be 
 ill-treated (Lev. 19.33), but is not required to 
 be strict in the observance of the dietary laws 
 (Deut. 14.21). He thus serves as an illustration 
 of the relation of the believer to God, for as 
 regards Him we have no rights, yet are allowed 
 to enjoy privileges (Ps. 39.12). 
 
 Straw. Long straw was not valued by the 
 Hebrews or by the Egyptians. It was used for 
 food for oxen (/sat. 11.7), chopped small, and 
 mixed with grains. Straw was also largely used 
 in brick-making (Ex. 5.7) [BRICK], and as fuel 
 for the bread ovens. [BAKING, BREAD, CHAFF, 
 REAPING, STUBBLE.] 
 
 Stream of Egypt. (/sat. 27.12, R.V." brook"). 
 [RIVEB OF EGYPT.] 
 
 Street. The streets of Eastern cities are often 
 very narrow, sometimes 3 or 4 feet wide, and 
 almost always very crooked. In many places 
 a person cannot safely pass a loaded camel, 
 but must squeeze into a doorway or bend low 
 to let the beast pass. At Damascus, where 
 Ananias found Saul, was a street called 
 " Straight " (Acts 9.11). This street is still in 
 existence, and is covered over its entire length, 
 about half a mile. A street at Smyrna, which is 
 watered by a river, with trees on either side, 
 tallies somewhat closely with the description 
 in Rev. 22.2. Streets were seldom paved until 
 Roman tunes, and it is very noticeable that one 
 of the glories of the Heavenly Jerusalem was the 
 pavement of its streets. 
 
 Stripes. Not more than forty stripes could 
 be given by the Jewish Law (Deut. 25.3), and to 
 avoid exceeding this number only thirty-nine 
 were administered (2 Cor. 11.24). 
 
 Stubble. In harvesting, the Egyptians 
 gathered first the ears of corn, then the straw, 
 leaving the stubble standing in the fields. It 
 was these short ends with the attached roots 
 that the Israelites were compelled to gather for 
 brick-making (which see) (Ex. 5.12). Some- 
 times the ground was cleared of stubble by fire. 
 
STUDS] 
 
 459 
 
 [SUPPER, THE LORD'S 
 
 Hence the reference in Ex. 15.7 and Isai. 5.24. 
 [CHAFF, STBAW.] 
 
 Studs. Beads or j oints (Song 1.11), where 
 they are of silver stning on golden threads. 
 
 Stumbling-block, Stone of Stumbling (Isai. 
 8.14). These terms or figures of speech are 
 perhaps suggested by the rough, uneven roads 
 and mountain paths of Palestine, a perpetual 
 danger to the traveller. In the N.T. two 
 Greek words are used to express the idea (1) 
 lit. " scandal," originally implying something 
 which entraps rather than what trips up (Matt. 
 16.23 ; 1 Cor. 1.23 ; Gal. 5.11, etc.) ; (2) some- 
 thing which the foot strikes against (Rom. 
 9.32, 33, 14.13, 20 ; 1 Cor. 8.9). 
 
 Su'ah. A descendant of Asher (1 Ch. 7.36). 
 
 Sucathites. [SucHATHiTES.] 
 
 Sue 'coin. Booths : 1. A place on the east of 
 Jordan where Jacob formed an encampment 
 after his return from Padan-aram (Gen. 33.17). 
 At the division of the land it was allotted to 
 Gad (Josh. 13.27). Gideon passed by Succoth 
 when pursuing the Midianites, was refused pro- 
 vision by its princes, and on his return slew 
 them (Judg. 8.5-16). Solomon established a 
 brass foundry here (1 K. 7.46 ; 2 Ch. 4.17), at 
 which the vessels for the service of the Temple 
 were cast. Site unknown, but probably south 
 of the river Jabbok. 2. Valley of. Mentioned 
 in Psalms (60.6, 108.7), but position unknown. 
 3. Site of the first camping-place of the Israelites 
 after leaving Egypt and before crossing the 
 Red Sea (Ex. 12.37, 13.20 ; Num. 33.5, 6). It 
 is supposed to have been a regular resting- 
 place for caravans starting from Egypt for the 
 north. 
 
 Suc'coth-be'noth. Booths, or tents of the 
 daughters : the name of gods made by the men 
 of Babylon (2 K. 17.30). It seems to be a 
 corrupted form either of the Babylonian deity, 
 Bel-merodach, or of his wife, Zer-banit. 
 
 Suchathites, Sucathites. A family of scribes 
 (1 Ch. 2.55). 
 
 Sue. [LAW, DEBT.] 
 
 Suit. [CLOTHING, LAW.] 
 
 Sukkiim, SukMims. Dwellers among the 
 rocks : a tribe mentioned with the Lubim and 
 the Ethiopians as being in Shishak's army 
 (2 Ch. 12.3). 
 
 Sun. The " greater light " of Gen. 1.16-18. 
 The name first occurs in Gen. 15.12. Sun- 
 worship was and is widely spread in the East ; 
 and the Israelites were warned against it (Deut. 
 4.19, 17.3). [BETH-HORON, HBHES, IDOLATRY, 
 JOSHUA, STARS.] 
 
 Suph (Deut. 1.1, R.V.). Reed : probably the 
 sense is given rightly in A.V., " the Red Sea." 
 [RED SEA.] 
 
 Suphah (Num. 21.14, R.V.). (?) Reed : it 
 appears to be a place-name. The A.V. trans- 
 lation cannot be right. 
 
 Supper. There were only two meals in the 
 day in the life of an Oriental. The first was 
 about midday (Gen. 43.16 ; 1 K. 20.16 ; Ruth 
 2.14; Lk. 11.37, 14.12). The second supper, 
 the chief meal of the day, was in the evening 
 
 ( Judg. 19.21). The Passover was also celebrated 
 at this time (Ex. 16.12). 
 
 Supper, The Lord's. The Lord's Supper is 
 distinctly treated in five N.T. passages : in 
 the three accounts of the institution in the 
 Gospels, in 1 Cor. 10, and in 1 Cor. 11. The two 
 titles given to it are the " breaking of bread " 
 (Acts 2.42), and the " Lord's Supper " (1 Cor. 
 11.20). The ordinance was instituted on the 
 eve of our Lord's death, and in the presence of 
 intimate disciples, who were in close fellowship 
 with Him. This shows that the ordinance 
 is intended, not for men who were about to 
 become disciples, but for those already in- 
 structed. There is a close connexion between 
 the Lord's Supper and the death of Christ ; 
 and it is essential to study all the passages which 
 throw light on His death. He had fore- 
 shadowed His death in highly metaphorical 
 language in John 6, had foretold it in plain 
 statement (Matt .16.21), and had so far explained 
 its meaning as " for the life of the world " 
 (John 6.51), and as " a ransom for many" 
 (Matt. 20.28). It was, however, at Capernaum, 
 about a year before His crucifixion, that Christ 
 uttered the fullest teaching as to His death 
 (John 6). With solemn emphasis He stated 
 that He was about to give His flesh for the life 
 of the world, and that it was absolutely necessary 
 for every one to eat His flesh and drink His 
 blood for the reception and maintenance of 
 eternal life. He thus taught the absolute 
 necessity of participation in His death for 
 the possession of eternal life. This discourse 
 at Capernaum was addressed mainly to un- 
 believers and nominal followers. In view of 
 this clear reference to His death, we see at once 
 the relation of the discourse to the Lord's 
 Supper, instituted on the eve of His passion. 
 The relation is that of a universal truth to a 
 particular application ; the Supper is one 
 means whereby the disciples of Christ may 
 appropriate the benefit of His death. Both 
 discourse and Supper refer to the same thing 
 the Cross. 
 
 We must now examine in detail the language 
 of Christ in instituting the Supper. The in- 
 stitution came immediately after the Passover 
 meal. Our Lord first took the bread, and then 
 the cup, blessing God for the one, and giving 
 thanks for the other. Both blessing and 
 thanksgiving refer to God. When thus break- 
 ing the bread and taking the cup, our Lord 
 said, " This is My body which is given for 
 you," " This is My blood of the covenant, 
 which is shed for many unto remission of sins 
 (Matt. 26.27,28, R.V.). The words, "This is 
 My body," refer to that which our Lord gave, 
 namely, a broken fragment of the loaf ; and 
 they are exactly in accordance with the words 
 used by the Jews at their Passover, " This is 
 the bread of affliction which our ancestors ate 
 in the land of Egypt." Thus the whole phrase 
 means, " This is the representation of My body 
 which is given for you." The term " covenant " 
 recalls O.T. facts and promises, especially the 
 
SUE] 
 
 460 
 
 [SWEET CANE 
 
 new covenant foretold by Jeremiah (Jer. 31.31 ; 
 Heb. 8.7-13). " In remembrance of Me" (Lk. 
 22.19) means "calling to mind," or recollection, 
 which is the primary and fundamental purpose 
 of the ordinance. The phrase "This do," 
 means, " Perform this action." 
 
 When we turn to the Epistles, we find one 
 or two additional points in St. Paul's account 
 of the ordinance. In 1 Cor. 10.16, we have 
 " the cup of blessing which we bless," which 
 means, " the cup over which the blessing is 
 pronounced " (Ellicott). Blessing in the 
 N.T. is never associated with things as its 
 object, but only with God, as the One whom 
 we bless (Westcott, Hebrews, p. 209). " The 
 communion of the body of Christ," means 
 fellowship, partnership, joint sharing with 
 persons in that which is theirs " in common." 
 Thus St. Paul follows closely the original in- 
 stitution, in associating the ordinance with part- 
 nership in our Lord's death. It is to be ob- 
 served how the apostle uses the term " table," 
 not " altar," for the Lord's Supper. In 1 Cor. 
 11.26 there is the additional statement, "As 
 often as ye eat this bread, and drink the cup, 
 ye proclaim the Lord's death till He come." 
 The apostle warns against eating and drinking 
 " unworthily," that is, regardless of the sacred 
 and solemn meaning of the ordinance ; and he 
 says that any one so doing is "guilty of the body 
 and blood of the Lord," that is, guilty of pro- 
 fanation of the Divine means of our redemption, 
 the Lord Himself. The ordinance calls for 
 definite spiritual examination and discernment, 
 " discerning the Lord's body," that is, a spiritual 
 discernment of its sacred purpose and intention 
 (same word as in ver. 31). These are all the 
 passages in the N.T. which speak of the Lord's 
 Supper. The statement, " We have an altar " 
 (Heb. 13.10), cannot refer to the Supper on 
 any proper exegesis ; and none of the best 
 commentators so regard it. The reference 
 may be to the Jewish altar, in connexion with 
 which the priests did not eat the sin offerings, 
 or, more probably, to Christ Himself or His 
 cross. [ALTAR.] 
 
 In all this Scripture teaching we observe the 
 extreme simplicity of the institution ; the 
 place was a house, not a temple ; the persons 
 were ordinary Jews ; the time was evening ; 
 the circumstances were those of a social meal, 
 a family gathering at the Passover time. The 
 fundamental idea of the ordinance is found in 
 our Lord's words, " Do this in remembrance of 
 Me." We recall Him and His sacrifice on our 
 behalf. But the bread is to be eaten and the 
 wine drunk ; this means not remembrance 
 alone, but remembrance with appropriation. 
 We are to " feed on Him in our hearts by 
 faith." And this is to be done, not in secret 
 and alone, but in company with others, as we 
 confess to ourselves and to them our trust in 
 the atoning sacrifice of Christ. We realise 
 therein our joint possession of all that Calvary 
 means, and thereby express and realise our unity 
 with Him who died for us on the cross (1 Cor. 
 
 10.17). Then again, both the Lord and St. 
 Paul definitely connect the ordinance with the 
 future, with the second advent, and we pro- 
 claim His death, " till He come." Thus the 
 Supper involves, symbolises, and proclaims 
 the entire Gospel in miniature. Christ for us, 
 offered on Calvary ; Christ in us, appropriated 
 by faith ; Christ among us, our centre of unity ; 
 Christ coming, our Lord and King. And so, 
 as Godet well says, the Supper of the Lord 
 reveals and expresses the " totality of salva- 
 tion." It strengthens our faith, stirs our love, 
 inspires our obedience and sustains our hope. 
 The message of the entire revelation of God in 
 Christ is thus concentrated in this one ordinance. 
 
 Sur. Turning aside, removed : a gate in 
 Jerusalem (2 K. 11.6). In 2 Ch. 23.5 it is called 
 " gate of the foundation." The position of this 
 gate, whether it was of the city, of the Temple, 
 or of the king's palace, is unknown. 
 
 Surety. Becoming surety for a debt does 
 not appear to have been sanctioned by the 
 Law, though practised. This explains the ex- 
 press cautions against it (Prov. 11.15, 17.18, 
 22.26). Yet there are instances in which persons 
 have offered to become surety for the fulfilment 
 of a promise (Gen. 43.9, 44.32 ; Job 17.3 ; Ps. 
 119.122), and in Heb. 7.22 the Saviour is spoken 
 of as a surety for the fulfilment of the new 
 and everlasting covenant. [LAW, PLEDGE.] 
 
 Susanch'ites (R.V. Shushanchites). The in- 
 habitants of Susa, or Shushan, who were carried 
 to Samaria and settled there by Shalmanezer 
 (Ezra 4.9). [SAMARIA.] 
 
 Susan'na. One of the women who followed 
 Christ, ministering to His wants (Lk. 8.3). 
 
 Su'si. The father of Gaddi, who was one of 
 the spies sent out to view the Promised Land 
 (Num. 13.11). 
 
 Swallow. Mentioned in Ps. 84.3 and Prov. 
 26.2 ; also in Isai. 38.14 and Jer. 8.7, where, 
 however, the R.V. transposes the " swallow or 
 crane " of A.V. into " crane or swallow." 
 These passages comprise references to the 
 swallow's nesting habits, to its swift and tireless 
 flight, to its twittering note, and to its annual 
 migration. Of the swallows and the closely 
 allied martins and swifts there are several 
 varieties in Palestine. The common swift, 
 so well known in England, arrives in countless 
 numbers in Palestine in April, leaving again in 
 November. 
 
 Swan. Mentioned only twice in A.V. (Lev. 
 11.18; Deut. 14.16) in the list of "unclean" 
 birds. But the swan is practically unknown in 
 Palestine, and as it is a vegetable-feeder it 
 would have hardly been classed among the 
 " unclean." The R.V. renders the word 
 " horned owl." It is more likely that the 
 Egyptian ibis, an unclean feeder, is intended, 
 or some other water-fowl of the Mediterranean 
 marshes. 
 
 Swearing. [OATH.] 
 
 Sweet Cane (Isai. 43.24 ; Jer. 6.20). Perhaps 
 the scented calamus, which was offered in the 
 Assyrian ritual. [CALAMUS.] 
 
SWINE] 
 
 461 
 
 [SYNAGOGUE 
 
 Swine. No animal is spoken of in the 
 Bible with such abhorrence as the pig. It is 
 forbidden as unclean by the Mosaic Law (Lev. 
 11.7 ; Deut. 14.8) ; and in several instances the 
 eating of swine's flesh is alluded to as the very 
 acme of abomination (Isai. 65.4, 66.3, 17). The 
 most orthodox of Jews in the Middle Ages 
 would not even name the animal, b^t rf erred 
 to it as " the abomination." Swine r , how- 
 ever, referred to as the type of uncleanness : 
 " As a jewel of gold in a swine's snout, so is 
 a fair woman which it without discretion " 
 (Prov. 11.22 ; cf. also Matt. 7.6). The proverb 
 quoted in 2 Pet. 2.22 seems to be based on the 
 saying in the Story of Ahikar (fourth or fifth 
 century B.C.) : " The pig who went to the hot 
 bath with people of quality, and when it came 
 out of the hot bath it saw a filthy hole, and it 
 went down and wallowed in it." Later, herds 
 of swine were kept for trade with the heathen 
 population of Palestine (Matt. 8.30-32; Mk. 
 5.11-16; Lk. 8.32,33, 15.15,16). 
 
 Sword. Among the nations of antiquity the 
 sword was an auxiliary weapon, the warrior 
 relying chiefly on his bow and arrows or spear. 
 The sword itself was short and broad, generally 
 sharpened on one edge, but sometimes on both, 
 when its function was to stab. It varied greatly 
 in shape, sometimes straight, sometimes curved. 
 Always it was carried on the left thigh, whence 
 Ehud could wear a short sword or dagger on 
 his right thigh without suspicion, being left- 
 handed (Judg. 3.16). The sword is the most 
 ancient weapon of offence mentioned in the 
 Bible. With it Jacob's sons slew the Shechemites 
 (Gen. 34.25). It is often synonymous with " war," 
 " The Lord shall send the sword (i.e. war) into 
 the land." " The sword of the mouth " (Job 
 5.15 ; Ps. 57.4) is pernicious talk, false accusa- 
 tion, slander, calumny. The Word of God in 
 its penetrating power is likened to a two-edged 
 sword (Heb. 4.12). " Out of His mouth went a 
 sharp two-edged sword " (Rev. 1.16) expresses 
 the force of His word, whether of grace or of 
 judgment. 
 
 Sycamine Tree. The mulberry tree (Lk. 17.6). 
 It is common in North Arabia, including Palestine, 
 and two varieties are known, black and white, 
 both grown for the fruit and because silkworms 
 feed on its leaves. 
 
 Sycamore, Sycomore (Lk. 19.4). The syca- 
 more is a true fig, and is still common in warm 
 and sheltered positions in Palestine. In Egypt, 
 " Pharaoh's fig trees," as they are called, are 
 still found, though not nearly so abundant as 
 formerly. It is easily reared, grows rapidly, 
 and becomes a giant in girth, with wide- 
 spreading branches and enormous roots. It 
 bears several crops of figs during the year ; but 
 they are small and insipid. Yet they form a 
 principal article of food with the poorer classes. 
 Amos, describing himself as a gatherer (" dresser," 
 R.V.) of sycomore fruit, may refer to the arti- 
 ficial nipping of the fruit to make it eatable 
 (Amos 7.14). In flowers and foliage it closely 
 resembles the common fig. The wood is soft, 
 
 but durable, and capable of being cut into large 
 planks. David and Solomon had special plant- 
 ations of sycamores in the low hills near the 
 coast, where the mild climate was conducive to 
 their growth (1 K. 10.27 ; 1 Ch. 27.28). With 
 cedars, pine trees, and oaks the Hebrews might 
 well regard the sycamore as an inferior material 
 (Isai. 9.9, 10), just as the fruit was not to be 
 compared with the allied species. [Fios.] 
 
 Sy 'char. A " city " of Samaria, near which was 
 Jacob's Well (John 4.5) ; the modern Askar, 
 about 2 miles east of Shechem. Here Jesus, 
 weary after His hot and dusty journey, met 
 the woman of Samaria, and stayed two < days 
 teaching. [JESUS, LIVING WATER.] 
 
 Sy'chem. (Acts 7.16, R.V. Shechem, which 
 see). 
 
 Sye'ne, or Seveneh. The last town of Egypt 
 on the southern frontier towards Ethiopia 
 (Ezek. 29.10, 30.6, R.V. Seveneh). It had a 
 large garrison, to protect the adjacent granite 
 quarries and its workmen from the incursions 
 of wandering bands of marauders. The forti- 
 fied centre of Syene was the island of the Nile 
 called Elephantine ; now Assouan. Papyri have 
 been found there written in the fifth century 
 B.C., giving an account of the Jews who lived 
 there then. 
 
 Symeon. So the R.V. for Simeon 3, 4, and 
 also for 5 (Acts 15.14; 2 Pet. 1.1, marg.). 
 
 Synagogue. Assembly : literally meaning a 
 convention or assembly ; the word, as in the 
 case of " church," came to be used of the 
 building in which the assembly met. Local 
 " assemblies " for instruction in the Law and 
 worship existed from early times, e.g. " tEe 
 schools of the prophets" (1 Sam. 10.11, 
 19.20-24 ; 2 K. 4.1) ; and during the Captivity 
 meetings of the elders of Israel were not infre- 
 quent (cf. Ezek. 8.1, and parallel passages) ; but 
 synagogues proper seem to have arisen later 
 in the Dispersion. From about 200 B.C. the 
 systematic organisation of these assemblies 
 rapidly developed in Palestine, and buildings set 
 apart f orlreh'gious services multiplied. They were 
 intimately associated with the Scribes, as an 
 institution for the instruction of the people in 
 the Law and its application to daily life. In the 
 synagogues the costly scrolls of the Scriptures 
 written by the Scribes were carefully preserved 
 in a chest or ark conspicuously facing the seats 
 of the people. Stated services were held every 
 Sabbath, also on the second and fifth days of 
 the week. Special prominence was given in 
 these services to the reading of the Law and 
 the Prophets; prayers, exhortations, exposi- 
 tion and almsgiving were also observed. As 
 the knowledge of ancient Hebrew gradually 
 died out, the reading of the appointed portions 
 of Scripture had to be accompanied by transla- 
 tion into the vernacular Aramaic, or perhaps even 
 into Greek, which seems in the time of our Lord 
 to have been understood in the north of Pales- 
 tine. Not only were the synagogues places of 
 worship, they were also schools for teaching 
 children to read, and likewise minor courts of 
 
SYNTYCHE] 
 
 462 
 
 [SYRTIS, THE 
 
 justice, in which the sentence was not only 
 pronounced but executed (Matt. 10.17). The 
 general management of the synagogue was 
 under the direction of " elders " (Lk. 7.3), 
 the chief of whom were " rulers " (Lk. 13.14 ; 
 Acts 13.15). The seats of the elders and rulers 
 were in front of the ark and facing the congrega- 
 tion. The disciplinary powers of excommuni- 
 cating and of scourging were in the hands of 
 the elders, and it was they or the rulers who 
 in the service called on fit persons to read, 
 pray, and preach. Alms were collected by 
 two or more " collectors," and a " minister " 
 (attendant, R.V.), Lk. 4.20, had charge of the 
 sacred books, and fulfilled the general duties 
 of verger or caretaker. The order of service 
 in a synagogue much resembles that described 
 in Neh. 8.1-8, with which compare Lk. 4.16-20. 
 Synagogues were very numerous. Wherever a 
 number of Jews lived and carried on business, 
 they had their synagogue. Every trading com- 
 pany had one of its own, and even strangers 
 built some for those of their own nation. Hence 
 we find synagogues " of the Cyrenians, and of 
 the Alexandrians, and of them of Cilicia and 
 Asia," belonging to such as came up to Jeru- 
 salem from those countries (Acts 6.9). In our 
 Lord's time there was scarcely a country in the 
 whole Roman Empire where a colony of Jews 
 might not be found. 
 
 Syn'tyche. A female Christian of Philippi 
 and a fellow-worker with Euodia (which see). 
 These two apparently found it hard to work 
 together harmoniously, and so Paul rebuked 
 them (Phil. 4.2). 
 
 Sy'racuse. A city on the east coast of Sicily, 
 where Paul stayed three days while journeying 
 to Rome (Acts 28.12); now Syracusa. Before 
 Paul's day Syracuse had been a magnificent 
 city, with a fine harbour still used for the 
 Alexandrian grain ships. But warfare and 
 piratical raids had done much to damage it, 
 though its harbour was too important for the 
 place to sink into insignificance. 
 
 Syria. Syria, called also Aram (which see) 
 from the patriarch whose descendants peopled 
 it, comprehended the country lying between 
 the Euphrates to the east and the Mediter- 
 ranean to the west Cilicia on the north and 
 Arabia Deserta on the south, exclusive of 
 Palestine. The limits of Syria, however, were 
 never determined, and the name was vaguely 
 used. Syria had many famous cities within its 
 borders. Of these, Damascus, Antioch, Seleucia, 
 Palmyra, Laodicea, are chief. It was, however, 
 for the most part a collection of petty states, 
 striving with one another for supremacy, but 
 
 with indeterminate results. The kingdom of 
 Damascus was the chief ; and, after the days 
 of Abraham, it first appears in the Bible history 
 as confederate against David with Hadadezer, 
 king of Zobah (2 Sam. 8.5). The result was 
 that Syria submitted to David ; but in the days 
 of Solomon it revolted under Rezon of Zobah, 
 who also captured Damascus (1 K. 11.23-25). 
 From that time the Syrian kingdoms were in- 
 dependent of Israel, with which they had re- 
 peated wars under the " Hadad " dynasty, 
 notably in the siege of Samaria, so marvellously 
 frustrated (2 K. 6, 7). Hazael afterwards 
 murdered the Syrian king and usurped the 
 throne, greatly harassing Israel, but was over- 
 come in turn by Joash, king of Israel (2 K. 
 13.22-25). Jeroboam n. followed up the ad- 
 vantage ; and in a subsequent reign the Syrian 
 kingdom under Rezin is found in alliance with 
 Israel against Ahaz, king of Judah. See the 
 remarkable passage, Isai. 7.1-6. The issue of 
 the conflict was that Ahaz invoked the aid 
 of the Assyrian Tiglath-pileser against the 
 confederate kings; and the swiftly following 
 series of events led to the defeat and death 
 of Rezin and the absorption of Damascus in 
 Assyria. 
 
 From that time the Syrian states ceased to 
 have any independent existence, but became a 
 part of the great Assyrian empire, from which 
 they passed to. the Babylonians, the Persians, 
 and the generals of Alexander, who for the first 
 time consolidated them into .a great and pro- 
 sperous kingdom. The inscriptions of Tiglath- 
 pileser commemorate the fall of Damascus, the 
 overthrow of Rezin (mentioned by name), and 
 give the name of Hadad as that of the Syrian 
 divinity. 
 
 In N.T. times, Syria, as a Roman province, 
 included Palestine, which, however, had a 
 separate governor or procurator. Thus about 
 the date of the birth of our Lord the " legatus " 
 of Syria was C. Sentius Saturninus (9-6 B.C.), 
 followed by P. Quintilius Varus (6-4 B.C.) and 
 P. Sulpitius Quirinius (3-2 B.C.). At the date 
 of the Crucifixion, L. JSlius Lamia was legate, 
 and Pontius Pilate procurator. 
 
 Syrophenician. A Phenician inhabiting 
 Syria, as distinguished from a Phenician of 
 Carthage or other colonies on the Mediterranean 
 (Mk. 7.26). The woman so described is also 
 styled a " Greek," i.e. either in language or 
 religion, or simply in the sense of Gentile. 
 Matthew calls her " a woman of Canaan " (Matt. 
 15.22). The three terms emphasise the strange- 
 ness of her appeal to our Lord. 
 
 Syrtis, The. [QUICKSANDS.] 
 
TAANACH, TANACH] 
 
 463 
 
 [TABERNACLE 
 
 Taa'nach, Ta'nach. Now Tannak, a village 
 on the south-west border of the plain of 
 Esdraelon, 4 miles south of Megiddo ; a royal 
 Canaanite city taken by Joshua. Afterwards it 
 lay within the territory of Issachar, but was 
 allotted to the west half-tribe of Manasseh ; as- 
 signed to the Kohathites ; whence the Canaanites 
 were not expelled (Josh. 12.21, 17.11-13, 21.25 ; 
 Judg. 1.27, 28 ; 1 Ch. 7.29). It was a gathering- 
 place of Sisera's host (Judg. 5.19), and subse- 
 quently a part of one of Solomon's commissariat 
 districts (1 K. 4.12). 
 
 Taa'nath-shi'loh. Meaning unknown ; pos- 
 sibly threshold of Shiloh : a frontier town of 
 Ephraim between Shechem and the Jordan ; the 
 modern Tana, 2 miles north of Yanun and 7 from 
 Nablus (Josh. 16.6). 
 
 Tabba'oth. (?) Rings : the children of Tab- 
 baoth were a family of Nethinim who returned 
 with Zerubbabel (Ezra 2.43 ; Neh. 7.46). 
 
 Tab 'bath. The scene of the flight of the 
 Midianites after Gideon's attack (Judg. 7.22) ; 
 not identified, apparently about the middle of 
 the Jordan valley. 
 
 Tabe'al, Tabe'el. Probably, God is good 
 [TABEEL] : Pekah and Rezin sought to make 
 " the son of Tabeal " king of Judah, in place of 
 Ahaz (Isai. 7.6). Possibly the person intended 
 is Pekah himself, for Tabeal, by a permutation 
 of letters commonly employed by later Jews, 
 can be read as Remala (Remaliah). 
 
 Tabe'el. God is good, or wise : an officer of 
 the Persian government in Samaria in the reign 
 of Artaxerxes, who wrote complaints of the 
 Jews (Ezra 4.7). 
 
 Taber'ah. Burning : site of Israelite en- 
 campment where fire consumed the murmurers. 
 Not identified (Num. 11.3 ; Deut. 9.22). 
 
 Tabering. This obsolete word, used in 
 Nah. 2.7 ("tabering upon their breasts"), 
 brings before us the image of the women of 
 Nineveh, led away into captivity, beating their 
 breasts in anguish, as though beating a tabor 
 or small drum. 
 
 Tabernacle. 1. The construction of the 
 Tabernacle, with an account of its furniture 
 and contents, is described in Exodus, chaps. 25, 
 26, 27, 36, 37, 38. In the Tabernacle, public 
 worship was held from the time of the wilder- 
 ness till the reign of Solomon. It was both the 
 temple of God and the palace of the invisible 
 King; His "holy habitation." It was the 
 place where He met the people and communed 
 with them. The A.V. phrase, "Tabernacle of 
 the congregation," should be rendered, " Taber- 
 nacle or tent of meeting" (see R.V.), i.e. of 
 God with man. 
 
 The Tabernacle was an oblong, rectangular 
 building, 55 feet by 15 feet, built of planks of 
 the acacia, overlaid with gold, united by poles 
 of gold, and resting on bases of silver ; the whole 
 shielded by four costly coverings (Ex. 26.1-14). 
 
 The eastern end was not boarded, but was closed 
 by a curtain of cotton, suspended from silver 
 rods, that were sustained by five pillars covered 
 with gold. 
 
 The interior was divided into two parts by a 
 curtain or veil made of rich stuff, and curiously 
 embroidered with figures of cherubim and other 
 ornaments (Ex. 26.36, 37). 
 
 The first apartment was the Holy Place (Heb. 
 9.2), 30 feet by 15 ; the inner and smaller one, 
 the " Holy of Holies," a cube of 15 feet. In 
 the latter was the Ark of the Covenant, an 
 oblong chest of wood, covered with gold, and 
 surmounted by two golden figures of cherubim 
 with outstretched wings. Above them was 
 " the Glory," the symbol of the Divine presence. 
 It rested between them, and came down on the 
 lid of the ark " the Mercy-seat." In or near 
 the ark were the tables of stone, the book of 
 the Law, a pot of manna, and Aaron's rod 
 (Ex. 25.21 ; Deut. 31.26 ; Heb. 9.4). 
 
 In the first or ante-room were placed the 
 golden altar of incense (Ex. 30.1-10; for the 
 statement in Heb. 9.3, 4, see ALTAE), the seven- 
 branched golden candlestick or lamp (Ex. 
 25.31-39), and the table of wood, overlaid with 
 gold, where the shewbread, and perhaps the 
 wine, were placed (Ex. 25.23-30). 
 
 Around the Tabernacle was an extensive 
 court, about 150 feet by 75, formed by curtains 
 of linen, suspended by silver hooks from rods 
 of silver, which reached from one column to 
 another. These columns were twenty in all, 
 of acacia, probably supported on bases of 
 brass, and eight or nine feet (five cubits) high. 
 The entrance was on the east side, and was 
 closed by falling tapestry, adorned with figures 
 in blue, purple, and scarlet (Ex. 27.9-19). 
 
 In this court, which was open at the top, all 
 the public services of religion were performed, 
 and all sacrifices presented. Near the centre 
 was the great brazen altar (five cubits square 
 and three high), with prominences at the 
 corners called " horns " (Ex. 27.1-8 ; Ps. 118.27). 
 The various instruments of this altar were of 
 brass, as those of the altar of incense were of 
 gold (Ex. 25.31-40, 27.3, 38.3). In the court of 
 the Tabernacle, between the brazen altar and 
 the Tabernacle, stood the brazen laver, at which 
 the priests performed their ablutions before 
 approaching the altar (Ex. 30.17-21). On the 
 altar a fire burnt continually, at first miracu- 
 lously kindled, and afterwards kept in by the 
 priests (Lev. 6.12, 9.24, 10.1). It is probable 
 that, before the Tabernacle proper was built, 
 Moses used a smaller tent for the purpose of 
 worshipping God, outside the camp, which was 
 called by the same name, " the tent of meeting" 
 (Ex. 33.7). It is worthy of notice that all the 
 materials for the Tabernacle could have been 
 obtained in the Sinai tic peninsula, and that 
 its construction was simple. See further the 
 
TABERNACLES, FEAST OF] 
 
 464 
 
 [TAHTIM-HODSHI 
 
 articles on the separate parts of the furniture 
 of the Tabernacle. 2. [SICCUTH.] 
 
 Tabernacles, The Feast of. A solemn festival 
 of the Hebrews, lasting eight days, and observed 
 after the harvest of corn and fruit was over, 
 as a Feast of the Ingathering of Fruits. It was 
 one of the three great solemnities whereat all 
 the males were obliged to present themselves 
 before the Lord ; and it was instituted to 
 commemorate the goodness of God, Who pro- 
 tected the children of Israel in the wilderness, 
 and made them dwell in tents or booths after 
 they came out of Egypt. No work might be 
 done during the feast. On the first day of the 
 festival the people cut down branches of the 
 handsomest trees, with their fruit, branches of 
 palm trees and such as were fullest of leaves, 
 and boughs of the willow trees that grew upon 
 the sides of the brooks. These they brought to- 
 gether, and waved them, it is said, towards the 
 four quarters of the world, singing certain songs. 
 These branches were also called hosannoth, 
 because, when they carried and waved them, 
 the people shouted hosanna, as the people 
 did at the Saviour's entry into Jerusalem. 
 The last day of the feast was called the great 
 hosanna. During the week the people lived in 
 booths constructed of branches, in remembrance 
 of dwelling in booths as they came out from 
 Egypt (Lev. 23.34-44; Dent. 31.10-13; Neh. 
 8.16; Matt. 21.8,9; John 7, 8.12-20). In 
 N.T. times, on the last day of the feast, a priest, 
 accompanied by a procession of worshippers, 
 drew water in a golden pitcher, containing a 
 quarter of a bin, from the spring of Siloam, 
 which issued from a rock near the Temple. 
 This water was mingled with an equal quantity 
 of wine (Ex. 29.40) as a special drink-oSering 
 (Lev. 23.36, 37), the people singing the words of 
 Isaiah, " With joy shall they draw water from 
 the wells of salvation," and was poured on the 
 evening sacrifice amid joyful acclamations 
 (John 7.37). The golden candelabra in the 
 court of the Temple were lighted on the first 
 night, and perhaps also on the other nights of 
 the feast (John 8.12). Priests also ascended 
 the steps which separated the Court of the 
 Women from the inner court, singing the Psalms 
 of Degrees (Ps. 120-134). 
 
 Tabi'tha. [DORCAS.] 
 
 Tal>or. 1. Jebel et-Tor ; a striking isolated 
 dome-like hill, rising abruptly, 1312 feet from 
 its base, at the north-east of the plain of 
 Jezreel, with rounded top, commanding exten- 
 sive views (Ps. 89.12 ; Jer. 46.18). It stood on 
 the boundary between Issachar and Zebulun 
 (Josh. 19.22). Tabor was the gathering-place 
 of Barak's forces (Judg. 4.6, 14) for the war 
 against Jabin and Sisera ; the scene of the 
 slaughter of Gideon's sons (Judg. 8.18), and 
 of a corrupted form of the true faith which was 
 characteristic of the northern kingdom (Eos. 
 5.1). Since the third century Tabor has been 
 revered by Christian tradition as the scene of 
 the Transfiguration (which see), though the 
 name of the " high mountain " is not given 
 
 in the Gospels, and probably the summit of 
 Tabor at that time was inhabited and partially 
 fortified. 2. A town of Zebulun, on or near 
 Mount Tabor, assigned to the Merarites (Josh. 
 19.22 ; 1 Ch. 6.77). 3. The " Plain," or more 
 correctly the " Oak," of Tabor was near Bethel, 
 in the route of Saul after he was anointed by 
 Samuel (1 Sam. 10.3). 
 
 Tabret. 1. A tambourine (Gen. 31.27). 
 2. In Job 17.6 a mistranslation for " spitting " 
 (see R.V. marg.). 
 
 Tab-rim 'mon. Eimmon (the Syrian god) 
 is good : the father of Benhadad (1 A". 15.18), 
 king of Syria. 
 
 Tache. An old word, meaning a fastening 
 (compare the derived words, attach, detach), 
 occurring only in the description of the curtains 
 of the Tabernacle (Ex. 26.6, etc. ; R.V. clasp). 
 
 Tachmon'ite, Tahchemonite. (?) The wise : 
 an appellation of Adino, the chief of David's 
 mighty men (2 Sam. 23.8). In 1 Ch. 11.11 we 
 read " Jashobeam, the son of a Hachmonite " 
 (R.V.). [JASHOBEAM.] 
 
 Tad'mor. (?) City of palms : now Palmyra, 
 a city 120 miles north-east of Damascus, in a 
 well-watered and fruitful oasis, midway between 
 the Euphrates and the Orontes (1 K. 9.18) ; said 
 in 2 Ch. 8.4 to have been built by Solomon ; 
 and so also in the common text of 1 K. 9.18, 
 where the true text is Tamar (which see). 
 Palmyra was advantageously placed for trade 
 with Babylon. The city of Palmyra continued 
 to be inhabited until the downfall of the 
 Roman Empire. Its ruins are magnificent. 
 
 Ta'han. A descendant of Ephraim (Num. 
 26.35; 1C*. 7.25). 
 
 Tahan'ites. Descendants of Tahan (Num. 
 26.35). 
 
 Tahap'anes (R.V. Tahp'anhes), Tehaphnehes. 
 The classical Daphnae, now Tell Defenneh, 
 where traces of a great camp have been found ; 
 an important town on east border of Lower 
 Egypt (Jer. 2.16), whither Jeremiah and others 
 fled from Jerusalem (Jer. 43.7-9, 44.1) ; where 
 he prophesied the conquest of Egypt by Nebu- 
 chadnezzar (Jer. 46.14). Ezekiel also appears to 
 refer to the same town (Ezek. 30.18). 
 
 Tahash. {THAHASH.] 
 
 Ta'hath. 1. The site of an Israelite encamp- 
 ment (Num. 33.26,27). 2. A Kohathite and 
 ancestor of Samuel (1 Ch. 6.24, 37). 3 and 4. 
 Two Ephraimites (1 Ch. 7.20). 
 
 Tahchemonite. [TACHMONITB.] 
 
 Tahpe'nes. An Egyptian queen, the wife of 
 the Pharaoh who received Hadad the Edomite, 
 and gave him her sister in marriage (1 K. 
 11.19, 20). 
 
 Tahre'a. (?) Shrewd : son of Micah, and 
 grandson of Mephibosheth (1 Ch. 9.41). His 
 name appears as Tarea in 1 Ch. 8.35. 
 
 Tah'tim-hod'shi. A place visited by Joab 
 when numbering the people (2 Sam. 24.6) ; 
 otherwise unknown. It has been thought to be 
 an error of the copyist for " (the land of) the 
 Hittites to Kadesh," which was the capital of 
 the Hittites on the river Orontes, 
 
TALENT] 
 
 465 
 
 [TARSUS 
 
 Talent. In the O.T. the largest Hebrew 
 weight for metals. The ancient Hebrews seem 
 to have had three different talents, which were 
 derived from the three similar talents of Assyria 
 and Mesopotamia. The weight talent " of the 
 king " was equal to over 158 Ib. troy ; the gold 
 talent to over 131 Ib. troy and 6000 ; the silver 
 talent to over 117 Ib. troy and 400. The coin 
 mentioned in the N.T. is the Greek talent, 
 worth about 240. The sum owed by the 
 servant in the parable was therefore emonnous, 
 2,400,000 (Matt. 18.24). [WEIGHTS.] 
 
 Talitha cumi. Maiden, arise! the Aramaic 
 expression addressed by our Lord to the daughter 
 of Jairus (Mk. 5.41). 
 
 Tal'mai. 1. One of the three children of 
 Anak slain by the men of Judah under Caleb 
 (Num. 13.22; Josh. 15.14; Judg. 1.10). 2. A 
 king of Geshur, father of David's wife Maachah, 
 and grandfather of Absalom (2 Sam. 3.3, 13.37 ; 
 1 Ch. 3.2). 
 
 Tal'mon. The head of a family of door- 
 keepers in the Temple after the Return (1 Ch. 
 9.17 ; Neh. 11.19). Some returned with Zerub- 
 babel (Ezra 2.42 ; Neh. 7.45) ; and their de- 
 scendants were employed in their hereditary 
 office in the days of Nehemiah and Ezra (Neh. 
 12.25). 
 
 Ta'mah. [THAMAH.] 
 
 Ta'mar. Palm tree : 1. Wife successively of 
 Er and Onan, the sons of Judah, and after- 
 wards, by Judah himself, the mother of Pharez 
 and Zarah, through the former of whom the 
 sacred line was continued. She was an ances- 
 tress of our Lord (Gen. 38.6-30; Matt. 1.3, 
 Thamar). 2. The daughter of David wronged 
 by Amnon, her half-brother, and avenged by 
 her brother, Absalom (2 Sam. 13.1-32; 1 Ch. 
 3.9). 3. A daughter of Absalom, called probably 
 after her aunt, and inheriting the beauty of 
 both aunt and father (2 Sam. 14.27). 4. A 
 spot on the south-east frontier of Judah (Ezek. 
 47.19, 48.28, and probably 1 K. 9.18, see 
 TADMOR). 
 
 Tamarisk. Abraham planted one (Gen. 
 21.33); Saul sat under one (1 Sam. 22.C) ; 
 and he and his sons were buried under one in 
 Jabesh (1 Sam. 31.13). Such is the rendering 
 of the R.V. in all three places. The bush may 
 often be seen at English seaside resorts, for it 
 thrives in sandy soil with saltish air. Pre- 
 sumably those mentioned in Scripture had a 
 quasi-sacred reputation. [TREE.] 
 
 Tam'muz. A name of Adonis, the sun-god, 
 the headquarters of whose worship were at 
 Byblos in Phoenicia. His annual festival, in 
 June in Babylon, but August in Palestine, which 
 took the form of lamentation for his death, 
 and rejoicing at his coming to life again, was 
 marked by obscene rites (Ezek. 8.14). The river 
 Adonis (Nahr Ibrahim), which flows down from 
 the Lebanon, is sometimes tinged with red, for 
 the soil of the Lebanon is naturally very red- 
 coloured. Popular fancy converted this red- 
 ness into the blood of Adonis. Isai. 17.10 
 is thought (see R.V. marg.) to refer to the 
 
 30 
 
 " gardens of Adonis," which were cut herbs 
 placed in pots containing a wooden image of 
 the god, and soon withered away. In Dan. 
 11.37 " the desire of women " may also refer to 
 him. Milton in Paradise Lost, i. 456 ff., has 
 some well-known lines on his worship. 
 
 Tanhu'meth. Consolation : the father (or 
 perhaps mother) of Seraiah, a Hebrew captain 
 after the fall of Jerusalem, who submitted to 
 Gedaliah (2 K. 25.23 ; Jer. 40.8). 
 
 Tap'hath. A daughter of Solomon, married 
 to Ben-abinadab, one of the king's twelve 
 commissariat officers (1 K. 4.11). 
 
 Tappu'an. Apple : 1. A place in the low- 
 land of Judah, about 12 miles west of Jerusalem 
 (Josh. 12.17, 15.34). 2. A town on the bound- 
 ary of Ephraim and Manasseh, belonging to 
 Ephraim, which gave its name to a district 
 belonging to Manasseh (Josh. 16.8, 17.8). 
 [TiPHSAH 2.] 3. A son of Hebron, of the 
 tribe of Judah (1 Ch. 2.43). 
 
 Ta'rah, Terah. The site of an Israelite en- 
 campment (Num. 33.27, 28). 
 
 Tara'lah. A town of Benjamin (Josh. 18.27). 
 
 Tare'a. (1 Ch. 8.35). [TAHREA.] 
 
 Tares. In Matt. 13 the darnel, which is 
 like the wheat when undeveloped, though easily 
 distinguishable when " both have grown to- 
 gether until the harvest." It is not unknown in 
 England, but in the low-lying districts of the 
 Lebanon and other parts of Palestine it becomes 
 alarmingly plentiful. If eaten, it produces 
 sickness, dizziness, and diarrhoea. It has to 
 be carefully winnowed and picked out of the 
 wheat grain by grain. 
 
 Target. A larger sort of shield (1 K. 10.16; 
 2 Ch. 9.15). In 1 Sam. 17.6 the Hebrew word 
 probably means " javelin." [SHIELD.] 
 
 Targum. [ VERSIONS.] 
 
 Tarpe'Ktes. (?) Beyond the bridge : a race of 
 colonists who were planted by Shalmaneser in 
 the cities of Samaria after the captivity of the 
 northern kingdom of Israel (Ezra 4.9). 
 
 Tar'shish, Thar'shish. 1. In Gen. 10.4 and 
 1 Ch. 1.7, Tarshish is one of the sons of Javan. 
 Prof. Sayce takes this to mean that Tarshish 
 was colonised by settlers of Ionian Greeks. 
 2. An emporium of commerce, probably the 
 same as Tartessos, in Spain ; almost certainly 
 the ancient city of Seville, and one of the chief 
 (and most remote) settlements of the Phrenicians 
 (1 K. 10.22 ; 2 Ch. 9.21 ; Isai. 2.16 ; Jer. 10.9 ; 
 Ezelc. 27.12 ; Jon. 1.3). Silver, iron, tin, and 
 lead were brought from Tarshish. " Ships of 
 Tarshish " came to mean large vessels bound 
 for other ports. Colonel Conder still follows 
 Josephus in identifying Tarshish with Tarsus 
 in Cilicia. 3. A great-grandson of Benjamin 
 (1 Ch. 7.10). 4. One of the seven princes of 
 Persia who saw the king's face at pleasure 
 (Esth. 1.14). 
 
 Tar'sus. The chief town of Cilicia, Asia 
 Minor, the birthplace and early residence of 
 Paul (Acts 9.11, 30, 11.25, 21.39, 22.3). It was 
 renowned as a place of education under the 
 early Roman emperors, and its university 
 
TARTAK] 
 
 466 
 
 [TEL-ABIB 
 
 rivalled those of Athens and Alexandria. It 
 was made a free city by Antony, and Pumpey, 
 Julius Caesar, Antony, and Augustus all con- 
 ferred Roman citizenship on some of its in- 
 habitants, among them being, presumably, St. 
 Paul's ancestors (Acts 22.28). It is now a very 
 poor little place, inferior in importance to the 
 quite modern port Mersina, and to Adana. 
 
 Tar'tak. One of the gods of the Avite, or 
 Avvite, colonists who were planted in the cities 
 of Samaria after the removal of the tribes by 
 Shalmaneser (2 K. 17.31). Nothing is known 
 about the name. 
 
 Tar'tan. Used as a proper name in 2 K. 
 18.17 and Isai. 20.1, but in reality an Assyrian 
 title signifying commander-in-chief. He ranked 
 next to the king. 
 
 Tat'nai, Tattenai. A satrap of the province 
 west of the Euphrates in the time of Darius 
 Hystaspis and Zerubbabel (Ezra 5.3, 6, 6.6, 13). 
 He was hostile to the Jews, and wrote to 
 Darius to stop the rebuilding of the Temple. 
 
 Taverns, Three. [THREE TAVERNS, THE.] 
 
 Taxes. Apart from dues for the maintenance 
 of religious worship, the Hebrews seem to have 
 been free from taxation (in' our sense of the 
 word) until the days of the kings. Then the 
 burdens laid upon the inhabitants included a 
 tithe of the produce both of the soil and of live 
 stock (1 Sam. 8.15, 17) ; gifts to the king, 
 theoretically voluntary but really compulsory, 
 at the beginning of his reign or in time of war 
 (1 Sam. 10.27, 16.20, 17.18) ; import duties, 
 chiefly on the produce of the spice districts of 
 Arabia (1 K. 10.15) ; the monopoly of certain 
 branches of commerce, as, for example, that of 
 gold, fine linen from Egypt, and horses (1 K. 
 9.28, 10.28, 29, 22.48) ; and the appropriation 
 to the king's use of the early crop of hay (Amos 
 7.1). That these burdens were oppressive may 
 be inferred from the fact that in the time of 
 Saul exemption from taxes is looked on as a 
 sufficient reward for great military services 
 (1 Sam. 17.25). Under the outward prosperity 
 and splendour of the reign of Solomon there 
 lay the deep discontent of an overtaxed people, 
 which contributed largely to the revolution that 
 followed. The people complained, not of Solo- 
 mon's idolatry, but of their taxes (1 K. 12.4). 
 Of all the king's officers he whom they hated 
 most was Adoram or Adoniram, who was " over 
 the tribute" (1 K. 12.18). While under subjec- 
 tion to the Persian Empire, and to the Egyptian 
 and Syrian kings, the Jews were subjected to 
 very heavy taxation in order to pay the tribute 
 demanded. As regards the Persian exactions, 
 particulars are found in Ezra 4.13, 20, 7.24. 
 The people were compelled to mortgage their 
 vineyards and fields, borrowing money at 
 12 per cent. (Neh. 5.1-11). In default of re- 
 payment the debtors were seized and treated as 
 slaves. When Judaea became formally a Roman 
 province, the taxes were farmed and the 
 publicans (which see) appeared as a new curse 
 to the country. The customs which Matthew 
 (Matt. 9.9) received would go not to Rome, 
 
 but to the tetrarchy of Herod Antipas. The 
 taxes called Portoria were levied at harbours, 
 piers, and the gates of cities. In addition, there 
 was a poll-tax paid by every Jew (Mk. 12.15). 
 It was about the lawfulness of this payment that 
 the rabbis disputed (Matt. 22.17 ; Mk. 12.13 ; 
 Lk. 20.22). This poll-tax was specially ob- 
 noxious to the Jews, being regarded as a mark of 
 servitude. Hence the eagerness of the enemies 
 of Jesus to entrap Him into a statement about 
 it which would either put Him wrong with the 
 people or with the Roman authorities. The 
 tribute mentioned in Matt. 17.24 was the re- 
 demption-money to be paid to the Temple 
 authorities (Ex. 30.13-16). [PUBLICAN.] 
 
 Taxing. The taxing referred to in Lk. 2.1-5 
 in connexion with the birth of the Saviour was 
 probably a census of persons. [CYRENIUS.] 
 The other taxing in Acts 5.37 was probably an 
 assessment of the value of property in Syria, 
 with a view, no doubt, to the levying of taxes 
 upon it. Hence the revolt of Judas of Galilee 
 (which see). [JUDAS 4.] 
 
 Tetah. (?) Slaughter : a son of Nahor, and 
 hence a nephew of Abraham (Gen. 22.24). 
 
 Tebali'ah. Jehovah hath dipped (i.e. baptized 
 or purified) : a porter of the line of Merari, of 
 the time of David (1 Ch. 26.11). 
 
 Te'beth. The tenth Jewish month, December 
 to January. Perhaps Assyri an = muddy month 
 (Esth. 2.16). 
 
 Tehaphne'hes. (Ezek. 30.18). [TAHAPANES.] 
 
 Tehin'nah. Supplication : a member of the 
 tribe of Judah (1 Ch. 4.12). 
 
 Teil Tree. An old name for the lime tree ; 
 but the Hebrew word translated " teil tree " in 
 Isai. 6.13 is rendered " oak " in Isai. 1.30. In 
 the former passage, however, the teil tree is 
 distinguished from the oak, and is translated 
 terebinth in the R.V. 
 
 Tekel. [MENE.] 
 
 Teko'a, Teko'ah. Perhaps, pitching of tents or 
 blowing of trumpets (see Jer. 6.1) : now Tekua, 
 5 miles south of Bethlehem, 7 miles north-east of 
 Beth-zur, in a pastoral district on the range of 
 hills which rise near Hebron and stretch east- 
 ward towards the Dead Sea. Ashur, a grandson 
 of Judah, is called its " father," i.e. apparently 
 its founder (1 Ch. 4.5). It was the home of 
 the wise woman sent to reconcile David with 
 Absalom (2 Sam. 14.2), of one of David's 
 mighty men (2 Sam. 23.26 ; 1 Ch. 11.28, 27.9), 
 and of Amos the prophet (Amos 1.1). It was 
 fortified by Rehoboam (2 Ch. 11.6) ; and re- 
 occupied after the return from Captivity (Neh. 
 3.5, 27). The people who lived in the region 
 must have been occupied mainly as shepherds, 
 and Tekoa could have been little more than a 
 cluster of tents, to which the men returned at 
 intervals from the neighbouring pastures, and in 
 which their families dwelt during their absence. 
 This is still the character of the hamlet. 
 
 Teko'ite. An inhabitant of Tekoa (2 Sam. 
 23.26 ; 1 Ch. 11.28 ; Neh. 3.5). 
 
 Tel-a'bib. Possibly, hitt of green corn : city 
 of Babylonia on the river Chebar (Ezek. 3.15), 
 
TELAH] 
 
 467 
 
 [TEMPLE 
 
 Te'lah. An Ephraimite and ancestor of 
 Joshua (1 Ch. 7.25). 
 
 Tela'im. Young lambs : a gathering-place 
 of Saul's forces before his attack on Amalek 
 (1 Sam. 15.4). [TELEM.] 
 
 Tela'ssar, Thela'sar. The hill of Assar (a 
 name of the god Merodach, whose temple at 
 Telassar was famous) : mentioned in 2 K. 19.12 
 and /sat. 37.12 as a city inhabited by the children 
 of Eden, which had been conquered, and was 
 held in the time of Sennacherib by the Assyrians. 
 It must have been in western Mesopotamia. 
 
 Te'lem. 1. A town in extreme south of Judah 
 (Josh. 15.24) ; perhaps the same as Telaim 
 (which see). 2. A porter or doorkeeper of the 
 Temple in the time of Ezra, who had married a 
 foreign wife (Ezra 10.24). 
 
 Tel-har'sa, Tel-hare'sha (R.V. Tel-harsha). 
 Hill of woodland : Babylonian town whence 
 Jews returned with Zerubbabel (Ezra 2.59 ; Neh. 
 7.61); not identified. 
 
 Tel-me'lah. Hill of salt : Babylonian town 
 whence Jews returned with Zerubbabel (Ezra 
 2.59 ; Neh. 7.61) ; not identified. 
 
 Te'ma. (?) South country : a son of Ishmael, 
 the tribe called after him, and the land occupied 
 by them (Gen. 25.15 ; 1 Ch. 1.30 ; Job 6.19 ; 
 /sat. 21.14 ; Jer. 25.23). Teyma is still a well- 
 known town and district in North Arabia on the 
 road of the Damascus pilgrim-caravan. 
 
 Temah. {THAMAH.] 
 
 Te'man, Tema'ni. South : 1. A grandson of 
 Esau and ** duke " of Edom (Gen. 36.11 ; 1 Ch. 
 1.36, 53). 2. A town and district in the south 
 of Edom (Jer. 49.7, 20 ; Ezek. 25.13 ; Amos 
 1.12 ; Obad. 9 ; Hob. 3.3). 
 
 Te'manite. An inhabitant of Teman; used 
 of Eliphaz (Job 2.11). 
 
 Tem'eni. A son of Ashur, the grandson of 
 Judah (1 Ch. 4.6). 
 
 Temple. Account is to be taken of three 
 Temples at Jerusalem Solomon's Temple, the 
 Temple rebuilt under Nehemiah, and Herod's 
 Temple. 
 
 1. Solomon's Temple. The building of the 
 Temple was the great task of Solomon's reign. 
 The timber used was brought from Lebanon 
 by Phoenician workmen, who were employed 
 for this and other purposes in large numbers. 
 It was not merely prepared, but dressed before 
 it was brought to the sea, to be conveyed 
 in floats to Joppa, whence the distance to 
 Jerusalem was only about 40 miles (1 K. 
 5.9). Similarly the great hewed stones were 
 all chiselled and carefully marked before being 
 sent to Jerusalem (1 K. 6.7). A very large 
 number of workmen were employed. There 
 were 160,000 Palestinians divided into two 
 classes. The first comprised native Israelites, 
 of whom 30,000 or about 1 in 44 of the able- 
 bodied male population were raised by a 
 " levy." These men worked by relays, 10,000 
 being employed during one month, after which 
 they returned for two months to their homes. 
 The second class of workmen (1 K. 5.15 ; 2 Ch. 
 2.17, 18) numbered 150,000, of whom 70,000 
 
 were burden-bearers and 80,000 stone-cutters. 
 The former class being Hebrews were free 
 labourers, who worked under the direction of 
 Hiram's skilled men, while the others, who were 
 the representatives of the ancient heathen 
 inhabitants of Palestine, were really bond- 
 servants (1 K. 9.20, 21 ; 2 Ch. 2.17, 18, 8.7-9). 
 Over these men 3300 officers were appointed 
 (1 K. 5.16), with 550 " chiefs " (1 K. 9.23), of 
 whom 250 were apparently native Israelites 
 (2 Ch. 8.10). The bargain between Solomon 
 and Hiram was, that Solomon would undertake 
 to provide for the support and salary of Hiram's 
 men, wheat, barley, and oil, to the amount 
 specified in 2 Ch. 2.10 ; while, so long as build- 
 ing materials were required, Hiram charged for 
 them at an annual rate of 20,000 measures of 
 wheat, and 20 measures (about 10 hogsheads) 
 of the best oil in the market. Phoenicia was 
 chiefly dependent on Palestine for its supply 
 of grain and oil (Ezek. 27.17 ; Acts 12.20). The 
 master-workman whom Hiram sent was Huram 
 or Churam, a man of Jewish descent by the 
 mother's side (2 Ch. 2.13, 14). The details with 
 regard to the size and structure of the Temple 
 have been the subject of wide diversity of 
 opinion, but the general appearance and pro- 
 portions, as described by Edersheim, can be 
 realised without much difficulty. 
 
 The Temple itself faced east that is to say, 
 the worshippers entered by the east, and, turning 
 to the Most Holy Place, would look west ; while, 
 if the veil had been drawn aside, the Ark in the 
 innermost Sanctuary would have been seen to 
 face eastwards. Entering then by the east, 
 the worshipper would find himself in front of 
 " a porch," which extended along the whole 
 width of the Temple that is about 30 feet 
 and went back a depth of 15 feet. The Sanctuary 
 itself was 90 feet long, 30 feet wide, and 45 feet 
 high. The Sanctuary consisted of the Holy 
 Place and the Most Holy Place. These measure- 
 ments apply to the interior ; when thinking 
 of the area of the Temple, one has to consider 
 the walls and the encircling row of side buildings. 
 These chambers served for the storage of sacred 
 vessels, and also perhaps as sleeping apartments 
 for the ministering priesthood. Access to 
 these " chambers " was gained by a door in 
 the middle of the southern facade, whence also 
 a winding stair led to the upper tiers (1 K. 6.8). 
 The windows of the Temple itself, which would 
 be above the roof of the " chambers," were with 
 " fixed lattices" (1 K. 6.4, R.V.) which could 
 not be opened. 
 
 Edersheim supposes that the porch of the 
 Temple presented the appearance of an open 
 colonnade of cedar, set in a pavement of hewn 
 stones, and supporting a cedar-roof covered 
 with marble. The most prominent objects here 
 were the two great pillars, Jachin and Boaz, 
 which Hiram cast by order of Solomon (1 K. 
 7.15-22). Jachin (" He supports ") and Boaz 
 (" in Hun is strength ") pointed to God, on 
 Whom not only the Sanctuary but every one 
 who would truly enter it must rest for support 
 
TEMPLE] 
 
 468 
 
 [TEMPLE 
 
 and strength. The idea of such pillars was 
 probably derived from the great pillars custom- 
 ary in Phoenician temples. 
 
 The " porch " opened into the Holy Place 
 by folding doors, each of two leaves. These 
 doors were made of cypress wood, and hung 
 by golden hinges on door-posts of olive wood. 
 They were decorated with carved figures of 
 cherubim between palm trees, and above them 
 opening flower-buds and garlands. Within the 
 Sanctuary all the sacred furniture was of gold, 
 while that outside of it was of brass. The floor, 
 the walls (encrusted, it is said, with gems), and 
 the ceiling were overlaid with gold. It must 
 have glittered and shone in the light of the 
 sacred candlesticks ten of them in the Holy 
 Place, each seven-branched, and of pure gold. 
 They were ranged right and left before the 
 Most Holy Place (1 K. 7.49). The entrance to 
 the Most Holy Place was covered by a veil of 
 " blue and purple, and crimson, and byssus," 
 with " wrought cherubs thereon " (2 Ch. 3.14). 
 Between the candlesticks stood the " altar of 
 incense " made of cedar wood and overlaid with 
 gold (1 K. 6.20, 22, 7.48) ; while ten golden 
 tables of shewbread (2 Ch. 4.8) were ranged 
 right and left. The implements necessary for 
 the use of this sacred furniture were also of 
 pure gold (1 K. 7.49, 50). 
 
 Two folding doors of olive wood opened from 
 the Holy Place into the Most Holy. Within 
 the Most Holy Place was the Ark, the same 
 which had stood in the Tabernacle. Solomon 
 placed on either side of it (south and north) a 
 gigantic figure of a Cherub, carved out of olire 
 wood, and overlaid with gold. Each was 15 feet 
 high ; and the two, with their outspread wings, 
 which touched over the Mercy-Seat, 15 feet wide. 
 
 Descending from " the Porch " we stand in 
 the " inner court " (1 K. 6.36) or " Court of 
 the Priests " (2 Ch. 4.9). This was paved with 
 great stones, as was also the outer or " Great 
 Court " (2 Ch. 4.9) of the people. Within the 
 " inner " or Priests' Court, facing the entrance 
 to the Sanctuary, was " the altar of burnt- 
 offering " (1 K. 8.64), made of brass, 15 feet 
 high, and 30 feet in length and breadth at the 
 base. Between the altar and the porch stood 
 the colossal " sea of brass," 7J feet high and 
 45 feet in circumference (1 K. 7.23-26 ; 2 Ch. 
 4.2-5). This immense basin rested on a ped- 
 estal of twelve oxen, three looking to each point 
 of the compass. Its object was to hold the 
 water in which the priests of the Levites per- 
 formed their ablutions. For the washing of the 
 things belonging to the sacrifices, ten smaller 
 " lavers " of brass were provided, which stood 
 on the right and left " side of the House " 
 (1 K. 7.38; 2 Ch. 4.6). These lavers were 
 movable on wheels. Lastly, in the Priests' 
 Court stood the brazen platform (2 Ch. 6.13) 
 from which king Solomon offered his dedicatory 
 prayer, and which seems to have always been 
 the place occupied in the Temple by the kings 
 (2 K. 11.14, 23.3). The Priests* Court was 
 enclosed by a wall. 
 
 From the " Court of the Priests " steps led 
 down to the " outer court " of the people, which 
 was surrounded by a solid wall, from which 
 four massive gates, covered with brass, opened 
 upon the Temple-mount (2 Ch. 4.9). In this 
 court were large colonnades and chambers and 
 rooms for the use of the priests and Levites, 
 for the storage of what was required in the 
 services, and for other purposes. 
 
 The services at the consecration of Solomon's 
 Temple are described in 1 K. 8. 
 
 2. The Second Temple. Solomon's Temple 
 was sacked by Nebuchadnezzar's troops in 
 586 B.C., and allowed to fall into ruins during 
 the captivity in Babylon. We have very few 
 particulars regarding the Temple which the 
 Jews erected after their Return. The height 
 of the Second Temple was less than that of the 
 First, but the width of the Temple-area not 
 necessarily the Holy Place or the Most Holy 
 Place was greater than in Solomon's time. 
 The Second Temple was far inferior in splendour 
 to that of Solomon, and it is to be remembered 
 that it was magnificence of decoration and 
 costliness of utensils not mere size that 
 were reckoned. Many a parish church is larger 
 than was Solomon's Temple. Ezekiel's narrative 
 (chaps. 40, 41, and 42) is merely a sketch of an 
 ideal Temple, not of one that ever was built. 
 
 The later history of Zerubbabel's or the 
 Second Temple. Two centuries before the birth 
 of Christ, the people began to neglect the 
 worship of God more than they had ever done 
 since their return from the Captivity. God saw 
 fit to punish the Jews for this defection by the 
 hand of Antiochus Epiphanes, king of Syria, 
 who came with an army and plundered Jerusalem 
 and the Temple. The daily sacrifice was at 
 this time suspended ; the Temple itself was 
 dedicated by Antiochus to Jupiter Olympus, 
 whose statue was erected on the altar of burnt- 
 offering (168 B.C.) ; the worship of Jehovah 
 and the observance of His law were prohibited 
 under the severest penalties ; every copy of 
 the sacred writings that could be seized was 
 burnt ; and the people were required, under 
 pain of death, to sacrifice to idols. Judas 
 Maccabaeus, however, led a successful revolt 
 against Antiochus, and gained possession of 
 Jerusalem; and his first care was to repair 
 and purify the Temple for the restoration of 
 the Divine worship. This reconsecration of the 
 Temple (165 B.C.) and revival of its worship 
 was ever after celebrated by an annual feast of 
 eight days, called the Feast of the Dedication 
 (John 10.22). In 65 B.C. Rome subjugated 
 Syria, and two years later Pompey marched 
 his army into Judaea, besieged and took 
 Jerusalem, profaned the Temple by entering 
 the Holy of Holies, and made the country 
 tributary to the Romans, though it was still 
 governed by the Maccabsean princes. 
 
 3. The " Third " or Herod's Temple. 
 During the reigns of the later princes of this 
 family, Herod Antipater, an Idumaean by birth, 
 obtained a position of power and influence in 
 
TEMPTATION, THE] 
 
 469 
 
 [TEREBINTH 
 
 the land ; and after his death his son, known 
 to history as Herod the Great, so ingratiated 
 himself with the Romans that he was made 
 king of Judaea in the place of the Maccabaean 
 Antigonus. But, to make good his position, 
 Herod was obliged to take Jerusalem by 
 storm (37 B.C.), and shortly afterwards he 
 put Antigonus to death. In order to gain 
 popularity with his new subjects, Herod rebuilt 
 the Temple at vast expense ; making it, in some 
 respects, more magnificent than that of Solomon. 
 In the thirty-sixth year of the reign of Herod, 
 while Augustus was emperor of Rome, the 
 Saviour of the world was born. It was with 
 Herod's Temple, then, that our Lord and His 
 disciples were familiar. Herod began it in 
 20 or 19 B.C., and after forty-six years (John 
 2.20) it was still unfinished, and, indeed, was 
 not completed till 64 A.D. 
 
 It should be noted that, generally speaking, 
 the Jews have not considered Herod's Temple 
 as the third, but rather only as an enlargement 
 of the second. With this agrees Rag. 2.9 and 
 MaL 3.1. 
 
 Whatever the exact appearance of the details 
 may have been and concerning this there are 
 wide differences of opinion it may safely be 
 asserted that the triple Temple the lower 
 court, standing on its magnificent terraces 
 the inner court, raised on its platform in the 
 centre of this and the Temple itself, rising out 
 of this group and crowning the whole must 
 have formed, when combined with the beauty 
 of its situation, one of the most splendid archi- 
 tectural combinations of the ancient world. 
 
 For the various parts of the Temple, see under 
 the separate titles. 
 
 Temptation, The. The temptation of our 
 Lord is recorded by the three Synoptists 
 (Matt. 4.1-11 ; Mk. 1.12, 13 ; Lk. 4.1-13), but 
 not by John. Mark summarises the account. 
 The order of the second and third temptations 
 as given by Matthew is inverted in Luke. The 
 Evangelists describe an actual fact, and not only 
 a vision ; a conflict with the power of evil, and 
 not with a human tempter. The traditional 
 scene of the temptation is the wilderness of 
 Jericho (Josh. 16.1 ), the mountain of Quarantania, 
 north of Jericho, being deemed the site of the 
 third temptation. The fast of our Lord recalls 
 that of Moses (Ex. 34.28) and Elijah (1 K. 19.8). 
 Our Lord was, in His human soul, free from 
 the tendency to sin, yet was open to temptation 
 from without. He had the power not to sin, 
 and "knew no sin" (2 Cor. 5.21; and cf. 
 Heb. 2.18, 4.15). 
 
 Tempter, The. The agent in the temptation 
 of our Lord is so named (Matt. 4.3). He is 
 called "the devil" (Matt. 4.1 ; Lk. 4.2), 
 Satan (Mk. 1.13). The title Tempter also 
 appears in 1 Thess. 3.5. [DEVIL, SATAN.] 
 
 Ten Commandments. The commandments 
 are recorded in Ex. 20.3-17 ; Deut. 5.6-21, and 
 the circumstances under which they were de- 
 livered to Moses are described in Ex. 19-24. 
 The ten commandments were inscribed on 
 
 two tables of stone, and placed within the 
 Ark. They are also called the Tables of Testi- 
 mony, sometimes simply " the testimony," 
 the witness to men of the Divine will, righteous 
 itself, demanding righteousness in man (Ex. 25.16, 
 31.18). As examples of the way in which they 
 are to be understood by Christians, see our 
 Lord's words in Matt. 5.21-32. 
 
 Tent. The same form of dwelling, the tent, 
 has been preserved among the nomadic Arabs 
 from the earliest days of ancient Israel to the 
 present time. The tents were originally made 
 of skins, subsequently out of wool or goats' 
 hair, or occasionally camels' hair. The tent- 
 cloth rested upon one or several poles, according 
 to the size of the tent, and it was firmly fixed to 
 the ground by means of tent-pegs or tent-pins. 
 The latter were driven into the earth by means 
 of a mallet. The form of the tent varied accord- 
 ing to the size the smaller ones being round 
 and the larger ones oblong. A larger tent 
 would be divided by hangings or carpets into 
 three spaces, the front space being reserved for 
 the commoner people along with the cattle, the 
 second for the male part of the family, while the 
 third or hindermost space was reserved for the 
 women. But in the case of the more important 
 personages there would be a separate tent for 
 each of the wives. Thus Jacob's tent stood 
 apart from Leah's and from Rachel's, while a 
 single tent sufficed for his two concubines (Gen. 
 31.33). Similarly Sarah had a separate tent 
 of her own (Gen. 24.67). The tents of the 
 wandering nomad tribes were arranged in 
 circular encampments, in the midst of which 
 the cattle were secured. A newly married 
 couple had a special tent (Ps. 19.5), as cus- 
 tomary among the Arabs to-day. The trade 
 which St. Paul had been taught was that of 
 tent-making, perhaps because the cloth made 
 of the hair of Cilician goats was famous for 
 this purpose (Acts 18.3). 
 
 Te'rah. 1. The father of Abraham, Nahor, 
 and Haran, and through them the ancestor of 
 the Israelites, Ishmaelites, Midianites, Moabites, 
 and Ammonites (Gen. 11.24-32). He was an 
 idolater (Josh. 24.2), and dwelt beyond the 
 Euphrates in Ur of the Chaldees (Gen. 11.28). 
 He went with Abraham, Sarah, and Lot (his 
 grandson) " to go into the land of Canaan ; and 
 they came unto Haran, and dwelt there " (Gen. 
 11.31). At Haran he died, aged 205 (Gen. 
 11.32). [HAEAN.] In Lk. 3.34 the name is 
 spelled Thara in the A.V. 2. [TABAH.] 
 
 Tera'phim. Images, sometimes in size and 
 shape like a man (1 Sam. 19.13-16), connected 
 with magical rites. They were idolatrous objects 
 used in household worship (Gen. 31.19, 30 ; 
 Judg. 17.5, 18.14-20) ; consulted for oracular 
 purposes by the Israelites (Zech. 10.2), and by 
 the Babylonians in the case of Nebuchadnezzar 
 (Ezek. 21.21). 
 
 Terebinth, or turpentine tree. Only in the 
 R.V. in Isai. G.13 (teil tree, A.V.), and Hos. 
 4.13 (elm, A.V.). It has a short, gnarled trunk, 
 growing in all nearly 20 feet, often alone, and 
 
TERESH] 
 
 470 
 
 [THEOLOGY 
 
 therefore easily recognised at a distance, and 
 suitable for special religious observance. Klse- 
 where than in Palestine turpentine is made to 
 exude from it for commercial purposes. [OAK, 
 TREB.] 
 
 Te'resh. Perhaps (carnal) desire : one of 
 the two eunuchs who kept the door of the palace 
 of Ahasuerus. His association with the plot 
 to assassinate the king was discovered by 
 Mordecai, and he was hanged (Estii. 2.21, 6.2). 
 
 Tertius. The amanuensis of Paul in writing 
 the Epistle to the Romans (Rom. 16.22). 
 
 Tertul lus. An orator who was retained by 
 the high-priest and the Sanhedrin to accuse 
 the Apostle Paul at Caesarea before the Roman 
 Procurator, Antonius Felix (Acts 24.1). Ter- 
 tullus would be of Roman, or at least Italian, 
 origin, but he probably spoke in Greek, not 
 Latin. He belonged to the class of professional 
 orators, multitudes of whom were scattered 
 throughout the Empire, in the hope of finding 
 employment at the provincial tribunals. 
 
 Testament. [COVENANT.] 
 
 Testament, New. [NEW TESTAMENT.] 
 
 Testament, Old. [OLD TESTAMENT.] 
 
 Tetrarch. Ruler of a fourth part: the 
 word is applied to Herod Antipas, tetrarch of 
 Galilee, Herod Philip, tetrarch of Ituraea, and 
 Lysanias, tetrarch of Abilene (Lk. 3.1). The 
 Romans seem to have used the title^in N.T. 
 times, to designate tributary princes who were 
 not of sufficient importance to be called kings. 
 As it happens, Herod Antipas, tetrarch of 
 Galilee, is styled king by courtesy in Matt. 14.9 
 and Mk. 6.14, 22. Herod Antipas and Herod 
 Philip were sons of Herod the Great. 
 
 Thad'dseus. Perhaps a form of the Greek 
 Theudas, perhaps an Aramaic word meaning 
 the female breast ; if so, it would be a pet name. 
 His real name seems to have been Jude. One of 
 the twelve apostles (Matt. 10.3, where he is 
 also called Lebbeeus in the A.V.; Mk. 3.18). 
 He is also called Judas the brother (or rather 
 son) of James (Lk. 6.16 ; Acts 1.13). [JUDAS 5.] 
 
 Tha'hash (R.V. Tahash). A son of Nahor, 
 and therefore nephew of Abraham (Gen. 22.24). 
 
 Tha'mah, Ta'mah (R.V. Temah). The 
 children of Tamah were a family of Nethinim 
 who returned with Zerubbabel (Ezra 2.53 ; 
 Neh. 7.55). 
 
 Tha'mar. [TAMAR 1.] 
 
 Thank-offering or Peace-offering. The cere- 
 monial of this is described in Lev. 3, 7.11-18, 
 29-34, 23.20. The general principle of the 
 thank-offering or peace-offering was that it 
 should be entirely spontaneous, offered as 
 occasion should arise, from the feeling of the 
 sacrificer himself (Lev. 19.5). After the sacrifice 
 proper the offering was used for a sacrificial 
 meal. Peace-offerings were offered for the 
 people on a great scale at periods of unusual 
 solemnity and rejoicing ; as at the inaugura- 
 tion of the Covenant (Ex. 24.5), at the con- 
 secration of Aaron and the Tabernacle (Lev. 
 9.18), at the solemn reading of the Law in 
 Canaan by Joshua (Josh. 8.31), at the accession 
 
 of Saul (1 Sam. 11.15), at the bringing of the 
 Ark to Mount Zion by David (2 Sam. 6.17), at, 
 the consecration of the Temple by Solomon 
 (1 K. 8.63, 9.25), and at the great Passover 
 of Hezekiah (2 Ch. 30.22). [SACRIFICES.] 
 
 Tha'ra. [TERAH 1.] 
 
 Tha'rshish. [TARSHISH.] 
 
 Theatre. The multitude at Ephesus rushed 
 to the theatre, on the occasion of the excite- 
 ment stirred up against Paul by Demetrius, 
 in order to consider the matter (Acts 19.29, 31). 
 The word bears its ordinary significance, a 
 place where dramatic performances are exhibited, 
 but often used for public meetings. 
 
 Theses. [No.] 
 
 TheT)ez. Now Tubas ; 10 miles north-east of 
 Nablus. A town of Ephraim taken by Abime- 
 lech, where he met his death (Judg. 9.50 ; 
 2 Sam. 11.21). 
 
 Thel'asar. [TELASSAR.] 
 
 Theology. Theology is the doctrine or 
 science of God : Christian Theology, with which 
 alone we are here concerned, is in common 
 acceptation the whole science of the Christian 
 religion, as revealed in the Bible, developed in 
 history, and carried forward in the progressive 
 life and thought of the Christian Church. 
 Religion and theology are related to one 
 another as life and knowledge, as practice and 
 theory. A Christian is of necessity a sharer in 
 Christ's revelation of God : faith is based on 
 knowledge, and to theologise is simply for faith 
 to become intellectually aware of itself, to 
 define and systematise tie knowledge on which 
 it rests, and to which in turn it leads. The 
 religious life may be full and vigorous, and the 
 intellectual apprehension of its grounds very 
 meagre, yet " the universal and supernatural 
 character of the Christian religion imposes upon 
 its adherents the duty of finding a statement 
 of it which will not be impaired by our wavering 
 knowledge of nature and history ; and, indeed, 
 which will be able to maintain itself before any 
 possible theory of nature or of history." 
 
 The main divisions or aspects of theological 
 study are Biblical, Systematic, Historical, and 
 Practical. Of these, since Christianity rests 
 upon the revelation contained in the Scriptures, 
 Biblical or Exegetical Theology is primary 
 and fundamental : it is the main business of 
 the theologian to interpret and systematise the 
 teaching of the O.T. and N.T. And it is obvious 
 that Biblical Theology separates into O.T. 
 Theology and N.T. Theology, the former 
 dealing with the progressive revelation of God 
 to the Hebrew people, which culminated in the 
 Christ. " Biblical Theology is the knowledge 
 of God's great operation in introducing His 
 kingdom among men, presented to our view 
 exactly as it lies presented in the Bible. . . . 
 But in the Bible we have writings contemporary 
 with this operation, and reflecting it for more 
 than a thousand years. . . . This at once suggests 
 to us, therefore, when we consider that God's 
 operation extended over this long period, and yet 
 that it took end at last in the coming of His 
 
THEOLOGY] 
 
 471 
 
 [THEOLOGY 
 
 Son, that two characteristics belong to it. It 
 is historical, and it is progressive ; it covers a 
 long period, and it advances from less to more, 
 and finally culminates" (A. B. Davidson, The 
 Theology of the O.T., pp. 1, 2). Dr. Davidson 
 further points out that in the O.T. we have pre- 
 sented to us an actual historical religious life, men 
 filled with the profoundest thoughts of God, a 
 body of profoundly religious men speaking the 
 truth to their countrymen and seeking to turn 
 them to God. We do not find a theology in the 
 O.T. ; we find a religion religious conceptions 
 and religious hopes and aspirations. It is we 
 ourselves who create the theology, when we 
 give to those religious ideas and convictions a 
 systematic or orderly form. It follows that 
 the method must be historical : O.T. theology 
 is really the history of the religion of Israel 
 as represented in the O.T. Dr. Davidson 
 distinguishes five great liistorical periods : 
 
 1. Before the Exodus. 
 
 2. From the Exodus to written prophecy, 
 B.C. 800. 
 
 3. From 800 to the Exile, B.C. 586. 
 
 4. From the Exile to the close of the pro- 
 phetic Canon, B.C. 400. 
 
 5. From 400 to the Christian era. 
 
 To these periods the O.T. literature i.s severally 
 assigned, and through each is traced out the 
 growth of the great religious ideas the doctrine 
 of God, of man and sin, of redemption and of 
 the last things. 
 
 The N.T., equally with the O.T., is a book of 
 religion rather than of theology. But the 
 religious life which its literature presents has 
 these two features : it is the life of a single 
 generation of men, and the life is absolutely 
 dominated and fashioned by Jesus Christ. 
 The N.T. is the apostolic witness to Him: it 
 is the task of N.T. theology to interpret and 
 systematise that witness, to gather from the 
 writings of men whom, in Pauline phrase, 
 He " apprehended," laid hold of and possessed, 
 their thought and conviction as to Himself, 
 His teaching and His work for man. No 
 doubt these writings show development, and 
 we may not ignore the help given by the his- 
 torical method in tracing their successive 
 testimony. But as they are nearly contem- 
 poraneous, and as they witness to the same 
 final fact of the revelation of God in Jesus 
 Christ, it is of less importance to place them in 
 chronological order than to isolate and then 
 combine their testimony. The writings of St. 
 Paul extend over a space of twelve years or more, 
 and it has been customary to emphasise the 
 growth of his thought from the simplicities 
 of Thessalonians to the profundities of Col- 
 ossians and Ephesians. Perhaps, however, 
 the differences are more due to the needs of 
 those addressed than to development in the 
 Apostle's thinking. Behind his earliest writing 
 there lay nearly twenty years of Christian 
 experience and service. The Pauline Epistles 
 may be treated as a unit, and compared with 
 the distinctive testimony afforded by other N.T. 
 
 writings to their one common theme, Jesus 
 Christ. 
 
 Following this plan, the companion volume 
 to that already referred to on the O.T. (The 
 Theology of the N.T., G. B. Stevens, D.D.), 
 falls into seven main divisions : 
 
 1. The teaching of Jesus according to the 
 Synoptip Gospels. 
 
 2. The teaching of Jesus according to the 
 Fourth Gospel. 
 
 3. The primitive apostolic teaching (Acts, 
 Jas., 1 Pet., Jude, and 2 Pet.). 
 
 4. The theology of Paul. 
 
 5. The theology of the Epistle to the 
 Hebrews. 
 
 6. The theology of the Apocalypse. 
 
 7. The theology of John. 
 
 But though it is convenient to distinguish 
 the theology of the N.T. from that of the 
 O.T., it must be remembered that these are 
 not two, but one. Christ came to fulfil the Law 
 and the Prophets : His own ministry and that 
 of His apostles appropriated and completed 
 the revelation given to Israel through the 
 Jewish Scriptures. Hence the same great 
 themes of religion are continued. What is 
 most distinctive in the teaching of Jesus 
 apart from His testimony to Himself is His 
 revelation of the Fatherhood of God and His 
 doctrine of the Kingdom of God : the main 
 truths which possessed His followers and inter- 
 preters are those connected with the Person 
 and the Work of Christ Christology and 
 Soteriology, or the way of salvation. 
 
 In the successive " theologies " of the 
 Church which make up the " history of Christian 
 doctrine," these truths have received varying 
 stress. To the apologetic literature of the 
 second century, in which Christianity was 
 defended against heathen attacks and heretical 
 perversion, there succeeded the long contro- 
 versy as to -the Person of Christ, the Incarnation 
 and the Trinity, the issue of which was the 
 "Catholic faith." [TRINITY.] In the West 
 there were controversies on sin and grace : in 
 the Church of the Reformation soteriology, 
 justification by faith alone, as the one way of 
 salvation, was the decisive issue. With these 
 three periods are linked the names of Athan- 
 asius, Augustine, and Luther. Calvin syste- 
 rnatised the Protestant theology, with special 
 emphasis upon the sovereignty of God. It 
 may be added that tliroughout the whole history 
 varying stress has been laid upon three factors 
 which go to the making of theological belief 
 the authority of Scripture, the permanent 
 guidance of the Spirit, the rights of the intellect. 
 The theology of every age must reckon with 
 and interpret for itself each of the three. And 
 perhaps the most determinative factor in 
 recent theological movements has been the 
 first : modern theology is primarily historical, 
 secondarily doctrinal, and its main object has 
 been to get back to the historical Christ. " What 
 a contrast," writes Dr. Fairbairn (Christ in 
 Modern Theology, p. 18), " does the workshop 
 
THEOPHILUS] 
 
 472 [THESSALONIANS, EPISTLES TO 
 
 of a living theologian present to the library 
 of the older divine! Dogmatics and apolo- 
 getics have almost disappeared from it, and in 
 their place stand books on almost every possible 
 question in the textual, literary, and historical 
 criticism of the O.T. and N.T. Harmonies 
 have almost ceased to be, and instead we 
 have discussions as to the sources, sequence, 
 dependence, independence, purpose, dates, of 
 the Four Gospels. Lives of Christ by men of all 
 schools, tendencies, Churches, abound, each 
 using some more or less rigorous critical method. 
 Besides these, and supplementary to them, are 
 histories of N.T. tunes, which show us the 
 smaller eddies as well as the greater movements, 
 and supply both the background and the light 
 and shade needed to throw the central Figure 
 into true perspective." The outcrop of Biblical 
 literature, especially of Dictionaries of the Bible, 
 in the seventeen years since this was written, 
 amply confirms the main contention. This 
 renewed study of the Scriptures may alter their 
 perspective without at all impairing their 
 authority. To that authority the earlier 
 movement, with its watchword, " Back to 
 Christ," kept entirely loyal : not so the later 
 development, with its question, " Jesus or 
 Christ?" 
 
 There may be perils in the new path ; but 
 if He be kept steadily in view, and the ways of 
 Biblical study be faithfully and fearlessly 
 traversed under the conviction of His own 
 declaration, "These are they which testify 
 of Me," the future of theology cannot be in 
 peril. "The Lord hath more truth yet to 
 break forth from out of His holy Word," and 
 under guidance of the Spirit of Him who is 
 "the same yesterday, and to-day, yea, and 
 for ever," with ever deepening satisfaction 
 to mind and heart and will, each succeeding 
 generation may look for yet fuller entrance into 
 the meaning of the revelation of the grace of 
 God in Jesus Christ our Lord. 
 
 Theophilus. Beloved of God: the person to 
 whom Luke inscribes his Gospel and the Acts of 
 the Apostles (Lk. 1.3 ; Acts 1.1). It is believed 
 that he was a Gentile of high rank who had 
 come under the influence of the gospel. " Most 
 excellent " is probably a title (see also Acts 
 23.26, 24.3, 26.25). In the second century A.D. 
 it was used of the Roman knights. 
 
 Thessalonians, Epistles to the. For the 
 Church to which these letters were addressed, 
 see THBSSALONICA. Their authorship is, with 
 increasing confidence, ascribed to Paul, though 
 a few scholars still refer the Second Epistle to 
 some other pen. In all probability they were 
 the first of St. Paul's Epistles. Their date 
 must fall within the second missionary journey, 
 which included his first visit to Europe, and may 
 be placed between 49-51 A.D., or perhaps 
 51-53 A.D. The place of writing was Corinth. 
 The occasion for their writing appears from 
 the statements of the Epistles. The gospel 
 had been first proclaimed at Thessalonica by 
 Paul and Silas, shortly after their release from 
 
 imprisonment at Philippi. For the Church 
 appears from the Epistle to have mainly con- 
 sisted of Gentiles (1 Thess. 1.9), gathered there- 
 fore after these three weeks. The references by 
 the apostle to his manner of life among the 
 Thessalonians implies a lengthened residence. 
 Paul addressed himself first, agreeably to his 
 constant practice, to the Jews, and afterwards, 
 with still more success, to the Gentiles. But 
 the violence of the Jews drove the apostle 
 away. He left the newly-planted Church in 
 difficulty. Anxiety led him to send Timothy 
 from Athens, to encourage and comfort its 
 members under the persecutions to which they 
 were exposed (1 Thess. 3.1, 2). Timothy re- 
 joined the apostle at Corinth, and brought him 
 an account of the steadfastness of the Thessa- 
 lonian Christians which filled him with joy and 
 gratitude (1 Thess. 3.6-9), and reawakened his 
 desire to visit them. Having been repeatedly 
 disappointed in his plans for that purpose, he 
 wrote the First Epistle from Corinth. 
 
 The contents of the First Epistle fall into 
 two parts: (1) In the first portion of this 
 Epistle (1-3) the apostle expresses his gratitude 
 and joy on account of the manner in which the 
 Thessalonians had received the gospel, and for 
 their fidelity and constancy in the midst of 
 persecutions and afflictions ; vindicates the con- 
 duct of himself and his fellow-labourers in 
 preaching the gospel, and declares his affec- 
 tionate concern for their welfare. (2) The re- 
 mainder of the Epistle is taken up with practical 
 admonitions ; warning them against the sin for 
 which their city was notorious ; and exhorting 
 them to the cultivation of all Christian virtues, 
 particularly to a watchful, sober, and holy life, 
 becoming their happy condition and exalted 
 hopes (4.1-12, 5). Special words of consolation 
 are addressed to those who had been bereaved. 
 Speaking by express Divine authority, he assures 
 them of the resurrection of the pious dead on 
 Christ's coming, to be followed by the trans- 
 formation of the living ; and exhorts them to 
 take the comfort of this glorious hope (4.13, 5.11), 
 adding a series of brief emphatic counsels an 
 epitome of the practical gospel (5.12-23), end- 
 ing with the injunction to " abstain from every 
 form of evil " (R.V.), with prayer and benedic- 
 tion (5.22-28). 
 
 The Second Epistle was written not long after 
 the First. Its occasion was the necessity of 
 correcting a belief found among the Christians 
 at Thessalonica, that the appearance of the 
 Lord and the end of the world were at hand, 
 as well as to protest against some practical 
 misapplications of the belief. These had been 
 grounded in part upon a misconstruction of 
 expressions in the former Epistle, and appear to 
 have been supported by some who laid claim to 
 inspiration, and even produced fictitious letters 
 in the apostle's name. There were also persons 
 who, on religious pretences, neglected their 
 secular employments, and were guilty of dis- 
 orderly conduct. 
 
 The contents of the Second Epistle are as 
 
THESSALONICA] 
 
 473 
 
 [THREE TAVERNS, THE 
 
 follows : After the salutation, and expressions 
 of thankfulness for the character of the Thessa- 
 lonian Christians (1.1-10) and the assurance of 
 his prayer (1.11, 12), the apostle exposes the 
 error of anticipating the near approach of the 
 day of the Lord. Reminding the Thessalonian 
 Christians of what he had said when he was with 
 them, he tells them that he had spoken rather 
 of the unexpectedness of the event than of its 
 nearness, and that it must be preceded by " the 
 apostasy," and by the temporary ascendency of 
 the " man of sin," the spiritual usurper, who, 
 after certain obstacles were removed, should 
 establish a system of error and delusion by 
 which many would be carried away (2.1-12). 
 He then passes to thanksgiving and practical 
 exhortations (2.13-3.5), followed by directions 
 as to dealing with "disorderly" members, final 
 messages, and subscription (3.6-18). 
 
 The characteristic feature of the two Epistles 
 is the absence of general doctrinal statement 
 and the stress laid upon " the last things " 
 the Coming of our Lord (1 Thess. 1-2.19, 3.13, 
 4.15-5.3,23; 2 Thess. 1.7-2.12); the resur- 
 rection and future glory of believers (1 Thess. 
 4.13-18, 5.10; 2 Thess. 1.5, 2.14). For the 
 passage 2 Thess. 2.6-10, see ANTICHBIST. 
 
 Thessalonica. A city of Macedonia, form- 
 erly named Therma a title corresponding to 
 our Bath or Hotwells situated on the Thermaic 
 Gulf. It was called Thessalonica by the 
 Macedonian general Cassander, in honour of his 
 wife, half-sister to Alexander the Great. Under 
 the Roman Government, it was the capital of one 
 of the four districts of Macedonia, and the seat 
 of the provincial governor or praetor, although 
 itself a free city, administered by " politarchs " 
 (Acts 17.6,8), a peculiar appellation still pre- 
 served on a triumphal arch in the city. The 
 position of Thessalonica, as the central station 
 on the great Egnatian road from Illyria through 
 Macedonia to Thrace, and at the head of an 
 excellent harbour, augmented its trade and 
 wealth ; and brought to it a mixed population 
 of Greeks, Romans, and Jews. It is still, as it 
 has ever been, a flourishing commercial town, 
 bearing the but slightly changed name of 
 Saloniki. Its geographical position and mari- 
 time importance fitted it to become one of the 
 starting-points of the gospel in Europe. Here 
 Paul laboured for a time during his second 
 missionary journey (Acts 17.1-13). Whilst he 
 was there, the Philippians sent him help " once 
 and again " (Phil. 4.16). It was the home of 
 Aristarchus (Acts 27.2), and thither went Demas 
 after leaving Paul (2 Tim. 4.10). The narrative 
 in Acts 17 lays stress upon Paul's preaching to 
 the Jews and proselytes (" devout Greeks "). 
 The Epistles suggest that the ultimate members 
 of the Church were mainly Gentile converts 
 (1 Thess. 1.9, 2.14). The high character of the 
 Church, as to faith, zeal, and brotherly love, 
 appears from the Epistles. 
 
 Theu'das. Perhaps contracted from Theo- 
 dorus, the gift of God : the name of an insurgent 
 mentioned in Gamaliel's speech before the 
 
 Jewish Council (Acts 5.35-39) at the time of the 
 arraignment of the apostles. He appeared at the 
 head of about 400 men ; he sought not merely to 
 lead the people astray by false doctrine, but also 
 to accomplish his designs by violence. He 
 entertained a high conceit of himself, but was 
 slain at last, and his party was dispersed and 
 brought to nothing. Josephus (Antiq. xx. 5. 1) 
 mentions a man of the same name who rebelled 
 some ten years after Gamaliel's speech. The 
 relation of the two statements is not known, but 
 there is no reason to think that Josephus is 
 more worthy of credit than St. Luke. 
 
 Thieves, The Two. The men who under this 
 name appear in the history of the Crucifixion 
 were robbers or bandits rather than thieves, 
 belonging to the lawless bands by which Palestine 
 was at the time infested. The parable of the 
 Good Samaritan shows how common it was for 
 them to attack and plunder travellers even on 
 the high road from Jerusalem to Jericho (Lk. 
 10.30). It was necessary to use an armed police 
 to encounter them (Lk. 22.52). Often, as in 
 the case of Barabbas, the wild robber life was 
 connected with a fanatic zeal for freedom which 
 turned the marauding attack into a popular 
 insurrection (Mk. 15.7). For crimes such as 
 these the penalty was crucifixion. 
 
 Thimna'thah. [TIMNAH.] 
 
 Thomas. Twin: Greek Didymus (John 
 11.16, 20.24, 21.2), one of the twelve apostles 
 (Matt. 10.3; Mk. 3.18; Lk. 6.15). In him, 
 loyalty to his Master (John 11.16) co-existed 
 with a certain lack of faith ( John 14.5, 20.25), 
 especially app arent at the Resurrection. His mind 
 had dwelt much on the Crucifixion (compare 
 his detailed declaration in John 20.25), and the 
 test be proposed was in accordance with a 
 prior suggestion by our Lord Himself (Lk. 
 24.39, 40). The Risen Lord gave Thomas the 
 proof he demanded, and he expressed belief, 
 in the words, " My Lord and my God " (John 
 20.26-29). He afterwards saw our Lord again, 
 at the Sea of Tiberias (John 21.2). Late legends 
 state that Thomas preached the gospel to " the 
 Indians, and the Chinese, and the Cushites, and 
 all the islands far and near." The Christians of 
 the Church of St. Thomas on the Malabar Coast 
 claim him as their founder. 
 
 Thorn in the Flesh. Paul's statements in 
 2 Cor. 12.7-10; Gal. 4.14; and see possibly 
 1 Cor. 2.3 ; 2 Cor. 1.8, 10.10 ; 1 Thess. 2.18, 
 have been variously interpreted. The " stake 
 for the flesh" of which he spoke was, ap- 
 parently, some bodily affliction, a trial to " the 
 flesh," comparable to blows with the fist (2 Cor. 
 12.7) ; connected, however, with his spiritual 
 visions. It has therefore been conjectured to 
 have been epilepsy, or some obscure nervous dis- 
 order allied with it. Others suggest ophthalmia 
 (Acts 23.5; Gal. 4.15; and cf. Gal. 6.11). 
 
 [PAUL.] 
 
 Three Taverns, The. A place near Cisterna, 
 and about 25 miles south-east of Rome, at which 
 Paul, on his way to the imperial city, was 
 met by Christians (Acts 28.15). 
 
THRESHING] 
 
 474 
 
 TIGLATH-PILESEK 
 
 Threshing. [AGRICULTURE.] 
 
 Throne. The use of a chair in a country 
 where the usual postures were squatting and 
 reclining was regarded as a symbol of dignity 
 (2 K. 4.10 ; Prov. 9.14). When a royal throne 
 is specially meant, we usually find such ex- 
 pression as " the throne of the kingdom " 
 (Deut. 17.18 ; 1 K. 1.46 ; 2 Ch. 7.18). Solo- 
 mon's throne was approached by six steps (1 K. 
 10.19; 2 Ch. 9.18), it was inlaid with ivory, 
 overlaid with pure gold in all parts except 
 where the ivory was apparent, and furnished 
 with arms. In Col. 1.16 " thrones " represents 
 a high order of angelic beings, according to 
 the representations of the apocalyptic writers. 
 
 [NOX-CANONICAL BOOKS.] 
 
 Thum'min. [URIM AND THUMMIN.] 
 
 Thunder. Thunder is very rare during the 
 summer months in Palestine. The Hebrews 
 poetically interpreted thunder as the voice of 
 Jehovah (Job 37.2; Ps. 18.13; /sat. 30.30). 
 Thunder was to them the symbol of Divine 
 power (Ps. 29.3) and vengeance (1 Sam. 2.10 ; 
 Rev. 8.5). It was either the sign or instrument 
 of God's wrath on various occasions (Ex. 9.23, 
 19.16; 1 Sam. 7.10, 12.18). In Job 39.19 
 " thunder " is a mistranslation for " the 
 quivering mane " (R.V.). The term " Sons of 
 Thunder" (Boanerges, Mk. 3.7) appears to be 
 used of twins in some countries, but whether 
 this fact has any connexion with our Lord's 
 use of it is very doubtful. 
 
 Thyati'ra. Now Akhissar; a city on the 
 boundary of Lydia and Mysia (both being 
 included in the Province of Asia) ; with which 
 Lydia, the seller of purple goods at Philippi, 
 was connected (Acts 16.14). Many trade-guilds 
 existed there. It has been thought that the 
 " purple " was " turkey-red," the dye for which 
 still grows in the neighbourhood. Thyatira 
 was the seat of one of the seven Churches of 
 Asia to whom the apocalyptic letters were 
 addressed (Rev. 1.11, 2.18). The obscure 
 passage Rev. 2.20, 21 has been explained as a 
 reference to the worship of the sibyl Sambatha. 
 A temple of Sambatha stood outside the walls 
 of Thyatira. It may be that the Judaeo- 
 Christian Church at Thyatira had not dis- 
 countenanced this corruption so severely as it 
 ought to have done. Another explanation 
 which does not exclude the former one is 
 that the reference is to the rites attending the 
 worship of Apollo, the principal deity of the 
 city. But perhaps it is better to see in the 
 words a reference to a Christian prophetess 
 who supported the false teaching of the 
 Nicolaitans. 
 
 Thyine Wood. Only in Rev. 18.12. The 
 reference is to a very costly wood known to the 
 Romans as citrus, yielded by a tree known as 
 Callitris quadrivalvis, a coniferous tree closely 
 allied to the better-known arbor vitae. The 
 wood was in great request for furniture on 
 account of its colour and fragrance. 
 
 Tibe'rias. Now Tubaiiya ; a town on west 
 shore of the Sea of Galilee, giving its name to the 
 
 sea (John 6.1, 23, 21.1). It still retains traces 
 of ancient grandeur. The city was built by 
 Herod Antipas, named by him in honour of 
 the emperor Tiberius, and made the capital 
 of Galilee. Herod, the murderer of John the 
 Baptist, resided at Tiberias. This accounts 
 for the fact that (as our Lord does not seem ever 
 to have visited the city) Herod had never, 
 until their meeting at Jerusalem, seen Jesus 
 nor witnessed any of His miracles. Tiberias 
 was predominantly a Gentile city, and our 
 Lord's work lay among the dense populations 
 at the head of the lake, who were thoroughly 
 Jewish. 
 
 Tiberias, The Sea of. [GALILEE, SEA OF.] 
 
 Tibe'rius. Tiberius Claudius Nero, the 
 second Roman Emperor, after being made 
 co-emperor with Augustus in 11 A.D., reigned 
 independently from 14 A.D. to 37 A.D., so that 
 the public life of our Lord and the introductory 
 events of the apostolic age fell within the limits 
 of his administration. Before his accession to 
 the imperial throne, he had distinguished him- 
 self as orator, warrior, and statesman, but as 
 emperor his reign was stained with the blackest 
 crimes and vices. Probably the fifteenth year 
 (Lk. 3.1) dates from 11 A.D., and refers to 
 25 or 26 A.D. The city of Tiberias, built by 
 Herod Antipas, took its name from this emperor. 
 
 Tib'hath. (?) Slaughter : a city of Hadadezer, 
 king of Zobah, taken by David (1 Ch. 18.8) ; 
 the same as Betah (2 Sam. 8.8). 
 
 Tib'ni. The son of Gimath, whom some of 
 the people in the northern kingdom wished to 
 make king after Zimri. He was defeated and 
 slain by Omri (1 K. 16.21, 22). 
 
 Ti'daL One of the four confederate kings 
 who invaded Sodom and Gomorrah when 
 Lot was among their captives (Gen. 14.1, 9). 
 Nothing is known of his name, but his description 
 " king of the nations n (Goiim) seems to be a 
 rendering of the " hordes " of various nations 
 living on the east of Assyria. 
 
 Tig'lath-pileser, Tilgath-pilneser. Tiglath- 
 pileser, king of Assyria (the third, or more 
 properly the fourth, king of that name). His 
 Babylonian name was Pul, and it was to him that 
 Menahem, king of Israel, paid tribute in 738 B.C. 
 (2 K. 15.19). He attacked Samaria in the 
 reign of Pekah, took several cities, and carried 
 their inhabitants captive to Assyria, 732 B.C. 
 (2 K. 15.29). It happened that after this 
 invasion Pekah entered into alliance with Rezin, 
 king of Syria, and together they proceeded to 
 attack Jerusalem. Ahaz, the king of Judah, 
 appealed for help to Tiglath-pileser, who marched 
 against Damascus, took it, and killed Rezin. 
 He then proceeded to chastise Pekah, over- 
 running the whole district to the east of Jordan, 
 and carrying into captivity the Reubenites, 
 the Gadites, and the half-tribe of Manasseh, 
 and placing them in Upper Mesopotamia. 
 The result of this invasion may be succinctly 
 described as the absorption of Syria and of an 
 important part of Samaria into the Assyrian 
 Empire, and the reduction of Judah into the 
 
TIKVAH, TIKVATH, TOKHATH] 475 
 
 [TIME 
 
 condition of a mere tributary of the Assyrian 
 Empire (2 K. 15.37, 16.10,11; 1 Ch. 5.26; 
 2 Ch. 28.16-21). 
 
 Tik'vah, Tik'vath, Tok'hath. Hope : 1. The 
 father-in-law of the prophetess Huldah (2 K. 
 22.14 ; 2 Ch. 34.22). 2. The father of Jahaziah 
 in the time of Ezra (Ezra 10.15). 
 
 Tile, Tiling. 1. In Ezek. 4.1 the word 
 usually rendered " brick " is translated " tile." 
 2. Syrian roofs in general consist of plaster, 
 not of tiles, and the expression in Lk. 5.19 
 "through the tiling" (R.V., "through the 
 tiles "), may mean that the plaster had 
 cracked in a part of the roof, and that in that 
 spot the bearers of the paralytic made an 
 opening through which they dropped the man 
 down in front of the Lord. Or it may be that 
 Luke, writing for Greek readers, used the ex- 
 pression " tiles" as the form of roof which was 
 most familiar to them, without reference to the 
 particular material of the roof in question. 
 [HOUSE.] 
 
 a fresh day begin ? We, like the Romans, 
 say at midnight, the moment of greatest 
 distance from the light of day. But this is 
 the result of thought and comparison. In the 
 earliest ages it would be more natural to reckon 
 either from the rising of the sun, as did the 
 Babylonians, or from its setting, as did the 
 Hebrews and the Arabs. This is perhaps the 
 easiest mode of all, for the prosaic reason that 
 men have always been more likely to see the 
 setting than the rising of the sun. Hence in 
 the prehistoric cosmogony recorded in Gen. 1 we 
 read : " There was evening and there was 
 morning, one day. This method of computing 
 each day is found throughout the Bible (see 
 2 c.), and is customary among the Jews until 
 now. 
 
 2. Divisions of the Day.z. The threefold 
 designation, morning, noon, and evening 
 (cf. Ps. 55.17), is self-evident, b. Connected 
 with this is that of WATCHES in the night ; 
 three according to the Hebrew reckoning, four 
 
 
 Canaanite Names. 
 
 Babylonian- Hebrew Names. 
 
 Time of Year. 
 
 1 
 
 AB1B .... 
 
 NISAN. 
 
 March -April. 
 
 2 
 
 ZIV (ZIF) . 
 
 lyyar .... 
 
 April May. 
 
 3 
 
 
 SIVAN. 
 
 May- June. 
 
 4 
 
 
 Tammuz 
 
 June-July. 
 
 5 
 
 
 Ab . 7 . 
 
 July- August. 
 
 6 
 
 
 ELUL . . . 
 
 August-September. 
 
 7 
 
 ETHANIM . 
 
 Tishri .... 
 
 September-October. 
 
 8 
 
 BUL .... 
 
 Marcheshvan . 
 
 October-November. 
 
 9 
 
 
 KISLEV (CHISLEU) . 
 
 No vemb er-D ec ember. 
 
 10 
 
 
 TEBETH . . 
 
 December-January. 
 
 11 
 
 
 SHEBAT (SEBAT) 
 
 January-February. 
 
 12 
 
 
 ADAR .... 
 
 February March. 
 
 Tilgath-pilneser. A corrupt form of TIGLATH- 
 PILESEB. 
 
 Ti'lon. A member of the tribe of Judah 
 (1 Ch. 4.20). 
 
 Timae'us. Mark (10.46) gives in Greek the 
 words " the son of Timaeus " as an equivalent 
 of the Aramaic " Bartimaeus." 
 
 Timbrel. The English word means " a 
 small tambourine." Women of the East still 
 dance to the music of the timbrel (Ex. 15.20 ; 
 2 Sam. 6.5 ; Job 17.6, 21.12). [TABRET 1.] 
 
 Time. The two great factors employed by 
 primitive man in determining time (as in 
 common practice by us all) must have been the 
 Sun and the Moon, the former fixing both the 
 simplest unit of calculation, the Day, and also 
 the greater unit, the Year ; the latter suggesting 
 the Month, and from it the Week. The cal- 
 culation of Time with the Hebrews, as with 
 ourselves, employs both systems of reckoning, 
 with more or less satisfactory attempts to 
 reconcile them. 
 
 1. The Day horn Sun to Sun ; i.e. as we 
 now say, 24 hours. But at what point does 
 
 by the Roman, c. Another is that of HOURS. 
 The origin of the division of the Day into 
 12 or 24 parts seems to be lost in antiquity, but 
 it has come down to us by way of Babylon. 
 The Hours in each day were reckoned among 
 the Hebrews, and even the Romans, from sun- 
 rise to sunset. The one passage that presents 
 difficulty is John 19.14, but even there it is 
 better to give John the credit of maintaining his 
 usual method. Hence the duration of each hour 
 was not fixed, as with us, as one 24th of the full 
 day, but represented one 12th of the daylight, 
 which naturally varied according to the season, 
 d. The further division into minutes and seconds 
 appears not to have been known to the Hebrews 
 (though it also is traced back to Babylon), and 
 indeed was hardly convenient with so variable 
 a quantity as the Biblical Hour. 
 
 3. The Month. This was the lunar month 
 of rather more than 29 days, there being thus 
 12 months and about 11 days in each year. 
 It is perhaps convenient here to give a Table 
 of the Hebrew montiis, those which are mentioned 
 in the Bible being in capital letters, and forming 
 
TIMNA, TIMNAH] 
 
 476 [TIMOTHY, THE EPISTLES TO 
 
 subjects of special articles. In order to complete 
 the solar year approximately, a few days, or even 
 two or three weeks, were sometimes intercalated, 
 apparently as the priestly directors of the Calen- 
 dar thought best. But it is uncertain how far 
 this system obtained in Biblical times. The 
 addition was made after Adar, and was called 
 a second Adar. The twelve solar months appear 
 to be a later division of the solar year, for which 
 the twelve lunar months formed a basis. 
 
 5. The Year. a. When does it begin? 
 With us, as with the Romans, from the time 
 when the Sun is approximately at its lowest. 
 Not so with the Hebrews. They had two 
 systems : i. The sacred system, derived from 
 Babylon, beginning about the spring equinox. 
 By this the times of the sacred Feasts were 
 arranged. It is also mentioned in reference 
 to secular events, as " in the return of the year, 
 at the time when kings go out to battle " (2 Sam. 
 11.1). ii. The civil system, from the autumnal 
 equinox, when the harvest operations were 
 concluded, b. For the groups of years, in 
 sevens and seven times seven, see YEAE. c. For 
 the methods of computing a series of years, 
 see CHRONOLOGY. In addition to the eras there 
 given mention may be made of the late Jewish 
 mode of reckoning from the Creation of the 
 world, based on Biblical data. According to 
 this the year 1240 was 5000 anno mundi. But 
 in affixing this date to a book or a monument 
 it is usual to omit the thousand. Thus, if a 
 modern Jewish book is dated 674, this, in addi- 
 tion to 1240, represents 1914 A.D. 
 
 Tim'na, Tim'nah. (?) Restraint : 1. A con- 
 cubine of Eliphaz, son of Esau (Gen. 36.12). 2. 
 The sister of Lotan and daughter of Seir the 
 Horite (Gen. 36.22 ; 1 Ch. 1.39). 3. A " duke" 
 or chief of Edom descended from Esau (Gen. 
 36.40 ; 1 Ch. 1.51). 4. A son of Eliphaz and 
 grandson of Esau (1 Ch. 1.36) ; apparently the 
 same as Eorah in Gen. 36.16. 
 
 Tim'nah, Tim'nath, Thim'nathah. Portion : 
 1. Now Tibnah, 2 miles west of 'Ain Shems, near 
 where Wady Surar issues on the Philistine plain ; 
 a border town in north of Judah (Josh 15.10), 
 but assigned to Dan in Josh. 19.43, held by 
 Philistines (Judg. 14.1-5), and again taken by 
 them in the time of Ahaz (2 Ch. 28.18). 2. A 
 town in mountains of Judah; site unknown 
 (Gen. 38.12-14; Josh. 15.57). 
 
 Tim'nath-he'res (Portion (sacred) to the sun), 
 or Tim'nath-se'rah (Portion of excess) (reversing 
 the letters, to avoid any suggestion of idolatry) : 
 either Kefr Haris, 10 miles south of Nablus, or 
 Tibneh, about 14 miles north-east of Lydda ; a 
 town in south-west portion of Mount Ephraim ; 
 portion and burial-place of Joshua ( Josh. 19.50, 
 24.30 ; Judg. 2.9). 
 
 Tim'nite, The. That is, the Timnathite, 
 Samson's father-in-law (Judg. 15.6) ; inhabitant 
 of Timnah 1. 
 
 Ti'mon. He who honours (? God) : one of 
 the seven, commonly called "deacons," who 
 were appointed to act as almoners, on the occa- 
 sion of complaints of partiality being raised 
 
 by the Hellenistic Jews at Jerusalem (Acts 6.5). 
 Nothing is known of him. 
 
 Timo'theus. H onouring God : the Greek form 
 of the name Timothy, retained in the A.V. in 
 every case except 2 Cor. 1.1 ; Philem. 1 ; Heb. 
 13.23; and in the Epistles addressed to him. 
 [TIMOTHY.] 
 
 Timothy. Honouring God: one of the 
 younger companions of Paul, was an inhabitant, 
 possibly a native, of Lystra in Lycaonia, where 
 Paul first met him (Acts 16.1, 2). His father 
 was a Greek ; his mother and grandmother 
 devout Jewesses, by whom he was carefully 
 trained in a knowledge of the Scriptures (2 Tim. 
 3.14). He was probably converted by Paul 
 when but a boy on the apostle's first visit to 
 Lystra (Acts 14.6, 16.1 ; 1 Cor. 4.17 ; 1 Tim. 
 1.2; 2 Tim. 1.2). After the separation be- 
 tween Paul and Barnabas, over the matter 
 of John Mark (Acts 15.37-39), Timothy was 
 chosen by Paul as the helper of himself and Silas. 
 He was therefore circumcised, and entered on 
 a career of association with Paul, marked by 
 much affection. He helped to found the 
 Churches of Philippi and Thessalonica (Acts 
 17.14), for the former of which he seems to 
 have felt especial concern (Phil. 2.19). Left 
 at Berea (Acts 17.13, 14), he probably rejoined 
 Paul at Athens, and was sent to Thessalonica 
 (1 Thess. 3.2), rejoining Paul at Corinth with 
 news of the Church. He is linked with Paul 
 and Silas in the opening of the two Epistles to 
 the Thessalonians. Timothy appears next at 
 Ephesus (Acts 19.22), his work at which is 
 suggested by the salutation in Colossians and 
 Philemon. Thence he was sent with Erastus 
 to Macedonia and Achaia (Acts 19.22), with a 
 special mission to the Church at Corinth (1 Cor. 
 4.17). Later, he is joined with others in a 
 greeting to the Roman Church (Rom. 16.21) ; 
 and then goes with Paul into Asia (Acts 20.4). 
 It is uncertain whether he journeyed with Paul 
 to Rome. Probably Timothy joined him there, 
 and was thence sent to Philippi (Phil. 2.19). 
 The Apostle bids him hasten to him during his 
 last imprisonment (2 Tim. 4.9-13). Heb. 13.23 
 speaks of Timothy's release from imprisonment, 
 but our ignorance of the date and place of the 
 writing of that Epistle prevents our understand- 
 ing the allusion. Ecclesiastical tradition makes 
 Timothy the first Bishop of Ephesus, and says 
 that he died a martyr's death there during the 
 exile of John at Patmos. 
 
 Timothy, The Epistles to. The authorship 
 of the Epistles to Timothy has been, from the 
 first century to the present, attributed to Paul. 
 The internal evidence of the Epistles has, however, 
 been regarded by some as against the author- 
 ship by Paul ; but the peculiarities of thought 
 and language can be explained by the develop- 
 ment of events, and reconciled with the accepted 
 belief. The date of the First Epistle was some 
 period after the apostle's first imprisonment 
 at Rome, possibly the year 66. The place may 
 have been Troas, possibly at the house of Carpus 
 (cf. 2 Tim. 4.13). The purpose of the letter 
 
TIN] 
 
 477 
 
 [TISHBITE, THE 
 
 appears from its contents. The Epistle has 
 two chief objects : 1. To counteract the false 
 doctrines of Jewish teachers, who, whilst pro- 
 fessing adherence to the Law, taught doctrines 
 at variance with its holy requirements. 2. To 
 guide and encourage Timothy in the duties of 
 his office ; directing him as to (1) public devo- 
 tions (2.1-8) ; (2) the duties and behaviour of 
 Christian women (2.9,12; cf. 1 Cor. 11.3-16, 
 14.34-40; 1 Pet. 3.1-6); (3) Church officers 
 (3.1-13) ; (4) his own teaching (3.14, 4) ; (5) his 
 personal hoKness (4.11-16) ; and (6) his Church 
 administration in the treatment of offenders, of 
 widows, of good elders and bad, of slaves, of the 
 rich ; and the duties of those several classes of 
 persons (5, 6 ; cf. Tit. 1.10-3.11). With this 
 teaching are mingled many urgent and affection- 
 ate appeals, tender references to Paul's own con- 
 version, and solemn anticipations of the coming 
 of Christ. 
 
 The date of the Second Epistle, the last written 
 by Paul, must be the period of his close im- 
 prisonment at Rome, not long before his 
 martyrdom, perhaps the early months of the 
 year 67. The interval between Paul's two 
 imprisonments he seems to have spent in 
 Asia (Philem. 1.22), afterwards in Macedonia 
 (1 Tim. 1.3), wintering in Nicopolis of Epirus 
 (Tit. 3.12). Why he returned to Rome we 
 are not told, but he was soon imprisoned as 
 an evil-doer (2 Tim. 2.9). The contents of the 
 Epistle are invested with peculiar interest as 
 containing the last counsels of the apostle. 
 After an affectionate greeting with thanks- 
 giving (1.1-5), the apostle exhorts Timothy to 
 courage, zeal, and stedfastness in the ministry 
 (1.6-14) ; recalls some who were faithless, and 
 the good works of Onesiphorus (1.15-18) ; ex- 
 horts to endurance, recalling his own sufferings 
 for the gospel (2.1-13), and to faithfulness in 
 the ministry and personal uprightness (2.14-26) ; 
 predicts the perilous times of " the last days " 
 (3.1-9) ; and returns to exhortation (3.10-4.5) ; 
 ending with certain personal messages. 
 
 In the Epistles to Timothy and Titus the 
 Pastoral Epistles we have the clearest revela- 
 tion given in Scripture of the character, qualifica- 
 tions, and duties of the Christian minister. 
 These Epistles contain also the fullest account 
 of the approaching corruption of Christianity, 
 and of the extensive prevalence of infidelity, in 
 what Scripture calls the last times. It is note- 
 worthy that Polycarp ( 4), writing about 117 
 A.D., quotes 1 Tim. 6.7. 
 
 Tin. Tin is enumerated among the various 
 metals found in the spoils of the Midianites 
 (Num. 31.22). It was known to the Hebrew 
 metal-workers as an alloy of other metals 
 (Isai. 1.25; Ezek. 22.18,20). The markets 
 of Tyre were supplied with it by the ships of 
 Tarshish (Ezek. 27.12). It was used for plummets 
 (Zech. 4.10). The mines of Britain (Cornwall 
 and part of Devonshire) were the chief source 
 of supply to the ancient world. 
 
 Tiph'sah. Ford : 1. A city on Euphrates; 
 the limit of Solomon's empire (1 K. 4.24) ; now 
 
 Kal'at Dibse. 2. A town in Ephraim attacked 
 by Menahem (2 K. 15.16), but we should prob- 
 ably read TAPPUAH. 
 
 Ti'ras. Prof. Sayce, who interprets the 
 tenth chapter of Genesis geographically, not 
 ethnologically, suggests that Tiras may represent 
 the river Tyras, the early home of the Kim- 
 merians. Prof. Driver sees a reference to the 
 Turs-enoi, " a people dwelling anciently on the 
 north shore and islands of the JEgean Sea, and 
 much dreaded by the Greeks as pirates." Possibly 
 the word is connected with the names of two 
 countries in the neighbourhood of Carchemish, 
 mentioned by the Egyptian king, Rameses m., 
 namely, Tarsh-kha and Tarsh-ba (Gen. 10.2; 
 1 Ch. 1.5). 
 
 Tirathi'tes. A family or race of scribes, 
 belonging to the Kenites (1 Ch. 2.55). 
 
 Tire. 1. The precise character of the head- 
 dress or turban denoted by the Hebrew word 
 translated " tire " is not at all clear. It is 
 used of men (Ezek. 24.17, 23), of a bridegroom 
 (Isai. 61.10, " ornaments " A.V.), of priests 
 (Ezek. 44.18, " bonnets "), of ladies (Isai. 3.20, 
 " bonnets "). 2. The word in Isai. 3.18 
 " round tires like the moon " means " crescent- 
 shaped ornaments." See Judg. 8.21, 26 in the 
 R.V. 
 
 Tirha'kali. A king of Ethiopia (roughly, the 
 modern Egyptian Soudan) and Egypt, 691-665 
 B.C. When Sennacherib, king of Assyria, in 701 
 B.C., was waging war upon Hezekiah, he heard of 
 the advance of Tirhakah (who seems to have 
 been called in to help the king of Egypt at 
 that time) to fight him, and sent a second time 
 to demand the surrender of Jerusalem (2 K. 
 19.9 ; Isai. 37.9). It is probable that he was 
 a negro, as his later enemy and conqueror, 
 Esar-haddon, represents him. 
 
 Tirha'nah. Son, or daughter, of Caleb 
 (1 Ch. 2.48). 
 
 Ti'ria. A son of Jehaleleel of Judah (1 Ch. 
 4.16). 
 
 Tirsha'tha. His Excellency, or, the feared : 
 a Persian title given to Zerubbabel (Ezra 2.63 ; 
 Neh. 7.65, 70) and Nehemiah (Neh. 8.9, 10.1) as 
 governors of Judah under the king of Persia. 
 It denoted the governor of a province of less 
 extent than a satrapy. 
 
 Tir/zah. Pleasure, beauty: 1. The youngest 
 of the five daughters of Zelophehad. It was 
 the case of these daughters which originated the 
 law that in the event of a man dying without 
 male issue his property should pass to his 
 daughters (Num. 26.33, 27.1, 36.11 ; Josh. 17.3). 
 2. A royal Canaanite city taken by Joshua 
 (Josh. 12.24); the residence of kings of Israel, 
 Jeroboam, Baasha, Elah, Zimri, and Omri ; the 
 burial-place of Baasha and Zimri (1 K. 14.17, 
 15.21,33, 16.6-23); the scene of Menahem's 
 conspiracy against Shallum (2 K. 15.14, 16). It 
 was famed for its beauty (Cant. 6.4). Now, 
 perhaps, Teiasir. 
 
 Tish'bite, The. The well-known designation 
 of Elijah (1 K. 17.1, 21.17, 28 ; 2 K. 1.3, 8, 
 9.36). The reference is believed to be to Thisbe 
 
TITHE] 
 
 478 
 
 [TITUS, THE EPISTLE TO 
 
 in Naphtali, orTishbi (Thisbe, Tisboh, or Teshcb) 
 in Gilead. It is thought that the words " who 
 was of the inhabitants of Gilead" should be 
 read, " who was of Thisbe of Gilead," in accord- 
 ance with the Septuagint. This involves the 
 alteration only of the Hebrew " points " or 
 vowels, not of the consonants. 
 
 Tithe. A tenth part : Abram presented 
 " tithes of all " to Melchizedek, the priest of 
 the most high God (Gen. 14.20). Jacob, after 
 his vision of the angels, promised a tenth of 
 his possessions unto God, if Jehovah brought 
 him again to his father's house in peace (Gen. 
 28.22). The Law of Moses declared that the 
 tenth of all produce, as well as of flocks and 
 cattle, belonged to Jehovah, and must be 
 offered to Him. The tithe was to be paid in 
 kind, or, if redeemed, with an addition of one- 
 fifth to its value (Lev. 27.30-33). In tithing 
 sheep, the custom was to enclose them in a 
 pen, and as the animals went out at the opening 
 every tenth one was marked with a rod dipped 
 in vermilion. This was the " passing under 
 the rod." This tenth was received by the 
 Levites, who, again, devoted a tenth part of 
 it to the maintenance of the high-priest (Num. 
 18.21-28). This legislation was modified or 
 extended at a later time (Deut. 12.5-18, 
 14.22-27, 26.12,13). These passages seem to 
 show that, in addition to the first tithe for the 
 maintenance of the Levites and the high-priest, 
 there was a second tithe applied to festival pur- 
 poses. Every third year the Levites and the poor 
 had a share in the festival tithe. Under the 
 kings an additional tithe was apparently taken 
 for secular purposes (1 Sam. 8.15, 17), but the 
 religious tithe system, with other parts of the 
 Law, fell into neglect. Hezekiah, however, 
 revived it (2 Ch. 31.5, 12, 19), as also did 
 Nehemiah after the return from the Captivity 
 (Neh. 12.44). Special officers were appointed 
 to take charge of the stores and storehouses for 
 the purpose. The practice of tithing, especially 
 for relief of the poor, was practised even in the 
 Northern Kingdom, for Amos speaks of it, 
 though in an ironical tone, as existing in his 
 day (Amos 4.4). Malachi complains that the 
 tithe is neglected (Mai. 3.8, 10). The system 
 was carried out minutely by those who, like 
 the Pharisees, afiected peculiar exactness in 
 observance of the Law (Matt. 23.23 ; LJc. 18.12 ; 
 Heb. 7.5-8). 
 
 Title. In 2 K. 23.17 this should rather be 
 rendered " monument " (R.V.). 
 
 Tittle. In Hebrew, some letters are much 
 alike, and only to be distinguished by the 
 " thorn " or " horn "-like upward stroke at a 
 corner. Thus T is " d," n is " r." [Jor.] 
 
 Titus. A friend and trusted helper of Paul, 
 by birth a Greek (Gal. 2.3), converted by Paul, 
 and so called " mine own son after the common 
 faith " (Tit. 1.4 ; cf. 1 Tim. 1.2). Nothing is 
 known as to his family or birthplace. Titus 
 appears first as accompanying Paul and Barnabas 
 on their visit to Jerusalem (Gal. 2.1 ; and see 
 Acts 15.2). A few years later he reappears in 
 
 connexion with the Church of Corinth, from 
 which he carried a message to the apostle 
 (2 Cor. 7.6) a report very anxiously awaited 
 (2 Cor. 2.13). The interest of Titus in that 
 Church seems to have been marked (2 Cor. 8.23), 
 and his purity of motive beyond dispute 
 (2 Cor. 12.17, 18). He was left by Paul in 
 Crete (Tit. 1.5). There is no record of any visit 
 by the apostle to that island save in Acts 27.7, 
 but he may have been at Crete after bis first 
 imprisonment at Rome. Titus was to rejoin 
 Paul at Nicopolis (Tit. 3.12). This he appar- 
 ently did, subsequently leaving the apostle in 
 order to visit Dalmatia (2 Tim. 4.10). Nothing 
 is known of his later life. He has by some been 
 identified with the Justus of Acts 18.7, and with 
 Silas ; but his name does not appear in Acts. 
 
 Titus, The Epistle to. This letter is joined 
 with 1 and 2 Timothy, the three being known as 
 the Pastoral Epistles. As to the place and date 
 of writing, it is probable that Paul, sailing to 
 Asia after his first imprisonment in Rome, 
 took Crete in his way and left Titus there, 
 and that he wrote this Epistle from Macedonia, 
 when on his way to the Thracian Nicopolis. 
 It is further supposed that Titus, according to 
 Paul's desire, joined the apostle at Nicopolis, 
 and afterwards accompanied him on his last 
 journey to Rome, being with him there during 
 part of his second imprisonment (2 Tim. 4.10) ; 
 and having then been sent into Dalmatia, 
 to preach the gospel, or to visit Churches already 
 formed there. We know nothing of the first 
 introduction of the gospel into Crete, but as 
 there were Jews from that island among Peter's 
 audience on the Day of Pentecost (Acts 2.11), 
 it is probable that the Christian faith was carried 
 thither by converts from among them. It 
 appears also from this Epistle that Paul had 
 laboured there, and probably with considerable 
 success ; but that by some means he had been 
 hurried thence before he could order the state 
 of the Churches in a regular manner. 
 
 The work of Titus in Crete was difficult. 
 The character of the people was unsteady, in- 
 sincere, and quarrelsome : they were notoriously 
 given to licentiousness and intemperance (1.12). 
 
 The resemblance between this Epistle and 
 1 Timothy is obvious ; and they are generally 
 supposed to have been written about the same 
 time. The contents may be summarised thus : 
 Paul describes the qualifications required in 
 those who were to be ordained to the ministry; 
 and which were the more necessary on ac- 
 count of the dangerous principles of the false 
 teachers whom they had to oppose, and the 
 general character of the Cretans (c. 1). He next 
 describes the instructions which were to be 
 given to various classes of persons, enjoining 
 upon the aged and the young the virtues 
 which ought severally to distinguish them ; 
 exhorting Titus (himself a young man) to set a 
 pattern, in his own conduct, of the virtues he 
 was to inculcate ; teaching servants to be 
 obedient and faithful ; for the salvation of the 
 gospel was designed for all orders and classes of 
 
TITUS JUSTUS] 
 
 479 
 
 [TONGUES, GIFT OF 
 
 mankind, making them holy in this life, and 
 preparing them for a higher and better (c. 2). 
 Titus is instructed to enjoin obedience to rulers, 
 and a peaceable and gentle behaviour to all 
 men; for they themselves once were sinful, 
 and owed their salvation to the free grace 
 of God. The indispensable obligation which 
 believers are under to excel in good works is 
 insisted upon ; cautions are given against 
 engaging in frivolous inquiries and unprofitable 
 disputations ; and after some other brief 
 directions to Titus the Epistle is closed with 
 salutations and a benediction (e. 3). 
 
 In this Epistle those of the humblest rank 
 are exhorted to adorn the gospel (2.10). While 
 our salvation is ascribed exclusively to grace 
 (2.11), to the " kindness and love of God our 
 Saviour" (3.4), this fact is made the ground of 
 most urgent exhortations to holiness (2.14, 3.8). 
 
 Titus Justus. The full name, in the R.V. 
 only, of JUSTUS 2. Some authorities read 
 Titius Justus. 
 
 Tiz'ite, The. An appellation of Joha, one 
 of David's chief warriors (1 Ch. 11.45). The 
 meaning and reference are quite unknown. 
 
 To 'ah. A Kohathite and an ancestor of 
 Samuel (1 Ch. 6.34). He is called Nahath in 
 1 Ch. 6.26 and Tohu in 1 Sam. 1.1. 
 
 Tob. Good: now Taiyibeh, in southern 
 Bashan. The Land of Tob was a district east 
 of Gilead, where Jephthah took refuge uhen 
 expelled from home by his half-brothers (Judg. 
 11.2), and where he remained, at the head of a 
 band of freebooters, till he was brought back 
 by the elders of Gilead (Judg. 11.5). It is 
 mentioned again in 2 Sam. 10.6, 8 as one of 
 the petty Aramaean states which supported the 
 Ammonites in their great conflict with David. 
 
 Tob-adoni'jah. Good is the Lord Jehovah : 
 a Levite sent by Jehoshaphat to teach the Law 
 in the cities of Judah (2 Ch. 17.8). 
 
 Tobi'ah, Tobi'jah. Jehovah is my good : 
 1. A Levite sent by Jehoshaphat to teach the 
 Law in the cities of Judah (2 Ch. 17.8). 2. 
 Tobijah is mentioned in Zech. 6.10 as having 
 returned from Babylon to Jerusalem. In his 
 presence, and the presence of others, Zechariah 
 was commanded to crown Joshua, the son of 
 Josedech, as high-priest. 3. The children of 
 Tobiah returned with Zerubbabel, but could not 
 prove their connexion with Israel (Ezra 2.60 ; Neh. 
 7.62). 4. An Ammonite who bitterly opposed 
 Nehemiah in the rebuilding of Jerusalem. His 
 crowning act of insult was to take up his resi- 
 dence in the Temple, in spite of the Mosaic edict 
 that the Ammonite and the Moabite should not 
 come into the congregation of God for ever. 
 Nehemiah " cast forth all the household stuff 
 of Tobiah out of the chamber" (Neh. 2.19 ff.). 
 
 Tobit, Book of. [NON-CANONICAL BOOKS.] 
 
 To'chen. (?) Measurement : town of Simeon 
 (1 Ch. 4.32). 
 
 Togar'inah. A son of Gomer (Gen. 10.3). 
 Prof. Sayce, who interprets the chapter geo- 
 graphically, not ethnologically, places Togarmah 
 in Armenia or Asia Minor, Horses were im- 
 
 ported from Togarmah (Ezek. 27.14), and in 
 Ezek. 38.6 it forms part of the hosts of Gog. 
 To'hu. An ancestor of Samuel (I Sam. 1.1). 
 
 [TOAH.] 
 
 To'i. King of Hamath on the Orontes. He 
 was at enmity " had wars " with Hadadezer, 
 king of Syria, and when the latter was defeated 
 by an army of David, Toi sent bis son, Joram, 
 with presents of gold and silver and brass to the 
 conqueror (2 Sam. 8.9, 10). It may have been 
 that he wanted to buy off the anticipated hos- 
 tility of David. He is called Tou in 1 Ch. 
 18.9, 10. 
 
 Tokhath. [TiKVAH.] 
 
 To'la. Scarlet : 1. The first-born of Issachar 
 and therefore grandson of Jacob (Gen. 46.13 ; 
 Num. 26.23 ; 1 Ch. 7.1, 2). 2. A judge of Israel 
 (Judg. 10.1, 2). 
 
 To'lad. {?) Generation : a town of Simeon 
 (1 Ch. 4.29). [ELTOLAD.] 
 
 To'laites. The descendants of Tola 1 (Num. 
 26.23). [TOLA.] 
 
 Tomb. [BURIAL.] 
 
 Tongues, Confusion of. For some time after 
 the Flood " the whole earth was of one language." 
 The human family attempted to maintain this 
 unity by the establishment of a great central 
 edifice and a city which should serve as the 
 metropolis and, doubtless, the religious centre for 
 the whole world. They proposed to carry out 
 this project in the wide plain of Babylon, a 
 locality admirably suited to such an object 
 by its physical and geographical peculiarities. 
 Jehovah defeated the project by " confounding 
 their language, so that they might not under- 
 stand one another's speech. From thence did 
 the Lord scatter them abroad upon the face of 
 all the earth." The memory of the great event 
 was preserved in the name Babel, which to a 
 Hebrew suggests the word Balal, " confound " 
 (Gen. 11.1-9). [BABEL, BABYLON.] 
 
 Tongues, Gift of. The chief passages from 
 which we have to draw our conclusion as to 
 the nature and purpose of the gift in question 
 are Mk. 16.17 ; Acts 2.1-13, 10.46, 19.6 ; 1 Cor. 
 12.10, 14.1-19. On the Day of Pentecost, as re- 
 corded in Acts, there appeared to the 120 dis- 
 ciples " tongues like as of fire," and " they began 
 to speak with other tongues as the Spirit gave 
 them utterance." The disciples were heard to 
 speak hi languages of which they had no know- 
 ledge previously, so that persons present in 
 Jerusalem, belonging to many nationalities, 
 heard themselves addressed, or more probably 
 God addressed in prayer and praise, in their 
 own languages. It is well to recognise, however, 
 that the subject is beset with difficulties. 
 The gift of being able to speak in many 
 languages, if a permanent possession, must 
 have been of the greatest value hi evangelising 
 work, and in that case one could not under- 
 stand how, as it seems, Paul did not understand 
 the Lycaonian language (Acts 14.11), nor how 
 Paul could have placed it lowest in the scale of 
 epiritual gifts (1 Cor. 12.8-10, 28-30), nor would 
 the apostle have insisted that the gift should 
 
TOPAZ] 
 
 480 
 
 [TRANSFIGUEATlUTT, THE 
 
 not be coveted or stirred up (1 Cor. 14.39). 
 Indeed, the reference in 1 Corinthians seems to 
 be to something different from, though analo- 
 gous to, that described in Acts. The gift in 
 tongues in the former case is associated with 
 unintelligibility, in marked difference from the 
 scene described as occurring at Pentecost. The 
 gift, whatever its precise nature, did not descend 
 beyond the first age of the Church. The 
 " tongues " are already " ceasing " (1 Cor. 
 13.8), as a thing belonging to the past. It is 
 probable that the disappearance was gradual. 
 The " gift of tongues " in modern times has 
 generally been either unintelligible gibberish, 
 or the reminiscence of languages heard earlier 
 but forgotten. But there appear to have been 
 cases where the spiritual influence present was 
 so strong that persons understood the message 
 of a preacher, even though he spoke in a language 
 foreign to them. 
 
 To'paz. A green gem of golden hue. It is 
 said by Hilary to as far surpass other stones 
 as gold surpasses all other metals. Hence the 
 topaz of Cush ; an island in the Red Sea being 
 called Topaz Island (Ex. 28.17; Job 28.19; 
 Ezek. 28.13 ; Rev. 21.20). The descriptions in 
 Revelation are closely connected with those 
 in Exodus and Ezekiel. The topaz was a stone 
 in the high-priest's breastplate ; it adorned 
 the apparel of the king of Tyre ; it glittered in 
 the foundations of the heavenly Jerusalem. 
 In Job the statement is that the topaz of 
 Ethiopia does not equal wisdom. 
 
 To'pheL (?) Chalky ground : probably Wady 
 et-Tuftleh, 15 miles south-east of the Dead Sea 
 (Deut. 1.1). 
 
 To'phet, To'pheth. Place of turning : place 
 in the valley of Hinnom, perhaps at its junction 
 with the valley of Kidron. It is believed to 
 have been at first a place of special beauty, but 
 afterwards it was defiled by idols and polluted 
 by the sacrifices of Baal and the fires of Moloch. 
 Josiah " defiled " it that is, threw down its 
 altars and high places, and it became a re- 
 ceptacle for all the filth of Jerusalem. In 
 Jeremiah (7.32, 19.6) it is declared that Tophet 
 and Gehinnom were to be called " the valley of 
 slaughter." And accordingly we find that in 
 succeeding ages blood has flowed there in 
 streams, the blood of Romans, Persians, Jews, 
 Greeks, Crusaders, and Moslems (2 K. 23.10; 
 Isai. 30.33). [GEHINNOM, HINNOM.] 
 
 Torches. The " torches " of Nah. 2.3 is a 
 mistranslation of a word found only there, 
 meaning the " steel " fittings or " scythes " for 
 war chariots. In ver. 4 it has its usual signi- 
 fication. 
 
 Tortoise. The unclean animal mentioned in 
 Lev. 11.29 is a large species of lizard, found in 
 Southern Judaea, Sinai, and Egypt. It is a 
 foot in length, with a powerful spiny tail which 
 is a formidable weapon of defence. It feeds 
 upon beetles. Of tortoises, correctly so called, 
 there are several species found in abundance in 
 Palestine, but the common green tortoise does 
 not occur there. 
 
 Tou. [Toi.] 
 
 Tower. Besides towers forming a part of 
 the fortifications of walls, towers were built in 
 the midst of the plain in which shepherds and 
 herdsmen might lodge, look after their charge, 
 and keep watch on wild beasts and human 
 enemies. King Uzziah caused several towers 
 to be built for the shepherds in the desert, 
 because he had a great number of flocks (2 Ch. 
 26.10). The tower built in the midst of a 
 vineyard (Isai. 5.2), and the tower of the 
 flock (Mic. 4.8), were of the same kind. Several 
 towers for ordinary purposes of defence are 
 mentioned the tower of David (Cant. 4.4), the 
 tower of Edar (Gen. 35.21), the tower of the 
 Furnaces (Neh. 3.11), the tower of Hananeel 
 (Jer. 31.38), the tower of Lebanon (Cant. 
 7.4), the tower of Meah (Neh. 3.1), the tower 
 of Penuel (Judg. 8.17), the tower of Shechem 
 (Judg. 9.46), the tower of Syene (Ezek. 29.10). 
 
 Town-clerk. The officer described as the 
 town-clerk (Acts 19.35) occupied a position of 
 dignity and influence. The town -clerk of 
 Ephesus was in immediate touch with the 
 proconsul of Asia. Luke's account of him in 
 Acts is hi strict agreement with what we learn 
 from other sources. The original duties of the 
 office were to be responsible for the form of 
 laws and decrees of the State, and to read them 
 to the people. To these functions was added the 
 duty of presiding at public assemblies and taking 
 the vote. In some instances they were the 
 rulers of the community, in others they were 
 associated with a superior magistrate. In the 
 absence or death of this superior the town-clerk 
 performed his duties until his return or his 
 successor was appointed. 
 
 Trachoni'tis. Rugged place : a small Roman 
 province which included somewhat more than 
 the modern el-Lejah in Arabia. Part of the 
 tetrarchy of Philip (Lk. 3.1). Same as AEGOB. 
 [ITTTRZBA.] 
 
 Trance. The Greek word translated " trance " 
 is used only by Luke, the physician (Acts 10.10, 
 11.5, 22.17). Peter was in a trance when he saw 
 heaven opened and all manner of four-footed 
 beasts of the earth descend, etc. In this trance 
 he was taught concerning the calling of the 
 Gentiles. Paul describes a trance into which he 
 fell at Jerusalem, on his return from Damascus, 
 when he received the command from God to go 
 to the Gentiles. There is a brief notice of 
 another trance in 2 Cor. 12.1-4. Though the 
 word " trance " is not in the O.T. it is inserted 
 in italics in the A.V. of Num. 24.4,14 the 
 phenomenon, or an analogous phenomenon, is 
 described in several instances. Deep sleep and 
 a horror of great darkness fell on Abraham (Gen. 
 15.12). Balaam saw the vision of God (Num. 
 24.4). Saul prophesied and fell into an ecstasy 
 (1 Sam. 19.24). Ezekiel sat motionless for 
 seven days till the word of the Lord came to 
 him (Ezek. 3.15, 8.3). [DREAM, VISION.] 
 
 Transfiguration, The. The transfiguration 
 of our Lord took place probably on the slopes 
 of Hermon. It is described in Matt. 17.1-8; 
 
TREASUEE CITIES] 
 
 481 
 
 [TRINITY 
 
 Mk. 9.2-8; Lie. 9.28-36. Peter, who was 
 present, makes mention of the event in 2 Pet. 
 1.16-18. The scene represented, by anticipa- 
 tion, the coming heavenly glory of Christ, and 
 indicated by the presence of Moses and Elijah 
 the fulfilment of the O.T. [Jssus CHBIST.] 
 
 Treasure Cities. Pithom and Raamses were 
 "treasure cities" built for Pharaoh by the 
 Israelites. The treasure in this case was prob- 
 ably stores of grain. [PITHOM.] 
 
 Treasury. The rich people and the poor 
 widow cast in their offerings into the treasury 
 (Mk. 12.41). Our Lord spake in the treasury 
 (John 8.20). The priests could not put into the 
 treasury the thirty pieces of silver that Judas 
 had given back to them, because they were 
 the price of blood (Matt. 27.6). There was no 
 special building called the treasury. The 
 name was given to the thirteen brazen chests 
 into which the offerings of the Temple wor- 
 shippers were put. When John says that Jesus 
 spake in the treasury, he means in the outer 
 court of the women, where these brazen chests 
 were placed. 
 
 Tree. In almost every country certain trees 
 are held sacred, and Palestine is no exception. 
 It is still common to see there trees on which 
 rags are fastened, in sign of prayer by wor- 
 shippers, which are thought to acquire a sacred 
 character and power to remove diseases. This 
 reverence goes back to very early times, long 
 before those of the patriarchs, and accounts for 
 some of the instances in which special mention 
 is made of trees. The Asherah [GROVE], a trunk 
 or post, is only a conventionalised form of a 
 tree, and as such is connected with false wor- 
 ship. 
 
 Trespass-offering. [SIN-OFFERING.] 
 
 Trial The charge against our Lord was 
 treason, punishable with death (Lk. 23.2,38; 
 John 19.12,15). Paul and Silas at Philippi 
 were accused of innovation in religion, punish- 
 able with banishment or death (Acts 16.19-21). 
 The Jewish prosecutors of Paul, in the trial at 
 Caesarea before Felix, employed a professional 
 Roman " banister " to plead. [TERTULLUS.] 
 The effect of Paul's appeal to Caesar, in the trial 
 before Festus, was to remove the case at once to 
 the jurisdiction of the Emperor. This right of 
 appeal to ultimate authority was one of the 
 privileges of Roman citizenship (Acts 24, 25, 26). 
 The use of the plural " deputies," before whom 
 Demetrius and the craftsmen were urged to 
 lay their case, is best explained as a general 
 statement. For the word really means " pro- 
 consuls," and there was only one proconsul. 
 It is just possible that reference is made to 
 assessors for him in the law courts (Acts 19.38). 
 [JUDGE, SANHEDRIM.] 
 
 Tribes, The Ten. The tribes composing the 
 Northern Kingdom, the kingdom of Israel, which 
 were led into captivity into Assyria and the 
 countries about the Caspian Sea, by Tiglath- 
 pileser, 732 B.C. There have been many con- 
 jectures as to their subsequent history, but the 
 most plausible theory it is only a theory 
 
 3 1 
 
 seems to be that they were absorbed by the 
 people among whom they lived. Of modern 
 " identifications " that of the Afghans has 
 most to be said in its favour. On the other 
 hand, it may be that they, and the captives of 
 the two tribes of Judah and Benjamin, amal- 
 gamated during their joint exile in Babylon, and 
 returned together as one people, in consequence 
 of the edicts issued by the Persian kings. Cer- 
 tainly some members of the Ten Tribes so re- 
 turned (Lk. 2.36). 
 
 Tribute. The Hebrews acknowledged the 
 sovereign dominion of God by an annual tribute 
 of half a shekel a head (Ex. 30.13). That is the 
 tribute referred to in Matt. 17.24. It was applied 
 to defray the general expenses of the Temple. 
 The tribute paid to the Roman Emperor was 
 another matter (Matt. 22.17). Some commenta- 
 tors consider that in the former passage there is 
 a reference to a recent controversy between the 
 Pharisees and the Sadducees as to whether 
 tribute money for the Temple should be com- 
 pulsory or voluntary. The Pharisees had won 
 the day, and the tribute remained a binding 
 obligation of ecclesiastical law. Our Lord, it 
 is contended, condemned that decision, which 
 treated every Israelite as if he were a conquered 
 subject of a foreign power, from whom tribute 
 is exacted, as a "stranger," not as a "son." 
 But more probably the usual interpretation is 
 right, that He claimed for Himself, as Son of God, 
 freedom from the tribute, the plural being only 
 part of the simile. It is important to note that, 
 though Christ said this, He nevertheless complied 
 with the payment, "lest we should offend 
 them." The Israelites were frequently subdued 
 by foreign princes, who laid taxes and tribute on 
 them, to which necessity compelled them to sub- 
 mit. The statement of the Jews in John 8.33, 
 " We were never in bondage to any man," was 
 far from being founded on fact, if it was meant 
 to be understood literally. Indeed, at the very 
 time they were spoken, the Jews were subject to 
 the Romans (cf. John 19.15). But perhaps the 
 Jews were claiming moral superiority to their 
 conquerors. Our Lord replies that even their 
 boasted moral freedom was a delusion. They 
 were in bondage to sin. [TAXES.] 
 
 Trinity." When we open the New Testa- 
 ment, we find ourselves in presence of a glowing 
 religious life. . . . And from beginning to end, 
 in all its parts and aspects and elements, this 
 religious life is determined by Christ. . . . 
 Christianity never existed in the world as a 
 religion in which men shared the faith of Jesus, 
 but was from the very beginning, and amid all 
 undeniable diversities, a religion in which 
 Jesus was the object of faith. To all believers 
 Jesus belonged to the Divine as truly as to 
 the human sphere. In the practical sense of 
 believing in Him they all confessed His God- 
 head. . . . They all set Him in the same 
 incomparable place. They all acknowledge 
 to Him the same immeasurable debt. He 
 determines, as no other does or can, all their 
 relations to God and to each other. While 
 
TEINITY] 
 
 482 
 
 [TRINITY 
 
 His true manhood is unquestionably assumed, 
 He is set as unquestionably on the side of 
 reality which we call Divine, and which 
 confronts man : He embodies for faith that 
 Divine love and power which work out man's 
 salvation. It is the place thus assigned to 
 Christ which gives its religious unity to the 
 N.T., and which has kept the Christian religion 
 one all through its history " (Denney, Jesus 
 and the Gospel, pp. 1, 12, 373). 
 
 With the main theme of Dr. Denney's 
 admirable book the proof that Christ thought 
 about Himself as the first Christians thought 
 about Him, and claimed to be the person whom 
 they made the object of their adoring faith 
 we have not here to do. But of the fact set 
 forth in the above quotations there can be 
 no question. It is affirmed in the earliest 
 Christian preaching, under the terms " Lord 
 and Christ " (Acts 2.36 : cf. 4.12, 5.31, 10.36, 
 etc.), and the earliest Epistle of St. Paul 
 already embodies this faith in the significant 
 title " the Lord Jesus Christ " (1 Thess. 1.1, 3, 
 5.23, 28). The most characteristic expression 
 given to this belief is the title " Son of God," 
 applied to Christ not simply in the sense of 
 Divine appointment to office (Mk. 1.11 : cf. 
 Ps. 2.7), but of Divine nature, involving the 
 truths of pre-existence and incarnation. It 
 is noteworthy that the solitary instance of 
 this term in the Book of Acts is in connexion 
 with the first preaching of the converted Saul 
 of Tarsus (Acts 9.20). The sense is Messianic 
 (cf. its equivalent in ver. 22, " the Christ"), but 
 the vision on the way to Damascus had convinced 
 Saul that Jesus, the Messiah, was a Divine 
 person. Hence the term " Son of God " 
 acquired to him a new significance. From the 
 first it appears in his writings, unobtrusively, 
 the natural utterance of an established faith 
 (1 Thess. 1.10; Gal. 1.16, 2.20, 4.4,6; 1 Cor. 
 1.9, 15.28 ; 2 Cor. 1.19 ; Rom. 1.3, 4, 9, 5.10, 
 8.3,29,32; Eph. 4.13). St. Paul nowhere 
 formulates a specific doctrine of the person 
 of Christ, but the passages cited (especially 
 Rom. 8.3; Gal 4.4; 1 Cor. 15.28, and add 
 1 Cor. 8.6 ; 2 Cor. 4.4, 8.9 ; Phil 2.6-11 ; 
 Col 1.13-19) clearly show that to him " Christ 
 was a wholly unique Being, who, before His 
 advent to earth, shared the Divine nature and 
 glory, and who, in His exaltation after the 
 resurrection, only enters in a formal and 
 demonstrative manner upon a dignity which 
 corresponds to His essence and inherent right." 
 
 That this view of Christ was accepted, 
 emphasised, and developed by the later N.T. 
 writers needs here no detailed proof. The 
 very theme of the writer to the Hebrews is the 
 necessary finality of a revelation in God's 
 " Son " (Heb. 1.1-4, and passim) : the prologue 
 to St. John's Gospel, with its announcement 
 of " the Word " made flesh, and of revelation 
 to men through " the only begotten Son, 
 which is in the bosom of the Father," prepares 
 us for the exalted Christology of the whole 
 Gospel and first Epistle. Without reference to 
 
 any controverted passages, it may be decisively 
 shown that to the N.T. writers Jesus had the 
 religious significance of God. They held 
 tenaciously to the monotheism reached by 
 the Hebrew religion : to them there was " one 
 God" (Rom. 3.30; 1. Cor. 8.6; Gal 3.20; 
 Eph. 4.6 ; 1 Tim. 2.5 ; Jas. 2.19), but there 
 was also to them " one Lord " (1 Cor. 8.6 ; 
 Eph. 4.5), so vitally related to God in all the 
 Divine dealings with men that the apostolic 
 benediction naturally and inevitably assumes 
 the dual form, " Grace to you and peace from 
 God our Father, and the Lord Jesus Christ " 
 (Rom. 1.7 ; 1 Cor. 1.3 ; 2 Cor. 1.2 ; Gal 1.3 ; 
 Eph. 1.2 : Phil 1.2 ; 1 Thess. 1.1 ; 2 Thess. 1.2 ; 
 I Tim. 1.2; 2 Tim. 1.2; Tit. 1.4 ; Philem.S). 
 
 Further, the history of the Christian Church 
 starts from Pentecost and the gift of the 
 Holy Spirit, " the promise of the Father," 
 poured forth by Jesus (Acts 1.4, 2.33 ; Lk. 
 24.49). It is not necessary for the purpose 
 of this article to consider in detail the N.T. 
 teaching concerning the Spirit. Broadly 
 speaking, the operation of God in the world, 
 and especially in human lives, to sanctify and 
 empower, is ascribed to the Spirit of God : the 
 Spirit is God at work in the world. But two 
 points need special mention 
 
 (1) In the passages just cited the gift of the 
 Spirit is closely connected with the exaltation 
 of Christ. It is because He has passed through 
 death to the right hand of God that a Divine 
 life, filled with the energies of the Spirit, is 
 possible to man. This is confirmed by the 
 teaching of the Fourth Gospel, " The Spirit 
 was not yet, because Jesus was not yet glori- 
 fied " ( John 7.39) : " It is expedient for you 
 that I go away : for if I go not away, the 
 Comforter (Paraclete, i.e. advocate, helper) 
 will not come unto you ; but if I depart, I 
 will send Him unto you " (16.7 ; cf. 14.16, 26, 
 15.26). It is only another illustration of what 
 has been said as to the virtual deification of 
 Jesus, that the term " Spirit of God " is inter- 
 changeable with the terms " Spirit of Jesus," 
 " Spirit of Christ," " Spirit of Jesus Christ " 
 (Acts 16.7 ; Rom. 8.9 ; Phil 1.19), and that 
 in 1 John 2.1 Jesus Christ is Himself the 
 " Paraclete." 
 
 (2) Side by side with a conception which 
 would seem to identify the Spirit with the 
 operation of God or of the exalted Christ, 
 we find a conception which distinguishes the 
 Spirit from the Father and the Son. This is 
 involved in passages already referred to, and 
 finds development in Paul's teaching, if not 
 into a consistent doctrine, at least into a quasi- 
 personification of the Spirit. His work on the 
 heart of believers is personal work (1 Cor. 2.13, 
 12.11 ; Rom. 8.9, 14, 16, 26) : He is co-ordinated 
 with God the Father and with Christ the 
 Lord (1 Cor. 12.4-6; Eph. 4.4-6). The 
 habitual dual benediction already cited does 
 not exhaust Paul's conception of the Godhead : 
 only once does he give full expression to the faith 
 winch possesses him in the threefold formula, 
 
TROAS] 
 
 483 
 
 [TROPHIMUS 
 
 now so familiar, " The grace of the Lord Jesus 
 Christ, and the love of God, and the communion 
 of the Holy Ghost, be with you all " (2 Cor. 13.14 ; 
 cf. the baptismal formula of Matt. 28.19). 
 
 These, then, are the N.T. data for a doctrine 
 of the Trinity the recognition of one God, 
 and yet the distinction within the Godhead 
 of Father, Son, and Spirit. The problem to 
 which the data give rise, of how the Three 
 co-exist in One, is not even formulated in the 
 N.T., much less solved. Tertullian (c. 200 A.D.) 
 first used the term Trinity, which was not 
 received into any creed before the so-called 
 " Athanasian Creed " (late fifth century), a 
 formulary of unknown authorship, largely 
 influenced by the theology of St. Augustine 
 (De Trinitate, c. 415 A.D.). The story of the 
 long controversies through which the elaborate 
 definitions of this creed were reached belongs 
 to the history of doctrine. Earlier and 
 simpler statements are that of the " Apostles' 
 Creed," representing in general the pre- 
 Nicene belief, and that of the creed adopted at 
 the Council of Nicaea, 325 A.D., and of the 
 Palestinian creed, enlarged at the Council of 
 Constantinople, 381 A.D., and now called the 
 " Nicene" creed. The occasion of the former 
 Council was the outbreak of the Arian con- 
 troversy as to the Person of the Son of God, 
 in which Arius and Athanasius were the pro- 
 tagonists on either side, " and the Creed, 
 in the fulness and precision of its state- 
 ments on this great subject, plainly declares 
 its origin. In fact, as it left the Council, the 
 Creed was rather a manifesto on the Deity 
 and humanity of Christ than in any general 
 sense a Christian confession " (all that follows 
 the words, " I believe in the Holy Ghost," was 
 added in 381). The centre of the controversy 
 lies in the phrase " being of one substance 
 (homoousion) with the Father " : the acceptance 
 of this word, in opposition to the Arian formula, 
 homoiousion (of like substance), marked in 
 325 the temporary, and in 381 the final, 
 triumph of Athanasius and the attainment 
 of the " Catholic Faith." The struggle, indeed, 
 was for the maintenance of the N.T. doctrine 
 of the Person of our Lord indicated at the 
 outset of this article : as Harnack puts it, 
 " Is the Divine, which has appeared upon 
 the earth and reunited man with God, identical 
 with the highest Divine Being who rules heaven 
 and earth, or is the same semi-divine ? That 
 was the decisive question of the Arian con- 
 troversy." In view of an interest so vital to 
 Christian faith, the sneer of Gibbon as to 
 " the furious contests which the difference of a 
 single letter excited between the Homoousians 
 and the Homoiousians " loses its point. Mr. 
 Froude relates a conversation with Carlyle, 
 then in his eighty-third year : " In earlier 
 years Carlyle had spoken contemptuously of 
 the Athanasian controversy, of the Christian 
 world torn to pieces over a diphthong ; and 
 he would ring the changes in broad Annandale 
 on the Homoousion and the Homoiousion. 
 
 But now he told me that he perceived 
 Christianity itself to have been at stake. If 
 the Arians had won, it would have dwindled 
 away into a legend." 
 
 The metaphysical subtleties of the doctrine 
 of the Trinity in its fuller expressions, still 
 more of the discussions through which it was 
 attained, may perplex and repel. It begins 
 and ends in mystery : " Canst thou by 
 searching find out God ? Canst thou 
 find out the Almighty unto perfection ? " 
 But it helps us to conceive of God not as 
 abstract Deity, but in all the concrete fulness 
 of a living, loving personality, transcendent 
 yet immanent, absolute and perfect, yet Creator 
 of a world which in His incarnate Son He stooped 
 to redeem. Each of its constituent elements 
 Father, Son, Spirit brings " the thought of 
 God in a different way home, closely and 
 effectually home, to the human heart ; while 
 together they embrace and satisfy all the 
 demands of our religious instinct " (Illing- 
 worth, The Doctrine of the Trinity, p. 164 : see 
 especially chaps, vii.-x.). 
 
 Tro'as. Now Eski-Stamboul ; a seaport of 
 Mysia, the chief point of embarkation and 
 arrival for voyagers between Western Asia and 
 Macedonia ; whence Paul sailed on two occasions 
 for Philippi, and to which he returned (Acts 
 16.8, 11, 20.5, 6 ; 2 Cor. 2.12 ; 2 Tim. 4.13). It 
 was at Troas that Paul raised Eutychus from the 
 dead during his protracted midnight discourse. 
 Here, too, many years afterwards, he left a cloak 
 and some parchments at the house of Carpus. 
 It was connected by good roads to other places 
 on the coast and in the interior. It stands 
 a little to the south of the site of ancient 
 Troy. 
 
 Trogyriium. A promontory of Asia Minor, 
 opposite the island of Samos ; according to the 
 A.V. of Acts 20.15, Paul anchored there for a 
 night on returning to Jerusalem from his third 
 missionary tour. But the sentence is no part 
 of the original text. The channel between the 
 promontory and the island is only about a mile 
 wide, and the navigation of it is difficult. There 
 is an anchorage in the neighbourhood still called 
 St. Paul's Port. 
 
 Troph'imus. A native of Ephesus. He 
 travelled with Paul, in the course of the third 
 missionary journey, from Macedonia to Jerusalem. 
 He was a Gentile, and a false report was spread 
 that Paul had taken him into the Temple. 
 Hence the tumult in which Paul was appre- 
 hended, and from which the vovage to Rome 
 ultimately resulted (Acts 20.4/21.29). Paul, 
 writing from Rome, states in 2 Tim. 4.20 that 
 he left Trophimus behind, in infirm health, at 
 Miletum (Miletus), near Ephesus. This could 
 not have been an incident of the first voyage to 
 Rome, as a glance at the map will show ; for, on 
 that occasion, the ship had " scarce come over 
 against Cnidus " when the wind compelled it to 
 sail south-west to the east end of Crete (Acts 
 27.7). Miletus is quite 50 miles north of Cnidus. 
 All difficulty vanishes on the supposition of two 
 
TRUMPET] 
 
 484 
 
 [TYRE, TYRUS 
 
 imprisonments of Paul, and a journey in the 
 Levant between them. 
 
 Trumpet. Usually the shophar or ram's or 
 cow's horn (Josh. 6.4, and often), still used by 
 the Jews on solemn occasions. Mention is made 
 of straight silver trumpets used only by the 
 priests (Num. 10.2, and elsewhere). [CORNET.] 
 
 Trumpets, The Feast of. The new moon was 
 celebrated at the beginning of every month, but 
 at the beginning of the month Tisri (about the 
 middle of September) there was a special cele- 
 bration called the Feast of Trumpets. Trumpets 
 were blown, and there were extra sacrifices (Lev. 
 23.24 ; Num. 29.1). It introduced the seventh 
 or Sabbatical month of the religious year, the 
 month which contained the Day of Atonement 
 and the Feast of Tabernacles. Further, it was 
 the New Year's Day of the civil year. Some 
 scholars think this was the Feast mentioned in 
 John 5.1 
 
 Tryphfflna, Tryphe'na, and Trypho'sa. 
 Delicate, dainty : women engaged in Christian 
 service at Rome, to whom Paul sent a saluta- 
 tion (Rom. 16.12). They were probably sisters, 
 and perhaps deaconesses. Perhaps also members 
 of the Emperor's household, for their names 
 appear in a cemetery used for the burial of such 
 persons. 
 
 TuT>al. [MESHECH.] 
 
 Tu'bal-cain. A descendant of Cain ; described 
 as " an instructor of every artificer in brass and 
 iron " (Gen. 4.22), or, as the R.V. has it, " the 
 forger of every cutting instrument of brass [or 
 copper] and iron." 
 
 Turtle, Turtle-dove. [DOVE.] 
 
 Tyoh'icus. A native of the province of Asia, 
 though probably not of Ephesus, and certainly 
 not of Colossae. He was a companion and 
 fellow-labourer of Paul. He accompanied the 
 apostle during part of the journey from Macedonia 
 to Jerusalem, which concluded the third mission- 
 ary tour (Acts 20.15,38). He was with Paul 
 during his imprisonment at Rome (Col. 4.7, 8). 
 The language of these verses leads, naturally, to 
 the supposition that Tychicus, with Onesimus, 
 carried the epistle to the Colossians. The words 
 of Eph. 6.21, 22 convey the idea that on the 
 same journey he carried the epistle to the 
 Ephesians, a sort of circular letter for the 
 Churches of Asia. In the letter to Titus (3.12) 
 he is, as it seems, with St. Paul at Nicopolis 
 (probably in Epirus) and about to be sent to 
 Crete. Tychicus is again mentioned in 2 Tim. 
 4.12, written at Rome during the second im- 
 prisonment. He was obviously closely associated 
 with the great apostle in some of the most 
 critical episodes of his life. He must have been 
 a man of energy and sympathy. 
 
 Type. The word occurs only in the margin 
 of 1 Cor. 10.11; the original Greek word 
 " tupos " being rendered variously as " figure," 
 " pattern," " ensample," and has the same 
 ambiguity as our word " copy " : either an 
 imitation, or something that is to be imitated. In 
 its customary acceptation it expresses a symbol 
 of that which is to come, whether a personage, 
 
 incident, or institution. Since the beginning 
 there has been a series of representatives, each 
 embodying some truth, and all tending to illus- 
 trate the office and work of our Lord, or the 
 character and history of His people. Jewish 
 history and worship formed one grand type. The 
 O.T. is the N.T. veiled, and the N.T. is the O.T. 
 unveiled. The ancient Jewish people, for ex- 
 ample, sustained to God the same relation as is 
 now sustained by the Christian Church, and by 
 each Christian. Their sufferings in Egypt, their 
 deliverance under Moses, their wanderings in 
 the desert, their entry into Canaan, prefigure 
 the experience of all Christians. The Israelites 
 not only lived under the same authority with 
 us, and were governed by an economy of dis- 
 cipline like our own, but the facts of their 
 history were typical of the history of the 
 Church (Rom. 2.28 ; 1 Cor. 10 ; Heb. 4 ; 1 Pet. 
 2.5-10 ; Rev. 15.5). It is observable, too, that 
 the relation between the Jewish people and 
 some of the nations that surrounded them is 
 a type of the relation between the Christian 
 Church and its adversaries : Sodom and Ishmael, 
 Egypt and Babylon, have all their representatives 
 in the history of the true Israel (Gal. 4.25; 
 Rev. 14.8). It may be added, that while in one 
 aspect Israel as the Servant of Jehovah is the 
 representative of our Lord, individual Israelites 
 were types of Him ; as Moses among the 
 prophets, David and Solomon among the kings ; 
 and hence expressions which were originally 
 true of the type are applied to Christ as the 
 antitype or fulfilment (Acts 13.34). 
 
 And as the people, so the rites and worship of 
 the O.T. were typical. The whole dispensation 
 was the shadow of good things to come, not the 
 very image or substance of them. That substance 
 was Christ (Heb. 10.1). 
 
 Tyran'nus. Paul for two years disputed 
 daily " in the school of one Tyrannus " at 
 Ephesus (Acts 19.9). This is the only reference 
 to Tyrannus. The presumption is that he was 
 a Gentile teacher of philosophy. He may also 
 have been a Christian, or at least well disposed 
 towards the new doctrines. The idea that he 
 was a Jew who conducted a private synagogue 
 is not probable, because his name is Greek, 
 and it is not stated" that he was a proselyte. 
 [SCHOOL.] 
 
 Tyre, Tyrus. Now Es-Sur, a miserable 
 little village ; an ancient fortified Phoanician 
 city, on a rocky peninsula, formerly an island, 
 on the east coast of the Mediterranean, appar- 
 ently colonised from Zidon (Isai. 23.2, 12 ; cf. 
 Gen. 10.15). It was allotted to Asher, and occu 
 pied, but its inhabitants were not expelled 
 (Josh. 19.29 ; Judg. 1.31, 32 ; 2 Sam. 24.7). Tyre 
 supplied workmen and materials for building 
 David's palace and Solomon's Temple (2 Sam. 
 5.11 ; 1 K. 5, 7.13, 14, 9.11-14, 27, 10.22, 16.31 ; 
 1 Ch. 14.1, 22.4 ; 2 Ch. 2). It was denounced 
 by prophets (Isai. 23 ; Jer. 25.22, 47.4 ; Ezek. 
 26, 27, 28; Joel 3.4-8; Amos 1.9,10; Zech. 
 9.2-4). Tyre rose to power and splendour. 
 It established, about 150 years after the build- 
 
0CAL] 
 
 485 
 
 [UNDERGIBDING 
 
 ing of Solomon's Temple, the great colony of 
 Carthage ; it possessed Cyprus, with its valuable 
 copper mines, and exercised sway over Zidon. 
 It was unsuccessfully besieged by Shalmaneser 
 (Ezek. 27) ; a siege by Nebuchadnezzar lasted 
 for thirteen years, and was followed by light 
 rule or alliance with Babylon (Jer. 27.3-8 ; 
 Ezek. 29.18-20). Tyre supplied materials for 
 building the second Temple and other wares 
 (Ezra 3.7; Neh. 13.16). The neighbourhood 
 was visited by our Lord, Tyre being not more 
 than 40 miles from Nazareth (Matt. 11.21, 15.21 ; 
 Mk. 3.8, 7.24; Lk. 6.17, 10.13). It was the 
 residence of Christian disciples (Acts 21.3-6). 
 
 Tyre, differing from other celebrated inde- 
 pendent commercial cities of the ancient 
 world, was governed by a monarchy, not 
 a commonwealth. It retained this form of 
 government until its final loss of independence. 
 The Tyrians from an early period had great skill 
 in artistic work in copper or brass. The cedar 
 
 wood for the Temple was taken in floats from 
 Tyre to Joppa, a distance of 74 miles. From 
 Joppa to Jerusalem the distance is about 32 
 miles. Hiram, king of Tyre, gave Solomon 
 sailors for the voyage to Ophir and India. On 
 the other hand, Palestine was the granary of 
 Tyre, supplying it besides with oil, honey, and 
 balm. Tyre was celebrated for the manufacture 
 of a certain purple dye. [PURPLE.] Down to 
 the close of the thirteenth century of our era, 
 Tyre, having survived the power of the Mace- 
 donian and the Roman Empires, remained a 
 great city, in comparison with which Rome itself 
 was of recent date. It eventually fell before the 
 conquering arms of the followers of Mahomet. 
 Tyre lost its character of an island when it was 
 besieged by Alexander the Great, who built a 
 mole, connecting the city with the mainland. 
 The mole has been widened by deposits of sand, 
 and now the tongue of land is a quarter of a mile 
 broad. 
 
 U'cal. {Prov. 30.1; but see R.V. marg.). 
 
 [ITHIEL.] 
 
 U'el. One who had married a foreign wife 
 during the Captivity (Ezra 10.34). 
 
 Uknaz. 1 Ch. 4.15 A.V. marg., where A.V. 
 text has " even Kenaz " and R.V. " and 
 Kenaz." 
 
 Ul'ai. A river near Susa, and the scene of 
 some of Daniel's visions (Dan. 8.2-16). The 
 Ulai, called by the Greeks " Eulaeus," joined 
 the Euphrates some distance below that river's 
 junction with the Tigris. Its modern name is 
 Kerkhah. 
 
 U'lam. 1. A son of Sheresh (1 Ch. 7.16, 17). 
 2. A son of Eshek, a Benjamite (1 Ch. 8.39, 40). 
 
 Ul'la. An Asherite (1 Ch. 7.39). 
 
 Um'mah. A town of Asher (Josh. 19.30). 
 
 Unclean Meats. The Law of Moses had ex- 
 act directions as to food which might or might 
 not be eaten. That which was permitted was 
 " clean " ; that which was prohibited was " un- 
 clean." The purpose of the distinction was the 
 separation of the Hebrews as the peculiar 
 people of Jehovah (Lev. 11.43-47, 20.24-26). 
 Peter's vision before the reception of Gentile 
 converts accords with this view (Acts 10.12). 
 The law as to meats applied to the whole 
 people, and not, as with similar restrictions 
 under other religions, to a class or to classes 
 only. The distinctions, fully stated in Lev. 11 
 and Deut. 14.3-21, agree, as Cyril, one of the 
 Fathers of the Church, long ago pointed out, 
 with our natural instincts and observations, 
 though custom may (as in the case of the use 
 of swine's flesh) overcome widespread repug- 
 nance. But the cause of many of the restric- 
 tions may be traced to avoidance of food deemed 
 sacred by the heathen. The preparatory nature 
 
 of the restrictions as to clean and unclean 
 meat, and as to uncleanness in man, is clearly 
 indicated in Heb. 9.9, 10. [FOOD, UNCLEAN- 
 NESS.] 
 
 Uncleanness. Under the Mosaic Law certain 
 acts and conditions entailed ceremonial defile- 
 ment for which ceremonial purification or offering 
 was enjoined. This uncleanness might arise 
 from childbirth (Lev. 12), from leprosy (Lev. 13, 
 14), from discharge of certain secretions (Lev. 
 15), from contact with the dead (Num. 19.11-22, 
 31.19, 20), or with the body of a clean animal 
 that died of itself (Lev. 11.39, 40, 17.15, 16, 
 22.8), or from certain acts at the sacrifice of 
 the red heifer (Num. 19.1-10). Where the 
 uncleanness was at once observed, simple forms 
 of purification were provided (Lev. 11.24, 25, 28, 
 39, 40, 15.5, 8, 21 ; Num. 19.11, 22). Where 
 the defilement was unnoticed, and purification 
 thus disregarded, a sin-offering was demanded. 
 The law of uncleanness finds its root partly in 
 the sense of man's sinfulness, and partly in 
 the primitive idea of taboo, according to which 
 a thing or person consecrated to God made, 
 if touched, other things or persons also con- 
 secrated, and unfit for ordinary use. In later 
 Jewish life the spiritual meaning of the cere- 
 monials of purification was obscured by the 
 multiplied forms of cleansing (cf. Mk. 7.2-8). 
 [UNCLEAN MEATS.] 
 
 Unction. Named only in 1 John 2.20, 
 where R.V. has " anointing." [ANOINT, OIL.] 
 
 Undergirding. Only in Acts 27.17. Cables 
 were passed around the hull of the ship under 
 its keel and fastened on the deck. Under- 
 girdles were provided amongst the stores of 
 Athenian galleys. The process has been used 
 in modern times, and is called trapping. 
 
UNDERSETTERS] 
 
 486 
 
 [TTRIM AND THUMMIM 
 
 Undersetters. The supports of the brazen 
 laver (1 A'. 7.30, 34; lit. " shoulders"). 
 
 Unicorn. The A.V. translation of the 
 Hebrew re'em. It is clear that there is no 
 allusion to the mythical "unicorn" (the re'em 
 is not one-horned; see Deut. 33.17, R.V.), but 
 to some well-known animal, fierce and strong, 
 and notable for its horns (Num. 23.22, 24.8; 
 Deut. 33.17 ; Job 39.9, 10 ; Ps. 22.21, 29.6, 
 92.10; Isai. 34.7). The R.V. has "wild ox," 
 with marg. " or ox-antelope." The wild ox 
 or urus, once very plentiful over Europe and 
 Western Asia, is pictured on the bas-reliefs of the 
 Assyrian monuments. It is distinguished from 
 the domestic ox by a number of marks on the 
 body, intended to represent long and shaggy 
 hairs. Its nature was fierce, and it was con- 
 sidered a scarcely less noble game than the lion 
 in the days of Semiramis and Sennacherib. 
 There is reason to believe that it became extinct 
 in the Holy Land at an early period. The 
 exact characteristics of this swift and terrible 
 ox are unknown. Canon Tristram discovered 
 four teeth in the bone breccia of the Lebanon, 
 which were identified, as belonging to some 
 gigantic wild ox, no doubt the auroch or urus. 
 This is confirmed by a broken obelisk discovered 
 at Nineveh, on which an Assyrian king pro- 
 claims " Wild rimi destructive, which he slew at 
 the foot of Lebanon." 
 
 Unknown God. Paul, preaching at Athens, 
 told his hearers that he had seen there an altar 
 inscribed " To the Unknown God " (R.V. " To 
 an Unknown God "). It was not an altar to 
 the God of the Jews, nor did it necessarily 
 denote a wish for something not provided by 
 the worship of other divinities. Such altars 
 appear to have been familiar objects in Athens, 
 and witnessed to the desire of the superstitious 
 to propitiate any god who might be unknown to 
 them. Hence Paul's words in Acts 17.22. 
 
 Unleavened. (Gen. 19.3 ; Matt. 26.17, etc.). 
 [BREAD, LEAVEN, PASSOVER, YEAST.] 
 
 Un'ni, Unno. 1. A Levite musician who 
 assisted in the Tabernacle service as appointed 
 by David (1 Ch. 15.18, 20). 2. Another Levite, 
 who assisted with the music of the Temple 
 after the return from the Babylonish captivity 
 (Neh. 12.9). 
 
 Uphar'sin. (Dan. 5.25). [MENE.] 
 
 U'phaz. ( Jer. 10.9 ; Dan. 10.5). Possibly the 
 same as Ophir (which see). 
 
 Ur. 1. " Ur of the Chaldees " is mentioned as 
 the home of Terah, father of Abraham, from 
 whence he migrated to Canaan with Abraham, 
 Lot, and Sarah (Gen. 11.28, 31, 15.7). Probably 
 to be identified with the Babylonian Uru, now 
 Mugheir, on the west bank of the Euphrates, 
 about 125 miles from the Persian Gulf. 2. One 
 of David's mighty men (1 Ch. 11.35). 
 
 Urbane (R.V. Urbanus). The dweller in the 
 city, urban : a Roman Christian saluted by Paul 
 (Bum. 16.9). 
 
 Ur'i. Flaming fire : 1. The son of Hur, 
 and father of Bezabel (Ex. 31.2, 35.30, 38.22; 
 1 Ch. 2.20; 2 Ch. 1.5). 2. The father of 
 
 Gebo-r, one of Solomon's officers (1 K. 4.19). 
 3. A gatekeeper of the Temple who had married 
 a foreign wife (Ezra 10.24). 
 
 Uri'ah, Urijah. Jehovah is fire: 1. Uriah. 
 One of David's captains and the husband of 
 Bath-sheba (2 Sam. 11.3-26, 12.9-15 ; 1 K. 15.5 ; 
 1 Ch. 11.41). He was a Hittite convert to the 
 Jewish faith. His wife was a beautiful woman, 
 the daughter of a brother officer, Eliam (2 Sam. 
 23.34). While he was on a campaign under 
 Joab against the Ammonites, Bath-sheba fell a 
 victim to the passion of David, who, to hide his 
 own infamy, first of all tried to induce Uriah to 
 return home, and when this plan failed, pro- 
 cured his death by having him sent on a hope- 
 less military expedition. David, who had shown 
 great anger at the news of the disastrous repulse 
 from the wall of Rabbath-ammon, was appeased 
 when he heard that Uriah was among the slain 
 officers. After the usual period of mourning, 
 Bath-sheba was married to the king. 
 Uriah was an upright and devoted soldier, 
 and evidently a man of high character. His 
 refusal to enjoy the comfort and luxury of his 
 home, while his comrades were bearing the 
 hardships of the field, exhibits his soldier-like 
 and manly qualities. [BATH-SHEBA, DAVID.] 
 
 2. (A.V. Urijah). A priest who built an 
 idolatrous altar for Ahaz from a pattern sup- 
 plied by the latter (2 K. 16.10-16). He was 
 also a witness for Isaiah (Isai. 8.2). 3. (A.V. 
 Urijah). A priest in the time of Nehemiah, 
 and the father of Meremoth (Ezra 8.33 ; Neh. 
 3.4). 4. (A.V. Urijah). A priest who stood at 
 Ezra's right hand during the reading of the 
 recovered Law (Neh. 8.4). 5. (A.V. Urijah). 
 A prophet, the son of Shemaiah. Jehoiakim 
 put him to death because he prophesied evil 
 to the country, and especially to Jerusalem. 
 He had escaped into- Egypt, but was discovered 
 and brought back by Elnathan (which see) slain, 
 and his body cast among the common graves 
 (Jer. 26.20-23). 
 
 Uri'as. (Matt. 1.6, R.V. Uriah). [URIAH 1.] 
 
 U'riel. Flame of God : 1. A Kohathite chief 
 who assisted David in bringing the Ark from 
 Obed-edom (1 Ch. 6.24, 15.5, 11). 2. A Gibeon- 
 ite, and the father of one of Rehoboam's wives 
 (2 Ch. 13.2). 
 
 Urijah. [UKIAH.] 
 
 Urim and Thummim (Lights and Perfec- 
 tions : so R.V. marg.). As considerable doubt 
 attaches both to the names and the things, 
 it will be well to examine the Scripture refer- 
 ences in detail : (1) " And thou shalt put in 
 the breastplate of judgment the Urim and the 
 Thummim ; and they shall be upon Aaron's 
 heart, when he goeth in before the Lord " 
 (Ex. 28.30 ; cf. Lev. 8.8). This points to some 
 small objects, connected with the high-priestly 
 interpretation of the Divine will, and worn in a 
 fold or pocket of the breastplate. Stones used 
 as lots would seem to be indicated, or, perhaps, 
 a single stone with two faces on which were 
 engraved Urim and Thummim respectively. In 
 the " Blessing of Moses " (Deut. 33) the privilege 
 
USURY] 
 
 487 
 
 [UZZA, UZZAH 
 
 of possessing the " Thummim and Urim " is 
 received from the tribe of Levi (ver. 8). 
 
 (2) In other passages the use of the Urim and 
 Thummim as means of divination is expressly 
 referred to. At the Divine appointment of 
 Joshua, we read : " And he shall stand before 
 Eleazar the priest, who shall inquire for him by 
 the judgment of the Urim before the Lord " 
 (Num. 27.21). The extremity which drove 
 Saul to consult the " Mitch of Endor " was that 
 " when Saul inquired of the Lord, the Lord 
 answered him not, neither by dreams, nor by 
 Urim, nor by prophets" (1 Sam. 28.6). By 
 the days of Ezra and Nehemiah the method had 
 fallen into disuse, and Zerubbabel the governor 
 defers his decision as to the right of certain 
 families to the priesthood till there should arise 
 "a priest with Urim and with Thummim" 
 (zra2.63; Neh. 1. Go). 
 
 (3) It is not unlikely that the same method 
 of divination may have been employed in some 
 cases where the Urim arid Thummim are not 
 expressly mentioned (e.g. Josh. 7.14-18 ; Judg. 
 20.28; 1 Sam. 10.20-24; 2 Sam. 2.1, 5.19,23). 
 In one passage of great obscurity, if the Hebrew 
 text may be restored by help of the Greek and 
 Latin Versions (LXX and Vulgate), there is a 
 more explicit reference to the use and to the 
 significance of Urim and Thummim than in any 
 yet considered. In the story of 1 Sam. 14, 
 Saul, in order to discover who had violated the 
 vow of fasting, set the people on one side, 
 himself and Jonathan on the other. Then he 
 prayed for Divine guidance (ver. 41) in words 
 variously rendered, " Give a perfect lot " 
 (A.V. and R.V. marg.) or, " Shew the right " 
 (R.V.). But neither rendering is justified, and 
 " all attempts to make sense of the words as 
 they stand are vain." It is generally agreed 
 that the fuller version of the LXX and Vulgate 
 here preserves the original Hebrew text, and 
 that Saul's prayer (ver. 41) was to this effect, 
 " Lord God of Israel, why hast Thou not an- 
 swered Thy servant this day ? If the guilt 
 be in me, or in Jonathan my son, give Urim : 
 but if Thou sayest thus, The guilt is in the people, 
 give Thummim." The lot, so arranged, fell 
 upon the king and his son, and, used a second 
 time to decide between these two, marked out 
 Jonathan as the guilty one. 
 
 The Urim and Thummim, then, were a means 
 of appeal by lot to the Divine will or knowledge 
 in cases involving two alternatives, and natur- 
 ally belonged to the priestly prerogative. So 
 much is clear : the precise method of employ- 
 ment or significance of the two names cannot be 
 determined. 
 
 Usury. The laws respecting debts had many 
 enactments peculiar to the circumstances of 
 the Jews. All profit, or interest, or benefit, 
 over and above the return of the article 
 intended, was forbidden among their own 
 countrymen, though they might take interest 
 from strangers. This regulation was calculated 
 to retain the mass of the nation in the middle 
 station of life, and therefore the happiest. The 
 
 Mosaic Laws were quite as much opposed to 
 the habits and practices that would produce 
 pauperism as to the vast accumulation of 
 property. The Jews seem to have learnt the 
 practice of usury during the Captivity, though 
 the Law forbade (Lev. 25.36, 37 ; Ezek. 18.8, 13, 
 17). The amount of interest charged was 
 probably 1 per cent, per month (Neh. 5.11) or 12 
 per cent, per annum (a rate, by the way, which is 
 common in the East to-day). After the Return, 
 the poor complained of the exactions of their 
 richer brethren (Neh. 5.1-5), who were publicly 
 rebuked by Nehemiah (vers. 6-13). The rebuke 
 was felt to be just, and restoration was made. 
 Although their exile in Babylon had cured the 
 Jews of idolatry, they were still much given to 
 covetousness and oppression, and through the 
 means of mortgages the richer had become 
 possessed of the land, and even of the person? 
 of the poorer sort, in return for food and other 
 necessaries. Among the Egyptians accumu- 
 lated interest was never to exceed twice tbr 
 amount of the original sum borrowed. 
 
 U'thai. 1. The son of Ammihud, who re- 
 turned to Jerusalem after the Captivity (1 Ch. 
 9.4). He appears in Neh. 11.4 as Athaiah. 
 2. A chief of the Bigvai who returned with 
 Ezra (Ezra 8.14). 
 
 Uz. 1. A district in Northern Arabia, south- 
 east of Palestine. It was the home of Job ( Job 
 1.1 ; Jer. 25.20 ; Lam. 4.21). 2. The eldest son 
 of Aram, and grandson of Shem (Gen. 10.23 ; 
 1 Ch. 1.17). 3. A son of Dishon (Gen. 36.28). 
 4. The son of Nahor and Milcah (Gen. 22.21). 
 In this pasage the A.V. has Huz (which see). 
 
 U'zai. The father of Palal. Uzai assisted 
 in the rebuilding of the wall of Jerusalem (Neh 
 3.25). 
 
 U'zal. The sixth son of Joktan the Shemita 
 (Gen. 10.27; 1 Ch. 1.21). His descendants 
 peopled the Yemen, in South Arabia. San'a, 
 the chief settlement, was an important place, 
 its principal rival being Sheba. 
 
 Uz'za, Uz'zah. Strength: 1. A son of 
 Abinadab (2 Sam. 6.3). After the Philistines, 
 afraid any longer to retain the Ark, had sent 
 it away, it rested for twenty years in Uzzah's 
 house at Kirjath-jearim. When David had 
 decided to remove it to Jerusalem, Uzzah and his 
 brother Ahio went with the cart on which it 
 was placed (1 Ch. 13.7). At the threshing-floor 
 of Chidon the Ark slipped, and Uzzah, attempting 
 to prevent it falling, put out his hand, and was 
 immediately struck dead (1 Ch. 13.10). Uzzah's 
 death made so deep an impression that the Ark 
 was taken no farther, and the name of the spot 
 was changed to Perez-uzzah, the " breaking of 
 Uzzah " (2 Sam. 6.8 ; 1 Ch. 13.11). 2. One in 
 whose garden two kings of Judah, Manasseh and 
 Amon, were buried (2 K. 21.18, 26). Perhaps 
 the word should be emended to Uzziah, the 
 king. 3. A descendant of Merari (1 Ch. 6.29). 
 4. A Benjamite (1 Ch. 8.7). 5. One whose 
 descendants, a family of Nethinim, returned to 
 Palestine with Zerubbabel (Ezra 2.49; Neh. 
 7.51). 
 
XJZZEN-SHEEBAH] 
 
 488 
 
 [VANITY 
 
 Uzzen-shee'rah, Uz'zen-she'rah. Ear, or 
 ridge, of Sherah : a place 3 miles south-west of 
 the lower Beth-horon. The town was built by 
 Sherah, a woman of Ephraim (1 Ch. 7.24). It 
 is now known as Beit Sira. 
 
 Uz'zi. 1. A son of Bukki, and descendant of 
 Aaron, who lived about the time of Eli (1 Ch. 
 6.5,6,51; Ezra! A). 2. Son of Tola, and father 
 of five chiefs (1 Ch. 7.2,3). 3. Son of Bela 
 (1 Ch. 7.7). 4. Father of Elah, whose de- 
 scendants returned to Jerusalem after the 
 Captivity (1 Ch. 9.8). 5. An overseer of the 
 Levites (Neh. 11.22). 6. A priest in the days 
 of Joiakim (Neh. 12.19, 42). 
 
 Uzzi'a. One of David's principal warriors 
 (1 Ch. 11.44). 
 
 Uzzi'ah. Jehovah is my strength : 1. King of 
 Judah, and son of the murdered King Arnaziah, 
 who was placed on the throne by the people 
 at the age of sixteen (2 Ch. 26.1 ff.). He was a 
 wise and capable ruler, who strengthened and 
 consolidated his kingdom during a long reign 
 of fifty-two years, 808-9 to 756-7 B.C. His 
 name also appears as Azariah. 
 
 His first successful campaign was against the 
 Edomites, from whom he wrested Elath (which 
 see), which they had taken from the feebler 
 hands of Jehoram eighty years previously. This 
 important port on the Gulf of Akabah he forti- 
 fied and made the headquarters of his foreign 
 trade (2 K. 14.22 ; 2 Ch. 26.2). He then pro- 
 ceeded against the Philistines and certain 
 Arabian tribes of the south, defeating them and 
 exacting tribute. The Ammonites were also 
 compelled, either from prudence or of necessity, 
 to pay tribute (2 Ch. 26.6-8). He also greatly 
 strengthened the defences of Jerusalem, erect- 
 ing on the walls new and terrible engines of 
 destruction. To Uzziah is attributed the 
 invention of the catapulta and the balista for 
 throwing huge stones and darts (2 Ch. 26.15). 
 These engines are represented in Assyrian sculp- 
 tures. He equipped an army said to be of 
 307,500 men with the best weapons procurable, 
 so that he was feared by the surrounding nations 
 & Ch. 26.7,8.). In the interests of his people 
 
 he dug wells, and encouraged agriculture, himself 
 setting the example by planting vineyards and 
 fields. For the flocks and herds he built pro- 
 tective towers, as a defence against predatory 
 bands and wild beasts (2 Ch. 26.10). 
 
 Uzziah was a constant and true worshipper 
 of Jehovah, seeking the advice of the prophet 
 Zechariah (2 Ch. 26.5). But he became proud, 
 and his pride brought upon him a terrible 
 punishment. He attempted to burn incense on 
 the altar of God, which only the high-priest 
 might do, and was strongly opposed by the 
 high-priest Azariah and some others. Angry at 
 their resistance, he was pressing forward to the 
 profane act when God smote him with leprosy 
 (2^.15.5; 2 Ch. 26.16 ff .). As a leper he had to 
 leave his royal palace and live without the city, 
 while his son Jotham (which see) was made 
 regent. On his death he was buried in a special 
 royal sepulchre (2 Ch. 26.23). [AZARIAH.] 
 
 2. Son of Uriel. A Levite and ancestor of 
 Samuel (1 Ch. 6.24). 3. One of David's store- 
 keepers or overseers (1 Ch. 27.25). 4. A priest 
 who had taken a strange wife in the time of Ezra 
 (Ezra 10.21). 5. Father of Athaiah (Neh. 11.4). 
 
 Uz'ziel. Strength of God: 1. A son of 
 Kohath and grandson of Levi. His descendants 
 were called Uzzielites (Ex. 6.18, 22 ; Lev. 10.4 ; 
 Num. 3.19, 30 ; 1 Ch. 6.2, 23.12, 20). 2. A son 
 of Ishi. He was a captain, and with 500 com- 
 panions went on an expedition against the 
 Amalekites at Mount Seir. The Amalekites 
 were driven out, and Uzziel and his men took 
 possession of their country (1 Ch. 4.42). 3. A 
 grandson of Benjamin (1 Ch. 7.7). 4. A son 
 of Heman; who was placed by David over the 
 service of song (1 Ch. 25.4). In ver. 18 he 
 is called Azareel. 5. A Levite who helped to 
 cleanse the Temple in the days of Hezekiah 
 (2 Ch. 29.14). 6. A goldsmith who took part 
 in the repairs to the walls of Jerusalem (Neh. 3.8). 
 
 Uz'zielites, The. The family or house of 
 Uzziel 1. They numbered 112 grown persons 
 when David brought the Ark up to Jerusalem 
 (1 Ch. 15.10). The head of the house was 
 Amminadab (Num. 3.27 ; 1 Ch. 26.23). 
 
 Vaheb. Only in Num. 21.14, R.V., as the 
 name of a place, otherwise unknown, on the 
 borders of the river Arnon. [SUPHAH.] 
 
 Vail. [VEIL.] 
 
 Vaiza'tha, Vajeza'tha. Perhaps a Persian 
 word meaning Given of the Best One : the tenth 
 son of Haman (Esth. 9.9), slain with his brethren 
 by the Jews. 
 
 Vale, Valley. Palestine is a land of hills and 
 valleys, and hence we find many place-names 
 with the name of the valley or height on which 
 they M'ere built attached to them. Generally, 
 when " valley " is mentioned it should be more 
 
 properly " gorge " or " ravine " ; for the abrupt 
 and rugged nature of the Palestine heights, 
 and the narrowness of the spaces between, 
 render these terms more suitable. In a few 
 places Vale and Valley represent the Shephelah, 
 or lowland, which is the district of low hills 
 between the hill-country and the maritime 
 plain (Josh. 9.1, 10.40; 1 K. 10.27). [PALES- 
 TINE.] 
 
 Vani'ah. One who put away his foreign wife 
 in the time of Ezra (Ezra 10.36). 
 
 Vanity. In the Bible this word never has 
 the meaning of conceit and pride, but nearly 
 
VASHNI] 
 
 489 
 
 [VERSIONS 
 
 always of emptiness. The well-known phrase 
 " vanity of vanities " is literally " breath of 
 breaths," or " vapour of vapours " (Eccles. 1.2). 
 In Isai. 41.29 ; Zech. 10.2 it translates a word 
 meaning sorrow and iniquity. 
 
 Vash'ni. The first son of the prophet Samuel 
 (1 Ch. 6.28). As Samuel's eldest son is given 
 as Joel in 1 Sam. 8.2, it is thought that " Vashni " 
 is a corruption of the Hebrew words meaning 
 " and the second " ; the passage would then 
 read, " The first-born [Joel dropped out] and 
 the second Abijah." 
 
 Vash'ti. A Persian word meaning Best : the 
 queen whom the Persian monarch Ahasuerus 
 (Xerxes) deposed when he raised Esther to his 
 side (Esth. 1.9-19, 2.1-17). Vashti had refused 
 to show herself before the banqueters at the 
 royal table, an act which would have been 
 unwomanly and bold. Her refusal, though 
 natural, so angered Ahasuerus that she was 
 dismissed from the court in disgrace. Nothing 
 further is known of Vashti. [ESTHER.] 
 
 Vedan (Ezek. 27.19, R.V.). Perhaps the town 
 Waddan, midway between Mecca and Medina. 
 
 [DAN 3.] 
 
 Veil. The veil is still a conspicuous detail 
 of woman's dress in the East. Rebekah covered 
 her face on first seeing Isaac (Gen. 24.65). 
 Moses veiled his face in speaking with the people 
 on his descent from the mount (Ex. 34.33-35), 
 probably using his robe for the purpose. Pos- 
 sibly the word translated " kerchiefs " in the 
 A.V. and R.V.;of Ezek. 13.18,21 means a kind 
 of veil. The rare word translated veil in Ruth 
 3.15 is translated wimple (A.V.) or shawl (R.V.) 
 in Isai. 3.22, but may have been the large veil 
 down the back of the Bedouin women, used for 
 carrying all kinds of things. [TABERNACLE.] 
 
 Venison. The English word and the Hebrew, 
 of which it is a translation, denote the edible 
 flesh of animals killed in the chase. The use 
 which confines venison to the flesh of deer is 
 more modern. Venison appears only in the 
 O.T. in the story of Esau and Jacob (Gen. 25.28, 
 27.3, 5, etc.). 
 
 Venom. Used of the poison of asps (Deut. 
 32.33). 
 
 Vermilion. The ancient vermilion was prob- 
 ably oxide of lead, or perhaps a bi-sulphate of 
 mercury, and was used largely for decorative 
 work on ceilings and for the painting of images 
 (Jer. 22.14 ; Ezek. 23.14). The cochineal insect, 
 however, is plentiful in North Arabia, and may 
 have been used for colouring vermilion paint, 
 as it was undoubtedly used for dyeing. 
 
 Versions. Every commentary on the Bible 
 refers so often to renderings in the chief versions, 
 particularly those of early date, and those in 
 English, that it is convenient to the Bible 
 student to have a few facts in a readily access- 
 ible form. 
 
 1. The Versions of the Old Testament. (1) 
 The Greek Versions have been described suffi- 
 ciently under SEPTUAGINT. (2) Samaritan. 
 (i) The Samaritan Pentateuch is not a version, 
 but is the Hebrew in Samaritan letters. Its date 
 
 is warmly disputed, but in any case its original 
 form cannot be later than 333 B.C. It often, 
 but by no means always, agrees with the 
 Septuagint against the common Hebrew text, 
 (ii) There is also a Samaritan version, or rather 
 Targum, i.e. a version which is more para- 
 phrastic than a strict translation should be, 
 whose date is placed about 200 A.D. (3) 
 Aramaic. These are the Targums proper. 
 The oldest is attributed to Onqelos, a word 
 which is thought to be the Jewish rendering of 
 the name Aquila, of the second century A.D. 
 It contains the Pentateuch only. There are 
 also so-called Targums of Jerusalem on the 
 Pentateuch, which, however, are some centuries 
 later. The Targum on the " Prophets " 
 [BIBLE] is attributed to Jonathan ben Uzziel, 
 who lived near the beginning of the Christian 
 era, but in its present form it belongs to the 
 fifth century A.D. It is often very paraphrastic. 
 The Targums on the " Holy Writings " [BIBLE] 
 are by various writers, not earlier than the 
 seventh century A.D. (4) Syriac. The Pe- 
 shitta seems to have been made in the first hah* 
 of the second century A.D., for the use of the 
 large Syriac-speaking population in the districts 
 north and north-east of Palestine. Perhaps it 
 was intended for proselytes to Judaism, or 
 perhaps even made by a Jewish Christian. 
 (5) Latin, (i) The Old Latin is a direct trans- 
 lation from the Septuagint, perhaps composed 
 in North Africa, and apparently of post- 
 Christian date, (ii) The Vulgate was made 
 by Jerome, in the greater part directly from 
 the Hebrew, between the years 392 and 405 A.D. 
 
 2. The Versions of the New Testament. [NEW 
 TESTAMENT, TEXT OF.] 
 
 3. English Versions. (1) Pre-Reformation 
 Period, (i) Csedmon, who died about 680, is 
 said to have written the Anglo-Saxon Para- 
 phrase of the chief events in Genesis, Exodus, 
 and Daniel, and also of portions of the life of 
 Christ, (ii) Bede, who died in 735, translated 
 into Anglo-Saxon parts of the Bible (how much 
 is not known for certain), including St. John. 
 But none of his translation has survived, (iii) 
 
 \John Wycliffe, who died in 1384, was the first 
 to make any serious and connected attempt to 
 translate the Scriptures into English. This he 
 did from the Vulgate, though it is doubtful how 
 far his version is entirely his own work. It was 
 issued in a revised form by Purvey about 1388. 
 It was, of course, only in manuscript, for printing 
 was not invented till some seventy years later. 
 
 (2) Reformation Period till 1611. William 
 Tindal issued the Pentateuch at Marburg in 
 1530, and the N.T. in 1526 and 1534. The 
 latter was from the Greek, and has been the 
 basis upon which all the succeeding editions 
 of the N.T. in English have been built. Cover- 
 dale published a complete Bible in 1535, which 
 for beauty of English has perhaps never been 
 surpassed. The version of the Psalms con- 
 tained in the Anglican Book of Common Prayer 
 is very nearly as he wrote it, though technically 
 it was taken from the Great Bible, seven editions 
 
VESTMENT, VESTURE] 
 
 490 
 
 [VINE, VINEYAED 
 
 of which were printed in 1539-1541. This was, 
 as it seems, the first complete Bible which 
 was professedly translated from the original. 
 The Geneva Bible of 1560, sometimes called the 
 Breeches Bible, from its translation of Gen. 3.7, 
 passed through several editions, and may still 
 be purchased very cheaply. As it contained 
 many notes, not always acceptable to English 
 Churchmen, the Bishops brought out their own 
 edition in 1568. We can hardly wonder that 
 then even the Roman Catholics felt the need of 
 meeting the Protestant appeal to Scripture by 
 a version of their own, the N.T. being issued 
 at Douay in 1582, and the O.T. in 1609. Both 
 were taken directly from the Vulgate, with only 
 reference to the Hebrew or the Greek, instead 
 of following the example of the preceding 
 English Versions, and translating from the 
 original. The Version is marred not only by 
 passages in which misunderstanding arose from 
 the use of a secondary source, but also by the 
 introduction of many Latinisms. Before the 
 Douay O.T. was published, bodies of English 
 Churchmen had been set to work to improve 
 the Bishops' Bible, in what is known as. the 
 Authorised Version. This was the result of the 
 Hampton Court Conference of 1604, and was 
 largely due to the personal influence of James i. 
 He appointed fifty-four scholars to carry out the 
 work, the best known of them being, perhaps, 
 Andrewes, Overall, Reynolds, and Sir Henry 
 Saville. It appeared in 1611. 
 
 (3) The Revised Femon,N.T. 1881, O.T. 1885. 
 Among those who took part in this may be 
 mentioned Professors Cheyne, Driver, Sayce, 
 Robertson Smith, Dr. Ginsburg, and Mr. J. D. 
 Geden, for the O.T., and Bishop Ellicott, Dr. 
 Angus, Dr. W. F. Moulton, and, in particular, 
 Professors Hort, Lightfoot, and Westcott for 
 the N.T., the last three having a preponderating 
 influence in all that belonged to questions 
 concerning the Greek text which was to be 
 translated, and even in the rendering of it as 
 regards minutiae. The value of the Revisers' 
 work is disputed. Its English is sometimes 
 deplorable, especially in the N.T. But they 
 frankly desired to render the Greek as exactly 
 as was compatible with the possibilities of the 
 English language, and as a whole their accuracy 
 is unimpeachable, although, it is true, they 
 lived before the discovery of the potsherds and 
 papyri of Egypt. Sometimes, no doubt, they 
 have given too much weight to the purely classi- 
 cal use of words and phrases, whereas recent 
 discoveries have shown that in the popular 
 language, in which, as we now know, the N.T. 
 writers expressed themselves, the meaning was 
 sometimes different, or even less exact. But, 
 generally speaking, the Revisers were so con- 
 vinced of the immediate presence of the Holy 
 Spirit in the hearts of the sacred writers, that 
 they desired to express in English every shade 
 of difference which they found in the Greek. 
 Hence, whatever may have been the result on 
 the English itself, the R.V. is an exceedingly 
 minute reproduction of every turn and change 
 
 in the Greek, the text of this being that which 
 was esteemed the best, certainly in the second 
 century, and probably even in the first. 
 
 (4) Among " private " versions may be 
 mentioned Weymouth's New Testament in 
 Modern Speech, 1902, an admirable and scholarly 
 attempt to render the thoughts, rather than the 
 words, of the N.T. into modern English ; and 
 Sir Edward Clarke's translation of the N.T., 
 1913, in which he tries to preserve each detail 
 of the A.V., where it is at all possible to do so. 
 Dr. James MoSatt has also published a new 
 translation of the N.T., which aims at being 
 both accurate and idiomatic (1913). 
 
 Vestment, Vesture. Vestures of fine linen 
 (or cotton, R.V. marg.) were put upon Joseph 
 when Pharaoh raised him to office (Gen. 41.42). 
 Fringed garments were enjoined for use by the 
 children of Israel (Num. 15.38, 39 ; Dent. 22.12). 
 The worshippers of Baal wore vestments 
 (2 K. 10.22). For the dress of the priests under 
 the Mosaic Law see Ex. 28.40-43, 39.27-29 ; and 
 for that of the high-priest see Ex. 28, 39. The 
 " vesture " of our Lord for which the soldiers 
 cast lots (Matt. 27.35; John 19.24) was the 
 usual seamless coat or tunic worn by nearly 
 every one in the East. [COAT, DRESS, JESUS, 
 
 PfilEST.] 
 
 Vial. In the O.T. only in 1 Sam. 10.1, where 
 the prophet poured anointing oil from a flask or 
 jar called " vial." In the N.T. only in Revelation. 
 In 5.8 the twenty-four elders have golden vials 
 full of odours. These vials were not small 
 bottles, such as we call vials or phials, but 
 rather of the shape of saucers, used for pouring 
 out libations of wine (bowl, R.V.). Thus also 
 in the other passages in Revelation (15.7, 
 16.1, 2, 3, 17, 17.1, 21.9). 
 
 Village. Palestine villages were generally 
 to be found clustered round the walls of a 
 fortified town, but they were themselves 
 without walls or other protection, the rural 
 inhabitants relying on their strong neighbour 
 for support in the day of trouble. As they 
 might have to be deserted at any moment in 
 troubled times, the houses of the villages were 
 slightly built, with mud-plastered wattle walls 
 and thatched roofs. This was the case with 
 Heshbon and Jaazer, Amorite towns, with their 
 daughter villages (Num. 21.25 ff.). 
 
 Besides having no walls, a village in later 
 times had no synagogue, which a town had, 
 but its people were provided with a service 
 in the town's synagogue when they went into 
 the town on market days. [CiTY, TOWN.] 
 
 Vine, Vineyard. First named in connexion 
 with Ararat, perhaps its primitive habitat, 
 where Noah planted a vineyard (Gen. 9.20). 
 It was a known and cultivated plant in Egypt, 
 as illustrated in the dream of Pharaoh's " chief 
 butler " (Gen. 40), and the destruction of the 
 Egyptian vineyards by hail-storms (Ps. 78.47). 
 The extent and importance of this industry 
 are abundantly and graphically depicted on the 
 monuments, where the whole process of training 
 the vines, usually on trellis-work supported 
 
VINE, VINEYARD] 
 
 491 
 
 [VINEGAE 
 
 by pillars, of gathering the fruit, and of con- 
 verting it into wine, is exhibited. In prophetic 
 language, Israel itself was a vine brought out of 
 Egypt (Ps. 80.8). In the insulting challenge of 
 Rabshakeh to the Jens in the reign of Hezekiah, 
 he offers to " take them away " to a land like 
 their own " a land of corn and wine, a land of 
 bread and vineyards " (2 K. 18.32). 
 
 The culture of the vine by the Canaanitish 
 races, anterior to the Hebrew invasion, is 
 manifest from such incidents as the meeting of 
 Abraham and Melchizedek, the report of the 
 spies, and the allusions of Moses to the promised 
 inheritance (Gen. 14.18 ; Num. 13.20, 24 ; Deut. 
 6.11). Even at that early period the district 
 in which this branch of agriculture reached 
 its highest perfection in Southern Palestine 
 may be inferred from the Patriarchal promise 
 to Judah : " Binding his foal unto the vine, 
 and his ass's colt unto the choice vine " ; 
 while the well-beloved Joseph is compared to 
 the " fruitful bough " of a vine growing " by a 
 well," whose branches run over the stone " wall " 
 of the terraced plantation (Gen. 49.11, 22). 
 The valley of Eshcol (grape cluster) yielded the 
 huge sample of grapes carried to Moses by the 
 spies, and received its name from the circum- 
 stance (Num. 32.9). The valley of Sorek 
 (vineyard) in the Philistine plain was similarly 
 named (Judg. 14.5, 15.5, 16.4). So also " the 
 plain of the vineyards " (Abel-keramim), east 
 of Jordan (Judg. 11.33). Later on, the vine- 
 yards of En-gedi, on the western shore of the 
 Dead Sea, are specially mentioned (Song of Sol. 
 1.14) ; and Jeremiah laments for the wasting 
 of the Moabite vineyards of Sibmah (Jer. 48.32). 
 The wine of Helbon in Anti-Lebanon was ex- 
 ported to Tyre, according to Ezekiel (27.18); 
 and the " scent of the vine of Lebanon" is alluded 
 to by Hosea (14.7). 
 
 In our own day, Canon Tristram reports 
 that the raisins of Eshcol are delicious ; Mr. 
 Fisk mentions the luxuriance of the vines of 
 Hebron, whose fruit, according to Dr. Thomson, 
 is finer than those in most other parts of the 
 country. At En-gedi (Ain Jidy) the terraces 
 still remain, though the vineyards have dis- 
 appeared. In present years the systematic 
 cultivation of the vine has led to a large trade 
 being done in " Palestine wine " of various 
 kinds. It is needless to quote passages for the 
 purpose of proving the extent and importance 
 of the vine, and the value attached to its 
 produce in Palestine, during the long periods 
 covered by O.T. and N.T. history; or to the 
 abundance and excellence of the Syrian vintage. 
 It will suffice to mention the original promises 
 made to the Israelites before they had been 
 consolidated into a nation ; the imagery of 
 psalm and prophecy ; and the fact that no less 
 than five of the parables of the Great Teacher 
 relate to vines and their culture. Equally 
 significant is it to note that about a dozen words 
 are found in the Hebrew and Greek languages 
 (chiefly the former) to denote this plant and its 
 
 The ancient inhabitants of Palestine imi- 
 tated the Egyptians in training the vines over 
 trellises, and the grape was the emblem of 
 prosperity and peace. The character of the 
 soil taught the Canaanites and their successors 
 the construction of terraces. In the court- 
 yards of large houses, and on the walls of 
 cottages, the vines spread their interlacing 
 tendrils : and it is probable that they were also 
 allowed to climb round fig and other trees. In 
 the north they are, and probably were, trained 
 along the ground with but slight support 
 (Ps. 80.10, 128.3; Ezek. 17.6). As now, the 
 vineyards were surrounded with rude stone walls 
 or with a hedge, or both (Isai. 5.5 ; Mk. 12.1). 
 Between such walls Balaam rode. " Cottages," 
 or huts, of rough unhewn stone, roofed with 
 earth, are built for the keepers, as in O.T. days ; 
 and " towers " were erected, whence a look out 
 might be kept against the depredations of man 
 or beast, of prowling robber or " boar out of 
 the forest," or the young jackals that " spoiled 
 the vines" (Ps. 80.13; Song of Sol. 2.15; 
 Isai. 1.8, 5.2 ; Matt. 21.33). The autumnal 
 vintage, like the grain harvest which preceded 
 it, was a season of special rejoicing (Isai. 16.10 ; 
 Jer. 25.30). The general arrangements are 
 described in Isaiah's parable (5), and in that 
 of our Lord (Mk. 12.1, etc.). The poor were 
 allowed to glean in the vineyards, as in the 
 cornfields (Lev. 19.10) ; the " vine-dressers " 
 also belonged to the poorer classes (Isai. 61.5). 
 Vineyards, like cornfields, enjoyed a Sabbatic 
 year of rest, that is, lay fallow every seventh 
 year (Ex. 23.11 ; Lev. 25.3 ff.). Also, when the 
 owner had gathered his harvest he was to allow 
 the poor entrance to glean any remaining 
 bunches (Lev. 19.10; Deut. 24.21). 
 
 Beside the ordinary terms used in the O.T. 
 for the vine and its produce, there are several 
 others, translated with varying degrees of 
 accuracy, in the English Version ; such as 
 " noble vine " (probably indicating one of the 
 numerous varieties of the cultivated plant), 
 " tender grapes " (possibly the blossom), 
 " raisins," " grape-gleanings," " new," " red," 
 " strong," " sweet," " mixed," or " spiced " 
 wine, and others. 
 
 In the figurative language of Scripture the 
 vine is emblematic of the chosen people, of the 
 blessings of the gospel dispensation, and also 
 of Him in whom the Church in its various 
 members lives and grows, and of His blood shed 
 for the ransom of mankind (Isai. 5.7, 55.1 ; 
 Matt. 26.27-29; John 15.1). The "treading 
 of the winepress " is emblematic of Divine judg- 
 ments (Isai. 63.2 ; Lam. 1.15 ; Rev. 14.19, 20). 
 [WiNE, WINEPRESS.] 
 
 Vine of Sodom. [SODOM.] 
 
 Vinegar. A weak acid wine, much used by 
 labourers in vine-growing countries, and both 
 cheap and refreshing. Boaz told Ruth that 
 she might come and dip her bread in vinegar 
 with his people (Ruth 2.14). In this case, 
 vinegar seems to have the meaning usual with 
 us. For the light Palestine wine soon goes bad. 
 
VINEYARDS, PLAIN OF THE] 492 
 
 [VOW 
 
 Labourers in Palestine still dip their bread in 
 vinegar. The Nazirite was to drink no " vinegar 
 of wine, or vinegar of strong drink " (Num. 6.3), 
 the same prohibition that was given in the case 
 of John the Baptist (Lk. 1.15). The vinegar 
 which refreshed the dying Saviour was the posea, 
 or common drink of the Roman soldiers (John 
 19.28-30), a cheap tart wine diluted with water. 
 He had previously refused the stupefying mixture 
 of wine and myrrh (Matt. 27.34 ; Mk. 15.23). 
 
 Vineyards, Plain of the (Judg. 11.33). The 
 same as Abel-cheramim. 
 
 Viol. A word used four times in the Bible 
 to translate the common Hebrew word nebel. 
 This is a stringed instrument, either a portable 
 harp or of the shape of a guitar. Perhaps 
 the Hebrew word included both forms. Nebel 
 is more often translated Psaltery (which see). 
 The old English viol was a guitar with six 
 strings. The strings were struck or plucked 
 with the fingers (/sot. 5.12,14.11; Amos 5.23, 
 6.5). [Music.] 
 
 Viper. Thrice named in the O.T. (Job 20.16 ; 
 /sat. 30.6, 59.5). In the N.T. the word that is 
 translated " viper " was a Greek word used for 
 any poisonous serpent (Matt. 3.7, 12.34, 23.33 ; 
 Lk. 3.7). The viper that fastened on Paul's 
 hand was presumably the common Mediterranean 
 species, Vipera aspis (Acts 28.3). 
 
 Virgin. A virgin was, under the law, the 
 property of her father, to whom a dowry was 
 payable on her marriage (Ex. 22.16, and see 
 Gen. 29.15-18). Her honour was protected 
 from slander, but lapse from virtue was severely 
 punished (Dent. 22.13-21). There is no trace 
 in the N.T. of a recognised order of virgins, 
 though this has been wrongly inferred from 
 Acts 21.9. The question of marriage is dealt 
 with by Paul, in the light of the circumstances 
 of the time, in 1 Cor. 7.25-38. The word 
 " virgin " is used of men in Rev. 14.4. 
 
 Virgin-birth. Jesus Christ was " born of the 
 Virgin Mary." In Matt. 1.22, 23 this is declared 
 to be a fulfilment of the prophecy in Isai. 7.14. 
 The prediction has been variously interpreted. 
 (1) Some refer the sign exclusively to an event 
 shortly to take place the birth of a child 
 either of the prophet, or of Ahaz, or of some 
 other person then present. But this appears 
 inconsistent with the use of the passage as 
 quoted in Matt. 1.22,23, and with the terms 
 of other parts of this prophecy (see 9.6, 7) 
 terms wholly inapplicable to any ordinary 
 human child. (2) Others apply the passage 
 exclusively to the Messiah. It is difficult, 
 however, to see how the birth of a child seven 
 hundred years afterwards could be a sign of 
 present deliverance ; and the language of 
 w. 15, 16 points to such a deliverance within 
 the infancy of the child. (3) Others again give 
 the passage a double reference : first, to some 
 birth speedily to take place in the ordinary 
 course of nature ; and, secondly, to the miraculous 
 incarnation of our Lord, of which the terms 
 selected are peculiarly descriptive. This appears 
 the more natural, as the prophecy evidently 
 
 points both to a speedy deliverance, and to one 
 more remote, but more glorious. The birth of 
 the first child was a pledge of the former ; that 
 of the Messiah a more wonderful pledge of the 
 second and greater. 
 
 It is in this higher fulfilment of the prediction 
 that the appropriateness of the term " virgin," 
 and the full meaning of the name " Immanuel," 
 become apparent (Matt. 1.23 ; Lk. 1.35 ; John 
 1.14). The Hebrew word almah, rendered 
 " virgin " in Isai. 7.14 and three other passages, 
 means, etymologically, a young woman, whether 
 virgin or not ; but hi fact its use is restricted 
 to a virgin. The pre-Christian translators of the 
 Septuagint rendered almah here by parthenos, 
 which is almost exclusively used of virgins. 
 
 Virtue. In Mk. 5.30 this is used in the old 
 sense of power. 
 
 Vision. Employed both in O.T. and N.T. to 
 represent a manifestation, whether by dream 
 or otherwise, by which a Divine message was 
 conveyed to man as to Abraham (Gen. 15.1), 
 Jacob (Gen. 28.12), Moses (Ex. 3.2), Balaam 
 (Num. 24.4,16), Ezekiel (Ezek. 37.1-14), etc. 
 To the prophets God spoke " in divers manners," 
 most frequently revealing His truth by producing 
 that supernatural state of the sentient, intel- 
 lectual, and moral faculties which the Scriptures 
 call vision. In this state, things remote in time 
 and place, or merely symbolical representations 
 of these things, became to the prophet's mind 
 present living realities, and are described as 
 such. Hence prophetic announcements are 
 often called " visions," i.e. things seen, and 
 the prophets themselves are called " seers " 
 (2 Ch. 26.5 ; Isai. 1.1 ; Obad. I ; Hob. 2.2, 3, 
 etc.). For N.T. visions see Matt. 3.16, 17.1-9 ; 
 Acts 2.2, 3, 7.55, 56, 9.3, 10, 12, 10.3, 19, 16.9, 
 18.9, 22.17,18, 23.11; 2 Cor. 12.1-4. [PRO- 
 PHECY.] 
 
 Vision, The Valley of (Isai. 22.1,5). The 
 phrase is unintelligible, but apparently refers to 
 Jerusalem. If so, Jerusalem is called a " valley," 
 because, though it stood on hills, it was itself 
 dominated by still greater heights immediately 
 round, with valleys between them ; perhaps 
 also because " a valley is a lonely, quiet depres- 
 sion, shut in and cut off by mountains ; similarly 
 is Jerusalem the sheltered, peaceful place closed 
 against the world, which Jehovah has chosen 
 in order to show there to His prophets the 
 secrets of His government of the world " 
 (Delitzsch). It was the valley " of vision " as 
 the place where God's presence was manifested. 
 
 Voph'si. Father of Nabhi, the spy selected 
 from the tribe of Naphtali (Num. 13.14). 
 
 Vow. A voluntary, solemn promise to God, 
 made by a person to bind himself to the per- 
 formance of some act for the promoting of His 
 glory, or to abstain from some act with the same 
 end in view. Under the O.T. dispensation 
 vows were common (Num. 30 ; Judg. 11). 
 The law provided a redemption price for vows, 
 which might be substituted for the person or 
 property so consecrated (Lev. 27). Some, 
 however, suppose that this money was to be 
 
VULTURE] 
 
 493 
 
 [WANDERINGS 
 
 paid in addition to the offering of the person, 
 as a visible declaration that he had devoted 
 himself to God (Gen. 28.20, 22 ; Judg. 11.30, 31 ; 
 1 Sam. 1.11, 28). Vows were voluntary (Deut. 
 23.22 ; Eccks. 5.5 ; Acts 5.4), and were binding 
 (Num. 30.2, 4, 7, 11, 12 ; Deut. 23.21-23 ; Judg. 
 11.35 ; Job 22.27 ; Ps. 50.14, 76.11 ; Prov. 20.25 ; 
 Eccles. 5.4-7 ; Jon. 2.9 ; Ndh. 1.15), with certain 
 exceptions (Num. 30.3-13). Violation of vows 
 was punished (1 Sam. 14.24, 39). Particular vows 
 recorded in the O.T. were those of Jacob (Gen. 
 28.20-22), Jephthah (Judg. 11.30, 31), Micah's 
 mother (Judg. 17.2, 3), Hannah (1 Sam. 1.11), 
 Elkanah (1 Sam. 1.21), the sailors' vow (Jon. 
 1.16), Jonah's (Jon. 2.9). 
 
 In Acts 18.18, 21.23 we have evidence for the 
 operation of laws about vows in the times of the 
 apostles. [CoRBAN, NAZIEITE.] 
 
 Vulture. Vulture occurs in the list of 
 unclean birds (Lev. 11.14; Deut. 14.13). It is 
 also mentioned in Isai. 34.15. There are three 
 kinds of kite in Palestine, and the term may 
 include all three, or even other of the smaller 
 birds of prey, but the Hebrew word, day ah, so 
 translated, is still to be found in a modified 
 form in modern Arabic hadaiyeh, used to 
 designate the black kite. In Job 28.7 the word 
 ayah is also rendered vulture, but falcon in R.V. 
 The black kite is a summer visitant to Palestine, 
 and is never seen there in winter. It appears 
 in vast numbers in March, and at once seeks 
 out places likely to provide plenty of garbage, 
 about the towns and villages. It is harmless 
 and useful, chiefly confining itself to waste and 
 offal, thus performing the useful office of 
 scavenger. 
 
 Wafer. Thin flat cakes of unleavened bread, 
 used for offerings (Ex. 29.2 ; Lev. 2.4, etc.). 
 [BREAD, LEAVEN, OFFERINGS.] 
 
 Wages. {HIRE, SERVANT.] 
 
 Waggon. Though the common mode of 
 travelling in the East was by palanquin or 
 horse- or mule-back, yet waggons were also 
 employed. These were rude carts, with solid 
 wheels, drawn by oxen, and were, of course, 
 springless. The representations of waggons on 
 monuments show them employed for conveying 
 harvests from the fields, and for women and 
 children when travelling. Joseph sent waggons 
 for the transport of his father and family with 
 their household goods (Gen. 45.19, 21, 27, 46.5). 
 At the dedication of the Tabernacle the offerings 
 of the chiefs or " princes " were brought in 
 six waggons, each drawn by two oxen (Num. 
 7.3, 6, 7). It is another Hebrew word which 
 is rendered " waggon" in EzeJc. 23.24 (R.V. marg. 
 " wheels "). 
 
 Wall of Partition. In Eph. 2.14 the work of 
 Christ in making both Jew and Gentile one, 
 so that the Gentile world is admitted freely 
 into all the privileges of " the commonwealth of 
 Israel," is expressed under the figure, " He brake 
 down the middle wall of partition." The 
 reference is to the balustrade in the Temple 
 separating the outer court of the Gentiles from 
 the court of Israel. This barrier, with its 
 warning notices, is described by Josephus (Wars, 
 V. v. 2). One of these notices (in Greek) was 
 discovered in 1871, and is now at Constanti- 
 nople. It reads as follows : " No foreigner must 
 enter within the fence and enclosure round the 
 Temple. And whoever is caught will have 
 himself to blame that the consequence is death." 
 Paul was charged falsely with having dis- 
 regarded this law (Acts 21.28, 29). 
 
 Wanderings. The wanderings of the children 
 of Israel in their journey from Egypt to Canaan 
 
 were an important element in the instruction 
 and training of the nation. It was at Rameses 
 that the march of the Israelites began. From 
 Rameses the direct course to Canaan would have 
 been " the way of the Philistines," by the north 
 of the Bitter Lakes, and thence along the 
 northern edge of the Wilderness of Shur. This 
 route, however, was prohibited (Ex. 13.17, 18), 
 and after pursuing for awhile an eastward course, 
 the Israelites continued their journey south- 
 wards ; no doubt to the secret exultation of 
 Pharaoh, into whose power they seemed thus 
 delivered. They encamped the first night at 
 Succoth, which cannot have been far from 
 Rameses. By the second evening they arrived 
 at the " edge of the wilderness," at Etham. 
 They now probably would have pursued their 
 journey eastward ; but they were commanded 
 to " turn," or remove, " to Pi-hahiroth, between 
 Migdol and the sea, over against Baal-zephon " 
 (Ex. 14.2) ; which, it is thought, was a narrow 
 defile, not far from the western shore of the 
 Gulf, between the mountains which skirt the 
 sea and a small bay on the south. They were 
 now " entangled in the land." This movement 
 had the effect of drawing Pharaoh after them, 
 and the design in thus altering the line of their 
 march was revealed to Moses (Ex. 14.17). The 
 Egyptians came upon the Israelites as they 
 were encamped before the western arm of the 
 Red Sea. But the extent and depth of the Gulf 
 of Suez have undergone considerable change in 
 the course of the last three thousand years, and 
 much of the ancient bed has been filled up by 
 the accumulation of sand. It is impossible to 
 say where the Israelites crossed. The Israel- 
 ites passed through the sea upon dry ground, 
 and came on the eastern side, near what is now 
 called Ayun Musa (Wells of Moses). 
 
 The country at this point is the Wilderness 
 of Shur (Ex. 15.22), or the Wilderness of Etham 
 
WANDERINGS] 
 
 494 
 
 [WANDERINGS 
 
 (Num. 33.8). Both terms apply to the upper 
 portion of the desert, extending from .Egypt 
 down the eastern shore of the Red Sea, and 
 upwards to Palestine. The route which the 
 Israelites took is a broad stony track, between 
 the mountains and the shore, broken by pebbly 
 torrent beds, where the winter streams come 
 down from the hills. At this season all would 
 be dry. Their first station in this wilderness 
 was Marah, or " bitter," where the miracle of 
 rendering bitter water sweet occurred (Ex. 
 15.23-25). The spot where this event took 
 place is probably Ain Hawara, near the torrent 
 bed called Wady Amarah, which is the same in 
 sound and meaning as Marah. 
 
 Their next station was Elim, " where were 
 twelve wells of water, and threescore and ten 
 palm trees " (Ex. 15.27), the site of which is 
 fixed by Niebuhr and Burckhardt in the vale of 
 Ghurundel, which is the largest of all the torrent 
 beds on the west side of the peninsula. The 
 valley now contains many date trees, tamarisks, 
 and acacias of different species. Water may be 
 obtained here in abundance by digging wells ; 
 there is also a copious spring, with a small 
 rivulet. The Israelites then came to the 
 Wilderness of Sin, " between Elim and Sinai " 
 (Ex. 16.1), at the foot of the mountainous ridge 
 of ei-Tih, a name which signifies " the wander- 
 ing." Burckhardt describes it as "a frightful 
 desert, almost wholly destitute of vegetation." 
 It was immediately after they had entered this 
 desert that they obtained the miraculous supply 
 of quails and of manna. Dr. Robinson and 
 others suppose that the Israelites now bore 
 south-eastward into the Sinaitic group of 
 mountains. Their entrance, in that case, 
 would be through the broad valley, called by 
 the Arabs Wady Feiran. On their way they 
 passed Dophkah and Alush, the sites of which 
 stations are doubtful. The Wady Feiran is 
 the most fertile in the whole region, and here 
 we must look for Rephidim. Here the Israel- 
 ites were, for the first time, attacked by the 
 Amalekites (Ex. 17.8-13). Jethro, the father- 
 in-law of Moses, visited him also at Rephidim, 
 and, by his advice, judges were appointed to 
 assist the Jewish leader in his judicial capacity 
 (Ex. 18). And here, amidst the lofty granite 
 peaks, was the rock which Moses smote at the 
 command of God, whence issued a miraculous 
 supply of water. 
 
 The next encampment was in the desert of 
 Sinai. Here the Almighty made known His 
 will, through Moses, to the multitude. Here 
 the Decalogue was given, and the Covenant 
 made (Ex. 20.1-17, 24.7,8). In this desert, 
 also, the worship of the golden calf took place, 
 the people were numbered, the tabernacle was 
 erected, Aaron and his sons were consecrated, 
 the second passover was celebrated, and Nadab 
 and Abihu were destroyed for offering strange 
 fire unto the Lord. The mountain from which 
 the Law was given is called in Deuteronomy, 
 Horeb, in other books of the Pentateuch, Sinai. 
 The distinction between the two names prob- 
 
 ably is that the former denotes the whole dis- 
 trict, the latter the mountain where the Law 
 was given. In the desert of Sinai the Israelites 
 abode for rather less than one year, when the 
 signal for them to go forward again appeared. 
 Their marchings and encampments in all their 
 subsequent wanderings were directed by 
 Jehovah. A cloud, in token of His presence, 
 covered the tabernacle by day, and " at even 
 there was upon the tabernacle as it were the 
 appearance of fire, until the morning " (Num. 
 9.15). The rising of this cloud was the signal 
 for them to advance, as it, overhanging the 
 tabernacle, should lead the way ; and the 
 settling of the cloud upon the tabernacle was 
 the signal for them again to encamp. 
 
 Wilson and Robinson supposed the Israelites 
 to have passed northwards from Sinai, along 
 the Wady esh-Sheikh, into a large plain called 
 el-Hadharah, somewhere in which was Taberah, 
 or " burning," a name given to it from the 
 destruction by fire from heaven, which came 
 down upon the people for their complainings 
 (Num. 11.1-3). Their next station was Kib- 
 roth-hattaavah, or " the graves of lust " 
 (Num. 11.34, 33.16). From Kibroth the Israelites 
 came to Hazeroth, where the sedition of Miriam 
 and Aaron occurred (Num. 12). Robinson, 
 after Burckhardt, places Hazeroth at a spot 
 now called A in Hudherah, where is a fountain, 
 together with palm trees. Their stations in this 
 part of the desert were Rithmah, Rimmon-parez, 
 Libnah, and Kadesh-barnea ; the latter place 
 they probably reached about June. As they 
 were now not far from the borders of the Promised 
 Land, spies were sent out to examine it, upon 
 whose evil report the people were so intimidated 
 that they rebelled, and were sentenced to wander 
 in the- wilderness forty years. The pass up 
 which the Israelites, after this sentence, rashly 
 ascended, to fight with the Amalekites and 
 Canaanites (Num. 14.40-45), is extremely steep 
 and difficult. The remains of an ancient road, 
 formed of steps hewn in the rocks, are per- 
 ceptible in many places. The narrative in the 
 early part of Numbers goes at once from 
 Hazeroth to Kadesh ; while the second account 
 in the same book mentions other places, which 
 seem properly to belong to a second route, and 
 a second visit to Kadesh. In the movement of 
 the Israelites from Kadesh-barnea, after their 
 second visit, when the Lord was " provoked 
 by the people at the waters of strife," or Meribah, 
 they came to Mount Hor, near Petra, where 
 Aaron died a mount which is " the very throne 
 of desolation itself," consisting of " broken, 
 shattered, and frowning heights, ruin piled upon 
 ruin, and dark devouring depth added unto 
 depth." The Arabs call it Jebel Neby Hauran, 
 that is, the " mountain of the prophet Aaron " ; 
 and to the present day, when an Eastern 
 caravan comes in sight of its summit, a lamb 
 is sacrificed to his memory. Passing down the 
 Wady Arabafi (probably the " Wilderness of 
 Zin") to Ezion-geber (a second time) and 
 Elath, the people turned at the head of the 
 
WANDERINGS] 
 
 495 
 
 [WAR, WARFARE 
 
 eastern gulf of the Rod Sea, to niter on the 
 great eastern desert of Arabia. At this place 
 a large defile comes down steeply from the 
 north-east, through the mountains, forming the 
 main passage out of the Wady Arabali into 
 the desert. The ascent of the Israelites was, 
 doubtless, through this pass, when they de- 
 parted from the Red Sea, and turned to " com- 
 pass Edom." At this point of their wanderings 
 the people were " much discouraged because 
 of the way," and murmured against God and 
 His servant Moses. As a punishment, fiery 
 serpents wore sent among them, and many 
 died ; but, at the command of Jehovah, a 
 brazen serpent was raised, and those who 
 looked in faith were cured. They again pur- 
 sued their journey along the eastern sides of 
 the mountains of Seir. The Edomites, who had 
 refused them a passage through their land, 
 now suffered them to pass unmolested along 
 their borders, and even supplied them with 
 provisions for their march (Deut. 2.3-6). 
 Nothing is known of their halting-places until 
 they come to Zared, Zered, or " the brook," a 
 small stream which flows through the moun- 
 tains into the southern extremity of the Dead 
 Sea. They next " removed, and pitched on 
 the other side of Arnon, which is in ... the 
 border of Moab, between Moab and the Amor- 
 ites" (Num. 21.13). This brought them to 
 Beer, or Beer-elim, " the well of heroes " ; where, 
 finding that they were now nearly at the end of 
 the wilderness, and in prospect of a speedy 
 entrance into the Promised Land, they broke 
 forth into the " song of the well " (Num. 
 21.17, 18). 
 
 The Israelites now defeated a formidable foe 
 in Sihon, king of the Amorites, who dwelt at 
 Heshbon, and whose territories extended along 
 the shores of the Dead Sea, and up the valley 
 east of the Jordan to the river Jabbok. The 
 next conquests of the Israelites were over Og, 
 who ruled in the territories east of the Sea of 
 Gah'lee, and the north-eastern portion of the 
 valley of the Jordan. These conquered lands, 
 being fit for pasturage, were allotted to the tribes 
 of Reuben and Gad and the half-tribe of Man- 
 asseh, who had much cattle, on the condition of 
 their assisting the other tribes in the conquest 
 of the Promised Land westward of Jordan (Num. 
 32; Deut. 3.8-20; Josh. 1.12-18). It was from 
 hence the next station was called Dibon-gad, 
 in order to distinguish it from another Dibon 
 belonging to the Reubenites (Josh. 13.17). The 
 ruins of this place, under the name of Dibon, are 
 shown about 4 miles north of the river Arnon. 
 Thence they passed to Almon-diblathaim, or 
 Diblathaim, from whence they proceeded to 
 the mountains of Abarim, before Mount Nebo. 
 Finally they encamped near the Jordan, from 
 Beth-jeshimoth to Abel-shittim, opposite Jericho 
 (Num. 33.49). 
 
 Thus ended a journey of forty years, chiefly 
 through deserts, which might have been ac- 
 complished in a few weeks. The direct route 
 from Egypt to Palestine, through the desert, 
 
 now occupies only two or three days by 
 carriage. 
 
 War, Warfare. The circumstances of the 
 Hebrew people involved them in frequent wars, 
 and the conditions under which warfare was con- 
 ducted in O.T. times plainly appear from the 
 O.T. narratives. Before opening war, heathen 
 nations consulted oracles, soothsayers, necro- 
 mancers, and the lot (18am. 28.3-10; EzeJc. 21.21). 
 The Hebrews, to whom things of this kind were 
 interdicted, were in the habit, in the early part 
 of their history, of inquiring of God by means 
 of Urim and Thummim (Judg. 1.1, 20.27, 28 ; 
 
 1 Sam. 23.2, 28.6, 30.8). They also carried 
 the Ark into the field (1 Sam. 4.4-18, 14.18). 
 After the time of David, the kings who reigned 
 in Palestine consulted, according to the different 
 characters which they sustained, and the feelings 
 which they exercised, sometimes true prophets, 
 and sometimes false, in respect to the issue of 
 war (1 K. 22.6-13 ; 2 K. 19.2, etc.). Sacrifices 
 were also offered, in reference to which the 
 soldiers were said to consecrate themselves to 
 the war (Isai. 13.3 ; Jer. 6.4, 51.27 ; Joel 3.9 ; 
 Obad. 1). There are instances of formal de- 
 clarations of war, and sometimes of previous 
 negotiations (Judg. 11.12-28 ; 2 K. 14.8 ; 
 
 2 Ch. 25.27) ; but ceremonies of this kind were 
 not always observed (2 SUM. 10.1-12). When 
 the enemy made a sudden incursion, or when 
 the war was unexpectedly commenced, the 
 alarm was given to the people by messengers 
 rapidly sent forth, by the sound of warlike 
 trumpets, by standards floating on the loftiest 
 places, by the clamour of many voices on the 
 mountains, that echoed from summit to sum- 
 mit (Judg. 3.27, 6.34, 7.22, 19.29, 30 ; 1 Sam. 
 11.7,8; Isai. 5.26, 13.2, 18.3, 30.17, 62.10). 
 Military expeditions commonly commenced in 
 the spring (2 Sam. 11.1), and were continued 
 in the summer ; in winter the soldiers went 
 into quarters. It was the practice of the 
 Roman armies to stand still in the order of 
 battle, and to receive the shock of the opposers. 
 To this practice there may be allusions in the 
 following passages: 1 Cor. 16.13; Eph. 6.14. 
 The Greeks, while they were yet three or four 
 furlongs distant from the enemy, commenced the 
 song of war; something resembling this occurs 
 in 2 Ch. 20.21. They then raised a shout, 
 which was also done among the Hebrews (Josh. 
 6.5 ; 1 Sam. 17.52 ; Isai. 5.29, 30, 17.12 ; Jer. 
 4.19, 25.30). The war-shout in Judg. 7.20 
 was " The sword of the Lord and of Gideon." 
 In some instances it seems to have been a 
 yell or inarticulate cry. The mere march of 
 armies with their weapons, chariots, and tramp- 
 ling coursers, occasioned a great and confused 
 noise, which is compared by the prophets to 
 the roaring of the ocean, and the dashing of the 
 mountain torrents (Isai. 9.5 (R.V.), 17.12, 13, 
 28.2). The victors in a fight were intoxicated 
 with joy ; the shout of triumph resounded from 
 mountain to mountain (Isai. 42.11, 52.7, 8 ; 
 Jer. 50.2 ; Ezek. 7.7 ; Nah. 1.15). The whole 
 of the people, led by the women, went out to 
 
WARS OF THE LORD, BOOK OF] 496 
 
 [WEAVER, WEAVING 
 
 meet the returning conquerors with singing 
 and with dancing (Judg. 11.34-37; 1 Sam. 
 18.6, 7). Triumphal songs were uttered for the 
 living, and elegies over the dead (Ex. 15.1-21 ; 
 Judg. 5.1-31 ; 2 Sam. 1.17-27 ; 2 Ch. 35.25). 
 Monuments in honour of the victory were 
 erected (1 Sam. 7.12, and, according to some 
 interpreters, 2 Sam. 8.13), and the arms of 
 the enemy were hung up as trophies in the 
 tabernacle (1 Sam. 31.10; 2 K. 11.10). The 
 soldiers who conducted themselves meritori- 
 ously were honoured with presents, and had the 
 opportunity of entering into honourable matri- 
 monial connexions ( Josh. 14 ; 1 Sam. 17.25, 
 28.17 ; 2 Sam. 18.11). 
 
 Wars of the Lord, Book of. A quotation is 
 made from this otherwise unknown collection 
 of hymns (?) about the wars waged by Israel 
 in the name of the Lord in Nwn. 21.14, 15. 
 It is perhaps a part of the Book of Jasher. 
 
 [JASHEE.] 
 
 Wash, Washing. Ablutions were either 
 ceremonial (Lev. 11.25, 28, etc.) or non-cere- 
 monial (Gen. 18.4; 2 Sam. 12.20, etc.). Wash- 
 ing the hands as a sign of innocency is noticed 
 in Deut. 21.6; Ps. 26.6; Matt. 27.24. The 
 Law had, in the time of our Lord, been overlaid 
 with numberless directions involving ablutions 
 (Matt. 15.2; Mk. 7.3). Conditions of travel 
 and the nature of the footgear explain the 
 many allusions to washing the feet. It held 
 a high place among the rules of hospitality. 
 When a guest presented himself at the door, 
 whether of tent or house, he was offered water 
 for the washing of his feet (Gen. 18.4, 19.2, 24.32 ; 
 Judg. 19.21). If the host wished to show par- 
 ticular respect to his guest, and to express his 
 own humility in comparison, he would himself 
 perform the office (1 Sam. 25.41 ; Lk. 7.38, 44 ; 
 John 13.5-14; 1 Tim. 5.10). [CiJSAN, UNCLEAN.] 
 
 Watch. The Jews had three night-watches: 
 " Beginning of the watches " (Lam. 2.19), sunset 
 to 10 p.m. ; " the middle watch " (Judg. 7.19), 
 10 p.m. to 2 a.m. ; " the morning watch " (1 Sam. 
 11.11), 2 a.m. to sunrise. In later times the 
 Roman custom of dividing the night (6 p.m. to 
 6 a.m.) into four watches of three hours each 
 was adopted (Matt. 14.25; Lie. 12.38). In 
 Mk. 13.35 the four are enumerated by name. 
 [DAY, HOUB, TIME.] 
 
 Watchers. Heavenly messengers (Dan. 4.13, 
 17, 23), the term implying the Divine watchful- 
 ness over the affairs of men. In the Book of 
 Enoch [NON-CANONICAL BOOKS] it is used of 
 archangels, and also of fallen angels who had 
 neglected their duty of watching. [ANGEL.] 
 
 Water. [WELL.] 
 
 Water of Jealousy. [JEALOUSY.} 
 
 Waters of Merom. [MEROM.] 
 
 Waters of Strife. {MERIBAH-KADESH.] 
 
 Wave-offering. Portions of the sacrifices 
 that were waved, or swung, towards the altar 
 instead of being burnt, and which were after- 
 wards eaten by the priests and the offerer. The 
 portion " waved " was swung by the offerer 
 from right to left, and up and down (Ex. 
 
 29.24,26; Lev. 7.30,34; Num. 18.11,18). 
 [HEAVE - OFFERING, MEAT - OFFERING, PEACE- 
 OFFERING.] 
 
 Wax. Used metaphorically to denote some- 
 thing soft, yielding, or melting (Ps. 22.14, 68.2, 
 97.5 ; Mic. 1.4). 
 
 Way. The word was used in Old English 
 almost entirely for "road," and in that sense 
 appears in the Bible (Gen. 16.7 ; Num. 14.25 ; 
 Mk. 10.32). Ways often mean either the rules 
 or the ordinary habits of life " Make your 
 ways straight " " All flesh had corrupted 
 his way upon the earth" (Gen. 6.12, 19.31; 
 Jer. 32.19). The way of the Lord expresses 
 His conduct to us : " My thoughts are not your 
 thoughts, neither are your ways my ways " (Isai. 
 55.8). To go the way of all the earth (Josh. 
 23.14) signifies dying and the grave. A hard 
 way represents the way of sinners (Judg. 2.19). 
 Jesus Christ is called the Way (John 14.6), be- 
 cause it is by Him alone that believers obtain 
 access to the Father. " The way," " this way," 
 were expressions used of Christian belief and 
 practice (Acts 9.2, 19.9,23, 22.4, 24.14,22), 
 perhaps in contrast to the Jewish system of 
 rules for daily life called Halachoth or Ways. 
 
 Waymarks (Jer. 31.21). Apparently stones 
 set up to show where the road a mere track 
 in the East runs. The same word is used in 
 2 K. 23.17 ; Ezek. 39.15 of stones placed to 
 mark a corpse or a human bone. [ ROADS, 
 TRAVELLING.] 
 
 Weapon. [ARMS.] 
 
 Weasel. This word occurs only in Lev. 11.29 
 amongst the unclean creeping things. There 
 are several animals of the weasel kind in Pales- 
 tine, and it is supposed the one intended is the 
 common ichneumon, which is found in abund- 
 ance amongst the scrub and rocky places along 
 all the cultivated plains. It resembles the 
 weasel in some respects, and is also allied to 
 the ferret, fairly common in Palestine, which 
 the true weasel is not. Its long body and short 
 legs probably caused it to be classed among the 
 creeping things. 
 
 Weaver, Weaving. Weaving was mainly 
 the work of women. During the period of the 
 kings even fabrics of an elaborate description 
 were woven by them, as an interesting reference 
 in 2 K. 23.7 clearly proves. Probably most 
 of the finer textures were imported, as linen 
 from Egypt, and silken damask, in which 
 the nobles of the time of Amos indulged (3.12, 
 R.V.). The looms of Babylonia were celebrated 
 for their products, as the " Shinar mantles " 
 which excited Achan's cupidity (Josh. 7.21) 
 testify. The inscriptions of Assyrian monarchs 
 (ninth to seventh century B.C.) frequently 
 mention embroidered linen garments among 
 the spoil captured by them from the Western 
 Asian nations that surrounded them. Among 
 the materials used for the making of cloth 
 were silk, flax, cotton, hair of goat and camel, 
 and wool. It is impossible to tell how early 
 the Hebrews learned the use of the shuttle. 
 The word so translated in Job 7.6 is rather 
 
WEDDING] 
 
 497 
 
 [WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 
 
 a hand-loom, as also in Judg. 16.14. The 
 weaver's beam, to which the staS of Goliath's 
 spear is compared (1 Sam. 17.7 ; cf. 2 Sam. 
 21.19), was a stout piece of wood belonging to 
 the framework of the loom, running either 
 horizontally or perpendicularly. 
 
 Wedding. [BRIDE, MARRIAGE.] 
 
 Wedge (Josh. 7.21, 24). [MONEY.] 
 
 Wedlock (Ezek. 16.38). [MARRIAGE.] 
 
 Week. The division of time into weeks 
 is founded in the Bible on the institution of 
 the Sabbath (Gen. 2.2), but doubtless has also 
 some connexion with the phases of the moon. 
 [TiME.] Under the name of "seven days" it 
 is mentioned as far back as the time of the 
 Deluge (Gen. 7.4, 10, 8.10, 12, and by its usual 
 name of Shabua in Gen. 29.27, 28). The days 
 were numbered, not named ; and the enumera- 
 tion commenced at Sunday, the first day, to 
 Saturday the last, or seventh, which is the 
 Jewish Sabbath, or day of rest. From the cir- 
 cumstance that the Sabbath was the principal 
 day of the week, the whole period of seven days 
 was sometimes called Shabat, perhaps even in 
 the Hebrew of the O.T. (Lev. 23.15, 25.8), in 
 Syriac, Shabblha, and in the N.T., Sabbaton, 
 Sabbata (Mk. 16.2,9; Lk. 24.1 ; John 20.1,19). 
 
 In addition to the week of days the Jews had 
 three other periods of time denominated " weeks " 
 (Lev. 25.1-17 ; Deut. 16.9, 10). 
 
 The Week of Weeks, Feast of Weeks, was a 
 period of seven weeks, or 49 days, which was 
 succeeded on the fiftieth by the Day of Pente- 
 cost, generally called the " Feast of Weeks." 
 [FEASTS, PENTECOST.] 
 
 The Week of Years was a period of seven 
 years, during the last of which the land re- 
 mained un tilled, and the people enjoyed a Sab- 
 bath, or season of rest. 
 
 The Week of 49 Years was a week of seven 
 Sabbatical, or 49 years, which was succeeded 
 by the year of Jubilee (Lev. 25.1-22, 26.34). 
 [JUBILEE.] After the Resurrection the first day 
 of the week was observed by Christians, and 
 gradually superseded the seventh day as the day 
 of rest (Acts 20.7 ; 1 Cor. 16.2). [SABBATH.] 
 
 Weights and Measures. This subject is one 
 of considerable uncertainty. While the relative 
 value of the weights and measures in the Bible 
 may be gathered from various Bible passages, 
 their absolute determination in relation to 
 modern measurements is a matter of much 
 difficulty. 
 
 The early date at which influence of the Baby- 
 lonians was predominant in Palestine makes it 
 highly probable that their system of weights and 
 measures was the earliest in use in the land, and 
 as some of these can be determined from actual 
 discoveries we have a good basis for comparison. 
 It must, however, be remembered that ancient 
 weights of supposed equivalent value, which 
 have been examined by modern instruments of 
 precision, are found to vary considerably. The 
 differences may sometimes be accounted for 
 by the stone being chipped or worn away, but 
 this does not explain all. A further confusion 
 
 3 2 
 
 arises from the facts that during the long 
 period covered by the O.T. weights arid 
 measurements of the same name changed their 
 value, and that at least two systems seem to 
 have been in use at the same time for different 
 purposes. That there was a recognised standard 
 in the markets is implied by Amos 8.5. 
 
 1. Weights. The earliest weights were of 
 stone. The Hebrew ebhen (lit. stone) is trans- 
 lated " weight " in 2 Sam. 14.26, " after the 
 king's weight," and in Prov. 16.11, " all the 
 weights of the bag." Not infrequently such 
 weights were made in the shape of animals or 
 birds. We may have a reference to this in such 
 passages as Gen. 33.19 ; Josh. 24.32, where the 
 Hebrew kesitah, " pieces of money," is trans- 
 lated in LXX " lambs " (see marg. A.V.). 
 
 The standard weight in the O.T. was the 
 shekel, a word (from Hebrew root meaning 
 " to weigh ") which does not signify coined 
 metal till after the Exile. By the ordinary 
 Babylonian system, 60 shekels =1 mina (corre- 
 sponding to the MANAH of Ezek. 45.12, which is 
 translated " pound," 1 K. 10.17 ; Ezra 2.69 ; and 
 Neh. 7.71 f.) and 60 minas (or manahs)=l 
 TALENT (Ex. 38.24 f.; 2 K. 5.5, etc.). In 
 weighing gold, however, a mina was only 
 reckoned as 50 shekels, and a talent of gold was 
 only 3000 instead of 3600 shekels. In such 
 cases the value of the shekel-weight remained 
 the same, but from 2 Sam. 14.26 (" 200 shekels 
 after the king's weight ") it seems to be implied 
 that among the Hebrews, as we know was the 
 custom among the Babylonians, a higher weigh- 
 ing shekel was used in making payments into the 
 royal treasury. 
 
 Of smaller weights we have the half-shekel or 
 BEKAH (Gen. 24.22 ; Ex. 38.26), and the GERAH 
 or -5^ of a shekel (cf. Ex. 30.13; Num. 3.47, 
 " a shekel is 20 gerahs " ; also Lev. 27.25 ; Num. 
 18.16). 
 
 The evidence with respect to the absolute 
 weight of the shekel is very conflicting, but the 
 probability is that the ancient Hebrew shekel 
 was originally about 12 grammes (about 185 
 grains), and that later it was (as the Talmud 
 states) increased about more, to about 14-3 
 grammes (say 220 grains). The Tyrian shekel- 
 coin weighs about 14' 3 grammes, and the Jewish 
 silver shekel-coin about 14-5 grammes. 
 
 In the N.T. the POUND of John 12.3, 19.39 was 
 the Roman pound of about 11 ounces, and the 
 TALENT of Rev. 16.21 perhaps the Attic talent of 
 about cwt. 
 
 2. Measures of Length. The original shorter 
 measurements were taken from the human body 
 (cf. " the cubit of a man," Deut. 3.11). The 
 ammah or CUBIT was the measurement from the 
 bend of the elbow to the tip of the middle finger. 
 It is a measure common to all lands : in England 
 the cubit is 18 inches. It was divided into 2 SPANS 
 (zereth, Ex. 28.16; 1 Sam. 17.4), the distance 
 measured between the outstretched thumb and 
 little finger, or into 6 palms or HANDBREADTHS 
 (tophah, Ex. 25.25), or 24 FINGER-BREADTHS 
 (etzba,ct. Jer. 52.21). 
 
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES] 
 
 498 
 
 [WELL 
 
 In the O.T. we have evidence of two cubits of 
 varying size in use. Ezekiel (chap. 40) refers to a 
 measuring reed (kanah) of 6 cubits length, each 
 cubit being " a cubit and a handbreadth " (Ezek. 
 40.5, 43.13). The same measurement is probably 
 referred to in 2 Ch. 3.3 as the " cubit after the 
 first (i.e. ancient) measure." These measure- 
 ments probably refer to the cubit upon which 
 Solomon's temple had been built, an ancient 
 standard f longer than that commonly used in 
 later O.T. times. 
 
 The earliest standard of measurement we know 
 is that shown on the statue of King Gudea 
 (e. 2500 B.C.) found at Telloh. On this the 
 cubit was 495 millimetres, or nearly 19J inches. 
 The cubit of later times more approximated the 
 Greek cubit, which was about 17 inches. 
 
 More indefinite measurements of distance are the 
 " step " (1 Sam. 20.3), the " pace " (2 Sam. 6.13), 
 and the " bowshot " (Gen. 21.16). 
 
 For estimating longer distances we have men- 
 tion of a " measuring line " in Jer. 31.39 and 
 Zech. 2.1. 
 
 In the N.T. occur : 
 
 The FURLONG or stadium (Lk. 24.13 ; John 
 6.19, 11.18 ; Rev. 14.20, 21.16) was 689 feet ; the 
 MILE (Matt. 5.41 )=7i furlongs =1722 yds. 1 ft. 
 5 in. 
 
 The FATHOM (Acts 27.28), originally the dis- 
 tance between the outstretched hands, =4 cubits, 
 or between 6 and 7 feet. 
 
 The SABBATH DAY'S JOURNEY was tradition- 
 ally 2000 cubits (cf . Jerusalem Targ. in Ex. 16.29, 
 " Let no man go walking from the place beyond 
 2000 cubits on the 7th day "). This distance was 
 also a mile in at any rate some passages in the 
 Talmud, and a " day's journey " was 40 such 
 miles, the meaning of the word " mile " being 
 probably a Roman mile of 1000 paces, or a 
 tune-distance of about 18 minutes' walk. 
 
 In Lk. 22.41 we have mention of a short in- 
 definite distance " A STONE'S CAST." 
 
 3. Measure of Area. The only measure of area 
 mentioned in the O.T. is the tzemed (1 Sam. 14.14 ; 
 Isai. 5.10), translated ACRE. This was the 
 area which could be ploughed in one day by a 
 yoke of oxen, but the relation of this to the 
 Roman or English measures of area is unknown. 
 The corresponding Egyptian measurement was 
 about half an English acre. 
 
 4. Measures of Capacity. The correspondence 
 here with the Babylonian system is close : the 
 earliest measures are based upon the sexagesimal 
 system. 
 
 The LOO may be considered the unit of capa- 
 city, and was probably equivalent to the Baby- 
 lonian unit, which measured -505 litre (half a litre), 
 or rather over ^ gallon. It was probably used 
 both as a dry and liquid measure, but it only 
 occurs in connexion with the latter (Lev. 14.10), 
 and the corresponding dry measure may have 
 been J cab. 
 
 A CAB (2 K. 6.25) was a dry and liquid measure 
 nqual to 4 logs or about 2 litres or 3J pints. 
 
 A HIV (Ex. 29.40, 30.24 ; Lev. 19.3G, 23.13 ; 
 Num. 15.4 f. ; Ezek. 441, 45 24, 46.5 f.) was a 
 
 liquid measure equal to 12 logs or 3 cabs, and was 
 equivalent to 6 litres or about 10J pints. 
 
 A SEAH, the " measure " of Gen. 18.6 ; 1 Sam. 
 25.18 ; 2 K. 7.1, 16, 18 ; Hag. 2.16 was equal to 
 6 cabs and to of an ephah. In Isai. 5.10 the 
 LXX translation of ephah is " three measures " 
 (cf. Matt. 13.33). It is used both of dry and 
 liquid things, but especially of the former. It 
 equals 12-1 litres or over 21 pints. 
 
 The EPHAH for dry measure and its equivalent 
 the BATH for liquids were each equal to 3 seahs. 
 " The ephah and the bath shall be of one mea- 
 sure" (Ezek. 45.11). These measures=a little 
 over 64 pints or 8 gallons. 
 
 A HOMEE (Lev. 27.16 ; Isai. 5.10; Ezek. 45.11, 
 13, 14 ; Hos. 3.2) is used for both measures, and 
 is equivalent to the COR (Ezek. 45.14) the koros 
 of Lk. 16.7 which was especially a dry measure. 
 Both homer and cor =10 ephahs or baths, and 
 therefore =363 litres or 80 gallons. 
 
 The measure 'OMER (Ex. 16.16) is equivalent 
 to the ISSARON or " tenth " (i.e. of an ephah) 
 (Ex. 29.40 ; Lev. 14.10, 23.13, 17 ; Num. 15.4, 9). 
 This is a dry measure which, like the homer, is 
 founded upon a decimal instead of a sexagesimal 
 system. It=f of a gallon. 
 
 Tradition translates lethek (Hos. 3.2) by half- 
 homer, but this is doubtful. 
 
 Dry Measure. 
 
 6 cabs=l seah (" measure ") 
 3 seahs=l ephah 
 10'omers or issarons= 
 
 1 ephah 
 10 ephahs=l homer (cor) 
 
 Liquid Measure. 
 
 4 logs =1 cab 
 3 cabs=l bin 
 6 hins=l bath 
 10 baths=l homer 
 (cor) 
 
 In the N.T. : 
 
 The POT (Mk. 7.4=Gr. xestes), which is the 
 Latin sextarius, measuring about a pint. 
 
 The FIRKIN (John 2.6)= Gr. me*r^es=about 
 9 gallons. 
 
 The choinix, the MEASURE of Rev. 6.6, was a 
 little over 2 pints. 
 
 Well In many places in the Holy Land 
 are to be found fountains of " living " or 
 " springing " water. Such a fountain was 
 called ayt'n, " eye," a word which appears in 
 local names as En " En-gedi," " En-rogel." 
 Distinguished from this is the word Beer, a well 
 or pit excavated in favourable situations, to 
 catch and store the water from whatever source. 
 This also is often compounded with place-names 
 Beer-sheba, Beerah, Beeroth. Besides private 
 wells there were many public ones, constructed 
 by great chiefs for the general convenience, 
 and as acts of benevolence. Abraham's Well 
 and Jacob's Well are examples. The value of 
 such wells in a hot and generally dry climate 
 was great, and occasionally conflicts took place 
 for the possession of them. In the days of the 
 patriarchs there were contests between Abraham 
 and Abimelech, and between Isaac apd the 
 
WHALE] 
 
 499 
 
 [WIFE 
 
 Philistines for wells (Gen, 21.25, 26.18). Moses 
 was received by Reuel, on account of the 
 assistance he rendered to his daughters, when 
 some shepherds attempted to drive them away 
 from the well (Ex. 2.16, 17). The woman of 
 Samaria seems to have thought the possession 
 of a well a proof of Jacob's greatness and power 
 (John 4.12) ; and Caleb's daughter considered 
 her father's gift of land incomplete without 
 wells (Judg. 1.14, 15). 
 
 To protect the water from wasting, and to 
 prevent the wells from filling up with sand, 
 they were covered over (Gen. 29.2), and some- 
 times even locked. Others were only allowed 
 to be opened at certain times, and in the presence 
 of the proprietors or their servants. Rachel 
 probably had command over the well on this 
 occasion (Gen. 29.3 ff.), for it was not opened 
 until she came. The water was generally 
 drawn up from the wells in earthen or leathern 
 pitchers, but nowadays some sort of winch is 
 often employed. 
 
 Whale. The Hebrew word which is four 
 times translated " whale " (Gen. 1.21 ; Job 
 7.12; Ezek. 32.2; Malt. 12.40) is elsewhere 
 rendered dragon, leviathan, or fish. In Lam. 
 4.3 it is "sea-monster" (A.V., but "jackal" 
 R.V.), which from the context is clearly a 
 mammal. The Greek word Ketos, translated 
 " whale " in Matt. 12.40, denotes any sea- 
 monster. Whales are found on the coasts of 
 Spain, and are said occasionally to enter the 
 Mediterranean. Two species of Hyperoodon- 
 tidae, or beaked-whale, are also found in the 
 Mediterranean. Of the smaller cetaceans, the 
 grampus and porpoise inhabit the Mediterranean, 
 which is also a home of the seal and the dugong. 
 Any of these animals might come under the 
 heading " sea-monsters which give suck to 
 their young ones," as they are all air-breathing 
 aquatic mammals, which give birth to their 
 young alive, and suckle them. The sperm-whale, 
 which might perhaps stray into the Mediter- 
 ranean, and also the shark, could easily swallow 
 a man whole. [JONAH.] 
 
 Wheat. Wheat early appears as an object 
 of culture in Palestine, Egypt, and the neigh- 
 bouring countries (Gen. 26.12, 27.28, 30.14). 
 Egypt was renowned for her superabundant 
 production of grain (Gen. 12.10 ff.). The wheat 
 grown in Palestine now, and probably in Bible 
 days, does not diSer from the species with which 
 we are acquainted the Triticum vulgare of 
 botanists ; but there are sundry varieties. In 
 Palestine wheat is sown in November or 
 December, and reaped in May or June, accord- 
 ing to the precise climate and locality. In 
 Egypt the harvest was about a month earlier, 
 in both countries the barley preceding the 
 wheat by three or four weeks. Wild wheat was 
 rediscovered in Palestine a few years ago, as 
 quite a small plant. 
 
 Widow. Widowhood, like barrenness, was a 
 kind of shame and reproach in Israel (see, e.g., 
 Isai. 54.4). It was presumed that a woman of 
 merit and reputation might have found a hus- 
 
 band either in the family of her deceased hus- 
 band [Rura] if he died childless (Dent. 25.5-10), 
 or in some other family. 
 
 In relation to the laws respecting inheritance 
 by woman it is difficult to determine how far 
 they were operative in pre-exilian times. It 
 should be noticed, however, that Boaz, belong- 
 ing to the same class as Naomi's husband, 
 marries Ruth the Moabitess, as joint-owner with 
 Naomi of the land belonging to the deceased 
 Elimelech, " to raise up the name of the dead 
 upon his inheritance " ; and it is possible that 
 the law contained in Deut. 25.5-10, which re- 
 quired that a widow without a son should be 
 married by her husband's brother, may have 
 been enacted not merely to raise up male 
 posterity, but in order to guarantee the con- 
 tinuance of any property she might possess in 
 the clan of her late husband. On the other 
 hand, the absence of any express regulation 
 respecting female inheritance in Deuteronomy, 
 and the repeated reference to the widow in con- 
 nexion with the orphan and the stranger (Deut. 
 14.29, 16.11, 26.12 S.) as participating in tithes 
 and festival offerings, render it only too prob- 
 able that the position of widows was a precarious 
 one. And this may also be gathered from Isai. 
 10.2 and Jer. 7.6. 
 
 Scripture contains frequent injunctions to 
 relieve the widow and the orphan (Ex. 22.22 ; 
 Deut. 10.18, 14.29). God is even called the hus- 
 band of the desolate one, and says, " Let your 
 widows trust in Me " (Jer. 49.11). Paul enjoins 
 the honouring of widows (1 Tim. 5.3). There 
 were widows in the primitive Christian Church 
 who, because of their poverty, were placed on 
 the list of those supported by the Church (Acts 
 6.1). Others had employment provided for them, 
 such as visiting the sick, assisting women at 
 baptism, etc. But women so chosen had to be 
 at the least sixty years of age (1 Tim. 5.9). 
 
 Wife. The position of a wife in a Hebrew 
 household suffered from the prevalence of poly- 
 gamy. Generally she was married so young that 
 she was unequal to the duties of the mistress of 
 the house. Childlessness led to another partner 
 being sought, in order to obtain posterity; or 
 the wife might induce her husband to accept a 
 concubine of her own choice, whose offspring 
 she would regard as her own (Gen. 16.2, 30.3, 9). 
 Child-bearing, therefore, conferred dignity on 
 the wife. Though a man had the power at will 
 to cancel the marriage, the wife had not. Still, 
 she possessed certain rights. Even if a second- 
 ary wife, her master had no right to sell her, 
 though he could espouse her to his son. He also 
 had to support her, unless she was claimed by 
 her kindred, in which case she was free to marry 
 another (Ex. 21.7-11). 
 
 If a wife was divorced, the husband was bound 
 to give into her hand the writ of divorce (Deut. 
 24.1, 3). This regulation existed for the benefit 
 of the wife, who was now definitely released, and 
 was free to marry again. The Deuteronomic 
 legislation aimed at greater strictness in the 
 married relation, so as to correct those lax prat-- 
 
WILDERNESS, WANDERINGS] 500 
 
 [WINE 
 
 tices at which the higher moral consciousness 
 of Israel revolted (Ezek. 22.10; Amos 2.7). 
 In earlier times, as among the Arabs, the father's 
 wives, with the exception of the mother, came 
 into the son's possession with the rest of the 
 property (see 2 Sam. 16.22 ; cf. 2 Sam. 3.7). 
 
 The lot of a wife who brought property with 
 her was more favourable than that of one who 
 had not. A woman in such a position would 
 have the right to own such property apart from 
 her husband. Thus Hagar is recognised by 
 Abraham as the slave of Sarah, who had 
 absolute right to dispose of her bondmaid as 
 she pleased (Gen. 16.6 ; cf. 1 Sam. 25.42). That 
 the position of a wife in a wealthy Hebrew 
 household became, in later times, a very honour- 
 able one, is shown in Proverbs (31.10 fl.), and by 
 the recognition of her moral influence and in- 
 struction, conjointly with that of the husband, in 
 the training of the children (Ex. 20.12; Deut. 
 5.16 ; Prov. 1.8, 6.20, etc.). 
 
 From the earliest times considerable freedom 
 was permitted to the Hebrew woman. Rebekah 
 moved freely about with uncovered face until 
 she approached Isaac (Gen. 24.64,65). The 
 maidens of Shiloh danced in the vineyards at 
 the annual festival (Judg. 21.21); women sang 
 and danced in public to greet Saul and David 
 (1 Sam. 18.6, 7) ; women became prophets 
 [HULDAH], judges like Deborah (Judg. 5), and 
 exercised regal functions like Jezebel (1 K. 18.13), 
 or Athaliah (2 K. 11.3), or Bathsheba (1 K. 2.19). 
 [MARRIAGE.] 
 
 Wilderness, Wanderings in the. [Exoous, 
 WANDERINGS.] 
 
 Wilderness of Judaea. This was the hill- 
 country of Judah, lying east and south of 
 Jerusalem. It is a rugged and precipitous 
 region, honeycombed with caverns, and deep 
 watercourses dry most of the year. The flocks 
 of a few wandering tribes crop the scanty 
 herbage, which they share with the wild goats 
 and " conies " (Judg. 1.16). Here David 
 wandered, and encountered the churlish Nabal 
 on Mount Carmel, on the west, while on the 
 eastern border of the region he had the memor- 
 able meeting with Saul at the cave of En-gedi 
 (which see). It was here that John the Baptist 
 preached (Matt. 3.1), and here also, it is generally 
 believed, our Lord passed through His Tempta 
 tion. [DESERT.] 
 
 Willow. The willow is common in Palestine 
 and neighbouring countries, growing beside the 
 rivers and winter torrents, especially on the 
 banks of the Jordan, the Arnon, and the Callirhoe. 
 Willows also flourish in the glens bordering the 
 Dead Sea (Job 40.22 ; Isai. 44.4). 
 
 The willow appears first as one of the trees 
 whose boughs were to be used in the construc- 
 tion of booths at the Feast of Tabernacles 
 (Lev. 23.40). The willow of Ps. 137.2 is the 
 Salix Babylonica, or " weeping willow " now 
 common in England, though a comparatively 
 recent importation. 
 
 The " brook of the willows " (Isai. 15.7) is 
 mentioned * one of the boundaries of Moab. 
 
 A second Hebrew word translated " willow " 
 occurs but once, in Ezekiel's parable of the 
 planted vine, which was set beside many waters 
 " as a willow tree " (Ezek. 17.5). 
 
 Wimple. A particular kind of head-covering 
 or veil worn by women of rank. Its precise 
 character is not known, but it was worn by 
 ladies at weddings and other festive occasions 
 (Isai. 3.22 ; R.V. shawls). The Old English word 
 " wimple " is properly a covering for the neck. 
 
 Wind. The Hebrews recognised the four 
 principal winds, north, south, east, and west, as 
 coming from the four cardinal points. The 
 north wind clears the air ; the south wind warms 
 and ripens the crops ; while the east and west 
 winds are both stormy, the east, coming from 
 the desert, being very dry, and shrivelling the 
 herbage, the west bringing gusty rain. The 
 north wind was cooling and moist, and its 
 beneficent character is referred to by Solomon 
 (Song 4.16). In Job (1.19) the raging of the 
 violent east wind is graphically described 
 (see also Isai. 21.1 ; Jer. 4.11 ; Zech. 9.14). The 
 Sea of Tiberias is subject to sudden storms, 
 caused by its being surrounded by high ground. 
 [TIBERIAS, GREAT SEA, PALESTINE (climate), 
 
 EUROCLYDON.] 
 
 Window. Generally, all the windows of 
 Eastern houses open on the inner courtyard, 
 excepting sometimes a latticed window or 
 balcony overhanging the street. It was only 
 on the occasion of a public festival that these 
 outward-looking windows were opened. Jezebel 
 was using the freedom of action allowed to 
 women during a popular reception when she 
 looked out of her window in the upper storey 
 at Jehu (2 K. 9.30). As a rule, windows were 
 quite small and high up in the common houses, 
 which had only one storey, but in the greater 
 dwellings of the rich more elaborate arrange- 
 ments were made for the admission of light 
 and air (1 K. 7.2-12). [EUTYCHUS, HOUSE, 
 JEZEBEL.] 
 
 Wine. The juice of the grapes produced 
 several sorts of wine. The grape juice trodden 
 out (Isai. 63.2, 3) from the grapes in the wine- 
 press flowed into the vat below, in its un- 
 fermented condition as " must," called by the 
 Jews " new wine," and drunk in this state, 
 but it very rapidly began to ferment. The 
 fermented wine was called by a variety of 
 names. Some wine was little better than 
 vinegar, and formed the common drink of 
 workmen, or of the reapers during the heat of 
 harvest (Ruth 2.14). This is the wine pro- 
 vided in such enormous quantities by Solomon 
 for Hiram's woodcutters in Lebanon (2 Ch. 2.10). 
 The " vinegar " given to the Saviour on the 
 cross (Mk. 15.36) was probably the " posca," 
 a mixture of wine and water supplied to the 
 Roman legionaries : the " wine mingled with 
 myrrh " (ver. 23) was a stupefying draught. Wine 
 was not only mixed with water, but was some- 
 times flavoured with spices (Ps. 75.8 ; Prov. 
 9.2,5, 23.30). That the Hebrews, like other 
 peoples of antiquity, frequently drank to excess, 
 
WINEFAT] 
 
 501 
 
 [WITNESS, WITNESSES 
 
 and that their vintage festivals became scenes 
 of drunken orgies, is obvious from many allusions 
 in the O.T. This was rendered the more easy, 
 not only by the fact that considerable portions 
 of Palestine were a rich, vine-growing country, 
 but also from the close proximity of the more 
 civilised and pleasure-loving Canaanites. So 
 also Belshazzar and Xerxes had their " banquets 
 of wine," Nehemiah appears as cupbearer to 
 Artaxerxes, and Nahum and Habakkuk denounce 
 the Ninevites and Chaldaeans for their shameful 
 intemperance (Neh. 1.11, 2.1 ; Dan. 5.1, 2 ; 
 Nah. 3.11 ; Hab. 2.15, 16). In accordance with 
 these passages we find the use and the abuse 
 of the fruit of the vine repeatedly exemplified 
 on the Assyrian sculptures. The references in 
 the prophets of the eighth century B.C. to the 
 drinking banquets of the wealthier classes of 
 the community are frequent. Amos vividly 
 describes the revelry of those princes of Samaria 
 who stretch themselves on beds of ivory, 
 drinking " wine in bowls " (6.4-6). Hosea 
 describes how the nobles made themselves ill 
 with the feverish glow of wine upon the king's 
 birthday (Hos. 7.5, R.V.); while Isaiah exclaimed 
 (28.1), " Woe to the proud crown of Ephraim's 
 drunkards . . . who are smitten with wine." 
 The same prophet denounces the inhabitants 
 of Jerusalem, " Woe to those that rise up early, 
 pursuing strong drink, who tarry till late in the 
 dusk, while wine inflames them " (Isai. 5.11). 
 
 Our Lord at Cana of Galilee changed water 
 into wine, but whether in a large quantity, or 
 only as it was drawn from the vessels, is not 
 certain (John 2.9, 10). Indications that wine 
 was sometimes drunk to excess are found 
 in John 2.10; Acts 2.13; 1 Cor. 5.11, 6.10; 
 Eph. 5.18. Paul (Rom. 14.21) suggests the 
 law of abstinence for the welfare of others, but 
 recommends " a little wine " to Timothy, in view 
 of bodily weakness (1 Tim. 5.23). [VINE, WINE- 
 PRESS.] 
 
 Winefat. I.e. wine-vat or winepress, fat 
 being Old English for vat (Isai. 63.2 ; Mk. 12.1). 
 
 Winepress. Each vineyard had its own 
 winepress. This was generally a cistern about 
 8 feet long and 5 feet wide, cut into the solid 
 rock. It had a vent near the bottom, from 
 which the expressed juice ran into a lower 
 cistern, the " winefat " as distinguished from 
 the " winepress." The two are clearly dis- 
 tinguished in Joel 3.13 : elsewhere both 
 Hebrew words are rendered " winepress." 
 The whole was covered with a thatched roof, 
 from the beams of which depended cords used 
 for the support of the workmen who, with bare 
 limbs, trod the grapes as they were emptied 
 from the baskets in which they were gathered. 
 
 The treading of the winepress was laborious, 
 but joyful work, and was performed with 
 singing and the playing of musical instruments 
 (Isai. 16.9 ; Jer. 25.30, 48.32, 33). 
 
 Figuratively, vintage, gleaning, and treading 
 the winepress, signified battles and great 
 slaughter (Isai. 17.6, 63.1-3 ; Jer. 49.9 ; Lam. 
 
 1.15). [VlNBYAED.] 
 
 j Winnow. The grain was winnowed or 
 separated from the chaff by being thrown into 
 the air with a broad wooden shovel, while a fan 
 was used to blow away the chaff (Ruth 3.2 ; 
 Isai. 30.24). John the Baptist alludes to this 
 when he speaks of the separation of the righteous 
 from the wicked (Matt. 3.11, 12). 
 
 Wisdom. The word " wisdom " in most 
 parts of the Bible, and especially in Proverbs, 
 means a considerate, thoughtful state of mind 
 in relation to truth and duty, religious, moral, 
 or prudential. In Prov. 1.3 the word means 
 prudence or circumspectness, the " wise dealing " 
 of the A.V. It is the part of wisdom to be 
 willing to learn ; only the conceited and foolish 
 refuse to learn and profit by the counsels of 
 the more experienced (Prov. 1.5). Wisdom is 
 personified (Prov. 1.20) in plural form, as if to 
 suggest its all-comprehending character and 
 variety of application. In contrast with the 
 secret enticement of the wicked, wisdom is 
 represented as publicly appealing to men. 
 
 " Wisdom Literature " is the title given to 
 certain parts of the O.T. Job, some of the 
 Psalms, Proverbs, and Ecclesiastes, together 
 with the non-canonical Ecclesiasticus and 
 Wisdom of Solomon. These writings deal not 
 with the national affairs of Israel, but with 
 principles of belief and conduct common to 
 all ; they are not national but cosmopolitan. 
 Their aim is rather ethical than religious, 
 though behind the instruction as to, or the 
 reflections on, life lie convictions as to the 
 authority and the ways of God. They present 
 a Hebrew philosophy, more or less popular, as 
 the abundance of proverbs suggests. [ECCLESI- 
 ASTES, JOB, PROVERBS.] 
 
 Wise Men. [MAGI.] 
 
 Witch, Witchcraft. Witchcraft is first noted 
 in Ex. 22.18, " Thou shalt not suffer a witch 
 to live." It is condemned also in Lev. 20.27 ; 
 Deut. 18.9-12. Witchcraft was regarded as an 
 appeal to another power than Jehovah, and 
 so was open rebellion against Him. [ENDOR, 
 WITCH OF ; MAGIC.] 
 
 Withs. Ropes of twisted osier or willow 
 twigs (Judg. 16.7-9). Such primitive ropes or 
 cords have been used by agriculturalists in all 
 countries and ages. 
 
 Witness, Witnesses. In Jewish law, the 
 concurrent testimony of two or more credible 
 witnesses was required to establish or uphold 
 a statement of fact in order to convict of a 
 capital crime (Num. 35.30 ; Deut. 17.6, 7, 19.15). 
 Every one solemnly adjured by legal authority 
 (Lev. 5.1) was constrained to reply. Thus the 
 Lord Jesus Christ replied to the high-priest 
 when he cried, " I adjure thee by the living 
 God " (Matt. 26.63), and bore true witness to 
 His power. The bearing of false witness was 
 severely punished (Ex. 23.1-3 ; Deut. 19.16-21). 
 This was a strong protection to the poor man, 
 who would otherwise have been at the mercy 
 of the unscrupulous. The Witneas, or the 
 Testimony (R.V.), is sometimos used of the 
 Ten Commandments on the Tables in the Ark, 
 
WIZARD] 
 
 502 
 
 [WORMWOOD 
 
 and thus in the Tabernacle. Hence the phrases 
 the Ark of the Testimony (Witness) and the 
 Tabernacle of the Testimony (Witness). 
 
 Wizard. [DIVINATION, MAGIC, WITCH.] 
 
 Wolf. Wolves are still found in Palestine 
 and Syria, though the lack of woods drives 
 them to seek refuge mostly among rocky wilds. 
 Although they do not appear to hunt in packs 
 in Syria, as they do in other places, they never- 
 theless are most destructive to sheep. The wolf 
 is mentioned twelve times in Scripture, always 
 in a metaphorical sense, to illustrate cruelty or 
 some such quality, and almost always in con- 
 nexion with its ravages amongst flocks. Its 
 habit of attacking prey at eventide is often 
 referred to (Jer. 5.6 ; Hab. 1.8 ; Zeph. 3.3). Its 
 fierceness is mentioned also in Gen. 49.27 ; 
 Ezek. 22.27, and its devastation amongst the 
 lambs is singled out by Ezekiel, and also by our 
 Lord (Ezek. 22.27 ; Lk. 10.3 ; John 10.12). In 
 striking symbol of the peace which shall attend 
 Messiah's reign, Isaiah affirms that the wolf shall 
 dwell with, feed with, the lamb (Isai. 11.6, 65.25). 
 
 Woman. Among the Jews, the social equality 
 of woman with man contrasted with the customs 
 generally prevailing in the East, especially in 
 more modern times. A large amount of liberty 
 was enjoyed by Hebrew women. They were 
 not immured in harems, or made to appear with 
 covered faces ; they mixed openly with the men 
 and youths both in the duties and amenities of 
 ordinary life. Women managed all household 
 affairs. [WIFE.] They drew the water, pre- 
 pared the food (Gen. 18.6, 24.15 ; 2 Sam. 13.8), 
 spun the yarn and made the clothing (Ex. 35.26 ; 
 1 Sam. 2.19). They also engaged in trade (Prov. 
 31.14-24). Most of the privileges of religion were 
 open to women, and some even took rank as 
 prophetesses. [DEBORAH, HULDAH, MIKIAM.] 
 
 The place taken by women in the N.T. shows 
 the equalising and inclusive effect of a gospel 
 in which " there can be no male and female " 
 (Gal. 3.28). They ministered to the needs of 
 Jesus and His disciples (Lk. 8.1-3, 23.55), were 
 sharers in the gift of Pentecost (Acts 2.1-4, 
 cf. 1.14), and were prominent in some of the 
 Pauline Churches (Acts 16.14, 17.4; cf. Phil. 
 4.2, 3). Paul's view of the equality of the sexes 
 appears especially in 1 Cor. 7, and with this his 
 recognition of a wife's subjection to her husband 
 is not inconsistent (Eph. 5.21-33; Col. 3.18, 19; 
 cf. 1 Pet. 3.1-9). It appears from 1 Cor. 11.5 
 that he allowed women to exercise their gifts 
 of prayer and prophecy in the Church assembly, 
 though the practice of doing so with head 
 unveiled is condemned by appeal to the Divine 
 ordinance of woman's subjection to man 
 (1 Cor. 11.3-16). But in the same epistle he seems 
 to withdraw the permission (1 Cor. 14.34-36), 
 and again, with greater severity, in 1 Tim. 
 2.8-15. Among the women mentioned in 
 Rom. 16 one at least seems to have held an 
 official position, Phoebe, the " deaconess " 
 (R.V. marg.) of the Church at Cenchrese. For 
 the services required from widows maintained 
 by the Church, see WIDOW. 
 
 Wool. Wool was one of the chief materials 
 used for clothing, as may be inferred from the 
 frequent references to sheep-shearing (Gen. 31.19, 
 38.12 ; Job 31.19, 20), and the existence of a 
 religious festival in primitive times connected 
 with it (2 Sam. 13.23 fi.). A portion of Mesha's 
 tribute consisted of wool (2 K. 3.4), and it is 
 mentioned among the offerings of first-fruits, not 
 only by Hosea (2.7-11), but also in Deuteronomy 
 (18.4). In the later times of the Jewish common- 
 wealth it was regarded as the business of a 
 good housewife in a well-appointed household to 
 be able to spin the wool and manufacture the 
 garments (Prov. 31.13). [CLOTHING, WEAVING.] 
 
 Word, The. [Locos.] 
 
 World. Five words are rendered " world " 
 in the O.T., and four in the N.T. Of the O.T. 
 words the most frequent, tebel, implies the 
 fertile and inhabited earth (as in Ps. 33.8 ; 
 Isai. 27.6). Eretz, usually rendered " earth " 
 (as in Gen. 1.1), appears four times as " world " ; 
 but in two of these passages (Ps. 22.27 ; Isai. 
 62.11) the R.V. has "earth." In the N.T. 
 the most frequent word is kosmos. This 
 originally implied " order," and came into use in 
 the philosophy of Pythagoras for the world or 
 universe in its orderly arrangement as opposed 
 to chaos. It is John's word for " the world " 
 in various aspects, e.g. the sum of created being 
 apart from God, and transitory, humanity as 
 the object of God's care, humanity in opposi- 
 tion to God (see, e.g., John 1.9, 3.16, 14.17; 
 1 John 2.2, 15, 5.19). Next in frequency is aion, 
 originally a lifetime, and then also eternity, an 
 era or even period. It is used of " the end 
 of the world" (Matt. 13.49), "this world" 
 (" age ") and " the world to come " (Matt. 
 12.32; Mk. 4.19; Lk. 18.30; Rom. 12.2); and 
 in Heb. 1.2, 11.3 of the " worlds" as made by 
 the Son (R.V. marg. " Gr. ages "). Oikoumene, 
 the world as inhabited, especially the Roman 
 Empire, occurs in Matt. 24.14 ; Lk. 2.1 ; Acts 
 17.6; Rev. 12.9, etc. Ge, the earth, appears 
 only in Rev. 13.3, and is so rendered in R.V. 
 
 Worm. Not exclusively earth-worms, but 
 any elongated crawling animal, such as cater- 
 pillars. Earth-worms may be meant in Mic. 
 7.17 (R.V. " crawling things ") ; the larva of 
 flies in Ex. 16.20 ; Job 7.5, etc. (cf. Mk. 9.48) ; 
 the caterpillar of a clothes-moth in Isai. 51.8 ; 
 some insect larva in Dent. 28.39 ; Jon. 4.7. 
 Death by worms befell Herod Agrippa (Acts 
 12.23). 
 
 Wormwood. There are several species in 
 Palestine, the commonest being the Artemisia 
 absinthium of botanists. A plant with medicinal 
 qualities belonging to the family of the Com- 
 positte, called also southernwood, or " old man." 
 The Greeks used it in medicine, but called it 
 " the undrinkable." It grows chiefly on sandy 
 coasts and on bare mountain slopes and deserts. 
 
 Its bitterness gives point to the numerous 
 figurative passages of Scripture where the word 
 is found. " Wormwood and gall " are the types 
 of bitterness of affliction, remorse, and punitive 
 suffering. Under this figure, the Israelites were 
 
WOESHIP] 503 
 
 warned by Moses against secret idolatry (Deut. 
 29.18). In like terms Solomon warns the young 
 man against indulgence (Prov. 5.4). Jeremiah 
 twice uses the word as expressive of the punish- 
 ment that will overtake -wrong-doing Israel (Jer. 
 9.15, 23.15); and later bewails the fulfilment 
 of the prophecy in the desolation following the 
 capture of Jerusalem (Lam. 3.15, 19). 
 
 The Mystic " Star " of apocalyptic vision, 
 which was called " Wormwood," is described as 
 falling into the waters of the earth, rendering 
 them fatally bitter (Rev. 8.11). In Amos 6.12 
 the R.V. has " wormwood " for A.V. " hemlock." 
 
 Worship. Originally " worthship," the " th " 
 being lost in the fourteenth century. In the 
 O.T. the two words most frequently rendered 
 " worship " imply doing obeisance. One is 
 peculiar to Daniel (2.46, 3.5, etc.). The other 
 is used of the worship of Jehovah (Gen. 24.26, 48, 
 etc.), of " other gods " or objects of reverence 
 (Ex. 34.14 ; Deut. 4.19, etc.) ; and of the 
 " captain of the Lord's host " (Josh. 5.14). 
 In the N. T. the word most frequently employed 
 originally meant to kiss the hand to another 
 
 [YOKEFELLOW 
 
 as a mark of respect, and so to do obeisance. 
 It is used for the worship of God (Matt. 4.10), 
 the reverence shown to our Lord (Mk. 5.6) ; 
 idolatrous worship (Acts 7.43, and cf. Rev. 
 9.20, 14.9, 22.8). In Lk. 14.10 the K.V. reads 
 " glory." For the A.V. use of worship here 
 compare our phrase, " your worship." 
 
 Wrath of God. God's attitude towards sin 
 and the sinner is presented as one of wrath and 
 anger (Ex. 22.24 ; Ps. 21.9, etc.). The phrase is 
 used of distinct manifestations of God's righteous 
 judgment (Rom. 1.18, 3.5) ; especially of " the 
 wrath to come " (Matt. 3.7 ; Lk. 3.7 ; 1 Thess. 
 1.10). By reason of their sinful nature men 
 are " the children of wrath " (Eph. 2.3). 
 
 Writing. Genesis has no allusions to writing, 
 though archaeology shows us that the art was 
 practised in the age of the patriarchs, and, in 
 particular, by almost all classes of Egyptians at 
 the time of the Exodus. The first allusion is 
 in Ex. 24.4. By the times of the prophets the 
 references to it are frequent (Isai. 8.1, 30.8; 
 Jer. 30.2 ; Hob. 2.2, etc.). [BOOK, INK, PAPER, 
 PARCHMENT.] 
 
 X 
 
 Xerxes. For Ahasuerus (Esth. 1.1) the R.V. | marg. has " Or, Xerxes." [AHASUEKUS.] 
 
 Yarn. The term *' linen yarn " in 1 K. 10.28 
 and 2 Ch. 1.16 is rendered in the R.V., " And 
 the horses which Solomon had were brought out 
 of Egypt ; the king's merchants received them 
 in droves, each drove at a price." Others read 
 the disputed word as from Kue, an Assyrian 
 name for Cilicia, but Cilicia was not a horse- 
 breeding country. 
 
 Year. A comparison of Dan. 7.25, 12.7 with 
 Rev. 11.2,3, 12.6 shows that the reference 
 is to a year of 360 days. A time, times, and a 
 half=3J years =42 months =1260 days. But 
 a year of 360 days would soon have had this 
 awkward result that the seasons, seed-time 
 and harvest and the like, would gradually have 
 been separated from the months with which 
 they had originally been associated. It is 
 conjectured that to obviate this an intercalary 
 (called the second month Adar) month was put 
 in occasionally. The Sacred Year began with 
 the month Abib (Nisan), about the time of 
 the vernal equinox. On the 16th day of Abib, 
 ripe ears of corn were to be offered as first- 
 fruits of the harvest (Lev. 2.14, 23.10,11). 
 
 After the Captivity, a thirteenth month was 
 added to the year whenever the twelfth 
 ended too long before the equinox for the 
 offering of the first-fruits to be made at the 
 time fixed. The Civil Year began about the 
 time of the autumnal equinox. [CHRONOLOGY, 
 TIME.] 
 
 Yoke. Generally the wooden apparatus by 
 which oxen used for ploughing are linked 
 together ; but frequently used metaphorically 
 for subjection. An " iron yoke " represents 
 an unusually galling bondage (Deut. 28.48 ; 
 Jer. 28.13). 
 
 Yokefellow (Phil. 4.3). Not Paul's wife, for 
 the Greek shows that a man is addressed, 
 and Paul was either unmarried or a widower 
 (1 Cor. 7.8). He evidently refers to a prominent 
 worker at Philippi, possibly Epaphroditus, who 
 carried the letter, or it is possible that the 
 Greek word for yokefellow, Synzygus (Syzygus), 
 is a proper name, " true " then suggesting a 
 word-play on the meaning of the name (cf. 
 Philem. 10, 11, 20), but it does not appear to 
 be found anywhere else. 
 
ZAANAIM, ZAANANNIM] 
 
 504 
 
 [ZADOK 
 
 Zaana'im, Zaanannim. 1. The site of 
 Heber's tent in which Sisera was slain (Judg. 
 4.11). 2. A place on the border of Naphtali 
 (Josh. 19.33). R.V. has "from the oak in 
 Zaanannim," marg. " Or, oak (or terebinth) of 
 Bezaanannim." Probably 1 and 2 are identical. 
 
 Zaa'nan (M ic. 1.11). Probably Zenan, which 
 see. 
 
 Zaavan. Grandson of Seir the Horite 
 (Gen. 36.27; 1 Ch. 1.42, where the A.V. has 
 Zavan). 
 
 Za'bad. 1. One of David's mighty men 
 (1 Ch. 2.36, 37) ; described in 1 Ch. 11.41 as 
 " son," i.e. descendant of Ahlai. Ahlai, as the 
 genealogy of 1 Ch. 2.31,34-36 shows, was his 
 great-grandmother, a descendant of Judah, who 
 married Jarha, an Egyptian. Her name is 
 mentioned, probably to indicate the tribal con- 
 nexion. 2. An Ephraimite (1 Ch. 7.21). 3. An 
 accomplice of Jehozabad in the assassination 
 of King Joash (2 Ch. 24.26). They were both 
 put to death by Amaziah, the son and successor 
 of Joash. The name of Zabad is given as 
 Jozachar in 2 K. 12.21. 4, 5, and 6. Israelites 
 who had married foreign wives (Ezra 10.27, 
 33, 43). 
 
 Zab'bai. 1. A descendant of Bebai who had 
 married a foreign wife (Ezra 10.28). 2. The 
 father of Baruch (Neh. 3.20). 
 
 Zab'bud. One who returned from exile with 
 Ezra (Ezra 8.14). 
 
 Zab'di. 1. The grandson of Judah, and the 
 grandfather of Achan (Josh. 7.1, 17, 18). 2. A 
 Benjamite (1 Ch. 8.19). 3. An officer who 
 attended to the supply of David's wine-cellars 
 from the vineyards (1 Ch. 27.27). 4. The son 
 of Asaph, the minstrel (Neh. 11.17) ; called else- 
 where Zaccur (Neh. 12.35) and Zichri (1 Ch. 
 9.15). 
 
 Zabdi'el. 1. Father of Jashobeam, the chief 
 of David's guard (1 Ch. 27.2). 2. A priest who 
 had the oversight of 128 of his brethren after 
 the return from Babylon (Neh. 11.14). 
 
 Za'bud. One who held the confidential post 
 of king's friend at the court of Solomon (1 K. 4.5). 
 
 Zabu'lon (R.V. Zebulun). (Matt. 4.13, 15 ; 
 Rev. 7.8). [ZEBULUN.] 
 
 Zac'cai. Pure : the sons of Zaccai, to the 
 number of 760, returned with Zerubbabel (Ezra 
 2.9 ; Neh. 7.14). It is the original form of the 
 name Zacchaeus. 
 
 Zacchse'us. Pure: the incident in which 
 Zacchaeus figures is related in Lk. 19.1-10. His 
 position was that of superintendent of collectors 
 of taxes, he himself being subject to a Roman 
 superior. Zacchaeus himself was a Jew, " a 
 son of Abraham," as our Lord says, to give 
 point to the suggestion that even his occupa- 
 tion did not put him beyond the pale of the 
 commonwealth of Israel. The eagerness of Zac- 
 chaeus to see Jesus was something more than 
 mere curiosity, or he would not so readily 
 have responded to the invitation of the 
 
 Master. Jesus had reached Jericho on his 
 way to Jerusalem for the celebration of the 
 Passover. Jericho, by reason of its palm groves 
 and gardens of balsam, was at this time a very 
 flourishing district, hence Zacchaeus had become 
 a rich man. 
 
 Zac'chur, Zac'cur. Mindful : 1. Shammua, 
 the spy selected from the tribe of Reuben, was 
 the son of Zaccur (Num. 13.4). 2. A Simeonite 
 (1 Ch. 4.26). 3. A Merarite (1 Ch. 24.27). 
 4. Son of Asaph, the singer, and chief of the 
 third division of the Temple choir as arranged 
 by David (1 Ch. 25.2, 10 ; Neh. 12.35). 5. One 
 who assisted Nehemiah in rebuilding the city 
 wall (Neh. 3.2). 6. A Levite, or family of 
 Levites, who signed the covenant with Nehemiah 
 (Neh. 10.12). 7. The father of Hanan (Neh. 
 13.13). 
 
 Zachari'ah (R:V. Zechariah). Jehovah re- 
 members : 1. A king of Israel, the last of the 
 house of Jehu, who reigned only six months. 
 He was killed in a conspiracy of which Shallum 
 was the head. He maintained the idolatrous 
 practices of the nation (2 K. 14.29, 15.8, 11). 
 2. Hezekiah's mother, Abi or Abijah, was the 
 daughter of Zachariah (2 K. 18.2). He is 
 called Zechariah in 2 Ch. 29.1. [ZECHAEIAH.] 
 
 Zachari'as. 1. The son of Barachiah, who 
 was slain by the Jews between the altar of the 
 Temple (Malt. 23.35 ; Lfc.11.51 ; R.V. Zachariah). 
 The reference is probably to Zacharias (Zec- 
 hariah), the son of Jehoiada (2 Ch. 24.20, 21). 
 Barachiah was the father of the prophet Zec- 
 hariah. Chronicles, in which the murder of 
 Zacharias is recorded, came last in the Hebrew 
 Canon. Thus this murder was the last, as that 
 of Abel was the first, in the sacred books. 2. 
 The father of John the Baptist, a priest of the 
 course of Abia. When the promise of a son 
 was made known to him he craved a sign, and 
 was struck dumb. On the naming of the child 
 John, the dumbness was removed. Zacharias 
 was "filled with the Holy Ghost," and gave 
 utterance to the hymn known as the Benedictus 
 (Lk. 1.5-25, 57-79). 
 
 Za'cher, Zecher. A son of Jehiel (1 Ch. 
 8.31), called Zechariah (1 Ch. 9.37). 
 
 Za'dok. Righteous : 1. One of the two chief 
 priests in the time of David (2 Sam. 8.17), 
 whom (if he is the Zadok of 1 Ch. 12.28) ho 
 joined at Hebron after Saul's death. Zadok re- 
 mained conspicuously faithful to David through- 
 out all the troubles of his reign. When Absalom 
 rebelled, and David was compelled to flee from 
 Jerusalem, Zadok and all the Levites bearing the 
 Ark accompanied him (2 Sam. 15.24). When 
 Absalom was slain, Zadok was among those who 
 persuaded the elders of Judah to invite David 
 to return. In David's old age, when Adonijah 
 was set up for king by an influential party, 
 Zadok took the side of David, and anointed 
 Solomon as his prospective successor. When 
 Solomon came to the throne he deposed Zadok's 
 
ZAHAM] 
 
 505 
 
 [ZEBOIM, ZEBOIIM 
 
 colleague in the high priesthood, namely, Abia- 
 thar (who had been a partisan of Adonijah), and 
 left Zadok in undisputed authority (1 K. 1.7, 26, 
 2.27, 35). In Ezek. 44.1 5, 16 his descendants 
 are praised for their faithfulness from the days 
 of Solomon, an J are given special privileges in 
 the prophet's vision of the restored Temple and 
 its worship. 2. The father of Jerushah, who 
 was the wife of King Uzziah and mother of 
 King Jotham (2 K. 15.33 ; 2 Ch. 27.1). 3. One 
 who repaired a portion of the wall in the time 
 of Nehemiah (Neh. 3.4). 4. A priest who did 
 the same (Neh. 3.29). 
 
 Za'ham. A grandson of Solomon (2 Ch.ll.19). 
 
 Za'ir. The site of Joram's 1 camp in the 
 expedition against the Edomites (2 K. 8.21). 
 
 Za'laph. Father of Hanun (Neh. 3.30). 
 
 Zal'mon. Shady place : 1. The wooded hill 
 whence Abimelech procured branches to set 
 fire to the Tower of Shechem (Judg. 9.48). 
 [SALMON.] 2. One of David's guard (2 Sam. 
 23.28) ; called Ilai in 1 Ch. 11.29. 
 
 Zalmo'nah. Shady place : the site of the 
 Israelite encampment on east of Edom (Num. 
 33.41, 42). 
 
 Zalmun'na. One of the two kings of Midian 
 whom Gideon put to death (Judg. 8.5-21 ; Ps. 
 83.11). [ZEBAH.] 
 
 Zamzum'mims. The Ammonite name for 
 the Rephaim (Deut. 2.20, R.V.). They had been 
 " great, many, and tall," but they were con- 
 quered or destroyed by the Ammonites, who 
 seized then- territory, a district lying to the 
 north-east of Moab. [ZuziMS.] 
 
 Zano'ah. Marshy place : 1. Now Zanua, on 
 north side of Wady Ismail, town in lowland of 
 Judah, reoccupied after the Captivity (Josh. 
 15.34; Neh. 3.13, 11.30). 2. Now Zanuta, 
 town in highland of Judah (Josh. 15.56). 3. A 
 member of the tribe of Judah (1 Ch. 4.18). 
 
 Zaph'nath-paa'neah (R.V. Zaphenath- 
 paneah). God spake, and he (not He) came into 
 life: the name given by Pharaoh to Joseph 
 (Gen. 41.45). 
 
 Zaplion. North : now 'Amatah, a town of 
 Gad (Josh. 13.27). Perhaps connected with 
 ZEPHON and ZIPHION. 
 
 Za'ra (R.V. Zerah). (Matt. 1.3). [ZEBAH 2.] 
 
 Za'rah (R.V. Zerah). (Gen. 38.30, 46.12). 
 [ZEHAH 2.] 
 
 Zare'ah (R.V. Zorah). (Neh. 11.29). [ZORAH.] 
 
 Zare'athites (R.V. Zorathites). (1 Ch. 2.53). 
 
 [ZORATHJTES.] 
 
 Za'red (R.V. Stored). (Num. 21.12). [ZERED.] 
 Zare'phath. Smelting-place : now Sarafend ; 
 a Phoenician town, between Tyre and Sidon ; 
 the temporary residence of Elijah (I K. 17.9, 10 ; 
 Obad. 20; Lk. 4.26, R.V.). The Crusaders erected 
 a chapel on the reputed site of the widow's house. 
 Sarepta (Lk. 4.26, A.V.) is the Greek form of 
 Zarephath. 
 
 Zare'tan (R.V. Zarethan). The place where 
 the Israelites crossed the Jordan into Canaan 
 (Josh. 3.16), and the brazen vessels were cast 
 for Solomon's Temple ; the same as Zartanah 
 (1 K. 4.12, A.V.) and Zarlhan (1 K. 7.46, A.V.). 
 
 In 2Ch. 4.17 the name is Zeredah (A.V. Zere- 
 dathah), which should also, perhaps, replace the 
 Zererah or Zererath of Judg. 7.22. 
 
 Za'reth-cha'har, Ze'reth-sha'har. A town 
 allotted to Reuben (Josh. 13.19), identified, con- 
 jecturally, with a spot called Sara, in a recess 
 on the shore of the Dead Sea, about 3 miles 
 south of the deep ravine of Zerka Main. 
 
 Zar'hites, Zerahites. The descendants of 
 Zerah, a son of Judah. Achan was of this 
 family, as were also two famous warriors of 
 David's time, Sibbechai and Maharai (Num. 
 26.13, 20 ; Josh. 7.17 ; 1 Ch. 27.11, 13). 
 
 Zarrah. [ZORAH.] 
 
 Zartanah. (1 K. 4.12). [ZARETAN.] 
 
 Zarthan. (1 K. 7.46). [ZARETAN.] 
 
 Zat'thu, Zat'tu. The sons of Zattu were a 
 family of laymen of Israel who returned with 
 Zerubbabel (Ezra 2.8; Neh. 7.13, 10.14). 
 Several members of this family had married 
 foreign wives. 
 
 Za'van. [ZAAVAN.] 
 
 Za'za. One of the sons of Jonathan, a 
 descendant of Jerahmeel (1 Ch. 2.33). 
 
 Zealot. [CANAANITE, ZELOTES.] 
 
 Zebadi'ah. 1. A Benjamite who joined 
 David at Ziklag (1 Ch. 12.7). 2. One who, with 
 eighty of his clan, returned with Ezra (Ezra 
 8.8). 3. A priest who married a foreign wife 
 after the return from Babylon (Ezra 10.20). 
 4. A Levite sent to teach the Law in the cities 
 of Judah (2 Ch. 17.8). 5. The ruler of the house 
 of Judah " in all the king's matters " in the 
 days of Jehoshaphat (2 Ch. 19.11). 6. Other 
 persons of the name of Zebadiah are mentioned 
 in 1 Ch. 8.15, 17, 26.2, 27.7. 
 
 Ze'bah. One of the two kings of Midian who 
 were slain by Gideon. They had, in the course 
 of their raids, slain Gideon's brothers. After 
 the defeat of the Midianite horde, the two kings 
 made their escape through Gilead to Karkor. 
 Hither Gideon pursued them, then surprised and 
 captured them. He brought them to Ophrah, 
 his native village, and slew them (Judg. 8.5-21 ; 
 Ps. 83.11). 
 
 Zeba'im. The home of some of the menials 
 of the second Temple (Ezra 2.57). The R.V. 
 makes the word part of the preceding name : 
 Pochereth-hazzebaim. 
 
 Zeb'edee. A fisherman of Galilee, the father 
 of two of the twelve disciples, James and John, 
 and the husband of Salome. His two sons 
 received their calling from Jesus when they 
 were in their father's boat helping to mend 
 their nets. The family were sufficiently well 
 off to employ hired servants. The acquaintance 
 between John and the high-priest also suggests 
 social position (Matt. 4.21, 27.56; Mk. 1.20, 
 15.40 ; John 18.15). 
 
 Zebidah. [ZEBUDAH.] 
 
 Zebi'na. An Israelite who had married a 
 foreigner after the return from Babylon (Ezra 
 10.43). 
 
 Zebo'ixn, Zebo'iim. Hyenas : 1. One of the 
 cities of the plain destroyed with Sodom and 
 Gomorrah. It had a king of its own (Gen. 10.19, 
 
ZEBUDAH] 
 
 506 [ZECHARIAH, THE BOOK OF 
 
 14.2, 8 ; Deut. 29.23 ; Has. 11.8). 2. Ravine 
 east of Michmash, in Benjamin (1 Sam. 13.18). 
 
 Zebu'dah (R.V. Zebidah). Wife of King 
 Josiah and mother of King Jehoiakim (2 K. 
 23.36). 
 
 Ze'bul. Abimelech appointed Zebul ruler 
 of Shechem during his absence. The native 
 inhabitants, Canaanites, rose in rebellion. Zebul 
 sent messengers to Abimelech, who arrived at 
 the town in hot haste, and suppressed the in- 
 surrection (Judg. 9). 
 
 Zebu'lonite. An appellation of Elon, the 
 one judge produced by the tribe of Zebulun 
 (Judg. 12.11, 12). 
 
 Zebu'lun. The tenth son of Jacob (Gen. 
 30.20). When the tribe of Zebulun left Egypt, 
 it numbered 57,400 men able to bear arms. 
 About forty years later the number was 
 60,500. The portion allotted to Zebulun in 
 the Promised Land lay, roughly speaking, 
 between the Sea of Tiberias and the Mediter- 
 ranean (Gen. 49.13). The reference in Deut. 
 33.19, " They shall suck of the abundance of the 
 seas, and of treasures hid in the sand," has been 
 taken to imply that the tribe would engage in 
 trade and fishing and in the smelting of metals 
 and glass. The river Belus, the sand of which 
 was well adapted for the manufacture of glass, 
 is in the territory of Zebulun. The " going 
 out " of the previous verse is the outlet of the 
 plain of Akka, and the mountain in ver. 19 is the 
 sacred height of Tabor, which Zebulun shared 
 with Issachar. The " way of the sea " (/sat. 
 9.1), the great road from Damascus to the 
 Mediterranean, traversed a good portion of the 
 territory of Zebulun, and must have brought its 
 people into contact with the merchants of the 
 commodities of Syria, Phoenicia, and Egypt. 
 The tribes of Zebulun and Naphtali distinguished 
 themselves in the war of Barak and Deborah 
 against Sisera, the general of the armies of 
 Jabin. See, further, Num. 1.9,30, 26.26,27; 
 Josh. 19.10 ; Judg. 4.6, 10, 5.14, 18. Nazareth, 
 Cana, and Tiberias were all situated within the 
 limits of Zebulun (Isai. 9.1 ; Matt. 4.13, 15). 
 
 Zebu'lunites, The. Members of the tribe of 
 Zebulun (Num. 26.27). 
 
 Zechari'ah. Jehovah remembers : 1. The 
 writer of the Book of Zechariah, which see. 
 
 2. A porter at the door of the tabernacle of the 
 congregation. He is described as one " counsel- 
 ling with understanding " (1 Ch. 9.21, 26.2, 14). 
 
 3. A prince of Judah in the reign of Jehoshaphat 
 who was sent to instruct the people in the Law 
 (2 Ch. 17.7). 4. A son of the high-priest, Jehoi- 
 ada. [ZACHARIAS 1.] It is he to whom our 
 Lord refers in Matt. 23.35. 5. An overseer 
 of the workmen engaged in the restoration of 
 the Temple (2 Ch. 34.12). 6. A leader of the 
 people associated with Ezra in the return 
 from Babylon and the reading of the Law (Ezra 
 8.16; Neh. 8.4). 7. A priest who blew the 
 trumpets at the dedication of the city wall by 
 Ezra and Nehemiah (Neh. 12.35, 41). 8. Several 
 other persons of the name of Zechariah are 
 mentioned, but beyond the mere reference 
 
 nothing is known of them. [ZACHARIAH, ZAC- 
 HARIAS.] 
 
 Zechariah, The Book of. The authorship of 
 this book is, from its opening words, referred to 
 Zechariah, the son of Berechiah and grandson 
 of Iddo. He was of the priestly tribe (Neh. 
 12.4, 16), and returned from Babylon, when 
 quite a youth, with Zerubbabel and Jeshua. 
 He began to prophesy about two months after 
 Haggai (Ezra 5.1, 6.14 ; Hag. 1.1), in the second 
 year of Darius Hystaspis, and continued to 
 prophesy for two years (Zech. 7.1). To his 
 zealous encouragement and to that of Haggai 
 the rebuilding of the Temple owed much (Ezra 
 5.1, 6.14). The immediate purpose of his work 
 was the stimulus of the Jews in the restoration 
 of public worship ; but he had other objects 
 more remote and important. His prophecies 
 extend to the " times of the Gentiles," though 
 the history of the chosen people occupies the 
 centre of his predictions. The contents of the 
 book may be divided into three sections : 
 
 1. Chaps. 1-6 contain a series of eight visions, 
 which were communicated to the prophet in the 
 second year of Darius, revealing the dispensations 
 of God's providence relative both to the Jews 
 and to the nations which had oppressed them. 
 
 2. Chaps. 7, 8 contain prophecies of pros- 
 perity and enlargement to Jerusalem ; inter- 
 mixed with warnings and exhortations. 
 
 3. The remaining six chapters contain a series 
 of predictions, unfolding the future history of 
 the people of God from that period to the end 
 of the world ; with which are mingled many 
 prophecies relating to the person, character, and 
 work of the Messiah, the promulgation of the 
 gospel, the calling of the Gentiles, and the final 
 glory and blessedness of the Church of God, 
 uniting Jew and Gentile in one holy com- 
 munity under their great High Priest and King 
 (9-14). 
 
 These six chapters differ considerably in style 
 from the preceding part of the Book, and have 
 by many been referred to some other author, 
 either earlier or later than Zechariah. The first 
 eight chapters contain a succession of prophecies 
 and visions, in which the name of Zechariah, 
 and the date of the message, are given with 
 precision; the last six (9-14) comprise a 
 series of prophetic sections without name 
 or date. The prophecies, again, in the former 
 part, have a definite historic background in the 
 condition of the Jewish people after the Cap- 
 tivity ; those of the second portion have no such 
 definite standing-point, but are general in their 
 character, and for the most part point to a dis- 
 tant future. Some critics attribute these latter 
 sections to a prophet who lived before the Exile. 
 It is urged that Assyria and Egypt are men- 
 tioned as existing world-powers (10.10, 11). 
 Judah and Ephraim are spoken of as still dis- 
 tinct (10.6, 7), and idolatry is still one of the chief 
 national sins (13.1-6) ; while the mourning for 
 King Josiah is referred to in language appro- 
 priate to a recent event (12.11). It is remark- 
 able that in Matthew a passage from this section 
 
ZECHER] 
 
 507 
 
 [ZENAN 
 
 (11.12, 13) is quoted as from Jeremiah (Matt. 
 27.9). 
 
 There are considerations, however, of great 
 weight in favour of the post-exilian date. The 
 reference of 9.13 to " the Greeks " would have 
 been scarcely intelligible at an earlier period ; 
 the House of David is described (12.7, 12) in 
 terms which would hardly have been employed 
 in the days of the still existing monarchy ; and 
 the many apparent citations in this portion of 
 the Book from prophets before and during the 
 Captivity seem to make it clear that the author 
 was later than they. For it is more reasonable 
 to suppose that one prophet quoted from them 
 than that they all quoted from him. Cf. 9.2 
 with Ezek. 28.3; 9.5 with Zeph. 2.4; 9.11 with 
 Isai. 51.14; 9.12 with /sat. 49.9, 61.7 ; 10.3 with 
 Ezek. 34.17 ; 11.4 with Ezek. 34.4 ; 11.3 with Jer. 
 12.5 ; 13.8, 9 with Ezek. 5.12 ; 14.8 with Ezek. 
 47.1-12; 14.10,11 with Jer. 31.38-40; 14.16-19 
 with Isai. 66.23 and 60.12 ; 14.20, 21 with Ezek. 
 
 43.12, 44.9. 
 
 Some of the N.T. quotations from Zechariah 
 are intimately associated with the work of our 
 Lord : Zech. 9.9, the entrance of the King into 
 Jerusalem (Matt. 21.5 ; John 12.14, 15) ; Zech. 
 
 11.13, the thirty pieces of silver (Matt. 27.9, 10) ; 
 Zech. 12.10, looking to the pierced One (John 
 19.37 ; Rev. 1.7); Zech. 13.9, the smitten Shep- 
 herd (Matt. 26.31 ; Mk. 14.27) ; Zech. 14.11, no 
 more curse (Rev. 22.3). 
 
 Zecher. [ZACHER.] 
 
 Ze'dad. A town in northern boundary of 
 Palestine (Num. 34.8 ; Ezek. 47.15). 
 
 Zedeki'ah Righteousness of Jehovah : 1. The 
 last king of Judah before the Captivity. When 
 Nebuchadnezzar took Jerusalem, he carried 
 King Jeconiah (Jehoiachin) to Babylon, with his 
 wives, children, officers, and the best artificers 
 in Judaea, and put in his place his uncle, 
 Mattaniah, whose name he changed to Zedekiah, 
 and made him take an oath of allegiance. 
 Zedekiah did evil in the sight of the Lord. In 
 the ninth year of his reign he revolted against 
 Nebuchadnezzar, who thereupon marched an 
 army against Jerusalem. Jeremiah advised 
 Zedekiah to surrender, but he refused. When 
 the city was captured, Zedekiah endeavoured 
 to escape, but was captured in the plain of 
 Jericho. He was brought before Nebuchad- 
 nezzar, who was then at Riblah in Syria, his 
 children were slain before his face, and then his 
 own eyes were put out. Loaded with chains of 
 brass, he was carried to Babylon. In the case 
 of Zedekiah two predictions that seemed contra- 
 dictory were reconciled. The former of these 
 (Jer. 32.4) states that Zedekiah shall " speak 
 with the king of Babylon mouth to mouth, 
 and his eyes shall behold his eyes " ; the 
 latter (Ezek. 12.13), that he should be brought 
 to Babylon, " yet shall he not see it, though he 
 shall die there." The kingdom of Judah was 
 now at an end. 
 
 2. A prophet of Baal at the court of Ahab. 
 When rebuked by Micaiah, a prophet of Jehovah, 
 for his false prediction, he smote the latter on 
 
 the cheek. The death of Ahab at Ramoth- 
 gilead confirmed the prophecy of Micaiah (1 K. 
 22 ; 2 Ch. 18). 3. A false prophet in Babylon 
 among the captives who were taken with 
 Jeconiah (Jer. 29.21, 22). Jeremiah foretells 
 his terrible fate. 4. A prince of Judah in the 
 days of Jehoiakim (Jer. 36.12). 5. One who 
 subscribed to the Covenant, and is mentioned 
 immediately after the Governor, but otherwise 
 unknown. He may have been a Persian official, 
 or one of the royal line of Israel. He is called 
 Zidkijah in the A.V. (Neh. 10.1). 
 
 Ze'eb. Wolf : one of the two princes of 
 Midian in the great invasion of Israel, which 
 Gideon repelled. Zeeb and Oreb (raven) were 
 slain (Judg. 7.25, 8.3 ; Ps. 83.11). 
 
 Ze'lah. Rock : a town of Benjamin, the 
 home and burial-place of Kish, Saul, and his sons 
 ( Josh. 18.28 ; 2 Sam. 21.13, 14). 
 
 Ze'lek. An Ammonite, one of David's guard 
 (2 Sam. 23.37 ; 1 Ch. 11.39). 
 
 Zelophe'had. The interest attaching to 
 Zelophehad is that on his death without male 
 heirs his five daughters came before Moses 
 and Eleazar to claim the inheritance of their 
 father in the tribe of Manasseh. This case led 
 to the promulgation of a general law in tha 
 sense which these daughters desired, which again 
 led to a further enactment that such heiresses 
 should not marry out of their own tribe (Num. 
 26.33, 27.1-11, 36 ; Josh. 17.3, 4). 
 
 Zelo'tes. The epithet given to the lesser 
 Apostle Simon, perhaps to distinguish him from 
 Simon Peter (Lk. 6.15; Acts 1.13; R.V., in both 
 places, " Simon the Zealot"). The Zealots were 
 a fanatical sect, which revolted against Rome 
 under Judas of Galilee in A.D. 6. To this body, 
 it is to be presumed, Simon had belonged. In 
 the lists of Matthew (10.4) and Mark (3.18) he 
 is called the Cananaean (R.V.), the Aramaic 
 equivalent for the Greek Zelotes. [CANAANITK.] 
 
 Zel'zah. In 1 Sam. 10.2 Rachel's tomb is said 
 to be " in the border of Benjamin at Zelzah." 
 No such place is known. The LXX refers it 
 to Saul's two men, and translates, " bounding 
 along greatly," which points to a corrupt text. 
 
 Zemara'im. 1. Now Es-Sumrah, two ruins, 
 4 miles north of Jericho. Town of Benjamin 
 (Josh. 18.22). 2. An eminence among the 
 highlands of Ephraim (2 Ch. 13.4), from the top 
 of which Abijah delivered an address to Jero- 
 boam and the Israelitish army. 
 
 Ze'marite. A tribe mentioned in Gen. 10.18 
 and 1 Ch 1.16. The Zemarite is mentioned 
 among the sons of Canaan. Zemar, writes Pro- 
 fessor Sayce, was an inland town of Southern 
 Phoenicia. It was the seat of an Egyptian 
 governor in the time of the eighteenth dynasty, 
 when Palestine and Syria were subject to Egypt. 
 Subsequently it lost its importance, like the 
 other Phoenician towns which were not situated 
 on the coast. 
 
 Zemi'ra. Grandson of Benjamin (1 Ch. 7.8). 
 
 Ze'nan. A town in lowland of Judah, east of 
 Ashkelon (Josh. 15.37); probably the same as 
 Zaanan (Mic. 1.11). 
 
ZENAS] 
 
 508 
 
 [ZEREDA 
 
 Ze'nas. Zenas, " the lawyer," is, along with 
 Apollos, commended by Paul to the good 
 offices of Titus and the Cretan brethren (Tit. 
 3.13). He was either a Roman jurisconsult or 
 a doctor of the Jewish law. 
 
 Zephani'ah. 1. The author of the Book of 
 Zephaniah, which see. 2. An ancestor of 
 Samuel and Heman (1 Ch. 6.36). 3. The second 
 priest in the reign of Zedekiah. Shemaiah, 
 writing from Babylon, requested him to punish 
 Jeremiah, presumably on the ground that the 
 latter was a false pretender to prophecy. 
 Zephaniah was twice sent by the king to 
 Jeremiah, to inquire as to the result of the 
 siege, and to implore the prophet to intercede 
 for the people. On the capture of the city, 
 Zephaniah was taken, with others, to Riblah, 
 and there slain (2 K. 25.18 ; Jer. 21.1, 29.25, 29, 
 37.3, 52.24). 4. Father of Josiah (Zech. 6.10). 
 
 Zephaniah, The Book of. The author of this 
 book may have been a great-great-grandson of 
 King Hezekiah (1.1, R.V.). He flourished in 
 the reign of King Josiah (1.1), and apparently 
 before Josiah had undertaken the reformation 
 associated with his name. The purpose of the 
 prophet was to warn the people against the 
 results of sin, and so to prepare the way for 
 reform. The contents of the book may be 
 summarised thus : 
 
 Chap. 1 contains a general denunciation of 
 vengeance against Judah and those who prac- 
 tised idolatrous rites ; Baal, his black -robed 
 priests (Chemarim), and Malcham (Moloch) being 
 all condemned ; and declares " the great day of 
 trouble and distress" to be at hand (1.14, 15). 
 There is an evident reference here to the invasion 
 of the Scythians, which at this time filled 
 the land with consternation. The surrounding 
 countries were ravaged, especially Philistia, but 
 there was hope that Jerusalem might be spared 
 (12). This hope was fulfilled. 
 
 Chap. 2 predicts the judgments in connexion' 
 with this great invasion, about to fall on the Philis- 
 tines, those especially of the sea-coasts (Chere- 
 thites), theMoabites, Ammonites, and Ethiopians ; 
 and describes in wonderfully accurate terms the 
 desolation of Nineveh : prophecies which began 
 to be accomplished in the conquests of Nebu- 
 chadnezzar. The result was to be the reverence 
 paid to Jehovah when " the gods of the earth " 
 were thus discredited. The heathen should 
 worship Him " every one from his place " (2.11), 
 while in the latter part of the prophecy they 
 are described as bringing their offerings to 
 Him (3.10). 
 
 Chap. 3 arraigns Jerusalem, rebukes her sins, 
 and concludes with promises of her future 
 restoration, of the gathering of the nations into 
 the Church of God, and of the happy state of the 
 people of Jehovah in the latter days. 
 
 Keith has noticed the exactitude with which 
 Zephaniah, Amos, and Zechariah foretell the 
 destinies of the four chief cities of Philistia 
 Gaza, Ashkelon, Ashdod, and Ekron. Compar- 
 ing Amos 1.6, 7, 8 ; Zech. 9.5; and Zeph. 2.4-6, 
 it will be seen that of Gaza it is declared that 
 
 baldness shall come upon it, and that it should 
 be bereaved of its king. At present, amid 
 ruins of white marble indicating its former 
 magnificence, a few villages of dry mud are the 
 only abode of its inhabitants. Of Ashkelon and 
 Ashdod it is said that both shall be " without 
 inhabitants " ; and so they are. Gaza is in- 
 habited ; Ashkelon and Ashdod are nflt, though 
 their ruins remain. Different from the destiny 
 of each was to be the end of Ekron : " It shall 
 be rooted up." Now its very name is lost, nor 
 is the spot known on which it stood. . . . 
 Clearly, prophecy and providence predictions 
 and the events that fulfil them are guided by 
 the same hand. 
 
 Ze'phath. A Canaanite town taken by Judah 
 and Simeon ; also called Hormah (Judg. 1.17 ; 
 cf. Num. 14.45). 
 
 Zepha'thah. A valley, by Mareshah, site of 
 battle between Asa and Zerah the Ethiopian 
 (2 Ch. 14.10). The name and the vicinity are 
 doubtful. 
 
 Ze'phi, Ze'pho. A grandson of Esau and 
 " duke " of Edom (Gen. 36.11 ; 1 Ch. 1.36). 
 
 Ze'phon. A son of Gad, and ancestor of the 
 Zephonites (Num. 26.15). [ZAPHON, ZIPHION.] 
 
 Zer. A fortified town of Naphtali (Josh. 
 19.35), in the neighbourhood of the south-west 
 side of the Lake of Gennesareth. 
 
 Ze'rah. 1. A grandson of Esau, and one of 
 the " dukes " of Edom (Gen. 36.13, 17 ; 1 Ch. 
 1.37). 2. (A.V. Zara, Zarah). The twin son 
 with his elder brother Pharez of Judah and 
 Tamar (Gen. 38.30; 1 Ch. 2.6; Matt. 1.3). 
 His descendants were called Zarhites, Ezrahites, 
 and Izrahites, and continued down to the time 
 of Zerubbabel (Num. 26.20; 1 K. 4.31; 
 1 Ch. 9.6, 27.8, 11 ; Neh. 11.24). 3. A son of 
 Simeon (1 Ch. 4.24) ; Zohar in Gen. 46.10. 4. A 
 Gershonite (1 Ch. 6.21). 5. An Ethiopian (a 
 man of Gush), who invaded Judah, and was 
 defeated by King Asa. As Gush (Gen. 10.7) was 
 the ancestor of certain Arabian tribes, it is pos- 
 sible that Zerah was not a king of Ethiopia, 
 but only a leader -of Arabians. If so, the word 
 Zerah may represent Dhirrih (Zirrih), a title of 
 princes of Saba in Arabia. Zerah, who is said 
 to have had an army of a million men, came 
 unopposed out of Egypt as far as Mareshah, on 
 the west of the hill-country of Judah. Here he 
 was met in the Valley of Zephathah by Asa, 
 and completely defeated, being pursued as far 
 as Gerar, in the angle of Arabia that divides 
 Egypt and Palestine (2 Ch. 14.9-15 . 
 
 Zerah'iah. 1. An ancestor of Ezra the scribe 
 (1 Ch. 6.6,51; Ezra 7.4). 2. The father of 
 Elihoenai (Ezra 8.4). 
 
 Ze'red. A brook by the upper part of which 
 the Israelites encamped before they passed over 
 into the land of the Amorites (Num. 21.12 ; 
 Deut. 2.13, 14) ; identified conjecturally with the 
 Wady el-Hesi, which enters the Dead Sea near 
 the south-east corner, or, better, with the Wady 
 Kerak, rather more north. 
 
 Zere'da (R.V. Zere'dah). The birthplace of 
 Jeroboam (1 K. 11.26); perhaps Suodah. 
 
ZEREDATHAH] 
 
 509 
 
 [ZIDON 
 
 Zereda'thah (R.V. Zeredah). (2 Ch. 4.17). 
 The same as ZARETAN. 
 
 Zere'rah, Zere'rath. A district through 
 which the Midianites fled from Gideon (Judg. 
 7.22); perhaps we should read Zeredah. [ZA- 
 
 Ze'resh. The wife of Haman, who advised 
 him to prepare the gallows for Mordecai. When, 
 however, she learned that Mordecai was a Jew, 
 she predicted that her husband would surely fall 
 before him (Esth. 5.10, 14, 6.13). 
 
 Ze'reth. A son of Ashur (1 Ch. 4.7). 
 
 Ze'reth-sha'har. [ZARETH-SHAHAB.] 
 
 Ze'ri. One set apart for the sacred services 
 under David (1 Ch. 25.3) ; in 1 Ch. 25.11, Izri. 
 
 Ze'ror. An ancestor of King Saul (1 Sam. 9.1). 
 
 Zeru'ah. The mother of Jeroboam, the first 
 king of the ten tribes of Israel (1 K. 11.26). 
 
 Zerub'babel. The head of the tribe of 
 Judah, who led back the Return from the 
 Babylonish captivity in the first year of Cyrus, 
 and held the title of the Tirshatha. He received 
 back, before beginning his journey, the sacred 
 vessels which Nebuchadnezzar had brought 
 from the Temple. The exiles, having received 
 presents of silver, gold, goods, and beasts, went 
 forth with Zerubbabel at their head, accom- 
 panied by Jeshua the high-priest, priests, 
 Levites, and heads of houses. The altar was 
 built on the old site, and the daily sacrifice 
 restored. The great work of Zerubbabel, 
 however, was the rebuilding of the Temple. 
 Cyrus made him grants of timber, stone, and 
 money, and the foundation stone was laid with 
 much pomp and religious ceremony. Again 
 was heard the same Psalm of praise for God's 
 unfailing mercy to Israel as was sung when 
 Solomon dedicated his Temple. But opposition 
 and obstacles of various sorts arose. The 
 Samaritans claimed a share in the work, and 
 when they were refused sought to hinder it. 
 Further, the first enthusiasm died away, so that 
 for sixteen years the work ceased. In the 
 meantime the people were building costly 
 houses for themselves. But in the second year 
 of Darius the people were stirred up by the 
 prophetic utterances of Haggai and Zechariah. 
 Zerubbabel, Jeshua, and all the people threw 
 themselves into the work with passionate 
 earnestness, an<l Zerubbabel was assured of 
 the Lord's protection (Hag. 2.33). In the sixth 
 year of Darius the Temple was finished, and was 
 dedicated with much rejoicing. Zerubbabel, 
 further, restored the courses of priests and 
 Levites, and made provision for their mainten- 
 ance. He also registered the returned exiles 
 according to their genealogies (1 Ch. 3.19 ; Ezra 
 2, 3, 4, 5 ; Neh. 7.7, 12.1, 47 ; Hag. 1 and 2 ; 
 Zech 4.6-10). 
 
 Zeruiah. A sister of David, and the mother 
 of Abishai, Joab, and Asahel, the three most 
 eminent warriors of David's army (1 Sam. 26.6 ; 
 2 Sam. 2.13 ; 1 K. 1.7 ; 1 Ch. 2.16). There is 
 no mention of her husband. 
 
 Ze'tham. A descendant of Laadan (1 Ch. 
 23.8). 
 
 Ze'than. A Benjamite (1 Ch. 7.10). 
 
 Ze'thar. A chamberlain of Ahasuerus (Esth. 
 1.10). 
 
 Zi'a. A Gadite (1 Ch. 5.13). 
 
 Zi'ba. Originally a slave of King Saul, who 
 obtained his liberty, and founded a family, 
 having fifteen sons and twenty slaves (2 Sam. 
 9.2-11). Ziba reported to David the existence 
 of Mephibosheth, the lame son of Jonathan. 
 David showed kindness to Mephibosheth, who 
 ate at his table ; but ordered that Ziba, his 
 sons and servants, should till, for the benefit 
 of Mephibosheth, the land that had been restored 
 to him. This looks like the reduction of Ziba 
 from the position of independent landholder to 
 that of mere dependant. By falsely accusing 
 Mephibosheth of treachery to David on the 
 occasion of Absalom's rebellion, Ziba secured 
 half of the inheritance (2 Sam. 16.1-4, 19.17-29). 
 
 Zi'beon. The grandfather of Esau's wife, 
 Aholibamah (Gen. 36.2). 
 
 Zib'ia. A Benjamite (1 Ch. 8.9). 
 
 Zib'iah. The mother of King Joash (2 K. 
 12.1 ; 2 Ch. 24.1). 
 
 Zich'ri. An Ephraimite warrior in the 
 army of Pekah. In the battle which was so 
 disastrous to the kingdom of Judah, Maaseiah, 
 the king's son, Azrikam, the prefect of the 
 palace, and Elkanah, who was next to the king, 
 fell by the hand of Zichri (2 Ch. 28.7). Other 
 persons of that name are mentioned in Ex. 
 6.21; 1 Ch. 8.19,23,27, 9.15, 26.25, 27.16; 
 2 Ch. 17.16, 23.1 ; Neh. 11.9, 12.17. 
 
 Zid'dim. Now, perhaps, Hattin, 6 miles 
 north-west of Tiberias ; fortified town of 
 Naphtali (Josh. 19.35). 
 
 Zidki'jah. [ZEDEKIAH 5.] 
 
 Zi'don, or Si'don. Fishery : now Saida. 
 Ancient wealthy Phoenician city on a small 
 promontory which juts out into the Mediter- 
 ranean ; in earliest times more important than 
 Tyre (Josh. 11.8, 19.28 ; Judg. 18.7). An ancient 
 historian asserts that the inhabitants of Sidon 
 founded Tyre ; but there is no evidence for this, 
 unless it be the fact that the Tyrians are called 
 Sidonians, but the Sidonians are never called 
 Tyrians. At any rate, this circumstance tends 
 to show that in early times Sidon was the more 
 influential city. Further, the word Sidonians 
 is used as the generic name of the Phoenicians 
 or Canaanites (Josh. 13.6 ; Judg. 18.7, 28). In 
 the last passage Tyre would certainly have been 
 mentioned if it had been at all of like im- 
 portance, for it was of the same religion and 
 almost 20 miles nearer. But in Bible times 
 generally Sidon was subordinate to Tyre. 
 Sidon was in the border of Zebulun; allotted 
 to Asher, occupied, but inhabitants not ex- 
 pelled, and their idolatry a snare to the 
 Israelites (Gen. 49.13 ; Josh. 13.6, 19.28; Judg. 
 1.31, 10.6; 2 Sam. 24.6; 1 K. 16.31,32). Like 
 Tyre, which is less than 20 miles to the south, 
 Sidon was closely allied with Israelites. One of 
 its kings was Ethbaal, father of Jezebel, Ahab's 
 wife (1 K. 16.31) ; it was denounced by prophets 
 (Jsai. 23 ; Jer. 25.22, 27.3, 47.4 ; Ezek. 28.21, 22; 
 
ZIDONIANS, SIDONIANS] 
 
 510 
 
 [ZOAN 
 
 Joel 3.4; Zech. 9.2). The neighbourhood of 
 Sidon, about 50 miles from Nazareth, was 
 visited by our Lord (Matt. 15.21 ; Mk. 7.24-31) ; 
 its inhabitants resorted to Him (Mk. 3.8; Lk. 
 6.17); subject to Herod's rule (Acts 12.20); 
 residence of Christian disciples (Acts 27.3). 
 
 Zidonians, Sidonians. The inhabitants of 
 Zidon (Judg. 10.12 ; 1 K. 11.1 ; 2 K. 23.13 ; 
 1 Ch. 22.4; Ezek. 32.30). They hewed cedar 
 trees for David and Solomon. They worshipped 
 Ashtoreth as their goddess, as well as the sun- 
 god Baal. Zidonian women were in Solomon's 
 harem. 
 
 Zi! (R.V. Ziv). Blossom : the name of the 
 second Jewish month (the flower month), occur- 
 ring from about the middle of April to the 
 middle of May (1 K. 6.1, 37). 
 
 Zi'ha. The children of Ziha were a family 
 of Nethinim who returned with Zerubbabel 
 (Ezra 2.43 ; Neh. 7.46, 11.21). 
 
 Zik'lag. A border town in extreme south of 
 Judah (Josh. 19.5), allotted to Simeon; in 
 possession of the Philistines, but given by 
 Achish, king of Gath, to David. There he 
 received the news of Saul's death. It was re- 
 built and occupied after the Captivity (Josh. 
 15.31, 19.5 ; 1 Sam. 27.6, 30.1, 14, 26 ; 2 Sam. 
 1.1, 4.10 ; 1 Ch. 4.30, 12.1, 20 ; Neh. 11.28). 
 
 Zil'lah. One of the two wives of Lamech 
 the Cainite. To them Lamech addressed his 
 song. She was the mother of Tubal-cain and 
 Naamah (Gen. 4.19, 22, 23). 
 
 Zil'lethai. [ZiLTHAi.] 
 
 Zil'pah. A Syrian given by Laban to bis 
 daughter Leah as an attendant, and by Leah 
 to Jacob as a concubine. She became the 
 mother of Gad and Asher (Gen. 29.24, 30.9-13). 
 
 Zil'thai, Zil'lethai. 1. A Benjamite (1 Ch. 
 8.20). 2. A captain of Manasseh who joined 
 David in Ziklag (1 Ch. 12.20). 
 
 Zim'mah. The name of a family of Ger- 
 shonite Levites (1 Ch. 6.20, 42 ; 2 Ch. 29.12). 
 
 Zim'ran. A son of Abraham by Keturah 
 (Gen. 25.2 ; 1 Ch. 1.32). 
 
 Zim'ri. 1. A chief man in the tribe of 
 Simeon who was slain, with the Midianitish 
 princess Cozbi, by Phinehas, the son of Aaron 
 (Num. 25.14). At the time the Israelites were 
 suffering from plagues for their impure worship 
 of Baal-peor. Zimri chose this juncture to intro- 
 duce Cozbi into the presence of Moses and the 
 whole congregation. 2. A king of the northern 
 kingdom of Israel who ruled only seven days. 
 He usurped the throne by the murder of King 
 Elah, but the army proclaimed their general, 
 Omri, king. Omri immediately marched against 
 Tirzah, the capital. Zimri retreated into the 
 innermost part of the palace, set it on fire, and 
 perished in the flames (1 K. 16.9-20). 3. A 
 descendant of Judah (1 Ch. 2.6). 4. A descend- 
 ant of Saul (1 Ch. 8.36, 9.42). 5. A tribe of the 
 sons of the East (Jer. 25.25). 
 
 Zin. A wilderness south of Palestine, between 
 et-Tlh on the west and the Arabah on the east ; 
 boundary undetermined ; perhaps it included 
 part of the Wilderness of Paran (Num. 13.21, 
 
 20.1, 33.36, 34.3, 4 ; Deut. 32.51 ; Josh. 15.1, 3). 
 Kadesh lay in the Wilderness of Zin, and here 
 also Idumaea was conterminous with Judah ; 
 since Kadesh was a city on the border of Edom 
 (Num. 27.14). [WANDERINGS.] 
 
 Zi'na. A Gershonite (1 Ch. 23.10; in ver. 11, 
 Zizah). 
 
 Zi'on. (2 5am. 5.7, etc.). The stronghold 
 of JERUSALEM. 
 
 Zi'or. Now Si'alr; a town in mountains of 
 Judah (Josh. ]5.54). 
 
 Ziph. 1. A town in south of Judah (Josh. 
 15.24). 2. (Now Tele Zif, round eminence 4 miles 
 south-east of Hebron). A town in highland of 
 Judah, with neighbouring waste pasture land ; 
 scene of David's adventures when fleeing from 
 Saul (Josh. 15.55 ; 1 Sam. 23.14, 15, 24, 26.2 ; 
 2 Ch. 11.8). 3. A son of Jehaleleel (1 Ch. 
 4.16). 
 
 Zi'phah. A son of Jehaleleel (1 Ch. 4.16). 
 
 Zi'phims. The inhabitants of Ziph 2. Title 
 
 Of PS. 54. [ZlPHITES.] 
 
 Ziph'ion. A son of Gad (Gen. 46.16) ; called 
 Zephon in Num. 26.15. [ZAPHON.] 
 
 Ziph'ites, The. The inhabitants of Ziph 2 
 (1 Sam. 23.19, 26.1). 
 
 Ziph'ron. A place in northern boundary of 
 the Promised Land (Num. 34.9). Perhaps the 
 same as Sibraim. 
 
 Zip'por. Bird : the father of Balak (Num. 
 22.2, 4, 10, 16, 23.18 ; Josh. 24.9 ; Judg. 11.25). 
 
 Zippo'rah. Bird : the daughter of Reuel or 
 Jethro, the priest of Midian, wife of Moses, and 
 mother of his two sons, Gershom and Eliezer 
 (Ex. 2.21, 4.25, 18.2). 
 
 Zith'ri (R.V. Sithii). A son of Uzziel (Ex. 
 6.22). 
 
 Ziv. [Zrp.] 
 
 Ziz. The ascent above En-gedi, now the 
 Wady Husasah, by which the Moabites and 
 Ammonites made their way from the Dead Sea 
 to the Wilderness of Judah, near Tekoa (2 Ch. 
 20.16). The same route is taken by Arabs in 
 their marauding expeditions at the present day. 
 The tableland immediately above the pass is still 
 called el-Husasah Haz-ziz. 
 
 Ziza. 1. A Simeonite (1 Ch. 4.37). 2. A 
 grandson of Solomon (2 Ch. 11.20). 
 
 Zizah. A Gershonite (1 Ch. 23.11; in ver. 
 10, Zina). 
 
 Zo'an. The modern San, and the classical 
 Tanis. It is in an extensive plain, on the east 
 of a former eastern branch of the Nile, near its 
 mouth. Zoan was a very ancient city of Lower 
 Egypt, and one of the principal residences of the 
 Pharaohs ; built or, at least, fortified by the 
 Shepherd Kings, who invaded and subdued 
 Egypt somewhere about 2000 B.C. After 
 reigning 500 years, they were gradually expelled 
 from the country, until Zoan was their last 
 remaining fortress. About 1500 B.C. they were 
 compelled to capitulate. During the dynasty 
 of the Shepherd Kings there was built at Zoan 
 a temple to Set, the Egyptian Baal. Rameses 
 ii., who is believed to have belonged to that 
 dynasty, embellished this temple, and was fol- 
 
ZOAR] 
 
 511 
 
 [ZUZIMS 
 
 lowed by his son Menemptah. It is within that 
 period, from the Shepherd invasion to the reign of 
 Menemptah, that the sojourn and exodus of the 
 Israelites are placed. It is conjectured that 
 the earlier kings of the Shepherd dynasty were 
 in effective possession both of Memphis and 
 Zoan, but that the Pharaohs of the oppression 
 and exodus had their seat of authority only 
 in Zoan. The doom of Zoan is foretold in 
 Ezek. 30.14. " One of the principal capitals 
 and royal abodes of the Pharaohs is now the 
 habitation of fishermen, the resort of wild 
 beasts, and infested with reptiles and malignant 
 fevers." The remains of the ancient temple 
 prove its former grandeur (Num. 13.22 ; Ps. 
 78.12, 43 ; Isai. 19.11, 13, 30.4). [EGYPT.] 
 
 Zo'ar. Small : probably to be identified 
 with Tell Esh-Shaghur, behind which the 
 ground rises steeply for 2 or 3 miles, and is 
 pierced with many caves. One of the cities of 
 the plain, anciently called Bela (Gen. 14.2, 8), 
 spared at the overthrow of Sodom and 
 Gomorrah at the intercession of Lot, who found 
 shelter there. It had a king of its own. It is 
 mentioned in the account of the death of Moses 
 as one of the landmarks which bounded his 
 view from Pisgah (Gen. 13.10, 19.22,23,30; 
 Deut. 34.3 ; Isai. 15.5 ; Jer. 48.34). 
 
 Zo'ba, Zo'bah. A small Syrian kingdom, 
 extending north of Damascus, and east of 
 Hamath, towards the Euphrates. Hostile to 
 Saul, David, and Solomon ; home of one of 
 David's mighty men (1 Sam. 14.47 ; 2 Sam. 
 8.3-12, 10.6-8, 23.36 ; 1 K. 11.23 ; 1 Ch. 18.3-9, 
 19.6 ; title of Ps. 60). The wealth of Zobah is 
 very apparent in the narrative of David's first 
 campaign against it. Several of the officers of 
 the enemy carried " shields of gold," and the 
 cities which David took yielded him " exceeding 
 much brass." At a later period, Joab and David 
 successively defeated Zobah with very heavy loss. 
 The petty princes hitherto tributary to the small 
 Syrian kingdom transferred their allegiance to the 
 king of Israel. 
 
 Zob'ebah. A descendant of Judah (1 Ch. 
 4.8). 
 
 Zo'har. 1. The father of Ephron the Hittite 
 (Gen. 23.8, 25.9). 2. A son of Simeon (Gen. 
 46.10; Ex. 6.15); called Zerah in 1 Ch. 4.24. 
 
 Zoh eleth. Serpent's stone : now Zahweileh ; 
 a sacred stone close to the Virgin's Fount 
 Enrogel in the ravine south-east of Jerusalem ; 
 where Adonijah raised the standard of rebellion 
 against David (1 K. 1.9). The practice of placing 
 stones and naming them from a person or an 
 event is a common occurrence recorded in the 
 Scriptures (Gen. 28.22, 31.45, 35.14; Josh. 
 
 4.9-20, 15.6, 18.17, 24.26; 1 Sam. 6.14,18, 
 7.11,12, 14.33). 
 
 Zo'heth. A descendant of Judah (1 Ch. 
 4.20). 
 
 Zo'phah. An Asherite (1 Ch. 7.35, 36). 
 
 Zo'phai. An ancestor of Samuel (1 Ch. 6.26) ; 
 the same as ZUPH. 
 
 Zo'phar. One of the three friends of Job 
 (Job 2.11, 11.1, 20.1, 42.9). 
 
 Zo'phim, The Field of. Watchmen : a spot on 
 or near the top of Pisgah, from which Balaam 
 had his second view of the encampment of 
 Israel (Num. 23.14). 
 
 Zo'rah, Zoreah (R.V. Zorah throughout). 
 Now Sur'ah. On the edge of the hill- country, 
 on the south end of a crest overlooking the 
 Wady Surar. Town of Judah, occupied by Dan 
 (Josh. 15.33, 19.41; Judg. 18.2,8,11); home 
 and burial-place of Manoah and Samson (Judg. 
 13.2, 25, 16.31) ; fortified by Rehoboam (2 Ch. 
 11.10). 
 
 Zo'rathites. The people of Zorah are men- 
 tioned in 1 Ch. 4.2 as descended from Shobal, 
 one of the sons of Judah, who in 1 Ch. 2.52, 53 
 (Zareathites, A.V.) is stated to have founded 
 Kirjath-jearim, from which again " the Zorathites 
 and the Eshtaolites " were colonised. 
 
 Zore'ah. (Josh. 15.33). [ZORAH.] 
 
 Zo'rites, The. Named in the genealogies of 
 Judah (1 Ch. 2.54), but possibly Zorathites should 
 be read. 
 
 Zorob'abel. An ancestor of our Lord (A.V. 
 Matt. 1.12, 13 ; Lk. 3.27 ; R.V. Zerubbabel). 
 
 Zu'ar. The father of Nethaneel (Num. 1.8, 
 2.5, 7.18, 23, 10.15). 
 
 Zuph. 1. An ancestor of Samuel (1 Sam. 1.1 ; 
 1 Ch. 6.35). In 1 Ch. 6.26 he is called Zophai. 
 2. A district adjoining Benjamin; the limit of 
 Saul's search for the lost asses (1 Sam. 9.5). 
 
 Zur. Rock : 1. One of the five princes of 
 Midian who were slain by the Israelites when 
 Balaam fell (Num. 31.8). His daughter, Cozbi, 
 was killed by Phinehas, together with her 
 paramour Zimri, the Simeonite chieftain (Num. 
 25.15). 2. A Benjamite (1 Ch. 8.30, 9.36). 
 
 Zuri'el. My rock is Jehovah : a son of Abihail 
 (Num. 3.35). 
 
 Zu'rishad'dai. My rock is the Almighty : 
 the father of Shelumiel, a Simeonite (Num. 1.6, 
 2.12, 7.36, 41, 10.19). 
 
 Zu'zims (R.V. Zuzim). An aboriginal race 
 overthrown by Chedorlaomer and his allies 
 (Gen. 14.5). It is conjectured that the Zuzim 
 inhabited the country of the Ammonites, and 
 were identical with the Zamzummim, or Rephaim, 
 who were exterminated and succeeded in their 
 land by the Ammonites (Deut. 2.20). 
 
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