UC-NRLF 89 SZAA *B 307 iOfl PIMMULOGY it^ AND ORTHOEPY AN ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON PRONUNCIATION FOR THE USE OP TEACPIERS AND SCHOOLS BY ALBERT SALISBURY, A. M., WitJi J*hyshdo(jical Engravin^ja. C3 MADISON, WIS.: WM. J. PARS & CO 1S79. "^ /^ BERKEIEY LIBRARY I UNIVERSITY OF V CALIFORNIA i; r \B9tmd tJ.PA &C( 2/ }/■ I^/ '/^ *V«»1^'«< PHONOLOGY AXD OKTHOEPT AN ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON PRONUNCIATION FOR THE USE OP TEACHERS AND SCHOOLS, BY ALBERT SALISBURY, A. M., COKDUCTOB OP TEACHERS'* INSTITUTES, AND TEACHER OF READING IN" THE WHITEWATER NORMAL SCHOOL, WISCONSIN. With l^hyshdogical Engravings. MADISON, WIS : WM. J. PARK & CO 1S79. COPYRIGHT, WM. J. PARK & CO 1879. /r duLto^ptyy^ DAYID ATWOOD, STEKOTYPBR AND PBINTEB, MadlBon, Wis. GUT PEEFACE. An accurate and elegant pronunciation forms no small factor of a liberal culture. Careless and uncouth speech is the almost certain index of a general lack of cultivation and re- finement. Orthoepy, therefore, has rightfully claimed the attention of the jStudent, even in its past estate. But a new interest and an added value have been given to it by the recent rapid de- velopment of phonetic science. What once seemed a field of arbitrary custom, is now coming into view as an orderly realm of natural science. Orthoepy can no longer be studied apart from phonology except by the merest empiricist. Says Prof. Whitney: "The study of phonetics has long Deen coming forward into more and more prominence as an -jssential part of the study of language ; a thorough understand- ing of the mode of production of alphabetic sounds, and of their relations to one another as determined by their physical character, has become an indispensable qualification of a linguis- tic scholar. And he who cannot take to pieces his native utter- ance, and give a tolerably exact account of every item in it, lacks the true foundation on which everything else should repose." This little book is submitted to the public in the belief that there is a demand for such a work. It does not aim at 211 4 PREFACE. any elaborately scientific presentation of the subject treated, but only to give a simple and concise statement of its bare ele- ments, — avoiding, on the one hand, the* ancient crudities of statement and nomenclature still current in some quarters and, on the other, the fantastic notions so often projected by eccen- tric theorizers. It has been the resolute purpose of the writer to make a stnall book. It may, perhaps, be thought that he has succeeded too well, since so much has been excluded which would be of interest to the inquiring student. The work lays but slight claim to originality or novelty of matter, and none at all to completeness of treatment Though adapted to use as a text-book for classes, it is in- tended to serve, also, as a teacher's manual, a guide to oral instruction in general exercises or in connection with reading classes; and, lastly, as a vade inecnm for private reference and study. The author desires to make acknowledgment to his esteemed colleague, Prof. W. S. Johnson, for valuable suggestions in various directions. State Normal School, Whit&tvater^ Wis., Se^tembeTy i8jg. PHOJfOLOGY AND ORTHOEPY. INTRODUCTORY. Orthoepy is tlie art of correct pronunciation; it treats of the various sounds of human speech and their proper combination in words. • It also takes account of the notation by which sounds are discriminated to the eye; hence, it is closely related to Orthography, with which it is often confused. Any thorough or scientific understanding of the facts and principles of Orthoepy, demands a previous knowl- edge of so much of Physiology as pertains to the ma- chinery of vocalization and articulation, and so much of Physics as pertains to the theory of sound. That branch of science which treats of the structure and mode of operation of the bodily organs requisite to speech, is called Vocal Physiology. That division of the science of Acoustics which treats of articulate sounds, their physical formation and char- acter, is called Phon^etics, or Phoi^ology. The art of representing speech-sounds to the eye, accurately and systematically, giving to each sound some distinct and appropriate symbol, may be called Phokotypy. 6 PIIOXOLOGY AND ORTHOEPY. That part of general Grammar which deals with the current imperfect and but partially phonetic representa- tion of sounds and ideas, is Orthography. Orthography is historical in its origin — a matter of growth; Phonotypy is of scientific origin — a matter of theory. CHAPTER I. VOCAL PHYSIOLOGY. 1. Organs of Yoice: The organs of voice are in part identical with the organs of respiration. They are the lungs, diaphragm, intercostal muscles, bronchi and trachea, larynx, and pharynx. 2. The lungs constitute the central organ of the vocal machinery. They are two spongy masses en- closed in cases of a tough air-tight membrane called the pleura. These masses are composed of cellular tissue enclosing an immense number of little air-cells, air-tubes, blood-vessels, and nerves. A clear idea of their general structure may be ob- tained by examining the lights, or lungs, of any slaught- ered animal. The alternate expansion and contraction of the lungs result in the process of breathing, which is the basis of vocalization. 3. The diaphragm is a circular sheet of muscle and tendon which forms the partition between the two great cavities of the body, the thorax, or chest, and the abdomen. In shape, it resembles an inverted basin or low dome, though capable of flattening into the form of an inverted plate or saucer. This muscle is attached to the spine, the lower part of the breast-bone, and the lower ribs all around. The lungs and heart are imme- PHONOLOGY AND ORTHOEPY. 7 diately above it; the stomacli and liver, below it. The fibers of which it is composed radiate from the center, like the spokes of a wheel. Fig. 1.— Diaphragm, Front View, (JFVom Hooker's New Fhy^ology^i 1, 1, Cavity of chest. 3, 2, Diaphragm. 4. The intercostal muscles are short, strap-like muscles, connecting the ribs on either side. The man- ner of their attachment is shown in Fig. 2. Other muscles connect the upper pair of ribs to the spinal column in the neck. By the contraction of all these muscles, the ribs are elevated at their front extremities, each pair a little more than the pair above it. Fig. 2. — Arrangement of Intercostal Musclbs. 8 i'HONOLOGY AND ORTH OEi^Y. 5* The bronchi are minute tubes arising in the air- cells of the lungs and running together to form larger tubes until the last two unite in the trachea. • The trachear, or windpipe, is a flexible tube, com- posed of rings, of cartilage, or gristle, covered and con- nected by inside and outside membranes. These cartil- aginous rings are incomplete, opening at the back in the manner of a horseshoe, thus allowing the enclosing membranes to sink into a groove, in which the oesopha- gus, or gullet, partly lies. The trachea and bronchi form the connecting pas- sage between the lungs and the larynx and mouth. Fig. 3. — Lung, Bronchi, and Trachea. 1, Otftliiieof riglitltiiig; 9, Left lung; 3, Larynx; 4, Trachea; 5, Lobes of the lung; 6, 7, Bronchi; 9, 9, Air cells. 6. The larynx is an upper story to the windpipe. It is a funnel-shaped tube or box, formed of plates, in- stead of rings, of cartilage, with enclosing membranes and operative muscles. It is somewhat irregular in shape, the adult male larynx having in front an angu- lar projection known as the Adam's apple. The cartilages of the larynx are nine in number; of PHONOLOGY AND ORTHOEPY. 9 which the principal ones are the thyroid, the cricoid, the two arytenoid cartilages, and the epiglottis. The largest of these is the thyroid cartilage, a bent plate forming the front and sides of the shell or case of the larynx, but open behind. This forms the Adam's apple. The cricoid cartilage is so named from its resemblance, in form, to a seal ring. It rests upon the trachea, forming the bed -piece of the larynx. The wide portion or " seal " is at the back, partly filling the posterior opening of the thyroid cartilage. Perched upon the top of this seal and attached to the back of it by strong Hgaments are the two arytenoid (ladle- shaped) cartilages. These are movable laterally by several muscles attached to them, and they furnish the rear point of attachment for the vocal chords. The cuneiform (wedge-shaped) cartilages are two minute elastic bodies projecting from the arytenoid car- tilages into the folds of the true vocal chords, for about half their length. The cartilages of Wrisberg and of Santorini need not be described here. * Fig. 4. — Larynx, Front View and Section. Front View: 1, Epiglottis; 2, Thyroid cartilage; 3, Cricoid carti- lage ; 4, Trachea. Section: 1, 2, Cricoid cartilage; 5,7,3, Thyroid cartilage; 6, Aryte- noid cartilage; 5, 6, The vocal chords; 9,e, Crico- arytenoid muscle; 8, Trachea. 10 PHONOLOGY AND OKTIIOEPY. 7. The YOcal chords are the speKiial vocal apparatus. They are situated within the larynx and consist of two ligaments or bands of fibrous tissue, attached, in front, to the lower part of the thyroid cartilage and, rearward, to the two arytenoids. These ligaments, along with certain muscles, are inclosed in two folds in the lining membrane of the larynx. When inactive, as in ordinary breathing or whispering, they present to the eye the ap- pearance of two rounded ridges or cushions on the sides of the passage or cavity of the larynx. Above these are two other somewhat similar folds, known as the false vocal chords. Their function is not certainly known. Between the true and false vocal chords, are two lateral depres- sions or cavities called ventricles. 8. The glottis is the aperture, or opening, between the vocal chords. When the chords are at rest the glot- tis has somewhat the shape of a key-hole; when they are active, as in vocalization, the opening diminishes to a mere line. Fig. 5.— VocaI/ Chords and Glottis. Section ov Laktkx: 1, Trachea; 3, The true vocal chords; 3, The false vocal chords; 4, 4, The glottis; 5, 5, Ventricles. Glottis : 2, 2, Arytenoid cartilages. PHOf^rOLOGY AND ORTHOEPY. 11 9. The epiglottis is a lid or valve formed to sliiit down over the glottis in the act of swallowing. Though en^^merated with the cartilages above, it is in part of tendinous tissue and may be called fibro-cartilaginous. The masticated food slides over the upper surface of the epi- glottis into the oesophagus. If, by reason of tardy or imperfect closure, the food passes into the larynx instead, a convulsion follows; and we saythatwehave " swallowed the wrong way." 1 0. The pharynx is a sort of chamber between the mouth and the larynx. It may be compared to an in- verted sack with several openings in one side. It opens downward into the larynx and oesophagus; forward, into the mouth, the nasal passages, and, by the Eustachian tubes into the drum of the ear. The pharynx, with the mouth and other cavities of the head, performs the office of a resonator or tone-magni- fier, giving greater power and richness to the tones of the larynx. THE PROCESS OF BREATHING. 1 1 . Inspiration, or inhalation, is the process of tak- ing breath. In order to inhale, the cavity of the chest is enlarged, thus tending to create a vacuum around the pleura, or lung-case. The resistance being thus removed, the outside air falls through the trachea and bronchi into the lung-cells, thereby causing the lungs to expand and follow up the walls of the chest. This enlargement of the chest is produced by a double agency: (1) The diaphragm is depressed, or flattened, partly by contraction of its radiating fibers, and partly by an outward movement of the walls of the abdomen, to which its outer rim is attached, thus enlarging the chest downward. (2) The ribs are moved upward and outward by the contraction of the intercostal and pec- toral muscles, and the chest is thus enlarged upward. 12 PHONOLOGY AND ORTHOJIPY. The first-named agency, the action of the diaphragm, is the one which should be most rehed on and cultivated for all vocal purposes, and those of general health as well. It is impossible to over-estimate the value of a full and proper use of the dia- phragm. Females are especially prone, through improper dress- ing or other bad habits, to err in the disuse of this organ. Feeble health and feeble voices are but the natural result. 12, Expiration^ or exhalation, is tlie opposite of inspiration. When the various organs have completed the movements of inspiration, they react by their own elastic force. This reaction is aided by that of other organs, as the intestines, that have been crowded upon, and by the weight of the ribs; and the air is driven or squeezed out of the lungs. THE PROCESS OF VOCALIZATION. 13. In ordinary respiration the vocal chords lie re- laxed and flattened against the walls of the larynx; and only a slight rustling sound, if any, is produced by the friction of the air breathed out. Yocalization, or the production of voice, is accom- plished in the following manner: By the contraction of the proper muscles in the larynx, the two arytenoid car- tilages, sitting on the back margin of the cricoid, are moved towards each other, thus bringing the vocal chords nearer together and narrowing the glottis to a mere chink. At the same time, the thyroid cartilage is drawn downward and slightly forward, thereby tightening the chords. The outward current of breath, driven against and between the now tense folds of membrane, sets them into a more or less rapid vibration, somewhat similar to that of the reeds in an accordion. This vibration is communicated to the confined column of air, as by the reed of a clarionet; and the air-waves, thus set in motion, are strengthened by the pharynx and ultimately affect the ear of the hearer. The result of all this is a vocal tone more or less pure, or in other words, voice. PHONOLOGY AND ORTHOEPY. 13 The action of the larynx is compared to that of a reed instru- ment. In fact it combines the three principles on which all musical instruments are constructed; the string, the reed, and the vibrating column of air as in the flute. Y THE ORGANS OF SPEECH. 14. The Organs of Speech are those organs which are employed in modifying the hreath, vocalized or un- vocalized, for the purpose of expressing thought. They are the tongue, lips, palate, teeth, and nasal By various combinations with each other, they obstruct the outward movement of the breath from the pharynx, and so give rise to a great variety of modifications of tne natural or funda- mental tone of the voice. In whispering, unvocalized breath is modified or affected by these organs to suit the purposes of speech. 15. The tongue is not the simple paddle-shaped or- gan which it is commonly supposed to be from observa- tion of its upper surface, but rather a thick cushion- shaped mass of muscular fibers in apparently complete confusion, but really so disposed as to be capable of pro- ducing motion in any and every direction or several directions at once. In phonology it is considered, for convenience of description, as having three parts, the tip, the front or blade, and the base. 16. The palate is the roof of the mouth. The fixed front portion is called the hard palate. Continuous with it, backward, is a yielding muscular and membranous awning, separating the mouth from the nasal passages and the upper part of the pharynx. This is the soft palate. Dependent from this is a conical appendage called the Uvula. The soft palate is capable of depression and other movements. 17. The nasal passages admit of closure at their inner extremities by the action of the soft palate. The u PHONOLOGY AND ORTHOEPY. presence or absence of this closure is very essential to the production of certain sounds. The lips and teeth need no description. The for^ mer are of great importance in articulation; the latter, of but little. Fig. 6. — Section of Head, Showing Tongue, etc. 6, Tongue; c, Sectivon of palate; d, d. Lips; P, Pharyn::; S, Epiglottis; w, Uvula; V, Glottis; 5, Passage into oesophagus, h, Hyoid bone; *, Thyroid cartilage. THE PROCESS OF ARTICULATION. 18. The distinctive and crowning process of speech is that of articulation, a process as complex and intri- cate as it is essential. The tongue, by its power of manifold motion, moves forward and back, narrows and widens, arches and flattens in its several parts; the lips open and con- tract; the palate rises and lowers; the nasal passages are closed and unclosed; the teeth approach and sepa- PHONOLOGY AND ORTHOEPY, 15 rate, — all these movements take place in every varying combination, shaping the column of vibrating breath; and from each separate combination results a sound of distinct and recognizable quality, capable of appropria- tion as a thought-symbol. The subject of articulation is further discussed in a succeeding chapter. THE ORGANS OF HEARING. 1 9. The ear is not an organ for the production of voice, but its receiving instrument. Sound-waves in the air, or other medium, are focused by the external ear upon the tympanum, a cavity cov- ered by a thin membrane similar in its arrangement and function to the head of a drum. A number of small bones in contact with the inner side of this mem- brane transmit the vibrations to the internal ear, whence the auditory nerves communicate with the brain. 20. Summary. The diaphragm and other muscles, by their alternate movements, operate the lungs. The breath, forced from the lungs, passes through the bronchi and trachea into the larynx. The vocal chords, when tensely drawn across the cavity of the larynx, set the column of breath into vibration. This vibration, increased by the resonating action of the pharynx and other cavities, is communicated to the external air, and at length falls as a tone upon the list- ening ear. 16 PHONOLOGY AND ORTHOEPY. CHAPTER 11. PHONOLOGY. 21. Phonology, or phonetics, is the science of ar- ticulate sounds, and treats of their physical character and formation. It is a branch of the science of acoustics. 22. Sound is the effect produced upon the auditory nerve by vibrations of the air or other conducting media. Water and solid substances, as wood, or metal, are good con- ductors or media of sound-waves; but usually, if not always, a greater or less portion of air enters into the chain of communi- cation. 23. Sounds are classified as tones and noises. A tone is a sound produced by regular, or periodical, vibrations (5f the sounding body. It admits of uniform continuation, and is usually agreeable to the ear. A noise, is a sound produced by irregular, or non- periodical, vibrations — the motions of the sounding body changing irregularly. A combination or co-incidence of discordant tones, as when the keys of a piano are all struck at once, is also a noise. A water-fall, for instance, or. a machine in motion, has its uni- form tone, or key-note, usually, however, rendered almost unnoticeable by the multitude of discordant noises — splash- ings, thumpings, etc. — which accompany and overpower it. 24. Toice is tone produced by the mutual action of tRe larynx and the breath from the lungs. It is, perhaps, possible, though exceedingly uncommon andrunnat- ural, to produce voice with the in-going breath. The pure, unmixed, unobstructed product of the larynx is the sound heard in the English word ah when clearly uttered. It PHONOLOGY AKD ORTHOEPY. 17 is the same in all persons without distinction of age, sex, or Jjce. It is capable, however, of extensive variation in pitch, this being the sole modification of voice which the unaided larynx can effect. The volume, or quantity, of voice depends upon the amount and the rate of expulsion of the out-going breath. It is con- trolled chiefly by the diaphragm and tiie abdominal muscles. 25. Speech is either voice or breath modified, by ar- ticulation, for the purpose of expressing thought. Singing without words, the wailing of an infant, etc., are exam- ples of voice without speech. Ordinary whispering is speech without voice. Common speech employs a mixture of vocalized and unvocalized breath duly articulated, a combination of tones and noises. 26. An oral element, or elementary sound, is, strictly speaking, a sound of human speech which can- not be analyzed, or separated into parts. It is produced witli a single and fixed position of the organs of speech. In common speech, however, the term has been loosely ap- pHed also to certain couplets or combinations of sounds, as the diphthongs. This leads to the expression, compound element, a contradiction in terms, but too firmly established by usage, perhaps, to be abolished. 27. The number of oral elements, including com- pounds according to the popular usage above men- tioned, is given by Webster's Dictionary as forty-five. The number recognized by Worcester is practically the same. Phonetists have not been able to come to any agreement, as yet, in regard to the exact number of distinct and true ele- ments in our language. The number of possible speech sounds is almost infinite. Alexan- der Ellis, the great English phonologist, has invented a notation for about 400 of them, which he calls the Palseotype. 28. Classification. The oral elements admit of classification in several different ways or modes, varying according to the basis of classification employed. The most familiar classification is that into vocals, sub-vocals, and aspirates. A vocal, or YOwel-sound, is a tone of the voice but 2 18 PHONOLOGY AND ORTHOEPY. little or not at all modified, or interrupted, by the or- gans of speech. A sub-vocal is a tone of the voice greatly modified, or interrupted, by the organs of speech. An aspirate is a mere breathing more or less modi- fied by the organs of speech. Vocals, sub-vocals, and aspirates, are also called, with great propriety, tonics, sub-tonics and atonies. /' Vocals, or tonics, are vocal tones nearly pure, i.e., but little mixed J . with mere noise. Sub-vocals, or sub-tonics, are impure tones, or tones so greatly mixed with noise, the rustling of breath against the organs, etc., that the noise predominates over the tone more or less. The tone is covered by the noise and be- comes undertone.^ Aspirates, or atonies, contain no vocal tone, being produced with the vocal chords in a state of inaction. *' It will thus be seen that this classification is based fp^ upon the amount o£ vocal tone — much, little, or none — which the sound contains. 2 9. A YOwel is a letter used ordinarily . to represent V a vocal, or tonic, sound. A consonant is a letter used ordinarily to represent a sub-vocal or an aspirate sound. Loose popular usage, it is true, employs the term vowel to de- i note a vocal, or tonic, sound; but it is needful for scientific pur- poses to restrict the meaning of the word. Nothing can be phonetically more absurd than the ancient and still common definition of a consonant, as " a sound which can- not be uttered without the aid of a vowel. ^' There is no sound in our language which cannot be uttered independently and alone. Nor is the later one, ** a sound which cannot be uttered without bringing the organs into contact," much better. It is true of only a part, at most, of the consonant sounds. And it is always better to confine the word consonant, as a noun, to the indication of a class of letters. The English vowels are a, e, i, o, m, and sometimes y. A more scientific statement would add to y also, I, n, and r. W is never a vowel. 30. Cognates (cog^ with; natus^ born) are those pairs of consonant sounds, one sub-vocal and one aspirate, which are produced with the organs of speech in the PHONOLOGY AND OKTHOEFY. 19 same, or very nearly the same, position for both, as h and p, V and /. A table showing all the cognates will be found in the chapter on Orthoepy. 31. A diphthong (di^ double; pJithongos, voice) is a combination of two vocals, or vowel-sounds, in one utter- ance or syllable. It may be represented to the eye by two letters or one. The essential characteristic and test of a diphthong is that it requires a change in the position of the organs of speech durmg the continuance of a tone. There are six diphthongs in the English language, as heard in the words out, oil, ice, %ise, oh, ate. The old distinction of "proper" and "improper'^ diphthongs, is essentially absurd and mischievous; and there is no such thing in the English language as a "triphthong." 32. A digraph is a combination of two letters to represent one sound. These letters may be vowels or consonants; hence we may have vowel digraphs, as ai in said, or consonant digraphs, as j)h in phiz. A trigraph is a combination of three letters to repre- sent one sound or a diphthong, as sch in schist^ eau in heau. The terms digraph and trigraph, like vowel and consonant, might be considered as belonging to Orthography, but they are also necessary here. 33. Another classification of the oral elements is that based upon the hind of modification which the sounds receive, that is, upon the special organs of speech used in forming them. The several classes take their names from the organ most promi- nently in use. A labial is a speech-sound modified chiefly by the lips, as the sounds of o, 6, and^. A palatal is a sound modified chiefly by the palate, as the sounds of e, ^, and k. 20 PHONOLOGY AND OKTHOEPY. A lingual is a sound modified chiefly by the tongue, as the sounds of Z, d^ and t. The lips, being two and external, are more independent than other organs in their action. The tongue and palate assist each other, the sound being named, or classed, according to the greater prominence of either organ in the work of modification. The teeth also assist in the formation of certain sounds, which may therefore be called labio-dentals, linguo-dentals, etc. Sounds which owe their peculiar quaUty in part to an open- ness of the nasal passages, are called nasals, as the soun(fe of m and n. 34. Long and sliort are terms which apply only to vocals. Vowel sounds differ from sub-vocals in that they are less interrupted by the organs of speech. They differ from each other in quantity or duration, and in quality. With reference to quantity, they are classified as long and short. Long vowel sounds are those which may be, and usu- ally are, prolonged in their utterance, as a in pay^ oo in woo^ etc. Sliort vowel sounds are those which, in ordinary speech, do not admit of prolongation, as i in fit^ o in not^ etc. Tliey are in the English language peculiarly abrupt or "ex- plosive " in their utterance. The prolonging of a short sound results in "drawling.*' 35, Each vowel has a " regular " long and short sound which it in most cases represents, and one or more " oc- casional" or irregular sounds. The regular long and short sounds of a given vowel, in English, are not neces- sarily, nor even usually, the natural correlatives of each other. a, a, a, Long Sounds. Short Sounds. as in - - fame. a, as in - - fat. '' - father. a, " - a^k. " - - fall. e, " - - met. " - fare. i, " - pit. " - . mete. 0, " - - coffee. PHONOLOGY AKD OETHOEPY. 21 Long Sounds. Short Sounds. e, as in - verse. 00, as in - foot. i, '' - - mine. w, " - - up. 0, " - tone. 00, " - - boot. w, " - tune. w, " - - urge. OM, " - sour. oi, " - - oil. COREELATIVE LONG , AND Short Sounds. Long. Short. a in care - - - e in met. a in father - - a in ask. a in fall - - - in coffee, on. e in mete - i in mit. 00 in boot - - - 00 in foot. 11 in urge - w in up. The sounds of a in fat, e in versCj and the six diphthongs, have no English correlatives. 36. Quality, Yowel sounds differ in quality accord- ing to the different positions of the organs during their utterance, every new adjustment of the organs produc- ing a distinct effect upon the ear. The various terms, as fiat, grave, hroad, oUuse, etc., which have been used to indicate quality of sounds, are rather mis- leading than useful. The study and discrimination of the nicer and more difficult shades of sound, and of the configurations by which they are produced, is a matter of much importance to scientific students of language. 37. Semi-TOwels are those sounds which, in their degree of modification, stand on the border line between vocals and sub-vocals, and are thus capable of use in either class. They are the sounds of w, y, Z, w, and r, and perhaps even that of m. See section 60. The term "semi-vowel" is not extremely accurate; but for the want of a better is used here, and is likely 22 PHONOLOGY AND OETHOEPY. to continue in use, with, a more scientific application than formerly. 38. For purposes of description all the classifications outlined in the preceding section are useful. Other classifications according to physiological character have been made, but that of Prof. W. D. Whitney — adapted, in this work, to the notation of Webster's Dictionary — will be chiefly adhered to, as on the whole the simplest and most satisfactory for practical purposes. The following diagram presents this classification to the eye at a single view: 39. Diagram of the oral elements. (Classljied according to Mode of Formation.) a a \J /'. v/ a/\ ^ 5. gJi-^ w J^" ••"•—— ■---_ _ii5g--- wh h zh Z& n^ sh m k eh th t f p The above diagram is, in the main, self-explanatory to one acquainted with Webster's notation. Starting with the pure, open tone ah^ the sounds in each series are arranged in the order of openness, downward direction indicating increase of closure. _ Diphthongs are represented upon curved lines connecting their component elemente. Consonant sounds not belonging fully to any one of the three series, are placed beside that to which they are the most closely related. If the student will produce, successively, all the sounds of each series in the downward order, he cannot fail to observe the gradual and uninterrupted closm-e of the organs concerned. PHONOLOGY AND OETHOEPY. 23 DESCRIPTION OF THE ENGLISH SOUNDS. A brief description of each of the sounds recognized by the Eng- lish dictionaries is here given as possibly the most practical and serviceable part of this treatise. It is thought best to take them up in the order in which they naturally occur in the several series as exhibited in the preceding diagram (Sec. 39). THE VOWEL SOUNDS. 40. A as in ah, far. Italian a. This is the fundar mental tone of the human voice, the pure product of the vocal organs. Its proper production requires an ex- treme openness of the organs of speech, allowing the column of fully vocalized breath to pass without obstruc- tion at any point. All other vocals, and the sub-vocals, may be considered as simply modifications of this tone. This noblest of sounds has become, unhappily, too rare in our lan- guage, constituting at present less than one-half of one per cent, of our whole utterance, as against five per cent, in the German and thirty per cent, in the ancient Sanscrit. 41. A as in ask. Short Italian a of Webster — Intermediate a of Worcester. This sound differs from the preceding one in quantity, being " short " or explo- sive. When perfectly produced, it requires the same extreme openness of the organs as the full Italian a; but it is liable, even in the mouths of good speakers, to a slight modification by closure. In instruction, however, the full openness should be insisted upon. Uneducated speakers often use, in place of this elegant sound, in words like dance, grass, etc., a corruption or drawling of the short a, a coarse and most disagreeable eiTor. LABIALS. 42. as in on, coffee. A as in what. Short o, (short broad a). This sound so closely resembles the short Italian a, as to be very often confounded with it. Its proper utterance requires that the column of vocal- 24 PHONOLOGY AlTD ORTHOEPY. ized breath should be slightly obstructed by contraction of the lips, drawing the corners of the mouth slightly towards each other. The sound closely resembles that of a in fall^ but is short, or explosive, admitting of no prolongation. Much care should be taken with this sound; for, while it is one of the finest in the language, it is probably the most abused — the pronunciation of such words as not, what, on, hogj fog, tcatch, etc., with the sound of Italian a, more or less short- ened, bein^ the invariable custom of the majority of people in some localities, especially in the Northwestern States. This is a provincialism which deserves no toleration. 43. A as in awe. as in or. Broad a. Broad a resembles Italian a in quantity, being long; but it is modified by a contraction and consequent projection of the lips, which lengthens the cavity of resonance. The position of the lips is a trifle closer than that for sJiort 0, from which sound this differs but slightly, ex- cept in duration. A few words like cross, cost, salt, are often pronounced with a quantity intermediate between the regular short o SLudbroad a. This distinction need not be insisted upon, however. 44. as in ho. Long o. This sound is a labial diphthong. It begins with a position of the lips some- what closer than that for broad a, which position is still further closed during the continuance of the tone, which vanishes in the sound of oo as in coo. In unaccented syllables ending in o, and in a few words like wholly, the vanish is omitted, and only the radical or brief initial sound remains. 45. 00 as in foot. as in wolf. U as in put. Short 00 — (u medial). A still closer lip position than the one for beginning long o, with an explosive emission of voice, gives the short vocal known as short oo^ heard in foot^ push. 46. 00 as in boot. as in do. Uasinrnde. Long 00 — (slender o). A prolongation of the vocal tone PHONOLOGY AND OKTHOEFY. 25 with, a slightly closer position than for the preceding sound (short ooX yields the sound heard in coo^ do. It is the closest of the labial vocals, the next stage of lip- closure resulting in the sound of w. This sound is often indolently contracted into the short oo in such words as hroom, room, soon, and even food. To pronounce these with the sound of oo in foot is grossly neghgent, though only too common. 47. Ou as in sound. Ow as in cow. If the lips change from extreme openness, as in ah^ to the extreme closeness of oo while the vocal tone continues, the re- sult will be the labial dipthong, ow, which, therefore, may be considered as the sum of the whole series just discussed. Its analysis is ow= a + (55. A caution is here necessary. Many speakers begin this diph- thong with the sound of short a, as caou for cow. This vulgar error is usually thought to be a pecuharity of ilUterate ** Yankees,'* but it is by no means limited to New England. PALATALS. This series of sounds might with greater accuracy be termed Linguo- Palatals, since the part played by the tongue is so great; but the simpler term has the sanction of high authority, at least. 48. A as in at. Short a. This simple and familiar sound differs but little in position from the short Italian o, though quite distinct to the ear. A slightly differ- ent adjustment of the soft palate from that for ah, and a slight lifting of the blade of the tongue, constitute its peculiarity. * Like other short sounds it should receive a neat and elegant utter- ance, any prolongation of it destroymg its true character. 49. E as in met. Short e. A still closer approach of tongue and palate than that required for short a, is necessary for the production of short e, the tongue being thrust well forward, and its middle portion considerably arched. The only caution needful is that against prolongation in speaking. It may be prolonged in singing, however. 26 PHONOLOGY AND ORTHOEPY. 50. A as in care. E as in there. Circumflex a, (Worcester's a long before r). This sound has been thought by some to be identical with the preceding one, short e. It differs from it, when correctly uttered, in being somewhat closer and in admitting of moderate prolongation. It occurs, in accented syllables, only be- fore the sound of r, and has by some been erroneously regarded as a diphthong, owing to the semi-vowel char- acter of the r itself. It is a simple element, and consti- tutes the radical, or initial, part of the diphthong, long a, heard in jpay. The majority of American speakers — in the interior, at least — give in place of this sound one of somewhat different character. It may be described as short a drawled or prolonged. Thia practice receives a sort of left-handed sanction from Webster, " provided it be given without undue coarseness or breadth; " but it is usually avoided by cultivated speakers. There is some- thing to be said in its favor scientifically, however, as furnishing the correlative long sound, otherwise missing, of short a. With this utterance, it should be placed above short e in the scale (Sec. 39). 51. A as in pay. E as in prey. Long a. Long a is a linguo-palatal diphthong. It begins with the preceding sound in the series, a as in care^ and closes with the sound of e in me. This involves a considerable closure of the palate and tongue during the utterance of the sound. In the utterance of a in care, the tongue is inimediately drawn back and narrowed to form the palatal r; but in forming long a the tongue is pressed still further forward, and is crowded against the upper teeth to form the vanishing element. In unaccented syllables, the vanish is sometimes omitted. 52. I as in it. Y as in abyss. Short i. This sound most resembles that of e in me. It is slightly more open in its formation, being, in closeness, midway between the radical and the vanishing parts of long a. It is a true abrupt or short sound; and even when pro- longed, it is still distinct from long e. PHONOLOGY AND OETHOEPT. 27 53. E as in me. I as in pique. Long e. This is the closest of the palatal vocals, the next stage of pala- tal closure yielding the semi-vowel y^ as in yet For the formation of long e, the edges of the tongue are pressed against the teeth, while its middle portion is almost in contact with the palate throughout its whole length, thus leaving a very thin passage for the breath. 54. I as in ice. Y as in my. Long i. This is a palatal diphthong. For its production, the tongue and palate are placed in the extreme open position of Italian a and closed, during vocalization, to the extreme close position of long e. Thus, like ow, it is the sum of a series of sounds. Its analysis is usually given as l=d + e, which is practically correct. A common fault in its utterance consists in not commencing with a sufficiently open position of the mouth. MIXED DIPHTHONGS. Ou and long o are labial diphthongs; long i and long a are palatal diphthongs. Two others combine the action of all the organs in such a way as to entitle them to the name, mixed diphthongs. 55. U as in use, tune. Ew as in new. Long u. The diphthong long u presents two distinct phases to the ear, as heard in the words use and tune. If the palate and tongue be placed in the close and tense posi- tion required for the sound of y in yet^ and then opened while the lips close to the position of oo in woo^ the re- sulting voice-sound will be that of long u at the begin- ning of a syllable, as in union^ use^ etc. In any other place than the beginning of a syllable, however, it is almost impossible to perfectly form the y sound; hence a more open position is substituted, that of short i^ as in it; and the u becomes a combination of short i and long 00^ the i accented, but very quickly uttered. But for this change from y to short t, the words tune and duke would become, in most mouths, choon and jook. 28 PHONOLOGY AKD OETHOEPY. Long u is one of the most difficult and trying sounds of our language. Its analysis may be represented thus, in + (5C). 5 6. Oi as in oil. Oy as in boy. Its position is that for broad a, awe, changing to that of the close palatal, short i; oi = t + i. LmGUALS. The Unguals differ from the palatals in the relative prominence of the tongue as a modifying instrument. This is more j)lainly seen in the consonant than in the vowel sounds of the series. 57. U as in np. as in son. Short u. This is an open sound, being like short a and short o but one remove from Italian a, though in a different direction. The slight closure necessary to transform short Italian a into short Uj is effected by a slight elevation of the base of the tongue. The sound is one of easy utterance, requiring little muscular effort, and therefore liable to intrude itself into many places where it does not belong, to the exclusion of more elegant sounds — especially in unaccented syllables. The excessive use of it is a mark of laziness and barbarous neghgence in speech. 58. U in urge. in word. Circumflex u. A slightly greater elevation of the back part of the tongue toward the soft palate than that for short w, with pro- longation of the tone, gives the sound of u heard before r final or r followed by another consonant. It is a com- paratively open sound, and easy of utterance, differing from short w, to the ear, chiefly in its greater duration. 59. E as in yerse. I as in girl. Tilde e. This is a close lingual sound, the tongue being well raised in all its forward part, while the teeth are brought nearer together than for the preceding sound (u in urge). It has been described as an intermediate between short e as merry, and the u in urge: though it is commonly con- PHONOLOGY AND ORTHOEPY. 29 fused by great numbers of the people with the latter sound. The distinction between the two is insisted upon by such authorities as Webster and Smart. The direction to be given to students is: Keep a close position of all the organs and form the sound well forward in the mouth. The u sound can be made with an open mouth, this cannot. This seems to be identical with the German umlaut o, as in Goethe. It is also quite similar to our lingual r, which accounts for a part of our difficulty with it, and for the fact that the word Goethe is so often sunk into '* Gerty '' in pronunciation. In trying to escape confounding this sound with u in urge, we are in danger, also, of going to the opposite extreme of making it too closely resemble short e, SEMI-VOWELS. 60, As the difference between vocals and sub-vocals is only a difference in degree of modification or obstruc- tion by the organs of speech, it is but natural that there should be a stage of uncertainty, a sort of border-land, between them. Hence some writers, with much reason, recognize those sounds which lie along this border-line as a separate class, under the name of semi-vowels. 61, W. The labial semi-vowel is represented in English by the letter w. It is formed by a lip-closure so extreme as to lessen the purity of the tone consider- ably below that of long oo, though not so far as to pre- vent prolongation of the sound. 62. Y. The palatal semi-vowel is the sound ofyia yet, which bears the same close relation to long e that w does to long oo. The position of the organs is similar tv, that for long e, but one degree closer, reducing the tone to a mere buzz or hum. The tongue is sHghtly drawn back from the e position, and the pressure against the teeth is increased. 63. B. Closely related to the sound of e in her (tilde e), are the two sounds of r. The lingual r, heard 30 PHONOLOGY AND ORTHOEPY. at the beginning — or anywhere before the vowel sound — of a syllable, is formed by placing the tongue well forward and turned upward so that the breath is passed over its extreme tip, producing a very slight trill or vibration. The position differs from that of tilde e in the turning up of the tip of the tongue. The palatal or uvular r, heard at the end of a syllable, or whenever not immediately followed by a vowel, as in far^farm^ can be produced without the aid of the tip of the tongue, being formed farther back in the mouth. This is clearly a different sound from the lingual r, but the two are not discriminated by some ears. The common and disa- greeable error of failing to sound the palatal r — ^vingfahmah for farmer, etc., is usually taken as an evidence of affectation. It is often, however, a matter of innocent, ignorant habit rather than affectation. 64, L. The sound of I is of about the same closeness as the lingual r, the tip of the tongue, however, being placed against the upper teeth or the roof of the mouth, and the breath allowed to escape over the edges of the tongue. It is the semi-vowel diaracter of I which allows it to become the vocal basis of a syllable, as in able, shovel, etc., in which the e is entirely mute, and yet the words are dissyllables. The substitution of I for r by Chinamen is doubtless a consequence of the similarity of the two in degree of interruption. 65. N. The nasal sound of w, in nail^ has the same peculiarity as the foregoing, often constituting a syllable of itself, as in heaven^ cotton^ where the preceding vowel is silent. • In the production of this sound, the tongue is placed against the hard palate in such a way as to wholly obstruct the oral passage, the breath escaping through the nasal passages instead. ( Labial, TT. Semi-Vowels. •] Palatal, 7. ( Lingual, i?, LyN, PHONOLOGY AND ORTHOEPY. 31 OTHER SUB-YOCALS. 66. As already defined, sub-vocals are tones pro- duced in the larynx, but greatly modified in the mouth. They are thus impure tones, or, as the name implies, un- dertones. Vocals are also subject to obstruction, as we have seen, but not to the same degree. The obstruction of the breath gives rise to friction and a mingling of mere noise with the tone. When this admixture of noise reaches such a degree as to predominate over and partially ob- scure the tone, the sound is called sufe-vocal. LABIALS. 67. y. If the edges of the upper teeth be placed upon the lower lip, and the vocalized breath forced be- tween the teeth, the sound of the letter v will be pro- duced. This sound would be more correctly named labio-dental. 68. M. Let the lips be closed entirely and the vocal- ized breath be allowed to pass only through the nose. The resulting sound is that of m. It differs from that of n only in its initial quality and not in its continua- tion. This sound is sometimes ranked among the semi- vowels, since it is possible for it to serve as the vowel element of a syllable, as in the common contraction yes'm, and the ejaculation m'h'm. These are hardly legitimate words, however. 69. B. If, now, the nasal passages be covered by the soft palate, while the action of the larynx continues, we have the sound of the letter 5, a sound requiring com- plete contact of the organs and, so, not capable of pro- longation. The common error in its separate production consists in allowing the lips to part, thus producing not the sound of b alone, but in connection with a neutral vowel — a combination best repre- sented by the syllable buh. 32 PHONOLOGY AND OETHOEPY. PALATALS. 70. Zli. The sound usually represented by z before long w, as in azure^ or by 2; or s before t, as in osier^ is produced with the blade of the tongue in close proximity to the hard palate and the teeth shut, or nearly so. It is a simple element, produced without change of position, though tongue, teeth and palate conjoin in its formation. It is thus not a pure but a mixed palatal. This sound has been treated as a compound of z^ and y, but the fact seems to be that the utterance of z and 1/ in succession is impossible without a hiatus, and this element, somewhat sim- ilar to them both, is substituted for them. Though known as the soand of zh, it is never represented by that combination of letters, which, indeed, does not occur in tlie EnffHsh language. The sound might, with more propriety, be called the second sound of z. 71. J. The sound of j is also a mixed palatal. It has generally been considered a compound of the sound of d and the one just discussed, zh. It is undoubtedly a compound, a sub-vocal diphthong, so to speak; but the analysis mentioned, d+zh^ is of doubtful accuracy. D+y would seem to be nearer the truth; but the sec- ond element is, in all probability, a sound which does not occur separately in our language. The sound of j differs from that of zh in the still greater elevation of the tongue, forming a temporary contact with the hard palate, which is then suddenly broken, the closed teeth parting at the same instant and allowing the breath to escape forcibly. Wheny is uttered without a vowel immediately ensuing, it is in- evitably followed, or closed, by the sound of its aspirate cognate, ch. 72. Ng, N. The second or palatal sound of w, usu- ally called ng, is produced by bringing the soft palate and the back part of the tongue into complete contact, compelling the breath to escape through the nose, as in m and n. PHONOLOGY AND ORTHOEPY. 33 From being produced so far back, it is often called a guttural, or throat sound. It is very often displaced by the first or common sound of n m the mouths of indolent or negligent speakers. 1 hough often represented by the digraph ng, it is frequently represented by n alone, as in fin-ger, lin-ger, etc., in which words the g has its own sound and fdnns no part of the repre- sentation of this sound. 73. G. With the base of the tongue and the soft palate in perfect contact, close also the nasal passages; the attempt to vocalize will result in the sound of g, as iu gate, which occupies the same place in the palatal series as 5 in the labial — the last, or closest, sub-vocal. The letter g is unfortunately often used to represent the more open sound of j, LINGUALS. 74. Th. The sub-vocal th, as in this, is a linguo- dental. Though the occasion of so much trouble to foreigners learning our language, it is of the easiest pro- duction. Place the tip of the tongue under and against the edges of the upper teeth and expel the vocalized breath between the teeth. The above simple direction, aided by reasonable attention and perseverance will enable any person, whose mouth has not be- come actually ossified, to acquire this sound perfectly. 75. Z. To produce the sound of z, as in buzz, the tongue takes the same general position as for the trilled r; but the tip is a little less elevated and is brought very- near to the teeth, which are nearly or quite closed. The close resemblance of this position to that for thy accounts for the Frenchman's treatment of that sound, th, in speaking English. 76. D. Place the tip of the tongue against the hard palate, so as to completely obstruct the oral passage, the position for n; close the nasal passages also, permitting no breath to escape. The attempt to vocalize will then 3 34 PHONOLOGY AND ORTHOEPY. result in the sound of the letter d^ the last sub-vocal in the lingual series. Like h and g^ it is non-continuant. The same error is made in attempting to produce this sound sepa- rately that was mentioned in connection with h. The organs are allowed to pait, permitting the breath to escape and form the syllable duh. Let no breath escape until the tone has ceased. ASPIRATES. 77. Wh. If un vocalized breath be expelled with the lips closely contracted, as for the semi-vowel w^ the sound produced is that represented by wh^ as in wliat^ a labial aspirate. It has been a disputed point whether this sound is simply a whis- pered w or a compound, h + w, the w of the compound being the full sub-vocal. The editors of Webster have seemed to waver on this point, but such phonologists as Ellis and Bell pronounce it to be a distinct and simple aspirate. A failure to discriminate between this sound and its cognate, iv, constitutes one of the peculiarities of the English cockney dia- lect, in which when, tvhat, which, become wen, wat, tvich, etc. 78. F (Ph). The labio-dental aspirate/, is the cog- nate of V, The lower lip is placed against the upper teeth and un vocalized breath expelled. 79. P. If the un vocalized breath be accumulated behind the closed lips and they be suddenly parted, the puff of escaping air yields the sound of the letter p, a labial aspirate. 80. H. The forcible aspiration known as the sound of A, is usually classified as a palatal. It is, however, somewhat anomalous in character, being capable of pro- duction in any of the vowel positions indifferently, as can be seen by uttering the words aha^ oho^ and similar combinations, in which the whole is pronounced with- out change of position. It is simply a sudden expulsion of the breath with any_ open posi- tion of the organs, and the Greeks were consistent in rejecting it as an independent sound, and in denying it a letter for its representation. PHONOLOGY AND ORTHOEPY. 35 8 1 . Sh. The mixed palatal sh^ the cognate of zh, is clearly a single element. The blade of the tongue is well arched toward the hard palate, the teeth are nearly or quite closed, and the breath is thus expelled with much friction, giving a highly aspirated sound. This sound is represented, in English orthography, by a great number of symbols, mostly digraphs, as sh, ci, ti, ch, etc. 82. Ch. The sound of cA, heard in child^ chin^ is the cognate of ^ and, like it, a compound difficult of analysis. The analysis, ch=t-\- y^ is probably nearer the truth than the more common one, ch=t-\-sh; but its relation to either of these combinations is, doubtless, that of simi- larity rather than identity. In its formation the tip of the tongue is placed against the hard palate, and the teeth shut. The closed organs are then suddenly parted, and the escaping breath yields the sound of ch. 83. K. The sound of ^, often represented by other letters, as c, c/^, gh^ is the only purely palatal aspirate in our language, though several are foand in other lan- guages, as the* German. For its production the soft palate is made to meet the base of the tongue, the nasal passages being also closed — the same position as that for its cognate g. When this complete closure is suddenly broken by the unvocalized breath, the sound of k results. 84. Th (aspirate). This sound differs from the sub- vocal th only in the lack of vocality. The tip of the tongue is placed under the edges of the upper teeth, and the breath is blown out between the teeth. It is a linguo-dental. The substitution of this sound for that of s, constitutes the fault known OS lisping. The simple direction for its cure is: Keep the tongue within the teeth while sounding s. The remark with regard to the teaching of the sub-vocal th to foreigners, applies with equal force to this. 36 PHONOLOGY AND ORTHOEPY. 85. S. If the tip of the tongue be turned slightly- upward near the upper teeth, as for 2;, and unvocalized breath be passed over it, the sound of s will be the re- sult. It is a fine, sharp whistle. The common mouth, however, too often renders it as a coarse hiss. This and its cognate, z, are sometimes called sibilants. 86. T. The letter t represents the sound of the puff of breath set free by the sudden parting of the middle closure of the mouth, that formed by the close contact of the tip of the tongue with the hard palate. If the sound of c? be produced, and the breath be then blown out, it yields this sound, the pure lingual aspirate. CHAPTER III. PHONOTYPY. 87. Phonotypy is the art of representing speech- sounds to the eye by distinct and appropAate symbols. This term, originally given to a particular system of speech-sym- bols, may now be appropriately applied to the whole art of pho- netic representation. 88. The ancient Phoenicians are credited with making the first analysis of the sounds of speech, and with the adoption of a phonetic system of characters for the representation of the sev- eral sounds. This was an inconceivably great step in linguistic science, but one which has not been repeated. The present Enghsh alphabetic notation of sounds, or orthography, is no ad- vance from the Phoenician system, but the reverse. It is, in- deed, so imperfectly phonetic and so utterly unscientific as scarcely to deserve mention under this head — except for some consideration of its defects. 89. The defects of our English alphabet may be briefly specified. 1. For the representation of, say, forty-five sounds, it furnishes but twenty-six characters; and of these, three. PHONOLOGt AND OETHOEPY. 37 c, g, and x^ are worthless, having no sounds of their own. Consequently, one letter, as a, must represent several sounds. 2. Our letters are unsteady in their powers, now rep- resenting one sound and now another, and often no sound at all. This is the source of great confusion. 3. Our orthography is inconsistent. Similar sounds find no similarity in their symbols, as v and/, for exam- ple. Single letters represent compound sounds, as long iy long w, and^'; while digraphs represent single sounds, as thy ph^ etc. 4. The letters do not represent the same sounds as in other languages. Thus our long e is represented in other languages by i; our oo sounds, uniformly by u; our long a, by g, and all in a far more symmetrical and consistent manner than in English. In short, a more unsystematic, inconsistent, uneconomical method of representing speech than the present Enghsh orthography, is doubtless impossible to human ingenuity. 90. Various attempts have been made to devise a scientific and thoroughly phonetic system of sound-symbols. The most noted among these are the *' Standard Alphabet " of Lepsius, Pit- man's " Phonotypy," the " Palaeotype " and " Glossotype " of Alexander Ellis, and Bell's " Visible Speech." Many other phonotypic and phonographic systems have been employed by missionaries and short-hand reporters. The Palaeotype of Ellis, presents a notation for about 400 distinct sounds; but perhaps tne most ambitious of all these systems is the " Visible Speech" of Alex. Melville Bell, which undertakes to represent all possible human utterance by simple characters, picturing, as it were, the successive positions of the organs of articulation. DIACRITICAL MARKS. 91. The inadequacy of the English alphabet is such that for the most ordinary purposes of orthoepy, it has been found necessary to employ an auxiliary system of diacritical marks — guide-boards on the heads of our Vowel marks 38 PHONOLOGY AND* ORTHOEPY. bewildered letters — a needful makeshift to overcome the incapacity of our orthography for exact represen- tation. 92. Webster's Dictionary employs the following marks; The Macron, "" The Breve, ^ The Circumflex accent, a The Tilde, or Wave, ^ Two Dots, •• One Dot, • ( The Bar, - I Consonant marks. < The Dotted Bar, — ( The Cedilla,, Most of these marks, and some others, are used in Worcester's Dictionary and in the Gazetteer and Biographical Dictionary, of Dr. Thomas, but not always with the same signification. 93. Significance of the diacritical marks. The MACROS and breye having been used from time imme- morial to indicate the quantity of syllables, they are very naturally employed in all dictionaries to indicate the regular long and short sounds of the vowels. The CIRCUMFLEX, or circumflex accent, long used to indicate " common " quantity, is employed by Webster to denote certain sounds of a, e^ o, and w, before r — all long sounds. By Worcester the same mark is used to mark the broad sound of a and several substitute sounds, as i with the sound of long e, etc. Two DOTS above the vowel are used by Webster to mark the Italian a only; by Worcester, for the same sound and also for the '' short and obtuse " sounds of all other vowels when followed by a single r in accented syllables. One dot beneath a vowel is used by Worcester uni- formly to indicate the obscure sounds of vowels in un- accented syllables, for which Webster, in general, PHONOLOGY AND ORTHOEPY. 39 employs no notation, depending upon the application of rules. The dotted bar, used by Worcester to mark certain vowel sounds, is placed by Webster under s and x to in- dicate their use as sub-vocals (for z and gz). For the signification of other marks, as the tilde or wave, the cedilla, etc., the dictionaiies named may be consulted. A com- parative table of the markings of the two, Webster and Wor- cester, would have been given but for the difficulty in obtaining proper type. 94. Spelling Reform. The grievous defects of our English orthography, as pointed out in Sec. 89, have become so evident and so burdensome as to enlist the most distinguished linguistic scholars of this country, and many in England, among the advocates of a re- formed alphabet. The alphabet proposed by the Spell- ing Reform Association is thought to be the most feas- ible, as well as the latest, scheme yet proposed. This alphabet, with a specimen of its use, is given be- low. A careful study of it is recommended. It will be observed that modified forms of a, o, and m, are used for certain sounds of those letters, and diacritical marks are em- ployed to denote long sounds where great accur3x;y is desirable. The consonant diagraphs in h, (th, ch, etc.) are retained. Dupli- cate characters for the sounds of long e and a, of k, j, ng, and z, are suggested for temporary use as "transition letters;" a transition stage being thought necessary before that of perfect phonetic representation. Alphabet op the Spelling Reform Association. Short. Vauela. Long. I i, it. £ B=T, he, polTc?. E e, met. Q a=e, potato, tiiey, fare. A a, at. a, fare, (in America). 0. a, ask, (sb Dictionaries). a, for. e, net, what. e, ner, wall. O o, wholly, (in New England). o, no, holy. U u, but. U, born. U u, full. u, rule, fool, muv. Difflienga.— I j=ai, f^nd, faind. QU au, haus=house. 61 ei, eil. U h er U U=yu er iu, Unit, yunit; rnileic, miuaic. 40 PHONOLOGY AND ORTHOEPY. Surd. Censonants. Sonant P p, pet. B b, bet. T t, tep. D d, did. CH (5h, dhmdh. J, Q j, g, jet, gem. C, K c, k,q, cake, cwit (quit). G g, get. F f, fit, filesofer. V v. vat. TH fli, fhin, pithy. TH tii, Thfe, 1h%. S, Q s, 9, so, 9ent. Z, 8 z, 8, zone, is. SH ^, ^fe. ZH 2fh, filj^un. WHwh, whidh, (in England). J^ w, wb. . „ . jl h hfe. Ll,lo. Rr,rat. Yy,yB. Mm,mp. ' * N n, no. NG ng, Ui), king, igk. Silabic : — ^1, nobl, nobla ; m, spaam, spaama ; n, tokn, tokna. Bj thfe fonetic alfabet a dijld ma bfe tet thfe art ev rfeding, net fli\entli but wel, both in fonetic and in erdineri buks, in thrfe munths— ai, efn in twenti aura ev fhuro instruc^iun; — a task hwicJh ia rarli acempli^t in thre yfera ev toil bj thfe old alfabet. Hwet fattiur er tBdhur wil net gladli hel and urnestli wurk for this grat bun tu ediica^un,— this pauurful ma^fen f er tiiB dif iizQiun ev neleg. An elturd erthegrafi wil bfe unaveidabli efensiv tu thoa hu ar f urst celd upen tu iia it ; but ehi sensibl and consistent nil sis- tem wil rapidli win thfe harti prefurenp ev thfe mas ev rjtura. (The same, omitting the transition letters a, g, 9, and the dupli- cate letter k, and using full forms for the diphthongs j and il). Bai thB fonetic alfabet a c5haild ma bfe tet thfe art ev rfedin]?, net fliuentli but wel, both in fonetic and in erdineri bucs, in ChrB munths — ai, efn in twenti aurz ev thuro instruc^un; — a tasc hwidh iz rarli acempli^t in thrfe vferz ev toil bai tiife old alfabet. Hwet fathur er tfecihur wil net gladli hal and urnestli wurc fer ttiis grat bun tu ediuca^un,— this pauurful ma^fen fer thfe dif iu- ^un 'ev nelej. An elturd erthegrafi wil bfe unaveidabli efensiv tu thoz hu ar f urst celd upen tu yuz it ; but eni sensibl and consistent niu sistem wil rapidli win tiife horti prefurens ev thfe mas ev raiturz. PHONOLOGY AND ORTHOEPY. / 41 CHAPTER IV. ORTHOEPY. 95. Orthoepy is the art of pronunciation, or the correct utterance of words. Its elements are Articula- tion, Syllabication and Accent. ARTICULATION. 96. Articnlation is that action of the tongue and other organs of speech by which each oral element receives its peculiar and proper character. As the action of the organs is slight for vowel and great for con- sonant sounds, the chief labor of articulation is found in con- nection with the latter, some writers even limiting the term articulation to the execution of consonant sounds. The word is derived from articulus, a little joint, and thus liter- ally signifies the jointing of sveech. The fitness of this term arises from the natural law of alternation in speech, the continual alternation of open and close sounds. This law may be illus- txated by the following diagram: Two or more consonant sounds may occur in the same jomt; and two vocals capable of blending into a diphthong, may occur in the same node. Two consecutive vocals not thus blended, must be separated by a slight hiatus or pause. 97. Good articulation demands, in reading or speaking, — 1. The exact and proper utterance of each sound; 42 THOXOLOGY AND OETHOEPY. 2. The utterance of all and only the required sounds; 3. The proper separation of the various sounds. The corresponding? errors in articulation are, 1. Bad enunciation; 2. Omission; 3. Blending. SOME COMMON ERRORS IN ARTICULATION. Analyze each of the following errors, and determine in what the error consists: dlgebray for algebra. Ameriky " America. attackted " attacked. bile boil. bimehy " by and by. ketch catch. childern children. drownded " drowned. equil equal. ellum elm. forrud *' forward. Mff^ figure. Febyiiary " February. fWeverrCever"" for ever and ever git get. holler for halloo. hunderd hundred. Id'no I don't know lickrish licorice. mushmelon musk-melon. miskeeter mosquito. mountanious mountainous nekked naked. aicnjiz oranges. pleg plague. piller pillow. peHy pretty. piidd'n pudding. wich which. yep yes. 98. The conditions of good articulation, and so of good pronunciation, are: 1. Flexibility and vigor of the organs of speech; 2. An exact knowledge of the peculiar character of each sound in the language; 3. A knowledge of the principles, or rules, according to which these sounds are combined; and, 4. Careful attention to the daily practical use of this knowledge, converting knowledge into skill. Flexibility of the organs may be attained by suitable drill exer- cises, such as the utterance in rapid succession of the sounds ah, ee, oo ; it, ip, ik; hade' , hadl ', hado ', with vigorous and exag- gerated facial action. Knowledge of the separate sounds may be acquired by the study of Chapter III. of this work; knowledge of their combination according to established rules or analogies, from the ensuing PHONOLOGY AND ORTHOEPY. 43 pages, or, more fully, from the standard dictionaries. Skill in application can be achieved only by careful and miremitting effort and attention. THE ENGLISH SOUNDS. 99. Tables of the English sounds, as presented by Webster's Dictionary, are here given for convenience of reference. Each sound should be studied carefully with respect to its physical character, as set forth in the sev- eral sections ofChapter III. - ,^ Chart of vocals and yowel substitutes. Sec- tion. Symbol Name. Key-word. Substitute Symbol. Key-word 51 a' long ; mate £ prey 48 a short , mat \ i 50 a circumfleix mre \ gi ivhere 40 a Italian ah, far 41 a short Italian ask 43 a broad awe 6 nor 53 e long me i marine 49 6 short met 59 e tilde verse 1 bird 54 I long tine y my 52 i short tin s abyss 44 long hone 42 5 short coffee a what 46 6b long loot i; do rude 45 oo short foot is wolf push 55 n long use., tune 57 fi short up 6 done 58 ft circumflex urge 47 ou sound ow cow 56 oi oil oy hoy 20 u PHONOLOGY AND ORTHOEPY. 100. Chart of consonant sonnds. (Cognates on the game line.) Sui -VOCALS. Aspirates. 1 Symbol. Key- word. Substir- tute. i?r Key- word. Substitute. Sec. 69 b bet p pet 79 76 d dot t tin ed,th 86 73 g get k kit hat c, ch, gh q 83 80 71 1 jet g ch chin 82 64 lid 68 m mit 65 n not 72 Q finger ng 68 r rat, tar 74 £h that th thin 84 67 V vat ■y f fat ph, gh 78 61 w woe wh when 77 62 y yet 75 z buzz s s stn 9 85 70 z(h) azure si, zi sh shot 9h, c, ce, ci, si, ti, sch. 81 SYLLABICATION. 101. A syllable is a vowel sound which alone, or in combination with one or more consonant sounds, forms a word or a separable part of a word. The letter I is to be considered a vowel in the termination hie and sometimes in final el, the e being strictly silent. The letters n and r also sometimes perform the vowel oflBce, as in euchre, haven, etc. The longest syllable in the English language is the word strength. 102. Syllabication is the separating of a word into parts according to the number of its distinct vowel sounds. Syllabication is the first step towards determining the pronunci- ation of an unfamiliar word. The difficulty of the process is PHONOLOGY AND ORTHOEPY. 45 much increased, in our language, by the frequency of silent letters and other irregularities. The syllabication of words in spelling is of no value to the spell- ing itself, but it is of great importonce, espedaJly to chilchren, as an aid to pronunciation. 103. Two general principles enter into syllabica- tion, — the phonetic, or division with respect to smooth- ness and ease of utterance; and the etymological, or separation with respect to the derivation of the word. Unfortunately for us no specific rules of much practical value can be given, so many exceptions arise from the conflict of the two principles named and from other causes. SILENT LETTERS. lOi, Silent letters, or those which are not direct representatives of sounds, constitute one of the chief hindrances to pronunciation. Many of these are as useless as they are annoying, while others perform some- what the same office as diacritical marks, governing and indicating the sounds of other letters. Thus: a. Silent e final usually indicates the long sound of the preceding vowel, as in mete, fanet b. The doubling of a c6nsonant usually indicates the short sound of the precedmg vowel, as m fallow, merry. c. A silent u after g indicates the hard sound of that letter as in guide, vogue. In vowel digraphs, the silent letters serve to indicate the sound of the other, or active, vowels; though the great lack of consistency and urdformity iii the influence which they exercise, renders them less useful to f he leanier. 105. Silent e occurs much more frequently than any other silent letter, and exercises a correspondingly great influence upon our orthoSpy and orthography. The following rules will be found of practical value: Rule 1. JE final is always silent except in monosyl- lables containing no other vowel, as be^ we^ and in classical or foreign words, as Calliope^ hlase^ etc. Rule 2, IE is usually silent in the termination ed. 46 PHONOLOGY AND ORTHOEPY. is sounded from Exceptions. (1) When preceded by d or t, the e i physiological necessity, as in hounded, acted. (2) When ed is followed bv ly or ness, the e has its regular short sound, as in assuredly, blessedness. (3) A number of adjectives, mostly participial, have the short sound of the e, as aged, beloved, blessed, crooked, cursed, dogged, hooked, learned, winged. As verbs or participles, however, they invariably drop the sound of the e. Rule 3. M is usually silent in the termination en^ cis in heaven^ which should be pronounced as nearly as possible in one syllable. There are a few exceptional words, like chicken, kitchen, hyphen; and the e is sounded when preceded by I, m, n or r, as in icooleny siren, etc. Rule 4. JEJ, though usually sounded in the termina- tion el^ is silent in a few words, as chattel, easel, hazel, ravel, shovel, weasel, etc. For full lists of the exceptions under the foregoing rules, see sec- tions 57 to 61 of Webster's Unabridged and Academic diction- aries. ACCENT. 106. Words of more than one syllable have one or more vowels pronounced with greater stress and clear- ness than the rest. This stress is called accent. • The syllabication of a word being known, the next question pre- sented is that of the location of accent. The sounds of the letters occasion less difficulty. The syllabica- tion and accent bein^ known, the general rules, or analogies, of the language furnish guidance to the pronunciation of the great mass of English words, notwithstanding all that is said of the anomalous character of our language. 107. When two accents occur in the same word, they are of unequal force. The heavier one, in such cases, is called the primary accent. The lighter is called the secondary accent. The secondary accent nearly always precedes the primary. Nearly all words of more than four syllables have a secondary accent. Some very long words have two secondary accents, PHONOLOGY AND OETHOEPT. 47 £is in-com' pre-Jien' si-hiV i-ty ; but no accent ever falls beyond the si::th syllable. A few of the simplest rules, only, are here given. 108. Rules for accent. Rule 1. Simple words of two syllables, excepting amen^ never have more than one accent. It is a very common error to pronounce such words as combat, exile, etc., with full stress on each syllable. This should be carefully avoided. A similar error consists in accenting two consecutive syllables in some words of more than two syllables, as in the words exactly, idea, etc., as sometimes heard. Rule 2. In compound words each part retains its own accent, as in morning-glory emp'ty-hand'ed. When the component words of a compound are monosyllables, each retains its clear utterance, as when taken alone, but the greater stress is laid on that one which is descriptive or re- strictive of the other, as in seed'-corn, ivheeV -horse. jWhen a compound has come into such common use, however, as to drop the hyphen, it is often accented like a simple word, as in cup'hoard, Mgh'land, Rule 3. Words which serve as verbs and also as nouns or adjectives, usually have the accent on the last syllable wl^en verbs — in other cases, on the first sylla^ ble, as contest'^ verb; con' test ^ noun — compound'^ verb; compound, noun or adjective. Some words, however, as address', express', etc., do not change the accent to denote the part of speech. Many errors in pro- nunciation come from the failure to note these exceptions to the general rule. Rule 4. All words ending in sion or tion have the ac- cent on the syllable next to the last, the penultimate syllable, as in presenta'tion. Rule 5. Words ending in ical, or acal, generally have the accent on the syllable next preceding, as in ammoni'- acalf fin'ical. 109. Monosyllables, when taken alone, or when at all emphatic, may be treated as if accented syllables. In common composition, however, monosyllabic pronouns, 48 PHONOLOGY AND ORTHOEPY. prepositions, conjunctions, and auxiliary verbs, and the articles, are usually quite unemphatic, and are then to be treated as unaccented syllables, receiving the same obscuration of the vowel sounds. See Sees. 117 and 118. The article the, before a vowel sound, has the sound of long e so shortened as to resemble short i. Before a consonant sound, the sound of the e verges towards short u. DRILL WORK. ANALYSIS AND APPLICATION. 110. Pronunciation is so greatly affected by habit that it becomes necessary, in the endeavor to eradicate ingrained errors and substitute correct for incorrect habit, to employ the most rigorous means for enforcing attention and assisting memory. For this purpose, marking exercises, or drills in the application of diacritical marks; analysis of words by formula; and phonic spelling, will all be found useful. Lists of words for such exercises are given at the end of the book. They are so selected as to serve a double purpose, all the words being such as are commonly mis- pronounced by the majority of speakers. These words should all be " looked up " in the dictionary, and the pupil not allowed to trust his past practice for anything. The following is suggested as a suitable formula for the analysis of accented syllables: 1. S-r-i-ga-n-d is a word of two syllables. Tlie accented syllable is b-r-i-g. Its vowel sound is ih (t). The letter i is marked with a breve. The word is pronounced brig' and. 2. C-a-u-c-a-s-i-a-n is a word of three syllables. The ac- cented syllable is c-a. Its vowel sound is ae. The letter a is marked with a macron ; si' has the sound of sh, and the word is pronounced cawcS' shun. 111. Phonic spelling. No course of instruction in orthoepy can safely omit giving a considerable amount of drill in phonic spelling, or " spelling by sound." This exercise has especial value in the direction of articula- tion, tending to increase facility and accuracy therein. PHONOLOGY AND ORTHOEPY. 49 For this purpose short, simple words should be used at first. The lists at the end of the book will furnish proper material for later work. The teacher should insist upon the utmost exactness in the utterance of each successive sound, according to the descriptions of Chapter III., and upon proper syllab- ication. RULES OF PRONUNCIATION. 112. Many of the rules or analogies which we unconsciously fol- low in every-day speech, are either so difficult of exact and at the same time simple statement, or so weakened by numerous exceptions, as to render their formal use difficult if not unprofit- able. Accordingly it is thought best to present here only a very few of the simplest and most useful. No attempt is made to state all the exceptions existing. 113. Rules for consonants: Rule 1. C when followed by e, /, or y^ has the sound of s, as in cede^ city. The exceptions are sceptic (better spelled skeptic) and scirrhus, with their derivatives. In sacrifice, sice, suffice, discern, and , their derivatives, c has the sound of z. Ci and ti, before ate or ation, have the sound, of shz, as in propi- tiate, pr(munciation. Rule 2. C when followed by a, o, u, ?, or r, and when it ends a syllable, has usually the sound of k, as in cute, caustic. In facade, a French word, c has the sound of s. Rule 3. G has its own or "hard" sound before a, o, w, Z, or r, and at the end of a word, as in gun, drug. The only exception is the obsolescent word gaol, and its deriv- atives. O is also hard in the derivatives of words ending in ^, as drug- gist, craggy. It has usually the sound oij before e, i, or y, but not always. Rule 4. ^ has its second sound, known as ng, before the sounds of k and g hard, as in finger, thankful. Exception: When the gr or k sound begins an accented syllable, the preceding n has its common sound ('w as in no), as in con- cord' ance, tranquillity. 4 50 PHONOLOGY AND ORTHOEPY. Rule 5. Q has always the sound of k. It is always followed by w, which has the sound of w^ as in quarts unless silent, as in mosque^ liquor. Rule 6. X has the sound of gz when followed by an accented vowel, as in exact\ exertion. At the begin- ning of a word it has the sound of Zj as in Xerxes. A very common error in pronunciation consists in giving x the sound of ks before an accented vowel, in violation of the above rule. Rule 7.' IT has its own sound at the beginning of a syllable, as in ye., beyond. In other situations, and when it constitutes the syllable, it has the vowel office, as in my^ abyss^ yclept. 114. Towels in monosyllables and accented syllables. In the statement of the following rules, monosyllables are considered as accented syllables. Rule 1. An accented vowel at the close of a syllable has usually its long or name sound, as in za'^ty^ pa'triot. Rule 2. An accented vowel followed by a single con- sonant (except r) in the same syllable, generally has its regular short sound, as in man'ly^ lin'en. Rule 3. An accented vowel in a syllable ending in silent e preceded by a single consonant (except r), has its regular long sound, as in mice^ debate. The three rules just given constitute the chief foundation of the " phonetic " method of teaching reading. Rule 4. In accented syllables ending in r final or r followed by another consonant, and in derivatives of such words, (1) A has its full Italian sound (a), as in bam, bar, debarred. (2) 2^ has its third sound (ej, as in fern, infer, in- ferred. (3) J has the sound of tilde e, (^) as in sir, stir, stir- ring. PHONOLOGY AND ORTHOEPY. 51 - (4) O has liiore commonly the sound of broad a (6), as in nor, storm; but sometimes equals circumflex u^ as in word^ or long o, as in ford, forge. (5) TJ has its third sound (fi) as in cur, curt, incurred. (6) Y has the sound of tilde e, as in myrtle, syrtic. Rule 5. An accented syllable ending in r doubled or r followed by a vowel, has the regular short sound of its vowel, as in mirror, heroine. This rule is analogous to Rule 2. Rule 6. In most monosyllables, and some other words, when followed by .^, ft, ss, st, sk, sp, and some- times nt and nee, a has its short Italian sound, as in pass, after, dance. Rule 7. A, when followed by unch^ und, or unt, has its full Italian sound, as in launch, laundry, haunt. This rule is not given because of its scope, but because it covers a class of words especially liable to abuse in pronunciation. Rule 8. JJ preceded by r has the sound of long oo, as in rule, ruin, except in a few familiar monosyllables and their derivatives, as run, rush, which take the short u. U never has its own long sound when preceded by r. This rale (Rule 8) is in fact an exception to^Rule 1, but is worthy of sepa- rate statement. • 115. Practice lists under the foregoing rules. Let each word in the following lists be studied analyti- cally, and referred to the proper rules in Sections 113 and 114. The use of the following formula, or some similar one, in recitation, is recommended: (1) C-h-€i-r-a-c-t-e-r is a word of three syllables. The accented syllable is c-h-a-r. It ends in r followed by a vowel; it thera- fore falls under Rule 5, Sec. 114, and the vowel a has its short sound (S). (2) D-o-c-il-e is a word of two syllables; d-o-c is the accented syllable. It ends in a single consonant, hence it falls under Rule 2, Sec. 114, and the vowel o has its short sound (5). C is followed by i, and therefore has the sound of s, according to Rule 1, Sec. 113. Tlie word is pronounced dos'il. 52 PHONOLOGY AND ORTHOEPY. The syllabication and accent must first be determined from the dictionary, if need be. List 1. 1. anemone 2. arable 3. agile 4. alternate 5. Arabic 6. canine 7. caravan 8. clangor 9. currish 10. cuiTy 11. docile 12. enervate 13. extirpate 14. horrid 15. larynx 16. matron 17. myrmidon 18. orange 19. peremptory 20. siren 21. sirup 22. tartaric 23. tirade 24. virulent ^5. whorl List 2. 1. aunt 2. craunch 3. donkey 4. dauntless 6. demoniacal 6. erudite 7. fast 8. harass 9. haunted 10. jaunty 11. miracle 12. narrow 13. panegyric 14. paragon 15. ruthless 16. rafter 17. saunter 18. terrapin 19. truculent 20. tarry (verb) 21. tarry (adj.) 22. taunt 23. ursine 24. wafted 25. zoology VOWELS IN UNACCENTED SYLLABLES. 116. The vowels of unaccented syllables undergo, in most cases, some obscuration or corruption of sound. These changes take place, however, according to quite uniform analogies, admitting of tolerably simple and exact formulation. The tabulation of these rules given below is adapted from the discussion in Webster's Dictionary, by special permission of the publishers. PHONOLOGY AND ORTHOEPY. 53 It would be remiss not here to state the fact that, after all, the most marked difference between unrefined and refined speech, between boorishness and elegance of pronunciation, consists in the management of unaccented syllables. Here it is that vo- calization and articulation are both liable to be defective, smothered, and bungling instead of clear, clean-cut, and ready. Increased elegance and effectiveness of speech will amply repay .even protracted and painful self-discipline in this direc- tion. 117. Unaccented syllables may best be separated into THREE classes: 1. Those ending in a consonant. 2. Those ending in or consisting of a vowel (not silent e). 3. Those ending in silent e preceded by a consonant. RULES FOR UNACCENTED VOWELS. Class 1. Vowels in Unaccented Syllables ending in a ConsonanL General rule. The vowel has in strict theory its regular short sound, as in entrust', undo'. Caution. Carefully avoid the sound of short u in such words as silent^ eVement^ etc. Exception 1. A and o generally verge toward short w, as in big'o^, ramp'aw^. Exception 2. E^ *, and y followed by r in the same syllable, have the sound of the second u in sulphur^ as in read'er, ta'^eV, ^oltyr. Exception 3. Digraphs. Ai equals short e or i, as in mount'am, mamtain'; e^, ey and ie have the sound of short i, as in surfeit, }our' ney; ow has the sound of short w, as in vig'oroMS. Exception 4. Some Latin words have the long sound of the vowel in the terminal syllable, as in cii' ses. 54 PHONOLOGY AND ORTHOEPY. erons that bromide, long. o 1 S .2 « y O aJ fl .2 2 aa . ^ ii e3 |S.| 1 ^^li. o .- a. t§i CO a -1 §1 ^ a ^ a 2 1 1. S 1 1 i 1 o 2 «> aj 2"S 1 1 1 a 3 ? ll 2 '■S-""a |5J a a o m C5> 1 1 ml ali PI II i 1 a 00 » s a c ^ g^ ^5 s K 1 1-H ^ ci r4 5« rn' W« T-:©* '-< vH , , ^ , , , fi ^ ^ M O P >^ 1 3C 11. ' 00 S a II ^ 1 5 1 .2 .2— c> 1 i 1 <^« -1 » 00 « -f-^ s « in c3 ^^" a fl i2 lili IJJi « «5 i :5't 1:3 I 11 •a a el ^ a s i S £■ O C3 5 -S t 1 m a . a: § '« c.2g 3 'J <» - « u b oo iii i? S? ill .-ti O (» o i --I CD ri2 i II CDS i^'Q ■!i ii il lii a a ;i til so ^^ 5 i« 1 ^ OS a C5 ^ ua ^EX. 61 S. S, sound of 36 Semi- vowels .21, 29, 30 Sh, sound of 35 Short vowel-sounds 20, 21 " a 25 " e 25 " i 26 " 23 ** 00 :... 24 " u 28 Silent e 45, 46 '* letters, uses of 45 Sound • 16 Speech 17 Spelling by sound 48 Spelling reform 39, 40 Sub-tonics 18 Sub- vocals 18 Syllabication 44, 45 Syllable, definition 44 T. T, sound of 36 Table of vocals 43 " consonants 44 Table of rules for unaccented vowels 54 Teeth ...v--. 14,20 Terminations in ed, el, etc 45, 46 Th, aspirate 35 Th, sub-vocal aS The, pronounciation of 48 Tilde, e 28 Tone 16 Tonics 18 Tongue..... ..13,14 Trachea 8 Trigraphs 19 u. U, long sound of 27 U, short sound of 28 U as in urge 28 U preceded by r, rule 51 Unaccented syllables, rules 53 ,54 Universal alphabets *. 37 Uses of silent letters 45 Uvula 13 V. V, sound of ^ . 31 Visible speech 37 Vocal chords 10 Vocalization 12 Vocal organs 6 •' physiology 5,6 Vocals, or vowel-sounds, 17, 20 Voice.* 16 Vowel 18 Vowel sounds 17, 20, 2:3, 43 " '* rules for 50,51 Vowel in unaccented sylla- bles 52-54 Vowel substitutes. 43 w. W, sound of 29 Webster's markings 38 Wh, sound of 34 Words commonly m i s p r o - nounced 56-58 X. X, sound of 50 Y Y, as a consonant 29, 50 Y as in abt/ss .... 26 Y " my 27 z. Z, sound of 33 Zh, " 32 ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH ANALYSIS. ILLUSTRATED BY A MW SYSTEM OF DIAGRAMS. By STEPHEN H. CARPENTER, Prof, of EngHsh in the University of Wisconsin. This book, the result of the author's experience in the class room, is designed to assist students, by a System of Diagrams, in obtaining the outline structure of sentences, which a thorough knowledge of English grammar demands, thus fixing in the eye and mind the principles of analy- sis, a correct knowledge of which, as a rule, is wanting among students. Price, in boards, 25 cents. Mailed on receipt of price. BECOMMBXDA TIOKS : "I am impressed that yon have made grammatical analysis so plain that the learner will find the work an aid to mastering rather than a hindrance to ordinary understanding of the language, as many systems of analysis are hindrances. Your book presents the first diagrams which I have seen that are not obstacles to my understanding. I trust you will take special means to bring this book to the attention of teachers."— President Parker, of the River Fall Normal School, (Wis.) "Mrs. Bateman adopted its suggestions at once, and finds it a decided im- provement upon former schemes. * * * "We shall adopt it for use in our next class."— President Albee, of the Oshkosh Normal School, (Wis.). "Most of our works on analysis are too complicated and prolix; you have happily avoided that error. The statements are clear and concise; the defi- nitions good; and the illustrations excellent. The diagrams are, in my judg- ment, a great improvement upon those in most works of the kind. Chapier xiii (on tne infinitive) clears up a difficulty met by every teacher of grammar. You are to be congratulated upon your success in the producti6n of a work so excellent, so timely, so comprehensive, inso small a compass, and that will meet a want so generally felt." — Prop. B. M. Keynolds, of the La Crosse High School^ (Wis.). OPINIONS OF THE PRESS: "This is the title of a little book on purely sentential analysis, which ap- pears to us worthy of high praise for its clearneee, methodical arrangement, accuracy and brevity. The simple yet helpful diagrams —the chief oriirlnal feature of the work — admirably illustrate the golden mean in this kiiid of ocular aid, and can give no ofiense to the most fastidious grammarian. The nomenclature is that in common use, the examples for practice are well selected and sufliciently numerous, and in paper and typography the book is faultless. We heartily commend it to teachers and school officers."— Ww. Journal of Education^ " The design of this little work is to explain the construction of the English sentence upon philosophical principles, and at the same time to exhibit this structure to the eye by a system of diagrams that will present the aaaiomy of the sentence with no confusing details. This little work, in few pages, seems to cover the whole ground, and must be commended at least for its brevity. It is the work of one who has encountered and surmounted the difficult task of bringing syntactial analysis within the comprehension of any ordinarily bright English scholar. It is the result of years of practice in the class room— of that kind of practice that ' makes perfect.' " The mechanical execution of the book is in keeping with its intrinsic merits, be- ing printed on new, clear, and beautiful-faced type, while the diagrams were cast expressly for this work.— If isconsin State journa I. W. J. PARK & Co., Publishers, Madison, Wis. JUST PUBLISHED. A System of Punctuation FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS. By C. W. BUTTERFIELD. Published by WM. J. PARK & CO., Madison, Wis. This is a concise treatise on Grammatical and Ehetorical Punc- tuation, intended especially for the use of schools. Notwithstanding this, it is also adapted to the requirements of professional and busi- ness men who desire to write or correspond without fear of misap- prehension or mistake. Extracts from the Preface. " That the principles of Punctuation are subtle, and that an exact logical train- ing is requisite for the application of them is claimed by some writers ; others, however, think the subject is founded largely in caprice,— that its rules are, to a great extent, conventional. Neither of these views is the correct one. The laws governing the uses of the various characters of Punctuation, require, it Is true, a continued exercise of judgment in their reduction to practice ; for any principle, however plain, necessitates some action of the mind to fully compre- hend it. But these laws have, in a large degree, become fixed by established • " But little effort is requisite to convince pupils of the importance of Punctuation; and it is only necessary to bring the subject before tbem in a sys- tematic manner, to enlist them at once in the study. It has been the object of the author so to treat it as to lead the student, step by step, and with compara- tive ease, from its simplest, to a just comprehension of its most difficult princi- ples. Accuracy In definition, clearness in arrangement, and perspicuity in language, have been attempted in the presentation of the various rules ; with what success is left to the judgment of the public." The work has two principal divisions. The first treats of the na- ture and uses of the various characters of Punctuation. The second contains promiscuous examples for their application. What has been learned of the theory of Punctuation, can thus be put in practice. RECOMMENDATIONS. Butterfield's System of Punctuation is at once concise and full. It is fitted to do a good work.-^DR. John Bascom, President of the University of Wisconsin. I have examined Butterfield's Punctuation with a great deal of interest. I have long felt the need of something of the kind. I shall gladly call the atten- tion of teachers to it. — Kennedy Scott, County SupH of Columbia Co., Wis. Butterfield's Punctuation is a needed and timely'publication. It is clear and concise in statement, methodical in treatment, and suflSciently comprehensive in scope to meet the wants of the general public. Its general use in our schools would be of great benefit.— Dr. S. II. Carpenter, University of Wisconsin. Butterfield's System of Punctuation should be in the hands of every teacher and student.— Prof. E. B. Anderson, University of Wisconsin. Ihave examined Butterfield's Punctuation and am pleased with it. I shall recommend it to teachers.— H. Richmond, County Sup't of Green Co., Wisconsin. ifO^. David At wood's Publications, ANALYSIS AND EXPOSITION OP THE CONSTITUTION OF WISCONSIN, Br A. O, WRIGHT. Published by DAVID ATWOOD, Madison, WU. We have just issued the sixth edition, revised and corrected, of this valuable httle work — By A. 0. Wright. The press of the State have noticed this book in a favorable manner. It cannot fail to be- come very useful to the people, and as soon as known, will occupy a place in the library of every citizen of the State, who desires to understand thoroughly our Constitution. * The following letters have been received from gentlemen well known as distinguished educationists in this State: [From Prof. Samuel Fallows.] I have read, with care and interest, the book on "The Analysis and Expo- sition of the Constitution of Wisconsin," by Mr. A. O. Wright. It seems to me to be admirably adapted to the needs of teachers and schol- ars in the common schools of Wisconsin, and a valuable work of reference for all who wish a clear and succinct treatise on our State Constitution. The analyses are thoroughly made — the language is plain and simple — the citation of authorities ample and correct. If any inaccuracies should be discovered in this first editton, I believe they will be found to be of a minor nature. They can easily be corrected iu A subsequent edition. Mr. Wright deserves great praise for the excellent manner in which he has executed a difficult task. I think his work will have a speedy, wide and permanent circulation in the state. Samuel Fallows, Superintendent of Public Instruction. [From O. M. Cokover, Supreme Court Beporter.] The provision of our present school laws which requires the Constitution of the United States and that of our own State to be taught in our public schools, seems to me of great importance. It is clear, too, that the object can not be well accomplished without the publication of editions of those instruments, accompanied by simple, yet correct expositions of their lan- guage and scope. I have read with some care a portion of the little work of Mr. Wright npon the Constitution of Wisconsin. It appears to me to have been pre- pared with a very correct appreciation of the wants of our public schools, and to be in general, correct in its exposition of the spirit and meaning of the constitution, and well adapted to excite an interest in the study of that instrument, and to impart useful information in regard to it. Doubtless, a severely critical examiHation of the work will lead to the detection of some errors or deficiencies, which may be corrected in future editions. This is the common fate of first editions of school books which pioneer the way in any new department of instruction. But the general aim and plan o f the volume are so good, and its execution is marked by so much intelligence and care, that it can hardly fail, I should think, to come into general use in the schools of Wisconsin. O. M. Conover, Supreme Court Beporter. I think the work worthy of being In every school in the State, and in the hands of every voter.— J. T. Luhn, Co. SupH Sauk Co. V VB 36566 JUST rUBLISHED THE ART OF fliONVKCIAJIO^, PHONOLOGY AND ORTHOEPY. An Elementary Treatisefor Teachers and Schools, by Prof. ALBERT SALISBURY, A.Ikf^x The well-known conductor of Teachers' Institutes In Wisconsin. The work contains chapters on: /. Vocal VhifsioIo-ftf—A briel and cioa account, illustrated by excellent wood-cut;?. ?. I'honoloffif 6v Phonetics —The science of articulate sounds. Comprising deliuitions, cUiJ-siticaiioiis of sounds, etc. 3. Plionotypy — A brief chapter on tlie modes ot ex- pressing sounds systeuiu.tu. 'I;'-, 4. Oi'thoepy -Contam'ing di»cus>ioii!- of articulation, accent, and .-^ liab'catior>, with convenient tables of sounds, and practical Rules of Pronunciation. Price 50 cem's, postpaid. - Diticnu/' made on large orders. Wm. J. PARK & Co., Publishers, Madi!?(>ii. Wi BUTTERFIELD'S SYSTEM OF PU^XIUATIOIT, BEING A CONCISE TREATISE ON GRAMMATICAL AND RHETORICAL PUNCTUATION FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS. BY C. W B.UTTERFIELD. Bound in flexible cloth. Price 40 cents. Copy mailed on receipt of price. Copies to tea';iiers at introductory rates Though the work Is designed for the use of schools, it is also adapted for the requirements of professional and business men, who desire to "write" or correspond without fear of misapprohension or mistake. 4. useful diagram for teaching the system, aiid an exemplification of the ruarks used in proof reading, are a suitable appendix to the work. tW. J. PARK & Co., Publishers, Madison, Wis. ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH AKil^SR ~' ILLUSTRATED BY A MW SYSTEM OF DJAGLaV By STEPHEN H. CARPENTER, Prof, of F tii^ Uni^ _ i-om, ]s 11 obiainiug the ^drre of EnL'lish irsity of Wisconsin This book, the result of the nnib -r's experi'^:ijce in designed to assist students by a ;stem of Diagrams, outline structure of sentences", whijh a thorough kr.o\ grammar demands, and thus fix in tLo eve and mind tb • principles of aiialy- sis, a correct knowledge of which, as a rule, is wantii\g among students. Price, in boards, 25 cents. Mailed on receipt of nrice. W. J. PARK & Co., PuLliPners, Madison, Wis. HISTORY OF MADISOI, M.NR~C'01JNTY AND SITEEOIJlSrDIE^G TOWN^S. Illustrated. 664 pp. Price, $1.50. The work is a History and Gulde-Book to places of senic beauty and his- torical note found in the towns of Dane county and surroundings, including early intercourse of the settlers with the Indians, their Trails, Camps, Mounds, etc. W. J. PARK & Co., Pnblishers. Madison, Wis.