JOLDEN DAYS OF E RENAISSANCE m'-i: -■^^..'WN^. L ViLLiAH Randolph KeltieYoung THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA IN MEMORY OF JOHN DEBO GALLOWAY AND HIS DAUGHTER BERTHA GALLOWAY FOSTER \ •Bp Lxoliolfo Laiuinnt WANDERINGS IN THE ROMAN CAMPAGNA. Profusely illiislrated. 8vo. $-,.cyj, net Postpaid, Jr.-.?. GOLDEN DAYS OF THE RENAISSANCE IN ROME. With Maps, Plans, etc. Svo, $5.00, «<•;'. Postpaid, 55.31. NEW TALEi Or OLD ROME. Profusely illiis- tralcd with Maps and I)ra\viiij;s. Svo, ^5.00, «^/. Postpaid, fj.is- ANCIENT ROME IN THE LIGHT OF RECENT DISCOVERIES. With 36 fulI-paRe Plates (includ. iiv:; sL-ver.d llcliotvpes) and 64 'I'cxt Illustrations, Maps, and Plans. 8vo, ffi.oo. PAGAN AND CHRISTIAN ROME. Willi 26 full- page Illustrations and qo Text Illustrations. 8vo, f6.oo. THE RUINS AND EXCAVATIONS OF ANCIENT ROME With 216 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, f 4 00. HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY r.osTON AND New ^■oRK THE GOLDEX DAYS OF THE RENAISSANCE IN ROME i'.\ri. Ill From I'anvinio's " MUigia ct imngines,'' edited by I.afreri in 1568 THE GOLDEN DAYS OF THE RENAISSANCE IN HOME FROM THE PONTIFICATE OF JULIUS II TO THAT OF PAUL III BY RODOLFO LANCIANI AUTHOR OF "ANCIENT ROME IN THE LIGHT OF RECENT DISCOVERIES," "PAGAN AND CHRISTIAN ROME," "THE RUINS AND EXCAVATIONS OP ANCIENT ROME," " NEW TALES OF OLD ROME," ETC. PROFUSELY ILLUSTRATED ^RiuergiOePr^ l BOSTON AND NEW YORK HOUGHTON MJF'M IJX C^OxMPAXY (iClje Iftitjerjaibe press, CambriDjje LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS FULL PAGE PLATES Paul III ........ Frontispiece From Panvinio's " Elogia et imagines," edited by Lafreri in 1568 Boniface VIII reading the Bull Axtiquorum from the Loggia of the Lateran ....... 5 The Grave of Martin V by Simone Ghini, in St. John the Lateran ......... 13 The Conventional View of Medieval Rome . . .25 With the Vatican Obelisk, the Torre delle Milizie, the Pantheon, and the Column of Trajan in the background of Ghirlandajo's " Rape of the Sabines," now in the Colonna gallery A Battle near the Gates of Rome, by Paolo Uccello . 54 With a view of the leading monuments of the city, inchiding the Torre delle Milizie, the Araeoeli, the Coliseum, etc. By permission The Remains of the Baths of Constantine in the Garden of Bernardo Accia.juoli, on the Quirinal . . .71 A View of the Porto Leonino on the Tiber . . . .78 To show the place (marked +) where Santa Francesca Romana was rescued from drowning The Plague of Alexander VII, a. 1659 . . . .84 From a rare contemporary print representing the following scenes : (1) The inspection of the city gates by Prince Chigi. (2) Barge-loads of corpses from the Lazaret in the island of San Bartolomeo. (3-5) Various practices for fighting the plague in the infected districts. (0) The " field of death,'' near St. Paul outside the Walls The Inundation of 1900 ....... 91 As seen in the Piazza della Bocca della Veritk The Monumental Group of San Lorenzo fuori le Mura 105 From an engraving by Israel Silvestre The Loggia of Giovanni da Udine in the Villa Madama. Details of the Ceiling • 121 vm LIST OF /LLI'STh'.\T/(>XS ViKW OF THK Rkmains OK TiiK Tk.mi'm: ok tmk Sux in- thk C\»1-«»NNA tiAKDKNS OK TIIK (.^t'lKlXAL .... 1*24 From thf ju'rsi>fi'live plan of Koiiif iiiiide by (Jiovaiini Maj;'};! at the b«';;iiiiiin); of the seventeenth oenliiry TiiK Makhlk Plan ok Romk KKfoxsTiiucTKi) hv thk Author IN TiiK Gardkx ok thk Pai,azzo dk! Con.skkvatoki . 132 From ii phuto{<;raph by Cav. A. Vochieri Tmk C'kilim; of o.\k of Isabella's Rooms ix the Ducal Palace at Mantua ........ laO A Detail of the "School ok Athens," with the Likeness of Federico Conzaga ....... 153 Saint Peter's IGD As it would have appcand if Micliclani;t'l(>'s plan of a Greek cross had not been altered by Carlo ^ladt-rno into that of a Latin cross The Fall ok Phakthox into the River Eridanus . . 175 From a cartoon by Michelangelo, engraved by Beatrizet The Mau.soleum ok Julius II ix the Chuk( ii ok Sax Pietro IX VixruLis ......... 182 The Portrait of Vittoria Colonna hy Poxtormo, ix the Gallkkia Buonarroti in Florexce ..... 201 The Ducal Palace at Ferrara. where Rexke d' Este held Secret MEETixtis with Calvin . . . . .214 The Cathedral of Ferrara ....... 21G The Vestibule of the Galleri.\ degli Specchi in the Co- LOxxA Palace. Rome ....... 221 The Donna Velata ix the Pitti Gallery .... 237 Considered to be the best existing portrait of the Fornarina The Alleged Portrait of the Fokxarixa by Sebastiano del Piombo, NOW IN THE Uffizi ..... 241 A Leaf from Raph.a.el's Architectural Sketch-Book . . 249 Formerly in the Burlington-Devonshire collection, and now in the keep- injj of the K. I. B. A., Conduit Street. London. The facsimile of Raphael's handwriting in tlie square on the left (the words are "the gum of the Pinus cemhra is good against consumption ") is taken from the marginal notes to Fabio Calvo's translation of Vitruvius, now in the Munich Library, n. •_'H1 The Vision of Ezekiel. ix the Pitti Palace . . . 259 The House and Bank of Bindo Altoviti, on the Tiber, destroyed in 1889 277 The Villa of Agostino Chigi near the Porta Settimiaxa, Kxowx BY the Name of Farnesixa ..... 288 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IX The "Nozze di Alessandro " by Sodoma, in the Bedcham- ber OF THE Villa of Agostino Chigi .... 291 From the engraving' by Mitterpock Part of the Tomb of Cardinal Ascanio Sforza in the Church of Santa Maria del Popolo by Sansovino . 311 A celebrated work The Portrait of Leo X engraved by Antonio Lafreri . 315 Thalia 323 One of the mne Muses, painted by Lo Spagna in the Consistory Hall at La Magrliana ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT Gregory XI entering the Gate of St. Paul on his Re- turn from Avignon ........ 3 The Marble Stairs of the Aracceli, built in Commemora- tion OF the Black Plague of 1348 (from a rare en- graving in which women are seen ascending on their knees) 8 The Fish-Market in the Portico of Octavia, abolished in 1878 11 PiNTURiccHio's Fresco Painting in the Church of San Cosi- mato, with the Blessed Virgin between St. Francis and Sta. Chiara ......... 19 The Stone Lion of the Capitol before its Restoration (from an engraving by Cavalieri, 1585) . . . .33 The Piazza Colonna in the Time of Paul III (from a rare engraving by Etienne Duperac, 1575) . . . .37 The Palace of the Cardinal Titular of S. Lorenzo in LUCINA, WITH the ArCO DI PORTOGALLO SPANNING THE CoRSO (from an engraving by Israel Silvestre) . . .40 The Tower of the Cesarini Garden, now transformed INTO THE Belfry of the Church of San Francesco di Paola 43 The Court of the Massimi Palace, rebuilt in 1532-36 by Baldassare Peruzzi ........ 47 A Capital from a Temple on the Aventine, transformed in the Middle Ages into the Baptismal Font of the Church of Santa Prisca ....... 52 Another Capital, thrown into a Foundation Trench of THE Church of San Saba ...... 53 X LIST OF ILLfST/rirmXS TiiK Coat of Akms ok L'oi'nt Kvekso r>i>JLi AxciuiLLARA , 56 TiiK Hkmhv ok Santa Makia dkll' Amma, thk Natioxal C'ln K< II OK TIIK I'kutons ....... 01 TiiK C'iirK( II wiiKKK Imi'Kkia wa.s uukied (a snow effect) . GO A L.VNK i»K MkDI.KV.VL RoMK — THK LUNGAKIXA — DESTKOYEU IN 1SS0-,S2 75 TiiK Si-kino of Jitti'kn.v. nk.vh thk Templk ok Ca.-^tok and 1*01,1. r.\ ......... 77 Tin: (Jk.wk ok Makio Ai.iu.ktoni. who diku ok the Plaoije ON the 2L'l> Day ok July, 14f Santa Ce( ilia, in Tkastevere ...... 89 The IxrNDATiON of 1'.M)0. as seen in the Piazza del Pantheon ......... 95 The Forth a it ok (iiuliano i.e' Medici, Son of Lorenzo (by Broiizino, in tlie Galleiia dcyli Uffizi) . . . . .97 The •• Hellissima " Giulia Farnese. Sister ok Pope Paul III (from the allegorical statne by Giiglidino della Porta, in St. Peter'.s) 102 One of the Courts of the Palazzo di Venezia, the Favorite Residence of Paul III (by Meo del Ca])rin() and Jacopo da Pietrasanta) 113 A Corner of the Palazzi) Madama, showing Details of WixDo\vs, Frieze, axd Corxice ..... 117 The Court of the Sa.s.si Palace, with the Works ok Art PURCHASED IX 1546 BY Paul III (from an engraving ])y Lafreri) 127 Part of the Marble Pl.vn ok Rome (from a pliotograph l)y Cav. A. Vochieri) . . . . . . , . .131 Part of the Frieze of the Bedchamber of Paul III in THE Castle of Saxt' Axgelo (by Perino del Vaga) . . 136 The SnAtT OF the Spiral Stairs ix the Castle of Ca- prarola (looking vertically) 139 View ix the Park of Caprarola 143 View of the Ducal Palace at Mantua, with the Bridge o.v the Mixcio ......... 148 The Hou.se of Domexico da Capraxica, oxe of the Few Sur- vivixG Specimexs of the Rexaissaxce Domestic Archi- tecture IX Rome 157 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS XI The Mountains of Pk.exeste, where Michelangelo is SAID TO have taken Shelter IN THE Year 1520 . . 159 The Enclosure round the Pedestal of Trajan's Column, BUILT IN Accordance with Michelangelo's Suggestion in 1575 161 The Belvedere of Innocent VIII (from a sketch by Martin Heemskerk made in 1536, seven years before the beginning of the fortifications by MicheUmgelo) ..... 167 The Bust of Bartolomeo Baronino in the Palazzo de' Conservatori ......... 173 Detail of the Giudizio of Pietro Cavallini in Santa Cecilia 179 Michelangelo's best known Portrait (from an engraving by Antonio Lafreri) ......... 186 View of the Vestibule of Michelangelo's House at the Foot of the Capitol ........ 189 Bust of Michelangelo, by Daniele da Volterra . . 192 Michelangelo's Portrait, modelled in Wax, by Leone Aretino .......... 193 View of the Village of Marino, the Birthplace of Vit- toria Colonna ......... 197 The Loggia of the Pope's Palace at Viterbo, where Car- dinal Pole resided as Legate from 1541 to 1545 . 207 A Bird's-Eye View of the Palace and Prisons of the In- quisition, taken from the Top of the Dome of St. Peter's .......... 209 Cardinal Pole .......... 211 The Statue of Giordano Bruno in the Campo de' Fiori . 213 The Sacristy of the Church of San Domenico Maggiore, AT Naples, where the Remains of Vittoria Colonna were found . ........ 225 The Window of the So-called House of the Fornarina, BY THE Church of Santa Dorotea .... 233 The Judgment of Paris, by Marcantonio (from a reprint by A. Salamanca) ........ 255 The Recumbent Figure of a River God, modelled by Mi- chelangelo IN A Clay Bas-Relief, formerly in the Gherardesca Palace, Florence ..... 257 The Woman of Samaria, a Panel by Lorenzetto, in the Chapel at Santa Maria del Popolo . , » » 263 xii L IS T OF ILLI '.S' 77.M TfOXS Tin; D.vNZATiut'i B()K<;iii:sK. now i\ tiik Loi vkk . . . 203 Maii>i;ns iiANi;i.\<; a Whkath T(» a Candklauka, a Comi'AMo.n rirllKK TO TIIK DaNZATUK I. !■ nlc M KI{I,V JN TIIK ViLLA H(iK(;llKSK, AND NOW IX THK LOUVRK .... 264 A Hkii.nzk Hki'Moa ok thk ahuve, xow in TIIK Sali.k dks C'akvatikks ......... 264 Tin: HorsK ok Ratiiakl in tiik Ht)K(i(> (from an engr:iviiig by A. LafiTii) 261) Tin: lIorsK ok Raimiaki. (dotted lines), transformed into its Prksknt SiiAi'K BY Cardinal Comendoxe ix ir)82 . . 270 Plan ok Vikw kro.m Kaphael's House ..... 273 TllK Old C'llAXNKL CONXKCTIXCi THK OsTIA SaLT-AVoKKS WITH the Ska (the j)ine forest of Castel Fiisano in the back- ground) 282 The Coat of Arms of the Bixi, paixted ry Pierixo del Vaga ox the Ceilixg of their Baxkixg Premises . 286 The Extraxce to the Chigi Chapel ix the Church of Saxta Maria del Popolo, with the Tomr of the Prixcess Mary Flamixia uy Paolo Poji .... 297 The Palazzo Farxese oyerlookixg the Garden of Agostixo Chigi (a view of the district by the Porta Settiniiana, taken before its modern transformation) ...... 309 The Portico of Baccio Poxtklli in the Castle of La Ma- GLIAXA 319 The Fountain of Pius I\' in tiik Court of La ^Iagliaxa . 320 THE GOLDEN DAYS OF THE RENAISSANCE IN ROME THE GOLDEX DAYS OF ROME IlS^ THE SIXTEENTH CE:N^TUBY CHAPTER I THE CITY It is said that when in the year 1377 Pope Gregory XI restored to Rome the seat of the supreme pontificate, — of which she had been deprived for the space of seventy- two years, — there were not more than seventeen thousand people Hving in the ruinous w^aste within the old walls of Aurelian. Whether the figures be exact or not, those few men who held firm and faithful to their native soil deserve the gratitude of mankind. Without them the site of Rome Avould now be pointed out to the inquiring stranger like those of Fideuie, Veii, Ostia, or Tusculum, — places fit only for the exhumation of the records of the past, and doomed forever to silence and solitude. It is also said that the young Pope^ w^as so affected by the transition from the gay and refined life of Avignon to the horrors of Rome, that he died of grief on March 27 of the following year, 1378. The Romans, to wliom his longing for " le beau pays de France " was not a secret, treated his memory with contempt, and the preserver of their city was buried in the church of Santa Maria Nuova (S. Francesca Romana) in a plain coffin, on the lid of which this simple epitaph was inscribed in Gothic letters, 1 Pierre Rogier de Beaufort, born A. D. 1336, in the Chateau de Montroux, near Limoges, was elected pope in 1370. 'J THE II TV *• lleiv lies the luxly of tlic Mossed Pope Gre«»()ry XI," wltlumt any lefeieiice to the iiTeat deed lie had accom- plished at the eost of his life. Things were allowed to rcinaiii m this state until the end of the sixteenth centurv, when the City Council, feeling- pangs of remorse, voted the erection of a memorial in the same church, selecting among various schemes the one pro- })osed l)v Pietro Paolo Olivieri, who had achieved fame as an architect hv the erection of the church of Sant' Andrea dt'lla Valle. and as a scnlptor with his statue of Gregory XIII in the Capitol, and his bas-relief of the Adoration of the Wise Men in the Caetani chapel at Santa Pudentiana. The central panel of the memorial of Gregory XI repre- sents his triumphal entry by the Porta di San Paolo on the morning of January 17, 1377. The gate is surmounted by the coat of arms of the Counts of Beaufort, which appears also on the Hags displayed by the standard-bearers at the head of the cavalcade. Of this glorious coat of arms only one specimen survives in Rome, in the frieze of the canopy or ciborium of St. John the Lateran, on the side facing the aj)se. It consists of two groups of three rosettes each, di- vided by a diagonal band. I have purposely begun this study of a new period in the artistic and historical life of Rome with the mausoleum of Gregory XI, now almost forgotten, because as the column of Phocas marks the end of the ancient and the beginning of the mediaeval periods, so the grave of that Pope marks rhe end of the Middle Ao^es and the beffinnino- of the Renaissance. The transition from one to the other was neither sudden nor noticeable at first, but the simple fact of the head of the Church having taken up again his residence in the city by the Tiber, where hundreds of thousands of THE CITY pilgrims were expected to assemble from every part of the globe each quarter of a century, not only saved the city from abandonment or final collapse, but gave it a new lease of life, and helped it towards its moral and material regen- Gregory XI entering the gate of St. Paul on his return from Avignon eration. In the period of one hundred and fifty-seven years which elapsed between the return of Gregory XI and the election of Paul III, the hero, or one of the heroes, of my present volume, the celebration of the Jubilees played a leading and beneficial part in the life of Rome. The streets were made passable, the bridges repaired, the houses 4 THE CITY (lisiiifcrtt'd, the n umber and the at'cominodations of liospitals iiRTeased, — tlie whole city, in short, was made to assume a less t'orhiddini^ look, and transformed into one vast hostelry. The oldest memorial eonueeted with the .Jubilees is the fresco by Giotto, once in the Loggia della Benedizione, and now preserved in one of the aisles of St. John the Lat- eran, opposite the Torlonia chapel. It represents Pope Boniface VIII between two cardinals, announcing the open- ing of the " Anno Santo " of 1300, usually called the '■'■ Giubileo di Dante " because the divine })oet is said to have visited Rome on that occasion, and to have met there ImanuelBen Salome, from whom he learned the few Hebrew words which appear in the " Divina Commedia." Giotto's picture is not historically accurate. In the first j)lace, the Lateran was at that time in such a state of ruin and desolation that it could not even be included in the nund)er of the nine churches which the pilgrims were bound to visit. In the second place, the Bull Antiquorum, which Pope Boniface is seen reading from the loggia, did not institute the Jubilees, but only confirmed the institution, being dated February the 23d, 1300, while the opening ceremony had taken place on the preceding Christmas, 1299. Boniface's attempt, however, was not a success. There had been no sufficient organization and no proper advertising, so that the Christians beyond the Alps did not know about the Jubilee until it was too late in the year to undertake the perilous journey to Rome. At all events, the clergy, as well as the lay population, saw at once what enormous advan- tages, moral and material, could be obtained from the insti- tution, and Pope Clement VI was petitioned to shorten by halt" the interval of a century which, according to the Bull Aiitifjnonnn, must have elapsed between two celebrations. They urged the Pope to consider the fact that, on account of BONIFACE VIII READING THE BULL ANTIQUORUM FROM THE LOGGIA OF THE LATERAN i THE CITY 7 the excessive length of the interval, two generations at least would be deprived of the privilege of the plenary remission of their sins at the grave of the apostles. Clement VI, only too glad to win from the Romans forgiveness for his own secession at Avignon, at once granted them their request, and, by the Bull Unigenitiis, another jubilee was appointed for the year 1350. Those were sad times indeed for Rome and for Italy. In 1348 the black plague or "morbo nero" had carried off one third of the population. A Genoese ship returning from the East had conveyed the infection, the first victims of which were stricken unto death in the last days of October, 1347. Eighty thousand people died at Siena ; five hundred a day were buried at Pisa ; the ratio of deaths in Florence reached sixty in a hundred, and sixty-six at Bologna. The "Chronicler of Siena" (edited by Muratori) was compelled to bury five sons with his own hands. As regards Rome, we have no definite account of its losses; but judging from the cost and the importance of the commemorative monu- ment of the plague, which still commands our admiration, they must have been great. I refer to the marble staircase leading from the piazza to the church of Santa Maria in Aracoeli, erected in October, 1348, by Giovanni de Colonna with the spoils of the temple of the Sun, for the accommodation of the panic-stricken citizens who, with ropes around their necks and with ashes on their heads, climbed the hill barefooted, to implore from the Blessed Virgin the cessation of the plague. The image to which they appealed is still there, one of the most popular in Rome ; in fact, the church of the Aracoeli itself is the property of the S. P. Q. R. Another disaster marks the year 1348 as the most fatal, perhaps, in the history of the mediaeval city. An earthquake, /•///•; (J TV wliiili histeil, at intervals, from the iii<)riiin-I7, a copy of wliich is iircscrxcd in tlic Uniyersity lihrary at Turin." In g'ivin*^ the catalogue of the four liundred and fourteen ])laces of Ayorsliip which existed at that time within the l)oundaries of tlie city, the author of the census says that forty-four had no attendants, or keepers, eleven were levelled to the ground, while many others had no roof or Avindows or doors. Yet these half- ruined estahlishments gave shelter to a clerical army thir- teen hundred and three strong, representing a iifteenth part of the whole population. Petrarch, one of tlie pilgrims of 1350, says that the city gave the impression of having just been stormed and pillaged by a barbaric host. Things were allowed to remain in this condition until the day Cardinal O(hlone Colonna was raised to the chair of St. Peter under the name of Martin V (November 14, 1417). His biographer, Platina, says : " He found Rome in such a state of devastation that it could hardly be considered a city fit for human habitation : whole rows of houses abandoned by their tenants ; many churches fallen to the ground ; streets deserted and l)uried under heaps of refuse; traces of plague and famine everywhere." With the Bull et si in. cu lief aril III, published on March 30, 1425, Martin V re- establislied the office of the " magistri viarum," to whom the care of cleaning and reconstructing the city was entrusted. The Bull describes incidentally how various classes of manu- facturers and tradesmen had occupied and made their head- quarters in certain antique edifices, still capable of giving shelter. The butchers, for instance, had chosen for their ' Piiblislied by Papoiicorilt, ])e Hist. Urbis Nomae. p. 53; Urliclis, Codex Urhis Romae Topographicus, p. 170; Ariuelliiii, Chiese di Roma, p. 47. THE CITY 11 home the beautiful forum of Nerva, and the lower arcades of the theatre of Mareellus ; hence the name of Fundicus maGellorum given to both in contemporary documents. The fishmongers had established themselves in the portico of Octavia, thus causing its classic name to be superseded The fish-market in the portico of Octavia. abolished in 1878 by that of Forum jnsclnrii. The tanners were making use of the crypts of Domitian's Stadium ; the lime-burners and the rope-makers of those of the Circus Flaminius ; the candle- makers of the portico of Balbus ; the glass-blowers of the baths of Agrippa. The other available ruins had long since been occupied and fortified by the barons. Nicholas Porcari and Marcello Capodiferro, the first com- missioners selected by the Pope, entered into their duties with fervor, but accomplished little or nothing. With the exception of the bridge of Santa Maria, the ancient Pons ^milius, repaired at the cost of three thousand ducats, of the church and palace of Santi Apostoli, and of certain 12 TIIK CITY works at the Lateran, I do not know of any other material ini[)i()venient whit-li the city owes to Martin V ; but as in tlie time of Augustus his friends Plancus, Cornificius, Bal- hus, I'oUio, l*hilij»j)us, Taurus, etc., contributed towards the embelHsliment of the capital by reconstructing- at tlieir own cost the temple of Saturn, the temple of Diana, the crypta and theatre of Balbus, the atrium of Liberty, the temple of Hercules Musagetes, the Statilian amphitheatre, etc., so tlie cardinals of the court of Martin V endeavored to follow his lead by restoring* tlieir own titular churches and the ad- joining- residences. Thus Jean de la Rochetaille, archbishop of Rouen, rebuilt the tltulus Luvluae, that is to say, the church of San Lorenzo in Lucina, and the palace annexed to it ; ' Alfonso Carrillo that of the Santi Quattro Coronati on the Cielian hill ; Giacomo Isolani that of Sant' Eusta- chio, and so on. While these works were ])r()gressing the Pope died of an apo})lectic stroke in his palace by the Santi Apostoli, on the twentieth day of February of the year 1431. Rome mourned over the loss; under the just and pros})er()us administration of Martin V, the Romans had forgotten tlieir lost re[)ublicaii liberties. A contemporary chronicler says that tradesmen and travellers could cross the Campagna with gold in their wallets, without danger or fear. Over the grave of Oddoiie Colonna was inscribed the l)est title of honor tliat a ruler could Avisli : temporum suoRUM FELICITA8 — "• the hai)piness of his times." The praise is not exaggerated if we recall to mind the tril)ula- tions which the people had suffered at the time of the great schism, to whicli the Council of Constance had put an end. F>ugeiiius IV. who, on March 3, 1431, succeeded Martin V in the chair of St. Peter, brought with him a return of 1 The palace and the " Arco di Portogallo," upon whicli it was partially built, are represented in the illustration on p. 38. THE GRAVE OF MARTIN V BY SIMONE GHINI IN ST. JOHN THE LATERAN THE CITY 15 the evil days. The infamous way in which the city was treated by the Pope's legates, Cardinal Giovanni Vitelleschi da Corneto and Cardinal Ludovico Scarampo Mezzarota, finds comparison only in the deeds of Genseric or of the Connetable de Bourbon. And yet Flavio Biondo, the author of the " Roma Triumphans " and of the " Roma Instaurata," the first topographical works written in the spirit and in the light of the Renaissance, addresses both to Eugenius as if he were the best and kindest friend of the city. ''The Lateran palace," Biondo says, " had lately and for the greater part fallen to the ground ; but thou, Eugene, most holy Father, hast rebuilt it at a great cost, adding to it a monastery in the founda- tions of which, at the depth of eighty-two feet, beautiful columns, statues, and marble pavements have been found." And again, speaking of the Pantheon : " The whole city sing thy praises, Eugene, for having covered with sheets of lead the great dome, and for having freed the columns of the portico from the ignoble booths and shops which con- cealed their lower half. Thou hast also paved with stone the piazza in front of the temple, and the main street of the Campo Marzio." The list of the works accomplished under the following Pope, Nicholas V (elected on March 16, 1447), is so im- portant that I can safely present him to the reader as the first improver and restorer of the city from the modern point of view. No doubt the approaching celebration of the fourth Jubilee was the main cause of his alacrity, but it did not flag or vanish after that event, as had been the case with his predecessors. Besides the general restoration of the walls and gates of the city, of the bridges Salario, Nomen- tano, and Tiburtino, or Mammeo, of the pontifical palace adjoining Santa Maria Maggiore, of the churches of Santo Stefano Rotondo, San Salvatore de Ossibus, San Giacomo 10 THE CITY tU'gli Si»ai;iiii()li, uikI Santa Maiinii, and of" the castle of !Sant' Angelo. Nicliolas \' straii;liten(Ml and enlarged the Via di San Celso. IcaduiL;' to the J'^haii l)ridi;('. and orcU'icd his aicln- tect, Bernar(h) IJosselhno, to (haw a "piano regolatore " for the inipioN'enient of the IJoigo Vaticano. IlosselHno nuist liaM' had st)nie notions ahout the Golden llonse of Nero, from the j)lan of Nvhicli he seems to have derived his insj)i- ration. The i)roject, however (a summary of which is given by Alveri, "Roma in Ug"ni Stato," vol. ii, p. 115), was as beautiful as it was ini])ra('tit'able. The good Pope-Humanist died on the twenty-fourth day of March of the year 1455. Following" the example of Augustus, he gave to the cardi- nals gathered around his deathbed a resume of what he had accomplished in the eight years of his pontificate, as a pope and as a temporal ruler; and the progress made by Humanism at that time may be better appreciated from the expressions used by the leaders of the movement on the occa- sion of Nicholas's death. Mannetti says : " If the Immortals could shed tears over the fate of the mortals, surely the sacred Muses and the divine Camoenae would mourn over the loss of our Nicholas;" and Filelfo repeats: " Hunc Musae lacrhymant, liunc Phoel)us luget Apollo." In the crypts of St. Peter's the marble effigy of Nicholas is lying on a plain stone coffin. As one looks at it under the flickering light of a torch, the thin spiritual face seems to revive ; the lips seem to cpuver like those of the true Humanist absorbed in the perusal of a newly discovered classic text. Nicholas, having collected and placed at the disposal of learned men so many masterpieces of Greek, Latin, and Oriental litera- ture, has won a place of honor among the benefactors of mankind. We come now to the Haussmann of the fifteenth century, to Pope Sixtus IV, elected on August 9, 1471, to whom THE CITY 17 the title of "Gran Fabbricatore " — the Great Builder — has been attributed by the historians of the Renaissance. It is no doubt a surprising- fact that the head of one of those mendicant brotherhoods, so bitterly denounced by the Hu- manists as hotbeds of ignorance and superstition, should have made himself, from the sublimity of the pontifical throne, the champion of intellectual progress, and should have contributed with all his power to the revival of art and learning in the capital of the Christian world. Without preoccupying himself with the conflict of so many different aspirations, this old general of the Franciscans, this Fran- cesco della Rovere, most humbly born at Albissola, near Savona, revealed an astonishing gift of organization, and became the protector of men of letters and artists. His best titles to fame are too well known to be described in detail : the Sixtine Chapel, the Vatican Library, the Roman Univer- sity reorganized on a modern scale, the Capitoline Museum enriched with masterpieces in marble and bronze, the city improved materially and morally in a way which still com- mands the admiration of modern reformers, the reconstruc- tion of twenty-five churches, considerable repairs to the castle of Sant' Angelo, to the Palazzo del Senatore, and to the fountain of Trevi, and the opening, straightening, and paving of the many streets which, from the bridge of Sant' Angelo, radiate in the direction of St. Peter's, of the Campo di Fiore, of the Palazzo di San Marco, and of the Porta del Popolo. To him we are indebted also for the hygienic reform of the Hospital of Santo Spirito, the main ward of which, three hundred and sixty-five feet long, was made capable of accommodating one thousand patients ; for the restitution to its original place of the beautiful porphyry sar- cophagus of Constantia, which Pope Paul H had removed to his own private palace, and which is now preserved in the IS rill': CITY hall of the Greek Cross in the Vaiiean Museiiin ; for the resto- ration of the et|iiestrian hroiize statue of Marcus Aurelius, whiih stood at that time in fiontof the Lateran palace; for the statue of Hercules Victor, discovered in the Forum lioa- rium. of which he made a present to the city; and lastly for the l)rid«;e across the Tiber Avhich still bears his name, the Ponte kSisto. Baccio Tontelli, the Pope's favorite architect, has left marks of such distinct individuality in all his works that, after the lapse of fom- and a half centuries, both his name and that of Pope della Rovere are still popular in Rome, even among- the lower classes. Sixtus IV 's " armoirie par- lante,'' a qticrcKs rohur (Ital. rovere), is still seen gracefully chiselled above the entrance door of our dearest churches, such as San Pietro in Vinculis, Santa Agnese outside the Walls, San Vito in Macello, Santa Maria della Pace, and, above all, San Cosimato in the Trastevere. This last-named church with its quaint interior and the adjoining monastery with its three cloisters and five gardens are among the most interesting and less known edifices of the Renaissance in Rome, and contain two masterpieces, — the grave of Cardi- nal Lorenzo Cibo, one of the best specimens of the Sanso- vines(pie style, which was transferred to San Cosimato from the Cibo chapel in Santa Maria del Popolo, and changed into an altarpiece in 1684 by Cardinal Alderano; and a mural painting, attributed to Pinturicchio, the equal of which can hardly be found in Rome for sinq)licity of design, har- mony of coloring, and delicacy of expression. This fresco, of which I give for the first time a photographic reproduc- tion, represents the Virgin Mary between St. Francis and Sta. Chiara. We Avonder how Sixtus TV could have accomplished so much, considering the financial difKculties with which he had to contend. His reign, in fact, had begun disastrously; THE CITY 19 Pinturicchio's fresco painting in the church of San Cosimato, with the Blessed Virgin between St. Francis and Sta. Chiara to replenish the cotters of the Holy See he had been com- pelled to sell the magnificent collection of gems, medals, and precious vases formed by his predecessors Nicholas V and Paul II, and to pledge his own silver plate. These resources exhausted, the "Apostolic chamber" resorted to other ex- pedients, including the levying of new and heavier taxes. We do not know the cost of his wars, of the reconstruction of so many fortresses, and of the imjirovements carried on in Rome, but we do know that the Pope paid at one deal the sum of forty thousand ducats for the purchase of the estate of 20 rill-: CITY Forli, wliicli he i^avc to his nei)he\v Glrolamo liuirio ; wa also know tliat Girolanio's brother, the famous cardinal of San Sisto, wasallowiMl to s(|iian(i(M- iii two years the sum of two hundred and sixty thousand dueats, equal to $2,U(J0,00(). This youth, Pietro by name, was a simple and retiring- monk of the Franciscan order when his uncle received the pon- tifical tiara, and made him at once a cardinal with a yearly income of sixty thousand ducats ($300,000). No wonder that the sudden transition from the humble dismal cell to the splendor of an almost royal ])alace, from penury and monastic fare to the absolute control of unlimited wealth, should have turned his head and. set him on the wrong path. And yet, when he died at the age of twenty-eight, in con- sequence of dissipation and excesses of every description, the people mourned over his bier, and regretted the loss of so liberal and generous a prince of the Church. The reception which he gave to Eleonora d' Aragona, daughter of the king of Naples, wdien she halted in Rome on her way to Ferrara, as the bride of Duke Hercules d' Este, must be counted among the wonders of that period. Received by the two nephews of the Pope, the cardinal of San Sisto and the cardinal of San Pietro in Vinculis, the princess was led in triumph to the palace of Santi Apostoli, where the former dwelt. First she was conducted through three halls decorated in the anticjue style, the walls covered with tap- estries of inestimable price, and the floor with the finest carpets which Egy])t and Asia Minor could produce. The furniture was worthy of the splendor of the apartments : sideboards lined with golden plate, tables carved out of a single block of cypress, lounging-chairs of satin covered with Venetian lace, and a fountain on the basin of which stood a live child, nude and heavily gilded, holding an ewer from which flowed perfumed water. The princess's suite THE CITY 21 comprised fourteen rooms decorated with equal lavishness. The reader wishing for a more complete account of these Sardanapalian feasts may consult the delightful volume of the late Costantino Corvisieri, entitled " II trionfo romano di Eleonora di Aragona nel 1473." The Riario brothers found a rival, if not an equal, as far as wealth and magnificence are concerned, in Guillaume d'Estouteville, archbishop of Rouen, cardinal bishop of Ostia, allied to the royal house of France, candidate for the papal throne in the conclave of Pius II, " grand seigneur " in the best sense of the word, and " rich beyond the dreams of avarice," to quote the expression of Andrea Fulvio. To this charming prince of the Church we owe tAvo artistic creations : the cathedral of Sant' Aurea at Ostia, in which Baccio Pontelli has mixed up with fascinating incongruity the gothic and classic styles, and the ciborium or tabernacle over the high altar in Santa Maria Maggiore, the master- piece of Mino da Fiesole. The ciborium, designed on the type of those erected by Arnolfo di Cambio at St. Paul's outside the Walls and at Santa Cecilia, was supported by four slender columns of porphyry and carved in white marble with panels, medallions, and statuettes touched with gilding and coloring, after the manner of Mino's school. Having escaped the fate of renovation and disfigurement which the maniacs of the seventeenth century inflicted upon so many of the Renaissance structures, it came to an end under the pontificate of Benedict XIV, one of the best intentioned sovereigns Rome ever had, but whose pernicious influence in the field of art was recorded forever by the destruction and the heinous transformation of the inner attic of the Pantheon. Benedict XIV having substituted new capitals for the classic ones, having destroyed the tabernacles of the Madonna, of the Reliquie, and of the high altar, — having. 1:- Till-: CITY in slioit, taUt'ii away I'very vestig'e of antitjuity i'roiu Santa Maria Maoirioie, — was lewaided witli an inseri]>ti()ii extol- lliii;- liis deeds in these words: gvoD sacham akdkm antea INCONDIIAM AD ELEGANTIAM REVOCAVEKIT ! Mino's clbo- rinni wonld j)r<)l)al)ly have escaped destruction, but for the fact tliat Benedict XIV was burdened with the })ossession of four i;reat j)or])l»yry pillars, which he was determined to put into use ; and having- failed in his attempt to set them up in St. John the Lateran, where the canons pluckily stood in defence of tlieir own TaheniacoJo dell a Cena, he won the consent of those of Santa Maria Mag-giore to the substi- tution of his rich but heavy and disproportioned structure for the graceful conception of Mino. I do not know what was the fate of the architectural parts of the ciborium, except in the case of two or three pilasters which were transferred to the shrine of San Girolamo in the Capi)ella Montalto. The jjanels, however, and the medallions were set into the wall of the apse and of the Chapter hall near the sacristy. The four statues which once stood at the four corners of the ental)lature were sold by the canons in 1872 to a dealer, for the sum of one hundred and twenty-tive francs apiece, including in the bargain a bust of Sixtus V, probably the work of Leonardo Sormani. The name of the foreign collector to whom the four statues were eventually sold ])y the dealer has never ])een made known. D'Estouteville was ah-eady in his eiglitieth year when he undertook the reconstruction of another church, that of Sant' Agostino, adjoining his own palace. His name, gvil- I.EKMV.S DE ESTOVTEVILLA EPISC • OSTIEX * CARD ' ROTHOMA- f;EN •, is still engraved in cubital letters on the facade ; but the church itself, one of tlie best works of Baccio Pontelli, has been shamefully altered, once by Vanvitelli after the fire of 1750, and again by Pius IX in 1856, and many of THE CITY 23 its sepulchral monuments of historical value have been either destroyed or removed to an inner court of the convent. The obsequies of Cardinal d'Estouteville, performed on Thurs- day, January 23, 1483, g-ave occasion for scenes of pillage and sacrilege not unfrequent in those days. The canons and chapter of Santa Maria Maggiore, incensed at the partiality the cardinal had shown for Sant' Agostino in selecting it for his last resting-place, attacked the bier in front of the high altar, and laid hands on the vestments of brocaded velvet which had been spread over the coffin. The populace followed the lead of the canons, and a general scuffle en- sued, at the end of which the floor of the house of God was covered with maimed and wounded men. The bishop of Bertinoro reconsecrated it a few days afterwards with an imposing ceremony of expiation. The successors of Sixtus IV did not follow his example in regard to the sanitation and the beautifying of Rome. With the exception of the Via Alessandrina, now di Borgo, opened by Alexander VI, of the Via Giulia, opened by Julius II, and of the Via Leonina, now di Ripetta, opened by Leo X, the plan and the aspect of the city did not undergo any noticeable change. We shall see in the third chapter how the transformation from a mediaeval into a modern city was brought about by the advent of the Emperor Charles V in 1536, and by the genius and foresight of one of the advisers of Pope Paul III, Latino Giovenale Mannetti, whose name — now almost foro'otten — ouo-ht to be enofraved in letters of gold in the Protomotheca of the Capitol.^ The impor- tance of the works Mannetti was able to accomplish in his ^ Such is the modest name of the Gallery of Fame in the Conservatori Pal- ace, to which the portrait busts of eminent Italians, formerly in the Pantheon, were transferred in the time of Pius VII. In the recent reorganization of the Conservatori palace the Protomotheca has been massed into two inferior rooms unfit for the purpose. 24 Tiih: CITY (loul)le capacity of ** niacstio dclle strado " and of " com- missario dclle anticliita," with the help of the two Alessaii- dro Fainese, uncle and nephew, one Pope, one the head of the Siiered College, can oiilv he appreciated hy comparing the state of the city at the beginning- of the century with its condition at the death of Paul 111. Let us choose as a point of vantage the western summit of the Caj)itoline hill, from Avhicli Poggio Bracciolini and his friend Antonio Liisco used to gaze over the city at the time of Nicholas V, and where the famous description inserted in the book " De Varietate Fortunae " was pioba- bly written in 1447.' Here, also, Martin Heemskerk sat day after day in loSG while drawing the beautiful pano- ramic view, now preserved in the department of prints and drawino's of the Berlin Museum.- What would have struck more forcibly the observer in those days was the smallness of the inhabited space in comparison with that enclosed by the walls of Aurelian, — perhaps not more than one tenth. The population was congested in the narrow belt of low- lands bordered by the Corso on the east, by the Capitoline hill on the south, and by the Tiber on the west; while on the opposite bank of the river two suburbs, the Borgo and the Trastevere, clustered round the churches of St. Peter and Santa Cecilia resjiectively. This restricted area was by no means overcrowded, each monastery being provided with a garden, each church with a cemetery, each palace with a fortified enclosure, in which the retinue of " bravi " and outlaws found shelter and protection from the feeble hands of the law. The limits of the inhabited section towards ' The " (lescriptio urhis " of Poggio forms part of his l)ook De Varietate For- zunae, edited for the first time by Domenico Giorgi in 17li;} from the original MSS. then in the possession of Cardinal Pietro Ottoboni. ■■' Published and illustrated by De Rossi in the Antike Denkmaeler of the German Archjeclogical Institute, vol. ii, plate 12. THE CITY 27 the east are to the present day indicated by the names at- tached to certain streets or chnrches, like San Giuseppe "a capo le case," Sant' Isidore " in capite domorum," and Sant' Andrea " delle Fratte," or "' inter hortos," — this last being an allusion to the hedges with which the orchards of the district were then surrounded. In fact, the whole space now crossed by the Vie della Mercede, della Vite, and Frattina was an unhealthy swamp, the shape and aspect of which had induced early topographers to identify it with an al- leged Naumachia Domitiani. And again, the belt of land between the Tiber and the Corso, north of the mausoleum of Augustus, and now crossed by the Vie di Ripetta, dei Pontelici, di San Giacomo, etc., was occupied by vegetable gardens, watered by means of norias from wells excavated in the alluvial soil. The same state of things prevailed in the Trastevere, where the hollow of the Naumachia of Augustus had become a pond named the " Cavone," the property of the nuns of San Cosimato. The reason which compelled the Romans to dwell in the unhealthy plains of the Campus Martins and of the Trastevere is evident. Since the barbarians had cut down the higher aqueducts, like the Anio Novus, the Claudian, and the Marcian, the hills were condemned to a permanent water famine.^ The city, seen from our point of observation, ofPered no striking feature. No Tow^n Hall, no Duomo, no Loggia dei Mercanti, the three characteristics of a prosperous Italian medicieval town, broke with their imposing mass the mo- notony of the scene. The basilicas themselves, — St. Peter's, Santa Maria Maggiore, St. John the Lateran, — w^ealthy ^ The Anio Noviis entered the walls at the height of 70. "40 above the sea ; the Claudian at 67.'°40; the Marcian at SS.^GS. The highest inhabited point in the neighborhood of the Porta Collina (corner of Via 20 Settembre and Via Goito) stands only 63."° above the sea. On the opposite side of the Tiber the Aqua Traiana reached the Janiculuin (83.°) at the level of 71.™16. 28 riiK CITY beyond ])i'li('f in interior ornamentation, offered a shabby and neglected outside ai)|iearanee ; in fact, tliey eould hardly be sin«>leil out beliind the screen of cha})ter houses, monas- teries, and titular palaces by which they were surrounded on three sides. I do not think that ten churches can be counted in modern Rome, to say nothing of mediieval times, which stand by themselves, isolated, the exterior decoration of which harmonizes with the beauty of the interior. Founders and architects alike have despised the elementary rule of making the two harmonize, — of making- the house of God as perfect in the mass as in the details, and rendering it a conspicuous landmark to the pilg-rim or the wayfarer who has crossed the seas and the mountains to visit the o-raves of the founders of the Church. The Capitol had justly been called the heart of the medi- aeval city, but the heart had long ceased to beat, since the suppression of municipal liberties by Pope Eugene IV. This state of things was duly reflected by the outward aspect of the hill, — silence and desolation reigned everywhere ex- cept near or within the Senatorial palace, w^here justice was administered for a limited number of offences, and the Con- servatori palace, where the Town Council was occasionally summoned to ratify, rather than to discuss, the decrees of the omnipotent Pope. The western summit oi the hill, once crowned by the temple of Jupiter, had exchanged its classic name of Capito- lium for that of "Monte Caprino," from the goats {c(ipre) which came to browse over its crags at each return of spring. The higher platform of the Monte Caprino was still strewn with great blocks of Pentelic marble, — cornices, friezes, capitals, pedestals of the temple, — because the quarry from which for centuries Rome had derived its best materials for the workshops of the Marmorarii was by no THE CITY 29 means exhausted. In fact, the records of a regular search for marble begin only with the year 1545, when Gian Pietro Caf- farelli was laying the foundations of the palace, now the seat of the German embassy. The search was continued by the contractors for the rebuilding of St. Peter's, and many pieces of the fluted columns, nine feet in diameter, found their way to the Vatican. These and other finds are described by Flaminio Vacca in the following terms : " Upon the Monte Caprino several columns of Pentelic marble have been dug out, with capitals of such magnitude that I was able to carve out of one of them the Lion now in the garden of Grand Duke Ferdinand of Tuscany by the Trinita di Monti (Villa Medici). The other marbles were used by Vinceuzo de Rossi to carve the Prophets and other statues of the Cesi chapel in the church of Santa Maria della Pace." The rest of the surface of the Monte Caprino was occu- pied by a " tiratorio di panni," or yard for drying clothes, the property of the Sordi family ; by another enclosure where wheat w^as stored in wells (i pozzi di Campidoglio), the pro- perty of Domenico Persona; and lastly by the "'forche," or gallows, a platform facing the valley of the Forum, officially known by the name of '' locus justitiae." With this horrid place is connected the following touching story : In June, 1385, Giordanello degli Alberiui, a nobleman from the Rione de' Monti, imprisoned in the dungeons of the Senatorial pal- ace, fearing for his life, asked and obtained leave to make his w411, stipulating, among other clauses, that his heirs should spend two golden florins in having the image of the Blessed Virgin painted near the place of execution, so that the doomed men might gather strength and hope by gazing at the merciful face of the mother of God. The image is believed to be the one now placed on the high altar of the church of Santa Maria della Consolazione, 30 THE CITY Avhicli stands witliin a stone's throw of the nietliieval " locus jiistitiac." Till' Capilolnn' gallows are i;i\('ii a promnient place in ceitain views oi' tlii' citv of the second half of the fifteenth centuiv ; for instance, in that painted by Taddeo di ]5ar- toh) ill the cha})el of the Palazzo Conumale at Siena, jmh- lished hv Stevenson in 1881/ When the Monte Capriiio Avas partially excavated, in 1896, for the huildino' of a new win<;' of tiie municipal offices, I Avas present at the discovery of a square enclosure or ter- race, facing the above-mentioned church of La Consolazione, ill the centre of which were four blocks of stone, with a square hole in each, as if intended to support an U}»ri<>ht beam. I have no doubt that this was the "locus justitiae" set apart for the execution of plebeians, because noblemen could claim the privilege of being beheaded in the square of the Capitol, in front of the Senatorial palace. It is just, however, to remark that the magistrates of those days, pro- vided the guilty one, or the one supposed to be such, were really done to death, cared little how and Avlien and where the deed was accomplished. Thus we hear of Lello Capocci beino- beheaded " at the foot of the second column in the Sala del Consiglio ; " of the two sons of .lacopo Cola Santo hanged from the windows of the anteroom; of Giovanni Cenci killed while descending the main stairs of the palace. As a rule, the senator and his guests witnessed the execu- tions from a balcony which had ])een purposely built and decorated in 11 Ki by a distinguished citizen, NicoUi da Teano. The gallows of the Capitol were abandoned ultimatelv in 1548, and transferred to the Piazza di ponte Sant' Angelo. The views of the piazza from the time of Paul III to the ^ BuUfittino archeolngiro comuniilft di Ilonui, vol. ix, a. 1881, pp. 74-105. THE CITY 31 Napoleonic invasion represent this second "locus justitiae " as a court enclosed by a low wall, at an equal distance be- tween the entrance to the bridge and the Torre di Nona. The northern slope of the Capitoline hill and part of the plain below, beyond the limits of the present Piazza dell' Aracoeli, were occupied by the public market. The first mention of the place occurs in a diploma of the antipope Anacletus II, dated 1130, in which the property of the dis- trict is assigned to the monks of Santa Maria in Aracoeli. On the boundary lines of the market there were marble tables for the exhibition of wares and stuffs,^ and in the cen- tre of the square another stone, which was put to a strange use. A debtor who had failed to fulfil his engagements w^as stripped of his garments in the presence of the money- lender, and thumped thrice on that stone, and made to re- peat each time the formula : " Pagatevi creditori ! " And again : the city officer who had disobeyed orders or taken unfair advantage of his position was condemned to sit astride of the marble lion at the foot of the stejjs, with a paper mitre on his head, on which the words '' mandati transgressor" were Avritten. He had to endure the pun- ishment, with face besmeared Avith honey and hands tied behind his back, as long as the market lasted. This stone lion played an important part in the mediae- val history of Rome. There were two lions, in fact, one carved in marble, the other painted on the wall supporting the balustrade. The first, represented in the act of tearing to pieces a fallen horse, was thought to symbolize the pun- ishment of crimes, or the stern justice exacted by society from its offenders; the second, represented in the act of patting with his paw a starving cur, w^as considered to represent the clemency and equanimity characteristic of the ^ Like those appearing in the illustration on p. 11. 32 THE CITY true aiul just jud^c. 'I'lio stoue g'roup, largely restored in tlie time of Paul 111, is still in existence, hut it has lately heen suhjected to unworthy treatment. This group, against wliich Cola di Ivienzo was prohahly leaning for support, while listenino- to his own sentence of death on the morning- of Octoher 8, lo.")4, and l)efore which Martino Stefaneschi in lo-iT and Fra Monreale in 135-i were handed over to the executioner, — this group, in short, in which three centuries of the mediieval history of the capital are reflected, was removed from the court of the Conservatori in 1903 and located in the centre of a vulgar fountain in the upper garden of the same palace. Let me conclude these remarks by stating that the habit of keeping* live symbolic animals on this sacred hill dates from the earliest times of Roman history. At first there were only geese and dogs, in commemoration, probably, of the un- successful attempt of the Gauls to storm the citadel. In the middle ages it was a live lion, w hose keeper, called '' custos leonis," received his salary from the thirty florins which the Jews of the Ghetto were compelled to pay on Good Fridays, in memory of the thirty pieces of silver with which their ancestors had remunerated the treason of Judas. On a Sunday morning in the year 1414 the lion escaped from his cage, and, after killing or maiming several children, hid himself among the ruins of the Palatine. It was only in the later part of the day that some men from the Rione di Ri|)a traced him to his lair, and brought him thence in triuni])!! to the City Hall. These old traditions are not for- gotten l)y us, and we still keep and feed, at the expense of the city, a wolf and an eagle, as symbols of the mythical birth of Rome and of the fortunes of the Roman Empire. On February 15, 1353, the market-i)lace was the scene of one of those popular outbreaks so common in that unruly THE CITY 33 affe. It seems that Stefanello della Colonna and Bertoldo Orsini, both senators, had exported a large quantity of ■wheat while a terrible famine was pressing the city ; and when on the market-day the crowd found no breadstuff to purchase, they stormed the Senatorial palace, from which Stefanello, being young and alert, made a successful escape. The stone lion of the Capitol before its restoration, from an engraving by Cavalieri, 158o while his colleague Orsini, a heavier and older man, was stoned to death by the infuriated mob. The market boasted of heroes of local — and dubious — fame, a kind of forts de la haUe. Such was the illustrious Tribuntio Squazzetti, to whom the following tablet was erected in the church of Sant' Onofrio on the Janiculura : " To Tribuntio Squazzetti, a commissioner from his early youth, later promoted to the rank of porter, second to none 34 THE CITY in earning' lieavy weiglits, in (U'canting \vine, and in play- ing tlu' ganu' of tlu» niorra (in (liniicationu digitoruni). . . . Stop. wa\ t'arcr. and oll'cr a dranght ot" wine to the worthy man lorcvt-r t lurst v." AWmx' it not for the authority of the learned Caneellieri, who Nouehes for the authenticity of the text, we should hardly have thought it possii)le that such a profane memorial could he exhibited in a Christian church. The market was removed from the foot of the Capitol to the Piazzii Navona by Cardinal Guillanme d'Estouteville in the year 1477, another step taken hy that illustrious prelate towards the reform of the municipal administration in liome. The cardinal's institution lasted to my own days ; and I well remember the sight of that vast piazza teeming with life on Wednesday mornings, with its thousand stalls and hooths, in which all kinds of marketable goods were exhibited, a sight far more interesting and picturescpie than that of the present rag fair at the Campo de' Fiori.^ The old Capitoline institution was revived once only in the course of the last four centuries, in the year 1810, on the name-day of the Emperor Napoleon, of whose dotninions Rome then formed a part. The description of this fair is to be found in nos. 107-114: of the ofhcial Gazette of that time, — the " Gazetta del Campodoglio." Let us now descend from our post of observation and fol- low the two principal thoroughfares of the city of that day, — the Via Lata, corresponding to the classic Flaminia and to the modern Corso, the main line of communication from north to south, and the Via Papae, running westward from the Corso, in the direction of St. Peter's. The Corso had been a fashionable street since the time of Paul II, the builder of the Palazzo di Venezia, who in ' The market was traiisfcrrccl from the Piazza Navona to tlie Campo do' Fiori in tlie last years of Pius IX. THE CITY 35 14G5 introduced for the first time in the capital of the Pontifical States the celebration of the Carnival. A Venetian of noble family, fond of luxury and magnificence, Paul II thought that the more amusement the people were allowed to enjoy, the readier they would be to forget their aspira- tions to municipal liberties. At the same time he, a patrician by birth and by feelings, could certainly not approve of the bloody and brutal sports so dear to mediseval Romans, such as bull- fights, tournaments, and chariot-races, which never ended w^ithout loss of life. When we think that the most popular amusement was the so-called " Giuoco di Testaccio," in which bull-carts laden with live pigs were hurled down the slopes of Monte Testaccio, with evident risk of life to the daring youths who tried to seize the pigs in their wild descent ; and that stands were erected on these occasions for the patrician matrons and maidens to witness the revolting spectacle, we do not wonder at the attempt made by the Venetian pope to bring about a less brutal spirit of amuse- ment. He selected the Corso, the whole extent of which he could command from the corner balcony of his palace, for the racing competitions, which he organized on a grand scale. The events for the Carnival of 1465 included races of horses, donkeys, oxen, and buffaloes, which, however, brought about the same results, and were the cause of many accidents among the cro^vd which lined the Corso, on account of the narrowness of the street. Then followed competitions of speed between children, youths, and old men, the prize, a paUio, being a piece of Venetian red cloth of the value of thirty-six scudi. The principal attraction — Je clou de la fete — was un- doubtedly the racing of the Jews. It was the first time that they w^ere obliged to take a share in the Carnival, more personally than they desired. Disguised in fantastic cos- o(J TJIE CITY tiiines, tliev wciv t'()mj)elli'(l to run for tlie jxiU'io^ driven on by the yells and insults of the heartless crowd ; and whenever they shickened speed from sheer fati4 aiul from the pontifieate of Paul II, when tliree api)rentices from the school of Faust and !Seh(')ffer of Mayence came over the Alps, well equi2)i)ed with tvjies and hand-presses. It seems as if the discovery of so many classic texts and the institution of a public library in the Vatican, made in the time of Nicholas V, had l)rouglit as a necessary consequence the invention of movable types and the process of printin<^\ The new and <^'enial ideas of the Humanists were to be no more the })rivilet>e of the few. Learning" was to be guarded no more within the precincts of monasteries. The bright sunshine of the Renaissance con- quered mediieval darkness as soon as it was found possible to transfer luunan thought to paper. The circulation of books had been a hard and expensive undertaking" up to the time of Paul II and Sixtus lY. The exploit of Vesjtasiano, in transcribing two hundred volumes for Duke Cosimo of Tuscany in the short period of twenty- two months, and with the help of only forty-iive amanuenses, was considered little short of miraculous. Besides, manu- script l)ooks had reached ])r()liibitory j)rices : forty florins were given for a Bible, twenty-five for the ejnstles of Cicero. Poggio Braceiolini had asked and obtained from Lionello d' Este one hundred florins for the epistles of St. Jerome, and one hundred and twenty ducats for a Livy sold to the poet Beccadelli. Both works had been copied by his own hand. The first experiences in Rome of the three apprentices from Mayence, Conrad Schweinheim, Arnold Pannartz, and Ulrich Halin, were not successful. The activity which had prevailed under Pope Nicholas in the field of letters seemed to have come to a standstill just at that period ; and finding themselves without money or shelter, they retired to Subiaco, that ancient seat of learning, many of whose inmates were THE CITY 45 of German extraction. In this peaceful retreat Conrad and Arnold printed the Donatus and the Lactantius (two hun- dred and seventy live copies of each) in 1465, Cicero's '* De Oratore " in 1466, and St. Augustine's " De Civitate Dei" in 1467. These incunabula, representing the very infancy of the printer's art, are still to be seen in the library of San Benedetto at Subiaco. Ulrich Hahn, in the mean time, had been called to Rome by Torquemada to print the "Meditations." His success raised fresh hopes in the other two, and by the end of 1467 we find them installed in the house of Piero Massimi, from which is dated the first edition of the epistles of Cicero.^ They had secured the collaboration of Giannandrea de Bussis, chief librarian of the Vatican, as a reviser of proofs ; yet they do not seem to have prospered in business, and dis- appear altogether from the scene in 1476. Hahn had a better fate, owing perhajjs to the clever use he made of wood- cuts to embellish his books, and also because of the help he received from Giovanni Antonio Campano, bishop of Teramo, one of the leading Humanists of the day, and a member of Pomponio Leto's Academy. The art of printing declined very much in the last quarter of the fifteenth century, owdng to political troubles and to the fierce rule of the Borgias, which gave literary enterprises little or no opportunity to prosper. Aldo Manuzio not only revived the art under Julius II and Leo X (1494-1515), but brought it to perfection. His editions of the Greek and Latin classics show what grace and elegance and artistic touch the Italian spirit of the Renaissance could impart to the useful but rough productions of the Teutonic race. At the time the heroes of my book were living in Rome, the old printing-office in the house of the Massimi had been 1 In domo Petri de Maximo, M.CCCC.LXVii. 4s of the Aventiiie, can easily be identified by means of their rich or rather excessive carv- ings, characteristic of the ai>e of the Antonines. One of the capitals of this tem})le was transformed at a A capital from a temple on the Aventine, transformed in the middle ages into the baptismal font of the church of Santa Prisca remote age into a baptismal font for the church of Santa Prisca, and it is still shown to visitors as the "Baptismum Sancti Petri," used by the prince of the Apostles himself THE CITY 53 while a guest in the house of Aquila and Prisca. Another, no less perfect in its carvings, was found by Jacobus, son of Lawrence, amidst the materials collected for the rebuilding of San Saba. He simply threw it as common stone into one of the foundation trenches, in the manner shown by the following illustration. The Torre delle Milizie, which I have named above as the best existing specimen of a mediaeval baronial tower, was probably built by Pope Gregory IX, of the Conti family, between 1227 and 1241, on the remains of Trajan's buildings, known in the middle ages by the name of Balnea Pauli (Magnanapoli). Boniface VIII bouo-lit it from the sons of Pietro d' Alessio, in 1294, and restored it to its full height after it had been mutilated by Brancaleone Andalo in 1257. Popular tradition, ignoring all these particulars, connects it with the burning of Rome at the time of Nero, and points it out to the unsuspecting tourist as the point of vantage from which the wicked emperor witnessed the calamity. It is perhaps on account of this tradition that the tower obtains a place of honor in all the mediaeval views of the city, such as the one by Nicola Polani (1459), published by Geffroy in 1892 ; a second by Taddeo di Bartolo (1413), published by Stevenson in 1881 ; a third by Ghirlandajo in the " Rape of the Sabines," etc. I have selected for my own illustration a hitherto unpublished view by Paolo Uccello, forming part of a panorama of Rome in the background of Another capital, thrown into a foundation trench of the church of San Saba 54 THE CITY a l>attl(.'-|)ioL'e now in the Galleiia lieale of Tniin. The 'i'orre delle Milizie, three stories liigh, is coupled as usual with other eharactcnstic laiKlniarksol' tlu'city,theColiseuin, the Aracceli, St. .lohn the Lateran, etc. Comparing Uecello's (lesion with the present state of the tower, we see that the third and highest section is missing. W hen and hy whom and for what purpose the nuitilation was done still remains a mystery. No clue is to he found in Valesio's dissertation '"De Turri Comitum," which deals exhaustively with this suhject/ nor in Cancellieri's account of Roman towers inserted in his vol- ume " iSulle Campane di Cam2)idoglio." It may have been destroyed by Giacomo Arlotto de' Stefaneschi in his attempt to pacify the city in K31.*), or it may have fallen, like the upper part of the Torre de Conti, in the great earthquake of January 25, 1348. The house of the Anguillara in the Trastevere, opening on the Via della Lungaretta and facing the church of San Crisogono, has been described by Prince Camillo Massimo, in a memoir published in 1847 under the title " Cenni storici sulla torre degli Anguillara." The Anguillara branch of the Orsini family was already in possession of power and wealth at the time of the death of St. Francis of Assisi (122.")). A rude painting in the church of San Francesco Ti Ripa, now lost or whitewashed, represented Count Pandolfo, the head of the faniilv, in the garb of a Tertiary monk, offering to the saint the model of this chuich and of the adjoining convent, both of which he had I'ebuilt at his own cost. In the contests which fol- lowed the advent of the Emperor Henry VII in 1312, the tower formed a rallying point for the Orsini faction, while the Colon na had selected the Torre delle Milizie for their headquarters. None of the contending parties won the con- ' Publislied by Calogerk, Opuscoli, vol. xxviii, p. 45. A BATTLE NEAR THE GATI With a view of the leading monuments of i the Coliseum, ^OME, BY PAOLO UCCELLO :luding the Torre dalle Milizie, the Aracoeli, permission. i THE CITY 55 test, because, while the Orsiiii succeeded in preventing' the emperor from being crowned in St. Peter's, the Colonna opened to him the way to St. John the Lateran, where the ceremony of the coronation took place on June 29 of the same year. Count Pandolfo's grandson, Everso the Second, is de- scribed by his contemporaries, especially by Cardinal Gia- como Ammanati, the chronicler of the reign of Paul II, as a perfect " flagellum Dei," as the worst and wickedest amonof the barons of his ao-e. He had selected as the scene of his exploits the highroad from Viterbo to Rome, waylaying pilgrims and travellers, not so much for the sake of a ransom as for the pleasure of wrenching the wives from the arms of their husbands. In contempt of God and his saints Everso compelled his vassals to work on Sundays and feast days, and when after the extirpation of his race the gates of the strongholds of Cere, Cervetri, Caprarola, Ronciglione, Monticelli, etc., %vere thrown open, the dungeons were found crowded with wretches who had been starving in chains and darkness for a number of years. It is also said that in the cellars of the castle of Calcata the tools for coining false money were discovered, with a number of spurious pieces of Nicholas V, Calixtus III, and Pius II; yet this same man spent a large amount of money in rebuilding the hospital of Sancta Sanctorum, endowing it with a sum of eight hundred gold ducats, in memory of which event two marble reliefs were placed in the front wall of the hospital, with the coat of arms of the Anguillara family in the middle, and the name eversvs secvndvs on either side of it. This coat of arms, of which I give a reproduction, is beautifully modelled in white stucco above the fireplace in the main hall of the house in the Traste- vere. Everso's career of violence and crime came to an end 5(3 Till-: CITY on Septemhei- *?, 14()4, and lie was ])uried in Santa Maria Man<;"ior('. at the foot of tlie chapel of Nostra Donna, where his fatlier. Cloiint Dolce, had already been laid to rest. His g-rave was covered with a slah, the bas-relief on which repre- sented liiiu clad ni armor, with the senatorial to(|ne instead of a lielniet. This interestin<»" nioniinient was removed and destroved at the time of Benedict XIV, and we shonld probably have been ignorant of its very existence had not a learned man of the ag-e, Francesco Guakli da Rimini, coi)ied the inscription and made a sketch of the tomb. The honse of the Anoiiillara continned in oreat favor with the Trastevere peo})le until lately, on account of the extraor- dinary representation of the presepio or creche of our Lord, which the last o^vner of the tower. Signor Giuseppe Forti, used to prepare on the top of it durinii;- the Advent weeks. I mvself remember this trnlv remarkable siuht, the jrrotto of Bethlehem being" constructed so cleverly as to g'ive throuj^h its various openings ex(|uisite vistas over Tivoli, Frascati, Albano, Monte Mario, and other points of interest of the Roman Campagna. Ttie coat of arms of Count Everso degli Angniillara CHAPTER II LIFE IN THE CITY In the fifth year of his rule Pope Leo X ordered a census to be taken of the inhabitants of Rome, and entrusted the task to the rectors of the one hundred and thirty-one parishes into which the city was ecclesiastically divided. The census was taken some time between the months of July, 1517, and November of the following year, as proved by two entries, — one relating to Lorenzo Campeggi, who was promoted to the cardinalship on July 1, 1517 ; the other to Madonna Vannozza, mother of Caesar Boroia, who is mentioned as the living owner of a house in the parish of Santo Stefano in Piscinula, and who died an octoo^enarian on the 26th day of November, 1518. The results of the census were registered in a deed, the original of which has been discovered by Mariano Armellini in codex M. 193 (125) of the Vatican archives; but, unfor- tunately, of the one hundred and fifty-six sheets that com- posed it, eighty-eight have been torn to pieces ; yet, in spite of its fragmentary state, the document reveals some impor- tant facts. First, that the census was taken from a purely fiscal point of view, and therefore it does not indicate how many persons dwelt in a single house, or palace, or monas- tery, but only mentions the name, mother country, profes- sion, and social condition of the owner of the property, and of the head of the family. Secondly, that the people in those days, as at present, objected to being registered in the government's books, and refused to answer the questions of 58 LIFE IN Till': CTTY the ollic'iiil messengers. Tims, nientioii is nuide in the Rione (li I'onte of a *■' (U)nna siiperbia (sic)," a scornful woniau who declines to j;ive the name of the landowner ; and in the Kione di ( 'aniponiarzio of a " ^iardino d' Ascanio/' which, the statistician savs, " no si sa de chi sia ne chi ve liahita." Tliirdly, that the parish priests of the time of Leo X were not edncated persons, nor skilled in the mysteries of spell- ing" their own vernacnlar. The w^ord "bottega" (shop), for instance, is wiitten in Hve varions ways and all misspelled. Fonrthlv, that the " Romani di Roma," the children of the soil, formed hnt a minority of the cosmopolitan popnla- tion. Lastly, that the "cortigiane" ontninnbered the honest women.' These last tw^o points, concerning the prevalence of strangers and courtesans in Rome, need a few words of ex})lanati()n. After Martin V in 1420 and Eugenius IV in I'l-iii had put an end to the wanderings of the heads of the Church, and given the papal government a firm and permanent basis in Rome, strangers from every province of Italy and from every state beyond the Alps, and beyond the seas, flocked to the citv of the seven hills in quest of occupation, of pleasure, of fortune, of adventure, and of a career in one of the thou- sand branches of the pontifical administration. This cosmo- politan assembly was subject to periodical changes in the constitution of its elements, according to the chance of the day. The Venetians ]>revailed at the time of Eugenius IV and Paul II; the Ligurians under Sixtus IV, Innocent VIII, and Julius II ; the Tuscans under the Medici popes; the Spaniards under Calixtus III and Alexander VI ; the northerners under Adrian VI. " We cannot deny," wTote Marcello All)erini on the eve of the sack of 1527, " that we Romans form but a minority in this international ren- ' That is, single women and widows. LIFE IN THE CITY 59 dezvous of the world." Historians had ah-eady gathered the evidence of this fact from the perusal of the twenty-five thousand funereal inscriptions of Roman churches collected by Pier Luigi Galletti and Vincenzo Forcella/ in which British, French, Spanish, Lnsitanian, and German names occur in such numbers that Galletti considered it expe- dient to devote a volume to each nationality. The same fact is so conspicuous in the census of Leo X, published by Armellini, that we cannot help asking ourselves the ques- tion. Where were then, where are now, the true Romani di Roma ? Alas ! even the popular quarter of the Trastevere, the alleged surviving relic of the Populus Romanus Quiri- tium, unsoiled and unspoiled by contact with foreign invad- ers, makes no exception to the rule. Documentary evidence compels us to believe that our Trasteverini owe their traits of honesty, bravery, passion, vindictiveness, and readiness to settle their quarrels man to man, not to their alleged descent from the classic " plebs," but to the Corsican blood which permeates their veins. The parishes of San Barto- lomeo air Isola and San Crisogono numbered so many Cor- sican residents that for some time the bodva'uard of the Pope could be drafted exclusively from this troublesome colony. The other foreign colonies clustered around their national churches, colleges, or hospices, or in the district in which their own individual trade or industry found better chances of success. The French excelled as perfumers, glovemakers, confectioners, makers of musical instruments and hunting weapons ; the Teutons as bakers ; the Span- iards as booksellers ; the Lombards as builders and archi- tects ; the Dalmatians as boat-builders and navigators ; while the Ligurians and the Florentines reigned supreme in the ' Pier Luigi Galletti, Codices Vaticani, 7904-7921; Vincenzo Forcella, Iscri- zioni delle chiese e d' altri edificii di Roma, 1869. 00 LIFE IX THE CITY c'oiitrada de' Kanclii as iiioiicv kings and collectors of taxes. A walk tlirougli the old (iiiarters of Parione, Regola, and Polite cannot tail to Kiing l)ack to our memory these inter- esting- i)artitulars of city life at the time of Leo X. The names of the streets are the same, mostly connected witli special branches of industry, such as the Vie de' Baullari, Capj»ellari, Cartari, Chiavari, Calzettari, Pianellari, Pet- tinari, etc., altliDugh tlieir respective tradesmen in trunks, hats, pa])er, locks, underwear, slip})ers, toilet articles, etc., are now disjjcrsed all over the city. A few streets, however, have not changed name or occu])ation since the time the census was taken. The Via de' Giubbonari, for instance, is still haunted by makers of " giubbe," or mantles for the peasantry ; the Via de' Canestrari by dealers in wicker-work ; the Via de' Coronari by dealers in chaplets and articles of religion ; and the Via de' Staderari by makers of scales and weights. As soon as a foreign colony had attained a certain amount of wealth and consideration, its first thought was to build a national church and a national hospice for pilgrims; many of these institutions liave enjoyed and still enjoy great celeb- rity. I have already described in " New Tales " tliose founded by the Anglo-Saxons in a. d. 727, the oldest and foremost of the foreign " scholae " in the Vatican district. At the time of tlie census, the schola Saxonum, abolished by Innocent III in 1204, was re})resented by three descendants: the cluirch and hospice of San Tommaso degli Inglesi in the Via di Monserrato, those of Sant' Andrea degli Scozzesi a Caj)o le case, and those of the Ibernesi. To the same class belonsf the charitable institutions of San Luigi de' Francesi, San Claudio de' Borgognoni (Bur- gundians), San Nicola de' Lorenesi, San Giacomo degli LIFE IN THE CITY Gl Spagiuioli, Santo Stanislao de' Polacchi, Sant' Antonio de' Portogliesi, Santo Stefano degli Abissini, Sant' Atanasio de' Greci, San Girolamo degli Illirici, Santo Stefano degli Ungari, Santa Maria dell' Aninia de' Teutonici, Sant' Ivo The belfry of tSanta Maria dell' Aiiima, the national church of the Teutons de' Brettoni, and Santa Elisabetta de' fornari Tedeschi. These last two churches have been destroyed since 1870, one out of sheer necessity, the other through greed. ^2 Lii'i-: IS Till': CITY Tlie flmrc'h of Santa Klisalx'tta, founded by the "^uild of German l)akers at tlu' time of Innocent \'lll (14S7) on the site of the Hecatostylon of Pompey tlie Great,' was rebuilt in 1()1.) from the dcsii;n.s of Girolamo Iiainaldi, Peter Scliwei- kert of Pomerania beini;- one of the principal contributors. It contained three altars, one of the Visitation with a beauti- ful paintinj;- by Johann lleinrich Schenfeld, and two side ones with altar-pieces by Ignatius Stern. These disa})peared at the time of the French invasion of 1793, and the church itself was levelled to the ground in 1879, to make room for a new street which has never been finished. The funereal tablets — the oldest of which bore the name of Heinrich aus Wiesbaden and the date of 1514: — Avere removed, I believe, to the Camposanto dei Tedesehi, near the Vatican sacristy. The national churcli of the Britons, dedicated to Saint Ives at the time of Calixtus III, was demolished in 1878, for no other reason than that the substitution of a tenement house for the venerable but unproductive sanctuary was con- sidered a good investment by its owners. The historical inscri})tions, as well as the three altar-pieces by Carlo Ma- ratta, Lamberti, and Triga, were removed to San Luigi de' Francesi. In laying the foundations of the new house it was discovered that Saint Ives's had been preceded by an older chapel, Sant' Andrea de' Marmorarii, built on the site of a stonecutter's shed. A large column of oriental granite was lying in an unfinished state on the sanded floor of the shed, together with other blocks of marble ready for use. This discovery fits remarkably well with others made in the same 1 A portico of one Imiidred columns, forming tlie front of the Ponipeian gar- dens on the east side. Remains of tliis beautiful colonnade have been found under the Palazzo Caffarclli-Vidoni, and under the church of Sant' Andrea della Valle. The hospital of the German bakers faced the northern side door of Sant' Andrea. LIFE IN THE CITY 63 neig'hborhood, showing- that the whole section of the Cam- pus Martins, north of the Stadium (Piazza Navona), had been set apart for the importation, storage, sale, and cutting and carving of marbles, under the supervision of the " Statio marmorum," or central office for the administration of crown mines and quarries, the headquarters of which were found and explored between 1737 and 1740 on the site of the church of Sant' Apollinare. As regards the prevalence of women of doubtful morality or of no morality at all, at the time the census was taken, I must refer the reader to the delightful essay written by Emmanuel Rodocanachi, in 1894, '" Courtisanes et Bouf- fons. Etude de Moeurs Romaines au XVP Siecle " (Paris, Flammarion, 1894), from which I have derived valuable in- formation about the part played by this class of women in the movement of the Renaissance from the time of Innocent VIII to the middle of the sixteenth century. I speak, of course, of the upper and refined class, which the documents of the age call " delle cortigiane honeste," as if this strange coupling of terms was not to be considered any longer a contradiction. The lower class, called '' delle cortigiane di candela," has not the right to be mentioned in this book. The " cortigiane honeste " were an outcome of the literary and social reform brought about by the Humanists, a re- vival, so to speak, of the age of Pericles and Aspasia. The poets, historians, archjeologists, and philosophers of those days could not find responsive minds or sympathetic ad- visers in the ignorant, superstitious, ungraceful housewives ; while the rivals of the latter, with the wonderful adaptabil- ity of the Italian woman of the Renaissance, had identified themselves with the " intellectuals " from the opening of the Accademia Rom ana of Pomponio Leto. They were no longer the audacious and noisy set, the exploits of which 64 LTFK TX T/fK CITY liave been cliroiiiclecl l>y Poggio, Pannonio, and the Panor- niita, bnt aj)[)eaie(l hetoie tlie eoiirt and the public as women of nuxk'st and graeetul behavior, good conversationalists, learned in (ireek and Latin literature, poetesses, musicians, and charming- hostesses, whose salons were opened to the best society. To this class belonged Tullia d' Arauona, Isa- bella de Luna, Lnperia, la Saltarella, ^Lidrema, Camilla, and Beatrice, whose talents have been sung l)y the greatest poets, and whose features have been immortalized by the greatest artists. When Tullia d' Aragona reached Ferrara, in June, 1537, the representative of Mantua to the ducal court wrote to Isabella d' Este in the following terms : " I have to record the arrival among us of a gentle lady, so modest in beha- vior, so fascinating in manners, that we cannot help consid- ering her something divine; she sings impromptu all kinds of airs and motets ; she keeps herself in touch with the events of the day, and we cannot suggest a subject of dis- cussion with which she does not appear conversant. There is not one lady in Ferrara, not ei'ini tlie Drichess of Pescara, that can stand com[)arison with Tullia." This coupling together of the names of Vittoria Colonna, Duchess of Pescara, the purest and noblest woman of the century, one of the heroines of this volume, with that of Tullia d' Ara- gona ])roves two points, — that virtue had become a very vague expression in the age preceding the Reformation, and that if vice was coupled with beauty of form and quick, bright intelligence, the Duchess of Pescara herself and the stern Michelangelo were ready to forget the one in consid- eration for the others.' Tullia appears over and over again * 111 Michelangelo's Rime we find the cjiitai)!! of a oortij^iaiia between two sonnets addressed to Vittoria Colonna, and tliis lady has not hesitated to immor- talize in her verses the name of Beatrice da Ferrara. LIFE IN THE CITY 65 in the diplomatic coriespondeiice of the day ; for instance, in a letter written by Piero Vettori to Fihppo Strozzi, on February 14, 1531, in which he acknowledges he is w^riting it in the boudoir of the beautiful girl whose advice is so often valuable to him. Vettori was not the only foreign representative in Rome to follow the fashion of the day ; because any diplomatist, anxious to gather information on court intrigues or society scandals, or to outwit his col- leagues in a special case, was obliged to seek the help of one or more of these Egerias, whose salons thus turned — to mutual advantage — into regular chancelleries. This is perhaps the reason why Tullia, on her visit to Florence in 1535 was excused from wearing the statutory yellow veil, although the reason given was that such a dis- tinguished follower of the Muses and of the divine Plato ought not to be submitted to the ordinary police regulations. The career of the girl, however, soon came to a pitiful end. After having received almost regal homage in Naples, Rome, Florence, and Ferrara, she died in a wa-etched den by the river, leaving the few trinkets saved from the wreck to a niece (?) Celia, under the guardianship of a Messer Orazio Marchiani. The trinkets were sold at auction : a necklace of pearls with a diamond clasp found a purchaser at forty scudi ; another necklace of pearls with nine pen- dants was sold at thirty ; the sale of the furniture brought as a total the sum of twelve scudi and a half. I may re- mark in the last place that Tullia owed her extraordinary success to the charm of her manners more than to personal attractions. Her face was irregular, but her eyes were spar- klino; and her hair of the most brilliant g-olden hue. I won- der, however, whether this last was a gift of nature or the result of one of those manipulations for which the Venetian chemists were famous. Tullia must also have been a lover m IJFI-: /.V Till'. CITY ol luusic, cH)iisi(l(.'iiiii;' that, aiiioiii;- t he records of happier clays to which she had clung' in the days of distress, we find a liar[)sicli()i(l with its stool, an old broken lute with its ease, and several i)0()ks of music.' 'riiaidcs to the general [)erversion of morals which char- acterizes the Humanistic j)eriod, the'"cortioiane honeste "had gained an eipial footing with ladies of rank and virtue, and they could he seen sharing the same seats and receiving the same welcome in churches, in public gatherings, and in The church wliere Iniperia was buried. A snow effect. the houses of certain members of the Curia. In the the- atrical performance offered by Giacomo Serra to his circle of acquaintances on the eve of the Epiphany of 1513, half the seats were occupied by Spanish cortigiane, although the ^ The literature on Tullia d' Ara<;;ona is very rich. Compare Cchini Eurico, Le Rime di TuUin d' Arar/ona. \\o\ogiy.\, ISOl; Honjji, " II velo giaHo di T. d' A.," in Rivisia Critini, iii, a. LSSG, p. 90 ; Hiai,n Guido, " Una Et^ra Roinana," iu Nttova Aidolngia, xxi, a. 1S8(), p. G81; Luzio, " Fedorigo Couzaga," in Archivio Stnria Patrin, ix, a. 1S87, p. 509. LIFE IN THE CITY 67 guest of honor for the evening' was the Pope's favorite, the son of IsabeUa d' Este, Fedeiigo Conzaga, then only twelve years old. It is true that in the majority of cases the behavior of these women was not only decent, but decidedly more refined than that of many ladies of rank ; and that the education they gave to their children Avas better than that given to many young scions of the Roman patriciate. The daughter of Imperia, the " queen of beauty " of the time of Leo X, preferred to kill herself rather than to fall the victim of the governor of Siena, where she lived in retirement. Imperia, herself, having succumbed to a fatal illness in the prime of youth, was buried in the church of San Gregorio al Celio, in a marble tomb bearing the following inscrijition : — IMPERIA • CORTISANA ' ROMANA QVAE • DIGXA * TAXTO ' NOMIXE RARAE • INTER ' HOMIXES * FORMAE SPECIMEN • DEDIT VIXIT • ANNOS • XXVI * DIES " XII OBIIT • MDXI • DIE ' XV ' AVGVSTI ^ Whenever the Tortora left her house for church or for a promenade, four footmen, two pages, one maid, and several admirers formed her escort. Lucrezia Portia attended mass surrounded by ten pages and ten maids. The Padovana included in her suite many secretaries and clerks from her banking and money-lending establishment. The Panta is said to have squandered in a few years the sum of three hundred thousand scudi, the revenue of a province. After having enjoyed immunity and received encourage- 1 Imperia, Roman courtesan, who, worthy of the great name, was gifted with incomparable beauty, lived twenty-six years, twelve days; died on August 15 of the year 1511. Compare Roscoe, Life of Leo X, vol. iii, p. 93, note; Forcella, Iscrizioni delle chiese de' Roma, vol. ii, j). 104, note 287. (J8 Lll'l-: ly THE CITY ment from every ciuarter for about half a century, these " Muses of the Ivenaissauce " untlerwent their first persecu- tion at tlie a})i)roach of the Jubilee of L")25, by order of the austeri' Pope Adrian W. '' Alas !" exclaims Andrea Calino on the evt' of his pilgrima<>e, '' what a sad .lubilee we expect to have, since Kome has been deprived of its best attraction." The changes in the attitude of the various i)opes towards the eratpat are registered indirectly in contemporary sta- tistics. According" to Infessara six thousand were numbered in 1-190. It is true that this diarist of Innocent VIII is always ready to cast blame ui)on the actions of the master he served, but even if diminished by one half, the number is extraordinary for a city of fifty or sixty thousand inhab- itants. In 1549 four hundred and eighty-four " cortigiane honeste " were registered, together with many thousands of the lower grade. In 1592, according to the information collected l)y Cardinal Rusticucci, the vicar of Sixtus V, the women leadino- an irreo-ular life within the walls had risen to the total of nineteen thousand. Such a condition of things could not help bringing dire results for the health of the city, es])ecially as the space to wdiicli the wretched women of the lowest type Avere relegated was shifted from time to time from one quarter to another. At the time of Sixtus IV they were immured near the Bocca della Verita, in a filthy labyrinth of lanes called the Bordelletto, within sight of the church of the repentant Saint Mary the Egyp- tian. A quarter of a century later we find them mustered in the unhealthy district between the Ghetto and the Ponte Sisto, and lastly they seem to have been confined to the Quartiere dell' Ortaccio, now represented by the Piazza di Montedoro, a network of alleys extending from the church of Sant' Ambrogio dei Lombardi (S.Carlo al Corso) to those of San Giacomo degli Schiavoni e San Rocco. LIFE IX THE CITY ()1> We must i-enieniber, also, that the Bordelletto, the ()r- taceio, and in general all the low-lying districts on either side of the Tiber, were not })rovi(le(l with drainage. The Cloaca Maxima and the drain of the Circus Flaminius answered at intervals their old purpose, so far as the increase in the level of the city would allow it ; but more frequent were the cases in which either the silt deposited by the overflowing' river, or the accumulation of refuse, would stop the flow of the sewage and turn the neighborliood into a deadly quagmire. These occurrences were periodical in the hollows of the Forum Augustum and of the Campo Vaccino ; in fact, a bridge had been thrown over the stream of liquid poison to keep open the communication with the church and nu)nas- tery of Santa Maria Liberatrice. The topographers and archjieologists of the sixteenth century, in describing the ruins and excavations of the Forum, refer to this bridge under the name of " Ponticello " as to a well-known land- mark ; and Martin Heemskerk has left a memorandum of it in the sketch-book formerly in the possession of the Parisian architect Destailleurs, and now in the Imperial Museum at Berlin. The same noxious stream is seen cross- ing the Campo Vaccino diagonally from the church of Sant' Adriano to that of Santa Maria Liberatrice, in the ])ano- ramic view dedicated in 17G3 to Count Rezzonico, nephew of Clement XIII, by the celebrated engraver Giusejipe Yasi. The name of Pantano — the Boo* — still oiven to the forum of Auofustus owes its ori«in to the same cause. The Pantano extended from the southern boundary of the forum of Trajan to beyond the Argiletum, and being very much in favor with the vegetable growers and market gardeners of the district, it brought a considerable revenue to the Knights Templars of San Basilio, to whom it belonged. Pius V and Prospero Boccapaduli put an end to the dis- 70 L1FI-: IX TIIK CITY (Ti'at'efiil s])ec-iilatioii in ir)7() l)y filling- uj) the boi;' to the le\t'l of tile [H'l'seiit Via Alcssaiidriiia. The cemeteries, of" wiiicli there were as many as there were parish chinches, convents, and hospitals, furnished, another source of infection, heing' in contact with the houses of the living. Thus the corpses of the unfortunate who died in the liospital of San Giovanni, in the island of the Tiber, at the rate of a hundred and fifty a nu)nth, were buried in a yard directly under the windows of the ward in which the sick lay. The stench (foetor cadaceruiii ) became so foul that the Town Council, at the sitting- of A})ril 27, 1591, voted funds for the opening of another burial-place " away from the inhabited quarters, and not prejudicial to their health." Many of these hotbeds of disease have been rediscovered in my time. I remember, in particular, those of Santa Maria Nuova, of the Pantheon, of San Sebastiano in Pallara, of San Marcello de Via Lata, of San Nicolao de Calcarario, of San Ciriaco de Camilliano, and of Santa Maria in Cam- ])itello. The largest of all, adjoining the hosi)ital of Santa Maria delle Grazie, occupied one half of the Basilica Julia, the layer of human remains being from six to eight feet in thickness. Flaminio Vacca ' relates the following remark- able discovery : " While Bernardo Acciajuoli was excavat- ing his garden on the Quirinal, on the site of the baths of Coivstantine, he entered two underground vaulted passages, the outer end of which was cut off by a wall built in a hurry and out of the perpendicular. Beyond this obstacle, which was removed without difficulty, the cellars appeared to be full of human bones. Bernardo Acciajuoli being mv friend, I was sent at once to investigate the matter. The ' Memnrie dl varie antichita trovate in fliversi luoghi della cittu ili Roma, scritte da Flaminio A'acca nel 1594:. Published by Carlo Fea in 1790, n. 112. THE REMAINS OF THE BATHS OF CONSTANTINE Ix\ THE GARDEN OF BERNARDO ACCIAJUOLI, ON THE QUIRINAL LIFE IX THE CITY ' 73 first thing" I noticed on entering the crypts was that he- tweeu the upper layer of bones and the top of the walled ceiling there was an empty space, about four feet high, which space allowed us to reach the end of both cellars, sinking knee-deep in the crumbling mass of skeletons. Each gallery was ninety feet long, twenty-six wide. Now as the ceilings of both were intact, without loopholes or skylights, it is evident that these poor people must have died and their corpses must have been heaped up layer after layer all at once, whether in consequence of an outbreak of the plague or of a wholesale massacre of citizens I cannot say. The empty space above must have been caused by the sinking of the mass, after the corpses w^ere turned into skeletons ; and the hasty manner in which the walls were built at each end shows how anxious the masons were to escape from the ghastly place." Another discovery of the same kind was made in the seventeeth century in the garden belonging to the Barberini palace, while workmen were laying the foundations of the pedestal for the obelisk which the brothers Curzio and Mar- cello Saccoccia had discovered in 1570, in the circus of the Varian Gardens beyond Santa Croce in Gerusalemme, and which, after many wanderings, has now been set up again in the central avenue of the Pincio Gardens. Pietro Sante Bartoli, who watched the Barberini excavations in the interest of science, speaks of a "stanzone" or hall fifty feet high, filled with a " quantita grandissima di ossa umane." Many of the parish cemeteries, abandoned or very seldom in use, served as receptacles for the refuse of the city, when- ever the sleepy authorities remembered to collect it from the streets, into which it was first dumped from the window^s. There was virtually an office in the capital called " officium immunditiarum urbis," but we must consider it more as 7-4 Lll'l-: IN THE CITY an airha'olooical it'iiiinisteiice of the classic " ely used in summer for the irrijra- tion of the orchards and gardens of the '' Prati di Castello." No wonder the Borgo was considered the unhealthiest dis- trict of Rome ; in certain years it became absolutely the deadliest. In August, 1503, when Pope Alexander VI was stricken with his fatal illness wdiile takino- refreshments in the garden of Cardinal Adriano da Corneto, the fever had laid low half the members of the Pope's household, the majority of cases having proved fatal. A similar epi- demic is recorded for the year 1605; but although the Borghigiani and the inmates of the Vatican died l)y hun- dreds, the pestilential ditches were not drained until the 23d day of September. Again, Cardinal Noris, in a letter dated September 10, 1695, says that seven hundred Borghigiani had already been carried away by malignant fevers in the course of that summer. To these causes of infection we must add another not less pernicious in its consequences, the pollution of drinking water. Alas, the golden days when Rome boasted of eleven aqueducts, measuring three hundred and thirty-eight miles 1 Hifitoriarnm. Book II, cli. 93. LIFE IN THE CITY 11 in aggregate length, and discharging a daily supply of one million seven hundred and forty-seven thousand cuhic metres of the purest water, at the rate of eighteen hundred litres per head, were gone forever. Save for the Aqua Virgo, which continued to flow inter- mittently in the fountain of Trevi, and for a remnant of the Aqua Trajana which supplied, also at intervals, the fountain of Innocent VIII in the Piazza di S. Pietro and that in the Piazza of Santa Maria in Trastevere, there was no water The spring- of Juturna, near the temple of Castor and Pollux but what could be obtained from the Tiber and from wells. From this point of view the mediaeval city had gone back to the days of its infancy, of which Julius Frontinus, the chief commissioner of aqueducts at the time of Trajan, says : " During four hundred and forty-one years after the foundation of the city the Romans satisfied themselves with the use of such Avater as they could obtain on the spot from 78 LIFE IS THE CITY the Til)(.'r or from spiiiiiis . . , like those of the Camoentie, of Apolh), ;uul of Mercury." These si)rin<>s may have been whok'some in the ai»e to which Frontiiuis refers; hut at the time wliicli falls within the scope of this hook, the sprhigs, being- forced to Hlter through strataof rubbish, mostly formed from the decay of vegetable or aiiinial matter, had certainly lost their purity. Of this fact we have lately been given an object lesson in the rediscovery of the fountain of Juturna. We hailed with delight the reappearance of this poetical source at which Castor and Pollux, bearing to Rome the joy- ful tidings of the victory of Lake Regillus, are said to have watered their steeds. We expected to be able to quench our thirst with the same licpiid crystal that the Vestals used in purifying the shrine of their goddess ; we were, however, doomed to disappointment. Chemical analysis has shown the spring of Juturna to be now saturated with nitrogenous matter, so as to be unfit for human use. This corru})tion must have happened after the occupation of that classic corner of ancient Rome by the cemetery connected with the church of Santa Maria Antiqua, and after the same spot had been selected by Paul II as a dumping-place for the refuse of the city. As regards the Tiber, there is no doubt that people drank its water with impunity. Alessandro Petroni, physi- cian and friend of St. Ignatius Loyola, and archiater of Pope Gregory XIII, praises its wholesome qualities in a pamphlet " De aqua Tiberina ad Julium III pout, max." (Rome, 1552). Another writer, Francesco Cancellieri, says that long after the restoration of the old aqueducts of Agrippa by Pius IV, of Severus Alexander by Sixtus V, and of Trajan by Paul V, several monastic establishments, such as the Theresians of Santa Maria della Scala, the Benedic- tines of San Callisto, and the Oratorians of Santa Maria in A VIEW OF THE I'ORTO \ To show tlie place (marked +) where Santa F ON I NO ON THE TIBER cesca Romana was rescued from drowning LIFE IN THE CITY 79 Vallicella, continued to fill their cisterns with water from the river. Clement VII, on the advice of his physician, Corti, in the journey to Marseilles which he undertook in 1553, to celebrate the marriage of his niece Catherine de' Medici with the Duke of Orleans, provided himself with sufficient water from the river to last throug'hout his ab- sence. The same precaution is said to have been taken by Paul III in his journeying's to Loreto, Bologna, and Nice. Gregory XIII attributed to the habitual use of this water the fact of his having* reached his eighty-fourth year in full enjoyment of health. The author of the life of Santa Francesca Romana says that the pious widow was passing one day, with her friend Vannozza Santacroce, by the church of San Leonardo in Settimiana (which stood at that time near the water's edge on the site of the present Porto Leonino), and that they both fell into the river while bending for a drink. Their miracu- lous escape from drowning was afterwards painted in a shrine of the garden adjoining the church of San Leonardo. This and other similar instances, which I abstain from quoting, show that the Romans of the middle ages and of the early Renaissance must have been proof against typhoid fever, of which the Tiber, acting as the main sewer of the city, did certainly contain the germs. No wonder that the honorable Compagnia degli Acquariciarii or water-carriers should have prospered under this state of things. Their headquarters were at the chapel of Sant' Andrea, the site of which is now occupied by the church of Santa Maria della Pace. The beautiful Madonna on the high altar is the same that was once worshipped by the water-carriers. Tradition relates that having been struck with a stone by a member of the company who had lost heavily at cards, the figure bled ; and that Pope Sixtus IV vowed to raise a temple in honor of the 80 LIFE IN THE CITY luiiac'iilous iinai;('. if the dangers wliicli threatened Italy in t'oiise([ii(.MK'e of tlie Cong'iiira de' Paz/i were averted by the Virgin's intercession. The Ae(|uarieiarii cairicd the water in barrels strapped on the Itacks of (h)nlinvoiiii:Jcniizitrle/jeri:r'' cttlaltJJ^onht.■^^•.C\^lrl>olTl.lll,^r,^ul.x8T•]rloneliclGhf^(><'ll:rntn■lo^'fnc!ul!i•|ie!'r•■llL,lZ2^lrelto '' ' a ' -| THE PLAGUE OF Al From a rare contemporary print representing the fo Prince Cliigi. (2) Barge-loads of corpses from the practices for fighting the plague in the infected d; the Walls ^vfumnlori yohn 33 SolHah.che^tianianoU Forte dtlla Citin 3^ CorrozztiiccheccittfiiietmRelniuvo ,■ Cc'imj.i.fporflu clic nchm Qn.'^^Shmo'rH.'''^''^'^^^-""'^^'^- XANDER VII, A. 1659 ing scenes: (i) The inspection of the city gates by aret in the island of San Bartolomeo. (3-5) Various cts. (6) The "field of death ' near St. Paul outside LIFE IN THE CITY 8.") After the tales of distress and cowardice which 1 have related above, it is certainly a welcome change to find in Fabio Chig'i, Pope Alexander VII, worthy descendant of the Magnifico Agostino, such an example of wisdom, courage, practical sense, ardent charity, in saving his city from this last visitation. One cannot read the account of his deeds on this occasion without wondering why a testimonial of grat- itude has not yet been raised to him, either in the Capitol or in the court of the Chigi palace. During the eventful period which I am attempting to describe, the practice of medicine and surgery was not always learned or acquired in universities or hospitals, but in many cases by the students devoting themselves to the service of a practitioner. These young candidates generally pledged themselves to serve the master for five years, receiving no pay except a change of clothing every twelve months. Those who excelled in the profession, and had obtained a regular degree at Padova, Bologna, or Perugia, called themselves " artium et medicinae doctores," while their humbler colleagues satisfied themselves with the title of "fisici" or " chirugici." Jews were not excluded from the craft ; in fact, they were favorite doctors with a certain class of citizens, and occasionally with popes. I have tran- scribed from the records of the Capitol the following curious certificate : '' I, Scipio de Manfredis, knight, doctor of arts and medicine, head physician of Rome and of the universe, commissioner of the Apostolic See in these matters, deliver hereby the following diploma M. D. : Whereas the excel- lent and most learned master Michael de Zamora, a Hebrew residing in Rome, has given us evidence of the long vigils and of the long studies made to learn the healing art in various universities, and having applied for his diploma, after a successful examination, I therefore, . . . etc., etc." 8() i.iri-: i.\ THE crrv 'J'lu' |niiui' ol" tlu' .lowish hk'(Ir-u1 school in Kome was tlie ial)l)i SainiK'l Sarfati, who hecanie poiitilical archiater in the tmif of .1 uliiis 1 1. \\ f must not think that in the niajoritx of cases the jH'actici' of nu'dirine was particnhuly remunerative. The pliysieian who attended to the wants of a girl named Anna Parisi during the eight weeks of her ilhiess received for his fee iive earhni (oi ahout thuty-live cents). In manv cases the cure was not inidcrtakcii unh'ss the remuneration liad heen (hdy agreetl upon and specified in a legal contract. One of tliese interesting documents, a copy of which I have in my [)ossession, relates how, in the year 1518, the noble lady Paolina Portia de Mutis, suffering from an internal complaint, entrusted herself to the care of the Franciscan monk. Gregorio Caravita, of Avhom I have spoken above as the inventor of a miraculous oil for curing the plague. The sti})ulations were as follows : Should the cure prove success- ful, and the success be certified by experts, the venerable monk was to receive a remuneration of two hundred gold pieces, besides the twenty advanced to him for the purchase and compounding of drugs. Should he fail, or should the lady die, the monk was bound to give back to the family even the money spent for medicines. He must have failed in his attempt, because I find the same lady — who must have been gifted with a wonderful constitution, as well as with a will of iron — (piarrelling with another physician before the protomedico, and for the same cause. This unfortunate doctor, named V^incenzo, having had enough of his trouble- some patient, gave up the case to a thii'd party, a quack named Agostino da Rocchetta. In another agreement of the same kind and period (Jan- uary (3, 1520) a Sicilian lady, Madonna Speranza, promises five gold pieces to surgeon Colimodo in case he should deliver LIFE IN THE CITY 87 her of the "morbus galHcus." I may quote in the last phice the disappointing experience of the surgeon Giovanni de Romanis, who, having- failed to restore the eyesight of one of his clients, is condemned bv the maofistrate to s^ive back half of the fee of six ducats already received (May 26, 1523). One cannot glance over some of the prescriptions in favor at the beginning of the sixteenth century without marvelling at the soundness of constitutions which could successfully withstand such treatment. I have already related in " Pagan and Christian Rome," p. 29, how the French Antonian monks in charge of the hospital of Sant' Andrea all' Esquilino had secured a comfortable income by selling pills for the ague, made of the glutinous sub- stance which held in their place the marble encrustations of the basilica of Junius Bassus. Other favorite pills for headache and heartburn, '' used by cardinals and clerics of the Curia," Avere compounded of sagapen, scammonea boiled in the juice of quinces, coloquint, and salt. A rem- edy warranted to cure hernia " in thirty-five days without any surgical operation " was composed of chips of aloe, agallochum boiled in vinegar, lard, dragon's blood, incense, and glue ! The perusal of several contracts passed between certain courts of Italy and their respective apothecaries for the supply of medicines and drugs, the prices of which were duly specified, makes it quite evident that the trade was not a remunerative one, unless the chemist undertook at the same time the sale of other articles which had nothing in common with the healing art. Such were writing or wrap- ping paper, ink and varnish, confectionery, spices from India and the far East, pearls and precious stones. As re- gards wax and sugar, they were either sold in their natural 8S I.II1-: IS Tiir: city state or luaiiipiilatt'd in various j;iiis('s. The two best iiiaiiuals of the time, tlie " Tliesaiirus Aroniatarioriiin " and the '' Luini'n Apotliecariornm," <;ive us full directions about whiteniui;' or (hciui;' wax ni red. g-i'cen. or Mack, and alioiit tlif thirt\-onr known ways of uiaUing sug'ar, " ad faciendum fructus et aniuudia onuiia ex zuecaro." During; the few days in which King- Alfonso 1 of Naples entertained at Terraciua the pontifical legate and Nicolo Piccinino, the court apothe- caries supplied to the royal table two thousand five hundred and ninetv-one pounds of sugar in the shape of birds and other animals, b()id)ons and deheacies, to the vahie of four hundred and twenty-four ducats. In Rome itself it found a suitable market, for the confection of the Agnus Dei, of which thousands were sold to the pilgrims, or sent abroad as articles of devotion. The Diarist of Leo X, Paride de' Grassi, says that on April 27, 1519, the Pope blessed not less than twenty cases of " Ag-nus Dei " which had been manufactured by the court apothecary. I must remark, in the last i)lace. that rice is registered in these documents, if not as an actual medicine, at least as a rather uncommon food. One of the most curious documents on this special chapter of public and private life in Italy in the first quarter of the sixteenth century is a contract signed on February 23, 1424, between Giacomo Arrivabene, apothecary, and the repre- sentatives of the court of Ferrara, for the supply of medicines for the space of two years. The drug's registered are but 17(3, which represents the ])harmaco})(eia of the aristocracy, in comparison with the 2056 popular i)rescriptions, contained in the " Antidotarium " of Nicholas Mireps, the celebrated specialist from Alexandria and c(nnt physician to the Em- peror Johannes. It is also satisfactory to see that not one of the horrid substances " ex liomine desumpta," to secure possession of LIFE IX THE CITY 89 A mediijeval house left standing opposite the church of Santa Cecilia, in Trastevere which many human lives were sacrificed in the middle ages, is mentioned either in the Ferrara or in other Roman docu- ments which I have happened to consult. The same reasons which prompted the druggists to extend their trade in the way just described must have induced perfumers to dabble in chemistry. In the inventory of a perfumer's shop in the Via della Croce, made on Novem- ber 25, 1555, we find, besides the tools of the trade, glass, maiolica, soaps, gloves, mirrors, chaplets, etc., and the fol- lowing medical substances : laudanum, benzoin, storax, sub- limate oil of lentisk, and white of Venice. Barbers were also called in to perform certain simple surgical operations, such as the drawing of blood, massage, etc. This class of trades- men were evidently held in great estimation. There used to be in the church of Sant' Ao-ostino a tombstone inscribed 00 LIFE ly THE CITY as follows : " To tlio memorv of Joan Ivobert, most ex(|uisite })t'riunu>r. As he clistinj^iiished liiniself in his litctiiuc hy clistillini;' iiiarvellouslv sceiitiHl ])erfiiines, so he now iiiids hmiselt in llic t'lill frinjruncii of a blessed life. Died on ,Inl\ 1."), 1.") l;i, jioed .">,")." Another cause of the insaluhiity of niedia'val Rome is to be found in the inundations of the Tiber, which three or four times a year invaded the low-lying districts, — the Pantheon, the ( 'ontrada della \'alle, the Contrada dell' Orso, the Boeca della Verita, the Kipetta, and the Ghetto, — while three or four times in a century they extended over the whole area of the inhabited citv.' The Romans took refuji'e on these occasions on the nearest height at hand, such as the Monte Giordano, formed by the remains of the amphi- theatruni Statilianum, the Monte Savello or the Monte de' Cenci, formed by the remains of the theatres of Marcelhis and Balbus, the Monte Citorio (origin uid^nown), and waited in stolid patience for the subsiding' of the waters, which took place generally at the end of the third day. Considering that the average yearly volume of mud and sand carried down by the river amounts to eight and a half million tons, corresponding to one hundred millions of cubic feet, it is easy to imagine in what condition streets and dwellings must have been left by the receding flood. There is actually an old lane in Rome called Leccosa, because, owing to its low level and proximity to the river, it was permanently covered with "lecco'' or silt. Another street, destroyed in 1887, bore the name of Fiumara, from its being transformed into a river at each freshet of the Tiber. Rain, cold, and hunger ' Tlie section of tlie city iiiliabiti'd in tlie funrteentli and fiftecntli centuries embraced the plain of the Campus Martins, between tlie Corso, the Snbnra, and the Tiber, and also part of the Trastevere. The average level of these cpiar- ters was at that time fourteen metres above the level of the sea, while the floods reached sometimes the lieijiht of nineteen metres. O -r y. o o n es n! H a) <- T3 ^ Z rt D .H ::^ ij ^ w C ffi 0) H in LIFE IN THE CITY 93 forced the crowd to seek the sheher of their dwellings as soon as it was possible to reenter them, and here we find them living for a time in rooms reeking with damp, over cellars filled with foul-smelHng mud, and amid orchards and gardens transformed into pools of sluggish water. No won- der that the "Liber Pontificalis," like the historians and annalists of a later age, never mentions the occurrence of a flood without expatiating at the same time on its trail of misery, famine, ophthalmia, pernicious fevers, ague, and plague. From the point of view of actual loss of life, the inun- dations of the Tiber must be divided into two periods. In the first period we hear of a sudden inrush of water which caught the people almost unawares and left them no time to seek a place of shelter in higher lands, as if the outburst had been caused by the breaking away of an obstacle, whether a levee, an embankment, or a wall. These appalling contingencies are described by the '' Liber Pontificalis " v/ith the following stereotyped formula : On such an hour, on such a day of such a year — for instance liora diei x for the inundation of October 30, a.d. 860 — the waters broke through the postern of St. Agatha or St. Martin, and rush- ing over the waste fields of the Campus Martius entered the Via Flaminia (the modern Corso), to strike the foot of the Capitoline hill. Pushed back by this obstacle, they followed the Pallacinae (Via di San Marco and Via delle Botteghe Oscure), to fall back into their proper channel somewhere near the ^Emilian bridge. It is not difficult to explain the occurrence. Rome in those days was still protected on the river side by the walls of Honorius, which followed the left bank from the present Ponte Margherita to the Ponte Sisto. There were only three or four posterns or gaps in the walls, which served to give IM Lii'i-: i.\ Till-: CITY lU'i'oss to till' •' tr;iL;li(t 1 1 " or IV'nit's, or to tlu' mooring' stations along- tlie hank. The posterns ot" St. Agatha or St. Martin, the nortluMiiniost anil the most exposed of all, were })robably walleil nj) or harrii-ailed at the lirst warning of danger, but the temporary ol)stiiietion must have gixen way under the enormous strain of the swollen riyer rusiiing at the rate of many miles an hour. In later times, namely after the downfall of the Ilono- rian wall, we hear no nu)re of sudden inrushes, but only of a gentle steady rising of the waters, whieh spread over the lower (juarters, giving time to the citizens to save their lives and their valuables. The Avorst fatalities that occurred within the period to which my work refers are those of December, l-i95, October, 1530, September, lo.")?. and December, 1598. The height reached by the water on these occasions (IG. 88 metres in the first, 18.95 in the second and third, 19.56 in the last) is still marked all over the city by commemorative tablets. There were originally two special places selected for the registration of such events, — the palace of Cardinal Caetani in the Via di Tordinona and the fayade of Santa Maria Sopra Minerva. The Palazzo Caetani no longer exists,^ but the front of the church is still covered Avitli the records ^of floods, of which I quote one instance : " In the year of our Lord one thousand five hundred and thirtv, the seventh of the pontificate of Pope Clement VII. on the eighth day of October, the flood reached this line, and the whole city woidd have perished if the Blessed Virgin had not made the waters recede." ^ Its site is indicated l)y tlie name of tlie street on wliieh it stood, Via deW Area di Parma, a name derived from tliat of Cardinale di Parma. It came into the hands of the Caetani at the time of Hadrian VI and was sold by them to the Celestinian Fathers of Sant' Eiisebio in tlie year 1027. LIFE IN THE CITY 95 The flood of 1598, the highest recorded in history, began on Christmas eve. At noon of the following day there were twenty-one feet of water in the Via di Ripetta, twenty-two at the Pantheon, seventeen at the Piazza Navona, fifteen on the Corso by San Lorenzo in Lucina. A barge went ashore in the Piazza della Trinita, since called di Spagna, 'i'liL- iiHindation of I'JUO as seen in the Piazza del Pantheon where the fountain of the Barcaccia was erected at a later period to commemorate the event. Two arches of the ^Emi- lian bridge were overthrown at 3 p. m. on the 24th, a few seconds after Cardinal Pietro Aldobrandini had crossed it to rescue some families surrounded by the foaming waters. Houses were washed away by the hundred, seven hundred persons were drowned in the city, and eight hundred in the suburbs, besides thousands of cattle. As usual, famine and pestilence followed the flood. The tablets jnit up on this occasion on the side wall of the church of San Giovannino, on the front of the Crescenzi- Serlupi palace, on the castle of Sant' Angelo, etc., have all 9() 7. //••/■; /x Tin-: city perisluMl l)ut two. Tlie first is to be seen in the Piazza Giudea behiiitl the chmcli of the Madonna del Pianto ; tlie second, in the front wall of la Minerva near the door on the right. The reader niav ask at this i)oint of my narrative. How could iieojde live and prosper in a city exposed to so many deadly j)eril.s, and liow could the same city continue to attract newcomers from every part of Italy and from every Chris- tian nation beyond the Alj)s, so that towards the end of the reign of Leo X the '' Komani di Roma " formed but the minority of the popnlation within the walls? There is no doubt that the hnman constitution was stronger then than now ; the refinements of civilization had not drained or debased the vitality of men ; they conld stand more physical strain and better resist contagion or disease. It is my belief, for instance, that if the banquet given on the Capitoline hill, on September 13 of the year 1513, to Giuliano de' Medici, to celebrate his c()i')ptation into the Roman patri- ciate, had taken place in the present century, it might have occasioned a pnblic calamity. The description of the appall- ing feast was discovered in the Barberini library, and pub- lished by Pasqualucci in 1881.' A stand had been erected for the occasion in front of the Conservatori palace, adorned with six large pictures painted by " excellenti pictori," among which, one, forty-two feet high, by Baldassarre Peruzzi, re- presented the deeds of Tarpeia, the traitor. The same artist had designed the scenes for the wooden stage upon which the comedies were to be enacted. Giovanni Giorgio Cesa- rini, the standard-bearer or gonfaloniere of the S. P. Q. R., had planned every detail of the ceremony on a grand scale, and the ])oor Giidiano de' Medici, a prince of retiring dis- position, had to undergo the following ordeal during the ^ fibdiano de" Medici eletto cittadino Romano nel 1513 . . . relazione inedita di M. Ant. Altieri con prefazione e note di Loreto Pasqualucci. Rome, 1881. LIFE IN THE CITY 97 three days that the reception lasted : a cavalcade in state ; addresses of welcome from the senators, the conservatori, the delegates from the thirteen wards of the city, and other IVLIANVS MED' LAVKENTU t ^^^» »^ MIL^s^ ^ ^^^B ^^^I^B^^^^^^B '^^^ l^k w !|ShH^||^; ' ' ^ ' ■ ^.^B^^^J^^^K .. ■■1^ -v&jv. •.-.'■; .^^' i d^'' XD. "';';^^^^r^ The portrait of Giuliaao de' Medici, son of Lorenzo, by Brouzino, in the Galleria degli Uifizi officials ; a high mass sung in the church of the Aracoeli ; an interminable oration by the speaker of the day, Lorenzo Vallati ; the verbal exposition of all the privileges conferred on the candidate bv the S. P. Q. R. ; the recital of poetical 08 Lirh: jx the city ('()in|i()siti()iis with iiitciuic/./.os of choirs and soii^s ; appa- ritions of niythoh>nical pt'i-soniiges ; recitals of eclogues and hncolics ; theatrical performances, such as the recitation of the •• Pocnnlus" of Plautus ; and, last of all, a banquet, the nuMiu of which — as given in the memoirs of Marco Anto- nio Altieri, one of the fortv-four guests who survived the ordeal — occupies four and a half sheets of fine })rint. The hanquet opened with three courses of "-innauti pasti," or entrees, which included })astrv of pine nuts and sugar, Itiscuits, sweet wine and whipped cream, prunes, heccaficos, (piails. (h)ves, and Eastern sweetmeats. Then followed eighty courses with fourteen varieties of birds, five of venison, five of meat, twenty-two of pastry, and sundry other delicacies in the line of fruit and vegetables. And while the guests were partaking of the heroic meal, the spectators and the crowd at large were continually exploding guns, mortars, and light l)ieces of artillery, beating drums, and blowing trumpets. No less curious are the particulars of the feast offered to Eleonora d' Aragona on the occasion of her visit to Rome, mentioned in the preceding chapter. Although the guests were only seven at the first table and three at the second, fifty courses were offered to them, some of the silver dishes c(jntaining a whole stag, a whole bear, or else two stur- geons each five feet long. Certain combinations of food sound incredible to our modern tastes, but Cardinal di San Sisto's butler was bent on ])Ieasing the eye in preference to the ])alate. The bread, for instance, was gilded ; there were dishes representing Atalanta and ni})pomene, Perseus rescuing Andromeda, Ceres on a chariot drawn by four tigers, and Orpheus playing on the lyre amidst a flock of peacocks in the full splendor of their plumage. The last piece repre- sented a mountain, from the bowels of which a poet emerged, who recited an appropriate set of verses. LIFE IN THE CITY 99 Pauperism in its inaiiifokl and hideous manifestations had become a flourishing industry in Rome since the insti- tution of the Jubilees. In the oldest documents concernin"" the topog'raphy of the Vatican the present church of Santa Maria in Campo Santo is called " Eleemosyna," because within its walls thirteen beggars were entertained at dinner daily, and two thousand were given food and drink on Mondays and Fridays. It was customary in those days for every citizen makino" his will to leave a certain amount to be distributed among the indigent of the parish. Some of the formulas used in these documents are rather touching ; for instance : " October 22, 1368, I, Meo Ubere, of the region of the Pigna, call three poor of Christ to be my heirs, regret- ting that my own poverty does not allow me to leave them more than five soldi provisini each." The custom still exists amono- us, and no oood Roman dictates his last wishes to the notary without leaving a few lire to the hos- pital of Santo Spirito. Pope Pius IV in 1561 ordered the Town Council to pro- vide workhouses for the destitute, it being his wish that the sorry and revolting sight of thousands of dirty beggars harassing the citizens in the streets should be stopped at once. On the receipt of this missive a committee of noble- men was elected to carry the Pope's order into execution, but, as far as I know^, the committee never met. The only step taken on this occasion was that each caporione, or chief magistrate of one of the thirteen wards of the city, fol- lowed by a town councillor, went through his district once a month, with an almsbox in his hands, begging for the poor. Workhouses were eventually established towards the end of the sixteenth century, which, however, were meant to meet the emergencies of the moment rather than to be perma- loo /.//■•/•; /.v /•///•; ci'J'Y neut in.stitiitions. 'riius 1 liml that in \7)\Y1 tliu beggars of tlie Rioiie Coloima had been crowded into the house of the hite Bcirtoh)nuM) Papa, iukKt tlic earc of tlie Fatebenefra- telli. To Sixtns V l)elonsis the honor of havinii* established the first workhouse in the modern sense of the word. It oeeupied the large building known as the '* Casa del Cento Preti," at the cistiberine end of the Ponte Sisto. It was in- tended to give shelter to destitute but healthy citizens, those afflicted with contagious diseases being sent to the Porta Angelica and those who were suffering with incur- able ones to S. Giacomo in Augusta. A special class was allowed to beg in the streets, provided they had given satisf actor V answers to the following questions : " Do you know the Pater, Ave, and Credo ? Who was your last con- fessor, and where does he live ? Do you know the articles of the Christian doctrine?" etc. At a later i)eriod the beautiful palace of the Lateran, the official residence of the Bishop of Rome, the great memorial of Sixtus V and Domenico Fontana, was turned into a hospice. How^ever, as the Roman beggars have never changed their nature, preferring freedom of movement even to the regal hospi- tality of the Lateran, they found a way of breaking their Ixinds. so that Monsignor Berlingerio Gypsio, governor of the city, was obliged to issue a proclamation against the fugitives, ordering their recapture on account of the many crimes and scandals which they had })erpetrated. This, then, was the condition of the city when its inhab- itants welcomed the election of the old Cardinal Alessandro Farnese to the chair of St. Peter as a true godsend, in the firm l)elief that his advent would put an end to the material and moral disadvantages under which they had labored for centuries. The fulfilment of these anticipations will be de- scribed in the following chapters. CHAPTER III PAUL III The triumphal entry of the Emperor Charles V on April 5 o£ the year 153G marks the turning'-point in the destiny of the city, and the besfinnino- of its transformation into a modern capital, because the works of improvement, accom- plished in haste in the weeks preceding the arrival of the imperial guest, met with such welcome on the part of the people and were obviously so beneficial to their health and comfort and general well-being, that they were continued long after their actual origin and cause had faded from the memory of the living. The merit of this transformation belongs to two men alone, — to Pope Paul III, Alessandro Farnese, and his genial adviser, Latino Giovenale Mannetti. Alessandro, born on February 28, 1468, of Pier Luigi Far- nese and Giovannella Caetani, Avas promoted to the cardinal- ship when only twenty-five years old, thanks to the influence that his sister Giulia, the " bellissima," had gained over the reigning Pope Alexander VI. His first thought after re- ceiving the red hat was to secure a suitable residence, and he found it in the house once inhabited by the Spanish car- dinal, Pedro Ferriz, which had passed into the hands of the Augustinian monks of Santa Maria del Popolo. The pro- perty consisted of a house facing the "major via Arenulae"^ and of two gardens reaching down to the river, on the bank of which stood one of the towers of the old Honorian walls. The Via Giulia, which now separates the palace from the 1 The present thoroughfare Capodiferro-Venti-Farnese-Monserrato. 102 I'ML 111 river, had not yot been opened l)v tlie P()])e wliose name it bears ; nor liad tlie present Piazza Farnese l)roui»lit air, light, and liealth into the hind hlocks of hovels \vhieh oeenpied The " bellissinia '" Giiilia Farnese. sister of Pope Paul ill. From the alle- gorical statue by Guglielnio della Porta, in .St. Peter's the space between the palace and the Canipo de' Fiori.^ For the si)ace of twenty years the young dignitary of the Church showed no particular ambition for improving the old palace, perhaps on account of his constant wanderings to Monte 1 The Campo de' Fiori, upon which cattle were still grazing at the time of Martin V, was levelled and paved by Cardinal Ludovico Scaranipo in 1452. PAUL III 103 Fiascone and Viterbo, where he met in 1499 Kmg Charles VIII of France ; to Bertinoro, Venice, Parma, Valva, Siil- niona, St. Pons, and Benevento, of which dioceses he was named bishop successively by Julius II and Leo X; and to the Marca di Ancona, which he governed as legate from 1501 to 1507. Having won the favor of Leo X, whom he had crowned with his own hands, and having settled in Rome as cardinal titular of Sant' Eustachio and bishop of Frascati, he undertook to transform the old Ferriz palace into a residence worthy of the great name of the Farnese, for which purpose leave was given to him by the Apostolic Chamber to la)' hands on and despoil of their marbles and columns the half-ruined chapels, cloisters, and porticoes by Avhich the church of San Lorenzo fuori le Mura was then surrounded. The importance of this grant of building and decorative materials may be gathered from the fact that, to save the treasures within the monumental group of San Lorenzo from hostile invasions (such as the Saracenic of 846, the Teutonic of 1111, etc.), a battlemented wall had been raised round it, and the whole group transformed into an outlying fortress, under the (probable) name of Laurenti- opolis. At the time of Cardinal Farnese the wall had col- lapsed for half its length, as shown by a sketch of Martin Heemskerk, now in the Kunstgewerbe Museum at Berlin ; ^ but the buildings within, although roofless and tenantless, had not yet been deprived of their wealth of marbles. These were the church of St. Agapetus ; the cubicle or oratory of SS. Abundius and Irenseus, whose grave was marked by a metrical epitaph composed by Pope Damasus and engraved by Philocalus ; the chapel of St. Stephen ; a hospice for 1 A reproduction of tliis sketch is given in Rums and Excavaiions of Ancient Rome, p. 85, fig. 3j. 104 FA//. HI ])ili;riins, a cliaptcr-house Jiiul monastery, and maiiy slirincs, fountains, hatliini;- [)on(ls, etc. We do not know precisely tlie ([uantity and nature ol" the plunder collected from Lau- reiitiojxtlis l)y the masons of Cardinal Farnese ; but, judging from other discoveries made in the neigiihorhood on subse- (pient occasions, the first comers must have had the lion's share. They came across a wall built of pieces of statuary, among which were eighteen or twenty portrait heads of em- perors, which must be considered the nucleus of the famous Museo Farnesiano. Flaminio Vacca, to whom we owe the information, speaks also of the finding of an epitaph to a mule so devoted to its master that it would kneel before him to spare him the fatigue of mounting. If we may believe a vague statement of Benedetto Mel- lini.' the agents of the cardinal did not hesitate to attack even the graves of the martyrs. He speaks of the finding of the remains of St. Hip})()lytus and other saints in a crypt adjoining the basilica, and quotes as authority Fra Angelico da Bologna, prior of the monastery, who saw the "holy bodies lying on the floor as in a circle, with their heads rest- ing on a stone." Other records of the time of Alexander VII ( 1655-1067) show the wealth of these ruins to have been almost inex- haustible. "On the right side of the court of San Lorenzo, Avhere a new vineyard has just been planted. Pope Chigi caused the remains of the church of San Romano to be searched. Several beautiful columns of rerde antico and marble and travertine in great quantities were the reward of his labors." - The columns of verrJe (intlco can be seen at the }>resent day, two in the Ginnetti chapel at Sant' Andrea ' The author of the volume on the Oratory of St. Lawrence ad Saneta Sanctorum, printed in 1006. * Memorie di Pietro Sante Barloli, published by Fea in 171K), n. 137, p. *2G1. < o o ; OC o z; PAUL III 107 della Valle, the other in the Chigi chapel in the Duomo di Siena. Cardinal Alessandro resided in the old palace until the sack of 1527, keeping a princely court of liis own. In the census taken by order of Clement VII a few months before that dire event, the results of which were made known in 189-1 by Domenico Gnoli,^ the cardinal ranks next to the Pope, and above all his colleagues of the sacred college as reo-ards the number of his courtiers and servants. To the Pope are assigned seven hundred "bocche" or mouths feeding at his expense ; to the cardinals the following num- bers : Farnese, 306 ; Cesarini, 275 ; Orsini, 200 ; del Monte, 200 ; Cybo, 192 ; Pucci, 190 ; Ridolfi, 180 ; Piccolomini, 180 ; de Cupis, 150 ; Rangoni, 150 ; Campeggi, 130 ; della Valle, 130 ; Pisani, 130 ; Armellini, 130 ; Scaramuccia Tri- vulzio, 103 ; Accolti, 100 ; Erkenfort, 100 ; Jacobacci, 80 ; Cesi, 80 ; Numalio, 60 ; de Vio, 4:5. All these names have become famous for their connection with the sack and massacres of 1527. We know that only thirteen cardinals, Farnese included, shared with Clement VII the shelter of the castle of Sant' Angelo ; the others had to undergo the most atrocious treatment at the hands of the Lansquenets. Exquisite refinements of cruelty were devised to extort monev from them. Numalio, for instance, was torn from his bed, to which he had been confined for a time, placed on a hearse, and dragged through the burning city in his robes of state. "Drunken soldiers and profligate women surrounded the bier, brandishing torches and vociferating infamous songs in imitation of priestly canticles. In this guise the unfortunate old man was carried into the church of the Aracoeli and lowered into a crypt, to be buried alive 1 Descriptio Urhis o Censimento della popnlnzione di Roma avanti il sacco Borbonico, in "Archivio della Society di Storia Patria," vol. xvii, a. 1894. 108 I'ACL III unless a fresh ransom should he paid. Friends came to his rescue at tlie hist nu)nu'iit. " ' Anotlier dignitary of the Chur(di, tlie ohl Cardinal Ponzetta, whose name does not ai)pear in the y Ascaiiio Colonnu, Ciiaii Battista Savelli, and Ginliano Cosarini, long'lit a tonrnanicnt in the Piazza di San Pictro, liurlini;' at each (»tlnT l»alls of I)aki'd (dav, from wliicli tliev tried to protect themselves with raised shields. The real tonrnament, with lances and full armor, was fon^ht later in the day in the Piazza dei Santi A})()st()li. One cannot read the account of these sin\])le hut heartfelt demonstrations of welcome to Paul 111 without enu)tion, considerini;- the ordeals Kome had i;-one through in the preceding years. I am pleased to record, at the outset, that the bright promises of the new pontificate were more than fulfilled, and that the fifteen years of Paul IIPs rule (October 1:3, ir):3J:-November 10, b)4*,h mark one of the happiest periods in the history of the city and the beginning of its transformation into a healthier and liner capital. Tlie cause for this change was, as 1 stated Ijefore, the triumphal reception tendered to the Emperor Charles V on iiis return from the Tunis expedi- tion, ten years after his own lieutenant, the Connetable de Bonrbon, had intiicted on the city the worst punishment recorded in its history. The Pope's legates had met the emperor on April 1, 153(), as he was leaving the village of Sermoneta, on the Pontine marshes. On the third day he was the guest of Ascanio Colonna at Marino. On Wednesday the 4th he reached the monasterv of St. Paul outside the Walls, and on the morninir of the following day rcxle to the Porta San Sebastiano by the Via delle Sette Chiese, attended by Pier Luigi Farnese, son of the Pope, l)y the standard-bearer of the S. P. Q. R., Giuliano Cesarini, and by many other dignitaries, while the cardinals awaited his ai'rival at the chapel of Domine-quo- vadis. The decoration of the city gate, designed by Antonio da PAUL III 111 Sangallo the young-er, in coiijuiictioii with his own brother, Battista il Gohbo, Martin Heeniskerk, Ratt'aello da Monte- hipO; r Indaco, Girolamo Pilotto, and other great masters, formed a suitable opening for a series of wonders. The programme of the reception suggested by Latino Gioyenale Mannetti, and ap})roved by the Pope and the conservatori, was subUme in its simphcity. The emperor was to be escorted through the Vie Appia, Triumphahs, and Sacra, bordered by the great ruins of the imperial age, to the Piazza di San Marco (di Venezia), and then to that of St. Peter's by the Via Papale, a street of palaces and stately churches. The reader's appreciation of the g-enius of Mannetti in carrying the programme into execution will be increased by the fact that it had been agreed upon only on December 10 of the preceding year ; in other words, that in the short interyal of fifteen weeks the emperor's highway, three miles long, had been opened, leyelled, payed, decorated, and spanned with triumphal arches ; that two hundred houses and three or four churches had been demolished, and that the baths of Caracalla, the Septizonium, the Coliseum, the palace of the Csesars, the Templum Sacrae Urbis (SS. Cosma e Damiano), the Heroon of Romulus, son of Maxentius, the temple of Faustina, the arch of Septimius, and the forum and column of Trajan had been freed of their ignoble surroundings and brought into full yiew. Very few modern administrations can boast of haying accomplished so much at such a short notice ; and the outlay was only 50,51:7 ducats. The end of the festiyities did not mark the end of the material improyement of the city. Thanks to the good will of the Pope and to the untiring energy of the " maestro delle strade," Mannetti, assisted by Angelo del Bufalo de' Cancellieri as administrator, and by Bartolomeo Baronino as engineer and expert, the aspect of the capital underwent as 1V2 I'Arr. in radical a change us that bioiiglit about again by Sixtus V and Donu'iiico Fontaiia towards tlio end of the century ; with this dillV'rence, however, that while the eiforts of the latter Pope were directed towards the rehabilitation of the high quarters from the Trinita de' Monti to Santa Croce in Geru- salenime (which had been left untenanted since the cutting of the acjueducts), the aim of Paul HI and Mannetti was the sanitation and betterment of the low-lying (|uarters, which enjoyed an ample supply of water. The budget of the works accomplished between 1536 and 154*) includes the opening or levelling or widening of the Corso, of the Vie di S. Gregorio, di Marforio, Paolina, de' Baullari, del Babuino, di Panico, del foro Traiano, di Torre Argentina, de' Condotti, de' Cestari, della Palombella, di Santa Maria in Monticelli, del Plebiscito, Papale, Alessan- drina ; the opening of the four squares, di San Marco (Vene- zia), Farnese, Navona, and Santi Apostoli; the erection of the tower and belvedere on the northern summit of the Capitoline hill ; of the viaduct connecting the tower with the Palazzo di Venezia ; of the bastions of Belvedere, of Santa Sabina, of Santo S])irito, and of the Antoniana ; of the Sala Kegia and of the pontifical apartment in the castle of Sant' Angelo ; the laying out of the Orti Farnesiani on the Palatine ; the erection of the new^ apse of St. Peter's, and the gathering of a museum of statuary, of a gallery of pictures, and of a library the equal of which had never l)een seen in the possession of a private family. The funds for the opening or the bettering of a street wTre derived from a so-called " tassa di gettito," or "im- provement-tax," to be paid by all owners of property along the line, the value of which would be increased by the in- tended works. The minutes of these " tasse di gettito," an excellent source of information for the topography of the PAUL III 113 city in the first half of the sixteenth century, are all pre- served in the state archives of Santa Maria in Canipomarzio, except one which I purchased at a book sale in 1902. It refers to the improvement of the Corso in the year 1538, in consequence of which it became the main, the busiest, the most fashionable thoroughfare of the city, a distinction One of the eoiirts of the Palazzo di Venezia, the favor- ite residence of Paul III, by Meo del Caprine and Jacopo da Pietrasanta enjoyed up to that time by the now almost forgotten Via Giulia. The taxation of property, in the document of 1538, does not begin at tlie Piazza del Popolo, but only at about a third of the way, namely, at the Arco di Portogallo, the 114 I'AIL III iiaiiu'K'ss arch of the decadence, which s})anne(l the street at tlio lu'ii^lit of the Via dclla Vito.' The reason is mani- fest. Tlie Areo di Port()t;allo niarked tlie extreme end of the ndiahited citv; l)eyond it n()rtli\\ard. tliat is to say, in tlie dirt'ction of the i;ate, tiiere was no property worthy to be taxetl. At the areh, therefore, began the carnival sports and races, and all official })ai;eants, such as the recep- tion of foreign ambassadors or princes of royal blood, the processions of the Rogations, of the Corpus Domini, etc. The document informs us that the Coi'so was bordered at that time by one hundred and sixteen houses, palaces, or church establishments ; that the most valuable piece of pro- pertv was the Palazzo di Venezia, from the corner balcony ot" whieli it was possible to survey the whole length of the street ("^ vede insino alia porta del Populo et ne piglia grande utilita ") ; that next in importance to the Palazzo di Venezia came that of Cardinal Francisco Quinones, Count of Luna, adjoining San Lorenzo in Lucina ; that of Cardinal Ercole Conzaga, on the site of the present Palazzo Doria ; and that of the Salviati family, at the corner of the Via dell' Uniilta, on the site of the present Palazzo Aldobrandini. Excellent illustrations of this state of things, as regards the Corso of the sixteenth century, are to be found in the plan of Leonardo Bufalini (L").")!). in the panoramic views of Maggi (1610) and Tempesta (1045), and in the sketch- books of Alo Giovannoli (IGIG), Israel Silvestre (16-42), and Giovanni Falda (1660). In the private apartments of the Marchese Theodoli there are still to be seen two views of the street painted by order of Girolamo Theodoli, Bishop of Cadiz, in the third quarter of the sixteenth century, and representing the middle section of the street, between the Arco di PortojT'illo and the Piazza Colonna. The scene is ^ See illustration on p. 40. FAUL III 115 enlivened by allegorical masqnerades, with allusions to the gossip of the day. While engaged in the task of freeing the city from its mediaeval fetters, Paul III did not forget his own interests, and beofan the reconstruction of the old residence on such a scale of ofrandeur and mao-nificence that it remains to the present day unequalled. In erecting the Farnese palace, with the help of the great masters of the age, he foresaw undoubt- edly the brilliant future of his race, a future destined to out- distance the wildest dreams of human ambition. The first august alliance was contracted by the Farnese in 1538, with the betrothal of Ottavio, nephew of the Pope, to the young widow of Alessandro de' Medici, Madame Margaret of Austria, daughter of the Emperor Charles V. The assassi- nation of Duke Alessandro, which had taken place the year before, must be considered an event of archseological as well as political importance, as it marks the dispersion of the antiquarian collections which the Medici had so lovingly formed, from materials found, for the greater part, in Rome. The soldiery and the populace, instigated by Alessandro Vitelli, broke open the doors of the ducal palace and pil- laged it of its precious contents, such as illuminated manu- scripts, gems, medals, marble and bronze statues, which were handed over to Vitelli himself. When Margaret aban- doned Florence, on her way to Rome, Ferdinando de Silva, the ambassador of Charles V, compelled the usurper to give back part of the stolen treasures, among them the priceless intaglio of Apollo and Marysas known as " Nero's seal," and the cup of agate known as the " tazza Farnese." These two /cet/x>/Xta, first removed to Parma, are now preserved in the Museo Nazionale at Naples. The beautiful bride came in sight of Rome by the Via Tri- umphalis, on Sunday, November 3, 1538, the anniversary IK) PMI. Ill (lav of the coronation of Paul 111. She had passed the last niiihtof the ioiuiiev aniouii" the niiiis of Veil in the eastle of the Orsini, now called the Isola Farnese, and had halted for rest and refreshment in the \illa hniit hy ('lenient VII, on the slope of the Monte Mario, which bears now the name of Villa Madama. The entry in state was made by the Porta del Popolo, two honrs before sunset, amid the loud acclamations of the people, who had perhajjs never beheld such a charming scene. The bride, ridini;- a '' chinea learda " of great price, and attended by Cardinal Alessandro Farnese, Cardinal di Compostella, and twenty-five ecpierries, wore a marvellous habit of white satin, cut in the Portuguese fashion, with gold embroideries interwoven with pearls. The procession, followed by the foreign ambassadors, the Court, the Sacred College, the Patriciate, and the Senatore, Conservatori, and Caporioni, rode through the Corso, the Piazza di San Marco, the Via Papale, and entered the Borgo by the iElian bridge. Ottavio Farnese was presented to the bride in the loggia of the first floor of the palace, and the couple proceeded hand in hand through the " anticamera de' Paranienti " to the Pope's throne room, where Margaret received a cordial welcome and superb gifts. I have pur- posely mentioned at length this advent of the daughter of Charles V to Rome, because her name is still popular among us from its connection with the Palazzo and the Villa Ma- dama, and with the picturesque village of Castel Madama in the upper valley of the Anio. The Palazzo Madama, built and enriched with a library, a museum of statuary, and a gallery of pictures by Cardinal Giovanni de' Medici, afterwards Leo X, has been so well described by Michaelis and Miintz ' that I need not touch ' Adolf Michaelis, Jahrbuch d. Instititts, vol. viii, a. 1893, p. 119 ; Eugene Miintz, Memnires de VAcade'mie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres, vol. xxxv, a. 1895, part II. PAUL III 117 A corner of the Palazzo Madama, showing details of windows, frieze, and cornice the subject again. Before becoming- the residence of Mar- garet it had been occupied by another illustrious woman, Alfonsina Orsini, widow of Piero de' Medici and mother of Lorenzo and Clarice, wdiose charitable instincts towards the needy had received in 1514 the most unexpected reward. Of this event Clarice's husband, Filippo Strozzi, gives the follow- ing account : " My mother-in-law," he says, " is very fortu- nate indeed, considering the interest she has been drawing from the money spent in her charities. While building at her expense a new wing of a monastery, she has come across five exquisite marble figures, all representing dead or wounded men. They belong, as I understand, to the history of the Horatii and Curiatii." The true meaning of the discovery has been given by Brunn. We know from Pausanias that King Attains I of Pergamum (241-197 b. c.) had presented the Athenians wdth four groups of statues representing, one the lis rAiL III Gioaiitomat'liia, anotlier the lii;iit hi'tweeii the Atlioiiiaiis and till' Aiiiazoiis tlu' tliird tlic battle of Marathon, the loiirtli the (K'tVat of the (Jauls hy Attains liiniselt". The four l;i()11[)s — t•a^l iii hroii/.c — were placccl on the south wall of the Acropolis, ahoxc the theatre of Diouysos. The Hg'ures found l)v Alfonsina Orsini are coi)ies of some of these hronze originals executed by Perg'auienian artists of the tirst century after Christ. One of them, a statuette of a Persian warrior, iioav in the Galleria de' Candelabri of the \ atican Museum ( Xo. !2()1) e), belongs to the cycle of the battle of Marathon and re})resents a Persian warrior sunk upon his knees before an Athenian, and endeavoring" to parry with the right arm a blow aimed at him from above. The '• gifts of Attains " are represented by other magnificent specimens of the Pergamenian school in Rome, by the '• Dying Gaul " of the Capitoline Museum, and bv the group of the "Gaul and his wife" — the so-called Arria and Pietus — of the Ludovisi collection. The Palazzo Madama has been the meeting-place of the upper House or Senate since Rome was made the capital of Italy in 1870; but in spite of the many alterations which the building underwent at that time, there are several rooms preserved almost in the same state as when they were graced by the presence of the daughter of Charles V. The Villa Madama, on the other hand, seems to have been persecuted by ill fate from its origin to the present day. Built by Giulio Romano for Cardinal Giulio de' Medici, afterwards Pope Clement VII, on the eastern slopes of the Monte Mario, in a resfitm made famous bv the legend of the a})parition of the cross,' it was pillaged and partially wrecked at the time of the sack, at the instigation of Cardinal Pompeo Colonna, the personal enemy of Clement ^ See Prif/(in (tn>I Christiiut Rome, p. 1(55. PAUL III 119 VII, who from the upper ramparts of the castle of Sant' Ana'elo witnessed the scene of destrnction. After the retreat of the imperial army the villa fell into the hands of the Chapter of Sant' Eustachio, from which it was with- drawn on the occasion of Ottavio's marriage, to be ottered as a suburban residence to his bride. With some of the statues collected by Clement VII, and many others pur- chased from their discoverers according to the chances of the antiquarian market, Margaret of Austria transformed the villa, and above all the loggia of Giovanni da Udine, into a nuiseum of statuary, which, however, had but an ephemeral life. The semi-colossal figure of Jupiter, the gem of the collection, was the first to leave the woody recesses of the villa for Fontainebleau. Another " statue de marble blanc, representant nn honnne dont la barbe descend au- dessous de la poitrine " was offered as a present to Cardinal Perrenot de Granvelle, the secretary of state of Charles V and Philiji 11. The ultimate dispersion of the marbles took place in 156G as the result of a Brief of Pins V by which their noble owner was empowered to dispose of them at her will, and even to export them from Rome. One cannot enter the now silent and lonesome precincts of the villa, and gaze at the unfinished " teatro," at the loggia of Giovanni da Udine, mouldy and green with dampness, at the rank weeds growing in the paths once trodden by the feet of the august bride of Ottavio Farnese, without experiencing the same sense of sadness which one feels on visiting the Villa Conti at Poli, the Villa Farnese at Caprarola, the Villa Versaglia at Formello, all of them deserted and left to decay by the heirs of their respective founders. The alliance with the head of the Holy Roman Empire was soon followed bv that with the house of France, through the marriage between Orazio Farnese, Duke of Castro and 1-0 I'ML III l)rotlu'i-iii-l;i\v of Margaret . witli Diana, daiio'liter of Henry II. This luarriage was ci'lclnatcd in \7)A\). Alessaudro, Duke of rarma, who inherited the estates of his father Ottavio in l.lSi), named govenior of Fhinders hj his uncle Pliili}) II, and one of the most renowned army leaders of the time, contracted another alliance with a royal house by marrvino- the Infanta Maria of Portuo-al, dauohter of Prince (Jdoardo. The last Duke of Parma and Piacenza, xVntonio Farnese (\Tll-ol), havino- no male issue, married his niece Elisa- betta to Philip V, king of Spain. The duchy, therefore, passed into the possession of the Infante Don Carlos, born of this marriage, who in 1734 became also king of the Two Sicilies, a most unfortunate event for Rome and its histor- ical collection, as I shall have the opportunity to explain before the end of this chapter. The construction of the Farnese palace, from the designs of Antonio da Sangallo the younger, began about the year 1540, and was completed by the Pope's namesake and grand- son. Cardinal Alessandro, long after the death of the former. Flaminio Vacca relates the following story in connection with Antonio's work : " I have been told that after the foundations of the palace \vere finished and the walls raised to a considerable height above the ground, a great crack was noticed in the masonry of the corner facing the church of San Girolamo della Carita. Antonio made soundinp-s in more than one place to ascertain the cause of the accident, and was astonished to discover a <»"reat Roman sewer runnino- under the clay bed upon which he had laid the foundations of that corner." Vacca's story is not correct; the mishap was due to the fact that Antonio had planted the new walls upon those of the '' Stabulum factionis Russatae," — the barracks and stables of the Red S(piadron of Charioteers, — i THE LOGGIA OF GIOVANNI DA UDINE IN THE VILLA MADAMA Details of the ceiling i PAUL III 123 the thickness and strength of which was not able to stand the strain and weight of the superstructure. These walls, together with a beautiful mosaic pavement in black and white representing feats of horsemanship, can still be seen in the cellars of the right wing of the palace. Panciroli, Martinelli, Marangoni, Fea, and other writers about Rome take it for granted that the great structure was mainly built of stone quarried from the Coliseum, and one after another they repeat the anecdote about Cardinal Alessandro, who, having obtained from the Pope a grant of as much material as he could properly remove in one night, laid hold of several hundred carts, even from the hill- towns and villages of the Campagna, and accomplished in a few hours the work of many weeks. The fact is that in the diary of expenses, kept by Mon- signor Aleotto, who, in conjunction with the banker Ceuli, administered the funds, no mention occurs of the Coliseum. The blocks of travertine came from the " Fosse di Tivoli," and especially from the district since called Casal Bernini ; and long teams of buffaloes plodded along the Via Tiburtina, dragging their heavy loads even in the heart of summer, when the quarry men, as a rule, are obliged to leave their work on account of the great heat. The marbles, on the other hand, lavishly used throughout the building, represent the spoliation, if not the destruction, of several classic edi- fices, — of the temple of the Sun in the Colonna gardens, of the baths of Caracalla, and of the ruins of Porto. The temple of the Sun, the remains of which, known by the name of " Torre Mesa " or " Frontespizio di Nerone," towered one hundred feet above the terrace of the Colonna gardens on the Quirinal, was the property of the Prin- cess Giulia, widow of Prosperetto Colonna, a lady wdiose name is connected with the establishment of many chari- 124 I'Mi. Ill ties, such as the Casa tie' Catei'iiineiii, the monasterv of Sant' Anibr()i;-it) alia Massiina, etc. The iimiieiise size of the temi)le can be better appreciated fioiii the fact that its area cov- ered one huudieil and iifty thousand s(juare feet; that the fountain of Sixtus V. fonnerlv in the Piaz/.a del Popolo and now in the j^^aiden of San Pietro in JMontorio, was cut out of a single base; that a block of the pediment, wdiich now lies near the ed<;e of the upper terrace, weighs one hundred tons; and that tlie j)avement of the Galleria degli Specchi in the adjoining palace was inlaid with marble cut out of a single Idock of the frieze. The destruction of these noble ruins for the sake of providing the Farnese palace with or- namental materials began in January, 1549, according to the terms of agreement between the Princess Giulia and the Pope's agent, Monsignor Aleotto. After the death of Paul III, Prince Ascanio, Avho had iidierited Giuha's rights, made a present of what was left of the temple to Julius III, then engaged in building his beautiful villa on the Via Flaminia. The Oesi chapel in Santa Maria Maggiore had also a share of the spoils. No wonder, then, that the great- est tem])le of imperial Rome should have disappeared so completely that, but for a single block of the pediment, and for the sketches of the sixteenth century artists wdio witnessed the destruction, we should now be ignorant even of the former location of Aurelian's masterpiece. The stran- gest part of this story is that the provider of archaeological marbles for the Palazzo Farnese and the destroyer of the temple of the Sun was the same Messer Mario Macharone whom Paul III had ap])ointed " commissario degli scavi ; " that is to say, protector of antique ruins and edifices against the greed of despoilers. How often Messer Mario must have regretted his end)arrassing position, when the sense of duty on one side and the wish to serve the Pope on the other \'Ii:\V OK THE REMAINS OP^ TI^ COLONNA GARDEN: From the peispective plan of Rome made by Giova PLE OF THE SUN IN THE •HE OUIRINAL at the beginning of the seventeenth century FAUL III 125 were drawing him in quite different directions ! I think, however, that he must have come to a com])romise with his conscience, and that between the two conflictino- interests he must have chosen to serve his own. We are indirectly informed of this fact by Ulisse Aldovrandi, the anticjuarian from Bologna, who declares that he saw in 1556, among the curiosities of the Macharone house at the Macello de' Corvi, " a marble horse in full harness to which are attached the legs of the rider " and the " head and bust of Caracalla, part of a semi-colossal statue," found in the baths of that emperor. It seems evident, therefore, that while Messer Mario was exhuming and putting aside for his master the Hercules of Glycon, the group of Dirce, the Flora, the group of Atraeus, the two Gladiators, and many other such won- ders of ancient art, he thought it fair to keep for himself one or two mementos of the successful excavations. The Farnese palace became the recipient of the rarest and best collections ever formed by a private individual (the Pope had made over the property to Cardinal Alessandro the younger, his own grandson) even before its completion by Michelangelo. The collections comprised works of stat- uary, pictures, books and manuscripts, and ohjets de vertu and curiosities. The museum of statuary was formed partly with the products of excavations, partly by purchase. From this second point of vieAv the museum represents to us the outcome of the efforts which had been made, indejjendently of each other, by Cardinal Marino Grimani, by Bernardino de' Fabii, by the brothers Sassi, by Paolo del Bufalo, Muzia de' Velli, Tommaso della Porta, Orazio Sangallo, and others to secure for their respective houses and gardens the best pieces of statuary that chanced to come into the market before the beginning of the Farnese collections. I cannot better illustrate this point than by reproducing from An- 126 j'.iCL Jii tonio Lafreri's " Spoculinn roinaiiao inai;infic'C'ntiae " tlie eeleljrated iMioTaviiii;- wlucli icincsfiits the aiiti(|iiitit'S col- lectt'd 1)V the lnotlicrs FaMo and Dccidio Sassi in the court and l(>u'L;ia td' tlu'ir lioiisc iii the \ ia di I'aiione, iidjoiniiii;' tlie })ahK't' iidialtiti'd In Canliiial del Monte, afterwards Pope .Tidius 111.' 1 have not Keen aide to ascertain tlie place from which these heautiful statues had been brouiiht to li<;ht. iu'canse the expression used l)y the '"Ilelhig- of the ( "iiKpiecento," Ulisse Aldovrandi, " trovate in casa dl Messer Fabio Sasso in Parione," cannot be taken in its literal sense. What 1 have found, however, in the state archives among- the records of an obscure notary, Antonio Scribano, is a deed of sale dated June 2G, 154(), by which Duke Ottavio Farnese secured the Sassi collection for his own palace, and for the price of one thousand gold scudi. The deed mentions especially the so-called Hermaphrodite (Apollo) of touchstone; a sitting female figure, with the drapery of porphyry and the head and hands of bronze; the jSIarcus Aurelius, the so-called Sabina, a bust attributed to Pompey the Great, and several torsos, bas-reliefs, and frag- ments, all of which are represented in Lafi'eri's plate, and can be easilv sini>led out amonof the Farnesian marbles of the Museo Nazionale at Naples. The larger portion, however, of the specimens which a})})ear in the Farnese catalogues published by Fiorelli came from direct exploration of the soil, made both in Kome and in the Campagna. The places which were excavated in Rome are the teni])le of Neptune and the portico of the Argonauts, in the Piazza di Pietra ; the forum of Trajan ; the Curia Athletarum, near the church of San Pietro in * The house of the brothers Sassi forms the subject of a iii()iio<^raj)li pub- lished by Professor Frederici iu vol. xx, a. 1897, of tlie Archivio della Societa romana di sioria patria. PAUL III 127 The couir ul iliu ^asii i'alace, with the works of art purchased in 1546 by Paul III ; from an engraving by Lafreri. Vincoli ; the western end of the Forum by the Kostra and the arch of Septnnius Severiis ; the baths of Caracalla and of Diocletian ; the Licinian gardens by the so-called Minerva Medica, and the gardens of Csesar outside the Porta Portese. As regards the exploration of the Campagna, it was carried as far as the sites of Bovillse, Tibtir, and Tuscnlum. The results of the search made in the baths of Caracalla V2S PAUL III between .Tanuarv, 1 ')-i(), and tlie end of tlie year l.')4i) make us think of a fairv tale. Imagine those men, led by Mario Macharone, lavino- hands, for the Hrst time since the revival of elas.sie studies, on a Kmldiiii;' wliich all the Ivoinaii ciii- perors of the third century, from Caracalla to Diocletian, had endeavored to make the most attractive in the capital, lavishing- upon it all the art treasures which they could gather for the purpose. Imagine those agents of the Po})e discovering the two Hercules, the Flora, the Gladiators, the Atneus, and the grouj) of Dirce, lying at the feet of their respective niches. The number of masterpieces, says Ligorio in vol. ii of the Turin MSS., found Avithin the baths goes beyond the dreams of imagination, — whole rows of columns of giallo, alabaster, and porphyry, numberless fountains, basins, baths cut in precious stones, '' con mille maniere d' ornamenti di grandissima spesa die porgevano spavento." Without pursuing a subject about which a volume could l)e Avritten, I will mention one incident only, connected wdth the group of Dirce, the account of which I have just dis- covered in the Chigi Library. A cii)lier despatch from the Papal nuncio in Paris, deci})hered in Rome on February 1, IGGG, speaks of the efforts made by King Louis XIV to obtain from the Duke of Parma the gift of the group. The negotiations were carried on between the king and the duke by the confidential agent, Abate Siri, and they would j»robably have succeeded, and Italy would have been de- prived of the possession of that magnificent work, but for the firmness of the Pope in demanding that the wish of the testators, Paul III and Cardinal Alessandro, should be respected. The will of the cardinal, discovered by Fiorelli in the records of the notary Prospero Campana, and dated 1587, contains the following clause: "It is my solemn Avill that all my statues of bronze or marble, my library, and the PAUL III 129 Office of the Blessed Virgin illuminated by Giulio Clovio, shall be preserved and kept forever in the city of Rome, and in the Farnese palace, and that none of my heirs and successors shall dare to sell or give away, or transfer to other places, or pawn any of the objects of art and curi- osity which exist at the present moment in my collection." Alas ! this clause did not prevent the removal to Naples of the Farnese treasures at the time of Pius VI. The fear of offending the newly established Bourbon dynasty, and other political considerations which would have had no effect on the head of the church, but brought too strojig a pressure on the ruler of the Pontifical States, induced Pope Pius VI to disregard completely the directions left by the founders of the museum. The shipping of the marbles from the banks of the Tiber to those of the Sebeto began in 1787, under the direction of the painter Hackert, of the sculptor Albacini, and of the architect Bonucci. The group of Dirce was first placed in the middle of the fountain of the Villa Reale di Chiaja, and removed to the Museo Borbonico only in 1826. Pius VII and Gregory XVI allowed the last rem- nants of the o'lorious Museo Farnesiano to follow the bulk of the collection to Naples, except one piece, a beautiful frieze from the palestra of Caracalla's baths, which not many months ago was sold to a dealer by the last representative in Rome of the House of Naples, for the sum of one hun- dred and fifty francs. In reading the accounts left by the learned men who wit- nessed the excavations of the time of Paul III, we often encounter the figure of Cardinal Alessandro in the guise of a rescuer of antique monuments from the fate which generally awaited them, — the lime-kiln or the stone-cutter's shed. I will quote only two or three instances out of the many with which the name of this munificent personage is connected. 130 I'ML III In tlu' month of Aiig'ust, L"34o, the workmen ('m])lov(Ml \)\ the leverendu Fabrica di San Pietro to excavate and (U'stroy the monuments of the Forum came ujjon tlie ruins ot" the Reg'ia. PaHadio, Metello, Panvinio, Li^orio, all of them eye-witnesses, ag'ree that a o-ivat portion of the huild- ino- was standing' above g'round, and that a considerable part of the '"Fasti trium])hales et consnlares " could still be seen engraved on the marble walls and pilasters. Ligorio savs that it took thirty days to demolish the Regia to the level of the foundations, some of the blocks being- crushed for the kilns, others removed to St. Peter's, and that no remains of the find or of the precious documents of Roman history would have been saved had not Cardinal Alessandro Farnese come to the rescue. He not only piously collected the frag- ments of the Fasti, l)ut caused the ground to be tunnelled in various directions in search of stray pieces. Michelangelo for the architectural part and Gentile Delfino for the epigraphie were de})uted to arrange them in the hall of the Conservatori palace which is called to the present day the Sala dei Fasti. Another splendid occasion for the cardinal to intervene in favor of a historical monument, doomed to the same fate as the Regia, was afforded by the discovery of the marble plan of the ancient city made at the time of Pius IV ( 1559- 1565) by the architect Giovanni Antonio Dosio da San Geminiano. This enterprising young artist, to whom we owe a set of Roman views published in 15G9 by Giovanni Battista Cavalieri,^ had obtained leave from Prince Tor- quato Conti to excavate the garden adjoining the church of SS. Cosma e Damiano, at the foot of the back wall of the templum Sacrae Urbis. Here he found ninety-two pieces of the marble panels u])on which the " Forma Urbis " had * Dosio's original drawings are preserved in the Galleria degli Uffizi at Florence. PAUL III 131 been engraved about the year 211, by order of Septimius Severus and his son and colleague Caracalla. Had the dis- coverer taken care to collect them carefully, and to join the fragments of each slab there and then, the value of the dis- covery would have been inestimable ; but we have reason to believe that, even before Cardinal Alessandro had been Part of the marble plan of Rome. From a photograpli by Cav. A. Vochieri. warned of what was taking place in the garden of Torquato Conti, the fragments were thrown negligently into a heap without the least consideration for their mutual relation- ship. Furthermore, we have reason to believe that Onofrio Panvinio, the learned Augustinian to whom the care of sorting and placing the pieces in the museum was entrusted, lost either his patience in the difficult attempt, or his appre- ciation of the value of the Forma. The fact is that only the larger and more impressive fragments were exhibited l'>2 }'A!I. Ill in the paKace, while four hiiiidied and iiftv-one smaller bits were thrown into the cellars. Some years later a master m.ison, in (piest of buildinj^ materials, laid hands on tlie heap, and made use of it in restoring the boundary wall of the Farnese garden on the river side. Many of the bits were rediscovered in 1888 and 1899, when the garden wall was demolished to make room for the Tiber embank- ment. As regards the larger slabs put aside by Panvinio, they had no respite from their long wanderings until three years ago. In the first place. Pope Benedict XIV (to whose liberality the Capitoline Museum owes so many treasures) having asked King Charles III of Naples, the heir to the Farnese estates, to present the " Forma Urbis " to the city, the request was complied with in 1742, and the fragments were removed first to the Vatican, then to the Ca})itol, with a loss of only thirteen in the course of the adventurous journey. Then, again, in 1903, I was instructed by the municipality to remove the fragments from the stairs of the museum, where they had been set into the wall without discrimination or reference to their topographical value, and to reconstruct the whole plan in its original scale of 1 : 250. The place selected this time was the wall enclosing the beau- tiful garden of the Conservatori palace on the north side, hiffh and wide enouoli to contain the best and most inter- esting section of the ancient j)lan. Of the one thousand and forty-nine fragments which I had at my disposal I was able to identify and put in their j^roper places one hundred and sixty-seven only, as shown in the accompanying illustration. There is no possibility of perfecting the work unless a final and successful search for the missing pieces is made on the spot where the others originally came from, namely, in the strip of ground between the church of SS. Cosma e VCOLLIS VIMINALIS, COL LIS QVIRINALI5 PAUL III 133 Damiano, the basilica of Coiistaiitine, and the Via Ales- sandrina. The most memorable year in the history of the Museo Farnesiano is the first of the seventeenth century, on ac- count of the legacy left to it by the antiquarian Fulvio Orsini. The subject of this legacy having already been described by De Nolhac in 188J: and Beltrami in 1886,^ I will limit myself to a few particulars best calculated to make my sketch more complete. Fulvio Orsini, canon of San Giovanni in Laterano, had enjoyed for a great number of years the friendship of the Farnese, first as librarian to Ranuccio II, cardinal of Sant' Angelo, later in the same capacity with Cardinal Alessandro, lastly as curator of the museum under Cardinal Odoardo. By a wdll dated January 31, 1600, he left to the latter all his collections, on the condition of satisfying certain legacies to the amount of six thousand scudi. If the cardinal, for any reason whatever, were to decline to accept the trust, the collections — dearer to the testator than life itself — were to be sold, as far as possible, wholesale, to prevent their dispersion. Odoardo followed the wishes of his old friend, and the Museo Orsiniano was annexed to the Farnesiano ; the two together form the most marvellous group of masterpieces in every branch of art wdiich has ever been seen exhibited under the roof of a private mansion. Orsini's gift included 400 cameos and intaglios mostly signed by Greek artists ; 113 pictures and cartoons ; 150 historical inscriptions ; 58 portrait busts of poets, philosophers, historians, and states- men, and 1500 coins, many of which are unique. All these 1 Pierre de Nolhac, " Les collections d'antiquites de Fulvio Orsini " in Melanges de UEc.ole Fran(:aise de Rome, vol. iv, a. 1884, pp. 138-231 ; Giovanni Beltrami, I lihri di Fidvio Orsino nella bibUoteca vaticana. Rome, 1886. 134 J'ACL III objects wc'iv \aluL'(.l 1)\ the testator at 13,509 seiuli, as speci- lieil ill an iii\eiilory tliseoverecl by Nolliae in the liiblioteca Ambrosiaiia at Mihiii, in which many secrets conceriiiiin' the aiiti([iuiriau market in the second lialf of the sixteeiitli cent ury are revealed. Kiilvid ()rsini had lived in the very centre of the trade ill smaller objects, such as engraved stones and medals, a trade which was mostly in the hands of the o'oldsmiths and jewellers of the Via del Pellegrino. This is the reason why the names of Francesco ]5ianchi, Bernardino and Jacopo Passeri, and Andrea di Nello, all having their premises in the same street, occur re{)eatedly in the inventory, and especially that of a Messer Carlo, from whom the collector bought cameos to the value of 307 scudi. Sometimes Fulvio dealt personally with the peasants gathered in the market- place. The shop of Biagio Stefanoni, an apothecary at the corner of the Via del Caravita, was also a areat meetina- l)lace for buyers of anticpies. Fulvio had business relations with artists, too, such as the Padorano, Vincenzo and Nic- colo Fiamminghi, and with the Roman noblemen, the Maffei, Alberini, Massimi, Santacroce, Capranica, Rustici, etc., in whose lands discoveries were most likely to occur. We who have witnessed so many contemporary examples of fabulous sums offered and i)aid for a few square inches of canvas, or for a small object of virtu, the value of which the smallest accident could destroy, cannot read without emotion that part of the inventory relating to the pictures, cartoons, and drawings in which the names of Raphael, Titian, Daniele, Leonardo, Baldassare Peruzzi, Sebastiano dal Piombo, Baccio Bandinelli, Albrecht Diirer, and Luke Cranach occur over and over again, and in which one hun- dred and thirteen masterpieces are valued all together at 1789 scudi. The picture of St. Jerome, by Cranach, Avith PAUL IIT 135 exquisite background by Valerio da Reg-gio, which would be worth to-day the ransom of a prince, is set down in the catalogue at ten scudi ! As I have remarked above, all these treasures were lost to us in the fourth quarter of the eighteenth century, de- spite the anathema pronounced in the will of their original collector upon those who should dare to remove one single object from the Palazzo Farnese. It seems as if the Bour- bons of Naples must have found great satisfaction in de- priving Rome even of things that were of no use whatever to them, such as fragments of inscriptions of purely local interest, or forming part of a set already exhibited in a Roman museum ; architectural decorations of Roman monu- ments such as the temple of Victory on the Palatine, the baths of Caracalla, or the temple of Neptune ; and even pieces of statues or bas-reliefs or sarcophagi ; so that a student wishing to examine the scattered remains of these mutilated bodies has to travel back and forth from the land of Romulus to that of Parthenope. Men of science and men of thought who consider these questions from a higher standpoint than that of petty local jealousies and ambitions, cherished the hope that the union of Italy into one happy free nation would bring about a rational settlement in the interests of art and archaeology, as well as in the in- terest of the several cities which clamored for a share of the spoils. We hoped to see Naples become the centre of Greek and Greco-Italic studies, Palermo of Greco-Sicilian and Siculo- Arabic art, Rome of Latin antiquities, Florence of Etruscan and Renaissance art, Bologna of pre-Roman, Milan of Lombardesque, Turin of Egyptian and Ligurian civilizations. Such a rational solution of existing difficulties has failed to come, thanks to evil influences which prevailed at the time when it was still possible to set things right. IIJG PAUL III Part of the frieze of tlie bedchamber of Paul III in the castle of Sant' Angelo, bv Periiio del \':i<;'a Paul III and Cardinal Alessandro will never be forgotten by the Romans, in spite of the intrigues of Charles III and his successors, because we cannot gaze around us, within or outside the walls of our city, without beholding an artistic legacy of those two great men, be it the Farnesian gardens on the Palatine hill, the papal apartment in the castle of Sant' Angelo, the Sala Regia in the Vatican, the Pauline chapel, the church of the Gesii, the Villa Madama, the walls and castle of Frascati, or the villa at Caprarola. Considering that each of the places mentioned has its own special litera- ture, forming altogether a library of many hundred volumes, it would be futile to enter into details. The pontifical apartment in the castle of Sant' Angelo, with its charming frescoes by Perino del Vaga and Sic- ciolante, with its ceilings modelled in stucco or carved in wood by Giovanni da Udine and Giulio Romano, with its bathro(nn in which we find an early and graceful imitation of a classic columbarium,^ constitutes, in my judgment, the 1 The bathroom dates from the time of Clement VII. PAUL III 137 best existing- specimen of a Renaissance living suite, espe- cially adapted to the wants of a single man in high position. If the government, which keeps hundreds of pieces of tap- estry stored in the presses of the Uffizi in Florence, would lend us the limited number necessary to drape the now bare walls of Paul Ill's bedchamber and dining-hall, the restora- tion In prlstlniDii of the apartment would be perfect. A stranger entering the Sala Regia, which forms, as it were, the vestibule to the Sixtine and Pauline chapels, and gazing at the wonderful ceiling carved in stucco by Daniele da Volterra and Perino, at the frescoes painted by Taddeo and Federico Zuccari and Vasari, and at the rich marble panelling and flooring designed by Antonio da Sangallo, would hardly imagine the amount of damage inflicted on the ruins of ancient Rome by the builders of this magnifi- cent hall. The larger portion of the marbles was drawn from the vineyard of Antonio Palluccelli, near the church of the Navicella on the C^elian, the site of which is now enclosed within the boundaries of the Villa Mattei (von Hoffmann). It took Sangallo's masons and stone-cutters ten years to extract from those great ruins all the marble they were capable of yielding. Some of the pieces were so large and heavy that a breach had to be made through the wall of the vineyard to allow their removal, and the Via della Navicella had to be widened to make room for the carts, each drawn by several pairs of buffaloes. The books of accounts of the Sala Regia, kept by Pietro Aleotto and now preserved in the state archives, mention columns of cipollino and architraves of portasanta and blocks of white Greek marble ; and as these architectural elements of great size cannot have been found among the ruins of the Barracks of the fifth battalion of firemen (Statio Cohortis V vigilum), which occupied the plateau of the Cselian behind the Navi- lo8 I'Ml. Ill C'olla, it remains Xo he ascertained what great tein])le or hath stood next to tlie harrneks. As soon as tl»e Palhiccclh mine was exhansted. the work- men attacked the tornm ol 'I'r.ijan. where a madonna Costanza (iSantacroce ?) and (Jiovanni Zanibeceari had just discovered certani colnmns heh)ni;ino" to the basilica Ulpia and to the tenn)le of Trajan. Twenty-four horses were re- (juired to remove some of the l)locks on September 3, 1541, from the Macello dei Corvi and from the Piazza dei SS. Apostoli to the Vatican, where they were sawn into sLd)s and carved into door-posts and architraves. Pirro Ligorio says that some of the cobimus measured fifty-four feet in heiolit and six in diameter, partly of giallo antico, partly of cipollino with reddish streaks, and that other marbles of archceological interest were sacrificed, anu)ng' which was the pedestal of a statue dedicated to Jnlia Sabina, the wife of the Emperor Hadrian. Such was the law of monumental evolution in Rome dur- ino- the Renaissance. Each palace, church, villa, cloister, each tomb, statue, pedestal, altar, fountain, wdiich the genial artists of the sixteenth century have left for us to admire, is tainted with the same origin, and re])resents to us a loss per- haps greater than the gain. These facts explain Avhy I have been able to gather the materials for the first volumes of my "Storia degli Scavi e dei Musei di Roma " mostly from the account books ke})t by the Pope's treasurer or by the Camera Capitolina, in connection with the works conducted either by the state or by the municipality, within or outside the walls of the city. As regards the castle and park built and laid out by Car- dinal Alessandro at Caprarola, in the eonnty of Ronciglione, which formed j)art of the Farnese estates, I can but refer my readers to the works describing this masterpiece of Vignola, FAUL III 139 by Ursi, Sebastiani, Mogalli, Liberati, and especially to the work of George Caspar Prenner, published in Rome in 1748. Better than any description are the two illustrations which follow, one representing the vertical perspective view of the The shaft of the spiral stairs in the castle of Caprarola (looking- vertically) spiral staircase of the castle, with some of the arabesques colored by the Zuccari, and the other a view in the park. Another title to glory for Paul III is his action in favor of the university '" della Sapienza," the origin of which 1 1() I'ML III dates back to tlic time of the Alhaii kings, Avheii the youiii;' rej)reseiitatives of the Latin race were sent to Gal)ii. tlic city of learnini;', to Ix'come familiar witli the Greek lan<;iia<>e. After the capture of Gahii hy 'rarcjuiniiis Sii|)erl)iis the central Latui national school must ha\'e hcen transferred to riomc. where we shall not attempt to follow its fate durin<>' the rouoh republican times, nor its transformation into the celebrated " Paedaoooium j)uerorum Kapitis Africae " under the Empire. Its revival, after centuries of medijeval dark- ness, took i)lace in the time of Innocent VII. Leo X, how- ever, is the Pope to whom the L^^niversity of Rome owes its modern constitution. Leo was a great partisan of the Greek languag'e, and to render it more popular in Rome he had entrusted its teaching to John Lascaris and other Greek refugees of great learning, gathering together for this pur- pose the famous Medicean academy in the garden of the poet Angelo Colocci opposite the church of San Silvestro. Considering, moreover, how necessary it was for men destined to high public offices to become cognizant of the history of their own country, he entrusted the learned Evangelista ^laddaleni Capodiferro with the mission of lecturing for one hour in the Capitol, every day when the city magistrates met there for business ; he had a salary of three hundred scudi a year, to be drawn from the so-called gabella del vino, or duty imposed on foreign wines landed at the quay of Ripa Grande. Leo also protected the old Accademia Romana d' Archeologia, founded by Pomponio Leto, which used to meet periodically in the garden of the illustrious president, amono- the ruins of the baths of Constantine. There were occasional sittinsfs held in the oardens of Anoelo Colocci o r^ o near the fountain of Trevi, of Mario Maffei da Volterra on the l)anks of the Tiber, and of Johann Goritz amoiiir the ruins of the forum of Trajan. PAUL III 141 The reorganization of the university dates from Novem- ber 5, 1513, and from the issuing of the Bull Dum suams- simos, which contains the following regulations: that no less than three lecturers should teach in the principal branches of learning ; that besides lecturing from the chair they should hold familiar conversations with the students ; that the professor failing to lecture without sufficient excuse should be heavily fined ; that professors of law should not practice before the courts ; that the janitors should keep a record of the lectures duly given or of those omitted, and finally that the professors should be subject to an income tax of three per cent. The institution prospered greatly under the benevolent Pope. From a roll of the staff of the university, discov- ered by Gaetano Marini in a booth at the rag fair in the Piazza Navona, and published in 1804, we learn that only one year after the publication of the Bull Dum suavissimos, the professional staff numbered eleven canonists, twenty jurisconsults, fifteen physicians, five philosophers, and a pro- fessor of botany, a science wdiich had never been taught before in any Italian university. No wonder that a statue should have been raised to the pontifical reformer in the Capitol with an inscription recording his generosity towards the Gymnasium romanum. In fact, a funeral service in memory of Leo X w^as celebrated in the chapel of the establishment every year until the change of government which took place in 1870. When Paul III was elected in 1534, this happy state of things was already a matter of the past. Leo had been suc- ceeded by the stern Dutchman, Hadrian VI, under whose rule science, poetry, fine arts, and culture in general were held in contempt, if not actually persecuted. Hadrian for- tunately reigned only seventeen months, and the nomination 142 I'M L III of anotluT Medici in \Sl'.\ was hailed with deli^lit by the upper and more relined classes of the ])opulation. Clement \'ll. however, was destined to disa|»{)(»int tlieir expectations, hecause, })artlv from avarice. partK I'loui his interference in the differences which had already risen between Kin<;- Fran- cis I and the Emperor Charles V, he api)r()})riated the reve- nues of the i»al)ella del vino, allowing- the professors of the Sapien/.a to seek em})loyment elsewhere. Then followed the sack of l.")'J7. diuini;- which the old professors were either killed or held to ransom or dispersed. Paul III, only twenty- six davs after his election, reopened the g'ates of the time- honored institution, and offered the chair of medicine to the famous phvsician of Gubbio, Girolamo Accoramboni, and that of surgerv to another great authority, Alfonso Ferri from Naples. Accoramboni must have declined the flatter- ing offer, because his name does not appear among the " ])rofessores deputati a Paulo III ad legendum in Gymnasio romano i)ro anno 1535," in a list that has lately been dis- covered bv Tacchi-Yenturi among the Farnesian papers in the archives at Parma. This document, so important as a means of comparison with the present state of the University of Rome, shows that in the first year of the reform of Paul III onlv eighteen lecturers were appointed, of whom five were for the faculty of law, three for each of the other faculties. The teaching of mathematics was entrusted to one professor only. The appropriations varied from a mini- mum of 30 ducats a year, assigned to Andrea da Montalcino, assistant professor of logic, to a maximum of 300 allotted to Giacomo Giacomelli, professor of philosophy. The same university, recalled to life by Paul III in 1534 under such modest ausp)ices, now numl)ers a staff of five hundred and seven officers, librarians, assistants, professors, and teachers of various grades and seniority, and three thousand five PAUL III 143 hundred students, probably four times as many as at the thne of its resurrection. Paul III, overcome by age and by the great religious and political controversies which were then stirring Italy and Europe, and grieved beyond measure at the sad fate of some of his relatives, died of a violent fever on the 10th day of November, 15-19, aged eighty-one years, eight months, and \'iew in the park of Capiarola ten days, after a pontificate of fifteen years and twenty- eight days. He had already promulgated the celebration of the tenth "anno santo," or Jubilee ; in fact, he is repre- sented in two medals, coined in anticipation of the event, as striking with the silver hammer the Porta Santa, which, however, he did not open. Having died in a villa on the Quirinal hill, his domestics carried his body to St. Peter's without any pomp, in expectation of the state funeral, which all classes of citizens were wont to attend. The memory of this great pontiff will always be dear to 144 I'ACL 111 US Koinans. Poiiipoiiio Leto, Ins preceptor, liad imbued him witli tlie spirit of Iiumanisui, aud imparted to him the <»ii't of a i;av ami hri^ht conversation. He seemed to have broui>-lit hack witli liis advent to the j)ontificate the fine okl davs of Leo X, \\\i\\ a liii;her standard of morals. I may also recall aujoni;- his other traits that, like Michelangelo and Vittoria Colonna, the hero and the heroine of my next two chapters, he did not despise the cultivation of poetry in lei- sure hours ; that he illustrated the " Epistulae ad Atticum " of Cicero, and Avrote himself a beautiful set of epistles to Charles V, Francis I, Erasmus, and Cardinals Sadoleto and Cortesi. The cohi of the value of ten bajocchi took from him the name of ^;«o/o, a name Avhicli common people still applv to the fifty centimes piece of the present cur- rency. We cannot forget, besides, that the Order of the Jesuits was founded under his rule, perhaps the most im- portant event, next to the Reformation, in the history of the modern church. Paul III was of medium height, with a well-proportioned head, brilliant eyes, long nose, flowing beard, prominent lips, and slightly stooping shoulders. I have described in ''Pagan and Christian Rome," pp. 245, 246, the magnifi- cent tomb raised to him in St. Peter's, on the left-hand side of the tribune, where he appears seated between the alle- irorical fijrures of Prudence and Justice, the most mar- vellous artistic creations of Guglielmo della Porta. This mausoleum, brought to completion in 1575, stood originally against one of the piers of the cupola, now bearing the name of St. Longinus ; but Urban VIII, Barberini, having selected for his own resting-place the niche on the right hand of the apse, caused the memorial to Paul III to be transferred, for the sake of symmetry, to the opposite niche, in 1628. The columns and marbles used for the decoration of both PAUL III 145 were taken from the temple of the Sun in the Colonna gar- den on the Quirinal. But the best monument in memory of Paul III is the statue raised to him on that ancient seat of glory, the Capitoline hill, by his collaborator in the hygienic and material reform of the city. Latino Giovenale Man- netti. The inscription on the pedestal mentions expressly the fact that thanks to Paul III " urbs situ et diverticulis viarum deformis et impervia, disiectis male positis aedificiis in meliorem formam redacta est" (the city, disfigured and made uninhabitable by the narrowness and tortuosity of its alleys, had undergone a wholesome transformation). The raising of this beautiful tribute of gratitude to Pope Farnese, as a reformer of the street system, had probably been suggested to Mannetti by the sight of another mon- ument wdiich was then preserved in the Capitol : I mean the pedestal dedicated to the Emperor Vespasian by the people of Rome, " quod vias urbis neglegentia superiorum tempo- rum corruptas impensa sua restituit," — for having reor- ganized and improved the street system after the great fire of Nero and the civil war brought about by Vitellius.^ The fact of finding these two great benefactors of the city, Vespasian and Paul III, honored on the sacred hill of Saturn, for the same reason and in the same manner, at an interval of fifteen centuries, cannot fail to impress the student of Roman history. 1 The pedestal of Vespasian's statue, described as " great " by Poggio and as " admirable " by Smet, bad been made use of in the middle ages to sustain the third column of the porch of the Conservatori palace, on the right side of the entrance. During the reconstruction of the same palace, which began in 1537, the higtorieal monument perished, probably in a lime-kiln. CHx\PTER IV MICHELANGELO .Mi( hi:lanc;elo be^'iin his inarvellous career as an imitator of antiques. There Avas in the garden of Lorenzo de' Medici, at San Marco in Florence, " a sleeping Cupid carved in marble on a round base," either a Greek work of the Alexandrine school, or a Roman work of the Imperial period. rei)resenting the young god lulled to sleep by the sound of a running brook or by that of a fountain. The artist, who had already shown his appreciation of classic models in the head of the Faun (1489), now in the Museo Nazionale del Bargello, in the fight of the Lajntluie and the Centaurs (1490), noAv in the Casa Buonarroti, and in the figure of Hercules (1492), now lost, was especially pleased with tliis image of the graceful son of Aphrodite, and set his mind to reproduce it. or to imitate it with the best of his skill. Such reproductions had become popular in those days, and this one was seen and praised beyond measure by the Maijnifico Lorenzo. The sul)sequent fate of the work is uncertain. It appears, however, that the Cupid having been sold for thirty scudi to the dealer Baldassare del Milanese, — we do not know whether for a real anticpie or for an imitation, — it was offered by the latter and resold as an antique to Raphael Riario, cardinal of San Giorgio, who was gathering a valuable collection of marbles in his Palazzo della Cancelleria. The forgery having been discovered and the contract cancelled, Baldassare sold the Cupid again, probably as the work of MICHELANGELO 147 Michelangelo, to Cesar Borgia, who in turn made a pre- sent of it to Guidobaldo Feltre, duke of Urbino. We meet here for the first time with the most attractive type of a Renaissance lady, Isabella d' Este Conzaga, who like so many noble contemporaries, imbued with the prin- ciples of Humanism, was engaged in gathering ancient and modern works of art for her '' Studio " di Corte Vecchia. Traces of her first acquaintance with Michelangelo are to be found in a letter written on June 30, 1502, to her brother. Cardinal Ippolito I of Este. "^ The duke of Urbino," she says, " had in his castle a marble Venus, small but jDcrfect, and a Cupid given to him by Cesar Borgia. Both pieces have now fallen again into the hands of the latter, since the capture of my brother's castle and the invasion of his states. As I am aware that the invader is not an admirer of art and antiquities, will you kindly ask him to make me a present of both marbles?" Cardinal Ippolito made such gallant haste in complying with Isabella's wish, that on July 21 the Venus and the Cupid were duly deposited in the Studio di Corte Vecchia. The next mention of the young god occurs in the inventory of the Conzao'a collections made in 151:2 : ^' . . . and fur- thermore, a Cupid sleeping on a lion's skin, attributed to Praxiteles, placed on the left side of the window in the ' Grotta di Madama,' and a sleeping one of Carrara marble, carved by the hands of Michelangelo, and placed on the opposite side of the same window." We hear again of both in 1573, when Jacques Auguste du Tbou, the historian of Kings Henry III and Henry IV, visited Mantua. Having been shown first the one by Michelangelo, he found it to be far above the praises which had been bestowed on it ; but as soon as he was allowed to gaze at the other one, the alleged work of Praxiteles, which had been momentarily 14^> MK iii:LAy(ij-:LO hidden from view with a silk cover, Dii Thou and his fellow travellers felt ashamed at their want of discernment, and declared that while the older Cupid was hrimming with life the modern was lackuii;' feeliiii; and expression. " Quelques domestiques," says the author of the '* Memoires de la vie de J. A. du Thou," " lenr dirent (pie Miehelani;e, qui etait j)lus franc (pie les hahiles gens coiiime hii ne le sont ordi- nairenient, }»ria instaniment la Comtesse Isahelle, apres qu'il lui eut fait present de son CiH)idon, et tpi'il ent vu I'autre, \'it.'W of tlie ducal j)al;iif ;it Mantua, witli tin- bridge on tlic Mincio qu'on ne montrat I'ancien que le dernier, afin que les con- naisseurs pussent juger en le. voyant, de combien en ees sortes d'ouvrages les anciens I'emportent sur les modernes." The last evidence of the permanency of both works at the Corte Vecchia is the following entry in the inventory of 1627 : " Un amorin che dorme sopra un sasso, stimato scudi venti — un' altro amorin che dorme sopra una pelle di leone stimato scudi venticinque." Praxiteles' work, therefore, was valued at that time only five scudi above that of the Flor- MICHELANGELO 149 entine artist, and both could be obtained for the sum of forty-five dollars ! Three years after the inventory was made both Cupids left the land of sunshine and the shores of the sea which had given birth to their mother Aphrodite, to undertake a long- and lonesome journey towards the land of mists. The abductor was King Charles I. Valuable information on the subject of the king's artistic purchases in Italy can be obtained from the correspondence exchanged between his agents Nicholas Lenier and Daniel Nys on one side, Thomas Carey and Sir John Coke on the other. The ship which was to depriv^e Italy forever of so many treasures (the paintings alone had been sold for sixty- eight thousand scudi, not one quarter of their present value) sailed from Venice on August i, 1632, and must have reached its destination before the equinoctial storms, which rendered the crossing of the Bay of Biscay almost impos- sible after the breaking up of the season. And it is there, on the other side of the Channel, that the Cupid has been sleeping for the last three centuries, in deeper peace than he enjoyed at the Corte Vecchia. The young god has vanished from the gaze of the public, and keeps himself hidden in some obscure corner of the British isles. All the attempts lately made by Venturi and myself to discover the hiding-place have proved fruitless ; yet we cannot recon- cile ourselves to the idea that this charming souvenir of Michelangelo and Isabella d' Este has perished ^ forever. The belief in the possibility of a rediscovery has been strengthened lately by the unexpected coming to light of another gem of Isabella's studio, the portrait of her son 1 Michelangelo came again in contact with the court of Mantua in 1519, when the Marchese Federico wrote to his representative in Rome, Baldas- sare Castiglione, to ask him or Raphael to prepare the design for the tomb of the marchese's father. !•"><> M Kii i:la.\<;i:l() Fi'deiiio painted In Fiantia. Tlu' story of this long lost work, as given Ity Yriarte in tlie '"Gazette des IJeaux Arts," ISlMi, and l.y Ventnri in tiie " Archivio dell' Arte," 1888, is as follows : (Jiaii I'laiiceseo Conzag'a, lsal)ella's luishand, having heen made j)risoiit'r hv the Venetians after the defeat of Legnano. was set at lihcrtv in .Tuly, lolO, through the inHuenee of Julius II, on the condition that his son Fed- erieo, aged ten, should be sent as a hostage to the Pope's court. On tlu' way to Home tlie l)oy stopj^ed at Bologna, where Isabella eoinniissioned Lorenzo Costa, and after Cos- ta's refusal Francesco Francia, to paint his portrait. The order was executed and the portrait finished in twelve days, much to the satisfaction of tlie sorrowing mother, who de- clared it to be a perfect work, and remunerated the artist with the '• munificent gift " ^ of thirty golden ducats. The portrait, it seems, was sent with the hostage to the Vatican, to be shown to Julius II. What became of it after that has been a matter of conjecture. Yriarte wrote on this sub- ject : " Ce ii'est plus qu'un hasard heureux qui j»ourrait nous mettre un jour en face de ce portrait. . . . C'est dans I'ensemble des collections de Charles P"", dispersees dans toute I'Europe, qu'il faut certainement le cliercher : nous ne dt'sesperons point de pouvoir I'identifier un jour." " M. Yriarte's hopes," writes Herbert Cook, in n. 31)28 of the '" Athenreuni," " have been fulfilled. The portrait of Fed- orico Conzaga by Francia has been found ... in an English country house. A few days ago [January, 11)03] there ar- rived from Gloucestershire, from the home of Mr. A. W. Lcathani, for exhil)ition at the Burlington Fine Arts Clul),a portrait of a boy by Francia. Of its history nothing was known, except that the fatlier of the present owner l)ought it from the Na])oleon collection, and it was supposed to ' Fraiicia's own expression. ^'"'^vr^r'fiiwyT-"-^ ^:.^. THE CEILING OF ONE OF ISA PALACE . llla's rooms in the ducal MANTUA MICHELANGELO 151 represent one of the Medici. . . . The picture shows a boy about ten years old, seen to the waist, holding- a dag-oer in his right hand ; • . . the long fair hair falls from beneath a cap placed jauntily on the side of the head." After a careful study of the picture from the points of view of age, date, style, and details, Mr. Cook identifies it with the long lost original painted by Francia between July 29 and August 10, 1510. I have mentioned this episode not only on account of its connection with the subjects discussed in the present chapter, but also because the name and the fate of Federico ought not to be unknow^n to visitors and students of Re- naissance Rome. This handsome youth, whose courteous demeanor and bright, gay fellowship won for him the favor of the whole city, is in fact the connecting link between the leading personages of my book, having been befriended by Michelangelo as well as by Raphael, by Agostino Chigi, and by the future Pope Paul III. We may take also for granted that Vittoria Colonna, then only twenty years of age, and whose husband, the Marchese di Pescara, had just fallen into the hands of Gaston de Foix as jDrisoner of w^ar, tendered him the same hospitality in her ancestral palace by the church of Santi Apostoli, which she herself was to receive in her widowhood at the court of Mantua. The youth must have been possessed of extraordinary win- ning powers, considering that even the Pope, a warrior of uncouth manners and iron will, was w^ont to yield to his wishes and to abide by his directions. Stazio Gadio, the youth's preceptor, who kept Isabella informed almost daily of his doings, and whose correspond- ence was published in 188G by Alessandro Luzio,^ relates, 1 " Federico Conzaga ostaggio alia corte di Giulio II," in Archivio delta Societa Romano di Storia Patria, vol. ix, a. 1886, pp. 508-582. 1.VJ MICIIKLAXGKLO ainoii<>' other incidents, how the Pope, having been struck down with pernicious fever wliile sliootini;* ])lieasants in the marshes of Ostia in the worst period of the year (August 17-20, 1511), was brought back to the Vatican in a dying condition. Tlic news of the case had ah'eady thrown Rome into a state of excitenuMit if not of actnal revolt. The phy- sicians liaving prescril)ed a restorative, the lialf-dead pontiff cursed them for tlieir interference, roaring all the time, " Buttate questi inedici marrani dalle finestre ! " Neither the solicitations of the duke of Urbino nor the threats of the bishop of Torea having sncceeded in making him unlock his jaws, the help of Federico was sought as a last resource, and he succeeded so well in his attempt that by the end of the month Julius II was actually able to have a game of cards (giuoco di tric-trac) with his favorite, while the court orchestra was thundering in the next hall. It seems that the likeness of Federico was introduced by Raphael in the "School of Athens" at the request of the Pope. According to Vasari's version, we ought to identify him with the younof man bendino; over the hexaoonal fitrure which Bramante is drawing on a slate. The opinions of experts, however, differ very much on this j)oint.^ Federico had the honor of being portrayed once more by the divine artist after Isabella had been obliged to part with the original picture by Francia. This second one was begun in January, 1513, the subject })osing in his military attire, and wearing a toque which his mother had expressly sent from Mantua. However, on the 19th of the following month, Raphael made a bundle of the costume and of the canvas, and sent them back to the palace with the excuse that he was so worried and distracted by other thoughts that he could not possibly finish the work. The worry to 1 Miiiitz, Raphael, Paris, 1886, p. 34G. MICHELANGELO 155 which Raphael alhules was the precarious state of health of Julius II, his friend and protector, who in fact died the day after this letter was written. As regards the intercourse between Federico iind Michel- angelo, the letters of his tutor mention only occasional visits to the Sixtine chapel, — where the artist was painting the ceiling, — made in company with Alfonso d' Este, duke of Ferrara. It is not, however, of this period in the career of the Florentine master that I was speaking, but of his keen appreciation of antique models, of which there are still other instances besides the one mentioned in the opening sentences of this chapter. The late Baron Liphart, for instance, purchased in Flor- ence, and his heirs have removed to Russia, a bas-relief representing Apollo and Marsyas, copied from the well- known Medicean cameo. The group, although imperfect, bears the stamp of the artist's primitive manner. In the attitude of Apollo we foresee that of the David, while the Marsyas, with hands tied behind his back and with bent body, may be taken as the prototype of the many figures of slaves which Michelangelo placed around some of his tombs. Another characteristic of his early works is that he at- tacked the marble with the chisel, without the help of a sketch or of a clay model. The marble was to be his clay, — a fact which speaks highly of the tremendous power with which the youth was already endowed. His inexpe- rience, however, prevented success, and the Liphart group, just mentioned, marks another failure in this audacious prac- tice. By filing to excess certain parts of Apollo's body, so as to make the figure more slender and graceful, he made the god's silhouette so lean and feeble that he must have given up his work in an unfinished state. Quite (littVrent, on tlie other liaiul, is the treatment of the nu'clalHon ie})iesentini;' '' La Madonna col Fi<>"lio e San Giovannino" owned by the Koyal Academy, London. If \vc add to this alto-rilievo the KneeHng Cupid of the South Kensington Museum, we liave exhausted tlie Hst of the master's productions known to exist in the British isles, — because the tigure of the Dead Christ in terra-cotta, exhib- ited by Sir J. C Robinson in 1889 at Burlington House, and attributed by its owner to Michelangelo on account of its resemblance to the Pieta in St. Peter's, has been since recognized as the work of a Spanish artist. Three other early works of Michelangelo are less known to art students, — the Pieta of Palestrina, the church of Mar}' Magdalen, and the Lion of Capranica. Capranica is a village perched on a peak of the limestone mountains behind Palestrina, twenty-eight hundred feet above the sea, and so named from the goats [capre), in which the district was particularly abundant. It owes its fame to Domenico Pantagato, who was made cardinal by Pope Martin V in 1426 in recognition of his great learn- ing, and who, according to the fashion of the age, became known in church and literary circles as Domenico da Ca- pranica. His nei)hews and descendants were inscribed in the golden book of the Roman patriciate, not as Pantagati, but as Di Capranica, and so the old name was altogether for- gotten. The connection between the village, the patrician family, and Michelangelo is partly traditional, partly his- torical. Tradition, accepted by Piazza, Cecconi, and other local chroniclers, says that Michelangelo, having purposely in- flicted a mortal wound on the model who posed for him as Christ on the cross, in order to study the play of the muscles of a dying man, and having thereby incurred the MICHELANGELO 1^7 wrath of Leo X, fled first to Palestrina, and then to Ca- pranica, places which at that time enjoyed the feudal rights of immunity. Here he whiled away the long days of exile * WT --- «"»»^ ^^ 1 1 l. ^K ■^ The house of Domenico da Capranica, one of the few surviving- specimens of the Renaissance domestic architecture in Rome by striking the rock with his chisel and creating figures of men and beasts ; and also by designing and erecting a beautiful church to a " repentant " saint. This vulgar story may have originated from Vasari's hint about Michelangelo's " skinning corpses for the sake of anatomical studies," and from the two sonnets in which he prays for pardon of his sins. The same story, at all events, has been told again in regard to Guido Reni's famous Crucifixion in the church of San Lorenzo in Lu- cina. l'">^ MICH KLAMiKLO If tlie arrliivt's of tlio (_'(»ii<;i('<;ati()n of Sun Girolaino (lella Carita. wliitli were boiii>lit by tlie Italian u-overninent and placed at the disposal of students in 187'), had not been ki'pt so long- in a damp and uioiddv place, and had not been robbed of their most precious contents — for instance, the record of the trial of Beatrice Cenci — by a literary thief, we eould satisfy our curiosity on these points, because the Conoreg^ation acted as public notary in all criminal cases. At all events, even if the tradition of Michelano-elo's fli0 MirilKLAXdKLO enemies, and to the useendancy gained by the Sangallist party over Paul III and by the party of Vionola over Julius III, the trust, the admiration, the all'ection of the people of Ivome. rei)resented by its municipal magistrates, never suf- fered change or diminution. Whenever I have found his name mentioned in the minutes of the meetinos of the City Council, it seems as if the usually rude and g'rulf style of the scribe assumes a kinder tone and searches for more polished phrases. The shower of gold which fell on the " Grande Mendica " at each return of the Jubilee was, as I have remarked in the preceding chapters, the only inducement capable of rousing the state and the municipality from their constitu- tional torpor as regards the accomi)lishment of works of public utility. On these occasions Michelangelo was ap- pealed to for help and advice. In the sitting of the Council of July 27, 15J:8, Battista Teodorini, the chief magistrate, announced the will of Paul III, that the Ponte di Santa Maria — the old iEmilian bridge — should be repaired for the coming Jubilee. To meet the heavy charge thus imposed upon them, the Council resolved to levy a special tax on the leading bankers, the Ruspoli, the Odescalchi, the 01- giate, the Cavalieri, etc., and also on seventy-seven g-rocers and apothecaries ; and in order that the money should be spent " wisely and honorably," under a " vigilant eye," they appealed to Michelangelo, " homo singularisshno," whose genius and integrity had been commended by the Pope himself. The artist consented and set to work at once, with the view of strengthening the foundations of the bridge ; but the prelates appointed by the Pope to hasten the prepa- rations for the Jubilee grew impatient at what they consid- ered to be an excessive caution on the part of the architect, and at last they took away his commission and put Nanni MICHELANGELO 161 di Baccio Bigio in his place. Retribution was not long in coming. The bridge finished in haste by Nanni was swept away by the next inundation (September 15, 1557). Hav- ing been built again for the Jubilee of 1575, it collapsed in the inundation of 1598. The present generation has substituted for the old bridge a structure so clumsy and grotesque in outline that we cannot help expressing the hope that it may soon share the fate of its predecessors. We find the master interested also in the column of Tra- jan, not so much from an appreciation of its archseological The enclosure round the pedestal of Trajan's column, built in accordance with Michelangelo's suggestion in 1575 value, as for the sake of his own health. It seems that on the occasion of the advent of Charles V in 1536, Paul III not only had removed from the pillar the ignoble structures which concealed its lower half, such as the church of San Nicolao de Columna, the belfry of the monastery of the Spirito Santo, and the house of the Delia Vetera family, but had laid bare the pedestal down to the level of the old Forum. The cavity became a receptacle for the refuse of K5- ji/(I//:la.\<;/':l() the iii'ii^liliorhood, s(» tliat Paul III, "ad provideiKliim (jiiod tlirta coliunna iiniminditiis et spuroitiis iion t'oodaretur " (to provide against the afcuinulatioii of filth), ])ut the excava- tion in chai^-e of the Delia Vetera family, the head of which assumed heneeforth the title of "" custode della Co- lonna." These people accepted the salary without the least concern for the duties attaelied to it. The condition of the place went from bad to worse, and the neighborini;- houses became so infected with the obnoxious emanati(jns that Michelang-elo, one of the nearest sufferers, took up the case and presented a design to the Town Council for enclosing the excavation with an ornamental wall. The proposal was accompanied by a declaration of his willingness to share one half of the expense. By eighty-six votes against four the Council accepted the suggestion in the sitting of August 27. l')i)S, but, in spite of the overwhelming majority, that cavity continued to taint the district up to the Jubilee of 1575. The Bastione di Belvedere, which towers in frowninsf greatness at the northeast end of the Vatican gardens, and commands the approach to theBorgo from the upper valley of the Til)er,was beoun bv Antonio da Sano-allo the youno-er, and finished by Michelangelo after Antonio's death, which took place on September 30, 154(). This great piece of military engineering must not be considered by itself, but as part of a great scheme conceived by Paul III to protect the city against a hostile invasion from the sea. The Pope could not forget that on August 20, 1534, the fleet of the infidels, commanded by Barbarossa, had cast anchor at the mouth of the Tiber to renew its supply of water, and that, if its leaders had thought of it, they could have stormed and sacked and plundered the city, and carried the Pope himself into slavery, without any possibility of defence on MICHELANGELO 163 the Christian side. This point has not been taken into due consideration by modern writers ; the fortifications of Rome, desig-ned or beo-un or finished at the time of Paul III, have nothing- to do with the sack of 1527, with the Connetable de Bourbon or King Charles ; all the bastions, that of the Belvedere excepted, point towards the seacoast, which was constantly harassed and terrified by Turkish or Barbary pirates. These would appear with lightning-like rapidity, in more than one place at a time, and carry off in chains as many unfortunate men, women, and children as they could lay hands upon. One of the worst records of the kind is the landing of three Algerian privateers at Pratica di Mare, on May 5, 1588, almost within sight of Rome. The pirates took the villagers unawares while peacefully attend- ing to their fields or to their cattle, and carried into captivity thirty-nine men, twenty-eight women, and thirty-five hired farm-hands, mostly from the Marca d' Ancona. To prevent the recurrence of such disasters, the seacoast was then lined with watch-towers, the guns of which could warn the pea- sants of the approach of suspicious sails. Sangallo's plan for the defence of Rome included the demolition of certain parts of the Aurelian walls and the construction of a new line on a more strategical basis, with eighteen bastions and tAVO citadels, that of Sant' Angelo and another at the Lateran at the east end of the city. Of this great scheme, begun by Paul III and abandoned by his successors, we have interesting remains in the Bastione del Priorato on the Aventine, in the Bastione dell' Antoniana, behind the baths of Caracalla, and in the walls behind the Vatican, of which the Bastione di Belvedere is the most imposing part. We must remember that in those days the casino of the Belvedere of Innocent VIII was not connected with the Vatican palace by what we now call the corridor I(i4 MK iii:LAy(ii:L() of till.' Tapostru's and tlu' CJalleiia de' Caiulelabri. The casino stood bv itself on a si)ur of the ridge called Monte dei^li Spinelli, and contained the most celebrated statues yet found in Koine, — the Nile, the Tiber, the Laocoon, the Apollo, tlie Cleopatra, the Ilercnles, and the Torso, — set uj> in niches of verdure, in a grove of lemon-trees. It was probably the desire to ])lace these treasures out of reach of danger that suggested the advisability of fortifying the Belvedere in preference to other sections of the Vatican gardens. Tt must have been a bitter disappointment to Michelangelo, whose works of defence at Florence (1529) had made him the leader of military architects, to see the work entrusted to his rival Antonio; but he did not give way to recriminations, at least before the Pope and the public, and kept his own counsel, waiting patiently for his chance. A })assage in Antonio's life by Vasari seems to hint at a revenire taken after his death. " While Paul III was building the new bastions," he says, " Antonio began also the gate of Santo Spirito, a splendid stone structure cou])ling strength with beauty of design. After his death, however, some one tried to have the gate demolished, but the Pope would not hear of it." Was this some one Michel- angelo, or another member of the c(mimittee on the forti- fications? There were many of them, and all eager to have their authority felt, — the ])resident. Cardinal Tiberio Crispo, governor of the castle of Sant' Angelo; Captain Gianfran- cesco Montemellino, military engineer ; Alessandro Vitelli, .strategist ; Vincenzo Gioardi, artilleryman, and others, — but I do not think Michelangelo capable of so mean an action as to have suggested the demolition or the disfigure- ment of a work of art, which we still admire in spite of its unfinished state. What I cannot understand, however, is h(jw he could have accepted such an inferior position MICHELANGELO 165 as the one offered to him after Sangallo's death. It was not he, the '' excellentissmio " and the "divino," but the intriguing" Jaeopo Meleghino wlio was given the direction of the work, with Michelangelo for assistant, or "giovine " ! To understand the strangeness of such an arrangement, we must remember who Meleghino was, and by what artful means he had succeeded in winning the favor of Paul III. Born at Ferrara in the third quarter of the fifteenth cen- tury, he had entered the service of the future Pope during his administration of the see of Parma, not as " staffiere," or valet, as Milizia asserts him to have been, forgetting that he w\as of noble descent, but as an auditor or accountant. And when Cardinal Alessandro was exalted to the throne, in 1534, Meleghino was first named keeper of the antiques collected in the garden of the Belvedere, and later general accountant of the Reverenda Fabbrica di San Pietro. It is possible that being brought in contact with the marvels of ancient art in the Belvedere, and into familiarity with the great men engaged in the rebuilding of St. Peter's, he may have gained a certain aptitude and a certain fame, especially after inheriting a considerable part of the designs and car- toons of Baldassare Peruzzi, whom he had nursed in his last illness by command of the Pope.^ This sentiment of admiration was not shared, at all events, by Sangallo, who once called him to his face " architetto da motteggio," nor by Vasari, who denies his comj^etency in architecture, and attributes to him an injudicious mind. And yet to this cour- tier was given the succession of Antonio as " architectore della fortificatione di Borgho," with the same monthly salary 1 One of the sketch-books of Baldassare, now in the municipal library at Siena, bears the following autograph: "Given by nie, Baldassare Peruzzi, to Messer Jaeopo Meleghino and Messer Pier Antonio Salimbeni." The rest of the drawings and papers were inherited by his son Sallustio. They are now preserved in the Gabinetto delle Stampe e Disegni of the Uffizi, Florence. KK) MK lIHLASdKLO ot" t\v»'iitv-fiv(' sciidi ; and MiclH'lant»'('l<), the proudest man ot" the :ii;t'. a((('i>ti'd the place of '* ra<»azzo " or assistant to him. ( \>iitt'iii|>()raiv writers wonder at this preposterous state (d" tilings. A K'tttT addressed hy Prospero Moehi (tlie sur- vivor of tlie works of fortification) to Pier Lui«»i Farnese, ii('j)h('w of tlu' Po))e, on March 2, 1547,' informs us that while oflicially Michclang'elo was subjected " stava a obedi- cutia*' to Meleghino, practically he had the absolute and iiuh'jHMident management of the works. The Bastione di Belvedere was finished in March, 1548. Miclidang-elo disappears from the scene as a military archi- tect, and the task of completing- the fortifications of the Borgo is g-iven to Jacopo Fusti Castriotto from Urbino, the designer of the fortresses of Sermoneta, Paliano, Anagni, and Cahiis. Poor Meleghino ended his career as those generally do whom fortune exalts capriciously above their proper station in life. Deprived of his appointments at the death of Paul III, and reduced to penury, he sought the help of Cardinal Ippolito d' Este, and, having entered the priest- hood, was appointed incumbent of the parish of San Cris- toforo di Campignano in the diocese of Perugia. The date and place of his death remain uidvnown to the present day. We have just seen that Michelangelo had accepted an inferior position, knowing very well that Paul III trusted him alone, and would be ready to sanction any measure ad- vocated by him, with or without the api)roval of JNIeleghino. Michelangelo was not an easy man to deal with; the motto of the noblest of Roman families, " Columna flecti nescio," ought to have been his. Such was the experience under- gone by the de^juties of the Fabbrica di San Pietro after his appointment to the direction of the work on January 1, ' Quoted by Rocchi, at page 280 of his beautiful work, Le p'mnte icoiiocjrd- Jiche e prospetliche di Roma nel secolo XVI. 1902. MICHELANGELO 1(37 1547. If tliey had expected to find him a man of the same gentle temper as were his jjredeeessors, Raphael, Fra Gio- eondo, and Baldassare Peruzzi, they soon realized their mis- take. A document in MSS. H, ii, 22 of the Chigi Library, i I w t |)i>iiiL; tlu'in worse than it" they were outsiders. They must, li(»\\evt'r, make the followiuo- declaratiou to ease their (•(niscieiice : tliev highly (lisai)prove Michelangelo's methods, especially in demolishing' and destroying the work of his predecessors. This mania of pulling to pieces what has heeii already erected at such enormous cost is criticised by everybody ; however, if the Pope is pleased with it, we have nothino" to sav." T do not think that greater praise has ever been bestowed on the "divine artist" than that which these disconso- late deputies unconsciously attribute to him. Any reader conversant with Baron Geymiiller's " Les projets pour la Basilique de St. Pierre," with the set of engravings in Salamanca, — Lafreri's " Speculum Romanae magnificen- tiae," — with Martin Heemskerk's sketches, and other such documentary evidence, must be ready to acknowledge that, had the patchwork put together by Sangallo, Bramante, Fra Giocondo, Peruzzi, and Labacco been allowed to stand, St. Peter's would a])pear to us now under a worse garb than yEsop's crow. Michelangelo had already conceived the glo- rious outline of the cupola which was to be raised to double the height of the dome of the Pantheon ; he could already see the gilt angel Avith outspread Avings soaring in the pure Roman sky above the globe which now supports the cross ; and as Bramante's pilasters were obviously inadequate to stand the weight, he destroyed whatever obstacle l)arred his way, to the great mortification of the Fabbricieri, who could thiidv only of the financial side of the case ; and when Car- dinal Cervini, the future Pope Marcel II, once attempted to remonstrate, the man of iron gave this answer : " I am not, and will not be, obliged to tell either you or any of the deputies what I expect to do. Your only business is to collect and administer the funds, and see that they are not I MICHELANGELO 171 squandered or stolen ; as regards plans and designs, leave that care to me." It seems that the overseers of the buildina' were not above accepting bribes from the various contractors, and that they would occasionally shut their eyes just when their fullest vigilance was required. On one of these occasions Michel- ano-elo Avrote them the f olio win o- letter : — " To the overseers of the Fabbrica di San Pietro. You know very well I told Balduccio not to send the supply of lime [cement] unless of the first quality. The fact that he has sent a very inferior article and that you have accepted it makes me suspect that you must have come to an under- standing with him. Those who accept supplies which I have refused connive with and make friends of my enemies. All these pourboires and presents and inducements corrupt the true sense of justice. I beg of you, therefore, in the name of the authority with which I have been invested by the Pope, not to accept henceforth any building materials that are not perfect, even if they come from heaven " (se ben la venissi dal cielo). There is no doubt that such stern inflexibility of charac- ter, united with the consciousness of his own artistic value and with an undisguised disgust at the intrigues and corrup- tion of the people by whom he was officially surrounded, must have embittered the feelings of many, and actually put his life in danger. Those were times when every artist car- ried, as it were, his life at the point of his sword, which he must be ready to unsheathe at the least suspicion of offence ; for this reason there is more to learn about artists, their work, and their career, in the reports of the criminal courts, than in any other set of contemporary documents. To illustrate this point, so characteristic of artist life in Rome in the sixteenth century, I translate from the original miiiutt'.N ol' tlic N(»t;iro dei Malcti/.ii tlie following- particuLars i-oiu'crniiiir tlie imirdfr ot oiu' ot" Miclielanjifelo's friends and fallow workers, Bartolomeo Ha r( mi no. Born at Casal Monferrato, Baronino had come to Rome quite younc;, in search of fame and fortune ; and fortune must have been ready to smile upon him, as we find him Sotto-maestro delle Strade at twenty-five years of age, gen- eral contractor for the paving of the streets at thirty-one, a protege of Paul III at thirty-three, his adviser in the famous meeting of Busseto in 1543, when he received from the Emperor Chailes V himself the insignia of count pala- tine, and assistant to Michelangelo in the works of the Far- nese palace in 1549. After the death of Paul III, Julius III entrusted Baro- nino with the superintendence of the building of the Villa Giulia, in which Michelangelo himself, Bartolomeo Am- mannati, Giorgio Vasari, and Giacomo Barrozzi da Vignola also took a leading share. The fate that befell Baronino towards sunset on the 4th day of September, 1554, is best told by an eye-witness, Genesio Bersano, from Piacenza, in the evidence given at the inquest held at the deathbed of the victim. "This afternoon, an hour before sunset, Baronino and I, having taken supper in the hostelry adjoining his vine- yard, came to the fountain at the corner of the Via Fla- minia, where we were joined by Riccio, the head gardener, and other workmen. On parting comjDany, past the church of San Giacomo degli Incurabili, and just while we were rounding the corner of the house of the Provveditori di Castello, I heard footsteps behind us, as if some one was making haste to overtake us. There were two men ; the taller of the two caught Baronino l)y the right arm and struck him with a poniard on the left side. I ran to the MICHELANGELO 173 assistance of my friend, crying, ' You traitor ! ' but at that moment the accomplice caused me to trip and fall head- long- on the pavement, while the wounded man was seeking shelter in the house opposite, the door of which happened to stand ajar. The murderers ran away in the direction of the Piazza dell' Ortaccio [now called di Monte d' Oro] . We had seen both of them while eating in the hostelry by the Villa Giulia ; in fact I re- member that on leaving the place Baronino wished them a good appetite, a greeting which I believe they left unanswered. Yes, I could easily recognize the mur- derer from his black beard and heavy brows, but not his accomplice." The officer tried to ques- tion the dying man at once, but he received no answer. The second attempt, on the f oUowinof- mornino-. was more successful. Baronino said that he had certainly recog- nized in both his murderers the men he had greeted in leaving the hostelry ; both, how- ever, were unknown to him. " I am not aware," he said, " of any enemy or rival, but I cannot help suspecting Giovanni Antonio, the antiquarian, who has been haunting the Villa Giulia of late, in the hope of selling some of his marbles to his Holiness. I know him to be a bad man, and badly prejudiced against me, as if I had been influencing the Pope not to listen to his proposals." The bust of Bartolonieo Baronino in the Palazzo de' Conservatori 1 . I Mli llELAycElJ) (iiovaiuil Antonio Stanipa, tlic suspt'ctetl anticjuaiian, was sul>i»'ctt'(l to tlu' torture, without elit-itini;- from liini any acknow Ifdi^iiicnt ol i;"uilt. Susjiicion tell also on Giaeoiuo I^uro/./i (la \ ii;iiola : Itiit it' the police oF.Iiilius III did not sufcet'd in hriui^ing" the criuje home to any one at the time it was committed, it would be useless for us to investigate the matter further, after such a lapse of time. Baronino's lMi>t lia> Itet'u ])la('e(l a m on g' those of eminent Italians in the rrotomothcca of the ra[)it()l. In descrihini;- Michelangelo's transformation of the central hall of the baths of Diocletian into the church of the Ma- donna deoli Angeli, Vasari savs that the great master did not disdain occasionally to undertake works of minor impor- tance, such as now fall into the domain of industrial art. He furnished, in fact, the desig'u for the ciborium of the Blessed Sacrament in the same church, cast in metal by Giacomo del Duca and inlaid with precious stones by Gio- vanni Bernardi da Castel Bolognese. This beautiful object, known by the name of " Ciborio Farnesiano," because it was designed and cast at the expense of Cardinal Alessandro, is n(jw exhibited in the Museo Nazionale at Naples, but without the intaglios and the small columns of lapis lazuli, stolen. I believe, at the time of the first French invasion. Vasari could have mentioned other productions of the gold- smith's art, made from the designs of Michelangelo. Such Svas the dinner service descril)ed in a despatch (July^, 1537) of Girolamo Staccoli to the duke of Urbino, whose interests he re])resented in Rome. The original sketch of the central piece, showing an oval vase with masks and festoons round the body, and a figure in full relief on the cover, found its way into the Fountaine collection, and later (1884) into that of Sir J. C. Robinson. We do not know whether this beautiful service is still in existence, or whether it disap- THE FALL OF PHAETHON INTO THE RIVER ERIDANUS From a cartoon by Michelangelo, engraved by Beatrizet MICHELANGELO 177 peared in the crucible of an eighteenth century goldsmith. If it still exists, we ought to find traces of it in the "guar- daroba " of the ex-grand dukes of Tuscany, on account of the marriage to the grand duke Francis II of Vittoria, daugfhter of Francesco Maria II, the sole heiress and the last representative of the house of Urbino. Documents lately discovered in the archives of the Vati- can throw light on another peculiarity of Michelangelo's character. Whenever the apostolic treasury was laboring under difficulties and could not meet its obligations in ready money, the artist was always willing to accept any transac- tion that would satisfy the Pope without endangering his own interests. When he undertook, for instance, the paint- ing of the " Last Judgment " in the Sixtine chapel, Clement VII promised him a remuneration of twelve hundred scudi a year during his lifetime. I do not know whether the negligence of the treasury in meeting this engagement had the effect of disheartening the artist ; the fact is that at the death of Clement VII in 1534 the " Last Judgment " was not begun. Paul III, however, won back the good will of Michelangelo, and by renewing the promise of the twelve hundred a year settled the financial side of the question. The promise is expressed in a letter addressed by the pontiff on September 1, 1535, " dilecto filio Michelangelo de Bo- narotis patritio Florentino," in which he says that half of the yearly allowance, viz., six hundred scudi, would be paid in cash ; for the other half he was given a life interest in the revenue of the ferry of the river Po between Piacenza and Codoono. Who would ever have thouoht of Michel- angelo owning a ferryboat on the mighty river of the North ! I wonder if this unexpected connection with the old Eridanus gave him the inspirations for the powerful composition of the " Fall of Phaethon " into that stream, of 1 .S M K II I.I.ASHKLO wliich there are tliree eilitioiis, — tlie first by Lafreri, the second by Heatrizet, the third by Losi. Tlie Giudi/.io \\;i.s rnii>h('(l 111 l.)ll. Tlie pubhc was al- lowed to behold this strikin*;' production of a master genius nil Cliristinas Day of that year. The (piestion to be asked is this: Must we consider the ''Last .ludgnient" as an abso- lutely original artistic conception, or as a repetition of a subject wliich had already been treated by older artists, and of which Michelangelo had seen and studied more than one specimen ? There is no doubt that at least one great and beautiful .ludguient was known to him, — the one painted by Pietro Cavallini in the church of Santa Cecilia in Tras- tevere, the rediscovery of which in the spring of 1900 created such a sensation in the world of art. The fresco had remained concealed behind the stalls of the choir since l.~)o(), when Pope Clement VII granted the adjoining' con- vent (formerly of the Benedictines) to the nuns of Santa Maria di Campo Marzio. In removing the central part of the stalls, a group was first discovered representing the Re- deemer within a halo of angels and cherubim, with the Virgin Mary on the right, the Precursor on the left, each followed by six ai)ostles. The subsequent exploration of the wall l)elow the line of the apostles left no doubt that the subject of the com])()sition was a " Giudizio Universale" in the fullest meaning of the words. Under the feet of the Redeemer there is an altar with a cross and the instruments <»f the passion, guarded by four angels soiniding the silver tniinpets. On the right of the altar are the hosts of the blessed, led to heaven by the holy deacons Lawrence and Stejjhen. The blessed are marshalled into three groups, — men, women, and ecclesiastics, — each in turn led by one of the cherubim. On the opposite side of the altar are three archangels pushing the condemned into the fire of hell. MIC HE LA XGEL 179 This vast composition was at once recognized as the work of a great master of the end of the thirteenth centnry, l)orn and educated in Rome, where even in the darkest period of the middle ages feelings of pure classic art were kept alive by existing specimens of Greek or Greco-Roman work- manship, in spite of the jjernicious Byzantine influence Detail of the Giiulizio of Pietro Cavallini in Santa Cecilia which had invaded the east coast and the south of the peninsula. The apostles and angels of Santa Cecilia were manifestly outlined and sketched from works of statuary and from bas-reliefs of the Golden Age, in which Rome was still rich in those days. The Santa Cecilia "Judgment" must lie classed chrono- logically the third among the great " Giudizii " of meditieval 180 MlCUKLAyaELO Italv, l)i'iii<;' later than tliose of Sunt' Anoelo in Formis and Toict'llo, which date respectively from the eleventh and the twcll'th centuries. Its anthorship is uncpiestioned ; it is the work of I'ietro Cavallini, called hy Lorenzo Ghiberti ** Nohilissimo maestro (il quale) dipinse tutta di sua mano Santa Cecilia in Trastevere." Althou<;h inspired in a certain measure by the prototypes of Sant' Angelo in Formis and Torcello, Cavallini's Giudizio is quite new as regards the grouping of the angels, of the blessed and the condemned, and prepares us for the coming great scenes of Santa Maria Novella and of the Camposanto di Pisa. It is a great title to glorv for Michelangelo to have made an absolutely new use of such an old subject, so that even the paternity of the conception has been attributed to him. On February 21 of the year 1513 Pope Julius II came to the end of his life without having seen the realization of one of his most cherished projects, — the erection of a mauso- leum under the dome of the new basilica of St. Peter's, the splendor of which was to surpass that of all past and pre- sent structures of the same kind. To that effect he had given full powers and unlimited means to Michelangelo. In fact, if we are to believe the w'ords of Vasari and Con- divi, the rebuilding of St. Peter's had been undertaken and urged forward by Julius II mostly in order to provide his future mausoleum with suitable surroundings. And so great was his anxiety to have his wish fulfilled that even on his deathbed he made the Cardinals Antonio Pucci and Pietro Grossi della Rovere promise that they would not rest in their efforts until the work was completed. Only one of the four sides of the structure was ready at that time ; the others were never begun, in sjiite of the willingness of Michelangelo to keep his promise. And so the mortal remains of Julius II began their curious wanderings from MICHELANGELO 181 end to end of the basilica. They were first laid down in the Cappella di Sisto IV, the site of which corresponds to that of the present Cappella del Coro. Here the body was discovered and profaned by the lansquenets of Charles V on May 7, 1527, and robbed of the pontifical ornaments and jewels, so that when the grave was opened by order of Paul V on February 10, 1610, the bones were found col- lected in a heaj), with shreds of the robe and of the hood. The remains, transferred to a wooden coffin, were buried again near the bronze grave of Sixtus IV. Fifteen years later Urban VIII again disturbed the rest of the two kins- men Delia Rovere by ordering the removal of their tombs to the Cappella del Sacramento. It was on this occasion that the two exquisite candelabra modelled by Antonio Pol- lajuolo, and which stood at the opposite ends of the bronze grave, were taken possession of by the chapter, gilded, and set up on their present clumsy pedestals. No epitaph re- corded the name of Julius II in this new recess until 1780, when the present small and almost unreadable inscription was set in the pavement at the expense of an obscure sac- ristan of the church. The side of the mausoleum which Michelangelo had com- pleted was set up in the right transept of the church of San Pietro in Vincoli, a church which had been saved from destruction and restored to its present state by the Delia Rovere family. What is Michelano-elo's individual share in this much debated work of art ? If we exclude the Prophets, the Sibyls, and the Virgin Mary, the work of RafFaelle da Montelupo, the recumbent figure of the Pope attributed to Maso del Bosco, the Leah and the Rachel attributed to Scherano da Settignano, there is nothing left for Michelangelo himself but the Moses and the general outline of the tomb. Both Iv^ii M I(I1i:la.\(;i:h) liave Ikhmi siilijectiMl to scvcic ciiticisin. Milizia culls the Moses a poor imitation ol tlu' Torso di Ik'lvcdere, a fii>"iire in a senst'K'ss atlilmlr. with a satvi»'s(|M(' head and a stxlc of dros oid\ lifliitniL; a baker's 1)(>\. 'Hie verdict oi pnhlic opinion is that the aichitectni'c and j^cncral schcnic of the monument aic not nj» to Michelangelo's fame, Avhile the Moses, the work of his own chisel, and the other statues and ornaments s(ul|ttuied hy Kaifaele, Maso, and Scherano nmh'i- his siij)er\ ision, may he safely (dassed among the best works ot the })eriod. According to the original design the tomb was to have been decorated with forty statues, and about as many reliefs, in bronze. Some of these accessories stdl exist, amonu them the figure of N'lctorv crushin<>' a slave under her feet, now in the council chamber of the Palazzo Vecchio at Florence, and the two other figures of slaves, offered by Michelangelo to Roberto Strozzi, in token of oratitude for the care he had received at liis hands durino- a severe illness. Jacques Androuet du Cerceau saw them, about the year 1579, in the chateau of Ecouen, then the property of tlie Connetable de Montmorency, a friend and client of the Strozzi. In 1(32.") they had been removed to the castle of Cardinal Kichelieu„ in the province of Poitou, and thence the hero of Fonteiioy (1745), Marshal Richelieu, transferred them to his palace in the Faubourg du Roule, Paris. Francesco Cancellieri saw them in 1823 in the shed of a marble-cutter near the Louvre, having been sold at auction in 1793. They are now exhibited in one of the rooms of the Renaissance department of the Louvre. Three '' bozzetti," or models, of the Moses, all considered original, have been described, — one in the Potocki Museum at Warsaw, purchased in France, where all the models and sketches becpieathed by Michelangelo to Antonio iSIinio are known to have been taken : another, also in terra-cotta, ii THE .MAUSOLEUM OF JULIUS I IN ^ N THE CHURCH OF SAN PIETRO vICULIS I MICHELANGELO 183 the public library at Ferrara, to which it was presented by Cardinal Riminaldi in 1779. Vasari mentions a third, mod- elled in wax, presented by Pierino da Vinci to Liica Martini, the only representation of which is to be found, I believe, in a rare copperplate by Beatrizet. The last and least known incident in the story of the Moses is its temporary removal from its seat, for the sake of obtaining a plaster cast, which took place in 1816, at the request of the prince regent of England. The pontifical government, then under heavy obligation to the allied powers for the restoration of 1815, could not refuse the permis- sion, and the Moses was brought forward about sixteen inches and raised on a higher plinth. The statue seemed to have gained so much in artistic effect by the change, that a meeting of the Accaderaia di San Luca was summoned to discuss the problem. The academicians agreed in their verdict (June 26, 1816) that the statue should be kept in its new place, especially as this was found to agree to per- fection with the original sketch by Michelangelo, then in possession of one of their number, the painter Wicar from Lille. Vasari says that the Jews of his day used to crowd around the figure of their leader every Saturday, and gaze at his powerful countenance, and place themselves again under his protection. These weekly assemblies were discontinued at the time of the persecution of Pius V. The Jew^s are once more free to-day to pay their homage to the prophet, but they seem to have lost all interest in the custom. Much has been said about Francesco Amatore da Castel Durante, surnamed Urbino, the faithful servant who for the space of twenty-seven years had not given Michelangelo cause for a single complaint, and of whom his master wrote to Vasari : " Messer Giorgio, my dear friend, it is hard for 184 MK iii:l.\S(.kjj) WW to write; lioweviT, I iiuist i;iv(' you a line in answer to vouis. Vou know Urbino died j ' it is a mark of God's j;;reat n'oodness, and yet a bitter grief to nic I say a mark of (iod's i;()o(hiess beeause Urbino, after bavin<»- been the stav of mv life, has tau^lit me not only how to meet death without regret, iuit even to long for it. For twenty-six years 1 have bad liim with me, and have always found bill! perfect and faithful. I had made him a rich man, and lookeil upon bim as the staff and prop of my old age, and he bas gone from me ! ... He had no desire to live, but was only distressed at the thought of leaving me, laden with misfortunes, in the midst of this false and evil world!" Urbino's wife was Cornelia Coh)nelli ; they had a boy to wbom Micbelanaelo stood o-odfather, and of whom he writes to the widow : *•' It would not be advisahle to send my god- son here, because I have no womankind about me, nor a suitable establishment. The child is too young and deli- cate yet, and some accident might happen to him, which would distress me very much." I feel that such sentiments, expressed in letters which were strictly intimate, and never intended to be made public, are a great testimonial to Michelangelo's delicacy and tender- ness of soul. Ill lino was once the hero of an adventure, of which Flaminio Vacca, the artist, gives the following version : At the time of Paul IV (1555-50) the head keeper in charge of the vineyard of Orazio Muti, wdiich occupied part of the valley between the Quirinal and the Viminal, through which the Via Nazionale now runs, found a great treasure of gems and coins and gold. No particulars are given about the age and quality of the find, and therefore we do not know whether it had been buried there at the time of th^ ' December 3, 1555. MICHELANGELO 185 barbarian invasions or in the more recent sack of 1527. Orazio Muti happened to visit his vineyard that morning, and finding" no traces of the gardener, suspected something- was wrong, and the suspicion became certainty when he saw a hole around the ed^e of which were scattered frao^ments of vases of metal and a few oold coins. Warnino- was sent at once to the police, and also to all bankers and money- changers in the city, to be on the lookout for the absconder. Now it happened that on the same morning Michelangelo had sent Urbino to exchange a number of gold pieces of a kind which were no longer in use. The banker to whom they were offered had Urbino arrested at once, and on his declaration that they had been given him by his master, Michelangelo also was put in prison, and questioned by the magistrate. "What is your name?" was the first question. "I have been told my name is Michelangelo Buonarroti." " Where are you from ?" " I have also been told I was born in Florence." " Do you happen to know a Messer Orazio Muti ? " " How can I have speech with a dumb man [muto] ? " At this point several cardinals sent warning to the magis- trate not to make a ridiculous blunder ; but although the artist was set at liberty at once, poor Urbino had to stay in jail for several days. The real thief was traced to Venice ; but when Orazio Muti brought his complaint before the Serenissima, the latter had already bought the treasure and given the man the freedom of the republic and a substan- tial remuneration. Michelangelo spent the last years of his life in the house Via de' Fornari, n. 212, in which he died on February 18 of the year 1564. The house was demolished in 1902 ; but the loss is not great, because there was nothing left of the origi- 186 MICIIKLAXCKLO mil structure, it luivini;' heen niodernized from eaves to roof by Prime Alessandro Torlouia, lono- before its former own- ersbij) had been established beyond doubt by Benvenuto « M IC H AE LANG E LV S . BVOMAI Mli IIKLA.MIELO middle aL;(', \vlth tlic fracture of his nose — which he siif- eivd trom Torreg'iaiio in his youth — distinctly marked. The bust was presented to the museum of the Capitol about the end of the eii;liteenth century by a Roman antiquary Bust of Miclielaii;;A,lo, by Oaiiiek' da N'oltena and dealer, Antonio Borioni. Several replicas o£ it are known to exist, all cast in bronze towards the end of the sixteenth century. Such is the one ofi'ered to the Uni- versity of Oxford l)y Mr. W. Woodburn ; a second now in tlie Barg-ello, Florence, wrongly attributed to Giovanni MICHELANGEL 193 Bologna ; and a third exhibited by Mr. Bendeley at the Musee Retrospectif in 18G5, and described in vol. xix of the " Gazette des Beaux Arts," pp. 330, 331. Vasai'i tells us in the " Life " (p. 260, ed. Lemonnier) : "About that time [1562] the Cavaliere Leone made the por- trait of Michelangelo in a medal, very lifelike, on the re- verse of which, and to humor him, he represented a blind Michelangelo's portrait, modelled in wax, by Leone Aretino man led by a dog, with these words around : docebo ini- QVOS VIAS TVAS ET IMPII AD TE CONVERTENTVR [whicll is the fourteenth verse of the Miserere] ; and because this pleased Michelangelo greatly, he gave Leone a model in wax by his own hand of Hercules crushing Antaeus, and some of his drawings." Of this medallion by Leone Leoni d' Arezzo there is a fine example in silver, seemingly of the original period, and l!'l MK IIKI.AXCELO if so uiii(|iie, in the Soutli Kensington Mnsenm. The bronze specimens are less rare. 1 liave mentioned this small hut interesting' portrait be- cause HI KSSl, while visiting mv late friend Charles Drurv- Fortnuiii at his villa at Staumore, I was shown the original model from life, executed in 1502 by Leone. It is modelled in wax. of Hesli color, in gentle relief, on a black oval piece of slate. The admirable and careful modelling of the fea- tures denotes the painstaking touch of a superior hand, and gives them a more lifelike expression than that conveyed by the medal. The artist's name, Leo, so conspicuous on the medal itself, is nowhere apparent on the wax ; but on the back of the oval there is a label w^ritten by a sixteenth century hand containing the Avords, '* Ritratto di Michel- angiolo Buonaroti, fatto dal Naturale da Leone Aretino suo Amico." CHAPTER V VITTORIA COLONNA Whenever we consider the life of great men to whom a place of honor has been given in the history of humanity, we find that the psychological moment of their career coin- cides with their first meeting with a power almost equal to their own — with a kindred spirit capable of appreciating and discussing the higher problems of life and art. No words can describe their intense satisfaction at having found at last a being by whom they are understood, with whom they can converse without having to explain phrases or sentiments, the deficiency of speech being supplemented by the fulness of thought. There is no greater desire than that of meeting such a congenial mind, no greater happiness than having found it, no greater sorrow than to part from it. Hermann Grimm, speaking of this psychological moment in the life of Michelangelo, quotes the instances of the friendship between Goethe and Schiller and between Byron and Shelley, adding that no such equal-minded friend was granted to Dante, Shakespeare, or Beethoven ; but to my mind the great men have found the long-sought-for happi- ness only when the ideal ivoman has stepped across their path. We cannot conceive the greatness of Dante without Beatrice, of Petrarch without Laura, of Raphael without Margherita, of Tasso without Eleonora, and for the same reason we cannot separate Michelangelo from the sweet and noble figure of Vittoria Colonna. Born in 1490, tlie daughter of Prince Fabrizio — on 11>G VITTO/i'/A CO/.OXXA wlioiu the (lii^iiity of ('()nstal)l(' ol' N;ii)li's had just heeii c-()iit"env(l \)\ Ferdinaiul the CatlioHc and of A^nesiiia di Montt'feltro. ln'trotlied from cliildhood to Francis Ferdi- nand d' A valos. niartjiu'ss of l*('>(ara. slic married this young' and oallant leader of armies at the age oi seventeen. Tra- (lition connects these early events of lier life with the castle and townshij) of Marino, where she is said to have spent her honeviiKKyn. No more ideal place could have been chosen hv the liride for her retreat after the nuptial ceremony than this picturesque stronghold, from which the Colonna family still derives its ducal title. Conversant as she was with the Latin and Greek languages, we can picture her taking soli- tary walks in the wooded glen, — still called the Parco dei Colonna, — watered by the Aqua Ferentina, where tbe various tribes of the Latin confederacy used to hold their assemblies in the early days of Rome. And in following the path by the brook toAvards its springs her thoughts may liave w^andered back to the tragic fate of Turnus Herdo- nius, the chieftain of Aricia, who was drowned at the " Caput aquae Ferentinae " by order of Tarquinius Superbus, and also to the great meeting of the confederates which pre- ceded the battle of Lake Regillus. These springs are still rising in a clear volume at the base of a great mass of rock crowned with evergreens, and there are rustic and moss- oTown seats around, which seem to invite the visitor to rest in solitude, and to recall the events of the past. Vittoria, besides her knowledge of classic literature, wrote with equal grace in Italian prose and verse. Her poems were first printed at Parma in 1538, under the title of " Rhymes of the dlcine Vittoria Colonna," which title, how- ever exaggerated, bears testimony to the great veneration in which she was held even in her lifetime by her country- men. The poetical vein with which she was gifted was no less FIT TOE I A C OL ONNA 197 fc^^l ^^^nTTrTiy^bifil^^Hf!^^^ ' ;j^<[^ ^^ ^^SL^^l^^^d^^U View of the village of Marino, the birthplace of Vittoria Colonna captivating to them than the grace of her person ; because in those happy days of the first quarter of the sixteenth century no one coukl shine in society unless he was a fol- lower of the muses. Every one indulged in rhymes: a pious cardinal like Bembo, a grave historian like Giovio, a spirited warrior like Julius II, an artist like Michelangelo. Vittoria wrote also a pamphlet on the " Passion of the Redeemer," printed at Bologna in 1557, which, owing to the search made for it by the dreaded Court of the Inquisition at the time of Paul IV, has now become a bibliographical curi- osity. The first parting between bride and groom was caused in 1511 by the outbreak of war on the part of the Holy Alli- ance, formed by the republic of Venice, Pope Julius II, and King Ferdinand the Catholic, to drive King Louis XII out of Italy. The beginning of the campaign was not favor- able to the marquess of Pescara, he having fallen into the hands of the French leader, Gaston de Foix, at the battle of Ravenna (1512). A few years later, however, he took his revenge on the plains of Pavia, where the French were utterly defeated and their leader and king, Francis I, was made a prisoner of war. Alas ! the news of such great 19S lITToIxIA COLOXXA arliieveiiu'iits did iu»t hiiiig- j(»v to tlie heart of Vittoria. As Gaston dc Foi\ had paid for tlie victory of Kaveiina witli liis own hfe, so tlie victory of Puvia was destined to put an end to IVscara's career. The younjj hero Hngfered some time afttT the hatth', under the tender nursing of his wife, Imt his wounds were of too serious a nature to he healed l>v Imnian skilh lie died at Mihm on the nioht of Decern- her 'i, l.")25, in a palace near the church of San Nazaro, hy till' Porta Romana, which he had houo-ht of Giangfiaconio Trivid/io two years before the fatal battle. His will, written by the notary Caimi, an authentic copy of which is pre- served in the Colonna archives at Rome, is a document of intense historical interest, Avhicli 1 believe has never been I)ublislied. Pescara's body was transferred from Milan to Naples, and buried in the church of San Domenico Mag'- giore with stately ceremonies, as became the " generalis- simo " of the armies of the Emperor Charles V. After this cruel event, Vittoria, who had been left a widow in the prime of life, of beauty, and of personal attractions, vowed to keep herself faithful to the memory of the husband of whose help and love she had been so })rematurely deprived. The sentiments which she cherished to the end of her life vindicate Pescara from the charges brought against him by several historians. He is accused of having plotted against Charles V, because the emperor had taken away from his keeping Francis I, his royal prisoner of war. He is accused, furthermore, of having betrayed to the emperor his fellow conspirators, and of having turned in- former as soon as he discovered how little chance there was of carrying the conspiracy through. But if Pescara had really been a double traitor, the young w4dow would have behaved in a different way. We know that she led almost a monastic life, wandering from convent to convent, and VlTTOllIA COLONNA 199 seeking" comfort in seclusion. " It seems to me," she says in one of her plaintive sonnets, " that the sun has lost the brightness of its rays, that the stars are paling, the trees losing their mantle of verdure, the fields their flowers, the waters their purity, the breeze its freshness, since the one I loved has left me alone ! " Such a manner of life, away from the daily intercourse of society, raised her religious feelings to a high strain, and prepared her to feel the in- fluence of Juan Valdes, one of the most determined and least suspected promoters of reform in Italy, — so little suspected, in fact, that Pope Paul III had attached him to his own court. And yet the unfortunates who had listened to his exhortations, like Carnesecchi, w^ere soon to be burned alive ! Vittoria was introduced to Valdes by the duchess of Fran- cavilla, and, like so many enlightened Italians of the period, she did not dream of doing- wrono- in listeninsf to the de- nunciations of the reformer against the corruption of the Curia. It may seem strange, but it is certainly a fact, that the Rome of Paul III was just as strong a centre of reforming tendencies as were Naples, Ferrara, Lucca, Bologna, and other such intellectual centres. One could have repeated with the poet, " Thy greatest enemy, Rome, is at thy gates ! " And yet these Italian advocates of the purification of the church were all zealous Catholics, and, far from consid- ering themselves adversaries of the Holy See, they thought they were working for its final triumph. Their heresy, if I may use such a term, was altogether unconscious. It was at this juncture that Vittoria met Michelangelo for the first time, and it seems that after such a long period of sorrow and solitude (1525-36) the pure and intellect- ual intercourse with the great man raised her spirits once more and made her life more cheerful. The followinor- five 'JdO IITTOUIA (OLoyyA years, w liirli slu* jtasscd in Komc. iiiailv tlic liaj)j)iest period in tlu- life <»r Ix.tli. Few s|ieciiiM'iis remain ol \ ittoria's eorrespondeiice with Miilu-hiiii;t'l,')S, ami hail enlisted among" the reformers. The correspondence of Vittoria contains many letters in favor of these lunnble foHowers of St. Francis, addressed to Cardinal Contareno. Krcole Conzaga, Agostino Trivnlzio, and Eleonora della Koveie. duchess of Urbino. We read in one of them the following" sentences: ''The wicked men accuse our poor Ca[)uchins of l)eing" Lutherans because they preach the free- dom of the spirit ; but if the Capuchins are Lutherans, then St. Francis himself must be considered a heretic. And again, if preaching" the freedom of the spirit against the influence of evil must be considered a fallacy, then it is a fallacy to follow the gospel, in which we find the precept, Sph'ltus est fjin rlrijictft.'''' There is no doubt that Vittoria, shocked by the corruption of the clergy and the general relaxation from ecclesiastical discipline which prevailed in central and southern Italy from the time of Leo X to that of Clement VII, advocated the reformation of the Catholic Church with all the fervor of a believer, and with the exquisite tact of the grand lady. The letters exchanged with Marguerite de Valois, queen of Navarre, prove that community of ideas had brought about a great intimacy between the French reformer and the Roman poetess ; not that Vittoria meant to go as far as Marguerite in her disregard of the Curia, — quite the contrary ! Vittoria desired an amelioration in the moral condition of the Catholic world to be brought about by the church itself, not by those who defied its authority, or had enlisted among* its enemies ; at the same time she VITTOBIA COLONNA 205 displays in her correspondence a spirit of tolerance towards the dissenters that seems at least three centuries in advance of her aoe : and she was not alone in this. The most beau- tif ul women of the century — Giulia Conzaga, duchess of Traetto, Costanza d' Avalos, duchess of Amalfi, and Isabella Manriquez, sister of the cardinal of that name — were no less ardent followers of Juan Valdes. Isabella was obliged to flee across the Alps to escape prison or the scaffold ; but the persecution of the other ladies began, happily, only after their death, as we shall presently see. The centre of this religions movement had been trans- ferred from Naples to Viterbo, where one of the leaders, Cardinal Pole, resided as papal delegate from 15-41 to 1545, and where Vittoria herself lived in the monastery of Santa Caterina in 1543 and 1541. Reginald Pole, son of Rich- ard and of Margaret of Salisbury, niece of the two kings Edward IV and Richard III, had been obliged to leave England in haste to escape froia the wrath of Henry VIII, whose behavior toward Anne Boleyn he had dared to con- demn. Paul III made him a cardinal in 1536, and this extraordinary distinction conferred on the young prelate made King Henry so furious that he not only sent to the scaffold Pole's brother and mother (the latter seventy-one years old), but promised a reward of fifty thousand scudi to any one who would take the cardinal's life. Whether these particulars are absolutely correct or not, there is no doubt that he was the victim of several dastardly attempts — thrice at the hands of Italian, twice of English emissaries. Each of the Italians was pardoned in his turn by Pole ; the Eng- lishmen, however, were branded with hot iron and sent to prison. The basic principle of the reformers congregated at Vi- terbo, in Cardinal Pole's residence, was the w^ell-known 206 iirroinA colo.wa (lti'(lly committed, Imt none of such magnitude as to Involve the loss of sixty-four hug'e and wcii;htv volumes.' The supposition that probably comes nearest the truth is that the theft was committed at the time of tiu' lirst Napoleonic invasion. Next in importance to the DubUn volumes comes a " sum- mary of the processes of the Sant' Uttizio, instituted in the time of Paul III, Julius III, and Paul IV,"'- compiled from the most secret original documents, for the use of Giulio Antonio kVintorio, cardinal of Santaseverina and "consul- tor " to the Holy Incpiisition. The cardinal's nephew and heir, Paolo Emilio, made a present of the " Compendium " to Father Antonio Caracciolo, a member of the order of the Teatins. the same order to which the terrible Paul IV had belonged before his election. It contains an alphabetical list of one hundred and twenty names of heretics, or per- sons alleged to be so, including- many so illustrious and honorable and universally respected that it seems to have become a craze with the dreaded court to suspect even the noblest and holiest men of the period. The Sacred College, for instance, is represented in the persecution list by no less than thirteen members, Bembo, Badia, Contareno, Cortese, Di Fano, Fregoso, Pole, Simonetta, Sadoleto, Sacripante, Sfrondato, Madrucci, and Morone ; the episcopate by eleven bisiiops and archbishops ; the aristocracy by Ascanio Co- lonna, his sister Vittoria, the Duchess of Camerino, and Renata d' Este. We learn also from the "Compendium" ^ The Trinity College set comprises fourteen volumes of religious trials in matters of faith; ten of bulls and briefs from the time of Boniface IX to that of I'ius VI ; and about forty concerning denunciations and trials in matters of witchcraft and crime in general. ''■ Compendium processuum Sancti Officii Romae, qui fuerunt comjnlati sub Paulo III, Jul In HI, el Paulo IV. VITTOKIA COLONNA 209 the fact that the famous book " Beneficio di Cristo verso i Cristiani" (the simple possession of which has brought many victims to the scatt'old) was not written by Paleario, as commonly asserted, but by a Benedictine monk of San A bird's-eye view of the palace and prisons of the Inquisition, taken from the top of the dome of St. Peter's Severino named Don Benedetto, a disciple of Flaminio, who himself revised the proofs of the Modena edition/ A careful study of the " Compendium " (published by Corvisieri in vol. iii of the "Archivio della Societa Romana di Storia Patria") shows that the object its compiler had mostly in view was to lay before Cardinal Santorio the facts connected with the associates of Vittoria Colonna, because while the other heretics have only their names registered, with perhaps one or two references to the original minutes of the trial kept in the archives of Rome, every individual ^ Printed by Antonio Gadaldino, at the instigation of Cardinal Morone. iMO lITToniA CULoyX.i wild had Ik'oii (liivL'tIv or even iiidirectly associated with tile Maicliesa di IV-scaia is considered worthy of much i;reater consideration. Kvi(U'ntly the deceased hidy had be- come tile nightmare, the incubus oi the luquisitors ! Asca- nio ('oloiina is accused of having yiekled to the influence of his sister, assisti'd by WAt' and Ochino ; Fra Bernardo (h*' Bartoli of having- been sent by the nuirchesa to Modena to spread the new doctrines from thejndpit; Cardinal Bembo of having been an assiduons visitor at her palace ; Guido Giannetto, Girolamo Boni, Gianbattista Scoto, of the same faiiiiliaritv with her; Isabella, a Spanish lady, of having been prompted by her to discard any belief in the interces- sion of saints ; the nuns in whose convents she had found hospitalitv after the death of Pescara, to have become tainted with her falhicies ; Vittore Soranzi, bishop of Bergamo, '• Lutheranus maximus," to have corresponded with her by letter ; and slie, the purest and noblest of women, to have entertained for Cardinal Pole an affection which was not j)urelv spiritual ! The most dangerous witnesses seem to have l)een the ignorant, superstitious, easily influenced nuns of San Silvestro in Capite, among whom the accused had lived in 1525 ; those of San Paolo at Orvieto, where she had resided in 1531 and 1544; those of Santa Caterina at Viterbo, of whom I have spoken above ; and, worst of all, the Santuccie nuns of Santa Maria in Julia, in whose com- pany she spent the last days of her life. How little those jndges, who had the power of torturing the body of their victims, as well as of casting opprobrium on theii- memory, understood the religious revival, the spirit of i)uriHcation of the church which pervaded the peninsula in the time of Paul III, and which was hailed with joy by so many illustrious cardinals, bishops, prelates, and by the intellectual portion of the aristocracy ! The Inquisitors VITTOIilA COLONNA 211 believed their victims to be conspiring- for the overthrow of the Catholic Church, while their only aim was its elevation above Avorldly and political influences. In dealing with these questions we must remember that the Italians who raised their voices against the Curia, before and during the Cardinal Pole Reformation, were, so to speak, more orthodox than the Curia itself, and that the reforms they demanded did not per- tain to dogma or creed, but only to morals and discipline. The fact is, that in such matters it was difficult then, as it is now, to keep an even mind and to judge of men and events in an impartial spirit. 'JI'J VlTT()i;iA COLONNA III tlic cailv |);iit of tilt* nineteenth ceiiturv, for instance, it became tlie fasliion in Kiij^land to represent Dante as one of the prccnrsors of tlie Kcforniation. Two Itahan r('fn<>ees, wlio were also men of oreat (hstinction in (lie Htcrary wdild. I i^'o Foscolo and Dante Gabriel Rossetti, ciicoui-a^ed tins |tictcMsioii, — Foscolo in his well-known articles in the "FMinbiiroh Review" of 181S, and Rossetti in a work entitled "On the Anti-Papal S})irit tliat produced the Re- fonnation." Rossetti maintained that after the dispersion of the Albioenses, numerous sects were formed in Italy iiotalily the Pastorelli, the Flagelkuiti, and the Fraticelli, who prej)ared the way for Wycliife, Huss, and Luther. Side by side with this was a literary secret society to which Dante, Petrarch, and Boccaccio belonged. Their object was to promote civil and religious liberty, of which Beatrice, Laura, and P^'iammetta were the symbolic types. Their lan- guage was a jargon, the secret of which is lost. St. Cath- erine of Siena's exhortations to Pope Gregory XT have also been viewed in this light. Rossetti's statements about the secret sects in the middle ages are devoid of foundation, and as for the denunciations by Dante and St. Catherine of the mismanagement of the church, they by no means imply unsettled faith or revolutionary designs. " It is," writes Dean Church, " confusing the feelings of the middle ages with our own, to convert every fierce atttick on the popes into an anticipation of Luther." " We protest," writes .lames Russell Lowell, '^ against the parochial criticism which would degrade Dante into a mere partisan, which sees in him a reformer in embryo, and would clap the honnet rouge, the Phrygian cap of liberty, upon his heavenly muse." From the very first appearance of the " Divina Commedia " the church recognized that the attacks of Dante were the voice of a friend, and that it would have been an absurdity riTTORIA COLONNA 213 to condemn a poem which was the most eloquent expression of its own essential ideas. And yet I doubt very much whether the Inquisitors of Pope Caraffa, in the heat of the persecution of the heretics, with eyes and reason blinded by the fierceness of the struggle, would not have found in the " Divina Commedia " enough evidence to have the poet con- victed, and made to share the fate of other enemies of the church. A reminiscence of these cruel times is to be found in the monument raised lately in the Piazza di Campo de'Fiori to the memory of Giordano Bruno. When, a few years ago, the anti-re- ligious and anti-clerical societies determined to erect in Rome a memo- rial of what they called the moral downfall of the papacy, they selected as representative of their extremist views the fig- ure of Bruno, who had been burned at the stake in the same market-place of Campo de' Fiori. The choice Avas not a happy one, and the absurdity of the plan will be mani- fest to any one who re- members the fact that I , ., , p TVT 1 The statue of Giordano Bruno in the the philosopher of Nola Campo de' Fiori was as much of a believer as the most devout Catholic, and that he gave up his life not 'J14 \ITT()i:i.\ roLoXXA for aiiv (|ii('s(i(m coniu'ctiMl with tluMloctriiies of the church, but for its mural puritii-ation. I must now invcsti<;ate another j)oint of the controversy, witli which Vittoria Colonna is personally connected; namely, the inriuence wliitli Kenee tie France and Calvm may have exercised upon her and upon Itahan reformers in general, from the dueal castle of Ferrara. in Avhich they had estab- lished their headcjuarters. There is an incident in the career of Calvin which has not yet been satisfactorily explained by his biogra})hers, — his sudden flight from the field of battle in the autumn of l^li"), just after the publication of the preface to his incen- diary treatise, '" The Institutes of the Christian Religion." What was his purpose in fleeing from France ? Although rather shv by nature, as he acknowledges himself to be in the preface to the Psalms (natura timido ac pusillo animo me esse fateor), he did not habitually shirk res])onsibilities. Did he wish to await developments without exposing him- self to undue risks? or did he feel the necessity of seeking a milder climate than that of Alsace to strenothen his failinsf health ? I believe the true reason of his flight into Italy to be the one stated by Emmanuel Rodocanachi in his excellent volume on Renee de France. Calvin was planning to startle the world with a master stroke, — the creation of a Protest- ant state in the very heart of the peninsula, face to face with Rome. And he had reason to anticii)ate success in the state of Ferrara, ruled at that time by Duke Ercole II and his wife Renee, daughter of King Louis XII and Anne de Bretagne. In her new residence the young duchess had surrounded herself with secretaries, almoners, poets, readers, of French extraction, all imbued with the reforming principles of the court of Navarre, the leading spirit of which, Mar- THK DICAL PALACE AT P^HRR SECRET iMEETI> A'W WHERE RENEE D'ESTE HELD J WITH CALVIN VI T TORI A COLONNA 215 fifuerite, was the best friend and the most faithful cor- respondent of Renee. Calvin, therefore, repaired to Ferrara, under the assumed name of Espeville, accompanied by Canon Dutillet, one of his ardent disciples. They were kindly received by Renee, and provided with money and the necessaries of life. Little or nothing, however, is know^n of their meetings, which generally took place at night and in the presence of very few witnesses ; but from a passage in a letter written by the reformer two years later in which he says, " I have noticed in you a great fear of God and a faithful affection to the pure principles of the faith," there is no doubt that the duchess had made Calvin her spiritual adviser. A Franciscan monk, questioned by the Inquisition, testified to having assisted one night in Lent at a religious meeting in the rooms of the duchess, when a Frenchman unknown to hiln spoke words of fire against the authority of the Church and the supremacy of the Pope. Was this violent interlocutor Calvin himself or his official representative at the court of Ferrara, Clement Marot? Though w^e cannot answer this question, there is no doubt that the voice of Calvin was listened to with great complacency by the citizens of Ferrara. The parti- sans of the Reformation, or, to speak more exactly, the enemies of the See of Rome, were very numerous there, and a spirit of criticism, almost revolutionary, prevailed in the class-rooms of its university. The Ferrara professors were not strong on orthodoxy, and the doctrines of the German innovators found great credence among them, — so much so that a member of the faculty, named jNIanzolli, had offered to Duke Hercules II a book entitled " The Zodiac of Life," in which the monks were called brutes, the Pope an atheist, and Luther an avenger. Considering this state of things, and considering also •J 1 ( ■> \lTTolHA (■ OL OXXA tliiit liowevcr (li'votitl tlic lower classes were to the form and litup'-v (•!' tluir climrli, the leHgioiis nioveineiit in Germany liad oertainlv attracted the attention of the intellectuals, we cannot wonih'r that Calvin should have believed if possible to establish at Ferrara, by a coup dc )n((ln, the same gov- crnnu'nt wliich in like maiuier he succeeded in establishing a few years later at Geneva. All these plans of Calvin fell to the ground on Good Friday, April 14, 151)0, owing to the imprudence of one of his followers. On that day, while the parish priest of the church of St. Francesco was presenting the cross for the veneration of the faithful, a young man of twenty, named Zannetto, or Jeannet, attached to the court of lienee as a choir-hoy, burst out with the most violent blasphemies. He was imiirisoned the same night, and was denounced to the court of the Inquisition. This apparently unimportant event was the cause of the failure of Calvin's scheme at Ferrara. The French and the Venetian ambassa- dors took up the cause of the youth against the Spanish minister and the papal nuncio, and soon after all the cabi- nets of Europe were busying themselves with the fate of Zannetto, because he was considered to represent not an indi- vidual but a principle. I shall not tire the reader Avith the jtarticulars of this diplomatic and religious controversy, in which Pope Paul III, Francis I, and other potentates took a prominent part. It ended in this way : On July l-Jt the piincipal actor in this drama of Ferrara, a man who had been imprisoned by the Inipiisition as a leader of the movement, and whose name that dreaded court kept secret, esca})ed from his cell and was never arrested again. Who was this leader? If certain insinuations of the process are to be l)elieved, the escaped prisoner was Canon Bouchefort, the fi/ft r cf/o of Calvin ; but we know better from a passage of Muratori, overlooked by the historians of the Reforma- THE CATHEDR OF FERRARA VITTORIA COLONNA 217 tion. Muratori says that the prisoner was Calvin himself, and that he was set free by a party of horsemen engaged by the French ambassador and the Duchess Renee, while he was being transferred from one jail to another. Such was the end of the dream of Calvin so far as Ferrara and Italy were concerned. It was at this anxious moment and under the pressure of these burdens that Renee sought help and comfort in Vit- toria Colonna, who spent about ten months at the court of the Este, in a Calvinistic entourage. Vittoria's intimacy with the duchess is proved by the fact of her having l)een chosen as a godmother to the first-born child of the ducal couple, the famous Eleonora d' Este, the insjjirer and the evil genius of Tasso. If we ask why the Reformation, which found so many illustrious supporters, ended in absolute failure so far as Italy is concerned, the answer can easily be given. Re- formation, as I said above, was a luxury for the nobility, the higher clergy, and the intellectuals. The low^er classes, form- ing the overwhelming majority of the population, unedu- cated and illiterate as they were, saw in the innovators the enemies of their country, of their parish priests, of the Pope himself; and besides, they were profoundly attached to the external form of their faith, so appealing to southern imaginations. Theological controversies on abstruse points left the average Italians absolutely unconcerned : either they followed the worship of their forefathers or they fol- lowed nothing. Moreover, the Italians have never taken up such disputes in the gloomy and tragic manner of other nations, beyond the Alps ; no religious war of any impor- tance has ever been fought in their country; and even the Inquisition, however eager to show its zeal under the eyes of the Pontiff, found fewer victims in the States of the 218 1/ /"/'(>/:/. I ((>/j).\XA CIiukIi than in other Catholic coiiiitiics. Wlu'ii an Italian <-anu' hack to his native city I'lom his |»ilL;iiniai;-e ad IhiiuKi, his |»iirse niav liave heen enij)!}' and his healtli out of order, hut his faith liad n<»t hi-en shaken like Luther's. This marked indilVerence anions;- the lower, and this thirst for refi)rniation anioiii;- tlie ui)})er ehisses, led to this reniarkahle resnlt, that Italy is a land whicdi has produced more heresi- archs and fewer heresies. 1 have heen ohlioed to enter into these details because without them it would have heen impossible for my readers to understand the mystery of the hasty burial and subse- (pient disa])pearance of Vittoria's body. The lady felt the first symptoms of the fatal malady in January. 1547, ^vhile an inmate (»f the Convent of 8ant' Anna de Funari, Avhich then stood surrounded by the remains of the " Porticus Pompeiauae " (the gardens and colonnades attached to the theatre of Ponipey the Great). She had entered this last station in her monastic pilgrimaoe in January, 1545, and from this date onwards all her legal acts are signed "actum Romae in ecclesia Sanctae Annae in Regione Arenulae." As the illness grew nu)re alarming, and fears of a fatal issue arose, Vittoria was removed to the palace of the Cesa- rini, her nearest kinsmen.' This palace still exists, although thoroughly modernized, and faces the Teatro Argentina on one side and the Piazza Strozzi on the other. Here she dictated and signed her \vill. containing among others the following clause : " I desire that soon after my death, the abbess of the convent [of Sant' Anna de Funari], Avhere I have found hospitality lately, shall select my last resting- place, and shall bury mv body in the monastic manner." Vittoria die(l at the seventeenth hour of the 25th of Feb- ' (Jiiilia Coloiina, N'ittoria's cousin, liad married (iiuliaiio Cesarini, the liead of that powerful family, and standard-bearer or gonfaloiiiere of the S. P. Q. 11. VITTOIUA COLONNA 219 ruary, 1547, after having- signed a will and a codicil, the originals of which are to be fonnd in the protocols of the notary Piroti in the Archivio Notarile di Roma. Condivi gives a ])athetic account of Michelangelo's last sight of her beloved face. " In particular, he greatly loved the Marchesa di Pescara, of whose divine spirit he was enamoured, being in return dearly beloved by her. He still preserves many of her letters breathing honorable and most tender affection. . . . He, for his part, loved her so that I remember to have heard him say that he regretted nothing except that, when he went to visit her upon the moment of her passage from this life, he did not kiss her forehead or her face, as he did kiss her hand. Her death was the cause that oftentimes he dwelt astonied, thinking- of it, even as a man bereft of sense." ' Marcantonio Flaminio, who also was present at the fatal moment, in a poem exuberant with feelino's of love and admiration declares her loss to be a public calamity." The room in which the admirable woman died opened on the garden of the palace, the name of which (Palazzo Argentina) is still attached to one of the neighbor- ino; streets. The body was undoubtedly removed to the church of Sant' Anna, according to the provision of her will ; but such was the cowardly fear which seized all those who had been associated with the deceased lady, lest the Inquisition should involve them in the disgrace witli which her mem- ory was threatened, that the coffin was abandoned in a corner of the chapel, without any display of those impres- sive ceremonies with which the Catholic Church is wont to 1 Translation of Christopher Hare, The Most Illustrious Ladies of the Italian Renaissance, p. 306. ^ M. Antonii Flaminii Forocorneliensis carmina. Padua, 1727, Book IV, p. 113 ; Book V, p. 149. 220 VITTomA rOLOXXA lienor its dead. And yet slie had been kind and grateful to them for tlioir niiserahle hos})itality to the very day of her death, leavino- fifty seudi to be distributed " inter illas (luae iua«;ls i'ueiiml assi(hiae in iiilinnitate doniinae testa- tricis." KvtMT one of the executors ai)pointed by the will disapiteared at the last moment. The abbess^ and the nuns abandoned the chapel and withdrew to the most secluded part of their estal)lishment, and even Cardinal Pole, 1 am sorrv to say, renounced his '' protectorship of the will" (la protezione del testamento) — he who, on March 5, had written to Cardinal Madruccio a letter mourning- over the loss of his '• mother in Christ " and his " most faithful adviser." See the " Epistulae Reginaldi Poli," printed at Brescia in 1752, Book IV, n. 81. Praise, then, be given to Lorenzo Bonorio from Cittji di Castello, an old and faithful client of the Colonna, who dared to face the situation and see that the wishes of his beloved mistress were carried into execution. His letters to Vittoria's brother, Ascanio, the head of the family, contain the following details, by means of which we have been able to rediscover, after three and a half centuries, the missing remains of the marchesa. The body was enclosed in a wooden coffin coated with tar, and left on the tioor of the church, against the left- hand side wall, until at least the fifteenth day of the following March. At that date Bonorio was still waiting for instructions from Ascanio Colonna, who had taken refuse at Avezzano from the troubles of the so-called " guerra del Sale ; " but they never came, — the only docu- ment pertaining to the case being Aseanio's letter of au- • The ii;mic of this feeble ahl)ess was Domiii Filippa. She liad taken the place of Donna Massiniilla de Scipioni (who died June 18, lo4()), and governed the establishment till the end of 1550. At the time of the death of Vittoria it counted about forty inmates. ■s: ,- - ^ c < z z - q VITTORIA COLONNA 223 thorization to a Messer Pietro Diaz to take possession of Vittoria's inheritance. Left to his own devices, Bonorio announced in a last letter that he had determined to have the coffin enclosed in an outer one, covered with Idack vel- vet, and j3laced in a grave hollowed out of the side wall of the church, at the height of five or six feet above the floor. Were these plans carried into execution, or did some- thing happen in the mean time which forced Bonorio to remove the remains to a safer place ? The outer case Avas surely made, as is proved by the fol- lowing passage of the last-mentioned letter, dated March 5 : " I have found at the bank only one hundred and seventy scndi of gold [the bulk of Vittoria's money was deposited in Venice], of which one hundred were given to tlie phy- sicians, and seventy advanced for the cover of embroidered velvet. However, as these are insufficient to meet the ex- pense, either you must forward the balance, or I shall be compelled to sell the silver I have at hand." When the church and convent of Sant' Anna de Fnnari were condemned to destruction in 1887, to make room for the new Via Arenula,^ the late Commendatore C. L. Visconti and myself were commissioned by the City Council to watch the demolition of the edifice with the utmost care, in the hope that the remains of the marchesa might be found in some remote place of concealment. Our vigilance, however, led to no results ; and although every brick and stone was duly examined down to the level of the foundations, not only did we not come across the coffin coated with tar, but we found no grave at all. It is true that in consequence i The convent and church, originally called Santa Maria in Julia, were the headquarters in Rome of the Kniglits Templars. The Grand Master, Jacopo della Molara, in 1293, made a present of both to a pious woman from Gubbio, named Donna Santiiccia Terrebotti, the founder of a reformed order of Fran- ciscan nuns, named from lier the Santuccie. •_'•_' 1 VlTT()l:l.\ COLOXXA oi' ;i Hull of ro|>»' Pills \', issued in l.KJO, all the bodies liurifd in tluiiclu's alxirc the level of the lioor had been lowered, and in many cases thrown into the common fosse under tlic nave; but consiiK-riiig- that when these things hanpencd and this desecration of ancient g'raves took place, Marco Antonio Colonna, the nephew of Vittoria, was the hero of the day, that the laurels he had won at the battle of Lepanto were still fresh, and that city and Pope alike were heaping uixm liiin distinction upon distinction and privilege updii j)rivilege, we cannot accept the theory that the pre- cious relics of his annt should, just at that time, have been treated with contempt and thrown into the common " ossa- riutii." Moreover, such an act would have been against the eanons of the Church itself. ^\'t' must, besides, take into cousideratiou the fact that the church of Sant' Anna was modernized at the beginning of the seventeenth century by the architect Girolamo Rainaldi ; but the changes made at that time were only superficial, and concerned the decoration of the chapels and altars more than the structure of the building itself, as is proved by the fact that the frescoes of Pierino del Vaga survived the transformation without injury. There remained two surmises to be taken into considera- tion : First, that the cofhn had been secretly removed from Konie before or when the posthumous trial against the marchesa was initiated by the LKpiisition ; secondly, that it had been concealed somewhere within the precincts not of the church but of the cloisters of Sant' Anna. Our explo- ration of ISST having shown that the latter was not the case, the attention of those who wished the problem solved was directed to other cities, ancient fiefs of the Colonna, such as Marino, the birthplace of Vittoria and Paliano, the chief stronglu.ld of the Connetable Ascanio ; but nowhere I VI T TORI A COLONNA 225 was a clue obtained. The merit of having found at last the original coffin coated with tar, and the authentic remains of Michelangelo's dearest friend, belongs to Dr. Bruto Amante, the well-known biographer of Giulia Conzaga. From his memoir, " La Tomba di Vittoria Colonna," pub- lished by Zanichelli at Bologna in 1896, I gather the following remarkable particulars : Starting with the consid- eration that Vittoria expresses more than once in her poems The sacristy of the church of San Domenico Maggiore, at Naples, where the remains of Vittoria Colonna were found the wish to be reunited to her beloved husband in their last resting-place, that the husband had been Iniried in the church of San Domenico Maggiore in the city of Naples, and that Naples was at the time of her death a much safer place from the grip of the Inquisition than Rome or Marino or Paliano, Dr. Amante began his investigations in the sacristy of the above-mentioned church, which contains not less than forty-five coffins of illustrious members of the 22G VITTOh'IA ((fLoXXA Neapolitan aristociafv, mostly t'ldiii the house of Aragona. These conins are located all louiul the walls, above the screens ami wardrolies containiiii;' the sacred vessels and indiinieiits, in a sort of ^allerv or halcony, of which the tojts (if the wardroiies i'onn the floor. Here he discovered, uuicli to his surj»ri>e. not one hnt two coffins inscril)ed with the name of the hero of the hattle of Pavia. The upper of the two, verv large, with a sword and a pennant nailed on the lid. hears the following epitaph: (Here lies) "Fer- dinand (TAvalos of A ([ui no, Marquess of Pescara." The lower and smaller one shows likewise the words, painted in hlack on a white scroll: "Francis Ferdinand d'Avalos of Afpiino, Mar(|uess of Pescara, vicar-general in Italy of lli> .\hijesty the Emperor, died in the year of our Lord one thousand live hundred and twenty-five." Dr. Amante was therefore confronted with two coffins liel(»nging to the same individual, as proved by the sword and the pennant nailed on the first, — the insignia of a g^eneral, — and by the precise date 1525 inscribed on the other. There was only one way to solve the riddle, viz., to examine the contents of each. Havintr obtained leave from the archbishop, as well as from the minister o. public in- struction, and secured the help of several men of science, he opened Hrst the lower and smaller of the two. There were the remains of an individual of the male sex, of middle size and age, with traces of dark hair on the skull. Such characteristics led them to believe that the legend of the scroll spoke the truth, and that the coffin really contained the remains of Vittoria's husband, who had died in 1525. Inside the up})er coffin they found the long-lost bier, coated with tar, with the skeleton of an individual of the female sex, about fifty years of age. The skeleton was still par- tially enveloped in a shroud of coarse linen, also besmeared VI T TOE I A COLONNA 227 with tar. A closer analysis of the contents revealed the fact that the woman had been laid to rest dressed in a shirt of the finest linen, with a lace collar fastened round the throat by three bands or lacings. The sleeves also were fringed with lace. There were traces of other articles of underwear which I find rather too technical to be described in a paper of this kind. The hair, unmistakably blonde, was covered by a silk hood. These particulars (and many others of lesser value) were registered in a document, dated December 9, 1894, and signed by Angelo Zuccarelli, professor of an- thropology in the University of Naples ; by Father Maiella, rector of San Domenico ; by Signor di Maio, representative of the minister of public instruction ; by Dr. Amante, the discoverer, and by other witnesses of repute. I must acknowledge that the vague tradition of the trans- fer of Vittoria's body from Rome to Naples, and of her in- terment in one of the churches of that city, had never died out among the descendants of Ascanio Colonna ; and the late Prince Don Giovanni Andrea used to repeat over and over again, while Visconti and I were engaged in the fruit- less search of 1887 at Sant' Anna de Funari, that we were wasting our time, because he knew the body of his illus- trious ancestor was to be found in Naples. After the interesting story I have related, the reader will probably suppose that the discovery of Vittoria's grave was welcomed with a thrill of enthusiasm from one extremity to the other of the Peninsula ; that the Italian literary and historical societies celebrated the event in a manner befit- ting its importance ; and that a monument to her, or maybe to both heroes of my story, must have been raised in the capital of modern Italy, and, more precisely, in that Piazza Arenula which occupies the site of the church and convent of Sant' Anna, demolished in 1887. None of these things li.iNc coine to pass. 'I'lu* coHiiis of tliu most cultured lady ami of tilt' most valiant knii;lit of the sixteenth century still lie half forg'otten in the sacristy of San Domenico j\Iag- «»iore, and the site of the expected monuuu nt in the Piazza Aicnnla lia.s hccn usurped liv the statue of a playwriter, whose name can hardly he known heyond the walls of his native citv. it is reallv surprisino' how modern Rome seems to have lost the recollection of the aug'ust men and women t(» whom she owes her greatness. If we except the memo- rials raised in honor of the founders of modern Italy, — Victor Ennnanuel. Cavour, Garihaldi, and Quintmo Sella, — which are heautiful and worthy of the great names they hear, all the other puhlic squares of the city have heen giMMi up to nu)iiuments of outsiders of modest fame, or of IK) fame at all. The last of these memorials had actually so little rniso)) (rctrc that — to avoid a hostile demonstra- tion and a puhlic scandal — it Avas unveiled hy stealth at two o'clock in the morning and in the presence only of half a dozen poli(«'nieii. CHAPTER VI RAPHAEL After nearly four centuries o£ biographical research, and the publication of a stupendous number of volumes and pamphlets, many incidents in the life of Raphael still remain shrouded in mystery. They have been transmitted to us, through the lapse of time, more as popular legends than as facts established by contemporary evidence. We have not succeeded, for instance, in discovering the text of his will, although every archive has been searched and ran- sacked in quest of it, especially by Adam Rossi ; ^ and yet we know that Raphael, already in the grip of death, dictated such a document to his notary on or about the fourth day of April of the year 1520, because mention of its existence occurs in other legal papers of the time. Another dubious side of Raphael's career is the one con- cernino' his love entanolements, two of which have become especially conspicuous : his betrothal to Maria Bibbiena and his liaison with the handsome girl from the Trastevere known as the " daughter of the baker." There were prob- ably others, notwithstanding the attempts made by certain biographers to depict him as an angel on earth, a fore- runner of St. Louis Conzaga, worthy of being canonized on the altars of his Church. I have read with patience the sixteen heavy articles published on this subject by the journal " II Raffaello " in 1879,- but I cannot say they lift 1 Compare Archivio Storico dell' Arte, vol. i, a. 1888, p. 3. 2 "II Raffaello," Rivista d' Arte, published at Urbiuo by Elpidio Righi. •_':;(» j;Arn.\i:L \\\ oiu- iiicli tilt' \t'il wliicli (lailit'us this side of the muster's lite. 'I'o tlic t'onnal cliai-<;vs l)n)Ui>lit forward l>y Giorgio N'asari, Siinoiic Foinaii da lu'i;'^i<»j and Missirini, the apolo- •;ist of tlie *' Kall'aelh)" opposes the evideiiee of Mario Fabio, Ctdio ('aleaiiiiini. Marcaiitoiiio Michiel, Fulvio and Paolo (iiovio. not to niciitioii more recent writers who have like- wise exi>ressed opposite \ iews on the morality of his life in •general, and on the cause of his death in particular. The im[)ression left on the impartial reader by these con- Hictinj;- statements is that Raphael was a youth exceedingly shv in the presence of the fairer sex, and the readier, there- fore, to give his whole soul to the one who would lielj) him overcome his timidity, and to feel the fascination of her charms. ]5etween the conventional, frigid, measured love of Maria Hibbiena and the simple, straightforward passion of the Fornarina. he chose the one that was more c(»nsonant with his own nature; and without openly break- iuii- the faith oiven to Maria in Julv, lol4, he delaved the fulHlment of his pledge from month to month, from year to year, until it was too late to make matters right. There is no doubt that Maria died of a broken heart and of wounded pride at having the date of her marriage thus indefinitely postponed, and a low-born girl, a baker's daugh- ter, preferred to herself, the niece of the powerful cardinal Bernardo Divizi and a cherished friend of the Pope. Her pergonal attractions, besides, were considerable, if we may trust the evidence of Comolli, who calls her a " bella et (liirnitosa fanciulla." The cardinal, it seems, had s'oaded Uajihael into asking her to be his wife (the expression used by Vasari is that he had harassed the artist with his scheme of marriage for a number of years) until he could refuse no longer without compromising his artistic career.^ The ' It is |)r()b;iblc, if not certain, that Raphael owed to the influence of Car- RAPHAEL 231 betrothal took place about the first day of July, 1514 ; at least this is the date of the letter in which he announces to Simone Battista Ciarla his formal eno;ao-ement : but, having already pledged himself, soul and body, to his fair model, whom he had raised to the glory of the altars in so many masterpieces, he found a way of postponing the final issue, until the death of Maria made him a free but not a happy man. The wording of the epitaph of the un- fortunate girl — buried in the Pantheon almost side by side with Raphael — is such as to make us feel that the survivor must have repented of his conduct ; it being, however, too late to mend the wrong he had done, he made a public avowal of his guilt. The inscription, freely translated, says : " We, Baldassare Turini da Pescia and Gianbattista Bran- coni dair Aqiiila, testamentary executors and recipients of the last wishes of Raphael, have raised this memorial to his affianced wife, Maria, daughter of Antonio of Bibbiena, whom death deprived of a happy marriage," etc. As regards the second and truest love of Raphael, the accounts given by his early biographers rest more on tra- dition than on facts. We only know the girl to have been clinal Bibbiena his conunission for the cartoons of the tapestries. A MS. volume in Prince Cliigi's library, marked H, li, 22, containing notes on the reconstruction of St. Peter's, collected by order of Pope Alexander VII, shows the following entry under the date June 15, 1515 : " The reverenda Fabbrica di San Pietro to pay 300 ducats by order of Bernardo Bibbiena, cardinal of Santa Maria in Portico, to Raffaele da Urbino, on account of the Cartoons for the Tapestries, which are to be forwarded to Flanders." Another sum of IS-l ducats is registered on December 20, 151(5, to the same purpose. The drawing of the cartoons must have required at least nineteen months of work, and yet the artist received onh' 434 ducats in remuneration. As regards the tajiestries themselves, Vasari and Baldinucci pretend to establish their cost at seventy thousand scudi ; the author of the Vita di Raffaele at sixty ; Cardinal Pallavi- cino at fifty: all quite wide of the truth, because Paride de' Grassi, tiie Pope's diarist, on the first day they were exhibited in the Sixtine chapel, entered their cost at two thousand scudi each. 2'\'2 UAI'IIAKL of humlilr l)irtli, most likely tlie daughter of a ])aker livin*^ in tlu' Trasteverc, somewhere between the churches of Santa Dorotea ami Santa Cecilia. Attached to her dwell- ing- was a small Kitchcn-^anlcn. enclosed by a wall so low tiiat anv jiasscr-hv could catcii a g'limpse of the inside hy raisino- himself sliohtly on tiptoe. Here the baker's daiioh- ter often came. perha])s in search of herbs and flowers, per- haps to s])read the household linen in the sun; and here, on tlu' other side of the wall, many young artists, attracted by the fame of her beauty, would halt on their way home and endeavor to obtain speech with her. It now seems certain that the Fornarina's name w^as Margherita ; yet the identification rests on the authority of one document only, viz., of a copy of the Giunta edition of Vasari of l.")()8, formerly owned by Giuseppe Vannutelli and now in Florence, the marginal notes of which were probably written by one who had known Raphael in his lifetime. This anonymous commentator has written the name twice in connection with Vasari's passage : " Marcan- tonio [Kaimondi] made a number of prints for Raphael, which the latter gave to his assistant Baviera, in consider- ation of the services rendered by him to the young woman whom Raj)hael loved up to the hour of his death, and whose lifelike portrait he had painted (die pareva viva viva)." On the margin of the leaf the anonymous scholiast wrote, first : — " Servitore di Raffaello chiamato il Baviera" (Raphael's servant, named il Baviera) ; and again, " Ritratto di Margherita donna di Raffaello " (portrait of Margherita, the love of Raphael). Shall we accept the name as genuine, or shall we repeat with the poet Aleardi : — BAPHAEL 233 " il vero Tuo nome il nioudo non eoiiobbe niai : e io pur 1' igiioro povero poeta. Pensa per5 che in fra le genti noto Suona il nome gentil di Fornarina, pill clie quello di molte iniperatrici." Roman tradition points out as the home of the girl a modest house near the corner of the Via di Santa Dorotea r:^"yL.y:^^Cz^^ The window of the so-called house of the Fornarina, by the church of Santa Dorotea and the Porta Settimiana, the ground floor of which is actually occupied by a bakery called '" il Forno della For- narina;" but this is all the evidence we can produce in favor of the tradition. No document has yet been found to prove the veracity of the charming legend, and the Santa 2:U i:m'Iim:l Dorotca liousc. lidwcNcr dear it may have hccome to artists anil poets, lias no claim whatever to the eoiisideration of tlie conseieiitious hio^raplu'r. Tlic aicliives of the Peretti familv, to wliom tliis and tlic adjoining- lands helong-ed at thr t'nd td' the sixteenth ccntuiT, contain no mention of her name. 'I'hev show, in fact, tliat the wliole space between thecduirrh and tlie villa of Agostino Chigi (La Farnesina) was hut a stretch of vegetahle gardens. Two other houses are pointed out by tradition as having l)e;'n iidial»ited hv the young woman. One stands among low surroundings in the Yicolo del Merangolo,^ near the church of Sant' Egidio in Trastevere; the other one is the Palazzetto 8assi in the region of Parione, of which I have given a description and an illustration in chapter iii (p. P2()). The house in the Vicolo del Merangolo mayor mav not have been erected by the master to keep his be- loved one near him. while engaged in painting the h)ggia of Chigi's villa ; but the impious hand of an eighteenth century restorer has obliterated every vestige of its former aspect, so that we must leave the question unsolved. As regards the Sassi palace, in the Via del Governo Vec- chio, n, 48, it would be vain for us to attempt any iden- tification of its various parts, as described in the sixteenth century documents, because it has likewise undergone a transformation at the hands of the architect Mercandetti. The beautiful court and loggia, re})resented on page 127, have been demolished; their statues, first removed to the Farnese palace, are now in Na])les ; and I have not been able to discover what fate has befallen the mosaic of the floor of the court, wliicli lepresented a "well-stocked fish-pond. On the left side of the vestibule of this palace a mod- ern reproduction of a much older tablet is set into the wall, ' Now called Vicolo del Cedro. RAPHAEL 235 on which these words are engraved : " Tradition says that the one who became so dear to Raphael, and whom he raised to fame, Hved in this house." RAPHAELI ■ SANCTIO QVAE • CLARVIT • DILECTA HIC • FERTVR • INCOLVISSE The tradition is not absohitely groundless. We can pro- duce in its support the evidence of the census taken by order of Leo X in 1518, in which one of the houses per- taining to the head of the Sassi family, Messer Benedetto, is said to be occupied by a baker from Siena named Fran- cesco. This house, facing the Via di Parione, was separated from the palace by a narrow space, so that, if Francesco was the father of the Fornarina, the tablet practically would speak the truth, the more so if we assume it to have been removed to its present location when the house of the baker was made a part of the new building. These, then, are the abodes which tradition assigns to the Fornarina, as if the fair inspirer had followed Raphael in his artistic rounds, changing residence so as to be near the places in which, during the nine years of their liaison, the artist lavished the treasures of his genius. In 1511 he Avas working in Agostino Chigi's villa, and the legend shows us the beautiful model living in the Via di Santa Dorotea ; again, he undertakes the painting of the Transfiguration in the palace now marked n. 3 in the Piazza di Sant' Apol- lonia, and the girl is found to be living in the Vicolo del Merangolo close by ; lastly, he begins the Stanze and the Loggie, and the model watches his coming and going on the Via Papale — the Pope's highway — from the windows of the Sassi house. During these nine years Raphael repaid the loA^e of Margherita Avith immortality. He reproduced 'j:?!') i:m'Iiai:i. lu*r likeness in the fresco of Heliodoins, in the Madonna (11 San Sisto, in the TiansHj^nration, in the Parnassns under the attributes of Clio. Vasari says' that he also painted several j)()rtraits of her, (►f which three are alleged to be existini^-: one in the Tftizi, one in the Barberini, the last in the I'itti L;;iller\. The Barberini portrait shows a type of courtesan so vulgar that many critics deny it to be the work of the master ; vet we have in favor of its authenticity the words of Alexander VII, who in his "Commentaries" says that the onlv genuine, bnt otherwise indifferent, portrait (»f the iiK /•( /rlc/'f-;«)3, 4;}0; Faiabiilini, Sagrjl ,li nuovi studii su Raffaele, p. liS'J ; Qiiandt, Notizie intornoal ritratto origitiale della Fornarina, Florence, vol. i, p. 207; Costa, L'ultima decade di Raffaello in Roma, Montecassino, 1876, p. 82. ' The ridge of the Janiculum between the churches of San Pietro in Mon- torio and Sant' Ouofrio had not then been enclosed within the line of the modern fortifications. THE DONNA VELATA IN THE PITTI GALLERY Considered to be the best existing portrait of the Fornarina RAPHAEL 239 ill 1524 for Baklassare Turini da Pescia, whom I have mentioned above as one of the executors of the will of Raphael. The frescoes of the walls, not injured by damp or neo'lect, were removed some time ago to the Borohese sfal- lerj, so that there are only the ceilings left to bear testi- mony to the' original decoration. One of these contains four medallions, interwoven with arabesques, representing Dante, Petrarch, Poliziano, and Raphael ; the medallions of the other show four nameless female portraits, one of which is un- doubtedly a replica of the Barberini Fornarina. And as these decorations were executed between 1530 and 1540 by the pupils or "garzoni" of Giulio Romano, we are induced to attribute to one of them the authorship of the Barberini likeness. If we turn our attention from it to the "Donna Velata" of the Pitti gallery, how naturally the feeling comes that we are at last before the real object of Raphael's love. The beauty of the woman is great, but it is not the beauty of a courtesan, and reminds us at the first glance of the type glorified in the Madonna di San Sisto. Her style of dress becomes a daughter of the people raised to a higher and more refined state, of the class which we now call minentl. The generous instincts of Raphael, revealed in so many incidents of his life, must have prompted him to sat- isfy the natural ambition of a fair woman, — that of appear- ing becomingly dressed. Hence we see the "Donna Velata " wearing a rich gown over a shirt of fine white linen, a necklace made of a set of oval medallions, and a pendant fastened to her brown hair, all, however, in chaste style, and totally unlike a parvenu in Sunday attire. I mention in the last place the alleged portrait of the Uffizi, reproduced in the illustration on page 211, simply to state that it is now acknowledged to be the work of Se- 'J40 h'APITAEL bastiaiio tltl Pioiiilx), and to represent a courtesan, perhaps Heatrii'i' da Ferrara, of a type entirely different from tlie one enilxidicd in the Madonna di San Sisto. And now a final (|nestion. Did Ra])liael love the For- narina witli a lo\c ready to overcome all obstacles, and to face adversity and sorrow for her sake? 1 am afraid ^ve must answer in the nenatiye. When Ao-ostino Chig'i, wearied of the dilatory hahits of the painter of the •'story of Cupid and Psyche," caused the Fornarina, the suspected origin of his idleness, to be spirited away, Raphael did not show much concern, and remained as good a friend of the banker as ever. Again, Raphael is lying on his deathbed, and the For- narina is kneeling by his side, sobbing in bitter despair. A messenger from the Pope is announced, bringing to the dying man the benediction "in articulo mortis," but he declines to enter the room and fulfil his mission unless the one who represents an illicit liaison is driven away from the house. Raphael allows the stricken woman to be torn from his side, depriving her of the privilege of hearing his last words, a privilege Avhich nine years of devoted love had given her the right of claiming. If the artist had really loved the beautiful model, Avliat consideration would have prevented his making Margherita his lawful wife at the moment of death ? Was he afraid, or did he have no desire to perform an act of justice towards one who had jilayed such an active j)art in making his name immortal ? The reason is that the exhortations of the attending priests made him repent of the irregularities of his past life, and compensate, as far as possible, the wrong done to Maria Bibbiena, by acknowledging her most solemnly to have been his affianced wife. This was done, as we have already seen, by his testamentary executors, the acknowledgment THE ALLEGED PORTRAIT OF THE FORNARINA BY SEBASTIANO DEL PIOMBO Now in the Uffizi RAPHAEL 243 being engraved on a marble slab and placed on the grave of Maria. As regards the Fornarina, Raphael willed that '' all' amata sua si desse modo di poter vivere onestamente," that to his dear companion of nine years should be given enough to live honestly and comfortably. The subsequent fate of Margherita was a matter of con- jecture until 1897, when certain fortunate inquiries made by the late Antonio Valeri put us in the way of discovering the truth. 1 After the heart-rending scene in the Piazza del Pantheon, when, beside herself with grief, she was driven away by the mourners, the girl fell into a kind of leth- argy and a melancholy mood, from which she was roused only by the determination to enter a monastery and lead for the rest of her days the life of a recluse. This resolve was carried into execution, wdth the help of Cardinal Bibbiena, and the sorrowing woman was received into the congregation of Sant' ApoUonia, near the church of Santi Margherita ed Emidio in Trastevere. The congregation or " conservatory " of Sant' Apollonia, wdiicli has long since ceased to exist, was one of those houses instituted in Rome by the score, towards the end of the fifteenth century, as homes of refuge for fallen or repent- ing women whom society had expelled from its pale. This one, called Cnsa santa d'l Pnolo'iza^ because it had been founded by Paola de' Pierleoni in the time of Nicholas V, was noted for the strictness of its rules. The Fornarina, although artistically sacred, was morally no longer fit to live among her relatives ; and so on the eighteenth day of August in the year 1520, four and a half months after the death of Raphael, she stepped over the threshold of ' Antonio Valeri, " Chi era la Fornarina " in Vita Italiana, a. 18{>7, xvii. Compare Archivio storico delV Arte, vol. iv, p. 445; Alfred von Reumont, " Nota snl ritratto della Fornarina " m Archivio societh romana di Storia patria, vol. iii, a. 1880, p. 233; Griiyer, Les portraits de In Fornnrina, Paris, 1877. LM I nAPIIAKL a litVtiiue prison. This iiuportaiit fact was discovered by Valcri in a slicct torn from tlic ledger of the Institute, wliicli contains tlic names of the postuhints to wliom ad- mission was orantiMl under tlie pontificate of Leo X, viz., iM'twccn \7)V.\ and \~>'1A. On the eleventli line of this frair- mcntarv document tlic t'ollowini;' entry is to be found: — '• a (li IS A iiyusti luJO Hoggi e stuta rrcenla nel nru Conserva torio ma". Margarita vedoa, figliola del ij\ioH, Mariday, which in 148.3 fell on the 28th of March, and in 1.j20 on the Gth of April. RAPHAEL 245 men of the age, both at home and abroad, mourned over the loss of an archaeologist of great promise, more than over that of the prince of painters : an expression of feeling which, however strange it may appear, can be explained on the ground that as a painter he was above praise, while as an archaeolosfist he was a fresh and startlino- revelation. With all the vigor and passion of youth he had turned his studies towards the monuments of the past ; and under the powers granted to him by Leo X he had taken up the task of saving those monuments from further desecration, and of reconstructing at the same time the plan of ancient Rome. Marcantonio Michiel, in a fragment of a letter inserted in the "Diaries" of Marin Sanudo, says that the master had come to a premature end " amidst the universal regrets of learned men, for whom he was preparing a voliuiie, like the Cosmography of Ptolemy, on the edifices and ruins of Rome, in which their style, aspect, and decorations were so justly portrayed that one felt as if one were living again in the golden days of the empire. Unfortunately, only one out of the fourteen resfions of Aug-ustus had been described completely when death interrupted the work." Another letter, addressed on June 29, 1532, to the duke of Mantua by Fabrizio Peregrine, his agent in Rome, says : " In a few days will be published a plan of Rome, designed by Raphael, a beautiful and exhaustive work." The event was celelSrated also by poets like Castiglione and Germanico, and by historians like Paolo Giovio, Celio Calcagnini, and Andrea Fulvio.^ In all these accounts, praises, and regrets there is a de- cided exaggeration. Ignorant as he was of classic lan- 1 Compare Rodolfo Laiiciani, La pianta di Roma antica e i disegni archeo- logici di Raffaello Sanzio, Rome, Lincei, 1895. LMC. nM-llAKL «'ua"-('s. ^o that \\v could not read Vitnivius without the lu'l|t ol" his i;u«'st Fal)io C'alvo, llapliael cannot he called an archa-olouist, aiul the alleged plan of Rome, with tlie autlior- .ship (»t' which he has heen credited, is hut a [xtor production ill ( (iiiipari^on witii others puhlished in the first half of the sixteenth century. The following considerations may help the reader to understand the error of judgnient committed bv Michiel, Peregrino, and others in speaking of the dead man as an arclueologist. l\aj)hael had heen brought in contact with the produc- tions of Greeo-Homau art, not only by his love for the beautiful, but by duty as well, having been appointed suc- cessor to Fra Giocondo da Verona in the superintendency of anti(iuities ( Commissariato delle Antichita) on August l27. 1.")]."). Tn the brief of nomination Leo X insists espe- cially on the imi)ortance of putting an end to the practice of burning- into lime statues, inscri})ti()ns, and architectural marbles; but the evil was too deeply rooted in Rome to be con(piered by the efforts of a single man, especially as he had to contend, first of all, with the Pope's treasury, which, bv levving a percentage on the product of lime- kilns, made itself an accomplice in the continuation of the sliameful })ractice. I have published in the first volume of the " Storia degli scavi e de' musei di Roma" the text of an agreement, dated July 1, 1426, by which the Apostolic Chand)er authorizes certain Roman citizens to destroy the remains of the Basilica Julia, with the condition that half the produce of the kiln should be given, in the name of the (Jhandx-r, to Cardinal Giacomo Isolani for his private use. 1 have mentioned this particular espisode in a long tale of disaster, because the kiln of 1426 was rediscovered in my ])resence on September 10, 1871, in the middle nave of the basilica, filled with half-charred marble carvings. The BAPHAEL 247 rest of the nave was occupied by a layer, two or three feet deep, of fragments of statues, inscriptions, cornices, capi- tals, columns, and pedestals, ready to be turned into lime. Fra Giocondo da Verona says that many noblemen prided themselves on having had the foundations of their jjalaces built of pieces of ancient statuary. In the fulfilment of his task the young commissario allowed himself occasionally to overstep the limits of his powers. He seems to have made himself particularly obnox- ious to a Gabriele de Rossi, who had just brought to a close certain successful excavations in the " Domus Severiana " on the Palatine, and in the Lamian gardens on the Esqui- line. We do not know the cause of the controversy, which dates from the year 1517: the fact is that in a will signed in the same year, De Rossi inserted a proviso that, in case after his death some high official [allquis superior) should attempt to rob his heirs of the collection of antiques, — their legitimate property, — the city magistrates were authorized to interfere and eventually to remove the statues and busts to the Palazzo de' Conserva.tori. The " somebody " whose violence was feared by the dying collector was undoubtedly Raphael, who is known to have actually taken possession of the marbles by force ; but Leo X, called upon by the city magistrates to protect the rights of the testator and eventually of the city itself, gave judgment against his too energetic commissario. However, if we are compelled to deny to him the title of archaeologist, we must acknowledge that the scheme he conceived, three or four years before his death, for the thor- ough illustration of the antiquities of the city, gives him an additional claim to glory and to the gratitude of men of science. In fact, the scheme was so perfect that it is prac- tically the same taken up again, after an interval of three •J IS i:M'IIM':l and a lialf cciituries, hy the Berlin Academy of Sciences, and 1)V till' Ariadtinia icalc dei Lincei of Rome, to which \v(' owe i('s|n'i'tivt'lv tlu' |»ul)lic'ation of the " Corpus Inscrip- tionuni Latinariiiu '" and of the " Forma Urbis." ' To caiTV his dt'sii;ii into exccutidn, Kajdiael, who was not a learntMJ man and whose time was absorbed at all events by other duties, secured the collaboration of the three best specialists of the day. .lacopo Mazocchi for the inscrip- tions, Andrea Fulvio for the toi)ogTaphy, and Fabio Calvo f«>r the map of the citv ; and he lost no time in obtaining' from the Pope the ])rivileg"e for each of the three to publish his own section of the *' Arclueologia Urbis " within a stated period, safe from competition and from acts of piracy or plagiarism. The brief of Leo X granting Mazocchi the copyright of the "Epigrammata" is dated November 30, b")17. but the book was not published before April, 1521. That the scheme of this book Avas inspired by Raphael — although he could not decipher its contents — is proved by the fact that the inscriptions are not grouped in it by subjects (sacred, imperial, military, naval, domestic, etc.), as is the case with the Berlin Corpus, but topographically, that is to say, according to the site and quarter of the city where they had been found, or where they Avere located, an arrangement which is noticeable also in the companion works by Fulvio and Calvo. The date selected for the publication of these last two was the fateful year of the sack, ir)27. We all know that the " Anti(piitates" of Fulvio did really appear at the beginning of that year, but very few are acquainted with the strange \ icissitudes of Fabio Calvo's map, the issue of which is gen- erally assigned to l.")3'2. I have myself discovered the truth, ' Forma Urhi.'i Romae : consilio et auctoritate regiae Academiae Lyncaeorum delineavit lifMluljihus Lanciaui Itomamts. Forty-six sheets with a copious index. jd^^j^iv^ Sie P'^hn, eLj?, Lpa U^O I >vu ^ j.-- f ..-.-^-M^ ■^\ ? % ?- IodcHj} i/vjA/ duipi^iziip A LEAF FROM RAPHAEL'S ARCHITECTURAL SKETCH-BOOK Formerly in the Burlington-Devonshire collection, and now in the keeping of the R. 1. B. A., Conduit Street, London. The facsimile of Raphael's handwriting in the square on the left (the words are " the gum of the Pimis cembra is good against consumption ") is taken from the marginal notes to Fabio Calvo's translation of Vitruvius, now in the Munich Library, n. 216 RAPHAEL 251 as it were by accident. While perusing one clay my notes on the topography of Rome of the first half of the sixteenth century, I was astonished to find one labelled as follows : " Piante 1527 : M. Fabius Calvus. Antiquae Urbis cum regio- nibus Simulachrum. Anno a partu Virginis M. DXXVII mense aprili. Ludovicus Vicentinus Romae impressit : quod opus Ptolemaeo Egnatio forosemproniensi ante caelandum dederat. (Biblioteca Vitt. Emm. collez. rom. 3. G. 21.) " As I had fresh in my memory the words of Eugene Miintz, the learned author of " Raphael Archeologue," " En retrou- vant a la bibliotheque de I'Ecole des Beaux-arts la premiere edition de cet ouvrage, Rome, 1532, in folio," etc., I went immediately to the Biblioteca Vittorio Emmanuele to ascer- tain whether I had made a mistake in transcribino- the title and the date. This was not the case. The copy in the Vittorio Emmanuele, which I consider unique, is really dated a few days before the sack. The story of its existence can be reconstructed in the followinsf manner : — When Raphael began to feel the fascination of archi- tectural and archaeological studies, he called to his side an interpreter of Greek and Latin texts, who could reveal to him the secrets of ancient life and teach him the precepts of Vitruvius. This old man from Ravenna, who lived in seclusion in the painter's house, repaid his kindness with advice on questions connected with his " Commissariato delle Antichita" and with his scheme for the description of the ancient city. Their joint work, so far as the map is concerned, as well as the text by Fulvio, was ready to appear at the beginning of 1.527. The text was actually published in February, the map in April. On the 6th of May Bourbon's army stormed the walls of the Borgo, and began its deeds of arson, pillage, and massacre. Even the penniless author of the " Simulachrum " was not spared by '_*.")•_» L'M'IIAF.L till' fn'ii/.lcd invaders, itnd he was left to die of his wounds ill a wavside liostolrv (|)i()l)al)ly) of the Via Flaminia, he- lauso lie eoiild not })ay the ransom. In this great disaster the edition of the map. wliich was kept for sale in the shop (it Ludovico Vieentino, suifered such irreparable damage tliat tilt' eopv in the Vittorio Emmanuele, as far as I know, is the only one whicdi escaped destruction. Such being tlu' case, no wonder that the agent of Mantua, Peregrino, should have announced to his master the reprint of the '' Sinudachrum " of 1532 as a totally new work inspired by Kapliael. Fabio Calvo has another claim to consideration, that of having been one of the tutors of the young prince Federieo of Mantua, who has a})peared in every chapter of this book as a messenger of friendship and goodwill between its lead- ing personages. A letter of Maddalena Tagliapietra informs his mother how the boy had secured the tuition of a " master Fabio da Ravenna, a man already advanced in years, who never tastes wine, and eats only once in a day, very learned in Latin, even more in Greek, and who is engaged at present in translating from Greek into Latin a work on medicine [Hi})i)Ocrates] which will be of great value to practitioners." The love and admiration for the ruins and for the works of art which were dailv coming to light in the excavations of the city nuist have cemented this strange friendship between the gray-haired, gruff old stoic and the bright youth from Mantua. In regard to the Laocoiin discovered in the month of June, l.")0(), in the Vigna of Felice de Fredis, near the Sette Sale, he writes to Isabella, " How I wish I could send you, or at least show you. this group, cosn excellentissima rt opra (Vtvinny There is no doubt about the veracity of these sentiments, because the Laocoiin appears again in the chronicle of Federico's residence in Rome as exercising upon RAPHAEL 253 him a real fascination. It happened in this way : Caradosso, the rival of Benvenuto Cellini, had won the good graces of the prince by chiselling a medallion for his master Ippolito Tebaldeo, and refusing any compensation for the work, althouoh it was valued at one hundred ducats. This act of kindness made Federico anxious to secure for himself a specimen of Caradosso's art, and he begged leave from his mother to ask the goldsmith for a reproduction of the group of the Laocoon " of solid gold, in full relief, with the children and the snakes not cast but chiselled ; " but the marchesa, alarmed at the expense which such a work would involve, refused her consent. A second request of the young admirer of the Laocoon to have the group repro- duced by Caradosso in a plaquette to be worn on his hat had no better success. Tlie idea appears rather inconsistent with the good taste shown by Federico in other details of his attire — a Laocoon on a hat ! But he may have been led into temptation by Ippolito Tebaldeo, who wore on his own toque a reproduction of the group of Hercules killing Cacus. All the learned men of the period seem to have sought the honor of explaining to Federico the wonders of the ancient and the modern city. The company he preferred, however, was that of Bernardo Accolti, surnamed the " unico Aretino," who showed him the Flavian amphitheatre, the Forum, and the Capitol, much to the delight of Isabella, who wrote, " Praise to you for the interest you feel in an- tiquities, a sure token of gentleness and refinement of mind." This " pious " Bernardo (brother to Pietro Accolti, cardinal of Ancona, and next-door neighbor to Raphael) was con- sidered as great a man in the field of poetry as Raphael himself in the field of art. In fact, no literary genius of the age, which counted Ariosto amongst its stars, made more •J.VI i;ai'IIm:i. imju'essittn on Li'o X tiian tlie *' iiiiico Aietiiio," who was atliiallv iiiatlc diiUi' of Nepi. It is said that whenever he felt bnikh-nlv iiispirctl l)y tlie 7 represents the recumbent figure of another river god in exactly the same attitude, modelled by Michelangelo, in a terra-cotta bas-relief formerly in the Gherardesca palace at Florence. The engraving from wliich the illustration is taken bears the following legend : " Cavato da un bassorilievo in terra-cotta appresso i signori conti della Gherardesca, opera di Michelagnolo Buonar- roti." Quite interesting is the way in which Raphael has inter- preted the Jupiter group, on the right-hand corner of the Medici sarco]>hagus. The Greco-Roman artist who modelled it had made the feet of the Father of the Gods rest upon a piece of cloth, held at both ends by the figure of Cjelus (Heaven), Raphael, seeing the cloth swollen in the manner of a sail infiated by the wind, thouo'lit the fioure holdinsf it to be /Eolus, and in this guise he reproduced it in his own design, with open mouth and in a Hying attitude, thus transforming the classic Jupiter, whose throne rests on the solid sphere of Heaven, into a Jehovah borne through the skies by wind and clouds. Vasari had already been struck by this new way of treating the figure of the Eternal Father, and called it accordingly " a God in the style of Jupiter." THE VISIOxX OF EZEKIEL, IN THE PITTI PALACE RAFHAEL 261 Its best expression is to be found in the Vision of Ezekiel of the Pitti gallery, which, if not the work of Raphael's own pencil, is certainly a contemporary copy of the lost original. At all events, the type of Jupiter, as expressed in the Medici sarcophagus, had made such a marked impression on Raphael's mind that we find it repeated once more in one of the spandrils of the " Loggia della Farnesina." Raphael is known to have gone a step farther in this matter of imitating the antique ; he took a cast of a Greek relief, and reproduced it bodily in one of his best and less known masterpieces, viz., in the bronze panel of the Woman of Samaria, in the Chigi chapel at Santa Maria del Popolo. The fate of this gem of art and of the shrine in which it is set is worthy of being related. Agostino Chigi — the prince of finance of the first quarter of the sixteenth century, whose career will be described in my next and last chapter — had commissioned Raphael to design and erect his tomb in the above-mentioned family chapel ; and by a will dated August 28, 1519, he had entrusted to Antonio da San Marino, the goldsmith, the care of superintending the finish- ing of the work. The master having died in the subsequent year, the work was taken up by Lorenzetto, who pledged himself to complete iVgostino's mausoleum, as well as that of his brother Sigismondo, in the space of thirty months from the signing of the contract (February 10, 1821). Lo- renzetto, driven away from Rome by the plague and by the ill-will of the uncouth Pope Adrian VI, left the work un- finished. At the time of his death, which took place in 1541, the statues of Jonah and Elias were still stored in his studio at the Macel de' Corsi, and the medallion of Agostino was in the hands of one of the testamentary executors.^ 1 Compare Gnoli Domenico, " La sepoltura d' Agostino Chigi nella chiesa di S. Maria del Popolo," ia Archivio storico delV Arte, a. 1889, pp. 310-326. •jc.ii i;M'Iim:l It was only in \7>sl tliat Ai;<)stiii()'s son Lorenzo settled (he a(C()iiiit< with Loienzetto's heirs. The Jonah and the KHa> were jtlacnl in thcii' niches; Cecchino Salviati finished the altar-piece, be«»iin by Sel)astiano del Piombo ; Francesco X'anni painted the David and the Aaron in the Innettes; and the chapel, to the decoration of which all the great masters of the age had thus contributed, was opened for service III 1.).)-!:. The Chigi faniilv in the mean time, ruined by the eccen- tricities of Loren/o and j)ressed by creditors, retired to Siena ill l.~)7.'>. and the chapels at Santa Maria del Popolo and at Santa Maria della Pace were abandoned to their fate, in s})ite of the treasures they contained. Their roofs gave wav ; rain filtered throu<»h the cracks of their vaulted ceil- ings: pieces of plaster and a layer of dust covered their altars, and hid the frescoes from view. This state of things lasted until the year 1G2G, in which the future Pope Fabio Chigi again took possession of both shrines, and found that even the grave of Sigismondo had been usurped by an out- sider, the Cardinal Antoniotto Pallavicino. Poor Cardinal Antoniotto, whose bones had found no rest for over a cen- tury I Having been buried in the apse of San Pietro Vecchio in 15U1, he was left in possession of his beautiful grave for a brief time only, because that section of the old Constan- tinian basilica was soon levelled to the ground by Bramante, and the tomb was removed to the choir of Santa Maria del Popolo. Cardinal Sauli in 1624 transferred it from the ciioir to the Chigi chapel, which was then considered "res nullius." Two years later Fabio Chigi once more removed it, and it now appears to have found a well-earned i)eace in the first chapel of the left aisle of the church. The coiuinission to restore Raphael's creation to its former splendor was given by Fabio to Lorenzo Bernini, under RAPHAEL 263 The Woman of Samaria, a panel by Lorenzetto in the chapel at Santa Maria del Popolo whose guidance many changes were made, and not very happy ones. For instance, the panel modelled by Raphael and cast in bronze by Lorenzetto, which formed the principal ornament of the banker's tomb, was removed from its place, and turned into an altar-front or " paliotto." The bas- relief represents the Redeemer sitting by the well and having speech with the apostles, who have just returned from the city, bringing with them food and wine. From the city also, but from a different gate, emerges the Woman of Samaria at the head of a group of men eager to see the Prophet. All the traditional forms and types of Christian art are cast aside in this beautiful composition : one is tempted to believe that it represents a gathering of men The Danzatrici Borghese, now in tlie Louvre 'JC.t nAPHAEL (^^§-j\ M.iul.:. :_ , \\i. nil .ui .1 I amlrl.ilir I. ,1 rdiiiiiaiiioii panel to the Daiizatriei, fornii'rlv in ilic \'illa Uorjilu'se. and now in the L(iiivr« and iiiaidt'iis on the hanks of the IHssiis, rather than a 8i'ene from tlie GospeL Raphael's inspiration from the an- ti(jne was well hrought into shape hy Lorenzetto, who had spent most of his yonng-er days in restoring" the antiqnes wliicli tlie patricians were then gathering in their gardens and palaces. The Woman of Samaria needs only the thyr- sus to become a Bacchante ; her figure, in fact, is not sketched hnt actually moulded from a Greek original, with only sliglit touches in secondary details to make it har- >i A Hriinzp Ill-plica of the above, now in the Salle des Caryatides RAPHAEL 265 monize with the rest. The original has been pointed out by Loewy : it is the beautiful bas-relief of the dancing girls known as the " Danzatrici Borghese," because it belonged to the collection of that family before its removal to the Louvre by the French invaders of 1793. The same scheme occurs in another relief formerly preserved in the Capranica della Valle palace, and now in the Galleria degli Ufhzi, which must have been known to Lorenzetto, the architect of the Capranica della Valle palace and the restorer of its arcluBO- loofical collections. Another bas-relief preserved, like the Danzatrici, in the Villa Borghese, belonging probably to the same monument, and now also exhibited in the Louvre, has had the honor of being copied — if not actually moulded and cast — by a sixteenth century sculptor, who may be the same Lorenzetto, the great admirer of the Danzatrici. It represents two maidens in the act of hanging a garland on a candelabra, while a third is approaching the group from the left, car- rying a fresh supply of flowers in her hand. I must mention in the last place another replica of the Danzatrici, also cast in bronze by a Renaissance artist, which forms part of the Wallace collection at Hertford House, and which has lately given a charming subject for discussion to Claude Phillips, W. Thode, and Etienne Michon.^ I propose now to take the reader to the house inhabited by Raphael in the last period of his life, which, I grieve to say, has not yet been transformed into a shrine sacred to his memory. Pope Alexander VI, wishing to provide the Vatican with ^ Compare Claude Phillips, "A Bronze Relief in the Wallace Collection," in the Burlington Magazine oi February, 1904, pp. 111-124; Thode, !6«d. March, 1904, p. 215; Etienne Michon, Un Bas-relief de bronze du musee du Louvre, Paris, 1905. L>GO HArilAF.L a hettor approach fVoin the hrid^c of Saiit' Aiioclo than that alVonhMl hy the iianow ami tortuous ('arriera Sancta (tlie |)ifsi'iit Ii()ri;-o Vecchio). opened in 1499 a new road tlu-oniiii orehards and n'ardens, which he called " Alessan- (Iriiia." a name now re])laci'd 1)V that of Borgo Nnovo. I'rivih'o-es were granted to owners of property on either side of tile street, provided tliey would ereet houses within a specified time, with fayades at least forty-three feet high. Now it lia})peiu'd that the trustees of the hospital of Santo Sjtirito. whose ])roj»erty, named *' II Palazzo della Stufa," had \n'v\\ cut through l>y the new street, not being- able to stand the expense of reluiilding' it, sold it, on June 5, 1500, to Adriano Caprini of Viterbo, apostolic prothonotary and secretary to the cardinal of Capua, on condition that he >li(Mdd make a yearly contrihution of twenty-four ducats to the hospital, and complete the building within the time stated in the papal edict. Adriano Cai)rini, who had already met Hramante, during the hitter's stay at Viterbo for the reconstruction of the sanctuary of the Madonna della (^uercia. gave him tlu' commission of designing the new house ; in this work Bramante Avas probably assisted by Ra])hael, who was at that time occupying his leisure hours in tlie study of architecture. ( )n the 7th day of October, l.")!?, the brothers Caprini sold the mansion to Raphael for the smu of 3600 ducats. Vasiiri, with his habitual carelessness, speaks twice of this transaction, giving the reader to understand that Raphael liimself had commissioned Bramante to desio-n the new fa^'ade (per lasciare memoria di se' fece murare un palazzo a Roma in Borgo Nnovo, il quale Bramante . . . etc.). The di.scovery of the title deed' settles all controversy on this ' .M;i(lc by Adaino Itossi in 1844 in the Arcliivic Urbano of Rome, Diver- sorum, vol. xxx. RAPHAEL 267 point, because in October, 1517, the old architect liad been dead three years. Vasari's passage, therefore, must be interpreted in the sense that Kaphael became in 1517 the owner of a palatial residence, the designs for which had been furnished to the vendor by Bramante. Would it be possible after the lapse of four centuries to identify its site and perhaps to find traces of the studio in which the divine artist painted his last canvases, and of the room in which he gave his last farewell to the For- narina ? To answer these two questions satisfactorily we must follow the transfers of the property from hand to hand until our own times. First of all, it is not true that the property had been left by the dying artist to Cardinal da Bibbiena, as it were in expiation of his behavior towards the latter's niece Maria; on the contrary, the executors of the will, pressed by creditors, headed by the duke of Ferrara,^ sold it in October, 1520, to Cardinal Pietro Accolti, the nearest neigh- bor, with the approbation of Leo X. The property could not have fallen into better hands, the purchaser's lineage, culture, dignities, and appreciation of art making him the most suitable tenant of the late master's rooms. The rea- ' It seems hardly credible that the noble and wealthy duke should be so anxious to recover the paltry sum of forty ducats advanced to the deceased artist for a picture which he had left unfinished. More strange to me is the behavior of the executors in getting rid so hastily of a valuable property in order to pay such absurdly small debts, when it is an indisputable fact that Raphael had died a comparatively wealthy man. From April 1, 1514, he had drawn a salary of three hundred ducats a year for superintending the Fabbrica, which he deposited with the court banker, Simone Ricasoli; he had received further- more a remuneration of twelve hundred scudi for each of the frescoes of the stanze. In a despatch of the ambassador of Ferrara, written the day after Ra- phael's death, the amount of the fortune left by him is set down at sixteen thou- sand ducats, of which six thousand was in houses and landed property. Vasari's story, therefore, concerning the cardinalship offered in compensation for the vast arrears due to him by the Camera, is without foundation. 2G8 uai'Iim:l son of tlii> piircliase must be found in the fact that the two palaces, tliat of Kaphael and tliat of the cardinal, stood so close to t'acli oiIut that there had been complaints between tlu' owners about the smoke of a chimney, which prevented the artist from workiui;- in liis studio when the wmd blew from tlic w«'st. Tlu' two proj)erties, in fact, were separated only by the huml)lc dwellino- of a Venetian named Barto- lonuM* Zon. The block was inherited in 1532 by Accolti's nephew Henedetto, a cardinal himself and archbishop of Kavtnna. who was imprisoned in the castle of Sant' Angelo by order of Paul 111, and set free in 1535 on the payment of a ransom or security of sixty thousand scudi. Cardinal Benedetto sold the property in 1510 for the in- siirnilicant sum of six thousand scudi to Benvenuto Olivieri, a banker of Florence, and in the deed the location and the boundaries of Raphael's dwelling are specified in a perfectly clear way. '•The property," it says, " is bounded by the Via Alessan- drina [Borgo Nuovo] on the north ; the piazza of Cardinal Salviati [Scossacavalli] on the east; the Carver la Sancta [Borgo Vecchio] on the south ; and the houses of the bishop of Ancona on the north." We know, therefore, that the house of llaphael must be found within the area of the ])resent Osi)izio dei Convertendi, to which institution the l)lock was bequeathed by Cardinal Gastaldi, the last private owner, in 1085.' The identification is made easier by the many drawings of the sixteenth century artists in which the block is represented in its original state. The one 1 have selected for my illustration is an engraving published by Ij^ifreri in 1549, with the title " 7?«^9/i[aelis] urhlnat[\s palatium] ex hqnde coctiJi Romae exstructum,'' which must ' The property liad passed from Benvenuto Olivieri to another Florentine banker, Strozzi, and later on to Cardinals Coniendone, Spinola, and Gastaldi. RAPHAEL 269 be understood in the sense that Biamante had made use in building of a new kind o£ masonry, called by Lafreri " lapis coctilis," and by Vasari " fabbrica di getto." Identical with this print are the drawing by Palladio, pub- lished by Geymiiller in his " Raffaele studiato come archi- tetto," and another by Domenico Alfani (in the municipal w^%:\ '' 'ff^itxr. The house of Raphael in the Borgo, from an engraving- by A. Lafreri library at Perugia), who on visiting Rome in 1581 made a pilgrimage to the house and grave of Raphael, and entered notes of both in his sketch-book. The sketch of the house is interesting because it shows the ground floor already transformed by Cardinal Comendone into its present state. I have been obliged to enter into these particulars in order to convince the reader that what I am now going to state in regard to Raphael's studio and bedchamber is not a matter of conjecture, but the simple and indisputable truth. There is no doubt that very little is left of the original building, owing to the incredible negligence of Bramante, 'J7(» i:.\ rii m:l mIu» mav liaxf ln'cii a genial artist, hut wlio was (.'eitainly a wn'tclu'tl hnildiT. Tlic toiiiidatioiis have been strengthened, |uy C'onu'iidoiic in l.")S2, second l)V Gastaldi in IGH."), tliird after the inundation ot ISO."), ai;ain by Bohlrini in 1S48, and hy Martinneci in 1870. And yet the principal part of the house — the atelier of the divine artist — has escapccl destruction. Tiie room occupies the corner l)e- tween the piazza di Scossaca- valii and the Borgo, with two ^vindows on the former, and it is remarkable both for its size and ]ieisj;ht and for the l)eautiful wooden ceiling, which a committee of experts, ap- pointed in 1889 by the city, declared to be '' corretta gran- diosa . . . opera di Bramante." The greed of the modern owners has ruined the artistic effect of the room by cutting- it into two apartments, with the help of a partition wall, an obstacle which we hope soon to see removed. And here I must refer the reader to my friend The house of Ka,.!,...! (.lott..! lin.s). Domenico Gnoh, the illustrious tran.sfori.i.>a into its present shape poet and historian, wlio entered hv Cardinal ComeiKlone in 1.582 ,i • i p ,i r« i j • this liouse tor the hrst time in 188(5. '* I had for a companion in this visit," he says, " a young arcliitect, the author of the national monument to Victor Emmanuel [Count Giuseppe Sacconi], and on cross- ing the threshold and raising our eyes to the ceiling, we KArilAEL 271 were struck by the same idea. Consideriiio- how the heiolit of the room is characteristic of an artist's studio, wliere a canvas of the size of that of the Transfiguration coukl be painted, it is impossible not to feel a thrill of emotion, not to bend one's knee in reverence, not to imagine the glorious youth, the most absolute and perfect incarnation of Italian genius, lying at the foot of his last creation, among his weeping pupils and friends. Poor Margherita is dragged away from the house of her lover; painters, prelates, and cardinals are coming and going with grief stamped on their countenances ; and the Pope is sending every moment for news. It is the night of Good Friday, the anniversary of the Lord's death. Suddenly some cracks appear in the Loggie painted by the dead man, which seem to threaten ruin to the Vatican palace. Leo X runs for shelter, by the corridor of Alexander VI, to the castle of Sant' Angelo, while the sad news is spread through the city and the foreign ambassadors hasten to communicate it to their respective governments. Raphael is dead ! The king of art is no more. Yet when a king dies his crown passes to another head; but w^here is a successor to be found who can wear Raphael's ideal crown?" A door opening on the south wall of the studio led into a loggia which extended as far as the corner of the Borgo Vecchio. The loggia had six arches supported by stone pilasters, resembling in design and ornamentation those of the Vatican palace, named after Raphael himself. Here, in the cool of the evening, he must have found himself sur- rounded oftentimes by his own School of Athens, conversing with Bembo and Castiglione, while his old and austere guest, Fabio Calvo, Avould be explaining the rules of Vitruvius to Giulio and Lorenzetto. We must complete the group with the figures of Giovanni da Lidine, il Fattore, and Marean- tonio Raimondi discussing the move of a line or the value •J 7 'J l;.\l'IIAKL (it a tone of color, or laiiL;hiii.i;" wltli Bihhiena and Messer IJranc-oni dall' Acpilla, the well-known keeper of the elephant presented t«» L('(» X l>y the king of Portugal, a great beast whicli liail the distinction of being portrayed by Raphael, and t)f iiivinii" its name to a street. And what an iinj)ressive view they would behold from the loggia ! There stood on the right side the Palazzo dei Penitenzieri, built by Cardinal Domenico della Rovere and ravati()n,ami(l such siinouiidin^s. 'I'lic sack of l.")!'? was till' outc-oiiH' of the iiiii)ressioiis which the unknown German triar canicil away from Rome on returning to his native land. Alt. Iiowcvcr. ('(jiially unconscious of the cruelties of the Ht»ri;ia. of the warHUe aiiil)itions of the delki Rovere, and of till' i;-aveties of the Medici, had risen pnre, noble, great, to lu'ights never attained before ; Raphael's house had become its tciujilc. Koine know of but one artist, and considered tliat otlicr ])aiiiters, architects, and sculptors merely carried out liis designs. Wliile he himself was directing the recon- struction of St. Peter's, and })ainting the St. Michael and tlie Pearl for the king of France, and the Transfignration for Cardinal de' Medici, princes, bankers, noblemen, pre- lates were soliciting other works from his hand. To no less strain was put the energy of his pupils, who were covering the walls of the Stanze and the ceilino's of the Loefa'ie with immortal paintings, building palaces and villas, laying ont gardens, decorating fagades and loggias Avith reliefs in gilt stucco, excavating ancient ruins, and scouring Latium, Cam- pania, and Greece in qnest of classic architectnral motives. No such active workshop has been or will ever be known in the history of art. CHAPTER VII AGOSTINO CHIGI " IL MAGNIFICO " AND THE " CONTRADA DEI BANCHI " Agostino Chigi, born at Siena about 14:65, of Mariano and Margarita Bakli, was gifted by nature with such keen insight and exquisite tact in the art of trading, that before reaching his fortieth year he had become, financially, the most powerful man in the world. Republics and kingdoms, Christians and infidels, })opes and sultans alike, showed the same anxiety to secure his help in monetary affairs, and the same willingness to entrust to him the collectorship of their revenues and customs. Not less " magnifico " does he appear in connection with art and artists, his name being inseparable from those of Raphael, Peruzzi, Giulio Romano, il Sodoma, Penni, Luciani, Lotti, Nani, whom he favored and enriched, and whom he led to the accomplishment of such beautiful works as the chapel in the church of Santa Maria della Pace, the chapel of our Lady of Loreto in the church of Santa Maria del Popolo, and the Casino and gar- dens by the Porta Settimiana (the Farnesina). By a curious but by no means unprecedented coincidence, while many of his contemporaries of dubious fame, or of no fame at all, have found their historians and their panegyrists, no record exists of the career of Agostino, if we except the three attempts made by Cardinal Sforza Pallavicino, Giuseppe Bonafede the Augustinian, and Angelo Galluzzi the Jesuit,^ which are 1 Pallavicino, Vita di Alei^^anilm VII, Rome, 1849, vii, 1 ; Bonafede, / Chigi Augusti, Venice, 1660, p. 169 ; Galluzzi, Duodecim virorum e gente, Chisia elogia, MSS. in the Chigi Library marked R. V. e. •J7(i ji;()ST/\o ciiiai - IL macxifico" luirdlv worth iiu'iitioiimi;". A l)i()<;ra|)liy, liowever, exists, uiittt'ii by Ai;()stiiu)'s ow n iit'pliew, Fabio Cliigi, who, havin«^ been fleeted Poj)e in lO.")."), took the luinie of Alexander VII, This vahiablf iiiamiscript, diseoveied by Professor Giuseppe Ciii;iii»iii ill 1S7*.> and edited in the following year/ sup- plies lis with int'oniiation eoneerning the splendid use whieh Agostino made of his boundless wealth, an objeet lesson to modern Croesuses, who " pecudum ritu ad voluptatem omnia referunt." - The Contrada dei Banchi, the Wall Street of the Renais- sance, is among those which have suffered the most in the recent transformation of the city. A centre of life, business, and wealth — where real property had attained fabulous prices — over-crowded and congested, with its ill-lighted premises and ill-ventilated courts, it began to lose its pres- tige after the middle of the sixteenth century, viz., after the completion of the " piano regolatore " or street reform of Paul III. Rank, fashion, and " la haute finance " began to desert the populous quarters of Ponte and Parione to seek space, air, health, and sunshine in those of Trevi, Colonna, and Monti. And so it came to pass that the section of the city considered the most fashionable and desirable from the time of Innocent VIII to that of Paul III lost caste after the death of the latter, and the palazzetti, until then inhab- ited by bankers, merchants, and prelates, found tenants only among the lower classes of tradesmen. For this reason the Contrada dei Banchi, with the adjacent courts, lanes, and alleys, has kept its sixteenth century aspect till the present day, free from the changes which modern civilization has inflicted on more fashionable quarters. ' Archivio delta Societn Romana di Storia Patria, vol. ii, a. 1879, pp. 38, 209, 475 ; vol. iii, 1880, pp. 213, 291, 422. ' Cicero, Laelius, 9. > o H ^ rT\ < CO 00 O '-' -s C ..-€ 2 T3 >^ -.-^ o ^/ 2 < Q < w CD D O y H AGOSTINO CHIGI '' IL MAONIFICO" '279 By tlie expression " tlie present day " I mean a period of time ^vithin my own personal recollection, because evil days have fallen lately u})on this picturesque corner, depriving it of many landmarks and of many associations with a glo- rious past. The men to whom the city has entrusted the safeo'uardino- of its archieoloofical and historical interests cannot be called responsible for the damage done, because, when the piano regolatore was discussed and sanctioned in 1873-75, we had obtained a guarantee that the Contrada dei Banchi should suffer no alteration. In 1889, however, the Town Council was suddenly asked to sanction an altera- tion in the line of the new Corso Vittorio Emmanuele, and before we conservative men had recovered from our surprise the banks and the houses of the Martelli, of the Bini, of the Altoviti, of the Ricasoli, and the Oratorio dei Fiorentini had fallen under the pickaxe of the reformer. Agostino's first move in business was to join forces with the Sienese banker, Stefano Ghinucci. Their aggregate capital did not exceed two thousand two hundred and fifty dollars, and the office they rented in the Via dei Banchi was quite unpretentious ; yet they succeeded so well from the first, that on May 30, 1502, Agostino was able to enter a second partnership with Francesco Tommasi, with a capital of ten thousand dollars. Three years later he appears as the leading shareholder in the firm of Chigi, Spannocchi & Co., and in 1508 as the sole owner and manao^er of the most prosperous and extensive banking concern in the world, dealing with France, Spain, Germany, the Low Countries, England, and Turkey in every possible branch of trade, and monopolizing in Italy the three staple commodities, salt, wheat, and alum. The first was obtained by natural evapora- tion of the sea water in the salt-works of Ostia, Corneto, Camposalino, Cervia, and Manfredonia, and distributed 'JSn AfrOSTIXo CUKil •• IL MAdXIFICO" tliroui^li everv city, vilhii^e, and iKiinlt't of l)(>tli the Ponti- fical and tilt' Neapolitan states, in aeconlanee with the num- ber of the inhabitants of eaeh, for ^vhieh purpose Agostino was sn])iili(Ml with ollieial statistics hy both the Pope and the viccrov. Salt plavt'd a most imi)ortant part in public life at that time, when a rainy sunnner would seriously affect the condition of the evajtoration fields, and lessen or destroy their prtxluct, and when the total absence of roads made distribution in mountainous districts a task of no little difh- cultv. For these reasons the orant of a certain quantity of salt, free of duty, was considered an act of great liberality on the part of the Popes. When the people of Tivoli gave permission to Leo X to destroy 14,000 feet of the great stone wall which supported on either side their old Via Tiburtina, between the Sulphur Springs [Aqnae alhulae) and the mausoleum of Plautius Lucanus, that he might use the bhicks for the rebuilding of St. Peter's, the Pope could not express his gratitude in a more becoming way than by granting them a yearly present of fifty bushels of salt (Sep- tember 4, 1519). Agostino became also an exporter, and so keen was the competition in this special line of business that in the year I.') 11 he instigated Pope Julius II to declare war against Alfonso d' Este, duke of Ferrara, because he was selling the product of the salt-works of Comacchio to Lom- bardy and Piedmont at a lower rate than Agostino could afford to sell that of Cervia. Thus thousands of men were maimed or killed, and hundreds of villages burnt or pillaged, and the horrors of war spread over a considerable part of the Peninsula, and Louis XII and Ferdinand V and the '• enetians com})elled to take a share in the fight, for the sake of a small pond of brine. The fact, however surprising it may appear, is certified by Leonardo da Porto, Mambrino Roseo, and Francesco Guicciardini, three grave historians, AGOSTINO CHIGl '' IL 3IAGNIFIC0" 281 who, however, ignore Agostino's personal share in the event. I regret to have to record that the last surviving- evidence of the young banker's industry in this branch of bushiess was destroyed not many years ago. The salt-works of Ostia, established by Ancus Marcius twenty-live centuries ago, to secure for the Romans the monopoly, and which were still worked in the same simple manner, by letting the sea-water flow from one evaporating pond into another until the brine was ready to crystallize, ought to have been respected as a national historical monument. The high-road followed by the Sabines and, indirectly, by the Umbrians and southern Etruscans to reach the " Salinae Ostienses " still bears the name of Via Salaria ; and the name of salara was attached until lately to the old warehouses built by King Ancus at the foot of the Clivus Publicius near the Porta Triofemina. Repaired and enlarged from time to time by kings and con- suls, by emperors and popes, they were a landmark of the Sub-aventine district from the year 625 b. c. to the spring of 1888. The historical though unpretending edifice was pulled down to connect the new Quartiere di Testaccio with the city by a convenient thoroughfare. The same fate has befallen the old salt-pans at the mouth of the Tiber. Those on the right bank were done away with in the six- teenth century ; those of Ostia in 1871. As regards the alum monopoly, it must be remembered that this substance, so essential to dyers of woollen or silk goods, could be obtained, previous to 1158, only from the Turkish mines of Rocca ; hence the name of "allume di Rocca," which it still bears in pojjular language, and in the labels of certain old-fashioned apothecary shops. Now it happened that an excellent naturalist, Giovanni, son of the celebrated jurisconsult, Paolo de Castro, who had spent OS*) Anosnxo ruKu -ii. macxifko'' manv years in Constantinople as an a«;ent and ])roker for eastern dve-works, \vas named hy Poi)e Pius II governor of tin' so-calU'd '' Patrimony of St. Peter" in the year 1458; .ind when \\v visited lor the lirst time the district of La Tolfa, near ('i\ ita-vcceliia, lu' noticed that certain hills on the west side of tile village were covered with a dense growth of Ilex Aquifolium, the characteristic feature of the alum mines of The old channel connecting- tlic Ostia salt-works with the sea. The pme forest of Castel Fiisano in the background Rocca. The coincidence he considered not altogether fortui- tons. He caused a shaft to be bored through the rock, sub- mitted the mineral to a chemical test, and was able to announce to Pius II the news that Christian Europe was to depend no longer upon the infidels for such an important industry, and that the income they used to derive from their mines of Rocca was henceforth to be transferred to the Holy See. Four years after the discovery of Giovanni de Castro, the alum works of La Tolfa were vieldins" a net revenue of ninety thousand dollars. Giovanni was honored AGOSTINO CHIGI '• IL MAGXIFICO'' 283 with a statue inscribed alvminis inventori, and rewarded with a hfetime allowance from the income of the mines, which, at the time of their farming by Agostino Chigi, had risen to one hundred thousand dollars a year. The College of Cardinals, considering the discovery of Giovanni in the light of a miraculous gift of God, pledged itself by oath to devote the revenue to save Italy and Eu- rope from the invasion of the Turks ; hence the name of '"' allume della Santa Crociata " (alum of the Holy Crusade) given to the mineral in contemporary documents. It was shipped to all Mediterranean ports from the harbor of Porto Ercole, the property of which had been granted to Agostino by the republic of Siena, and for a number of years that small sea-town saw hundreds of vessels set sail towards every point of the compass, and come back in due time to Agostino laden with foreign merchandise. Alum was shipped as far as the port of Antwerp, where Agostino's agents, Diego de Haro and Juan de Mil, resold it to the cities of the Hanseatic League. The wholesale agency in London was technically named " Scalo d' Inghilterra." But alas ! the golden days of the Tolfa mine were soon over. The Appiani of Piombino, having discovered another lode within their own territory, entered into a tariff war, with the result that the revenues of the Holy Crusade fell from a hundred to thirty thousand a year. Pope Paul IV pledged the mine to money-lenders for the sum of 133,330 scudi, issuing shares of one hundred scudi each at the enormous interest of ten per cent. After many other vicissitudes, of local more than of historical interest, the " Republique Ro- maine," the disreputable daughter of General Bonaparte, made a present of the Tolfa mines to her greedy elder sister the "Republique Frangaise," which, needless to say, sold them at once to a Genoese firm, for 600,000 scudi. Since the discovery t»t' the jinicess by which ahini can be artificially jtrodiU'tHl, tlie vahie of the Tolf'a works lias nearly vanished ; vet a joiirnev across that picturesque district, on the road from Civita-vecchia to the Baths of Stigliano, could not fail to interest my reader, especially if learned in mineralogy. Tlie rocUs about the old quarry are said to contain g'old, silver, iron, lead, and copper, although in quantities too small to attract speculation. The name of Ag-ostino il Magnifico is still remembered by the villagers as that of the founder of their beautiful church of Santa Maria della JS ugh era. 1 have just mentioned the raising of a loan of 133,330 scudi, and the issuing of shares called '' Luoghi di Monte delle allumiere " at the time of Pope Caraffa, Paul IV. As the name still survives in Rome in the Monte della Farma, Monte della Pieta, etc., and as these institutions play a pre- ponderant part in the financial history of the sixteenth century, I think I owe the reader a few words of exj)lanation. State securities or consols called "Luoghi di Monte" were issued for the first time by Pope Clement YII in 1533, to help the Emperor Charles V in his naval enterjjrise against the i)irates of Tunis. Before that time, money was obtained directly from bankers on the guarantee of a corresponding value in jewels or gold or silver plate, which the money- lender was authorized to keep in his own safe until the debt was fully redeemed. I have found in the state archives^ the account of a transaction of this kind which occurred in ir)'21 between Leo X and the brothers Piero and Giovanni Bini, Florentine bankers in Rome. It appears that the firm, having accommodated the Pope from time to time with loans ^ Volume II. I(t9, jip. '_'40, 241. A copy of tlie same document is to be found among tlie .Stroz/i papers at Florence. See Archivio storico deW Arte, vol. i, p. 271. AGOSTINO CHIGI '' IL MAGNIFICO" 285 to the total of 156,000 ducats ($195,000), for which no special security was given besides the written acknowledg- ment of the august debtor, claimed a more substantial safe- guard of their interests. The Pope granted it at once in the form of a motuproprio, dated September 25, 1521, and containing the following stipulations : First, the brothers Bini were authorized to sell to the highest bidder the ottices of the papal Curia, as fast as they became vacant through the death of their present titular. Secondly, the proceeds of the sale up to the sum of 39,000 ducats ($48,750) were given to the Bini, the surplus to be divided in equal shares between them and the Apostolic Chamber. Thirdly, the compact was to last until the Bini had fully recovered their capital of 156,000 ducats and the interest. Fourthly, as a token of his good faith, the Pope entrusted to the firm the safe-keeping of the mitre of Paul II, the mitre and tiara of Julius II, and the " sacred pontifical silver vessels, includ- ing those used for the celebration of divine service ! " (vasa argentea, etiam ad sacra ministranda deputata). These three magnificent specimens of the skill of the gold- smiths and jewellers of the Renaissance were usually kept in the strong-room of the castle of Sant' Angelo, which the humanists of the period called pedantically the *' Aerarium Sanctius " in imitation of the sacred treasury of the Tem- ple of Saturn, which was never touched except in case of extreme peril. The description of the triregnum, or triple tiara of Julius II, occupies not less than four closely written pages in the inventory of the contents of that strong-room (May 30, 1572). This gorgeous head-gear was studded with 39 diamonds, 29 emeralds, 22 sapphires, 69 rubies, 27 balases, and 571 pearls, besides an inscription written in small diamonds, and punctuated with small rubies, which read : ivlivs • ligvr • pp • n • anno • vTi. •JS( i \';()ST/.\() Clllfll '• IL MAdXIFICO" Tlu' li(»iisc ;iii(l liaiikiiiL;- jurmiscs of tlie Hiiil, in which thfsf ;ill';iirs took placf, were (K-iuoli^hi'd in 188S. They stood :ii ' Ik' < i.nH'i' of the Via del Consolato and the Via dei I'lic coat of anus nt i li<' I mih. iiiiiiii'd hy I'irriiio del Vaga on the ceiling' of their liankiiij; |)ifiiiises IJaiichi. near the little church of Santa Maria della Con- solazione, a structure severe and heavy on the outside, endosini;', however, a court and a log-g-ia so g-raceful and elegant in design that they were conmiojily attributed to Ivaphael or Lorenzetto. The hall, where the clerks and cashiers sat at their counters, had a vaulted ceiling, in the centre of which was one of the most captivating compo- sitions of Pierino del Vaga, — two Cu})ids holding a round frame of fruit and flowers with the coat of arms of the Bini in the centre. ( )ther such compositions l)v the same master are still to be seen in the Palazzo Baldassini, in the Via delle f'ap|»elle. in the chapel of the Crucifix at San Marcello, and in the transept of the church of the Trinita del Monte — these last especially ])raised by Vasaii. The materials of the portico, drawn, photographed, and nuud)ered piece by piece bitorc their removal, are now preserved in the garden of the Municipal Anticjuarium at the Orto Botanico, where we hope to be able to set it up again as one of the best specimens of sixteenth century domestic architecture. Part AGOSTINO CHIGI '' IL 2IAGNIFIC0'' 287 of the coat of arms of the Bini, detached from the ceiling' and transferred to canvas, is preserved in the Palazzo de' Conservatori. To come hack to state bonds or " Luoghi di Monte : " the capital raised by their founder, Clement VII, was only ^200,000, bearing an interest of ten per cent. ; but having found out how easy it was to replenish the coffers of the Holy See by means of these loans, the burden of which could be distributed over a long period of years, Clement VII and his immediate successors increased the public debt to such an extent that all the revenues of the Pontifical States could hardly suffice for the payment of interest. It is said that from the time of Paul III to that of Paul IV, that is, in the short period of twenty years, the Apostolic Chamber had spent sixteen millions of dollars in subsidizing German princelets who had remained faithful to Rome, bor- rowing the money sometimes at twelve and a half per cent. Another pernicious effect of the institution of the Luoghi di Monte was the gradual abandonment and depopulation of the Campagna. The Roman farmers, whose average in- come from tilling the soil did not exceed five per cent., and wdiose very life was in constant danger from bandits and malaria, grasped at once the chance offered them by the consols of earning double without risk or anxiety. Ag- riculture revived only towards the end of the eighteenth century, when the troubles with France and the outrageous impositions of the French invaders compelled Pope Pius VI to reduce the interest on the public debt (amounting to one hundred and thirty millions of dollars) to three per cent. In fact, for the space of four years no interest at all was paid on the bonds, and it w^as not till March 19, 1801, that the good Pope w^as able to announce the resumption of pay- ments at the reduced rate of two per cent. 'JvSv^ .i<;(>sT/y(> ciiKH "iL MA(;xiF/rO" \\'lu'ii AL;()>tiii() ('liii;! ()j»«'ii('(l his olliccs in the Con- trada »lri l^aiiclii at the time <>t' tlie Horo'ias, so general and so iTeat was tlie iiiuoiancf of tlio court and of the ituhlic in finantial matters, that a skilled and daring- speculator like liini could (juickly gain control of the market without jieril or fear t)f conipetition. Once only he seems to have run a certain amount of risk, wlien all his small rivals joined in a conspiracy to raise a panic among the " correntisti " ^ and take Agostino unawares. He himself addressed the ex- cited crowd that besieged his counters, declaring himself ready to meet their demands, whether they preferred to be reind)ursed in silver or gold, or in any kind of foreign cur- rency which had a legal value in the Pope's dominions. The crowd withdrew without cashing a single cheque. Fabio relates another episode, connected with the fair of Foligno, where the best products of central Italy in every brancli of industry were jx-riodically brought to market. Agostino, happening to be present at one of these gatherings, bought the whole stock, asking for three days' grace to settle the accounts. At the end of the third day every article had been resold at a ]iremium, and the heavy balance added to the yearly profits of the bank. Historians have attempted to give an estimate of his wealth, but Agostino himself, having once been asked by Leo X, wdiom he was fond of entertaining in his garden by the Porta Settimiana, if he could state within certain limits the amount of his fortune, siiid that the number and varietv of affairs in which he was engaged. l)oth in Europe and in the East, made the answer a erishable letters in Ao-ostino's Farnesina, in lii^ (li.iiu'ls at Santa Mai-ia della Pace, at Santa Maria del l'(ij)i»l(), and at S. Caterina da Siena in the Via Ginlia, and in his mansions at Rome and Siena. The ])r()tection all'orded to these artists never tailed even in the face o£ the ill-will of popes and cardinals. When Sodoma came to Rome in l.")(lS on the recommendation of Ag-ostino's brother Sigis- iiKimlo I tor whom he had painted the front and the main hall of the palace at Siena), Agostino secnred for him at once a commission to paint certain rooms in the Vatican, above the apartment of Julins II. Whether the Pope took a dislike to the newcomer, inexperienced in conrt manners, or whether he disapproved of his work, the fact is that poor Sodoma was dismissed, and the finishing or the doing over of his work entrusted to Raphael. Agostino felt the offence p^ven to his protege as a personal one, and commissioned him at once to paint his own bedroom in the villa near the Porta Settimiana. To this little court intrigue, therefore, we owe the creation of Sodoma's delightful master])iece, the Wedding of Alexander and Roxana, of Avhich I or"ive a r«']>rodnction. The only genius of the age Avith whom Agostino never came in contact was Michelangelo Buonarroti. Perhaps the proud nature of the artist made him loath to bend l)efore wealth ; perhaps the banker had recognized in the Floren- tine master the rival, if not the enemy, of Raphael, and having openly espoused the cause of the latter, he thought it a wise ])lan to keep them apart. And yet when the question came of settling a price for Raphael's frescoes in the chapel at Santa Maria della Pace, who should be named judge W < 7 o O H S C o >:: o s > O rt 2 s S > E < t O w J AGOSTINO CHIGI '' IL MAGNIFICO" 293 (through the bhiiider of Agostino's head cashier, GiuUo Borg-hese) but Michelangelo himself ! I do not know whether he accepted the trust or how the matter ended ; at all events, the premature death of the painter soon removed any cause of ill-feeling, if indeed any had ever existed between the two. I wonder whether the story of the " visiting card " left by Michelangelo at La Farnesina is genuine, or whether it must be considered a new and revised version of the tale about Apelles at the studio of Praxiteles. At all events, the colossal head of Alexander the Great (?), sketched in char- coal by Michelangelo in the very room in which Raphael was painting the beautiful Galatea, was meant as a me- morial to Daniele da Volterra, who in conjunction with Sebastiano del Piombo was painting at that time the lunettes of the same room. A comparative glance at the Galatea and at the charcoal head impresses us more as an object lesson on the difference of manner and style and feeling of the two great masters and rivals, than the hundreds of pages written on the same subject by their respective bio- graphers. Ao'ostino's characteristic in connection with art was ori- ginality of conception. He gave the inspiring note ; the artists adapted themselves to it to the best of their ability. The following instance shows how far he dared to go in the field of originality. It was customary in those days for the newly elected Pope to ride in state from the Vatican to the Lateran to take possession of the episcopal chair in that cathedral, '' omnium ecclesiarum urbis et orbis mater et caput ; " it was customary also for the City Council, for the magistrates of each ward or rione crossed by the cavalcade, for ambassadors, noblemen, corporations, etc., residing along the " Strada Papale," to make a festive display of loyalty, •JIM A(iOSTlM) CllIGl - IL MAaSlFlCO" liv cn-ctinn' staiuls, canopies, altars, aiul even triumphal arches at till' entrance to each ward or in front ot" their respective residences. On the occasion of the " Solenne Possesso " of L»'o X, announced for the niornnig" of April 11, 1513, Agos- tino reinend)ered that ojjposite his premises, spanning the street between them and the church of San Celso, had stood oiu' of the triumphal arches of old Rome, erected in )>80, in honoi' of (hatian, Valentinian, and Theodosius, as a suitalilc entrance to the Porticus Maximae, a covered way or colonnade which led from the Aelian Bridge to the southern gates of the city. It did not require great imagination on his })art to restore the broken arch for the triumphal })ro- gress of his beloved Pope; but his originality manifested itself in the use of figures and groups of live men, women, and children, the fairest subjects to be found within the walls of Rome, in place of marble statues. The Pope rode the same white Arab horse with which he had been made a prisoner at the battle of Ravenna; so dear to him that a special staff of servants was detailed to attend to its wants and make life pleasant for it, until it died of sheer old age. I wonder what the thoughts of Leo, as a priest and as the head of the church, must have been in beholding the arch, on the frieze of which the following audacious distich had been engraved in letters of gold: — ol.IM • H Ain IT • CVPIUS • SVA ' TEMPORA * TEMPORA ' MAVORS OMM • 1 1. MUTT • SVA • NVNC ' TEMPORA * PALLAS " HABET which, freely paraphrased, means: "Venus, the goddess of l)leasure, had her sway under Alexander VI ; Mars, the god of war, prevailed under Julius II ; with thy advent, Leo, the reign of the goddess of wisdom has begun." The live statues wore the attributes — and very little else — of Apollo, Mercury, and Pallas. There were also two nymphs, sur- AGOSTINO CHIGI '' IL 3IAGXIFIC0" 295 rounded by negro boys, one of whom " con audace faccia recito aleuni versi," that is, had the courage to recite some verses while the Pope was riding- through the arch. As regards the personal appearance of Agostino, the best likeness known to me is to be found in a medallion for- merly in the collection of Cardinal Pietro Ottoboni, from which it was transferred to that of Girolamo Odam. I do not know where the original is at present ; but there is an excellent reproduction of it in Pier Leone Ghezzi's volume of original drawings, preserved in the office of the curator of antiques in the British Museum. The reason Avhy Agostino could secure at once a promi- nent place in patrician circles, and see his family inscribed in the Libro d' Oro long before his death, is to be found in the fact of his great wealth rather than in that of the ancient lineage of his race. A golden key has always had the power of opening the most obstinate doors of a Roman palace. From the point of view of origin or descent, our patrician families form three classes : those the history of which goes back at least to the Byzantine period, as in the case of the Frangipane, the Massimi, and perhaps the Cenci, or to the middle ages, as in the case of the Colonna, Conti, Orsini, Caetani, Vitelleschi, Savelli, Delia Valle, Doria, etc. ; those which have obtained princely or ducal titles through their respective popes, like the Boncompagni, Ludovisi, Peretti, Borghese, Barberini, Rospigliosi, Altieri, etc. ; and lastly those which had acquired wealth, power, and title long be- fore one of their number had been raised to the pontificate. It is needless to say that all our sympathies are with this last class of active, straightforward, snccessful citizens, sprung mostly from the Contrada dei Banchi, who devoted their newly made fortunes to the protection of art and artists, to •_".M> .l>,i)ST/.\(> CIIKH - IL MACMFICO" tlu' liiiildiiii;- of palaci's and villas, to tlie oatlieriiio^ of pic- tures and mail lies, to the exploration of ancient ruins, to the erection of (■lia])els, cluirches, monasteries, and charitable institutions, tlironi;h which thin<;s tiirir names will live and he honored forever. I do not deny that as soon as these fortunate financiers were duly inscribed in the Libro d' Oro of the Roman Patriciate, flatterers and courtiers de- vised ima<;inary pediorees, of which the volumes of Giovanni Hattista Fentei " de prisca Caesiorum gente " and Carlo Strozzi •• discendenza della Casa Barberina " fear no rivals for im])udence and fertility of imagination. And even at the i>resent day we find in fashionable almanacs hints at fabulous i>"enealogies, in flagrant contrast with common sense, as if the living generations were ashamed to trace among their ancestors one of the honest speculators of the Contrada dei Banchi. A stranger, how^ever, wandering throuiih its main arteries and side lanes, from the Aelian Bridge to the Mint,' and from the " Immagine di Ponte " to the National Church of the Florentines, would have read on the brass plates the very best and most honorable names of Italy and Europe. Genoa was represented by the Palla- vicini. Spinola,Gavotti, Negroni, Centurioni, and Cavalcanti; Conio bv the Odescalchi, Rezzonico, and Olgiate ; Florence by the Ivuccellai, Strozzi, Altoviti, Piccolomini, Pandolfini, Capponi, Monteauto, Gaddi, Bardi, Bandini, Ubaldini, and Boccacci ; Germany by the Fugger, Furtembach, Engelhard, and Adler ; Spain by the Fonseca, Nunez, Cortez, Blaves ; the Low Countries by Rumbhold Stellart ; England by William Perin. The career of these " mercanti in Corte di Roma " was generally the same. Provided with a little ' Tliis liistorical edifice, designed by Antonio da Sangallo the younger, is still in existence (although devoted to other purposes) at the corner of the Vie de' Banchi Vecchi and de' Banchi Nuovi. AGOSTIXO CiriGI '' IL MAGiYIFICO" 297 capital (,^2250 in the case of Agostiiio Cliigi), and with letters of introduction to prelates of the papal court, they would open a counter for a special quality of goods of foreign make, — tapestries, brocades, silks, caps, stockings, The entrance to the Chig-i chapel in the church of Santa Maria del Popolo, with the tomb of the princess Mary Flaminia (t 1771) by Paolo Poji gloves, feathers, playing cards, perfumes, furs, musical in- struments, ribbons, and the like. These shops were known by the name of " Calcettarie " or " Berrettarie," although stockintrs and tVatliered caits t'oinied hut one item of tlieir stock. No sooner liad tliese newcomers realized a certain jirotii tlian tlic\ would secure, tlirouoh their friends at court, the collcclorslii]) of tolls at one of the gates of the city, or at one of the landiii<;s of the Tiher. The third step was to ohtain the administration of the Gahella della Carne, dello Studio, del Vino, etc. ; the hist was to build a house, a palace, a villa, and a chapel, and decorate them with a i)ro- fusion of ancient and modern works of art. One instance shall answer for all. The lirm of Odescalchi & Co. is mentioned for the first time in l.")20, a})ropos of certain business transacted and of a legal paper signed "in calcettaria d. Bernardini de Ode- scalchis et sociorum." Bernardino and his associate Rezzo- nico, men of ancient lineage and good social standing in their native country, had just left the shores of the lake of Como and set u]) a counter for silks, tapestries, and velvets on the ground iloor of the house of Michele Lante, at the corner of the Via del Pellegrino and the Piazza di Campo de' Fiori. The house, which still exists, slightly modern- ized, was known in the seventeenth century as the " Casa di Matthia Corviiio." from a painting which represented that valiant king of Hungary (14:58-1490) defeating the Infi- dels, under the shape of the Devil.' Here the firm prospered and was joined in due course of time by other Odescalchi, (iiovannantonio, Giovanbattista, and Francesco. In 15G)3 the house liad come under the manasfement of "Tommaso e Girolamo Odescalchi e Compagni," whose special business is described in the official ledger as follows : " To imjiort from foreign manufacturers the cloth called stametta. and retail it in Rome, together with other articles." The merit of having ' A I'dpy (if this curious fresco is preserved in Codex xlix, 39 of the Barberini section of tlie Vatican lihrary. AGOSTINO CHIGI '' IL MAGNIFICO'' 299 given the family a place in Roman society belongs to Paolo, a prelate of great distinction, bishop of Penne and Atri, auditor of the Apostolic Chamber, private secretary to Pope Paul IV, and the moving spirit of the league against the Turks which led to the victory of Lepanto. And to what use did the young and successful prelate put the fortune acquired by himself in the service of the Holy See, and by his kinsmen in the " calcettaria " at the corner of the Via del Pellegrino and the Campo de' Fiori ? In 1561 I find him already in possession of one of the most beautiful gar- dens of the city, in that section of the Janiculum which was occupied in ancient times by the " Horti Getae," and in more recent times by the Villa Corsini. In 1565 he pur- chased from the Marchese Alberico Cibo-Malaspina, prince of Massa, another garden lavishly decorated with ancient stat- ues and busts, which occupied the part of the present villa Borghese nearest to the Pincian hill. But the foundations for a museum intended to place the family on a level with other patrician collectors were laid only in February, 1572, with the purchase of the valuable collection of statuary formed by Giuseppe della Porta, and kept by Giuseppe's son and heir, Rodolfo, in a storeroom adjoining the Odes- calclii premises in the Via del Pellegrino. The collection is described as containing " marble statues perfect or in a fragmentary state, busts, heads, hermae, and other antiqui- ties," besides " a modern, perfect, life-sized Venus leaning on a vase," which must have been modelled by Delia Porta himself. Paolo Odescalchi's successors and heirs took such good care of this collection and endeavored to improve and enlarge it in so liberal a Avay that, at the extinction of the family in 1713, that is to say, after the purchase of the museum of Christine, queen of Sweden, it could scarcely find proper room in the magnificent palace of the Piazza ;i(K> AfioSTIXo CHIC I -/A MAGNIFICO" (Iri Saiiti A|Htstt)li. M\ own L-opy of the inventory, made l.v ;i public notary on Novi"n»l)L'r !>, 1713. comprises eighteen i-lo.M'lv written foho slieets, not to mention the large vol- ume puMi>lictl in 17.")] l)v Nicola Galeotti under the title of "Description of the Aiiti(pie Gems formerly in the Possession (it (,)u(Mii Christine, and now preserved in the Odescalchi Mu>euni."' Alas! the death of the last male descendant of Bernardino ( Livio I, ne}>he\v of Pope Innocent XI), which took j)lace in the niglit hetween Septemher 7 and 8, 1713, signed, as it wt're, the death warrant of the collection. The title and the possessions of the family passed into the hands of Livio's ne[)hew. Baldassare Erba of Milan, and the new branch sold all the antiques to King Philip V of Spain, in exehauge for the modest sum of twenty-five thousand doubloons (about ^75,000). One of the great drawbacks in commercial enterprises, and at the same time one of the great advantages to bankers, was the variety of coins having legal value in Rome, or tolerated there. Monetary transactions were carried on pro- miscuouslv in llorins. ducats, scudi, testoni, corone, crazie, moia])esini, carlini, giulii, etc., the exchange for which varied in different cities. This state of things -was but nat- ural in Rome, the lazy indigent, to the support of which the whole world was wont to contribute. The yearly re- cei|its of the Dateria Apostoliea alone (for collation of ecclesiastical l)eneHces, and for matrimonial dispensations) amounted to ,^350,000, not to s])eak of the contributions for the jubilees, which may be valued at two millions for each jicriod of twenty-five years. These oblations, the Peter's pence included, came from every corner of the earth ; hence the necessity for the dwellers in the Con- trada dei Banchi to keep themselves acquainted with their respective values, and with the fluctuations of the interna- AGOSTINO CHIGI '' IL MAGNIFICO'' 301 tional and iiiterprovincial iiiaikets. The following curious episode of the sack of 1527 illustrates my point : — There was in the city, in the Contrada di San Martinello near the present Monte della Pieta, a shop belonging to Pirovano «& Bosio, a prosperous firni of linen drapers from Milan, who, on hearing of the approach of the Constable of Bourbon's army, and of the probable plunder of the city, hastened to conceal, wall up, or bury in various holes and hiding-places the contents of their safe. Strange to say, the old-fashioned stratagem succeeded beyond their expec- tations. Rome was stormed on the morning of May G, 1537, and for eight days made to suffer horrors which no pen can describe. One of the partners, Pirovano, died of the plague before the retreat of the Lansquenets ; Bosio, the survivor, caused the hiding-places to be searched in the presence of a notary, and thev were found to contain the following varieties of coins : 1181 Roman gold ducats, 21 Turkish, 96 of Miran- dola, 393 of the Camera, 3 scudi del sole, 6000 giulii, and 1400 oTossi. The Farnesina has become famous in popular tradition more from the three Lucullean feasts offered within its pre- cincts to Leo X than for the priceless art treasures it con- tained. The splendor and originality of these banquets has remained unequalled even in our days of money kings and railwav mag-nates. The first of the three was given in an ontbuilding intended for the stabling of horses and for the housing of coaches. Raphael himself had furnished the design for it, and its remains can be seen at the present day facing the Corsini palace, at the north end of the gardens, near the church of San Giacomo in Settimiana. The unfin- ished state of the building had been so skilfully concealed liv iiuMiis (tt" Flciiii^li tajx'stries, oriental carpets, and cui)- lioartls lillrd with _i;<)l(l plate worths the ransom of u king", that Li'o X on hehohlinL;- the si»>ht said to Agostiiio that in tlie lace of such n»ai;niliceiice he ahuost re<;-retted the <^<)od old davs of intiniacy and familiarity, when he and Agostino sat at informal meals, unfettered by court etiquette; to which gentle sjtccch Agostino replied that just on account of these recollections of former davs he was daring to receive liis Holiness in a manger, and lifting the nearest piece of tai)estrv, he showed his guest the boxes and stalls which lay concealed behind. The building was demolished or rather reduced to its present state at the beginning of the nine- teenth century. A few months later the second convivial gathering was held in the loggia or coffee-house, projecting on the Tiber at the south end of the garden, near the spot at which the mausoleum of Sulpicius Platorinus was discovered in 1880.^ Sigismondo Tizio, the Sienese historian, who was present on the occasion, says that the ])rice of tliree fish alone amounted to two hundred and fifty crowns ; and that, to prove to the guests that the same silver plate was not used twice in the course of the meal, the dishes were thrown into the Tiber, where they fell into nets spread below the surface of the water. The loggia was demolished in 1883. The third dinner, given in the main hall of the Casino on the 28th of August, 1519, on the feast day of Sant' Agos- tiiio. presented two original features. In the first place each of the twenty cardinals or foreign representatives was served on silver and gold plate bearing his particular coat of arms, crest, and motto, with such accuracy on the part of the butlers that not one single mistake occurred in the course of the meal. In the second place each guest was served with * See Pagan and Christian Rome, p. 265. A G OS TIN CHIGI '' IL MAGNIFICO'' 303 fish, g'ume, fruit, vegetables, delicacies, and wines peculiar to his own country. These supplies had been brought to Rome by messengers timed to arrive simultaneously from the four corners of the earth, on the eve of the banquet. Agostino, always on the alert to win the favor of the great, had been particularly attentive to Federico Conzaga, since his first arrival at the court of Julius II, entertaining him and his tutors in the " palazzotto non anchor finito et molto richo di adornamenti," as the villa is described in one of the letters to Isabella. The banker had begun corre- sponding with the house of Mantua in 1508, when he is known to have offered to Federico's mother an intaglio representing the head of a goddess, which she declares in her letter of thanks "havemo posto nelle delicie nostre." Federico was even asked to visit the alum works at La Tolfa, which he did in December, 1511, in company with Cardinal Petrucci ; and as the season for shooting game was then at its height, even his valets and outriders were served with wild boar, deer, and partridges, and the pick of the fish ponds of Corneto. Historians, however, suspect that these acts of kindness may have been suggested to Agostino by innate generosity as well as by personal interest, consid- erinof that the banker was at that time seeking^ the hand of Margherita, a natural daughter of the Marchese Fran- cesco of Mantua. The marriasre fell throuoh on account of the objection of the girl to link her fate to a much older man — Agostino had reached his forty-fifth year — and her place was taken by Francesca Andreozza, as we shall presently see. Federico's behavior on these occasions was that of a young man in advance of his age, as far as pleasantness and dignity of manners w^ere concerned. On the eve of his departure from Mantua, Isabella had loaded the boy with holy relics, to iiisuiv liiiii against \\\v (lai)<;eis of a ride tlir()Ui;-h inountains, t'<»r«'>ts, and fords; ainoiin- tlu'se relics mention is made of a *• liracelt't with tlie (M)^]lt•l of St. John, to wliicli t;rave and w i>c persons attach innch \ irtne." She ought to have insured him also ai;ainst otlier daubers, arising- from the low condition of |»uhlic and j)rivate morality in Rome, — dangers which the hov's tutors, Gadio and Grossino, seemed to take pride in chaUengini;- with their charge on every possihle occasion. The a]t|)reciation of right and wrong must have been very uncertain indeed in the iirst quarter of that century, if we mav judge from the delight taken by Gadio and Grossino in informing the marchesa of every dangerous step which they had induced her son to take; and from the satisfaction which she manifests on hearing the news. On January 19, l.irj, Federico was taken to the church of St. Sebastian outside the Walls to see "an extraordinary number of cour- tesans riding in male attire, and filling the church during the service hours." In a letter dated December 18, 1512, Gadio relates to the marchesa how he had taken the boy to the Aracueli to witness the tearing of the limbs (squartamento) of a priest convicted of several murders. The most surprising testi- mony in connection with the customs of the period is sup- plied by another letter, addressed to Federico's father on January 11, 1513 : "On the day of the Epi})hany Master Federico was invited by the cardinal of Arborea to witness a theatrical performance in his palace. It took place after su})per in the main hall, where his Eminence sat between the Spanish ambassador and Federico, while the front rows were occupied by several Spanish bishops and prelates, and by the leading Spanish courtesans in Rome. The piece, written in Castilian by Juan cle Lenzina, proved a failure. . . . On the following Sunday Federico was entertained at AGOSTINO CHIGI '- IL MAGNIFICO" 305 supper by his uncle, Cardinal Conzaga, in company with Car- dinals Aragona, Pauli, Cornaro, and the bishops of Salerno, Tricarico, and Spalatro, while the jester, Frate Mariano, and Madonna Albina, the courtesan, were asked to keep the company in good humor." I will not follow the marchesa's correspondent into the description of further details; they are so crude that Gadio himself feels the necessity of miti- gating some particulars in a later letter addressed to the mother. At all events, w^e cannot help wondering at the fact that a boy only twelve years of age should be compelled to witness scenes worthy Trimalchio's supper under the roof of his own uncle, the cardinal of Mantua. No wonder that Avhen, after three years of compulsory sojourn in Rome, Federico, delivered from his bonds by the death of Julius II, hastened back to his beloved mother, he should have been acknowledged as a model of courtesy, good manners, chiv- alry, artistic taste, and precocious licentiousness ; that he should have been possessed, in short, of all the virtues and the failures by which his splendid rule has been marked in history. The beautiful villa in which these events took place was not destined to remain long in the possession of the Chigi. A powerful neighbor and rival, Cardinal Alessandro Far- nese, the future Pope Paul III, had set foot on the same bank of the Tiber, and bought property in the same neigh- borhood of the Porta Settimiana, eighteen years before the banker from Siena had laid the foundations of his own villa. With the purchase of the garden of Mario Cuccini by the banker, and of that of Agostino Maffei by the cardinal, they had become neighbors ; and as both were striving for the same goal, namely, the accumulation of wealth as a means of gathering art treasures, of protecting art and artists, and of leavino' their names connected wath monu- :'.<'<; A(;()SJ/.\(f CIIKU -'TL MAGXIFICO" iiu'iital l)iiil(lini;-s, it soon hec.inie fvidciit tliat eventually oiu' «)t" tlu' two would 1)0 left alone in the Held. The eleetioii ol Alessandio Farnese to the pontificate ( i;i ( )(tol)('r, 1,").') I ) and the shameful behavior of Agostino's eldest son .iiid iicir, Lorenzo, soon brought matters to a climax — the old contrast 1)et\veen a hard-working, money- saving, honest, generous father and a dissipated son. Lo- renzo and his brother and sisters, Alexander, Margherita, and Canulla, had not been horn in wedlock. Agostino's legit iinatf wife, Margherita Saracina, died childless in 1508. Three years later, while a guest of the Serenissima in Ven- ice, he fell j)assionately in love and ran away with a beau- tiful girl, Francesca Andreozza, whom he did not marry until the -!8th day of August, 1519, that is to say, only eight months before his death, the marriage ceremony being ]>erformed by the Pope in person. Of this beautiful woman there was but one memorial in Rome, a tablet bearing her name " Francisca Chisia," seen by Galletti in the church of San Pietro in Montorio, and now lost.' She survived Aa-os- tiuo hardly seven months, and the fact that the children were thus left to the mercy of outsiders may account for their subsefpient l)ehavior. Suffice it to say that Lorenzo, who had already been put under the guardianship of Andrea Bellanti and Filippo Sergardi, was publicly proclaimed •' ])rodigo e furioso," prodigal and a maniac (November 29, 1.).)*^), and the administration of whatever could be saved from the creditors was taken away from him. The villa in the mean time had been sublet to various l)ersonages, among them Alfonso Piccolomini d' Aragona, duke of Amalfi (September, 1549), for the yearly rental of four hundred dollars. The transfer of the much coveted property to the Farnese > See Forcella, Iscrizioni delle chiese di Roma, vol. v, p. 258, n. 720. AGOSTiyO CHIGI ^' IL MAGXIFICO" 307 was made at last on July 6, 1579, under the following- cir- cumstances : The " prodigo e furioso " Lorenzo having' come to an early death, the estate, overburdened with liabilities, was divided into so many portions among direct and col- lateral heirs, that nothing ^vas left of the original entail save the villa by the Porta Settimiana. And yet out of respect to the memory of the founder of the family, none of the disappointed heirs thought of parting with the property, unproductive though it w^as. However, the secret agents of Cardinal Alessandro, the powerful multi-millionaire nephew of Paul III, succeeded ultimately in winning to their side one or two heirs, and on their application to the "Tribunale dei Nobili " the villa was put up at auction on December 14, 1577, and knocked down to the cardinal at the ridiculous price of ten thousand five hundred dollars. The other Chigi, who were not in the conspiracy, at once brought an action before the Capitoline court to nullify the contract ; but after many years of legal contest the cardinal put an end to the case by extorting from the old pontiff, Gregory XIII, a brief in his favor. And I am sorry to say that public opinion in a certain way sanctioned this conclusion of the affair, and that the name of Farnes'ina has entirely cast into oblivion that of Chlgiana, by which the villa was known before the transfer. On the death of Elisabetta, wife of King Philip V of Spain, mother of Charles III, king of the Two Sicilies, and last representative of the Farnese dynasty, the villa became the property of the Bourbons of Naples, together with the palace by the Campo de' Fiori (recently purchased by France), the Palatine gardens, the Villa Madama, and the castle of Caprarola. It was used as an academy of paint- ing in the first half of the nineteenth century, and then the last king of Naples, already banished from his state, made a jrift (if it to one of liis S|);inUli supporters; so it has come to pass tliat modern I'liiMazoiimeiits of tlie Bermiulez family in (litap •• s('ai;li()la " liavc supplanted, l>otli on the ceiling's and on the |tavcnu'nts, the glorious old shields of the Chigi and the Farnese. I must i»-() back now to that passage in Ao-ostin(/s hic^- graj)I»v which relates to the innnl)er and quality of horses lu-cd on liis larnis or kept in his stables. ''He would rear ),iii/t/ti>s, AKhirconex, and other such thoroughbreds, some for use, some for show, which were constantly lent by him to cardinals and other dignitaries." The word mannus ap- plies to a French breed of carriage-horses known since the time of Horace for their speed and power of endurance, the possession of which was considered a luxury and an evidence of wealth, while the name .{stnrco indicates a riding-horse bred on the hills of northern Spain, and especially useful in the hunting-field. Now as we know that Agostino was not particularly fond of sport, as is the case with men of his temper and occu- pations, we must interpret the statement of the biographer in the sense that popes, cardinals, ambassadors, and other dignitaries were allowed to make use of his hunters and carriage-horses, on the occasion of the meets for which the reign of Leo X has become justly celebrated. The hunts in the Roman Campagna — an ideal place for sport — were first organized at the time of Eugenius IV (14.*H-1447) by Cardinal Ludovico Mezzarota Scarampo, a warrior more than a churchman, the wealthiest man in the country, and a great breeder of horses and dogs.^ It is true ' Cardinal Scarampo, known for his victory over the Turks at Belgrade and for his naval exploits at Rhodes, was also an inveterate gambler. He is said to have lost at one deal with King Alfonso of Naples eight thousand gold pieces. Having died of a broken heart in 140;"), in consecjuence of the election of his rival, Cardinal iiarho, to the supreme pontificate, he was buried in the church AGOSTINO CHIGI " IL MAGXIFICO" 309 tliat the sacred canons forbade clerics to take up sports and pastimes of this kind, but in those ha})py days such Httle deviations from the rules were easily forsfiven. Another The Palazzo Farnese overlooking- the garden of Agostino Chigi. A view of the district by the Porta Settimiana, taken before its modern transformation name written in golden letters in the annals of sport is that of Cardinal Ascanio Sf orza, the Nimrod of the sacred college, whose tomb in the church of Santa Maria del Popolo ranks among' the most perfect works of Sansovino (1505), and whose memory is still preserved in Rome in the name of the of San Lorenzo in Daraaso, clad in state robes, with the episcopal cross and ring, and other valuable jewels. The grave was violated for the sake of plunder by Antonio Tocco, a canon of the same church, and the mortal remains of Scarampo were abandoned to their fate for the space of forty years. The beautiful memorial in the sacristy of the canons was erected in 1505, at the expense of the archbishop of Taranto, Heinrich Hunis. 'MO At,(tsr/.\() ciiici •• IL MA(;.\i iico" street ( N'icolo d' Ascaiuo) wliic-li knl to his kennels luul luews ill the (';iiii|)()inar/l(). An eye-witness, Cardinal Adriuno Cas- tcHi da ( "oi iH'to,' has left a description of a hunt i;i\eii hv liiiii in the district of the Sulphur Sjirings on the road to Tivoii, in which the f'ollowino; reniarkahle piece of infor- mation is to he found : ** There was present at the meet a (uieldrian named Libs, the inventor of a fearfid engine of dt'stniction, such as not even the Cyclops could have devised lor the use of Jupiter. It consists of a tube of metal loaded with sulphur, natron, and ground charcoal, the mixture being sealed on the top with a lead bullet. Sparks, fire, thunder follow the shot. The porcupine falls as if struck by lightning.""- According to Cardinal Adriano's statement, therefore, this man Libs must be considered as the inventor, not of ])ortable firearms iu general, which had been used in warfare long before the date of the hunt at the Sulphur Springs (1505), but of a new pattern of fowling-piece, more adapted for the shooting of game. His name, however, is not mentioned in Dutch or German biographical dictionaries. The popes themselves had more than once taken an interest in hunts, but as simple spectators. Pius II, Picco- loiiiini. mentions the sport in his commentaries. Paul II, Barbo. arranged a hunt for Borso d' Este, who had come to Rome to be crowned duke of Ferrara, followed by a pack of hounds and a string of falcons. A medal was struck for the occasion, showing a hunting scene with the motto : soi.v.M IN FERAS Pivs BELLATOR PASTOR (the pious shepherd wages war only against the wild beasts). At the time of Sixtus IV, his nephew. Count Girolamo Riario, had planned ^ The builder of the Palazzo Giraud-Torloiiia neai St. Peter's, whose career I have nientioiied in New Tales, p. 279. ' I have gathered excellent information on tliis snliject from Count Do- nicnico Gnoli's paper, " Le Caccie di Leone X," puhlislied in the Nuova Antolngia, vol. xliii, series iii, February, 1803. PART OF THE TOMB OF CARDINAL ASCANIO SFORZA IN THE CHURCH OF SANTA MARIA DEL POPOLO A celebrated work by Sansovino AGOSTINO CHIGI '' IL MAGNIFICO'' 313 a similar entertainment for Duke Ernest of Saxony in the woodlands of Campo di Merlo (April 10, 1480). Leo X, however, was the first pope to enlist a regular body of huntsmen, that is to say, to surround himself with the retinue of men, dogs, horses, and snares necessary to ensure success to a regal sport. He took it up, not as a pastime, but as a regular occupation ; and not satisfied with a morn- ing's run in the outskirts of the city, he would scour for weeks at a time the whole country between Rome and the sea, in accordance, as he said, with the advice of court phy- sicians. And indeed, no better cure could he have found to counteract his unwholesome corpulency, and the pale- ness of his flabby cheeks, than constant exercise in the open. The cardinals who followed him in the field, Ludovico d' Aragona, Sigismondo Conzaga, Ippolito d' Este, Marco Cornaro, Alfonso Petrucci, and Alessandro Farnese, were always ready — as it becomes true sportsmen — to ex- change the purple robe for a gray jacket of Flemish cloth, the mitre for the Spanish sombrero, the pastoral for the spear. Leo himself wore a costume which threw his master of ceremonies, Paride de Grassi, into fits of despair. De Grassi complains above all of the riding-boots because, he says, how can people pay homage to his Holiness and kiss his foot if he goes about attired in this fashion ? Leo did not actually follow the hunt on horseback ; he was too stout to stand the strain of the chase ; and there- fore he sat on a stand, from which a good view of the field could be obtained. From this point of vantage the good man gave the order for the fray to begin in the same man- ner in which the ancient magistrate used to wave the white napkin as a starting signal for the chariot races. With a monocle to help his defective eyesight, Leo watched tlie details of the hunt, shoutnig words of encouragement or :>11 A'.OST/M) ( IIKil -IL MAdNIFICO" rrj)i(>;i(li, waniiii^' tlie men of ini|K'n(liii^ danger, and tak- \\\^^ care that tlu' laws of the Held should he strictly le- s])e('te(l. and fair play given to the sylvan host of foes. (loiids gathcicd round his l)ro\v if tlie hunt did not prove a success; hut if ganic had heen plentiful, and no accident had marred the events of the day, the courtiers knew how to take advantage of his good humor, and many briefs of personal advantage to them were submitted for his signature ill the huiiting-ficld. A sad story is told in connection with this state of things. There was in the entourage of the Pope a young noble- man, Celso Mellini. who had made himself prominent by taking u]) the cause of his fellow citizens against a foreigner, a Belgian, the celebrated Christopher Longeuil, who had written or uttered certain derogatory remarks against the S. P. Q. K.' Whether on account of his success in this affair (Longeuil had been obliged to leave Rome and Italy for the time being) or of his personal attractions as a poet, orator, and conversationalist, young Mellini was asked to join the hunt arranged for November 7, 1519. A few days afterwards, while the Pope and his guests were still disporting themselves at La MagHana, Mellini Avon so heartily the good graces of the assembly by extemporizing a set of flattering verses, that the Pope then and there con- ferred upon him an ecclesiastical sinecure in Sicily worth several thousands a year. Although it was already late at night, and although a storm was raging in the lower valley of the Tiber, Celso Mellini, eager to carry the good tidings to his parents, started homewards with two or three followers. The rain was so blinding and the wind so violent that at ' This curious chapter in the chronicles of Rome at the time of Leo X has been admirably illustrated by Gnoli in liis memoir, Un giudizio di lesa Romanitli sottu Leone X, Rome, 1891. it A LEQ^XaEAPA i^PLORENT IKY^^a t^^Jli>^- CREATO D"EL I:frV^:Ar B.Di;MARZ,0 r iiH7. fH THE PORTRAIT OF LEO X ENGRAVED BY ANTONIO LAFRERI AGOSTINO CHIGI '' IL MAGNIFICO'' 317 the ford of a small stream, which had temporarily over- flowed its banks, rider and horse were carried away by the flood before the followers could render any assistance. Leo X was grieved beyond measure at the loss of Celso, and in memory of the event caused a bridge to be built over the fatal stream. The bridge has been much altered by later restorations, but the stream still bears the name of " Fosso di Papa Leone." It crosses the road to La Magliana near the Iron Bridge, which connects it with the road to Ostia on the other side of the Tiber. The meets in the Roman Campagna were organized in the French style, and from France came the best huntsmen, gamekeepers, and dogs. Famous among all was a pack of hounds, sent as a present to the Pope by King Francis I, in February, 1517, under the care of a Monsieur de Bordigle. To try the skill of the dogs a " canata " was given at La Magliana for the space of six days, in the course of which many wild boars were let loose from their cages, and fol- lowed over hills or plains, through forests or marshes. This "canata" and the hospitality offered to the French envoy at the inn of the Croce Bianca in the Piazza di Campo de' Fiori cost the Pope's treasury over a thousand ducats. To ensure the success of a hunt the head-keeper was first instructed to ascertain which section of the forest or of the maremma was likely to give the best sport ; then this section was enclosed with sheets of canvas, each sixty feet long, six high, fastened together with wooden hooks, and held upright by means of forked poles. These implements were noiselessly brought near the line of the intended en- closure on the eve of the hunt and set up at daybreak. Men were allowed to talk only in whispers, and only on the line of the paths through which the game might escape into the neighboring woods. Then, at a sign given from the Pope's 'MS .isr/.\() ciiiai - 1 l ma'.x/f/co-' stunl, aiul traMMnitt('(l I'lom L;lru to i;loii l)y the soiiiul of lionis. liaiids (if arclu'is. lial!)ar(li('rs, luousquetaires, <>'aine- kfcjiris. and |K'asaiits ciilistcd foi- the occasion, would raise a ^icat (IN. tolldwt'd l»\ tlic Hniii'' of n'liiis and the beating (d (Uaims, so as to worry the i;aine into a run towards the hunting" fi«'ld where the sportsmen were waiting- witli their spears and javelins. A visit to La Magliana, the hunting-lodge of the popes (d' the Kcnaissance, gives the student or the tourist the ojiportunity for a }»leasant afternoon drive on the Via (yam- pa na, wjiich follows for about six miles the right bank of the Tihei', amidst scenes of great rural beauty.^ The name is a derivation from the classic '' Fundus ManHanus," the subinban farm of the Maidian family, known in history since the year 'MH) n. c, when Marcus Manlius Capitolinus saved the Capitol from the night attack of the Gauls. Its site was marked in the middle ages by a church of San Giovanni de Magliana, now destroyed. The foundation of the hunting-lodge is attributed to Sixtus IV, but the oldest wing now visilde, the graceful portico in the style of Baccio Pontelli, dates from the time of Innocent VIII (1484-1492), as shown by the inscription Innoce)i{tms) Ciho Geni(€n{sis), j). p. VIII, engraved on the lintel of the doors. A stone bench runs around the sheltered walls of the ])ortico, u])on which the old i)ontiif must have often sat warming himself in the sun, and enjoying the rest which was denied to him in the Vatican. < H' Alexander VI, Borgia, the following anecdote is related : As lie was riding towards La Magliana, December 12, 1492, while his antagonist and rival. Cardinal Giuliano della Rovere, was still entren(died in the castle of Ostia, the keepers of the hunting-lodge tired a mortar to announce his approach. ' The return can \w made liy following tlie road to Ostia, across the Tiber. AGOSTINO CHIGI '' IL MAGNIFICO" 319 Pope Borgia, seized by panic and fearing an ambush by Delia Rovere's partisans, rode back in abject terror to the Vatican as fast as his hunter could carry him. By a curious turn of fate the name of the man of whom Pope Borgia was so much in fear is the most conspicuous of all at La Magliana, being engraved on the frieze of the new palace, and embla- zoned on the architraves of the windows and in the centre of The portico of Baceio Pontelli in the castle of La Magliana the vaulted ceilings. After the brilliant pontificate of Leo X La Magliana was practically abandoned by the court. The shield of another Medici pope, Pius IV, is carved on the fountain of the court vard, and that of Sixtus V is painted in the hall nearest to the second landing of the stairs. This is the last record of a pope having resided in this suburban retreat, which wvas sold at the beginning of the next century to the nuns of Santa Cecilia. It has fallen now into private hands. 320 AGHSTJyO CliKJl "IL MAdXlFICO" The fountain of Pius IV in the court of La Ma"liaua As Ave ap[)ro;icli it from the last rise of the road over the Monte (lelle Pielie we cannot help being impressed by the present loneliness of the place, so strikingly in contrast with the brilliant records of the past. And yet abandonment has kept La Magliana free from desecration nntil quite recent times. We, the living generation, are responsible for it. \\ hen the nuns of Santa Cecilia leased the buildino- to the Civitavecchia llaihvay Company in the last years of Pius IX, tlie workmen turned the Consistorial Hall into a dormitory and mess-room, driving pegs into the walls painted by Lo Spagna.and blackening witli the smoke of their cooking the beautiful carved ceiling. After tlie opening of the railway ami the (l('])aitiire of the la])or('rs the lower part of Spagna's frescoes was found much injured l)y the driving of the pegs. The preserved figures, those of Apollo and the nine Muses, were removed to Rome, and are now exhibited in the Pina- AGOSTINO CHIGI - IL MAGNIFICO" 321 coteca of the Conservatoii palace ; but the finest work of art of La Magliana, the image of God in a lialo of cheru- bim, painted by Lo Spagna in the apse of the chapel from the cartoons of Raphael, was purchased by President Thiers in 1872 and placed in the Louvre. The Peruginesque paint- ings of the same chapel, representing the Annunciation and the Visitation, transferred likewise to canvas, were still waiting for a purchaser at the time of my first visit to La Mao^liana. I am glad to state in the last place that Michelangelo's name may also be mentioned in connection with this farm. In the correspondence of the master published by Daelli ^ we find a letter addressed to him in the year 1510 by Fran- cesco Alidosi, cardinal of Pavia, begging him to contribute to the decoration of the chapel, and suggesting as a subject for the fresco the Baptism of our Lord. An indirect allu- sion to this request — which Michelangelo evidently de- clined, since no traces of his work exist or have been known to exist in the chapel — is to be found in the glazed tiles with which its floor is paved, and which show the Alidosi crest, an eagle with outspread wings, in conjunction with the oak and the name of Julius 11. The head-huntsman of the glorious Medici days, Domenico Boccamazza, having lived to a green old age, published in 1548, twenty-seven years after the death of Leo, a treatise on the hunting in the Campagna, of which the only printed copy existing lacks the title ; but from a manuscript copy in the Chigi library we infer it to have been // cacchdor slfjnorUe, " The Sporting Gentleman." What most aston- ishes the reader of this book, so charming in its simplicity, is the regret expressed by the author at the depopulation of the forests and the wanton destruction of game, the joint ^ Carte Michelangiolesche inedite, p. 14. :V22 Af^oSTIXO CIIICI "I I. MACX/F/CO" result of till- aliiist' of liicanns and of tlu; iiulilference shown Itv iIm' later |>oj>('s. as well as hy landowners in |>un- isliini;- the poachers. '• Alas," he says, '' the days in wliicli we true s|)ortsinen had only to step into the nearest woods to lind plenty of stains and deer and wild hoars are a mat- ter of the past. 'I'lie <;reed of the peasants and the inven- tion of new and vulL^ar instruments of death have ahnost destroyed then- race. ' If a man so competent in liis own line of business had reason to complain of the disappearance of game at the time of Paul 111. what can we say now after three and a lialf centuries of ruthless wholesale destruction, when, save for the fji^ht of a few migratory birds, no living- animal is left to enliven the solitude of our forests? When we read, for iiistance, in the map of the Campagna, published by In- nocen/.o Mattei at the time of Alexander VII, the words '* macchie e selve di damme" (forests of deer), engraved on the site of the now desolated farms of Conca and Campo- morto, we almost doubt the truth of the statement. And .igain. when we read in the diarv of a journey made to Net- tiino about 1540 by a lady of rank — a diary discovered by Ademollo among the Strozzi papers in Florence, and pub- lished in 1880 — that pheasants, hares, deer, and stags haunted the ruins of Porto d' Anzio in such numbers that with only two cross-bows at their disposal the party could bring l)ack to Nettuno a cartload of game, we can hardly believe the record. Domenico Boccamazza ends his treatise with a prayer for the advent of a "principe cacciatore " who would bring back the golden days of Leo X, and enforce again the law^s of fair sport. The "principe cacciatore " has come to us at last. King Victor Emmanuel 111, who in the short period of THALIA One of the nine Muses, painted by Lo Spagna in the Consistory Hall at La Magliana AGOSTIXO CIIIGI '^ IL MAGNIFICO" 325 six years has brought his kingdom to a degree of prosper- ity unprecedented in history, inherited from his father, Umberto il Buono, a love for the royal preserves of Castel Porziano. The latest acquisitions have increased the area of the beautiful property to a total of twenty thousand acres, with a sea frontage of nine miles. Here the stone- pine, the oak, and the ilex tower above the arbutus, the myrtle, the arborescent rosemary, and other sweet-scented maritime shrubs, under the shade of which the smaller game finds a retreat. Here stretched alongf the old Via Severiana — the high-road between Ostia, Laurentum, and Lavinium — the Silva Laurentina, so named from the laurel trees which grew especiallv near the pond, still called Pantano di Lauro. Strano-e influences were attributed to these trees. Whenever the Emperor Vitellius felt, with a change in the weather, the coming of a thunder-storm, he would seek refuge in the Silva Laurentina, because, as Pliny remarks, the trees were non-conductors of electricity. Hither also re- paired the Emperor Commodus at the outl)reak of the plague in the year 189, his physicians being of opinion that the powerful perfume exhaled by the forest would counteract the spreading of the contagion. The imperial Laurentine farm — now once more the pro- perty of the rulers of the country — was also known for its breeds of elephants and peacocks. The first are men- tioned on the tombstone of a Tiberius Claudius, " procurator Laurento ad Elephantos," ^ and also in Juvenal's Satires, XH, V. 101, while we are informed by the Liher PontificaUs that a section of the estate was called Paunaria, from the breed of peacocks raised upon it. Elk, wild boar, and deer have now succeeded the ele- phants and the peacocks of imperial times in the peaceful ^ Corpus Inscript. Latin, vol. vi, n. 8583. :)L'<") MIOSTISO CllKlI ''IL MAGNIFICO" tMiidvimiit of tlicse sylvan retreats, under the personal vii;ilanrt' of our liini;-. Ami as the same thing- may be re- })eated in connection with tlie other royal preserves from tlie Astroni near Naples to the snowy crag's of the Gran Paradiso. where tlie few surviving specimens of tlie ibex or Ixuupietin are saved from extermination by the king's keej)ers, we are jnstitied in considering that the prayer of Leo X's head-huntsman has at last been granted. INDEX i INDEX Accadeniia Roniaua d' Archeologia under Leo X, 140. Aeciajuoli, Bernardo, discovery of human remains, 70. Accolti, Benedetto, acquires Raphael's house, litis. Accolti, Bernardo, as a scholar and poet. 258. Accolti. Cardinal Pietro, acquires Ra- phael's house. 207. Aecoramboni, Girolamo, and University of Rome, 142. Adinolfi, Pasquale, on Via Papae, 40. Adrian VI, persecutes the courtesans, 68 ; tax during- plague, SI. Agostino da Rocchetta, quack. 86. Alberini, Giordanello degii, and the Capi- tol gallows, 2i». Alberini, Marcello, on cosmopolitanism of Rome, 58. Albertoni, Marco, grave, 84. Albina, Madonna, courtesan, 305. Aleardi. Aleardo, on Raphael's Forna- rina. 232 Alessandrina, Via, opened, 2o, 265. Alexander VI. opens Borgo Nuovo, 265 ; anecdote of fear of Delia Rovere, 318. Alexander VII. and the plague, 85 ; on the Barberini portrait of the Forna- rina. 236. Alfani, Domenico, drawing of Raphael's house, 269. Alidosi, Cardinal, murdered. 272. Alum, monopoly of Agostino Chigi, 279 ; obtained from Turkey, 281 : discovered at Tolf a, 282 ; revenue from Tolf a mine pledged for war on the Turks, 283 ; prosperitv and decay of Tolfa mines, 283. Araalis, Angelantonio de, inventory of Michelangelo's possessions, 187. Amante, Bruto. finds r.emains of Vittoria Colonna, 225-227. Amusements, Carnival, 35, 36 ; " Giuoco di Testaccio," 35. i:.\ i|Ufsti(iii of tn-JisDii, l'.l>; (imih opciiid lit NiipU's, ■_':;•''. Itiiilia. ('.iiiliii.il. aii. -77 : lionse of Hini, l!S(i ; (lii^'^is contrnl. L'S>« ; iiis wealtli, 2SS. ■_'>'.> ; patrician families foiimletl by, "JW.") ; famous names. •J.W^'^ ; speeimen eaieer. ■_".t(>-;;Oi) ; v.'iriety of money liaiuUed, .tlHI. .UH Hauipiets. eity. to(iinliani)(le" Mediei. '.Ki- ".»> ; to Kieonor.i d' Aiaj^ona, IKS ; Cliigi's. to Leo X. :'.ni-:!u;;. Harlx-rini gallery, the alleged Foniarina. Harhers. as surgeons. Sil ; esteem, S!». Haronino. Hartoloineo, and Paul Ill's improvements. Ill; career. 17-; mur- dered. I7l'-I74. Barroz/i d.i \"iniiola. Giaeomo. and mur- der of Haronino. 174. Hartoli, Hernardo de", and A'ittoria Co- lonna, -MO. Hasiliea Jnli; despoiled for linie-biiniing. 241'.. H.istione di Belvedere, gfeneral fortifica- tion i)lan. 111- ; Miehelangelo's eomiec- tion, lt;4-U)(>. Beaufort. Counts of. coat of aims, '1. Beggars. Sn P.iu])crism. Benibo. Ciirdiual, and Iii<|uisition, -l.'S, •-'10. Benedetto, Don, author of Beiieficio di Crist o. -JiKt. Beni'diet XIV. evil renovations under. "Jl. Bfii'tirin tli Cristo rerso i Cristiani, .•inthorslii|). L'O'.I. Berniudez f.-imilv acquires Farnese villa. Bernini, Loren/o. restores ("higi chapel, Bersano. (ienesio. on murder of Haronino. 17--'. Bianchi, Francesco, dealer in .lutiijues. l::4 Hilihiena, Cardinal Bernado, and Ila- l)haers hetrothal, '2'A() ; atid the tapes- tries, 'S-]l n. Hilihiena, Maria, betrothed to Raphael. *J"J'.l ; neglected by him, 2:^0 ; death, 'JoO ; betrothal forced on him, 2.']0 : marriage post))oned, 2;51 ; Raphael's repentant epitaph, 2:!1, 240. Hini family, bankers, loan to Leo X. security, 2S4 ; house ,ind hanking ]>rpmises, 2N<; ; portico jireserved. 2S(). Hiondo. Flavio, on Engenius I\' and Koine, 1,'). Black ]ilagne of 1:148, 7; monument. 7. IJlado. Antonio, jjrinli r in Kume, 4(> Hoecama'/.'/.a, Domenico. treatise on hunt- ing, .'121; dei)lores slaughter of game. Boccapaduli. l'rosi)cro. fills up the I'an- t:ino. (■>'.•. Honafede. (iiusej)pe. on (higi. 27"). Houi. (iirol.'imo. and Vittoria Colonna, ■Jin. Houiface X'lll. Jubilee, 4. Honorio. Lorcu/,(j. and disposition of re- mains of ^'ittoria Coloiuia. 220, 221. Horghese. Marcantonio. saiiitarv measure, 74. Borgo Niiovo, Via di. opened, 2i!, 2(J5; Itaphaers house. 2r)()-2(')!t Borgo Vaticano, Rosselliuo's plan, 10; unhealthiness. 7"». Bosco, Maso del. work on tomb of Julius II. ISl. Bramante, work on Raphael's house, 266 ; poor builder, 200 ; ceilings in the atelier, 27U. Branconi dall' Aquila, Giaiibattista, Raphael's executor, 281 ; keeper of the elephant, 272. Bridges, restored, 11, I"). IS; Ponticello, (il) ; repairs of Santa Maria, 100. Britons, church in Rome, SVc also Hunting. Campano, Giovanni Antonio, and early ])rinting. 4."). Cami)o de' Fiori. Piazza, paved. 102 n. Cancellieri, Francesco, on Via Papae, 40. IXDKX 331 Capitol, in 1500, 28; marbles from, 2S; gallows, 20; market, o1-;j4 ; symbolic animals, 02. CapoditViro, Evangelista Macklaleni, lec- tures, 140. Capodit'erro, Mai-cello, magistnis viarum, 11. Capranica, fame, l.')() ; tradition con- cerning Michelangelo, li'ili-l.-jS ; church, lion, and painting by him, 158. Caprarola. Faruese estate, l."]S. Caprini, Adriano, house on Borgo Nuovo, 2(i(). Capuchins, vicissitudes, 203 ; and Vittoria Colouna, 20o ; as reformers, 204. Caracalla, baths of Farnese excavations, 127. Caracciolo. Antonio, and "Compendium" of Inquisition processes, 208. Caradosso as goldsmith, 25o. Caravita, Gregorio, cure for the plague, 84 ; medical contract, 8(!. Carnesecchi, Pietro, reformer, martyr, 199, 206 ; on heresy of Vittoria Colonna, 203. Carnivals, first, 35 ; Jew racing, 35, 36 ; punishments during, 30. Carrillo, Cardinal Alfonso, repairs Santi Quattro Corouati, 12. Castel Bolognese, Giovanni Bernard! da, goldsmith, 174. Castel Perziano, royal preserves, 325. Castelli de Corneto, Cardinal Adriano. palace. 272 ; on Libs"s fowling piece. 310. Castrio'tto, Jacopo Fusti, fortifications of Rome, 1<50. Castro, Giovanni de, discovers alum at Tolfa, 281-283. Cavalieri, Tommaso de'. Michelangelo's friend. l''^7; claims a cartoon, ISS. Cavallini. Pietro. Last Judgment, 178-180. Cemeteries, as sources of infection, 70 ; discoveries of large ossuaries, 70, 73 ; as refuse heaps, 73. Census of 1517, date, 57 ; discovery of results, 57 ; facts concerning, 57. Cesarini, Giovanni Giorgio, arms monu- ment, 42 ; feast to Giuliano de' Medici, 96. Cesarini. Cardinal Giuliano, as a patron of art, 41. Cesarini villa. 41, 42. Charles I of England, and Michelangelo's Cupid, 149. Charles Y, Emperor, sack of Rome, 107- 109; triumphal entry, 110. Chigi, Ao-ostino. carries off the Fornarina, 240 ; V-hapel. 261-2()4 ; birth, 275 ; financial power, 275, 288 ; as an art patron, 275, 289 ; no adequate record. 275 ; manuscript biography, 276 ; rise, 279; monopolies, salt monopoly, 27'.'- 2.S1 ; causes a war, 280 ; alum monopoly, 2S1-L'84; averted run on his bank, 288; instance of shrewd bargaining, 288 ; wealth, 288, 2S0 ; protector of Sodoma, 290 ; no relation with Michelangelo, 290 ; originality of art conception, 293 ; triumphal arch to Leo X, 294 ; like- nesses. 2115; position based on wealth, 295 ; banquets to Leo X, 301-303 ; and Fedeiico Conzaga, 303 ; love affairs, 303, 30(); and Paul IIL 305 ; his ille- gitimate children, .KX); marries their mother, 306 ; his villa passes to the Farnese, 306 ; its subsequent history, • !07 ; horses, .308. Cliigi, Alexander, son of Agostino, 3)06. Chigi. Camilla, daughter of Agostino, 30(). Chigi, Fabio, restores Chigi chapel, 262 ; biography of Agostino, 27* >. Chigi, Lorenzo, prodigal and maniac, .306. Chigi, Margherita, daughter of Agostino, 30(1. Chigi, JSigismondo, mausoleum, 261, 26)2. Chigi chapel in Santa Maria del Popolo, Raphael designs, 261 ; finished by other artists, 261, 262 ; neglected, 262 ; restored, 262 ; Raphael's Woman of Samaria, 263. Church, R. W., on Dante and reform, 212. Churches, condition in 1350, 9, 10 ; re- pairs mider Martin V, 11 ; improved by Nicholas V, 15 ; Estouteville's work, 21-23; external aspect (1500). 27; mediasval San Saba, 49-53 ; of foreign colonies, 60-()3. See also San Pietro and other churches by name. Cibo, Caterina, and Capuchins, 203. Cibo, Cardinal Lorenzo, grave, 18. Claudius. Emperor, triumphal arch, 39. Clement VI, Jubilee, Bull Unigenitus, 4. Clement V^II, and Tiber w-ater, 79 ; and University of Rome, 142 ; issues consols, 284. Clergy, number of Roman (1350), 10; uneducated, 58. Colimodo. surgeon, contracts, 86. Coliseum damaged by earthquake (1348), S. Collections, Cesarini. 42 ; Massimi, 43 ; rational plan for Italian, 135 ; Odes- calchi, 299. See also Farnese palace. Colocci. Angelo. Accademia Romana d' Archeologia. 140. Colonna. Ascanio. reformer, 208, 210. Colonna, Giovanni, plague memorial, 7. Coloima, Oddone. See Martin V. Colonna. Stefanello. riot against, 33. Colonna. Vittoria, and TuUia d' Aragona, (i4; and Federieo Conzaga, 151; and Michelangelo, 195, 199, 200, 219; o.yj. IXDKX earlv vcars. I'.'"i; niaiTia^e, lioiifyiiKinii, l','<'> ; jjiH'try. vfiu'i-ation. I'.Mi ; pi-D- BoriWfil paiiiplili't. I'.'T ; wiilowluxid. I'.'S ; and Iut liushaiui's nicinory. I'.'S; lift' tif si-fliisioii. I'.'S; and Juan N'ahU's and I'luiroli n-foiin. 1 !•'.•- li(M ; as a type, I'iMt; n-forni poems. I'tMt; and the ("apurliins. "Jdo ; corn'spoiidcnce witli Maif^^iu'iiif of N'alois. _'iH; not a dis- st-ntiT. -i>4 ; reform doi-trine, 20."), '21 I ; considered arcli-lieretie by Inipiisitiun. •_'<«»; and Pole. L'ld; and Hen^e de Kranee. -IT; last years. 2 IS; will, dirertions for hnrial, "JIS; death. '-'IS ; eortin abandoned in ehurpli of .Sant' Anna, L'lU: exeentors violate their trust. L'l.'. Constantia sarcoijliapus. 17. t'ontarena. Cardinal, and Inquisition, 200. Conti. Torre dei. damaged by earthquake, '.1. Contrada dei Hanchi. loses caste, 2T() ; aspect preserved, liTt) ; modern destruc- tion. I'TT ; families represented there. L".M'i; specimen career, 2',)t)-;;ou ; varie- ties of money. ;!(>(). ;5(11. Con«»j^a. Cardinal Ercole, value of palace, 114. Conzajja. Federico. portrait by Francia, recovered. l-")0; char.acter and influence at Home. l.")I ; Raphael's portraits of, l.">'_'. *J."i4 ; and Miclielanjjelo, 1.").") ; in- terest in the Laocodn. 'I'^'l ; in other antiquities. '2't'.\: and Agostino Chigi, ;!0:i ; moral training in Rome, 303- ;!<)."i ; its results. ■■!()•">. Conzaga. Oinlia. reformer. 20."). 200. Conzaga. Isabella d' Este, and Michel- angelo's Cupid. 147. 14S; portrait of her son. I'~)0. Con/jiga, Cardinal Sigismondo, as hunter, ;!i:;. romaro. Cardinal Marco, as hunter, .313. Corso. Via del. Carnival. ;!.")-37 ; length (l.iOO). ;;7. ;!.s ; classic ruins on. ;'>7 ; im- pnivenients by Paul IH. 112; property on (l.ViS), li;;. 114: views .and pl.ins, 114. Cortese. Cardinal, and Inquisition. 20s. Co8matesf|ue school of architecture. 49. Counterfeiting in inediieval Rome. ."».">. Courtesans in Rome, |)osition of the re- fined, (i.;. :;ii4. ;j(i.-, ; fatuous. 04-07: beh.ivior and refinement. ti7 : persecu- tion, <>.S; number, <»8 ; quarters, 27. 1U7-1O0. " Donna Velata " as portrait of the For- narina, 230. Dosio da San Geminiano, Giovanni An- tonio, and ancient plan of Rome. 130. Drainage, lack of, O'.t. Duca, Giacouio del. ciborium, 174. Duca, Jacopo del, friend of Michelangelo, 187. Diirer, Albrecht, and Marcantonio. 2.')5. Du Thou. Jacques Auguste. and Michel- angelo's Cupid, 147. Dutillet, Canon, with Calvin at Ferrara, 215. Eleonora d' Aragona, reception in Rome, 20 ; banquet, OS. English headquarters at Rome, 60. Engraving, Marcantonio, 254-25(5. Erb;i. Haldassare, sells Odescalchi col- lection. ;'.o(). F!ste. Alfonso d'. price of salt and war with Julius II. 2S0. Este. Eleonora d". Vittoria Colonna god- mother to. 217. Este, Cardinal Ippolito d', as huntsman, 313. Estouteville, Cardinal Giullaume d', we.alth and magnificence. 21 ; artistic gifts. 21. 22 ; obsequies. 23 : moves the market. 34. Eugenins ly . Rome Tinder. 14. Eustachio da Macerata. Filippo. cenotaph, 101. Falda. Giovanni, sketch-book, 114. Fano. Cardinal di. and Iu(|uisition. 208. Farnese, Cardinal Alessandro (1). See Paul III. Farnese, Cardinal Alessandro (2), com- INDEX 333 pletes Farnese palace, 1-2 ; will forbids removal of Farnese collection, 128; an- tiquarian interest, 12'.'; artistic legacy to Rome, lo6 ; estate at Caprarola, lo8 ; acquires Chigi's villa, iSOti. Farnese, Alessandro, Duke of Parma, marriage, 120. Farnese, Antonio, last Duke of Parma, 12U. Farnese, Giulia. and Alexander VI, 101. Farnese, Odoardo, and Orsini collection, 188. Farnese, Orazio, marriage, 119. Farnese, Ottavio, betrothed to Margaret of Austria, 115 ; her entry in state, 115, 116. Farnese family, royal marriages, 115, 119, 120. Farnese palace, construction, 103, 115, 120-12o; nucleus of museum, 104; events leading to the removal of its col- lection, 120 ; source of stone and mar- bles for, 123; collections, 125; source of statuary, 125-128 , removal of col- lections forbidden, 128 ; collections re- moved to Naples, 129, 135 ; Orsini col- lection, 133-135. Farnese villa, Chigi's banquets to Leo X, 301-303 ; adjoins that of Paul III, 305 : sublet, 306 ; transferred to Alessandro Farnese, 306 ; property of the Bourbons of Naples, 307 ; passes to the Bermu- dez family, 308. Fattore, II, and Raphael. 271. Ferrara, Calvin's plan and visit, 214-217. Ferri, Alfonso, and University of Rome, 142. Fiesole, Mine da, ciborium in Santa Ma- ria Maggiore, 21. Filelfo on Nicholas V, 16. Finances. See Banking. Debt. Flaminio, Mareantonio. and Vittoria Co- lonna, 203 ; and Bene/icio di Crista, 209 ; on death of Vittoria Colonna, 219. Floods, periodical, 90 ; deposits, 90 ; sud- den inrush due to the old walls, 93 ; worst fatalities, 94 ; commemorative tablets, 94-96 ; of 1598, 95. Foligno, fair, 288. Food, variety, 98. Foreella, Vincenzo, funeral inscriptions, 59. Fornarina, Raphael's love. 229 ; favored over his fiancee, 230 ; antecedents, 231 ; name, 232, 244 ; traditional liomes, 233 ; connection with the Sassi palace, 234. 235, 244 ; as Raphael's model, 235 ; al- leged portraits, the Barberini, 236 ; the " Donna Velata," 239 ; the Uffizi, 239; spirited away by Chigi, 2411; Raphael's final ingratitude, 240 ; his provision for her, 243 ; subsequent fate, 243, 244. Fortifications, purpose of Paul Ill's, 162 ; Sangallo's plan, 163. See also Bastione di Belvedere. Foscolo, Ugo, on Dante and Reformation, 212. Francia, Francesco, portrait of Federico Conzaga, 150. Francis I, captured, 197 ; gift of hounds to Leo X, 317. Fregoso, Cardinal, and Inquisition, 208. Frescoes, Giotto's Jubilee, 4 ; Pintnric- chio's, in !San Cosimato. 18; in first San Saba, 50 ; Cavallini's Last Judg- ment, 178-180. Fulvio, Andrea, Antlqiiilates, 248. Gaddi, Giovanni, and Machiavelli's works, 46. Gadio, Stazio, preceptor to Federico Con- zaga, 151 ; leads him into temptation, 304. Galletti, Pier Luigi, funeral inscriptions, 59. Gallows on the Capitol, 29, 30. Galluzzi, Angelo, on Chigi, 275. Gasparoni, Benvenuto, identifies Michel- angelo's last dwelling, 186. Gaston de Foix, victory in Italy, 197. Germans, church in Rome, 61, 62. Gherardi, Silvestro, on abstraction of In- quisition records, 207. Ghinucei, Stefano, partner of Agostino Chigi, 279. Giacomelli. Giacomo, professor of philo- sophy, 142. Giannetto, Guido, and Vittoria Colonna, 210. Giotto. Jubilee frescoes. 4. Giovanni de Romanis. physician, 87. Giovannoli. A16, sketch-book, 114. Giovio, Paolo, on cure for the plaguc, 84. Giulia, Via, opened, 23. Giulia villa, construction, 172. Giunta. Bernardo, pirates Machiavelli's works. 46. " Giuoco di Testaccio," 35. Gnoli. Domenico. on Raphael's atelier, 270. Goldsmith work. Mino da Fiesole's cibo- rium, 21 ; Michelangelo's designs. 174; Caradosso's work, 253 ; mitre of Julius II, 285. Goritz. Johann, Accademia Romana d' Ar- cheologia, 140. Grassi. Paride de, Leo X's master of ceremonies, 313. Gregory IX, Torre delle Milizie, 53. Gregory XI, return to Rome. 1 ; memo- rial, 1,2. Gregory XIII and Tiber water, 79. IM'hX («ri'j;ory X\ I iMTiuiis remov.il <>f Kar- iit'.Ho I'ollfi-iiKii, I ■-"•'■ GroHHiiio as iiiior of Fedt-rico Conzajja, ;!o». (luvof |{ouli»j;in.-siir-nier, Cardinal, Jiibi- \vi> i.f i;'.:.tt. -S') : lack of drain- age. I'l'.l; infection from cemeteries. 7* • ; refuse heaps. 7;'.. I'M : street cleaninj;. 74; of tlie liorp) Vaticano. 7"> : drink- inj; water. 7t>->>"; hardy constitutions, 7!*. 5"'. ■S»«' (ilsii Medicine. Hecatostylon of I'ompey, remains. (>_' n. Heeniskerk, Martin, panorama of Rome, Hippolytns. .Siint. -jTave disturbed, lOtJ. Honoriiis. walls of, and tlie Hoods, 1)3. Hoi-ses. stud of Aj;o8tino Chij^i, o08. Horti L.-iri^iani, '•>>>. Hunis. Heinrich, memorial to ."Scarampo. :;(»!• n. Hunting, cardinal sportsmen, 3(>8-;>l(l; interest of popes. 310; Leo X's hunts. :!l;; ; Francis I's •;ift of hounds. 'Ml ; " cantata " to test them. 317 ; method. 317 ; LaMa<;liana. the lodfje, 31S-3lM ; Bocoamazza's treatise. 'J31 ; wanton de- struction of grame, :!'J1, 3_'_* ; present royal preserves. 3'22-32(). Iniperia. famous courtesan, l»4, 07; epi- taph, 117. Incunabula, by Schweinheim and Pan- iiartz. 4."i : Koman edition of Machi- avelli. 4ti. Innocent N'll and University of Korae, 14H. Innocent VIII and La Maijliana. 3 IS. In(|uisition in Italy, archives inaccessi- ble. "J'M'i; records of activity a<;ainst It.'ilian reformers, L'()('i--J(l'.l ; Trinity Collefje volumes of trials, '20C<; "Com- pendium." "JOS; activity ajrainst asso- ciates of Vittoria Colonna. '20',); blind- ness to purpose of reformers, 210, 213 ; and <":dvinat Ferrara, 21t'>. Is.ilielia de Luna, famous courtesan. 04. lsol:ini, C.'irdinal (liaconio, re)iairs Sant' Eustaehio, 12; :ind lime-making from ancient marbles, 24t). Jacobn.s, Ma.ster, rebuilds San Saba, .".0-.-.::, .lean Robert, perfumer, epitaph. OO. Jews, and the Carnival, 3."), 3(> ; as phy- sicians, S">. .luaii d.' .Mil, Ciii;;is .•1','^ent, 2S3, Jui)ileeH. importance. 3 ; (Jiotto's frescoes, 4 ; of 13()(t, 4 ; of i:'..".0. 4-7, H. .lud^nient of I'aris, Raphael's, Marcan- tonio's engraving, 2.")4 ; classic models for, 2,")(i; impression created, 2r)7 ; re- ])roductioiis. 2,"')7 ; Raphael borrows motives from it. 2."),S. Julius II, and Federico Conzaga. 1")], l.')2 ; tomb, |S()-ls;i ; wanderings of his remains, ISU ; cause of war on Alfonso d' Este, 2S(); mitre, 2.^.") ; anecdote of Alexander ^'^s fear of, 31S, Juturna, fountain of, rediscovery, im- purity. 7S. Lafreri. Antonio, engraving of Raphael's house, 21 is. La Magliana, papal hunting-lodge, 318 ; construction, .'IIS; anecdote of Alex- ander VI, 318 ; connection of Julius II with, 3111; abandoned by the court. iJl'.t; desecration in present generation. 320 ; removal of paintings. 320 ; Michel- angelo requested to decorate. 321. Laocoon, interest of Federico Conzaga in, 2-)2, La Rochetaille. Ciirdinal Jean de, rebuilds San Lorenzo in Lucina, 12. Lascaris. John, at University of Rome, 140. Last Judgment, Cavallini's, 178, 170; earlier ones, 170; originality of Michel- angelo's, ISO. r>ata, \'\:\. See (\)rso. Lateran palace. Eugenius I\' rebuilds, lo. Leo X. and University of Rome, 140 ; and ancient marbles, 24() : Rome under, 272-274: and Tivoli, 2S0 ; loan from the Bini house, 2s4 ; Agostino Chigi's triumphal arch to, 204 ; his banquets to, 301-:!03; as a luinter, 313,: and Celso Mellini, .314; Francis I's gift of hounds to, 317. Leoni d' Arezzo, Leone, medal of Michel- angelo, 103; original model of it, 104. Leoni d,a .Siena, Diomede, Michelangelo's friend, 1S7. Leonina, Via, opened, 23. Libs, fowling piece. ."JIO. Lion of the Capitoline market. 31. Longeuil, Christopher, and Celso Mellini, 314. Longhi. Martino. .-iciiuires Michelangelo's house, ion. Longhi, Onorio, character, 100, Longhi, ,Stefano, owns Michelangelo's house, 100. Lorenzetto. Martino, Chigi chapel, 2fil, 2i'>4 : probable use of antique copy, 205. Louis XIV. desire for the group of Dirce, 128. INDEX 335 Lowell. James Russell, on Dante and re- fonii, 'J.\'l. Lucrezia Portia, famous courtesan, 07. Luiiji Gonzaga. San. memorial. S4. Luoyhi di Monte, first issue, L'84 ; great increase, 287 ; cause abandonment of Campagna. 287 ; interest reduced, 287. Luther. Martin, in Rome. 27o. Luzzi. Margherita. probable name of Ra- phael's Fornarina, li-14. Macharone, Mario, excavations in baths of Caracalla. ll'S. Machiavelli. Roman and pirated editions. 4(;. Madaraa palace, residence of Margaret of Austria, 1 Kj ; as residence of Alfonsina Orsini, 117; present use, 118. Madama villa, vicissitudes, 118 ; residence of Margaret of Austria, 119 ; dispersion of its marbles, ll'.'. Madoinia degli Angeli. Michelangelo's ci- borium. 174. Madrema. famous courtesan. tU. Madrucci. Cardinal, and Inquisition. 208. Maffei da Volterra. Mario. Aecademia Ro- mana d" Areheologia. 140. Mag'gi, Giovanni, view of Rome. 114. Mannetti. Latino Giovenale, on Xieholas V. ICi; work. 21]. 101; and reception of Charles V, 111 ; and destruction of the temple of the Sun, 124 ; statue to Paul IIL 145. Manriquez. Isabella, reformer, flees, 205. Manuzio. Aldo. as a printer. 45. Marbles, ancient. Capitol as quarry. 28 ; in Orvieto duomo. 48 ; use in mediaeval Rome, 51-5o ; quarters of the industry, 63 : from structures around San Lo- renzo fuori le Mura, 103-107 ; destruc- tion of temple of the Sun, 123 ; for Sala Reg'ia, 137. 130 ; Leo X"s edict against lime-burning'. 246 ; lime-burning in Basilica Julia. 246. See also Antiqui- ties. Sculpture. Marcantonio Raimondi. engraving of Judgment of Paris. 254 ; early life. 255 ; Vasari's wrong statement of imitations of Diirer. 2.55 ; engraver of Raphael's works. 250 ; licentiousness of plates, 256 ; later years, 256. Marchiani. Orazio. and Tullia d' Aragona. 65. Margaret of Austria, betrothed toOttavio Farnese. 115; state entrv into Rome. 115. 116. Margherita, Raphael's Fornarina. See Fornarina. Margherita of Mantua and Agostino Chigi. 303. Marguerite of "\'alois and Vittoria Co- lonna, 204. Mai'iano, Frate, jester, 305. Marino, Vittoria Colonna's retreat at, 106, Market, Capitoline (1500), 31; punish- ment of debtors, .31 ; marble lion, 31 ; popular outbreak (13.53), 32 ; local he- roes, 33 ; removed, 34. Marot. Clement, at Ferrara. 215. Martin V. begins reconstruction of Rome, 10; small results, 11; administration, 12. Massimi villa, collection, 42 ; printing press, 4.5 ; wrecked and rebuilt, 47, Mazoechi, Jacopo, Epigrammata, 248. Medici. Alessandro de', assassination, 115. Medici, Giuliano de', banquet, 06-08. Medicine, plague cures, 84 ; classes of practitioners. 85 ; Jew physicians, di- ploma. 85 ; remuneration, contracts. 86 ; prescriptions, 87 ; apothecaries, 87, 88 ; pharmacopoeia, 88 ; barbers as sur- geons, 80. Meleghino. Jacopo, career. 165 ; and Bas- tione di Belvedere. 165; fall. 166. Mellini, Benedetto, on despoiling of San Lorenzo. 104. Mellini. Celso. story of, 314. Mer-.Saba. Roman church, 49. Mesa. Torre. 123. Michael de Zamora. Jew physician, 85. Michelangelo, and Tullia d" Aragona. 64 ; imitations of antiques, 146, 155 ; Cupid, its wanderings and fate, 146-149 ; works in England, 149, 156 ; and Federico Conzaga, 1.55 ; chiselling without sketch or clay model. 155 ; traditional flight for murder. 156- 158; church of Mary Magdalen at Capranica. 158 ; Lion of Capranica. 158 ; possible painting at Capranica. 1.58; Pieta of Palestrina. 150; popular admiration for. lliO; and bridge of .Santa Maria. HiO; enclosure around column of Trajan. 161 ; Bastione di Belvedere, 16)2-166; his subordinate connection, 16(); character, 166-171. 184 ; St. Peter. 16(>-171 ; and graft. 171 ; designs for goldsmith produc- tions, ciborium. dinner service. 174 ; Last Judgment, pay. 177; ferryboat owner. 177; orgnnality of the Last Judgment. 178-180; tomb of Julius II. 180; share in the completed por- tion. 181 ; the Moses, 182 ; existing accessories of the tomb. 182 ; models of the Moses. 182 ; and his servant Ur- bino. 183; arrested, 1S5 ; last house, 185-187 ; death. 187 ; inventory of be- longings. 187-189 ; unfinished work, 188 ; fate of his Roman houses. 189, 190 ; fate of other things associated with him. 190 ; body stolen from Rome, 191 ; wrongly supposed cenotaph, 191 ; IShEX luiHt ill tlio ("oiiRervntori piilaio. ll'l ; n-pliinnof it. I'.'-; I,«M>m>'« iiii-diil. I'.'-'i ; iiriwiiml iikmIi-1 nf tliin, I'.M : and \'it- inri:. ( ..l..iiiia. l'.''>. 1!''.'. -'tHi. •Jllj: ami ICa|ili:ii-rs .Iiitl^Miii'iit of I'uris, •_'.")^ ; no irlatioiis with A>;'>*"'"o t'l>»Ki- -"•'^' '< aii.l Hapliail. •_".H>-l.''.f;5 ; and La Ma- i;liaiia, •'•'J I. Middle Aj;i'8. scan-ity of n mains in KoHH«. »T-»".> ; vcstiijt's, 4'.t-.".t'.. Mili/ia, Franccsoo, on Michelangelo's Mos..H. IM'. Mili/ic. Torri- dfllc ori<.Mii and hero myth, .Vl; nienO-15L'.'.), oOl', oO;3. Sn iils'i ( 'oiirtpsans. Mnrhiis ^alliens, first appearance, 84. Morone. Cardinal, reformer, 206; and Ini|nisition. L'<>8. Mosi-s. .Mifln'lan;;:elo"s. 18'J ; models, 182; pl.'i.ster iMst. is;!; position altered, 18o; honia};e of the Jews, 18;). Miiiitz. Knj;^ne, on date of Calvo's map, 2.M. Miiratori. Lndovico Antonio, on Calvin at P'lTnini. 21<). Musi N'ene/.iano, Afjostino. as engraver, 'J'ti'i. Miiti. Ora/.io. connection with the arrest of Miihelaiifjelo. 1S4, IS."). Miitis. Paolina Portia d^, medical con- tniets. SO. Nanni di Haccio liigio and Santa Maria hriiljrp. ItlO. Naples. F.'irnese collection, 120, 129. Navona. I'iazzi. market, .'>4. Nello. .Viirlrea di, dealer in antiques, 134. Nieliol.xs y. inii)rovements under, 15 ; flees from the jilaijue. SI. Nuinalio. Cardinal, treatment during the sack. loT. Oi-hiiii. Bernardino, and Vittoria Colonna, 2<>;i; general of C.ipiichins. reformer, •.'(14. i'im;. Odesealehi. Paolo, art interest, 2'MK (>de'.»; collection sold, '■'<(»>. Olivieri. Henvemito, acrpiires Ilaphael's lious«-, 2t>S. Olivieri. Pietro Paolo, memorial of Gre- k'ory XI. 2. Ormni. Alfonsina. finds ancient statues. ( )isini. Hertoldo, riot against, killed. -Vi. Orsiui. Fuivio, loliectioii. i;!;i; connection with dealers. |;;4. Orvieto. ancient marbles for duomo, 48. Ostia. salt-works, 2S1. r.iddvaii.i. fainiiiis eomles.iii. -". IS; on election of Paul III, 10!); triumph.il entry of Charles V, 110; entry of Margaret of Austria, 115, llti; Popes" progresses. 2!);j-205. Paintings, in Santa Elisabetta, 02; at La Magliaiia. ;!20. -SVc also Frescoes, Michelangelo. IJaphael. Paleario. Aoiiio, not author of Beneficio di Cristo. 2011. Palladio. Andrea, drawing of Raphael's lu)use, 2fiU. Pallavicino. Cardinal Antoniotto, wan- derings of his remains, 2(i2. Pallavicino, Cardinal Sforza, on Cliigi, 275. Palluccelli, Antonio, marbles for Sala Ke- gia. i:!T. Paniiartz. Arnold. i)rinter in Rome and Siil)iaco. 44. 45. Panta. famous courtesan, (57. Pantagato. Domenico, called da Capra- nica. 15(i. Pantano. till. Pantheon, restored, 15; disfigured, 21. Panvinio. Ouofrio, and the ancient mar- ble plan of Rome, Kll. Papae. \'ia. in 1500, ;39; papal progresses, 40 ; inhabitants. 40. Parma. Dukes of, 120. Passeri, Bernardino, dealer in antiques, i:U. Passion of the Bedeemer, Vittoria Colon- na"s pan)phlet. I'.l". Paul II, Carnival. ;!5. ">C> ; and hunting, :]10. Paul III. and Tiber water. 79 ; and mod- ern Rome. It'l ; cardinalship. Kll ; resi- dence ,is cardinal, KM ; wanderings, 102 ; begins reconstruction of Palazzo Farnese. lO-!, 115; retinue as cardinal, 107. lOS; during sack of 1527, 107; popular enthusiasm over election, 109 ; improvements in Rome. 111. 112. K^t) ; apartments in Sant" Angelo. i;'>('):Sala Regia. i;;7. i;)S: I'niversity of Rome, 142; death. 14;! ; chanicter. accomplish- ments. 144 ; appearance, 144 ; tomb. 144 ; statue on the Capitol. 145 ; fortifications, lt>2; and Juan \'ald(^s. 100; and Agos- tino Chigi, ;ill.") ; as hunter when cardi- nal. ;!i;;. Paid IV pledges the Tolfa alum mines, 28;J. INDEX 337 Pauperism, 99 ; workhouses, 99 ; licensed beggars, 100. Penni, Giaufraiicesco. See Fattore Perfumers dabble in chemistry, 89. Peruzzi, Baldassare, rebuilds Massimi villa. 47; and Meleg'hino, Km. Pescara, Marchioness of. ISte Colonna, Vittoria. Pescara, Marquess of. See Avalos. Petrarch on Rome in lo.JO, 10. Petroni, Alessandro, on Tiber water, 78. Petrucci. Cardinal Alfonso, murdered, 27- ; as hunter, -Slo. Physique, evidences of superior, 79, 96. Pi^ta of Palestrina, Michelangelo's, 159. Pintor on cure for the plague, 84. Pinturicchio. frescoes in !San Cosimato, 18. Pirovano and Bosio, traders in Rome, 301. Pisa, ancient marbles for duomo, 4S. Pitti gallery, the Donna Velata, 239 ; clas- sic model for Vision of Ezekiel, 2(jl. Pius II, flees from the plague, 81 ; and hunting, ;'>10. Pius IV and La Magliana, 319. Pius VI, permits removal of Farnese col- lection, 129 ; reduces interest on papal consols, 287- Pius VII, permits removal of Farnese collection, 129. Pizzullo, Giovanni, buys Cesarini garden, 42. Plag-ue, visitations, 7, 80; provisions against, SO. 82 ; temporary measures only, 81 ; flight of the court, 80 ; refu- gees driven back, 82 ; black art and expiation, 82 ; closing of gates and the river, 82 ; mementos, 83, 84 ; cures, 84 ; Alexander VII during, 8o. Plan of Rome, ancient marble, discovery, 130 ; loss of fragments, 131 ; wander- ings, 132 ; present condition, 132. Platina, Bartolomeo, on Rome in 1417, 10. Poetry, universality of habit, 197. Poggio as a copyist, 44. Pole, Reginald, reform leader, 20-") : Henry VIII's wrath against, attempts against, 205 ; reform principle, 205 . and Inquisition, 200, 208 ; and Vittoria Col- onna, 210, 220. Pollajuolo, Antonio, candelabra, 181. Pontelli, Baccio. improvements of Rome, IS ; Sant' Aurea cathedral, 21. Ponticello, 09. Ponzetta, Cardinal, treatment during the sack, 108. Population, distribution (1500), 24, 27, 90 n.; census of 1517, 57; cosmopolitan, 58-60 ; church centres of foreign colo- nies, (iO-63 ; physique, 79, 96. Porcari, Nicholas, magistrus viarum, 11. Porta, Guglielmo della, tomb of Paul III, 144. Porticus Vipsania, 38 Porto Ercole, controlled by Agostino Chigi, 283, 289. Portogallo, Arco di, 39 ; dispersion of parts, 39. Prices of works of art, 134, 149, 231 n. Printing, introduction in Rome, 44-46. Priuli, Alvise, and Vittoria Colonna, 203. Quinones, Cardinal Francisco, value of palace, 114. Raimondi. See Marcantonio. Rainaldi, Girolamo, designs church of Santa Elisabetta, ()2. Raphael, and Federico Conzaga, 152, 254 mysteries, 229 ; will not found. 229 love afl^airs, 229-244 ; no saint. 229 treatment of his affianced wife, 230 goaded into the betrothal, 230 ; post- pones the wedding, 231 ; repentance and memorial to her, 231 ; order and payment for tapestry cartoons, 231 ; antecedents of tlie Fornarina. 231 ; her name, 232, 244 ; her traditional homes, 233-235; use of her as a model, 23.5; alleged portraits of her, 236-240; character of his love for her, 240 ; his final ingratitude, 240 ; provisions for her, 243; her fate, 243, 244; epitaph on date of his deatli, 244 n. ; contemporary praise as archseologist, 245 ; not justified, 245 ; as superintend- ent of antiquities, 246 ; controversy with Gabriele de Rossi, 247 ; scheme for illustration of the antiquities, 247 ; collaborators in it, 248 ; execution of it, 248 ; date of map, 248-252 ; inspiration, models from the antique, 2.54, 258-260, 263-265 ; Marcantonio's engravings, 256 ; classic models for Judgment of Paris, 256 ; other motives borrowed from the Judgment, 258 ; Chigi chapel at Santa Maria del Popolo. 261 ; Greek original of his Woman of Samaria, 263- 26)5 ; acquisition of his last house, 266 ; Bramante's connection with it, 266, 270 ; sold by executors, 2()7 ; wealth, 267 n. : subsequent owners of house, 267, 2()8 ; location, views, 268. 2()9 ; recon- .struction, 269 ; atelier preserved, 270 ; loggia, 271 ; group which assembled there, 271 ; view from it. 272 ; king of art, demands for his services, 274 ; and Michelangelo. 290-293. Ratti, Nicola, on the supposed Michel- angelo cenotaph, 191. Reformation in Italy. Juan Vald^s, 199 ; spirit of, in Rome under Paul III, 199 ; not anti-Catholic, 199, 204. 211- 214; Vittoria Colonna, 200-204 ; Capu- chins, 203 ; interest of Marguerite of :j:38 i.\i>i:x Vitlom. '."Ol ; pn>niiiii'iit woiiu-n, I'n^ ; l'oI«« Ito lf!lll«T. Vilfllxt lUH ««Miti-t', l.'0.'i; luwif |>riiiri|>U'. _'<>.". ; li-ndt-rs.-K Viterbo. '.IMl ; iiv:iilit))U> iti-oIiIh iif activity of Iin|UtMti.>iiaKi»i"'«t."_'ll«i-L'(>ii aijaiiist aasin-iales of Vit- toria Coloiiiia. 'Ji7. Hinrio. (iirolnnio. t-state, 20: and limit- ing. ;:i»t. Rii»ri<». Canlinal Pietft>, extiavagauce, I'O ; n'ce|iiion of Klfonora. "Jti. Hiooiandli da Noltcrra. Daniele. Micliel- anu'clo's frit-nd, isT ; bust of Michel- anpl.i. nU. Hi|)«-tia. \'ia di, opened. 'I'd. Hodocanaclii. Kniniaiiiud, on courtesans, • >;! ; on Calvin at Ffiraia. '1\A. Honiaiio, (iiidio, and licentiousness of Marcautoiiio's fnj]^raviiif;.s, 2.")(). Konic. I'njic returns to. 1. -\ transition to Heiiaiss;iiice period, '1 ; Jubilees, ."i-T. l» ; |>ln^iies, 7. SO-S.") ; earthquake, 7- !• ; devastated condition ( JIioH-H 17), '.•-11; Martin V's bull on recon- stnirtion. Id; trade headquarters, 10; results uniler Martin \', 11; under Eupeiiins IV. 14 : under Nicholas V, l"i; uniler .Sixtns W. 10- KS; pajjeants, •JO. liiO, 111), 11.-,. 11(1. 2: census of ir)17. "»7 ; character of IMipulation. .-)*i-0.". ; eonrtesaus. O^J-OS; sjinitation. 0'.i-70; drinkinj; water. 70- >*<•; medical science. S5-00 ; floods. 02-'.M". : feasts, OO-OS; pauperism. 00. lixi; I'aul III and mod.m. 101, 112; sack of 1.-.27. ln7-100; aiiuieiit marble plan. |:'.0-l:};j; University, loO-H:} ; indifference to memory of her great nien. 22> ; unmerited monuments, 228; under Leo X. 272-274 ; cla-sses of patri- cian families, 20-> ; variety of current coin. ;;(K^), :iltl. .See a/.s-o "Antiquities, Kankera. Rowwdlino. Bernardo, jilan for Borgo V;iticani:.\ niriifturi'H liiiilt from, 1-1 ; compli'ti- ; |ir\>t|H'rity niiil tlcoay of mines, I'SJ. Tomniasi, Fr;iiii'esco, partner of Af;:o.stino Chip. -'Tl'. Tortora, famoim courtesan, tlT. Towers, ("onti. '.•; Milizie, "»o, .")4 ; Mesa, 12.;. Tml<|narters in ancient edi- fices, 111; nationality and <|uarters, .')'.'. • '■<>: ai»otliec!»rii-s, S7-"^'.l; perfuiucrs. Ml; l>arl)ers. >^'.' ; in small am i(|iu's. I.I I ; art prices, V.'A ; monopolies of Aj;()s- tino •"iii;ri, 2T!>--S4. .See aUo Bankers, Market. Trajan, column of, Mielielanjfelo's enclos- ur.'. I"!l. Tnijjin, foriim of, marbles from, for .Sala Ke-ia, l:;s. Trinity Collejje, Dublin, Inquisition re- cords, bow procured, L'OT. Tullia d' Arafjona, famous courtesan, (14- f.ii. Tnrini da IVscia, IJaldassare, IJaphael's executor, !.':'> 1 ; villa, 'l'.\x. Uccello, P.aolo. view of Konie, .")."i. I Mine. Giuvamii da. and Ii.iphael, 271. ' I iiiversity of Home, ori'.;iii, K!'.!; under Leo X, 140; professorships then, 141 ; dfcay. 141; Paul III revives, 142; pH'sent condition, 14"-'. I'rbiiio, Michelimj^felo's servant, 183 ; ad- venture, ls4. |s."». L'ffizi K""*'""^'. 'lie alleged " F'ornarina," Vacca, F'laniiiii n marbles from the Capitol. 21 • ; on .a I.'iri^r o.ssuary, 7'*; on building' of the Faniest! i)alace. 120, Va(ja, I'erino del, frescoes in .Saiit" Aiifjelo, l.ifi ; ceiliiiji of tjala Kegi.i. l.'JT; other paintin;;'s, 2.'^ti. N'aldt's. .luaii, unsuspected reformer, lit'.*; .111(1 \'ittori;i Colomia, l!>'.l. \'allati, liiui'ii/.o. or.ator at banquet to (tiiiliaiio de" Medici, 07. N'aiini, Francesco. Cbig;i chapel. 2r)2. ^'asari, (iiorpio, frescoes in Sala liefiia, l.!7 ; on Meleghino, Km ; misstate- ments coiiceniinj;- Marcaiitonio, 2.")."). Vatican. Sala lie<;ia, 1;17, l.'lS; IJastione di Belvedere. ICc'-KK; : Last Judgment, 177-1S(I; l;;ii)haers tapestries, 2;! 1 n. Venezia. P.-ila/zo di, value, 114. Vent.tdour. (Jciald. .Jubilee of lo.")!). !l. X'criuiuJi. Pii'iid Martire, reformer. 2(tCiu' Oilursitii- piLsa CAMBKllx;!'. . .MASSAC lUSF.TTS U . S . A RE TC LO R< Ml RETURN ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN LIBRARY TO— ^ 210 Wurster Hall 642-4818 lOAN PFRIOD 1 QUARTER 9 3 5 6 ALL BOOKS MAY BE RECALLED AFTER 7 DAYS Return books early if they are not being used DUE AS^^TAMRi^ BELOW ■L> PM 3 - f^ O V '88 AP R 4 198 ^: MAY 1 2 1988 SLLj^ '^ft UGi2Dia8 b PFCEiVED •iO AM^Z AUG '88 ENVI DEs — SEMESTER -DAN r.NV f HF.S JAN2 3li'89 K c^n/« r-,rrq UNIVERSITY OF CALIFr FORM NO DD 13, 74m, 3/78 BERKELEY C llJllliilf.ffi^(-.^/„t!?,?AR,ES ''''''''■'"lilflllllJll'llJIl'iJII L3