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Baltimore Saleswomen. By Elizabeth Beardsley Butler. Local Option in Massachusetts. By Amy F. Acton. CHARITIES PUBLICATION COMMITTEE Publishers for the Russell Sage Foundation 105 EAST 22d STREET, NEW YORK RUSSELL SAGE FOUNDATION THE ALMSHOUSE CONSTRUCTION AND MANAGEMENT BY ALEXANDER JOHNSON GENERAL SECRETARY OF THE NATIONAL CONFERENCE OF CHARITIES AND CORRECTION NEW YORK CHARITIES PUBLICATION COMMITTEE .... MCMXI J7 Copyright, 191 1, by The Russell Sage Foundation .*• -•-•< a PRESS OF WM. F. FELL CO. PHILADELPHIA ACKNOWLEDGMENT IN preparing this work the author has based it upon his own experiences as an inspector of almshouses and as the superintendent of an institution for defectives. But he has also drawn freely upon the Proceedings of the National Conference; the reports of various State Boards of Charity, especially those of Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Ohio, and Indiana; the Report of the British Commission on Poor Laws; Aschrott's book on the English Poor Law System, and one or two minor sources. He wishes to acknowledge his particular in- debtedness to the following persons whose writings he has used, sometimes in quotations, sometimes in paraphrases: Mrs. Alice N. Lincoln, Mrs. Charles R. Lowell, Miss Mary Vida Clark, Mr. Ernest Bicknell, Mr. Amos W. Butler, Mr. Joseph P. Byers, Dr. Albert G. Byers, Mr. John Glenn, Mr. Almont W. Gates, Mr. A. O. Wright, Professor Charles Ellwood, Mr. George S. Wilson, Mr. H. H. Giles, General Roeliflf Brinkerhoff, and Rt. Rev. G. D. Gillespie. Some of these have joined the majority, but their works survive them and form part of what the writer believes to be the most valuable, as it is probably the largest, collection of sociological information in the world, — The Proceedings of the National Conference of Charities and Correction. Fort Wayne, Indiana May I, 191 1 V Nt32731 TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE Acknowledgment v List OF Illustrations xi I. Introductory i 1 1 . Location and Capacity 8 III. Construction i6 IV. The Administration 46 V. The Inmates 57 VI. Management 85 VI 1. Care of the Sick 117 VI 11. Mental Defectives 126 IX. Miscellaneous 131 APPENDICES APPENDIX PAGE I. Evils of Promiscuous Mingling of Classes in the Almshouse . . • i4» Extract from the Minority Report of the British Poor Law Commission, 1909 II. The Origin of the British Workhouse System 149 Written for this volume III. County Hospitals 158 Extract from Minutes of the National Conference of Chari- ties and Correction. 1905 vii TABLE OF CONTENTS APPENDIX PAGE IV. Average Numbers of Inmates in Alms- houses OF Ten States . . . ,160 Compiled for this volume V. A. The Indiana Law Governing County Asylums (Almshouses) . . . .163 From the Indiana Statutes of 1899 B. Remarks on the Indiana Law . .168 Written by the author of the Bill which became Law VI. The Function OF THE Almshouse . . 171 Extract from a paper read by Mary Vida Clark at the National Conference of Charities and Correction, 1900 VII. A. Classification IN Almshouses . i8i Extract from the Report of the British Poor Law Com- mission B. Cottage Homes as Parts of the Alms- house 184 Paper on The Firvale Union Cottage Homes and Classifi- cation of Public Dependents, read by Mrs. Alice N. Lincoln at the National Conference of Charities and Correction, 1905 C. The System in Denmark . . 193 Written for this volume and including a translation of a report on the Asylum for the Aged, prepared for the Inter- national Congress at Copenhagen, 1910 VIII. County Houses of Correction in New Hampshire 198 Extract from the Sixth Biennial Report of the New Hamp- shire State Board of Charities IX. A. Imbeciles IN THE Almshouse . 201 B. Feeble -MiNDEDNEss as an Inheri- tance 202 Extract from a paper read by Ernest P. Bicknell at the National Conference of Charities and Correction, 1896 C. Appendix to Presidential Address OF Amos W. Butler .210 From Proceedings of the National Conference of Charities and Correction, 1907 viii TABLE OF CONTENTS APPENDIX PAGE X. Advice to an Almshouse Superinten- dent 215 Extract from a paper read by Ernest P. Bicknell at the National Conference of Charities and Correction, 1896 XI. Occupations for Defectives . .219 Written for this volume XII. The Man who Never Bathed . .221 An actual occurrence XIII. Competitive Purchase of Supplies . 223 - From the Annual Report of the Indiana Board of State Charities, 1904 XIV. Workhouse Nursing, by Florence Night- ingale 227 From the Introduction to Una and her Paupers XV. One Means OF Preventing Pauperism 229 Extract from a paper read by Mrs. Charles Russell Low- ell at the National Conference of Charities and Correc- tion, 1879 XVI. Instances of Improper Treatment of THE Insane in Almshouses . . 236 Written for this volume XVII. Plans OF Model Institutions . 239 XVIII. Specimen Entry from a Day Book, and Specimen Record Cards . . 245 Index 249 IX CHAPTER I INTRODUCTORY IMPORTANCE OF RIGHT METHODS SO LONG as there shall be poor people to be cared for by public charity, a place of refuge, an asylum for worn out and feeble men and women, will probably be a necessity. The pur- pose of this volume is to indicate in a plain and simple manner a few of those things which are often overlooked, but which, if carefully attended to, make for comfort and economy in connection with such an institution. It may seem to the reader that many suggestions are here made on matters that would be self-evident to any intelligent person, but none are made in writing which have not been made verbally where the need of instruction and advice has been apparent. With very few exceptions, no method is proposed in this book which is not in more or less successful practice somewhere. Several ex- cellent methods in use on the continent of Europe are recommended, and some of those here advised as suitable to almshouses of moderate size have proved effective in institutions of a different class. No evils or errors are reprobated THE ALMSHOUSE or warned against, which have not been observed by/tlk^.,i/Hier or by others upon whose veracity he ,. can, depend. That is to say, the work is based upon actual conditions, not upon theories. While parsimony is always to be deplored, the importance of true economy in almshouse manage- ment can hardly be overestimated. But while con- sidering economy in our methods for the relief of poverty in one department, we must not overlook its bearing upon others; we must consider the problem as a whole; hence it by no means follows that the almshouse with the lowest per capita cost is the most economical for the community. In many instances the alternative of almshouse care is outdoor relief. Now, of all forms of public charity, outdoor relief, except under the most careful supervision, is the most liable to abuse, the most certain to grow to an inordinate amount. An almshouse which is so conducted as to be repellent may be a cause of unnecessary increase of outdoor relief. People not really in need of its shelter will rarely seek admission to the almshouse. But many will accept outdoor relief who are not really in need of charitable aid and probably would get on pretty well without it if they were offered the alternative of admission to the almshouse or nothing. When, therefore, the institution is known to be so bare of comfort, so severe in its discipline, or so badly managed, that public opinion will not sanction a decent old person's being forced into it, then out- INTRODUCTORY door relief inevitably increases in amount, and with its increase comes a rapid growth in the amount of general pauperism. A well-managed, comfortable almshouse is a preventive of unnecessary pauperism. Those who really need public care can have it there, and those who do not need it will not seek it there. An ill-kept, disorderly almshouse, without proper classification of inmates, without thorough disci- pline and order, without efficient control over those whom it feeds and clothes, and without any per- manence in its relations to the degenerates among those for whom it cares, may be not only a cause of dire waste of public funds, but will inevitably promote and increase pauperism and degeneracy and all the human ills that come from them. To fully appreciate the social degradation that may result from the conditions that are frequently found in a large mixed almshouse, we must go across the Atlantic* But a candid observer will be obliged to admit that, while the evils complained of in such documents as the report of the British Commission are not yet so highly developed in this country, the beginnings of every one of them may be found here. Conditions exist today in institutions belonging to cities of enormous wealth and unexampled prosperity that are most repellent to every right-minded observer. The difficulties of proper management of an * See Appendix I, page 141, an extract from the Report of the British Poor Law Commission of 1910. THE ALMSHOUSE institution for the poor increase rapidly with the number gathered together under one roof. This fact is so important and so positive that every effort should be made to break up the vast aggrega- tions of paupers which we now fmd in some places, into smaller and more manageable units; as, for example, by the cottage system, which secures for a large institution many of the advantages of the smaller ones. Statesmen in the United States may well study such documents as the one alluded to above. The American system of poor relief has been largely modeled upon that of England; the history of its development has been remarkably similar to the history of poor relief in England and Wales. Fortunately we are not yet too far along the down- ward course to halt and retrace our steps. We have not yet accumulated, as has Great Britain, "a class not only numerically great, but steadily increasing, of physical, mental, and moral defectives of her own producing, who have in turn created problems in sociology, criminology, and public health which threaten her national existence." That the British system of poor relief, and es- pecially the English workhouse system, as it has been administered, is responsible for a large share in the creation of the specter of decadence which now haunts the British government, is certain. If it has done nothing else, it has kept alive and secured the perpetuation of a large number of ill-nourished, physically, mentally, and morally 4 INTRODUCTORY inefficient people; while it has avowedly and deliberately refused to do more than keep them barely alive. It distinctly refuses anything in the nature of prevention of poverty. Its sole purpose is to relieve destitution and it does this in a manner to encourage, if not to enforce, the perpetuation of the destitution it relieves. Many other causes have contributed to the total ill effect, not the least of which is the habit of alcoholism which seems fastened upon so many of the people. Yet how many of these contributing causes are them- selves the effects of the degeneration which they in turn increase, it is not easy to calculate. The problem of the almshouse is not merely a problem of economical administration, nor of human comfort and happiness; it is a part of the great social problem of poverty which confronts us, and must be considered in its general relations, especially its relations to the causes, the relief, and the prevention of poverty. Any remedial institu- tion, organization, or method which increases the evils it is designed to cure, while merely palliating some of their effects, must show an imperative necessity for existence, or be wiped out. In order that the almshouse or other institution shall be a benefit and not a detriment to the body politic, we must make sure that it shall not, either positively or negatively, encourage and foster degeneracy, as will be the case if it does nothing for degenerate human beings but to keep them alive and allow them to increase and multiply. Care for them THE ALMSHOUSE kindly the almshouse must when they come to it. But care of defectives has a necessary corollary, and that is control. At present a great many of our almshouses, perhaps the majority of them, are doing the first; they are making their inmates fairly comfortable. But very few of them are doing all that they should in the way of control- partly because they do not realize the need, partly because they do not know how to exert the power, but chiefly because our laws do not plainly pre- scribe the duty, nor authorize the method of performing it. Although other administrative problems are the main theme of this book, a firmer control of the defective inmates of almshouses than is at present usually exercised is plainly demanded, and a few methods of securing it which have been successfully employed are suggested in the following pages. THE NAME OF THE INSTITUTION In all our newer nomenclature we are continually trying to find milder names for disagreeable things, by which we may seem to soften the harsh facts of existence. But a change of name usually indicates something more than a desire for euphemism. It has usually been with a genuine desire to make the almshouse into a real home for worthy poor people that a change of name has been adopted. With a less offensive term has usually come a milder and kinder management. 6 INTRODUCTORY The names of the institutions differ in different states and countries. In Great Britain the " Union Workhouse" is the legal name of the public insti- tution for the poor.* The term ''almshouse'' is most frequent in New England and in some of the Eastern states; in the Middle West ''poorhouse'' is the most common; in Ohio the legal name is "county infirmary"; in Indiana it is the "county asylum"; in New York City the institution is called the "Home for the Aged and Infirm"; in Maryland it is the "county home"; in California the "county hospital";! and in Richmond, Vir- ginia, "almshouse" was recently changed to "city home." If it were not for its suggestion of insanity, the Indiana name of "asylum" would be the most appropriate. Possibly the "Home for the Aged and Infirm" is the most free from disagreeable con- notations of any. For the purposes of this book the common term "almshouse" will be used. * See Appendix II, page 149, on the Origin of the English Work- house System. t See Appendix III, page 158, on Methods of the County Hospital with its poorhouse department in California. CHAPTER II LOCATION AND CAPACITY THE LOCATION SPEAKING for the vast majority of alms- houses in the United States we can say that the location chosen should be in the country, not too far from the centers of population they are to serve. The advantages of pure air, cheap land, and pleasant surroundings, are all on the side of the country as opposed to the crowded town or city. On the other hand, accessibility is of vital importance, not only in order to bring the expense of transportation to a minimum, but also to make easy that general public knowledge of public institutions and alTairs which is one of the best safeguards against abuse. The worst abuses that the writer has ever found have occurred in small almshouses hidden away in remote corners, inaccessible, neglected, forgotten. "The dark places of the earth are full of the habitations of cruelty."* * The above is by no means a universal criticism of small country almshouses. Some of the most homelike, comfortable, and excellent almshouses which the writer has ever inspected have been compara- tively small farmhouses, far from the main traveled roads; but these are the exceptions. 8 LOCATION AND CAPACITY Another most important reason for a country location is the possibiHty of raising a large part of the food supply for the institution upon its own land. The question of institution farming is one upon which difference of opinion exists. It has been claimed that people who are able to work upon a farm do not properly belong in an institu- tion, and that therefore the work must be done by hired labor; that it is not likely that a superinten- dent can properly manage the institution and at the same time make a large farm profitable. The arguments in favor of a farm and garden as an adjunct of an institution are, however, very strong. No matter how careful the management, there will inevitably be more or less waste from the kitchen and dining rooms, and this can be profit- ably disposed of only by feeding it to domestic animals. Then the final purchase price of all kinds of farm produce is made up so largely of the costs of transportation and selling, that even if the farm is not conducted as successfully as others near it, the fact of a home market, at the highest market prices, for all that it produces, more than makes up the difference. It should be remembered also that there are certain cheap and healthful articles of food, such as fresh fruit, eggs, and the choicer vegetables, which from motives of economy are seldom or never purchased in sufficient quantity for the in- mates of an almshouse, but which may, if raised on the premises, be served freely and often. 9 THE ALMSHOUSE Again, for many classes of people who are capable of a certain amount of labor although they are not able to be self-supporting, an outdoor occupation is essential to health. Such occupa- tion, suited to all degrees of strength and intelli- gence, can be found upon a farm and garden in larger measure and in greater variety, than any- where else. The above considerations, namely, the profitable use of waste material, the saving of transportation and selling charges upon large quantities of bulky food-stuffs, the securing at a cheap cost of liberal supplies of milk, fruits and vegetables, and the opportunities of healthful labor, all point to the desirability of a large acreage of farm and garden land. It goes without saying that the soil for the purpose should be of good quality. Although a good area of rough land may be a very profitable possession in connection with certain institutions which, like those for the feeble-minded or the epileptic, have a large available supply of low grade labor, such land would, as a rule, be of little use to an almshouse. CHOICE OF A SITE In choosing a site for a county almshouse, granting that this should be located in the country, certain qualifications are essential ; others while not strictly essential are highly desirable; and a third class of qualifications are advantageous and should 10 LOCATION AND CAPACITY be heeded as determining factors. There are three essentials; namely, accessibility, water supply, and drainage. The first of these, accessibility, has been already treated under *' location." An abundant supply of pure water is impera- tively necessary. Whenever possible this should be a local one. Although in the case of an institu- tion near a town, the water supply connected with it may sometimes be tapped, the charge for this is usually high, and the water is not always perfectly pure. Undoubtedly deep driven wells are the most trustworthy, both for purity and steady supply. It is rarely that springs are found with sufficient capacity for the number of people to be supplied, and they are often in danger of con- tamination from surface drainage. The quantity necessary for all purposes may be taken as approxi- mately one hundred gallons a day per capita. This is an ample supply. Institutions have managed to exist with less than half that amount available ; but with all the chances of long continued droughts, with the need of fire protection, the desirability of sprinkling lawns, etc., an initial supply of one hundred gallons is the lowest amount that should be considered sufficient in choosing a site. The available supply should be carefully determined before a site is purchased, the water analyzed by a competent chemist and a satisfactory degree of purity assured. Filtering should never be depended upon. All this may cost money, but it is the only safe plan to adopt. Guess-work here THE ALMSHOUSE in the beginning may prove to be very costly in the end. The third essential is good drainage, either nat- ural or artificial. This, like the water supply, should be carefully studied before the site is chosen, and a method of drainage, including the final disposal of all sewage, be determined upon from the outset. Whenever possible the site chosen should be on gravel or sandy soil, either of which aflfords natural surface drainage. Only when there are overpowering reasons for the choice should a site be selected upon which artificial drainage is necessary for health. If this must be resorted to, then the drainage system should be installed before the house is built. " The conditions which may be regarded as highly desirable, though not absolutely essential, are natural fertility of land, good condition of soil as the result of proper treatment in the past, and suit- ability of the soil for growing vegetables and fruit. Attention to these conditions too often occupies first place instead of second in the minds of those charged with the duty of locating an institution. There is a final matter which may be properly considered, and that is, the scenic beauty of the site. Utilitarian ideas usually relegate such a matter to the background. Yet, as between two or more sites off"ering equal advantages, there is no reason why a pleasant view should not be considered. The writer has seen an almshouse, located on sloping ground commanding a beautiful 12 LOCATION AND CAPACITY view of hill and river, with the back of the house turned to the prospect and every window in rooms occupied by the inmates facing a blank wall or a barren hillside. He has also seen a house with moderate or even poor accommodation, yet with a front porch from which, in fine weather, a charming view of an open valley with a little town in the distance was immensely enjoyed by the feeble old people who made up its population. Another useful thing sometimes found on a site and enhancing its. value is a good "wood-lot." Although the use of wood for fuel is a thing of the past in most parts of the country, there are still many districts where some wood available for part of the heating can be found. The wood-lot on the almshouse farm is a thing of both use and beauty. A grove is always a pleasant sight and it is valuable for recreation purposes. When in addition it yields wood enough for the cook stove and for a few open-hearth fires in the living rooms it has an increased value, not only as furnishing fuel, but as providing winter occupation for some of the stronger male inmates who work on the farm in summer. The open fire is probably rare in any but the small almshouses, yet there are few where it would not be gladly welcomed. SIZE AND CAPACITY The capacity of the almshouse necessarily depends upon the population and conditions in the 13 THE ALMSHOUSE city, town, or county which it serves, and also on the habits and customs of the population. Unfortunately, as a general rule the number of paupers to provide for varies directly with the wealth of a given city or state. In a given state the county with the most paupers in proportion to the whole population is rarely, or never, the county with the least wealth, either absolutely or relatively to the population. This is no place to attempt to explain the seeming anomaly that wealth and poverty increase and diminish side by side. We may only state the bald fact that they at least seem to do so. This volume deals chiefly with almshouses of moderate size with a capacity of from twenty-five to two hundred and fifty inmates. To this class belong at least half of the almshouses in the United States today, and perhaps 50 per cent of the remainder are smaller.* The management of the large institution with thousands of inmates, therefore, is not one which the writer is here attempting to discuss, and fortunately, care of a vast number of paupers in one place, as in the institutions in New York City, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Boston, Chicago, and a few other cities, is not often necessary. In deciding on the capacity of a proposed public building in most parts of this rapidly growing country, the probable increase of the population * See Appendix IV, page i6o, giving the average number of inmates in the almshouses of a number of states. 14 LOCATION AND CAPACITY to be cared for, as well as the immediate demands, should be considered. If the best plan of con- struction, the cottage system, is adopted, it is not necessary to build at first all the cottages that will some day be needed. As will be pointed out in the chapter on Classification, additions may be cheaply built for special classes at a subsequent period, and provided that the main administrative departments are ample, no loss is incurred by beginning with a capacity for a smaller number than will some day be present. On the other hand, to erect a building with halls, dormitories, and day rooms much in excess of present requirements, causes an undue expense, not only in the initial outlay, but still more in the cost of conducting the institution until the time comes, if it ever does, when population catches up with capacity. The best plan, therefore, is to begin with room for only a few more than are at present in sight, and provide for the increase as fast as, or a little faster than, it comes. At the same time, the general plan on which the various buildings are grouped should include place for additions when needed. 15 CHAPTER III CONSTRUCTION BUILDING PLANS IN instructing the architect who is to draw the plans of a new almshouse, several posi- tive requirements should be made from the outset. The important feature is not the fa- fade. The county commissioners, or whoever may be the governing board, are not about to build a monument to themselves, nor to the archi- tect, nor yet a show place for the county. Their purpose is to erect a comfortable, substantial, and economical home for a number of old or feeble persons. The excellence of the floor plan, there- fore, is of more importance than the front eleva- tion. The essential points to notice are classification, which includes complete sex separation; abun- dance of sunlight and fresh air; correct proportion of floor space to the various uses; convenience of access for the administration to every part of the house; and the comfort and convenience of all the inmates. The number of inmates to be provided for at the outset being decided, the proportionate numbers 16 CONSTRUCTION of single bedrooms and dormitories and the floor space which they require can be set down. Then the floor space of the dining rooms and day rooms should be established in due proportion, the space to be occupied by the kitchens and other domestic offices, and that needed for the administration and the rooms for employes. All these matters should be agreed upon before a line is drawn. The general arrangement shown in several of the plans given in this book* has been evolved in the course of the past forty or fifty years, — an arrangement which through usage has become wellnigh standardized. It is based on the princi- ples of convenient management, and sex separation. It consists of a central building for the administra- tion department, with dining rooms, kitchens, and other offices in the "rear center," as it is called, and two wings, one for men and one for women. Occasionally, for very small institutions, there is only one dining room and one infirmary or hospital department, but usually every feature is in duplicate, the dining room being divided into two rooms, so that the only place in which the male and female inmates meet is the chapel or assembly hall. No public institution for defectives, feeble old people, or children should ever be more than two stories in height. One partial exception to this rule is that the "front center," or administration department, may be three stories, the third to be *See pages 20-21, 32-33, and 128-129. CONSTRUCTION used for the bedrooms of employes. The alleged economy of higher buildings is deceptive. While a given amount of floor space can be most cheaply provided in a three- or four-story house, there are many advantages in two-story construction which are sufficiently strong to cause one to reject the higher building. Among these are accessibility to the outdoors, the reduction of labor in both operation and oversight, and the fact that abso- lutely fire-proof construction, with its great cost, is not so necessary. A frequent error in construction is that of dis- proportionate space between the rooms used for different purposes. The writer has seen a county almshouse containing two hundred beds, in which the two dining rooms were overcrowded with fifty inmates in each. It is especially necessary in planning buildings for the care of feeble and old people that the right proportions shall exist in the original plan. A simple formula which may be taken as fairly accurate for dining room, day room, and bedroom floor space is i to 2 to 4; that is, twice the floor space of the dining room for the day room and twice that of the day-room floor for the dormitories. With ceilings 10 feet high, 60 square feet of floor will give the dormitories 600 cubic feet per inmate, 30 square feet for day rooms will give 300, and 1 5 square feet for dining rooms will give 1 50. These proportions, along with good ventilation, will be found satisfactory. It cannot be denied that there are many institutions with a 19. 20 THE ALMSHOUSE considerably smaller amount of floor space per in- mate than is suggested above, which are fairly satisfactory. But when we consider the diificulty of securing good ventilation, the frequent tendency to overcrowding, and the prevalence of other unfavorable conditions, it is well to begin with such a standard as is here set forth. Many almshouses are so faultily planned as to compel the inmates to use the same rooms for both sleeping and living, so that it is impossible properly to air rooms or bedding without exposing the inmates to drafts. Occasionally one even finds meals being served in rooms which the inmates occupy both by day and night. Dormitories should be used for the one purpose only. If the location is favorable the front of the insti- tution should be to the north, since the rooms which most need sunlight are usually placed at the rear of the house. In that case there is a natural four- fold division into the front center, the rear center, the east wing and the west wing. If the cottage plan* is adopted the division is three-fold : first, the administration building, which contains the front and rear centers; second, the cottages for men; and third, those for women. The cottage plan is advisable for a population of one hundred or more, notwithstanding the fact * See Appendix XVII, page 239. Plans shown on pages 20, 32, and 96, are for almshouses with a capacity for thirty-eight, sixty, and two hundred and sixty inmates, respectively. The two smaller are of the congregate type, the larger shows a group of cottages con- nected by covered corridors. 22 CONSTRUCTION that [it is somewhat more expensive. However, connecting covered corridors between the buildings are not necessary, even in the North.* Institutional life cannot be made homelike, yet the more plain and simple the arrangements, the nearer is the approach to homelikeness. " Palaces for paupers,'' as some great almshouses have been called, are not a source of happiness to their inmates. The common people prefer to live with their feet near the ground. DIVISIONS OF THE HOUSE The Front Center. This usually contains the main office of the institution, a reception room, rooms for the use of the superintendent and his family, and rooms for some of the employes. The office should be commodious enough for the work of the institution and it and the reception room, with the entrance hall, should occupy the front of the first floor of the administration building. The superintendent's quarters should be com- * Visiting the Toledo, Ohio, Hospital for Insane, a large institution on the cottage plan, the writer, in conversation with an old lady, one of the inmates, expressed regret that, as the weather was bad, she might be inconvenienced by having to walk across to the central dining hall for dinner. She replied, "Oh, we don't mind that, and then you know if we didn't have to go out to the dining hall, we would never get out of the house at all in bad weather." Reporting her conversation to Dr. Tobey, the superintendent, who had had long experience in hospital work, he said that when he took charge he felt that at any cost, connecting corridors must be built, but that after a few months' experience he changed his mind and would not think of asking for them, as they were quite needless. 23 THE ALMSHOUSE fortable and sufficient ; a public official housed in a public building is entitled to decent accommoda- tion and a reasonable amount of privacy. The apartments should include a sitting room, or parlor, at least three bedrooms with bathroom adjoining, a dining room, and a kitchen. There should be lavatories and toilets on each floor. The private dining room and kitchen for the superin- tendent and his family are often omitted, but this is a serious mistake. While the bearing of the superintendent to his subordinates and the inmates should be of the utmost friendliness, he must avoid familiarity, hence in his hours of relaxation and ease he should have his own private apartments. The Rear Center. Here, on the first floor, are found the dining rooms for the inmates and, in a large institution, a separate dining room for employes, the kitchens, scullery, pantry, and store room. Sometimes also the clothing room can be placed here. The second floor is used for the bedrooms of employes and sometimes for a large dormitory; occasionally, in the larger in- stitutions, for a chapel or assembly room. Sev- eral of the plans shown in this book give a good general idea of the arrangements, which vary indefinitely with the size of the institution. The dining rooms should be well lighted; the scullery is most conveniently placed between the kitchen and the dining room. The kitchen is 24 CONSTRUCTION often of one story with a monitor roof affording ventilation through windows in the monitor. If not so built, careful thought should be given to the ventilation, so that the odors of cooking may not be carried through the house. The Men's and Women's Wings. The first floor of the wings, or cottages, should be given to day rooms, a few small single bedrooms for feeble inmates, the clothing rooms, and the infirmary wards. The second floor should be used for dormitories with lavatories adjoining. In some cases it is necessary to put the infirmary wards on the second floor, and sometimes these are placed on the second floor of the rear center. In any case, they should be placed so that they can be easily reached from the central part of the house, and where they may have good air and plenty of sunshine. The Infirmary Department or Hospital. An almshouse should have beds- enough in its infirmary department for from lo to 12 per cent of its inmates. This does not mean that there will usually, or frequently, be so many sick at any one time, but that it should be possible to give proper care to that number. It follows that for an insti- tution of two hundred or more inmates the hospital should be in a separate building, and even for a population of one hundred, a small detached infirmary cottage is advantageous. Plans for hospital buildings have been elabo- rately worked out and every architect has them, or 25 THE ALMSHOUSE knows where they can be had. 1 1 is only necessary to add here that all that has been said about venti- lation, convenience of toilets and water supply, and general sanitation, applies with special force to the construction of a hospital.* In the smaller almshouses, the infirmaries, or sick wards, should be situated in the wings on the women's and men's sides respectively, preferably on the first floor. But, whether located on the first floor or upstairs, the sick room should have the best air and pleasantest aspect in the house. The advantage of the first floor location is nearness to the working parts of the house, so that it is comparatively easy to wait on those who do not require constant care but need occasional atten- tion, and who are in danger of suffering if not seen frequently. For any but the smallest institu- tions, infirmaries should be subdivided into a large ward, which may hold from four to ten beds, and a small adjoining room suitable for a single patient. The small room should have its own doorway into the hall. This arrangement is very convenient in the event of a single case of contagious disease. Prompt isolation may avert a troublesome and dangerous epidemic. Proximity of the sick room to water supply, bathroom, and toilet is important. It should never be necessary to carry waste water a long * See Proceedings of the National Conference of Charities and Correction for 1888, p. 171, for a valuable paper on the Municipal Hospital, describing construction, etc., by Dr. Ancker, of St. Paul, Minn. 26 CONSTRUCTION distance. On the other hand it is not a good plan to have sinks and stationary washstands in the room itself. Porches or Verandahs. These may be made to add to the attractive appearance of the house, while they are a pleasant and even necessary addition to its accommodations. If the infirmary department is on the second floor, it is well to have the verandah on that part of the house two stories high, so as to afford a convenient and accessible place for the convalescents to enjoy the fresh air. If, as usually happens, there are consumptives to provide for, the verandah of the infirmary may be fitted up as sleeping quarters for them. This does not mean that it is to be screened in by glass win- dows. All that is necessary is sufficient protection for the beds from rain and hard winds, and this can be secured by a wide roof and side boards a little higher than the head of the beds. Dormitories Versus Single Bedrooms. For cleanliness, ventilation, economy of first cost, ease of supervision and other reasons, dormitories con- taining four, six, twelve, or even more beds are so far preferable to small single bedrooms that they should be used as far as practicable. For certain of the older inmates and some others who will be mentioned in the chapter on classification, single bedrooms should be provided, so that the ideal plan is one including dormitories and bed- rooms in due proportion. In large dormitories it is practicable to screen the beds, when necessary, 27 THE ALMSHOUSE in such a way as to give the effect of privacy. If the screens are light and easily moved they inter- fere but little with the advantages which accrue from the dormitory plan. The due proportion between dormitory beds and single room beds will vary in every institution with the character of the inmates and the ability of the management. A fair estimate, based on the writer's experience in the inspection of almshouses in only one state, is that from one-fourth to one-third of the inmates should be given single rooms, a few of the rooms being made larger than the rest so as to accommodate old married couples who may wish to be together in one double bed.* The remaining two-thirds or three-fourths of the popu- lation may then be accommodated in dormitories of various sizes, each containing from four to as many as twenty beds, the variation being, again, in accordance with the character of the inmates to be lodged. The Lavatories. The lavatory or toilet room for each dormitory should always be conveniently accessible. It should never be in the same room but should adjoin it on the same floor, and should contain toilets, wash basins, and bathtubs or shower baths proportionate to the number of beds in the dormitory. If no other inmates use the same set of fixtures, a dormitory with sixteen beds should have a lavatory adjoining it with at least * This plan should not be obligatory; it is frequently the case that old couples prefer to separate. 28 CONSTRUCTION four wash basins, two baths and two water closets. If the number using the same room is doubled, the number of fixtures should be in- creased 50 per cent. In all cases the bathtubs and the toilets should be separately screened. A great deal of time in the use of the bathtubs can be saved by using large faucets. A faucet with a \}i inch opening will fill a bathtub in about one-fourth the time that is taken by one of the usual ^ inch size. Similarly with the discharge pipe; this should be i^ or 2 inches gauge. The difference of time is so marked as to materially increase the bathing capacity of a set of tubs. Three tubs with the large faucets and discharges will accommodate as many bathers, allowing the usual ten minutes' actual bathing time to each, as four tubs with the small faucets. The slight extra cost of the larger faucets may be saved many times over in the first installation, while the temptation to the unsanitary practice of bathing several persons in the same water is much lessened. Laundry. Whenever practicable the laundry should be in a detached building one story high, with a monitor roof allowing for ventilation through the windows in the monitor. As a general proposition in institution economy, the question as to whether machinery shall or shall not be installed in any given department largely depends upon the character of the inmates and the inventiveness of the superintendent in the 29 30 THE ALMSHOUSE Utilization of their labor. But for any number of inmates over forty it is economical to install some machinery, at least one steam washer and a centri- fugal wringer, and when there are a hundred inmates or more, steam dry rooms are essential. Small gas or gasoline engines, of simpleconstruction to give the necessary power, can now be had at moderate cost. Every ironing room should be equipped with a special stove for heating irons. Stoves of this kind are now manufactured which save fuel, and 'also prevent the room's being unduly heated in summer, as is the case when ordinary cook stoves are used for heating irons. Whenever gas, either artificial or natural, is available, that should be used. In a large institution equipped with electric power from its own plant and having surplus power during daylight, irons heated with electricity can sometimes be used. There is no better place to use the rain-water collected from the roofs than in the laundry. If proper care is taken, in most parts of the country during most of the year rain will give a sufficient supply. A little expense in connecting the soft water cisterns with the laundry may often be profitably incurred. If, however, it is necessary to use hard water for laundry purposes, some method of softening it before it is put into the tubs is desirable, otherwise the cost of the excessive quantity of soap needed is a serious item. The question of laundry soap is an important one. Institutions can profitably make their own soft 31 sr^y- "1 32 -,^^<^ i'T-^H— T" ^ J-t -^v- -*7-^«^ 33 T-'-- 1 1 1 < U) T t/5 < ^ ^ 2 O H ^5 , 1 A uT D o S < CONSTRUCTION soap, provided that in doing it they use up refuse grease which otherwise would be wasted or sold at a low price; when they must buy all the materials the profit is doubtful. Chapel or Hall. Religious Services. In any almshouse where the population is too large to be gathered together, temporarily, in one of the sitting rooms, an assembly hall or chapel is necessary. A good place for this is a second story over the dining rooms. At one side of the hall a recess should be made in the wall which could be screened off by a curtain where the Roman Catholics should be invited to erect an altar. At another side a small platform should be built with a reading desk or table for the use of Protestant clergymen. In this hall religious services should be held every Sunday, which the ministers of the different denominations should be invited to conduct, and which should include a Catholic service at least once a month, or as much oftener as a priest can be obtained. Attendance should be optional with the inmates but they should always be encouraged to attend by the example of the superintendent and some, at least, of the employes. If the almshouse is near a town ministers can usually be persuaded to come, especially if the superintendent, having first secured an invitation, will attend the ministers' meeting some Monday morning and prefer his request. If the almshouse is situated a mile or more in the country, a con- veyance from the institution should fetch the 35 THE ALMSHOUSE minister and take him back. The service, of course, should be held in the afternoon at a time to suit the convenience of the ministers or other speakers. If these conditions are met some city priests or ministers or some competent laymen can usually be secured to take turns in coming regularly. In addition to its use for religious services the hall can properly be used for the evening enter- tainments spoken of in the section on Entertain- ments and Amusements.* The ideal chapel would be a detached building of pleasing architecture, in the grounds, so con- structed that the inmates could reach their seats without climbing stairs and to which they might be summoned by the tolling of a bell. This is perhaps only possible in the case of a large institu- tion of, say, two hundred and fifty or more inmates. BUILDING MATERIAL In some states frame buildings for almshouses are held to be in every way satisfactory, it being claimed that they are as durable and safe as those of brick, and cheaper to build. In the West and Middle West, however, any but a brick, stone, or cement building is considered a cheap temporary makeshift, to be done away with as soon as possible. Inside brick fmish is often recommended for almshouse walls, and it has, no doubt, certain great advantages. When painted it is quite easily *SeeChapterIX, p. 136. 36 CONSTRUCTION kept clean and it obviates the need of much of the usual inside wood trimming. It is, however, not much cheaper, if any, than a wall which is lathed and plastered on the inside, since the cost of laying bricks with struck joints, accurately pointed on both sides, is very much greater than that of the usual wall, pointed on one side only. Besides this, the appearance of the inside bricks is not pleasing, and it is difficult to make the box frames for windows and doors fit exactly, or to make the quarter rounds used on the sides tight enough to exclude air. Unless the brick wall is built hollow with an inside air chamber, it is colder than one built with the usual lath and plaster finish, and it is impossible to avoid the condensation of the at- mospheric moisture, commonly called "sweating,'' on the outer-wall side of the rooms. The best wall for all purposes is one with a hard-plaster inside finish, either spread directly on the bricks, in which case the outside walls must be built with an air space in the middle, or upon metal laths attached to furring strips laid in the brick. If the latter plan is adopted and the work is well done, there is little danger of unsightly cracks.* Foundation walls should be of stone, or if brick, a full course of stone or a layer of slate should be used above the surface of the ground to prevent dampness in the upper wall. Roofs should be of * The writer's objection to inside brick finish is based upon over ten years' experience as superintendent of an institution wherein this finish was used. 37 THE ALMSHOUSE slate, tile, or clay-shingles, slate being preferable, and probably the best and permanently the least costly material nearly everywhere. Modern metal roofs are a cheap, temporary device and should never be used. The lead or sheet copper roofs of former days were something quite different. Gutters and down spouts leading to good cisterns should catch and save all the rain-water. The best gutter is one laid in the slate; hanging gut- ters are frequently a cause of trouble, especially in winter. It is desirable in planning an almshouse to use standard sizes for mill-work, doors, windows, etc. Especially should windows be standard, and in as few different sizes as possible so that glass for repairs may be bought by the box instead of a few panes at a time and at a much higher pro- portionate cost.* Floors. The best material for the floors of halls and dining rooms is certainly good hard tile. For kitchens and domestic offices generally, where the wear is harder, and for lavatories where there is likely to be much splashing of water on the floors, good, well-laid and well-trowelled cement is probably the best material; while for day rooms and dormitories hard maple flooring is by far the best available. Hard yellow pine may be used, although it is not nearly so good as maple and * At a recent state conference in Pennsylvania, Dr. A. J. Somers, Jr., of Blair County, told of an institution which had eighteen differ- ent sizes of glass in its windows, and not one of them a standard size. 38 CONSTRUCTION is usually only a trifle, if any, cheaper. Soft pine floors are not suitable to public institutions, being fit for use only when covered with carpets, and carpets should not be used even in the private rooms of the officers or employes. Where the floors must be covered, only rugs that can easily be lifted and shaken should be permitted. Maple flooring should be narrow faced, thor- oughly dry, closely laid. The bottom of the base- board into which the flooring should fit, should be a cove, making perfectly clean sweeping easy. Maple floors, however, must not be scrubbed, as they rapidly decay if not kept perfectly dry. The best as well as the most sanitary treatment of hard-wood floors is by the use of paraflfin and linseed oil in the proportion of one pound of paraffin to one gallon of oil. To apply this dress- ing, the floor must be quite clean and perfectly dry, the paraffin and oil heated and put on with a brush, then rubbed down quickly before it chills. A preliminary coat of hot oil, well rubbed in and allowed to dry, may be used with advantage. The floor so treated must be lightly paraffined and polished daily after sweeping.* The work is quite simple, takes very little time, and can be done by inmates of the lowest mental capacity. * Floor polishers may be made of a block of wood about 24 inches by 4 by 6-— covered on the face with any kind of soft material, such as old wornout blankets, etc. The handle should be about 4^ feet long, attached by means of hinges to the block, so that the latter can rest flat upon the floor. Any man handy with tools can make such a polisher in a few minutes. It is far preferable to the brush some- times sold for the purpose. 39 THE ALMSHOUSE If the floor treated as above described becomes foul and needs other cleansing than the daily sweeping and polishing, as will occur perhaps once or twice a year, it should be scrubbed with strong lye until a new, clean surface of wood is obtained; then the treatment as above described renewed. Floors so treated are sanitary, present a good appearance, and are entirely free from the un- wholesome "institution odor'' which scrubbed floors always or nearly always give out, coming more than anything else from soapy water which soaks into the cracks and cannot be dried out. The surface of a scrubbed floor may appear ex- quisitely clean, but the filth lurks in the cracks and cannot be kept out of them. Filth, according to our modern ideas, means germs, and germs mean disease. The well polished floor is approximately germ proof. HEATING Some central system of heating is almost essen- tial for an almshouse. The best system is without doubt by means of hot water, which has several advantages over steam. With hot water it is possible to heat the building moderately at the approach of cold weather. The heat is better diffused, the radiators never get hot enough to inflict serious accidental burns, and if the fire is allowed to go out, hot water pipes keep warm a great deal longer than steam pipes do. On the 40 CONSTRUCTION Other hand, steam radiators get hot more quickly than water pipes. In operation, steam is about as cheap, and it is decidedly cheaper at first installa- tion because smaller pipes and less radiation are needed. If steam heat is used it should by all means be on a low pressure system. For a large institution the vacuum steam system is very economical. By this method all exhaust steam from machinery, steam kettles, etc. can be carried, below atmospheric pressure, to any distance, and the entire heating value of the steam be realized. Heating by means of hot air from a furnace in the basement is often used in moderate sized buildings. This method, however, is not well suited to an almshouse and is only one remove better than stoves. If the system is properly installed and the furnace room kept scrupulously clean with a proper draft of outside air to the hot-air pipes, the plan does give good, fresh, warmed air in severe cold weather. The most frequent trouble with furnace heat comes from the fact that it is almost impossible to warm a house uniformly. Varying with the wind, the sides of the house will be unequally warmed, while the heat will go most freely to the part where it is least needed, the dormitories. They will be too hot, while the rooms on the first floor are too cold. Steam radiators must be protected by wire screens, or made safe in some other way, in all rooms where defectives are present. Some very 41 THE ALMSHOUSE serious accidents to epileptics and insane people have occurred through their coming in contact with uncovered steam pipes or radiators. All steam or hot water pipes should have some good heat-proof covering. This is a most necessary aid to economy. Steam-pipe covering is expensive and its application is sometimes deferred owing to this fact. When pipes must be left uncovered because of lack of money with which to buy the regular material, a temporary and effective substitute may be used. Corrugated paper, which is very cheap and almost non-inflammable, may be wrapped loosely around the pipes and held in its place by string. While this is not as good as the regular covering and should only be used in a temporary emergency, pipes so protected are very much better than bare pipes.* In the sitting rooms an open grate fire is a pleasant addition to comfort and adds a homelike touch to the appearance of the rooms that nothing else can give. This is especially true in the case of a house in the country, and can usually be afforded by one that possesses a wood-lot. t In some climates the open fire is all the heat neces- sary, but in most parts of the country it must be regarded only as a pleasant addition, or perhaps as * On a visit to Tewksbury, the State Almshouse of Massachusetts, in the fall of 189 1, the writer saw some temporary covering of the kind above described, which Dr. C. Irving Fisher, the superinten- dent at that time, was using on some new construction, while wait- ing for an appropriation to buy the regular material. t Seepage 13. 42 CONSTRUCTION an economy early in the autumn, before it is necessary to do more than take the chill off the air. As a ventilator, the open hearth with a fire burning in it is worth almost all that it costs. LIGHTING Wherever possible, lighting should be by in- candescent electric globes. If the wiring is done with care and according to the best modern methods, this is the safest, as well as the most sanitary system of lighting. It must also be remembered that if the wiring is done carelessly, or by an ignorant workman, electric wires may be a constant source of danger from fire. Many almshouses of moderate size are now lighted by electricity, either from some central system, or generated on the premises by a small individual plant. In some cases, coal gas can be piped from a near-by station, and there are still places where natural gas is available for the pur- pose. If either natural or artificial gas is used it should be by the mantle system. Acetylene gas is used with success in some alms- houses, and certain methods of gasoline vapor- lighting are reasonably safe if properly installed. Almost any one of these systems is preferable to kerosene lamps. If, however, kerosene lamps must be used, certain very positive rules should be laid down and strictly enforced. The stock of kerosene should be kept outside the house, pref- 43 THE ALMSHOUSE erably in a small shed some distance from any other building. The lamps should be cleaned and filled at a certain time and always by daylight, by some employe with whom it is a regular duty; they should never be carried from place to place while lighted, nor lighted at all by anyone but the person assigned to the duty. VENTILATION Whoever, at the on-coming of autumn, starts in to ventilate an almshouse by means of doors, windows, and transoms, has a job before him that will last all winter. Some systematic ventilation by means outside the control of the inmates is imperative. It is probably because the general public does not demand pure air to breathe that architects so generally fail in their plans for ventilation. People seem to think that all that is necessary is to open a hole, even a very small one, and bad air will go out and good air come in. They seem to forget the fact that air will not move, any more than will coal or iron, without force to move it. It is impracticable in this volume to go into the details of a system of ventilation, even were the writer competent to do so. He can only suggest that the architect should be admonished that so-called "natural ventilation," namely, that effected by doors, windows, transoms, and open grates, is never sufficient for an almshouse or for 44 CONSTRUCTION any other institution, especially one for defectives; and that he be required to provide in the original plans for a thorough and complete ventilating system. Such a system can never be installed later after the house is once built. 45 CHAPTER IV THE ADM INISTRATION THE GOVERNING BOARD UPON the governing board, the County Commissioners, or Board of Supervisors, or Overseers, etc., as they are called in various states, rests the final responsibility for the good administration of the almshouse. They cannot discharge this responsibility without giving a great deal of personal attention to the details of management. This implies more than merely a careful audit of the accounts with occasional visits during the monthly or quarterly sessions of the board at a time when they are expected. Frequent visits at irregular periods and careful inspection of every part of the institution are required and are always productive of good. On such visits the inmates should be seen, and, without inviting complaints, any one having a complaint to make should be courteously heard. The time to correct errors and remedy things that have gone wrong is at the beginning before they have gone far wrong. The duties and responsibilities of the superin- tendent of an institution are numerous and heavy. 46 THE ADMINISTRATION The members of the governing board can be of great help to their superintendent by frequent visits and intelligent counsel. He feels that they are equally interested with himself in the success of the administration to which they have appointed him, and when speaking to one of them, is sure of a sympathetic listener. Again, the more intimately the members of the board know the details of management the better equipped they will be to decide on the expenditure of money in matters of repairs and improvements. In some states, where there are three commis- sioners in each county, it is usual to appoint one of the three as a special committee of one on the almshouse. This is usually the one who lives nearest the institution. In other places the duty is taken by the different members in rotation. Either plan may work well; the important point in this connection is that some one interested shall be in close touch with all that goes on and ready with a word of counsel and advice at the opportune moment. The standard of administration in any public institution will be what the governing board insists upon or allows. It may be taken as axiomatic that good business management pays both in cash and in human well-being. Useless waste and extravagance are no better for the inmates than for the taxpayers. Sometimes it would seem as though the care and custody of the county's property is considered more important 47 THE ALMSHOUSE than the care and custody, or the welfare, of the dependent inmates. But, usually, good care of the house goes with good care of the inmates. As has already been stated, we generally fmd the best business management in the most comfortable, cleanly, and orderly institutions, and a poorly managed, disorderly, and uncomfortable almshouse among the most costly. THE SUPERINTENDENT This oificer should be chosen strictly on his merits and with entire disregard of politics. Perhaps no worse plan of choosing could be devised than to solicit bids and give the place to the lowest bidder.* Instead, the commissioners should fix the salary and fmd the best man they can get for the price. He should be paid a reasonable salary and have no personal or pecuniary interest in the crops, the live stock, or any property about the institution, except such as comes from the knowl- edge that if the institution is well managed his position will be a permanent one. The qualifications needed for a superintendent are not very often united in one man. He should be a practical farmer and one who farms with brains, and not merely follows a routine of old custom. He must have fair business ability, strict integrity, good habits, even temper, a kind * This was formerly practiced almost universally in more than one state. 48 THE ADMINISTRATION heart, and a good reputation among his neighbors in the county. The inmates of an almshouse are of various classes. Differing in intellectual capacity and personal habits, they yet tend to a common level of life and manners; if they are uncontrolled, this common level is more likely to be that of the lowest than of the highest among them. The efforts of the superintendent must, therefore, be constantly bent to the physical and moral im- provement of those he has in charge. It should never be forgotten that the responsi- bility for the moral tone of the almshouse, and to some extent for the actions of the inmates, rests upon the superintendent and upon the commis- sioners who appoint him. The disability of the chronic pauper is more of the mind than of the body. Weak in will, infirm of purpose, he will yield to firm control, especially the control of one who shows that he wishes him well, and that the regulations he makes are for the benefit of the inmates as much as for that of the managers. It may be objected that such a theory of manage- ment demands a man of more than ordinary character and sense of duty, and this must be granted. No superintendent who takes the place merely for the money there is in it will be per- manently successful in management. Character is of greater consequence than ability as farmer or business man, and should be the first requirement exacted by the commissioners in their choice. 4 49 THE ALMSHOUSE One of the most important duties of the superin- tendent is the division of the labor of the inmates. Often a few willing workers are taxed almost beyond their strength, while the majority spend their time in idle gossiping and petty quarrels. As far as possible each inmate should have some specified daily duty. Even the old and feeble should have some light task suited to their strength, and the able-bodied should be required to do a full day's work every day. This requires much intelligent thought on the part of the super- intendent and matron, but if successfully done the improved tone of the institution will repay the effort.* The appointments and dismissals and the control of his subordinates are among the superintendent's chief responsibilities. The governing board should decide on the number and compensation of the employes, but the superintendent should be given full authority over them, and they should feel that they keep their positions because they loyally and efficiently co-operate with him in his work. The superintendent must be held responsible for the actions of the employes, therefore he must have authority over them.j Otherwise discipline is impossible. * For particulars of employment, see the section on Occupation and Labor, page 74. t See Appendix V, page 163. Section 3 of the Indiana Law. 50 THE ADMINISTRATION THE MATRON As a general rule, especially in the smaller alms- houses, the matron should be the wife of the superintendent. Her qualifications are as impor- tant as those of her husband. Occasionally we find a man competent to attend to domestic details in addition to carrying on the general management of the institution and the farm, but usually the comfort and order of the house depend upon the house-mother. The female inmates are her special charge and in small almshouses she must care for the sick. It is evident that a young mother with a group of little children of her own to care for, will have neither time nor strength for these duties. Usually, therefore, a married couple without children, or one whose children have grown up and started life for themselves, must be chosen. It goes without saying that the matron must be a thoroughly competent housekeeper able to direct the inmates and the hired help in every detail of work. Usually a successful farmer's wife, accustomed to doing the woman's part on a farm, has the necessary knowledge and experience. But it is not enough to know how to do the work; the art of managing the labor of others, many of them far from competent, must also be possessed by a good matron. More domestic failures come from lack of this ability than from all other causes put together. In large institutions it is practicable to divide 51 THE ALMSHOUSE the labor of oversight into departments, each under a competent head. But in small ones the matron must direct the kitchen and the laundry, the dining and sick room, the clothing and store- room, and the dairy. She must assign the em- ployment of the female inmates and teach them how to work. The winter stock of preserved and canned provisions, perhaps also the salted and smoked meats, must be put up under her direction, and often also even the care of the chickens and younger live stock is regarded as within her province. With all these many duties is the constant and never ending one of patient, kindly, and tactful treatment of inmates, employes and the occasional visitor. Successful administration depends more than anything else upon tactful management, avoidance of friction, and the removing beforehand of any cause of complaint. THE SUBORDINATE EMPLOYES The number and occupation of the subordinate employes will vary with the size and the methods of the almshouse. As a general rule it may be said that they should be of a higher grade, both intellectually and morally, than people engaged in similar work which is non-institutional. Like the superintendent, they must be chosen for their character and ability alone. The almshouse is no place for the payment of political debts, nor for 52 THE ADMINISTRATION the^'shelter (except as inmates) of incompetents who have failed in ordinary business. The subordinate employes should feel them- selves to be the superintendent's assistants. They must not only be competent in their own departments, but they must have the ability to direct the labor of others, many of whom are among the least capable of their kind. What is said in the preceding page about the qualifications for the superintendent and matron applies to all employes. They must be of kindly and cheerful disposition and must possess a full share of tact. The most efficient employe, if of an irritable or over-quick temper, is out of place among feeble and defective people. The salaries paid should be enough to attract competent help and to keep them. If they do their full duty their task is always onerous and often irksome. To expect faithful service in a disagreeable position from able persons of good character, and to offer them in return wages below, sometimes much below, those paid for less trying duties of a similar character outside the institution, is simply folly. Yet this is exactly what is being done in many large city almshouses, and the result is what might be rightfully expected — incompetent, perpetually changing help, and resulting discom- fort to the inmates and waste to the city. 53 THE ALMSHOUSE VISITORS AND INSPECTORS In discussing location it was asserted that accessibility, both for the sake of economy of time and money in conveying new inmates and also for the convenience of visitors, was a proper consideration in choosing a site for an alms- house. Visitors are of three classes. The first are the friends or relatives of the inmates. These should be welcomed at all proper times. It is usual and well to have certain days and hours for such visiting, although in case of sickness or other emergency, these should not be too strictly en- forced. The second class consists of the citizens of the county who wish to see the institution because it is a part of the public service. As a general rule, citizens should be admitted quite freely and escorted through the building, but care should be exercised that the feeble or defective should not be made into a show for the gratification of idle curiosity. The third and most important visitors are those having some oificial connection with the public service: the county commissioners or the circuit judges; members of the county board of charities; inspectors of the state board of charities or the state board of health and others. Along with these and of equal importance are representatives of the press and members of charitable societies or committees, ministers of the various churches and other people who may 54 THE ADMINISTRATION be assumed to take more than a general interest in the care of the poor. When visitors of the third class appear, it is well for the superintendent or matron to escort them in person so that their various questions may be promptly and fully answered. They should be made to feel that their interest is appre- ciated and that their visits are desired. Courte- ous attention of this kind is very well bestowed, and even captious or frivolous criticism should be politely received and answered. The officials of the institution ought to feel ready at all times to give an account of their stewardship to the public whose servants they are. Every public officer needs the support of a favorable public opinion. It should be his ambi- tion to deserve it and his pleasure to show facts upon which it can be based. This does not mean that he is to minimize or conceal defects that are out of his power to remedy. He may be confident that the majority of the taxpayers desire public institutions to be properly conducted. If they believe the money they pay is honestly spent for the comfort of the poor they will not grudge the cost. If, however, they see evidence of neglect and avoidable suffering, they will be rightly dis- satisfied. There have been many cases in which the pub- licity given by the visits of influential citizens to some decaying or neglectedinstitution has resulted in improvements which had been refused by the 55 THE ALMSHOUSE ' authorities because they would cost the taxpayers some money. Often such pubHcity, with the help of the newspapers, is the only thing which can bring about reforms. In this connection the superintendent ought to value and make the most of the visits of inspec- tion made by the agents of the board of state charities, where these useful boards exist. These agents give their whole time to inspection and their eyes are trained to notice things that often are overlooked, even by people who see them every day. Their advice, if they can be induced to speak freely (which is not always possible), is often of great value. While they are not them- selves administering institutions, they are familiar with the conditions of a great many of them and they can usually suggest some way of meeting almost any difficulty that may arise. Such visitors with the influence that they possess, can be and usually are, the best and most helpful friends of every public servant who is doing his duty. If they are met in the right spirit by the faithful official, their visits will not be dreaded nor disliked but will be welcome breaks in the monot- ony- of institution life. 56 CHAPTER V THE INMATES CLASSES ADMITTED A FEW years ago, almost everywhere, in- mates of almshouses were, and in too many places they still are, a very heterogeneous mass, representing alrnost every kind of human distress. Old veterans of labor worn out by many years of ill-requited toil, alongside of worn out veterans of dissipation the victims of their own vices; the crippled and the sick; the insane; the blind; deaf mutes; feeble-minded and epileptic; people with all kinds of chronic diseases; unmar- ried mothers with their babies; short term prison- ers; thieves, no longer physically capable of crime; worn out prostitutes, etc.; and along with all these, little orphaned or deserted children, and a few people of better birth and breeding reduced to poverty in old age by some financial disaster, often through no fault of their own.* From this very heterogeneous mass, one class after another has been segregated. The segrega- tion has rarely, if ever, been based on scientific * See Appendix VI, page 171, The Function of the Almshouse. 57 THE ALMSHOUSE principles or according to any systematic plan. Not that class which could be the most benefited, nor the one whose removal would most benefit the institution itself, has been the first to be taken away; but public interest has been aroused con- cerning some suffering people whose conditions have been seen to be extremely bad in the alms- house, and the result has been a new institution for this particular class. These specialized institu- tions have generally been conducted by the state, while almshouses in this country, with one or two exceptions, are conducted by counties, towns or cities. Hence has arisen a controversy in many places between the advocates of state care and the advocates of county care for different classe^s of defectives and dependents, and that opposition to centralization which is characteristic of a demo- cratic form of government, has had something to do in hindering further institutional development. During the course of years, in all progressive states, many of the various classes of people mentioned above have been removed to institu- tions specially equipped for them. For instance, it is now illegal in many states to allow a child between two and sixteen years of age to remain in an almshouse more than a few days or a few weeks. State care of the insane now largely prevails in theory, and in few places are violent and dangerous maniacs permitted in the alms- house. As a rule, the only blind and deaf persons now remaining are those who are very old. The 58 THE INMATES feeble-minded are segregated in many states, although nowhere is the segregation of this class complete. The same is true in a less degree of the epileptic. It seems probable that in a few years the almshouse everywhere will really be what it is called in New York City, "The Home for the Aged and Infirm." This latter view is the one that prevails in the present volume. While some paragraphs are devoted to the care of certain of the other classes mentioned above, the assump- tion that they are not properly housed in the alms- house is always to be understood. When all other classes have been segregated, the final and permanent class, the aged and infirm, is by no means a homogeneous one. Uniformity of economic condition, the fact that all are alike poor and dependent, does not make them alike socially, nor justify absolute uniformity of treat- ment; and the administration that does not distinguish between the victims of misfortune and the victims of vice, cannot be just to either class. To doom decent, honest, cleanly men and women to close association with diseased, vicious, and filthy persons, is as unfair as it is cruel.* It would be as reasonable to say that every sick patient in a hospital should be fed or nursed exactly like every other, as to insist that all almshouse inmates should be treated alike. The classifica- tion between male and female, or between adult * See Chapter V and also Appendix Vll, pages i8i and 193, de- scribing tile Social Classifications in English and Danish Poorhouses. 59 THE ALMSHOUSE and juvenile, is not more necessary than that between the decent, cleanly poor, and the de- praved and degraded pauper. METHODS OF ADMISSION The oificer authorized to give the order of admission to the almshouse is usually the overseer of the poor of the township in which the applicant resides. In some states the justice of the peace has the same authority; occasionally we fmd ad- mission is granted by the board of county commis- sioners, and in some places commitments are made by judges. Whoever gives the order it is in writing and is mandatory; /. e., the superintendent has no choice, but must receive every one who comes with a legal order. Sometimes an inmate who has been dismissed for serious misconduct at once applies to the overseer of the poor for a new admission order, which he obtains, and presents, to the great em- barrassment of the superintendent. On this and other accounts it is desirable that the superinten- dent establish a cordial understanding with the overseers of the poor, so that they may work in harmony. I n case it should be necessary to dismiss an inmate for cause, the superintendent should at once notify the overseer of the township to which he belongs of the fact and the reason for it. The necessity of convincing persons asking for admission that the institution has rul^s which they must obey, has induced some superintendents to 60 THE INMATES interest overseers in a form of admission which should leave no doubt in the mind of the inmate as to what is expected of him. The following is an admission form that has been extensively used : May I, 1911 To the Superintendent of the Almshouse County of Washington You are hereby directed to admit John Doe from Center township as an inmate of your institution and to keep him there so long as he is obedient to its rules and regulations. It is understood and agreed that so long as he continues an inmate of the Institution he will cheerfully perform any labor within his ability that shall be assigned to him. Signed, Richard Roe, Overseer of the Poor, Center Township ADMISSION OF UNFIT PERSONS* The admission of persons not properly within the care of an almshouse is something that must be guarded against. Sometimes admission of people who have sufficient means of support is secured by undue influence of various kinds — political, friendly, occasionally even sectarian. Quite frequently old people will be brought in who have sons or daughters well able financially to care for them, and who are legally bound to do so. It is evidently an imposition on the taxpayer to support such persons at public expense. In some states the county authorities are in the * See Appendix VI, page 171, The Function of the Almshouse. 61 THE ALMSHOUSE habit of receiving persons who have some means of their own or whose children can support them, and of collecting a moderate sum for their board. A few years ago, with a view to compelling those responsible (and able) to contribute to their support, an investigation was made of the in- mates of the county almshouse and the county hospital for the insane in Hudson County, New Jersey. One week's work resulted in guarantees of $2,600 per annum from relatives towards maintenance.* It is obvious from the nature of an almshouse that it is not and should not be considered a place of punishment. Yet in some places we find judges committing short-term prisoners to it and a similar practice once prevailed and still exists in some states in regard to disorderly persons.! This is due to sentiments of humanity on the part of the judge, who feels that the jail is an unfit place and that there is no fit place avail- able. The first distinction that we make in considering those for whom the public must care, is between dependents and delinquents. To complicate the care of the aged and infirm poor with that of * See Proceedings of National Conference of Charities and Correc- tion, 1906, p. 47. t See Appendix VIII, p. 198, County Houses of Correction in New Hampshire. A statute of Pennsylvania fixes a penalty for vagrancy as "Commitment to labor upon any County farm, or upon the roads and highways of any city, county, township, or borough, or in any house of correction, poorhouse, workhouse, or common jail, for a term not less than thirty days and not exceeding six months." 62 THE INMATES short-term prisoners or disorderly persons is an exceedingly unfortunate arrangement. Until the methods of our almshouses and the laws governing them shall be radically changed so as to insure restraint and employment, as is done in the Dan- ish Workhouse mentioned in Appendix VII, page 193, we shall not be able to hold people against their will. When tramps are received they may be re- garded as delinquents by those who send them, but in admitting and feeding them the superin- tendent is extending public relief. Besides persons with support, either actual or potential, and delinquents, there are many others often sent to almshouses who should be otherwise provided for. Among these are the insane, epileptic, and feeble-minded, and children both defective and normal. While most states now care for the vio- lently insane in state or county hospitals, there are and probably will long be, many of the chronic and harmless of this class in almshouses. In the chap- ter on Defectives, some instances of the kind are given.* Epileptics in a few states are now provided for in special state institutions. It seems probable that many more communities will follow the example. But no state has so far provided for all of even the dependent epileptics, and many of them are certain for a long time to be necessarily sheltered in almshouses. With the exception of the senile, the feeble- *See Chapter VIII, p. 126. 63 THE ALMSHOUSE minded constitute perhaps the largest single class of the almshouse population. The possibility of the state taking charge of all of them seems still remote, and many of the men, and the women who are above child-bearing age, may be cared for in this institution with little danger of evil conse- quences. Among this class are often found the best working inmates. The feeble-minded chil- dren, on the contrary, should by all means be sent to a state school where they may be educated for at least partial self-support. The same is em- phatically true of the deaf and blind; dependent adults may be allowed in the almshouse, children never. The laws of all progressive states now prohibit the presence of normal children in almshouses. If there is an infallible evidence of backwardness in a commonwealth, the permitting its normal children to be trained in pauperism — which is what being brought up in an almshouse means — is such evidence. In states where this is still legal the aim of the superintendent when children are sent in should be to get them into good homes just as soon as possible. Cases of sickness are treated in another chapter.* No general rule can be laid down for them, and the condition of the particular almshouse must also be considered; where this has become indeed the county hospital, t it is an appropriate place to take * Chapter VII, page 1 17. t See Appendix III, page 158, County Hospitals. 64 .»} J 3 3 J 3 » » J > • 91 3 3 >»3 u THE INMATES a case of serious illness. If, however, the hospital department is poorly equipped and the nursing is untrained, those who are seriously ill should, if possible, be cared for elsewhere. CLASSIFICATION No one part of almshouse administration has more to do with order and comfort than the proper classification of the inmates. This is difficult in a very small institution, and it is in a certain sense not so necessary, except as to the separation of the sexes, since the matron comes into imme- diate relation with every individual inmate. As soon as the number increases so as to make such individualization impossible, the necessity of strict classification arises. The first and most obvious division is of the sexes. It is impossible to be too strict in this. The separation should be absolute and constant. It means not merely separate dormitories and day rooms, but separate dining rooms and recreation yards. Even when the inmates present are quite old people the separation must be complete, for new inmates may be admitted at any time for whom the precautions are imperative. The rule, there- fore, should be a permanent one. It should be impossible for men and women to make a harmful acquaintance which, though safeguarded in the institution, can be continued outside if the inmates 5 65 THE ALMSHOUSE choose to leave.* Cases have been known of a man and a woman leaving simultaneously, and after a few days' debauch successfully gaining re-admittance, with the result of the birth of a child in the almshouse in due process of time. The only exception to the separation of sexes should be in the case of old married couples. For them a special department should be arranged, all the better if it is outside the main building. If sex separation is necessary with the normal inmates, it is pre-eminently so with the feeble- minded. The treatment of feeble-minded women in almshouses forms one of the worst chapters in the history of institution mismanagement. In a few states the beginnings of proper control of the feeble-minded women of child-bearing age, by means of a state institution, have been made. In none, however, is that control complete, and there are many almshouses in the land where there may be found idiotic or imbecile women with illegitimate children, often both begotten and born there. t In almshouses almost everywhere, and notably in the small rural communities, much of the popu- lation will be constant for many years. Permanent inmates are entitled to a great deal of very kindly consideration. Many of them are decent persons whose old age dependency is due to no fault of * See section on Sex Relations in the large English workhouses, Ap- pendix I, page 141. t See Appendix IX, page 201, Imbeciles in Almshouses. 66 THE INMATES their own, or at worst to a lack of thrift ; sometimes it is the result of too much generosity. For such people everything possible should be done to make the almshouse really a "home for the aged and infirm," and they should especially be spared association with the unruly or vicious. An ad- mirable method for the housing of the better classes of inmates is to provide small cottages of one or two rooms, detached from the main building, in which an old married couple or two old people of the same sex may live together. This plan has been adopted to a small extent in England,* and also in a few places in this country, with excellent results. The writer, many years ago, saw an example of cottage homes in Hamilton County, Indiana. At the rear of the main building across a grass plot, was a row of small frame cottages of one room each. In front of them was a long porch, its pillars covered with climbing roses and morning glories. Each little shanty, for they were nothing more, was occupied by two old men or two old women, or an old married couple. Abundant natural gas, found on the farm, made the matter of heating and lighting simple. Each cottage had a small cook stove which served also to heat the apartment. The walls were whitewashed. The furniture in most of them had been brought from a former home, and so each room looked quite different from every other. At the end of the row * See Appendix VII, page 183. 67 THE ALMSHOUSE lived an old physician, once quite well off, with a practice at the county seat, and his wife, reduced to poverty at the ages of eighty and seventy- five by accident and other misfortunes. They had their own featherbed, bureau and chairs, a good library of books, and a few pictures. They made their own breakfast and supper, sometimes going over to the "brick house" for dinner, some- times not. They were devoutly thankful, since they had to end their days in the almshouse, that their lot had fallen so as to include even a one-room cottage which they might have to themselves. The superintendent of that almshouse said that when there was a vacant place in one of the six shanties the other inmates competed for the privi- lege of occupying it. To move into it, however, was a reward of merit, and the best behaved, most cleanly inmates were chosen to receive the favor. A very similar plan to the above, except that it was deliberately adopted and the cottages were built and equipped for the purpose, is to be found in certain English almshouses (workhouses). In one of these, all the inmates are divided into four classes and their treatment varies accordingly. The classifications are based on the owner's past life, rather than upon his present character and habits, although these are taken into account and may in some instances lead to a re-classification.* It will be gravely questioned whether a rigid classification of the kind would be suitable to our * See section on Cottage Homes in Appendix VII, page 183. 68 THE INMATES American ideafof equality. Yet there is no doubt that such a modified division into classes as is suggested by the above account of what was done in Hamilton County, Indiana, might be properly adopted. In fact, something of the kind is prac- ticed in many of the smaller' almshouses. While it is not often practicable to lodge the better grade of inmates in individual cottages, since these are not to be found, it is quite feasible to group them together at the tables in the dining room, to have different sitting rooms and assign places to them there, and in other ways relieve them of the affliction of uncongenial and coarse or vicious association. Precise methods of affecting social classification cannot be given here. The important thing is to have the justice as well as the kindness of the method pointed out, and then the management of each institution can work out the details for its own people according to their several needs.* RULES Many zealous superintendents, especially newly appointed ones, anxious to develop an improved administration, make the mistake of enacting and printing a long and elaborate code of rules for the government of an almshouse. In general it may * See Appendix VII, p. i8i, extract from the British Royal Com- mission Report; also paper on the Firvale Union Cottage Homes, by Mrs. Alice N. Lincoln of Boston, p. 183. 69 THE ALMSHOUSE be maintained that the shortest *de is the best code.* The late Dr. Richard Gundry, superintend- ent of the Maryland Hospital for the Insane, used to declare that the one, all-suificient rule of an institution was the apostolic maxim, "Let every- thing be done decently and in order," but this would appear to be carrying brevity to an extreme. A few general rules in regard to remaining on the premises; hours of rising, retiring, and meals; bathing and cleanliness of person, of clothing, and of premises; labor, indoor and outdoor; proper use of rooms, at proper hours; smoking and spit- ting; may wisely be adopted and posted in one or two places in the halls and sitting rooms. In most almshouses inmates will be found of such varying classes and degrees of health and vigor that it is diificult to make rules of universal applica- tion. It is well, therefore, to frame them so as to allow, or call for, decisions by the superintendent. For example, the rule as to going to bed may be stated: "The inmates will retire and rise at such hours as may be ordered by the Superintendent, in accordance with their physical condition and their employment." The rule about work may read: " Every inmate will be expected to do the work assigned for him or her, by the Superintendent or his assistants, the work assigned to be appropriate to the inmate's physical and mental condition." * See remarks on enforcing rules, in Advice to a Superintendent, Appendix X, page 215. 70 THE INMATES The rule aboutBaving the premises: "No inmate may leave the premises temporarily without per- mission from the Superintendent. Leaving without permission is regarded as taking a discharge and the person cannot be re-admitted without a new order from the Overseer or other officer having authority to admit/' The rule as to smoking depends upon whether a special smoking room is provided, and might read: "No person is allowed to smoke on the premises, except in the room provided for the purpose, or outside the house, but not within lOO feet of the barn or stable." The rule as to bathing: "Every inmate shall take a full bath at the hour appointed by the Superinten- dent or Matron, but not less often than once a week." Similar rules may be enacted to cover other points of management; and as a law without a penalty is of little value, a final rule of the code might read: "It is the duty of the Superintendent to control the institution and to maintain good order and proper conduct throughout. He is responsible for the observance of the above rules and also of such other directions as he may find necessary to give from time to time. Inmates refusing obedience may be punished by temporary deprivations (except of the necessaries of life), or by temporary seclusion, or otherwise, in the judgment of the Superintendent. Any inmate showing vio- lence to another inmate or gross disrespect to the Superintendent or his assistants, shall be liable to be secluded or discharged." 71 THE ALMSHOUSE Any code of rules which is aa^)ted should be carefully considered by the governing board (the county commissioners or board of supervisors, as the case may be), and when adopted should be signed by the board, as well as by the superin- tendent, and a statement to that effect should be printed below the rules. The statement might read as follows : "The above code of rules for the Washington County (or town) Almshouse has been read and approved by the under- signed (Signed by each member) Richard Roe John Doe Abraham Manson Board of Commissioners, Washington County, Dated May I, 1911. DISCIPLINE In considering the necessity of good order it must always be remembered that it is much easier to adapt the almshouse to the ideas of the paupers than to adapt the paupers to the standards that an almshouse ought to maintain. Hence the value of good discipline, which does not mean severity, but does mean comfort, order, and se- renity for administration and inmates. For gross insubordination or for any other mis- behavior which threatens the good order of the institution and the comfort of the inmates, dis- charge, after sufficient warning and the failure of milder methods, should be the penalty. This does 72 THE INMATES not apply to me insane or feeble-minded who, no matter what happens, must be otherwise con- trolled. The only punishment which ought ever to be inflicted in an almshouse is a temporary depriva- tion of some privilege,* or of some of the less necessary portion of the dietary (in no case should the traditionary "bread and water" diet be imposed), or by temporary seclusion under lock and key. Every case of discipline of the kind .should be entered on the daily journal, with the particulars of the offense and the names of wit- nesses who may be called if necessary. This record should be read and the case looked into, if it appears necessary, by the commissioner or supervisor who has special charge of the almshouse, at his next visit, and his approval or disapproval should be written in ink on the face of the record and signed. In states having boards of state charities the daily journal should always be sub- mitted to the inspector of that board at the time of his annual visit, or on his request, at any time. COMPLAINTS In all institutions, no matter how well con- ducted, where inmates are feeble, old, or defective, * It is practically impossible to prevent the use of tobacco in an almshouse, and to deprive people who have been accustomed to using it for many years is severe if not cruel. Consequently, many super- intendents make an effective means of discipline out of their inmates' weakness in this direction, giving it as a reward or refusing it as a punishment. 73 THE ALMSHOUSE a certain amount of complaint is Bi*mal and to be expected. To listen to such complaints with kindness and courtesy, and a degree of sympathy; to correct any error, no matter how slight; to explain the impossibility of consenting to unreason- able requests, and to grant all that are reason- able, is a part of the business of the institution, devolving first upon the superintendent and, second, upon the governing board. A little time and effort so used is very well spent, and must not in any case be considered a reflection upon the administration. There are two possible conditions as to complaints where grave mismanagement is to be feared ; namely, when there is a great deal of complaint and when there is none at all. The latter case is almost certain evidence of a rule of fear, which is much to be deplored. Any inmate, therefore, wishing to complain of his treatment should be freely allowed to do so, and the governing board should most strictly reprehend any attempt by a superintendent to prevent an inmate's making a complaint, no matter how ill- founded or frivolous it may be. OCCUPATION AND LABOR There is no more important part of almshouse administration than the employment of the inmates. While their labor in many cases has little cash value, it is none the less valuable for other reasons. 74 > * t • > 1 >* THE INMATES It may be stated as a rule to which there is no exception that every inmate, except the bed-ridden ones, should have some employment during a part of every day, and the more fully the usual working hours are occupied the better.* All able-bodied inmates who are not violently insane should be given a full day's work daily in the house or out- doors. Usually the men are employed on the farm, in the garden, barn, and stable, the roads, and at the fences. Women work in the kitchen, laundry, sewing room, etc. There are, however, certain outdoor occupations which are admirably suited for women. Among these may be men- tioned the fmer parts of kitchen gardening, such as weeding, hoeing, setting out plants; care of the flower garden in general; small fruit culture; the care of chickens and young live stock. While the majority of women inmates prefer the domestic tasks of the house, a few will occasionally be found who are much happier as well as healthier when given outdoor labor suited to their strength; and conversely, among the defective men in the almshouse will often be found some who will do the domestic much better than the outdoor work. The hardest work of the laundry, especially if machinery is used, should be done by men, not by * Certain persons who seek the almshouse as a place of ease where they may live well without work, when they find they have to work regularly, obey rules, and practice personal cleanliness, will not re- main. Of course such people should not be given admission in the first instance, but, especially in severe weather, an overseer of the poor inclines to err, if at all, on the side of mercy, and will usually give an applicant concerning whom he is uncertain, the benefit of the doubt, 75 •jt I 1 N 1 M n I 76 -1 ^ feet long 8. 223 THE ALMSHOUSE Names of Articles Needed. Quantity Needed. Bed spreads, "White Thorn". . . . yi dozen. Linoleum, 8/4 wide 17 yards. Mosquito bar 4 bolts. Thread, "O. N. T." 6 dozen spools. Silkoline, i yard wide 10 yards. Large sized Turkish bath towels. . yi dozen. Large sized linen toilet towels. . . . Yz dozen. Carpet chain, white 10 pounds. Carpet chain, colored 15 pounds. White Swiss curtains, 40 in. wide x 144 in. long 4 pairs. Nottingham lace curtains, good quality 4 pairs. Class "B." Groceries. H. & E. fine granulated sugar. . . .400 pounds. Best "Rio" coffee, roasted 100 pounds. No. 2 "Young Hyson" tea 10 pounds. Best quality La. rice 50 pounds. Babbitt's soap 4 boxes. Ivory soap 25 bars. Red Seal lye . i case. Royal baking powder 4 pounds. Ground pepper, best shot 5 pounds. Good lump starch 50 pounds. Yeast Foam " 3^ box. American ball blue ^ gross. Best quality brooms, No. 2 % dozen. Best quality brooms. No. 3 14 dozen. Palmetto scrubbing brushes lA dozen. Fine twist cotton mops, 2 oz 14. dozen. Perfection coal oil 100 gallons. Soda, "Arm and Hammer" 5 pounds. Three-hooped wooden buckets . . . % dozen. Pearl, "McBeth" lamp chimneys. No. I I dozen. 224 APPENDIX XIII Names of Articles Needed. Quantity Needed. Pearl, "McBeth" lamp chimneys, No. 2 I dozen. Morgan sapolio i dozen bars. Worcester salt 25 pounds. H. P; navy beans 3 bushels. Mother's Oats i case. N. Y. cream cheese 5 pounds. Ground cinnamon i pound. Ground cloves i pound. Ground allspice i pound. Ginger i pound. Elastic starch J/2 dozen boxes. Moss Rose syrup >^ bbl. or 30 gallons. Michigan butter crackers i barrel. Mekin ware dishes, 100 pieces. ... i set. Good prunes 25 pounds. Good dried peaches 25 pounds. Honey-Drip canned corn i case. Canned tomatoes i case. Early Ohio seed potatoes 10 bushels. Class "C." Drugs. Carbolic acid 2 gallons. Camphor i quart. Turpentine i quart. Sulphur 5 pounds. Copperas 5 pounds. Rochelle salts 2 pounds: Castor oil i quart. Chloride of lime 5 pounds. Arnica i quart. Ammonia i quart. Jamaica ginger i pound. Glycerine i quart. Borax i pound. Alcohol I quart. 15 225 THE ALMSHOUSE Names of Articles Needed. Quantity Needed. Neat foot oil i gallon. Quinine i ounce. Paregoric i quart. Tangle-foot fly paper i case. Good quality white-wash brushes . >^ dozen. " Mixed paints i gallon. Class "D." Men's Clothing. Heavy cotton socks 2 dozen pairs. Suspenders J/2 dozen pairs. Bandanna handkerchiefs i dozen. Working shirts, heavy grade 2 dozen. Men's all wool suits 4. Men's working jackets >^ dozen. Straw hats i dozen. Light weight underwear ^2 dozen suits. Men's overalls ^2 dozen pairs. Men's cotton pants }4 dozen pairs. Class "E." Shoes. Men's heavy shoes, good quality . 10 pairs. Women's medium weight shoes. . . 12 pairs. Old ladies' shoes K dozen pairs. Class "F." Meats. Good fresh beef 300 pounds. Class "G." Tobacco. Star plug 24 pounds. Scrap smoking 15 pounds. Notice to bidders. Blank forms for bids may be obtained on re- quest from the county auditor at the court house. All goods are purchased subject to the inspection and approval of the superinten- dent. Goods are to be delivered at the county asylum or in Conners- ville at the option of the superintendent. The commissioners reserve the right to reject any or all bids. 226 APPENDIX XIV WORK HOUSE NURSING From the Introduction to Una and her Paupers, by Florence Nightingale A very touching and beautiful story illustrating the need of proper nursing in a large city almshouse and showing the results that may be attained, is told in Una and her Paupers,* a memoir of Agnes Elizabeth Jones, by her sister. The introduction was written by Florence Nightingale, who gave her the fanciful name of " Una," because her paupers were more untameable than lions. Miss Nightingale says of her: "In less than three years she had reduced one of the most disorderly hos- pital populations in the world to something like dis- cipline such as the police themselves wondered at. She had led so as to be of one mind and heart with her, upwards of fifty nurses and probationers; of whom the faithful few whom she took with her of our trained nurses, were but a seed. She had converted a vestry (the parish officials, so-called from the vestry of a church) to the conviction of the economy as well as the humanity of nursing pauper sick by trained nurses, — the first instance of its kind in England; for vestries, of whom she had the most enlightened, the most liberal body * Una and her Paupers. With an introduction by Florence Night- ingale and an introductory preface by Henry Ward Beecher. Rout- ledge, New York, 1872. 227 THE ALMSHOUSE of men in England to support her, must look after the pockets of their ratepayers, as well as the benefit of their sick. But, indeed, the superstition seems now to be exploding, that to neglect such paupers is the way to keep down pauperism. She had converted the Poor Law Board — a body, perhaps, not usually given to much enthusiasm about Unas and paupers — to these views; two of whom bore witness to the effect.'' Agnes Jones' work was the beginning of a method of care for the sick poor which has spread widely and bids fair some day to spread to every almshouse in the land. 228 APPENDIX XV ONE MEANS OF PREVENTING PAUPERISM Extract from a paper read by Mrs. Charles Russell Lowell at the National Conference of Charities and Correction, iSyg* ***** One of the most important and most dangerous causes of the increase of crime, pauperism, and insanity, is the unrestrained hberty allowed to vagrant and degraded women. The following are the records of a few only of the women found in the various poorhouses, — women who from early girlhood have been tossed from poorhouse to jail, and from jail to poorhouse, until the last trace of womanhood in them has been destroyed : In the Albany County poorhouse, a single woman, forty years old, of foreign birth, and nine years in the United States, the mother of seven illegitimate children; the woman degraded and abased, and soon again to become a mother. In the Chautauqua County poorhouse, a woman, fifty-five years old, admitted when twenty-two as a vagrant; said to have been married, but the where- abouts of her husband is unknown; has been discharged from the house, and returned repeatedly, for the past thirty-three years, during which time she has had six illegitimate children. In the Cortland County poorhouse, an unmarried woman, twenty-seven years old, with her infant child; has been the mother of four illegitimate children, and four of her sisters have also had illegitimate children. * Proceedings of National Conference of Charities and Correction, 1879, p. 189. 229 THE ALMSHOUSE The woman fairly intelligent and educated, but thoroughly debased and vagrant. I>n the Essex County poorhouse, a black woman, widowed, aged forty-nine years, and her daughter, single, aged twenty-four years, and her grandson, a mulatto, four years old, illegitimate, and born in the house. The first has been the mother of ten children, seven illegitimate; the second has had three illegitimate children. Both women are intemperate and thoroughly depraved, and quite certain to remain public burdens, each having already been nineteen years in the house. A widowed woman, twenty-four years old, and two children aged respectively four and five years, both illegitimate and feeble-minded and born in the poor- house, the latter being a mulatto. The woman was sent to the house when six years old, was afterwards placed out but soon returned, and has spent most of her time in this and other poorhouses; has also had three brothers and one sister who were paupers, and is soon again to become a mother; is thoroughly debased, and will probably remain, with her children, a burden through life. In the Green County poorhouse, a vagrant unmarried woman, forty years old, and first an inmate when twenty-one years of age; goes out from time to time, but soon returns, and will doubtless continue a public burden through life; has five illegitimate children. An unmarried girl, eighteen years of age, having two illegitimate children, the youngest of whom, an infant, was born in the house; was early orphaned, and entered the poorhouse when only seven years of age; her mother a pauper, and she has had one brother and two sisters also paupers. Is thoroughly debased and offers but little hope of reformation. In the Genesee County poorhouse, a single woman, aged twenty-six years, admitted when eighteen years old; has three illegitimate children with her, aged respectively seven years, three years, and eight months, all of whom were born in the house; and also another child, bound out; was orphaned in early life, and being 230 APPENDIX XV neglected, soon became vagrant and idle, and will probably continue to be a public burden. In the Herkimer County poorhouse, a single woman aged sixty-four years, twenty of which have been spent in the poorhouse; has had six illegitimate children, four of whom have been paupers. In the Montgomery County poorhouse, a woman twenty years old, illegitimate, uneducated, and va- grant; has two children in the house, aged respectively three years and six months, both illegitimate, and the latter born in the institution, recently married an intemperate, crippled man, formerly a pauper, and the county will doubtless be further burdened with addi- tional progeny. In the Oswego County poorhouse, an unmarried woman, twenty-nine years of age, born in the poor- house of a neighboring county; has had five illegitimate children, one of whom only is living; the father, mother, and five sisters have been paupers; is ignorant, shift- less, and vagrant, and gives no hope of reformation. In the Otsego County poorhouse, a widowed woman aged thirty-five years, three times married (first when only thirteen), a vagrant, and has spent twelve years in poorhouses; has seven living children, three of whom have been paupers, and she seems likely to burden the public with additional progeny. In the Ontario County poorhouse, a married woman twenty-six years of age, frequently in jail for intoxica- tion, two years an inmate, with a male child three years old and an infant girl aged two months; led a vagrant life in childhood, the father, mother, and four sisters being paupers; is debased and thoroughly degraded by sensual and immoral practices and gives but little hope of reformation; the husband said to be able, but de- clines to provide for her support. A girl eighteen years of age, unmarried, and only three months in the house; is well connected, prepossessing in appearance, but shameless in conduct; was early orphaned and has led a roving, vagrant life; is soon to become a mother and offers no hope of reformation. 231 THE ALMSHOUSE In the Orange County poorhouse, a woman, widowed, eighty years old, educated and temperate, admitted twenty years ago, with her husband, since deceased, and three female children, two of whom are dead; her daughter, forty-four years old, ignorant and depraved, married at nineteen, now widowed ; the latter had three children by her husband, one only being living, and sub- sequently four illegitimate children, all of whom are dead ; two of her granddaughters, one twenty-four and the other thirteen years of age, the former single, uneducated, ignorant, and debased, and the latter an idiot; and her great granddaughter, three years old, illegitimate, also an idiot, and blind. In the Oyster Bay and North Hempstead town poor- house, a man seventy-two years of age, and his second wife, forty-nine years old, the former an inmate sixteen, and the latter twenty-eight years; the woman has borne four illegitimate children, one of whom, an idiot girl fifteen years old, is now in the house; the man and woman both ignorant, shiftless, and depraved, and classed as permanent burdens. In the Rockland County poorhouse, an unmarried woman, aged forty-two years, eleven years an inmate; has had four illegitimate children, two of whom are dead, and two provided for in families; is educated, but intemperate and vagrant and gives no promise of refor- mation. A single woman, nineteen years of age, first admitted to the poorhouse when twelve years old, and for some time past has led a vagrant, tramping life; is ignorant, shiftless, and degraded, and looked upon as incorrigible. In the Rensellaer County poorhouse, a married woman thirty-one years of age, separated from her husband nearly twelve years, since which time she has borne three illegitimate children, one of whom is dead, and two are now with her, the youngest being four months old; is ignorant, vagrant, and depraved, and gives little promise of future self-support. In the St. Lawrence County poorhouse, a single woman, twenty-six years old, an inmate only a few 232 APPENDIX XV months; has two illegitimate children with her, the youngest born in the house, and has also another ille- gitimate child, provided for by friends; is educated and temperate, but confirmed in habits of vagrancy, and likely hereafter to burden the public. In the Suffolk County poorhouse, an ignorant, intemperate, unmarried woman aged sixty-one years, eighteen of which have been passed in poorhouses, giving birth during the time to three children — one being a pauper, and two self-supporting. In the Westchester County poorhouse, an ignorant, vagrant, unmarried colored woman, thirty-two years of age, an inmate six years, having two illegitimate children provided for in families, and two (twins) one year old, with her, born in the institution. These women and their children, and hundreds more like them, costing the hard-working inhabitants of the state annually thousands of dollars for their mainte- nance, corrupting those who are thrown into companion- ship with them, and sowing disease and death among the people, are the direct outcome of our system. The community itself is responsible for the existence of such miserable, wrecked specimens of humanity. These mothers are women who began life as their own chil- dren have begun it, — inheriting strong passions and weak wills, born and bred in a poorhouse, taught to be wicked before they could speak plain, all the strong evil in their nature strengthened by their surroundings and the weak good crushed and trampled out of life. * * * * To begin at the beginning, what right had we to permit them to be born of parents who were depraved in body and mind? What right have we today to allow men and women who are diseased and vicious to reproduce their kind, and bring into the world beings whose existence must be one long misery to themselves 233 THE ALMSHOUSE and others? We do not hesitate to cut oflf, where it is possible, the entail of insanity by incarcerating for life the incurably insane; why should we not also pre- vent the transmission of moral insanity, as fatal as that of the mind? ***** Leaving, however, all consideration of duty, and looking only at the right of society; the community, which has to bear all the burden of the support of these maimed and crippled bodies and souls, has certainly a right to protect itself, so far as may be, against the indefinite increase of the weight of this burden. In self-defense, the working part of mankind may say to those whom they support by their work, " You your- selves we are prepared to save from starvation by the hard toil of our hands and brains, but you shall not add a single person besides yourselves to the weight we have to carry. You shall not entail upon us and our chil- dren the further duty of keeping your children alive in idleness and sin." ****** To rescue these unfortunate beings and to save the industrious part of the community from the burden of their support, "Reformatories" should be established, to which all women under thirty, when arrested for misdemeanors, or upon the birth of a second illegiti- mate child, should be committed for very long periods (not as a punishment, but for the same reason that the insane are sent to an asylum), and where they should be subject to such a physical, moral, and intellectual training as would re-create them. Such training would be no child's play, since the very character of the women must be changed, and every good and healthy influence would be rendered useless without the one element of time. It is education in every sense which they need, and education is a long process, tedious and 234 APPENDIX XV wearing, requiring unfaltering hope and unfailing patience on the part of teacher and pupil. Conse- quently these reformatories must not be prisons, which would crush out the life of those unfortunate enough to be cast into them; they must be homes, — homes where a tender care shall surround the weak and fallen creatures who are placed under their shelter, where a homelike feeling may be engendered, and where, if necessary, they may spend years. The unhappy beings we are speaking of need, first of all, to be taught to be women; they must be induced to love that which is good and pure, and to wish to resemble it; they must learn all household duties; they must learn to enjoy work'; they must have a future to look forward to; and they must be cured, both body and soul, before they can be safely trusted to face the world again. * * * 235 APPENDIX XVI INSTANCES OF IMPROPER TREATMENT OF THE INSANE IN ALMSHOUSES Ill-treatment of the insane usually comes of ignorance and cowardice. It is seldom the result of intentional or deliberate cruelty. The following instances are authentic although, for obvious reasons, names and places are not given. Here are four instances from one state which are given not as examples of what usually occurs, but as instances of a kind that are by no means uncommon.* " I found one superintendent who declared that he found the horse-whip to be the most efficacious means of quieting insane inmates.'' " I found an insane wo- man who had been kept strapped to a bed for over six years.*' "An insane man was found who had been kept in a stockade, open to the sky, winter and summer, with hardly a shred of clothing on him for seven years." "Another insane man was found chained to a stump in the poorhouse yard." The same reporter goes on to say: "In a majority of the M almshouses there are cells for the con- finement of the insane; in many cases manacles and chains are put on the insane, under which restraint they are kept for years; and they are all, if not brutally treated, at least grossly neglected." *See Proceedings National Conference of Charities and Correction, 1903, page 386. 236 APPENDIX XVI What is said here might probably be said with truth in many other states. Any number of instances might be quoted to the same effect. It must be remembered that only a few years ago, the insane everywhere were treated in just such a manner; the present humane and reasonable method is a modern development. But the people who use whips, chains, and cells, will excuse themselves by saying that the insane cases in their care are violent and must be kept from hurting themselves and others. This contention is usually fallacious. Here are a few instances. An inspector of the state board found in T County almshouse twelve insane men, each locked in an iron cell with a grated door; three of them were stark naked, destroying clothes if they were dressed. The state hospitals were overcrowded. The county commissioners were rea- soned with. They built a special insane ward with a large airing court containing grass and trees, a com- fortable day room with a wide porch, and hired a competent attendant. The inspector went again a year or so later and saw nearly all of the same men (one or two had died) enjoying the porch on a fine sum- mer afternoon, all clothed and quiet, one of the men formerly seen naked was playing on a mouth organ, another man was dancing a jig to the music. Not very good music nor artistic dancing, but it looked very good to that inspector. In M County almshouse we found a man in a small wooden cage — in which he could just stand up- right. He had been in there without a bath or a change of clothing for more than three years. His hair and beard were one huge mat, his nails like birds' claws. He was supposed to be "dangerous.'' Three months later the inspector saw the same man in the state 237 THE ALMSHOUSE hospital to which he had been removed. He was sitting on a cobbler's bench, mending shoes for his fellow patients, a quiet, harmless, cleanly, useful inmate of the hospital. In J County almshouse, Jesse O n, insane, lived on straw in a cell, without clothing, covered with an old quilt. He was admitted to the state hospital, and carried there in a crate. In the hospital he was a quiet, harmless patient, giving no trouble. In P County jail an insane negro occupied two cells week about. Every Saturday morning the jailer opened the cell door and as the man rushed out, knocked him down with a club and dragged him into the other cell, then cleaned out the one he had left, with a hose. The inspector who found him there took up the case with the state hospital and saw him a few months later, a quiet, harmless inmate of the epileptic ward, only slightly disturbed at the time of the seizures. But there was not a half inch square of his scalp without a scar from a wound that jailer's club had made! The above cases were all permanently insane. The hospital treatment had not cured them. The difference in their apparent condition was merely due to a change from treatment that dates from the eighteenth century to treatment of the present day. After a little experience an inspector of the insane, in fit and in unfit places, begins to believe with such alienists as the late Gundry of Ohio and then of Mary- land, as Smith of Indiana, as Ferris of New York, as Searcy of Alabama, as Drewry of Virginia and many more, rightly honored in many states, that the way to care for the insane is never by violent methods. And this is true in almshouses as well as in state hospitals. . 238 APPENDIX XVII PLANS OF MODEL INSTITUTIONS THE HOME FOR THE AGED AND INFIRM. DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA* Until the year 1906, the institution known as the Washington Asylum comprised almshouse, workhouse, and hospital in one. In that year the Home, of which the floor plans and a picture are shown, was equipped and opened. The board of charities for the district say of it in their report for 1906, as follows: The board is able to report that the Home for the Aged and Infirm at Blue Plains is now occupied. The inmates were moved from the old institution at Wash- ington Asylum in the month of October. The buildings at this institution are well planned and admirably adapted for their purpose. The plans have been examined and favorably commented upon by numerous persons interested in building institutions of a similar character in other communities. As so much interest has been manifested in these plans we have deemed it proper to have them partially repro- duced and published with this report. We believe that the District of Columbia has secured a very large return for its investment, both in land and in build- ings, at Blue Plains. The Home for Aged and Infirm is the cheapest institution erected by the District in recent years and, while it is excellently adapted for the * See illustrations facing pages i and 95, and floor plans on pages 96 and 97. 239 THE ALMSHOUSE purpose for which it was planned, it is to be regretted that the Hmits of the appropriation compelled economy in some directions which were unwise. For instance, it was necessary to use a tin roof when it was extremely desirable that either a tile or a slate roof should have been provided. The plan of this institution is that of a group of cottages, connected by large covered passages which serve as lounging rooms. There is ample experience to confirm the theory that covered passages connecting the cottages with a central dining hall are not necessary adjuncts of the cottage plan. One objection to the covered passage is that, unless it is built of fireproof material, it does away to some extent with the advan- tage which accrues to a detached cottage plan through the lessening of fire risk. On the other hand, it may be that the lounging rooms built in this way cost less than if they were a part of the buildings proper. The advantages of the covered corridors are pointed out by the secretary of the board of charities of the District, who says: " We have not found any difficulty in heating the lounging rooms and they have proved one of the most useful and attractive features of the institution. The question of heating might be something of a considera- tion in a more rigorous climate. Still these lounging rooms are so arranged as to be connecting corridors between different departments of the building, and it is desirable that these buildings should be as far apart as we have them. It would be necessary therefore to run a considerable amount of piping to carry the heat to these separate buildings if we had not the connecting corridors and there would be some slight loss of heat by 240 APPENDIX XVII radiation or condensation even with the best methods of insulation. There does not occur to me any other criticism of the general plan. There is some criticism of the building as erected, but in that you are not interested. The faults I have in mind are due to the fact that the appropriation was too small for the size of the building and some cheap material was used — as, for example, the metal tile roof instead of the slate roof, as stated above.'' The capacity of the institution is 260, of the hospital wards 24, which is about the theoretical proportion. These hospitals are simply for the use of the inmates. They are not used for the sick poor of Washington, for whom other provision is made. The cost of the building was $125,000. This building has many of the features usually com- mended, and its plan deserves careful study by a govern- ing board about to build for 200 or more inmates. There are, however, a few errors of plan apparent. The large dining room seems not to be divided either for the sexes or by color, although the cottages are divided on the color as well as the sex line. There is no assembly hall or chapel shown. Perhaps one of the lounging rooms may take its place. It would seem only reasonable to expect that the public institutions of the District, being to a certain extent under the control of the Federal Government and partially supported by Congress, should serve as models for all the states. In many respects this new institution is a model one. 16 241 THE ALMSHOUSE ADAMS COUNTY ASYLUM, INDIANA* This house was built in 1901 and cost $35,000. It is designed for sixty inmates and is on the whole a very well planned building. Among the excellent features may be mentioned the hospital departments at the ends of the wings on the ground floor, close to toilet and bath rooms and each divided into two rooms, one of which is evidently intended for a single patient; the matron's private hall, running between the dining rooms and giving access to the scullery and kitchen without going through the dining room; the convenient small bedrooms for old people on the ground floor, accessible to the dining and sitting rooms; the detached laundry building with the cell rooms for temporary seclusion, and other good points. The proportion of bedroom floor space to dining room space is almost exactly 4 to i, which is theoretically correct. The day room floor space is, theoretically, insufficient, being little more than 10 per cent greater than that of the dining rooms. If the house was full to its capacity and the inmates were all able-bodied enough to use the sitting rooms, they would be uncom- fortably crowded. The result would no doubt be that many of them would use the sleeping rooms for day room purposes. ORANGE COUNTY ASYLUM, INDIANA! This institution was built in 1901 at a cost of Ji 5,650; at present the cost would be 25 to 30 per cent higher. It is designed for thirty-eight inmates, nineteen of each sex. For a small house this is a very good plan, * See elevation and floor plans, pages 18, 20, and 21. fSee floor plans, pages 128 and 129. 242 APPENDIX XVII although it lacks some features that are desirable; among these are special quarters for old married people and a special laundry department. If the full number of inmates were present and all were able-bodied enough to use the dining rooms and sitting rooms, the latter would be overcrowded. Unless the front is to the north or west, the infirmary or sick rooms on this plan will not have sufficient sunshine. THE ALMSHOUSE OF THE CITY OF NEWTON, MASSACHUSETTS* This almshouse is one of the newer institutions of its kind in the state. Its plan is approved by the Board of State Charities and is considered about standard. It has many admirable features. It has also some de- fects, chief of which in the writer's opinion, is that of placing the kitchen and laundry in the basement. As is frequently the case, also, the sitting rooms are much too small; in this plan they are given considerably less floor space than the dining rooms. The accommodations for the warden are sufficient and well arranged. It will be noticed that by means of a movable partition the two dining rooms can be thrown together so as to make a chapel or assembly hall for all the inmates. THE ALMSHOUSE AT NATICK, MASSACHUSETTS! This is a fairly good plan for a small town almshouse. The plans were evidently drawn for the particular * See frontispiece, also elevation and floor plans on pages 30, 32, 33, and 34. t See illustration facing page 75, and floor plans on pages 76, 77, and 78. 243 THE ALMSHOUSE population to be housed, since there are fourteen bed- rooms for men and only six for women. Some objection might be made to placing the kitchen and other domestic offices in the basement. Unless individual wash basins, etc., are placed in different sleeping rooms, the number of lavatories seems too small. There is no sitting room for the inmates. The bedrooms are all single and all the same size, so that there seems no provision for aged couples together. The rooms for the warden are well arranged and sufficient. The plan of the attic floor is not given, but the elevation shows a gambrel roof in the center and dormers in the wing attics, so that there are probably rooms for employes' bedrooms on the attic floor. 244 APPENDIX XVIII SPECIMEN RECORDS SPECIMEN INDEX CARD To Use With the Following Record. (See pages 246 and 247.) {This form is used when a new card is written for each admission and destroyed on discharge) Jones, John H., Marion Tp. No. III. Adm. Q-i-igio Previous Ad. No. 2. Adm. Q-ig-iQog SPECIMEN INDEX CARD To Use With the Following Record {This form is used when Index Cards are preserved permanently, and used for recurrent admissions) Jones, John H., Marion Tp. No. 2. Admitted g-ig-igog Disch. 4-6-igio No. III. Readmitted g-i-igio Disch. 4-5-igii N. B. — // this side gets full, write on hack. SPECIMEN OF CARD RECORD Instead of Book Washington Co. Almshouse, Ohio Name, Jones, John H. Township, Marion Number, iii Adm. by /. Smith. Age 66. Nativ. Ohio Col. Wh., Conj. cond. Wid. Height 5-7. Wt 155 Col. eyes, gray. Col. lair, gray Mental cond. Sound mind Physical cond. Crippled, rheumatic Remarks. — Regular fall and winter residents , brother of inmate Sally \ Brown {wid.) Admissions Reason of disch. Discharged ist. Q-iQ-igog Drunkenness 4-6-1910 Q-I-IQIO Insubordination 4-5-1911 N. B. — Room for additional remarks on the back. 245 RECORD OF ADMISSIO WASHINGTON COUNTY No. Date Surname Given Name Town- ship Admitting Officer Age on Admis- sion Nativ- ity Sex Color Conj. Cond. Ill igio Sept. I Jones John H. Marion J. Smith 66 Ohio M. Wh. Wid. 112 Sept. 3 Tompkins Henry Center P. Wilkins 75 So. Car. M. Col. Mar. "3 Sept. 6 Brown Mary Center P. Wilkins ,37 Mass. F. Wh. Sing. 1 114 IIS Oct. s Oct. II Brown McCarthy Peter Martha Bom in Newcastle Almshouse F. Hench 69 Ireland M. F. Wh. Wh. & 1 116 Oct. 25 Johnson Phoebe Henry S. Jones 27 Ohio F. Wh. Sing. 117 Oct. 31 Cartwright Susan Center P. WUkins 6 Indiana F. Wh. Sing. 1 1 246 NSAND DISCHARGES ALMSHOUSE, OHIO Personal Description Physi- cal Con- dition Mental Condi- tion Previous Admission Remarks Cause of Discharge Date of Discharge Bt. Wt. Color Eyes Color Hair S-7 S-i 5 '2 SI sm iSS 149 130 130 120 all Gray Brown Blue Gray Blue Blue Gray Gray Fair Gray Auburn Flaxen Crip- i^u A. B. preg- nant Pneu- monia Able bodied Able bodied Sound mind Epi- leptic Feeble mind . Sound mind Feeble mind Bright Sept., 1909 Aug., 1906 f July, 1909 [ Sept.,1907 Regular fall and win- ter resident Father of Hy. Tomp- kins, Jr., epi. Came for confinement, as usual Child of above No relatives known in Co. buried here Sent to State Inst, for F. M. Women Placed with Mrs. Smith, Maple Farm, Newcastle Township Volun- tary Volun- tary With mother Died Transfer Placed Apr. s, 1911 Jan. 2, 1911 Jan. 2, 1911 Oct. 16, 1910 Jan. 5, 1911 Nov. 9, 1910 247 INDEX INDEX Absence, 87 Abuses, where prevalent, 8 Accessibility, 8, 1 1 Acetylene gas, 43 Adams County Asylum, Indiana, 242 view and plans, 18, 20, 21 Administration, employes, 52-53 governing board, 46-48 matron, 51-52 superintendent, 48-50 visitors and inspectors, 54- 56 Administration building, 17, 22, 23-24 Admission, form, 61 methods, 60-61 orders, 87 unfit persons, 61-65 Admissions and discharges, re- cords of, 85-87 Aged and infirm, 59 Agents of state boards, visits of, 56 Air, pure, 44-45 Airing bedrooms, 108 Almshouse, function of, extract from a paper by Mary Vida Clark, 171-180 laws in Indiana, 163-170 name, 7 plans. See Building Plans. Amusements, 36, 136-138 Ancker, Dr., of St. Paul, 26 Aspect of building, 22 Balanced ration, 102 Basis of the present volume, i, 2 Basketry, 80 Bathing, accommodations, 81-82 difficulty of enforcing, 81 man who never bathed, 221- 222 showers, 82-83 system, 82 time, 82 tubs, 82-83 Bathtubs, 29, 82-83 Beans, 102 Beauty of site, 12, 13 Bedbugs, 11 4-1 15 Bed-making, 108 Bedroom, airing, 108 bedding, 106-107 beds, 106 blankets, 107 closet, 107 decoration, 108 furniture, 106-108 hanging clothes, 107 mattresses, 106 pillows, 107 sheets, 107 251 INDEX Bedrooms, single, 27-28 trunks, 107-108 use, 108 Beds and bedding, 106-107 Bed-time, rule about, 70 Beecher, Henry Ward, 227 Beef, 102, 133 Beginnings, 15 Bicknell, Ernest P., v on Feeble-mindedness as an Inheritance, 202-209 extract from a paper on Advice to an Almshouse Superintendent, 215-218 Bids for supplies, 91 Blankets, 107 Blind, 58, 64 Blue Plains, D. C, 239 Books, 136 Bread and water, 73 Brick for inside walls, 36-37 Bridgewater, Mass., 219-220 Brinkerhoff, General Roeliff, v British Local Government Board, 183 British Poor Law Commission, extract from Minority Report, 1909, 1 4 1- 1 48 Report of 19 10, 3 British Royal Commission on classification in almshouses, 181-183 British Workhouse System, ori- gin, 149-157 Bryan, Wm. J., 137 Building material, inside brick walls, 36-37 floors, 38-40 foundations, 37 plaster walls, 37 Building material, roofs, 37-38 windows, 38 wood, 36 Building plans, Adams County Poor Asylum, Indi- ana, 242 view and plans, 18, 20, 21 administration building, 17, 22 aspect, 22 corridors, 22, 23 dining rooms, 17, 19 divisions, 22 dormitories, 19, 22 essentials, 16 fafade, 16 floor plan, 16 floor space, 16, 17, 19 height, 17, 19 Natick, Mass., almshouse, 243 plans, 76-78 Newton, Mass., almshouse, 243 plans, 30-33 Orange County Poor Asy- lum, Indiana, 242-243 plans, 128-129 proportions of floor-space, 19 simplicity, 23 standardization of arrange- ment, 17 stories, number, 17, 19 Washington, D. C, Home for the Aged and In- firm, 239-241 plans, 96-97 Business management, 47 Butler, Amos W., v 252 INDEX Butler, Amos W., statistics on fee- ble-mindedness, 210-214 Butter and eggs, 90 Byers, Albert G., v Byers, Joseph P., v California, county hospitals, 117, 158-159 name for almshouse, 7 number (average) of inmates in almshouses, 160 State Board of Charities, 158 Capacity, 13-15 Card index, 86 Care of defectives, 5, 6 Carpets, 39 Cement floors, 38 Cereals, 100 Chairs, 112 Chapel, 35-36 Children in almshouses, 58, 63, 64 Chinese and outer clothing, 1 13 Christian Endeavor Society, 137 Church societies, 137 Cisterns, rain-water, 34 Citizens, admission as visitors, 54 City Home, 7 Clark, Mary Vida, v on function of the alms- house, 171-180 Classification of inmates, extract from report of British Royal Commission, 181- 183 cottages, 66, 67-68 dining room, 69 English plan, 68-69 permanent population, 66- 67 Classification of inmates, sex, 65-66 Cleanliness, 113, 116 personal, 83-84 Clothing, changing, 113 Chinese custom, 133 handling, 104-105 marking, 104 night, 1 13-1 14 repair, 105-106 rooms, 104 Sunday, 105 tidiness, 106 washable, 105 winter, 105 working, 1 13 Coal, 90 Codfish, 102 Collusion, 91, 92 Comfort in almshouses, advan- tage of, 3 Committee on almshouse, 47 Competitive bids for supplies, 89-93 Complaints of inmates, 73-74 Condemned property, 99 Connecticut, average number of inmates, in almshouses, 160 Construction, building material, 36-40 building plans, 16-23 divisions of house, 22, 23-36 heating, 40-43 lighting, 43-44 ventilation, 44-45. See also Building, etc. Consumptives. See Tuberculosis. Contagious diseases, 117, 119 Contracts, 89, 90 Control, of defectives, 6 53 INDEX Control, of inmates, 49 Cooking, 100, 109 Copenhagen, Asylum for the Aged, 194-197 Corridors, 22, 23 Corrugated paper for covering steam pipes, 42 Cottage homes, 66, 67-68 as part of the almshouse, 183-193 Cottage system, 4, 15, 22 Coughs, 122 Country, desirability as location of almshouse, 8, 9 County asylum, 7 County care and state care, 58 County commissioners, 46, 47 County home, 7 County hospitals, 7, 171 California, 158-159 County infirmary, 7 Couples, married, 28 Criticism from visitors, 55 Crops, choice of, 132 Danish Workhouse, 63 Deaf, 58, 64 Decatur, Indiana, Adams County Poor Asylum, view and plans, 18, 20, 21 Defectives, care, 5, 6 control, 6 mental, 126-127, 130 occupations for, 79, 80, 219- 220 Degeneracy, treatment, 5 Denims, 105 Denmark system, 193-197 Dependents and delinquents, 62- 63 Depree formaldehyde fumigator, 115 Dietitian, 103 Dining room, classification, 109, II I furniture, 109-1 10 neatness, 1 1 i-i 12 oilcloth table covers, 1 10 seats, 1 10 service, 1 1 1 table cloths, 1 10 table ware, i lo-iii tables, 109 tin ware, 1 1 1 Dining rooms, 17, 19, 24, 84 Discharge, 72. See also Admis- sions. Discipline, 72-73 Disinfection, 1 1 5 Disobedience to rules, 71 Disorder in almshouses, evil of, 3 Disorderly persons, 62, 63 District of Columbia, 239-241 Divisions of the house, bedrooms, 27-28 chapel, 35-36 dormitories, 27-28 front center, 23-24 hall, 35-36 hospital, 25-27 laundry, 29, 34-35 lavatories, 28-29 porches, 27 rear center, 24-25 toilet rooms, 28-29 verandahs, 27 wings, 25 Dormitories, 19, 22, 27-28 254 INDEX Drainage, 1 1, 12 Drinking-water, 103-104 Eastern states, names for alms- house, 7 Electric lighting, 43-44 Ellwood, Prof. Charles, v Embroidery, 80 Employes, subordinate, 52-53 Employment of inmates, 50 defectives, 79, 80 extent, 75 gardening, 75 general, 80 idleness, 81 indoor work for men, 75, 79 instruction, 80 laundry, 75, 79 leading and driving, 81 outdoor work for women, 75 regular, 79 self-support, 80 simple, 79, 80 value, 74, 75 England, cottages, 66, 67, 68 poor relief, 4 Entertainments, 36, 136-138 Epileptics, 63 Epworth League, 137 Evil conditions, 3 Facade, 16 Farm and garden, beef, 133 crops, 132 fruits and vegetables, 133- 135 hogs, 133 Farm and garden, Indiana Bulle- tin, extract from, 133-135 potatoes, 133 reasons for leaving, 9, 10 records, 87-88 wheat, 132 Farmhouses, 8 Faucets for bathtubs, 29 Feather pillows, danger, 107 Feeble-minded, 59, 63, 64, 127, 130 Feeble-mindedness as an Inherit- ance, extract from a paper by E. P. Bicknell, 202-209 statistics of Amos W. Butler, 210-214 Firvale Union Cottage Homes, 69, 184-193 Fisher, Dr. C. Irving, 42 Floor material, 38 Floor plan, 16 Floor polishers, 39 Floor space, 16, 17, 19 Floors, 135 as a source of odor, 1 1 3 treatment, 39 Fly, domestic, 11 5-1 16 Food supply, balanced ration, 102 beans, 102 beef, 102 bills of fare, 99 cereals, 100 codfish, 102 cooking, 100 dietitian, 103 meat, 10 1 oajmeal, 100 protein, 101-102 55 INDEX F..^:^l.W: M32731 V. r ^ THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY